Skip to main content

Full text of "History of Europe from the commencement of the French revolution in 1789, to the restoration of the Bourbons in 1815"

See other formats 


Carleton  College 
Library  -  Ottawa 


I 


' 


HISTORY  OF  EUROPE, 


PROM  THE  COMMEMCEMENT  OP  THE 


FRENCH  REVOLUTION 


IN 


TO    THE 


RESTORATION  OF  THE  BOURBONS 

IN 


H®H 


BY  ARCHIBALD  ALISON,  F.R.S.E. 

ADVOCATE. 
ABRIDGED  FROM  THE  LAST  LONDON  EDITION: 


»OS  THB  USE  OP  GENERAL  READERS,  COLLEGES,  ACADEMIES,  ANl  OTHER 
SEMINARIES  OP  LEARNING. 


BY  EDWARD   S.   GOULD. 


SEVENTH   EDITION, 


NEW    YORK: 
A-    S.    BARNES    &    BURR,    PUBLISHERS,  ' 

51  AND  63  JOHN  STREET. 

1861. 


RECOMMENDATIONS. 

The  Publishers  annex  the  following  Extracts  of  Letters  commendatory 
of  Gould's  Abridgment  of  Alison's  History  of  Europe. 

From  Jas.  Kent,  ex-Chancellor  of  the  State  of  New  York. 

"  The  numbers  of  Alison's  History,  as  they  successively  appeared,  I  read  with  great 
interest.  I  have  now  read  Mr.  Gould's  Abridgment,  and  permit  me  to  say,  I  think  it  is 
admirably  executed  ;  it  is,  indeed,  one  of  the  best  abridgments  I  ever  saw.  The  mate 
rial  facts  are  all  retained,  and  stated  in  strong  and  perspicuous  language ;  and  Mr.  Gould 
has  displayed  great  industry  and  skill  in  preserving  the  substance  of  so  great  a  history, 
and  yet  giving  it  in  language  of  his  own." 

From  Joseph  Story,  a  Judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States. 

*It  seems  to  me  an  excellent  abridgment  of  Alison's  great  work,  written  in  a  clear 
and  chaste  style,  presenting  the  narrative  in  an  exact  form  for  the  general  reader,  and 
condensing  the  facts  and  materials,  so  as  to  bring  them  within  the  reach  of  all  classes  of 
persons  desirous  of  information  of  that  most  interesting  period,  and  justly  to  command 
their  confidence.  The  work  cannot  fail  to  be  extensively  useful ;  for  few  can  command 
the  leisure  to  read  Mr.  Alison's  bulky  volumes,  even  if  the  expense  were  no  object ;  and 
all  may,  as  I  believe,  profit  from  an  abridgment  so  completely  within  the  reach  of  the 
means  of  the  curious  and  the  educated,  and  whose  fidelity  may  be  relied  on." 

From  Rev.  J.  M.  Matthews,  D.D.,  late  Chancellor  of  the  University  of  N.  York. 

"  1  have  examined  Mr.  Gould's  Abridgment  of  Alison's  History  of  Europe,  and  have 
no  hesitation  in  saying  that  Mr.  G.  has  performed  his  task  with  singular  fidelity  and 
ability.  In  abridgments  of  historical  works,  the  important  incidents  are  often  so  detached 
from  each  other,  and  from  their  attending  circumstances,  as  to  impair  the  connexion  and 
interest  of  the  narrative  ;  and  the  spirit  and  character  of  the  original  are  sacrificed  for  the 
sake  of  brevity.  Mr.  Gould  cannot  be  charged  with  this  fault.  He  has  infused  into  his 
Abridgment  most  of  the  excellencies  which  distinguish  the  History  as  written  by  Alison 
him  sen ;  and  has  conferred  a  benefit  on  our  seminaries  of  learning,  by  bringing  within 
their  reach  the  substance  of  a  work  which  is  acknowledged  to  be  one  ol  the  most 
valuable  histories  in  our  language." 

From  Col,  Stone,  Deputy-Superintendent  of  Common  Schools  in  the  city  of  New 
York,  and  Editor  of  the  Commercial  Advertiser. 

"  Mr.  Alison's  noble  work — the  noblest  of  modern  histories — notwithstanding  the  sur 
prising  cheapness  and  the  popular  form  in  which  it  has  been  brought  out  by  the  Harpers, 
is,  nevertheless,  by  far  too  voluminous  to  be  universally  read  by  the  people.  There  are 
therefore,  thousands  and  thousands  to  whom  Mr.  Gould  has  rendered  a  valuable  service 
by  the  present  Abridgment.  Upon  Mr.  Gould's  book  we  place  a  high  estimate.  Our 
knowledge  of  his  character  forbids  us  L  ;uestion  its  fidelity  ;  and,  having  read  much  of 
his  volume,  we  are  free  to  vouch  the  clearness  and  spirit  of  his  narrative,  the  vigour  of 
his  style,  and  the  soundness  of  his  principles." 


ENTERED  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1844,  by 

EDWARD  S.  GOULD, 
la  th«  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  for  the  Southern  District  of  New  York. 

(4) 


THIS     TOLUM B 


IS    INSCRIBED   TO 


THE  HONORABLE  ROGER  MINOTT  SHERMAN,  LL.D., 


AS     A     SLIGHT     TRIBUTE     TO 


S      WORTH,      HIS      TALENTS,      AND      HIS      FAME, 


BY 


IIS     FRIEND     AND      RELATIVE, 


EDWARD   3.   GOULD. 


PREFACE. 


ALISON'S  HISTORY  OF  EUROPE  is  the  most  voluminous  work  of  the  day ;  it 
employed  its  author  twenty-eight  years  in  study  and  composition;  it  contains 
more  than  double  the  reading  matter  of  Scott's  Napoleon,  occupies  ten  large 
octavos,  arid  fills  between  eight  and  nine  thousand  pages  :  such  a  work — at  what- 
ever price  it  may  be  published — is  sealed  to  the  general  reader,  as  well  as  to 
colleges,  academies,  and  other  seminaries  of  learning.  The  editor  of  this  volume 
has  therefore  undertaken  to  place  before  his  countrymen,  within  a  compass  that 
all  may  have  leisure  to  read  and  means  to  purchase,  a  condensed  account  of  that 
eventful  period  which  Mr.  Alison  styles  the  era  of  Napoleon. 

With  this  object  in  view,  the  editor  has,  as  he  believes,  extracted  every  materia. 
fact  from  Mr.  Alison's  work,  adding  nothing  of  his  own  in  the  way  of  opinion, 
argument,  or  assertion,  and  endeavoring  to  present  the  original  narrative — 
abridged  of  its  repetitions,  superfluities,  inaccuracies,  and  inelegancies — in  the 
spirit  of  its  author :  the  preservation  of  Mr.  Alison's  language,  however,  is  but 
partially  attained,  as  the  requisite  degree  of  condensation  often  rendered  that 
impossible.  To  avoid  misapprehension  on  this  point,  it  may  be  proper  to  say  that 
every  line  of  this  volume  has  been  transcribed  by  the  editor's  own  hand,  and  not 
one  paragraph  is  given  in  the  precise  words  of  the  original. 

It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  the  omissions,  in  the  compilation  of  this  book, 
have  been  made  with  unerring  judgment ;  but  on  that  subject  the  editor  contents 
himself  with  believing  that  no  two  living  men  would  entirely  agree  as  to  what 
should  be  rejected  and  what  retained  in  such  an  Abridgment  of  such  a  work. 

The  campaigns  of  Wellington  in  India,  which  Mr.  Alison  narrates  at  great 
length,  have  been  omitted  in  the  Abridgment  on  account  of  their  entire  irrele- 
vancy :  the  chapter  on  Britisn  Finances  is  placed  at  the  end  of  the  volume,  in 
the  form  pf  an  Appendix. 

The  chapter  on  the  American  War — which  the  editor  believes  is  destined  to  an 
unenviable  notoriety  whenever  it  shall  be  currently  circulated — is  a  tissue  of 
misrepresentation;  and,  as  it  has  no  legitimate  connexion  with  the  "History  of 
Europe,"  is  a  gratuitous  libel  on  the  people  and  institutions  of  the  United 
States,  and  could  not  be  admitted  into  an  American  book  without  alterations 
contradictory  to  the  title-page  of  this  volume — it  has  been  wholly  omitted. 


«  PREFACE. 

There  are  many  faults  in  Mr.  Alison's  book,  which  it  is  to  be  hoped  he  may 
revise  for  a  future  edition.  Corrections  of  style  cannot,  indeed,  be  expected,  for 
such  a  process  would  require  a  re-writing  of  the  entire  work ;  and,  besides,  an 
author  capable  of  so  many  blunders,  would  almost  necessarily  be  incapable  of 
amending  them.  His  constant  use  of  the  word  whok,  as  synonymous  with  aZ/,  is 
singularly  absurd :  "  a  diplomatic  note  from  the  whole  sovereigns ;"  "  the  whole 
•oldiers  retreated;"  "  he  brought  the  whole  guns  to  the  front ;"  "the  whole  houses 
were  occupied  by  marksmen."  The  word  important  is  reiterated  until  it  forces  a 
smile  :  almost  every  town,  fortress,  and  post  defended  or  captured  throughout  the 
whole  narrative  is  designated  as  an  "  important "  one.  The  repetition  of  the  same 
word  in  a  sentence  is  another  great  fault  in  Mr.  Alison's  style  :  "  a  large  supply 
of  mules  was  obtained  to  supply  the  great  destruction  of  those  useful  animals  ;" 
"  the  first  business  committed  to  the  Senate  and  Chamber  was  the  nomination  of  a 
committee ;"  "  because  a  brave  nation  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  overthrown  because 
it  has  experienced  reverses ;"  "  had  no  alternative  but  to  submit,  even  on  the  hard 
terms  of  submitting  to  the  cession  of  Norway ;"  "  while  this  bloody  conflict  was 
going  oTi  on  the  steeps  above  Zadorra  on  the  right ;"  "  even  the  generals  were 
shaken  by  the  general  contagion  ;"  "  obtain  for  Sweden  the  support  of  some  foreign 
power  able  to  support  its  independence  ;"  "  it  was  owing  to  the  time  lost  in  this 
march  and  countermarch  that  the  failure  of  the  operation  was  owing :"  these  ex- 
amples are  but  a  small  portion  of  what  might  be  quoted.  A  worse  fault  than  this 
is  Mr.  Alison's  misuse  of  words :  he  frequently  writes  of  "  a  majority  of  seventy- 
four  to  five,"  "  a  majority  of  two  hundred  and  twenty-six  to  thirty ;"  "  the  officers 
and  soldiers  of  the  army  were  the  seat  of  this  conspiracy ;"  "  officials,  nominated 
by  the  crown,  who  enjoyed  their  seats  only  during  life ;"  "  both  in  the  tribune,  in 
the  Club  of  Clichy  and  in  the  public  journals  ;"  "  the  stocks  rose  from  forty-five  to 
seventy,  an  advance  of  twenty-five  per  cent. ;"  "  the  taxes  on  the  inhabitants  were 
raised  to  two  hundred  per  cent,  on  their  incomes ;"  "  their  respective  shares  in  the 
partition  of  Europe  were  chalked  out ;"  "  the  Russians  and  Austrians  threw  upon 
each  other  the  late  disasters ;"  "  he  was  believed  to  be  the  sole  survivor  of  his  fol- 
lowers." 

Mr.  Alison  frequently  falls  into  magniloquence.  Speaking  of  Napoleon's  return 
from  Egypt,  he  says  :  "  Discourses  of  this  sort,  in  every  mouth,  threw  the  public 
into  transports,  so  much  the  more  entrancing  as  they  succeeded  a  long  period  of 
disaster ;  the  joyful  intelligence  was  announced,  amid  thunders  of  applause,  at  all 
the  theatres  ;  patriotic  songs  again  sent  forth  their  heart-stirring  strains  from  the 
orchestra ;  and  more  than  one  enthusiast  expired  of  joy  at  the  advent  of  the  hero 
who  was  to  terminate  the  difficulties  of  the  Republic."  Referring  to  the  retreat 
of  the  French  army  from  Germany  after  the  battle  of  Leipsic,  Mr.  Alison  says : 
"  the  French  eagles  bade  a  final  adieu  to  the  German  plains,  the  theatre  of  their 
glories,  of  their  crimes,  and  of  their  punishment."  When  the  British  troops 
entered  Bordeaux,  in  1814,  the  inhabitants  of  that  town  proclaimed  Louis  XVIII. 
king :  Mr.  Alison  thus  comments  on  the  proceeding :  "  Thus  had  England  the 
glory  o •'.  first  of  all  the  allied  powers,  obtaining  an  open  declaration  from  a  great 
citv  in  France  in  favor  of  their  ancient  but  exiled  monarch — just  twenty  year* 


PREFACE.  vn 

and  one  month  after  the  contest  had  begun,  from  the  murder  of  the  best  and  most 
blameless  of  their  line."(!)  After  the  battle  of  Malo-Jaroslawitz,  Napoleon  held 
a  council  of  war,  of  which  Mr.  Alison  remarks :  "  An  Emperor,  two  Kings,  and 
three  Marshals  were  there  assembled  :  upon  their  deliberations  hung  the  destinies 
of  the  world."  This  Emperor  was  Napoleon,  the  two  kings  were  Eugene  Beau- 
harnois  and  Murat,  the  marshals,  Berthier,  Bessieres  and  Davoust ;  and  the  time 
was  during  the  retreat  from  Moscow,  when  it  was  doubtful  whether  the  par. 
ties  thus  deliberating  could  force  their  way  through  the  lines  of  their  enemies. 
In  concluding  this  subject  of  inaccuracies  and  inelegancies  of  style,  it  may  be 
remarked,  that  the  History  of  Mr.  Alison  abounds  in  mis-prints,  for  which,  of 
course,  he  is  not  responsible,  although  their  correction  is  important  to  the  accu- 
racy of  the  work.  Pius  VII.  is  denominated  Pius  VI. ;  Austria  is  printed  for 
Asturia,  and  again  for  Cuslrin;  Finland  for  Sweden;  Souham  for  Jourdan;  notres 
liberateurs  for  nos  Uberateurs ;  31st  for  the  30th  of  April ;  and  in  an  indefinite 
number  of  instances  the  dates  in  the  marginal  notes  are  erroneous. 

Of  the  historical  inaccuracies  of  Mr.  Alison,  it  will  suffice  to  designate  a  few  of 
the  many  instances  in  which  he  contradicts  himself.  In  speaking  of  the  events  at 
Malo-Jaroslawitz,  on  the  retreat  from  Moscow,  1812,  he  says,  that  was  "the/rs* 
time  Napoleon  ever  retired  in  an  open  field  from  his  enemies ;"  yet  at  Aspern,  in 
1809,  after  a  much  more  disastrous  defeat,  Napoleon,  he  says,  "  retreated  from 
his  enemies  in  an  open  field."  Commenting  on  the  battle  of  Dresden,  August, 
1813,  he  says  the  action  was  memorable  from  being  "the  last  pitched  battle 
Napoleon  ever  gained  ;"  yet  he  tells  us  that  Napoleon  won  the  battle  of  Hanau, 
October,  1813  ;  of  Champaubert,  February,  1814 ;  of  Montereau,  February,  1814 
— which  also  he  styles  "  the  last  and  not  the  least  brilliant  of  Napoleon's  victo- 
ries ;"  and,  finally,  the  battle  of  Ligny,  June,  1815.  Relating  the  arbitrary 
measures  of  Napoleon  to  sustain  the  war  and  his  government,  after  the  battle  of 
Leipsic,  Mr.  Alison  says,  "  a  decree  was  passed  by  the  Senate  vesting  the  nomin- 
ation of  President  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  the  Emperor,  and  pi'orogating 
tfie  seat  of  such  of  the  Deputies  as  had  expired,  and  required  to  be.  filled  up  anew,  so 
as  to  prevent  any  new  election  in  the  present  disturbed  state  of  the  public  mind.** 
Mr.  Alison's  meaning  in  this  ill-written  sentence  is,  that  the  Deputies,  whose  terms 
of  service  had  expired  were  made,  in  the  phrase  of  the  present  day,  to  hold  over, 
i.  e.  to  continue  to  occupy  their  seats;  yet,  soon  after,  in  referring  to  tile  proceed- 
ing, he  says,  "notwithstanding  the  pains  which  had  been  taken  to  secure  the 
interest  of  Napoleon  in  the  Chamber,  by  granting  to  him  the  nomination  of  its 
President,  and  the  filling  up  of  the  vacant  seats  by  the  same  authority,  it  soon 
appeared,"  etc.  Here  we  are  told  that  the  old  members  were  kept  in  office  and 
that  new  members  were  put  into  their  vacated  seats :  it  is  not,  indeed,  material 
which  of  the  two  accounts  is  the  true  one,  but  the  contradiction  is  a  serious 
blunder  in  an  elaborate  History.  Again,  speaking  of  the  Charter  granted  by 
Louis  XVIII.,  after  his  first  restoration,  Mr.  Alison  recites  its  merits  and  its  faults ; 
in  the  former  enumeration,  he  says,  "prosecution  or  imprisonment  was  forbidden, 
except  in  the  cases  provided  for  by  law,  and  according  to  its  forms :"  in  the  latter,  he 


wm  PREFACE. 

says,  "  no  provision  was  inserted  to  prevent  or  restrain  arbitrary  imprisonment,  Of 
limit  the  period  during  which  a  person  arrested  might  be  detained  before  trial-" 

The  value  of  Mr.  Alison's  work  is  also  greatly  impaired  by  an  accumulation  of 
useless  and  uninteresting  details ;  by  repetitions,  to  the  third,  fourth  and  fifth 
time,  of  the  same  events ;  and  by  the  immethodical  arrangement  of  chapters  and 
paragraphs,  which  places  so  many  things  out  of  the  true  order  of  their  occurrence, 
that  the  reader  is  constantly  perplexed  as  to  the  chronological  bearing  of  the  inci- 
dents upon  each  other. 

It  is  unnecessary,  though  it  would  be  easy,  to  prolong  the  perhaps  ungracious 
task  of  pointing  out  the  faults  of  Mr.  Alison's  History :  the  editor  has  said  thus 
much  in  dispraise  of  the  work,  in  order  to  furnish  substantial  reasons  for  under- 
taking its  abridgment ;  whether  he  has  committed  errors  equal  in  number  and 
consequence  to  those  he  has  detected,  is  a  matter  for  the  public  to  decide. 

NEW  YORK,  October,  1843. 


ADVERTISEMENT  TO  THE  FOURTH  EDITION. 

The  Editor  takes  the  occasion  presented  by  the  issuing  of  a  Fourth  Edition 
of  this  Abridgment,  to  express  his  gratification  at  the  decided  success  of  the 
book ;  it  has  been,  so  far  as  he  knows,  universally  approved — especially  by 
those  whose  approbation  he  was  most  desirous  to  secure  ;  and  he  will  add,  as 
a  proof  of  its  success,  that  the  number  of  copies  sold  in  the  past  sixteen  months 
exceeds  six  thousand. 

The  present  edition,  as  well  as  the  one  that  immediately  preceded  it,  is 
furnished  with  an  elaborate  series  of  Questions  which,  without  injuring  it  for 
libraries,  will  render  it  more  generally  useful  in  seminaries  of  learning : 
its  value  is  also  increased  by  the  correction  of  a  great  number  of  verbal  and 
typographical  errors,  which  existed  in  the  earlier  editions,  and  which,  indeed, 
seem  to  be  inseparable  from  the  first  publication  of  a  printed  book. 

NEW  YOHK,  March,  1845. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I.  *, 

".j,UfcEc    AND   COMMENCEMENT   OF  THE   REVOLUTION. 

Importance  ot  ine  subject — Causes  of  the  savage  character  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution — Decreasing  power  of  the  nobles — Philosophy  and  Literature — State 
of  the  Church — Privileges  of  the  nobles — Taxation — Feudal  services — Royal 
prerogative — Corruption  at  court — Embarrassments  of  the  finances — States. 
General — Contests  between  the  parties — Vacillation  of  the  court — National 
Assembly — Sitting  of  June  23rd — Concessions  of  the  King — Defection  of  the 
Duke  of  Orleans — Further  concessions  of  the  King — Consternation. in  Paris 
— Troops  withdrawn  to  Versailles — Tumults  in  Paris — Storming  of  the  Bas- 
tile — Spread  of  the  insurrection — National  Guard,  with  La  Fayette  at  their 
head,  set  out  for  Versailles — First  tumults  there — The  mob  break  into  the 
Palace — Royal  family  are  forced  to  return  to  Paris — Progress  of  events — 
Measures  of  the  National  Assembly — Finances — Confiscation  of  the  Church 
property — Assignats — Emigration  of  the  nobles — Dissolution  of  the  National 
Assembly:  -  .........  .  1—9 

CHAPTER  II. 

FROM  THE   OPENING   OF   THE  LEGISLATIVE  ASSEMBLY   TO  THE   DEATH   OF  LOUIS. 

Character  of  the  Legislative  Assembly — Its  parties — Its  measures — Oppression  of 
the  clergy — Declaration  of  war  against  Hungary  and  Bohemia — Commence- 
ment of  the  War — Insurrection  of  the  Girondists — Proclamation  of  the  allies 
— Storming  of  the  Tuileries — Imprisonment  of  the  king  and  his  family — 
La  Fayette 's  escape  from  his  army  and  imprisonment  at  Olmutz — Infernal 
Triumvirate — Revolutionary  Tribunal — General  arrest  of  proscribed  persons 
— Massacres  of  the  prisoners — Reflections  on  these  atrocities — Legislative 
Assembly  gives  place  to  the  National  Convention — Its  parties — The  Repub- 
lic proclaimed — Finances — Universal  Suffrage — Attempt  to  impeach  Robes, 
pierre  and  Marat — Preparations  for  the  trial  of  Louis  XVI. — Charges  against 
him — His  previous  treatment  in  prison — Appears  before  the  Convention—- 
Prepares his  Will — Trial  commences — Its  result — Girondist? — Orders  for 
the  King's  Execution — Parting  with  his  family — His  death  January  21st, 
1793— His  interment — Reflections — His  character :  .  -  10 — 18 

CHAPTER  III.  ^J^         C/^L' 

ATE   OF  EUROPE  PRIOR   TO  THE   WAS.  \/  f 

Effects  of  the  Revolution  on  other  States — Condition  of  Great  Britain — Opinions 
— Parties — Mr.  Fox — Mr.  Pitt — Mr.  Burke — Condition  of  Austria — Prussia 


7 


CONTENTS 


•  PA.QK 

—Russia — Sweden  — Turkey —  Italy —  Piedmont  —  Holland — Switzerland 
— Spain — Forces  of  France — Treaty  between  Sweden  and  Austria — .Death 
of  the  monarchs  of  these  two  countries — Francis,  Emperor  of  Austria- 
Efforts  of  the  French  to  spread  their  Revolutionary  principles — Effect  of  these 
measures  in  England — France  declares  war  against  Great  Britain  :  -  -  18 — 24 


CHAPTER  IV. 

CAMPAIGN   OF    1792. 

tfrench  armies  take  the  field — Their  numbers — Numbers  of  the  allies — Invasion 
of  Flanders — Ease  with  which  it  was  repelled — Effect  of  the  defeat  in  Paris 
— King  of  Prussia  joins  the,  army — Allies  invade  France — Their  success — 
Their  inactivity — Defeat  of  Dumourier — Negotiations  with  Dumourier — Re- 
treat  of  the  allies — Renewed  attempt  on  Flanders — Operations  in  Alsace  and 
the  Low  Countries — And  in  Flanders — Battle  of  Jemappes — Victory  of  the 
French — Effects  of  Revolution  in  Flanders — French  reverses  on  the  Upper 
Rhine — Close  of  the  campaign :--.-...  24 — 3fr 

CHAPTER  V. 

FRENCH  REPUBLIC — FROM  THE  DEATH  OF  THE  KINO  TO  THE  FALL  OF 
ROBESPIERRE. 

Difficulties  in  Paris— Revolutionary  Tribunal— Trial  of  Marat— Efforts  of  the 
Girondists — Commission  of  Twelve — Disturbance  in  the  Convention — In- 
surrection of  the  Club  of  Cordeliers. — Defeat  of  the  Girondists  in  the 
Convention — Renewal  of  the  insurrection — Military  preparations — Second 
defeat  of  the  Girondists — Their  arrest  and  dissolution — Jacobins  in  power 
— Opinions  and  revolts  throughout  France — Committee  of  Public  Safety — 
Law  of  suspected  persons — Revolutionary  Committees — Change  of  the  Cal- 
endar— Assassination  of  Marat — Proscription  of  the  Girondists — Death  of 
the  young  Prince,  Louis  XVII. — Death  of  Marie  Antoinette,  Oct6ber  16th, 
1793 — Violation  of  the  Royal  sepulchres  in  France — Abjuration  of  Chris- 
tianity— Worship  of  Reason — Effects  of  these  measures — Proscription  and 
Execution  of  Bailly,  Custine,  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  Desmoulins  and  Danton 
—Dictatorship  of  Robespierre — Massacres  throughout  France — Reaction  of  "^ 
feeling  in  Paris — Accusation  of  Robespierre — His  arrest — His  execution — 
Close  of  the  Reign  of  Terror : 30—38 

CHAPTER  VI. 

WAR   IN   LA  VENDEE. 

Description  of  La  Vende'e — Its  inhabitants — Commencement  of  hostilities — 
Leaders — Orders  of  the  Convention — Bravery  and  great  success  of  the  Roy- 
aHsta — Their  prisoners — Continued  success  of  theVende'ans — Advance  upon 
Nantes — Republicans  gain  some  success  but  are  at  length  totally  defeated — 
Renewed  efforts  of  the  Convention  on  a  large  scale — Devastation  of  La  Ven- 
de'e— Alternate  success  of  each  party — Continued  victories  of  the  Ven- 
deans  unavailing — Cessation  of  hostilities — War  of  extermination  com- 
menced by  order  of  the  Convention—  Atrocious  cruelties  of  Carrier :  -  39 — 44 


C  ONTENTS.  81 

CHAPTER    VII. 

CAMPAIGN   OF   1793. 

PABE 

Alliance  of  the  European  powers  against  France — Their  want  of  union— Insubor- 
dination of  the  French  troops — French  Finances — Commencement  of  the 
campaign — Siege  of  Maestricht — Defeat  of  the  French — Dumourier  takes 
command — Battle  of  Nerwinde  and  defeat  of  the  French — Negotiations  be- 
tween the  allies  and  Dumourier,  and  Dumourier's  flight — Congress  at  Ant. 
werp — Vigorous  measures  of  the  Convention — Disasters  of  the  French  on  the 
northern  frontier — Operations  on  the  Flemish  frontier — Proximity  of  the 
allies  to  Paris — Military  preparations  in  France — Carnot — General  discom- 
fiture of  the  allies,  and  subsequent  reverses  of  the  French — Siege  of  Muu. 
beuge  commenced — Jourdan  takes  command  and  raises  the  siege — Moreau 
attacks  the  Prussians  at  Permasin  and  at  Weissenberg,  and  is  defeated — 
Fate  of  Strasburg — Secession  of  Prussia — Operations  before  Landau — 
Campaigns  on  the  Spanish  frontier — Campaign  in  the  maritime  Alps — Cap- 
ture of  Lyons  and  massacre  of  the  Royalists — Toulon — Its  defences — Its 
investment — Progress  of  the  siege — Evacuation  of  Toulon — Distress  and 
escape  of  the  inhabitants — Destruction  of  the  French  fleet — Massacre  of 
the  citizens : 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

CAMPAIGN   OF   1794. 

French  navy — French  and  British  ships  of  war — Success  of  the  British  fleets  in 
the  West  Indies — And  in  the  Mediterranean — The  Channel  fleet  under  Lord 
Howe  encounters  the  French  under  Admiral  Joyeuse — Victory  of  the  British 
commander — Effects  of  this  victory — Allied  plan  of  Campaign — Forces  on 
both  sides — The  allies  underrate  the  power  of  Revolutionary  France — Alter, 
nation  of  success — Operations  of  Jourdan — Movements  in  West  Flanders — 
Defection  of  Austria — Success  of  the  allies — Battle  of  Fleurus — Operations 
on  the  Rhine — In  Piedmont  and  Nice — Campaign  on  the  Spanish  frontier — 
Jourdan  and  Kleber  assume  the  offensive  in  the  north — Winter  campaign 
—Subjugation  of  Holland — Capture  of  the  Dutch  fleet :  •  .  55—61 

CHAPTER    IX. 

POLAND. 

Kingdom  of  Poland — Primitive  and  savage  character  of  the  former  government 
— Clergy — Nobility— Peasantry — Power  of  the  King — John  Sobieski — 
Factions  after  his  death — First  partition  of  Poland — Second  partition— Resis- 
tance of  the  Poles — Kosciusko — His  success — Insurrection  in  Warsaw — 
Provisional  government  established — Defeat  of  Kosciusko — Siege  of  War- 
8aw — The  siege  is  raised — Second  siege  of  Warsaw — Its  capture — Termina- 
tion of  the  Polish  Republic — Reflections  :  .....  61 — *6 

CHAPTER    X 

CONSOLIDATION   OF   THE   FRENCH   GOVERNMENT:    CAMTAIGN  OF    1795. 

Parties  in  Paris  after  the  fall  of  Robespierre — Humane  measures  of  the  Conven- 
tion— Club  of  La  Jeunesse  Dore*e — Repeal  of  the  Revolutionary  laws,  and 

2 


xii 


CONTEN  TS. 

impeachment  of  the  Jacobin  leaders — Insurrection  of  the  Fauxbourgs — 
Firmness  of  the  Convention — Their  success — Execution  of  Jacobin  prisoners 
— The  Convention  form  a  new  Constitution — Remarks  on  this  Constitution 
— It  is  opposed — The  Convention  appeal  to  the  army — They  appoint  Napo- 
leon Bonaparte  to  the  command — Victory  of  Bonaparte  over  the  insurgents 

Secession  of  European  powers  from  the  alliance,  but  Austria  and  England 
unite,  nevertheless — French  naval  preparations — Campaign  in  the  maritime 
Alps — Position  of  the  armies  on  the  northern  and  eastern  frontier — Jourdan's 
operations  and  defeat  on  the  Rhine — Expedition  to  Quiberon  Bay — Defeat 
of  the  Royalists — Republican  atrocities — Capture  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope: 66—73 


CHAPTER    XI. 

CAMPAIGNS  OF  1796. 

Bonaparte's  plan  of  campaign  in  Italy — His  marriage  with  Josephine — Condition 
of  the  French  army — And  of  the  allies — Action  at  Montenotte — Great  sue- 
cess  of  Napoleon — His  alliance  with  Sardinia — He  follows  up  his  success—- 
Battle of  Lodi — His  entry  into  Milan  and  military  exactions — Vacillation  of 
Venice — Continued  success — Siege  of  Mantua — Advance  of  Wurmser — 
Defeat  of  Massena — Napoleon  raises  the  siege  of  Mantua — Defeat  of  the 
Austrians  at  Lonato  and  Salo — Personal  danger  of  Napoleon — Battle  of 
Medola — Wurmser  divides  his  forces — And  advances  upon  Mantua — Action 
of  Caldiero — And  of  Arcola — Battle  of  Rivoli — Reflections  on  this  cam. 
paign — Civil  war  in  La  Vende'e — Condition  of  England — Disturbances  in 
London — Debate  on  the  war — Proposals  for  peace — Relative  position  of 
forces  on  the  Upper  and  Lower  Rhine — Opening  of  the  campaign — Opera- 
tions  in  the  mountains  and  passes  of  the  Black  Forest — Discomfiture  of  Mo- 
reau — Great  disasters  of  the  French — Moreau  retreats  through  the  Black 
Forest — Continued  defeats  of  the  French — Siege  and  capture  of  Kehl — 
Treaty  between  France  and  Spain — Ireland — French  naval  armament  des- 
tined for  Ireland — Death  of  the  Empress  Catherine — Resignation  of  General 
Washington: 74— 86 


CHAPTER  XII. 

CAMPAIGN   OF   1797. 

Affairs  in  England — Suspension  of  specie  payments  in  Great  Britain — Limita. 
tion  of  the  Bill  decreeing  the  suspension — Supplies  for  the  year — Con. 
spiracy  in  the  British  Navy — Mutiny  at  the  Nore — Operations  of  the 
hostile  fleets — Action  off  Cape  St.  Vincent — Battle  of  Camperdown — 
Effect  of  these  victories — Death  of  Mr.  Burke — Defection  of  Russia — 
Armies  in  Italy — Battle  of  Tagliamento — Napoleon,  after  many  minor 
actions,  forces  his  way  across  the  Alps  to  the  Austrian  frontier — Armis- 
tice of  Leoben — Treaty  of  Judemberg — Partition  of  the  Venetian  territo- 
ries— Venice — Revolutionary  principles  in  Venice — Insurrection  in  the 
Venetian  provinces — Effects  of  these  movements — Napoleon  declares  war 
against  Venice — Capture  of  Venice — Its  spoliation — Operations  on  the 
Rhine — Prussia — Genoa — Napoleon  at  Montebello— Domestic  affairs  of 
France — Dissensions  between  the  Royalists  and  Jacobins — Measures  of 
the  Directory — Their  victory — Its  results : 86 — 97 


CONTENTS.  X 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

EXPEDITION   TO   EGYF.T. 

PAGE. 

Napoleon  returns  to  Paris — Naval  preparations — Precautions  of  the  British  gov- 
ernment— French  fleet  sails  from  Toulon — Nelson  pursues — Napoleon  ar- 
rives in  Egypt,  captures  Alexandria  and  advances  to  Cairo — Battle  of  the 
Pyramids — Nelson  arrives  at  Aboukir — Battle  of  the  Nile — Honors  con- 
ferred  on  Nelson — Effects  of  this  victory — Napoleon's  expedition  to  Syria — 
Capture  of  Jaffa  and  massacre  of  prisoners — Advance  to  Acre — British 
squadron,  under  Sir  Sidney  Smith,  arrives  there — Napoleon  attacks  the 
place — Arrival  of  the  Ottoman  fleet — Napoleon  retreats — Defeats  the  Turks 
at  Aboukir:  97— 103 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

FROM    THE   PEACE   OF   CAMPO    FORMIO    TO    THE    RENEWAL   OF    THE    WAR. 

Measures  for  the  defence  of  England — Progress  of  Revolution  in  Holland^and 
in  Switzerland — The  Swiss  fly  to  arms — Success  of  the  French  in  the  larger 
Cantons — and  of  the  Swiss  in  the  mountains — Sufferings  of  the  Swiss — 
Their  final  defeat — The  Ecclesiastical  States  are  next  attacked — Outbreak 
at  Rome — France  declares  war  against  Rome — Violence  to  the  Pope — and 
his  death — Pillage  of  Rome — Cis- Alpine  Republic — Humiliation  of  the  King 
of  Sardinia — Revolutionary  proceedings  at  Naples — Defeat  of  the  Neapoli- 
tan troops — Flight  of  the  Neapolitan  Court — Championnet  advances  to  Na- 
ples— Desperate  battle  there — Disturbance  in  Ireland — Plan  of  the  Insur- 
rection— Measures  of  the  opposite  party — And  of  the  Government — Progress 
of  the  Insurrection — France  and  the  United  States — Controversy  between 
them — Hanse  Towns — Effects  of  French  aggression  :  102 — 114 

CHAPTER  XV. 

CAMPAIGN    OF     1799. 

Preparations  of  Austria — of  Russia — of  Great  Britain — French  forces — Jourdan 
opens  the  campaign — His  defeats — Impolitic  measures  of  the  Aulic  Coun- 
cil— Campaign  in  Italy — Effect  of  defeat  on  the  Republicans  there — Massena 
takes  command — The  Arch-Duke  Charles  attacks  him — Massena's  defeat — 
Suwarrow — Operations  of  Moreau  in  Italy — Suwarrow's  great  success — 
Naples — Junction  of  Moreau  and  Macdonald — Suwarrow  defeats  Macdo. 
nald — Fall  of  Turin — King  of  Naples  resumes  the  throne — Punishment  of 
the  insurgents — Capitulation  of  Mantua — and  of  Alexandria — Battle  of  Novi 
— Continued  errors  of  the  Aulic  Council — Disasters  to  which  it  leads — Sur- 
render of  Zurich — Achievements  of  Suwarrow — His  retreat  through  the 
Mountains — Effects  on  the  allies  of  these  disasters — Expedition  to  Holland 
— Its  first  success  and  eventual  defeat — Battle  of  Coni — Surrender  of  that 
town — Close  of  the  campaign :  .......  114 — 126 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

FROM    THE   REVOLUTION    OF   SEPTEMBER    3RD,    TO    THE   CAMPAIGN   OF    1800. 

Progress  of  the  Revolution  in  Trance — Elections — Conspiracy  of  Sieyes — Napo- 
leon abandons  his  army  in  Egypt — His  return  to  France— His  residence  in 


xJv 


CONTENTS. 

Paris — Conspiracy  to  place  the  government  in  his  hands — Council  of  Five 
Hundred  resolve  to  remove  to  St.  Cloud — Their  proceedings  there — Vio. 
lent  measures  in  both  Councils — Napoleon  disperses  the  members  by  force, 
and  takes  command  of  the  Government — His  proposals  for  Peace  to  (Jrcut 
Britain — Debate  in  Parliament — Domestic  transactions  of  Great  Britain 
Rupture  between  England  and  Russia — Measures  of  Austria  to  con. 
tinue  the  war — And  of  Napoleon — Napoleon's  ambitious  projects  and 
measures:  ............  12Q — 132 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

FIRST   CAMPAIGN    OF    1800. 

Austrian  forces — French  forces — Opening  of  the  campaign — Battle  of  Engen — 
Battle  of  Moeskirch — Action  at  Biberach — Position  of  the  Austrians — Ac- 
tive operations  on  both  sides — Campaign  of  Italy — French  disasters  there — 
Siege  and  capture  of  Genoa — Napoleon  crosses  the  Alps  by  the  Great  St. 
Bernard — His  progress  in  Italy — His  entrance  into  Milan — He  defeats  the 
Austrians — Critical  position  of  Melas — Battle  of  Marengo— Victory  of  the 
French — Its  results:  .........  133 — 141 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

SECOND   CAMPAIGN   OF    1800. 

Treaty  between  Great  Britain  and  Austria — Austria  temporizes  with  France — 
Novel  proposal  of  Napoleon  to  Great  Britain — Negotiations  for  peace — Na- 
poleon's obstinacy  breaks  off  the  negotiations — Plot  to  assassinate  Napoleon 
— French  and  Austrian  forces — Capture  of  Malta  by  the  English — Accession 
of  Pius  VII. — Renewal  of  hostilities — Moreau's  operations  in  Germany — 
Battle  of  Hohenlinden — Retreat  and  disaster  of  the  Austrians — Arch-Duke 
Charles  takes  command  of  the  army — Solicits  and  obtains  an  armistice — 
Macdonald's  march  across  the  Alps  by  the  Splugen — He  advances  into  Italy 
— Armistice  of  Treviso — Treaty  between  France  and  Naples — Treaty  of 
Luneville : .  141 — 148 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

FROM   THE   PEACE   OF    LUNEVILLE   TO   THE    DISSOLUTION   OF   THE   NORTHERN 
MARITIME   CONFEDERACY. 

Difficulties  between  Great  Britain  and  Denmark — British  fleet  proceeds  to  Co- 
penhagen— Treaty  with  Denmark — Arbitrary  measures  of  Russia — Mari- 
time Confederacy  against  Great  Britain — Retaliatory  measures  of  Great 
Britain — Embarrassments  of  the  English  ministry — Mr.  Pitt  resigns — His 
successors  pursue  his  policy — Sir  Hyde  Parker  sails  to  Copenhagen — Battle 
of  Copenhagen — Victory  of  the  British — Occupation  of  Hanover  by  the 
Prussians — Death  of  the  Emperor  Paul — Accession  of  Alexander — His 
measures  and  policy — Treaty  between  Russia  and  Great  Britain — Dissolu. 
tion  of  the  Confederacy :  ...  148 154 


CONTENTS.  XV 

CHAPTER  XX. 

EXPEDITIONS  TO  EGYPT  AND  ST.  DOMINGO — EUROPE,  FROM  THE  PEACE  OF 
AMIENS  TO  THE  RENEWAL  OF  THE  WAR. 

PASS- 

Advance  of  the  Turkish  army  toward  Egypt — Negotiations  for  peace  frustrated 
by  the  British — Defeat  of  the  Turks — Expedition  of  Sir  R.  Abercromby — 
Battle  of  Alexandria — British  take  possession  of  Cairo — Surrender  of  the 
French  army — Attempts  of  Napoleon  to  regain  Egypt — Naval  action  be- 
tween the  British  and  French — Treaty  between  France  and  Spain — Pre- 
parations of  Napoleon  for  invading  England — French  treaties  with  Turkey, 
Bavaria,  America,  Algiers,  and  Russia — Effects  of  the  peace — Ambitious 
projects  of  Napoleon — Expedition  to  St.  Domingo — Its  first  success  and  fi- 
nal defeat — Condition  of  St.  Domingo — Napoleon's  aggressions  in  Europe — 
Re  volution  in  Holland — And  in  the  Cis-  Alpine  Republic — Prosperity  of  Great 
Britain — Causes  of  irritation  between  England  and  France — Mutual  recrim- 
inations— Extraordinary  scene  with  Lord  Whitworth  at  the  Tuileries — Eng- 
land declares  war — Imprisonment  of  British  travellers  in  France :  -  155 — 164 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

FRANCE,    FROM   THE   PEACE   OF    AMIENS   TO    NAPOLEON'S    ASSUMPTION   OF    THE 
IMPERIAL   CROWN. 

Condition  of  France  when  Napoleon  seized  the  reins  of  power — Necessity  for  a 
despotic  government — Napoleon's  measures  against  the  Jacobins — He  estab- 
lishes the  Legion  of  Honor — Reestablishes  the  Catholic  religion — Amnesty 
in  favor  of  exiles  and  emigrants — Changes  in  the  Constitution — Proposals 
to  Louis  XVIII. — Civil  Code  of  Napoleon — Law  of  succession — Confisca- 
tion of  property  the  great  sin  of  the  Revolution — Napoleon's  flattering  pros- 
pects— Moreau — Royalist  conspiracy  of  Pichegru — Arrest  of  the  Duke  d'- 
Enghein — His  trial  and  execution,  March  21st,  1804 — Consternation  in  Paris 
when  this  murder  was  known — Murder  of  Pichegru — And  of  Wright — Trial 
of  Moreau — He  embarks  for  America — Napoleon  assumes  the  Imperial 
Crown:  -  -  164—173 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

FROM   THE    RENEWAL    OF    HOSTILITIES    TO    THE    DECLARATION   OF    WAR    BY    SPAIN. 

Preparation  for  war — Commencement  of  hostilities — Renewed  preparations  of 
Napoleon  for  the  invasion  of  England — And  of  England  for  repelling  it — 
Insurrection  in  Ireland — Naval  operations — Illness  of  the  King — Mr.  Pitt 
recalled  to  the  ministry — Condition  of  Austria — Of  Prussia — Of  Russia — 
Impression  produced  in  Europe  by  the  murder  of  the  Duke  d'  Enghein — 
Coronation  of  Napoleon  and  Josephine — Rupture  between  Spain  and  Great 
Britain — The  former  power  declares  war  against  the  latter  :  .  .  173 — IT 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 

FROM   THE   OPENING  OF  THE  SPANISH  WAR  TO  THE  BATTLE  OF  AUSTERLITZ. 

Napoleon's  journey  to  Italy — Treaty  between  Great  Britain  and  Russia — Napo- 
leon assembles  his  army  and  flotilla  at  Boulogne  for  the  invasion  of  England. 
2 


CONTENTS. 

— Forces  for  the  expedition — The  French  Admiral,  Villeneuve,  puts  to  sea 
— Nelson  sails  in  pursuit — Movements  of  the  hostile  fleets — Action  of  Sir 
Robert  Calder,  off  Ferrol — Its  important  results — Napleon  abandons  the 
project  of  Invasion  and  moves  his  troops  to  the  Rhine — Relative  forces  of 
France  and  the  allies — Nelson  sails  for  Cadiz — Battle  of  Trafalgar — Results 
of  the  battle — Death  of  Nelson — Honors  to  his  memory — Napoleon's  ope- 
rations on  the  Rhine — He  violates  the  Prussian  neutrality — Indignation  of 
Prussia — Defeat  of  Auffemberg — Combat  at  Elchingen — Archduke  Ferdi- 
nand cuts  his  way  through  the  French  lines — Entire  Austrian  army  under 
Mack  surrenders  to  Napoleon — Campaign  in  Italy — Battle  of  Verona — And 
of  Caldiero — Austrians  retreat — Napoleon  traverses  Bavaria — Russians, 
Austrians  and  French  approach  Vienna — Convention  between  Russia  and 
Prussia — Success  of  Ney  and  Augereau  in  the  Tyrol — Proposals  of  Austria 
for  an  Armistice — Movements  around  St.  Polten — Kutusoff  retreats — Com. 
bat  with  Mortier — Lannes  and  Murat  advance  upon  Vienna — The  Emperor 
Francis  evacuates  his  Capital — Napoleon  occupies  Vienna — Junction  of  the 
Russian  and  Austrian  armies — Preparations  on  both  sides  for  a  general  ac- 
tion— The  Battle  of  Austerlitz — Its  results — Armistice  of  Austerlitz — Prussia 
recedes  from  the  Convention  with  Russia — And  joins  Napoleon — Treaty  of 
Presburg— Spoliation  of  Naples — Death  of  Mr.  Pitt  :  -  -  .  179 — 194 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

FROM  THE  PEACE  OF  PRESBURG  TO  THE  FALL  OF  PRUSSIA. 

Condition  of  Europe — New  ministry  in  England — Mr.  Fox,  Prime  Minister — 
French  Finances — Occupation  of  Naples  by  the  French — Insurrection  in 
Calabria — Battle  of  Maida  —  Louis  Bonaparte  made  King  of  Holland — 
French  naval  defeats — Differences  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  of  America — Position  of  Prussia — Hostilities  between  England  and 
Prussia — Napoleon's  exactions — Confederation  of  the  Rhine — Irritation  of 
Prussia — Treaties  of  Russia  and  Great  Britain  with  Prussia — Imprudence  of 
.  Prussia — Napoleon  invades  Prussia — Manoeuvres  of  the  two  armies — Battle 
of  Jena — Battle  of  Auerstadt — Great  results  of  these  battles — Entire  over- 
throw of  Prussia — Napoleon  enters  Berlin — His  cruelty  there — Contribu- 
tions levied  on  the  conquered  provinces — Napoleon  moves  to  the  Vistula  :  194 — 205 

CHAPTER  XXV. 

CAMPAIGN   OF   EYLAU. 

Russian  forces — Russia  applies  to  England — Impolitic  and  unjust  course  of  the 
British  government — The  armies  approach  each  other — Napoleon  goes  to 
Warsaw — Commencement  of  hostilities — Battle  of  Pultusk — Its  result—- 
The armies  go  into  winter-quarters — Hostilities  renewed — Russians  retrea* 
to  Prussich-Eylau — Battle  of  Prussich-Eylau — Its  result — Napoleon  retreats 
— Affairs  of  Turkey — Turkey  declares  war  against  Great  Britain — Attach 
on  Constantinople — Change  of  ministry  in  Great  Britain  :  -  -  203 — 213 

CHAPTER  XXVI. 

CAMPAIGN   OF   FRIEDLAND   AND    TILSIT. 

Commencement  of  the  campaign — Siege  and  capture  of  Dantzic — Foice?  of  the 
two  Nations — Russians  defeat  Ney  at  Guttstadt — Russians  retire  to  Heils- 
berg — French  attack  and  are  repulsed — Russians  eventually  retreat  to  Fried. 


CONTENTS.  XVII 

PACK. 

tand — Battle  of  Friedland — Proposals  for  Peace — Napoleon  and  Alexander 
confer  at  Tilsit — Treaty  between  France  and  Russia — And  with  Prussia — 
Secret  articles  of  the  Treaty  of  Tilsit : 213—218 

CHAPTER  XXVII. 

FROM   THE   PEACE    OF   TILSIT   TO   THE   COMMENCEMENT    OF   HOSTILITIES    IN  THE 
SPANISH   PENINSULA. 

Napoleon's  hostility  toward  Great  Britain — The  Continental  System — Berlin 
Decree — Measures  of  Great  Britain — Milan  Decree — Singular  result  of  these 
measures — Enthusiasm  and  adulation  of  the  Parisians  on  Napoleon's  return 
to  the  Capital — Suppression  of  the  Tribunate — And  other  despotic  measures 
— Proscriptions — Internal  prosperity  of  France — Penal  Code — Its  atrocious 
severity — Conscriptions — Political  changes  in  Central  Europe — Internal  af- 
fairs of  Prussia — Austria — Sweden — Designs  of  Russia  and  France  on  the 
fleets  of  Denmark  and  Portugal — England  anticipates  their  movements  and 
takes  possession  of  the  Danish  ships — Negotiations  with  England — Turkey 
breaks  from  her  alliance  with  France — Napoleon's  proceedings  in  Italy — His 
encroachments  in  Western  Europe : 218 — 228 

CHAPTER    XXVIII. 

PRELIMINARY   MOVEMENTS   OF   THE   PENINSULAR   WAR. 

Differences  between  France  and  Spain — Napoleon  discovers  the  hostile  intentions 
of  Spain  and  Portugal — He  resolves  to  subjugate  the  Peninsula — Commences 
hostilities  in  and  against  Portugal — Junot  advances  to  Lisbon — The  Portu- 
guese Royal  Family  embark  for  Brazil — Junot  occupies  Lisbon — His  govern- 
ment—Affairs of  Spain — Treaty  of  Fontainebleau — Invasion  of  Spain — The 
King,  Charles  IV.  attempts  to  escape  to  America — Is  prevented — He  resigns 
his  crown  in  favor  of  his  son,  Ferdinand  VII. — French  troops  approach  Madrid 
— Murat  takes  possession  of  the  Spanish  Capital — Political  intrigues  between 
Chales  IV.,  Ferdinand,  and  Napoleon — By  the  representations  of  Savary, 
Charles,  Ferdinand,  and  the  Spanish  Royal  Family  are  induced  to  travel  to 
Bayonne  to  meet  Napoleon — Murat's  misgovernment  in  Madrid — Insurrec- 
tion and  massacre  of  the  inhabitants — Effects  of  these  atrocities — Napoleon's 
duplicity  toward  the  Spanish  Royal  Family — Charles  executes  a  second  ab- 
dication— Ferdinand  is  forced  to  a  similar  measure — Joseph  Bonaparte 
declared  King  of  Spain — Napoleon's  Constitution  for  Spain — Joseph's 
Ministry: 228— 238- 

CHAPTER    XXIX. 

CAMPAIGN  OF   1808   IN   SPAIN   AND  PORTUGAL. 

The  Spanish  Peninsula — Forces  destined  to  take  part  in  the  Peninsular  war- 
Revolts  and  massacres  throughout  Spain — Success  of  the  French  troops — 
First  siege  of  Saragossa — Siege  of  Valencia — Defeat  of  the  Spaniards  under 
Blake  and  Cuesta — Atrocities  of  the  French  soldiers  in  Rio  Seco  and  Cor- 
dova— French  retreat  from  the  latter  place — Their  total  defeat — Indignation 
of  Napoleon  at  Dupont's  surrender — Joseph  evacuates  Madrid — Reverses  of 
the  French — Arrival  of  Wellington  in  Portugal — He  defeats  the  French 
under  Laborde  and  Junot — An  Armistice  is  concluded  and  the  French 


CONTENTS. 

PAGE. 
evacuate  Portugal — Sir  John  Moore  arrives  at  Lisbon — And  marches  into 

Spain — Movements  of  Austria — Interview  between  Alexander  and  Napoleon 
at  Erfurth — Murat  made  King  of  Naples — Napoleon's  preparations  to  invade 
Spain — His  great  success  against  the  Spanish  forces — He  advances  to  Madrid 
— Its  capture — Sir  David  Baird  lands  at  Corunna  and  joins  Sir  John  Moore 
— Advance  and  retreat  of  the  British  army — Sir  John  Moore  continues  his 
retreat  toward  Corunna — Battle  of  Corunna — Death  of  Moore :  -  239 — 252 


CHAPTER    XXX. 

FIRST  CAMPAIGN   OF    1809   IN   GERMANY. 

M^sures  of  Austria  during  the  peace — Position  of  the  French  and  Austrian 
forces — Napoleon's  instructions  to  Berthier — Napoleon  takes  command — 
Action  at  Thaun — Subsequent  discomfiture  of  the  Austrians — The  Arch, 
duke  captures  Ratisbon — Combat  at  Landshut — And  at  Ratisbon — Battle  of 
Echmul — The  Archduke  retreats: — Napoleon  retakes  Ratisbon — Results  of 
the  campaign,  thus  far — Reverses  of  the  French  in  other  quarters — Hiller 
takes  post  at  Ebersberg — Massena  attacks  and  defeats  him — Napoleon  ad- 
vances to  Vienna — and  takes  possession  of  that  city — The  Archduke  Charles 
approaches  Vienna — Position  of  the  two  armies — Battle  of  Aspern — Napo- 
leon retreats  to  Lobau  and  intrenches  himself  there  :  253 — 262 

CHAPTER  XXXI. 

FROM   THE   CAMPAIGN   OF    WAGRAM   TO   THE   DETHRONEMENT   OF    THE    POPE. 

Ntpoleon  prepares  to  cross  the  Danube — Position  of  the  Archduke — The 
French  cross  the  river — And  the  Austrians  retire  to  Wagram — Description 
of  Wagram — Battle  of  Wagram — The  Archduke  retreats  to  Bohemia — Na- 
poleon grants  an  Armistice — Treaty  of  Vienna — Napoleon  destroys  the 
ramparts  of  Vienna — Operations  in  the  Tyrol — Great  success  of  the  Tyro- 
lese — Treaty  with  them — Execution  of  Hofer — Expedition  of  the  British 
against  Antwerp — Their  partial  success  and  retreat — Dissensions  between 
the  Pope  and  Napoleon — The  former  is  made  prisoner  and  conveyed  to 
France: -  263— 273 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 

MARITIME    WAR  ;   AND   CAMPAIGN   OF    1809    IN   SPAIN   AND   PORTUGAL. 

British  Naval  expedition  to  Basque  Roads — Its  success — Success  of  the  British 
in  the  East  and  West  Indies — Portugal — Spain — Forces  of  the  Spaniards — 
And  of  the  French — Opening  of  the  campaign — Second  siege  of  Saragossa — 
Its  capture — Pillage  by  Lannes  and  Junot — Disasters  following  the  fall  of 
Saragossa — Siege  and  capture  of  Gerona — Success  of  Victor  in  Central 
Spain — Soult  invades  Portugal — And  captures  Oporto — Wellington  arrives 
at  Lisbon — Marches  against  Oporto  and  retakes  it — Soult's  perilous  retreat 
— Wellington  advances  toward  Madrid — Battle  of  Talavera — Wellington, 
unsupported  by  the  Spaniards,  resolves  to  retire  to  the  banks  of  the  Tagus — 
Ungenerous  apathy  of  the  Spaniards  in  their  own  cause — Wellington  remon- 
strates— And  abandons  them  to  their  own  resources — Battle  of  Ocana — Wel- 
lington's system  of  maintaining  his  troops — And  Napoleon's  -  274—285 


CONTENTS.  X 

CHAPTER  XXXIIL 

EVENTS    OF    1810:  CAMPAIGN    OF    TORRES    VEDRAS. 

tUMML 

Napoleon's  position — His  want  of  an  heir — Offers  of  his  hand — Makes  known 
his  intentions  to  Josephine — Her  dignified  conduct — Her  divorce — Nego- 
tiations with  Austria — Marriage  of  Napoleon  and  Marie  Louise — Russia 
takes  umbrage — Napoleon's  measures  force  the  King  of  Holland  to  abdi- 
cate— His  differences  with  Lucien — And  with  Joseph — Soult  commences 
operations  in  Spain — Siege  of  Cadiz — French  and  allied  forces  in  Portugal 
— Massena  captures  Ciudad  Rodrig'o  and  Almeida — Wellington  falls  back 
to  Busaco — Battle  of  Busaco — Wellington  retires  to  Torres  Vedras — Mas. 
sena  retreats — Soult  captures  Badajoz — Wellington  pursues  Massena — 
Action  of  Barrosa — Massena  withdraws  from  Portugal — Battle  of  Fuentes 
d'  Onoro — Illness  of  George  III. — Prince  of  Wales  made  Regent — Ex- 
change  of  prisoners — Capture  of  the  Island  of  Java :  285 — 293 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 

PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE  CORTES  ;   WAR   IN   SPAIN;    CAMPAIGN   OF   1811    ON  THE 
PORTUGUESE    FRONTIER. 

The  Cortes  assemble  at  Cadiz — Their  democratic  measures — Joseph  Bonaparte 
enters  Seville — Napoleon's  projects — Joseph  resigns  his  crown,  but  is  per- 
suaded to  take  it  again — Operations  in  the  East  of  Spain — Capture  of  Tor- 
tosa — And  of  Figueras — Burning  of  Manresa — Siege  of  Taragona — Its  cap- 
ture— Siege  and  capture  of  Saguntum — And  of  Valencia — Beresford  lays 
eiege  to  Badajoz — Battle  of  Albuera — Retreat  of  Soult — Wellington  recom- 
mences the  siege  of  Badajoz,  but  the  approach  of  Soult  and  Marmont  forces 
him  to  relinquish  it : 293—300 


CHAPTER    XXXV. 

WELLINGTON'S  INVASION  OF  SPAIN,  1812. 

Wellington  lays  siege  to  Ciudad  Rodrigo — Captures  it — Siege  and  capture  of 
Badajoz — Effects  of  these  two  victories — Wellington  advances  into  Spain — 
Enters  Salamanca — Battle  of  Salamanca — Wellington  marches  to  Madrid — 
His  entrance  into  that  city — He  captures  the  park  of  French  artillery  at  the 
Retire — Aspect  of  French  affairs  in  the  Peninsula — Effects  of  the  concen- 
tration of  the  French  forces — Wellington  lays  siege  to  Burgos — And  aban- 
dons it — He  retreats  to  Ciudad  Rodrigo : 301 — 307 


CHAPTER  XXXVI. 

WAR  IN  TURKEY  ;  ACCESSION   OF   BERNADOTTE  TO  THE   SWEDISH  THRONE  J    FINAL 
RUPTURE    BETWEEN    FRANCE   AND    RUSSIA. 

Preparations  of  Russia  for  war  in  Turkey— Success  of  the  Russian  troops — Siege 
of  Schumla  undertaken — Repulse  of  the  storming  party — Similar  operations 
at  Rondschouck — Defeat  of  the  Turks  near  Battin — Capture  of  Rond 


XX  CONTENTS. 

schouck  and  Nicopolis — Turks  defeated  at  Rondschouck — They  cross  the 
Danube  and  attack  Kutusoff—  Their  total  defeat— Peace  between  Russia  and 
Turkey — Encroachments  of  Russia  upon  the  Swedish  dominions — Gusta- 
vus,  King  of  Sweden,  resigns  his  crown — New  king  and  change  of  policy  in 
Sweden — Death  of  the  Crown-Prince — Bernadotte  is  appointed  to  succeed 
him — Napoleon's  further  spoliations  in  Europe — Resented  by  Alexander — 
Birth  of  Napoleon's  son — Napoleon's  measures  force  Sweden  to  declare 
war  against  England — The  French  invade  the  Swedish  territories — Sweden, 
Great  Britain  and  Russia  declare  war  against  France  :  307 — 312 


CHAPTER  XXXVII. 

ADVANCE  OF   NAPOLEON  TO   MOSCOW. 

Immense  preparations  of  Napoleon  for  invading  Russia — Forces  of  Russia — 
French  troops  cross  the  Niemen — Sufferings  of  the  French  before  hostilities 
commenced — Barclay  retires  from  Wilna,  and  the  French  occupy  it — 
French  advance  to  Witepsk — Alexander  leaves  the  army  at  Potolsk  and 
proceeds  to  Moscow,  and  thence  to  St.  Petersburg — Oudinot  defeated  on 
the  Dwina — Barclay  and  Bagrathion  form  a  junction  at  Smolensko — Heroic 
defence  of  General  Newerofskoi — Russians  evacuate  Smolensko,  leaving  a 
rear-guard  for  its  protection — Napoleon  attacks  the  town — Is  repulsed — 
Conflagration  of  Smolensko — The  Russians  abandon  it — Napoleon  pursues 
— Battle  at  Valentina — Miserable  condition  of  the  French  army — Move- 
ments  of  Victor  and  Augereau — Russians  resolve  to  give  battle  to  Napo- 
leon— Take  post  at  Borodino — Battle  of  Borodino — Russians  fall  back 
toward  Moscow — And  abandon  it — French  arrive  at  Moscow  on  the  14th 
of  September — Conflagration  of  Moscow — Kutusoff  threatens  Napoleon's 
communications :  .........  313 — 322 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII. 

THE  RETREAT  FROM  MOSCOW. 

Napoleon  proposes  an  Armistice — Sufferings  of  his  troops — Condition  of  the  Rus- 
sian army — Napoleon  prepares  to  retreat — Evacuates  Moscow  and  retreats 
to  Malo- Jaroslawitz — Is  nearly  made  prisoner — Council  of  War  held — He 
continues  his  retreat — Its  disastrous  character — Severity  of  the  weather — 
Arrival  at  Smolensko — Continued  retreat — Defeat  of  the  French  at  Krasnoi 
— Heroic  defence  of  Ney — His  escape — Napoleon  arrives  at  Orcha — Battle 
of  Beresina — Its  result — Napoleon  sets  out  for  Paris — Condition  of  the  troops 
after  his  departure — The  army  reaches  Wilna — And  are  forced  to  abandon 
it — Heroism  of  Ney — Result  of  the  campaign  :  322—332 


CHAPTER  XXXIX. 

EVENTS    IN    FRANCE   FOLLOWING   THE  RUSSIAN    CAMPAIGN. 

Napoleon  arrives  at  Paris — Public  depression — Relieved  by  Napoleon's  firmness 
— Malet's  extraordinary  Conspiracy — Its  defeat — Napoleon's  discontent, 
notwithstanding — His  efforts  to  recruit  the  army — Negotiations  with  the 
Pope: -  332—335 


CONTENTS  M 

CHAPTER  XL. 

CAMPAIGN  OF   1813. 

Combination  of  forces  to  cut  off  the  retreat  of  the  French  army  —  Murat  deserts 
the  army  and  repairs  to  Naples  —  Eugene  takes  command  —  Deliverance  and 
policy  of  Prussia  —  Her  efforts  to  regain  a  footing  among  the  Powers  of 
Europe  —  Treaty  with  Russia  —  Insurrection  in  Saxony  —  Institution  of  the 
Order  of  the  Iron  Cross  in  Prussia  —  The  Tugenbund  —  Position  of  the  French 
troops  on  the  Elbe  —  Forces  of  Prussia  —  Of  Russia  —  The  allies  occupy 
Hamburg  —  Insurrections  in  the  Hanse  Towns—  The  allies  approach  the  Elbe 
and  occupy  Dresden  —  Napoleon  joins  the  army  —  Battle  of  Lutzen  —  Allies 
retire  to  Dresden  and  Bautzen  —  Napoleon  takes  possession  of  Dresden  — 
Negotiations  with  Russia  and  Austria  —  Battle  of  Bautzen  —  Armistice  of 
Pleswitz:  .  ....  .  335—346 


»  CHAPTER  XLI. 

FROM   THE   ARMISTICE    OF   PLESWITZ   TO   THE   RENEWAL   OF   THE   WAR. 

Measures  of  the  British  Cabinet  —  Treaty  between  Great  Britain,  Russia,  and 
Prussia  —  Scarcity  of  specie  in  Europe  —  Treaty  of  Napoleon  with  Denmark 

—  Policy  of  Austria  —  Negotiations  for  Peace  —  Interview  between  Metier- 
nich  and  Napoleon  —  Convention  agreed  on  —  News  of  the  battle  of  Vittoria 
in  Spain  —  Austria  decides  in  favor  of  the  Grand  Alliance  —  Preparations  and 
forces  on  both  sides  —  Congress  at  Prague  —  General  Moreau  joins  the  allies 

—  Schwartzenberg  appointed  ox>mmander-in-chief  :          ...        346  —  353 

CHAPTER   XLII. 

DELIVERANCE   OF   GERMANY. 

Blucher  opens  the  campaign  —  Allies  advance  upon  Dresden-  —  They  attack  the 
town  and  are  repulsed  —  Battle  of  Dresden  —  Death  of  Moreau  —  Allies  re- 
treat  —  French  defeated  at  Toeplitz  —  Disasters  of  Macdonald  in  Upper  Silesia 

—  And  of  Oudinot  north  of  the  Elbe  —  Napoleon's  operations  at  Dresden  and 
in  Silesia  —  Ney  encounters  Bernadotte  at  Dennewitz  and  is  defeated  —  Dis- 
couragement of  Napoleon  and  his  troops  —  The  Cossacks  make  a  descent 
into  Westphalia  —  Capture  Cassel  and  retire  with  Jerome's  treasures  —  Ben- 
ningsen  arrives  at  Toeplitz  —  Napoleon  advances   to  Duben  —  Retreats  to 
Leipsic  —  Description  of  Leipsic  —  Disposition  of  the  French  troops  —  And  of 
the  allies  —  Commencement  of  the  battle  of  Leipsic  —  Result  of  the  first  day 

—  Napoleon's  interview  with  Meerfeldt  —  Battle  of  Leipsic  renewed  —  Its  re. 
suit  —  Retreat  of  Napoleon  —  Disasters  of  his  retreat  —  He  reaches  Erfurth, 
where  Murat  abandons  him  —  Continued  retreat  —  Secession  of  Bavaria  — 
Battle  of  Hanau  —  Napoleon  crosses  the  Rhine  —  The  allies  enter  Frankfort 

—  Bernadotte  advances  to  Cassel  —  Capitulation  of  Dresden  —  Effect  in  Eu- 

rope of  Napoleon's  defeat  :    ........        353—368 

CHAPTER   XLIII. 

THE    LIBERATION   OF   SPAIN. 

Improved  condition  of  the  British  army  in  the  Peninsula  —  Measures  of  the  Cortes 

—  Condition  of  Cadiz  —  Wellington's  forces  and  plans  —  French  forces  —  Bat. 


XX11  CONTEN  I  &. 

PAOX 

tie  of  Castella — Wellington  takes  leave  of  Portugal — He  advances  to  Vit- 
toria — Joseph's  retreat — Battle  of  Vittoria — Great  amount  of  spoil  taken 
from  the  French — Soult  takes  command  of  the  French  army — Assumes  the 
offensive — Battle  of  Sauroren — Retreat  of  Soult — Siege  and  capture  of  St. 
Sebastian — Soult  retreats  over  the  Bidassoa — Dishonorable  conduct  of  the 
Spanish  government  toward  their  allies — Wellington  prepares  to  invade 
France — He  attacks  and  defeats  Soult — His  regulations  for  protecting  the 
inhabitants  from  the  rapacity  of  his  troops — Soult's  position  on  the  Ni- 
velle — He  is  again  defeated  by  Wellington — He  retreats  to  Bayonne — 
His  embarrassments — He  is  again  defeated,  and  Wellington  blockades 
Bayonne:  ...  .  369—379 


CHAPTER    XLIV. 

EUROPE   IN    ARMS   AGAINST  FRANCE. 

Results  of  the  Campaign  of  1813 — Its  effect  in  France — NapoleorPs  measures  for 
defence — Discontent  of  the  French  people — Suffering  in  the  army — Govern, 
ment  of  Marie  Louise,  as  Regent — Immense  Conscriptions — Frontier  for- 
tresses—  Domestic  distress  in  France — Prosperity  of  England — Proposals  of 
peace  by  the  allied  Sovereigns — Napoleon  negotiates  to  gain  time — Re- 
solute  conduct  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies— Napoleon  dissolves  the  Cham- 
ber — Treaty  of  Valen§ay — Conferences  with  Pius  VII. — Murat  joins  the 
allies — Eugene  Beauharnois  proposes  to  join  them — Denmark  abandons 
Napoleon — Proceedings  at  Frankfort — Accession  of  Switzerland  to  the  Alii- 
ance — Forces  of  the  allies — And  of  Napoleon:.  -  .  -  -  376 — 388 


CHAPTER    XLV. 

•  FIRST    CAMPAIGN   OF    1814. 

Invasion  of  France — Napoleon  takes  leave  of  his  wife  and  son  to  join  the  army 
— Battle  of  Brienne — Napoleon  retreats  to  Troyes — The  allies  divide  their 
forces — Battle  of  Champaubert — Discomfiture  of  Blucher — Retrospect  of  the 
fortunes  of  the  Bourbons  since  the  Revolution — The  allies  occupy  Troyes 
• — Movements  of  the  allies — Measures  of  Napoleon  to  protect  Paris — Battle 
of  Montereau — Congress  of  Chatillon — Detail  of  its  proceedings — Napoleon 
refuses  peace — His  ambitious  views — Treaty  of  Chaumont — Blucher's  move, 
ments — Battle  of  Bar-sur-Aube — Action  at  La  Guillotiere — Blucher's  dan. 
gerous  position  at  Soissons — He  is  relieved  by  the  surrender  of  that  town — 
Napoleon  follows  and  attacks  him — Battle  of  Craon — Russians  retreat  to 
Laon — Defeat  of  Marmont — Battle  of  Laon — Napoleon  retreats  to  Soissons 
—Capture  and  recapture  of  Chalons :  .....  389—404 


CHAPTER  XLVI. 

THE   FALL   OF   NAPOLEON 

Brief  suspension  of  hostilities — Napoleon's  affairs  in  other  parts  of  his  Empir 
Holland — South  Beveland — Antwerp — Flanders — Italy — Lyons — Welling, 
ton  resumes  the  offensive — Crosses  the  Adour — Soult  retreats  to  Orthes — 
Battle  of  Orthes  and  defeat  of  Soult — Events  in  Bordeaux — Beresford  enters 
that  town — Wellington  dereats  Soult  at  Toulouse— Napoleon's  embarrass- 


CONTENTS. 

PACK. 

merits — Napoleon  marches  against  Schwartzenberg — Battle  of  Arcis-sur- 
Aube — Retreat  of  Napoleon — Arrives  at  Vitry — Proceeds  to  St.  Dizier — 
Discontent  of  his  officers — His  dispatches  intercepted  by  the  allies — 
Schwartzenberg  and  Blucher  march  toward  Fere-Champenoise — Battle  at 
that  place — Defeat  of  General  Pacthod — The  allies  hasten  toward  Paris — 
Consternation  of  the  citizens — the  Empress  and  her  son  leave  Paris — De- 
scription of  Paris — Its  means  of  defence — Commencement  of  the  Battle  of 
Paris — Defeat  of  the  French  and  surrender  of  the  Capital — Napoleon  re- 
turns  toward  Paris — His  excitement  when  he  hears  of  its  capitulation — 
Terms  of  the  capitulation — The  allies  enter  Paris — Meeting  at  the  hotel  of 
Talleyrand — Napoleon  denounced — Address  to  the  people  of  Paris — Pro- 
visiona.  government  organized — Noble  conduct  of  Alexander — The  Senate 
dethrone  Napoleon — The  army  declares  for  the  Bourbons — Napoleon  at 
Fontainebleau — He  abdicates  the  throne — Treaty  with  the  allies — He  takes 
leave  of  his  troops  and  departs  for  Elba — Death  of  Josephine — Louis  XVIII. 
leaves  England  for  France — His  entrance  into  Paris — Treaty  of  Paris — Lib- 
eration  of  the  Pope :  -  - "  405—423 


CHAPTER  XLVII. 

INTERNAL  AFFAIRS  OF  ENGLAND,  FRANCE,  AND  THE  NORTH  OF  EUROPE. 

Enthusiasm  in  England  on  the  declaration  of  peace — Measures  in  Parliament — 
Affairs  of  Norway — Bernadotte  invades  Norway — Norway  submits  and  is 
annexed  to  Sweden — British  Corn  Laws — Difficulties  of  Louis  XVIII. — 
His  impolitic  measures — His  Charter — Its  defects — Discontent  of  the  peo. 
pie — Penury  of  the  government — Errors  of  the  ministers — And  of  the  Bour- 
bons— Civil  regulations — General  exasperation  :  424 — 432 

CHAPTER  XLVIII. 

CONGRESS   OF   VIENNA.      NAPOLEON'S    FINAL   STRUGGLE. 

Members  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna — Difficulties — Measures — Rumor  of  Napo- 
leon's escape  from  Elba— Spirited  conduct  of  the  Congress  when  Napoleon's 
escape  is  ascertained — Their  Declaration — Napoleon  in  Elba — His  escape 
and  arrival  in  France — His  success  with  the  Troops — Enters  Grenoble — 
Intelligence  of  his  landing  and  progress  reaches  Paris — Consternation  there 
— Efforts  of  the  Government  to  check  him — Nev's  treason — And  that  of 
the  army  generally — Appeal  of  Louis  XVIII. — He  ie treats  from  Paris  with 
the  Royal  Family — Napoleon  arrives  at  Fontainebleau — And  at  Paris — His 
reflections  in  the  Tuileries — His  government  and  ministers — Resistance  to 
his  authority  in  some  of  the  Provinces — New  treaty  of  the  Allied  Powers 
— Forces  preparing  to  invade  France — Napoleon's  efforts  for  defence — 
Fouche's  intrigues — New  Constitution — Acte  A.dditionel — Outbreaks  of  the 
popular  feeling — Caulaincourt  endeavors  to  negotiate  with  the  allies — 
Murat  commences  hostilities — Contest  in  La  Vendee" — New  Elections — 
Divisions  in  Paris — Napoleon  discovers^Fouche's  treachery — Dares  not  pun- 
ish him — Forces  of  Wellington — And  of  Blucher — And  of  Napoleon — 
Soult  takes  command — Napoleon  sets  out  for  the  army — Secret  intelli- 
gence communicated  to  Wellington  by  Fouchd — Fouche's  unparalleled  du- 
plicity— Napoleon  crosses  the  frontier — Battle  of  Ligny — And  of  Quatre- 
Bras — Blucher  retreats  to  Wavre— -Wellington  falls  back  to  Waterloo — The 
Field  of  Waterloo— THE  BATTLE  OF  WATERLOO— Defeat  of  the  French- 

3 


XXIV  CONTENTS. 

Flight  of  Napoleon — Grouchy  retreats  to  Laon — Losses  in  the  Battle — Na- 
poleon arrives  at  Paris — Is  denounced  by  the  Chamber  of  Deputies — He 
abdicates  the  crown — Chamber  of  Peers — Advance  of  the  allies — Capitu- 
lation of  Paris — Napoleon  escapes  to  Rochefort — Embarks  on  board  the 
Bellerophon — Surrenders  himself  to  the  British  government — His  letter  to 
the  Prince  Regent — He  is  sent  to  St.  Helena — Violence  of  the  Prussians  in 
Paris  and  its  environs — Restoration  of  the  works  of  art  that  were  taken  by 
Napoleon  from  the  European  powers — Treaty  of  Paris — Proscription  of 
traitors — Execution  of  Ney — And  of  Murat — Napoleon  in  St.  Helena — His 
death  and  burial — Changes  in  the  French  government — Napoleon's  remains 
removed  from  St.  Helena  to  France,  and  interred  in  the  Church  of  the  In- 
valides: ...  433—461 

Appendix, 463 

Questions,  ....  ......        495 


HISTORY    OF    EUROPE. 


CHAPTER    I. 


CAUSES   AND   COMMENCEMENT   OF   THE   REVOLUTION. 

FEW  periods  of  the  world's  history  can  be  compared,  in  interest  and 
importance,  to  that  which  embraces  the  origin  and  progress  of  the  French 
Revolution ;  for,  in  no  previous  age  were  events  of  such  magnitude 
crowded  together,  nor  were  questions  of  such  moment  ever  before  arbi- 
trated between  contending  nations.  Hereafter,  the  era  of  Napoleon  will 
doubtless  be  ranked  with  the  eras  of  Pericles,  Hannibal  and  the  Crusades. 

The  extraordinary  character  of  this  Revolution  must  not  be  attributed 
to  any  peculiarities  in  the  disposition  of  the  French  people,  or  to  any  faults 
peculiar  to  their  government,  but  rather  to  the  weight  of  despotism  which 
preceded,  and  the  prodigious  changes  which  were  destined  to  follow  it. 
It  was  distinguished  by  violence  and  stained  with  blood,  because  it  origin- 
ated chiefly  with  the  laboring  classes,  and  partook  of  the  savage  features 
of  a  servile  revolt ;  it  subverted  the  institutions  of  the  country,  because  it 
condensed  within  a  few  years  the  changes  which  should  have  taken  place 
in  as  many  centuries ;  it  speedily  fell  under  the  direction  of  the  most 
depraved  inhabitants,  because  its  guidance  was  early  abandoned  by  the 
higher  to  the  lower  orders ;  and  it  led  to  a  general  spoliation  of  property, 
because  its  basis  was  an  insurrection  of  the  poor  against  the  rich.  France 
would  have  done  less  at  the  Revolution,  if  she  had  done  more  before  it ; 
she  would  not  so  mercilessly  have  Vielded  the  sword  to  govern,  if  she 
had  not  so  long  been  governed  by  the  sword ;  nor  would  she  have  sunk 
for  years  under  the  guillotine  of  the  populace,  had  she  not  first  groaned 
for  centuries  under  the  fetters  of  the  nobility. 

For  a  hundred  and  fifty  years  before  the  Revolution,  France  had  en- 
joyed the  blessings  of  domestic  tranquillity,  and,  during  this  interval  of 
peace,  the  relative  situation  and  feelings  of  the  different  ranks  in  society 
underwent  a  total  change.  Wealth  was  silently  accumulated  by  the 
lower  orders,  while  power  imperceptibly  glided  from  the  higher,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  dissipation  of  their  revenues  on  objects  of  luxury.  When 
civil  dissensions  again  broke  out,  this  difference  appeared  in  the  most 
striking  manner.  It  was  no  longer  the  territorial  noblesse,  headed  by 
their  respective  lords,  who  took  the  field ;  or  the  burghers  of  towns,  who 
maintained  insulated  contests  for  the  defence  of  their  walls:  but  the 


2  H-I  STORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  I 

National  Guard  who  everywhere  flew  to  arms,  animated  by  one  common 
feeling  and  strong  in  the  consciousness  of  mutual  support.  They  did  not 
wait  for  their  landlords  to  lead,  or  their  magistrates  to  direct ;  but,  acting 
boldly  for  themselves,  asserted  the  cause  of  democratic  freedom  against 
the  powers  they  had  hitherto  been  accustomed  to  obey. 

In  the  philosophical  speculations  of  the  eighteenth  century,  hazarded 
by  Voltaire,  Rousseau,  Raynal  and  the  Encyclopaedists,  the  most  unre- 
served discussion  on  political  subjects  took  place ;  and,  by  a  singular 
blindness,  the  constituted  authorities  made  no  attempt  to  check  these  in- 
quiries. Feeling  themselves  strong  in  the  support  of  the  nobility,  the  pro- 
tection of  the  army,  and  the  long  established  tranquillity  of  the  realm,  they 
considered  their  power  beyond  the  reach  of  assault,  and  anticipated  no  dan. 
ger  from  theories  on  the  social  contract  or  from  essays  on  the  manners  and 
spirit  of  nations.  A  direct  attack  on  the  monarchy  would  have  consigned 
the  offender  to  the  Bastile ;  but  general  disquisitions  excited  no  alarm, 
either  among  the  nobility  or  in  the  government.  The  speculations  of  these 
eloquent  philosophers,  however,  spread  widely  among  the  rising  genera- 
tion. Captivated  by  the  novelty  of  the  ideas  which  were  developed,  and 
seduced  by  the  examples  of  antiquity  which  were  held  up  to  imitation,  the 
youth  imbibed  not  only  free,  but  republican  principles.  Madame  Roland, 
the  daughter  of  an  engraver,  and  living  in  an  humble  station,  wept  when 
she  was  yet  but  nine  years  old  because  she  was  not  born  a  Roman  citizen  ; 
and  she  carried  Plutarch's  Lives,  instead  of  her  breviary,  in  her  hand 
when  she  attended  mass  in  the  cathedral. 

Within  the  bosom  of  the  Church  too,  owing  to  an  invidious  exclusion  of 
all  persons  of  plebeian  birth  from  the  dignities  and  emoluments  of  the  eccle- 
siastical establishment,  the  seeds  of  deep-rooted  discontent  were  to  be  found. 
While  the  bishops  and  elevated  clergy  were  rolling  in  wealth  or  basking 
in  the  sunshine  of  royal  favor,  the  humbler  clergy,  on  whom  devolved 
the  whole  practical  duties  of  Christianity,  toiled  in  virtuous  obscurity 
among  the  peasants  who  composed  their  flocks.  The  simple  piety  and 
unostentatious  usefulness  of  these  rural  priests  endeared  them  to  their 
parishioners,  and  farmed  a  striking  contrast  to  the  luxurious  habits  and  dis- 
sipated lives  of  the  high-born  dignitaries  of  the  Church,  whose  enormous 
wealth  excited  the  envy  of  their  indigent  brethren  and  of  the  lower  classes 
of  the  people,  while  the  general  idleness  of  their  lives  rendered  more  of- 
fensive the  magnitude  of  their  fortunes.  Hence,  the  universal  indignation, 
in  1789,  at  the  vices  and  corruption  of  the  Church,  and  the  readiness  with 
which,  at  the  very  commencement  or  the  Revolution,  the  property  of  the 
clergy  was  confiscated  to  relieve  the  embarrassed  finances  of  the  country. 

The  distinction  between  the  nobility  and  the  baseborn  was  carried  to  a 
length  in  France  of  which,  in  a  free  country,  it  is  difficult  to  form  an 
adequate  conception.  Every  person  was  either  noble  or  roiurier;  no 
middling  class,  no  gradation  of  rank  was  known.  On  the  one  side,  were 
one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  privileged  individuals;  on  the  other,  the 
whole  body  of  the  French  people.  All  situations  of  importance  in  the 
Church,  the  army,  the  court,  the  bench,  or  the  ranks  of  diplomacy,  were 
held  by  the  former  of  these  classes :  a  state  of  things  of  itself  sufficient  to 
produce  a  revolution  in  a  flourishing  and  populous  country. 

The  system  of  taxation  in  France  was  another  serious  grievance. 
The  nobles  and  clergy  were  exempt  from  imposts  on  the  produce  of  the 
land,  and  this  burden  therefore  fell  exclusively  arid  with  insupportable 


1789.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  3 

weight  on  the  laboring  people.  At  the  same  time,  the  peasantry  were, 
with  few  exceptions,  in  an  indigent  condition.  Their  houses  were  com- 
fortless, their  clothing  was  little  better  than  rags,  and  their  food  was  of 
the  coarsest  and  most  humble  kind.  Then,  too,  in  addition  to  the  misfor- 
tune of  an  impoverished  peasantry,  France  was  cursed  with  a  body  of 
non-resident  landholders,  who  drew  their  revenues  from  the  soil,  but  ex- 
pended them  in  the  metropolis  :  thus  depriving  the  country-people  of  that 
direct  trade  in  their  own  productions  so  essential  to  their  prosperity. 
Being  thus  deserted  by  their  natural  guardians,  and  receiving  no  benefit 
or  encouragement  from  them,  the  laboring  classes  acquired  a  discontented 
spirit,  and  were  soon  ready  to  join  those  desperate  leaders,  who  promised 
them  liberty  and  pillage  as  a  reward  for  burning  the  castles  and  murder- 
ing the  families  of  the  nobility. 

Again,  the  local  burdens  and  legal  services,  due  from  the  tenantry  to 
their  lawful  superiors,  were  to  the  last  degree  vexatious  and  oppressive. 
The  peasantry  of  France  were  almost  in  a  state  of  primitive  ignorance ; 
not  one  in  fifty  could  read,  and  the  people  in  each  province  were  una- 
ware of  what  was  passing  in  the  neighboring  provinces.  At  a  distance 
of  only  fifty  miles  from  Paris,  men  were  unacquainted  with  the  occurrence 
of  the  most  stirring  events  of  the  Revolution.  No  public  meetings  were 
held,  and  no  periodical  press  was  within  reach  to  spread  the  flame  of  dis- 
content ;  yet  the  spirit  of  resistance  gradually  became  universal  from 
Calais  to  Bayonne. 

The  royal  prerogative,  by  a  long  series  of  successful  usurpations,  had 
reached  a  degree  of  despotism  incompatible  with  rational  freedom.  The 
most  important  right  of  a  citizen,  that  of  deliberating  on  the  passing  of 
laws  and  the  granting  of  supplies,  had  fallen  into  desuetude.  For  nearly 
two  centuries  the  kings,  on  their  own  authority,  had  published  ordinances 
possessing  all  the  force  of  laws,  which  however  could  not  be  legally  sanc- 
tioned but  by  the  representatives  of  the  people.  The  right  of  approving 
these  ordinances  was  arbitrarily  transferred  to  the  Parliament  and  courts 
of  justice,  and  even  their  deliberations  were  liable  to  be  suspended  by 
the  personal  intervention  of  the  sovereign  and  infringed  by  despotic  im- 
prisonment. 

Corruption,  too,  in  its  worst  form  had  long  tainted  the  manners  of  the 
court,  as  well  as  of  the  nobility,  and  poisoned  the  sources  of  influence. 
Since  the  reign  of  the  Roman  emperors,  profligacy  had  never  been  con- 
ducted in  so  open  and  undisguised  a  manner  as  under  Louis  XV.  and  the 
regent  Orleans. 

Finally,  hopeless  embarrassment  in  the  national  finances  was  the 
immediate  cause  of  the  Revolution.  It  compelled  the  king  (Louis  XVI.) 
to  summon  the  States-General  as  the  only  means  of  avoiding  national 
bankruptcy.,  Previous  ministers  had  tried  temporary  expedients,  and 
every  other  effort — including  the  king's  voluntary  renouncement  of  his 
household  luxuries — had  been  made  to  avert  the  disaster ;  but  the  extra- 
vagant expenses  of  the  government,  combined  with  the  vast  interest  on  its 
accumulating  debt,  rendered  them  all  abortive. 

The  5th  of  May,  1789,  was  the  day  fixed  for  the  opening  of  the  States- 
General  ;  and,  strictly  speaking,  that  was  the  first  day  of  the  French 
Revolution. 

The  Assembly  was  opened  at  Versailles  with  extraordinary  pomp 
Galleries,  disposed  in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre,  were  filled  with  a  bnl- 

3* 


4  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  i. 

liant  concourse  of  spectators,  while  the  deputies  occupied  the  centre  accord- 
ing to  the  order  established  at  the  last  Convocation  in  1614.  The  clergy 
sat  on  the  right,  the  nobles  on  the  left,  the  commons  (or  Third  Estate)  in 
front,  of  the  throne.  After  the  ministers  and  deputies  had  taken  their 
places,  the  king  appeared,  followed  by  the  queen,  the  princes,  and  a  bril- 
liant suite ;  and  as  he  seated  himself  on  the  throne  amid  loud  applause, 
the  three  orders  of  the  deputies  rose  and  covered  themselves.  In  days 
past,  the  commons  remained  uncovered  and  spoke  on  their  knees  in  the 
presence  of  the  king :  their  present  spontaneous  movement  was  ominous 
of  the  subsequent  conduct  of  that  now  aspiring  body.  The  king  delivered 
his  speech  and  was  followed  by  the  minister  of  finance,  M.  Neckar ;  but 
although  both  were  listened  to  with  great  attention,  the  deputies  observed 
with  regret  that  neither  monarch  nor  minister  proposed  any  tangible  expe- 
dient for  relieving  the  pecuniary  embarrassment  which  had  called  them 
together. 

On  the  day  following,  May  6th,  1789,  the  nobles  and  the  clergy  organ- 
ized themselves  in  their  respective  chambers ;  but  the  commons,  to  whom 
on  account  of  their  numbers  the  large  hall  had  been  assigned,  waited,  or 
pretended  to  wait,  for  the  other  orders.  The  contest  was  now  openly 
begun.  The  commons  alleged  that  they  could  not  verify  their  powers 
until  they  were  joined  by  the  other  Estates ;  while  the  nobles  and  clergy 
had  already  verified  their  powers  in  their  chambers  apart,  and  were  ready 
to  begin  the  business  of  the  session.  For  several  weeks,  the  commons 
now  continued  to  meet  daily  in  the  great  hall,  waiting  vainly  for  the  ac- 
cession of  the  other  orders :  they  attempted  to  accomplish  nothing  actively, 
but  merely  trusted  to  the  negative  force  of  inactivity  to  compel  their  oppo- 
nents to  submit  to  them.  This  state  of  things  could  not  long  continue. 
The  refusal  of  the  commons  to  organize  themselves  delayed  the  public 
business  completely,  while  the  desperate  state  of  the  finances  and  the  rap- 
idly increasing  anarchy  of  the  kingdom  called  loudly  for  immediate 
measures. 

During  the  discussion  on  this  important  subject,  the  clergy,  who  wished 
to  bring  about  a  re-union  of  the  three  orders  without  openly  yielding  to 
the  commons,  sent  a  deputation  headed  by  the  Archbishop  of  Aix,  to  pro- 
pose that  a  committee  of  the  commons  should  meet  a  few  of  the  clergy 
and  nobles  in  a  private  conference  on  the  best  means  of  assuaging  the 
general  suffering.  The  commons,  who  did  not  wish  to  yield  anything,  and 
yet  knew  not  how  to  decline  this  proposition  without  compromising  them- 
selves, were  at  a  loss  what  answer  to  return,  when  a  young  man,  till 
then  unknown  to  the  assembly,  rose  and  said,  "  Go,  and  tell  your  col- 
leagues that  if  they  are  so  impatient  to  assuage  the  sufferings  of  the  poor, 
they  must  come  to  this  hall  and  unite  with  their  friends.  Tell  them  no 
longer  to  retard  our  operations  by  affected  delays :  tell  them  it  is  vain  to 
employ  such  stratagems  as  this  to  change  our  firm  resolutions.  Rather  let 
them,  as  worthy  imitators  of  their  master,  renounce  a  luxury  which  con- 
sumes the  funds  of  indigence  ;  dismiss  the  insolent  lacqueys  who  attend 
them  ;  sell  their  superb  equipages,  and  convert  these  vile  superfluities  into 
aliment  for  the  poor !"  At  this  speech,  which  so  clearly  expressed  the 
passions  of  the  moment,  a  confused  murmur  of  applause  ran  through  the 
assembly,  and  every  one  asked  who  was  the  young  deputy  who  had  so 
happily  given  vent  to  the  public  feeling.  His  name  afterwards  made 
every  man  in  France  tremble  :  it  was  MAXIMILIAN  ROBESPIERRE. 


.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  6 

At  this  crisis,  the  measures  of  the  court  were  marked  with  a  fatal  racil- 
lation.  Neckar  lacked  resolution  to  carry  through  the  only  plan  that 
promised  security — that  of  uniting  the  nobles  and  clergy  in  one  chamber, 
and  the  commons  in  another.  He  did  not  venture  to  propose  this  to  the 
commons,  because  it  would  have  endangered  his  own  popularity,  or  to 
press  it  on  the  king,  because  he  would  doubtless  have  refused  it.  Thus, 
by  wishing  to  avoid  a  rupture  with  either  party,  he  lost  the  confidence  of 
both,  and  pursued  that  temporizing  policy,  which  in  civil  convulsions  is 
always  ruinous. 

Meanwhile,  the  pretensions  of  the  commons  hourly  increased  with  the 
indecision  of  their  adversaries.  They  no  longer  debated  whether  they 
should  organize  themselves  as  the  representatives  of  the  nation ;  they 
merely  hesitated  as  to  what  title  they  should  assume.  The  discussion 
lasted  till  past  midnight,  and,  atone  o'clock  in  the  morning,  they  resolved 
by  a  vote  of  491  to  90,  to  assume  the  title  of  NATIONAL  ASSEMBLY.  They 
announced  the  result  to  the  other  orders,  and  assured  them  that  they 
should  proceed  to  business  with  or  without  their  concurrence.  Their  next 
step  was  to  declare  all  imposts  illegal,  except  those  voted  by  themselves 
or  during  the  period  when  they  were  sitting.  They  then  proceeded  to 
consolidate  the  public  debt  and  appoint  a  committee  to  watch  over  the 
public  subsistence. 

No  language  can  describe  the  enthusiasm,  which  these  decisive  meas- 
ure's excited  throughout  all  France.  "A  single  day,"  it  was  said,  "has 
destroyed  eight  hundred  years  of  prejudice  and  slavery."  But  the  more 
thoughtful  trembled  at  the  consequences  of  such  gigantic  steps. 

At  length,  on  the  23rd  of  June,  the  king  seated  himself  on  the  throne, 
surrounded  by  his  guards  and  attended  by  the  pomp  of  monarchy.  He 
was  received  in  sullen  silence.  He  commenced  his  speech  by  condemn- 
ing the  commons  and  lamenting  the  spirit  of  faction  they  evinced.  His 
declarations  followed ;  prescribing,  first,  the  form  of  the  meeting  of  the 
Estates,  and  requiring  their  deliberations  to  be  held  with  closed  doors; 
and,  in  the  second  place,  setting  forth  an  exposition  of  the  rights  which  the 
monarch  conceded  to  his  people.  These  in  fact  contained  the  whole  ele- 
ments of  rational  freedom.  But  the  concessions  which  are  made  under 
compulsion  never  satisfy  those  whom  they  are  intended  to  conciliate,  and 
the  multitude  are  never  less  reasonable  than  on  the  first  acquisition  of 
power. 

On  the  following  day,  the  Duke  of  Orleans  and  forty-six  of  the  nobility 
went  over  to  the  commons ;  when  the  king,  seeing  that  opposition  was 
fruitless,  desired  the  clergy  and  the  remainder  of  the  nobility  also  to  join 
them.  The  nobles  made  an  energetic  remonstrance,  and  foretold  the  fatal 
effects  of  immersing  themselves  in  a  body  where  their  own  numbers  would 
be  so  inconsiderable,  compared  to  those  of  their  opponents :  they  at  length 
yielded,  however,  and  were  speedily  lost  in  an  overwhelming  majority. 

The  king  was  not  long  in  discovering  his  error  and  endeavored  to  atone 
by  rashness  for  the  results  of  imprudence.  The  palace  of  Versailles 
was  thrown  open  to  the  officers  of  the  army  and  the  young  nobility,  who  by 
their  declamation  soon  persuaded  the  court  that  they  still  had  the  power 
to  control  the  people.  The  king  therefore  changed  his  ministry,  and  not 
only  dismissed  M.  Neckar,  but  gave  him  an  order  to  quit  the  kingdom : 
an  order  that  was  instantly  and  silently  obeyed. 

As  soon  as  this  intelligence  transpired,  Paris  was  thrown  into  the  utmost 


6  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [Cnxp.  L 

consternation.  Fury  succeeded  to  alarm ;  the  theatres  were  closed ;  the 
Palais-Royal  resounded  with  the  cry  of  "  To  arms !"  and  a  leader,  after- 
ward distinguished,  Camille  Desmoulins,  armed  with  pistols,  gave  the  sig- 
nal for  insurrection  by  breaking  a  twig  from  a  tree  in  the  gardens  and 
placing  it  in  his  hat.  His  example  was  followed  by  the  crowd  and  the 
trees  were  stripped  of  their  foliage.  "Citizens,"  said  Desmoulins,  "the 
moment  for  action  has  arrived ;  the  dismissal  of  M.  Neckar  is  the  signal 
for  a  St.  Bartholomew  of  the  patriots ;  this  very  evening,  the  Swiss  and 
German  battalions  will  issue  from  the  Champ  de  Mars  to  massacre  us ; 
our  only  resource  is  to  fly  to  arms."  The  crowd  unanimously  adopted 
his  proposal,  and  marched  through  the  streets  bearing  in  triumph  busts  of 
M.  Neckar  and  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans.  At  first,  they  were  charged  by 
a  German  regiment  which  was  put  to  flight  by  a  shower  of  stones ;  but 
the  dragoons  of  Prince  Lamberc  coming  up  soon  after,  they  were  dis- 
persed, and  the  bearer  of  one  of  the  busts  and  a  soldier  of  the  French  guard 
were  killed.  This  was  the  first  blood  shed  in  the  Revolution. 

In  this  extremity,  the  measures  of  the  court  were  calculated  neither  to 
conciliate  nor  overawe ;  though  the  latter  was  attempted,  since  a  part  of  the 
troops  were  withdrawn  to  Versailles  where  the  assembly  was  sitting.  It 
seemed  as  if  the  government  were  intent  on  intimidating  that  body,  with- 
out considering  the  power  of  the  popular  insurrection  at  Paris. 

During  the  absence  of  the  military,  the  tumults  of  Paris  rose  to  an 
unexampled  height.  Immense  bodies  of  workmen  assembled  together, 
and,  being  joined  by  the  guards,  broke  open  the  arsenals  and  gun- 
smiths' shops,  distributed  the  arms  among  their  adherents,  burned  sev- 
eral houses  and  forced  open  the  barriers,  which  had  been  closed  by 
order  of  the  king.  The  Hotel  des  Invalides  was  taken  by  the  aid  of  the 
veterans  who  inhabited  it,  and  within  sight  of  the  Ecole  Militaire  where 
the  troops  of  the  line  were  stationed.  No  less  than  twenty  thousand 
muskets  and  twenty  pieces  of  cannon  were  seized  and  given  out  to  the 
insurgents.  The  Place  de  Greve  was  converted  into  a  vast  depot  of 
arms ;  at  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  a  committee  was  appointed  which  rapidly 
organized  an  insurrectionary  force ;  fifty  thousand  pikes  were  forged  and 
distributed  among  the  people,  and  it  was  determined  that  the  armed  force 
should  be  raised  to  forty-eight  thousand  men.  This  was  the  commence- 
ment of  the  National  Guard  of  Paris,  a  body  which  was  of  essential 
service,  sometimes  for  good,  sometimes  for  evil,  during  the  Revolution. 

On  the  morning  of  the  14th  of  July,  intelligence  was  spread  that  the 
royal  troops  stationed  at  St.  Denis  were  marching  on  the  capital,  and  that 
the  cannon  of  the  Bastile  were  pointed  down  the  street  St.  Antoine.  The 
cry  immediately  arose,  "  To  the  Bastile !"  and  the  waves  of  the  tumult 
began  to  roll  in  that  direction.  This  fortress  was  well  provided  with 
artillery,  but  it  was  almost  destitute  of  food,  and  its  garrison  consisted 
of  but  eighty  invalids  and  thirty  soldiers  of  the  Swiss  guard.  When 
the  insurgents  arrived,  a  part  of  their  number  was  admitted  within  the 
first  drawbridge  to  parley  with  the  garrison,  and  they  began,  during  the 
conference,  to  escalade  the  inner  walls ;  upon  which  the  governor  of  the 
Bastile  gave  orders  to  fire.  Fearful,  however,  of  the  effect  of  grape-shot 
on  the  dense  masses,  he  at  first  directed  the  discharge  of  musketry  only, 
which  repelled  the  leaders,  and  the  mob  fell  back  in  confusion.  But  the 
arrival  of  the  disaffected  French  guard  with  artillery  soon  changed  the 
scene.  These  men  intrepidly  sustained  the  fire  of  the  fortress,  which 


1789.]  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  7 

now  discharged  grape-shot,  and  they  began  to  batter  the  walls  in  return, 
while  the  people  in  the  adjoining  houses  plied  the  garrison  with  musketry. 
At  this  juncture,  either  by  accident  or  design,  the  chain  that  suspended 
the  inner  drawbridge  was  cut,  and  the  bridge  fell.  The  assailants  rushed 
in,  and  the  garrison,  seeing  that  further  resistance  was  hopeless,  hoisted 
the  white  flag  and  threw  down  their  arms. 

The  consequences  of  this  insurrection  were  immense.  The  lower 
orders  throughout  the  provinces  of  France,  in  imitation  of  the  capital, 
organized  themselves  into  independent  bodies,  and  established  National 
Guards  for  their  protection.  Three  hundred  thousand  men  were  in  this 
manner  speedily  enrolled  for  the  popular  party,  and  the  influence  of  the 
government,  as  well  as  the  power  of  the  sword,  passed  into  the  hands  of 
the  people. 

Paris,  meantime,  was  in  the  last  degree  of  confusion.  The  disorder 
arising  from  many  co-existing  authorities  rendered  the  supply  of  provi- 
sions precarious,  and  the  utmost  exertions  of  the  municipality  were  requi- 
site to  prevent  the  poorer  inhabitants  from  dying  of  famine  in  the  streets. 
The  more  violent  of  the  people  assembled  in  mobs,  and  surrounded  the 
bakers'  shops  and  depots  of  provisions,  clamoring  for  food.  An  attack  ou 
the  palace  of  Versailles  was  openly  discussed  in  the  clubs  and  recom- 
mended by  the  orators  of  the  Palais  Royal ;  until  the  court  deemed  it 
indispensable  to  provide  for  their  own  security  by  ordering  to  Versailles 
an  additional  number  of  troops.  This  movement,  together  with  the  feast 
given  to  the  new-comers  by  the  regiments  already  quartered  there,  was 
magnified  into  a  new  cause  of  offence  by  the  Parisian  rabble.  The  cry 
arose,  "To  Versailles!"  and  a  motley  multitude  of  drunken  men  ana 
women,  armed  and  unarmed,  set  out  in  that  direction.  The  National 
Guard,  which  had  assembled  on  the  first  appearance  of  disorder,  impa- 
tiently demanded  to  follow ;  and  although  their  commander,  LA  FAYETTE, 
exerted  his  utmost  influence  to  detain  them,  he  was  at  length  compelled 
to  yield,  and  the  whole  armed  force  of  Paris  set  out  for  Versailles. 

The  members  of  the  Assembly  and  the  inhabitants  of  Versailles,  though 
less  violently  excited,  were  also  in  an  alarming  mood.  No  one,  however, 
anticipated  immediate  danger.  The  king  was  out  at  a  hunting-party  and 
the  Assembly  were  about  to  break  up  for  the  day,  when  the  forerunners 
of  the  disorderly  multitude  from  Paris  began  to  appear  in  the  streets.  At 
the  first  intimation  of  the  disturbance  the  king  hastened  to  the  town.  He 
found  the  gates  of  the  courtyard  of  the  palace  closed,  and  his  own  troops 
drawn  up  within  the  inclosure  facing  the  crowd;  while  without,  was 
assembled  an  immense  body  of  the  National  Guard,  with  armed  men  and 
furious  women  uttering  seditious  cries  and  fiercely  demanding  bread.  A 
heavy  rain  soon  began  to  fall,  however;  and  this  so  well  seconded  the 
efforts  of  La  Fayette  to  pacify  the  multitude,  that  not  long  after  midnight 
comparative.order  was  restored.  Indeed,  La  Fayette  had  at  that  time  an 
interview  with  the  royal  family,  when  he  assured  them  of  the  security 
of  the  palace;  and  unfortunately  he  was  himself  so  far  convinced  of  the 
pacific  disposition  of  his  soldiers,  that  he  repaired  to  a  chateau  at  some 
distance  from  the  palace  and  retired  to  sleep. 

But,  at  six  o'clock  on  the  following  morning,  a  furious  mob  surrounded 
the  barracks  of  the  royal  body-guard,  broke  them  open,  and  pursued  the 
inmates  to  the  gates  of  the  palace,  where  fifteen  of  them  were  seized  and 
doomed  to  immediate  execution.  Another  mob  besieged  the  avenues  to 

u 


8  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  [CHAP.  1, 

the  palace,  rushed  in  at  an  open  gate  and  speedily  filled  the  staircase 
and  vestibules  of  the  royal  apartments.  Two  of  the  body-guard,  posted 
at  the  head  of  the  stair,  made  the  most  heroic  resistance  and  gave  the 
queen  time  to  escape  into  the  apartment  of  the  king.  The  assassins 
rushed  into  her  room  a  few  moments  after  she  had  left  it,  and,  enraged  at 
finding  their  victim  fled,  pierced  her  bed  with  their  bayonets. 

General  La  Fayette,  at  the  first  alarm,  threw  himself  on  his  horse  anc* 
hastened  to  the  spot.  He  made  an  impassioned  harangue  to  the  grenadiers 
and  succeeded  in  prevailing  on  them  to  stay  the  fury  of  the  mob.  The 
leaders  of  the  tumult,  being  so  far  foiled,  determined  nevertheless  to  derive 
some  advantage  from  their  success,  by  forcing  the  king  and  royal  family 
to  accompany  them  to  Paris.  It  was  not  deemed  prudent  to  resist  this 
demand ;  and  the  Assembly  hastily  passed  a  resolution  that  they  were 
inseparable  from  the  king  and  would  accompany  him  to  the  capital,  there 
to  hold  their  future  sessions.  Thus  the  democratic  party  achieved  a  pro- 
digious  victory,  by  having  both  branches  of  the  legislature  transferred  to 
Paris,  where  their  own  influence  was  irresistible.  The  royal  party  set 
forth  at  noon  on  the  8th  of  October,  in  the  midst  of  the  disorderly  multi- 
tude, who  did  not  cease  to  insult  and  revile  them  during  the  whole  of  that 
painful  journey  (prolonged  by  various  impediments  through  seven  hours,) 
at  the  end  of  which  they  were  conducted  to  the  palace  of  the  Tuileries. 

Thus  terminated  the  first  era  of  the  Revolution.  Five  months  only 
had  elapsed  since  the  meeting  of  the  States- General ;  and  during  that 
time  not  only  the  power  of  the  sovereign  had  been  overthrown,  but  the 
very  structure  of  society  changed ;  and  the  king  after  having  narrowly 
escaped  being  murdered  in  his  own  palace  was  now  a  captive,  surrounded 
by  perils  in  the  midst  of  his  capital. 

The  first  legislative  measures  of  the  Assembly  after  removing  to  Paris, 
were  intended  to  appease  the  rising  jealousy  of  the  provinces.  These 
little  states,  finding  their  rights  and  importance  extinguished  by  the  fast 
increasing  sovereignty  of  the  National  Assembly,  were  in  some  instances 
taking  steps  to  counteract  its  influence.  To  meet  the  emergency,  the 
kingdom  was  divided  into  eighty-four  departments ;  each  department 
was  subdivided  into  districts,  and  each  district  into  cantons.  A  criminal 
tribunal  was  established  for  each  department ;  a  civil  court  for  each 
district ;  a  court  of  reference  for  each  canton :  and  it  resulted  from  the 
further  legislation  on  this  subject  that  the  whole  force  of  the  kingdom  was 
placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  lower  orders.  By  the  nomination  of  munici- 
palities, they  had  the  government  of  the  towns  ;  by  the  command  of  the 
armed  force,  the  control  of  the  military ;  by  the  elections  in  the  depart- 
ments, the  appointment  of  the  deputies  to  the  Assembly,  of  the  judges  to 
the  courts  of  law,  of  the  bishops  to  the  Church,  and  of  the  officers  to  tha 
National  Guard  ;  by  the  elections  in  the  cantons,  the  nomination  of  magis- 
trates  and  local  representatives.  Everything,  either  directly  or  by  the 
intervention  of  a  double  election,  flowed  from  the  people ;  and  the  quali- 
fication for  voting  was  so  low  as,  practically,  to  admit  almost  every  able- 
bodied  man.  With  so  complete  a  democratic  constitution,  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that,  during  all  the  subsequent  changes  of  the  Revolution,  the 
popular  party  should  have  acquired  so  irresistible  a  power,  and  that,  in 
almost  every  part  of  France,  the  persons  in  authority  should  be  found 
supporting  the  multitude,  on  whom  they  depended  for  political  existence. 
.  The  finances  next  occupied  the  attention  of  the  Assembly,  and  it  was 


1790.J  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  9 

high  time.  The  nation  was  subsisting  entirely  on  borrowed  money,  and 
the  public  debt  had  increased  during  the  last  three  years  no  less  than 
1,200,000,000  francs,  or  nearly  two  hundred  and  fifty  millions  of  dollars. 
In  this  emergency,  the  property  of  the  Church  was  the  first  that  came  to 
hand,  and  it  was,  without  the  slightest  scruple,  sacrificed  to  the  public 
necessities.  The  Church  lands  were  nearly  one-half  of  the  whole  landed 
property  of  the  kingdom,  and  their  value  was  estimated  at  several  thousand 
millions  of  francs. 

This  violent  measure  led  to  another  which  in  the  end  proved  even  more 
disastrous.  The  present  necessities  of  the  state  required  the  sale  of  a 
portion  of  the  ecclesiastical  property  to  the  amount  of  400,000,000  francs, 
(or  about  eighty  millions  of  dollars  ;)  and  to  facilitate  the  transaction,  the 
municipalities  of  Paris  and  other  cities  became  the  purchasers  in  the  first 
instance,  and  they  relied  for  reimbursement  on  the  subsequent  sale  of  the 
property,  in  detached  portions,  to  individuals.  But  a  difficulty  arose  in 
finding  a  circulating  medium  in  sufficient  quantity  to  discharge  the  price 
of  so  extensive  a  purchase  before  the  secondary  sales  were  effected ;  and 
the  difficulty  was  met  by  issuing  the  promissory  notes  of  the  several  mu- 
nicipalities to  the  government  in  exchange  for  their  land  ;  these  notes 
passed  current  as  money  until  they  severally  came  to  maturity.  When 
that  period  arrived,  however,  the  original  difficulty  recurred  ;  there  was 
no  medium  with  which  to  discharge  the  notes ;  arid  at  length  recourse 
was  had  to  an  issue  of  government  bills,  which  should  bear  a  legal  value 
and  pass  for  money  from  one  end  of  the  kingdom  to  the  other.  The 
issue  of  these  bills  soon  superseded  the  necessity  of  sales  of  confiscated 
property  ;  for  the  government  retained  the  domains  in  its  own  control  as 
a  security  for  its  bills,  which  were  thereafter  made  as  they  were  wanted, 
and  eventually  issued  in  such  prodigious  amounts  as  forbade  all  hopes  of 
their  ever  being  redeemed.  Thus  arose  the  system  of  ASSIGN  ATS,  the 
source  of  more  public  strength  and  private  suffering  than  any  other 
measure  in  the  Revolution. 

Month  after  month  the  Assembly  continued  to  sit,  and  almost  every  new 
act  of  their  legislation  tended  to  the  more  complete  ruin  as  well  of  what 
was  vicious  as  of  what  was  good  and  venerable  in  the  ancient  constitution 
and  social  organization  of  France.  Meantime,  as  it  was-  evident  to  all 
reflecting  minds  that  greater  atrocities  were  yet  to  be  enacted,  and  that, 
for  the  present,  all  legitimate  government  was  at  an  end,  the  king  made 
two  unsuccessful  attempts  to  escape  from  Paris ;  and  the  nobility  began 
to  emigrate  in  large  numbers  to  Coblentz.  In  fact,  the  resolution  to  depart 
became  so  general,  that  the  roads  leading  to  the  Rhine  were  crowded 
with  the  elegant  equipages  of  noble  families,  who  did  not,  as  in  the  time 
of  the  Crusades,  sell  their  estates,  but  abandoned  them  in  the  hope  that 
they  might  soon  regain  them  by  the  sword.  Vain  hope !  The  Assembly, 
in  due  time,  confiscated  their  property,  the  republican  armies  vanquished 
their  battalions,  and  their  inheritances  were  lost  for  ever. 

At  length,  on  the  29th  of  September,  1791,  after  having  adopted  a  consti- 
tution which  vested  some  nominal  authority  in  the  king  and  placed  all  the 
real  power  in  the  hands  of  the  people,  the  National  Assembly  closed  its 
iittings ;  leaving  the  future  conduct  of  the  government  to  a  Legislative 
Assembly  who  had  just  been  elected  on  the  basis  of  a  universal  suffrage. 


CHAPTER    II. 

FROM  TTJE  CPENTNG  OF  THE  LEGISLATIVE  ASSEMBLY  TO  THE  DEATH  OF  LOUIS. 

THE  members  of  the  Legislative  Assembly — in  the  formation  of  which 
not  only  was  almost  every  man  entitled  to  a  vote,  but  was  also  eligible 
to  election — were,  probably,  the  most  motley  group  that  ever  undertook 
to  regulate  the  affairs  of  a  large  and  powerful  country.  Not  fifty  of  the 
whole  number  were  possessed  of  twenty-five  hundred  francs  (five  hun- 
dred dollars)  a  year.  They  were  composed  chiefly  of  presumptuous  and 
half  educated  young  men,  clerks  in  counting-houses,  and  attorneys  from 
the  provincial  towns  who  had  risen  to  notice  during  the  absence  of  all 
persons  of  wealth,  and  recommended  themselves  to  attention  by  the  ve- 
hemence with  which  they  proclaimed  the  principles  of  democracy.  In 
many  instances  they  had  talent  enough  to  be  dangerous,  without  knowl- 
edge enough  to  guide  or  property  enough  to  check  their  ambition.  If  a 
demon  were  to  select  a  body  of  men  qualified  to  consign  a  country  to  per- 
dition, he  could  not  choose  more  efficient  colleagues. 

The  new  Assembly  opened  its  sittings  on  the  1st  of  October,  1791.  Its 
members  divided  themselves  into  three  parties ;  the  Feuillants,  or  friends 
of  the  Constitution,  who  had  for  leaders  Lameth,  Barnave,  Duport,  Damas 
and  Vaublanc  ;  the  Girondists  or  republicans,  led  by  Vergniaud,  Guadet, 
Gensonne,  Isnard,  and  Brissot ;  and  the  Jacobins,  or  ultra  revolutionists, 
led  by  Chabot,  Bazire  and  Merlin.  The  real  influence  of  the  latter  party, 
however,  was  to  be  found  in  the  Jacobin  clubs  throughout  Paris,  where 
Robespierre,  Danton  and  others  held  absolute  sway. 

The  first  acts  of  the  new  Assembly  were  directed  against  the  clergy  and 
the  emigrants.  The  clergy  having  been  already  despoiled  of  their  posses- 
sions, were  now  required  to  take  the  oath  to  the  Constitution,  which  cur- 
tailed their  salaries  to  a  mere  pittance  and  ordered  them  to  be  moved  from 
place  to  place,  so  that  they  could  acquire  no  influence  over  their  peo- 
ple ;  forbidding  them,  also,  to  exercise  any  religious  rites  in  private.  The 
emigrants,  were  condemned  to  death  and  their  estates  to  confiscation,  un- 
less they  returned  to  France  before  the  first  of  January,  1792.  The 
king  refused  to  sign  these  acts,  but  as  he  had  already  openly  disapproved 
of  the  emigration,  he  issued  a  proclamation  recalling  the  absentees.  In 
this,  as  in  almost  all  his  acts,  he  gave  dissatisfaction  and  offence  to  every 
party. 

The  Assembly  were  mere  successful  in  persuading  the  king,  though 
much  against  his  will,  to  declare  war  against  Hungary  and  Bohemia. 
This  step,  which  was  taken  on  the  20th  of  April,  1792,  was  popular  with 
all  parties.  The  Royalists  hoped  that  the  German  powers  might  prevail, 
and  by  overturning  the  revolutionary  authority,  reinstate  the  king ;  the 
Constitutionalists,  seeing  their  own  consequence  on  the  wane,  hoped  to 
regain  it  through  the  influence  of  the  army ;  and  the  Jacobins  longed  for 
the  tumult  and  excitement  of  campaigns,  from  which  they  felt  confident 
in  some  way  of  reaping  substantial  advantage.  Thus  commenced  tho 
greatest,  the  most  oloody,  and  the  most  eventful  war  which  has  agitated 
mankind  since  the  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire.  It  rose  from  feeble  be- 
ginnings, but  it  finally  enveloped  the  world  in  its  commotion. 


17$ 

1 


1792.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  1] 

The  intelligence  of  the  declaration  of  war  was  received  with  joy  by  all 
the  people  of  France.  It  communicated  a  new  impulse  to  the  public 
mind,  already  so  excited.  Addresses  to  the  Assembly  came  in  from  every 
municipality,  congratulating  them  on  having  vindicated  the  national 
honor ;  arms  were  prepared,  gifts  provided,  and  the  nation  seemed  impa- 
tient to  receive  its  invaders.  But  such  displays  of  patriotism,  how  strong 
soever  as  auxiliary  to  military  discipline,  are  seldom  able  to  supply  its 
place.  The  first  encounters  with  the  enemy  were  all  unsuccessful  to  the 
French  arms,  and  it  more  than  once  appeared  in  the  sequel  that,  had  the 
allies  acted  with  decision  and  pressed  on  to  Paris  before  military  experi- 
ence had  been  added  to  the  enthusiasm  of  the  French,  the  war  might  have 
been  terminated  by.  a  single  campaign.  These  disasters  to  the  armies 
produced  the  utmost  consternation  in  Paris  :  each  party  accused  the  others 
of  treachery,  and  general  distrust  and  recrimination  prevailed.  The 
Assembly  took  the  most  energetic  measures  for  ensuring  their  own  au- 
thority and  the  public  safety.  They  declared  their  sittings  permanent, 
disbanded  the  guard  of  the  king,  and  exiled  the  refractory  clergy.  To 
secure  the  capital  from  insult,  they  directed  the  formation  of  a  camp  of 
twenty  thousand  men  near  Paris,  and  sought  to  maintain  the  enthusiasm 
of  the  people  by  a  series  of  revolutionary  fetes. 

The  evident  peril  of  the  king  now  aroused  him  to  more  than  usual  vigor  ; 
but  his  measures  still  lacked  that  judgment  which  is  essential  to  efficient 
exertion.  On  pretexts  comparatively  frivolous,  he  estra'nged  himself  from 
the  Girondists,  who  in  many  respects  were  well  disposed  toward  him,  and 
he  dismissed  the  three  ministers  on  whom  he  could  best  have  relied.  The 
Girondists,  chagrined  at  these  proceedings,  and  fearful  of  the  increasing 
power  of  the  Jacobins,  planned  a  general  insurrection.  On  the  20th  of 
June,  a  tumultuous  body  ten  thousand  strong,  under  direction  of  the  Giron- 
dists, made  their  way  to  the  doors  of  the  Assembly  with  a  petition  for  the 
total  destruction  of  the  Executive  power.  The  hall  was  next  thrown  open, 
and  the  mob,  now  increased  to  thirty  thousand  men,  women  and  children, 
passed  through  in  procession  uttering  furious  cries  and  displaying  seditious 
banners.  They  next  proceeded  to  the  palace,  the  outer  gates  of  which 
were  left  open.  They  immediately  broke  into  the  garden,  thronged  the 
staircase  and  entered  the  royal  apartments,  where  Louis  stood  sur- 
rounded by  a  few  attendants.  The  foremost  of  the  crowd,  overawed  by  his 
presence,  made  an  involuntary  pause ;  but  the  mass  behind  pressed  on- 
ward, and  the  king  was  soon  jostled  and  in  imminent  danger,  from  which 
his  attendants  with  great  difficulty  rescued  him,  not  however  until  he  had 
received  numberless  personal  indignities  from  the  mob.  This  outbreak  at 
last  terminated  without  bloodshed,  but  its  occurrence  showed  the  desperate 
condition  of  the  capital. 

The  court  had  now  no  hope  but  in  the  approach  of  the  allies,  who,  un- 
der the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  had  just  entered  the  territories  of  France. 
The  allied  army  consisted  of  fifty  thousand  Prussians  and  sixty-five  thou- 
sand Austrians  and  Hessians.  The  Duke  issued  a  proclamation,  in  which 
he  warned  the  Assembly  that  if  they  did  not  forthwith  liberate  the  king 
and  return  to  their  allegiance,  they  should  forfeit  their  heads,  and  if  the 
slightest  insult  were  again  offered  to  the  royal  family  an  exemplary  pun- 
ish mont  should  be  inflicted  by  the  total  destruction  of  the  city  of  Paris. 
The  effect  of  this  manifesto  was,  in  every  particular,  unfortunate ;  for,  from 
the  distance  of  the  invaders  at  the  time  of  its  promulgation,  it  roused  the 

4 


12  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  II 

people  to  resistance,  instead  of  overawing  them ;  and,  being  regarded  as  a 
disclosure  of  the  ulterior  designs  of  the  king,  it  furnished  a  pretext  to  the 
Assembly  and  the  populace  for  yet  more  violent  proceedings  against  the 
whole  royal  family. 

As  it  was  evident  that  some  new  outrage  was  contemplated,  the  king 
made  preparations  to  defend  the  palace.  His  chief  reliance  was  on  the 
Swiss  guard,  of  whom  he  could  assemble  about  eight  hundred  men.  In 
addition  to  these,  some  detachments  of  the  National  Guard  who  were 
believed  to  be  faithful  occupied  the  court  of  the  Tuileries,  and  some  hun- 
dreds of  Royalists,  chiefly  of  noble  families,  were  scattered  through  the 
palace.  On  the  other  hand,  the  insurgents,  organized  by  Danton  and 
Robespierre,  were  assembled  in  great  force  and  well  supplied  with  artil- 
lery. The  first  assault  was  nobly  repelled  by  the  Swiss;  but,  as  they 
were  unsupported  by  the  National  Guard  and  unable  from  the  smallness 
of  their  numbers  to  follow  up  their  advantage,  they  were  eventually  over- 
thrown and  massacred  almost  to  a  man.  Thus  in  this  last  extremity,  it 
was  neither  in  his  titled  nobility  nor  his  native  soldiers  that  the  French 
king  found  fidelity,  but  in  the  free-born  mountaineers  of  Lucerne,  un- 
stained by  the  vices  of  a  corrupt  age  and  firm  in  the  simplicity  of  rural 
virtue.  These  events  took  place  on  the  10th  of  August,  1792,  and  they 
were  immediately  followed  by  a  decree  of  the  Assembly  suspending  the 
king,  dismissing  the  ministers,  and  directing  the  instant  formation  of  a 
National  Convention.  On  the  13th  of  August,  the  royal  family  were 
removed  to  the  Temple  and  confined  as  state  prisoners. 

The  victory  over  the  throne  on  the  10th  of  August  was  followed  by 
the  submission  to  the  ruling  party  of  all  the  departments  of  France.  But 
the  intelligence  had  at  first  a  different  reception  at  the  head-quarters  of 
La  Fayette's  army,  then  stationed  at  Sedan.  The  officers  and  men 
appeared  to  share  the  consternation  of  their  leader,  and  even  renewed 
their  oath  of  fidelity  to  the  constitutional  throne ;  but  the  period  had  not 
arrived  when  soldiers,  accustomed  to  look  only  to  their  chief,  were  pre- 
pared at  his  command  to  defy  the  authority  of  the  legislature.  In  fact, 
La  Fayette  soon  found  that  he  had  prematurely  compromitted  himself 
and  was  forced  to  flee  from  the  army,  whence  he  intended  to  escape  to 
America;  but  he  was  arrested  near  the  frontier  by  the  Austrians  and 
conducted  to  the  dungeons  of  Olmutz.  He  was  offered  his  liberty  on 
condition  of  making  certain  recantations  of  opinions  maintained  by  him 
in  the  earlier  stages  of  the  Revolution  concerning  a  modification  of  the 
royal  prerogative  and  in  favor  of  a  constitutional  throne :  but  he  preferred 
enduring  four  years  of  rigorous  confinement  to  receding  in  any  particular 
from  the  principles  he  had  embraced.  The  Assembly  declared  him  a 
traitor  and  set  a  price  on  his  head,  and  the  first  leader  of  the  Revolution 
owed  his  life  to  imprisonment  in  an  Austrian  fortress. 

Meanwhile,  the  principal  powers  of  the  French  government  fell  into 
the  hands  of  Danton,  Marat  and  Robespierre,  well  designated  "the  Infer- 
nal Triumvirate;"  and  their  influence  was  speedily  felt  in  the  measures 
adopted  by  the  municipality  of  Paris. 

Their  first  demand  on  the  Assembly  was  for  the  appointment  of  a 
Revolutionary  Tribunal,  which,  by  being  invested  with  the  power  to 
pronounce  sentence  of  death  without  appeal,  would  be  able  to  take  sum- 
mary vengeance  on  all  concerned  in  the  defence  of  the  palace  on  the  10th 
of  August,  on  which  occasion  so  many  of  "the  people"  were  slain.  Tha 


1792.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  13 

Assembly  strove  to  resist  this  sanguinary  demand,  but  they  were  forced 
to  submit. 

On  the  29th  of  August,  the  barriers  of  Paris  were  closed  and  remained 
shut  for  forty-eight  hours,  so  that  all  escape  from  the  city  was  impossible; 
arid  domiciliary  visits  through  every  quarter  of  the  town  supported  by  a 
large  military  force  were  then  made  by  order  of  the  Tribunal.  Several 
thousands  of  all  ranks  were  arrested,  but  the  victims  were  selected  chiefly 
from  the  nobles  and  dissident  clergy.  Dar.ton  now  directed  the  opera- 
tions of  the  tribunal  and  prepared  lists  of  proscription  which  ho  distributed 
to  his  functionaries.  Early  in  the  morning  of  the  2nd  of  September  a  band 
of  three  hundred  assassins,  directed  and  paid  by  the  magistrates,  assembled 
around  the  doors  of  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  where  they  were  plied  with  ardent 
spirits  and  furnished  with  final  instructions. 

The  prison  of  the  Abbaye  was  the  first  to  be  visited.  Four-and-twenty 
priests,  put  under  arrest  for  refusing  to  take  the  new  oath,  were  at  the 
time  in  custody  at  the  Hotel  de  Ville.  They  were  now  placed  in  six 
coaches  and  conducted  to  the  Abbaye  amid  the  yells  and  execrations  of 
the  mob ;  and  the  moment  they  arrived,  they  were  dragged  out  from  the 
carriages  into  the  inner  court  of  the  prison,  and  there  butchered.  The 
cries  of  these  victims  first  announced  to  the  prisoners  within  the  fate  that 
awaited  themselves.  A  tribunal  was  convened  in  an  adjoining  dungeon, 
over  which  Maillard  presided  by  torch-light.  He  had  a  drawn  sabre 
before  him,  his  robes  were  drenched  in  blood,  and  officers  with  drawn 
swords  and  blood-stained  shirts  surrounded  his  chair.  Reding,  one  of  the 
Swiss  guards,  was  first  summoned  to  appear  before  this  tribunal ;  but, 
while  he  was  passing  through  the  court,  the  impatient  populace  assailed 
him  with  knives,  and  he  fell  dead  before  he  reached  his  judges.  Others 
were  successively  called  for.  A  few  minutes,  and  often  a  few  seconds, 
sufficed  for  the  trial  of  each  individual,  when  he  was  turned  out  to  the 
vengeance  of  the  multitude  who  thronged  around  the  door  with  knives 
and  sabres,  panting  for  blood  and  loudly  demanding  a  more  rapid  supply 
of  victims.  Immured  in  the  upper  wards  of  the  building,  the  other 
prisoners  witnessed  with  agony  the  prolonged  sufferings  of  their  comrades, 
and  some  had  the  presence  of  mind  to  observe  in  what  manner  the  victims 
soonest  met  death,  in  order  that,  when  their  turn  came,  they  might  shorten 
their  own  sufferings  by  avoiding  useless  struggles. 

After  this  butchery  "had  proceeded  for  some  time,  the  populace  in  the 
more  remote  part  of  the  court  of  the  prison  complained  that  those  only 
who  were  nearest  the  dungeon  of  the  tribunal  could  cut  down  the  prison- 
ers, while  they  were  deprived  of  the  privilege  of  shedding  aristocratic  blood. 
It  was  therefore  stipulated,  that  those  in  advance  should  strike  the  con- 
demned with  the  backs  of  their  sabres,  so  that  the  victims  might  be  made 
to  run  the  gauntlet  through  a  long  avenue  of  murderers  before  they  were 
finally  struck  down.  The  women  in  the  adjoining  quarter  of  the  town 
made  a  formal  demand  to  the  tribunal  to  be  admitted  as  spectators  of  this 
scene  of  blood ;  accordingly,  benches  were  arranged,  under  charge  of 
sentinels,  for  their  accommodation.  As  each  prisoner  was  successively 
turned  into  the  court,  a  yell  of  joy  arose  from  the  multitude  ;  and  when 
he  fell,  they  danced  like  cannibal's  around  his  remains.  In  the  midst  of 
the  massacre,  Mademoiselle  de  Sombrieul,  a  beautiful  girl  of  eighteen, 
threw  herself  on  her  father's  neck  when  he  was  beset  by  the  assassins, 
and  declared  they  should  not  strike  him  but  through  her  body.  In 


14  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP,  a 

amazement  at  her  courage,  the  mob  paused ;  and  one  of  their  number 
presented  to  her  a  cup  filled  with  blood,  exclaiming  "  Drink !  it  is  the 
blood  of  the  aristocrats:  drink  it,  and  we  will  spare  him."  She  did  so 
and  her  father  was  saved.  Similar  tragedies  took  place  at  the  same  time 
in  all  the  other  prisons  of  Paris  and  in  many  religious  houses  occupied  as 
prisons  for  the  occasion.  About  five  thousand  persons  perished  during 
these  massacres,  besides  some  thousands  of  criminals  previously  confined 
in  the  jails  for  minor  offences  unconnected  with  the  state,  but  who  now 
fell  innocent  victims  to  that  thirst  for  blood  by  which  the  people  were  infu- 
riated. The  slaughter  continued  without  interruption  from  the  2nd  to  the 
6th  of  September ;  at  the  end  of  which  time  the  corses  were  thrown  into 
trenches  already  prepared  by  the  municipality  for  their  reception.  They 
were  subsequently  conveyed  to  the  catacombs,  where  they  were  built  up 
with  masonry,  and  where  they  still  remain,  the  monument  of  crimes  unfit 
to  be  thought  of  even  in  the  abodes  of  death,  and  which  France  would 
willingly  bury  in  oblivion. 

The  perpetration  of  these  murders  in  the  French  capital  by  so  small  a 
number  of  men,  is  one  of  the  most  inotructive  facts  in  the  history  of 
revolutions.  Marat  had  long  before  said  that,  with  two  hundred  assassins 
at  a  louis  a  day  for  each,  he  would  govern  France  and  cause  three  hun- 
dred thousand  heads  to  fall :  and  these  events  of  September  seemed  to 
justify  his  assertion.  The  number  of  those  actually  engaged  in  the 
massacre  did  not  exceed  three  hundred,  and  about  twice  as  many 
witnessed  and  encouraged  their  proceedings:  yet  this  handful  of  men 
governed  Paris  and  France  with  a  despotism  which  three  hundred  thou- 
sand armed  warriors  afterward  strove  in  vain  to  impose.  The  immense 
majority  of  the  well-disposed  citizens,  divided  in  opinion,  irresolute  in 
conduct  and  dispersed  in  different  quarters,  were  incapable  of  arresting 
a  band  of  assassins  engaged  in  the  most  atrocious  cruelties,  of  which 
modern  Europe  has  yet  afforded  an  example.  It  is  not  less  worthy  of 
remark  that  these  deeds  of  blood  were  enacted  in  the  heart  of  a  city 
where  above  fifty  thousand  men  were  enrolled  in  the  National  Guard  and 
nad  arms  in  their  hands — a  force,  too,  specifically  provided  to  arrest 
insurrectionary  movements  and  support  the  majesty  of  the  Law.  But 
they  were  so  divided  in  opinion,  and  the  Revolutionists  composed  so  large 
a  part  of  their  number,  that  nothing  whatever  was  done  by  them,  either 
on  the  10th  of  August  when  the  king  was  dethroned,  or  on  the  2nd  of 
September  when  the  prisoners  were  massacred. 

In  the  midst  of  these  horrors,  the  Legislative  Assembly  drew  to  its 
termination  and  was  succeeded  in  its  misrule  of  blood  by  a  body  still 
more  revolutionary  and  ferocious — fhe  NATIONAL  CONVENTION.  Of  its 
members  it  is  sufficient  to  say  thai  the  most  prominent  and  influential 
were  Robespierre,  Danton,  Marat,  Desmoulins,  Varennes  and  others  who 
directed  the  massacres  of  September.  The  whole  was  comprised  in  three 
parties.  The  Girondists,  occupying  the  right,  had  the  majority  of  votes, 
but  lacked  the  courage  and  energy  to  exert  their  power  on  urgent  occa- 
sions. The  Jacobins,  occupying  the  summit  of  the  left  (whence  their 
designation  "The  Mountain,")  were  fewer  in  numbers,  but  they  were 
affiliated  with  the  Parisian  mob  and  supported  by  its  municipality,  who 
at  their  call  would  always  crowd  around  the  doors  of  the  hall  and  over- 
awe  the  whole  assembly.  A  third,  or  neutral  party  was  called  "the 
Plain  ;"  its  orinciples  were  not  at  first  declared  and  its  members  ranged 


1792.J  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE  15 

themselves  with  the  Girondists,  until  terror  compelled  them  to  coalesce 
with  the  fierce  minority. 

The  first  measure  of  the  Convention  was  to  abolish  the  monarchy  and 
proclaim  a  REPUBLIC.  This  occurred  on  the  20th  of  September,  1792 ; 
after  which  the  calendar  was  so  changed  that  the  current  year  became 
the  first  year  of  the  French  Republic.  Their  next  care  was  a  considera- 
tion of  the  finances.  From  the  repori  of  M.  Cambon,  the  minister  of  that 
department,  it  appeared  that  the  preceding  assemblies  had  authorized  the 
issue  of  no  less  than  2,700,000,000  of  francs  (about  five  hundred  and 
forty  millions  of  dollars,) — a  prodigious  sum  to  have  been  disbursed  in 
three  years  of  peace.  As  a  trifle  only  of  this  amount  remained  in  the 
treasury,  a  new  issue  was  ordered  on  the  security  of  the  national  domains 
— which  domains  were  constantly  accumulating  in  the  hands  of  the  gov- 
ernment, and  now,  from  continual  confiscations,  embraced  more  than  two- 
thirds  of  the  landed  property  of  France. 

The  Convention  then  proceeded  to  some  changes  in  the  constitution 
adopted  by  their  predecessors.  On  the  motion  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans, 
the  few  remaining  requisites  to  election,  whether  for  voters  or  candidates, 
were  abolished.  Every  person,  of  whatever  rank,  was  declared  eligible 
to  any  office,  so  that  absolute  equality,  in  its  literal  sense,  was  universally 
established. 

Another  measure,  momentous  in  its  consequences,  was  soon  brought 
forward :  namely,  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  Girondists  to  impeach 
Robespierre  and  Marat.  The  attempt  failed,  but  its  importance  consisted 
in  its  development  of  the  relative  strength  of  the  Girondist  and  Jacobin 
parties  in  the  Convention,  prior  to  the  undertaking  of  another  measure 
which  was  destined  to  attract  the  eyes  of  Europe  and  of  the  world.  This 
was  the  trial  of  Louis  XVI. 

To  prepare  the  nation  for  this  event,  and  to  familiarize  them  with  the 
tragedy  in  which  they  were  resolved  it  should  terminate,  the  Jacobins 
had  taken  the  most  vigorous  measures  throughout  all  France.  In  their 
central  club  at  Paris,  the  question  was  repeatedly  canvassed,  and  their 
discussions  were  transmitted  to  all  the  departments ;  while,  daily,  at  the 
bar  of  the  Convention,  petitions  were  presented  praying  for  vengeance  on 
the  remainder  of  the  murderers  of  the  10th  of  August,  and  for  "death  to 
the  last  tyrant." 

The  charges  against  Louis  were  very  numerous  ;  but  of  all  of  them  it 
suffices  to  remark  that,  so  far  as  they  were  true,  the  acts  they  recited  were 
perfectly  justifiable  ;  and  that  the  greater  part  were  base  calumnies, 
incapable  of  proof  and  totally  without  foundation  in  fact. 

During  his  imprisonment  in  the  Temple,  the  unfortunate  monarch  was, 
gradually  and  under  various  frivolous  pretexts,  deprived  of  almost  every 
comfort.  At  first,  the  royal  family  were  permitted  to  spend  their  time 
together.  They  breakfasted  at  nine  in  the  queen's  apartment ;  at  one, 
if  the  weather  were  fine,  they  walked  for  an  hour  in  the  garden,  strictly 
watched  by  the  officers  of  the  municipality,  from  whom  they  often  received 
the  most  cruel  insults.  Some  hours  were  devoted  to  the  instruction  of  the 
prince,  and  at  intervals  the  princess-royal  played  with  her  brother  and 
softened  by  every  attention  the  pain  of  her  parents'  captivity.  Soon, 
however,  the  precautions  and  restrictions  of  the  manicipality  became  more 
intolerable.  The  officers  refused  to  let  them  be  out  of  their  sight  for  an 
instant,  and  when  they  retired  to  rest,  a  bed  was  placed  for  the  guard  at 


18  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  II. 

the  door  of  eacn  room.  Writing  materials  were  taken  from  them,  and,  soon 
after,  the  scissors,  needles  and  bodkins  of  the  princesses,  with  which  they 
nad  whiled  away  many  a  tedious  hour ;  and,  such  was  the  rigor  of  their 
exclusion  from  the  world  without,  they  were  almost  wholly  ignorant  of 
what  was  taking  place  in  the  city.  The  municipality  next  determined 
to  separate  the  king  and  the  dauphin  from  the  queen  and  princesses :  a 
most  barbarous  decree  and  one  that  brought  tears  into  the  eyes  of  the 
officers  who  enforced  it. 

The  king  appeared  before  the  Convention  to  hear  and  plead  to  the 
charges  on  the  llth  of  December,  when,  after  some  debate,  it  was  decided 
that  lie  should  have  time  to  prepare  his  defence  and  choose  his  own  counsel. 
He  made  choice  of  M.  Tronchet  and  M.  Target ;  the  former  of  whom 
accepted  and  faithfully  discharged  his  duty;  the  latter  had  the  baseness  to 
decline.  The  venerable  Malesherbes  afterward  volunteered  his  services 
to  defend  the  king,  and  united  with  Tronchet  in  applying  to  Deseze  for 
his  cooperation,  which  that  celebrated  advocate  immediately  accorded.  • 

When  the  eloquent  peroration  of  Deseze  was  read  to  the  king,  the  even- 
ing before  it  was  to  be  delivered  to  the  Convention,  Louis  requested  him 
to  strike  it  out  from  his  argument.  "  It  is  enough  for  me,"  said  he,  "  to 
appear  before  such  judges  and  demonstrate  my  innocence :  I  will  not 
condescend  to  appeal  to  their  feelings."  On  the  same  day,  he  composed 
his  immortal  Testament;  the  most  perfect  commentary  on  the  principles 
of  Christianity  that  ever  came  from  the  hand  of  a  king.  "  1  recommend 
to  my  son,"  said  he  in  a  portion  of  that  touching  memorial,  "should  fie 
ever  have  the  misfortune  to  become  a  king,  to  feel  that  his  whole  existence 
should  be  devoted  to  the  good  of  his  people  ;  to  bury  in  oblivion  all  hatred 
and  resentment,  especially  for  my  misfortunes ;  to  recollect  that  he  can- 
not promote  the  happiness  of  his  subjects  but  by  reigning  according  to  the 
laws  ;  at  the  same  time,  he  cannot  carry  his  good  intentions  into  execution, 
without  the  requisite  authority.  I  pardon  all  those  who  have  injured  me 
and  I  pray  my  son  to  recollect  only  their  sufferings.  I  declare  before 
God.  and  on  the  eve  of  appearing  at  his  tribunal,  that  I  am  wholly  inno- 
cent of  the  crimes  laid  to  my  charge." 

The  trial  commenced  on  the  26th  of  December  and  was  continued  for 
twenty  days.  The  king's  counsel  defended  their  client  with  consummate 
ability,  but  the  case,  like  most  cases  that  came  before  that  bloody  tribunal, 
was  prejudged,  the  royal  victim  was  in  effect  condemned  before  he  was 
accused,  and  eloquence  and  argument,  as  well  as  every  appeal  to  humanity 
and  justice,  were  equally  vain.  The  final  vote  was  taken  on  the  15th  of 
January,  when  Louis  was  unanimously  pronounced  guilty;  an  astounding 
decision  to  all  parties,  but  evidently  given  under  the  expectation  that  it 
would  not  prove  fatal  to  the  king ;  for,  when  the  remaining  question  was 
proposed  as  to  the  punishment  to  be  inflicted,  it  was  debated  through  a 
protracted  and  stormy  session  of  no  less  than  forty  hours,  and  finally  decided 
by  a  majority  of  only  twenty-six  out  of  seven  hundred  and  twenty-one 
votes.  The  sentence  was  DEATH. 

But  for  the  defection  of  the  Girondists,  the  king's  life  would  have  been 
saved.  Forty-six  of  their  party,  including  Vergniaud,  voted  against  him. 
They  were  anxious  to  save  the  king,  but  fearful  of  irritating  the  Jacobins 
by  voting  according  to  their  own  wishes.  Almost  every  one  of  these  forty- 
six  afterward  perished  on  the  same  scaffold,  to  which  they  had  condemned 
their  sovereign 


1793.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  17 

On  the  20th  of  January,  Santerre,  with  a  deputation  from  the  munici. 
pality,  presented  himself  before  the  king  and  formally  read  the  sentence. 
Louis  received  it  with  unshaken  firmness  and  demanded  a  respite  of  three 
days  in  which  to  prepare  for  heaven;  he  also  solicited  an  interview  with 
his  family  and  a  confessor.  The  last  two  demands  alone  were  conceded, 
and  the  execution  was  ordered  for  the  following  morning  at  ten  o'clock. 

The  king's  last  interview  with  his  family  was  a  heart-rending  scene. 
At  half  past  eight  in  the  evening,  the  door  of  his  apartment  opened  and 
the  queen  appeared  leading  by  the  hand  the  princess-royal  and  the  prin- 
cess Elizabeth,  the  sister  of  Louis  :  they  all  rushed  into  his  arms.  For 
some  minutes  there  ensued  a  profound  silence  broken  only  by  the  sobs 
of  the  afflicted  family.  The  king  then  sat  down,  having  the  queen  on  his 
left,  the  princess-royal  on  his  right,  Elizabeth  in  front  and  the  dauphin 
between  his  knees.  This  terrible  scene  lasted  nearly  two  hours.  Louis 
at  length  rose ;  the  royal  parents  each  gave  a  parting  blessing  to  the 
dauphin,  while  the  princesses  still  held  the  king  around  the  waist.  As 
he  approached  the  door,  they  uttered  the  most  piercing  cries.  "  I  assure 
you,"  said  Louis,  "  I  will  see  you  again  in  the  morning  at  eight."  "  Why 
not  at  seven?"  they  exclaimed.  "Well,  then,  at  seven,"  answered  the 
king.  He  then  pronounced  the  word  "adieu!"  but  in  so  mournful  an 
accent  that  the  lamentations  redoubled,  and  the  princess-royal  fainted  at 
his  feet.  The  king  finally  tore  himself  from  them  and  turned  for  conso- 
lation to  the  Abbe  Edgeworth,  who  spent  the  remainder  of  the  night  with 
him  and  heroically  discharged  the  perilous  duty  of  attending  his  last 
moments. 

At  nine  o'clock,  on  the  21st  of  January,  Santerre  reappeared  to  conduct 
his  sovereign  to  the  scaffold.  In  passing  through  the  court  of  the  Temple, 
Louis  gave  a  last  look  at  the  tower  which  contained  all  that  was  dear  to 
him  in  the  world ;  and,  immediately  summoning  his  courage,  he  calmly 
seated  himself  in  the  carriage  beside  his  confessor  and  opposite  two  gen- 
d'armes.  During  the  passage  to  the  place  of  execution,  which  occupied 
two  hours,  he  continued  to  repeat  the  psalms  pointed  out  to  him  by  his 
confessor.  The  streets  were  filled  with  an  immense  crowd  who  beheld 
the  mournful  procession  in  silent  dismay :  a  large  body  of  troops  sur- 
rounded the  carriage,  and  a  double  file  of  soldiers  and  National  Guards 
with  a  formidable  train  of  artillery  rendered  hopeless  any  attempt  at 
rescue.  When  the  procession  arrived  at  the  designated  spot,  between  the 
garden  of  the  Tuileries  and  the  Champs  Elysees,  Louis  descended  from 
the  carriage  and  disrobed  himself  without  the  aid  of  the  executioners; 
but  he  manifested  a  momentary  indignation  when  they  began  to  bind  his 
hands.  The  Abbe  Edgeworth  checked  him,  saying  with  almost  inspired 
felicity,  "  submit  to  this  outrage,  as  the  last  resemblance  to  the  Saviour, 
who  is  about  to  recompense  your  sufferings."  He  mounted  the  scaffold 
with  a  firm  step ;  with  a  single  look  he  imposed  silence  on  twenty  drummers 
placed  there  to  prevent  his  being  heard,  and  said  with  a  loud  voice  *<  I  die 
innocent  of  all  the  crimes  laid  to  my  charge;  but  I  pardon  the  authors 
of  my  death  and  pray  God  that  my  wrongs  may  never  be  visited  upon 
France.  And  you,  unhappy  people — "  At  these  words,  Santerre  ordered 
the  drums  to  beat ;  the  executioners  seized  the  king  and  the  axe  terminated 
his  existence.  One  of  the  attendants  grasped  the  head  and  waved  it  in 
the  air,  and  the  blood  was  sprinkled  over  the  confessor  who  knelt  beside 
the  lifeless  corse  of  his  sovereign. 


18  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  [CHAP.  IIL 

The  body  of  the  king,  immediately  after  the  execution,  was  removed 
to  the  ancient  cemetery  of  the.  Madeleine  at  the  end  of  the  Boulevard 
Italienne  and  placed  in  a  grave  six  feet  square.  Large  quantities  of 
quick  lime  were  thrown  on  the  body,  so  that  when,  in  1815,  the  remains 
were  sought  after,  that  they  might  be  conveyed  to  the  Royal  Mausoleum 
in  St.  Denis,  scarcely  any  part  could  be  discovered. 

The  king  was  executed  in  the  centre  of  the  Place  Louis  XV.  on  the 
same  spot  where  afterward,  the  queen,  the  princess  Elizabeth  and  many 
other  noble  victims  of  the  Revolution  perished ;  where,  also,  Robespierre 
and  Danton  were  executed ;  and  where  the  Emperor  Alexander  and  the 
allied  sovereigns  took  their  station,  when  their  victorious  armies  entered 
Paris  on  the  31st  of  March,  1814.  Thus,  the  greatest  of  revolutionary 
crimes  and  the  greatest  of  revolutionary  punishments  took  place  on  the 
same  spot :  nor  has  modern  Europe  another  scene  to  exhibit  fraught  with 
equally  interesting  recollections.  It  is  now  ornamented  by  the  colossal 
obelisk  of  blood-red  granite  which  was  brought  from  Thebes,  in  Uppei 
Egypt,  in  1833,  by  the  French  government.  That  monument,  which  wit- 
nessed the  march  of  Cambyses,  and  survived  the  conquests  of  Caesar  and 
Alexander,  is  destined  to  mark  to  the  latest  generation  the  scene  of  the 
martyrdom  of  Louis  and  of  the  final  triumph  of  his  immortal  avenger. 

The  character  of  this  monarch  cannot  be  better  described  than  in  the 
words  of  Mignet,  the  ablest  of  the  Republican  writers  of  France.  "  Louis 
inherited  a  revolution  from  his  ancestors :  his  qualities  were  better  fitted 
than  those  of  any  of  his  predecessors  to  have  prevented  or  terminated 
it ;  for  he  was  capable  of  effecting  reform  before  it  broke  out,  and  of 
discharging  the  duties  of  a  constitutional  throne  under  its  influence.  He 
was  perhaps  the  only  monarch  who  was  subject  to  no  passion,  not  even 
that  of  power,  and  who  united  the  two  qualities  essential  to  a  good  king, 
fear  of  God  and  love  of  his  people.  He  perished,  the  victim  of  passions 
which  he  had  no  share  in  exciting ;  the  passions  of  his  supporters  with 
which  he  was  unacquainted,  and  the  passions  of  the  multitude  which  he 
had  done  nothing  to  awaken.  Few  kings  have  left  so  venerated  a  mem- 
ory. History  will  write  for  his  epitaph  that,  v/ith  a  little  more  force  of 
mind,  he  would  have  been  unrivalled  as  a  sovereign." 


CHAPTER   III. 

STATE    OF    EUROPE    PRIOR    TO    THE    WAR. 

IT  was  not  to  be  expected  that  so  great  an  event  as  the  French  Revolu 
lion,  rousing  as  it  did  the  passions  of  one  portion  and  exciting  the  appre- 
hensions of  the  other  portion  of  mankind  all  the  world  over,  could  long 
remain  an  object  of  passing  observation  to  the  adjoining  states.  It  ad- 
dressed itself  to  the  hopes  and  prejudices  of  the  great  body  of  the  people 
in  every  country  ;  and,  by  exciting  their  ill-smothered  indignation  against 
their  superiors,  added  to  a  sense  of  their  real  injuries  the  more  powerful 
stimulus  of  revolutionary  ambition.  A  ferment  accordingly  began  to  spread 
through  the  neighboring  kingdoms  ;  extravagant  hopes  were  formed,  chi- 


1792.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  19 

merical  anticipations  indulged,  and  the  laboring  classes,  inflated  by  the 
rapid  elevation  of  their  brethren  in  France,  believed  the  time  was  ap- 
proaching when  the  distinctions  of  society  were  to  cease  and  the  miseries 
af  poverty  expire,  amid  the  universal  dominion  of  the  people. 

Austria,  Russia  and  England  were  at  this  time  the  great  powers  of 
Europe,  and  they  therefore  bore  a  principal  part  in  the  long  and  desperate 
struggle  that  ensued. 

Nine  years  of  peace  had  enabled  Great  Britain  to  recover  in  a  great 
degree  from  the  exhaustion  of  the  American  war.  If  she  had  lost  an 
empire  in  the  Western,  she  had  gained  one  in  the  Eastern  world.  Her 
national  debt,  amounting  to  £244,000,000  sterling  (ten  hundred  and 
sixty  millions  of  dollars,)  on  which  the  annual  interest  was  £9,317,000 
(forty-four  millions  of  dollars,)  was  a  severe  burden  on  the  industry  of  the 
people  ;  while  the  yearly  taxes,  though  light  in  comparison  with  what 
were  subsequently  imposed,  were  still  felt  to  be  oppressive.  The  resources 
of  the  kingdom  were,  nevertheless,  enormous.  Commerce,  agriculture 
and  manufactures  had  rapidly  increased,  the  trade  with  the  independent 
States  of  North  America  was  found  to  exceed  in  value  what  it  had  been 
\vhen  that  country  was  in  a  state  of  colonial  dependence,  and  the  exertion 
of  individuals  to  improve  their  condition  had  produced  a  surprising  effect 
on  the  accumulation  of  capital  and  the  state  of  public  credit.  The  three 
per  cents.,  which  were  at  -57  at  the  close  of  the  war,  had  risen  to  -99,  and 
the  overflowing  wealth  of  the  cities  was  already  finding  its  way  into  the 
most  circuitous  foreign  trade  and  hazardous  distant  investments.  The 
national  revenue  amounted  to  £16,000,000  (seventy-six  millions  of  dol- 
lars,) and  the  army  included  thirty-two  thousand  soldiers  in  the  British 
Isles,  besides  an  equal  force  in  the  East  and  West  Indies  and  thirty-six 
regiments  of  yeomanry.  After  the  commencement  of  the  war,  and  pre- 
vious to  1796,  the  entire  regular  army  of  Great  Britain  amounted  to  two 
hundred  and  six  thousand  men,  including  forty-two  thousand  militia.  More 
than  half  of  this  force,  however,  was  required  for  the  service  of  the  colo- 
nies ;  and  experience  has  proved  that  Britain  can  never  collect  more  than 
forty  thousand  at  any  one  point  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  The  strength 
of  England  consisted  in  her  inexhaustible  wealth,  in  the  public  spirit  and 
energy  of  her  people,  in  the  moral  influence  of  centuries  of  glory,  and  in 
a  fleet  of  a  hundred  and  fifty  ships  of  the  line  which  gave  her  the  undis- 
puted command  of  the  seas. 

The  opinions  of  the  people  on  the  French  Revolution  were  greatly 
divided.  The  young,  the  ardent,  the  philosophical,  the  factious,  the  rest- 
less and  the  ambitious  were  sanguine  in  their  expectations  of  its  success, 
and  exulted  in  its  promise  of  benefit  to  the  human  race :  while  the  great 
majority  of  the  aristocracy,  the  adherents  of  the  Church,  the  holders  of 
office  under  the  monarchy,  and  in  general  the  opulent  ranks  of  society 
beheld  it  with  disgust  and  alarm. 

At  the  head  of  the  first  party,  was  Mr.  Fox,  the  eloquent  and  illustrious 
champion  of  universal  freedom.  Descended  from  a  noble  family,  he  in- 
herited the  love  of  liberty,  and  by  the  impetuous  torrent  of  his  eloquence 
long  maintained  his  place  as  leader  of  the  opposition  of  the  British  Empire. 

Mr.  Pitt  was  the  leader  of  the  second  party,  which,  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  French  Revolution,  was  in  full  possession  of  the  government 
and  had  a  decided  majority  in  both  houses  of  Parliament.  Modern  his- 
tory can  scarcely  furnish  another  character  of  such  eminence.  His  early 


20  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  TIL 

career  was  distinguished  by  the  sentiments  and  principles  inherited  from 
his  father,  the  first  Lord  Chatham,  and  his  great  abilities  gave  him  from 
the  outset  a  prominent  place  in  Parliament.  On  the  12th  of  January, 
1784,  before  he  was  five-and-twenty  years  of  age,  he  took  his  seat  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  as  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer ;  and  never  did  a 
more  arduous  struggle  await  a  minister.  The  opposition,  led  by  the 
impetuous  energy  of  Fox,  aided  by  the  experience,  influence  and  admi- 
rable temper  of  Lord  North,  possessed  at  that  time  a  large  majority  in 
the  lower  House,  and  they  treated  with  the  utmost  scorn  this  attempt  of  a 
young  man  of  four-and-twenty  to  disposses  them  of  the  government.  But 
it  was  soon  evident  that  Pitt's  transcendent  talents  were  equal  to  the  task. 
Invincible  in  resolution,  cool  in  danger,  fertile  in  resource,  powerful  in 
debate,  and  possessed  of  a  moral  courage  which  nothing  could  overcome, 
Pitt  exhibited  a  combination  of  great  qualities  which,  for  political  contest, 
was  never  excelled  ;  he  successfully  withstood  the  most  formidable  par- 
liamentary majority  which  had  appeared  in  England  since  the  days  of 
Cromwell,  and  ultimately  remained  victorious  in  the  struggle. 

Mr.  Burke  was  the  leader  of  a  third  party  composed  of  the  old  Whigs 
who  supported  the  principles  of  the  English,  but  opposed  those  of  the 
French,  Revolution.  This  celebrated  man  had  long  stood  side  by  side 
with  Mr.  Fox  in  the  opposition,  but  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  French 
Revolution,  he  took  part  with  the  government.  With  great  political  saga- 
city he  exerted  his  talents  to  oppose  the  levelling  principles  which  that 
convulsion  introduced;  and  his  work  on  that  subject  produced  a  greater 
impression  on  the  public  mind  than,  perhaps,  any  other  book  which  has 
yet  appeared  in  the  world.  It  abounds  in  eloquent  passages  and  profound 
wisdom ;  but  vast  as  ,was  its  influence,  and  unrivalled  as  was  its  reputa- 
tion, its  value  was  not  fully  understood  till  the  progress  of  events  demon- 
strated the  justice  of  its  principles.  The  division  on  this  vital  question  for 
ever  alienated  these  two  illustrious  men  from  each  other,  and  drew  tears 
from  both  of  them  in  the  House  of  Commons  where  it  took  place :  a  striking 
token  of  the  effects  which  the  Revolution,  out  of  its  immediate  sphere, 
produced  on  the  charities  of  private  life,  and  of  the  variance  which  it 
occasioned  in  the  bosom  of  families  and  between  friendships  that  "had 
stood  the  strain  of  a  whole  life." 

Austria  was  the  most  formidable  rival  of  the  French  Republic  on  the 
continent  of  Europe.  This  great  empire,  containing  at  the  time  nearly 
twenty  millions  of  inhabitants,  and  having  a  revenue  of  ninety  millions 
of  florins,  held  the  richest  and  most  fertile  districts  of  Europe  among  its 
provinces.  The  possession  of  the  Low  Countries  gave  Austria  an  advanced 
post  immediately  in  contact  with  the  French  frontier,  while  the  mountains 
of  the  Tyrol  formed  a  vast  fortress,  garrisoned  by  an  attached  and  war- 
like people,  and  placed  at  a  salient  angle  between  Germany  and  Italy. 
Her  armies,  numerous  and  highly  disciplined,  had  acquired  great  renown 
in  the  wars  of  Maria  Theresa  and  maintained  a  creditable  position,  under 
Daun  and  Laudohn,  in  the  scientific  campaigns  with  the  Great  Frederic. 
Her  t-rovernrnent,  nominally  a  monarchy,  but  really  an  oligarchy  in  the 
hands  of  the  great  nobles,  possessed  all  that  firmness  and  tenacity  of 
purpose  for  which  aristocratic  powers  have  always  been  distinguished, 
and  which,  under  unparalleled  difficulties  and  disasters,  at  last  brought 
her  successfully  through  the  long  struggle  in  which  she  was  soon 
afterward  engaged.  The  Austrian  forces,  at  the  commencement  of 


1792.]  HIS  TORY    OF    EUROPE.  21 

war,  amounted  to  two  hundred  and  forty  thousand  infant*  y,  thirty-five 
thousand  cavalry,  and  one  hundred  thousand  artillery;  while  the  extent 
0*"  the  empire  and  the  warlike  disposition  of  the  inhahitants  furnished  inex- 
haustiDle  resources  for  the  maintenance  of  the  contest. 

The  military  strength  of  Prussia,  raised  to  the  highest  pitch  of  ^Jiich 
its  resources  would  admit,  by  the  genius  of  the  great  Frederic,  rendered  , 
this  once  inconsiderable  kingdom  a  first-rate  power  on  the  Continent.  Its 
army,  one  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  strong,  including  thirty-five  thou- 
sand cavalry,  was  in  the  best  state  of  discipline  and  equipment;  and  this 
force,  considerable  as  it  was,  formed  but  a  small  part  of  the  strength  of 
the  kingdom.  By  an  admirable  system  of  organization,  the  whole  of  the 
Prussian  youth  were  compelled  to  serve  a  limited  number  of  years  in  the 
army,*  so  that  not  only  was  a  taste  for  military  habits  universally  diffused, 
but  the  country  always  possessed  an  immense  reserve  of  experienced 
troops  who  might  in  any  emergency  be  called  to  its  defence.  The  states 
which  composed  the  Prussian  monarchy  were  by  no  means  so  coherent 
as  those  of  the  Austrian  dominions.  Nature-  had  traced  out  for  them  no 
limits  like  the  Rhine,  the  Alps  or  the  Pyrenees,  to  designate  their  boun- 
daries ;  no  great  rivers  or  mountain  chains  protected  their  frontiers ;  and 
few  fortified  towns  guarded  them  from  the  incursions  of  the  military 
nations  by  which  they  were  environed.  Their  surface  consisted  of  four- 
teen thousand  square  leagues,  and  their  population  amounted  to  nearly 
eight  millions,  composed  of  different  races,  professing  different  creeds  and 
speaking  different  languages.  Toward  Russia  and  Austrian  Poland,  a 
frontier  of  two  hundred  leagues  was  destitute  of  places  of  defence ;  Sile- 
sia, alone,  enjoyed  the  double  advantage  of  three  lines  of  fortresses  and 
the  strongest  natural  barriers.  The  national  security  rested  entirely  on 
the  army  and  the  courage  of  the  inhabitants.  The  government  was  a 
military  despotism,  and  the  liberty  of  the  press  was  unknown;  neverthe- 
less, the  public  administration  was  tempered  by  the  wisdom  and  benefi- 
cence of  its  state-policy.  In  no  country  of  Europe  were  private  rights 
more  thoroughly  respected,  or  justice  more  rigidly  observed,  than  in  the 
courts  and  domestic  government  of  Prussia. 

The  immense  Empire  of  Russia — comprehending  nearly  half  of  Europe 
and  Asia,  backed  by  inaccessible  regions  of  frost,  secured  from  invasion 
by  the  extent  of  its  surface  and  the  severity  of  its  climate,  inhabited  by  a 
patient  and  indomitable  race  who  were  ever  ready  to  exchange  the  luxu- 
ries and  adventure  of  the  south  for  the  hardships  and  monotony  of  the 
north — was  daily  becoming  formidable  to  the  liberties  of  Europe.  The 
infantry  of  Russia  had  long  been  celebrated  for  its  immovable  firmness  ; 
and  the  cavalry,  though  inferior  to  its  present  sta.te  of  discipline  and  equip- 
ment, was  inured  to  service  in  the  war  with  the  Turks,  and  mounted  on 
a  hardy  and  admirable  race  of  horses.  The  artillery  was  more  distin- 
guished for  the  obstinate  valor  of  its  men,  than  for  the  condition  of  its 
guns.  The  armies  were  recruited  by  a  certain  proportion  of  conscripts 
drawn  from  every  hundred  of  male  inhabitants ;  a  mode  of  supply  in  a 
large  and  rapidly  increasing  population,  that  was  not  easily  exhausted. 
The  entire  force  in  1792  amounted  to  two  hundred  thousand  men,  exclu- 
sive of  the  youth  of  the  military  colonies,  and  of  the  well-known  Cossacks 
of  the  Don.  This  irregular  force,  composed  of  the  pastoral  tribes  in  the 
southern  provinces  of  the  Empire,  was  a  very  slight  expense  to  the  govern- 
ment :  it  was  necessary  only  to  issue  an  order  for  a  certain  number  of  these 


22  HISTORY     OF     EUROPE.  [CHAP.  IIL 

hardy  bands  to  take  the  field,  and  crowds  of  active  young  men  appeared, 
equipped  at  their  own  cost,  mounted  on  small  but  indefatigable  horses,  and 
ready  to  undergo  all  the  hardships  of  war.  Gifted  with  the  individual  in- 
telligence which  belongs  to  the  pastoral  and  savage  character,  and  yet  sub- 
ject^ to  a  certain  degree  of  discipline,  they  were  the  best  light  troops  in 
the  world,  and  were  more  formidable  to  a  retreating  army  than  the  bravest 
of  French  or  Russian  dragoons.  The  population  of  Russia,  in  Europe  alone, 
was  nearly  thirty-five  millions,  and  was  increasing  at  a  rate  which  doubled 
its  numbers  in  forty  years :  this  supply  of  inhabitants,  with  the  other  re- 
sources of  the  Empire,  enabled  her  to  bear  a  distinguished  part  in  the  ap- 
proaching conflict. 

Sweden  was  too  remote  from  the  scene  of  European  strife  to  have  much 
weight  in  the  political  scale.  She  had  recently,  however,  concluded  a 
glorious  war  with  her  powerful  neighbor,  Russia ;  for  her  arms,  in  alliance 
with  the  arms  of  Turkey,  had  taken  the  Russian  forces  by  surprise,  and 
Gustavus,  her  king,  extricating  himself  by  a  desperate  exertion  of  valor 
from  a  perilous  situation,  had  destroyed  the  Russian  fleet  and  gained  a 
great  victory  so  near  to  St.  Petersburg  that  the  sound  of  his  cannon  was 
heard  in  the  palace  of  the  empress.  Catherine  hastened  to  be  rid  of  the 
Swedish  war  by  offering  advantageous  terms  to  her  brave  antagonist,  and 
flattered  him  to  accept  them  by  representing  that  the  efforts  of  all  sove- 
reigns should  now  be  directed  toward  resisting  the  progress  of  the  French 
Revolution  and  that  he  alone  was  worthy  to  head  the  enterprise. 

Placed  on  the  other  extremity  of  the  Russian  dominions,  the  forces  of. 
Turkey  were  still  less  enable  of  affecting  the  balance  of  European  power: 
her  troops,  too,-  though  formidable  among  their  native  defences  to  an  in- 
vading army,  were  comparatively  inefficient,  when  removed  from  their 
own  fields  and  brought  into  contact  with  the  better  disciplined  armies  of 
other  European  states. 

The  political  importance  of  Italy  had  sunk  almost  as  low  as  that  of 
Turkey.  Inhabiting  the  finest  country  in  Europe — a  country  blessed 
with  the  richest  plains  and  most  fruitful  mountains,  defended  from  inva 
sion  by  the  encircling  sea  and  the  frozen  Alps,  venerated  also  from  the 
recollections  of  ancient  greatness  and  from  its  containing  the  cradle  of 
modern  freedom — the  people  of  Italy  were  yet  as  dust  in  the  scale  of 
nations. 

The  kingdom  of  Piedmont,  situated  on  the  frontiers  of  Italy,  partook 
more  of  the  character  of  its  northern  than  its  southern  neighbors.  Its 
soldiers,  drawn  chiefly  from  the  mountains  of  Savoy,  Liguria,  or  the 
maritime  Alps,  were  brave,  docile  and  enterprising,  and,  under  Victor 
Amadeus,  had  risen  to  the  highest  distinction  in  the  beginning  of  the  18th 
century.  The  regular  army  amounted  to  thirty  thousand  infantry  and 
three  thousand  five  hundred  cavalry ;  and  the  government  could,  in  addi- 
tion to  this,  summon  to  its  support  fifteen  thousand  militia  who,  in  defend- 
ing their  mountain  passes,  rivalled  the  best  troops  in  Europe.  They 
were  chiefly  employed  during  the  war  in  guarding  fortresses ;  and  the 
number  of  these,  joined  tc  the  natural  strength  of  the  country  and  its  posi- 
tion important  as  holding  the  keys  of  the  great  passes  of  the  Alps,  gave 
this  state  a  degree  of  military  consequence  beyond  what  could  have  been 
anticipated  from  its  mere  physical  strength. 

Sunk  in  obscure  marshes,  crushed  by  the  naval  supremacy  of  England, 
and  cooped  up  in  a  corner  of  Europe,  Holland  had  become  a  compara- 


1792.]  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  23 

lively  insignificant  power.  Its  army  still  consisted  of  forty  thousand  men 
and  its  fortified  towns  and  means  of  inundation  showed  the  same  ability 
of  defence  as  had  formerly  been  exerted  ;  but  the  resolution  of  the  people 
was  far  inferior  to  the  strength  of  their  position. 

The  peasantry  of  Switzerland,  on  the  other  hand,  cradled  in  snowy 
mountains,  tilling  a  sterile  soil  and  habituated  to  hardships,  exhibited  at 
this  time  the  same  characteristics  which  have  always  rendered  them  cele- 
brated in  European  wars.  Their  lives  were  as  simple,  their  courage  as 
undaunted  and  their  patriotism  as  warm  as  were  those  of  their  ancestors 
who  fell  at  Morat  or  Morgarten  :  but  as  their  troops  did  not  exceed  thirty- 
eight  thousand  in  number,  they  could  take  little  active  part  in  the  great 
contests  that  agitated  the  plains  of  Europe. 

The  people  of  the  Spanish  Peninsula  were  able  to  assume  a  more  dis- 
tinguished place  in  the  strife  for  European  freedom.  This  singular 
and  mixed  race,  united  to  the  tenacity  of  purpose  which  marked  the 
Gothic,  the  fiery  enterprise  that  characterized  the  Mcforish  blood :  cen- 
turies of  almost  unbroken  repose  had  neither  extinguished  the  one  nor 
abated  the  other ;  and  Napoleon,  at  a  later  day,  erroneously  judged  the 
temper  of  her  people  when  he  measured  it  by  the  inglorious  reigns  of  the 
Bourbon  dynasty.  Her  national  strength  had  indeed  declined,  by  reason 
of  the  accumulation  of  estates  in  the  hands  of  noble  families  who  were 
degenerated  by  long-continued  intermarriages,  and  of  the  predominant 
influence  of  the  Catholic  priesthood :  but  the  courage  and  prowess  of  her 
peasantry  were  unimpaired  and  her  ability  to  repel  invasion  was  signally 
proved  in  many  instances  during  the  war.  The  nominal  military  strength 
of  Spain  was  one  hundred  and  forty  thousand  men ;  but  this  force  was 
far  from  being  effective  ;  and  in  the  first  campaigns  she  was  not  able  to 
muster  eighty  thousand  combatants. 

The  forces  of  France  destined  to  contend  with  this  immense  aggregate 
of  military  strength,  were  far  from  being  considerable  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  struggle.  The  infantry  consisted  of  one  hundred  and  sixty 
thousand  men,  the  cavalry  of  thirty-five  thousand,  and  the  artillery  of  ten 
thousand.  During  the  first  stormy  period  of  the  Revolution,  the  discipline 
of  the  troops  had  declined  ;  and  the  custom  of  each  man's  judging  for  him- 
self had  introduced  into  the  army  a  degree  of  license  wholly  inconsistent 
with  military  subordination.  These  defects,  however,  were  speedily 
remedied  under  the  iron  rule  of  the  Convention. 

In  contemplation  of  the  approaching  contest,  a  treaty  of  alliance,  offen- 
sive and  defensive,  was  concluded  on  the  7th  of  February,  1792,  between 
Sweden  and  Austria ;  but,  it  seemed  that  Providence  was  preparing  a 
new  race  of  actors  for  the  mighty  scenes  now  to  be  performed ;  for  Leo- 
pold of  Austria  died  on  the  1st  of  March  following;  and  on  the  16th  of 
the  same  month,  Gustavus  was  assassinated  at  a  masked  ball. 

Leopold  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Francis,  then  but  twenty-four  years 
of  age,  whose  reign  was  the  most  eventful,  the  most  disastrous,  and  ulti- 
mately the  most  glorious  in  the  Austrian  annals.  His  first  measures 
were  popular  and  judicious;  Kaunitz  was  continued  as  prime-minister, 
and  with  him  were  associated  in  the  cabinet,  Marshal  Lascy  and  Count 
Francis  Colloredo.  He  suppressed-  those  articles  in  the  journals  which 
loaded  him  with  praise,  observing,  "  It  is  by  my  future  conduct  that  I 
am  to  be  judged  worthy  of  praise  or  blame."  When  the  list  of  pension- 
ers was  submitted  to  his  inspection,  he  erased  the  name  of  hi  mother, 

4 


24  HISTORY     OF     EUROPE.  [CcAr.IIT. 

saying  that  it  was  not  becoming  for  her  to  be  dependent  on  the  bounty  of 
the  state. 

Hitherto,  Great  Britain  had  observed  a  strict  neutrality  toward  France, 
but  the  progress  of  events  soon  forced  her  to  a  change  of  policy.  The 
10th  of  August  came;  the  French  throne  was  overturned;  the  royal 
family  imprisoned ;  and  the  massacres  of  September  stained  Paris  with 
blood.  In  the  frenzy  of  their  democratic  fury,  and  intoxicated  with  suc- 
cess, the  Revolutionary  party  adopted  measures  incompatible  with  the 
peace  of  other  states.  A  Jacobin  club  of  twelve  hundred  members  was 
established  at  Chamberry,  in  Savoy,  and  one  hundred  of  its  most  active 
individuals  were  selected  as  travelling  missionaries  "armed  with  the 
torch  of  reason  and  liberty,  for  the  purpose  of  enlightening  the  Savoyards 
on  their  regeneration  and  imprescriptible  rights."  An  address  was  voted 
by  this  club  to  the  French  Convention  as  "legislators  of  the  world,"  and 
received  by  them  on  the  20th  of  October,  1792.  They  ordered  it  to  be 
translated  into  the  English,  Spanish  and  German  languages.  The  rebel- 
lious Savoyards  next  formed  a  Convention,  in  imitation  of  that  of  France, 
and  offered  to  incorporate  themselves  with  the  great  Republic.  The 
French  Convention  promptly  accepted  the  proffered  dominion  of  Savoy, 
and  united  it  to  the  Republic  under  the  name  of  the  Department  of  Mont 
Blanc.  The  seizure  of  Savoy  was  followed  by  that  of  Nice  with  its  ter- 
ritory, and  Monaco;  these  were  styled  the  Department  of  the  maritime 
Alps.  Italy  was  the  next  object  of  attack,  and  Piedmont  the  first  point 
assailed.  To  facilitate  the  work,  a  French  fleet  cast  anchor  in  the  Bay 
of  Genoa,  and  a  Jacobin  club  was  established  in  that  city.  Kellerman, 
on  assuming  the  command  of  the  army  of  the  Alps,  informed  his  soldiers 
that  he  "had  orders  to  conquer  Rome,  and  the  orders  should  be  obeyed." 
The  French  ambassador  at  Rome  was  in  the  mean  time  so  active  in  urg 
ing  the  people  to  insurrection,  that,  when  proceeding  in  his  carriage  to  one 
of  his  conferences,  he  was  seized  by  the  mob,  at  whom  he  had  discharged 
a  pistol,  and  was  murdered  in  the  streets.  Switzerland,  too,  and  ^the 
smaller  German  'principalities,  were  subjected  to  insult  or  sequestration. 
Finally,  on  the  19th  of  November,  a  decree  was  unanimously  passed  by 
the  Convention,  which  openly  placed  the  French  Republic  at  war  with 
all  established  governments. 

These  unprecedenied  and  alarming  proceedings,  joined  to  the  rapid 
increase  and  treasonable  language  of  the  Jacobin  societies  in  England, 
excited  a  general  disquietude  in  that  country ;  and  after  some  time  spent 
in  correspondence  with  the  French  government,  matters  were  brought  to 
a  crisis  by  the  execution  of  Louis.  As  there  was  now  no  longer  even  the 
shadow  of  a  government  in  the  French  capital  with  which  to  maintain  a 
diplomatic  intercourse,  the  French  minister  was  notified  to  quit  the  Brit- 
ish dominions  within  eight  days;  and  on  the  3rd  of  February,  1793,  the 
French  Convention  declared  war  against  Great  Britain. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

CAMPAIGN    OF    1792. 

AFTER  the  decision  of  the  Assembly  for  war,  and  the  forced  declaration 
of  Louis  to  that  effect,  in  April,  1792,  three  considerable  armies  were 
ordered  to  be  formed.  In  the  north,  Marshal  Rochambeau  commanded 
forty  thousand  infantry  and  eight  thousand  cavalry,  cantoned  from  Dun- 
kirk to  Phillipville.  In  the  centre,  La  Fayette  was  stationed  with  forty- 
five  thousand  infantry  and  seven  thousand  cavalry,  from  Phillipville ^to 
Lautre ;  while  Marshal  Luckner,  with  thirty-five  thousand  infantry  and 
eight  thousand  cavalry,  observed  the  course  of  the  Rhine  from  Bale  to 
Lauterburg.  In  the^south,  General  Montesquieu,  with  fifty  thousand 
men,  was  charged  with  the  defence  of  the  line  of  the  Pyrenees  and  the 
course  of  the  Rhone.  But  these  armies,  however  formidable  their  num- 
bers may  sound,  were  as  yet  very  inefficient,  as  the  license  of  the  Revo- 
lution had  impaired  their  discipline,  and  destroyed  their  respect  and 
confidence  in  their  commanders. 

To  oppose  these  forces,  however,  the  allies  made  but  an  indifferent  de- 
monstration. Fifty  thousand  Prussians  and  sixty-five  thousand  Austrians 
and  Hessians  were  all  that  could  at  first  be  mustered  at  various  points  for 
the  invasion  of  France. 

Encouraged  by  the  inconsiderable  Austrian  force  in  the  Low  Countries, 
the  French  resolved  to  invade  Flanders  in  four  columns,  and  on  the  28th 
of  April,  1792,  put  themselves  in  motion  ;  but  in  every  direction  they  were 
routed  by  the  Austrians  at  the  first  onset,  so  that  the  corps  destined  to 
advance  to  Furnes  fell  back  on  hearing  of  these  reverses,  and  General 
La  Fayette  judged  it  prudent  to  suspend  the  movement  of  his  whole  army 
and  retire  to  his  camp  at  Rancennes. 

The  extreme  facility  with  which  this  invasion  of  Flanders  was  repelled, 
astonished  all  Europe.  The  Prussians  conceived  the  utmost  contempt  for 
their  new  opponents,  and  it  is  curious  to  recur  to  the  sentiments  they 
expressed  on  the  occasion.  "  Do  not  buy  too  many  horses,"  said  the 
minister  Bischoffswerder,  to  several  officers  of  rank  ;  "  the  farce  will  not 
last  long ;  the  army  of  lawyers  will  soon  be  annihilated." 

The  Jacobins  and  war  party  at  Paris,  though  extremely  disconcerted 
by  these  disasters,  had  the  address  to  conceal  their  apprehensions,  and 
denounced  the  severest  penalties  against  the  real  or  supposed  authors  of 
the  national  disgrace.  Energetic  measures  were  taken  to  reenforce  the 
armies.  Rochambeau  was  dismissed  and  Luckner  ordered  to  take  his  com- 
mand and  resume  offensive  operations.  But  this  feeble  and  irresolute  old 
nan  was  ill  qualified  to  restore  the  confidence  or  efficiency  of  the  army. 
He  was  defeated  in  his  first  movement,  and  at  the  same  time  La  Fayette 
met  with  a  signal  overthrow.  These  events  naturally  increased  the 
presumption  of  the  allies,  and  rendered  them  indifferent  about  pressing  on 
with  energy  to  strike  a  decisive  blow.  The  Duke  of  Brunswick,  who 
was  intrusted  with  the  command  of  the  allied  army,  was  alone  adequately 
impressed  with  the  importance  of  the  campaign,  and  strongly  urged  the 
necessity  of  hastening  their  operations  before  the  French  could  recover 
from  their  discomfiture  and  alarm. 


26  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  [CHAP.  IV. 

On  the  25th  of  July,  the  King  of  Prussia  joined  the  army,  and  on  the 
same  day  the  proclamation,  already  referred  to  in  Chapter  II.,  was  issued 
in  the  name  of  the  Duke  of  Brunswick ;  though  it  was  not  drawn  up  by 
him,  and  he  strenuously  denounced  its  impolicy.  On  the  30th  of  July, 
the  whole  army  broke  up  and  entered  the  French  territory. 

A  triple  barrier  defended  the  eastern  frontier  of  France,  and  the  line 
of  march  proposed  by  the  allies  lay  through  the  centre  of  the  chain  :  there 
were  but  three  fortresses  on  this  line,  Sedan,  Longwy  and  Verdun,  all 
at  that  time  in  a  wretched  condition,  after  which  nothing  but  fertile  plains 
interposed  between  the  invaders  and  Paris.  Under  these  circumstances, 
a  powerful  attack  and  rapid  advance  seemed  the  most  prudent  and  effectual 
means  of  terminating  the  campaign  ;  and  so  it  must  have  proved,  had  the 
allies  displayed  an  energy  adequate  to  the  emergency.  They  advanced, 
indeed,  but  with  inexplicable  slowness  and  timidity ;  took  the  fortress 
of  Longwy  after  a  three  days'  siege,  received  intelligence  of  the  flight 
of  La  Fayette  from  his  army,  and  at  the  end  of  six  days  invested  Verdun. 
This  fortress  capitulated  on  the  2nd  of  September.  Sedan  and  the  forest 
of  Argonne  in  its  neighborhood  were  now  the  only  impediments  on  the 
road  to  Paris.  But  the  successes  of  the  allies,  great  in  effect,  though 
trivial  as  military  achievements,  only  increased  their  inactivity.  They 
lingered  around  Verdun  until  Dumourier,  who  was  dispatched  from  the 
Assembly  to  take  command  of  the  army,  had  occupied  Sedan  and  the 
passes  of  the  forest  with  twenty-five  thousand  men.  Yet  though  a  golden 
opportunity  was  thus  wantonly  thrown  away,  the  allies  displayed  more 
activity  and  military  conduct  in  the  sequel. 

As  it  was  now  impossible  to  pursue  his  original  line  of  advance  or  dis- 
lodge Dumourier  by  an  attack  in  front,  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  moved  a 
part  of  his  forces  to  Landres  in  order  to  turn  the  left  of  the  French  posi- 
tion. This  compelled  Dumourier  to  detach  a  portion  of  his  right  wing 
(which  occupied  the  Croix  au  Bois,  one  of  the  five  passes  of  the  forest,)  in 
order  to  reenforce  his  left ;  when  Clairfait,  finding  the  defences  of  the 
Croix  au  Bois  thus  weakened,  pushed  on  with  a  strong  body  of  allies  and 
made  himself  master  of  the  pass:  by  this  means,  the  allies  were  enabled 
to  threaten  the  rear  of  the  French  and  disturb  their  communications  with 
the  capital.  Dumourier  was  now  forced  to  retreat  with  a  part  of  his 
army  to  St.  Menehould ;  but  he  still  held  the  two  most  important  passes 
of  the  Argonne  (Islettes  and  Chalade,)  and  France  had  gained  time  to 
bring  new  forces  into  the  field.  Dumourier  fortified  his  position  at  St. 
Me'ne'hould,  and  was  soon  joined  by  two  considerable  auxiliary  armies 
under  Kellerman  and  Bournonville,  which  raised  the  numbers  and  confi- 
dence of  the  Republicans  to  a  footing  of  equality  with  the  invaders. 

The  Duke  of  Brunswick,  after  learning  the  movements  of  Dumourier, 
put  his  troops  in  motion,  advanced  through  the  unguarded  defiles  of  the 
forest,  and  took  post  between  the  French  army  and  Paris.  The  hostile 
forces  were  now  in  a  singular  position :  the  allies  faced  toward  the  Rhine, 
with  their  rear  on  Champagne ;  while  the  French  rear  was  at  the  forest 
nf  Argonne,  and  their  front  toward  tneir  own  capital.  An  action  imme- 
diately ensued  on  the  field  of  Valmy,  in  whi^h  the  allies  had  the  advan- 
tage, but  they  did  not  follow  it  up,  and  the  contending  parties  withdrew 
at  nightfall  to  their  original  positions.  But  it  is  with  an  invading  army 
as  with  an  insurrection ;  an  indecisive  action  is  equivalent  to  a  defeat. 
This  affair  was  merely  a  cannonade  ;  the  loss  on  both  sides  did  not  exceed 


•792.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  27 

eight  hundred  men,  yet  it  produced  on  the  allies  the  effect  of  an  overthrow  : 
it  proved  that  the  French  troops  could  endure  fire  with  steadiness,  and 
repel  an  assault  with  bravery ;  and  it  destroyed  the  illusion  under  which 
both  armies  had  hitherto  labored — namely,  that  the  allied  troops,  when 
joined  on  equal  terms,  were  superior  to  the  French.  Indeed,  the  conduct 
of  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  both  in  this  action  and  in  the  movements  which 
for  three  weeks  preceded  it,  would  be  altogether  inexplicable,  if  the 
external  aspect  of  the  military  events  were  alone  considered.  The  truth 
is,  as  it  was  afterward  revealed,  that  during  this  time  a  secret  negotiation 
was  depending  between  the  Duke  and  Dumourier,  with  the  avowed 
object  of  obtaining  the  recognition  by  Dumourier  of  the  constitutional 
throne,  and  to  accomplish  a  junction  between  his  force  and  the  allies  to 
sustain  it.  The  Duke  was  quite  sincere  in  this  project,  but  it  soon  ap- 
peared that  Dumourier  was  not,  and  he  had  encouraged  the  proposal  and 
protracted  the  negotiations  merely  to  gain  time  for  the  better  organization 
of  his  forces.  This  accounts  for  the  Duke's  partial  operations  at  Valmy ; 
he  was  fearful  by  a  decided  battle  and  probable  victory  of  converting  a 
promised  ally  into  an  irreconcileable  opponent. 

No  sooner  was  the  action  terminated,  than  the  interchange  of  secret  mes- 
sengers became  more  active  than  ever.  Lombard,  the  private  secretary 
of  the  Duke,  allowed  himself  to  be  made  prisoner  in  disguise,  and  con- 
ducted the  negotiation.  The  Duke  insisted  on  the  immediate  liberation  of 
the  French  king,  and  the  reestablishment  of  a  constitutional  monarchy ; 
while  Dumourier  avowed  that,  anxious  as  he  was  to  accomplish  these  ob- 
jects, he  could  not  hope  to  bring  the  Convention  to  such  a  decision'  until 
the  allies  should  first  evacuate  the  French  territory  ;  and  he  reasoned  that 
after  rendering  such  signal  service  to  his  government,  they  would  natu- 
rally yield  to  his  influence  in  behalf  of  the  king :  on  the  other  hand,  should 
the  allies  refuse  this  preliminary  condition,  he  would  throw  all  his  energies 
into  the  scale  of  war,  which,  with  his  present  reenforcements,  he  was  well 
able  to  maintain.  Besides,  were  the  contest  continued,  the  lives  of  the 
king  and  the  whole  royal  family  would  be  sacrificed  to  the  resentment  of 
the  Convention. 

These  representations  were  so  well  put  by  Dumourier  and  sustained  by 
such  able  arguments,  that  the  allies  after  some  discussion,  in  which  the 
King  of  Prussia  strenuously  opposed  the  plan  of  Dumourier,  finally  con- 
sented to  retreat ;  agreeing  to  evacuate  the  fortresses  they  had  taken,  on 
condition  of  being  unmolested  on  their  homeward  march.  They  were  not 
long  in  discovering  that  they  had  been  trifled  with ;  but  in  the  mean  time, 
they  had  lost  all  their  advantages,  and  the  French  frontier  was  put  in  a 
state  of  defence. 

Dumourier,  having  thus  foiled  the  enemy  by  diplomacy  and  relieved  the 
country  from  the  danger  that  threatened  it  on  the  east,  found  himself  at 
liberty  to  make  a  new  attempt  on  Flanders. 

While  these  decisive  events  were  taking  place  in  the  central  provinces, 
operations  of  minor  importance,  though  material  to  the  issue  of  the  cam- 
paign, were  going  on  in  Alsace  and  the  Low  Countries.  The  French 
camp  at  Maulde  was  broken  up,  and  a  retreat  commenced  toward  the 
camp  at  Bruille,  a  strong  position  in  the  rear:  but  in  executing  this  move- 
ment, they  were,  on  the  14th  of  September,  attacked  and  completely 
routed  by  the  Austrians.  Encouraged  by  this  success,  the  Archduke 
Albert,  with  a  force  of  twenty-five  thousand  men,  undertook  the  siege  of 


28  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  tCnA*.  IV. 

Lisle,  one  of  the  strongest  towns  in  Europe,  and  which,  in  1708,  had  made 
a  glorious  defence  against  the  united  armies  of  Eugene  and  Marlborough. 
The  garrison  consisted  of  ten  thousand  men,  who,  with  their  commander, 
a  man  of  courage  and  ability,  were  devoted  to  the  cause  of  the  Republic. 
In  this  case,  little  success  could  be  anticipated  from  a  regular  siege,  but 
the  Austrians  endeavored  to  intimidate  the  garrison  by  a  bombardment, 
which  was  continued  night  and  day  for  a  whole  week.  The  soldiers, 
however,  in  their  bomb-proof  casements,  were  secure  from  this  terrible 
Btorm  which  fell  with  desolating  effect  on  the  inhabitants :  and  soon  after, 
the  arrival  of  General  Lamartiliere  and  the  approach  of  Dumourier  forced 
the  Austrians  to  raise  the  siege  and  withdraw  from  France.  This  affair, 
also,  estimated  by  its  results,  was  regarded  as  a  glorious  triumph  to  the 
French  arms,  and  inspired  the  Republican  troops  with  new  energy. 
Meanwhile,  General  Custine,  who  was  posted  near  Landau  with  seventeen 
thousand  Frenchmen,  undertook  an  offensive  movement  against  Spires, 
where  the  allies  had  collected  large  magazines.  By  a  rapid  advance,  he 
surrounded  and  made  prisoners  a  corps  of  three  thousand  men — an  event 
that  led  to  the  immediate  capture  of  Spires,  Worms  and  Frankenthal. 
Custine  next  moved,  at  the  head  of  an  army  now  reenforced  to  twenty-two 
thousand  men,  against  Mayence.  He  invested  that  important  fortress  on 
the  19th  of  October  and  on  the  21st,  by  reason  of  Jacobin  influence  and 
defection  in  the  garrison,  it  was  forced  to  capitulate.  The  allies  thus 
lost  their  only  fortified  post  on  the  Rhine. 

Dumourier  now  advanced  upon  Flanders  at  the  head  of  a  central  force 
of  forty  thousand  men,  in  the  highest  spirits  and  anticipating  nothing 
but  triumph  :  while  three  auxiliary  armies  moved  in  the  same  direction, 
amounting  together  to  sixty  thousand  men. 

The  Austrians  could  bring  to  oppose  Dumourier  but  eighteen  thousand 
men  :  they  were,  however,  intrenched  at  the  village  of  Jemappes  behind 
fourteen  redoubts  strengthened  by  all  the  resources  of  art  and  armed  by 
nearly  a  hundred  pieces  of  artillery  :  it  was  thought  that  the  difference 
in  position  of  the  respective  armies  nearly  atoned  for  their  disparity  in 
numbers,  and  both  parties,  with  equal  confidence,  resolved  on  a  general 
action. 

The  battle  commen'ced  at  daybreak  on  the  6th  of  November.  General 
Bournonville  led  the  first  attack  against  the  village  of  Cuesmes,  on  the  Aus- 
trian left.  A  sustained  fire  of  artillery  for  a  time  arrested  his  efforts,  but 
at  length  the  flank  of  Jemappes  was  turned  and  the  redoubts  on  the  left 
of  the  Austrian  position  were  carried  by  an  impetuous  assault  of  the 
French  infantry.  Dumourier  seized  this  moment  to  bring  his  whole 
centre  against  the  front  of  Jemappes.  He  moved  on  rapidly  and  with 
little  loss  till  he  reached  the  village,  where  his  columns  were  disturbed  and 
thrown  into  some  confusion  by  a  flank  charge  of  the  imperial  cavalry, 
while  the  leading  battalions,  checked  by  a  tremendous  fire  of  grapeshot, 
were  beginning  to  waver  at  the  foot  of  the  redoubts.  In  this  extremity,  a 
young  general,  rallying  the  broken  regiments  into  one  column,  placed 
himself  at  its  head,  and  renewed  the  attack  with  such  spirit  that  the  vil- 
lage and  redoubts  were  carried  and  the  Austrians  driven  at  once  from  their 
intrenchments  into  the  centre  of  the  field  beyond.  This  young  officer  was 
the  Duke  de  Chartres,  afterward  Louis  PHILIPPE,  king  of  the  French. 
Meantime,  Bournonville,  though  at  first  successful  on  the  right,  had  not 
followed  up  his  attack  with  sufficient  vigor;  the  Austrians  had  rallied, 


1792.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  29 

returned  to  the  charge,  and  Bournonville  began,  in  turn,  to  give  ground ; 
when  Dumourier  hastened  to  the  spot  and  rode  along  in  front  of  the  waver- 
ing  columns,  who  received  him  with  cries  of  vive  Dumourier  !  The  effect 
was  decisive :  the  Austrians  were  repulsed,  and  the  French  dragoons, 
taking  advantage  of  their  confusion,  charged  home  and  completely  routed 
them.  Dumourier  now  returned  to  the  centre  to  reenforce  the  Duke  de 
Chartres,  but  he  had  not  proceeded  far  when  an  aid-de-camp  met  him  with 
the  intelligence  that  the  battle  there,  as  well  as  on  the  left,  was  already 
won  and  the  Austrians  were  retiring  on  all  points  to  Mons.  The  Aus- 
trians lost  in  this  action  five  thousand  men  ;  but  they  saved  all  their  artil- 
lery except  fourteen  pieces  and  withdrew  from  the  field  in  good  order. 
The  French  loss  exceeded  six  thousand  men,  but  they  had  gained  a  vic- 
tory which  greatly  increased  the  moral  strength  of  their  army  and  in  fact 
led  to  the  immediate  conquest  of  the  whole  Netherlands ;  for  the  Austrians 
were  so  disheartened  by  the  defeat  of  Jemappes,  that  between  their  own 
want  of  conduct  and  the  Jacobin  influence  which  pervaded  their  garrisons, 
every  fortress  of  the  Low  Countries,  including  Antwerp  and  Namur,  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  French  before  the  middle  of  December. 

But  the  revolutionary  party  in  Flanders,  which  had  contributed  so  much 
to  the  success  of  the  French  arms,  soon  reaped  the  bitter  fruits  of  Repub- 
lican conquest.  The  French  Convention  issued  a  dacree  on  the  15th  of 
December,  proclaiming  in  their  conquered  provinces,  "  the  sovereignty 
of  the  people,  the  suppression  of  all  the  constituted  authorities,  subsisting 
taxes  and  imposts,  feudal  and  territorial  rights,  the  privileges  of  the  nobility 
and  exclusive  privileges  of  every  description."  Immediately  after  the 
issuing  of  this  decree,  Flanders  was  inundated  by  a  host  of  revolutionary 
agents,  with  "  liberty,"  "  patriotism."  and  "  protection"  on  their  tongues, 
and  violence,  confiscation  and  bloodshed  in  their  measures.  Danton,  La- 
croix  and  Carrier  were  at  the  head  of  this  band ;  and,  infusing  their  own 
infernal  energy  into  their  agents,  they  gave  the  inhabitants  of  Flanders 
a  foretaste  of  the  Reign  of  Terror. 

The  French  troops,  thus  successful  on  the  northern  and  eastern  frontier, 
and  also  (as  related  at  the  close  of  the  last  Chapter)  in  Piedmont  and 
Savoy  on  the  southeastern  side,  were  destined  to  some  reverses  on  the 
Upper  Rhine,  where  the  King  of  Prussia,  by  a  vigorous  assault,  took 
possession  of  Frankfort  and  slew  or  made  prisoners  its  entire  garrison, 
with  the  exception  of  two  hundred  men.  As  the  season  was  now  far  ad- 
vanced, however,  this  success  was  not  followed  up,  and  both  armies  went 
(into  winter-quarters. 
Thus  terminated  the  campaign  of  1792  ;  a  period  fraught  with  valuable 
instruction  for  the  statesman  and  the  soldier.  The  contagion  of  Repub- 
lican principles  had  gained  for  France  many  conquests,  but  the  severity 
of  Republican  rule  had  rendered  the  delusion  in  the  conquered  provinces 
as  short  lived  as  it  was  fallacious.  The  campaign  which  opened  under 
such  untoward  auspices,  had  been  marked  by  brilliant  success  on  the  part 
of  the  French  ;  but  it  was  evident  that  their  conquests  had  exceeded  their 
strength,  and  that  at  its  close,  their  affairs  in  many  quarters  were  de- 
clining. The  army  of  Dumourier  fell  into  the  most  disorderly  state, 
whole  battalions  having  deserted  their  colors  and  returned  home  or  spread 
themselves  as  banditti  over  the  vanquished  territory.  The  armies  of 
Bournonville  and  Custine  were  in  little  better  condition,  their  recent  fail, 
ures  having  gone  far  to  neutralize  the  effect  of  their  previous  success ; 


30  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CnAT.V^v 

while  the  troops  who  had  overrun  Savoy  and  Piedmont,  were  sufficing 
under  the  consequences  of  their  own  plunder  and  devastation  in  the  fiis 
tricts  where  they  were  quartered. 


CHAPTER    V. 

FRENCH  REPUBLIC FROM  THE  DEATH  OF  THE  KING  TO  THE  FALL  OP 

ROBESPIERRE. 

IT  is  necessary,  now,  to  resume  the  narrative  of  events  in  the  French 
Capital,  where  the  recent  death  of  the  king  had  disappointed  by  its  result* 
the  expectations  of  his  murderers,  and,  by  increasing  their  reciprocal 
hatred,  had  excited  them  to  renew  with  even  aggravated  feroci'v  their 
strife  of  violence,  outrage  and  blood. 

The  difficulty  of  procuring  subsistence  in  Paris — the  necessary  result 
of  revolutionary  convulsions — had  increased  to  an  alarming  degree  during 
the  months  of  February  and  March,  1793.  Dread  of  pillage  and  unwill- 
ingness of  the  cultivators  to  sell  their  commodities  for  payment  in  the  depre- 
ciated currency — for  the  issue  of  assignats  was  unlimited  and  confidence 
in  their  value  was  already  destroyed — rendered  abortive  the  efforts  of 
government  to  supply  the  public  necessities.  At  the  same  time,  the  price 
of  every  article  of  consumption  increased  so  greatly  as  to  excite  the  most 
vehement  clamors  among  the  people  and  soon  inflamed  them  to  fury.  A 
tumultuous  body  surrounded  the  hall  of  the  Jacobins  urging  them  to  peti- 
tion the  Convention  for  a  law  reducing  the  prices  of  provisions,  the  penalty 
of  which  should  be  death.  The  demand  was  refused  ;  and  Marat,  on  me 
following  morning,  published  a  violent  tirade  in  his  journal  directly  re- 
commending the  pillage  of  the  shops.  The  populace  were  not  slow  in 
following  his  suggestion,  and  many  shops  were  accordingly  broken  open 
and  ransacked.  All  the  public  bodies  were  filled  with  consternation  at 
these  disorders.  The  shop-keepers  especially,  who  had  been  at  the  first 
such  decided  revolutionists,  were  in  despair  when  anarchy  approached 
their  own  doors. 

In  the  midst  of  this  convulsion,  the  Jacobins,  despite  the  opposition  of 
the  Girondists,  organized  a  Revolutionary  Tribunal  which  was  empowered 
to  "take  cognizance  of  every  attempt  against  liberty,  equality,  the  unity 
and  indivisibility  of  the  Republic,  the  internal  and  external  security  of 
the  state,  all  conspiracies  tending  to  the  reestablishment  of  royalty,  or 
hostile  to  the  sovereignty  of  the  people,  whoever  might  be  the  parties 
accused."  The  members  of  the  jury,  the  judges,  and  the  public  accuser 
were  chosen  by  the  Convention  ;  the  Tribunal  decided  on  the  opinion  of  a 
majority  of  the  jury ;  the  decision  of  the  court  was  without  appeal :  and 
the  effects  of  the  condemned  were  confiscated  to  the  Republic.  The  pub- 
lic accuser  was  Fouquier  Tinville,  and  his  name  soon  became  as  terrible 
as  that  of  Robespierre. 

The  creation  of  this  fearful  Tribunal  gave  the  greatest  alarm  to  the 
Girondists,  and  they  found  it  indispensable  from  mere  self-defence  to  give 
some  check  to  the  mad  career  of  the  Jacobins.  They  accordingly,  by  a 


1793.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  31 

great  effort,  caused  Marat  to  be  sent  for  trial  to  the  Revolutionary  Tribu- 
nal, on  a  charge  of  having  instigated  the  people  to  demand  the  punishment 
of  the  national  representatives.  This  was  the  first  instance  of  destroying 
the  privilege  of  inviolability  of  the  members  of  the  Convention ;  but  the  Ja- 
cobins were  not  idle  in  counteracting  it.  Their  leaders  accompanied 
Marat  to  the  Tribunal,  influenced  its  deliberations,  obtained  his  acquit- 
tal,  and  brought  him  back  in  triumph.  An  immense  multitude  followed 
them  to  the  hall,  crowded  into  it  with  shouts,  and  seated  themselves 
in  the  vacant  places  of  the  deputies. 

Defeated  in  this  attempt,  the  Girondists  saw  that  there  was  no  time  to 
be  lost  in  making  some  new  organization.  Guadet,  one  of  their  most 
energetic  members,  rose  in  his  place  and  proposed  to  "  annul  the  author, 
ities  of  Paris,  to  replace  the  municipality  by  the  presidents  of  the  Sections, 
to  unite  the  supplementary  members  of  the  Convention  at  Bourns,  and  to 
announce  this  resolution  to  the  departments  by  extraordinary  couriers." 
These  decisive  measures,  if  adopted,  would  have  destroyed  the  designs 
and  influence  of  the  Jacobins  ;  but  they  would  also  have  occasioned  a 
civil  war,  and,  by  dividing  the  centre  of  action,  augmented  the  danger  of 
foreign  subjugation.  Barere  saw  this,  and  proposed  "  a  commission  of 
twelve  persons  to  watch  over  the  designs  of  the  municipality,  to  examine 
into  the  recent  disorders,  and  arrest  their  authors,"  but'  he  denounced  the 
measures  of  Guadet  as  a  virtual  declaration  that  they  were  unequal  to 
combat  the  influence  of  the  municipality.  This  proposal  was  adopted. 

The  Commission  of  Twelve  commenced  their  proceedings  with  vigor. 
They  were  aware  that  a  conspiracy  against  the  Girondists  in  the  Conven- 
tion had  for  some  time  been  organized  in  Paris  by  the  club  of  Cordeliers, 
who  demanded  the  proscription  of  three  hundred  deputies.  The  Commis- 
sion obtained  evidence  of  this  conspiracy  and  arrested  one  of  its  leaders, 
Hebert.  The  municipality  denounced  this  arrest  and  invited  the  people 
to  revolt.  Some  of  the  most  violent  of  the  Revolutionary  Sections  followed 
the  example,  while  the  more  moderate  ones  who  held  out  for  the  Conven- 
tion were  besieged  by  clamorous  bands  of  armed  men. 

On  the  25th  of  May,  a  furious  multitude  assembled  around  the  hall  of 
the  Convention,  and  sent  a  deputation  to  the  bar  of  that  body,  demanding 
in  the  most  threatening  terms  the  suppression  of  the  Commission  of  Twelve 
and  the  liberation  of  Hebert.  Isnard,  president  of  the  Assembly,  a  cour- 
ageous Girondist,  replied  indignantly,  refusing  the  demand  and  averring 
that  if  the  Convention  were  again  to  be  outraged  by  an  armed  faction, 
France  would  rise  as  one  man  to  avenge  their  cause,  Paris  would  be  des- 
troyed, and  strangers  would  soon  inquire  on  which  side  of  the  Seine  it 
formerly  stood. 

For  the  time,  the  conspirators  were  baffled  and  forced  to  retire  :  but  they 
resolved  to  proceed  to  insurrection.  The  remainder  of  that  day  and  the 
whole  of  the  next  was  spent  in  agitation  and  in  exciting  the  people  by 
inflammatory  harangues  ;  and  such  was  their  success,  that  by  the  morn- 
ing  of  the  27th,  eight-and-twenty  of  the  Sections  were  assembled  to  peti- 
tion for  the  liberation  of  Hebert.  The  Commission  of  Twelve  could  now 
rely  on  the  armed  force  of  three  Sections  only  ;  yet  these  hastened  on  the 
first  summons  to  the  support  of  the  Convention,  and  ranged  themselves  with 
their  arms  and  artillery  around  the  outside  of  the  hall.  But  an  immense 
multitude  crowded  about  their  ranks  ;  cries  of"  death  to  the  Girondists!" 
resounded  on  all  sides,  and  the  hearts  of  the  most  resolute  began  to  quail. 


32  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  tCHAP.  V 

Within  the  hall,  the  Girondists  with  difficulty  maintained  their  ground 
against  the  Jacobins,  until  Garat,  the  Minister  of  the  Interior,  entered 
and  deprived  them  of  their  last  resource — their  position  of  unbending  firm- 
ness. When  called  on  to  report  the  state  of  Paris,  he  declared  that  he 
could  find  no  evidence  or  appearance  of  a  conspiracy,  and  in  his  judg- 
ment the  Convention  was  threatened  with  no  danger  but  a  mischievous 
spirit  within  themselves  to  create  dissension.  It  is  but  justice  to  Garat 
to  say,  that  he  had  been  deceived  into  making  this  report  by  the  artful 
misrepresentations  of  Pache,  the  mayor  of  Paris.  Astounded  by  this 
report,  so  entirely  the  reverse  of  what  they  anticipated  and  coming  as  it 
did  from  a  minister  of  their  own  choice,  the  Girondists  were  struck  dumb ; 
the  greater  part  of  them  withdrew  at  once  and  the  courageous  Isnard  was 
forced  to  yield  the  chair  to  Herault  de  Sechelles.  The  motion  was  then 
put,  that  the  Commission  of  Twelve  be  abolished  and  Hebert  set  at  liberty : 
it  was  carried  at  midnight  amid  the  shouts  of  the  mob,  who  climbed  over 
the  rails  and  voted  on  the  benches  of  the  Mountain  with  the  Jacobins. 

The  Girondists,  on  the  following  morning,  ashamed  of  their  untimely 
desertion,  assembled  in  force  and  reversed  the  decree  of  the  Jacobins  by 
a  decided  majority.  The  agitation,  which  had  begun  to  subside,  was  now 
renewed  with  increased  violence.  The  leaders  of  the  Jacobins  organized 
a  new  insurrection,  collected  a  large  body  of  armed  men  whom  they 
placed  under  the  command  of  Henriot,  and  on  the  morning  of  the  31st  of 
May,  marched  to  the  Tuileries  where  the  Convention  was  assembled. 
Under  these  auspices,  a  new  petition  was  presented  demanding  the  sup- 
pression of  the  Commission,  a  law  reducing  the  price  of  bread,  and  the 
proscription  of  twenty-two  leaders  of  the  Gironde.  The  debate  that  en- 
sued was  violent  to  the  last  degree ;  but  the  stern  energy  of  the  Jacobins 
supported  by  the  armed  mob  in  part  prevailed,  and  a  majority  voted  to 
suppress  the  Commission. 

But  the  Revolutionists  had  no  intention  of  stopping  here.  On  the  even- 
ing of  that  day,  Varennes  declared  in  the  club  of  the  Jacobins  that  the 
work  was  only  half  done,  and  that  it  must  be  completed  before  the 
ardor  of  the  people  had  time  to  cool.  Additional  preparations  were  there- 
fore made,  and  at  daybreak  on  the  2nd  of  June,  all  Paris  was  under  arms. 
The  forces  now  assembled  were  formidable  indeed.  •  One  hundred  and 
sixty  pieces  of  cannon  manned  by  gunners  with  lighted  matches  in  their 
hands,  resembled  rather  the  preliminaries  for  assaulting  a  powerful  for- 
tress than  demonstrations  against  an  unarmed  legislature.  By  ten  o'clock 
the  avenues  to  the  Tuileries  were  blockaded  by  dense  columns  of  artillery, 
and  eighty  thousand  armed  men  surrounded  the  defenceless  representa- 
tives of  the  people. 

Again  the  debate  grew  wild  and  vehement,  and  the  whole  Assembly 
was  in  the  utmost  agitation,  when  Lacroix,  one  of  its  members  and  an  in- 
timate friend  of  Danton,  entered  the  hall  with  a  haggard  air  and  announced 
that  the  troops  at  the  gate  had  refused  to  let  him  pass  out,  and  that  the 
Convention  was  in  fact  imprisoned  within  the  walls  of  the  Tuileries.  With 
these  words,  he  had  unconsciously  proclaimed  the  secret  of  the  conspira- 
tors :  the  insurrection  was  not  conducted  by  Danton  and  the  Mountain, 
but  by  Robespierre  and  the  municipality.  Danton  rose  at  once  and  pro- 
posed that  the  members  should  go  forth  in  a  body  to  resent  this  insult,  and 
the  president  accordingly  led  the  way,  followed  by  the  whole  Convention. 
They  were  met  by  Henriot  at  the  principal  gate  leading  to  the  Place  du 


1793.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  33 

Carre  jsel,  who  demanded  the  surrender  of  four-and-twenty  of  the  culpable 
deputies.  This  was  indignantly  refused,  when  Henriot  replied  "  Cannon, 
iers!  to  your  guns!"  Two  guns  charged  with  grapeshot  were  imme- 
diately brought  to  bear  on  the  members  of  the  Convention,  who  instinctively 
shrunk  back,  and  after  vainly  attempting  to  escape  by  the  other  gates, 
returned  in  dismay  to  the  hall.  Marat  followed  them  at  the  head  of 
a  body  of  brigands,  crying,  "  In  the  name  of  the  people,  I  order  you  to 
enter,  deliberate  and  obey !"  When  the  members  were  seated,  Couthon 
rose  and  proposed  that  thirty  of  the  Girondists,  whose  names  he  called 
over,  should  be  put  under  arrest.  A  great  portion  of  the  members  refused 
to  vote,  and  this  suicidal  measure  was  carried  by  the  sole  voice  of  the 
Mountain  and  a  few  of  its  adherents.  The  multitude  now  cheered  and 
dispersed :  their  victory  was  complete ;  the  municipality  of  Paris  had 
overthrown  the  National  Convention. 

The  proscribed  members  were  at  first  put  under  arrest  in  their  own 
houses,  and  several  found  the  means  of  escape  before  the  order  was  issued 
for  their  imprisonment :  but  the  greater  part  were  consigned  to  the  prison 
and  thence  conducted  to  the  scaffold.  The  political  career  of  the  Giron- 
dists was  now  terminated :  thenceforward,  they  were  known  only  as  in- 
dividuals by  their  resolute  conduct  in  adversity  and  death. 

The  aspect  of  the  Convention,  after  this  event,  was  entirely  changed : 
the  Jacobins  had  absolute  control  of  its  proceedings,  and  all  decrees  pro- 
posed by  them  were  adopted  in  silence  without  any  discussion.  The 
practical  administration  of  affairs  was  lodged  in  the  hands  of  the  Com- 
mittee of  Public  Safety  which  had  been  created  some  months  before  ;  the 
superintendence  of  the  police  was  vested  in  a  Committee  of  General 
Safety ;  while  the  internal  regulation  of  the  city  was  confided  to  the 
municipality  of  Paris.  Each  of  these  departments  was  invested  with 
despotic  power  and  executed  its  prerogative  with  terrible  energy. 

Opinions  throughout  the  provinces  of  France  were  greatly  divided  at 
this  crisis.  The  magistracy  of  the  cities  had  for  the  most  part,  under  the 
operation  of  universal  suffrage,  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Jacobins,  and 
that  faction  had  organized  clubs  in  almost  every  corner  of  the  kingdom,  so 
that  the  preponderance  of  effective  power  was  in  their  hands :  yet  the 
majority  of  numbers  in  France  was  undoubtedly  on  the  opposite  side. 
The  catastrophe  of  the  2nd  of  June  threw  the  whole  of  the  southern  depart- 
ments into  a  flame.  At  Lyons,  Marseilles  and  Bordeaux,  violent  agitations 
ensued  and  the  outrage  of  arresting  the  deputies  excited  among  the  Giron- 
dists the  most  lively  indignation.  On  the  13th  of  June,  the  department 
of  Eure  gave  the  signal  of  insurrection,  a  great  part  of  Normandy  foLo.ved 
the  example,  and  all  the  departments  of  Brittany  were  in  arms.  In  short, 
so  rapidly  did  the  disaffection  spread,  seventy  departments  were  in  a  state 
of  insurrection  and  but  fifteen  remained  true  to  the  Jacobin  interest. 
The  want  of  an  efficient  organization,  however,  prevented  this  general 
outbreak  from  accomplishing  any  important  result :  and  as  the  Convention 
put  forth  all  its  energies  to  maintain  its  supremacy,  the  insurrection  was 
crushed  almost  as  speedily  as  it  arose. 

The  Committee  of  Public  Safety  thenceforward  exercised  all  the  powers 
of  the  government.  It  appointed  and  dismissed  the  generals,  the  judges 
and  the  juries,  brought  forward  all  public  measures  in  the  Convention  and 
launched  its  thunder  against  every  opposing  faction.  By  means  of  its 
commissioners,  it  ruled  the  provinces,  generals  and  armies  with  absolute 


34  HISTORY    OF     EUROPE.  [CHAP.  V 

sway  ;  and,  soon  after,  the  law  of  suspected  individuals  placed  the  personal 
freedom  of  every  subject  at  its  disposal :  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal  ren- 
dered it  the  master  of  every  life  ;  the  requisitions,  master  of  every  for- 
tune ;  and  the  accusations  in  the  Convention,  master  of  every  member 
of  the  Legislature. 

The  law  of  suspected  persons  declared  all  those  liable  to  arrest,  who 
"  by  their  conduct,  their  relations,  their  conversation,  or  their  writing, 
have  shown  themselves  the  partisans  of  tyranny  or  the  enemies  of  free- 
dom ;  all  those  who  have  not  discharged  their  debts  to  the  country  ;  all 
nobles ;  the  husbands,  wives,  parents,  children,  brothers,  sisters,  or  agents 
of  emigrants  who  have  not  incessantly  manifested  their  devotion  to  the 
Revolution."  Under  this  law,  no  one  had  any  chance  of  safety  but  in 
going  to  the  utmost  length  of  revolutionary  fury. 

The  Revolutionary  Committees  were  declared  the  judges  of  the  persons 
liable  to  arrest.  Their  numbers  augmented  with  frightful  rapidity.  Paris 
soon  had  forty-eight,  and  every  village  throughout  the  country  had  one  or 
more.  Five  hundred  thousand  persons  drawn  from  the  dregs  of  society  to 
serve  on  these  Committees,  disposed  of  the  life  and  liberty  of  every  man 
in  France.  No  better  description  can  be  given  of  the  tyranny  of  these 
despotic  Commissioners  than  is  furnished  by  the  report  of  one  of  their  num. 
ber  to  the  Convention.  "  Everywhere,"  said  Laplanche,  "  I  have  made 
terror  the  order  of  the  day ;  everywhere  I  have  imposed  heavy  contribu- 
tions on  the  rich  and  the  aristocrats.  From  Orleans  I  have  extracted  fifty 
thousand  francs ;  and  in  two  days  at  Bourges,  I  raised  two  millions. 
Where  I  could  not  appear  in  person,  my  delegates  have  supplied  my 
place.  I  have  dismissed  all  the  Federalists,  dismissed  all  the  suspected, 
put  all  the  Sans  Culottes  in  authority.  I  have  forcibly  married  all  the 
priests,  and  everywhere  e^ctrified  the  hearts  and  inflamed  the  courage 
of  the  people.  I  have  passed  in  review  numerous  battalions  of  the  National 
Guard,  to  confirm  their  Republican  spirit,  and  guillotined  numbers  of  the 
Royalists.  In  a  word,  I  have  completely  fulfilled  my  mandate  and  acted 
everywhere  as  a  warm  partisan  of  the  Mountain  and  faithful  represerita 
tive  of  the  Revolution." 

To  obliterate  as  far  as  possible  all  former  recollections,  the  Convention 
established  a  new  era,  changed  the  division  of  the  years,  and  gave  new 
names  to  the  months  and  days.  The  ancient  and  sacred  institution  of 
the  Sabbath  was  abolished  ;  the  period  of  rest  fixed  at  every  tenth  day; 
time  was  measured  by  divisions  of  ten  days,  and  the  year  divided  into 
twelve  equal  months,  beginning  on  the  22nd  of  September.  These 
changes  were  preparatory  to  a  general  abolition  of  the  Christian  religion 
and  a  substitution  of  the  worship  of  Reason  in  its  stead. 

While  these  events  were  in  progress,  the  arm  of  female  enthusiasm 
arrested  the  course  of  one  of  the  tyrants.  Charlotte  Corday,  a  native  of 
Rouen,  five-and-twenty  years  of  age,  conceived  a  project  of  restoring  lib- 
erty  to  her  country  by  the  assassination  of  Marat,  and  repaired  to  Paris 
for  that  purpose.  On  a  pretence  of  business  of  the  state,  she  gained 
admission  to  his  presence  while  he  was  in  a  bath  and  stabbed  him  with  a 
knife.  He  uttered  a  loud  shriek  and  expired,  when  some  soldiers  rushed 
in,  seized  Charlotte  and  conducted  her  to  prison.  On  her  trial,  she  inter- 
rupted the  witnesses,  saying,  "  These  formalities  are  unnecessary  ;  1  killed 
Marat."  She  was  condemned  to  death  without  delay,  and  underwent  the 
penalty  of  her  crime  with  the  same  courage  as  she  exhibited  in  com- 
mitting it. 


1793/  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  35 

RoDGspierre  and  his  associates  made  the  assassination  of  Marat  the 
ground  for  increased  severity  toward  the  broken  remains  of  the  Girondists, 
seventy-three  of  whom  were  speedily  proscribed  and  thrown  into  prison. 

Marie  Antoinette,  the  beautiful  and  accomplished  Queen  of  France,  was 
the  next  victim.  Since  the  death  of  the  king,  the  unfortunate  royal  family 
had  been  closely  confined  in  the  Temple  and  subjected  to  new  insults  and 
deprivations.  Their  fare  was  reduced  to  the  humblest  kind  ;  and  wicker 
lamps  were  the  only  lights  and  the  coarsest  habiliments  the  only  dress, 
accorded  to  them.  The  young  prince  was  next  separated  from  his  mother 
and  placed  in  solitary  confinement  under  the  charge  of  Simon,  "  What 
am  I  to  do  with  the  child  ?"  said  Simon  to  the  Committee  :  "  banish  him  ?" 
"No."  "Stab  him?"  "No."  "  Poison  him  ?"  "No."  "  What  then  ?" 
"  Get  rid  of  him  f"  This  direction  was  too  faithfully  executed.  Deprived 
of  air,  exercise,  occupation,  the  ill-fated  prince  pined  away  and  died. 

Meantime,  the  queen,  after  having  been  for  a  while  also  subjected  to 
solitary  confinement  in  a  dark  and  loathsome  cell,  was  brought  to  trial. 
Few  formalities  were  observed  on  this  occasion.  Some  witnesses  were 
called,  but  none  of  them  could  or  would  testify  anything  against  her, 
excepting  the  monsters  Hebert  and  Simon :  but  she  was  not  the  less  con- 
demned by  her  murderous  judges.  She  was  conducted  to  the  place  of 
execution  on  the  16th  of  October,  and  died  with  a  firmness  worthy  of 
her  race. 

The  execution  of  the  queen  was  followed  by  a  measure  of  singular 
wantonness  and  barbarity :  namely,  the  violation  of  the  sepulchres  of  the 
kings  of  France  and  the  destruction  of  the  monuments  of  antiquity  through- 
out the  kingdom.  The  Convention  next  proceeded  formally  to  abjure 
Christianity ;  or,  in  their  own  phrase,  "  to  dethrone  the  King  of  Heaven 
as  well  as  the  monarchs  of  the  earth."  This  monstrous  act  was  consum- 
mated by  the  Assembly  with  forms  and  ceremonies,  after  which  the 
churches  were  stripped  of  their  ornaments  and  all  their  plate  was  confis- 
cated. The  worship  of  Reason  was  next  established,  and  the  goddess  of 
the  faith  inaugurated  in  the  person  of  a  naked  female  of  abandoned  char- 
acter, who  was  mounted  on  a  magnificent  car,  conducted  in  triumph  to 
the  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame,  and  there  worshipped  by  the  infatuated  mob. 

The  services  of  religion  were  now  universally  abandoned,  and  the  pul- 
pits deserted  throughout  the  revolutionized  districts;  baptisms  ceased; 
tho  burial  service  was  no  longer  heard  ;  the  sick  received  no  communion; 
the  dying,  no  consolation.  The  village  bells  were  silent;  the  Sabbath 
was  obliterated ;  infancy  entered  the  world  without  a  blessing,  and  age 
left  it  without  hope.  On  every  tenth  day,  a  Revolutionary  preacher 
ascended  the  pulpit  and  preached  atheism  to  the  bewildered  multitude. 
On  all  the  public  cemeteries  was  placed  this  inscription,  "  Death  is  an 
eternal  sleep."  At  the  same  time,  the  most  sacred  relations  of  life  were 
placed  on  a  new  .footing.  Marriage  was  declared  a  civil  contract,  binding 
only  during  the  pleasure  of  the  contracting  parties.  A  decree  of  the  Con- 
vention also  suppressed  the  academies,  public  schools  and  colleges,  inclu- 
ding those  of  medicine  and  surgery.  And  in  this  general  havoc,  even  the 
establishments  of  charity  were  not  safe.  The  revenues  of  the  hospitals 
and  humane  institutions  were  confiscated  and  their  domains  seized  as  part 
of  the  national  property. 

The  Jacobins  next  proceeded  to  destroy  their  former  friends  and  the 
^rliest  supporters  of  the  Revolution.     Bailly,  Custine,  and  the  Duke 

6 


36  HISTORYOFEUROPE  [CHAF.  V. 

Orleans,  with  many  others  of  less  note,  were  successively  led  to  the  scaf- 
fold ;  and  ere  long  Robespierre,  finding  his  individual  plans  and  aggrand- 
izement impeded  by  his  rival,  managed  to  cause  the  accusation  and  arrest 
of  Danton,  with  some  other  powerful  antagonists.  This  last  measure  pro- 
duced  a  violent  agitation  in  Paris,  and  some  attempt  was  made  at  a  rescue, 
but  the  power  of  Robespierre  was  absolute  for  the  time,  and  Danton  and 
Desmoulins  were  brought  to  trial.  Here,  they  evinced  their  wonted  firm- 
ness. Danton,  being  interrogated  by  the  president  concerning  his  age  and 
profession,  replied,  "  My  name  is  Danton,  well  known  in  the  Revolution ; 
my  age  is  thirty-five  ;  my  abode  will  soon  be  in  nonentity,  and  my  name 
will  live  in  the  pantheon  of  history."  Desmoulins,  in  reply  to  the  same 
question,  said  he  was  of  the  same  age  "  as  the  Sans  Culotte,  Jesus  Christ, 
when  he  died."  They  displayed  equal  hardihood  in  their  defence,  and 
some  of  the  Convention  were  not  a  little  moved  by  their  denunciations  : 
but  the  influence  of  Robespierre  at  last  prevailed,  and  they  were  con- 
demned. In  these  cases,  as  in  all  the  trials  of  the  period,  neither  crime 
nor  proof  were  essential  to  conviction :  many  that  fell  well  deserved  to 
die  ;  but  for  both  innocent  and  guilty  the  real  question  was,  not  whether 
the  parties  had  committed  a  crime,  but  whether  a  majority  of  the  Con- 
vention desired  their  death. 

The  execution  of  Danton  was  followed  by  immediate  and  unqualified  sub- 
mission in  every  part  of  France ;  and  Robespierre  became  in  truth  the 
sole  dictator  of  the  Republic.  The  vigor  of  his  uncontrolled  sway  was 
soon  felt.  From  an  estimate  made  under  his  direction,  it  was  ascertained 
that  seven  thousand  prisoners,  consisting  of  men,  women  and  children,  were 
on  various  pretexts  now  confined  in  the  prisons  of  Paris,  while  the  total 
throughout  France  exceeded  two  hundred  thousand.  As  this  number 
involved  great  expense  and  inconvenience  to  the  government,  and  the 
present  system  of  arrest  was  fast  increasing  it,  it  became  necessary  to 
inspire  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal  with  new  energy  that,  by  accelerating 
the  movements  of  the  guillotine,  the  prisons  might  be  relieved  of  their 
accumulating  burdens.  The  number  of  executions,  in  Paris  alone,  was 
therefore  raised  to  fifty  and  finally  to  eighty  in  a  day :  a  trench  was  dug 
as  far  as  the  Place  St.  Antoine  to  carry  off*  the  blood  of  the  victims,  and 
it  required  the  constant  labor  of  four  men  to  keep  it  in  order. 

The  insolence  of  power  and  the  atrocious  cruelty  of  Revolutionary 
revenge  were,  if  possible,  more  strongly  evinced  in  the  provinces  than  in 
the  metropolis.  Le  Brun  especially  distinguished  himself  in  the  northern 
districts,  by  the  aggravated  character  as  well  as  by  the  number  of  his 
butcheries  :  upward  of  two  thousand  persons  were  executed  by  his  orders 
in  the  city  of  Arras.  The  career  of  Carrier  at  Nantes  was  still  more 
relentless.  He  caused  five  hundred  children  of  both  sexes,  the  eldest  of 
whom  was  not  fourteen  years  old,  to  be  led  out  into  one  place  and  shot. 
So  deplorable  a  scene  was  never  before  witnessed.  The  emallness  of  their 
stature  caused  most  of  the  bullets,  at  the  first  discharge,  to  fly  over  their 
heads — for  the  soldier  in  regular  service  is  taught  to  fire  on  the  level  of 
his  own  shoulder,  and  the  troops  on  this  occasion  did  so  from  the  force  of 
habit.  Immediately,  the  children  broke  their  bonds,  rushed  into  the  ranks 
of  their  executioners,  clung  around  their  knees  and  prayed  for  mercy : 
but  nothing  could  soften  these  assassins,  and  the  helpless  innocents  were 
slaughtered  at  their  feet.  At  Lyons,  other  modes  of  butchery  were  in- 
troduced by  Collot  d'Herbois.  Sixty  captives  were  first  placed  in  a  line 


1794.1  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  37 

by  the  side  of  a  trench  dug  for  their  graves,  and  two  pieces  of  cannon 
loaded  with  grape  and  so  placed  as  to  enfilade  the  line,  were  discharged 
upon  them :  those  who  did  not  fall  or  were  only  wounded  by  the  shot,  were 
then  dispatched  by  the  gendarmes  with  sabres.  On  the  following  day, 
more  than  two  hundred  prisoners  were  taken  into  a  meadow,  fastened  to 
each  other  with  cords  and  dispatched  by  musketry.  These  fusillades 
were  continued  for  some  days,  and  in  the  mean  time  the  guillotine  was  in 
active  operation. 

But  there  is  a  limit  to  human  suffering  ;  an  hour  when  indignant  nature 
will  no  longer  submit,  and  courage  arises  out  of  despair.  That  avenging 
hour  was  fast  approaching.  The  lengthened  files  of  prisoners  daily  led 
to  the  scaffold  had  long  excited  the  commiseration  of  the  better  classes  in 
Paris :  the  shops  in  the  Rue  St.  Honore  were  shut  and  its  pavement  de- 
serted when  the  melancholy  procession,  on  its  regular  route  to  the  guillo- 
tine, passed  along :  and  the  people  at  length  became  alarmed  at  the  rapid 
progress  and  evident  descent  of  the  proscriptions.  While  the  aristocrats 
and  nobility  were  alone  condemned,  they  looked  on  at  first  with  joy,  and 
afterward  with  comparative  indifference ;  but  now  the  extending  grasp 
of  the  tyrant  approached  their  own  doors,  and  they  began  to  deliberate  on 
the  possibility  and  the  means  of  assailing  Robespierre  in  the  height  of  his 
power.  The  majority  of  the  Convention  themselves  adopted  these  views ; 
and  Robespierre,  aware  of  some  hostile  movement  but  ignorant  of  its  ex. 
tent,  prepared  for  a  trial  of  strength  with  his  antagonists.  He  communi- 
cated his  suspicions  and  purposes  to  the  most  trusty  Jacobin  leaders,  and 
at  length  an  insurrection  was  organized  to  break  out  on  the  27th  of  July. 
The  leaders  of  the  Convention  were  not  idle :  they  spent  the  night  of  the 
26th  in  planning  their  measures,  and  before  daybreak  were  all  firmly 
united  for  the  overthrow  of  the  tyrant. 

At  an  early  hour  on  the  morning  of  the  27th,  the  benches  were  thronged 
by  the  deputies,  and  the  leaders  passed  around  from  one  member  to  another 
to  confirm  them  in  their  bold  resolution.  At  noon,  Robespierre  entered 
the  hall  and  took  his  station  near  the  tribune,  in  front,  so  that  he  might 
intimidate  his  adversaries  by  his  looks :  but  notwithstanding  the  extent  of 
his  preparations,  he  was  daunted  by  the  appearance  of  the  Assembly  :  his 
knees  trembled,  the  color  fled  from  his  lips,  and  he  seemed  already  to 
anticipate  his  fate. 

His  minion  and  advocate,  St.  Just,  took  the  lead  by  denouncing  his 
enemies ;  but  he  was  interrupted  by  Tallien,  who  replied  in  a  speech  of 
vehement  eloquence,  boldly  recommended  extreme  measures,  and  ended 
by  drawing  a  dagger  from  his  bosom  and  protesting,  that  if  the  Convention 
hesitated  to  pass  a  decree  of  accusation  against  Robespierre,  he  would 
himself  stab  him  where  he  sat. 

During  this  speech,  Robespierre  sat  motionless  with  terror,  and  at  its 
conclusion  he  strove  in  vain  to  obtain  a  hearing :  the  president,  Thuriot, 
whom  he  had  often  threatened  with  death,  constantly  drowned  his  voice 
by  ringing  the  bell.  Various  cries  of  appeal  on  the  one  hand  and  exe- 
cration on  the  other  ensued  ;  but  at  length,  Robespierre,  Le  Bas,  Couthon} 
St.  Just,  and  others  were  by  a  unanimous  vote  put  under  arrest  and  sent 
to  prison :  the  Assembly  then  broke  up  at  five  o'clock  in  the  afternoon. 
No  sooner  were  the  partisans  of  Robespierre  aware  of  his  arrest,  than  they 
sounded  the  tocsin,  mustered  their  forces,  and,  proceeding  to  the  prison, 
liberated  and  bore  him  in  triumph  to  the  Hotel  de  Ville.  The  Conven- 


38  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  fCnAF.V 

tion  reassembled  at  seven  o'clock,  resolved  to  maintain  their  ground  in 
defiance  of  consequences.  They  were  soon  informed  that  the  artillery 
under  Henriot,  who  had  also  been  liberated,  was  now  arrayed  against 
them,  and  the  guns  were  at  that  moment  pointed  toward  the  hall.  In  this 
extremity,  Tallien  and  his  friends  acted  with  the  firmness  which  in  revo- 
lutions so  often  proves  successful.  He  instantly  recommended  several 
energetic  measures  which  were  as  promptly  adopted,  and  messengers 
were  dispatched  to  enforce  them,  when  Henriot  ordered  the  artillery  to 
fire  on  the  Assembly.  The  fate  of  France  hung  on  the  decision  of  these 
men  ;  and,  happily,  they  refused  to  obey  the  order.  The  aspect  of  things 
was  now  entirely  changed,  and  the  Convention  became  the  assailants. 
The  National  Guard  declared  itself  in  their  favor,  marched  to  the  Hotel 
de  Ville,  overbore  all  resistance,  and  Meda,  with  a  few  files  of  soldiers, 
rushed  into  the  apartment  where  the  liberated  prisoners  were  assembled. 
Robespierre  was  sitting  by  a  table,  and  Mejla  discharged  a  pistol  at  him, 
which  broke  his  under  jaw,  but  did  not  inflict  a  mortal  wound.  Le  Bas 
shot  himself  and  the  rest  were  taken.  The  Revolutionary  Tribunal  made 
but  short  work  with  the  trial,  and  the  prisoners  were  all  condemned. 

On  the  morning  of  July  29th,  all  Paris  was  in  motion  to  witness  the 
tyrant's  death.  Twenty  of  his  comrades  were  executed  before  him.  When 
he  ascended  the  scaffold,  the  executioner  tore  the  bandage  from  his  face, 
the  lower  jaw  fell  on  his  breast,  and  he  uttered  a  yell  which  filled  every 
one  with  horror.  He  was  then  placed  under  the  axe,  and  the  last  sounds 
which  reached  his  ears  were  the  exulting  shouts  of  the  multitude. 

Thus  terminated  the  Reign  of  Terror  :  a  period  fraught  with  more  polit- 
ical instruction  than  any  other  period  of  equal  duration  since  the  beginning 
of  the  world.  The  extent  to  which  blood  was  shed  during  its  continuance 
will  hardly  be  credited  by  future  ages :  but  it  is  correctly  stated  that  the 
number  of  victims  reached  one  million,  twenty-two  thousand,  three  hundred 
and  fifty-one.  Of  this  number,  eighteen  thousand  six  hundred  and  three 
were  guillotined  by  the  order  of  the  Revolutionary  Tribunals ;  thirty-two 
thousand  were  victims  under  Carrier,  at  Nantes ;  thirty-one  thousand, 
at  Lyons ;  three  thousand  four  hundred  women  died  of  premature  child- 
birth ;  three  hundred  and  forty-eight  in  childbirth,  from  grief;  and  there 
were  slain,  during  the  war  in  La  Vendee  (of  which  an  account  will  pre- 
sently be  given,)  nine  hundred  thousand  men,  fifteen  thousand  women, 
and  twenty -two  thousand  children.  In  this  enumeration  are  not  com- 
prehended the  massacres  at  Versailles ;  at  the  Abbey,  the  Carmes  and 
other  prisons  on  the  2nd  of  September ;  the  victims  shot  at  Toulon  and 
Marseilles ;  or  the  persons  slain  in  the  little  town  of  Bedoin,  of  which  the 
whole  population  perished. 


CHAPTER   VI. 

WAR    IN    LA    VENDEE. 

THE  district,  immortalized  by  the  name  of  La  Vendee,  embraces  a  part 
of  Poitou,  of  Anjou,  and  of  the  territory  of  Nantes.  The  country  differs 
both  in  its  external  aspect  and  the  manners  of  its  inhabitants  from  any 
other  part  of  France.  The  northern  division,  called  the  Bocage,  is  sprin- 
kled with  trees,  and  is  composed  chiefly  of  inconsiderable  and  detached 
hills  surrounded  by  fertile  valleys,  and  the  farms,  which  are  small  and 
numerous,  are  inclosed  by  stout  hedges.  The  southern  part,  adjoining 
the  ocean,  is  called  the  Marais  ;  it  is  perfectly  flat  and  interspersed  with 
salt-marshes.  The  whole  is  mostly  a  grazing  country,  and  the  inhabit- 
ants live  on  the  produce  and  sale  of  their  cattle.  A  single  great  road 
from  Nantes  to  Rochelle  traverses  the  district,  and  another  from  Tours  to 
Bordeaux  diverges  from  it,  leaving  between  them  a  space  of  thirty  leagues 
in  extent,  intersected  by  innumerable  cross-roads,  dug  out,  as  it  were, 
between  two  hedges,  the  branches  of  which  frequently  meet  over  the  pas- 
senger's head.  This  peculiar  conformation  affords  the  greatest  obstacles 
to  an  invading  army. 

The  distinctions  between  landholder  and  tenantry,  in  La  Vendee,  were 
almost  nominal.  A  moderation  of  views  on  the  one  hand,  and  an  unusual 
degree  of  virtue  and  intelligence  on  the  other,  combined  with  a  universal 
religious  sway  that  their  excellent  village  pastors  held  over  all,  rendered 
the  whole  people  a  band  of  brothers  who  lived  in  harmony,  detesting  every 
species  of  innovation,  and  knew  no  principle  in  politics  or  religion  but  to 
fear  God  and  honor  the  king. 

Hence  it  followed  that  the  violence  of  the  Revolutionary  party  in  Paris 
and  elsewhere  early  aroused  the  indignation  of  the  Vendeans,  who  uni- 
formly took  part  with  the  king ;  and  the  attempt  to  enforce  the  levy  of 
troops  ordered  by  the  Convention  in  1793,  occasioned  a  general  resistance 
which,  without  any  previous  concert,  broke  out  simultaneously  over  the 
whole  of  La  Vendee.  The  earlier  movements  on  both  sides  were  con- 
fined to  skirmishes  between  detached  parties,  in  almost  all  of  which  the 
Vendeans  were  successful ;  so  that  the  Convention  soon  found  it  necessa- 
ry to  increase  the  number  of  their  troops  and  introduce  more  system  into 
their  manner  of  conducting  the  war.  These  measures  and  the  success 
which  had  induced  them,  stimulated  the  Vendeans,  also,  to  renewed  exer- 
tions. Large  numbers  of  the  hardy  peasantry  flocked  to  the  royal  stand- 
ard, and  some  of  the  citizens  most  distinguished  by  birth  or  talent  placed 
themselves  at  the  head  of  the  troops. 

M.  Bonchamps,  commanding  the  army  of  Anjou,  was  among  the  most 
ftble  of  the  Royalist  leaders :  to  great  courage  and  eloquence  he  united 
consummate  military  ability  ;  and,  had  his  life  been  spared,  would  proba- 
bly have  proved  himself  one  of  the  greatest  commanders  of  the  age. 
Cathelineau,  a  peasant  by  birth  ;  Henri  de  Larochejacquelein,  son  of  the 
Marquis  of  that  name ;  M.  de  Lescure,  an  intimate  friend  of  Larochfjac- 
quelein  ;  M.  d'Elbee,  a  Saxon  ;  and  Stofflet,  an  Alsacian,  also  became  dis- 
tinguished as  leaders  in  this  war  ;  and  Charette,  the  last  of  this  illustrious 
band,  attained  great  eminence  as  a  Vendean  chief  before  the  conclusion 

5 


40  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  VI. 

of  the  struggle.  The  troops  commanded  by  these  chiefs  were  divided  into 
three  corps,  which,  with  some  bodies  of  reserve,  amounted  in  all  to 
nearly  seventy  thousand  men. 

The  orders  of  the  Convention  to  the  troops  sent  to  suppress  this  insur- 
rection, were  marked  by  the  bloody  spirit  which  characterized  all  their 
proceedings :  they  decreed  that  those  persons  who  had  taken  any  part  in 
the  revolt  were  outlaws,  and  should  be  shot  within  twenty-four  hours  by  a 
military  commission  ;  and  that  the  property  of  those  so  shot,  together  with 
that  of  all  who  were  slain  in  battle,  should  be  confiscated. 

But  the  Republicans  soon  found  that  they  had  a  more  formidable  ene- 
my to  contend  with  in  the  Vendean  army  than  in  the  unarmed  masses  of 
citizens  at  Paris.  The  first  expedition  of  the  Royalists  was  directed  against 
the  city  of  Thouars,  occupied  by  General  Queteneau  with  a  division  of 
seven  thousand  men.  The  greater  part  of  the  troops  in  this  affair  were 
undisciplined  peasantry  ;  yet,  such  was  the  bravery  of  the  leaders  and  the 
devotion  of  the  men,  the  town  was  carried  by  assault,  and  six  thousand 
prisoners,  with  twelve  pieces  of  cannon  and  twenty  caissons,  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Royalists :  nor  is  it  the  least  remarkable  feature  of  this  vic- 
tory, that  not  an  inhabitant  of  the  place  was  maltreated  nor  a  house  pil- 
laged. The  Vendeans  next  advanced  against  Chataignerie,  which  was  gar- 
risoned by  four  thousand  Republicans,  and  carried  it  by  a  vigorous  attack  ; 
but  in  this  instance  the  garrison,  after  suffering  severe  loss,  escaped 
to  Fontenay,  where  the  Royalists  followed  them.  The  attack  on  this 
latter  town  was  at  first  unsuccessful :  for  the  peasants,  unused  to  long 
marches  and  satisfied  with  what  they  had  achieved,  disbanded  themselves 
in  large  masses  and  returned  to  their  homes,  so  that  the  army  was  re- 
duced to  an  inefficiency  of  numbers,  and  compelled  to  fall  back  to  Cha- 
taignerie. The  services  of  the  clergy  were,  however,  called  to  the  aid 
of  the  army ;  and  the  peasantry,  giving  more  heed  to  their  spiritual  than  to 
their  temporal  leaders,  rejoined  their  standards.  The  combat  could  now  be 
renewed  on  more  equal  terms,  and  the  Royalists  again  advanced  to  Fon- 
teriay,  where  the  Republicans,  ten  thousand  strong  with  forty  pieces  of  ar- 
tillery, were  drawn  up  to  receive  them.  Bonchamps  commanded  the  right, 
Cathelineau  the  centre,  and  d'Elbee  the  left,  while  Larochejacquelein  led 
a  small  but  determined  body  of  cavalry.  At  first,  the  Vendeans  faltered 
under  the  sustained  discharge  of  grape  shot  from  the  Republican  batte- 
ries ;  but  Lescure  walked  forward  toward  the  guns,  remained  for  some 
moments  in  the  very  midst  of  the  iron  storm,  and  cried  out  to  his  men  that 
they  could  see  from  his  standing  there  in  safety  that  the  Republicans  did 
not  know  how  to  fire.  The  men  then  rallied,  followed  him  to  the  muzzles 
of  the  guns  and  drove  the  artillerymen  into  the  town.  Lescure  still  led 
the  pursuit :  his  troops  entered  Fontenay  with  the  fugitives  and  he  himself 
was  the  first  Royalist  within  the  gates.  The  town  immediately  surren- 
dered with  its  artillery,  stores,  and  ammunition ;  and  the  greater  part,  of 
the  Republican  army  were  made  prisoners. 

The  Royalists  became  now  much  perplexed  about  the  disposal  of  their 
prisoners,  of  whom  they  had  several  thousands.  To  retain  them  in  cus- 
tody was  impossible,  as  they  had  no  fortified  places  within  their  own  lim- 
its ;  to  follow  the  example  of  the  Republicans  and  murder  them,  was  out 
of  the  question ;  at  length  it  was  decided  to  shave  their  heads  and  send 
them  home,  a  proceeding  that  caused  no  small  merriment  to  the  soldiers. 

The  Vendeans  were  also  successful  in  other  quarters.     They  gained 


1794.]  HISTORYOF    EUROPE.  41 

victories  at  Vetiers,  Dong  and  Montreuil ;  and  at  length,  resolved  to  at- 
tack  the  important  city  of  Saunmr,  where  the  Republicans  were  assembled 
to  the  number  of  twenty-two  thousand  regular  troops,  besides  a  large  body 
of  National  Guards.  The  Royalist  army,  forty  thousand  strong,  approached 
Saumur  on  the  10th  of  June.  While  the  officers  were  concerting  a 
plan  of  attack,  the  enthusiastic  peasants  threw  themselves  without  orders 
on  the  advanced  guard  of  the  Republicans,  and  actually  made  their  way 
into  the  town  in  great  numbers :  but  as  they  acted  without  leaders  and 
without  system,  they  could  not  improve  their  advantage  and  were  driven 
back.  Such  troops,  however,  are  easily  rallied.  The  officers  took  com- 
mand of  the  retreating  mass,  led  them  back  in  order,  and  after  a  desperate 
contest,  carried  the  town.  This  victory  was  more  important  than  any  that 
had  yet  been  gained  over  the  Republicans  by  the  allied  sovereigns  of  Eu- 
rope. Eighty  pieces  of  cannon,  ten  thousand  muskets,  and  more  than 
twelve  thousand  prisoners  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Vendeans,  while  their 
own  loss  was  but  sixty  men  killed  and  four  hundred  wpunded.  The  vic- 
tors, as  before,  shaved  the  heads  of  their  prisoners  and  sent  them  home, 
stipulating  only  that  they  should  not  serve  against  La  Vendee :  an  illu- 
sory condition,  speedily  violated  by  the  bad  faith  of  the  Republicans. 

The  Royalist  leaders,  flushed  with  victory,  now  advanced  on  Nantes, 
although  a  second  time  the  peasants,  tired  of  the  war,  had  withdrawn 
from  the  ranks  in  great  numbers.  But  the  expedition  ended  in  disaster. 
Cathelineau  was  mortally  wounded,  and  the  assault  repulsed  with  consid- 
erable loss  to  the  Vendeans. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  Republicans  took  the  offensive,  and  sent  a  consid- 
erable army  under  Westerman  into  the  heart  of  La  Vendee.  The  inva- 
sion was  at  first  successful ;  three  towns  were  taken  and  burned  ;  but  the 
brave  peasantry  gathered  round  their  assailants,  harassed  them,  and 
finally  drove  Westerman  before  them  with  the  loss  of  two-thirds  of  his 
forces.  A  second  invasion  under  Biron  with  fifty  thousand  troops,  met 
with  a  similar  reverse  :  he  was  defeated  with  the  loss  of  ten  thousand  men 
and  all  his  artillery,  baggage  and  ammunition.  But  these  defeats  had  the 
natural  effect  of  exasperating  a  comparatively  powerful  government,  who 
had  large  resources  in  men  and  material  at  their  control.  The  Conven- 
tion therefore  redoubled  their  efforts  to  subdue  the  refractory  insurgents. 
Fourteen  thousand  men,  under  Kleber,  were  directed  upon  La  Vendee,  a 
great  part  of  the  garrisons  of  Valenciennes  and  Conde  were  marched  to 
the  same  quarter,  and  the  National  Guard,  together  with  a  levy  en  masse 
of  the  neighboring  departments,  soon  followed  in  the  same  direction.  Be- 
fore the  middle  of  September,  two  hundred  thousand  men  surrounded  La 
Vendee  and  threatened  to  crush  it  by  a  simultaneous  assault.  For  a  time, 
they  were  successful,  having  defeated  the  Royalists  in  several  small  en- 
gagements and  laid  waste  with  fire  and  sword  the  districts  they  traversed. 
At  length,  however,  Kleber  encountered  Charette  and  Bonchamps  near 
Torfou,  where  after  a  well  contested  action  he  was  defeated,  and  but  for 
the  devotion  of  Colonel  Chouardin  and  his  regiment,  who  maintained  the 
bridge  of  Boussay  and  suffered  themselves  to  be  wholly  destroyed  in  its 
defence,  his  army  would  have  been  annihilated.  The  Royalists  followed 
this  up  by  an  attack  on  General  Beysser,  at  Montaigut,  on  General  Mu- 
kierski,  at  St.  Fulgent,  and  on  the  retreating  columns  of  Kleber,  in  every 
one  of  which  battles  they  defeated  the  invaders  with  the  loss  of  prisoners, 
^  ammunition,  and  artillery.  They  were  equally  successful  ID 


42  HIS  TORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  VI 

other  quarters,  and  the  Republican  forces  quitted  the  province  within  a 
fortnight  from  the  time  they  entered  it.  Thus,  by  a  series  of  the  most 
brilliant  combinations,  seconded  by  the  heroic  exertions  of  the  peasants, 
an  invasion  of  one  hundred  thousand  regular  troops  and  a  larger  number 
of  undisciplined  levies,  was  defeated,  and  losses  inflicted  on  the  invaders 
far  exceeding  the  entire  loss  that  they  had  sustained  from  the  allies  in  a 
whole  year's  campaign. 

But  valor  cannot  contend  always  against  innumerable  odds  :  and  the 
unfortunate  Vendeans  were  opposed  by  the  resources  of  a  whole  nation. 
The  Convention,  now  fully  aware  of  the  danger  of  this  protracted  war, 
once  more  resolved  to  terminate  it  at  a  blow.  The  Republican  armies 
again  entered  the  devoted  territory  in  great  force ;  retook  the  towns  in 
their  march  ;  devastated  the  land  ;  and  in  two  successive  battles  defeated 
the  Vendeans,  who,  in  addition  to  their  other  losses,  were  deprived  of  the 
services  of  three  of  their  principal  leaders — Lescure,  d'Elbee  and  Bon- 
champs,  being  mortally  wounded.  In  every  quarter,  the  march  of  the 
Republicans  was  disgraced  by  atrocious  cruelty  :  every  town  and  village 
was  burned  to  the  ground,  and  the  inhabitants,  without  distinction  of  sex 
or  age,  put  to  the  sword.  The  deplorable  condition  of  the  province,  at 
this  time,  was  thus  represented  to  the  Convention  by  Bourbotte  and  Tur- 
reau  :  "  We  may  say  with  truth  that  La  Vendee  no  longer  exists.  A 
profound  solitude  reigns  in  the  country  recently  occupied  by  the  rebels : 
you  may  travel  far  in  those  districts  without  meeting  a  dwelling  or  a 
living  creature  ;  for,  with  the  exception  of  Cholet,  St.  Florent,  and  some 
Hittle  towns,  where  the  number  of  Patriots  greatly  exceeds  that  of  the 
Royalists,  we  have  left  behind  us  nothing  but  ashes  and  piles  of  dead." 

Yet,  fortune  had  not  wholly  abandoned  the  Vendeans  :  for,  on  the  23rd 
of  October,  their  retreating  forces  encountered  a  large  body  of  Republican 
veterans  under  general  Lechelle,  and,  after  a  desperate  action,  totally 
overthrew  them,  destroying  no  less  than  twelve  thousand  of  their  troopg 
and  capturing  nineteen  pieces  of  cannon.  General  Lechelle  was  so 
overwhelmed  by  this  disaster,  that  he  resigned  his  command  in  despair 
and  retired  to  Tours,  where  he  soon  after  died  from  anxiety  and  chagrin. 

This  astonishing  victory  was  gained  on  the  very  day  that  Bourbotte 
and  Turreau  had  triumphantly  announced  to  the  Convention  in  Paris 
that  La  Vendee  no  longer  existed  :  it  may  be  imagined  with  what  con- 
sternation they,  a  few  days  afterward  received  intelligence  that  the 
Republican  army  was  destroyed  and  nothing  remained  to  prevent  the 
advance  of  the  Royalists  upon  the  capital. 

After  resting  a  few  weeks  to  recruit  their  numbers  and  repair  their 
various  losses,  the  Royalists,  November  14th,  advanced  upon  Granville ; 
here  they  met  with  a  repulse  and  lost  eighteen  hundred  men.  On  their 
retreat,  they  took  the  road  of  Pontorson,  where  they  arrived  on  the  19th 
of  November,  and  found  eighteen  thousand  Republicans  drawn  up  to  in- 
tercept them ;  but  the  Vendeans  drove  them  through  the  streets  at  the 
point  of  the  bayonet,  and  captured  their  baggage  and  artillery.  The 
Republicans  now  retreated  to  Dol,  where  their  numbers  were  raised  by 
reinforcement  to  thirty-five  thousand  men.  The  Royalists  pursued  and 
attacked  them  in  the  streets  at  midnight.  A  horrible  melee  ensued,  in 
which  the  Vendean  women  and  children — who,  driven  from  their  homes 
by  the  Republicans,  in  October,  had  been  since  forced  to  follow  the  for- 
tunes  of  the  army — were  trampled  and  destroyed  by  thousands. 


1794.,  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  43 

The  victory,  however,  was  with  the  Royalists,  and  the  Republicans 
retreated  to  Antrain,  where  they  again  endeavored  to  make  head  against 
their  conquerors.  But  the  Royalists  followed  up  their  success,  entered 
the  town  pell-mell  with  the  fugitives,  and  made  prisoners  of  the  whole 
army.  There  was  now  great  danger  that  an  indiscriminate  massacre 
would  ensue,  for  the  Royalist  troops  were  wrought  up  by  the  precedent 
cruelties  of  the  Republicans  to  the  highest  pitch  of  exasperation.  But  in 
this,  as  in  all  cases  when  the  Royalists  were  victorious,  humanity  pre- 
vailed over  retributive  vengeance  :  the  prisoners  and  the  wounded  were 
treated  with  the  same  care  as  their  own  soldiers,  and  sent  home  without 
exchange  or  condition. 

Yet  these  victories,  brilliant  as  they  were  in  a  military  point  of  view, 
were  of  no  permanent  advantage  to  the  brave  Royalists ;  who,  in  a 
foreign  province,  accompanied  by  their  proscribed  families,  and  en- 
cumbered with  sick  and  wounded  men,  women  and  children,  were  forced 
to  continue  a  retreat  that,  after  all,  promised  them  neither  safety  nor 
repose.  After  many  painful  marches,  in  which  they  were  harassed  and 
occasionally  defeated  by  the  accumulating  forces  of  the  Republicans,  and 
during  which  they  of  necessity  abandoned  their  women,  children  and 
stragglers  to  be  butchered  by  their  pursuers,  they  arrived  at  Mons  in  the 
last  degree  of  fatigue,  depression  and  suffering.  Here  they  were  com- 
pelled to  halt  from  mere  inability  to  proceed,  and  they  thus  gave  the 
Republican  generals  time  to  concert  measures  for  their  destruction.  It 
was  not  long  delayed.  Marceau,  Westerman  and  Kleber  speedily  as- 
sembled forty  thousand  men,  and  attacked  the  town  with  the  utmost  im- 
petuosity. The  Royalist  troops  made  a  heroic  but  unavailing  defence ; 
they  were  routed  and  scattered  through  the  town,  and  the  Republicans 
commenced  an  indiscriminate  massacre.  Ten  thousand  soldiers  and  an 
equal  number  of  women  and  children  perished  in  this  horrible  carnage, 
and  a  remnant  only  of  the  army  made  good  its  retreat  to  Savenay.  Here 
some  ten  thousand  men,  of  whom  but  six  thousand  were  armed,  took  their 
last  stand.  For  a  long  time  they  held  the  Republican  columns  in  check, 
and  when  at  length  obliged  to  retire,  they  fell  back  in  good  order,  and  served 
the  few  pieces  of  artillery  they  had  left  until  the  last  cartridge  was  dis- 
charged :  even  then,  the  rear-guard  continued  to  fight  with  their  swords 
and  bayonets  till  they  all  sunk  under  the  fire  of  the  Republicans.  Of 
eighty  thousand  souls,  who,  but  six  weeks  before,  had  crossed  the  Loire, 
scarcely  three  thousand,  in  straggling  parties,  ever  returned  to  La  Vendee. 

With  these  disasters,  the  Vendean  war  ceased  for  a  time  ;  and  it  would 
never  have  revived,  had  the  Republicans  made  a  humane  use  of  their 
bloody  victory.  But  the  darkest  period  of  the  tragedy  was  approaching, 
and  in  the  rear  of  the  armies  came  those  fiends  in  human  form  who 
exceeded  the  crimes  even  of  Marat  and  Robespierre,  and  whose  deeds 
have  left  a  deeper  stain  on  the  annals  of  France  than  the  massacreof  St. 
Bartholomew,  or  all  the  preceding  horrors  of  the  Revolution.  Their 
atrocities  took  away  hope  from  the  vanquished ;  and,  in  revenge  and 
despair,  the  Chouan  bands  sprung  up,  who,  under  Charette,  Stofflet  and 
Tinteniac,  long  maintained  the  Royal  cause  in  the  Western  Provinces. 

Thurreau  was  the  first  who  commenced  against  the  Vendeans  a  sys- 
tematic war  of  extermination.  He  formed  twelve  corps,  aptly  denomi- 
nated infernal  columns,  whose  orders  were  to  traverse  the  country  in 
every  direction,  isolate  it  from  all  communication  with  the  rest  of  the 


44  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  VII 

world,  carry  off  or  destroy  all  the  grain  and  cattle,  murder  all  the  inhab- 
itants and  burn  all  the  houses.  These  orders  were  but  too  faithfully 
executed,  though  at  intervals  Charette  descended  from  his  fastnesses  and 
took  a  bloody  revenge  on  detached  parties  of  the  invaders. 

While  Thurreau  was  pursuing  this  system  of  extermination  in  La 
Vendee,  the  scaffold  was  erected  at  Nantes,  and  those  infernal  executions 
commenced,  which  fill  the  blackest  page  in  the  history  of  the  world.  A 
Revolutionary  Tribunal  was  established  there,  of  which  Carrier  was  the 
presiding  demon — Carrier,  known  in  all  nations  as  the  inventor  of  that 
last  of  barbarous  atrocities,  the  Republican  Marriage,  in  which  two  per- 
sons of  different  sexes,  generally  an  old  man  and  an  old  woman,  or  a 
young  man  and  a  young  woman,  bereft  of  every  kind  of  clothing,  were 
bound  together  before  the  multitude,  exposed  in  a  boat  in  that  situation 
for  half  an  hour  or  more,  and  then  thrown  into  the  river.  It  was  ascer- 
tained by  authentic  documents  that,Jn  addition  to  the  adults,  six  hundred 
children  perished  in  this  horrible  manner:  and  such  was  the  quantity  of 
corpses  accumulated  in  the  Loire,  that  the  water  became  infected,  and 
a  public  ordinance  was  issued  forbidding  its  use.  For  a  long  time  after- 
ward, mariners,  when  heaving  their  anchors  in  that  vicinity,  frequently 
brought  up  the  ghastly  remains  of  the  murdered  victims. 


CHAPTER   VII. 

CAMPAIGN  OF  1793. 

THE  year  1793,  was  distinguished  by  the  novel  measure  of  treaties  oi 
alliance  between  England,  Russia,  Austria,  Prussia,  Spain,  Naples, 
Sardinia  and  Portugal — all  Europe,  in  short,  against  Republican  France ; 
and  thus  did  the  regicides  of  that  country,  as  the  first  fruit  of  their 
murderous  triumph,  find  themselves  excluded  from  the  pale  of  civilized 
nations.  The  force  of  the  allies  was  three  hundred  and  sixty-four  thou- 
sand men  acting  on  the  whole  circumference  of  France,  from  Calais  to 
Bayonne ;  and  that  of  the  Republicans  amounted  to  two  hundred  and 
twenty  thousand  men,  inferior  troops  for  the  most  part,  but  possessing  the 
advantage  of  unity  of  language,  government  and  public  feeling,  and  adding 
to  these  the  important  fact  of  acting  in  an  interior  and  concentric  circle, 
which  enables  one  corps  rapidly  to  communicate  with  and  support  an- 
other— an  advantage  of  which  the  allies,  by  being  spread  over  a  much 
larger  circumference,  were  deprived.  But  both  the  contending  parties 
labored  under  some  serious  embarassments.  On  the  part  of  the  allies, 
there  was  that  want  of  union  so  common  and  so  fatal  to  a  combination  of 
national  interests.  Russia,  especially,  one  of  the  most  important  powers 
of  the  league,  was  at  that  time  more  anxious  to  complete  the  subjugation 
of  despoiled  Poland  than  to  resist  the  arms  of  Revolutionary  France,  and 
the  views  of  Prussia,  too,  were  partly  turned  in  the  same  direction,  while 
between  Prussia  and  Austria  jealousies  existed  as  to  their  relative  posi- 
tion in  the  allied  army.  On  this  point,  Prussia  went  so  far  as  to  de- 
mand a  division  of  the  forces  of  the  inferior  powers  of  the  league,  a  part 


.: 


93.]  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  45 

of  whom  should  be  joined  to  an  independent  Prussian,  and  another  part 
to  an  independent  Austrian  army.  Thus,  entire  unity  of  purpose,  the 
quality  most  essential  to  victory,  was  wanting  in  the  allied  armies  from 
the  outset,  and  another  serious  evil,  incidental  to  this,  soon  developed 
itself;  namely,  the  want  of  union  between  the  superior,  led  to  a  want  of 
zeal  in  the  inferior,  powers.  In  addition  to  all  this,  Prince  Cobourg,  a 
man  every  way  ill  qualified  for  such  a  command,  was  appointed  general- 
issimo of  the  allied  forces. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  French  armies  had  great  difficulties  of  their 
own  to  contend  with.  The  troops,  during  the  winter,  following  the  ex- 
ample of  the  factious  inhabitants  at  Paris,  resisted  all  subordination, 
lost  their  discipline,  and  were,  at  the  opening  of  the  campaign,  miserably 
deficient  in  every  species  of  equipment. 

To  support  the  prodigious  expense  of  a  war  on  all  their  frontiers, 
would  greatly  have  exceeded  the  ordinary  and  legitimate  resources  of 
the  French  government :  but,  contrary  alike  to  precedent  and  anticipa- 
tion, they  derived,  from  the  miseries  and  convulsions  of  the  Revolution, 
the  means  of  creating  new  resources.  The  period  had  arrived  in  France, 
when  all  calculation  in  matter  of  finance  was  to  cease  ;  for  the  inex- 
haustible mine  of  assignats,  possessing  a  forced  circulation  and  issued  on 
the  credit  of  the  national  domains,  necessarily  proved  sufficient  for  every 
exigency. 

In  February  of  this  year,  the  French,  under  Miranda,  opened  the 
campaign  by  laying  siege  to  Maestricht,  but  with  forces  inadequate  to  so 
great  an  undertaking.  The  first  movement  of  the  Austrians  was  to  raise 
the  siege  with  an  army  of  fifty-two  thousand  men  under  Prince  Cobourg, 
with  whom  was  the  young  ARCHDUKE  CHARLES,  at  the  head  of  the  grena- 
diers. On  the  1st  and  2nd  of  March,  the  Austrians  along  the  whole  line 
attacked  the  French  cantonments,  and,  after  an  inconsiderable  resistance, 
succeeded  in  driving  them  back  and  in  many  points  throwing  them  into 
utter  confusion.  The  French  troops  were  immediately  seized  with  the 
discouragement  so  common  at  this  period,  whenever  they  experienced 
a  considerable  reverse.  Whole  battalions  fled  in  disorder  into  France, 
officers  quitted  their  troops,  soldiers  disbanded  from  their  officers ;  the 
siege  of  Maestricht  was  raised,  the  heavy  artillery  dispatched  in  haste 
toward  Brussels,  and  the  army  driven  beyond  the  Meuse  with  a  loss  of 
seven  thousand  men  in  killed,  wounded  and  prisoners.  On  the  4th  of 
March,  the  Republicans  were  again  routed  near  Liege,  and  a  large  part 
of  the  heavy  artillery  was  there  abandoned.  A  few  days  after,  Tongres 
was  carried  by  the  Archduke  Charles  at  the  head  of  twelve  thousand 
men,  and  the  whole  army  fell  back  upon  Tirlemont,  and  thence  to  Lou- 
vain,  where  Dumourier  arrived  from  the  Dutch  frontier  and  resumed  the 
command.  The  Austrians  then  desisted  from  the  pursuit,  satisfied  with 
their  success,  and  not  deeming  themselves  sufficiently  strong  to  force  the 
united  corps  of  the  French  army  in  that  city. 

Dumourier  found  the  army,  consisting  now  of  forty-five  thousand  men, 
in  the  utmost  disorganization,  but  he  immediately  adopted  measures  of 
reform  ;  and,  to  restore  the  confidence  of  the  soldiers,  resolved  to  com- 
mence offensive  operations.  He  was  not  long  in  finding  an  opportunity. 
He  fell  in  with  a  detachment  of  Austrians  near  Tirlemont,  and  defeated 
them  with  a  loss  of  twelve  hundred  men,  after  which  he  prepared  to  risk 
a  general  action. 


46  HISTORY     OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  VII. 

The  Austrians,  thirty-nine  thousand  strong,  including  nine  thousand 
cavalry,  determined  not  to  decline  the  combat,  and  concentrated  their 
forces  along  a  position  about  two  leagues  in  length,  near  the  village  of 
Nerwinde.  The  battle  took  place  on  the  18th  of  March,  and  was  eon- 
tested  with  much  spirit  and  varied  success;  but  the  Austrians  eventually 
remained  masters  of  the  field,  having  sustained  a  loss  of  two  thousand 
men,  and  inflicted  one  of  two  thousand  five  hundred  killed  and  wounded, 
besides  fifteen  hundred  prisoners.  This  defeat,  not  very  serious  in  itself, 
proved  disastrous  to  the  French  army,  inasmuch  as  it  destroyed  their 
reviving  spirits,  induced  large  bodies  of  them  to  disband,  and  forced 
Dumourier  to  retreat  upon  Brussels,  Antwerp  and  Mechlin. 

Soon  after,  conferences  were  opened  between  Dumourier  and  the  Aus- 
trian generals,  in  virtue  of  which  it  was  agreed  that  the  French  should 
retire  behind  Brussels  without  being  molested  in  their  retreat.  The 
French  army,  accordingly,  evacuated  Brussels  and  Mechlin  and  retired 
toward  the  French  frontier.  But  it  soon  appeared  that  these  movements 
were  made  in  reference  to  something  more  than  military  objects;  for 
Dumourier  was  now  really  anxious,  as  on  a  former  occasion  he  pre- 
tended to  be,  to  restore  a  constitutional  monarchy ;  and  he  proposed  to- 
march  to  Paris  in  concert  with  the  allies,  to  accomplish  this  project. 
Having  thus  actually  embarked  in  this  perilous  undertaking,  Dumou- 
rier's  first  care  was  to  secure  the  fortresses  on  which  the  success  of  his 
enterprise  depended.  But  here  he  made  shipwreck.  The  garrisons  of 
Coride  and  Valenciennes  refused  to  abandon  the  Republic,  and  Dumou- 
rier, finding  his  plans  discovered  at  Paris,  and  himself  likely  to  be 
betrayed,  was  forced  to  take  refuge  in  the  Austrian  lines. 

A  congress  of  ministers  of  the  allied  powers  soon  after  assembled 
at  Antwerp,  attended  by  Metternich  and  Stahrenberg  on  the  part  of 
Austria,  Lord  Auckland  on  the  part  of  England,  and  Count  Keller  on 
the  part  of  Russia.  Such  was  the  confidence  inspired  by  recent  events, 
that  these  ministers  imagined  the  last  days  of  the  Convention  were  at 
hand ;  and,  in  truth,  so  they  would  have  been,  had  the  ministers  intro- 
duced a  little  more  vigor,  unanimity  and  wisdom  into  their  military 
operations.  Unfortunately,  they  came  to  the  resolution  of  changing  the 
object  of  the  war,  and  openly  announced  the  necessity  of  providing  in- 
demnities and  securities  for  the  allied  powers  ;  in  other  words,  partitioning 
the  frontier  territories  of  France  among  the  invading  States :  and  when 
Valenciennes  and  Conde  were  taken,  the  standard,  not  of  Louis  XVII., 
but  of  Austria,  was  hoisted  on  their  walls.  This  injudicious  measure 
converted  the  war  from  one  of  liberation  to  one  of  aggrandizement,  and 
gave  the  Jacobins  of  Paris  too  good  reason  to  assert  that  the  dismember, 
ment  of  their  country  was  at  hand,  and  that  all  patriots,  whether  Repub- 
licans or  Royalists,  must  join  against  the  common  enemy. 

The  Convention  took  vigorous  measures  to  promulgate  this  popular 
view  of  the  contest  and  to  sustain  it  with  a  requisite  force.  A  camp  of 
forty  thousand  men  was  ordered  to  form  a  reserve  for  the  army,  a  le\y  of 
three  hundred  thousand  men,  already  decreed,  was  hastened  forward,  and 
sixty  representatives  of  the  Convention  were  appointed  to  serve  as  vice- 
roys over  the  generals  in  all  the  armies.  No  less  than  twelve  of  these 
viceroys  were  directed  to  proceed  to  the  army  of  the  North.  No  limit 
was  fixed  to  their  authority ;  but,  armed  with  the  despotic  power  of  the 
Convention,  and  supported  by  a  Republican  and  mutinous  soldiery,  they 


1793.1  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  47 

with  equal  facility,  placed  the  generals  on  a  triumphal  car  or  sent  them 
to  the  scaffold. 

Meantime,  fortune  was  not  more  propitious  to  the  French  arms  on  the 
eastern  than  on  the  northern  frontier.  Their  forces  in  that  quarter,  at 
the  opening  of  the  campaign,  were  greatly  outnumbered  by  the  allies : 
the  entire  Prussian  and  Austrian  forces  amounting  to  ninety-five  thousand 
men.  while  the  French,  under  Custine,  had  not  over  forty-five  thousand 
in  die  field,  and  forty  thousand  in  the  garrisons  of  the  Upper  Rhine.  The 
campaign  was  opened  on  the  24th  of  March,  by  a  movement  of  the  King 
of  Prussia  across  the  Rhine  at  Rheinfels,  where  he  encountered  and  de- 
feated Custine,  who,  after  several  days  of  retreat  and  partial  actions,  was 
compelled  to  fall  back  to  the  lines  of  Weissenberg,  leaving  Mayence  to  its 
own  resources.  The  allies  made  immediate  preparations  for  the  siege  of 
this  important  fortress,  and,  after  an  investment  of  nearly  four  months,  the 
garrison  capitulated  on  the  22nd  of  July. 

On  the  1st  of  May,  the  Republicans  resumed  the  offensive  on  the 
Flemish  frontier  by  an  attack,  under  General  Dampierre,  on  the  allied 
position ;  but  they  were  repulsed,  with  a  loss  of  two  thousand  men  and  a 
large  quantity  of  artillery.  On  the  8th,  the  French  attacked  the  allies 
along  their  whole  line,  but  they  were  everywhere  unsuccessful,  except 
at  the  wood  of  Vicogne,  where  they  forced  the  Prussians  to  retreat  until  the 
arrival  of  the  English  guards  changed  the  aspect  of  the  day.  The  latter 
drove  back  the  French  with  a  loss  of  four  thousand  men  and  reestablished 
the  Prussians  in  their  position.  This  action  took  place  within  a  few  miles 
of  Waterloo,  and  it  was  the  first,  time  that  the  English  and  French  soldiers 
came  into  collision  during  the  war.  These  disasters  checked  the  spirit 
of  the  Republicans  and  induced  them  to  relinquish  offensive  operations. 
They  intrenched  themselves  at  Famars,  in  a  position  to  cover  the  city  of 
Valenciennes.  But  the  allies  were  now  in  a  condition  to  disturb  them, 
and  advanced,  eighty  thousand  strong,  under  the  Duke  of  York,  Ferrari, 
Abercomby  and  Walmoden.  Their  attacks  prevailed  at  all  points  ;  and 
the  French,  during  the  night,  fell  back  to  the  "Camp  of  Caesar,"  leaving 
Valenciennes  to  its  fate.  This  important  city  and  Conde  were  invested 
by  the  allies,  and  both  fell  successively  into  their  hands  within  a  few 
weeks.  The  capitulation  of  these  two  fortresses  brought  to  light,  as  has 
already  been  related,  the  fatal  change  in  the  object  and  policy  of  the 
war,  which  had  been  agreed  on  in  the  Congress  of  Antwerp :  and  its  effect 
was  doubly  injurious,  not  only  by  rousing  the  patriotism  of  the  French, 
but  by  cooling  the  ardor  of  the  allies;  for,  from  the  moment  that  the 
Emperor  of  Austria  took  possession  of  Valenciennes  and  Conde  in  his  Own 
name,  the  several  allied  parties  became  jealous  of  him  and  of  each  other. 
They  did  not,  however,  wholly  relax  in  their  efforts  to  continue  the  war, 
but,  following  up  the  retreat  of  the  French,  they  attacked  them  in  the 
Camp  of  Csesar,  on  the  8th  of  August,  and  routed  them  with  so  much  ease 
that  the  affair  could  hardly  be  called  a  battle. 

The  allies  were  now  in  great  force  within  one  hundred  and  sixty  miles 
of  Paris,  and  there  was  no  serious  obstacle  between  them  and  that  metro, 
polis.  They  might  have  reached  its  gates  within  fifteen  days  ,  and,  had 
they  moved  forward  with  energy  before  the  French  recovered  from  their 
consternation,  the  war  would  have  been  terminated  at  a  blow.  But  the 
unhappy  dissensions  which  now  prevailed  in  the  allied  counsels  prevented 
this  bold  and  decisive  measure,  and  France  gained  time  to  organize  an 
effectual  resistance.  7 


48  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  [CHAP.  VII. 

Under  the  despotic  control  of  the  Convention,  the  whole  kingdom  was 
suddenly  converted  into  an  immense  workshop,  resounding  with  the  note 
of  military  preparation.  Manufactories  of  stores  and  arms  were  estab- 
lished, horses  and  provisions  seized,  and  no  less  than  twelve  hundred  thou- 
sand men  forced  into  the  ranks  of  the  army.  In  this  last  measure,  fear 
was  the  efficient  engine  of  success  :  the  recruits  had  to  choose  between  the 
army  and  the  prisons  of  the  Revolution — and  the  bayonets  of  the  allies 
appeared  to  them  much  less  formidable  than  the  guillotine  of  the  Conven- 
tion. Of  the  finances  of  the  country,  it  is  sufficient  to  say,  as  has  already 
been  said,  the  debts  and  expenses  of  the  government  were  paid  in  paper 
money,  issued  without  cost  and  circulated  under  the  mandate  of  the  Revo- 
lutionary  Tribunal. 

At  the  head  of  the  military  department  was  Carnot,  a  man  whose  ex- 
traordinary talents  and  unbending  character  contributed  greatly  to  the 
success  of  the  revolutionary  wars.  It  was  his  misfortune  to  be  associated 
with  Robespierre  in  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety,  and  his  name  conse- 
quently stands  affixed  to  many  of  the  worst  acts  of  that  sanguinary  tribu- 
nal :  but  he  has  asserted,  and  his  character  entitles  the  allegation  to  atten- 
tion, that  in  the  pressure  of  business  he  signed  those  documents  without 
knowing  what  they  contained,  and  that  he  saved  more  lives  by  his  entreat- 
ies than  his  colleagues  destroyed  by  their  severity.  He  was  the  origin- 
ator of  that  great  improvement  in  the  military  art  which  Dumourier  first 
practiced,  and  Napoleon  brought  to  perfection  :  the  rapid  concentration, 
namely,  of  superior  force  on  a  given  point,  by  which  movement  the  ene- 
my's line  is  broken,  flanked  and  defeated. 

The  allies,  having  declined  to  strike  a  decisive  blow  while  their  antag- 
onists were  dispersed  in  small  bodies  over  the  country,  unwisely  exposed 
themselves  to  a  similar  blow  from  the  Republicans,  by  dividing  their  own 
forces  and  pursuing  separate  objects.  The  English  laid  siege  to  Dunkirk, 
the  Austrians  to  Quesnoy,  and  the  remainder  of  the  allied  army  was 
broken  into  detachments  to  preserve  the  communications.  The  Austrian 
expedition  was  successful,  Quesnoy  having  capitulated  fifteen  days  after  the 
trenches  were  opened,  and  its  garrison  of  four  thousand  men  surrendered 
as  prisoners  of  war ;  while  two  columns  of  ten  thousand  men  each,  sent 
to  raise  the  siege,  were  defeated  with  great  loss.  But  a  different  fate 
awaited  the  British  besieging  army.  Their  approaches  were  needlessly 
delayed  and  unskilfully  conducted,  and  after  having  been  set  down  before 
Dunkirk  for  nearly  three  weeks,  they  had  made  no  progress  of  importance. 
At  the  end  of  that  time,  General  Houchard  arrived  with  fifty  thousand 
French  troops  to  relieve  the  city.  The  situation  of  the  English  and 
of  the  detachments  of  allies  who  covered  their  position,  was  such  as  to 
give  a  vigorous  attack  every  chance  of  success :  Freytag  with  eighteen 
thousand  Austrians  being  posted  at  a  considerable  distance  in  the  rear,  and 
the  Dutch,  under  the  Prince  of  Orange,  were  at  Menin,  three  days'  march 
from  the  English  lines.  Had  Houchard  implicitly  obeyed  his  instructions 
from  the  Convention,  he  must  have  destroyed  each  of  the  three  armies  in 
detail.  As  it  resulted,  however,  he  defeated  only  the  Austrian  corps,  who 
sustained  a  loss  of  fifteen  hundred  men ;  on  which  the  Duke  of  York, 
finding  his  position  untenable,  withdrew  in  the  night,  leaving  behind  him 
fifty-two  pieces  of  heavy  artillery  and  a  large  quantity  of  ammunition  and 
baggage.  Houchard,  satisfied  with  having  raised  the  siege,  did  not  follow 
up  his  advantage  with  spirit ;  but  contented  himself  with  an  attack  on  the 


1793.]  HIS  TORY    OF    EUROPE.  49 

Dutch  at  Melin,  whom  he  defeated.  But  he  was  in  turn  assailed  by  Gen 
eral  Beaulieu  at  Courtray,  totally  routed  and  driven  behind  the  Lys.  Noi 
did  the  disaster  to  the  French  end  there :  for  a  panic  ensued  on  this  first 
reverse  which  communicated  itself  to  all  the  Republican  troops  in  that  quar- 
ter, who  thereupon  tumultuously  fled  for  refuge  under  the  cannon  of  Lisle. 
This  defeat  proved  fatal  to  Houchard.  He  was  summoned  to  Paris,  tried 
before  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal,  condemned  and  executed — a  proceed- 
ing interesting  chiefly  from  the  evidence  it  affords,  of  the  clear  perception 
which  those  at  the  head  of  the  government  had  obtained  of  the  true  prin- 
ciples of  the  military  art.  "  The  Committee,"  said  Barere  to  Houchard, 
"  instructed  you  to  accumulate  your  troops  in  large  masses  on  particular 
points  and  defeat  the  enemy  in  detail :  you  disregarded  their  orders,  and 
have  been  yourself  defeated." 

The  allies  next  laid  siege  to  Maubeage,  the  possession  of  which  now 
became  an  object  of  capital  importance,  and  their  measures  were  taken 
on  a  scale  proportionate  to  the  magnitude  of  the  undertaking. 

Under  all  these  discouraging  circumstances,  the  Committee  of  Public 
Safety  did  not  despair.  They  gave  the  command  of  the  army  of  the  north 
to  Jourdan,  a  young  officer,  hitherto  untried,  but  who,  placed  between  vic- 
tory and  the  scaffold,  had  sufficient  confidence  in  his  own  talents  to  accept 
the  perilous  alternative.  He  promptly  approached  the  Austrian  position, 
and  after  some  skirmishing  a  general  action  took  place  on  the  15th  of 
October,  in  which  the  Republicans  were  worsted  with  a  loss  of  twelve 
hundred  men.  Instructed  by  his  failure  that  a  change  in  his  method  of 
attack  was  indispensable,  Jourdan,  in  the  night  accumulated  his  forces 
against  the  village  of  Wattignies,  the  key  of  the  Austrian  position,  and 
on  the  morning  of  the  16th  assailed  it  with  three  columns  supported  by  a 
concentric  fire  of  artillery.  The  village  was  speedily  carried  and  Cobourg 
retreated  with  a  loss  of  six  thousand  men.  The  siege  having  been  thus 
raised,  Jourdan  established  his  winter-quarters  at  Guice,  where  a  vast 
intrenched  camp  was  formed  for  the  protection,  and  discipline  of  the 
revolutionary  recruits,  who  were  daily  arriving  in  large  masses  from 
the  interior. 

After  the'  capture  of  Mayence,  the  allies  on  the  Rhine  relapsed  into  in- 
activity, although  their  army  in  that  quarter  amounted  to  over  one  hundred 
thousand  men  in  excellent  condition.  The  Convention,  however,  wearied 
with  the  torpor  of  their  enemies,  ordered  Moreau,  who  was  in  command  of 
the  French  on  the  Moselle,  to  attack  the  Prussian  corps  at  Permasin. 
The  Republicans  advanced  with  great  intrepidity  to  the  Prussian  redoubts, 
when  they  were  arrested  in  front  by  a  terrible  fire  of  grape,  and  their 
flank  was  at  the  same  time  assailed  by  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  :  they  im- 
mediately gave  way  and  precipitated  themselves  into  the  neighboring  ra- 
vines, leaving  behind  them  four  thousand  men  and  twenty-two  pieces  of 
cannon.  A  few  days  after  this  affair,  the  King  of  Prussia  repaired  to  Po- 
land, to  pursue  in  concert  with  Russia  his  plans  of  aggrandizement  at  the 
expense  of  that  unhappy  country,  leaving  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  in  com- 
mand of  the  army.  The  French  retired  to  the  ancient  and  celebrated 
lines  of  Weissenberg,  constructed  in  former  times  for  the  protection  of  the 
Rhenish  frontier  from  German  invasion :  they  stretched  from  the  town  of 
Lauterburg  on  the  Rhine,  through  the  village  of  Weissenberg  to  the  Vos- 
ges  mountains,  and  closed  all  access  from  that  side  into  Alsace.  A  simul- 
taneous assault  was  made  by  the  Prussians  on  the  left  of  this  position; 


50  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  [CHAP.  V  [I 

by  the  Austrians,  under  Prince  Waldeck,  on  the  right;  and  by  Wurmser, 
with  the  main  body  of  Austrians,  on  the  centre.  These  attacks  prevailed 
at  all  points,  and  the  French  retreated  in  confusion  ;  but  the  pursuit  of  the 
allies  was  so  tardy  that  only  one  thousand  prisoners  fell  into  their  hands. 
Still,  the  victory  was  important,  as  it  again  opened  a  free  road  to  the  inva- 
ders. Wurmser  proceeded  to  Strasburg,  which  the  constituted  authorities 
of  that  town  offered  to  surrender  to  the  Austrians  in  the  name  of  Louis 
XVII. :  but  Wurmser,  not  being  empowered  to  make  conditional  conquests, 
declined  their  proposal ;  and,  being  unable  to  reduce  the  place  by  force, 
withdrew  to  Fort  Vauban,  which  he  took  with  its  garrison  of  three 
thousand  men,  and  afterward  blockaded  Landau.  The  inhabitants  of 
Strasburg,  thus  abandoned  to  their  fate,  experienced  the  full  weight  oi 
Republican  vengeance  in  return  for  their  proposals  to  Wurmser.  Seventy 
persons  of  the  most  distinguished  families  were  put  to  death,  and  terror 
and  confiscation  reinstated  the  sway  of  the  Convention  over  the  unhappy 
province. 

The  secession  of  Prussia  from  the  confederation  now  became  more  and 
more  manifest.  On  his  return  to  Berlin,  Frederic  William  was  assailed 
by  so  many  representations  from  his  ministers  as  to  the  deplorable  state 
of  the  finances,  and  the  exhaustion  of  the  national  strength  in  a  contest 
foreign  to  the  real  interests  of  the  kingdom,  and  that,  too,  at  a  time  when 
the  affairs  of  Poland  required  all  his  resources  and  attention,  that  he  at 
first  adopted  the  resolution  to  recall  all  his  troops  from  the  Rhine.  The 
cabinet  of  Vienna  made  the  strongest  remonstrances  against  this  defec- 
tion, in  which  they  were  so  well  seconded  by  the  cabinets  of  London  and 
St.  Petersburg,  th&t  the  resolution  was  rescinded.  Nevertheless,  orders 
were  given  to  the.  Duke  of  Brunswick  to  temporize  as  much  as  possible, 
and  engage  the  troops  in  no  serious  enterprise  or  any  conquest  which 
might  turn  to  the  advantage  of  the  Austrians :  the  effect  of  which  soon 
appeared,  in  the  removal  of  the  Prussian  mortars  and  cannons  from  the 
lines  before  Landau.  The  French,  meanwhile,  made  preparations  to 
relieve  that  place  from  its  besiegers.  Thirty  thousand  men  from  the 
armies  of  the  Moselle  and  the  Rhine  were  directed  thither  under  Pichegru, 
and  these  were  supported  by  thirty -five  thousand  under  General  Hoche, 
who  advanced  from  the  side  of  La  Sarre.  After  some  preparatory  move- 
ments and  partial  actions,  the  Republicans,  on  the  26th  of  December, 
attacked  the  covering  army  of  the  Duke  of  Brunswick.  The  allies,  com- 
batting with  a  divided  purpose,  were  easily  driven  from  their  position, 
raised  the  blockade  of  Landau,  and  crossed  to  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine 
at  Philipsberg.  Fort  Vaubari  was  evacuated,  Spire  and  Worms  were 
reconquered  by  the  French,  who  advanced  to  the  gates  of  Manheim,  and 
Germany,  so  recently  victorious,  was  now  threatened  on  its  own  fron- 
tier. 

The  campaign  on  the  Spanish  frontier,  during  this  year,  was  charac- 
terized by  some  events  of  military  importance.  The  Spanish  government 
made  vigorous  efforts  to  increase  their  forces  in  February,  and  the  zeal 
arid  patriotism  of  the  inhabitants  soon  enabled  them  to  put  on  foot  two  con- 
siderable armies ;  one  of  thirty  thousand,  destined  to  invade  Roussillon,  and 
the  other  of  twenty-five  thousand,  to  advance  on  the  side  of  Bayonne,  by  the 
Bidossoa.  The  latter  army  commenced  its  offensive  operations  on  the  14th 
of  April,  by  a  partial  attack  on  the  French  camp,  which  was  followed 
by  a  more  serious  action,  on  the  1st  of  May,  when  the  French  were 


1793.J  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  51 

forced  back  from  one  of  their  positions,  with  a  loss  of  fifteen  pieces  of 
cannon  ;  and  on  the  6th  of  June,  they  were  driven  from  a  second  intrench- 
ment,  and  abandoned  all  their  artillery  and  ammunition.  They,  however, 
ivere  not  yet  discouraged  :  but,  after  reorganizing  their  forces,  themselves 
assumed  the  offensive,  and,  on  the  29th  of  August,  made  a  spirited  attack 
on  the  Spanish  posts  fortified  within  the  territory  of  France  :  but  they  were 
repulsed  with  such  loss  that  they  could  not  renew  the  strife  during  the 
remainder  of  the  campaign. 

The  success  of  the  army  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  frontier  was  more 
varied.  The  Spaniards,  under  Don  Ricardos,  invaded  Roussillon  in  the 
middle  of  April,  and,  on  the  21st,  they  made  a  general  attack  on  the 
French  camp,  which  ended  in  the  defeat  of  the  Republicans.  Soon  after, 
the  forts  of  Bellegrade  and  Villa  Franca  were  taken ;  and  Ricardos, 
pursuing  his  advantage,  attacked  a  large  body  of  French  at  Millas,  who 
were  totally  defeated  and  lost  fifteen  pieces  of  cannon.  But  the  French, 
by  great  exertions,  assembled  a  reenforcement  of  fresh  troops  in  this 
quarter,  and  fell  upon  a  corps  of  six  thousand  Spaniards  under  Don  Juan 
Comten.  The  Spaniards  made  a  brave  defence,  but  they  were  over- 
powered by  numbers,  and,  at  length,  lost  one  thousand  men  killed,  fifteen 
hundred  prisoners,  and  all  their  artillery  and  camp  equipage.  Elated  by 
this  victory,  the  French,  under  the  command  of  Dagobert,  resolved  to  at- 
tack the  entire  Spanish  army  at  Truellas.  This  battle  took  place  on  the 
22nd  of  September,  and  it  ended  in  the  total  defeat  of  the  French,  with  a 
loss  of  four  thousand  men  and  ten  pieces  of  artillery.  After  this  disaster, 
Dagobert  was  displaced,  and  Davoust,  with  fifteen  thousand  fresh  troops, 
appointed  to  the  command.  Several  trifling  actions  ensued,  without  any 
decisive  advantage  on  either  side,  until  the  7th  of  December,  when  Ri- 
cardos attacked  the  French  lines  and  totally  defeated  the  Republican 
army,  capturing  forty-six  pieces  of  cannon  and  twenty-five  hundred  pris- 
oners. He  followed  up  this  victory  with  great  promptness,  attacked  and 
took  the  town  of  Port  Vendre  with  all  its  artillery,  and  soon  after  com- 
pelled Coillure  to  surrender,  with  more  than  eighty  pieces  of  cannon ; 
while  the  Marquis  Amarillas  overthrew  the  right  of  the  French  forces, 
and  so  terrified  those  inexperienced  troops  by  his  assault,  that  whole  bat- 
talions disbanded  themselves,  and  fled  in  confusion  under  the  guns  of 
Perpignan. 

The  campaign  in  the  districts  of  the  maritime  Alps  was  feebly  con- 
ducted on  both  sides  ;  it  consisted  of  a  few  trifling  actions,  and  resulted  in 
no  event  of  importance.  But  while  the  operations  of  the  allies,  in  this 
quarter,  were  thus  inefficient,  the  efforts  of  the  French  to  shake  off  the 
yoke  of  the  Convention,  were  of  a  more  decided  character.  Marseilles, 
Toulon  and  Lyons,  openly  espoused  the  Girondist  cause ;  and,  in  the 
month  of  July,  two  of  the  Jacobin  leaders  were  put  to  death.  From  that 
moment,  the  inhabitants  of  these  towns,  knowing  that  they  were  doomed 
to  Jacobin  vengeance,  began  to  cast  cannon,  raise  intrenchments,  and 
make  every  preparation  tor  a  vigorous  defence.  Marseilles  was  the  first 
to  suffer  for  this  imprudence.  The  troops  of  the  Convention  reached  it 
before  the  inhabitants  were  fully  prepared  for  resistance,  defeated  the 
insurrection,  and  established  the  guillotine  in  bloody  sovereignty.  The 
next  attack  of  the  Jacobins  was  at  Lyons,  where  the  revolt  was  better 
organized  and  the  insurrectionists  better  prepared  for  defence.  During 
tlie  whole  of  August  and  part  of  September,  the  besiegers  made  but  little 


52  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP  VII 

progress,  and  the  Convention,  alarmed  at  the  protracted  resistance  of  the 
town,  directed  immediate  preparations  on  a  larger  scale  for  its  reduction. 
A  hundred  pieces  of  cannon,  drawn  from  the  arsenals  of  Besancon  and 
Grenoble,  were  mounted  on  the  besieging  batteries ;  veteran  troops  were 
dispatched  thither  from  the  frontiers  of  Piedmont,  and  on  the  24th  of  Sep- 
tember a  terrible  bombardment  and  cannonade  with  red  hot  shot  was 
commenced,  which  continued  without  intermission  for  a  whole  week.  The 
result  of  this  attack  was  terrible  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  city :  night  and 
day  the  flaming  tempest  fell  on  them,  burning  their  houses,  destroying  their 
magazines,  and  scattering  death  among  them  in  a  thousand  forms.  Still, 
their  courage  faltered  not,  nor  did  the  garrison  slacken  iri  their  defence. 
Soon,  famine  was  added  to  their  sufferings ;  and,  in  the  mean  time,  the 
Convention,  exasperated  at  their  obstinacy,  displaced  Kellerman,  who 
had  hitherto  conducted  the  siege,  increased  the  attacking  army  to  sixty 
thousand,  and  placing  General  Coppet  at  their  head,  ordered  him  to  re- 
duce Lyons  instantly  by  fire  and  sword.  These  measures  finally  pre- 
vailed. The  garrison  and  citizens  had  maintained  their  position,  until 
their  provisions  of  every  sort  were  entirely  exhausted  and  a  large  portion 
of  the  town  was  laid  in  ashes  by  the  bombs  and  hot  shot  of  the  enemy. 
Surrender,  therefore,  became  inevitable;  but  even  in  this  extremity,  the 
brave  Precy,  who  had  so  nobly  directed  the  defence,  refused  to  submit. 
He  resolved  to  force  his  way  at  the  head  of  a  chosen  band,  through  the 
enemy's  lines,  and  seek  in  foreign  climes  that  freedom  that  had  departed 
from  France.  On  the  night  of"  the  9th  of  October,  the  heroic  column, 
consisting  of  two  thousand  men,  with  their  wives  and  children,  set  forth 
on  this  perilous  march.  As  they  proceeded,  they  found  themselves 
enveloped  on  every  side  by  cavalry,  infantry  and  artillery,  and  they  were 
indiscriminately  massacred  ;  of  the  whole  number  scarcely  fifty  forced 
their  way  with  Precy  into  the  Swiss  territories. 

On  the  following  day,  the  Republicans  took  possession  of  the  city,  and 
Couthon,  entering  at  the  head  of  the  authorities  of  the  Convention,  rein- 
stated the  Jacobin  municipality  in  full  force,  and  commissioned  them  to 
seek  out  and  denounce  "  the  guilty."  He  wrote  to  Paris  that  the  inhabit- 
ants consisted  of  three  classes:  first,  the  guilty  rich;  second,  the  selfish 
rich  ;  third,  the  ignorant  workmen,  incapable  of  any  wickedness.  "  The 
first,"  he  said,  "should  be  guillotined  and  their  houses  destroyed;  the 
fortunes  of  the  second  should  be  confiscated  ;  the  third  should  be  removed, 
and  their  places  supplied  by  a  Republican  colony."  These  directions 
were  carried  out  with  a  degree  of  atrocity  unsurpassed  by  any  of  the 
horrors  of  that  horrible  period.  More  than  six  thousand  persons,  of  both 
sexes  and  all  ages,  perished  by  the  hands  of  the  executioners  ;  twelve 
thousand  were  driven  into  exile  ;  and  the  number  of  palaces  and  houses 
pulled  down  and  demolished  by  order  of  the  municipality  may  be  estima- 
ted from  the  fact,  that  their  destruction  occupied  six  months  of  organized 
labor,  and  was  effected  at  an  expense  to  the  government  of  more  than 
seventeen  millions  of  francs. 

Toulon  was  the  next  object  of  Republican  revenge.  That  rising  sea- 
port possessed  a  population  of  twenty-five  thousand  souls,  and  was  warmly 
opposed  to  the  Revolution  from  its  commencement.  In  their  present 
emergency,  the  inhabitants  saw  no  alternative  but  to  open  their  harbor  to 
the  English  fleet  which  was  cruising  in  the  vicinity,  and  proclaim  Louis 
XVII.  king.  This  was  done  accordingly,  and  the  Endish  scniadron 


HISTORYOFEUROPE.  53 

entered  the  harbor.  Soon  after,  a  Spanish  fleet  arrived  bringing  a  consid- 
erable body  of  land-troops,  and  the  allied  forces,  thirteen  thousand  strong, 
took  possession  of  ?11  the  forts  in  the  city.  A  large  portion  of  the  French 
fleet  lay  at  this  time  in  the  harbor,  and  their  sailors,  with  the  exception 
of  the  crews  of  seven  ships  of  the  line  who  proved  refractory,  joined  the 
inhabitants  in  their  defence. 

On  the  land  side,  Toulon  is  backed  by  a  ridge  of  lofty  hills,  on  which 
strong  fortifications  had  long  been  erected  and  the  artillery  of  which  com- 
manded the  greater  part  of  the  city  and  harbor.  The  mountain  of  Faron 
and  the  Hauteur  de  Grasse  are  the  principal  points  of  this  rocky  range, 
ana  on  their  occupation  depends,  in  a  great  measure,  the  maintenance  of 
the  place.  They  were  now  taken  possession  of  by  the  allied  troops. 
Every  exertion  was  made  by  the  allies  and  inhabitants  to  strengthen  the 
defences  of  the  town  itself,  and  particularly  to  render  impregnable  the 
Fort  Eguillette,  placed  at  the  extremity  of  the  promontory  which  shuts  in 
the  lesser  harbor,  and  was  called  by  the  -English,  Little  Gibraltar  :  yet 
the  regular  force  was  too  small  and  composed  of  too  many  heterogeneous 
materials,  to  warrant  any  well-grounded  hope  of  a  permanent  resistance. 

The  Republican  forces  soon  arrived,  to  the  number  of  forty  thousand 
men ;  many  of  them  veterans,  all  well  disciplined,  and  provided  with  every, 
thing  necessary  for  prosecuting  the  siege.  Dugommier,  by  order  of  the 
Convention,  took  command  of  the  Republican  army,  and  Lord  Mulgrave 
assumed  the  direction  of  the  garrison  of  Toulon. 

The  first  attack  of  the  Republicans  was  on  the  hill  forts  that  com- 
manded the  harbor,  disguised  by  a  false  attack  against  Cape  Brun.  The 
breaching  batteries  were  placed  in  charge  of  a  young  officer  of  artillery, 
then  chief  of  battalion,  who  was  destined  to  outstrip  all  his  predecessors  in 
European  history — NAPOLEON  BONAPARTE.  Under  his  superintendence, 
the  works  of  the  forts  soon  began  to  be  seriously  damaged  ;  and  to  inter- 
rupt his  fire,  a  sally  from  the  garrison  was  resolved  on.  This  attempt 
was  made  on  the  30th  of  November,  by  three  thousand  men,  who  moved 
against  the  heights  of  Arennes,  whence  this  annoyance  proceeded  ;  while 
another  column  of  the  allies,  of  nearly  the  same  strength,  attacked  the 
batteries  at  the  gorge  of  Ollioulles.  Both  attacks  were  at  first  successful. 
lOllioulles  was  carried  and  the  guns  on  the  point  of  being  taken,  when 
Dugommier  rallied  his  troops,  led  them  back,  and  repulsed  the  assailants. 
The  sally  on  the  side  of  Arennes  was  equally  fortunate ;  all  the  guns  ol 
the  battery  were  carried  and  spiked ;  but  the  impetuosity  of  the  allies 
having  led  them  too  far  in  pursuit  of  the  enemy,  they  were  in  turn  met  by 
fresh  troops  headed  by  Napoleon,  and  driven  back  to  the  city  with  con- 
siderable loss.  The  whole  force  of  the  Republicans  was  next  directed 
against  the  English  redoubt,  styled  Little  Gibraltar.  After  that  fort  had 
been  battered  at  intervals  for  several  days,  the  fire  of  the  besiegers  was 
maintained  through  the  whole  of  the  16th  of  December,  and  at  two  o'clock 
on  the  morning  of  the  17th,  Dugommier  led  his  troops  to  the  assault.  They 
were  received  with  a  tremendous  fire  of  grape  and  musketry,  which  soon 
filled  the  ditches  with  dead  and  wounded ;  the  column  was  driven  back, 
and  Dugommier  despaired  of  success  ;  but  fresh  troops  continually  ad- 
vanced and  at  length  overpowered  the  Spanish  soldiers,  to  whom  a  part 
of  the  line  was  intrusted,  and  gained  the  flank  of  the  British  detachment, 
nearly  three  hundred  of  whom  fell  while  defending  their  part  of  the 
intrenchments.  The  possession  of  this  fort,  by  the  enemy,  rendered  the 


54  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  VII 

farther  maintenance  of  the  exterior  defences  impracticable ;  and  in  the 
night,  the  whole  of  the  allied  troops  were  withdrawn  from  the  promontory 
to  the  city.  The  attack  on  this  fort  was  planned  and  urged  by  Napoleon, 
who  well  knew  that  it  commanded  the  inner  harbor,  and  that  its  possession 
by  the  besiegers  would  render  the  situation  of  the  fleet  extremely  perilous, 
and  in  all  probability  lead  to  the  evacuation  of  the  toTvn. 

While  this  important  success  was  gained  on  the  side  of  Fort  Eguillette, 
he  Republicans  were  not  less  fortunate  on  the  other  extremity  of  the  line. 
A  little  before  daybreak,  and  shortly  after  the  firing  had  ceased  on  the 
promontory,  a  general  attack  was  made  on  the  whole  range  of  posts  which 
crowned  the  mountain  of  Faron.  On  the  eastern  side  of  the  range,  the 
Republicans  were  repulsed ;  but  on  the  north,  where  the  mountain  is 
nearly  eighteen  hundred  feet  in  height,  steep,  rocky,  and  supposed  to  be 
inaccessible,  they  made  good  their  ascent ;  so  that  when  the  allies  were 
congratulating  themselves  on  the  defeat  of  what  they  deemed  the  main 
attack,  they  beheld  the  heights  above  them  crowded  with  glittering  bat- 
talions, and  the  tricolor-flag  waving  from  the  loftiest  summit  of  the 
mountain.  This  conquest,  projected  by  Napoleon,  was  decisive  of  the 
fate  of  Toulon:  for  though  the  town  was  as  yet  uninjured,  the  harbor 
was  no  longer  tenable.  The  evacuation  was  therefore  resolved  on.  and 
information  conveyed  to  the  principal  inhabitants,  that  the  means  of  re- 
treat would  be  afforded  them  on  board  the  British  squadron ;  and  in  the 
mean  time,  the  ships  were  moved  to  the  outer- roads,  beyond  the  reach  of 
the  enemy's  fire. 

The  distress  of  the  inhabitants,  who  were  now  forced  to  choose  between 
exile  and  the  guillotine,  was  extreme :  nor  can  any  words  do  justice  to 
the  scene  that  ensued,  when  the  last  columns  of  the  allied  troops  com- 
menced their  embarkation.  Cries,  screams  and  lamentations  were  heard 
in  every  quarter ;  the  sad  remnant  of  those  who  had  favored  the  Royal 
cause  and  had  not  yet  secured  the  means  of  escape,  came  flying  to  the 
beach,  and  with  tears  and  prayers  invoked  the  aid  of  their  British  friends. 
Mothers,  clasping  their  babes  to  their  bosoms,  helpless  children  and 
decrepit  old  men,  might  be  seen  stretching  their  hands  toward  the  harbor, 
shuddering  at  every  sound  behind  them,  and  even  rushing  into  the  waves 
to  escape  the  less  merciful  death  that  awaited  them  from  their  country- 
men. Sir  Sidney  Smith,  with  a  degree  of  humanity  worthy  of  his  high 
character,  suspended  his  retreat  until  not  one  individual  who  claimed  his 
assistance,  remained  on  the  strand :  the  total  number  borne  away  was 
fourteen  thousand,  eight  hundred  and  seventy-seven. 

Before  leaving  the  coast,  the  allies  effected  in  part  the  destruction  of 
the  French  fleet.  Fifteen  ships  of  the  line,  eight  frigates  and  eleven  cor- 
vettes were  burned,  three  ships  of  the  line  and  three  frigates  were  brought 
away  uninjured  and  taken  into  the  English  service,  and  twelve  ships  of 
the  line  and  eleven  frigates,  owing  to  the  lukewarmness  or  timidity  of  the 
Spanish  officers,  escaped  destruction,  and  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
Republicans. 

The  storm  which  now  burst  on  the  heads  of  the  remaining  inhabitants 
of  Toulon,  was  a  legitimate  counterpart  of  what  was  endured  at  Lyons. 
Several  thousand  citizens,  men,  women  and  children,  perished  within  a 
few  weeks  by  the  sword  or  the  guillotine,  and  twelve  thousand  laborers 
were  hired  from  the  surrounding  departments  to  demolish  the  buildings 
of  the  city. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

CAMPAIGN  OF  1794- 

WHILE  the  career  of  the  French  armies  was  thus  marked  by  alterna- 
tions of  victory  and  defeat,  a  different  fortune  awaited  her  naval  arma- 
ments. Power  at  sea,  unlike  conquest  on  land,  cannot  spring  from  mere 
suffering,  or  from  the  energy  of  destitute  warriors  with  arms  in  their 
hands ;  nor  are  triumphs  to  be  achieved  on  the  ocean  by  merely  forcing 
column  after  column  of  conscripts  on  board  ships  of  war. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  contest,  the  French  navy  consisted  of 
seventy-five  ships  of  the  line  and  seventy  frigates  ;  but  the  officers,  drawn 
chiefly  from  the  aristocratic  classes,  had,  for  the  most  part,  emigrated  on 
the  breaking  out  of  the  Revolution,  and  those  who  supplied  their  places 
were  deficient  both  in  naval  education  and  experience.  On  the  other 
hand,  England  had  one  hundred  and  twenty-nine  ships  of  the  line  and 
more  than  a  hundred  frigates  ;  ninety  of  each  class  were  immediately  put 
in  commission,  and  seamen  of  the  best  description,  to  the  number  of  eighty- 
five  thousand,  were  drawn  from  the  inexhaustible  merchant-service. 
Unable  to  face  the  English  in  large  squadrons,  the  French  navy  remained 
for  a  time  in  total  inactivity ;  but  the  French  merchants,  not  having  any 
pacific  means  of  employing  their  capital,  fitted  out  an  immense  number 
of  privateers  which  proved  extremely  injurious  to  British  commerce. 

Meanwhile,  the  ascendency  of  the  navy  of  Great  Britain  produced  its 
wonted  effects  on  the  colonial  possessions  of  her  enemies.  Soon  after  the 
commencement  of  hostilities,  Tobago  was  taken  by  a  British  fleet,  and  in 
the  beginning  of  March,  1794,  an  expedition  was  sent  against  Martinique, 
which  island  surrendered  on  the  23rd  of  that  month.  Soon  after,  the  prin- 
cipal forts  in  St.  Domingo  were  wrested  from  the  Republicans  by  the 
Engush  forces,  while  the  wretched  planters,  a  prey  to  the  commotion 
excited  by  Brissot  and  the  friends  of  negro  emancipation  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Revolution,  were  totally  ruined.  St.  Lucia  and  Guadaloupe 
were  next  subdued,  and  thus  in  little  more  than  a  month  the  French  were 
despoiled  of  their  West  India  possessions,  with  hardly  any  loss  to  the 
conquerors. 

In  the  Mediterranean,  also,  the  power  of  the  British  navy  was  speedily 
felt.  Corsica  was  selected  as  the  point  of  attack.  Three  thousand  ma- 
rines and  soldiers  were  landed,  and  they  nearly  effected  the  subjuga- 
tion of  the  island  by  capturing  the  fortress  of  Bastia,  which  capitulated 
at  the  end  of  May :  and  on  the  1st  of  August,  Calvi,  the  only  remaining 
stronghold,  surrendered  to  the  British  arms.  The  crown  of  Corsica  was 
then  offered  by  Paoli  and  the  Royalist  party  to  the  King  of  England,  who 
accepted  it. 

But  a  more  important  achievement  was  at  hand.  The  French  govern- 
ment, by  great  exertions,  had  equipped  for  service  twenty-six  ships  of  the 
line  at  Brest,  in  order  to  secure  the  arrival  of  a  large  fleet  laden  with 
provisions  from  America,  and  on  the  20th  of  May,  the  fleet  put  to  sea. 
under  Admiral  Joyeuse.  On  the  28th,  Lord  Howe  hove  in  sight  with  the 
Channel-fleet  of  England,  consisting  also  of  six-aixd-twenty  ships  of  the 

6 


56  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  VIIT. 

line.  The  French  were  immediately  formed  in  order  of  battle,  and  a 
paitial  action  ensued  between  their  rear-guard  and  the  British  van, 
during  which  the  Revolutionaire  was  so  much  damaged  that  she  struck 
to  the  Audacious  ;  but  as  the  victors  did  not  take  possession  of  her  before 
nightfall,  she  was  on  the  following  morning  carried  off  by  the  French  and 
towed  into  Rochefort.  The  next  day  each  party  endeavored  to  gain  the 
weather-gage,  and,  during  the  two  following  days,  a  thick  fog  concealed 
the  rival  fleets  from  each  other's  view.  On  the  1st  of  June,  the  sun 
broke  forth  with  unusual  splendor,  and  Lord  Howe,  having  obtained  the 
weather-gage,  bore  down  obliquely  on  the  enemy's  line,  broke  it  near  the 
centre,  and  doubled,  with  a  preponderating  force,  on  one  half  of  their 
squadron.  The  French  fleet  was  arrayed  in  close  order  in  a  line  extend- 
ing nearly  east  and  west,  and  a  heavy  fire  was  commenced  on  the  British 
ships  as  soon  as  they  came  within  range.  The  battle  then  became  general 
and  was  contested  with  great  bravery  on  both  sides ;  but  the  superiority 
of  the  British  seamen  everywhere  prevailed.  One  of  the  French  ships 
was  sunk,  and  ten  surrendered ;  but  subsequently  four  of  the  prizes  with 
the  remainder  of  the  fleet  escaped.  Six  ships  of  the  line  remained  in  the 
hands  of  the  British  admiral,  and  were  brought  into  Plymouth.  The 
Republicans  were  in  some  degree  consoled  for  this  disaster,  by  the  safe 
arrival  of  the  fleet  from  America,  consisting  of  one  hundred  and  sixty 
vessels  laden  with  provisions — a  supply  of  incalculable  importance  to  a 
population,  whom  the  Reign  of  Terror  and  civil  disunion  had  brought  to 
the  verge  of  famine. 

Never  was  a  victory  more  seasonable  than  Lord  Howe's  to  the  British 
government.  The  war,  preceded  as  it  was  by  violent  party  divisions  in 
England,  had  been  regarded  with  lukewarm  feelings  by  a  large  portion 
of  the  people  ;  and  until  the  Reign  of  Terror  had  shocked  the  respectable 
portion  of  the  advocates  of  the  Revolution,  these  short-sighted  friends  of 
freedom  had  feared  the  success  of  the  British  arms,  lest  it  should 
extinguish  the  dawn  of  liberty  in  the  world.  But  the  victory  of  the  1st  of 
June  captivated  the  affections  of  the  giddy  multitude  :  the  ancient,  but 
recently  half-expiring  loyalty  of  the  British  people,  wakened  at  the  sound 
of  their  conquering  cannon,  and  the  hereditary  rivalry  of  the  two  nations 
revived  in  all  its  force.  From  this  period,  may  be  dated  the  commence- 
ment of  entire  union  among  the  inhabitants  on  the  subject  of  the  war. 

The  secession  of  Prussia  from  the  allied  cause  was  a  serious  loss,  and 
greatly  embarrassed  the  opening  movements  of  this  year's  campaign. 
Indeed,  Mr.  Pitt,  by  a  renewed  and  energetic  remonstrance,  caused  the 
King  of  Prussia  a  second  time  to  promise  his  cooperation,  but  no  effectual 
aid  resulted  from  it.  General  Mack  was  intrusted  by  the  Austrian  and 
English  governments  with  the  preparation  of  a  plan  of  the  campaign,  and 
he  proposed  one  which,  had  it  been  vigorously  carried  into  effect,  might 
have  produced  brilliant  results :  this  was,  to  open  the  French  frontier  by 
the  capture  of  Landrecy  and  march  with  the  army  in  Flanders,  through 
Laon  direct  to  Paris,  while  the  Prussian  forces,  by  a  forward  movement 
on  the  side  of  Namur,  supported  the  operation.  This  plan,  however,  was 
not  adopted;  for  the  inhabitants  of  West  Flanders  protested  against 
having  their  province  made  a  theatre  of  war,  the  Prussians  declined  any 
active  cooperation,  and  the  remainder  of  the  allied  forces  were  unequal 
to  such  an  expedition.  The  number  and  disposition  of  the  troops  on  both 
sides,  at  the  opening  of  the  campaign,  were  as  follows : 


1794.J  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  57 

FRENCH.  ALLIES. 


Army  of  the  North,  .   .  220,000 
Moselle  and  the  Rhine,    280,000 

Alps, 60,000 

South, 00,000 

Eastern  Pyrenees,  .   .  .     80,000 
Western     ditto         .   .   .    80,000 


Flanders, 140,000 

Duke  of  York,  .  .  .  40,000 
Austrians  on  the  Rhine  60,000 
Prussians  ditto  65,000 

Luxembourg,  ....  20,000 
Emigrants, 12,000 


780,000  337,000 

Unaware,  as  yet,  of  the  immense  military  resources  of  a  despptic  and 
i -evolutionary  government,  whose  requisitions  for  soldiers,  money  and 
munitions  of  war  were  enforced  by  the  terrors  of  the  guillotine,  and 
whose  young  men,  deprived  by  the  agitation  of  the  period  from  all  other 
occupation,  voluntarily  crowded  into  the  ranks  of  the  army,  the  allies 
resolved  to  capture  Landrecy,  and  still  entertained  the  hope  of  marching 
thence  to  Paris.  Preparatory  to  this  movement,  the  Emperor  of  Austria, 
on  the  16th  of  April,  reviewed  a  large  division  of  the  allied  troops  on  the 
plains  of  Gateau,  amounting  to  nearly  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand 
men.  The  troops  were  in  the  finest  condition,  th.e  cavalry,  in  particular, 
were  superb ;  but,  instead  of  profiting  by  their  concentrated  force  to  fall 
on  the  opposing  armies,  they  were  the  next  day  divided  into  eight  columns 
and  spread  over  many  leagues  of  the  Flemish  frontier,  with  the  absurd 
intention  of  covering  every  point  of  entrance  against  the  French ;  and 
that,  too,  while  their  project  of  pushing  forward  to  Paris  was  not  yet 
abandoned.  Landrecy  was  however  besieged  and  captured,  after  ten  days 
of  open  trenches,  with  its  garrison  of  five  thousand  men. 

Notwithstanding  the  defect  in  the  plans  of  the  allies,  their  operations 
were  attended  with  considerable  success.  The  plan  of  the  French  con- 
sisted of  a  series  of  attacks  on  the  posts  and  corps  forming  the  line  of  the 
allies,  followed  by  an  advance  of  their  two  wings,  the  one  toward  Philip- 
ville,  and  the  other  toward  Dunkirk.  On  the  26th  of  April,  the  move- 
ment took  place  along  the  whole  line.  The  centre,  which  attacked  the 
Duke  of  York  near  Cambray,  experienced  a  bloody  reverse.  When  the 
Republicans  arrived  at  the  redoubts  of  Troisville,  they  were  intrepidly 
assailed  by  the  English  guards  in  front,  supported  by  Prince  Schwartzen- 
berg  with  a  regiment  of  Austrian  cuirassiers,  while  General  Otto  charged 
them  in  flank,  at  the  head  of  the  English  cavalry,  and  completed  their 
rout.  The  whole  corps  was  driven  back  to  Cambray,  with  a  loss  of  thirty- 
five  pieces  of  cannon  and  more  than  four  thousand  men.  While  this  dis- 
aster was  taking  place  on  the  left  of  the  French  army,  the  centre  sustained 
a  similar  repulse  from  the  Austrian  covering  force.  But  these  advant- 
ages were  counterbalanced  by  the  defeat  of  General  Clairfait  on  the  right, 
who  was  attacked  by  fifty  thousand  French  troops  under  Souham  and  Mo- 
reau,  and  forced  to  retreat  precipitately  with  a  loss  of  thirty  pieces  of 
cannon  and  twelve  hundred  prisoners.  Prince  Cobourg  immediately  de- 
tached the  Duke  of  York  to  Tournay  to  support  Clairfait,  and  himself 
remained  in  the  neighborhood  of  Landrecy,  to  put  that  fortress  in  a  state 
of  defence. 

The  Convention,  greatly  dissatisfied  with  the  progress  of  their  armies 
against  the  allied  centre,  ordered  Jourdan  to  march  with  forty  thousand 
men  to  the  Ardenne  forest,  and  unite  himself  with  the  army  on  the  Sambre, 


HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  V1I1 

Previously  to  his  march,  on  the  10th  of  May,  the  French  army  crossed 
that  river  to  attack  the  allies  at  Grandrengs,  and  a  furious  battle  ensued, 
in  which  the  Republicans  were  defeated,  and  forced  to  recross  the  river 
with  a  loss  of  ten  pieces  of  .cannon  and  four  thousand  men.  On  the  20th 
of  May  they  renewed  the  attack,  but 'were  so  roughly  handled  that,  had 
not  Kleber  arrived  on  the  ground  with  fresh  troops,  the  French  army 
would  have  been  totally  destroyed  :  as  it  was,  they  lost  four  thousand  men 
and  twenty-five  pieces  of  artillery. 

While  blood  was  thus  flowing  freely  on  the  banks  of  the  Sambre,  some 
movements  of  importance  took  place  in  West  Flanders.  The  allies  had 
there  collected  ninety  thousand  men,  and  the  situation  of  the  French  left 
wing  suggested  the  design  of  cutting  it  off  from  the  main  body,  and  forcing 
it  back  on  the  sea,  where  it  must  needs  surrender :  and  had  the  allies  acted 
more  in  concert,  they  might  readily  have  accomplished  this  bold  under- 
taking. But,  obstinately  pursuing  the  old  system  of  dividing  their  forces, 
they  moved  in  separate  detachments  and  were  easily  defeated  in  detail  by 
the  French  troops.  On  the  22nd  of  May,  Pichegru  assumed  the  command 
of  the  French,  with  the  intention  of  laying  siege  to  Tournay.  A  number 
of  indecisive  actions  ensued,  in  which  no  object  wa,s  accomplished,  though 
large  numbers  of  troops  were  destroyed ;  no  less  than  twenty  thousand 
men  having  fallen  on  the  two  sides. 

The  result  of  these  bloody  actions,  which  demonstrated  the  strength  of 
the  Republicans,  and  showed  the  desperate  strife  that  must  follow  any 
further  attempts  to  subdue  them,  produced  a  change  in  the  Austrian  coun- 
sels, arid  led  to  a  determination  on  the  part  of  the  Emperor  to  withdraw 
from  the  contest  as  soon  as  decency  would  permit. 

Meanwhile,  the  Convention,  unaware  of  this  favorable  change  in  their 
prospects,  stimulated  the  army  on  the  Sambre  to  fresh  exertions.  They 
again  crossed  that  river  under  Kleber,  on  the  26th  of  May,  but  were  easily 
repulsed.  Nothing  daunted,  they  renewed  the  attempt  on  the  29th,  and 
this  time  succeeded  in  driving  back  the  allies,  after  which  they  invested 
Charleroi.  But  the  Emperor  soon  arrived  with  ten  thousand  additional 
troops,  attacked  the  French  lines  on  the  3rd  of  June,  and  again  drove  them 
across  the  Sambre.  On  the  following  day,  Jourdan  arrived  with  forty 
thousand  men,  and  the  French  army,  thus  reenforced,  returned  to  the  siege 
of  Charleroi,  and  on  the  12th  of  June  destroyed  a  strong  redoubt  which 
constituted  its  principal  defence.  The  allies,  alarmed  at  this  result,  made 
great  efforts  to  raise  the  siege,  and  succeeded  in  breaking  up  the  position 
of  the  Republicans,  driving  them  over  the  river  with  a  loss  of  three  thou- 
sand men.  On  the  18th  of  June,  the  French  army  for  the  fifth  time  crossed 
the  Sambre,  and  for  the  third  time  invested  Charleroi.  As  the  French 
before  this  place  now  numbered  seventy  thousand  men,  it  became 
necessary  for  the  allies  to  ree'nforce  the  covering  army,  which  was  done 
by  withdrawing  the  Austrian  troops  from  the  Scheldt,  leaving  the  Duke 
of  York  with  the  English  and  Hanoverians  alone  in  that  position :  this 
separation  of  the  Austrian  and  English  forces  contributed  not  a  little  to 
augment  the  misunderstanding  which  already  existed  between  those  two 
nations.  The  Austrian  auxiliaries  did  not  arrive  in  time  to  relieve  Char- 
leroi, which  capitulated  on  the  25th  of  June.  The  garrison  had  hardly 
left  the  gates,  however,  when  the  Austrians  arrived ;  and,  as  the  allied 
forces  were  now  sufficiently  numerous  to  warrant  the  undertaking,  they 
resolved  to  hazard  a  battle.  This  took  place  on  the  26th,  on  the  plains 


J794.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  59 

of  Fleurus :  it  was  commenced  in  the  morning  and  continued  with  great 
vigor  throughout  the  whole  day.  In  the  event,  the  allies  retreated,  leaving 
the  French  masters  of  the  field ;  but  neither  party  had  any  cause  for  tri- 
umph. The  loss  on  boih  sides  was  nearly  equal,  being  between  four  and 
five  thousand  men  of  each  army :  but  this  material  advantage  ensued  to 
the  French,  that  by  the  eastwardly  movement  of  the  Austrians  and  the 
pacific  intentions  of  their  Emperor,  Flanders  was  in  effect  abandoned  to 
the  Republican  armies,  who  not  long  after  were  enabled  to  concentrate 
themselves  without  opposition  at  Brussels.  The  sole  care  of  the  British 
was  now  to  cover  Antwerp  and  'Holland ;  but  on  the  15th  of  July,  they 
were  forced  to  evacuate  the  former,  after  which  they  withdrew  their 
whole  force  to  Breda  for  the  defence  of  the  latter. 

While  the  fortune  of  war  was  thus  decisively  inclining  to  the  Republi- 
can side  on  the  northern  frontier,  events  of  but  trifling  importance  were 
taking  place  on  the  Rhine,  though  their  tendency  was  favorable  to  the 
French.  In  Piedmont,  they  gained  a  more  decided  advantage,  General 
Dumas  having  made  himself  master  of  Little  St.  Bernard  and  Mount  Ce- 
nis,  by  which  means  the  whole  ridge  of  the  Alps  separating  Piedmont  from 
Savoy,  fell  into  the  possession  of  the  Republican  troops,  and  the  keys  of 
Italy  were  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  French  government.  The  opera- 
tions on  the  frontiers  of  Nice,  under  the  direction  of  General  Bonaparte, 
were  not  less  successful,  and  before  the  end  of  May,  the  Republicans 
were  masters  of  all  the  passes  through  the  maritime  Alps ;  while,  from 
the  summit  of  Mount  Cenis  they  threatened  a  descent  upon  the  valley  of 
Susa,  and  from  the  Col  di  Tende  they  could  advance  without  interruption 
to  the  siege  of  Coni. 

On  the  Spanish  frontier,  the  war  assumed  a  still  more  decisive  aspect. 
The  reduction  of  Toulon  having  enabled  the  central  government  to  de- 
tach General  Dugommier  to  reenforce  the  army  on  the  Eastern  Pyrenees, 
it  was  resolved  to  act  offensively  at  both  extremities  of  that  range  of  moun- 
tains. During  the  winter,  great  exertions  had  been  made  to  improve  the 
discipline  and  condition  of  the  French  troops ;  while  on  the  other  hand, 
the  Spanish  government,  destitute  of  energy,  and  exhausted  by  the  exer- 
tions they  had  already  made,  were  unable  to  maintain  the  number  and 
efficiency  of  their  forces.  Before  the  end  of  the  year  1793,  they  had  been 
reduced  to  the  necessity  of  issuing  more  than  sixty  millions  of  dollars  in 
paper  money,  secured  on  the  income  of  the  tobacco-tax ;  but  all  their 
efforts  to  recruit  their  armies  from  the  natives  of  the  country  proved  inef- 
fectual, and  they  were  obliged  to  take  into  their  service  some  of  the  foreign- 
ers employed  in  the  siege  of  Toulon.  Between  two  such  contending 
powers  as  the  French  and  Spanish,  victorv  could  not  long  remain  doubtful. 
The  Republicans  prevailed  in  almost  every  encounter,  defeating  and  dis- 
piriting the  Spanish  troops,  making  them  prisoners,  taking  their  cannon, 
and  capturing  not  only  the  fortresses  of  which  they  had  possessed  them- 
selves  on  the  French  territory  in  the  preceding  campaign,  but  also  the 
Spanish  fortresses  of  Figueras  and  Rosas,  two  of  the  most  important  posts 
on  the  whole  frontier,  hitherto  regarded  as  nearly  impregnable,  and  of  the 
greatest  consequence  to  the  French  as  they  laid  open  the  richest  plains 
of  Spain  to  their  invasion.  Nor  were  the  Spaniards  more  successful  on 
the  Western  Pyrenees,  where  the  French  made  themselves  masters  of  St. 
Marcial,  Bidossoa,  Fontarabia,  and  St.  Sebastian ;  and  thus,  as  early  as 
August  found  themselves  firmly  posted  in  the  Spanish  territory,  with  am- 

8 


00  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  VIII. 

pie  magazines  and  stores  both  of  provisions  and  ammunition.  These  terri- 
ble disasters  compelled  the  Spaniards  to  sue  for  peace,  which  the  French 
government  were  not  unwilling  to  grant,  as  by  so  doing  they  could  avail 
themselves  of  the  experienced  soldiers  who  had  gained  these  conquests, 
to  reenforce  their  armies  for  the  expedition  they  meditated  on  the  south 
of  the  Alps. 

Meantime,  the  French  armies  in  the  north,  after  a  delay  of  nearly  two 
months,  resumed  the  offensive.  Jourdan  and  Kleber  defeated  the  retreat, 
ing  Austrians  in  a  pitched  battle  at  Ruremonde,  captured  the  castle  of 
Rheinfels,  and  the  noble  fortress  of  Maestricht  with  its  three  hundred  and 
fifty  pieces  of  cannon — so  that,  on  the  left  of  the  Rhine,  the  Imperialists 
retained  nothing  of  all  their  possessions  but  Luxembourg  and  Mayence. 
On  the  other  side,  Moreau  pressed  the  Duke  of  York  and  compelled  him 
to  retire  to  the  right  bank  of  the  Meuse,  leaving  Bergen-op-Zoom,  Breda 
and  Bois-le-Duc  to  their  own  resources.  Pichegru  then  pushed  on  with 
seventy  thousand  troops  to  Bois-le-Duc,  which  he  soon  forced  to  capitulate. 
He  followed  up  his  success,  crossed  the  Meuse,  drove  the  Duke  of  York 
with  considerable  loss  across  the  Waal,  and  invested  Grave  and  Venloo, 
which  latter  place  surrendered  to  the  French  musketry  alone. 

These  successes  of  the  French  in  the  north,  great  as  they  were,  formed 
but  the  prelude  to  a  winter  campaign  of  still  more  decisive  results.  On 
the  27th  of  October,  Pichegru  laid  siege  to  Nimeguen,  where  the  Duke 
of  York  was  intrenched  with  thirty  thousand  men.  The  Duke  made  a 
vigorous  sally  when  the  Republicans  had  taken  up  their  position,  and 
repulsed  them  for  the  moment ;  but  the  French  soon  strengthened  their 
approaches,  and  the  Duke,  finding  it  impossible  to  protect  the  place, 
evacuated  it  in  the  night,  leaving  but  three  thousand  Dutch  troops  for  its 
defence  ;  and  the  next  day  this  fine  fortress,  which  commands  the  passage 
of  the  Waal,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  French. 

The  French  army  now  stood  in  great  need  of  repose  ;  but  the  Convention, 
inflamed  with  the  spirit  of  conquest,  kept  them  in  the  field,  and  insisted 
on  renewed  exertions.  Accordingly,  on  the  28th  of  December,  they 
commenced  their  winter  campaign  by  an  attack,  in  two  columns,  on  the 
Dutch  advanced  posts.  The  Dutch  troops,  after  a  slight  resistance,  fled 
in  confusion,  leaving  sixty  pieces  of  cannon  and  sixteen  hundred  prisoners 
behind  them.  On  the  following'  day,  Grave  capitulated,  and  Breda,  one 
of  the  last  of  the  Dutch  barrier  towns,  was  invested. 

The  States-General  of  Holland,  being  now  deserted  by  the  allies  and 
wholly  unable  to  resist  the  overwhelming  forces  of  the  French,  made 
proposals  of  peace  to  the  Convention,  offering  to  recognize  the  Republic 
and  pay  two  hundred  millions  of  francs.  The  Convention,  however,  had 
resolved  to  establish  their  revolutionary  government  in  Holland,  and 
would  listen  to  no  proposals,  but  ordered  Pichegru  to  subdue  that  devoted 
country.  The  unprecedented  cold  of  the  winter  aided  in  giving  an 
unlooked-for  success  to  this  ambitious  determination,  for  the  rivers  were 
so  frozen  as  to  offer  a  free  passage  to  the  troops.  The  situation  of  the 
Prince  of  Orange  was  now  embarrassing  in  the  last  degree.  He  presented 
himself  before  the  States-General,  and  declaring  that  he  had  done  his 
uttermost  to  save  the  country,  avowed  his  determination  to  retire  from  his 
command :  at  the  same  time,  he  recommended  them  to  make  a  separate 
peace  with  the  enemy.  He  then  embarked  for  England,  and  the  States 
immediately  ordered  their  troops  to  cease  all  resistance,  while  they 


1794.J  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  6 

dispatched  ambassadors  to  Pichegru's  head-quarters  with  new  proposals 
for  peace. 

The  French  Generals,  desirous  to  avoid  the  appearance  of  subjugating 
the  Dutch,  were  pausing  in  their  career,  expecting  that  revolutionary 
movements  would  manifest  themselves  in  the  principal  towns,  to  which, 
indeed,  they  incited  the  inhabitants  by  encouraging  proclamations.  The 
event  justified  their  expectations.  On  the  18th  of  January,  1795,  the 
popular  party  in  Amsterdam  surrounded  the  burgomasters  in  the  town- 
hall,  at  the  moment  when  the  advanced  guard  of  the  French  army  reached 
the  gate  of  that  city.  The  magistrates,  in  alarm,  resigned  their  authority  ; 
Democratic  leaders  were  installed  in  their  places ;  the  tricolor  flag  was 
hoisted  on  the  H6tel-de-Ville,  and  the  Republican  troops  entered  the  town 
amid  the  shouts  of  the  multitude.  The  conquest  of  this  rich  and  powerful 
city,  which  had  defied  the  whole  power  of  Louis  XIV,  and  imposed  such 
severe  conditions  on  France  at  the  treaties  of  Utrecht  and  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
was  of  great  importance-  to  the  French  government.  Utrecht,  Leyden, 
Haarlem,  and  all  the  other  towns  of  Holland  soon  underwent  a  similar 
revolution  and  received  the  French  troops  as  deliverers.  But  an  event, 
still  more  marvellous,  succeeded  these  rapid  and  surprising  conquests  : 
namely,  the  capture  of  the  Dutch  fleet  of  fifty  vessels,  by  a  squadron  of 
French  cavalry  !  The  ships  were  at  the  time  frozen  up  in  the  Texel ; 
and  the  Republican  forces,  after  having  crossed  the  lake  of  Biesbos  on 
the  ice  and  made  themselves  masters  of  the  arsenal  of  Dordrecht,  contain- 
ing six  hundred  cannons,  ten  thousand  muskets  and  immense  stores  of  am- 
munition, packed  through  Rotterdam  and  took  possession  of  the  Hague.  A 
body  of  cavalry  now  crossed  the  Zuyder  Zee,  and  summoned  the  fleet:  the 
commanders,  confounded  at  the  hardihood  of  the  enterprise,  immediately 
surrendered  to  this  novel  kind  of  assailants.  The  province  of  Zealand 
capitulated  about  the  same  time,  Friesland  and  Groningen  were  succes- 
sively evacuated,  the  British  troops  embarked  for  England,  and  the  whole 
of  the  United  Provinces  submitted  to  the  Republican  arms. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

POLAND. 

THE  kingdom  of  Poland  formerly  extended  from  the  Borysthenes  to  the 
Danube,  and  from  the  Euxine  to  the  Baltic.  She  was  the  Sarmatia  of 
the  ancients,  and  embraced,  within  her  borders,  the  original  seat  of  those 
nations  which  subverted  the  Roman  Empire.  Prussia,  Moravia,  Bohemia, 
Hungary,  the  Ukraine,  Courland  and  Livonia  are  all  fragments  of  her 
once  mighty  dominion.  The  Goths,  who  appeared  as  suppliants  on  the 
Danube,  and  were  ferried  across  by  Roman  hands  never  to  be  driven 
back ;  the  Huns,  who  under  Attila  spread  desolation  through  the  Empire; 
the  Sclavonians,  who  overspread  the  greater  part  of  Europe — all  emerged 
from  her  vast  and  uncultivated  plains.  But  her  subsequent  progress  has 
ill  corresponded  to  such  a  commencement :  her  greatest  triumphs  have 
ever  been  succeeded  by  her  greatest  reverses  ;  the  establishment  of  her 


62  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE,  [CHAP.  IX. 

internal  freedom  has  led  to  nothing  but  external  disaster,  and  the  deliverer 
of  Europe  in  one  age,  was  in  the  next  swept  from  the  book  of  nations. 

These  extraordinary  facts  have  arisen  from  one  cause :  that  Poland 
retained,  until  a  modern  period,  the  independence  and  equality  of  her 
ancient  savage  life.  She  was  neither  subjugated  by  more  polished  States, 
nor  did  she  vanquish  more  civilized  ones  ;  the  simplicity  and  bravery  of 
the  pastoral  character  remained  unchanged  in  her  native  plains  for  fifteen 
undred  years.  And  as  Poland  then  was,  she  ever  continued — a  race  of 
ealous  freemen  and  iron-bound  slaves  ;  a  wild  democracy  ruling  a 
captive  people.  After  representative  assemblies  had  been  established  for 
centuries  in  Germany,  France  and  England,  the  Poles  adhered  to  their 
ancient  custom  of  summoning  every  freeman  to  discuss,  sword  in  hand, 
the  affairs  of  the  Republic.  An  hundred  thousand  horsemen  met  always 
for  this  purpose  in  the  field  of  Volo,  near  Warsaw;  and  this  terrible  as- 
sembly, where  all  the  proprietors  of  the  soil  were  convoked,  constituted 
at  once  the  military  strength  of  the  nation  in  war,  and  its  legislature  in 
peace.  In  the  estimation  of  this  haughty  race,  the  will  of  a  freeman  was 
what  no  human  power  should  attempt  to  control ;  and,  therefore,  it  was 
the  fundamental  principle  of  all  their  deliberations,  that  no  resolution 
could  be  adopted  but  by  a  literally  unanimous  vote.  This  relic  of  savage 
equality  was  productive  of  incalculable  evils  to  the  Republic ;  yet,  so 
blind  are  men  to  the  cause  of  their  own  ruin,  it  was  ever  adhered  to  by 
the  Poles  with  enthusiastic  obstinacy,  and  is  even  spoken  of  with  ad- 
miration by  their  national  historians.  Unanimity,  however,  is  a  virtual 
impossibility  in  human  legislation  ;  and  as  it  could  not  occur  in  Poland 
more  than  elsewhere,  and  as  it  was  indispensable,  nevertheless,  that  the 
affairs  of  their  government  should  goon,  the  Poles  adopted  the  only  other 
method  of  expediting  their  deliberations :  they  massacred  the  minority. 
This  appeared  to  them  an  evil  incomparably  less  than  carrying  measures 
by  a  majority  :  "  Because,"  they  reasoned,  "the  acts  of  violence  are  few 
in  number,  and  affect  only  the  individual  sufferers:  but  if  once  the  pre- 
cedent is  established  of  compelling  the  minority  to  be  governed  by  the 
majority,  there  is  an  end* to  the  liberty  of  the  people." 

The  clergy,  that  important  body  who  have  done  so  much  for  the  freedom 
of  Europe,  never  formed  a  separate  order,  or  possessed  any  spiritual 
influence  in  Poland :  the  order  was  confined  to  the  nobles,  who  had  no 
sympathy  with  the  serfs,  and  disdained  to  admit  them  to  any  of  their 
sacred  offices.  The  inequality  of  fortune,  too,  and  the  rise  of  urban 
industry,  the  source  of  so  much  benefit  to  all  the  other  European  powers, 
was  in  Poland  productive  of  positive  evil.  Fearful  of  being  compelled 
to  divide  their  power  with  the  inferior  classes  when  they  chanced  to  be 
elevated  by  riches  and  intelligence,  the  nobles  affixed  the  stigma  of 
dishonor  to  every  lucrative  or  useful  profession.  Their  maxim  was,  that 
nobility  is  not  lost  by  indigence,  or  even  by. domestic  servitude,  but  is 
destroyed  by  commerce  and  industry  :  their  constant  policy  was,  also,  to 
debar  the  serfs  from  the  use  of  arms  ;  for,  though  they  continued  to  de- 
spise, they  had  also  learned  to  fear  them.  In  short,  the  freemen,  or  nobility 
of  Poland,  strenuously  proscribing -every  kind  of  power  and  every  attempt  at 
superiority  on  the  part  of  the  lower  orders,  as  a  usurpation,  and,  on  their 
own  part,  every  kind  of  industry  as  a  degradation,  remained,  to  the  close 
of  their  career,  at  open  variance  with  all  the  principles  on  which  the 
prosperity  of  society  depends. 


1794.]  HISTORYOFEUROPE  63 

The  crown  of  Poland,  though  held  long  by  the  great  families  of  the 
Jagellons  and  the  Piasts,  had  always  been  elective.  The  king  disposed 
of  all  offices  in  the  Republic,  and  a  principal  part  of  his  duty  consisted 
in  gcring  from  province  to  province  to  administer  justice  in  person.  The 
nobility  carried  his  sentences  into  execution  with  their  own  armed  force ; 
and  as  there  was  never  any  considerable  standing  army  in  the  service  of 
the  Republic,  the  military  force  of  the  throne  was  altogether  nugatory. 

Nothing  can  so  strongly  demonstrate  the  wonderful  power  of  democ- 
racy and  its  desolating  effects  when  unrestrained,  as  the  history  of  John 
Sobieski.  The  force,  which  this  illustrious  champion  of  Christendom 
could  bring  into  the  field  to  defend  his  country  from  Mohammedan  in- 
vasion, seldom  amounted  to  fifteen  thousand  men ;  and  when,  previous 
to  the  battle  of  Kotzim,  he  found  himself,  by  an  extraordinary  effort,  at 
the  head  of  forty  thousand,  of  whom  hardly  one-half  were  disciplined,  he 
was  inspired  with  such  confidence,  that  he  attacked  without  hesitation 
eighty  thousand  Turkish  veterans  strongly  intrenched,  and  gained  over 
them  the  greatest  victory  that  had  been  achieved  by  the  Christian  arms 
since  the  battle  of  Ascalon.  The  troops  which  he  led  to  the  rescue  of 
Vienna  were  but  eighteen  thousand  native  Poles,  and  the  combined  Chris- 
tian armies  amounted  to  only  seventy  thousand  combatants  ;  yet  with  this 
force  he  routed  three  hundred  thousand  Turks,  and  broke  the  Mussulman 
power  so  effectually,  that  the  crescent  of  Mohammed  steadily  receded 
before  the  other  European  powers,  and  from  that  period,  historians  date 
the  decline  of  the  Ottoman  Empire.  Yet  after  these  glorious  triumphs, 
the  ancient  dissensions  of  the  Republic  revived  and  paralyzed  its  strength, 
the  defence  of  the  frontiers  was  intrusted  to  a  few  undisciplined  horsemen, 
and  the  Polish  nation,  to  their  eternal  disgrace,  allowed  this  heroic  king  to 
be  besieged  by  innumerable  hordes  of  barbarians  for  months,  before 
they  would  advance  to  his  relief.  Sobieski,  worn  out  at  last  with  inef- 
fectual endeavors  to  create  a  regular  government,  or  establish  a  permanent 
force  for  the  protection  of  Poland,  foretold  the  fate  of  the  Republic  in  his 
death-bed  address  to  the  Senate,  wherein  he  assured  them  that  their 
dangers  as  a  nation  arose  not  from  external  enemies,  but  from  the 
vices  of  their  own  unenlightened  government ;  and  he  predicted  that 
within  forty  years  the  Republic  would  cease  to  be.  His  prophecy  was 
not  literally  fulfilled,  for  the  glories  of  his  reign  prolonged  the  existence 
of  Poland  nearly  a  century  ;  but,  though  he  erred  as  to  the  time,  he  was 
right  as  to  the  fact  of  its  speedy  dissolution. 

Never  did  a  people  exhibit  a  more  extraordinary  spectacle  than  the 
Poles  after  this  period.  Two  factions  divided  the  kingdom,  and  kept  it 
in  a  perpetual  war :  each  faction  had  its  army,  and  each  army  was  a 
foreign  army.  The  inferior  noblesse  introduced  the  Saxons,  and  the 
superior  called  the  Swedes  to  their  aid  ;  so  that,  from  the  time  of  Sobieski's 
death,  strangers  never  ceased  to  reign  in  Poland  ;  its  national  forces  were 
continually  diminishing,  and,  at  length,  totally  disappeared.  When, 
therefore,  the  adjoining  states  of  Russia  and  Austria  effected  the  first 
partition  of  Poland,  in  1772,  they  were  not  required  to  conquer  a  kingdom, 
but  only  to  take  shares  of  a  state  which  had  fallen  to  pieces.  The 
election  of  Stanislaus  Poniatowski  to  the  remnant  of  the  throne  of  Poland, 
in  1764;  took  place  literally  under  the  buckler  ;  but  it  was  the  buckler  of 
the  Muscovite,  the  Cossack  and  the  Tartar,  who  overshadowed  the  plain 
of  Volo  with  their  arms. 

8* 


64  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  IX. 

The  next  struggle  of  the  Poles,  like  all  that  preceded  it,  originated  in 
their  own  dissensions.  The  partisans  of  the  ancient  anarchy  revolted 
against  the  new  and  more  stable  Constitution  of  Poniatowski :  they  took 
up  arms  at  Targowice,  and  invoked  the  aid  of  the  Empress  of  Russia  to 
restore  the  disorder  from  which  she  had  already  gained  so  much.  A 
second  dismemberment  took  place  on  the  14th  of  October,  1793,  and,  in 
the  disordered  state  of  the  country,  it  was  effected  without  opposition. 
Prussia  and  Russia  took  this  partition  upon  themselves,  and  their  troops 
were  at  first  quietly  cantoned  in  the  provinces  which  they  had  severally 
seized. 

There  is  a  certain  degree  of  calamity  which  subdues  man's  courage  ; 
but  there  is  also  another  degree  which,  by  reducing  men  to  desperation, 
leads  to  the  greatest  enterprises  :  and  to  this  latter  state  the  Poles  were 
now  reduced.  Abandoned  by  all  the  world,  distracted  with  internal 
divisions,  destitute  of  fortresses  and  resources,  the  patriots  of  that  unhappy 
country  resolved  to  make  a  bold  effort  to  recover  their  freedom.  The 
first  movement  was  made  by  a  band  of  these  brave  men,  at  Warsaw,  and 
they  made  choice  of  Kosciusko  to  direct  their  efforts. 

This  illustrious  hero,  who  had  received  the  rudiments  of  military 
education  in  France,  and  had  afterward  served  with  distinction  in  the 
American  war  for  independence,  was  every  way  qualified  to  head  the 
last  struggle  for  freedom  of  the  oldest  republic  in  the  world.  Having,  by 
aid  of  the  regiments  which  had  revolted,  and  the  junction  of  some  bodies 
of  half-armed  peasants,  collected  a  force  of  fiv*  thousand  men,  Kosciusko 
left  Cracow  and  advanced  into  the  open  country.  He  encountered  a 
detachment  of  three  thousand  Russians  at  Ralsowice,  on  the  8th  of  April, 
1794,  and  routed  them  with  great  slaughter.  This  action,  inconsidera- 
ble in  itself,  was  important  in  its  consequences.  The  Polish  peasants 
exchanged  their  scythes  for  the  arms  found  on  the  field  of  battle,  and  the 
insurrection,  encouraged  by  this  gleam  of  success,  soon  extended  into  the 
adjoining  provinces.  Stanislaus  in  vain  disavowed  the  acts  of  his  subjects  ; 
the  passion  for  independence  spread  with  the  rapidity  of  lightning,  and 
soon  every  patriot  in  Poland  was  in  arms. 

Intelligence  of  the  victory  at  Ralsowice  reached  Warsaw  on  the  12th 
of  April ;  a  violent  agitation  ensued,  and  on  the  morning  of  the  17th,  the 
brigade .  of  Polish  guards,  under  direction  of  their  officers,  attacked  the 
governor's  house  and  the  arsenal,  and  was  speedily  joined  by  the  populace. 
The  Russian  and  Prussian  troops  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  capital  were 
about  seven  thousand  men,  who,  after  a  prolonged  contest  in  the  streets 
for  six-and-thirty  hours,  were  driven  across  the  Vistula,  with  the  loss  of 
three  thousand  men  in  killed  and  prisoners.  Immediately,  the  flag  of 
independence  was  hoisted  on  the  towers  of  Warsaw. 

Kosciusko  now  did  everything  that  courage  and  energy  could  suggest 
to  put  on  foot  a  formidable  force  to  protect  the  revolt :  a  provisional  gov- 
ernment was  established,  and  in  a  short  time,  forty  thousand  men  were 
raised — an  effort  highly  honorable  to  the  patriotism  of  the  Poles,  although 
the  army  was  inconsiderable,  compared  with  the  forces  that  Russia  and 
Prussia  could  bring  into  the  field. 

No  sooner  was  the  King  of  Prussia  informed  of  the  Revolution  at 
Warsaw,  than  he  moved  forward  at  the  head  of  thirty  thousand  men  to 
besiege  that  city,  while  the  Russian  General  Suwarrow,  with  forty 
thousand  veterans,  prepared  to  overrun  the  southeastern  parts  of  the 


1794.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  65 

kingdom.  Aware  of  the  necessity  of  striking  a  blow  before  the  enemy's 
forces  were  concentrated,  Kosciusko,  with  twelve  thousand  men,  marched 
to  attack  the  Russian  General  Denisoff ;  but  on  approaching  his  corps,  he 
discovered  that  the  Russians  were  already  united  with  the  king  of 
Prussia.  He  retreated  immediately,  but  was  pursued  by  the  allies,  over- 
taken near  Sckoczyre,  and  after  a  gallant  defence,  defeated  ;  upon  which 
Cracow  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conquerors.  This  check  was  the  more 
unfortunate,  as  about  the  same  time  General  Zayonschuk  was  defeated  at 
Chelne,  and  compelled  to  cross  the  Vistula,  leaving  the  whole  right  bank 
of  that  river  without  defence. 

The  combined  Russian  and  Prussian  armies  now  advanced  against 
Warsaw,  where  Kosciusko  occupied  an  intrenched  camp  with  twenty- 
five  thousand  men.  During  the  whole  of  July  and  August  they  pressed 
the  siege  of  this  capital,  at  the  end  of  which  time,  the  king  of  Prussia, 
despairing  of  success,  raised  the  siege  and  withdrew  his  army,  leaving  a 
portion  of  his  sick  and  stores  in  the  hands  of  the  patriots. 

Encouraged  by  this  event,  the  Poles  were  enabled  to  recruit  their 
forces  to  nearly  eighty  thousand  men  under  arms ;  but  they  were  in- 
judiciously scattered  over  too  extensive  a  line  of  country,  and  exposed 
to  being  beaten  in  detail.  Indeed,  the  enthusiasm  occasioned  by  the 
raising  of  the  siege  of  Warsaw  had  not  subsided  before  Sizakowski,  with 
ten  thousand  men,  was  defeated  by  the  Russians  under  Suwarrow,  on  the 
17th  of  September.  This  celebrated  general,  to  whom  the  principal 
conduct  of  the  war  was  now  committed,  followed  up  his  success  with  the 
utmost  spirit.  The  retreating  army  was  again  assailed  on  the  19th,  and, 
after  a  brave  resistance,  driven  into  the  woods  below  Janow  and  Biala, 
with  a  loss  of  four  thousand  men  and  twenty-eight  pieces  of  cannon.  On 
receiving  intelligence  of  this  disaster,  Kosciusko  resolved  to  concentrate 
his  forces  and  fall  upon  General  Fersen  before  he  could  join  Suwarrow, 
who  was  now  advancing  against  Warsaw.  With  this  view,  he  ordered 
General  Poninsky  to  come  up  with  his  forces,  and  himself  moved  on  to 
the  attack.  But  when  he  arrived  at  the  Russian  position,  he  found  that 
Poninsky  had  delayed  his  march,  and  was  not  there  to  join  in  the  combat. 
Nevertheless,  fearing  to  retreat,  he  was  forced  to  make  his  dispositions  for 
the  battle,  which  took  place  on  the  4th  of  October.  The  Poles  contested 
the  ground  most  gallantly  ;  but  they  were  inferior  to  the  enemy,  both  in 
numbers  and  discipline,  and  were  at  length  defeated  with  a  loss  of  nearly 
half  their  number,  and  Kosciusko  was  himself  made  prisoner.  The 
retreating  army,  reduced  to  seven  thousand  five  hundred  men,  fell  back 
in  confusion  toward  Warsaw. 

After  the  fall  of  Kosciusko,  nothing  but  a  series  of  disasters  awaited 
the  Poles.  The  Austrians  overran  the  yet  unconquered  provinces;  and 
Suwarrow,  with  his  entire  army,  advanced  upon  Praga,  where  twenty-six 
thousand  Poles,  with  one  hundred  pieces  of  cannon,  defended  the  bridge  of 
the  Vistula  and  the  approach  to  Warsaw.  On  the  4th  of  November  the 
Russians,  in  seven  columns,  assailed  the  ramparts,  rapidly  filled  up  the 
ditches  with  their  fascines,  broke  down  the  defences,  and  poured  their 
battalions  into  the  intrenched  camp.  The  defenders  in  vain  did  their  ut- 
most to  resist  the  torrent.  The  wooden  houses  of  Praga  took  fire,  and 
amid  the  shouts  of  the  victors  and  the  cries  of  the  inhabitants,  the  Poles 
were  borne  back  to  the  edge  of  the  Vistula.  Ten  thousand  soldiers  fell 
on  tha  spot,  nine  thousand  were  made  prisoners,  and  twelve  thousand  citi- 


66  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  [CHAP.  X 

zens,  without  distinction  of  sex  or  age,  were  put  to  the  sword :  a  dreadful 
carnage,  which  has  left  a  lasting  stain  on  the  name  of  Suwarrow,  and 
which  Russia  expiated  in  the  conflagration  of  Moscow. 

The  tragedy  now  closed.  Warsaw  capitulated;  the  detached  parties 
of  the  patriots  melted  away,  and  Poland  was  no  more. 

Sucli  was  the  termination  of  the  oldest  Republic  in  existence,  and  such 
the  first  instance  of  the  total  destruction  of  a  member  of  the  Euiopean 
family  by  its  ambitious  kindred.  The  event  excited  a  profound  sensation 
in  Europe.  The  folly  of  its  preceding  career,  the  irretrievable  defects 
of  the  Polish  constitution,  were  forgotten ;  and  Poland  was  remembered 
only  as  the  bulwark  of  Christendom  against  the  Ottomans.  The  bloody 
march  of  the  French  Revolution  was  overlooked,  and  the  Christian  world 
was  penetrated  with  a  grief  akin  to  that  felt  by  all  civilized  nations  at  the 
fall  of  Jerusalem. 

The  poet  has  celebrated  these  events  in  the  immortal  lines : 

"  Oh !  bloodiest  picture  in  the  book  of  Time : 
Sarmatia  fell,  unwept,  without  a  crime  ; 
Found  not  a  generous  friend,  a  pitying  foe, 
Strength  in  her  arms,  nor  mercy  in  her  wo  ! 
Dropped  from  her  nerveless  grasp  the  shattered  spear, 
Closed  her  bright  eye,  and  curbed  her  high  career: 
Hope  for  a  season  bade  the  world  farewell, 
And  Freedom  shrieked  as  Kosciusko  fell !" 

But  the  truth  of  history  must  dispel  this  illusion,  and  unfold,  in  the  fall 
of  Poland,  the  natural  consequences  of  its  national  delinquencies.  Sar- 
matia did  not  fall  unwept,  nor  without  a  crime :  she  fell  the  victim  of  her 
own  dissensions  ;  of  the  chimera  of  equality  insanely  pursued,  and  the 
rigor  of  aristocracy  unceasingly  maintained :  of  extravagant  jealousy  of 
every  superior,  and  merciless  oppression  of  every  inferior  rank.  The 
eldest  born  of  the  European  family  was  the  first  to  perish,  because  she 
had  thwarted  all  the  ends  of  the  social  union  ;  because  she  had  united  the 
turbulence  of  democratic,  to  the  exclusion  of  aristocratic  societies ;  because 
she  had  the  vacillation  of  a  Republic  without  its  energy,  and  the  oppres- 
sion of  a  monarchy  without  its  stability.  Such  a  system  neither  could 
be,  nor  ought  to  be,  maintained. 


CHAPTER  X. 

CONSOLIDATION  OF  THE  FRENCH  GOVERNMENT  !  CAMPAIGN  OF  1795. 

ON  the  day  after  the  fall  of  Robespierre,  there  were  but  two  parties  in 
Paris  ;  that  of  the  Committee,  who  strove  to  maintain  their  Jacobin  ascend- 
ency,  and  that  of  the  Liberators,  who  labored  to  overthrow  it.  The  lat- 
ter party  was  known  by  the  name  of  Thermidorians,  from  the  month  in 
which  its  members  had  triumphed  over  the  dictator  ;  it  consisted  of  the 
whole  centre  of  the  National  Convention,  together  with  the  remnant  of  the 
Royalists  and  the  party  of  Danton.  The  Jacobins  were  still  powerful, 
however,  and  the  Thermidorians  were  cautious  about  measuring  their 


1795.1  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  6*3 

strength  with  them ;  but  the  friends  of  clemency  gained  daily  accessions 
to  their  force.  On  the  30th  of  July,  1794,  the  contest  was  brought  to  an 
issue.  Barere,  on  the  part  of  the  Jacobins,  rose  in  his  place  and  proposed 
that  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal  should  be  continued,  and  that  Fouquier 
Tinville  should  still  act  as  public  accuser.  At  the  pronouncing  of  that 
name  a  murmur  of  indignation  was  heard  in  the  assembly,  and  Frcron 
cried  out,  "  I  propose  that  we  purge  the  earth  of  that  monster,  and  that 
he  be  sent  to  lick  up  in  hell  the  blood  that  he  has  shed."  This  proposal 
being  carried  by  acclamation,  Barere  left  the  tribune  ;  and  Tinville  was 
brought  to  trial  with  fourteen  of  his  most  guilty  associates,  who  were 
all  condemned  and  executed. 

The  next  measures  of  the  Convention  were  of  a  humane  tendency. 
They  repealed  the  law  against  suspected  persons;  and  although  the  Revo- 
lutionary Tribunal  continued  its  sittings,  its  forms  were  remodelled,  and 
its  vengeance  was  directed  chiefly  against  the  authors  of  former  outrages. 
The  captives  were  gradually  released  from  confinement,  and  instead  of 
the  fatal  tumbrils  that  formerly  stood  at  the  gates  of  the  prisons,  crowds 
of  joyous  citizens  there  welcomed  with  transport  their  liberated  parents  or 
children.  At  the  end  of  two  months,  out  of  ten  thousand  suspected  per- 
sons, not  one  remained  in  the  prisons  of  Paris. 

In  order  to  strengthen  themselves  more  effectually  for  the  future,  the 
Thermidorians  enlisted  in  their  support  such  youths  of  the  metropolis  as 
be-longed  to  the  most  respectable  families  who  had  lost  some  relative  at 
the  guillotine,  and  were  therefore  irreconcilably  hostile  to  the  Jacobins. 
To  distinguish  them  from  the  populace,  they  wore  a  particular  dress  called 
the  Costume  a  la  Victime  ;  they  bore  in  their  arms  short,  loaded  clubs  ;  and 
were  known  by  the  name  of  La  Jeunesse  Dorte.  The  contests  between 
them  and  the  Jacobins  at  length  assumed  an  important  character.  Paris 
became  one  vast  field  of  battle,  in  which  each  strove  for  the  mastery. 
The  strife  was  long  and  obstinate  ;  but  finally  the  Convention  passed  a 
decree  dissolving  the  Jacobin  clubs  all  over  Paris,  and  the  Jeunesse  Doree 
carried  it  into  execution  with  force  of  arms. 

The  Convention  gradually  repealed  the  laws  passed  during  the  Revo- 
lutionary government:  that,  namely,  regulating  the  price  of  provisions, 
the  prohibitions  against  the  Christian  worship,  the  statutes  confiscating  the 
Girondists'  property  and  passed  an  act  restoring  to  the  original  owners  such 
property,  confiscated  by  the  government,  as  had  not  been  disposed  of  to 
third  parties.  They  next  proceeded  to  the  decided  step  of  impeaching 
Varennes,  Collot  d'  Herbois,  Barere,  Vadier,  and  other  prominent  leaders 
of  the  Jacobins,  who  had  been  most  active  in  the  cruelties  of  the  Reign  of 
y'orror.  This  bold  measure  "produced  a  great  agitation,  and  a  revolt  was 
organized  in  the  fauxbourgs  to  prevent  their  trial  from  proceeding.  The 
insurgents  forced  their  way  into  the  assembly,  and  were  about  to  recom- 
mence their  scenes  of  violence,  so  common  in  the  preceding  year,  when 
a  band  of  the  Jeunesse  Doree  made  their  appearance  and  quickly  dispersed 
the  mob.  The  trial  proceeded  and  the  parties  were  all  found  guilty  ;  but 
the  Thermidorians,  from  considerations  of  policy,  made  a  humane  use  of 
their  victory.  Varennes,  Collot  d'  Herbois,  and  Barere  were  condemned 
to  the  limited  punishment  of  transportation ;  and  seventeen  members  of 
the  Mountain  were  put  under  arrest  and  conducted  to  the  chateau  of  Ham. 

By  the  fall  of  Robespierre  and  the  execution  of  his  associates,  the  Ja- 
cobins had  lost  the  municipality ;  the  closing  of  their  clubs  had  deprived 


68  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  [CHAP  X. 

them  of  their  centre  of  operations  ;  and  the  late  exile  of  so  many  of  their 
members  hacl  taken  from  them  their  ablest  leaders.  Still,  there  remained 
to  them  the  forces  of  the  fauxbourgs,  the  inhabitants  of  which  had  retained 
their  arms ;  and  their  failure  in  attempting  to  rescue  Varennes  and  the 
rest  had  not  discouraged  them.  A  new  insurrection  was  agreed  on  for  the 
20th  of  May,  1795,  on  which  day  no  less  than  thirty  thousand  men,  armed 
with  pikes,  proceeded  to  the  hall  of  the  Convention.  When  the  members 
were  informed  of  their  approach,  they  passed  resolutions  for  summoning 
the  National  Guard,  and  making  other  provision  for  their  defence  ;  but  the 
danger  that  was  at  their  very  door,  could  not  be  resisted  by  legislative 
enactments.  The  multitude  crowded  into  the  hall,  tore  the  president  from 
his  chair,  and  as  Ferraud,  with  generous  devotion,  threw  himself  before 
the  mob,  to  intercept  the  blows  destined  for  the  president,  he  was  mortally 
wounded,  dragged  out,  and  beheaded  in  the  lobby.  The  rabble  then  took 
possession  of  the  seats  vacated  by  the  terrified  members  of  the  Conven- 
tion, and  proceeded  at  once  to  organize  a  new  government.  Everything 
seemed  to  indicate  a  complete  revolution. 

But,  though  the  Convention  was  thus  forcibly  dissolved,  its  committees 
still  existed,  and  their  firmness  saved  France.  They  immediately  con- 
vened, passed  resolutions  befitting  the  emergency,  and,  when  night 
approached,  proceeded  with  the  National  Guard  and  the  Jeunesse  Doree 
to  the  hall  where  the  insurgents  were  legislating.  A  violent  contest 
ensued,  but  it  resulted  in  the  defeat  of  the  Jacobins,  and,  at  midnight,  the 
members  of  the  Convention  resumed  their  places.  All  that  had  been 
done  by  the  rebel  authority  was  annulled,  and  twenty-eight  members  who 
had  supported  their  proceedings  were  put  under  arrest.  On  the  following 
day,  the  Jacobins  renewed  their  attempts,  and  again  surrounded  the 
Convention,  bringing  with  them  a  train  of  artillery,  which  was  deliberately 
placed  in  position  for  an  attack.  But  the  National  Guard  and  Jeunesse 
Doree  stood  this  time  on  the  alert,  and  the  insurgents  were  summarily 
defeated. 

Instructed  by  such  disasters  and  escapes,  the  Convention  now  resolved 
on  decisive  measures :  and  six  of  the  most  turbulent  leaders  of  the 
Mountain  were  delivered  over  to  the  military  commission,  and  executed. 
The  murderer  of  the  deputy  Ferraud  was  next  discovered,  tried,  and 
condemned.  On  the  occasion  of  his  execution,  the  Convention,  anticipating 
another  revolt,  ordered  the  disarming  of  the  fauxbourgs,  which  was 
effectually  accomplished  by  the  firmness  of  the  National  Guard,  who, 
thirty  thousand  strong,  and  provided  with  artillery  and  mortars,  brought 
the  refractory  inhabitants  to  submission.  Soon  after,  the  National  Guard 
was  reorganized  by  the  exclusion  from  its  ranks  of  all  indigent  citizens, 
and  from  that  day  the  multitude  ceased  to  rule  in  Paris.  * 

The  Convention  now  proceeded  to  form  a  new  Constitution,  in  which 
some  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  Revolution  were  unequivocally 
repudiated ;  and,  so  contagious  was  this  spirit  of  reaction,  Royalist 
doctrines  began  rapidly  to  gain  currency.  The  National  Guard  and 
Jeunesse  Doree  of  several  sections  openly  espoused  the  Royalist  side, 
while  in  the  South  of  France  bands  were  organized,  who  traversed  the 
country,  and  executed  dreadful  reprisals  on  the  Revolutionary  party. 
At  Lyons,  Aix,  Tarascon  and  Marseilles,  they  massacred  the  Jacobin 
prisoners  without  trial  or  discrimination,  and  the  horrors  of  the  2nd  of 
September,  with  the  exception  of  the  reverse  of  parties,  were  reenacted  • 


HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  69 

in  most  of  the  prisons  of  that  part  of  the  country.  The  people,  exasperated 
with  their  remembrances  of  the  Reign  of  Terror,  were  insatiable  in  their 
vengeance.  They  invoked  the  names  of  parents,  brothers,  or  sisters, 
when  retaliating  on  their  oppressors  ;  and,  while  themselves  committing 
murders,  cried  to  their  victims,  with  every  stroke  :  "  Die,  assassins  !  " 

Meanwhile,  the  framing  of  the  new  Constitution  was  completed.  By 
this  instrument,  the  third  one  that  had  been  formed  in  France  during  a 
few  years,  the  legislative  power  was  divided  into  two  Councils  ;  that  of 
the  Five  Hundred,  and  that  of  the  Ancients.  The  Council  of  Five  Hundred 
was  intrusted  with  the  sole  power  of  originating  laws,  and  the  Council  of 
the  Ancients,  with  the  power  of  passing  or  rejecting  them  ;  and  to  insure 
the  prudent  discharge  of  this  duty,  no  person  could  be  a  member  of  the 
fatter  Council  till  he  had  reached  the  age  of  forty.  The  executive  power 
was  lodged  in  the  hands  of  five  Directors,  to  be  nominated  by  the  Council 
of  Five  Hundred,  and  approved  by  the  Ancients :  they  were  liable  to 
impeachment  for  misconduct,  were  each  to  be  president  for  three  months 
by  rotation,  and  every  year  one  new  Director  was  to  be  chosen,  and  one 
to  retire  to  make  room  for  him.  This  Directory  had  the  disposal  of  the 
army  and  finances,  the  appointment  of  public  functionaries,  and  the 
control  of  public  negotiations.  They  were  lodged,  during  the  period  of 
their  official  duty,  in  the  Palace  of  the  Luxembourg,  and  attended  by  a 
guard  of  honor.  The  elective  franchise  was  greatly  restricted  by  the 
new  charter,  being  confined  entirely  to  proprietors  ;  all  popular  societies 
were  interdicted,  and  the  press  was  declared  absolutely  free. 

It  is  important  to  recollect  that  this  Constitution,  so  cautiously  framed  to 
exclude  tfte  direct  influence  of  the  people,  and  curb  the  excesses  of  popular 
licentiousness,  was  the  voluntary  work  of  the  very  Convention  which 
had  come  into  power  under  the  democratic  Constitution  of  1793,  and 
immediately  after  the  10th  of  August;  which  had  voted  the  death  of  the 
King,  the  imprisonment  of  the  Girondists,  and  the  execution  of  Danton ; 
which  had  supported  the  bloody  excesses  of  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal, 
and  survived  the  horrors  of  the  reign  of  Robespierre.  Let  it  no  longer  be 
said>  therefore,  that  the  evils  of  popular  rule  are  imaginary  dangers, 
contradicted  by  the  experience  of  mankind.  The  checks  thus  imposed  on 
the  power  of  the  people,  were  the  work  of  their  own  delegates,  chosen  by 
universal  suffrage,  during  a  season  of  unexampled  public  excitement, 
whose  proceedings  had  been  marked  by  a  more  violent  love  of  freedom 
than  any  that  ever  before  existed  from  the  beginning  of  the  world. 
Nothing  can  speak  so  strongly  for  the  necessity  of  controlling  the  people, 
as  the  acts  of  the  representatives  whom  they  had  themselves  chosen  to 
confirm  their  power. 

The  discussion  of  this  Constitution  in  the  assemblies  of  the  people  to 
whom  it  was  referred,  produced  the  most  violent  agitation  throughout 
France.  Paris,  as  usual,  took  the  lead.  Its  forty-eight  Sections  were 
constantly  in  -session,  and  the  public  effervescence  resembled  that  of  1789. 
This  was  brought  to  its  height  by  an  additional  clause  in  the  Constitution, 
wherein  the  Convention  decreed  that  two-thirds  of  their  own  number  should 
be'incorporated  into  the  new  legislature,  and  that,  therefore,  the  electors 
should  fill  up  only  the  remainder. 

This  rapid  stride  toward  despotism  was  loudly  resisted  all  over  France. 
The  National  Guard  of  Paris  declared  their  opposition,  and  the  Jeunesse 
Doree  pledged  themselves  to  resist  it.  But  the'  Convention  did  not  waver. 


70  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  [CHAP.  X. 

They  had  first  lost  the  support  of  the  Jacobins  by  their  proscription  ;  and 
now,  that  of  the  Royalists  by  their  ambition  :  one  power  remained,  and 
they  appealed  to  it — THE  ARMY.  They  submitted  the  Constitution  to  the 
soldiers,  and  it  was  by  them  unanimously  approved.  A  body  of  five  thou- 
sand regular  troops  assembled  in  the  neighborhood  of  Paris,  and  their 
adhesion  to  the  Convention  was  eagerly  proclaimed  to  the  citizens.  The 
Sections  of  Paris,  however,  openly  resolved  to  revolt.  A  meeting  of  the 
electors  took  place  on  the  3rd  of  October,  at  the  Theatre  Francais,  under 
the  protection  of  the  National  Guard,  where  they  unanimously  decided  on 
resistance. 

But  while  these  things  were  in  progress,  the  Convention  was  not  idle. 
They  passed  a  decree,  dissolving  the  electoral  bodies  in  Paris,  and  em- 
bodying into  a  regiment  fifteen  hundred  Jacobins,  many  of  whom  were 
liberated  from  the  prisons  for  that  especial  purpose.  General  Menou  was 
appointed  to  the  command  of  this  armed  force,  and  he  advanced  with  the 
troops  of  the  line  to  disperse  the  Sections.  But  Menou  had  not  the  energy 
requisite  for  such  service,  and,  instead  of  attacking,  he  entered  into  nego- 
tiations with  the  insurgents,  and  retired  in  the  evening  without  having 
effected  anything.  His  failure  gave  the  Sections  the  advantage  of  a 
victory,  and  the  National  Guard  mustered  in  greater  strength  than  ever, 
and  resolved  to  attack  the  Convention  on  the  following  day.  The  Con- 
vention, learning  what  Menou  had  done,  immediately  dismissed  him,  and 
gave  the  command  to  General  Barras,  who  solicited  the  appointment,  as 
second  in  command,  of  a  young  officer  of  artillery  who  had  distinguished 
himself  at  Toulon  and  in  the  maritime  Alps — Napoleon  Bonaparte.  This 
young  officer  was  at  once  introduced  to  the  committee.  His  manner  was 
timid  and  embarrassed  ;  the  career  of  public  life  was  yet  new  to  him ;  but 
his  clear  and  distinct  opinions  inspired  the  committee  with  confidence,  and 
they  invested  him  with  the  desired  command. 

Under  his  direction,  fifty  pieces  of  artillery  were  immediately  so  disposed 
as  to  command  all  the  avenues  to  the  Convention,  and,  early  on  the  fol- 
lowing morning,  the  neighborhood  of  the  Tuileries  resembled  an  intrenched 
camp.  In  this  position,  Napoleon  awaited  the  attack  of  the  insurgents, 
who  amounted  to  no  less  than  thirty  thousand  men,  while  the  army  of  the 
Convention  did  not  exceed  six  thousand.  But  the  insurgents  had  no 
artillery,  and  though  they  were  individually  brave  men,  they  could  nol 
long  sustain  a  close  contest  with  disciplined  troops.  The  battle  was  soon 
terminated  by  the  total  overthrow  of  the  National  Guard,  and  the  Con- 
vention, from  that  day,  held  the  undisputed  control  of  the  Republic. 

While  these  important  changes  were  taking  place  within  the  French 
dominions,  other  events  of  moment  occurred  on  her  frontier  and  throughout 
Europe. 

The  great  success  which  everywhere  attended  the  French  arms  at  the 
conclusion  of  the  campaign  of  1794,  led,  early  in  the  following  year,  to  a 
dissolution  of  the  confederacy  between  the  allied  sovereigns.  Prussia, 
Spain,  Bavaria,  the  Elector  of  Mayence,  and  other  powers,  successively 
detached  themselves  from  the  league,  and  some  of  them  entered  into 
separate  treaties  of  peace  with  France ;  while  Holland  was  forced  to 
conclude  with  France  an  offensive  and  defensive  treaty,  and  bound  to  aid 
in  prosecuting  the  war  against  the  enemies  of  the  Republic.  Austria  and 
England  remained  firm  in-  their  determination  to  continue  the  war,  and 
Mr.  Pitt  and  Thugut,  the  respective  ministers  of  the  two  nations,  formed 


1795.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  71 

a  new  treaty  of  alliance,  offensive  and  defensive,  by  which  Austria  agreed 
to  maintain  two  hundred  thousand  men  in  the  field,  and  England  contracted 
to  furnish  a  subsidy  of  six  million  pounds  sterling,  for  their  support. 
England  made  exertions  for  the  prosecution  of  the  war  more  con- 
siderable  than  she  had  yet  put  forth,  and  seemed  sensible  that  renewed 
efforts  were  indispensable  now  that  the  strife  threatened  to  approach  her 
own  shores.  Her  naval  force  was  augmented  to  one  hundred  thousand 
seamen,  one  hundred  and  eight  ships  of  the  line  were  put  in  commission, 
and  the  land  forces  raised  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  men.  The 
expenditure  of  the  year,  exclusive  of  the  interest  of  the  national  debt, 
amounted  to  twenty-seven  and  a  half  millions  sterling,  of  which  eighteen 
millions  were  raised  by  loan,  and  three  and  a  half  millions  by  exchequer 
bills.  To  such  an  immense  extent,  thus  early  in  the  contest,  was  the 
ruinous  system  of  providing  for  the  expense  of  the  year  by  borrowing, 
adopted  by  the  British  government.  On  the  18th  of  February,  Russia 
became  a  party  to  the  new  treaty  of  alliance,  though  this  measure  was 
not  at  first  productive  of  important  results.  The  Empress  Catherine  was 
as  yet  too  much  occupied  in  the  affairs  of  Poland,  and  too  little  interested 
in  the  continental  war,  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  present  campaign ; 
she  merely  sent  twelve  ships  of  the  line,  and  eight  frigates,  to  reenforce 
Admiral  Duncan  in  blockading  the  fleet  recently  acquired  by  France 
from  the  Dutch  Republic. 

During  the  winter  of  1794-5,  the  French  government  made  great 
efforts  to  put  their  navy  on  a  respectable  footing ;  and,  early  in  March, 
_ji  expedition  was  fitted  out  at  Toulon,  consisting  of  thirteen  ships  of  the 
line  and  carrying  eighteen  thousand  land  troops,  intended  to  recover  pos- 
session of  Corsica.  Lord  Hotham,  who  commanded  the  English  block- 
ading fleet  in  the  Mediterranean,  was  at  Leghorn  when  this  French  fleet 
sailed,  but  was  ignorant  of  their  movements ;  and  the  French  succeeded 
in  capturing  the  Berwick  seventy-four  gun  ship  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Florent, 
the  whole  Republican  fleet  having  come  upon  her  unawares.  The  British 
admiral  immediately  put  to  sea  with  thirteen  line-of-battle  ships,  and  fell 
in  with  the  French  squadron  on  the  15th  of  March.  He  captured  two 
ships  of  the  line,  the  Ca  Ira  and  the  Censeur,  and  the  remainder  of  the 
enemy's  fleet  fell  back  to  the  Isles  de  Hyeire**.  and  disembarked  their 
troops.  The  object  of  the  expedition  was  thus  entirely  frustrated. 

The  campaign  in  the  maritime  Alps  was  opened  on  the  12th  of  May. 
by  a  successful  French  attack  on  the  Col  Dumont,  then  occupied  by  two 
thousand  Piedmontese  troops.  Soon  after,  Kellerman  having  weakened  his 
right  by  detaching  some  battalions  to  Toulon,  the  Imperialists  assumed  the 
offensive,  and  by  a  series  of  well-concerted  movements  forced  the  French 
to  evacuate  all  their  positions  in  that  quarter.  But  toward  the  end  of 
August,  the  activity  of  the  Republicans  had  greatly  reenforeed  their  armies 
on  the  Alpine  frontier ;  and  General  Scherer  taking  command,  prepared 
to  give  battle  to  the  allies,  forty  thousand  strong,  near  the  little  seaport 
of  Loano.  The  battle  commenced  on  the  23rd  of  November;  and  at  the 
conclusion  of  the  day,  the  centre  of  the  allies  was  forced  and  their  left 
wing  partly  turned.  The  combat  was  renewed  on  the  following  morning 
and  ended  in  the  total  defeat  of  the  allies,  with  a  loss  of  two  thousand 
killed,  five  hundred  taken  prisoners,  and  a  large  quantity  of  baggage, 
magazines  and  artillery.  This  victory,  by  giving  the  French  the  entire- 
command  of  the  maritime  Alps,  closed  the  campaign  in.  that  quarter. 


72  H'ISTORYOFEUROPE.  [CHAP.  X 

The  position  of  the  armies  on  the  northern  and  eastern  frontier  remained 
the  same  as  at  the  close  of  the  preceding  campaign,  but  their  condition 
was  much  changed  for  the  worse.  The  troops  were  ill  paid,  ill  fed,  ana 
in  want  of  all  military  supplies  requisite  fora  vigorous  prosecution  of  the 
war;  and  their  discipline  was  greatly  relaxed.  The  condition  of  the 
Austrians,  on  the  Bother  hand,  was  much  improved ;  but  they  remained 
in  total  inactivity  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  and,  failing  to  succor 
the  garrison  of  Luxembourg,  that  fortress,  with  ten  thousand  men  and  a 
large  train  of  artillery,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Republicans  on  the  24th 
of  June.  The  Prince  of  Conde,  on  the  Upper  Rhine,  was  at  the  same 
time  engaged  in  a  secret  negotiation  with  Pichegru,  who  was  growing 
disaffected  toward  the  Convention :  the  precise  nature  of  these  negotiations 
has  never  transpired  ;  but  after  six  months  passed  in  this  way,  Pichegru 
discontinued  it.  and  prepared  to  obey  the  orders  of  the  Convention,  by 
commencing  the  campaign. 

Jourdan,  having  at  length  obtained  the  necessary  supplies,  prepared  to 
cross  the  Rhine  in  the  beginning  of  September.  On  the  6th  of  that  month, 
he  effected  the  passage  at  Eichelcamp,  Neuwied  and  Dusseldorf,  and 
compelled  the  garrison  of  the  latter  town  to  capitulate  :  he  then  advanced 
toward  the  Lahn,  and  established  himself  on  the  banks  of  that  river. 
Pichegru,  meantime,  crossed  the  Upper  Rhine  at  Manheim,  one  of  the 
principal  bulwarks  of  Germany,  and  by  a  spirited  demonstration  forced 
that  city  to  surrender.  This  was  a  great  disaster  to  the  Austrians,  as  it 
opened  the  way  for  Jourdan  to  throw  his  whole  army  against  Mayence  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine.  But  the  Austrian  commander,  Clairfait, 
proved  himself  equal  to  the  emergency.  By  a.  skilful  and  rapid  march 
he  turned  the  left  of  the  French  line  and  forced  Jourdan  to  a  disastrous 
retreat,  which  threw  his  whole  army  into  confusion.  Then,  suddenly 
abandoning  the  pursuit,  Clairfait  turned  upon  Mayence  and  arrived  there 
by  forced  marches  before  the  French  besieging  army  were  aware  of  his 
approach.  The  lines  of  circumvallation  around  this  city,  which  the  Re- 
publicans had  been  a  whole  year  in  constructing,  and  the  remains  of 
which  still  excite  the  admiration  of  travellers,  were  of  immense  extent 
and  garrisoned  by  thirty  thousand  men.  The  Imperialists  advanced  to 
the  assault  in  three  columns,  and  the  Republicans  were  so  taken  by  sur- 
prise, that  they  abandoned  the  rirst  line  almost  without  firing  a  shot.  The 
panic  occasioned  to  the  remainder  of  the  French  army  by  this  event  was 
such,  that  the  Austrians  carried  the  entire  works  by  storm,  and  the  Repub- 
licans fled  in  every  direction.  This  brilliant  achievement  was  followed 
by  a  series  of  successes  on  the  part  of  the  Austrians,  under  Clairfait  and 
Wurmser,  which  ended  in  their  driving  the  French  from  all  their  positions 
and  recapturing  Manheim.  A  suspension  of  arms  during  the  winter  was 
then  agreed  on,  and  both  parties  retired  into  winter-quarters. 

This  year  was  distinguished  by  the  unfortunate  descent  of  the  English 
and  the  Royalist  emigrants  on  the  coast  of  France.  The  obstacles  to  the 
landing  of  the  troops  had  been  effectually  removed  by  the  naval  engage- 
ment off  L'Orient  between  a  British  fleet  of  fourteen  ships  of  the  line  and 
eight  frigates,  under  Lord  Bridport,  and  a  French  fleet  of  twelve  ships  of 
the  line  and  thirteen  frigates,  in  which  the  latter  were  defeated  with  a 
loss  of  three  ships  of  the  line.  The  invading  army,  amounting  to  about 
ten  thousand  men,  landed  in  Quiberon  Bay  on  the  27th  of  June  and  made 
themselves  masters  of  the  fort  of  Penthievre.  Their  arrival,  together 


1795.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  73 

with  their  success  in  capturing  this  fort,  was  the  signal  for  all  the  Roy- 
alists to  rise  in  the  west,  and  the  Chouan  bands  crowded  in  great  numbers 
to  the  camp  of  the  invaders.  The  Republican  forces,  however,  were  on 
the  alert,  and  Hoche,  with  a  considerable  body  of  disciplined  troops, 
advanced  to  Quiberon.  He  attacked  the  Royalist  forces  on  the  7th  of 
July,  drove  them  from  their  intrenchments,  and  hemmed  them  in  on  the 
narrow  peninsula  where  they  had  first  landed.  The  misery  of  the  men, 
cooped  up  in  a  corner  of  land  without  tents  or  lodgings,  soon  became 
extieme ;  and  a  body  of  Chouans  from  the  interior,  in  connection  witji 
Count  Vauban  and  three  thousand  men  under  his  command,  planned  an 
attack  against  the  rear  of  the  Republicans,  in  the  hope  of  relieving  the 
blockade :  while  the  besieged  army  sallied  from  their  camp  to  take  the 
enemy  in  front.  The  latter  attempt  was  made ;  but  the  troops  in  the  rear 
did  not  come  up,  and  the  emigrants  therefore  drew  on  themselves  the 
whole  Republican  strength.  The  Republicans  prevailed  in  the  battle, 
drove  the  invaders  under  the  guns  of  the  fort,  -and  would  have  entered  it 
with  the  fugitives,  had  they  not  been  arrested  by  the  fire  of  some  English 
cruisers  in  the  harbor.  They  followed  up  their  success  by  a  night  attack 
on  the  fort,  which  was  devised  and  executed  with  great  skill  and  bravery, 
and  was  completely  successful :  the  fort,  and  a  large  number  of  pris- 
oners fell  into  their  hands,  a  small  part  only  of  the  whole  invading 
force  having  been  able  to  escape  to  the  British  ships. 

Tallien,  whom  the  Convention  had  sent  down  to  Quiberon  Bay  as 
commissioner  of  the  government,  made  an  atrocious  use  of  this  victory, 
and  stained,  with  ineffaceable  disgrace,  the  glory  he  had  won  in  his  tri- 
umph over  Robespierre.  In  defiance  of  the  verbal  capitulation  entered 
into  between  the  French  general  and  the  emigrant  prisoners  when  the 
latter  surrendered,  he  caused  them  to  be  closely  confined,  and  by  his 
personal  influence  with  the  Convention  procured  an  order  for  their  sum- 
mary execution.  Seven  hundred  and  eleven  of  them,  among  whom  were 
the  members  of  the  noblest  families  in  France,  were  accordingly  put  to 
death  in  cold  blood. 

The  French  marine  was  so  broken  by  various  disasters  in  the  Medi- 
terranean and  at  L'Orient,  that  nothing  more  of  consequence  took  place 
at  sea  for  the  remainder  of  the  year:  though,  by  means  of  predatory 
expeditions  against  the  commerce  of  Great  Britain,  they  inflicted  many 
losses  on  the  English  merchants.  The  English  availed  themselves  of 
their  maritime  supremacy  to  make  themselves  masters  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  which  surrendered  to  Sir  James  Craig,  on  the  16th  of  Sep- 
tember. 


CHAPTER    XI. 

CAMPAIGNS    OF    1796. 

EARLY  in  March,  1796,  Napoleon  Bonaparte  laid  before  the  Conven- 
tion a  plan  for  a  campaign  in  Italy,  which  was  so  remarkable  for  its 
originality  that  it  attracted  the  especial  notice  of  Carnot,  then  minister  at 
war.  About  the  same  time  the  youthful  officer  was  married  to  Jose- 
phine, widow  of  Alexander  Beauharnois,  a  general  of  the  French  army, 
who  had  been  guillotined  during  the  Reign  of  Terror.  The  genius 
developed  in  Napoleon's  plan  of  the  campaign,  together  with  the  obliga- 
tion conferred  by  him  on  the  Convention  in  defending  them  against  the 
last  insurrection  of  the  National  Guard  and  the  Jeunesse  Doree,  decided 
the  vote  of  that  body  in  his  favor,  and  he  was  invested  with  the  command 
of  the  army  in  Italy. 

He  found  the  troops  in  a  miserable  condition.  The  number  of  men 
was  about  forty-two  thousand,  and  the  artillery  amounted  to  sixty  pieces. 
The  cavalry  were  almost  without  horses,  the  soldiers  of  all  ranks  were 
in  great  want  of  tents  and  magazines,  and  they  had  for  a  long  time  sub- 
sisted on  half  rations,  collected  by  themselves  in  marauding  expeditions. 
But,  considered  with  reference  to  their  military  qualities,  this  army  was 
the  most  efficient  in  the  service  of  the  Republic.  Its  soldiers  had  seen  a 
good  share  of  service,  were  inured  to  hardships  and  privations,  and  among 
its  officers  were  to  be  found  the  names  of  Massena,  Augereau,  Serrurier 
and  Berthier. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  allies  had  more  than  fifty  thousand  men  in  good 
condition,  well  supplied,  and  having  two  hundred  pieces  of  artillery,  while 
the  Sardinian  army,  of  twenty-four  thousand  men,  guarded  the  avenues  of 
Dauphiny  and  Savoy.  Their  forces  were  thus  distributed :  Beaulieu,  a 
veteran  of  seventy-five,  with  thirty  thousand  Austrians  and  one  hundred 
and  fifty  pieces  of  cannon,  was  on  the  extreme  right  of  the  French,  and 
in  communication  with  the  English  fleet ;  and  Colli,  with  twenty  thousand 
men  and  sixty  guns,  was  in  a  line  with  him  to  the  north,  covering  Ceva 
and  Corri.  Generally  speaking,  the  French  occupied  the  crest  of  the 
mountains,  while  the  allies  were  stationed  in  the  valleys  leading  to  the 
plains  of  Italy. 

Napoleon  arrived  at  Nice  on  the  27th  of  March,  and  having  ascer- 
tained the  relative  position  of  the  troops,  resolved  to  penetrate  into  Pied- 
mont by  the  Col  de  Cadibone,  the  lowest  part  of  the  ridge  that  divides 
France  from  Italy ;  and,  by  pressing  his  columns  on  the  line  of  communi- 
cation, separate  .he  Austrian  and  Piedmontese  armies  from  each  other. 
At  the  same  time,  Beaulieu  was  assuming  the  offensive  and  directing  his 
columns  toward  his  own  left  at  Genoa.  Leaving  his  righkwing  at  Dego, 
he  pushed  his  centre,  under  D'Argenteau,  to  the  ridge  of  Montenotte,  and 
himself  advanced  with  the  left  along  the  sea-coast.  The  two  armies 
came  into  contact  at  Montenotte,  and  the  battle  that  ensued  became  cele- 
brated, as  being  the  first  one  in  which  Napoleon  was  ever  engaged  as 
general -in-chief.  The  Imperialists,  ten  thousand  strong,  first  encountered 
a  body  of  only  twelve  hundred  French,  under  Colonel  Rampon,  whom 


1796.]  HISTORY     OF    EUROPE.  75 

they  speedily  drove  back  to  the  old  redoubt  of  Monte  Legino;  but  the 
French  colonel,  perceiving  the  vital  importance  of  this  fort,  which  if  lost 
would  expose  the  whole  army  to  being  divided,  repulsed  the  impetuous 
assaults  of  the  Austrians,  and  made  good  his  stand  until  nightfall.  Du- 
ring the  night,  Napoleon,  with  the  divisions  of  Massena  and  Serrurie? 
moved  up  to  the  heights  in  the  rear  of  Montenotte,  and  in  the  morning  the 
Austrians  found  themselves  surrounded  on  all  sides.  They  resisted  for 
a  time  the  French  attacks,  but  were  at  length  completely  routed,  with  a 
'loss  of  five  pieces  of  cannon,  two  thousand  prisoners,  and  more  than  a 
thousand  killed  and  wounded.  This  victory  opened  the  plains  of  Pied- 
mont to  the  French,  and  completely  separated  the  Austrian  and  Sar- 
dinian armies. 

Napoleon,  occupying  now  a  central  position,  having  received  reenforce- 
ments  of  troops,  and  improved,  by  supplies  and  victory,  the  condition  and 
spirits  of  his  men,  resolved  to  attack  both  allied  armies  at  the  same  time. 
A  series  of  actions  immediately  followed,  each  small  in  itself,  but  import- 
ant as  a  part  of  the  general  result,  which  by  regular  progression  increased 
the  conquests  of  Napoleon,  and  drove  back  his  antagonists  from  their 
positions,  until  the  French  army,  descending  from  the  sterile  summits  of 
the  Alps,  found  themselves,  though  still  among  the  lesser  mountains,  in 
communication  with  the  rich  and  fertile  plains  of  Italy.  The  soldiers, 
animated  with  success,  speedily  recovered  from  their  fatigues,  the  strag- 
glers rejoined  their  colors,  and  bands  of  conscripts  from  the  depots  pressed 
forward  to  share  the  glories  and  the  spoils  of  the  Italian  army ;  so  that, 
despite  their  losses,  the  Republicans  were  as  strong  as  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  campaign :  while  the  allies,  besides  having  been  driven  from 
their  Alpine  barriers,  were  weakened  by  the  loss  of  more  than  twelve 
thousand  men  and  forty  pieces  of  cannon. 

The  court  of  Turin  was  in  the  utmost  consternation  at  the  advance  of 
the  French.  The  ministers  of  Austria  and  England  urged  the  king  to 
imitate  the  example  of  his  ancestors,  and  abandon  his  capital,  leaving  the 
fortresses  of  Tortona,  Alexandria  and  Valentia  in  the  hands  of  the  Aus- 
trians, to  give  Beaulieu  a  firm  footing  on  the  Po.  But  the  arguments  of 
the  Cardinal  Costa  overruled  this  advice,  and  persuaded  the  king  to  unite 
himself  with  France.  Napoleon,  on  receiving  the  advances  of  the  Sar- 
dinian government  to  this  effect,  granted  an  armistice,  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  treaty  of  peace,  wherein  the  king  of  Sardinia  ceded  to  the 
Republic,  Savoy,  Nice,  and  the  whole  possessions  of  Piedmont  west  of  the 
highest  ridge  of  the  Alps,  including  the  fortresses  of  Coni,  Ceva  and  Alex- 
andria, and  granted  a  free  passage  through  his  dominions  to  the  French 
troops. 

Having  secured  his  rear  by  this  advantageous  treaty,  Napoleon  lost  no 
time  in  pursuing  the  discomfited  remains  of  Beaulieu's  army,  which  had 
retired  behind  the  Po,  with  the  intention  of  covering  the  Milanese  terri- 
tory. He  had  inserted  and  given  publicity  to  a  clause  in  the  treaty  with 
the  king  of  Sardinia,  granting  him  permission  to  cross  the  Po  at  Valentia, 
and  thereby  deceived  the  Austrians  as  to  the  place  where  he  really  in- 
tended to  effect  the  passage.  The  attention  of  Beaulieu  having  been  by 
this  artifice  drawn  to  Valentia,  the  French  forces  were  rapidly  moved  to 
Placentia,  and  crossed  the  river  in  boats  on  the  7th  of  May.  Napoleon 
arrived  two  days  afterward  with  the  bulk  of  his  forces,  and  established  a 
bridge.  Thus,  one  great  obstacle  to  the  conquest  of  Lombardy  was 

9* 


76  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XI. 

already  removed.  Beaulieu  was  at  Pavia,  busily  engaged  in  erecting 
fortifications,  when  he  heard  of  the  passage  at  Placentia.  He  imme- 
diately moved  forward  with  his  advanced  guard  to  Tombio,  but  the  French 
drove  him  back  with  loss. 

The  French  troops  having  now  entered  the  states  of  Parma,  the  Grand- 
duke  of  those  domains,  possessing  no  military  resources,  was  forced  to 
make  peace  on  such  terms  as  the  victor  chose  to  grant.  The  spoliation 
consisted  in  part,  of  a  contribution  in  money,  sixteen  hundred  horses,  and 
a  large  supply  of  corn  and  provisions;  but  on  this  occasion  Napoleon 
commenced  another  kind  of  military  plunder,  unparalleled  in  modern 
warfare,  that  of  exacting  from  the  vanquished  their  most  precious  works 
of  art.  Parma  was  compelled  to  surrender  twenty  of  its  principal  paint- 
ings, among  which  was  the  celebrated  St.  Jerome,  by  Corregio. 

On  the  10th  of  May,  Napoleon  marched  toward  Milan,  but  the  Adda 
lay  in  his  way,  and  it  was  necessary  to  cross  that  stream  at  the  bridge  of 
Lodi,  which  was  held  by  twelve  thousand  Austrian  infantry  and  four 
thousand  cavalry.  Napoleon  arrived  at  Lodi  at  the  head  of  the  grena- 
diers of  D'Allemagne,  on  which  the  Austrians  withdrew  from  the  town, 
crossed  the  river,  and  posted  their  infantry  with  twenty  pieces  of  cannon, 
at  the  farther  extremity  of  the  bridge,  to  defend  the  passage.  To  attempt 
to  cross  this  narrow  defile  which  was  thus  swept  with  a  constant  storm  of 
grape  shot,  seemed  little  short  of  madness ;  yet,  such  was  the  enthusiasm 
of  the  French  grenadiers,  led  on  by  their  dauntless  general,  they  rushed 
forward  with  an  impetuosity  that  nothing  could  resist,  carried  the  Aus- 
trian guns,  and  established  themselves  on  the  other  side  of  the  river. 

After  this  disaster,  Beaulieu  retired  behind  the  Mincio,  leaving  Milan 
to  its  fate,  where  Napoleon  made  a  triumphant  entry  on  the  15th  of  May. 
The  citizens  received  him  as  a  deliverer;  from  every  part  of  Italy  the 
young  and  ardent  flocked  to  Milan  to  welcome  him.  A  succession  of 
balls  and  festivities  gave  token  of  the  universal  joy ;  but  the  illusion  was 
of  short  duration.  Italy  was  destined  soon  to  experience  the  bitter  fate 
of  every  people  who  look  to  foreign  aid  for  their  deliverance.  In  the 
midst  of  the  general  joy,  a  requisition  of  twenty  millions  of  francs  struck 
the  Milanese  with  astonishment,  and  wounded  them  in  their  tenderest 
part — their  domestic  and  economical  arrangements.  Great  requisitions 
of  horses  and  provisions  were  at  the  same,  time  made  in  all  the  Milanese 
territory.  Nor  did  the  Duke  of  Modena  escape  more  easily:  he  was 
compelled  to  purchase  peace  at  the  expense  of  ten  millions  of  francs  and 
twenty  paintings  from  his  gallery.  Thus,  liberated  Italy  was  treated  with 
greater  severity  than  usually  falls  to  the  lot  of  a  conquered  state.  The 
rage  for  republicanism  and  the  work  of  revolution  went  on,  nevertheless : 
within  ten  days  from  the  occupation  of  Milan,  national  guards,  in  the 
Republican  interest,  were  organized  all  over  Lombardy,  revolutionary 
authorities  were  everywhere  established,  and  the  country  rendered  sub- 
servient to  the  military  power  of  France.  These  changes  and  exactions 
were  not,  however,  enforced  with  the  unanimous  approval  of  the  people 
of  Lombardy.  The  thinking  part  of  the  community  abhorred  them  from 
the  first,  and  all  soon  began  to  perceive,  that  in  welcoming  the  French, 
they  had  bowed  to  a  heavier  yoke  than  the  one  they "  formerly  bore. 
Roused  to  indignation  by  such  treatment,  an  insurrection  was  organized 
over  the  whole  6f  that  beautiful  district,  and  it  first  broke  out  at  Pavia, 
wnere  the  people  rose  against  the  garrison,  forced  it  to  capitulate,  and 


1796.]  HISTORY     OF    EUROPE.  77 

shut  their  gates  against  the  French  troops.  Napoleon  hurried  to  the  scene 
of  tumult  with  a  sufficient  force,  made  his  way  into  the  town  by  assault, 
ordered  the  magistrates  and  leaders  of  the  town  to  be  shot,  delivered  the 
city  up  to  plunder,  and  cut  down  great  numbers  of  the  people  in  the 
streets.  This  terrible  example  crushed  the  insurrection,  indeed;  but  as  a 
merciless  and  unwarrantable  massacre,  it  has  left  a  blot  on  the  character 
of  Napoleon. 

The  French  army  now  continued  its  march,  and  on  the  28th  of  May, 
entered  the  city  of  Brescia,  situated  on  the  neutral  territory  of  Venice. 
Its  arrival  threw  the  Venetian  Senate  into  the  greatest  perplexity,  as  it 
compelled  them  to  take  part  with  Austria  or  France,  and  they  knew 
not  which  to  choose.  It  was  evident,  from  the  experience  of  Lombardy, 
that  to  side  with  France  was  to  embrace  their  own  ruin :  and  to  defy  tha4 
power  with  its  armies  at  her  gates,  was  equally  fatal.  They  therefore 
adopted  the  most  timid  course,  which  in  presence  of  danger  is  usually  th? 
most  perilous :  they  made  no  warlike  preparations,  and  sent  commis- 
sioners to  the  French  general  to  deprecate  his  hostility.  The  consequence 
was  what  might  have  been  anticipated,  between  such  parties  in  such  a 
relation;  the  conquering  general  levied  contributions  on  the  Venetian 
territories,  and  took  immediate  possession  of  two  important  fortresses — 
Porto  Legano  and  Verona. 

Having  thus  gained  the  command  of  the  Adige,  Napoleon  made  prepa- 
rations for  investing  Mantua,  the  most  important  fortress  in  Italy.  Serru- 
rier  commenced  the  blockade  on  the  14th  of  June,  with  ten  thousand 
men;  and  as  the  siege  would  necessarily  occupy  a  considerable  time, 
Bonaparte  had  leisure  to  deliberate  on  his  ulterior  measures.  He  learned 
that  Wurmser  had  been  detached  from  the  army  of  the  Upper  Rhine  with 
thirty  thousand  men,  to  reenforce  the  Austrian  army  in  Italy,  and  would 
arrive  at  Verona  about  the  middle  of  July.  Believing  that,  in  the  interim, 
he  would  have  time  to  subdue  the  central  states  of  Italy  and  thus  secure 
his  rear  from  molestation,  Napoleon  set  out  with  the  division  of  Augereau 
to  cross  the  Appenines.  His  expedition  was  little  else  than  a  march  of 
triumph.  He  first  entered  Modena,  where  he  was  received  with  every 
demonstration  of  joy;  proceeded  thence  to  Bologna,  where  the  same 
scenes  were  enacted,  and  took  possession,  on  his'  road  thither,  of  the  Fort 
of  Urbino  with  its  sixty  pieces  of  cannon.  He  next  marched  to  Ferrara, 
and  took  its  arsenal  with  one  hundred  and  fourteen  pieces  of  artillery; 
and  in  the  mean  time,  General  Vaubois  crossed  the  Appenines  with  another 
division,  and  directed  his  steps  toward  Rome.  At  the  intelligence  of  his 
approach,  the  council  of  the  Vatican  was  thrown  into  the  utmost  alarm. 
Azara,  minister  of  Spain,  was  dispatched  immediately  with  offers  of 
submission,  and  arrived  at  Bologna  to  lay  the  tiara  at  the  feet  of  the 
Republican  general.  The  terms  of  the  armistice  were  soon  agreed  on: 
it  was  stipulated  that  Bologna  and  Ferrara  should  remain  in  possession 
of  the  French  ;  that  the  Pope  should  pay  twenty  millions  of  francs,  furnish 
large  contributions  of  stores  and  provisions,  and  give  up  a  hundred  of  the 
finest  works  of  art  to  the  French  commissioners.  After  concluding  this 
important  treat}'',  Napoleon  dispatched  Murat  to  Leghorn,  where,  in  open 
violation  of  all  the  usages  of  war,  he  found  and  confiscated  the  effects 
of  English  merchants  to  the  value  of  twelve  millions  of  francs.  The 
French  commander-in-chief  then  returned  to  hasten  forward  the  siege 
of  Mantua. 


78  HISTORY     OF     EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XI. 

Meanwhile.  Wurmser  was  approaching  at  the  head  of  sixty  thousand 
effective  troops,  which  was  twice  the  number  that  Napoleon,  after  deduct- 
ing the  fifteen  thousand  before  Mantua,  and  ten  thousand  occupied  in 
maintaining  his  communications,  could  bring  into  the  field  to  oppose  him. 
The  French  troops  were  thus  divided :  Sauret,  with  four  thousand  five 
hundred  was  posted  at  Salo:  Massena,  with  fifteen  thousand,  occupied 
Corona  and  the  plateau  of  Rivoli ;  Despinois  held  five  thousand  in  the 
environs  of  Verona ;  and  Augereau  commanded  a  reserve  of  eight  thousand 
at  Legnago.  Napoleon,  with  two  thousand  cavalry,  took  post  at  Castel- 
nuovo,  to  be  equally  near  any  of  the  points  requiring  his  assistance. 

On  the  29th  of  July,  the  Imperialists  attacked  the  French  lines  at  all 
points,  and  everywhere  with  success.  Massena  was  driven  from  his 
intrenchments  at  Corona,  retired  to  Rivoli,  and  was  glad  to  escape  to 
Castelnuovo:  at  the  same  time,  the  Austrians  appeared  in  force  before 
Verona  and  on  the  other  side  of  the  Lake  of  Guarda  Lusignan,  carried 
the  town  of  Sabo,  and  thus  cut  off  the  principal  line  of  retreat  toward 
France. 

In  this  extremity,  Napoleon,  for  the  first  time  during  the  campaign, 
called  a  council  of  war.  He  heard  the  opinions  of  his  officers,  all  oi 
whom  except,  Augereau  recommended  a  retreat  behind  the  Po,  and  in  the 
course  of  the  night  formed  his  own  resolution.  He  ordered  the  siege  of 
Mantua  to  be  raised,  united  the  troops  investing  that  place  to  all  the  other 
divisions  excepting  Massena's,  and  advanced  by  forced  marches  to  Lonato, 
where  he  encountered  and  defeated  Quasdonovich ;  who,  astonished  at 
finding  himself  opposed  by  an  army  where  he  expected  to  see  only  a 
rear-guard,  fell  back  toward  the  mountains,  to  await  intelligence  of  the 
main  body  under  Wurmser. 

That  brave  commander,  having  dislodged  Massena  from  his  position, 
advanced  to  Mantua,  where  he  made  a  triumphal  entry  on  the  1st  of 
August.  But  on  the  very  night  of  his  arrival,  he  learned  that  Quasdon- 
ovich had  been  checked  and  Brescia  taken.  He  immediately  advanced 
his  columns  across  the  Mincio  and  moved  upon  Castiglione,  while  Quas- 
donovich resumed  the  offensive  and  retook  Salo.  Napoleon  was  now, 
with  an  inferior  force,  Between  the  two  armies:  but  his  energies  rose 
with  the  emergency.  On  the  3rd  of  August,  he  advanced  with  twenty- 
five  thousand  men  upon  Lonato,  carried  it  by  a  rapid  assault,  and  while 
the  Imperialists  were  extending  themselves  toward  Salo  to  open  a  com- 
munication with  Quasdonovich,  made  a  desperate  charge  on  their  centre 
and  divided  their  army :  one  of  the  Austrian  divisions  effected  its  retreat 
to  the  Mincio,  but  the  other,  that  was  moving  toward  Salo,  was  totally 
routed.  Meantime,  Augereau  had  been  contending  with  superior  numbers 
at  Castiglione,  and  with  difficulty  maintained  his  ground ;  but  now  Napo- 
leon arrived  with  reinforcements  and  the  Austrians  gave  way,  retreating 
toward  Mantua,  until  Wurmser,  with  fresh  troops,  came  in  person  to  theii 
relief. 

As  the  Austrian  veteran  was  still  bent  on  bringing  the  contest  to  a 
close  in  a  pitched  battle,  both  parties  were  occupied  on  the  ensuing  day 
in  collecting  and  organizing  their  forces.  Napoleon  had  arrived  at  Lonato 
for  that  purpose,  and  after  dispatching  thence  some  large  bodies  of  troops, 
he  remained  for  the  moment  with  only  twelve  hundred  men  at  head- 
quarters. While  thus  situated,  he  was  suddenly  summoned  to  surrender 
by  the  commander  of  four  thousard  Austrians ;  who,  in  the  intricate  coun- 


1796.)  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  79 

termarchings  of  the  day,  had  unexpectedly  come  up.  Napoleon  caused 
his  numerous  staff  to  mount  on  horseback,  and  having  ordered  the  officer 
who  bore  the  flag  of  truce  to  be  brought  before  him,  directed  the  bandage 
to  be  taken  from  his  eyes,  and  told  the  astonished  Austrian  that  he  was  in 
the  midst  of  the  French  army,  and  in  presence  of  its  general-in-chief; 
and  that,  unless  the  Austrian  troops  laid  down  their  arms,  they  should  be 
all  put  to  the  sword.  The  officer,  deceived  by  the  splendid  conVge, 
returned  to  his  division  and  recommended  them  to  surrender,  which  was 
accordingly  done  on  the  spot.  When  they  entered  the  town,  they  had 
the  mortification  to  discover  that  they  jiad  not  only  capitulated  to  one-third 
their  own  number,  but  had  also  missed  an  opportunity  of  making  prisoner 
the  commander-in-chief  of  the  French  army. 

On  the  following  day,  August  5th,  the  battle  took  place  at  Medola  and 
ended  in  the  defeat  of  the  Austrians,  who  fell  back  behind  the  Mincio; 
the  French  were  disabled,  by  excessive  fatigue,  from  pursuing  them. 
Wurmser  then  leisurely  retreated  to  his  former  station  at  Roveredo  and  in 
the  fastnesses  of  the  Tyrol.  He  had,  in  his  brief  expedition,  victualled 
Mantua  and  supplied  it  with  a  fresh  garrison ;  but  he  had  lost  nearly 
twenty  thousand  men  and  sixty  pieces  of  cannon,  and  the  spirit  of  his 
soldiers  was  completely  broken  by  fatigue  and  disaster.  Napoleon,  on 
the  retreat  of  the  Austrians,  resumed  the  blockade  of  Mantua. 

After  a  repose  of  three  weeks,  during  which  the  armies  on  both  sides 
received  considerable  reinforcements,  the  war  began  anew.  The  Aulic 
Council  of  Vienna,  untaught  by  former  disasters  of  the  imprudence  of 
forming  plans  at  a  distance  for  the  regulation  of  their  armies,  again 
framed  and  transmitted  to  Wurmser  orders  for  expelling  the  French 
from  the  line  of  the  Adige,  directing  him,  as  before,  to  divide  his  forces 
into  two  columns,  and  thus  repeating  the  error  that  proved  so  fatal  to  his 
previous  expedition.  Napoleon,  who  occupied  a  central  position,  equi- 
distant from  both  divisions,  moved  first  to  Serravale  on  the  Adige  against 
Davidowich,  whom  he  forced  back  into  Roveredo  in  confusion.  Davido- 
wich  rallied  his  broken  troops  in  the  defile  of  Galliano,  but  he  was  again 
routed  with  great  loss,  driven  toward  Trent,  and  on  the  following  day, 
September  5th,  Napoleon  entered  that  city  while  the  remains  of  Davido- 
wich's  corps  retreated  behind  the  Lavis. 

Wurmser,  on  receiving  intelligence  of  this  defeat,  resolved  to  advance 
<>y  the  Val  Sugana,  sieze  Verona,  and  raise  the  siege  of  Mantua.  But 
Napoleon,  who,  by  treachery  at  the  Austrian  head-quarters,  was  during 
this  whole  campaign  kept  informed  of  his  adversary's  plans,  and  was 
therefore  enabled  always  to  take  him  at  advantage,  anticipated  the  move- 
ment; and,  by  a  forced  march,  placed  himself  in  a  position  to  surprise 
the  Austrian  rear-guard,  which  he  utterly  routed.  At  the  same  time, 
\he  divisions  of  Massena  and  Augereau  surprised  the  main  body  under 
Wurmser,  near  Bassano,  where  the  Austrians,  discouraged  by  repeated 
defeats,  made  but  a  feeble  resistance.  They  were  broken  at  all  points, 
and  fled  into  Bassano  with  a  loss  of  four  thousand  prisoneis,  thirty  pieces 
of  cannon,  and  almost  all  their  baggage  and  ammunition.  Wurmser  now 
pushed  on  with  sixteen  thousand  men  toward  Mantua,  which  he  reached 
without  further  loss:  but  a  number  of  smaller  actions  ensued  with  the 
broken  and  scattered  detachments  of  the  Austrians,  in  all  of  which  the 
French  prevailed.  .  The  Austrian  army  had  taken  the  field,  but  one 
month  before,  with  fifty  thousand  men;  they  were  now  reduced  to  thirty 


80  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XI. 

thousand,  of  whom  sixteen  thousand,  with  Wurmser,  were  shut  up  in 
Mantua,  where  they  were  of  no  real  service,  as  the  garrison  was  suffi- 
cient without  them  and  was  beginning  to  suffer  for  want  of  provisions. 
The  French  army  had,  however,  lost  during  the  same  time,  fifteen  thou- 
sand men  in  killed,  wounded  and  prisoners. 

Still,  the  Austrian  government  did  not  relax  their  efforts,  and  by  the 
first  of  November  had  raised  their  Italian  armies  to  fifty  thousand  men. 
Their  first  movement  was  against  Massena  at  Bassano,  where,  under 
General  Alvinzi,  they  were  partially  defeated ;  but  the  French  under 
Vaubois,  having  on  the  same  day  attacked  the  Austrian  position  on  the 
Lavis,  were  totally  defeated  by  Davidowich  and  driven  to  Galliano  with  a 
loss  of  four  thousand  men.  Napoleon  hastened  in  person  to  repair  this 
disaster,  and  attacked  the  Austrians  on  the  heights  of  Caldiero ;  but  he 
was  bravely  repulsed  by  the  Imperialists,  and  retreated  in  the  night  with 
a  loss  of  more  than  three  thousand  men,  yielding  the  victory  in  a  pitched 
battle  to  the  Austrians  for  the  first  time  in  the  campaign. 

Having  thus  found  that  the  Austrian  position  at  Caldiero  was  impreg- 
nable in  front,  Napoleon  resolved  to  assail  it  in  flank,  and  accordingly 
made  a  rapid  night  march  by  the  village  of  Arcola  with  his  whole  force. 
A  desperate  action  ensued  at  this  place  which  continued  through  two 
whole  days,  and  in  the  end  both  parties  withdrew  from  the  field,  leaving 
the  victory  undecided.  But  on  the  third  day,  November  17th,  the  battle 
was  renewed  with  a  more  decisive  result,  and  the  Austrians  were  forced 
to  give  way.  They  retreated,  however,  in  good  order,  and  sustained  no 
further  loss  than  what  occurred  in  the  action. 

The  result  of  the  battle  of  Arcola  was  by  no  means  so  decisive  as  the 
previous  victories  of  the  French :  the  loss  on  both  sides  had  been  nearly 
equal,  no  important  position  was  gained,  nor  were  the  spirits  of  the 
defeated  soldiers  broken.  Nearly  two  months  of  inaction  followed, 
which  the  commanders  of  both  armies  occupied  in  reorganizing  their 
forces :  and  in  the  mean  time,  Mantua  was  reduced  to  the  last  extremity 
from  famine ;  it  therefore  became  indispensable  for  the  Austrians  to 
adopt  some  energetic  measure  for  its  relief.  Accordingly,^!  the  12th 
of  January,  1797,  Alvinzi  advanced  at  the  head  of  thirty-five  thousand 
men,  attacked  the  French  posts  on  the  Montebaldo,'  and  forced  them  back 
to  the  plateau  of  Rivoli :  here,  they  were  reenforced  by  the  whole  French 
centre  under  Napoleon,  and  again  attacked  on  the  14th.  The  action  was 
contested  with  great  bravery  on  both  sides,  but  at  length  the  Austrians 
prevailed  on  all  points,  and  were  preparing  for  a  final  charge  that  must 
have  ended  in  the  total  overthrow  of  Jhe  Republican  troops,  when  Napo- 
leon, with  great  presence  of  mind,  sent  a  flag  of  truce  to  Alvinzi.  proposing 
a  suspension  of  arms  for  half  an  hour,  as  he  had  some  proposal  to  make 
in  consequence  of  the  arrival  of  a  courier  from  Paris.  Alvinzi  was  simple 
enough  to  fall  into  the  snare,  granted  the  suspension,  and  Napoleon  pained 
time  to  rally  his  troops.  This  changed  the  fate  of  the  day.  The  French 
recovered  from  their  confusion,  repelled  every  subsequent  attack,  and 
finally  repulsed  the  Austrians  with  immense  loss  in  prisoners  and  artil- 
lery. This  victory  was  followed  up  by  an  attack  on  Provera's  division 
near  fort  St.  George,  on  the  16th  of  January,  where  the  Austrians  were 
again  defeated  and  lost  six  thousand  prisoners. 

Mantua,  being  now  deprived  of  its  last  hope  of  relief,  was  forced  to 
capitulate.  Wurmser.  with  all  his  staff,  and  five  hundred  men,  was 


1797.]  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  81 

allowed  to  return  to  Austria ;  the  remainder  of  the  garrison,  eighteen 
thousand  strong,  surrendered  their  arms,  with  fifty  standards  and  more 
than  five  hundred  pieces  of  artillery. 

Napoleon  now  directed  his  arms  against  Rome ;  for,  during  the  strife 
on  the  Adige,  the  pope  had  not  only  refused  to  ratify  the  treaty  of  Bo« 
logna,  but  had  openly  engaged  in  hostile  measures  against  the  French. 
The  soldiers  who  had  vanquished  the  strength  of  Austria  were  not  long 
in  crushing  the  feeble  forces  of  the  Church.  The  pope  again  submitted, 
and  peace  was  concluded  at  Tolentino  on  the  19th  of  February,  on  terms 
far  more  humiliating  to  the  Holy  See  thaji  the  conditions  of  the  previous 
treaty. 

Such  was  the  Italian  campaign  of  1796.  On  no  former  occasion  in  the 
history  of  the  world,  had  so  great  success  been  achieved  in  so  short  a 
time,  or  so  mighty  a  power  been  vanquished  by  forces  so  inconsiderable. 
An  army  not  exceeding  fifty  thousand  men  at  any  one  time,  though  con- 
stant reinforcements  kept  it  at  nearly  that  strength,  had  not  only  broken 
through  the  barriers  of  the  Alps,  subdued  Piedmont  and  Lombardy  and 
humbled  the  whole  of  the  Italian  States,  but  defeated  and  almost  destroyed 
four  powerful  armies  of  Austrians,  and  concluded  by  a  capture  of  the 
most  important  fortress  in  Italy. 

The  civil  war  in  La  Vendee  and  Brittany,  which  had  so  long  disturbed 
the  domestic  government  of  France,  was  brought  to  a  conclusion  in  the 
early  part  of  the  same  year.  General  Hoche,  at  the  head  of  one  hundred 
thousand  men,  enveloped  the  disaffected  provinces,  and  by  a  course 
marked  both  with  vigor  and  humanity,  succeeded  in  suppressing  all  the 
revolts,  taking  possession  of  the  towns,  and  finally  reconciling  the  people 
to  the  Republican  sway.  Charette  and  Stofflet,  the  brave  and  indomi- 
table leaders  of  the  Chouan  bands,  were  by  great  exertions  made  prisoners, 
and  both  perished  under  the  sentence  of  military  commissions — an  igno- 
minious and  cruel  fate  for  men  of  such  distinguished  qualities. 

The  condition  of  England,  at  the  close  of  the  year  1795  and  in  the 
beginning  of  1796,  was,  in  respect  of  public  opinion,  nearly  as  much 
divided  as  France  had  been  during  the  Revolution.  The  continued  dis- 
asters of  the  war,  the  pressure  of  new  and  increasing  taxation,  the  appa- 
rent hopelessness  of  prolonging  the  struggle  with  a  military  power  which 
all  the  armies  of  Europe  had  been  unable  to  subdue,  not  only  gave  new 
strength  and  vigor  to  the  Whig  party  who  had  opposed  hostilities  from  the 
first,  but  induced  many  original  opponents  of  the  revolutionary  mania  to 
hesitate  about  a  further  continuance  of  the  contest.  So  violent,  indeed, 
had  party  spirit  become,  and  so  completely  had  it  usurped  the  place  of 
patriotism  and  reason,  that  many  of  the  popular  leaders  really  began  to 
wish  for  the  triumph  of  their  enemies :  for  they  saw  no  hope  of  carrying 
through  a  Parliamentary  reform,  nor  of  acquiring  any  addition  u>  the 
democratic  power,  unless,  by  the  success  of  the  French,  the  present 
ministry  were  forced  to  retire  from  the  government. 

These  ill-humors  at  length  broke  out  into  open  violence.  On  one 
occasion,  as  the  king  was  going  to  Parliament,  the  royal  carriage  was 
surrounded  by  an  immense  crowd  of  turbulent  people,  who  loudly  de- 
manded peace  and  the  dismissal  of  Mr.  Pitt.  One  of  the  windows  was 
broken  by  a  stone,  or  a  bullet  from  an  air-gun ;  and  on  his  majesty's 
return,  he  was  again  assailed  and  narrowly  escaped  the  fury  of  the  popu- 
lace. These  outrages,  however,  tended  only  to  strengthen  the  govern- 


82  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  Xf. 

ment,  by  clearly  convincing  all  reasonable  men,  into  what  excesses  the 
populace  would  speedily  run,  if  they  were  not  restrained  by  a  firm  hand, 
and  also  how  narrow  a  line  divided  England  from  the  horrors  of  the 
French  Revolution. 

The  question  on  the  continuance  of  the  war  was  warmly  debated  in 
Parliament,  but  was  at  length  carried,  and  the  measure  provided  for  by 
liberal  supplies.  Another  measure  excited  a  violent  controversy,  namely, 
a  bill  to  provide  for  the  additional  security  of  the  king's  person  and  the 
prevention  of  seditious  meetings  throughout  the  country.  This  bill  passed 
the  House  of  Commons  by  the  decisive  vote  of  two  hundred  and  fourteen 
to  forty-two,  and  the  House  of  Lords  by  sixty-six  to  seven.  The  opposi- 
tion were  so  exasperated  by  the  success  of  the  ministers  on  this  occasion^ 
that  Mr.  Fox  and  a  large  part  of  the  minority  withdrew,  for  a  considerable 
time,  from  the  house. 

Previous  to  the  opening  of  the  campaign,  the  British  government,  in 
order  to  bring  the  French  Directory  to  the  test,  authorized  their  minister, 
Mr.  Wickham,  to  make  some  advances  on  the  subject  of  a  general  peace ; 
but  the  Directory  replied,  that  they  would  treat  only  on  condition  of 
retaining  the  Low  Countries;  a  condition  to  which  neither  England  nor 
Austria  could  submit.  As  all  hope  of  peace  was  thus  at  an  end,  the 
allied  powers  made  great  preparations  for  prosecuting  the  war:  and  the 
Archduke  Charles  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  armies  on  the 
Rhine. 

The  forces  of  the  contending  parties  here  were  not  greatly  dissimilai 
in  infantry,  but  in  cavalry,  the  Imperialists  were  greatly  superior  to  their 
antagonists.  On  the  Upper  Rhine,  Moreau  commanded  seventy-one 
thousand  infantry  and  six  thousand  five  hundred  cavalry;  while  Wurm- 
ser,  wlio  was  opposed  to  him,  had  sixty-two  thousand  foot  and  twenty-two 
thousand  horse:  but,  before  the  campaign  was  far  advanced,  thirty  thou- 
sand men,  as  has  already  been  related,  were  directed  under  Wurrnser  to 
reen  force  the  army  of  Italy.  On  the  Lower  Rhine,  the  Archduke  com- 
manded  seventy-one  thousand  infantry  and  twenty-one  thousand  cavalry; 
while  the  French,  under  Jourdan,  amounted  to  sixty-three  thousand 
infantry  and  eleven  thousand  cavalry.  Thus,  the  Austrians  were,  pre- 
vious to  the  detachment  of  Wurmser  for  Italy,  superior  in  numbers  to  the 
French ;  but  the  latter  had  the  important  advantage  of  holding  much  the 
greater  number  of  fortresses  on  the  line. 

The  campaign  was  opened  by  Kleber.  He  crossed  the  river  at  Dussel- 
dorf,  and,  being  joined  by  Ney  and  Soult,  defeated  the  advanced  posts  of 
the  Austrians,  who  retreated  with  the  loss  of  fifteen  hundred  prisoners 
and  twelve  pieces  of  cannon.  The  Archduke  moved  immediately  to  the 
assistance  of  the  discomfited  corps,  with  forty-five  thousand  infantry  and 
eighteen  thousand  cavalry :  on  which  Jourdan,  in  turn,  marched  to  sup- 
port Kleber,  and  the  two  main  armies  were  nearly  brought  into  contact, 
when  the  French,  finding  themselves  outnumbered  and  outmanoeuvred, 
wore  forced  to  retreat.  Moreau,  who  commanded  the  army  on  the  Upper 
Rhine,  including  the  divisions  of  Desaix  and  St.  Cyr,  taking  advantage 
of  the  absence  of  the  Archduke,  formed  a  project  for  crossing  the  Rhine 
at  Strasburg,  and  seizing  the  fortress  of  Kehl,  which  was  negligently 
guarded  on  the  opposite  shore.  The  expedition  was  planned  with  great 
dispatch  and  secrecy,  and  on  the  night  of  the  24th  of  June,  the  French 
army  moved  silently  across  the  river,  advanced  to  the  intrenchmrints  of) 


1796.]  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  83 

Kehl,  and  carried  them  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet.  From  the  magnitude 
of  this  undertaking  and  the  skill  with  which  it  was  carried  out,  it  ranks 
as  one  of  the  most  distinguished  exploits  of  that  remarkable  period. 

Having  thus  gained  a  permanent  footing  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine. 
Moreau,  toward  the  end  of  June,  advanced  to  the  foot  of  the  mountains 
of  the  Black  Forest  at  the  head  of  seventy-one  thousand  men.  This  cnle-' 
brated  chain  of  mountains  is  a  mass  of  rocky  hills  separating  the  valley 
of  the  Rhine  from  that  of  the  Neckar.  The  French  general  immediately 
attacked  a  body  of  ten  thousand  Swabian  troops  at  Renchen,  occupying 
the  entrance  of  the  defiles  leading  through  the  mountains:  the  Swabians 
gave  way  with  considerable  loss  and  retreated  before  Moreau,  who  now 
had  broken  through  the  centre  of  the  Austrian  line,  and  threatened  their 
whole  communications.  On  receiving  this  alarming  intelligence,  the 
Archduke  hastened  by  forced  marches  to  arrest  the  progress  of  the  in- 
vaders, and  overtook  them  on  the  banks  of  the  Murg,  when  a  partial  action 
ensued  which,  though  indecisive,  was  unfavorable  to  the  Austrians.  After 
this  slight  repulse,  the  Archduke  advanced  the  Saxons  on  his  left  toward 
the  French  right  in  the  mountains  and  pushed  his  centre  to  Malsch,  where 
Moreau  attacked  him  on  the  9th  of  July  :  a  general  action  took  place,  but 
still  without  important  results,  the  Austrians  merely  retaining  possession  of 
the  centre  of  the  field,  while  their  left  was  driven  back.  The  Archduke 
now  had  an  opportunity  to  strike  a  decisive  blow  by  pressing  forward  to 
the  base  of  Moreau's  position,  crushing  Desaix  and  surrounding  St.  Cyr 
in  the  mountains  ;  but  by  so  doing  he  would,  at  the  same  time,  have  ex- 
posed the  Austrian  dominions  to  Moreau's  advance.  He  chose  the  more 
prudent  course,  and  withdrew  in  the  evening  to  Pforzheim,  preparatory  ta 
marching  by  the  Neckar  into  the  Bavarian  plains. 

On  the  14th  of  July,  the  Imperialists  broke  up  from  Pforzheim  and 
retired  slowly  and  in  good  order  toward  Stutgard  and  the  right  bank  of 
the  Neckar.  By  this  means,  they  drew  nearer  the  army  of  Wartensleben, 
and  gained  a  central  and  interior  line  of  communication.  On  the  25th, 
the  Austrian  forces  were  concentrated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Neckar, 
between  Cronstadt  and  Esslingen,  where  Moreau  attacked  them  on  the 
following  morning  with  his  whole  centre  and  left  wing,  but  no  result  fol- 
lowed the  action,  as  both  parties  remained  on  the  field.  The  Archduke 
continued  his  retrograde  movement  until  he  reached  Neresheim,  where, 
having  joined  his  left  wing,  which  had  retired  through  the  Black  Forest, 
he  attacked  the  position  of  Moreau,  defeated  his  right  wing,  and  would 
have  gained  an  important  victory,  had  all  his  troops  come  up  in  time  to 
follow  the  retreating  masses  of  the  French. 

Jourdan,  after  having  remained  a  few  days  at  Frankfort,  and  levied  a 
heavy  contribution  on  that  flourishing  city,  marched  on  the  great  road  to 
Wurtzburg,  to  cooperate  with  Moreau  in  an  advance  into  the  Empire. 
Wartensleben  retired  at  his  approach,  and  Wurtzburg  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  French.  Wartensleben  slowly  continued  his  retreat  until  the  18th 
of  August,  when  he  crossed  the  Naab,  where  he  awaited  a  junction  with 
the  Archduke.  That  commander  arrived  on  the  20th,  and  being  now 
superior  in  force  to  the  pursuing  army  of  Jourdan,  he  resumed  the  offen- 
sive, attacking  the  French  advanced  guard  under  Bernadotte,  on  the  22nd, 
whom  he  drove  back  with  loss  into  the  mountains.  He  then  dispatched 
Hotze  with  a  sufficient  force  to  continue  the  pursuit  of  Bernadotte,  and 
himself  turned  upon  Jourdan,  at  Amberg,  on  the  22nd,  The  French  made 

10 


84  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XI. 

a  feeble  resistance,  and,  but  for  the  firmness  of  Ney,  who  checked  the 
pursuit  of  the  Austrians,  would  have  experienced  a  terrible  defeat.  Jour- 
dan's  position  was  now  extremely  critical ;  but  after  a  painful  retreat  of 
six  days,  during  which  Ney  continued  to  protect  his  rear,  he  extricated 
himself  from  the  mountains  and  reached  Schweinfurt  on  the  Maine. 
Hotze  passed  that  river  on  the  1st  of  September  and  retook  Wurtzburg, 
where  he  was  joined  by  the  Archduke  on  the  2nd.  Jourdan,  deeming  it 
necessary  to  gain  a  respite  from  the  Austrian  pursuit  by  a  general  attack, 
and  being  ignorant  of  the  Archduke's  arrival,  assaulted  the  Austrian  lines 
on  the  3rd ;  but  he  was  so  severely  handled,  that  he  was  glad  to  escape 
into  the  forest  of  Gramchatz  without  being  entirely  broken  by  the  imperial 
cavalry.  The  French  continued  their  retreat  toward  Lahn,  which  they 
reached  on  the  9th  in  a  disorganized  state,  after  suffering  immense  loss 
in  prisoners  and  artillery-  At  Lahn  they  were  joined  by  the  blockading 
force  from  Mayence,  fifteen  thousand  strong,  and  by  ten  thousand  men 
from  the  army  of  the  north ;  so  that  their  numbers  were  again  equal  to 
their  pursuers.  But  the  Archduke  attacked  them  at  Lalm  and  afterward 
at  Altenkirchen,  defeating  them  in  both  instances.  The  French  army 
was  in  such  a  disordered  condition,  that  they  retreated  to  Bonn  and 
Neuweid,  and  remained  in  total  inactivity  for  the  remainder  of  the  cam- 
paign. 

Moreau  was  now  in  a  dangerous  situation,  having  advanced  into  the 
heart  of  Bavaria,  while  the  Archduke  was  thus  driving  Jourdan  to  ex- 
tremity :  the  defiles  of  the  Black  Forest  were  in  his  rear,  he  was  distant 
two  hundred  miles  from  the  Rhine,  threatened  by  Latour  with  forty  thou- 
sand men  on  one  flank,  and  by  the  Archduke  and  Nawendorf  with  twenty- 
five  thousand  on  the  other.  He  was,  nevertheless,  at  the  head  of  a  superb 
army  of  seventy  thousand  men,  and  no  detached  columns  could  prevent 
his  retreat.  He  immediately  commenced  a  retrograde  movement,  but  in 
perfect  order  ;  and  when  he  approached  the  defiles  of  the  Black  Forest, 
he  encountered  Latour  at  Biberach,  and  totally  defeated  him.  He  then 
entered  the  Black  Forest,  and  by  a  well-concerted  and  deliberate  march, 
safely  accomplished  a  retreat  which  has  ever  since  been  regarded  as 
equivalent  to  a  victory. 

The  Archduke  pursued  the  retreating  army  by  a  different  line  of  march, 
and  came  up  with  Moreau  at  Emmendingen,  where  a  general  action  took 
place,  in  which  the  French  were  routed  with  a  loss  of  two  thousand  men. 
The  Imperialists  followed  up  this  success,  intending  to  renew  the  combat 
on  the  following  day ;  but  Moreau  retreated  during  the  night  to  Schlien- 
gen,  a  strong  position,  where  he  was  determined  to  make  a  stand  and  await 
the  attack  of  the  Austrians.  Here,  again,  the  Archduke  was  successful ; 
he  drove  the  Republicans  from  their  intrenchments  with  great  loss,  and 
was  prevented  from  totally  overthrowing  them  only  by  the  broken  char- 
acter of  the  ground  over  which  they  retreated,  where  his  cavalry  could 
not  act  efficiently, 

Moreau,  having  during  the  night  reached  the  borders  of  the  Rhine, 
crossed  that  river  on  the  day  following  without  molestation,  and  proposed 
an  armistice,  which  the  Austrians  declined.  He  then  marched  into  Kehl, 
to  which  place  the  Archduke  promptly  laid  siege  on  the  9th  of  October. 
The  defence  was  long  and  obstinate  ;  but  the  perseverance  and  bravery 
of  the  victorious  Austrians,  proved  at  last  an  overmatch  for  the  garrison : 
after  a  series  of  attacks  and  bombardments,  the  fortress  was,  on  the  9th 


1796.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  85 

of  January,  1797,  carried  by  assault.  Henningen  was  next  invested,  and 
evacuated  by  capitulation  on  the  31st  of  the  same  month. 

This  event  terminated  the  campaign  of  1796  in  Germany  :  a  campaign 
the  most  remarkable  that  had  yet  occurred,  excepting  that  of  Na'poleon 
in  Italy. 

In  August  of  this  year,  the  treaty  between  France  and  Spain,  already 
referred  to,  was  brought  to  a  conclusion.  By  this  treaty,  the  two  powers 
mutually  guaranteed  to  each  other  their  dominions,  both  in  the  Old  and 
New  World,  and  engaged  to  assist  each  other  in  case  of  attack,  with 
twenty-four  thousand  land  troops,  thirty  ships  of  the  line,  and  six  frigates. 
This  was  followed,  in  the  beginning  of  October,  by  a  formal  declaration 
of  war  on  the  part  of  Spain  against  Great  Britain  ;  so  that  England,  who 
had  commenced  the  war  with  so  many  confederates,  now  saw  herself  not 
only  deprived  of  her  maritime  allies,  but  the  whole  coast  of  Europe,  from 
Texel  to  Gibraltar,  was  arrayed  in  fierce  hostility  against  her.  Impressed 
with  the  danger  of  these  concurrent  circumstances,  and  desirous,  also,  of 
silencing  the  clamor  of  the  party  who  denounced  the  war  as  unnecessary 
and  impolitic,  Mr.  Pitt,  at  the  close  of  this  year,  renewed  his  overtures  for 
a  general  peace.  But  the  liberal  terms  proposed  by  Great  Britain  were 
haughtily  rejected,  and  the  negotiations  brought  to  a  summary  conclusion 
on  the  17th  of  December. 

Ireland,  about  this  period,  was  in  an  alarming  condition.  The  success- 
ful issue  of  the  French  Revolution,  had  stimulated  a  host  of  reckless 
adventurers  to  project  a  similar  revolt  against  the  authority  of  England, 
and  more  than  two  hundred  thousand  men  were  engaged  in  a  conspiracy 
to  overturn  the  established  government.  Overlooking  the  miseries  and 
horrors  which  the  convulsions  in  France  had  occasioned,  and,  withoul 
considering  how  an  insular  power  was  to  maintain  itself  against  the  naval 
force  of  England,  the  disaffected  in  Ireland  rushed  blindly  into  the  project. 
They  were  enrolled  under  generals,  colonels,  and  other  officers  in  all  the 
counties,  arms  were  secretly  provided,  and  nothing  was  wanting  but  the 
arrival  of  the  French  troops.  These  preparations,  too,  were  made  with 
such  secrecy,  that  the  British  government  had  little  warning  of  their  dan- 
ger ;  while  the  French  Directory,  accurately  informed  of  the  whole,  were 
prepared  to  turn  it  to  the  best  account.  Hoche,  at  the  head  of  a  hundred 
thousand  men,  on  the  shores  of  La  Vendee  and  Brittany,  was  ready  to 
make  the  descent ;  and  an  expedition  was  fitted  out  at  Brest,  consisting  of 
fifteen  ships  of  the  line,  to  carry  each  six  hundred  soldiers,  twelve  frigates 
and  six  corvettes,  to  carry  each  two  hundred  and  fifty,  and  transports  and 
other  vessels  to  carry,  in  all,  twenty-five  thousand.  This  armament  was 
to  be  joined  by  seven  ships  of  the  line  from  Rochefort. 

To  distract  the  attention  of  Great  Britain,  the  most  contradictory  accounts 
were  circulated  as  to  the  object  of  this  expedition  ;  sometimes,  it  was  in- 
tended for  the  West  Indies  ;  at  other  times,  for  Portugal ;  but  the  British 
government  soon  suspected  where  the  blow  was  really  to  fall.  Orders 
were  transmitted  to  Ireland  to  hold  the  militia  in  readiness ;  a  vigilant 
watch  was  kept  on  the  coast,  and  all  the  cattle  and  provisions  ordered  to 
the  interior  counties,  on  the  first  appearance  of  the  enemy.  The  expedi- 
tion set  sail  on  the  15th  of  December,  but  it  encountered  disasters  from 
the  very  moment  of  its  leaving  the  harbor.  A  violent  tempest  arose,  and, 
although  the  mist  which  accompanied  it  enabled  the  French  admiral  to 
elude  the  vigilance  of  the  British  squadron,  one  ship  of  the  line  struck  on 


86  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  CIIAF.  XII. 

the  rocks  at  Ushant,  and  went  down,  several  others  were  much  damaged, 
and  the  fleet  was  entirely  dispersed.  On  the  31st  of  December,  Admiral 
Bousset  made  his  way  back  to  Brest,  where  he  was  soon  followed  by  the 
scattered  divisions  of  his  fleet,  after  two  ships  of  the  line  and  three  frigates 
had  been  lost :  one  of  the  former,  by  the  violence  of  the  tempest,  and  the 
others  by  the  attacks  of  the  British  squadron. 

The  close  of  this  year  was  marked  by  the  death  of  the  Empress  Cathe- 
ine,  of  Russia,  and  the  accession  of  Paul  to  the  throne.  Few  sovereigns 
will  occupy  a  more  conspicuous  place  in  the  page  of  history,  and  few  have 
left  in  their  conduct  on  the  throne,  a  more  exalted  reputation,  than  the 
Empress  Catherine :  yet  her  high  qualities  as  a  sovereign  were  counter- 
balanced by  the  vices  of  her  private  life,  and  it  might,  perhaps,  be  said  of 
her,  even  more  truly  than  of  Elizabeth  of  England,  that  "  if  to-day  she 
was  more  than  a  man,  to-morrow  she  would  be  less  than  a  woman." 

The  end  of  the  same  ye"ar  witnessed  the  resignation  of  the  presidency 
of  the  United  States  of  America  by  General  Washington,  and  his  volun- 
tary retirement  into  private  life.  Modern  history  has  not  another  character 
so  spotless  to  commemorate.  Invincible  in  resolution,  firm  in  conduct, 
incorruptible  in  integrity,  he  brought  to  the  helm  of  a  victorious  Republic 
the  simplicity  and  innocence  of  rural  life ;  he  was  forced  into  greatness 
by  circumstances,  rather  than  led  into  it  by  inclination  ;  and  he  prevailed 
over  his  enemies  rather  by  the  wisdom  of  his  designs,  and  the  perseve- 
rance of  his  character,  than  by  any  extraordinary  genius  in  the  art  of 
war.  He  was  the  first  to  recommend  a  return  to  pacific  councils  when 
the  independence  of  his  country  was  secured,  and  he  bequeathed  to  his 
fellow-citizens,  on  leaving  their  government,  an  address  to  which  no  com- 
position of  uninspired  wisdom  can  bear  a  comparison.  He  was  a  Crom- 
well, without  his  ambition ;  a  Sylla,  without  his  crimes ;  and  after  having 
raised  his  country  to  the  rank  of  an  independent  State,  he  closed  his  career 
by  a  voluntary  relinquishment  of  the  power  which  a  grateful  people  had 
bestowed. 


CHAPTER    XII. 

CAMPAIGN    OF    1797. 

THE  aspect  of  affairs  in  England  had  never  been  so  clouded  since  the 
commencement  of  the  war,  nor  indeed  during  the  whole  of  the  18th  century, 
as  at  the  opening  of  the  year  1797.  The  negotiations  for  peace  had  just 
been  unpropitiously  terminated,  and  the  national  burdens  were  daily 
increasing  under  the  operations  of  a  war  which  held  out  no  promise  of 
success.  Party  spirit  raged  with  uncommon  violence  in  every  quarter 
of  the  kingdom  ;  insurrections  prevailed  in  many  districts  of  Ireland,  dis- 
content and  suffering  in  all ;  commercial  embarrassment  was  rapidly 
increasing,  and  the  continued  pressure  on  the  Bank,  threatened  a  total 
dissolution  of  public  credit.  The  consequence  of  this  accumulation  of 
disasters  was  a  rapid  fall  of  public  securities  ;  the  three  per  cents  sold  as 
low  as  -51,  having  fallen  to  that  from  -98,  where  they  stood  at  the  break, 
ing  out  of  the  war. 


1797.]  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  Q7 

For  a  long  period,  the  Bank  had  experienced  a  pressure  for  money, 
owing  partly  to  the  demand  for  gold  and  silver,  which  resulted  from  the 
distresses  of  commerce,  and  partly  to  the  great  drains  on  the  specie  of  the 
country,  occasioned  by  the  large  loans  made  to  the  Imperial  government. 
As  early  as  January,  1795,  the  influence  of*  these  causes  was  so  severely 
felt,  that  the  Bank  directors  informed  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  of 
their  wish,  that  he  would  so  arrange  his  finances  as  not  to  depend  on  any 
further  assistance  from  them  ;  and  during  the  whole  of  that  and  the  follow- 
ing  year,  the  peril  of  continued  advances  for  the  Imperial  loans,  were 
strongly  and  earnestly  represented  to  the  government.  The  pressure 
arising  from  these  causes  was  brought  to  a  crisis  at  the  close  of  1796,  by 
a. run  upon  the  country  banks,  which  arose  from  the  dread  of  invasion, 
and  the  anxiety  of  every  man  to  convert  his  paper  into  cash,  in  the  troubled 
times  which  seemed  to  be  approaching.  These  banks,  as  the  only  means 
of  averting  bankruptcy,  applied  from  all  quarters  to  the  Bank  of  England ; 
the  panic  extended  to  the  metropolis ;  and,  such  was  the  run  upon  that 
institution,  it  was  reduced  to  payment  in  sixpences,  and  stood  on  the  verge 
of  insolvency,  when  an  order  in  council  was  interposed  for  its  relief,  sus- 
pending cash  payments  until  the  sense  of  Parliament  could  be  taken  on 
the  best  means  of  restoring  the  circulation,  and  sustaining  the  public  and 
commercial  credit  of  the  country. 

This  measure  of  Mr.  Pitt  excited  a  vehement  debate  in  the  national 
legislature,  and  all  over  the  country ;  but  it  was  approved  by  both  houses 
of  Parliament,  and  a  bill  passed,  providing  that  the  Bank  of  England 
notes  should  be  received  as  a  legal  tender  by  the  collectors  of  taxes,  and 
have  the  effect  of  stopping  the  issue  of  arrest  on  mesne  process,  for  pay- 
ment of  debt  between  man  and  man.  The  bill  was  limited  in  its  operation 
to  the  24th  of  June  ;  but  it  was  afterward  renewed  from  time  to  time,  and 
in  November,  1797,  extended  till  the  conclusion  of  a  general  peace. 
Indeed,  the  obligation  on  the  Bank  to  pay  in  specie  was  not  imposed  until 
the  act  of  Mr.  Peel,  in  1819.  Such  was  the  commencement  of  the  paper 
system  in  Great  Britain,  which  ultimately  produced  such  astonishing 
effects ;  which  enabled  the  government,  for  so  long  a  period,  to  carry  on 
so  costly  a  war,  and  to  maintain  for  years  armaments  greater  than  had 
been  raised  by  the  Roman  Empire,  in  the  zenith  of  her  power. 

The  supplies  voted  by  Parliament  for  the  year  1797,  were  on  a  scale 
commensurate  to  the  emergency.  The  land  forces  were  raised  to  one 
hundred  and  ninety-five  thousand,  of  whom  sixty-one  thousand  were  in 
the  British  Islands,  and  the  remainder  in  the  colonial  dependencies  of  the 
empire.  The  ships  in  commission  were  one  hundred  and  twenty-four  of 
the  line,  eighteen  of  fifty  guns,  one  hundred  and  eighty  frigates,  and  one 
hundred  and  eighty-four  sloops.  This  great  force,  however,  being  scat- 
tered over  the  whole  globe,  could  not  assemble  on  any  one  point  a  fleet 
which,  numerically,  was  equal  to  those  that  her  allied  antagonists  could 
bring  against  her.  It  was  at  this  time  that  the  famous  mutiny  in  the  feet 
took  place. 

A  feeling  of  discontent  had  for  a  long  time  prevailed  in  the  navy,  without 
having  attracted  the  serious  attention  of  the  government.  It  was  in  part 
brought  to  a  crisis  by  the  insubordinate  spirit  of  the  times,  but  it  had  its 
origin  in  a  variety  of  grievances,  which  had  grown  up  with  the  naval 
system  of  England.  The  prevalence  of  these  discontents  was  made 
known  to  Lord  Howe  and  the  Lords  of  the  Admiralty,  by  a  variety  of 

8 


98  HISTORY     OF     EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XII, 

anonymous  communications,  but  when  inquiry  was  made  of  the  captains 
of  the  individual  ships,  they  all  denied  the  existence  of  any  mutinous 
disposition  among  the  men.  Meanwhile,  however,  a  vast  conspiracy, 
unknown  to  them,  was  already  organized  ;  and  it  was  brought  to  maturity 
on  the  return  to  port  of  the  Channel  fleet,  in  the  beginning  of  April ;  when, 
on  making  the  signal,  on  board  the  Queen  Charlotte,  to  weigh  anchor,  the 
crew,  instead  of  obeying,  gave  three  cheers,  which  were  returned  by 
every  vessel  in  the  fleet,  and  immediately  the  red  flag  of  mutiny  was  run 
up  to  each  mast  head.  The  officers  strove  in  vain  to  exert  their  authority ; 
yet  the  mutineers,  though  refusing  absolutely  all  obedience,  resorted  to  no 
overt  act  of  violence  and  bloodshed.  They  drew  up  a  remonstrance, 
stating  their  grievances,  and  forwarded  it  in  duplicate  to  the  Admiralty 
and  the  house  of  Commons.  The  Board  of  Admiralty  was  at  once  trans- 
ferred to  Portsmouth ;  the  demands  of  the  seamen,  having  been  found,  for 
the  most  part,  equitable,  were  acceded  to;  and  Lord  Howe  at  length 
persuaded  the  men  to  return  to  their  duty,  after  promising  them  entire 
amnesty  for  the  past.  Order  being  thus  happily  restored,  the  fleet,  consist- 
ing of  twenty-one  ships  of  the  line,  put  to  sea,  and  resumed  the  blockade 
of  the  harbor  of  Brest. 

Hardly  was  this  commotion  at  an  end,  however,  when  a  still  more 
serious  mutiny  broke  out  in  Lord  Duncan's  squadron  at  the  Nore,  which 
extended  to  every  vessel  in  the  fleet  excepting  his  lordship's  own  line-of- 
battle  ship  and  two  frigates.  A  man  named  Parker  was  at  the  head  of 
this  mutiny,  and  the  demands  he  made  related  in  part  to  the  distribution 
of  prize  money,  which  had  been  overlooked  by  the  other  mutineers ;  but 
he  went  to  such  extravagant  lengths  in  other  respects,  and  couched  his 
demands  in  such  a  menacing  strain,  that  the  government  could  not  pos- 
sibly entertain  his  petitions.  Fortunately  for  Great  Britain  and  for  tht 
cause  of  freedom  throughout  the  world,  a  monarch  was  on  the  throne 
whose  firmness  no  danger  could  shake,  and  a  minister  was  at  the  helm 
whose  capacity  was  equal  to  any  emergency.  They  denied  the  petition 
peremptorily,  and  adopted  the  most  energetic  measures  to  sustain  their 
authority.  All  the  buoys  in  the  mouth  of  the  Thames  were  removed ; 
Sheerness,  which  was  threatened  by  the  insurgents,  was  garrisoned  with 
four  thousand  men  ;  red-hot  balls  were  kept  in  constant  readiness ;  Til- 
bury fort  was  armed  with  one  hundred  pieces  of  heavy  cannon ;  and  a 
chain  of  gun-boats  was  sunk  to  debar  all  access  to  the  harbor.  These 
measures  were  nobly  responded  to  by  Parliament,  almost  every  one  of 
the  opposition  following  the  lead  of  Mr.  Sheridan,  and  throwing  himself 
into  the  breach  with  the  ministry.  An  act  was  promptly  passed  by  both 
houses  forbidding  all  communication  with  the  sailors  in  mutiny,  under 
penalty  of  death,  and  imposing  a  like  penalty  on  any  one  who  should 
attempt  to  seduce  either  soldiers  or  sailors  from  their  allegiance.  A  nego- 
tiation was  then  entered  into  by  the  Admiralty,  which  was  protracted  from 
day  to  day,  until  by  degrees  the  sailors  became  sensible  of  the  desperate 
character  of  their  enterprise,  and  man  by  man,  and  crew  by  crew,  with- 
drew from  their  perilous  compact,  slipped  the  cables,  one  after  another, 
of  their  respective  ships,  and  took  refuge  under  the  cannon  of  Sheerness; 
until  at  length,  on  the  15th  of  June,  twenty- four  days  after  the  mutiny 
began,  every  vessel  was  placed  under  the  control  of  the  government. 
Parker,  the  leader  of  the  mutiny,  and  several  of  his  more  prominent 
associates  were  executed ;  but  the  greater  part  under  sentence  of  death, 
were  nardoned  bv  royal  proclamation. 


1797.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  89 

But,  wna  ever  may  have  been  the  internal  dissensions  of  the  British 
navy,  its  external  operations  were  fraught  with  terror  to  its  enemies. 
Early  in  February,  the  Spanish  fleet  of  twenty-seven  ships  of  the  line 
and  twelve  frigates  set  sail  for  Brest,  with  a  view  of  raising  the  blockade 
of  that  harbor,  forming  a  junction  with  the  Dutch  fleet,  and  sweeping  the 
British  squadron  from  the  Channel.  Admiral  Jarvis,  who  was  stationed 
off  the  coast  of  Portugal  with  fifteen  ships  of  the  line  and  six  frigates, 
immediately  made  sail  in  pursuit,  and  encountered  the  enemy  off  Cape 
St.  Vincent. 

The  British  admiral  pushed  boldly  through  the  centre  of  the  hostile 
fleet,  doubled  with  his  whole  force  on  nine  of  the  Spanish  ships,  and  by 
a  vigorous  cannonade  drove  them  to  leeward,  so  as  to  prevent  their  taking 
any  part  in  the  engagement  which  followed.  As  soon  as  the  Spanish 
admiral  saw  the  effect  of  this  manoeuvre,  which  at  a  blow  reduced  the 
number  of  his  effective  ships  so  nearly  to  an  equality  with  the  British 
squadron,  he  wore  around  and  endeavored  to  bring  the  remainder  of  his 
fleet  into  communication  with  this  repulsed  detachment ;  but  Commodore 
Nelson,  who  was  in  the  sternmost  ship  of  the  British  line,  disregarded  his 
orders  for  the  day,  stood  across  the  bows  of  the  Spanish  admiral's  vessel, 
and  ran  his  own  ship  between  two  of  the  enemy's  three-deckers — the 
Santissima  Trinidada,  of  one  hundred  and  thirty-six  guns,  and  the  San 
Josef,  of  one  hundred  and  twelve.  The  former  of  these  two  soon  struck  to 
Nelson's  tremendous  broadsides.  Captains  Collingwood  and  Trowbridge 
immediately  followed  the  example  of  Nelson,  engaged,  indifferently,  one 
or  two  at  a  time  of  the  Spanish  three-deckers,  though  their  own  vessels 
were  but  seventy-fours,  and  soon  gave  the  Spanish  admiral  abundant 
occupation  with  the  affairs  of  the  main  body  of  his  fleet.  The  action 
now  became  general,  and  was  continued  through  the  remainder  of  the 
day,  at  the  close  of  which  the  Spaniards  retreated  into  Cadiz,  leaving  two 
three-deckers  and  two  seventy-fours  in  the  hands  of  the  British.  Two 
other  ships  had  hauled  down  their  colors  in  the  action,  but  not  being  taken 
possession  of  in  season  by  their  captors,  they  made  good  their  escape  with 
the  remainder  of  the  fleet. 

In  the  beginning  of  October,  the  Dutch  fleet,  taking  advantage  of  the 
absence  of  the  British  blockading  squadron,  which  had  been  driven  to 
Yarmouth  Roads  by  stress  of  weather,  sailed  from  the  Texel  for  Brest. 
It  consisted  of  fifteen  ships  of  the  line  and  eleven  frigates  under  the  com- 
mand of  De  Winter.  As  soon  as  Admiral  Duncan  was  apprised  by  his 
cruisers  that  the  Dutch  fleet  was  at  sea,  he  weighed  anchor  with  all  haste, 
and  neared  the  hostile  squadron  before  it  was  out  of  sight  of  the  shore  of 
Holland.  Duncan's  fleet  comprised  sixteen  ships  of  the  line  and  three 
frigates.  His  first  care  was  to  place  his  ships  in  such  a  position  as  to 
cut  off  the  enemy  from  returning-  to  the  Texel ;  after  which  he  bore  down 
upon  them  and  found  them  drawn  up  in  order  of  battle  about  nine  miles 
off  the  coast,  between  Camperdown  and  Egmont.  He  commenced  the 
attack  by  breaking  the  enemy's  line  and  running  between  them  and  the 
shore,  which  prevented  the  Dutch  vessels  from  withdrawing  into  the  shal- 
lows out  of  reach  of  the  British  fire — for  the  Dutch  ships  were  of  lighter 
draught  than  the  English.  The  action  was  continued  with  great  spirit 
for  some  hours,  yard-arm  to  yard-arm,  and  in  the  event  twelve  ships  of 
the  line  struck  to  the  British  fleet ;  but,  owing  to  the  gale,  some  of  them 
were  not  secured  in  time  and  made  their  escape :  and  of  (hose  that  were 


00  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XII. 

secured,  two  were  retaken  by  their  crews  on  the  homeward  passage,  and 
one  was  so  disabled  that  she  went  to  the  bottom  ;  but  eight  line-of-battl*1 
ships  and  two  of  fifty-six  guns  were  brought  safely  into  Yarmouth  Roads. 

These  two  victories  filled  all  Europe  with  astonishment:  the  first,  by 
the  proof  it  afforded  of  the  decided  superiority  of  British  seamanship,  tho 
English  fleet  having  defeated  twice  their  own  number  of  Spanish  vessels; 
and  the  second,  by  the  unexampled  proportion  of  the  enemy's  ships  that 
were  captured.  But  the  effects  on  the  domestic  security  and  public  spirit 
of  Great  Britain,  were  far  more  important.  Despondency  was  felt  no 
longer.  Bonfires  and  illuminations  were  universal ;  enthusiasm  spread 
to  every  breast,  and  amid  the  roar  of  artillery  and  the  festive  light  of 
cities,  faction  disappeared  and  opposition  sunk  into  neglect.  From  these 
victories  may  be  dated  that  concord  among  all  classes  and  that  resolute 
British  spirit  which  never  afterward  deserted  the  country. 

The  illustrious  statesman,  to  whose  genius  and  foresight  the  first  devel- 
opment of  the  spirit  that  led  to  these  consequences  is,  under  Providence, 
to  be  ascribed,  was  in  part  permitted  to  witness  the  result  of  his  labors  in 
the  cause  of  freedom.  Mr.  Burke,  whose  health  had  been  broken  by  the 
death  of  his  son,  and  who  had  long  labored  under  severe  and  increasing 
weakness,  breathed  his  last  at  his  country-seat  of  Beaconsfield,  on  the  9th 
of  July,  1797.  His  counsels  on  English  politics,  during  his  last  hours, 
were  of  the  same  direct,  lofty  and  uncompromising  spirit,  which  had  ever 
made  his  voice  sound  like  the  note  of  a  trumpet  to  the  heart  of  England. 
*' Never  succumb,"  said  he,  to  his  surrounding  friends.  "It  is  a  struggle 
for  your  existence  as  a  nation.  If  you  must  die,  die  with  the  sword  in 
your  hand.  But  I  have  no  fears  whatever  for  the  result.  There  is  a 
salient  living  principle  in  the  public  mind  of  England,  which  requires 
only  a  proper  direction  to  enable  her  to  withstand  this  or  any  other  fero- 
cious foe.  Persevere,  therefore,  till  this  tyranny  be  overpast." 

The  prospects  of  the  allied  forces  for  the  campaign  of  1797,  were  over- 
clouded by  the  death  of  the  Empress  Catherine,  inasmuch  as  her  succes- 
sor, the  Emperor  Paul,  refused  to  carry  out  her  projects  and  sustain  her 
policy  in  regard  to  the  war  against  France :  the  burden  of  the  contest, 
therefore,  rested  on  Austria  and  Great  Britain  alone. 

The  relative  position  of  the  belligerent  parties  at  the  close^of  1790,  ren- 
dered it  apparent  that  the  Alpine  frontier  would  be  the  most  assailable 
point  of  the  Austrian  dominions  on  the  opening  of  the  next  campaign.  The 
French  Directory,  therefore,  though  they  had  grown  too  jealous  of  Napo- 
leon's abilities  and  rising  fame  to  intrust  him  with  all  the  force  he  soli- 
cited, sent  him  a  detachment  of  twenty  thousand  choice  troops  under 
Bernadotte  and  Delmas,  which  raised  the  army  of  Italy  to  sixty-one 
thousand  men,  independent  of  sixteen  thousand  who  were  scattered  from 
Ancona  to  Milan,  and  employed  in  overawing  the  states  in  the  rear,  and 
protecting  the  communications  of  the  army.  The  Austrians  were  equally 
aware  of  the  exposed  situation  of  their  southern  frontier,  and  ordered 
large  reinforcements  of  troops  to  that  quarter;  but  they  were  dilatory  in 
their  movements,  and  the  most  efficient  part  of  the  army  did  not  arrive 
until  it  was  too  late  for  them  to  be  of  any  service  in  the  issue  of  the 
campaign. 

Napoleon  commenced  his  operations  on  the  10th  of  March,  by  a  forward 
movement,  directing  his  march  toward  the  position  of  the  Archduke, 
whose  army,  thirty-five  thousand  strong,  was  drawn  up  on  the  left  bank 


1797.J  HISTORYOFEURCPE  91 

of  the  Tagliamento.  This  stream,  after  descending  from  the  mountains, 
separates  into  several  fordable  branches,  and  the  ground  for  a  great  ex- 
tent between  them  is  covered  with  stones  and  gravel.  The  Austrians  were 
in  order  of  battle  when  the  French  arrived  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the 
river ;  and  Napoleon,  seeing  them  so  well  prepared  to  oppose  his  passage, 
had  recourse  to  a  stratagem.  He  ordered  his  troops  to  retire  out  of  the 
reach  of  the  Austrian  artillery,  establish  a  bivouac,  and  begin  to  cook 
their  food :  when  the  Archduke,  supposing  the  French  had  abandoned  the 
intention  of  an  attack  for  the  day,  withdrew  his  forces  into  their  camp  in 
the  rear.  When  all  was  quiet,  the  signal  was  given  by  the  French 
general :  the  soldiers  ran  to  arms,  formed  with  great  rapidity,  advanced 
in  columns  by  echellon,  flanking  each  other  in  fine  order,  and  precipi- 
tated themselves  into  the  river.  The  precision  and  beauty  of  the  move- 
ment resembled  the  exercise  of  a  field-day.  The  Austrian  cavalry  hast- 
ened to  the  spot,  and  charged  the  French  infantry  on  the  edge  of  the  water, 
but  it  was  too  late.  The  French  had  gained  their  position,  and  kept 
it.  The  firing  soon  became  general  along  the  line ;  and  the  Archduke, 
seeing  the  passage  achieved  and  his  flank  turned,  and  being,  besides,  un- 
willing to  engage  in  a  decisive  action  before  the  arrival  of  his  veterans 
from  the  Rhine,  ordered  a  retreat.  The  French  light  troops  pursued  him 
for  four  miles;  during  which  time,  the  Imperialists  lost  six  pieces  of 
cannon  and  five  hundred  men,  and  also,  what  was  of  more  importance, 
they  lost  the  moral  effect  of  a  first  success. 

Meanwhile,  Massena  had  effected  a  passage  at  St.  Daniel  and  made 
himself  master  of  Osopo,  by  which  means  he  cut  off  the  Archduke's 
retreat  by  the  direct  road  to  Carinthia :  the  latter  therefore  determined  to 
regain  it  by  the  cross-road  which  followed  the  Isonzo,  as  Napoleon  would 
probably  choose  the  Carinthian  road  to  advance  on  Vienna.  For  this 
purpose,  he  dispatched  his  parks  of  artillery,  and  the  division  of  Bayalitch 
by  the  Isonzo  toward  Tarwis,  while  the  remainder  of  his  forces  retired  by 
the  Lower  Isonzo.  Napoleon  now  pushed  forward  to  Gradisca,  situated 
on  the  Lower  Isonzo,  and  garrisoned  by  three  thousand  men.  Bernadotte 
first  assailed  this  place,  but  he  was  repulsed  with  a  loss  of  five  hundred 
men ;  Serrurier,  however,  soon  appeared  on  the  heights  in  the  rear,  when 
the  garrison  was  forced  to  surrender  with  ten  pieces  of  artillery.  Berna- 
dotte next  moved  upon  Laybach,  and  took  possession  of  it,  while  a  thou- 
sand horse  occupied  Trieste,  the  greatest  harbor  of  the  Austrian  dominions. 
Massena  followed  up  his  success  at  Osopo,  by  taking  Col-de-Tarwis,  the 
crest  of  the  Alps,  which  commands  the  two  valleys  descending  to  Carin- 
thia and  Dalmatia.  The  Archduke  made  a  great  effort  to  retake  this 
important  post,  but  after  a  desperate  and  bloody  action  on  its  snowy 
heights,  he  was  at  last  forced  to  leave  it  in  the  hands  of  the  French. 
When  Napoleon  found  himself  securely  in  possession  of  this  post,  he 
pressed  forward  and  gained  the  defiles  in  advance  of  Bayalitch;  who, 
now  having  become  involved  in  these  rocky  passes,  and  completely 
surrounded  by  superior  forces,  was  obliged  to  surrender  himself  and  his 
whole  division  prisoners,  with  all  his  artillery  and  baggage.  The  French 
troops  had  now  passed  the  Alps,  established  themselves  in  the  fertile 
plains  that  stretch  beyond  them  into  Germany,  and  were  encamped  within 
sixty  leagues  of  Vienna,  with  an  army  of  forty-five  thousand  men. 

But,  though  Napoleon  had  thus  far  conducted  the  campaign  triumph- 
antly, he  began  now  to  be  embarrased  by  his  success.  The  Venetian 


92  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  [CHAP.  XII 

provinces,  taking  advantage  of  his  absence,  were  preparing  to  revolt, 
and  threatened  his  communications  in  the  rear;  he  had  just  received  a 
dispatch  from  Moreau,  announcing  his  inability  to  support  him  in  his 
contemplated  advance  on  the  Austrian  capital;  and  the  Directory  were 
too  jealous  of  his  success  to  forward  any  further  assistance.  Hence,  as 
his  army  was  too  small  in  numbers  to  warrant  his  marching  unassisted 
'into  the  heart  of  the  Austrian  dominions,  he  resolved  to  make  proposals 
of  peace  to  the  Archduke,  taking  care,  at  the  same  time,  to  press  vigor- 
ously on  the  retreating  Imperialists,  in  order  to  support  his  negotiations. 
The  latter  part  of  his  policy  was  maintained  with  such  energy  that,  on 
the  6th  of  April,  he  had  driven  everything  before  him  as  far  as  Judem- 
berg,  his  advanced  guard  occupied  Leoben,  and  the  terror  he  inspired  in 
the  capital  was  so  great  that  the  several  members  of  the  Emperor's  family, 
together  with  the  archives  of  the  nation,  were  sent  into  Hungary.  On 
the  7th  of  April,  the  chief  of  the  Archduke's  staff,  Bellegarde,  presented 
himself  at  the  outposts  of  the  French  army,  and  a  suspension  of  hostilities 
was  agreed  on  at  Leoben  for  five  days. 

On  the  9th  of  April,  the  treaty  was  concluded  at  Judemberg;  and  as 
the  French  commissioners  had  not  arrived,  Napoleon  signed  it  in  his 
own  name  on  behalf  of  the  French  government.  Its  principal  articles 
were,  1.  The  cession  of  Flanders  to  the  Republic,  and  the  extension  of 
its  frontier  to  the  Rhine.  2.  The  cession  of  Savoy  to  the  same  power, 
and  the  extension  of  its  territory  to  the  summit  of  the  Piedmontese  Alps. 
3.  The  establishment  of  the  Cis-Alpine  Republic,  including  Lombardy, 
the  states  of  Modena,  Cremona  and  the  Bergamasque.  4.  The  Oglio  was 
fixed  on  as  the  boundary  of  the  Austrian  possessions  in  Italy.  5.  The 
Emperor,  in  return  for  so  many  sacrifices,  was  to  receive  the  whole  con- 
tinental states  of  Venice,  including  Illyria,  Istria,  Friuli,  and  Upper  Italy 
as  far  as  the  Oglio.  6.  Venice  was  to  obtain,  in  return  for  these  losses, 
Romagna,  Ferrara  and  Bologna,  wrested  by  the  French  from  the  pope. 
7.  The  important  fortresses  of  Mantua,  Peschiera,  Porto  Legnago,  and 
Palma  Nuovo  were  to  be  restored  to  the  Emperor  on  the  conclusion  of  a 
general  peace,  together  with  the  cky  and  castles  of  Verona. 

This  iniquitous  partition  of  the  neutral  territories  of  Venice  was  an  act 
of  darker  atrocity  than  the  spoliation  of  Poland,  and  it  failed  to  excite  an 
equal  degree  of  general  indignation,  only  because  it  was  accompanied 
by  no  heroism  or  dignity  on  the  part  of  the  vanquished. 

Venice  exhibits  one  of  the  most  curious  and  instructive  instances  in 
modern  history,  of  the  decline  of  a  state  without  any  rude  external  shock, 
from  the  mere  force  of  internal  corruption,  and  the  long-continued  direc- 
tion of  the  passions  to  selfish  objects.  The  League  of  Cambray  had, 
indeed,  shaken  its  power;  the  discovery  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  had  led 
to  an  abridgment  of  its  resources;  and  the  augmentation  of  the  strength 
of  the  Trans- Alpine  monarchies,  had  diminished  its  relative  importance : 
but  still,  its  wealth  and  population  were  such  as  to  entitle  it  to  a  respect- 
able rank  among  the  European  states,  and,  if  directed  by  energy  and 
courage,  would  have  given  it  a  preponderating  weight  in  the  issue  of  this 
campaign.  But  centuries  of  peace  had  destroyed  the  courage  of  the 
higher  orders;  ages  of  corruption  had  extinguished  the  patriotism  of  the 
people ;  and  the  continued  pursuits  of  selfish  gratification,  had  rendered 
all  classes  incapable  of  the  sacrifices  which  the  defence  of  their  country 
required.  The  arsenals  were  empty;  the  fortifications  decayed;  the 


1797.]  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  93 

fleet,  which  once  ruled  the  Adriatic,  was  rotting  in  the  Lagunse ;  and  the 
army,  which  formerly  faced  the  banded  strength  of  Europe  in  the  League 
of  Cambray,  was  now  drawn  entirely  from  the  semi-barbarous  provinces 
on  the  Turkish  frontier.  With  such  a  population,  nothing  grand  or 
generous  could  be  attempted ;  yet  it  was  hardly  to  be  expected  that  the 
country  of  Dandolo  and  Carmaguolo  should  yield  without  a  struggle. 

The  proximity  of  the  Venetian  continental  provinces  to  those  which  had 
recently  been  revolutionized  by  the  Republican  arms,  ana  the  sojourn, 
ing  of  the  French  troops  among  the  ardent  youth  of  their  principal 
cities,  naturally  and  inevitably  led  to  the  rapid  propagation  of  democratic 
principles  among  the  inhabitants.  This  took  place  more  particularly 
after  the  victories  of  Rivoli  and  the  fall  of  Mantua  had  dispelled  all 
dread  of  the  return  of  the  Austrian  forces.  Revolutionary  clubs  and 
committees  were  everywhere  formed,  who  corresponded  with  the  Repub- 
lican authorities  of  Milan,  and  openly  expressed  a  wish  to  throw  off  the 
yoke  of  the  Venetian  oligarchy.  These  proceedings  were  secretly 
encouraged  by  Napoleon,  who  directed  Captain  Landrieux,  chief  of  the 
cavalry-staff,  to  communicate  with  the  malcontents,  and  give  unity  and 
effect  to  their  operations.  At  the  same  time,  to  preserve  the  outward 
appearance  of  neutrality,  he  ordered  General  Kelmaine  to  forbid  his 
officers  and  soldiers  from  counselling  or  assisting  the  disaffected. 

The  result  of  these  measures  was  soon  apparent.  On  the  12th  of 
March,  a  revolt  broke  out  at  Bergamo,  and  the  insurgents,  avowing  that 
they  were  supported  by  the  French,  dispatched  couriers  to  Milan  and 
other  towns  of  Lombardy,  and  besought  the  Republican  commander  of 
the  castle  to  assist  them  with  his  troops,  which,  however,  he  declined  to 
dc  The  example  of  Bergamo  was  soon  followed  by  all  the  chief  towns 
in  the  Venetian  provinces.  * 

These  revolts  excited  the  utmost  alarm  at  Venice.  The  Senate  dared 
not  act  openly  against  the  insurgents,  who  declared  themselves  supported 
by  the  Republican  commanders,  but  they  dispatched  Pesaro  to  Napoleon's 
head-quarters  to  complain  of  his  officers.  Napoleon  feigned  surprise  at 
the  intelligence  thus  communicated,  though  he  positively  declined  to 
interfere  in  the  matter;  and  at  the  same  time,  threatened  Venice  with 
vengeance  if  she  proceeded  to  hostilities.  In  this  extremity,  the  Venetian 
government  knew  not  what  course  to  pursue ;  but  while  they  were  delib- 
erating, a  counter  revolution  broke  out  in  the  provinces  without  their 
knowledge  or  authority,  and  several  partial  actions  ensued  between  the 
two  parties.  Napoleon  promptly  availed  himself  of  this  as  a  ground  of 
complaint,  and  sent  an  insolent  letter  to  the  Senate,  demanding  satisfac- 
tion for  the  revolt,  in  which  some  of  his  own  troops  had  suffered.  While 
this  demand  was  under  discussion,  an  event  look  place  on  the  Adige 
which  gave  the  French  general  too  fair  a  pretext  for  breaking  off  all 
negotiation.  A  levy  en  masse  of  the  Venetian  peasantry  had  assembled 
at  Verona,  on  the  17th  of  April,  and  put  to  death  in  cold  blood  four  hun- 
dred wounded  men  in  the  French  hospitals.  General  Ballaud,  in  com- 
mand of  the  forts,  resented  this  atrocious  cruelty  by  firing  on  the  city 
with  red-hot  balls.  An  extensive  conflagration  ensued,  when  the  inhab- 
itants,  exasperated  in  turn,  laid  siege  to  the  forts,  and  put  to  death  the 
French  garrison  of  one  of  them  which  capitulated. 

These  excesses  were  speedily  retaliated  on  the  Venetians  by  the 
French  troops.  General  Chabran  approached  Verona  with  his  columns, 


94  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XII, 

shot  the  authors  of  the  massacre,  and  levied  a  contribution  on  the  city  of 
eleven  hundred  thousand  francs,  on  the  28th  of  April;  and  on  the  3rd  of 
May,  Napoleon  declared  war  against  Venice. 

Meanwhile,  Venice  itself  was  a  prey  to  faction,  and  in  the  last  state  of 
perplexity  and  distress.  The  senators  met  at  the  Doge's  palace,  and 
endeavored  by  concessions  and  promises,  to  arouse  the  patriotism  of  the 
people;  but  the  revolutionary  party,  which  was  in  the  ascendant,  refused 
all  compromise,  and  forced  the  Senate  to  abdicate  its  authority.  At  this 
result,  the  shouts  of  the  giddy  multitude  rent  the  sky,  the  tree  of  Liberty 
was  planted  on  the  Place  of  St.  Mark,  and  the  democrats  entered,  amid 
bloodshed  and  plunder,  upon  the  exercise  of  their  newborn  sovereignty. 
A  momentary  reaction  here  took  place,  and  a  body  of  real  patriots  strove 
to  resist  the  disorder :  they  were  soon  overpowered,  however,  by  the 
revolutionists,  who  called  in  the  French  troops  to  their  aid,  and  brought 
them  in  boats  to  the  Place  of  St.  Mark,  where  a  foreign  standard  had  not 
been  seen  for  fifteen  hundred  years,  but  where  the  banner  of  freedom 
was  never  again  to  wave. 

The  French  troops  were  not  long  in  securing  to  themselves  the  spoils 
of  their  revolutionary  allies.  The  Golden  Book,  the  record  of  the  sena- 
tors of  Venice,  was  burned  at  the  foot  of  the  tree  of  Liberty  ;  and  while 
the  democrats  were  exulting  over  the  destruction  of  this  emblem  of  theirv 
ancient  subjection,  their  allies  were  depriving  them  of  the  means  of  future 
independence.  The  treasures  of  the  Republic  were  seized  by  the  French, 
as  were  also  the  remnants  of  the  navy ;  though  neither  the  one  nor  the 
other  equalled  in  value  what  the  captors  anticipated.  The  revolutionary 
party  discovered,  when  it  was  too  late,  the  consequences  of  their  conduct, 
and  reaped  the  bitter  fruits  of  their  Republican  alliance  in  a  forced  sub- 
jection to  a  foreign  despotism,  in  the  support  of  foreign  troops,  and  in  the 
spoliation  of  all  the  proud  mementoes  which  decorated  their  capital. 

While  these  memorable  events  were  taking  place  on  the  southern  side 
of  the  Alps,  the  French  armies  on  the  Rhine,  under  Moreau,  Desaix, 
Davoust  and  Hoche,  were  rapidly  recovering  their  losses  of  the  last  cam- 
paign ;  and  Moreau  had  added  greatly  to  his  military  fame  by  a  brilliant 
passage  of  the  Rhine  at  Diersheim,  in  presence  and  in  spite  of  an  Austrian 
army  on  the  opposite  bank  :  but  these  generals  were  prevented  from  taking 
advantage  of  the  success  with  which  they  commenced  the  campaign,  by 
the  treaty  of  peace  concluded  with  Napoleon. 

Prussia,  during  this  eventful  year,  adhered  steadily  to  the  system  of 
armed  neutrality.  The  health  of  her  king  had  long  been  visibly  deelin. 
ing,  and  he  at  length  expired  at  Berlin  on  the  16th  of  November.  Though 
endowed  neither  with  shining  civil  nor  remarkable  military  talents,  few 
monarchs  have  conferred  greater  benefits  on  their  country  than  this  sove- 
reign. He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Frederic  William  III.,  then  twenty- 
seven  years  of  age  ;  a  man  much  better  calculated  than  his  father  to  take 
part  in  the  stirring  events  which  were  so  soon  to  agitate  the  continent  of 
Europe. 

The  progress  of  revolutionary  principles  in  Italy  began  about  this  time 
to  affect  the  people  of  Genoa.  The  government  there  was  vested  in  an 
aristocracy  which,  although  less  jealous  and  exclusive  than  that  of  Venice, 
was  far  more  resolute  and  determined.  A  treaty  had  been  concluded 
with  the  French  Directory,  by  which  Genoa  purchased  its  neutrality  with 
the  payment  of  two  millions  of  francs,  a  loan  of  two  millions  more,  and 


1797.]  *       HISTORY     OF    EUROPE.  9D 

the  recall  of  families  exiled  for  their  political  opinions.  But  the  mem. 
bers  of  the  revolutionary  club  now  insisted  on  far  greater  domestic 
concessions ;  and  as  they  were  secretly  encouraged  by  Napoleon,  they 
soon  rose  in  arms  to  enforce  their  demands.  The  patrician  families, 
however,  were  not  wanting  in  courage  or  ability :  by  a  bold  and  skilful 
movement  they  completely  crushed  the  insurrection,  and,  but  for  subse- 
quent foreign  interference,  would  have  maintained  their  government.  It 
was  not,  however,  consistent  with  the  system  of  Republican  ambition  to 
allow  a  revolutionary  party  to  be  subdued  in  any  country  which  the  arms 
of  France  could  reach.  In  the  contest  between  the  government  and  the 
insurgents,  some  Frenchmen  who  had  taken  an  active  part  in  the  revolt 
were  wounded  and  taken  prisoners  with  the  rest ;  and  Napoleon  made 
this  a  pretext  for  throwing  the  weight  of  his  authority  into  the  democratic 
scale.  It  was  vain  for  the  government  of  Genoa  to  resist  the  power  of 
France,  however  arbitrarily  and  unjustly  applied:  and  the  Genoese  Senate 
of  necessity  submitted  to  a  new  Constitution,  which  placed  the  government 
in  the  hands  of  the  democracy.  The  people  in  some  sections  made  a 
brave  resistance  to  this  tyrannical  imposition ;  but  this  led  only  to  new 
exactions  on  the  part  of  the  French,  and  thenceforward  Genoa,  having 
lost  even  the  shadow  of  her  independence,  became  a  mere  outwork  of  the 
French  Republic. 

Meanwhile,  Napoleon,  sheathing  for  a  time  his  victorious  sword,  estab- 
lished himself  at  the  chateau  of  Montebello,  near  Milan ;  a  beautiful 
summer  residence,  overlooking  a  great  pan  of  the  plain  of  Lombardy. 
Negotiations  for  a  final  peace  were  there  immediately  commenced ;  before 
the  end  of  May  the  powers  of  the  plenipotentiaries  had  been  verified,  and  the 
work  of  treaties  was  in  progress.  'The  future  Emperor  of  the  West  here 
held  his  court  in  more  than  regal  splendor ;  the  ambassadors  of  the  Em- 
peror of  Germany,  of  the  Pope,  of  Genoa,  Venice,  Naples,  Piedmont  and 
the  Swiss  Republic  assembled  to  examine  the  claims  of  the  several  states 
which  were  the  subject  of  discussion ;  and  here  weightier  matters  were 
to  be  determined,  and  dearer  interests  were  at  stake,  than  had  ever  before 
been  submitted  to  European  diplomacy  since  the  iron  crown  was  placed 
on  the  brow  of  Charlemagne.  Already,  Napoleon  acted  the  part  of  a 
sovereign  prince  ;  his  power  exceeded  that  of  any  then  living  monarch ; 
and  he  had  entered  on  that  dazzling  career  which  ended  in  the  subjuga- 
tion of  the  world.  The  negotiations  at  Montebello  were  brought  to  a 
conclusion  on  the  17th  of  October,  and  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio  was 
the  result.  The  articles  of  this  treaty  did  not  essentially  differ  from  those 
agreed  on  between  Napoleon  and  Austria  at  Judemberg,  save  that  Mantua 
and  Mayence  were  ceded  to  France.  The  treaty,  however,  contained 
some  secret  articles  of  importance,  the  most  material  of  which  regarded 
the  cession  of  Salzburg  to  Austria,  with  Inviertil  and  Wasseburg  on  the 
Inn,  from  Bavaria ;  the  free  navigation  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Meuse ;  the 
abandonment  of  Frickthal  by  Austria  to  Switzerland ;  and  the  providing 
of  equivalents  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  to  the  princes  dispossessed 
on  the  left  bank  of  that  river.  But  it  was  expressly  provided,  that  "  no 
acquisition  should  be  proposed  to  the  advantage  of  Prussia" 

While  the  foreign  relations  of  France  were  thus  distinguished  by  tri- 
umph and  conquest,  her  domestic  government  was  in  a  state  of  turmoil 
and  distress.  National  bankruptcy,  with  its  thousand  evils,  had  been 
publicly  declared,  and  the  general  distress  and  ruin  that  ensued  were 

11 


96  H I S  T  0  RrY    OF    EUROPE.      4  [CHAP.  XII. 

beyond  estimation.  Political  events,  too,  of  vast  importance  were  at  hand. 
The  election  of  May,  1797 — when  by  the  Constitution  one-third  of  each 
house  was  changed — produced  an  entire  alteration  in  the  balance  of  par- 
ties, a  decided  majority  of  Royalists  having  come  into  power.  The  mul- 
titude, ever  ready  to  follow  the  victorious  party,  ranged  themselves  on 
the  Royalist  side,  and  a  hundred  newspapers  thundered  forth  their  decla- 
rations in  the  same  cause.  Pichegru  was  appointed  president  of  the 
Council  of  Five  hundred,  and  Barbe  Marbois,  also  a  Royalist,  president 
of  the  Council  of  Ancients.  Almost  all  the  ministers  were  changed  ;  and 
the  Directory  was  openly  divided  into  two  parties,  the  majority  consisting 
of  Rewbell,  Barras  and  Lareveillere ;  the  minority,  of  Barthelemy  and 
Carnot.  The  chief  strength  of  the  Royalist  party,  out  of  the  Assembly, 
lay  in  the  Club  of  Clichy ;  that  of  the  Jacobins,  in  the  Club  of  Salm  ; 
and  the  opposite  factions  soon  grew  so  exasperated,  that  they  mutually 
aimed  at  supplanting  each  other  by  means  of  a  revolution. 

Before  long,  the  legislative  acts  of  the  Councils,  and  the  declarations 
of  the  Royalists  in  the  tribune,  in  the  Club  of  Clichy  and  in  the  public 
journals,  awakened  great  anxiety  among  the  Jacobins  ;  and  the  majority 
of  the  Directors  became  alarmed  for  their  own  official  existence,  as  it 
was  evident  that  the  Councils  would  totally  ruin  the  Republican  party. 
It  had  already  been  ascertained  that  one  hundred  and  ninety  of  the  depu- 
ties were  engaged  to  restore  the  exiled  family,  while  the  Directory  could 
count  on  the  support  of  only  one  hundred  and  thirty ;  and  the  Ancients 
had  resolved,  by  a  large  majority,  to  transfer  the  seat  of  the  legislature 
to  Rouen,  on  account  of  its  proximity  to  the  western  provinces,  where 
Royalist  principles  had  always  been  decidedly  maintained.  In  short, 
the  Directory  were  aware  that,  for  regicides,  the  transition  was  easy  from 
the  Luxembourg  to  the  scaffold. 

In  this  extremity,  Barras,  Rewbell  and  Lareveillere  resolved  on  de- 
cisive measures.  They  knew  that  they  could  count  on  the  support  of  the 
army,  and  therefore  drew  toward  Paris  a  number  of  regiments,  twelve 
thousand  strong.  They  next  changed  the  ministry,  appointing  Francois 
de  Neufchateau  to  the  department  of  the  Interior  ;  Hoche,  to  that  of  War ; 
Larouche,  to  that  of  the  Police ;  and  Talleyrand,  to  that  of  Foreign  Af- 
fairs. The  sagacity  of  this  last  politician  led  him  to  incline,  in  all  the 
changes  of  the  Revolution,  to  what  was  about  to  prove  the  victorious  side  ; 
and  his  accepting  office  under  the  Directory  at  this  crisis  was  strongly 
symptomatic  of  the  chances  that  were  accumulated  in  their  favor.  Na- 
poleon, too,  resolved  to  support  the  Directory,  and  sent  his  aid-de-camp, 
Lavalette,  to  Paris,  to  observe  the  motions  of  the  parties  and  communicate 
to  him  the  earliest  intelligence ;  and  he  afterward  dispatched  Augereau 
to  assist  the  Directory  in  their  arrangements  with  the  army.  He  de- 
clined going  himself  to  the  capital,  until  circumstances  might  render  his 
presence  there  indispensable. 

The  party  against  which  these  formidable  preparations  were  directed 
was  strong  in  numbers  and  powerful  in  eloquence,  but  destitute  of  the 
reckless  hardihood  and  vigor  which  in  civil  convulsions  usually  command 
success.  The  military  force  immediately  under  their  command  was  small, 
consisting  of  only  fifteen  hundred  grenadiers  of  questionable  loyalty :  and 
in  debating  on  the  course  proper  to  be  pursued  in  the  emergency,  the 
majority  of  the  Royalists  were  restrained  by  scruples  of  conscience — as 
the  friends  of  freedom  and  good  order  often  are  in  a  revolutionary  crisia 
— from  taking  the  lead  in  acts  of  violence. 


1797.]  HIS  TORY    OF    EUROPE.  97 

The  Directory,  however,  entertained  no  such  scruples.  They  appointed 
Augereau  .to  the  command  of  their  troops,  ordered  them  into  Paris,  and 
on  the  3rd  of  September,  at  midnight,  the  inhabitants  observed  twelve 
thousand  armed  men  defiling  over  the  bridges,  with  forty  pieces  of  can- 
non, and  gradually  occupying  all  the  avenues  to  the  Tuileries.  Not  a 
sound  was  heard  but  the  measured  tramp  of  the  men,  and  the  rolling  of 
the  artillery  wheels,  until  the  movement  was  completed ;  when  a  signal 
gun  was  discharged  that  startled  every  one  who  heard  it.  The  soldiers 
speedily  surrounded  the  Hall  of  the  Councils,  where  Augereau  arrested 
Pichegru,  Willot,  and  twelve  other  leaders  of  the  assemblies,  and  con- 
ducted them  to  the  Temple.  By  six  o'clock  in  the  morning,  all  was 
concluded.  Several  hundreds  of  the  most  powerful  Royalists  were  in 
prison,  the  streets  were  filled  with  troops,  and  military  despotism  was 
established. 

It  maybe  presumed,  that  power  thus  obtained  was  not  delicately  used. 
Pichegru,  and  some  fifty  other  members  of  the  Councils,  were  condemned 
to  transportation,;  all  the  acts  passed  by  the  Royalist  majority  were 
annulled,  and  the  liberty  of  the  press  was  destroyed.  The  Directory 
carried  on  the  government  thereafter  by  military  power  alone ;  three 
men  took  upon  themselves  to  govern  France  on  their  own  account,  with- 
out either  the  sanction  of  law  or  the  concourse  of  legal  assemblies. 


CHAPTER   XIII. 

EXPEDITION   TO   EGYPT. 

ON  the  conclusion  of  the  peace  of  Campo  Formio,  Napoleon  returned 
to  Paris,  where  he  was  received  with  enthusiastic  admiration  by  all 
classes  of  the  inhabitants.  He  lived,  however,  in  the  most  retired  man- 
ner, seldom  appeared  in  public,  wore  the  costume  of  the  Institute,  and 
avoided  society  excepting  that  of  scientific  men.  But  this  manner  of  life 
was  pursued  only  with  a  view  to  political  effect. 

After  a  time,  he  grew  restless  under  inaction ;  and  the  Directory 
became  alarmed  at  his  popularity,  indulging  a  well-grounded  fear,  that 
in  these  days  of  changes  and  revolutions,  he  might  successfully  contend 
with  them  for  the  possession  of  the  government.  Napoleon,  therefore, 
soon  resolved  upon  some  new  military  exploit,  and  the  Directory,  anxious 
to  be  relieved  from  his  presence,  eagerly  forwarded  his  views.  A  de- 
scent upon  England  was  the  first  project,  and  it  was  the  one  most  accept- 
able to  the  Directors ;  but  Napoleon,  after  a  careful  examination,  decided 
against  that,  and  resolved  on  an  expedition  to  Egypt.  The  Directors, 
whose  anxiety  to  employ  him  abroad  overpowered  every  other  consid- 
eration, reluctantly  consented,  and  preparations  to  an  extent  commen- 
surate with  the  undertaking,  were  immediately  set  on  foot.  In  the 
mean  time,  however,  to  anticipate  the  movements  of  the  British  navy,  and 
prevent  any  interruption  from  that  quarter  in  the  Mediterranean,  the 
descent  upon  England  was  made  the  ostensible  object  of  the  armament, 
arid  the  public  journals  were  filled  with  speculations  on  the  results  of  the 
anticipated  conquest. 


93  HISTORY     OF     EUROPE.  [CHAF.  XIII 

The  British  government,  aware  of  the  great  preparations  which  wore 
making  over  all  France,  yet  doubtful  where  the  blow  was  really  to  fali 
made  every  arrangement  which  prudence  could  suggest  to  avert  the 
impending  danger.  The  principal  effoits  of  the  Admiralty  were  directed 
to  strengthen  the  fleet  off  Brest,  and  the  coast  of  Spain,  whence  the 
threatened  invasion  might  be  expected  to  issue;  at  the  same  time,  Nelson 
was  sent  into  the  Mediterranean  with  thirteen  sail  of  the  line  and  one  ship 
of  fifty  guns. 

Napoleon  arrived  at  Toulon  on  the  9th  of  May,  and  took  command  of 
the  army.  The  fleet  consisted  of  thirteen  ships  of  the  line,  two  of  sixty- 
four  guns,  fourteen  frigates,  seventy- two  brigs  and  cutters,  and  four  hun- 
dred transports :  it  bore  thirty-six  thousand  soldiers  of  all  arms,  and  ten 
thousand  sailors.  On  the  19th  of  May,  the  fleet  set  sail.  It  proceeded 
first  to  Genoa,  and  thence  to  Ajaccio  and  Civita  Castellana  ;  and,  having 
effected  a  junction  with  the  squadrons  in  those  harbors,  bore  away  for 
Malta,  where  it  arrived  on  the  10th  of  June.  Before  Napoleon  left 
France,  a  secret  arrangement  had  been  made  with  the  grand-master  and 
principal  officers  of  Malta  for  its  surrender  to  the  French,  and  they  now 
took  quiet  possession  of  this  immense  fortress  and  its  unrivalled  harbor. 
Napoleon  immediately  put  its 'batteries  in  condition,  left  a  sufficient  gar- 
ris.Mi  to  defend  the  place,  and  on  the  19th  of  June  sailed  for  Egypt. 

On  the  20th  of  June,  Nelson  arrived  at  Naples ;  he  hastened  thence  to 
Messina,  but  learning  that  the  French  fleet  had  reached  Malta  and  taken 
possession  of  it,  he  directed  his  course  toward  Alexandria,  where  he 
arrived  on  the  29th :  but  finding  no  enemy,  he  set  sail  for  the  north, 
imagining  that  the  expedition  of  Napoleon  was  bound  for  the  Dardanelles. 
It  is  a  singular  fact,  that  on  the  night  of  the  29th  of  June,  the  French  and 
English  fleet  crossed  each  other's  track  without  either  party's  being 
aware  of  it. 

The  French  fleet  came  in  sight  of  the  Egyptian  shore  on  the  1st  of 
July,  and  on  the  2nd  the  troops  were  landed  and  marched  to  Alexandria, 
which  place  they  carried  by  assault,  after  a  brief  resistance  of  the  Turk- 
ish garrison.  On  the  6th  of  July,  Napoleon  set  out  for  Cairo  with  thirty 
thousand  men,  part  of  whom  were  put  on  board  a  flotilla  of  boats,  and  the 
remainder  proceeded  by  land  across  the  Desert.  After  a  march  of  five 
days,  in  which  the  men  suffered  immensely  from  heat  and  thirst,  the  land 
force  formed  a  junction  with  the  flotilla,  and  they  proceeded  in  company 
up  the  Nile.  On  the  13th,  the  army  reached  Chebreiss,  where  they 
were  attacked  by  Mourad  Bey  with  a  detachment  of  Mamelukes  and 
native  infantry.  The  Egyptians  were  quickly  defeated  with  a  loss  of 
six  hundred  men,  and  retired  in  disorder  toward  Cairo.  On  the  21st  of 
July,  the  French  army  came  in  sight  of  that  place,  and  of  the  Pyramids 
on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  Nile.  Here,  Mourad  Bey  was  intrenched, 
with  his  entire  force  of  twelve  thousand  infantry  and  six  thousand  Mame- 
lukes. 

Napoleon  advanced  in  five  divisions  formed  in  hollow  squares,  with  the 
artillery  at  the  angles,  and  the  officers  and  baggage  in  the  centre.  As 
they  approached  h'is  position,  Mourad  sallied  forth  at  the  head  of  his 
fiery  Mamelukes — who,  considered  as  individual  horsemen,  were  the  finest 
cavalry  in  the  world — and  bore  down  upon  the  French  squares.  Their 
charge  was  terrific,  but  the  Republican  infantry  stood  firm,  presenting  a 
wall  of  bayonets  on  every  side  whicV  the  horses  could  not  penetrate  ;  and 


1798.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  9S 

while  the  Mamelukes  wheeled  around  and  among  the  squares,  in  the 
vain  endeavor  to  find  or  force  an  opening,  the  inner  ranks  of  the  French 
musketeers  kept  up  a  sustained  fire  at  point-blank  range,  which  mowed 
down  their  assailants  by  hundreds.  This  murderous  contest  was  contin- 
ued until  nearly  one  half  of  the  Mamelukes  were  destroyed,  when  they 
retreated  to  their  intrenchments.  Napoleon  pressed  forward  in  pursuit, 
drove  both  cavalry  and  infantry  toward  the  Nile,  and  so  totally  dispersed 
the.  whole  force,  that  not  more  than  two  thousand  five  hundred  made  their 
escape  into  Upper  Egypt.  This  action  decided  the  fate  of  Egypt ;  the 
whole  country  submitted  at  once  to  the  French  arms,  and  Napoleon 
established  himself  at  Cairo. 

Meanwhile,  Nelson,  having  learned  the  real  destination  of  the  French 
fleet,  returned  to  the  Nile  on  the  1st  of  August,  where  he  found  the 
enemy's  squadron  drawn  up  in  order  of  battle  in  the  Bay  of  Aboukir. 
The  French  ships  were  at  anchor  close  in-shore,  and  formed  in  a  curve, 
with  the  concave  side  of  the  line  toward  the  sea.  As  soon  as  Nelson  had 
accurately  examined  the  position  of  the  enemy,  he  ordered  one  half  of 
his  fleet  to  penetrate  on  the  inner  side  of  the  French  line  and  come  to 
anchor,  while  the  other  half  anchored  along  the  outer  side,  and  thus 
doubled  on  the  enemy's  ships.  The  British  fleet  commenced  this  move- 
ment at  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  and  as  they  came  up  in  succession, 
were  received  with  a  steady  fire  from  the  French  broadsides.  Five 
seventy- fours  soon  passed  between  the  French  line  and  the  shore,  enga- 
ging nine  of  their  antagonists,  while  six  others  took  post  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  same  ships.  Another  British  vessel,  the  Leander,  was  inter- 
posed across  the  French  line,  where  she  prevented  the  remainder  of  the 
enemy's  ships  from  assisting  their  comrades,  and  with  her  broadsides 
raked  right  and  left  those  between  which  she  was  placed. 

It  now  grew  dark,  but  both  fleets  were  illuminated  by  the  incessant 
discharge  of  more  than  two  thousand  pieces  of  cannon,  and  the  volumes 
of  flame  and  smoke  that  rolled  over  the  bay,  gave  it  the  appearance  of  a 
terrific  volcano.  Victory  soon  declared  for  the  British.  Before  nine 
o'clock,  three  ships  of  the  line  had  struck,  two  were  dismasted,  and  the 
Orient,  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  guns,  was  discovered  to  be  on  fire : 
the  light  of  this  burning  vessel,  soon  rendered  every  ship  in  both  fleets 
distinctly  visible,  and,  by  showing  the  shattered  condition  of  the  French- 
men, redoubled  the  ardor  of  the  British  seamen.  At  ten  o'clock,  the 
Orient  blew  up  with  a  tremendous  explosion,  and  for  a  few  minutes,  as 
by  common  consent,  the  firing  on  both  sides  ceased :  but  it  was  soon 
renewed,  and  continued  until  after  midnight.  At  daybreak,  the  magni- 
rude  of  the  victory  was  discovered.  The  Orient  had  disappeared,  the 
frigate  La  Serieuse  was  sunk,  and  the  whole  French  line,  excepting  the 
Guillaume  Tell  and  the  Genereux,  had  struck  their  colors  :  these  ships, 
having  been  but  slightly  engaged,  cut  their  cables,  stood  out  to  sea,  and 
escaped. 

Honors  and  rewards  were  heaped  by  a  grateful  nation  on  the  heroes 
of  the  Nile.  Nelson  was  created  a  Baron,  with  a  pension  of  two  thousand 
pounds  sterling  to  himself  and  his  two  immediate  successors;  the  Grand 
Signior,  the  Emperor  of  Russia,  the  King  of  Sardinia,  the  King  of  Naples, 
and  the  East  India  Company  made  him  magnificent  presents,  and  his 
name  was  for  ever  embalmed  in  the  recollection  of  his  countrymen. 
When  Mr.  Pitt  was  reproached  for  not  conferring  a  higher  dignity  on 

11* 


100  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XIII 

the  conqueror,  he  replied,  "Admiral  Nelson's  fame  will  bft  coequal  with 
the  British  name,  and  it  will  be  remembered  that  he  gained  the  greatest 
naval  victory  on  record,  when  no  man  will  think  of  asking  whether  he 
was  created  a  baron,  a  viscount,  or  an  earl." 

The  battle  of  the  Nile  was  a  mortal  stroke  to  the  French  expedition ; 
as  it  cut  off  all  hope  of  the  return  of  the  army,  and  all  means  of  preserv- 
ing the  conquest  Napoleon  had  achieved.  Nor  were  its  effects  less 
important  in  Europe ;  as  it  brought  about  an  alliance  between  the  courts 
of  St.  Petersburg,  London  and  Constantinople  against  France ;  and  the 
unusual  spectacle  of  a  junction  between  the  Russian  and  Turkish  fleets 
in  the  Hellespont,  on  the  1st  of  September,  helped  to  render  memorable 
this  astonishing  victory.  The  squadron,  thus  combined,  not  being  required 
on  the  coast  of  Egypt,  steered  for  the  island  of  Corfu,  and  established  a 
rigorous  blockade  of  that  fortress  and  harbor. 

Being  now  excluded  from  intercourse  with  Europe,  and  menaced  with 
a  serious  attack  from  the  Turks,  Napoleon  resolved  on  an  expedition  into 
Syria,  where  the  Sultan  was  assembling  his  forces.  His  army,  however, 
was  already  greatly  reduced  by  fatigue,  sickness  and  the  sword;  and, 
after  leaving  behind  him  such  garrisons  as  were  indispensable  to  maintain 
his  conquests,  thirteen  thousand  men,  with  nine  hundred  cavalry  and 
forty-nine  pieces  of  cannon,  constituted  the  whole  of  his  disposable  force. 
He  set  out  for  Syria  on  the  llth  of  February,  1799,  and  as  his  march 
lay  across  the  Desert,  the  troops  suffered  so  greatly  that  it  required  all 
his  efforts  to  keep  them  in  their  ranks. 

On  the  4th  of  March,  the  army  arrived  at  Jaffa,  the  Joppa  of  antiquity. 
Napoleon  sent  a  flag  of  truce  to  the  town  and  summoned  it  to  surrender, 
but  his  messenger  was  beheaded  on  the  spot.  He  immediately  opened  a 
fire  of  artillery  on  the  walls,  and  on  the  6th,  the  breach  thus  made  being 
declared  practicable,  an  assault  took  place.  In  the  mean  time,  the 
grenadiers  of  Bon's  division  discovered  an  opening  on  the  sea-side,  and, 
by  crowding  into  the  city  in  the  rear,  decided  the  victory.  A  desperate 
carnage  ensued,  and  the  town  was  delivered  up  to  the  horrors  of  sack 
and  pillage.  During  this  scene  of  slaughter  and  rapine,  four  thousand 
of  the  garrison  proposed  to  lay  down  their  arms  on  condition  of  their  lives 
being  spared ;  and  Eugene  Beauharnois  (Napoleon's  step-son)  and  Cro- 
sier— both  aids-de-camp  of  Napoleon — took  upon  themselves  to  agree  to 
the  proposal.  The  prisoners  were  conducted  to  the  head-quarters  of 
the  French  commander,  who  ordered  their  arms  to  be  tied  behind  their 
backs,  and  summoned  a  council  of  war  to  deliberate  on  their  fate.  For 
two  days,  the  terrible  question,  What  is  to  be  done  with  these  captives  ? 
was  debated.  If  they  were  sent  back  to  Egypt,  the  force  detached  to 
guard  them  would  weaken  the  army  to  inefficiency ;  if  they  were  libe- 
rated, they  would  increase  the  number  of  the  already  too  numerous 
enemies  of  France ;  if  they  were  detained  as  prisoners  in  the  camp,  they 
would  consume  the  scanty  supplies  of  provisions  indispensable  for  the 
support  of  the  French  soldiers.  The  alternative  of  putting  them  to  death 
in  cold  blood  presented  itself  and  was  adopted  by  Napoleon.  This  atro- 
cious massacre  took  place  on  the  10th  of  March.  The  unhappy  victims 
were  separated  into  small  detachments,  fettered,  and  shot  down  like  beasts 
of  prey  by  the  French  infantry.  Their  bones  still  remain  in  great  heaps 
amid  the  sand-hills  of  the  Desert — a  monument  to  the  eternal  infamy 
of  Napoleon. 


i799.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE  101 

The  French  army  pursued  its  route,  and  on  the  16th  of  Marcn  arrived 
at  Acre,  a  strong  fortress  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  distin- 
guished as  a  place  of  great  importance  in  the  wars  of  the  Crusades.  The 
town  was  well  garrisoned,  ably  commanded  by  the  Pacha  of  Syria,  and 
supported  by  the  English  squadron  in  the  bay,  under  the  command  of  Sir 
Sidney  Smith. 

This  celebrated  man,  who  had  been  wrecked  on  the  coast  of  France 
and  confined  in  the  Temple,  made  his  escape  a  few  days  after  Napoleon' 
left  Paris  for  Toulon;  and  after  a  variety  of  adventures  arrived  in 
England,  where  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  squadron  in 
the  Archipelago.  Having  received  information  of  the  intended  attack 
on  Acre,  he  hastened  to  that  place,  and  arrived  just  two  days  before  the 
appearance  of  the  French  army :  his  fleet  consisted  of  the  Tiger,  eighty- 
four  guns,  the  Theseus,  seventy-four,  and  some  smaller  vessels.  He 
immediately  cooperated  with  the  garrison,  and  aided  in  strengthening 
their  defences;  and  on  the  day  after  his  arrival,  was  fortunate  enough  to 
capture  the  French  flotilla  from  Alexandria  with  the  heavy  artillery  and 
stores  for  the  siege,  as  it  was  creeping  around  the  headlands  of  Mount 
Carmel :  these  guns  were  invaluable  to  the  garrison,  and  their  loss  was 
irreparable  to  the  French  army. 

Napoleon  commenced  his  attack  on  the  28th  of  March,  but  he  was 
bravely  repulsed;  and  he  renewed  the  assault  on  the  1st  of  April  with  a 
similar  result:  and  while  he  was  thus  unsuccessful  in  front,  his  rear  was 
menaced  by  an  army  of  Oriental  militia,  thirty  thousand  strong,  who  had 
been  for  some  time  assembling  in  the  provinces  and  following  his  march. 
He  retired  from  Acre,  therefore,  to  give  battle  to  this  host  at  Mount 
Thabor,  where  he  entirely  routed  them.  In  the  mean  time,  the  French 
cruisers  succeeded  in  landing  nine  heavy  guns  at  Jaffa,  which  being 
now  transported  to  Acre,  were  of  some  assistance  to  the  French  army  in 
resuming  the  siege  of  that  place. 

On  the  evening  of  the  7th  of  May,  an  unknown  fleet  was  seen  on  the 
verge  of  the  horizon,  and  both  besiegers  and  besieged  were  in  the  greatest 
anxiety  to  learn  its  purpose  and  destination;  it  was  soon  ascertained  that 
the  ships,  thirty  in  number,  were  the  Ottoman  fleet  dispatched  thither  to 
aid  in  the  defence  of  Acre. 

Napoleon,  seeing  the  necessity  of  pressing  his  attacks  if  he  hoped  to 
succeed,  redoubled  his  efforts.  He  kept  up  a  constant  cannonade  and 
bombardment  during  two  days,  and  on  the  10th  of  May  made  his  final 
demonstration:  but  all  was  without  avail-  "he  intrepidity  of  both  the 
English  and  Turkish  troops  proved  an  overmatch  for  the  desperate  valor 
of  the  French,  and  Napoleon  was  compelled  to  retreat.  The  siege  had 
cost  him,  in  slain  and  wounded,  nearly  one  half  of  his  army  and  almost 
all  his  artillery  and  baggage,  wnich  latter  fell  into  the  hands  of  Sir 
Sidney  Smith.  ATlcr  a  painful 'retreat  over  the  Desert,  the  remnants 
of  the  French  army  reached  El-Arish  on  the  1st  of  June,  and  proceeded 
thence  by  easy  marches  to  Cairo. 

On  the  15th  of  July,  Napoleon  received  intelligence  of  the  landing  of  a 
large  body  of  Turks  in  Aboukir  Bay,  and  he  immediately  set  off  with  all 
his  disposable  forces  to  meet  them.  He  arrived  on  the  23rd  at  Alexan- 
dria, and  on  the  25th  reached  Aboukir,  where  the  Turks  were  strongly 
intrenched  on  the  peninsula:  a  position  which,  however  capable  of 
defence,  offered  no  retreat  in  case  of  disaster.  The  result  showed  the 


102  HISTORY     OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XIV. 

error  committed  by  the  Turks  in  the  choice  of  ground ;  for  in  the  action 
that  took  place,  two  thousand  were  slain,  two  thousand  made  prisoners, 
and  five  thousand  driven  into  the  sea  by  the  impetuous  charge  of  Murat's 
cavalry :  thus,  the  whole  army  of  nine  thousand  men  was  totally  destroyed; 
an  fiveni  almost  unparalleled  in  modern  warfare. 


CHAPTER    XIV. 

FROM  THE  PEACE  OF  CAMPO  FORMIO  TO  THE  RENEWAL  OF  THE  WAR. 

DURING  the  uncertainty  which  prevailed  as  to  the  destination  of  the 
French  armament  that  eventually  sailed  for  Egypt,  the  British  govern- 
ment felt  great  anxiety  to  provide  for  the  national  defence,  without  incur- 
ring a  ruinous  expense  by  the  augmentation  of  the  regular  army :  and, 
under  pressure  of  the  danger  to  be  apprehended  from  a  French  invasion, 
the  ministry,  with -the  approbation  of  the  king,  ventured  on  the  bold  step 
of  allowing  regiments  of  volunteers  to  be  raised  in  every  part  of  the  king- 
dom. This  bill  passed  the  House  on  the  6th  of  May;  and,  in  a  few 
weeks,  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  men  were  enrolled  under  the  new 
law,  and  armed  for  the  protection  of  the  country.  The  event  proved  that 
the  confidence  of  the  government  in  the  loyalty  of  the  people  was  not 
misplaced.  In  no  instance,  did  the  volunteers  thus  raised  fail  in  their 
duty,  or  swerve  from  the  principles  of  patriotism  which  first  brought  them 
together.  When  they  put  on  their  uniform  they  cast  off  all  the  vacillating 
feelings  of  former  years,  and,  in  taking  up  their  arms,  they  adopted  the 
resolution  to  defend  the  cause  of  England  to  the  last. 

While  England  was  thus  taking  measures  to  secure  herself  from  inva- 
sion, the  French  Directory  were  gradually  extending  their  despotism  over 
the  states  adjacent  to  France.  The  Dutch  had  now  an  opportunity  to 
contrast  the  temperate  government  of  the  House  of  Orange  with  the  demo- 
cratic rule  which  was  substituted  in  its  stead.  Their  trade  was  ruined, 
their  navy  defeated,  their  flag  swept  from  the  ocean,  and  their  numerous 
merchant  vessels  were  rotting  in  their  harbors.  A  reaction  in  favor  of  the 
former  order  of  things  had,  in  consequence,  become  very  general  in  the 
minds  of  the  people ;  which  feeling  the  French  Directory  deemed  it 
necessary  to  quell,  by  overthrowing  the  remnants  of  the  aristocratic  con- 
stitution, and  vesting  the  government  in  a  Directory  of  their  own  selection. 
The  Dutch  Assembly  was,  at  this  time,  engaged  in  framing  a  Constitution, 
and  the  majority  were  resolved  to  establish  it  on  the  old  federative  prin- 
ciples; but  the  leaders  of  the  minority,  aided  by  the  French  troops,  sur- 
rounded the  council -hall  during  the  session,  arrested  twenty-two  of  the 
prominent  deputies  of  the  Orange  party,  and  the  six  commissioners  of 
foreign  relations.  The  remainder  of  the  Assembly  met  early  on  the 
following  morning,  and,  under  the  dictation  of  the  bayonet,  passed  decrees 
sanctioning  their  acts  of  violence,  and  introducing  a  form  of  government 
on  the  model  of  that  established  in  France.  By  this  new  Constitution,  the 
privileges  of  the  provinces  were  abolished;  the  ancient  federal  Union 
superseded  by  a  Republic,  one  and  indivisible;  the  provincial  authorities 


1798.]  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  103 

changed  iiuo  functionaries  emanating  from  me  central  government;  a 
Council  of  Ancients  and  Chamber  of  Deputies  established ;  and  the  exe- 
cutive authority  confided  to  a  Directory  of  five  members,  all  devoted  to 
the  interests  of  France.  The  sitting  was  terminated  by  an  oath  of  hatred 
to  the  Stadtholder,  the  federal  system,  and  the  aristocracy ;  and  ten  depu- 
ties who  refused  to  take  the  oath  were  summarily  deprived  of  their  seats. 
So  completely  was  the  whole  accomplished,  under  the  terror  inspired  by 
the  army,  that  some  months  afterward,  when  the  means  of  intimidation 
were  removed,  a  number  of  deputies  who  had  joined  in  these  acts  of 
usurpation,  resigned  their  seats,  and  protested  against  the  part  they  had 
been  compelled  to  take  in  the  transaction. 

The  people  of  Holland  soon  discovered,  that  in  the  pursuit  of  democratic 
power  they  had  lost  their  ancient  liberty.  The  first  step  of  the  new  Direc- 
tory was  the  issuing  of  a  proclamation,  forbidding  all  petitions  from  cor- 
porate bodies  or  assemblages  of  men,  and  declaring  that  none  would  be 
received  but  from  insulated  individuals ;  whereby  they  extinguished  the 
national  voice  in  the  only  quarter  where  it  could  make  itself  heard  in  a 
serious  manner.  All  the  public  functionaries  were  appointed  from  the 
Jacobin  party;  numbers  of  people  were  banished  or  proscribed;  and, 
under  pretext  of  securing  the  public  tranquillity,  domiciliary  visits  and 
arrests  were  multiplied  to  an  alarming  extent.  Individuals  suspected  of 
a  leaning  to  the  opposition,  were  deprived  of  the  right  of  voting  in  the  pri- 
mary assemblies ;  and,  finally,  the  sitting  assembly  declared  itself  the 
permanent  Legislative  Body — thus  suspending  all  elections  by  the  people. 
These  flagrant  wrongs  excited  the  utmost  indignation  throughout  the  coun- 
try, and  the  Directors  soon  became  as  offensive  as  they  had  formerly  been 
agreeable  to  the  populace.  Alarmed  at  the  position  of  affairs,  and  fearful 
of  losing  their  influence  in  Holland,  the  French  Directory  ordered  Gene- 
ral Daendels  to  take  military  possession  of  the  government.  He  accord- 
ingly led  two  companies  of  grenadiers  to  the  palace  of  the  Directory,  seized 
one  member,  and  forced  two  to  resign ;  the  other  two  made  their  escape. 
A  provisional  government  was  then  formed,  consisting  of  Daendels  and 
two  associates,  nominated  by  the  French  Directory,  without  the  slight- 
est regard  to  the  wishes  of  the  people  or  any  pretence  of  authority  from 
them.  Thus,  military  despotism  was  the  result  of  revolutionary  changes 
in  Holland,  within  a  few  years  after  they  were  first  commenced,  amid  the 
general  transports  of  the  lower  orders. 

Switzerland  was  the  next  object  of  the  Directory's  ambition.  The 
constitutions  of  the  Swiss  Cantons  were  various.  In  some,  as  the  Forest 
Cantons,  they  were  highly  democratic ;  in  others,  as  in  Berne,  essentially 
aristocratic :  but  in  all,  the  great  objects  of  government — security  to  per- 
sons and  property,  freedom  in  life  and  religion — were  attained,  and  the 
aspect  of  the  population  exhibited  a  degree  of  happiness  and  prosperity 
unparalleled  in  any  other  part  of  the  world.  The  military  strength  of 
Switzerland  lay  in  the  militia  of  the  different  Cantons ;  which,  though 
formidable  if  united  and  led  by  chiefs  skilled  in  mountain  warfare,  was 
ill  qualified  to  maintain  a  protracted  struggle  with  such  armies  as  the 
neighboring  powers  could  bring  into  the  field. 

The  chief  defect  in  the  constitution  of  the  Helvetic  Confederacy  was  that, 
with  the  usual  jealousy  of  the  possessors  of  political  power,  it  excluded  the 
conquered  provinces  from  a  participation  in  the  privileges  enjoyed  by  th» 
older  Cantons ;  and  thus  the  seeds  of  disaffection  were  sown  between  the 

9 


104  HISTORY     OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XIV 

component  parts  of  the  state:  yet,  practically,  this  evil  was  of  trifling 
weight,  under  the  truly  paternal  and  beneficent  system  of  Swiss  admin- 
istration ;  nor  would  it  have  ever  led  to  serious  consequences,  had  the  sim- 
ple minded  and  honest  peasantry  of  Switzerland  been  left  in  the  quiet 
enjoyment  of  such  rights  as  were  already  conceded  to  them.  But  the 
proximity  of  Switzerland  to  France,  and  the  contagion  of  French  revo- 
lutionary principles,  combined  with  the  infamous  system  of  Republican 
propagandism,  were  fatal  to  the  peace  of  this  devoted  country. 

As  early  as  July,  1797,  the  French  envoy,  Mengaud,  was  dispatched 
to  Berne  to  insist  on  the  dismissal  of  the  English  resident  Wickham.  and, 
at  the  same  time,  to  set  on  foot  intrigues  with  the  democratic  party,  simi- 
lar to  those  which  were  practiced  for  the  overthrow  of  Venice.  By  a 
prudent  resolution  of  the  English  government,  intended  to  save  the  Swiss 
from  a  controversy  with  their  formidable  neighbors,  Wickham  was  recalled. 
The  Directory,  foiled  in  their  attempt  to  involve  the  Swiss  in  a  conflict, 
ordered  their  troops  on  the  frontier  to  take  possession  of  that  part  of  the 
territory  of  Bale  which  was  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Cantons :  but 
here,  too,  the  French  were  unsuccessful,  for  the  Swiss  government  con- 
fined itself  to  simple  negotiations  in  reply  to  so  glaring  a  violation  of 
existing  treaties.  At  length,  Napoleon  struck  a  chord  in  the  Valteline, 
which  soon  vibrated  with  fatal  effect  throughout  Switzerland,  and,  by  rous- 
ing the  spirit  of  democracy,  prepared  the  country  for  subjugation.  This 
province,  consisting  of  five  bailiwicks,  and  containing  one  hundred  and 
sixty  thousand  inhabitants,  extended  from  the  source  of  the  Adda  to  its 
junction  with  the  Lake  of  Como.  It  had  been  formerly  conquered  by  the 
Grisons  from  the  Duke  of  Milan.  Francis  I.  had  guaranteed  to  them  the 
enjoyment  of  it,  and  they  had  governed  it  with  moderation  and  justice  for 
three  centuries.  Napoleon,  however,  saw  in  this  sequestered  valley  a 
place  for  inserting  the  wedge  of  dissolution  into  the  Helvetic  Confederacy ; 
and,  in  the  summer  of  1797,  he  sent  his  aid-de-camp  Leclerc  to  the  cottages 
of  the  province.  It  was  not  long  before  the  inhabitants,  seduced  by  his 
insidious  counsels,  rose  in  insurrection,  claimed  their  independence,  ex- 
pelled the  Swiss  authorities  and  hoisted  the  tricolor  flag.  Napoleon, 
chosen  in  the  plenitude  of  his  power  at  Montebello  as  mediator  between 
the  contending  parties,  pronounced  a  decree  which  settled  the  disputed 
points  by  annexing  the  whole  insurgent  territory  to  the  Cis-Alpine  Republic. 

This  iniquitous  proceeding,  which  openly  encouraged  every  subject  dis- 
trict in  the  Swiss  Confederacy  to  declare  its  independence,  had  its  due 
effect  in  the  Valais,  the  Pays  de  Vaud,  and  other  provinces,  where  the 
revolutionary  spirit  soon  declared  itself.  This  was  followed  by  an  act  of 
open  hostility  on  the  part  of  France,  the  seizure,  namely,  of  the  province 
of  Erguel,  on  the  15th  December,  by  five  battalions  drawn  from  the  army 
of  the  Rhine.  An  insurrection  in  the  Pays  de  Vaud  immediately  took 
place ;  and  the  French  envoy,  Mengaud,  proclaimed  that  the  governments 
of  Berne  and  Fribourg  should  be  held  responsible  for  the  persons  and  pro- 
perty of  all  those  who  addressed  themselves  to  France  for  the  restitution 
of  their  rights.  On  the  4th  of  January,  1798,  General  Menard,  with  ten 
thousand  men,  established  his  head-quarters  at  Ferney,  near  Geneva,  to 
support  the  insurgents.  These  measures  soon  brought  affairs  to  a  crisis: 
the  insurrections  became  general,  and  the  Senate  of  Berne  boldly  deter- 
mined on  resistance.  They  issued  a  proclamation  calling  on  the  shep- 
herds  of  the  Alps  to  defend  their  country,  and  ordered  out  the  militia, 


1798.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  JQ5 

twenty  thousand  strong.  Being  still  desirous  to  avoid  proceeding  to  extre- 
mities, they  informed  the  Directory  that  they  would  disband  their  militia 
if  the  invaders  would  withdraw.  But  the  Directory  no  longer  confined 
their  pretensions  to  supporting  the  insurgents  :  they  insisted  on  overturn- 
ing the  whole  Constitution  of  the  country,  forming  twenty-two  Cantons 
instead  of  thirteen,  and  creating  a  Republic,  one  and  indivisible,  with  a 
Directory  in  all  respects  like  that  of  France. 

As  peace  was  now  impossible,  the  Senate  urged  forward  their  prepara- 
tions. The  Oberland  en  masse  flew  to  arms,  the  shepherds  descended 
from  their  glaciers,  every  valley  sent  forth  its  little  horde  of  men,  and  the 
accumulating  streams  united  like  an  Alpine  torrent,  forming  a  body  of 
near  twenty  thousand  combatants  on  the  frontiers  of  Berne.  The  smaller 
Cantons  followed  the  example  :  Uri,  Underwalden,  Schwytz,  and  Soleure, 
sent  forth  their  contingents  with  alacrity ;  and  the  peasants  set  out  from 
their  cottages,  not  doubting  of  triumph  in  the  holy  war  of  independence. 
The  women  fanned  the  generous  flame,  not  only  by  encouraging  their 
husbands  and  brothers  to  take  up  arms,  but  by  themselves  joining  the  ranks 
with  a  determination  to  share  the  perils  and  glories  of  the  strife.  Almost 
everywhere,  the  inhabitants  of  the  mountains  retained  their  allegiance ; 
the  citizens  of  the  towns  and  plains  alone  were  deluded  by  the  fanaticism 
of  revolution. 

General  D'Erlach,  who  commanded  the  Swiss  troops,  divided  his  army 
into  three  corps,  of  about  seven  thousand  men  each,  who  were  so  posted 
as  to  cover  Fribourg,  Buren  and  Soleure.  Had  D'Erlach  acted  on  the 
offensive  before  the  French  forces  were  concentrated,  he  would  probably 
have  gained  such  decisive  success  as  to  encourage  the  loyal  inhabitants, 
and  confirm  the  patriotism  of  those  who  were  wavering  ;  but  by  waiting 
the  attack  of  the  French,  he  yielded  the  advantage  to  General  Brune,  who, 
during  the  inaction  of  the  Swiss,  completed  the  organization  of  his  troops. 
He  moved,  on  the  2nd  of  March,  toward  Fribourg  and  Soleure,  where  the 
revolutionary  partisans  were  the  most  numerous.  His  advance  was  hero- 
ically opposed  by  a  single  Swiss  battalion,  which  would  not  yield  until 
it  was  nearly  cut  to  pieces ;  but  the  garrisons  of  Fribourg  and  Soleure 
surrendered  after  a  mere  show  of  resistance  ;  and  as  by  this  defeat  the 
position  of  D'Erlach  was  turned,  he  was  forced  to  make  a  discouraging 
retreat  at  the  very  commencement  of  the  campaign :  a  movement  which 
led  to  the  destruction  of  nearly  one-half  of  his  corps.  Brune  followed  up 
his  victory  by  an  attack  on  the  second  Swiss  corps,  under  Graffenreid; 
but  here,  the  French  veterans,  although  twice  the  numerical  strength  of 
their  opponents',  were  repulsed  with  the  loss  of  two  thousand  men  and 
eighteen  pieces  of  cannon.  The  third  corps,  now  commanded  by  D'Erlach 
in  person,  was  less  fortunate :  it  was  assailed  by  the  division  of  Schawen- 
burgh,  in  front  of  Berne,  and  after  an  obstinate  contest,  maintained  during 
the  whole  day,  the  Swiss  were  defeated,  and  Berne  capitulated  on  the 
same  night.  Deplorable  excesses  followed  the  dispersion  of  the  Swiss 
army.  The  brave  D'Erlach  was  murdered  by  his  own  soldiers  at  Mun- 
zingen ;  and  Steiger,  his  second  in  command,  barely  escaped  the  same 
fate  by  a  flight  into  Bavaria.  Many  other  brave  officers  fell  victims  to 
the  fury  of  the  troops ;  and  the  democratic  party,  by  spreading  the  belief 
that  the  army  had  been  betrayed  by  its  leaders,  occasioned  the  destruction 
of  the  only  men  who  might  have  sustained  the  sinking  fortunes  of  their 
country. 


106  HISTOR,  YOFEUROPE.  [CHAP.  XIV 

The  French,  on  their  entrance  into  Berne,  took  possession  of  its  treasury, 
with  the  public  archives,  and  three  hundred  pieces  of  cannon  and  forty 
thousand  muskets.  The  fall  of  this  town  was  followed  by  an  explosion 
of  the  revolutionary  volcano  over  a  great  part  of  Switzerland.  The  people 
of  Zurich  and  Lucerne  rose  in  open  insurrection,  dispossessed  the  authori- 
ties, and  hoisted  the  tricolor  flag:  the  Lower  Valaisans  revolted  against 
the  Upper,  and,  with  the  aid  of  the  French,  made  themselves  masters 
of  the  castellated  cliffs  of  Sion.  Nearly  all  the  level  provinces  joined 
the  revolutionists.  A  new  Constitution  was  speedily  formed  for  the  con- 
federacy, on  the  basis  of  that  established  in  France  in  1795 ;  and  it  was 
proclaimed  at  Arau  on  the  12th  of  April.  By  this  instrument,  all  Swit- 
zerland was  comprised  in  one  Republic;  and  the  entire  control  of  the 
government  placed  in  the  hands  of  five  Directors,  who  evinced  their  quali- 
ties by  passing  a  law  to  the  effect,  that  whosoever  spoke  disrespectfully  of 
the  new  authorities,  should  be  punished  with  death. 

But  while  the  rich  and  popular  part  of  Switzerland  was  thus  falling  a 
prey  to  the  revolutionary  fever  of  the  times,  a  more  generous  spirit  ani- 
mated the  shepherds  of  the  small  Cantons.  The  people  of  Schwytz,  Uri, 
Underwalden,  Glarus,  Sargans,  Turgovie  and  St.  Gall,  rejected  the  new 
Constitution.  The  inhabitants  of  these  romantic  and  sequestered  regions, 
communicating  little  with  the  rest  of  the  world,  ardently  attached  to  their 
liberties,  and  inheriting  all  the  dauntless  intrepidity  of  their  forefathers, 
were  not  to  be  seduced  by  the  glittering  offers  of  revolutionary  freedom. 

Aloys  Reding,  a  brave  and  experienced  soldier  who  had  fought  against 
the  French  in  Spain,  took  the  lead  in  this  resistance,  with  the  hope  that  he 
might  maintain  a  Vendean  war  amid  the  precipices  and  woods  of  the 
Alps,  until  the  German  nations  were  roused  to  his  relief:  but  a  district 
containing  an  entire  population  of  only  eighty  thousand,  could  hardly 
accomplish  what  the  three  millions  of  Brittany  and  Vendee  had  failed  to 
achieve.  Reding  began  his  heroic  career  by  an  attack  on  Lucerne,  which 
speedily  surrendered ;  but  the  advance  of  a  large  body  of  French  troops 
forced  him  to  abandon  his  conquest,  and  concentrate  his  forces  for  defence. 
After  meeting  with  several  reverses,  he  took  post  on  Morgarten  with  the 
little  army  of  Schwytz,  three  thousand  in  number.  Early  in  the  morning 
of  the  20th  of  May,  a  corps  of  seven  thousand  French  soldiers  appeared 
descending  from  the  hills  to  the  attack.  The  Schwytzers  advanced  to 
meet  them,  encountered  them  before  they  had  reached  the  bottom  of  the 
slope,  and  forced  them  backward  to  the  summit  of  the  ridge.  The  battle 
now  raged  for  the  whole  day,  but  the  French  were  unable  to  dislodge  the 
orave  peasants  from  their  position.  During  the  night,  both  sides  were 
reenforced  by  fresh  troops ;  and  the  next  morning  the  battle  was  resumed 
with  the  same  result.  The  rocks,  the  woods,  the  thickets,  were  bristling 
with  armed  men ;  every  cottage  became  a  post  of  defence,  every  meadow 
a  scene  of  carnage,  and  every  stream  was  dyed  with  blood.  Darkness 
put  an  end  to  the  combat,  and  still  the  mountaineers  were  unsubdued  :  but 
in  the  night  they  received  intelligence  that  a  longer  continuance  of  the 
struggle  would  be  unavailing.  The  inhabitants  of  Uri  and  Underwalden 
had  been  driven  into  their  valleys,  a  French  corps  was  rapidly  advancing 
in  the  rear  of  Morgarten,  and  Sargans  and  Glarus  had  submitted  to  the 
invaders.  Slowly  and  reluctantly  the  men  of  Schwytz  were  brought  to 
yield  to  the  inexorable  necessity  ;  they  submitted  to  the  persuasion  of 
Reding,  and  agreed  to  a  convention,  by  which  they  were  to  accept  the 


1798.]  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  107 

Constitution  and  be  allowed  the  use  of  their  arms,  the  enjoyment  of  their 
religion  and  property ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  French  troops  were  to 
withdraw  from  the  frontier.  The  other  small  Cantons  followed  this  exam- 
ple, and  peace  was  for  a  time  restored  to  that  part  of  Switzerland. 

The  period  that  followed  these  bloody  hostilities,  was  one  of  bitter  suffer- 
ing and  humiliation  to  the  conquered  people.  Forty  thousand  men  lived 
upon  them  at  free  quarters;  and  the  requisitions  for  the  pay,  clothing  and 
equipments  of  these  hard  task-masters,  furnished  a  sad  contrast  to  the  illu- 
sions which  had  seduced  the  urban  population  from  their  allegiance.  It 
was  in  vain  that  the  revolutionary  authorities — now  themselves  alive  to  the 
miseries  they  had  brought  on  their  country — protested  against  the  various 
spoliations  of  the  French  Directory  and  their  still  more  rapacious  commis- 
sioners :  they  were  merely  informed,  in  reply,  that  Switzerland  was  a  coi»- 
quered  nation,  and  must  submit  to  the  lot  of  the  vanquished.  The  Swiss 
Directors,  in  disgust  resigned  thoir  places ;  but  this  was  equally  unavailing; 
the  vacancies  were  supplied  by  more  subservient  Directors,  who  formed  a 
treaty  of  alliance,  offensive  and  defensive,  with  France,  binding  Switzer- 
land to  furnish  a  contingent  of  troops  and  to  submit  to  the  construction  of 
two  military  roads  through  the  Alps,  one  to  Italy  and  one  to  Swabia : 
conditions  far  worse  for  Switzerland  than  would  have  been  an  annexation 
of  that  country  to  France ;  since  they  imposed  on  the  former  all  the  bur- 
dens and  dangers  of  war,  without  either  its  advantages  or  its  glories. 

The  discontent  arising  from  all  these  grievances  was  fast  increasing, 
when  the  imposition  of  the  oath  to  the  new  Constitution  brought  matters  to 
a  crisis  in  the  small  Cantons  :  the  shepherds  of  Underwalden  unanimously 
declared  that  they  would  rather  perish  than  take  the  oath ;  and  they  were 
joined  by  the  most  determined  men  of  Uri  and  Schwytz.  Immediately, 
sixteen  thousand  French  troops  were  dispatched  to  quell  this  revolt — a 
force  so  overwhelming,  that  the  mountaineers  from  the  first  despaired  of 
success ;  but  they  resolved  to  yield  nothing,  and  die  in  defending  their 
rights.  In  their  despair,  they  neglected  both  discipline  and  method  ;  yet, 
such  was  the  force  of  their  native  valor,  three  thousand  shepherds  kept  at 
bay  sixteen  thousand  of  the  bravest  troops  of  France.  Every  hedge,  thicket 
and  cottage  was  obstinately  defended ;  the  dying  crawled  into  the  hottest 
of  the  fire ;  the  women  and  children  threw  themselves  on  the  enemy's 
bayonets ;  but  heroism  and  devotion  were  equally  vain  against  such  des- 
perate odds.  Slowly  but  steadily  the  French  columns  gained  ground, 
and  their  progress  was  marked  by  the  flaming  houses  and  bleeding  corses 
of  the  inhabitants.  Near  the  close  of  the  action,  a  band  of  two  hundred 
Schwytzers  arrived  on  the  field ;  they  were  too  late  and  too  few  to  retrieve 
the  battle,  but  they  perished  to  a  man  after  having  slain  twice  their  num- 
ber of  the  enemy.  Night  at  length  drew  a  veil  over  this  scene  of  horror, 
which  ended  in  the  total  subjugation  of  these  Cantons  to  the  stern  despotism 
of  France. 

Such  tragical  events  were  little  calculated  to  induce  other  states  to 
follow  the  example  of  the  Swiss  in  leaguing  themselves  to  the  principles 
or  leaders  of  French  democracy.  The  Grisons  took  counsel  from  the 
disasters  of  their  brethren  in  the  Forest  Cantons,  and  invoked  the  aid 
of  Austria,  who,  by  the  authority  of  former  treaties,  now  guaranteed  and 
secured  their  independence. 

The  Ecclesiastical  States  of  Itajy  were  the  next  to  be  attacked.  It 
had  long  been  an  avowed  object  of  French  Republican  ambition,  to  revcu 

12 


1 


108  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XIV. 

lutioruze  the  Roman  people,  and  plant  the  tricolor  flag  in  the  city  of 
Brutes:  and  fortune  at  length  favored  the  Directory  with  a  pretext  for 
accomplishing  this  design. 

.  Joseph  Bonaparte,  brother  to  Napoleon,  had  been  appointed  ambassador 
at  the  court  of  Rome ;  but  as  he  was  deemed  too  honorable  a  man  to  be 
intrusted  with  the  management  of  political  intrigue,  Generals  Duphot 
and  Sherlock  were  ordered  to  accompany  him.  The  French  embassy, 
under  their  direction,  soon  became  a  centre  of  revolutionary  action;  and 
the  numerous  ardent  characters  with  which  the  Italian  cities  ever  abound, 
flocked  there  as  to  a  common  focus,  whence  the  next  great  explosion  of 
democratic  power  was  to  be  expected.  On  the  27th  of  December,  1797, 
a  crowd  assembled  in  Rome  and  moved  to  the  palace  of  the  French 
ambassador,  where  they  exclaimed,  "Vive  la  Republique  Romaine !"  and 
invoked  the  aid  of  the  French  in  planting  the  tricolor  flag  on  the  Capitol. 
In  this  emergency,  the  papal  ministers  sent  a  regiment  of  dragoons  to 
prevent  a  sortie  of  the  revolutionists  from  the  ambassador's  palace ;  and 
these  troops  gave  notice  to  the  insurgents  that  their  orders  were  to  allow 
no  one  to  leave  the  place.  Upon  this,  Duphot,  indignant  at  being 
restrained  by  the  pontifical  forces,  drew  his  sword,  rushed  down  the 
staircase,  and  put  himself  at  the  head  of  a  hundred  and  fifty  armed 
Roman  democrats,  who  were  contending  with  the  dragoons  in  the  court- 
yard of  the  palace.  He  was  instantly  killed  by  a  volley  from  the  papal 
soldiers :  a  violent  scuffle  ensued,  and  after  passing  several  hours  in  the 
greatest  alarm,  Joseph  Bonaparte,  with  his  suite,  retired  to  Florence. 

This  catastrophe,  however  obviously  occasioned  by  the  revolutionary 
schemes  which  were  on  foot  and  in  agitation  at  the  residence  of  the 
French  ambassador,  did  literally  take  place  within  the  precincts  of  his 
palace,  and  was  therefore  a  violation  of  the  law  of  nations.  The  Direc- 
tory declared  war  against  Rome  with  a  promptness  that  showed  how 
eage-rly  they  had  sought  the  quarrel,  and  Berthier  received  orders  to 
advance  instantly  upon  the  Ecclesiastical  dominions.  That  general,  at 
the  head  of  eighteen  thousand  veterans,  entered  Ancona  on  the  25th  of 
January,  1798,  where  he  completed  a  revolution  that  had  broken  out  a 
few  days  before,  secured  its  fortress,  crossed  the  Appenines,  and  on  the 
10th  of  February,  appeared  in  front  of  the  Eternal  City.  The  pope, 
(Pius  VI.,)  who  was  now  more  than  eighty  years  of  age,  shut  himself  up 
in  the  Vatican,  and  spent  night  and  day  at  the  foot  of  the  altar,  imploring 
protection  from  Heaven.  Berthier  might  easily  have  taken  possession 
of  Rome  at  once,  but  he  preferred  to  avail  himself  of  the  sorry  pretext 
of  resorting  to  that  step  only  when  the  inhabitants  invoked  his  aid ;  and 
he  encamped  without  the  walls  for  five  days,  while  the  revolutionists 
within  were  completing  their  preparations.  On  the  15th  of  February, 
all  was  arranged:  the  revolutionists,  in  open  revolt,  passed  through  the 
streets,  invited  the  French  to  enter,  and  Berthier  hoisted  the  flag  of  the 
Republic  over  the  walls  of  Rome. 

But  the  Directory  did  not  stop  at  the  mere  conquest  of  the  city.  They 
ordered  the  pope  to  retire  into  Tuscany,  dismiss  his  Swiss  guard,  supply 
their  place  with  French  soldiers,  and  dispossess  himself  of  his  temporal 
authority.  He  replied  with  the  firmness  of  a  martyr:  "I  am  prepared 
for  every  kind  of  disgrace ;  but  as  supreme  pontiff,  I  am  resolved  to  die 
in  the  exercise  of  all  my  powers.  You  may  employ  force ;  you  may 
become  masters  of  my  body,  but  not  of  my  soul.  Free  in  the  "egioc 


1798.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  109 

where  it  is  placed,  it  fears  neither  the  events  nor  the  sufferings  of  this 
life.  I  stand  on  the  threshold  of  another  world,  where  T  shall  soon  be 
sheltered  from  the  violence  and  impiety  of  this."  Force  was,  neverthe- 
less, employed  by  the  French.  The  aged  pontiff  was  dragged  from  the 
altar  in  his  palace,  his  repositories  were  plundered,  the  very  rings  torn 
from  his  fingers,  and  he  himself,  with  only  a  few  domestics  for  attendants, 
was  conveyed  into  Tuscany,  amid  the  brutal  jests  and  sacrilegious  songs 
of  the  French  dragoons.  The  subsequent  treatment  of  this  venerable 
man  was  still  more  disgraceful  to  the  Republic,  Fearful  that  his  virtues 
and  sufferings  might  produce  an  influence  in  Italy  unfavorable  to  the 
interests  of  France,  the  Directory  ordered  him  to  be  removed  to  Leghorn, 
in  March,  1799.  After  remaining  there  for  a  time,  he  was  compelled  to 
renew  his  journey,  was  conveyed  across  the  Appenines  and  the  Alps, 
exposed,  by  travelling  at  night,  to  the  cold  of  those  elevated  regions; 
and  he  at  length  reached  Valence,  where  he  expired  on  the  29th  of 
August,  in  the  eighty-second  year  of  his  age  and  the  twenty- fourth  of  his 
pontificate. 

But  long  before  the  pope  sunk  under  the  persecution  of  his  oppressors, 
Rome  experienced  the  bitter  fruits  of  republican  fraternization.  Imme- 
diately on  the  entrance  of  the  French  troops  into  the  city,  a  systematic 
pillage  was  commenced  that  surpassed  any  to  which  Rome  had  previously 
been  subjected :  treasures  of  art  which  had  survived  the  Gothic  fire  and 
the  rapacity  of  Spanish  soldiers  in  a  past  age,  were  now  borne  off;  and 
although  the  bloodshed  was  much  less,  the  spoil  collected  was  incom- 
parably greater  than  at  the  disastrous  sack  of  Rome  which  followed  the 
death  of  the  Constable  de  Bourbon.  The  work  of  revolution  now  pro- 
ceeded rapidly  in  the  Roman  states.  All  the  ancient  institutions  were 
subverted ;  the  executive  was  made  to  consist  of  five  consuls,  after  the 
model  of  the  French  Directory;  heavy  contributions  and  forced  loans 
were  exacted  from  the  wealthier  classes;  the  legislative  power  was 
vested  in  two  Chambers  chosen  by  the  lowest  ranks,  and  the  state  was 
divided  into  eight  departments. 

While  the  Roman  states  were  thus  undergoing  fusion  in  the  revolu- 
tionary crucible,  the  Constitution  of  the  Cis-Alpine  Republic  disappeared 
as  rapidly  as  it  had  been  formed.  The  endless  exactions  and  impositions 
of  the  Directory  soon  exhausted  the  resources  of  that  country,  and  forced 
the  inhabitants,  in  self-defence,  to  organize  a  conspiracy  for  throwing  off 
the  French  yoke.  This  plan  was  discovered,  the  existing  Constitution 
dissolved,  and  a  new  one  established  under  the  dictation  of  the  French 
ambassador,  in  which  no  attention  was  paid  to  the  liberties  or  wishes  of 
the  people. 

The  King  of  Sardinia  was  at  this  time  enduring  the  last  acts  of  humil- 
iation from  the  hands  of  his  merciless  allies.  The  peace  which  this 
monarch  had  early  concluded  with  their  victorious  general,  the  fidelity 
with  which  he  had  discharged  his  engagements,  and  the  firm  support,  that 
the  possession  of  his  fortresses  had  given  to  the  French  troops,  could  r.ct 
save  him  from  spoliation.  Since  his  opening  the  gates  of  Italy  to  France 
by  the  cession  of  the  Piedmontese  fortresses,  his  life  had  been  a  continual 
scene  of  mortification  and  disappointment.  His  territories  were  traversed 
in  every  direction  by  French  columns,  of  whose  approach  he  received  no 
notice,  except  a  statement  of  the  supplies  they  required,  and  these  he  was 
compelled  to  furnish  gratuitously.  He  was  forced  to  banish  all  emi- 


110  HISTORY    OF    EUR  OPE.  [CHAP.  XIV. 

grants  from  his  dominions,  and  oppress  his  subjects  by  enormous  contri- 
butions for  the  use  of  his  insatiable  allies ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  his 
provinces  were  filled  with  revolutionary  clubs,  openly  patronized  by  the 
French  ambassador,  where  the  dismemberment  of  his  government  was 
daily  proposed.  In  due  time,  the  revolutionists  made  their  demonstration 
by  assembling  in  a  body,  eight  thousand  strong,  in  the  district  of  Carrioso. 
The  king's  troops  defeated  them  in  two  successive  engagements ;  but 
here  the  Directory  interfered  ;  and,  on  the  ground  of  an  alleged  conspi- 
racy in  Piedmont,  pretended  to  have  been  organized  by  the  king  for  the 
massacre  of  the  French  troops,  they  insisted  on  his  surrendering  to  them 
the  invaluable  fortress  of  Turin.  He  was  forced  to  submit,  and  thus 
divested  himself  of  the  last  means  of  resistance.  His  guards  were  now 
dismissed,  and  French  soldiers  attended  him  on  all  occasions,  who,  under 
the  semblance  of  respect,  kept  him  a  prisoner  in  his  own  palace.  The 
government  was  then  remodeled  ;  French  officers  were  appointed  to 
conduct  it ;  the  arsenals,  the  treasury,  and  all  remaining  fortresses  were 
seized  ;  and,  finally,  the  king  was  constrained  to  abdicate  his  continental 
authority,  and  take  refuge  in  the  island  of  Sardinia. 

The  French  intriguers  were  next  occupied  with  the  affairs  of  Naples, 
where,  since  the  occupation  of  Rome  by  Berthier,  extensive  military 
preparations  had  been  made  for  the  protection  of  the  government.  The 
revolutionary  party  had  already  widely  disseminated  their  principles,  and 
excited  both  the  alarm  and  indignation  of  the  king,  when  news  was 
received  of  the  total  destruction  of  the  French  fleet  at  the  battle  of  the 
Nile.  No  words  can  describe  the  joy  to  which  this  event  gave  rise  in 
Naples ;  and  on  the  arrival  of  Nelson  at  that  port  with  his  victorious 
fleet,  the  enthusiasm  of  the  inhabitants  was  unbounded.  The  English 
admiral  was  received  with  more  than  regal  honors ;  the  king  and  queen 
went  out  to  meet  him  in  the  bay,  and  the  shores  were  thronged  by  the 
ardent  population  of  the  capital,  who  rent  the  air  with  reiterated  accla- 
mations. The  general  exultation  at  this  period  raised  the  courage  of  the 
Neapolitans  to  rashness  ;  and  although  they  took  the  precaution  of  nego- 
tiating with  Austria  for  support,  and  entered  into  a  treaty  for  that  pur- 
pose, they  could  not  be  induced  to  wait  for  the  cooperation  of  the  Emperor 
before  they  commenced  hostilities.  The  Aulic  Council,  indeed,  sent 
General  Mack  to  command  the  Neapolitan  forces  ;  but  this  proceeding, 
however  well  intended,  was  of  incalculable  injury  to  the  cause,  for 
Mack's  deplorable  ignorance  and  incapacity,  served  only  to  precipitate 
the  ruin  of  the  king. 

The  Directory,  in  the  belief  that  Naples  wouM  not  venture  to  take  the 
field,  until  the  Austrian  forces  were  ready  to  support  them,  had  as  yet 
^iven  no  orders  for  concentrating  their  own  troops,  who  were  scattered 
about  over  the  Roman  states  in  divisions  of  four  or  five  thousand  men : 
consequently,  the  first  operations  of  Mack  were  successful,  and  Cham- 
pionnet,  who  commanded  at  Rome,  was  compelled  to  evacuate  that  city, 
and  retire  upon  Terni.  But  the  Neapolitan  soldiers  were  so  inefficient 
and  ill-disciplined,  that  they  fell  into  confusion  from  the  mere  fatigue  of 
the  march  ;  and,  on  their  advancing  beyond  Rome  to  follow  up  their  suc- 
cess, they  were  everywhere  defeated,  with  the  loss  of  prisoners,  baggage 
and  artillery.  In  one  instance,  a  body  of  four  thousand  men  laid  down 
their  arms  to  a  French  detachment  of  three  thousand  five  hundred,  on  an 
open  field.  Mack  now  speedily  retreated  with  his  scattered  forces  to  the 


1798.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  Ill 

Neapolitan  frontier,  vigorously  pursued  by  Championnet :  within  seven- 
teen days  from  the  opening  of  the  campaign,  eighteen  thousand  French 
veterans  had  driven  Ibefore  them  forty  thousand  Neapolitans,  splendidly 
dressed  and  abundantly  equipped,  but  destitute  of  the  qualities  which  are 
requisite  to  success  in  war. 

The  terror  inspired  by  these  disasters  was  such,  that  the  court  of 
Naples  was  conceived  to  be  insecure  in  the  capital ;  and  in  the  night  of 
the  iilst  of  December,  the  whole  royal  family  withdrew  on  board  of  Nel- 
son's fleet,  and  embarked  for  Sicily,  with  their  most  valuable  effects  and 
a  large  sum  in  specie  from  the  public  treasury.  The  inhabitants  were  in 
great  consternation  when  they  learned,  on  the  following  morning,  that 
the  royal  family  and  ministers  had  fled,  leaving  them  to  defend  them- 
selves against  the  whole  power  of  France.  Nothing  could  be  expected 
from  citizens,  when  the  leaders  of  the  state  thus  deserted  their  posts  ;  and 
the  revolutionary  party,  being  now  uncontrolled,  openly  took  measures 
against  the  government,  and  prepared  the  way  for  the  approaching  army 
of  invaders. 

Championnet,  meanwhile,  was  entering  the  Neapolitan  territories.  He 
found  Mack  posted  in  a  strong  position  behind  the  Volturnus :  but  the 
native  troops  were  so  dispirited,  that  they  scarcely  awaited  the  onset  of 
the  French  before  they  retreated  in  every  direction,  and  Championnet 
advanced  almost  without  resistance  toward  Naples.  At  Capua,  he  met 
with  a  check  that  might  have  resulted  to  his  injury,  had  Mack  improved 
a  momentary  advantage ;  but  the  latter  general,  having  lost  confidence  in 
his  troops,  instead  of  striking  a  decisive  blow,  proposed  an  armistice ; 
agreeing  to  deliver  up  Capua,  Acerra  and  Benevento  to  the  French,  and 
pay  them  two  and  a  half  million  of  francs  within  fifteen  days.  Champi- 
onnet thus  escaped  from  a  dilemma  with  all  the  fruits  of  a  great  victory, 
and  moved  on  at  once  to  Naples. 

The  intelligence  of  this  armistice  reached  the  capital  before  the  French 
army  arrived  there,  and  it  excited  the  utmost  indignation  among  the 
lazzaroni.  These  men  flew  to  arms  with  great  unanimity,  and  deter- 
mined to  resist  both  the  payment  of  the  subsidy,  and  the  entrance  of  the 
invading  forces.  They  drew  the  artillery  from  the  arsenal,  threw  up 
intrenchments  on  the  heights  commanding  the  approaches  to  the  city,  and 
barricaded  the  principal  streets.  For  three  days,  commencing  on  the 
21st  of  January,  1799,  a  dreadful  combat  raged  around  the  walls.  The 
French  veterans  came  on,  column  after  column,  with  the  most  desperate 
bravery,  but  they  were  met  with  equal  resolution  by  the  defenders  of  the 
town,  and  no  material  advantage  had  yet  been  gained  by  either  party, 
when,  during  an  assault  on  one  of  the  gates,  Michel  le  Fou,  the  lazzaroni 
leader,  was  made  prisoner.  He  was  conducted  to  the  head-quarters  of 
the  French  general,  where,  being  kindly  treated,  he  offered  to  mediate 
between  the  contending  parties.  This  at  once  terminated  the  combat. 
The  French  took  possession  of  the  city,  disarmed  the  lazzaroni,  appointed 
a  provisional  government  of  twenty-one  members,  and  styled  the  new 
democratic  state  the  Parthenopeian  Republic. 

Ireland  was  doomed  next  to  experience  the  turmoil  of  revolutionary  ex- 
plosion.  All  the  horrors  of  the  Reign  of  Terror  had  failed  to  open  the  eyes 
of  the  Irish  people  to  the  real  tendency  of  French  reform;  nor  could  the 
experience  of  other  European  states  which  had  sought  the  aid  of  France 
in  establishing  democratic  governments  within  their  dominions,  teach  tho 


112  HISTORY    OF    EUR  OPE. 

inhabitants  of  Ireland  the  danger  of  intriguing  with  the  emissaries  of  the 
Directory.  The  greater  part  of  the  Catholics — who  constituted  three- 
fourths  of  the  inhabitants — leagued  themselves  together  for  establishing 
a  Republic  in  alliance  with  France ;  for  the  severance  of  all  connection 
with  England,  the  restoration  of  the  Catholic  religion,  and  the  reclaiming 
of  lands  confiscated  by  the  British  government  during  the  various  rebel- 
lions that  had  taken  place  in  Ireland  in  the  two  preceding  centuries. 

The  system  on  which  this  immense  insurrection  was  organized>  was 
one  of  the  most  simple  and  efficacious  that  ever  was  devised.  Persons 
in  every  part  of  Ireland  were  sworn  into  an  association,  called  the  Society 
of  United  Irishmen,  the  real  objects  of  which  were  kept  a  profound  secret, 
while  the  ostensible  ones  were  best  calculated  to  allure  the  populace. 
Each  meeting  was  represented  by  five  persons  in  a  committee,  vested 
with  the  management  of  all  affairs.  From  every  committee,  a  deputy 
attended  a  superior  body;  one  or  two  deputies  from  these  composed  a 
county  committee ;  two  from  every  county  committee,  a  provincial  com- 
mittee ;  and  this  last  body  elected  by  ballot  five  persons  to  superintend 
the  whole  business  of  the  Union :  the  names  of  the  five  thus  appointed 
were  communicated  only  to  the  secretaries  of  the  provincial  committees, 
who  were  officially  intrusted  with  the  canvassing  of  the  votes.  Thus, 
though  their  power  was  unlimited,  their  agency  was  invisible,  and  some 
hundred  thousands  of  men  obeyed  the  dictates  of  an  unknown  authority. 
Liberation  from  tithes  and  dues  to  the  Protestant  clergy,  and  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  were  the  principal  inducements  held  out 
to  the  lower  classes;  while  Parliamentary  reform  was  the  ostensible 
motive  submitted  to  the  country  at  large,  that  being  best  calculated  to 
conceal  the  ultimate  design,  and  enlist  in  the  cause  the  greater  number 
of  the  respectable  classes. 

To  resist  this  formidable  combination,  another  society,  composed  of 
those  attached  to  the  British  government  and  Protestant  ascendency,  was 
formed  with  the  title  of  Orangemen.  The  same  vehement  zeal  and 
ardent  passion  which  have  always  distinguished  the  Irish  character, 
marked  the  efforts  of  the  rival  parties,  and  the  feuds  between  them  became 
universal.  Deeds  of  depredation,  rapine  and  murder  filled  the  land;  and 
it  was  sometimes  hard  to  say  whether  the  most  violent  acts  were  perpe- 
trated by  the  open  enemies  of  the  law,  or  by  its  unruly  defenders. 

The  British  government,  meantime,  were  not  at  all  aware  of  the 
extent  of  the  danger.  They  had  received  only  some  vague  information 
of  the  existence  of  a  seditious  confederacy,  at  the  moment  when  the  insur- 
rection was  on  the  point  of  breaking  out.  But  at  this  juncture,  the  de- 
struction of  the  Dutch  fleet  off  Camperdown  having  deprived  the  insurgents 
of  the  expected  aid  from  France,  by  destroying  the  means  of  transporting 
the  French  troops,  the  malcontents  became  desperate  and  commenced  the 
rebellion  without  any  concentrated  action.  They  maintained,  therefore, 
a  Vendean  system  of  warfare  in  the  southern  counties,  and  compelled  all 
the  respectable  inhabitants  to  fly  to  the  towns  for  safety  from  massacre 
and  conflagration.  These  disorders  were  soon  repressed,  and  with  great 
severity,  by  the  British  regular  troops,  aided  by  forty  thousand  yeomanry 
of  the  country :  but  the  excesses  of  the  government  forces,  inseparable 
from  this  sort  of  strife,  excited  the  deepest  feeling  of  revenge  in  the  furious 
and  undisciplined  multitude. 

On  the  19th  of  February,  1798,  Lord  Moira  made  an  eloquent  speech 


1798.5  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  113 

m  the  British  Parliament  in  favor  of  the  insurgents ;  but  the  period  for 
accommodation  was  past.  On  the  same  day,  the  Irish  committees  came 
to  a  formal  resolution  to  regard  no  offers  from  either  house  of  Parliamert, 
and  agree  to  no  terms  but  a  total  separation  from  Great  Britain.  Although 
the  designs  of  the  insurgents  were  now  revealed,  the  names  of  the  leaders 
were  unknown,  till  at  length,  one  of  the  chiefs  having  betrayed  this  in- 
formation,  fourteen  of  the  principal  individuals  were  arrested  at  Dublin. 
The  conspirators  were  thus  deprived  of  their  most  respectable  and  intelli- 
gent leaders ;  but  the  rebellion  nevertheless  broke  out  in  different  parts 
of  Ireland,  on  the  23rd  of  May.  A  great  number  of  isolated  combats 
took  place,  and  two  or  three  pitched  battles  occurred,  between  the  rebels 
and  the  regular  troops,  which  were  accompanied  and  followed  by  a  thou- 
sand acts  of  ferocious  cruelty ;  but  in  the  event,  the  discipline  and  skill 
of  the  government  soldiers  prevailed,  and  by  the  end  of  July  the  insurgents 
were  entirely  subdued,  excepting  a  few  scattered  bands  in  the  mountains 
of  Wicklow  and  Wexford. 

So  unbounded  was  the  arrogance,  and  so  reckless  the  policy,  of  the 
French  government  at  this  time,  they  nearly  involved  themselves  in  a 
war  with  the  United  States  of  North  America ;  a  country  where  demo- 
cratic institutions  prevailed  to  the  greatest  extent,  and  where  gratitude  to 
France  was  unbounded  for  services  rendered  during  the  American  war 
with  Great  Britain. 

The  origin  of  the  difficulty  was  a  decree  of  the  Directory,  issued  in 
January,  1798,  ordering  that  all  ships  having  for  their  cargoes,  in  whole 
or  in  part,  English  merchandise,  should  be  lawful  prize,  whoever  was  the 
proprietor  of  such  merchandise,  which  should  be  held  contraband  from 
the  single  fact  of  its  coming  from  England  or  from  any  of  its  colonies ; 
that  the  harbors  of  France  should  be  shut  against  all  vessels  which  had 
so  much  as  touched  at  an  English  harbor,  and  that  neutral  sailors  found 
on  board  of  English  vessels  should  be  put  to  death.  This  barbarous 
decree  immediately  brought  France  into  collision  with  the  United  States, 
as  the  ships  of  the  latter  country  were  at  that  period  the  great  neutral 
carriers  of  the  world.  Letters  of  marque  were  issued  by  the  Directory, 
and  an  immense  number  of  American  vessels  which  had  touched  at  Eng- 
lish ports,  were  brought  into  France.  The  American  government  sent 
envoys  to  Paris  to  remonstrate  against  these  proceedings:  they  were 
however  denied  an  audience  with  the  Directory,  but  permitted  to  remain 
in  Paris,  and  addressed  by  Talleyrand  and  his  inferior  agents.  It  was 
then  intimated  to  the  envoys  that  the  intention  of  the  Directory  when  re- 
fusing to  receive  them  in  a  public,  and  yet  permitting  them  to  remain  in 
a  private  capacity,  was  to  lay  the  United  States  under  a  contribution  of 
five  millions  of  dollars  as  a  loan  to  the  French  government,  and  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  thousand  dollars  for  the  private  use  of  the  Directors.  This 
disgraceful  proposal  was  urged  on  the  envoys,  not  only  by  the  subaltern 
agents,  but  by  Talleyrand  himself,  who  openly  avowed  that  nothing  could 
be  done  at  Paris  without  money.  These  terms  were  indignantly  rejected ; 
the  envoys  left  Paris ;  letters  of  marque  were  issued  by  the  American 
President ;  all  commercial  intercourse  with  France  was  suspended ; 
Washington  was  appointed  generalissimo  of  the  forces  of  the  United  States ; 
the  treaties  with  France  were  declared  to  be  at  an  end ;  and  every  pre- 
paration was  made  to  sustain  the  national  independence. 

The  Hanse  Towns  were  not  fortunate  enough  to  escape  the  exactions 


114  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XV, 

of  the  Directory.  Their  distance  from  the  scene  of  contest ;  their  neu- 
trality, so  favorable  to  the  commerce  of  the  Republic;  the  protection 
openly  afforded  them  by  Prussia,  could  not  save  them  from  French  rapa- 
city. Their  ships,  bearing  a  neutral  flag,  were  daily  captured  by  the 
French  cruisers ;  and  they  at  length  purchased  a  license  to  navigate  the 
high  seas  by  secretly  paying  near  four  millions  of  francs  to  the  Repub- 
lican rulers. 

So  long  as  the  European  states  retained  the  slightest  hope  of  maintaining 
their  independence,  these  incessant  usurpations  of  the  French  government 
could  not  fail  to  bring  about  a  renewal  of  the  war.  France  had  made 
more  rapid  strides  toward  universal  dominion  during  one  year  of  pacific 
encroachment,  than  in  the  six  preceding  years  of  hostility.  The  continu 
ance  of  amicable  relations  was  favorable  to  the  secret  propagation  of  the 
revolutionary  mania;  and,  without  the  shock  of  war,  the  independence  of 
the  nations  was  silently  melting  away  before  the  insidious  but  incessant 
efforts  of  democratic  ambition.  These  considerations,  strongly  excited 
by  the  infamous  subjugation  of  Switzerland  and  of  the  Papal  States,  led 
to  a  general  feeling  throughout  all  the  European  monarchies  of  the  ne- 
cessity of  a  coalition  to  resist  the  farther  encroachments  of  France.  The 
Emperor  of  Russia  evinced  his  readiness  to  join  in  such  a  confederacy ; 
while  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  meeting  numberless  difficulties  in  adjusting 
with  the  French  government  the  details  of  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio, 
virtually  dissolved  that  compact  by  certain  military  preparations,  which 
were  considered  equivalent  to  a  declaration  of  war  against  France. 


CHAPTER    XV. 

CAMPAIGN    OF    1799. 

ALTHOUGH  Austria  was,  to  outward  appearance,  at  peace  with  France 
after  the  armistice  of  Leoben,  she  had  been  indefatigable  in  her  exertions, 
since  that  event,  to  prepare  for  a  renewal  of  the  war.  Her  army  was 
raised  to  two  hundred  and  forty  thousand  men,  supported  by  an  immense 
train  of  artillery,  all  admirably  equipped  and  ready  to  take  the  field. 

The  Emperor  of'  Russia  embarked  warmly  in  the  cause,  and  ordered 
a  Muscovite  army  of  sixty  thousand  men  to  begin  its  march  from  Poland 
toward  the  north  of  Italy ;  he  also  concluded  a  treaty  of  alliance,  offen- 
sive and  defensive,  with  Great  Britain,  engaging  to  furnish  an  auxiliary 
force  of  forty-five  thousand  men,  to  act  in  conjunction  with  the  British 
forces  in  the  north  of  Germany  ;  and  England,  on  her  part,  agreed  to 
advance  two  hundred  and  twenty-five  thousand  pounds  sterling  to  the 
Emperor,  and  pay,  besides,  a  monthly  subsidy  of  seventy-five  thousand 
pounds.  Paul  at  the  same  time  gave  an  asylum  to  Louis  XVIII.  in  the 
capital  of  Courland,  and  entertained  with  munificence  the  French  emi- 
grants who  sought  refuge  in  his  dominions.  But  all  his  efforts  failed  to 
induce  Prussia  to  swerve  from  her  neutrality :  she  stood  by  as  an  uncon- 
cerned spectator  of  a  strife  in  which  her  own  independence  was  at  stake, 
when  her  army,  now  two  hundred  and  twenty  'housand  strong,  might  have 


1799.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  115 

interfered  with  decisive  effect.  She  was  rewarded  for  her  forbearance  by 
the  battle  of  Jena. 

Great  Britain  also  exerted  herself  for  the  approaching  contest.  To 
meet  the  increased  expenses  which  the  treaty  with  Russia  and  the  prose- 
cution of  the  war  were  likely  to  occasion,  Mr.  Pitt  proposed  a  tax  hitherto 
unknown  in  Britain,  and  now  designated  the  Income  Tax.  It  was  thus 
graduated :  all  incomes  of  less  than  sixty  pounds  a  year  were  exempt  from 
the  impost ;  those  of  less  than  one  hundred  and  five  pounds  paid  a  tax  of 
two  and  a  half  per  cent. ;  and  those  over  two  hundred  pounds,  ten  per  cent. 
The  intention  of  this  tax  was  to  require  from  each  person  a  contribution 
to  the  wants  of  the  state  in  exact  proportion  to  his  ability ;  an  admirable 
theory,  and,  if  carried  fully  into  effect,  would  have  gone  far  toward  re- 
lieving the  financial  embarrassments  consequent  on  the  war.  The  land 
forces  of  Great  Britain  were  this  year  raised  to  one  hundred  and  thirty- 
eight  thousand  men,  the  sea  force  to  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand, 
and  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  were  embodied  in  the  militia. 

The  forces  of  the  Republic  were  greatly  inferior  to  those  of  the  allies 
at  the  opening  of  the  campaign.  Their  numbers  were  reduced  by  dis- 
charges and  desertions  to  an  unprecedented  extent ;  their  choicest  troops 
were  exiled  in  Egypt ;  and  the  officers  of  the  armies  in  the  conquered 
provinces,  were  so  much  more  intent  on  political  intrigues  and  rapine  than 
on  the  proper  discipline  and  regulation  of  the  soldiers,  that  their  effective 
strength  was  much  impaired.  Nevertheless,  the  French  commenced  hos- 
tilities in  the  Grisons  with  considerable  success  ;  and  in  a  series  of  actions 
in  this  quarter,  during  the  month  of  March,  made  themselves  masters  of 
the  upper  extremity  of  the  two  great  valleys  of  the  Tyrol,  the  Inn  and  the 
Adige.  Massena  and  Oudinot  then  advanced  to  Feldkirch,  a  fortress 
situated  on  a  rocky  eminence  and  commanding  the  principal  passage  from 
the  Vorarlberg  into  the  Tyrol :  but  here  they  met  with  a  serious  repulse, 
and  retreated  with  the  loss  of  three  thousand  men. 

In  the  mean  time,  Jourdan  opened  the  campaign  on  the  Rhine,  which 
river  he  crossed  at  Kehl,  and  marched  thence  toward  the  Black  Forest ; 
but  learning  that  the  Archduke  was  approaching  with  superior  forces,  he 
moved  to  a  strong  position  between  the  Lake  of  Constance  and  the  Danube.. 
The  Austrians  commenced  the  attack  on  the  advanced  guard  of  the  Re- 
publicans at  Ostrach,  and  were  for  a  time  bravely  resisted  ;  but  at  length 
the  French  left  wing,  under  St.  Cyr,  having  been  outflanked  at  Mengen, 
Jourdan  was  forced  to  retreat  with  his  whole  army  to  Stockach.  At  this 
place,  all  the  roads  to  Swabia,  Switzerland  and  the  valley  of  the  Neckar 
unite,  and  Jourdan  here  made  a  stand,  because  by  further  retreat  he  would 
have  abandoned  his  communications  with  Massena  and  the  Grisons.  The 
Archduke  followed  closely  the  retiring  columns  of  the  French,  and  was 
making  his  dispositions  to  attack,  when  Jourdan  resolved  to  anticipate  him 
in  that  movement.  At  five  o'clock  in  the  morning,  on  the  26th  of  March, 
all  the  French  columns  were  in  order  of  battle,  and  the  left  wing,  under 
St.  Cyr  and  Soult,  was  soon  engaged  with  the  Austrian  right  at  Liptingen. 
This  attack,  after  an  obstinate  resistance  on  the  part  of  the  Austrians,  was 
successful ;  and  as  their  right  was  turned,  the  victory  seemed  to  be  decided 
in  favor  of  the  French.  But  the  Archduke  hastened  to  the  scene  of  danger 
with  twelve  squadrons  of  cuirassiers  and  six  battalions  of  grenadiers,  who 
soon  changed  the  fortune  of  the  day.  The  battle  now  raged  along  the 
whole  line,  each  party  contesting  its  ground  with  the  greatest  bravery ; 


116  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XV. 

but  the  Austrians  at  length  succeeded  in  cutting  off  the  French  left  wing 
so  entirely  from  the  main  body,  that  St.  Cyr  was  forced  to  retreat  across 
the  Danube,  and  trust  to  his  own  resources  for  escape  in  a  hostile  country. 
The  French  centre  and  right  had  hitherto  maintained  their  position ;  but 
after  St.  Cyr's  discomfiture,  they  fell  back  toward  the  Black  Forest. 
Jourdan  was  so  much  disconcerted  by  the  result  of  this  action,  that,  after 
reaching  the  defiles  of  the  Forest,  he  surrendered  the  command  of  the 
army  temporarily  to  Ernouf,  chief  of  the  staff,  and  set  out  for  Paris  to 
inform  the  Directory  of  the  condition  of  the  troops. 

The  Austrians  had  now  an  opportunity  to  overwhelm  the  French  army 
on  its  retreat,  and  the  Archduke  burned  with  impatience  to  crush  the 
invaders  by  a  decisive  blow ;  but  he  was  restrained  by  the  injudicious 
measures  of  the  Aulic  Council,  who  forbade  his  advance  toward  the  Rhine 
until  Switzerland  was  cleared  of  the  enemy.  He  was  therefore  compelled 
to  put  his  army  into  cantonments  between  Engen  and  Wahlweis,  and  the 
French  leisurely  effected  their  retreat  through  the  Black  Forest. 

While  these  operations  were  in  progress  north  of  the  Alps,  events 
equally  important  were  taking  place  in  Italy,  where  Scherer  had  been 
placed  in  command  of  the  French  army.  This  officer  had  gained  some 
distinction  in  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees,  in  the  campaign  of  1795,  but  he 
was  unknown  to  the  Italian  army,  and  possessed  the  confidence  neither 
of  his  officers  nor  soldiers.  His  first  movement  was  upon  the  Austrian 
camp  at  Pastrengo,  where  his  left  wing  and  centre  were  victorious,  but 
his  right  suffered  so  severely  from  the  Austrians  under  General  Kray, 
that  the  advantages  of  the  battle  were  nearly  divided  between  the  two 
armies.  This  occurred  on  the  26th  of  March.  On  the  30th,  Scherer 
resolved  to  attempt  the  passage  of  the  Adige  and  push  on  to  Verona  ;  and 
he  ordered  Serrurier  with  seven  thousand  men  to  cross  at  Polo,  which 
that  general  accordingly  did,  and  advanced  boldly  on  the  high  road  lead- 
ing to  Trent :  but  he  was  attacked  by  Kray,  and  defeated  with  a  loss  in 
killed  and  prisoners  of  nearly  three  thousand  men.  Notwithstanding  this 
check,  Scherer  persisted  in  his  design  on  Verona,  and  concentrated  his 
army  near  Magnano,  where  Kray  attacked  him  on  the  5th  of  April.  The 
French  forces  amounted  to  forty-one  thousand  men,  and  the  Austrians  to 
forty-five  thousand.  For  several  hours  victory  inclined  to  the  Republican 
standard,  and  the  Imperialists  were  gradually  losing  ground,  when  Kray 
brought  up  a  large  reserve  of  artillery  and  cavalry,  who  soon  drove  the 
French  from  the  field.  Scherer  retreated  behind  the  Tartaro,  carrying 
with  him  two  thousand  prisoners  and  several  pieces  of  cannon  taken  early 
in  the  action ;  but  his  own  loss  was  four  thousand  killed  and  wounded, 
four  thousand  prisoners,  seven  standards,  eight  pieces  of  cannon  and  forty 
caissons,  which  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Imperialists. 

The  Republicans  were  thrown  into  the  deepest  dejection  by  this  defeat : 
they  retired  on  the  day  following  behind  the  Mincio;  and  Scherer,  not 
feeling  himself  in  security  even  there,  continued  his  retreat  across  the 
Oglio  and  the  Adda.  This  retrograde  movement  was  performed  in  such 
haste  and  confusion  that  the  troops  loudly  complained  of  their  commander's 
incapacity,  and  demanded  his  removal.  Their  discontent,  and  that  of  all 
France,  was  further  augmented  by  intelligence  of  the  capitulation  of 
Corfu,  which  surrendered  to  the  combined  forces  of  Turkey  and  Russia 
on  the  3rd  of  March. 

Massena,  who  after  Jourdan's  withdrawal  was  intrusted  with  the  com. 


1799.]  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  117 

mand  of  the  French  forces  both  on  the  Rhine  and  in  the  Alps,  now  found 
himself  under  the  necessity  of  taking  a  defensive  position  in  the  Grisons, 
as  the  defeat  of  the  army  of  Italy  threatened  to  bring  Kray's  victorious 
divisions  on  his  flank.  He  therefore  intrenched  himself  on  the  line  of  the 
Limmat  and  Linth,  and  established  his  head-quarters  at  Zurich. 

The  Archduke  resumed  the  offensive  by  a  general  attack  on  Massena's 
whole  line,  on  the  14th  of  May,  which  was  so  far  successful  that  Massena, 
after  sustaining  a  loss  of  near  five  thousand  men  in  prisoners  alone,  was 
forced  to  retreat  from  the  Grisons  and  collect  his  whole  force  around 
Zurich.  The  Austrian  loss  in  this  movement  was  only  seventy-one  men; 
an  extraordinary  but  well- authenticated  proof  of  the  advantage  of  offensive 
operations  in  mountain  warfare,  and  of  the  great  disasters  to  which  the 
best  troops  are  subjected  by  being  exposed,  when  acting  on  the  defensive, 
to  the  loss  of  their  communications  by  having  their  positions  turned. 

Encouraged  by  this  success,  and  by  the  near  approach  of  the  Russian 
army,  the  Archduke  issued  a  proclamation  exhorting  the  Swiss  to  take  up 
arms  against  their  oppressors  and  cooperate  with  him  in  driving  them  to 
their  own  frontier.  At  the  same  time,  he  ordered  a  concentration  of  all 
his  forces,  and  prepared  for  a  vigorous  attack  on  Massena.  The  latter 
general,  anxious  to  prevent  a  junction  between  Hotze  and  the  Archduke, 
left  his  intrenchments  and  attacked  the  Imperialists'  advanced  guard  at 
Stein.  An  indecisive  action  ensued,  which,  though  resulting  in  favor  of 
the  French,  did  not  prevent  the  junction  of  the  Austrian  forces ;  and  the 
following  day,  the  Archduke  retaliated  on  the  French  columns  and  drove* 
them  back  to  their  intrenchments.  This  repulse  of  the  French  centre  was 
followed  by  a  defeat  of  their  right  wing  under  Lecourbe ;  who,  being  as- 
sailed by  a  detachment  of  ten  thousand  men  from  Suwarrow's  army,  was 
forced  to  abandon  the  heights  of  St.  Gothard.  The  Archduke  now  resolved 
to  attack  Massena  in  his  almost  impregnable  position  at  Zurich  ;  and,  hav- 
ing drawn  together  the  principal  part  of  his  forces,  pushed  them  forward 
to  the  French  lines  on  the  5th  of  June.  A  desperate  battle  took  place, 
but  Massena  maintained  his  ground  against  the  utmost  impetuosity  of  the 
Austrian  assault,  and  the  Archduke  was  at  length  compelled  to  retire  with 
a  loss  of  three  thousand  men.  He  was  not,  however,  discouraged  by  this 
failure ;  and  after  one  day's  repose,  made  his  dispositions  to  renew  the 
attack  :  but  Massena,  apprehensive  of  the  result,  retreated  during  the  night 
to  Mount  Albis,  leaving  behind  him  one  hundred  and  fifty  pieces  of  can- 
non and  an  immense  quantity  of  warlike  stores. 

A  few' days  after  the  battle  of  Magnano,  Suwarrow,  with  his  Russian 
veterans,  joined  the  Austrian  army,  which  was  still  encamped  on  the  banks 
of  the  Mincio ;  and  the  command  of  the  whole  devolved  on  the  Russian 
field-marshal.  Suwarrow's  favorite  weapon  was  the  bayonet ;  his  system 
of  war,  incessant  and  vigorous  attack ;  and  the  temper  of  hn  mind,  as  well 
as  the  general  character  of  his  tactics,  was  aptly  illustrated  by  his  first 
order  to  General  Chastelar,  chief  of  the  Austrian  staff.  That  officer  having 
proposed  to  reconnoitre  the  French  position,  Suwarrow  answered  hastily : 
"  Reconnoitre  !  that  does  not  belong  to  my  system  :  it  is  of  no  use  but  to 
the  timid,  and  to  inform  the  enemy  that  you  are  coming.  It  is  never  dif- 
ficult to  find  your  opponents  when  you  really  wish  to  find  them.  No  ! 
Form  column;  charge  bayonet;  plunge  into  the  centre  of  the  enemy — that 
is  my  way  to  reconnoitre !" 

Moreau,  who  had  superseded  Scherer  in  the  command  of  the  French 


118  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  [CiiAi\  XV. 

army,  finding  his  forces  reduced  by  sickness  and  the  sword  to  twenty-eight 
thousand  combatants,  retired  toward  Milan,  leaving  a  large  quantity  of 
military  stores  and  reserved  artillery  parks  at  Cremona,  to  the  allies. 
Suwarrow  detached  twenty  thousand  men  under  Kray  to  besiege  Peschiera 
and  blockade  Mantua,  while  he,  with  the  main  body  of  his  troops,  pursued 
the  retreating  army  of  Moreau.  On  the  25th  of  April,  he  reached  the 
Adda,  and  prepared  to  force  a  passage  across  it.  Moreau  made  his  dis- 
positions to  oppose  the  passage  at  what  he  conceived  to  be  the  most  exposed 
part  of  the  river ;  but  while  his  attention  was  occupied  with  the  allied 
centre,  a  detachment  of  Austrians  under  General  Ott  succeeded  in  con- 
structing a  bridge  during  the  night  at  Trezzo,  and  passed  over  the  whole 
right  wing,  while  Wukassowich  surprised  the  passage  at  Brivio.  These 
movements  were  decisive.  Grenier's  division  was  driven  toward  Milan 
with  a  loss  of  two  thousand  five  hundred  men,  and  Serrurier,  being  isolated 
by  Wukassowich,  and  at  length  entirely  surrounded  by  the  allies,  was 
forced  to  surrender  with  his  whole  corps,  seven  thousand  strong.  Su- 
warrow pressed  forward  to  Milan,  and  made  a  triumphal  entry  there  on 
the  29th  of  April ;  while  Moreau,  having  left  three  thousand  men  to  gar- 
rison the  citadel  of  Milan,  evacuated  the  town,  divided  the  remnant  of  his 
army  into  two  columns,  marched  with  one  to  Turin,  and  dispatched  the 
other,  under  Victor  and  Laboissiere,  toward  Alexandria,  to  occupy  the 
approaches  to  Genoa. 

Suwarrow  was  now  master  of  all  the  plains  of  Lombardy,  and  at  the 
head  of  an  overwhelming  force  ;  but  he  did  not  evince  that  activity  in  fol- 
lowing up  his  adversary  which  might  have  been  expected  from  the  general 
vigor  of  his  character.  In  the  mean  time,  Kray  was  gaining  ground  in  the 
rear.  Orci,  Novi,  Peschiera  and  Pizzighitone  surrendered  to  his  arms, 
with  a  hundred  pieces  of  cannon,  twenty  gun-boats,  a  siege  equipage  and 
immense  stores  of  ammunition  and  provisions  ;  which  acquisitions  enabled 
him  to  draw  closer  the  blockade  of  Mantua. 

At  length,  after  giving  himself  up  to  the  festivities  of  Milan  for  more 
than  a  week,  Suwarrow  left  four  thousand  men  to  blockade  the  citadel  of 
that  town,  and  set  out  for  Alexandria.  On  the  night  of  the  llth  of  May, 
one  of  his  divisions,  under  Rosenberg,  was  defeated  in  an  attempt  to  cross 
the  Po ;  and  on  the  day  following,  an  action  took  place  between  his  ad- 
vanced guard  under  Bagrathion  and  the  French  division  of  Victor,  near 
Alexandria ;  when  the  Republicans,  after  an  obstinate  defence,  were 
forced  to  retreat  under  shelter  of  the  cannon  of  Alexandria.  Moreau  now 
ordered  Victor  to  retire  to  Genoa,  while  he  himself  retreated  to  Turin ; 
whither  Suwarrow  eagerly  pursued  him.  On  the  27th  of  May,  Wukas- 
sowich, with  the  Russian  advanced  guard,  having  by  the  assistance  of  the 
inhabitants  surprised  one  of  the  gates,  the  allies-forced  their  way  into  the 
town  and  the  French  retreated  to  the  citadel,  leaving  in  the  hands  of  the 
victors  two  hundred  and  sixty-one  pieces  of  cannon,  eighty  mortars,  sixty 
thousand  muskets,  and  all  the  ammunition  and  stores  which  had  been  ac. 
cumulating  there  since  the  first  occupation  of  Italy  by  Napoleon.  On  the 
same  day,  Suwarrow  received  intelligence  of  the  surrender  of  the  citadel 
of  Milan ;  an  event  which  enabled  the  besieging  force  of  that  fortress  to 
join  with  the  army  before  Mantua,  and  the  artillery  was  dispatched  to 
Tortona,  which  place  was  now  closely  invested.  After  the  capture  of 
Turin,  Moreau's  position  became  nearly  desperate ;  but  by  constructing, 
with  herculean  labor,  a  practicable  road  across  the  Appenines,  he  at  length 


1799.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  119 

made  good  his  retreat  to  Loano,  where  he  effected  a  junction  with  Victor's 
troops.  Thus,  in  less  than  three  months  from  the  opening  of  the  campaign 
on  the  Adige,  the  French  standards  were  driven  to  the  summit  of  the 
Alps  ;  the  whole  plain  of  Lornbardy,  excepting  a  few  of  its  fortresses,  was 
regained  ;  and  the  conquests  of  Napoleon  were  lost  to  France  in  less  time 
than  he  had  taken  to  achieve  them. 

The  affairs  of  Naples  began  to  attract  attention  while  these  events  were 
yet  in  progress.  The  exactions  of  the  Directory,  the  desecration  of  the 
churches,  and  the  abolition  of  religious  festivals,  had  of  late  excited  in  the 
inhabitants  of  that  kingdom  the  most  lively  indignation  and  horror,  and 
insurrections  were  the  immediate  consequence.  At  this  juncture,  Mac- 
donald,  who  was  in  command  of  the  Republican  troops  at  Naples,  received 
orders,  on  the  7th  of  May,  to  evacuate  the  South  of  Italy  and  hasten  to 
the  support  of  Moreau,  in  Lombardy.  He  therefore  assembled  all  his 
disposable  forces,  and  set  off  for  Rome  at  the  head  of  twenty  thousand  men ; 
and  although  his  movement  was  a  signal  for  a  general  rising  on  the  part 
of  the  Neapolitans,  and  his  march  was  harassed  by  their  attacks  at  every 
step,  he  reached  that  city  on  the  16th,  and  advanced  as  far  as  Lucca  by 
the  end  of  the  month,  without  serious  loss. 

Macdonald  was  now  in  full  communication  with  Moreau,  and  as  their 
united  forces  amounted  to  thirty-seven  thousand  effective  troops,  they  de- 
termined to  resume  the  offensive,  relieve  Mantua  and  Tortona  in  the  first 
instance,  and  afterward  compel  the  allies  to  evacuate  Lombardy.  The. 
allied  troops  at  this  moment  in  Italy  exceeded  a  hundred  thousand  men, 
but  they  were  dispersed  over  a  large  surface,  and  not  more  than  eight-and- 
twenty  thousand  were  assembled  at  any  one  point ;  so  that  the  project  of 
the  Republican  generals  was  not  without  promise  of  success.  Macdonald 
therefore  pushed  on  to  Modena,  where  Hohenzollern,  with  five  thousand 
Austrians,  was  in  command,  and  quickly  defeated  him  with  a  loss  of  fifteen 
hundred  men.  The  French  general  hastened  thence  to  Parma,  where 
Ott  was  stationed  with  six  thousand  troops  :  and  he,  too,  was  compelled  to 
make  a  precipitate  retreat. 

The  moment  that  Suwarrow  heard  of  Macdonald's  advance,  he  prepared 
to  meet  him  with  an  energy  befitting  the  emergency ;  and  by  his  great 
exertions  and  the  promptness  with  which  his  plans  of  combination  were 
carried  out,  no  less  than  thirty-six  thousand  troops  were  assembled  at 
Garofalo  on  the  15th  of  June.  Macdonald  nevertheless  pressed  forward, 
not  knowing  the  amount  of  the  allied  forces,  and  on  the  17th  crossed  the 
Trebbia  and  attacked  the  advanced  guard  of  the  Imperialists.  This  corps 
was  soon  driven  back  and  pursued  until  the  columns  of  the  main  body, 
under  Suwarrow,  came  up,  when  the  French  in  turn  gave  ground.  Vic- 
tor brought  up  his  division  to  protect  the  retreat  of  the  Republicans,  who 
retired  in  good  order  until  the  Cossacks  charged  them  in  flank ;  when,  in 
spite  of  the  discipline  of  the  troops  and  the  coolness  with  which  they  threw 
themselves  into  squares  to  resist  the  onset  of  these  children  of  the  desert, 
the  French  ranks  were  broken  and  a  great  part  of  their  division  cut  to 
pieces.  A  column  of  allies  pursued  the  fugitives  across  the  Trebbia,  but 
they  were  repulsed  by  the  French  main  body ;  and  here,  for  the  day,  the 
combat  terminated.  The  hostile  armies  bivouacked  that  night  on  the  same 
ground  which,  nineteen  hundred  years  before,  was  occupied  by  Hannibal 
and  the  Roman  legions.  The  battle  was  renewed  at  six  o'clock  the  fol- 
lowing morning  between  the  troops  of  Bagrathion  and  the  French  left  under 

10 


120  HISTORY     OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XV. 

Victor,  who  contested  the  ground  through  the  whole  day,  at  the  close  of 
which  Victor  was  driven  back  with  great  slaughter.  In  the  course  of  the 
day,  the  action  became  general,  but  the  result  was  at  all  points  the  same. 
The  French  retired  with  loss  to  their  former  ground,  and  again  the  Trebbia 
formed  the  line  of  separation  between  the  two  armies  for  the  night.  On 
the  19th  of  June,  the  sun  rose  for  the  third  time  on  this  scene  of  slaughter ; 
and  at  ten  o'clock  the  whole  French  army,  divided  into  two  lines  presented 
itself  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river.  Suwarrow  gave  the  order  to  attack ; 
but  at  the  same  moment,  he  saw  the  first  French  line  advance  and  throw 
themselves  into  the  stream.  Suwarrow  awaited  their  approach ;  and, 
after  a  murderous  strife,  the  Republicans  were  overwhelmed  and  driven 
back  across  the  river  with  great  loss.  At  this  moment,  Prince  Lich- 
tenstein  charged  the  second  line,  that  had  advanced  to  support  the  first, 
and  again  the  steady  valor  of  the  allies  prevailed.  The  French  were 
driven  back,  and  the  battle  was  at  an  end.  The  total  loss  on  each  side 
w.as  about  twelve  thousand  men  killed  and  wounded,  but  the  victoiy  re- 
mained with  the  allies,  as  they  had  constantly  defeated  the  French  advance 
and  finally  retained  possession  of  the  field.  Macdonald  retreated  toward 
the  Appenines  during  the  night  of  the  19th  of  June. 

Early  in  the  morning  of  the  20th,  a  dispatch  from  Macdonald  to  Moreau 
was  intercepted,  designating  the  line  of  the  French  retreat ;  whereupon, 
Suwarrow  immediately  pushed  forward  in  pursuit.  Victor's  detachment 
in  the  rear  was  soon  overtaken,  broken,  and  the  greater  part  made 
prisoners.  The  Austrian  General  Melas  advanced  to  Placentia,  where 
he  made  prisoners  of  the  French  wounded,  five  thousand  in  number, 
including  four  generals:  and  at  length  Macdonald,  with  a  straggling 
remnant  of  his  army,  reached  Parma,  and  proceeded  thence  slowly  to 
Genoa ;  while  Suwarrow  retraced  his  steps,  to  press  with  renewed  vigor 
the  blockade  of  Mantua  and  Tortona.  He  soon  received  intelligence  of 
the  fall  of  the  citadel  of  Turin,  the  garrison  of  which  capitulated,  June 
20th,  on  condition  of  being  sent  back  to  France.  This  was  a  conquest 
of  great  importance,  as  it  relieved  the  besieging  force,  and  enabled  it  to 
join  the  main  army,  besides  putting  in  possession  of  the  allies  one  of  the 
strongest  fortresses  in  Piedmont,  with  six  hundred  and  eighteen  pieces 
of  cannon,  forty  thousand  muskets,  and  fifty  thousand  quintals  of  powder. 

Mutual  exhaustion,  and  the  intervening  ridge  of  the  Appenines,  now 
compelled  a  cessation  of  hostilities  for  more  than  a  month,  during  which 
time  both  parties  were  engaged  in  reorganizing  their  forces. 

The  retreat  of  Macdonald  from  Naples,  was  immediately  followed  by 
the  king's  taking  possession  of  his  throne,  and  the  deliverance  of  the 
Neapolitan  dominions  from  the  French  yoke,  which  was  accomplished 
with  the  assistance  of  the  British  and  Russian  fleets.  The  French  gar- 
risons of  the  several  fortresses  that  were  forced  to  surrender,  were  sent 
home  in  conformity  to  the  conditions  of  the  capitulation;  but  the  insurgent 
N  apolitans,  who  acted  with  the  French  in  accomplishing  the  Revolution, 
were  handed  over  to  a  military  commission,  and  executed  without  mercy. 
A  part  of  these  executions  were  wholly  unjustifiable,  the  insurgents  hav- 
ing, in  some  instances,  been  expressly  included  in  the  capitulations,  and 
surrendered  on  condition  of  security  to  their  persons  and  property.  But 
on  the  arrival  of  the  king  and  his  court,  on  board  Nelson's  fleet,  these 
conditions  were  annulled,  as  not  having  received  the  royal  sanction,  and 
Nelson  himself  concurred  with  the  king  in  that  outrageous  decision. 


1799.]  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  121 

These  victims,  accordingly,  suffered  death  with  the  rest ;  and  their  blood 
has  left  an  ineffaceable  stain  on  the  character  of  the  British  admiral  and 
the  Neapolitan  sovereign.  The  fate  of  Prince  Francis  Carraccioli  was 
equally  conspicuous  and  deplorable.  He  had  been  one  of  the  principal 
leaders  of  the  Revolution,  and,  after  the  capitulation,  retired  to  the 
mountains,  where  he  was  betrayed  by  a  servant,  and  brought  on  board 
of  Nelson's  own  ship.  Here,  a  court-martial  was  summoned,  and  the 
old  man  was  condemned,  hung  at  the  yard-arm,  and  thrown  into  the  sea. 
The  blockade  of  Mantua,  which  had  been  maintained  with  rigor  during 
the  cessation  of  hostilities,  was  now  changed  to  a  siege.  Trenches  were 
opened  on  the  14th  of  July;  on  the  24th,  all  the  besiegers'  batteries  were 
brought  to  bear  on  the  outworks,  and  the  defences  of  the  fortress  rapidly 
sunk  before  the  storm  of  two  hundred  pieces  of  heavy  artillery.  On  the 
30th  of  July,  the  garrison,  reduced  to  seven  thousand  five  hundred  men, 
surrendered  on  condition  of  being  sent  back  to  France  and  not  serving 
again  until  regularly  exchanged.  The  fortress  of  Alexandria  had  already 
surrendered  to  the  allies  under  Count  Bellegarde,  and  Suwarrow,  on  the 
2nd  of  August,  concentrated  his  forces  around  Coni  and  commenced  the 
siege  of  Tortona,  which  place  at  length  capitulated  on  the  llth  of  Sep- 
tember. In  the  mean  time,  however,  the  French  army  under  Joubert, 
who  had  been  appointed  to  supersede  Moreau,  advanced  to  raise  the  siege 
of  the  latter  place.  His  movements  showed  that  he  was  ill-qualified  for 
the  command  he  had  assumed,  as,  in  defiance  of  the  advice  of  his  officers, 
he  unnecessarily  exposed  himself  at  Novi,  in  a  disadvantageous  position, 
and  with  forces  inferior  to  the  allies.  He  was  not  long  in  discovering 
his  error,  but  it  was  too  late  to  repair  it,  for  Suwarrow  hastened  to  attack 
him  before  he  could  retreat.  The  action  was  commenced  by  Kray,  at 
five  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  the  15th  of  August;  he  directed  his  move- 
ment against  the  French  right,  and  was  followed  by  Bellegarde  and  Ott, 
who,  severally,  attacked  the  left  and  centre.  The  Republicans  resisted 
this  onset  with  great  bravery,  but  the  allies,  nevertheless,  were  gaining 
upon  them  on  the  left,  when  Joubert,  placing  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
wavering  line,  was  struck  down  by  a  musket-ball,  and  expired,  crying, 
"  Forward,  my  brave  fellows !  forward !"  Moreau  immediately  took  the 
command,  and  repaired  the  confusion  that  followed  the  death  of  Joubert. 
For  four  successive  hours  the  French  stood  firm,  resisting  the  reiterated 
attacks  of  the  allies,  and  repelling  them  with  a  steady  slaughter,  that 
would  have  discouraged  a  less  resolute  commander  than  Suwarrow.  At 
length,  when  the  efforts  of  both  armies  were  relaxing  from  fatigue,  Melas 
was  ordered  to  charge  with  the  allied  reserve  on  the  French  right.  This 
attack  decided  the  battle.  The  Republicans  were  speedily  thrown  into 
disorder  by  the  onset  of  fresh  troops ;  and,  although  for  a  time  Moreau 
kept  his  centre  steady,  to  protect  a  retreat  that  became  inevitable,  the 
impetuous  assaults  of  the  allies  soon  converted  the  retrograde  movement 
into  a  rout :  infantry,  cavalry  and  artillery  disbanded  and  fled  in  tumult- 
uous confusion,  and  the  scattered  troops  at  length  rallied  at  Gavi,  only 
because  the  allies  were  too  much  exhausted  to  continue  the  pursuit. 
The  loss  of  the  allies  in  this  action  was  seven  thousand  killed  and 
wounded,  and  twelve  hundred  prisoners;  and  that  of  the  French,  seven 
thousand  killed  and  wounded,  three  thousand  prisoners,  thirty-seven 
pieces  of  cannon,  twenty-eight  caissons  and  four  standards.  After  the 
battle,  Suwarrow,  in  obedience  to  his  orders,  detached  Kray  to  the  Tessino 


122  HJSTORYOFEUROPE.  [CHAP.  XV. 

with  twelve  thousand  men ;  and,  on  the  surrender  of  Tortona,  himself 
followed  the  same  route  with  seventeen  thousand ;  while  Moreau  retired 
into  the  fastnesses  of  the  Appenines. 

When  Zurich  surrendered  and  Massena  retreated  to  Mount  Albis,  the 
Archduke  established  the  greater  part  of  his  forces  on  the  hills  which 
separate  the  Glatt  from  the  Limmat,  and  placed  a  line  of  posts  along  that 
river  and  the  Aar,  to  observe  the  movements  of  the  Republicans.  Each 
of  the  opposing  armies  in  Switzerland  numbered  about  seventy-five  thou- 
sand combatants,  and  both  were  waiting  for  reinforcements ;  but,  as  the 
auxiliaries  expected  by  the  Archduke  under  Korsakow  were  much  the 
more  important  in  strength,  Massena  resolved  to  assume  the  offensive 
before  that  officer  could  arrive.  At  the  time  that  the  French  commander 
was  making  preparations  for  this  purpose,  the  Aulic  Council  gave  him 
every  facility  for  success,  by  insanely  ordering  the  Archduke  to  depart 
with  hid  veterans  for  the  Rhine ;  leaving  his  position  to  be  occupied  by 
Korsakow'g  Russians,  who  were  yet  unskilled  in  mountain  warfare  and 
unacquainted  with  French  tactics.  It  was  in  vain  that  the  Archduke 
remonstrated  against  the  ruinous  policy  of  this  division  of  forces :  he  was 
eut  short  by  the  court  of  Vienna  with  the  direction  to  "  execute  their  will, 
without  further  objections." 

The  result  of  these  movements  was  what  might  have  been  anticipated. 
Massena's  troops  commenced  their  march  on  the  14th  of  August,  and 
made  a  simultaneous  attack  on  several  points  of  the  allied  position,  in 
every  one  of  which  they  were  successful.  The  centre  was  forced  back 
almost  to  Zurich ;  the  Swiss  and  Imperialists  were  expelled  from  Schwytz ; 
the  elevated  and  important  post  of  Wasen  was  taken ;  the  Grimsel  and 
the  Furca  were  evacuated:  in  short,  the  whole  left  wing  of  the  allies 
was  routed  in  less  than  forty-eight  hours,  with  the  loss  of  ten  pieces  of 
cannon,  four  thousand  prisoners,  two  thousand  killed  and  wounded,  and 
St.,  Gothard,  with  all  its  approaches  and  lateral  valleys,  was  taken  by 
the  French.  Korsakow  now  collected  his  forces  around  Zurich,  and 
dispatched  couriers  to  hasten  the  advance  of  Suwarrow,  who  was  coming 
to  his  aid.  Massena,  however,  resolved  to  follow  up  his  success  before 
the  Russian  field-marshal's  arrival.  On  the  24th  of  September,  he 
planned  two  attacks  on  Korsakow's  position;  one  a  feigned  attack  on 
Zurich  in  front,  and  while  drawing  the  attention  of  the  allies  to  this 
point,  he  purposed  to  cross  the  river  with  the  bulk  of  his  army  farther 
down,  where  it  was  slightly  defended,  and,  by  turning  the  allied  centre, 
make  a  simultaneous  assault  in  both  front  and  rear.  This  plan  was 
executed  with  great  precision  and  ability.  While  the  Russian  com- 
mander was  steadily  resisting  the  feigned  attack  in  front,  arid  congratu- 
lating himself  on  an  easy  victory  when  he  should  move  forward  to  secure 
it,  he  was  alarmed,  and  presently  his  whole  army  was  thrown  into 
confusion,  by  the  French  demonstration  in  his  rear.  The  approach  of 
night  terminated  the  contest  for  the  moment,  and  Massena,  fully  aware 
of  his  advantage,  summoned  the  Russian  general  to  surrender:  but 
Korsakow,  who  had  formed  the  desperate  resolution  of  cutting  his  way 
through  the  enemy's  line,  sent  no  answer  to  the  proposal. 

At  daybreak,  on  the  28th  of  Sept'r,  the  allies  issued  from  their  in- 
trenchments,  and  attacked  the  French  divisions  on  the  road  to  Winterthur. 
The  French  made  an  obstinate  resistance  ;  but  the  allied  troops,  fighting 
with  the  courage  of  despair,  were  invincible,  and  Soon  opened  a  passage 


1799.]  HISTORY    OF    EUR  OPE.  123 

for  retreat.  Unfortunately,  Korsakow,  in  arranging  his  column  had,  in 
defiance  alike  of  common  sense  and  military  rule,  placed  his  infantry  in 
front,  his  cavalry  in  the  centre,  and  his  artillery  and  equipages  in  the  rear, 
He  effected  a  retreat  with  the  infantry  and  cavalry  ;  but  his  whole  ar- 
tillery was  lost,  and  Zurich,  thus  abandoned,  speedily  surrendered  to 
the  Republican  arms.  Korsakow's  total  loss  was  eight  thousand  killed 
and  wounded,  and  five  thousand  prisoners.  Soult,  on  the  same  day,  made 
a  successful  attack  on  the  right  wing  of  the  allies,  under  Hotze,  in  which 
the  latter  officer  was  slain,  and  his  division  driven  across  the  Rhine,  with 
a  loss  of  three  thousand  prisoners  and  twenty  pieces  of  cannon. 

Suwarrow,  in  the  mean  time,  was  pressing  forward  to  the  assistance  of 
Korsakow.  On  the  21st  of  September,  he  arrived  at  the  foot  of  the  moun- 
tains, crested  by  St.  Gothard,  where  General  Gudin  was  strongly  posted 
with  four  thousand  Republican  troops.  The  Russians  pushed  bravely  up 
the  steep  zigzag  ascent,  but  were  arrested  by  the  incessant  fire  of  the 
sharp-shooters,  who,  posted  behind  rocks  and  trees,  caused  every  shot  to 
tell  on  the  dense  mass  of  their  opponents,  while,  in  return,  the  Russians 
could  make  no  impression  on  the  scattered  and  invisible  enemy.  Irritated 
by  these  obstacles,  the  old  marshal  advanced  to  the  front  of  his  column, 
laid  himself  down  in  a  ditch,  and  declared  his  resolution  "to  be  buried  on 
the  ground  where  his  children  had  retreated  for  the  first  time."  This 
appeal  was  irresistible.  The  Russians  renewed  their  march,  sustained 
the  fire  of  the  French  without  flinching,  and  carried  the  summit  of  St: 
Gothard  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet.  Lecourbe,  who  was  stationed  beyond 
this  pass  with  the  French  reserve,  now  found  his  position  turned  and  had 
no  alternative  but  a  retreat.  He  therefore,  during  the  night,  threw  his 
artillery  into  the  Reuss,  and  retired  down  the  valley  of  Schollenen,  de- 
stroying the  Devil's  Bridge  to  secure  his  rear.  Suwarrow  followed  close 
upon  his  steps,  renewed  the  bridge  under  a  storm  of  artillery  and  musketry, 
and  formed  a  junction  with  Auffenberg  at  Wasen.  When  the  Russian 
commander  arrived  at  Altdorf,  however,  he  learned  the  news  of  Korsa- 
kow's defeat ;  and  as,  by  Massena's  advance,  his  own  line  of  march  was 
interrupted,  he  was  forced  to  turn  and  attempt  a  junction  with  the  Austrians 
by  passing  through  the  terrible  defile  of  Shachenthal.  No  words  can  do 
justice  to  the  difficulties  and  perils  braved  by  the  Russians  in  this  retro- 
grade movement.  They  were  compelled  to  abandon  their  artillery  and 
baggage,  and  march  in  a  single  file  up  rocky  paths,  almost  inaccessible 
to  the  chamois-hunter.  The  passage  was  at  length  achieved  with  great 
loss,  and  Suwarrow  arrived  at  Mutten,  where,  in  conformity  to  the  plan 
of  his  march,  he  was  to  have  met  two  Austrian  corps.  But  the  disasters 
of  Korsakow  had  deranged  all  the  combinations  on  this  side  of  the 
Alps,  and  the  brave  Russian  chief  found  himself  in  an  isolated  position, 
v/ithout  artillery  and  baggage,  and  surrounded  by  an  overwhelming  force. 
He  immediately  called  a  council  of  war,  and,  following  the  dictates  of  his 
own  impetuous  courage,  proposed  to  advance  on  Schwytz  in  the  rear  of 
the  French  position  at  Zurich :  but  this  rash  project  was  overruled  by 
his  more  prudent  officers,  who  at  length,  and  with  the  utmost  difficulty, 
persuaded  the  veteran  conqueror  to  change  his  plans,  and,  for  the  firsl 
time  in  his  life,  to  order  a  retreat. 

Preceded  by  the  Austrian  division  of  Aufifenberg,  the  Russians  now 
ascended  M6nt  Bragel,  driving  before  them  the  detachments  of  Molitor, 
who  disputed  every  foot  of  ground,  and  finally  took  post  at  Naefels,  where 

13* 


124  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XV 

he  resolutely  withstood  the  Russian  advance,  and  resisted  all  attempts  to 
dislodge  him.  Suwarrow,  being  thus  foiled,  changed  his  line  of  retreat  and 
moved  toward  the  Grisons  by  Engi,  Matt,  and  the  valley  of  Sernst.  This 
route  offered  difficulties  even  greater  than  were  encountered  in  the  defile 
of  Shachenthal,  for  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  perils  of  the  way,  a  fall  of 
snow  had  just  obliterated  all  traces  of  the  path  over  the  mountains.  No 
cottages  were  to  be  found  in  these  dreary  and  sterile  wastes ;  not  even  trees 
were  there  to  light  up  the  cheerful  fires  of  the  bivouac :  vast  gray  rocks, 
rising  at  intervals  above  the  snow,  alone  broke  the  mournful  uniformity  of 
the  scene  ;  and  under  their  shelter,  or  on  the  open  surface  of  the  mountain, 
the  soldiers  were  forced  to  lie  down  and  pass  a  long  autumnal  night.  But 
nothing  could  overcome  the  indomitable  spirit  of  the  Russians.  They 
struggled  on  through  hardships  that  would  have  daunted  any  other  soldiers, 
and  at  length  the  straggling  army  was  rallied  in  the  valley  of  the  Rhine, 
and  head-quarters  were  established  atllantz,  on  the  10th  of  October. 

In  the  mean  time,  Korsakow  having  reorganized  his  army,  halted  at 
Busingen,  and  turned  successfully  on  his  pursuers :  and  the  Archduke, 
who  since  his  joining  the  army  of  the  Rhine  had,  by  a  brilliant  coup  de 
main,  taken  possession  of  Manheim,  moved  forward  from  that  place  to 
support  the  Russian  corps. 

This  succession  of  disasters  at  the  close  of  a  campaign  that  had  opened 
so  brilliantly,  led  to  an  unfortunate  jealousy  between  the  Anstrians  and 
Russians.  Each  party  laid  on  the  other  the  blame  of  its  defeats,  and 
severe  recriminations  followed.  While  they  were  in  this  state  of  mind, 
Suwarrow  proposed  to  the  Archduke  a  renewal  of  offensive  operations 
against  the  French  lines,  on  the  banks  of  the  Thur ;  to  which  the  Arch- 
duke with  reason  objected,  as  an  unnecessary  exposure  of  their  troops,  but 
recommended  a  joint  movement  in  Switzerland.  The  old  marshal,  irri- 
tated at  the  disapproval  of  his  plan  by  a  younger  officer,  and  soured  by 
his  late  discomfiture,  replied  in  angry  terms,  that  his  troops  were  not 
adapted  to  any  further  operation  in  the  mountains  ;  but  that,  on  the  con- 
trary, they  needed  repose.  And  he  immediately  moved  them  to  winter- 
quarters  in  Bavaria.  This  event  was,  in  due  time,  followed  by  a  rupture 
between  the  cabinets  of  St.  Petersburg  and  Vienna. 

On  the  22nd  of  June,  in  this  year,  a  special  treaty  was  concluded  between 
Great  Britain  and  Russia,  for  the  purpose  of  reestablishing  the  Stadtholder 
in  Holland,  and  terminating  the  revolutionary  tyranny  under  which  that 
country  had  for  some  time  groaned.  Russia  agreed  to  furnish  seventeen 
thousand  men  for  the  expedition,  and  England,  in  addition  to  sending  thir- 
teen thousand  troops  to  act  in  conjunction  with  the  Russians,  was  to  pay 
forty-four  thousand  pounds  sterling  a  month,  for  the  support  of  their  allies, 
and  sustain  the  joint  operation  of  these  land  forces,  by  the  cooperation  of 
her  navy.  The  landing  of  the  British  troops  on  the  coast  of  Holland, was 
accomplished  on  the  27th  of  August,  under  cover  of  the  fire  of  the  ships  ; 
and  Sir  Ralph  Abercromby,  who  commanded  the  army,  immediately  took 
possession  of  the  fort  of  the  Helder.  The  British  squadron  then  entered 
the  Texel  and  summoned  the  Dutch  fleet,  under  Admiral  Story,  consist- 
ing of  eight  ships  of  the  line,  three  of  fifty-four  guns,  eight  of  forty-four 
and  six  smaller  frigates.  At  sight  of  the  British  flag,  symptoms  of  insub- 
ordination appeared  among  the  Dutch  sailors  ;  and  the  admiral,  unable  to 
escape,  and  despairing  of  assistance,  surrendered  without  firing  a  shot. 

As  the  Russian  troops  had  not  yet  arrived,  the  English  commander 


I799.J  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  125 

remained  on  the  defensive,  and  thus  gave  the  Republicans  time  to  assem- 
ble their  forces,  to  the  number  of  twenty-four  thousand,  including  seven 
thousand  French  soldiers.  General  Brune  was  placed  at  the  head  of  tins 
army,  and  he  attacked  the  British  position  on  the  10th  of  September  :  but, 
after  a  well  contested  action,  he  was  repulsed  wi'th  a  loss  of  two  thousand 
men.  Soon  after  this,  the  Russian  contingent,  seventeen  thousand  strong, 
and  an  English  reenforcement  of  seven  thousand  joined  the  British  army, 
and  the  Dux;e  of  York  assumed  the  command.  Being  now  in  sufficient 
force  to  warrant  offensive  operations,  the  Duke  resolved  to  attack  the 
enemy.  He  moved  forward  for  this  purpose,  on  the  19th  of  September, 
commencing  the  action  with  the  Russians  on  his  right  wing.  These  troops, 
however,  advanced  too  rapidly,  and  fell  into  some  disorder  before  they 
encountered  their  antagonists,  who,  receiving  them  with  great  steadiness, 
bore  them  back  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet.  The  English  centre  and  left 
were  more  successful :  they  had  gained  on  the  enemy  in  every  attack,  and 
were  beginning  to  feel  assured  of  a  complete  victory,  when  the  retreat  of 
the  Russian  right  wing  left  their  flank  uncovered,  and  forced  them  to  fall 
back  to  their  intrenchments. 

The  Duke  of  York,  not  discouraged  by  this  repulse,  renewed  his  attack 
on  the  2nd  of  October,  at  six  o'clock  in  the  morning.  On  this  occasion, 
the  Russians  retrieved  their  late  disgrace  by  an  impetuous  onset,  which 
carried  everything  before  them ;  and,  being  well  seconded  by  the  British 
centre,  the  Republican  position  was  speedily  turned,  and  Brune  retreated 
with  a  loss  of  three  thousand  men  and  seven  pieces  of  cannon. 

Notwithstanding  this  victory,  the  allied  army  was  in  a  precarious  con- 
dition. The  autumnal  rains  had  set  in  with  more  than  usual  severity, 
the  health  of  the  soldiers  began  to  be  seriously  affected,  and  they  cculd 
look  for  no  further  reinforcements;  while  the  enemy  was  gaining  daily 
accessions  of  men,  and  preparing  to  resume  the  offensive  with  over- 
whelming  numbers.  Under  these  circumstances,  it  became  necessary  to 
capture  some  important  town,  where  the  allied  troops  could  be  comfort- 
ably quartered ;  and  after  some  deliberation,  Haarlem  was  selected,  as 
promising  the  most  easy  success.  All  arrangements  being  completed, 
the  army  marched  toward  that  place  on  the  6th  of  October;  but  they  were 
met  by  the  Republican  forces,  and  an  indecisive  action  ensued  which 
lasted  through  the  whole  day.  The  loss  on  each  side  was  about  two 
thousand  men,  in  killed,  wounded  and  prisoners,  and  the  allied  army 
retained  possession  of  the  field.  But  to  them,  an  indecisive  action  was 
equivalent  to  a  defeat:  their  object  was  Haarlem,  and  they  had  gained 
nothing  but  a  battle-field.  They  were  therefore  forced  to  retreat  to  their 
intrenchments,  where  Brune  followed  them  on  the  8th;  and,  after  in- 
vesting their  position  so  that  they  had  no  hope  of  escape,  he  compelled 
them  to  capitulate  on  the  17th  of  October.  By  the  conditions  of  the  sur- 
render, the  allies  were  to  evacuate  Holland  within  six  weeks,  restore 
eight  thousand  French  or  Dutch  prisoners,  and  give  up  in  good  order  the 
works  of  the  Helder,  with  its  artillery.  These  conditions  were  all 
fulfilled  before  the  1st  of  December;  the  British  troops  returned  to  Eng- 
land, arid  the  Russians  went  into  winter-quarters  in  Jersey  and  Guernsey. 

After  Suwarrovv  withdrew  from  Italy,  in  September,  the  command  of 
the  Austrian  forces  devolved  on  Melas,  who,  in  obedience  to  the  direc- 
tions of  the  Aulic  Council,  concentrated  his  forces  around  Coni,  and  be- 
gan the  siege  of  that  last  bulwark  of  the  Republicans  in  the  plain  of 


126  HI  STORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XVI. 

Italy.  Championnet,  to  whom  the  French  forces  were  intrusted,  attempted 
to  raise  the  siege;  and,  for  that  purpose,  made  several  partial  attacks  on 
the  Austrian  outposts,  in  which  he  gained  considerable  advantages. 
Emboldened  by  this  result,  he  at  length  resolved  on  a  general  action; 
but  he  committed  the  capital  error,  in  planning  his  movement,  of  dividing 
his  army  into  three  columns  to  attack  on  three  sides  an  enemy  in  a  cen- 
tral position:  thus  giving  Melas  an  opportunity  to  engage  any  one  of  his 
divisions  with  greatly  superior  forces.  The  Austrian  commander  quickly 
seized  the  advantage  thus  offered;  and,  on  the  morning  of  November 
4th,  greatly  to  the  surprise  of  Championnet,  who  dreamed  of  nothing  on 
the  part  of  the  Austrians  but  defensive  operations,  he  impetuously  as- 
sailed the  division  of  Victor,  sixteen  thousand  strong.  The  French 
troops  bravely  withstood  the  attack  for  a  time,  but,  overpowered  by  num- 
bers, they  at  length  gave  way,  and  retreated  with  a  loss  of  seven  thousand 
men  in  killed,  wounded  and  prisoners.  Notwithstanding  this  destruction 
of  his  centre,  and  the  consequent  isolation  of  his  two  wings,  Championnet 
made  great  efforts  to  relieve  Coni:  but  the  combinations  of  Melas  were 
an  overmatch  for  his  diminished  strength,  and  he  was  forced  to  abandon 
his  project,  and  leave  Coni  to  its  fate.  This  stronghold  was  eventually 
surrendered  on  the  4th  of  December,  and  its  garrison  of  three  thousand 
men,  with  five  hundred  sick  and  wounded,  were  made  prisoners  of  war. 

With  two  other  events,  the  campaign  in  Italy  was  brought  to  a  close: 
these  were,  the  ^capture  of  the  castle  of  St.  Angelo  by  the  Neapolitan 
forces,  and  of  Ancona  by  the  Russians.  By  the  latter  conquest,  five 
hundred  and  eighty-five  pieces  of  cannon,  seven  thousand  muskets,  three 
ships  of  the  line  and  seven  smaller  vessels  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  allies 


CHAPTER    XVI. 

*ROM  THE  REVOLUTION  OF  SEPTEMBER  3RD,  TO  THE  CAMPAIGN  OF  1800. 

THE  Revolution  of  France  had  now  run  through  the  several  changes 
of  universal  enthusiasm,  general  suffering,  plebeian  revolt,  bloody  anar- 
chy, democratic  cruelty  and  military  despotism.  There  remained  a  last 
stage  to  which  it  had  not  yet  arrived;  this  was,  the  rule  of  a  SINGLE 
DESPOT,  a  result  to  which  the  weakness  consequent  on  exhausted  passion 
was  speedily  bringing  the  country. 

'Ihe  election  of  a  new  third  of  the  Legislature,  in  May,  1799,  ended  in 
a  return  of  members  adverse  to  the  government  established  by  Augereau's 
bayonets,  who  waited  only  for  an  opportunity  to  remove  that  faction  from 
the  helm  of  state.  In  the  Directory,  it  fell  to  Rewbell's  lot  to  retire,  and 
Sieyes  was  chosen  in  his  place.  The  people  of  France  were  already 
sufficiently  dissatisfied  with  the  conduct  of  their  precedent  rulers,  when 
tie  disasters  of  the  campaign  in  Italy  and  the  Alps  raised  their  discon- 
.ent  to  exasperation.  In  the  midst  of  this  effervescence,  the  restraints 
imposed  on  the  liberty  of  the  press  could  no  longer  be  maintained,  and 
the  influence  of  the  daily  journals  was  suddenly  brought  to  bear  with 
prodigious  force  against  the  government. 


1799.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  127 

A  conspiracy  was  soon  organized,  of  which  Sieyes  became  the  head, 
and  a  large  number  of  both  Councils  its  members.  By  a  series  of 
intrigues,  they  managed  to  displace  Lareveiilere  and  Merlin  from  the 
Directory,  and  appointed  General  Moulins  and  Roger  Ducos  their  suc- 
cessors. But  these  measures,  though  they  placed  the  government  in 
new  hands,  did  not  bring  to  it  any  accession  of  vigor  or  ability.  Imme- 
diately after  these  appointments  in  the  Directory  had  taken  place,  news 
was  received  of  the  capture  of  Zurich  by  the  Archduke,  and  of  the  suc- 
cess of  the  allies  in  Italy ;  disasters  which  rendered  it  incumbent  on  the 
Directory  to  gain  favor  with  the  people  by  some  new  and  decisive  effort. 
For  this  purpose,  they  made  several  changes  in  the  commands  of  the 
army,  ordered  a  conscription  of  two  hundred  thousand  men  to  recruit 
their  diminished  ranks,  and  levied  a  forced  loan  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty  millions  of  francs  from  the  more  opulent  inhabitants.  At  the 
same  time,  as  the  Jacobins  were  beginning  to  make  head,  and  threatened 
serious  disturbances,  Fouche  was  appointed  minister  of  police,  and  his 
energetic  measures  soon  put  an  end  to  the  intrigues  of  that  dangerous 
party.  It  was  not  long,  however,  before  the  new  Directory  grew  as  un- 
popular as  the  old  one ;  and  as  this  state  of  affairs  was  greatly  promoted 
by  the  denunciations  of  the  daily  journals,  which  had  now  become  as 
violent  in  their  opposition  to  the  present,  as  they  but  recently  were  to  the 
former  Directory,  a  decree  was  issued  for  the  arrest  of  eleven  of  the 
disaffected  editors.  This  bold  step  again  threw  the  whole  country  into 
confusion;  and  the  more  reflecting  part  of  the  inhabitants  began  to  look 
around  in  the  greatest  anxiety,  dreading  another  revolution,  and  won- 
dering what  would  be  its  course  and  who  its  master  spirit.  The  Direc- 
tory, too,  felt  the  want  of  a  military  chief  capable  of  putting  an  end  to 
these  distractions,  and  of  extricating  the  country  from  the  perils  con- 
sequent on  the  alarming  progress  of  the  allies.  "  We  must  have  done  with 
declaimers,"  said  Sieyes;  "what  we  want  is  a  head  and  a  sword."  It  is 
not  strange  that,  in  this  emergency,  all  eyes  were  at  length  turned  toward 
the  youthful  hero  who  had  hitherto  chained  victory  to  his  standards. 

Napoleon,  on  his  return  to  Alexandria,  after  his  victory  over  the  Tuiks 
at  Aboukir,  on  the  25th  of  July,  learned  the  situation  of  affairs  in  Eu- 
rope from  some  newspapers  sent  on  shore  by  Sir  Sidney  Smith  ;  and  he 
adopted  the  extraordinary  resolution  of  abandoning  his  army  to  its  fate, 
and  returning  privately  to  France.  Leaving,  therefore,  Kleber  to  direct 
the  government,  he  set  out  from  Alexandria,  on  the  22nd  of  August,  ac- 
companied by  Berthier,  Lannes,  Murat,  Marmont,  Andreossy,  Berthollet, 
Monge  and  Bourrienne,  escorted  by  a  few  faithful  guides.  The  party 
embarked  on  a  solitary  part  of  the  beach,  in  some  fishing  boats,  which 
conveyed  them  to  two  French  frigates,  lying  off  the  shore.  Napoleon 
ordered  the  ships  to  be  steered  along  the  coast  of  Africa,  in  order  that,  if 
pursued  by  the  English  cruisers,  and  no  other  means  of  escape  v^ere  left, 
he  might  land  on  the  deserts  of  Lybia,  and  depend  on  chance  for  there- 
after reaching  Europe.  But  his  voyage,  though  protracted  by  adverse 
winds,  was  successful ;  and,  after  a  narrow  escape  from  the  English  fleet 
near  the  coast  of  France,  the  frigates  anchored  in  the  Bay  of  Frejus,  on 
the  8th  of  October. 

The  arrival  of  Napoleon  at  this  opportune  moment,  excited  the  public 
enthusiasm  to  the  highest  pitch.  His  unauthorized  and  shameful  deser- 
tion of  the  army  was  overlooked,  and  all  joined,  by  universal  acclamation, 


128  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XVI 

in  hailing  him  as  the  destined  saviour  of  his  country.  He  reached  Paris 
on  the  16th  of  October,  and  presented  himself  unexpectedly  before  the 
Directory.  Their  reception  of  the  renowned  commander  was,  to  all  out- 
ward appearance,  extremely  cordial  and  flattering ;  yet  a  vague  disquietude 
had  already  taken  possession  of  their  minds,  as  to  his  ulterior  intentions. 
Napoleon,  on  his  own  part,  although  convinced  that  the  moment  he  had 
long  wished  for  had  arrived,  and  also  fully  determined  to  seize  the 
supreme  authority,  was  yet  undecided  as  to  the  manner  of  carrying  his 
purpose  into  effect.  And,  indeed,  so  general  was  the  conviction,  about 
this  period,  of  the  impossibility  of  continuing  the  government  of  France 
under  the  Republican  form,  that  previous  to  Napoleon's  return,  various 
projects  had  not  only  been  set  on  foot,  but  were  far  advanced,  for  the 
restoration  of  monarchical  authority.  The  brothers  of  Napoleon,  Joseph 
and  Lucien,  were  deeply  implicated  in  these  intrigues :  the  Abbe  Sieyes 
at  one  time  thought  of  placing  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  on  the  throne  :  and 
Barras  was  not  averse  to  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  but  was  in  fact 
negotiating  with  Louis  XVIII.  for  that  purpose. 

No  sooner  had  Napoleon  taken  possession  of  his  unassuming  dwelling 
in  the  Rue  Chantereine,  than  the  generals  who  had  been  sounded  by  Jo- 
seph and  Lucien,  hastened  to  pay  their  court  to  him  ;  and  with  them  carne 
the  officers  who  conceived  themselves  to  have  been  ill  used  by  the  Direc- 
tory. In  addition  to  Lannes,  Murat  and  Berthier  who  had  shared  his 
fortunes  in  Egypt,  and  were  warmly  attached  to  him,  Jourdan,  Augereau, 
Macdonald,  Bournonville,  Le  Clerc,  Lefebvre  and  Marbot  concurred  in 
offering  the  military  dictatorship  to  Napoleon ;  and  Moreau,  although  at 
first  undecided,  was  at  length  won  to  the  same  course  by  the  address  of 
his  great  rival.  Many  of  the  most  influential  members  of  the  Councils 
were  also  disposed  to  favor  the  enterprise :  Sieyes  and  Roger  Ducos  gave 
it  their  countenance  ;  and  Moulins,  Cambaceres,  Fouche,  and  Real,  were 
assiduous  in  their  attendance.  These  individuals,  however,  were  as  yet 
far  from  agreeing  on  the  precise  course  to  be  adopted. 

At  length,  on  the  5th  of  November,  after  the  conspiracy  had  been  in 
progress  for  nearly  a  month,  a  banquet,  under  the  direction  of  Lucien 
Bonaparte,  was  given  at  the  Council-Hall  of  the  Ancients,  in  honor  of 
Napoleon.  The  feast  passed  off  with  sombre  tranquillity.  Every  one 
spoke  in  a  whisper ;  anxiety  was  depicted  on  each  face  ;  and  Napoleon's 
own  countenance  was  greatly  disturbed.  He  soon  rose  from  the  table  and 
left  the  Hall,  where  the  chief  object  of  the  party  had  already  been  accom- 
plished, the  bringing  together,  namely,  of  six  hundred  persons  of  various 
political  principles,  and  thus  engaging  them  to  act  in  unison  in  some  com- 
nibn  enterprise.  In  the  course  of  the  night,  the  final  arrangements  were 
made  between  Sieyes  and  Napoleon.  It  was  agreed  that  the  governmen 
should  be  overturned,  and,  in  place  of  the  Directory,  three  consuls  ap 
pointed,  charged  with  a  dictatorial  power,  which  was  to  last  three  months 
that  Napoleon,  Sieyes  and  Roger  Ducos  should  fill  these  stations,  and  thai 
the  Council  of  Ancients  should  pass  a  decree  on  the  8th  of  November,  at 
seven  in  the  morning,  transferring  the  legislative  body  to  St.  Cloud,  and 
appointing  Napoleon  commander  of  the  guard  of  the  Council,  of  the  garri- 
son at  Paris,  and  of  the  National  Guard. 

During  the  two  critical  days  that  intervened,  the  secret  was  faithfully 
kept,  and  every  preliminary  arrangement  completed.  At  daybreak  on 
the  8th  of  November,  the  boulevards  were  filled  with  a  numerous  and 


3799.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  120 

splendid  cavalry,  and  all  the  officers  in  and  around  Paris  repaired  in  full 
dress  to  the  Rue  Chantereine.  The  Council  met  at  the  appointed  hour, 
and  after  some  debate,  the  decree  was  passed,  transferring  the  seat  of  the 
legislative  body  to  St.  Cloud,  appointing  their  meeting  there  for  the  fol- 
lowing day  at  noon,  and  charging  Napoleon  with  full  powers  to  see  thest- 
measures  carried  into  effect.  t  This  extraordinary  decree  was  then  or- 
dered to  be  placarded  on  the  walls  of  Paris,  and  dispatched  to  all  the  au- 
thorities. When  this  was  completed,  Napoleon  presented  himself  at  the 
bar  of  the  A.ncients,  attended  by  his  staff;  he  complimented  the  mem- 
bers on  their  firmness,  which  he  averred  had  saved  the  country,  and 
announced  his  determination  to  have  and  to  support  a  republic.  A  deputy 
attempted  to  speak  in  reply,  but  the  president  stopped  him,  on  the  ground 
that  all  deliberation  was  interdicted  until  the  Council  met  at  St.  Cloud. 
The  assembly  then  broke  up,  and  Napoleon  proceeded  to  the  garden  of 
the  Tuileries,  where  he  passed  in  review  the  regiments  of  the  garrison, 
addressing  to  each  a  few  energetic  words.  The  weather  was  beautiful ; 
the  confluence  of  spectators  immense ;  their  acclamations  rent  the  sky ; 
and  everything  announced  the  transition  from  anarchy  to  despotic  power. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  having  received  a 
confused  account  of  the  revolution  that  was  in  progress,  tumultuously 
assembled  in  their  hall.  They  were  hardly  convened  when  a  message 
arrived  from  the  Ancients  with  the  decree  of  removal  to  St.  Cloud.  The 
moment  it  was  read,  a  number  of  voices  broke  forth ;  but  the  president, 
Lucien  Bonaparte,  cut  them  short,  by  referring  to  the  decree  which  pro- 
hibited debate  until  after  their  removal.  The  Directory  was  next  disposed 
of,  by  Napoleon's  compelling  the  members  to  resign. 

On  the  morning  of  the  9th,  a  military  force,  five  thousand  strong,  sur- 
rounded St.  Cloud  ;  but  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred  were  nothing 
daunted,  and  in  their  preliminary  discussions  in  the  garden  of  the  palace, 
a  majority  of  them  resolved  to  oppose  the  revolution.  The  Ancients  were 
greatly  disturbed  at  this  unexpected  resistance,  and  many  of  them  were 
beginning  to  regret  their  own  precipitancy,  when  the  hour  arrived  for 
opening  the  assembly. 

Lucien  Bonaparte  was  in  the  chair  of  the  Five  Hundred,  and  Gaudin 
ascended  the  tribune  and  commenced  a  set  speech,  thanking  the  Ancients 
for  their  energetic  measures,  and  proposing  the  formation  of  a  committee 
of  seven  persons  to  report  on  the  state  of  the  Republic.  But  the  moment 
he  concluded,  a  violent  opposition  arose  ;  and  tumultuous  cries  of  "  Down 
with  the  dictators !  Long  live  the  Constitution !"  prevented  all  further 
proceedings. 

Napoleon,  who  saw  the  dangerous  nature  of  the  crisis,  went  to  the  hall 
of  the  Five  Hundred,  left  his  suite  and  soldiers  at  the  door,  and  entered 
alone  and  uncovered.  As  he  made  his  way  to  the  bar,  cries  of  "  Down 
with  the  tyrant !  death  to  the  dictator !"  drowned  all  other  voices ;  and 
the  deputies,  rushing  from  their  places,  crowded  around  and  heaped  on 
him  all  manner  of  personal  invectives.  At  this  juncture,  two  of  his  grena- 
diers at  the  door,  alarmed  for  his  safety,  ran  forward,  took  him  in  their 
arms  and  bore  him  out  of  the  hall.  As  soon  as  he  was  gone,  Lucien 
strove  to  restore  order ;  but,  finding  his  efforts  ineffectual,  he  resigned 
the  chair,  and  stood  before  the  bar  as  the  counsel  of  his  brother.  Just 
as  he  began  to  speak,  an  officer  with  ten  grenadiers  entered.  The  officer 
stepped  to  Lucien,  laid  his  hand  on  his  shoulder,  and  whispered,  "  Bv 


130  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  [CHAP.  XVI 

your  brother's  orders:"  the  grenadiers  shouted,  "Down  with  the  assas- 
sins !"  and  Lucien  left  the  hall  with  his  guard. 

Meanwhile,  Napoleon  had  descended  to  the  court,  mounted  on  horse- 
back and  appealed  to  the  soldiers,  assuring  them  that  when  he  was  about 
to  point  out  to  the  Council  the  means  of  saving  the  country,  the  deputies 
had  answered  him  with  poniards.  Lucien,  soon  joined  him,  corroborated 
his  words,  and  urged  the  troops  to  dissolve  the  Council  by  force.  The 
word  was  given,  the  grenadiers  advanced  with  fixed  bayonets  into  the 
hall,  and  the  members  of  the  Council,  in  dismay,  threw  themselves  out 
of  the  windows  to  avoid  the  charge.  At  eleven  o'clock  that  night,  a  por- 
tion of  the  members  of  both  Councils,  not  exceeding  sixty  persons  in  all, 
assembled,  and  unanimously  passed  a  decree  abolishing  the  Directory, 
expelling  sixty-one  refractory  members  of  the  Councils,  adjourning  the 
Legislature  for  three  months,  and  vesting  the  executive  power  in  the 
mean  time  in  the  hands  of  Napoleon,  Sieves  and  Roger  Ducos,  under  the 
title  of  provisional  consuls.  Two  commissions  of  twenty-five  members 
each,  were  also  appointed  from  each  Council,  to  unite  with  the  consuls  in 
the  formation  of  a  new  Constitution.  Some  discussion  arose  in  arranging 
the  details  of  that  instrument ;  but  it  ended  in  the  assumption  of  supreme 
power  by  Napoleon,  as  First  Consul,  associated  with  two  other  consuls 
holding  nominal  authority.  To  these  were  added  eighty  senators,  a  hun- 
dred tribunes,  and  three  hundred  legislators,  who  forthwith  proceeded  to 
exercise  all  the  functions  of  government.  Sifiyes  and  Roger  Ducos  soon 
resigned  their  offices,  and  Napoleon  appointed  in  their  stead  Cambaceres 
and  Le  Brun.  Talleyrand  was  made  minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  Fouche~ 
was  retained  in  the  Police,  and  La  Place  received  the  portfolio  of  the 
Interior.  The  new  Constitution,  on  being  submitted  to  the  people,  was 
approved  by  three  millions  eleven  thousand  and  seven  votes:  that  of  1793 
had  but  one  million  eight  hundred  and  one  thousand  nine  hundred  and 
eighteen ;  and  that  of  1795,  one  million  and  fifty-seven  thousand  three 
hundred  and  ninety. 

One  of  Napoleon's  first  measures,  on  arriving  at  the  consular  throne, 
was  to  make  proposals  of  peace  to  the  British  government,  which  he  did 
through  the  medium  of  a  letter,  in  his  own  name,  to  the  King  of  England. 
His  communication  was  couched  in  general  terms,  expressive,  indeed,  of 
a  desire  for  peace,  but  filled  with  vague  questions  as  to  the  continuance 
of  the  war,  instead  of  designating  some  conditions  by  which  it  might  be 
brought  to  a  close.  Lord  Grenville's  answer  was  more  explicit,  disclaim- 
ing any  intention,  on  the  part  of  his  majesty,  to  control  or  interfere  with 
the  internal  policy  of  France,  but  resolving  nevertheless  to  resist  her 
foreign  aggressions;  and  at  the  same  time  avowing  a  disposition  for  peace 
whenever  the  French  government  should  evince  a  similar  desire,  accom- 
panied by  a  declaration  of  its  principles  and  the  requisite  proofs  of  its 
stability. 

The  debate  on  the  question  of  continuing  the  war  was  prolonged  through 
several  weeks  in  Parliament ;  and  at  length,  on  the  3rd  of  February,  1800, 
the  belligerent  measures  of  the  ministry  were  sustained  by  a  vote  of  two 
hundred  and  sixty-five  to  sixty-four.  This  was  followed  by  a  vote  of  sup- 
plies to  the  army  and  navy  proportioned  to  the  importance  of  the  contest. 

Several  domestic  measures  of  consequence,  were  also  adopted  during 
this  session.  The  Bank  charter  was  renewed  for  twenty-one  years,  in 
consideration  of  which,  the  directors  made  a  loan  to  the  government  of 


1800.1  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  131 

three  millions  sterling,  for  six  years  without  interest.  The  union  of  Ire- 
land with  Great  Britain,  after  a  stormy  debate  in  both  houses  of  the  Dublin 
Parliament,  was  carried  by  a  large  majority,  to  which  event  the  powerful 
abilities  of  Lord  Castlereagh  greatly  contributed.  By  the  treaty  of  union, 
the  Irish  peers  for  the  united  imperial  Parliament  were  limited  to  twenty- 
eight  temporal  and  four  spiritual ;  the  former  elected  for  life  by  the  Irish 
peerage,  and  the  latter,  by  rotation  ;  and  the  commoners  were  limited  to 
one  hundred.  The  churches  of  England  and  Ireland  were  united,  and 
provision  made  for  their  union,  preservation,  discipline,  doctrine  and  wor- 
ship. Commercial  privileges  were  fairly  participated,  the  national  debt  of 
each  was  imposed  as  a  burden  on  its  own  finances,  and  the  general  expen- 
diture  for  the  next  ensuing  twenty  years,  ordered  to  be  defrayed  in  the 
proportion  of  fifteen  for  Great  Britain  and  two  for  Ireland.  The  laws  and 
courts  of  both  kingdoms  were  maintained  on  their  present  footing,  subject 
to  such  alterations  as  the  united  Parliament  might  deem  expedient.  This 
important  measure  was  carried  in  the  British  House  of  Commons,  by  a 
vote  of  two  hundred  and  eight  to  twenty-six,  and  in  the  Lords,  by  seventy- 
five  to  seven. 

Since  the  financial  crisis  of  1797,  when  the  suspension  of  specie  pay- 
ments took  place,  the  prosperity  of  the  British  Empire  had  been  steadily 
and  rapidly  increasing.  Prices  of  every  kind  of  produce  had  risen,  and 
the  industrious  classes  were,  generally  speaking,  in  affluent  circumstances. 
Immense  fortunes  rewarded  the  efforts  of  commercial  enterprise  ;  the  de- 
mand and  value  of  labor,  increased  by  the  withdrawal  of  nearly  four 
hundred  thousand  soldiers  and  sailors,  was  almost  unlimited  ;  and  even  the 
increasing  weight  of  taxation  and  the  alarming  magnitude  of  the  national 
debt,  were  but  little  felt  amid  the  general  rise  of  prices  and  incomes 
resulting  from  the  profuse  expenditure  and  lavish  issue  of  paper  by  the 
government.  One  class  only,  that  of  annuitants,  and  all  depending  on  a 
fixed  income,  experienced  a  decline  of  comforts,  which  in  many  cases  was 
greatly  aggravated  by  the  high  prices  and  scarcity  following  the  disastrous 
harvest  of  1799.  The  attention  of  Parliament  was  early  directed  to  the 
means  of  alleviating  the  famine  of  that  year.  An  act  was  passed  to  lower 
the  quality  of  all  the  bread  baked  in  the  kingdom  ;  the  importation  of  rice 
and  maize  was  encouraged  by  liberal  bounties ;  distillation  from  grain 
was  prohibited,  and  by  these  and  other  means  an  additional  supply  of 
grain,  to  the  enormous  amount  of  two  and  a  half  millions  of  quarters,  was 
procured  for  the  use  of  the  inhabitants. 

The  jealousies  which  led  to  a  rupture  between  the  Austrians  and  Rus- 
sians at  the  close  of  1799,  were  soon  after  extended  to  the  relations  of  the 
Emperor  Paul  with  Great  Britain,  and  were  greatly  augmented  by  the 
issue  of  the  expedition  against  Holland.  Napoleon  promptly  availed 
himself  of  this  state  of  affairs,  and  sent  back  to  the  Emperor  all  the 
Russian  prisoners  taken  in  the  last  campaign,  not  only  without  exchange, 
but  newly  equipped  in  their  native  uniform  :  and  this  was  followed  by  a 
succession  of  civilities  arid  courtesies,  between  the  cabinets  of  St.  Peters- 
burg and  Paris,  which  terminated  in  the  dismissal  from  Russia  of  Lord 
Whitworth,  the  English  minister;  and  the  arrival  at  Paris  of  Baron 
Springborton,  the  Russian  ambassador. 

The  Archduke  Charles  made  great  exertions  in  the  close  of  the  year 
1799,  to  reorganize  the  military  forces  of  Austria  ;  at  the  same  time,  afte^r 
the  secession  of  Russia  was  confirmed,  he  urgently  recommended  the 

14 


132  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XVI. 

Aulic  Council  to  fake  advantage  of  the  present  opportunity  to  conclude  a 
peace  with  France,  which  Napoleon  offered  on  the  basis  of  the  Campo 
Formio  treaty.  But  the  Council  were  bent  on  prosecuting  the  war,  and 
they  went  so  far  as  to  requite  the  sound  and  prudent  advice  of  the  Arch- 
duke, by  dismissing  him  from  the  service  and  appointing  Kray  in  his 
place. 

Napoleon's  measures  for  maintaining  the  war  were  befitting  his  talents 
and  energy,  and  were  besides  much  facilitated  by  the  new  regulations, 
which  he  introduced  in  the  management  of  the  national  finances.  On 
the  conditional  refusal  of  Great  Britain  to  treat  for  peace,  he  issued  an 
exciting  proclamation,  telling  the  people  that  the  English  ministry  had 
rejected  his  proposals  for  peace,  and  that  to  attain  it,  he  needed  money, 
iron  and  soldiers  ;  and  he  swore  that,  these  being  conceded,  he  would 
combat  only  for  the  happiness  of  France,  and  the  peace  of  the  world.  A 
conscription  was  ordered  for  the  whole  youth  of  France,  without  any 
exemption  on  account  of  rank  or  fortune,  which  produced  a  supply  of  one 
aundred  and  twenty  thousand  men  ;  and  thirty  thousand  experienced  sol- 
diers were  gained,  in  addition,  by  a  demand  for  all  the  veterans  who  had 
obtained  leave  of  absence  during  the  eight  preceding  years.  Various 
improvements  were  effected  in  the  artillery  department,  which  greatly 
augmented  the  efficiency  of  that  important  arm  of  the  public  service. 
Twenty-five  thousand  horses,  brought  from  the  interior  provinces,  were 
distributed  among  the  artillery  and  cavalry  on  the  frontier ;  and  all  the 
stores  and  equipments  of  the  armies  were  repaired  with  a  celerity  so 
extraordinary  that  it  would  appear  incredible,  if  long  experience  did  not 
prove,  that  confidence  in  the  vigor  and  stability  of  a  government  operates 
as  rapidly  in  increasing,  as  the  vacillation  and  insecurity  of  democracy 
does  in  withering  the  national  resources. 

While  these  energetic  measures  for  conquest  were  in  progress,  Napo- 
leon applied  himself  to  ulterior  projects,  which  he  had  already  resolved 
on.  He  endowed  the  officers  of  state,  and  all  the  members  of  the  legis- 
lature, with  ample  salaries  ;  even  the  tribunes,  who  were  professedly 
created  as  barriers  for  the  people  against  governmental  encroachments, 
received  each  an  annual  compensation  of  seventeen  thousand  francs.  He 
also  commenced  the  demolition  of  all  ensigns  and  memorials,  which  re- 
called the  ideas  of  liberty  and  equality :  the  engraved  image  of  the 
Republic,  at  the  head  of  official  letters,  was  cancelled ;  and  the  habili- 
ments of  authority  were  replaced  by  the  military  dress,  so  that  the  courl 
of  the  first  magistrate  of  the  Republic  bore  the  appearance  of  a  general's 
head-quarters.  These  acts  were  followed  by  a  total  suppression  of  the 
liberty  of  the  press  ;  and  not  long  after,  preparations  were  made  by  Na- 
poleon for  removing  from  his  place  of  residence  to  the  Tuileries,  which 
was  accomplished  on  the  19th  of  February,  1800,  with  great  pomp  and 
military  display.  On  that  day,  royalty  was,  in  effect,  restored  in  France, 
somewhat  less  than  eight  years  after  it  had  been  formally  abolished  by 
the  revolt  of  the  10th  of  August.  No  sooner  was  Napoleon  established 
at  the  Tuileries,  than  the  usages,  dress  and  ceremonial  of  a  court  were 
resumed.  The  anterooms  were  filled  with  chamberlains,  pages  and 
esquires;  footmen,  in  brilliant  liveries,  crowded  the  lobbies  and  stair- 
cases ;  and  Josephine  presided  over  the  drawing-room,  with  a  grace  well 
becoming  the  brilliancy  of  the  assemblage. 


CHAPTER    XVII. 

FIRST   CAMPAIGN    OF    1800. 

AT  the  opening  of  the  campaign  of  1800,  Field-marshal  Kray  had  his 
head-quarters  at  Donauschingen,  but  his  chief  magazines  were  in  the 
rear  at  Stockach,  Engen,  Moeskirch  and  Biberach.  His  right  wing, 
twenty-six  thousand  strong,  under  Starray,  rested  on  the  Maine ;  the  left, 
consisting  of  twenty-six  thousand  men  and  seven  thousand  militia,  under 
the  Prince  of  Reuss,  was  in  the  Tyrol ;  and  the  centre,  under  Kray  in 
person,  forty-three  thousand  strong,  was  stationed  behind  the  Black  For- 
est: while  a  reserve  of  fifteen  thousand,  commanded  by  Keinmayer, 
guarded  the  passes  from  the  Renchen  to  the  Valley  of  Hell,  and  formed 
the  link  connecting  the  centre  with  the  right  wing.  Thus,  although  the 
total  Imperialist  force  exceeded  one  hundred  and  fifteen  thousand  men, 
the  divisions  were  stationed  at  such  distances  from  each  other  as  to  be 
incapable  of  rendering  effectual  aid  in  case  of  need. 

The  French  army  was  also  divided  into  three  corps.  The  right,  thirty- 
two  thousand  strong,  under  Lecourbe,  occupied  the  Cantons  of  Switzerland 
from  the  St.  Gothard  to  Bale ;  the  centre,  under  St.  Cyr,  consisted  ol 
twenty-nine  thousand  men,  and  occupied  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  from 
New  Brisach  to  Plobsheim ;  the  left,  under  Sainte  Suzanne,  twenty-one 
thousand  strong,  extended  from  Kehl  to  Haguenau.  In  addition  to  these, 
Moreau,  who  was  general-in-chief  of  the  whole  force,  was  at  the  head  of 
twenty-eight  thousand  men  in  the  neighborhood  of  Bale.  Moreau  had  also 
at  disposal,  the  garrisons  of  the  fortresses  in  his  vicinity,  which  together 
might  be  estimated  as  a  reserve  of  thirty-two  thousand  men ;  and  his  pos- 
session of  the  bridges  of  Kehl,  New  Brisach,  and  Bale,  gave  him  the 
means  of  crossing  the  Rhine  at  pleasure.  The  plan  for  opening  the 
campaign,  as  arranged  between  Moreau  and  Napoleon,  was  to  make  a 
feint  against  the  corps  of  Keinmayer  and  the  Austrian  right ;  and,  having 
thus  drawn  Kray's  attention  to  that  quarter,  to  concentrate  the  French 
centre  and  left  upon  the  Imperial  centre,  break  through  the  Austrians' 
line,  cut  off  their  communication  with  the  Tyrol  and  Italy,  and  force 
them  to  the  banks  of  the  Danube. 

The  preliminary  movements  of  this  plan  were  executed  with  precision, 
and  the  Austrian  generals,  perplexed  at  the  apparently  contradictory 
character  of  the  French  evolutions,  were  in  great  uncertainty  as  to  the 
point  where  the  storm  was  really  to  burst ;  and  were  therefore  compelled 
to  await  it  without  any  material  change  of  position.  Under  these  cir- 
cumstances, Moreau  directed  Lecourbe  to  move  toward  Stockach,  and 
separate  the  Austrian  left  wing  from  its  centre ;  this  order  was  promptly 
executed,  and  the  French  general,  falling  in  with  an  Austrian  corps, 
under  the  Prince  of  Lorraine,  defeated  it  with  a  loss  of  three  thousand 
prisoners  and  eight  pieces  of  cannon.  On  the  same  day,  May  2nd.  Mo- 
reau attacked  the  main  body  of  Austrians,  in  the  plain  before  Rngen. 
Kray  maintained  his  ground  with  great  resolution  until  nightfall,  when 
the  French,  being  reenforced  by  St.  Cyr,  renewed  the  battle  and  forced 
the  Austrians  to  retreat.  The  loss  on  each  side  was  about  seven  thou- 


134  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP. 

sand  men ;  but  the  advantages  of  the  victory  remained  with  the  French, 
by  reason  of  its  moral  effect  on  the  troops  of  both  armies. 

On  the  4th  of  May,  Kray  retired  to  a  strong  position  in  front  of  Moes- 
kirch,  the  natural  and  military  defences  of  which  place  seemed  to  render 
it  almost  inaccessible  to  an  attacking  army.  The  French  soon  advanced 
in  great  force,  preceded  by  Lecourbe,  who,  in  hastening  to  form  a  junction 
with  Moreau,  arrived  on  the  ground  sooner  than  the  designated  time. 
He  immediately  attacked,  without  waiting  for  the  main  army  to  come 
up  ;  hut  he  was  received  with  such  a  storm  from  the  Austrian  batteries, 
that  he  soon  fell  back,  and  took  refuge  in  a  neighboring  wood,  to  avoid 
the  shot.  Moreau  now  approached,  and  ordered  the  division  of  Lorges  to 
attack  Kray's  intrenchments  on  the  left :  but  this  corps,  too,  was  thrown 
into  confusion,  and  routed  by  the  Austrian  fire.  Encouraged  by  this 
success,  Kray  made  a  sally  with  his  right  wing,  which  was,  however, 
promptly  repulsed  by  the  French ;  and  Moreau,  following  up  this  advan- 
tage by  a  simultaneous  attack  on  all  points  of  the  Austrian  left,  pushed 
his  columns  into  the  village  of  Moeskirch,  and  carried  that  part  of  the 
Imperialist  position.  Kray  now  withdrew  his  defeated  left  wing,  and 
bravely  maintained  the  action  with  his  centre  and  right.  Both  parties 
redoubled  their  efforts,  but  at  length  the  day  closed,  leaving  a  part  of 
the  field  in  the  hands  of  the  Austrians,  while  the  French  retained  the 
remainder.  The  loss  on  each  side  was  about  six  thousand  men. 

Kray  retired  across  the  Danube  on  the  following  day,  and  on  the  7th, 
was  joined  by  Keinmayer's  division,  at  Sigmaringen.  With  this  aug- 
mented force,  he  recrossed  the  Danube  and  moved  toward  Biberach,  in 
order  to  secure  the  magazines  at  that  place,  and  transport  them  to  the 
intrenched  camp  at  Ulm.  But  on  the  9th,  St.  Cyr  came  up  with  an 
Austrian  detachment  at  Biberach,  and  by  means  of  his  superior  force, 
entirely  routed  them.  Pursuing  his  success,  the  French  general  ad- 
vanced into  the  town,  seized  the  magazines  before  the  Austrians  had  time 
to  destroy  them,  and  compelled  Kray  to  continue  his  march  upon  Ulm, 
where  he  arrived  two  days  afterward,  having  lost  in  this  affair  at  Bibe- 
rach, twenty-five  hundred  men  in  killed,  wounded  and  prisoners,  and  five 
pieces  of  cannon. 

The  Austrian  commander,  in  retiring  to  Ulm,  separated  himself  from 
his  left  wing  in  the  Tyrol ;  but  in  other  respects  he  occupied,  there,  a 
very  advantageous  position.  Its  location  was  central;  its  defences  were 
nearly  impregnable,  and  daily  accessions  of  strength  were  coming  in 
from  Bohemia  and  the  hereditary  states:  while  the  French,  unable  to 
dislodge  them  by  a  sudden  attack,  and  equally  unable  to  advance  into 
the  Austrian  dominions,  leaving  such  a  formidable  army  in  their  own 
rear,  were  brought  to  a  stand,  in  spite  of  their  previous  successes. 

Nevertheless,  as  it  was  indispensable  to  the  progress  of  the  campaign 
that  Kray  should  be  driven  from  this  stronghold,  Moreau  devoted  all  his 
energies  to  the  task.  He  first  divided  his  forces  into  three  columns,  and 
advanced  to  the  Austrian  intrenchments  on  three  different  points,  hoping, 
by  distracting  the  enemy's  attention,  to  find  a  practicable  opening  in  his 
lines.  Kray  narrowly  watched  this  movement,  and  discovered  that  the 
French  division  under  Sainte  Suzanne  was  so  far  separated  from  the 
other  two  columns  as  to  be  precluded  from  their  support.  The  Archduke 
Ferdinand  was  therefore  dispatched  against  this  corps,  and,  by  an  im- 
petuous and  brilliant  charge,  completely  routed  Sainte  Suzanne,  and 


IBOO.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  135 

drove  him  back  in  disorder  more  than  two  leagues.  Moreau,  perceiving 
from  this  vigorous  stroke,  the  danger  of  dividing  his  forces,  tried  the 
expedient  of  advancing  into  Bohemia,  and  occupying  Augsburg;  in  the 
belief  that  Kray,  when  he  saw  his  communications  thus  threatened, 
would  abandon  his  position  to  maintain  them.  But  Kray,  well  knowing 
that  Moreau  would  not  continue  his  march  in  that  direction,  as  he  would 
thereby  be  cut  off  from  his  own  communications,  patiently  awaited  the 
French  commander's  return ;  a  movement  which  Moreau  gladly  made, 
as  soon  as  he  found  that  Kray  was  not  deceived  by  the  artifice.  At 
length,  on  the  19th  of  June,  Moreau  effected  a  passage  across  the  Danube 
at  Blindheim,  and  thence  took  a  position  at  Hochstedt,  which  induced 
Kray  to  risk  a  general  action.  A  short  but  desperate  combat  took  place, 
in  which  the  Austrians  were  defeated,  and  Kray,  finding  himself  out- 
flanked, was  compelled  to  evacuate  his  intrenchments  at  Ulm.  He  left 
a  garrison  of  ten  thousand  men  within  its  walls,  and  stationed  his  cavalry 
on  the  Brentz  to  cover  his  movement ;  then,  pushing  forward  his  artillery 
and  caissons,  he  followed  with  the  main  body  of  his  army  in  three  divis- 
ions, and  by  a  masterly  retreat  on  a  semicircular  line,  of  which  the 
French  occupied  the  base,  he  reached  Nordlingen  in  safety  on  the  evening 
of  the  23rd  of  June.  He  thence  moved  along  the  Danube  to  Landshut, 
where  he  crossed  the  river,  and  finally  retreated  to  Amfing  on  the  Inn. 
Moreau  left  a  detachment  to  invest  Ulm,  and  with  his  main  body  occu- 
pied Munich.  On  the  15th  of  July,  intelligence  arrived  of  Napoleon's 
operations  in  the  south,  which  led  to  a  suspension  of  arms  under  the  ap. 
pellation  of  the  armistice  of  Parsdorf ;  and  for  the  present  the  campaign 
in  this  quarter  was  at  an  end.  By  this  subsidiary  treaty,  hostilities  were 
terminated  in  all  parts  of  the  Empire,  and  were  not  to  be  resumed  with- 
out  a  notice  of  twelve  days. 

The  military  operations  in  Italy  were  commenced  by  a  formidable 
attack  on  the  French  defensive  positions  around  Genoa,  led  on  by  Melas, 
with  near  sixty  thousand  Austrian  troops.  This  beautiful  city  was  pro- 
tected by  a  double  line  of  strong  fortifications,  extending  through  the 
heights  of  the  Appenines,  that  surround  it,  and  the  Imperialists  every- 
where met  with  the  most  determined  opposition  from  the  French  covering 
army :  but  Melas,  aided  by  superiority  of  numbers,  and  the  advantage 
which  is  inseparable  from  the  initiative  in  mountain  warfare,  prevailed 
on  every  point.  Soult,  on  the  French  right,  was  driven  in  from  Monte- 
notte  upon  Genoa ;  Savona,  Cadebone,  and  Vado,  were  occupied  by  the 
Austrians,  and  the  Republican  left,  under  Suchet,  was  altogether  de- 
tached from  the  centre  and  thrown  back  toward  France.  Hohenzollern, 
who  was  intrusted  with  the  attack  of  the  Bochetta,  drove  the  French  far 
up  that  important  pass,  and  succeeded  in  retaining  the  crest  of  the  moun- 
tains ;  while  Klenau,  on  the  Austrian  left,  advanced  in  three  columns  up 
the  narrow  ravines  leading  to  the  eastern  fortifications  of  Genoa,  dis- 
lodged the  French  from  the  heights  of  Monte  Faccio,  and  invested  the 
forts  of  Quizzi,  Richelieu,  and  San  Tecla,  within  cannon-shot  df  Genoa. 

The  situation  of  the  French  in  Genoa  was  now  critical,  more  especially,. 
as  a  large  and  influential  part  of  the  inhabitants  were  attached  to  the 
cause  of  the  Imperialists,  and  ardently  desired  to  throw  off  the  democratic 
tyranny  to  which  for  four  years  they  had  been  subjected.  But  Massena 
was  not  easily  daunted.  On  the  7th  of  April,  he  sallied  from  the  town, 
and  attacked  the  Austrians  on  Monte  Faccio  with  such  vigor,  that  they 

11 


130  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XVIL 

were  dislodged  and  driven  from  their  posts  with  a  loss  of  fifteen  hundred 
prisoners.  On  the  same  day,  however,  the  Imperialist  right  was  greatly 
strengthened  at  Vado  and  St.  Jaques,  and  the  French  were  threatened 
with  more  serious  evils  in  that  quarter.  Massena  soon  found  that  his 
partial  success  at  Monte  Faccio  would  be  of  little  avail  for  the  protection 
of  Genoa,  and  he  resolved  on  a  more  serious  attack  in  the  direction  of 
Savona.  Accordingly,  he  organized  his  forces  for  that  purpose,  and  a 
series  of  desperate  actions  ensued,  which  continued  during  fifteen  days; 
but  in  the  event,  he  made  no  impression  of  consequence  on  the  Austrians, 
and  was  driven  back  to  the  town  with  a  loss  of  seven  thousand  men  in 
killed  and  wounded.  Melas  now  established  a  strict  blockade  of  Genoa, 
and  marched  against  the  French  left  wing  under  Suchet,  who  had  long 
been  separated  from  the  main  army,  but  continued  to  maintain  a  position 
where  he  threatened  the  right  of  the  Imperialists.  He  withstood  the 
Austrian  assault  for  a  time  at  the  Col  di  Tende,  but  on  the  6th  of  May, 
he  was  forced  across  the  frontier  and  over  the  Var,  with  a  loss  of  more 
than  three  thousand  men.  After  this  event,  nothing  remained  to  the 
French  of  their  conquests  in  Italy  but  the  ground  which  was  commanded 
by  the  cannoo  of  Genoa. 

The  Austrians  pressed  the  siege  of  Genoa  with  redoubled  vigor,  while 
the  British  fleet,  maintaining  a  rigid  blockade  of  the  harbor,  shut  out  all 
hope  of  relief  from  the  sea ;  so  that  the  garrison  and  inhabitants  soon  be- 
gan to  suffer  for  want  of  provisions.  For  a  few  days,  Massena  desisted 
from  offensive  operations,  repaired  the  injury  done  to  his  defences,  and 
established  a  system  for  the  equal  and  economical  distribution  of  his  sup- 
plies ;  but  as  the  condition  of  the  garrison  was  rapidly  growing  worse,  he, 
on  the  13th  of  May,  resolved  to  break  up  the  position  of  the  besiegers  by  a 
powerful  attack  on  Monte  Creto.  Soult  led  the  Republican  columns,  and 
at  first  the  Austrians  began  to  give  way  ;  but,  rallying  under  the  support 
of  Hohenzollern's  reserve,  they  drove  the  French  back  into  the  town,  taking 
a  large  number  of  prisoners,  and  Soult  himself  among  the  number. 

With  this  repulse,  Massena  relinquished  all  efforts  to  raise  the  siege, 
and  the  horrors  of  famine  and  pestilence  soon  reduced  the  garrison  to  the 
last  extremity.  Finding,  at  length,  that  it  was  impossible  to  hold  the 
place,  Massena,  on  the  5th  of  June,  surrendered  Genoa  to  the  Austrians, 
and  was  permitted  to  march  out  with  his  troops,  artillery,  baggage  and 
ammunition.  The  favorable  terms  granted  to  Massena,  and  the  facilities 
afforded  him  by  the  Austrians  and  the  English  fleet  in  expediting  his  de- 
parture, were  soon  explained  by  the  intelligence  of  Napoleon's  advance 
to  Milan,  of  which  the  Austrian  commander  was  aware  previously  to  his 
agreeing  to  the  capitulation. 

Napoleon,  at  the  opening  of  the  campaign,  hesitated  whether  to  unite 
himself  with  Moreau  in  Germany,  or  Massena  in  Italy ;  but  the  decided 
success  which  accompanied  the  movements  of  the  former  commander,  soon 
rendered  the  First  Consul's  aid  unnecessary  on  the  Rhine,  and  he  therefore 
turned  his  attention  to  Italy,  where  the  Austrians  were  victorious.  In 
order  to  advance  by  the  shortest  route,  and  pursue  a  march  that  would  place 
his  army  on  the  weakest  point  of  the  Austrian  lines,  he  resolved  to  cross 
the  Alps  by  the  Great  St.  Bernard,  and  sent  his  engineers  to  explore  the 
passage.  When  Marescot  returned  from  the  survey,  he  began  to  enume- 
rate the  dangers  of  the  attempt ;  but  Napoleon  interrupted  him,  by  say- 
ing, "  Is  it  possible  to  pass  ?"  "  Yes,"  answered  Marescot,  "  but  with  great 


1800.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  137 

difficulty."     "Let  us  set  out,  then,"  said  Napoleon;  and  on  the  9th  of 
May,  preparations  were  begun  for  the  ascent. 

A  hundred  large  fir-trees  were  provided,  each  so  hollowed  as  to  contain 
a  piece  of  artillery  ;  the  carriages  of  the  guns  were  taken  to  pieces  and 
placed  on  the  backs  of  mules ;  and  the  ammunition  was  dispersed  among 
the  peasants,  who,  induced  by  the  large  rewards  offered  them,  arrived  from 
all  quarters  to  aid  in  the  enterprise.  On  the  16th  of  May,  Napoleon  slept 
at  the  convent  of  St.  Maurice,  and  on  the  following  morning  the  army  be- 
gan to  ascend  the  mountain.  The  march  continued  through  four  days, 
and  during  each,  from  eight  to  ten  thousand  men  passed  along.  Napoleon 
remained  at  St.  Maurice  until  the  20th,  when  the  whole  had  crossed. 
The  march,  though  toilsome,  presented  no  extraordinary  difficulties,  till 
the  leading  column  arrived  at  St.  Pierre :  but  from  that  village  to  the  sum- 
mit, it  was  painful  and  laborious  in  the  highest  degree.  A  hundred  men 
were  harnessed  to  each  gun,  and  they  were  relieved  every  half  mile ;  the 
soldiers  vied  with  each  other  in  dragging  their  load  up  the  rugged  track; 
and  it  soon  became  a  point  of  honor  for  each  column  to  prevent  its  cannon 
from  falling  behind.  To  encourage  their  efforts,  the  band  of  each  regiment 
played  the  most  lively  airs,  and,  where  the  ascent  was  particularly  steep, 
the  charge  was  sounded :  while  the  men,  toiling  painfully  up  and  ready 
to  sink  under  the  weight  of  their  arms  and  baggage,  joined  their  voices  to 
the  noise  of  the  instruments,  making  the  solitudes  of  St.  Bernard  resound 
with  the  strains  of  military  music. 

At  length,  the  leading  files  reached  the  hospice  at  the  summit,  where,  by 
the  provident  care  of  the  monks,  each  soldier  received  a  ration  of  bread 
and  cheese  and  a  draught  of  wine,  as  he  passed  ;  a  most  seasonable  supply, 
which  exhausted  the  ample  stores  of  the  establishment ;  but  the  liberality 
was  amply  compensated  by  the  First  Consul  before  the  termination  of  the 
campaign. 

Lannes,  who  commanded  the  advanced  guard,  descended  rapidly  the 
beautiful  valley  of  Aosta,  occupied  the  town  of  that  name,  and  overthrew, 
at  Chatillon,  a  body  of  fifteen  hundred  Croatians,  who  endeavored  to  dis- 
pute his  passage.  The  soldiers,  finding  themselves  in  a  level  and  fertile 
valley,  believed  their  difficulties  were  all  passed,  when  suddenly  their  ad- 
vance was  checked  by  the  cannon  of  Bard.  This  fort,  perched  on  a  pyra- 
midal rock  midway  between  the  opposite  cliffs  of  the  valley,  and  not  more 
than  fifty  yards  distant  from  the  base  of  either  side,  commands  the  narrow 
road  that  winds  around  its  feet,  and  is  beyond  the  reach  of  any  attack  other 
than  regular  approaches.  The  cannon  of  the  fort,  twenty -two  in  number, 
were  so  disposed  on  its  well-constructed  bastions  as  to  reach  not  only  every 
point  of  the  road  through  the  village  below,  but  apparently  every  path  on  ' 
the  mountains  practicable  for  a  single  traveller. 

When  Lannes  became  aware  of  this  formidable  obstacle  he  advanced  to 
the  front  of  his  column,  and  ordered  an  assault  on  the  village ;  this  was 
quickly  carried  by  the  French  grenadiers,  but  the  Austrians  retired  in 
good  order  to  the  rock  above,  whence  the  garrison  of  the  fort  poured  an 
incessant  fire  on  every  column  that  attempted  to  pass.  In  a  moment,  the 
march  of  the  whole  army  was  arrested ;  the  alarm  extended  rapidly  along 
the  line  from  front  to  rear,  and  it  seemed  to  be  necessary  to  retreat  over 
the  mountains.  Napoleon  was  at  St.  Bernard  when  this  intelligence 
reached  him.  He  instantly  pushed  forward,  and  with  his  spy-glass  long 
and  minutely  surveyed  the  ground.  After  a  time,  he  discovered  that  it 


I 


E38  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XVII, 

was  possible  for  the  infantry  to  pass  by  a  path  along  the  face  of  the  cliff, 
above  the  range  of  the  guns  of  Bard ;  but  it  was  wholly  impracticable  for 
artillery. 

In  this  extremity,  he  summoned  the  fort  to  surrender,  and  threatened  an 
instant  assault  in  case  of  refusal ;  but  the  Austrian  commander  replied  as 
became  a  man  of  courage  and  honor,  that  he  was  well  aware  of  the  im- 
portance of  his  position,  and  that  the  means  of  defending  it  were  in  his 
power.  Time  now  pressed,  and  almost  every  one  was  in  despair ;  but  the 
genius  and  intrepidity  of  the  French  engineers  surmounted  the  difficulty. 
The  infantry  and  cavalry  traversed,  one  by  one,  the  path  which  Napoleon 
had  discovered  on  the  side  of  the  mountain ;  and  in  the  night,  the  artil- 
lery-men moved  their  cannon  gradually  through  the  village,  and  close 
under  the  guns  of  the  fort,  by  spreading  straw  and  manure  over  the  streets 
and  wrapping  the  wheels,  so  that  scarcely  any  sound  was  made  by  their 
transportation.  In  this  manner,  forty  guns  and  a  hundred  caissons  were 
conveyed  beyond  the  reach  of  the  fort,  while  the  Austrians  above,  in  un- 
conscious security,  were  sleeping  beside  their  loaded  cannon.  During 
the  following  night,  the  same  hazardous  operation  was  repeated  with  equal 
success :  and  although  the  Austrian  commander  wrote  to  Melas  that 
thirty-five  thousand  men  and  four  thousand  horse  had  defiled  along  the 
cliffs,  but  that  not  one  piece  of  artillery  should  pass  beneath  his  guns,  the 
cannon  and  ammunition  of  the  French  army  were  in  fact  safely  proceed- 
ing on  the  road  to  Ivrea.  The  passage  was  completed  on  the  26th  of 
May,  and  on  the  28th,  the  whole  of  the  Republican  forces  with  their 
artillery  reached  Ivrea,  which  place  Lannes  had  already  taken  with  the 
advanced  guard. 

While  the  centre  of  Napoleon's  army  was  thus  surmounting  the 
obstacles  of  St.  Bernard,  his  right  and  left  wings  were  equally  successful 
in  the  movements  assigned  to  them.  Thurreau,  with  five  thousand  men, 
descended  to  Susa  and  Novalese ;  Moncey,  with  sixteen  thousand  crossed 
the  St.  Gothard,  and  Bethencourt  with  a  division  of  Swiss  troops  ascended 
the  Simplon  and  forced  the  defile  of  Gondo.  Consequently,  more  than 
sixty  thousand  men  were  assembling  in  the  plains  of  Piedmont,  and  threat- 
ened the  rear  of  the  Imperial  army. 

Napoleon  directed  his  troops  rapidly  toward  the  Tic»no,  and  reached 
the  banks  of  that  river  on  the  31st  of  May.  The  arrival  of  so  great  a 
force  in  a  quarter  where  they  were  wholly  unexpected,  threw  the  Aus- 
trians into  the  utmost  embarrassment ;  and  a  general  retreat,  on  their 
part,  was  the  first  consequence  of  the  French  advance.  On  the  2nd  of 
June,  the  First  Consul  made  a  triumphal  entry  into  Milan;  where  he 
instantly  dismissed  the  Austrian  authorities,  and  reinstated  the  Republican 
magistrates ;  but,  knowing  that  the  chances  of  war  might  expose  his  par- 
tisans to  severe  reprisals,  he  wisely  forbade  any  harsh  measures  against 
the  vanquished  party.  The  entrance  into  Milan  was  followed  by  a  gene- 
ral submission  of  the  towns  in  Lombardy. 

Melas,  on  learning  the  progress  of  the  French  army,  concentrated  his 
forces  at  Alexandria  with  all  possible  expedition ;  while  Napoleon  hast- 
ened onto  assail  the  detached  columns  of  the  Austrians  before  they  could 
effect  a  junction  with  each  other,  Lannes  first  came  up  with  a  body  of 
fifteen  thousand  men  advantageously  posted  at  Montebello,  under  the  com- 
mand  of  Ott.  His  own  corps  numbered  but  nine  thousand  ;  but  as  Victor 
with  a  similar  force  was  only  two  leagues  in  his  rear,  he  did  not  hesitate  to 


1800..  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  139 

attack.  The  French  infantry  with  great  gallantry  advanced  in  echellon, 
under  a  fire  of  grape-shot  and  musketry,  to  storm  the  hills  on  the  right  of 
the  Austrian  position  ;  but  after  making  a  temporary  lodgment,  they  were 
driven  with  great  slaughter  down  into  the  plain.  The  Imperialists  fol- 
lowed up  this  success  with  an  attack  on  the  French  centre,  and  the 
Republicans  were  there  beginning  to  waver,  when  the  arrival  of  Victor 
enabled  the  broken  divisions  to  rally,  and  the  contest  was  maintained  for 
some  hours,  without  advantage  to  either  party.  Napoleon,  at  length, 
came  on  with  the  division  of  Gardaune,  and  decided  the  battle.  Ott,  how- 
ever, retreated  in  good  order,  leaving  behind  him  three  thousand  killed 
and  wounded,  and  fifteen  hundred  prisoners :  the  French  loss,  in  killed 
and  wounded,  was  nearly  the  same. 

While  Napoleon  was  thus  driving  the  Austrians  before  him,  Suchet, 
with  the  left  wing  of  the  army  of  Genoa,  had  made  a  stand  against  the 
pursuing  Imperialists  under  Elnitz,  and,  by  an  impetuous  assault  on  the 
banks  of  the  Var,  forced  him,  in  turn,  to  retreat ;  after  which,  by  a  skilful 
combination  of  movements  and  attacks,  he  at  length  drove  him  to  Ceva, 
with  a  loss  of  one  half  of  his  whole  corps. 

These  operations  rendered  the  situation  of  Melas  highly  critical.  Na- 
poleon was  in  his  front,  Suchet  in  his  rear,  the  Alps  on  the  left,  and  the 
Appenines  on  the  right :  he  had  no  hope  of  escape  but  by  cutting  his  way 
through  Napoleon's  army ;  and,  with  the  resolution  of  a  brave  man,  he 
adopted  this  alternative.  While  he  was  vigorously  concentrating  his 
forces  for  the  enterprise,  Napoleon,  anticipating  the  movement,  had  for 
some  days  awaited  his  approach  at  Stradella,  where  Desaix  arrived  from 
Egypt  with  his  aids-de-camp,  Savary  and  Rapp,  on  the  llth  of  June.  In 
the  belief  that  the  Austrian  commander  was  not  likely  to  attack  him  in 
his  present  strong  position,  he  resolved  to  give  battle  to  Melas  on  his  own 
ground ;  for  which  purpose  he  advanced  to  the  plains  of  Marengo,  on  the 
13th,  and  made  his  dispositions  for  the  combat.  The  Austrian  army 
amounted  to  thirty-one  thousand  men,  including  seven  thousand  five  hun- 
dred cavalry  ;  and  the  French  were  twenty-nine  thousand  strong. 

By  daybreak  on  the  14th  of  June,  the  whole  force  of  Melas  was  in  mo- 
tion, advancing  in  three  columns  over  the  bridges  of  the  Bormida,  toward 
the  French  position.  Napoleon  was  surprised.  He  had  been  induced  to 
believe  during  the  night,  that  Melas  intended  to  retreat ;  and  he  had  not, 
therefore,  the  slightest  anticipation  of  his  commencing  the  attack  :  nor  was 
he  prepared  to  receive  it,  for  his  right  wing  was  near  half  a  day's  march 
in  the  rear.  At  eight  o'clock,  the  Austrian  infantry,  under  Haddick  and 
Kaim,  preceded  by  a  splendid  array  of  artillery,  commenced  the  battle. 
They  speedily  overthrew  Gardaune,  who,  with  six  battalions,  was  sta- 
tioned in  front  of  the  village  of  Marengo ;  and,  following  on,  encountered 
the  corps  of  Victor  and  Lannes.  Here,  for  two  hours,  the  battle  raged  with 
the  utmost  fury.  The  opposing  masses  were  within  pistol-shot  of  each 
other,  and  all  the  chasms  produced  by  the  incessant  discharge  of  artillery 
were  rapidly  filled  up  by  a  regular  movement  to  the  centre :  but  at  length, 
the  perseverance  of  the  Austrians  prevailed  over  the  heroic  devotion  of 
the  French ;  the  village  was  carried ;  the  stream  that  traversed  it,  forced ; 
and  the  Republicans  were  driven  back  to  their  second  line  in  the  rear. 
Here  they  made  a  desperate  stand,  and  Haddick's  division,  disordered  by 
success,  was  in  turn  forced  back  across  the  stream ;  but  the  French  could 
not  follow  up  their  advantage,  and  the  Austrians,  perceiving  their  weak* 


140  HISTORYOFEUROPE  [CHAP.  XVII. 

ness,  returned  to  the  charge,  and  Victor's  line  was  broken.  Thus  en- 
couraged,  Melas  pushed  on  with  additional  forces,  established  himself  in 
the  village,  and  having  outflanked  Lannes,  he,  too,  was  compelled  to 
retreat.  At  first,  he  retired  by  echellon  in  squares,  with  admirable  dis- 
cipline ;  but  the  Imperial  cavalry,  which  swept  like  a  tempest  around 
the  retreating  troops,  at  length  disordered  their  squares,  while  the  Hunga- 
rian infantry,  halting  at  every  fifty  yards,  poured  in  destructive  volleys 
at  point-blank  range,  and  the  incessant  storm  of  grape  from  the  well-served 
Austrian  artillery,  completed  the  rout.  The  whole  mass  at  length  gave 
way;  the  plain  was  covered  with  a  confused  host  of  fugitives;  the  alarm 
spread  even  to  the  rear  of  the  army;  and  the  fatal  cry  "tout  est  perdu, 
sauve  qui  peut,"  echoed  over  the  field. 

Matters  were  in  this  condition,  when,  at  eleven  o'clock,  Napoleon 
arrived  with  a  detachment  of  the  right  wing.  The  sight  of  his  staff,  sur- 
rounded by  two  hundred  mounted  grenadiers,  and  accompanied  by  the 
Consul's  own  guard  of  reserve,  revived  the  spirit  of  the  fugitives.  Napo- 
leon immediately  detached  eight  hundred  grenadiers  of  his  guard,  to  make 
head  against  Ott ;  at  the  same  time,  he  himself  advanced  with  a  demi- 
brigade  to  support  Lannes,  and  sent  five  battalions  under  Monnier,  to 
hold  in  check  the  Austrian  light  infantry  on  the  left.  The  grenadiers 
advanced  in  squares  into  the  midst  of  the  plain,  making  their  way  through 
both  their  own  fugitives  and  the  enemy,  and  for  a  time  they  sustained  the 
brunt  of  the  battle ;  but  at  length,  the  steady  fire  of  the  Austrian  artil- 
lery, followed  up  by  a  charge  of  hussars,  broke  their  ranks,  and  drove 
them  back  in  disorder ;  the  leading  battalions  of  Desaix's  division,  how- 
ever, came  forward  in  time  to  cover  their  retreat.  Melas  now,  deeming 
the  victory  secure,  retired  to  Alexandria,  leaving  Zack,  chief  of  his  stafi^ 
to  follow  up  his  success :  while  Napoleon  made  arrangements  to  secure 
a  retreat  by  the  line  of  Castel  Nuovo. 

It  was  now  four  o'clock ;  and  Desaix's  main  body,  being  the  French 
right  wing,  made  its  appearance.  "  What  do  you  think  of  the  day  ?" 
said  Napoleon.  "  The  battle  is  lost,"  answered  Desaix  ;  "  but  it  is  early ; 
there  is  time  to  gain  another  one."  Napoleon  coincided  with  this  opinion, 
but  all  the  other  officers  advised  a  retreat.  The  combat  was,  therefore, 
to  be  renewed ;  and  Desaix  put  himself  at  the  head  of  his  division,  arid 
pressed  on  to  meet  Zack's  advancing  columns,  who,  expecting  no  resist- 
ance, were  at  first  thrown  into  disorder.  They  soon  rallied,  however, 
checked  the  French  advance,  and  at  this  moment  Desaix  was  mortally 
wounded  by  a  ball  in  the  breast.  The  Hungarian  grenadiers  pressed  on, 
and  the  French  column  soon  hesitated,  broke,  and  gave  way.  At  this 
critical  moment,  when  everything  seemed  lost  for  Napoleon,  Kellerman, 
by  a  sudden  movement,  conceived  and  undertaken  by  himself,  changed 
the  defeat  into  a  victory.  He  was  stationed  with  eight  hundred  cavalry 
in  a  vineyard,  where  the  overhanging  vines  concealed  him  from  sight ; 
and  the  advancing  column  of  Zack,  having  just  broken  Desaix's  division, 
was  following  up  its  success,  and  marching  past  Kellerman's  squadron 
without  being  aware  of  his  presence.  In  an  instant,  Kellerman  dashed  out 
on  the  unprotected  flank  of  this  column,  threw  it  into  inextricable  confu- 
sion in  less  time  than  is  requisite  to  relate  the  fact ;  and,  being  supported 
by  Desaix's  division,  which  immediately  rallied,  made  Zack  himself,  and 
two  thousand  of  his  grenadiers  prisoners  on  the  spot.  The  remainder  of 
the  column  retreated  in  confusion-  overturned  those  who  were  advancing 


1800.]  HTSTORY    OF    EUROPE.  141 

to  its  support,  and  the  entire  Austrian  army  became,  in  those  few  moments, 
one  mass  of  fugitives,  flying  across  the  plain. 

The  tide  of  battle  being  thus  suddenly  and  unexpectedly  turned,  it 
was  easy  to  rally  the  broken  French  divisions,  and  secure  the  victory. 
The  loss  of  the  Imperialists  was  seven  thousand  killed  and  wtmnded, 
three  thousand  prisoners,  eight  standards  and  twenty  pieces  of  cannon. 
The  French  sustained  an  equal  loss  in  killed  and  wounded,  together  with 
one  thousand  prisoners  taken  in  the  early  part  of  the  day.  But  although 
the  losses  .on  both  sides  were  so  nearly  equal,  defeat  was  highly  disastrous 
to  the  Austrians  ;  for  they  fought  to  secure  a  passage  through  Napoleon's 
enveloping  masses,  and  having  failed,  they  were  left  without  retreat ;  so 
that,  by  a  single  victory,  Napoleon  had  in  effect  destroyed  his  enemy, 
and  gained  the  command  of  Italy.  Nor  was  that  all :  for  such  a  result, 
coming  at  the  outset  of  his  career  as  First  Consul,  served  to  fix  him  per- 
manently on  the  throne  of  France. 

In  view  of  these  brilliant  consequences,  one  would  suppose  that  Napo- 
leon might  have  been  generous  to  Kellerman,  who  in  reality  and  directly 
secured  them :  but  his  was  a  disposition  that  could  not  pardon  one  whose 
services  chanced  to  dimmish  the  lustre  of  his  own  exploits.  When  this 
young  officer  appeared  at  head-quarters  after  the  battle,  Napoleon  coolly 
said,  "  You  made  a  good  charge  this  evening ;"  then  turning  to  Bessieres, 
he  added,  "  The  guard  has  covered  itself  with  glory."  "  I  am  glad  you 
are  pleased  with  my  charge,"  said  Kellerman,  nothing  daunted,  "  for  it 
has  placed  the  crown  on  your  head."  But  the  obligation  was  too  great 
and  too  notorious  to  be  forgiven,  and  Kellerman  though  promoted  with 
the  other  generals,  never  aftenvard  enjoyed  the  favor  of  Napoleon. 

On  the  following  morning,  after  holding  a  council  of  war,  Melas  sent 
a  flag  of  truce  to  the  French  head-quarters,  with  proposals  fora  capitula- 
tion. An  armistice  was  immediately  agreed  upon,  until  an  answer  could 
be  received  from  Vienna ;  and,  in  the  mean  time,  the  Imperial  army  was 
to  occupy  the  country  between  the  Mincio  and  the  Po,  and  the  fortresses 
of  Tortona,  Milan,  Turin,  Pizzighitorie,  Arona,  Placentia,  Ceva,  Savona, 
Urbia,  Coni,  Alexandria  and  Genoa  were  to  be  surrendered  to  the  French, 
with  all  their  artillery  and  stores,  the  Austrians  taking  with  them  only 
their  own  cannon. 


CHAPTER    XVIII. 

SECOND    CAMPAIGN    OF    1800. 

Two  days  before  intelligence  was  received  of  the  battle  of  Marengo 
and  the  armistice  that  followed  it,  a  treaty  between  Austria  and  Great 
Britain  for  the  further  prosecution  of  the  war  had  been  signed  at  Vienna  : 
but  even  the  disasters  of  that  defeat  could  not  shake  the  firmness  or  good 
faith  of  the  Austrian  cabinet.  The  inflexible  Thugut,  who  then  presided 
over  its  councils,  was  assailed  by  representations  of  the  perils  of  the  Em- 
pire ;  but  he  opposed  all  such  arguments  by  producing  the  treaty  with 
England,  and  pointing  out  the  disgrace  that  would  attach  to  the  Imperial 


H2  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XVIIL 

government  if,  on  the  first  appearance  of  danger,  engagements  so  solemnly 
entered  into  were  to  be  abandoned.  Nor  did  the  situation  of  affairs  justify 
any  measures  of  despondency.  If  the  battle  of  Marengo  had  deprived 
the  allied  powers  of  Piedmont,  the  strength  of  the  Imperial  army  was  still 
unbroken :  it  had  exchanged  a  disadvantageous  offensive  position  in  the 
Ligurian  mountains,  for  an  advantageous  defensive  one  on  the  frontiers 
of  Lombardy ;  the  cannon  of  Mantua,  so  formidable  to  France  in  1796, 
still  remained  to  arrest  the  progress  of  the  victor;  and  the  English 
forces  of  Abereromby,  joined  to  the  Neapolitan  troops  and  the  Imperial 
divisions  in  Ancona  ancl  Tuscany,  might  prove  too  formidable  a  body  on 
the  right  flank  of  the  Republicans,  to  permit  any  considerable  advance 
toward  the  hereditary  states.  Nor  were  affairs  by  any  means  desperate 
in  Germany.  The  advance  of  Moreau  into  Bavaria,  while  Ufm  and  In- 
golstadt  were  not  reduced,  was  a  perilous  measure  for  the  French ;  and 
the  line  of  the  Inn  furnished  a  defensive  frontier  not  surpassed  by  any  in 
Europe. 

Influenced  by  these  considerations,  the  Austrian  cabinet  resolved  to 
gain  time,  and,  if  they  could  not  obtain  tolerable  terms  of  peace,  to  run 
all  the  hazard  of  a  renewal  of  the  war.  -Count  St.  Julien  was  sent  to 
Paris,  as  plenipotentiary  on  the  part  of  Austria,  bearing  a  letter  from  the 
Emperor  individually,  in  which  were  these  words .'  "  You  will  give  credit 
to  everything  which  Count  St.  Julien  shall  say  on  my  part,  and  I  will 
ratify  whatever  he  shall  do."  In  virtue  of  these  powers,  preliminaries 
of  peace  were  signed  at  Paris,  on  the  28th  of  July,  by  the  French  and 
Austrian  ministers.  The  treaty  of  Carnpo  Formio  was  taken  as  the  basis 
of  the  pacification,  unless  where  changes  had  become  necessary.  It  was 
provided  that  the  frontier  of  the  Rhine  should  belong  to  France,  and  the 
indemnities  stipulated  for  Austria,  by  the  secret  articles  of  the  treaty 
of  Campo  Formio,  were  to  be  given  in  Italy,  instead  of  Germany. 

As  the  treaty  was  signed  by  Count  St.  Julien  in  virtue  of  the  Emperor's 
letter  only,  it  was  further  provided  that  these  preliminary  articles  should 
not  be  binding  until  after  being  ratified  by  the  respective  governments :  a 
clause  of  which  the  cabinet  of  Vienna  availed  themselves.  On  the  15th 
of  August,  the  Austrian  plenipotentiary  was  recalled,  and  notice  given 
of  the  refusal  to  ratify. 

Napoleon  was,  or  affected  to  be,  highly  indignant  at  this  proceeding, 
and  he  immediately  announced  that  the  conclusion  of  the  armistice  should 
take  place  on  the  10th  of  September,  and  ordered  certain  movements  of 
the  army  in  reference  to  that  event.  But  he  soon  returned  to  more  mode- 
rate sentiments,  and  dispatched  full  powers  to  M.  Otto,  resident  at  London 
as  agent  for  the  exchange  of  prisoners,  to  conclude  a  naval  armistice  with 
Great  Britain.  The  object  of  this  proposal,  hitherto  unknown  in  European 
diplomacy, 'was  to  obtain  means,  while  the  negotiations  were  pending, 
of  throwing  supplies  into  Egypt  and  Malta,  the  former  of  which  stood 
greatly  in  need  of  assistance,  while  the  latter  was  reduced  to  the  last 
extremity  from  the  vigilant  blockade  maintained  for  two  years  by  the 
British  cruisers. 

As  soon  as  the  English  government  received  this  proposal,  they  signified 

their  desire  for  a  general  peace,  but  declined  to  agree  in  the  mean  time 

to  a  naval  armistice,  until  the  preliminaries  of  such  general  pacification 

•  were  signed.     Napoleon,  however,  was  obstinately  bent  on  saving  Malta 

and  Egypt,  and  insisted  on  the  naval  armistice  as  a  sine  qua  non;  declaring, 


1800.]  HISTORY    OFEUROPE.  143 

that  unless  it  were  agreed  to  before  the  llth  of  September,  he  would 
recommence  hostilities  in  both  Italy  and  Germany.  The  urgency  of 
the  case,  and  the  imminent  danger  that  would  ensue  to  Austria  if  war 
were  so  soon  renewed,  induced  the  cabinet  of  London  to  make  some  con- 
cession :  they  therefore  presented  to  M.  Otto  a  counter  project  for  a  sus- 
pension of  hostilities  between  all  the  belligerent  powers.  By  this  it  was 
proposed,  that  an  armistice  should  lake  place  by  land  and  sea,  during 
which  the  ocean  was  to  be  open  for  the  navigation  of  trading  vessels  of 
both  nations  ;  Malta  and  Egypt  were  to  be  put  on  the  same  footing  as  the 
besieged  fortresses  in  Germany,  by  the  armistice  of  Parsdorf ;  that  is  to 
say,  they  were  to  be  provisioned  for  twelve  days  at  a  time,  during  the 
dependence  of  the  negotiations.  The  blockade  of  Brest  and  other  mari- 
time ports  was  to  be  raised,  but  the  British  squadrons  would  remain  off 
their  entrances,  and  ships  of  war  would  not  be  permitted  to  pass.  Nothing 
could  be  more  equitable  toward  France  or  generous  towartfr-Austria,  than 
these  propositions.  They  compensated  the  recent  disasters  of  the  Impe- 
rialists on  land  with  concessions  by  the  British  at  s"ea,  and  abandoned  to 
the  vanquished  on  one  element,  those  advantages  of  a  free  navigation 
which  they  could  not  obtain  by  force  of  arms,  in  consideration  of  the 
benefits  that  would  accrue  from  a  prolongation  of  the  armistice  to  their 
allies  on  another. 

Napoleon,  however,  insisted  on  a  condition  which  ultimately  proved 
fatal  to  the  negotiation.  This  was,  that  the  French  ships  of  the  line  only 
should  be  confined  to  their  ports,  but  that  frigates  should  have  liberty  of 
egress,  and  that  six  vessels  of  that  description  should  be  allowed  to  go 
from  Toulon  to  Alexandria  without  being  visited  by  the  English  cruisers. 
This  condition  was  inadmissible,  and  the  negotiation  was  broken  off". 
The  Austrian  cabinet,  being  now  left  to  contend  alone  with  Napoleon, 
were  in  no  condition  to  resist  his  demands.  A  new  convention  was  there- 
fore concluded  at  Hohenlinden,  on  the  28th  of  September,  by  which  the 
cession  of  the  three  German  fortresses,  Ulm,  Philipsburg  and  Ingolstadt, 
was  agreed  on,  and  the  armistice  was  prolonged  for  forty-five  days,  both 
in  Germany  and  Italy. 

As  soon  as  it  became  evident  that  Great  Britain  would  not  accede  to 
the  First  Consul's  demands,  the  portfolio  of  the  French  war  department 
was  placed  in  the  hands  of  Carnot,  and  every  exertion  made  to  put  all  the 
armies  in  a  condition  to  resume  hostilities.  On  the  same  day  that  this 
took  place,  October  8th,  a  plot  to  assassinate  Napoleon  at  the  opera  was 
discovered  by  the  police.  Cerachi  and  Demerville,  the  leaders  of  the 
conspiracy,  and  both  determined  Jacobins,  were  arrested  and  executed. 

It  was  not  long  before  the  French  armies  were  in  a  very  formidable 
condition.  In  addition  to  a  corps  of  fifteen  thousand  under  Macdonald  at 
Dijon,  and  one  of  twenty  thousand  on  the  Maine  under  Augereau,  the 
army  of  Italy  was  raised  to  eighty  thousand  men,  and  the  grand  army 
under  Moreau  in  Bavaria  to  one  hundred  and  ten  thousand.  Austria, 
too,  foreseeing  the  result  of  the  negotiations  for  peace,  had  made  good  use 
of  the  armistice  to  recruit  and  reorganize  her  forces,  having  raised  her 
entire  German  army  to  one  hundred  and  ten  thousand  men ;  though  its 
efficiency  was  greatly  impaired  by  the  usual  system  of  the  Aulic  Council, 
which  caused  the  troops  to  be  scattered  too  much  in  detail  over  the  coun- 
try ;  and  also  by  their  injudicious  removal  of  Kray,  and  the  substitution 
in  his  place  of  the  young  Archduke  John.  In  Italy,  the  ntal  foice  under 

]5 


144  HISTORY    OF    BUR  OPE,  [CHAP.  XVIII 

Field-marshal  Bellegarde  amounted  to  one  hundred  thousand  men ;  but 
it  was  so  subdivided  that  not  more  than  sixty  thousand  could  be  assem- 
bled at  any  one  point.  Renewed  efforts  were  made  at  this  time  to  engage 
Russia  and  Prussia  in  the  common  cause;  but  they  both  declined  to 
interfere. 

In  the  middle  of  September,  the  garrison  of  Malta,  having  been  entirely 
reduced  by  famine,  capitulated,  on  condition  of  being  sent  to  France  and 
not  serving  again  until  regularly  exchanged  :  this  noble  fortress,  therefore, 
with  its  unrivalled  harbor  and  impregnable  walls,  was  permanently 
annexed  to  the  British  dominions.  The  English  also  made  themselves 
masters,  in  the  course  of  this  year,  of  Surinam,  Berbice,  St.  Eustache 
and  Demerara,  Dutch  settlements  in  the  West  Indies  and  on  the  main 
land  adjoining  them. 

After  the  death  of  Pope  Pius  VI.,  through  the  cruelty  and  tyranny  of 
the  French  government,  the  Roman  conclave  made  choice  of  Cardinal 
Chiaramonte  as  his  successor,  with  the  title  of  Pius  VII.  Rome  at  this 
time  was  suffering  under  the  exactions  of  the  recently  recovered  power 
of  the  King  of  Naples,  and  the  new  pontiff,  without  openly  engaging  in  a 
war,  lent  a  willing  ear  to  the  proposals  of  Napoleon.  But  in  other  parts 
of  Italy,  a  feeling  of  entire  hostility  to  France  prevailed ;  and  in  Tuscany 
an  insurrection  broke  out  among  the  peasants,  which  was  promptly  sub- 
dued, and  with  great  cruelty,  by  the  French  troops.  The  army  employed 
on  this  service  was  afterward  dispatched  to  Leghorn,  where  they  seized 
and  confiscated  forty-six  English  vessels  with  their  cargoes. 

In  the  month  of  November,  Napoleon  announced  the  conclusion  of  the 
armistice,  and  on  the  28th  of  that  month,  both  parties  were  prepared  to 
commence  hostilities.  The  line  of  the  Inn,  behind  which  the  Austrians 
were  intrenched,  is  one  of  the  strongest  frontier  positions  in  Europe ;  and 
the  true  policy  of  the  Imperial  forces,  at  this  time,  was  to  remain  on  the 
defensive,  but  the  Aulic  Council  decided  on  carrying  the  war  into  Bava- 
ria ;  and  accordingly,  the  Austrian  columns  were  moved  to  Landshut  on 
the  29th ;  and  as  it  chanced,  Moreau,  unaware  of  their  march,  was  at 
the  same  time  advancing  toward  Ampfing  on  such  a  line  as  to  bring  the 
flank  of  his  left  wing  in  immediate  contact  with  the  main  body  of  the 
Imperialists.  The  consequence  was,  that  despite  the  utmost  efforts  of 
Ney,  Grenier  and  Legrand,  the  division  was  totally  routed,  and,  falling 
back  in  confusion  on  the  centre,  spread  terror  and  discouragement  through 
the  whole  army.  Had  this  success  been  vigorously  followed  up,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  Moreau  would  have  suffered  an  overwhelming 
defeat.  But  the  Archduke  John,  satisfied  with  his  advantage,  allowed 
the  French  troops  to  recover  from  their  consternation ;  and  on  the  follow- 
ing day,  they  retired  in  good  order  through  the  forest  of  Hohenlinden  to 
the  ground  beyond,  which  Moreau  had  previously  studied  as  the  probable 
theatre  of  a  decisive  battle,  and  where  he  now  defended  his  position  with 
great  care  and  skill. 

The  Archduke,  after  having  thus  allowed  the  enemy  to  escape  when 
he  might  have  taken  him  at  advantage,  resolved  now  to  pursue  him ;  not 
imagining  that  Moreau  had  made  a  stand,  but  indulging  the  belief  that 
he  was  retreating  in  disorder.  On  the  3rd  of  December,  long  before  day- 
light,  his  whole  army  was  in  motion  in  three  columns,  and  they  plunged 
into  the  forest,  trampling  the  yet  unstained  snow  in  full  confidence  of 
victory.  From  the  outset,  however,  the  most  sinister  presages  attended 


1800]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  145 

their  steps.  During  the  night,  the  wind  had  changed,  and  the  heavy 
rain  of  the  preceding  day  turned  into  snow,  which  fell  in  such  thick 
flakes  as  rendered  it  impossible  to  see  twenty  yards  before  the  head  of 
the  columns;  while  the  dreary  expanse  of  the  forest,  under  the  boughs, 
presented  a  uniform  white  surface  where  the  roads  could  not  be  distin- 
guished. The  cross-paths  between  the  roads,  bad  at  any  time,  were 
almost  impassable  in  such  a  storm;  and  each  division,  isolated  in  the 
snowy  wilderness,  was  left  to  its  own  resources  without  receiving  intel- 
ligence or  aid  from  its  associates. 

The  central  column,  which  advanced  along  the  only  good  road,  out- 
stripped the  others,  and  its  leading  detachments  had  traversed  the  forest 
and  approached  the  village  of  Hohenlinden  about  nine  o'clock  in  the 
morning.  It  was  there  met  by  the  division  of  Grouchy,  and  a  furious 
conflict  immediately  commenced.  The  Austrians  endeavored  to  debouch 
with  their  main  body  from  the  defile,  and  extend  themselves  along  the 
front  of  the  wood ;  while  the  French  strove  to  drive  them  back  into  the 
forest.  Both  parties  made  the  most  heroic  efforts ;  the  falling  snow  at 
first  prevented  the  troops  of  the  opposing  lines  from  seeing  each  other, 
but  they  aimed  at  the  flashes  which  appeared  through  the  gloom,  and 
rushed  forward  with  blind  fury  to  the  deadly  charge  of  the  bayonet. 
Gradually,  however,  the  Austrians  gained  ground,  and  their  ranks  were 
extending  themselves  in  front,  when  Grouchy  and  Grandjean,  by  leading 
on  fresh  battalions,  forced  them  to  retire  into  the  wood.  Here,  the  combat 
was  maintained  hand  to  hand  among  the  trees  and  thickets  with  invincible 
resolution. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  other  columns  had  advanced  by  different  roads 
to  more  remote  parts  of  the  field,  and  were  warmly  engaged  in  the  battle. 
The  right  was  assailed  by  Ney  as  it  began  to  defile  on  that  side  from  the 
forest,  and  it  was  driven  back  by  such  an  impetuous  charge  that  its 
ranks  were  broken,  and  the  whole  mass  retired  with  a  loss  of  eight 
pieces  of  cannon  and  a  thousand  prisoners.  A  similar  fate  awaited  the 
left  wing,  which,  being  attacked  by  Grenier,  was  forced  to  retreat  with 
still  greater  loss.  Moreau  was  keeping  the  Austrian  centre  in  check  by 
a  series  of  assaults  with  fresh  detachments,  when  the  defeat  of  both  wings 
of  the  Archduke's  army  not  only  spread  confusion  into  the  main  column, 
but,  by  disengaging  a  part  of  Ney's  and  Grenier's  divisions,  enabled  him 
to  bring  an  overwhelming  force  against  the  only  corps  of  Imperialists 
that  yet  maintained  its  ground.  Soon  after  this  accumulation  of  strength 
began  to  be  felt  in  front,  the  rear  of  the  same  column  was  assailed  by 
Richepanse  with  two  regiments  of  infantry.  This  combined  attack  was 
decisive.  The  Imperialists  broke  and  fled  in  every  direction,  leaving 
more  than  a  hundred  pieces  of  cannon,  and  fourteen  thousand  men,  killed, 
wounded  and  prisoners,  on  the  field. 

The  Archduke  retired  with  his  shattered  forces  during  the  night  behind 
the  Inn,  where  he  made  a  show  of  defence;  but  Moreau  soon  crossed  the 
river  lower  down  than  the  Austrian  position,  and  the  Imperialists,  being 
thus  outflanked,  again  retreated  and  took  post  behind  the  Alza,  to  cover 
the  roads  leading  to  Salzburg  and  Vienna.  But  Moreau  found,  from 
the  manner  of  the  Archduke's  retreat,  that  the  spirit  of  the  Austrian 
troops  was  broken ;  and  he  continued  his  pursuit,  with  a  determination  of 
destroying  the  whole  army  before  it  could  recover  from  its  disasters.  He 
therefore  hastened  on  to  Salzburg,  where  his  advanced  guard  became 


146  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP-  XVIIL 

enveloped  in  a  thick  fog ;  and  before  Lecourbe,  who  led  the  attack,  was 
aware  of  his  danger,  his  corps  was  charged  by  a  large  body  of  Imperial 
horse,  and  routed  with  a  loss  of  two  thousand  men.  The  affairs  of  the 
Archduke  were,  however,  in  too  desperate  a  condition  to  be  relieved  by 
this  partial  success,  and  he  retreated  in  the  night,  leaving  Salsburg  to 
its  fate.  Decaen  took  possession  of  it  in  the  morning,  and,  for  the  first 
time,  the  Republican  standards  waved  on  the  picturesque  towers  of  that 
romantic  city. 

The  same  day,  Richepanse  continued  the  pursuit,  and  on  the  16th  he 
overtook  the  Austrian  rear  at  Herdorf,  where  he  routed  them  with  the 
loss  of  a  thousand  prisoners.  For  the  next  two  days,  he  kept  up  a  run- 
ning fight,  at  the  end  of  which  the  Austrians  reached  Schwanstadt,  arid 
endeavored  to  make  a  stand  against  their  inveterate  pursuers.  Still,  all 
was  in  vain.  Nothing  could  resist  the  impetuosity  of  the  French  troops, 
and  the  Imperialists,  again  defeated  with  great  loss,  continued  their  flight. 

Affairs  were  in  this  disastrous  state,  when  the  Archduke  Charles,  to 
whom  the  nation  unanimously  appealed  as  the  only  means  of  saving  the 
monarchy,  arrived,  and  took  command  of  the  army.  But  when  he 
reviewed  the  troops  as  they  crossed  the  Traun,  his  experienced  eye  told 
him  that  little  was  to  be  hoped  from  their  exertions:  they  were  but  a 
confused  mass  of  infantry,  cavalry  and  artillery:  their  discipline  was 
lost ;  the  men  neither  grouped  around  their  standards  nor  listened  to  the 
voice  of  their  officers;  dejection  and  despair  were  painted  in  every 
countenance.  The  Archduke,  perceiving  that  resistance  was  hopeless, 
reluctantly  dispatched  a  messenger  to  Moreau,  soliciting  an  armistice ; 
which,  after  some  hesitation  on  the  part  of  the  French  general,  was 
signed  on  the  25th  of  December. 

Before  these  events  were  brought  to  a  conclusion  in  Germany,  Macdon- 
ald  was  ordered  to  march  his  army  of  fifteen  thousand  men  across  the 
Alps,  into  the  Italian  Tyrol,  by  the  passage  of  the  Splugen.  He  arrived 
with  his  advanced  guard  at  the  village  of  that  name,  on  the  evening  of 
the  26th  of  November,  accompanied  by  a  number  of  sappers,  and  the 
sledges  containing  his  artillery.  In  the  morning  of  the  27th,  he  com- 
menced the  ascent.  The  country  guides  placed  poles  along  the  route  ; 
the  laborers  followed  and  removed  the  snow,  and  the  dragoons  came  next, 
to  trample  down  the  road  with  their  horses'  feet.  In  this  manner,  a  de- 
tachment had,  with  great  fatigue,  nearly  reached  the  summit;  when  the 
wind  suddenly  rose,  an  avalanche  slid  down  the  mountain,  crossed  the 
path  and  swept  away  thirty  dragoons  from  the  head  of  the  column,  into 
the  abyss  below,  where  they  were  dashed  to  pieces  between  the  ice  and 
the  rocks.  General  Laboissiere,  who  led  the  van,  was  a  little  in  advance 
of  the  dragoons  ;  he  therefore  escaped  the  avalanche,  and  proceeded  in 
safety  to  the  hospice  above :  but  the  remainder  of  the  column,  thunderstruck 
by  such  a  catastrophe,  returned  to  Splugen.  The  wind  continued  to  blow 
with  great  violence  for  the  three  succeeding  days,  and  detached  so  many 
avalanches,  that  the  road  was  entirely  blocked  up  ;  and  the  guides  declared 
that  no  efforts  could  render  it  passable  in  less  than  two  weeks.  Macdon- 
ald,  however,  was  not  to  be  daunted  by  such  obstacles.  Independently 
of  his  anxiety  to  fulfil  his  designated  part  in  the  campaign,  necessity  re- 
quired him  to  proceed  ;  for  the  unwonted  accumulation  of  men  and  horses 
in  these  Alpine  regions,  promised  soon  to  consume  the  whole  substance 
of  the  country,  and  expose  the  troops  to  destruction  from  famine  He 


HISTORY    OF    EUROPE. 


147 


consequently,  made  the  best  arrangements  within  his  control,  to  reopen 
the  passage.  Four  strong  oxen  were  first  sent  along  the  route,  led  by 
experienced  guides :  these  were  followed  by  forty  robust  peasants,  who 
cleared  or  beat  down  the  snow  ;  two  companies  of  sappers  came  next  and 
improved  the  path  ;  and  behind  them  rode  the  dragoons.  A  convoy  of 
artillery,  a  hundred  beasts  of  burden,  and  a  strong  rear-guard  closed  the 
march.  Many  men  and  horses  were  overwhelmed  by  the  snow,  and  not 
a  few  perished  from  cold  ;  but  at  length,  the  hospice  was  gained,  the 
descent  on  the  other  side  achieved,  and  the  advanced  guard  of  the  army 
reached  the  sunny  fields  of  Campo  Dolcino,  at  the  southern  base  of  the 
mountain.  On  the  5th  of  December,  Macdonald  commenced  the  passage 
with  the  remainder  of  his  army ;  and  on  the  7th,  he  reached  Chiavenna 
with  his  whole  force. 

But  the  difficulties  of  this  enterprising  commander  did  not  terminate 
here  :  for  his  subsequent  orders  required  him  to  penetrate  into  the  valley 
of  the  Adige,  by  the  route  of  Mont  Tonal,  on  the  summit  of  which  ridge, 
after  encountering  all  the  perils  of  the  ascent,  he  found  his  road  barred 
by  a  corps  of  Austrian  troops,  posted  behind  a  triple  line  of  intrenchments. 
He  advanced  against  this  new  obstacle  with  great  intrepidity,  and  forced 
two  of  the  lines ;  but  the  third  resisted  every  effort,  and  he  was  compelled 
to  retrace  his  steps  down  the  mountain.  He  now  made  a  circuit  to  reach 
his  destination  in  the  Tyrol ;  which,  after  a  series  of  hardships,  he  at 
length  accomplished  on  the  6th  of  January.  All  the  operations  in  this 
quarter,  however,  were  brought  to  an  end  by  an  armistice,  agreed  upon 
between  the  armies,  at  Treviso,  on  the  16th  of  the  same  month.  By  the 
conditions  of  this  armistice,  the  Austrians  were  to  surrender  Peschiera, 
Verona,  Legnago,  Ancona  and  Ferrara ;  but  they  retained  Mantua,  the 
chief  object  of  the  campaign.  Napoleon  was  so  irritated  at  these  terms, 
that  he  never  again  intrusted  an  important  command  to  Brune,  by  whom 
they  were  conceded. 

As  the  French  troops  were  now  disengaged  from  all  other  enemies  in 
Italy,  Napoleon  directed  a  corps  to  advance  on  Naples,  with  the  avowed 
intention  of  dismembering  that  kingdom.  And  this  he  would  readily  have 
accomplished,  but  for  the  heroic  exertions  of  the  Neapolitan  queen,  who, 
immediately  after  the  battle  of  Marengo,  anticipating  such  an  invasion, 
set  off  alone  from  Palermo,  and  made  a  journey  to  St.  Petersburg,  where 
she  implored  the  intervention  of  the  Russian  Emperor.  Paul,  whose 
chivalrous  character  was  highly  flattered  by  this  adventurous  step  on  the 
part  of  the  queen,  espoused  her  cause,  and  dispatched  a  special  messenger 
to  treat  with  Napoleon  in  her  behalf.  It  may  be  presumed  that,  desirous 
as  Napoleon  was  of  maintaining  a  good  understanding  with  Russia,  this 
mediation  was  entirely  successful ;  and  the  First  Consul,  abandoning  his 
hostile  purposes,  concluded  a  treaty  with  Naples,  on  the  9th  of  February. 

By  this  compact,  known  as  the  treaty  of  Foligno,  it  was  provided  that 
the  Neapolitan  troops  should  evacuate  the  Roman  States,  and  that  all  the 
ports  of  Naples  and  Sicily  should  be  closed  against  English  and  Turkish 
vessels  of  merchandise,  as  well  as  war,  and  remain  shut  until  the  conclu- 
sion of  a  general  peace ;  that  port  Longone  in  the  island  of  Elba,  Piom- 
bino  in  Tuscany,  and  a  small  territory  on  the  sea-coast  of  that  duchy, 
should  be  ceded  to  France  ;  and  that  in  case  of  a  menaced  attack  on  the 
Neapolitan  dominions,  from  the  troops  of  Turkey  or  England,  a  French 
corps,  equal  in  strengh  to  one  that  the  Emperor  of  Russia  might  send, 

15* 


148  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  [CHAT.  XIX 

should  be  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  King  of  Naples.  Under  the  words 
of  this  last  condition,  was  veiled  the  most  important  article  of  the  treaty  ; 
for,  being  speedily  carried  into  effect,  it  revealed  the  intention  of  Napo- 
leon to  take  military  possession  of  the  whole  peninsula.  On  the  1st  of 
April,  before  either  any  requisition  had  been  made  by  the  King  of  Naples 
or  any  danger  menaced  his  dominions,  a  corps  of  twelve  thousand  men, 
under  the  command  of  General  Soult,  set  out  from  the  French  lines  and 
took  possession  of  the  fortresses  of  Tarentum,  Otranto,  Brindisi,  and  all 
the  harbors  in  the  extremity  of  Calabria.  The  object  of  this  obtrusive 
occupation  was  to  facilitate  the  establishment  of  a  communication  with 
the  army  of  Egypt. 

As  a  consequence  of  the  armistice  granted  to  the  Archduke  Charles  in 
Germany,  and  that  agreed  upon  with  Brune  at  Treviso,  negotiations  for 
peace  were  entered  into  between  Austria  and  France,  which  ended  on 
the  9th  of  February,  in  the  treaty  of  Luneville.  The  conditions  of  this 
treaty  did  not  materially  differ  from  those  of  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio, 
or  from  those  offered  by  Napoleon  before  the  opening  of  the  campaign :  a 
remarkable  fact,  when  it  is  considered  how  great  an  addition  the  victories 
of  Marengo  and  Hohenlinden  had  since  made  to  the  preponderance  of  the 
French  arms. 


CHAPTER    XIX. 

FROM    THE    PEACE    OF    LUNEVILLE    TO    THE    DISSOLUTION    OF    THE    NORTHERN 
MARITIME    CONFEDERACY. 

THE  various  alternations  of  war,  peace  and  neutrality  that  were  now 
occurring  between  the  different  powers  of  Europe,  led  naturally  to  much 
discussion  and  controversy  on  the  subject  of  maritime  law,  and  the  rights 
of  merchant  ships  trading  from  neutral  to  belligerent  countries.  Under 
a  strict  construction  of  the  law  of  nations,  and  without  at  all  violating 
the  provisions  of  that  code,  numerous  seizures  and  confiscations  had  been 
made  by  the  British  government,  which  revived  the  jealousies  of  the 
other  European  states,  at  the  almost  unlimited  power  of  the  English  navy. 
In  December,  1799,  an  altercation  took  place  in  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar 
between  some  British  frigates  and  a  Danish  ship,  in  which  the  Dane 
refused  to  submit  to  a  search  of  the  vessels  under  his  convoy:  but 
eventually,  the  government  of  Denmark  formally  disavowed  the  conduct 
of  their  captain,  and  the  amicable  relations  remained  unchanged.  But 
the  next  "collision  of  a  similar  character,  led  to  more  serious  results.  On 
the  25th  of  July,  1800,  the  cornmander  of  the  Danish  frigate  Freya  re- 
fused to  allow  his  ships  to  be  searched,  but  offered  to  show  certificates  to 
the  British  officer,  specifying  the  nature  of  the  cargoes  under  his  charge : 
and  he  intimated,  that  if  a  boat  were  sent  to  make  search  it  would  be  fired 
upon.  On  receiving  this  reply,  the  British  captain  laid  his  vessel  along, 
side  the  Dane ;  and,  as  the  latter  persisted,  he  discharged  a  few  broadsides 
at  the  Freya,  took  possession  of  her  and  the  ships  under  her  convoy,  and 
carried  them  into  the  Downs. 


1800.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE  149 

At  the  same  time,  the  English  cabinet  had  learned  that  hostile  negotia- 
tions were  in  progress  between  the  Northern  courts  relative  to  neutral 
rights ;  and  deeming  it  probable  that  these  would  end  in  a  declaration  of 
hostile  intentions,  they  wisely  resolved  to  anticipate  an  attack.  For  this 
purpose,  Lord  Whitworth  was  sent  on  a  special  message  to  Copenhagen  ; 
and,  to  give  greater  weight  to  his  arguments,  a  squadron  of  nine  sail  of 
the  line,  four  bombs  and  five  frigates  was  dispatched  to  the  Sound,  under 
the  command  of  Admiral  Dickson.  The  Admiral  found  four  line-of- 
battle  ships  moored  across  the  strait  from  Cronenberg  Castle  to  the  Swe- 
dish shore ;  but  the  English  fleet  passed  without  the  commission  of  any 
act  of  hostility  on  either  side,  and  came  to  anchor  off  Copenhagen.  The 
Danes  were  employed  in  strengthening  their  fortifications ;  batteries 
were  erected  on  advantageous  points  near  the  coast,  and  three  floating 
bulwarks  were  stationed  at  the  mouth  of  the  harbor*  but  their  prepara- 
tions were  incomplete,  and  the  strength  of  the  British  squadron  precluded 
the  hope  of  a  successful  resistance.  An  accommodation  was  therefore 
entered  into,  the  principal  conditions  of  which  were,  that  the  frigate  and 
merchant  vessels -carried  into  the  Downs,  should  be  repaired  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  British  government,  and  the  question  of  right  of  search 
adjourned  to  London,  for  further  consideration.  In  the  mean  time, 
Danish  trading  ships  were  to  sail  with  convoy  only  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, where  it  was  necessary  to  guard  against  the  Barbary  cruisers, 
and  their  other  vessels  were  to  be  liable,  as  before,  to  search. 

This  treaty  was,  under  the  circumstances,  a  triumph  to  Great  Britain  ; 
and  it  would  have  led  to  no  disastrous  consequences,  but  for  the  interfer- 
ence of  the  Emperor  of  Russia.  The  Northern  Autocrat  had  been  greatly 
irritated  at  the  ill-success  of  the  expedition  to  Holland ;  he  was  further 
exasperated  at  the  refusal  of  the  British  government  to  include  Russian 
prisoners  with  English,  in  the  exchange  with  the  French  ;  and  finally,  the 
taking  possession  by  England  of  Malta — which  fortress  Paul,  as  Grand- 
master of  the  order  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  felt  bound  to  restore  to  that 
celebrated  order,  while  at  the  same  time  he  knew  that  England  would 
not  relinquish  it — excited  him  to  o^n-  hostility  and  outrage.  He 
instantly  ordered  an  embargo  on  all  Britisn  ships  in  the  Russian  harbors ; 
and  thereby  detained  nearly  three  hundred  vessels  with  valuable  cargoes, 
until  the  frost  had  set  in  and  rendered  the  Baltic  impassable.  Nor  was 
this  all.  '  The  crews  of  these  vessels,  with  Asiatic  barbarity,  and  in 
defiance  of  the  usages  of  civilized  states,  were  marched  off  into  prisons  in 
the  interior,  some  of  them  a  thousand  miles  from  the  coast ;  and  all  the 
English  property  on  shore  was  put  under  sequestration.  When  these 
orders  were  promulged,  several  British  ships  at  Narva  weighed  anchor, 
and  escaped  the  embargo :  this  so  enraged  the  Autocrat,  that  he  com- 
manded the  remaining  vessels  in  the  harbor  to  be  burned,  and  published 
a  declaration  that  the  embargo  should  not  be  removed  until  Malta  was 
given  up  to  Russia. 

The  moment  that  Russia  thus  made  common  cause  with  the  other 
Northern  powers,  Prussia  and  France  threw  their  influence  into  the  scale, 
and  brought  about  a  general  maritime  confederacy,  hostile  to  Great 
Britain,  which  was  signed  ^  Russia,  Sweden  and  Denmark,  on  the  16th 
of  December,  1800.  By  this  treaty,  the  contracting  parties  proclaimed 
that  free  ships  made  free  goods ;  that  the  flag  covered  the  merchandise ; ' 
and  that  a  port  is  to  be  considered  under  blockade,  only  when  such  a  force 


150  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [Ciur.  XIX. 

is  stationed  at  its  mouth  as  renders  an  entrance  dangerous.  They  fur- 
ther declared,  that  the  certificate  of  a  captain  of  a  convoy  that  no  contra- 
band  goods  were  under  his  charge,  should  relieve  his  vessels  from  search ; 
and  that  if  any  of  the  parties  to  this  convention  should  be  dealt  with 
otherwise  than  in  conformity  to  its  enactments,  the  other  parties  would 
make  common  cause  with  the  party  aggrieved,  and  aid  in  its  defence. 

As  it  was  manifest,  that  if  this  new  code  of  maritime  law  were  recog- 
nized, all  the  victories  of  the  British  navy  would  be  fruitless — since 
France,  by  means  of  neutral  vessels,  could  regain  her  whole  commerce, 
import  all  the  materials  for  the  construction  of  a  navy,  and  educate  a 
body  of  sailors  to  man  her  ships  of  war,  when  so  constructed — Mr.  Pitt 
resolved  on  such  measures  of  reprisal,  as  would  show  the  Northern  pow- 
ers the  qualities  of  the  nation  they  had  thought  fit  to  provoke.  On  the 
14th  of  January,  18dl,the  British  government  issued  an  order  for  a  gen- 
eral embargo  on  all  vessels  belonging  to  any  of  the  confederated  powers ; 
and  letters  of  marque  were  granted  for  the  capture  of  the  numerous  ves- 
sels belonging  to  those  states.  The  House  of  Commons  sustained  Mr. 
Pitt's  measures  by  a  vote  of  two  hundred  and  forty-five  to  sixty-three,  and 
the  result  was,  that  nearly  one  half  the  merchant  ships  at  sea,  belonging 
to  the  Northern  powers,  found  their  way  into  the  harbors  of  Great  Britain. 

The  union  of  Ireland  with  England,  from  which  such  important 
results  were  anticipated,  proved  a  source  of  weakness  to  the  British 
Empire  at  this  important  crisis.  By  a  series  of  concessions,  which  com- 
menced soon  after  the  coronation  of  George  III.  and  continued  through 
his  reign,  the  Irish  Catholics  had  been  placed  nearly  on  a  level  with 
their  Protestant  fellow-subjects,  and  they  were  at  length  excluded  only 
from  sitting  in  Parliament,  and  from  holding  about  thirty  of  the  principal 
offices  in  the  state.  When,  however,  Mr.  Pitt  carried  through  the  great 
measure  of  Union,  he  gave  the  Catholics  reason  to  expect,  that  a  removal 
of  all  disabilities  would  follow :  not,  indeed,  as  matter  of  right,  but  of 
grace  and  favor.  When  the  time  arrived,  he  found  himself  unable  to 
redeem  his  tacit  pledge.  It  was  ascertained,  that  the  removal  of  the 
Catholic  disabilities  involved  many  fundamental  questions  in  the  Consti- 
tution :  in  particular,  the  Bill  of  Rights,  the  Test  and  Corporation  Acts ; 
and,  in  general,  the  stability  of  the  whole  Protestant  Church  establish- 
ment. It  was,  besides,  discovered,  when  the  measure  was  brought  for- 
ward in  the  cabinet,  that  the  king  entertained  scruples  of  conscience  on 
the  subject,  in  consequence  of  his  oath  at  the  coronation,  "  to  maintain 
the  Protestant  religion  established  by  law."  Under  these  circumstances, 
Mr.  Pitt  stated  that  he  had  no  alternative,  but  to  resign  his  office.  On 
the  10th  of  February,  it  was  announced  in  Parliament,  that  the  cabinet 
ministers  held  the  seals  only,  until  their  successors  were  appointed  ;  and 
soon  after,  Mr.  Pitt,  Lord  Grenville,  Earl  Spenser,  Mr.  Dundas  and  Mr. 
Windham  resigned,  and  were  succeeded  by  Mr.  Addington,  then  Speaker 
of  the  House  of  Commons,  as  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury,  Lord  Hawkes- 
bury,  as  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  and  a  new  ministry  taken  entirely 
from  the  Tory  party. 

It  has  long  been  the  practice  of  the  administrations  of  Great  Britain,  not 
to  resign  on  the  question  which  directly  occasions  their  retirement,  but  to 
select  some  minor  point,  which  is  held  forth  to  the  world  as  the  real  ground 
of  the  change :  and  this  custom  is  attended  with  the  great  advantage,  of 
not  implicating  the  crown  or  the  government  in  a  collision  with  either 


1801.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  151 

House  of  Parliament.  From  the  fact,  therefore,  of  Mr.  Pitt's  having  so 
conspicuously  designated  the  Catholic  Question  as  the  reason  of  his  with- 
drawing,  it  is  more  than  probable  that  this  was  not  the  true  cause :  or, 
that  if  it  were,  he  caught  at  the  impossibility  of  any  further  concessions  to 
the  Catholics  of  Ireland  as  a  motive  for  resigning,  to  prevent  the  approach 
of  other  and  more  important  questions  which  remained  behind.  There  was 
no  necessity  for  bringing  forward  the  Catholic  claims  at  that  moment,  nor 
any  reason  for  breaking  up  a  cabinet  at  a  period  of  unparalleled  public 
difficulty,  merely  because  the  king's  scruples  prevented  them  from  being 
at  that  time  conceded.  But  the  question  of  peace  or  war  was  in  a  very 
different  situation.  Mr.  Pitt  could  not  disguise  from  himself  that  the  coun- 
try was  now  involved  in  a  contest,  apparently  endless,  if  the  principles  on 
which  it  had  so  long  been  conducted  were  rigidly  adhered  to.  Hence,  as 
it  was  possible,  perhaps  probable,  that  at  no  distant  period  England  might 
be  driven  to  an  accommodation,  to  which  arrangement  the  maintenance 
of  his  system  would  prove  an  obstacle,  Mr.  Pitt  retired  with  the  leading 
members  of  his  cabinet  and  was  succeeded  by  inferior  adherents  of  his 
party,  who,  without  departing  altogether  from  his  principles,  might  feel 
more  at  liberty  to  adapt  them  to  the  pressure  of  actual  circumstances. 
In  doing  this,  the  English  minister  acted  the  part  of  a  patriot.  "  He  sacri- 
ficed himself,"  said  Bignon,  "to  the  good  of  his  country  and  a  general 
peace.  He  proved  himself  to  be  more  than  a  great  statesman — a  good 
citizen." 

But,  though  Mr.  Pitt  retired,  his  mantle  fell  on  his  successors,  who,  in 
their  measures  toward  foreign  States,  evinced  neither  vacillation  nor 
timidity.  They  provided,  for  both  the  army  and  navy,  larger  appropria- 
tions than  had  been  made  in  any  previous  year  since  the  commencement  of 
the  war :  and  they  had  need  of  all  the  resources  of  the  nation,  for  the  forces 
of  the  maritime  league  were  extremely  formidable.  Their  united  strength 
amounted  to  twenty-four  ships  of  the  line  roady  for  sea,  which,  in  a  few 
months,  could  with  ease  have  been  increased  to  fifty,  besides  twenty-five 
frigates  ;  a  fleet  which,  combined  with  the  Dutch  ships,  might  have  raised 
the  blockade  of  the  French  harbors  and  enabled  tho  confederated  powers 
to  ride  triumphant  in  th^  British  Channel.  As  yet,  however,  the  hostile 
fleets  were  not  concentrated,  and  England  resolved  to  strike  a  decisive  blow 
in  a  vulnerable  point,  before  her  enemies  could  combine  for  her  destruction. 

In  the  beginning  of  March,  a  squadron  was  assembled  at  Yarmouth, 
consisting  of  eighteen  ships  of  the  line,  four  frigates  and  a  number  of  bomb 
vessels;  in  all,  fifty-two  sail.  Sir  Hyde  Parker  was  placed  at  the  head 
of  the  fleet,  and  Nelson  received  the  appointment  of  his  second  in  com- 
mand. The  admiral  set  sail  on  the  12th  of  March.  Soon  after  putting 
to  sea,  the  Invincible  struck  on  one  of  the  sand  banks  of  that  dangerous 
coast,  and  sunk  with  a  part  of  her  crew.  On  the  27th,  Sir  Hyde  arrived 
off  Zealand  and  dispatched  a  letter  to  the  governor  of  Cronenberg  Castle, 
to  inquire  whether  the  fleet  would  be  allowed  to  pass  the  Sound.  The  gov- 
ernor replied,  that  he  could  not  allow  a  squadron  to  approach  the  guns  of 
his  fortress  until  the  intentions  of  its  commander  were  declared :  and  the 
British  admiral  rejoined,  that  he  considered  such  answer  equivalent  to  a  de- 
claration of  war.  By  the  earnest  advice  of  Nelson,  it  was  resolved  to  force 
the  passage,  and  the  line  was  formed  accordingly.  Nelson's  division  led 
the  van,  Sir  Hyde's  followed  in  the  centre,  and  the  rear  was  commanded 
by  admiral  Graves.  When  the  leading  ships  came  within  range,,  the  bat- 

12 


152  HISTORY     OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XIX. 

ferics  from  the  Danish  shore  opened  their  fire ;  and,  as  the  vessels  were 
steered  through  the  middle  of  the  channel,  they  began  to  suffer  consider- 
able injury  ;  but  Nelson,  observing  that  the  batteries  on  the  Swedish  side 
of  the  Sound  were  silent,  changed  his  direction,  and,  by  running  along 
that  shore,  was  enabled  to  pass  almost  without  the  reach  of  the  Danish 
guns.  The  passage  occupied  four  hours ;  and,  about  noonday,  the  fleet 
came  to  anchor  off  the  harbor  of  Copenhagen. 

The  garrison  of  this  city  consisted  of  ten  thousand  regular  troops  and  a 
larger  number  of  volunteers.  Six  ships  of  the  line  and  eleven  floating- 
batteries,  besides  a  great  number  of  smaller  vessels,  were  moored  in  an 
external  line  to  protect  the  entrance  of  the  harbor,  and  those  were  flanked 
on  either  side  by  two  islands  called  the  Crowns,  each  mounting  about  sixty 
large  guns.  Within  these  powerful  defences,  four  ships  of  the  line  were 
moored  across  the  harbor,  and  a  fort  of  thirty-six  heavy  guns  had  been 
constructed  on  a  sand-bar  to  support  them.  The  fire  of  these  formidable 
out- works  crossed  with  that  of  the  batteries  on  the  island  of  Amack  and 
the  citadel  of  Copenhagen ;  and  it  seemed  impossible  that  an  attacking 
squadron  could,  for  any  length  of  time,  endure  so  heavy  and  concentric  a 
discharge.  Besides,  the  channel,  by  which  alone  the  harbor  could  be  ap- 
proached, was  extremely  intricate  and  little  known  to  the  British  pilots : 
the  water  on  either  side  of  the  channel  was  shoal  and  intersected  with  bars, 
and  the  buoys  that  marked  the  true  course  had  all  been  removed.  Indeed, 
the  danger  of  the  navigation  was  so  great,  that  a  day  and  night  were  oc- 
cupied by  the  boats  of  the  fleet  in  making  soundings,  and  in  endeavoring 
to  replace  the  buoys. 

The  approach  to  the  Danish  exterior  line  was  covered  by  a  large  shoal 
called  the  Middle  Ground,  exactly  in  front  of  the  harbor  and  distant  from 
it  three-quarters  of  a  mile.  As  this  shoal  was  impassable  for  ships  of 
any  magnitude,  Nelson  proposed  to  pass  around  it  by  the  King's  channel 
with  a  detachment  of  twelve  ships,  and  lay  them  between  the  Danish  line 
and  the  entrance  of  the  harbor  ;  while  Sir  Hyde  Parker,  with  the  remain- 
der of  the  fleet,  was  to  menace  the  Crown  batteries  and  the  four  Danish 
ships  on  the  inner  line,  and  also  lend  his  aid  to  such  of  Nelson's  squadron 
as  might  come  disabled  out  of  the  action.  The  small  craft,  headed  by 
Captain  Riou,  led  the  way,  accurately  threading  u  dangerous  and  winding 
course  between  the  island  of  Saltholm  and  the  Middle  Ground  ;  the  larger 
ships  followed,  coasting  along  the  outer  edge  of  the  shoal,  doubled  its  far- 
ther extremity,  and  cast  anchor  just  at  sunset  off  Draco  Point,  not  more 
than  two  miles  from  the  right  of  the  enemy's  line.  The  signal  to  prepare 
for  action  was  made,  and  the  seamen  passed  the  night  in  anxious  expecta- 
tion. At  daybreak  on  the  2nd  of  April,  the  wind  was  found  to  be  fair,  and 
all  the  captains  received  their  final  instructions. 

The  action  began  at  a  few  minutes  past  ten,  and  was  general  by 
eleven.  Nine  only  of  the  line-of-battle  ships  could  reach  the  stations 
allotted  to  them,  three  others  having  run  aground;  and,  in  consequence, 
Captain  Riou,  with  his  frigates,  was  compelled  to  confront  the  Crown 
batteries.  The  cannonade  soon  became  tremendous ;  more  than  two 
mousand  guns  poured  forth  their,  thunder  within  a  space  not  exceeding 
half  a  mile  in  breadth,  and  the  fleets  were  wrapped  in  a  huge  mass  of 
smoke  and  flame.  The  firing  continued  for  three  hours  without  any 
apparent  diminution  on  either  side,  but  at  length,  the  discharges  from  the 
Danish  fleet  began  to  slacken;  loud  cheers  from  the  English  sailors 


i 


1801.J  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  153 

announced  the  surrender  of  the  enemy's  ships,  as  they  successively  low- 
3red  their  flags ;  and  before  two  o'clock,  the  whole  outer  line  of  defence 
was  either  taken  or  destroyed.  The  loss  of  men  in  this  desperate  action 
was  very  severe ;  that  on  the  side  of  the  British  amounting  to  twelve 
hundred,  and  of  the  Danish,  including  prisoners,  to  six  thousand.  Of  the 
/essels  taken,  one  only,  the  Holstein,  of  sixty-four  guns,  was  brought  to 
England ;  the  remainder  were  so  far  injured,  that  it  was  deemed  advis- 
able to  sink  them  after  their  capture.  A  negotiation  immediately  fol- 
lowed the  battle,  which,  though  protracted  by  the  Danish  government 
on  account  of  thefr  fears  of  Russia,  was  at  last  concluded  in  an  armistice 
for  fourteen  weeks,  during  which  the  armed  Danish  vessels  were  to  remain 
m  their  present  position,  and  the  prisoners  and  wounded  immediately 
sent  ashore,  and  placed  to  the  credit  of  England  in  case  of  a  renewal 
of  hostilities. 

On  the  same  day  that  the  British  fleet  forced  the  passage  of  the  Sound, 
the  Prussian  cabinet  made  a  formal  demand  on  the  regency  of  Hanover, 
to  permit  the  occupation  of  the  Electorate  by  the  Prussians,  and  disband 
a  part  of  their  own  forces.  As  this  proposal  was -supported  by  an  army 
of  twenty  thousand  men,  the  Hanoverian  government  was  compelled  to 
submit;  and  Hanover,  Bremen  and  Hameln  were  occupied  accordingly. 
At  the  same  time,  the  Danes  took  possession  of  Hamburg  and  Lubec,  so 
as  to  close  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe  against  English  commerce :  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  a  British  squadron,  under  Admiral  Duckworth,  reduced 
all  the  Swedish  and  Danish  islands  in  the  West  Indies. 

While  everything  thus  announced  the  commencement  of  a  war  with 
the  Northern  powers,  an  event  occurred  which  altered  the  whole  aspect 
of  affairs;  this  was,  the  death  of  the  Emperor  Paul,  which  took  place  on 
the  23rd  of  March.  His  son,  Alexander,  succeeded  to  the  throne,  and  a 
total  change  of  policy  ensued  on  the  part  of  the  cabinet  of  St.  Petersburg. 

The  administration  of  Paul  was  a  season  of  misrule  and  tyranny, 
owing  in  part  to  the  impetuosity  of  his  temper;  and,  of  late,  to  a  partial 
insanity,  which  was  evinced  in  a  variety  of  ways.  The  leading  nobles 
of  Russia,  disapproving  his  policy,  and  foreseeing  that  it  would  bring 
permanent  injury  and  disgrace  on  the  Empire,  formed  a  conspiracy  to 
compel  him  to  abdicate  the  crown,  and  the  plot  was  so  far  communicated 
to  Paul's  two  sons,  the  Grand-dukes  Alexander  and  Constantine;  but  no 
intimation  was  given  them  that  the  conspiracy  would  endanger  their 
father's  life :  the  young  princes,  however,  very  reluctantly  consented  to 
the  measure,  although  they  were  forced  to  admit  its  necessity;  and 
Alexander,  in  particular,  yielded  to  the  arguments  of  the  nobles,  only 
on  condition  that  no  personal  violence  should  be  exerted  in  the  proceed- 
ing. The  nobles  had,  nevertheless,  resolved  on  Paul's  death,,  as  the 
only  method  of  attaining  security  for  the  government;  and  they  assas- 
sinated him  at  night  in  his  bed-chamber. 

The  new  Emperor,  on  the  day  succeeding  his  elevation  to  the  throne, 
proclaimed  his  intention  of  governing  according  to  the  maxims  and  system 
of  his  august  grandmother,  Catherine ;  and  one  of  his  first  acts  was  an 
order  for  the  liberation  of  the  British  sailors,  who  had  been  taken  from 
their  ships  and  carried  into  prisons  in  the  interior  of  the  country :  these 
men  were  therefore  immediately  conducted,  at  the  public  expense,  to  the 
ports  from  which  they  had  severally  been  taken.  At  the  same  time,  all 
prohibitions  against  the  export  of  corn  were  removed;  a  measure  of  no 


154  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XIX. 

small  importance  to  the  famishing  population  of  the  British  Isles,  and 
hardly  less  material  to  the  well  supplied  proprietors  of  Russian  grain. 
The  young  Emperor  soon  after  wrote  a  letter,  with  his  own  hand,  to  the 
King  of  England,  expressing,  in  the  warmest  terms,  his  desire  to  reestab 
lish  the  amicable  relations  of  the  two  countries ;  a  declaration  that  was 
received  with  shouts  of  joy  both  in  London  and  St.  Petersburg. 

The  British  cabinet  at  once  dispatched  Lord  St.  Helens  to  the  Russian 
Capital ;  and,  soon  after  his  arrival,  he  signed  a  treaty,  as  glorious  to 
England  as  it  was  confirmatory  of  the  correctness  of  her  views  in  regard 
to  the  right  of  search.  By  this  convention  it  was  provided,  that  the 
search  "of  merchant  ships  belonging  to  one  of  the  contracting  powers, 
and  navigating  under  convoy  of  a  ship-of-war  of  the  same  power,  shall 
be  exercised  only  by  ships-of-*var  of  the  belligerent  party,  and  shall 
never  extend  to  the  fitters-out  of  privateers  or  other  vessels  which  do  not 
belong  to  the  imperial  or  royal  fleets  of  their  majesties,  but  which  their 
subjects  may  have  fitted  out  for  war;  that  the  effects  on  board  neutral 
ships  shall  be  free,  excepting  contraband  of  war  and  enemies'  property ; 
and  it  is  agreed  not  to  comprise  in  the  number  of  the  latter,  the  merchan- 
dise of  the  produce,  growth  or  manufacture  of  the  countries  at  war,  which 
shall  have  been  acquired  by  the  subjects  of  the  neutral  power,  and  shall 
be  transported  for  their  account."  The  articles  contraband  were  spe- 
cified to  comprise  all  arms  and  materials  of  war,  excepting  such  as  were 
necessary  for  the  defence  of  the  ship  and  crew ;  and  a  port  was  declared 
to  be  blockaded  only  when,  by  reason  of  the  disposition  and  strength  of 
the  ships  maintaining  such  blockade,  there  was  danger  in  entering  the 
harbor.  By  this  treaty,  the  right  of  search  was  placed  on  its  true  footing, 
being  divested  of  the  accompaniments  most  likely  to  occasion  irritation 
in  neutral  vessels,  and  not  stipulated  in  favor  of  either  party  as  a  new 
right,  but  recognized  as  a  privilege  already  existing,  necessarily  inherent 
by  the  practice  of  maritime  states  in  every  belligerent  power,  and  sub- 
jected to  such  restraints  as  the  enlarged  experience  of  mankind  had 
proved  to  be  beneficial. 

Napoleon  was  greatly  exasperated  at  the  terms  of  this  treaty,  and  sent 
Buroc  to  St.  Petersburg  to  counteract  the  influence  of  Great  Britain; 
but,  though  Alexander  gave  the  French  minister  a  flattering  reception, 
lae  could  not  be  induced  to  waver  in  his  policy. 

Sweden  and  Denmark  were  not  expressly  included  in  this  convention, 
but  they  of  necessity  followed  the  example  of  Russia.  On  the  20th  of 
May,  therefore,  the  Danish  government  agreed  to  evacuate  Hamburg, 
and  restore  the  free  navigation  of  the  Elbe,  and  both  Sweden  and  Den- 
mark raised  the  embargo:  Great  Britain  adopted  corresponding  mea- 
sures; and  Prussia  took  an  early  opportunity  to  withdraw  her  troops 
from  Hanover.  Thus  was  dissolved,  in  less  than  six  months  after  its 
formation,  the  most  formidable  confederacy  that  then  had  ever  been 
arrayed  against  the  maritime  power  of  England. 


•         CH  A.PTER  XX. 

EXPEDITIONS  TO  EGYPT  AND  ST.  DOMINGO EUROPE,  FROM  THE  PEACE  OP 

AMIENS  TO  THE  RENEWAL  OF  THE  WAR. 

THE  Turkish  army  which  Napoleon  destroyed  at  Aboukir,  was  but  an 
advanced  guard  of  the  force  collected  by  the  Sublime  Porte  to  recover 
Egypt  from  the  Republican  arms.  The  main  body,  consisting  of  twenty 
thousand  janizaries  and  regular  troops,  and  twenty-five  thousand  irreg- 
ulars, arrived  in  the  end  of  October,  1799,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Gazah, 
on  the  confines  of  the  Desert  which  separates  Syria  from  Egypt.  At  the 
same  time,  a  corps  of  eight  thousand  janizaries,  under  convoy  of  Sir 
Sidney  Smith,  arrived  at  the  mouth  of  the  Nile,  to  effect  a  diversion  in 
that  quarter.  The  leading  division  of  this  corps,  four  thousand  strong, 
landed  and  took  possession  of  the  tower  of  Bogaz,  where  they  began  to 
fortify  themselves ;  but  General  Verdier,  with  one  thousand  French 
troops,  routed  them  with  a  loss  of  five  pieces  of  cannon  and  all  their 
standards. 

Kleber  now  turned  his  attention  to  the  main  army  approaching  from 
the  Syrian  desert.  The  check  at  the  mouth  of  the  Nile  rendered  the 
Grand  Vizier  well  disposed  toward  negotiation ;  and  on  the  other  hand, 
the  declining  numbers  and  desponding  spirit  of  the  French  made  them 
desirous,  on  almost  any  terms,  to  extricate  themselves  from  a  hopeless 
banishment.  A  convention  was  accordingly  signed  by  the  two  parties 
on  the  20th  of  January,  1800,  which  provided  that  the  French  soldiers 
should  return  to  Europe  with  their  arms  and  baggage  in  their  own  vessels 
or  in  those  furnished  by  the  Turkish  authorities.  But  the  British  govern- 
ment had  previously  prohibited  such  a  convention,  as  by  their  joint  treaty 
with  Turkey  and  Russia  they  were  empowered  to  do,  and  sent  orders  to 
Lord  Keith,  commanding  the  English  fleet  in  the  Mediterranean,  not  to 
consent  to  any  arrangement  which  should  allow  the  French  troops  to 
return  to  Europe  but  as  prisoners  of  war:  and  Kleber  was  advised  of 
this  after  he  had  begun  his  preparations  for  embarking,  in  conformity  to 
the  agreement  with  the  Turks. 

The  French  general,  naturally  exasperated  at  this  interference  of 
England,  resolved  to  renew  hostilities ;  and,  on  the  20th  of  March,  he 
reached  and  attacked  the  Turkish  army  in  its  intrenchments  atHeliopolis. 
The  disproportion  of  'numbers  between  the  two  parties  was  very  great ; 
but  European  discipline  prevailed,  as  usual,  over  Asiatic  valor,  and  the 
Turks  were  defeated  with  prodigious  loss.  This  victory,  though  it  availed 
nothing  toward  aiding  the  French  to  return  home,  was  of  consequence  in 
enabling  them  to  remain  in  peace  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  a  treaty  to  that 
effect  having  been  concluded  with  the  Turks,  soon  after  the  battle :  buT 
Kleber  reaped  little  personal  benefit  from  this  result,  as  he  was  assassi- 
nated by  an  Arab  in  the  month  of  June.  Menou  succeeded  to  his  com- 
mand. 

As  soon  as  the  British  government  learned  the  new  position  assumed  by 
the  French  troops  in  Egypt,  they  resolved  on  an  expedition  to  expel  them 
from  tha*  country,  and  dispatched  Sir  Rulph  Abercromby  with  a  large  fleet 

16 


156  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XX. 

and  fifteen  thousand  men,  to  Alexandria.  The  leading  frigate  of  the 
squadron  made  the  signal  for  land,  on  the  1st  of  March,  1801,  and  on  the 
following  morning  the  whole  fleet  anchored  in  the  Bay  of  Aboukir,  on  the 
same  spot  where  Nelson  had  gained  his  great  victory  three  years  before. 
The  state  of  the  weather  prevented  for  some  days  the  landing  of  the  troops  ; 
but  on  the  8th,  five  thousand  five  hundred  men  embarked  in  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  boats  for  the  shore.  The  French,  to  the  number  of  about 
two  thousand,  were  posted  on  the  heights,  in  a  semicircular  line  about  a 
mile  in  length,  supported  on  one  side  by  twelve  pieces  of  artillery,  and  on 
the  other,  by  the  castle  of  Aboukir.  The  moment  the  boats  came  within 
easy  range  of  the  French  fire,  a  tremendous  storm  of  grape  opened  upon 
them,  ploughing  the  water  in  every  direction,  and  scattering  the  transports 
over  the  waves.  But  the  sailors  plied  their  oars,  and  the  troops  steadily 
advanced  in  spite  of  every  obstacle ;  indeed,  they  moved  with  such  pre- 
cision, that  the  prows  of  nearly  all  the  first  division  struck  the  beach  at 
the  same  moment.  The  troops  sprang  on  shore,  formed  before  they  could 
6e  charged  by  the  enemy's  cavalry,  and  moving  rapidly  up  the  ascent 
with  fixed  bayonets,  carried  the  heights  in  the  most  gallant  style.  In  an 
hour,  the  whole  detachment  was  established  on  the  French  lines,  and  had 
taken  eight  of  the  twelve  guns  by  which  they  were  supported. 

Abercromby  proceeded  to  strengthen  his  position  and  effect  the  land- 
ing  of  the  remainder  of  his  forces.  Several  partial  actions  ensued  be- 
tween detachments  of  the  two  armies  during  the  following  days,  and  on 
the  morning  of  the  21st,  a  general  battle  was  fought  in  front  of  Alex- 
andria, in  which  the  French  were  defeated  with  a  loss  of  two  thousand 
men,  and  Menou  retreated  to  the  heights  of  Nicopolis  ;  but  the  victory 
was  dearly  purchased  by  the  English,  who  suffered  an  irreparable  disas- 
ter in  the  death  of  Sir  Ralph  Abercromby.  Some  weeks  now  elapsed, 
in  which  both  parties  occupied  themselves  with  reorganizing  their  forces. 
On  the  9th  of  May,  General  Kfutchinson  arrived  at  Alexandria,  with  a 
reenforcement  of  three  thousand  fresh  troops,  and  assumed  command  of 
the  British  army.  He  immediately  took  the  offensive,  and,  pressing  on 
the  French  division  under  Belliard,  compelled  them  to  retreat  before  him, 
until  he  finally  drove  them  into  Cairo,  and  laid  siege  to  that  city,  on  the 
20th  of  May.  On  the  following  day,  the  French  commander  proposed  a 
capitulation,  stipulating  that  the  troops,  consisting  of  thirteen  thousand 
six  hundred  and  seventy  two  men,  with  their  arms,  artillery  and  baggage, 
should  be  conveyed  to  France.  This  was  acceded  to,  and  the  English 
took  possession  of  Cairo. 

When  Menou,  who  was  at  Alexandria  with  the  other  division  of  the 
French  army,  amounting  to  ten  thousand  men,  heard  of  this  capitulation,  he 
professed  himself  highly  incensed,  and  avowed  his  determination  to  die  under 
the  ruins  of  Alexandria,  rather  than  surrender.  But  the  British  troops, 
on  the  17th  of  August,  laid  siege  to  that  place,  and  Menou  soon  forgot  hb 
bold  resolution  :  for,  on  the  31st,  he  agreeed  to  evacuate  the  town  on  con- 
dition of  being  transported  to  France  with  his  men,  arms,  baggage,  and  ten 
pieces  of  cannon.  The  military  results  of  this  conquest  were  very  great. 
Three  hundred  and  twelve  pieces  of  cannon,  chiefly  brass,  were  found  on 
the  works  of  Alexandria,  besides  seventy-seven  on  board  the  ships  of  war. 
The  magazines  contained  one  hundred  and  ninety-five  thousand  pounds  of 
powder  and  fourteen  thousand  gun-cartridges.  The  total  number  of  troops 
who  capitulated  in  Egypt,  was  nearly  twenty-four  thousand  of  the  tried 


180L]  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  157 

veterans  of  France,  who  thus  yielded  to  an  English  force  considerably 
inferior  to  their  own. 

Although  Napoleon  had  now  lost  his  footing  in  Egypt,  he  did  not  despair 
of  regaining  it,  and  made  several  abortive  attempts  to  take  possession  of 
Alexandria,  by  fleets  dispatched  for  that  purpose,  which  accomplished  no- 
thing  but  escapes  through  the  British  squadron  in  the  Mediterranean,  and 
returned  home  without  having  reached  Alexandria.  Napoleon,  exasperated 
at  these  failures,  ordered  a  new  expedition  to  be  prepared  of  fifteen  ships 
of  the  line,  twelve  of  which,  six  Spanish  and  six  French,  were  to  unite  at 
Cadiz,  and  be  joined  by  Admiral  Linois  with  three  more  from  Toulon. 
The  British  government  immediately  dispatched  Sir  James  Saumarez, 
with  seven  ships  of  the  line  and  two  frigates,  to  resume  the  blockade  of 
Cadiz  ;  and  he  had  hardly  arrived  off  that  harbor,  when  he  learned  that 
Admiral  Linois  was  approaching  from  the  Mediterranean  with  three  ships 
of  the  line,  and  one  frigate.  The  English  admiral  immediately  put  to 
sea  in  search  of  this  squadron,  when  Linois  retreated  into  Algesiraz  Bay, 
and  took  shelter  under  its  powerful  batteries.  Sir  James  followed  him  and 
stood  into  the  bay,  but  the  wind  soon  failing,  the  Hannibal  grounded  on  a 
shoal,  in  such  a  position  as  to  be  exposed  to  the  fire  both  of  the  shore  bat- 
teries and  the  French  ships  ;  and  as  the  other  vessels  were  unable  to  ren- 
der her  any  assistance,  they  withdrew  and  left  her  to  her  fate.  She  made 
an  honorable  defence,  but  soon  struck  her  colors. 

Sir  James  now  repaired  to  Gibraltar,  refitted  and  recruited  his  squad- 
ron, and,  on  the  morning  of  July  12th,  set  sail  again,  to  avenge  his  loss 
and  discomfiture  ;  and,  in  the  mean  time,  six  ships  of  the  line  and  three 
frigates,  from  Cadiz,  had  joined  the  French  fleet  in  Algesiraz  Bay,  and 
the  united  squadrons  were  now  on  their  return  to  Cadiz  with  their  prize, 
the  Hannibal,  in  tow.  As  soon  as  the  British  fleet,  consisting  of  but  five 
ships  of  the  line,  came  in  sight  of  the  French  and  Spanish  vessels,  the 
latter,  though  comprising  together  nine  line-of-battle  ships,  including  two 
three  deckers,  made  sail  to  escape  toward  Cadiz,  leaving  the  Hannibal  to 
drop  astern.  The  British  gave  chase,  and  at  eleven  o'clock  at  night,  the 
Superb  opened  its  fire  on  the  Real  Carlos,  of  one  hundred  and  twelve 
guns,  which  ship,  after,  three  broadsides,  was  discovered  to  be  OR  fire. 
Deeming  this  gigantic  adversary  so  far  disabled  that  she  must  soon  fall 
into  the  hands  of  the  vessels  behind,  the  commander  of  the  Superb  pressed 
on,  and  in  half  an  hour  overtook  and  captured  the  St.  Antoine,  of  seventy- 
four  guns.  The  Caesar  and  Venerable  came  up  in  succession,  and  the 
chase  was  continued  through  the  night,  in  the  midst  of  a  tempestuous  gale. 
But  while  the  British  sailors  were  making  every  effort  to  overtake  the 
retreating  ships,  a  terrible  catastrophe  happened  to  the  enemy.  The 
Superb,  after  having  disabled  the  Real  Carlos,  passed  on  and  poured  a 
broadside  into  the  San  Hermenigeldo,  also  of  one  hundred  and  twelve 
guns,  and  she  thence  proceeded  to  the  attack  of  other  vessels  still  farther 
advanced.  In  the  darkness  of  the  night,  the  commanders  of  these  two 
Spanish  three-deckers,  mutually  mistaking  each  other  for  an  enemy, 
joined  in  a  close  action  ;  the  violence  of  the  wind  spread  the  flames  from 
one  to  the  other,  the  heavens  were  illuminated  by  the  conflagration,  and 
at  midnight  they  both  blew  up  with  a  tremendous  explosion.  Out  of  the 
two  thousand  men  composing  their  crews,  two  hundred  and  fifty  were  saved 
by  the  English  boats,  the  remainder  perished. 

When   morning  dawned,  the   fleets  were  very  much  scattered ;  and 


159.  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XX, 

eventually  both  drew  off  without  prizes ;  but  it  was  a  triumph  to  the 
British  to  have  engaged  nearly  double  their  numbers,  and  escape  with  all 
their  vessels  ;  while  the  combined  fleet  suffered  the  destruction  of  two  of 
its  largest  ships. 

About  this  time,  a  treaty  between  France  and  Spain  was  announced, 
having  for  its  object  "  to  compel  the  court  of  Lisbon  to  separate  itself  from 
its  alliance  with  Great  Britain,  and  cede,  until  the  conclusion  of  a  general 
peace,  a  fourth  part  of  its  territory  to  the  French  and  Spanish  forces."  In 
this  extremity,  Portugal  appealed  for  aid  to  Great  Britain  ;  but,  as  that 
power  could  not  then  grant  it,  Portugal  was  forced  to  submit ;  she  pur- 
chased  a  treaty  with  her  powerful  neighbors  by  ceding  to  France  one  half 
of  Guiana,  paying  twenty  millions  of  francs  for  the  support  of  the  French 
troops,  confirming  Olivenza  with  its  territory  to  Spain,  and  closing  her 
ports  against  all.  English  ships,  whether  of  war  or  of  commerce. 

When  Napoleon  found  himself  relieved  by  the  treaty  of  Luneville  from 
all  apprehension  of  a  struggle  with  the  Continental  powers,  he  bent  his 
attention  to  the  shores  of  Great  Britain,  and  made  great  preparation  for 
invading  that  country  :  while  England'  concentrated  her  resources  for  a 
general  defence  of  the  coast.  But  it  was  soon  apparent  that  these  efforts, 
on  both  sides,  were  a  mere  cover  to  the  intentions  of  the  respective  cabi- 
nets ;  for  while  the  shores  of  the  Channel  were  covered  with  boats  and 
transports  on  the  one  hand,  and  fleets  of  armed  ships  on  the  other,  couriers 
passed  incessantly  to  and  fro  with  dispatches  having  reference  to  a  gen- 
eral peace,  preliminaries  for  which  were  eventually  signed,  on  the  1st  of 
October,  1801.  By  these  preliminary  articles  it  was  agreed,  that  hostili- 
ties between  the  contracting  parties  should  immediately  cease  by  land  and 
sea  ;  that  Great  Britain  should  restore  its  colonial  acquisitions  in  every 
part  of  the  world ;  Ceylon  in  the  East,  and  Trinidad  in  the  West  Indies, 
alone  excepted :  that  Egypt  should  be  restored  to  the  Porte,  Malta  and  its 
dependencies  to  the  order  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  to  Holland  ;  the  integrity  of  Portugal  was  to  be  guaranteed,  the 
harbors  of  the  Roman  and  Neapolitan  states  evacuated  by  the  French,  and 
Porto  Ferrajo  by  the  English  forces. 

In  the  same  year,  treaties  were  concluded  between  France  and  Turkey, 
France  and  Bavaria,  France  and  America,  France  and  Algiers,  and 
France  and  Russia.  On  the  27th  of  March,  1802,  the  definitive  treaty 
with  England  was  signed  at  Amiens  ;  its  conditions  varied  in  no  essential 
particular  from  the  preliminaries  signed  at  London,  in  October,  1801. 

A  feeling  of  joy  overspread  all  Europe  when  intelligence  of  the  treaty 
of  Amiens  was  promulgated  :  the  population  of  Paris  forgot,  in  the  splen- 
dor of  military  pageantry,  the  calamities  of  the  Revolution,  and  visitors 
Crom  other  countries  flocked  to  the  French  metropolis  to  examine  the  locali- 
ties where  such  frightful  scenes  had  been  enacted,  and  to  see  the  several 
heroes  of  the  mighty  drama. 

But  the  active  and  indefatigable  mind  of  Napoleon  took  no  respite  du- 
ring this  period  of  general  relaxation.  Thinking  nothing  done  while  aught 
remained  to  do,  he  no  sooner  attained  the  highest  point  of  military  glory, 
fhan  he  turned  his  thoughts  to  the  restoration  of  the  naval  power  of  France ; 
and  as  the  recovery  of  the  French  colonies  promised  the  only  means  that 
could  be  relied  on  for  the  permanent  support  of  marine  forces,  he  projected 
an  expedition  for  the  recapturing  of  St.  Domingo,  which  had  freed  itself 
from  the  French  yoke  by  a  bloody  insurrection  during  the  misrule  of  the 
.National  Assembly. 


1801.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  159 

The  forces  collected  by  Napoleon  for  this  purpose  were  commensurate 
to  the  importance  of  the  undertaking  :  thirty-five  ships  of  the  line,  twenty, 
one  frigates  and  eighty  smaller  vessels,  having  also  on  board  twenty-one 
thousand  land  troops,  might  have  been  deemed  a  sufficiently  powerful 
armament  to  subjugate  a  rival  kingdom,  rather  than  one  destined  to  reduce 
a  distant  colonial  settlement.  The  fleet  was  commanded  by  Villaret 
Joyeuse  ;  the  army,  by  Le  Clerc,  Napoleon's  brother-in-law  ;  and  the 
troops  consisted,  for  the  most  part,  of  the  veterans  of  Hohenlinden,  accom- 
panied by  their  own  officers,  Richepanse,  Rochambeau,  and  others.  The 
several  detachments  of  the  fleet  sailed  simultaneously  from  Brest,  L'  Ori- 
ent and  Rochefort,  on  the  14th  of  December  ;  and  these  were  followed  by 
other  vessels  from  Cadiz,  Havre  and  Holland  with  additional  troops,  which 
eventually  raised  the  whole  land  force  to  thirty-five  thousand  men.  So 
completely  were  the  people  of  St.  Domingo  at  fault  as  to  the  destination 
of  this  armament,  that,  but  for  its  detention  for  fifteen  days  in  the  Bay  of 
Biscay,  Toussaint,  the  negro  general-in-chief  of  the  new  government, 
would  have  been  taken  entirely  by  surprise  by  the  arrival  of  the  fleet  off 
the  island,  in  the  beginning  of  February.  As  it  chanced,  however,  he 
learned  from  an  American  vessel  that  a  large  number  of  French  ships  of 
war  had  appeared  in  the  southern  latitudes  ;  and,  instantly  divining  their 
object,  he  made  all  possible  preparation  for  defence. 

Toussaint's  entire  military  force,  over  the  island,  did  not  exceed 
twenty  thousand  men,  hence,  he  could  hope  nothing  from  pitched  battles 
with  the  conquerors  of  Austria;  he  therefore  adopted  a  line  of  defence 
exactly  conformable  to  his  position.  Orders  were  immediately  given  for 
removing  everything  valuable  from  Cape  Town,  where  the  French  were 
expected  to  land,  and  to  prepare  combustibles  for  destroying  the  city  by 
fire,  the  moment  it  was  evacuated.  These  orders  were  faithfully  execu- 
ted. One  division  of  the  French  troops  disembarked  on  the  4th  of  Feb- 
ruary ;  during  that  night,  the  flames  burst  out  in  every  direction,  and  in 
the  morning,  of  eight  hundred  houses,  but  sixty  remained  standing,  and 
all  the  stores  and  provisions  that  could  not  be  removed  were  destroyed 
with  the  buildings  that  contained  them  :  a  noble  act  of  devotion  on  the 
part  of  the  negroes,  and  one  of  sinister  import  to  the  invading  army. 

The  French  troops  soon  overran  and  took  possession  of  all  the  plains 
and  seacoast  of  the  island,  driving  the  negro  bands  into  the  impracticable 
mountains  and  woods  in  the  centre :  but  this  apparent  triumph  was  the 
result  of  the  system  of  defence  adopted  by  Toussaint,  to  cut  off  supplies 
from  the  French,  and  harass  them  with  an  incessant  guerilla  warfare, 
which  rendered  their  discipline  and  experience  unavailing.  This  state 
of  things  continued  for  three  months,  during  which  numberless  actions 
took  place,  and  in  many,  the  French  suffered  severe  loss ;  but  both  par- 
ties at  length  becoming  exhausted,  a  general  pacification  was  agreed 
upon,  on  the  5th  of  May,  1802;  when  the  negroes  submitted  to  the 
government  of  the  invaders,  surrendered  their  arms  and  disbanded  their 
forces.  But  they  soon  found  reason  to  repent  their  reliance  on  the  faith 
of  Napoleon  ;  for,  in  compliance  with  his  original  instructions,  Toussaint 
was  treacherously  arrested  and  transported  to  France ;  and  this  act  was 
followed  by  a  system  of  oppression  which  *oon  forced  the  negroes  into 
revolt. 

The  situation  of  the  French,  in  turn,  became  critical.  Pestilence  and 
the  sword  had  reduced  their  numbers  to  thirteen  thousand  men  in  all :  and 

16* 


ICO  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XX. 

of  these,  five  thousand  were  in  the  hospitals,  and  Le  Clerc  himself,  with 
several  of  his  best  officers,  had  fallen  victims  to  the  clfmate.  Rocham- 
beau  took  command  after  the  death  of  Le  Clerc  ;  but  the  increasing  force 
and  success  of  the  negroes  decimated  his  troops,  and  in  February,  1803, 
he  found  himself  reduced  to  extremity.  When  matters  were  in  this  con- 
dition,  a  finishing  blow  was  given  to  the  hopes  of  the  French  army,  by 
the  rupture  of  the  treaty  of  Amiens,  and  renewal  of  hostilities  between 
France  and  Great  Britain.  The  negroes,  supplied  with  arms  and  ammu- 
nition by  the  English  cruisers,  became  at  all  points  irresistible,  and  ihe 
invaders  were  forced  to  capitulate. 

Since  the  expulsion  of  the  French  from  the  island,  St.  Domingo  has 
been  nominally  independent ;  but  slavery  is  far  from  being  abolished 
there,  and  the  condition  of  the  people  is  anything  but  meliorated  by  the 
change.  The  industrious  habits  of  the  people  and  the  flourishing  aspect 
of  the  island  have  disappeared;  the  agricultural  opulence  of  its  fields  has 
vanished ;  and,  from  being  the  greatest  exporting  island  in  the  West  In- 
dies,  it  has  ceased  to  raise  sugar  at  all.  In  1789,  the  population  of  St. 
Domingo  was  six  hundred  thousand,  and  its  export  of  sugar  amounted  to 
six  hundred  and  seventy-two  millions  of  pounds  weight :  in  1832,  its  popu- 
lation was  two  hundred  and  eighty  thousand,  and  its  export  of  sugar,  not 
one  pound. 

But,  though  Napoleon  was  thus  foiled  in  his  attempts  to  establish  colo- 
nial dependencies,  he  did  not  limit  his  ambition  to  this  achievement. 
Simultaneously  with  the  expedition  to  St.  Domingo,  he  began  to  operate 
on  the  field  of  Europe,  and  the  peace  of  Amiens  was  hardly  concluded, 
when  his  conduct  gave  unequivocal  proof  that  he  was  resolved  to  be  fet- 
tered by.no  treaties,  and  that,  to  those  who  did  not  choose  to  submit  to  his 
authority,  no  alternative  remained  but  the  sword. 

By  the  llth  article  of  the  treaty  of  Luneville,  it  had  been  provided  that 
"  the  contracting  parties  shall  mutually  guarantee  the  independence  of 
the  Batavian,  Helvetian,  Cis-Alpine  and  Ligurian  republics,  and  the  right 
of  the  people  who  inhabit  them  to  adopt  whatever  form  of  government  they 
may  think  fit."  The  allies,  by  this  clause,  of  course  understood  inde- 
pendence in  its  true  sense;  that  is,  a  liberation  of  these  republics  from 
the  influence  of  France  :  but  it  soon  appeared  that  Napoleon  attached  a 
very  different  meaning  to  the  word,  and  that  he  intended  to  establish  con- 
stitutions in  them  all  which  should  subject  them  absolutely  to  his  power. 
He  made  his  first  demonstration  on  Holland,  where,  on  the  17th  of 
September,  the  French  ambassador  sent  a  Constitution,  completely  drawn 
up,  to  the  Directory,  with  an  intimation  that  they  had  nothing  to  do  but 
to  affix  to  it  the  seal  ,pf  their  approbation ;  and,  on  the  same  day,  it  was 
published  to  the  nation,  the  Directory  taking  for  granted  that  it  would  be 
approved.  The  Dutch  Legislature,  however,  were  not  prepared  for  this 
degradation  ;  and  the  last  act  of  their  political  existence  was  as  honorable 
as,  in  the  end,  it  proved  unavailing :  they  decreed  the  suppression  of  the 
illegal  acts  of  the  Directory,  and  on  the  18th  their  hall  was  cleared  and 
their  doors  closed  by  French  bayonets.  A  new  Constitution  was  then  pub- 
lished by  the  pliant  Directory,  alike  without  the  knowledge  or  concurrence 
of  the  people,  although  it  assimilated  to  their  wishes  more  nearly  than  the 
democratic  institutions  which  preceded  it.  The  Directory  went  through 
the  form  of  submitting  this  instrument  to  the  people  ;  and  of  four  hundred 
and  sixteen  thousand  four  hundred  and  nineteen  citizens,  having  a  right 


1802.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  161 

to  vote,  fifty-two  thousand  two  hundred  and  nineteen  rejected  it.  The 
fact  that  a  great  majority  of  the  whole  declined  to  vote  at  all,  was  as- 
sumed to  be  favorable  to  the  change,  and  the  new  government  was  there- 
fore solemn.y  proclaimed.  The  conduct  of  the  Dutch  on  this  occasion, 
affords  a  striking  proof  of  the  impossibility  of  eradicating,  by  external 
violence,  the  institutions  which  have  grown  with  the  growth  and  strength- 
ened  with  the  strength  of  a  free  people.  In  vain  did  the  armies  of  France 
subdue  them,  and  force  upon  them  democratic  forms  of  government  with 
the  loud  applause  of  the  indigent  rabble  in  power.  The  great  mass  of 
the  inhabitants  and  nearly  all  the  proprietors  withdrew  from  public  situa- 
tions, and  took  no  share  in  the  changes  imposed  on  their  country.  In  the 
seclusion  of  private  life,  they  retained  the  habits,  the  affections  and  the 
religious  observances  of  .their  forefathers ;  and  their  children  were  nur- 
tured in  these  patriotic  feelings,  untainted  by  the  revolutionary  passions 
which  agitated  the  surrounding  states. 

This  was  followed  by  a  similar  revolution  in  the  Cis- Alpine  Republic, 
and  a  change  of  its  name  to  the  Italian  Republic  ;  after  which,  Piedmont 
was  formally  annexed  to  France.  These  acquisitions,  formidable  in  them- 
selves, became  doubly  so  by  the  means  which  Napoleon  adopted  to  render 
them  permanent  conquests.  He  employed  a  corps  of  engineers  and  an 
immense  number  of  workmen  to  construct  the  celebrated  roads  over  Mont 
Cenis,  Mont  Genevre  and  the  Simplon ;  and  the  Alps  soon  ceased  to  pre- 
sent any  obstacle  to  an  invading  army.  The  government  of  Switzerland, 
too,  again  underwent  a  radical  change,  and  a  Constitution  more  conform- 
able to  Napoleon's  modified  views  of  republicanism  was  forced  on  the 
inhabitants  of  that  devoted  country. 

While  the  continent  of  Europe  was  agitated  by  these  events,  England 
enjoyed  the  blessings  and  the  tranquillity  of  peace.  During  the  brief 
interval  of  national  repose  that  was  vouchsafed  to  her,  the  opening  of  the 
European  ports  brought  into  her  harbors  an  unlimited  commerce,  and 
rendered  her  seaports  the  emporium  of  the  civilized  world.  Her  exports 
and  imports  rapidly  increased ;  the  cessation  of  the  income-tax  conferred 
comparative  affluence  on  the  middling  classes ;  agriculture,  sustained 
by  continued  high  prices,  shared  in  the  general  prosperity ;  the  sinking 
fund,  relieved  in  some  degree  from  the  counteracting  influence  of  annual 
loans,  attracted  universal  attention ;  while  the  revenue,  under  the  influ- 
ence of  so  many  favorable  circumstances,  steadily  augmented,  and  the 
national  exigencies  were  easily  provided  for,  without  any  addition  tc 
the  burdens  of  the  people.  So  wide-spread  was  the  enthusiasm,  occa 
sioned  by  this  bright  gleam  of  prosperity,  even  sagacious,  practical  men, 
were  carried  away  by  the  delusion ;  and  the  only  apprehension  expressed 
by  the  moneyed  classes  was,  that  the  sinking  fund  would  extinguish  the 
national  debt  too  rapidly,  and  capital,  left  without  the  means  of  secure 
investment,  would  be  exposed  to  the  risk  and  uncertainty  of  foreign 
adventure. 

But  these  flattering  prospects  were  of  short  duration.  Independent  of 
the  increasing  jealousy  with  which  the  British  government  beheld  the 
continental  encroachments  of  Napoleon,  and  which  rapidly  communi- 
cated itself  to  all  classes  of  the  English  people,  several  causes  of  irrita- 
tion grew  up  between  the  rival  governments,  which  first  weakened,  and 
finally  destroyed,  the  good  understanding  between  them. 

The  first  of  these  subjects  of  irritation,  was  the  asperity  with  which  the 
government  and  acts  of  the  First  Consul  were  canvassed  in  the  English 


162  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  [CHAP.  XX. 

newspapers.  To  Napoleon,  who  was  accustomed  only  to  the  voice  of 
adulation,  and  read  nothing  in  the  enslaved  journals  of  his  own  country 
but  graceful  flattery,  these  diatribes  were  in  the  highest  degree  painful  ; 
and  not  the  less  so,  because  the  charges  they  contained  in  regard  to  his 
ambitious  policy  and  foreign  aggressions,  were  too  true  to  be  refuted. 
He,  therefore,  caused  his  minister  at  London  to  remonstrate  against  these 
attacks,  and  concluded  by  formally  soliciting,  "  First,  that  the  English 
government  should  prohibit  the  unbecoming  and  seditious  publications 
with  which  the  newspapers  in  England  are  filled  ;  secondly,  that  the 
individuals  specified  in  the  annexed  list,  be  sent  out  of  Jersey ;  thirdly, 
that  Georges  and  his  adherents  be  transported  to  Canada  ;  fourthly,  that 
it  be  recommended  to  the  princes  of  the  House  of  Bourbon,  resident  in 
Great  Britain,  to  repair  to  Warsaw ;  and,  fifthly,  that  such  emigrants  as 
still  think  proper  to  wear  the  orders  and  decorations  of  the  ancient  gov- 
ernment of  France,  be  required  to  quit  the  territories  of  the  British 
Empire." 

The  English  government  replied  to  this  extraordinary  requisition  in 
dignified,  but  courteous  language,  referring  in  detail  to  each  specifica- 
tion, and  concluding  thus  :  "  His  majesty  is  sincerely  disposed  to  adopt 
every  measure  for  the  preservation  of  peace,  which  is  consistent  with  the 
honor  and  independence  of  the  country,  and  the  security  of  its  laws  and 
Constitution.  But  the  French  government  must  have  formed  a  most 
erroneous  judgment  of  the  disposition  of  the  British  nation,  and  the  char- 
acter of  its  government,  if  they  have  been  taught  to  expect  that  any 
representation  of  a  foreign  power,  will  ever  induce  them  to  consent  to  a 
violation  of  those  rights  on  which  the  liberties  of  the  people  of  this  country 
are  founded." 

No  further  diplomatic  correspondence  took  place  on  this  subject;  but 
the  war  of  the  journals  continued  with  redoubled  vehemence,  and  several 
replies  of  a  hostile  character  appeared  in  the  Moniteur,  bearing  evident 
marks  of  Napoleon's  composition.  The  French  incessantly  urged  the 
execution  of  "the  treaty  of  Amiens,  the  whole  treaty  of  Amiens,  and 
nothing  but  the  treaty  of  Amiens :"  they  loudly  complained  that  the 
British  government  had  not  evacuated  Alexandria,  Malta,  and  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  as  stipulated  in  that  instrument ;  and  declared  that  the 
French  people  would  ever  remain  in  the  attitude  of  Minerva,  with  a  hel- 
met on  her  head,  and  a  spear  in  her  hand.  The  English  replied,  that 
the  strides  made  by  France  over  Continental  Europe  since  the  general 
pacification,  and  her  menacing  conduct  toward  the  British  possessions, 
were  inconsistent  with  any  intention  of  preserving  peace,  and  rendered  it 
indispensable  that  the  securities  held  by  them  for  their  own  independ- 
ence, should  not  be  relinquished.  This  recriminating  warfare  was  con- 
tinued with  equal  zeal  on  both  sides  of  the  Channel ;  loud  and  fierce 
defiances  were  exchanged,  and  it  soon  became  manifest,  not  less  from  the 
temper  of  the  people  than  the  relations  of  their  governments,  that  the 
contest  must,  be  decided  by  the  sword. 

This  view  of  the  case  was  farther  confirmed  by  an  extraordinary  scene 
between  Napoleon  and  Lord  Whitworth.  the  English  ambassador  at  Paris, 
on  the  21st  of  February,  1803  ;  in  which  Napoleon,  with  great  vehe- 
mence, insisted  on  the  evacuation  of  Egypt  and  Malta,  complained  of  the 
abuse  of  the  English  newspapers,  and  threatened  to  renew  hostilities 
.  immediately,  unless  his  grounds  of  complaint  were  removed. 

The   British  government,  plainly    foreseeing  the   result,  resolved  to 


1803.]  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  163 

anticipate  it,  and  made  speedy  preparations  for  an  outbreak.  Parlia- 
ment sustained  the  measures  of  the  ministry  by  a  unanimous  vote ;  the 
militia  was  called  out;  ten  thousand  additional  men  were  ordered  for 
the  navy  ;  Lord  Nelson  was  put  in  command  of  the  Mediterranean  fleet; 
Sir  Sidney  Smith  received  orders  to  put  to  sea  with  a  squadron  of  obser- 
vation ;  and  England  resumed  her  arms  with  a  degree  of  enthusiasm 
exceeding  that  with  which  she  had  laid  them  aside. 

These  movements  led  to  a  second  and  still  more  violent  ebullition  on 
the  part  of  the  First  Consul.  In  a  public  court  at  the  Tuileries,  held  a 
few  days  after,  he  addressed  Lord  Whitworth  in  the  following  terms: 
"  So,  you  are  determined  to  go  to  war !  We  have  already  fought  for  fif- 
teen years;  I  suppose  you  wish  to  fight  for  fifteen  years  more.  The 
English  wish  for  war;  but  if  they  are  the  first  to  draw  the  sword,  I  will 
be  the  last  to  return  it  to  the  scabbard.  They  have  no  respect  for  trea- 
ties. Henceforth,  treaties  must  be  shrouded  in  black  crape.  Wherefore 
these  armaments  ?  Against  whom  are  these  measures  of  precaution  ?  I 
have  not  a  single  ship  of  the  line  in  the  harbors  of  France  :  but  if  you 
arm,  I  shall  arm  also.  If  you  insist  on  fighting,  I,  too.  shall  fight.  You 
may  destroy  France,  but  you  can  never  intimidate  her.  If  you  would 
live  on  terms  of  good  understanding  with  us,  you  must  respect  treaties. 
Wo  to  those  who  violate  them !  they  must  answer  for  the  consequences 
to  all  Europe."  This  violent  harangue,  rendered  still  more  emphatic 
by  the  impassioned  gestures  with  which  it  was  accompanied,  induced  the 
English  ambassador  to  suppose  that  the  First  Consul  would  so  far  forget 
his  dignity  as  to  strike  him;  and  he  was  deliberating  with  himself  as  to 
what  he  would  do,  in  the  event  of  such  an  insult's  being  offered  to  the 
nation  he  represented,  when  Napoleon  retired,  and  delivered  the  assem- 
bled and  astonished  ambassadors  of  Europe  from  the  pain  they  experi- 
enced at  witnessing  so  remarkable  a  scene. 

The  British  government  contented  itself  with  replying  to  these  intem- 
perate sallies  on  the  part  of  the  First  Consul,  by  recapitulating  the  mutual 
obligations  of  the  treaty,  and  avowing  a  readiness  to  execute  every 
article  to  the  letter,  the  moment  they  were  satisfied  of  similar  intentions 
on  the  part  of  France.  The  negotiations  were  protracted  for  two  months 
longer;  but,  on  the  12th  of  May,  Lord  Whitworth,  finding  all  hope  of 
arrangement  at  an  end,  demanded  and  received  his  passports:  on  the 
16th,  letters  of  marque  were  issued  by  the  British  government;  and  the 
war  recommenced  with  increased  animosity. 

The  declaration  of  war  was  followed  by  an  act  on  the  part  of  the  First 
Consul,  as  unnecessary  as  it  was  barbarous;  and  which  contributed 
more,  perhaps,  than  any  other  circumstance,  to  produce  that  strong  feel- 
ing of  personal  hatred  toward  Napoleon  which  pervaded  all  classes  of 
the  English  people  during  the  remainder  of  the  contest.  Two  French 
vessels  had  been  captured,  under  the  English  letters  of  marque,  in  the 
Bay  of  Audierne ;  and  the  First  Consul  made  this  a  pretext  for  ordering 
the  arrest  of  all  the  British  subjects,  then  travelling  in  France,  between 
the  ages  of  eighteen  and  sixty  years.  Under  this  savage  decree,  more 
than  ten  thousand  innocent  persons,  who  had  repaired  to  France  in  pur- 
suit of  business,  science  or  amusement,  were  at  once  thrown  into  prison ; 
whence  great  numbers  of  them  were  not  liberated  until  the  invasion  of 
the  allies,  in  1814.  This  severity  was  the  more  unpardonable,  as  the 
minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  had,  a  few  days  before,  given  the  English  t 


164  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXI. 

residents  at  Paris  assurances,  that  they  should  be  permitted  to  leave  the 
kingdom  without  molestation ;  and  many  had,  in  consequence,  declined  to 
avail  themselves  of  the  means  of  escape  when  they  were  in  their  power. 


CHAPTER    XXI. 

FRANCE,   FROM    THE   PEACE  OF    AMIENS  TO  NAPOLEON'S  ASSUMPTION  OF   THE 

IMPERIAL  CROWN. 

BEFORE  proceeding  to  the  history  of  the  war,  thus  unhappily  renewed, 
it  is  necessary  to  take  a  retrospective  view  of  the  internal  affairs  of 
France. 

When  Napoleon  seized  the  reins  of  power  in  that  country,  he  found 
the  institutions  of  civilization,  and  the  bonds  of  society,  dissolved  to  an 
extent  of  which  the  history  of  the  world  affords  no  previous  example. 
Not  only  had  the  throne  been  overturned,  the  nobles  exiled,  the  landed 
estates  confiscated,  and  the  aristocracy  destroyed ;  but  the  institutions  of 
religion,  law,  commerce  and  education,  were  totally  annihilated.  Ever 
the  establishments  of  charity  had  shared  in  the  general  wreck ;  the  mon 
astery  no  longer  dispensed  its  munificence  to  the  poor,  and  the  doors  oi 
the  hospitals  were  closed  against  the  indigent  sick  and  wounded.  Tr 
restore  that  which  the  insanity  of  preceding  years  had  overthrown,  wa: 
the  task  that  awaited  the  First  Consul,  and  the  success  of  his  efforts  is  a 
far  prouder  monument  to  his  memory  than  all  the  victories  he  achieved. 
He  began  at  the  outset,  cautiously  but  firmly,  to  coerce  the  democratic 
spirit  of  the  people,  and  to  reconstruct  those  classes  and  distinctions  in 
society,  which  he  well  knew  were  the  indispensable  bulwarks  of  a  throne. 

Those  who  reproach  Napoleon  for  establishing  a  despotic  government, 
would  do  well  to  show  how  he  could  have  formed  a  counterpoise  to 
democratic  ambition,  or  a  check  on  regal  oppression,  out  of  the  represen- 
tatives of  a  community  whence  the  superior  classes  of  society  had  been 
violently  torn :  how  the  turbulent  passions  of  a  republican  populace  could 
have  been  moulded  into  habitual  subjection  to  a  legislature,  distinguished 
in  no  manner  from  themselves;  and  to  a  body  of  titled  senators  destitute 
of  wealth,  consideration  and  hereditary  rank :  how  a  constitutional  throne 
could  have  existed  without  any  support  from  the  altar,  or  any  foundation 
in  the  religious  feelings  of  its  subjects:  and  how  a  proud  and  victorious 
army  could  have  been  taught  that  respect  for  the  majesty  of  the  Law, 
which  is  the  invaluable  growth  of  centuries  of  order,  but  which  the  suc- 
cessive overthrow  of  so  many  previous  governments  in  France  had  effect- 
ually destroyed.  After  its  patricians  had  been  cut  off  by  the  civil  wars 
of  Sylla  and  Marius,  Rome  necessarily  sunk  under  the  despotic  rule  of 
the  emperors.  When  Constantine  founded  a  second  Rome  on  the  shores 
of  the  Bosphorus,  he  saw  that  it  was  too  late  to  restore  the  balanced  Con 
stitution  of  the  ancient  Republic.  On  Napoleon's  accession  to  the  con- 
sular throne,  he  found  the  vacancies  in  the  French  aristocracy  still 
greater ;  and  the  only  remaining  means  of  righting  the  scale,  was  to  cast 
into  it  the  weight  of  the  sword. 


1801.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  165 

One  of  Naporeon's  first  measures,  was  a  decree  against  the  Jacobins, 
toward  whom  he  entertained  an  inextinguishable  hatred.  The  pretext 
for  this  proceeding  was  furnished  by  an  unsuccessful  attempt  against  his 
life,  by  means  of  what  was  called  "the  infernal  machine."  He  was 
going  in  his  carriage  from  the  Tuileries  to  the  opera,  and  in  passing 
through  the  Rue  St.  Nicaise,  the  coachman  found  that  narrow  street 
nearly  obstructed  by  an  overturned  chariot;  the  man,  however,  had  the 
address  to  make  his  way  through,  and  drive  on  without  stopping.  He 
had  hardly  passed,  when  a  terrible  explosion  took  place  in  the  rear, 
which  broke  the  windows  of  the  Consul's  carriage,  struck  down  the  last 
man  of  the  guard,  killed  eight  persons  and  wounded  twenty-eight,  besides 
doing  great  injury  to  forty-six  adjoining  houses.  Napoleon  proceeded  to 
the  opera,  where  he  was  received  with  indescribable  enthusiasm;  and 
on  his  return  to  the  Tuileries,  a  crowd  of  public  functionaries  from  every 
part  of  Paris  waited  on  him,  to  offer  their  congratulations.  He  inter- 
rupted them  by  saying,  that  the  plot  was  the  work  of  his  worst  enemies, 
the  Jacobins ;  and,  in  a  vehement  harangue,  he  demanded  the  immediate 
infliction  of  an  exemplary  punishment  on  the  leaders  of  that  party. 
Truguet  had  the  courage  to  suggest,  that  there  were  other  guilty  persons 
in  France  besides  the  Jacobins ;  and  that,  as  in  this  particular  instance 
there  was  yet  no  proof  against  any  one,  it  would  be  well  to  stay  such 
summary  proceedings.  Napoleon,  however,  was  not  so  to  be  thwarted: 
he  insisted  on  the  justness  of  his  suspicions;  and  although,  while  the  dis- 
cussion was  in  progress,  he  received  certain  information,  through  Fouehe, 
that  the  real  perpetrators  of  the  crime  were  some  Royalists  of  the  Chouan 
bands,  he  forced  the  Senate  to  pass  a  decree  of  immediate  transportation, 
without  a  form  of  trial,  against  no  less  than  one  hundred  and  thirty 
Jacobins,  among  whom  were  many  of  those  implicated  in  the  worst  ex- 
cesses of  the  Reign  of  Terror.  Within  a  month  from  this  time,  Saint 
Regent  and  Carbon,  who  were  actually  concerned  in  the  conspiracy, 
were  brought  to  trial,  condemned  and  executed. 

In  order  to  restore  gradually  the  succession  of  ranks  in  society,  Napo- 
leon soon  resolved  to  create  an  order  of  nobility,  under  the  title  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor  ;  and  a  motion  for  its  establishment  was  brought  before 
the  Council  of  State  in  May,  1801.  It  met,  both  there  and  elsewhere,  an 
unexpected  degree  of  opposition,  from  its  evident  tendency  to  counteract 
the  levelling  principles  of  the  Revolution ;  and  Napoleon's  utmost  influ- 
ence could  obtain  for  it  but  a  feeble  majority  in  the  several  houses  of  the 
national  legislature.  It  was,  nevertheless,  carried  into  execution,  with 
all  those  details  of  pomp  and  ceremony  that  are  so  powerful  with  the 
multitude.  The  inauguration  of  the  dignitaries  of  the  order  took  place, 
with  great  magnificence,  in  the  church  of  the  Hotel  des  Invalides ;  and 
the  decorations  soon  began  to  be  eagerly  coveted  by  a  people,  whose  pas- 
sion for  individual  distinction  had  been  a  secret  cause  of  the  Revolution 
itself.  The  event  proved  that  Napoleon  had  rightly  appreciated  the  true 
character  of  the  people.  The  leading  object  in  the  Revolution  was  the 
extinction  of  castes,  not  of  ranks ;  equality  of  rights,  and  not  of  classes; 
the  abolition  of  hereditary,  not  personal  distinction.  But  an  institution 
which  conferred  lustre  on  individuals,  and  not  on  families,  and  led  to  no 
hereditary  privileges,  was  found  in  practice  to  be  so  far  from  running 
counter  to  the  popular  feeling,  that  it  precisely  coincided  with  it.  Ac- 
cordingly, the  Legion  of  Honor,  which  gradually  extended  so  as  to 


166  HISTORY     OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXL 

embrace  two  thousand  persons  of  the  greatest  eminence  in  every  depart, 
ment,  both  civil  and  military,  in  France,  became  highly  useful  and 
acceptable. 

Another  measure,  and  one  of  the  greatest  importance,  was  next  brought 
forward :  this  was,  the  reestablishment  of  the  Catholic  religion  in  France, 
and  the  renewing  of  those  connexions  with  the  pope  which  had  been 
violently  broken  during  the  fury  of  the  Revolution.  Napoleon,  himself, 
so  far  from  being  a  fanatic,  was  even  a  disbeliever  in  religion ;  but  he 
was  too  sagacious  not  to  perceive,  that  the  destruction  of  its  hallowed 
institutions  was  wholly  inconsistent  with  the  prosperity  of  a  regular 
government;  and  he  therefore  commenced  a  negotiation  with  the  pope 
for  reviving  them.  This  measure,  too,  encountered  great  opposition  in 
the  legislature ;  but  k  was  eventually  carried.  Ten  archbishops  and 
fifty  bishops  were  established ;  the  former  with  a  salary  of  fifteen  thou- 
sand, and  the  latter  with  one  of  ten  thousand  francs  each:  and  it  was 
provided,  that  there  should  be  a  parish  priest  in  every  district  of  a  justice 
of  the  peace,  with  as  many  additional  ministers  as  might  be  deemed 
necessary.  The  bishops  and  archbishops  were  to  be  appointed  by  the 
First  Consul,  and  these  functionaries  were  to  nominate  the  parish  priests 
and  inferior  clergy.  It  is  remarkable,  that  some  of  the  most  distinguished 
of  the  French  generals,  such  as  Moreau,  Lannes,  Oudinot,  Victor  and 
others,  openly  expressed  their  disapprobation  of  this  proceeding. 

Napoleon,  however,  remained  firm;  despite  all  opposition  and  the  loud 
discontent  of  the  capital ;  the  reestablishment  of  public  worship  was  an- 
nounced by  a  proclamation  of  the  three  Consuls  ;  and,  on  the  llth  of  April, 
1802,  a  grand  religious  ceremony  took  place,  in  honor  of  the  occasion,  in 
the  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame.  The  result  of  this  measure  fully  vindi- 
cated Napoleon's  judgment  in  its  adoption ;  the  entire  population  of  the 
rural  departments  beheld  the  change  with  unbounded  satisfaction  and 
delight,  and  the  different  sovereigns  of  Europe  freely  avowed  their  gratifi- 
cation at  an  event  so  auspicious  to  the  general  benefit  of  mankind. 

On  the  29th  of  April,  a  general  amnesty  was  published  in  favor  of 
exiles  and  emigrants,  who  had  fled  or  been  driven  from  their  homes,  during 
the  Revolution  ;  and,  in  consequence,  more  than  a  hundred  thousand  per- 
sons returned  to  their  native  country  ;  though,  for  the  most  part,  they  were 
in  great  destitution  from  the  previous  confiscation  of  their  estates.  In  the 
month  of  May,  a  system  of  public  instruction  was  introduced  on  a  scale 
of  comparative  liberality  ;  but  it  is  observable,  that  all  tuition  of  a  reli- 
gious character  was  carefully  avoided  in  the  decree.  On  the  8th  of  the 
same  month,  the  obsequious  legislature  extended  the  time  of  Napoleon's 
consulship  ten  years  beyond  the  term  for  which  he  was  originally  ap- 
pointed :  an  acquisition  of  power,  which,  though  far  short  of  his  ambitious 
desires,  was  yet  an  important  step  toward  their  final  accomplishment.  In 
reply  to  the  address  of  the  Senate  which  announced  this  decree,  Napoleon 
suggested,  that  he  would  prefer  to  have  it  sanctioned  by  the  voice  of  the 
people  :  and  the  Council  of  State,  improving  on  the  hint,  and  without  ask- 
ing the  concurrence  of  the  other  branches  of  the  legislature,  forthwith 
submitted  to  the  people  this  question  :  "  Shall  Napoleon  Bonaparte  be 
Consul  for  life  ?"  Registers  were  opened  in  every  commune  to  receive 
the  votes  of  the  citizens,  and,  on  the  2nd  of  August,  it  was  officially 
announced,  that  of  three  millions,  five  hundred  and  fifty-seven  thousand, 
eight  hundred  and  eighty-five  citizens  who  voted,  three  millions,  three 


1802.1  HIS  TORY    OF    EUROPE.  ,.*7 

hundred  and  sixty-eight  thousand,  two  hundred  and  fifty-nine  gave  their 
suffrages  in  the  affirmative.  This  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  facts 
in  the  history  of  the  Revolution,  and  is  singularly  descriptive  of  that 
longing  after  repose  which  uniformly  succeeds  revolutionary  convulsions, 
and  so  generally  renders  them  the  preludes  to  despotic  power.  The  rapid 
rise  of  the  public  funds,  demonstrated  that  this  feeling  was  common  among 
the  holders  of  property  in  France.  The  price  of  these  securities  ad- 
vanced, with  every  addition  to  the  authority  of  the  successful  general  :  it 
rose  from  *8  to  -16,  when  he  seized  the  helm  of  state ;  and  after  the  con- 
sulship for  life  was  proclaimed,  it  reached  -52. 

Great  changes  in  the  Constitution  followed  this  alteration  in  the  char- 
acter of  the  executive  authority.  The  Tribunate  was  reduced  from  one 
hundred,  to  fifty  members ;  an  important  diminution,  as  it  was  a  prelude 
to  the  total  extinction  of  that  body ;  and  it  now  so  completely  annihilated 
its  remnant  of  freedom  of  debate,  as  to  render  it  an  insignificant  obstacle 
to  the  despotic  tendency  of  the  government.  The  Legislative  Body  was 
reduced  to  two  hundred  and  fifty-eight  members,  and  separated  into  five 
divisions,  one  of  which  was  annually  renewed.  The  Senate  was  invested 
with  the  power  to  dissolve  the  Legislative  Body  and  the  Tribunate,  to 
declare  particular  departments  out  of  the  pale  of  the  Constitution,  and  to 
modify  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  Republic.  The  First  Consul 
was  empowered  to  nominate  his  successor,  and  pardon  offences.  Thus,  in 
all  but  its  name,  the  government  had  already  become  a  despotic  monarchy. 

A  few  days  after  the  Constitution  was  published,  Napoleon  presided 
at  the  Senate,  and  received  the  congratulations  of  the  public  authorities, 
and  the  foreign  ambassadors,  on  his  investiture  for  life.  The  soldiers 
formed  a  double  line  from  the  Tuileries  to  the  Luxembourg ;  the  First 
Consul  rode  thither  in  a  magnificent  chariot,  drawn  by  eight  horses, 
the  two  other  consuls  followed  in  carriages  with  six  horses  ;  and  they 
were  succeeded  by  a  splendid  cortege  of  domestic  and  foreign  officers. 
The  gorgeous  appearance  of  the  procession  captivated  the  Parisian  mul- 
titude, who  rent  the  air  with  their  shouts,  and  manifested  as  much  joy  at 
the  restoration  of  the  monarchy,  as  they  not  long  before  had  done  at  its 
destruction. 

While  Napoleon  was  pursuing  his  projects  for  the  establishment  of  a 
hereditary  dynasty  in  his  own  family,  he  caused  a  communication  to  be 
made  to  the  Count  de  Lille,  afterward  Louis  XVIII.,  then  residing  under 
the  protection  of  the  Prussian  king  at  Koningsberg,  by  which,  in  the  event 
of  the  Count's  renouncing  all  right  to  the  French  throne  in  his  favor, 
Bonaparte  offered  to  provide  for  him  a  principality,  with  an  ample  revenue 
in  Italy.  But  Louis  declined  this  proposal  with  great  dignity,  concluding 
his  reply  in  these  words :  "  I  know  not  the  intentions  of  God  toward  my 
family  or  myself,  but  I  know  the  obligations  which  He  has  imposed  on  me. 
As  a  Christian,  I  will  discharge  the  duties  which  religion  prescribes  till 
my  latest  breath  ;  as  a  son  of  St.  Louis,  I  will  make  myself  respected 
even  in  fetters ;  and  as  a  successor  of  Francois  I.,  I  will  ever  be  able  to. 
say  with  him,  '  All  is  lost  except  our  honor.'  " 

Napoleon,  in  this  year,  commenced  the  formation  of  a  Civil  Code,  in 
which  the  heterogeneous  laws  of  the  monarchy  and  Republic  were  wrought 
to  a  consistent  shape.  To  reform  a  system  of  law  without  destroying  it, 
is  one  of  the  most  difficult  tasks  in  political  improvement,  and  one  that 
perhaps  requires,  more  than  any  other  change,  a  union  of  practical  know- 

13 


168  HISTORY     OF     EUROPE.  [Cmr.  XXI. 

ledge  vvith  the  desire  for  social  melioration.  To  retain  statutes  as  they 
are,  without  ever  modifying  them  according  to  the  progress  of  society,  is 
to  imike  them  clash  with  the  great  innovator,  Time,  and  often  become 
pernicious  in  their  operation :  to  new-model  them  in  conformity  to  the 
wishes  of  an  excited  people,  is  almost  certainly  to  incur  unforeseen  and 
irremediable  evils.  Nothing  is  more  easy  than  to  point  out  defects  in 
established  laws,  because  their  inconvenience  is  felt  and  proved  :  and 
nothing  is  more  difficult  than  to  propose  safe  or  expedient  remedies,  be- 
jause  almost  no  foresight  is  competent  to  estimate  the  ultimate  effects 
which  changes  may  produce.  The  clearest  proof  of  the  wisdom  with 
which  the  Code  of  Napoleon  was  formed,  is  found  in  the  fact,  that  it  has 
not  only  survived  the  Empire  which  gave  it  birth,  but  continues,  under 
new  dynasties  and  different  forms  of  government,  to  regulate  the  decisions 
of  many  nations  who  were  leagued  to  bring  about  the  overthrow  of  its 
author.  Napoleon  has  said  that  his  fame,  in  the  eyes  of  posterity,  would 
rest  more  on  the  Code  which  bore  his  name,  than  on  all  his  military  vic- 
tories ;  and  its  permanent  establishment,  as  the  basis  of  the  jurisprudence 
of  half  of  Europe,  has  already  proved  the  truth  of  the  prophecy. 

The  law  of  succession,  as  established  by  the  preceding  governments  of 
France,  was  too  firmly  rooted  in  the  affections  or  prejudices  of  the  people 
to  be  disturbed,  even  by  the  power  of  the  First  Consul ;  and  its  effects  are 
yet  destined  to  be  more  important  than  those  of  almost  any  other  change 
brought  about  by  the  Revolution.  Napoleon,  therefore,  in  this  instance 
confirmed  what  he  could  not  alter.  By  the  statute  in  question,  the  right 
of  primogeniture  and  the  distinction  between  personal  and  real  estate  were 
taken  away,  and  inheritance  of  every  sort  was  divided  in  equal  portions 
among  those  standing  in  an  equal  degree  of  consanguinity  to  a  person 
deceased.  This  indefeasible  right  of  children  to  their  parents'  estates 
was  fixed  at  one  half,  if  but  one  child  was  left ;  two-thirds,  if  two ;  and 
three- fourths,  if  three  or  more  :  all  entails  and  limitations  were  abolished. 
The  effects  of  such  a  system,  cooperating  with  the  extensive  subdivision 
of  landed  estates,  which  took  place  from  the  sale  of  forfeited  properties 
during  the  Revolution,  have  been  prodigious.  It  is  estimated  by  the  Duke 
de  Gaeta  that,  in  1815,  there  were  thirteen  millions  and  fifty-nine  thousand 
individuals  in  France  belonging  to  the  families  of  agricultural  proprietors, 
and  seven  hundred  and  ten  thousand,  five  hundred  persons  belonging  to 
the  families  of  landed  proprietors  not  engaged  in  agriculture.  As  it  may 
be  supposed,  where  so  extreme  a  subdivision  of  property  has  taken  place,, 
the  majority  of  these  little  proprietors  are  in  a  state  of  indigence. 

The  confiscation  of  property  in  France  was  the  great  and  crying  sin 
of  the  Revolution,  because  it  extended  the  consequences  of  present  vio- 
lence to  future  ages :  and,  by  a  striking  operation  of  retributive  justice, 
the  results  of  that  very  confiscation  have  rendered  hopeless  all  the  subse- 
quent efforts  made  by  the  inhabitants  of  France  for  the  recovery  of  their 
freedom.  By  interesting  so  great  a  number  of  persons  in  the  work  of 
spoliation,  and  extending  so  far  the  feeling  of  hostility  to  the  nobles  by 
whom  the  confiscated  estates  might  be  claimed,  the  permanent  settlement 
of  the  law  of  succession  on  the  footing  of  equal  and  endless  subdivision, 
has  of  necessity  ensued ;  and,  strange  as  it  may  appear,  public  opinion 
has  approved  the  result.  It  is  the  prevalent  opinion  in  France,  that  this 
vast  change  is  the  leading  benefit  conferred  on  the  country  by  the  Revo- 
lution j  and  yet,  to  an  impartial  spectator,  nothing  can  be  more  evident 


1804.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  169 

than  that  it  is  precisely  this  change  which  has  rendered  nugatory  every 
subsequent  attempt  for  the  restoration  of  liberty ;  because  it  nas  totally 
destroyed  the  features  and  the  elements  of  European  civilization,  and  left 
only  Indian  ryots  engaged  in  hopeless  contests  with  a  metropolis,  wielding 
the  influence  of  a  central  government  and  the  terrors  of  military  power. 
The  universality  of  the  illusion  on  this  subject  under  which  me  French 
people  labor,  is  owing  to  an  instinctive  fear,  which  leads  the  revolutionary 
party  to  shun  everything  that  seems  to  favor  even  an  approach  to  the 
restoration  of  the  dispossessed  proprietors :  and,  in  their  terror  of  this 
remote  and  chimerical  evil,  they  have  adopted  measures  which,  by  pre- 
venting the  growth  of  any  hereditary  class  between  the  throne  and  the 
peasant,  have  rendered  the  establishment  of  constitutional  freedom  im- 
practicable, and  doomed  the  first  of  European  monarchies  to  the  slavery 
and  decrepitude  of  Oriental  despotism.  By  such  mysterious  means  does 
human  iniquity,  even  in  this  world,  work  out  its  merited  punishment,  and 
so  indissoluble  is  the  chain  which  unites  guilty  excess  with  ultimate  retri- 
bution. 

Almost  everything,  now,  seemed  to  favor  Napoleon's  ambitious  pur- 
poses. In  the  civil  administration,  all  were  reconciled  to  the  consulate 
for  life,  or  submitted  in  silence  to  an  authority  they  could  not  resist. 
The  army,  dazzled  by  the  brilliant  exploits  of  their  commander-in-chief, 
rallied  around  his  standard,  and  sought  only  to  give  utterance  to  their 
admiration  for  his  person :  and  the  people,  worn  out  with  the  sufferings 
and  anxieties  of  the  Revolution,  joyfully  welcomed  a  government  which 
gave  them  that  first  of  civil  blessings,  security  tJ  person  and  property. 
Among  the  higher  officers  of  the  army,  however,  the  same  unanimity  by 
no  means  prevailed.  Bernadotte  was  constantly  in  opposition  to  the  First 
Consul ;  and  Moreau  on  every  occasion  exhibited,  in  contrast  to  the  in- 
creasing splendor  of  military  dress  and  the  formality  of  court  etiquette, 
the  simplicity  of  republican  manners  and  costume.  The  conqueror  of 
Austria  traversed  the  Place  du  Carrousel  and  the  saloons  of  the  Tuileries, 
in  the  plain  dress  of  a  citizen ;  he  declined  repeated  invitations  to  the 
First  Consul's  levees,  until  he  was  no  longer  asked  to  appear  there ;  and 
he  often  manifested  toward  Napoleon,  when  they  met  in  public,  a  degree 
of  coldness,  which  must  have  estranged  persons  even  less  jealous  of  each 
other's  reputation  than  the  heroes  of  Marengo  and  Hohenlinden.  Nothing 
could  induce  him  to  attend  at  Notre  Dame,  when  the  reestablishment  of 
religion  was  celebrated ;  and  at  a  dinner  of  military  officers  at  his  own 
house  on  the  same  day,  he  expressed  the  greatest  contempt  for  the  whole 
proceeding.  • 

While  Moreau  was  thus  insensibly,  and  unavoidably,  becoming  the 
leader  of  the  discontented  Republicans  in  Paris,  another  distinguished 
general  of  the  revolution  was  assuming  the  chief  direction  of  the  Royalist 
party.  Pichegru,  having  found  means  to  escape  from  his  place  of  exile, 
sought  an  asylum  in  London,  where  he  entered  into  close  communication 
with  the  French  emigrants  in  that  capital,  among  whom  a  Chouan  chief, 
Georges,  was  conspicuous.  In  due  time,  these  two  individuals,  with 
Polignac,  Lajolais  and  others,  landed  privately  on  the  coast  of  Nor- 
mandy, and  proceeded  to  Paris,  where  the  police  had  strict  cognizance 
of  their  movements,  artfully  encouraged  their  undertaking,  and  suffered 
them  to  remain  for  a  time  unmolested.  Pichegru  had  an  interview  with 
Moreau,  and  unfolded  to  him  some  points  of  a  Royalist  conspiracy,  but 


170  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXI. 

Moreau's  principles  were  strictly  those  of  the  revolution ;  and  Pichegru, 
disappointed  at  being  unable  to  coalesce  with  that  distinguished  general, 
prepared  to  withdraw  from  Paris  with  his  associates  :  but  the  police  now 
interfered  and  arrested  the  parties  implicated,  to  the  number  of  nearly 
fifty  individuals,  including  Moreau  himself.  This  was  at  once  announced 
by  proclamation,  and  the  Parisians  were  astounded  at  the  intelligence 
that  a  great  number  of  Royalists,  with  Moreau  at  their  head,  had  been 
detected  in  a  conspiracy. 

During  the  examination  of  some  of  the  prisoners  thus  arrested,  Napo- 
leon ascertained  that  a  person,  unknown  to  the  prisoners  testifying,  had 
attended  some  of  the  Royalists'  meetings,  and  was  received  with  great 
ceremony  and  respect.  The  description  of  this  unknown  person,  as 
Napoleon  affected  to  believe,  corresponded  so  well  to  that  of  the  Duke 
d'Enghien,  a  son  of  the  Duke  de  Bourbon,  and  a  lineal  descendant  of  the 
great.  Conde,  that  he  signed  an  order  for  that  prince's  arrest,  and  gave  such 
minute  directions  for  his  seizure,  as  rendered  it  evident  that  his  destruc- 
tion was  already  determined.  It  subsequently  appeared,  that  the  duke  had 
not  been  at  Paris  at  all,  and  that  the  stranger  was  no  other  than  Piche- 
gru. Nevertheless,  the  designs  of  the  First  Consul  were  carried  into 
effect.  The  prince  was  arrested  in  his  bed,  in  the  neutral  territory  of 
Baden,  on  the  night  of  March  15th;  carried  thence  to  Strasbourg,  with 
his  papers,  and  the  persons  found  in  the  chateau,  and  was  immediately 
afterward  conveyed  with  a  sufficient  guard  to  Paris,  and  lodged  in  the 
castle  of  Vincennes.  Everything  here  was  prepared  for  his  reception — 
his  chamber  being  ready,  and  his  grave  dug.  The  moment  Napoleon 
heard  of  the  prince's  arrival  at  the  barriers  of  Paris,  he  signed  an  order 
for  his  delivery  to  a  military  commission,  consisting  of  General  Hullin 
and  six  senior  colonels  of  regiments,  who  at  once  proceeded  to  Vincennes, 
where  they  found  Savary  with  a  strong  body  of  gendarmes  in  possession 
of  the  castle,  and  of  all  the  avenues  leading  to  it. 

The  duke  had  reached  Vincennes  at  7  o'clock  in  the  evening,  (March 
20th ;)  and,  after  supping  and  making  many  inquiries  of  the  governor  of 
the  castle,  as  to  the  object  of  his  being  brought  there,  retired  to  his  room. 
He  had  not  fallen  asleep,  when  he  was  summoned  to  attend  the  sitting  of 
the  commission.  Savary  entered  soon  after  the  interrogatories  began, 
and  took  his  station  behind  the  president's  chair.  No  evidence  was 
brought  against  the  prince  ;  no  witnesses  were  examined ;  a  simple  act 
of  accusation  was  read  to  him,  charging  him  with  conspiring  against 
France,  and  carrying  on  a  treasonable  correspondence  with  her  enemies. 
The  law,  in  such  a  case,  required  that  the  accused  should  be  allowed 
counsel ;  but  none  was  granted  him,  and  he  was  compelled,  at  midnight, 
to  enter  unaided  on  his  own  defence,  which  consisted  in  a  simple,  unequi- 
vocal and  manly  denial  of  any  criminal  practice  whatever,  on  his  part, 
toward  the  government  of  France. 

At  the  close  of  his  declaration,  he  earnestly  requested  a  private  audi- 
ence with  the  First  Consul ;  and  this  desire  was  so  reasonable,  and  was 
urged  so  feelingly,  that  General  Hullin,  the  president,  took  a  pen,  and 
was  commencing  a  letter  expressive  of  the  prince's  wish,  when  Savary 
whispered  to  him,  saying,  "What  are  you  about?"  "I  am  writing  to 
the  First  Consul,"  he  answered,  "to  desire  an  interview."  "Your 
duty  is  finished,"  replied  Savary,  taking  the  pen  out  of  his  hand ;  "  this 
18  my  business." 


1804.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  17t 

The  court  then  proceeded,  without  a  vestige  of  evidence  against  the 
prince,  to  pronounce  him  guilty  of  all  the  charges  in  the  accusation,  and, 
under  the  peremptory  directions  of  Napoleon,  previously  delivered  to 
them,  they  ordered  him  to  immediate  execution.  While  descending  the 
broken  staircase  that  led  to  the  fosse,  he  pressed  the  arm  of  his  conductor 
and  asked,  "  Are  they  going  to  leave  me  to  perish  in  a  dungeon,  or  throw 
me  into  an  oubliette  ?"  When  he  arrived  at  the  foot  of  the  stairs,  he  saw, 
through  the  gray  mist  of  the  morning,  a  file  of  musketeers  drawn  up,  and 
he  uttered  an  expression  of  joy,  at  being  permitted  to  die  the  death  of  a 
soldier.  He  requested  that  a  confessor  might  be  sent  for,  but  this  was 
denied  ;  and  then,  seeing  all  wishes  unavailing  and  all  hope  extinguished, 
he  turned  to  the  soldiers,  calmly  gave  the  word  of  command  himself,  and 
fell  pierced  by  seven  balls.  His  remains,  without  any  alteration  of  dress, 
were  thrown  into  the  grave  previously  prepared  at  the  foot  of  the  ram- 
part. 

When  this  deplorable  event  was  known  in  Paris,  on  the  morning  of 
the  21st  of  March,  a  universal  consternation  prevailed;  distrust,  terroi 
and  anxiety  were  depicted  in  every  countenance.  The  deed  was  loudly 
stigmatized  by  a  great  portion  of  the  people,  as  a  bloody  and  needless 
murder.  Crowds  issued  through  the  barrier  Du  Trone,  to  visit  the  spot 
where  the  noble  victim  had  suffered ;  and  a  favorite  spaniel,  that  had  fol- 
lowed the  prince  to  the  place  of  execution,  was  seen  lying  on  the  grave. 
The  excitement  occasioned  by  this  scene  was  so  great,  that,  by  an  order 
of  the  police,  the  dog  was  removed,  and  visits  to  the  castle  were  prohibited. 

Other  tragical  events  soon  followed.  Early  on  the  morning  of  April 
6th,  General  Pichegru  was  found  strangled  in  his  prison.  Since  his 
arrest,  he  had  undergone  many  examinations,  during  which  he  manifested 
the  most  unconquerable  firmness,  and  declared  his  intention  of  revealing 
on  his  trial,  the  arts  of  the  police,  by  whom  he  had  been  entrapped  into 
the  conspiracy,  and  through  whose  secret  agency  constant  facilities  for 
pursuing  the  plot,  together  with  misrepresentations  of  its  popularity,  were 
daily  spread  before  him.  His  death  was  accomplished  by  means  of  a 
black  silk  handkerchief,  twisted  around  his  neck  with  a  small  stick  about 
five  inches  in  length.  As  there  was  no  reason  to  suspect  Pichegru  of 
having  committed  suicide,  and  as  the  certainty  of  his  conviction  rendered 
it  unnecessary  for  the  government  to  destroy  him  privately,  in  anticipa- 
tion of  his  escape  from  the  law,  he  was  undoubtedly  murdered  to  prevent 
his  threatened  disclosures  of  the  practices  of  the  police,  and  Napoleon  has 
not  escaped  the  suspicion  of  being  implicated  in  the  deed. 

When  Georges  was  brought  to  trial,  Captain  Wright,  commander  of  a 
British  vessel  in  which  Pichegru  came  from  England,  and  who  was  after- 
ward wrecked  on  the  coast  of  France  and  brought  to  Paris  under  arrest 
with  all  his  crew,  was  called  to  testify  against  the  prisoner.  This  intrepid 
sailor,  who  served  as  a  lieutenant  on  board  Sir  Sidney  Smith's  ship  when 
he  checked  Napoleon's  career  at  Acre,  refused  to  give  any  evidence,  say- 
ing, with  proper  spirit,  "  Gentlemen,  I  am  an  officer  in  the  British  service  ; 
I  am  not  bound  to  account  to  you  for  the  discharge  of  my  duty,  and  I  deny 
your  authority  to  require  answers  from  me  to  these  questions  :"  and  when 
his  deposition,  previously  taken  in  prison,  was  read,  he  added,  "  you  have 
omitted  rny  declaration,  that  I  was  threatened  with  being  shot  if  I  did  not 
reveal  to  my  inquisitors  the  secrets  of  my  country."  He  was  remanded 
to  prison,  though  the  government  could  show  no  legal  or  plausible  ground 

17* 


172  HISTORY     OF    EUROPE.  [CHAT.  XXI. 

for  his  detention,  and  some  time  afterward  was  found  dead  in  his  cell,  with 
his  throat  cut  from  ear  to  ear.  It  is  yet  unknown  who  perpetrated  this 
murder,  and  will  probably  ever  remain  so :  but  it  is  certain  that  Captain 
Wright  did  not  commit  suicide,  and  that  the  officials  of  his  prison-house, 
without  whose  knowledge  he  could  not  have  been  assassinated,  had  no  in 
terest  whatever  in  causing  his  death. 

On  the  trial  of  the  conspirators,  it  soon  became  manifest  that  Moreau 
had  no  concern  in  the  plot,  and  the  interest  excited  by  his  situation  was  so 
intense,  that  when  Lecourbe  entered  the  court  with  Moreau's  infant  child, 
all  the  soldiers  in  attendance  spontaneously  rose  and  presented  arms;  and 
if  Moreau  had  at  that  moment  given  the  word,  the  court  would  have  been 
overturned  and  the  prisoners  liberated.  Whenever  he  rose  to  address  the 
judges,  the  gendarmes  rose  also,  and  remained  uncovered  till  he  sat  down. 
In  fact,  the  public  mind  was  so  agitated,  that  the  influence  of  Moreau  in 
fetters  almost  equalled  that  of  the  First  Consul  on  the  throne.  The  trial 
» resulted  in  the  sentencing  of  Georges  and  fifteen  others  to  death,  and  of 
Moreau  and  four  others  to  two  years'  imprisonment.  Eight  of  those  con- 
demned to  death  were  executed  ;  the  others  were  pardoned  ;  and  Napo- 
leon, anxious  to  be  quit  of  Moreau's  presence,  purchased  from  him  his 
estate  of  Gros  Bois,  and  gave  him  every  facility  for  retiring  to  the  United 
States  of  America,  in  conformity  to  his  own  request. 

In  the  midst  of  these  bloody  events,  Napoleon  assumed  the  Imperial 
crown ;  and  the  shadow  of  the  expiring  Republic  was  transformed  into  the 
reality  of  Byzantine  servitude.  The  project  was  first  broached  to  the 
Senate,  and  its  public  announcement  emanated  from  the  Tribunate,  as 
being  the  only  branch  of  the  legislature  in  which  even  the  form  of  popular 
representation  prevailed.  Notwithstanding  the  headlong  course  of  public 
opinion  in  favor  of  despotic  power,  there  were  some  determined  men  who 
stood  forward  to  resist  the  current.  Carnot  in  the  Tribunate,  and  Ber- 
iier  in  the  Council  of  State,  were  the  foremost  of  this  dauntless  band. 
But  they  accomplished  nothing  beyond  the  personal  reputation  incident  to 
such  an  evidence  of  devoted  patriotism  ;  as,  in  both  branches  of  the  legis- 
lature, the  decree  was  carried  by  overwhelming  majorities.  On  the  18th 
of  May,  the  Senate  declared  Napoleon  Bonaparte  Emperor  of  the  French, 
and  referred  the  measure  to  the  people  for  their  ratification.  The  people 
responded  with  enthusiasm.  Three  millions  five  hundred  and  seventy-two 
thousand  three  hundred  and  twenty-nine  votes  were  given ;  and  of  these, 
only  two  thousand  five  hundred  and  sixty-nine  were  in  the  negative. 
History  contains  no  other  example  of  so  unanimous  an  approval  of  the 
foundation  of  a  dynasty,  nor  any  other  instance  where  a  nation  so  joyfully 
took  refuge  in  the  stillness  of  despotism. 

Napoleon's  first  step  on  coming  to  the  imperial  throne,  was  to  create 
Berthier,  Murat,  Moncey,  Jourdan,  Massena,  Augereau,  Bernadotte,  Soult, 
Brune,  Lannes,  Mortier,  Ney,  Davoust,  Bessieres,  Kellerman,  Lefebvre, 
Perignon,  and  Serrurier,  Marshals  of  the  Empire.  On  the  same  day,  he 
arranged  the  titles  and  precedence  of  the  members  of  his  family.  He 
directed  that  his  brothers  and  sisters  should  receive  the  title  of  Imperial 
highness ;  that  the  great  dignitaries  of  the  Empire  should  adopt  that  of 
most  serene  highness ;  and  that  the  address  of  "  my  lord"  should  be  re- 
vived  in  favor  of  these  elevated  personages.  "  Whoever,"  says  Madame 
de  Stael,  in  speaking  of  these  days  and  events,  "  could  suggest  an  addi. 
tional  piece  of  etiquette  from  the  olden  time,  propose  a  new  reverence,  9 


1804.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  173 

novel  mode  of  knocking  at  the  door  of  an  antechamber,  a  more  ceremoni- 
ous manner  of  presenting  a  petition  or  folding  a  letter,  was  regarded  as  a 
benefactor  of  the  human  race.  The  code  of  imperial  etiquette  is  the  most 
remarkable  authentic  record  of  human  baseness  that  the  history  of  the 
world  contains," 


CHAPTER    XXII. 

FROM  THE  RENEWAL  OF  HOSTILITIES  TO  THE  DECLARATION  OF  WAR  BY  SPAIN. 

THE  recommencement  of  the  war  was  followed  by  hostile  preparations 
of  great  extent  on  both  sides  of  the  Channel.  Never  did  the  ancient  rivalry 
of  France  and  England  break  forth  with  more  vehemence,  and  never  was 
the  animosity  of  their  respective  governments  more  warmly  supported  by 
the  patriotism  and  passions  of  the  people.  The  first  military  operation  of 
the  French  ruler  was  attended  with  rapid  and  easy  success.  He  directed 
Mortier  with  twenty  thousand  troops  to  reduce  the  Electorate  of  Hanover  ; 
and  as  the  entire  force  of  this  province  did  not  exceed  sixteen  thousand 
men  under  Count  Walmoden,  resistance  was  hopeless  :  a  convention  was 
therefore  entered  into  at  Suhlingen.  by  which  it  was  stipulated  that  the 
Hanoverian  army  should  retire  with  the  honors  of  war  behind  the  Elbe, 
taking  with  them  their  field-artillery,  and  agreeing  afterward  to  disband 
for  one  year.  During  this  incursion,  the  French  armies  set  at  nought 
the  neutrality  not  only  of  Hanover,  but  of  the  lesser  States  in  its  vicinity. 
Mortier  occupied  without  hesitation  Hamburg  and  Bremen,  and  closed  the 
Elbe  and  Weser  against  British  merchandise.  This  uncalled  for  aggres- 
sion was  of  importance,  not  only  as  demonstrating  Napoleon's  determina- 
tion to  admit  of  no  neutrality  in  the  approaching  contest,  but  as  unfolding 
the  first  germ  of  the  Continental  System,  to  which  he  afterward  mainly 
trusted  in  his  hostilities  against  Great  Britain. 

At  the  same  time,  St.  Cyr  was  dispatched  into  Italy  with  an  army  of 
fourteen  thousand  men.  He  occupied  the  port  of  Tarentum,  invaded 
Naples  and  Tuscany,  declared  Leghorn  in  a  state  of  siege,  and  confis- 
cated the  British  merchandise  in  that  seaport.  The  islands  of  Elba  and 
Corsica  were  also  put  in  the  best  state  of  defence,  and  ten 'thousand  men 
were  employed  in  perfecting  the  fortifications  of  Alexandria,  which  for- 
tress Napoleon  considered  as  the  key  to  the  whole  of  the  Italian  peninsula. 
In  addition  to  these  measures  of  conquest  and  defence,  he  soon  issued  a 
decree  against  English  commerce,  declaring  that  no  colonial  produce, 
and  no  merchandise  coming  directly  from  England,  should  be  received 
into  the  ports  of  France ;  and  that  all  such  merchandise  and  produce 
should  be  confiscated.  Neutral  vessels,  arriving  in  France,  were  sub- 
jected to  new  and  vexatious  regulations,  and  all  that  had  touched  at  a 
harbor  of  Great  Britain  were  made  liable  to  seizure. 

But  these  proceedings  sunk  into  insignificance,  when  compared  with 
the  gigantic  preparations  made  for  the  invasion  of  England,  which  Napo- 
leon now  seriously  undertook.  His  object  was  to  assemble,  at  a  single 
point,  a  flotilla  capable  of  transporting  an  army  of  one  hundred  and  fifly 


174  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CiiAr.  XXII. 

thousand  men,  with  itts  field  and  siege  equipage,  ammunition,  stores  and 
horses;  and  at  the  same  time,  to  provide  so  formidable  a  covering  naval 
force  as  might  secure  its  safe  disembarkation,  despite  any  resistance  that 
the  English  might  make.  The  harbor  of  Boulogne  was  chosen  as  the 
place  of  general  rendezvous;  every  port,  from  Brest  to  the  Texel,  was 
filled  with  gun-boats  of  all  dimensions;  the  dock-yards  and  shipwrights 
were  put  into  requisition ;  and  the  different  vessels,  as  soon  as  finished, 
were  sent,  around,  under  the  protection  of  the  several  batteries  along  the 
coast,  to  Cherbourg,  Boulogne,  Calais  and  Dunkirk.  In  the  course  of  the 
year,  no  less  than  thirteen  hundred  sail,  of  various  descriptions,  were 
assembled  at  Boulogne  and  the  adjoining  harbors,  for  the  transportation 
of  the  troops,  together  with  an  immense  number  of  other  vessels,  destined 
to  convey  the  stores  and  ammunition  of  the  army:  and  the  combined 
navies  of  France,  Spain  and  Holland,  were  engaged  for  the  protection  of 
this  innumerable  fleet.  The  secret  design  of  Napoleon  was  to  assemble 
the  ships  of  the  covering  naval  force  at  Martinique,  bring  them  rapidly 
back  while  the  British,  in  detached  squadrons,  were  traversing  the  At- 
lantic in  search  of  them,  raise  the  blockade  of  Rochefort  and  Brest,  and 
enter  the  Channel  with  the  entire  armament,  amounting  to  seventy  sail 
of  the  line.  He  intended  then  to  cross  over  to  England  with  the  whole 
army,  reach  London  in  five  days,  and  complete  the  subjugation  of  Britain 
at  a  blow. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  people  and  government  of  England  were  active 
in  preparing  to  repel  the  threatened  invasion.  In  addition  to  the  militia, 
eighty  thousand  strong,  which  were  called  out  on  the  25th  of  March,  and 
the  regular  army  of  a  hundred  and  thirty  thousand,  the  House  of  Commons 
passed  a  bill  on  the  18th  of  July,  authorizing  the  king  to  call  a  levy  of 
all  the  male  population  between  the  ages  of  seventeen  and  fifty-five,  who 
were  to  be  divided  into  regiments  according  to  their  years  and  professions ; 
and,  such  was  the  general  zeal  and  enthusiasm,  three  hundred  thousand 
men  were  within  a  few  weeks  enrolled,  armed  and  disciplined,  in  the 
different  parts  of  the  country.  Great  activity  was  also  evinced  in  pro- 
moting the  efficiency  of  the  navy:  the  harbors  of  France  and  Holland 
were  closely  blockaded ;  Lord  Nelson  rode  triumphant  over  the  Medi- 
terranean; and,  excepting  when  their  small  craft  were  stealing  along 
the  coast  to  the  rendezvous  at  Boulogne,  the  flag  of  France  almost  disap- 
peared from  the  ocean. 

While  these  extensive  preparations  were  progressing,  the  government 
was  called  to  suppress  another  of  those  unhappy  attempts  at  rebellion, 
which  have  so  frequently  disgraced  the  history  and  blasted  the  prospects 
of  Ireland.  A  conspiracy  was  set  on  foot  to  force  the  castle  and  harbor- 
stores  of  Dublin,  dissolve  the  connexion  with  England,  and  establish  a 
Republic  in  close  alliance  with  France ;  but  the  means  at  the  disposal 
of  the  conspirators  were  as  insignificant  as  the  objects  they  had  in  view 
were  visionary.  •  Eighty  or  a  hundred  persons,  under  the  guidance  of 
Emmet,  a  brother  of  the  chief  who  was  engaged  in  the  previous  insur- 
rection, assembled  on  the  eve  of  the  festival  of  St.  James,  accompanied  by 
the  peasantry  from  the  adjoining  counties,  and  set  forth  with  the  intention 
of  attacking  the  castle.  But  they  abandoned  this  project  during  their 
march,  and  began  to  commit  various  outrages  on  individual  citizens ;  and 
among  others,  they  murdered  Lord  Kilwarden,  the  venerable  lord-chief- 
justice  of  Ireland,  under  circumstances  of  great  aggravation  and  atrocity, 


1804.]  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  175 

The  insurrection  was  quelled  by  the  regular  troops,  and  the  two  principal 
leaders,  Emmet  and  Russell,  were  executed. 

Notwithstanding  the  powerful  condition  of  the  British  navy,  no  event 
of  importance,  excepting  the  capture  of  Surinam  in  the  West  Indies, 
resulted  from  the  expeditions  of  the  fleets ;  and  the  people  of  the  king. 
dom,  while  considering  the  enormous  burdens  imposed  on  them  for  the 
support  of  the  naval  armaments,  soon  perceived  a  want  of  energy  in 
the  ministers  whose  duty  it  was  to  direct  them  to  good  account.  The 
commerce  of  Britain  began  to  suffer  for  want  of  the  active  protection  of 
former  days,  and  the  general  dissatisfaction  was  much  increased  by  the 
alarming  state  of  the  king's  health.  His  majesty  gradually  recovered, 
however;  but  during  the  interval  of  his  illness,  a  great  majority  of  the 
men  of  the  nation  became  convinced  of  the  necessity  of  placing  the  helm 
of  state  under  firmer  guidance;  and  all  eyes  were  naturally  turned 
toward  that  illustrious  statesman  who  had  retired  to  make  way  for  a 
pacific  administration,  but  could  now,  in  strict  accordance  with  his  prin- 
ciples,  resume  the  direction  of  the  second  war  with  revolutionary  France. 
As  is  usual  in  such  cases,  the  gradual  approximation  of  parties  in  the 
House  of  Commons  indicated  the  conversion  of  the  public  mind,  and  it 
soon  became  evident  that  the  administration  was  approaching  its  end. 
On  the  15th  of  March,  1804,  Mr.  Pitt  made  a  long  and  elaborate  speech, 
in  which  he  commented  with  great  severity  on  the  misdirection  of  the 
powers  of  the  navy,  and  concluded  with  moving  for  returns  of  all  the 
ships  in  commission  in  the  years  1793,  1801,  and  1803.  He  was  cor- 
dially  supported  by  Mr.  Fox  and  Mr.  Sheridan.,  and  a  coalition  ensued 
between  the  Whig  and  Tory  branches  of  the  opposition.  The  motion 
was  at  first  lost  by  a  vote  of  one  hundred  and  thirty  to  two  hundred;  but 
from  the  character  and  influence  of  the  men  who  were  in  favor  of  the 
resolution,  it  was  manifest  that  this  majority  would  soon  decrease :  on 
the  25th  of  April  it  was  reduced  to  thirty-seven,  and  the  ministers  stated 
that  they  held  their  offices  only  until  successors  could  be  appointed,  which 
latter  event  took  place  on  the  12th  of  May..  Mr.  Pitt  became  Prime 
Minister,  in  place  of  Mr.  Addington;  Lord  Melville,  First  Lord  of  the 
Admiralty,  in  place  of  Earl  St.  Vincent;  and  Lord  Harrowby,  Foreign 
Secretary,  in  place  of  Lord  Hawkesbury. 

Before  the  commencement  of  the  revolutionary  war,  the  revenue  of 
Austria  amounted  to  a  hundred  and  six  millions  of  florins,  or  about  forty- 
six  and  a  half  millions  of  dollars.  During  the  war,  the  revenue  was  in- 
creased  by  the  imposition  of  new  taxes,  and  it  sustained  no  diminution  by 
the  peace  of  Carnpo  Formio,  as  the  Venetian  states  proved  more  than  an 
equivalent  for  the  loss  of  the  Low  Countries.  At  the  peace  of  Luneville, 
the  income  of  the  government  was  a  hundred  and  fifteen  millions  of  florins, 
with  which  sum  they  were  enabled  to  maintain  an  army  of  three  hundred 
thousand  men,  including  fifty  thousand  cavalry.  Like  most  of  the  other 
European  states,  Austria,  during  the  difficulties  of  former  years,  had  been 
compelled  to  resort  to  a  paper  currency,  and  the  Bank  of  Vienna,  estab. 
lished  by  Maria  Theresa,  in  1762,  was  the  agent  by  which  this  was 
effected.  It  was  not,  however,  a  paper  circulation,  convertible  at  pleas- 
ure into  gold,  but  a  system  of  assignats,  possessing  a  forced  legal  cur- 
rency ;  and  the  government,  in  1797,  passed  a  decree  prohibiting  any 
person  from  demanding  exchange  in  coin,  for  more  than  twenty-five  florins. 
While  the  war  was  in  progress,  silver  and  gold  almost  disappeared,  and 


176  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXII. 

paper  issues  for  small  sums  were  in  general  circulation.  A  large  portion 
of  the  metallic  currency  was  of  brass,  issued  at  nearly  double  its  intrinsic 
value.  In  1789,  the  public  debt  of  Austria  was  two  hundred  millions  of 
florins  ;  but  in  1801,  it  had  increased  to  six  hundred  millions.  The 
treasury  had  been  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  paying  its  annual  interest 
in  paper  money,  and  even  of  making  forced  loans  from  the  inhabitants. 
The  population  of  Austria,  in  1801,  was  twenty-seven  and  a  half  millions. 

Jealousy  of  Prussia  was,  during  the  years  that  followed  the  treaty  of 
Luneville,  the  leading  principle  of  the  Austrian  cabinet;  this  feeling 
originated  in  the  aggression  and  conquest  of  the  Great  Frederic,  and  had 
been  much  increased  by  the  impolitic  and  ungenerous  advantage  which 
the  court  of  Berlin  took  of  the  dangers  and  distress  of  the  Austrian  mon- 
archy, to  extend  its  possessions  and  influence  in  the  north  of  Germany. 
But  though  compelled,  at  intervals,  to  withdraw  from  her  alliance  with 
England,  Austria  never  ceased  to  look  to  that  nation  as  the  main  pillar  of 
the  confederacy  for  the  independence  of  Europe.  The  more  prominent 
members  of  the  administration  of  Austria  at  this  period  were  the  Count 
Cobentzell,  vice-chancellor  of  state,  and  Count  Colloredo,  a  cabinet  min- 
ister and  intimate  friend  of  the  Emperor.  The  Archduke  Charles  was 
at  the  head  of  the  war  department,  though  he  was  restrained  by  the  jeal- 
ousy of  his  colleagues  from  following  out  his  own  views  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  army. 

By  withdrawing  from  the  alliance  against  France,  in  1794,  Prussia 
had  succeeded  in  appropriating  to  herself  a  large  portion  of  the  spoils  of 
Poland  ;  and  during  the  long  period  of  peace  that  she  enjoyed,  her  popu- 
lation had  rapidly  increased,  the  commerce  of  Germany  had  fallen  into 
her  hands,  and  the  turmoil  and  expenditure  of  war,  so  desolating  to  the 
neighboring  states,  was  felt  in  Prussia  only  by  the  increasing  demand  for 
agricultural  produce  and  the  augmenting  profits  of  neutral  navigation.  In 
1804,  the  population  of  Prussia  amounted  to  nine  and  a  half  millions  ; 
her  revenue,  to  thirty-eight  and  a  half  millions  of  thalers,  or  nearly  thirty 
millions  of  dollars  ;  and  her  army  consisted  of  two  hundred  thousand 
men,  strong,  brave,  and  highly  disciplined  ;  but  not  to  be  compared  to  the 
French,  either  in  the  experience  and  skill  of  the  officers,  or  in  the  moral 
energy  of  the  men  as  developed  by  the  events  of  the  Revolution. 

The  Prussian  capital  was  one  of  the  most  agreeable  and  least  expen- 
sive in  Europe.  No  rigid  etiquette,  no  impassable  line  of  demarcation, 
separated  the  court  from  the  people :  the  royal  family  lived  on  terms  of 
friendly  equality,  not  only  with  the  nobility,  but  with  the  other  prom- 
inent inhabitants  of  Berlin.  Many  ladies  of  rank,  both  at  Paris  and 
London,  expended  larger  sums  on  their  dress  than  the  Queen  of  Prussia; 
but  few  women  equalled  her  in  dignity,  grace,  and  elevation  of  sentiment. 
A  spirit  of  economy,  order  and  wisdom  pervaded  the  internal  arrange- 
ments of  the  state.  The  cabinet,  comprising,  among  other  members, 
Hardenberg  and  Stein,  was  one  of  the  ablest  of  the  day;  and  the  Prussian 
diplomatists  had  long  given  their  country  an  influence  at  foreign  courts 
beyond  what  could  have  been  expected  from  her  resources  and  power. 

Russia,  under  the  benignant  rule  of  Alexander,  was  daily  advancing 
in  wealth,  power  and  prosperity.  From  the  commencement  of  his  reign, 
his  acts  denoted  a  large  spirit  of  benevolence.  He  abolished  the  knout 
and  the  use  of  the  torture,  gave  valuable  rights  to  several  classes  of 
citizens,  introduced  improvements  in  the  civil  and  criminal  codes,  ban 


1804.  J  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  177 

ished  slavery  from  the  royal  domains,  and  decreed  the  beginning  of 
representative  institutions,  by  permitting  the  Senate  to  remonstrate  against 
the  enactment  of  proposed  laws.  The  population  of  Russia,  in  1804,  was 
thirty-six  millions;  her  revenue,  fifty  millions  of  silver  rubles,  or  about 
fifty-seven  millions  of  dollars ;  and  her  army  contained,  nominally,  three 
hundred  thousand  men ;  though  at  this  period,  and  for  some  years  after, 
she  was  unable  to  bring  more  than  seventy  thousand  men  into  any  one 
field  of  battle.  The  greater  part  of  the  revenue  of  Russia  was  derived 
from  a  capitation-tax;  a  species  of  impost  common  to  all  nations  in  a 
certain  stage  of  civilization,  where  slavery  is  general,  and  the  wealth  of 
each  proprietor  is  nearly  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  agricultural 
laborers  on  his  estate.  The  tax  amounted  to  five  rubles  for  each  free- 
man, and  two  for  each  serf,  and  was  paid  by  every  subject  of  the  Empire, 
whether  free  or  enslaved. 

The  principal  powers  of  Europe  were  in  these  several  conditions,  when 
the  murder  of  the  Duke  d'Enghien  took  place ;  and  the  startling  intel- 
ligence of  that  bloody  deed,  which  excited  both  terror  and  indignation  in 
every  court  of  Europe,  was  followed  by  the  news  of  the  assassination  of 
Pichegru  and  Wright,  and  the  occupation  by  Napoleon,  of  Hanover  and 
Tarentum.  This  rapid  succession  of  atrocious  crime,  and  ambitious  en- 
croachment on  neutral  rights,  at  once  dissolved  all  true  confidence  and 
regard  between  the  several  European  cabinets  and  France;  and  from 
that  day,  each  independent  sovereign  began  to  look  on  a  renewal  of 
general  hostilities  as  inevitable,  though  the  majority  confined  their  im- 
mediate acts  to  remonstrances  of  a  more  or  less  emphatic  character. 

Meanwhile,  Napoleon  proceeded  with  his  preparations  for  the  descent 
upon  England,  and  repaired  to  Boulogne  to  review  the  troops  and  inspect 
the  condition  of  the  flotilla.  From  Boulogne,  he  traversed  the  coast  of 
the  Channel  as  far  as  Ostend,  everywhere  examining  the  condition  of  the 
harbors,  and  the  detachments  of  the  grand  army,  and  communicating  to 
all  classes  the  energy  of  his  own  ardent  and  indefatigable  mind. 

On  his  return  to  Paris,  he  commenced  preparations  for  the  solemnity 
of  his  coronation.  Although  the  spirit  of  the  age  was  essentially  irre- 
ligious, and  the  establishment  of  the  Roman  Catholic  worship  had  proved 
unpopular  with  many  of  the  people,  Napoleon  well  knew  that  a  large 
portion  of  the  provincial  inhabitants  regarded  the  consecrating  of  his 
authority  by  the  ceremony  of  coronation  as  an  important  particular;  and 
that  to  all,  whatever  might  be  their  latitude  of  opinion,  it  was  of  great 
political  consequence  to  show  that  his  personal  influence  could  compel 
even  the  very  Head  of  the  Church  himself,  to  officiate  on  the  occasion. 
The  papal  benediction  appeared  to  be  the  link  which  would  unite  the 
revolutionary  to  the  legitimate  regime,  and  cause  the  faithful  to  forget, 
in  the  sac/ed  authority  with  which  he  would  thus  be  invested,  the  vio- 
lence and  bloodshed  that  had  paved  his  way  to  the  throne.  For  these 
reasons,  Napoleon  had  long  before  determined  to  induce  the  pope,  con- 
trary to  all  precedent  for  the  last  ten  centuries,  to  repair  to  Paris ;  and, 
for  some  months,  negotiations  to  this  effect  had  been  on  foot,  which  ended 
in  the  consent  of  the  pope  to  undertake  the  journey.  He  accordingly 
arrived  at  Fontainebleau  on  the  25tn  of  November,  and  reached  Paris  on 
the  following  day,  where  he  was  lodged  in  state,  at  the  Tuileries.  The 
ceremony  of  coronation  took  place  at  Notre  Dame  on  the  2nd  of  Decem- 
ber, with  great  pornp  and  magnificence.  After  taking  the  oath,  and 


178  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXII. 

receiving  the  papal  benediction,  Napoleon  took  the  crown  from  the  hands 
of  the  venerable  pontiff  and  placed  it  on  his  own  head,  after  which  he 
transferred  it  to  the  head  of  Josephine,  who  knelt  before  him. 

The  next  day,  an  animating  military  spectacle  took  place  in  the  Champ 
de  Mars.  Napoleon  laid  aside  his  imperial  robes  in  which  he  had  been 
crowned,  and  appeared  in  the  uniform  of  a  colonel  of  the  guard,  to  dis- 
tribute to  all  the  colonels  of  the  army  the  Eagles,  which  were  thence- 
forward to  be  the  standards  of  France. 

The  close  of  this  year  was  marked  by  an  unfortunate  rupture  between 
Spain  and  Great  Britain.  The  former  government,  through  negotiations 
and  treaties  with  France,  had  been  in  a  measure  compelled  to  purchase 
peace  by  the  payment  of  a  large  subsidy,  the  amount  of  which  was  kept 
carefully  concealed  from  the  British  cabinet.  When  the  facts  of  the 
case  transpired,  the  English  minister  remonstrated  against  the  payment 
of  such  a  sum  of  money,  which  was  as  directly  furnishing  France  with 
the  means  of  prosecuting  her  descent  upon  England,  as  if  the  vessels 
which  it  purchased  were  constructed  in  Spanish  harbors,  and  moved 
thcmce  to  Boulogne.  It  was  not  long  after  discovered  that  a  squadron 
of  Spanish  line-of-battle  ships  were  equipped  and  ready  to  sail  for  Ferrol, 
where  a  French  fleet  awaited  their  junction,  and  that  the  Spanish  vessels 
would  put  to  sea,  the  moment  that  four  Spanish  frigates,  with  the  sub- 
sidy on  board  in  specie,  should  arrive  from  America.  The  British  cab- 
inet immediately  issued  orders  to  Lord  Nelson  in  the  Mediterranean, 
Lord  Cornwallis  on  the  Brest  station,  and  Admiral  Cochrane  off  Ferrol, 
to  prevent  the  sailing  of  both  the  French  and  Spanish  squadrons;  they 
also  directed  each  of  the  three  naval  commanders  to  detach  two  frigates 
to  cruise  off  Cadiz,  and  intercept  the  homeward-bound  treasure-ships  of 
Spain  ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  they  directed  the  admirals  to  stop  any 
Spanish  vessels  laden  with  naval  or  military  stores,  and  detain  them 
until  the  pleasure  of  the  British  government  was  known;  but  to  commit 
no  further  act  of  hostility,  either  on  such  vessels  or  on  the  treasure- 
ships.  These  orders  were  punctually  executed.  Four  of  the  six  British 
frigates  soon  fell  in  with  the  four  Spanish  ships  off  Cadiz,  and  the  English 
officer  in  command,  informed  the  Spanish  commodore  of  his  instructions, 
and  entreated  him  to  suffer  the  detention  of  his  vessels  without  the  effu- 
sion of  blood.  But  the  Spaniard  declined  to  submit  to  an  equal  force, 
and,  in  consequence,  an  engagement  took  place,  which  ended  in  thb 
blowing  up  of  one  of  the  Spanish  ships,  and  the  capture  of  the  other  three, 
with  te*n  millions  of  dollars  on  board. 

The  capture  of  these  frigates,  before  any  formal  announcement  of  hos- 
tilities, produced  the  result  which  might  have  been  anticipated ;  namely, 
a  declaration  of  war  by  Spain  against  Great  Britain. 


CHAPTER    XXIII. 

FROM  THE  OPENING  OF  THE  SPANISH  WAR,  TO  THE  BATTLE  OF  AUSTERLITZ. 

WHILE  Spain  was  making  preparations  to  commence  hostilities,  in  con- 
formity to  her  late  declaration  of  war,  and  the  descent  upon  England 
occupied  the  attention  of  the  respective  governments  on  both  sides  of  the 
Channel ;  Napoleon  found  leisure  to  pursue  his  ambitious  projects  in 
other  quarters,  by  journeying  through  Italy,  and,  by  the  intervention  of 
force  and  flattery,  as  occasion  required,  annexing  several  of  the  minor 
towns  and  states  of  that  peninsula  to  the  Empire  of  France.  His  rapid 
strides  toward  universal  dominion  did  not  escape  the  notice  of  other  Euro- 
pean powers,  and  negotiations  were  soon  on  foot  for  the  arrest  of  his  pro- 
gress. 

A  treaty  of  alliance,  offensive  and  defensive,  was  concluded  between 
Great  Britain  and  Russia,  on  the  llth  of  April,  1805.  The  preamble 
ran  thus  :  "  As  the  state  of  suffering  in  which  Europe  is  placed  demands 
a  speedy  remedy,  their  majesties  have  agreed  to  employ  the  most  speedy 
and  efficacious  means  to  form  a  general  league  of  the  states  of  Europe, 
and  to  engage  them  to  accede  to  the  present  concert,  in  order  to  remedy 
the  existing  evils,  without  waiting  for  further  encroachments  on  the  part 
of  France."  The  forces  proposed  to  be  employed  were  fixed  at  five 
hundred  thousand  men  from  the  combined  states  of  Europe ;  and  the  ob- 
jects of  the  alliance  were  to  be  thus  declared :  "  First,  the  evacuation 
of  the  country  of  Hanover  and  of  the  north  of  Germany.  Secondly,  the 
establishment  of  the  independence  of  the  Republics  of  Holland  and  Swit- 
zerland. Thirdly,  the  reestablishment  of  the  King  of  Sardinia  in  Pied- 
mont. Fourthly,  the  future  security  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  and  the 
complete  evacuation  of  Italy  and  the  island  of  Elba  by  the  French  forces. 
Fifthly,  the  establishment  of  an  order  of  things  in  Europe  which  may 
effectually  guaranty  the  security  and  independence  of  the  different  states, 
and  present  a  solid  barrier  against  future  usurpations.  To  enable  the 
several  powers  which  may  accede  to  this  coalition  to  bring  forward  the 
forces  respectively  required  of  them,  England  engages  to  furnish  a  sub- 
sidy, in  the  proportion  of  twelve  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  pounds  ster- 
ling for  every  one  hundred  thousand  of  regular  troops  brought  into  the 
field." 

By  separate  articles  signed  between  England  and  Russia,  it  was  agreed 
that  the  movements  contemplated  by  the  alliance  should  be  commenced 
as  soon  as  four  hundred  thousand  men  were  ready  for  active  service  ;  of 
which  Austria  was  expected  to  furnish  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand, 
Russia  one  hundred  and  fifteen  thousand,  and  Hanover,  Sardinia  and 
Naples,  thirty-five  thousand.  After  a  protracted  negotiation  with  Aus- 
tria, that  government  at  length  joined  the  league,  and  Sweden  followed 
the  example ;  but  Prussia,  still  under  the  baneful  influence  of  France, 
and  bribed  to  neutrality  by  a  vague  proposal  of  Napoleon  to  annex  Han- 
over to  her  dominions,  refused  all  connexion  with  the  allied  powers. 

These  threatening  measures  did  not  deter  Napoleon  from  hastening  his 
preparations  for  the  invasion  of  Great  Britain :  they  rather,  on  the  con- 
""*  18 


180  HISTORY     OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXI11. 

trary,  furnished  an  additional  reason  for  prosecuting  that  great  under- 
taking, for  he  was  well  aware  that  if  England  were  destroyed,  the 
Continental  coalition  would  soon  fall  to  pieces.  The  French  troops  now 
assembled  at  Boulogne  and  the  harbors  adjoining,  amounted  in  all  to  one 
hundred  and  fifty-five  thousand  men,  provided  with  four  hundred  and  thirty- 
two  pieces  of  cannon,  nearly  fifteen  thousand  horses,  and  a  prodigious 
quantity  of  military  stores  and  ammunition.  During  its  encampment  on 
the  shores  of  the  Channel,  this  great  •  army  was  organized  in  a  manner 
different  from  anything  that  had  yet  been  attempted  in  modern  Europe. 
At  the  commencement  of  the  war  of  the  Revolution,  the  divisions  of  the 
army,  generally  fifteen  or  eighteen  thousand  strong,  were  hurried  into  the 
field  under  the  first  officer  that  could  be  found ;  but  it  soon  appeared  that 
few  generals  were  capable  of  directing  the  movements  of  such  considera- 
ble masses ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  divisions  were  too  small, 
there  was  a  want  of  that  unity  and  precision  in  their  joint  operations  which 
is  ever  necessary  to  success.  Napoleon  introduced  a  new  system,  divi- 
ding his  army,  in  the  first  instance,  into  corps  of  from  twenty  to  thirty 
thousand  men,  each  of  which  was  intrusted  to  a  Marshal  of  the  Empire ; 
and  again  separating  these  corps  into  four  or  five  divisions,  under  the 
command  of  generals  who  received  their  orders  from  the  marshal.  In 
this  way,  the  generals  became  familiar  with  the  qualities  of  their  officers 
and  the  officers  with  the  capacity  and  disposition  of  their  men :  an  esprit 
de  corps  was  .formed,  not  only  among  the  officers  of  the  same  regiment, 
but  among  those  of  the  same  division  and  corps ;  and  the  various  grades 
of  officers,  from  the  sergeant  of  the  company  to  the  marshal  himself,  took 
an  equal  degree  of  pride  in  the  precision  with  which  their  subordinates 
performed  their  several  evolutions. 

The  organization  of  the  flotilla  at  Boulogne  was  as  perfect  as  that  of  the 
land-forces.  It  was  divided  into  as  many  squadrons  as  there  were  sections 
in  the  army,  and  the  stores,  baggage  and  artillery  were  already  on  board, 
so  that  nothing  remained  but  the  embarkation  of  the  men,  when  the  proper 
time  should  arrive.  From  constant  practice,  every  man  in  the  army  at 
length  came  to  know  in  what  particular  vessel  he  was  to  sail,  and  where 
to  station  himself  while  on  board  ;  and  it  was  found  by  actual  experiment, 
that  twenty-five  thousand  troops  drawn  up  opposite  the  vessels  allotted  to 
them,  could  be  embarked  in  the  short  space  often  minutes.  The  flotilla 
consisted  of  twenty-three  hundred  vessels,  more  than  half  of  which  were 
gun-boats  of  different  sizes,  mounting  three  thousand  pieces  of  cannon ; 
and  the  ostensible  object  of  this  number  of  small  armed  vessels  was  to  force 
a  passage  across  the  Channel :  in  point  of  tact,  however,  Napoleon  never 
intended  to  fire  one  of  these  guns,  but  only  to  attract  attention  to  them  as 
his  sole  dependence ;  and,  while  the  British  navy  was  dispatched  in  vari- 
ous quarters  to  protect  her  colonies,  which  the  combined  fleets  of  France 
and  Spain  were  professedly  attempting  to  subjugate,  he  proposed,  as  has 
already  been  related  in  the  last  chapter,  to  bring,  by  a  sudden  combina- 
tion, an  overwhelming  naval  force  into  the  Channel,  cover  the  passage  ot 
the  flotilla,  and  land  his  formidable  army  on  the  English  coast.  The 
army  and  flotilla  being  now  in  perfect  readiness,  Napoleon  waited  only 
the  arrival  of  the  fleet  to  enable  him  to  carry  this  project  into  execution. 

The  entire  naval  force  intended  to  sustain  this  manoeuvre,  was  no  less 
than  sixty-eight  ships  of  the  line,  of  which,  France  was  to  furnish  thirty- 
eight,  and  Spain  thirty ;  and  they  were  to  be  thus  stationed  :  of  the  French, 


1805.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  181 

twenty-one  at  Brest,  six  at  Rochefort,  and  eleven  at  Toulon;  and  the 
thirty  Spanish  ships  were  to  be  divided  between  the  three  ports  of  Cadiz, 
Ferrol  and  Carthagena,  the  whole  to  await  Napoleon's  orders. 

While  the  British  government  were  in  utter  ignorance  of  the  ulterior 
destination  of  the  French  and  Spanish  fleets,  they  became  aware  that  a 
portion  of  these  ships  were  probably  ordered  to  the  West  Indies,  and  they 
therefore  directed  their  admirals  to  keep  a  careful  watch  along  the  whole 
western  and  southern  coast  of  the  hostile  countries.  But  despite  the 
utmost  vigilance  of  Nelson,  Cornwallis  and  Cochrane,  Admiral  Ville- 
neuve  put  to  sea,  on  the  10th  of  April,  with  eighteen  French  and  Spanish 
ships  of  the  line  and  ten  frigates,  having  also  ten  thousand  veteran  troops 
on  board,  and  sailed  for  the  West  Indies.  Nelson  soon  heard  of  Ville- 
neuve's  departure ;  but  mistook  his  direction,  and,  under  the  belief  that 
he  had  gone  to  Egypt,  set  sail  himself  for  Palermo.  Within  a  few  days, 
however,  the  information  brought  by  his  cruisers  convinced  him  that  he 
was  in  error,  and  he  returned  to  Gibraltar.  On  the  5th  of  May,  he  ascer- 
tained that  Villeneuve  had,  in  fact,  gone  to  the  West  Indies,  and,  crowd- 
ing all  sail  in  that  direction,  he  arrived  at  Barbadoes  on  the  4th  of  June  ; 
but  in  the  interim,  Villeneuve  had  reached  Martinique,  on  the  14th  of 
May,  and  sailed  thence  to  the  north,  on  the  28th,  after  having  been  joined 
by  two  additional  ships  of  the  line,  and  received  Napoleon's  final  instruc- 
tions. By  these,  he  was  ordered  to  repair  to  Ferrol  and  raise  the  block- 
ade ;  to  withdraw  the  five  French  and  ten  Spanish  ships  of  the  line  that 
awaited  him  in  that  harbor,  proceed  thence  to  Rochefort  where  five  ships 
of  the  line  lay  at  anchor,  and  with  this  combined  fleet  of  forty  ships,  sail 
to  Brest,  where  twenty-one  more  were  stationed  under  Admiral  Gan- 
theaume.  With  this  force,  which  would  greatly  overmaster  any  fleet  that 
the  British  at  the  moment  could  oppose  to  them,  Villeneuve  was  to  hasten 
to  Boulogne  find  cover  the  passage  of  the  flotilla:  and  everything  now 
seemed  to  promise  success  to  the  undertaking. 

Nelson,  learning  nothing  of  the  enemy's  whereabout  at  Barbadoes,  pro- 
ceeded to  Antigua,  where  he  arrived  on  the  13th  of  June,  and  received 
such  information  as  induced  him  to  believe  that  Villeneuve  had  returned 
to  Europe.  As  Nelson  was  confident  that  this  movement  of  the  French 
admiral  had  reference  to  some  dangerous  project  yet  unknown  to  the 
British  government,  he  dispatched  several  fast-sailing  vessels  to  Lisbon 
and  Portsmouth,  to  apprise  the  London  cabinet  of  the  return  of  the  hostile 
fleet,  and  express  his  fears  as  to  their  ulterior  destination.  Fortunately, 
one  of  these  vessels  dispatched  by  Nelson  outstripped  Villerreuve,  and 
reached  London  on  the  9th  of  July.  The  admiralty  instantly  sent  orders 
to  Admiral  Stirling,  off  Rochefort,  to  raise  the  blockade  of  that  port  and 
unite  himself  with  Sir  Robert  Calder,  off  Ferrol,  directing  also  the  latter 
officer  to  take  command  of  both  squadrons,  amounting  together  to  fifteen 
ships  of  the  line,  and  cruise  to  the  westward  of  Cape  Finisterre,  to  inter- 
cept the  homeward-bound  fleet. 

Sir  Robert  had  hardly  gained  his  station,  on  the  22nd  of  July,  when 
the  enemy  hove  in  sight,  consisting,  now  of  twenty  ships  of  the  line,  one 
of  fifty  guns,  and  seven  frigates.  The  weather  was  so  hazy,  that  the 
two  fleets  had  almost  come  together  before  either  was  aware  of  the  other's 
approach.  Some  confusion  took  place  in  consequence,  and  the  action,  for 
which  Sir  Robert  immediately  gave  the  signal,  without  regard  to  his  in- 
feriority of  numbers,  commenced  in  a  disorderly  manner,  several  vessels 


182  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXIII. 

of  both  fleets  having  become  engaged  with  two  or  more  opponents.  The 
battle  continued  until  night-fall,  when  the  parties  separated  to  repair 
damages ;  the  English  loss  amounted  to  one  hundred  and  ninety-eight 
men  killed  and  wounded,  and  one  of  their  ships  was  so  far  disabled  as  to 
require  to  be  put  in  tow  of  another  vessel :  the  loss  of  the  enemy  was 
four  hundred  and  seventy-six  men,  and  two  line-of-battle  ships  which  sur- 
rendered to  the  British.  On  the  day  following,  neither  party  showed  any 
disposition  to  renew  the  combat ;  and,  on  the  third  day,  Sir  Robert,  aware 
of  the  danger  of  encountering  again  a  superior  force,  especially  when  that 
force  was  every  hour  likely  to  be  augmented  by  a  junction  with  the 
liberated  fleets  of  Rochefort  and  Ferrol,  wisely  bore  away  with  his 
prizes  toward  the  English  Channel,  Villeneuve  then  made  sail  for  Fer- 
rol, and  having  there  joined  the  French  and  Spanish  fleets,  and  repaired  the 
damages  sustained  in  the  action  of  the  22nd,  he  sailed  for  Brest.  But  he 
received  accounts  at  sea,  from  a  Danish  vessel,  of  the  approach  of  a  large 
British  squadron,  and  he  immediately  tacked  and  took  refuge  in  Cadiz, 
where  he  arrived  on  the  21st  of  August. 

As  the  success  of  Napoleon's  project  depended  mainly  on  his  ability  to 
bring  his  entire  naval  force  to  Boulogne,  before  his  intentions  could  be 
discovered  or  interrupted,  the  action  with  Sir  Robert  Calder,  so  trivial 
when  considered  as  a  maritime  operation,  was  of  immense  importance 
in  its  results.  Napoleon  was  transported  with  rage  when  the  intelligence 
reached  him,  for  he  saw  at  once  that  his  hopes  of  sujugating  England 
were  at  an  end,  and  that  all  his  mighty  preparations  for  that  object,  with 
the  vast  expense  attending  it,  had  been  made  in  vain.  But  in  that  mo- 
ment of  fury  and  disappointment,  he  rose  superior  to  misfortune,  and 
adopted  one  of  the  boldest  resolutions,  and  traced  the  plan  of  one  of  the 
most  skilful  achievements  that  any  conqueror  ever  conceived.  Without  a 
moment's  hesitation,  he  dictated  to  his  secretary  orders  for  the  transfer  of 
the  entire  army  from  the  shores  of  the  Channel  to  the  banks  of  the  Rhine  : 
their  order  of  march,  their  lines  of  conveyance,  their  points  of  rendezvous, 
together  with  the  surprises,  attacks  and  obstacles  they  might  encounter, 
were  all  provided  for  with  surprising  accuracy.  Indeed,  such  was  the 
singular  foresight  of  the  plan,  embracing  a  line  of  operations  three  hun- 
dred leagues  in  extent,  the  stations  assigned  were  reached  by  the  troops 
in  exact  accordance  to  the  original  orders,  point  by  point,  and  day  by  day, 
through  the  whole  route  to  Munich. 

The  allied  troops  preparing  to  act  against  France,  at  this  time,  were  no 
less  than  three  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  men,  of  whom  one  hundred 
and  sixteen  thousand  were  Russians,  advancing  through  Poland  to  the 
plains  of  Bavaria ;  but  as  this  large  force  could  not  be  concentrated  in 
masses  for  at  least  two  months,  Napoleon  resolved  to  put  forth  all  his 
energies  for  a  decisive  blow  against  Austria  while  she  was  unsupported 
by  her  allies.  The  French  army  from  the  northern  coast,  when  united 
with  the  disposable  forces  in  Holland  and  Hanover  amounted  to  a  hun- 
dred and  ninety  thousand  men;  and  the  army  of  Italy,  including  the 
troops  in  the  Neapolitan  territories,  was  fifty  thousand  strong.  But  in 
addition  to  these,  Napoleon,  on  the  23rd  of  September,  submitted  two 
propositions  to  the  Senate,  which  were  immediately  adopted ;  one  was 
for  a  levy  of  eighty  thousand  conscripts  from  the  class  who,  by  law,  would 
become  liable  to  military  service  in  1806 ;  and  the  other  was  the  reor- 
ganization of  the  National  Guard,  which  greatly  augmented  the  numbers 
of  that  force  and,  in  effect,  placed  it  at  the  Emperor's  disposal. 


1805.]  HIS  TORY    OF    EUROPE.  183 

Meanwhile,  the  British  government  directed  their  efforts  to  shut  up  the 
combined  fleets  in  the  harbor  of  Cadiz,  and  Nelson  repaired  thither  in  the 
Victory,  of  ninety  guns,  to  take  command  of  the  blockading  squadron. 
His  reception  there  was  most  gratifying.  The  yards  of  the  British  ships 
were  crowded  with  hardy  veterans,  anxious  to  get  a  sight  of  their  favor- 
ite hero,  and  their  peals  of  acclamation  made  the  welkin  ring  when  he 
appeared  on  the  Victory's  quarter-deck,  shaking  hands  with  his  old  cap- 
tains, who  crowded  on  board  of  his  ship  to  welcome  him.  So  great  was 
the  terror  of  his  name  to  the  enemy,  that  although  Villeneuve  had  just 
received  positive  orders  from  Napoleon  to  put  to  sea,  he  hesitated  to 
obey ;  and  in  a  council  of  war.  it  was  resolved  not  to  venture  out  unless 
he  "was  full  one-third  superior  to  the  British  fleet.  As  soon  as  Nel- 
son learned  this  decision,  he  withdrew  a  part  of  his  ships  about  sixty 
miles  to  the  westward  of  Cape  Mary,  and  stationed  a  chain  of  repeating 
frigates  to  inform  him  by  signals  of  the  French  admiral's  movements: 
at  the  same  time,  the  blockade  was  so  rigorously  maintained  that  he 
judged  the  enemy  would  soon  be  compelled  to  put  to  sea  for  want  of 
provisions.  Deceived,  now,  as  to  Nelson's  real  strength,  Villeneuve 
resolved  to  set  sail  and  hazard  a  battle- 
Accordingly,  early  on  the  19th  of  October,  the  English  frigates  made 
signal  that  the  enemy  were  coming  out  of  the  harbor ;  and  at  two  o'clock 
in  the  afternoon,  they  were  fairly  at  sea,  steering  southeast.  Nelson 
gave  orders  to  chase  in  the  same  direction,  and  at  daybreak  on  the  21st, 
the  entire  fleet  of  thirty-three  line-of-battle  ships  and  seven  frigates,  was 
discovered  drawn  up  in  a  semicircle,  in  close  order,  about  twelve  miles 
off,  and  a  few  leagues  to  the  northwest  of  Cape  Trafalgar.  The  British 
fleet  consisted  of  twenty-seven  ships  of  the  line  and  four  frigates.  Nel- 
son's plan  of  attack  was  to  bear  down  on  the  enemy  in  two  lines,  one  of 
which  was  led  by  himself,  in  the  Victory,  and  the  other  by  Collingwood, 
in  the  Royal  Sovereign ;  he  ,then  gave  the  signal  from  the  mast-head  of 
the  Victory  for  that  order,  celebrated  as  the  last  he  ever  made,  "  England 
expects  that  every  man  will  do  his  duty."  It  was  received  with  loud 
shouts  from  the  British  sailors,  and  the  two  lines  pressed  on  to  the  con- 
test. Collingwood's  ship,  however,  so  far  outsailed  all  the  others,  that 
he  reached  the  enemy's  line,  steered  boldly  into  its  centre  and  was 
already  enveloped  in  fire,  when  the  nearest  vessels  were  yet  two  miles 
in  his  rear.  "See!"  cried  Nelson,  as  he  watched  his  progress,  "see 
how  that  noble  fellow  Collingwood  carries  his  ship  into  action!"  and 
Collingwood,  well  knowing  what  would  be  passing  in  the  mind  of  his 
commander,  at  the  same  time  observed  to  his  officers,  "What  would 
Nelson  give  to  be  here !"  Collingwood  bravely  maintained  his  position 
against  a  whole  circle  of  enemies,  and  when  the  other  British  ships  came 
up  successively  within  range,  their  crews  cheered  to  see,  amid  the  open- 
ings of  the  dense  smoke,  that  his  flag  was  still  flying.  At  length,  Nel- 
son's line  reached  its  appointed  place,  and  the  action  became  general. 
Nelson  laid  his  own  ship  alongside  the  Redoubtable,  and  a  terrible  can- 
nonade was  for  a  short  time  maintained;  but  before  the  latter  vessel 
hauled  down  her  flag,  a  musket  shot  from  one  of  the  marksmen  in  her 
maintop  struck  Nelson  on  the  shoulder.  "  They  have  done  for  me  at 
last,"  said  he  to  Hardy,  as  he  fell  to  the  deck.  "I  hope  not,"  said 
Hardy.  "Yes,"  he  replied,  "my  back-bone  is  shot  through."  He  wa* 
immediately  carried  below,  after  he  had  taken  out  his  handkerchief  to 

14 


184  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  [€HAP.  XXIII. 

cover  his  face,  lest  the  crew  should  recognize  him.  The  cock-pit  was 
crowded  with  wounded  and  dying  men,  and  he  refused  to  receive  the 
attention  of  the  surgeon  until  ell  the  others  had  taken  their  turns.  The 
action  meanwhile  continued,  the  enemy's  ships  began  to  strike  their 
colors,  and  as  the  cheers  of  the  Victory's  crew  announced  successively 
the  lowering  of  the  hostile  flags,  a  gleam  of  joy  illuminated  the  counte- 
nance of  the  dying  hero.  As  soon  as  Hardy  was  able  to  leave  the  deck, 
he  came  down  to  visit  his  commander.  They  both  shook  hands  in  silence, 
and  Hardy  could  not  restrain  his  tears.  "  How  goes  the  day,  Hardy  ?" 
said  Nelson.  Hardy  replied  that  everything  went  well,  and  fourteen  or 
fifteen  of  the  enemy's  ships  were  taken.  "I  bargained  for  twenty,"  said 
Nelson;  then  he  added,  "I  hope  none  of  our  ships  have  struck?"  Hardy 
assured  him  that  not  one  had  done  so.  Nelson  continued  in  a  stronger 
voice,  "Anchor,  Hardy;  the  ships  must  all  anchor:  do  you  make  the 
signal."  His  articulation  soon  became  difficult,  and  at  half-past  four  he 
expired,  leaving  a  name  unrivalled  even  in  the  glorious  annals  of  the 
British  navy. 

At  the  close  of  the  action,  twenty  ships  of  the  line  had  struck,  inclu- 
ding the  Santissima  Trinidada,  of  one  hundred  and  thirty  guns,  and  the 
Santa  Anna,  of  one  hundred  and  twelve  ;  but  one  of  the  seventy -fours, 
the  Achille,  blew  up  after  she  had  surrendered.  Had  Nelson's  (lying 
instructions,  to  bring  the  fleet  to  anchor,  been  obeyed,  the  remaining 
nineteen  prizes  would  have  been  brought  safely  to  Spithead :  but  the  or- 
der was  neglected,  and,  early  on  the  morning  of  the  22nd,  a  strong 
southerly  wind  arose,  which  rendered  the  captured  vessels  unmanage- 
able ;  some  drifted  ashore  and  were  destroyed  by  the  waves,  others 
were  sunk  by  the  British,  and  two,  having  been  blown  off,  were  taken 
by  the  French  frigates.  Four,  only,  reached  Gibraltar  in  safety  ;  but  the 
prisoners,  including  the  land  forces  on  board,  amounted  to  twenty  thou- 
sand men.  Although  the  prizes  were  thus  lost  to  the  British,  through  an 
unfortunate  neglect  of  Nelson's  orders,  they  were  also  .lost  to  the  enemy, 
whose  fleet  was  almost  wholly  destroyed.  Four  ships  of  the  line,  which 
escaped  from  the  battle  of  Trafalgar,  were  captured  by  Sir  Richard 
Strachan  on  the  2nd  of  November,  so  that  out  of  thirty-three  sail  of  the 
line,  twenty-four  surrendered  to  the  British ;  and  the  remaining  nine 
were  so  much  injured  as  to  be  unfitted  for  any  immediate  service. 

No  words  can  describe  the  mingled  feelings  of  joy  and  grief,  exulta- 
tion and  despondency,  which  pervaded  the  British  Empire,  when  news 
was  received  of  the  battle  of  Trafalgar.  The  fleet  had  achieved  one  of 
the  greatest  victories  on  record,  and  freed  the  country  from  the  danger 
of  an  invasion  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  people  were  called  to  mourn 
the  death  of  the  hero  by  whom  this  great  triumph  had  been  gained.  All 
the  honors  which  a  grateful  country  could  bestow,  were  heaped  on  the 
memory  of  Lord  Nelson.  His  brother  was  made  an  earl,  with  a  grant 
of  six  thousand  pounds  a  year ;  ten  thousand  pounds  was  voted  to  each 
of  his  sisters,  and  one  hundred  thousand  pounds  for  the  purchase  of  an 
estate.  His  remains  were  consigned  to  the  tomb  with  great  pomp,  in  St. 
Paul's  cathedral :  and  when  his  flag  was  about  to  be  lowered  into  the 
grave,  the  sailors,  who  assisted  at  the  ceremony,  with  one  accord  rent  it 
in  pieces,  that  each  might  preserve  a  fragment  as  long  as  he  lived. 

While  these  momentous  events  were  taking  place,  Napoleon  had 
pressed  forward  with  great  energy  toward  the  Rhine.  Previous  to  his 


1805.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  185 

advance,  however,  he  had  renewed  his  negotiations  with  Prussia,  and 
made  great  efforts  to  effect  a  treaty  with  that  power.  But  the  cabinet 
of  Berlin  could  not  be  induced  by  Napoleon's  arguments  to  go  beyond  its 
policy  of  neutrality.  During  the  progress  of  the  negotiation,  the  Russia^ 
minister  presented  to  the  king  a  request  from  the  Emperor  Alexander, 
for  permission  to  pass  his  troops  through  the  Prussian  territories  on  their 
route  to  Bavaria :  this  request  was  peremptorily  refused,  and  Napoleon 
was  thereby  enabled  with  ease  to  reach  the  Bavarian  plains  in  advance 
of  the  Muscovite  army.  The  forces  which  he  had  now  assembled  were 
the  most  formidable  in  respect  of  numbers,  discipline  and  equipment,  that 
had  ever  yet  taken  the  field  in  modern  Europe.  They  consisted  of  one 
hundred  and  eighty  thousand  men,  divided  into  eight  corps,  under  the 
command  of  the  most  distinguished  marshals  of  the  Empire  ;  and,  such 
was  the  rapidity  and  secrecy  of  their  march,  they  were  far  advanced  on 
their  way  to  the  Rhine,  before  it  was  known  to  the  cabinets  of  London  or 
Vienna  that  they  had  broken  up  their  camp  on  the  heights  of  Boulogne. 
The  several  corps,  with  the  exception  of  that  imder  Bernadotte,  thus  far 
met  with  no  obstacles  on  their  route,  as  they  were  traversing  their  own 
or  a  friendly  territory ;  but  the  corps  under  that  officer,  in  its  march 
across  Germany  from  Hanover  to  Bavaria,  came  upon  the  Prussian  state 
of  Anspach.  Napoleon  had  foreseen  this  difficulty,  and  provided  for  it, 
by  giving  Bernadotte  positive  orders  to  disregard  the  Prussian  neutrality. 
These  orders  were  punctually  executed,  in  defiance  of  the  threats  and 
remonstrances  of  the  local  authorities ;  and  Bernadotte,  with  sixty  thou- 
sand men,  including  a  division  of  Bavarians  and  the  corps  of  Marmont, 
traversed  the  territory  of  Prussia  and  assembled  at  Eichstadt  on  the 
8th  of  October.  By  this  master-stroke,  the  French  troops  were  placed 
in  great  force  in  the  rear  of  an  Austrian  army,  eighty  thousand  strong, 
under  General  Mack,  who,  ignorant  of  Napoleon's  movements,  had 
incautiously  crossed  the  Inn  and  was  reposing  in  fancied  security  around 
the  ramparts  of  Ulm. 

The  king  and  cabinet  of  Prussia  were  transported  with  astonishment 
and  indignation,  when  they  received  intelligence  of  the  violation  of  their 
neutrality  by  the  French  troops.  They  at  once  learned  the  humiliating 
truth,  which  had  long  been  obvious  to  the  rest  of  Europe,  but  which  an 
overweening  vanity  that  Napoleon  well  knew  how  to  cajole  had  hitherto 
hidden  from  themselves,  that  their  alliance  with  France  had  been  con- 
tracted by  the  Emperor  solely  for  his  own  advantage ;  that  he  neither 
respected  nor  feared  their  power,  and  that  after  having  made  them  his 
fawning  and  subservient  instruments  in  subjugating  other  states,  he  would 
probably  end  by  overturning  the  independence  of  their  own.  They 
immediately  prohibited  all  intercourse  with  the  French  embassy,  de- 
manded satisfaction  from  the  French  minister  resident  at  Berlin,  and  sent 
forward  a  free  permission  to  the  Russian  troops  to  traverse  the  Prussian 
territories  in  their  march  to  Bavaria. 

When  General  Mack  ascertained  that  Napoleon  was  approaching,  he 
disposed  his  forces  at  Ulm,  Memmingen  and  Stockach,  with  advanced 
posts  in  the  defiles  of  the  Black  Forest,  contemplating  an  attack  only  in 
front,  and  expecting  to  be  able  to  resist  the  invasion  in  his  defensive  posi- 
tion. He  was  yet  ignorant  of  the  manoauvre  by  which  Bernadotte  at  first, 
and  afterward  Davoust  and  Soult,  had  taken  ground  in  his  rear  with  a 
hundred  thousand  men,  where  they  were  establishing  themselves  at 


186  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXIH. 

A.ugsbourg,  while  Napoleon,  with  the  remainder  of  his  army,  was  press- 
ing on  him  from  the  west,  on  both  banks  of  the  Danube.  Mack  was  not 
long  in  discovering  his  desperate  situation ;  but,  lacking  the  resolution 
to  adopt  the  only  course  of  safety  that  was  open  to  him,  a  retreat  into  the 
Tyrol,  he  attempted  to  secure  himself  by  intrenchments  at  Ulm,  and  sent 
orders  to  General  Auffemberg  to  join  him  at  that  place.  This  brave  offi- 
cer was  then  at  Innspruch  with  four  squadrons  of  cuirassiers  and  twelve 
battalions  of  grenadiers,  and  while  proceeding  to  Ulm,  in  obedience  to 
Mack's  requisition,  suddenly  found  himself  enveloped  by  eight  thousand 
French  cavalry  under  Murat.  In  this  extremity,  Auffemberg  threw  his 
ivhole  division  into  one  immense  square,  with  the  cuirassiers  at  its  angles, 
and  awaited  the  attack.  The  French  dragoons  came  on  like  a  tempest, 
and  speedily  swept  away  the  comparatively  small  number  of  Austrian 
cavalry ;  but  the  infantry  stood  firm,  and,  with  a  sustained  fire  of  mus- 
ketry, that  reminded  the  French  of  their  own  achievement  at  the  Pyra- 
mids, mowed  down  their  assailants  by  hundreds.  After  the  combat  had 
been  for  a  long  time  maintained  in  this  manner,  with  severe  loss  to  the 
French,  Oudinot  arrived  on  the  ground  at  the  head  of  a  brigade  of  French 
grenadiers,  well  provided  with  artillery.  The  fatigued  Austrians,  un- 
able to  endure  the  onset  of  fresh  infantry,  were  soon  disordered,  and 
several  thousands  of  the  French  forced  their  way  into  the  square :  but 
Auffemberg  still  succeeded  in  forming  a  smaller  square,  and  making 
good  his  retreat  with  a  part  of  his  troops  to  some  marshes  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  Danube.  He,  however,  left  three  thousand  prisoners, 
many  standards,  and  all  his  artillery  in  the  hands  of  the  enemy. 

Napoleon  began  now  to  close  upon  the  Austrian  army,  and  he  gained 
several  minor  victories  over  their  detached  parties,  as  he  gradually  drove 
them  in  upon  Ulm.  On  the  llth  of  October,  Ney  encountered  a  body 
of  Austrians,  twenty  thousand  strong,  at  Hasslach,  and  a  desperate  action 
ensued,  in  which  the  French  lost  a  part  of  their  artillery,  but  at  length 
retired  in  good  order  from  the  field,  with  two  thousand  Austrian  prisoners. 
On  the  same  day,  Soult  marched  against  Memmingen,  which  was  garri- 
soned by  four  thousand  Austrians ;  and  on  the  13th,  having  completed 
his  investment  of  the  place,  he  summoned  it  to  surrender.  The  Austri- 
ans,  discouraged  by  the  host  of  enemies  that  were  gathering  around  them, 
and  being  destitute  of  provisions,  immediately  capitulated.  By  the  16th, 
every  avenue  of  escape  was  closed  against  Mack,  and  the  main  body  of 
the  Austrian  army  ;  yet,  as  the  Archduke  Ferdinand  was  with  the  troops, 
it  was  deemed  indispensable  that  an  effort  should  be  made  at  all  hazards 
to  secure  his  retreat,  by  cutting  a  path  through  the  French  lines  into 
Bohemia. 

On  the  day  that  this  desperate  resolution  was  formed  by  the  Austrian 
generals,  Ney  commenced  an  attack  on  the  bridge  and  abbey  of  Elchin- 
gen,  where  fifteen  thousand  Austrians  were  posted  with  forty  pieces  of 
cannon.  The  battle  was  contested  with  great  bravery,  and,  in  the  event, 
the  French  columns,  after  many  hours  of  desperate  fighting,  forced  the 
Austrians  back  upon  their  main  body  with  a  loss  of  thirty-five  hundred 
men,  killed,  wounded  and  prisoners.  The  resistance  of  these  gallant 
troops,  however,  gave  the  Archduke  Ferdinand  an  opportunity  to  make 
his  escape.  During  the  combat  at  Elchingen,  he  sallied  from  Ulm  at  the 
head  of  ten  thousand  cavalry,  which,  by  moving  in  two  several  directions, 
created  a  diversion  that  enabled  him,  with  a  few  hundred  horse,  to  gaio 


1805.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  187 

the  Bohemian  frontiers ;  but  his  deliverance  was  purchased  by  the  sacri- 
fice of  nearly  all  the  large  body  of  cavalry  that  aided  it,  more  than  nine 
thousand  of  them  having  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  French. 

As  Mack  was  now  deprived  of  all  hope  of  relief,  Napoleon  summoned 
him  to  surrender ;  and  after  a  brief  negotiation,  the  entire  Austrian  army 
capitulated  and  laid  down  their  arms.  It  is  hardly  possible  to  speak  in 
terms  of  exaggeration  of  this  astonishing  victory  :  with  a  loss  of  not  more 
than  eight  thousand  men,  Napoleon  had  taken  or  destroyed  nearly  eighty 
thousand  of  the  best  troops  in  the  Austrian  dominions. 

While  these  stupendous  events  were  paralyzing  the  Imperial  strength 
in  the  centre  of  Germany,  the  campaign  had  opened  in  Italy.  The 
Aulic  Council,  from  whose  errors  the  European  nations  suffered  so  often 
and  so  deeply,  and  who  could  learn  nothing  even  from  their  own  experi- 
ence, committed  three  capital  faults  in  their  plan  of  operations.  In  the 
first  place,  they  had  ordered  Mack  with  eighty  thousand  men  to  push  for- 
ward into  an  exposed  situation,  and  bear  the  weight  of  the  whole  French 
army  in  the  valley  of  the  Danube  ;  secondly,  they  compelled  the  Arch- 
duke Charles  to  remain  inactive  on  the  Adige  with  ninety  thousand  men, 
in  presence  of  Massena  who  had  only  fifty  thousand  ;  and  thirdly,  twenty 
thousand  men  were  kept  scattered  over  the  Tyrol  without  any  enemy  ai 
all  to  occupy  them. 

As  soon  as  the  cabinet  of  Vienna  ascertained  Mack's  dangerous  situa 
tion,  they  ordered  the  Archduke  Charles  to  dispatch  thirty  regiments 
across  the  Tyrol  toward  Germany  to  his  assistance ;  and  the  Austrian 
army  in  Italy  was  thus  reduced  to  nearly  an  equality  of  numbers  with 
Massena.  The  latter  general  occupied  the  city  of  Verona  and  its  castles, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Adige,  while  the  Archduke  held  the  suburbs  of 
the  town,  on  the  left  bank  of  that  river.  The  bridge  between  the  two 
camps  was  strongly  barricaded  and  carefully  guarded  at  each  end.  Mas- 
sena, stimulated  by  the  orders  of  Napoleon  and  the  news  of  his  success, 
at  length  resolved  to  assume  the  offensive  by  forcing  the  bridge ;  and  at 
midnight,  on  the  18th  of  October,  after  removing  his  own  barricades  as 
silently  as  possible,  he  caused  petards  to  be  placed  against  those  of  the 
Austrians.  He  then  commenced  a  violent  cannonade  along  the  banks  of 
the  river,  and  while  the  enemy's  attention  was  thus  diverted,  the  petards 
were  exploded  and  the  barricades  thrown  down.  The  French  troops 
rushed  forward,  but  found  to  their  surprise  a  yawning  gulf  between  them 
and  the  opposite  bank,  a  section  of  the  bridge  having  been  cut  away  by 
the  Austrians  behind  their  barricades.  In  the  confusion  of  the  moment, 
however,  and  under  cover  of  a  thick  fog  which  the  rising  sun  had  not  yet 
dispelled,  the  French  soldiers,  by  means  of  boats  and  planks,  made  good 
their  passage,  and  secured  a  footing  on  the  Austrian  shore,  whence  the 
Archduke,  after  a  whole  day's  fighting,  was  unable  to  dislodge  them.  He 
therefore  withdrew  to  the  position  of  Caldiero,  which  he  had  been  for 
some  time  fortifying,  and  where  he  considered  himself  safe  from  any  at- 
tack ;  and,  indeed,  so  it  proved :  for  after  three  entire  days  of  the  most 
desperate  fighting,  in  which  both  armies  suffered  severe  losses,  though 
the  greater  portion  was  on  the  side  of  the  French,  Massena  was  compelled 
to  retire  ;  and  but  for  the  progress  of  events  in  Germany,  which  required 
the  Archduke's  presence  there,  the  French  marshal  would  have  been 
unable  to  retain  his  position  on  the  Adige. 

The  Archduke  John  had  arrived  at  the  head-quarters  of  the  Austrian 


188  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE  [CHAP.  XXIII. 

army,  and  brought  official  intelligence  of  the  disaster  at  Ulm,  and  the 
consequent  exposure  of  Vienna.  Justly  alarmed  at  this  news,  the  Arch- 
duke Charles  made  immediate  preparations  to  fall  back  and  cover  the 
Austrian  capital ;  but  to  conceal  his  movements  from  Massena,  while  he 
pushed  forward  by  forced  marches  his  heavy  artillery  and  baggage,  he 
made  demonstrations  of  following  up  his  success  at  Caldiero,  which  com- 
pletely  deceived  the  French  commander  and  induced  him  to  take  a 
defensive  position  in  front  of  Verona.  When  the  main  body  of  the  Aus- 
trian army,  with  all  its  incumbrances  of  baggage  and  artillery,  was  suf- 
ficiently advanced,  the  rear-guard  broke  up  from  their  intrenchments  and 
followed  the  retreating  columns  ;  and  although  Massena  was  not  long  in 
discovering  his  mistake,  and  pushed  on  in  pursuit,  the  Austrians  had 
gained  a  full  day's  march,  and  he  could  not  overtake  them  in  force. 

Napoleon  followed  up  his  success  at  Ulm,  by  pressing  through  Bavaria. 
He  arrived  at  Munich  on  the  24th  of  October,  where  he  was  received  with 
every  demonstration  of  joy,  while  the  leading  corps  under  Bernadotte, 
Davoust,  Murat  and  Marmont  hastened  toward  the  hereditary  states  of 
Austria.  The  Iser  was  soon  passed  ;  the  French  eagles  were  borne  in 
triumph  through  the  forest  of  Hohenlinden,  and  nothing  arrested  the  march 
of  the  victorious  troops  until  they  reached  the  rocky  banks  of  the  Inn,  and 
appeared  before  the  fortress  ofBrannau;  and  the  detention  here  was  but 
brief,  for  the  Austrian  garrison  soon  evacuated  the  place.  At  the  same 
time,  Ney  and  Augereau  were  ordered  into  the  Tyrol,  to  drive  the  Aus- 
trian forces  from  the  vast  fortress  which  its  mountains  composed. 

The  Russians  under  KutusofF  and  Benningsen  on  the  one  side,  and  the 
Austrians  from  Italy  and  the  Tyrol  under  the  Archdukes  Charles  and 
John  on  the  other,  were  now  approaching  to  cover  Vienna,  and  courier 
after  courier  was  dispatched  to  hasten  their  movements :  the  French  troops 
also  were  rapidly  moving  toward  the  same  common  centre  ;  and  universal 
alarm  spread  through  the  Austrian  dominions. 

Meantime,  Prussia  assumed  a  menacing  attitude :  the  king  openly  in- 
clined to  hostile  measures,  Prince  Louis  vehemently  declared  his  desire 
for  war,  and  the  inhabitants  echoed  his  wishes.  Haugwitz,  the  author  of 
the  temporizing  system,  soon  lost  his  consideration  in  the  cabinet,  and 
Hardenberg  was  intrusted  with  the  direction  of  affairs.  At  this  juncture, 
the  Emperor  Alexander  arrived  at  Berlin,  and  exerted  his  utmost  influ- 
ence to  induce  the  king  to  embrace  a  more  manly  and  courageous  policy 
than  he  had  hitherto  pursued.  This  proceeding  decided  the  king,  and  a 
convention  was  signed  on  the  3rd  of  November  between  the  two  monarchs, 
stipulating  that  the  treaty  of  Luneville  should  be  taken  as  the  basis  of  the 
arrangement,  and  all  the  acquisitions  which  France  had  since  made  were 
to  be  wrested  from  her;  while  Switzerland  and  Holland  were  to  be 
restored  to  their  independence.  Haugwitz  was  to  be  intrusted  with  noti- 
fying this  convention  to  Napoleon,  with  authority,  in  case  of  his  acceding 
to  it,  to  offer  him  the  former  friendship  and  alliance  of  Prussia  ;  but,  if  he 
refused,  10  declare  war,  with  an  intimation  that  hostilities  would  com- 
mence on  the  15th  of  December. 

After  the  conclusion  of  this  treaty,  Alexander  repaired  to  Gallicia,  to 
assume  in  person  the  command  of  the  Russian  army  of  reserve  which  was 
advancing  through  that*  province  to  the  support  of  Kutusoff;  but,  unfor- 
tunately, the  cabinet  of  Prussia  still  lacked  resolution  to  interfere  at  once 
and  decidedly  in  the  war.  Haugwitz  did  not  set  out  on  his  mission  unti* 


1805.]  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  189 

the  14th  of  November,  the  Prussian  armies  made  no  advance  to  the  Da- 
nube, and  Napoleon  was  suffered  to  proceed  without  interruption  toward 
Vienna,  while  eighty  thousand  Prussian  veterans  remained  inactive  in 
Silesia  on  his  left  flank ;  a  force  which,  acting  in  cooperation  with  the 
Austrian  and  Russian  troops,  might  readily  have  thrown  back  the  French 
Emperor,  with  disaster  and  disgrace,  to  the  banks  of  the  Rhine. 

While  Napoleon  thus  triumphantly  approached  the  Austrian  capital, 
Ney  and  Augereau,  with  almost  equal  facility,  carried  everything  before 
them  in  the  Tyrol ;  where,  within  little  more  than  three  weeks,  they 
expelled  the  Imperialists  from  what  had  long  been  considered  the  impreg- 
nable bulwark  of  the  Austrian  empire,  though  it  was  garrisoned  by  twenty- 
five  thousand  regular  troops  and  at  least  an  equal  number  of  well-trained 
militia  :  more  than  half  of  this  entire  force  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  inva- 
ders. Ney  then  marched  to  Salzbourg,  to  form  a  junction  with  Massena, 
and  Augereau  withdrew  to  Ulm  to  observe  the  Prussians,  while  the  occu- 
pation of  the  Tyrol  was  committed  to  the  Bavarian  troops.  Napoleon  still 
continued  his  advance,  and  on  the  6th  of  November,  established  his  head- 
quarters at  Lintz,  the  capital  of  Upper  Austria.  Here,  he  remained  a 
short  time  to  give  some  repose  to  his  troops  and  introduce  a  new  organ- 
ization, with  a  view  of  destroying  the  Russian  corps  under  Kutusoff;  for 
which  purpose,  four  divisions,  amounting  to  twenty  thousand  men,  were 
passed  over  to  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube  and  placed  under  the  command 
of  Mortier,  whose  instructions  were  to  advance  cautiously,  and  send  out 
videttes  in  every  direction,  until  he  should  gain  a  point  whence  he  might 
effectually  surprise  the  Russian  commander. 

At  Lintz,  Napoleon  also  received  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  who  hastened 
to  that  city  to  render  the  homage  due  to  the  deliverer  of  his  dominions ; 
and  on  the  same  day,  Count  Giulay  arrived  from  the  Emperor  of  Austria 
with  proposals  for  an  armistice,  having  reference  to  a  general  peace ;  for 
the  cabinet  of  Vienna,  despairing  of  the  arrival  in  time  of  the  Archduke 
and  Kutusoff,  began  to  fear  the  destruction  of  their  capital.  Napoleon 
received  the  envoy  courteously  ;  but,  after  remarking  that  a  beaten  army, 
unable  to  defend  a  single  position,  could  not  with  propriety  offer  terms  to 
a  conqueror  at  the  head  of  two  hundred  thousand  men,  he  sent  him  back 
with  a  letter  to  the  ^Emperor,  in  which  he  proposed  to  treat  for  peace  on 
condition  that  the  Russians  should  forthwith  evacuate  the  Austrian  terri- 
tory and  retire  into  Poland,  that  the  levies  in  Hungary  should  be  dis- 
banded, and  Tyrol  and  Venice  ceded  to  the  French  dominions.  If  these 
terms  were  not  accepted,  he  averred  that  he  would  continue  his  march 
toward  Vienna  without  an  hour's  intermission. 

The  proposal  of  such  rigorous  conditions  showed  the  allies  that  they 
had  no  hope,  but  in  a  bold  prosecution  of  the  war;  they,  therefore,  dis- 
patched the  most  urgent  entreaties  to  the  Russian  head-quarters  to  hasten 
the  advance  of  their  reserves,  while  a  strong  rear-guard  took  post  at  Am- 
stetten,  to  secure  a  passage  through  the  narrow  defile  of  the  Danube  for 
the  main  body  and  artillery  of  the  allied  army  covering  Vienna.  This 
rear-guard,  however,  was  attacked  by  Oudinot  and  Murat,  and,  after  a 
bloody  conflict,  was  forced  to  retreat ;  but  not  until  it  had  gained  time  for 
the  allied  army  to  arrive  at  the  rocky  ridge  behind  St.  Polten,  the  last 
defensible  position  in  front  of  Vienna,  and  which  commanded  the  junction 
of  the  lateral  road,  running  from  Italy  through  Leoben,  with  the  great 
route  down  the  valley  of  the  Danube  to  the  capital.  Napoleon  saw  the 


190  HISTORY     OF     EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXIII. 

necessity  of  wresting  this  important  position  from  the  allies,  and  directed 
sixty  thousand  men  to  turn  their  right  flank,  fifty  thousand  to  manoeuvre 
on  the  left,  while  he  in  person,  at  the  head  of  his  Imperial  guard  and  the 
corps  of  Soult  assailed  them  in  front.  As  it  was  impossible  for  KutusofF 
to  maintain  his  ground  against  such  overwhelming  numbers,  he  resolved 
to  abandon  the  capital  and  withdraw  to  the  left  bank  of  the  river. 

Skilfully  concealing  his  intention  from  the  enemy,  he  moved  his  whole 
army  across  the  Danube  at  Mautern,  over  the  only  bridge  which  traverses 
that  river  between  Lintz  and  Vienna ;  and  having  burned  it  behind  him, 
succeeded,  for  some  days  at  least,  in  throwing  an  impassable  barrier  be- 
tween his  troops  and  their  indefatigable  pursuers.  He  continued  his  retreat 
in  good  order  until  he  reached  the  vicinity  of  Stein,  where,  on  the  llth  of 
November,  his  rear-guard  was  attacked  by  the  whole  advanced  division 
of  Mortier's  corps.  The  combat  soon  became  warm  ;  fresh  troops  arrived 
on  both  sides,  and  the  grenadiers  fought  man  to  man  with  undaunted  reso- 
lution. Toward  noon,  intelligence  was  spread  that  the  Russian  division 
of  DoctorofF  had,  by  a  circuitous  march,  gained  Mortier's  rear ;  and  the 
latter,  finding  himself  thus  attacked  on  both  sides,  and  separated  from  the 
remainder  of  his  cojps,  resolved  to  dislodge  this  new  assailant.  He  ac- 
cordingly made  a  spirited  attack  on  DoctorofF's  troops,  but  he  was  unable 
to  force  them  from  their  position  until  after  several  hours  of  hard  fighting, 
during  which  he  lost  three  eagles  and  two-thirds  of  his  men.  Dupont  at 
length  came  up  with  the  remainder  of  his  corps  and  forced  the  Russians 
to  retreat. 

Napoleon  now  ordered  Lannes  and  Murat  to  advance  upon  Vienna  and 
endeavor  to  gain  possession  of  the  bridge  over  the  Danube.  At  the  same 
time,  the  Emperor  Francis  retired  from  his  capital,  after  confiding  the 
charge  of  it  to  Count  Wurbna,  his  grand  chamberlain.  The  citizens  were 
overwhelmed  with  consternation  when  they  found  themselves  deserted  by 
the  Emperor,  and  assembled  in  tumultuous  crowds  demanding  arms  to 
defend  the  capital ;  but  it  was  too  late.  The  means  of  resistance  no 
longer  remained  ;  and  a  deputation  was  sent  to  Napoleon's  head-quarters 
to  treat  for  a  surrender. 

Retaining  a  sufficient  force  to  secure  the  occupation  of  Vienna,  Napo- 
leon ordered  Murat,  Bernadotte  and  Mortier  to  follow  up  KutusofF's  retreat, 
and  prevent  his  junction  with  the  Archduke  Charles.  Murat,  deeming  it 
improbable  that  he  could  overtake  KutusofF,  had  recourse  to  a  stratagem, 
and  sent  a  flag  of  truce  to  the  Russian  head-quarters,  announcing  that  an 
armistice  had  been  concluded  at  Vienna :  but  the  wily  Russian  proved 
an  overmatch  for  Murat  in  diplomacy.  He  professed  great  joy  at  the 
news,  which  he  knew  could  not  be  true,  and  not  only  pretended  to  enter 
cordially  into  the  negotiation,  but  sent  the  Emperor's  aid-de-camp,,  Win- 
zingerode,  to  propose  terms  of  peace.  Murat  fell  into  his  own  snare ;  for 
while  he  stayed  his  pursuit  to  consider  these  proposals,  KutusofF,  after 
ordering  Bagrathion  to  remain  behind  with  eight  thousand  men,  pushed 
forward  the  main  body  of  his  army  to  Znaim,  where  he  was  enabled  to 
open  communications  not  only  with  the  Austrians,  but  also  with  the  reen- 
forcing  Russian  troops. 

Napoleon  was  greatly  enraged  when  he  found  that  his  generals  had 
been  thus  foiled,  and  ordered  an  immediate  attack  on  Bagrathion 's  rear- 
guard. This  brave  Russian  commander  soon  found  himself  assailed  in 
front  and  on  both  flanks  by  Oudinot,  Murat,  Lannes  and  Soult,  with  no 


1805.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  191 

less  than  forty  thousand  men ;  yet  he  maintained  his  position  for  twelve 
hours,  and  finally  retreated  in  good  order  with  five  thousand  of  his  troops, 
leaving  behind  him  three  thousand  killed,  wounded  or  prisoners.  Nothing 
now  could  prevent  the  junction  of  the  allied  forces,  which  took  place  at 
Wischau  on  the  19th  of  November.  Their  entire  strength  amounted  to 
seventy-five  thousand  men  ;  and  a  division  of  the  Russian  Imperial  guard 
under  the  Grandduke  Constantine,  with  a  detachment  under  Benningsen, 
was  hourly  expected,  which  would  raise  their  numbers  to  ninety  thousand. 
Napoleon,  when  he  found  that  the  junction  of  the  allies  was  inevitable, 
took  the  most  energetic  measures  to  close  the  campaign  by  a  general 
action,  and  moved  toward  Austerlitz  with  all  his  disposable  forces  for  that 
purpose.  In  order  to  gain  time  for  the  requisite  concentration  of  his 
troops,  he  proposed  to  enter  into  a  conference  with  Alexander  for  an  ar- 
mistice, and  the  Russian  Emperor,  equally  anxious  for  a  brief  delay,  dis- 
patched an  ambassador  on  this  fruitless  errand.  While  the  negotiation 
was  in  progress,  Count  Haugwitz  arrived  with  the  ultimatum  of  Prussia ; 
but  Napoleon  was  not  disposed  to  treat  on  this  subject  until  he  had  made 
some  further  advance  in  the  affairs  of  the  campaign,  and  recommended 
Haugwitz  to  repair  to  Vienna  and  open  his  conference  with  Talleyrand. 

On  the  1st  of  December,  Napoleon  had  assembled  his  masses,  to  the 
number  of  ninety  thousand  veteran  troops,  midway  between  Brunn  and 
Austerlitz.  His  left  wing,  under  Lannes,  was  stationed  at  the  foot  of  a 
chain  of  hills,  having  a  powerful  guard  of  cavalry.  Next  to  these  was 
the  corps  of  Bernadotte,  and  between  him  and  the  centre  were  the  grena- 
diers of  Oudinot,  the  cavalry  of  Murat,  and  the  Imperial  guard  under 
Bessieres.  The  centre,  under  the  command  of  Soult,  occupied  the  villages 
near  the  heights  of  Pratzen.  The  right  wing,  under  Davoust,  was  thrown 
back  in  a  semicircle,  with  its  reserves  at  the  Abbey  of  Raygern  in  the 
rear,  and  its  front  line  stretching  to  the  Lake  Moenitz.  A  succession  of 
marshes  covered  the  front  of  the  whole  position. 

The  allies,  in  their  plan  of  attack,  decided  to  turn  the  right  flank  of  the 
French  army  so  as,  in  case  of  success,  to  cut  them  off  from  Vienna  and 
drive  them  to  the  Bohemian  mountains ;  and  they  sought  to  effect  this  by 
one  of  the  most  hazardous  operations  in  war — a  flank  march  in  column  in 
front  of  a  concentrated  enemy,  and  that  enemy  Napoleon.  Accordingly, 
early  in  the  morning  of  December  2nd,  they  moved  forward  in  five  col- 
umns obliquely  across  the  French  position,  while  the  reserve,  under  the 
Grandduke  Constantine,  occupied  the  heights  in  front  of  Austerlitz.  The 
moment  that  Napoleon  saw  this  suicidal  manoeuvre  undertaken,  he  ex- 
claimed, "  That  army  is  my  own  !" 

A  heavy  mist  at  first  enveloped  both  armies,  and  for  a  time  obscured 
their  movements  from  view  ;  but  at  length  the  sun  arose  in  unclouded 
brilliancy — that  "sun  of  Austerlitz"  which  Napoleon  so  often  afterward 
apostrophized,  as  illuminating  the  brightest  period  of  his  life — and  the 
magnitude  of  the  error  committed  by  the  allies  was  plainly  revealed : 
they  had  abandoned  the  heights  of  Pratzen,  the  key  to  their  position,  and 
exposed  the  flank  of  their  whole  army,  in  detached  masses,  to  the  delibe- 
rate1 attacks  of  the  French  veterans.  It  was  impossible,  under  such  cir- 
cumstances, that  the  victory  could  remain  long  in  doubt.  The  Russian 
and  Austrian  troops  fought  with  desperate  valor  against  their  disadvan- 
tages, and  in  parts  of  the  field  gained  a  temporary  success ;  but  in  the 
event,  almost  every  attack  of  the  French  prevailed;  the  allied  army  was 

19 


192  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXIII. 

broken  and  routed  at  all  points,  and  at  nightfall  they  were  retreating  in 
almost  utter  disorganization,  having  lost  in  killed,  wounded  and  prisoners, 
thirty  thousand  men,  besides  a  hundred  and  eighty  pieces  of  cannon,  four 
hundred  caissons  and  forty-five  standards.  The  loss  of  the  French  did 
not  exceed  twelve  thousand  men. 

Such  was  the  effect  produced  by  this  great  disaster  that,  during  a 
council  held  at  midnight,  at  the  Russian  Emperor's  lodgings,  it  was 
doubted  whether  hostilities  could  be  prolonged  with  any  hope  of  success, 
and  by  four  o'clock  in  the  morning,  Prince  Lichtenstein  was  dispatched 
to  Napoleon's  head-quarters  to  propose  an  armistice.  There  was  no 
difficulty  in  coming  to  an  arrangement.  Napoleon,  notwithstanding  the 
extent  of  his  victory,  was  well  aware  of  the  danger  that  might  yet  ensue 
from  a  combination  against  him,  of  Prussia  with  the  other  European 
powers;  he  knew  that  the  Archduke  Charles,  with  eighty  thousand 
troops,  was  already  threatening  Vienna,  and  that  Hungary  was  rising 
en  masse  at  the  approach  of  the  invaders.  On  the  4th  of  December,  an 
interview  took  place  between  the  Emperor  Francis  and  Napoleon,  which 
lasted  for  two  hours,  and  ended  in  an  agreement  that  Presburg  should  be 
the  seat  of  the  negotiations  for  peace,  that  an  armistice  should  imme- 
diately take  place  at  all  points,  and  that  the  Russian  troops  should  retire 
by  slow  marches  to  their  own  country.  Savary  was  sent  to  the  Emperor 
Alexander  to  request  his  consent  to  these  terms,  which  he  granted  with- 
out  hesitation,  and  Napoleon  stopped  the  advance  of  the  French  columns. 

On  the  6th  of  December,  the  armistice  was  formally  concluded  at 
Austerlitz,  by  which  it  was  stipulated  that,  until  the  conclusion  of  a 
general  peace,  the  French  should  continue  to  occupy  those  portions  of 
Upper  and  Lower  Austria,  Tyrol,  Styria,  Carinthia,  Carniola  and  Mora- 
via, then  in  their  possession ;  that  the  Russians  should  evacuate  Moravia 
and  Hungary  in  fifteen  days,  and  Gallicia  within  a  month ;  that  all  in- 
surrectionary movements  in  Hungary  and  Bohemia  should  be  stopped, 
and  no  armed  force  of  any  other  power  permitted  to  enter  the  Austrian 
territories.  This  latter  clause  was  levelled  at  the  Prussian  armaments, 
and  it  afforded  the  cabinet  of  Berlin  a  pretext  for  withdrawing  from  a 
coalition  into  which  they  had  entered  at  so  untoward  a  period. 

Alexander  no  sooner  found  himself  delivered  from  the  toils  of  his 
redoubtable  adversary,  than  he  sent  the  Grandduke  Constantine  and 
Prince  DolgorOncki  to  Berlin,  offering  to  place  all  his  forces  at  the  dis- 
position of  the  Prussian  cabinet,  if  they  would  vigorously  prosecute  the 
war :  but  the  diplomatist  to  whom  the  fortunes  of  Prussia  were  now  com- 
mitted, had  very  different  objects  in  view,  and  he  was  prepared,  by  an 
act  of  matchless  perfidy,  to  put  the  finishing  stroke  to  that  system  of 
tergiversation  and  deceit,  by  which,  for  ten  years,  the  cabinet  of  Berlin 
had  been  disgraced.  It  has  already  been  related  that  Haugwitz  had 
reached  the  head-quarters  of  Napoleon  with  instructions  to  declare  war 
against  France ;  but  the  battle  of  Austerlitz  had  changed  the  face  of 
affairs,  and  Haugwitz  resolved  not  only  to  withdraw  from  the  coalition, 
but  to  secure  a  part  of  the  spoils  of  his  former  allies;  and  if  he  could 
not  chase  the  French  standards  beyond  the  Rhine,  at  least  to  wrest  from 
England  those  continental  possessions  which  she  now  appeared  in  no 
condition  to  defend.  Napoleon  soon  ascertained  the  disposition  of  the 
minister,  and  offered  to  incorporate  Hanover  with  the  Prussian  dominions 
in  exchange  for  some  of  the  detached  southern  possessions  of  Pmssia, 


1805.J  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  193 

which  were  to  be  ceded  to  France  and  Bavaria,  provided  she  would 
abandon  her  doubtful  policy,  and  enter  heart  and  hand  into  the  French 
alliance.  Haugwitz  eagerly  accepted  these  proposals  and  signed  a  for- 
mal treaty  for  carrying  them  into  effect. 

The  negotiations  between  Austria  and  Napoleon  were  soon  brought  to 
a  close.  By  the  treaty  of  Presburg,  she  was  in  a  manner  isolated  from 
France,  and  to  all  appearance,  rendered  incapable  of  again  interfering 
in  the  contests  of  Western  Europe.  She  was  compelled  to  cede  the 
Tyrol  and  Inviertel  to  Bavaria ;  to  relinquish  the  Continental  dominions 
of  Venice  and  all  her  accessions  in  Italy,  together  with  Voralberg,  Ech- 
stadt,  and  various  towns  and  lesser  principalities  in  Germany.  The 
electors  of  Wirtemberg  and  Bavaria  were  made  kings  of  their  respective 
provinces,  and  the  Emperor  Francis  was  forced  to  engage,  both  as  chief 
of  the  Empire,  and  as  co-sovereign,  "to  throw  no  obstacles  in  the  way 
of  any  acts  which  the  Kings  of  Wirtemberg  and  Bavaria,  in  their  capacity 
of  sovereigns,  might  think  proper  to  adopt :"  a  clause  which,  by  providing 
for  the  independent  authority  of  these  infant  kingdoms,  virtually  dis- 
solved the  Germanic  Empire.  The  secret  articles  of  the  treaty  were 
still  more  humiliating.  It  was  by  them  provided,  that  Austria  should 
pay  a  contribution  of  forty  millions  of  francs  in  addition  to  an  equal  sum 
already  levied  by  the  French  in  the  conquered  provinces,  and  also  in 
addition  to  the  loss  of  the  immense  military  stores  and  magazines  which 
had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  victors  during  the  war,  and  which  were 
either  to  be  sent  off  to  France  or  redeemed  by  a  heavy  ransom. 

This  treaty  was  followed  by  a  measure  hitherto  unprecedented  in 
European  history — the  pronouncing  sentence  of  dethronement  against  an 
independent  sovereign  for  no  other  cause  than  his  having,  during  the  late 
campaign,  contemplated  hostilities  against  the  Emperor  of  France.  On  the 
26th  of  December,  a  menacing  proclamation  issued  from  Presburg  against 
the  House  of  Naples.  In  this  document  Napoleon  announced  that  Mar- 
shal St.  Cyr  would  march  to  Naples  "  to  punish  the  treason  of  a  criminal 
queen,  and  precipitate  her  from  the  throne.  We  have  pardoned"  it  con- 
tinued, "  that  infatuated  king,  who  has  thrice  done  everything  to  ruin 
himself.  Shall  we  pardon  him  a  fourth  time  ?  Shall  we  a  fourth  time 
trust  a  court  without  faith,  without  honor,  without  reason  ?  No !  The 
dynasty  of  Naples  lias  ceased  to  reign  ;  its  existence  is  incompatible  with 
the  repose  of  Europe  and  the  honor  of  my  crown." 

The  dissolution  of  the  European  confederacy  against  Napoleon — which 
its  author  had  so  assiduously  labored  to  construct,  and  from  which  he  ex- 
pected such  important  results — was  fatal  to  Mr.  Pitt.  His  health,  long 
weakened  by  the  fatigue  and  excitement  incident  to  his  position,  sunk 
under  the  disappointment  of  this  failure  of  his  projects  ;  and  he  expired  at 
his  house  in  London,  on  the  23rd  of  January,  1806,  exclaiming  with  his 
latest  breath,  "  Alas,  my  country  !"  Chateaubriand  has  said,  "  while  all 
other  reputations,  even  that  of  Napoleon,  are  on  the  decline,  the  fame  of 
Mr.  Pitt  alone  is  continually  increasing,  and  seems  to  derive  fresh  lustre 
from  every  vicissitude  of  fortune."  But  this  eulogium  was  not  drawn 
forth  by  the  greatness  and  constancy  merely,  of  the  British  statesman  : 
the  justness  of  his  principles,  of  which  subsequent  events  have  afforded 
proof,  is  the  true  cause  of  the  growth  and  stability  of  his  fame.  But  for 
the  despotism  of  Napoleon,  followed,  as  it  was,  by  the  freedom  of  the 
Restoration,  the  revolt  of  the  barricades  and  the  military  government  of 


194  HISTORYOFEUROPE  [CHAP.  XXIV 

Louis  Philippe,  his  reputation  for  accurate  judgment  and  foresight,  in 
regard  to  foreign  transactions,  would  have  been  incomplete  ;  without  the 
passage  of  the  Reform  Bill,  and  the  subsequent  ascendency  of  democratic 
ambition  in  Great  Britain,  his  worth  in  domestic  government  would  never 
have  been  appreciated.  Every  hour,  abroad  and  at  home,  is  now  illustra- 
ting the  truth  of  his  principles.  He  was  formerly  admired  by  a  party 
in  England  as  the  champion  of  aristocratic  rights  ;  he  is  now  looked  back 
upon  by  the  nation  as  the  last  steady  asserter  of  universal  freedom  :  for- 
merly, his  doctrines  were  approved  chiefly  by  the  great  and  the  affluent , 
they  are  now  embraced  by  the  generous,  the  thoughtful,  the  unprejudiced 
of  every  rank — by  all  who  regard  passing  events  with  the  eye  of  historic 
inquiry,  or  are  attached  to  liberty,  not  as  the  means  of  elevating  a  party 
to  power,  but  as  the  birthright  of  the  human  race.  To  his  speeches  we 
now  turn  as  to  the  oracles  fraught  with  prophetic  warning  of  future  disas- 
ter. It  is  contrast  which  gives  brightness  to  the  colors  of  history  ;  it  is 
experience  which  brings  conviction  to  the  cold  lessons  of  political  wisdom  j 
and  thus,  though  many  eloquent  eulogiums  have  been  pronounced  on  the 
memory  of  Mr.  Pitt,  all  panegyrics  are  lifeless,  compared  to  that  fur. 
nished  by  Earl  Grey's  administration. 


CHAPTER    XXIV. 

FROM  THE  PEACE  OF  PRESBDRG  TO  THE  FALL  OF  PRUSSIA. 

THE  peace  of  Presburg  seemed  to  have  finally  subjected  the  continent 
of  Europe  to  the  Empire  of  France.  The  formidable  coalition  of  the 
several  powers  was  dissolved  ;  Austria  had,  apparently,  received  an  irre- 
parable wound  ;  Prussia,  though  irritated,  was  overawed  ;  and  the  Auto- 
crat  of  Russia  was  indebted  to  the  forbearance  of  the  victor  for  the  means 
of  escaping  from  the  theatre  of  his  triumph.  Sweden,  in  indignant  silence, 
had  withdrawn  to  the  shores  of  Gothland  ;  Naples  was  overrun  ;  Switzer- 
land was  silent ;  and  Spain  consented  to  yield  her  fleets  and  treasures  to 
the  conqueror.  England,  unsubdued  in  arms  and  with  unflinching  reso- 
lution, continued  the  strife ;  but,  after  the  prostration  of  her  allies,  and 
the  destruction  of  the  French  marine,  the  war  appeared  to  have  no  longer 
an  intelligible  object ;  while  the  death  of  the  great  statesman  who  had 
ever  been  the  uncompromising  foe  of  the  Revolution,  and  the  soul  of  the 
confederacies  opposed  to  it,  led  to  an  expectation  that  a  more  pacific  sys- 
tem of  government  might  be  anticipated  from  his  successors. 

The  death  of  Mr.  Pitt  dissolved  the  administration  of  which  he  was 
the  head.  His  towering  genius  could  ill  bear  a  partner  in  power  or 
a  rival  in  renown.  Equals,  he  had  none;  friends,  few;  and  with  the 
exception  of  Lord  Melville,  perhaps  no  statesman  ever  possessed  his  un- 
reserved confidence.  There  were  many  men  of  ability  and  resolution  in 
his  cabinet,  but  none  of  sufficient  strength  to  take  the  helm  when  it  drop- 
ped from  his  hands.  In  addition,  also,  to  the  comparative  weakness  of 
the  ministry  after  Mr.  Pitt's  decease,  the  state  of  public  opinion  rendered 
it  doubtful  whether  any  new  administration,  not  founded  on  a  coalition 


1806.]  IIISTORYOFEUROPE.  193 

of  parties,  could  command  general  support.  Under  these  circumstances, 
the  king  sent  a  messenger  to  Lord  Grenville,  requesting  his  attendance 
at  Buckingham  House,  to  confer  with  his  majesty  on  the  formation  of  a 
government.  Lord  Grenville,  on  repairing  thither,  suggested  Mr.  Fox 
as  the  proper  person  to  be  consulted.  "I  thought  so,  and  I  meant  it  so," 
replied  the  king ;  and  the  forming  of  an  administration  was  forthwith 
intrusted  to  these  two  distinguished  men. 

Mr.  Fox,  though  entitled,  by  his  talents  and  influence,  to  the  highest 
appointment  under  the  crown,  contented  himself  with  the  Department  of 
Foreign  Affairs,  considering  that  to  be  the  situation  in  which  the  greatest 
embarrassments  would  occur,  and  where  his  own  principles  were  likely 
soonest  to  lead  to  important  results.  Lord  Grenville  was  made  First 
Lord  of  the  Treasury  ;  Mr.  Erskine,  Lord  Chancellor ;  Lord  Howick, 
First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty  ;  Mr.  Windham,  Secretary  at  War  :  and 
Earl  Spencer,  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Home  Department.  The  cabinet 
exhibited  a  splendid  array  of  ability ;  but  many  observed,  with  regret, 
that  all  the  members  of  the  precedent  administration  were  excluded  from 
office,  and  anticipated  that  a  coalition  which  thus  seemed  likely  to  depart 
from  the  path  of  its  predecessors,  could  not  long  retain  the  power  it  had 
acquired.  Nevertheless,  no  immediate  change  took  place  in  the  measures 
of  the  government ;  and  Europe  saw  with  surprise  that  the  men  who  had 
invariably  characterized  the  war  as  unjust  and  impolitic,  themselves  pre- 
pared to  carry  it  on  with  the  samo  energy  as  the  former  ministers :  a 
striking  fact,  significant  alike  of  the  soundness  of  Mr.  Pitt's  policy,  and  of 
the  candor  of  the  party  who  now  directed  public  affairs. 

The  return  of  Napoleon  to  Paris,  where  he  arrived  on  the  26th  of 
January,  was  an  opportune  event  for  the  financial  affairs  of  the  country, 
for  the  nation  was  on  the  verge  of  bankruptcy  ;  and  nothing  but  the 
Emperor's  extraordinary  efforts  to  meet  the  crisis,  together  with  the  timely 
conclusion  of  the  war,  which  relieved  the  demands  on  the  treasury,  could 
have  averted  that  calamity.  After  the  public  apprehensions  on  this  sub- 
ject were  somewhat  allayed,  the  municipality  of  Paris  resolved  to  erect  a 
monument,  commemorative  of  the  campaign  of  Austerlitz  ;  and  five  hun- 
dred pieces  of  cannon,  taken  from  the  Austrians,  were  accordingly  con- 
verted  into  the  beautiful  column  in  the  Place  Vendome. 

Napoleon  soon  proceeded  to  execute  his  purpose  against  Naples,  and 
dispatched  Joseph  Bonaparte,  at  the  head  of  fifty  thousand  men,  to  take 
possession  of  the  throne  in  his  own  name.  As  resistance  was  impossible, 
the  future  sovereign  of  Naples  made  his  entry  into  that  city,  on  the  15th 
of  February ;  and  on  the  14th  of  April,  he  received  the  decree  by  which 
Napoleon  also  created  him  king  of  the  two  Sicilies.  At  the  same  time, 
the  Venetian  States  were  definitively  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  and 
Napoleon's  son-in-law,  Eugene  3eauharnois,  called  to  the  throne.  The 
beautiful  Pauline,  Napoleon's  sister,  and  wife  of  Prince  Borghese,  re- 
ceived the  duchy  of  Guastalla ;  the  Princess  Eliza  was  created  Prin- 
cess of  Lucca  Piombino  ;  Murat  was  made  Grand-Duke  of  Berg,  with  a 
considerable  territory ;  and  the  Emperor  reserved  to  himself  twelve  du- 
chies in  Italy,  which  he  bestowed  on  the  principal  officers  of  his  army. 

Although  Joseph  Bonaparte  was  thus  easily  placed  on  the  throne,  he 
soon  had  occasion  to  learn  the  precarious  tenure  of  his  power.  He  had 
hardly  returned  to  Naples  from  a  visit  into  Sicily,  when  an  English  fleet 
wrested  from  him  the  island  of  Capri,  which  bounds  the  horizon  south  of 

19* 


190  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXIV. 

.he  Bay  of  Naples,  and  nothing  but  the  generous  forbearance  of  the  Eng- 
lish commander,  Sir  Sidney  Smith,  saved  his  capital  and  palace  from  a 
bomoardment  amid  the  light  of  a  festive  illumination.  A  more  serious 
disaster  soon  occurred  in  the  southern  provinces  of  his  dominions.  An 
insurrection  had  broken  out  in  Calabria,  which  threatened  to  overturn  his 
government  in  that  quarter ;  and  the  English  commanders  in  Sicily  re- 
solved on  an  expedition  by  sea  and  land,  to  relieve  the  fortress  of  Gaeta, 
and  encourage  the  insurgents,  a  part  of  whom  were  there  besieged  by  the 
French  troops  under  Massena.  In  the  beginning  of  July,  an  expedition 
also  set  sail  from  Palermo,  consisting  of  five  thousand  men  commanded 
by  Sir  John  Stuart,  who  landed  at  St.  Euphemia.  The  English  general 
here  learned  that  a  French  force,  under  Regnier,  seven  thousand  five 
hundred  strong,  was  encamped  at  Maida,  about  ten  miles  distant,  and  he 
immediately  moved  forward  to  attack  them.  Both  parties  contested  the 
field  with  great  bravery  ;  but  at  length  British  intrepidity  prevailed 
over  the  French  numbers  and  enthusiasm,  and  Regnier  was  forced  to 
retreat,  leaving  one  half  of  his  army  on  the  field,  in  killed,  wounded  and 
prisoners. 

The  battle  of  Maida,  though  it  hardly  attracted  the  notice  of  the 
French  people,  dazzled  as  they  were  by  the  blaze  of  Ulm  and  Auster- 
litz,  had  an  important  bearing  on  the  progress  of  events :  for,  insignifi- 
cant as  were  the  numbers  of  the  troops,  and  the  immediate  results  of 
the  contest,  the  victory  gave  proof  that  the  English  soldiers  were  an 
overmatch  for  Napoleon's  veterans :  it  created  an  ardent  desire  through- 
out the  British  Empire,  for  an  opportunity  to  measure  their  national 
strength  with  the  conquerors  of  Continental  Europe  on  a  larger  field ;  and 
it  went  far  to  reconcile  all  parties  to  a  vigorous  continuance  of  the  war. 

The  conquest  of  Naples,  and  the  assumption  of  the  Sicilian  throne  by 
the  brother  of  Napoleon,  together  with  the  other  partitions  of  Italy  as 
already  related,  were  not  the  only  usurpations  that  followed  the  peace 
of  Presburg.  The  old  commonwealth  of  Holland  was  also  destined  to 
receive  a  master  from  the  victorious  Emperor,  in  the  person  of  his  brother 
Louis,  who,  as  "  in  the  existing  state  of  Europe,  a  hereditary  govern- 
ment could  alone  guaranty  the  independence,  and  secure  the  civil  and 
religious  privileges  of  the  realm,"  was,  on  the  5th  of  June,  declared 
King  of  Holland.  The  same  day  on  which  this  event  took  place,  an  am- 
bassador arrived  at  Paris  from  the  Grand  Signior  of  Turkey,  to  congratu- 
late Napoleon  on  his  accession  to  the  Imperial  dignity,  and  friendly 
relations  were  soon  established  between  the  two  powers. 

The  victory  of  Trafalgar,  with  the  subsequent  achievement  of  Sir 
Richard  Strachan,  had  almost  entirely  destroyed  the  combined  fleet  that 
issued  from  Cadiz ;  but  the  squadrons  of  Rochefort  and  Brest  still  re- 
mained, and  Napoleon  resolved  to  turn  their  resources  to  account.  Half 
of  the  Brest  fleet,  consisting  of  eleven  ships  of  the  line,  were  victualled 
for  six  months ;  and,  in  the  middle  of  December,  1805,  when  the  Eng- 
lish blockading  fleet  had  been  blown  off  the  station  by  violent  winds, 
these  eleven  ships  put  to  sea  accompanied  by  four  frigates,  and  in  two 
divisions  were  dispatched,  the  one  to  St.  Domingo,  and  the  other  to  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Admiral  Duckworth  pursued  the  former  of  these 
squadrons,  with  seven  ships  of  the  line  and  four  frigates,  and  on  the  6th 
of  February  attacked  them  in  the  harbor  of  St.  Domingo.  The  French 
frigates  made  their  escape,  but  three  of  the  ships  of  the  line  were  cap- 


1806.J  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  197 

tured,  and  the  other  two  drifted  ashore  and  were  burned.  Of  the  six 
ships  of  the  line  dispatched  for  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  two  were  cap- 
tured by  the  British,  one  was  driven  ashore  and  burned,  another  wag 
chased  into  Havana  in  a  disabled  condition,  and  two  made  good  their  re- 
treat to  France.  About  the  same  time,  a  British  squadron  under  Sir 
John  Warren,  captured  two  sail  of  the  line,  and  the  Belle  Poule  frigate, 
commanded  by  Admiral  Linois,  on  their  return  from  the  Indian  Ocean; 
and  Sir  Samuel  Hood  made  prize  of  four,  out  of  five  French  frigates, 
bound  for  the  West  Indies  with  troops  on  board. 

This  almost  total  annihilation  of  the  French  navy,  was  followed  by  a 
reduction  of  the  remaining  Dutch  forces  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and 
the  final  conquest  of  that  peninsula ;  and,  early  in  the  summer,  Sir 
Howe  Popham  took  possession  of  Buenos  Ayres ;  but,  in  this  instance, 
the  captured  province  was  not  occupied  with  a  sufficient  force,  and  the 
inhabitants  retook  it  on  the  4th  of  August. 

About  the  same  period,  some  differences  arose  between  the  United 
States  of  America  and  Great  Britain,  which  threatened  to  be  followed 
by  important  consequences.  The  grievances  in  which  the  difficulty 
originated,  were  .such  as  unquestionably  gave  the  Americans  much 
ground  for  complaint,  although  no  fault  could  be  imputed  to  the  English 
maritime  policy,  for  they  were  the  necessary  result  of  the  Americans' 
having  engrossed  so  large  a  portion  of  the  carrying-trade  between  the 
belligerent  powers  of  Europe.  The  first  subject  of  complaint  was  the 
impressment  of  seamen,  claimed  to  be  British  subjects,  in  the  American 
service :  the  next,  the  alleged  violation  of  neutral  rights,  by  the  seizure 
and  condemnation,  under  certain.circumstances,  of  vessels  engaged  in 
the  carrying-trade  of  France.  To  these  serious  and  lasting  subjects  of 
discord,  was  added  the  irritation  produced  by  an  unfortunate  shot  from 
the  British  ship  Leander,  on  the  coast  of  America,  which  killed  an 
American  citizen,  and  produced  so  great  a  disturbance,  that  Mr.  Jeffer- 
son issued  an  intemperate  proclamation,  prohibiting  the  crew  of  that  and 
some  other  English  vessels  from  entering  the  harbors  of  the  United 
States.  Meetings  took  place  in  the  principal  cities  of  the  Union,  at 
which  violent  resolutions  were  passed  by  acclamation.  Congress  dis- 
cussed the  subject,  and,  after  some  preliminary  decrees,  passed  a  non- 
importation act  against  the  manufactures  of  Great  Britain.  The  English 
people  were  equally  loud  in  asserting  their  maritime  rights,  and  a  new 
trans-Atlantic  war  seemed  to  be  inevitable.  But,  fortunately  for  both 
countries,  whose  real  interests  are  not  more  closely  united  than  their 
popular  passions  are  at  variance,  the  adjustment  of  the  matters  in  dis- 
pute was  left  to  wiser  arid  cooler  heads  than  the  vehement  populace  of 
either.  Mr.  Monroe  and  Mr.  Pinckney  were  sent  as  commissioners  to 
England,  and  by  conferences  with  Lords  Holland  and  Auckland,  the  dif- 
ferences were  amicably  reconciled. 

The  cabinet  of  Berlin  was  greatly  embarrassed  on  receiving  intelli- 
gence of  the  treaty  concluded  between  Haugwitz  and  Napoleon  at  Vienna. 
On  the  one  hand,  the  object  at  which  their  ambition  had  for  ten  years 
been  directed,  seemed  about  to  be  obtained  by  the  possession  of  Hano- 
ver ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  some  remains  of  conscience  made  them  feel 
ashamed  at  thus  partitioning  a  friendly  power,  and  they  were  not  without 
fear  of  offending  Alexander,  by  openly  despoiling  his  faithful  ally.  At 
length,  however,  the  magnitude  of  the  temptation  prevailed  over  the 


198  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP  XXIV 

king's  better  principles,  and  he  determined  not  simply  to  ratify  the  treaty, 
but  to  send  it  back  to  Paris  with  certain  modifications ;  and,  to  give  a 
color  to  the  transaction,  as  well,  perhaps,  as  a  salvo  to  his  own  sense  of 
justice,  he  offered  to  accept  the  proposed  exchange  of  Hanover  for  cer- 
tain southern  provinces  of  Prussia,  on  condition  that  such  exchange 
should  be  deferred  till  a  general  peace  was  ratified,  and  the  consent  of 
Great  Britain  obtained.  At  the  same  moment,  it  was  represented  to  the 
English  minister  at  Berlin,  that  arrangements  had  been  concluded  with 
France  for  insuring  the  tranquillity  of  Hanover,  which  "  stipulated  ex- 
pressly the  committing  of  that  country  to  the  sole  guard  of  the  Prussian 
troops,  and  to  the  administration  of  the  king,  until  the  conclusion  of  a 
general  peace."  But  not  a  word  was  said  of  any  ulterior  designs  to  an- 
nex Hanover  to  the  Prussian  dominions.  Napoleon,  however,  who  saw 
through  this  equivocation,  and  determined  that  Prussia  should  take  defi- 
nite ground  on  one  side  or  the  other,  apprised  the  cabinet  of  Berlin,  thai 
the  treaty  of  Vienna  had  not  been  ratified  within  the  prescribed  time, 
and  was  therefore  no  longer  binding  on  France.  This  step  was  decisive. 
On  the  15th  of  February,  Haugwitz  signed  a  new  treaty,  which  was  rati- 
fied on  the  26th,  and  carried  into  immediate  execution,  by  which  Hanover 
was  openly  ceded  to  Prussia,  and  her  ports  closed  against  the  British  flag  : 
the  Prussian  troops  accordingly  took  formal  possession  of  the  territory. 

The  moment  that  the  British  government  ascertained  these  facts,  they 
recalled  their  ambassador  from  Berlin,  declared  the  Prussian  harbors  in 
a  state  of  blockade,  and  laid  an  embargo  on  all  Prussian  vessels  in  Eng- 
lish  ports.  Within  a  few  weeks,  the  Prussian  flag  was  swept  from  the 
ocean,  and  four  hundred  of  her  merchant  ships  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
British  cruisers. 

In  consenting  to  this  infamous  treaty  with  France,  the  cabinet  of  Ber 
lin  were  actuated  by  a  desire  for  gain,  together  with  a  wish  to  deprecate 
the  wrath  and  conciliate  the  favor  of  Napoleon  ;  and  it  is  well  to  know 
how  far  the  latter  objects  were  accomplished.  "From  the  moment,'' 
says  Bignon,  "that  the  treaty  of  the  15th  of  February  was  signed,  Napo- 
leon did  more  than  hate  Prussia ;  he  entertained  toward  that  power  the 
most  profound  contempt.  All  his  views  from  that  day  were  based  on 
considerations  foreign  to  her  alliance,  and  he  pursued  his  plans  as  if  that 
alliance  no  longer  existed."  His  hostility  and  contempt  soon  appeared 
in  his  occupation  of  the  abbacies  of  Werden,  Essen  and  Elten,  without 
any  regard  to  the  claims  of  Prussia ;  in  his  levying  large  contributions 
from  Frankfort  and  Hamburg  ;  and  in  his  seizing,  at  Bremen,  a  large 
quantity  of  merchandise,  merely  suspected  to  be  British,  and  committing 
it  to  the  flames.  The  Imperial  robber  afterward  exacted  six  millions  of 
francs,  in  this  time  of  profound  peace,  from  Hamburg  and  the  Hanse 
Towns,  as  the  price  of  his  military  protection. 

Napoleon  next  proceeded  to  form  a  general  treaty  with  the  Kings  of 
Bavaria  and  Wirtemberg,  the  Archbishop  of  Ratisbon,  the  Elector  of 
Baden,  the  Grand-Duke  of  Berg,  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse  d'Armstadt, 
the  Princes  of  Nassau,  Hohenzollern,  Sigmasingen,  Salm-Salm,  Salm- 
Kerbourg,  Isemberg-Birchestein,  Litchtenstein  d'Aremberg,  the  Count  de 
la  Leyen  and  the  Grand-Duke  of  Wurtzberg — which  compact  is  known 
as  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine.  By  this  treaty,  the  states  in  alliance 
were  declared  to  be  for  ever  separated  from  the  Germanic  Empire,  inde- 
pendent of  any  power  foreign  to  the  Confederacy,  and  placed  under  the 


HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  190 

protection  of  the  Emperor  of  the  French ;  moreover,  hostility  committed 
against  any  one  of  the  parties  was  to  be  considered  as  a  declaration  of 
war  against  the  whole.  The  Emperor  Francis,  justly  considering  this 
measure  as  subversive  of  his  Empire,  solemnly  renounced  the  throne  of 
the  Caesars,  and  declared  himself  the  first  Emperor  of  Austria  independ- 
ent of  the  hereditary  states. 

This  separation,  however,  seemed  likely  to  prove  as  serious  to  Prussia 
as  to  Austria,  by  bringing  the  hostile  influence  of  France  so  close  to  the 
frontiers  of  the  former  power ;  and  it  accordingly  produced  a  great  sen- 
sation in  Berlin.  But  this  and  some  preceding  causes  of  complaint  sunk 
into  comparative  insignificance,  when  it  was  discovered  that  Napoleon 
had  proposed  to  enter  into  negotiations  with  England,  on  the  basis  of 
restoring  Hanover  to  its  lawful  sovereign,  and  made  advances  to  Russia, 
promising  to  throw  no  obstacle  in  the  way  of  a  reestablishment  of  the 
kingdom  of  Poland  and  Polish  Prussia,  in  favor  of  the  Grand-Duke  Con- 
stantine.  Irritated  beyond  endurance,  and  anxious  to  regain  the  place 
that  he  was  conscious  he  had  lost  in  the  estimation  of  Europe,  the  King 
of  Prussia  immediately  put  his  armies  on  the  war  footing,  dispatched  M. 
Kruscmark  to  St.  Petersburg  and  M.  .Lacobi  to  London,  to  seek  a  recon- 
ciliation with  those  powers,  opened  the  navigation  of  the  Elbe,  concluded 
his  differences  with  Sweden,  and  ordered  his  troops  to  defile  in  the  direq. 
tion  of  Leipsic. 

The  efforts  of  Prussia  to  regain  friendly  relations  with  England  and 
Russia  were  soon  crowned  with  success — the  cabinets  of  both  countries 
being  willing  to  forgive  and  overlook  her  gross  meanness  and  duplicity, 
in  consideration  of  her  now  honestly  throwing  her  whole  force  into  the 
«cale  against  France:  but  a  similar  attempt  to  engage  Austria  in  the 
Compact  totally  failed.  The  cabinet  of  Vienna,  with  too  much  justice, 
took  the  ground  that  the  conduct  of  Prussia  for  ten  years  had  been  so 
dubious  and  vacillating,  her  hostility  to  Austria  on  many  occasions  so 
evident,  her  partiality  for  France  so  conspicuous,  and  her  changes  of 
policy  during  the  last  twelve  months  so  extraordinary,  no  reliance  what- 
ever could  be  placed  on  her  maintaining  for  any  length  of  time  a  decided 
course ;  least  of  all  could  it  be  hoped,  that  she  would  continue  stedfast  in 
the  sudden  and  perilous  undertaking  in  which  she  had  now  engaged ;  her 
very  vehemence,  on  this  occasion,  being  the  worst  possible  guaranty  for 
her  constancy.  Besides,  the  Archduke  Charles,  on  being  consulted  as  to 
the  state  of  the  army,  reported  that  the  troops  were  without  pay,  organi- 
zation and  equipment,  and  in  no  condition  to  renew  the  war  from  which 
they  had  so  recently  and  deplorably  suffered.  In  one  quarter,  however, 
and  where  it  was  least  expected,  Prussia  received  encouragement  and 
promise  of  cooperation,  though  at  the  moment  there  were  no  means  of 
making  the  aid  available :  this  was  from  the  government  of  Spain,  which, 
tired  of  Napoleon's  exhausting  demands  upon  her  treasury,  and  at  last 
opening  her  eyes,  as  Prussia  had  done,  to  the  real  designs  of  the  French 
Emperor,  resolved  to  terminate  her  ruinous  alliance  with  him  and,  at  a 
convenient  opportunity,  join  her  arms  to  those  of  the  enemies  of  France. 

The  whole  weight  of  the  contest  was,  therefore,  destined  to  fall  on 
Prussia  alone;  for  although  great  and  efficacious  assistance  might  in 
time  be  derived  from  England  and  Prussia,  the  Muscovite  battalions  were 
yet  cantoned  on  the  Niemen,  those  of  England  had  not  sailed  from  the 
Thames;  while  Napoleon,  at  the  head  of  a  hundred  and  eighty  thousand 

15 


200  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXIV. 

veteran  soldiers,  was  rapidly  approaching  the  Thuringian  Forest,  whither 
the  rash  haste  of  Prussia,  by  her  premature  declaration  of  hostilities,  had 
given  him  abundant  pretext  for  concentrating  his  troops.  And  not  only 
had  she  precipitated  this  terrible  invasion,  without  first  assuring  herself 
of  support  from  her  allies;  but  she  had  also  neglected  the  proper  appli- 
cation of  her  own  resources  for  defence.  Her  entire  disposable  force  did 
not  exceed  a  hundred  and  thirty  thousand  men ;  and  when  these  took  the 
field,  no  depots  of  magazines  or  provisions  had  been  formed,  no  measures 
taken  for  recruiting  the  army  in  case  of  disaster,  no  rallying  points  as- 
signed for  the  retreating  troops  if  defeated,  nor  were  the  frontier  or 
interior  fortresses  of  the  kingdom  provisioned,  armed  or  garrisoned  in  a 
manner  to  render  them  capable  of  a  protracted  resistance.  A  general 
and  deplorable  infatuation  seemed  to  possess  the  whole  people.  They 
seemed  either  to  forget  or  despise  the  strength  of  their  redoubtable  adver- 
sary; and,  in  the  same  mad  proportion,  to  exaggerate  their  own.  Care- 
less of  the  future,  and  chanting  songs  of  victory,  the  army  bent  its  steps 
toward  Erfruth,  dreaming  of  nothing  but  conquest  and  the  overthrow  of 
Napoleon.  Great  as  wa^s  the  infatuation  of  the  troops,  greater  still  was 
the  delusion  of  their  commander,  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  who,  though 
an  able  man  of  the  last  century,  was  behind  the  present  age,  and  totally 
ignorant  of  the  perilous  chances  of  a  war  with  the  veterans  of  France. 
He  attributed  the  disasters  of  the  late  campaigns  entirely  to  timidity  and 
want  of  skill  in  the  Austrians,  and  maintained,  that  the  way  to  combat  the 
French  was  to  assume  a  vigorous  offensive,  and  paralyze  their  enthusiasm 
by  holding  them  to  defensive  positions — a  sound  theory  indeed,  but  one 
which  required  an  army  differently  constituted  from  any  that  Prussia 
could  muster,  to  carry  out  in  practice.  Besides,  there  was  one  thing  of 
which  the  Prussians,  from  the  general-in-chief  to  the  lowest  drummer, 
were  entirely  unaware — namely,  the  terrible  vehemence  and  rapidity 
which  Napoleon  had  introduced  into  modern  warfare,  by  the  union  of 
consummate  skill  at  head-quarters  with  enormous  masses  of  troops  in  the 
field;  and  thus,  falling  into  the  common  error  of  applying  to  the  present 
the  antiquated  rules  of  the  past,  they  based  their  calculations  on  a  war 
of  manoeuvres,  when  one  of  annihilation  awaited  them. 

The  respective  armies  pressed  forward  to  the  contest ;  and,  on  the  8th 
of  October,  their  advanced  posts  were  in  sight  of  each  other.  The  line 
adopted  by  the  Prussians  was  an  echellon  movement  with  the  right  in 
front,  which  was  pushed  on  to  Eisenach;  next  in  order  followed  the 
centre,  commanded  by  the  king  in  person,  who,  in  connexion  with  the 
left  wing,  under  Hohenlohe  and  Ruchel,  advanced  upon  Saalfield  and 
Jena;  while  each  wing  was  covered  by  a  detached  corps  of  observation, 
one  under  Blucher  and  the  other  under  Tauenzein.  The  design  of  this 
movement  was,  by  a  flank  march,  to  pierce  the  base  of  the  enemy's  posi- 
tion, and,  by  turning  at  once  their  centre  and  left,  cut  them  off  from  their 
communications  with  France.  It  was  precisely  the  mano3uvre  under- 
taken by  the  allies  at  Austerlitz,  excepting  that  the  main  bodies  of  the  two 
armies  were  not  so  near  each  other,  and  was  of  course  liable,  in  its  very 
inception,  to  the  same  disastrous  result. 

Napoleon  was  not  likely  to  lose  this  opportunity  of  at  once  defeating 
and  destroying  the  Prussian  army.  At  three  o'clock  in  the  morning  of 
the  9th  of  October,  the  French  troops  were  in  motion.  On  the  right, 
Soult  and  Ney,  with  a  Bavarian  division,  marched  from  Bayreuth  by 


1806.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  201 

Hof,  on  Plauen;  in  the  centre,  Murat,  with  Bernadotte  and  Davoust, 
moved  from  Bamberg  by  Cronach,  on  Saalbourg;  on  the  left,  Lannes 
and  Augereau  advanced  by  Coburg  and  Graffenthal,  on  Saalfield.  The 
effect  of  these  movements  was,  to  bring  the  French  centre  and  right 
directly  on  the  Prussian  communications  and  reserves. 

The  Prussians  were  in  the  midst  of  their  perilous  advance  toward  the 
French  left,  when  intelligence  of  this  change  of  their  opponents'  position 
reached  the  Duke  of  Brunswick.  He  instantly  sent  orders  to  arrest  the 
march  of  his  troops,  and  directed  their  concentration  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Weimar.  But  before  this  movement  could  be  accomplished,  the 
French  skirmishers  were  upon  their  flanks,  and  in  every  quarter  they 
were  forced  to  retreat  with  considerable  loss.  As  yet,  however,  the 
contest  on  both  sides  had  been  confined  to  detachments  of  light  troops, 
the  principal  force  of  the  respective  armies  being  too  distant  from 
each  other  for  a  general  action.  But,  in  the  meantime,  Napoleon  had 
gained  the  whole  line  of  the  Prussian  communications,  and  cut  off  every 
chance  of  retreat.  Three  days  were  consumed  in  partial  engagements 
and  important  changes  of  position,  every  one  of  which  resulted  to  the 
advantage  of  the  French.  On  the  evening  of  the  12th,  the  corps  of 
Hohenlohe,  consisting  of  about  forty  thousand  men,  was  grouped  in  dense 
masses  on  a  ridge  of  heights  on  the  road  from  Jena  to  Weimar:  the 
remainder  of  the  army,  about  sixty-five  thousand  strong,  under  the  Duke 
of  Brunswick,  and  accompanied  by  the  king,  lay  about  a  league  in  the 
rear  of  Hohenlohe.  But  while  the  Prussians  were  thus  advantageously 
posted,  they  learned  that  Murat  and  Davoust  had  advanced  upon  Naum- 
berg;  on  which  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  desirous  to  protect  that  town, 
and  not  suspecting  that  Napoleon  contemplated  an  immediate  action, 
moved  with  the  principal  part  of  his  corps  to  Auerstadt,  where  he  arrived 
at  night  on  the  13th,  leaving  Hohenlohe  at  Jena  to  cover  his  retreat. 
During  the  same  day,  Napoleon  took  up  his  position  on  the  heights  oppo- 
site Jena,  and  made  arrangements  for  a  pitched  battle  on  the  following 
morning,  without  dreaming  that  the  Prussians  had  thus  insanely  divided 
their  forces. 

At  six  o'clock  on  the  14th,  the  French  commenced  the  attack,  and  the 
Prussians,  though  taken  entirely  by  surprise,  received  it  with  great  intre- 
pidity. But  their  numbers  were  only  forty  thousand  men,  while  the 
French  exceeded  ninety  thousand ;  and  notwithstanding  the  determined 
bravery  with  which  they  fought,  it  was  impossible  to  avoid  a  terrible 
defeat.  Column  after  column  of  fresh  troops  poured  in  upon  them,  the 
field  was  strewed  with  their  dead  and  wounded,  and  at  length  they  gave 
way  at  all  points  and  fled  in  tumultuous  confusion,  pursued  by  the  cavalry 
of  Murat.  At  this  moment,  Ruchel  arrived  with  a  reenforcement  of 
twenty  thousand  men ;  a  force  which,  under  different  circumstances, 
might  have  changed  the  fortune  of  the  day  ;  but  after  a  desperate  combat 
of  one  hour's  duration,  they,  too,  were  broken,  dispersed  and  almost  anni- 
hilated. It  was  no  longer  a  battle,  but  a  massacre.  The  Prussians, 
abandoning  their  artillery  and  all  form  of  discipline,  fled  to  Weimar, 
where  the  victors  entered  pell-mell  with  the  fugitives. 

While  Hohenlohe  and  Ruchel  were  suffering  this  fearful  disaster,  the 
King  of  Prussia  was  fighting  under  different  circumstances,  though  with 
little  better  success,  at  Auerstadt.  Davoust,  being  posted  near  the  king's 
encampment,  had  that  morning  received  a  dispatch  from  Napoleon-— who 


202  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP. 

had  not  yet  heard  of  the  Duke  of  Brunswick's  movement  upon  Auerstadt 
— announcing  his  intention  of  giving  battle  to  the  whole  Prussian  army 
at  Jena,  and  directing  him  (Davoust)  to  fall  on  the  Prussian  rear,  in  order 
to  cut  off  its  retreat.  The  French  marshal's  corps,  thirty  thousand  strong, 
though  fully  competent  to  check  the  flight  of  a  routed  army,  would  have 
seemed  to  be  scarcely  able  to  withstand  the  shock  of  sixty  thousand  well 
disciplined  troops,  who,  commanded  by  the  king  and  the  Duke  of  Bruns- 
wick, occupied  the  route  designated  for  Davoust  to  pursue  in  Napoleon's 
dispatch.  But  he,  as  well  as  his  Emperor,  was  ignorant  of  the  force 
opposed  to  him.  and  without  hesitation  he  began  his  march  up  the  long 
and  steep  ascent  which  bounds  the  plateau  of  Auerstadt.  He  had  already 
gained  the  defile  of  Koessen,  and  his  vanguard  was  forming  on  the  field 
beyond,  when  the  straggling  columns  of  the  Prussians,  not  anticipating 
an  attack  at  this  point,  crossed  his  path.  A  skirmish  ensued,  which,  being 
promptly  followed  up  by  the  advancing  forces  on  each  side,  soon  became 
a  battle  that  raged  without  intermission  during  the  whole  day.  The 
Prussian  army  was  greatly  superior  to  its  opponents  in  numbers ;  and  in 
discipline  and  courage,  was  inferior  to  none  in  Europe  ;  but  the  French 
troops,  in  addition  to  their  high  discipline,  had  the  material  advantage  of 
long  experience  and  constant  service  in  the  field,  to  which  the  Prussians 
had  been  strangers,  through  a  protracted  interval  of  peace  ;  and  Davoust 
occupied  a  position  of  defiles,  which,  in  a  great  degree,  compensated  for 
his  deficiency  of  numerical  strength.  The  battle  resulted  in  the  total 
defeat  of  the  Prussians,  who  retreated  with  great  loss  ;  and  Davoust,  who 
had  won  imperishable  military  renown  by  such  a  victory  against  such 
odds,  encamped  on  the  scene  of  his  triumph. 

The  King  of  Prussia,  late  at  night,  gave  directions  for  the  retreat  of 
the  army  upon  Weimar,  intending  to  form  a  junction  with  Hohenlohe,  of 
whose  discomfiture  he  was  yet  Jgnorant.  But  as  the  troops,  in  extreme 
dejection,  were  following  the  great  road  which  leads  to  that  place,  they 
were  startled  by  the  sight  of  an  extensive  line  of  bivouac  fires  on  the 
heights  of  Apolda,  where  Bernadotte  was  posted  with  his  entire  corps, 
not  having  taken  part  in  either  action.  This  sudden  apparition  of  a  fresh 
army  of  unknown  strength  on  the  flank  of  their  retreat,  compelled  the 
Prussians,  at  that  untimely  hour,  to  change  their  line  and  abandon  the 
great  road.  At  the  same  time,  rumors  began  to  circulate  through  the 
ranks  of  a  catastrophe  at  Jena  ;  and  the  appearance  of  fugitives  from  that 
quarter,  moving  in  the  utmost  haste  athwart  the  king's  route,  soon  an- 
nounced the  magnitude  of  that  overthrow.  A  general  consternation  now 
seized  the  men.  Despair  took  possession  of  the  stoutest  hearts ;  and  as 
the  cross-tide  of  the  broken  battalions  of  Jena  mingled  with  the  wreck  of 
the  masses  of  Auerstadt,  the  confusion  became  inextricable,  the  panic 
universal.  Infantry,  cavalry  and  artillery  disbanded,  and  fled  in  hopeless 
disorder  across  the  fields  without  direction,  command,  or  rallying-point. 

The  loss  of  the  Prussians  in  the  two  battles  was  prodigious  ;  it  amounted 
to  nearly  forty  thousand  men — of  whom  one  half  were  prisoners — two 
hundred  pieces  of  cannon  and  twenty-five  standards ;  and  the  conse- 
quences of  the  retreat  were  not  less  disastrous.  The  unusual  occurrence 
of  four  generals  being  killed  or  mortally  wounded,  left  the  confused  mass 
of  fugitives  without  a  leader,  and  they  therefore  fled  wherever  chance 
directed  their  steps.  Fourteen  thousand  of  the  stragglers,  arriving  from 
different  points,  made  their  way  into  Erfurth,  a  place  capable,  under  other 


180G.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  203 

circumstances,  of  permanent  defence  ;  but  the  entire  number  surrendered 
on  the  following  day,  with  a  hundred  and  twenty  pieces  of  cannon,  to  the 
first  corps  of  the  enemy  that  approached  the  town.  On  the  16th,  three 
thousand  men  with  twenty  pieces  of  cannon,  surrendered  at  Nordhausen, 
and  on  the  17th,  four  thousand  men  and  thirty  pieces  of  cannon  were  taken 
at  Halle ;  while  the  killed  and  wounded  in  the  contests  where  these  cap- 
tures were  made,  bore  a  large  proportion  to  the  number  of  prisoners. 
The  king  surrendered  the  command  of  the  remnants  of  his  army  to  Ho- 
henlohe,  and  retired  to  Magdebourg,  where  Hohenlohe  soon  followed  him 
with  about  twenty-six  thousand  men,  to  protect  that  important  fortress. 
The  French  pursuit,  however,  was  so  rapid,  that  they  arrived  at  Magde- 
bourg before  the  bewildered  Prussians  had  all  taken  refuge  within  its 
walls.  Hohenlohe,  finding  it  would  be  impossible  to  maintain  ihe  place, 
resolved  to  evacuate  it  with  such  of  the  troops  as  yet  preserved  any  ap- 
pearance of  order ;  and  he  accordingly  withdrew  on  the  side  opposite  to 
the  French  position  with  fourteen  thousand  men,  and  made  for  Stettin, 
abandoning  Berlin  to  its  fate,  and  leaving  twelve  thousand  disorganized 
combatants  to  defend  themselves  as  they  might  at  Magdebourg. 

But  the  discomfitures  of  the  Prussian  general  were  not  yet  at  an  end. 
Wherever  he  directed  his  march,  he  found  himself  opposed  by  superior 
forces  of  the  enemy ;  and,  after  undergoing  incredible  hardships  and  fa- 
tigue, and  displaying  withal  conduct  and  bravery  worthy  a  better  fate,  he 
at  length,  on  the  28th  of  October,  was  forced  to  surrender  with  his  whole 
army  at  Prentzlow.  On  the  same  day,  in  obedience  to  the  summons  of 
Marshal  Lannes,  the  governor  of  the  fortress  of  Stettin,  on  the  Oder, 
capitulated  without  firing  a  shot ;  and,  such  was  the  terror  inspired  by 
the  very  appearance  of  a  French  detachment,  the  fortress  of  Custrin,  with 
four  thousand  men,  opened  its  gates  on  the  31st  to  the  bare  command  of  a 
single  regiment  of  infantry,  led  by  General  Gauthier,  and  supplied  with 
but  two  pieces  of  cannon.  The  disgrace  and  literal  absurdity  of  this 
capitulation  was  made  more  conspicuous  from  the  fact,  that  the  French 
soldiers  could  not  take  possession  of  the  fortress — it  being  situated  on  an 
island  in  the  Oder — until  the  garrison  supplied  them  with  boats  for  the 
purpose ! 

The  only  corps  of  the  Prussian  army  which  had  hitherto  escaped  de- 
struction, was  that  formed  by  the  union  of  Blucher's  cavalry  with  the  Duke 
of  Saxe  Weimar's  infantry,  and  commanded  by  the  former  of  these  gen- 
erals ;  who,  after  drawing  reinforcements  from  some  ill-defended  interior 
fortresses,  found  himself  at  the  head  of  twenty-four  thousand  men  of  all 
arms,  inclftding  sixty  pieces  of  cannon.  Blucher  first  moved  toward 
Magdebourg,  which  had  not  at  that  time  surrendered  to  the  invaders  ;  but 
finding  his  progress  interrupted  by  nearly  sixty  thousand  of  the  enemy, 
he  fell  back  to  Lubec.  Here,  again,  his  march  was  impeded  by  thrice 
his  own  number  of  men  under  Bernadotte:  he  nevertheless  made  an  en- 
trance into  the  town,  and  defended  it  iritil  near  nightfall  with  invincible 
obstinacy  ;  but  his  loss  in  the  affair  was  immense,  and  in  the  evening  he 
was  glad  to  retreat  with  five  thousand  men  to  Schwertau,  where  his  cav- 
alry awaited  him.  He  here  ascertained  that  further  resistance  was  hope- 
less, as  he  was  completely  enveloped  by  his  indefatigable  enemies ;  and  he 
capitulated  on  the  summons  of  Murat,  yielding  his  whole  force,  with  his 
artillery  and  baggage,  into  the  hands  cf  the  French  troops.  This  too4 
place  en  the  7th  of  November.  On  the  3th,  Magdebourg  surrendered  with 

20 


204  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXIV 

its  garrison  of  fourteen  thousand  troops  under  arms,  four  thousand  in  hos- 
pital, six  hundred  pieces  of  cannon,  eight  hundred  thousand  pounds  of 
powder,  and  extensive  military  stores  of  all  sorts.  The  fortresses  of 
Hameln  and  Nieubourg  on  the  Weser,  soon  followed  the  example  of 
Magdebourg,  and  their  respective  garrisons,  augmented  by  stragglers  to 
eight  thousand  men,  yielded  themselves  prisoners  of  war. 

In  this  deplorable  extremity,  the  King  of  Prussia  sought  to  obtain  condi- 

ions  of  peace ;  but  Napoleon,  who  had  resolved  on  utterly  destroying  his 

jnfortunate  enemy,  coldly  replied  to  the  ambassador,  that  it  was  premature 

to  speak  of  peace  when  the  campaign  was  scarcely  begun,  and  that  the 

king,  having  chosen  the  arbitrament  of  arms,  must  abide  the  issue. 

On  the  26th  of  October,  Napoleon  made  a  triumphal  entry  into  Ber- 
lin ;  and,  in  order  as  much  as  possible  to  lacerate  the  feelings  of  his  van- 
quished antagonists,  he  caused  the  procession  to  pass  under  the  arch  of  the 
Great  Frederic,  and  himself  took  up  his  residence  at  the  old  palace.  In 
addition  to  this,  he  paraded  a  large  body  of  prisoners  through  their  na- 
tive streets  of  Berlin,  as  an  expression  of  his  contempt  for  their  misfor- 
tunes ;  he  heaped  all  manner  of  indignity  and  cruelty  on  the  nobles  of  the 
capital ;  and  the  brave  old  Duke  of  Brunswick,  respectable  from  his  age, 
his  former  achievements  and  his  honorable  scars,  and  at  that  moment  mor- 
tally wounded,  was  driven  by  the  persecutions  of  the  French  Emperor  to 
take  refuge  in  Altona,  where  he  soon  after  expired. 

The  French  armies,  without  meeting  any  further  resistance,  took  posses- 
sion of  the  whole  country  between  the  Rhine  and  the  Oder ;  and  in  the 
rear  of  the  victorious  troops  appeared  the  dismal  scourge  of  military  con- 
tributions :  one  hundred  and  sixty  millions  of  francs  were  demanded,  and 
the  rapacity  of  the  French  agents  employed  in  its  collection  aggravated 
the  weight  and  odious  nature  of  the  imposition.  Early  in  November, 
Napoleon  issued  a  decree,  separating  the  conquered  state  into  four 
departments,  namely,  Berlin,  Magdebourg,  Stettin  and  Custrin  ;  and  the 
military  and  civil  government  of  the  whole  was  intrusted  to  a  governor- 
general  at  Berlin,  appointed  by  the  Emperor,  and  subject  in  all  respects 
to  his  control.  The  same  system  of  usurpation  was  extended  to  the  Duchy 
of  Brunswick,  the  states  of  Hesse  and  Hanover,  the  Duchy  of  Mecklen- 
berg  and  the  Hanse  Towns.  Napoleon  announced  his  intention  to  retain 
these  territories  until  England  should  concede  to  him  the  liberty  of  the  seas. 
Negotiations  for  peace  between  France  and  Prussia  were  in  the  mean  time 
commenced,  but  Napoleon's  demands  were  so  exorbitant  that  the  king  re- 
solved, even  in  his  present  state  of  helplessness,  to  abide  the  continuance 
of  the  war,  rather  than  accede  to  them. 

When  this  was  decided,  the  main  body  of  the  French  army  pushed  on 
to  the  Vistula  to  engage  the  forces  of  Russia.  Napoleon  made  a  brief 
halt  atPosen,  in  Prussian  Poland,  where  he  gave  audience  to  the  deputies 
of  that  unhappy  country,  and  made  them  promises  of  protection  which  he 
never  performed.  At  the  same  time,  as  the  contingent  losses  of  so  vast  a 
body  of  men  in  constant  service,  even  though  always  victorious,  were  con- 
siderable, the  Senate  at  Paris,  on  the  Emperor's  requisition,  voted  a  ree'n- 
forcement  of  eighty  thousand  conscripts  from  the  youth  who  would  arrive 
at  the  lawful  age  in  1807.  The  Elector  of  Saxony  was  at  this  time  ele- 
vated to  the  dignity  of  a  king,  and,  as  such,  admitted  into  the  Confedera- 
tion of  the  Rhine. 

The  campaign  of  Jena  was  the  most  marvellous  of  Napoleon's  achieve- 


1806.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  205 

ments.  Without  halting  one  day  before  the  forces  of  the  enemy,  the 
French  troops  had  marched  from  the  Rhine  to  the  Vistula  ;  three  hundred 
and  fifty  standards,  four  thousand  pieces  of  cannon,  six  first-rate  fortresses, 
and  eighty  thousand  prisoners,  had  been  taken  in  less  than  seven  weeks : 
and  of  a  noble  array  of  a  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  men,  who  were  so 
lately  mustered  on  the  banks  of  the  Saale,  not  more  than  fifteen  thousand 
could  be  rallied  to  follow  the  fortunes  of  the  Prussian  king. 


CHAPTER    XXV. 

CAMPAIGN    OF    EYLATJ. 

ALTHOUGH  the  campaign  of  Jena  had  nearly  destroyed  the  powei  of 
Prussia,  Russia  was  yet  untouched,  and  while  her  formidable  legions  were 
in  the  field,  the  war  was  very  far  from  being  terminated.  Napoleon  felt 
this,  as  the  armies  of  the  two  Empires  approached  the  Vistula  at  a  season 
of  the  year  when,  in  ordinary  contests,  the  soldier's  only  care  is  to  protect 
himself  against  the  rigor  of  the  elements.  The  efficient  force  of  the 
French,  who  were  concentrated  on  the  destined  theatre  of  war  early  in 
December,  amounted  to  one.  hundred  thousand  men ;  while  the  allied 
army  of  Russia  and  Prussia,  owing  to  the  expedition  of  a  large  detachment 
to  the  Turkish  dominions,  could  not  be  estimated  at  more  than  seventy-five 
thousand.  Field-marshal  Kamenskoi,  who  had  the  command  in-chief  of 
this  force,  was  a  veteran  of  the  school  of  Suwarrow,  nearly  eighty  years 
of  age,  and  little  qualified  to  enter  the  lists  with  Napoleon ;  but  the  ability 
of  Benningsen  and  Buxhowden,  the  two  next  in  command,  promised,  in 
part,  to  atone  for  the  old  marshal's  deficiencies. 

The  cabinet  of  St.  Petersburg  had  foreseen  that  the  rapidity  of  Napo- 
leon's movements  would  give  the  French  a  numerical  superiority  on  the 
Vistula,  unless  Russia  could  receive  some  material  aid  in  bringing  for- 
ward her  troops ;  and  they  therefore  made  early  application  to  Great 
Britain,  for  a  portion  of  those  subsidies  which  she  had  so  liberally  granted 
on  former  occasions,  to  the  powers  who  combated  the  common  enemy  of 
European  independence ;  and,  considering  that  the  whole  weight  of  the 
contest  had  now  fallen  on  Russia,  they  solicited,  and  not  without  reason, 
a  loan  of  six  millions  sterling.  The  answer  to  this  application,  proved 
too  clearly  that  the  spirit  of  Pitt  no  longer  directed  the  British  councils. 
The  subsidy  was  declined  on  the  part  of  the  government,  but  the  minis- 
ters  proposed  that  a  loan  should  be  contracted  in  England,  for  the  service 
of  Russia,  and  that,  for  the  security  of  the  lenders,  the  duties  on  British 
merchandise  then  levied  in  the  Russian  ports,  should  be  repealed,  and 
the  same  duties,  in  lieu  thereof,  levied  in  the  British  ports  and  applied  to 
the  payment  of  the  interest  on  the  loan.  This  strange  proposal,  equiva- 
lent to  a  declaration  of  want  of  confidence  both  in  the  integrity  and  sol- 
vency  of  the  Russian  government,  was  of  course  rejected,  and,  to  the 
lasting  discredit  of  England,  Russia  was  left  to  contend  unaided  with  the 
powor  of  France. 

The  advanced  posts  of  the  allied  army  had  reached  the  Vistula,  though 


206  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXV. 

not  in  great  force,  before  the  French  troops  came  up  ;  but  on  the  arrival 
of  the  latter,  the  allies  fell  back  to  Pultusk,  and  Davoust  occupied  War- 
saw on  the  30th  of  November.     Wh^n,  however,  the  second  Russian 
army,  under  Buxhowden,  approached  Pultusk,  Kamenskoi   resolved  on  a 
forward  movement.     Head-quarters  were  advanced  to  Nas:eTfk,  and  the 
four  divisions  of  Benningsen's  corps  took  post  between  the  Ukra,  the  Hug, 
and  the  Narew ;  while  Buxhowden's  divisions,  as  they  successively  ar- 
ived,  were  stationed  between  Golymin  and  Makow  ;  and  Lestocq,  on  the 
xtreme  right,  encamped  near  the  banks  of  the  Drewentz  almost  under 
the  walls  of  Thorn.     The  object  of  this  general  advance  was  to  compel 
the  French  to  withdraw  entirely  from  the  right  bank  of  the  Vistula,  that 
the  river  might  interpose  between  the  winter-quarters  of  the  two  armies. 
When  Napoleon  heard  of  this  forward  movement,  he  hastened  to  War- 
saw,  where  he  arrived  on  the  18th  of  December,  and  was  welcomed  as  a 
deliverer  by  the  inhabitants.     The  nobility  flocked  into  the  capital  from 
all  quarters,  the  peasantry  assembled  and  demanded  arms,  the  national 
dress  was  generally  resumed,  several  regiments  of  horse  were  raised, 
and  before  the  close  of  the  campaign,  no  less  than  thirty  thousand  men 
were  enrolled  in  disciplined  regiments  from  the  Prussian  provinces  of 
Poland.     But  this  universal  enthusiasm  did  not   lead  Napoleon  to  forget 
his  own  policy,  which  was  to  encourage  this  revolt  in  Prussian  Poland 
only,  lest  by  extending  it  to  the  Austrian  portion  of  that  ancient  kingdom, 
he  might  rouse  the  cabinet  of  Vienna  from  its  neutrality.     In  his  decree, 
therefore,  bv  which  he  established  a  provisional  government  in  Warsaw, 
he  was  careful  to  say,  that  such  government  would  continue  only  "  un- 
til the  fate  of  Prussian  Poland  was  determined  by  a  general   peace  ;" 
and  this,  in  connexion  with  his  other  measures,  showed  to  the  reflecting 
and  prudent,  that  while  he  was  resolved  to  make  the  utmost  use  of  Po- 
lish cooperation  in  pursuing  his  own  plans  of  aggrandizement,  he  would 
abandon  this  unfortunate  people  to  their  own   resources,  the   moment  he 
ceased  to  need  their  aid,  or  was  unable  to  render  it  available  to  himself. 
Some  skirmishes  had  already  taken  place  between  detachments  of  the 
two  armies,  which  ended  in  favor  of  the  Russians ;  but  when  Napoleon 
took  command  in   person,  he  gave  orders  for  more  serious  operations. 
On  the  23rd  of  December,  he  directed  Davoust  to  force  the  passage  of 
the  Ukra,  which  had  hitherto  bounded  the  French   lines  ;  and,  after  a 
severe  action  of  fourteen  hours,  the  passage  was  effected,  with  a  loss  to 
each  army  of  one  thousand  men.     The  allies  fell  back  toward  Pultusk, 
and  being  pursued,  another  conflict  took  place  in  front  of  Nasielsk,  be- 
tween General  Rapp  and  the  Russians  under  Count  Tolstoy,  in  which 
the  latter  were  worsted,  but  not  without  inflicting  a  severe  loss  on  the 
victors  ;  in  this  affair,  an  aid-de  camp  of  Alexander  was  made  prisoner 
by  the  French,  and  Count  Segur,  attached  to  Napoleon's  household,  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Russians.     On  the  same  day,  Augereau,  after  fight- 
ing from  morning  until  sunset  at  Lochoczyn,  forced  a  Russian  division 
to  retire;  so  that,  although  no  decisive  advantage  had  yet  been  gained, 
the  whole  allied  army  were  now  in  full  retreat  upon  diverging  linr-s.  and 
evcrj'  moment  the  several  corps  were  separating  farther  from  each  other, 
Kamenskoi  was  so  much  discouraged  at  the  aspect  of  affairs,  that  he 
ordered  the  artillery  to  be  destroyed,  lest  it  should  too  much  impede  the 
flight  of  the  troops  ;  but  Benningsen,  deeming  such  an  order  unnecessary, 
and  convinced  that  it  resulted  from  an  approaching  insanity,  which  so-.j» 


160C.]  II ISTORYOF    EUROPE.  207 

entirely  overset  the  mind  of  the  veteran  marshal,  took  upon  himself  the 
bold  step  of  disobeying  it ;  and,  in  order  to  gain  time  for  the  cannon  and 
equipages  to  defile  in  the  rear,  he  resolved  to  maintain  his  position  at 
Pultusk  with  all  the  troops  at  his  disposal,  amounting  to  about  forty  thou- 
sand men  ;  while  the  divisions  of  Doctoroff,  Sacken  and  Gallitzin,  at 
Golymin,  made  a  stand  against  Augereau,  who  was  supported  by  a  part 
of  Davoust's  and  Murat's  corps.  Bennin^sen  drew  up  his  army  in 
admirable  order,  in  front  of  the  town  of  Pultusk  ;  his  right  wing  was 
commanded  by  Barclay  de  Tolly  and  Count  Tolstoy,  his  left  by  Sacken, 
and  the  centre  by  himself  in  person.  Lannes,  with  thirty-five  thousand 
men,  advanced  to  the  attack  on  the  morning  of  the  26th.  The  battle  was 
contested  at  various  points  until  long  after  dark,  when  a  terrible  storm 
separated  the  combatants.  Neither  party  could  boast  of  decided  success. 
The  Russians  remained  masters  of  the  field  till  midnight,  when  they 
crossed  the  Narew  by  the  bridge  of  Pultusk,  and  retired  in  perfect  order: 
the  French  also  retreated  to  such  a  distance,  that  when  the  Cossacks,  the 
next  day,  patroled  eight  miles  beyond  the  battle-ground  toward  Warsaw, 
they  could  discover  no  traces  of  the  enemy.  The  French  lost  six  thou- 
sand men,  and  the  Russians  nearly  five  thousand.  The  action  at  Goly- 
min, about  thirty  miles  from  Pultusk,  which  took  place  on  the  samo  day, 
terminated  in  a  similar  manner:  the  Russians,  under  Prince  Gallitzin, 
remained  in  possession  of  the  field,  and  although  they  lost  twenty-six 
pieces  of  cannon,  owing  to  the  bad  state  of  the  roads,  their  killed  and 
wounded  was  something  less  than  two  thousand,  while  the  French  loss 
exceeded  four  thousand  men.  As  the  Russian  order  for  retreat  still  held 
good,  Prince  Gallitzin,  at  midnight,  resumed  his  march  for  Ostrolenka. 
On  the  28th,  Napoleon  reached  Golymin,  but  finding  that  from  the  con- 
dition of  the  roads,  and  the  obstinate  valor  of  the  Russian  troops,  it  was 
impossible  to  gain  any  material  advantage  by  the  campaign,  he  issued 
orders  to  stop  the  advance  of  his  columns,  and  put  the  troops  into  winter- 
quarters,  while  he  himself  returned  with  the  Imperial  Guards  to  War- 
saw. As  soon  as  the  Russians  learned  that  the  French  had  withdrawn 
from  their  pursuit,  they  also  went  into  winter-quarters  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Narew. 

This  desperate  struggle  in  the  forests  of  Poland  in  the  depth  of  winter, 
created  a  great  sensation  throughout  Europe.  Independent  of  the  inte- 
rest excited  by  the  extraordinary  spectacle  of  two  vast  armies'  prolonging 
their  contest  amid  the  storms  and  snows  of  a  Polish  winter,  the  divided 
trophies  of  the  actions  indicated  that  Napoleon's  veterans  had  finally 
encountered  their  equals  in  the  field ;  and  that  the  torrent  of  French 
conquest,  if  not  averted,  had  at  least  been  stemmed. 

While  the  French  armies  were  in  cantonments  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Vistula,  Benningsen,  who  had  now  been  appointed  to  the  chief  com- 
mand of  the  allied  forces,  resolved  to  commence  an  offensive  operation 
against  the  French  left  under  Bernadotte  and  Ney,  who,  with  nearly 
seventy  thousand  men,  had  extended  themselves  so  as  to  menace  Kon ings- 
berg,  the  second  city  of  the  Prussian  dominions,  while  at  the  same  time 
they  were  threatening  Dantzic  and  Graudentz.  For  this  purpose,  the 
Russian  general,  whose  movements  were  concealed  by  the  forests  that 
separated  him  from  the  French  lines,  rapidly  united  his  divisions  and 
pushed  forward  to  Rhein,  in  Eastern  Prussia,  where  he  established  his 
head-quarters  on  the  17th  of  January.  On  the  10th,  the  Russian  uav- 

20* 


208  HISTORY     OF    EUR  OPE.  [CHAP.  XXV. 

airy,  under  Gallitzin,  surprised  and  defeated  the  light  horse  of  Marshal 
Ney,  and  on  the  22nd  a  severe  action  took  place  at  Lecberg,  whence 
the  French  cavalry  were  driven  toward  Allenstein.  Bernadotte,  alarmed 
at  this  sudden  irruption,  made  great  efforts  to  concentrate  his  forces  at 
Mohrungen,  where,  on  the  24th,  he  was  attacked  by  Benningsen's  ad- 
vanced guard.  Had  this  attack  been  delayed  for  a  few  hours,  until  the 
entire  Russian  corps  had  reached  the  field,  the  French  would  have  been 
totally  destroyed ;  as  it  resulted,  each  party  lost  about  two  thousand 
men,  and  Bernadotte  retreated  toward  Thorn,  severely  pressed  by  the 
Cossacks,  who  almost  annihilated  his  rear-guard,  and  took  several  thou- 
sand prisoners.  Gallitzin  had,  in  the  mean  time,  fallen  on  the  rear  of 
Bernadotte's  position,  penetrated  into  the  town,  and  captured  the  French 
marshal's  private  baggage,  among  which  were  found,  as  in  the  den  of  a 
freebooter,  silver  plate  bearing  the  arms  of  almost  all  the  German  states, 
besides  ten  thousand  ducats  levied  for  his  own  use  from  the  town  of 
Elbing. 

This  narrow  escape  of  both  Bernadotte  and  Ney,  excited  the  utmost 
alarm  in  the  French  army ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Russians  were 
proportionably  elated,  and  followed  up  their  success  by  raising  the  siege 
of  Graudentz,  and  throwing  ample  supplies  into  that  fortress.  Napoleon, 
who  had  not  contemplated  a  renewal  of  hostilities  until  the  present  in- 
clement season  was  passed,  became,  also,  greatly  disturbed  at  events 
which  rendered  it  indispensable  to  expose  his  troops  to  a  new  campaign 
during  the  severity  of  a  northern  winter,  and  in  a  country  where  pro- 
visions could  scarcely  be  obtained  for  so  large  a  body  of  men.  But  there 
was  no  time  for  deliberation,  as  the  Russians  were  advancing  to  the 
relief  of  Dantzic,  and  would  soon  turn  the  whole  French  line  of  defence. 
By  a  rapid  concentration  and  forced  march,  the  Emperor  had,  on  the  2nd 
of  February,  made  his  way  to  the  rear  of  Benningsen's  army,  and  inter- 
posed between  him  and  the  Russian  dominions,  so  that  the  sole  line  of 
retreat  open  to  Benningsen  lay  to  the  northeast,  in  the  direction  of  Ko- 
ningsberg  and  the  Niemen.  Napoleon  endeavored  to  improve  his  advan- 
tage, by  completely  hemming  in  the  Russians,  but  his  dispatches  for 
Bernadotte  having  fallen  into  Benningsen's  hands,  that  officer  was  en- 
abled to  elude  his  grasp,  and  withdraw  from  Junkowo  toward  Leibstadt 
on  the  night  of  the  3rd  of  February. 

Murat  immediately  pursued  the  retiring  Russians  with  his  whole  cav- 
alry; and,  as  the  latter  had  been  much  retarded  during  the  night  by  the 
passage  of  their  cannon  and  baggage  through  the  narrow  streets  of 
Junkowo,  the  rear-guard  was  soon  overtaken:  the  Russians,  however, 
fought  with  such  determined  bravery,  that  they  effected  their  retreat  in 
perfect  order,  and  their  loss,  which  amounted  to  fifteen  hundred  men, 
was  no  greater  than  the  French  sustained  in  the  attack.  On  the  night 
of  the  4th,  Benningsen  reached  Frauendorf,  where  he  stood  firmly  during 
the  next  day.  But  a  continued  retreat  in  presence  of  the  enemy,  soon 
began  to  be  attended  with  its  usual  consequences  on  the  troops,  and  Ben- 
ningsen found  it  necessary  to  check  the  French  pursuit  by  a  general 
action.  He  therefore,  after  some  deliberation,  selected  the  field  of  Prus- 
sich-Eylau  for  that  purpose,  and  pushed  forward  his  columns  to  make 
the  requisite  dispositions  for  a  battle.  On  the  night  of  the  5th,  he  arrived 
at  Landsberg,  where  he  resisted  a  spirited  attack  from  Davoust's  corps ; 
and,  on  the  following  day  his  rear-guard,  under  Bagrathion,  was  assailed 


1807.]  HISTORVT    OF    EUROPE.  209 

by  Murat's  cavalry  and  a  large  part  of  the  corps  of  Soult  and  Augereau. 
Bagrathion  maintained  his  ground,  however,  during  the  whole  day,  and 
at  night  bivouacked  in  sight  of  the  French  army.  Toward  morning  on 
the  7th,  he  moved  on  to  Prussich-Eylau,  where,  by  noonday,  the '  Rus- 
sian forces  were  drawn  up  in  order  of  battle,  awaiting  only  the  arrival 
of  Lestocq  with  the  remains  of  the  Prussian  army.  The  entire  allied 
force,  including  Lestocq's  division,  amounted  to  seventy-five  thousand 
men,  with  four  hundred  and  sixty  pieces  of  cannon ;  while  the  total 
strength  of  Napoleon  was  not  less  than  eighty-five  thousand,  including 
sixteen  thousand  cavalry,  and  three  hundred  and  fifty  pieces  of  artillery. 

The  field  of  battle  was  a  wide  expanse  of  ground  rising  into  small  hills, 
and  well  adapted  to  military  operations.  The  Russian  right,  under 
Tutschakoff,  lay  on  both  sides  of  Schloditten ;  the  centre,  under  Sacken, 
occupied  a  cluster  of  hills  in  front  of  Kuschnitten ;  the  left,  under  Tols- 
toy, rested  on  Klein-Saussgarten ;  the  advanced  guard,  ten  thousand 
strong,  with  its  outposts  extending  almost  to  the  village  of  Eylau,  was 
commanded  by  Bagrathion ;  and  Doctoroff  held  the  reserve  in  the  rear 
of  Sacken.  After  Napoleon  had  carefully  reconnoitered  this  position,  on 
the  morning  of  the  8th  of  February,  he  resolved  to  turn  the  Russian  left 
and  throw  it  back  upon  the  centre ;  but  to  conceal  his  purpose,  he  com- 
menced a  violent  attack  on  the  centre  and  right,  pushing  forward  Auge- 
reau and  Soult  with  his  own  left  and  centre.  Augereau  had  not  ad- 
vanced more  than  three  hundred  yards,  when  his  troops  were  arrested 
by  a  terrible  fire  of  the  Russian  artillery ;  a  snow  storm  at  the  same  time 
darkened  the  atmosphere,  so  as  to  prevent  the  combatants  from  seeing 
each  other,  and  a  charge  of  Cossacks,  whose  lances  reached  the  enemy 
before  they  were  aware  of  their  approach,  completed  the  disorder  of  the 
French  division,  which  fled  in  the  wildest  confusion  to  Eylau.  So  entire 
was  the  destruction  of  Augereau's  corps,  not  more  than  fifteen  hundred 
men,  out  of  sixteen  thousand,  made  good  their  retreat. 

Napoleon  was  first  apprised  of  this  disaster  by  the  fugitives  who  hur- 
ried past  his  position  at  Eylau,  and  he  nearly  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
division  that  pursued  them.  Soult  was  by  this  time  also  in  full  retreat 
before  the  Russian  centre  ;  and  to  check  the  advance  of  the  latter,  Napo- 
leon formed  an  enormous  column  of  fourteen  thousand  cavalry  and  twenty- 
five  thousand  infantry,  supported  by  two  hundred  pieces  of  cannon,  and 
sent  them,  under  Murat,  to  break  the  Russian  line.  The  first  shock  of 
the  dragoons  was  irresistible,  and  the  French  cuirassiers,  advancing 
through  the  openings  they  made,  reached  Benningsen's  reserve  of  cav- 
alry. They  were  here  immediately  charged  by  PlatofF,  with  his  Cos- 
sacks ;  and,  as  in  the  meantime  the  Russian  line  had  rallied  and  repelled 
the  French  infantry,  the  cuirassiers  had  no  avenue  of  retreat,  and  were 
all  destroyed  excepting  eighteen  men,  who  regained  their  own  quarters 
by  a  long  circuit  around  the  Russian  outposts.  The  battle  was  now  won 
on  Benningsen's  centre  and  right,  but  Davoust,  who  had  long  been  held 
in  check  on  the  left,  soon  after  received  a  reenforcement,  carried  the 
village  of  Klein-Saussgarten,  and  threatened  to  change  the  fate  of  the 
day,  when  Lestocq  arrived  with  his  long-expected  corps.  He  advanced 
with  great  gallantry  to  the  aid  of  the  left  wing,  and  although  Davoust's 
troops  were  more  than  double  the  number  of  his  own,  he  forced  him  to 
retreat  with  great  loss,  and  the  whole  Russian  line  was  soon  pressing 
forward  in  pursuit  of  the  retreating  army  of  Napoleon,  when  night  sepa- 
rated the  combatants. 


210  HISTORY     OF     EUROPE.  [C  HAP.  XXV. 

The  losses  in  this  battle  were  prodigious;  twenty-five  thousand  inen 
were  killed  or  wounded  on  the  side  of  the  Russians;  and  thirty  thousand 
on  that  of  the  French,  besides  ten  thousand  who  temporarily  deserted 
their  colors.  The  Russians  lost  sixteen  guns  and  fourteen  standards, 
and  captured  twelve  French  eagles  in  return. 

Immediately  after  the  battle,  Napoleon  gave  orders  for  his  heavy  artil- 
lery and  baggage  to  defile  toward  Landsberg;  but  he  was  relieved  from 
the  mortification  of  retreating  before  an  enemy  in  an  open  field,  by  the 
measures  of  Benningsen,  who,  in  opposition  to  the  wishes  and  advice  of 
his  officers,  and  as  yet  ignorant  of  the  immense  loss  and  consequent  in- 
tentions of  the  French  Emperor,  resolved  on  withdrawing  toward  Ko- 
ningsberg.  For  nine  days,  the  French  remained  at  Eylau,  unable  to 
advance,  unwilling  to  retreat,  and  apparantly  awaiting  some  pacific 
overture  from  the  enemy.  Finding,  at  length,  that  the  Russians  man- 
ifested no  disposition  to  propose  an  armistice,  Napoleon  resolved  himself 
to  take  that  step,  and  sent  General  Bertram  to  Benningsen's  outposts  with 
proposals  of  peace  to  the  King  of  Prussia.  The  Russian  commander  sent 
the  envoy  on  to  Memel,  where  that  monarch  resided,  and  sent  also  a 
letter  recommending  him  not  to  treat.  The  French  officer,  on  being 
presented  to  the  king,  proposed  a  separate  treaty  of  peace,  and  on  terms 
far  different  from  those  which  he  would  have  offered  after  the  battle  of 
Jena;  but  Frederic  William  could  not  be  induced  to  negotiate  on  a 
basis  that  excluded  the  Emperor  of  Russia  from  .he  treaty,  notwithstand- 
ing the  comparatively  tempting  offers  that  were  made  to  him. 

Foiled  in  his  endeavors  to  seduce  Prussia  into  a  separate  accommoda- 
tion, Napoleon  at  length  found  himself  compelled  to  retreat.  Eylau 
was  evacuated,  and  six  hundred  wounded  men  were  there  abandoned  to 
the  enemy,  while  the  whole  army,  retiring  by  the  great  road  of  Lands- 
berg,  spread  itself  into  cantonments  on  the  banks  of  the  Passarge,  from 
Hohenstein  to  Braunsberg.  Orders  were  at  the  same  time  given  to 
resume  the  siege  of  Dantzic. 

The  bloody  contest  of  Eylau  excited  the  liveliest  hopes  among  the 
people  of  Germany  and  England,  and  the  gloom  and  depression  that  it 
diffused  through  all  ranks  in  France  were  proportionably  deep.  The 
funds  fell  rapidly,  thousands  of  families  were  called  to  mourn  the  death 
of  relatives,  and  the  general  despondency  was  much  increased  when  the 
message  of  Napoleon  to  the  Senate,  dated  March  26th,  announced  that 
another  conscription  of  eighty  thousand  men  was  needed,  and  must  be 
anticipated  from  the  supply  not  legally  due  until  September  of  the  follow- 
ing year.  The  number  of  young  men  who  then  annually  attained  the 
age  of  eighteen  in  France,  was  two  hundred  thousand ;  yet,  within  seven 
months,  Napoleon  had  called  for  no  less  than  two  hundred  and  forty 
thousand.  This  requisition  for  men  was  followed  by  a  demand  for  im- 
mense supplies  of  stores  and  ammunition:  all  the  highways  converging 
from  France  and  Italy  to  Poland  were  covered  with  troops  and  baggage- 
wagons;  horses  followed  in  great  numbers  from  Holstein,  Flanders  and 
Saxony,  and  contributions  were  levied  to  an  indefinite  extent  in  Germany 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  army.  Indeed,  so  far  did  the  provident  care 
of  the  Emperor  reach,  and  so  strongly  did  he  feel  the  danger  of  his  posi- 
tion, he  made  gigantic  preparations  for  a  defensive  warfare,  and  strength- 
ened himself  by  fortresses  and  intrenchments,  in  anticipation  of  a  struggle 
for  life  or  death  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine. 


1807.J  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  211 

While  Napoleon  was  taking  those  measures  which  resulted  in  the 
battle  of  Jena,  the  affairs  of  Turkey  attracted  some  attention  amonu  the 
powers  of  Europe.  As  early  as  August.  1806,  the  French  Emperor  had 
sent  General  Sebastian!  to  Constantinople,  for  the  express  purpose  of 
fomenting  discontent  between  Turkey  and  Russia.  By  a  treaty  between 
these  two  powers,  bearing  date  September  24th,  1802,  it  had  been  stipu- 
lated, that  the  governors  of  the  two  Turkish  frontier  provinces  of  Wai  la- 
cilia  and  Moldavia  should  not  be  removed  from  office  without  the  consent 
of  Russia;  nevertheless,  Sebastiani,  seizing  on  this  clause  as  the  most 
promising  ground  for  bringing  about  a  rupture,  succeeded  in  persuading 
the  Sultan  Selim  to  displace  the  rulers  of  those  provinces:  and  as  the 
step  was  taken,  not  only  without  the  concurrence  of  Russia,  but  also 
without  the  knowledge  of  the  other  diplomatic  functionaries  at  Constan- 
tinople, the  Russian  minister  complained  loudly  of  the  infraction  of  the 
treaty,  and  he  was  supported  by  Mr.  Arbuthnot,  minister  from  Great 
Britain,  who  threatened  an  attack  on  the  Turkish  capital  by  the  fleets 
of  the  two  nations.  A  few  days  afterward,  a  Russian  brig,  which  arrived 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Bosphorus,  was  denied  admission  by  the  Turkish 
authorities:  this  so  enraged  the  Russian  minister,  that  he  embarked  on 
board  the  English  brig  Canopus,  threatening  to  leave  the  harbor  if  the 
two  dismissed  governors  were  not  replaced  ;  and  the  British  envoy  added, 
that  if  the  demand  of  Russia  were  not  complied  with,  an  English  fleet 
would  enter  the  Dardanelles  and  lay  the  Turkish  capital  in  ashes.  In- 
timidated by  these  threats,  the  Sultan  acceded  to  the  demand,  and  made 
ample  promises  of  satisfaction  for  the  steps  he  had  taken :  but  it  soon 
appeared  that  he  had  yielded  to  the  storm  only  to  place  himself  in  a 
condition  to  brave  it,  and  that  his  policy  and  predilections  were  identified 
with  Napoleon's  views.  In  the  mean  time,  intelligence  of  the  rupture, 
but  not  of  its  reconciliation,  had  reached  St.  Petersburg,  and  General 
Michelson  was  dispatched  with  a  powerful  army  to  make  an  immediate 
descent  on  the  Turkish  dominions;  and  although,  afterward,  news  of  the 
accommodation  arrived,  the  Russian  cabinet,  either  having  no  confidence 
in  the  good  faith  of  Selim,  or  not  sorry  to  find  a  pretext  for  invading 
Turkey,  refused  to  countermand  their  orders  to  General  Michelson,  who 
advanced  accordingly  into  the  Sultan's  territory.  Sebastiani.  improving 
the  advantage  thus  offered,  induced  the  Divan  to  declare  war  against 
Russia,  which  was  formally  proclaimed  on  the  30th  of  December.  But 
notwithstanding  the  hostile  attitude  thus  assumed  by  Turkey,  she  was  yet 
in  no  condition  to  sustain  the  war,  and  General  Michelson  overran  Wal- 
lachia  and  Moldavia,  and  took  military  possession  of  both  provinces.  An 
application  from  the  cabinet  of  St.  Petersburg  to  that  of  London,  for  the 
naval  cooperation  of  the  latter  in  prosecuting  the  contest,  was  readily 
acceded  to ;  and  Sir  John  Duckworth,  having  under  his  command  seven 
ships  of  the  line,  two  frigates  and  two  bomb- vessels,  received  orders  to 
force  the  passage  of  the  Dardanelles  and  compel  the  Turks  to  renounce 
their  alliance  with  France.  On  the  26th  of  January,  when  the  fleet 
arrived  off  the  mouth  of  these  straits,  Mr.  Arbuthnot  presented  to  the 
Sultan  the  ultimatum  of  Great  Britain,  requiring  the  dismissal  of  Sebas- 
tiani, the  formation  of  a  treaty  with  England  and  Russia,  and  the  opening 
of  the  Dardanelles  to  the  vessels  of  the  latter  power.  This  proposal  was 
rejected,  and  a  declaration  of  war  against  Great  Britain  immediately 
ensued. 


212  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE  [CHAP.  XXV. 

Sir  John  Duckworth,  on  receiving  this  intelligence,  made  rapid  prepa- 
rations for  passing  the  Dardanelles,  and  entered  the  straits  on  the  19th 
of  February,  with  a  fair  wind.  The  Turks  opened  a  cannonade  from 
some  of  their  batteries,  but  they  were  soon  silenced  by  the  broadsides  of 
the  fleet,  which,  steadily  advancing,  overtook  and  destroyed  the  ship  of 
the  Captain  Pacha,  together  with  five  frigates,  and  cast  anchor  off  the 
Isle  of  Princes,  within  three  leagues  of  Seraglio  Point.  Sir  John  Duck- 
worth then  sent  a  message  to  the  authorities  of  Constantinople,  that  unless 
the  demands  of  Great  Britain  were  instantly  granted,  he  should  in  half 
an  hour  open  his  fire  on  the  town. 

At  first,  the  Sultan  thought  of  nothing  but  submission.  Sebastiani, 
however,  prevailed  on  him  to  pursue  a  different  course ;  and,  in  order  to 
gain  time  for  repairing  the  ample  batteries  of  the  place,  and  of  the  Dar- 
danelles, he  dictated  a  reply,  to  the  effect  that  the  Sultan  was  anxious  to 
reestablish  his  amicable  relations  with  England,  and  had  appointed  Allett 
Effendi  to  treat  on  his  behalf.  The  unsuspecting  admiral,  who,  by  reason 
of  Mr.  Arbuthnot's  illness,  undertook  the  negotiation,  was  no  match  for 
the  French  general  in  diplomacy,  and  readily  fell  into  the  snare.  Day 
after  day  passed  in  the  exchange  of  notes  and  diplomatic  communications; 
and,  meanwhile,  the  entire  defence  having  been  intrusted  to  Sebastiani, 
the  batteries  of  the  capital,  and  along  the  whole  straits  through  which 
the  British  fleet  would  have  to  retire,  were  put  in  order.  The  guns  were 
mounted,  ammunition  supplied,  men  trained  to  the  use  of  the  cannon,  and 
in  short,  preparations  of  the  most  formidable  description  were  in  rapid 
progress,  while  the  English  admiral  remained  inactive  and  credulous  in 
the  harbor  of  Constantinople :  when  at  length  he  became  sensible  of  his 
folly,  and  thought  of  retreating  from  his  dangerous  position,  the  wind  had 
changed  to  the  southwest,  and  rendered  his  escape,  for  the  time,  impos- 
sible. Fortunately,  on  the  first  of  March,  a  breeze  sprung  up  from  the 
east,  all  sails  were  spread,  and  the  fleet  reentered  the  perilous  straits. 
The  passage  was  disputed  with  great  spirit,  but  the  inexperience  of  the 
Turkish  gunners  prevented  their  improving  to  the  utmost  their  advan- 
tage; and  the  British  ships  escaped  the  scene  of  danger  with  a  loss  of 
only  two  hundred  and  fifty  men. 

Sir  John  Duckworth,  as  soon  as  he  had  passed  the  straits,  took  posses- 
sion of  Lemnos  and  Tenedos,  and  established  a  strict  blockade  at  the 
entrance  to  the  Dardanelles  from  the  Archipelago ;  and  as  a  similar 
measure  was  adopted  by  the  Russian  fleet  at  the  mouth  of  the  Bosphorus, 
the  Turks  soon  began  to  suffer  from  famine.  After  a  time,  their  neces- 
sities became  so  urgent,  that  they  manned  their  ships  of  war  and  boldly 
determined  to  attack  the  Russian  squadron.  The  result  was  what  might 
have  been  anticipated.  Four  of  their  ships  of  the  line  were  taken,  three 
burned,  and  the  remainder  driven  back.  This  action  occurred  on  the  1st 
of  July,  1807. 

In  the  mean  time,  an  event  of  great  importance  ha.d  occurred  in  Eng- 
land. This  was  the  dismissal  of  the  Whig  ministry,  on  the  24th  of  March, 
and  the  appointment  on  the  Sth  of  April  of  a  new  cabinet,  having  among 
its  members  Mr.  Canning  and  Lord  Castlereagh. 

This  change  of  ministry  was  followed  by  an  immediate  change  in  the 
policy  of  Great  Britain  with  respect  to  continental  affairs.  The  men  who 
now  succeeded  to  the  charge  of  her  foreign  relations,  had  been  educated 
in  the  school  of  Mr.  Pitt,  and  early  imbibed  his  feelings  of  hostility  toward 


1807.]  HISTORY    OF   EUROPE.  213 

the  French  Revolution.  They  were  strongly  impressed  with  the  disastrous 
effects  of  the  economical  system  of  their  predecessors,  which  had  led  them 
to  withhold  their  resources  at  the  decisive  moment,  when  a  proper  appli- 
cation of  them  might  have  brought  the  war  to  a  triumphant  conclusion ; 
they  did  their  utmost  to  atone  for  past  errors,  by  renewing  the  alliances 
of  Great  Britain  with  the  continental  powers  :  and  in  the  case  of  Prussia, 
they  advanced  liberal  subsidies,  together  with  arms  and  ammunition. 
But  it  was  too  late  to  restore  the  relations  of  cordiality  that  existed  between 
England  and  Russia  in  the  preceding  year,  as  the  Czar  could  not  forgive 
the  ungracious  refusal  of  aid  solicited  by  him  from  the  cabinet  of  London 
before  the  battle  of  Pultusk. 


CHAPTER    XXVI. 

CAMPAIGN    OF    FRIEDLAND   AND    TILSIT. 

THE  two  armies  under  Benningsen  and  Napoleon,  remained  in  a  state 
of  tranquillity  for  nearly  four  months  after  the  battle  of  Eylau  ;  but  during 
this  time,  some  comparatively  trivial  operations  had  been  undertaken  by 
detached  parties  of  the  respective  nations,  and  the  siege  of  Dantzic  was 
maintained  with  a  force  proportionate  to  its  importance.  This  city,  for- 
merly one  of  the  most  flourishing  of  the  Hanse  Towns,  had  fallen  to  the 
lot  of  Prussia  on  the  last  partition  of  Poland,  in  1794  ;  and  though  it  had 
much  declined  in  wealth  and  population  since  that  disastrous  period,  it 
was  still  a  place  of  strength  and  consideration.  Its  situation  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Vistula  gave  it  a  monopoly  of  the  commerce  of  Poland,  which  con- 
sisted in  the  export  of  immense  quantities  of  wheat  and  the  import  of  the 
productions  of  almost  every  civilized  country.  The  fortifications  of 
Dantzic  were  strong,  but  its  principal  defence  lay  in  the  marshy  nature 
of  the  ground  in  its  vicinity  which  was  traversed  only  by  a  few  dikes, 
and  in  the  power  which  the  besieged  had  of  inundating  the  country  to 
the  extent  of  several  miles,  by  the  sluices  of  the  Vistula.  The  garrison 
was  composed  of  twelve  thousand  Prussians  and  five  thousand  Russians, 
under  the  command  of  Field-marshal  Kalkreuth. 

As  early  as  the  middle  of  February,  Napoleon  gave  orders  for  the 
more  vigorous  prosecution  of  the  siege,  and  detached  a  large  body  of  his 
best  troops  for  that  purpose.  The  besieging  force  proceeded  by  regular 
approaches,  took  the  several  outworks  of  the  place  one  after  another,  and 
by  the  7th  of  May,  the  garrison,  though  well  furnished  with  provisions, 
began  to  fail  in  ammunition.  As  the  numbers  of  the  French  enabled 
them  to  resist  every  attempt  of  the  Russians  to  throw  supplies  into  the 
town,  this  deficiency  soon  rendered  its  defence  impossible  for  any  great 
length  of  time ;  and  on  the  24th  of  May,  its  commander  was  forced  to 
capitulate.  The  garrison  was  permitted  to  retire  with  their  arms  and  the 
honors  of  war,  on  condition  of  not  serving  against  France  for  a  year,  or 
until  regularly  exchanged ;  and  Dantzic,  with  its  nine  hundred  pieces  of 
cannon,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  French  troops. 

On  the  reopening  of  the  campaign  between  the  two  armies,  BenningseD 


214  HISTORY    OF     EUROPE  [CHAP.  XXVI. 

was  able  to  muster  but  a  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  men,  which  num- 
ber included  the  detached  corps  of  sixteen  thousand  Prussians  and  Rus- 
sians, under  Lestocq,  in  front  of  Koningsberg,  and  the  left  wing,  fifteen 
thousand  strong,  under  Tolstoy,  on  the  Narew  ;  so  that  the  force  to  be 
relied  on  in  direct  opposition  to  Napoleon,  was  scarcely  ninety  thousand 
men.  The  exertions  of  the  French  Emperor  had  assembled  a  much 
larger  force.  Exclusive  of  an  army  of  observation  on  the  Elbe,  and  the 
garrisons  and  blockading  corps  in  his  rear,  no  less  than  a  hundred  and 
fifty  thousand  infantry  and  thirty-five  thousand  cavalry  were  ready  for 
immediate  action  on  the  Passarge  and  the  Narew.  Hence,  vast  as  were 
the  resources  of  Russia  when  she  had  time  to  collect  into  one  focus  her 
unwieldy  strength,  she  was  now  overmatched  on  her  own  frontier. 

After  the  fall  of  Dantzic,  Benningsen  was  induced  by  the  exposed  situa- 
tion of  Ney's  corps  at  Guttstadt,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Passarge,  mid- 
way between  the  two  armies,  to  hazard  an  attack  on  that  insulated  body. 
Early  on  the  morning  of  the  5th  of  June,  the  Russian  army  was  put  in 
motion  for  the  accomplishment  of  this  enterprise,  and  two  feigned  attacks 
were  made  on  the  fortified  bridges  of  Spandau  and  Lomitten,  in  order  to 
distract  the  enemy's  attention :  these  attacks  were  so  spiritedly  main- 
tained, that  the  French  officers  conceived  the  forcing  of  the  bridge  to  be 
the  chief  object  of  the  Russian  commander.  Meanwhile,  the  real  attack 
was  directed  against  Ney,  seven  miles  to  the  right  of  the  Passarge,  and 
seemed  to  promise  perfect  success,  as  the  French  marshal  was  taken  en- 
tirely by  surprise.  But  the  Russians  advanced  in  detachments,  and  strict 
orders  had  been  given  not  to  begin  the  battle  until  all  were  on  the  ground ; 
consequently,  some  delays  having  occurred  on  the  march,  Ney  was  en- 
abled to  recover  from  his  confusion,  and  organize  a  retreat  before  the 
Russians  assailed  him.  The  action  at  length  commenced  at  two  o'clock; 
Guttstadt  was  carried  by  assault,  and  four  hundred  prisoners,  with  several 
guns  and  a  quantity  of  magazines,  were  taken  ;  but,  owing  to  the  dilatory 
movements  of  the  Russians,  Ney  retired  with  comparatively  little  loss 
to  Aukendorfj  where  he  passed  the  night,  and  the  next  day  he  made  good 
his  retreat  to  Dippen.  Napoleon  took  measures  to  retaliate  this  attack, 
by  a  general  advance  upon  the  Russian  position  ;  but  Benningsen  had  no 
desire  to  meet  the  whole  French  army  with  his  inferior  numbers,  and 
accordingly  withdrew  to  the  camp  at  Heilsberg,  which  he  had  previously 
intrenched  with  great  care. 

Napoleon  pursued  the  retreating  columns  to  their  intrenchments,  and, 
on  the  10th  of  June,  prepared  for  a  general  attack.  He  prevailed  in  the 
first  instance,  and  two  French  regiments  established  themselves  within 
the  Russian  redoubts ;  but  they  were  soon  charged,  broken  and  totally 
destroyed.  Following  up  this  success,  the  Russians  sallied  forth  upon 
the  plain,  and  forced  Soult's  division  to  give  ground.  At  the  same  time, 
the  divisions  of  St.  Cyr,  St.  Hilaire  and  Legrand,  which  had  penetrated  to 
the  foot  of  the  redoubts  along  the  line,  were  driven  back  with  great  loss ; 
and  at  this  junctur/e,  when  the  French  were  retiring  at  all  points,  night 
terminated  the  action. 

At  eleven  o'clock,  in  the  night,  a  deserter  from  the  French  was  brought 
to  Benningsen's  head-quarters  and  informed  him  that  a  fresh  attack  was 
about  to  be  made.  The  Russians  immediately  stood  to  their  arms,  and 
were  scarcely  prepared  for  the  new  movement,  when,  by  the  uncertain 
starlight,  dark  masses  of  the  enemy  were  seen  to  emerge  from  the  woods 


1808.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  215 

and  advance  at  a  rapid  pp.ce  in  silence  across  the  plain.  The  Russian 
artillery  opened  a  deadly  fire  on  the  columns,  which,  staggering  under 
the  discharge,  still  pressed  on  without  returning  a  shot.  But  when  they 
arrived  within  range  of  the  musketry,  the  storm  of  balls  and  bullets  com- 
bined became  so  vehement,  that  they  were  forced  to  give  way,  and  fled  in 
great  confusion  and  with  frightful  loss  to  their  own  lines. 

Napoleon  was  extremely  disconcerted  by  this  repulse,  and  vented  his  ill- 
humor  in  violent  sallies  of  passion  against  his  generals.  The  butchery 
had  been  useless.  Twelve  thousand  Frenchmen  had  fallen  around  the 
several  Russian  redoubts,  without  having  gained  the  mastery  of  one  ;  and 
the  ditches  were  filled  with  their  dead  bodies,  but  none  of  them  had  been 
crossed.  The  loss  of  the  Russians  amounted  to  nearly  eight  thousand 
men- 
Finding,  thus,  that  the  camp  at  Heilsberg  could  not  be  forced,  Napo- 
leon resolved  to  turn  it,  and  dispatched  Davoust's  corps  on  the  Landsberg 
road  toward  Eylau  and  Koningsberg.  This  movement  alarmed  Ben- 
ningsen,  who,  though  not  apprehensive  of  any  attack  in  front,  was  with 
reason  fearful  of  being  cut  off  from  his  supplies  at  Koningsberg ;  and  as 
the  French  testified  a  determination  to  manosuvre  on  his  right  flank,  he 
gave  orders  to  retreat  to  Bartenstein,  which  place  he  reached  on  the  fol- 
lowing day  without  molestation.  The  same  movement  on  the  part  of 
the  French  induced  Lestocq  to  fall  back  from  Braunsberg  ;  but  as  both  he 
and  Benningsen  were  traversing  the  circumference  of  the  arc  while  the 
French  were  marching  on  its  chord,  the  latter  necessarily  gained  upon 
the  Russians,  and  eventually  not  only  interposed  between  them  and  Ko* 
ningsberg,  but  were  in  a  position  whence,  by  a  rapid  advance  on  Wehlau, 
they  might  cut  off  the  retreat  to  the  Russian  frontier.  Under  these  oir, 
cumstances,  Benningsen  found  it  indispensable  to  push  forward  by  a 
forced  march  to  Friedland,  where,  by  great  exertions,  he  arrived  on  the 
13th  of  June. 

Friedland  is  a  considerable  town  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Alle, 
which  there  flows  in  a  northerly  direction  toward  the  Baltic.  The  wind- 
ings of  the  river  encircle  the  town  on  the  south  and  east,  and  an  artificial 
lake  covers  it  on  the  north,  so  that,  in  a  military  point  of  view,  it  is  acces- 
sible only  on  the  western  side,  where  the  roads  to  and  from  Eylau,  Ko- 
ningsberg, Wehlau  and  Tilsit  all  concentre. 

On  the  night  of  his  arrival,  Benningsen  learned  that  the  corps  of  Lannes 
was  lying  at  Postheneu,  a  village  about  three  miles  from  Friedland  on 
the  Koningsberg  road,  unsupported  as  yet  by  any  of  the  other  divisions  of 
the  French  army.  He  therefore  resolved  to  attack  (his  isolated  force,  and 
at  four  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  the  14th,  his  vanguard  was  defiling  over 
the  bridge  of  Friedland.  Lannes's  corps  consisted  of  fifteen  thousand  men,, 
and  as  a  preponderance  of  numbers  could  be  brought  against  them  by  the 
Russians,  the  expedition  promised  well,  provided  its  success  was  imme- 
diate :  but  if  Lannes  could  hold  the  enemy  in  check  until  the  other 
French  divisions,  which  were  rapidly  advancing,  reached  the  field,  the 
Russians  in  turn  would  be  outnumbered,  and  that,  too,  in  a  most  disad- 
vantageous position,  as  a  single  bridge  formed  their  sole  line  both  of 
advance  and  retreat.  Benningsen  weighed  well  these  circumstances,  and 
at  first  passed  but  one  division  over  the  bridge ;  but  as  this  met  with  an 
unexpected  resistance,  he  ordered  others  to  follow,  and  in  the  mean  time 
threw  three  pontoon  bridges  across  the  river  to  provide  for  a  disaster. 

16 


?](?  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP   XXVI 

By  degrees,  as  the  increasing  masses  of  the  French  showed  that  other 
corps  had  arrived  to  support  Lannes,  the  whole  Russian  army  passed 
over,  and  Benningsen,  contrary  to  his  original  intention,  found  himself 
involved  in  a  general  action. 

At  "one  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  Napoleon  arrived  at  the  heights  of 
Heinrichsdorf,  which  overlooked  the  whole  field,  and  dispatched  his  staff 
with  orders  for  the  battle.  The  corps  of  Ney,  Victor  and  Mortier,  together 
with  the  infantry  and  cavalry  of  the  Imperial  Guard  had  already  come 
up,  and  were  soon  followed  by  a  part  of  Murat's  dragoons,  so  that  the 
Ernperor,  confident  of  victory,  remarked,  "this  is  the  anniversary  of  Ma- 
rengo  ;  the  battle  could  not  have  been  fought  on  a  more  propitious  day." 
The  French  force  in  the  field  now  amounted  to  eighty  thousand  men  ; 
while  Benningsen,  who  had  detached  a  considerable  force  to  the  rear  to 
secure  the  bridge  over  the  Pregel  at  Wehlau,  should  a  retreat  become 
necessary,  could  bring  but  forty-six  thousand  to  resist  the  attack.  The 
general  result  of  the  action,  therefore,  may  be  said  to  have  been  decided 
by  the  preliminary  movements,  for  the  defeat  of  Benningsen  was  inevita- 
ble, with  such  a  fearful  majority  of  numbers  against  him. 

Nevertheless,  the  battle  was  contested  by  the  Russians  with  prodigious 
bravery.  By  the  resistless  weight  of  the  opposing  masses,  they  were 
indeed  gradually  forced  back  to  Friedland,  through  its  streets,  and  across 
the  river ;  but  when  the  whole  fire  of  the  French  infantry  and  artillery 
was  concentrated  on  their  columns,  and  this  was  followed  up  by  a  despe- 
rate charge  of  Murat's  cuirassiers  and  dragoons,  they  retired  with  the 
steadiness  and  precision  of  field-day  evolutions — not  one  square  was 
broken,  not  one  gun  captured  during  the  retreat.  Indeed,  the  result  of 
the  action  furnishes  the  best  proof  of  the  unconquerable  valor  of  the 
Russian  troops.  Seventeen  thousand  of  them  remained  on  the  field  killed 
or  wounded  ;  five  hundred  only  were  made  prisoners  ;  no  standards  were 
taken  ;  and  but  seventeen  pieces  of  cannon,  lost  early  in  the  day,  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  On  the  other  hand,  the  French  lost  two 
eagles  and  eight  thousand  men. 

After  the  battle,  the  Russians  retired  in  good  order  to  Wehlau,  which 
they  reached  on  the  15th,  without  being  pursued  or  molested  by  Napo- 
leon. In  the  mean  time,  Lestocq  had  advanced  to  Koningsberg,  where, 
forming  a  junction  with  Karnenskoi,  he  was  enabled  to  show  an  array  of 
twenty-four  thousand  men  ;  with  which  force  he  resolved  to  make  a  stand 
against  the  fifty  thousand  who  were  approaching,  under  Soult  and  Da- 
voust,  until  the  large  magazines  in  the  town  were  removed.  His  heroic 
efforts  were  crowned  with  brilliant  success.  For  two  entire  days  he  re- 
sisted every  attempt  of  the  French  host  to  dislodge  him,  conveyed  the 
magazines  and  military  stores  to  a  place  of  safety  in  the  rear,  and  on  the 
17th  effected  his  retreat  with  little  loss  to  Wehlau,  where  he  joined  the 
main  army.  Benningsen  continued  his  retreat  on  the  same  day,  reached 
Tilsit  on  the  18th.  and  during  the  19th  and  20th  crossed  the  Niemen  at 
that  place,  arid  burned  the  bridge  behind  him. 

The  Ernperor  Alexander,  disheartened  by  the  defeat  and  loss  he  had 
sustained,  foiled  in  the  objects  for  which  he  had  undertaken  the  war,  and 
deserted  by  those  for  whose  advantage,  more  than  for  his  own,  he  had 
joined  the  alliance  against  France,  was  now  desirous  for  peace  ;  and 
communicated  his  wishes,  through  Prince  Bagrathion,  to  the  French  com- 
mander. These  advances  gave  Napoleon  the  greatest  satisfaction  ;  for, 


X807.J  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  21? 

though  as  yet  victorious  over  the  Muscovite  legions,  he  had  learned  to 
appreciate  their  prowess  in  the  field,  and  knew,  also,  that  his  further  pro- 
gress toward  the  Russian  dominions  would,  in  the  end,  reverse  the  pro- 
portion  of  numbers  now  existing  between  his  own  army  and  that  of  his 
antagonist.  With  these  dispositions  on  both  sides,  there  was  little  diffi- 
culty in  coming  to  an  understanding.  France  had  nothing  to  ask  from 
Russia,  but  that  she  should  promote  the  Continental  System  by  closing  her 
ports  against  England :  and  Russia  had  nothing  to  demand  of  France, 
but  that  she  should  withdraw  her  armies  from  Poland  and  permit  Alex- 
ander to  pursue  his  projects  of  conquest  in  Turkey.  An  armistice, 
therefore,  was  immediately  concluded.  The  Niemen  separated  the  two 
armies  ;  Napoleon  established  his  head-quarters  at  Tilsit,  and  Alexander, 
at  Piktuhpohnen,  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river. 

On  the  25th  of  June,  the  two  Emperors  held  a  private  conference  on  a 
raft  moored  in  the  middle  of  the  Niemen,  the  respective  armies  being 
drawn  up  in  triple  lines  on  both  sides  of  the  stream.  The  interview 
lasted  two  hours,  and  ended  in  the  establishment  of  a  good  understanding 
and  perfectly  friendly  relations  between  the  two  sovereigns.  On  the  fol- 
lowing day,  they  met  again  at  Tilsit,  where  they  were  joined  by  the  King 
of  Prussia  ;  and,  after  a  fortnight  of  conference,  two  treaties  were  defi- 
nitively concluded ;  one,  between  France  and  Russia,  and  the  other 
between  France  and  Prussia. 

By  the  former,  Napoleon  agreed  to  restore  to  the  King  of  Prussia,  Sile- 
sia and  nearly  all  his  German  dominions  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Elbe, 
with  the  fortresses  on  the  Oder  and  in  Pomerania.  The  provinces  which, 
prior  to  1772,  formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Poland,  and  had  since  then 
been  annexed  to  Prussia,  were  erected  into  a  separate  principality,  to  be 
called  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Warsaw,  and  bestowed  on  the  King  of  Sax- 
ony. Dantzic,  with  a  limited  portion  of  territory  in  its  neighborhood, 
was  declared  a  free  and  independent  city,  under  the  protection  of  the 
Kings  of  Prussia  and  Saxony ;  which  was,  in  effect,  declaring  it  a  fron- 
tier town  of  France.  A  right  to  a  free  military  road  across  the  Prussian 
states,  was  granted  to  the  King  of  Saxony,  to  connect  his  German  with 
his  Polish  dominions.  The  navigation  of  the  Vistula  was  declared  free 
to  Prussia,  Saxony  and  Dantzic ;  the  Dukes  of  Oldenberg  and  Mecklen- 
berg  were  reinstated  in  their  dominions,  on  condition,  however,  that  their 
harbors  should  be  occupied  by  French  troops ;  the  Kings  of  Naples  and 
Holland,  with  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  were  recognized  by  the 
Emperor  of  Russia ;  a  new  kingdom,  styled  that  of  Westphalia,  was 
erected  in  favor  of  Jerome  Bonaparte,  composed  of  the  Prussian  provinces 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Elbe ;  hostilities  were  to  cease  between  Russia 
and  Turkey;  Wallachia  and  Moldavia  were  to  be  evacuated  by  the 
Russians,  but  not  occupied  by  the  Turks  until  the  conclusion  of  a  gen- 
eral peace  ;  and  the  Emperors  of  Russia  and  France  mutually  guaran- 
tied their  respective  dominions,  and  agreed  to  establish  commercial 
relations  w'tb  each  other  on  the  most  favorable  footing. 

By  the  second  treaty,  the  King  of  Prussia  recognized  the  Confederation 
of  the  Rhine,  and  the  Kings  of  Naples.  Holland  and  Westphalia.  He 
ceded  to  the  kings  or  princes  who  should  be  designated  by  Napoleon,  all 
the  dominions  which,  at  the  commencement  of  the  war,  he  possessed  be- 
tween the  Rhine  and  the  Elbe,  and  engaged  to  offer  no  opposition  to  any 
arrangement  in  regard  to  them,  which  his  Imperial  majesty  might  choose 


218  HISTORY     OF    EUROPE.  TCHAP.  XXVII 

to  adopt.  He  also  ceded  to  the  King  of  Saxony  the  circle  of  Gotha,  in 
Lower  Lusatia  ;  he  renounced  all  right  to  his  acquisitions  in  Poland  sub- 
sequent  to  January  1st,  1772,  and  to  the  city  and  territory  of  Dantzic  ; 
consented  to  close  his  harbors  to  the  ships  and  commerce  of  Great  Brit- 
ain ;  and  entered  into  a  contract  for  the  restoration  of  the  strong-holds  of 
Prussia  at  certain  fixed  periods,  and  the  payment  of  the  sums  necessary 
for  their  civil  and  military  evacuation.  These  concessions,  together  with 
the  enormous  contributions  exacted  by  Napoleon,  entirely  paralyzed  the 
strength  of  Prussia,  and  rendered  her  for  a  long  time  incapable  of  extri- 
cating herself  from  that  iron  net  in  which  she  was  enveloped  by  the 
French  troops. 

But  the  important  changes  announced  in  these  two  treaties,  were  not 
the  only  consequences  of  the  interviews  at  Tilsit.  By  a  secret  conven- 
tion concluded  at  the  same  time  between  the  two  Emperors,  Turkey  was 
abandoned  almost  without  reserve  to  the  Russian  Autocrat ;  and,  in  re- 
turn, Alexander  agreed  that  if  England  should  decline  to  make  peace 
with  France  on  certain  terms  designated  by  Napoleon,  "  France  and 
Russia  would  jointly  summon  the  three  courts  of  Copenhagen,  Stockholm 
and  Lisbon,  to  close  their  harbors  against  English  vessels,  recall  their 
ambassadors  from  London,  and  declare  war  against  Great  Britain."  By 
a  further  agreement,  the  dominions  of  the  pope,  as  well  as  Malta  and 
Egypt,  were  ceded  to  France ;  the  sovereigns  of  the  houses  of  Bourbon 
and  Braganza  in  the  Spanish  Peninsula,  were  to  be  replaced  by  princes 
of  the  family  of  Napoleon  ;  and  when  the  final  partition  of  the  Turkish 
Empire  should  take  place,  Wallachia,  Moldavia,  Servia  and  Bulgaria 
were  to  be  allotted  to  Russia;  and  Greece,  Macedonia,  Dalmatia  and  the 
seaports  of  the  Adriatic,  to  France. 


CHAPTER    XXVH. 

FEOM    THE   PEACE     OF   TILSIT,    TO   THE     COMMENCEMENT     OF   HOSTILITIES    IN 
THE    SPANISH   PENINSULA. 

WHEN  the  battle  of  Trafalgar  destroyed  Napoleon's  prospect  of  inva- 
ding England,  and  extinguished  his  hope  of  soon  bringing  the  maritime 
war  to  a  successful  issue,  he  did  not  abandon  the  contest  in  despair.  He 
readily  saw  that  his  preparations  in  the  Channel  must  go  for  nothing, 
that  the  flotilla  at  Boulogne  would  fall  to  pieces  before  a  fleet  capable  of 
protecting  its  passage  could  be  assembled,  and  that  every  successive 
year  would  enable  England  more  exclusively  to  monopolize  the  com- 
merce  of  the  world,  and  drive  his  flag  more  completely  from  the  ocean. 
Yet,  fertile  in  resource,  indomitable  in  resolution,  implacable  in  hatred, 
he  resolved  to  change  the  method,  not  the  object  of  his  hostility ;  and 
indulged  the  belief  that  he  could  succeed,  through  the  extent  and  terror 
of  his  continental  victories,  in  achieving  England's  destruction  by  a  pro- 
cess more  slow,  but  perhaps  more  certain. 

The  first  part  of  his  plan  was  to  combine  the  European  states  in  one 
great  alliance  against  England,  and  compel  them  to  exclude  the  British  flag 


1807.1  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  219 

and  British  merchandise  from  their  harbors.  The  second  part  was,  to 
obtain  possession  by  fraud,  or  force,  or  negotiation,  of  all  the  fleets  of 
Europe,  and  gradually  bring  them  to  a  central  point  near  the  English 
coast,  whence  he  could  eventually  make  his  long-contemplated  descent 
upon  that  country.  By  the  Continental  System  he  hoped  to  weaken  the 
resources  of  England,  to  decrease  her  revenue,  and  spread  commercial 
distress  through  her  borders,  until  the  unanimity  of  her  inhabitants  should 
be  destroyed,  and  thus  prepare  the  way  for  the  grand  assault,  which  was 
his  ultimate  reliance.  With  an  eye  to  the  same  end,  he  constantly  ex- 
erted himself  to  increase  his  own  naval  force.  Amid  all  the  expenditure 
of  his  military  campaigns,  he  proposed  to  construct,  and  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent actually  did  construct,  from  ten  to  twenty  ships  of  the  line  every 
year,  while  vast  sums  were  annually  expended  on  the  naval  harbors  of 
Antwerp,  Flushing,  Cherbourg  and  Brest. 

It  was  in  pursuance  of  these  projects  that,  on  the  21st  of  November. 
1808,  he  issued  a  proclamation  from  Berlin — since  known  as  the  Berlin 
Decree — declaring  that  "  The  British  islands  are  in  a  state  of  blockade. 
Every  species  of  commerce  and  communication  with  them  is  prohibited ; 
all  packages  or  letters  addressed  in  English,  or  in  English  characters, 
shall  be  seized  at  the  Post  Office  ;  all  British  subjects,  of  whatever  rank 
or  condition,  who  shall  be  found  in  the  countries  occupied  by  our  troops, 
or  those  of  our  allies,  shall  be  made  prisoners  of  war;  every  warehouse, 
merchandise,  or  property  of  any  sort,  belonging  to  a  subject  of  Great 
Britain,  or  coming  from  its  manufactories  or  colonies,  is  declared  lawful 
prize.  Half  the  value  of  confiscated  property  shall  be  applied  to  indem- 
nifying merchants  whose  vessels  have  been  seized  by  the  English  crui- 
sers. No  vessels  coming  directly  from  England,  or  any  of  her  colonies, 
shall  be  received  into  any  of  our  harbors ;  and  every  vessel  which,  by 
means  of  a  false  declaration  shall  have  effected  such  entry,  shall  be  con- 
fiscated. The  prize-court  of  Paris  is  intrusted  with  the  determination  of 
all  questions  arising  out  of  this  decree  in  France  and  the  countries  occu-' 
pied  by  our  armies;  that  of  Milan,  with  the  decision  of  similar  questions 
in  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  This  decree  shall  be  communicated  to  the  Kings 
of  Spain,  Naples,  Holland  and  Etruria,  and  to  our  allies  whose  subjects, 
like  ours,  have  been  victims  of  the  injustice  and  barbarity  of  British 
legislation." 

Such  was  the  famous  Berlin  Decree,  and  orders  were  dispatched  for  its 
immediate  and  vigorous  execution.  Its  unjust  character  and  ruinous  ten- 
dency was  so  strongly  felt  in  Holland,  that  Louis  Bonaparte,  the  king,  at 
first  positively  refused  to  submit  to  its  enforcement,  and  for  some  time 
could  be  prevailed  on  to  promulgate  it  only  in  foreign  countries  occupied 
by  the  Dutch  troops.  In  the  north  of  Germany  it  was  vigorously  carried 
into  effect,  and  was  made  the  pretext  for  a  thousand  iniquitous  extortions 
and  abuses,  which  greatly  augmented  its  oppression.  An  army  of  locusts, 
in  the  form  of  inspectors,  custorn-house  officers  and  other  functionaries, 
fell  on  the  countries  occupied  by  the  French  troops,  and  made  the  search 
for  English  goods  a  plea  for  innumerable  frauds. 

The  English  government  replied  to  the  Berlin  Decree,  by  an  Order  ra 
Council,  on  the  7th  of  January,  1807,  declaring  that,  "No  vessel  shall  be 
permitted  to  trade  from  one  port  to  another,  if  both  belong  to  France  and 
her  allies,  and  shall  be  so  far  under  their  control,  as  that  British  vessels  are 
excluded  therefrom ;  and  the  captains  of  all  British  vessels  are  hereby 

21* 


220  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXVII. 

required  to  warn  every  neutral  vessel  coming  from  any  such  port,  destined 
to  such  other  port,  to  discontinue  her  voyage  ;  and  any  vessel,  after  being 
So  warned,  or  after  having  had  a  reasonable  time  allowed  it  for  obtaining 
information  of  the  present  Order  in  Council,  which  shall,  notwithstanding, 
persist  in  such  voyage  to  such  other  port,  shall  be  declared  good  prize." 
This  Order  was  soon  after  modified  in  favor  of  vessels  containing  grain  or 
provisions  for  Great  Britain,  and  of  all  vessels  whatever,  belonging  to  the 
Hanse  Towns,  if  employed  in  any  trade  to  or  from  the  British  dominions. 

After  the  treaty  of  Tilsit  had  subjected  the  Continent  to  the  control  of 
Napoleon,  it  appeared  that  some  more  vigorous  and  extensive  retaliation 
was  indispensable  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain.  A  few  months'  experi- 
ence showed  that  the  Berlin  Decree,  by  prohibiting  the  importation  of  every 
kind  of  British  produce,  necessarily  left  the  Continental  market  open  to 
the  manufacturing  industry  and  colonial  produce  of  other  states.  The 
obvious  and  direct  reply  would  have  been  to  prohibit  the  importation  into 
the  British  dominions  of  the  produce  of  France  and  its  dependencies  ;  but 
a  little  reflection  showed  that  this  would  accomplish  only  a  partial  retri- 
butive effect,  by  reason  of  the  comparatively  great  extent  of  British  com- 
merce and  manufactures.  Therefore,  on  the  llth  of  November,  1807,  a 
new  Order  in  Council  was  issued  declaring  France  and  all  the  Continent- 
al powers  allied  with  her,  in  a  state  of  blockade,  and  that  all  vessels  were 
good  prize  which  should  be  bound  for  any  of  their  harbors,  excepting 
such  as  had  previously  touched  at,  or  cleared  from,  a  British  port. 

Napoleon  replied  to  this  by  a  new  decree  issued  from  Milan,  on  the 
17th  of  December,  1807,  declaring,  that  "  every  vessel,  of  whatever  na- 
tion, which  shall  have  submitted  to  be  searched  by  British  cruisers,  or 
paid  any  impost  levied  by  the  British  government,  shall  be  considered  as 
having  lost  the  privileges  of  a  neutral  flag,  and  declared  good  prize. 
Every  vessel,  of  whatever  nation,  and  with  whatever  cargo,  coming  from 
any  British  harbor,  or  from  any  of  the  British  colonies,  or  from  any 
country  occupied  by  British  troops,  or  bound  for  Great  Britain,  or  for 
British  colonies,  or  for  any  country  occupied  by  the  British  troops,  is  also 
declared  good  prize." 

It  may  safely  be  affirmed  that  the  rage  of  belligerent  powers  and 
the  mutual  violation  of  the  law  of  nations,  could  not  go  beyond  these 
furious  manifestoes.  But,  such  was  the  exasperation  now  produced  on 
both  sides,  by  the  long  continuance  and  desperate  character  of  the  contest, 
the  feelings  of  generosity  and  the  dictates  of  prudence  were  alike  forgotten. 
Nevertheless,  the  very  extravagance  of  these  notable  decrees,  by  render- 
ing their  strict  execution  impossible,  led  from  the  first  to  a  system  of 
unlimited  evasion,  of  which  Napoleon  himself  set  the  example.  He  SQOK 
discovered  that  a  lucrative  source  of  revenue  might  be  opened  by  granting, 
at  exorbitant  prices,  licenses  to  import  British  produce  and  manufactures, 
a  condition  was  attached  to  the  license,  that  an  equal  amount  of  French  01 
Continental  produce  should  be  exported  ;  but  this  was  readily  evaded  by 
making  up  cargoes  of  old  and  almost  worthless  merchandise,  and  ship- 
ping  it  under  a  fictitious  certificate  of  value.  Thus  arose  a  system,  the 
most  extraordinary  and  inconsistent  that  ever  was  known  upon  the  earth. 
While  the  two  government*  were  carrying  on  their  commercial  warfare 
with  daily  increasing  virulence  ;  while  Napoleon  denounced  the  penalty 
of  death  against  every  public  functionary  who  should  connive  at  the  intro- 
duction  of  British  merchandise,  and  consigned  to  the  flames,  whatever  of 


1807.]  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  221 

such  property  could  by  fiscal  cupidity  be  discovered  in  the  extensive 
dominions  subject  to  his  control  ;  while,  too,  the  English  court  of  admi- 
ralty daily  condemned  merchant  vessels  which  had  contravened  the  Orders 
in  Council,  and  issued  the  strictest  injunctions  to  their  cruisers  to  carry 
them  into  full  execution — both  governments  openly  violated  the  very  de- 
crees to  which  they  required  such  implicit  obedience.  British  licenses 
were  sold  at  the  public  offices  in  London,  and  became  the  vehicles  of  an 
immense  trade  with  the  Continent ;  and  Napoleon  finally  carried  this 
illicit  traffic  to  such  a  height  as  to  decree,  that  "  no  vessel  shall  sail  from 
any  of  our  ports  for  any  foreign  port,  unless  provided  with  a  license 
signed  by  our  own  hand.'5  Hence,  the  Continental  System  and  the  re- 
taliatory measures  of  Great  Britain  were  virtually  abandoned  by  the  two 
governments,  though  rigorously  exacted  as  the  first  of  public  duties  from 
their  subjects.  As,  therefore,  the  commerce  in  British  merchandise 
did  not,  in  fact,  diminish  on  the  Continent,  the  suffering  experienced  in 
England  during  this  period,  was  not  at  all  owing  to  the  Berlin  Decree, 
but  to  the  loss  of  the  North  American  market,  which  the  Orders  in  Council 
ultimately  closed  against  British  productions.  Thus  Napoleon,  in  this 
measure,  on  which  he  staked  his  influence,  his  fame,  his  throne,  was,  after 
all,  governed  by  the  same  regard  to  inferior  interests  which  prompted  the 
Dutch,  in*former  times,  to  sell  ammunition  and  provisions  at  exorbitant 
prices  to  the  inhabitants  of  a  town  besieged  by  their  armies — resolved,  in 
any  case,  to  make  a  gain  by  the  warfare,  and  if  they  could  not  subdue  the 
enemy,  at  least  to  exact  a  large  pecuniary  profit  from  his  necessities. 

The  return  of  Napoleon  to  Paris,  after  the  termination  of  the  Polish 
campaign,  was  hailed  by  the  universal  rejoicing  of  the  inhabitants :  and, 
in  truth,  they  had  never  before  such  cause  for  exultation.  The  great 
contest  seemed  to  be  over :  their  standards  had  been  advanced  in  triumph 
to  the  Niemen,  the  strength  of  Prussia  was,  to  all  appearance,  irrevocably 
broken,  Austria  was  thoroughly  overawed,  and  Russia,  from  being  an 
inveterate  and  fearful  antagonist,  had  become  the  sworn  friend  of  the 
French  Empire.  Such  a  series  of  triumphs  as  Napoleon  had  achieved, 
might  have  turned  the  heads  of  a  nation  less  passionately  devoted  than 
the  French  to  military  glory,  but  the  oratorical  welcomes  of  the  public 
bodies  in  Paris  transgressed  every  allowable  limit.  They  manifested,  not 
the  enthusiasm  of  freemen,  but  the  adulation  of  slaves.  "We  cannot 
adequately  praise  your  majesty,"  said  Lacepede,  president  of  the  Senate  ; 
"  your  glory  is  too  dazzling  ;  those  only  who  are  placed  at  the  distance  of 
posterity  can  appreciate  its  immense  elevation."  "  The  only  eloge  worthy 
of  the  Emperor,"  said  the  president  of  the  Court  of  Cassation,  "is  the 
simple  narrative  of  his  reign  ;  the  most  unadorned  recital  of  what  he  has 
wished,  thought  and  executed  ;  of  their  effects,  past,  present  and  to  come." 
"  The  conception,"  said  Count  de  Tabre,  a  senator,  "  which  the  mother 
of  Napoleon  received  in  her  bosom,  could  have  flowed  only  from  divine  in- 
spiration." 

Napoleon  took  this  favorable  opportunity  to  eradicate  the  last  remnant 
of  popular  freedom  from  the  Constitution,  by  suppressing  the  Tribunate 
and  thenceforward,  the  discussion  on  laws  proposed  by  the  government, 
was  intrusted  to  three  commissioners,  chosen  from  the   legislative  body 
by  the  Emperor.     As  this  blow  at  the  last  popular  point  in  the  Const itu 
ion  was  received  with  shouts  of  approval   from  Calais  to  the  Pyrenees, 
Napoleon  next  issued  a  decree,  prohibiting  booksellers  from  publishing 


222  HISTORY     OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXVU. 

any  work,  until  it  had  received  the  sanction  of  the  censors  of  the  press, 
and  subjecting  the  periodicals  and  daily  journals  to  the  same  restriction. 
This  censorship  was  carried  to  such  an  extent,  that  when  the  allies  en. 
tered  France  in  1814,  they  found  a  large  portion  of  the  inhabitants  igno- 
rant of  the  fact,  that  the  battle  of  Trafalgar  had  ever  been  fought.  The 
years  of  the  Empire  are  an  absolute  blank  in  French  literary  annals,  so 
far  as  all  matters  relating  to  government,  political  thought,  or  moral  sen- 
iment  are  concerned.  Whoever  attentively  considers  the  situation  of 
France  at  this  period,  will  perceive  the  unsoundness  of  the  common  no- 
tion, that  the  press  is,  under  all  circumstances,  the  bulwark  of  liberty, 
and  that  despotism  is  impossible  where  it  is  in  operation.  Thf>v  will 
rather  concur  in  the  opinion  of  Madame  de  Stael,  that  the  effect  of  this 
mighty  agent  is  entirely  dependent  on  the  power  which  gains  possession 
of  its  resources;  that  only  in  a  peculiar  state  of  the  public  mind,  and 
when  a  certain  balance  exists  between  political  parties,  can  it  be  used 
beneficially  on  the  side  of  freedom  ;  and  that  at  other  periods,  or  under 
the  influence  of  more  corrupt  feelings,  it  may  become  the  instrument  of 
the  most  immovable  popular  or  imperial  despotism  that  ever  was  riveted 
upon  mankind. 

Individual  authors  of  that  period  were  persecuted  with  unuaralleled 
severity.  Madame  de  Stael,  long  the  object  of  Napoleon's  hostility,  from 
the  vigor  of  her  understanding,  and  the  fearlessness  of  her  conduct,  was 
at  first  banished  forty  leagues  from  Paris ;  then  confined  to  her  chAteau 
on  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  where  she  dwelt  many  years,  and  sought  in 
vain,  in  the  discharge  of  every  filial  duty  to  her  venerable  father,  to  con- 
sole herself  for  the  loss  of  the  intellectual  society  of  Paris.  At  length, 
the  espionnage  to  which  she  was  subjected,  forced  her  to  flee  in  disguise 
to  Vienna;  and,  hunted  thence  by  the  French  emissaries,  she  continued 
her  flight  through  Poland  into  Muscovy,  where  she  found  that  freedom 
which  old  Europe  could  no  longer  afford.  Her  immortal  work  on  Ger- 
many was  seized  by  the  orders  of  the  police  and  burned,  and  France 
owes  the  preservation  of  one  of  the  brightest,  jewels  in  her  literary  coro- 
net, to  the  fortuitous  concealment  of  one  copy  from  the  myrmidons  of 
Savary.  ^The  world  has  no  cause  to  regrei  the  severity  of  Napoleon  to 
this  illustrious  exile,  whatever  his  biographer  may  have  ;  for  it  gave 
birth  to  the  Dix  Annees  d'Exil,  the  three  volumes  on  Germany,  and  the 
profound  views  on  the  British  Constitution  with  which  she  has  enriched 
her  work  on  the  Revolution  in  France. 

Napoleon's  next  attack  was  directed  against  the  judicial  establishment, 
by  reducing  the  term  of  service  of  the  judges;  who,  thenceforward,  in- 
stead of  holding  office  for  life,  were  appointed  for  five  years,  and  even 
this  period  was  liable  to  be  summarily  abridged  at  the  Emperor's  pleas- 
ure. He  also  labored  with  great  earnestness  to  reconstruct  a  nobility 
for  the  Empire,  well  knowing  that  a  permanent  aristocracy  would  prove 
the  best  possible  safeguard  for  the  continuance  of  his  dynasty  :  this  pro- 
ject, however,  was  but  partially  successful,  as  the  legitimate  materials 
for  constructing  such  a  political  establishment  were  annihilated  by  the 
Reis:n  of  Terror. 

But,  though  the  government  of  Napoleon  was  thus  in  all  respects  de- 
spotic, it  possessed  the  great  advantage  to  the  people  of  being  also  regu- 
lar, conservative  and  systematic.  The  taxes  were  heavy,  but  the  public 
expenditure  was  immense,  and  enabled  the  inhabitants  to  pay  their 


1807.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  223 

assessments  with  facility.  No  forced  loans  or  arbitrary  confiscations,  as 
in  the  time  of  the  Republic,  swept  off  at  a  blow  the  accumulations  of 
years  ;  no  uncertainty  as  to  enjoying  the  fruits  of  ind'istry,  paralyzed 
the  hand  of  the  laborer.  The  stoppage  of  all  external  commerce,  com- 
bined with  the  constantly  increasing  disbursements  of  the  government, 
produced  an  unprecedented  degree  of  vigor  in  domestic  manufactures, 
and  internal  communication ;  roads  and  canals  spread  out  in  every 
direction,  and  were  covered  with  wagons  or  boats  laden  with  the  richest 
merchandise,  while  the  agriculturalist  found  an  ample  market  for  his  pro- 
duce in  the  vast  consumption  of  the  armies.  Beet-root  was  extensively 
cultivated  as  a  substitute  for  sugar-cane;  and  although  the  sugar  ob- 
tained from  that  vegetable  was  inferior  in  richness  to  the  West  India 
commodity,  it  was  superior  in  clearness  and  delicacy,  and,  as  a  native 
production,  was  justly  admired.  .Lyons,  Rouen  and  the  Flemish  towns, 
again  resounded  with  the  activity  of  the  artisan,  their  ruined  looms  were 
restored,  their  empty  warehouses  replenished,  and  the  internal  consump- 
tion of  the  Empire,  deprived  of  foreign  competition,  rapidly  raised  from 
the  dust  that  which  the  Revolution  seemed  to  have  irrevocably  destroyed. 
Among  the  causes  that  led  to  the  national  wealth  and  prosperity  of 
France,  at  this  period,  should  also  be  mentioned  the  enormous  sums 
which  were  exacted  from  half  of  Europe,  in  the  shape  of  subsidies  and 
contributions,  and  expended,  directly  or  indirectly,  for  the  benefit  of  the 
French  people.  In  truth,  all  the  great  public  works  thenceforward  un- 
dertaken by  the  Emperor,  and  which  have  added  so  much  to  the  lustre 
of  his  name,  were  constructed  by  the  funds  wrung  from  the  suffering 
inhabitants  of  his  conquered  territories. 

Amid  this  general  prosperity,  however,  individual  freedom  expired. 
A  Penal  Code  was  enacted,  which  enumerated  no  less  than  two  hundred 
and  eighty  state  crimes,  including  such  minute  and  trivial  actions,  and 
requiring  for  conviction  evidence  so  slender,  that  every  man's  life  and 
liberty  were  at  the  Emperor's  disposal.  And  the  impossibility  of  flight 
from  this  persecution  aggravated  its  horrors.  In  former  days,  by  es- 
caping across  the  frontier,  a  person  suspected  or  accused  might  gain  an 
asylum  in  an  adjoining  state ;  but  now,  the  influence  of  the  Imperial 
authority  pursued  the  fugitive  to  the  remotest  corner  of  Europe,  and  he 
could  find  no  resting-place  on  the  Continent  till  he  had  passed  the  bound- 
aries of  civilization,  and  sojourned  among  the  semi- barbarous  tribes  on  the 
confines  of  Asia.  In  the  Ukraine,  or  in  the  provinces  of  Asiatic  Turkey, 
he  might  be  safe ;  but,  excepting  the  unsubdued  territories  of  the  British 
Empire,  no  other  refuge  could  be  found  from  the  vengeance  of  Napoleon. 

The  levying  of  the  conscription  was  another  frightful  feature  in  this 
age  of  despotism.  The  law  was  applied  to  every  male  individual  in  the 
realm,  of  the  prescribed  age,  those  alone  excepted  who  were  ill  of  in  vet 
erate  asthma,  spitting  of  blood,  or  incipient  consumption.  No  Frenchman 
liable,  or  who  had  once  been  liable  to  the  conscription,  could  hold  any 
public  office,  enjoy  any  public  salary,  exercise  any  public  right,  receive 
any  legacy,  or  inherit  any  property,  unless  he  produced  a  certificate  that 
he  had  obeyed  the  law  and  was  legally  exempt,  or  was  in  actual  service, 
or  had  been  regularly  discharged,  or  had  not  been  required  to  perform 
the  military  duties.  Those  who  failed  to  join  the  army  within  the  time 
prescribed  in  their  summons,  were  deprived  of  their  civil  rights,  and 
denounced  to  all  the  gendarmerie  in  the  Empire  as  deserters.  Eleven 


224  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXVJI 

depots  were  established  for  the  punishment  of  the  refractory,  where  they 
wore  the  uniform  and  received  the  fare  of  convicts,  and  were  compelled 
to  labor  on  the  fortifications  or  public  works  without  pay.  And  when 
the  terrors  of  this  treatment  were  found  insufficient  to  bring  the  conscripts 
into  the  ranks,  it  was  ordered  that  the  delinquents  should  be  fined  fifteen 
hundred  francs  and  sentenced  to  three  years'  hard  labor  in  the  provinces, 
with  their  heads  shaved  and  their  beards  uncut.  If  they  afterward  de- 
serted from  the  army,  they  were  sentenced  to  ten  years'  hard  labor  in  a 
frontier  location,  to  be  fed  on  bread  and  water,  and  wear  a  ball  of  eight 
pounds'  weight  attached  to  the  leg  by  a  chain.  Such  were  the  punish- 
ments which  awaited  the  youth  of  France,  if  they  attempted  to  evade  a 
conscription  that  was  sending  them  to  the  grave  at  the  late  of  two  hun- 
dred and  twenty  thousand  a  year. 

The  political  changes  in  Central  Europe,  consequent -on  the  treaty  of 
Tilsit,  were  rapidly  developed.  On  his  route  to  Paris,  Napoleon  met  a 
deputation  of  the  principal  nobles  of  Prussian  Poland  at  Dresden,  where 
Talleyrand  produced  a  Constitution  for  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Warsaw, 
declaring  the  ducal  crown  to  be  hereditary  in  the  Saxon  family.  The 
Grand-Duke  was  invested  with  the  sole  executive  power,  and  he  alone  had 
the  privilege  of  proposing  laws  to  the  Diet,  which  held  the  prerogative  of 
passing  or  rejecting  them.  The  Diet  was  composed  of  eighteen  senators 
appointed  by  him,  embracing  six  bishops  and  twelve  lay  nobles,  and  a 
Chamber  of  Deputies  containing  a  hundred  members,  sixty  of  whom  were 
elected  by  the  nobility  and  forty  by  the  boroughs.  The  powers  of  the 
Chamber  were  limited  to  mere  decisions  on  the  arguments  laid  before 
them  by  the  orators  of  the  Diet,  and  this  mockery  of  a  Parliament  was 
to  assemble  only  for  fifteen  days  in  every  two  years.  The  ardent  ple- 
beian noblesse,  whose  democratic  passions  had  so  long  brought  desolation 
on  their  country,  found  little  in  this  charter  to  gratify  their  political 
views ;  but  a  substantial  improvement  was  made  in  the  condition  of  the 
peasantry,  by  a  clause  declaring  all  the  serfs  to  be  free. 

The  Constitution  of  Westphalia  was,  in  like  manner,  founded  on  the 
model  of  that  of  France.  It  provided  for  a  King,  Council  of  State,  Senate, 
silent  aristocratic  Legislature  and  public  orators,  all  cast  in  the  Parisian 
mould.  The  throne  was  declared  hereditary  in  the  family  of  Jerome 
Bonaparte ;  one  half  of  the  allodial  territories  of  the  former  sovereigns, 
of  which  the  new  kingdom  was  composed,  were  placed  at  the  disposal  of 
Napoleon  as  a  fund  from  which  to  form  estates  for  his  military  followers; 
provision  was  made  for  the  payment  of  the  contributions  levied  by  France 
before  any  part  of  the  revenue  could  reach  the  new  king;  the  kingdom 
was  joined  to  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  and  the  standing  army  re- 
quired to  be  kept  on  foot  for  the  service  of  France,  when  needed,  was 
fixed  at  twenty-five  thousand  men.  In  default  of  the  king's  heirs-male, 
the  throne  was  to  succeed  to  Napoleon  and  his  heirs  by  birth  or  adoption. 

The  same  plan  of  government  was  adopted  in  Oldenberg,  Mecklen- 
burg, Dantzic,  Hamburg,  Bremen,  Lubec  and  all  the  Hanse  Towns ; 
in  every  instance,  the  harbors  were  closed,  commerce  was  annihilated, 
and  the  military  exactions  of  France  reduced  the  whole  to  indigence  and 
almost  to  bankruptcy. 

While  the  diplomatists  of  Europe  were  speculating  on  the  extinction  of 
Prussia  as  an  independent  power,  and  the  only  question  appeared  to  be, 
what  fortunate  neighbor  would  acquire  her  territories,  a  new  and  im- 


1807.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  225 

proved  system  was  adopted  in  the  several  branches  of  her  government, 
and  the  foundation  laid  in  present  suffering  for  future  triumph.  The 
members  of  the  cabinet  whose  temporizing  and  unworthy  policy  had  so 
largely  contributed  to  the  downfall  of  the  kingdom,  were  removed  from 
office ;  and  the  commanders  who  had  so  disgracefully  surrendered  the 
national  fortresses  after  the  battle  of  Jena,  were  in  a  body  dismissed  from 
the  army.  The  king  desired  to  call  the  intrepid  and  sagacious  Harden- 
berg  to  his  councils ;  but  the  influence  of  Napoleon,  which  had  long  be- 
fore caused  his  removal  from  the  administration,  now  prevented  his 
return,  and  Baron  Stein  was  appointed  to  the  chief  direction  of  the  govern- 
ment. The  talents  and  zeal  of  this  eminent  man  soon  produced  extensive 
and  salutary  changes  in  every  department,  and  the  condition  of  the  whole 
people  was  greatly  improved  by  his  wise  regulations.  Indeed,  the  ben- 
efits of  his  policy  were  so  conspicuous  and  universal,  that  he,  too,  fell 
under  the  proscription  of  Napoleon ;  and  the  king  was  reluctantly  com- 
pelled to  send  him  into  honorable  exile  in  Russia.  Nevertheless,  from 
his  retreat  in  Courland  he  really,  though  privately,  continued  to  direct 
the  Prussian  councils ;  and  by  the  appointment  of  Scharnhorst,  as  min- 
ister at  War,  a  new  impetus  was  given  to  the  organization  and  increase 
of  the  army,  which  proved  of  immense  importance  in  the  subsequent 
struggle  for  European  freedom. 

This  officer,  who  served  under  Lestocq  in  the  late  campaign,  and  aided 
materially  in  the  result  of  the  battle  of  Eylau,  boldly  applied  to  the 
military  department  the  admirable  principles  by  which  Stein  had  secured 
the  affections  of  the  burgher  classes.  He  threw  open  to  the  citizens  gen- 
erally the  higher  grades  of  the  army,  from  which  they  had  hitherto  been 
excluded,  abolished  corporal  punishments,  so  degrading  to  the  spirit  of 
the  soldier,  and  silently  augmented  the  strength  of  the  army  by  evading 
a  clause  in  the  treaty  with  Napoleon,  which  provided,  that  Prussia  should 
not  keep  on  foot  more  than  forty-two  thousand  men ;  a  compliance  Avith 
which  stipulation  would  at  once  have  reduced  her  to  the  rank  of  a  fourth- 
rate  power,  and  disabled  her  from  assuming  an  attitude  of  resistance  to 
the  encroachments  of  France.  To  elude  the  operation  of  this  clause, 
and  at  the  same  time  avoid  any  direct  or  obvious  infringement  of  the 
treaty,  he  was  careful  to  have  no  more  than  the  prescribed  number  at 
any  one  time  in  arms;  but  the  moment  the  young  soldiers  were  suffi- 
ciently drilled,  they  were  sent  home,  and  their  places  supplied  by  others; 
who.,  again,  after  the  requisite  instruction,  successively  gave  way  to  ad- 
ditional recruits.  In  this  manner,  the  number  of  efficient  troops  gradu- 
ally rose  to  two  hundred  thousand  men. 

Meantime,  the  inhabitants  of  Prussia,  oppressed  by  foreign  tyranny, 
surrounded  by  rapacious  enemies  or  impotent  friends,  and  deprived  of 
their  commerce,  and  of  a  market  for  the  fruits  of  their  industry,  had  no 
resource  but  in  secret  voluntary  associations.  The  universality  of  suffer 
ing  produced  a  corresponding  unanimity  of  opinion,  the  divisions  existing 
before  the  war  disappeared  under  its  calamities,  and  the  jealousies  of  rank 
or  class  yielded  to  the  pressure  of  the  common  distress:  hence  arose  the 
Tugendbund,  a  secret  society,  that  embraced  nearly  the  whole  male 
population  of  the  north  of  Germany.  A  central  body  of  directors  at  Ber- 
lin guided  its  movements — provincial  committees  carried  its  orders  into 
effect,  and  an  unseen  authority  was  obeyed  from  one  end  of  the  subju- 
gated provinces  to  the  other. 


220  HIST  ORY.OF    EUROPE.  [CiiAi>.  XXVII. 

Austria  had  been  bow^d  to  the  earth  by  the  disasters  of  Austerlitz,  but 
she  still  possessed  the  physical  and  material  resources  of  power;  and  was 
now  silently,  and  without  interruption,  repairing;  her  losses,  and  taking 
measures  to  resume  her  place  in  the  rank  of  independent  nations.  Du- 
ring the  interval  of  hostilities,  the  Aulic  Council  were  indefatigable  in 
their  efforts  to  restore  the  equipment  and  revive  the  spirit  of  the  army. 
The  artillery  taken  from  the  arsenal  of  Vienna,  had  been  for  the  most 
part  regained  by  purchase  from  the  French  government  ;  great  exertions 
were  made  to  supply  the  cavalry  regiments  with  horses  ;  and  the  infantry 
was  powerfully  recruited  by  the  return  of  prisoners  from  France,  as  well 
as  by  new  enrolments  on  an  extensive  scale. 

Hitherto,  the  King  of  Sweden  had  bid  defiance  to  Napoleon's  threats: 
the  passage  around  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  was  so  nearly  impracticable  to  an 
invading  army,  that  he  was  comparatively  secure  from  attack  ;  and,  with 
the  assistance  of  England,  he  did  riot  despair  of  making  head  against  his 
enemies,  even  should  Russia  be  added  to  their  formidable  league.  But 
after  the  pacification  of  Tilsit,  he  learned  that  his  transmarine  dominions 
were  held  by  a  precarious  tenure.  On  the  13th  of  July,  Marshal  Brune 
laid  siege  to  the  fortress  of  Stralsund,  and  although  the  garrison  made  a 
determined  resistance,  they  were  forced  to  surrender  on  the  20th  of 
August,  with  four  hundred  pieces  of  cannon  arid  an  immense  quantity  of 
mill  tar}  stores. 

Notwithstanding  the  precautions  taken  by  the  two  Emperors,  in  their 
negotiations  at  Tilsit,  to  envelope  their  designs  in  profound  secrecy,  the 
British  government  possessed  a  golden  key,  which  laid  open  their  most 
confidential  proceedings.  The  cabinet  of  London  was  aware  of  the  in- 
tention of  the  Imperial  despots  to  seize  the  fleets  of  Denmark  and  Portugal, 
almost  as  soon  as  the  purpose  was  conceived  ;  and  the  force  at  Napo- 
leon's disposal  left  no  room  for  doubt  that  the  resolution  would  be  imme- 
diately carried  into  effect.  Indeed,  the  ink  of  the  treaty  was  hardly  dry, 
when  the  French  troops,  under  Bsrnadotte  and  Davoust,  began  to  defile 
in  such  numbers  toward  Holstein,  as  to  threaten  Denmark  with  a  speedy 
loss  of  her  continental  possessions  if  she  resisted  the  Emperor's  demands  : 
besides,  it  was  manifest  from  the  course  of  her  policy,  that  she  would 
prefer  the  Continental  alliance,  not  only  to  a  treaty  with  England,  but  also 
to  a  doubtful  neutrality. 

Under  these  circumstances  the  British  government  had  a  serious  duty 
to  perform.  They  were  menaced  with  an  attack  from  the  combined 
navies  of  Europe,  amounting  to  one  hundred  and  eighty  sail  of  the  line  ; 
of  which  immense  force,  the  fleet  in  the  Baltic  was  evidently  destined  to 
form  the  right  wing.  They  therefore  resolved  to  deprive  the  allied  powers 
of  this  important  accession  to  their  strength,  and  apply  it  to  their  own  use. 
A  large  naval  and  military  force  was  accordingly  assembled  to  carry  out 
this  intention  ;  the  latter,  consisting  of  twenty  thousand  land-troops,  and 
the  former,  of  twenty-seven  ships  of  the  line  and  a  large  number  of  in- 
ferior  vessels :  all  of  which  arrived  safely  off  the  harbor  of  Copen. 
hagen,  early  in  August.  An  envoy  was  immediately  sent  on  shore,  to 
demand  that  the  Danish  fleet  should  be  surrendered  to  the  British  govern- 
ment in  pledge,  and  under  an  agreement  for  full  restitution,  till  a  general 
peace  should  be  concluded.  This  demand  was  resisted  by  the  prince 
royal,  and  Doth  parties  prepared  to  decide  the  question  by  the  sword.  The 
land  troops  commenced  their  disembarkation  on  the  19ih  of  August,  and 


1807.1  II I  S  T  O  R  Y    O  F    E  U  R  O  P  E  .  227 

in  three  days,  Copenhagen  was  completely  invested.  On  the  1st  of. 
September,  everything  being  in  readiness  for  the  bombardment,  the  town 
was  summoned,  and  an  accommodation  offered,  on  condition  of  tho  sur- 
render of  the  Danish  fleet.  As  the  prince  still  rejected  the  proposal,  the 
bombardment  commenced,  and  continued,  with  brief  interruptions,  for 
three  days  and  nights,  during  which  time  an  eighth  part  of  the  city  was 
laid  in  ashes.  General  Peymann,  finding  that  the  whole  town  must 
inevitably  be  destroyed  if  he  persisted  in  the  defence,  at  length  consented 
to  capitulate  ;  and  unconditionally  delivered  into  the  hands  of  the  British, 
the  whole  fleet,  together  with  the  artillery  and  naval  stores  of  the  capital. 
In  the  beginning  of  October,  the  British  squadron  returned  to  England, 
with  its  prize  of  eighteen  ships  of  the  line,  fifteen  frigates,  six  brigs,  and 
twenty  five  gun-boats,  all  in  excellent  condition. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  negotiations  for  peace  with  England,  contem- 
plated by  the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  were  set  on  foot,  and  the  cabinet  of  St.  Pe- 
tersburg tendered  their  good  offices  to  the  English  government  for  the 
conclusion  of  a  general  peace.  Mr.  Canning  replied,  that  Great  Britain 
was  perfectly  willing  to  treat  on  equitable  terms,  and  requested  a  frank 
declaration  of  the  secret  articles  of  the  treaty  with  France,  as  the  best 
pledge  of  the  friendly  and  pacific  intentions  of  the  Emperor  Alexander. 
This  demand  was  evaded,  and  while  the  negotiations  were  in  progress, 
intelligence  arrived  of  the  capture  of  the  Danish  fleet.  Even  then,  the 
Russian  Emperor  was  disposed  to  treat ;  but  a  peremptory  note  from  Na- 
poleon, insisting  on  the  immediate  and  full  execution  of  the  treaty,  com- 
pelled him  to  dismiss  the  English  minister  from  St.  Petersburg,  and  pro- 
claim anew  -the  principles  of  the  Confederacy,  This  measure  was 
followed  on  the  part  of  Russia,  by  a  declaration  of  war  against  Sweden, 
and  the  occupation,  by  the  Muscovite  troops,  of  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  Swedish  territory  :  while  Denmark  resented  the  capture  of  her  ships 
by  entering  into  a  close  alliance  with  France.  About  the  same  time,  Tur- 
key, finding  herself  betrayed  and  abandoned  by  France,  notwithstanding 
the  stipulations  in  the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  broke  off  her  friendly  connexions 
with  the  French  Emperor,  and  prepared  to  renew  the  war  with  Russia. 

In  the  month  of  November,  Napoleon  made  a  journey  to  Italy,  where 
important  political  changes  were  in  progress.  Destined,  like  all  the  sub- 
ordinate thrones  which  surrounded  the  French  Empire,  to  share  in  the 
rapid  mutations  which  that  government  underwent,  the  kingdom  of  Italy 
was  required  to  alter  its  Constitution.  Napoleon  ordered  the  Legislative 
body  to  be  superseded  by  a  Senate  appointed  and  paid  by  the  government. 
Yet,  in  despite  of  this  arbitrary  act,  he  was  received  with  unbounded 
adulation  in  the  Italian  towns.  Their  deputies,  who  waited  on  him  at 
Milan,  vied  with  each  other  in  extravagant  flattery :  he  was  the  Re- 
deemer of  France,  but  the  Creator  of  Italy — they  had  supplicated  Heaven 
for  his  victories  and  his  safety — they  offered  him  the  tribute  of  their 
fidelity  and  love  forever.  Napoleon  received  their  advances  graciously, 
reciprocated  them  by  projecting  costly  public  works,  and  answered  them 
by  heavy  pecuniary  exactions,  and  admonitions  to  the  inhabitants  to  train 
up  their  youth  to  the  profession  of  arms. 

These  proceedings  were  followed  by  further  encroachments  on  the 
dominions  of  Western  Europe.  The  town  and  territory  of  Flushing,  and 
the  towns  of  Kehl,  Cassel,  and  Wessel,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine, 
were  ceded  to  France.  The  Emperor  also  took  possession  of  Tuscany 

22 


g-28  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXVIIL 

and  Rome,  and  disbanded  the  papal  troops  in  the  latter  city.  He  then 
annexed  Anoona,  Urbcno,  Macerata  and  Carnerino,  to  the  kingdom  of 
Italy.  The  importance  of  these  acquisitions,  however,  consisted  mainly 
in  the  principles  on  which  they  were  made  ;  for  France  now,  without  dis- 
guise, assumed  the  right  of  annexing  neutral  and  independent  states  to 
her  dominions  by  no  other  authority  than  the  decree  of  her  own  Legis- 
lature. 


CHAPTER    XXVIII. 

PRELIMINARY    MOVEMENTS    OF    THE    PENINSULAR    WAR. 

WHEN  Napoleon  returned  from  Italy  to  Paris,  he  fixed  his  attention 
on  the  Spanish  Peninsula,  and  considered  the  means  of  bringing  the  re- 
sources of  both  its  monarchies  under  the  immediate  control  of  France. 

The  indignation  of  the  Spanish  government  had  already  been  roused 
to  the  highest  pitch,  at  hearing  of  Napoleon's  offer  to  partition  their 
dominions ;  and  they  saw,  at  the  same  time,  that  fidelity  in  alliance  and 
long-continued  national  service,  afforded  them  no  guaranty  for  the  con- 
tinued support  of  the  French  monarch  :  but  that,  when  it  suited  his  pur- 
pose, he  did  not  scruple  to  purchase  a  temporary  respite  from  the  hostility 
of  an  enemy  by  the  permanent  spoliation  of  a  friend.  While  this  and 
various  minor  causes  of  offence  were  fast  changing  the  course  of  Spanish 
policy,  the  Russian  ambassador  at  Madrid,  entered  into  a  private  treaty 
with  Spain  on  the  28th  of  August,  1806,  in  which  compact  the  court  of 
Lisbon  was  also  included,  wherein  it  was  agreed,  that  as  soon  as  the 
French  armies  were  far  advanced  on  their  road  to  Prussia,  Spain  should 
commence  hostilities  on  the  Pyrenees,  and  invite  England  to  cooperate 
in  the  defence  of  the  Peninsula. 

This  secret  negotiation  was  made  known  to  Napoleon,  by  the  activity 
of  his  ambassador  at  Madrid  ;  but  he  dissembled  his  resentment,  and  re- 
solved to  strike  a  decisive  blow  in  the  north  of  Germany,  before  he  car- 
ried out  his  ulterior  designs  on  Spain  and  Portugal.  The  imprudent 
zeal  of  the  Prince  of  Peace,  gave  publicity  to  the  treaty  before  the  proper 
season  arrived ;  for,  in  a  proclamation  issued  at  Madrid  on  the  5th  of 
October,  1806,  he  invited  "  all  Spaniards  to  unite  themselves  under  the 
national  standards ;  the  rich  to  make  sacrifices  for  the  charges  of  a  war 
which  will  soon  be  called  for  by  the  common  good  ;  the  magistrates  to 
do  all  in  their  power  to  rouse  the  public  enthusiasm,  in  order  to  enable 
the  nation  to  enter  with  glory  into  the  lists  which  were  preparing."  This 
proclamation  reached  Napoleon  on  the  field  of  Jena,  the  evening  after 
the  battle.  He,  however,  contented  himself  for  the  moment,  with  in- 
structing his  ambassador  to  demand  an  explanation  of  this  extraordinary 
manifesto,  and  afterward  professed  to  be  satisfied  by  the  assurance  that 
the  measure  was  intended  to  counteract  ar  anticipated  descent  of  the 
Moors.  The  court  of  Lisbon,  justly  alarmed  A*  this  premature  disclosure 
of  their  secret  designs,  speedily  disavowed  all  participation  in  the  pro- 
ject ;  and,  to  propitiate  the  Emperor,  required  the  Earl  St.  Vincent  to 
withdraw  the  British  squadron  from  the  Tagus. 


1807.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  229 

Those  events,  thus  far  trivial  in  themselves,  made  a  great  impression 
on  Napoleon.  He  clearly  saw  the  risk  to  which  he  would  be  exposed, 
if,  while  actively  engaged  in  a  German  or  Russian  war,  he  were  to  be 
suddenly  assailed  by  the  forces  of  the  Peninsula  in  his  rear,  where  the 
French  frontier  was  in  a  great  measure  defenceless,  and  whence  the 
armies  of  England  might  find  an  easy  entrance  into  the  heart  of  his 
dominions.  He  felt,  with  Louis  XIV.,  that  it  was  necessary  there  should 
be  no  longer  any  Pyrenees ;  and  as  the  Revolution  had  changed  the 
reigning  family  on  the  throne  of  France,  he  deemed  it  indispensable  that 
a  similar  change  should  be  effected  in  the  Peninsular  monarchies.  He 
anticipated  little  opposition  from  the  people  either  of  Spain  or  Portugal ; 
considering  them,  like  the  Italians,  indifferent  to  political  change,  pro- 
vided no  diminution  was  made  in  their  private  enjoyments. 

The  peace  of  Tilsit  gave  Napoleon  an  opportunity  to  carry  out  these 
intentions ;  and  his  first  measures  were  to  summon  the  court  of  Lisbon 
to  shut  their  ports  against  England,  confiscate  all  English  property  within 
their  dominions,  and  declare  war  against  Great  Britain.  This  was  done 
on  the  12th  of  August.  At  the  same  time,  Junot  repaired  to  Bayonne 
with  an  army  of  twenty-eight  thousand  men ;  and  Napoleon,  under  pre- 
tence of  anticipating  a  refusal  from  the  court  of  Lisbon,  seized  the  Portu- 
guese ships  in  the  French  harbors.  The  government  of  Portugal  was, 
however,  wholly  unable  to  resist  Napoleon's  demand ;  they  therefore 
closed  their  ports  and  declared  war  against  England:  but  they  refused 
to  confiscate  at  once  the  property  of  the  English  merchants,  and  warned 
them  to  send  off  their  effects  and  embark  for  their  own  country  as  speed- 
ily as  possible.  This  modified  compliance  with  his  requisitions  was  far 
from  satisfying  Napoleon,  and  he  ordered  Junot  to  commence  his  march 
into  the  Portuguese  territory.  Accordingly,  on  the  19th  of  October,  that 
marshal  crossed  the  Bidassoa  with  his  leading  divisions;  when  the  court 
of  Lisbon  declared  that  if  the  French  troops  entered  Portugal,  they  would 
retire  with  their  fleet  to  the  Brazils.  The  threats  and  concessions  of  the 
court  were,  however,  unavailing;  for  Napoleon  had  already  resolved  on 
the  destruction  of  the  House  of  Braganza,  as  well  as  the  dethronement 
of  the  Spanish  House  of  Bourbon ;  and  events  soon  followed,  which 
lighted  up  the  flames  of  the  Peninsular  War. 

.  In  conformity  to  his  orders,  Junot  pressed  on  toward  Lisbon,  and  in 
such  haste,  that  the  mere  rapidity  of  his  movements  almost  disorganized 
his  army ;  and  his  career  through  that  devoted  country  was  marked  by 
pillage  and  rapine  at  every  step.  The  elements  of  resistance  were  not 
wanting  in  the  Portuguese  capital.  It  contained  three  hundred  thousand 
inhabitants,  numerous  well-constructed  forts,  and  a  garrison  of  fourteen 
thousand  men.  An  English  squadron  lay  in  the  Tagus — for  the  British 
government,  appreciating  the  circumstances  under  which  Portugal  had 
been  forced  to  declare  war  against  them,  still  continued  their  friendly 
offices,  notwithstanding  such  declaration — and  Sir  Sidney  Smith,  who  had 
command  of  the  British  ships,  held  himself  in  readiness  to  unite  with  the 
garrison  for  the  defence  of  the  capital.  But  a  little  reflection  showed 
the  impolicy  of  contending  with  the  French  troops  ;  for,  although  a  tem- 
porary success  over  Junot's  disordered  corps  was  of  easy  attainment,  his 
defeat  would  have  led  to  the  invasion  of  an  overwhelming  force  which 
could  not  be  resisted ;  and  which,  by  its  march  and  conquest,  would  spread 
desolation  and  ruin  through  the  country,  to  a  much  greater  extent  than 


230  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXVIII. 

Junot's  unopposed  columns.  The  alternative  of  submission  was  there- 
fore adopted ;  and  the  royal  family,  with  their  archives,  treasure,  plate 
and  most  valuable  effects,  embarked  on  board  their  fleet,  consisting  of 
eight  sail  of  the  line,  three  frigates,  five  sloops  and  a  number  of  merchant 
vessels.  Seldom  has  there  been  seen  a  more  melancholy  procession 
than  that  which  preceded  their  embarkation,  or  one  more  calculated  to 
impress  the  mind  with  the  magnitude  of  the  calamities  brought  on  the 
nations  of  Europe  by  Napoleon's  unbounded  ambition.  The  insane 
queen  was  in  the  first  carriage ;  she  had  lived  in  seclusion  for  sixteen 
years,  but  a  ray  of  light  entered  her  mind  at  this  extremity,  and  she  un- 
derstood and  approved  the  noble  act  of  self-devotion :  the  widowed  prin- 
cess and  the  Infanta  Maria,  with  the  princess  of  Brazil,  followed ;  and 
after  them  came  the  prince  regent,  pale,  and  weeping  to  leave  thus,  and 
apparently  for  ever,  the  land  of  his  fathers.  In  the  depth  of  the  royal 
distress,  the  multitude  forgot  their  own  dangers ;  and,  thronging  around 
the  illustrious  fugitives,  wept  as  at  the  severance  of  the  dearest  family 
ties.  It  was  some  consolation  to  the  crowd,  as  they  watched  the  receding 
sails  of  the  exiled  fleet,  to  see  the  ships  greeted  with  a  royal  salute  while 
passing  the  British  squadron ;  a  courtesy  emblematic  of  the  protection 
Great  Britain  afterward  extended  to  her  ancient  ally  in  her  darkest  hour 
of  peril. 

The  fleet  had  hardly  cleared  the  bar  and  disappeared  from  the  shores 
of  Europe,  when  Junot's  advanced  guajd,  reduced  to  sixteen  hundred 
men  in  the  greatest  destitution,  reached  the  barriers  of  Lisbon.  No 
resistance  was  offered  ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  as  the  French  soldiers  were 
literally  dying  from  hunger  and  fatigue,  the  humane  inhabitants  received 
them  with  kindness,  and  by  timely  aid  saved  the  lives  of  those,  through 
whose  instrumentality  they  were  to  be  subjected  to  a  foreign  tyrant. 
Junot  immediately  took  military  possession  of  the  country ;  and  as  the 
detachments  of  his  corps  severally  arrived,  they  were  quartered  in  the 
capital  and  the  fortresses  in  its  vicinity,  over  all  of  which  the  tricolor 
flag  now  floated. 

As  the  French  general,  for  a  time,  pursued  the  policy  and  enforced  the 
laws  of  the  supplanted  government,  the  inhabitants  began  to  hope  that 
they  would  escape  the  ordinary  calamities  of  a  conquered  nation  ;  but 
they  were  soon  undeceived.  In  addition  to  the  maintenance  of  the 
French  troops,  whose  numbers  daily  increased,  and  the  burden  of  whose 
support  fell  on  the  country  as  a  matter  of  course,  forced  loans  were  ex- 
acted to  a  ruinous  amount ;  English  property  of  every  description  was 
confiscated,  together  with  the  property  of  the  royal  family,  and  that  of  all 
who  accompanied  their  flight;  the  ports  were  closed  against  British 
ships,  and  the  trade  of  the  capital  sunk  at  once  into  insignificance. 
Shortly  afterward,  Junot  dissolved  the  existing  government,  and  took 
personal  charge  of  the  administration  in  the  name  of  Napoleon.  A  sys- 
tem of  private  spoliation  and  robbery  thenceforward  ensued,  in  which  all 
the  invaders  participated,  from  the  general-in-chief  down  to  the  meanest 
soldier.  These  exactions  and  oppressions  soon  roused  to  the  utmost  the 
indignation  of  the  inhabitants ;  but  as  yet,  they  were  too  firmly  held  in 
the  conqueror's  grasp  to  be  able  to  act  against  his  authority. 

The  royal  family  of  Spain,  at  this  period,  was  divided  and  distracted 
by  political  intrigue.  The  king,  Charles  IV.,  though  not  destitute  of 
ability,  was  so  indolent  and  so  desirous  of  enjoying,  on  a  throne,  the  Iran- 


1807.]  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  231 

quillity  of  private  life,  that,  on  ordinary  occasions,  he  surrendered  him- 
self to  the  direction  of  the  queen  and  Godoy,  known  also  as  the  Prince 
of  Peace.  The  queen  was  a  woman  of  spirit  and  capacity,  but  sensual, 
intriguing,  and  almost  entirely  governed  by  Don  Manuel  Godoy,  a  min- 
ister whom  her  criminal  favor  had  raised  from  the  humblest  station  to  the 
chief  directorship  of  the  affairs  of  the  kingdom.  The  Prince  of  Asturias, 
afterward  Ferdinand  VII.,  and  now  heir-apparent  to  the  Spanish  throne, 
was  under  the  guidance  of  a  swarm  of  flatterers,  among  whom  the  Canon 
Escoiquiz,  an  ecclesiastic  of  remarkable  talents,  was  the  most  influential ; 
so  that,  in  effect,  two  parties  existed  at  the  Spanish  court ;  one,  under  the 
control  of  Godoy,  and  the  other,  of  Escoiquiz.  These  divisions  were 
propitious  to  Napoleon's  designs,  and  he  prepared  to  take  advantage  of 
them  by  a  secret  correspondence  with  Godoy,  and  by  sending  Beauhar- 
nois,  as  ambassador  to  Madrid,  to  open  private  conferences  with  the 
prince's  party.  He  at  the  same  time  entered  into  a  treaty  at  Paris,  with  an 
ambassador  of  Charles  IV.,  by  which  the  partition  of  Portugal  between 
France,  Spain  and  some  inferior  powers,  was  stipulated;  permission 
granted  for  the  assembling  of  forty  thousand  French  troops  at  Bayonne, 
who  were  to  be  marched  across  the  Spanish  territory  to  Portugal,  in  case 
of  need ;  and  the  integrity  of  his  dominions  guarantied  to  the  Spanish 
king. 

This  treaty,  known  as  the  treaty  of  Fontainebleau,  was  signed  by  Na- 
poleon on  the  29th  of  October.  On  the  22nd  of  November,  the  army  of 
forty  thousand  men  at  Bayonne  was  increased  to  sixty  thousand ;  and 
these  troops,  without  any  authority  from  the  Spanish  government,  or  any 
regard  to  the  fact  that  their  services  were  not  required  in  Portugal,  were 
marched  across  the  Spanish  frontier,  and  took  the  road,  not  to  Lisbon,  but 
to  Madrid.  This  step  was  followed  by  a  message  from  the  Emperor  to 
the  Senate,  requiring  a  levy  of  eighty  thousand  conscripts  from  the  class 
e  1809 ;  a  demand  for  which  there  was  no  apparent  reason,  now  that 
.he  continental  wars  were  terminated  by  the  treaty  of  Tilsit.  Soon  after, 
the  French  troops,  by  a  succession  of  fraud  and  stratagem  equally  inge- 
nious and  dishonorable,  made  themselves  masters  of  the  four  frontier 
fortresses  of  Spain ;  namely,  Pampeluna,  Barcelona,  San  Fernando  de 
Figueras,  and  St.  Sebastians.  These  conquests  gave  them  the  command 
of  the  only  passes  practicable  for  an  army  from  France  into  the  Penin- 
sula ;  and  they  were  made  not  only  during  a  period  of  profound  peace, 
but  within  a  few  months  of  the  time  when  a  solemn  treaty  had  been  con- 
cluded between  the  two  countries,  by  which  France  guarantied  the  integ- 
rity of  the  Spanish  territory.  Napoleon  followed  up  his  success  with  hip- 
accustomed  vigor,  by  ordering  fresh  troops  to  the  newly-acquired  for 
tresses,  accumulating  magazines  within  their  walls,  and  bestowing  minute 
attention  to  the  perfecting  of  their  defences.  The  whole  country,  from 
the  Bidassoa  to  the  Duoro,  was  covered  with  armed  men,  the  Spanish 
authorities  in  the  towns  were  supplanted  by  Frenchmen,  and  before  a 
single  shot  had  been  fired  or  an  angry  note  interchanged  between  the 
cabinets  of  Paris  and  Madrid,  the  whole  of  Spain  north  of  the  Ebro  was 
wrested  from  the  crown  of  Castile. 

Napoleon  soon  made  a  formal  demand  for  the  annexation  of  the  terri- 
tory thus  acquired  to  the  French  Empire,  offering  in  return  to  cede  to 
Spain  his  portion  of  Portugal ;  but  this  condition  was  illusory  on  its  face, 
as,  in  defiar.ee  of  the  treaty  of  Fontainebleau,  he  had  already  taken  pos- 

17 


232  HISTORY     OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXVTIL 

session,  in  his  own  name,  of  the  whole  Portuguese  dominion.  Indeed, 
Napoleon's  purpose  to  appropriate  to  himself  the  entire  Peninsula  became 
now  so  manifest,  that  the  king  resolved  to  imitate  the  example  of  the 
Prince  Regent  of  Portugal  :  he  made  immediate  though  secret  arrange- 
ments to  proceed  to  Seville,  and  embark  thence  for  America.  At  the 
same  time  Napoleon,  maintaining  to  the  last  his  detestable  system  of  hy- 
pocrisy, sent  the  king  a  present  of  twelve  beautiful  horses,  with  a  letter 
announcing  his  "  intended  visit  to  his  friend  and  ally,  the  King  of  Spain, 
in  order  to  cement  their  friendship  by  personal  intercourse^  and  arrange 
the  affairs  of  the  Peninsula  without  the  restraint  of  diplomatic  forms." 
But  the  court  of  Madrid  had  at  last  learned  to  estimate  truly  their  rela- 
tions with  France,  and  the  friendship  of  Napoleon :  they  therefore  hast- 
ened their  preparations  for  departure.  It  was  not  long  before  rumors  of 
the  intended  flight  began  to  circulate  ;  and  on  the  morning  of  March 
17th,  tumultuous  crowds  assembled  at  Aranjuez  to  prevent  the  journey. 
When  the  royal  carriages  were  drawn  up  in  front  of  the  palace,  they  took 
possession  of  them  and  cut  the  traces ;  they  then  proceeded  to  the  hotel 
of  the  Prince  of  Peace,  whom  they  denounced  as  the  author  of  their 
calamities,  and  ransacked  every  apartment  in  search  of  him.  To  ap- 
pease their  wrath,  the  king  issued  a  proclamation  depriving  Godoy  of  his 
offices,  and  banishing  him  from  the  court.  This  measure,  however,  did 
not  satisfy  them :  they  seized  Don  Diego  Godoy,  a  relative  of  the  Prince 
of  Peace,  and  conducted  him  with  much  personal  indignity  to  his  barracks. 
At  the  same  time,  the  royal  guards,  when  sounded  as  to  their  willingness 
to  resist  the  insurgents,  should  they  attack  the  palace,  answered,  that  "  the 
Prince  of  Asturias  could  alone  insure  the  public  safety."  That  prince 
soon  afterward  appeared  and  dispersed  the  multitude  with  such  ease,  that 
it  was  impossible  to  doubt  he  had  some  agency  in  exciting  the  revolt. 
The  night  passed  off  tranquilly ;  but  on  the  following  day.  a  fresh  tumult 
arose  in  consequence  of  the  discovery  and  seizure  of  Godoy  by  the  people. 
The  guards  interfered  to  save  him  from  immediate  execution,  and  bore 
him  to  the  nearest  prison  ;  when  the  mob,  prevented  from  wreaking  their 
vengeance  on  the  chief  object  of  their  hatred,  separated  into  parties,  tra- 
versed the  streets  in  various  directions,  and  sacked  and  pulled  down  the 
houses  of  Godoy's  principal  friends  and  dependents. 

At  length  Ferdinand,  to  whom  all  eyes  were  now  turned  as  the  only 
person  capable  of  arresting  the  public  disorders,  at  the  earnest  entreaty 
of  the  king  and  queen,  repaired  to  the  prison  at  the  head  of  his  guards, 
and  prevailed  on  the  mob  to  retire.  "  Are  you  yet  king  ?"  inquired  the 
Prince  of  Pea'ce,  when  Ferdinand  presented  himself.  "  Not  yet,"  an- 
swered Ferdinand,  "  but  soon  shall  be."  In  effect,  Charles  IV..  deserted 
by  his  court,  overwhelmed  by  the  opprobrium  heaped  on  his  minister, 
unable  to  trust  his  own  guards,  and  in  hourly  apprehension  that  not  only 
Godoy,  but  also  his  queen  and  himself  might  be  murdered,  deemed  a 
resignation  of  the  crown  the  only  means  of  securing  personal  safety  to 
any  of  the  three :  in  the  evening,  therefore,  of  March  19th,  he  issued  a 
proclamation,  relinquishing  the  throne  in  favor  of  the  Prince  of  Asturias. 

The  prince  was  at  once  proclaimed  king,  under  the  title  of  Ferdinand 
VII. ;  an  event  which,  joined  to  the  fall  of  Godoy,  caused  a  universal 
rejoicing.  The  surrender  of  the  frontier  fortresses*,  the  occupation  of  the 
northern  provinces  by  a  hundred  thousand  French  troops,  the  approach 
of  Napoleon's  Imperial  Guard — these  were  forgotten  by  the  people  in 


1808.]  HISTORY     OF    EUROPE.  233 

their  triumph  over  the  traitors  who  had  betrayed  the  nation.  The  houses 
in  Madrid  were  decorated  during  the  day  with  flowers  and  green  boughs, 
and  at  night  a  spontaneous  illumination  burst  forth  in  every  part  of  the 
capital. 

While  the  Spaniards  were  exulting  at  the  accession  of  a  new  monarch 
to  the  throne,  Murat,  at  the  head  of  the  French  troops,  rapidly  approached 
Madrid.  On  the  15th  of  March,  he  set  out  from  Burgos,  with  the  corps  of 
Moncey,  the  Imperial  Guard,  and  the  artillery,  taking  the  road  to  Somo- 
Sierra.  On  the  same  day,  Dupont,  with  two  divisions  of  his  corps  and  the 
cavalry,  marched  for  the  Guadarama  pass,  while  his  third  division  remained 
at  Valladolid  to  observe  the  Spanish  troops  in  Galicia.  As  soon  as  these 
forces  evacuated  Burgos,  their  place  was  supplied  by  the  army  of  reserve 
under  Bessieres.  The  whote  "body  moved  on  by  brigades,  taking  with 
them  provisions  for  fifteen  days  and  fifty  rounds  of  ball-cartridge  for  each 
man  :  they  bivouacked  at  night  with  patrols  set,  and  all  the  other  precau- 
tions usual  in  an  enemy's  territory.  They  proclaimed,  that  they  were 
bound  for  the  camp  at  St.  Roque  to  act  against  the  English ;  but  they 
belied  their  pacific  declarations  by  arresting  the  mails  and  all  Spanish 
soldiers  whom  they  met  on  the  road,  in  order  to  prevent  any  intelligence 
of  their  approach  from  preceding  them.  On  the  23rd  of  March,  Murat 
reached  Madrid  with  the  cavalry  and  Imperial  Guard,  and  established 
his  quarters  at  Godoy's  hotel.  This  formidable  apparition  excited  much 
less  notice  than  it  would  otherwise  have  done,  in  consequence  of  every 
one's  being  engaged  in  preparing  for  the  triumphal  entry  of  the  new  king, 
appointed  for  the  following  day.  Ferdinand  came,  in  accordance  with 
this  arrangement,  accompanied  by  two  hundred  thousand  citizens  of  all 
ranks,  in  carriages,  on  horseback  and  on  foot ;  and  Murat,  who  saw  the 
enthusiasm  with  which  the  monarch  was  received,  wrote  the  particulars 
to  Napoleon,  and  commented  on  the  probable  effect  of  placing  so  popular 
a  prince  permanently  at  the  head  of  affairs  in  Spain. 

Ferdinand,  aware  of  the  importance  of  being  recognized  by  the  French 
Emperor,  was  now  assiduous  in  attempts  to  cultivate  a  good  understanding 
with  Murat ;  but  that  officer,  well  knowing  Napoleon's  designs  on  the 
Spanish  throne,  steadily  repelled  his  advances.  On  the  other  hand, 
Charles  IV.  and  his  queen  daily  solicited  Murat  to  take  Godoy  under  his 
protection,  while  the  ex-king  averred  that  he  had  abdicated  under  com- 
pulsion and  desired  to  recall  his  act.  It  was  easy  for  Murat,  while  thus 
holding  the  rival  parties  in  expectation  of  his  support  and  in  dread  of  his 
displeasure,  to  take  military  possession  of  the  capital ;  which  he  did  ac- 
cordingly, and  nominated  General  Grouchy  governor  of  Madrid.  En- 
couraged by  this  success,  Murat  demanded  supplies  for  the  food,  clothing 
and  pay  of  his  troops,  which  were  promptly  granted.  He  then  hinted 
that  the  French  Emperor  would  be  pleased  to  receive  a  visit,  on  the 
frontier  of  the  kingdom,  from  Don  Carlos,  the  king's  brother ;  and  as  this 
courtesy  was  readily  conceded,  Beauharnois  ventured  to  suggest  that  the 
amicable  relations  between  the  two  potentates  would  be  specially  pro- 
moted, if  Ferdinand  would  himself  proceed  as  far  as  Burgos  to  receive 
his  illustrious  guest.  But  the  suspicions  of  Ferdinand's  advisers  were 
aroused  by  this  proposal ;  and  the  inhabitants,  displeased  at  the  coolness 
manifested  toward  their  sovereign  by  the  French  authorities,  began  to 
consider  their  means  of  expelling  the  invaders  from  the  country. 

On  the  26th  of  March,  the  French  Emperor,  who  was  still  at  Paris 


234  HISTORY     OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXVIIL 

received  intelligence  of  the  tumult  at  Aranjuez.  He  immediately  sent 
a  letter  to  his  brother  Louis,  offering  him  the  crown  of  Spain;  hut  Louis, 
who,  on  the  throne  of  Holland,  had  sufficiently  experienced  the  chains 
of  servitude  and  the  responsibilities  of  command,  had  the  good  sense  to 
decline  its  acceptance.  Napoleon  at  the  same  time  held  a  conference 
at  St  Cloud,  with  Isquierdo,  the  Spanish  minister,  on  the  state  of  public 
opinion  in  the  Peninsula,  and  the  feelings  with  which  the  people  of 
"  Spain  would  regard  a  prince  of  his  family,  or  even  himself,  for  their 
sovereign.  Isquierdo  replied,  "The  Spaniards  would  accept  your  ma- 
jesty for  their  king  with  pleasure,  and  even  with  enthusiasm ;  but  only 
in  the  event  of  your  having  previously  renounced  the  crown  of  France." 
Napoleon  was  much  struck  with  this  answer,  and  after  some  deliberation 
he  resolved  to" get  both  Charles  and  Ferdinand  into  his  power.  For  this 
purpose,  he  sent  to  Madrid  the  most  unprincipled  and  adroit  of  his  min- 
ions, Savary  ;  charging  him  to  say  and  promise  in  his  name,  anything  and 
everything  which  could  induce  the  reigning  monarch  to  undertake  the 
journey  to  Burgos. 

When  Savary  arrived  at  Madrid,  he  thus  addressed  Ferdinand:  "I 
have  come  at  the  particular  desire  of  the  Emperor,  solely  to  offer  his 
compliments  to  your  majesty,  and  to  know  if  your  sentiments  toward 
France  are  similar  to  those  of  your  father.  If  they  are,  the  Emperor 
will  shut  his  eyes  to  rill  that  is  past;  he  will  not  intermeddle  in  the 
slightest  degree  with  the  internal  affairs  of  the  kingdom,  and  he  will  in- 
stantly recognize  you  as  King  of  Spain  and  the  Indies."  This  gratifying 
assurance  was  accompanied  by  so  many  flattering  expressions  and  so 
much  apparent  cordiality,  that  it  entirely  deceived  Ferdinand  and  his 
counsellors ;  and  Savary  so  pressed  his  entreaties  that  the  king  would  go 
at  least  as  far  as  Burgos  to  meet  the  Emperor,  who  was  already  near 
Bayonne  on  his  road  to  Madrid,  that  all  objections  were  overcome,  and 
Ferdinand,  accompanied  by  the  French  envoy,  set  forth  on  his  journey 
on  the  10th  of  April. 

The  king,  in  passing  through  the  northern  provinces,  was  received 
with  the  strongest  testimonials  of  devotion ;  yet  even  the  simple  inhab- 
itants of  Castile,  who  were  untrammelled  by  delusions  of  court  intrigue, 
beheld  with  undisguised  anxiety  the  progress  of  their  sovereign  toward 
the  French  frontier.  When  the  cavalcade  arrived  at  Burgos,  the  king's 
counsellors  were  greatly  disturbed  and  alarmed  to  find  that  Napoleon 
was  not  there,  and  that  no  advices  had  been  received  of  his  approach: 
they  therefore  insisted  on  his  majesty's  discontinuing  his  journey.  But 
Savary  interfered,  protesting  loudly  against  a  step  which,  he  alleged, 
would  evince  an  undue  and  ungenerous  want  of  confidence  in  the  Em- 
peror, and  might  lead  to  serious  consequences  by  disturbing  the  present 
good  understanding  between  the  two  monarchs.  "  I  will  let  you  cut  off 
my  head,"  said  he,  "  if,  within  a  quarter  of  an  hour  after  your  majesty's 
arrival  at  Bayonne,  the  Emperor  does  not  recognize  you  as  King  of 
Spain  and  the  Indies."  These  words  were  decisive  with  the  king,  and 
he  recommenced  his  journey,  although  the  people  assembled  in  crowds 
to  dissuade  him  from  so  doing,  and,  at  Vittoria,  even  threatened  to  pre- 
vent his  advance  by  force.  At  that  place,  too,  a  faithful  counsellor  fore- 
told in  detail  the  dangers  that  awaited  his  interview  with  the  French 
Emperor,  and  suggested  a  plan  for  his  escape ;  but  Savary's  artifice  and 
falsehoods  overpowered  every  other  consideration,  and  Ferdinand  con- 


1808.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  235 

tinued  his  route  to  Bayonne,  whe.e  he  committed  himself  to  the  honor  of 
Napoleon. 

Before  the  king  left  Madrid,  he  intrusted  the  government  to  a  regency, 
of  which  the  Infant  Don  Antonio  was  the  nominal  head;  but  Murat  was 
the  real  centre  of  authority,  the  presence  of  thirty  thousand  French 
troops  giving  him  an  influence  that  could  not  be  resisted.  Murat's  first 
step  after  the  king's  departure,  was  an  order  for  the  delivery  into  his 
hands  of  the  Prince  of  Peace,  whom  he  dispatched  to  Bayonne,  under  a 
strong  guard.  He  next  conferred  with  the  old  king  and  queen ;  and  on 
their  reiterating  to  him  that  the  late  abdication  was  a  forced  procedure, 
he  advised  the  ex-sovereign  to  repair  with  his  queen  to  Bayonne,  and  lay 
their  grievances  at  the  feet  of  Napoleon:  which  he  accordingly  did. 

As  the  French  Emperor  had  now  the  royal  family  of  Spain  in  his 
power,  he  gave  Murat  minute  instructions  for  carefully  and  gradually 
undermining  their  influence  with  the  inhabitants,  in  order  to  pave  the 
way  for  a  peaceable  usurpation  of  the  throne,  with  its  titles  and  immu- 
nities. But  it  soon  appeared  that,  capable  as  Murat  had  hitherto  proved 
himself,  this  task  was  beyond  his  powers  of  dissimulation  and  intrigue: 
he  was  too  much  accustomed  to  the  despotic  rule  of  military  force,  to 
assume  at  once,  and  in  circumstances  singularly  difficult,  the  foresight 
and  circumspection  of  an  experienced  diplomatist.  After  it  was  known 
that  both  Ferdinand  and  his  father  had  crossed  the  frontier,  and  placed 
themselves  in  the  Emperor's  power,  the  previous  discontents  in  the  cap- 
ital rapidly  increased;  numberless  rencontres  ensued  between  the  inhab- 
itants and  the  troops,  and  Murat  was  irritated  to  declare  that  he  would 
prevent  all  assemblages  for  any  purpose  in  the  streets,  and  punish  with 
military  severity  any  one  who  opposed  his  soldiers  in  the  discharge  of 
their  duty.  Both  parties  now  became  exasperated  in  the  highest  degree, 
and  during  this  state  of  ebullition,  matters  were  brought  to  a  crisis  by  a 
demand  from  Murat  that  the  remainder  of  the  royal  family,  consisting  of 
the  queen  of  Etruria  and  the  Infants  Don  Francisco  and  Don  Antonio, 
should  immediately  set  out  for  Bayonne.  The  regency  were  intimidated 
into  compliance  with  this  order,  but  the  people  interfered  to  prevent  its 
execution.  While  the  carriages  were  in  waiting  at  the  palace,  an  aid- 
de-camp  of  Murat  pushed  his  way  through  the  crowd  to  hasten  their 
departure,  when  the  rumor  was  circulated  that  this  officer  was  about  to 
use  personal  violence  toward  the  young  prince.  The  aid-de-camp  was 
immediately  assailed,  and  would  probably  have  been  killed  on  the  spot, 
but  for  the  arrival  of  a  company  of  French  soldiers,  who  rescued  and 
bore  him  to  head-quarters. 

Murat,  enraged  at  this  insult  to  his  authority,  sent  a  detachment  of 
troops  with  two  pieces  of  cannon,  and  by  several  discharges  of  grape- 
shot  on  the  unarmed  multitude  around  the  palace,  soon  restored  order. 
But  the  sound  of  these  cannon  echoed  from  one  end  of  the  Peninsula  to 
the  other,  and  eventually  shook  the  Empire  of  Napoleon  to  its  foundation. 
The  whole  city  instantly  flew  to  arms.  All  considerations  of  conse- 
quences were  forgotten  in  the  intense  fury  of  the  moment ;  knives,  dag- 
gers, and  bayonets,  were  seized  wherever  they  could  be  found;  the 
gunsmiths'  shops  were  ransacked  for  fire  arms;  and  many  straggling 
detachments  of  French  soldiers  were  surrounded  and  put  to  death.  Such 
a  tumultuary  effort,  however,  could  not  long  prevail  against  the  dis- 
cipline and  skill  of  regular  troops,  who,  being  ordered  to  charge  through 


236  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXVIIL 

the  streets  in  great  numbers,  at  length  dispersed  the  populace :  the  loss 
on  each  side  was  about  three  hundred  men. 

Hitherto,  neither  party  in  this  affair  deserved  much  blame  ;  the  tumult, 
however  deplorable  in  its  consequences,  was  the  effect  of  an  unpremed- 
itated collision;  and  the  blood  that  had  been  shed  was  the  result  of  pas- 
sion and  excitement  on  the  part  of  the  belligerents,  for  which,  strictly 
speaking,  Napoleon,  by  his  infamous  invasion  of  a  friendly  country,  was 
personally  and  solely  responsible.  But  after  the  fighting  had  ceased  and 
the  danger  was  over,  Murat,  instead  of  humanely  making  allowances  for 
the  circumstances  of  exasperation  in  which  the  Spaniards  were  placed, 
and  endeavoring  to  improve  the  occurrence  to  his  own  advantage  by 
conciliatory  measures,  immediately  se:zed  a  large  number  of  Spanish 
citizens,  as  they  were,  in  various  quarters  of  the  town,  walking  the 
streets  or  pursuing  their  avocations,  hurried  them  before  a  military  tri- 
bunal, and  condemned  them  to  be  shot.  Preparations  were  made  to 
carry  this  sentence  into  execution ;  the  mournful  intelligence  flew 
through  Madrid ;  and  all  who  missed  relations  or  friends,  became  over- 
whelmed with  the  agonizing  fear  that  they  were  among  these  victims  of 
French  barbarity.  While  the  people  remained  in  this  state  of  excite- 
ment, and  the  approach  of  night,  augmented  the  general  consternation, 
the  firing  began;  the  regular  discharges  of  heavy  platoons  at  the  Retiro, 
in  the  Prado,  the  Puerto  del  Sol,  and  the  church  of  Senora  de  la  Soledad, 
then  told  too  plainly  that  the  work  of  death  was  in  progress.  The  dis- 
mal sounds  froze  every  heart  with  terror;  all  that  had  been  suffered 
during  the  heat  of  the  preceding  conflict  in  the  streets,  seemed  as  nothing 
compared  to  the  horrors  of  that  cold-blooded  execution.  Nor  did  the 
general  grief  abate,  when  the  particulars  of  the  massacre  became  known. 
Numbers  were  put  to  death,  who  had  no  concern  whatever  in  the  tumult; 
those  who  suffered  were  denied  the  last  consolations  of  religion,  and  were 
slain  in  pairs,  being  tied  together  two  and  two,  and  dispatched  by  re- 
peated discharges  of  musketry. 

This  atrocious  massacre  of  the  citizens  of  an  independent  sovereignty 
for  no  greater  crime,  at  most,  than  the  defence  of  their  lawful  rights 
against  the  oppression  of  a  foreign  tyrant,  was  equally  impolitic  and  out- 
rageous; and  the  indignation  which  it  excited  throughout  Spain  is  inde- 
scribable. With  a  rapidity  that  could  not  have  been  anticipated  in  a 
country  where  but  little  internal  communication  existed,  the  intelligence 
spread  from  city  to  city,  from  province  to  province,  and  awakened  that 
feeling  of  national  resentment  which,  when  properly  directed,  is  the  cer- 
tain forerunner  of  great  achievements.  Actuated  by  a  spirit  unknown 
in  Europe  since  the  first  revolutionary  movements  in  France,  the  people 
in  every  province,  without  any  previous  concert,  or  any  direction  from 
the  existing  authorities,  began  to  assemble  and  devise  plans  for  the  de- 
fence of  the  kingdom.  Far  from  being  intimidated  by  the  enemy's  pos- 
session of  their  capital  and  principal  fortresses,  they  were  the  more 
roused  to  exertion  by  these  untoward  disadvantages.  Nor  was  the 
movement  one  of  faction  or  party ;  it  animated  men  of  all  ranks,  classes 
and  professions;  it  was  universal,  unpremeditated,  simultaneous;  and  in 
an  inconceivably  short  time,  Napoleon  found  himself  involved  in  a  bloody 
strife  with  the  whole  Spanish  nation. 

The  Princes  Don  Francisco  and  Don  Antonio,  intimidated  by  the  vio- 
lence of  Murat,  and  unable  to  resist  his  authority,  set  out  for  Bayonne  on 


1808.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  237 

the  day  after  the  tumult  at  Madrid,  leaving  the  capital,  without  any 
organized  native  government,  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  French  gen- 
erals.  But,  in  the  meantime,  matters  had  reached  a  crisis  between  Na- 
poleon and  the  royal  family.  When  Ferdinand  met  the  French  Emperor 
at  Bayonne,  he  was  received  with  marked  kindness  and  courtesy,  and  in- 
vited to  dine  at  the  Imperial  head-quarters.  After  the  repast,  Ferdinand 
returned  to  his  hotel,  leaving  Escoiquiz  to  confer  with  Napoleon :  but  he 
had  hardly  reached  his  lodgings,  when  Savary  followed  him  to  announce 
the  Emperor's  determination,  that  he  must  instantly  resign  his  throne  of 
both  Spain  and  the  Indies  in  favor  of  a  prince  of  the  Bonaparte  dynasty : 
and  hopes  were  held  out  that,  should  he  do  this  amicably,  he  might  obtain 
the  Grand-duchy  of  Tuscany  as  an  equivalent.  Ferdinand,  though 
astounded  at  this  tyrannical  perfidy,  made  no  decisive  reply  at  the  mo- 
ment.  He,  however,  conferred  with  his  counsellors,  and  eventually  re- 
fused to  accede  to  the  proposal,  accompanying  -his  refusal  with  a  demand 
for  his  passports. 

Napoleon  was  greatly  perplexed  at  the  firmness  of  Ferdinand.  It  did 
not,  indeed,  cause  him  to  hesitate  a  moment  in  his  design  of  dethroning 
the  Bourbons,  but  he  preferred  to  do  this  under  the  cover  of  legal  forms, 
rather  than  by  open  violence.  He  therefore  declined  for  the  present  to 
grant  passports  to  Ferdinand,  and  referred  to  Charles  IV.,  hoping  to  find 
in  the  father  a  more  pliant  instrument  than  the  son.  In  this  expectation 
he  was  not  disappointed.  After  the  Prince  of  Peace,  the  queen  and  the 
old  king  had  been  sufficiently  wrought  upon  by  flattery  and  threats,  Fer- 
dinand was  summoned  to  an  interview  with  them,  when  Charles  com- 
manded him  to  execute  a  simple  and  unqualified  resignation  of  the  crown, 
signed  by  himself  and  his  brothers.  He  was  given  to  understand  that,  in 
case  of  refusal,  he  and  his  counsellors  would  be  prosecuted  as  traitors. 
Nevertheless,  Ferdinand  steadily  adhered  to  his  determination,  and  defi- 
nitely refused  to  resign  his  claims  to  the  crown,  except  in  a  manner  so 
qualified  as  to  defeat  the  purposes  of  the  Emperor.  But  the  latter  easily 
prevailed  on  Charles  to  execute  a  formal  abdication  in  his  favor,  on  con- 
dition of  maintaining  the  Catholic  religion,  of  preserving  entire  the  Spanish 
dominions,  and  of  granting  pensions  for  life  to  the  several  members  of  the 
royal  family. 

On  the  day  that  this  convention  was  signed,  a  secret  deputation  reached 
Ferdinand  from  the  |*emaining  members  of  the  regency  at  Madrid,  inqui- 
ring whether  they  might  remove  their  place  of  assembly,  as  they  were,  in 
the  capital,  subject  to  the  control  of  the  French  army;  whether  they 
should  declare  war  against  France,  and  endeavor  to  resist  the  further  en- 
trance of  the  French  troops  into  the  Peninsula;  and  whether,  in  the  event 
of  his  (Ferdinand's)  being  unable  to  return,  they  should  assemble  the 
Cortes.  Ferdinand  answered,  that  as  he  was  deprived  of  his  liberty,  he 
could  lake  no  steps  to  save  either  himself  or  the  monarchy  ;  that  he 
.here fore  authorized  the  junta  of  the  government  to  add  new  members  to 
their  department,  to  remove  whomsoever  they  pleased,  and  to  exercis3  all 
the  functions  of  sovereignty ;  that  they  were  to  oppose  the  entrance  of 
fresh  troops,  and  commence  hostilities  as  soon  as  he  should  be  removed  to 
France  ;  and,  finally,  that  the  Cortes  must  be  convoked  to  take  measures 
for  the  defence  of  the  kingdom,  and  for  such  ulterior  objects  as  might  re- 
quire their  attention.  The  decrees  necessary  to  carry  these  instructions 
into  etfect,  were  taken  to  Madrid  by  an  officer  destined  to  future  celobrity, 
Don  Joseph  Palafox. 


238  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXVIII. 

Napoleon  was  soon  after  relieved  from  the  embarrassment  which  Fer- 
dinand's resolute  opposition  occasioned,  by  intelligence  of  the  tumult  at 
Madrid.  He  al  once  changed  his  ground,  denounced  the  king  for  the  con- 
duct  of  his  people,  and  ended  by  a  significant  intimation  that  his  obstinacy 
would  endanger  his  own  life  and  that  of  his  brothers.  As  nothing,  now, 
could  bo  gained  by  resistance,  Ferdinand  resolved  to  submit.  On  the 
lOih  A  May,  he  signed  a  treaty  assenting  to  his  father's  resignation  of  the 
Spanish  crown  in  favor  of  Napoleon,  and  receiving  in  return  the  title  of 
Most  Serene  Highness,  with  the  investiture  of  the  palace,  park  and  farms 
of  Navarre,  and  an  annuity  of  six  hundred  thousand  francs  from  the 
French  treasury.  The  same  rank,  with  an  annuity  of  four  hundred  thou- 
sand francs,  was  conferred  on  the  Infants  Don  Carlos  and  Antonio.  When 
this  treaty  was  completed,  the  Emperor  removed  Ferdinand  and  his 
brothers  to  Bordeaux,  wjiere  the  two  princes  signed  a  renunciation  of  their 
rights  to  the  throne,  and  Ferdinand  was  compelled  to  affix  his  name  to  a 
proclamation,  counselling  submission  to  the  Spanish  people.  The  three 
royal  captives  were  afterward  removed  to  Valencay,  and  they  remained 
there  during  the  war. 

Having  succeeded  in  dispossessing  the  Bourbon  family,  and  obtaining  a 
semblance  of  legal  title  to  the  Spanish  throne,  Napoleon  resolved  to  cre- 
ate his  brother  Joseph  king  of  Spain,  and  confer  the  crown  of  Naples, 
which  Joseph  then  held,  upon  Murat.  On  the  6th  of  June,  Joseph  was 
accordingly  proclaimed  King  of  Spain  and  the  Indies  at  Bayonne,  and  a 
proclamation,  issued  by  Napoleon,  convoked  an  assembly  of  one  hundred 
and  fifty  notables,  to  meet  at  that  city  on  the  15th  of  the  same  month,  for 
regulating  the  affairs  of  the  kingdom.  Of  the  notables  thus  summoned, 
ninety-two,  comprising  some  of  the  principal  nobles  and  prominent  men 
in  Spain,  met  at  Bayonne  in  conformity  to  the  proclamation,  and  formally 
accepted  the  Constitution  prepared  for  them  by  Napoleon. 

This  instrument  provided,  that  the  crown  should  be  vested  in  Joseph 
Bonaparte  and  his  heirs-male;  whom  failing,  the  Emperor  and  his  heirs- 
male  ;  and  in  default  of  both,  to  the  other  brothers  of  the  Imperial  family 
in  their  order  of  seniority,  but  on  condition  that  the  crown  should  not  be 
united  with  any  other  crown  in  the  person  of  one  sovereign.  A  Legisla- 
ture was  created,  to  consist  of  eighty  members,  nominated  by  the  king. 
A  Cortes  was  also  decreed,  to  consist  of  a  hundred  and  seventy-two  mem- 
bers, thus  composed:  twenty-five  archbishops  and  bishops  and  twenty -five 
grandees,  on  the  first  bench  ;  sixty-two  deputies  of  the  provinces  of  Spain 
and  the  Indies  and  thirty  from  the  principal  towns,  on  the  second;  and 
fifteen  from  the  merchants  and  manufacturers  and  fifteen  from  the  depart- 
ments of  arts  and  sciences,  on  the  third.  The  first  fifty  of  these,  comprising 
the  peers,  were  appointed  by  the  king  but  could  not  be  displaced  by  him; 
the  second  class  of  ninety-two  was  elected  by  the  provinces  and  munici- 
palities ;  and  the  third  was  appointed  by  the  king  from  lists  presented  to 
him  by  the  tribunals  of  commerce  and  the  universities.  The  delibera. 
tions  of  the  Cortes  were  to  be  private,  and  the  publication  of  any  of  its 
proceedings  was  denounced  under  the  penalties  of  high  treason.  Its 
duties  were  to  arrange  the  national  finances  and  expenditures  for  three 
years  at  one  sitting.  The  colonies  were  to  have  a  deputation  of  twenty- 
two  persons  constantly  at  the  seat  of  government  to  superintend  their  in- 
terests ;  all  exclusive  exemptions  from  taxes  were  abolished ;  entails 
permitted  only  to  the  amount  of  twenty  thousand  piastres,  and  with  the 


V608.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  239 

consent  of  the  king;  an  alliance  offensive  and  defensive  was  concluded 
with  France,  and  a  promise  r^'ven  for  the  establishment  of  the  liberty  of 
the  press  within  two  years  after  the  acceptance  of  the  new  Constitution. 
On  the  9th  of  July,  King  Joseph  set  out  for  the  capital  of  his  dominions, 
with  a  splendid  cortege  and  amid  the  roar  of  artillery.  Napoleon  returned 
to  St.  Cloud,  having  refused  to  visit  Ferdinand  on  his  route,  although  per- 
sonally requested  to  do  so  by  the  dethroned  sovereign.  Charles  IV.,  after 
testifying  his  entire  satisfaction  at  the  Emperor's  proceedings,  solicited 
permission  to  remove  to  Marseilles,  where,  in  ease  and  obscurity,  he  lin- 
ger^d  out  the  remainder  of  his  inglorious  life. 

The  ministry  appointed  by  Joseph  before  his  departure  from  Bayonne, 
were  taken  chiefly  from  the  counsellors  of  Ferdinand  ;  and  this  selection, 
together  with  their  ready  acceptance  of  their  new  dignities,  throws  a  deep 
shade  of  doubt  over  the  fidelity  with  which  they  had  served  the  Prince  of 
Asturias  during  his  brief  possession  of  the  Spanish  throne.  Don  Luis  de 
Urquijo,  was  made  Secretary  of  State  ;  Don  Pedro  Cevallos,  Minister  of 
Foreign  Affairs  ;  Don  Sebastian  do  Pinnela,  Minister  of  Justice  :  Don  (ion- 
zalo  O'Farrel,  Minister  at  War;  and  Mazaredo,  Minister  of  th^  Marine. 
Even  Escoiquiz  wrote  to  Joseph,  protesting  his  devotion,  and  declaring 
that  he  and  the  rest  of  Ferdinand's  household  "were  willing  blindly  to 
obey  his  will  to  the  most  minute  particular."  The  Duke  del  Infantado 
and  the  Prince  of  Castel-Franco  were  appointed,  severally,  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  Spanish  and  Walloon  guards.  Thus,  the  new  king  entered 
Madrid,  where  he  arrived  on  the  20th  of  July,  surrounded  by  the  highest 
grandees  and  most  illustrious  titles  of  Spain.  Nevertheless,  his  reception 
at  the  capital  was  gloomy  in  the  extreme.  The  orders  issued  for  the  de- 
coration of  the  houses,  were  disregarded  ;  a  crowd  assembled  to  see  the 
cortege,  but  no  shouts  welcomed  its  approach  ;  the  bells  of  the  churches 
rang  a  dismal  peal,  and  every  countenance  was  full  of  sorrow. 

THE  Spanish  Peninsula,  in  which  a  bloody  war  was  now  commencing, 
and  where  the  armies  of  France  and  England  found,  at  last,  a  perma- 
nent theatre  of  conflict,  differs  in  many  important  particulars  from  every 
other  country  on  the  Continent.  Physically  considered,  it  belongs  as 
much  to  Africa  as  to  Europe :  the  same  burning  sun  parches  the  moun- 
tains and  dries  up  the  valleys  of  both.  Vegetation,  in  general,  spreads 
only  where  irrigation  can  be  obtained  ;  and  with  that  powerful  auxiliary, 
the  steepest  acclivities  of  Catalonia  and  Arragon  are  clothed  in  luxuriant 
green  ;  while,  without  it,  vast  districts  in  Leon  and  the  Castiles  are 
almost  destitute  of  cultivation  and  inhabitants.  The  desert  tracts  of 
Spain  are  so  extensive  that  the  country,  viewed  from  the  high  ridges 
which  intersect  the  interior  'provinces,  exhibits  only  a  confused  group  of 
barren  elevated  plains  and  lofty  naked  peaks,  relieved  by  a  few  glit- 
tering streams,  having  on  their  margins  crops,  flocks,  and  the  traces 

23 


CHAPTER    XXIX. 

CAMPAIGN    OF    1808    IN    SPAIN    AND    PORTUGAL. 


240  HIS TORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXIX. 

of  habitable  dwellings.  The  whole  country  may  be  considered  as  a 
vast  mountainous  promontory,  that  stretches  from  the  Pyrenees,  south- 
wardly, between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Mediterranean  sea.  On  the  bor- 
ders of  the  ridge,  to  the  east  and  west,  are  plains  of  admirable  fertility; 
while  the  centre  consists  of  an  assemblage  of  heights,  in  the  midst 
of  which  lies  Madrid,  in  an  upland  basin,  eighteen  hundred  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  This  great  central  region  is  intersected  by  three 
causeways  leading,  severally,  from  Madrid  to  Bayonne,  by  the  Somo- 
Sierra  pass,  to  Valencia,  and  to  Barcelona :  in  every  other  quarter,  the 
roads  are  little  better  than  mountain  paths  communicating  with  walled 
towns,  built  on  the  summits  of  hills,  and  surrounded  by  olive  forests,  but 
having  little  intercourse  with  each  other  or  with  the  rest  of  Europe. 
There  are  but  two  great  and  rich  alluvial  plains  in  Spain  ;  in  one,  Valen- 
cia, amid  luxuriant  harvests  and  the  richest  gifts  of  nature,  the  castanets 
and  evening  dance  represent  the  careless  gayety  of  the  tropical  regions ; 
and  in  the  second,  Andalusia,  abounding  in  myrtle  thickets  and  orange 
groves,  the  indolent  habits,  fiery  character  and  impetuous  disposition  of  the 
inhabitants,  attest  the  undecaying  influence  of  Moorish  blood  and  Arabian 
descent. 

The  aggregate  of  forces  destined  to  operate  in  this  romantic  field  was 
immense.  Napoleon  had  no  less  than  six  hundred  thousand  disposable 
French  troops  under  his  command,  besides  a  hundred  and  fifty  thousand 
drawn  from  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  Italy,  Naples,  Holland  and 
the  Grand  Duchy  of  Warsaw.  Nor  did  the  numerical  strength  of  this 
host  exceed  its  efficiency.  The  ranks  of  the  French  army  were,  to  a 
great  extent,  filled  with  veterans  who  had  seen  fifteen  years  of  active 
service;  and  who,  by  their  experience,  their  skill,  and  their  confidence 
arising  from  a  hundred  former  victories,  might  be  considered  as  nearly 
invincible  as  any  soldiers  who  ever  took  the  field.  The  disposable  Brit- 
ish army  in  the  spring  of  1808,  exclusive  of  the  militia,  the  volunteers, 
and  the  regular  troops  occupied  in  defence  of  the  various  colonies  of  the 
Empire,  amounted  to  a  hundred  thousand  men,  in  the  highest  state  of  dis- 
cipline, and  equipment.  The  military  establishment  of  Spain,  when  the 
contest  commenced,  was  far  from  being  considerable,  as  the  entire  force 
that  could  be  brought  into  action  did  not  exceed  seventy  thousand  men, 
who  were  stationed  at  remote  points,  and  whose  qualities  as  soldiers  were 
far  inferior  to  those  of  the  British  and  French  troops. 

The  first  effervescence  of  public  indignation  caused  by 'the  massacres 
at  Madrid,  was  followed  by  a  series  of  revolts  in  the  principal  towns 
of  Spain,  which  were  marked  by  frightful  atrocities  :  natives  of  France, 
of  whatever  occupation,  were  indiscriminately  put  to  death,  and  the  evi- 
dences furnished  by  these  bloody  deeds  of  the  ruthless  character  of  Cas- 
tilian  revenge,  too  truly  symbolized  the  ferocious  warfare  that  was  about 
to  desolate  the  country.  Nor  were  the  early  movements  of  the  Spaniards 
confined  to  isolated  revolts.  In  ihe  beginning  of  June,  the  Spanish  troops 
at  Cadiz,  under  General  Morla,  made  preparations  to  capture  the  French 
fleet  of  five  ships  of  the  line  and  one  frigate,  then  lying  in  the  harbor 
of  that  port.  Batteries  were  constructed  to  command  the  whole  bay; 
and,  on  the  9th  of  June,  they  opened  their  fire  with  decisive  effect. 
The  French  admiral,  finding  escape  and  resistance  equally  impossible, 
entered  into  negotiations  with  Morla,  and,  on  the  14th  of  June,  he  uncon- 
ditionally surrendered  the  whole  flest  to  the  Spanish  commander.  These 


1808.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  241 

successes,  combined  with  the  universal  spirit  of  resistance  throughout  the 
kingdom,  led  to  a  speedy  assemblage  of  volunteer  forces,  which  soon 
amounted,  in  the  several  provinces,  to  a  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  men, 
all  armed,  to  a  certain  extent  disciplined,  and  with  an  invincible  personal 
courage,  ready  to  cooperate  with  and  support  the  movements  of  the  regu- 
lar army. 

Marshal  Bessieres  and  General  Frere  made  the  first  demonstration  on 
the  part  of  the  French  troops  in  Old  Castile  and  Leon,  where,  by  a  suc- 
cession of  combats  with  the  ill-organized  forces  of  Spain,  they  succeeded, 
by  the  middle  of  June,  in  disarming  all  opposition  to  the  new  government 
in  those  provinces.  In  Aragon,  however,  although  that  province  was 
almost  destitute  of  regular  troops,  the  French  arms  met  with  more  seri- 
ous resistance.  By  great  exertions,  Palafox  and  the  junta  of  Saragossa 
had  succeeded  in  arming  and  partially  disciplining  ten  thousand  volun- 
teer infantry,  who  were  marched  out  of  that  city,  under  Marquis  Lazan, 
and  took  post  behind  the  Huecha,  to  oppose  the  advance  of  Lefebvre. 
Two  actions  ensued,  in  both  of  which  the  discipline  of  the  French  troops 
prevailed,  and  the  Spaniards  were  driven  back  to  Saragossa,  where  Pala- 
fox reorganized  his  army,  and  prepared  for  an  obstinate  defence. 

Saragossa  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ebro,  in  the  midst  of  a 
fertile  plain,  abounding  in  olive-groves,  vineyards,  gardens,  and  all  the 
evidences  of  long-continued  civilization.  It  contained,  at  that  period, 
fifty-five  thousand  inhabitants.  The  immediate  vicinity  of  the  town  is 
flat,  and  in  some  places  marshy.  To  the  south,  distant  a  quarter  of  a 
league,  rises  Mount  Torrero,  on  the  side  of  which  runs  the  canal  of  Ara- 
gon— a  noble  work,  commenced  by  Charles  V.,  forming  a  water  commu- 
nication, without  a  lock,  from  Tudela  to  Saragossa.  This  hill  commands 
the  plain  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ebro,  and  overlooks  the  town.  Several 
warehouses  and  other  buildings,  constructed  for  the  commerce  of  the 
canal,  were  now  intrenched  and  occupied  by  twelve  hundred  Spanish 
soldiers.  The  city  itself,  surrounded  by  a  low  brick  wall,  not  more  than 
twelve  feet  high  and  three  feet  thick,  interrupted  in  many  places  by 
houses  and  convents  which  were  built  in  its  line,  and  pierced  by  eight 
gates,  with  no  outworks,  could  scarcely  be  called  fortified.  But  few 
guns  fit  for  service  were  on  the  ramparts;  the  houses  were  strongly  built 
of  stone  or  brick,  for  the  most  part  two  stories  high,  and  the  massy  piles 
of  the  convents,  rising  in  many  quarters  like  castles,  offered  strong  posi- 
tions, when  the  walls  of  the  town  should  be  forced,  for  a  desperate  and 
inflamed  population.  Few  generals  in  regular  service  would  have  thought 
of  making  a  stand  in  such  a  city :  but  Florus  has  recorded  that  Numantia 
had  neither  walls  nor  towers,  when  it  resisted  so  long  and  heroically 
the  Roman  legions  ;  and  Colmenar,  with  a  prophetic  spirit,  said  early 
in  the  eighteenth  century,  "  Saragossa  is  without  defences,  but  the  valor 
of  its  inhabitants  supplies  the  want  of  ramparts." 

The  resolution  to  defend  Saragossa  cannot  with  justice  be  ascribed  to 
any  single  individual  ;  the  glory  belongs  to  the  whole  population,  all  of 
whom,  in  the  first  movements  of  confusion  and  excitement,  had  a  share  in 
the  bold  determination.  When  Palafox  withdrew  his  defeated  forces  into 
the  town,  he  either  despaired  of  being  able  to  defend  it,  or  deemed  it  neces- 
sary to  collect  reinforcements  from  other  quarters  for  a  prolonged  resist- 
ance ;  and  retired  with  a  small  body  of  troops  to  the  northern  bank  of  the 
river,  leaving  the  armed  population  nearly  unsupported  *o  sustain  the  con- 


242  H  I  S  T  O  R  Y     O  F     E  U  .;  O  P  E  .  [CHAP.  XXIX, 

test.  Lefebvre,  taking  advantage  of  the  Spanish  commander's  absence, 
commenced  an  assault ;  but  the  people  intrepidly  stood  on  their  defence, 
and,  after  a  sharp  contest,  drove  him  back  from  the  walls.  Animated  by 
this  success,  the  inhabitants  resolved  to  strengthen  the  fortifications  and 
maintain  the  place.  Men,  women  and  children  took  part  in  the  laborious 
duty  ;  cannon  were  dragged  to  the  gates,  loopholes  struck  out  in  the 
walls,  fascines  and  gabions  constructed  with  astonishing  celerity,  and  in 
twenty-four  hours  the  city  was  secure  from  a  coup-de-main. 

Lefebvre's  loss  in  this  affair  was  very  severe,  and  he  became  convinced 
that  regular  approaches  were  indispensable  to  the  reduction  of  the  town. 
He  therefore  withdrew  from  the  gates,  and  dispatched  orders  for  heavy 
artillery  to  Pampeluna  and  Bayonne.  Meantime,  Palafox  returned  to 
the  relief  of  Saragossa  with  seven  thousand  infantry,  a  hundred  horse, 
and  four  pieces  of  cannon  ;  but  having  encamped  without  the  walls  for 
the  night,  he  was  attacked  by  Lefebvre  under  cover  of  the  darkness,  and 
completely  routed.  He,  however,  made  good  his  own  entry  into  the 
city ;  and  as  the  battering  train  of  the  besiegers  soon  arrived,  Saragossa 
was  regularly  and  completely  invested. 

A  contest  now  ensued  which  has  few  parallels  in  history.  The  num. 
bers,  resources  and  skill  of  the  French  troops  rendered  the  exterior  de- 
fences unavailing,  and  the  slender  walls  being  soon  laid  in  ruins,  the 
town  was  summoned  to  surrender.  Palafox  rejected  the  proposal,  and 
the  besiegers  advanced  to  the  assault.  The  combat  at  the  breaches  was 
long  and  bloody;  but  at  length  the  French  penetrated  into  the  streets, 
and  supposed  themselves  in  possession  of  Saragossa.  Here,  however,  a 
desperate  resistance  awaited  them.  Every  roof  and  window  blazed  with 
an  incessant  fire  of  musketry,  which  they  could  not  return  with  effect, 
and  they  fell  by  hundreds  before  its  withering  storm.  Powder  maga- 
zines in  different  quarters  blew  up,  the  houses  at  various  points  took  fire, 
but  the  battle  still  raged,  day  and  night,  from  street  to  street,  from  door 
to  door  ;  the  roar  of  artillery  and  musketry,  the  explosion  of  bombs,  the 
glare  of  conflagration  and  the  cries  of  combatants  continued,  without 
intermission,  for  ten  entire  days,  at  the  end  of  which  time,  August  14th, 
Lefebvre  retreated  with  immense  loss,  having  been  unable  to  make  a 
permanent  lodgment  in  any  quarter  of  the  town. 

A  similar  reverse  awaited  the  French  troops  at  Valencia,  a  town  as 
imperfectly  fortified  and  apparently  as  incapable  of  defence  as  Saragossa. 
Moncey,  in  the  expectation  of  an  easy  victory,  assaulted  the  place  at  the 
head  of  eight  thousand  men;  but  the  unconquerable  heroism  of  the  in- 
habitants was  an.  overmatch  for  his  utmost  efforts,  and  he  was  compelled 
to  retreat  with  a  loss  of  two  thousand  of  his  best  troops. 

These  brilliant  achievements  excited  the  utmost  enthusiasm  throughout 
all  Spain,  and  recruits  flocked  to  the  national  standards,  in  the  confident 
hope  of  sweeping  the  invaders  across  their  own  frontier.  Blake  and 
Cuesta,  two  Spanish  generals  of  some  note,  resolved  to  unite  their  forces 
and  give  battle  to  Bessieres  on  the  plains  of  Leon.  They  advanced  ac- 
cordingly to  Rio  Seco,  with  twenty-five  thousand  men  and  thirty  pieces 
of  cannon.  Bessieres's  force  did  not  exceed  fifteen  thousand,  but  the 
quality  of  his  troops  more  than  atoned  for  their  inferiority  of  numbers. 
Cuesta,  who  as  senior  officer  took  the  chief  command,  made  the  worst 
possible  disposition  for  the  battle.  He  posted  Blake,  with  ten  thousand 
of  his  least  experienced  soldiers,  on  a  rugged  plateau  nearest  the  en^my; 


180d.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPF.  243 

while  he  tool;  command  in  person  of  the  remaining  fifteen  thousand,  who 
were  nearly  all  regular  troops,  a  mile  and  a  half  in  the  rear.  Bessicres 
readily  took  advantage  of  this  insane  division -of  the  Spanish  forces. 
Making  a  circuit  with  a  considerable  part  of  his  army,  he  attacked  Blake 
simultaneously  in  front,  flank  and  rear,  and  at  the  first  charge  dispersed 
the  whole  division  in  hopeless  disorder  across  the  field.  Cuesta  advanced 
to  the  relief  of  his  colleague,  and  at  first  made  some  impression  on  the 
French  columns  as  they  were  confusedly  pressing  on  Blake's  retreat; 
but  Bessieres  soon  rallied  his  men,  and,  by  an  impetuous  and  concentrated 
attack,  broke  and  totally  routed  the  second  Spanish  division.  Cuesta's 
loss  in  this  action  was  three  thousand  men  killed  and  wounded,  two 
thousand  prisoners,  and  eighteen  pieces  of  cannon:  the  loss  of  the  French 
did  not  exceed  twelve  hundred  men.  In  the  course  of  the  pursuit,  the 
town  of  Rio  Seco  was  taken,  and  given  up  to  the  sack  and  pillage  of  the 
soldiery.  The  result  of  this  action  destroyed  the  newly-acquired  con- 
fidence of  the  Spaniards,  and,  in  a  proportionate  degree,  elevated  the 
hopes  of  Napoleon  who,  when  he  received  the  intelligence,  exultingly 
remarked,  "Bessieres  has  placed  Joseph  on  the  throne  of  Spain  ;"  and  he 
congratulated  himself  with  the  belief  that  the  war  was  at  an  end.  But 
he  never  formed  a  more  erroneous  opinion. 

Soon  after  the  insurrections  broke  out,  Dupont,  with  a  considerable 
force,  marched  into  Andalusia  ;  where,  having  gained  several  minor  ad- 
vantages, he  took  possession  of  the  city  of  Cordova,  and  delivered  it  to 
the  pillage  of  his  troops,  in  the  same  manner  as  if  it  had  been  carried  by 
assault.  A  scene  of  indescribable  horror  ensued.  Armed  and  unarmed 
men  were  slaughtered,  women  ravished,  and  the  churches  plundered: 
even  the  venerable  cathedral,  which  had  survived  the  devastation  of  the 
first  Christian  conquest,  six  hundred  years  before,  was  stripped  of  its 
ornaments,  and  polluted  by  the  vilest  debauchery.  Money  and  articles 
of  plate,  to  an  enormous  amount,  were  seized  both  for  public  purposes 
and  for  the  private  use  of  the  troops ;  and  it  is  important  to  observe,  that 
these  extremities  of  ou  %  ?e  were  committed  against  the  inhabitants  of  a 
town  who  had  offered  Ole  or  no  resistance  to  the  invaders,  who  were 
not  formally  summoned  to  surrender,  and  who  therefore,  by  all  rules  of 
civilized  warfare,  were  entitled  to  the  most  liberal  terms  of  capitulation. 

Dupont  remained  several  days  at  Cordova;  but  at  length  becoming 
alarmed  at  the  insurrectionary  movements  of  the  inhabitants  in  the  ad- 
joining country,  and  at  the  assembling  of  Spanish  troops  under  Castanos 
and  Reding,  which  threatened  to  cut  off  his  communications  with  Madrid, 
he  abandoned  his  original  intention  of  a  farther  advance  into  Andalusia, 
and  resolved  to  retreat  upon  the  capital.  He  immediately  organized  his 
forces  for  this  purpose  and  set  forth,  taking,  in  addition  to  the  ordinary 
baggage  of  his  army,  a  train  of  wagons  loaded  with  the  ill-gotten  plunder 
of  Cordova.  His  march  was  for  a  time  uninterrupted,  but  he  soon  en- 
countered numerous  detached  parties  at  the  fords  and  defiles  of  his  route, 
from  whom  he  met  \\  ith  serious  opposition  and  loss ;  and  when  he  reached 
Andujar,  he  found  himself  completely  enveloped  by  the  enemy.  As  his 
army  was  twenty  thousand  strong,  he  might,  by  a  vigorous  effort,  have 
cut  his  way  through  his  antagonist's  lines ;  but,  instead  of  so  doing,  he 
divided  his  troops,  sent  Vedel  with  a  strong  detachment  toward  Carolina, 
and  himself  retreated  upon  Baylen.  He  was  here  attacked  by  the  Span- 
iards, and  after  a  desperate  but  ineffectual  resistance,  solicited  a  suspen- 

23* 


244  HISTORY  OF  EUROPE,  [CHAP. xxix, 

sion  of  arms.  Vedel,  who  had  been  ordered  back  to  Dupont's  assistance 
at  the  commencement  of  the  action,  arrived  only  in  time  to  share  its  dis- 
asters; and,  after  a  brief  negotiation,  the  French  general,  finding  it 
impossible  to  escape  the  catastrophe,  surrendered  his  entire  force  to 
Castanos  on  condition  of  being  sent  back  by  sea  to  France.  The  pris- 
oners, with  the  garrisons  of  a  number  of  detached  posts  on  their  line  of 
communication  with  Madrid,  who  also  surrendered,  amounted  to  twenty- 
one  thousand  men.  Two  thousand  had  fallen  in  the  battle,  one  thousand 
were  killed  in  the  retreat  preceding  it,  and  thus  twenty-four  thousand 
effective  troops  were  for  the  time  lost  to  France,  including  all  their  arms 
and  artillery. 

The  account  of  this  defeat  reached  Napoleon  at  Bordeaux,  and  he  was 
so  excited  by  the  news  that  his  attendant  ministers  were  greatly  alarmed. 
"Is  your  majesty  ill?"  said  Maret.  "No."  "Has  Austria  declared 
war  ?"  "  Would  to  God  that  were  all !"  "  What,  then,  has  happened  ?" 
The  Emperor  recounted  the  details  of  the  battle,  and  added,  "That  an 
army  should  be  beaten,  is  nothing;  it  is  the  daily  fate  of  war,  and  is 
easily  repaired :  but  that  an  army  should  submit  to  a  dishonorable  capit- 
ulation, is  a  stain  on  the  glory  of  our  arms  that  can  never  be  effaced. 
Wounds  inflicted  on  honor  are  incurable.  The  moral  effect  of  this  catas- 
trophe, too,  will  be  terrible.  What!  he  has  had  the  infamy  to  give  up 
our  soldiers'  haversacks  to  be  searched  like  those  of  robbers !  Could  I 
ever  have  expected  that  of  General  Dupont,  a  man  whom  I  loved  and 
was  rearing  up  to  become  a  marshal  ?  He  says,  he  had  no  other  way  to 
prevent  the  destruction  of  the  army  and  save  the  lives  of  the  soldiers: 
but  it  were  far  better  they  had  all  perished,  than  suffer  this  disgrace." 

If,  however,  the  capitulation  of  Baylen  was  dishonorable  to  the  French, 
its  subsequent  violation  was  not  less  so  to  the  Spaniards.  As  the  long 
files  of  prisoners  marched  across  the  country  toward  Cadiz,  the  revengeful 
passions  of  the  populace  became  excited  to  see  so  large  a  body  of  men, 
stained  by  robbery  and  murder  committed  within  the  dominions-  of  Spain, 
about  to  embark  for  France,  for  no  other  purpo^r  than  to  be  again  let 
loose  in  the  Peninsula  and  commi*  similar  outrages.  The  popular  indig- 
nation soon  rose  to  such  a  neignt,  that  Castanos  failed  in  every  attempt  to 
restrain  it ;  and  when,  during  a  collision  between  the  prisoners  and  the 
people  at  Lebrixa,  some  of  the  sacred  silver  vessels  stolen  from  Cordova 
were  found  among  the  baggage  of  the  French  soldiers,  the  governor  of 
Cadiz,  in  conjunction  with  the  junta  of  Seville,  and  in  compliance  with 
the  demands  of  the  exasperated  populace,  sent  the  vanquished  troops  to 
the  hulks  in  the  harbor  of  Cadiz,  where  they  were  confined  during  the 
war,  and  subjected  to  such  hardships  that  few  of  them  ever  regained  their 
native  country. 

Joseph  Bonaparte  and  his  adherents  were  so  alarmed  at  the  result  of 
the  battle  of  Baylen,  that  they  resolved  to  evacuate  Madrid ;  and,  on  the 
30th  of  July,  the  intrusive  king  commenced  his  retreat,  having  first 
ordered  eighty  pieces  of  heavy  artillery,  which  he  could  not  remove,  to 
be  spiked,  and  despoiled  the  palaces  of  all  their  jewels  and  other  articles 
of  value.  The  French  troops  were  not  molested  by  the  Spaniards  on 
their  march,  yet  they  robbed  and  burned  every  village  and  hamlet  near 
which  they  passed.  When  Joseph  arrived  at  Burgos,  he  was  joined  by 
Bessieres  with  his  corps,  and  by  Verdier  with  the  force  that  had  been 
driven  from  Saragossa ;  and  these,  together  with  the  division  of  Moncey, 


]808.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  245 

enabled  him  to  take  post  behind  the  Ebro  at  the  head  of  fifty  thousand 
veterans. 

The  feeling  of  discouragement  among  the  French  troops  was  not  a 
little  augmented  by  the  ill  success  of  their  arms  in  Catalonia,  where 
Generals  Schwartz  and  Chabran,  with  two  divisions  of  above  four  thou- 
sand men  each,  were  severally  defeated  with  great  loss  by  the  undis- 
ciplined but  brave  peasantry  of  that  province.  These  reverses  were 
followed  by  a  more  serious  disaster  at  Gerona.  General  Duhesme,  with 
six  thousand  men  and  a  train  of  heavy  artillery  had  laid  siege  to  that 
town;  but  he  was  routed  with  a  loss  of  nearly  half  his  forces,  all  his 
stores,  and  thirty  pieces  of  cannon.  This  accumulation  of  triumph  pro- 
duced the  happiest  effect  in  animating  the  courage  of  the  Spaniards ;  but 
in  the  midst  of  their  exultation  it  was  observed,  with  regret,  that  few 
vigorous  or  efficient  measures  were  adopted  by  the  juntas  for  prosecuting 
the  war. 

Meantime,  Portugal  became  the  theatre  of  important  events.  When 
the  insurrection  in  the  Peninsula  first  assumed  a  serious  aspect,  the 
British  government  resolved  to  throw  their  weight  into  the  scale  against 
Napoleon ;  and  they  accordingly  fitted  out  an  expedition  under  the  com- 
mand of  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  who  arrived  in  Mondego  Bay  on  the  31st 
of  Jury.  Pie  commenced  the  disembarking  of  his  troops  on  the  day  follow- 
ing, despite  a  strong  west  wind  and  heavy  surf,  and  on  the  evening  of  the 
8th  of  August,  his  army  of  thirteen  thousand  men  bivouacked  on  the  beach. 
These  troops  took  the  field  in  the  highest  spirits  and  the  most  perfect  state 
of  discipline  and  equipment;  but  their  commander  had  the  mortification 
to  learn,  in  his  first  movements,  that  little  reliance  could  be  placed  on  the 
cooperation  of  the  Portuguese  soldiers  for  the  defence  of  their  own  terri- 
tories. Doubtless,  this  backwardness  on  their  part  was  owing  to  their 
fears  of  the  French,  and  their  want  of  confidence  in  the  prowess  of  their 
allies,  whom  they  deemed  inadequate  to  comeiiti  with  Napoleon's  vete- 
rans. Sir  Arthur  nevertheless  advanced  into  the  country,  and  was 
received  by  the  people  with  great  enthusiasm. 

When  Junot  learned  the  arrival  of  the  British  troops,  he  called  in  his 
detached  columns  for  the  protection  of  Lisbon  ;  and  Laborde,  to  gain 
time  for  the  execution  of  this  order,  made  a  stand  at  Rolica,  with  five 
thousand  men  and  five  pieces  of  cannon.  His  ground  was  well  o^^^n, 
being  an  elevated  plateau  between  two  lofty  hills,  which,  in  front  of  his 
lines,  were  covered  with  rocky  thickets  and  close  underwood  of  myrtle. 
Sir  Arthur  moved  to  the  attack  in  three  columns ;  directing  two  of  them 
to  make  their  way  over  the  mountains  and  turn  the  flanks  of  the  enemy, 
while  he  led  the  third  in  person  against  the  front  of  the  position.  As 
soon  as  Laborde  saw  this  combined  movement,  he  fell  back  precipitately 
to  a  valley  higher  up  in  the  gorge,  where  the  natural  defences  of  the 
ground  promised  to  atone  for  his  inferiority  of  numbers.  The  British 
columns  pressed  on  in  pursuit,  and  a-  spirited  contest  commenced,  which 
ended  in  the  retreat  of  Laborde,  with  a  loss  of  six  hundred  men  and 
three  pieces  of  cannon. 

On  the  day  after  this  action,  and  while  the  British  troops  were  threat- 
ening the  rear  of  Laborde's  division,  Sir  Arthur  ascertained  that  Junot 
was  advancing  toward  him  with  his  whole  force,  to  offer  a  pitched  battle; 
he  therefore  recalled  his  leading  columns,  and  directed  his  march  upon 
Vimiero  where  he  established  his  head-quarters  on  the  19th  of  August 


246  HISTORY    OF     EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXIX. 

Early  in  the  morning  of  the  21sl,  the  French  army  approached  the  Eng- 
lish lines,  and  Laborde  commenced  an  attack  on  their  centre,  which  was 
promptly  repulsed  by  the  50th  regiment  under  Colonel  Walker,  who, 
throwing  his  men  into  echellon  obliquely  across  the  front  and  flank  of 
an  entire  French  brigade  in  close  column,  totally  routed  them  before  re- 
enforcements  could  come  up.  The  battle  was  maintained  with  great 
spirit  at  all  points ;  but  the  French  at  length  gave  way,  having  sustained 
a  loss  of  twenty-four  hundred  men  and  thirteen  pieces  of  cannon,  while 
the  British  loss  did  not  exceed  eight  hundred.  Sir  Arthur  had  now  an 
opportunity  to  fall  upon  and  destroy  the  retreating  French  columns ;  but 
Sir  Harry  Burrard,  who  had  arrived  to  supersede  him  in  the  chief  com- 
mand, and  who,  being  an  officer  of  the  old  school,  considered  one  victory 
a  sufficient  achievment  for  one  week,  positively  forbade  the  advance  of 
the  troops ;  whereupon  Sir  Arthur,  concealing  the  bitterness  of  his  disap- 
pointment under  an  affected  gayety,  said  to  the  officers  of  his  staff,  "  Gen- 
tlemen, nothing  now  remains  for  us,  but  to  go  and  shoot  red-legged 
partridges." 

Sir  Harry  Burrard  retained  the  office  of  commander-in-chief  for  a 
brief  period  only,  as  Sir  Hugh  Dalrymple  reached  the  British  head-quar- 
ters on  the  next  day,  and  superseded  him ;  so  that,  within  thirty  hours, 
a  pitched  battle  had  been  fought,  and  three  generals  successively  took 
the  supreme  direction  of  the  army.  After  conferring  with  his  two  prede- 
cessors, Sir  Hugh  resolved  to  advance  on  the  French  position  at  Torres 
Vedras  ;  but  at  this  juncture,  a  flag  of  truce  from  Junot's  camp  was  an- 
nounced, and  Kellerman  came  forward  with  proposals  for  an  armistice. 
Negotiations  were  immediately  commenced,  which  terminated  in  the 
Convention  of  Cintra.  This  instrument  provided  that  the  French  troops 
should  evacuate  the  whole  kingdom  of  Portugal,  surrender  all  the  for- 
tresses they  held  in  its  dominions  to  the  British,  and  be  conveyed  to 
France  with  the  artillery  directly  appertaining  to  their  corps,  and  a  por- 
tion of  their  ammunition.  A  separate  clause  stipulated  that  the  Russian 
fleet  of  ten  line-of-battle  ships,  then  lying  in  the  harbor  of  Lisbon,  should 
be  surrendered  to  the  English  commander  and  conveyed  to  Great  Britain, 
there  to  remain  in  deposite  until  six  months  after  the  conclusion  of  a  gen- 
eral peace  :  but  the  officers  and  crews  were  to  be  sent  to  Russia  without 
delay,  at  the  expense  of  the  British  government.  It  was  further  provided, 
that  the  French  troops  should  be  allowed  to  take  with  them  their  individ- 
ual property ;  when,  however,  it  was  discovered  that  their  disgraceful 
system  of  pillage  in  Lisbon  had  despoiled  the  palaces,  churches,  private 
houses,  public  treasury,  and  even  the  museums  of  their  most  valuable 
effects,  and  that  the  whole  army,  from  Junot  down  to  the  meanest  soldier, 
had  participated  in  the  robbery,  the  compact  was  so  far  modified  as  to 
enforce  a  restoration  of  the  plunder.  The  homeward  movement  of  the 
troops  was  now  hastened  on,  and,  by  the  middle  of  October,  not  a  French 
soldier  remained  on  the  soil  of  Portugal. 

This  triumph,  however,  great  as  it  undoubtedly  was,  did  not  satisfy 
the  expectations  of  the  British  people ;  and  the  three  generals  were  or, 
dered  home,  to  answer  to  a  Court  of  Inquiry,  for  neglect  of  duty  in  allow- 
ing Junot's  troops  so  easy  an  escape.  They  were  eventually  acquitted, 
but  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  alone  was  again  intrusted  with  any  important 
command  in  the  British  army.  In  the  mean  time,  Sir  John  Moore  landed 
at  Lisbon  with  a  division  of  fresh  troops,  and  took  command  of  the  Eng. 


1808.]  PI  ISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  247 

lish  forces.  His  first  care  was  to  put  the  fortresses  of  the  kingdom  in  'a 
condition  of  defence,  and  establish  a  central  junta  at  Lisbon  to  administer 
the  affairs  of  the  government,  in  the  absence  of  the  Prince  Regent.  Hav- 
ing completed  these  preparations,  he  began  his  march  for  the  seat  of  war 
at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees. 

The  campaign  in  the  Peninsula  had  already  produced  an  effect  inimi- 
cal to  France,  in  some  of  the  other  European  states.  Austria,  as  early 
as  the  9th  of  June,  taking  alarm  at  Napoleon's  progress,  directed  the 
formation  of  a  landwehr,  or  local  militia,  in  all  the  provinces  of  her  do- 
minions ;  and  the  Archduke  Charles,  at  the  head  of  the  War  Department, 
had  infused  great  activity  into  the  several  branches  of  the  regular  army. 
Count  Metternich,  the  Austrian  ambassador  at  Paris,  when  pressed  by 
the  French  Emperor  for  the  reason  of  these  movements,  alleged  that  the 
cabinet  of  Vienna  was  only  imitating  the  conduct  of  their  powerful  neigh- 
bors, and  that  since  Bavaria  had  adopted  the  French  system  of  conscrip- 
tion, and  organized  a  National  Guard  on  the  French  model,  it  became 
necessary  for  Austria  to  take  corresponding  measures  in  self-defence. 

Napoleon  had  now  resolved  to  pursue  the  Spanish  war  to  extermina- 
tion, and  he  made  new  demands  on  the  Senate  of  Paris  for  anticipating 
the  conscriptions  of  1809  and  1810 ;  but  as  the  immense  increase  of  force 
thus  obtained  still  fell  short  of  his  wishes,  he  entered  into  a  new  treaty 
with  Prussia,  by  which  he  agreed,  on  condition  of  receiving  a  hundred 
and  forty  millions  of  francs,  to  evacuate  the  Prussian  territory,  retaining 
only  the  fortresses  of  Glogau,  Stettin  and  Custrin,  which  were  each  to  be 
garrisoned  with  four  thousand  French  soldiers,  and  such  garrisons  sup- 
ported at  the  sole  expense  of  Prussia.  Nor  did  Napoleon  stop  here  ;  but, 
proceeding  from  measures  of  active  preparation  to  those  of  a  precaution- 
ary character,  he  solicited  and  obtained  an  interview  with  the  Emperor 
Alexander  at  Erfurth.  The  two  sovereigns  met  at  that  place  on  the 
27th  of  September,  and  remained  in  daily  communication  until  the  14th 
of  October ;  when  they  separated  never  to  meet  again  in  this  world.  The 
conferences  between  the  monarchs  were  not  reduced  to  formal  or  secret 
treaties ;  at  least,  the  existence  of  such  treaties  has  never  been  discov- 
ered or  avowed  :  but  they  were  not  on  that  account  the  less  important. 
The  principal  object  of  Napoleon  was,  to  secure  the  cooperation  of  Rus- 
sia against  Austria,  should  the  latter  power  attempt  a  hostile  movement 
on  France,  while  he  was  engaged  in  the  Peninsula ;  and,  in  return,  he 
consented  to  Alexander's  uniting  Finland,  Moldavia  and  Wallachia  to 
the  Russian  dominions ;  and  promised  the  future  aid  of  France  in  extend- 
ing the  Muscovite  rule  over  the  Asiatic  Continent.  At  the  same  time,  he 
agreed  to  relax  somewhat  in  the  terms  of  his  last  treaty  with  Prussia, 
reducing  the  amount  of  the  contribution  to  a  hundred  and  twenty-five 
millions  of  francs,  more  than  half  of  which  sum  was  stipulated  to  be  paid 
in  the  promissory  notes  of  the  Prussian  government.  Two  other  subjects 
were  introduced  at  this  conference  by  Napoleon,  which,  without  directly 
accomplishing  the  ends  he  had  in  view,  excited  the  distrust  and  jealousy 
of  Alexander,  and  destroyed  the  confidence  and  regard  that  he  had  lat- 
terly entertained  toward  the  French  Emperor.  These  were,  a  proposal 
to  divorce  Josephine  and  contract  a  marriage  with  the  Grand-duehesa 
Catherine,  Alexander's  favorite  sister ;  and  the  offer  of  certain  equiva- 
lents for  the  cession  of  Constantinople  to  France. 

Napoleon  reached  Paris  on  the  29th  of  October  ;  and,  having*  dfai 

18 


248  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXIX 

patched  Murat  to  Naples,  to  take  possession  of  the  throne  vacated  by 
Joseph  Bonaparte,  he  set  out  for  Bayonne,  to  superintend  in  person  the 
military  operations  in  the  Peninsula,  where  he  had  now  assembled  an 
army  of  no  less  than  three  hundred  thousand  men  ;  of  whom,  after  de- 
ducting the  garrisons  in  the  northern  fortresses  of  Spain,  together  with 
the  sick  and  absent,  fully  one  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  could  be 
brought  into  active  service  on  the  Ebro :  while  his  armies  of  reserve  in 
France,  which  were  preparing  to  join  their  brethren  in  the  Peninsula, 
amounted  to  nearly  five  hundred  thousand. 

To  oppose  this  immense  force,  the  Spaniards  had  but  seventy-six  thou- 
sand men  in  a  condition  to  take  the  field.  They  were  thus  divided : 
Palafox,  on  the  right,  occupied  the  country  between  Saragossa  and  San- 
guessa,  with  eighteen  thousand;  Castanos,  in  the  centre,  was  posted 
at  Tarazona,  with  twenty-eight  thousand  ;  and  the  left,  under  Blake, 
thirty  thousand  strong,  lay  on  the  rocky  mountains  near  Reynosa.  Sir 
John  Moore  was  advancing  to  unite  with  the  Spanish  forces ;  and  the 
troops  under  his  command,  when  joined  by  Sir  David  Baird's  powerful 
reenforcement,  would  amount  to  thirty  thousand  men  ;  but  they  were  yet 
at  a  distance  from  the  scene  of  action,  and  Napoleon  resolved  to  strike  a 
decisive  blow  before  their  arrival.  Blake,  in  the  meantime,  had  assumed 
the  offensive,  and  gained  some  inconsiderable  success  over  detached  par- 
ties of  the  French,  which  he  followed  up  by  capturing  Bilboa  after  one 
day's  investment.  Encouraged  by  this,  the  Spanish  general  proposed  a 
combined  attack  on  the  French  position  ;  the  nature  of  the  ground,  how- 
ever,  and  the  want  of  discipline  among  the  troops,  prevented  the  several 
divisions  from  acting  in  concert,  and  Castanos,  who  first  reached  the 
enemy,  was  repulsed  with  loss  at  Logrono.  This  check  led  to  dissen- 
sions between  the  commanders,  and  Palafox  retired  toward  Saragossa, 
while  Blake,  who  had  unexpectedly  received  a  reenforcement  that  raised 
his  numbers  to  nearly  fifty  thousand,  moved  against  the  French  left  in 
the  Biscayan  provinces.  His  march,  however,  was  disorderly,  and  the 
divisions  of  his  army  so  widely  separated,  that  Lefebvre  fell  on  his  ad- 
vanced guard,  seventeen  thousand  strong,  and  totally  routed  them. 
Blake  immediately  fell  back  and  concentrated  his  forces  at  Espinosa, 
where  his  numbers,  reduced  by  defeat  and  disasters,  scarcely  exceeded 
twenty-five  thousand  men.  Napoleon,  who  now  took  the  chief  direction 
of  the  French  army,  ordered  Victor  with  a  corps  of  twenty-five  thousand 
strong,  to  attack  Blake  in  front,  while  Lefebvre,  with  fifteen  thousand 
troops,  marched  on  his  communications  in  the  rear.  These  movements 
were  decisive ;  for  although  the  Spanish  soldiers  in  detached  squadrons 
fought  with  great  bravery,  they  were  overpowered  by  the  numbers  and 
discipline  of  their  assailants,  and  retreated  in  the  greatest  confusion, 
leaving  nearly  ten  thousand  men  killed,  wounded  and  prisoners,  on  the 
field.  The  routed  army  fled  in  two  different  directions  ;  Romana,  with 
nine  thousand  stragglers  made  his  way  into  Leon,  and  Blake,  with  seven 
thousand  sought  refuge  at  Reynosa,  and  there  joined  a  portion  of  his  re- 
serves. But  he  was  rapidly  pursued  by  Soult,  and  driven  into  the  Astu- 
rian  mountains,  after  having  lost  half  his  men,  and  all  his  ammunition 
and  artillery. 

Soult  next  moved  against  Burgos,  where  eighteen  thousand  of  the  best 
troops  in  Spain  had  been  hastily  assembled  under  the  Count  de  Belviderer 
The  Spanish  soldiers  bravely  sustained  the  attack  of  the  French  columns 


1808,]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  249 

for  a  short  time ;  but  they  soon  gave  way,  leaving  behind  them  twenty-eight 
hundred  men  and  all  their  artillery  and  stores.  Burgos  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  French  marshal,  and,  after  being  abandoned  to  pillage,  became  the 
head-quarters  of  Napoleon,  who  established  himself  there  on  the  12th  of 
November.  On  receiving  intelligence  of  this  defeat,  Castanos  retired  to 
Tudela,  and  formed  a  junction  with  Palafox  :  their  united  forces  amounted 
to  forty-three  thousand  men,  with  forty  pieces  of  cannon.  Marshal  Ney 
pursued  this  army,  and  attacked  its  outposts  on  the  21st.  The  Spanish 
troops  gave  way  at  all  points :  fifteen  thousand  men,  without  artillery  or 
ammunition,  made  their  escape  with  Palafox  to  Saragossa ;  twenty  thou- 
sand, under  Castanos,  retreated  on  Catalayud  ;  five  thousand  were  killed, 
wounded  or  made  prisoners,  and  the  remainder  fled  in  total  confusion  to 
the  mountains. 

This  dispersion  of  the  Spanish  troops  in  the  north  laid  open  the  road  to 
Madrid,  toward  which  Napoleon  now  advanced  with  the  Imperial  Guards 
and  Victor's  corps,  amounting  in  all  to  sixty  thousand  men.  On  the  30th 
of  November,  he  encountered  a  serious  opposition  in  the  pass  of  Somo- 
Sierra,  where  twelve  thousand  Spaniards,  with  sixteen  pieces  of  cannon, 
made  a  desperate  stand,  and  for  a  while  arrested  the  march  of  the  whole 
French  army.  Nothing,  however,  could  resist  the  enthusiasm  of  Napo- 
leon's veterans,  when  fighting  under  his  own  eye.  By  an  impetuous 
charge  up  the  rugged  ascent  of  the  defile,  they  carried  the  Spanish  bat- 
teries at  the  point  of  the  bayonet,  dispersed  the  whole  covering  force,  and 
hastened  on  to  Madrid  without  further  opposition. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Spanish  capital  were  thrown  into  the  utmost 
consternation  when  they  learned  that  the  pass  of  Somo-Sierra  had  been 
forced,  and  that  Napoleon's  columns  were  advancing  against  their  de- 
fenceless walls.  There  were  but  three  hundred  regular  troops  in  the 
town,  with  two  battalions  of  new  levies :  nevertheless,  vigorous  prepara- 
tions were  made  for  defence.  Eight  thousand  muskets  and  a  large  num- 
ber of  pikes  were  distributed  to  the  people,  heavy  cannon  were  planted 
on  the  Retire  and  in  the  principal  streets,  the  pavements  were  torn  up, 
barricades  erected,  and  the  most  enthusiastic  spirit  pervaded  the  multi- 
tude. On  the  morning  of  the  2nd,  the  advanced  guard  of  the  French 
army  reached  the  heights  north  of  Madrid,  and  Napoleon,  who  was  very 
desirous  to  gain  possession  of  the  Spanish  capital  on  the  anniversary  of 
his  coronation  and  of  the  battle  of  Austerlitz,  immediately  summoned  il 
to  surrender;  but  the  proposal  was  indignantly  rejected. 

During  the  night,  the  French  infantry  arrived  in  great  strength,  and 
early  on  the  3rd,  the  Emperor  directed  an  assault  on  the  Retire,  the 
heights  of  which  entirely  command  the  city.  This  important  post  was 
speedily  carried,  and  as  the  town  became  now  indefensible  in  a  military 
point  of  view,  a  capitulation  took  place  :  on  the  4th  of  December,  Madrid 
was  occupied  by  the  French  troops.  Napoleon  did  not  himself  enter  the 
town,  but  established  his  head-quarters  at  Chamartin,  where  he  received 
the  submission  of  the  authorities  and  regulated  the  affairs  of  the  govern- 
ment. In  a  short  time,  everything  bore  the  appearance  of  peace :  the 
theatres  were  reopened,  citizens  crowded  the  public  walks,  and  the  trades 
resumed  their  former  activity.  By  a  solemn  decree,  the  Emperor  abol- 
ished the  Inquisition  and  appropriated  its  funds  to  the  reduction  of  the 
public  debt ;  and,  in  general,  the  measures  taken  by  Napoleon  were  well 
adapted  to  secure  his  own  authority  and  the  good  will  and  confidence  of 
the  inhabitants. 


n 


250  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXIX 

While  the  French  Emperor  was  thus  engaged  in  the  civil  affairs  ot 
Spain,  and  was  hastening  forward  his  armies  for  the  complete  subjugation 
of  her  provinces,  Sir  David  Baird  had  landed  atCorunnaand  formed  a  junc- 
tion with  Sir  John  Moore,  and  Hope's  division  had  also  arrived  from  the  Es- 
curial,  so  that  the  British  army  amounted  to  nearly  thirty  thousand  men. 
Sir  John  Moore,  as  soon  as  he  heard  of  the  surrender  of  Madrid  and  the 
great  accumulation  of  force  in  that  quarter,  boldly  resolved  to  throw  him- 
self on  the  French  line  of  communication  and  attack  Soult,  who  at  that  time 
lay  in  fancied  security  with  fifteen  thousand  men  in  the  valley  of  the  Car- 
rion. He  accordingly  commenced  his  march  on  the  llth  of  December; 
but,  prudently  considering,  that  by  some  unexpected  change  in  the  position 
of  the  French  armies  he  might  become  involved  with  forces  greatly  out- 
numbering his  own,  he  combined  with  his  forward  movement  the  prepara- 
tions for  a  retreat,  and  provided  magazines  for  the  latter  purpose  both  on  the 
route  to  Lisbon  and  to  Galicia.  The  English  troops  proceeded  with  great 
alacrity  toward  the  promised  field  of  combat,  and  on  their  way  encoun- 
tered and  defeated  several  detached  parties  of  the  enemy :  while  Soult, 
alarmed  at  the  sudden  and  near  approach  of  the  British,  concentrated  his 
men  along  the  banks  of  the  Carrion  in  the  neighborhood  of  Saldana,  where 
General  Moore  proposed  to  attack  him  on  the  23rd.  The  moment  that  the 
advance  of  the  British  army  was  known  in  Madrid,  Napoleon  recalled 
every  division  that  was  moving  toward  the  south,  and  hurried  them  by 
forced  marches  to  the  support  of  Marshal  Soult.  On  the  22nd  of  De- 
cember, he  had  reached  the  pass  of  Guadarama  with  overwhelming  num- 
bers ;  on  the  26th,  his  head-quarters  were  at  Tordesillas,  his  cavalry  at 
Valladolid,  and  Marshal  Ney  at  Rio-Seco.  Fully  anticipating  the  entire 
destruction  of  the  British  army,  the  Emperor  now  wrote  to  Soult,  "  If  the 
English  remain  another  day  in  their  position,  they  are  undone.  Should 
they  attack  you,  retire  a  day's  march  to  the  rear :  if  they  retreat,  pursue 
them  closely." 

But  Sir  John  Moore  was  as  vigilant  as  his  redoubtable  antagonist. 
Finding,  from  the  unexpected  rapidity  of  Napoleon's  advance,  that  he 
could  not  safely  remain  to  combat  with  Soult,  he  suspended  his  march  on 
the  23rd,  and  on  the  24th  commenced  his  retreat  toward  Galicia,  to  the 
infinite  mortification  of  the  British  soldiers,  who  were  in  the  highest  spirits 
and  eager  for  the  contest.  On  the  26th,  Baird's  division  crossed  the  Esla, 
while  Moore,  who  remained  with  the  rear-guard  to  protect  the  stores  and 
baggage  in  their  passage  over  the  bridge  of  Castro  Gonzalo,  was  threat- 
ened by  a  body  of  Ney's  horsemen.  Lord  Paget,  however,  with  two 
squadrons  of  cavalry,  overthrew  the  French  detachment,  making  a  hun- 
dred prisoners,  besides  killing  and  wounding  a  large  number.  General 
Moore,  by  a  timely  retreat,  reached  Benavente  before  the  enemy,  and  thus 
preserved  his  own  communications  entire.  The  army  remained  here  for 
two  days,  reposing  from  its  fatigues  ;  but  the  discipline  of  the  men  in  three 
days  of  retrograde  movement  had  become  seriously  impaired.  On  the 
28th,  Moore  continued  his  retreat,  having  first  destroyed  the  bridge  over 
the  Esla,  the  repairing  of  which  detained  Bessieres  until  the  30th,  when 
he  crossed  the  river  with  nine  thousand  cavalry  and  followed  in  pursuit 
of  the  English  columns.  Soult  at  the  same  time  passed  the  bridge  of 
Mansilla,  overspread  the  plains  of  Leon  with  his  troops,  and  captured  the 
town  of  that  name,  which  contained  a  large  quantity  of  military  stores 
belonging  to  the  Spanish  government. 


1809.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  251 

On  the  1st  of  January,  the  corps  of  Soult  and  Ney,  seventy  thousand 
strong,  were  joined  at  Astorga  by  the  Emperor,  who,  on  the  road  from 
Benavente  to  that  place,  while  riding  at  a  full  gallop  with  his  advanced 
guard  in  pursuit  of  the  English  troops,  was  overtaken  by  a  courier  with 
dispatches.  He  instantly  dismounted,  ordered  a  bivouac  fire  to  be  lighted 
by  the  roadside,  and,  seating  himself  by  it  on  the  ground,  was  soon  so  lost 
in  thought  that  he  became  insensible  to  the  snow  which  fell  in  thick 
wreaths  around  him.  He  had  ample  subject  for  meditation  :  Austria  had 
made  hostile  demonstrations  against  France  and  was  preparing  to  take 
the  field.  He  rode  on  slowly  and  pensively  to  Astorga,  and  remained 
there  two  days  writing  innumerable  dispatches,  and  regulating  at  once 
the  pursuit  of  the  English  army,  the  internal  affairs  of  Spain,  and  the 
organization  of  the  troops  of  the  Rhenish  Confederacy.  On  the  3rd  of 
January,  he  returned  to  Valladolid  and  proceeded  thence  by  Burgos  and 
Bayonne  to  Paris,  where  he  arrived  on  the  23rd. 

The  Emperor's  withdrawal  from  Spain  made  no  change  in  the  vigor 
of  the  French  pursuit.  Soult,  with  his  own  corps,  twenty-four  thousand 
strong,  pressed  rapidly  forward  and  constantly  harassed  the  rear  of  the 
British  army,  while  Ney,  moving  with  still  greater  celerity,  threatened  its 
flank.  Meanwhile,  the  British  rear-guard,  commanded  by  Sir  John  Moore 
in  person,  maintained  its  high  character  for  resolution  and  discipline  ;  bu,t 
the  remainder  of  the  troops,  disgusted  and  disheartened  by  a  protracted 
retreat  through  a  rough  country  and  in  midwinter,  broke  their  ranks, 
refused  to  obey  their  officers,  and  became  little  better  than  a  horde  of 
stragglers  more  to  be  dreaded  by  friends  than  enemies.  In  this  deplorable 
condition,  they  reached  Lugo  late  in  the  evening  of  the  6th  of  January. 

Here  the  British  general  halted,  and  in  a  proclamation  issued  the  fol- 
lowing day,  severely  rebuked  the  men  for  their  insubordination,  and 
announced  his  intention  to  give  battle  to  the  French.  .Instantly,  and  as 
if  by  enchantment,  the  disorder  of  the  troops  was  at  an  end.  The  strag- 
glers returned  to  their  ranks,  with  their  arms  cleaned,  their  faces  joyful 
and  their  confidence  restored  :  before  the  morning  of  the  8th,  nineteen 
thousand  men  stood  in  battle  array,  impatiently  awaiting  the  attack  of  the 
enemy.  But  Soult  declined  the  combat,  though  his  army  amounted  to 
twenty-one  thousand  men,  with  fifty  pieces  of  artillery  in  line.  Neverthe- 
less, Moore  had  gained  the  advantage  of  reorganizing  his  troops,  and  was 
in  much  better  condition  than  before  for  continuing  his  retreat.  During 
the  night,  he  broke  up  from  his  position,  and  moved  on  toward  Corunna, 
where  he  arrived  on  the  llth  of  January.  As  the  troops  successively 
reached  the  heights  whence  the  sea  became  visible,  all  eyes  turned  anx- 
iously toward  the  bay,  in  hopes  that  the  vessels  for  their  transportation 
might  be  awaiting  them  there ;  but  the  vast  expanse  was  vacant,  and  a 
few  coasters  and  fishing- boats,  alone  could  be  descried  on  the  dreary 
main.  There  was  now,  therefore,  no  alternative  but  a  battle :  the  sea 
was  in  front,  the  enemy  in  the  rear,  and  a  victory  was  indispensable  to 
secure  the  means  of  embarkation.  The  troops  accordingly  made  great 
efforts  to  strengthen  the  land-defences,  which,  though  regular,  were  very 
weak ;  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  town  assisted  in  this  laborious  duty. 
On  the  14th,  the  transports  from  Vigo  hove  in  sight,  and  stood  into  the 
bay,  when  the  embarkation  of  the  sick  and  wounded  was  immediately 
commenced.  The  greater  part  of  the  artillery  was  next  put  on  board; 
for,  during  all  the  confusion  of  the  retreat,  not  one  gun  had  be«n  lost. 

24 


252  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [Cm?.  XXIX. 

While  these  movements  were  in  progress  at  the  shore  of  the  bay,  the 
effective  portion  of  the  British  army,  still  fourteen  thousand  strong,  was 
drawn  up  with  great  care  by  Sir  John  Moore,  on  a  range  of  heights,  or 
rather,  of  knolls,  which  form  a  sort  of  amphitheatre  around  the  village  of 
Elvira,  at  the  distance  of  rather  more  than  a  mile  from  Corunna.  The 
French,  twenty  thousand  strong,  were  posted  on  a  higher  semi-circular 
ridge,  distant  about  one  mile  from  the  English  position. 

From  the  inactivity  of  the  French  troops  during  the  14th  and  15th, 
General  Moore  was  led  to  believe  that  they  had  no  serious  intention  of 
disquieting  his  retreat,  and  he  made  preparations  for  withdrawing  his  army 
into  the  town  on  the  night  of  the  16th,  in  order  to  embark  on  board  of  the 
transports.  About  noon  on  that  day,  however,  a  general  movement  was 
seen  along  the  French  lines,  and  at  two  o'clock,  their  infantry  in  four 
massy  columns  descended  to  the  attack.  Notwithstanding  their  inferi- 
ority of  numbers,  the  British  soldiers  stood  to  their  arms  with  the  most  in- 
vincible resolution,  yielding,  at  intervals,  to  the  pressure  of  the  French 
columns,  but  eventually  repelling  every  assault,  with  great  loss  to  the 
enemy.  At  the  moment  when  they  had  forced  back  the  French  centre 
from  Elvina,  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet,  Sir  John  Moore  was  struck  down 
by  a  cannon-shot,  and  Sir  David  Baird,  also  desperately  wounded,  was 
borne  senseless  from  the  field.  The  battle  still  raged,  however,  and  the 
French  were  fast  giving  ground,  when  the  sudden  approach  of  night  put 
an  end  to  the  strife,  and  saved  them  from  destruction.  General  Hope,  on 
whom  the  command  of  the  British  army  devolved,  conceiving  that  its  safe 
embarkation  was  now  of  more  consequence  than  following  up  the  victory, 
withdrew  into  the  town,  and  the  troops  were  put  on  board  the  vessels 
without  confusion  or  delay. 

After  Sir  John  Moore  had  received  his  death- wound,  he  remained  for  a 
time  sitting  on  the  ground  and  watching  the  progress  of  the  British  charge  ; 
when  he  saw  that  it  was  successful,  and  the  victory  secure,  he  reluctantly 
allowed  himself  to  be  conveyed  to  the  rear.  As  the  soldiers  placed  him  on 
a  blanket  to  carry  him  from  the  field,  the  hilt  of  his  sword  became  en- 
tangled in  the  wound,  and  Captain  Hardinge  attempted  to  take  it  off;  but 
the  dying  hero  said,  "  It  is  well  as  it  is :  I  would  rather  it  should  go  from 
the  field  with  me."  The  examination  of  the  wound  at  his  lodgings,  shut 
out  all  hope  of  his  recovery,  but  did  not  affect  his  serenity  of  mind.  He 
continued  to  converse  in  a  calm  and  cheerful  voice  until  a  few  moments 
before  his  death,  and  when  that  event  took  place,  he  was  wrapped  in  his 
military  cloak  and  laid  in  a  grave  hastily  dug  on  the  ramparts  of  Corunna. 
A  monument  was  soon  after  erected  over  his  uncoffined  remains  by  the 
gene»»)sity  of  Marshal  Ney. 


CHAPTER    XXX. 

FIRST   CAMPAIGN    OF    1809   IN   GERMANY. 

AUSTRIA  had  improved  to  the  utmost  the  interval  of  peace  thai  fol- 
lowed the  treaty  of  Presburg,  and  by  an  energetic  policy,  patiently  and 
silently  pursued,  had  raised  her  war  establishment  to  a  formidable  con- 
dition. Napoleon  was  fully  aware  of  her  movements,  and  more  than 
once  remonstrated  against  them,  on  the  ground  that  they  were  dangerous 
to  the  peace  of  Europe ;  and  in  reply,  the  cabinet  of  Vienna  alleged 
that  their  measures  were  merely  precautionary  and  defensive,  while,  at 
the  same  time,  they  were  careful  not  to  relax  one  moment  in  their  efforts. 
Although  Napoleon  was  not  deceived  as  to  Austria's  intentions,  yet,  while 
occupied  in  the  affairs  of  the  Peninsula,  her  assumption  of  hostilities  took 
him  by  surprise,  and  it  became  necessary  for  him  to  make  extraordinary 
exertions  in  order  to  commence  the  campaign  on  a  footing  of  equality 
with  his  antagonist :  indeed,  had  Austria  pressed  her  offensive  operations 
with  the  same  vigor  as  she  manifested  in  preparing  for  them,  she  must 
have  gained  important  victories  before  Napoleon  could  bring  his  best 
troops  into  the  field  ;  for  the  flower  of  the  French  army  was  in  Spain,  and 
the  forces  that  he  retained  in  Germany,  though  powerful  in  the  aggregate, 
were  as  yet  scattered  in  detached  masses,  from  the  Alps  to  the  Baltic, 
offering  an  easy  triumph  to  a  concentrated  and  active  foe.  But  it  was 
not  the  fate  or  fortune  of  Austria  to  reap  advantage  from  rapid  military 
evolutions. 

The  plan  of  Napoleon,  was  at  the  outset  strictly  defensive,  in  order  to 
gain  time  for  assembling  his  scattered  forces  into  effective  masses  ;  and  as 
he  deemed  it  unfitting  that  he  should  be  at  the  head  of  his  army  before  it 
was  prepared  for  decisive  blows,  Berthier  was  dispatched,  early  in  April, 
to  assume  the  chief  command. 

On  the  17th  of  March,  Austria  had  mustered  a  hundred  and  forty  thou- 
sand men  on  the  two  banks  of  the  Danube,  within  eight  days'  march  of 
Ratisbon  :  on  the  same  day,  Davoust  quitted  his  cantonments  on  the  Oder 
and  Lower  Elbe,  in  the  north  part  of  Germany  ;  Massena  was  yet  on  the 
Rhine,  the  Bavarians  on  the  Iser,  and  Oudinot  alone  at  Augsburg.  The 
French  corps  could,  therefore,  have  been  easily  cut  off  from  each  other, 
and  beaten  in  detail,  by  a  rapid  advance  of  the  Imperialists  toward  Man- 
heim  ;  but  the  execution  of  such  a  design  required  an  alacrity  and  vigor 
practically  unknown  to  the  Austrians,  who,  by  hesitating  until  the  French 
troops  were  concentrated  on  the  Danube,  lost  the  great  advantage  of  their 
central  position  in  Bohemia.  And  when,  at  last,  it  was  resolved  to  attack 
the  enemy  in  Bavaria,  the  Aulic  Council,  instead  of  permitting  the  Arch- 
duke Charles  to  fall  perpendicularly  on  the  French  corps  scattered  to  the 
south,  along  the  valley  of  the  Danube,  ordered  him  to  counter-march  the 
great  body  of  his  men,  and  open  the  campaign  on  the  Inn  :  a  gratuitous 
and  egregious  error,  which  forced  his  army  to  march  thrice  the  necessary 
distance,  and  gave  the  enemy  a  proportionably  increased  time  to  collect 
their  forces  to  resist  him.  This  toilsome  arid  useless  march  was,  how- 
ever, at  length  completed ;  the  Austrian  columns,  after  moving  a  hundred 


254  II  I  S  T  O  R  Y     O  F     E  U  R  O  P  E  .  [Ciur,  XXX. 

miles  back  toward  Vienna,  and  crossing  the  Danube,  were  arrayed  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Inn,  on  the  10th  of  April;  and  the  Archduke  prepared 
to  carry  the  war  into  the  vast  levtSl  plains  which  stretch  from  the  southern 
banks  of  the  Danube  to  the  foot  of  the  Alps. 

The  instructions  of  Napoleon  to  Berthier,  were  clear  and  precise:  if 
the  Austrians  commenced  their  attack  before  the  15th  of  April,  he  was  to 
concentrate  his  army  on  the  Lech,  around  Donauwerth  ;  if  after  that 
date,  at  Ratisbon,  guarding  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube  from  that  place 
o  Passau.  But  on  the  12th  of  April,  by  means  of  the  telegraph  which 
he  had  established  in  Central  Germany,  the  Emperor  was  apprised  at 
Paris  of  the  Archduke's  crossing  the  Inn.  He  immediately  left  the  capi- 
tal for  the  seat  of  war,  where  he  arrived  on  the  17th  of  April ;  and  in  the 
meantime,  the  immense  forces  converging  from  the  mountains  of  Galicia 
and  the  banks  of  the  Oder  to  the  valley  of  the  Danube,  had  gradually 
reached  the  frontiers  of  Germany. 

It  was  high  time  for  him  to  take  the  command  ;  for,  great  as  were  the. 
faults  of  the  Austrian  movements,  Berthier  had  nevertheless  brought  the 
French  forces  to  the  verge  of  destruction.  Instead  of  concentrating  them 
at  Ratisbon  or  Donauwerth,  he  dispersed  them,  despite  the  remonstrances 
of  Davoust  and  Massena,  with  the  insane  purpose  of  stopping  at  all  points 
the  advance  of  the  Austrians  ;  and  nothing  but  the  tardy  march  of  the 
latter  saved  the  French  from  serious  disasters.  The  Archduke  crossed 
the  Inn  on  the  10th,  at  Braunau,  and  on  the  16th,  he  had  barely  reached 
the  Iser,  a  distance  of  only  twenty  leagues.  On  the  same  day,  however, 
he  attacked  Landshut,  and  compelled  General  Deroy,  who  commanded 
the  Bavarian  garrison,  to  evacuate  the  town  ;  and  as  the  line  of  the  Iser 
was  thus  abandoned,  he  crossed  the  river  and  moved  by  the  great  road  of 
Nuremberg,  toward  the  bridges  of  Ratisbon,  Neustadt  and  Kellheim,  in 
order  to  secure  both  banks  of  the  Danube.  Yet  even  then,  when  the 
Austrians  were  greatly  superior  to  the  enemy's  forces  on  any  one  point, 
they  marched  at  the  rate  of  but  three  leagues  a  day.  Nevertheless,  the 
approach  of  a  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  Austrians,  even  though 
moving  at  a  snail's  pace,  threw  Berthier  into  the  greatest  consternation. 
Contrary  to  the  urgent  entreaties  of  his  generals,  he  compelled  Davoust 
to  strengthen  himself  at  Ratisbon,  and  ordered  Massena  to  defend  the  line 
of  the  Lech  ;  at  the  same  time  he  directed  Lefebvre,  Wrede  and  Oudinot, 
to  place  their  several  corps  in  three  lines,  one  behind  another,  across  Ba- 
varia— a  position  so  useless  and  absurd,  that  more  than  one  of  the  mar- 
shals ascribed  his  conduct  to  treachery,  although  that  charge  is  certainly 
without  foundation.  The  result  of  these  joint  movements  was,  that  Da- 
voust, with  sixty  thousand  men,  became  gradually  hemmed  in  at  Ratisbon 
by  the  Archduke's  army,  a  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  strong  ;  and  as 
the  orders  he  received  from  Berthier  compelled  him  to  remain  there,  like 
a  tiger  at  bay,  no  other  fate  seemed  to  await  him  than  the  disaster  which, 
four  years  previously,  befell  Mack  at  Ulm. 

Matters  were  in  this  critical  state  when  Napoleon  arrived  at  Donau- 
werth. Having  fully  informed  himself  of  what  had  taken  place,  he  dis- 
patched the  most  pressing  orders  to  Massena  to  hasten,  at  least  with  his 
advanced  guard  and  cavalry,  to  PlafFenhofen,  a  considerable  town  be- 
tween Augsburg  and  Neusiadt.  He  also  commanded  Davoust  to  march 
in  the  direction  of  Neustadt  and  form  a  junction  with  Lefebvre.  It  may 
oe  presumed  that  these  orders  were  promptly  obeyed,  although  it  was 


1809.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  255 

impossible  for  the  two  marshals  to  reach  the  points  designated,  before  the 
19th  of  April.  On  the  17th,  the  Archduke  detached  fifteen  thousand  men 
under  the  Archduke  Louis,  to  watch  the  troops  of  the  Confederacy  on  the 
Abeas,  while  he  himself  marched  with  the  main  strength  of  his  army 
toward  Ratisbon,  to  gain  possession  of  the  bridge  at  that  place,  and,  by 
thus  securing  the  command  of  both  banks  of  the  Danube,  open  a  free 
communication  with  the  two  corps,  under  Klenau,  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  river.  The  Archduke's  light  cavalry  which,  under  Hohenzollern, 
had  been  pushed  out  on  the  left  to  cover  the  flank  of  the  columns  pro- 
ceeding to  Ratisbon,  reached  Thaun  on  the  19th,  and  there  unexpectedly 
encountered  St.  Hilaire  and  Friant,  who  were  covering  Davoust's  march 
through  the  defile  of  Portsaal.  The  two  parties  simultaneously  attacked 
each  other,  and  as  fresh  troops  successively  came  on  to  the  assistance  of 
their  comrades,  no  less  than  twenty  thousand  men,  in  the  aggregate,  were 
engaged  before  nightfall.  A  violent  thunder  storm  finally  separated  the 
combatants,  after  each  side  had  sustained  a  loss  of  three  thousand  men. 

As  soon  as  the  two  corps  of  Davoust  and  Lefebvre  were  united,  Napo- 
leon resolved  to  assume  a  vigorous  offensive,  for  which,  indeed,  the  rela- 
tive position  of  the  armies  now  presented  a  tempting  opportunity.  By 
extraordinary  exertions,  he  had  brought  sixty-five  thousand  men  into  one 
mass,  on  the  flank  of  fifty  thousand  Austrians,  who,  in  four  detached  corps 
under  officers  acting  independently  of  each  other,  were  scattered  over 
several  leagues  of  country,  and  leisurely  moving  toward  a  common  cen- 
tre, where  they  anticipated  a  junction  with  the  Archduke  and  a  pitched 
battle.  Napoleon  ordered  an  immediate  and  simultaneous  attack  on  these 
divisions,  commanded,  severally,  by  the  Archduke  Louis,  the  Prince  of 
Reuss,  Hiller  and  Thierry  ;  and  they  were  so  taken  by  surprise  at  the 
unexpected  assault,  that  they  fled  on  the  first  charge.  Instead  of  a 
regular  action,  a  running  fight  took  place,  which  continued  through  the 
day,  and  ended  in  a  loss  to  the  Austrians  of  eight  thousand  men.  Yet, 
notwithstanding  this  precipitate  retreat,  they  evinced  their  high  discipline, 
by  maintaining  their  ranks  and  keeping  possession  of  every  piece  of  their 
artillery. 

On  the  same  day  that  this  action  took  place,  April  20th,  the  Archduke 
pressed  his  attack  upon  Ratisbon.  That  town,  commanding  the  only 
stone  bridge  over  the  Danube  below  Ulm,  was  at  all  times  a  point  of  con- 
sequence, and  was  now  eminently  so  from  the  position  of  the  Austrian 
forces.  The  assault  was  made  on  two  sides  of  the  town  at  once  ;  and 
although  the  slender  garrison  of  three  thousand  men  left  by  Davoust,  de- 
fended themselves  bravely  for  a  time  ;  they  were  forced  to  yield  to  the 
great  preponderance  of  numbers,  and  surrendered  at  discretion. 

After  the  defeat  of  the  four  Austrian  divisions,  Napoleon  proposed  to 
throw  himself  on  the  communications  of  the  Archduke ;  but,  to  conceal 
his  movements  he  sent  Davoust  against  Ratisbon,  with  a  force  sufficient 
to  command  the  Archduke's  notice,  while  he  in  person  pushed  forward 
toward  Landshut,  whither  the  columns  of  Hiller  and  the  Archduke  Louis 
were  retreating.  He  overtook  these  troops  on  the  21st,  routed  and  drove 
them  through  Landshut,  made  himself  master  of  that  town,  and  inflicted 
a  loss  on  the  Austrians  of  nearly  six  thousand  men,  of  whom  the  greater 
part  were  prisoners,  together  with  twenty-five  pieces  of  cannon,  and  a 
large  quantity  of  baggage  and  ammunition.  Davoust,  in  the  meantime, 
had  made  his  demonstration  against  the  Archduke  at  Ratisbon,  where  a 

24* 


256  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXX. 

serious  action  ensued,  and  each  party  suffered  a  loss  of  nearly  three 
thousand  men;  the.  battle  was  terminated  by  the  approach  of  night,  and 
both  armies  remained  on  the  field  ;  but  as  Davoust  had  accomplished  his 
purpose  of  diverting  the  Archduke's  attention  from  Napoleon's  movement, 
he  with  reason  claimed  the  advantages  of  a  victory. 

As  a  general  action  between  the  Archduke  and  Napoleon  now  became 
inevitable,  both  commanders  prepared  themselves  for  the  contest ;  but  there 
was  this  essential  difference  in  their  respective  arrangements :  Napoleon 
concentrated  his  troops  into  one  mass ;  while  the  Archduke,  ignorant  of 
the  numbers  opposed  to  him,  divided  his  army  into  two  equal  corps,  dis- 
patched one  of  them  under  Kollowrath  and  Lichtenstein,  on  the  road  to 
Echmul,  and  himself  retained  command  of  the  other  in  front  of  Ratisbon. 
Thus  one  half  of  his  army,  forty  thousand  strong,  led  by  Kollowrath  and 
Lichtenstein,  was  to  contend  with  more  than  seventy-five  thousand 
French  troops,  flushed  with  victory,  and  animated  by  the  Emperor's 
presence. 

The  battle  commenced  at  noonday,  on  the  22nd  of  April,  by  an  attack 
on  the  Austrian  left  wing,  followed  by  a  movement  against  the  centre,  at 
Echmul.  The  charge  on  the  left  was  successful,  and  that  portion  of  the 
Imperialist  army  fell  back  with  severe  loss  and  some  confusion  ;  but  the 
centre  stood  firm  in  spite  of  every  effort  of  Napoleon,  until  a  division  of 
reserve,  taking  advantage  of  the  discomfiture  of  the  left  wing,  assailed  it 
in  flank,  when  it  retired  in  good  order.  The  Austrian  right  had,  in  the 
meantime,  held  its  ground,  though  assailed  by  superior  numbers  both  in 
front  and  rear;  but  when,  by  the  defeat  of  the  centre  and  left,  the  whole 
French  line  was  enabled  to  act  against  this  remaining  division,  it  also 
gave  way  and  joined  the  retreat  toward  Ratisbon.  The  Archduke  now 
endeavored  to  protect  the  army,  which  his  imprudence  had  exposed  to 
such  disaster ;  and,  pressing  forward  his  cuirassiers,  interposed  a  pow- 
erful barrier  between  his  own  troops  and  the  pursuing  columns  of  the 
enemy.  The  French  light-horse  were  quickly  dispersed  ;  but  Napo- 
leon's cuirassiers  soon  came  up,  and  the  two  rival  divisions,  equally 
brave  and  equally  disciplined,  engaged  in  mortal  combat.  So  vehement 
was  their  onset,  and  so  nearly  matched  was  the  strength  of  the  combat- 
ants, both  armies,  as  if  by  mutual  consent,  suspended  their  fire  to  await 
its  issue  :  the  roar  of  musketry  subsided,  the  heavy  booming  of  the  artil- 
lery ceased,  and  from  the  melee  no  sound  was  heard  but  the  clang  of  sa- 
bres, ringing  on  the  helmets  and  breast-plates  of  this  redoubtable  cavalry; 
and  when  the  sun  went  down,  the  darkness  was  illumined  by  the  myriads 
of  sparks  that  flew  from  their  swords  and  armor.  Victory  at  length  de- 
clared in  favor  of  the  French,  and  the  Austrian  cuirassiers,  after  leaving 
two-thirds  of  their  number  on  the  field,  retreated  to  Ratisbon.  But  their 
heroic  efforts,  however  fatal  to  themselves,  saved  the  Austrian  army. 
During  the  engagement,  the  artillery  and  infantry  withdrew  unmolested 
to  the  rear,  and  Napoleon,  fearful  of  falling  into  some  disaster  by  a  fur- 
ther pursuit  in  the  night,  reluctantly  gave  orders  to  the  army  to  halt  and 
bivouac  on  the  ground  they  occupied. 

The  situation  of  the  Archduke  became  now  very  critical  :  he  was 
threatened  in  front  by  the  victorious  army  of  Napoleon,  and  the  Danube, 
traversed  by  a  single  bridge,  lay  in  his  rear.  The  arrival  of  ree'nforce- 
ments  had  raised  his  numbers  to  eighty  thousand  men  ;  but  he  feared  to 
hazard  another  battle  in  such  a  position,  as,  in  case  of  disaster,  he  had  no 


1809.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  257 

means  of  retreat.  He  had  lost  five  thousand  men  in  killed  and  wounded, 
and  seven  thousand  prisoners,  in  the  battle  of  Echmul,  besides  twelve 
standards  and  sixteen  pieces  of  cannon  ;  and  although  Lichtenstein's 
corps  more  than  replaced  those  losses,  the  spirits  of  his  whole  army  were 
depressed  by  reverses  and  fatigue.  Besides,  the  French  guards  under 
Oudinot,  had  just  arrived  from  Spain,  and  Massena's  corps,  which  had  not 
yet  been  engaged  at  all,  would  come  into  action  with  the  efficiency  of 
fresh  troops.  Influenced  by  these  circumstances,  he  resolved  to  retire 
immediately,  and  restore  the  courage  and  discipline  of  his  men  by 
repose  in  Bohemia,  before  again  undertaking  active  operations.  He 
threw  a  bridge  of  boats  over  the  Danube,  and  by  that  and  the  bridge  of 
Ratisbon,  the  troops  defiled  without  intermission,  through  the  whole  night. 
This  movement  was  executed  with  such  expedition  and  order,  that  before 
nine  o'clock,  on  the  following  morning,  not  only  the  great  body  of  the 
soldiers,  but  all  the  guns,  baggage  and  ammunition  wagons  were  safely 
disposed  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river. 

As  soon  as  Napoleon  discovered  that  the  Austrians  had  escaped  him, 
he  ordered  a  violent  attack  on  their  rear-guard,  which  had  now  retired 
within  the  walls  of  Ratisbon,  closed  the  gates  and  manned  the  ramparts 
to  check  his  pursuit.  He  himself  reached  the  scene  of  action  at  noon, 
and,  in  his  anxiety  to  press  the  assault,  approached  so  near  the  town  that 
a  musket  ball  struck  him  on  the  foot.  The  pain  occasioned  by  the  shot 
forced  him  to  dismount ;  and  for  the  moment,  a  belief  that  he  was  danger- 
ously wounded,  created  some  confusion  in  the  ranks ;  but  after  his  foot 
had  been  hastily  dressed,  he  mounted  his  horse  again,  and  the  soldiers 
with  loud  cheers  returned  to  the  attack.  The  defences  of  the  town  could 
not  long  withstand  the  whole  French  army,  and  Ratisbon  soon  fell  into 
their  hands  ;  but  the  steadiness  of  the  Hungarian  grenadiers  and  artillery 
resisted  every  attempt  to  cross  the  bridge,  and  the  French  head-quarters 
were  for  the  night  established  under  the  walls  at  the  convent  of  Prull. 

Twelve  days  only  had  elapsed,  since  Napoleon  left  Paris;  yet  within 
that  time,  he  had  reassembled  his  army  from  its  imprudent  dispersion  by 
Berthier,  fought  the  Austrians  in  several  battles,  separated  Hiller  and  the 
Archduke  Louis  from  the  Archduke  Charles,  thrown  the  two  former  back 
on  the  Inn,  but  with  forces  too  inconsiderable  to  cover  Vienna,  and  driven 
the  latter  to  a  retreat  toward  the  Bohemian  mountains.  Thirty  thousand 
Austrians  had  fallen  or  been  made  prisoners  in  the  various  engagements; 
a  hundred  pieces  of  cannon,  six  hundred  ammunition  wagons,  and  an  im- 
mense quantity  of  baggage  had  been  taken,  and  the  road  to  Vienna  now 
lay  open  to  the  conqueror.  The  losses  of  the  French  amounted  to  twenty 
thousand  men. 

Yet,  although  these  brilliant  triumphs  attended  the  arms  of  Napoleon, 
where  he  commanded  in  person,  the  war  assumed  a  different  aspect  in 
other  quarters  ;  and  it  already  became  manifest,  that  the  invincible  vete- 
rans of  the  Republic  were  wearing  out,  and  that  the  conscripts  of  the 
Empire  were  in  no  respect  superior  to  the  improved  and  invigorated 
troops  opposed  to  them.  Hiller,  who  had  retired  to  the  Inn  after  the  dis- 
aster of  Landshut,  finding  that  he  was  not  pressed  by  the  French,  but 
that  Napoleon  had  moved  in  another  direction,  determined  to  take  ven- 
geance on  the  Bavarians,  by  whom  he  had  been  somewhat  incautiously 
pursued.  He  therefore  turned  upon  a  corps  of  those  troops  under 
Wrede,  who,  with  the  French  reserve  of  Bessieres,  were  advancing  be- 


258  H  I  S  T  O  R  Y     O  F     E  U  R  0  P  E  .  [CHAP.  XXX. 

yond  the  defile  of  Neumarck,  and  had  taken  post  on  the  heights  of  St. 
Verti.  The  Bavarians  at  first  made  a  stout  resistance,  but  they  were 
soon  overpowered,  and  though  Molitor  came  up  to  their  support  with  some 
regiments  of  the  Imperial  Guard,  he,  too,  was  compelled  to  retreat  with 
considerable  loss. 

A  more  serious  disaster  about  the  same  time  b-fell  the  Viceroy  Eu- 
gene Beauharnois,  on  the  plains  of  Italy,  where  the  Archduke  John 
moved  against  him  with  forty  eight  thousand  men.  His  own  forces,  en- 
camped at  Sacile,  did  not  exceed  forty-five  thousand.  The  Archduke 
commenced  the  attack  at  noon,  on  the  16th  of  April ;  and  after  the  action 
had  been  maintained  for  some  hours  with  nearly  equal  fortune,  Eugene's 
troops  fell  into  confusion,  broke  their  ranks,  and  fled  in  the  greatest  dis- 
order toward  the  Adige :  but  for  the  intervention  of  night  his  whole  army 
would  have  been  destroyed.  His  loss  was  eight  thousand  men,  in  killed, 
wounded,  and  prisoners,  besides  fifteen  pieces  of  cannon  ;  while  the  Aus- 
trians'  killed  and  wounded  was  something  less  than  four  thousand. 

The  Archduke  Charles,  finding  that  Napoleon  was  resolved  to  push 
forward  to  Vienna,  ordered  Hiller  to  retard  the  advance  by  all  possible 
means,  recalled  the  Archduke  John  from  Italy,  and  himself  formed  a 
junction  with  Bellegarde.  The  French  Emperor  arrived  at  Braunau  on 
the  1st  of  May,  and  hastened  to  the  utmost  the  march  of  his  troops,  while 
Hiller  took  post  at  Ebersbenr  to  defend  the  passage  of  the  Traun,  and 
cover  the  wooden  bridge  at  Mauthausen.  When  the  French  reached  the 
left  bank  of  the  Traun,  beyond  Scharlentz  and  in  front  of  Ebersberg, 
they  found  their  progress  arrested  by 'the  most  formidable  obstacles. 
Before  them  lay  the  bed  of  the  impetuous  Traun,  nearly  eight  hundred 
yards  broad,  intersected  by  sand-banks  and  islands,  and  traversed  by  a 
causeway  terminating  in  a  bridge  three  hundred  yards  long,  over  the 
largest  arm  of  the  river.  The  bridge,  closed  at  its  western  extremity  by 
the  gate  of  Ebersberg,  was  commanded  by  musketeers  posted  in  the 
houses  of  the  town,  and  by  an  array  of  artillery  disposed  on  the  adjoining 
heights.  The  hills  next  the  river  were  covered  with  infantry,  interspersed 
with  powerful  batteries ;  and  beyond  these  rose  a  more  elevated  range  of 
heights,  clothed  with  pines  and  traversed  by  a  single  road. 

It  required  no  ordinary  resolution,  to  attack  thirty-five  thousand  men 
in  such  a  position  supported  by  eighty  pieces  of  cannon  ;  but  Massena, 
who  led  the  advanced  guard  of  the  army,  and  burned  with  a  desire  to 
illustrate  his  name  by  some  brilliant  exploit  in  a  campaign  where  hith- 
erto he  had  lacked  opportunity  to  distinguish  himself,  resolved  to  hazard 
an  assault.  He  at  first  drove  in  the  Austrian  outposts  on  the  right  bank, 
without  much  difficulty;  but  when  his  columns  reached  the  long  bridge, 
they  were  swept  down  by  such  a  storm  of  musket  balls  and  grape  shot, 
that  they  fell  back  in  dismay.  General  Cohorn  immediately  led  a  column 
of  fresh  troops  to  the  head  of  the  bridge  ;  and  although  these,  in  turn, 
were  struck  down  by  hundreds,  they  still  advanced  with  desperate  reso- 
lution up  to  the  gate  of  Ebersberg,  where  they  were  nearly  all  destroyed. 
Ne  'ertheless,  as  the  passage  was  thus  shown  to  be  practicable,  though 
at  L  ruinous  loss,  Massena  pushed  forward  column  after  column  to  the 
scene  of  slaughter ;  the  gate  was  assailed  by  troops  who  seemed  utterly 
reckless  of  life,  and  in  the  mean  time,  a  powerful  detachment  had  pressed 
around  to  the  rear  of  the  town.  The  gate  was  speedily  forced,  the  batte- 
ries silenced,  arid  the  town  taken  ;  while  Hiller,  yielding  at  first  to  the  lire- 


1809.1  II  I  S  T  O  R  Y     O  F     E  U  R  O  P  E  .  259 

sistible  valor,  and  afterward  to  the  overwhelming  numbers  of  the  whole 
French  army,  retired  in  good  order,  disputing  every  foot  of  ground,  until 
the  approach  of  night  brought  the  battle  to  a  close.  He  then  withdrew 
to  Etins,  burned  the  bridge  of  the  river  of  that  name,  and  retreated  to- 
ward Amstetten.  In  this  terrible  conflict  few  trophies  remained  to  the 
victors;  they  captured  four  guns  and  two  standards,  and  the  loss  in 
killed  and  wounded  on  each  side,  amounted  to  six  thousand  men. 

As  Hiller  was  unable  after  this  defe.it  to  resist  the  French  advance, 
he  continued  his  retreat  to  the  neighborhood  of  Vienna  ;  while  Napoleon, 
uninformed  of  the  Archduke's  movements  and  fearful  of  penetrating  into 
the  country  without  knowing  the  position  of  his  principal  antagonist, 
halted  for  two  days  at  Enns,  where  he  reestablished  the  bridge,  and  col- 
lected a  number  of  boats,  which  he  already  foresaw  would  be  required  for 
crossing  the  Danube  in  front  of  the  capital.  On  the  8th  of  May,  he  re- 
sumed his  march,  and  on  the  10th,  the  French  eagles  with  the  leading 
columns  of  the  army  appeared  before  the  walls  of  Vienna.  For  a  time, 
the  Archduke  Maximilian,  who  had  command  of  the  city,  thought  of 
attempting  its  defence  ;  but  the  project  was  soon  abandoned,  and  he  with- 
drew his  troops  to  the  north  across  the  bridge  of  Thabor,  which  he  after- 
ward burned.  As,  however,  the  town  made  a  show  of  resistance,  Napo- 
leon ordered  a  bombardment  to  be  commenced,  when  General  O'Reilly 
sent  proposals  for  a  capitulation.  The  terms  were  soon  arranged,  and 
were  ratified  on  the  morning  of  the  13th  of  May.  The  security  of  pri- 
vate property  of  every  description  was  guarantied,  and  the  arsenal  with 
all  the  public  stores  were  surrendered  to  the  victors. 

The  French  troops  took  possession  of  the  gates  at  noonday,  on  the 
13th,  and  at  that  time  the  positions  of  several  corps  of  the  army  were  as 
follows:  the  corps  of  Lannes,  with  four  divisions  of  cuirassiers  of  the 
reserve  cavalry,  and  all  the  Imperial  Guard,  was  stationed  at  Vienna; 
Massena  lay  between  Vienna  and  the  Simmering,  his  advanced  posts 
occupying  the  Prater  and  watching  the  banks  of  the  Danube  ;  Davoust 
was  advancing  in  echelon,  along  the  margin  of  that  river,  between  Ebers- 
berg  and  St.  Polten,  having  his  head-quarters  at  Melk;  Vandamme,  with 
the  Wirtemberg  troops,  guarded  the  bridge  of  Lintz  ;  and  Bernadotte, 
with  the  Saxons  and  other  troops  of  the  Confederation,  about  thirty 
thousand  strong,  had  arrived  at  Passau,  and  was  moving  on  to  form  the 
reserve  of  the  army,  which,  independently  of  his  forces  and  those  of  Le- 
febvre  in  the  Tyrol,  numbered  a  hundred  thousand  men. 

While  such  was  the  posture  of  affairs  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Austrian 
capital,  the  Archduke  Charles  was  making  his  way  toward  the  same 
quarter,  but  with  a  tardiness  which,  to  this  day,  remains  wholly  unex- 
plained. After  learning  Napoleon's  march  toward  Vienna,  he  moved 
upon  Budweiss,  forty  leagues  northwest  of  the  capital,  and  arrived  there 
on  the  3rd  of  May  ;  on  the  4th,  he  received  intelligence  of  Hiller's  defeat 
at  Ebersberg,  which  left  the  road  open  for  the  French  advance  ;  and  yet 
he  remained  totally  inactive  at  Budweiss  for  three  days.  At  length,  on 
the  morning  of  the  8th,  he  marched  to  intercept  the  progress  of  the  in- 
vaders ;  but  his  previous  delay  rendered  his  present  haste  unavailing, 
and  with  the  utmost  efforts,  his  advanced  guard  could  not  reach  Hiller's 
position  until  the  evening  of  the  15th,  when  Napoleon  was  securely  estab- 
lished in  Vienna. 

On  the  29th  of  April,  the  Archduke  John,  in  conformity  to  the  orders 


260  HIS  TORY     OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXX 

he  had  received,  broke  up  from  his  position  on  the  Adige,  to  unite  with 
the  Austrian  grand  army  for  the  defence  of  the  capital.  But  he  was  so 
warmly  pursued  by  Eugene  Beauharnois,  and  conducted  his  retreat  so  in- 
differently, that  the  viceroy  was  enabled  to  cut  off  a  large  portion  of  his 
troops,  take  his  artillery,  and  capture  a  number  of  important  fortresses 
on  the  route ;  in  addition  to  which  disasters,  he  was  eventually  forced 
into  the  plains  of  Hungary,  and  thereby  prevented  from  taking  any  im- 
mediate part  in  the  important  events  about  to  occur  near  Vienna. 

The  eyes  of  all  Europe  were  now  turned  to  the  banks  of  the  Danube, 
near  Vienna,  where  two  armies,  each  a  hundred  thousand  strong,  pre- 
pared for  a  deadly,  and,  to  all  appearance,  a  final  conflict.  The  Danube, 
as  it  approaches  the  Austrian  capital,  swells  into  a  wide  expanse,  and  em- 
braces several  islands  in  its  course :  some  of  these  are  large  and  highly 
cultivated,  but  the  greater  part  are  small  and  covered  with  woods.  The 
island  of  Prater,  with  its  beautiful  shady  avenues  and  recesses,  and  that 
of  Lobau,  with  its  rich  inclosures,  are  the  most  considerable :  the  latter 
is  nearly  three  miles  in  length,  by  two  in  breadth,  and  the  space  between 
it  and  the  southern  bank  of  the  stream,  is  studded  by  several  smaller 
islands.  It  was  at  this  point  that  Napoleon  resolved  to  force  a  passage 
across  the  Danube,  and  the  whole  army  was  occupied  for  some  days  in 
the  undertaking :  at  length,  everything  being  in  readiness,  a  strong  de- 
tachment embarked  in  boats  and  effected  a  landing  at  Lobau.  The 
troops  now  readily  established  a  bridge  from  the  southern  shore  to  that 
island  ;  they  next  threw  a  pontoon  train  across  to  the  northern  bank,  and 
on  the  morning  of  the  21st,  forty  thousand  men  had  defiled  to  the  oppo- 
site side  of  the  river,  and  established  themselves  in  front  of  the  Austrian 
position. 

The  Archduke  Charles  had,  in  the  meantime,  remained  with  the 
greater  part  of  his  army  on  the  heights  of  Bisamberg,  carefully  observ- 
ing the  French  movements,  and  offering  no  obstacle  to  their  progress  ;  but 
resolved,  the  moment  a  sufficient  number  should  have  crossed  the  river 
and  become  temporarily  separated  from  the  support  of  the  main  army,  to 
fall  upon  them  with  his  whole  force.  He  also  sent  instructions  to  Kol- 
lowrath,  Nordman,  and  other  officers  in  command  farther  up  the  river, 
to  collect  boats  with  combustible  materials,  and  float  them  down  to  de- 
stroy the  enemy's  bridge.  At  twelve  o'clock,  on  the  21st,  he  gave  the 
signal  to  advance,  and  his  troops,  with  loud  shouts,  rushed  from  their  ele- 
vated encampment  toward  the  French  position. 

The  termination  of  the  pontoon  bridge  rested  on  the  plain  of  Marchfield, 
and  on  either  side  of  this  open  space  were  the  two  villages  of  Aspern  and 
Essling,  each  distant  half  a  mile  from  the  river.  The  houses  of  these 
villages  were  built  of  stone,  chiefly  two  stories  in  height,  and  surrounded 
by  inclosures  and  garden  walls,  so  that  they  were  capable  of  an  obsti- 
nate defence. 

Aspern,  into  which  Massena  had  not  with  sufficient  promptitude  thrown 
an  adequate  garrison,  was  at  first  carried  by  Hiller's  advanced  guard  ; 
but  Molitor  came  up  with  his  whole  division  and  not  only  retook  it,  but 
pursued  the  Austrian  detachment,  until  the  advance  of  Hohenzollern 
drove  him  in  turn  back  to  the  village;  and  as  Hiller's  column  rapidly 
followed  on,  a  desperate  combat  ensued  there.  The  Austrian  infantry, 
the  Hungarian  grenadiers,  and  the  volunteer  corps  of  Vienna,  strove  to 
outdo  each  other  in  feats  of  daring  and  valor;  while  the  several  divis- 


1809.]  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  261 

ions  of  Massena's  corps,  fighting  under  the  veteran  marshal's  eye,  bravely 
sustained  every  attack,  and  from  the  streets,  gardens,  windows  and  house- 
tops, kept  up  a  murderous  fire  on  their  assailants.  Hour  after  hour  the 
battle  raged,  and  when  the  sun  went  down,  the  scene  of  strife  was  illu- 
minated by  the  burning  houses:  at  eleven  o'clock,  the  Austrians  finally 
prevailed,  and  the  village  remained  in  their  hands  for  the  night. 

The  plain  between  Aspern  and  Essling,  had  also  been  the  scene  of  a 
desperate  battle.  The  Austrian  artillery  were  posted  in  great  strength 
in  this  open  field,  and  the  French  columns  were  so  galled  on  all  sides 
by  the.ir  tremendous  fire,  that  Napoleon  ordered  a  general  charge  of 
cavalry  to  dislodge  them.  The  light-horse  of  the  Guard  first  undertook 
this  service,  but  they  were  easily  repulsed.  The  cuirassiers  followed 
next,  but  the  Hungarian  grenadiers  formed  squares  around  the  guns,  and 
by  their  sustained  volleys  of  musketry,  stretched  nearly  one  half  of  those 
terrible  cavaliers  on  the  plain 

The  attack  on  Essling,  though  not  less  bloody  than  the  battle  in  the 
other  parts  of  the  field,  was  more  successfully  resisted,  and  at  nightfall 
the  village  remained  in  possession  of  the  French  troops. 

The  night  was  consumed  in  the  most  strenuous  efforts  on  both  sides  to 
repair  their  losses,  by  bringing  forward  reinforcements ;  and  as  soon  as 
the  first  gray  of  the  summer's  dawn  shed  a  doubtful  light  over  the  field 
on  the  22nd,  the  Austrian  columns  under  Rosenberg  renewed  the  attack 
on  Essling,  and  at  the  same  time,  Massena  came  forward  in  force  to 
reconquer  Aspern.  Both  assaults  were  attended  with  varied  success. 
Aspern  yielded  to  the  impetuosity  of  Massena's  charge,  while  the  Arch- 
duke's grenadiers  carried  Essling  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet,  and  forced 
the  enemy  back  almost  to  the  banks  of  the  Danube.  The  battle  ra^ed 
with  the  utmost  fury  during  the  whole  day ;  Essling  was  at  length  retaken 
by  the  French,  and  Aspern,  after  having  been  captured  and  recaptured 
three  several  times,  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Austrians. 

In  the  meantime  Napoleon,  resolved  to  bring  this  murderous  contest  to 
a  conclusion,  ordered  an  attack  on  the  Austrian  centre  in  the  plain  of 
Marchfield.  The  whole  corps  of  Lannes  and  Oudinot,  together  with  the 
cuirassiers  and  the  Imperial  Guard  in  reserve,  moved  forward  in  echelon, 
preceded  by  a  powerful  train  of  artillery,  and  fell  with  irresistible  weight 
on  the  Austrian  line.  The  dense  columns  of  Lannes  pressed  through  the 
ranks  of  their  opponents  and  threw  some  battalions  into  confusion,  while 
the  cuirassiers,  rushing  on  with  loud  shouts,  threatened  to  disorder  the 
whole  Imperialist  army.  But  at  this  critical  moment,  the  Archduke 
proved  himself  equal  to  the  emergency.  He  directed  the  reserve  gren- 
adiers, under  the  prince  of  Reuss,  to  be  formed  in  squares,  and  the 
dragoons  of  Lichtenstein  to  take  post  behind  them;  and  then,  seizing 
with  his  own  hand  the  standard  of  Zach's  corps,  which  was  beginning  to 
falter,  he  addressed  a  few  energetic  words  to  the  men  and  led  them  back 
to  the  charge.  The  soldiers,  thus  reanimated,  held  their  ground ;  the 
column  of  Lannes  was  arrested,  and  the  squares  among  which  it  had  pen- 
etrated,  poured  in  upon  it  destructive  volleys  from  all  sides,  while  the 
Austrian  batteries,  playing  at  half  musket  shot,  caused  a  frightful  carnage 
in  the  deep  masses  of  the  French  troops.  The  cuirassiers  made  desperate 
efforts  to  retrieve  the  day,  but  their  squadrons  were  decimated  by  mus- 
ketry, and  at  length  driven  off  the  field  by  an  impetuous  charge  of 
Liechtenstein's  dragoons. 


262  HISTORY     OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXX. 

Hohenzollern  now  rushed  forward,  and  with  a  powerful  division  as- 
sailed the  flank  of  the  French  columns,  which,  wholly  unable  to  resist 
this  fresh  attack,  fell  backward  in  the  direction  of  Essling:  at  the  same 
time,  intelligence  spread  through  the  ranks  of  both  armies,  that  the  flo- 
tilla directed  against  the  bridge  had  destroyed  that  portion  of  it  which 
connected  the  island  of  Lobau  with  the  southern  bank  of  the  river,  thus 
cutting  off  the  French  army  from  its  supplies  and  reserves.  At  this 
terrible  crisis,  Napoleon's  courage  did  not  forsake  him.  He  immediately 
ordered  a  retreat  over  the  remainder  of  the  bridge,  reaching  from  the 
northern  bank  to  Lobau,  and  pushed  forward  the  troops  that  had  been 
least  engaged  to  hold  the  Austrians  in  check  during  this  perilous  manoeu- 
vre. As  the  French  now  fought  not  to  conquer,  but  to  escape  their 
enemies,  the  Archduke  was  enabled  to  turn  his  advantages  of  position  to 
the  best  account,  and  press,  with  his  whole  reserve,  on  the  retiring  and 
discouraged  columns  of  Napoleon.  He  brought  forward  all  his  artillery, 
and,  by  disposing  the  guns  in  a  semicircular  line,  concentrated  their  iron 
storm  on  the  narrow  line  of  retreat,  so  that  the  slaughter  became  terrific ; 
and,  at  the  same  time,  his  grenadiers  and  cavalry,  by  repeated  charges 
on  the  indomitable  rear-guard,  rapidly  diminished  the  numbers,  though 
they  could  not  disorder  the  ranks  of  those  dauntless  veterans.  During 
this  scene  of  carnage,  Lannes  and  St.  Hilaire  were  both  mortally 
wounded.  The  fire  of  the  Austrian  batteries  was  maintained  until  past 
midnight,  when  the  last  of  the  French  troops  defiled  over  the  bridge,  fol- 
lowed by  the  remnants  of  the  invincible  rear-guard;  and  the  Archduke's 
soldiers,  exhausted  with  fatigue,  sunk  to  sleep  on  the  ground  beside 
their  guns. 

In  this  memorable  battle  of  Aspern,  the  first  great  action  in  which 
Napoleon  had  been  entirely  defeated,  the  French  loss  exceeded  thirty 
thousand  men,  and  that  of  the  Austrians  was  something  more  than  twenty 
thousand;  but  few  guns  or  prisoners  were  taken  on  either  side.  The 
Austrians  were  for  several  days  occupied  in  burying  the  dead,  and  the 
waters  of  the  Danube  were  for  an  equal  length  of  time  polluted  with 
the  floating  corses  of  the  combatants. 

The  situation  of  the  French  troops  on  the  island  of  Lobau,  during  the 
night  of  the  22nd,  was  truly  deplorable.  Cut  off  from  retreat  and  from 
their  communications  by  the  destruction  of  the  bridge,  menaced  by  a 
victorious  enemy,  destitute  of  ammunition  and  provisions,  and  threatened 
with  an  inundation  by  the  fast  rising  waters  of  the  Danube — an  escape  by 
boats  to  the  southern  bank,  together  with  an  abandonment  of  all  the 
wounded,  the  artillery  and  the  horses,  seemed  at  first  to  be  the  only 
alternative.  But,  although  this  measure  was  apparently  inevitable,  and 
as  such  was  strenuously  urged  by  Massena,  Davoust,  Berthier  and 
Oudinot,  Napoleon  determined  to  remain  and  convert  the  island  into  an 
impregnable  fortress,  whence  he  could  subsequently  strike  a  fatal  blow 
at  the  Austrian  army. 

In  pursuance  of  this  plan,  a  large  number  of  boats  from  the  southern 
shore  were  put  in  requisition ;  troops,  ammunition  and  provisions  were 
brought  across  to  Lobau,  fortifications  on  a  gigantic  scale  were  projected, 
and,  in  one  month,  not  only  were  the  works  on  the  island  capable  of 
resisting  any  attack  from  the  enemy,  but  three  solid  bridges  connected 
the  fortress  with  the  south  bank  of  the  Danube,  and  rendered  the  com- 
munication perfect  and  easy  between  them. 


CHAPTER    XXXI. 

FKOM  THE  CAMPAIGN  OF  WAGRAM  TO  THE  DETHRONEMENT  OF  THE  POPE. 

WHILE  Napoleon,  strongly  fortified  in  his  position  on  the  island  of 
Lobau,  was,  by  hostile  demonstrations,  leading  the  Austrians  to  believe 
that  he  intended  to  renew  the  attack  on  Aspern,  he  was  in  fact  secretly 
preparing  to  cross  the  river  at  a  lower  point,  where  the  passage  was  less 
cautiously  guarded,  and  whence  he  could,  with  little  opposition,  fall  sud- 
denly on  the  flank  and  rear  of  the  Austrian  encampment.  In  the  mean- 
time,  the  Archduke  Charles,  to  resist  the  assault  which  he  supposed  was 
to  be  made  on  Aspern,  erected  a  vast  line  of  intrenchments,  running  from 
that  village  across  the  late  battle-field,  through  Essling,  and  terminating 
on  the  bank  of  the  Danube.  These  works  consisted  of  field  redoubts  and 
ravelins  united  by  a  curtain,  strengthened  along  their  front  by  palisades, 
and  armed  with  a  hundred  and  fifty  pieces  of  heavy  artillery. 

Behind  this  formidable  barrier,  the  Austrian  commander  awaited  Na- 
poleon's movements,  and  at  the  same  time,  made  great  exertions  to  recruit 
the  numbers  and  condition  of  his  army.  By  the  end  of  June,  nearly  a 
hundred  and  forty  thousand  men,  with  seven  hundred  pieces  of  cannon, 
were  assembled  under  his  orders,  though  not  yet  concentrated  to  act  upon 
one  field:  the  Prince  of  Reuss  guarded  the  line  of  the  Danube  from 
Stockerau  to  Vienna,  having  his  head-quarters  at  Stammersdorf;  Kol- 
lowrath  lay  at  Hagenbrunn,  on  the  northwestern  slope  of  the  Bisarnberg ; 
the  reserve  of  grenadiers  were  posted  at  Gerarsdorf ;  Klenau  occupied 
the  intrenchments  opposite  the  bridge  at  Aspern ;  Nordman,  with  the 
advanced  guard,  at  Enzersdorf,  watched  the  course  of  the  Danube  as  far 
asPresburg;  Bellegarde,  Hohenzollern  and  Rosenberg  were  at  Wagram 
and  along  the  bank  of  the  Russbach ;  and  the  reserve  cavalry  awaited 
orders  at  Breitenlee,  Aderklaa,  and  the  villages  in  that  neighborhood. 
Thus,  the  Archduke's  army  formed  two  lines :  the  first  stretching  twenty 
leagues  along  the  course  of  the  Danube  :  the  second,  two  leagues  in  the 
rear,  resting  on  the  plateau  of  Wagram  and  the  heights  of  the  Russbach. 
The  Archduke  John  lay  at  Presburg,  ten  leagues  from  Wagram,  with 
forty  thousand  men,  whose  numbers  are  not  included  in  the  preceding 
estimate  of  the  Austrian  forces ;  and,  with  a  view  to  bring  him  into  com- 
munication with  the  grand  army  for  a  general  action,  which  was  now 
seen  to  be  at  hand,  the  Archduke  Charles  dispatched  a  courier  to  Pres- 
burg on  the  evening  of  July  4th,  urging  him  to  press  on  by  a  forced 
march  toward  Aspern. 

On  the  2nd  of  July,  Napoleon,  who  had  remained  for  a  time  at  Schoen- 
brunn,  rode  to  Lobau  and  there  established  his  head-quarters.  On  the 
same  day,  his  reinforcements  began  to  arrive.  First,  came  Bernadotte 
with  the  Saxons  from  the  bank  of  the  Elbe;  then,  Vandamme  came 
with  the  Wirtembergers  and  troops  of  the  Confederation  from  Svvabia 
and  the  Rhenish  provinces;  after  him.  followed  Wrede  with  the  Bava- 
rians from  the  Lech,  Macdonald  and  Broussier  from.  Carinthia  and 
Carniola,  Marmont  from  Dalmatia,  and  Eugene  Beauharnois  from  Hun- 
gary. By  the  evening  of  the  4th,  their  numbers  amounted  to  no  less 

19 


26 1  HISTORY    OF     EUROPE.  [Cnxr.  XXXI. 

than  a  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  men,  with  seven  hundred  ind  fifty 
pieces  of  cannon,  concentrated  in.  one  mass,  commanded  by  one  general- 
in-chief,  and  prepared  to  act  in  concert  on  a  single  field  of  battle. 

As  soon  as  the  junction  of  the  several  corps  was  completed,  Napoleon 
ordered  his  batteries  in  front  of  Aspern  to  open  their  fire,  as  if  to  cover  a 
landing  at  that  point ;  and  the  moment  that  this  demonstration,  together 
with  the  approach  of  night,  had  sufficiently  arrested  the  attention  of  the 
Archduke,  the  Emperor  took  his  station  on  horseback,  at  the  lower  ex- 
tremity of  the  island,  where  the  passage  was  in  fact  to  be  attempted,  and 
by  his  personal  exertions  hastened  forward  the  movement.  In  the  short 
space  of  ten  minutes,  three  bridges,  previously  prepared  in  huge  single 
sections,  were  thrown  across  the  branch  of  the  river,  and  soon  after  mid- 
night, three  more  were  added  to  these,  making  six  in  all,  over  which  the 
troops  defiled  with  such  rapidity  that  before  seven  o'clock  on  the  morn- 
ing of  the  5th,  the  entire  French  force,  with  the  principal  part  of  the 
artillery,  stood  on  the  northern  bank  of  the  Danube.  The  Archduke 
was  astounded  when,  early  in  the  day,  he  took  a  survey  of  the  enemy's 
position,  and,  instead  of  beholding  the  French  mustered  in  great  strength 
at  the  bridge  of  Aspern,  descried  an  enormous  black  mass  of  troops  on 
the  plain  near  Enzersdorf.  He  saw  at  a  glance  that  his  lines  were 
turned,  that  his  intrenchments,  constructed  with  so  much  labor,  were 
valueless,  and  that  a  retreat  could  alone  enable  him  to  maintain  his  com- 
munications, and  give  or  receive  battle  with  advantage.  He  therefore 
immediately  called  in  his  outposts ;  and  his  centre,  with  a  celerity  rival- 
ling the  manoeuvres  of  the  French  soldiers,  fell  back  in  good  order  to  the 
plateau  of  Wagram. 

This  plateau  consists  of  an  elevated  plain,  in  the  form  of  a  vast  par- 
allelogram, rising  at  a  distance  of  four  miles  from  the  Danube,  and 
stretching  thence  some  miles  to  the  north.  The  villages  of  Wagram  and 
Neusiedel  occupy  the  two  southern  angles  of  this  plain,  the  Russbach 
runs  along  its  southern  front,  and  half  a  mile  to  the  south,  opposite  the 
centre  of  the  position,  lies  the  village  of  Baumersdorf.  Beyond  the 
plateau,  the  Austrian  lines  extended  over  a  ridge  of  heights  to  the  west, 
as  far  as  Stammersdorf. 

The  French  army  was  drawn  up  in  one  line  on  the  bank  of  the  river, 
and  when  the  order  was  given  -to  advance,  the  several  corps  moved 
forward  in  a  curve,  spreading  like  the  folds  of  a  fan  to  the  north,  east 
and  west.  Massena,  on  the  left,  marched  toward  Essling  and  Aspern  ; 
Rernadotte  toward  Aderklaa;  Eugene  and  Oudinot  between  Wagram  and 
Baumersdorf;  Davoust  and  Grouchy,  on  the  right,  in  the  direction  of 
Glingendorf,  and  the  corps  of  Wrede,  Marmont  and  the  Imperial  Guards 
formed  a  reserve  under  the  Emperor  in  person. 

At  six  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  Napoleon,  having  ascertained  that  the 
Archduke  John  had  not  arrived,  resolved  to  take  advantage  of  his  great 
superiority  of  numbers,  and  attack  immediately ;  for  he  had  grouped  in 
his  centre  nearly  a  hundred  thousand  men,  including  the  reserves,  while 
the  Austrian  force  on  the  plateau  did  not  exceed  sixty  thousand.  Pow- 
erful batteries  were  accordingly  brought  up,  which  opened  a  severe  fire 
on  the  Imperialist  line ;  but  the  Archduke's  guns,  placed  on  higher  ground, 
replied  with  much  greater  effect.  Oudinot's  corps  came  first  into  action. 
He  attacked  Baumersdorf,  which  was  gallantly  defended  by  General 
Hardegg ;  and,  with  such  obstinacy  did  the  latter  maintain  his  ground 


1809.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  265 

Oudinot  was  unable  to  force  the  village,  carry  the  bridges,  or  cross  the 
stream  on  either  side  in  the  rear.  Eugene  came  next  in  order,  and  as- 
sailed the  village  of  Wagram;  but  the  moment  that  his  column  reached 
the  summit  of  the  heights,  it  was  staggered  by  a  murderous  discharge  of 
grap-o  from  sixty  Austrian  guns  at  half  musket-shot.  Macdonald,  Dupas 
and  Lamarque  pressed  forward  to  sustain  the  wavering  troops ;  and  with 
this  preponderance  of  force,  they  at  length  broke  the  Austrian  line,  took 
five  standards  and  made  two  thousand  men  prisoners.  At  this  crisis,  the 
Archduke  hastened  to  the  spot  with  the  regiments  of  Zach,  Vogelsang  and 
D'Erlach,  and  arrested  the  French  columns,  while  Hohenzollern  charged 
vigorously  on  its  right  flank.  The  struggle  was  violent  for  a  few  mo- 
ments; but  it  ended  in  the  repulse  of  the  French,  who,  driven  headlong 
down  the  steep,  fled  in  confusion  across  the  Russbach.  It  was  now 
nearly  dark,  and  the  corps  of  Saxons  under  Bernadotte,  who  came  to  the 
aid  of  the  routed  columns,  mistook  the  retreating  host  for  the  Austrians, 
fired  upon  them  as  such,  and  in  a  moment  were  themselves  overwhelmed 
by  the  fugitives.  The  disorder  became  so  great  and  so  contagious,  that 
it  spread  even  to  the  Emperor's  tent;  and,  during  the  melee,  the  two 
thousand  Austrian  prisoners  escaped,  the  five  standards  were  recaptured, 
and  two  French  eagles  were  taken.  Indeed,  had  the  Archduke  been 
fully  aware  of  the  extent  of  the  panic,  and  followed  up  his  success  with 
a  large  body  of  fresh  troops,  he  might  have  destroyed  the  French  army. 
But,  ignorant  of  the  prodigious  effect  of  his  partial  attack,  he  at  eleven 
o'clock  sounded  a  retreat,  and  his  men  fell  back  to  their  original  positions. 

The  brilliant  success  of  this  action  induced  the  Austrian  commander 
to  change  his  plan  and  prepare  to  assume  the  offensive.  At  two  o'clock 
on  the  morning  of  the  6th,  he  dispatched  another  messenger  to  his  brother, 
the  Archduke  John,  who  was  then  at  Marchcheck,  thirteen  miles  from 
the  French  right  flank,  whence  he  might  with  ease  arrive  on  the  field 
early  in  the  day ;  and  his  appearance,  with  forty  thousand  fresh  troops, 
would  readily  decide  a  previously  hard-fought  battle.  With  a  view  to 
such  cooperation,  Prince  Charles  resolved  to  direct  his  principal  attack 
against  the  Emperor's  left,  at  Aspern  and  Essling ;  and  he  doubted  not 
that  success  in  that  quarter  would  counterbalance  any  advantage  which 
the  French  might  gain  in  front  of  Wagram.  In  the  meantime,  Napoleon 
had  planned  a  grand  attack  on  the  Austrian  centre,  and  withdrawn  Mas- 
sena  from  his  left  to  lead  the  assault,  leaving  at  Aspern  the  single  divis- 
ion of  Boudet  to  guard  the  bridges.  Thus,  the  whole  strength  of  the 
French  army  was  thrown  into  its  centre  and  right;  Davoust  being  on 
the  extreme  right ;  Massena  next  to  him  near  Aderklaa ;  Marmont,  Berna- 
dotte, Oudinot  and  Eugene  fronting  Wagram  ;  and  Bessieres  with  the  re- 
serve in  the  rear  of  the  centre  around  Raschdorf. 

At  daybreak  on  the  6th,  Napoleon,  while  giving  some  final  orders, 
was  surprised  by  the  discharge  of  heavy  guns  on  his  left ;  and  the  rapidly 
increasing  roar  and  smoke  in  that  direction,  indicated  that  the  Austrian 
right  wing  was  seriously  engaged,  and  making  dangerous  progress.  He 
soon  after  received  information  that  his  own  right  was  menaced  by  Ro- 
senberg, and  that  Bellegarde  had  forced  back  Bernadotte  in  the  centre. 
Notwithstanding  all  his  activity,  therefore,  the  French  Emperor  was 
anticipated  in  the  offensive ;  and  from  the  fact  that  the  attack  of  the 
Imperialists  commenced  on  his  left,  he  feared  that  the  Archduke  John 
had  come  up  during  the  night,  and  that  his  right  flank  was  about  to  bo 


266  HISTORY     OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXXI 

turned  with  an  overwhelming  force.  Perceiving  the  dangers  of  such  a 
combined  attack,  which  simultaneously  threatened  both  his  flanks,  Napo- 
leon hastened  to  support  the  right  with  his  reserve  Guards  and  cuiras- 
siers; but  as  he  approached  Glinzendorf,  the  Austrian  advance  was 
arrested;  for  Prince  Charles,  finding  that  the  Archduke  John  had  not 
arrived,  and  that  Rosenberg  would  necessarily  be  defeated  by  the  Em- 
peror's  charge,  ordered  that  officer  to  withdraw  behind  the  Russbach. 

In  the  meantime,  St.  Cyr,  while  executing  the  prescribed  change  of 
position,  with  the  leading  columns  of  Massena's  corps,  had  carried  the 
village  of  Aderklaa  ;  but,  instead  of  occupying  the  houses  and  strength- 
ening himself  there,  he  pressed  on  until  he  came  within  range  of  the 
artillery  of  Bellegarde's  corps,  between  Aderklaa  and  Wagram.  His 
troops  were  so  shattered  by  this  fire,  that  they  fell  back  in  disorder  into 
the  village  ;  and  the  Archduke,  following  up  their  retreat  with  a  detach- 
ment of  grenadiers,  drove  them  thence  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet,  and 
pushed  them  upon  the  Saxon  contingents ;  who,  in  turn,  fled  toward  Mas- 
sena  in  such  confusion,  that  the  French  marshal  ordered  his  dragoons  to 
charge  upon  them  for  his  personal  security.  The  Archduke  in  this  affair 
received  a  musket-ball  in  the  shoulder,  and  Massena  was  thrown  from 
his  horse  and  severely  bruised  by  the  fall. 

To  arrest  this  disorder,  Napoleon  recalled  his  Guards  from  the  right, 
and  riding  to  the  centre  at  the  head  of  the  cuirassiers,  soon  succeeded  in 
re-forming  the  broken  columns.  He  then  directed  Massena's  division  to 
move  by  battalions  in  close  column  toward  Aspern  ;  and  this  march  was 
commenced  with  great  regularity,  although  the  ranks  were  shattered  at 
every  step  by  the  cross-fire  of  the  Austrian  batteries.  It  was  high  time 
that  the  French  left  should  be  relieved  by  such  reenforcement.  At  ten 
o'clock,  Kollowrath  and  Klenau,  preceded  by  sixty  pieces  of  cannon,  fell 
with  irresistible  strength  on  Boudet's  division  at  Aspern,  took  four  thou- 
sand prisoners,  all  the  artillery,  and  drove  the  routed  troops  to  the  edge 
of  the  Danube.  The  Austrians  then  reentered  the  intrenchments  in 
front  of  Lobau,  regained  the  redoubts  evacuated  on  the  preceding  day, 
occupied  Essling,  and  pushed  their  advanced  posts  so  near  to  the  bridges 
leading  to  Enzersdorf,  that  the  French  heavy  guns  on  the  island  were 
fired  to  protect  them.  Startled  by  the  shouts  of  the  Imperialists,  the  men 
in  charge  of  the  French  reserve  parks  and  baggage  trains  were  seized 
with  a  universal  panic,  and  fugitives  on  all  sides  overspread  the  field 
and  crowded  to  the  bridges,  crying  "  all  is  lost !  the  bridges  are  taken !" 

While  the  Austrian  right  was  thus  victorious,  their  left  had  experi- 
enced a  serious  reverse.  Davoust,  early  in  the  day,  dispatched  two 
divisions  of  his  corps  by  a  wide  circuit  to  turn  the  village  of  Neusiedel, 
and  he  himself  with  the  other  divisions  attacked  it  in  front;  Oudinot, 
at  the  same  time,  had  been  ordered  to  keep  Hohenzollern  in  check  in  the 
centre  of  the  plateau  behind  Baumersdorf.  At  ten  o'clock,  the  first  two 
divisions  had  reached  their  stations,  and,  after  being  once  repulsed  in  dis- 
order, established  themselves  on  the  plateau  at  the  eastern  front  of  the 
village.  The  cuirassiers  of  Grouchy  next  came  up,  and  defeated  Rosen- 
berg's cavalry  with  great  slaughter ;  but  Hohenzollern's  cuirassiers  forced 
their  way  to  the  support  of  their  countrymen,  and  Grouchy's  corps  was 
in  turn  broken  and  driven  back ;  finally,  Monthrun,  at  the  head  of  a 
fresh  division  of  French  cavalry,  charged  tbe  Austrian  horse  and  forced 
them  from  the  heights.  Meantime,  Davoust  in  person  had. led  his  infant. 


1809.1  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  267 

ry  against  the  village,  and  carried  it  after  a  desperate  contest,  pressing 
Rosenberg's  entire  corps  in  the  direction  of  his  routed  cavalry  over  the 
eastern  side  of  the  plateau. 

Napoleon  now  ordered  a  general  attack  with  his  whole  force,  including 
his  reserve,  on  every  point  of  the  Austrian  position.  Macdonald  led  the 
movement  by  an  impetuous  assault  on  the  Archduke's  centre.  tie 
charged  at  the  head  of  eight  strong  battalions,  passed  Aderklaa  and  Brei- 
tenlee,  and  for  some  distance  pushed,  without  breaking,  the  Imperialists' 
line.  As  his  column  proceeded,  however,  it  became  enveloped  by  the 
concentrated  fire  of  his  opponents,  until  at  last,  his  eight  battalions  were 
reduced  to  fifteen  hundred  men.  Napoleon,  perceiving  that  Macdonald 
could  not  much  longer  sustain  this  destructive  storm,  detached  Reille 
with  the  Young  Guard  to  support  him,  saying,  as  he  did  so,  "  Husband 
your  men  as  much  as  possible ;  I  have  now  no  reserve  left  but  two  regi- 
ments of  the  Old  Guard."  At  the  same  time,  he  ordered  the  cuirassiers 
and  dragoons  of  Nansouty  and  Walther  to  cooperate  with  Reille's  ad- 
vance. The  charges  of  cavalry  were  disastrous  to  the  French  :  Bes- 
sieres,  while  leading  the  squadrons  on,  was  struck  in  the  thigh  by  a  can- 
non ball,  and  taken  up  for  dead  ;  Nansouty  succeeded  to  the  command, 
but  the  fire  with  which  he  was  received  cut  down  his  men  to  such  a  de- 
gree, that  they  were  forced  to  retire,  with  a  loss  of  half  ofoheir  numbers, 
before  they  could  even  reach  the  enemy.  The  infantry,  however,  were 
more  successful.  As  soon  as  Macdonald  saw  the  Young  Guard  advan- 
cing to  his  support,  he  resumed  his  forward  movement ;  and  the  Archduke, 
despairing  now  of  maintaining  his  position,  gave  orders  for  a  retreat,  which 
his  troops  effected  in  admirable  order.  He  availed  himself  of  every  ad- 
vantage of  ground  to  retard  the  pursuit,  and  the  French  were  so  exhausted 
that  they  followed  his  steps  without  vigor  or  enthusiasm.  No  cannon  or 
prisoners  were  taken  ;  scarcely  a  charge  of  cavalry  was  made  ;  in  fact, 
but  for  the  retrograde  movement  of  one  army  and  the  slow  advance  of 
the  other,  it  would  have  been  impossible  to  say  which  was  master  of  the 
field.  Napoleon  was  much  chagrined  at  this  indecisive  result,  and  vented 
his  ill-humor  in  loud  reproaches  on  the  cavalry  generals.  "  Was  ever 
anything  seen  like  this  !"  he  exclaimed.  "  Neither  prisoners  nor  guns ! 
We  gain  nothing  by  all  this  slaughter  !"  At  nightfall,  the  Austrians  took 
post  along  the  heights  behind  Stammersdorf,  and  the  French  bivouacked 
in  the  plain  at  the  foot  of  the  hills. 

Toward  the  close  of  this  obstinately  contested  battle,  the  Archduke 
John  approached  the  field  ;  but  finding  that  his  brother  had  retreated,  he 
retraced  his  steps  and  arrived  at  Marchcheck  before  midnight.  Had  lie 
readied  the  field  at  an  earlier  hour,  in  conformity  to  his  brother's  orders, 
it  can  scarcely  be  doubted  that  victory  would  have  declared  for  the  Aus- 
trian army.  The  losses  of  the  battle  of  Wagram  were  immense.  No 
less  than  twenty-five  thousand  men  on  each  side  were  killed  or  wounded, 
and  the  Austrian  right  wing  took  five  thousand  prisoners. 

Two  lines  of  retreat  were  open  to  the  Archduke  when  he  determined 
to  relinquish  the  field ;  one,  to  Olmutz,  and  the  other,  to  Bohemia :  and, 
so  little  did  the  French  troops  press  their  adversaries  when  the  retrograde 
movement  commenced,  the  Ernperor  was  for  a  time  uncertain  which  of 
the  two  routes  they  had  chosen.  The  Archduke  at  length  took  the  latter, 
in  order  to  cover  Prague,  which,  next  to  Vienna,  was  the  greatest  military 
establishment  of  the  Empire,  and  stood  in  a  position  easily  capable  of 
defence  against  an  invading  army. 


268  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXXI. 

The  Austrian  retreat  was  scarcely  molested  until  the  troops  reached 
Znaym,  where  Prince  Charles,  finding  himself  pressed  by  Massena,  halted 
and  took  up  a  strong  defensive  position.  The  French  marshal,  supported 
by  Marmont's  division,  led  on  his  columns  with  great  impetuosity ;  but, 
although  his  soldiers  gained  some  temporary  advantage,  they  were  soon 
arrested  by  the  Austrian  batteries,  and  became  so  hemmed  in  by  the  flank 
movements  of  the  Archduke's  grenadiers  that  they  were  in  danger  of 
being  entirely  cut  off.  At  this  juncture,  proposals  for  an  armistice  from 
the  head-quarters  of  the  Imperialists  reached  Napoleon,  who,  alarmed  for 
the  safety  of  Massena  and  Marmont,  acceded  to  the  proposition. 

By  the  terms  of  the  armistice,  the  French,  as  a  preliminary  to  a  treaty 
of  peace,  were  permitted  to  retain  possession  of  Upper  Austria  as  far  as 
the  borders  of  Bohemia,  including  the  circles  of  Znaym  and  Brunn,  the 
district  comprised  by  the  course  of  the  Morava  to  its  confluence  with  the 
Taya,  the  course  of  the  Danube  to  Raab,  and  the  river  Raab  by  the  fron- 
tiers of  Styria  and  Carniola  to  Fiume  ;  the  town  of  Presburg,  the  citadels 
of  Gratz  and  Brunn,  the  fort  of  Sasenburg  and  the  districts  of.  Tyrol  and 
Vorarlberg,  were  also  comprehended  in  this  conditional  surrender.  The 
armistice  was  concluded  by  the  Archduke  Charles  alone,  subject,  how- 
ever, to  the  ratification  of  the  Emperor.  The  cabinet  of  Vienna,  at  that 
.time  assembled  at  Komorn  in  Hungary,  loudly  protested  against  their 
Emperor's  affixing  his  signature  to  the  contract ;  but  they  at  length  waived 
their  objections,  and  it  was  signed  on  the  18th  of  July. 

Negotiations  for  peace  were  immediately  commenced  ;  and  after  being 
protracted  into  October,  a  treaty  was  concluded  on  the  14th  of  that  month, 
at  Vienna.  By  this  treaty,  Austria  lost  territories  containing  three  and 
a  half  millions  of  inhabitants ;  of  which  Bavaria  received  the  Inn-Viertel 
arid  the  Hansneck-Viertel,  Salzburg  with  its  adjacent  territory,  and  the 
valley  of  Berchtolsgaden ;  while  the  Grand-duchy  of  Warsaw  and  Russia 
obtained  certain  valuable  portions  of  Galicia.  To  the  kingdom  of  Italy 
she  yielded  Carniola,  the  circle  of  Villach  in  Carinthia,  six  districts  of 
Croatia,  Fiume  and  its  territory  on  the  sea-shore,  Trieste,  the  county  of 
Govici,  Montefalcone,  Austrian  Istria,  Cartua  and  its  dependent  isles,  the 
lhalweg  of  the  Save,  and  the  lordship  of  the  Radzuns  in  the  Grisons. 
(n  addition  to  this,  the  Emperor,  on  the  part  of  his  brother,  the  Archduke 
Antony,  renounced  the  office  of  Grand-master  of  the  Teutonic  Order  with 
its  rights  and  territories.  Besides  these  public  articles,  some  secret  ones 
were  annexed  to  the  treaty.  The  Austrian  army  was  to  be  reduced  to 
one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  men ;  all  persons  born  in  France,  Belgium, 
Piedmont  or  the  Venetian  States,  were  to  be  dismissed  the  service,  and  a 
contribution  of  eighty-five  millions  of  francs  was  imposed  on  the  provinces 
occupied  by  the  French  troops. 

The  treaty  of  Vienna  was  received  with  marked  disapprobation  by  the 
cabinet  of  St.  Petersburg,  and  it  produced  an  important  effect  in  widening 
the  breach  already  formed  between  the  two  great  monarchs  of  France 
and  Russia.  In  vain  did  Napoleon  assure  Alexander,  that  he  had  watched 
over  his  interest  as  he  would  have  done  over  his  own  :  the  Russian  Auto 
crat  could  perceive  no  traces  of  such  regard  in  the  dangerous  augmenta 
tion  of  the  territories  of  the  Grand -duchy  of  Warsaw,  and  he  openly 
testified  his  displeasure  to  Caulaincourt ;  but  notwithstanding  his  anger, 
he  did  not  hesitate  to  take  the  small  portion  of  Gdlicia  allotted  to  him  by 
the  treaty.  Napoleon,  however,  spared  no  efforts  to  appease  the  Czar ; 


1809.]  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  269 

and,  knowing  that  a  secret  dread  of  the  restoration  of  Poland  was  the 
chief  cause  of  the  Autocrat's  disquietude,  he  engaged  not  only  to  concur 
with  him  in  everything  which  should  tend  to  efface  ancient  recollections, 
but  even  declared  a  desire  that  "  the  name  of  Poland  and  the  Poles  should 
disappear  from  every  political  transaction  and  from  history  itself." 

As  soon  as  the  treaty  was  ratified,  Napoleon  set  out  for  Paris ;  but, 
before  quitting  Austria,  and  in  the  interval  between  the  signature  and  the 
ratification  of  the  treaty,  he  barbarously  gave  orders  for  the  destruction 
of  the  ramparts  of  Vienna.  Mines  had  been  previously  constructed  un- 
der the  principal  bastions,  and  as  the  trains  were  fired  one  after  another 
the  parapets  rose  into  the  air,  and  the  works  beneath  suddenly  swelled 
and  burst'like  a  succession  of  volcanoes.  This  cruel  devastation  highly 
exasperated  the  inhabitants :  the  ramparts,  shaded  by  trees,  were  the  pride 
and  glory  of  the  capital  ;  they  were  associated  with  the  most  stirring 
events  of  Austrian  history;  they  had  withstood  all  the  assaults  of  the 
Turks ;  and  had  been  witness  to  the  heroism  of  Maria  Theresa.  The 
destruction  of  these  venerable  monuments  of  former  days,  not  in  the  fury 
of  battle  nor  under  the  pressure  of  necessity,  but  in  cold  blood,  after 
peace  was  declared  and  when  the  invaders  were  preparing  to  withdraw, 
was  justly  regarded  as  an  outrage  of  the  most  oppressive  and  degrading 
character,  and  as  such  highly  disgraceful  to  the  Emperor  of  France. 

While  the  cabinet  of  Vienna  thus  yielded  in  the  strife,  and  the  cam- 
paign was  drawing  to  a  conclusion  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  the  Tyrol 
became  the  theatre  of  a  desperate  conflict,  and  the  shepherds  of  the  Alps 
for  a  time  maintained  their  independence  against  a  power  which  Austria 
could  not  withstand.  Having,  by  a  general  insurrection,  delivered  their 
country  from  the  invaders  after  the  battle  of  Aspern,  and  spread  them- 
selves over  the  adjoining  provinces,  the  brave  mountaineers  hoped  that 
their  perils  were  over,  and  that  a  second  victory  on  the  D.anube  would 
relieve  their  Emperor  from  Fren.cn  exaction  and  oppression  ;  but  soon  the 
news  of  the  battle  of  Wagram  and  of  the  armistice  of  Znaym  struck  them 
with  dismay.  The  order  speedily  arrived  for  the  military  evacuation  of 
Tyrol  and  Vorarlberg,  in  conformity  to  the  terms  of  the  armistice  ;  but  the 
insurgent  peasantry  refused  to  obey,  and  proceeded  to  disarm  such  of  the 
Austrian  soldiers  as  prepared  to  comply  with  the  mandate.  While  the 
people  were  in  this  state  of  excitement,  Hofer  presented  himself  before  a 
crowded  assembly,  and  averred  that  he  would  spend  his  blood  to  the  last 
drop  in  defence  of  the  country  ;  and  the  multitude,  with  loud  shouts,  pro- 
claimed him  "  commander-in-chief  of  the  province  so  long  as  it  pleased 
God." 

As  the  armistice  in  Germany  enabled  Napoleon  to  detach  any  amount 
of  force  requisite  to  subdue  the  insurrection,  he  sent  Lefebvre  into  the 
mountains  at  the  head  of  thirty  thousand  men.  This  general  readily 
made  himself  master  of  Innspruck  on  the  route ;  but  when  he  reached  the 
northern  slope  of  the  Brenner,  he  encountered  a  mass  of  undisciplined 
peasantry  posted  behind  the  rocks  and  trees,  who  totally  routed  him,  took 
twenty-five  pieces  of  cannon,  all  his  ammunition,  and  drove  him  back  in 
litter  confusion  to  Innspruck.  About  the  same  time,  a  body  of  seventeen 
hundred  French  troops  marched  toward  the  rear  of  Hofer's  position  at 
Sterzing  ;  but  they  were  met.  at  Prutz  by  a  detachment  of  Tyrolese  sharp- 
shooters, who  almost  entirely  destroyed  them,  killing  or  wounding  more 
than  th»*ee  hundred  and  taking  nine  hundred  prisoners.  Encouraged  by 


270  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  '   [CHAP.  XXXL 

this  and  several  similar  victories,  Hofer  resolved  to  attack  Lefebvre's 
whole  corps  at  Innspruck.  He  marched  against  that  town  early  in  the 
morning  of  August  12th,  and,  despite  the  numbers,  discipline  and  well- 
approved  bravery  of  the  French  troops,  carried  it  before  nightfall  at  the 
point  of  the  bayonet.  The  victors/whose  numbers  were  diminished  only 
nine  hundred  men,  inflicted  a  loss  on  the  invaders  of  no  less  than  six 
thousand,  of  whom  nearly  two  thousand  were  prisoners. 

This  victory  for  a  time  entirely  cleared  the  country  of  its  enemies ; 
but  it  was  vain  for  the  brave  Tyrolese  to  hope  that  they  could  long  con- 
tend, with  impunity,  against  the  gigantic  strength  of  Napoleon's  armies. 
An  overwhelming  force  was  soon  assembled  on  their  frontiers,  and  the 
invasion  commenced  at  so  many  points  that  Hofer  resolved  to  submit,  and 
published  a  proclamation,  enjoining  the  people  to  obey  a  power  which  they 
could  not  resist.  The  inhabitants,  however,  refused  to  yield,  and  forced 
Hofer  to  resume  the  command,  which  he  did  with  great  reluctance,  and 
gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  General  Rusca,  at  the  old  castle  of  Tyrol. 
After  this  event,  the  urgent  entreaties  of  Eugene  Beauharnois — who, 
foreseeing  the  desperate  character  of  the  struggle,  generously  urged  the 
inhabitants  to  submission  with  a  promise  of  amnesty — finally  put  an  end 
to  hostilities.  Hofer  now  abandoned  all  thought  of  delivering  his  country, 
but  he  refused  to  accept  the  amnesty  and  submit  to  the  French  authorities, 
and  was  therefore  proscribed.  He  for  some  time  evaded  the  pursuit  of 
his  enemies ;  but  at  length,  a  detachment  of  sixteen  hundred  men  sur- 
rounded his  hiding-place,  made  him  prisoner,  and  immediately  took  him 
to  Mantua  to  be  tried  by  a  military  commission.  He  was  at  once  found 
guilty  of  resisting  the  French  after  Eugene's  proclamation  of  amnesty  ; 
but  the  members  were  greatly  divided  as  to  the  punishment  he  should 
receive.  Their  deliberations  were  cut  short  by  a  telegraphic  dispatch 
from  the  French  Emperor,  ordering  him  to  be  shot  within  twenty-four 
hours.  He  received  his  sentence  with  unshaken  firmness,  and  suffered 
its  execution  in  a  manner  befitting  his  life  and  character. 

Few  events  in  the  history  of  Napoleon  have  left  a  darker  stain  on  his 
memory,  than  the  slaughter  of  this  brave  man.  It  is  vain  to  assert  in 
his  justification  that  Hofer  was  a  rebel.  The  resistance  of  the  Tyrolese 
was  a  national  contest  against  foreign  aggression :  their  object  was  not  to 
rise  in  rebellion  against  a  constituted  government,  but  to  maintain  their 
allegiance  to  the  Austrian  monarchy.  These  people  had,  but  a  few 
years  before,  and  against  their  wish,  been  forcibly  transferred  from  the 
paternal  rule  of  their  lawful  sovereign  to  the  rude  oppression  of  a  foreign 
tyrant.  A  dominion  of  four  years  could  not  annul  the  political  relations 
of  four  centuries.  Hofer  had  never  acknowledged  Napoleon  to  be  his 
master,  and  by  all  the  rules  of  civilized  warfare,  as  well  as  upon  every 
principle  of  justice  and  honor,  he  was  at  the  worst  entitled  to  be  treated 
like  a  prisoner  of  war. 

The  British  government,  in  the  summer  of  this  year,  undertook  an 
enterprise  of  some  moment  on  the  banks  of  the  Scheldt,  having  for  its 
object  the  capture  of  Antwerp.  This  city  was  one  of  Napoleon's  most 
important  strong-holds,  and  contained  in  its  harbor  a  powerful  fleet.  Its 
formidable  strength,  and  increasing  importance  as  a  naval  station,  to- 
gether  with  its  proximity  to  the  British  shores,  rendered  it,  in  Napoleon's 
hands,  eminently  dangerous  to  England.  At  present,  its  fortifications 
were  out  of  repair,  and  its  cannon  were  dismounted  ;  its  garrison  con- 


1809.J  HISTORY     O  F     EUROPE.  271 

sisted  oflittle  more  than  two  thousand  invalids,  and  the  regular  army  of 
France  was  so  absorbed  on  the  Danube  and  in  the  Peninsula,  that  it  was 
questionable  whether  the  town,  if  secretly  and  suddenly  attacked,  could 
receive  a  support  adequate  to  its  protection. 

Th?  expedition,  therefore,  was  well-timed,  and  the  forces  employed 
were  fully  equal  to  the  undertaking ;  but  the  vice  in  its  prosecution  was 
of  the  same  nature  as  that  which  had  already  rendered  abortive  so  many 
schemes  of  hostility  to  France  ;  namely,  a  wanton  and  needless  delay  in 
every  movement.  The  armament  consisted  of  thirty-seven  ships  of  the 
line,  twenty-three  frigates,  thirty-three  sloops,  eighty-two  gun-boats,  be- 
sides a  fleet  of  transports,  carrying,  in  addition  to  the  crews  of  the  ships, 
forty  thousand  land  troops  with  two  battering  trains.  This  stupendous 
force  reached  the  coast  of  Holland  on  the  29th  of  July.  On  the  3mh, 
twenty  thousand  men  were  disembarked  on  the  island  of  Walcheren,  who 
speedily  took  possession  of  Middleburg,  and  drove  the  French  troops 
within  the  walls  of  Flushing.  At  the  same  time,  another  detachment 
landed  in  Cadsand,  expelled  the  enemy  from  that  island,  and  opened  the 
way  for  the  passage  of  the  fleet  up  the  main  branch  of  the  Scheldt.  Sir 
Richard  Strachan,  disregarding  the  batteries  of  Flushing,  then  passed 
the  straits  with  eighteen  ships  of  the  line,  and  soon  both  branches  of  the 
river  were  crowded  with  British  pennants.  Ter  Vere,  a  fortress  com- 
manding the  Veergat,  was  next  assailed  by  the  land  forces  and  taken 
with  its  garrison  of  a  thousand  men  ;  Goes,  the  capital  of  South  Beve- 
land,  also  opened  its  gates ;  after  which,  Sir  John '  Hope,  with  seven 
thousand  men,  pressed  on  to  Bahtz  ;  and,  such  was  the  consterna- 
tion produced  by  the  strength  and  hitherto  rapid  advance  of  the  British 
forces,  this  fort,  which  commanded  both  channels,  was  evacuated  by  its 
garrison  during  the  night.  The  success  of  the  expedition  now  appeared 
certain.  More  than  two-thirds  of  the  distance  to  Antwerp  had  been 
traversed  in  three  days,  the  British  standards  were  only  five  leagues  from 
the  capital,  and  within  four  days,  at  farthest,  the  whole  armament  might 
have  been  assembled  around  its  walls. 

It  is  acknowledged  by  the  French  military  writers,  that,  owing  to  the 
unguarded  situation  of  Antwerp  at  this  crisis,  it  must  inevitably  have 
fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  English  troops,  had  they  followed  up  their 
invasion  with  the  same  spirit  as  they  commenced  it.  Besides,  the  orders 
communicated  to  Lord  Chatham  were  explicit  on  this  point :  the  capture 
of  Antwerp,  and  the  destruction  of  the  ships  building  or  afloat  in  the 
Scheldt,  and  of  the  arsenals  and  dock-yards  in  Antwerp,  Terneuse  and 
Flushing,  were  the  principal  objects  of  the  expedition;  while  the  reduc- 
tion of  Walcheren  was  of  entirely  subordinate  importance.  But  England 
had  not  two  Wellingtons  in  her  service.  Lord  Chatham,  the  command, 
er-in-chief  of  the  armament,  neither  inherited  the  energy  of  his  father, 
nor  shared  the  capacity  of  his  immortal  brother,  William  Pitt.  Destitute 
of  experience  and  indolent  in  his  habits,  he  was  precisely  the  man  to  mis- 
lead a  great  undertaking.  Reversing,  therefore,  the  tenor  of  his  instruc- 
tions, and  the  dictates  of  sound  sense,  he  directed  his  first  elaborate  effort 
to  the  attainment  of  the  least  important  object ;  and  instead  of  hastening 
to  an  easy  victory  at  Antwerp,  he  arrayed  his  strength  around  Flushing, 
which  surrendered  after  an  investment  of  three  days,  with  its  garrison  of 
six  thousand  men  and  two  hundred  pieces  of  cannon.  This  was  doubt- 
less a  conquest  of  some  value ;  but  it  was  as  dust  in  the  balance  com- 


272  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXXI. 

pared  with  the  main  objects  which  the  English  government  had  in  view, 
and  for  which  their  orders  so  clearly  provided.  While  the  British  sol- 
diers were  fighting  bravely  at  Flushing,  the  French  and  Dutch  troops 
were  hurrying  toward  Antwerp  ;  and  after  the  reduction  of  Flushing, 
which  event  occurred  on  the  16th  of  August,  the  English  general  so  de- 
layed his  movements,  that  he  did  not  reach  Bahtz  until  the  26th.  In  the 
meantime,  the  Antwerp  fleet  was  moved  farther  up  the  river,  out  of  reach 
of  the  British  ships,  and  Antwerp  itself,  occupied  in  force  by  regular 
troops,  was  beyond  the  power  of  an  assault. 

As  a  further  advance  now  became  impossible,  Lord  Chatham  fell  back 
to  Walcheren,  where  he  proposed  to  maintain  himself;  but  after  a  few 
weeks,  a  distemper,  bred  by  the  unhealthy  marshes  of  that  island,  broke 
out  among  the  soldiers,  and  its  ravages  were  so  fatal,  that,  after  taking 
the  opinions  of  his  officers  at  a  council  of  war,  the  commander-in-chiet 
resolved  to  abandon  the  place  and  return  to  England;  which  he  accord- 
ingly did  in  the  month  of  December. 

It  has  already  been  mentioned,  that  when  the  pope,  Pius  VII.,  took  the 
unusual  step  of  going  to  the  French  capital  to  perform  the  ceremony  of 
crowning  Napoleon,  he  expected  some  great  concessions  in  return; 
and  subsequently,  he  had  from  time  to  time  urged  his  claims  on  the 
Emperor,  but  always  without  obtaining  either  benefits  or  promises.  Nor 
did  Napoleon  merely  refuse  to  reciprocate  the  obligation:  during  the 
Austrian  war  of  1805,  the  French  troops  seized  Ancona,  the  most  import- 
ant fortress  in  the  Ecclesiastical  dominions ;  and  when  his  holiness  re- 
monstrated against  this  aggression,  Napoleon,  instead  of  heeding  his 
complaints,  avowed  himself  Emperor  of  Rome,  and  declared  that  the  pope 
was  only  his  viceroy.  This  explicit  declaration  of  the  French  Empe- 
ror's intentions,  at  once  opened  the  eyes  and  aroused  the  courage  of  the 
pope;  who  thereafter,  on  all  occasions,  intrepidly  maintained  a  tone  and 
attitude  of  defiance  toward  the  conqueror.  Napoleon,  however,  took  little 
heed  of  his  measures.  In  the  Italian  wars  that  ensued,  he  overrun  and 
occupied  at  pleasure  the  papal  dominions;  and,  in  February,  1808,  he 
permanently  quartered  a  large  body  of  French  troops  in  Rome.  In  April 
of  the  same  year,  he  declared  the  provinces  of  Urbino,  Ancona,  Mace- 
rata  and  Camerino — forming  nearly  a  third  part  of  the  Ecclesiastical  ter- 
ritories— irrevocably  united  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  The  pope  was  next 
confined  a  prisoner  in  his  own  palace ;  French  guards  occupied  all  parts 
of  the  capital ;  French  officers  assumed  control  of  the  posts,  the  press,  the 
taxes,  the  whole  government,  in  short ;  the  papal  troops  were  incorpo- 
rated into  the  French  ranks  and  their  own  officers  dismissed.  And 
while  all  these  outrages  were  in  progress,  the  French  Emperor  constantly 
importuned  the  pope  to  join  the  general  league,  offensive  and  defensive, 
with  himself  and  the  King  of  Naples. 

At  length,  on  the  17th  of  May,  1809,  the  last  act  of  violence  was  per- 
petrated. Napoleon  issued  a  decree  from  the  camp  near  Vienna,  setting 
forth  that  "  the  States  of  the  pope  are  united  to  the  French  Empire  ;  Rome, 
so  interesting  from  its  recollections  and  the  first  seat  of  Christianity,  is 
declared  an  imperial  and  free  city  ;"  and  these  changes  were  ordered  to 
take  effect  on  the  1st  of  June  following.  The  pope,  in  reply  to  this  de- 
cree, published  a  bull  of  excommunication  against  Napoleon  and  all  con- 
cerned in  this  high-handed  measure.  This  bull  Avas  placarded  on  all  the 
usual  places,  and  with  such  secrecy  as  to  escape  the  knowledge  or  sus- 


1809.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  273 

picion  of  the  police.  The  pope,  fearful  that  the  individuals  concerned  in 
printing  and  circulating  the  paper  might  be  discovered  and  punished  by 
Napoleon's  emissaries,  used  great  precautions  to  avert  such  a  catastrophe  ; 
but  he  entertained  no  fear  for  himself.  On  the  contrary,  he  transcribed 
the  original  document  with  his  own  hand,  that  no  one  else  could  become 
implicated  by  a  fortuitous  discovery  of  the  hand- writing. 

Napoleon,  though  unprepared  for  so  vigorous  an  act  on  the  part  of 
the  sovereign  pontiff,  was  not  the  less  prompt  in  his  measures.  He  had 
long  ago  conceived  the  project  of  uniting  the  tiara  arid  the  Imperial  crown 
on  his  own  brow ;  but  fearing  that  in  Modern  Europe  this  could  not  be 
done  directly,  he  resolved  now  to  attempt  it  indirectly,  by  transferring 
the  residence  of  the  pope  to  France,  where  he  hoped  to  control  every  ec- 
clesiastical measure.  On  the  night  of  the  5th  of  July,  Miollis  and  Radet, 
acting  indeed  without  the  express  orders  of  Napoleon  in  this  instance, 
though  in  conformity  to  the  spirit  of  his  previous  instructions,  surrounded 
the  Quirinal  with  three  regiments  ;  thirty  men,  in  profound  silence,  scaled 
the  walls  of  the  garden,  and  took  post  under  the  windows  of  the  palace  ; 
and  fifty  more  effected  an  entrance  by  the  window  of  an  unoccupied  room. 
This  being  done  during  the  night,  the  gates  at  six  o'clock  in  the  morning 
were  thrown  open,  and  Radet  entered  at  the  head  of  his  troops,  proclaim- 
ing that  his  orders  were  to  arrest  the  pope  and  the  Cardinal  Pacca,  his 
chief  counsellor,  and  conduct  them  out  of  Rome.  The  pope  and  the  car- 
dinal, awakened  by  the  strokes  of  the  hatchets  used  in  breaking  down  the 
interior  doors,  immediately  rose ;  and  as  his  holiness  expected  to  be  mur- 
dered on  the  spot,  he  called  for  the  ring  which  his  predecessor,  Pius  VI., 
had  worn  when  dying,  and  placed  it  on  his  finger.  To  prevent  further 
violence,  the  remaining  doors  were  thrown  open  and  the  troops  entered 
the  pope's  apartment.  Radet,  pale  and  trembling  with  emotion,  announced 
to  the  holy  father,  that  he  was  charged  with  the  painful  duty  of  declaring 
that  his  holiness  must  resign  the  temporal  sovereignty  of  Rome  and  the 
Ecclesiastical  States,  or  accompany  him  to  the  head-quarters  of  General 
Miollis.  The  pope  replied,  that  he  had  higher  duties  to  perform  than 
obedience  to  any  military  chieftain  ;  and  that  "  the  Emperor,  if  he  saw  fit, 
might  cut  him  in  pieces,  but  he  could  never  draw  from  him  such  a  resig- 
nation." The  alternative  of  arrest  was  therefore  submitted  to,  and  the 
pope  and  Cardinal  Pacca  took  their  seats  in  a  carriage  escorted  by  a  pow- 
erful detachment  of  French  cavalry.  Their  journey  was  hastened  to 
such  a  degree,  that  for  nineteen  successive  hours  they  were  not  allowed 
to  rest  or  take  any  refreshment.  On  reaching  Florence,  they  were 
separated  from  each  other ;  the  cardinal  was  conveyed  to  Grenoble,  and 
thence,  by  a  special  order  of  Napoleon,  transferred  to  the  state  prison  of 
Fenestrelles,  in  Savoy ;  and  the  pope  was  hurried  across  the  Alps  by 
Mount  Cenis  into  France. 


CHAPTER    XXXII. 

MARITIME   WAR  J  AND  CAMPAIGN  OF  1809  IN  SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL, 

THE  ev?nt  that  first  roused  the  British  people  from  the  despondency 
caused  by  the  unsatisfactory  result  of  the  Peninsula  campaign,  was  a 
brilliant  achievement  of  their  arms  at  sea.  Early  in  the  year,  a  French 
squadron  of  eleven  ships  of  the  line  and  seven  frigates  was  assembled  in 
Basque  Roads,  under  the  command  of  Admiral  Villaumer,  destined  to  re- 
lieve the  Island  of  Martinique,  in  the  West  Indies,  which  was  then  threat- 
ened by  a  British  fleet.  The  English  government,  immediately  on 
receiving  intelligence  of  this  armament,  dispatched  Lord  Gambler,  with 
eleven  ships  of  the  line  and  a  number  of  frigates,  to  blockade  the  French 
vessels.  Admiral  Villaumer,  alarmed  at  the  approach  of  so  formidable  a 
force,  weighed  anchor  and  stood  for  the  inner  and  more  protected  roads  of 
Isle  d'Aix,  and  while  executing  this  manoeuvre,  one  of  his  line-of-battle 
ships  went  ashore  and  was  lost.  The  British  admiral  followed  him  and 
anchored  in  Basque  Roads;  and,  as  the  proximity  of  the  hostile  fleets,  in 
so  confined  a  position,  rendered  them  especially  exposed  to  the  operation 
of  fire-ships,  the  British  resolved  on  that  method  of  attack.  Twelve  ves- 
sels of  this  description  were  soon  fitted  out  in  the  English  harbors,  placed 
under  the  immediate  command  of  Lord  Cochrane,  and  dispatched  to 
Basque  Roads,  where  they  arrived  in  the  beginning  of  April. 

Villaumer,  to  guard  against  this  assault,  had  drawn  across  the  line  of 
his  fleet  a  strong  boom,  composed  of  spars,  cables  and  chains  braced 
together,  and  secured  at.  each  end  by  anchors  of  an  enormous  weight. 
On  the  evening  of  the  llth  of  April,  the  wind  blowing  fresh,  and  from 
the  most  favorable  quarter,  the  fire-ships  got  under  weigh  and  bore  down 
on  the  enemy ;  Lord  Cochrane  taking  personal  charge  of  the  leading 
vessel,  which  had  on  board  fifteen  hundred  pounds  of  powder  and  four 
shells.  The  moment  that  the  attacking  force  came  within  range  of  the 
French  fleet,  the  latter  opened  a  terrible  fire  of  heavy  guns  and  bombs ; 
and  the  danger  of  the  British  may  be  understood  from  the  fact,  that  their 
vessels  were  all  full  loaded  with  gunpowder,  and  any  one  of  the  flaming 
projectiles  issuing  from  the  French  mortars  would  suffice  to  explode  them. 

The  Mediator  frigate  first  struck  the  boom,  and  she  dashed  through  it 
almost  without  pausing  in  her  course.  The  fire-ships  came  on  in  quick 
succession,  and  the  French  officers,  believing  all  to  be  lost,  immediately 
slipped  their  cables  and  drifted  ashore  in  wild  confusion.  At  daybreak 
the  next  morning,  one  half  the  French  fleet  was  discovered  to  be  ashore, 
and  at  eight  o'clock,  only  two  vessels  were  afloat.  Lord  Cochrane,  who 
had  regained  his  own  ship,  now  made  signal  to  Lord  Gambier  to  advance ; 
but  that  officer,  instead  of  acting  with  the  promptitude  that  such  an  emer- 
gency required,  waited  to  summon  a  council  of  war,  and  did  not  get 
under  weigh  until  eleven  o'clock;  then,  after  having  approached  to 
within  six  miles  of  the  French  squadron,  he  cast  anchor,  alleging  that 
he  could  not  proceed  until  high  water.  Meantime,  the  French  admiral, 
reassured  by  the  dilatory  movement  of  his  antagonists,  made  great  efforts 
to  get  his  ships  afloat,  which  the  rising  tide  at  length  enabled  him  to  do ; 


1809.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  275 

and  Lord  Cochrane,  stung  to  the  quick  at  seeing  his  noble  prizes  thus 
about  to  escape  through  the  disgraceful  negligence  of  his  commander-in- 
chief,  himself  pressed  on  to  the  attack  in  his  single  frigate ;  Captain  Bligh 
with  the  bomb  vessels  and  other  light  craft  followed,  and  a  cannonade 
was  commenced  on  the  most  exposed  part  of  the  fleet.  The  Calcutta, 
of  fifty  guns,  speedily  struck  to  Cochrane's  frigate;  the  Ville  de  Var- 
sovie,  the  Aquilon,  the  Indienne,  and  the  Tonnerre  took  fire  and  were 
destroyed  ;  but  the  remainder  of  the  ships,  though  considerably  injured, 
made  good  their  escape  under  the  guns  of  the  batteries  on  shore.  On  his 
return  to  England,  Lord  Gambier  was  tried  by  a  court-martial  for  his 
conduct  in  this  battle  and  eventually  acquitted;  yet  Napoleon  has  him- 
self confessed,  that  "had  Cochrane  been  supported  by  the  admiral,  as  he 
easily  might  have  been,  the  French  ships  must  all  have  fallen  into  the 
hands  of  the  British." 

The  French  West  India  islands,  which  the  defeated  squadron  was  in- 
tended to  relieve,  became  now  the  prey  of  the  victors.  Martinique, 
Cayenne,  and  the  fortress  of  St.  Domingo  were  successively  captured,  and 
the  French  flag  was  thenceforward  entirely  excluded  from  that  quarter 
of  the  world.  Bourbon  and  the  Isle  of  France  in  the  Indian  Ocean  about 
the  same  time  surrendered  to  the  British  arms,  as  did  also  the  seven 
Ionian  islands  in  the  Mediterranean;  and  in  the  Bay  of  Rosas,  Colling- 
wood  captured  or  destroyed  three  French  ships  of  the  line,  two  frigates 
and  eleven  smaller  vessels  of  war. 

When  Madrid  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  French,  and  the  English  re- 
treated to  Corunna.  the  affairs  of  the  Peninsula  seemed  to  be  in  a  despe- 
rate condition,  There  was  no  force  in  Portugal  on  which  any  reliance 
could  be  placed,  excepting  eight  thousand  British  soldiers  under  Cradock, 
posted  in  and  around  Lisbon :  toward  the  end  of  February,  however,  the 
arrival  of  six  thousand  additional  troops,  commanded  by  Mackenzie  and 
Hill,  enabled  Cradock  to  take  a  position  in  advance  at  Saccarino. 

The  situation  of  Spain  was  still  more  discouraging.  Blake's  army  had 
dwindled  down  to  eight  or  nine  thousand  ragged  and  half-starved  men, 
without  stores  or  artillery,  who  with  difficulty  maintained  themselves  in 
the  mountains  of  Galicia ;  the  remains  of  the  army  of  Aragon,  under 
Palafox,  had  thrown  themselves  into  Saragossa ;  a  few  detachments  of 
the  army  of  Castanos  joined  to  a  mass  of  fugitives  from  Somo-Sierra  and 
Madrid,  twenty-five  thousand  in  all.  lay  in  La  Mancha ;  while  ten  or 
twelve  thousand  disorganized  levies  at  Badajoz  formed  a  sort  of  guard 
for  the  Central  Junta,  which  had  established  itself  in  that  city  after  the 
fall  of  the  capital.  The  new  recruits  in  Andalusia,  Grenada  and  Valen- 
cia were  too  ill-disciplined  and  too  remote  from  the  scene  of  'war,  to  be 
capable  of  efficient  action  in  the  earlier  periods  of  the  campaign;  and 
although  in  Catalonia,  fifty  thousand  men  held  Gerona,  Rosas,  Tarra- 
gona, Tortosa,  Lerida,  and  a  strong  central  range  of  mountains,  they 
were  fully  occupied  with  repelling  the  invaders  in  their  own  vicinity. 
Thus,  a  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  men  were  scattered  over  the  whole 
face  of  the  Peninsula,  without  any  means  of  uniting  together,  any  central 
authority  to  compel  their  obedience,  or  any  common  object  on  which  to 
concentrate  their  efforts.  Joseph  reigned  at  Madrid  with  the  seeming 
consent  of  the  nation.  Registers  had  been  opened  for  the  names  of  those 
who  were  favorable  to  his  government,  and  within  a  few  days,  no  less 
than  twenty-eight  thousand  heads  of  families  had,  through  fear  or  apathy, 

26 


276  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXXII 

enrolled  themselves  therein;  and  deputations  from  the  municipal  council, 
the  council  of  the  Indies,  and  all  the  corporate  bodies,  waited  on  him  at 
Valladolid,  entreating  him  to  return  to  the  capital  and  reassurne  the  royal 
functions. 

The  total  French  force  in  the  Peninsula,  even  after  the  Imperial  Guard 
had  departed  for  Germany,  amounted  to  three  hundred  and  twenty  thou- 
sand men,  of  whom  two  hundred  and  forty  thousand  were  actually  in  the 
field.  Fifty  thousand  of  them  protected  the  great  line  of  communication 
with  France,  holding  on  that  route  three  fortresses  and  sixty- four  military 
posts  of  correspondence.  The  northern  provinces  of  Spain  were  parcelled 
out  into  military  governments,  the  chiefs  of  which  repressed  every  attempt 
at  insurrection,  and  levied  contributions  on  the  inhabitants,  not  only  for 
the  entire  support  of  their  respective  corps,  but  in  some  cases  for  the  ac- 
cumulation of  their  own  private  fortunes.  Soult  was  at  Corunna,  with 
twenty-three  thousand  men ;  Ney,  with  fourteen  thousand,  occupied  As- 
turias  and  the  northern  coast ;  Lannes  and  Moncey,  with  nearly  fifty 
thousand,  were  charged  with  the  siege  of  Saragossa ;  Victor  had  estab- 
lished himself,  with  twenty-five  thousand,  in  Estremadura  ;  Mortier,  with 
a  similar  force,  lay  in  the  valley  of  the  Tagus ;  Sebastiani's  corps  observed 
the  enemy's  position  in  La  Mancha ;  St.  Cyr,  with  forty  thousand,  was 
encamped  in  Catalonia ;  and  Joseph  held  twelve  thousand  at  Madrid. 

Neither  this  mighty  array,  however,  nor  the  defection  of  those  whose 
names  filled  the  registers,  drove  the  people  to  despair.  After  the  breaking 
out  of  the  Austrian  war,  the  withdrawal  of  the  Imperial  Guard,  and  the 
encouraging  tone  of  the  English  government,  which  promised  the  aid  of 
Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  with  powerful  reinforcements,  the  inhabitants  of 
both  Spain  and  Portugal  rose  with  new  spirit  to  maintain  the  war.  Gen- 
eral Beresford  received  from  the  regency  the  appointment  of  field- marshal 
in  the  Portuguese  service,  and  undertook  the  arduous  duty  of  training  the 
new  levies,  of  whom  twenty  thousand  were  taken  into  British  pay  and 
placed  under  the  direction  of  British  officers ;  the  ancient  laws  of  Portu- 
gal were  enforced ;  and  the  whole  male  population  capable  of  bearing 
arms  called  out  in  defence  of  their  country.  The  Central  Junta  of  Spain, 
too,  established  themselves  at  Seville,  and  issued  proclamations  calling 
the  people  to  arms,  recommending  a  general  adoption  of  the  system  of 
guerilla  warfare,  and  avowing  their  determination  never  to  make  peace 
while  a  single  Frenchman  polluted  the  Spanish  soil. 

The  French  opened  the  campaign  by  the  investment  of  Saragossa. 
where  Palafox  had  command  of  fifteen  thousand  regular  soldiers  and 
nearly  forty  thousand  stragglers,  monks,  peasants  and  mechanics.  The 
defences  of  the  town  had  been  materially  strengthened  since  the  former 
siege ;  arms,  ammunition  and  stores  provided  in  abundance ;  new  fortifica- 
tions, barriers  and  trenches  drawn  across  the  principal  streets ;  the  houses 
loopholed,  and  a  hundred  and  eighty  pieces  of  artillery  distributed  along 
the  ramparts.  The  investment  was  completed  under  the  direction  of 
Marshals  Moncey  and  Mortier  ;  Junot  after  a  time  superseded  them  ;  and 
at  length,  Napoleon,  dissatisfied  with  the  slow  progress  of  the  siege,  or- 
dered Lannes  to  assume  its  direction.  Under  the  influence  of  these  sev- 
eral marshals,  each  of  whom  strove  to  outdo  his  predecessor,  the  besieging 
army  gradually  approached  the  city,  and  battered  down  its  outer  defences. 

The  contest  now,  as  at  the  previous  siege,  was  waged  from  street  to 
street  and  from  door  to  door,  and  the  French  soldiers,  unable  in  any  other 


1809.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  277 

way  to  gain  ground  within  the  walls,  commenced  a  system  of  mining,  by 
which  they  slowly  destroyed  house  after  house  in  the  extremities  of  the 
town.  Even  these  catastrophes  were  turned  to  account  by  the  garrison ; 
for  the  destruction  of  the  houses  left  the  assailants  without  cover,  and 
they  fell  by  hundreds  before  the  unerring  aim  of  the  Aragonese  marks- 
men in  the  adjoining  buildings.  The  French  engineers,  finding  the  men 
thus  seriously  galled  by  this  destructive  fire,  reduced  the  quantity  of 
powder  in  the  mines,  so  as  to  destroy  only  the  inside  of  the  houses,  leaving 
the  outer  walls  undisturbed;  and  in  these  half-ruined  edifices  the  inde- 
fatigable besiegers  established  themselves,  and  pushed  on  fresh  mines 
and  attacks.  The  battle  was  maintained  in  this  manner  for  more  than 
three  weeks ;  and  the  French  soldiers,  disheartened  at  such  desperate 
resistance,  and  worn  out  with  the  fatigues  of  so  protracted  a  struggle, 
despaired  of  conquering  a  town  where  every  house  was  defended  like  a 
citadel,  and  every  street  flowed  ankle-deep  wiih  the  blood  of  its  assailants. 
"  Scarcely  a  fourth  of  the  place  is  won,"  said  they,  "  and  we  are  already 
exhausted.  We  must  wait  for  reinforcements,  or  we  shall  all  perish 
among  these  ruins,  which  will  become  our  tombs  before  we  can  force  the 
last  of  the  desperadoes  from  the  last  of  their  dens." 

But  while  depression  thus  weighed  on  the  spirits  of  the  besiegers,  the 
miseries  of  the  besieged  were  becoming  insupportable.  The  incessant 
shower  of  bombs  and  cannon-balls  that  fell  on  the  town  had,  for  a  month 
past,  compelled  the  inhabitants  not  actually  combating,  to  take  refuge  in 
the  cellars ;  and  the  confinement  of  such  a  multitude  in  these  narrow 
and  gloomy  recesses,  induced  an  epidemic  fever  which  was  now  making 
fearful  ravages.  The  combined  action  of  pestilence  and  the  sword  de- 
stroyed thousands  every  day ;  no  room  could  be  found  for  interring  the 
host  of  corses,  and  the  living  and  the  dead  were  shut  up  together,  while 
the  roar  of  artillery,  the  explosion  of  mines,  the  crash  of  falling  houses, 
and  the  alternate  shouts  of  the  infuriated  soldiery,  shook  the  city  night 
and  day  above  their  subterranean  abodes..  Human  nature  has  limits  to 
its  powers  of  endurance,  and  Saragossa  was  about  to  yield ;  yet  in  her 
fall,  she  was  destined  to  leave  behind  her  a  name  immortal  in  the  history 
of  the  world. 

Palafox,  finding  at  length  that  famine  was  added  to  the  disasters  of  the 
garrison,  and  that  the  attacks  of  the  enemy  were  increasing  in  vigor  as 
the  patriots  relaxed  their  efforts,  resolved  to  capitulate,  and  sent  his  aid- 
de-camp  to  Lannes  with  proposals  for  that  purpose.  The  French  mar- 
shal, fearful  of  driving  such  a  body  of  men  to  utter  desperation,  conceded 
favorable  terms.  The  garrison  was  marched  out  with  the  honors  of  war, 
and  afterward  conducted  as  prisoners  to  France ;  the  officers  retained 
their  swords,  horses  and  baggage,  and  the  soldiers  their  knapsacks  ;  pri- 
vate property  and  public  worship  were  respected,  and  the  armed  peas- 
antry dismissed. 

When  the  French  troops  marched  into  the  town,  six  thousand  dead 
bodies  lay  still  unburied  in  the  streets,  and  sixteen  thousand  sick,  for  the 
most  part  in  a  dying  state,  encumbered  the  city :  fifty-four  thousand  hu- 
man beings  had  perished  during  the  siege,  of  whom  only  six  thousand  fell 
by  the  sword.  Fifty  days  of  open  trenches  had  been  borne  by  a  town 
protected  by  a  single  wall ;  and,  for  half  of  that  time,  the  contest  was 
maintained  against  forty  thousand  besiegers,  after  that  feeble  wall  had 
fallen  and  the  place  was,  in  a  military  sense,  defenceless.  Thirty-three 


278  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXXII 

thousand  cannon  shot  and  sixteen  thousand  bombs  had  been  thrown  into 
the  town ;  yet,  at  the  close  of  the  siege,  the  assailants  were  masters  of 
but  a  fourth  part  of  its  ruins.  Pestilence,  not  the  sword,  subdued  Sara- 
gossa ;  and  this  memorable  siege  will  live  in  the  annals  of  military  he- 
roism  when  the  other  achievements  of  modern  Europe  shall  have  passed 
into  oblivion. 

Even  this  devoted  city  could  not  escape  the  pillage  and  rapacity  of  the 
French  marshals.  A  contribution  of  fifty  thousand  pairs  of  shoes  and 
eight  thousand  pairs  of  boots,  with  medicines  and  every  requisite  for  a 
hospital,  were  immediately  demanded  for  the  use  of  the  troops ;  and  the 
church  of  our  Lady  of  the  Pillar  was  rifled  by  Lannes  of  jewels  to  the 
value  of  nearly  five  millions  of  francs,  which  he  carried  with  him  into 
France  for  his  private  benefit — to  the  infinite  mortification  of  Madame 
Junot,  who  conceived  that  her  husband  had  an  equal  right  to  the  precious 
spoil,  and  who,  in  her  vexation,  has  subsequently  revealed  the  details  of 
the  shameless  robbery. 

As  both  the  moral  and  physical  strength  of  Aragon  had  been  concen- 
trated in  Saragossa,  its  fall  drew  after  it  the  submission  of  the  remainder 
of  the  province.  The  fortress  of  Jaca,  commanding  the  chief  pass  through 
the  Pyrenees  from  Aragon  to  France,  surrendered  with  its  garrison  of  two 
thousand  men ;  Benasque  and  other  places  followed  the  example ;  and, 
before  Marshal  Lannes  was  summoned  by  Napoleon  to  join  the  grand 
French  army  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  in  the  middle  of  March,  the 
conquest  of  the  territory  was  so  far  completed,  that  Junot  thought  of  un- 
dertaking an  expedition  against  Valencia.  Nevertheless,  the  French 
commanders  had  frequent  occasion  to  learn,  during  the  Peninsular  War, 
that  the  reduction  of  towns  and  fortresses  did  not  imply  a  subjugation  of 
the  inhabitants  of  the  Spanish  provinces.  Early  in  May,  Blake,  having 
recruited  the  numbers  and  greatly  improved  the  condition  of  his  army, 
made  a  descent  on  Lerida.  As  he  reached  the  bank  of  the  Cinca,  he 
surprised  a  detachment  of  eight  companies  of  French  troops  separated 
from  their  corps,  and  made  them  all  prisoners.  Flushed  with  this  suc- 
cess, he  resolved  next  to  att3mpt  the  deliverance  of  Saragossa,  where  the 
French  garrison,  reduced  by  disease,  did  not  now  exceed  ten  thousand 
men.  Junot  at  this  time  lay  ill  of  the  prevailing  epidemic,  and  he  had 
in  consequence  been  superseded  in  the  command  by  Suchet.  This  young 
officer  issued  from  Saragossa,  at  the  head  of  all  his  disposable  forces,  to 
avenge  the  loss  on  the  bank  of  the  Cinca,  and  arrest  Blake's  progress  in 
Aragon.  He  encountered  the  Spanish  general  at  Alcaniz  on  the  23rd 
of  May ;  and  although  he  flattered  himself  with  the  hope  of  an  easy  vic- 
tory, his  assault  was  so  promptly  repulsed  that  he  did  not  venture  to 
renew  it,  but  retreated  in  disorder ;  and  had  Blake  vigorously  pursued 
him,  his  whole  army  must  have  been  destroyed.  His  loss  in  this  action 
exceeded  a  thousand  men,  while  Blake's  scarcely  amounted  to  three 
hundred. 

Before  advancing  upon  Saragossa,  the  Spanish  general  remained  for  a 
while  in  its  vicinity  instructing  his  soldiers  in  the  various  stratagie  of  war, 
and  endeavoring  to  bring  them  to  a  state  of  discipline  that  would  enable 
them  to  act  efficiently  against  the  practiced  veterans  of  France.  At  length, 
on  the  14th  of  June,  he  approached  the  town  at  the  head  of  seventeen 
thousand  men,  and  Suchet  sallied  out  with  ten  thousand  to  give  him  battle 
under  the  walls.  Previous  to  the  commencement  of  the  action,  Blake 


1809.]  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  VJ9 

had  detached  five  thousand  of  his  men  to  Botorrita,  with  the  ridiculous 
design  which  at  that  time  characterized  the  manoeuvres  of  all  the  Spanish 
generals — of  surrounding  the  enemy :  his  force  actually  engaged,  there- 
fore, was  but  twelve  thousand  men.  The  Spanish  soldiers,  though  much 
inferior  to  the  French  in  discipline,  bravely  maintained  their  ground  for 
a  time  against  the  charges  of  Suchet ;  but  they  became  at  last  involved 
in  the  broken  ground  that  covered  their  rear,  and  retreated  with  the  loss 
of  a  thousand  men  and  all  their  artillery.  The  French  loss  did  not  ex- 
ceed eight  hundred  men.  Blake  withdrew  in  the  night  to  Botorrita, 
where  he  joined  the  detachment  he  had  so  imprudently  sent  off  in  the 
morning.  He  thence  moved  to  Belchite  with  his  whole  force,  determining 
to  make  a  resolute  stand,  should  Suchet  continue  the  pursuit ;  and  had 
hardly  taken  up  his  position,  when  the  French  columns  commenced  their 
fire.  Almost  at  the  first  discharge,  a  shell  from  the  enemy  lighted  on 
one  of  his  ammunition-wagons,  and  the  explosion  that  ensued  so  scared 
the  battalion  to  which  the  wagon  belonged,  that  the  men  broke  their  ranks 
and  fled.  The  next  battalion  followed  the  example ;  the  contagion  spread 
rapidly  along  the  whole  line,  and  Blake  was  soon  left  alone  with  his  staff 
and  a  few  officers.  The  Spaniards  ran  so  much  faster  than  the  French, 
that  the  latter  could  take  no  prisoners ;  but  they  drew  their  antagonists' 
artillery  and  baggage  off  the  field  and  returned  to  Saragossa. 

The  siege  of  Gerona,  under  the  direction  of  St.  Cyr,  was  the  next  im- 
portant step  undertaken  by  the  French  troops.  This  town  lies  on  a  steep 
acclivity  rising  on  the  bank  of  the  Ter,  and  terminating  in  a  bluff  preci- 
pice garnished  with  several  forts,  which  constituted  the  principal  strength 
of  the  place.  A  single  wall  fifteen  feet  high  defended  the  upper  town ; 
the  lower,  being  more  exposed,  had  the  protection  of  a  rampart,  wet  ditch 
and  outworks.  Alvarez,  the  governor  of  Gerona,  was  a  brave  officer, 
fully  competent  to  the  task  that  now  devolved  on  him  ;  and  to  express  his 
resolution  of  m*aintaining  the  defence,  he  issued  an  order  on  the  5th  of 
May,  setting  forth  that  whoever  spoke  of  capitulation  or  surrender  should 
instantly  be  put  to  death. 

The  French  commenced  their  attack  on  Monjuich,  a  fort  standing  on 
a  rocky  eminence  north  of  the  town  and  separated  from  it  by  the  valley 
of  Galligau :  it  was  provided  with  bomb-proof  casements,  cisterns*  and 
magazines,  and  garrisoned  by  nine  hundred  men.  The  towers  forming 
its  outworks  were  carried  by  assault  on  the  19th  of  June;  after  which, 
the  breaching  batteries  continued  to  thunder  incessantly  on  the  walls  for 
fifteen  days.  By  the  4th  of  July,  a  breach  was  effected,  and  a  party  led 
on  to  storm  it,  but  they  were  repulsed  with  great  loss.  On  the  8th,  when 
the  breach  had  been  enlarged  by  the  continued  fire  of  sixty  pieces  of 
cannon,  the  attack  was  renewed  with  a  stronger  force,  but  this  also  was 
bravely  repulsed,  with  a  loss  to  the  assailants  of  a  thousand  men.  St. 
Cyr  finding  now  that  the  place  could  not  be  carried  by  assault,  resorted 
to  the  slower  but  surer  operation  of  the  sap  and  mine  which,  after  the 
lapse  of  a  month,  prevailed,  and  the  fort  having  become  untenable,  it 
garrison  withdrew  into  the  town. 

Although  Gerona  was  greatly  exposed  by  the  loss  of  this  fort,  as  its 
guns  commanded  every  part  of  the  city,  the  governor  maintained  his 
defence  with  the  same  resolution  as  before ;  and  on  the  1st  of  September, 
Blake  had  the  address,  in  presence  of  the  whole  French  army,  to  throw 
a  convoy  of  provisions  within  the  walls.  St.  Cyr  after  this  pressed  the 

20 


?80  HISTORY     OF     EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXXII. 

.siege  with  renewed  vigor.  On  the  llth,  he  placed  his  batteries  in  posi- 
tion against  the  fortifications  of  the  lower  town,  and  kept  up  an  incessant 
storm  of  cannon  balls  until  three  large  breaches  were  effected.  On  the 
19th,  the  whole  French  army  was  divided  into  fhree  columns,  and  led  on 
to  the  assault :  but  although  charge  after  charge  was  made  with  the  most 
desperate  bravery,  the  firm  array  of  the  citizens  and  garrison  remained 
invincible,  and  the  assailants  were  forced  to  abandon  the  attempt  with  a 
loss  of  sixteen  hundred  men. 

St.  Cyr  now  resolved  to  reduce  the  place  by  famine,  and  changed  the 
siege  into  a  strict  blockade,  which  ere  long  brought  great  distress  upon 
the  inhabitants.  But  Napoleon  grew  dissatisfied  on  receiving  accounts 
of  St.  Cyr's  slow  progress,  and  he  dispatched  Augereau  to  supersede 
him.  The  latter,  however,  did  not  alter  the  plan  of  attack,  but  patiently 
awaited  the  result  of  the  famine,  and  on  the  12th  of  December,  he  re- 
ceived proposals  for  a  capitulation,  which  he  readily  granted  on  terms 
honorable  to  the  besieged.  The  fall  of  Gerona  terminated  the  campaign 
in  Aragon  and  Catalonia. 

After  the  fall  of  Madrid,  the  Duke  del  Infantado,  who  commanded  the 
army  of  the  centre  which  had  retreated  toward  La  Mancha,  collected 
twenty  thousand  men  at  Cuenca:  and,  so  little  were  the  Spanish  generals 
yet  aware  of  the  immense  inferiority  of  their  troops  compared  with  the 
French,  he  marched  toward  the  capital  in  the  expectation  of  recapturing 
it.  Victor  set  out  to  meet  this  force  with  seventeen  thousand  men.  He 
encountered  and  defeated  their  advanced  guard  on  the  10th  of  January, 
at  Tarancon,  upon  which  the  whole  fell  back  to  Ulces,  where  Victor  at- 
tacked them  on  the  13th.  This  action  was  one  of  the  most  disastrous 
that  took  place  during  the  war.  The  Spanish  army  suffered  a  total 
defeat ;  fifteen  hundred  men  were  slain,  and  nine  thousand  made  prison- 
ers with  all  the  artillery,  baggage  and  standards.  The  French  disgraced 
their  victory  by  inhuman  cruelties  inflicted  in  cold  blood  on  their  pris- 
oners after  the  battle  was  terminated.  A  similar  overthrow  awaited 
the  Spanish  arms  at  Medellin,  at  which  place  Cuesta  had  assembled 
twenty-four  thousand  men.  Victor  attacked  his  position  with  great  im- 
petuosity, and  although  some  parts  of  the  army  stood  firm  against  his 
charge,  the  whole  were  eventually  routed  with  a  loss  of  ten  thousand  in 
killed,  wounded  and  prisoners,  besides  all  their  baggage  and  artillery. 
The  French  loss  did  not  exceed  one  thousand  men. 

In  the  beginning  of  February,  of  this  year,  Soult  received  orders  to 
assume  the  offensive  in  Portugal.  He  accordingly  set  out  from  Vigo,  on 
the  coast  of  Galicia,  and  reached  Tuy,  on  the  banks  of  the  Minho,  on  the 
10th  of  that  month.  The  river  being  deep  and  rapid,  and  guarded  on  the 
opposite  shore  by  Portuguese  troops,  he  found  great  difficulty  in  crossing 
it ;  but  after  meeting  with  a  serious  repulse,  he  finally  made  good  the 
passage  on  the  20th.  This  delay  proved  important  to  the  Portuguese 
cause ;  for  the  fatigue  of  the  French  troops  was  such,  that  Soult  could 
not  resume  his  advance  toward  Oporto  until  the  4th  of  March,  and  was 
therefore  unable  to  reach  Lisbon  before  the  English  reinforcements 
arrived  under  Mackenzie  and  Hill.  On  the  6th,  Soult  overtook  the  rear- 
guard of  a  body  of  troops,  commanded  by  Romana,  and  defeated  it  with 
some  loss;  on  the  13th,  he  captured  the  fortified  town  of  Chaves,  where 
he  left  his  heavy  artillery,  with  his  sick  and  wounded,  and  on  the  17th, 
proceeded  toward  Oporto.  His  inarch  lay  through  a  succe3sion  of  intri 


1809.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  281 

cate  defiles,  and  at  every  step  he  encountered  an  annoying  opposition 
which  destroyed  his  men  and  so  retarded  his  progress,  that  he  did  not 
come  in  sight  of  Braga  until  the  20th.  Masses  of  undisciplined  men 
were  assembled  for  the  defence  of  this  town,  but  they  gave  way  at  the 
first  charge  of  the  French  columns,  and  the  place  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  invaders.  The  French  marshal,  after  a  brief  halt  at  Braga,  hastened 
forward  and  arrived  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Duoro,  opposite  Oporto,  on 
the  28th.  This  city  was  provided  with  some  means  of  defence,  and  the 
hatred  that  the  inhabitants  entertained  toward  the  French,  gave  promise 
of  a  brave  resistance ;  but  the  military  force  was  in  an  undisciplined 
state,  and  Soult  easily  carried  the  town  by  assault. 

Matters  were  in  this  condition  in  the  Peninsula  when,  on  the  22nd  of 
April,  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  thereafter  known  as  WELLINGTON,  landed 
at  Lisbon,  and  took  command  of  the  English  forces.  After  deliberately 
considering  the  relative  position  of  all  parties,  he  resolved  to  proceed 
against  Soult,  and  commenced  his  march  for  the  north  of  Portugal  in 
two  columns ;  one  of  which,  consisting  of  six  thousand  foot  and  one 
thousand  cavalry,  under  Beresford,  advanced  by  Viseu  and  Lamego 
toward  the  Upper  Duoro,  in  order  to  turn  Soult's  left  and  cut  off  his 
retreat  by  Braga ;  the  other,  under  Wellington  in  person,  nearly  seven- 
teen thousand  strong,  including  sixteen  hundred  cavalry,  moved  direct 
upon  Oporto. 

The  British  advanced  posts  fell  in  with  the  enemy  on  the  llth  of  May; 
but  the  latter,  by  a  rapid  retreat,  extricated  themselves,  crossed  the  Duoro, 
and  burned  the  bridge  of  boats  at  Oporto.  The  English  troops  were  soon 
drawn  up  on  the  southern  bank,  and  the  French  battalions  lined  the  other 
shore  ;  but  the  river  rolled  between  them  and  apparently  no  means  of 
crossing  were  at  hand.  Early  in  the  morning  of  the  12th,  General  Mur- 
ray collected  a  number  of  boats  four  miles  above,  at  Avintas,  and  passed 
over  with  a  considerable  body  of  troops.  At  the  same  time  Colonel  Wa- 
ters, with  the  aid  of  three  boats,  effected  the  landing  of  a  hundred  men  at 
the  Seminary  of  Oporto,  who  maintained  themselves  within  the  walls  of 
that  building  until  reinforcements  arrived  to  support  them.  While  the 
French  were  endeavoring  to  dislodge  the  British  from  this  post,  Murray's 
columns  began  to  appear  on  the  extreme  right,  and  threatened  their  line 
of  retreat ;  and  as  the  great  body  of  the  English  forces  were  by  this  time 
in  line  on  the  northern  bank  of  the  river,  the  French  became  disordered, 
broke,  and  fled  in  great  confusion,  abandoning  the  town  and  leaving  a 
large  quantity  of  ammunition,  with  fifty  pieces  of  cannon,  in  the  arsenal. 
The  surprise  of  this  attack  was  so  complete  and  its  success  so  sudden, 
that  Wellington,  at  four  o'clock,  quietly  sat  down  to  the  dinner  prepared 
for  Marshal  Soult,  at  the  French  commander's  head-quarters. 

The  next  morning,  when  Soult  had  restored  order  in  his  ranks  and  was 
deliberately  retreating  toward  Guimaraens,  he  received  intelligence  that 
Amarante,  which  commanded  the  only  bridge  and  defile  over  the  Tamega, 
and  the  only  line  of  retreat  practicable  for  artillery,  was  already  in  the 
hands  of  the  enemy.  This  was  soon  confirmed  by  the  advance  of  Loison, 
who  had  been  defeated  at  Amarante  by  Beresford  on  the  12th,  and  was 
now  in  full  retreat  upon  Oporto.  Soult's  situation  seemed  nearly  despe- 
rate :  the  British  troops  occupied  the  great  road  to  Braga,  and  it  could  be 
regained  only  by  cross  hill-paths,  impassable  for  cannon  and  almost 
equally  so  for  mules  and  horses.  Yet  not  a  moment  was  to  be  lost,  for 


282  HISTORY     OF     EUROPE.  [CHAP   XXXII. 

the  English  pursuing  columns  menaced  his  rear,  and  he  could  hear  the 
thunder  of  their  horse-artillery  at  no  great  distance  behind.  He  there- 
fore promptly  abandoned  his  artillery,  ammunition  and  baggage,  and 
commenced  his  route  across  the  mountains.  On  the  17th,  after  under- 
goJng  extreme  hardships,  he  reached  Montalagre,  passed  Orense  on  the 
26th,  and  on  the  day  following  joined  Ney  at  Lugo,  having  sustained  a 
loss  of  one  fourth  part  of  his  whole  corps. 

Wellington  resolved  to  improve  this  auspicious  commencement  of  his 
campaign  by  an  advance  upon  Madrid.  He  marched  from  Oporto  on  the 
80th  of  June,  reached  Orpesa  on  the  20th  of  July,  where  he  formed  a 
junction  with  Cuesta,  and  thence  hastened  toward  the  capital.  The  forces 
which  now  threatened  the  metropolis  were  veiy  considerable  in  point  of 
numbers.  The  English  were  twenty-two  thousand  strong,  with  thirty- 
guns;  Cuesta  had  thirty- eight  thousand,  with  forty-six  guns;  and  Vene- 
gas,  »vho  was  approaching  from  the  south,  was  at  the  head  of  twenty-six 
thousand  men.  As  soon  as  Joseph  received  intelligence  of  their  approach, 
he  sent  the  most  pressing  orders  to  Soult,  Ney  and  Mortier  to  hasten  for- 
ward their  corps  to  Toledo,  where  he  himself  also  marched  with  eleven 
thousand  men  to  check  the  progress  of  the  invaders.  Having,  by  a  junc- 
tion with  Sebastiani  and  Victor,  assembled  at  this  place  an  army  of  fifty- 
five  thousand  men,  Joseph  resolved  to  assume  the  offensive,  without  waiting 
for  the  three  other  marshals.  He  quickly  defeated  the  advanced  guard 
of  Cuesta,  and  arrived  in  front  of  Talavera  with  his  whole  force  on  the 
26th  of  July.  On  the  27th,  a  partial  action  took  place  between  Victor's 
troops  and  the  British  outposts,  which  ended  disadvantageously  to  the 
French  marshal. 

Early  on  the  morning  of  the  28th,  the  battle  was  renewed  and  main- 
tained for  some  hours  with  great  obstinacy  ;  but  toward  the  middle  of  the 
day,  the  heat  of  the  weather  became  so  intense  that  both  parties  by  com- 
mon consent  suspended  the  combat.  About  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon, 
the  French  again  advanced  to  the  attack,  and  the  battle  now  became  gen- 
eral at  all  points.  The  veterans  of  Sebastiani  and  Victor  fought  with 
their  accustomed  impetuosity,  and  at  intervals  gained  ground  upon  the 
lines  of  the  allied  army  ;  but  they  were  at  length  driven  back  and  forced 
to  retreat  with  a  loss  of  seventeen  pieces  of  cannon  and  nine  thousand 
men.  Wellington's  loss  was  a  little  more  than  six  thousand.  "  The 
battle  of  Talavera,"  says  Jomini,  the  French  historian,  "  at  once  restored 
the  reputation  of  the  British  army,  which  for  near  a  century  had  declined. 
It  was  now  ascertained  that  the  English  infantry  could  dispute  the  palm 
with  the  best  in  Europe." 

On  the  2nd  of  August,  Wellington  prepared  to  march  directly  upon 
Madrid ;  but  at  this  moment  he  received  intelligence  that  the  three  French 
marshals  whom  Joseph  had  so  strenuously  urged  to  press  on  to  his  support 
had,  by  advancing  on  an  eccentric  line — which  they  were  enabled  to  do 
through  the  treachery  or  cowardice  of  the  Spaniards,  who  deserted  the 
pass  of  Puerto  de  Banos  without  firing  a  shot — placed  themselves  in  the 
rear  of  the  British,  and  threatened  their  communications  with  Lisbon. 
Had  the  allied  army,  fifty  thousand  strong,  consisted  wholly  of  British 
soldiers,  and  could  Wellington  have  relied  on  a  junction  and  active  co- 
operation with  Venegas,  who  was  pressing  toward  Madrid  from  the  south, 
tie  might  with  great  confidence  have  moved  at  once  ->n  the  Spanish  capital. 
But  he  had  already  learned  that  his  sole  dependence  in  the  field  was  his 


1809.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  283 

own  army  of  twenty  thousand  men :  the  Spanish  artillery  was  to  a  cer- 
tain degree  effective  and  well  served ;  but  the  cavalry  was  wretched,' 
and  the  infantry,  though  at  times  courageous  in  resisting  a  charge,  was 
incapable  of  important  manoeuvres  under  fire.  In  these  circumstances, 
a  prudent,  defensive  policy  alone  promised  a  chance  of  success ;  but  this 
was  precisely  the  system  which  the  ignorance  and  presumption  of  -the 
Spanish  generals  rendered  them  unable  to  adopt.  Wellington,  therefore, 
to  avoid  being  attacked  in  front  and  rear  at  the  same  time,  deemed  it  ne- 
cessary to  divide  the  allied  army ;  and  he  offered  Cuesta  his  option,  to 
stay  with  the  wounded  at  Talavera,  or  march  against  Soult.  The  Span- 
ish general  preferred  remaining  where  he  was,  and  Wellington  set  out 
from  Talavera  on  the  3rd  of  August  with  his  entire  army,  excepting  two 
thousand  wounded  whom  he  left  in  the  hospital  of  that  town  under  the 
protection  of  the  Spanish  troops.  The  English  commander  nevertheless 
had  the  mortification  to  learn,  a  few  hours  after  his  departure,  that 
Cuesta  had  abandoned  his  post  with  all  his  forces,  leaving  nearly  half  the 
English  wounded  to  their  fate.  At  the  same  time,  he  ascertained  that 
Soult,  with  thirty  thousand  men,  was  pressing  on  his  communications  at 
Naval  Moral ;  he  therefore  altered  his  route,  defiled  to  the  left  over  the 
bridge  of  Arsobizbo,  and  took  up  a  defensive  position  on  the  Tagus,  where 
he  was  immediately  followed  by  Cuesta  and  his  army,  who  dared  not  trust 
themselves  out.  of  the  protection  of  the  British  soldiers.  The  French  forces, 
joined  by  Soult  and  Mortier,  now  amounted  to  sixty  thousand  men ;  but 
they  were  exhausted  by  the  fatigues  of  a  forced  march,  and  as  the  object 
of  their  advance — the  relief  of  Madrid — had  been  accomplished,  they 
manifested  no  disposition  to  commence  hostilities,  and  for  a  time  a  virtual 
suspension  of  arms  took  place  in  that  quarter.  Cuesta  resigned  his  com- 
mand, and  his  army  was  divided,  ten  thousand  being  dispatched  to  ree'n- 
force  Venegas,  and  twenty  thousand  remained  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
English  army,  in  the  mountains  which  separate  the  valley  of  the  Tagus 
from  that  of  the  Guadiana.  The  French  forces  were  also  separated: 
Soult  and  Mortier  occupied  Talavera,  Oropesa  and  Placencia ;  Ney  re- 
turned to  Leon,  and  Joseph,  with  his  guards,  Dessolle's  division  and  Se- 
bastiani's  corps,  marched  against  Venegas,  whom  he  totally  defeated  at 
Almonacid. 

For  nearly  a  month  after  Wellington's  march  to  the  southern  bank  of 
the  Tagus,  his  army  remained  in  undisturbed  possession  of  their  encamp- 
ment ;  but  during  the  same  time,  they  suffered  greatly  for  want  of  pro- 
visions, by  reason  of  the  entire  failure  of  the  Spaniards  to  perform  their 
contract.  Indeed,  from  the  moment  Wellington  entered  Spain,  he  expe- 
rienced the  wide  difference  between  the  promises  and  performances  of  the 
Spanish  authorities.  They  were  willing  to  receive  British  aid  in  repelling 
their  enemies,  and  freely  offered  the  cooperation  of  their  armies  in  such 
undertaking ;  but  when  their  soldiers  encountered  the  Frenchmen,  they 
fled  from  the  field,  and  when  their  allies  needed  food,  they  left  them  to 
starve :  thus  throwing,  and  with  deliberate  purpose  consenting  to  throwj^ 
the  two-fold  burden  of  war — its  cost  and  its  bloodshed — on  the  party  who 
had  no  direct  interest  in  its  prosecution. 

These  causes  very  naturally  led  to  an  estrangement,  and  at  length  to 
a  positive  animosity,  between  the  officers  and  privates  of  the  two  armies ; 
and  eventually,  Wellington,  finding  all  his  remonstrances  disregardedj 
gave  orders  for  his  troops  to  retire  across  the  mountains  into  the  valley 


!i 


284  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXXII. 

•of  the  Guadiana,  and  he  established  his  head-quarters  at  Badajoz  on  the 
29th  of  August,  leaving  Spain  and  her  armies  to  their  own  protection. 

After  Wellington  had  withdrawn  to  the  western  boundaries  of  Spain, 
the  operations  of  the  Spanish  troops  were  for  a  time  confined  to  a  guerilla 
warfare,  in  which  they  gained  considerable  success ;  and  in  fact,  as  the 
British  commander  had  already  advised  them,  that  was  the  only  method 
of  defence  which  the  native  soldiers  were  competent  to  sustain.  But  the 
Spanish  officers,  gaining  courage  from  such  trifling  advantages,  soon 
abandoned  the  cautious  policy  in  which  alone  their  safety  consisted,  and 
assumed  the  offensive.  A  body  of  fifty  thousand  men  assembled  at  Ocana, 
under  the  command  of  Areizaga,  on  the  12th  of  November.  They  were 
here  confronted  by  thirty  thousand  French  veterans  under  Soult,  Mortier 
and  Sebastiani.  Nevertheless,  the  Spanish  general,  whose  ignorance 
equalled  his  presumption,  was  nothing  daunted,  and  he  made  his  disposi- 
tions for  the  combat  in  a  manner  worthy  of  his  military  qualities.  He 
placed  the  left  wing  behind  a  deep  ravine,  which  it  could  not  cross  without 
falling  into  confusion,  and  the  right  wing  in  front  of  a  similar  ravine, 
while  the  centre  occupied  the  space  before  Ocana :  hence,  one  wing  had 
no  retreat  in  case  of  disaster,  and  the  other  could  not  attack  the  enemy 
even  to  insure  success.  Having  thus  disposed  of  his  army,  his  next  care 
was  to  find  a  suitable  position  for  himself;  and  he  made  choice  of  one 
of  the  steeples  of  Ocana,  in  which  he  remained  during  the  battle,  but 
issued  no  orders  for  its  conduct.  The  result  of  such  an  action  hardly 
need  be  told.  Four  hours  of  fighting  sufficed  to  place  twenty  thousand 
prisoners,  fifty-five  pieces  of  cannon,  and  all  the  ammunition,  stores  and 
baggage  of  the  army  in  the  hands  of  the  French ;  the  remainder  of  the 
Spanish  army  was  so  totally  dispersed  that,  ten  days  afterward,  not  a 
single  battalion  could  be  rallied  to  defend  the  passes  of  Sierra  Morena. 
When  the  victors  approached  the  town,  Areizaga  descended  from  his 
steeple  and  fled. 

This  overwhelming  defeat,  together  with  some  minor  disasters  which  fol- 
lowed it,  clearly  proved  that  the  Spaniards  were  incapable  by  themselves 
to  maintain  the  war ;  and  as  they  could  not  be  relied  on  to  form  a  part 
in  any  combined  system  of  operations,  Wellington  perceived  that  the  pro- 
tection  of  Portugal  must  be  his  main  object ;  and  that  if  the  deliverance 
of  the  Peninsula  was  ever  effected,  it  must  be  done  by  troops  who  rested 
on  the  fulcrum  of  that  kingdom.  He  therefore  resolved  to  move  his  army 
from  the  banks  of  the  Guadiana,  where  it  had  suffered  great  losses  from 
the  fevers  incident  to  the  climate,  and  take  post  in  the  frontier  province 
of  Beira,  where  the  troops  might  recover  their  health  and  also  guard  the 
principal  road  to  the  Portuguese  capital,  leading  from  the  centre  of  Spain. 
He  accomplished  this  movement  in  the  beginning  of  December,  and  en- 
camped his  forces  in  the  neighborhood  of  Almeida. 

These  movements  closed  the  campaign  of  1809  in  the  Peninsula  ;  and 
in  order  to  form  a.n  intelligent  estimate  of  the  relative  merits  of  the  British 
and  French  troops  in  the  subsequent  campaigns,  the  relative  advantages 
and  disadvantages  under  which  the  rival  armies  carried  on  the  war,  must 
be  briefly  considered. 

The  British,  in  conformity  to  the  established  mode  of  civilized  warfare 
in  modern  times,  maintained  themselves  from  magazines  in  their  rear ; 
and,  when  compelled  to  depend  on  supplies  from  the  provinces  in  which 
they  were  combating,  they  paid  for  them  just  as  they  would  have  done  in 


1810.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  295 

their  own  country.  It  followed,  therefore,  that  when  the  British  troops 
advanced  into  the  interior  districts  of  the  Peninsula,  any  considerable- 
failure  in  their  supplies,  or  any  blow  struck  by  the  enemy  at  their  com- 
munications, threatened  them  with  total  ruin. 

The  French,  on  the  other  hand,  fearlessly  plunged  into  the  most  deso- 
late provinces,  regardless  of  their  flanks  or  rear  ;  and,  without  magazines 
or  communications,  they  wrenched  from  the  inhabitants  supplies  for  a 
long  period  in  a  country  where  a  British  regiment  could  not,  or  rather 
would  not,  find  subsistence  for  a  single  week.  "  The  mode,"  says  the 
Duke  of  Wellington,  "  in  which  they  provide  for  their  armies  is  this. 
They  plunder  everything  they  find  in  the  country :  they  force  from  the 
inhabitants,  under  pain  of  death,  all  that  they  have  in  their  houses  for 
the  consumption  of  the  year,  without  payment,  and  are  indifferent  re- 
specting the  consequences  to  the  unfortunate  people.  Every  article, 
whether  of  food  or  raiment,  and  every  animal  and  vehicle  of  every  de- 
scription, is  considered  to  belong  of  right  to  the  French  army,  and  they 
require  a  communication  with  their  rear  only  for  the  purpose  of  conveying 
intelligence  and  receiving  orders  from  the  Emperor." 

It  is  easy  to  see  what  immense  advantages  an  army  acting  on  these 
principles,  must  necessarily  possess  over  another  that  conforms  strictly 
to  the  rule  of  equity,  and  takes  nothing  from  the  inhabitants  without  re- 
turning a  full  equivalent.  The  one  is  always  free  in  its  movements,  the 
other  is  often  embarrassed  and  constantly  in  danger. 


CHAPTER    XXXIII. 

EVENTS  OF  1810  J   CAMPAIGN  OF  TORRES  VEDRAS. 

THE  campaign  of  Wagram  had,  by  its  results,  elevated  Napoleon  to 
the  highest  point  of  military  and  political  greatness.  Resistance  seemed 
impossible  against  a  power  which  had  vanquished  nearly  all  the  armies 
of  Europe,  and  contest  hopeless  with  a  state  which  had  emerged  victorious 
from  eighteen  years  of  warfare. 

What,  then,  was  wanting  to  a  sovereign  surrounded  with  such  glory 
and  wielding  such  power  ?  Even  this :  historic  descent  and  ancestral 
renown  ;  and  for  this  one  deficiency,  all  the  achievements  of  Napoleon 
afforded  no  adequate  compensation.  The  present  could  not  always  fasci- 
nate mankind  ;  the  splendor  of  existing  fame  could  not  entirely  obliterate 
the  remembrance  of  departed  virtue :  the  rapid  fall  of  preceding  dynas- 
ties founded  on  individual  greatness  recurred  in  painful  clearness  to  the 
mind ;  and  the  truth  was  too  obvious  to  be  denied  or  overlooked,  that  in 
the  next  generation  an  infant  of  another  race  might  successfully  lay  claim 
to  the  magnificent  inheritance  of  the  Empire. 

With  these  views,  an  heir  to  perpetuate  his  dynasty  became  a  matter 
of  paramount  necessity  to  Napoleon ;  and  he  had  long  meditated  the  di- 
vorce of  Josephine,  and  a  marriage  with  some  princess  who  might  bear 
children  to  succeed  him.  But  he  did  not  feel  the  unconcern  so  common 
to  sovereigns  in  projecting  this  momentous  separation.  His  union  with 


286  HISTORY     OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXXIII. 

the  Empress  had  not  been  founded  on  reasons  of  state,  or  contracted  with 
a  view  to  political  aggrandizement.  It  was  formed  in  early  youth,  based 
on  romantic  attachment,  interwoven  with  all  his  fortunes,  and  associated 
with  his  most  interesting  recollections.  Still,  these  feelings  were,  with 
Napoleon,  subordinate  to  considerations  of  public  policy ;  and,  whatever 
pain  the  severance  of  these  ties  might  cost  him,  he  did  not  for  one  moment 
swerve  from  the  stern  resolution  he  had  adopted.  The  question,  therefore, 
was  debated  in  the  Council  of  State  as  a  matter  of  mere  national  expedi- 
ncy,  without  the  slightest  regard  to  private  inclinations  or  oppressed 
virtue.  It  was  at  length  resolved  to  make  advances  to  the  courts  both 
of  St.  Petersburg  and  Vienna;  and,  without  committing  the  Emperor 
positively  to  either,  to  be  governed  by  the  progress  of  events  as  to  a  final 
decision. 

Napoleon  made  this  heart-rending  communication  to  Josephine  at  Fon- 
tainebleau,  in  November,  1809,  whither  she  had  hastened  to  meet  him, 
on  his  return  from  Wagram  ;  and  though  he  at  first  received  her  with 
kindness,  she  was  not  long  in  perceiving,  from  the  restraint  and  embar- 
rassment of  his  manner,  that  the  blow  which  her  observing  mind  had 
already  led  her  to  forebode,  was  in  truth  about  to  fall  upon  her.  After 
fifteen  days  of  painful  suspense,  her  doubts  and  fears  were  brought  to  a 
conclusion  on  the  30th  of  November.  The  royal  pair  had,  on  that  day, 
dined  together  as  usual,  but  neither  spoke  a  word  during  the  repast ; 
and,  when  it  was  finished,  Napoleon  dismissed  the  attendants,  approached 
the  Empress  with  a  trembling  step,  took  her  hand  and  laid  it  on  his  heart, 
saying,  "Josephine,  my  good  Josephine,  you  know  how  I  have  loved  you  :  it 
is  to  you  alone  that  I  owe  the  few  moments  of  happiness  I  have  had  in  the 
world.  But,  Josephine,  my  destiny  is  more  powerful  than  my  will :  my 
dearest  affections  must  yield  to  the  interests  of  France."  "  Say  no  more," 
cried  Josephine:  "I  expected  this — I  understand  and  feel  for  you — but — 
the  stroke  is  not  the  less  mortal."  With  these  words,  she  uttered  a  pier- 
cing shriek  and  fainted  away. 

A  painful  duty  was  now  imposed  on  the  persons  concerned  in  this 
exalted  drama — that  of  assigning  their  motives  and  playing  their  parts 
in  its  last  scene  before  the  great  audience  of  the  world.  On  the  15th  of 
December,  the  kings,  princes  and  princesses  of  the  Imperial  family  were 
assembled  in  the  Tuileries,  and  addressed  first  by  Napoleon,  who  an- 
nounced his  resolution  and  the  motives  which  led  to  it.  Josephine  replied 
with  a  faltering  voice  and  tears  in  her  eyes,  but  in  words  worthy  of  the 
occasion.  "  I  respond,"  said  she,  "  to  the  Emperor's  sentiments  in  con- 
senting to  the  dissolution  of  a  marriage  which  has  become  an  obstacle  to 
the  happiness  of  France.  The  union  that  he  contemplates  will  in  no 
respect  change  the  feelings  of  my  heart,  and  the  Emperor  will  ever  find 
in  me  his  best  friend.  I  know  what  this  act,  commanded  by  policy  and 
exalted  interests,  has  cost  him  ;  but  we  both  glory  in  the  sacrifices  which 
we  make  for  the  good  of  our  country :  I  feel  elevated  by  giving  the 
greatest  proof  of  attachment  and  devotion  that  was  ever  given  upon 
earth."  But,  though  Josephine  used  this  language  in  public,  she  was 
far  from  feeling  the  same  equanimity  in  her  hours  of  retirement.  She 
was  constantly  in  tears,  she  appealed  in  vain  to  the  Emperor  and  the 
pope  for  protection,  and  her  grief  was  so  violent  and  long  continued,  that 
for  many  months  her  eyesight  became  seriously  impaired. 

The  subsequent  arrangements  were  rapidly  completed.     On  the  same 


J810.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  297 

day,  the  marriage  was  dissolved  by  an  act  of  the  Senate,  the  jointure  of 
Josephine  fixed  at  two  millions  of  francs,  and  Malmaison  assigned  as  her 
place  of  residence.  Caulincourt  and  Maret  were  then  instructed  to  make 
immediate  proposals  to  the  two  courts  of  St.  Petersburg  and  Vienna  for 
an  alliance.  The  former,  in  his  negotiations  with  Russia,  encountered 
delay  and  evasion ;  but  Maret's  advances  were  promptly  met  by  Austria. 
Preliminaries  were  soon  adjusted.  The  marriage  contract  was  signed  at 
Paris  on  the  7th,  and  at  Vienna  on  the  16th  of  February ;  and  on  the  llth 
of  March  the  marriage  was  celebrated  at  Vienna  with  great  pomp  :  Ber- 
thier  demanding  the  hand  of  the  Archduchess  Marie  Louise,  and  the 
Archduke  Charles  standing  proxy  for  Napoleon.  On  the  day  after  the 
ceremony,  the  new  Empress  set  out  from  Vienna,  and  was  received  at 
Braunau  by  the  Queen  of  Naples.  She  there  separated  from  her  Aus- 
trian attendants,  and  continued  her  journey  by  short  stages,  surrounded 
by  the  pomp  of  splendor  and  the  fatigues  of  etiquette,  to  the  neighborhood 
of  Paris. 

The  matrimonial  alliance  of  Napoleon  was  too  important  an  element 
in  the  balance  of  European  power,  to  be  disposed  of  without  producing 
deep  impressions  in  the  minds  of  those  who  might  deem  themselves 
slighted  on  the  occasion.  Alexander,  though  not  anxious  for  the  con- 
nexion, was  piqued  in  no  ordinary  degree  at  the  haste  with  which  the 
marriage  had  been  concluded,  and  he  felt  especially  annoyed  that  the 
hand  of  his  sister  should  have  been  in  effect  discarded,  while  the  propo- 
sals for  it  were  yet  under  consideration  at  St..  Petersburg.  The  event 
confirmed  the  estrangement  of  feeling  toward  Napoleon  which,  on  his 
part,  had  been  some  time  increasing ;  and  this  fact  had  an  important 
bearing  on  the  French  Emperor's  future  career. 

Difficulties  of  some  moment  occurred  about  the  same  time  between 
Napoleon  and  his  brother  Louis,  King  of  Holland.  He  had  long  been 
dissatisfied  with  Louis's  government  of  the  Dutch  provinces ;  for  that 
sovereign,  sensible  that  the  existence  of  his  subjects  depended  on  their 
commerce,  had  done  all  in  his  power  to  soften  the  hardships  they  endured, 
and  purposely  avoided  enforcing  the  decrees  against  English  trade  with 
the  rigor  demanded  by  the  Emperor.  Napoleon  resented  this  disregard 
of  his  orders  by  compelling  Louis  to  cede  to  France  the  Dutch  territories 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  including  Walcheren,  South  Beveland  and 
Cadsand,  which  he  formed  into  a  new  department  styled  the  Mouth  of  the 
Scheldt.  This  exaction  was  followed  by  a  series  of  indignities  which  at 
length  induced  the  king  to  resign  the  crown  in  favor  of  his  son,  Napoleon 
Louis,  after  which  he  set  out  privately  for  Toplitz  in  Bohemia.  His  ab- 
dication took  place  on  the  1st  of  July ;  and  on  the  9th,  Napoleon  issued 
a  decree  incorporating  the  whole  kingdom  of  Holland  with  the  French 
Empire. 

The  Emperor  soon  after  came  to  an  open  rupture  with  his  brother  Lu- 
cien.  The  difficulty  originated  in  the  refusal  of  the  latter  to  divorce  his 
wife,  an  American  lady,  in  order  to  wed  a  princess  selected  for  him  by 
Napoleon.  He  first  removed  to  Rome  ;  but,  being  unable  there  to  escape 
the  tyrant's  persecution,  he  set  sail  for  America.  A  British  frigate  cap- 
tured his  vessel  on  its  voyage,  and  he  was  taken  to  Malta,  but  subse- 
quently liberated  to  reside  on  parole  in  the  British  dominions.  Letters 
from  Joseph  were  about  the  same  time  intercepted  by  the  Spanish  gue- 
rillas, complaining  of  the  rigorous  mandates  he  had  received  from  the 

27 


288  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXXIII. 

Emperor,  and  declaring  a  wish  to  resign  his  crown  and  retire  to  private 
life.  Thus,  while  the  Emperors  of  Russia  and  Austria  were  negotiating 
for  the  honor  of  Napoleon's  hand,  his  own  brothers  preferred  to  take  up 
their  abode  with  his  enemies  rather  than  endure  the  tyranny  of  his  im- 
perious temper. 

The  alliance  with  Austria  having  relieved  Napoleon  from  all  apprehen- 
sion of  Germanic  interference,  he  determined  to  complete  the  subjugation 
of  the.  Peninsula,  and  moved  across  the  Pyrenees  a  large  portion  of  the 
troops  engaged  in  the  campaign  of  Wagram.  His  entire  forces  amounted, 
early  in  the  year,  to  three  hundred  and  sixty-six  thousand  men.  On  the 
20th  of  January,  an  army  sixty-five  thousand  strong,  under  the  nominal 
command  of  Joseph,  but  really  directed  by  Soult,  commenced  operations 
in  Andalusia ;  and  the  Spanish  forces  were  so  completely  broken  in  that 
province,  that  the  invaders  readily  made  themselves  masters  of  Granada, 
Seville  and  Malaga,  within  the  space  of  a  fortnight.  Nothing  now  was 
necessary  to  bring  the  campaign  to  a  close  in  this  quarter  but  the  capture 
of  Cadiz;  and  Victor  hastened  on  10  secure  that  town.  The  Duke  of  Al- 
buquerque, however,  aware  of  the  vital  importance  of  maintaining  this 
place,  pressed  forward  with  nine  thousand  men  to  its  relief;  and,  by 
forced  marches,  succeeded  in  reaching  it  before  the  French  troops  arrived. 
He  immediately  destroyed  the  bridge  of  Zuazo  and  put  the  fortifications 
and  garrison  into  an  effective  condition,  in  which  undertaking  he  was 
greatly  aided  by  the  English  fleet  in  the  bay,  and  by  a  reenforcement  of 
five  thousand  British  and  Portuguese  troops,  dispatched  to  his  aid  by 
Wellington.  These  movements  saved  Cadiz :  and  as  several  members 
of  the  CentralJunta  had  there  taken  refuge  from  the  French  pursuit,  they 
now  convened  the  legitimate  government  in  a  regular  form,  and  continued 
to  administer  it,  in  this  place  of  security,  despite  all  the  power  of  Napo- 
leon. When  Soult  arrived  in  front  of  Cadiz,  he  found  that  it  was  safe 
from  all  approaches  but  a  regular  siege,  and  he  contented  himself  with 
establishing  around  it  a  rigid  blockade. 

This  conquest  of  the  greater  part  of  Andalusia,  was  followed  by  similar 
success  in  Catalonia,  where  the  French  forces  were  commanded  by  Su- 
chet  and  Augereau.  The  latter  general  did  not,  indeed,  display  his  usual 
activity,  and  Napoleon  was  at  length  so  dissatisfied  with  his  progress  that 
he  sent  Macdonald  to  supersede  him ;  but  in  the  meantime  Suchet  had 
overrun  the  province  and  captured  Hostalrich,  Mequinenza  and  Lerida. 

The  forces  directed  against  Portugal,  in  May  of  this  year,  were  very 
formidable.  The  three  corps  of  Ney,  Regnier  and  Junot,  under  the  im- 
mediate command  of  Massena,  amounted  to  eighty-six  thousand  veteran 
soldiers.  A  reserve  of  twenty-two  thousand,  under  Drouet,  lay  at  Valla- 
dolid  ;  and  General  Serras,  with  fifteen  thousand,  covered  the  right  of  the 
army  toward  Benevente  and  Leon.  The  rear  and  communications  of  the 
French  troops  were  protected  by  Bessieres  with  twenty-six  thousand  men. 
To  meet  this  great  array,  Wellington's  entire  strength  did  not  exceed 
twenty-five  thousand  British  soldiers  and  thirty  thousand  Portuguese 
regulars,  in  addition  to  some  thirty  thousand  native  militia ;  but  the  last 
of  these  were  of  no  value  in  the  field,  and  useful  only  in  desultory  opera, 
tions,  while  the  Portuguese  regulars  were  far  inferior  to  both  the  British 
and  French  troops ;  so  that  Wellington's  efficient  force  could  hardly  be 
estimated  at  more  than  one  third  the  strength  of  his  opponents.  Under 
these  circumstances,  the  opening  of  the  campaign  was  conducted  on  his 
part  by  strictly  defensive  operations. 


1810.1  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  289 

Massena  took  command  of  his  army  on  the  first  of  June,  and  imme- 
diately invested  the  fortress  of  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  which  surrendered  to  his 
arms  on  the  10th  of  July,  and  on  the  15th  Almeida  was  also  forced  to 
capitulate.  Wellington  deliberately  withdrew  from  these  two  fortresses 
as  Massena  advanced  to  besiege  them,  because  he  was  not  strong  enough 
to  resist,  in  such  positions,  the  whole  French  army,  and  because,  in  re- 
gard to  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  his  present  duties  required  him  not  to  relieve  the 
towns  of  Spain,  but  to  protect  the  territories  of  Portugal. 

Wellington  therefore  retreated  down  the  valley  of  the  Mondego,  whither 
he  was  followed  by  Massena  on  the  21st  of  September ;  but  at  length, 
finding  that  his  men  were  losing  courage  under  the  influence  of  a  con- 
tinued retrograde  movement,  and  that  the  nature  of  the  country  offered 
more  facilities  for  defence  than  the  ground  he  had  previously  traversed, 
he  took  post  at  Busaco  on  the  26th,  and  determined  to  give  battle  to  the 
French  commander, 

Massena  was  not  ignorant  of  the  strength  of  Wellington's  position  or 
the  danger  of  his  own ;  for  while  lying  at  the  foot  of  the  ridge  of  Busaco, 
he  learned  that  Colonel  Trant,  commanding  ten  regiments  of  militia,  had 
attacked  his  reserve  artillery  and  military  chest  near  Tojal,  and  captured 
the  whole,  together  with  eight  hundred  prisoners ;  and  he  learned,  further, 
that  his  communications  with  the  Spanish  frontier  were  for  the  time  cut 
off  by  the  Portuguese  light  troops.  But  Napoleon's  orders  were  peremp- 
tory for  his  advance,  and  his  situation  was  such  that  he  must  necessarily 
fight  or  retreat.  He  therefore  commenced  an  assault  at  daybreak  on  the 
27th.  The  troops  of  the  allied  army  lay,  during  the  night,  in  dense 
masses  on  the  summit  of  the  mountains,  and  were  not  yet  astir  when 
Ney's  column,  twenty-five  thousand  strong,  approached  their  left  by  the 
great  road  leading  to  the  Convent,  and  Regnier  moved  against  their  right, 
about  three  miles  distant,  by  St.  Antonio  de  Cantara.  Ney's  corps  first 
came  into  action  under  Loison,  whose  division  formed  the  advanced  guard 
of  the  attack.  His  men  pushed  bravely  up  the  hill,  despite  the  utmost 
efforts  of  Crawford's  artillery,  gained  the  edge  of  the  mountain,  and  began 
to  rend,  the  air  with  their  shouts,  when  Crawford  ordered  the  43rd  and 
52nd  regiments  to  charge  from  a  hollow  where  they  lay  concealed.  In 
a  moment,  eighteen  hundred  British  bayonets  sparkled  over  the  crest  of 
the  hill ;  Loison's  soldiers  wavered,  their  flanks  were  overlapped,  and  as 
the  English  infantry  came  to  the  charge,  after  pouring  in  upon  them  three 
terrible  volleys  at  a  few  yards'  distance,  they  broke  and  rushed  headlong 
into  the  valley  below.  Regnier,  on  the  British  right,  met  with  no  better 
success.  His  troops  at  first  gained  the  summit  of  the  ridge  in  defiance 
of  every  attempt  at  resistance  ;  but  when  they  began  to  deploy  in  order 
to  make  good  their  position,  they  were  charged  by  Generals  Leith  and 
Picton  with  such  impetuosity,  that  they  fled  in  utter  disorder  and  with 
great  loss  down  the  sides  of  the  declivity.  Massena,  seeing  at  length  that 
he  could  make  no  impression  on  Wellington's  lines,  drew  off  his  troops, 
after  having  sustained  a  loss  of  nearly  two  thousand  killed  and  three 
thousand  wounded ;  while  the  killed  and  wounded  of  the  allies  were 
scarcely  thirteen  hundred  men. 

The  French  marshal,  however,  did  not  abandon  his  efforts,  but  resolved 
to  undertake,  by  a  flank  movement,  what  an  attack  in  front  had  failed  to 
accomplish.  He  therefore,  on  the  day  following,  moved  by  his  own  right 
through  a  pass  in  the  mountains  leading  to  Sardao,  which  brought  him  on 


290  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [dup.  XXX  III, 

the  road  from  Oporto  to  Coimbra  and  Lisbon.  Wellington,  without  at- 
tempting  to  disturb  him  in  this  march,  fell  back  to  the  lines  of  Torres 
Vedras,  now  completed  and  mounted  with  six  hundred  guns.  Massena 
followed  at  a  slower  pace ;  and,  on  the  7th  of  October,  Trant,  with  the 
Portuguese  militia,  fell  on  his  rear  and  took  possession  of  Coimbra,  where 
were  about  five  thousand  French  soldiers,  principally  sick  and  wounded. 
But  this  disaster  did  not  cause  any  change  in  Massena's  dispositions :  he 
pressed  resolutely  forward  without  regard  to  magazines  or  communica- 
tions, and  on  the  15th  carne  in  sight  of  Wellington's  defensive  position — 
an  obstacle  that  he  was  previously  unaware  of,  but  which  now  rose  before 
him  to  bar  his  further  progress  toward  the  Portuguese  capital. 

The  lines  of  Torres  Vedras,  on  which  the  English  engineers  had  been 
quietly  engaged  for  more  than  a  twelvemonth,  consisted  of  three  distinct 
ranges  of  defence,  one  within  another.  The  first  was  twenty-nine  miles 
long,  extending  from  Alhandra  on  the  Tagus  to  Zezambre  on  the  sea- 
coast.  The  second,  about  eight  miles  in  the  rear  of  the  first,  stretched 
from  Quintella  on  the  Tagus  to  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lorenza.  The  third 
reached  from  Passo  d'Arcos  on  the  Tagus  to  the  Tower  of  Jonquera. 
Within  this  interior  line,  was  an  intrenched  camp  destined  to  cover  an 
embarkation  of  the  troops,  should  that  measure  become  necessary.  Of 
the  three  lines,  the  second  was  incomparably  the  strongest,  and  it  was 
there  that  Wellington  originally  intended  to  make  his  stand  ;  but  the  first 
was  so  far  completed  by  the  time  Massena  reached  it,  that  the  English 
general  resolved  to  undertake  its  defence. 

Massena,  with  all  his  resolution,  paused  at  the  sight  of  this  formidable 
barrier,  and  employed  several  days  in  reconnoitering,  while  his  troops 
were  gradually  collecting  at  the  foot  of  the  intrenchments ;  but  at  length, 
being  unable  to  find  a  single  point  where  he  could  attack  with  a  prospect 
of  success,  he  sent  General  Foy  under  a  strong  escort  to  Paris,  to  ask  in- 
structions from  Napoleon.  In  the  meantime,  Wellington's  army  was  well 
supplied  with  provisions  and  everything  requisite  for  maintaining  the  war; 
but  the  French  troops,  isolated  from  their  communications,  and  finding 
but  little  subsistence  in  the  provinces  they  occupied,  began  to  suffer  f.  om 
famine  ;  and  at  length  Massena,  to  escape  utter  starvation,  was  compelled, 
on  the  14th  of  November,  to  abandon  his  position  and  commence  a  retreat. 

The  moment  intelligence  reached  the  allied  head-quarters  that  the 
French  were  in  motion,  Wellington  ordered  a  pursuit,  and  detached  Gen- 
eral Hill  across  the  Tagus  to  move  on  Abrantes,  while  he  himself  led 
the  bulk  of  the  army  on  the  great  road  by  Cartaxo,  toward  Santarem. 
At  this  town,  Massena  made  a  halt,  and  took  so  strong  a  position  that 
Wellington  deemed  it  advisable  not  to  attack  him  ;  but  he  encamped  in 
front  of  the  French  marshal 's  lines  and  narrowly  watched  his  move- 
ments. It  was  soon  ascertained  that  Massena  intended  to  cross  the  Tagus 
and  march  into  the  rich  province  of  Alentejo ;  but  General  Hill's  vigi- 
lance entirely  frustrated  this  attempt ;  and,  after  exhausting  the  country 
in  which  he  lay,  Massena,  on  the  2nd  of  March,  1811,  broke  up  from  his 
intrenchments  and  retreated  toward  Almeida  and  Ciudad  Rodrigo. 

While  Wellington  was  thus  gradually  driving  Massena  from  his  footing 
in  Portugal,  Soult  had  made  such  progress  in  the  south  as  to  threaten  the 
British  rear.  On  the  22nd  of  January,  the  latter  general,  leaving  Victor 
to  maintain  the  blockade  of  Cadiz,  had  advanced  with  twenty  thousand 
men  as  far  as  the  Spanish  town  of  Badajoz,  to  which  he  laid  siege.  The 


1811.1  HIS  TORY    OF    EUROPE.  291 

ramparts  of  this  fortress  were  of  great  strength,  its  garrison  consisted  of 
nine  thousand  men,  and  it  was  well  supplied  with  ammunition  and  pro- 
visions, so  that  Soult  had  little  hope  of  reducing  it.  But  the  treachery 
of  Iinaz,  its  governor,  relieved  him  from  all  apprehension  on  that  score; 
and  in  a  few  days  the  place,  with  its  magazines  and  artillery,  was  shame- 
fully surrendered  to  the  French  troops.  Soult  now  seemed  to  be  in  a 
condition  to  act  decisively  on  Wellington's  communications ;  but  he  had 
hardly  secured  this  conquest,  when  he  learned  that  Sir  Thomas  Graham, 
with  a  considerable  force  of  Spanish  and  British  troops,  had  planned  an 
attack  on  the  French  blockading  force  at  Cadiz.  The  English  general 
leached  the  heights  of  Barrosa  on  the  5th  of  March,  when  Victor  sallied 
from  his  lines  to  give  battle.  The  French  soldiers  came  on,  as  usual,  in 
columns,  and  for  a  time  carried  everything  before  them  ;  but  the  obstinate 
valor  of  the  British  soon  arrested  their  progress,  and  drove  them  back  in 
confusion  ;  indeed,  had  La  Pena,  the  commander  of  the  Spanish  troops  on 
the  field,  seconded  Graham's  efforts,  Victor  must  have  been  totally  de- 
feated ;  but  that  base  Spaniard,  like  so  many  of  his  countrymen  at  this 
period,  refused  to  act  in  concert  with  his  allies  in  the  very  hour  of  vic- 
tory ;  and  Graham,  disgusted  at  his  detestable  stupidity  or  cowardice, 
withdrew  to  the  island  of  Leon,  taking  with  him  his  own  trophies,  which 
consisted  of  six  guns,  one  eagle  and  three  hundred  prisoners.  This  expe- 
dition caused  Soult  to  hasten  back  to  Cadiz,  leaving  Wellington  to  act 
without  molestation  on  Massena's  retreat. 

Massena  was  enabled  by  his  great  preponderance  of  numbers  to  perform 
this  retrograde  movement,  in  good  order.  He  took  the  route  through  the 
valley  of  the  Moridego,  and  moved  on  gradually  until  he  reached  Colorico, 
on  the  21st  of  March,  where  he  proposed  to  make  a  stand.  But  Welling- 
ton's rapid  approach  induced  him  to  abandon  this  project.  He  retreated 
thence  upon  Coa,  threw  a  garrison  into  Almeida  on  the  5th  of  April,  and 
the  next,  day  crossed  the  Portuguese  frontier  and  proceeded  to  Salamanca. 
Nevertheless,  although  he  thus  made  good  his  retreat,  the  losses  of  his 
expedition  were  enormous.  He  had  marched  into  Portugal  with  seventy 
thousand  men,  and  had  been  subsequently  reenforced  by  nineteen  thou- 
sand ;  yet  his  numbers  were  so  reduced  by  want,  sickness  and  the  sword, 
that  he  now  entered  Spain  at  the  head  of  only  forty-five  thousand  troops 
of  all  arms. 

Wellington  immediately  invested  Almeida;  and  as  the  French  had 
gone  into  cantonments  on  the  Tormes,  he  deemed  it  safe  to  send  twenty- 
two  thousand  men  to  the  south  of  the  Tagus,  to  cooperate  with  the  troops 
which  Beresford  had  collected  for  the  siege  of  Campo  Mayor  and  Badajoz, 
and  he  repaired  thither  himself  to  conduct  the  operations.  When  Napo- 
leon heard  of  this  division  of  the  allied  forces,  he  sent  orders  to  Massena 
to  return  from  Tormes  and  relieve  Almeida ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  as 
soon  as  Wellington  became  aware  ot  the  French  advance,  he  hastened 
from  his  head-quarters  at  Elva,  and  drew  up  his  covering  army,  about 
thirty  thousand  strong,  at  Fuentes  d'Onoro. 

An  engagement  between  the  outposts  and  skirmishers  took  place  on  the 
afternoon  of  May  3rd,  but  the  entire  forces  did  not  come  into  action  until 
the  4th,  when  the  battle  begun  on  the  British  right.  The  attack  of  the 
French  was  impetuous  and  well  sustained  ;  the  allies  gave  ground,  and 
it  was  apparent  that  their  right  wing  must  soon  bo  driven  from  the  field 
unless  they  could  gain  a  new  defensive  position.  In  this  emergency, 

27* 


292  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXXIII 

Wellington  drew  back  his  whole  centre  and  right,  the  left  remaining 
firm,  acting  as  the  pivot  on  which  the  backward  wheel  was  formed. 
Massena  endeavored  to  take  advantage  of  this  delicate  movement,  so 
perilous  in  front  of  an  army  confident  of  victory,  and  he  ordered  the  most 
desperate  charges  of  his  cavalry  to  break  the  British  ranks.  But  despite 
the  onset  of  the  cuirassiers  and  dragoons,  supported  by  a  heavy  train  of 
artillery,  the  English  soldiers  retired  with  perfect  regularity  and  gained 
the  heights  on  the  banks  of  the  Coa.  Massena  made  no  attempt  to  dis- 
lodge this  part  of  the  army,  but  directed  all  his  force  against  the  British 
left.  The  Imperial  Guard  led  the  attack  with  levelled  bayonets,  but  the 
Highland  regiments  met  them  in  the  charge  with  such  surprising  vehe- 
mence, that  the  front  rank  of  the  French  veterans  was  literally  raised 
from  the  ground  and  borne  backward  some  paces  while  suspended  on  the 
Highland  bayonets.  The  battle  terminated  with  this  repulse ;  each  party 
lost  about  fifteen  hundred  men,  and  each  retained  a  portion  of  the  field. 
Massena  remained  in  his  position  for  three  days,  and  on  the  9th,  despair- 
ing of  either  forcing  or  turning  the  British  lines,  he  left  Almeida  to  its 
fate  and  retreated  across  the  Agueda  to  Salamanca,  while  Wellington 
quietly  took  possession  of  the  abandoned  fortress. 

The  reign  of  George  III.  was  now  drawing  to  a  close.  The  health  of 
the  venerable  monarch  had  for  some  time  declined,  owing  in  part  to  grief 
occasioned  by  the  protracted  illness  of  his  daughter,  the  princess  Amelia; 
and  when  at  length,  on  the  2nd  of  November,  1810,  she  breathed  her  last, 
the  anguish  of  the  king  was  so  great  as  to  produce  a  return  of  the  alarming 
mental  malady  which,  in  1788,  had  given  such  concern  to  the  nation. 
Parliament  met  on  the  1st  of  November,  but  deemed  it  advisable  to 
adjourn  from  time  to  time,  in  expectation  of  the  king's  speedy  recovery. 

This  hope,  however,  at  length  vanished ;  for  the  mental  aberration  of 
his  majesty  assumed  a  fixed  character,  and  Mr.  Perceval,  on  the  20th  of 
December,  brought  forward  in  the  House  of  Commons  three  propositions, 
based  on  Mr.  Pitt's  Regency  Bill,  to  the  following  effect.  "  First.  As  the 
king  is  prevented  by  indisposition  from  attending  to  the  public  business, 
the  personal  exercise  of  the  royal  authority  is  suspended.  Secondly.  It  is 
the  right  and  duty  of  Parliament,  as  representing  all  the  estates  of  the 
people  of  the  realm,  to  provide  the  means  of  supplying  the  defect  in  such 
a  manner  as  the  exigency  of  the  case  may  seem  to  them  to  require. 
Thirdly.  For  this  purpose  the  Lords  and  Commons  shall  determine  in  what 
manner  the  royal  assent  must  be  given  to  bills  which  have  passed  both 
Houses  of  Parliament,  and  how  the  exercise  of  the  powers  and  authori- 
ties of  the  crown  shall  be  put  in  force  during  the  continuance  of  the  king's 
illness."  The  first  proposition  passed  unanimously.  The  second,  decla- 
ring the  right  of  Parliament  to  supply  the  defect,  was  carried  with  but 
one  dissenting  voice,  Sir  Francis  Burdett?s.  But  on  the  third,  which  de- 
creed, in  effect,  that  Parliament  should  appoint  the  individual  who  was 
to  exercise  the  royal  authority,  the  opposition  took  their  stand.  The  de- 
bate occurred  on  an  amendment  of  Mr.  Ponsonby,  proposing  an.  address 
to  the  Prince  of  Wales,  with  a  petition  that  he  would  take  upon  himself 
the  royal  functions.  The  appointment  of  the  Prince  of  Wales,  with  the 
title  of  Prince  Regent,  was,  however,  finally  decided  in  the  House  of 
Lords  on  the  29th  of  January,  by  a  majority  of  eight  votes. 

A  negotiation  for  the  exchange  of  prisoners  was  this  year  opened  be- 
tween the  governments  of  France  and  Great  Britain,  which  resulted  in 


1811.J  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  293 

nothing,  by  reason  of  Napoleon's  unprecedented  demands.  Mr.  Macken- 
zie, on  behalf  of  Great  Britain,  proposed  an  even  exchange  for  the  na- 
tives of  the  two  countries,  man  for  man,  which  was  the  only  equitable 
basis  :  but  when  Napoleon  discovered  that  fifty  thousand  Frenchmen 
were  in  bondage  in  England,  whereas  there  were  only  ten  thousand 
British  subjects  in  France,  he  insisted,  as  a  sine  qua  non  in  the  transac- 
tion, that  the  remaining  forty  thousand  should  be  supplied  from  the  Spanish 
and  Portuguese  rabble,  captured  during  the  preceding  campaigns  in  the 
Peninsula.  As  the  effect  of  this  would  have  been  to  restore  to  the  French 
army,  fifty  thousand  efficient  troops,  while  England  would  gain  but  ten 
thousand  ;  and  especially,  as  the  balance  of  forty  thousand  Spanish  and 
Portuguese  could  not  in  a  national,  political  or  military  point  of  view  be 
considered  an  equivalent  to  Great  Britain  for  the  same  number  of  French 
captured  by  her  arms  in  battle,  the  British  government  very  properly 
declined  to  accede  to  Napoleon's  demand,  and  the  negotiation  was  ab- 
ruptly closed. 

The  remaining  memorable  event  of  this  year  was  the  capture,  by  the 
British  forces,  of  the  Island  of  Java,  the  last  colonial  possession  of  the 
French  Empire.  This  noble  island,  in  itself  a  kingdom,  is  six  hundred 
and  forty  miles  long,  from  eighty  to  a  hundred  and  forty  broad,  and  con- 
tained more  than  two  millions  of  inhabitants.  Its  annual  production  for 
export  may  be  rated  at  one  hundred  and  twenty  million  pounds  of  sugar, 
and  five  million  pounds  of  pepper  ;  it  furnishes,  besides,  rice  and  grain 
for  the  support  of  its  inhabitants,  and  yields  a  lucrative  commerce  in  nut- 
megs, cinnamon  and  other  spices.  The  island  surrendered  to  the  land 
and  naval  force  of  Great  Britain,  on  the  26th  of  September. 


CHAPTER    XXXIV. 

PROCEEDINGS    OF    THE    CORTES ;     WAR    IN    SPAIN;     CAMPAIGN    OF    1811    ON 
THE    PORTUGUESE    FRONTIER. 

IT  was  with  feelings  of  unmingled  admiration  that  the  people  of  Europe 
beheld  the  able  and  energetic  movements  of  the  Duke  of  Albuquerque 
toward  Cadiz,  when  he  outstripped  the  celerity  of  the  French  legions  and 
preserved  the  last  bulwark  of  Spanish  independence  from  the  arms  of  the 
invader.  The  subsequent  assembly  of  the  Cortes  within  the  impregnable 
ramparts  of  that  city  promised  to  give  a  unity  to  the  Spanish  operations, 
from  the  want  of  which  they  had  hitherto  so  greatly  suffered,  at  the  same 
time  that  it  presented  a  legitimate  national  authority  with  which  other 
powers  might  treat  in  their  negotiations  for  the  furtherance  of  the  com- 
mon cause.  Yet  from  these  very  events,  so  fortunate  at  the  moment  and 
so  apparently  auspicious  for  the  future,  results  have  arisen  deeply  perni- 
cious to  the  welfare  of  the  Spanish  Peninsula. 

The  Cortes,  in  the  course  of  its  proceedings  in  Cadiz,  wrought  an  entire 
change,  both  in  the  character  and  policy  of  the  government.  The  acts 
and  spirit  of  its  legislation  were  revolutionary  in  the  highest  degree; 
and,  after  a  long  season  of  violent  debate,  the  democratic  party  carried 


294  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXXIV. 

their  own  measures  by  a  decided  majority,  and  embodied  them  in  a  new 
Constitution,  embracing  the  following  provisions  and  enactments.  It  de- 
clared the  Roman  Catholic  faith  to  be  the  religion  of  the  state,  the  su- 
preme sovereignty  to  reside  in  the  nation,  and  the  supreme  legislative 
power  in  the  Cortes.  That  assembly  assumed  the  exclusive  right  of 
voting  taxes  and  levies  of  men  ;  of  regulating  the  armed  force  ;  of  nomi- 
nating judges ;  of  creating  a  regency  in  case  of  a  minority,  incapacity, 
or  other  event  suspensive  of  the  succession  ;  of  enforcing  the  responsible- 
ness  of  all  public  functionaries ;  and  of  introducing  and  enacting  laws. 
During  the  intervals  of  the  session,  the  Cortes  was  to  be  represented  by  a 
permanent  commission  or  deputation,  to  which  a  considerable  part  of  its 
power  was  committed.  The  person  of  the  king  was  declared  to  be  invio- 
lable, and  his  consent  was  requisite  to  the  passing  of  laws ;  but  he  could 
not  withhold  his  consent  more  than  twice  to  different  legislatures ;  and  if  a 
bill  were  presented  him  a  third  time,  he  was  forced  to  give  it  his  sanction. 
He  was  to  hold  the  prerogative  of  pardon,  but  circumscribed  within  very 
narrow  limits.  He  could  conclude  treaties  and  truces  with  foreign  powers, 
but  the  consent  of  the  Cortes  was  requisite  to  their  ratification.  He  had 
command  of  the  army,  but  the  regulations  for  its  government  were  to  ema- 
nate still  from  the  Cortes ;  and  he  could  nominate  public  functionaries,  but 
only  from  lists  furnished  by  that  body.  The  king  could  not  leave  the  king- 
dom nor  marry  without  the  consent  of  the  Cortes  :  if  he  did  either,  he  was  to 
be  held  as  having  abdicated  the  throne.  For  his  assistance  in  discharging 
his  public  duties,  he  could  appoint  a  privy  council  of  forty  members,  se- 
lected from  one  hundred  and  twenty  names  presented  by  the  Cortes ;  but 
these  councillors  could  not  be  removed  except  by  that  power,  and  in  the 
whole  number  there  could  be  only  four  grandees  and  four  ecclesiastics. 
In  short,  all  appointments  made  by  the  king  were  to  be  under  the  dicta- 
tion of  the  Cortes.  By  a  subsequent  provision  it  was  decreed  that  the 
assembly  should  sit,  as  then  constituted,  in  a  single  chamber  :  and  for 
future  elections  there  was  to  be  one  member  to  every  seventy  thousand 
inhabitants,  and  every  man  over  the  age  of  five-and-twenty,  a  native  of 
the  province,  or  who  had  resided  in  it  for  seven  years,  was  entitled  alike 
to  elector  be  elected. 

This  Constitution  was  approved  by  some  and  detested  by  other  portions 
of  the  inhabitants.  Tn  the  principal  towns,  especially  those  devoted  to 
commerce,  the  enthusiasm  of  the  people  on  this  great  accession  of  power, 
was  loudly  and  sincerely  expressed  :  while  in  the  lesser  boroughs  and  in 
the  rural  districts,  where  revolutionary  ideas  had  not  spread  and  the  an- 
cient faith  and  loyalty  remained  uncorrupted,  it  was  the  object  of  un- 
qualified denunciation.  •  Wellington,  from  the  first,  clearly  perceived  and 
loudly  condemned  the  pernicious  tendency  of  these  measures,  not  merely 
because  they  diverted  the  attention  of  the  government  from  the  national 
defence,  but  because  they  tended  to  establish  democratic  principles  and 
republican  institutions  in  a  country  wholly  unfitted  to  receive  them,  and 
because  they  would  sow  the  seeds  of  future  and  interminable  discord 
throughout  the  Spanish  monarchy.  His  opinions,  little  heeded  at  that  time, 
by  reason  of  the  absorbing  interest  of  the  contest  with  Napoleon,  have  now 
acquired  an  extraordinary  interest  from  the  exact  and  melancholy  ac- 
complishment that,  subsequent  events  have  given  to  his  predictions. 

In  the  meantime,  so  completely  did  hostilities  seem  to  be  concluded 
south  of  the  Sierra  Morena,  Joseph  Bonaparte  crossed  that  formidable 


1311-]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  295 

barrier  ;  entered  Seville  amid  the  acclamations  of  the  higher  classes  of 
the  citizens,  who  were  fatigued  with  the  war  and  hopeless  of  its  success ; 
received  from  the  civic  authorities  of  the  town  the  standards  taken  at  the 
battle  of  Baylen  ;  and  accepted  tho  services  of  a  royal  guard  raised  for 
him  in  the  southern  provinces.  The  benevolent  monarch,  deceived  by 
these  flattering  appearances,  indulged  the  hope  that  his  difficulties  were 
at  an  end. 

But  although  Joseph,  for  a  brief  period,  gave  way  to  this  pleasing  illu- 
sion, he  was  not  long  in  being  awakened  from  it  by  the  acts  of  Napoleon. 
Early  in  February,  the  French  Emperor  issued  a  decree  organizing  into 
four  distinct  governments  the  provinces  of  Catalonia,  Aragon,  Biscay  and 
Navarre,  and  charging  the  military  governor  of  each,  with  the  entire 
direction  of  its  affairs.  His  purpose  in  this  measure  was  thus  explained 
in  a  letter  to  the  French  ambassador  at  Madrid.  "  The  intention  of  the 
Emperor  is  to  unite  to  France  the  whole  left  bank  of  the  Ebro,  and  per- 
haps the  territory  extending  as  far  as  the  Duoro.  One  of  the  objects  of 
the  present  decree  is  to  prepare  for  that  annexation  ;  and  you  will  take 
care,  without  letting  fall  a  hint  of  the  Emperor's  designs,  to  pave  the 
way  for  such  change,  and  facilitate  all  the  measures  which  his  majesty 
may  take  to  carry  it  into  execution."  Thus,  Napoleon,  after  having 
solemnly  guarantied  the  integrity  of  Spain,  first  by  the  treaty  of  Fon- 
tainebleau  to  Ferdinand,  and  again  by  that  of  Bayonne,  to  Joseph,  was 
now  preparing,  in  violation  of  both  engagements,  to  seize  a  large  part  of 
the  Spanish  Peninsula. 

Notwithstanding  the  Emperor's  precautions  in  regard  to  his  ulterior 
purposes,  Joseph  soon  took  the  alarm,  and  endeavored  to  protect  himself 
against  his  brother's  encroachments.  But  after  a  tedious  negotiation, 
during  which  Napoleon  created  two  additional  military  governments 
north  of  the  Duoro,  Joseph  became  convinced  of  the  incorrigible  perfidy 
of  the  Emperor — which  destroyed  all  confidence  and  all  ground  of  con- 
fidence both  in  his  faith  and  honor,  as  well  as  in  his  written  and  spoken 
words,  however  solemnly  pledged — and,  drawing  up  a  formal  resigna- 
tion of  the  throne,  he  hastened  to  Paris  and  delivered  the  document  per- 
sonally to  Napoleon,  who  was  greatly  embarrassed  at  this  sudden  and  en- 
ergetic proceeding.  The  Emperor  exerted  himself  to  the  utmost  to  in- 
duce Joseph  to  withdraw  his  resignation  and  return  to  Madrid ;  and  his 
efforts  were  at  last  successful.  The  King  of  Spain  repaired  again  to  his 
capital  on  the  14th  of  July,  1811,  trusting  once  more  to  the  promises  of 
Napoleon,  and,  it  is  almost  unnecessary  to  add,  finding  himself  in  the  end 
as  grossly  deceived  as  ever. 

While  Soult  and  Victor  were  occupied  with  the  blockade  of  Cadiz, 
and  were  constructing  in  front  of  that  city  lines  of  intrenchments  which 
seemed  to  forbid  the  hope  that  the  garrison  could  ever  escape,  unless  by 
sea ;  Suchet  commenced  decisive  operations  in  the  east  of  Spain,  supported 
by  a  covering  army  under  Macdonald.  The  Spanish  forces  in  Catalonia 
under  O'Donnell  and  Campoverde,  were  more  than  twenty  thousand 
strong,  but  they  were  scattered  in  detached  parties  among  the  mountains 
and  defiles  of  that  province,  and,  speaking  generally,  were  in  a  condition 
only  for  guerilla  enterprises.  Early  in  September,  however,  O'Donnell 
secretly  planned  an  attack  on  some  detachments  of  French  troops  on  the 
Ampurdan,  and,  by  a  judicious  combination,  he  managed  to  surprise  a' 
considerable  force,  and  took  fifteen  hundred  prisoners.  Macdonald  was 

21 


n 


296  HISTORY     OF     EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXXIV. 

so  annoyed  at  this  manoeuvre,  that  he  resolved  to  avenge  it  by  a  move- 
ment against  Cordova,  where  Campoverde  had  stationed  himself  with  the 
greater  part  of  his  men.  The  French  marshal  assailed  the  position  of 
Campoverde  on  the  21st  of  October,  but  he  was  unable  to  make  the 
slightest  impression  on  the  Spanish  lines,  and  withdrew  with  some  loss 
to  Gerona. 

Suchet  commenced  his  operations  in  September,  by  the  siege  of  Tor. 
tosa,  which  lies  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ebro,  and  in  part  rests  on  a  ridge 
of  rocky  heights  that  approach  closely  to  the  river.  The  garrison  con- 
sisted of  eight  thousand  men,  and  the  population  of  the  town  amounted  to 
ten  thousand.  Had  the  governor  been  a  man  worthy  of  the  trust  reposed 
in  him,  Tortosa  might  at  least  have  sustained  a  long  siege ;  but,  owing 
to  his  want  of  energy  and  the  extraordinary  vigor  with  which  Suchet 
pressed  the  attack,  it  yielded  to  the  French  arms  on  the  2nd  of  January, 
1811. 

After  the  fall  of  Tortosa,  Suchet  was  for  some  months  absorbed  in  pre- 
parations for  one  of  the  most  arduous  undertakings  in  the  Peninsula; 
namely,  the  siege  of  Taragona;  and  while  his  attention  was  by  this 
means  withdrawn  from  the  scene  of  his  late  victory,  one  of  Campoverde's 
generals,  named  Martinez,  made  a  sudden  attack  on  the  town  and  fortress 
of  Figueras.  This  bold  manoeuvre  was  undertaken  on  the  night  of  the 
9th  of  April,  and  was  so  heartily  aided  by  the  citizens,  that  the  place 
was  carried  with  a  loss  to  the  victors  of  only  thirty  men,  killed  and 
wounded.  About  the  same  time,  Macdonald  marched  fronnLerida  for 
Barcelona  by  the  circuitous  route  of  Manresa.  The  bridge  at  this  point 
was  bravely  defended  by  a  few  Spanish  soldiers,  but  the  French  troops 
finally  routed  them  and  entered  the  town  without  further  opposition. 
When  they  had  passed  through,  the  rear-guard,  with  surprising  barbarity, 
set  fire  to  the  town  and  soon  reduced  seven  hundred  houses  to  ashes, 
among  which  were  two  orphan-hospitals  and  several  other  noble  estab- 
lishments of  industry  and  benevolence.  Macdonald,  who  witnessed  the 
conflagration  from  the  heights  of  Culla,  made  no  attempt  to  extinguish 
the  flames,  but  resumed  his  march  the  next  day,  leaving  the  smoking 
ruins  to  show  where  a  French  army  had  taken  its  line  of  march.  This 
outrage  was  to  a  certain  extent  avenged  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  sur- 
rounding country,  who  assailed  the  retiring  columns  in  the  defiles  beyond 
Manresa,  and  slew  upward  of  a  thousand  men.  The  war  thereaftei 
assumed  a  more  savage  character,  and  the  Spanish  generals  directed  that 
no  quarter  should  be  granted  to  French  troops  found  in  the  vicinity  ot 
any  town  or  village  given  over  to  the  flames. 

Taragona  is  built  in  the  form  of  a  rectangular  parallelogram,  the 
northern  part  of  which  is  perched  on  a  rocky  eminence  having  its  eastern 
base  washed  by  the  waves  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  lower  town  lies 
at  the  southwest,  on  the  banks  of  the  Francoli.  The  number  of  inhabit- 
ants was  about  eleven  thousand,  and  the  garrison  did  not  exceed  six 
thousand  men.  The  principal  defence  on  the  northeast,  consisted  in  a 
line  of  redoubts  connected  by  a  curtain,  with  a  ditch  and  covered  way 
running  from  the  sea  to  the  rocks  on  which  the  upper  town  is  built.  The 
approach  to  the  city  on  the  southeast  is  entirely  flat,  and  protected  by  a 
chain  of  strong  fortifications  including  a  stronghold  called  Fort  Royal. 
The  upper  and  lower  town  were  separated  by  a  rampart  joining  with 
Fort  Olivo,  a  large  outwork  on  the  rocky  heights.  The  place,  in  a 


1811.J  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  297 

general  sense,  was  strong,  but  by  no  means  impregnable ;  and  its  defences 
were  somewhat  aided  by  three  British  ships  of  the  line  under  Commodore 
Codrington,  which  lay  at  anchor  in  the  bay. 

Suchet  made  his  first  serious  attack  against  the  southern  front  of  the 
lower  town ;  when,  finding  his  men  severely  galled  by  the  fire  of  Fort 
Olivo,  he  resolved  to  storm  that  formidable  post.  The  assault  was  made 
on  the  29th  of  May,  in  two  columns,  and,  after  a  desperate  resistance 
the  garrison  yielded  to  the  impetuosity  of  the  French  troops.  This  con 
quest  was  followed  by  preparations  for  an  assault  on  the  lower  town, 
which  were  completed  by  the  21st  of  June,  when  Suchet  ordered  the 
attack  at  seven  o'clock  at  night.  A  terrible  contest  ensued,  but  the  be- 
siegers were  at  length  victorious,  and  carried  both  the  town  and  Fort 
Royal  amid  all  the  horrors  of  massacre  and  conflagration.  The  hopes 
of  Taragona  were  now  centred  in  the  infuriated  multitude  who  crowded 
the  walls  of  the  upper  town,  which  Suchet  prepared  to  storm  on  the  29th 
of  June.  The  conflict  here  was  more  desperate  and  bloody  than  at  any 
other  period  of  the  siege  ;  but  the  slender  garrison  that  remained  could 
make  no  effectual  resistance  against  the  overwhelming  numbers  of  the 
besieging  force,  and  this  last  stronghold  in  Catalonia  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  French  troops.  Suchet  disgraced  his  victory  by  another  of  those 
atrocious  massacres  which  marked  the  bloody  career  of  the  French 
armies  in  the  Peninsula,  and  which  must  ever  call  down  the  execration 
of  mankind  on  the  blood-thirsty  tyrant  who  projected  this  war,  as  well  as 
on  the  ferocious  generals  and  the  brutal  soldiery  by  whom  it  was  main- 
tained. After  the  town  had  surrendered,  these  demons  were  let  loose 
upon  the  defenceless  inhabitants,  and  no  less  than  six  thousand  men, 
women  and  children  were  butchered  within  the  space  of  a  few  hours. 

Suchet  next  invaded  the  province  of  Valencia,  and  laid  siege  to  Sagun- 
tum ;  a  fortress  of  great  strength,  perched  on  the  summit  of  a  rock  that 
is  perpendicular  on  three  sides,  and  accessible  from  the  west  only  by  a 
steep  and  devious  road.  The  investment  of  the  place  was  completed  on 
the  28th  of  September,  and  an  assault,  on  that  day,  was  repulsed  with 
great  loss  to  the  besiegers.  A  second  attempt  to  carry  the  town  by  storm 
was  made  on  the  18th  of  October,  when  the  leading  columns,  after  being 
driven  in  disorder  from  the  breach,  were  reenforced  by  eight  thousand 
grenadiers  of  the  Imperial  Guard,  whose  charge  was  generally  deemed 
irresistible.  These  redoubtable  soldiers  gained  the  breach  without  fal- 
tering for  an  instant,  but  as  soon  as  they  mounted  it,  the  fire  of  the  Span- 
ish infantry,  concentrated  on  them  at  half-pistol  shot,  swept  down  their 
ranks  with  an  astounding  slaughter  and  forced  them,  after  a  brief  strug- 

§'e,  to  retreat  to  the  foot  of  the  hill  with  a  loss  of  half  of  their  numbers, 
n  the  24th  of  October,  Blake  advanced  to  the  relief  of  Saguntum  at  the 
head  of  an  ill-organized  army  of  twenty-five  thousand  men.  Suchet 
marched  with  great  alacrity  to  meet  him  ;  and,  although,  considering  the 
character  of  the  Spanish  troops,  it  was  idle  to  hope  for  their  gaining  a 
victory  over  the  veterans  of  France,  they  withstood  Suchet's  assaults 
with  heroic  valor,  and  retreated  from  the  field  after  sustaining  the  com- 
paratively small  loss  of  three  thousand  five  hundred  men  in  killed, 
wounded  and  prisoners.  The  garrison  of  Saguntum,  despairing  now  of 
relief,  and  being  threatened  with  famine  from  the  close  blockade  main- 
tained by  Suchet,  capitulated  on  the  26th  of  October. 

The  French  commander  remained  for  a  time  at  Saguntum,  to  collect 


298  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  '  [CHAP.  XXXIV. 

reinforcements  from  Macdonald's  covering  army ;  and  in  the  beginning 
of  December,  having  raised  his  numbers  to  thirty-three  thousand  effective 
troops,  he  marched  upon  the  city  of  Valencia,  and  commenced  the  siege 
of  that  capital  on  the  26th.  The  place  was  neither  strongly  fortified  nor 
powerfully  garrisoned ;  and,  after  a  partial  bombardment,  its  governor 
surrendered  at  discretion  on  the  9th  of  January,  1812.  But  this  con- 
quest, though  thus  easily  achieved,  was  not  the  less  important,  as  it 
made  the  French  masters  of  all  that  portion  of  the  Peninsula,  and  placed 
in  their  hands  an  immense  quantity  of  artillery  and  military  stores. 

When  the  retreat  of  Massena  from  Torres  Vedras  had  delivered  *hat 
part  of  Portugal  from  the  Imperial  yoke,  and  the  battle  of  Fuentes  d'- 
Onoro  had  destroyed  the  French  marshal's"  hope  of  retaining  a  permanent 
footing  within  the  Portuguese  frontier,  Wellington  turned  his  attention 
toward  Badajoz.  This  fortress,  though  not  occupying  a  conspicuous 
rank  in  regard  to  wealth  or  population,  was,  from  its  great  strength  and 
central  position,  of  the  highest  consequence  to  each  of  the  contending 
parties :  as  it  formed  at  once  a  base  for  the  operations  of  an  invading 
army  on  the  mqst  defenceless  side  of  the  Portuguese  capital,  and  the 
strongest  link  in  the  iron  girdle,  which  was  intended  to  restrain  the 
British  troops  from  advancing  into  the  Spanish  territories.  Therefore, 
while  Ciudad  Rodrigo  and  Badajoz  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  French 
it  was  impossible  for  Wellington  to  feel  assured  of  the  safety  of  Portugal, 
or  to  undertake  any  serious  enterprise  for  the  deliverance  of  Spain.  He 
accordingly  resolved  to  lay  siege  to  Badajoz,  and  in  the  middle  of  May, 
1811,  moved  his  head-quarters  to  Estremadura,  and  dispatched  twelve 
thousand  men  to  reenforce  General  Beresford,  who  had  already  begun 
offensive  operations  in  the  designated  quarter, 

When  Soult  learned  that  Beresford  was  threatening  Badajoz,  and  that 
Wellington  had  resolved  on  besieging  it,  he  advanced  immediately  to  its 
relief  at  the  head  of  twenty-three  thousand  men.  As  he  reached  the 
heights  in  front  of  Albuera,  he  found  Beresford  posted  at  that  place  with 
an  army  thirty-one  thousand  in  numbers,  but  composed  of  sixteen  thou- 
sand Spanish,  eight  thousand  Portuguese,  and  only  seven  thousand  British 
soldiers;  so  that  the  preponderance  of  real  strength  was  clearly  on  the 
side  of  the  French  marshal.  Soult  determined  to  attack  the  allies  in  this 
position,  and  he  began  the  action  early  on  the  morning  of  May  16th,  by 
an  impetuous  assault  on  their  right  wing,  which  consisted  entirely  of 
Spanish  troops  under  Blake.  The  Spaniards  stood  their  ground  bravely 
for  a  time,  but  the  superior  prowess  of  the  French  veterans  at  length 
overcame  all  their  efforts ;  they  were  totally  overthrown,  and  the  French, 
taking  possession  of  the  heights  where  they  were  posted,  commanded  the 
whole  field  with  a  battery  of  heavy  guns. 

The  day  now  seemed  lost  to  the  allies.  But  Beresford,  with  undaunted 
resolution,  ordered  up  the  British  divisions  from  the  centre  to  regain  the 
ground  lost  on  the  right.  General  Stewart  led  the  column  of  attack 
against  the  heights ;  and,  after  finding  that  the  French  ranks  could  not 
be  shaken  by  musketry,  he  commanded  his  men  to  charge  with  their 
bayonets.  But  while  they  were  deploying  for  that  purpose,  three  regi- 
ments of  hussars  and  Polish  lancers,  which  had  taken  advantage  of  a 
thick  mist  to  gain  their  flank  unperceived,  fell  on  them  with  great  spirit, 
destroyed  one  battalion  and  drove  back  another,  while  the  third  remained 
isolated  on  the  heights  in  the  midst  of  its  enemies.  Reinforcements  were 


1811.]  HISTORY    CF    EUROPE.  299 

speedily  moved  forward  to  support  this  detachment;  Dickson's  artillery 
covered  the  advance,  and  Houghton's  brigade  soon  established  itself 
on  the  heights:  Abercrornby  followed  with  a  second  division,  and  these 
were  presently  joined  by  Lumley's  horse-artillery  and  two  columns  of 
Spanish  troops.  The  battle  was  thus  to  a  certain  degree  restored ;  but 
the  superior  numbers  of  the  French  began  gradually  to  tell  in  their  favor, 
and  Beresford  made  preparations  for  a  retreat. 

In  this  extremity,  the  firmness  of  one  man  changed  the  fate  of  the  day. 
While  Beresford  was  issuing  orders  to  withdraw  from  the  field,  Sir  Henry 
Hardinge  took  on  himself  the  risk  of  one  more  throw  for  victory.  He  di- 
rected Generals  Cole  and  Abercromby  to  charge,  severally,  with  their 
divisions,  on  the  right  and  left  of  the  French,  who  were  now  advancing  in 
one  deep  column  to  drive  the  allies  down  the  declivity  of  the  mountain. 
This  order  was  promptly  obeyed,  and  the  men  moved  resolutely  forward 
to  encounter  thrice  their  numbers  of  the  bravest  troops  of  France.  At 
first,  they  were  staggered  by  the  enemy's  fire  ;  "  Suddenly  recovering, 
however,"  says  Colonel  Napier,  in  his  brilliant  History  of  the  Peninsular 
War,  "  they  closed  on  their  terrible  enemy ;  and  then  was  seen  with 
what  strength  and  majesty  the  British  soldier  fights.  In  vain  did  Soult,  by 
voice  and  gesture,  animate  his  Frenchmen  ;  in  vain  did  the  hardiest  ve- 
terans, extricating  themselves  from  the  crowded  column,  sacrifice  their 
lives  to  gain  time  and  space  for  the  mass  to  open  out  on  such  a  fair  field ; 
in  vain  did  the  mass  itself  bear  up,  and  fiercely  striving,  fire  indiscrim- 
inately on  friends  and  foes,  while  the  horsemen  hovering  on  the  flanks, 
threatened  to  charge  the  advancing  line.  Nothing  could  stop  that  aston- 
ishing infantry.  No  sudden  burst  of  undisciplined  valor,  no  nervous  en- 
thusiasm, weakened  the  stability  of  their  order  :  their  eyes  were  bent  on 
the  dark  column  in  their  front ;  their  measured  tread  shook  the  ground  ; 
their  dreadful  volleys  swept  away  the  head  of  every  formation  ;  their 
deafening  shouts  overpowered  the  dissonant  cries  that  broke  from  all 
parts  of  the  tumultuous  crowd,  as,  foot  by  foot,  and  with  a  horrid  carnage, 
it  was  driven  by  the  incessant  vigor  of  the  attack  to  the  farthest  edge  of 
the  hill.  In  vain  did  the  French  reserves,  joining  with  the  struggling 
multitude,  endeavor  to  sustain  the  fight :  their  efforts  only  increased  the 
irremediable  confusion  ;  and  the  mighty  mass,  at  length  giving  way  like 
a  loosened  cliff,  went  headlong  down  the  descent.  The  rain  flowed  after 
them  in  streams  discolored  with  blood ;  and  fifteen  hundred  unwounded 
men,  the  remnant  of  six  thousand  unconquerable  British  soldiers,  stood 
triumphant  on  the  fatal  hill." 

Beresford,  seeing  the  heights  thus  gloriously  won,  immediately  pre- 
pared to  secure  the  victory  ;  and,  so  utter  was  the  confusion  of  the  greater 
portion  of  Soult's  army,  his  force  would  have  been  totally  destroyed,  had 
not  Ruty  stood  gallantly  forth  in  the  rear  with  his  artillery,  and,  by  an 
admirably  sustained  fire,  checked  the  pursuit  until  the  disordered  masses 
had  gained  the  shelter  of  the  forest  beyond  the  heights.  At  length,  this 
sanguinary  contest  died  away  on  both  sides,  rather  from  the  exhaustion 
of  the  victors  than  from  any  further  means  of  resistance,  save  in  their  ar- 
tillery, on  the  part  of  the  vanquished.  On  the  night  following  the  battle, 
Soult  retreated  toward  Seville,  leaving  the  allies  for  a  time  to  prosecute 
the  siege  of  Badajoz  without  further  molestation. 

On  the  23rd  of  May,  Wellington  arrived  to  take  command  of  the  army, 
and  he  pressed  the  siege  of  Badajoz  with  all  his  energy.  By  the  27th, 

28 


300  HIS  TORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXXIV. 

the  place  was  fully  invested,  and  on  the  29th  the  besiegers  made  an  as- 
sault  on  Fort  Christ.oval,  which,  however,  was  repulsed  by  the  garrison. 
Indeed,  the  fortune  of  war  had  decreed  that  Badajoz  should  not  yet  be 
delivered  from  the  invader's  grasp.  Napoleon,  as  conscious  as  Welling, 
ton  of  the  value  of  this  fortress,  had  sent  orders  for  extensive  preparations 
to  raise  the  siege ;  and,  in  fact,  for  the  ulterior  purpose  of  preventing 
Wellington's  advance  into  Spain,  he  at  this  time  reorganized  his  military 
establishment  throughout  that  whole  kingdom.  The  unserviceable  and 
unimportant  fortresses  were  dismantled  and  evacuated  ;  those  of  conse- 
quence were  strengthened  in  their  works  and  garrisons ;  magazines  of 
provisions  and  military  stores  were  accumulated  at  various  points ;  and, 
for  the  first  time  during  the  war,  a  considerable  sum  of  money,  amount- 
ing in  all  to  forty  millions  of  francs,  was  forwarded  from  Paris  for  the 
use  of  the  troops.  At  the  same  time,  Marmont  was  ordered  to  collect  his 
forces  and  cooperate  with  Soult  for  the  relief  of  Badajoz  ;  and  as  this  com- 
bination, when  completed,  would  place  sixty-five  thousand  men  at  Soult's 
disposal,  against  whom  Wellington  could  not  array  more  than  forty-five 
thousand  including  all  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  troops,  it  became  in- 
dispensable to  raise  the  siege  of  Badajoz,  which  event  took  place  on  the 
10th  and  llth  of  June.  On  the  28th  of  the  same  month,  Soult  and  Mar- 
mont effected  the  junction  of  their  corps  at  that  place. 

Soult,  after  remaining  a  few  days  at  Badajoz,  and  putting  it  in  a  more 
perfect  state  of  defence,  withdrew  again  toward  Seville,  and  Marmont  fell 
back  upon  Talavera;  while  Wellington,  who  saw  that  any  further  at- 
tempt on  Badajoz  would  be  useless,  while  such  powerful  armies  were  at 
hand  to  relieve  it,  planned  an  attack  on  Ciudad  Rodrigo  and  moved  north- 
wardly to  accomplish  that  undertaking.  His  preparations  were  made 
with  great  skill  and  profound  secrecy ;  and  for  a  time  seemed  to  promise 
success.  But  the  delay  that  occurred  in  transporting  his  heavy  artillery, 
eventually  caused  the  discovery  of  his  purpose,  and  Marmont,  with  sixty 
thousand  men,  hastened  down  the  valley  of  the  Tagus  to  oppose  him. 
This  movement  prevented  Wellington  from  prosecuting  the  siege,  yet  the 
approximation  of  two  powerful  armies  led  to  the  belief  that  a  pitched  bat- 
tle would  immediately  take  place.  But  Wellington's  inferiority  of  num- 
bers was  a  sufficient  reason  for  his  not  assuming  the  offensive ;  and,  as 
Marmont  failed  to  attack,  the  crisis  passed  over  without  any  momentous 
occurrence.  Some  changes  of  position  and  some  hostile  demonstrations 
followed,  but  at  length  the  armies  both  withdrew,  and  went  into  canton- 
ments toward  the  end  of  September. 

This  concluded  the  campaign  of  1811,  so  far  as  the  operations  of  the 
principal  armies  were  concerned,  though  some  affairs  of  relative  import* 
ance  occurred  between  detached  bodies  of  the  contending  powers. 


CHAPTER    XXXV. 

% 

WELLINGTON'S  INVASION  OF  SPAIN,  1812. 

IN  the  month  of  December,  1811.  the  French  armies,  in  order  to  estab- 
lish eligible  winter-quarters  and  canton  themselves  in  districts  where 
provisions  might  more  readily  be  obtained,  were  so  scattered  through  the 
regions  of  the  Upper  Tagus  and  the  Duoro,  that  Ciudad  Rodrigo  was  for 
the  time  entirely  abandoned  to  its  own  resources,  and  Wellington  took 
advantage  of  this  posture  of  affairs  to  renew  his  attempts  on  that  fortress. 
To  conceal  his  design,  he  ordered  Hill  to  assume  the  offensive  in  Estre- 
madura  :  and  that  enterprising  officer  discharged  this  duty  so  effectually 
that  Soult,  believing  that  the  siege  of  Badajoz  was  about  to  be  undertaken, 
directed  all  his  forces  throughout  Andalusia  to  concentrate  in  that  quar- 
ter, at  the  very  moment  when  Wellington  was  completing  his  final  pre> 
parations  against  Ciudad  Rodrigo. 

On  the  8th  of  January,  1812,  the  British  light  divisions  crossed  the 
Agueda  and  commenced  the  investment  of  the  fortress ;  in  the  evening  of 
that  day,  they  carried  by  assault  an  advanced  redoubt  on  the  great  Teson, 
and,  on  the  day  following,  established  the  first  parallel :  on  the  13th,  the 
accumulation  of  forces  enabled  the  besiegers  to  storm  the  Convent  of 
Santa  Cruz.  The  garrison,  alarmed  at  this  rapid  progress,  made  a  vigor- 
ous sortie  on  the  14th  of  January,  but  without  seriously  retarding  the 
approaches ;  on  the  same  afternoon  the  besieging  batteries  were  opened, 
and  at  night  the  fortified  Convent  of  San  Francesco,  which  flanked  the 
right  of  the  trenches,  was  carried  by  a  gallant  escalade  of  the  46th  regi- 
ment. For  three  days  the  breaching  batteries  played  on  the  ramparts 
with  the  most  destructive  effect,  while  the  cannon  of  the  town  replied  with 
unabated  spirit ;  and  on  the  18th,  two  breaches  having  been  declared 
practicable,  Wellington  summoned  the  place.  The  governor  refused  to 
surrender,  and  preparations  were  immediately  made  for  the  assault. 

The  perilous  honor  of  this  attack  fell  on  the  divisions  of  Generals 
McKinnon  and  Vandeleur,  whose  turn  of  duty  placed  them  on  that  day  in 
the  trenches.  The  storming  parties  received  orders  not  to  fire  a  shot,  but 
push  on  with  the  bayonet ;  the  bearers  of  the  sand-bags,  ladders,  and  other 
engines  of  assault  were  not  even  armed,  lest  any  irregular  skirmish  should 
interfere  with  their  particular  duties  in  smoothing  the  way  for  the  other 
troops.  The  preparations  of  the  garrison,  however,  were  very  formida- 
ble: bombs  and  hand-grenades,  ready  to  be  rolled  down  on  tne  assailants, 
lined  the  top  of  the  breaches ;  bags  of  powder  were  disposed  among  the 
ruins  to  explode  when  the  besiegers  began  to  ascend  the  slopes  ;  two 
heavy  guns,  charged  with  grape,  flanked  the  summit  of  the  larger  breach, 
and  a  mine  was  prepared  under  it,  to  be  fired  if  the  other  defences  failed. 
But  all  these  obstacles  failed  to  daunt  the  British  troops,  and  the  last  words 
of  Wellington's  orders  for  the  day  breathed  the  spirit  of  the  whole  army: 
"  Ciudad  Rodrigo  must  be  carried  by  assault  this  evening  at  seven  o'clock." 

The  evening  was  clear  and  tranquil  ;  and  the  moon,  in  her  first  quar- 
ter, diffused  a  doubtful  light  which,  without  disclosing  particular  objects, 
rendered  their  rude  outlines  distinctly  visible.  The  projecting  bastions 


30-2  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXXV. 

stood  forth  like  giants  in  the  gloom,  darkly,  yet  clearly  defined  on  the  ad- 
joining  shadows;  while  in  their  sides,  yawning  gulfs  half  filled  with  ruins, 
showed  where  the  breaches  had  been  made  and  the  deadly  strife  was  to 
take  place.  The  trenches  of  the  besiegers  were  crowded  with  armed 
men,  among  whom  not  a  whisper  could  be  heard  nor  a  movement  seen; 
so  completely  had  discipline  and  the  absorbing  anxiety  of  the  moment 
subdued  every  unruly  feeling  and  stilled  every  dauntless  heart.  As  the 
great  clock  of  the  cathedral  tolled  seven,  the  word  passed  softly  along  that 
all  was  ready ;  when  the  men  leaped  from  their  trenches  and  rushed  for- 
ward to  the  storm-,  led  by  their  respective  forlorn  hopes.  The  garrison 
bravely  disputed  every  inch  of  ground,  but  the  besiegers,  with  a  steady 
progress,  and  in  despite  of  a  murderous  fire  from  all  points  of  the  ram- 
parts, carried  everything  before  them,  and,  not  long  after  midnight,  the 
fortress  was  in  the  undisputed  possession  of  the  allies. 

The  disorder  and  outrage,  which  to  a  certain  extent  are  inseparable 
from  the  successful  storming  of  a  town,  followed  the  capture  of  Ciudad 
Rodrigo;  but  there  was  this  essential  difference  between  the  excesses 
committed,  on  such  occasions,  by  the  British  and  the  French  troops. 
The  latter,  wi:h  deliberate  purpose  and  express  permission,  added  to 
their  pillage  and  rapine,  the  horrors  of  an  indiscriminate  violation  and 
massacre  in  cold  blood;  the  former,  yielding  to  their  national  vice, 
intemperance,  broke  open  every,  receptacle  of  liquors  and  wines,  in  defi- 
ance of  the  strictest  commands  of  their  officers,  and,  under  the  excite- 
ment of  intoxication,  pillaged  churches  and  set  houses  on  fire  :  but  this 
was  done  only  in  a  limited  degree  ;  the  more  orderly  troops  exerted 
themselves  successfully  to  arrest  the  progress  of  the  flames,  and  not  one 
unresisting  citizen  of  whatever  age  or  condition  was  slain. 

When  Wellington  had  repaired  the  defences  of  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  he, 
with  great  dispatch  and  secrecy,  undertook  a  similar  expedition  against 
Badajoz,  which  place  he  completely  invested  by  the  17th  of  March  ;  and, 
in  this  case,  as  in  the  siege  of  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  he  so  effectually  concealed 
his  intentions  by  threatening  movements  in  other  quarters,  that  the  cover- 
ing forces  of  Soult  and  Marmont  were  wholly  withdrawn  from  that  vicinity 
when  he  commenced  the  siege.  The  approaches  were  at  first  delayed 
by  a  storm  of  rain,  which  continued  for  some  days,  and  so  saturated  the 
ground  that  it  could  not  be  cut  into  any  regular  form ;  but  on  the  25th, 
the  breaching  batteries  were  opened  on  an  outwork  called  Fort  Picurina, 
and  the  storming  party,  following  up  the  devastation  made  by  the  heavy 
guns,  carried  this  post  the  same  evening.  The  cannon  were  now  advanced 
to  the  fort,  and  commenced  their  fire  directly  on  the  ramparts  of  the  town. 
After  a  cannonade  of  five  days,  three  breaches  were  effected  and  declared 
/practicable,  and  a  strong  force,  divided  into  several  columns,  commenced 
the  assault.  The  besiegers  made  their  onset  with  desperate  fury;  but 
the  governor,  Philippon,  was  so  well  prepared  for  th  ir  reception,  that, 
after  a  struggle  unparalleled  for  its  obstinacy  and  slaughter,  Wellington 
was  forced  to  recall  the  divisions,  and  prepare  fora  new  attack.  No  less 
than  two  thousand  men  had  fallen  in  and  around  the  breaches. 

While  this  tremendous  conflict  was  in  progress,  Picton  had  led  his 
division  around  to  the  foot  of  the  rocks  on  which  stood  the  castle,  at  an 
elevation  of  more  than  a  hundred  feet  from  the  level  of  the  Guadiana; 
and  he  proposed,  while  the  attention  of  the  garrison  was  drawn  to  the 
assault  at  the  breaches,  to  scale  the  rocks  and  make  himself  master  of 


1812.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  303 

this  stronghold  in  the  rear.  His  advance,  however,  was  discovered, 
and  he  had  not  only  to  scale  a  precipice,  but  also  to  contend  against 
every  description  of  missile,  combined  with  a  storm  of  musketry,  i.i  his 
ascent.  His  troops  were  at  first  so  completely  swept  off  by  these  various 
projectiles,  that,  at  three  several  times,  not  one  man  remained  on  the  lad- 
ders:  but  he  still  persevered,  and  at  length,  in  defiance  of  every  impedi- 
ment, his  grenadiers  gained  the  summit  of  the  rocks,  forced  the  castle,  and 
firmly  established  themselves  within  its  walls.  About  the  same  time, 
Walker  made  a  successful  attempt  to  escalade  the  bastion  of  San  Vin- 
cente ;  his  whole  brigade  carried  that  post  by  storm,  and  Philippon, 
seeing  that  further  resistance  was  unavailing,  surrendered  at  discretion. 

By  the  capture  of  Ciudad  Rodrigo  and  Badajoz,  Wellington  gained 
possession  of  three  hundred  and  twenty  pieces  of  heavy  artillery,  five 
thousand  prisoners,  and  an  immense  quantity  of  military  stores ;  but, 
what  was  of  far  more  importance,  he  had  also  gained  the  mastery  over 
the  French  generals ;  their  two  border-fortresses,  alike  a  barrier  for 
defensive,  and  a  base  for  offensive  operations,  were  reduced,  and  a  path 
into  the  heart  of  Spain  lay  open  to  the  British  army.  The  ungovernable 
wrath  of  Napoleon,  which  was  poured  on  the  heads  of  his  marshals  when 
he  heard  of  these  disasters,  caused  a  mutual  irritation  and  a  disunion  of 
purpose,  that  had  a  sinister  influence  on  the  French  operations  during  the 
remainder  of  the  war. 

These  two  victories  loosened  the  whole  fabric  of  the  French  power  in 
Spain,  and  Wellington  now  hesitated  whether  to  deliver  his  next  blow 
against  Marmont  in  the  north,  or  Jourdan  in  the  centre  of  that  kingdom. 
He  finally  decided  that,  as  the  vital  point  was  on  the  line  of  communi- 
cation between  Bayonne  and  Madrid,  his  wiser  course  would  be  to  move 
against  Marmont;  and  he  immediately  commenced  preparations  for  this 
expedition.  His  first  care  was  to  recruit  and  reorganize  his  army,  which 
had  suffered  severely  by  fatigue,  disease  and  the  sword ;  his  next,  to  put 
the  newly  captured  fortresses  into  a  complete  state  of  defence,  by  repair- 
ing their  fortifications,  strengthening  their  garrisons,  and  supplying  their 
magazines. 

At  length,  all  things  being  in  readiness,  he  crossed  the  Agueda  on  the 
13th  of  June  ;  on  the  17th,  he  reached  Salamanca,  and  passed  over  the 
Tormes  in  four  columns  by  the  fords  of  Santa  Martha  and  Los  Cantos. 
Marmont  retired  as  the  British  commander  advanced,  after  throwing  gar- 
risons into  the  forts  of  Salamanca  and  the  castle  of  Alba  de  Tormes. 
Then  was  seen  the  profound  hatred  which  the  Spaniards  entertained  to- 
ward their  Gallic  oppressors,  and  the  vast  amount  of  injury  which  they 
had  sustained  at  their  hands.  Salamanca  instantly  became  one  scene  of 
rejoicing.  The  houses  were  illuminated,  the  people  alternately  sang  and 
wept  for  joy,  and  the  British  army,  passing  in  triumph  through  the  shout- 
ing crowd,  took  post  on  the  hill  of  San  Christoval,  about  three  miles  beyond 
the  town.  It  is  no  wonder  that  the  inhabitants  evinced  such  joy  at  thoir 
deliverance  from  a  bondage  of  four  years.  Independent  of  innumerable 
acts  of  extortion  and  oppression,  the  French  had  destroyed  thirteen  of 
twenty-five  convents,  and  twenty-two  of  twenty-five  colleges  in  that  cele- 
brated seat  of  learning ;  the  stones  of  which  edifices  were  built  up  into 
three  forts,  that  now,  in  a  military  point  of  view,  constituted  the  strength 
of  the  place. 

Wellington  presently  directed  his  attention  to  the  capture  of  these 

28* 


304  HISTORY     OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.   XXXV. 

forts,  which  were  reduced  on  the  27th  of  June,  after  a  brave  defence  by 
their  several  garrisons.  When  the  forts  surrendered,  Marmont,  who  had 
advanced  with  his  whole  force  to  their  relief,  withdrew  behind  the  Duoro, 
and  occupied  the  fortified  bridges  of  Zamora,  Toro,  and  Tordesillas, 
which  commanded  the  principal  passages  of  that  river.  Wellington  pur. 
sued  the  French  army  as  far  as  the  southern  bank  of  the  Duoro,  and  made 
preparations  for  crossing,  but  he  found  the  French  position  so  strong,  that 
he  abandoned  his  design  ;  and  as,  in  the  meantime,  Marmont  had  received 
large  reinforcements,  and  was  now  evidently  taking  measures  to  cut  off 
his  communications  with  Salamanca,  the  British  general  deemed  it  advi- 
sable to  fall  back  to  his  original  position  in  front  of  that  city.  Marmont 
followed  this  retrograde  movement  on  a  line  parallel  to  Wellington's 
route,  and  for  two  days  the  hostile  columns  marched  not  only  in  sight,  but 
within  half  musket  shot  of  each  other;  yet  the  respective  forces  were  so 
perfectly  disciplined,  that,  during  this  novel  and  exciting  proximity,  every 
evolution  was  performed  with  field-day  precision ;  and  they  were,  be- 
sides, so  nearly  matched  in  strength,  that  neither  general  was  disposed  to 
commence  an  attack,  until  some  contingency  should  enable  him  to  do  so 
with  advantage. 

As  the  two  armies  approached  Salamanca,  on  the  20th  of  July,  Wel- 
lington took  post  on  his  old  ground,  the  heights  of  San  Christoval ;  while 
Marmont  extended  his  left  wing  toward  the  great  road  which  leads  to 
Ciudad  Rodrigo.  But  the  British  general  soon  found  good  cause  for  re- 
treat; as  Jourdan  was  rapidly  approaching  to  form  a  junction  with  Mar- 
mont, which  would  raise  the  French  forces  to  nearly  seventy  thousand 
men.  He  therefore  changed  his  position  to  the  ground  extending  from 
two  rocky  heights,  called  the  Arapeiles,  to  the  Tormes  below  the  fords  of 
Santa  Martha.  At  this  juncture,  Marmont  took  a  step  that  arrested  the 
allies'  retreat.  He  considered  that  Jourdan,  being  the  senior  marshal, 
would  on  his  arrival  supersede  him  in  the  command,  and  bear  off  the  glory 
of  a  victory :  moreover,  he  was  induced  by  Wellington's  apparent  readi- 
ness to  retreat,  to  underrate  the  qualities  of  that  general,  and  he  argued 
that  it  would  be  far  better  for  him  to  reap  the  triumph  which  his  own  skil- 
ful manoeuvres  had  already  prepared,  than  yield  the  bright  rewards  of  his 
toil  to  a  rival.  He  therefore  resolved  to  attack  the  allied  forces  without 
further  delay ;  and,  with  this  view,  observing  that  Wellington  had  not 
yet  taken  possession  of  the  two  heights  of  the  Arapeiles,  he  pushed  for- 
ward a  body  of  infantry  through  a  wood,  and  gained  one  of  them  without 
opposition,  which  at  once  placed  him  on  the  flank  of  the  allied  lines.  He 
then  ordered  a  detachment  to  occupy  the  adjoining  height ;  but  the  British, 
who  were  unprepared  for  the  first  movement,  anticipated  him  in  this,  and 
covered  the  post  with  a  force  sufficient  to  maintain  it. 

Nevertheless,  the  acquisition  by  the  French  of  the  more  distant  Ara- 
peiles, rendered  another  change  of  position  necessary  on  the  part  of  the 
allies  ;  and,  while  this  was  in  progress,  Marmont,  conceiving  that  Wel- 
lington had  begun  a  retreat  from  the  field,  threw  forward  his  left  wing 
under  Thomiere  with  such  imprudent  haste  as  to  separate  it  from  the  re- 
quisite support  of  the  centre.  The  instant  that  Wellington  saw  this  false 
movement,  he  turned  to  the  Spanish  general,  Alava,  saying,  "  Marmont 
is  lost !"  and  immediately  ordered  his  right,  under  Pakenham,  to  advance 
against  Thomiere.  The  British  troops  sprang  forward  at  the  word,  and, 
by  an  impetuous  charge,  overthrew  Thomiere's  entire  column,  killing  its 


1812.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  305 

commander,  and  making  three  thousand  prisoners.  A  second  British 
division  now  came  on  against  Clausel,  who  was  hastening  to  Thorniere'g 
support,  but  who  arrived  only  in  time  to  share  his  defeat :  the  whole  mass 
broke  at  the  first  charge,  and  fled  from  the  ground,  leaving  two  thousand 
prisoners  in  the  hands  of  the  victors. 

Meantime,  a  bloody  contest  was  going  on  in  the  centre,  with  more  doubt- 
ful success.  Pack,  at  the  head  of  the  Portuguese,  attempted  to  carry  the 
French  Arapeiles,  but  after  bravely  gaining  the  summit  of  the  height,  he 
was  forced  down  in  confusion  and  with  great  loss,  and  the  disorder  of  this 
corps,  having  reached  the  division  advancing  to  its  support,  threatened 
for  a  time  to  change  the  fate  of  the  battle.  Wellington  and  Beresford, 
however,  led  on  their  reserves  ;  and,  taking  the  French  columns  in  flank, 
while  they  were  incautiously  pursuing  Pack's  division,  forced  the  whole 
mass  to  a  disastrous  retreat.  Wellington  now  ordered  a  general  pursuit, 
but  the  approach  of  night  anji  a  misapprehension  as  to  the  route  of  Mar- 
mont's  troops,  saved  the  defeated  army  from  any  further  loss  than  they  had 
sustained  on  the  field.  The  killed  and  wounded  on  the  part  of  the  allies, 
amounted  to  five  thousand  two  hundred  men ;  of  whom  three  thousand  one 
hundred  and  seventy-four  were  British ;  two  thousand  and  eighteen,  Por- 
tuguese ;  and  eight,  Spanish.  The  French  loss  in  the  battle  exceeded 
fourteen  thousand  men,  including  seven  thousand  prisoners,  besides  two 
eagles,  six  standards  and  eleven  pieces  of  cannon :  and  during  their  re- 
treat, owing  to  Marmont's  negligence  in  not  providing  magazines  for  such 
a  contingency,  nearly  eight  thousand  men  straggled  from  the  ranks  in 
search  of  food,  and  were  for  the  time  lost  to  the  army  ;  so  that  the  French 
force  actually  suffered  a  reduction  of  twenty-two  thousand  men,  by  the 
battle  of  Salamanca.  Marmont  continued  his  retreat  to  Valladolid, 
where  he  arrived  on  the  26th  of  July :  and  Wellington,  after  vainly  en- 
deavoring to  overtake  him,  moved  against  the  central  army  of  Madrid. 

King  Joseph,  however,  who  in  effect  directed  the  movements  of  this 
army,  although  Jourdan  was  its  leader,  felt  himself  in  no  condition  to  face 
the  conqueror  of  Salamanca,  and  retreated  rapidly  upon  the  capital. 
Wellington  pursued  with  equal  celerity,  and  when  his  advanced  guard 
approached  the  town,  on  the  llth  of  August,  Joseph  with  his  court  re- 
tired  to  Toledo,  followed  by  his  troops.  Crowds  ofpeople  from  all  quar- 
ters now  hastened  to  Madrid  to  witness  the  entrance  of  their  deliverers, 
and  long  before  the  British  soldiers  could  be  seen  on  the  Guadarama, 
every  balcony,  window  and  door  was  thronged  with  the  eager  multitude. 
No  words  can  express  the  enthusiasm  that  prevailed,  when  the  British 
standard  appeared  in  the  distance,  and  the  scarlet  uniforms  began  by 
thousands  to  glow  under  the  rays  of  the  morning  sun.  After  a  time,  the 
massy  columns  reached  the  gates  and  made  their  entrance  into  the  Span- 
ish  capital.  The  citizens  came  forward  to  meet  the  victorious  chief,  not 
with  courtly  adulation  but  heartfelt  gratitude ;  and  their  wan  cheeks  and 
trickling  tears,  as  they  pressed  around  him  to  kiss  his  hand  or  touch  his 
horse,  bespoke  the  magnitude  of  the  evils  from  which  he  had  come  to  de- 
liver their  country.  Garlands  of  flowers  and  festoons  of  drapery  decora- 
ted every  street;  the  inhabitants  poured  out  of  their  houses  to  distribute 
fruits  and  refreshments  through  the  ranks,  and  in  the  evening  a  general 
illumination  gave  token  of  the  universal  joy. 

When  Joseph  retreated  from  Madrid,  he  left  a  garrison  of  seventeen 
hundred  veterans  to  protect  the  Retiro,  which  contained  the  greatest 


306  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [Cuxr.  XXXV. 

arsenal  of  military  stores  and  artillery  that  the  French  possessed  in 
Spain ;  its  capture,  therefore,  was  a  matter  of  consequence,  for,  as  the 
battering  train  of  Ciudad  Rodrigo  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  allies, 
the  French  could  command  no  heavy  guns  for  prosecuting  a  siege  other 
than  those  now  lying  in  this  fortress.  Wellington  immediately  recon- 
noitered  its  defences,  and  found  them  to  consist  of  a  double  set  of  in- 
trenchments ;  one,  so  large  that  an  army  was  requisite  to  man  the 
bastions,  and  the  other  so  contracted  that  the  garrison,  if  driven  into  it, 
could  not  withstand  a  vigorous  cannonade.  As  soon,  therefore,  as  pre- 
parations were  completed  for  an  assault,  the  commander  of  the  place 
surrendered  at  discretion.  On  the  same  day,  Don  Carlos  D'Espana  was 
appointed  governor  of  Madrid,  and  the  Constitution  was  proclaimed  with 
great  solemnity. 

The  French  affairs  in  every  part  of  the  Peninsula,  now  for  a  time  ex. 
hibited  that  general  tendency  toward  ruin, that  so  commonly  follows  a 
great  military  disaster,  and  presages  the  breaking  up  of  political  power. 
At  the  same  time  that  the  Retiro,  with  its  immense  stores  of  arms  and 
ammunition,  yielded  to  the  British  forces,  Guadalaxara  with  its  garrison 
surrendered  to  Empecinado ;  three  hundred  men  were  captured  by  the 
partidas  near  Valladolid  ;  six  thousand  were  shut  up  and  blockaded  in 
Toro,  Tordesillas  and  Zamora,  on  the  Duoro ;  Astorga  was  taken  with  its 
garrison  of  twelve  hundred  men  ;  Torden,  also,  capitulated ;  the  castle 
of  Mirabete  was  blown  up ;  Castro  Nediales,  Santander,  Gueteira,  Tala- 
vera,  and  the  Puerto  de  Banos  were  evacuated  ;  and  the  French  troops  in 
the  valley  of  the  Tagus  withdrew  to  the  neighborhood  of  Aranjuez. 
Finally,  Soult  received  orders  to  abandon  Andalusia  ;  and,  on  the  25th 
of  August,  he  retreated  from  his  lines  before  Cadiz,  leaving  behind  him 
five  hundred  pieces  of  cannon  and  an  immense  quantity  of  military  stores. 

This  general  withdrawal  of  forces  from  the  more  remote  provinces, 
however,  followed  as  it  was  oy  a  concentration  in  the  centre  of  the  king- 
dom, while  it  demonstrated  the  magnitude  of  the  losses  sustained  by  the 
French,  served  also  greatly  to  strengthen  their  position  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  capital,  by  bringing  all  their  disposable  troops  into  communication 
in  one  mass.  Indeed,  Wellington  was  so  well  aware  of  this,  that  he 
resolved  to  attack  some  of  the  corps  on  their  route  before  such  a  junction 
could  be  effected  ;  and  on  the  1st  of  September  he  marched  from  Madrid 
for  Burgos,  intending  to  unite  himself  with  the  army  of  Galicia,  under 
Sautaclides,  at  Palencia.  He  reached  the  latter  place  on  the  8th  ;  but 
instead  of  being  joined  there  by  the  thirty  thousand  Spaniards  who  had 
long  received  British  rations  as  regular  soldiers,'  he  found  only  twelve 
thousand  ill-disciplined  and  half  naked  recruits,  who  could  not  be  relied 
on  for  the  least  effective  service.  He  nevertheless  continued  his  march 
to  Burgos,  where  he  expected  to  meet  the  remains  of  Marmont's  army, 
amounting  to  twenty-two  thousand  men  :  but  Clausel,  who  was  then  in 
command  of  the  corps,  retired  as  Wellington  advanced,  and  on  the  19th 
the  latter  reached  Burgos  unopposed,  and  immediately  laid  siege  to  it. 
The  British  commander  at  first  hoped  to  carry  this  fortress  without  delay; 
but,  after  storming  the  outwork  of  St.  Michael,  he  found  the  troops  of  the 
garrison  were  both  too  numerous  and  too  resolute  to  yield  to  any  other 
attack  than  regular  approaches.  This  proved  a  serious  embarrassment, 
as  the  heavy  artillery  had  all  been  left  at  Madrid,  and  it  was  proposed 
to  abandon  the  siege  :  Wellington,  however,  persisted,  and  he  gave  order* 


1810.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  307 

to  open  trenches  and  proceed  in  form,  hoping  that  some  contingency 
would  favor  his  project ;  but,  after  four  weeks  of  laborious  effort,  during 
which  every  expedient  of  sap,  mine  and  assault  was  frequently  attempted, 
he  submitted  to  necessity  and  relinquished  the  undertaking. 

While  the  siege  of  Burgos  was  in  progress,  Soult,  with  unexpected 
rapidity— owing  to  the  abandonment  of  the  defiles  on  his  route  by  the 
Spanish  troops — had  advanced  toward  the  capital  from  Cadiz  ;  and  as 
General  Hill  became  endangered  by  this  accumulation  of  force,  Welling- 
ton ordered  him  to  withdraw  from  the  line  of  the  Tagus,  evacuate  Madrid, 
and  fall  back  to  Salamanca,  whither  he,  also,  directed  his  own  march. 
The  two  armies  formed  a  junction  at  Alba  de  Tormes  and  San  Christoval 
on  the  8th  of  November,  and  on  the  9th,  they  took  up  a  defensive  position 
on  the  heights  of  the  Arapeiles.  Wellington's  entire  force  amounted  now 
to  fifty-two  thousand  men,  of  whom  fourteen  thousand  were  Spaniards. 
On  the  llth,  Soult  and  Jourdan,  who  followed  the  British  line  of  retreat, 
united  their  respective  corps  at  Mozarbes,  and  arrayed  themselves  against 
Wellington  with  no  less  than  ninety-five  thousand  men.  The  two  French 
marshals  immediately  debated  the  question  of  attacking  the  allies,  and 
Jourdan  was  strenuous  for  giving  battle;  but  Soult,  unwilling  to  risk  an 
action  with'  an  enemy  so  advantageously  posted,  steadily  refused  his  con- 
currence, and  moved  with  a  considerable  part  of  his  corps  to  the  left,  so 
as  to  menace  the  allies'  communication  with  Ciudad  Rodrigo. 

As  the  immense  superiority  of  the  French  in  numbers,  and  especially 
in  strength  of  cavalry,  rendered  it  an  easy  matter  for  them  to  outflank 
the  British  position,  and  as  it  was  evident  from  their  movements  that 
they  did  not  intend  to  fight,  Wellington  resolved  to  retreat  upon  Ciudad 
Rodrigo ;  and,  on  the  15th  of  November,  he  accomplished  the  difficult 
and  delicate  manoeuvre  of  a  flank  march  in  presence  of  an  army  double 
his  own  in  efficient  force,  with  a  loss  of  but  two  hundred  men.  The 
retreat  occupied  three  days,  and  the  allies  were  not  seriously  molested 
by  the  enemy.  Both  armies  soon  after  went  into  winter-quarters,  and  the 
campaign  of  1812  was  terminated. 


CHAPTER    XXXVI. 

WAR  IN  TURKEY;  ACCESSION  OF  BERNADOTTE  TO  THE  SWEDISH  THRONE, 
FINAL  RUPTURE  BETWEEN  FRANCE  AND  RUSSIA. 

IN  the  beginning  of  the  year  1810,  the  cabinet  of  St.  Petersburg — 
anxious  to  improve  the  opportunity  offered  by  the  peace  then  existing 
between  Russia  and  France,  and  conceiving  that  the  time  had  arrived  for 
carrying  into  effect  those  clauses  in  the  treaty  of  Tilsit  which  ceded  to 
Russia  certain  portions  of  the  Turkish  dominions — issued  an  imperial 
ukase,  by  which  Moldavia  and  Wallachia  were  formally  annexed  to  their 
territories,  and  the  Danube,  from  the  Austrian  frontier  to  the  sea,  declared 
to  be  the  southern  European  boundary  of  their  mighty  Empire. 

This  step  was  followed  by  adequate  military  preparations.  The  Mus- 
covite army  on  the  Danube  vas  augmented  to  a  hundred  and  ten  thousand 


308  1IISTORYOFEUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXXVI. 

men,  and  placed  under  the  command  of  Kaminski,  a  brave  officer,  but 
as  yet  not  much  experienced  in  Turkish  warfare.  Nevertheless,  his  first 
movements  were  eminently  successful.  He  commenced  the  campaign 
on  the  15th  of  May ;  and  between  that  day  and  the  17th  of  June,  he 
captured  the  fortresses  of  Bazarjik,  Silistria,  Tourtoukai  and  Rasgrad. 
Greatly  encouraged  by  this  rapid  progress,  he  dispatched  his  right  wing 
against  Rondschouck,  and  himself  advanced  with  forty  thousand  men  to 
the  siege  of  Schumla. 

This  fortress,  which  in  all  former  wars  had  proved  the  limit  of  Mus- 
covite conquest  in  Turkey,  is  situated  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  Balkan, 
where  the  great  road  from  Belgrade  and  Bucharest  to  Constantinople  first 
ascends  the  acclivity  of  the  mountains.  To  the  traveller  who  approaches 
it  from  the  hills  south  of  the  Danube,  it  exhibits  the  appearance  of  a  large 
triangular  sheet,  not  unlike  the  distant  view  of  Algiers  over  the  waves 
of  the  Mediterranean.  The  town  was  not  regularly  fortified,  though  its 
position  at  the  intersection  of  the  principal  roads  which  cross  the  Balkan 
from  north  to  south,  rendered  it  a  stratagetical  point  of  the  highest  import- 
ance ;  it  was  protected  in  front  by  walls  and  ditches,  and  overhung  in 
the  rear  by  a  succession  of  eminences,  that  rise  one  above  another  until 
they  are  lost  in  the  woody  thickets  of  Mount  Hemus.  These  heights, 
owing  to  the  broken  character  of  the  ground  and  the  thick  brushwood  with 
which  it  is  covered,  are  inaccessible  to  European  cavalry  and  artillery ; 
and  the  vast  circuit  of  the  natural  defences,  renders  it  almost  impossible 
to  invest  or  blockade  the  entire  circumference  of  the  place.  Kaminski 
spent  three  weeks  in  unavailing  attempts  to  storm  Schumla ;  at  the  end 
of  which  time  he  withdrew  with  twelve  thousand  men,  to  assist  his  right 
wing  in  the  siege  of  Rondschouck,  leaving  the  remainder  of  his  army  in 
front  of  Schumla  to  cover  the  disgrace  of  an  open  retreat. 

Rondschouck,  a  Turkish  town  containing  thirty  thousand  inhabitants, 
was  defended  only  by  a  single  rampart  and  wet  ditch,  and  a  garrison  of 
seven  thousand  men.  The  besieging  force,  after  Kaminski's  arrival, 
amounted  to  twenty  thousand ;  and  as  the  Russian  batteries  had  already 
partly  destroyed  the  rampart,  an  assault  was  ordered  on  the  3rd  of  August. 
Bosniak  Aga,  the  governor,  had  not  yet  fired  a  shot  in  reply  to  the  Rus- 
sian batteries  ;  and  those  soldiers  of  the  attacking  force  who  were  not 
familiar  with  the  'Siirkish  mode  of  defending  a  town,  flattered  themselves 
with  the  hope  of  an  easy  conquest.  They  advanced  to  the  breach,  there- 
fore, with  great  alacrity  and  confidence ;  but  the  moment  they  came 
within  range  of  the  Turkish  musketry,  a  dreadful  storm  of  bullets  saluted 
them  from  the  roofs,  windows  and  loopholes  of  the  nouses,  which  literally 
destroyed  whole  columns  of  the  besiegers,  and  not  one  man  could  gain  a 
footing  within  the  walls.  After  a  time,  the  Turkish  fire  slackened,  and 
two  divisions  of  Russians,  supposing  the  defence  to  be  abandoned,  made 
their  way  into  the  town ;  but  it  soon  appeared  that  this  was  an  artifice  to 
bring  them  into  the  reach  of  the  armed  inhabitants  and  janizaries,  who 
fell  upon  them  in  the  streets  with  muskets,  cimeters  and  daggers,  and 
cut  them  entirely  to  pieces.  At  noon,  the  Moslem  flag  still  waved  on  all 
the  minarets ;  and  at  six  o'clock  in  the  evening,  Kaminski  sounded  a  re- 
treat, leaving  no  less  than  eight  thousand  killed  and  wounded  men  behind 
him.  He  was  now  forced  to  limit  his  operations  to  a  simple  blockade, 
and  remained  in  that  position  for  some  weeks.  In  the  meantime,  the 
garrison  of  Schumla  made  a  sally  against  the  Russians  around  theii 


1811.1  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  309 

walls,  but  they  were  repulsed  with  great  loss  :  nevertheless^  the  Russians, 
on  the  day  following,  raised  the  siege  of  the  town  and  retired  to  Bazarjik. 

While  Kaminski  lay  inactively  in  front  of  Rondschouck,  an  army  of 
thirty  thousand  Turks  approached  that  place,  and  intrenched  themselves 
on  the  river  Jantra,  near  Battin.  The  Russian  general,  anxious  to  re- 
trieve his  late  losses,  ordered  a  part  of  the  forces  from  Bazarjik  to  join 
him,  and,  advancing  upon  the  Turkish  position,  made  a  spirited  attack  on 
the  7th  of  September.  His  combinations,  however,  were  imperfect,  and 
the  first  assault,  led  by  himself,  not  having  been  supported  in  time  by 
Kulneff,  he  was  forced  to  fall  back  and  make  preparations  for  renewing 
the  battle  on  the  following  day.  At  daybreak  on  the  8th,  his  whole  force 
was  in  motion,  and  his  men  assailed  the  Turkish  intrenchments  with  such 
determined  valor  that,  at  the  first  charge,  they  swept  everything  before 
them,  routed  the  entire  Turkish  army  with  great  loss,  made  five  thousand 
men  prisoners,  and  captured  fourteen  guns,  two  hundred  standards,  and 
a  large  flotilla  laden  with  provisions  for  the  relief  of  Rondschouck.  That 
town  soon  after  surrendered  to  the  Russians,  as  did  also  Sistowa,  a  forti- 
fied post  near  it  on  the  Danube.  Kaminski  next  laid  siege  to  Nicopolis, 
which  capitulated  on  the  12th  of  December ;  and  he  then  concluded  the 
campaign  by  retiring  to  winter-quarters  in  Moldavia,  where  he  was  seized 
with  a  malady  of  which  he  died  in  January,  1811.  General  Kutusoff 
succeeded  to  the  command  of  the  army. 

The  campaign  of  1811  was  at  first  confined  to  defensive  operations  on 
the  part  of  the  Russians,  as  the  Emperor  Alexander,  in  the  spring  of  that 
year,  withdrew  fife  divisions  of  the  army  from  the  Danube  to  Poland  and 
the  Vistula.  About  the  middle  of  June,  the  Turkish  government,  encour- 
aged by  this  diminution  in  the  numbers  of  their  enemies,  assembled  an 
army  of  sixty  thousand  men  and  marched  against  Kutusoff,  then  in  posi- 
tion at  Rondschouck.  A  battle  took  place  between  the  two  armies  on  the 
2nd  of  July,  in  which  the  Turks  were  defeated  with  a  loss  of  three  thou- 
sand men  ;  but  Kutusoff  abandoned  Rondschouck  after  the  action,  and 
retired  to  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube. 

The  Turks  now  spent  nearly  two  months  in  repairing  the  houses  and 
fortifications  of  their  released  city.  Early  in  September,  however,  they 
resumed  the  offensive,  crossed  the  Danube,  attacked  the  Russian  position 
on  the  8th  of  that  month  so  successfully  as  to  endanger  Kutusoff's  whole 
army,  and  inflicted  a  loss  of  more  than  two  thousand  men  upon  the  Rus- 
sian divisions.  But,  instead  of  following  up  this  success,  they,  in  con- 
formity to  the  Ottoman  tactics,  proceeded  to  fortify  their  encampment ', 
and  thus  gave  Kutusoff  time  to  recover  from  his  discomfiture  and  retaliate 
upon  them.  He  made  preparations  for  assaulting  their  intrenchments  in 
front ;  and  while  these  movements  occupied  the  Turks'  attention,  he  se- 
cretly dispatched  General  Markoff  with  ten  thousand  men  to  fall  upon 
their  rear;  who  so  well  executed  his  commission,  that  the  Turks,  finding 
themselves  between  two  armies,  broke  from  their  lines  and  fled  in  the 
wildest  confusion,  leaving  their  tents,  baggage,  stores,  artillery,  horses 
and  camels,  together  with  a  prodigious  amount  of  booty,  in  the  hands  of 
the  Russians,  whose  total  loss  in  the  affair  was  eight  men. 

Kutusoff  next  attacked  the  encampment  of  the  Turks  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Danube  ;  and  he  succeeded  so  well  in  surrounding  their  position, 
that  after  a  few  days  the  entire  army  surrendered,  and  evacuated  their 
camp  without  arms  or  artillery,  on  condition  of  being  quartered  in  the 


310  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP. 

neighborhood  of  Bucharest,  at  the  expense  of  the  Russians,  during  the 
negotiations  for  peace  then  in  progress  at  that  place.  These  negotiations 
were  eventually  prolonged  into  the  month  of  May,  1812,  when  a  treaty 
was  concluded,  ceding  to  Russia  the  territories  she  had  conquered  during 
the  war,  on  the  north  of  the  Danube,  and  prescribing  that  river  as  the 
boundary  between  the  two  nations. 

In  1808,  when  Norway  formed  a  separate  and  hostile  power  in  the 
Scandinavian  Peninsula,  Russia  undertook  to  subdue  a  portion  of  the 
Swedish  dominions.  The  cabinet  of  St.  Petersburg  had  long  beheld  with 
covetous  eyes  the  valuable  province  of  Finland,  stretching  almost  to  the 
gates  of  their  own  capital,  embracing  the  noble  fortress  of  Svveaborg,  and 
offering,  by  its  conquest,  to  render  the  Baltic  sea  the  boundary  of  their 
Empire,  from  the  mouths  of  the  Vistula  to  the  districts  bordering  on  the 
Frozen  Ocean.  A  Russian  army  was  accordingly  dispatched  to  Finland 
in  the  month  of  February,  1808  ;  and  the  Swedes  were  so  little  prepared 
for  the  invasion,  that  Trevastus,  Helsingfors  and  Abo  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Muscovite  troops  almost  without  resistance.  The  Russian  general 
advanced  thence  to  Sweaborg,  the  Gibraltar  of  the  north,  a  fortress  of  the 
first  class,  built  on  seven  rocky  islands,  armed  with  seven  hundred  pieces 
of  artillery,  and  garrisoned  by  six  thousand  men.  Although  this  place 
was  nearly  impregnable,  its  governor  was  far  from  being  incorruptible ; 
and  under  the  influence  of  a  large  bribe,  he  basely  surrendered  the  place 
to  the  Russians  after  a  mere  show  of  defence.  The  conquest  of  all  Fin- 
land followed  this  terrible  blow,  and  the  Swedish  genertls  entered  into  a 
convention  with  Russia,  ceding  to  that  power  the  whole  province  east  of 
the  Gulf  of  Bothnia. 

Gustavus,  however,  the  King  of  Sweden,  avowed  his  determination  to 
disregard  this  convention,  and  renew  the  war  with  Russia.  But  the  army 
had  become  dissatisfied  with  his  government,  and  the  opinion  generally 
prevailed  among  the  more  influential  classes  of  Swedish  citizens,  that  the 
interest  of  the  country  required  its  ruler  to  be  deposed :  a  conspiracy  was 
therefore  organized  to  dethrone  the  king  and  elevate  his  uncle,  the  Duke 
of  Sudermania,  to  the  regal  dignity.  Gustavus  soon  learned  what  was 
in  progress,  and  hastened  from  his  country-seat,  at  Haga,  to  Stockholm, 
and  shut  himself  up  in  his  palace  surrounded  by  his  guards.  He  found, 
however,  that  these  defenders  could  not  be  trusted ;  and  he  was  eventu- 
ally seized  by  the  conspirators,  imprisoned  in  the  Castle  of  Drottingholm, 
and  compelled  to  sign  a  formal  renunciation  of  the  crown.  The  people 
of  Stockholm  were  so  entirely  prepared  for  these  events,  that  no  disturb- 
ance took  place  there  on  the  change  of  dynasty,  and  even  the  theatres  were 
open  on  the  night  of  the  abdication,  as  if  nothing  unusual  had  happened. 

This  bloodless  revolution  was  followed  by  the  elevation  of  Adlercrantz, 
Klingspor  and  Aldesparre  to  the  highest  offices  in  the  Swedish  ministry ; 
and  on  the  5th  of  June,  1809,  the  Duke  of  Sudermania  was  proclaimed 
king :  he  ascended  the  throne  with  the  title  of  Charles  XIII.  The  first 
care  of  the  new  monarch  was  to  conclude  a  treaty  with  Russia,  which, 
however,  ceded  the  whole  of  Finland  to  that  power.  He  also  declared 
his  accession  to  the  Continental  System ;  and,  in  return,  the  Duchy  of 
Pomerania  was  restored  to  the  Swedish  crown,  and  Prince  Holstein  Au- 
gustenburg,  son  of  the  duke  of  that  name,  was  declared  the  Crown-Prince, 
or,  in  other  words,  the  successor  to  the  throne. 


1810.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  311 

The  affairs  of  Sweden  seemed  now  to  be  permanently  settled ;  but  in 
Way,  1810,  the  Crown-Prince  suddenly  died,  leaving  the  succession  va- 
cant. A  series  of  intrigues  followed  this  unexpected  event,  the  object 
of  which  was  to  procure  the  election  of  a  new  Crown-Prince  ;  and  the 
sovereigns  of  Russia,  France  and  Denmark  severally  exerted  themselves 
to  gain  a  preponderating  influence  in  the  matter.  The  choice  eventually 
fell  upon  Bernadotte,  whose  appointment  was  confirmed  by  the  Swedish 
Diet  on  the  17th  of  September.  Napoleon  was  both  surprised  and  dis- 
appointed at  this  result,  as  he  would  much  have  preferred  to  see  the  King 
of  Denmark  on  the  Swedish  throne  ;  nevertheless,  he  advised  Bernadotte 
to  accept  the  proffered  dignity,  and  advanced  him  a  million  of  francs  for 
the  expenses  immediately  consequent  on  his  appointment. 

While  these  events  were  taking  place  in  the  north  of  Europe,  Napo- 
leon pursued  with  undisguised  avidity  his  career  of  civic  aggrandizement. 
On  the  12th  of  November,  1810,  the  Republic  of  Valais,  commanding 
the  passage  of  the  Simplon  into  Italy,  was  incorporated  with  the  French 
Empire,  on  the  ground  that  Napoleon's  great  public  works  in  that  quarter 
entitled  France  to  the  possession  of  the  territory.  The  same  Senate  which 
passed  this  decree,  issued  another  on  the  13th  of  December  with  the  fol- 
lowing preamble :  "  The  British  Orders  in  Council,  and  the  Berlin  and 
Milan  decrees  for  1806  and  1807,  have  torn  to  shreds  the  public  law  of 
Europe.  A  new  order  of  things  reigns  throughout  the  world ;  and,  as 
new  guaranties  have  become  necessary,  I  consider  that  the  union  with 
the  French  Empire  of  the  mouths  of  the  Scheldt,  the  Meuse,  the  Rhine, 
the  Ems,  the  Weser  and  the  Elbe,  together  with  the  establishment  of  an 
interior  line  of  communication  between  France  and  the  Baltic,  is  of  the 
greatest  importance  ;  and  I  have  caused  a  plan  to  be  prepared,  which  in 
five  years  will  unite  the  Baltic  with  the  Seine.  Indemnity  shall  be  given 
to  the  princes  who  may  be  injured  by  this  measure,  which  necessity  re- 
quires, and  which  makes  the  right  of  my  Empire  rest  on  the  Baltic  sea." 
This  immense  spoliation  extended  the  limits  of  France  almost  to  the 
frontiers  of  Russia ;  it  took  from  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia  a  district 
containing  five  hundred  thousand  inhabitants,  and  one  from  the  Grand- 
duchy  of  Berg  having  a  population  of  two  hundred  thousand ;  and,  what 
was  much  more  serious,  it  dispossessed  of  his  dominions  the  Grand-Duke 
of  Oldenburg,  brother-in-law  of  the  Emperor  Alexander,  besides  cutting 
off  Prussia  from  the  coast  of  the  German  Ocean. 

When  Alexander  received  intelligence  of  the  spoliation  of  the  Grand- 
Duke  of  Oldenburg,  and  of  the  other  encroachments  in  the  decree  of  De- 
cember, 1810,  he  issued  an  imperial  ukase  on  the  last  day  of  that  month, 
which,  under  the  pretence  of  regulating  affairs  of  the  Customs,  materially 
relaxed  the  rigor  of  the  decrees  hitherto  in  force  in  the  Russian  Empire 
against  English  commerce,  and  at  the  same  time  virtually  prohibited  the 
importation  of  many  articles  of  French  manufacture.  These  measures 
were  followed  by  the  establishment  of  a  coast-guard  of  eighty  thousand 
men,  which,  as  might  easily  be  seen,  was  but  a  cloak  for  the  'augmenta- 
tion of  the  regular  army.  In  addition  to  this,  the  cabinent  of  St.  Peters- 
burg presented  a  diplomatic  note  to  all  the  courts  of  Europe,  formally 
complaining  of  the  spoliation  of  the  duchy  of  Oldenburg. 

The  threatening  aspect  of  these  proceedings,  which  caused  great  dis- 
quietude all  over  Europe,  was  for  a  time  forgotten  by  France,  in  her 
exultation  at  the  birth  of  an  heir  to  the  Empire.  This  event  occurred  on 

22 


312  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXXVI. 

the  20th  of  March.  It  had  been  previously  intimated,  that  if  the  infant 
were  a  princess,  twenty-one  guns  would  be  fired  from  the  Invalides,  but 
if  it  were  a  prince,  a  hundred  guns  would  proclaim  it.  At  the  first 
report,  therefore,  all  Paris  was  in  commotion,  and  the  discharges  were 
counted  with  intense  interest  until  the  twenty-first  gun  had  been  fired. 
The  g;unners  delayed  an  instant  before  discharging  the  next  piece,  and 
every  one  stood  breathless  with  suspense ;  but  when  the  twenty-second 
gun  was  heard,  the  wildest  enthusiasm  prevailed,  and  the  universal  joy 
of  the  people  gave  witness  of  Napoleon's  strong  hold  on  their  affections. 
The  scarcely-disguised  secession  of  Russia  from  the  Continental  Sys- 
tem, had  the  effect  of  rendering  Napoleon  more  urgent  in  exacting  the 
rigorous  execution  of  his  decrees  from  the  other  powers  in  the  north  of 
Europe.  He  met  with  the  most  ready  compliance  from  Denmark ;  for 
the  cabinet  of  Copenhagen  shut  the  Danish  ports  against  all  neutral 
vessels  whatever,  bearing  British  or  colonial  produce  :  but  against  Prus- 
sia he  fulminated  menacing  complaints  for  her  alleged  connivance  at  a 
contraband  traffic,  and  the  cabinet  of  Berlin  was  compelled  to  sign  a 
treaty  on  the  28th  of  January,  1811,  stipulating  that  the  Prussian  confis- 
cations of  British  goods  should  be  remitted  to  France,  and  placed  to  the 
credit  of  Prussia  on  account  of  her  debt  to  the  Empire  incurred  by  the 
war-contributions.  He  assumed  a  still  more  alarming  tone  toward  Swe- 
den. Charging  that,  under  pretence  of  a  traffic  in  salt,  a  large  contra- 
band trade  was  still  carried  on  in  the  Swedish  ports,  he  declared  that  he 
would  greatly  prefer  open  war  with  himself,  to  such  a  state  of  covert 
communication  with  his  enemies.  "  I  begin  to  see,"  he  said,  "  that  I  have 
committed  a  fault  in  restoring  Pomerania  to  Sweden  ;  and  the  Swedes 
may  know,  that  if  the  treaty  is  not  carried  into  execution  to  the  very 
letter,  my  troops  shall  instantly  reenter  that  province."  "  Choose,"  said 
he  to  Bernadotte,  "  between  the  confiscation  of  every  English  vessel  that 
approaches  your  coast,  and  a  war  with  France.  You  tell  me  Sweden  is 
suffering.  Bah  !  Is  not  France  suffering  ?  '  Are  not  Holland  and  Ger- 
many suffering  ?  We  must  all  suffer  to  conquer  a  maritime  peace." 

Napoleon  followed  up  his  demands  on  Sweden  so  peremptorily,  that 
she  was  forced  to  declare  war  against  England ;  but  even  this  step  did 
not  relieve  her  from  his  exactions :  for  although  the  British  government, 
in  view  of  the  circumstances  under  which  the  cabinet  of  Stockholm  was 
placed,  generously  forbore  to  commit  hostilities  on  Swedish  merchant- 
men, the  French  captured  the  Swedish  vessels  without  hesitation,  confis- 
cated their  cargoes,  and  threw  their  crews  into  prison,  on  the  pretext  that 
they  were  trading  with  England  and  were  not  furnished  with  French 
licenses.  Napoleon  next  demanded  from  Sweden  two  thousand  sailors  to 
join  the  French  navy ;  and  as  they  were  not  immediately  furnished,  he 
raised  his  demand  to  twelve  thousand.  Things  proceeded  in  this  manner 
until  January,  1812,  when  the  French  troops  entered  Pomerania,  overran 
the  country,  seized  the  fortress  of  Stralsund,  confiscated  all  Swedish  ships 
>  the  harbor,  and  began  to  levy  contributions  for  the  Imperial  trea- 
sury. These  outrages  soon  led  to  negotiations  between  the  cabinets  of 
Stockholm,  London  and  St.  Petersburg,  which  ended  in  the  conclusion  of 
offensive  and  defensive  treaties  between  Sweden,  Great  Britain  and  Rus- 
sia, against  France.  A  renewal  of  the  war  being  thus  resolved  on. 
Napoleon  and  Alexander,  the  sovereigns  by  whom  it  was  chiefly  to  be 
waged,  made  immediate  preparations  for  the  contest. 


CHAPTER    XXXVII. 

ADVANCE  OF  NAPOLEON  TO  MOSCOW. 

NAPOLEON  undertook  the  Russian  campaign  with  forces  far  exceeding 
any  armament  that  he  had  hitherto  assembled.  The  Grand  Army  alone, 
which  in  the  month  of  June  was  concentrated  in  Poland,  numbered  more 
than  five  hundred  thousand  effective  troops;  and  the  entire  resources  of 
the  French  Empire  and  its  dependencies  could  be  relied  on  to  furnish 
reinforcements  to  the  enormous  amount  of  seven  hundred  thousand  more: 
making  a  total  of  twelve  hundred  thousand  men,  although  this  whole 
force  was  never  actually  brought  into  the  field.  The  Grand  Army 
had  no  less  than  eighty  thousand  cavalry  and  thirteen  hundred  pieces  of 
cannon :  twenty  thousand  wagons  with  baggage  and  magazines  followed 
the  march,  and  the  horses  employed  in  the  army  for  the  artillery,  the 
cavalry  and  the  wagons,  amounted  to  one  hundred  and  eighty-seven 
thousand.  Of  the  soldiers^  two  hundred  thousand  were  native  French; 
the  remainder  were  Germans,  Italians,  Poles,  Swiss,  Prussians,  Aus- 
trians  and  Bavarians,  whom  the  terror  of  Napoleon's  arms  had  compelled, 
however  unwillingly,  to  join  this  terrible  array. 

These  troops,  at  the  commencement  of  the  campaign,  were  divided  into 
five  great  masses.  The  first,  two  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  strong, 
was  under  the  immediate  orders  of  the  Emperor;  the  second,  seventy-five 
thousand  strong,  was  commanded  by  Jerome ;  the  third,  under  the  vice- 
roy Eugene,  numbered,  also,  seventy-five  thousand ;  the  right  wing,  under 
Schwartzenberg,  consisted  of  thirty-thousand  men,  and  the  left,  under 
Macdonald,  also  of  thirty  thousand.  The  remainder,  forming  the  present 
efficient  reserve,  and  amounting  to  seventy  thousand  men,  followed  the 
course  of  the  advanced  corps,  and  were  ready  to  support  any  division  in 
need  of  their  assistance. 

The  Russian  forces  actually  in  the  field  at  the  commencement  of 
hostilities,  did  not  exceed  two  hundred  and  fifteen  thousand  men;  of 
whom  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven  thousand  were  commanded  by 
Barclay  de  Tolly,  forty-eight  thousand  by  Prince  Bagrathion,  and  forty 
thousand  by  Tormasoff.  In  addition  to  these,  thirty-five  thousand  men 
were  assembled  in  the  interior  provinces,  and  fifty  thousand  were  in  Mol- 
davia, all  of  whom  eventually  aided  in  the  war,  and  raised  the  total 
strength  brought  into  action  during  the  campaign,  though  never  all  col- 
lected  together  at  one  time,  to  three  hundred  thousand  men. 

On  the  xJ3rd  of  June,  Napoleon  approached  the  Niemen,  and  the  numer- 
ous columns  of  the  Grand  Army  converged  toward  Kowno,  which,  being 
the  extreme  point  of  a  salient  angle  where  the  Prussian  projected  into 
the  Russian  territory,  seemed  a  favorable  spot  for  commencing  operations. 
As  Napoleon  rode  along  the  banks  of  the  river,  his  horse  stumbled  and 
threw  him  upon  the  sand ;  some  one  exclaimed,  "  It  is  a  bad  omen :  a 
Roman  would  retire."  Having  reconnoitered  the  ground,  he  ordered 
the  construction  of  three  bridges,  and  retired  to  his  quarters.  The  French 
infantry  were  as  yet  in  good  order,  and  had  left  very  few  stragglers  be- 
hind; but  the  cavalry  and  artillery  had  already  begun  to  suffer  severely. 


314  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXXVII 

The  grass  and  hay  on  the  line  of  march  were  soon  entirely  consumed  by 
the  enormous  multitude  of  horses  thus  accumulated  in  a  comparatively 
small  space,  and  it  became  evident,  that  want  of  supplies  would  prove 
a  serious  obstacle  to  the  success  of  the  expedition. 

The  passage  of  the  troops  was  commenced  on  the  24th  of  June,  and 
continued  through  the  25th,  when  the  whole  central  army,  under  the 
Emperor,  gained  the  opposite  bank  ;  the  viceroy  and  Jerome  crossed,  some 
days  later,  at  Pilony  and  Grodno;  and  on  the  2nd  of  July,  Schwartzenberg 
and  Macdonald  respectively  passed  over  the  Bug  and  the  Niemen.  The 
great  disparity  of  force  between  the  French  and  Russian  armies  rendered 
ft  necessary  for  the  latter  to  maintain  a  defensive  policy ;  and,  as  Napo- 
leon's columns  advanced,  the  Russians  steadily  and  slowly  retired:  nor 
was  it  long  before  the  wisdom  of  this  course  plainly  appeared.  The 
sultry  heat  of  the  weather  at  the  crossing  of  the  Niemen,  was  succeeded 
by  a  tempest  that  fell  on  the  French  ranks  with  terrible  severity.  Their 
horses  perished  by  thousands,  from  the  combined  effect  of  incessant  rain 
and  unwholesome  provender ;  thirty  thousand  disbanded  soldiers  spread 
confusion  around  the  whole  army ;  and  when  the  French  troops  had  been 
only  six  days  in  the  Russian  dominions,  and  when  as  yet  not  a  single 
shot  had  been  fired,  twenty- five  thousand  sick  and  dying  men  filled  the 
hospitals  of  Wilna  and  the  villages  of  Lithuania. 

Barclay  withdrew  from  Wilna  on  the  28th  of  June,  and  Napoleon  en- 
tered it  a  few  hours  afterward,  and  remained  there  seventeen  days :  a 
delay  which  military  historians  have  declared  to  be  the  greatest  error  in 
his  whole  career.  Certain  it  is,  his  inactivity  on  this  occasion  gave  the 
Russian  commander  time  to  retire  in  admirable  order,  and  exhibited  a 
striking  contrast  to  the  vigor  with  which  he  pursued  his  retreating  enemy 
in  the  campaigns  of  Ulm,  Jena,  Ratisbon  and  Echmul. 

While  Napoleon  was  thus  halting  at  Wilna,  Jerome  and  Davoust  had 
marched  against  Bagrathion,  with  the  intention  of  separating  his  army 
from  that  of  Barclay.  Two  sharp  skirmishes  occurred  between  the 
French  and  Russian  light  parties  on' the  9th  and  10th  of  July,  both  of 
which  terminated  favorably  to  the  Russians,  and  inspired  the  army  with 
a  desire  for  a  general  action ;  but  Bagrathion,  wisely  pursuing  the  course 
laid  down  in  the  general  orders  for  the  campaign,  continued  his  retreat 
and  reached  the  ramparts  of  Bobrinsk,  on  the  Berezina,  on  the  18th  of 
July.  Napoleon  was  so  much  displeased  at  this  result,  that  he  removed 
Jerome  from  the  command  and  placed  the  whole  force  under  Davoust's 
orders ;  this  change,  however,  did  not  render  the  French  movements  suc- 
cessful in  cutting  off* or  defeating  Bagrathion:  for  the  latter,  on  the  24th, 
formed  a  junction  with  Count  Platoff,  and  retired  by  Mohilow  to  Novo- 
Bichow,  whence  he  crossed  the  Borysthenes,  and,  advancing  leisurely  to 
Smolensko,  joined  the  main  army  under  Barclay  on  the  3rd  of  August. 

In  the  meantime,  Barclay,  after  leaving  Wilna,  had  retired  to  an  in- 
trenched camp  at  Drissa,  on  the  14th  of  July ;  on  the  16th,  he  moved  to 
Polotsk ;  and  on  the  23rd  he  reache'd  Witepsk,  where  he  disposed  the 
main  body  of  his  troops,  and  posted  his  vanguard,  under  Ostermann, 
twelve  thousand  strong,  along  the  wooded  heights  of  Ostrowno.  On  the 
26th,  Murat  with  twelve  thousand  men,  principally  cavalry,  attacked 
Count  Ostermann's  division,  and  several  severe,  though  partial  actions 
ensued  without  any  decisive  results ;  and  meanwhile,  both  parties  brought 
up  the  main  body  of  their  forces,  so  that  on  the  morning  of  the  27th, 


1812.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  315 

Barclay's  army,  to  the  number  of  eighty-two  thousand  men,  was  drawn  up 
on  an  elevated  plain  covering  the  approach  to  Witepsk ;  and  Napoleon 
lay  near  at  hand  with  one  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  men,  resolved 
to  attack  the  Russian  position  on  the  following  day.  At  nightfall,  his  last 
words  to  Murat  were,  "To-morrow,  at  five,  the  sun  of  Austerlitz  !" 

But,  although  Barclay  at  first  resolved  to  hazard  a  battle  with  an  army 
more  than  double  his  own  numbers,  he  afterward  changed  his  resolution, 
and  ordered  a  retreat  toward  Smolensko.  Brilliant  watch-fires  were 
kept  up  during  the  night  to  disguise  the  intended  movement,  while  his 
whole  army  broke  up  from  its  encampment,  and  retired  with  such  expe- 
dition and  skill  that  not  a  weapon,  a  baggage-wagon,  nor  a  straggler  was 
left  behind.  The  next  morning,  when  the  French  advanced  guard  ar- 
rived at  the  separation  of  the  roads  leading  to  St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow, 
they  could  not  discover  which  of  the  two  routes  the  Russians  had  taken. 
The  condition  of  the  French  army  was  now  such  that  a  halt  at  Witepsk 
became  indispensable,  to  repair  the  disorder  and  disorganization  con- 
sequent on  the  scarcity  of  supplies,  exposure  to  the  weather,  fatigues  of 
the  march,  and  the  great  prevalence  of  sickness  among  the  men.  Bar- 
clay, therefore,  continued  his  march  to  Smolensko  without  molestation. 

The  Emperor  Alexander  had  left  the  army  at  Polotsk  under  the  sole 
command  of  Barclay,  on  the  16th  of  July,  and  returned  to  Moscow  to 
hasten  the  military  preparations  in  that  quarter.  On  the  27th,  the  nobles 
and  merchants  of  Moscow  were  invited  to  a  solemn  assembly  in  the 
Imperial  palace,  where  Count  Rostopchin,  the  governor,  read  to  them  an 
address  from  the  Emperor,  soliciting  them  to  contribute  to  the  defence  of 
the  country.  The  nobles  immediately  proposed  and  unanimously  voted 
a  levy  of  ten  in  every  hundred  of  the  male  population,  whom  they  prom- 
ised to  clothe  and  arm  at  thidr  own  expense:  and  the  merchants  with 
equal  promptitude  subscribed  a  million  of  dollars  for  the  public  service. 
Ai  this  moment,  the  Emperor  entered  the  hall  and  declared,  amid  the 
burst  of  enthusiasm  which  greeted  him,  that  he  would  exhaust  his  last 
resources  before  giving  up  the  contest.  By  these  means,  a  powerful 
auxiliary  force  was  created  in  the  interior  districts  of  the  Empire;  and, 
as  the  example  of  Moscow  was  speedily  followed,  an  immense  number 
of  men  soon  assembled  in  various  parts  of  the  Russian  dominions  who,  in 
the  event,  greatly  contributed  to  the  success  of  the  war.  Alexander  then 
set  out  for  St.  Petersburg,  where  he  arrived  on  the  15th  of  August. 

Toward  the  end  of  July,  Barclay  detached  Wittgenstein  with  twenty- 
five  thousand  men,  to  maintain  a  position  on  the  Dwina  and  cover  the 
rsad  to  St.  Petersburg.  Oudinot  was  sent  by  Napoleon  to  attack  this 
corps,  and  he  made  an  assault  on  the  Russian  general,  on  the  31st  of 
July.  The  Russian  vanguard,  under  Kutusoff,  at  first  fell  into  some 
disorder,  but  this  was  soon  remedied  by  the  support  of  fresh  troops,  and 
Oudinot  was  at  length  defeated  and  forced  to  retreat  across  the  Drissa, 
with  a  loss  of  four  thousand  men.  About  the  same  time,  Tormasoff,  on 
the  other  flank  of  the  Russian  armies,  finding  the  Austrians  under 
Schwartzenberg  indisposed  to  take  the  offensive,  fell  suddenly  on  a  corps 
of  Saxons,  commanded  by  Reynier,  at  Kobrin,  and  made  prisoners  an 
entire  brigade  of  their  best  troops.  This  disaster  so  weakened  Reynier's 
force,  that  Napoleon  was  compelled  to  order  the  Austrians  to  his  support, 
and  he  thus  deprived  himself  of  the  aid  of  Schwartzenberg,  on  which  he 
had  confidently  relied  for  repaiiing  the  losses  of  the  army  under  his  own 

immediate  direction. 

9,9* 


316  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.          [CHAP.  XXX  7IL 

When  Barclay,  by  the  junction  with  Bagrathion  at.  Smolensko,  found 
himself  at  the  head  of  more  than  a  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  men, 
he  resolved  to  hazard  an  attack  on  the  French  right  wing,  and  for  that 
purpose  marched  against  Murat  on  the  8th  of  August;  but  his  combina- 
tion was  faulty,  and  he  gained  only  a  partial  success.  To  retaliate  this 
movement,  Napoleon  resolved  to  turn  the  Russian  left;  and,  by  crossing 
the  Dnieper,  gain  possession  of  Smolensko,  and  cut  Barclay  off  from  his 
communications  with  the  Empire.  Accordingly,  on  the  13th,  he  suddenly 
pushed  two  hundred  thousand  men  over  that  river  and  entered  the  ter- 
ritory of  Old  Russia.  Marshals  Ney  and  Murat,  who  headed  the  leading 
columns  of  the  army,  overtook,  near  Krasnoi,  General  Newerofskoi,  who 
with  the  rear-guard,  seven  thousand  strong,  was  slowly  retreating  toward 
Smolensko.  This  little  corps  was  now  suddenly  assailed,  and  nearly 
surrounded  by  eighteen  thousand  cavalry,  without  the  possibility  of  being 
reenforced,  as  the  main  Russian  army  was  on  the  other  side  of  the  river. 
Many  generals,  thus  situated,  would  have  deemed  resistance  impossible, 
and  proposed  a  surrender;  but  Newerofskoi  formed  his  men  into  a  square, 
and  continued  his  march  in  admirable  order  over  the  open  plains  which 
adjoin  the  Dnieper;  and,  throughout  the  whole  day,  resisted  the  utmost 
efforts  of  the  veteran  horsemen,  who  made  forty  distinct  charges  on  the 
square,  besides  essaying  every  other  expedient  known  in  warfare  to  dis- 
order the  ranks  of  this  admirable  infantry.  Newerofskoi  reached  Koryt- 
nia  with  unbroken  ranks,  though  he  sustained  a  loss  of  eleven  hundred 
men  and  five  pieces  of  cannon.  The  next  day  he  united  himself  with 
RaefFskoi,  which  raised  their  joint  forces  to  nineteen  thousand  men,  and 
the  two  generals  threw  themselves  into  Smolensko,  resolved  to  defend 
that  place  to  the  last  extremity.  At  daybreak,  on  the  16th  of  August, 
Barclay  again  approached  Smolensko,  where  he  found  the  whole  French 
army  drawn  up  under  Napoleon. 

The  ancient  and  venerable  city  of  Smolensko  is  situated  on  two  hills, 
which  confine  within  a  narrow  channel  the  Dnieper  as  it  flows  between 
them.  The  two  parts  of  the  town  are  connected  with  each  other  by 
bridges  over  the  river.  The  defences  of  Smolensko  were  not  very  formi- 
dable, nor  capable  of  resisting  a  regular  seige.  After  Napoleon  had 
briefly  reconnoitered  the  place,  he  ordered  Ney  to  assault  the  citadel,  but 
Raeffskoi  repulsed  him  with  great  loss.  While  Ney  was  rallying  from 
this  defeat,  Barclay  reached  the  town  on  the  opposite  side,  and  his  columns 
defiled  rapidly  in  to  reenforce  the  garrison.  Napoleon  now  supposed 
that,  the  Russian  general  intended  to  defend  Smolensko  with  all  his  forces, 
and  he  prepared  for  a  general  attack  the  next  day. 

Barclay,  however,  had  no  thought  of  hazarding  a  battle  against  such 
superior  numbers,  and  in  a  position  where  he  might  easily  be  cut  off 
both  from  his  communications  and  retreat.  He  proposed  merely  to  hold 
Smolensko  with  such  a  rear-guard  as  might  keep  the  enemy  in  check, 
until  he  had  withdrawn  the  bulk  of  his  army,  and  he  accordingly  ordered 
Bagrathion  to  evacuate  the  town  during  the  night,  with  the  main  body, 
and  take  post  behind  a  little  stream,  distant  four  miles  in  the  rear:  while 
he  himself  remained  to  guard  the  movement  from  interruption.  In  the 
morning  of  the  17th,  Napoleon  was  greatly  exasperated  to  find  the  main 
army  had  escaped  him,  and  he  ordered  a  general  assault  on  the  town. 
But  the  Russians  were  prepared  for  a  desperate  resistance,  and  the  mur- 
derous fire  of  their  artillery  and  musketry  destroyed  column  after  column 


1812.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  317 

of  the  beseigers.  The  combat  was  continued  until  seven  o'clock  in  the 
evening,  when  Napoleon  drew  off  his  troops,  having  sustained  a  loss  of 
fifteen  thousand  men,  while  that  of  the  Russians  was  nearly  ten  thousand. 

Soon  after  the  cannonade  had  ceased,  and  when  the  whole  scene  was 
shrouded  in  darkness,  save  where  it  was  relieved  by  the  watch-fires  of 
the  French  army,  flames  were  seen  to  break  forth  simultaneously  in 
several  parts  of  the  town,  which  was  soon  enveloped  in  one  mighty  con- 
flagration. A  dark  band  in  front  marked  the  yet  unbroken  line  of  battle- 
ments, a  lurid  light  like  that  of  Vesuvius  shone  over  the  extended 
bivouacs  of  the  French  host,  and  the  lofty  domes  of  the  Cathedral,  des- 
tined to  escape  the  fire,  stood  in  dark  magnificence  above  the  ocean  of 
flame. 

At  three  o'clock  the  next  morning,  a  patrol  of  Davoust  scaled  the  walls, 
and  penetrated  without  resistance  into  the  interior  of  the  town :  but  find- 
ing neither  inhabitants  nor  garrison,  the  men  Teturned  to  their  division 
and  made  their  report,  upon  which  the  French  advanced  guard  was 
ordered  to  enter  the  town.  The  streets  and  houses  were  indeed  deserted, 
and  the  invading  columns  traversed  in  silence  a  ruined  city,  containing 
little  else  than  smoking  walls  and  dying  men:  the  Cathedral  alone  had 
withstood  the  flames.  The  Russian  commander  had  made  his  arrange- 
ments so  judiciously,  that  all  the  magazines  in  the  town  were  destroyed 
or  removed,  the  wounded  and  a  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  withdrawn, 
the  bridges  over  the  Dnieper  broken  down,  and  his  own  retreat  in  perfect 
order  was  secured.  The  only  trophy  that  remained  to  Napoleon,  was 
the  abandoned  ramparts  and  the  cannon  that  mounted  them. 

Orders  to  pursue  were  immediately  issued,  and  on  the  19th,  Ney  over- 
took Barclay  with  the  rear-guard  at  Valentina,  where  the  latter  was 
strongly  posted  on  the  opposite  side  of  a  ravine.  Ney  commenced  an 
attack  at  once  with  a  few  light  troops,  but  reinforcements  soon  came  up 
on  both  sides,  and  an  obstinate  battle  took  place  which  ended  in  the  re- 
pulse of  Ney.  Napoleon  now  made  new  dispositions  and  a  more  serious 
attack ;  but  notwithstanding  the  additional  forces  brought  forward,  and 
that  they  charged  the  Russian  lines  with  the  most  desperate  and  untiring 
valor,  the  brave  Muscovites  maintained  their  position  until  nightfall,  and, 
having  effectually  protected  the  retreat  of  the  main  army,  themselves 
retired  in  (rood  order  during  the  night.  The  whole  Russian  force 
engaged  was  twenty-five  thousand  men.  that  of -the  French  thirty-five 
thousand;  and  the  losses  amount-d  to  eight  thousand  French  and  six 
thousand  Russian  soldiers. 

Napoleon  visited  the  battle-field  the  next  day ;  and  afterward  reviewed 
his  troops,  to  whom  he  distributed  honors  and  rewards  with  a  liberal 
hand — for  he  found  it  necessary  to  support  the  spirits  of  his  men  by  some 
unusual  effort.  The  soldiers  had  become  discouraged  with  long,  tedious 
marches  through  gloomy  forests ;  their  hearts  sank  within  them  at  be- 
holding the  interminable  solitudes  which  surrounded  them  in  every  direc- 
tion ;  and  -ne  knowledge  of  their  strength  in  numbers,  only  increased 
their  disquietude,  by  reason  of  the  obvious  inadequacy  of  the  country  to 
provide  for  their  necessities.  The  young  conscripts,  who  advanced  on 
the  traces  of  the  Grand  Army  to  reenforce  its  ranks,  were  shocked  and 
depressed  at  the  objects  that  met  their  view ;  dead  horses,  broken  car- 
riages, and  dying  men,  obstructed  the  roads  and  infected  the  air ;  while 
the  veterans  who  combated  in  front,  compared  the  miserable  quarters 


Si8  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXXVIL 

they  had  gained  among  the  ruins  of  Smolensko,  with  the  smiling  villages 
they  had  abandoned  in  tiieir  native  land.  Even  the  officers  shared  the 
general  discontent ;  and  those  who  had  risen  to  the  highest  rank,  sighed 
to  think  that,  after  a  life  spent  in  arms,  they  were  reduced,  like  common 
soldiers,  to  the  never-ending  hardships  of  wretched  food,  incessant  fatigue 
and  squalid  habitations. 

Nor  were  the  reports  of  the  hospitals  and  the  commissariat  calculated 
to  allay  the  universal  despondency.  Already,  the  march  had  erst  the 
allied  troops  a  half,  and  the  native  French  a  fourth,  of  their  original  num- 
bers. Typhus  fever  and  dysentery,  the  well-known  attendants  on  mili- 
tary expeditions,  had  everywhere  broken  out  in  the  most  alarming 
manner,  and  swept  off  thousands  in  all  the  great  hospitals  of  the  army. 
Wilna  and  Witepsk  were  become  vast  charnel-houses,  where  contagion 
completed  what  the  devastations  of  war  had  begun  ;  the  accumulation  of 
corses  around  the  ramparts  of  Smolensko,  gave  rise  to  a  new  epidemic, 
more  fatal  than  the  sword  of  the  enemy  ;  and  all  the  cottages,  far  and 
near,  were  crowded  with  wounded  men,  without  food,  straw  or  medical 
attendance. 

Napoleon  was  well  aware  of  all  this.  "  The  condition  of  the  army," 
said  lie,  "  is  frightful  ;  I  know  it.  At  Wilna,  one  half  were  stragglers  j 
now,  they  amount  to  two-thirds :  there  is  not  a  moment  to  lose  :  we  must 
grasp  at  peace,  and  it  can  be  found  only  at  Moscow.  Besides,  the  state 
of  the  army  is  such  as  to  render  a  halt  impossible :  constant  advance 
alone  keeps  it  together ;  you  may  lead  it  forward,  but  you  cannot  arrest 
its  movement.  We  have  advanced  too  far  to  retreat.  If  I  had  only  mil- 
itary glory  in  view,  I  should  have  nothing  to  do  but  return  to  Smolensko, 
and  extend  my  wings  on  either  side,  so  as  to  crush  Wittgenstein  and  Tor- 
masofF.  These  operations  would  be  brilliant:  they  would  form  a  glori- 
ous termination  to  the  campaign ;  but  they  would  not  conclude  the  war. 
Peace  is  before  us  ;  we  have  to  march  only  eight  days  to  obtain  it :  when 
we  are  so  near  our  object,  it  is  impossible  to  deliberate.  Let  us  advance 
to  Moscow." 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Russian  generals  began  to  doubt  the  policy  of  a 
further  retreat.  Their  object  in  retiring  from  the  frontier,  was  to  draw 
the  enemy  into  a  situation  where  his  superiority  of  numbers  might  be 
diminished  by  the  fatigues  and  contingencies  of  such  a  march  ;  and  these 
causes  had.  already  done  their  work  on  the  invaders.  The  Russian 
troops,  too,  began  to  murmur  at  such  constant  retreats;  and  the  prospect 
of  abandoning  Moscow,  without  a  struggle,  would  doubtless  drive  them  to 
acts  of  revolt.  Barclay,  therefore,  after  mature  deliberation,  resolved  to 
give  battle  to  the  French  on  the  first  eligible  field  that  he  might  reach ; 
and  he  dispatched  orders  for  all  disposable  reinforcements  to  join  him 
from  the  interior  districts. 

In  the  meantime,  Wittgenstein,  following  up  his  success  against  Oudi- 
not,  hazarded  a  general  attack  on  that  marshal's  lines,  in  front  of  Polotsk, 
cm  the  18th  of  August,  which  resulted  rather  unfavorably  to  the  Russians ; 
but  on  the  22nd,  when  a  division  of  Bavarians  attacked  Wittgenstein's 
rear-guard,  he  defeated  them  with  severe  loss ;  after  which,  he  removed 
his  head-quarters  to  Sewokhino,  and  awaited  reinforcements  from  Fin- 
land and  St.  Petersburg. 

Victor,  while  approaching  the  Dwina,  received  orders  to  occupy  Smo- 
lensko, and  take  a  general  charge  of  Lithuania.  His  instructions  from 


1612.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  319 

Napoleon  were,  to  "  direct  all  your  attention  and  forces  to  the  general 
object,  which  is  to  secure  the  communication  from  Wilna,  by  Minsk  and 
Smolensko,  with  the  imperial  head-quarters.  The  army  which  you  com- 
mand  is  the  reserve  of  the  Grand  Army  ;  if  the  route  by  Smolensko 
should  be  interrupted,  you  must  open  it  at  all  hazards.  Possibly,  I  may 
not  find  peace  where  1  am  about  to  seek  it ;  but  even  in  that  case,  sup- 
ported by  so  strong  a  reserve,  well  posted,  my  retreat  would  be  secure 
and  need  not  be  precipitate."  To  complete  the  line  of  communication 
with  France,  Augereau,  with  his  army  of  fifty  thousand  men,  was  ordered 
to  advance  from  the  Oder  to  the  Niemen,  fifty  thousand  of  the  National 
Guard  wrere  moved  from  the  fortresses  of  the  Rhine  to  the  Elbe,  and  one 
hundred  and  twenty  thousand  conscripts,  of  the  class  of  1813,  were 
brought  forward  to  the  Rhine. 

On  the  22nd  of  August,  Napoleon  set  out  from  Smolensko  on  his  march 
to  Moscow,  following  the  Russian  army,  which  slowly  retired  in  the  direc- 
tion of  that  city.  Barclay  had  arrived  at  Gjatsk,  and  was  surveying  the 
ground  with  a  view  of  selecting  a  battle-field,  when  he  was  superseded  in 
his  command  by  General  KutusofF.  This  measure  became  necessary,  by 
reason  of  the  dissatisfaction  of  the  troops  at  the  destruction  of  Smolensko, 
as  well  as  at  their  continued  retreat,  the  policy  of  which  they  could  not 
be  made  to  comprehend ;  and  as  Barclay  was  a  Scotchman  by  birth,  it 
was  thought  that  concord  and  submission  among  the  men  would  be 
attained  and  promoted,  by  placing  them  under  the  orders  of  a  native  Rus- 
sian. Nevertheless,  Barclay  had  conducted  the  armies  of  Russia  with 
consummate  wisdom,  and  by  his  masterly  retreat  before  such  superior 
numbers,  he  earned  a  high  place  in  the  records  of  fame. 

KutusofF  readily  fell  in  with  Barclay's  views  as  to  risking  a  battle  for 
Moscow,  and  he  made  a  halt  for  that  purpose,  on  the  2nd  of  September, 
at  Borodino.  Napoleon  reached  the  field  on  the  6th,  in  the  afternoon, 
and  ordered  an  immediate  attack  on  a  redoubt  in  front  of  the  Russian 
position,  occupied  by  GorczakofF  with  twelve  thousand  men.  The  as- 
sault, led  by  Murat,  was  successful  after  a  desperate  struggle  ;  but  the 
Russians  rallied  and  returned  to  the  charge,  retook  and  lost  the  place 
three  several  times  during  the  evening,  and  finally  left  it  in  the  hands  of 
the  French. 

When  the  dawn  of  the  7th  of  September  discovered  the  Russian  army 
still  in  their  position,  and  it  was  evident  that  at  length  a  general  battle 
must  take  place,  a  feeling  of  joy  pervaded  the  French  army.  The  fa- 
tigues of  the  campaign,  the  distance  from  home,  the  dangers  of  the  strife, 
were  forgotten  in  the  general  enthusiasm.  At  five  o'clock,  the  sun  rose 
in  cloudless  splendor;  "  It  is  the  sun  of  Austerlitz!"  said  Napoleon,  and 
immediately  the  trumpets  and  drums  sounded,  as  if  to  welcome  its  rising. 

The  forces  on  the  two  sides  were  nearly  equal,  amounting  to  about  one 
hundred  and  thirty  thousand  each  ;  but  the  French  were  greatly  superior 
in  cavalry,  and  nearly  all  their  troops  were  veteran  soldiers,  while  a  part 
of  Kutusoff's  army  had  never  yet  been  under  fire. 

The  battle  commenced  at  six  o'clock,  by  an  attack  with  the  French 
right,  under  Davoust,  on  the  left  of  the  Russian  line.  The  French  col- 
umns, covered  by  their  artillery,  moved  steadily  on  without  firing  a  shot, 
although  an  incessant  storm  of  balls  from  all  arms  shattered  their  ranks : 
Davoust's  horse  was  killed  under  him,  and  he  himself  received  a  severe 
contusion  as  he  fell.  Generals  Campans,  Rapp  and  Desaix,  were  also 


320  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXXVII. 

badly  wounded,  and  this  successive  loss  of  the  services  of  their  officers, 
occasioned  some  indecision  in  the  French  movement ;  at  length,  however, 
they  carried  the  redoubts  that  covered  the  Russian  left.  Bagrathion  im- 
mediately reenforced  the  routed  division,  and  retook  the  position  ;  and 
Kutusoff,  perceiving  that  Napoleon  was  directing  great  strength  against 
this  part  of  his  line,  moved  the  corps  of  Bagawouth  from  the  right  to  its 
support.  At  the  same  time,  Ney  received  orders  to  support  Davoust, 
and  he  had  gallantly  made  himself  master  of  the  disputed  redoubt,  when 
Bagawouth's  corps,  in  turn,  dislodged  him  and  drove  him  back  on  the  plain. 

Ney  and  Davoust,  thus  repulsed,  united  their  forces  for  a  spirited 
attack  on  the  right  division  of  the  Russian  centre ;  and  after  a  combat  of 
no  less  than  four  hours,  they  found  themselves  unable  to  force  Kutusoff's 
lines,  and  sent  an  urgent  request  to  the  Emperor  for  reinforcements. 
Napoleon,  thinking  it  time  for  a  decisive  charge,  ordered  up  the  Young 
Guard,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  reserve  cavalry,  to  support  the  two 
marshals ;  four  hundred  pieces  of  cannon  were  brought  to  bear  on  the 
redoubts  in  this  quarter,  and,  under  the  cover  of  their  fire,  these  immense 
columns  advanced  to  the  assault.  The  fire  from  the  Russian  batteries 
was  concentrated  on  this  mass,  and  it  swept  off*  whole  battalions  at  once, 
but  the  survivors  closed  their  ranks  and  pressed  on  with  a  firm  step  to  the 
ramparts.  Bagrathion,  perceiving  that  the  French  gradually  gained 
ground,  ordered  the  whole  left  wing  to  abandon  their  intrenchments,  and 
charge  the  attacking  columns  in  flank.  A  terrible  contest  ensued. 
Full  eighty  thousand  men,  having  seven  hundred  pieces  of  cannon,  accu- 
mulated in  a  small  space,  fought  with  great  fury  for  more  than  an  hour, 
without  any  perceptible  advantage  to  either  side,  until  at  last  Bagrathion 
was  severely  wounded,  and  the  Russians  began  to  give  way.  General 
Konownitsyn,  however,  assumed  the  command,  and  effected  a  retreat  in 
good  order  to  a  strong  position  in  the  rear,  behind  the  ravine  of  Seme- 
nowskoie,  and  for  the  rest  of  the  day  maintained  his  ground  against  every 
assault  of  the  enemy. 

In  the  centre,  where  Barclay  commanded,  a  desperate  conflict  was  also 
waged.  The  Russians  at  first  lost  the  village  of  Borodino,  and  afterward 
the  great  centre  redoubt  which  formed  the  strongest  point  of  his  whole 
position ;  but  by  a  determined  effort  the  latter  was  retaken,  a  part  of 
the  attacking  force  made  prisoners,  and  the  remainder  driven  back  in 
confusion  to  the  Emperor's  quarters.  Napoleon  was  now  strongly  urged 
to  send  forward  his  final  reserve  of  Imperial  Guards  ;  but  for  a  time  he 
refused  to  do  so,  leaving  the  routed  division  to  sustain  itself  against  the 
Russian  cavalry.  He,  however,  at  length  ordered  the  charge,  and  the 
impetuosity  of  those  veterans,  together  with  a  terrible  onslaught  of  cui- 
rassiers in  flank,  carried  the  redoubt.  The  Russian  general  made  seve- 
ral attempts  to  recover  it,  but  without  success,  and  toward  evening  he 
withdrew  his  whole  force  to  the  heights  directly  in  the  rear  of  his  original 
position.  Thus,  at  the  close  of  the  day,  the  Russians  had  abandoned 
their  whole  first  line  of  defence;  but  they  had  gained  a  second  line, 
stronger  than  the  other,  where  the  French  did  not  venture  to  molest  them. 

The  Russian  loss  in  this  terrible  battle,  amounted  to  forty-seven  thou- 
sand men  :  fifteen  thousand  killed,  thirty  thousand  wounded,  and  two 
thousand  prisoners  ;  and  among  the  slain,  were  the  brave  Bagrathion  and 
several  general  officers  of  distinction.  The  French  lost  Generals  Cau- 
laincourt,  Monbrun,  and  several  other  officers,  together  with  a  total  of 


1812.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  321 

fifty  thousand  men,  of  whom  twelve  thousand  were  killed,  and  thirty-eight 
thousand  wounded.  In  addition  to  this,  the  French  lost  ten,  and  the  Rus- 
sians thirteen  pieces  of  cannon :  so  that  on  the  whole,  the  French  could 
boast  of  no  other  advantage  in  the  action  than  the  mere  keeping  possession 
of  the  battle-field. 

The  day  after  the  battle  of  Borodino,  the  Russians  retired  by  the  great 
road  toward  Moscow.  The  magnitude  of  his  loss,  rendered  KutusofF  un- 
willing to  risk  the  remainder  of  the  army  in  another  general  action  with 
the  French,  who  were  constantly  receiving  reinforcements ;  but  no  signs 
of  confusion  marked  his  route  ;  and  the  subsequent  retreat  was  conducted 
with  such  perfect  order,  that  when  the  French  troops  reached  the  point 
where  the  roads  to  Moscow  and  Kaluga  separate,  they  were  for  some  time 
uncertain,  as  they  had  previously  been  at  Witepsk,  which  of  the  two  the 
Russians  had  followed.  Kutusoff  reached  a  position  half  a  league  in 
front  of  Moscow  on  the  13th  of  September,  and  held  a  council  of  war  to 
deliberate  the  question  of  abandoning  the  town  to  its  fate.  Kutusoff  and 
Barclay  eventually  insisted  on  a  retreat,  assigning  as  a  reason,  that  it 
was  indispensable  to  preserve  the  army  entire  until  the  new  levies  could 
be  incorporated  into  its  ranks,  and  averring  that  the  abandonment  of  the 
metropolis  "  would  lead  the  enemy  into  a  snare,  where  his  destruction  would 
be  inevitable."  These  prophetic  words  determined  the  council,  and  or- 
ders were  given  for  the  troops  to  retire  in  the  direction  of  Kolomna.  On 
the  morning  of  the  14th,  therefore,  the  army  continued  its  retreat,  and  in 
silent  despondency  defiled  through  the  streets  of  the  sacred  city. 

Nothing  could  exceed  the  consternation  of  the  inhabitants  of  Moscow, 
when  they  found  themselves  deserted  by  their  defenders.  They  had 
been  led  to  believe,  from  the  government  reports,  that  the  French  were 
entirely  defeated  at  Borodino,  and  that  Napoleon's  advance  to  Moscow 
was  impossible  ;  they  therefore  had  not  thought  of  preparations  for  quit- 
ting the  city.  Nevertheless,  when  their  departure  thus  became  unavoid- 
able, they  made  exertions  equal  to  the  emergency,  and  in  a  short  time, 
no  less  than  three  hundred  thousand  people  left  their  homes,  and  reverted 
at  once  to  the  nomadic  life  of  their  ancestors. 

At  eleven  o'clock,  on  the  14th,  the  advanced  guard  of  the  French  army, 
from  an  eminence  on  their  route,  descried  the  minarets  of  the  metropolis; 
the  domes  of  more  than  two  hundred  churches,  and  the  roofs  of  a  thousand 
palaces  glittered  in  the  rays  of  the  sun,  and  the  leading  squadrons,  struck 
by  the  magnificence  of  the  spectacle,  halted  to  exclaim,  "  Moscow ! 
Moscow !"  and  the  cry,  repeated  from  rank  to  rank,  reached  the  Empe- 
ror's guard.  The  soldiers  then  broke  their  array  and  rushed  tumultu- 
ously  forward,  while  Napoleon  in  the  midst  of  them  gazed  impatiently  on 
the  scene.  His  first  words  were,  "  Here  is  that  famous  city  at  last !" 
but  he  immediately  added,  "  It  is  full  time  !" 

The  entry  of  the  French  troops  into  the  town,  however,  dispelled  many 
of  their  illusions.  Moscow  was  deserted.  Its  long  streets  and  splendid 
palaces  reechoed  nothing  but  the  clangor  of  the  invader's  march  :  the 
dwelling-places  of  three  hundred  thousand  people  were  as  silent  as  a 
wilderness.  Napoleon  in  vain  waited  until  evening  fora  deputation  from 
the  magistrates,  or  from  the  chief  nobility.  No  one  came  forward  to 
deprecate  his  hostility,  and  the  mournful  truth  finally  forced  itself  upon 
him,  that  Moscow,  as  if  struck  by  enchantment,  was  bereft  of  its  inhabit- 
ants. He  nevertheless  advanced,  and  the  troops  took  possession  of  tho 


322       ,  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.        [CHAP.  XXXVIII, 

town,  while  he  established  his  head-quarters  at  the  ancient  palace  of  the 
Czars. 

But  a  terrible  catastrophe  was  at  hand.  At  midnight,  on  the  15th,  a 
bright  light  illuminated  the  northern  and  western  parts  of  the  city  ;  and 
the  sentinels  at  the  Kremlin,  soon  discovered  that  the  splendid  edifices  in 
that  vicinity  were  on  fire.  The  wind  changed  repeatedly  during  the 
night,  but  to  whatever  quarter  it  veered,  the  conflagration  extended  itself; 
fresh  fires  were  perpetually  breaking  out,  and  Moscow  was  soon  one  sea 
of  flame.  Napoleon  clung  with  great  tenacity  to  the  Kremlin,  but  the 
approaching  and  surrounding  fire  at  last  forced  him  to  abandon  it,  arid 
with  some  difficulty  he  made  his  escape  to  the  country  palace  of  Petrow. 
sky.  The  conflagration  continued  for  thirty-six  hours,  and  laid  nine- 
tenths  of  the  city  in  ashes. 

While  these  events  were  in  progress,  the  Russian  army  retired  on  the 
road  to  Kolomna;  and,  after  falling  back  two  marches  in  that  direction, 
it  wheeled  to  the  left,  and,  by  a  semi-circular  route,  regained  the  road  to 
Kaluga,  and  encamped  at  Tarutino.  By  this  masterly  movement,  Kutu- 
sofl*  at  once  drew  near  to  his  reinforcements,  covered  the  richest  prov- 
inces of  the  Empire,  secured  the  supplies  of  his  army,  and  threatened  the 
enemy's  communications. 


CHAPTER   XXXVIII. 

THE    RETREAT    FROM    MOSCOW. 

NAPOLEON  returned  to  the  Kremlin,  which  eventually  escaped  the 
flames,  on  the  20th  of  September,  and  anxiously  awaited  the  impression 
which  the  intelligence  of  his  success  would  produce  on  the  Russian  gov- 
ernment. To  aid  the  anticipated  effect,  Count  Lauriston  was  dispatched 
to  the  head-quarters  of  Kutusoff,  with  authority  to  propose  an  armistice, 
and  Murat  had  an  interview  with  General  Benriingsen.  Kutusoff  imme- 
diately forwarded  Napoleon's  letter  to  St.  Petersburg,  through  the  hands 
of  Prince  Wolkousky,  while  the  French  deputation  were  amused  with 
hopes  of  an  arrangement  held  out  to  them  by  the  Russian  generals. 

For  a  time,  the  Emperor  lay  inactive  at  Moscow,  expecting  the  submis- 
sion of  the  cabinet  of  St.  Petersburg :  but  day  after  day,  and  week  aftei 
week  rolled  on,  without  any  answer  to  his  proposals.  Meantime,  the 
early  winter  of  those  northern  latitudes  was  visibly  approaching,  and  the 
anxiety  of  the  troops  in  regard  to  their  future  movements  began  to  be 
loudly  and  freely  expressed.  At  the  same  time,  the  discipline  and 
efficiency  of  the  army  daily  declined  amid  the  license  which  followed 
the  pillage  of  Moscow.  All  the  efforts  of  the  officers  failed  to  arrest  the 
insubordination  of  the  men,  and  the  more  so,  as  the  pressure  of  famine 
aggravated  their  calamities.  The  food  of  the  officers  frequently  consisted 
of  nothing  but  horse-flesh,  and  the  common  soldiers  were  often  on  the 
point  of  starving. 

Very  different  from  this  was  the  appearance  of  the  Russian  camp 
at  Tarutino.  Discipline,  order  and  comfort,  reigned  there  undisturbed 


1812.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  323 

The  levies  which  arrived  from  the  southern  provinces  filled  up  the  nu- 
merous chasms  in  the  battalions,  and  all  the  necessaries  of  life  were 
furnished  in  abundance  by  the  surrounding  country.  One  feeling  of 
enthusiasm  and  one  purpose  of  vengeance  animated  the  entire  soldiery. 
The  Cossacks  of  the  Don  took  arms  in  a  body  at  the  call  of  PlatofF,  and 
twenty-two  regiments  joined  the  army.  The  savage  aspect  of  the  horses 
which  these  rude  warriors  brought  from  the  wilderness,  with  their  un- 
combed manes  sweeping  the  ground,  attested  how  deeply  the  innermost 
recesses  of  the  Russian  Empire  were  pervaded  by  that  indomitable  spirit 
of  resistance,  which  brought  thence  these  wild  children  of  the  desert  to 
combat  for  the  national  freedom. 

While  the  fate  of  Napoleon's  proposals  to  Alexander  remained  in  sus- 
pense, a  sort  of  armistice  prevailed  between  the  two  main  armies ;  but  a 
guerilla  warfare  was  maintained  by  the  Russian  light  troops,  and  espe- 
cially by  the  Cossacks,  who  formed  a  vast  circle  around  Moscow,  occu- 
pied every  road,  and  intercepted  the  enemy's  supplies  of  forage  and  pro- 
visions. The  French  cavalry  were  by  this  means  compelled  to  tra- 
verse large  districts  in  search  of  food,  and  their  detachments  were  almost 
invariably  cut  off  by  their  enterprising  and  active  assailants.  During 
the  first  three  weeks  of  October,  the  French  lost  in  this  manner  more 
than  four  thousand  men  who  were  taken  prisoners,  and  the  reports  from 
Murat  announced  the  alarming  fact,  that  one-half  of  the  whole  remaining 
cavalry  of  the  army  had  perished  in  these  inglorious  encounters. 

With  these  facts  in  view,  the  officers  were  impressed  with  the  most 
gloomy  forebodings  as  to  the  fate  of  the  army,  if  its  stay  at  Moscow  were 
prolonged  :  and  Napoleon,  although  he  still  flattered  himself  with  a  be- 
lief that  his  negotiations  for  peace  would  end  satisfactorily,  saw  never- 
theless, that  if  they  were  to  eventuate  otherwise,  he  would  be  forced  to  a 
disastrous  retreat.  As  early  as  the  2nd  of  October,  he  had  given  orders 
for  the  evacuation  of  the  Cathedral  and  adjoining  convents  of  Smolensko — 
which  had  escaped  the  conflagration  of  that  city,  and  were  then  occupied 
as  hospitals — in  order  that  they  might  be  ready  to  receive  the  sick  and 
wounded  followers  of  his  retrograde  march ;  and  on  the  6th  of  the  same 
month  he  had  written  to  Berthier,  to  post  his  corps  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
cover  his  anticipated  retreat  to  that  city.  But  it  was  now  easier  for  Na- 
poleon to  issue  orders  for  the  protection  of  his  homeward  route,  than  for 
his  marshals  to  obey  them.  The  courage  and  audacity  of  the  straggling 
Russian  parties  along  the  whole  line  of  the  French  communications, 
increased  with  the  embarrassments  of  the  invaders ;  and  not  only  con- 
voys of  provisions,  but  columns  in  march  were  intercepted  and  destroyed 
by  these  indefatigable  foes. 

During  this  critical  period,  Napoleon  was  wasting  invaluable  time  in 
expectation  of  an  answer  to  his  proposals,  which  were  never  seriously 
entertained  by  the  Russians,  and  would  never  have  been  received  at  all, 
but  for  the  secret  purpose  of  detaining  him  at  Moscow  until  the  approach 
of  winter  had  rendered  the  escape  of  his  army  impossible.  But  on  the 
13th  of  October,  a  fall  of  snow  aroused  Napoleon  to  a  sense  of  his  dan- 
ger, and  he  began  in  earnest  to  make  preparations  for  retreat. 

Kutusoff,  who  had  remained  inactive  in  his  encampment,  solely  because 
he  was  fearful  of  prematurely  awaking  Napoleon  from  his  fancied  secu- 
rity, prepared  to  resume  the  offensive  as  soon  as  it  became  evident  that 
the  French  were  about  to  retire.  He  had  for  some  time  observed  that  the 

30 


324  HI  STORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXXVIH 

advanced  guard,  under  Murat  and  Poniatowski,  thirty  thousand  strong, 
posted  in  the  neighborhood  of  Winkowo,  kept  so  negligent  a  watch  at 
their  outposts,  as  to  offer  a  tempting  opportunity  for  a  surprise.  He 
therefore  placed  a  large  body  of  men  under  the  command  of  Benningsen, 
with  orders  to  make  the  attack.  Benningsen  divided  his  force  into  five 
columns  and  hastened  to  Winkowo,  where  he.  arrived  on  the  morning  of 
the  18th  of  October,  and  assaulted  the  French  position  with  great  spirit : 
but  as  his  columns  did  not  all  reach  their  designated  positions  at  one 
time,  Murat  was  enabled  to  retreat  with  a  loss  of  only  fifteen  hundred 
men,  thirty-eight  pieces  of  cannon  and  all  his  baggage. 

This  comparatively  trifling  disaster  accelerated  Napoleon's  movements. 
He  left  the  Kremlin  on  the  morning  of  the  19th,  exclaiming,  "  Let  us 
march  to  Kaluga,  and  wo  to  those  who  interrupt  our  progress !"  He  re- 
treated from  Moscow  at  the  head  of  one  hundred  and  five  thousand  com- 
batants, with  six  hundred  pieces  of  artillery  ;  and  in  the  rear  of  this  im- 
posing array,  came  an  almost  interminable  train  of  wagons  bearing  the 
spoils  pillaged  from  the  devoted  city.  Napoleon  at  first  advanced  on  the 
old  road  to  Kaluga,  which  led  directly  to  Kutusoff's  encampment ;  but 
after  marching  for  some  hours  in  that  direction,  he  turned  suddenly  to  the 
right,  and  gained  by  cross-roads  the  new  and  shorter  route  to  Kaluga, 
which  ran  through  Malo-Jaroslawitz.  This  manoeuvre  was  concealed 
from  the  Russians  by  the  corps  of  Marshal  Ney,  which  continued  to  ad- 
vance slowly  on  the  old  road ;  and  KutusofF,  in  the  belief  that  the  whole 
army  had  moved  on  this  route,  at  first  sent  only  Platoff  with  fifteen  regi- 
ments of  Cossacks  to  take  possession  of  Malo-Jaroslawitz.  On  discovering 
his  error,  he  dispatched  the  corps  of  Doctoroff  by  a  rapid  night  march  to 
suppoi  t  the  Cossacks.  The  French  troops  had,  however,  already  reached 
the  place  in  some  force  under  Eugene,  and  an  obstinate  contest  ensued, 
at  the  termination  of  which,  late  in  the  evening  of  the  24th,  the  viceroy 
remained  master  of  a  burning  town ;  but  he  had  purchased  it  by  a  loss 
of  five  thousand  of  his  best  troops.  Moreover,  a  Russian  army  of  one 
hundred  thousand  men,  with  seven  hundred  pieces  of  cannon,  had  im- 
proved the  time  consumed  in  the  action  to  occupy  a  semi-circular  line  in 
his  front,  which  precluded  the  possibility  of  a  further  advance  toward 
Kaluga,  without  a  general  battle. 

Napoleon  remained  in  the  neighborhood  of  Malo-Jaroslawitz  during  the 
night  of  the  24th,  and  sent  out  numerous  parties  to  reconnoitre  the  Rus- 
sian position  ;  and  their  reports  induced  his  most  experienced  officers  to 
believe  that  a  successful  attack  was  impossible.  No  alternative  remained, 
therefore,  but  to  fall  back  on  the  Smolensko  road ;  and  the  Emperor's 
agitation  at  this  juncture  was  so  great,  that  his  attendants  dared  not 
approach  him.  On  returning  to  the  miserable  cottage  that  constituted  his 
head-quarters,  he  sent  for  Berthier,  Murat  and  Bessieres,  and  seating  him- 
self at  a  table  on  which  a  map  of  the  country  was  spread  out,  he  began 
to  speak  to  them  of  the  change  which  the  arrival  of  Kutusoff  on  the  high- 
grounds  of  Malo-Jaroslawitz  had  made  in  his  situation.  After  a  little 
discussion  he  became  meditative,  and,  resting  his  cheeks  on  his  hands 
and  his  elbows  on  the  table,  he  fixed  his  eyes  on  the  map,  and  remained 
for  more  than  an  hour  in  moody  silence.  The  three  generals,  respecting 
his  mental  agony,  sat  also  still  and  speechless.  At  last,  he  suddenly 
started  up  and  dismissed  them,  without  making  known  his  intentions.  But 
immediately  afterward,  he  sent  orders  to  Davoust  to  take  his  place  at  the 


1812.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE  325 

head  of  the  advanced  guard,  saying  that  he  would  himself  be  at  the  out- 
posts with  his  Imperial  Guard,  at  daybreak.  Ney  was  also  directed  to 
take  a  position  between  Barowsk  and  Malo-Jaroslawitz,  after  leaving  two 
divisions  to  protect  the  reserve  artillery  and  baggage  at  the  former  of 
those  towns. 

Early  on  the  25th,  Napoleon  set  out  in  person  to  examine  the  ground, 
and  was  advancing,  through  a  confused  mass  of  baggage-wagons  and 
artillery*  when  a  sudden  tumult  arose,  and  the  same  moment  this  cry  was 
heard,  "  It  is  PlatofF!  they  are  ten  thousand  strong !"  and  a  large  body 
of  Cossacks  dashed  down  on  the  Imperial  escort.  By  a  qujck  and  des- 
perate effort  the  tide  of  this  alarming  irruption  was  turned,  and  the  Cos- 
sacks, ignorant  of  the  prize  so  entirely  within  their  grasp,  directed  their 
attention  to  the  artillery,  and  carried  off  eleven  guns.  After  thoroughly 
reconnoitering  the  ground,  the  Emperor  returned  to  his  quarters,  and 
nothing  further  was  attempted  on  either  side  for  the  day.  But  the  fatal 
retreat  was  definitively  resolved  on,  and  early  in  the  morning  of  the  26th 
the  men  silently  and  mournfully  commenced  their  march.  KutusofF  pur- 
sued with  his  main  body  by  a  parallel  road  toward  Mojaisk  and  Wiazma, 
while  Platoffwith  the  Cossacks  pressed  the  French  rear-guard. 

The  several  French  corps  marched  at  intervals  of  half  a  day's  journey 
from  each  other,  and  for  some  days  were  not  seriously  harassed  by  the  ene- 
my ;  but  the  discouragement  of  the  troops  had  become  very  great,  and  the 
dreadful  features  of  the  retreat  already  began  to  appear.  Baggage- wagons 
were  constantly  abandoned,  the  infantry  and  cavalry  hastened  along  in 
utter  confusion,  and  incessant  explosions  through  the  vast  column,  an- 
nounced the  number  of  ammunition  carts  that  were  left  behind  of  necessity, 
and  blown  up  to  prevent  their  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Russians.  In 
fact,  the  retreat  was  rapidly  becoming  a  flight ;  the  troops  separated  from 
the  marching  columns  in  quest  of  plunder  or  subsistence,  and  numbers  of 
horses  were  slain  to  furnish  food  for  the  hungry  multitudes  that  surrounded 
them. 

On  the  2nd  of  November,  the  leading  divisions  reached  Wiazma,  and 
Napoleon,  flattering  himself  that  he  had  gained  several  marches  of  Ku- 
tusoff,  and  would  not  be  disquieted  by  any  further  hostilities,  continued 
his  retreat  toward  Smolensko ;  but  he  was  soon  undeceived.  Davoust's 
corps,  forming  the  rear-guard,  approached  Wiazma  on  the  3rd,  and  was 
there  so  severely  attacked  by  Milaradowitch  and  the  Cossacks,  that  he 
was  driven  through  the  streets  of  that  town  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet, 
and  lost  more  than  six  thousand  men.  The  corps  of  Davoust  had,  pre- 
vious to  this  action,  lost  no  less  than  ten  thousand  men  by  sickness,  fatigue 
and  desertion  since  the  retreat  commenced ;  and  it  was  now  so  reduced 
that  Napoleon  directed  Ney  with  his  corps  to  take  the  rear,  and  cover, 
thenceforward,  the  movements  of  the  army. 

The  weather,  though  cold  and  frosty  at  night,  had  hitherto  been  bright 
and  clear  during  the  day  ;  but  on  the  6th  of  November  the  Russian  win- 
ter set  in  with  unwonted  seventy.  Cold  fogs  first  rose  from  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  and  obscured  the  face  of  the  sun ;  a  few  flakes  of  snow 
floated  in  the  air ;  and  gradually  the  light  of  day  declined,  and  a  thick, 
murky  gloom  overspread  the  firmament.  The  wind  rose  and  blew  with 
frightful  violence,  howling  through  the  forest  or  sweeping  over  the  plains 
with  resistless  fury ;  the  snow  soon  covered  the  earth,  and  numbers  of 
the  troops,  in  struggling  forward,  fell  into  hollows  or  ditches  which  were 


326  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXXVTIL 

concealed  by  the  treacherous  surface,  and  perished  miserably  before 
the  eyes  of  their  comrades ;  others  were  swallowed  up  in  the  moving 
masses  of  snow  which,  like  the  sands  of  the  desert,  accompanied 
the  fatal  blast.  The  soldiers  were  accustomed  to  death  in  its  ordinary 
forms,  but  there  was  something  that  appalled  the  stoutest  hearts  in  the 
uniformity  of  this  boundless  wilderness,  which,  like  a  vast  winding-sheeU 
seemed  ready  to  envelope  the  whole  army.  Exhausted  with  fatigue  or 
transfixed  with  cold,  they  sank  by  thousands  on  the  road,  while  clouds  of 
ravens  and  troops  of  dogs  that  had  followed  the  army  from  Moscow, 
screeched  and  howled  along  the  march,  and  often  fastened  on  their  vic- 
tims before  life  was  extinct.  The  only  objects  visible  above  the  snow 
were  the  tall  pines,  which,  with  their  gigantic  stems  and  funereal  foliage, 
cast  a  darker  horror  over  the  scene,  and  seemed  to  rise  up  like  fr-owning 
and  gloomy  monuments  to  mark  the  grave  of  the  expiring  host.  As  night 
approached,  the  sufferings  of  the  soldiers  increased  :  they  sought  in  vain 
for  the  shelter  of  a  rock,  the  cover  of  a  friendly  habitation,  or  the  warmth 
of  a  cheerful  fire ;  and  although,  at  intervals,  a  blaze  might  be  seen  in 
the  bivouac,  it  flashed  with  a  sickly  light,  and  served  but  to  prepare  a 
miserable  meal  of  rye  mixed  with  snow-water  and  horse-flesh,  for  the 
starving  multitude. 

In  the  midst  of  these  sufferings,  the  army  approached  Smolensko ;  and, 
at  the  sight  of  this  promised  resting-place,  the  little  remaining  discipline 
of  the  soldiers  gave  way :  officers  and  privates,  infantry  and  cavalry, 
precipitated  themselves  in  a  confused  mass  toward  the  town,  and,  rushing 
through  the  streets,  surrounded  the  gates  of  the  magazines,  and  shrieked 
for  the  food  which  they  so  desperately  needed.  But  bread  in  sufficient 
quantities  could  not  be  furnished,  and  grain  in  large  sacks  was  thrown  out 
to  the  famishing  wretches,  who  eagerly  devoured  it  in  its  natural  state. 

Smolensko,  however,  proved  to  be  no  place  of  refuge  to  the  retreating 
army :  the  few  buildings  that  had  escaped  the  conflagration  were  insuffi- 
cient to  shelter  even  the  sick  and  wounded  ;  the  magazines  were  nearly 
empty  by  reason  of  the  failure  of  the  convoys,  and  Napoleon  received 
such  intelligence  of  the  defeat  of  his  two  wings  and  the  rapid  advance  of 
Kutusoff  on  his  main  body,  as  rendered  a  long  halt  in  this  desolate  town  im- 
possible. Oudinot  had  been  defeated  with  immense  loss  by  Wittgenstein, 
notwithstanding  the  reinforcements  he  had  received  from  Eugene  ;  Tchi- 
chagoff  had  totally  routed  the  Saxons  and  Poles  on  the  other  flank ;  and 
Kutusoff,  after  a  series  of  successes  against  the  rear-guard  under  Ney,  had 
pressed  forward  to  the  neighborhood  of  Krasnoi  with  the  whole  of  the 
Russian  grand  army,  and  now  threatened  to  intercept  Napoleon's  retreat. 

In  this  emergency,  Napoleon  immediately  arranged  his  order  of  march 
and  set  out  from  Smolensko  on  the  14th  of  November.  The  remains  of 
the  cavalry,  reduced  from  forty  thousand  to  eight  hundred  men,  were 
placed  under  the  orders  of  Latour  Maubourg  ;  the  shattered  battalions  of 
infantry  and  artillery  were  blended  into  newly  organized  corps  ;  and  the 
Emperor  took  command  in  person  of  the  united  columns  of  the  Young  and 
Old  Guard.  The  total  amount  of  his  troops  was  nearly  seventy  thousand ; 
but  of  these,  not  more  than  forty  thousand  were  in  condition  to  undertake 
offensive  movements  Early  on  the  morning  of  the  15th,  Napoleon,  who 
led  the  retreat  from  Smolensko,  encountered  a  part  of  Kutusoff 's  army  at 
Krasnoi;  but  the  Russian  general,  fearful  of  driving  to  desperation  such 
redoubtable  soldiers  as  the  Imperial  Guard,  confined  his  operation  to  an 


1812.]  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  327 

affair  of  artillery,  and  eventually  withdrew  until  that  part  of  the  French 
force  had  passed  his  position.  But  the  next  day,  when  Eugene  followed 
with  his  corps,  Kutusoff  entirely  blockaded  the  road,  and  compelled  the 
viceroy,  after  a  ruinous  defeat,  to  make  his  escape  with  a  small  portion 
of  his  troops  across  the  fields :  nevertheless,  under  cover  of  night,  he 
eventually  rejoined  the  Emperor.  On  the  17th,  Kutusoff  brought  up  his 
whole  force  to  cut  off  Davoust,  who  came  next  on  the  line  of  retreat. 
Napoleon,  however,  heard  of  his  purpose,  and  countermarched  with  all  the 
troops  under  his  immediate  command  to  aid  the  marshal  in  this  extremity. 
A  general  action  resulted  from  these  movements.  Prince  Gallitzin,  with 
the  Russian  centre,  commenced  the  battle  by  an  attack  on  Roguet  and 
the  Young  Guard.  After  an  obstinate  contest,  in  the  course  of  which  a 
square  of  the  Guard  was  broken  and  destroyed  by  the  Russian  cuirassiers, 
Gallitzin  established  himself  on  the  Lossmina,  near  the  French  centre. 
At  this  time  Davoust  advanced,  moving  slowly  in  the  midst  of  a  cloud  of 
Cossacks  ;  and,  being  assailed  simultaneously  in  front  and  flank  by  Gal- 
litzin and  Milaradowitch,  his  corps  was  almost  totally  destroyed.  This 
success  of  the  Russians  forced  Napoleon  to  look  out  for  his  own  safety ; 
and,  dreading  an  attack  from  the  combined  Russian  corps,  he  retreated 
to  Liady  with  one-half  of  his  Guard ;  the  other  having  perished  in  the 
battle. 

Ney  left  Smolensko  with  the  rear-guard  on  the  17th,  and  speedily  dis- 
covered traces  of  the  ruin  of  the  Grand  Army.  Cannon,  caissons,  dead 
horses,  and  wounded  men  impeded  his  progress  at  every  step ;  and  a  far 
more  formidable  obstacle  awaited  him  in  the  array  of  the  Russian  troops, 
who  were  drawn  up  on  the  banks  of  the  Lossmina  to  intercept  his  retreat. 
He  was,  however,  ignorant  of  his  danger,  and  approached  the  Russian 
position  during  a  thick  fog  on  the  morning  of  the  18th.  Suddenly,  the  fire 
of  forty  pieces  of  cannon  shattered  his  leading  column,  and  the  fog  clear- 
ing away,  disclosed  the  heights  on  his  front  and  flank  crested  by  dense 
masses  of  infantry  and  artillery.  Kutusoff  summoned  him  to  capitulate  ; 
but  Ney  replied,  "  A  marshal  of  France  never  surrenders  !"  and  instantly 
charged  the  Russian  batteries.  His  soldiers  closed  their  ranks  and  marched 
with  hopeless  devotion  against  the  iron  bands  of  their  adversaries  ;  but 
after  a  number  of  desperate  attempts,  they  were  driven  back  with  a  loss 
of  more  than  six  thousand  men.  Ney,  perceiving  that  the  Russian  posi- 
tion was  impregnable  in  front,  and  that  Kutusoff  was  extending  his  lines 
to  the  north  of  the  great  road  to  prevent  him  from  escaping,  formed  a  col- 
umn, four  thousand  strong,  of  his  most  efficient  men,  and  retreated  for  an 
hour  on  the  road  to  Smolensko,  when  he  turned  abruptly  to  the  north  and 
moved  toward  the  Dnieper.  At  the  village  of  Syrokenci,  his  advanced 
post  met  a  peasant,  who  pointed  out  a  place  for  crossing  the  frozen  river 
in  safety ;  and  he  succeeded,  through  the  night,  in  transporting  to  the 
opposite  bank  three  thousand  men.  without  horses  or  artillery.  He  even 
waited  three  hours  before  commencing  the  passage,  to  give  the  stragglers 
time  to  join  his  little  detachment,  and  during  this  anxious  period  he  wrap- 
ped himself  in  his  cloak,  and  slept  quietly  on  the  margin  of  the  stream. 
The  remainder  of  his  corps  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Russians.  The 
general  result  of  these  several  actions  near  Krasnoi  was  the  capture  of 
twenty-six  thousand  prisoners,  three  hundred  officers,  and  two  hundred  and 
twenty-eight  pieces  of  cannon,  besides  ten  thousand  men  killed  ;  and  all 
this  the  Russians  accomplished  with  a  loss  of  but  two  thousand  men. 

23 


328  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.        [CHAP.  XXXVIli 

Although  the  Emperor  with  a  part  of  the  army  had  escaped  these  ruin- 
ous defeats,  he  was  reduced  to  the  utmost  extremity.  As  the  few  horsea 
that  had  not  perished  were  reserved  for  conveying  the  wounded,  Napoleon 
himself  marched  on  foot  with  a  birch  stick  in  his  hand ;  and  it  was  with 
great  difficulty  that  he  and  the  body  of  officers  who  surrounded  him,  could 
force  their  way  through  the  crowd  of  straggling  soldiers,  camp-followers, 
baggage-wagons,  and  cannon  that  thronged  the  road. 

The  retreating  army  at  length  reached  Orcha,  where,  for  a  time,  the 
severity  of  the  weather  abated  ;  and,  as  the  magazines  of  that  town  were 
well  supplied,  the  troops  enjoyed  great  comparative  comfort :  but  their 
numbers  were  wofully  reduced.  There  remained  but  six  thousand  of  the 
thirty-five  thousand  Imperial  Guards :  Davoust  had  saved  but  four  thou- 
sand men  out  of  seventy  thousand  ;  Eugene,  eighteen  hundred  out  of  forty- 
two  thousand  ;  and  Ney,  fifteen  hundred  out  of  forty  thousand.  The 
garrison  of  Orcha  and  the  Polish  cavalry  in  the  neighborhood,  were  added 
to  these  remnants  of  the  army  and  somewhat  increased  its  efficiency,  and 
the  corps  of  Victor  and  Oudinot  soon  after  joined  the  Emperor.  Neverthe- 
less, Napoleon  was  in  a  very  critical  situation.  He  had  assembled  his 
forces  and  marched  directly  upon  the  Beresina  ;  but  on  his  route,  he 
learned  that  Minsk  and  the  bridge  of  Borissow  had  fallen  into  the  hands 
of  the  Russians,  so  that  the  only  passage  of  the  river  was  lost.  Moreover 
a  sudden  thaw,  which  had  carried  away  the  wintry  covering  of  the  stream 
and  filled  its  waters  with  masses  of  floating  ice,  rendered  it  apparently 
impossible  to  establish  a  communication  with  the  opposite  shore.  Tchi- 
chagoff  lay  in  his  front,  guarding  the  river ;  Wittgenstein  occupied  an 
impregnable  position  on  his  right ;  and  Kutusoff,  with  the  main  Russian 
army,  menaced  his  left. 

Under  these  trying  circumstances,  Napoleon  displayed  his  usual  genius 
and  firmness  of  mind.  His  entire  force,  after  the  junction  with  Victor 
and  Oudinot,  and  also  with  Dombrowsky,  who  arrived  at  this  crisis, 
amounted  to  nearly  seventy  thousand  men,  of  whom  forty  thousand  were 
in  a  condition  to  fight.  He  disposed  this  whole  mass  into  one  column, 
and  directed  it  against  Tchichagoff,  whose  corps  did  not  exceed  thirty- 
three  thousand  men,  though  he  was  well  posted  on  the  marshy  shores  and 
wooded  banks  of  the  Beresina.  To  conceal  his  purpose,  Napoleon  made 
demonstrations  toward  the  Lower  Beresina,  as  if  he  designed  to  cross  the 
river  there,  and  unite  his  forces  to  those  of  Schwartzenberg.  In  the 
meantime,  the  principal  part  of  his  forces  were  collected  on  the  heights 
of  Borissow ;  and  as  soon  as  he  found  that  his  stratagem  had  diverted  the 
attention  of  the  Russians,  he  commenced  the  construction  of  two  bridges 
over  the  Beresina  at  Studienka.  A  severe  frost  on  the  24th  of  November, 
facilitated  the  approach  of  the  artillery  over  the  marshy  meadows  to 
the  river ;  but  this  circumstance,  so  far  fortunate,  greatly  hindered  the 
completion  of  the  bridges,  by  filling  the  water  with  floating  ice.  Never- 
theless, the  French  engineers  were  indefatigable  in  their  exertions;  a 
bridge  for  foot  soldiers  was  finished,  and  on  the  25th,  a  brigade  of  in- 
fantry established  itself  on  the  opposite  bank.  It  happened  that  on  the 
night  when  this  was  accomplishing,  the  Russian  general  Tchaplitz,  who 
commanded  the  western  bank  of  the  river  at  this  point,  received  orders 
from  Tchichagoff  to  join  him  at  the  Lower  Beresina ;  and  on  the  morning 
of  the  26th,  the  French  beheld  with  astonishment  the  Russian  bivouacs 
deserted,  and  their  artillery  apparently  in  retreat.  They  therefore  re- 


1812.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  329 

doubled  their  exertions,  and  soon  constructed  a  second  bridge  for  the 
passage  of  their  cannon  and  wagons,  and  thus  made  themselves  masters 
of  the  communication.  Tchaplitz  was  soon  informed  of  his  error,  and 
he  hastened  back  to  repair  it;  but  he  arrived  too  late ;  the  French  were 
established  in  considerable  force  on  the  western  bank,  and  he  was  com- 
pelled to  retire. 

When  TchichagofFand  Wittgenstein  learned  that  a  division  of  the  French 
troops  was  already  posted  on  the  opposite  shore,  and  that  it  had  secured 
the  passage  of  the  Beresina,  they  made  immediate  preparations  for  attack- 
ing the  enemy  on  both  sides  of  the  river ;  and  Wittgenstein,  as  a  pre- 
liminary movement,  intercepted  a  detachment  of  Victor's  corps,  amounting 
to  eight  thousand  men,  and  forced  them  to  lay  down  their  arms.  During 
the  night  of  the  27th,  it  was  agreed  that  TchichagofF,  whom  YermolofF 
had  reenforced  with  the  advanced  guard  of  the  Russian  main  army, 
should  move  against  the  French  on  the  right  bank,  while  Wittgenstein 
pressed  Victor  and  the  remainder  of  the  French  forces  on  the  left. 

Tchaplitz  began  the  action  on  the  morning  of  the  28th,  by  an  attack  on 
Oudinot ;  but  the  French  vanguard  having  been  strengthened  by  the  re- 
mains of  Ney's  corps,  the  legion  of  the  Vistula,  and  the  Imperial  Guard, 
he  was  unable  to  make  good  his  ground  until  TchichagofF  came  up  and 
restored  the  day.  The  contest,  however,  was  without  any  decisive  result. 
The  Russians  failed  to  cut  ofF  the  retreat  of  the  French,  and  the  loss  on 
each  side  amounted  to  about  five  thousand  men. 

Wittgenstein  was  more  successful.  By  his  first  charge  he  drove  Vic- 
tor to  a  retreat,  and  as  the  only  avenue  of  escape  lay  across  the  two 
bridges  over  the  Beresina,  those  conveyances  were  immediately  thronged 
with  a  confused  mass  of  fugitives,  who  trampled  each  other  in  their  flight, 
and  blockaded  the  passage  by  the  madness  of  their  efForts.  As  the  Rus- 
sian corps  successively  gained  ground,  their  batteries  formed  a  vast  semi- 
circle, which  played  incessantly  on  the  bridges,  and  augmented  to  des- 
peration the  terror  of  the  multitude  who  were  struggling  to  cross  over. 
In  the  midst  of  this  confusion,  the  artillery-bridge  broke  down,  and  the 
crowds  upon  it,  being  pressed  forward  by  those  in  the  rear^  were  precipi- 
tated into  the  water  and  drowned.  Infantry,  cavalry  and  artillery  now 
rushed  upon  the  other  bridge,  and  dashed  with  their  horses  and  gun- 
carriages  through  the  mass  of  people,  crushing  some  beneath  the  wheels 
and  horses'  feet,  like  victims  before  the  car  of  Juggernaut,  and  pushing 
others  over  the  sides  of  the  bridge. 

In  these  moments  of  agony,  all  varieties  of  character  were  exhibited — 
selfishness  with  its  baseness,  cowardice  with  its  meanness,  and  heroism 
with  its  power  and  generosity.  Soldiers  seized  infants  from  their  ex- 
piring mothers,  and  vowed  to  adopt  them  as  their  own ;  officers  harnessed 
themselves  to  sledges,  to  extricate  their  wounded  companions ;  privates 
threw  themselves  on  the  snow  beside  their  dying  officers,  and  strove,  at 
the  risk  of  incurring  captivity  or  death,  to  solace  their  last  moments.  In 
the  midst  of  this  terrific  scene,  Victor,  who  had  nobly  sustained  the 
arduous  duty  of  covering  the  retreat  during  the  whole  day,  arrived  with 
the  rear-guard  at  the  entrance  of  the  bridge.  His  troops,  with  stern 
severity,  opened  a  passage  for  themselves  through  the  helpless  multitude 
who  thronged  the  bridge  and  the  shore  adjoining  it,  whom  despair  and 
misery  had  at  length  rendered  incapable  of  exertion,  and  who  now  could 
neither  be  persuaded  nor  forced  to  cross  to  the  opposite  bank.  These 


880  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE  [CHAP.  XXXVIII. 

horrors  continued  throughout  the  night,  and  when  the  morning  dawned, 
Victor  saw  the  Russian  advanced  guard  approaching ;  the  destruction  of 
the  bridge,  therefore,  became  indispensable  to  the  safety  of  the  French 
army,  and  orders  were  given  to  burn  it.  A  frightful  cry  arose  from  the 
host  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  river,  who  were  too  late  awakened  to  the 
realities  of  their  situation :  numbers  rushed  on  the  burning  bridge,  and, 
to  avoid  the  flames,  jumped  into  the  water,  while  the  greater  proportion 
wandered  in  helpless  misery  along  the  river,  and  beheld  their  last,  hopes 
expire  with  the  receding  columns  of  their  countrymen. 

This  dreadful  passage  of  the  Beresina  completed  the  ruin  of  the  Grand 
Army,  which  lost  during  its  continuance,  twenty-five  pieces  of  cannon, 
sixteen  thousand  men  in  prisoners,  and  twelve  thousand  in  slain.  The 
corps  of  Victor  and  Oudinot  were  reduced  to  the  deplorable  state  of  the 
troops  that  came  from  Moscow,  and  the  whole  army,  having  lost  all  ap- 
pearance of  military  order,  marched  in  a  confused  mass  along  .the  road 
to  Wilna,  harassed  at  each  step  by  the  Cossacks,  who  cut  off  every  strag- 
gler and  made  constant  attacks  on  the  rear-guard.  In  the  midst  of  the 
general  ruin,  a  number  of  officers  organized  themselves  into  a  guard, 
called  the  Sacred  Squadron,  for  the  Emperor's  protection.  The  gentle- 
men who  composed  it  discharged  with  heroic  fidelity  the  task  assigned  to 
them,  and  executed  without  murmuring  all  the  duties  of  common  soldiers : 
but  the  severity  of  the  cold  soon  destroyed  their  horses,  and  they,  as  well 
as  the  Emperor,  were  again  compelled  to  pursue  their  route  on  foot 
through  the  snow.  At  night,  their  bivouac  was  formed  in  the  middle  of 
the  still  unbroken  squares  of  the  Old  Guard,  who  sat  around  the  watch- 
fires  on  their  haversacks,  with  their  elbows  on  their  knees,  their  heads 
resting  on  their  hands,  and  crowding  close  together,  strove  by  assuming 
this  posture  to  repress  the  pangs  of  hunger  and  gain  additional  warmth. 
On  the  5th  of  December,  Napoleon  arrived  at  Smorgoni.  He  there 
collected  his  marshals  around  him,  dictated  a  bulletin  which  fully  de- 
veloped the  horrors  and  disasters  of  the  retreat,  explained  his  reasons  for 
immediately  returning  to  Paris — which  were  connected  with  a  conspiracy 
soon  to  be  related — and  after  bidding  them  ail  an  affectionate  farewell, 
set  out  in  a  sledge  at  ten  o'clock  in  the  evening  for  the  French  capital, 
accompanied  by  Caulincourt  and  Lobau,  leaving  the  command  of  the 
army  to  Murat. 

The  departure  of  the  Emperor  increased  the  disorganization  of  the 
troops.  The  officers  ceased  to  obey  their  generals,  the  generals  disre- 
garded the  marshals,  and  the  marshals  set  at  defiance  the  authority  of 
Murat.  The  private  soldiers,  relieved  from  the  duty  of  protecting  their 
Emperor,  forgot  everything  but  the  instinct  of  self-preservation.  The 
colonels  hid  the  eagles  in  their  haversacks  or  buried  them  in  the  ground ; 
the  inferior  officers  dispersed  themselves  to  look  after  their  own  safety ; 
and  indeed,  nothing  was  thought  of  but  the  urgent  pangs  of  hunger  and 
the  terrible  severity  of  the  cold.  If  a  soldier  dropped,  his  comrades  in- 
stantly  fell  on  him,  and,  before  life  was  extinct,  tore  from  him  his  cloak, 
his  money  and  the  bread  he  carried  in  his  bosom ;  when  he  died,  some  one 
of  them  would  sit  on  his  body  for  the  sake  of  the  temporary  warmth  it 
afforded;  and  when  it  became  cold,  he,  too/would  often  drop  beside  his 
companion  to  rise  no  more.  The  watch-fires  at  night  were  surrounded  by 
exhausted  men,  who  crowded  like  spectres  about  the  blazing  piles;  and, 
in  the  morning,  the  melancholy  bivouacs  were  marked  by  circles  of  bodies 
as  lifeless  as  the  ashes  at  their  feet. 


1812.]  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  331 

Nevertheless,  the  fatal  retreat  continued  to  Wilna ;  and  although  be- 
tween Smorgoni  and  that  city  no  less  than  twenty  thousand  men  in  strag- 
gling detachments  had  joined  the  army,  scarcely  fbny  thousand  in  all 
reached  its  gates.  Here,  the  troops  found  an  abundance  of  food  ;  but  they 
had  scarcely  begun  to  refresh  themselves  from  the  immense  magazines 
that  the  city  contained,  when  the  roar  of  the  Russian  cannon  compelled 
them  to  renew  their  flight.  They  rushed  out  of  the  gates  on  the  evening 
of  December  10th,  and  at  the  foot  of  the  first  hill  beyond  the  town  aban- 
doned the  remainder  of  their  cannon  and  wagons,  including  the  equipage 
of  Napoleon  and  the  treasure-chest  of  the  army.  The  Russians  imme- 
diately took  possession  of  Wilna,  and  found  within  its  walls,  in  addition  to 
a  large  amount  of  magazines  and  military  stores,  fourteen  thousand  sol- 
diers and  two  hundred  and  fifty  officers,  who  preferred  surrendering  as 
prisoners  of  war  to  continuing  their  march. 

On  the  12th  December  the  army  arrived  at  Kowno,  on  the  Niemen, 
and  on  the  13th,  they  passed  over  the  river.  As  the  covering  force  in 
the  rear,  under  the  command  of  Ney,  defiled  across  the  bridge,  it  was 
seen  that  the  remnant  of  the  Imperial  Guard  consisted  of  but  three  hun- 
dred men.  Before  quitting  Kowno,  Ney  seized  a  musket,  and  made  a 
final  stand  with  the  few  men  he  could  rally  around  him.  He  maintained 
his  post  for  several  hours  against  the  whole  Russian  advanced  guard ; 
when  the  retreat  of  all  the  men  who  would  march  was  secured,  he 
slowly  retired  ;  and  he  was  the  last  man  of  the  Grand  Army  who  left  the 
Russian  territory. 

The  first  halting  place  on  the  German  side  of  the  Niemen  was  Gum- 
binnen  ;  and  General  Mathieu  Dumas  had  just  entered  the  house  of  a 
French  physician  in  that  town,  when  a  man  followed  him  wrapped  in  a 
large  cloak,  having  a  long  beard,  his  visage  blackened  by  gunpowder,  his 
whiskers  half  burned  by  fire,  but  his  eyes  sparkling  with  undecayed 
lustre.  "At  last,  then,  here  I  am,"  said  the  stranger :  "what!  General 
Dumas,  do  you  not  know  me  ?  I  am  the  rear-guard  of  the  Grand  Army, 
Marshal  Ney.  I  have  fired  the  last  musket-shot  on  the  bridge  of  Kowno; 
I  have  thrown  into  the  Niemen  the  last  gun  we  possessed ;  and  I  have 
walked  hither,  as  you  see  me,  across  the  forests." 

The  scattered  French  troops  continued  to  retreat  through  the  Polish 
territories,  still  hunted  down  by  the  Russians  and  Cossacks.  They  made 
a  brief  stand  at  Koningsberg,  and,  hastening  thence  with  an  additional 
loss  of  ten  thousand  men,  they  finally  reached  Dantzic  in  the  latter  part 
of  January,  1813,  when  the  Russians  gave  over  the  pursuit.  The  losses 
of  the  French  in  this  disastrous  campaign  may  be  thus  estimated : 

Slain,  in  battle, 125,000 

Died  of  cold  and  famine,      -         ...  132,000 

Prisoners,  Soldiers,            ....  190,000 

"           Officers, 3,000 

"           Generals,         ....  43 


Total  loss,         -         -         450,048 

The  eagles  and  standards  that  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Russians 
amounted  to  seventy-five,  and  the  artillery,  to  nine  hundred  and  twenty- 
nine  guns. 


CHAPTER    XXXIX. 

EVENTS    IN   FRANCE   FOLLOWING   THE    RUSSIAN    CAMPAIGN. 

NAPOLEON  outstripped  his  own  couriers  in  his  journey.  He  traversed 
Poland  and  Germany  in  an  exceedingly  brief  space  of  time,  and  arrived 
at  Paris  on  the  18th  of  December,  before  the  officers  of  the  government 
were  aware  that  he  had  quitted  the  army.  He  held  a  levee  at  nine 
o'clock  on  the  following  morning,  and,  as  the  news  of  his  unexpected 
return  spread  quickly  through  the  metropolis,  it  was  numerously  attended. 
The  bulletin  that  he  dictated  at  Smorgoni,  containing  the  details  of  his 
disasters,  had  not  yet  reached  Paris,  and  no  other  feeling  than  that  of 
surprise  at  the  sudden  reappearance  of  the  Emperor  pervaded  the  minds 
of  his  guests  :  but  in  the  course  of  that  day  the  bulletin  was  received  and 
published.  No  words  can  paint  the  stupor,  consternation  and  astonish- 
ment of  the  inhabitants,  when  this  terrible  overthrow  was  promulgated. 
The  calamity  was  even  exaggerated  by  the  public  terror ;  it  was  thought 
that  the  old  system  of  concealment  and  deception  had  been  practiced  on 
this,  as  on  all  previous  occasions ;  that  the  army  had  in  fact  been  utterly 
annihilated,  and  that  Napoleon  was  literally  the  sole  survivor. 

Gloom  and  disquietude,  therefore,  overspread  every  countenance  at  the 
levee  of  the  succeeding  day,  and  all  felt  the  utmost  anxiety  to  hear  what 
details  Napoleon  himself  might  furnish  as  to  the  actual  extent  of  the 
overthrow.  The  Emperor,  on  his  own  part,  was  calm  and  collected ; 
and,  so  far  from  seeking  to  evade  the  questions  that  every  one  was  eager 
to  put,  he  anticipated  their  wishes  by  a  lengthened  recital  of  the  events. 
"  Moscow,"  he  said,  in  the  course  of  his  remarks,  "  had  fallen  into  our 
hands  ;  we  had  surmounted  every  obstacle  ;  even  the  conflagration  in  no 
degree  lessened  the  prosperous  state  of  our  affairs ;  but  the  rigor  of 
winter  induced  upon  the  army  the  most  frightful  calamities.  In  a  few 
nights,  all  was  changed,  and  the  losses  we  then  experienced  would  have 
broken  my  heart  if,  in  such  circumstances,  I  had  been  accessible  to  any 
other  sentiments  than  a  desire  for  the  welfare  of  my  people." 

The  admissions  and  firmness  of  the  Emperor  had  a  surprising  effect  in 
restoring  public  confidence,  and  dissipating  the  impression  produced  by 
the  greatest  external  disaster  recorded  in  history.  The  confidence  of  the 
people  in  his  fortune  returned,  and  his  star  appeared  to  emerge  from  the 
clouds  that  had  so  deeply  obscured  it.  His  words,  eagerly  gathered  and 
repeated,  soon  circulated  through  the  public  journals;  addresses,  con- 
taining  assurance  of  unshaken  loyalty  were  presented  by  the  public  bodies 
of  Paris,  and  similar  proofs  of  devotion  speedily  followed  from  all  parts 
of  the  Empire.  But,  though  Napoleon  was  not  insensible  to  these  flat- 
tering testimonials  of  attachment,  his  thoughts  were  now  more  occupied 
with  the  incidents  of  a  newly-detected  conspiracy,  than  with  a  nation's 
homage. 

This  extraordinary  event,  of  which  the  Emperor  received  intelligence 
a  short  time  before  he  left  the  army  in  Russia,  might  well  arrest  his 
attention ;  as  it  nearly  overturned  his  government,  and  showed  conclu- 
sively that,  despite  all  professions  of  fidelity,  both  his  own  authority  and 


1812.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  333 

the  prospects  of  succession  in  his  family,  rested  on  a  sandy  basis.  An 
obscure  but  able  man,  named  Malet,  had,  by  reason  of  his  restless  and 
enterprising  character,  been  detained  in  custody  at  Paris  for  more  than 
four  years ;  and  this  person,  in  the  solitude  of  his  cell,  conceived  a  pro- 
ject for  overturning  the  Imperial  dynasty.  In  connexion  with  two 
accomplices — Lafon,  an  old  abbe  and  fellow-prisoner,  and  Rateau,  a  cor- 
poral of  the  prison  guard — he  had  long  meditated  his  plan,  and  the  whole 
was  to  rest  on  a  fabricated  report  of  Napoleon's  death.  To  support  this 
story,  he  forged  a  decree  of  the  Senate,  abolishing  the  Imperial  govern- 
ment, and  creating  himself,  General  Malet,  governor  of  Paris.  Various 
orders  on  the  treasury  were  also  forged,  intended  to  dispel  the  doubts  or 
shake  the  fidelity  of  the  individuals  to  whom  he  should  address  himself. 
Having  completed  these  preliminary  arrangements,  he  easily  escaped 
from  his  confinement,  dressed  himself  in  the  uniform  of  a  general  of 
brigade,  and  repaired  to  the  barrack-gate  of  the  2nd  regiment  and  10th 
cohort :  but,  being  denied  admission,  without  the  orders  of  the  colonel, 
Soulier,  he  went  to  the  house  of  that  officer  and  informed  him  that  the 
Emperor  had  been  killed  on  the  7th  of  October,  at  Moscow,  that  the  Sen- 
ate had  taken  its  measures,  and  that  he  had  himself  been  appointed 
governor  of  Paris.  The  forged  decree  that  he  immediately  displayed 
was  well  calculated  to  deceive  the  most  experienced  eye,  from  the  pre- 
cision with  which  it  had  been  drawn,  and  the  seeming  genuineness  of  the 
signatures  appended  to  it  r.but  Malet  did  not  rely  on  this  alone.  The  de- 
cree contained  the  appointment  of  Soulier  as  general  of  brigade,  and 
Malet  exhibited  with  it  a  treasury  order  for  one  hundred  thousand  francs 
for  his  use.  Deceived,  or  won,  Soulier  fell  into  the  snare,  and  accom- 
panied Malet  to  the  barrack-yard. 

The  chief  difficulty  of  the  enterprise  was  here  to  be  surmounted ;  but 
Malet  proved  himself  equal  to  the  task  he  had  undertaken.  He  assumed 
a  decided  tone  ;  ordered  the  gates  to  be  opened  ;  mustered  the  soldiers  by 
torch-light ;  announced  the  Emperor's  death  ;  and  commanded  the  drums 
to  beat  that  the  cohort  might  assemble  and  listen  to  the  Senate's  decree. 

Yielding  to  the  habit  of  obedience,  suspecting  no  deceit,  and  familiar 
with  similar  changes  during  the  Revolution,  the  soldiers  instantly  con- 
formed to  these  orders.  Malet  next  directed  a  body  of  the  troops  to 
march  with  him  to  the  prison  of  La  Force,  where  he  liberated  Generals 
Lahorie  and  Guidal,  sturdy  republicans,  who  had  long  been  confined  by 
orders  of  Napoleon.  They  were  immediately  put  in  command  of  detach- 
ments, and  the  three  moved  in  different  directions  to  gain  possession  of 
the  principal  posts  of  the  capital.  These  measures  were  successful. 
Savary,  the  minister  of  police,  was  arrested  in  his  bed,  and  conducted  to 
prison  :  Pasquier,  the  prefect  of  police,  was  treated  in  the  same  manner ; 
the  Hotel  de  Nelle  was  occupied  by  Soulier,  and  Malet  took  possession  of 
the  Place  Vendome.  A  number  of  other  public  functionaries,  including 
the  actual  governor  of  Paris,  were  also  arrested ;  and  the  whole  was  ac- 
complished with  such  ease,  that  Malet,  conceiving  his  power  to  be  already 
established,  imprudently  ventured  without  a  sufficient  guard  into  the  hotel 
of  the  adjutant-general,  Doucet,  where  he  met  Laborde  ;  and  that  officer, 
suspecting  something  was  wrong,  intrepidly  ordered  Doucet's  attendants 
to  arrest  Malet.  This  act  of  course,  disconcerted  at  a  blow  the  whole 
conspiracy  ;  the  deception  was  exposed  ;  and  the  troops  with  shouts  of 
"  Vive  1'Empereur !"  returned  to  their  duty.  Nevertheless,  the  power 


334  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XXXIX. 

thus  suddenly  defeated,  would  in  a  short  time  have  proved  irresistible. 
Had  Malet  succeeded  in  arresting  Doucet,  Savary  says  that,  "  he  would 
in  a  few  moments  have  been  master  of  almost  everything ;  and  in  a 
country  so  much  influenced  by  the  contagion  of  example,  it  is  impossible 
to  say  where  his  success  would  have  stopped.  He  would  have  had  pos- 
session of  the  treasury,  the  post-office,  the  telegraph,  and  the  entire  com- 
mand of  the  National  Guard.  He  would  soon  have  learned,  by  the 
arrest  of  all  couriers,  the  state  of  affairs  in  Russia,  and  nothing  could 
have  prevented  him  from  making  the  Emperor  prisoner  on  his  solitary 
journey  to  France." 

The  defeat  of  this  conspiracy  gave  Napoleon  abundant  cause  for  self- 
gratulation,  but  its  previous  existence  furnished  equal  reason  for  despond- 
ency. He  saw  at  once,  and  for  the  first  time,  that  the  Revolution  had  in 
fact  destroyed  the  foundations  of  hereditary  succession,  ard  tha*  the 
greatest  achievements  of  him  who  had  wen  the  diadem,  afforded  no  secu. 
rity  that  the  crown  would  descend  to  his  heirs — for  in  the  crisis  of  this 
conspiracy,  his  son  seemed,  by  common  consent,  to  have  been  overlooked, 
and  it  was  as  a  matter  taken  for  granted,  that  his  own  death  vacated  the 
throne  and  rendered  a  new  election  indispensable.  Yet,  although  Napo- 
leon was  from  this  moment  convinced  that  his  dynasty  was  unstable,  and 
the  hope  of  his  son's  succession  at  least  equivocal,  he  took  extraordinary 
measures  to  secure  both  against  the  threatened  contingency ;  and  caused 
a  decree  to  be  passed  jy  the  Senate,  securing,  as  ingeniously  and  firmly 
as  any  mere  enactment  could  secure,  the  claims  of  his  posterity  to  the 
throne  of  France. 

The  next  care  of  the  Emperor  was  to  raise  an  army  to  replace  the 
one  he  had  lost.  He  demanded  from  the  Senate  an  addition  to  the  exist- 
ing military  force  of  the  Empire,  of  three  hundred  and  fifty  thousand 
men,  which  that  obsequious  body  immediately  granted  ;  and  the  conscrip- 
tion was  enforced  with  such  zeal  and  rapidity,  that  within  a  few  months 
the  whole  number  was  actually  enrolled  for  service. 

When  this  important  measure  was  completed,  Napoleon  set  about 
reconciling  his  differences  with  the  Holy  See :  for,  having  one  half  of 
Europe  openly  arrayed  against  him,  and  the  other  half  but  doubtfully 
enlisted  under  his  banners,  he  could  no  longer  afford  to  brave  the  hostility 
of  the  head  of  the  Church.  After  the  pope  had  been  arrested  in  1809, 
he  was  brought  to  Grenoble  and  thence  transferred  to  Savona,  where  he 
endured  the  rigorous  treatment  of  a  close  prisoner.  But  Napoleon,  at 
his  departure  for  Moscow,  not  deeming  Savona  sufficiently  secure,  caused 
his  holiness  to  be  removed  to  Fontainebleau.  Here,  though  a  prisoner, 
he  had  a  handsome  suite  of  apartments  and  was  respectably  attended,  but 
was  excluded  from  the  society  of  those  he  most  wished  to  meet.  It  has 
already  been  mentioned,  that  Napoleon's  original  intention  in  seizing  the 
person  of  the  pope,  was  to  compel  his  holiness  to  legislate  for  the  Church 
in  accordance  to  the  Emperor's  views,  and  thus,  in  effect,  unite  ihe  tiara 
and  the  imperial  crown  on  his  own  head :  but  the  disasters  of  the  Rus- 
sian campaign  cut  short  this  splendid  project,  and  awakened  Napoleon  to 
the  necessity  of  an  amicable  adjustment  of  his  quarrel  with  the  pope. 
He  therefore  opened  a  communication  with  the  reverend  father,  which 
was  graciously  received  ;  and,  after  a  sufficient  exchange  of  compli- 
ments, he  repaired  with  the  Empress  to  Fontainebleau  and  had  an  inter- 
view with  his  prisoner.  The  pope  was  so  fascinated  with  Napoleon's 


1813.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  335 

powers  of  conversation  and  artful  complaisance,  that  he  very  soon  signed 
a  concordat,  which  settled  the  chief  points  of  dispute  between  the  court 
of  the  Tuileries  and  the  Holy  See,  and  that,  too,  in  a  manner  eminently 
favorable  to  Napoleon's  ambitious  purposes. 

Napoleon  manifested,  as  well  he  might,  the  greatest  satisfaction  at  the 
finishing  of  this  concordat.  The  next  morning,  decorations,  presents  and 
orders  were  profusely  scattered  among  the  chief  persons  of  the  pope's 
household.  The  restrictions  on  the  personal  freedom  of  the  pope  were 
removed,  and  orders  were  issued  for  the  liberation  of  the  Emperor's 
indomitable  antagonist,  the  Cardinal  Pacca.  But  while  Napoleon  flat- 
tered himself  that  he  had  surmounted  all  future  difficulties  with  the 
Church,  a  great  change  was  going  on  in  the  papal  cabinet.  The  moment 
thai  the  pope's  counsellors  learned  what  had  been  done,  they  saw  that 
their  master  was  overreached,  and  that  the  Emperor  had  wheedled  him 
into  greater  concessions  than  he  had  demanded  when  in  the  plenitude  of 
his  power.  They  therefore  insisted  on  the  formal  retraction  of  the  con- 
cordat, which  the  pope  accordingly  executed  on  the  24th  of  March.  Na- 
poleon, however,  with  equal  moderation  and  prudence,  so  far  from  resent- 
ing this  proceeding,  took  no  notice  of  it,  but  published  the  concordat  as 
one  of  the  fundamental  laws  of  the  state,  and  caused  its  provisions  to  be 
enforced. 

The  other  measures  of  Napoleon,  previous  to  the  renewal  of  the  war 
in  Central  Europe,  had  reference  to  the  strengthening  and  organization 
of  his  military  establishment ;  and  it  soon  appeared  that,  despite  all  her 
losses,  France  was  still  able  to  take  the  field  with  armies  of  a  formidable 
description. 


CHAPTER    XL. 

CAMPAIGN    OP    1813. 

WHEN  the  French  retreating  army,  by  reason  of  the  temporary  sus- 
pension of  the  Russian  pursuit,  had  gained  a  brief  respite  in  which  to 
recruit  its  strength  and  partially  reorganize  its  shattered  columns,  its 
officers  entertained  a  hope  that  a  position  on  the  line  of  the  Vistula  could 
be  maintained ;  but  the  defection  of  the  Prussians  on  the  one  hand,  and  of 
the  Austrians  on  the  other — who  virtually  abandoned  the  cause  of  Napo- 
leon as  they  approached  their  respective  frontiers — by  endangering  their 
communications  with  France,  rendered  this  plan  impracticable.  And, 
indeed,  the  activity  of  Wittgenstein  left  the  French  no  extended  leisure 
for  any  preparations  whatever.  On  the  15th  of  January,  his  vanguard 
crossed  the  Vistula,  and,  spreading  in  all  directions,  circulated  proclama- 
tions, calling  on  the  inhabitants  to  take  up  arms,  and  join  in  the  great 
work  of  liberating  Europe  from  the  thraldom  of  the  tyrant.  Wittgen- 
stein's troops  marched  in  t\vo  columns  toward  Berlin;  one  by  the  route 
of  Koningsberg  and  Elbing,  and  the  other  by  Friedland  and  Tilsit.  On 
their  march,  they  made  themselves  masters  of  Pillau,  with  a  garrison  of 
twelve  hundred  men,  and  they  afterward  continued  their  march  unop- 

31 


336  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  CHAP.  XL. 

posed,  and  were  received  with  enthusiasm  everywhere  throughout  Old 
Prussia.  A  third  column  of  the  Russian  army,  composed  of  PlatofFs 
Cossacks  and  some  light  cavalry,  moved  upon  Dantzic,  and  commenced 
.  the  blockade  of  that  fortress.  A  fourth,  under  the  orders  of  Tchichagoff, 
marched  through  East  Prussia,  and  arrived  at  Marienberg  on  the  15th  of 
January.  A  fifth,  immediately  commanded  by  Tormasoff,  and  accom- 
panied by  Kutusoff  and  the  Emperor  Alexander  in  person,  advanced 
through  Wilna  and  Lithuania,  and  reached  Plozk  on  the  5th  of  February. 
And  a  sixth,  led  by  Mil arado witch,  Sacken  and  Doctoroff,  followed  a 
diverging  line  to  the  south,  by  Grodno  and  Jalowke.  On  the  24th  of 
February,  these  six  columns  were  concentrated  at  Kalisch,  where  Alex- 
ander established  his  head-quarters. 

In  the  meantime,  Murat,  finding  himself  pressed  on  all  points  by  the 
advancing  columns  of  the  victorious  Russians,  having  sustained  great 
losses  in  his  retreat,  and  despairing  of  a  final  escape  from  his  pursuers, 
conceived  that  the  time  had  arrived  when  every  one  should  look  to  self- 
preservation  ;  and,  on  the  17th  of  January,  he  suddenly  gave  up  his  com- 
mand, and  set  out  post-haste  for  his  own  dominions  in  the  south  of  Italy. 
Eugene,  on  whom  the  command  of  the  army  devolved,  made  great  efforts 
to  arrest  the  evil  threatened  by  this  unmanly  desertion  of  Murat :  but  the 
utmost  that  he  could  accomplish  was  of  little  avail  in  checking  the  tide  of 
disaster.  He  was  successively  driven  from  every  position,  until,  on  the 
12th  of  March,  he  took  refuge  behind  the  Elbe,  and  rested  on  the  fortresses 
of  Torgau,  Magdebourg,  Wittemberg,  and  the  intrenched  camp  at  Pirna. 

The  Russians  closely  followed  Eugene's  retreat,  but  during  their  march 
they  met  with  a  severe  loss  in  the  death  of  Kutusoff,  who  expired  at 
Buntzlau,  on  the  6th  of  March,  of  a  malignant  fever.  Wittgenstein  was 
promoted  to  the  chief  command,  and  passing  onward,  soon  reached  Berlin, 
where  his  head-quarters  were  established  on  the  llth. 

The  uninterrupted  success  of  the  Russians,  and — with  the  exception 
of  a  few  blockaded  fortresses — the  entire  deliverance  of  Prussia  from  the 
French  domination,  could  not  but  have  a  powerful  effect  on  the  disposition 
of  the  Prussian  cabinet,  as  well  as  on  the  kingdom  at  large.  The  king, 
individually,  inclined  to  keep  faith  with  France,  from  a  feeling  that  his 
honor  would  be  compromised  by  deserting  his  ally  in  misfortune  ;  and  he 
therefore  made  proposals  for  a  new  alliance,  more  in  conformity  to  the 
relative  situation  of  the  two  powers,  and  of  course  much  more  favorable 
to  his  own  interests  than  the  preceding  treaty.  But  at  the  same  time,  he 
did  not  neglect  to  give  weight  to  his  proposals,  by  putting  the  country  in 
a  condition  to  maintain  a  war,  if  war  should  be  the  result  of  his  nego- 
tiations. 

By  a  royal  decree,  dated  at  Breslau,  and  issued  as  early  as  the  3rd  of 
February,  an  appeal  was  made  to  young  men  of  all  ranks,  from  the  age 
of  seventeen  to  twenty-four,  not  subject  to  the  legal  conscription,  to  enter 
the  army  in  the  capacity  of  volunteers,  and  be  annexed  to  the  regiments  of 
infant^  and  cavalry  already  in  the  service ;  and,  lest  this  appeal  should  be 
disregarded,  some  clauses  of  a  compulsory  nature  were  incorporated  with 
the  decree.  But  no  compulsion  was  needed.  The  disasters  of  Jena  and 
Auerstadt,  the  indignities  which  they  had  endured  in  their  capital  from 
the  brutality  of  Napoleon,  and  the  long  career  of  outrage  and  exaction  to 
which  they  had  been  subjected  by  his  orders,  roused  as  with  a  trumpet- 
note  the  entire  male  population  of  Prussia,  the  instant  that  the  hand  of 


1813.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  337 

the  oppressor  was  removed.  On  all  sides,  there  was  a  unanimous  cry 
for  arms.  The  volunteers  presented  themselves  in  such  multitudes,  that 
the  government  functionaries,  so  far  from  being  able  to  supply  them  with 
weapons,  were  not  able  for  a  considerable  time  even  to  perfect  the  record 
of  their  names. 

But  patriotic  ardor  and  devotion,  though  indispensable  elements  of 
military  strength,  cannot  of  themselves  create  an  efficient  army :  disci- 
pline, training,  practical  organization,  must  come  to  the  aid  of  courage  and 
enthusiasm.  Fortunately,  in  these  essentials,  without  which  her  utmost 
efforts  would  have  proved  unavailing,  Prussia  already  stood  preeminent. 
The  wisdom  of  her  government  had  provided  both  the  framework  in  her 
army,  and  the  experience  among  her  people,  capable  of  rapidly  turning 
the  whole  strength  of  the  nation  to  warlike  achievements. 

Under  these  circumstances,  the  king's  proposals  for  a  new  alliance 
wifh  France  were  entitled  to  Napoleon's  consideration ;  but  he,  either 
doubting  the  faith  of  Frederic  William,  or  despising  his  power,  flatly 
refused  to  treat  on  equitable  terms.  The  king,  being  thus  fully  exon- 
erated from  obligation  to  France,  readily  acceded  to  the  course  which  his 
ministers  had  long  urged  upon  him ;  namely,  a  league  with  Russia,  which, 
under  the  designation  of  the  treaty  of  Kalisch,  was  concluded  on  the  1st 
of  March. 

By  this  treaty,  an  alliance,  offensive  and  defensive,  was  established  be- 
tween Russia  and  Prussia,  for  the  prosecution  of  the  war  with  France. 
Neither  of  the  contracting  powers  was  to  conclude  a  peace,  nor  a  truce, 
without  the  other's  consent ;  both  were  to  urge  the  accession  of  Austria 
to  their  compact,  and  to  treat  immediately  with  England  for  the  subsidies 
of  which  Prussia  stood  in  great  need ;  and,  by  an  additional  article,  the 
Emperor  of  Russia  bound  himself  not  to  lay  down  his  arms  until  Prussia 
was  reconstituted  in  all  respects — statistical,  financial,  and  geographical 
— as  she  had  stood  anterior  to  the  war  of  1806. 

This  treaty  between  Russia  and  Prussia,  together  with  the  advance  of 
their  united  armies  to  the  Elbe,  caused  an  immediate  and  general  insur- 
rection against  the  power  of  France,  on  the  right  bank  of  that  river :  but 
Saxony  yet  remained  undecided ;  and  although  the  ferment  was  almost 
as  vehement  in  her  provinces  as  in  the  Prussian  states,  no  symptoms  of 
disaffection  had  been  exhibited  by  her  government,  and  it  was  well  known 
that  the  benefits  her  sovereign  had  received  from  Napoleon,  bound  him  to 
the  interests  of  France  by  ties  not  easily  dissolved.  Still,  the  reputation 
of  the  King  of  Saxony  for  probity  and  justice,  rendered  it  of  great  impor- 
tance to  obtain,  if  possible,  the  moral  weight  of  his  adhesion  to  the  Ger- 
manic league ;  and  his  states  lay  so  immediately  in  the  theatre  of  war, 
between  the  hostile  countries,  that  it  became  of  the  last  consequence  to 
secure  the  support  of  his  forces  in  the  field,  and  the  protection  of  his  for- 
tresses on  the  Elbe.  The  allied  sovereigns,  therefore,  made  every  exer- 
tion to  induce  Frederic  Augustus  to  join  the  league;  but  he  steadily 
refused  to  abandon  his  benefactor.  Denmark,  also,  adhered  to  the  for- 
tunes of  Napoleon.  But  Sweden,  whose  king,  Bernadotte,  smarted  under 
the  aggressions  and  indignities  of  his  former  master,  readily  threw  herself 
into  the  scale  against  France ;  and  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  despite  his 
family  alliance  with  the  great  military  chieftain,  was  too  keenly  sensible 
of  his  own  interests,  and  too  deeply  concerned  in  the  permanence  of  Eu- 
ropean freedom,  to  neglect  this  opportunity  of  aiding  to  crush  the  ferocious 


338  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XL. 

despot  whose  remorseless  ambition  had  spread  death,  and  misery,  and 
ruin,  over  so  large  a  portion  of  the  civilized  world.  Negotiations  were 
also  opened  with  Murat,  King  of  Naples ;  but  for  the  time  they  led  to  no 
other  result  than  a  widening  of  the  breach  between  him  and  Napoleon. 

While  separate  interests  were  thus  beginning  to  alienate  from  each  other 
the  members  of  the  great  war  confederacy  which  sprung  from  the  military 
triumphs  of  the  French  Revolution,  Prussia  was  making  prodigious  efforts 
to  maintain  the  position  she  had  so  nobly  assumed.  To  increase  the 
general  enthusiasm,  Frederic  William  instituted  the  order  of  the  Iron 
Cross,  to  reward  his  subjects  for  the  sacrifices  they  were  called  on  to 
make  in  behalf  of  their  country;  and  he  requested  all  classes  to  pour 
their  gold  and  silver  ornaments  into  the  public  treasury,  and  receive  in 
exchange  iron  ornaments  of  the  same  form  and  fashion,  which  they  might 
preserve  in  their  families — a  monument  at  once  of  past  wealth  and  suc- 
ceeding patriotism.  Shortly  afterward,  a  proclamation  was  issued  to  the 
inhabitants  of  those  provinces  which  the  treaty  of  Tilsit  had  wrested  from 
Prussia,  inviting  them  to  take  up  arms  for  the  independence  of  Germany. 
The  effect  of  these  measures  was  magical.  The  scholars  of  the  univer- 
sities, the  professors,  the  burghers,  alike  took  up  arms:  the  cares  of  in- 
terest, the  pursuits  of  science,  the  labors  of  education,  were  forgotten. 
Art  was  turned  to  warlike  preparation;  industry  to  forming  implements 
for  the  battle-field;  and  genius,  to  fanning  the  general  ardor.  Korner 
gave  vent  to  the  popular  sentiment  in  strains  of  immortal  verse,  which 
were  repeated  and  sung  by  thousands  and  tens  of  thousands  as  they 
marched  to  the  points  of  rendezvous.  Meanwhile,  the  women  who  had 
sent  their  precious  ornaments  to  the  treasury,  received  others  in  return 
beautifully  wrought  in  iron,  and  bearing  this  simple  inscription,  "  I  gave 
gold  for  iron  ;  1813."  In  a  short  time,  no  male  inhabitants  but  old 'men 
and  boys  were  to  be  met  in  the  streets ;  and  not  an  ornament  of  gold  or 
silver  decorated  the  persons  of  the  women,  or  the  windows  of  the  shops. 
Thus  arose  the  famous  order  of  the  Iron  Cross,  in  Prussia,  and  thus  com- 
menced the  beautiful  work  in  Berlin  iron,  so  well  known  and  so  highly 
prized  throughout  every  country  of  Europe.  It  must  be  confessed  that 
chivalry  cannot  boast  a  nobler  fountain  of  honor,  nor  fashion  a  more 
touching  memorial  of  virtue. 

So  long  as  the  French  troops  maintained  their  footing  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Elbe,  the  general  fermentation  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  prov- 
inces in  that  quarter,  was  limited  to  a  sort  of  passive  resistance,  which, 
nevertheless,  proved  extremely  embarrassing  to  the  French  authorities. 
But  when  the  allies  crossed  that  river,  and  the  continued  advance  of  the 
Russians  inspired  general  confidence  in  the  firmness  of  Alexander,  the 
feelings  of  the  people  could  no  longer  be  suppressed.  Insurrections  be- 
came  common,  particularly  in  Bremen,  and  various  parts  of  Westphalia; 
and  the  parties  of  Russian  horse  that  traversed  the  sandy  plains  of 
Norlhern  Germany,  were  swelled  by  crowds  of  volunteers.  At  the  same 
time,  the  officers  of  the  states  in  the  Rhenish  Confederacy,  who  had  been 
made  prisoners  in  the  Russian  campaign,  formed  themselves  into  a  legion; 
declared  every  German  who  should  bear  arms  against  his  brethren  a 
traitor  to  his  country,  and  bound  themselves  by  a  solemn  oath  to  combat 
Napoleon  even  unto  death.  The  Tugenbund  became  now  the  soul  of  a 
vast  conspiracy,  the  ramifications  of  which  were  so  extensive,  the  pro- 
ceedings so  secret,  and  the  influence  so  great,  that  it  would  have  been  in 


1813.J  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  339 

the  highest  degree  dangerous,  but  that  it  was  directed,  in  its  principal 
branches,  by  exalted  wisdom,  and  inspired  in  all  by  devoted  patriotism. 
A  Cromwell,  or  a  Napoleon,  would  have  found  in  its  impassioned  bands 
the  ready  elements  of  revolutionary  elevation;  but  none  such  appeared 
in  the  fatherland.  The  streams  of  popular  enthusiasm,  directed  by,  not 
directing,  the  rulers  of  the  country,  instead  of  being  wasted  in  the  selfish- 
ness of  individual  ambition,  were  turned,  in  one  overwhelming  flood, 
against  the  common  enemy. 

The  positions  of  the  French  troops  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Elbe,  when 
the  allies  resolved  to  cross  that  river,  were  as  follows :  Davoust  occupied 
Dessau  and  the  line  of  the  river  thence  to  Torgau ;  Victor  lay  between 
the  Elbe  and  the  Saale ;  Grenier,  with  his  Italians,  was  a  little  in  the 
rear,  at  Halle  ;  Regnier,  with  the  remains  of  the  Saxons  and  Durutte's 
division,  held  Dresden,  and  stretched  along  to  the  foot  of  the  Bohemian 
mountains  ;  and  the  extreme  left  under  Vandamme,  with  its  head-quarters 
at  Bremen,  occupied  Hamburg  and  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe.  The  earliest 
reinforcements  from  France,  twenty-four  thousand  strong,  under  Lauris- 
Jon,  drawn  from  the  first  ban  of  the  National  Guard,  reached  Magdebourg 
on  the  29th  of  March,  and  augmented  the  centre  of  the  army  grouped 
around  that  fortress,  to  nearly  fifty  thousand  men ;  while  twenty  thousand 
were  in  the  neighborhood  of  Dresden,  and  fifteen  thousand  on  the  Lower 
Elbe.  In  addition  to  these  forces,  Ney  and  Marmont  each  commanded  a 
body  of  reserve  then  forming  on  the  Rhine,  and  Bertrand's  corps  was  on 
its  march  from  Italy,  by  the  route  of  the  Tyrol ;  its  leading  columns 
having  already  reached  Augsburg,  in  the  plains  of  Bavaria.  Troops, 
important  from  their  numerical  amount,  though  far  removed  from  the 
theatre  of  action  and  shut  up  in  strongholds,  where  they  could  contribute 
little  to  the  issue  of  the  conflict,  still  belonged  to  France.  Their  number 
in  all  was  nearly  seventy  thousand  men  ;  five-and-thirty  thousand  of  these 
were  blockaded  in  Dantzic,  and  the  remainder  were  in  Thorne,  Modlin, 
Zamosc,  and  Graudentz  on  the  Vistula,  and  Spandau,  Stettin,  Custrin, 
and  Glogau  on  the  Oder.  The  condition  of  these  men,  however,  was  so 
miserable,  and  they  were  so  reduced  in  physical  strength  by  the  hard- 
ships of  the  Russian  campaign,  that  they  could  not  be  relied  on  for  opera- 
tions in  the  field;  besides,  the  calamities  they  had  undergone  had  sown 
within  them  the  seeds  of  a  disease  more  fatal  than  the  sword  of  the 
enemy,  and  which  soon  developed  itself  among  those  crowded  yet  ineffi- 
cient garrisons. 

Of  the  Prussian  forces,  there  were  twenty-five  thousand  regular  troops 
in  Silesia  under  the  command  of  Marshal  Blucher,  besides  twenty  thou- 
sand fresh  recruits  who  garrisoned  the  fortresses  in  that  quarter;  the  corps 
of  D'York,  advancing  from  East  Prussia,  was  fifteen  thousand  strong ; 
Bulow  commanded  ten  thousand  near  Berlin ;  and  five  thousand  lay  in 
Pomerania.  Frederic  William,  therefore,  could  at  once  bring  fifty-five 
thousand  troops  into  the  field,  without  drawing  any  reinforcements  from 
his  fortresses.  In  addition  to  this,  he  had  thirty-five  thousand  in  a  state  of 
forwardness,  to  blockade  the  fortresses  on  the  Oder  and  act  as  a  reserve 
to  the  armies  in  the  field  ;  and  this  body  was  daily  receiving  such  acces- 
sions of  force  from  new  levies,  that  it  would  soon  amount  to  no  less  than 
one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  men. 

The  Russian  armies  at  this  period  were  much  more  considerable  in  the 
aggregate,  though  the  losses  of  the  late  campaign  had  seriously  thinned 

31* 


340  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XL, 

the  ranks  of  those  near  the  destined  theatre  of  war,  and  the  great  proper- 
tion  of  the  effective  troops  were  yet  on  their  march  from  the  interior  prov- 
inces of  the  Empire,  and  could  not  arrive  on  the  Elbe  before  the  middle 
of  July ;  so  that,  for  immediate  operations  in  Saxony,  not  more  than  seventy 
thousand  Russians  could  be  relied  on ;  and  these,  added  to  the  fifty-five 
thousand  Prussians  ready  to  cooperate  with  them,  raised  the  effective  al- 
lied force  to  a  hundred  and  twenty-five  thousand  men. 

The  first  movement  in  this  campaign  was  the  occupation  of  Hamburg 
by  the  allies.  This  town  was  garrisoned  by  three  thousand  French  troops 
under  St.  Cyr,  but  on  the  approach  of  Tettenborn  with  three  thousand  in- 
fantry and  the  same  number  of  Cossacks,  St.  Cyr  evacuated  the  place. 
About  half  a  mile  from  the  city,  the  Russian  videttes  were  met  by  the 
greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  in  a  mass,  who  filled  all  the  houses,  gar- 
dens, fields,  lanes,  and  streets  of  the  suburbs.  The  magistrates  with  the 
keys  of  the  town  appeared  at  the  gates,  while  thirty  maidens,  dressed  in 
white  robes,  strewed  wreaths  of  flowers  before  their  deliverers.  Shouts 
of  acclamation  now  arose  from  the  multitude  which  seemed  to  rend  the 
very  heavens  :  "  Long  live  the  Russians  !  Long  live  Alexander !  Long 
live  Old  England  !"  burst  from  tens  of  thousands  of  voices,  and  the  stee- 
ples, the  houses,  and  the  very  earth  trembled  with  their  cheers. 

The  worthy  Hamburgers  could  not  cease  to  express  their  astonishment, 
that  so  small  a  body  of  men  had  delivered  them  from  the  burdensome  op- 
pression under  which  they  had  labored  for  seven  long  years ;  and  their 
astonishment  was  not  a  little  increased  when  they  beheld  the  hardy  chil- 
dren of  the  desert — the  Kalmucks  and  Bashkirs-— disdaining  the  civilized 
luxuries  of  houses  and  beds,  pile  their  arms  and  lie  down  beside  their 
steeds  in  the  squares  of  the  city,  with  no  pillow  but  their  saddles,  and  no 
covering  but  their  cloaks. 

The  evacuation  of  Hamburg  was  followed  by  a  similar  movement  at 
Bremen  and  Lunenburg ;  at  which  latter  place,  General  Morand  was  so 
totally  defeated,  that  his  whole  force,  consisting  of  three  thousand  men, 
was  either  killed  or  made  prisoners,  and  himself  slain  on  the  field.  A 
general  insurrection  between  the  Elbe  and  the  Weser  immediately  ensued, 
and  the  French  abandoned  that  entire  district.  The  Hanse  Towns  took 
up  arms  and  expelled  the  French  authorities,  while  those  portions  of  the 
electorate  of  Hanover  whence  the  enemy  retreated,  proclaimed  their  law- 
ful sovereign,  the  King  of  England,  and  a  regency  was  formed  of  Hano. 
verian  noblemen  at  Hamburg,  to  direct  the  efforts  of  the  newly-recovered 
territory.  Here,  too,  a  universal  cry  for  arms  arose  ;  and  the  call  was 
so  promptly  answered  by  England,  that,  within  two  months  after  Prussia 
had  declared  her  intentions,  there  were  landed  on  the  coast  of  Germany, 
for  the  use  of  the  allies,  the  entire  military  equipments  for  a  hundred  and 
fifty  thousand  men. 

The  allies  now  began  to  approach  the  Elbe  in  force.  Wittgenstein 
broke  up  from  Berlin  and  moved  thither  in  two  columns  :  one  of  which, 
commanded  by  himself,  moved  toward  Wittemburg  ;  the  other,  under 
Bulow,  toward  Dessau.  Borotel,  with  fifteen  thousand  Prussians,  marched 
in  the  direction  of  Magdebourg  ;  and  Blucher,  with  the  army  of  Silesia, 
in  conjunction  with  Winzingerode  at  the  head  of  ten  thousand  Russians, 
directed  his  steps  toward  Dresden  from  the  side  of  Breslau.  The  King 
of  Saxony  was  in  no  condition  to  withstand  such  forces,  and  he  entered 
into  a  convention  for  evacuating  his  capital ;  this  was  acceded  to,  and 


a813.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  341 

Davoust,  who  commanded  the  French  garrison  of  Dresden,  withdrew  ac- 
cordingly, after  blowing  up  an  arch  of  the  beautiful  bridge  across  the 
Elbe,  and  retired  to  Leipsic.  The  allies  entered  the  town  the  next  day, 
March  26th,  to  the  great  joy  of  the  inhabitants  ;  who,  notwithstanding  the 
adhesion  of  their  sovereign  to  Napoleon,  detested  the  French  alliance  and 
French  domination  as  heartily  as  any  people  in  Germany. 

Eugene  made  a  last  stand  at  Mockern,  a  little  way  in  front  of  Magde- 
bourg,  on  the  4th  of  April ;  but  Wittgenstein  attacked  him  so  impetuously, 
that  the  intervention  of  night  alone  saved  him  from  a  total  rout.  Witt- 
genstein the  next  day  pursued  him  to  Magdebourg,  where  Bulow's  corps 
established  a  blockade,  while  Kleist  with  another  Prussian  division  took 
post  at  Dessau  ;  arid  in  the  meantime,  Winzingerode,  passing  through 
Dresden,  occupied  Halle.  Thus,  the  line  of  the  Elbe  was  effectually 
broken  at  its  two  extremities,  Hamburg  and  Dresden,  although  Eugene 
maintained  the  centre  resting  on  Magdebourg. 

Napoleon,  before  setting  out  to  join  the  army,  caused  the  office  and 
dignity  of  Regent  of  the  Empire  to  be  conferred  on  the  Empress.  Marie 
Louise,  with  the  seat  of  President  of  the  Council  of  State.  He  took  his 
departure  immediately  afterward,  and  reached  Mayence  at  midnight  on 
the  16th  of  April,  where  for  eight  days  he  devoted  his  whole  time  to  the 
improvement  of  the  fortifications  of  that  town,  and  the  organization  and 
discipline  of  the  conscripts.  He  left  Mayence  on  the  24th,  and  on  the 
following  day  reached  Erfurth.  The  army  which  he  had  assembled  at 
ihis  latter  place,  though  deficient  in  cavalry  and  artillery,  was  formidable 
in  point  of  numbers,  amounting  to  nearly  a  hundred  and  forty  thousand 
men ;  besides  which,  at  least  forty  thousand  were  arrayed  at  Magdebourg 
under  Eugene. 

The  allies  were  not  a  little  disconcerted  when  they  learned  the  strength 
of  Napoleon's  forces ;  but,  great  as  might  be  the  risk  of  a  general  action, 
they  conceived  the  evils  of  a  retreat  at  the  commencement  of  the  cam- 
paign to  be  still  greater ;  and  they  accordingly  resolved  to  move  forward 
and  give  battle  in  the  plains  of  Lutzen.  On  the  first  of  May,  the  Prus- 
sians were  concentrated  at  Roethe;  Wittgenstein,  with  the  main  body 
of  the  Russians  occupied  Zwenkau ;  and  Winzingerode  and,  Milarado- 
witch,  more  in  advance,  observed  the  enemy  on  the  roads  of  Naumberg 
and  Chemnitz.  While  crossing  the  defile  of  Grunebach,  the  head  of  the 
French  column  first  encountered  the  allies,  whose  vanguard,  with  six 
guns,  was  posted  on  the  heights  of  Poserna.  A  partial  action  took  place, 
at.  the  close  of  which  the  allies  withdrew ;  but  this  trifling  advantage  on 
the  part  of  the  French  was  far  more  than  counterbalanced  by  the  death 
of  Marshal  Bessieres,  who  was  killed  by  a  cannon  shot  at  the  first  dis 
charge  of  the  Russian  guns. 

On  the  morning  of  the  2nd  of  May,  Napoleon,  aware  that  the  allies 
were  not  far  distant,  but  ignorant  of  their  intentions  to  fight,  was  pressing 
on  toward  Leipsic,  when  he  was  suddenly  aroused  by  the  discharge  of 
cannon  on  his  extreme  left.  He  immediately  halted  his  suite,  and  sur- 
veyed the  distant  combat  with  his  telescope  ;  after  remaining  nearly  half 
an  hour  in  deep  meditation,  he  directed  the  troops  to  continue  their  march 
in  as  close  order  as  possible.  Presently,  a  much  louder  cannonade 
opened  on  his  right,  toward  Great  and  Little  Gorschen ;  and  it  became 
obvious  that  the  principal  attack  was  to  be  made  in  that  quarter,  although 
Napoleon  could  discover  no  enemy  beyond  the  roofs  of  the  villages. 


342  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XL. 

In  truth,  matters  had  there  assumed  a  serious  aspect  from  the  first. 
The  French  infantry  occupied  the  villages  of  Gross  Gbrschen,  Klein 
Gorschen,  Rahno  and  Kaia,  which  lie  near  each  other,  somewhat  in  the 
form  of  an  irregular  square,  between  Lutzen  and  Pegau.  The  plain  is 
traversed  by  the  deep  channel  of  a  rivulet,  called  the  Flossgraben  ;  and  the 
allied  army  had  crossed  this  stream  in  small  compact  columns,  which 
emerging  from  behind  the  heights,  concentrated  themselves  in  four  masses, 
without  being  seen  by  the  French  troops.  As  soon  as  their  formation  was 
complete  they  advanced  upon  the  plain,  and  opened  a  heavy  concentric 
fire  of  artillery  on  Gross  Gorschen ;  and  General  Ziethen,  with  two  Prus- 
sian brigades,  followed  up  this  attack  so  vigorously  that  the  French  in- 
fantry were  speedily  driven  out  of  the  village,  and  pursued  some  distance 
beyond  it.  The  allies,  thus  encouraged,  pressed  forward  to  Klein  Gors- 
chen and  Rahno,  which  they  carried  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet ;  both 
villages  were  soon  wrapped  in  flames,  and  aid-de-camp  after  aid-de-camp 
was  dispatched  to  Napoleon  for  reenforeements.  The  emergency  ad- 
mitted of  no  delay ,  and  the  Emperor  immediately  sent  orders  to  Macdonald, 
Eugene,  Marmont  and  Bertrand  to  hasten  with  their  respective  corps 
toward  the  point  of  danger,  while  he  pushed  on  in  the  same  direction 
with  the  main  body  of  his  army. 

In  the  meantime  Ney  had  rallied  the  broken  divisions,  and,  by  a  des- 
perate charge,  retook  the  villages  ;  but  it  was  impossible  for  him  to  main- 
tain them  against  the  impetuosity  of  the  Prussian  levies,  who  returned  to 
the  assault  with  the  coolness  of  veteran  soldiers,  and  drove  the  French 
back  on  the  plain  ;  and  as  this  success  was  promptly  followed  up  by  the 
allied  cavalry,  Ney's  columns  were  disordered  and  several  regiments  of 
conscripts  disbanded  and  fled.  Wittgenstein  now  brought  forward  his 
reserves  to  complete  the  victory,  forced  the  French  from  Kaia,  the  key  of 
Napoleon's  right,  and  compelled  the  whole  line  to  give  ground.  It  was 
now  six  o'clock ;  all  the  French  troops  who  had  as  yet  come  into  action 
were  in  full  retreat,  and  the  battle  seemed  to  be  won  by  the  allies.  At 
this  crisis,  Napoleon  advanced  with  the  central  corps,  checked  the  flight 
of  Ney's  defeated  columns,  and,  throwing  himself  into  the  midst  of  the 
fugitives,  rallied  them  in  a  moment.  He  then  pressed  on  to  Kaia,  where 
the  allies  were  strengthening  themselves,  and  retook  that  village  after  a 
desperate  struggle.  Blucher,  in  turn,  now  interposed  with  the  Prussian 
reserve,  the  two  parties  met  in  the  plain  between  Kaia  and  Klein  Gors- 
chen, and  both  maintained  their  ground  at  half  musket-shot  distance, 
exchanging  incessant  volleys  without  yielding  one  step,  until  the  shades 
of  evening  began  to  overspread  the  field. 

This  obstinate  conflict,  however,  though  it  gave  no  immediate  advan- 
tage to  either  side,  was  of  great  importance  to  Napoleon,  as  it  gained  for 
him  what  alone  was  requisite  to  save  the  day — time,  namely,  to  bring 
forward  his  reserves.  Bertrand,  Marmont,  and  the  Imperial  Guard  soon 
arrived,  and  presented  an  array  seventy  thousand  strong,  against  which 
the  allies  could  muster  at  the  decisive  point  but  forty  thousand  men. 
Nevertheless,  Wittgenstein  maintained  his  ground  against  this  overwhelm- 
ing force  until  darkness  separated  the  combatants,  and  his  troops  bivou- 
acked in  and  around  Gross  Gorschen.  During  the  night,  the  allied 
sovereigns  held  a  council  of  war,  and  decided  to  commence  a  retreat  the 
next  morning,  which  they  accordingly  did,  without  the  sacrifice  of  pris- 
oners, standards  or  artiPery.  Their  loss  in  the  battle  of  Lutzen  amounted 


1813.,  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  343 

to  fifteen  thousand  men,  killed  and  wounded  ;  while  that  of  the  French 
exceeded  eighteen  thousand,  of  whom  nine  hundred  were  prisoners. 

The  allies  retired  slowly  and  in  admirable  order  toward  Dresden. 
The  main  body  reached  that  city  on  the  7th  of  May,  and  proceeded 
thence  by  the  road  of  Silesia  to  a  strongly  intrenched  position  at  Bautzen; 
while  Milaradowitch,  with  the  rear-guard,  after  cutting  the  arches  of  the 
bridge  of  Dresden^  established  himself  among  the  houses  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  river. 

When  the  French  approached  Dresden,  the  magistrates  of  the  city 
came  out  of  the  gates  and  presented  themselves  before  Napoleon.  "  Who 
are  you  ?"  said  he  in  a  quick  and  rude  tone.  "  Members  of  the  munici- 
pality," replied  the  trembling  burgomasters.  "  Have  you  bread  for  my 
soldiers  ?"  "  Our  resources  have  been  quite  exhausted  by  the  requisi- 
tions of  the  Russians  and  Prussians."  "Ha!  it  is  impossible,  is  it  ?  I 
know  no  such  word.  Furnish  me  bread,  and  meat,  and  wine.  I  know 
all  you  have  done :  you  deserve  to  be  treated  as  a  conquered  people,  but 
I  spare  you  from  my  regard  to  your  king:  he  is  the  saviour  of  your 
country."  With  these  words,  he  turned  aside  from  the  city  and  proceeded 
to  the  suburbs  of  Pirna,  where  he  dismounted  and  reconnoitered  the  banks 
of  the  river,  with  a  view  of  forcing  a  passage  to  the  opposite  side.  He 
was  not,  however,  seriously  opposed  by  the  allies  in  this  project,  and  by 
the  llth  of  May,  he  had  succeeded  in  transferring  to  the  right  bank  a 
considerable  portion  of  his  army.  The  next  day,  the  King  of  Saxony 
returned  to  Dresden,  and  placed  himself  and  all  his  resources  at  the  dis- 
posal of  the  French  Emperor:  a  proceeding  in  the  highest  degree  gratify- 
ing to  Napoleon,  as  it  proved  the  adherence  of  a  valuable  ally,  secured 
the  protection  of  a  line  of  fortresses,  and  restored  him  to  the  rank  he 
most  coveted — the  arbiter  of  the  destinies  and  protector  of  the  thrones  of 
European  sovereigns. 

But  if  the  adhesion  of  the  King  of  Saxony  was  thus  a  source  of  satis- 
faction, the  position  now  assumed  by  Austria  gave  the  highest  degree  of 
disquietude  to  Napoleon.  He  became  convinced,  from  various  develop- 
ments, that  the  Cabinet  of  Vienna,  which  of  late  had  pursued  a  tempo- 
rizing policy  in  its  diplomatic  communications  with  France,  was  likely  to 
throw  its  influence  and  power  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies  :  he  therefore 
resolved  to  intimidate,  if  possible,  the  Austrian  government,  and  prevent 
a  step  so  fatal  to  his  ambition.  He  at  the  same  time  opened  a  secret 
negotiation  with  the  Emperor  Alexander,  and  endeavored  by  great  con- 
cessions to  detach  him  from  the  league  ;  but  both  attempts  proved  equally 
fruitless. 

Meanwhile,  the  allied  sovereigns  had  retired  to  their  fortified  position, 
around  the  heights  of  Bautzen,  where  they  assembled  a  disposable  force 
of  ninety  thousand  men :  while  Napoleon,  after  incorporating  into  his 
army  fourteen  thousand  Saxon  troops,  had  under  his  immediate  command 
fully  a  hundred  and  fifty  thousand.  The  allies,  therefore,  were  greatly 
overmatched  ;  and,  however  strong  their  position  might  be  in  front,  it  was 
liable  to  be  turned  by  an  enemy  so  superior  in  numbers. 

Napoleon  approached  Bautzen  on  the  19th  of  May,  and  ordered  a  par- 
tial attack  on  the  allied  right,  which  ended  in  a  loss  of  nearly  two  thou- 
sand men  on  each  side,  without  any  material  advantage  having  been 
gained  by  either  party.  In  the  afternoon  of  that  day,  both  armies  made 
their  dispositions  for  a  general  action;  the  allies  occupying  a  sort  of 

24 


344  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XL. 

semi-circle,  convex  in  front,  about  two  and  a  half  leagues  in  length,  with 
their  left  against  the  chain  of  mountains  on  the  Bohemian  frontier ;  and 
Napoleon,  while  proposing  an  attack  along  their  whole  line,  resolved  to 
direct  his  greatest  effort  against  their  right. 

The  outposts  of  the  main  armies  first  came  in  contact  with  each  other 
at  eleven  o'clock,  on  the  morning  of  the  20th,  when  the  French  com- 
menced  the  passage  of  the  river  Spree,  which  flowed  between  the  hostile 
camps.  The  stream  was  not  seriously  defended  by  the  allies,  and  the 
entire  French  force  crossed  it  by  five  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  The  com- 
bat was  then  begun  by  the  French  right  and  centre  ;  in  which  the  former 
was  defeated,  and  the  latter  was  but  partially  successful ;  but  both  met 
with  severe  loss,  and  night  separated  the  combatants  before  any  decisive 
result  could  be  attained. 

The  Emperor  Napoleon  ordered  his  troops  to  bivouac  in  squares  on  the 
ground  they  had  won  in  the  centre  ;  yet  the  loss  he  had  sustained  proved 
the  desperate  nature  of  the  conflict  in  which  he  was  engaged,  and  in- 
spired him  with  melancholy  forebodings  as  to  the  issue  of  the  battle  on 
the  morrow.  The  Prussian  soldiers,  though  chiefly  young  recruits  and 
brought  under  fire  that  day  for  the  first  time,  had  evinced  the  most  heroic 
bravery.  Not  an  inch  of  ground  had  been  wrested  from  them  but  by  the 
force  of  overwhelming  numbers,  and  more  than  ten  thousand  French  and 
Italians  lay  weltering  in  their  blood  around  the  heights,  from  which  the 
Prussians  had  drawn  off  every  cannon  and  every  wounded  man.  Not- 
withstanding his  losses,  however,  Napoleon  had  gained  his  principal  object ; 
namely,  to  compel  the  allies  to  bring  their  chief  strength  to  the  support 
of  their  centre,  and  thus  weaken  their  right,  where  his  main  blow  was  to 
be  delivered. 

At  five  o'clock,  on  the  morning  of  the  21st,  the  battle  was  renewed  by 
a  French  attack  on  the  left  of  the  allied  position ;  but  the  Emperor 
Alexander  had,  during  the  'night,  sent  to  that  point  such  reinforcements 
under  Milarado witch,  that  not  only  was  the  first  assault  repulsed,  but 
Oudinot,  who  came  up  to  support  the  retreating  columns,  was  also  driven 
back  with  great  loss,  and  pursued,  until  Macdonald's  advance  checked 
the  victorious  Russians.  Napoleon  was  much  disconcerted  at  this 
reverse,  but  he  nevertheless  pressed  his  movements  against,  the  enemy's 
centre  and  right,  listening  anxiously,  in  the  meantime,  for  the  sound  of 
Ney's  cannon ;  he  having  dispatched  that  marshal  by  a  circuitous  route 
to  turn  the  position  of  the  allies  on  its  extreme  right,  and  he  now  waited 
only  until  the  success  of  that  manoeuvre  should  be  declared,  in  order  to 
terminate  the  battle  at  a  blow.  His  directions  were,  that  Ney  should 
reach  the  designated  point  by  eleven  o'clock  ;  but  at  a  few  minutes  past 
ten,  the  roar  of  the  brave  marshal's  artillery  announced  that  he  had  an- 
ticipated even  Napoleon's  calculations  and  was  already  in  action.  The 
Emperor  immediately  sent  a  courier  to  Paris  with  a  note  written  in  pencil 
to  Marie  Louise,  proclaiming  that  he  had  gained  the  victory,  and  then  set 
off  at  a  gallop  with  his  staff  to  his  own  left,  to  take  advantage  of  Ney's 
success. 

In  the  meantime,  the  allies,  who  were  unprepared  for  Ney's  attack,  made 
every  effort  to  resist  it  and  secure  a  retreat.  Blucher  was  commanded 
to  check  the  French  marshal's  advance  at  all  hazards,  and  he  performed 
this  duty  so  intrepidly,  that  Ney  was  compelled  to  halt  for  reenforce- 
raents  until  one  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  The  manoeuvres  of  the  allies 


1813.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  345 

to  protect  their  right,  having  now  had  the  desired  effect  of  weakening 
their  centre,  Napoleon  ordered  a  grand  attack  of  no  less  than  eighty 
thousand  men  upon  this  point,  and  the  result  was  an  almost  instantaneous 
movement  of  retreat  along  the  whole  allied  line.  The  army  fell  back  in 
two  massy  columns ;  the  Russians  by  the  road  of  Hochkirch  and  Lobau, 
the  Prussians  by  Wurschen  and  Weissenberg. 

Then  were  seen  the  admirable  result  of  modern*  discipline,  and  the 
high  spirit  that  animated  both  armies.  Seated  on  an  eminence  whence 
he  could  survey  a  great  part  of  the  field,  Napoleon  directed  the  move- 
ments of  more  than  a  hundred  thousand  men,  spread  over  a  surface  of 
but  three  leagues  in  extent,  and  moving  majestically  forward  like  a 
mighty  wave,  crested  as  with  sparkling  foam  by  the  blaze  and  smoke  of 
a  hundred  and  twenty  pieces  of  artillery.  The  greater  part  of  this  vast 
inundation  poured  into  the  valley  of  Neider  Kayna,  and  the  declining 
sun  glanced  with  indescribable  brilliancy  on  bayonets,  helmets,  sabres  and 
cuirasses,  which  crowded  the  level  space  between  the  mountains ;  while 
the  allies  were  discerned  retiring  in  dark  masses  under  the  shade  of  the 
towering  heights  in  the  distance.  It  was  in  vain,  however,  that  the 
French  strove  by  the  most  desperate  charges  of  eight  thousand  cuirassiers 
to  disorder  the  firm  array  of  the  allied  infantry :  they  moved  along  with 
a  steady  pace  and  in  unbroken  order,  until  night  drew  her  veil  over  the 
field  of  carnage  and  of  glory ;  and  at  daybreak  on  the  following  morn- 
ing, the  Russians  were  still  in  possession  of  the  heights  of  Weissenberg, 
within  cannon  shot  of  the  French  army. 

The  loss  of  the  allies  in  the  battle  of  Bautzen  was  fifteen  thousand 
men  killed  and  wounded,  and  fifteen  hundred  prisoners;  that  of  the 
French  amounted  to  twenty-five  thousand. 

Early  on  the  22nd.  Napoleon  renewed  the  pursuit  and  continued  it  with 
unabated  vigor  during  the  whole  day ;  but  he  could  gain  no  trophy  of 
victory  from  his  admirably  disciplined  foes :  every  baggage-wagon  and 
cannon  was  safely  conveyed  away,  and  the  Emperor  vented  his  spleen, 
as  at  Wagram,  on  his  generals,  censuring  them  in  tie  severest  terms  for 
allowing  standards,  prisoners  and  artillery  to  escape  from  such  over- 
whelming numbers.  Duroc  was  killed  by  a  cannon-ball  during  this  day's 
pursuit,  and  his  death  spread  a  gloom  not  only  over  the  Emperor's  mind, 
but  through  the  whole  army :  even  the  marshals  of  France  were  free  to 
express  their  disapprobation  of  a  campaign  which,  with  such  a  prodigious 
expense  of  life,  was  likely  to  yield  so  little  permanent  advantage.  The 
advance  of  the  French  and  the  retreat  of  the  allies  were,  nevertheless, 
continued  for  several  days,  and  were  marked  by  various  alternations  of 
success  and  disaster,  which,  on  the  whole,  redounded  to  the  benefit  of  the 
allies.  At  length,  both  parties  began  to  wish  for  a  suspension  of  hostili- 
ties :  the  allied  sovereigns  desired  to  gain  time  for  bringing  forward  their 
reinforcements,  which  were  already  on  the  march  in  great  strength :  and 
Napoleon  felt  it  necessary  to  ascertain  the  precise  policy  and  intentions 
of  Austria,  before  he  trusted  himself  farther  from  his  resources,  and  ex- 
posed the  flank  of  a  longer  line  of  communication  to  the  powerful  armies 
of  that  Empire. 

With  this  common  disposition  to  treat,  the  negotiations  were  not  long 
protracted.  A  convention,  termed  the  armistice  of  Pleswitz,  was  there- 
fore signed  on  the  4th  of  June,  which  declared  a  suspension  of  arms  for 
six  weeks,  and  designated,  as  the  line  of  demarcation  between  the  two 


346  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHJLP.  XLI. 

armies,  that  Poischwitz,  Leignitz,  Goldberg  and  Lahn  should  be  held  by 
the  French ;  Landshut,  Rudelstadt,  Bolkershagen,  Streigau  and  Canth, 
by  the  allies ;  while  the  intermediate  territory,  including  the  fortress  of 
Breslau,  was  to  remain  neutral,  and  be  occupied  by  neither  party. 


CHAPTER    XLI. 

FROM    THE   ARMISTICE    OF   PLESWITZ   TO   THE    RENEWAL    OF    THE   WAR. 

GREAT  exertions  were  made  by  the  British  cabinet,  to  take  advantage 
of  the  propitious  events  which  marked  the  early  part  of  the  year  1813. 
It  is  difficult  to  say,  whether  the  alacrity  of  the  nation  in  submitting  to 
fresh  burdens,  or  the  boundless  generosity  that  transmitted  supplies  to 
Germany,  or  the  efforts  made  to  strengthen  the  victorious  army  of  Wel- 
lington in  Spain,  or  the  diplomatic  activity  which  hushed  separate  inte- 
rests and  reconciled  jarring  pretensions,  in  concluding  alliances  with  other 
cabinets — were  most  worthy  of  admiration.  The  position  of  Great  Britain 
was  indeed  lofty  and  commanding,  when  she  found  the  Continental  states, 
after  so  long  a  struggle,  ranging  themselves  around  her  standard,  arid 
saw  the  jealousies  of  rival  governments  merged  in  a  common  sense  of 
necessity  to  crush  the  rapacious  tyranny  which  she  alone  had  uniformly 
and  successfully  opposed.  Yet  many  serious  obstacles  were  to  be  over- 
come, before  this  consummation  could  be  fully  realized ;  and  difficulties 
of  no  ordinary  kind  awaited  the  statesman  whose  perseverance  at  length 
subdued  them,  and  cemented  out  of  such  discordant  materials  the  glo- 
rious fabric  of  the  Grand  Alliance. 

The  decided  step  taken  by  Prussia,  in  seceding  from  her  friendly  rela- 
tions with  France,  and  uniting  her  fate  to  that  of  Russia,  by  the  treaty 
of  Kalisch,  at  once,  and  without  any  formal  convention,  reestablished  an 
amicable  understanding  between  the  cabinets  of  London  and  Berlin ;  and 
long  before  their  diplomatic  connexions  were  renewed,  immense  supplies 
of  arms,  ammunition  and  warlike  stores  had  been  forwarded  from  the 
Thames,  and  distributed  through  the  Prussian  dominions.  To  accelerate 
the  conclusion  of  a  regular  treaty,  Sir  Charles  Stewart,  since  the  Marquis 
of  Londonderry,  was  sent  by  the  British  government  to  the  north  of  Ger- 
many as  early  as  April,  and  he  arrived  at  Berlin  on  the  22nd  of  that 
month.  Learning  that  the  King  of  Prussia  was  then  at  Dresden,  he 
hastened  to  that  capital,  and  on  the  26th  of  April  it  was  there  agreed,  that 
England,  in  addition  to  the  military  supplies  already  sent  forward,  should 
advance  two  millions  sterling  to  sustain  the  operations  of  the  Crown- 
Prince  of  Sweden  in  the  northern  part  of  Germany,  and  a  like  sum  to 
enable  Russia  and  Prussia  to  keep  up  their  armaments  in  Saxony ;  be- 
sides five  hundred  thousand  pounds  with  which  the  British  government 
charged  itself  as  the  cost  of  the  Russian  fleet.  In  return  for  these  liberal 
advances,  Russia  agreed  to  maintain  two  hundred  thousand,  and  Prussia 
one  hundred  thousand  men  in  the  field,  exclusive  of  garrisons ;  and  mat- 
ters continued  on  this  basis  until  the  consummation  of  the  armistice  of 
Pleswitz. 


1813.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  347 

No  sooner,  then,  were  the  allied  sovereigns  delivered,  by  the  convention, 
from  the  pressure  of  impending  hostilities,  than  they  exerted  themselves 
to  effect  closer  diplomatic  relations  with  Great  Britain ;  and,  as  both  Sir 
Charles  Stewart  and  Earl  Cathcart,  the  English  ambassador  at  the  court 
of  St.  Petersburg,  were  at  the  allied  head-quarters,  a  treaty  of  alliance, 
offensive  and  defensive,  was  promptly  concluded.  By  this  treaty,  signed 
at  Reichenbach  on  the  14th  of  June,  England  agreed  to  furnish  Prussia 
with  funds  to  the  amount  of  six  hundred  and  sixty-six  thousand  pounds, 
on  condition  that  the  latter  power  should  keep  eighty  thousand  men  in 
the  field  for  the  remainder  of  the  year ;  she  also  promised  to  contribute 
her  influence  toward  the  aggrandizement  of  Prussia,  if  the  success  of  the 
allied  arms  would  warrant  it,  in  such  geographical  and  statistical  propor- 
tions as  should  at  least  restore  that  kingdom  to  the  situation  in  which  it 
stood  prior  to  1806  ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  the  King  of  Prussia  consented 
to  cede  to  the  Electorate  of  Hanover  a  part  of  his  possessions  in  Lower 
Saxony  and  Westphalia,  to  the  extent  of  three  hundred  thousand  inhabit- 
ants, including  in  particular  the  bishopric  of  Hildesheim.  By  another 
and  relative  treaty,  between  Russia  and  Great  Britain,  it  was  stipulated 
that  the  latter  power  should  pay  to  the  former  a  subsidy  of  thirteen  hun- 
dred and  thirty-three  thousand  pounds  ;  and  in  return,  the  Emperor  Alex- 
ander agreed  to  maintain  in  the  field  one  hundred  and  sixty  thousand 
men  :  and  England  formally  ratified  her  previous  agreement  to  maintain 
the  Russian  fleet  and  crews,  lying  in  her  harbors  since  the  convention  of 
Cintra  in  1808,  at  an  annual  expense  of  five  hundred  thousand  pounds. 
And  as  these  large  subsidies  appeared  to  be  inadequate  to  the  daily 
increasing  cost  of  the  armaments  which  the  allies  had  on  foot  or  in  prepa- 
ration, and  especially  as  the  want  of  specie  was  everywhere  severely 
felt,  the  treaty  further  stipulated,  that  an  issue  of  paper,  to  the  extent 
of  five  millions  sterling,  guarantied  by  the  three  powers,  should  be 
made  by  the  Prussian  states,  of  which  two-thirds  were  to  be  at  the  dis- 
posal of  Russia,  and  one-third  at  that  of  Prussia  :  the  ultimate  liquidation 
of  the  note's  was  fixed  for  the  first  of  July,  1815,  or  six  months  after  the 
conclusion  of  a  general  peace ;  and  their  payment  at  that  period  was 
undertaken  in  the  proportion  of  three-sixths  by  England,  two-sixths  by 
Russia,  and  one-sixth  by  Prussia.  And  although  these  treaties,  by  their 
letter,  promised  the  supplies  of  money  only  during  the  year  1813,  yet 
the  high  contracting  parties  agreed  to  concert  anew  on  the  aid  they  were 
to  afford  each  other,  in  case  the  war  should  be  prolonged  beyond  that 
period ;  and  in  particular,  they  "  reciprocally  engaged  not  to  negotiate 
separately  with  their  common  enemies,  nor  to  sign  any  truce,  peace  or 
convention  whatsoever,  otherwise  than  by  mutual  consent." 

Notwithstanding  the  liberal  provisions  of  these  two  treaties,  as  already 
recited,  the  scarcity  of  specie  in  Germany  during  the  summer  became  so 
excessive,  that  England  was  again  compelled  to  interpose ;  and,  on  the 
30th  of  September,  entered  into  an  agreement  to  issue  bills  from  the 
British  exchequer,  in  favor  of  the  sovereigns  of  Russia  and  Prussia,  to 
the  amount  of  two  «,nd  a  half  millions  sterling,  payable  in  specie  one 
month  after  the  ratification  of  a  general  peace,  at  offices  in  such  towns 
in  the  north  of  Germany  as  the  cabinets  of  London,  St.  Petersburg  and 
Berlin  should  designate  ;  with  an  option  to  the  holders  to  fund  the  amount 
of  their  notes  in  a  stock  bearing  six  per  cent,  interest.  These  issues 
were  immediately  made,  and  they  at  once  supplied  a  circulating  medium, 

32 


348  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLI. 

which  passed  on  a  par  with  specie  throughout  all  Northern  Europe :  a 
memorable  instance  of  the  effect  of  national  credit  in  public  transactions, 
and  of  the  inexhaustible  resources  of  a  country  which,  after  a  war  of 
twenty  years,  was  able  not  only  to  supply  subsidies  of  vast  amount  to 
the  Continental  states,  but  to  guaranty  the  circulation  of  foreign  dominions, 
and  cause  her  own  promissory  notes  to  pass  like  gold  and  silver  through 
empires  extending  from  the  Elbe  to  the  wall  of  China,  and  among  na- 
tions that,  but  a  few  months  previously,  were  arrayed  against  her  in 
deadly  hostility. 

While  the  allies  were  thus  strengthening  themselves  for  the  contest, 
Napoleon  concluded  a  treaty  with  Denmark,  on  the  10th  of  July,  by 
which  it  was  determined  that  France  should  declare  war  against  Sweden, 
and  Denmark  against  Russia,  within  twenty-four  hours  after  the  denun- 
ciation of  the  armistice ;  and  that  both  the  contracting  parties  should  concur 
with  all  their  forces  in  the  common  object ;  each  power  also  guarantied 
the  integrity  of  the  other's  dominions.  This  treaty  secured  to  France  a 
valuable  support  at  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe,  and  the  acquisition  of  twenty 
thousand  effective  troops — a  fact  of  no  inconsiderable  importance,  since 
the  advanced  position  of  Marshal  Davoust,  who  occupied  Hamburg  when 
the  allies,  by  their  retreat,  were  forced  to  abandon  it,  would  otherwise 
have  required  a  covering  force  of  similar  amount  to  be  withdrawn  from 
the  French  army. 

Austria  now  held  the  balance  between  the  hostile  powers;  and  her 
forces,  hourly  accumulating  behind  the  mountains  of  Bohemia,  threatened 
to  pour  down  in  irresistible  strength  on  whichever  of  the  two  parties 
should  venture  to  dispute  her  will.  As  yet  she  had  not  proclaimed  her 
definitive  intentions,  although  she  had  clearly  resolved  upon  them,  and 
withheld  their  execution  solely  from  prudential  motives.  Metternich, 
then  and  ever  since  the  chief  director  of  the  Austrian  councils,  was  too 
well  aware  of  the  insatiable  ambition  of  Napoleon  to  place  the  slightest 
reliance  on  his  present  liberal  promises  of  future  forbearance ;  at  the 
same  time,  that  able  minister  was  anxious,  if  possible,  to  secure  the  ad- 
vantages of  a  successful  campaign  by  an  armed  mediation  rather  than  by 
an  appeal  to  the  arbitrament  of  war. 

During  the  first  three  weeks  of  the  armistice,  little  progress  was  made 
in  the  work  of  negotiation.  Difficulties  arose  at  the  outset,  as  to  the 
parties  by  whom,  and  the  forms  by  which,  they  should  be  conducted. 
The  allied  sovereigns  did  not  wish  their  plenipotentiaries  to  treat  directly 
with  those  of  France,  but  desired  that  both  parties  should  address  them- 
selves to  Austria  as  the  mediating  power ;  and  this  proposal  was  strongly 
supported  by  Metternich,  on  the  part  of  the  cabinet  of  Vienna.  To  solve 
the  first  difficulty,  he  came  in  person  to  Getschen,  and  entered  into  cor- 
respondence with  Maret,  the  French  ambassador.  Maret  insisted  on  a 
categorical  answer  to  the  question,  whether  France  was  still  to  regard 
Austria  as  an  ally  under  the  treaty  of  1812.  Metternich  replied,  that  the 
duties  of  a  mediator  were  not  inconsistent  with  those  of  an  ally;  and  sug- 
gested  that,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  negotiation,  the  freaty  of  1812  should 
not  be  considered  as  broken,  but  only  suspended — an  expression  which 
Napoleon  justly  considered  as  equivalent  to  a  dissolution  of  his  alliance 
with  Austria.  The  other  point  of  difficulty,  the  forms  in  which  the  nego- 
tiations should  be  conducted,  was  next  considered :  and  here  Metternich 
found  such  a  diversity  of  opinion,  that  he  repaired  to  Dresden  in  order  to 


1813.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  349 

arrange  the  matter  with  Napoleon  personally.  His  interview  was  pro- 
longed till  past  midnight  on  the  28th  of  June. 

"  You  are  welcome,  Metternich,"  said  Napoleon,  as  soon  as  the  minis- 
ter was  introduced,  "  but  why  do  you  come  so  late  ?  We  have  lost  nearly 
a  month;  and  your  mediation,  from  its  long  inactivity  has  become  almost 
hostile.  It  appears  that  it  is  no  longer  agreeable  to  your  cabinet  to 
guaranty  the  integrity  of  the  French  Empire :  well,  be  it  so :  but  why 
had  you  not  the  candor  to  make  me  acquainted  with  that  determination  at 
an  earlier  period  ?  Your  doing  so  might  have  modified  my  plans  ;  per- 
haps, prevented  me  from  continuing  the  war.  When  you  allowed  me  to 
exhaust  myself  by  new  efforts,  you  doubtless  little  calculated  on  such 
rapid  events  as  have  ensued.  Nevertheless,  I  have  gained  two  battles ; 
my  enemies,  severely  weakened,  were  beginning  to  wake  from  their  illu- 
sions, when  suddenly  you  glided  among  us ;  and,  speaking  to  me  of  ar- 
mistice and  mediation,  you  spoke  to  them  of  alliance  and  war.  But  for 
your  pernicious  intervention,  peace  would  have  been  at  this  moment  con- 
cluded between  the  allies  and  France.  What  have  hitherto  been  the 
fruits  of  your  intervention  ?  I  know  of  none,  except  the  treaties  between 
Russia,  Prussia  and  Great  Britain.  They  speak  of  the  accession  of 
another  power  to  their  conventions — but  you  have  a  minister  there,  and 
perhaps  know  better  than  I  to  whom  that  refers.  You  cannot  deny,  that 
since  Austria  has  assumed  the  office  of  mediator,  she  has  not  only  ceased 
to  be  my  ally,  but  has  become  my  enemy.  You  were  in  fact  about  to 
declare  your  hostility,  when  the  battle  of  Lutzen  intervened,  and,  by 
showing  you  the  necessity  of  augmenting  your  forces,  made  you  desirous 
to  gain  time.  You  have  two  hundred  thousand  men  screened  by  the 
Bohemian  mountains ;  Schwartzenberg  commands  them ;  he  is  at  this 
moment  concentrating  them  in  my  rear ;  and  it  is  because  you  conceive 
yourself  in  a  condition  to  dictate  the  law,  that  you  pay  me  this  visit.  I 
see  through  you,  Metternich.  Your  cabinet  wishes  to  profit  by  my  em- 
barrassments, and  to  augment  them  as  much  as  possible,  that  you  may 
recover  a  portion  of  what  you  have  lost.  Your  only  doubt  is,  whether 
you  can  gain  your  object  without  fighting,  or  whether  you  must  throw 
yourself  boldly  among  the  combatants.  You  do  not  well  know  which  of 
these  lines  of  policy  to  adopt,  and  possibly  you  have  come  here  to  seek 
light  on  the  subject.  Well,  what  do  you  want  ?  Let  us  treat.7' 

To  this  vehement  attack,  which  embodied  more  truth  than  he  was 
willing  to  acknowledge,  Metternich  replied  with  studied  address,  "  The 
sole  advantage  which  the  Emperor  my  master  proposes,  or  wishes  to  de- 
rive from  the  present  state  of  affairs  is,  the  influence  which  a  spirit  of 
moderation,  and  a  respect  for  the  rights  and  possessions  of  independent 
states,  cannot  fail  to  command  from  those  who  are  animated  with  similar 
sentiments.  Austria  wishes  to  establish  a  state  of  things  which,  by  a 
wise  distribution  of  power,  may  place  the  guaranty  of  peace  under  the 
guardianship  of  an  association  of  independent  states."  "Speak  more 
clearly,"  interrupted  the  Emperor;  "come  at  once  to  the  point;  but  do 
not  forget  that  I  am  a  soldier,  who  would  rather  break  than  bend.  I  have 
offered  you  Illyria  to  remain  neutral :  will  that  suffice  ?  My  army  is 
strong  enough  to  bring  Russia  and  Prussia  to  reason :  all  I  ask  from  you 
is,  to  withdraw  from  the  strife."  "Ah,  sire!"  said  Metternich,  eagerly, 
"  why  should  your  majesty  enter  singly  into  the  strife  ?  Why  should 
you  not  double  ^rour  forces  ?  You  may  do  so,  sire  !  It  depends  on 


850  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XL! 

yourself  to  add  our  armies  to  your  own.  But  matters  have  come  to  that 
point,  that  we.  can  no  longer  remain  neutral :  we  must  be  for  you,  or 
against  you." 

At  these  words,  the  Emperor  conducted  Metternich  into  a  cabinet  apart, 
in  which  stood  tables  covered  with  maps,  and  for  a  time  their  conversa- 
tion could  not  be  overheard.  After  a  while,  the  voice  of  Napoleon  was 
audible  above  its  ordinary  pitch:  "What!"  said  he,  "not  only  Illyria, 
ut  the  half  of  Italy,  and  the  return  of  the  pope  to  Rome,  and  Poland, 
nd  the  abandonment  of  Spain,  Holland,  Switzerland,  and  the  Confede- 
ration of  the  Rhine  !  And  this  you  call  a  spirit  of  moderation  !  You  are 
intent  only  on  profiting  by  every  chance  that  offers :  you  alternately  trans- 
port your  alliance  from  one  camp  to  the  other,  so  as  to  be  always  a  par- 
taker of  the  spoil,  and  yet  you  speak  to  me  of  your  respect  for  the  rights 
of  independent  states.  You  would  have  Italy ;  Russia  would  have  Po- 
land ;  Sweden  would  have  Norway  ;  Prussia  would  have  Saxony  ;  and 
England,  Holland  and  Belgium :  in  short,  peace  is  only  a  pretext ;  you 
are  all  eager  to  dismember  the  French  Empire,  and  Austria  thinks  she 
has  only  to  declare  herself,  in  order  to  crown  the  enterprise !  You  pro- 
pose, here,  with  a  stroke  of  the  pen  to  sweep  away  the  ramparts  of 
Dantzic,  Custrin,  Glogau,  Magdebourg,  Wesel,  Mayence,  Antwerp,  Alex- 
andria, Mantua — all  the  strong  places  of  Europe,  in  short,  of  which  I 
obtained  possession  by  dint  of  victories  !  And  I,  obedient  to  your  policy, 
am  to  evacuate  Europe,  of  which  I  still  hold  the  half;  recall  my  legions 
across  the  Rhine,  the  Alps  and  the  Pyrenees  ;  subscribe  a  treaty  which 
would  be  nothing  but  one  vast  capitulation ;  and  place  myself  at  the 
mercy  of  those  of  whom  I  am  at  this  moment  the  conqueror !  And,  it  is 
when  my  standards  are  floating  at  the  mouths  of  the  Vistula  and  on  the 
banks  of  the  Oder ;  when  my  victorious  army  is  at  the  gates  of  Berlin 
and  Breslau ;  when  I  am  at  the  head  of  three  hundred  thousand  men — 
that  Austria,  without  striking  a  blow,  without  drawing  a  sword,  expects 
me  to  subscribe  such  conditions !  My  father-in-law,  too,  has  matured 
such  a  project,  and  he  sends  you  on  such  a  mission !  In  what  a  position 
would  he  place  me,  with  regard  to  the  French  people  !  Does  he  suppose 
that  a  dishonored  and  mutilated  throne  in  France  can  be  a  refuge  for  his 
son-in-law  and  grand-son  ?  Ah !  Metternich,  how  much  has  England 
given  you  to  make  war  upon  me  /" 

This  violent  tirade  was  delivered  while  Napoleon  strode  up  and  down 
the  apartment ;  and  at  the  last  insulting  question,  which  nothing  in  the 
character  or  conduct  of  the  Austrian  diplomatist  could  for  an  instant  jus- 
tify, the  Emperor  let  his  hat,  that  he  had  hitherto  carried  in  his  hand,  fall 
to  the  floor.  Metternich  turned  pale,  but  made  no  movement  to  raise  it, 
as  his  politeness  at  any  other  time  would  have  dictated ;  and  Napoleon, 
after  passing  and  repassing  it  several  times,  at  length  kicked  it  aside. 

After  a  pause  of  a  few  minutes,  during  which  not  a  word  passed  on 
either  side,  Napoleon  became  more  tractable,  and,  reverting  to  fair  words, 
contended  for  a  congress,  to  continue  its  sittings  even  during  hostilities, 
in  case  they  should  recommence.  A  convention,  in  consequence,  was 
made,  stipulating  that  the  congress  should  meet  at  Prague  on  the  5th  of 
July,  at  latest,  and  Austria  agreed  to  procure  the  prolongation  of  the 
armistice  to  the  10th  of  August.  The  convention  was  based  on  the  me- 
diation of  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  and  accepted  by  Napoleon  "  for  a 
general  or  continental  peace."  By  this  means,  Mettern;ch  gained  a  great 


1813.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  351 

advantage  over  the  French  Emperor;  inasmuch  as  he  drove  that  mon- 
arch  from  his  favorite  project  of  treating  for  peace  with  the  several 
powers  separately,  and  caused  him  to  accede  to  the  mediation  of  Austria—- 
in itself,  under  the  circumstances,  a  great  diplomatic  victory. 

As  yet,  however,  nothing  definitive  was  declared  as  to  the  purposes  of 
Austria ;  and  outwardly,  it  was  still  a  matter  of  doubt  to  which  side  she 
would  incline ;  but  at  this  crisis,  big  with  the  fate  of  Europe  and  of  the 
world,  the  star  of  England  prevailed  :  intelligence  was  received  of  the 
battle  of  Vittoria  in  Spain  ;  and  the  victory  there  achieved  by  Welling- 
ton, which  will  be  detailed  in  a  subsequent  chapter,  explained  Napoleon's 
final  submission  to  Austria  as  a  mediator,  and  caused  that  power  to  de- 
cide in  favor  of  the  Grand  Alliance. 

From  this  moment,  all  prospect  of  peace  was  abandoned  :  the  views  of 
both  parties  were  mainly  directed  to  war  ;  and  the  negotiations  at  Prague 
were  used  but  as  a  cover  to  gain  time  on  either  side.  Napoleon  im- 
proved to  the  uttermost  the  interval  thus  gained,  to  strengthen  his  position 
and  reenforce  his  army  by  hastening  forward  the  conscripts  from  France; 
and,  resolving  to  make  Dresden  the  centre  and  pivot  of  his  operations,  he 
proceeded  to  cover  that  town  and  its  vicinity  with  fortifications  ori  a 
gigantic  scale,  which  might  be  capable,  both  by  their  strength  and  extent, 
of  protecting  his  entire  military  establishment,  in  case  of  serious  and  un- 
expected disaster.  The  numbers  of  the  French  Emperor's  troops  were 
in  proportion  to  the  magnitude  of  his  undertaking,  and  the  emergency  in 
which  he  was  placed.  His  reinforcements  had  been  hastened  forward 
from  France  with  all  possible  expedition,  and  these,  in  conjunction  with 
his  allies  and  his  own  previous  musters,  presented  the  following  formida- 
ble array  and  disposition :  Twenty-five  thousand  Bavarians,  stationed  at 
Munich,  watched  the  movements  of  the  Austrians,  who  were  assembling 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Lintz  ;  Augereau,  at  Wurtzburg  and  Bamberg, 
held  twenty  thousand  conscripts,  as  yet  inexperienced  in  the  field ;  Da- 
voust  occupied  Hamburg,  with  twenty-five  thousand  French  and  fifteen 
thousand  Danes ;  Oudinot,  with  eighty  thousand,  was  posted  in  front  of 
Torgau  to  observe  Bernadotte,  who  covered  Berlin  ;  and  two  hundred  and 
thirty-five  thousand,  under  the  immediate  command  of  the  Emperor,  were 
cantoned  from  Dresden  to  Liegnitz:  in  all,  four  hundred  thousand  men. 
In  addition  to  these,  one  hundred  and  fifteen  thousand  men  were  in  gar- 
rison at  Dantzic  and  in  the  fortresses  on  the  Elbe  and  the  Oder. 

The  forces  of  the  allie^  were  but  little  inferior  in  point  of  numbers  to 
the  immense  army  of  Napoleon.  Two  hundred  and  twenty  thousand 
combatants  were  assembled  in  Bohemia,  and,  from  that  salient  bastion, 
threatened  the  rear  and  communications  of  the  French  Emperor  on  the 
Elbe ;  eighty  thousand  menaced  him  from  Silesia,  and  ninety  thousand 
were  pressing  forward  from  the  north  toward  a  common  centre :  making 
a  total  of  three  hundred  and  ninety  thousand  men  ;  of  whom  one  hundred 
and  twenty  thousand  were  Austrian  troops  in  the  finest  state  of  discipline 
and  equipment. 

While  these  immense  hosts  were  taking  the  field  and  preparing  to 
assume  hostilities,  the  congress  at  Prague  still  maintained  the  form  of  ne- 
gotiation, and  its  members,  though  well  aware  that  war  was  inevitable, 
continued  to  discuss  technical  points  and  recommend  measures  of  a 
peaceful  tendency.  On  the  7th  of  August,  Metternich  transmitted  to 
Napoleon  the  ultimatum  of  the  Austrian  cabinet,  which  stipulated  for  the 

32* 


352  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLI. 

dissolution  of  the  Grand-duchy  of  Warsaw,  and  the  division  of  its  terri. 
tories  between  Austria,  Russia  and  Prussia,  reserving  Dantzic  for  the 
latter  power :  the  reestablishment  of  Hamburg  and  the  Hanse  Towns  in 
their  independence  ;  the  reconstruction  of  Prussia  within  its  ancient  do- 
minions, having  a  frontier  on  the  Elbe ;  the  cession  to  Austria  of  the 
[llyrian  provinces,  including  Trieste  ;  and  the  independence  of  Holland, 
Spain  and  the  Pontifical  States.  Napoleon  spent  the  9th  in  delibera- 
tion ;  and,  on  the  10th,  he  returned  an  answer  acceding  to  many  of  the 
conditions,  but  insisting  that  'Dantzic  should  be  a  free  city,  and  that  its 
fortifications  should  be  demolished ;  he  refused  the  cession  of  Trieste  to 
Austria  ;  and  claimed  that  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  should  be  ex- 
tended to  the  Oder  and  the  integrity  of  the  Danish  dominions  guarantied. 
These  terms,  however,  were  inadmissible ;  and,  besides,  they  did  not 
reach  Prague  until  the  llth,  when  the  armistice  had  terminated  and  the 
congress  was  dissolved.  On  the  12th,  Austria  formally  declared  war 
against  France. 

General  Moreau,  since  his  trial  and  condemnation  by  {he  First  Consul 
in  1804,  had  lived  in  retirement  in  the  United  States  of  America,  behold- 
ing' the  contest  that  still  raged  in  Europe,  as  the  shipwrecked  mariner 
regards  the  waves  of  the  ocean  from  which  he  has  just  escaped.  But  the 
Emperor  of  Russia,  who  entertained  a  high  opinion  of  the  Republican 
general,  and  deemed  it  not  unlikely  that  he  might  be  induced  to  contribute 
the  aid  of  his  great  military  talents  in  support  of  the  cause  of  European 
freedom,  had  some  time  previously  opened  a  correspondence  with  him  at  * 
the  city  of  New- York,  the  result  of  which  was,  that  Moreau  consented  to 
cooperate  with  the  allies  on  condition  that  France  should  be  maintained 
in  the  limits  she  had  acquired  under  the  Republic  ;  that  she  should  be 
allowed  to  choose  her  own  government  by  the  intervention  of  the  Senate 
and  political  bodies  ;  and  that,  as  soon  as  the  Imperial  tyranny  was  over- 
thrown, the  interests  of  the  country  should  become  paramount  to  those  of 
the  Imperial  family.  As  soon  as  these  preliminaries  were  agreed  on, 
Moreau  embarked  at  New- York  on  board  the  American  ship  Hannibal, 
and  after  a  voyage  of  thirty  days  arrived  at  Gottenburg,  on  the  27th  of 
July,  whence  he  immediately  departed  for  Straslund  to  hold  an  interview 
with  Bernadotte.  His  subsequent  journey  from  Straslund  to  Prague  was 
almost  a  triumphal  procession.  The  innkeepers  entertained  him  gratui- 
tously ;  the  postmasters  supplied  him  with  their  best  horses,  and  sent  cou- 
riers to  announce  his  approach  ;  and  his  route  was  thronged  with  crowds 
who  were  anxious  to  catch  a  glance  of  so  renowned  a  warrior.  Fie  reached 
the  allied  head-quarters  late  at  night  on  the  16th  of  August ;  and  the  next 
morning,  the  Emperor  Alexander  visited  him,  lavished  on  him  every  pos- 
sible attention,  and  at  once  admitted  him  to  the  confidence  of  the  allied 
sovereigns.  Moreau  immediately  began  to  study  the  maps  of  the  country, 
and  drew  up  the  plan  of  a  campaign,  which,  in  its  leading  features,  was 
adopted  by  the  allies. 

One  difficulty  remained  to  be  adjusted  at  the  allied  head-quarters  ;  ihe 
appointment,  namely,  of  a  commander-in-chief  over  the  armies :  and  the 
nature  of  this  difficulty  will  be  apparent,  when  it  is  considered  that  the 
Emperor  of  Russia,  the  King  of  Prussia,  Moreau,  Bernadotte,  Schwart- 
zenhurg,  Blucher  and  others,  were  all  eligible  to  the  high  office  and  anx- 
ious to  obtain  it.  It  was  at  length,  however,  conferred  on  Schwartzenburg, 
to  whose  orders  the  other  chieftains  cordially  agreed  to  submit. 


CHAPTER    XLII. 

DELIVERANCE    OF  GERMANY. 

THE  first  movement  in  the  memorable  campaign  now  about  to  com 
mence,  was  made  by  the  allies;  Blucher  having,  on  the  15th  of  August, 
advanced  in  great  force  upon  the  territories  of  Silesia,  driven  back  the 
French  videttes,  and  compelled  the  troops  in  that  quarter  to  retire  behind 
the  river  Bober.  He  was  supported  by  a  corps  of  Russians  under  Lan- 
geron,  and  another  of  Austrians  under  Sacken,  and  the  vigor  of  their  joint 
movement  was  such  that  the  French  rapidly  lost  ground  in  every  direction. 
This  result  was  of  sinister  augury,  for  the  forces  under  the  command, 
respectively,  of  Ney,  Lauriston,  M armont  and  Macdonald,  were  estimated 
by  Napoleon  at  no  less  than  a  hundred  thousand  men ;  and  these  were  all 
retiring  without  striking  a  blow  to  arrest  the  progress  of  their  antagonists. 

The  arrival  of  Napoleon,  however,  at  the  head  of  his  main  body  of 
troops,  soon  changed  the  state  of  affairs  ;  and  the  allies,  now  wholly  over- 
matched, began  in  turn  to  retreat,  yet  in  perfect  order,  and  without  loss 
other  than  that  incident  to  the  fatigues  of  the  march.  Indeed,  Blucher's 
advance  and  subsequent  retreat  were  parts  of  the  preconcerted  plan  of  the 
allies ;  who,  while  Napoleon  was  thus  drawn  into  Silesia,  prepared  to 
descend  from  Bohemia  upon  Dresden,  and  strike  at  once  at  the  line  of  his 
communications  and  the  centre  of  his  power.  In  conformity  to  this  pur- 
pose, they  pressed  forward  to  the  Saxon  capital,  and  began  to  arrive  in  its 
neighborhood  on  the  23rd  of  August.  They  came  in  such  numbers,  that 
on  the  morning  of  the  25th,  a  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  men  with  five 
hundred  pieces  of  cannon,  were  assembled  around  the  walls  of  Dresden. 
Moreau  counselled  an  immediate  attack  before  Napoleon  could  return  to 
relieve  the  town,  and  Alexander  warmly  supported  his  views ;  but  Schwart- 
zenberg  and  the  Austrians,  insensible  of  the  value  of  time  in  a  contest 
with  Napoleon,  resolved  to  await  the  arrival  of  Klenau's  corps,  which  was 
hourly  expected. 

In  the  meantime,  Napoleon  received  .intelligence  of  the  advance  upon 
Dresden,  and  hastened  to  repair  the  error  of  his  march  against  Blucher 
by  a  speedy  return,  leaving  Macdonald  in  command  of  a  force  sufficient 
to  check  the  Prussian  general.  He  urged  forward  the  movement  of  his 
troops  with  the  greatest  energy ;  and,  although  the  men  were  exhausted 
by  the  heat  of  the  weather  and  the  excessive  toil  of  the  march,  they  suc- 
ceeded in  reaching  Dresden  on  the  26th  of  August. 

At  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  of  that  day,  Schwartzenberg,  after  vainly 
waiting  for  Klenau  until  he  had  lost  a  far  greater  advantage  than  any 
assistance  that  officer's  corps  could  render,  gave  the  signal  for  a  general 
attack.  Immediately  the  batteries  on  all  the  heights  around  Dresden 
were  brought  forward,  and  more  than  a  hundred  guns  in  the  front  line 
opened  a  terrible  fire  on  the  town.  Bombs  and  cannon  balls  ranged  over 
its  whole  extent ;  many  houses  were  set  on  fire ;  the  inhabitants  took 
refuge  in  their  cellars  to  avoid  the  bombardment ;  and  the  frequent  burst- 
ing of  shells  in  the  streets,  the  thunder  of  artillery  from  the  ramparts,  the 
heavy  rolling  of  guns  and  ammunition-wagons  along  the  pavement,  to- 


354  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLII 

gether  with  the  tumult  produced  by  ihe  soldiery  as  they  forced  their  way 
through  the  crowded  avenues,  combined  to  create  a  scene  of  indescribable 
terror.  Every  street  and  square  in  Dresden  was  soon  thronged  with 
French  troops,  more  than  sixty  thousand  having  defiled  over  the  bridges 
since  the  morning,  and  the  iron  storm  of  the  allied  artillery  fell  with  de- 
structive effect  among  their  dense  masses. 

The  confusion  and  slaughter  greatly  increased  when  the  allies  advanced 
in  deep  columns  to  the  assault.  They  carried  the  redoubts  of  the  city  at 
several  points,  and,  unaware  that  Napoleon  had  returned  to  Dresden  with 
a  great  part  of  his  troops,  they  were  already  confident  of  an  easy  victory, 
when  the  Emperor  ordered  a  sally  to  be  made  by  the  Young  Guard,  in 
two  several  directions.  This  unexpected  movement,  and  the  great  force 
with  which  it  was  sustained,  decided  the  day,  and  the  allies  rapidly  fell 
back  to  their  fortified  position  on  the  heights. 

The  weather,  which  for  nearly  a  week  had  been  sultry  and  oppressive, 
changed  during  the  night  to  a  cold  and  violent  storm  of  rain :  ye*  both 
parties  exerted  themselves  to  prepare  for  a  pitched  battle  on  the  follow- 
ing morning.  By  daylight  on  the  27th,  Napoleon  drew  out  his  troops  to 
the  number  of  a  hundred  and  thirty  thousand  men.  His  right  wing,  con- 
sisting of  the  corps  of  Victor  and  the  cavalry  of  Latour  Maubourg,  took 
post  in  front  of  the  gate  of  Wildsrack,  and  in  the  fields  and  low  grounds 
extending  toward  Priesnitz  :  the  centre,  under  his  personal  command, 
comprising  the  corps  of  Marmont  and  St.  Cyr,  and  having  in  reserve  the 
infantry  and  cavalry  of  the  Old  Guard,  rested  on  three  great  redoubts  in 
advance  of  the  town  ;  and  the  left,  under  Ney,  with  four  divisions  of  the 
Young  Guard  and  the  cavalry  of  Kellermann,  was  spread  along  to  the 
Elbe,  beyond  the  suburb  of  Pirna.  On  the  other  hand,  Wittgenstein,  with 
his  Russians,  held  the  extreme  right  of  the  allies  toward  Pirna ;  Kleist, 
with  the  Prussians,  lay  between  St  eisec  and  Strehlen ;  Schwartzenberg, 
with  the  corps  of  Colloredo  and  Chastellar,  and  Bianchi's  grenadiers  in 
reserve,  occupied  the  semicircle  of  heights  in  the  centre,  extending  from 
Strehlen  by  Raecknitz  to  Plauen  ;  and  beyond  Plauen,  on  the  left,  were 
posted  the  corps  of  Giulay  and  one  division  of  Klenau's  troops,  which  had 
at  length  come  up.  But  from  the  extreme  left  of  the  allies  to  Priesnitz, 
there  was  a  vacant  space  destined  for  the  remainder  of  Klenau's  corps, 
wholly  unoccupied  when  the  battle  began,  and  which  of  itself  was  suffi- 
cient to  insure  the  defeat  of  the  allies,  by  leaving  one  wing  unsupported, 
and  inviting,  as  it  were,  a  charge  of  the  French  cavalry,  which  must  ne- 
cessarily be  successful,  on  its  flank  and  the  flank  of  the  centre :  a  more 
vicious  and  fatal  disposition,  on  the  part  of  a  commander  choosing  his  own 
ground  of  defence,  can  scarcely  be  imagined. 

Napoleon  was  not  long  in  turning  to  the  best  account  this  defect  in  the 
allied  line,  and  the  thick  mist  of  the  morning  favored  his  manoeuvre  so 
greatly,  that  his  cuirassiers  gained  a  position  within  a  few  yards  of  the 
allies  before  they  were  aware  that  any  danger  threatened  them.  At  the 
same  moment,  Victor  approached  the  allied  left  in  front,  and  these  two 
attacks  occurring  simultaneously,  the  whole  wing  was  in  a  few  minutes 
broken  and  destroyed ;  more  than  three-fourths  of  the  whole  havir-g  been 
killed  or  made  prisoners.  Notwithstanding  this  disaster,  the  allied  right 
still  stood  firm  against  Ney,  while  the  combat  in  the  centre  was  confined 
to  a  distant  cannonade :  after  a  time,  however,  the  first  line  of  the  right, 
under  General  de  Roth,  began  to  give  ground ;  when  a  catastrophe  took 


1813.]  II I  S  T  0  R  Y    0  F    E  U  R  O  P  E  .  355 

place  in  the  centre  that  induced  the  allies  to  retreat.  A  cannon  ball 
from  one  of  the  French  batteries,  more  than  a  mile  distant,  struck  Gen- 
eral iMoreau  and  nearly  severed  both  legs  from  his  body,  passing  through 
his  horse  in  its  flight.  He  was  immediately  borne  to  a  cottage  in  the 
rear,  when  he  suffered  the  painful  process  of  amputation  with  so  much 
coolness,  that  he  called  for  a  cigar  and  smoked  it  during  the  time  he  was 
under  the  surgeons'  hands.  The  wound,  nevertheless,  proved  mortal ;  arid 
at  the  end  of  five  days  he  expired  with  perfect  stoicism. 

As  soon  as  Moreau  was  struck  down,  Schwartzenberg  conferred  with 
the  allied  sovereigns  and  generals  on  the  expediency  of  a  retreat ;  to 
which  he  was  specially  moved  by  learning  the  fact,  that  Vandamme  with 
thirty-five  thousand  men  had  taken  a  strong  position  in  the  rear,  and 
threatened  the  communication  of  the  allies  ;  thus  rendering  their  position 
extremely  hazardous,  in  case  of  a  more  serious  overthrow  than  they  had 
yet  sustained.  These  considerations  prevailed  and  Schwartzenberg 
ordered  the  retreat.  The  army  moved  in  three  columns.  The  first  un- 
der Barclay,  with  the  Prussians  of  Kleist,  on  Peterswalde ;  the  second, 
under  Colloredo,  on  Altenberg  ;  and  the  third,  under  Klenau,  on  Marien- 
berg.  Wittgenstein  took  command  of  the  rear-guard ;  and  Ostermann, 
who  with  a  division  of  Russian  guards  and  cuirassiers  had  been  sent  to 
oppose  Vandamme,  was  ordered  to  fall  back  toward  Peterswalde. 

The  loss  of  the  allies  in  the  battle  of  Dresden,  was  not  less  than 
twenty-five  thousand  men,  killed,  wounded  and  prisoners,  besides  twenty- 
six  pieces  of  cannon  and  eighteen  standards ;  while  the  French  loss  was 
scarcely  half  as  great:  nor  did  the  disasters  of  the  allies  terminate  here. 
Owing  to  a  misapprehension  of  orders  as  to  the  several  lines  of  retreat, 
the  Russians  and  Austrians  became  crowded  together  on  the  same  road, 
and  in  the  confusion  arising  from  this  circumstance  a  number  of  baggage 
and  ammunition-wagons,  together  with  two  thousand  prisoners,  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  French. 

Meanwhile,  Vandamme,  following  his  instructions  to  throw  himself  on 
the  rear  of  the  allies  and  await  the  issue  of  events  before  Dresden,  en- 
deavored to  make  himself  master  of  Tceplitz;  a  point  of  intersection  in 
the  route  of  the  allies  that  commanded  the  entrance  into  the  Bohemian 
plains.  Ostermann  made  equally  strenuous  efforts  to  secure  the  im- 
portant pass,  and  the  two  corps  came  in  contact  with  each  other  near 
Culm,  and  about  half  a  league  in  advance  of  Tceplitz.  A  desperate 
action  ensued,  in  which  Ostermann,  though  inferior  in  numbers  to  the 
French  general,  bravely  maintained  his  ground  until  nightfall,  when  both 
parties  withdrew  to  renew  the  battle  on  the  following  day.  During  the 
night,  Ostermann  was  largely  reenforced  by  the  approaching  Russian 
columns,  and  Vandamme's  prudent  course,  in  the  morning,  was  to  retreat. 
But  having  no  orders  for  such  a  movement,  and  presuming  that  Napoleon 
would  advance  to  his  aid,  he  rashly  resolved  to  maintain  his  position. 
Barclay,  who  had  arrived  with  the  reinforcements,  took  command  of  the 
allied  forces  the  next  day ;  and  after  having  made  able  dispositions  for  the 
action,  commenced  it  by  a  spirited  charge  of  cavalry  on  Vandamme's 
left  wing.  The  French  fought  for  a  time  with  their  accustomed  bravery  ; 
but  they  were  overpowered  by  numbers,  and  at  length  fled  from  the  field 
in  total  disorganization,  leaving  behind  them  sixty  pieces  of  cannon,  two 
eagles,  and  three  hundred  ammunition-wagons:  their  loss  in  killed, 
wounded  and  prisoners  during  the  two  days,  amounted  to  eighteen  thou- 


356  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLIL 

sand  men;  while  that  of  Ostermann  and  Barclay  did  not  exceed  five 
thousand. 

While  such  was  the  course  of  events  in  the  neighborhood  of  Dresden 
and  of  the  Bohemian  frontier,  serious  disasters  attended  the  French  arms 
in  Upper  Silesia,  where  Macdonald  was  opposed  to  Blucher.  The  former, 
impressed  with  the  belief  that  Blucher  had  continued  his  retreat  after 
Napoleon  withdrew  from  the  pursuit  to  succor  Dresden,  divided  his  army 
of  seventy-five  thousand  men  into  five  columns,  in  order  to  obtain  sup- 
plies  with  greater  facility,  and  spread  his  forces  over  a  front  of  twenty, 
four  miles  in  extent.  In  this  straggling  manner,  he  approached  the  river 
Katzbach,  at  Leignitz,  on  the  26th  of  August.  As  it  happened,  however, 
the  Prussian  commander,  far  from  retreating,  when  he  heard  of  Napo- 
leon's march  upon  Dresden,  prepared  to  assume  the  offensive  ;  and  the  two 
generals  moving  from  opposite  directions  toward  a  common  centre,  came 
in  sight  of  each  other  near  Leignitz,  at  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon 
of  the  26th.  Macdonald  was  surprised  at  reaching  the  allies  so  much 
sooner  than  he  expected ;  but  he  still  conceived  the  parties  in  view  to  be 
outposts  of  their  rear-guard  ;  and  this  illusion  was  confirmed  by  the  dispo- 
sitions of  Blucher,  who  concealed  the  greater  part  of  his  left  wing  be- 
hind some  intervening  hills,  on  the  plateau  of  Eichholz,  and  awaited  the 
movement  of  his  opponents,  while  he  ordered  his  centre  and  right  to  has- 
ten with  similar  precaution  toward  the  more  remote  divisions  of  the 
French  army. 

Macdonald  pushed  forward  his  columns  without  much  care  or  support, 
and  when  a  portion  of  his  right  wing  had  crossed  the  ravine  of  Neisse, 
Blucher  gave  the  signal  to  attack.  The  surprise  was  complete ;  and  the 
French  right,  broken  and  disordered,  fled  back  upon  the  main  body  with 
great  loss.  The  simultaneous  movement  of  the  allies  on  Macdonald's 
centre  and  left  were  equally  successful ;  and,  when  night  separated  the 
combatants,  the  French,  with  numbers  seriously  diminished,  had  been 
forced  to  give  ground  along  their  whole  line. 

The  next  day,  Blucher  put  his  columns  in  motion  to  follow  up  his  suc- 
cess, while  Macdonald  drew  back  his  shattered  corps  toward  Goldberg. 
The  elements,  however,  seemed  to  have  combined  with  the  allies  for  his 
destruction.  The  rain  which  fell  in  torrents  during  the  night,  had  nearly 
destroyed  the  roads,  and  caused  a  flood  that  not  only  rendered  the  streams 
in  his  rear  impassable,  but  carried  away  almost  all  the  bridges.  Under 
these  disadvantages,  the  French  could  not  escape  an  overwhelming  de- 
feat. In  fact,  the  battle  of  the  Katzbach — so  designated  from  the  name 
of  the  principal  river  near  which  it  took  place — was  a  counterpart  of 
Hohenlinden/with  a  reverse  of  the  contending  nations.  The  French 
loss  during  the  two  days,  in  addition  to  a  hundred  and  three  pieces  of 
cannon  and  two  hundred  and  thirty  ammunition-wagons,  was  no  less  than 
eighteen  thousand  prisoners,  and  seven  thousand  killed  and  wounded :  a 
total  "of  twenty-five  thousand  men ;  while  the  loss  of  the  allies  did  not 
exceed  four  thousand.  • 

Disasters  of  inferior  magnitude,  though  scarcely  less  important  in 
their  consequences,  attended  the  French  arms  north  of  the  Elbe,  in  the 
direction  of  Berlin.  Bernadotte  commanded  the  allies  in  this  quarter; 
and  his  army,  ninety  thousand  strong,  occupied  Juterbock,  Trebbin,  and 
the  villages  of  Saarmunde  and  Bilitz.  On  the  21st  of  August,  Oudinot, 
with  about  eighty  thousand  men,  broke  up  from  his  position,  abandoned 


1813.]  HISTORY     OF    EUROPE.  357 

the  great  route  from  Torgau  to  Berlin,  and  made  a  flank  movement 
toward  the  Wittenberg  road.  This  soon  brought  him  in  contact  with 
Bernadotte's  outposts,  which  he  drove  in,  and  established  himself  on  the 
heights  behind  Trebbin.  On  the  following  day,  both  parties  made  prepa- 
rations for  a  general  action  near  Gross  Beeren ;  and  in  the  morning  of  the 
23rd,  the  battle  began  by  an  attack  with  the  French  right  under  Ber- 
trand.  The  contest  was  maintained  throughout  the  day,  but  it  was  rather 
a  battle  of  manoeuvres  than  of  hard  fighting ;  and  when  the  French  re- 
treated, at  nightfall,  they  had  sustained  a  loss  of  but  thirteen  cannon,  a 
quantity  of  baggage,  and  something  less  than  five  thousand  men,  of  whom 
fifteen  hundred  were  prisoners :  an  almost  insignificant  result,  consider- 
ing the  numbers  engaged.  A  great  moral  effect  was,  however,  produced 
by  the  battle  of  Gross  Beeren,  as  it  formed  one  of  a  succession  of  defeats 
sustained  by  the  French  arms  ;  and,  having  been  won  by  inexperienced 
troops  against  veteran  soldiers,  greatly  raised  the  spirits  and  courage  of 
the  Prussians,  who,  at  the  commencement  of  the  action,  thought  of  Jena 
and  trembled  for  their  capital.  On  the  25th,  Luckau,  with  a  garrison 
of  a  thousand  French  troops,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  allies;  and  Gerard, 
who  had  issued  from  Magdebourg  with  five  thousand  men,  was  driven 
back,  with  a  loss  of  two-thirds  of  his  numbers  and  twelve  pieces  of  can- 
non. Thus,  the  general  result  of  the  strife  in  this  quarter  was,  a  dimi- 
nution in  the  French  ranks  of  nearly  eight  thousand  men,  while  the  allies 
lost  something  less  than  four  thousand. 

Napoleon  was  at  Dresden  wjien  news  of  the  defeat  of  Vandamme, 
Macdonald,  and  Oudinot  reached  him  with  stunning  rapidity,  and  for  a 
time  he  was  in  doubt  which  of  the  three  to  sustain  by  his  personal  efforts; 
he  at  length  decided  in  favor  of  Macdonald,  and  directed  his  steps  toward 
Bautzen  and  the  banks  of  the  Bober ;  at  the  same  time,  being  dissatisfied 
with  Oudinot,  he  gave  the  command  of  that  marshal's  army  to  Ney. 
After  the  change  in  his  combinations  had  been  completed,  sixty  thousand 
men  remained  under  St.  Cyr,  Victor  and  Murat — which  last  named  per- 
sonage had  eventually  resolved  to  unite  his  fortunes  with  Napoleon,  and 
joined  the  army  on  the  17th  of  August — to  make  head  against  the  allied 
army  on  the  left  of  the  Elbe ;  seventy  thousand,  under  Ney,  were  arrayed 
against  Bernadotte ;  and  a  hundred  and  twenty  thousand,  under  the  Em- 
peror in  person,  .were  opposed  to  Blucher  in  Silesia;  while  Marmont, 
with  a  corps  of  observation  eighteen  thousand  strong,  kept  up  the  com- 
munications on  the  right  bank  of  the  Elbe. 

On  the  4th  of  September,  Napoleon's  advanced  guard  encountered  the 
van  of  Blucher's  army,  strongly  posted  on  the  high  grounds  of  Stromberg. 
The  Prussian  marshal  soon  perceived,  from  the  increased  activity  in  the 
French  ranks,  that  the  Emperor  was  before  him ;  and  faithful  to  the 
plan  of  the  campaign  and  to  the  instructions  he  had  received,  he  imme- 
diately withdrew  his  troops.  The  French  continued  to  advance  as  he 
retired  ;  but  they  could  not  overtake  him  in  force,  and  at  noon  on  the  6th, 
Napoleon,  exhausted  with  fatigue,  entered  a  deserted  farm-house  by  the 
road-side,  threw  himself  on  some  straw,  and  mused  long  and  profoundly 
on  the  probable  issue  of  a  contest  in  which  the  allies  would  not  give  him 
an  opportunity  of  striking  a  blow  in  person,  while  the  armies  of  his  mar- 
shals, when  left  to  themselves,  suffered  but  a  series  of  disasters.  At  the 
close  of  his  revery,  he  started  up,  and  ordered  the  Guard  and  cuirassiers 
to  return  to  Dresden,  whither  he  also  repaired,  and  where  his  presence 
was  much  needed. 


358  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLIL 

Ney  had,  in  the  meantime,  taken  the  command  of  Oudinot's  army,  and 
on  the  evening  of  the  5th  of  September  established  himself  between  the 
villages  of  Zahna  and  Seyda.  When  Bernadotte  ascertained  that  his  old 
comrade,  Marshal  Ney,  was  marching  against  him,  he  concentrated  his 
forces,  and  moved  across  the  country  to  regain  the  great  road  between 
Torgau  and  Berlin.  Tauenzein,  with  the  advanced  guard,  reached  Den- 
newitz  on  the  morning  of  the  6th,  where  he  came  suddenly  in  sight  of 
the  French  army,  and  his  detachment,  with  the  left  wing  of  the  allies  that 
supported  him,  were  soon  involved  with  superior  numbers,  and  threatened 
with  a  total  defeat.  Bulow,  however,  hastened  on  with  the  Prussian 
centre,  and,  after  four  hours  of  obstinate  fighting,  succeeded  in  carrying 
the  village  of  Gohlsdorf  and  forcing  back  the  French  centre  and  right 
toward  Ohna.  At  this  juncture,  Ney  advanced  with  twenty  thousand 
fresh  troops,  compelled  Bulow  in  turn  to  retreat,  retook  Gohlsdorf,  and 
drove  the  Prussians  across  the  high  grounds  to  their  original  position. 
Here  Bulow  rallied  his  men,  united  them  to  his  reserve,  turned  upon  his 
pursuers,  and,  defeating  them  with  great  loss,  a  second  time  took  posses- 
sion of  Gohlsdorf.  Oudinot  now  came  to  the  support  of  Ney's  retreating 
columns  and  both  parties  making  a  firm  stand,  for  a  while  maintained 
the  contest  without  any  visible  advantage  to  either  side.  Presently,  the 
Prussian  brigade  of  Borstel  appeared  on  the  field,  and  by  a  spirited  charge 
on  Oudinot's  flank,  again  forced  the  French  to  give  grdund.  Ney, 
finding  his  whole  army  endangered  by  this  movement,  immediately  or- 
dered a  general  retreat ;  which,  however,  was  commenced  with  great 
steadiness,  and  with  no  other  loss  than  that  which  followed  the  rapid  dis- 
charges of  the  Prussian  artillery. 

Hitherto,  the  battle  had  been  sustained  by  the  Prussians  alone,  whose 
entire  force  did  not  exceed  forty-five  thousand  men,  while  Ney's  army 
was  seventy  thousand  strong.  The  Swedes  and  Russians,  composing 
nearly  half  the  allied  force,  had  not  yet  been  brought  into  action ;  but 
Bernadotte,  with  his  powerful  reserve,  now  came  to  follow  up  the  victory 
which  the  Prussians  with  such  heroic  valor  had  won.  From  this  moment, 
Ney's  retreat  became  a  flight ;  all  order  was  gone,  and  he  did  not  succeed 
in  reuniting  his  shattered  columns  until  he  reached  Torgau,  on  the  8th 
of  September.  His  loss  amounted  to  six  thousand  stand  of  arms,  forty- 
three  pieces  of  cannon,  seventeen  caissons,  and  three  standards,  together 
with  thirteen  thousand  men,  of  whom  one  half  were  prisoners.  The  loss 
of  the  allies  was  but  six  thousand,  of  whom  nearly  five  thousand  were 
Prussians ;  a  decisive  proof  that  they  bore  the  brunt  of  the  battle,  and 
earned  the  glory  of  the  victory. 

As  soon  as  Schwartzenberg  learned  that  Napoleon  had  departed  from 
Dresden  to  aid  Macdonald,  he  marched  to  threaten,  a  second  time,  the 
Saxon  capital ;  and  he  arrived  in  its  vicinity,  in  great  force,  on  the  8th 
of  September.  Meantime,  however,  as  has  been  already  related,  Napo- 
leon had  precipitately  quitted  Macdonald  with  the  Guards  and  cuirassiers, 
on  the  6th  ;  reached  Dresden  on  the  night  of  the  8th  ;  and  when,  on  the 
morning  of  the  9th,  Wittgenstein  and  Klenau  opened  their  batteries  on 
Dresden,  they  were  equally  surprised  and  disturbed  at  seeing  the  Empe- 
ror issue  from  the  gates  with  the  finest  troops  of  the  French  army,  to 
drive  them  from  their  position.  As  they  were  wholly  unprepared  to 
resist  such  an  attack,  they  immediately  withdrew ;  Wittgenstein  taking 
the  road  to  Nollendorf,  and  Klenau  that  to  Marienberg.  Napoleon, 


1813.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  359 

satisfied  with  this  advantage,  retired  to  Dahme,  where  he  received  intel- 
ligence of  Ney's  defeat  at  Denncwitz. 

Several  days  of  comparative  inaction  now  ensued,  although  combats 
between  detached  parties  were  constantly  taking  place.  Napoleon 
seemed  to  be  at  a  loss  in  what  quarter  to  direct  his  forces;  while  the 
allies  rejoiced  in  an  interval  that  brought  daily  accessions  to  their  ranks, 
and  lessened  the  time  that  must  necessarily  elapse  before  Benningsen 
could  arrive,  who,  with  sixty  thousand  fresh  Russian  troops,  was  expected 
to  join  the  army  in  the  latter  part  of  September. 

At  length,  on  the  21st,  Napoleon  made  a  second  movement  across  the 
Elbe,  to  check  the  progress  of  Blucher,  who  was  again  driving  Macdonald 
before  him,  and  had  already  occupied  Bautzen,  and  extended  himself 
along  the  line  of  the  Spree.  The  Emperor  reached  the  advanced  posts  of 
the  allies  on  the  evening  of  the  22nd,  and  a  skirmish  took  place,  but  with- 
out any  result.  He  slept  that  night  at  a  miserable  hamlet  near  Ilartau, 
with  a  few  of  his  Guard  around  him,  the  greater  part  of  those  troops  hav- 
ing fallen  behind  from  the  exhaustion  of  incessant  marches  arid  counter- 
marches, which  led  to  nothing. 

The  utmost  melancholy  prevailed  at  his  head-quarters.  The  campaign 
seemed  endless.  The  soldiers,  worn  out  by  fatigue  and  privation,  had 
lost  much  of  their  former  spirit ;  sickness  and  the  sword  had,  in  an  ex- 
traordinary degree,  thinned  their  ranks ;  and  the  generals  could  not  shut 
their  eyes  to  the  fact  that  the  French  army,  daily  inclosed  within  a  more 
contracted  circle,  and  fast  diminishing  in  numbers,  was  no  longer  able  to 
resume  the  offensive  at  any  point  with  a  prospect  of  success.  On  the 
23rd,  Blucher's  army  was  drawn  up  in  order  of  battle,  yet  Napoleon 
seemed  to  be  a  prey  to  indecision,  and  did  not  venture  an  attack ;  but, 
after  keeping  his  men  under  arms  nearly  the  whole  day,  he  galloped,  at 
ten  in  the  evening,  toward  Neustadt,  where  a  body  of  Austrians  arid  Rus- 
sians was  engaged  in  a  skirmish  with  Lauriston.  The  next  day  he  re- 
turned to  Dresden  ;  and  seeing  the  necessity  of  contracting  his  circle  of 
operations,  he  ordered  Macdonald  to  withdraw  to  Weissig,  within  two 
leagues  of  the  Saxon  capital ;  thereby,  in  effect,  abandoning  the  whole 
right  bank  of  the  Elbe  to  the  allies. 

Soon  after  these  events,  Chernicheff,  one  of  the  Cossack  commanders, 
made  a  descent  into  the  heart  of  Westphalia,  with  a  host  of  his  fiery  cav- 
alry. He  crossed  the  Elbe  at  Dessau,  and,  pushing  across  the  inter- 
vening country,  reached  Cassel,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom,  on  the  30th 
of  September.  The  king,  Jerome  Bonaparte,  with  the  few  troops  which 
the  Emperor  had  allowed  him  to  retain,  precipitately  retreated  without 
firing  a  shot ;  and  Chernicheff  made  his  entry  into  the  town,  and,  amid  the 
vociferous  applause  of  the  people,  proclaimed  the  dissolution  of  the  king- 
dom. An  insurrection  against  the  French  authorities  immediately  fol- 
lowed :  students  came  forward  by  hundreds  to  be  enrolled  in  battalions 
of  volunteers  ;  crowds  assembled  in  the  streets  demanding  arms  ;  and  the 
contagion  of  revolt  spread  rapidly  to  all  the  villages  in  the  neighborhood 
Chernicheff,  however,  being  destitute  of  both  infantry  and  artillery,  could 
not  maintain  himself  in  the  position  he  had  gained,  and  on  the  approach  of 
a  body  of  French  troops,  he  evacuated  the  city  as  promptly  as  he  entered 
ii :  but  he  did  not  lose  a  single  man,  either  in  his  advance  or  retreat ;  and 
he  bore  off  the  stores  of  the  arsenal,  the  royal  horses  and  carriages,  and 
an  immense  booty  in  precious  metals  and  jewels.  The  moral  effect  of 

25 


360  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [Cnxr.  XLII. 

this  movement  far  exceeded  the  spoils  of  the  victory  :  the  brother  of  Na- 
poleon had  been  driven  from  his  capital,  and  his  dethronement  proclaimed, 
by  a  foreign  partisan  leading  a  horde  of  wild  horsemen  ;  and  a  dangerous 
proof  was  thus  given  to  the  world,  of  the  facility  with  which  these  oppres- 
sive military  thrones,  destitute  of  support  from  the  interests  and  affections 
of  the  people,  might  be  swept  from  the  earth  the  moment  that  the  military 
power  which  upheld  them  was  overturned.  The  consequences  of  this 
achievement,  were  accordingly  soon  apparent  in  the  north  of  Germany : 
a  Saxon  battalion  withdrew  from  the  camp  of  Marshal  Ney,  and  joined 
itself  to  that  of  Bernadotte  ;  and  the  remainder  of  the  Saxon  army  forbore 
to  follow  the  example,  solely  because  of  their  personal  regard  for  their 
sovereign,  who  made  an  energetic  appeal  to  their  honor.  In  addition  to 
this,  several  Westphalian  battalions,  after  the  reoccupation  of  Cassel.  took 
an  early  opportunity  of  passing  over  from  their  fugitive  monarch  to  the 
ranks  of  German  freedom. 

The  arrival  of  Benningsen  at  Toeplitz,  on  the  1st  of  October,  raised  the 
allied  army  in  Bohemia  to  a  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  men,  and  the 
several  commanders  of  this  great  force  resolved  to  assume  the  offensive. 
Orders  were  at  the  same  time  sent  to  Blucher  and  Bernadotte,  to  unite 
their  armies  under  the  command  of  the  former,  and  hold  themselves  in 
readiness  to  check  any  advance  of  the  enemy  toward  Berlin,  as  well  as 
to  cooperate  in  a  general  attack  on  the  French  forces  in  the  plains  of 
Saxony. 

Napoleon,  with  whom  an  advance  upon  Berlin  had  been  a  favorite 
project  during  the  whole  campaign,  resolved,  by  a  rapid  march  in  that 
direction,  to  prevent  the  union  of  Blucher  and  Bernadotte,  and  at  the 
same  time  destroy  one  or  both  of  their  armies,  and  strike  a  decisive  blow 
at  the  Prussian  capital.  He,  therefore,  left  Dresden  to  the  care  of  St. 
Cyr,  with  about  thirty  thousand  men,  and  himself  departed,  on  the  7th  of 
October,  at  the  head  of  the  remainder  of  his  troops,  which,  when  joined 
with  those  of  Ney  and  Macdonald,  amounted  to  a  hundred  and  twenty- 
five  thousand  men.  To  cover  his  communications,  and  keep  in  check  the 
allied  army  of  Bohemia,  he  detached  Murat  with  fifty  "thousand  men, 
composed  of  the  corps  of  Victor,  Lauriston  and  Poniatowski,  to  Freyberg  ; 
instructing  him  to  retard  the  advance  of  the  enemy  as  long  as  possible, 
and,  when  he  should  become  unable  to  keep  his  ground,  to  retire  toward 
Leipsic  and  the  Upper  Mulda.  The  French  Emperor  was,  nevertheless, 
too  tardy  in  his  movements  to  prevent  the  junction  of  Blucher  and  Ber- 
nadotte, though  he  reached  Dubenon  the  evening  of  the  day  that  Blucher 
evacuated  it,  namely,  the  10th  of  October. 

.  While  Napoleon  was  making  this  serious  demonstration  in  Prussia,  the 
allied  army  of  Bohemia  issued  from  its  defiles,  and  compelled  Murat  to 
fall  back  toward  Leipsic,  where  the  French  troops  in  that  vicinity  were 
already  assembling  ;  and,  on  the  14th  of  October,  the  advanced  posts  of 
the  allies  came  in  sight  of  the  steeples  of  that  city.  These  movements,  to- 
gether with  the  abandonment  of  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  by  the 
King  of  Bavaria,  who,  on  the  8th  of  October,  went  over  with  his  forces  to 
the  Grand  Alliance,  forced  Napoleon  to  order  an  immediate  retreat  upon 
Leipsic. 

The  city  of  Leipsic,  which  is  not  a  place  of  great  extent,  is  surrounded 
by  an  irregular  rampart,  forming  nearly  a  square:  this  rampart  consists 
of  an  old  curtain  of  masonry,  covered  by  a  ditch  almost  filled  up,  without 


1813.]  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  361 

a  counterscarp,  beyond  which  broad  boulevards,  planted  with  trees,  afford 
a  spacious  and  shady  walk  for  the  citizens.  The  suburbs,  stretching  be- 
yond this  verdant  belt,  were  at  that  period  much  more  considerable  than  at 
the  present  day,  and  were  then,  as  now,  shut  in  toward  the  south  and  east 
by  walls  containing  gates  strengthened  with  palisades ;  but  toward  the 
north,  on  the  side  of  the  Partha,  they  were  entirely  open.  To  the  west, 
the  city  is  bounded  by  the  Elster  and  the  Pleisse,  which  streams,  flowing 
in  a  lazy  current  to  the  northwest,  inclose  between  them  swampy  mead- 
ows, nearly  two  miles  in  breadth  and  impassable  for  carriages ;  and  al- 
though the  rivers  are  not  wide,  they  are  deep  and  muddy,  and  cannot  be 
forded  either  by  infantry  or  cavalry.  The  swampy  meadows  constitute 
a  broad  marsh,  crossed  by  a  single  road  running  to  Lutzen  and  May- 
ence,  which  leads  to  the  barrier  of  Machranstadt,  and  enters  the  city  by 
the  gate  of  Halle,  over  a  stone  bridge  at  the  same  place :  there  were  no 
other  bridges  across  the  Elster  but  two  built  of  wood,  and  intended  merely 
for  the  accommodation  of  foot  passengers.  The  country  to  the  east  is  a 
beautiful  plain,  well  adapted  to  military  evolutions.  The  hills  of  Wa- 
chau  stretch  along  southeast  of  the  town,  and  were  now  occupied  by  Mu- 
rat ;  while  to  the  northeast,  in  the  direction  of  Mockern,  the  windings  of 
the  Partha,  the  villages  and  gentle  swells  adjoining  its  banks,  present  a 
variety  of  obstacles  to  retard  the  advance  of  an  approaching  army. 

On  the  night  of  the  15th  of  October,  the  disposition  of  the  troops  around 
Leipsic  was  as  follows :  the  main  army,  under  Napoleon,  lay  to  the 
south  and  east  of  the  city,  at  various  points  in  communication  with  each 
other,  to  the  number  of  a  hundred  and  ten  thousand  men,  commanded  in 
detail  by  Bertrand,  Poniatowski,  Augereau,  Victor,  Lauriston,  Oudinot, 
Macdonald,  Murat,  Latour  Maubourg,  and  Sebastiani.  To  the  north- 
west of  Leipsic,  and  so  far  removed  from  it  as  to  form  a  separate  army, 
were  forty-eight  thousand  men,  posted  between  Mockern  and  Enteritch, 
under  the  command  of  Ney,  who  expected  soon  to  be  joined  by  the  re- 
mainder of  the  troops  on  their  march  from  Duben,  thirty  thousand  strong : 
making  a  grand  total  of  a  hundred  and  eighty-eight  thousand  men,  with 
seven  hundred  and  twenty  pieces  of  cannon.  The  troops  under  Schwart- 
zenberg,  who  were  intended  to  act  against  the  army  directly  commanded 
by  Napoleon,  consisted  of  a  hundred  and  forty-three  thousand  men,  which 
number  would  the  next  day  be  increased  to  a  hundred  and  eighty-one 
thousand  by  the  arrival  of  Benningsen's  and  Colloredo's  reserve,  having 
in  all  seven  hundred  and  fifty  pieces  of  cannon.  Among  the  leaders  of 
this  army  besides  Schwartzenberg,  the  commander-in-chief,  were  the 
Emperor  Alexander,  the  King  of  Prussia,  the  Grand  Duke  Constantine, 
Wittgenstein,  Milaradowitch,  Litchenstein,  Thielman,  Platoff,  and  a  host 
of  others  whose  names  are  identified  with  the  wars  of  this  eventful  period. 
On  the  opposite  side  of  Leipsic,  and  directly  opposed  to  Ney,  Blucher 
was  posted  with  fifty-six  thousand  men,  and  on  the  day  following  he  was 
to  be  joined  by  Bernadotte  with  forty-seven  thousand,  which  would  raise 
the  allied  force  in  that  quarter  to  a  hundred  and  three  thousand  combat- 
ants, with  five  hundred  and  sixty  guns :  thus  making  a  grand  total,  on 
the  part  of  the  allies,  of  two  hundred  and  eighty-four  thousand  men,  and 
more  than  thirteen  hundred  pieces  of  cannon.  - 

At  midnight  on  the  15th,  two  rockets  were  sent  up  to  a  great  height 
from  Schwartzenberg's  head-quarters,  on  the  south  of  Leipsic ;  and  these 
were  immediately  answered,  by  two  of  a  blue  and  one  of  a  red  light  from 


362  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLII. 

Blucher's  camp  on  the  north.  These  signals  told  the  assembled  myriads 
that  everything  was  in  readiness,  and  that  the  hour  had  come  for  the 
final  struggle.  All  was  tranquil  in  the  French  lines:  their  watch-fires 
burned  with  a  steady  light,  and  no  moving  figures  around  the  flames  in- 
dicated  an  intention  to  retreat :  a  movement  which  indeed  was  impossible 
without  a  conflict. 

Precisely  at  nine  o'clock  on  the  morning  of  the  16th,  three  guns  were 
discharged  from  the  centre  of  Schwartzenberg's  army,  and  immediately 
the  fire  began  along  the  whole  line.  The  French  guns  replied  with 
great  spirit,  the  earth  literally  trembled  under  the  sustained 'discharge  of 
more  than  a  thousand  pieces  of  artillery,  the  allied  columns  in  imposing 
array  moved  forward  to  the  attack,  and  for  three  hours  a  desperate 
struggle  took  place  at  every  point,  attended  by  an  alternation  of  success, 
but  accompanied  by  no  preponderating  advantage  to  either  party.  At 
noon,  Napoleon,  who  had  taken  post  with  his  Guards  and  cuirassiers  on 
the  heights  behind  Wachau,  imagined  that  the  allies  were  sufficiently 
exhausted,  and  resolved  to  put  in  force  his  favorite  manoeuvre  of  a  grand 
attack  on  the  enemy's  centre.  This  movement,  sustained  by  strong  di- 
visions of  the  Old  and  Young  Guard,  together  with  the  flower  of  the 
French  cavalry,  was  measurably  successful ;  the  attacking  columns 
gradually  but  steadily  gained  ground,  and  Napoleon,  deeming  the  battle 
won,  sent  word  to  the  King  of  Saxony  in  Leipsic  that  he  had  secured  the 
victory,  and  desired  the  bells  to  be  rung  to  announce  it.  The  intelli- 
gence, however,  was  premature  :  for  Schwartzenberg,  seeing  the  danger 
of  his  centre,  ordered  up  a  large  body  of  Austrian  reserve  infantry  and 
cuirassiers,  who,  after  a  bloody  encounter,  restored  the  battle  and  drove 
the  antagonist  columns  in  disorder  to  the  heights  whence  they  had  issued. 
The  French  Emperor,  though  greatly  disconcerted  at  this  reverse,  deter- 
mined to  make  one  more  effort  to  retrieve  the  day ;  for  he  knew  that 
Benningsen  and  Colloredo  would  soon  join  Schwartzenberg's  army,  and, 
by  their  preponderating  numbers,  render  desperate  his  own  hopes  of  suc- 
cess. He  therefore  re-formed  his  broken  cuirassiers,  united  them  to  his 
entire  reserve  of  Imperial  Guards,  and  precipitated  them  in  one  tremen- 
dous column  upon  the  victorious  allies.  The  effort,  nevertheless,  was 
vain.  Schwartzenberg's  troops  yielded,  indeed,  to  the  first  impression, 
but  they  rallied  with  unconquerable  heroism,  and  withstood  every  attempt 
of  Napoleon  to  break  their  array,  until  the  approach  of  night  brought  the 
battle  to  a  close. 

A  conflict  of  equal  obstinacy  had,  in  the  meantime,  taken  place  between 
Ney  and  Blucher  on  the  north  of  Leipsic,  where  for  the  day — as  Berna- 
dotte  had  not  yet  come  up — the  forces  of  the  two  armies  were  more 
equally  matched.  The  result  of  the  battle  was,  however,  an  entire  de- 
feat of  Ney,  who  was  driven  behind  the  Partha  with  a  loss  of  six  thousand 
men  and  twenty-two  pieces  of  cannon. 

While  Napoleon  was  that  night  partaking  of  a  frugal  supper  at  his 
head-quarters,  he  ordered  Meerfeldt,  who  had  been  made  prisoner  during 
the  battle,  to  be  brought  into  his  presence.  This  was  the  officer  who  had 
come  a  suppliant  on  the  part  of  the  Emperor  of  Germany  to  solicit  the 
armistice  of  Leoben ;  who  had  conducted,  in  behalf  of  the  cabinet  of 
Vienna,  the  negotiations  that  resulted  in  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio ; 
and  who,  on  the  night  following  the  battle  of  Austerlitz,  bore  the  proposals 
for  a  conference  which  led  to  the  peace  of  Presburg.  The  mutations  of 


1813.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  363 

fortune  had  now  brought  the  same  general  to  the  tent  of  Napoleon,  when 
the  latter,  in  turn,  had  become  the  suppliant,  and  was  about  to  solicit,  not 
concede,  a  suspension  of  hostilities.  The  Emperor  addressed  to  Meer- 
feldt  some  obliging  expressions  on  the  misfortune  he  had  sustained  in 
being  made  prisoner,  and  dismissed  him  to  the  Austrian  head-quarters 
with  proposals  for  an  armistice ;  agreeing  on  his  own  part  to  evacuate 
Germany  and  retire  behind  the  Rhine,  until  the  conclusion  of  a  general 
peace.  "  Adieu,  general,"  said  he,  as  he  dismissed  Meerfeldt ;  "  when, 
on  my  behalf,  you  speak  to  the  two  Emperors  of  an  armistice,  the  voice 
which  reaches  their  ears  will,  I  doubt  not,  be  eloquent  in  recollections  of 
the  past!'' 

But  the  allied  sovereigns  were  too  well  aware  of  their  present  superi- 
ority, either  to  fall  into  the  snare  laid  by  Napoleon  in  his  proposals  for  an 
armistice,  or  to  sacrifice  their  advantage,  by  renewing  the  battle  until 
their  entire  reinforcements  should  reach  the  field.  Under  pretence, 
therefore,  of  referring  the  proposals  to  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  Schwartz- 
enberg  obtained  the  delay  requisite  to  concentrate  his  forces. 

At  two  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  the  18th,  the  French  Emperor,  finding 
that  no  answer  to  his  propositions  had  been  returned,  made  arrangements 
for  the  battle  that  could  not  now  be  avoided  ;  and  as  the  losses  already 
sustained  had  seriously  reduced  the  numbers  of  his  troops,  he  was  forced 
to  contract  the  circuit  of  his  defence  and  abandon  some  of  the  surrounding 
heights  to  the  allies.  At  nine  o'clock,  Schwartzenberg,  now  reenforced 
by  the  entire  reserve  for  which  he  had  waited,  commenced  a  general  at- 
tack, and  at  first  drove  everything  before  him.  He  carried  several  of 
the  villages  intervening  between  his  position  and  Leipsic,  and  both  his 
left  and  centre  were  unchecked  in  their  career  until  Napoleon  in  person 
brought  forward  his  Imperial  Guard,  and  compelled  them  to  yield  a  por- 
tion of  the  ground  they  had  gained.  The  success  of  the  right  wing  was 
less  decided,  although  there,  too,  the  allies  were  clearly  victorious ;  but 
in  the  afternoon,  Schwartzenberg,  seeing  that  eventual  success  was  secure, 
and  preferring  to  achieve  it  by  less  vehement  assaults,  in  order  to  save 
the  needless  destruction  of  his  brave  troops,  withdrew  his  infantry  and 
cavalry,  and  brought  forward  eight  hundred  pieces  of  cannon.  These 
were  immediately  disposed  on  a  semicircle  of  heights  of  two  leagues  in 
extent ;  and,  playing  with  a  concentric  fire  on  the  dense  masses  of  the 
French  below,  caused  a  terrific  slaughter,  which  the  weaker  party  were 
forced  to  endure  without  any  adequate  means  of  reply.  The  corps  of 
Lauriston  and  Victor,  galled  beyond  endurance  by  this  frightful  storm 
of  balls,  repeatedly  rushed  forward  to  carry  the  allied  batteries ;  but 
whenever  their  columns  came  within  grape-shot  range,  the  guns  were 
immediately  charged  with  that  destructive  missile,  which  with  tenfold 
effect  swept  down  to  a  man  the  he"ad  of  every  formation  as  it  approached. 
This  awful  scene  continued  for  four  hours,  during  which  time  the  French 
veterans  stood  firm  beneath  the  iron  tempest,  nor  were  they  relieved 
until  night  put  an  end  to  the  combat. 

Ney.  in  the  meantime,  had  sustained  a  terrible  assault  north  of  the 
city,  where  Blucher,  having  been  joined  by  Bernadotte,  pressed  the 
French  marshal  with  numbers,  almost  in  the  fearful  proportion  of 
two  men  for  one.  Not  long  after  the  action  began,  an  incident  of 
ominous  import  took  place :  a  brigade  of  Wirtemberg  and  another  of 
Saxon  cavalry,  together  with  two  brigades  of  Saxon  infantry,  abandoned 


364  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLIL 

the  French  standards,  and  passed  over  to  the  allies,  with  twenty-two 
pieces  of  cannon ;  and,  such  was  the  exasperation  of  the  Saxon  gunners, 
they  halted  before  reaching  the  allied  lines,  and  discharged  their  artillery 
at  point  blank  range,  and  with  fatal  effect,  into  the  ranks  of  their  former 
comrades.  The  number  of  men  lost  to  the  French  by  this  desertion  was 
not  less  than  eight  thousand :  yet,  despite  this  reduction  of  force,  Ney 
still  maintained  a  heroic  defence  throughout  the  day,  although  his  losses 
both  in  men  and  position,  were  very  severe. 

Night  came  at  last  to  suspend  the  work  of  carnage ;  but,  after  such  a 
conflict,  it  was  even  more  terrible  than  the  day,  for  it  brought  together 
the  remembrance  of  the  past  and  the  anticipation  of  the  future.  The 
incessant  roll  of  musketry  and  the  roar  of  two  thousand  pieces  of  cannon, 
were  succeeded  by  an  awful  silence,  interrupted  only  by  a  casual  shot 
from  the  sentries  as  they  paced  their  rounds,  and  the  hollow  murmur 
which  escaped  from  the  cries  of  the  horses  and  the  groans  of  the  wounded 
men.  Soon,  the  heavens  in  the  whole  circumference  of  the  horizon  were 
illuminated  by  the  ruddy  glow  of  innumerable  watch-fires. 

Napoleon's  marshals,  silent  and  sad,  were  assembled  around  him  in  his 
tent,  when  the  commanders  of  artillery  reported  on  the  state  of  the  army. 
More  than  two  hundred  thousand  cannon-shot  had  been  discharged  during 
the  battle,  and  it  was  impossible  to  renew  the  fight,  under  any  prospect 
of  success,  without  an  accession  of  forty  thousand  fresh  troops  and  an 
ample  supply  of  ammunition.  But  neither  the  one  nor  the  other  could 
be  obtained.  During  this  eventful  conference,  Napoleon,  overcome  with 
fatigue,  fell  asleep  in  his  chair ;  his  hands  were  negligently  folded  on  his 
breast,  and  the  generals,  respecting  the  respite  of  misfortune,  preserved 
a  profound  silence.  At  the  end  of  a  quarter  of  an  hour  he  awoke,  and, 
starting  up  suddenly,  exclaimed,  "  Am  I  awake,  or  is  it  a  dream  ?"  Soon, 
however,  recollecting  what  had  happened,  he  sent  a  message  to  the  King 
of  Saxony,  announcing  his  intention  to  retreat ;  and  leaving  it  optional 
with  that  monarch  to  follow  the  fortunes  of  the  French,  or  remain  where 
he  was,  and  conclude  a  separate  peace  with  the  allies. 

By  daybreak  on  the  19th,  the  French  army  was  in  full  retreat.  Victor 
and  Augereau,  with  the  cavalry,  defiled  across  the  suburb  of  Lindenau, 
and  issued  upon  the  causeway  that  traverses  the  marshes  of  the  Elster : 
but  this  was  the  sole  avenue  of  escape.  One  single  bridge  was  to  receive 
the  entire  army,  with  all  its  encumbrances  of  wounded,  artillery  and 
carriages  ;  for  the  frail  wooden  conveyances  had  at  once  given  way  under 
the  multitude  by  which  they  were  beset.  The  loss  of  the  French  in  the 
two  days  exceeded  forty  thousand  men  ;  yet  sixty  thousand  remained  in 
Leipsic,  and  an  equal  number  was  now  pressing  forward  on  the  road  to 
France. 

As  soon  as  the  retreat  of  the  French  became  known  in  the  allied 
camp,  an  assault  on  Leipsic  was  commenced ;  but  the  soldiers  within  the 
walls  defended  it  with  unexpected  obstinacy.  Nevertheless,  the  over- 
whelming numbers  of  the  allies,  and  their  wild  enthusiasm  at  the  magni. 
tude  of  the  victory,  rendered  all  resistance  unavailing.  The  conquerors 
poured  like  a  furious  torrent  into  the  town,  causing  the  very  steeples  to 
tremble  with  their  shouts ;  while,  with  an  impetuosity  that  defied  all  ob- 
stacles, they  swept  on  to  the  western  barriers. 

At  this  dreadful  moment,  the  bridge  was  blown  into  the  air,  by  the  cor- 
poral whf"  had  charge  of  the  mine  under  it ;  and  who,  misconceiving  hi. 


1813.J  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  365 

orders,  fired  it  before  the  appointed  time.  A  shriek  of  horror,  more  ap. 
palling  than  the  loudest  battle-cry,  burst  from  the  dense  multitude  that 
crowded  to  the  edge  of  the  chasm  when  the  arch  was  found  to  be  de- 
stroyed :  the  ranks  immediately  broke,  the  boldest  men  threw  themselves 
into  the  river,  and  but  few  of  these  escaped.  Macdonald  swam  his  horse 
across,  and  reached  the  opposite  bank  in  safety  ;  but  Poniatowski's  steed, 
having  undertaken  the  same  exploit,  reeled  back  on  his  rider,  and  the 
brave  Pole  perished  in  the  water.  During  the  assault  and  retreat,  Lau- 
riston,  Regnier,  and  twenty  other  generals,  with  fifteen  thousand  soldiers, 
were  made  prisoners,  and  twenty-three  thousand  sick  and  wounded  also 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  allies.  The  total  loss  of  the  French  in  the 
three  days — two  of  battle  and  one  of  retreat — was  no  less  than  sixty 
thousand  men,  while  that  of  the  allies  was  fully  forty  thousand  :  a  prodi- 
gious sacrifice,  but  one  which  was  atoned  for  by  the  deliverance  of  Europe 
from  French  bondage,  and  of  the  world  from  revolutionary  aggression. 

The  French  army  continued  its  retreat  for  several  days  with  great 
rapidity  ;  and  although  its  flanks  and  rear  were  incessantly  harassed  by 
the  allied  light  troops  and  Cossacks,  who  cut  off  an  immense  number  of 
stragglers,  and  captured  a  large  number  of  cannon,  no  serious  obstacle 
interrupted  its  progress.  On  the  23rd  of  October,  the  Emperor  reached 
Erfurth  with  his  forces  in  a  state  of  almost  total  disorganization  ;  but  as 
the  fortified  citadels  in  this  vicinity  inspired  the  men  with  a  feeling  of 
security,  and  especially  as  the  magazines  of  Erfurth  supplied  their  ne- 
cessities and  relieved  the  pangs  of  hunger,  which  had  nearly  consumed 
them  on  their  march,  a  degree  of  order  was  at  once  restored ;  and,  after 
a  halt  of  two  days,  the  troops  were  in  a  condition  to  perform  a  regular 
retreat.  Murat  quitted  Napoleon  at  this  place,  and  bent  his  course  to 
his  own  dominions.  The  pretext  he  assigned  for  his  departure  was,  the 
fear  of  disturbances  at  Naples  ;  but  in  fact,  he  had  entered  into  a  secret 
correspondence  with  Metternich,  and,  to  secure  his  crown  in  the  general 
wreck,  did  not  hesitate  to  abandon  his  brother-in-law  and  benefactor. 
Napoleon  was  not  deceived  as  to  Murat's  motives,  but  he  nevertheless 
embraced  his  old  companion  in  arms,  and  parted  from  him  with  a  presen- 
timent, which  the  event  justified,  that  he  should  never  meet  him  again 
in  this  world. 

On  the  25th,  Napoleon  resumed  his  march  for  the  Rhine,  at  the  head 
of  but  ninety  thousand  men ;  and  he  left  behind  him,  to  depend  on  their 
own  resources,  nearly  a  hundred  and  eighty  thousand,  who  were  blockaded 
in  the  fortresses  of  the  Elbe,  the  Oder,  and  the  Vistula.  These  garri- 
sons were  composed  partly  of  effective  troops,  originally  posted  in  the 
several  strongholds  for  their  defence  ;  but  the  greater  proportion  consisted 
of  the  worn-out  veterans  of  Moscow,  and  the  stragglers  of  the  present 
campaign,  who  added  nothing  to  the  strength  of  the  regular  garrisons, 
but  served  only  to  consume  their  previously  straitened  supplies,  and  to 
introduce  disorganization  and  disease  into  their  ranks. 

While  Napoleon,  by  the  rapidity  of  his  movements,  was  escaping  the  pur- 
suit of  ail  large  bodies  of  the  allies,  a  new  enemy  unexpectedly  arose  on 
the  line  of  his  retreat.  It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  the  King  of 
Bavaria  seceded  from  Napoleon's  cause,  and  joined  himself  to  the  Grand 
Alliance  on  the  8th  of  October.  This  step  was  followed  by  another  of  simi- 
lar moment ;  the  concentration,  namely,  of  the  Bavarian  forces  under 
Wrede,  and  their  threatening  movements  on.  Napoleon's  rear.  Wrede'g 


366  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [Ciup.  XLIL 

entire  corps  amounted  to  fifty-eight  thousand  combatants,  ana  he  crossed 
the  Danube  at  Donauwerth  as  early  as  the  19th,  whence  he  pushed  on 
to  AschaiTenburg  on  the  27th  ;  he  there  detached  ten  thousand  men  to 
Frankfort,  and  on  the  29th  established  himself  with  the  remainder  of  his 
troops  in  the  forest  of  Hanau,  stationing  his  men  across  the  great  road, 
and  blocking  up  the  retreat  of  the  French  toward  Mayence. 

The  forces  of  Napoleon,  when  he  quitted  Erfurth,  were,  in  point  of 
umbers,  greatly  superior  to  the  Bavarian  army  ;  but  the  men  soon  fell 
nto  confusion  again,  and  at  least  ten  thousand  of  them  had  already  strag 
gled  from  their  ranks  and  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Cossacks.  The 
Emperor,  therefore,  might  have  eighty  thousand  men  under  his  command, 
but  not  more  than  fifty  thousand  could  be  depended  on  as  effective  troops; 
so  that  the  two  armies  were  not  very  unequally  matched  in  actual  strength ; 
yet  it  was  to  be  considered,  that  this  remnant  of  the  French  host  consisted 
of  the  very  choicest  of  Napoleon's  veterans,  and  they,  as  well  as  the  strag- 
glers that  accompanied  them,  if  opposed  in  their  last  avenue  of  retreat, 
would  necessarily  fight  with  the  courage  and  energy  of  despair.  The 
result  of  the  battle,  which  took  place  on  the  30th,  may  be  anticipated. 
Wrede  maintained  his  position  with  great  bravery  against  the  earlier  at- 
tacks of  the  French  troops ;  but  his  men  eventually  gave  way  at  all  points, 
and  fell  back  behind  the  Kinzig.  The  next  day,  Napoleon  ordered  an 
assault  on  the  town  of  Hanau,  which  place  was  carried  in  a,  few  hours, 
and  evacuated  by  the  Austrian  garrison ;  but  when  a  portion  of  the  French 
army  had  passed  on  toward  Frankfort,  Wrede  rallied  his  broken  divisions, 
recaptured  Hanau,  and  drove  Napoleon's  rear-guard  in  confusion  from  its 
walls. 

The  loss  of  the  Bavarians,  in  the  two  days,  amounted  to  ten  thousand 
men,  of  whom  four  thousand  were  prisoners.  Napoleon  lost  seven  thou- 
sand ;  and  of  these  three  thousand  were  wounded,  whom  he  was  com- 
pelled to  abandon  in  the  forest,  for  want  of  carriages  to  bear  them  away. 
The  French  Emperor  left  Frankfort  on  the  first  of  November,  and  his 
eagles  bade  A  FINAL  ADIEU  TO  THE  GERMAN  PLAINS — a  theatre  of  his 
glory,  his  crimes,  and  his  punishment. 

While  Napoleon  was  retiring  across  the  Rhine,  the  allies  closely  fol- 
lowed his  footsteps,  and  the  forces  of  Central  and  Eastern  Europe,  poured 
in  prodigious  strength  down  the  valley  of  the  Maine.  On  the  4th  of  No- 
vember, the  advanced  guard  under  Schwartzenberg  entered  Frankfort ; 
and,  on  the  same  day,  the  allied  sovereigns  established  their  head-quarters 
at  Aschaffenberg.  On  the  5th,  the  Emperor  Alexander  made  his  entry 
into  Frankfort  at  the  head  of  twenty  thousand  superb  cavalry  ;  and  he 
rested  there  until  preparations  could  be  made  for  crossing  the  Rhine,  and 
carrying  the  war  into  the  heart  of  France.  At  the  same  time,  the  allied 
forces  on  all  sides  rapidly  approached  that  frontier  stream.  Schwartzen- 
berg forced  the  passage  of  the  Nidde,  and  advanced  his  head-quarters 
to  Hochst,  within  two  leagues  of  Mayence ;  while  Blucher,  on  his  right, 
established  himself  at  Giessen.  On  the  9th,  Giulay  received  orders  to 
attack  Hochheim,  a  small  town  fortified  with  five  redoubts,  and  garrisoned 
by  twelve  thousand  men.  The  formidable  columns  of  the  allies,  however, 
easily  carried  the  place.  This  combat  was  the  last  of  the  campaign;  30  far 
as  the  grand  armies  on  either  side  were  concerned  ;  and  the  respective 
commanders  put  their  forces  into  winter-quarters.  Those  of  Napoleon, 
entirely  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  extended  from  Cologne  on  the  north 


1813.]  HISTORYOF    EUROPE.  367 

to  Strasburg  on  the  south  ;  the  greater  part  being  stationed  at.  Mayence, 
Coblentz,  and  opposite  to  the  centre  of  the  allies  around  Frankfort.  The 
grand  allied  army  extended  along  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine  from  Kehl 
to  Coblentz. 

Bernadotte,  whose  line  of  advance  was  more  to  the  north,  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Hanover,  detached  Woronzow  with  his  advanced  guard  to  Cassel, 
on  the  28th  of  October.  Jerome  had  previously  abandoned  his  capital ; 
the  greater  part  of  his  army  joined  the  allies,  and  the  few  who  adhered 
to  his  cause  followed  him  to  Dusseldorf,  and  there  crossed  the  Rhine. 
Winzingerode,  now  coming  up  with  a  corps  of  Russians,  organized  the 
whole  kingdom  of  Westphalia  in  the  interest  of  the  allies ;  he  also  de- 
stroyed the  revolutionary  dynasty  in  the  Grand-duchy  of  Berg,  and  united 
the  forces  of  that  province  to  the  standards  of  Germany.  He  next  oc- 
cupied the  Grand-duchy  of  Oldenberg  and  East  Friedland,  and  Bulow 
marched  to  Munster  on  his  way  to  Holland,  where  the  people  waited  only 
for  the  approach  of  the  allies,  to  throw  off  the  French  yoke  and  declare 
their  independence.  Bernadotte,  on  the  6th  of  November,  formed  a  junc- 
tion with  Benningsen,  fixed  his  head-quarters  at  Hanover,  and  reestab- 
lished there  the  authority  of  the  King  of  England. 

As  soon  as  the  battle  of  Leipsic  was  decided,  Klenau  received  orders 
to  unite  his  corps  with  that  of  Tolstoy  ;  and  their  joint  forces,  amounting 
to  fifty  thousand  men,  commenced  the  blockade  of  Dresden,  on  the  27th 
of  October.  St.  Cyr,  who  had  been  left  by  Napoleon  to  defend  this  city, 
could  scarcely  muster  more  than  thirty  thousand  men ;  and,  as  his  stock 
of  provisions  was  barely  sufficient  for  ten  days'  supply,  he  resolved  on 
the  desperate  expedient  of  a  sortie,  in  order  to  cut  his  way  to  Torgau  or 
Wittenberg.  He  made  this  bold  attempt  on  the  morning  of  November 
6th,  at  the  head  of  fifteen  thousand  of  his  best  troops,  but  he  was  speedily 
driven  back  into  the  town  by  a  detachment  of  three  thousand  allies  ;  and, 
seeing  then  that  no  hope  of  relief  remained,  he  entered  into  a  capitula- 
tion, in  virtue  of  which  he  surrendered  Dresden,  and  his  troops  laid  down 
their  arms  on  condition  of  being  sent  to  France,  engaging  at  the  same  time 
not  to  serve  again  until  regularly  exchanged.  On  the  12th,  the  French  sol- 
diers  began  to  defile  out  of  the  town  in  six  columns,  and  proceeded  on  the 
road  to  France :  the  entire  force  consisted  of  thirty-two  generals,  seventeen 
hundred  and  ninety-five  officers,  and  thirty-three  thousand  privates.  But 
Schwartzenberg  and  the  allied  sovereigns  disapproved  the  terms  of  the 
capitulation ;  they  notified  St.  Cyr  that  they  should  not  ratify  it,  and 
gave  him  the  option  of  being  reinstated  in  Dresden,  or  conducted  with 
all  his  followers  as  prisoners  of  war  into  Bohemia.  He  of  course  ac- 
cepted the  latter  proposition,  as  he  was  wholly  unable  to  maintain  himself 
in  Dresden ;  but  he  protested  loudly  and  with  good  reason  against  this 
violation  of  the  compact,  which  however  unwise  and  absurd  on  the  part 
of  Klenau — for  the  garrison  was  in  so  helpless  a  condition  that  St.  Cyr 
could  have  hoped  for  nothing  better  than  an  unconditional  surrender — 
was,  nevertheless,  regularly  made  and  completed  by  a  general  having 
full  power  in  the  premises:  and  the  fact  that  Klenau  was  so  greatly  out- 
witted by  the  French  marshal,  furnished  the  allied  sovereigns  with  no 
apology  for  annulling  his  authorized  acts. 

The  fall  of  Dresden  was  soon  followed  by  the  surrender  of  Stettin, 
Torgau  and  Dantzic ;  and  these  combined  conquests  placed  in  the  hands 
of  the  allies  upward  of  u  thousand  pieces  of  cannon,  and  nearly  seventy 


368  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLH 

thousand  prisoners ;  which  latter  amount  was  augmented  to  eighty  thou- 
sand by  the  subsequent  capitulation  of  several  minor  fortresses.  At  the 
close  of  the  campaign,  there  remained  to  Napoleon  of  all  his  possessions 
beyond  the  Rhine,  only  Hamburg,  Magdebourg,  and  Wittenberg  on  the 
Elbe;  Custrin  and  Glogau  on  the  Oder;  and  the  citadels  of  Erfurth  and 
Wurtzburg. 

The  fermentation  produced  in  Europe  by  the  deliverance  of  Germany, 
soon  spread  to  the  Dutch  Provinces.  The  yoke  of  Napoleon — univer- 
sally grievous  from  the  enormous  pecuniary  exactions  and  the  wasting 
military  conscriptions  that  accompanied  it — had  been  peculiarly  oppres- 
sive in  Holland,  where  the  habits  of  the  people  were  so  wholly  commer- 
cial. The  Hollanders  had  for  nearly  twenty  years  tasted  the  dregs 
of  humiliation  in  the  cup  of  the  vanquished,  being  compelled  themselves 
to  uphold  the  system  which  exterminated  their  resources,  and  to  purchase 
the  ruin  of  their  country  with  the  blood  of  their  children.  A  state  of 
feeling  had  therefore  long  existed  among  them  that  must  inevitably  have 
led  to  a  revolt,  but  for  the  hopelessness  of  the  attempt :  when,  however, 
the  battle  of  Leipsic  had  given  a  death-blow  to  the  tyrant  in  his  external 
relations,  nothing  could  resist  the  universal  effort  for  freedom  in  this 
devoted  land.  At  this  period,  Napoleon's  forces  in  Holland  did  not  ex- 
ceed six  thousand  French  soldiers  and  two  regiments  of  Germans,  which 
latter  troops  were  not  greatly  to  be  relied  on.  When  the  allies  under 
Bulow,  together  with  a  detachment  of  Russians  led  by  Winzingerode, 
approached  Amsterdam,  the  garrison  of  that  town  withdrew  to  Utrecht, 
where  all  the  French  forces  were  soon  after  concentrated.  This  with- 
drawal was  the  signal  fora  general  revolt.  The  inhabitants  of  Amster- 
dam rose  in  insurrection,  deposed  the  imperial  authorities,  hoisted  the 
Orange  flag,  and  organized  a  provisional  government  with  a  view  to  the 
reestablishment  of  the  old  order  of  things.  Similar  changes  took  place 
at  Rotterdam,  Dortrecht,  Delft,  Leyden,  Haarlem,  and  the  other  princi- 
pal towns  ;  the  Orange  cockade  was  everywhere  mounted,  amid  cries  of 
"Orange  Boven!"  and,  after  submitting  for  so  many  years  to  foreign 
domination,  a  whole  people  regained  their  independence  without  shedding 
a  drop  of  blood  in  its  achievement.  The  French  troops,  finding  them- 
selves threatened  on  all  sides,  withdrew  entirely  from  the  territories  of 
Holland. 

Simultaneously  with  these  events,  an  almost  total  overthrow  of  the 
French  domination  in  Italy,  took  place.  Eugene,  after  gaining  some  par- 
tial success  in  that  country,  was  eventually  forced  back  to  the  line  of 
the  Adige  ;  and  before  the  middle  of  December,  Trieste  and  the  greater 
part  of  Dalmatia  surrendered  to  the  Austrian  troops. 


CHAPTER   XLII1. 

THE    LIBERATION    OF    SPAIN. 

THE  winter  that  followed  the  campaign  of  the  Salamanca,  though  not 
distinguished  by  any  warlike  achievements,  was  a  season  of  extraordinary 
effort  and  activity  on  the  part  of  Wellington.  The  condition  and  disci- 
pline of  the  troops  had  been  greatly  improved ;  the  Duoro  was  rendered 
navigable  above  its  confluence  with  the  Agueda;  a  pontoon  train  was 
formed ;  carts  adapted  to  the  mountain  warfare  were  constructed ;  and  a 
great  number  of  mules  were  provided  to  supply  the  place  of  those  de- 
stroyed in  the  retreat  from  Burgos.  Large  reinforcements,  especially  in 
cavalry,  came  out  from  England  during  the  winter ;  and,  when  spring 
arrived,  the  army  was  prepared  to  take  the  field  in  greater  strength,  than 
at  any  previous  period  since  the  commencement  of  the  Peninsular  War. 

It  now  became  a  matter  of  the  utmost  consequence,  that  some  decisive 
measures  should  be  undertaken  for  the  more  effectual  organization  of  the 
Spanish  army ;  and  at  length,  symptoms  of  a  favorable  change,  in  that 
particular,  appeared.  The  fame  of  Wellington  and  the  services  he  had 
rendered  to  the  cause  of  Peninsular  independence,  finally  conquered  the 
sullen  obstinacy  of  Castilian  pride,  as  well  as  the  secret  hostility  of  dem- 
ocratic jealousy ;  and  the  British  general  was,  by  a  decree  of  the  Cortes, 
invested  with  the  supreme  command  of  the  Spanish  forces.  The  troops 
of  that  monarchy  were  at  the  time  in  so  inefficient  a  state,  that  Mr. 
Henry  Wellesley,  the  British  ambassador  at  Cadiz,  advised  his  brother 
not  to  accept  the  office,  as  in  his  judgment,  such  acceptance  would  excite 
jealousy  and  create  responsibleness,  without  increasing  strength  or  con- 
ferring power.  But  the  patriotic  spirit  of  Wellington,  and  his  clear 
perception  of  the  truth  that  the  French  could  never  be  driven  across  the 
Pyrenees,  unless  by  combining  the  whole  power  of  the  Peninsula  under 
one  leader,  overcame  his  repugnance  at  undertaking  so  onerous  and  irk- 
some a  charge ;  and  he  entered  upon  the  duties  of  his  command,  with  a 
vigor  that  at  least  convinced  the  Spanish  authorities  of  his  energy  and 
zeal  in  their  behalf.  He  remonstrated  in  emphatic  terms  against  their 
mode  of  discipline ;  and  as  it  was  evident  that  a  strong  hand  would  be 
requisite  to  remedy  the  long-established  evils  of  their  system,  he  insisted 
that  officers  should  be  appointed  solely  on  his  individual  recommendation, 
that  he  alone  should  possess  the  absolute  power  of  dismissal,  and  that  the 
resources  of  the  state,  so  far* as  they  were  applicable  to  the  pay  and  sup- 
port of  the  troops,  should  be  applied  in  conformity  to  his  directions.  As 
the  Cortes  hesitated  to  grant  these  demands,  Wellington  repaired  in  per- 
son to  Cadiz ;  and,  after  remaining  there  through  the  month  of  January, 
1818,  succeeded  in  gaining  for  his  plans  the  entire  acquiescence  of  that 
body.  He  also,  to  a  certain  extent,  remodelled  and  organized  the  Span- 
ish troops. 

One  result  of  consequence  attended  Wellington's  visit  to  Cadiz — it 
brought  under  his  immediate  notice  the  miserable  state  of  the  government 
at  that  place,  ruled  as  it  was  by  a  violent  faction,  and  the  prey,  alter- 
nately, of  aristocratic  intrigue  and  democratic  fury.  He  reported  the 


370  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLTII. 

actual  position  of  affairs  to  the  British  cabinet,  and  its  members  had  the 
wisdom  to  follow  his  advice,  namely :  on  no  account  to  interfere  with 
the  internal  disputes  of  the  Cortes  and  the  regency ;  but,  leaving  the 
authorities  and  people  at  Cadiz  to  arrange  their  domestic  quarrels  and 
manage  their  institutions  in  their  own  way,  direct  every  effort  to  the 
prosecution  of  the  war  and  the  expulsion  of  the  enemy  from  the.  Penin- 
sula. On  this  latter  principle,  Wellington  strongly  urged  the  Cortes  to 
suspend  their  meditated  decree  for  suppressing  the  Inquisition;  arguing, 
that  however  wise  and  just  its  eventual  abolition  might  be,  it  was  to  the 
last  degree  inexpedient  to  propose  it  at  that  particular  time,  when  half  the 
Spanish  territory  was  in  the  hands  of  the  enemy;  as  any  measure  affect- 
ing that  branch  of  the  Church  would  certainly  alienate  the  clergy,  who 
had  hitherto  been  the  chief,  and  latterly  the  sole,  supporters  of  the  war. 
This  advice,  however,  was  too  rational  to  satisfy  men  inflamed  with  polit- 
ical passion,  and  the  people  received  it  in  sulien  silence.  As  soon  as 
Wellington  departed,  the  dissensions  between  the  two  parties  in  Cadiz 
broke  out  with  more  rancor  than  ever ;  and  these  infatuated  men,  instead 
of  giving  their  attention  to  the  enemy  at  their  gates,  occupied  themselves 
with  projects  for  civil  reform.  The  Inquisition  was  abolished  by  a  formal 
decree,  on  the  7th  of  March.;  and,  as  the  clergy  of  Cadiz  resisted  the 
order,  and  the  regency  supported  them  in  such  resistance,  the  Cortes  in- 
stantly removed  the  members  of  the  regency,  and  appointed  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Toledo,  Pedro  Agar  and  Gabriel  Cesiar,  in  their  places.  The 
refractory  clergy  throughout  Spain  were  then  arrested,  and  thrown  into 
prison ;  and  the  revolutionary  press,  true  to  its  principles,  poured  forth  a 
torrent  of  abuse  against  the  British  government. 

While  these  disgraceful  dissensions  were  daily  weakening  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  civil  authorities,  Wellington  exerted  himself  to  the  utmost 
in  preparations  for  opening  the  campaign ;  which,  indeed,  he  was  now 
able  to  do  on  a  footing  of  comparative  equality  with  the  enemy.  The 
Anglo-Portuguese  army,  mustering  seventy-five  thousand  combatants,  of 
whom  forty-four  thousand  were  British  troops,  lay  along  the  Portuguese 
frontier  near  the  sources  of  the  Coa.  The  Anglo-Sicilian  army,  under 
Sir  John  Murray,  was  in  the  neighborhood  of  Alicante,  and  mustered 
sixteen  thousand  men,  of  whom  eleven  thousand  were  English,  and  the 
remainder  foreign  troops'  from  the  Mediterranean,  in  British  pay.  Co- 
pon's  Spaniards,  seven  thousand  strong,  occupied  the  mountain  country 
and  upper  ends  of  the  valleys  in  Catalonia.  Elio's  corps  of  twenty 
thousand  men  were  in  Murcia,  in  the  rear  of  Sir  John  Murray :  but  this 
force  was  yet  undisciplined,  and  could  not  be  trusted  in  presence  of  an 
enemy.  The  arrny  of  the  Duke  del  Parque,  consisting  of  twelve  thou- 
sand «oldiers,  was  posted  in  the  defiles  of  the  Sierra  Morena.  The  firsl 
army  of  reserve,  under  the  Conde  d'Abisal,  lay  in  Andalusia,  and  num- 
bered, nominally,  fifteen  thousand  men ;  the  greater  part  were,  however. 
raw  recruits  unfit  for  active  service.  The  only  Spanish  force  on  which 
reliance  could  be  placed,  was  the  army  of  Castanos  in  Estremadura  and 
on  the  frontiers  of  Leon  and  Galicia:  it  included  all  the  troops  able  to 
take  the  field  in  the  west  and  northwest  of  Spain,  and  mustered  forty 
thousand  combatants.  Thus,  the  total  force  under  Wellington's  direc- 
tion, was  one  hundred  and  eignty-five  th<  usand  men.  The  French  troops 
in  the  Peninsula  were  more  numerous,  and,  as  a  whole,  in  a  far  more  ef- 
ficient condition  :  their  entire  number  was  not  less  than  two  hundred  and 


1813.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  371 

thirty-one  thousand.  Of  these,  one  hundred  and  five  thousand  occupied 
a  central  field,  and  were  ready  for  action  ;  sixty-eight  thousand,  under 
Suchet,  held  Aragon,  Valencia  and  Catalonia ;  ten  thousand  were  at 
Madrid  ;  eight  thousand  in  Old  Castile  and  Leon  ;  and  forty  thousand 
were  employed  in  maintaining  the  communications  in  the  northern  prov- 
inces, and  waging  a  partisan  warfare  with  the  insurgent  Spaniards  in 
Biscay  and  Navarre. 

The  campaign  commenced  on  the  llth  of  April,  by  an  attack  of  Suchet 
on  the  united  forces  of  Sir  John  Murray  and  Elio,  thirty-six  thousand 
strong,  who  had  concentrated  themselves  at  Castella.  Suchet  began  the 
action  by  a  spirited  charge  against  the  advanced  guard  of  the  allies,  and 
at  first  made  such  progress,  that  Murray,  in  great  alarm,  ordered  a  re- 
treat ;  fortunately  for  the  honor  of  the  British  arms,  this  order  did  not 
reach  the  columns  engaged  until  they  had  rallied,  regained  their  ground, 
and  were  pressing  the  French  to  a  rapid  flight.  But  here,  again,  Mur- 
ray displayed  his  military  qualities,  by  commanding  the  pursuit  to  be 
discontinued,  just  as  the  French  troops  were  falling  into  confusion  under 
a  charge  of  the  British  dragoons.  Suchet,  therefore,  escaped  with  all  his 
guns  and  baggage,  leaving  however,  nearly  two  thousand  men,  slain  and 
wounded,  on  the  field. 

On  the  12th  of  May,  the  army  of  reserve  in  Andalusia  broke  up  from 
Seville,  with  directions  to  reach  the  bridge  of  Almarez  and  thence  threaten 
Madrid  on  the  24th ;  the  Duke  del  Parque,  a  few  days  afterward  entered 
La  Mancha ;  on  the  22nd,  Wellington  began  his  March  into  Spain ;  estab- 
lished his  head-quarters  at  Ciudad  Rodrigo  on  the  23rd  ;  and  preparations 
i^ere  so  made  that,  when  the  advancing  columns  reached  the  frontiers  of 
Biscay  or  Galicia,  they  should  abandon  all  communication  with  Lisbon, 
ind  draw  their  supplies  from  the  nearer  harbors  of  those  provinces. 
Seventy  thousand  British  and  Portuguese,  and  twenty  thousand  Spaniards, 
were  ere  long  so  disposed,  that  they  could  fall  on  the  front  and  flank  of 
the  French  lines ;  and  Wellington  anticipated  success  with  such  con- 
fidence that,  in  crossing  the  frontier  stream,  he  rose  in  his  stirrups  and 
waved  his  hand,  exclaiming,  "  Farewell,  Portugal !" 

The  best  effect  attended  the  movements  of  the  Duke  del  Parque's  army, 
and  those  of  the  reserve  from  Andalusia  ;  for  they  spread  alarm  in  New 
Castile,  before  the  route  of  Wellington's  main  body  became  known  ;  and, 
by  inducing  the  belief  that  a  combined  attack  on  the  capital  was  in- 
tended, prevented  that  concentration  of  force  on  the  Upper  Ebro,  by  which 
alone  the  march  of  the  British  general  could  have  been  arrested.  Accord- 
ingly, when  the  centre  and  right  of  the  allied  army  were  advancing  from 
Ciudad  Rodrigo  to  the  Duoro,  and  Graham,  with  the  left  wing  was  toiling 
through  the  Tras-os-Montes,  not  more  than  thirty-five  thousand  French 
troops  had  assembled  at  Valladolid.  This  force  was  therefore  compelled 
to  retreat,  and,  by  the  3rd  of  June,  the  entire  allied  army  was  in  communi- 
cation on  the  northern  bank  of  the  Duoro,  between  Toro  and  the  river  Esla. 
On  the  4th,  Wellington  took  possession  of  Valladolid,  and  on  the  7th  and  8th, 
he  reached  the  Carrion,  which  he  crossed  at  various  points.  The  French 
troops  hastened  to  gain  the  Ebro,  abandoned  the  castle  of  Burgos  on  the 
14th,  after  having  blown  up  its  ramparts  in  such  haste,  that  the  falling 
ruins  crushed  three  hundred  of  their  own  men,  and  thence  continued  their 
route  toward  Vittoria.  King  Joseph,  who  led  the  retreat  in  person, 
pressed  on  with  all  possible  expedition,  followed  by  his  court,  the  civil 

34 


372  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [Cuu>.  XLIII. 

authorities,  and  many  citizens  of  Madrid,  together  with  the  troops  that  had 
occupied  the  vicinity  of  the  capital.  The  flight  was  encumbered  with 
an  endless  file  of  chariots,  carriages  and  wagons,  which  conveyed  a  help- 
less multitude  and  their  rich  stores  of  spoil  toward  the  fiontier;  and 
when  Joseph  reached  Vittoria,  on  the  1 9th,  he  made  a  stand,  rather  with 
a  vague  hope  of  securing  the  safe  transit  of  his  ill-gotten  booty  into 
France,  than  with  any  well-founded  expectation  of  being  able  to  resist 
the  shock  of  Wellington's  army. 

The  basin  of  Vittoria,  where  the  French  troops,  augmented  by  reen- 
forcements  to  seventy  thousand  men,  were  now  drawn  up  in  order  of 
battle,  is  about  eight  miles  in  length  by  six  in  breadth,  situated  in  an 
elevated  plateau  among  the  mountains.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  and 
east  by  the  commencement  of  the  Pyreneean  range,  and  on  the  west  by  a 
chain  of  rugged  mountains  which  separates  the  province  of  Alara  from 
Biscay.  This  basin  is  intersected  by  two  rows  of  hills,  that  cross  it 
nearly  from  east  to  west,  and  furnish  strong  military  positions ;  several 
roads  lead  to  and  from  Vittoria ;  but  although  they  are  practicable  for 
guns,  the  highway  to  Bayonne,  through  Gamarra  Mayor,  was  alone  ade- 
quate to  receive  the  immense  train  of  carriages  attached  to  the  French 
retreat.  Two  large  convoys  had  already  departed  by  this  route,  and 
were  well  on  their  way  to  France ;  but  many  more,  including  the  royal 
treasure  and  the  guns  and  ammunition  of  the  army,  remained  behind ; 
and  it  was  therefore  of  vital  consequence  to  the  French  to  keep  open  the 
road  to  Bayonne,  and  above  all,  not  to  suffer  Gamarra  Mayor  to  fall  into 
the  hands  of  the  enemy. 

On  the  afternoon  of  the  20th,  Wellington  carefully  surveyed  the 
French  position,  which  was  now  maintained  by  seventy  thousand  men 
and  a  hundred  and  fifty  pieces  of  cannon ;  while  the  allied  force  con- 
sisted of  sixty  thousand  British  and  Portuguese,  and  eighteen  thousand 
Spanish  troops,  with  only  ninety  guns.  His  dispositions  were  soon  made, 
and  by  daybreak  on  the  21st  his  whole  army  was  in  motion.  The  centre 
and  right  speedily  surmounted  the  high  ground  which  screened  their 
bivouac  from  the  sight  of  the  French,  and  their  masses  stood  in  imposing 
strength  on  the  summit  of  the  ridges  that  inclose  Vittoria  on  the  south. 

At  ten  o'clock,  Hill,  leading  the  right  wing,  reached  the  pass  of  Puebla, 
and  began  extending  his  men  upon  the  plain  in  front,  while  Murillo's 
Spaniards,  with  surprising  vigor,  swarmed  up  the  rocky  ascent  on  the 
right  of  his  advance.  Here,  however,  the  French  made  a  stout  resist- 
ance. Murillo  received  a  wound,  but  still  kept  the  field ;  and,  as  the 
enemy's  line  had  been  strengthened  by  reinforcements,  Hill  was  com- 
pelled to  send  to  the  Spanish  general's  support  the  seventy-first  regiment 
and  a  battalion  of  light  infantry,  under  Colonel  Cadogan.  That  brave 
officer  had  scarcely  reached  the  summit  when  he  was  struck  down ;  but, 
though  mortally  wounded,  he  still  cheered  on  his  Highlanders,  and 
watched  them  with  his  dying  eyes  as  they  moved  irresistibly  along  the 
ridge.  The  French  were  gradually  borne  backward ;  and  Hill,  en- 
couraged by  the  progress  of  the  scarlet  uniforms  on  the  heights,  emerged 
from  the  defile  of  Puebla,  carried  by  storm  the  village  of  Subijana,  and 
brought  his  line  into  communication  with  Murillo. 

Meantime,  Wellington  with  the  centre,  had  surmounted  the  heights  in 
his  front,  and  descended  into  the  plain  of  Vittoria.  He  met  with  no 
serious  opposition  until  his  men  reached  the  bridges  in  the  valley  below, 


1813.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  373 

where  the  French  were  posted  in  great  strength,  and  where,  for  several 
hours,  they  maintained  an  obstinate  defence.  While  this  contest  was  in 
progress,  a  decisive  blow  had  been  struck  by  Graham  on  the  left.  That 
noble  officer,  who,  at  the  age  of  sixty-eight  possessed  the  vigor  of  five- 
and-twenty,  marched  before  daylight  from  his  bivouac  in  the  mountains, 
and  by  eleven  o'clock,  reached  the  heights  above  Gamarra  Mayor  and 
Ariega,  which  were  strongly  occupied  by  the  French  under  Reille.  The 
French,  fully  aware  of  the  necessity  of  holding  their  position,  for.  a  time 
resisted  the  utmost  efforts  of  Graham  to  dislodge  them,  but  they  at  length 
gave  way ;  the  British  troops  made  themselves  masters  of  their  line  of 
retreat,  and  the  whole  French  army  dispersed  in  utter  confusion  over  the 
plains  and  mountains  on  every  side. 

Never  before,  in  modern  times,  had  such  an  accumulation  of  military 
stores,  combined  with  so  great  an  amount  of  private  wealth,  fallen  into 
the  hands  of  a  victorious  army.  Jourdan's  marshal's  baton,  Joseph's 
private  carriage,  a  hundred  and  fifty-one  brass  guns,  four  hundred  and 
fifteen  caissons,  thirteen  hundred  thousand  ball-cartridges,  fourteen  thou- 
sand rounds  of  artillery-ammunition,  and  forty  thousand  pounds  of  gun- 
powder, together  with  an  immediate  loss  to  the  enemy  of  seven  thousand 
men,  constituted  the  military  trophies  of  the  battle  of  Vittoria — in  addition 
to  the  fact,  that  the  organization  and  efficiency  of  the  French  army  en- 
gaged in  the  action  were  annihilated,  and  its  entire  force  swept,  as  by  a 
whirlwind,  from  the  Spanish  dominions.  The  private  wealth  captured 
by  the  allied  army  is  beyond  estimation.  It  was  not  the  produce  of  a 
sacked  town,  or  the  riches  of  a  pillaged  province,  but  the  plunder  of  a 
whole  kingdom,  accumulated  during  five  years  of  unrestrained  rapine. 
The  military  chest  alone  contained  five  and  a  half  millions  of  dollars. 

Nothing  now  remained  to  complete  the  expulsion  of  the  French  from 
the  northwestern  provinces  of  Spain,  but  to  drive  them  from  the  fortified 
strongholds  of  Santona,  Pampeluna,  and  St.  Sebastian.  Hill  had  already 
invested  Pampeluna,  and  Graham  laid  siege  to  St.  Sebastian  on  the  29th 
of  June.  The  garrison  of  this  latter  fortress,  however,  offered  an  unex- 
pected resistance ;  and,  after  expending  nearly  a  month  around  its  walls, 
Graham  was  forced  to  convert  the  siege  into  a  blockade,  and  unite  the 
greater  part  of  his  troops  with  the  main  body  under  Wellington,  who  atf 
this  time  was  preparing  to  resist  a  new  invasion  led  on  by  Soult. 

This  marshal,  whom  Napoleon  had  ordered  to  Spain  when  the  news 
of  the  battle  of  Vittoria  reached  Dresden,  arrived  at  Bayonne  on  the  3  3th 
of  July,  and  immediately  commenced  repairing  the  fortifications  of  that 
place.  He  also  devoted  his  attention  to  recruiting  and  reorganizing  the 
army;  and  this  was  carried  on  with  such  vigor  and  success,  that  he  soon. 
had  at  his  disposal  a  hundred  and  fourteen  thousand  men,  of  whom 
seventy-six  thousand  were  ready  for  operations  in  the  field ;  the  remainder 
formed  the  garrisons  of  Bayonne,  Pampeluna,  Santona,  and  St.  Sebastian. 
The  forces  in  Catalonia  under  Su'chet,  at  the  ^ame  period,  amounted  to 
sixty-six  thousand  men.  As  soon  as  Soult  had  completed  his  arrange- 
ments, he  marched  in  several  columns  toward  the  Spanish  territories. 
Each  of  the  contending  armies  occupied,  or  moved  upon,  a  line  about 
eleven  leagues  in  length,  extending  from  the  sea  on  one  side,  to  the 
mountains  westward  of  the  pass  of  Roncesvalles  on  the  other.  But  there 
was  this  difference  between  the  two  positions,  that,  although  the  British 
were  on  the  higher  ground,  and  occupied  passes  difficult  of  access,  yet 


374  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLIII. 

their  columns,  being  separated  by  impassable  ridges,  could  receive  sup- 
port  from  each  other  only  by  circuitous  and  slow  marches  in  the  rear ; 
while  the  French,  grouped  in  the  plain,  could  readily  throw  a  preponde- 
rating force  against  a  weak  part  of  the  allied  line,  and  overpower  it  before 
the  arrival  of  reinforcements. 

Accordingly,  on  the  25th  of  July,  Soult,  at  the  head  of  thirty-five  thou- 
sand  men,  ascended  the  French  side  of  the  pass  of  Roncesvalles ;  while 
D'Erlon,  with  twenty  thousand,  threatened  the  allied  centre  by  the  Puerta 
de  Maya ;  and  Villatte,  with  eighteen  thousand,  remained  in  observation 
on  the  Bidassoa.  Soult's  object  in  these  movements  was,  to  accumulate 
forces  on  Wellington's  right  more  rapidly  than  the  British  general  could 
assemble  troops  to  oppose  him  ;  to  relieve  Pampeluna,  for  which  purpose 
he  had  under  convoy  a  large  supply  of  provisions ;  and  then,  turning  to  his 
own  right,  to  descend  upon  St.  Sebastian  and  the  forces  covering  its 
blockade.  So  effectually  had  Soult  disguised  his  intentions  from  the 
allies,  that  they  were  unprepared  both  for  his  and  D'Erlon's  attack  ;  and, 
after  a  desperate  resistance,  they  were  forced  to  retreat  at  Roncesvalles 
and  Puerta  de  Maya,  yielding  the  two  passes  to  the  French  troops.  D'Er- 
Ion,  satisfied  with  his  success,  remained  inactive ;  but  Soult  pressed  for- 
ward  on  the  26th,  toward  Pampeluna.  On  the  27th,  he  approached 
Sauroren,  about  four  miles  in  front  of  Pampeluna,  where  Picton  and 
Plill  had  formed  a  junction,  and  made  a  stand  to  oppose  him ;  but  he  de- 
layed his  attack  until  the  next  day,  and  thus  gave  Wellington  time  to 
come  up  with  large  reinforcements.  The  numbers  of  the  contending 
armies  were  nearly  equal,  the  French  amounting  to  thirty-two  thousand, 
and  the  allies  to  twenty-eight  thousand,  of  whom,  however,  ten  thousand 
were  Spaniards.  The  allies  were  posted  in  two  lines  on  two  successive 
ranges  of  heights,  and  had  the  advantage  of  a  strong  position. 

At  mid-day  on  the  28th,  the  French  tirailleurs  began  with  great  gal- 
lantry to  ascend  the  slopes  toward  the  centre  of  the  first  line  of  the  allies, 
while  Clausel's  division  moved  impetuously  toward  its  left.  ClausePs 
attack  was  quickly  and  totally  repulsed ;  but  the  assault  along  the  centre 
and  right  was  more  successful,  and  for  a  time  the  French  soldiers  estab- 
lished themselves  on  the  ridge.  Wellington,  however,  brought  up  his 
reserves  in  person,  and  after  a  desperate  and  bloody  contest,  Soult  drew 
off  his  army  to  a  range  of  hills  opposite  the  allies'  position.  During  the 
night,  he  made  preparations  for  a  retreat  in  the  direction  of  St.  Sebastian  ; 
but  before  he  could  commence  that  movement,  Wellington  assumed  the 
offensive,  and  on  the  29th,  by  a  combined  attack  on  different  points,  en- 
tirely defeated  him  and  drove  him  from  his  ground.  The  French  loss  in 
this  day's  action,  was  two  thousand  killed  and  wounded,  and  three  thou- 
sand prisoners,  besides  a  large  number  of  stragglers  who  abandoned  their 
ranks ;  the  total  loss  of  the  allies  was  two  thousand  killed  and  wounded. 

After  this  second  disaster,  Soult  retired  with  all  possible  expedition  up 
the  valleys  of  the  Lauz  and  the  Guy ;  but  he  was  now  in  a  hazardous 
predicament.  •  His  troops  were  exhausted,  his  numbers  greatly  reduced, 
and  it  seemed  impossible  to  protect  his  artillery  and  baggage  in  a  back- 
ward march  over  the  Pyrenees.  Graham,  with  twenty  thousand  men 
threatened  him  on  the  side  of  St.  Sebastian ;  the  victorious  allies  under 
Wellington,  were  in  his  rear;  and  it  became  evident,  that  some  extraor- 
dinary effort  could  alone  save  him  from  destruction.  This  result  was 
accomplished  by  a  retreat  of  almost  unexampled  rapidity,  through  the 


181'?.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  375 

passes  leading  to  the  Lower  Bidassoa ;  and  although  his  troops  suffered 
an  immense  loss  in  their  flight  through  narrow  defiles,  crowded  with  their 
own  fugitives  and  enfiladed  by  the  destructive  fire  of  their  pursuers,  he 
reached  the  French  territories  on  the  first  of  August,  with  a  considerable 
numerical  force  in  the  last  degree  of  disorder. 

As  soon  as  Wellington  had  gained  this  victory,  he  prepared  to  recom- 
mence the  siege  of  St.  Sebastian.  The  governor  of  the  place  had,  in 
the  meantime,  greatly  strengthened  his  defences  and  repaired  the  injuries 
sustained  during  the  previous  siege  ;  but  on  the  other  hand,  the  besieging 
force  was  also  much  increased,  both  in  men  and  in  battering  cannon. 
The  heavy  guns  were  brought  into  position  by  the  25th  of  August,  and, 
on  the  26th,  their  work  of  destruction  commenced.  On  the  30th,  two 
breaches  were  declared  practicable.  The  assault  began  at  twelve  o'clock 
on  the  31st,  and  the  terrible  slaughter  endured  for  a  time  by  the  besiegers, 
disheartened  the  bravest  of  the  veteran  host.  Nevertheless,  they  pressed 
on,  and,  by  dint  of  numbers  and  perseverance,  at  length  carried  the  town. 
A  scene  of  violence  now  ensued,  which  the  British  historian  may  well 
blush  to  record.  The  allies,  exasperated  at  the  long  continuance  of  the 
assault,  and  the  fearful  slaughter  of  their  comrades  at  the  breaches,  were 
wrought  to  a  pitch  of  frenzy  that  placed  them  beyond  the  control  of  their 
officers :  discipline,  order,  the  common  dictates  of  humanity,  were  disre- 
garded :  conflagration,  rape,  pillage — all  the  atrocities  of  which  an  intoxi- 
cated and  infuriated  soldiery  are  capable,  consummated  the  storming  of 
St.  Sebastian ;  and  the  next  morning,  a  large  portion  of  that  once  happy 
and  prosperous  town  was  a  mass  of  smouldering  ashes. 

While  the  siege  of  St.  Sebastian  was  in  progress,  Soult  made  great 
efforts  to  relieve  its  garrison.  He  crossed  the  Bidassoa  on  the  30th  of 
August,  with  thirty-eight  thousand  men,  of  whom  eighteen  thousand  were 
under  his  own  command,  and  twenty  thousand  under  ClausePs ;  while 
Foy,  with  seven  thousand,  followed  as  a  reserve.  Wellington  detached 
a  considerable  force  to  resist  this  advance,  but  he  resolved  to  put  the 
Spanish  troops  in  a  position  to  receive  the  first  shock  of  the  encounter ; 
and,  for  this  purpose,  he  posted  eighteen  thousand  of  them  on  the  heights 
of  San  Marcial,  while  twelve  thousand  British  and  Portuguese  were  mus- 
tered in  the  rear  to  support  them,  in  case  the  Spaniards  should  require 
assistance.  Soult  made  his  attack  on  the  31st,  when  the  Castilian  troops, 
evincing  at  last  some  of  their  ancient  prowess,  bravely  resisted  his  charge, 
and  drove  him,  with  great  loss,  over  the  Bidassoa.  In  this  untoward 
affair,  the  French  killed  and  wounded  amounted  to  three  thousand  six 
hundred  men,  including  five  generals ;  and  the  loss  of  the  allies  was 
twenty-six  hundred. 

The  British  government  now  became  desirous  that  the  allied  army 
should  cross  the  frontier,  and  commence  offensive  operations  in  France ; 
but  Wellington,  for  several  reasons,  opposed  this  movement.  Pampeluna, 
though  closely  blockaded  and  severely  distressed  for  provisions,  had  no 
yet  fallen  ;  and  while  that  fortress  remained  in  his  rear,  the  troops  block 
ading  it  could  not  join  themselves  to  his  army,  nor  could  he  feel  securely 
established  in  the  French  territories.  Besides,  the  Spanish  troops,  though 
of  late  much  more  efficient  than  formerly  in  defensive  warfare,  were  as* 
Ukely  to  prove  dangerous  as  serviceable  to  an  invading  force.  Despite 
the  numerous  and  energetic  representations  of  Wellington,  the  govern- 
ment of  Cadiz  had  given  its  whole  attention  to  political  intrigue,  and  neg- 

26 


376  HISTORY     OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XI  III. 

lected  the  army  :  its  troops  were  neither  clothed  nor  paid  by  its  exertions, 
but  left  to  depend  on  the  British  rations  ;  and  there  was  good  reason  to  fear 
that,  if  allowed  to  enter  France,  the  Spanish  soldiers  would  excite  a  na- 
tional resistance,  by  the  measures  of  retaliation  they  might  be  expected 
to  'adopt  toward  the  inhabitants  of  that  country,  in  consideration  of  all 
they  had  themselves  endured  at  the  hands  of  the  French  soldiers.  Nor 
were  these  the  only  difficulties  to  be  encountered.  The  Cortes,  excited 
to  madness  by  the  incessant  efforts  of  the  republican  press  at  Cadiz,  now 
dreaded  nothing  so  much  as  the  success  of  the  allied  arms ;  and  did  all 
in  their  power  to  thwart  the  designs  of  Wellington,  whom  they  openly 
accused  of  aspiring  to  the  crown  of  Spain.  Mutual  recriminations  soon 
rose  to  such  a  height,  that  the  British  general  more  than  once  offered  to 
resign  the  supreme  command  ;  and,  despairing  of  success  with  such 
lukewarm  or  treacherous  allies,  he  advised  the  cabinet  at  London,  to 
demand  St.  Sebastian  as  a  hostage,  and,  if  this  were  refused,  to  withdraw 
their  forces  from  the  Peninsula. 

But  weighty  considerations  induced  the  British  goverment  to  insist  on 
an  invasion  of  France,  notwithstanding  all  the  arguments  that  could  with 
propriety  be  urged  against  the  measure.  They  believed  with  reason,  that, 
in  the  present  crisis  of  Napoleon's  affairs,  the  moral  effect  of  such  a  de- 
monstration, even  if  but  partially  successful,  would  greatly  promote  the 
purposes  of  the  Grand  Alliance ;  and,  in  this  point  of  view,  the  object  to  be 
attained  was  worth  all  the  risk  it  implied.  Wellington  desired  in  the  first 
instance  to  reduce  Pampeluna,  and  afterward  turn  his  arms  against  Su- 
chet,  who  still  held  Catalonia  ;  but  when  he  found  that  the  government 
had  decided  otherwise,  he,  like  a  good  soldier,  set  himself  to  execute,  to 
the  best  of  his  ability,  an  offensive  campaign,  which,  on  military  princi- 
ples, hg  deemed  premature. 

Soult's  position  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Bidassoa  consisted  of  the  base 
of  a  triangle,  of  which  Bayonne  was  the  apex,  and  the  great  roads  run- 
ning thence  to  Irun,  on  the  sea-coast,  and  St.  Jean  Pied-de-Port,  in  the 
interior  country,  were  the  sides.  The  area  of  this  triangle  was  filled 
with  rugged  mountains,  and  intersected  by  ridges  and  defiles  easily  capa- 
ble of  defence.  The  French  army  was  posted  in  this  wild  and  rocky 
district,  and  their  position,  overlooking  the  valley  of  the  Bidassoa,  was 
strengthened  at  various  points  by  field-works,  while  a  complete  redoubt 
crowned  the  summit  of  the  Rhune  Mountain,  that  rose  twenty-eight  hun- 
dred feet  from  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  flanked  the  eastern  extremity  of 
their  line.  In  the  midst  of  these  strong  defences,  Soult  felt  secure  from 
any  attempt  of  the  allies  to  dislodge  him  ;  yet  Wellington  did  not  hesitate 
to  hazard  an  attack,  which  he  planned  in  two  columns,  directing  one  of 
them,  twenty-four  thousand  strong,  against  the  Lower  Bidassoa,  and  the 
other,  twenty  thousand  strong,  against  the  Rhune  Mountain  and  its  adja- 
cent ridges. 

A  tempestuous  night  preceded  the  attack  ;  and  during  the  darkness  and 
tumult,  Wellington  advanced  a  number  of  his  guns  so  as  to  bear  on  the 
enemy's  lines,  and  brought  the  troops  destined  to  lead  the  charge  close  to 
the  river's  banks,  at  the  several  points  of  crossing  ;  but  the  tents  of  the 
army  were  left  standing  on  the  heights  in  the  rear,  and  thus,  in  the  morn, 
ing,  Soult  could  not  discover  that  the  allies  had  made  any  important  move 
ment.  At  seven  o'clock,  on  the  7th  of  October,  Lord  Aylmer's  brigade, 
which  led  the  attack,  suddenly  emerged  from  behind  the  ridge  that 


1813.1  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  377 

screened  them,  and  advanced  rapidly  into  the  ford  :  at  the  same  moment, 
the  allied  batteries  opened  their  fire,  and,  so  completely  were  the  French 
surprised,  Soult  was  passing  his  troops  in  review,  in  the  centre  of  his  po- 
sition, when  he  heard  the  first  guns  fired.  He  immediately  set  out  on  a 
gallop  toward  the  threatened  point ;  but  before  he  could  arrive,  the  allies 
had  carried  it,  and  firmly  established  themselves  on  the  French  territory. 
Similar  success  attended  the  allied  right ;  every  post  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  Rhune  was  forced  ;  Clausel,  who  commanded  the  redoubt  on  its 
summit,  retreated  during  the  night,  lest  his  escape  should  be  entirely  cut 
off,  and  on  the  morning  of  the  8th,  the  whole  ridge,  from  that  mountain  to 
the  sea-coast,  was  in  possession  of  the  allies. 

Wellington's  *~~*  "ire  was,  now,  to  prevent  plundering  on  the  part  of 
his  troops,  and  to  esraolish  that  admirable  system  of  paying  regularly  for 
the  supplies  of  the  army,  which  had  so  largely  contributed  to  his  success; 
in  the  Peninsula.  He  accordingly  issued  a  proclamation  to  the  army,  in 
which,  after  recounting  the  miseries  brought  on  Spain  and  Portugal  by 
the  exactions  of  the  French  soldiers,  he  declared  it  would  be  unworthy  of  a 
great  nation  to  retaliate  these  evils  on  the  innocent  inhabitants  of  France  ; 
that  he  would  rigorously  punish  plundering  and  every  kind  of  excess ; 
and  that  in  all  cases,  provisions  for  the  men  would  be  regularly  paid  for, 
as  had  been  done  in  the  kingdoms  of  the  Peninsula.  At  first,  neither  the 
Spanish  nor  French  soldiers  credited  the  declarations  of  this  manifesto—- 
so utterly  at  variance  was  it  from  the  system  by  which  the  former  had 
been  accustomed  to  suffer,  and  the  latter  to  profit,  during  the  Peninsular 
campaigns.  But  Wellington  was  both  serious  and  resolute  ;  and  he  soon 
gave  convincing  proof  of  this  by  hanging  several  British  and  Spanish  soU 
diers,  who  were  detected  in  disobeying  his  orders.  While  the  allies  were 
thus  occupied  in  France,  the  siege  of  Pampeluna  was  vigorously  pressed, 
and,  on  the  31st  of  October,  the  garrison  of  that  fortress  surrended  at  dis- 
cretion. 

Soult  had,  in  the  meantime,  made  good  use  of  the  month's  respite  that 
was  allowed  him,  to  strengthen  his  present  position  on  the  Nivelle.  His 
defences  consisted  of  three  lines,  one  behind  another,  which  equalled  those 
of  Torres  Vedras  in  strength  and  solidity.  They  ran  along  a  chain  of 
hills  forming,  in  part,  the  northern  boundary  of  the  valley  of  the  Nivelle, 
and  stretched  from  the  sea  and  St.  Jean  de  Luz,  on  the  right,  to  Mount 
Daren  on  the  left,  and  thence  to  St.  Jean  Pied-de-Port ;  the  line  was  pro- 
tected by  a  ridge  of  rocks  so  rugged  that  neither  army  could  cross  it.  A 
second  line,  in  the  rear  of  the  first,  extended  from  St.  Jean  de  Luz  on  the 
right,  to  Cambo  on  the  left,  and  embraced  the  camps  of  Espelette,  Suraide, 
and  Sarre ;  the  principal  points  where  the  allied  forces  were  assembled. 
A  third  line  was  extended  behind  Santa  Pe,  on  the  road  to  Ustaritz,  but 
its  redoubts  were  incomplete.  To  protect  these  works,  Soult  had  eighty 
thousand  troops  under  his  command,  of  whom  seventy  thousand  were 
present  in  the  field. 

On  the  9th  of  November,  Wellington  prepared  for  a  general  attack ; 
and  as,  after  a  careful  survey,  he  judged  that  the  French  position  was 
weakest  in  the  centre,  he  determined  to  direct  his  principal  effort  to  that 
point.  The  action  began  at  daylight  on  the  10th,  by  an  assault  on  the 
French  outwork  at  the  Lesser  Rhune,  which  was  so  far  in  advance  of 
the  main  line,  that  it  required  to  be  carried  before  the  main  attack  could 
commence.  This  fort,  perched  on  a  craggy  summit  and  surrounded  by 


378  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLIIL 

precipices  two  hundred  feet  high,  was  accessible  only  on  the  east  by  a 
long,  narrow  belt  of  rocks,  stretching  to  the  valley  of  the  Nivelle  :  yet, 
despite  the  great  strength  of  the  post,  the  indomitable  bravery  of  the  43rd 
and  52nd  regiments,  aided  by  the  Portuguese  Cac.adores,  carried  it  at  the 
point  of  the  bayonet ;  the  walls  were  scaled,  the  garrison  captured,  and 
the  British  colors  planted  on  the  highest  summit  of  the  castle,  at  an  early 
hour  in  the  morning. 

The  moment  that  this  fort  was  won,  the  whole  allied  lines  pressed  for- 
ward with  loud  cheers  and  wild  enthusiasm.  Point  after  point  yielded  to 
their  charge  ;  and,  although  occasionally  arrested  by  the  formidable  re- 
doubts that  lay  in  their  way,  the  flood  of  war  did  not  the  less  impetuously 
roll  on,  until  these  isolated  landmarks  were  overwhelmed  and  submerged 
by  the  foaming  tide.  Before  night,  Soult's  army  was  in  full  retreat,  and 
the  whole  line  of  the  Nivelle,  with  its  superb  positions  and  six  miles  of 
intrenchments,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  allies.  On  the  llth,  Soult  reached 
his  fortified  camp  on  the  Nive,  before  Bayonne,  which  town,  situated  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Nive  and  the  Adour,  commands  the  passage  of  botL 
rivers,  and  he  resolved  there  to  make  a  final  stand  against  the  advance  of 
the  allies.  The  camp,  being  under  the  protection  of  the  guns  of  the  for- 
tress immediately  in  its  rear,  could  not  well  be  attacked  in  front,  for  which 
reason  Soult  stationed  there  but  six  divisions,  under  D'Erlon.  The  right 
wing,  consisting  of  Reille's  divisions  and  Vilatte's  reserve,  lay  to  the  west 
of  the  fortress  on  the  Lower  Adour,  where  a  flotilla  of  gun-boats  rode  at 
anchor,  while  the  approach  to  it  was  covered  by  a  swamp  and  an  artificial 
inundation.  The  left,  under  Clausel,  posted  on  the  west  of  Bayonne,  was 
protected  partly  by  an  inundation  and  partly  by  a  large  fortified  house, 
which  had  been  converted  into  an  advanced  work.  The  country  in  front, 
was  inclosed  and  intersected  by  woods  and  hedgerows,  and  a  portion  of 
D'Erlon's  men  occupied  it  beyond  the  Nive,  in  front  of  Ustaritz,  and  as 
far  as  Cambo.  The  great  advantage  of  Soult's  position  lay  in  this,  that 
the  troops,  in  case  of  disaster,  might  find  refuge  under  the  cannon  of 
Bayonne ;  and,  as  he  had  an  interior  line  of  communication  through  that 
fortress,  he  could,  at  pleasure,  throw  the  weight  of  his  forces  from  one 
flank  to  another  upon  the  enemy. 

But,  although  in  a  military  point  of  view,  Soult  was  thus  advantageously 
posted,  he  had  to  contend  with  serious  difficulties  in  the  body  of  his  army 
and  in  the  country  by  which  he  was  surrounded.  The  reaction  of  the 
system  of  making  war  maintain  war,  now  pressed  with  terrible  but  just 
severity  on  the  falling  state.  Money  could  not  be  obtained  from  Paris ; 
and  the  usual  resource  of  the  French  government  on  such  emergencies — 
that  of  levying  contributions — however  warmly  approved  while  foreign 
countries  bore  the  burden,  was  regarded  as  an  intolerable  grievance 
when  it  fell  upon  themselves.  Indeed,  the  exactions  of  the  French  au- 
thorities became  so  oppressive  that  numbers  of  the  peasantry  migrated 
into  the  British  lines,  where  they  not  only  escaped  forced  contributions, 
but  found  a  ready  market  and  liberal  price  for  all  their  commodities. 
An  official  letter,  written  from  Bayonne  at  this  period,  says,  "  The  English 
general's  policy  and  the  good  discipline  he  maintains,  does  us  more  harm 
than  ten  battles :  every  peasant  wishes  to  be  under  his  protection." 

Wellington  having,  on  the  8th  of  December,  completed  with  accuracy 
his  preparatory  movements,  ordered  the  attack  to  be  commenced  early 
on  the  following  morning ;  which  was  accordingly  done,  in  a  manner 


1813.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  379 

worthy  of  troops  accustomed  to  victory.  But  a  position  like  Soult's  could 
Dot  be  forced  by  any  hasty  assault ;  the  battle  in  front  of  Bayonne  was 
waged  with  determined  obstinacy  for  two  entire  days,  and  it  resulted  in 
the  retreat  of  the  French  to  a  circumscribed  line  within  the  protection  of 
the  fortress,  and  the  establishment  by  the  allies  of  a  rigid  blockade 
around  its  beleaguered  walls. 


CHAPTER    XLIV. 

EUROPE    IN   ARMS    AGAINST   FRANCE. 

WHEN  the  campaign  of  1813  terminated — when  the  remnant  of  the 
Grand  Army  \vended  its  way  across  the  Rhine,  and  the  once  triumphant 
Peninsular  host  abandoned  the  fields  of  Spain — the  magnitude  of  the  revo- 
lution it  had  effected  seemed  almost  beyond  the  power  of  belief.  Within 
a  little  more  than  three  months,  four  hundred  thousand  French  tioops, 
flushed  with  recent  victory,  had  been  grouped  around  the  fortresses  of  the 
Elbe ;  and  two  hundred  thousand,  proud  of  having  driven  the  British 
from  the  plains  of  Castile,  were  prepared  to  maintain,  on  the  Tormes  or 
the  Ebro,  the  long  disputed  dominion  of  the  Peninsula.  Yet,  of  all  this 
immense  force,  not  more  than  eighty  thousand  had  gained  the  left  bank 
of  the  Rhine,  and  but  a  similar  number  remained  to  check  the  progress 
of  the  invader  on  the  Adour  and  the  Pyrenees :  the  rest  had  fallen  before 
the  sword  of  the  enemy,  or  wasted  away  under  the  horrors  of  the  bivouac 
and  the  hospital,  or  were  shut  up  without  a  hope  of  escape  in  the  German 
fortresses.  The  few  who  had  regained  their  native  land,  bore  with  them 
an  incipient  contagion,  which  rendered  their  presence  a  source  of  weak- 
ness rather  than  strength  to  their  suffering  countrymen.  The  vast  fabric 
of  the  French  Empire  had  disappeared  like  a  cloud  ;  its  external  influ- 
ence, its  foreign  alliances,  had  vanished  ;  the  liberated  nations  of  Europe, 
with  shouts  of  triumph  and  songs  of  gratulation,  were  pressing  forward 
in  arms  to  overwhelm  its  remains  ;  and  the  mighty  victor,  reft  of  his  con- 
quests and  his  defenders,  was  exposed  to  the  combined  attack  of  those 
whom  former  wrongs  had  roused  to  resistance,  and  recent  heroism  led  to 
victory. 

The  forces  of  the  Revolution  had  hitherto  basked  in  the  sunshine  of 
prosperity  ;  but  the  period  now  approached  when  this  long  career  of 
fortune  was  to  be  succeeded  by  a  more  brief,  indeed,  but  also  more  stri- 
king course  of  adversity ;  when  the  armies  of  Europe,  instead  of  being 
arrayed  with  France  against  England,  were  to  be  leagued  with  England 
against  France  ;  when  disaster  was  to  break  in  pieces  the  supremacy  of 
former  times,  and  the  iron  was  to  enter  into  the  soul,  not  merely  of  the 
sinking  nation,  but  of  every  family  and  individual  of  which  it  was 
composed. 

Napoleon  set  out  for  Paris  from  Mayence  early  in  November,  and 
arrived  at  St.  Cloud  on  the  9th  of  that  month.  For  the  second  time, 
within  the  year,  he  had  returned  defeated  ;  his  army  lost,  his  power 
shaken,  and  his  glory  dimmed.  Nevertheless,  his  energies  were  equal 


330  HIS  TORY    OF    EUROPE  [CHAP.  XLIV 

•to  the  emergency.  He  immediately  convoked  the  Council  of  State,  to 
whom  he  made  a  candid  statement  of  his  losses,  and  represented  the  ne- 
cessity of  vigorous  measures  to  avert  the  danger  which  threatened  the 
Empire.  The  Council,  consisting  of  the  secretaries  of  state,  Talleyrand 
and  Mole,  implicitly  adopted  his  views,  averred  that  a  dictatorship  had 
become  indispensable,  and  that  vast  sacrifices  must  be  demanded  from 
France.  The  Emperor  set  the  example  of  such  sacrifice,  by  appropri- 
ating to  the  public  service  thirty  millions  of  francs  from  his  private 
treasure  in  the  Tuileries ;  and  he  speedily  gave  earnest  of  what  he  ex- 
pected from  his  subjects,  and  of  the  despotic  power  he  was  about  to 
exercise,  by  issuing,  of  his  own  authority  and  without  any  legislative 
sanction,  a  decree,  which  caused  an  addition  of  nearly  one-third  to  the 
land,  window  and  door-tax,  three-fifths  to  the  excise  duties  and  salt-tax, 
and  at  the  same  time  doubled  the  personal  tax.  Although  these  imposi- 
tions were  obviously  illegal,  even  according  to  the  shadow  of  constitu- 
tional freedom  that  remained  to  France  under  the  Imperial  regime,  no 
other  means  remained  of  replenishing  the  now  totally  exhausted  treasury. 
Public  credit,  too,  was  ruined :  the  three  per  cents,  stood  at  forty-five  , 
the  Bank  actions  of  one  thousand,  at  three  hundred  and  four ;  and  not  a 
capitalist  willing  to  advance  the  government  a  hundred  francs  could  be 
found  in  France. 

But,  however  indispensable  these  arbitrary  exactions  might  be  to  the 
public  necessities,  they  were  by  no  means  acceptable  to  the  nation.  The 
unparalleled  disasters  of  the  last  two  years,  and  the  continual  drain  of 
the  taxes  and  the  conscription  on  the  wealth  and  population  of  the  Em- 
pire, had  produced  a  general  discontent,  which  the  influence  of  the 
Imperial  government  could  not  stifle,  and  which  its  terrors  could  not 
overawe.  A  general  feeling  of  horror,  therefore,  spread  through  the 
community  at  the  announcement  of  new  taxes  and  a  further  conscription  ; 
and  the  unbending  character  and  notorious  ambition  of  the  Emperor, 
seemed  to  preclude  all  hope  of  the  termination  of  the  war  but  in  the 
destruction  of  France  itself.  The  temper  of  the  people  was  perhaps  best 
illustrated  by  the  tone  of  numerous  defamatory  couplets,  which  were  in- 
dustriously circulated,  and  eagerly  received  in  society :  one  of  these, 
affixed  to  the  column  in  the  Place  Vendome,  which  column  was  sur- 
mounted by  a  statue  of  the  Emperor,  bore  that  "  if  the  blood  which  the 
tyrant  had  shed  were  all  collected  in  that  square,  it  would  reach  to  his 
lips,  and  he  might  drink  it  without  stooping  his  head." 

Nothing  could  exceed  the  astonishment  of  the  inhabitants  on  the  west- 
ern bank  of  the  Rhine,  when  they  beheld  the  broken  remains  of  the 
French  army  crossing  that  river,  and  spreading  like  a  flood  over  the 
country.  The  number  of  the  fugitives  was  so  considerable,  that  the 
people,  whose  zeal  and  charity  were  taxed  to  the  utmost,  could  provide 
no  effectual  remedy  for  t  ^.e  suffering  host.  In  the  fortified  cities,  where 
the  greater  portion  of  the  t  >ldiers  sought  a  refuge,  they  endured  far  more 
misery  than  in  the  villages.  The  typhus  fever,  which  they  brought  with 
them  from  Germany,  soon  spread  to  such  a  degree  among  the  exhausted 
crowds  within  the  walled  towns,  that  not  only  a  large  portion  of  the  mili- 
tary, but  also  of  the  citizens,  were  prostrated  on  beds  of  sickness.  The 
hospitals,  churches,  halls  of  justice  and  private  houses,  overflowed  with 
a  ghastly  and  dying  multitude  ;  and  the  mortality  of  the  disease  increased 
so  rapidly,  that  "in  Mayence  alone  the  number  of  deaths,  for  several  sue- 


1813.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  381 

cessive  weeks,  was  not  less  than  five  hundred  a  day.  The  exhalations 
from  this  mass  of  dead  bodies,  which  the  survivors  with  all  their  efforts 
could  not  succeed  in  burying,  poisoned  the  atmosphere,  and  spread  an 
insupportable  and  pestilential  odor  throughout  the  city.  In  other  towns, 
when  the  churchyards  and  ordinary  places  of  sepulture  became  over- 
charged with  corses,  and  interment  in  coffins  was  impossible,  the  bodies 
were  thrown  into  trenches  without  the  walls ;  thousands  were  consigned 
to  the  Rhine,  whence  they  floated  down,  as  from  a  vast  field  of  carnage, 
to  the  German  Ocean  ;  and  even  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  were  polluted 
by  the  corses  which,  borne  by  the  waters  of  the  Elbe,  the  Oder,  and  the 
Vistula,  from  the  several  fortresses  on  their  banks,  proclaimed  the  end 
and  the  recompense  of  the  external  Revolutionary  government. 

The  internal  government  of  Marie  Louise,  as  regent,  after  the  departure 
of  the  Emperor  for  the  German  campaign,  was  little  calculated  either  to 
attract  the  admiration  or  dispel  the  anxieties  of  the  people.  She  fulfilled, 
with  docility,  all  the  forms  required  by  her  elevated  situation  ;  and,  inca- 
pable of  apprehending  the  perils  or  the  duties  that  attended  it,  she  listened 
with  impassible  temper  to  the  unbounded  flatteries  which  assailed  her, 
and  mechanically  made  the  fearful  demands  on  the  blood  of  her  subjects 
which  the  necessities  of  the  state  required.  In  August,  she  obtained  t 
temporary  respite  from  the  formalities  which  oppressed  her  in  the  capital, 
by  a  journey  to  Cherbourg,  where  she  beheld  the  completion  of  the  vast 
granite  basin  in  the  harbor  of  that  town,  commenced  under  the  reign  of 
Louis  XVI.,  and  continued  and  finished  by  the  unwearied  perseverance 
of  Napoleon.  On  her  return  to  Paris,  in  September,  she  was  required  to 
authorize  a  demand  of  tfye  Emperor  for  a  conscription  of  thirty  thousand 
men  from  the  southern  departments  ;  and,  on  the  10th  of  October,  she 
issued  another  requisition  for  two  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  from  the 
whole  Empire.  The  conscripts  were  ordered  to  be  taken  in  the  following 
proportions  :  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  from  the  class  which 
would  attain  the  legal  age  in  1814,  and  the  remainder  from  the  class  of 
1815  ;  this  demand,  therefore,  forced  into  the  army  youths  of  seventeen 
and  eighteen,  who  necessarily  were  hardly  capable  of  bearing  arms,  and 
wholly  unfit  to  withstand  the  fatigue  of  a  campaign. 

Yet  even  these  supplies  were  inadequate  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  Em- 
pire,  after  the  disasters  of  Leipsic  had  thrown  back  the  French  army 
behind  the  Rhine,  and  the  invasion  of  Wellington  had  exposed  the  de- 
fenceless condition  of  the  southern  frontier.  Accordingly,  the  day  after 
Napoleon  returned  to  Paris,  he  called  on  the  Senate  for  an  additional  levy 
of  three  hundred  thousand  men;  and  as  the  previous  conscriptions  had 
entirely  exhausted  the  youth  of  France,  this  requisition  was  applied  retro- 
spectively  to  the  classes  which  had  escaped,  or  endured  and  survived, 
that  terrible  ordeal  from  1803  to  1813.  Thus,  within  two  months,  six 
hundred  thousand  men  were  demanded  to  recruit  the  French  armies. 

Napoleon  next  prepared  to  resist  the  dreaded  invasion  of  the  allies; 
and  he  dispatched  engineers  to  the  principal  fortresses  on  the  northern 
frontier,  with  instructions  to  repair  the  walls,  arm  the  ramparts,  fortify  the 
bridges  and  defiles,  and  make  every  possible  arrangement  for  a  vigorous 
defence.  But  when  the  engineers  arrived  at  their  posts,  and  became 
acquainted  with  the  deplorable  state  of  the  army,  as  well  as  with  the 
want  of  magazines,  provisions,  and  artillery  for  putting  the  fortresses  in 
a  tenable  condition,  they  saw  that  the  Rhenish  frontier  couM  not  be  main- 


382  HISTORY    OF'EUROPE.  [Cnxt  XLIV. 

tained.  The  Rhine  presents,  indeed,  a  formidable  line  of  defence,  if 
guarded  by  four  hundred  thousand  men ;  but  it  cannot  be  held  by  sixty 
or  seventy  thousand  soldiers  worn  out  with  fatigue,  depressed  by  defeat, 
suffering  under  disease,  and  unsupplied  with  piovisicns  and  ammunition. 
Napoleon  resolved,  therefore,  to  abandon  the  Rhine,  and  fall  back  across 
the  Vosges  mountains. 

Meanwhile,  the  domestic  difficulties  of  France  fearfully  increased, 
owing  in  a  great  measure  to  the  enforcement  of  the  conscription.  The 
price  of  substitutes  rose  to  twenty-five  thousand,  and  in  some  cases  to 
thirty  thousand  francs.  Families  of  respectability  parted  with  tliuir  whole 
fortunes,  the  earnings  and  savings  of  a  long  life,  to  save  their  sons  from 
destruction  :  it  being  universally  understood,  and  not  the  less  true,  that 
purchasing  a  substitute  for  the  conscription  was  bribing  one  man  1  j  sacri- 
fice his  life  for  another.  Desertion,  too,  became  incessant,  ai-d  the  pre- 
fects were  constantly  occupied  in  enforcing  its  penalties.  Long  files  of 
young  conscripts  were  everywhere  to  be  seen  marching  to  their  places 
of  punishment,  with  haggard  visages,  downcast  eyes,  and  a  four-and- 
twenty  pound  shot  chained  to  their  ancles;  while  great  numbers,  espe- 
cially in  the  mountain  districts,  driven  to  desperation  by  the  fate  of  the 
battle-field  and  the  hospital  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  alternative  of  such  a 
punishment  on  the  other,  formed  themselves  into  roving  bands,  subsisted  by 
plunder,  and  bade  defiance  to  the  gendarmes  and  local  authorities.  Napo- 
leon, alarmed  at  this  dangerous  and  increasing  disaffection,  adjourned  the 
meeting- of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  to  the  19th  of  December,  hoping  that, 
in  the  interim,  the  negotiations  already  commenced  with  the  allies  might 
take  a  favorable  turn,  and  afford  at  least  a  prospect  of  peace,  to  satisfy  the 
general  desire  for  it,  in  which,  however,  he  did  not  participate.  At  the 
same  time,  to  prevent  the  discontent  from  affecting  the  voice  of  the  Depu- 
ties, the  Senate  passed  a  cecree  in  direct  violation  of  the  Constitution, 
empowering  the  Emperor  to  nominate  the  president  of  the  Chamber,  and 
prorogating  the  seats  of  those  deputies  whose  terms  had  expired,  that  the 
excitement  incident  to  new  elections  might  be  avoided. 

While  France  was  thus  reaping  the  legitimate  fruits  of  domestic  revolu- 
tion and  external  aggression,  England  exhibited  a  memorable  example  of 
the  opposite  results,  flowing  from  a  strictly  conservative  system  of  govern- 
ment; and  she  afforded  a  proof  of  the  almost  boundless  resources  which  a 
free  and  orderly  country  can  develope  during  a  protracted  and  arduous  war. 
Parliament  assembled  this  year  on  the  4th  of  November,  and  the  speech 
from  the  throne  dwelt  with  marked  emphasis  on  the  extraordinary  success 
of  the  last  campaign.  It  contained  also,  the  important  declaration,  that 
"no  disposition  to  require  from  France  sacrifices  of  any  description  incon- 
sistent with  her  honor  or  just  pretensions  as  a  nation,  will  ever  be,  on  the 
part  of  his  royal  highness,  the  prince  regent,  or  his  allies,  an  obstacle  to 
the  conclusion  of  peace."  The  address  in  answer,  moved  by  the  adhe- 
rents of  the  ministers,  was  agreed  to  in  both  houses  without  a  dissenting 
voice.  Still,  though  the  language  of  the  government  was  thus  pacific, 
its  ministers,  like  prudent  statesmen— who  know  that  the  olive-branch  is 
in  vain  tendered  with  one  hand,  if  the  sword  be  not  at  the  same  time  un- 
sheathed in  the  other — not  only  admitted  no  relaxation  in  their  warlike 
efforts,  but  prepared  to  maintain  the  contest  on  a  scale  more  colossal! 
than  before. 

The  allied  sovereigns  at  Frankfort  had,  in  the  meantime,  adopted  a 


1813.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE  383 

measure  which,  more  than  any  other,  tended  to  elevate  their  cause  in 
the  estimation  of  mankind,  and  to  sever  Napoleon  from  the  support  of  the 
French  people.  The  Baron  Saint  Aignan,  ambassador  of  France  at  the 
court  of  Saxe-Weimar,  had  been  made  prisoner  during  the  advance  of 
the  allies  to  the  Rhine;  and  he  was  received,  after  his  capture,  with 
marked  kindness  by  Metternich,  who  assured  him,  in  the  most  emphatic 
terms,  of  the  anxious  wish  of  the  allied  powers,  and  especially  of  his  own 
sovereign,  for  a  general  peace.  Five  days  after  this,  the  assembled 
monarchs  sent  for  the  count,  reiterated  in  person  their  pacific  desires, 
and  sent  him  to  Paris  with  a  private  letter  from  the  Emperdr  Francis  to 
Marie  Louise ;  they  sent  also  a  diplomatic  note  signed  by  the  whole  con- 
ference,  stating  the  conditions  on  which  they  were  willing  to  negotiate. 
The  basis  of  these  conditions  was,  that  France  should  be  restricted  to  her 
natural  limits,  between  the  Rhine,  the  Alps  and  the  Pyrenees ;  that 
Spain  should  be  restored  to  its  legitimate  dynasty ;  and  that  the  inde- 
pendence of  Italy  and  Germany  should  be  secured  to  princes  of  their 
native  families.  The  count  was  assured  that  if  these  terms  were  agreed 
to,  England  would  make  great  sacrifices,  and  recognize  every  liberty  of 
commerce  and  navigation  to  which  France  had  any  claim,  and  that 
nothing  would  be  insisted  on  hostile  to  the  dynasty  of  Napoleon. 

To  these  propositions,  Maret,  on  the  part  of  the  French  Emperor,  re- 
plied, that  a  peace  concluded  on  the  basis  of  the  independence  of  all 
nations,  as  well  in  a  continental  as  in  a  maritime  point  of  view,  had  been 
the  constant  object  of  his  majesty's  solicitude ;  and  he  designated  the  city 
of  Manheim,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  as  an  eligible  place  for  con- 
ducting the  negotiations.  But  he  avoided  saying  whether  Napoleon 
would  accede  to  the  terms  proposed  by  the  allies — an  omission  of  which 
Metternich  complained,  as  that  point  was  vital  to  any  subsequent  discus- 
sion. Maret  again  replied,  that  in  admitting  as  a  basis  the  independence 
of  all  nations,  Napoleon  had,  in  effect,  admitted  all  that  the  allies  claimed; 
and  with  this  explanation  Metternich  professed  himself  satisfied. 

Hitherto,  therefore,  everything  seemed  to  augur  well  for  the  opening 
of  the  negotiation;  and  the  better  to  set  forth  their  views,  the  allied  sove- 
reigns published  a  manifesto,  dated  Frankfort,  1st  of  December,  1813.  of 
the  principles  on  which  they  were  willing  to  treat,  and  the  objects  for 
which  the  Alliance  contended:  and  the  history  of  the  world  does  not 
contain  a  more  noble  instance  of  justice  and  moderation  in  the  hour  of 
triumph.  "The  allied  powers,"  it  declared,  "desirous  of  obtaining  a 
general  peace  on  a  solid  foundation,  promulgate,  in  the  face  of  the  world, 
the  principles  which  are  the  basis  and  guide  of  their  conduct,  their  wishes 
and  their  determinations.  The  allied  powers  do  not  make  war  on  France, 
but  on  that  preponderance  of  power  which,  to  the  misfortune  of  Europe 
and  of  France,  the  Emperor  Napoleon  has  long  exercised  beyond  the 
limits  of  his  dominions.  They  desire  that  France  should  be  powerful  and 
happy  ;  that  commerce  should  revive  and  the  arts  flourish  ;  tha!  her  ter- 
ritory should  preserve  an  extent  unknown  to  her  ancient  kings ;  because 
the  French  nation  is,  in  Europe,  one  of  the  fundamental  bases  of  the 
social  edifice ;  because  a  great  people  can  be  happy  only  so  long  as  they 
are  tranquil ;  because  a  brave  nation  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  overthrown 
when,  in  its  turn,  it  has  experienced  reverses,  after  a  struggle  in  which  it 
has  combated  with  its  accustomed  valor :  but  the  allied  powers  wish  to 
be  themselves  happy  and  tranquil ;  they  wish  a  state  of  peace  which,  by 

35 


384  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  [CnAr.  XLIV 

a  wise  division  of  power,  by  a  just  equilibrium,  may  hereafter  preserve 
their  people  from  the  calamities,  that  for  twenty  years,  have  oppressed 
Europe.  The  allied  powers  will  not  lay  down  their  arms  until  they 
have  attained  that  result;  they  will  not  lay  them  down  until  the  political 
state  of  Europe  is  secured  anew;  until  the  immutable  principles  of  justice 
have  resumed  their  ascendant  over  vain  pretensions ;  and  until  the  sanc- 
tity of  treaties  has  finally  secured  the  tranquillity  of  Europe." 

When  sentiments  so  elevated  and  generous  were  proclaimed  by  the 
allied  powers,  it  might  reasonably  have  been  expected  that  the  negotia- 
tions would  immediately  commence  on  the  part  of  the  French  govern- 
ment :  assuredly,  never  before  were  a  defeated  monarch  and  nation  thus 
invited  to  concur  in  the  pacification  of  the  world.  Nevertheless,  Napo- 
leon delayed  his  proceedings  by  every  possible  expedient,  and  six  weeks 
after  Saint.  Aignan  had  been  dispatched  with  these  pacific  overtures,  the 
plenipotentiaries  were  not* yet  designated.  The  allies  accepted  the  basis 
suggested  by  Napoleon,  on  the  10th  of  December;  but  their  letter,  notify- 
ing such  acceptance,  was  not  answered  by  Caulincourt  until  the  6th  of 
January — previous  to  which  time  the  allies  had  crossed  the  Rhine  at  all 
points,  and  carried  the  war  into  the  French  territory  :  consequently  the 
negotiation,  at  a  still  later  period,  commenced  at  Chatillon.  Napoleon, 
in  fact, had  now  no  pacific  intentions;  but  desired,  by  means  of  equivoca- 
tion and  delay,  to  gain  time  to  complete  his  defensive  preparations. 
Nothing  could  be  further  from  his  purpose  than  to  withdraw  permanently 
behind  the  Rhine,  the  Alps  and  the  Pyrenees :'  and  although  the  other 
sovereigns  were  desirous  of  an  accommodation,  Alexander,  thoroughly 
penetrating  the  character  of  the  despot,  and  with  reason  doubting  whether 
actual  peace  with  Napoleon  were  practicable,  believed  that  the  wiser 
plan  for  the  alliance  was  to  await  the  course  of  military  events,  and  not 
enter  into  engagements  which  might  prove  prejudicial  to  the  common 
cause.  The  negotiation,  therefore,  that  at  first  promised  so  much,  came 
to  nothing — the  views  of  the  contracting  parties  were  so  much  at  variance, 
that  the  great  question  of  peace  or  war  could  be  decided  only  by  the 
sword 

Napoleon  ostensibly  entertained  the  allies'  proposals  for  peace,  to  gain 
the  further  benefit  of  stating  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  that  negotiations 
were  in  progress.  But  the  members  of  that  body  were  not  to  be  amused  by 
vague  generalities,  nor  deceived  by  specious  representations ;  and,  notwith- 
standing the  pains  taken  by  almost  absolute  power  to  exclude  from  seats 
in  the  Chamber  all  but  those  wholly  devoted  to  Napoleon,  it  soon  appeared 
that  the  action  of  a  large  party  in  that  assembly  was  beyond  the  Emperor's 
control.  The  first  serious  business  undertaken  by  the  Senate  and  Cham- 
ber was  the  nomination,  by  each,  of  a  committee,  to  whom  the  documents 
connected  with  the  negotiations  for  peace  should  be  submitted.  The 
persons  designated  for  this  purpose  by  the  Senate,  being  strongly  in  the 
interest  of  Napoleon,  were  accepted  by  him  ;  but  in  the  Chamber,  a  list 
of  names  that  had  been  officially  circulated  for  adoption  by  the  deputies, 
was  rejected  by  a  considerable  majority ;  and  in  its  stead,  a  committee  of 
individuals,  who,  with  the  exception  of  Laine,  were  previously  unknown, 
was  appointed.  From  this  it  might  easily  be  foreseen,  that  a  serious  contest 
with  his  own  legislature  awaited  the  Emperor. 

At  a  secret  meeting  of  the  Chamber,  on  the  28th  of  December,  Laine, 
chairman  of  the  committee  thus  appointed,  submitted  a  report,  which  set 


1813.]  HISTORY    OF    EUR  OPE.  385 

forth  that,  "  to  prevent  the  country  from  becoming  a  prey  to  foreigners, 
it  is  indispensable  to  nationalize  the  war :  and  this  cannot  be  done  unless 
the  people  and  their  sovereign  are  united  by  closer  bonds.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  give  a  satisfactory  answer  to  our  enemies'  accusation  of  a  desire 
for  aggrandizement ;  and  there  would  be  magnanimity  in  the  formal 
declaration  that  the  independence  of  the  French  people,  and  the  integrity 
of  its  territory,  is  all  that  we  contend  for.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  govern- 
ment to  propose  measures  which  may  at  once  repel  the  invaders,  and 
secure  peace  on  a  durable  basis.  These  measures  would  be  immediately 
efficacious,  if  the  French  people  were  persuaded  that  their  monarch,  in 
good  faith,  aspires  only  to  the  glory  of  peace,  and  that  their  blood  will  no 
longer  be  shed  but  to  defend  our  country  and  secure  the  protection  of  the 
laws.  Bui  these  words,  *  peace'  and  '  country,'  will  resound  in  vain,  if 
the  institutions  which  secure  these  blessings  are  not  guarantied.  It  ap- 
pears to  the  committee,  therefore,  to  be  indispensable  that,  while  the  gov- 
ernment proposes  the  most  prompt  and  efficacious  measures  for  the  security 
of  the  country,  his  majesty  should  be  supplicated  to  maintain  entire  the 
execution  of  the  laws  which  guaranty  to  the  French  liberty  and  security, 
and  to  the  nation  the  free  exercise  of  its  political  rights. 

"  Let  us  attempt  no  dissimulation  :  our  evils  are  at  their  height ;  our 
frontiers  are  menaced  by  the  enemy ;  commerce  is  annihilated ;  agricul- 
ture languishe-s,  and  industry  is  expiring :  there  is  no  Frenchman  who 
has  not,  in  his  family  or  his  fortune,  some  cruel  wound.  The  facts  are 
aotorious,  and  can  never  be  too  often  repeated.  Agriculture,  for  the  last 
$ve  years,  has  gained  nothing ;  the  fruit  of  its  toil  is  annually  dissipated 
by  the  treasury,  which  unceasingly  devours  everything  to  satisfy  the 
cravings  of  ruined  and  famished  armies.  The  conscription  has  become 
a  frightful  scourge  for  all  France.  Since  1810,  the  harvest  of  death  has 
been  reaped  three  times  in  each  year.  A  barbarous  war,  without  an 
object,  cuts  off  all  the  youth  of  the  land.  Have,  then,  the  tears  of  mothers 
and  the  blood  of  whole  generations  become  the  patrimony  of  kings  ?  It  is 
fit  that  nations  should  have  a  moment's  breathing-time,  that  thrones  should 
be  consolidated,  and  that  our  enemies  should  be  deprived  of  the  argument 
that  we  are  constantly  striving  to  inflame  the  world  with  the  torch  of 
revolution." 

The  reading  of  the  report,  from  which  these  passages  are  extracted, 
raised  a  storm  in  the  Chamber.  It  was  so  long  since  liberty  and  political 
rights  had  been  discussed  within  those  walls,  that  the  courtiers  started  as 
if  they  had  heard  treason  proposed.  The  president  interrupted  the  read- 
ing. "Orator,"  said  he,  "what  you  say  is  unconstitutional."  "In 
what?"  demanded  Laine ;  "there  is  nothing  unconstitutional  here  but 
your  presence  !"  After  some  discussion  the  debate  was  adjourned  to  the 
30th,  and  an  overwhelming  majority  voted  an  address  to  the  Emperor, 
and  decreed  the  printing  and  circulation  of  Laine's  report.  Napoleon, 
however,  ordered  the  printing  to  be  stopped,  refused  to  receive  the  address, 
and  compelled  the  Council  of  State  to  issue  a  decree  dissolving  the  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies. 

The  presence  of  external  danger  at  this  period,  extorted  from  Napoleon 
two  important  concessions  in  foreign  diplomacy,  which,  of  themselves, 
implied  a  total  abandonment,  on  his  part,  of  the  chief  objects  of  his  Conti- 
nental policy,  and  were  calculated  to  effect  an  entire  change  in  the  re- 
lations of  the  Euror3an  states  to  each  other. 


386  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLIV. 

The  former  of  these  was  the  treaty  of  Valenc,ay,  by  which  the  French 
Emperor,  abandoning  the  pretensions  of  his  brother  Joseph,  agreed  to 
liberate  Ferdinand  VII.  from  his  imprisonment,  and  restore  him  to  the 
throne  of  Spain.  It  was  further  stipulated  in  this  instrument,  that  the 
British  troops  should  retire  from  the  Spanish  territory  ;  that  Port  Mahon 
and  Ceuta  should  never  be  ceded  to  Great  Britain  ;  that  the  contracting 
parties  should  guaranty  each  other's  dominions,  and  maintain  the  rights 
of  their  respective  flags,  agreeably  to  the  conditions  of  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht ;  and  that  the  late  monarch  should  receive  an  annuity  of  thirty 
millions  of  reals.  It  was  also  provided,  that  the  treaty  should  be  binding 
when  ratified  by  the  regency  established  at  Madrid.  The  regency  and 
the  Cortes,  however,  had  the  sense  and  firmness  to  refuse  their  ratifica- 
tion :  Ferdinand  was,  nevertheless,  sent  back  to  Spain. 

Napoleon's  second  concession  was,  a  consent  to  liberate  the  pope  from 
his  protracted  and  painful  confinement  at  Fontainebleau.  The  detention 
of  the  Supreme  Pontiff  had  long  scandalized  all  Christendom,  and  the 
French  Emperor  had  felt  the  consequence  of  the  general  indignation  it 
excited,  in  the  inveterate  hostility  of  the  Peninsular  War,  as  well  as  in 
the  readiness  with  which  Austria  had  joined  her  forces  to  those  of  the 
European  confederacy.  With  the  twofold  purpose,  therefore,  of  taking 
this  argument  from  his  enemies,  and  of  propitiating  Austria — for  he  never 
ceased  to  expect  secret  favor  from  that  power,  by  reason  of  his  matrimo- 
nial alliance — he  made  overtures  to  the  pope  early  in  January,  1814, 
offering  to  restore  the  territory  of  the  Holy  See  as  far  as  Perugio.  The 
pope  replied,  that  the  restitution  of  his  dominions  was  an  act  of  simple 
justice  which  could  not  be  a  fit  subject  of  treaty,  especially  while  he  re- 
mained in  captivity.  He  added,  "  Possibly,  by  reason  of  our  faults,  we 
are  unworthy  again  to  behold  the  Eternal  City ;  but  our  successors  will 
recover  the  dominions  that  appertain  to  them.  You  may  assure  the  Em- 
peror that  we  feel  no  hostility  toward  him ;  religion  does  not  permit  it ; 
and,  when  we  are  at  Rome,  we  shall  do  what  is  suitable."  The  neces- 
sities of  Napoleon,  however,  forced  him  to  disembarrass  himself  of  the 
presence  of  the  pope,  even  though  he  could  not  extort  from  him  anything 
with  which  to  prop  up  the  falling  Empire  of  France  ;  accordingly,  on  the 
22nd  of  January,  his  holiness  was  conveyed  from  Fontainebleau  toward 
the  southern  departments.  Yet  even  in  this  compulsory  act,  the  grasping 
disposition  of  Napoleon  was  rendered  apparent:  for,  on  various  frivolous 
pretexts,  he  threw  obstacles  in  the  way  of  the  pontiff's  journey,  hoping 
that  a  change  of  fortune  in  the  field  would  still  enable  him  to  recall  and 
retain  so  notable  a  prisoner. 

Murat  was  at  this  time  in  negotiation  both  with  Napoleon  and  with  the 
allied  powers;  his  purpose  being  at  all  hazards  to  maintain  his  throne,  by 
uniting  himself  to  whichever  of  the  belligerent  parties  was,  in  his  judgment, 
likely  to  prove  successful.  He  eventually  came  to  terms  with  the  allies, 
and  concluded  a  treaty  with  them  on  the  llth  of  January,  by  which  they 
guarantied  his  dominions,  and  he  agreed  to  join  their  forces  on  the  Po 
with  thirty  thousand  men.  As  soon  as  this  treaty  was  signed,  he  marched 
an  army,  twenty  thousand  strong,  against  Rome,  and  drove  the  French 
garrison  into  the  castle  of  St.  Angelo. 

In  the  general  anxiety  to  retain  dignities  and  possessions,  even  Eugene 
Beauharnois  became  infected  with  the  disloyalty  of  the  period.  He  in- 
deed publicly  averred,  that  he  would  never  separav  ^  himself  from  his 


J14.)  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  397 

benefactor,  yet  in  secret  he  received  overtures  from  the  allies,  and  sent  a 
plenipotentiary  to  Chatillon  to  negotiate  for  his  separate  interests.  His 
purposes  were  eventually  defeated  ;  but  this  was  owing  to  the  impossibility 
of  reconciling  his  pretensions  with  the  ambitious  views  of  Austria,  not  to 
any  disinclination  on  his  part  to  desert  the  cause  of  Napoleon. 

A  more  honorable  constancy,  at  least  in  intention,  was  exhibited  in  the 
north  of  Europe:  but  the  march  of  events  could  not  be  controlled  ;  and 
;,he  most  faithful  allies  of  France  were  compelled  to  range  themselves  on 
the  side  of  the  European  Confederacy.  The  Danes,  jealous  of  Russia  to 
the  last  degree,  and  hostile  toward  England  for  twice  invading  her  shores 
and  conquering  her  capital,  entertained  strong  predilections  for  the 
French  alliance.  Nevertheless,  separated  from  the  armies  of  Napoleon 
by  the  evacuation  of  Germany  ;  unable  to  succor  or  derive  aid  from  the 
corps  of  Davoust  blockaded  in  Hamburg ;  menaced  by  the  forces  of 
Bernadotte  on  the  south  and  the  fleets  of  England  on  the  north,  the  cab- 
inet of  Copenhagen  had  no  alternative  but  submission,  even  at  the  ex- 
pense of  severing  Norway  from  their  dominions.  A  treaty  was  therefore 
concluded  between  Denmark  and  the  allies,  on  the  14th  of  January, 
stipulating  that  the  former  should  join  the  coalition  against  France,  and 
furnish  for  the  common  cause  an  army,  the  strength  of  which  should 
thereafter  be  determined.  The  King  of  Denmark  agreed  to  the  cession 
of  Norway  to  Sweden  ;  the  King  of  Sweden  engaging  to  maintain  invi- 
olate the  rights  and  privileges  of  its  inhabitants ;  and  Denmark  received  in 
exchange  the  Duchy  of  Fomerania,  and  the  island  of  Rugen. 

The  allied  congress  at  Frankfort,  after  adjusting  the  pretensions,  deter- 
mining the  reclamations,  and  soothing  the  jealousies  of  the  numerous 
princes  of  the  Rhenish  Confederacy,  had  a  delicate  and  complicated  task 
to  fulfil  in  combining  their  several  powers  into  one  effective  league  for 
the  prosecution  of  the  war.  TIl£  general  enthusiasm,  however,reji4e*ed 
these  difficulties  less  formidable tliant^evjwpuTd"  ha^e^een_aFa^jMj^pr 
pe  rlolTifancr  tKe^previous"^^^^^.^^  oiNapoIeon  presented'  a  syste  m , 


____, construction, 

against  "  "*""* 

<^^  ^ 

ano24tiro"f  November,  1813,  the  important  objects  were  secured  of  provi- 
ding for  the  maintenance  of  the  Grand  Army,  and  regulating  the  contingents 
to  be  furnished  by  the  German  princes  who  had  joined  the  Confederacy. 
Each  of  these  princes  agreed  to  procure  at  once,  on  his  own  credit,  a 
sum  equal  to  the  gross  revenue  of  his  dominions:  and  the  sum  thus  raised 
exceeded  seventeen  millions  of  florins.  The  contingent  of  each  state  was 
rated  at  double  that  which  it  had  furnished  to  the  Confederation  of  the 
Rhine;  one-half  to  consist  of  troops  of  the  line,  and  the  other  half  of 
landvvehr,  or  militia :  in  addition  to  this,  corps  of  volunteers  were  allowed 
to  be  raised,  and  the  landsturm,  or  levy  en  masse,  was  organized  in  all 
countries  that  seemed  to  require  such  extraordinary  precautions.  The 
troops  of  the  line  thus  levied,  independent  of  the  Bavarian  forces,  thirty- 
five  thousand  strong,  amounted  to  more  than  a  hundred  thousand,  besides 
an  equal  number  of  landwehr.  Of  these,  Saxony  furnished  twenty  thou- 
sand ;  Hanover,  twenty  thousand  ;  Hesse,  twelve  thousand  ;  Wirtemberg, 
twelve  thousand ;  and  Baden,  ten  thousand ;  the  smaller  provinces  com- 
pleted the  remainder. 

The  accession  of  Switzerland  to  the  Alliance,  which  took  place  on  the 
29th  of  December,  resulted  rather  from  necessity  than  from  voluntary 

35* 


388  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLIV. 

action — the  allied  forces  having  first  entered  the  Swiss  territories  in  great 
strength,  and  insisted  on  the  cooperation  of  the  Helvetic  Confederacy. 
Thus  adjured,  a  majority  of  the  deputies  of  the  old  Cantons,  Uri,  Schwytz, 
Lucerne,  Zurich,  Glarus,  Zug,  Fribourg,  Bale,  Sciiaffhausen  and  Ap- 
penzel,  annulled  the  constitution  introduced  by  Napoleon,  and  promul- 
gated the  principle  that  no  one  Canton  should  be  subject  to  another 
Canton  :  a  declaration  which,  by  virtually  raising  the  hitherto  dependent 
districts  of  St.  Gall,  Thurgovia,  Argovia,  and  the  Pays  de  Vaud,  to  the 
rank  of  independent  members  of  the  Confederacy,  laid  the  foundation  of 
a  more  equal  government  in  future  times. 

The  forces  which  the  allied  powers  had  assembled  by  the  end  of  De- 
cember, to  cooperate  in  the  projected  invasion  of  France,  were  thus 
disposed.  The  Grand  Army,  still  under  the  immediate  direction  of 
Schwartzenberg,  numbered  two  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  combatants, 
and  was  destined  to  act  on  the  side  of  Switzerland  and  Franche  Compte, 
where  there  were  no  fortresses  except  Besancon,  Huningen,  and  Sarre 
Louis.  The  second  army,  still  called  the  army  of  Silesia,  under  the 
orders  of  Blucher,  amounted  to  a  hundred  and  thirty-seven  thousand 
men,  and  occupied  the  northeastern  frontier  of  France,  between  Mayence 
and  Coblentz,  and  threatened  it  on  the  side  of  Champagne  and  the  Vosges 
mountains.  The  third  army,  under  Bernadotte,  mustering  a  hundred 
and  seventy-four  thousand  soldiers,  lay  on  the  Lower  Rhine,  between  Co- 
logne and  Dusseldorf,  with  the  iron  barrier  of  the  Netherlands,  yet  in  the 
enemy's  hands,  directly  in  their  front.  Besides  these  immense  masses, 
the  allies  had  collected,  or  were  collecting,  reserves  from  the  various 
states  of  the  Confederacy,  to  the  number  of  no  less  than  two  hundred  and 
thirty-five  thousand  men :  these,  with  eighty  thousand  under  Bellegarde, 
destined  to  act  in  the  north  of  Italy,  and  a  hundred  and  forty  thousand 
British,  Portuguese  and  Spaniards  under  Wellington  in  Beam  and  Cata- 
lonia, formed  a  grand  total  of  ONE  MILLION  AND  TWENTY-SIX  THOUSAND 
MEN  in  arms  against  France.  All  the  troops,  of  which  this  stupendous 
host  was  composed,  were  not  yet  present  in  the  field,  although  they  could 
be  eventually  relied  on :  but  a  large  proportion  of  the  whole  were  actu- 
ally organized  for  efficient  operations. 

Napoleon  could  bring  but  an  inadequate  force  to  oppose  this  enormous 
array  ;  his  total  musters  at  all  points,  scarcely  exceeded  two  hundred 
and  fifty  thousand  men  for  the  defence  of  the  Empire.  They  were  thus 
distributed  :  fifty  thousand,  under  Eugene  in  Italy,  maintained  a  doubt- 
ful defensive  against  the  Austrians ;  a  hundred  thousand,  under  Soult, 
in  Beam,  and  Suchet,  in  Catalonia,  struggled  against  Wellington ;  and 
Napoleon  had  at  his  disposal  but  a  hundred  and  ten  thousand  to  resist  the 
invasion  of  the  allies  on  the  Rhine.  In  explanation  of  the  small  num- 
bers of  these  forces,  it  remains  to  be  said,  that  the  recent  conscriptions 
had,  by  reason  of  evasion  or  desertion  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  actual 
deficiency  of  male  population  on  the  other,  almost  utterly  failed. 


CHAPTER    XLV. 

FIRST    CAMPAIGN    OF    1814. 

ON  the  night  of  December  20th,  1813,  the  army  of  Schwartzenberg, 
wo  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  strong,  passed  the  Rhine,  between  Shaff- 
haussen  and  Bale,  and  overspread  the  adjacent  districts  of  Switzerland 
and  France.  The  several  corps  soon  separated  themselves  under  their 
different  leaders,  and  took  the  directions  assigned  them  in  the  plan  of  the 
campaign.  Bubna,  with  the  left  wing,  marched  toward  Geneva ;  the 
centre,  under  Hesse-Homberg,  Colloredo,  Prince  Louis  of  Lichtenstein, 
Gialay  and  Bianchi,  proceeded  by  the  great  road  of  Vesnoul  toward 
Langres ;  while  Wrede,  the  Prince  Royal  of  Wirtemberg,  and  Wittgen- 
stein, with  the  right  wing,  moved  across  Lorraine  and  Franche  Compte, 
until  they  gained  the  line  of  the  centre  on  the  road  to  Langres.  Bubna 
reached  Geneva  on  the  30th,  and  the  garrison  of  that  town  capitulated, 
on  condition  of  being  sent  to  France;  detachments  of  his  corps  afterward 
readily  made  themselves  masters  of  the  passes  of  the  Simplon  and  the 
Great  St.  Bernard;  thus  interposing  between  France  and  Italy,  and 
cutting  off  Napoleon's  communications  with  Eugene.  The  centre,  mean- 
while, pressed  forward  through  Vesnoul  and  invested  Besancon,  Befort 
and  Huningen ;  and  Victor,  unable  to  wiVhstand  such  masses,  fell  back 
from  the  defiles  of  the  Vosges  mountains  toward  Champagne.  The 
Emperor  in  vain  dispatched  Mortier  to  the  support  of  Victor;  their  united 
forces  were  inadequate  to  make  head  against  the  invaders ;  and,  on  the 
16th  of  January,  Langres — the  most  valuable  post,  in  a  strategetical 
point  of  view,  in  the  East  of  France — was  abandoned  by  the  two  marshals 
and  occupied  by  the  allies. 

The  army  of  Blucher  commenced  the  passage  of  the  Rhine,  at  several 
points,  on  the  31st  of  December.  Sacken,  with  one  division,  crossed  at 
Manheim  by  means  of  a  flotilla  assembled  at  the  confluence  of  the  Neckar. 
D'York  and  Langeron  passed  on  a  bridge  of  boats  at  Caube,  near  Bacha- 
rach ;  and  St.  Priest  forced  his  way  across  opposite  Coblentz.  In  one  of 
the  squares  of  the  last  mentioned  town,  stood  a  monument  erected  by  the 
prefect  to  commemorate  the  occupation  of  Moscow  by  the  French.  Its 
inscription  ran  thus :  "  To  the  Great  Napoleon,  in  honor  of  the  Immortal 
Campaign  of  1812."  Colonel  Mardeuke,  who  took  command  of  Coblentz, 
instead  of  destroying  this  monument,  embellished  it  with  the  following 
additional  inscription:  "Seen  and  approved  by  the  Russian  commander 
of  Coblentz,  in  181 3."  Blucher  pressed  on  with  great  impetuosity,  taking, 
successively,  Kayserbautern,  Nancy,  Brienne  and  St.  Dizier,  which  last 
place  he  gained. on  the  25th  of  January. 

Indeed,  within  a  month  from  the  invasion  of  the  French  territory,  nearly 
one  third  of  its  extent  had  been  wrested  by  the  allies  from  the  grasp  of 
Napoleon.  The  army  of  Silesia  had  conquered  the  country  from  the 
Rhine  to  the  Marne,  crossed  the  Sarre,  the  Moselle  and  the  Meuse,  passed 
the  formidable  defiles  of  the  Vosges  and  Hundswick  mountains,  and  de- 
scended into  the  plains  of  Champagne.  Schwartzenberg  had  crossed  the 
Upper  Rhine,  traversed  part  of  Switzerland,  surmounted  the  lofty  ridge 


390  IIISTORYOFEUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLV. 

of  the  Jura,  overrun  Franche  Compte,  Lorraine,  and  Alsace,  gained  the 
plains  of  Burgundy,  and  entered  into  communication  with  the  army  of 
Silesia,  by  means  of  his  right  wing,  while  his  left  occupied  Geneva  and 
the  defiles  of  the  Aisne,  and  threatened  Lyons.  Thus  their  united  forces 
extended  nearly  three  hundred  miles  in  a  diagonal  line  across  France, 
from  the  frontiers  of  Flanders  to  the  banks  of  the  Rhone  :  all  the  inter- 
mediate country  in  their  rear — embracing  a  third  of  the  old  monarchy, 
and  comprehending  its  most  warlike  provinces — was  cut  off;  its  fortresses 
being  blockaded  and  its  resources  lost  to  Napoleon. 

Bernadotte  was  not  long  in  following  the  lead  of  invasion.  One  of  his 
corps,  under  Winzingerode,  advanced  toward  Brussels  on  the  15th  of 
January,  and  forced  Macdonald,  who  commanded  the  French  forces  in 
that  quarter,  to  fall  back  upon  Namur.  The  allies  took  possession  of 
Juliers  and  Liege  on  the  18th  ;  and  on  the  26th,  Macdonald,  in  obedience 
to  the  orders  of  Napoleon,  retired  toward  Laon,  abandoning  all  the  open 
country  of  Flanders,  and  leaving  Antwerp  to  its  own  resources.  Winzin- 
gerode immediately  occupied  Namur,  and  Bulow  established  the  blockade 
of  Antwerp. 

Before  taking  command  of  the  army,  Napoleon  made  new  arrange- 
ments for  the  administration  of  the  government  during  his  absence.  The 
regency  was  conferred  by  letters  patent  on  Marie  Louise,  and  his  brother 
Joseph  was  created  lieutenant-general  of  the  Empire.  On  Sunday,  the 
23rd,  after  hearing  mass,  tjie  Emperor  received  the  principal  officers  of 
the  National  Guard  at  the  Tuileries,  where  his  little  son  was  brought 
forward,  dressed  in  the  uniform  of  that  corps.  Napoleon  took  the  child 
by  the  hand,  and  advancing  into  the  midst  of  the  circle  of  guests,  thus 
addressed  them  :  "  Gentlemen,  as  I  am  going  to  join  the  army,  I  intrust 
to  you  what  I  hold  dearest  in  the  world — my  wife  and  my  son.  Let 
there  be  no  political  divisions ;  let  the  respect  for  property,  the  mainte- 
nance of  order,  and,  above  all,  the  love  of  France,  animate  every  bosom. 
I  will  not  deny  that,  in  the  military  operations  about  to  ensue,  the  enemy 
may  approach  in  force  to  Paris :  but  it  will  be  an  affair  of  a  few  days 
only.  I  shall  soon  be  on  their  flanks  and  rear,  and  destroy  those  who 
have  dared  to  invade  our  country."  Then,  taking  the  child  in  his  arms, 
he  went  nrough  the  ranks  of  the  officers  and  presented  him  to  them  as 
their  future  sovereign.  On  the  day  following,  he  burned  his  most  secret 
papers,  gave  his  final  instructions  to  Joseph  and  the  Council  of  State,  and 
early  on  the  25th  he  set  forth  on  his  journey,  after  embracing  the  Empress 
and  his  son  FOR  THE  LAST  TIME  :  he  never  saw  them  again. 

In  the  afternoon  of  thai  day,  Napoleon  reached  Chalons-sur-Marne, 
and,  on  the  26th,  advanced  his  head-quarters  to  Vitry.  On  the  27th,  the 
army  resumed  its  march,  and  the  vanguard  soon  encountered  Blucher's 
Cossacks,  who  were  moving  from  St.  Dizier  upon  Vitry.  These  wild 
troops,  surprised  on  their  route,  were  easily  defeated,  and  the  French 
entered  St.  Dizier,  which  had  been  for  some  days  in  the  hands  of  the 
allies.  In  the  meantime,  Blucher,  with  characteristic  impatience,  had 
divided  his  centre,  and  at  the  head  of  one  detachment,  twenty-six  thousand 
strong,  hastened  in  person  to  Brienne,  while  D'York,  with  twenty  thousand, 
moved  to  St.  Michel  on  the  Meuse,  and  Sacken  took  post  with  his  corps 
at  Lesmont :  so  that  Napoleon,  by  his  march  to  St.  Dizier,  had  placed 
himself  between  the  corps  of  the  Silesian  army,  and  could  fall  on  its 
separate  divisions  with  superior  forces.  Improving  this  advantage  to  the 


1814.]  HISTORY     OF    EUROPE.  391 

utmost,  he  hastened  to  attack  Blucher,  who  was  so  wholly  unconscious 
of  his  danger,  that,  on  the  morning  of  the  28th,  the  French  troops  had 
approached  to  within  a  half-day's  march  of  the  allied  position ;  but  at 
this  critical  moment  Blucher  received  intelligence  of  their  movements, 
and  in  some  degree  prepared  himself  for  their  assault. 

Brienne  stands  on  a  hill-side,  and  its  streets  rise  in  successive  tiers  one 
above  another,  until  they  reach  the  summit,  which  is  crowned  with  a 
strong  castle.  Napoleon  made  a  vigorous  attack  both  on  the  town  and 
on  the  detachment  of  allies  in  its  front,  and  he  eventually  forced  the  latter 
to  retire  within  the  walls,  but  not  until  they  had  maintained  their  ground 
long  enough  to  cover  the  road  by  which  Sacken,  who  had  been  ordered 
up  from  Lesmont,  had  effected  a  junction  with  his  commander-in  chief. 
The  action  continued  with  great  vigor  through  the  remainder  of  the  day ; 
but  Brienne  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  allies,  and  Blucher  retired  to 
the  castle  to  rest  from  his  fatigue.  While  taking  a  survey  of  the  bivouac- 
fires  from  this  elevated  building,  he  was  startled  by  loud  cries  in  the 
avenues  leading  to  it,  and  these  were  followed  by  the  discharge  of  mus- 
ketry and  vehement  shouts  at  the  foot  of  the  castle.  The  old  marshal 
had  barely  time  to  descend  the  stairs,  accompanied  by  a  few  of  his  suite, 
when  the  place  was  surrounded  and  carried  by  a  body  of  French  grena- 
diers, who  had  stolen  unperceived  into  the  grounds.  Blucher  made  his 
escape  out  of  the  town,  which  was  also  speedily  evacuated  by  his  troops, 
and  in  the  morning,  Napoleon  occupied  it  and  established  his  head-quarters 
at  the  castle. 

The  allied  generals,  thoroughly  alarmed  at  Napoleon's  unexpected  ad- 
vance, made  great  efforts  to  concentrate  their  forces,  and  soon  brought 
together  more  than  a  hundred  thousand  men,  under  the  immediate  com- 
mand of  the  Emperor  Alexander  and  the  King  of  Prussia,  besides  nearly 
fifty  thousand  reserves  under  Wittgenstein  and  Colloredo.  The  centre 
of  the  main  body,  consisting  chiefly  of  Blucher's  Prussians,  was  posted 
on  the  elevated  ridge  of  Trannes,  with  Barclay  de  Tolly  in  reserve. 
The  Prince  of  Wirtemberg  commanded  the  right  wing  at  Getanie ;  and 
Giulay's  Austrians  formed  the  left. 

Napoleon,  finding  himself  overmatched,  and  that  the  allied  army,  in- 
stead of  being  surprised  in  detail,  was  fully  prepared  for  an  attack-  and 
hourly  increasing  in  strength,  made  dispositions  for  a  retreat;  but  in 
order  to  effect  this  manoeuvre,  it  was  necessary  to  restore  the  bridge  of 
Lesmont,  the  only  route  by  which  his  columns  could  cross  the  Aube. 
The  allies,  however,  did  not  give  him  time  to  accomplish  this,  but,  about 
one  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  of  February  1st,  they  commenced  a  general 
attack ;  and  their  enthusiasm,  together  with  their  great  superiority  of 
numbers,  caused  them  to  prevail  against  the  French  centre  and  left, 
which  were  entirely  beaten  and  driven  back ;  and,  although  the  right 
stood  firm,  yet  before  six  o'clock,  the  battle  seemed  to  be  decided  against 
the  French.  But  Napoleon  had  been  too  long  a  conquering  general,  to 
despair  of  the  contest  while  any  chance  of  victory  remained.  Being  re- 
enforced  by  two  fresh  divisions  under  Oudinot,  he  united  these  te  the 
broken  remains  of  his  left  and  centre,  and  led  on  a  final  charge.  At  the 
first  onset,  he  gained  ground  ;  but  Blucher  pushed  forward  a  powerful 
reserve,  and  forced  him,  after  a  desperate  struggle,  to  retreat.  Napoleon 
returned  at  midnight  to  Brienne  ;  and  such  was  his  anxiety  lest  the  allies 
should  complete  the  disorder  of  his  retiring  columns  by  a  night  attack, 

27 


392  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLV. 

he  stood  for  some  hours  at  the  windows  of  the  chateau,  to  see  if  any 
movement  around  the  watch-fires  indicated  a  renewal  of  the  fight.  At 
four  o'clock  in  the  morning,  convinced  that  he  was  not  pursued,  he  gave 
orders  for  a  retreat  by  Lesmont  to  Troyes.  The  French  loss  in  this 
action  was  six  thousand  men  and  seventy-three  pieces  of  cannon ;  that 
of  the  allies  did  not  exceed  four  thousand  men. 

The  town  of  Troyes,  which  contains  twenty-two  thousand  inhabitants, 
lies  in  a  plain  at  the  confluence  of  the  Barce  and  the  Seine ;  and  though 
incapable  of  long  sustaining  a  regular  siege,  may  be  held  for  some  days 
against  an  enemy  advancing  on  the  side  of  the  latter  river.  Napoleon 
therefore  resolved  to  make  a  brief  stand  at  this  place,  that  he  might  re- 
fresh and  reorganize  his  men — and  in  this  purpose  he  was  greatly  aided 
by  the  dilatory  pursuit  of  the  allies.  The  Austrians,  Bavarians  and 
Wirtembergers,  who  from  the  direction  taken  by  the  French  retreating 
army,  found  themselves  foremost  in  following  it,  were  so  tardy  in  their 
movements  that  they  literally  lost  sight  of  the  enemy,  and  for  two  days 
it  was  unknown  at  head-quarters  whether  the  French  had  moved  in  the 
direction  of  Arcis,  Chalons,  or  Troyes.  Indeed,  the  secret  reluctance  of 
Austria  to  push  matters  to  extremity  against  Napoleon  was  already  be- 
coming manifest :  yet  such  was  the  effect  of  retreat  on  the  spirits  of  the 
French  soldiers,  combined  with  the  hardships  the  young  conscripts  had 
undergone  since  they  took  the  field,  six  thousand  deserted  during  the 
march  to  Troyes ;  and  when  the  army  arrived  there,  it  was  fully  fifteen 
thousand  weaker  than  at  the  time  of  its  departure  from  Chalons. 

Nevertheless,  the  allies,  as  if  resolved  to  compensate  Napoleon  for  his 
disadvantages  by  their  own  incredible  stupidity,  and  apparently  forgetting 
that  concentration  was  the  principle  which,  in  the  preceding  autumn,  had 
wrought  out  the  deliverance  of  Germany,  separated  their  masses  to  act  on 
different  lines  of  operation :  Blucher,  with  the  army  of  Silesia,  was  di- 
rected upon  Chalons,  with  instructions  to  follow  thence  the  course  of  the 
Marne  to  Paris,  while  Schwartzenberg  marched  his  forces  upon  Troyes, 
down  the  valley  of  the  Seine  to  the  same  point  of  rendezvous.  The  mo. 
ment  Napoleon  became  aware  of  these  movements,  he  evacuated  Troyes, 
which  the  allies  occupied  on  the  7th  of  February,  and  hastening  to  No- 
gent,  where  he  expected  to  be  joined  by  a  detachment  of  veterans  from 
Soult's  army  in  the  south,  he  made  preparations  both  to  resist  and  attack 
the  forces  under  Blucher.  The  Prussian  marshal,  on  the  3rd  of  Feb- 
ruary, passed  through  St.  Ouen — whence  D'York  had  already  expelled 
Macdonald — and,  finding  that  Macdonald  had  retired  toward  Paris  by 
Epernay,  determined  to  intercept  him.  He  therefore  ordered  D'York  to 
follow  the  French  general  by  the  highway  through  Chateau-Thierry  and 
Epernay,  at  the  same  time  directing  "Sacken  to  march  on  Montmirail,  and 
Olsoofief  to  remain  at  Champaubert  until  further  orders.  Blucher  him- 
self halted  at  Virtus,  to  await  the  arrival  of  Kleist's  corps,  which  was 
hourly  expected  at  Chalons.  With  the  three  corps  united,  he  proposed 
then  to  fall  on  Macdonald's  troops,  take  their  grand  park  of  artillery  be- 
longing to  Napoleon's  main  army,  and  press  on  immediately  to  Paris, 
where  the  utmost  consternation  now  prevailed.  While  planning  and  in 
part  executing  this  advance,  Blucher  entertained  no  fear  for  his  left  flank, 
although  Napoleon  lay  in  that  direction ;  for  he  presumed  that  the  Em- 
peror would  be  wholly  engrossed  with  the  movements  of  Schwartzenberg, 
.and  besides,  there  intervened  between  the  French  head -quarters  and  the 


1814.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  393 

army  of  Silesia  a  rough  and  marshy  country  deemed  impassable  at  that 
season  of  the  year. 

On  the  other  hand,  Napoleon,  aware  of  Austria's  forbearing  policy, 
and,  consequently,  feeling  no  apprehension  of  an  attack  from  Schwartzen- 
berg,  resolved  to  fall  on  the  flank  that  Blucher  thus  vainly  thought  secure. 
For  this  purpose,  he  marched  from  Nogent,  on  the  9th  of  February,  with 
forty-five  thousand  of  his  best  troops ;  but  the  difficult  character  of  the 
ground  on  his  route,  nearly  defeated  his  project.  It  was  only  by  the 
greatest  personal  exertions  that  he  could  alternately  urge  and  compel  his 
soldiers  to  drag  forward  the  artillery  through  the  deep  clay  of  the  forest 
of  Traconne.  Olsoofief,  with  five  thousand  Russians,  was  at  this  time 
lying  at  Champaubert,  wholly  unconscious  of  the  approaching  danger ; 
and,  on  the  morning  of  the  lOih,  his  men  were  deliberately  preparing 
their  breakfast,  when  the  French  burst  upon  them  in  great  force.  The 
result  of  the  action  could  not  be  doubtful  when  the  numbers  were  so  dis- 
proportionate ;  still,  the  Russians  maintained  their  ground  against  a  simul- 
taneous attack  in  front  and  on  both  flanks,  until  they  had  expended  their 
last  round  of  ammunition.  They  then  retreated,  leaving  behind  them 
twelve  guns,  and  three  thousand  men  killed,  wounded  and  prisoners  j 
Olsoofief  himself  also  fell  into  the  enemy's  hands.  This  battle,  insignifi- 
cant when  compared  with  the  more  memorable  engagements  of  the  period, 
was  of  vast  consequence  to  Napoleon,  for  it  restored  the  confidence  of  his 
men,  and  enabled  him  to  assume  a  bolder  tone  in  the  negotiations  still 
pending  with  the  allies.  He  wrote  immediately  to  Caulaincourt,  directing 
him  to  gain  time  and  sign  nothing  ;  he  also  ordered  Macdonald  to  discon- 
tinue his  retreat ;  and,  on  the  morning  of  the  llth,  he  set  off  by  daybreak 
to  attack  Sacken  at  Montmirail. 

Sacken  was  not,  like  Olsoofief,  surprised  by  the  advance  of  the  French ; 
but  his  force  was  greatly  outnumbered  by  them,  and  he  lost  in  the  action 
that  ensued  four  thousand  men  and  nine  guns.  The  next  day,  the  battle 
was  partially  renewed  by  repeated  charges  on  the  retiring  columns  of  the 
allies,  who,  after  an  additional  loss  of  two  thousand  men  and  eight  guns, 
crossed  the  Marne,  broke  down  its  bridges,  and  gained  a  respite  from  Na- 
poleon's pursuit.  On  the  13th,  Blucher — who,  for  want  of  troops,  had 
remained  inactive  at  Virtus  while  his  lieutenants  were  suffering  these 
defeats — received  such  reinforcements  as  enabled  him  to  take  the  field 
with  twenty  thousand  combatants.  He  immediately  assumed  the  offen- 
sive, inarched  against  Marmont  at  Vauchamps,  and  drove  him  from  that 
village  early  in  the  morning  of  the  14th;  but,  while  pursuing  Marmont's 
routed  troops,  he  encountered  the  vanguard  of  Napoleon's  army,  and  was 
himself  forced  to  retreat.  This  movement,  to  the  last  degree  difficult  and 
perilous,  inasmuch  as  it  was  to  be  made  over  the  level  ground  in  his  rear, 
where  the  entire  French  cavalry  could  act  to  advantage,  was  nevertheless 
persisted  in  by  the  indomitable  Prussian  marshal,  who  defended  himself 
against  incessant  charges  of  Grouchy's  cuirassiers,  and  finally,  late  at 
night,  cut  his  way  to  Bergeres  through  every  opposing  obstacle.  In  this 
terrible  yet  glorious  retreat,  the  allies  lost  seven  thousand  men,  and  the 
French  scarcely  twelve  hundred.  The  next  day,  Blucher  fell  back  to 
Chalons,  where,  by  a  rapid  concentration  of  his  several  corps,  he  was 
enabled,  on  the  18th,  to  muster  sixty  thousand  effective  troops. 

The  occupation  of  Troyes  by  the  allies — which  event,  as  already  men- 
tioned, took  place  on  the  7th  of  February — was  followed  by  some  political 


394  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [Ciur.  XLV. 

occurrences,  interesting  as  having  been  the  first  movements  in  France  in 
favor  of  the  Restoration  of  the  Bourbons. 

Twenty-one  years  had  now  elapsed  since  the  execution  of  Louis  XVI. ; 
and,  during  the  turmoil  of  succeeding  events,  the  remembrance  of  his 
race  was  almost  lost  in  France,  and  its  name  had  disappeared  from  the 
page  of  European  history.  A  feeling  of  loyalty,  however,  still  existed 
among  a  few  highly  descended  nobles  in  detached  parts  of  the  Empirer 
and  especially  in  La  Vendee,  where  all  classes  retained  their  attachment 
for  the  legitimate  dynasty ;  and  although  a  great  portion  of  the  ancient 
noblesse  had  perished  under  the  guillotine,  expired  in  the  revolutionary 
prisons,  or  vanished  amid  poverty  and  oblivion  in  foreign  lands,  yet  enough 
of  that  race  and  its  adherents  remained  to  establish  a  certain  organization 
in  favor  of  the  Bourbons.  The  principal  branches  of  this  quiescent  con- 
spiracy were  to  be  found  in  La  Vendee,  Brittany,  and  the  south  of  France  ; 
yet  it  had  both  leaders  and  members  in  the  capital.  There,  too,  some  of 
the  chief  partisans  of  the  Revolution,  true  to  the  polar  star  of  worldly 
ambition,  anxiously  awaited  the  progress  of  events ;  and,  without  enga- 
ging in  any  overt  act  against  the  authority  of  the  Emperor,  were  secretly 
preparing  to  abandon  their  principles  and  their  benefactor,  the  moment 
that  he  should  begin  to  sink  under  the  weight  of  adversity. 

While  the  royalist  party,  and  these  less  worthy  but  more  powerful 
allies,  gradually  strengthened  themselves  against  Napoleon,  the  surviving 
members  of  the  royal  family  were  dwelling  in  exile  in  different  kingdoms 
of  Europe.  The  Count  d'Artois  resided  for  a  time  at  St.  Petersburg,  in 
1793 ;  and  the  Empress  Catharine  so  far  encouraged  him  as  to  present 
him  with  a  splendid  sword,  and  expressed  the  hope  that  "  it  might  open 
to  him  the  gates  of  France,  as  it  had  done  to  his  ancestor,  Henry  IV." 
The  Count,  however,  was  no  soldier ;  and  he  showed  so  little  zeal  in  his 
own  cause,  that  a  project,  at  first  seriously  entertained,  for  intrusting  to 
his  command  thirty  thousand  Russians  to  act  on  the  coast  of  La  Vendee, 
was  abandoned.  At  a  later  period  he  repaired  to  London,  where  he  sold 
the  sword  for  four  thousand  pounds  sterling,  and  distributed  the  money 
among  the  most  necessitous  of  his  companions  in  misfortune.  The  Count's 
elder  brother,  who  afterward  became  Louis  XVIIL,  retired  from  one  asy- 
lum to  another  as  the  French  power  advanced.  Under  the  title  of  Count 
de  Lille,  he  lived  frugally  and  in  retirement  at  Verona,  until  the  approach 
of  Napoleon,  in  1796,  forced  him  to  quit  the  territories  of  the  Republic. 
He  then  established  himself  at  Blanckenbourg,  at  which  place  unsuccess- 
ful efforts  were  made  to  induce  Bonaparte  to  aid  the  restoration  of  the 
Bourbons.  In  1797,  he  withdrew  to  Mittau,  in  Livonia,  where  he  received 
a  pension  of  two  hundred  thousand  roubles  a  year  from  the  Emperor  Paul, 
and  where,  in  1799,  he  was  joined  by  the  Duke  and  Duchess  d'Angou- 
leme ;  the  former  of  whom  had  served  with  credit  in  the  Royalist  corps 
of  the  Prince  of  Conde,  while  the  latter  brought  to  that  distant  solitude 
the  recollection  of  the  Temple,  and  the  sympathy  and  commiseration  of 
all  Europe.  The  sudden  and  unexpected  accession  of  Paul  to  the  French 
alliance,  occasioned  the  promulgation  of  a  rigorous  order  to  the  exiles  to 
quit  the  Russian  dominions  in  the  depth  of  winter,  January  21st,  1801. 
They  next  took  refuge  in  Prussia,  and  for  a  while  lived  there  in  undisturbed 
retirement.  Louis  XVIII.  subsequently  passed  into  Sweden,  whence,  on 
the  22nd  of  December,  1804,  he  issued  his  protest  against  N»apoleon's  as- 
sumption of  the  imperial  dignity.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  between 


1814.]  HI  STORY    OF    EUROPE.  395 

Russia  and  France,  in  1805,  he  retired  to  his  former  residence  at  Mittau; 
but  the  peace 'of  Tilsit,  which  again  subjected  Russia  to  the  influence  of 
France,  compelled  him  to  abandon  that  asylum,  and  he  embarked  with  the 
royal  family  on  board  the  Swedish  frigate  Fraya,  and  reached  Yarmouth 
in  the  middle  of  August,  1807.  He  resided  in  England  as  a  private  indi- 
vidual, and  largely  participated  in  the  hospitalities  which  her  nobles  and 
people  have  ever  bestowed  on  greatness  in  misfortune. 

Notwithstanding  the  unwarlike  disposition  of  the  Bourbon  princes,  the 
time  at  length  arrived  when  it  was  no  longer  possible  for  them  to  remain 
in  retirement.  The  approach  of  the  allied  armies  to  the  Rhine,  the  pas- 
sage  of  that  river  by  so  large  a  body  of  their  troops,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  Wellington  in  the  southern  departments  of  France,  not  only  revived 
the  dormant  flame  of  loyalty  in  the  French  provinces,  but  called  for  the 
appearance  of  one  or  more  princes  of  the  blood  to  concentrate  the  isolated 
efforts  of  their  adherents  and  assert  the  pretensions  of  the  exiled  family  to 
the  throne.  When  the  allied  armies  invaded  France,  therefore,  Louis 
XVIII.  addressed  a  proclamation  to  the  Senate,  calling  on  them  to  coop- 
erate with  him  in  overturning  the  tyranny  of  Napoleon;  at  the  same 
time,  he  addressed,  and  caused  to  be  widely  and  secretly  circulated,  a 
letter  to  all  persons  in  authority  who  were  thought  to  be  favorable  to  his 
views ;  in  which  document  he  wisely  said  little  of  honor  and  loyalty,  but 
dwelt  at  length  on  injuries  to  be  forgotten,  and  on  titles,  dignities  and 
offices  to  be  preserved.  The  British  government  was  requested  to  permit 
the  Bourbon  princes  to  join  the  allied  armies;  and  the  cabinet  of  St. 
James,  after  much  deliberation,  proceeding  from  a  desire  to  do  nothing 
which  might  seem  like  coercing  the  French  people  into  a  choice  of  rulers, 
granted  the  request,  but  restricted  the  service  of  the  princes  to  that  of  vol- 
unteers. The  Count  d'Artois  accordingly  left  his  residence  at  Holyrood 
House,  and  landed  at  Rotterdam  on  the  2nd  of  February  ;  the  Duke  d'An- 
gouleme  embarked  for  Spain,  to  join  the  army  of  Wellington ;  and  the  Duke 
de  Berri  set  sail  for  Jersey,  to  aid  an  anticipated  insurrection  in  Brittany 
and  La  Vendee. 

At  this  juncture,  the  allied  monarchs  entered  Troyes  and,  for  the  first 
time,  were  brought  in  contact  with  the  royalists  of  France.  The  Em- 
peror Alexander  had  a  special  interview  with  several  of  these  gentlemen, 
who  bore  on  their  breasts  the  cross  of  St.  Louis  and  the  white  cockade, 
although  the  wearing  of  these  emblems  was  prohibited  in  the  Empire  under 
penalty  of  death.  The  Marquis  of  Widranges  and  M.  Goualt  were  the 
speakers  on  the  occasion:  "  We  entreat  your  majesty,"  said  they,  "in 
the  name  of  all  ihe  respectable  inhabitants  of  Troyes,  to  regard  with  favor 
our  desire  for  the  reestablishment  of  the  Bourbons  on  the  throne."  "  Gen- 
tlemen," replied  Alexander,  "I  receive  you  with  pleasure;  I  wish  well 
to  your  cause  ;  but  I  fear  your  proceedings  are  premature.  The  chances 
of  war  are  uncertain,  and  I  should  be  much  grieved  to  see  brave  men  like 
you  either  compromised  or  sacrificed.  We  do  not  come  here  to  force  a  king 
upon  France,  but  to  learn  her  wishes  and  leave  her  to  declare  her  inten- 
tions." "But  she  can  never  make  such  declaration,"  said  the  marquis, 
"  so  long  as  the  knife  is  at  her  throat ;  nor,  while  Bonaparte  retains  his 
authority,  will  Europe  ever  be  tranquil."  "  For  that  very  reason,"  an- 
swered Alexander,  "  it  must  be  our  care  first  of  all  to  beat  him."  Alex- 
ander's prudent  council  soon  proved  but  top  prophetic ;  on  the  ciay  this 
conversation  took  place,  Napoleon  defeated  the  allies  at  Champaubert,  and 

36 


396  HI  STORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLV. 

the  Marquis  of  Widranges,  disappointed  in  his  hopes  of  obtaining  from 
the  several  monarchs  a  declaration  in  favor  of  the  Bourbons,  proceeded  to 
Bale  and  joined  the  Count  d'Artois ;  but  M.  Goualt  rashly  remained  at 
Troyes,  and  not  long  after  fell  a  victim  to  Napoleon's  vengeance. 

On  the  llth  of  February,  Schwartzenberg,  having  allowed  his  troops  a 
few  days'  repose  around  Troyes,  put  his  columns  in  motion  to  follow  up 
the  enemy.  The  Prince  of  Wirtemberg  took  Sens  by  assault,  after  a 
sharp  conflict,  and  on  the  same  day  General  Hardegg,  with  the  vanguard 
of  Wrede's  corps,  attacked  the  French  rear-guard  near  Romilly,  drove  its 
commander,  General  Bourmont,  into  Nogent,  and  the  next  day  stormed 
that  place.  Having  learned  from  the  prisoners  taken  in  these  conflicts 
that  Napoleon,  with  the  main  body  of  his  forces,  had  diverged  toward  Se- 
zanne, in  the  direction  of  Blucher's  forces,  Schwartzenberg,  on  the  13th, 
ordered  the  corps  of  Colloredo  and  the  Prince  of  Wirtemberg  to  cross  the 
Seine  at  Bray  and  Point-sur-Seine  and  move  upon  Provins  and  Montereau. 
These  movements  were  followed  by  a  series  of  victories  on  the  side  of  the 
allies.  Moret  fell  into  their  hands  on  the  14th;  PlatofFtook  Nemours  on 
the  15th  ;  Seslavin  made  himself  master  of  Montargis,  and  pushed  his  ad- 
vanced posts  to  the  gates  of  Orleans ;  and  the  Cossacks  occupied  the  palace 
and  forest  at  Fontainebleau.  Auxerre  was  next  carried  by  assault;  and 
the  allied  light  troops  inundated  the  plains  between  the  Seine  and  the 
Loire ;  Montereau  was  fortified,  and  Schwartzenberg  advanced  his  head- 
quarters to  Nogent.  The  inhabitants  of  Paris  were  now  in  the  great- 
est consternation  :  the  retreating  columns  of  Victor  were  within  a  few 
miles  of  its  gates ;  the  peasants  of  La  Brie,  flying  to  the  capital,  reported 
that  hordes  of  uncouth  and  long-bearded  savages  were  cutting  down  the 
trees  by  the  roadside,  roasting  oxen  and  sheep  whole  with  the  wood  thus 
obtained,  and  devouring  the  meat  while  it  was  half  raw  ;  and  rumor,  mag- 
nifying the  danger,  announced  that  two  hundred  thousand  Tartars  and 
Kalmucks  were  coming  to  sack  and  lay  waste  the  metropolis. 

At  this  crisis,  Napoleon  interposed  with  his  Guards,  which  body  had 
been  reenforced  by  a  powerful  detachment  from  the  veterans  of  Soult's 
army ;  and,  joining  these  troops  with  the  corps  of  Victor  and  Oudinot, 
mustered  fifty-five  thousand  men  to  check  the  advance  of  the  allies.  He 
immediately  assumed  the  offensive.  Oudinot,  supported  by  Kellermann's 
dragoons,  pressed  the  columns  of  Wittgenstein,  now  retiring  toward  No- 
gent ;  Macdonald  marched  in  the  direction  of  Bray  ;  Gerard  drove  the  Ba- 
varians back  on  Villeneuve,  Le  Comte  and  Donne  Marie  ;  and  Victor 
hastened  to  Montereau  to  take  possession  of  its  bridge  over  the  Seine.  Count 
Pahlen,  who  commanded  Wittgenstein's  advanced  guard — which  division 
now  became,  by  the  countermarch,  the  rear-guard  of  the  corps — was  di- 
rected to  make  a  stand  against  the  French  Emperor  at  Mormant ;  and  he, 
with  great  bravery,  endeavored  to  do  so:  but  the  numbers  of  the  enemy 
completely  overwhelmed  him,  and  not  only  his  own  detachment,  but  also  a 
body  sent  by  Wittgenstein  to  recnforce  him,  was  utterly  destroyed.  Vic- 
tor, in  the  meantime,  pushed  on  to  Montereau  and  attacked  the  allies  ;  but 
the  exhaustion  of  his  men,  owing  to  their  constant  marching  for  some  days 
past,  prevented  his  gaining  any  decided  success,  and  he  failed  in  his  prin- 
,  cipal  object,  the  securing  of  the  bridge.  The  allies  immediately  after- 
ward withdrew  their  force,  amounting  to  eighteen  thousand  men,  into  the 
town  of  Montereau  and  the  castle  of  Surville. 

Napoleon  approached  Montereau  in  great  strength  on  the  18th,  and  at 


1814.]  HSTORYOFEUROPE.  397 

once  attacked  the  allied  position.  The  Prince  of  Wirtemberg  and  Bianchi 
maintained  their  ground,  during  a  greater  part  of  the  day,  against  every 
effort  of  the  French  troops;  but  at  length,  overpowered  by  numbers,  they 
were  forced  to  retreat  in  the  direction  of  Sens,  with  a  loss  of  five  thousand 
men,  six  guns  and  four  standards :  the  French  loss  was  three  thousand 
killed  and  wounded.  On  the  19th,  Napoleon  moved  from  Montereau  to 
Nogent ;  and,  after  remaining  there  some  days  to  refresh  and  rest  his 
men,  he  marched  to  Troyes  and  offered  battle  to  Schwartzenberg.  Their 
late  defeats,  however,  had  materially  depressed  the  courage  of  the  allies; 
and,  after  a  long  debate  in  a  council  of  war,  in  which  Alexander  strenu- 
ously urged  the  policy  of  a  general  action,  they  resolved  to  evacuate 
Troyes  and  retreat.  This  was  done  accordingly  on  the  23rd,  and  the 
French  troops  immediately  took  possession  of  the  town. 

It  has  already  been  mentioned,  that  in  reply  to  the  proposals  of  the 
allies,  transmitted  by  the  Count  de  St.  Aignan,  Napoleon  had  professed  a 
readiness  to  treat  for  peace,  and  that  Chatillon  was  eventually  chosen  as 
the  place  for  conducting  the  negotiations:  this  place  was  therefore  de- 
clared neutral  ground,  and  the  congress  commenced  its  session  on  the  4th 
of  February.  Its  members  consisted  of  Lord  Castlereagh,  Lord  Aberdeen, 
Lord  Cathcart  and  Sir  Charles  Stewart,  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain; 
Count  Razumoffski,  on  the  part  of  Russia ;  Count  Stadion,  for  Austria ; 
and  Baron  Humboldt,  for  Prussia.  Caulaincourt  singly  sustained  the  one- 
rous duty  of  upholding,  against  such  an  array  of  talent  and  energy,  the 
declining  fortunes  of  Napoleon.  But,  though  both  parties  professed  an 
anxious  desire  for  an  accommodation,  their  views  were  so  dissimilar,  that 
it  was  easy  to  foresee  the  congress  would  only  deliberate,  while  the 
sword,  at  last,  must  decide  the  points  in  dispute :  and  this  became  the 
more  evident,  as  each  party  made  the  terms  it  proposed  dependent  on  the 
aspect  of  military  affairs,  which  was  constantly  changing. 

Great  Britain,  however,  made  no  demands  liable  to  be  affected  by  the 
fluctuations  of  the  war.  Her  purpose  throughout  the  whole  contest  had 
been,  not  to  force  an  unpopular  dynasty  on  the  French  people ;  not  to 
wrest  provinces  or  cities  from  France  ;  not  to  require  from  that  country 
indemnification  for  her  enormous  expenses  during  the  war :  but  simply 
to  provide  security  for  the  future;  to  establish  a  barrier  against  the  revo- 
lutionary propagandism  and  military  violence  of  the  French  ;  and  to 
compel  their  rulers  and  armies,  whether  Republican  or  Imperial,  to  retire 
within  their  own  territories,  and  relieve  foreign  nations  from  the  disturb- 
ance of  their  principles  and  the  encroachments  of  their  power.  For  the 
attainment  of  her  objects,  Great  Britain  had  uniformly  maintained  that 
no  security  was  so  desirable,  because  none  was  so  likely  to  be  effectual, 
as  the  restoration  of  the  former  line  of  princes,  with  whom  repose  wag 
possible,  and  to  whom  conquest  was  ?wt,  according  to  Napoleon's  maxim, 
"  necessary  to  existence  :"  still,  she  had  never  regarded  nor  proposed  that 
condition  as  an  indispensable  preliminary  to  an  accommodation. 

The  instructions  of  Lord  Castlereagh  froni  the  British  cabinet  contained 
no  projects  for  the  partition  of  France,  as  that  monarchy  existed  in  1789, 
but  the  most  ample  provisions  for  the  establishment  of  barriers  against 
her  future  irruptions  into  Europe.  The  reduction  of  France  to  her  an- 
•cient  limits  ;  the  forming  of  a  federative  union  in  Germany,  which  might 
secure  equal  protection  to  all  its  states  ;  the  recognition  of  the  Swiss 
Confederacy  under  the  guaranty  of  the  great  powers ;  the  restoration  to 


398  HIS  TORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLV. 

independence  of  the  lesser  states  of  Italy ;  the  reinstatement  under  their 
legitimate  monarchs  of  Spain  and  Portugal ;  and  the  restitution  of  Hol- 
land to  separate  sovereignty,  under  the  family  of  the  Stadtholders,  with 
such  an  addition  of  territory  as  might  enable  them  to  maintain  their  dig- 
nities — these  were  the  instructions  of  the  British  cabinet,  so  far  as  France 
was  implicated;  and  in  these  the  allied  powers  concurred.  For  her  own 
especial  security,  Great  Britain  further  insisted,  that  in  the  general  ad- 
justment  of  affairs,  no  discussion  should  be  admitted  derogatory  to  British 
maritime  rights,  as  settled  by  existing  treaties  and  the  law  of  nations ; 
and  that,  in  the  event  of  any  new  boundaries,  being  deemed  advisable  for 
the  frontiers  of  France,  they  should  not  include  Antwerp,  Genoa,  or  Pied- 
mont. 

Two  points — the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  and  the  destiny  of  Poland 
— were  purposely  left  undecided  by  the  English  cabinet  in  their  instruc- 
tions to  Lord  Castlereagh ;  and  this  was  done,  not  because  their  impor. 
tance  was  overlooked  or  falsely  estimated,  but  because  their  solution  was 
involved  in  such  difficulty,  and  depended  so  entirely  on  contingencies, 
that  no  directions,  previously  given,  could  with  any  certainty  prove  ap- 
plicable to  the  possible  progress  of  events. 

The  first  success  of  the  allies,  and  the  retreat  of  the  French  from 
Troyes,  greatly  modified  Napoleon's  views  in  reference  to  the  congress 
that  had  just  opened.  Alarmed  for  the  safety  of  his  capital,  and  aware 
of  the  concord  subsisting  between  the  plenipotentiaries  at  Chatillon,  he 
at  length  gave  Caulaincourt  the  full  powers  which  that  minister  had  long 
solicited,  and  authorized  him  to  sign  anything  that  might  seem  necessary 
to  avoid  the  risk  of  a  battle,  and  save  Paris  from  being  taken.  This 
concession  was  with  great  difficulty  obtained  from  the  Emperor,  and  the 
manner  in  which  it  occurred  is  worthy  of  remembrance.  Caulaincourt 
had  represented  to  Napoleon  by  letter,  on  the  31st  of  January,  the  im- 
portance of  receiving  precise  and  positive  instructions :  "  the  fate  of 
France,"  he  wrote,  "  may  depend  on  a  .peace  or  an  armistice,  to  be 
concluded  within  four  days ;  I  must  therefore  ha;ve  entire  power  to  act 
in  the  emergency."  When  this  letter  was  read,  Maret  entreated  the 
Emperor  to  yield  to  necessity,  and  grant  the  authority  so  urgently  de- 
manded. Napoleon,  instead  of  replying,  opened  a  volume  of  Montes- 
quieu, and  read  the  following  passage :  "  I  know  of  nothing  more 
magnanimous  than  the  resolution  of  a  monarch  of  our  own  times,  (Louis 
XIV.)  to  bury  himself  under  the  ruins  of  his  throne,  rather  than  accept 
conditions  unworthy  of  a  king.  He  had  a  mind  too  lofty  to  descend 
lower  than  his  fortunes  had  sunk  him  ;  and  he  well  knew,  that  though 
courage  may  strengthen  a  crown,  infamy  never  can."  Maret  rejoined, 
that  nothing  could  be  more  magnanimous  than  to  sacrifice  even  glory  to 
the  safety  of  the  state,  which  would  otherwise  fall  with  its  monarch. 
"  Well,  be  it  so  !"  said  the  Emperor,  after  a  pause:  "  let  Caulaincourt 
sign  whatever  is  necessary  to  obtain  peace  :  I  will  bear  the  shame  of  it, 
but  I  will  not  dictate  my  own  disgrace." 

The  allied  powers  were  unanimous  in  the  terms  that  they  proposed  to 
France  ;  and,  after  the  preliminary  formalities  had  been  adjusted,  they, 
on  the  7th  of  February,  fully  set  forth  their  views  in  a  joint  diplomatic 
note,  to  this  effect :  "  Considering  the  situation  of  Europe  in  respect  to 
France,  the  allied  plenipotentiaries  have  orders  to  demand,  that  France 
shall  be  restricted  to  her  limits  as  they  existed  before  the  Revolution, 


1814.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  399 

excepting  such  subordinate  arrangements  as  may  be  necessary  foi  mu- 
tual convenience,  and  the  restitution  which  England  is  ready  to  make 
for  such  concession  :  as  a  consequence  of  this,  France  must  renounce  all 
direct  influence  beyond  the  future  limits  of  Germany,  Italy  and  Swit- 
zerland." 

The  congress  was  now,  to  all  appearance,  on  the  eve  of  accomplishing 
a  general  peace.  But  at  this  time,  the  Emperor  Alexander  forwarded  a 
letter  to  the  plenipotentiaries,  requesting  a  suspension  of  their  sittings  for 
a  few  days,  till  he  could  have  an  opportunity  of  a  further  concert  with  his 
allies,  on  the  terms  to  be  demanded.  The  congress  was  therefore  ad- 
journed to  the  17th  of  February  ;  and  when  it  was  again  convened,  events 
had  taken  place  which  rendered  accommodation  impossible.  Napoleon 
no  sooner  ascertained  the  determination  of  the  allies  to  separate  their 
forces,  and  move  in  detached  masses  toward  Paris,  than  he  retracted  his 
concessions  to  Caulaincourt,  and  resolved  to  trust  everything  to  the 
hazard  of  war. 

Nor  did  Napoleon  stop  here.  During  his  previous  alarm,  he  had  writ- 
ten to  Eugene  Beauharnois,  that  the  state  of  his  affairs  had  reached  a 
crisis  which  forced  him  to  disregard  all  minor  considerations,  and  as  the 
struggle  was  evidently  to  be  decided  on  the  soil  of  France,  Eugene  must 
instantly  cross  the  Alps  with  all  his  disposable  forces,  and  hasten  to  the 
vital  point  on  the  banks  of  the  Seine.  This  order,  worthy  of  Napoleon's 
genius,  and  in  strict  conformity  to  las  system  of  war,  would  have  brought 
forty  thousand  veterans  on  the  rear  of  the  Austrian  grand  army  at  the 
most  critical  period  of  the  campaign.  But  the  triumph  over  Blucher 
restored  the  Emperor's  confidence  in  his  returning  fortune  to  such  a  de- 
gree, that  the  night  following  the  battle  of  Montmirail  he  wrote  to  Eugene, 
countermanding  the  order  to  march,  and  assuring  him  that  he  was  him- 
self adequate  to  the  protection  of  France.  Nay,  he  was  so  far  misled 
by  his  sanguine  temperament,  that  he  entertained  anew  a  project  for  Ger- 
man conquest,  and  openly  said  to  those  around  him,  "  I  am  nearer  to  Vi- 
enna than  the  allies  are  to  Paris."  Thus,  his  success  restored  the  rigid 
and  unbending  tone  of  his  character,  revived  his  scheme  of  universal 
dominion,  and  caused  him  to  reject  the  throne  of  Old  France  proffered 
by  the  allies. 

The  change  in  the  diplomatic  language  of  Caulaincourt,  adopted  in 
obedience  to  the  Emperor's  instructions,  produced  a  decided  effect  on  the 
deliberations  of  the  allied  powers.  The  exulting  expression  of  Napo- 
leon, that  he  was  nearer  to  Vienna  than  they  were  to  Paris,  had  not  been 
lost  on  them  ;  and  Lord  Castlereagh,  in  particular,  made  great  efforts  to 
convince  the  Austrian  ministers  that  their  country  would  inevitably  be  the 
first  object  of  the  French  Emperor's  wrath,  should  his  victorious  legions 
again  cross  the  Rhine.  The  Emperor  Alexander  supported  the  same  views, 
and  manfully  combated  the  despondency  then  so  prevalent  at  the  allied 
head-quarters.  Metternich,  too,  brought  forward  similar  arguments;  for  . 
Napoleon's  late  success  had  awakened  all  his  former  apprehensions,  and 
he  fea-red  more  for  Vienna  than  for  Marie  Louise,  and  was  desirous  to 
prove  the  sincerity  of  his  imperial  master,  in  pressing  the  great  objects 
of  the  alliance.  The  result  of  their  combined  efforts  was  the  treaty  of 
Chaumont,  completed  on  the  1st  of  March. 

By  this  instrument  it  was  stipulated  that,  in  case  of  Napoleon's  refusing 
the  terms  proposed,  the  four  allied  powers,  Austria,  Prussia,  Russia,  and 

3-6* 


400  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAF.  XLV. 

England,  should  each  maintain  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  men  in 
the  field ;  that,  to  provide  for  their  maintenance,  Great  Britain  should 
pay  an  annual  subsidy  of  Sve  millions  sterling,  to  be  equally  divided  be- 
tween the  three  Continental  powers,  besides  maintaining  her  own  contingent 
from  her  own  resources.  It  was  further  agreed,  that  if  any  one  of  the 
allied  sovereigns  were  attacked,  each  of  the  others  should  forthwith  send 
to  his  assistance  sixty  thousand  men,  including  ten  thousand  cavalry  ; 
that  the  trophies  of  the  war  should  be  equally  divided ;  that  no  peace 
should  be  made  but  by  common  consent;  that  this  treaty  should  continue 
in  force  for  twenty  years ;  and  that  it  might  be  renewed  on  the  expiration 
of  that  period.  Besides  these  public  stipulations,  several  secret  articles 
were  inserted  in  the  treaty  providing  for  the  interests  of  Germany,  Italy, 
Spain,  Portugal,  and  Holland,  as  already  related  in  the  terms  offered  to 
Napoleon  by  the  congress. 

The  conclusion  of  this  treaty  was  a  virtual  dissolution  of  the  congress 
of  Chatillon,  as  it  superseded  the  deliberations  of  that  body.  Never- 
theless, the  congress  continued  to  sit  for  three  weeks  longer,  the  allied 
plenipotentiaries  firmly  insisting  on  the  relinquishment  by  France  of  all 
its  conquests  since  the  Revolution;  and  Caulaincourt  constantly  shifting 
his  ground  and  endeavoring  to  elude  conditions  so  rigorous.  It  was  not, 
however,  of  his  own  choice,  that  Caulaincourt  insisted  on  Napoleon's 
terms';  for  he  clearly  saw  the  Emperor's  risk  in  thus  tenaciously  retain- 
ing  the  frontier  of  the  Rhine,  and  he  urgently  represented  to  his  sovereign 
the  necessity  of  bending  to  the  force  of  circumstances,  and  accepting  the 
monarchy  of  Louis  XIV.  as  the  price  of  a  general  pacification.  But 
Napoleon  was  inexorable,  and  the  war  recommenced  with  renewed  activity. 

Previous  to  the  completion  of  the  treaty  of  Chaumont,  and  while  the 
negotiations  relating  to  it  were  in  progress,  Blucher  had  pressed  on  nearly 
to  Meaux,  in  the  direction  of  Paris  :  and  Napoleon,  justly  alarmed  for  the 
safety  of  his  capital,  set  out  from  Troves  on  the  27th  of  February,  to 
intercept  the  Prussian  marshal's  advance.  On  the  morning  of  the  28th, 
a  detachment  of  Blucher's  light  troops,  under  Sacken,  took  possession  of 
that  part  of  Meaux  which  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Marne  :  but 
while  Blucher  was  making  preparations  to  cross  the  river,  he  learned 
that  Napoleon  was  threatening  his  rear  ;  he  therefore  immediately  drew 
off  his  troops  and  moved  toward  Soissons,  in  order  to  unite  with  Winzin- 
gerode  and  Woronzoff,  and  give  battle  to  the  Emperor. 

As  soon  as  Schwartzenberg  learned  that  Napoleon  had  departed  from 
Troyes,  he  resolved  to  resume  the  offensive  on  the  great  road  leading 
from  that  town  to  Chaumont.  With  this  view,  he  caused  the  corps  of. 
Wrede  and  Wittgenstein,  mustering  thirty-five  thousand  men,  to  be  drawn 
up  opposite  Bar-sur-Aube.  Oudinot,  who  commanded  at  that  place,  could 
not  bring  more  than  seventeen  thousand  men  into  the  field  ;  so  that  he 
was  outnumbered  by  nearly  two  to  one  :  yet  the  strength  of  his  position 
atoned  for  this  disadvantage.  The  action  that  ensued  was  contested  with 
great  obstinacy  on  both  sides  ;  it  ended,  however,  in  the  defeat  of  Oudi- 
not, who  retreated  in  good  order,  after  sustaining  a  loss  of  three  thousand 
men.  The  allies  lost  two  thousand,  but  they  gained  Bar-sur-Aube,  and 
— what  was  of  far  more  importance — obtained  a  victory  that  restored  the 
credit  and  spirit  of  the  soldiers. 

Schwartzenberg  did  not  follow  up  his  success  with  sufficient  vigor,  and 
he  therefore  gave  Oudinot  time  to  form  a  junction  with  Macdonald  at  La 


HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  401 

Guillotiere  ;  the  French  forces,  thus  united,  amounted  to  thirty-five  thou- 
sand men.  On  the  2nd  of  March,  the  allies  again  advanced,  and  Schwartz- 
enberg,  having  reconnoitered  the  French  position,  resolved  to  make  an 
attack  simultaneously  on  Macdonald's  front  and  flank ;  a  plan  of  assault 
which  his  preponderating  numbers  rendered  feasible.  At  three  o'clock 
on  the  3rd,  the  signal  was  given  by  the  discharge  of  two  guns  from 
Wrede's  corps,  and  the  battle  commenced.  As  soon  as  Macdonald  per- 
ceived that  both  his  flanks  were  turned  by  the  allies,  he  ordered  his 
whole  force  to  fall  back  on  Troyes,  and  made  no  further  effort  to  main- 
tain the  action  than  was  necessary  to  secure  his  retreat.  He  lost,  how- 
ever, two  thousand  men  and  nine  pieces  of  cannon.  Early  on  the  4th, 
he  continued  his  retreat,  evacuating  Troyes,  which  was  immediately  oc- 
cupied by  the  allies. 

Blucher,  meantime,  had  crossed  the  Marne  and  made  all  haste  toward 
Soissons,  to  avoid  Napoleon's  pursuit ;  and  although,  by  destroying  the 
bridge  in  his  rear,  he  greatly  delayed  the  movements  of  the  French 
troops,  yet  he  had  serious  difficulties  to  encounter  ere  he  could  effect  a 
junction  with  Bulow  and  Winzingerode.  These  generals  were  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  Aisne ;  and  his  only  means  of  communication  with 
them  was  a  wooden  bridge  thrown  over  that  river  at  Soissons,  a  fortified 
town  in  possession  of  the  French.  Blucher  therefore  had  apparently  no 
power  to  join  his  lieutenants,  before  he  would  be  overtaken  by  Napoleon. 

In  this  dilemma,  the  Prussian  marshal  was  delivered  from  his  danger 
tn  a  manner  so  unexpected,  that  it  almost  partook  of  the  character  of  ro- 
mance. Bulow  and  Winzingerode,  aware  of  the  imminent  peril  of  Blu- 
cher unless  the  town  and  bridge  of  Soissons  could  be  taken,  resolved  on 
a  desperate  attempt  to  carry  both  by  storm  :  but,  previous  to  commencing 
the  assault,  they  sent  Colonel  Lowernstown  to  treat  with  the  garrison  for 
a  capitulation.  The  wily  colonel,  after  considerable  difficulty,  gained  an 
interview  with  the  governor  of  the  place,  and  so  wrought  upon  the  fears 
of  that  officer  as  to  persuade  him  to  surrender,  on  condition  of  being 
allowed  to  withdraw  his  garrison  and  artillery ;  and,  on  the  3rd  of  March, 
without  the  firing  of  a  shot,  the  allies  took  possession  of  Soissons.  Blu- 
cher could  scarcely  realize  his  good  fortune ;  while  Napoleon,  who  had 
relied  on  making  an  easy  capture  of  the  veteran  marshal  and  his  corps, 
was  so  transported  with  wrath,  that  he  ordered  the  governor  to  be  deliv- 
ered to  a  military  commission.  Blucher's  escape  was  indeed  sufficiently 
marvellous  ;  for  his  rear-guard  had  scarcely  passed  the  gates  of  Soissons, 
when  Marmont  and  Mortier  came  in  great  force  upon  the  ground  he  had 
just  abandoned  ;  so  that  he  must  inevitably  have  been  destroyed,  but  for 
the  opportune  surrender  of  the  fortress  that  had  barred  his  retreat. 

The  army  of  Silesia,  after  the  junction  of  its  several  corps,  ceased  to 
retreat,  and  Blucher  took  up  a  strong  position  communicating  with  Sois- 
sons. Napoleon,  however,  still  resolved  to  strike  a  severe  blow  in  this 
quarter,  and  by  great  exertions  he  accomplished  the  passage  of  the  Aisne 
at  Berry-au-Bac,  on  the  5th  of  March.  He  thence  hastened  toward  the 
ground  occupied  by  the  allies.  Blucher's  forces  were  thus  divided . 
Bulow,  with  his  entire  corps,  held  the  town  of  Laon ;  the  plateau  of  Craon, 
a  strip  of  table-land  flanked  by  woods  and  precipices,  was  guarded  by 
Winzingerode's  infantry  under  Woronzow  and  Strogonoff ;  Winzingerode 
himself,  with  ten  thousand  cavalry  and  sixty  pieces  of  horse-artillery, 
was  ordered  to  fall  by  cross-roads  on  the  French  flank  ;  D'York  took  post 


402  HIS  TORY     OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLV 

on  the  highway  between  Soissons  and  Laon,  to  act  as  a  reserve,  and  suc- 
cor any  point  where  aid  might  be  requisite;  and  Rudzewitch,  with  six 
thousand  men  of  Langeron's  corps,  undertook  the  defence  of  Soissons. 

The  action  commenced  by  an  attack  on  the  last  mentioned  place,  and 
was  maintained  with  great  obstinacy  on  both  sides  ;  but  the  French  with- 
drew toward  evening,  without  making  any  serious  impression  on  the  for- 
tress. Disappointed  in  this  result,  Napoleon,  the  next  day,  ordered  ar- 
assault  on  Craon.  The  Russian  force  on  this  plateau  amounted  to  twenty 
seven  thousand  men  ;  while  the  troops  directed  against  them,  under  Ney 
Victor,  Nansouty,  and  Napoleon  in  person,  were  not  less  than  forty  thou- 
sand strong.  The  battle  began  at  nine  o'clock  in  the  morning,  the 
columns  of  Victor  taking  the  lead,  and  both  delivering  and  receiving  a 
terrible  discharge  of  artillery.  That  general  after  a  time  was  repulsed 
with  great  loss ;  but  Ney  soon  arrived  to  support  him,  and  they  renewed 
the  contest  with  temporary  success :  for,  although  they  gained  a  footing 
on  the  height,  Woronzow  drove  them  back  again  at  the  point  of  the  bay- 
onet. At  length,  the  Russian  ammunition  began  to  fail ;  and  Blucher, 
disappointed  at  the  non-appearance  of  Winzingerode  on  the  French  flank, 
gave  orders  for  a  general  retreat  toward  Laon. 

-.  This  movement  was  undertaken  at  two  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  Wo- 
ronzow formed  his  men  with  admirable  steadiness,  although  they  were 
enduring  the  fire  of  a  hundred  French  cannon,  and  directed  the  retreat  in 
ordinary  time  by  alternate  squares,  placing  the  artillery  at  the  angles,  and 
the  dismounted  guns,  with  such  of  the  wounded  as  could  be  moved,  in 
front  of  the  march.  Napoleon  made  the  most  desperate  efforts  to  disorder 
the  allied  squares,  by  bringing  forward  all  his  guns  and  ordering  repeated 
charges  of  his  heavy  cavalry ;  but  nothing  could  break  the  array  of  those 
admirable  troops.  They  moved  firmly  along  to  the  extremity  of  the  pla- 
teau, and  there  rapidly  took  up  a  new  position  capable  of  permanent  de- 
fence and  singularly  adapted  to  the  operations  of  artillery.  The  ground 
was  flanked  on  either  side  by  perpendicular  and  inaccessible  rocks ;  and 
its  area  rose  in  the  rear  by  a  gradual  slope,  so  that  the  cannon  could  be 
placed  in  tiers,  one  above  another,  like  the  upper  and  lower  decks  of  a 
man-of-war.  Everything  being  in  readiness,  the  infantry  marched  on  till 
they  came  abreast  of  the  first  tier  of  guns,  when  they  faced  about,  and 
dressed  in  a  line  with  the  muzzles  of  the  pieces,  while  the  cavalry  defiled 
to  the  right  and  left  behind  the  frowning  batteries.  The  French  troops 
were  greatly  astonished,  when  the  screen  of  the  Russian  cavalry  was 
withdrawn,  to  behold  this  formidable  array;  yet  ihey  moved  on  to  the 
attack  with  determined  bravery.  The  Imperial  Guard  led  the  charge ; 
but  the  moment  they  came  within  range  of  the  hostile  guns,  a  storm  of 
round  shot,  grape  and  grenades  swept  down  the  heads  of  their  columns, 
and  the  Russian  fire  was  so  well  directed  and  so  admirably  sustained, 
that  not  one  living  man  could  cross  the  fatal  line.  This  terrible  cannon- 
ade lasted  but  twenty  minutes,  when  the  French  withdrew  from  a  position 
which  they  found  to  be  impregnable.  Soon  after,  Woronzow,  having 
gained  time  for  his  cavalry,  carriages,  and  wounded  men  to  reach  the 
great  road  from  Soissons  in  his  rear,  fell  back,  united  himself  to  the  gar- 
rison of  that  fortress,  and  the  whole  moved  on  to  the  environs  of  Laon. 
Napoleon,  in  this  action  won  only  the  field  of  battle  ;  no  trophies  remained 
to  either  party :  while  the  loss  of  men  killed  and  wounded,  was  -ix  thou- 
sand on  the  side  of  the  allies,  and  eight  thousand  on  that  of  the  French. 


1814.1  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  403 

On  the  following  day,  Blucher  collected  around  Laon  his  entire  force, 
amounting  to  a  hundred  and  nine  thousand  men  ;  and  Napoleon  came  up 
to  renew  the  battle,  with  fifty-two  thousand  of  his  choicest  troops.  Laon, 
though  a  town  of  great  antiquity,  is  of  small  extent,  containing  but  sev,en 
thousand  inhabitants.  It  stands  on  the  flat  summit  of  a  conical  hill,  three- 
quarters  of  a  mile  in  breadth,  and  elevated  nearly  two  hundred  and  fifty 
feet  above  the  adjacent  plain.  It  is  surrounded  with  old,  irregular  walls 
and  towers,  which  stand  on  the  edge  of  the  hill,  and  make  the  circuit  by 
following  its  sinuosities.  Gardens,  orchards  and  meadows  cover  the  sides 
of  this  truncated  cone,  and  the  roads  leading  to  the  town  ascend  the  long 
acclivity  by  a  gentle  slope.  The  houses  at  its  foot,  fronting  the  adjacent 
highways  and  villages,  were  at  this  time  loopholed  and  filled  with  mus- 
keteers ;  a  hundred  pieces  of  cannon  crowned  the  ramparts  on  the  sum- 
mit ;  and  numerous  other  batteries  were  posted  on  the  commanding 
eminences  around.  The  allied  army  lay  on  the  slopes  and  in  the  neigh- 
boring villages,  having  the  town  for  a  vast  redoubt  in  its  centre,  and 
extending  its  wings  far  into  the  plain  on  either  side.  Winzmgerode's 
corps,  drawn  up  in  two  lines  near  Aven,  composed  the  right;  Bulow 
occupied  the  hill  of  Laon,  the  villages  of  Sermilly  and  Ardon,  and  the 
abbey  of  St.  Vincent  in  the  centre  ;  while  Kleist  and  D'York,  with  the 
left,  extended  from  Laon  to  Chantry  along  the  road  leading  to  Rheims. 
Sacken  and  Langeron,  whose  men  had  suffered  so  severely  in  the  prece- 
ding combats,  were  in  reserve  behind  Laon.  The  French  troops,  being 
fewer  in  number,  were  more  concentrated.  Marmont  was  ordered  to 
advance  by  the  road  from  Rheims,  and  form  the  right ;  Mortier,  with  the 
Guards  and  the  reserve  cavalry,  under  Grouchy  and  Nansouty,  were  in 
the  centre,  opposite  Laon ;  and  Ney,  between  that  place  and  Sermilly, 
commanded  the  left. 

These  dispositions  were  completed  on  the  evening  of  the  8th  of  March, 
and  during  the  9th,  several  partial  actions  took  place ;  but  Napoleon 
would  not  venture  on  a  general  battle  until  Marmont  came  up.  Thai 
marshal  had  commenced  his  march  early  in  the  morning  of  the  9th,  from 
Berry-au-Bac,  and,  at  one  in  the  afternoon,  he  issued  from  the  defile  of 
Fetieux,  driving  before  him  the  Prussian  videttes.  Blucher  clearly  per- 
ceived, from  the  vivacity  of  the  attack,  that  the  principal  effort  of  the 
French  would  be  made  in  this  quarter;  and  that  the  partial  attacks  which 
had  already  taken  place  on  the  centre,  were  intended  only  to  divert  his 
attention,  while  Napoleon  turned  his  flank  and  cut  off  his  communica- 
tions. Blucher  therefore,  with  equal  decision  and  ability,  resolved  to 
retaliate  this  movement,  by  a  night  attack  on  Marmont ;  who,  unsupported 
by  Napoleon,  and  unsuspicious  of  any  such  manoeuvre,  lay  greatly  ex- 
posed in  his  bivouacs. 

The  Prussians  advanced  in  perfect  silence,  at  the  dead  of  night,  upon 
the  sleeping  army  ;  and,  so  complete  was  the  surprise,  so  universal  the 
Donsternation,  the  French  merely  fired  one  round  of  grape  and  then  dis- 
persed— each  one  flying,  in  the  darkness,  wherever  chance  or  his  fears 
directed.  In  this  affair  Marmont  lost  forty  pieces  of  cannon,  a  hundred 
and  thirty-one  caissons,  and  two  thousand  five  hundred  men  taken  pris- 
oners; the  number  of  killed  and  wounded  was  inconsiderable,  owing  to 
the  rapidity  of  the  flight ;  but  the  corps  was  totally  dispersed,  and  disa- 
bled from  taking  any  active  part  in  military  operations  until  it  could  be 
reorganized.  The  loss  of  the  allies  did  not  amount  to  three  hundred 
men. 


404  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLV. 

Napoleon,  anticipating  a  general  battle  that  day,  was  drawing  on  his 
boots  at  four  o'clock  on  the  morning  of  the  10th,  when  two  dismounted 
dragoons  were  brought  to  him.  They  informed  him  that  they  had  es- 
caped, as  by  a  miracle,  from  a  nocturnal  assault  on  the  bivouacs  of  Mar- 
mont ;  that  the  marshal  was  either  killed  or  made  prisoner,  and  that  all 
was  lost  in  that  quarter.  This  disaster  placed  the  French  Emperor  in  a 
serious  dilemma.  He  could  not  venture  to  attack  an  army  so  greatly 
superior  to  his  own  as  Blucher's,  nor  was  it  easy  to  see  how  a  retreat 
from  the  victorious  allies  could  be  accomplished.  He  therefore  adopted 
the  wisest  course  within  his  reach,  namely :  a  resolution  to  remain  for  a 
short  time  on  the  defensive,  and  deceive  the  allies  by  a  display  of  great 
force  in  front,  in  order  to  intimidate  them  from  attacking  him,  and  at  the 
same  time  cause  them  to  withdraw  from  the  pursuit  of  Marmont.  This 
plan  completely  succeeded.  Blucher  had  given  orders  to  Bulow  and 
Winzingerode,  to  follow  the  anticipated  retreat  of  Napoleon's  main  body; 
but  perceiving  that  the  French  stood  firm,  and  were  apparently  intent 
on  a  pitched  battle,  he  countermanded  these  orders,  and  directed  the 
movements  against  Marmont  to  be  stopped.  At  nine  o'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing, the  more  effectually  to  cover  his  designs,  Napoleon  ordered  a  general 
attack  on  the  allied  position,  which  was  maintained  with  great  spirit  for 
some  hours  ;  and  in  the  meantime  his  park  of  artillery,  their  baggage  and 
camp  equippage,  began  to  defile  in  the  rear  toward  Soissons.  At  four 
o'clock,  the  French  troops  fell  back  in  good  order ;  but  they  kept  up  a 
cannonade  during  their  retreat  until  nightfall,  and  from  the  summit  of 
the  ramparts  of  Laon  the  march  of  the  retiring  columns  could  be  traced 
by  the  light  of  burning  villages,  which  the  French  soldiers  themselves  set 
on  fire  in  the  reckless  fury  occasioned  by  defeat. 

On  the  night  of  the  10th,  the  Emperor  slept  at  Chavignon,  and  on  the 
llth,  the  army  continued  it's  march  to  the  defiles  in  front  of  Soissons. 
This  fortress,  which  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  French  when  Rud- 
zewitch  evacuated  it  on  his  retreat  to  Laon,  offered  the  sarce  secure  retreat 
to  the  French,  that  it  had  formerly  done  to  the  allied  army. 

General  St.  Priest,  who  commanded  a  corps  of  Russians,  and  formed 
part  of  the  reserve  of  the  army  of  Silesia,  had  been  left  at  Chalons  to 
maintain  the  communication  between  Blucher  and  Schwartzenberg  ;  and, 
having  learned,  during  the  concentration  of  the  French  troops  around 
Laon,  that  a  great  part  of  the  garrison  of  Rheims  had  been  withdrawn 
by  Napoleon,  he  resolved  to  attack  that  town.  The  attempt  was  made 
accordingly,  on  the  12th  of  March,  and  succeeded  perfectly,  the  garrison 
offering  but  little  resistance.  As,  however,  the  possession  of  this  town 
drew  the  points  of  communication  between  the  allied  commanders  much 
more  closely  together,  and  especially  as  it  brought  a  powerful  body  of 
troops  on  his  right  flank,  Napoleon  determined  to  recapture  the  place, 
which  he  reached  by  a  forced  march  on  the  13th.  St.  Priest  at  first  at- 
tempted to  defend  his  position,  under  a  belief  that  only  a  small  part  of 
Napoleon's  force's  was  approaching ;  but  when  he  perceived  that  the  en- 
tire French  army  was  upon  him,  he  made  every  effort  to  escape;  this, 
however,  he  did  not  accomplish  until  he  had  lost  thirty-five  hundred  men, 
and  himself  received  a  mortal  wound. 


CHAPTER    XLVI. 

THE    FALL    OF    NAPOLEON. 

A  FEW  days  of  military  inaction  now  ensued,  which  enabled  the  leaders 
of  the  belligerent  parties  to  grant  a  welcome  repose  to  their  troops,  and 
put  them  into  a  more  efficient  state  for  taking  the  field.  This  interval 
gives  an  opportunity  to  review  the  state  of  Napoleon's  affairs  in  other 
parts  of  his  Empire. 

After  the  expulsion  of  the  French  army  from  Holland,  in  December, 
1813,  the  tri-color  flag  waved  only  on  Bergen-op-Zoom,  Bois-le-Duc, 
Gorcum,  and  some  lesser  forts ;  the  main  strength  of  the  French  force  in 
that  quarter  being  concentrated  at  Antwerp.  To  deceive  the  allies,  at 
least  by  the  sound  of  military  preparation,  the  Emperor,  on  the  21st  of 
December,  ordered  the  formation  of  an  army  of  fifty-five  battalions,  and 
conferred  the  command  on  Count  Maison.  But  this  force,  like  most  others 
of  which  Napoleon  had  direction  at  that  period,  was  formidable  only  on 
paper :  and  when  Maison  reached  Antwerp,  he  could  not  muster  more 
than  twenty  thousand  men  for  the  defence  of  all  the  Low  Countries  ;  and 
he  saw  at  once  that,  so  far  from  thinking  of  the  re-conquest  of  Holland, 
ho  could  barely  provide  for  the  protection  of  Flanders,  which  was  now 
threatened  on  its  maritime  frontier  by  the  British,  and  on  the  side  of  the 
Meuse,  by  the  Russians  and  Prussians.  He  therefore  disposed  a  part  of 
his  troops  around  Antwerp  and  Bergen-op-Zoom,  and  made  every  possible 
preparation  for  sustaining  a  siege  in  both  places. 

Early  in  January,  1814,  a  British  division  six  thousand  strong,  under 
Sir  Thomas  Graham,  landed  in  South  Beveland  ;  and  that  officer,  having 
concerted  measures  with  Bulow,  commenced,  with  him,  a  forward  move- 
ment on  the  10th.  On  the  13th,  the  combined  forces  came  into  commu- 
nication at  Merxhem,  and  they  easily  drove  the  French  detachment  which 
occupied  that  village  into  Antwerp.  Twelve  days  later,  Bulow  made  a 
successful  attack  on  Bois-le-Duc,  which  was  taken  by  escalade  with  its 
garrison  of  six  hundred  men.  He  then  turned  his  whole  strength  against 
Maison,  who  thereupon  abandoned  Antwerp  to  its  own  resources,  threw  a 
garrison  of  a  thousand  men  into  Malines,  and  himself  took  post  at  Lou- 
vain.  On  the  29th,  Bulow  moved  upon  Antwerp,  and  completely  invested 
it ;  not  with  a  view  to  breach  and  storm  its  ramparts,  to  which  the  small 
battering-train  now  at  his  disposal  was  wholly  inadequate,  but  to  bombard 
the  town,  and  destroy  the  fleet  constructing  in  its  harbor  by  Napoleon. 
At  this  crisis,  Carnot,  who  had  lived  in  retirement  since  the  fall  of  Robes- 
pierre, and  declined  all  Napoleon's  offers  of  preferment,  came  forward 
with  patriotic  devotion,  and  tendered  his  services  to  his  sovereign.  The 
Emperor,  appreciating  Carnot's  motives  and  abilities,  immediately  ap- 
pointed him  governor  of  Antwerp.  The  bombardment  commenced  on  the 
2nd  of  February  ;  but  the  precautions  taken  by  the  garrison,  rendered  it 
for  the  most  part  ineffectual,  and  it  was  discontinued  after  three  days  of 
constant  firing.  At  the  same  time,  Bulow  received  orders  to  raise  the 
siege  and  march  with  his  corps  into  France,  where,  as  already  related, 
he  united  himself  to  Blucher's  army.  The  British  troops,  not  being  in 


406  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CRAP.  XLVi 

sufficient  force  to  maintain  themselves  in  front  of  Antwerp,  withdrew  to 
their  former  cantonment  between  that  city  and  Bergen-op-Zoom  ;  and 
Carnot,  acting  strictly  on  defensive  principles,  and  reserving  his  strength 
for  ulterior  operations,  made  no  attempt  to  disquiet  them  in  their  retreat. 

But,  although  Bulow  had  passed  into  France,  and  the  British  withdrew 
to  the  frontiers  of  Holland,  the  deluge  of  allied  troops  flowed  without  in- 
termission over  Flanders.  Wave  succeeded  wave,  as  in  those  days  when 
the  long- restrained  might  of  the  northern  nations  found  vent  in  the  decay- 
ing provinces  of  the  Roman  Empire.  The  Prince  of  Saxe- Weimar, 
reeinforced  to  the  amount  of  seventeen  thousand  men,  kept  the  field ; 
Brussels  was  soon  evacuated ;  and  Maison,  who  had  retired  to  Tournay, 
was  observed  by.  the  allies,  from  their  head-quarters  at  Ath.  Gorcum 
surrendered  on  the  4th  of  February ;  and  its  blockading  force,  under  the 
Prussian  general  Zielenski,  was  united  to  the  army  of  the  Prince  of  Saxe- 
Weimar,  who  now  marched  against  Maison,  and  pursued  him  to  Mari- 
henge.  Nothing  further  of  moment  occurred  until  the  8th  of  March ; 
when  the  prince  attacked  Maison.  and  drove  him  under  the  cannon  of 
Lille. 

The  operations  in  Italy,  at  the  same  period,  were  of  considerable  im- 
portance. Toward  the  end  of  December,  1813,  Eugene  Beauharnois 
retired  to  the  line  of  the  Adige,  which  he  occupied  with  thirty-six  thou- 
sand combatants.  The  Austrians  opposed  to  him,  under  Bellegarde,  were 
more  than  fifty  thousand  strong,  exclusive  of  the  detached  corps  of  Mar- 
shall, who  observed  Venice  and  Palma-Nuova,  in  his  rear.  This  dispro- 
portion of  numbers  had  already  induced  Eugene  to  make  arrangements 
for  a  retreat;  and  this  became  the  more  necessary  when,  on  the  19th  of 
January,  1814,  Murat's  proclamation  against  Napoleon  was  promulged. 
Eugene  accordingly  fell  back  behind  the  Mincio  on  the  3rd  of  February, 
his  right  resting  on  Mantua,  and  his  left  on  Peschiera  :  while  the  pur- 
suing Austrians  took  post  on  an  opposite  line,  extending  from  Rivoli  to  the 
neighborhood  of  Mantua. 

Eugene's  position  was  exceedingly  strong  in  front,  and  he  might  easily 
have  resisted  Bellegarde  in  that  direction  ;  but  the  movements  of  Murat 
on  his  rear  rendered  it  impossible  for  him  to  maintain  his  ground ;  and, 
the  better  to  effect  a  retreat,  he  resolved  on  the  bold,  and  yet,  under  the 
circumstances,  judicious  measure  of  giving  battle  to  the  Austrians,  in  the 
hope  of  forcing  them  across  the  Adige,  ere  Murat  could  arrive  to  assail 
him.  Bellegarde  had,  at  the  same  time,  planned  an  offensive  movement : 
the  two  armies  therefore  simultaneously  moved  to  the  attack,  on  the  8th 
of  February,  and  they  were  mutually  surprised  on  their  march  ;  but 
Eugene  turned  that  circumstance  to  the  best  account,  as  he  made  pris- 
oners of  fifteen  hundred  Austrians  in  the  action,  while  the  killed  and 
wounded  on  each  side  were  equal,  amounting  in  all  to  six  thousand  men. 
On  the  9th,  Eugene,  well  satisfied  to  have  thus  secured  a  retreat,  con- 
tinued his  retrograde  march  across  the  Mincio. 

But,  while  success  was  thus  nearly  balanced  in  this  quarter,  serious 
disasters  attended  Napoleon's  cause  elsewhere  in  the  Italian  Peninsula. 
The  castle  of  Verona  surrendered  to  the  Austrians  on  the  14th  of  Feb- 
ruary ;  Ancona,  after  a  siege  of  twenty-five  days,  and  a  bombardment 
of  eight-arid-forty  hours,  capitulated  to  Murat's  forces  on  the  16th  ;  and 
the  native  Italian  troops  in  Eugene's  service,  despairing  of  final  victory, 
and  unable  to  endure  the  fatigues  and  hardships  of  a  winter's  campaign. 


1814.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  40? 

deserted  in  great  numbers  ;  so  that  the  viceroy,  unable  to  maintain  his 
position  on  the  Mincio,  drew  nearer  to  the  Po,  and  brought  forward  all  his 
reserves  from  the  Milanese  states.  Not  long  after,  the  citadels  of  Pisa, 
Lucca  and  Leghorn,  were  surrendered  to  the  allies,  on  condition  that  the 
garrisons  of  Volterra,  Civita-Vecchia,  Florence,  and  the  Castle  of  St. 
Angelo,  should  be  transported  to  France. 

Augereau  was  at  this  period  seriously  engaged  in  operations,  both  de- 
fensive and  offensive,  in  the  vicinity  of  Lyons.  A  number  of  partial 
actions  had  there  taken  place,  but  without  decisive  results,  during  the 
month  of  February  and  a  part  of  March ;  but  on  the  20th  of  the  latter 
month,  the  allies  concentrated  themselves  in  great  force  around  Lyons ; 
and,  although  Augereau  made  desperate  efforts  to  defend  the  town,  he 
was  at  length  totally  defeated,  and  evacuated  it  at  midnight,  taking  the 
road  to  Valence,  in  order  to  gain  the  line  of  the  Isere.  On  the  21st,  the 
allied  standards  waved  over  the  ramparts  of  the  second  city  in  the  French 
Empire. 

A  considerable  respite  followed  the  operations  of  Wellington  and  Soult 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Bayonne  ;  but,  early  in  February,  Wellington, 
having  received  powerful  reinforcements  and  completed  his  preparations 
for  an  offensive  campaign,  determined  to  effect  the  passage  of  the  Adour. 
For  this  purpose,  he  collected  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  forty  large  sailing 
boats,  professedly  for  the  commissariat,  but  in  fact  laden  with  planks  and 
other  materials  for  building  a  bridge  from  that  point  to  the  fortress.  To 
conceal  his  design,  he  resolved  at  the  same  time  to  threaten  Soult's  left 
with  Hill's  corps,  while  Beresford,  with  the  main  body,  menaced  his 
centre.  By  this  means,  should  the  allied  left,  under  Hope,  succeed  in 
passing  the  river,  Wellington  expected  to  cut  Soult  off  from  Bordeaux, 
and  drive  him  toward  the  Upper  Garonne.  The  troops  of  Hill  and 
Beresford  were  accordingly  put  in  motion  on  the  14th  of  February,  and 
they,  vigorously  following  up  the  plan  of  attack,  pressed  day  after  day 
on  the  fortified  posts  of  the  French  marshal,  until  they  forced  him  to  con- 
centrate his  troops  at  Sauveterre.  Nevertheless,  his  attention  was  not 
entirely  withdrawn  from  the  Lower  Adour  ;  and  when,  on  the  morning  of 
the  23rd,  the  allies  attempted  to  cross  the  river,  they  found  a  considerable 
body  of  French  soldiers  at  hand  to  oppose  them.  The  superior  number 
and  resolution  of  the  allies,  however,  overcame  all  obstacles,  and  before 
sunrise  on  the  24th,  their  entire  left  wing  was  established  on  the  opposite 
bank.  Two  days  afterward,  Hope  commenced  and  effected  the  invest- 
ment of  Bayonne. 

Meantime,  Wellington,  taking  command  in  person  of  his  centre  and 
right,  pursued  his  career  of  victory  on  the  Gave  d'Oleron.  The  pontoons 
arrived  on  the  23rd,  and  he  made  immediate  preparations  for  crossing  that 
river,  behind  which  Soult  was  posted  with  thirty-five  thousand  men,  cov- 
ering the  bridge  of  Sauveterre.  Early  on  the  24th,  Hill  crossed  with 
three  divisions  at  Villenave,  and  Beresford  passed  over  near  Montfort  with 
the  entire  centre.  Soult,  now  deeming  his  position  at  Sauveterre  unten- 
able, fell  back  to  Orthes,  abandoning  Bayonne  to  its  fate.  He  drew  up 
his  army  on  the  summit  of  a  semicircular  ridge,  facing  the  southwest, 
and  extending  from  the  neighborhood  of  Orthes  on  the  left,  to  the  heights 
of  St.  Boes  on  the  right. 

Wellington  approached  in  three  columns,  consisting  of  thirty-seven 
thousand  men  of  all  arms.  Beresford,  with  the  allied  left,  commenced 

28 


408  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLVI, 

the  action  at  daybreak,  on  the  37th,  by  turning  Soult's  right  near  St. 
Boes,  and  gaining  beyond  the  village  the  road  to  Dax.  Picton  advanced 
along  the  great  road  to  Orthes  against  the  French  centre  ;  and  Hill  led 
the  allied  right  against  the  enemy's  left.  There  was  an  interval  of  a 
mile  in  breadth  between  Beresford's  and  Picton's  columns,  and  in  the 
centre  of  this  space  a  conical  hill  rose  nearly  to  the  height  of  Soult's  posi- 
tion :  here,  Wellington  took  his  station  with  his  staff,  having  the  whole 
field  spread  out  before  him  like  a  map.  Beresford,  after  gaining  and 
overlapping  the  extreme  French  right,  made  a  vigorous  attack  in  front 
and  flank  on  the  village  of  St.  Boes.  A  violent  combat  ensued.  Reille's 
men  stood  firm;  St.  Boes  was  strongly  occupied,  and  the  musketry  rang 
loud  and  long  on  the  summit  of  the  ridge  before  a  foot  of  ground  was  won 
by  the  assailants.  At  length,  however,  British  valor  prevailed,  and  the 
village  was  carried  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet.  The  victors  pursued  the 
retreating  French  along  the  ridge,  but  here  Reille  riiude  a  determined 
stand,  and  the  allies  suffered  great  loss  in  their  ineffectual  efforts  to  dis- 
lodge him.  While  the  combat  was  raging  on  the  French  right,  Welling- 
ton hastened  forward  Picton's  attack  on  the  centre ;  and  this  was  so 
admirably  maintained,  that  the  French  rapidly  gave  way ;  when  Soult. 
finding  that  Hill  was  making  dangerous  progress  on  his  left,  ordered  a 
retreat.  In  this  battle,  the  French  loss  amounted  to  four  thousand  men 
and  six  guns ;  that  of  the  allies,  to  something  less  than  twenty -five  hun- 
dred. Soult,  after  allowing  his  troops  a  few  hours  of  repose  on  the  banks 
of  the  Luy-de-Bearn,  continued  his  route  toward  Tarbes  and  Twulouse, 
while  Wellington  pushed  on  to  Bordeaux. 

The  inhabitants  of  Bordeaux,  who  throughout  the  Revolution  had  been 
distinguished  for  their  moderate,  or  royalist  principles,  were  thrown  into 
the  greatest  state  of  excitement  by  the  advance  of  the  allied  army  into  the 
south  of  France,  which  promised  to  relieve  them  from  the  iron  yoke  of 
Napoleon ;  and  their  enthusiasm  reached  its  climax  when  the  battle  of 
Orthes  opened  the  road  to  their  city  for  the  victorious  army.  The  royal- 
ist committee,  which  had  existed  in  that  city  for  nearly  a  twelve-month, 
and  comprised  a  large  number  of  the  most  respectable  and  influential 
citizens,  made  great  efforts  to  improve  the  present  favorable  aspect  of 
affairs.  They  unfolded  their  designs  to  M.  Lynch,  the  mayor  of  the  city, 
who  warmly  approved  their  views,  and  avowed  his  desire  to  proclaim 
Louis  XVIII.  The  Marquis  de  Larochejaquelein  was  soon  dispatched  to 
Wellington's  head-quarters,  to  request  the  aid  of  three  thousand  men  in 
support  of  the  royal  cause.  Wellington,  however,  wisely  judging  that 
a  small  British  force  should  not  be  hazarded  on  so  momentous  and  distant 
an  enterprise,  and  appreciating  the  value  of  the  movement  about  to  take 
place,  sent  twelve  thousand  men,  instead  of  three  thousand,  under  the 
command  of  Lord  Beresford.  But  as  the  allied  powers  were  at  that  time 
still  negotiating  at  Chatillon,  and  as  peace  might  on  any  day  be  concluded, 
he  was  careful  to  inform  the  inhabitants  of  the  chances  of  such  an  event ; 
and  he  distinctly  warned  them,  that  in  case  they  declared  in  favor  of  Louis 
XVIII.,  and  peace  were  afterward  made  with  Napoleon,  it  would  not  be 
in  the  power  of  the  British  government  to  afford  them  protection. 

Beresford  set  forward  on  the  8th  of  March,  and  on  the  12th  reached 
Bordeaux.  The  mayor  and  civic  authorities  came  out  to  meet  him,  at  a 
short  distance  from  the  suburbs,  and  the  former  delivered  an  address,  in 
which  he  expressed  the  joy  felt  by  the  people  at  their  liberation  from 


1814.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  400 

slavery.  His  speech  was  frequently  interrupted  with  cries  of  "  a  has  les 
aigles !"  "  vivent  les  Bourbons !"  and  at  its  close  he  removed  his  tri- 
color scarf,  with  the  Imperial  eagles  and  the  badge  of  the  legion  of  honor, 
and  in  their  stead  mounted  the  white  cockade.  His  attendants  immedi- 
ately followed  his  example  ;  enthusiastic  cheers  rent  the  sky ;  and  the 
British  troops,  surrounded  by  an  immense  multitude  of  people,  entered 
the  ancient  capital  of  their  Plantagenet  ancestors,  to  reestablish  the  throne 
of  the  royal  race  with  whom  they  had  for  so  many  centuries  been  engaged 
in  hostilities.  The  Duke  d'Angouleme  arrived,  soon  after,  at  Bordeaux, 
and  was  received  with  universal  acclamation. 

Wellington's  next  offensive  movement,  was  the  pursuit  and  attack  of 
Soult,  who  had  withdrawn  to  Toulouse  and  there  taken  up  a  strong  posi- 
tion. The  battle  that  ensued,  was  one  of  the  most  obstinately  contested 
in  the  whole  war;  but,  it  ended  in  the  defeat  of  Soult  and  the  occupation 
of  Toulouse  by  the  allied  forces. 

In  the  midst  of  these  accumulated  disasters,  Napoleon,  though  yet  re- 
maining at  Rheims,  turned  his  attention  toward  Paris.  The  accounts 
from  that  capital  were  indeed  alarming.  The  grand  army  of  Schwartzen- 
berg  was  at  length  gradually  but  steadily  approaching ;  Troyes  had  been 
reoccupied,  the  passage  of  the  Seine  at  Nogent  forced,  the  light  cavalry 
again  appeared  at  Fontainebleau,  and  the  entire  army  might  reach  Paris 
within  five  days.  These  events  naturally  caused  great  commotion  among 
the  inhabitants  of  the  metropolis.  The  proximity  of  a  powerful  enemy, 
the  absence  of  Napoleon,  the  fall  of  Lyons,  the  occupation  of  Bordeaux, 
and  the  proclaiming,  by  the  people  in  the  south,  of  Louis  XVIII.,  had 
excited  the  utmost  consternation  among  the  Imperial  functionaries,  and 
awakened  the  wildest  hopes  of  the  Royalists. 

After  deliberately  estimating  the  dangers  that  surrounded  him,  Napo- 
leon resolved  to  march  against  Schwartzenberg.  To  guard  against  the 
consequences  of  a  surprise  while  engaged  in  this  expedition,  he  forwarded 
secret  orders  to  Joseph,  on  the  16th  of  March,  directing  him  to  send  the 
Empress  and  the  King  of  Rome  across  the  Loire,  should  Paris  be  menaced 
by  the  allies.  On  the  17th,  leaving  Marmont  and  Mortier,  with  twenty 
thousand  men,  to  make  head  against  Blucher,  he  himself  set  out  with  the 
remainder  of  his  army  to  join  Macdonald  and  Oudinot. 

Napoleon  made  his  first  halt  at  Epernay,  and  the  worthy  inhabitants, 
emptied  their  cellars  to  refresh  his  troops.  On  the  18th,  he  continued  his 
march  toward  Aube,  and  on  the  19th,  he  effected  the  junction  with  his 
marshals,  which  raised  his  force  to  fifty-five  thousand  men.  "The  next 
day  he  directed  his  steps  toward  Arcis,  expecting  to  surprise  Schwartzen- 
berg by  a  flank  attack ;  but  that  general  had  on  the  same  day  adopted  a 
similar  line  of  advance,  and  while  Napoleon  approached  Arcis  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Aube,  the  allied  army,  though  a  little  further  removed, 
was  coming  up  to  the  same  point  on  the  left.  As  Napoleon  found  that  an 
action  was  now  inevitable,  though  he  could  not  commence  it  at  advantage, 
as  he  anticipated,  he  took  up  a  strong  position  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river 
and  awaited  the  approach  of  the  enemy.  His  army  occupied  a  semicir- 
cular line,  facing  outward,  each  flank  resting  on  the  Aube,  so  that  it  could 
not  be  turned,  while  in  the  rear  the  town  of  Arcis  offered  a  secure  refuge 
in  case  of  defeat.  The  allies  disposed  themselves  in  a  much  larger  semi- 
circle, facing  inward  :  Wrede  commanded  the  right,  the  Russian  Guards 
and  reserves  under  Barclay  formed  the  centre,  and  RaiefFsky  and  Giulay 


410  HISTORY     OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLVi. 

had  direction  of  the  left.  These  dispositions  were  not  completed  until 
late  in  the  day ;  and  although  the  battle  commenced  immediately  there- 
after, it  was  rather  a  cannonade  than  a  general  action,  and  at  ten  o'clock 
at  night  both  parties  retired  to  rest  on  the  field. 

At  daybreak  on  the  21st,  the  opposing  armies  were  drawn  up  in  order 
of  battle.  It  was  an  awful,  yet  animating  sight,  when  the  rising  sun 
glittered  on  the  low  swelling  hills  that  surround  the  town  of  Arcis.  A 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  men  were  there  silently  gazing  at  each  other, 
without  moving  from  the  ground  on  which  they  were  placed.  The  in- 
fantry stood  at  ease,  but  with  their  muskets  at  their  shoulders  ;  the  cav- 
alry were  for  the  most  part  dismounted,  but  every  bridle  hung  over  the 
horseman's  arm ;  a  word  from  either  commander  would  instantly  have 
brought  on  the  shock  of  arms.  Yet  that  word  was  not  spoken.  Hour 
after  hour  passed  on,  until  the  long  suspense  became  almost  unendurable. 
At  length,  toward  one  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  the  French  equipages 
were  seen  defiling  to  the  rear,  and  decided  symptoms  of  a  retreat  became 
manifest.  No  movement  could  be  more  hazardous  than  such  an  one,  un- 
der such  circumstances ;  yet,  so  great  was  the  respect  inspired  by  the 
presence  of  Napoleon,  and  by  the  imposing  array  of  his  highly  disci- 
plined troops,  Schwartzenberg  did  not  give  the  signal  for  attack  until 
three  o'clock. 

The  allies  then  advanced  rapidly  from  all  points,  preceded  by  a  hun- 
dred pieces  of  cannon,  and  their  fire  fell  with  destructive  effect  on  the 
retiring  masses  of  the  French  army.  Had  Schwartzenberg  commenced 
his  attack  earlier  in  the  day,  he  must  have  gained  a  decisive  victory ; 
but  his  delay  left  him  nothing  to  combat  but  the  Emperor's  rear-guard  ; 
and  Macdonald  maintained  such  a  gallant  defence  with  this  corps,  that 
night  came  on  before  the  allies  reached  Arcis.  ThelFrench  destroyed 
the  bridge  behind  them,  so  that  Schwartzenberg  could  not  follow  in  pur- 
suit ;  and  when  ths  morning  dawned,  Napoleon,  with  the  main  body  of 
his  troops,  was  far  advanced  on  the  road  to  Vitry. 

The  battle  of  Arcis-sur-Aube  was  not  accompanied  by  any  brilliant 
trophies  taken  in  the  field,  yet  it  was  followed  by  results  fatal  to  the  cause 
of  Napoleon.  The  loss  of  the  French  amounted  to  four  thousand  men, 
and  six  pieces  of  cannon ;  the  loss  of  the  allies  was  nearly  as  great,  but 
their  victory,  by  defeating  the  plans  of  Napoleon,  led  to  his  overthrow. 
He  had  intended  to  attack  the  rear  of  the  allied  army,  and  by  this  ma- 
noeuvre so  far  intimidate  Schwartzenberg,  as  to  induce  him  to  fall  back 
from  Paris  to  defend  his  communications  ;  and,  considering  the  Austrian 
general's  sensitiveness  on  the  subject  of  flank  and  rear  attacks — no  mat- 
ter how  insignificant  the  party  that  made  them — the  design  of  the  French 
Emperor  was  ably  conceived,  and  evinced  a  just  estimate  of  the  enemy 
he  had  to  contend  with.  But  the  simultaneous  movement  of  the  two 
armies  essentially  changed  their  relative  situations,  and,  by  bringing  them 
prematurely  together,  defeated  the  object  Napoleon  had  in  view.  Still, 
in  the  strait  to  which  he  was  now  reduced,  he  had  no  resource  but  to  at- 
tempt anew  the  plan  which  had  been  foiled.  To  do  this,  however,  re- 
quired an  immense  sacrifice,  for  it  would  be  necessary  to  march  directly 
toward  the  Rhine,  and  wholly  abandon  the  defence  of  Paris ;  since  his 
army  was  now  so  reduced  by  defeat  and  discouragement  that  he  could  not 
divide  without  destroying  it,  and  his  success  depended  on  his  ability  to 
withdraw  and  embody  into  his  ranks  the  garrisons  of  the  blockaded  for- 


1814.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  ill 

tresses  in  the  rear  of  the  allies.  Therefore,  on  leaving  Arcis,  instead  of 
taking  the  road  to  Chalons,  whence  he  had  advanced,  or  to  Paris,  whither 
he  was  expected  to  retire,  he  retreated  along  the  chaussee  of  Vitry  in  the 
direction  of  the  Rhine. 

He  reached  the  environs  of  Vitry  at  the  close  of  his  first  day's  march, 
and  summoned  the  town  to  surrender :  but  the  governor,  who  had  a  gar- 
rison of  four  thousand  men  and  forty  pieces  of  cannon,  resolved  to  stand 
the  hazard  of  an  assault,  and  refused  to  open  his  gates.  This  check  was 
quite  unexpected  ;  but,  as  Napoleon  had  no  leisure  to  subdue  hostile 
cities,  he  turned  aside ;  and  continuing  his  route,  reached  St.  Dizier  on 
the  23rd,  where  he  established  his  head-quarters  for  the  night.  Caulain- 
court  joined  him  at  this  place,  and  informed  him  of  the  dissolution  of  the 
congress  at  Chatillon.  This  event,  together  with  the  hopelessness  of  the 
war  and  the  seeming  extravagance  of  the  march  toward  the  Rhine,  com- 
pleted the  discouragement  of  the  officers.  They  could  foresee  no  end  to 
the  campaign  but  defeat,  nor  any  benefit  to  result  from  the  continuance 
of  their  toil  and  the  expenditure  of  their  blood.  Instead  of  defending 
Paris,  they  were  hastening  toward  Germany:  their  capital,  their  country, 
their  homes  must  necessarily  become  the  prey  of  the  invaders  :  and 
while  everything  dear  to  them  was  in  jeopardy,  they  were  plunging  anew 
into  a  warfare  which  had  neither  an  issue  nor  an  object.  A  revolution 
was  openly  discussed,  as  a  possible,  perhaps  a  probable  contingency  ;  the 
obstinacy  of  the  Emperor  in  refusing  the  proposed  terms  of  peace,  was 
universally  condemned,  and  many  doubted  his  sanity.  Every  one  asked, 
"  Where  is  this  to  end  ?"  "  Whither  are  we  marching  ?"  "  If  he  falls, 
shall  we  fall  with  him  ?" 

The  allies  were  greatly  astonished  when  they  learned  the  direction  of 
Napoleon's  march.  A  Cossack,  who  first  brought  the  intelligence,  was 
so  confounded  with  his  own  news  that  he  said,  "  the  enemy  is  retreating, 
not  on  Paris,  but  on  Moscow!"  It  soon  became  evident  that  the  French 
line  of  advance  was  decidedly  taken,  although  Schwartzenberg,  suspect- 
ing a  stratagem,  crossed  the  Arcis  with  the  greater  part  of  his  army  and 
followed  in  pursuit.  The  next  day,  his  light  troops  succeeded  in  captu- 
ring a  detachment  of  French  cavalry  at  Sommepuy,  with  twenty-three 
pieces  of  cannon ;  and,  what  was  of  far  more  importance  than  prisoners 
or  artillery,  the  victors  intercepted  a  packet  of  dispatches  from  the  French 
head-quarters  which  fully  explained  Napoleon's  designs. 

These  letters  were  immediately  sent  to  the  Emperor  Alexander,  who 
had  scarcely  finished  reading  them  at  a  council  of  war  held  atDampierre, 
on  the  23rd,  when  intelligence  arrived  that  the  army  of  Silesia  had  ad- 
vanced to  Rheims  and  Epernay,  and  occupied  Chalons.  Thus,  while 
Napoleon  proposed  to  attack  the  communications  of  the  allies  and  create 
a  diversion  to  save  Paris,  Schwartzenberg  and  Blucher  effected  a  junction 
in  his  rear,  and  a  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  men  stood  between  him 
and  his  capital.  At  the  same  time,  news  was  received  of  the  entry  of 
the  British  troops  into  Bordeaux,  and  the  proclamation  of  Louis  XVIII., 
with  the  general  concurrence  of  the  inhabitants.  This  combination  of 
events  led  to  a  unanimous  decision  on  the  part  of  the  allied  sovereigns,  to 
march  directly  upon  Paris ;  and  they  commenced  that  movement  on  the 
25th  of  March.  Schwartzenberg  and  Blucher  had  designated  Fere- 
Champenoise  as  a  common  rendezvous,  and  the  advanced  guards  of  both 
armies  came  in  sight  of  each  other  near  Soude  St.  Croix,  at  eight  o'clock 


412  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.    XLVI. 

in  the  morning  of  that  day.  Mortier  and  Marmont,  who  now  lay  between 
the  allies  and  Paris,  had  in  the  meantime  received  orders  from  Napoleon 
to  join  him  at  Vitry ;  but  before  they  could  accomplish  this,  Schwartzen- 
berg's  movements  placed  the  grand  army  across  their  path  :  so  that  when 
the  allied  commanders  came  into  communication  on  the  morning  of  the 
25th,  the  two  marshals,  who  supposed  that  the  allies  were  pursuing  Na- 
poleon, unexpectedly  found  themselves  in  presence  of  the  whole  invading 
force.  They  therefore  fell  back  in  great  haste  toward  Fere-Champe- 
noise,  whither  they  were  vigorously  pursued  by  the  enemy's  light  troops. 

The  united  corps  of  Marmont  and  Mortier  amounted  to  twenty-two 
thousand  men,  and  the  allied  troops  which  first  overtook  them  consisted 
entirely  of  cavalry  and  artillery,  about  twenty  thousand  strong.  The 
French  defended  themselves  with  desperate  bravery  against  this  onset, 
but  nothing  could  resist  the  enthusiasm  of  the  allies ;  infantry,  cavalry 
and  artillery,  were  driven  with  great  loss  and  in  utter  confusion  through 
the  town  of  Fere-Champenoise,  on  the  other  side  of  which,  under  cover 
of  night,  they  at  length  rallied  and  re-formed  their  broken  ranks.  While 
this  action  was  in  progress,  the  centre  of  the  allied  grand  army  encoun- 
tered on  its  march  a  considerable  body  of  French  troops  under  General 
Pacthod,  who,  with  a  park  of  artillery  and  a  large  quantity  of  provisions, 
was  hastening  toward  Vitry.  The  Emperor  Alexander  took  command  in 
person  of  a  detachment  of  chosen  troops,  and  charged  Pacthod's  corps 
with  great  impetuosity.  The  French  general  made  a  noble  defence,  but 
the  superior  numbers  of  the  allies  enabled  them  to  capture  the  entire 
convoy.  In  these  two  actions,  the  French  lost  seven  thousand  prisoners 
and  nearly  five  thousand  men  killed  and  wounded,  besides  eighty  guns, 
two  hundred  ammunition  wagons,  and  all  the  supplies  of  provision  destined 
for  Napoleon's  army ;  while  the  loss  of  the  allies  did  not  exceed  twenty- 
five  hundred  men. 

At  four  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  the  26th,  the  grand  army  marched 
by  the  road  through  Sezanne  toward  Paris,  now  but  sixty-five  miles  dis- 
tant; and  Blucher  advanced  to  the  same  point  by  Montmirail  and  La 
Ferte-Gaucher.  Napoleon  was  in  the  vicinity  of  St.  Dizier,  on  the  27th, 
when  he  received  intelligence  that  the  allies,  far  from  being  disturbed  at  his 
manoeuvres  on  their  rear,  were  pushing  forward  upon  his  capital.  The 
veil  now  dropped  from  his  eyes  :  "  Nothing,"  said  he,  "  but  a  thunderbolt 
can  save  us !"  and  immediately  concentrating  his  troops,  he  hastened 
toward  Paris  by  the  route  of  Doulevant,  Vassy,  Troyes,  Sens  and  Fon- 
tainebleau. 

Meanwhile,  the  allies  entered  a  rich  champaign  country,  adorned  with 
villa?,  woods,  orchards,  and  smiling  fields — all  the  charming  indications 
of  long  established  prosperity :  it  therefore  not  only  abounded  with  sup- 
plies for  the  use  of  the  troops,  but  offered  almost  irresistible  temptations 
to  the  accustomed  violence  and  marauding  of  a  conquering  army.  These 
results  were  the  more  to  be  dreaded  from  a  host  consisting  of  the  soldiers 
of  six  different  nations,  part  of  whom  were  men  of  lawless  and  savage 
habits,  and  all,  smarting  under  the  recollection  of  unendurable  wrongs. 
To  guard  against  such  excess,  Alexander  issued  a  proclamation  enjoining 
the  strictest  discipline,  and  foi bidding  the  Russians  to  obtain  any  supplies 
but  through  the  intervention  of  the  mayors  and  local  authorities.  Not 
satisfied  with  this,  he  with  his  own  hand  addressed  a  circular  to  the  com- 
manders of  corps  belonging  to  the  other  countries,  earnestly  requesting 


1814.]  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  413 

them  to  adopt  similar  measures.  The  effect  of  this  wise  and  humane 
policy  was  speedily  apparent,  and  the  inhabitants,  instead  of  flying  before 
the  allied  columns,  soon  came  to  regard  them  without  fear,  and  furnished 
whatever  was  requisite  to  their  subsistence. 

At  length,  the  allied  columns  approached  Paris  by  the  forest  of  Bondy; 
and  the  sovereigns  who  accompanied  the  march,  ascended  an  eminence  on 
the  roadside  to  the  left.  The  sun  had  just  set,  a  cool  breeze  refreshed 
the  air,  and  not  a  cloud  was  visible  in  the  sky.  On  the  right,  lay  the 
buildings  of  Montmartre,  and  beyond  them  the  stately  edifices  of  Paris 
burst  upon  the  view. 

In  the  midst  of  the  general  consternation  that  now  pervaded  the  French 
capital,  the  Council  of  State  was  summoned  to  deliberate  on  the  grave 
question,  whether  the  Empress  and  the  King  of  Rome  should  remain  in 
Paris  to  await  the  issue  of  its  contemplated  defence,  or  be  conveyed  to  a 
place  of  safety  beyond  the  Loire.  The  minister  at  war,  Clarke,  briefly 
unfolded  the  military  condition  of  the  city:  he  estimated  the  forces  of  the 
allies  at  a  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  men,  and  declared  that,  with  the 
means  of  resistance  at  his  disposal,  he  could  not  answer  for  the  safety  of 
the  Imperial  family.  The  matter  was  debated  at  some  length,  and  finally 
the  council  decided,  by  a  vote  of  nineteen  to  four,  that  the  Empress  and 
her  son  should  be  installed  in  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  and  an  appeal  made  to 
the  people  for  their  protection  in  that  last  asylum.  When  this  result  was 
announced,  Joseph  produced  the  letter  from  Napoleon,  dated  a  fortnight 
previous  at  Rheims,  ordering  that  his  wife  and  son  should  not,  under  any 
circumstances,  be  allowed  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  allies ;  and  that  if 
their  armies  approached  Paris,  the  Empress  and  King  of  P^ome  should  be 
removed  to  the  other  side  of  the  Loire.  This  order  superseded  the  vote 
of  the  Council  and  closed  its  deliberations;  and  it  was  subsequently  ar- 
ranged, that  Joseph  should  remain  to  direct  the  defence  of  the  capital, 
while  the  principal  officers  of  state  accompanied  the  Empress  in  her 
retreat. 

The  departure  of  Marie  Louise,  on  the  29th  of  March,  completed  the 
discouragement  of  the  inhabitants.  A  great  crowd  assembled  at  the 
Place  clu  Carrousel,  when  the  carriages  drove  up  to  the  gates  at  day- 
break ;  and,  although  none  ventured  to  arraign  the  orders  of  the  govern- 
ment, many  denunciations  were  uttered  privately  against  a  line  of  policy 
which  virtually  abandoned  the  capital  to  the  enemy,  by  withdrawing  those 
whose  presence  was  best  calculated  to  preserve  authority,  and  stimulate 
resistance.  The  King  of  Rome,  though  but  three  years  of  age,  cried 
violently  when  the  attendants  came  to  remove  him:  he  declared  that  they 
were  betraying  his  papa  ;  and  he  clung  to  the  curtains  of  his  apartment 
with  such  tenacity,  that  all  the  influence  of  his  governess,  Madame  de 
Montesquieu,  was  requisite  to  make  him  quit  his  hold.  He  was  still  in 
tears  when  taken  to  the  carriage.  Marie  Louise  was  calm,  but  deadly 
pale.  The  mournful  procession  moved  off  at  eleven  o'clock,  and  took  the 
road  to  Rambouillet. 

Paris  is  situated  on  both  banks  of  the  river  Seine,  and  its  location  is  as 
well  adapted  to  external  defence  as  to  internal  ornament  and  salubrity. 
From  Mount  Valerius  on  the  west,  to  the  fortress  of  Vincennes  on  the 
east,  it  is  protected  by  a  chain  of  hills  running  along  the  northern  bank 
of  the  Seine,  and  presenting  a  natural  fortification  on  the  north  and  east: 
Clichy,  Remain vilb,  Belleville,  Chaumont  and  Montmartre  are  the  names 


414  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [Ciur.  XLVI. 

affixed  to  this  ridge  ;  and  although  at  that  time  it  was  not  strengthened  by 
field-works,  it  constituted  a  formidable  line  of  defence.  The  plain  of  St. 
Denis,  between  Montmartre  and  Romainville,  extends  to  the  gates  of  the 
capital ;  but  this  was  so  guarded  by  batteries,  as  to  be  entirely  inaccessi- 
ble until  the  adjoining  summits  were  carried.  The  defence  of  the  town, 
however,  depended  on  the  possession  of  the  heights.  The  stranger,  on 
his  first  arrival  at  Paris,  is  most  struck  with  the  extraordinary  beauty  and 
ariety  of  its  public  buildings.  The  long -established  greatness  of  the 
rench  sovereigns,  the  taste  for  architecture  which  several  of  them  pos- 
sessed, and  the  durable  materials  of  which  the  capital  is  built;  have  con- 
spired, through  a  succession  of  ages,  to  store  it  with  edifices  which  are 
not  only  imposing  in  themselves,  but  are  in  a  high  degree  interesting  from 
the  picture  they  present  of  the  changes  of  manners,  habits  and  taste 
during  the  existence  of  the  monarchy.  From  the  stately  remains  of  the 
baths  of  Julian — now  devoted  to  the  humble  purpose  of  a  cooper's  shop 
in  the  Faubourg  St.  Germain — to  the  magnificent  structures  projected  by 
Napoleon,  and  completed  by  the  Bourbons,  Paris  exhibits  an  unbroken 
series  of  buildings,  still  entire,  erected  in  the  course  of  fifteen  centuries, 
connecting  together  the  ancient  and  modern  world  ;  and  forming,  like 
Gibbon's  History,  a  bridge  that  spans  the  dark  gulf  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
The  towers  of  Notre  Dame,  rising  in  the  austerity  of  Gothic  taste,  and 
loaded  with  the  riches  of  Catholic  superstition ;  the  Hotel  de  Ville, 
recalling  by  its  florid  architecture  the  civil  wars  of  the  Fronde  and  the 
League  ;  the  Marais,  with  its  stately  edifices,  carrying  us  back  to  the 
early  splendor  of  the  Bourbons ;  the  Louvre,  bringing  to  remembrance 
the  frightful  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  ;  the  Pont-Neuf,  bearing  the 
image  of  Henri  IV.;  the  Tuileries,  breathing  at  once  of  the  splendor  of 
Louis  XIV.,  and  the  sufferings  of  his  martyred  descendant;  the  Place 
Louis  XV.,  where  the  orgies  of  royalty  were  succeeded  by  the  horrors 
of  Revolution  ;  the  column  of  the  Place  Vendome,  which  perpetuates  the 
glories  of  Napoleon — these  form,  together,  a  mass  of  monuments  une- 
qualled in  interest  by  any  other  city  of  modern  Europe,  and  in  the  view 
of  a  future  age  may  even  exceed  the  attractions  of  the  Eternal  City.  All 
Paris  is  historical ;  the  shadows  of  the  dead  arise  on  every  side,  and  the 
very  stones  seem  to  speak.  The  streets  in  the  old  part  of  the  town  are 
narrow  ;  but  this,  combined  with  their  straightness,  renders  them  the  more 
striking,  as  their  buildings  are  always  seen  in  rapid  perspective  ;  and  the 
old  stone  piles,  five  stories  in  height,  and  contemporary  with  the  Crusades, 
seem  to  frown  in  contempt  on  the  modern  passenger.  On  the  banks  of 
the  river,  a  wider  space  is  discovered  :  light  arches  span  the  rapid  stream, 
and  long  lines  of  pillared  scenery  attest  the  riches  and  taste  of  a  more 
refined  epoch. 

The  troops  at  the  disposal  of  Joseph  were  entirely  inadequate  to  the  de- 
fence of  Paris.  The  National  Guard,  indeed,  mustered  thirty  thousand 
men ;  but  not  more  than  half  of  them  were  armed,  and  a  considerable 
portion  of  those  were  occupied  at  the  several  barriers  of  the  city,  so  that 
not  more  than  five  thousand  could  be  available  for  the  external  fortifica- 
tions. In  addition  to  these  troops,  the  garrison  consisted  of  the  broken 
remnants  of  fifteen  divisions,  reduced  by  the  campaigns  of  two  years  to 
twenty-six  thousand  mon  :  they  were  supported  by  a  hundred  and  twenty 
pieces  of  cannon,  fifty-lhree  of  which  were  in  position^  and  some  of  them 
manned  by  the  youths  of  the  Polytechnic  School.  Marmont  commanded 


1814.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  415 

the  right  of  this  force,  which  rested  on  Belleville  and  Chaumont,  with 
detachments  reaching  to  Vincennes ;  and  Mortier  took  direction  of  the 
left,  extending  between  the  canal  of  Ourcq  and  Montmartre  across  the- 
great  road  from  St.  Denis,  with  posts  as  far  as  Neuilly.  Of  the  allies,  a 
hundred  thousand  men  were  in  line,  ready  to  take  part  in  the  attack ;  the 
remainder  having  been  left  on  the  Marne,  at  Trilpost,  and  at  Meaux,  to 
guard  the  communications  and  observe  the  movements  of  Napoleon. 

At  two  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  the  30th  of  March,  the  gtntralc  was 
beaten  in  all  quarters  of  Paris,  summoning  the  National  Guard  to  assem- 
ble at  their  different  points  of  rendezvous ;  and  the  call  was  obeyed  with 
a  promptitude  that  foretold,  at  least,  a  brave  struggle  for  victory.  At 
five  o'clock,  the  anxious  troops  on  watch  at  the  heights  of  Romainville, 
discovered  several  dark  masses  beyond  Pn.ntin,  on  the  road  from  Meaux. 
As  yet,  not  a  gun  had  been  fired  on  either  side.  The  level  glance  of  the 
sun  illuminated  the  quiet  slopes  of  Romainville,  and  the  dome  of  the  In- 
valides  began  to  flash  in  the  effulgence  of  his  earliest  rays.  Suddenly, 
the  discharge  of  artillery  was  heard  on  the  right ;  the  dark  masses  be- 
came edged  with  fire :  and  soon,  the  roar  of  several  hundred  pieces  of 
cannon  announced  to  the  terrified  inhabitants,  that  the  last  day  of  the 
Revolution  had  come. 

The  firing  of  musketry  commenced,  at  six  o'clock,  on  that  part  of  the 
allied  line  led  by  Prince  Eugene  of  Wirtemberg,  whose  division  issued 
from  Pantin,  while  Raieffsky  moved  straight  upon  Romainville.  Marmont, 
who  had  already  seen  his  error  in  not  occupying  these  villages  the  even- 
ing before,  was  marching  to  take  possession  of  them  with  Beyer's  division 
of  the  Young  Guard,  when  he  met  Prince  Eugene's  Russians  near  Pan- 
tin.  A  furious  conflict  ensued  ;  and  so  long  as  the  opposite  forces  were 
equally  matched,  neither  gained  any  perceptible  advantage.  But  Mor- 
tier, finding  that  his  position  was  not  assailed,  sent  two  divisions  to  Mar- 
mont's  aid,  and  the  Russians  were  driven  back  into  the  villages.  At  this 
juncture,  Raieffsky  reached  his  designated  point  and  commenced  an  as- 
sault on  the  left.  His  infantry  carried  Montreuil  and  his  cavalry  pushed 
in  to  Charron,  nearly  in  the  rear  of  the  Young  Guard  at  Romainville. 
It  was  now  eight  o'clock,  and  f.he  Emperor  Alexander,  who  had  just  ar- 
rived at  the  scene  of  action,  learned  with  dismay  that  Blucher's  troops 
had  not  yet  come  up  to  their  post  at  Montmartre  ;  that  the  Prince  Royal 
of  Wirtemberg  and  Giulay  were  still  far  behind;  and  that  Raieffsky  was 
overmatched.  He  immediately  ordered  Barclay  to  bring  forward  the 
grenadiers  and  the  Russian  and  Prussian  Guard. 

Prince  Eugene  now,  in  turn,  had  the  advantage;  and,  as  the  French 
batteries  on  the  heights  prevented  his  forward  movement,  he  sent  General 
Mesecizoff  to  .unite  with  Raieffsky  and  carry  the  guns.  These  forces  ac- 
cordingly made  a  spirited  assault  on  the  wooded  hills  of  Romainville,  and 
drove  the  French  back  to  the  heights  in  the  rear  of  Belleville.  At  the 
same  time,  Count  Pahlen,  with  a  body  of  dragoons,  approached  the  Bar- 
riere  du  Trone,  and  captured  twenty  pieces  of  cannon  served  by  the 
Polytechnic  scholars.  Barclay  now  ordered  the  attack  in  the  centre  to 
be  suspended  until  the  arrival  of  Blucher  on  the  right,  and  Giulay  and 
the  Prince  Royal  of  Wirtemberg  on  the  left.  At  eleven  o'clock,  the 
army  of  Silesia  approached,  and  moved  against  Marmont  at.  La  Villette: 
the  French  marshal  defended  his  ground  for  four  hours,  but  was  at  last 
compelled  to  retire.  The  Prince  Royal  did  not  reach  his  position  on  the 


416  HIS  TORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLVI 

left  until  near  one  o'clock  ;  but  he  then  atoned  for  the  slowness  of  his 
march  by  the  vigor  of  his  onset.  He  occupied  the  wood  of  Vincennes, 
blockaded  the  castle,  stormed  the  bridge  of  St.  Maur,  and  drove  the 
French  troops  in  that  quarter  to  Charenton. 

The  entire  allied  force  being  now  in  communication,  a  general  advance 
along  the  whole  line  took  place ;  and  the  great  numerical  superiority  of 
the  assailants  rendered  the  charge  irresistible. 

When  Joseph  perceived  that  the  day  was  lost,  he  authorized  the  mar- 
shals to  enter  into  a  capitulation,  the  terms  of  which  were  the  immediate 
surrender  of  Paris,  and  the  evacuation  of  all  the  fortified  posts  around  its 
gates.  A  perfect  silence  succeeded  the  loud  roar  of  artillery,  while  the 
conditions  of  surrender  were  discussed :  from  the  banks  of  the  Marne 
to  those  of  the  Seine,  the  allies  rested  on  their  arms  in  a  semicircular 
line  six  miles  long ;  masses  of  cavalry  filled  the  plain  ;  and  three  hun- 
dred pieces  of  cannon  were  ready  to  pour  their  destructive  thunder  on 
the  capital.  Suddenly,  a  brief  and  isolated  struggle  commenced  anew 
on  the  heights  of  Montmartre  ;  the  position  was  carried  at  a  single  charge ; 
and  eighty-four  guns  were  instantly  planted  there  and  brought  to  bear  on 
the  town.  "  So,  father  Paris,  you  must  pay  now  for  mother  Moscow  !" 
exclaimed  a  Russian  artilleryman,  with  the  medal  of  1812  on  his  breast, 
as  he  brandished  the  linstock  over  his  piece.  But  a  suspension  of  arms 
was  agreed  upon  ;  a  white  flag  waved  from  the  summit  of  Montmartre,  the 
soldiers  stacked  their  arms,  and  the  bands  of  all  the  regiments,  advan- 
cing to  the  elevated  points  around  the  capital,  made  the  air  reecho  with 
the  sounds  of  martial  music. 

In  the  meantime,  Napoleon  was  hastening  toward  his  capital.  On 
the  29th,  the  Imperial  Guard  arrived  at  Troyes,  having  marched  more 
than  forty  miles  in  that  single  day.  After  a  few  hours  of  rest,  the  Em- 
peror threw  himself  into  his  travelling  carriage,  and,  as  the  wearied  cui- 
rassiers could  no  longer  keep  pace  with  him,  he  set  out  alone  for  Paris. 
The  most  disastrous  intelligence  reached  him  every  time  he  changed 
horses.  He  learned,  successively,  that  the  Empress  and  his  son  had 
quitted  Paris ;  that  the  allies  were  fighting  on  its  heights,  and  that  they 
had  reached  its  gates.  His  impatience  was  now  redoubled.  He  left  his 
carriage  for  a  post  caleclie  to  accelerate  his  speed  ;  and,  while  the  horses 
were  going  at  a  gallop,  he  urged  the  postillions  to  drive  faster.  The  steeds 
flew  like  the  wind  ;  the  wheels  of  the  vehicle  took  fire  in  rolling  over  the 
pavement,  and  yet  he  was  dissatisfied.  He  reached  Fromenteau,  five 
leagues  from  Paris,  at  ten  o'clock  in  the  evening;  and  while  changing 
horses  at  the  post-house,  he  overheard  some  straggling  soldiers  comment- 
ing on  the  capitulation  of  Paris.  "  These  men  are  mad !"  said  he,  im- 
petuously; "the  thing  is  impossible;  bring  me  an  officer."  General 
Beillard  came  up  at  the  moment  and  related  the  details  of  the  catastro- 
phe. Large  drops  of  perspiration  stood  on  the  Emperor's  forehead  ;  and 
he  turned  to  Caulaincourt,  saying,  with  a  fixed  gaze  that  made  the  minis- 
ter shudder,  •'*  Do  you  hear  that !" 

Berthier  now  approached,  and  Napoleon  remarked  that  it  was  time  to 
start  for  Paris.  "  Caulaincourt,"  said  he,  "  order  the  carriage."  Then, 
unable  to  restrain  his  anxiety,  he  set  out  on  foot,  accompanied  by  Cau- 
laincourt and  Berthier,  speaking  incessantly  as  he  hurried  on,  without 
waiting  for  their  answers,  or  seeming  to  be  conscious  of  their  presence. 
"  I  burned  the  wheels  of  my  carriage,"  he  said ;  "  my  horses  were  as 


L4.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  417 

swift  as  the  wind ;  but  still  I  felt  oppressed  with  an  intolerable  weight. 
I  asked  them  to  hold  out  for  only  twenty- four  hours.  Miserable  wretches 
that  they  are  !  Marmont,  too,  who  swore  that  he  would  be  hewn  in  pieces 
rather  than  surrender  !  And  Joseph  ran  off — my  own  brother  !  To  sur- 
render my  capital  to  the  enemy  !  What  poltroons  !  They  had  my  orders. 
They  knew  that  on  the  2nd  of  April  I  would  be  here  with  seventy  thousand 
men.  My  brave  scholars,  my  National  Guard,  who  promised  to  defend 
my  S0n — every  man  with  a  heart  in  his  bosom,  would  have  combated  on 
my  side  !  And  so,  they  have  capitulated !  betrayed  their  country — their 
brother — their  sovereign — and  degraded  France  in  the  eyes  of  Europe  I 
Entered  into  a  capital  of  eight  hundred  thousand  souls  without  firing  a 
shot !  It  is  too  dreadful !  This  comes  of  trusting  cowards  and  fools. 
When  I  am  not  with  them,  they  do  nothing  but  blunder.  What  has  been 
done  with  the  artillery  ?  They  should  have  had  two  hundred  pieces  and 
ammunition  for  a  month.  Every  one  has  lost  his  wits ;  and  yet  Joseph 
imagines  he  can  lead  an  army  ;  and  Clarke  is  vain  enough  to  think  him- 
self  a  statesman  ;  but  I  begin  to  believe  SaVary  is  right  in  pronouncing 
him  a  traitor.  Set  off,  Caulaincourt !  Fly  to  the  allied  lines  !  Pene- 
trate to  head-quarters  !  You  have  full  powers — fly  !  fly  !"  He  then  in- 
sisted on  advancing  with  the  cavalry,  which  had  already  evacuated  Paris : 
but  on  the  reiterated  assurances  of  Belliard,  that  the  capitulation  was 
concluded,  and  the  capital  in  possession  of  an  army  a  hundred  arid  twenty 
thousand  strong,  he  at  length  consented  to  return,  rejoined  the  carriages 
which  he  had  preceded  more  than  a  mile,  and  drove  to  Fontainebleau, 
where  he  arrived  at  six  o'clock  in  the  morning. 

The  terms  of  the  capitulation  of  Paris  were  for  many  hours  the  subject 
of  eager  discussion.  The  allies  gave  a  ready  consent  to  the  demands  of 
the  French  marshals,  that  Paris  should  be  protected  ;  its  private  property 
held  sacred,  and  its  monuments  intrusted  to  the  care  of  the  National 
Guard  ;  but  a  serious  difference  arose  as  to  the  surrender  of  the  troops. 
It  was  finally  agreed,  however,  that  the  marshals,  with  their  corps,  should 
quit  Paris  by  seven  o'clock  the  next  morning ;  that  the  public  arsenals 
should  be  given  up  to  the  allies  ;  that  the  National  Guard  should,  at  the 
option  of  the  victors,  either  be  disbanded  or  aid  the  allies  in  the  provis- 
ional government  of  the  city  ;  that  the  wounded  and  stragglers  found  in 
or  about  the  town  after  ten  o'clock,  should  be  considered  prisoners  of 
war ;  and  that  Paris  should  be  recommended  to  the  generosity  of  the 
allied  powers. 

While  these  negotiations  were  going  on  between  the  delegates  of  the 
hostile  parties,  the  municipal  magistrates  of  Paris  repaired  to  the  head- 
quarters of  the  allied  sovereigns,  to  devise  some  plan  for  conducting  the 
internal  affairs  of  the  capital.  The  Emperor  Alexander  received  them  in  the 
most  gracious  manner.  "  Gentlemen,"  said  he,  "  I  am  not  the  enemy  of  the 
French  nation,  but  only  of  one  man,  whom  I  once  admired  and  long  loved  : 
a  man  who,  corrupted  by  ambition  and  bad  faith,  came  into  the  heart  of  my 
dominions  with  fire  and  sword,  and  forced  me  to  provide  for  my  future 
safety  by  aiding  in  his  overthrow.  My  colleagues  and  mvself  have  come 
here,  not  to  conquer  or  to  rule  France,  but  to  discover  and  support  what 
France  herself  deems  most  suitable  for  her  own  welfare.  We  n-rv  nait 
only  to  ascertain,  in  the  declared  wishes  of  Paris,  the  probable  wishes  of 
the  kingdom."  He  then  promised  to  take  under  his  special  charge  the 
museums,  monuments,  and  public  institutions  of  the  capital.  On  the 


418  HISTORY     OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLVI. 

request  of  the  magistrates  that  the  National  Guard  should  be  kept  together, 
Alexander,  turning  to  the  chief  of  the  staff,  asked  if  he  could  rely  on  that 
civic  force.  The  reply  being  in  the  affirmative,  he  rejoined,  that  he  de- 
sired no  other  guarantee,  and  that  he  leferred  the  details  to  General 
Sacken,  whom  he  had  appointed  governor  of  Paris. 

When  it  was  currently  known  in  the  metropolis,  on  the  30th  of  March, 
that  the  capitulation  was  completed,  the  Royalists  openly  declared  them- 
selves. M.  Charles  de  Vauvineux  stood  up  in  the  Place  Louis  XV.,  and 
read  to  a  small  assemblage  of  his  partisans,  a  proclamation  issued  by 
Schwartzenberg  on  the  preceding  day  ;  and  at  its  close,  he  mounted  the 
white  cockade,  and  shouted  "  vive  le  rot  /"  At  first,  only  four  men  followed 
his  example  ;  but  these,  nothing  daunted,  rode  on  horseback  through  the 
streets,  repeating  the  old  rallying-cry  of  France,  and  distributing  white 
cockades  to  the  people. 

Noonday  arrived  while  things  were  in  this  state  ;  and,  in  conformity  to 
a  previous  arrangement,  the  allied  troops  began  to  appear  in  the  Faubourg 
San  Martin,  on  their  way  to*  the  capital.  The  Prussian  cavalry  of  the 
Guard,  preceded  by  some  squadrons  of  Cossacks,  came  first ;  then  the 
Prussian  light  horse  ;  the  Russian  and  Prussian  infantry  ;  the  Russian 
cuirassiers  ;  and  the  artillery  of  the  whole  army.  When  the  superb 
array  of  the  Russian  household  troops  passed  the  barriers,  one  universal 
feeling  of  enthusiasm  seized  upon  the  multitude  of  spectators.  Every 
window  was  crowded  ;  every  roof  covered  ;  and  the  throng  in  the  streets 
became  so  dense  that  the  troops  had  great  difficulty  in  accomplishing  their 
march.  The  Parisians,  passing  from  the  extreme  of  terror  to  that  of 
gratitude,  now  gave  vent  in  loud  applauses  to  their  astonishment  and 
admiration  :  for  Schwartzenberg's  proclamation  to  them  had  already  been 
placarded  on  every  corner,  and  its  conciliatory  expressions  were  known  and 
appreciated.  The  grand  object  of  the  people's  anxiety  was  to  get  a 
glimpse  of  the  Emperor  Alexander,  to  whom  they  ascribed  their  deliv- 
erance. When  that  monarch,  with  the  King  of  Prussia  on  his  right,  and 
Schwartzenberg  and  Lord  Cathcart  on  his  left,  reached  the  Porte  St. 
Martin,  the  excitement  of  the  multitude  reached  its  climax.  Shouts  of 
"  Vive  PEmpereur  Alexandre  !"  "  Vive  le  Roi  de  Prussie  !"  "  Vivent  les 
Allies!"  "Vivent  nos  Liberateurs  !"  burst  forth  from  all  sides;  and  the 
universal  transport  resembled  the  homage  of  a  grateful  people  to  a  bene- 
ficent sovereign,  rather  than  the  reception  by  the  vanquished  of  their 
conqueror,  after  a  bloody  and  desperate  war. 

At  the  close  of  the  procession,  Alexander  alighted  at  the  hotel  of  Tal- 
leyrand, where  the  leading  members  of  the  Senate,  and  the  most  distin- 
guished individuals  of  the  capital,  were  assembled.  On  the  side  of  the 
Royalists,  were  Baron  Louis,  the  Abbe  de  Pradt,  the  Due  de  Dalberg, 
Bourrienne,  and  Beurnonville  :  these,  with  the  King  of  Prussia,  Prince 
Schwartzenberg,  Prince  Lichtenstein,  Count  Nesselrode,  and  the  Count 
Pozzo  di  Borgo,  with  many  others,  composed  this  memorable  assemblage. 

Alexander  opened  the  discussion,  by  stating  that  one  of  three  courses 
must  be  adopted  by  the  allies  :  They  must  make  peace  with  Napoleon, 
taking  the  necessary  securities  against  its  infringement ;  establish  a 
regency  ;  or,  recall  the  House  of  Bourbon.  On  these  momentous  ques- 
tions he  requested  the  opinion  of  the  personages  present,  averring,  that  the 
sole  wish  of  the  allied  sovereigns  was  to  consult  the  wishes  of  France, 
and  to  secure  the  peace  of  the  world.  Talleyrand  immediately  rose,  and 


1814.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  419 

urged  that  the  first  and  second  of  these  projects  were  inadmissible,  as  there 
could  be  no  peace  in  Europe  while  Napoleon,  or  any  of  his  race  were 
on  the  throne.  He  finished  by  saying,  that  the  alternative  was  to 
adopt  the  third  course  proposed,  which  would  be  generally  acceptable, 
and  which  alone  offered  a  remedy  for  the  evils  in  which  the  country  was 
involved.  The  Abbe  de  Pradt  and  Baron  Louis,  on  being  asked  for  their 
opinions,  avowed  themselves  Royalists,  and  added,  that  a  great  majority 
of  the  French  people  entertained  the  same  sentiments.  After  some  fur. 
ther  discussion  on  this  point,  Alexander  declared  that  he  would  no  longer 
treat  with  Napoleon,  nor  with  any  member  of  his  family. 

The  die  being  thus  cast,  the  next  step  was  to  announce  the  result  to  the 
inhabitants  of  Paris.  This  was  accomplished  by  means  of  an  address,  in 
which  the  allied  sovereigns  proclaimed,  that  they  would  grant  more  favor- 
able terms  to  a  wise  and  peaceful  government,  than  to  one  which  required 
precautions  against  the  devouring  ambition  of  Napoleon  ;  that  they  would 
respect  the  integrity  of  France,  such  as  she  had  been  under  her  legiti- 
mate monarchs  ;  and  that,  wishing  Frtince  to*  be  great  and  powerful,  they 
would  guaranty  any  convention  she  might  adopt.  The  address  ended 
with  a  request  to  the  Senate,  to  appoint  a  provisional  government,  and 
prepare  a  suitable  Constitution  for  the  people  of  France.  Orders  were 
at  the  same  time  sent  to  the  police  for  the  liberation  of  all  persons  con- 
fined for  state  offences. 

On  the  first  of  April,  Talleyrand,  in  his  capacity  of  Arch-chancellor 
of  the  Empire,  convened  the  Senate  in  their  usual  hall  of  assembly. 
Only  sixty-four  of  the  one  hundred  and  forty  members,  obeyed  the  sum- 
mons ;  but  among  these  were  men  of  distinction,  who  had  been  active  on 
the  extreme  side  of  almost  every  question  throughout  the  phases  of  the 
Revolution.  To  the  proceedings  of  that  day  are  affixed  the  names  of 
Destutt  Tracy,  Fontanes,  Garat,  the  Abbe  Gregoire,  Lambrecht,  Lan- 
juinais,  the  Abbe  de  Montesquieu,  Roger  Ducos,  Serrurier,  Soules,  and 
the  Due  de  Valmy.  A  provisional  government  was  speedily  and  unani- 
mously established,  consisting  of  Talleyrand,  president,  Count  de  Beur- 
nonville,  Count  de  Jaucourt,  the  Due  de  Dalberg,  and  M.  de  Montesquieu. 
No  mention  was  made  of  Napoleon,  although  these  very  proceedings 
were  the  most  decided  act  of  high  treason  to  his  authority ;  nor  of  the 
Bourbons,  though  each  measure  adopted  was  a  direct  approach  to  their 
recognition. 

When  everything  was  concluded,  the  Senate  adjourned  to  wait  upon 
the  Emperor  Alexander,  who  received  them  with  great  cordiality.  In 
the  course  of  his  remarks  to  them,  he  said,  "  Your  provisional  govern- 
ment asks  for  the  liberation  of  the  French  prisoners  of  war,  confined  in 
Russia.  I  grant  this  to  the  Senate.  From  the  time  these  men  fell  into 
my  hands,  I  have  done  what  I  could  to  soften  the  rigor  of  their  lot ;  and 
no'w,  1  will  give  orders  for  their  release  from  captivity.  May  they 
rejoin  their  families  in  peace,  and  enjoy  the  tranquillity  which  the 
new  order  of  things  is  fitted  to  induce  !"  These  wj.  JIs  secured  the  free- 
dom of  a  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  men ;  and  such  was  the  vengeance 
that  Alexander  took  for  the  desolation  of  his  dominions.  Napoleon,  when 
he  became  master  of  Berlin  in  1806,  said.  "  I  will  make  the  Prussian 
nobility  so  poor  that  they  shall  beg  their  bread."  When  he  withdrew 
from  Vienna,  in  1809,  he  blew  up  the  time-honored  bastions  of  the  capital ; 
and  when  he  evacuated  Moscow,  in  1812,  he  gave  orders  for  the  destruc. 
tion  of  the  Kremlin,  the  most  noble  edifice  that  had  escaped  the  flames, 

38 


420  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLVI. 

On  the  2nd  of  April,  the  Senate,  by  a  solemn  decree,  dethroned  the 
Emperor,  and  absolved  the  army  and  the  people  from  their  oaths  of  alle- 
giance. The  legislative  body,  at  a  subsequent  meeting  of  seventy-seven 
of  its  members,  confirmed  these  acts  of  the  Senate.  Declarations  of  ac- 
quiescence in  the  decree,  and  of  adhesion  to  the  course  of  the  government 
now  came  rapidly  in  from  all  points.  The  public  bodies  of  Paris  trans- 
mitted addresses  filled  with  invectives  against  Napoleon,  and  as  the  news 
reached  the  provinces,  it  was  quickly  responded  to  by  proclamations  of 
the  downfall  of  the  tyrant,  and  the  cordial  approval  by  the  people  of  the 
new  order  of  things.  Still,  not  a  word  was  said  by  the  constituted 
authorities  concerning  the  return  of  the  Bourbons.  On  the  contrary,  the 
persons  appointed  to  fill  the  principal  offices  in  the  new  government,  were 
almost  all  drawn  from  the  Republican  party :  and  in  this,  Talleyrand 
showed  his  profound  knowledge  of  human  nature  :  he  could  gain  the 
Republicans  only  through  the  medium  of  their  interests,  but  he  was  sure 
of  the  Royalists  from  the  force  of  their  affections. 

The  next  important  consideration  was,  to  ascertain  the  temper  of  the 
French  army  ;  for  although  its  numbers  were  so  greatly  reduced,  it  might 
still,  with  Napoleon  at  its  head,  exert  a  powerful  influence  on  the  destinies 
of  the  nation.  The  matter  was  not  long  in  suspense.  The  Moniteur  of 
April  7th,  contained  an  official  correspondence  between  Schwartzenberg 
and  Marmont,  in  which  the  latter  declared  his  adhesion  to  the  new  gov- 
ernment, on  condition  that  the  life  and  personal  freedom  of  the  Emperor 
should  be  secured,  and  a  fitting  asylum  provided  for  the  defeated  sove- 
reign, in  some  place  to  be  designated  by  the  allied  powers  ;  and  that  such 
of  the  French  troops  as,  in  virtue  of  the  present  convention,  might  pass 
over  to  the  allies,  should  be  furnished  with  secure  quarters  in  Normandy. 
These  conditions  were  conceded,  and  Marmont's  entire  corps  entered  the 
allied  lines,  where  they  were  received  with  acclamation. 

When  intelligence  of  these  proceedings  reached  Napoleon  at  Fontaine- 
bleau,  he  was  greatly  exasperated,  and  issued  orders  to  the  soldiers  yet 
under  his  command  to  advance  immediately  on  Paris :  but  his  marshals, 
who  had  everything  to  lose,  and  nothing  to  gain  by  a  renewal  of  hostilities, 
strongly  opposed  the  movement,  as  desperate  and  unavailing  against  such 
a  multitude  of  foes.  Their  representations  and  arguments  finally  pre- 
vailed, and  the  Emperor  signed  an  abdication  in  favor  of  his  son,  and 
appointing  Marie  Louise  as  regent.  He  then  sent  Caulaincourt,  with  Ney 
and  Macdonald,  to  Paris,  to  obtain  from  the  conquerors  their  approval  of  this 
instrument.  The  efforts  of  these  ambassadors,however,  were  unavailing  : 
the  allied  powers  unanimously  decided  that  the  sentence  of  dethronement 
pronounced  by  the  Senate  could  not  be  disturbed,  and  they  avowed  their 
determination  not  to  negotiate  with  Napoleon,  nor  with  any  of  his  family. 
Caulaincourt  and  Macdonald,  finding  it  impossible  to  accomplish  anything 
for  their  Emperor,  returned  to  sympathize  with  his  misfortunes ;  but  Ney 
was  more  flexible.  As  feeble  and  irresolute  in  political  life,  as  he  was 
bold  and  perseveriiii,  AI  the  battle-field,  he  with  little  hesitation  joined  the 
party  of  Talleyrand  ;  and  his  formal  adhesion  to  the  new  government 
was  promulged  in  the  columns  of  the  Moniteur. 

In  truth,  during  the  four  days  following  the  declaration  of  the  allies 
that  they  would  not  treat  with  any  member  of  the  Napoleon  dynasty,  the 
cause  of  the  Bourbons  completely  triumphed.  The  voice  in  their  favor, 
which  at  first  emanated  from  a  few  devoted  adherents,  had  now  swelled 


1814.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  421 

into  a  mighty  shout,  from  nearly  all  the  population  of  the  capital. 
Nevertheless,  the  people  were  not  all  moved  by  a  chivalrous  feeling  of 
loyalty,  or  an  abstract  repentance  for  the  crimes  of  the  Revolution — 
deliverance  from  evil  was  their  prevalent  and  all-controlling  desire. 

When  Macdonald  and  Caulaincourt  returned  to  Fontainebleau,  and  re- 
ported the  refusal  of  the  allies  to  negotiate  with  them,  Napoleon  gave  vent 
to  a  violent  burst  of  anger  ;  but.  as  on  a  previous  occasion,  his  counsellors 
gradually  brought  him  to  a  cooler  examination  of  his  predicament,  and 
at  last  prevailed  on  him  to  sign  an  unconditional  surrender  of  the  throne. 
This  instrument  was  immediately  transmitted  to  Paris,  and  a  formal  treaty 
between  Napoleon  and  the  allies  was  drawn  up,  and  subscribed  on  the 
llth  of  April.  Napoleon,  by  this  treaty,  renounced  the  Empire  of  France 
and  the  Kingdom  of  Italy,  for  himself  and  his  descendants  :  but  he  was 
permitted  to  retain  the  title  of  Emperor,  and  the  titles  of  prince  and  prin- 
cess were  conceded  to  his  brothers,  sisters,  nephews  and  nieces.  The 
island  of  Elba,  selected  by  himself  as  his  place  of  residence,,  was  erected 
into  a  principality  in  his  favor ;  the  Duchy  of  Parma  and  Placentia.  was 
secured  to  the  Empress  Marie  Louise  and  her  son,  in  full  sovereignty.  The 
sum  of  two  and  a  half  millions  of  francs  was  provided  for  the  annual 
income  of  Napoleon,  and  two  millions  more  were  inscribed  on  the  great 
book  of  France,  to  descend  to  his  heirs  after  his  decease.  A  million  of 
francs,  yearly,  was  also  inscribed  for  the  use  of  Josephine.  The  princes 
and  princesses  were  allowed  to  retain  all  their  movable  estate ;  but  the 
furniture  of  the  palace  and  the  crown  jewels  were  held  for  France.  Fif- 
teen hundred  of  the  Old  Guard  were  to  escort  the  Emperor  to  his  place  of 
embarkation ;  and  he  was  at  liberty  to  take  with  him  four  hundred  sol- 
diers  for  his  body-guard.  The  Poles  in  the  service  of  France  were  suf- 
fered to  return  to  their  own  country,  with  their  arms  and  baggage.  The 
treaty  bore  the  signatures  of  Caulaincourt,  Macdonald,  Ney,  Metternich, 
Nesselrode,  and  Hardenberg.  Lord  Castlereagh,  on  the  part  of  England, 
acceded  to  this  treaty  ;  "  but  to  be  binding  on  his  Britannic  Majesty, 
enly  with  respect  to  his  own  acts,  not  with  respect  to  the  acts  of  third 
parties." 

At  noonday  on  the  20th  of  April,  the  Emperor  took  leave  of  his  Old 
Guard,  who  were  drawn  up  in  the  court  of  the  palace,  and  he  set  out  on  his 
journey,  accompanied  by  four  commissioners  on  the  part  of  the  allies : 
General  Roller,  for  Austria ;  General  Schonvaloff,  for  Russia ;  Colonel 
Campbell,  for  England  ;  and  Count  Waldbourg-Truches  for  Prussia.  He 
was  received  with  respect  and  in  some  cases  with  enthusiasm,  by  the  in- 
habitants on  the  route  from  Fontainebleau  to  Lyons  ;  but,  after  passing  the 
latter  city,  he  began  to  experience  proofs  of  the  fickleness  of  his  subjects 
and  of  the  general  indignation  produced  by  his  oppressive  government. 
At  Valence,  he  saw  the  walls  covered  with  a  proclamation  of  Augereau, 
denouncing  his  reign  and  dynasty  ;  and  although  the  troops  were  in  array 
to  receive  him,  they  all  wore  the  white  cockade :  at  Orange,  loud  cries 
of  "  vive  le  roi !"  "  vive  Bourbon  !"  greeted  his  ears  ;  and  at  Avignon, 
he  found  his  statues  thrown  down  from  their  pedestals.  As  he  continued 
his  journey  to  the  south,  the  general  disaffection  so  increased  that  on  more 
than  one  occasion  his  life  was  in  danger.  He  reached  Frejus  on  the 
27th  ;  and  on  the  28th,  set  sail  for  Elba  on  board  the  English  frigate,  the 
Undaunted.  Captain  Usher,  the  commander  of  that  vessel,  in  conformity 
to  the  orders  of  the  British  government,  received  him  with  the  honors  due 


422  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLVL 

to  a  crowned  head :  a  royal  salute  was  fired  when  he  entered  the  ship, 
the  yards  were  manned,  and  the  cheers  of  the  crew  rang  a  loud  welcome 
to  the  dethroned  sovereign,  as  he  appeared  on  their  quarter-deck.  Napo- 
leon was  so  affected  by  this  reception  from  his  onernies,  which  presented 
such  a  singular  contrast  to  the  treatment  he  had  just  experienced  from 
his  own  subjects,  that  he  burst  into  tears.  During  the  voyage  he  as- 
sumed a  cheerful  and  affable  manner,  conversed  much  with  the  captain 
and  officers,  and  was  very  inquisitive  concerning  the  details  of  English 
naval  discipline.  A  slight  shade  passed  over  his  countenance  when  the 
ship  came  within  sight  of  the  maritime  Alps,  the  scene  of  his  early  tri- 
umph ;  but  he  soon  recovered  his  serenity,  and  before  he  arrived  at  Porto 
Ferrajo,  he  had  gained  a  strong  hold  on  the  affections  of  every  man  on 
board. 

Josephine  did  not  long  survive  the  fall  of  the  hero,  with  whose  marvel- 
lous fortunes  her  own  seemed  to  be  mysteriously  linked.  Alexander  was 
desirous  to  see  and  console  her  in  her  distress,  and,  at  his  request,  she 
came  4o  Malmaison  to  meet  him.  While  there,  she  was  attacked  with  a 
severe  illness,  which  terminated  her  life  on  the  28th  of  May. 

Louis  XVIII.  left  his  peaceful  retreat  at  Hartwell  on  the  20th  of  April, 
and  proceeded  to  London,  where  he  was  received  with  numberless  wel- 
comes and  congratulations.  After  bestowing  upon  him  every  attention  in 
the  British  capital,  the  Prince  Regent  accompanied  him  to  Dover,  whence 
he  embarked  for  France  on  the  27th.  The  roar  of  artillery  announced 
his  departure,  and  the  thunder  of  the  English  cannon  had  hardly  ceased 
to  reverberate,  when  the  answering  discharge  of  guns  on  the  French 
coast  from  Calais  to  Boulogne,  announced  the  arrival  of  the  monarch  in 
the  kingdom  of  his  forefathers. 

Louis  reached  Compeigne  on  the  29th ;  and,  the  preparations  for  his 
reception  at  Paris  being  completed,  he  made  a  public  entry  into  that  me- 
tropolis by  the  gjate  of  St.  Denis,  on  the  3rd  of  May.  The  Duchess 
d'Angouleme  was  seated  at  his  side  ;  the  Old  Guard  of  Napoleon  formed 
his  escort ;  the  National  Guard  kept  the  streets  free  for  the  procession  ; 
and  innumerable  officers  and  privates  of  the  allied  armies  added,  by  their 
gay  and  varied  uniforms,  to  the  splendor  of  the  scene. 

More  important  duties,  however,  than  receiving  and  replying  to  con- 
gratulations, awaited  the  new  monarch — the  conclusion,  namely,  of  a 
treaty  with  the  allied  powers,  which  should  satisfy  their  just  and  inevi- 
table demands,  and,  at  the  same  time,  prove  no  stumbling-block  to  the 
establishment  of  his  own  authority,  by  concessions  that  might  tend  to 
injure  him  in  the  respect  and  affections  of  the  people  of  France.  By  a 
convention  already  completed,  on  the  23rd  of  April,  it  had  been  provided 
that  the  French  troops  should  evacuate  all  the  fortresses  and  territories 
beyond  the  frontiers  of  France,  as  she  existed  prior  to  1792 ;  that  the 
allied  troops,  with  the  least  possible  delay,  should  retire  from  the  domin- 
ions of  France  thus  designated  ;  and  that  all  military  exactions,  on  both 
sides,  should  instantly  cease.  In  virtue  of  this  compact,  fifty-three  for- 
tresses of  note,  twelve  thousand  pieces  of  cannon,  with  an  incalculable 
quantity  of  ammunition  and  military  stores  were  surrendered  by  France. 

The  treaty  with  Louis  XVIII.  signed  at  Paris  on  the  30th  of  May,  by 
the  plenipotentiaries  of  France  on  the  one  side,  and  of  Great  Britain,  Rus- 
sia and  Prussia  on  the  other,  contained  little  that  had  not  been  foreseen 
after  the  details  of  the  convention  of  April  were  made  known.  It  stipu- 


1814.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  423 

lated  that  France  should  be  reduced  to  her  former  limits,  as  they  stood  on 
the  1st  of  January,  1792,  excepting  the  cession  that  had  been  made  of 
various  small  territories — some,  to  France  by  the  neighboring  powers, 
and  others  by  France  to  them — for  mutual  advantage,  and  for  the  sake 
of  defining  more  clearly  the  French  frontier.  Holland  was  to  be  an  in- 
dependent  state,  under  the  sovereignty  of  the  House  of  Orange,  but  with 
an  accession  of  territory  ;  Germany  was  to  be  independent,  but  under  the 
guarantee  of  a  federal  union  ;  Switzerland  independent,  governed  by 
itself;  and  Italy,  divided  into  sovereign  states.  The  free  navigation  of 
the  Rhine  was  expressly  stipulated.  Malta  was  ceded  in  perpetuity  to 
Great  Britain  ;  and  that  power  agreed  to  restore  to  France  and  her  allies 
all  the  colonies  taken  from  them  during  the  war,  .excepting  the  islands  of 
Tobago  and  St.  Lucie  in  the  West,  and  the  Isle  of  France  in  the  East 
Indies.  France  was  permitted  to  form  commercial  establishments  in  the 
East  Indies,  but  under  condition,  that  she  should  send  thither  no  more 
troops  than  might  be  requisite  for  the  purposes  of  police ;  and  she  re- 
gained the  right  of  fishing  on  the  Banks  of  Newfoundland,  and  in  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  The  fleet  of  Antwerp,  consisting  of  thirty-eight 
ships  of  the  line  and  fifteen  frigates,  was  to  be  divided  between  France 
and  Holland,  in  the  proportion  of  two-thirds  to  the  former,  and  one-third 
to  the  latter  country.  All  subordinate  points  and  matters  of  detail  were, 
by  common  consent,  referred  to  a  Congress  of  the  great  powers  to  assem- 
ble at  Vienna  in  the  autumn  of  that  year. 

In  this  general  settlement  of  Europe,  after  the  Revolutionary  deluge 
had  subsided,  the  fate  of  Pius  VII.  must  not  be  overlooked.  When  Paris 
capitulated, 'his  holiness  was  still  detained  at  Provence,  and  one  of  the 
first  measures  of  the  provisional  government  was,  to  liberate  him  and  cause 
him  to  be  conveyed  to  the  Italian  frontier  with  the  honors  due  to  his  rank. 
On  his  arrival  at  Cesina,  Murat  waited  upon  him,  and  exhibited  a  memo- 
rial signed  by  a  number  of  the  nobles  and  chief  inhabitants  of  Rome,  and 
by  them  addressed  to  the  allied  powers,  praying  that  the  Roman  States 
might  be  incorporated  with  one  of  the  secular  states  of  Italy.  His  holi- 
ness, without  looking  at  the  memorial  to  discover  who  had  thus  endeavored 
to  despoil  him  of  his  possessions,  generously  threw  it  into  the  fire.  When 
he  arrived  at  his  capital,  some  of  the  nobles  who  had  affixed  their  signa- 
tures to  this  paper,  overcome  by  his  clemency,  came  to  ask  his  forgive- 
ness. "  Have  we  not  some  faults  too,  with  which  to  reproach  ourselves  ?" 
replied  the  pontiff:  "  let  us  bury  our  injuries  in  oblivion." 

29 


CHAPTER    XLVII. 

INTERNAL  AFFAIRS  OF  ENGLAND,  FRANCE,  AND  THE  NORTH  OF  EUROPE. 

THE  termination  of  the  war  excited  a  degree  of  enthusiastic  joy  in  the 
British  dominions,  of  which  it  is  impossible  to  give  an  adequate  descrip- 
tion. A  large  number  of  the  inhabitants  had  come  into  existence  since 
the  commencement  of  the  contest,  and  had  inhaled  with  their  earliest 
breath  an  ardent  desire  for  its  success.  Those  who  were  older,  felt  that 
whatever  opinions  they  may  have  entertained  at  the  outset,  the  fate  and 
character  of  the  British  Empire  had  finally  been  staked  on  the  throw,  and 
that  their  own  and  their  children's  freedom  depended  on  its  result.  The 
patriots  now  rejoiced  in  the  victory  of  the  allies,  because  it  secured  the 
glory  and  independence  of  their  own  country ;  the  partisans  of  the  aris- 
tocracy, because  it  closed  a  gulf  that  threatened  to  swallow  up  all  ancient 
institutions ;  and  the  friends  of  liberty,  because  it  had  been  achieved  by 
the  united  efforts  of  the  European  people,  and  promised  to  establish  free- 
dom in  France.  The  visit  of  the  allied  sovereigns  to  England,  whither 
they  repaired  in  the  summer  of  1814,  excited  these  feelings  to  the  highest 
pitch.  All  ranks,  from  the  throne  to  the  cottage,  participated  the  general 
enthusiasm.  In  the  anxiety  and  animation  attendant  on  public  events, 
the  distresses  and  joys  of  private  life  were  for  a  time  forgotten :  the  senti- 
ments of  the  British  nation  resembled  those  of  a  crowded  audience  in  a 
theatre,  when  the  genius  of  the  actor,  leading  the  multitude  beyond  the 
barriers  of  individual  restraint,  draws  from  assembled  thousands  one 
unanimous  and  simultaneous  burst  of  applause. 

After  the  first  tumultuous  excitement  was  past,  the  thoughtful  observer, 
with  the  liveliest  gratitude  for  the  past  and  the  most  sanguine  expectations 
for  the  future,  pondered  on  the  wonderful  events  of  the  war.  There 
seemed  to  be  a  poetical  justice  in  its  result,  an  equity  in  the  retribution 
which  had  overtaken  the  great  and  guilty  nation,  that  demonstrated  pecul- 
iarly the  providence  of  GOD.  The  wildest  anticipations  were  now  in- 
dulged in  England,  as  to  the  subsequent  progress  of  liberty  in  France. 
"  Deplorable,"  it  was  said,  "  as  have  been  the  excesses,  bloodstained  as 
were  the  hands  of  the  first  apostles  of  freedom  in  that  country,  their  labors 
have  not  been  in  vain.  A  constitutional  monarchy  has  at  last  been  erected ; 
guarantees  of  liberty  established  ;  her  condition  under  the  old  monarchy, 
compared  with  the  freedom  she  will  enjoy  under  the  Restoration,  was 
slavery  itself.  The  blood  shed  by  Robespierre,  however,  was  but  for  a 
season :  the  carnage  of  Napoleon  has  passed  away :  the  glorious  fabric 
of  freedom  has  emerged  unsullied  from  the  sanguinary  hands  of  its  found- 
ers, and  a  brighter  era  has  opened  on  the  human  race  from  the  very 
crimes  that  appeared  to  overcloud  its  prospects." 

Such  hopes  are  the  dream  of  the  poet ;  they  constitute  the  charm  of  the 
melodrama,  but  belong  not  to  the  history  of  man.  The  crimes  of  the 
Revolution  had  been  too  great ;  the  breaches  it  made,  too  wide  ;  the  blood 
sned,  too  profusely  lavished ;  the  injuries  inflicted,  too  serious  and  uni- 
versal— to  admit  the  immediate  founding  of  a  pacific  and  prosperous 
society  on  its  ruins.  Human  passions  do  not  subside,  like  the  waves  of 


1814.J  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  435 

the  ocean,  when  the  winds  are  stilled  ;  and  iniquity,  once  let  loose,  can- 
not be  restrained  as  soon  as  its  original  instigators  are  destroyed. 

One  of  the  earliest  measures  of  the  Parliament  of  Great  Britain  after 
the  conclusion  of  peace  was,  a  resolution  to  provide  for  the  military  heroes 
of  that  nation  on  a  scale  of  munificence  proportionate  to  their  services. 
The  House  of  Commons,  by  a  unanimous  vote,  granted  four  hundred 
thousand  pounds  sterling  to  Wellington,  and  pensions  of  two  thousand 
pounds  per  annum  were  likewise  voted,  severally,  to  Sir  Thomas  Graham, 
Marshal  Beresford,  and  Sir  Rowland  Hill.  Wellington  was  subsequently 
created  a  Duke ;  Graham,  Beresford  and  Hill  were  raised  to  the  peerage ; 
the  honors  of  knighthood  were  bestowed  on  Picton,  Cole,  Leith,  and  others 
who  bore  a  prominent  part  in  the  contest ;  while  ribbons  and  stars  were 
scattered  profusely  among  their  less  distinguished  brethren  in  arms. 

About  the  same  time,  an  interesting  discussion  on  the  affairs  of  Norway 
took  place  in  Parliament.  It  had  been  provided  by  a  treaty  between 
Alexander  and  Bernadotte,  in  1812,  that  the  latter  should  receive  the 
kingdom  of  Norway  in  exchange  for  the  continental  possessions  of  Sweden 
which  he  ceded  to  Denmark ;  and  Great  Britain  had  not  only  recognized 
this  treaty,  but  promised  her  armed  interference,  ifyiecessary,  to  carry  it 
into  effect.  Now,  however,  when  Bernadotte  claimed  from  Great  Britain 
the  performance  of  her  promise,  the  Norwegians  loudly  protested  against 
this  compulsory  transfer  of  a  free  people  to  the  rule  of  their  hereditary 
enemies  ;  they  also  refused  to  obey  an  order  of  the  King  of  Denmark  to 
admit  the  Swedish  authorities ;  prepared  to  resist  any  forcible  occupation 
of  their  territory,  and  dispatched  envoys  to  Great  Britain  to  interest  the 
English  people  in  their  cause.  In  consequence  of  these  proceedings,  Ber- 
nadotte assembled  an  army  on  the  frontier,  and  some  British  ships  were 
sent  to  blockade  the  harbors  of  Norway.  The  most  lively  interest  was 
excited  in  Europe  by  these  belligerent  measures,  as  well  from  the  import- 
ance to  the  parties  concerned  of  the  questions  at  issue,  as  from  the  indi- 
cations thus  afforded  of  the  intention  of  the  allied  powers  in  regard  to  other 
countries  which  might,  in  like  manner,  be  transferred  from  their  legiti- 
mate rulers.  The  subject  of  British  intervention  to  enforce  this  treaty, 
was  warmly  debated  in  Parliament ;  the  ministry  insisting  on  the  policy 
to  which  they  stood  pledged  by  the  compact,  and  the  opposition  contend- 
ing for  the  inalienable  *  rights  of  a  free  people :  on  the  final  question,  the 
majority  of  the  Peers  in  favor  of  the  ministry  was  eighty-one,  and  of  the 
Commons  a  hundred  and  fifty-eight. 

Nevertheless,  as  the  resistance  of  the  Norwegians  continued,  Berna- 
dotte commenced  actual  hostilities  to  effect  the  occupation  of  the  country. 
He  first  published  a  manifesto,  promising  to  the  people  a  constitution  on 
the  footing  of  national  representation,  and  giving  them  the  power  of  levy- 
ing their  own  taxes  ;  but  this  was  disregarded  by  the  Norwegians,  as  was 
also  a  letter  addressed  to  them  by  the  King  of  Denmark,  counselling  them 
TO  submission,  and  denouncing  Prince  Christian,  whom  they  had  recently 
proclaimed  king.  Prince  Christian,  far  from  being  intimidated  by  the 
threatening  aspect  of  affairs,  traversed  the  country,  and  everywhere  en- 
couraged the  people  to  defend  their  rights. 

But  the  engagements  of  the  allied  powers  to  Sweden  were  too  impera- 
tive to  suffer  their  giving  heed  to  the  appeals  of  the  Norwegians.  Mr. 
Ariker,  the  envoy  to  London  from  that  country,  was  informed  by  Lord 
Liverpool  of  the  position  of  the  British  government,  and  requested  to  return 


426  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLVIL 

home  :  despite  this,  however,  the  Diet  of  Norway  formally  conferred  the 
crown  on  Prince  Christian  and  his  male  heirs.  M.  Morier  was  subse- 
quently dispatched  by  the  British  cabinet  to  effect  a  pacific  settlement  of 
the  differences,  and  the  envoys  of  the  allied  powers  arrived  in  Norway 
with  a  similar  intention;  but  all  their  efforts  were  fruitless:  they  there- 
fore departed  without  having  accomplished  anything,  and  preparations 
were  made  on  both  sides  for  war. 

The  campaign  was  opened  by  an  attack,  near  the  Hualorn  islands,  on 
the  Norwegian  fleet,  which  the  Swedish  squadron  defeated  with  trifling 
loss  to  their  own  ships.  Bernadotte  followed  up  this  success  by  an  inva- 
sion of  Norway.  His  leading  columns,  under  General  Gahn,  were  re- 
pulsed in  an  attempt  to  force  the  mountain  passes;  but  this  proved  only  a 
temporary  disadvantage.  Frederickstadt  was  soon  after  captured ;  the 
Norwegian  army  was  routed  at  Isebro;  Sleswick  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Swedes;  preparations  were  made  for  bombarding  Frederickstein ; 
and,  after  a  series  of  marches  and  manoeuvres,  the  army  of  Christian  was 
surrounded  by  superior  forces  near  Moss.  This  succession  of  disaster 
dispirited  the  Norwegians,  and  rendered  a  further  struggle  hopeless ;  a 
convention  was  therefore  concluded  with  Bernadotte,  wherein  Christian 
renounced  his  pretensions  to  the  crown,  and  the  King  of  Sweden  con- 
sented to  govern  Norway  under  the  restrictions  of  a  modified  constitution 
prepared  by  the  Diet  of  the  latter  kingdom.  The  terms  of  this  constitu- 
tion, in  detail,  were  highly  favorable  to  the  Norwegians,  who  preserved 
the  substance,  though  not  the  form  of  independence.  Bernadotte  has 
since  ruled  them  with  lenity  and  judgment,  and  though  many  old  patriots 
still  mourn  over  the  loss  of  their  political  freedom,  Norway  has  no  sub- 
stantial reason  to  regret  her  union  with  the  Swedish  monarchy. 

Some  important  measures  relative  to  the  corn  laws,  took  place  at  this 
time,  in  the  British  Parliament. 

During  a  greater  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  England  had  been,  to 
a  certain  extent,  an  exporting  country ;  and  the  land  owners  had  suffi- 
cient influence  in  the  legislature  to  obtain  the  passage  of  a  law,  granting 
a  bounty  of  five  shillings  a  quarter  on  all  wheat  shipped  to  foreign  states. 
By  the  first  statute  of  William  and  Mary,  c.  12,  passed  in  1688,  exporta- 
tion was  allowed,  and  the  bounty  paid,  when  wheat  should  be  at  or  under 
48s.  the  quarter.  Throughout  the  succeeding  century,  the  bounty  was 
repeatedly  suspended,  owing  to  the  high  price  of  grain,  and  numerous 
supplementary  statutes  were  passed  to  alleviate  the  temporary  distress : 
the  act  of  William  and  Mary,  however,  continued  to  be  the  general  law 
of  the  country  until  1765,  when  by  3  George  III.,  c.  31,  the  bounty  was 
abolished  and  all  import  duties  were  repealed.  This  state  of  things  con- 
tinued until  1791 ;  at  which  time,  by  31  George  III.,  c.  30,  the  old  bounty 
was  revived  when  wheat  should  be  under  44s.  the  quarter,  and  exporta- 
tion prohibited  when  it  rose  above  46s.  The  same  law  imposed  a  duty  of 
24s.  3d.  the  quarter  on  imported  wheat,  if  prices  were  under  50s. ;  of  2s. 
6d.  when  they  were  from  50s.  to  54s. ;  and  of  6d.  when  they  exceeded 
54s.  This  scale  was  to  a  certain  degree  modified  by  44  George  III.,  c. 
108,  passed  in  1804,  which  act  allowed  wheat  to  be  exported  when  prices 
were  at  or  under  48s.,  with  a  bounty  of  5s. ;  if  prices  were  above  54s., 
export  was  prohibited :  on  imports,  if  prices  were  under  63s.,  the  duty 
was  24s.  3d. ;  if  from  63s.  to  66s.,  2s.  6d. ;  and  if  above  66s.,  6d.  The 
object  of  these,  and  a  great  number  of  intermediate  and  temporary  acts, 


1814.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  427 

was  to  prevent  that  grievous  evil  to  which  a  people  are  subjected  by  great 
fluctuations  in  the  price  of  grain  ;  and  to  secure,  as  far  as  human  foresight 
could,  the  advantage  of  steady  supply  and  uniform  value  in  this  prime 
article  of  man's  subsistence. 

Under  the  operation  of  these  statutes,  Great  Britain,  for  nearly  seventy 
years,  continued  to  be  an  exporting  country.  From  1697  to  1766,  ex- 
cepting six  years  of  that  period,  the  amount  annually  shipped  was  much 
greater  than  that  imported,  and  in  some  instances  this  excess  reached  as 
high  as  nine  hundred  thousand  quarters.  After  1766,  the  balance  was 
reversed,  and  especially  during  the  scarcity  of  1800, 1801,  and  1810,  the 
total  imports  ranged  from  twelve  hundred  thousand  to  fifteen  hundred 
thousand  quarters,  against  an  export  of  from  twenty-two  thousand  to 
seventy-five  thousand.  This  was  a  most  important  change,  and  the  varia- 
tion in  prices  was  hardly  less  so :  for  ten  years,  ending  in  1785,  the  ave- 
rage value  of  wheat  was  forty-seven  shillings  and  some  pence  ;  for  the 
same  term,  ending  1795,  it  averaged  fifty-four  shillings;  again,  to  1805 
it  averaged  eighty-one  shillings  ;  and  for  the  eight  years  thence  ensuing, 
it  rose  to  one  hundred  and  one  shillings.  These  facts  naturally  awak- 
ened the  anxious  solicitude  of  the  legislature  and  the  nation  at  the  close 
of  the  war,  when  the  restoration  of  a  general  peace  exposed  the  British 
farmer  anew  to  the  competition  of  foreign  grain ;  and  when  the  great 
change  in  prices,  consequent  on  the  suspension  of  cash  payments  and 
the  boundless  expenditures  of  the  war,  rendered  him  so  much  less  able 
to  bear  it. 

Under  the  combined  influence  of  foreign  exclusion  and  domestic  en- 
couragement, in  the  latter  years  of  the  contest,  agriculture  had  greatly 
increased.  Capital  to  the  amount  of  several  hundred  millions  sterling 
had  been  invested  in  land,  and  had  yielded  a  remunerating  return:  the 
home  cultivators,  notwithstanding  an  increase  of  nearly  fifty  per  cent,  in 
the  population  during  the  preceding  twenty-five  years,  kept  pace  with  the 
wants  of  the  inhabitants ;  the  importation  of  grain,  of  late,  was  trifling  in 
amount ;  and  it  now  became  a  grave  question  whether  these  advantages 
should  be  thrown  away — whether,  after  the  nation  had  rendered  itself 
independent  of  foreign  countries  as  regarded  its  breadstuffs,  it  should 
recommence  the  importation  of  grain,  and  sacrifice  what  had  been  gained 
by  such  persevering  effort.  The  matter  was  debated  at  great  length  by 
Mr.  Huskisson,  Mr.  Vansittart,  Mr.  Frankland  Lewis  and  Sir  Henry 
Parnell,  in  favor  of  the  Corn  Law,  and  Mr.  Rose  and  Mr.  Canning,  in  the 
opposition.  A  bill  was  finally  passed  by  large  majorities  in  both  houses 
of  Parliament,  establishing  the  sliding  scale,  to  commence  with  a  duty  on 
imported  wheat  of  twenty-four  shillings,  when  the  price  should  be  ,sixty- 
three  shillings  the  quarter ;  and  this  duty  was  to  decrease  one  shilling  for  ' 
every  shilling  of  augmentation  in  the  market  price  of  grain. 

Meantime,  France  was  struggling  with  events  consequent  on  the  down- 
fall of  Napoleon.  Probably  no  task  ever  fell  to  the  lot  of  man  more 
difficult  of  performance,  than  that  which  now  devolved  on  Louis  XVIII. :  he 
had  to  restrain  passion  without  power,  satiate  rapacity  without  money,  and 
appease  ambition  without  the  means  of  conferring  glory.  Before  the  cri- 
sis of  the  final  struggle  arrived,  the  general  desire  was  for  deliverance ; 
but  when  the  conqueror  fell,  and  the  parties  whose  coalition  had  effected 
his  overthrow  were  called  to  remodel  the  government,  to  share  the  power, 
to  nominate  the  members  of  the  administration,  irreconcilable  differences 


428  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLVIL 

began  at  once  to  appear.  Mutual  jealousies,  as  rancorous  as  those  which 
had  rent  the  Empire  asunder,  shook  the  monarchy  at  the  moment  of  its 
restoration. 

The  Republicans  in  the  Senate  joined  Talleyrand  and  the  Royalists, 
solely  on  the  promise  that  their  wishes  should  be  consulted  in  modelling 
the  new  Constitution,  and  that  they  should  obtain  a  large  share  in  the  ap- 
pointments and  influence  of  the  government.  Extravagant  expectations 
had  consequently  been  formed  with  regard  to  the  amount  of  popular  power 
hat  would  follow  the  Restoration ;  and  the  Constitution  of  1791  was  openly 
canvassed  as  the  basis  of  the  new  monarchy. 

The  sentiments  of  the  French  king,  however,  matured  by  misfortune 
and  reflection,  were  not  to  be  controlled  by  a  party.  He  determined  to 
pursue  a  middle  course,  between  the  Royalists  and  Republicans ;  and 
hoped,  without  submitting  to  such  conditions  as  might  alienate  the  former, 
to  satisfy  the  latter  by  yielding  to  their  reasonable  demands.  He  resolved, 
therefore,  to  make  no  terms  with  his  subjects,  but  mount  the  throne  and 
grant,  of  his  own  free  will,  such  a  Constitution  as  would  be  acceptable  to 
the  warmest  friend  of  civil  liberty.  A  commission  to  frame  such  a  Con- 
stitution was  accordingly  formed,  consisting  of  nine  members  of  the 
Legislative  Body,  nine  of  the,  Senate,  and  four  others  appointed  by  the 
king.  They  assembled  on  the  22nd  of  May;  and  on  the  27th-,  completed 
a  Charter  which  was  solemnly  promulgated  to  the  Senate  and  Legislative 
Body  at  the  Bourbon  Palace,  on  the  4th  of  June.  The  king  there  pro- 
duced a  speech  of  his  own  composition,  and  announced  to  the  peers  and 
deputies  that  he  had  prepared  a  Charter,  which  would  then  be  read  to 
them.  He  concluded  his  address  with  these  words:  "  A  painful  recol- 
lection mingles  with  my  joy,  at  thus  finding  myself,  for  the  first  time,  in 
the  midst  of  the  representatives  of  the  people,  who  have  given  me  such 
numerous  proofs  of  their  affection.  I  was  born — and  I  hoped  always  to 
remain — the  faithful  subject  of  the  best  of  kings :  yet  I  now  occupy  his 
place.  He  still  breathes,  however,  in  the  spirit  of  this  Charter,  which, 
filled  with  his  sentiments,  and  embodied  by  the  counsels  of  many  among 
you,  shall  now  be  read." 

These  words  were  answered  with  loud  applause ;  but  a  feeling  of  sur- 
prise and  a  murmur  of  dissatisfaction  ran  through  the  assembly,  when 
M.  d'Ambray,  the  chancellor,  declared  that  the  king,  "  taught  by  twenty- 
five  years  of  misfortune,  has  brought  an  ordinance  of  reformation  to  his 
people,  by  which  he  extinguishes  all  parties,  as  he  maintains  all  interests. 
In  full  possession  of  his  hereditary  rights  over  this  noble  kingdom,  the 
king  has  no  wish  but  to  exercise  the  authority  which  he  has  received  from 
GOD  and  his  fathers,  by  placing  limits  to  his  own  power.  He  has  no  wish 
but  to  be  the  supreme  chief  of  the  great  family  of  which  he  is  the  head. 
It  is  he  whb  is  about  to  give  to  the  French  a  Constitutional  Charter,  suited 
at  once  to  their  desires  and  their  wants,  and  to  the  respective  situation  of 
men  and  things. ';  When  the  veterans  of  the  Revolution  heard  this,  they 
remembered  the  words  of  Mirabeau.  after  Lous  XVI.,  in  1789,  had  an- 
nounced his  concessions  to  the  States-General :  "  The  concessions  made 
by  the  king  would  be  sufficient  for  the  public  good,  if  the  presents  of  des- 
potism were  not  always  dangerous." 

In  fact,  the  concessions  of  the  Charter,  though  prefaced  by  these  inju. 
dicious  and  ominous  words,  might,  at  the  outset  of  the  revolutionary 
troubles,  have  satisfied  the  most  devoted  friends  of  rational  freedom. 


1814.]  HISTORY    OF    EtROPE.  439 

The  great  foundations  of  civil  liberty — liberty  of  conscience  and  wor- 
ship ;  freedom  of  the  press  ;  equality  in  the  eye  of  the  law ;  the  right 
of  being  taxed  by  the  national  representatives  only;  the  division  of  the 
Legislature  into  two  chambers ;  and  the  trial  by  jury — were,  by  it,  am- 
ply secured.  The  members  of  the  Chamber  of  Peers,  were  to  be  nomi- 
nated by  the  king  ;  and  to  consist  of  six  ecclesiastical  peers,  twenty  of  the 
old  noblesse,  twelve  of  the  dignitaries  .  of  the  revolution,  ninety-one  of 
Napoleon's  senators,  and  six  generals  of  the  ancient  regime.  The  pow- 
ers of  the  Legislative  Body  were  greatly  enlarged  by  the  Charter  ;  in- 
deed, it  rendered  that  branch  of  the  government  the  depository  of  nearly 
all  the  public  authority ;  and,  in  consequence,  its  members  received  the 
new  Constitution  with  sentiments  of  the  most  lively  gratitude.  Yet  there 
were  two  things  connected  with  the  formation  of  this  chamber,  singularly 
demonstrative  of  the  scanty  elements  now  existing  in  France,  for  the^ 
construction  of  a  really  free  monarchy.  In  the  first  place,  an  annual* 
pension  was  secured  to  each  member,  of  the  same  amount  as  had  been 
granted  by  Napoleon  ;  and,  in  the  second  place,  no  person  could  be 
elected  a  deputy,  unless  he  paid  a  yearly  tax  to  the  government  of  one 
thousand  francs ;  and  the  right  of  voting,  was  restricted  to  persons  pay- 
ing not  less  than  three  hundred  francs  of  direct  tax  annually  :  a  regula- 
tion whicl*  placed  the  entire  constituency  among  the  more  opulent  classes, 
and  limited  its  numbers  to  eighty  thousand,  out  of  a  population  of  thirty 
millions. 

The  provisions  of  the  Charter,  in  the  abstract,  were  with  care  and  lib- 
erality adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  people.  Every  public  burden  was  to 
be  borne  equally,  by  all  classes,  in  proportion  to  their  respective  for- 
tunes ;  universal  liberty  of  conscience  and  worship  was  secured,  although 
the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  were  alone  to  receive  support  from  the  state ; 
free  publication  of  opinions  was  permitted,  subject,  however,  to  the  laws 
which  guarded  against  the  abuses  of  the  press ;  a  universal  amnesty  for 
the  past  was  proclaimed;  the  conscription  was  abolished;  the  person  of 
the  king  was  declared  sacred  and  inviolable,  his  ministers  being  alone 
held  responsible  for  his  actions  ;  the  king  was  invested  with  the  sole 
power  of  proposing  laws ;  he  commanded  the  forces  by  sea  and  land  ; 
could  alone  declare  war  and  make  peace ;  conclude  treaties  and  con- 
ventions ;  nominate  to  public  emplo3rment,  civil  and  military  ;  and  "  was 
intrusted  with  the  right  of  making  the  regulations  and  ordinances  neces- 
sary for  the  execution  of  the  laws,  and  the  safety  of  the  state."  The 
cognizance  of  cases  of  high  treason,  was  confined  to  the  Chamber  of 
Peers ;  that  of  ordinary  offences,  to  the  courts  of  law  with  the  aid  of  ju- 
ries; all  judges  were  to  be  nominated  by  the  king  and  hold  their  office 
for  life,  excepting  justices  of  the  peace,  who  were  subject  to  removal. 
The  code  Napoleon  was  made  the  common  law  of  France  ;  the  ancient 
noblesse  resumed,  and  the  new  noblesse  retained  their  titles ;  the  order 
of  the  Legion  of  Honor  was  preserved  ;  the  deputies  were  elected  for  five 
years,  but  every  year  one-fifth  of  th^ir  number  was  to  retire,  and  elec- 
tions to  that  extent  were  decreed,  to  fill  the  vacancies  thus  made. 

These  enactments  contained  the  elements  of  a  wise  system  of  govern- 
ment;  but  laws  are  inoperative  without  the  support  of  public  morality, 
and  the  most  careful  regulations  for  the  liberty  of  the  subject  are  vain, 
if  the  spirit  necessary  to  maintain  them  is  wanting  in  the  governors  and 
the  governed.  Nor  was  this  lack  of  harmony  between  the  national 


430  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XL  VU. 

emergencies  and  the  provisions  of  the  Charter,  the  sole  obstacle  to  its 
beneficial  operation :  it  was,  in  four  particulars,  unhappily  defective. 
First,  it  contained  nothing  to  prevent  arbitrary  imprisonment,  or  to  deter- 
mine  the  period,  during  which  a  person  under  arrest  might  be  detained 
without  trial.  Secondly,  no  attempt  was  made  to  limit  the  oppression  of 
the  police — a  set  of  civil  functionaries,  who  impose  such  excessive  and 
needless  restraints  on  human  action,  that  their  official  existence  may 
safely  be  deemed  incompatible  with  true  freedom.  Thirdly,  the  Charrv 
her  of  Peers,  instead  of  being  composed  of  great  proprietors,  hereditary 
in  their  functions,  respectable  from  their  fortunes,  or  illustrious  from 
their  descent,  was,  for  the  most  part,  made  up  of  salaried  officials,  who 
enjoyed  their  seats  for  life.  Fourthly,  no  provision  was  made  for  the 
establishment  of  the  Church,  or  for  public  instruction  on  an  adequate  ba- 
sis ;  but  the  teachers  in  both  departments  were  left  to  languish,  in  the 
'obscurity  and  indigence  bequeathed  to  them  by  the  perfidy  and  rapacity 
of  the  Revolution. 

But  great  as  were  the  embarrassments  attendant  on  the  forming  of  the 
Constitution,  a  still  more  difficult  task  was  to  provide  for  the  destitute 
multitudes,  which  the  Revolution   had  left  in  France ;  to  reconcile  their 
conflicting  interests,  and  calm  their  furious  passions.     Restoration  is  al- 
ways a  work  of  peril   and   uncertainty  :  Henry  IV.  perished* under  it; 
James  II.  fled   from  its  dangers;  and   it  is  no  wonder  that  the  feeble  dy- 
nasty of  the  Bourbons  was  unequal  to  its  achievement.     The  public  joy 
at  their  return  to  France,  was  equally  general  and  sincere  ;   for  it  had  its 
rise  in  a  sense  of  relief  from  impending  and  insupportable  evils.     But 
when  those  evils  passed  away  ;   when  the  allied  armies  no  longer  bur- 
dened the  country  ;  when  the  conscription  ceased  to  tear  families  asun- 
der, and  France  was  left  alone  with  her  monarch,  her  losses  and   her 
humiliation,  the  bitterness  of  the  change  bowed  the  nation  to  the  earth. 
Entire  classes,  and  those  too  the  most  powerful  and  important,  were  a 
prey  to  secret  alarm  or  sullen  discontent.     The  holders  of  the  national 
domains,  several  millions  in  number,  endured  the  greatest  anxiety :  the 
government  had  indeed  guarantied  the  possession  of  their  estates,  but  the 
government  had  not  been  a  participant  of  the  iniquity  by  which  their 
property  was  acquired.     They  felt  the  same  uneasiness  at  the  restora- 
tion of  the  legitimate  authority,  that  the  holders  of  stolen  property  feel  at 
the  approach  of  the  officers  of  justice.     The  regicides,  and  those  who 
were  implicated  in  the  actual  crimes  of  the  Revolution,  experienced  still 
greater  apprehension  :  the  unqualified  amnesty  of  the  Charter  could  not 
remove  their  disquietude:  conscience  told  them  that  they  deserved  pun- 
ishment ;  and  the  fact  of  the  Restoration  was  a  daily  act  of  impeachment 
against  them.     The   army,  too,  was  in  despair:  defeated   in   the  field; 
driven  back  into  France  ;  humiliated  in  the  sight  of  Europe  ;  the  soldiers 
had  now  the  additional  mortification,  of  being  disbanded  and  condemned 
to  inactivity.     The  wandering  life  of  camps,  the  excitement  of  battle,  the 
jbys  of  the  bivouac,  the  terrors  of  the  breach,  the  contributions  from  prov- 
inces, the  plunder  of  cities,  were  theirs  no  longer ;  and  they  found  them- 
selves scattered  over  the  territories  of  France,  without  employment  or 
the  means  of  support. 

The  penury  of  the  government  was  another  serious  evil  of  this  embar- 
rassing period.  The  Tuileries  were  besieged  from  morning  till  night  by 
clamorous  crowds,  composed  of  men  divided  from  each  other  in  principle 


1814.J  HISTORYOFEUROPE,  431 

as  widely  as  the  poles  are  asunder,  but  uniting  in  one  loud  and  importu- 
nate cry  for  employment  or  relief  from  the  king:  one  half  were  Royal- 
ists demanding  compensation  for  the  losses  they  had  sustained  during  the 
Revolution,  or  a  reward  for  the  fidelity  with  which  they  had  adhered  to 
the  cause  of  the  exiled  monarch  and  aided  his  return ;  the  other,  digni- 
tari<°«;  and  officials  of  the  Imperial  regime,  who  had  been  deprived  of  all 
by  the  overthrow  of  Napoleon  and  the  contraction  of  the  dominions  of  the 
Empire.  The  necessities  of  the  troops  were  still  more  urgent.  Eight 
months'  pay  was  due  to  them,  and  ten  months'  to  the  commissaries  and 
civil  administrators.  To  meet  these  demands,  Louis  XVIII.  had  an  ex- 
hausted treasury,  a  diminished  territory,  and  a  bankrupt  people.  The 
taxes  and  requisitions  of  the  last  two  years  of  Napoleon's  reign,  had  been 
so  enormous,  that  the  provinces  which  bore  the  brunt  of  war  were  unable 
to  endure  any  imposts  whatever ;  indeed,  such  was  the  general  impover- 
ishment of  the  country,  the  total  arrears  for  the  same  period  amounted  to 
no  less  than  thirteen  hundred  millions  of  francs  ;  and  while,  by  the  most 
rigid  economy,  the  government  could  not  reduce  its  annual  expenditure's 
below  eight  hundred  and  thirty  millions  of  francs,  the  income  did  not  ex- 
ceed five  hundred  and  twenty  millions;  and  even  this  sum  was  obtained 
with  the  greatest  difficulty,  and  by  adding  one-third  to  the  direct  taxes. 

The  genius  of  Sully  and  the  firmness  of  Pitt  united,  could  scarcely 
have  made  head  with  such  means  against  such  difficulties ;  and  it  may 
well  be  imagined  that  Louis  and  his  ministers  were  unequal  to  the  task. 
Striving  to  please  both  parties,  they  gained  the  confidence  of  neither. 
They  had  not  power  or  vigor  enough  to  take  a  decided  stand,  and  yet 
possessed  sufficient  confidence  in  their  legitimate  title  to  hazard  a  perilous 
one.  Their  system  was  to  retain  in  their  employment  all  the  Imperial 
functionaries,  civil  and  military,  and  indeed  to  make  no  change  in  the 
nation  but  by  the  substitution  of  a  king  for  an  Emperor,  and  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  few  leading  royalists  into  the  cabinet.  They  hoped  thus  to 
secure  the  power  of  the  Revolution,  by  injuring  none  of  its  interests :  but 
they  forgot  that  mankind  are  governed  by  desires,  passions,  and  preju- 
dices, as  well  as  by  selfish  considerations ;  and  that  Napoleon  had  so  long 
succeeded  in  governing  the  Empire,  only  because  while,  in  deeds,  he 
sedulously  attended  to  the  interests  of  the  Revolution,  he  carefully,  in 
words  and  forms,  flattered  its  principles.  The  capital  error  of  the  Bour- 
bons lay  in  this  :  that  while  they  wholly  depended  on  the  physical  forces- 
of  the  Revolution,  they  made  no  attempt  to  disguise  their  aversion  to  its 
kenets  ;  and  that,  without  endeavoring  to  establish  any  adequate  counter- 
poise to  its  power,  thev  irrevocably  alienated  its  supporters. 

They  abolished  the  national  colors,  the  object  of  even  superstitious  ven- 
eration to  the  French  soldiery,  and  replaced  them  with  the  white  flag  of 
the  monarchy ;  they  changed  the  numbers  of  the  regiments,  thus  confu- 
sing or  destroying  the  recollections  connected  with  many  fields  of  fame,- 
and  reducing  those  which  had  fought  at  Rivoli,  or  Austerlitz,  to  a  level 
with  a  newly-raised  corps.  When  the  tri-color  standards  were  ordered 
to  be  given  up,  the  veterans  of  many  regiments  burned  them  and  preserved 
their  ashes :  the  officers  generally  secreted  the  eagles,  and  the  men  hid 
the  tri-color  cockades  in  their  knapsacks.  The  designations  of  the 
superior  officers  were  changed  :  generals  of  brigade  were  denominated 
marshals  of  the  camp ;  and  generals  of  division,  lieutenant-generals.  Cath- 
olic and  Protestant  soldiers  were  alike  compelled  to  go  to  mass,  to  confess 

39 


432  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHA.P.  XL  VII. 

and  to  communicate.  The  Imperial  Guard,  which  in  the  first  instance 
was  intrusted  with  the  service  of  the  Tuileries,  was  soon  removed,  and 
its  place  was  supplied  by  troops  from  Switzerland  and  La  Vendee.  Six 
companies  of  gardes-du-corps  and  several  red  companies  of  guards  were 
organized — in  short,  the  military  splendor  of  Louis  XV.  was  revived  at 
court,  and  these  new  troops,  in  their  yet  unsullied  uniforms,  supplanted  the 
veterans  of  France  in  the  honorary  service  of  attendance  on  the  palace. 

The  civil  regulations  of  the  new  government,  though  not  so  important 
n  themselves  as  those  relating  to  the  military  administration,  were  not 
less  material  in  their  ultimate  effects ;  for  they  exposed  the  court  to  at- 
tacks which  in  Parisian  society  are  more  fatal  than  any  other — those  of 
ridicule.  An  ordinance  of  the  police  prohibited  labor  on  the  Sabbath ; 
and  this  regulation,  though  expressly  enjoined  by  religion  and  loudly 
called  for  by  the  interests  of  the  working-classes,  became  the  object  of 
unmeasured  obloquy,  because  it  circumscribed  the  pleasures  or  the  gains 
of  an  unbelieving  and  selfish  generation.  The  restoring  of  the  forms  and 
ceremonies  of  the  Roman  Catholic  service  in  the  chapel  of  the  Tuileries 
not  only  excited  the  ridicule,  but  also  awakened  the  fears  of  a  revolu- 
tionary people,  who  regarded  these  rites  as  the  remnants  of  an  exploded 
superstition.  Female  animosity,  too,  added  its  bitter  venom  to  the  many 
other  causes  that  influenced  the  general  discontent :  the  ladies  of  the  new 
noblesse  were  daily  exposed  to  the  cutting  sarcasms  of  those  of  the  ancient 
regime  ;  and  not  one  of  the  marshals'  wives  or  the  duchesses  of  the  Em- 
pire was  placed  in  the  Royal  household.  The  revival  of  the  ancient 
Orders,  especially  that  of  St.  Louis,  gave  rise  to  a  rumor  that  the  Legion 
of  Honor  was  about  to  be  superseded  ;  and  the  excitement  on  this  subject 
became  so  great,  that  the  king  found  it  necessary  to  issue  a  public  denial 
of  entertaining  such  a  project.  In  fact,  the  civil  government  of  the  Res- 
toration, while  in  all  essential  particulars  favorable  to  the  interests  of  the 
Revolution,  had  nevertheless  in  language,  form  and  ceremony,  introduced 
the  most  antiquated  and  offensive  features  of  the  monarchy:  and  the 
French  had  discernment  enough  to  see  that,  in  the  intoxication  of  success, 
words  and  forms  betrayed  the  secret  thoughts,  and  that  acts  favorable  to 
revolutionary  principles  were  adopted  only  from  state  necessity. 

The  general  exasperation  rose  at  length  to  such  a  pitch,  that  the  Im- 
perialists on  the  one  hand,  and  the  disappointed  adherents  of  the  monarchy 
.on  the  other,  buried  their  mutual  animosities  and  antipathies,  in  order  to 
decry  every  measure  of  the  government.  The  celebration  of  a  solemn 
and  touching  funeral  service  to  the  memory  of  Louis  XVI.,  Marie  An- 
toinette, and  the  Princess  Elizabeth,  was  denounced  as  the  commencement 
of  hostilities  against  the  Revolutionists:  the  exhumation  of  the  remain* 
of  several  Vendean  and  Chouan  leaders,  and  their  interment  in  consecrated 
ground,  was  considered  a  proof  of  deplorable  superstition  :  the  reduction 
in  the  numbers  and  emoluments  of  persons  employed  in  the  public  depart- 
ments— rendered  unavoidable  by  the  insolvency  of  the  nation — was  styled 
a  wanton  attack  on  the  glory  of  the  Empire  :  even  the  restitution  to  their 
rightful  owners  of  the  confiscated  national  domains,  so  far  as  they  had  not 
been  disposed  of,  combined  with  a  proposal  to  indemnify  the  surviving 
victims  of  the  Revolution,  and  tHe  disabled  soldiers  of  the  Empire,  was 
pronounced  by  all  the  disaffected  to  be  partial  and  oppressive. 


CHAPTER    XLVIII. 

CONGRESS    OF    VIENNA.       NAPOLEON'S    FINAL    STRUGGLE. 

WHILE  the  French  government  was  vainly  striving  to  close  the  wounds, 
and  mitigate  the  sufferings  induced  by  the  Revolution,  negotiations  for  the 
adjustment  of  the  affairs  of  Europe  had  commenced,  and  were  yet  in 
progress  at  Vienna. 

It  was  originally  intended,  that  the  congress  of  Vienna  should  begin  its 
deliberations  on  the  27th  of  July ;  but  the  visit  of  the  allied  sovereigns 
to  England,  and  their  subsequent  return  to  their  own  capitals,  caused  a 
postponement  until  the  25th  of  September.  Among  the  members  of  this 
assemblage  were,  the  Emperor  of  Prussia,  the  Kings  of  Prussia,  Bavaria, 
Denmark  and  Wirtemberg,  Lord  Castlereagh,  the  Duke  of  Wellington, 
Talleyrand,  Metternich,  and  many  other  persons  of  distinction  from  the 
lesser  European  states.  These  personages  maintained  in  appearance  the 
most  amicable  and  confidential  relations  ;  yet  it  was  easy  to  perceive  that 
their  views  were  widely  dissimilar,  and  that  the  removal  of  common  dan- 
ger, and  the  division  of  common  spoil  had  produced  their  usual  effect, 
dissension  among  the  victors. 

The  first  difficulty  arose  from  a  dispute  as  to  the  right  of  precedence 
among  the  several  states  represented ;  but  this  was  readily  settled  by  a 
happy  expedient  of  Alexander,  who  recommended  an  alphabetical  ar- 
rangement, in  conformity  to  which  the  members  should  subscribe  their 
names.  A  more  serious  difficulty  next  occurred ;  a  question,  namely, 
which  of  the  states  should  in  their  own  right,  as  principals,  take  part  in 
the  deliberations.  The  representatives  of  Russia,  Prussia,  Austria  and 
Great  Britain,  wished  to  dispose  of  the  territories  wrested  from  Napoleon 
and  his  allies,  before  entering  into  conferences  with  France  and  Spain. 
Talleyrand  and  the  Spanish  plenipotentiary  resisted  this  desire,  and  strove 
to  show  that  the  treaty  of  Chaumont  had,  in  effect,  ceased  with  the  accom- 
plishment of  its  objects ;  and  that  France,  at  least,  should  be  admitted  to 
a  full  participation  in  the  proceedings.  Lord  Castlereagh  and  Metternich, 
who  early  perceived  the  necessity  of  a  counterpoise  to  the  preponderating 
influence  of  Russia,  supported  Talleyrand's  request ;  and  it  was  eventually 
agreed,  that  all  questions  before  the  congress  should  be  submitted  to  a 
committee  of  ministers  from  the  four  allied  powers  just  mentioned,  together 
with  those  from  France,  Spain,  Portugal  and  Sweden  :  the  Cardinal  Gon- 
zalvi,  from  the  court  of  Rome,  was  afterward  added  to  the  number. 

Under  this  arrangement,  several  important  measures  were  concluded 
by  unanimous  approval.  Belgium  and  Holland  were  joined  together, 
under  the  title  of  the  Netherlands ;  Sweden  and  Norway  were  also  united ; 
Hanover,  with  a  considerable  accession  of  territory  taken  from  West- 
phalia,  was  restored  to  the  King  of  England  ;  Lombardy  was  again  placed 
under  the  rule  of  Austria;  and  Savoy,  under  that  of  Piedmont.  But  the 
affairs  of  Poland,  Saxony,  and  Genoa,  led  to  serious  dissensions.  Alex- 
ander insisted,  that  the  Grand-duchy  of  Warsaw  should  be  ceded  to  Rus- 
sia, as  an  indemnity  for  her  losses  and  sacrifices  during  the  war ;  and 
Prussia,  being  as  well  from  gratitude  as  position  under  the  influence  of 


434  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XL  VIII. 

her  powerful  neighbor,  seconded  the  views  of  the  Czar;  and  proposed,  on 
condition  of  obtaining  Saxony  and  an  indemnity  on  the  Rhine  for  herself, 
to  cede  the  southern  provinces  of  Poland  to  Russia.  France,  Austria  and 
England,  however,  opposed  these  sweeping  annexations  of  territory  to  the 
northern  powers.  Independent  of  the  obvious  peril  to  the  other  European 
states  which  would  be  incurred,  by  adding  the  greater  part  of  Poland  to 
Russia,  and  extending  Prussia  to  the  Elbe  and  the  Rhine.  Lord  Castlereagh 
bjected  to  these  proposals,  as  contrary  to  the  great  principles  of  justice 
on  which  the  war  against  Napoleon  had  been  maintained.  Metternich 
and  Talleyrand  adopted  the  same  views  ;  and  here  Alexander  lost  pa- 
tience. He  anticipated  opposition  from  England  and  Austria,  but  he  was 
unprepared  for  such  a  line  of  policy  on  the  part  of  France.  He  openly 
charged  Louis  XVIII.  with  ingratitude,  and  manifested  his  displeasure  to 
Talleyrand  without  reserve  :  ne  also  entered  into  communication  with 
Eugene  Beauharnois,  espoused  the  cause  of  Murat  against  France  as 
touching  'the  crown  of  Naples,  and  spoke  of  the  unfitness  of  the  elder 
branch  of  the  House  of  Bourbon  for  the  throne ;  and  averred,  that  a  revolu- 
tion might  yet  put  the  sceptre  into  the  hands  of  the  House  of  Orleans. 

But  these  divisions  were  not  long  confined  to  mere  expressions  of  ill- 
humor ;  acts  of  great  moment  followed  angry  words,  and  all  parties  pre- 
pared for  war.  Alexander  sent  orders  to  halt  his  armies  in  Poland  on 
their  return  to  Russia  ;  Hardenberg  declared  that  Prussia  would  not  re- 
linquish Saxony,  and  the  cabinet  of  Berlin  at  once  put  their  troops  on  a 
war  footing  ;  while  the  Grand-Duke  Constantine,  at  that  time  in  command 
of  Alexander's  forces,  prepared  the  soldiers  by  proclamations  on  the  one 
hand,  and  strict  disciplire  on  the  other,  to  take  the  field  and  renew  the 
contest  without  loss  of  time.  Nor  were  the  other  powers  idle  :  they,  too, 
hastened  their  preparations  for  resuming  hostilities  ;  and  while  a  congress 
assembled  for  the  pacification  of  the  world  was  professedly  deliberating 
on  the  means  of  accomplishing  that  object,  the  various  sovereigns  therein 
represented,  were  maintaining  a  million  of  men  in  arms  for  the  purpose 
of  mutual  destruction. 

The  differences  were  at  length  brought  to  a  crisis,  by  the  conclusion  of 
a  secret  treaty  of  alliance,  offensive  and  defensive,  between  Austria, 
France,  and  England,  on  the  3rd  of  February,  1815.  By  this  compact 
it  was  stipulated,  that  the  contracting  parties  should  act  disinterestedly 
and  in  concert  to  carry  into  effect  the  treaty  of  Paris :  that  each,  to  sup- 
port the  others  and  the  common  cause,  should  maintain  in  the  field  a  hun- 
dred and  fifty  thousand  men.  The  Kings  of  Hanover,  Bavaria,  and 
Piedmont,  were  invited  to  join  the  coalition,  which  they  immediately  did ; 
so  that,  in  effect,  the  forces  of  Western  and  Southern  Europe  were  ar- 
rayed against  Russia  and  Prussia.  The  parties  to  this  treaty  took  great 
pains  to  keep  its  existence  secret ;  nevertheless,  it  soon  transpired  to  a 
certain  extent,  and  had  an  immediate  effect  in  modifying  the  views  of  the 
refractory  powers.  Metternich  now  took  a  bolder  tone,  and  his  intervention 
was  decisive.  Russia  agreed  to  relinquish  several  districts  of  Poland, 
and  Prussia  avowed  her  determination  to  be  satisfied  with  a  portion  of 
Saxony  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Elbe 

The  adjustment  of  this  difficulty  enabled  the  congress  to  dispatch  in 
detail,  matters  of  secondary  consequence.  The  Germanic  States  were 
united  in  one  confederacy,  bound  to  afford  mutual  support  in  case  of  ex- 
tejnal  attack,  and  to  be  directed  by  a  Diet,  in  which  Austria  and  Prussia 


1815.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  435 

were  each  to  have  two  votes,  and  Bavaria,  Wirtemberg,  and  Hanover, 
each  one  vote ;  but  with  the  reserved  right  on  the  part  of  the  great  pow- 
ers, to  make  separate  war  and  peace  for  themselves.  It  has  already  been 
mentioned,  that  Holland  and  Belgium  were  joined  together  under  the  title 
of  the  Netherlands;  this  measure  was  now  perfected  by  the  reunion  of 
the  seventeen  old  provinces  into  a  monarchy,  under  a  prince  of  the  House 
of  Nassau  ;  the  great  fortress  of  Luxemburg,  with  its  adjacent  territory, 
being  alone  excluded  and  added  to  the  German  Confederation;  and  by 
patent,  dated  March  16th,  1815,  the  King  of  Holland  took  the  title  of 
King  of  the  Netherlands  and  Grand-Duke  of  Luxemburg,  and  as  such 
was  immediately  recognized  by  the  courts  of  Europe.  By  this  arrange- 
ment, Holland  ceded  to  Great  Britain  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Dein- 
erara,  Essequibo,  and  Berbice  ;  and  in  return,  Great  Britain  restored  to 
the  King  of  the  Netherlands  the  noble  island  of  Java.  The  affairs  of 
Switzerland  were  readily  disposed  of.  That  Confederacy  was  declared 
to  embrace  the  nineteen  Cantons  on  an  equal  footing,  and  they  all  form- 
ally acceded  to  their  Constitution  on  the  27th  of  May.  Italy  presented, 
in  some  respects,  a  more  complicated  field  for  diplomacy.  The  cession 
of  Lombardy  to  Austria,  and  of  the  Genoese  republic  to  the  kingdom  of 
Piedmont,  was  indeed  readily  settled  ;  but  the  conflicting  claims  of  Murat 
and  the  old  Bourbon  family  to  the  throne  of  Naples,  excited  a  warm  de- 
bate, which,  ere  it  terminated,  led  to  another  of  still  higher  interest. 

Toward  the  end  of  February,  rumors  had  reached  Vienna  of  a  con- 
stant correspondence  between  the  island  of  Elba  and  the  adjoining  shores 
of  Italy,  and  also  of  an  intended  descent  by  Napoleon  on  the  coast  of 
France.  These  rumors  soon  acquired  such  consistency  that  the  propriety 
of  removing  the  ex-Emperor  from  Elba,  was  more  than  once  discussed  in 
the  congress.  Alexander  opposed  any  such  measure,  on  the  ground  that 
he  had  pledged  his  honor  to  secure  that  asylum  to  his  great  antagonist, 
and  he  would  not  forfeit  it.  Metternich,  however,  was  so  strongly  im- 
pressed with  a  sense  of  the  impending  danger,  that  he  secretly  sent  a 
letter  to  Fouche,  at  Paris,  inquiring,  "  What  would  happen  if  Napoleon 
should  return  ?  What,  if  the  King  of  Rome  with  a  squadron  of  horse 
were  to  appear  on  the  frontier  1  and  what  will  France  now  do,  if  left  to 
her  spontaneous  action  ?"  Fouche  replied,  that  should  a  single  regiment 
of  an  army  sent  against  Napoleon  declare  for  him,  the  others  would  fol- 
low the  example  :  if  the  King  of  Rome  were  escorted  to  the  frontier  by 
an  Austrian  troop,  the  nation  would  instantly  hoist  his  colors :  and  that, 
in  case  nothing  of  this  sort  took  place,  France,  of  her  own  volition,  would 
soon  seek  refuge  in  the  Orleans  dynasty.  The  extent  of  present  danger 
was,  nevertheless,  unappreciated  by  the  majority,  and  all  were  involved 
in  a  whirl  of  gayety,  splendor  and  dissipation  at  Vienna,  when  intelli- 
gence was  brought  to  Metternich  at  a  great  ball  in  the  capital,  that  NAPO- 
LEON HAD  SECRETLY  LEFT  ELBA.  All  minor  differences  now  disappeared 
from  the  congress ;  the  grasping  desires  of  Russia  and  Prussia  were  for- 
gotten ;  and  the  most  vigorous  measures  adopted  to  meet  the  astounding 
emergency. 

The  cabinet  of  Vienna  took  the  lead  in  these  proceedings,  inasmuch  as 
Napoleon,  relying  on  his  connexion  with  the  House  of  Hapsburg,  had  de- 
clared by  proclamation  that  he  returned  to  France  with  the  concurrence 
of  Austria,  and  was  to  be  supported  by  the  troops  of  that  Empire.  Met- 
ternich, therefore,  to  set  at  rest  all  question  on  that  subject,  averred  that 

39* 


436  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLVia 

"  it  will  be  worthy  of  the  allied  powers,  and  of  the  highest  importance  in 
the  existing  crisis,  to  express  a  decided  opinion  on  an  event  that  must  ere- 
ate  a  profound  sensation  in  every  part  of  Europe.  Napoleon  Bonaparte, 
in  quitting  the  island  of  Elba,  and  disembarking  at  the  head  of  an  armed 
force  in  France,  has  rendered  himself  a  disturber  of  the  general  peace ; 
he  therefore  can  no  longer  claim  the  protection  of  any  treaty  or  law. 
The  powers  who  signed  the  treaty  of  Paris  feel  themselves,  in  an  especial 
manner,  called  on  to  declare  in  the  face  of  Europe  in  what  light  they 
view  this  outrage ;  and  they  are  prepared  to  support  the  King  of  France 
with  all  their  armies,  should  circumstances  render  their  assistance  neces- 
sary." These  sentiments  met  with  the  cordial  approval  of  every  member 
of  the  congress  ;  and  a  declaration  was  immediately  issued  to  the  follow- 
ing effect : 

"  The  powers  which  signed  the  treaty  of  Paris,  reassembled  in  con- 
gress at  Vienna,  being  informed  of  the  escape  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte, 
and  of  his  entry  with  an  armed  force  into  France,  owe  it  to  their  own 
dignity  and  to  the  interest  of  the  nations,  to  make  a  solemn  announcement 
of  their  sentiments  on  the  occasion.  In  thus  breaking  the  convention 
which  had  established  him  in  the  island  of  Elba,  Bonaparte  has  destroyed 
the  sole  legal  title  which  is  attached  to  his  political  existence.  By  reap, 
pearing  in  France  with  projects  of  trouble  and  overthrow,  he  has  de- 
prived himself  of  the  protection  of  the  laws,  and  made  it  evident,  in  the 
face  of  the  world,  that  there  can  no  longer  be  peace  or  truce  with  him. 
The  powers  therefore  declare,  that  Bonaparte  has  placed  himself  out  of 
the  pale  of  civil  and  social  relations ;  and  that,  as  the  general  enemy 
and  disturber  of  the  world,  he  is  abandoned  to  public  justice.  They  de- 
clare, at  the  same  time,  that  being  firmly  resolved  to  maintain  the  treaty 
of  Paris,  and  the  dispositions  sanctioned  by  that  treaty,  they  will  employ 
all  the  means  at  their  disposal  to  secure  the  continuance  of  peace;  and 
although  they  are  firmly  persuaded  that  all  France  will  combine  to  crush 
this  last  mad  attempt  of  criminal  ambition ;  yet,  should  it  prove  other- 
wise, they  are  ready  to  give  the  King  of  France  all  necessary  assistance, 
and  make  common  cause  against  those  who  shall  compromise  the  public 
tranquillity."  The  instrument  bore  the  signatures  of  Metternich,  Tal- 
leyrand, Wellington,  Hardenberg,  Nesselrode,  and  Lowenheim. 

Nor  did  the  allied  powers  content  themselves  with  publishing  this  man- 
ifesto :  they  proceeded  at  once  to  give  it  efficacy.  The  Russian  troops 
in  Poland,  two  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  strong,  were  put  in  readiness 
to  march  at  a  moment's  notice :  and  Alexander  declared,  that  "  he  was 
ready  to  throw  into  the  crusade  the  three  hundred  thousand  men  of  whom 
he  had  the  disposal,  to  put  an  end  to  these  revolts  of  Praetorian  guards." 
Austria  placed  on  the  war  footing  her  armies  in  Italy  and  Germany,  two 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  strong ;  Prussia  called  out  the  landwehr  and 
raised  her  forces  to  two  hundred  thousand  men ;  the  lesser  states  of  Ger- 
many mustered  their  respective  contingents,  and  moved  them  toward  the 
Rhine ;  England  sent  forward  her  troops  and  her  immense  resources  to 
aid  in  the  contest ;  Denmark  and  Sweden,  forgetting  their  recent  divi- 
sions, began  to  arm  in  the  common  cause ;  and.  the  Swiss  Cantons  poured 
their  soldiers  toward  the  French  frontier;  while  Spain  and  Portugal 
joined  the  general  league,  and  prepared  to  march  their  battalions  toward 
the  Pyrenees. 

In  the  meantime,  the  congress  adjusted  the  details  of  its  yet  unfinished 


1815.]  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  437 

measures.  Russia  accepted  the  Grand-duchy  of  Warsaw  without  the 
fortress  of  Thorn  and  its  territories,  and  it  was  expressly  stipulated  that 
Poland  should  not  be  incorporated  with  Russia,  but  form  a  separate  king, 
dom,  preserving  its  own  laws,  institutions,  language  and  religion.  Fred- 
erick Augustus  of  Saxony,  who  since  the  overthrow  of  Leipsic,  had 
inhabited  the  castle  of  Fredericksfield  as  a  sort  of  state-prisoner,  was 
liberated,  and  compelled  to  cede  a  large  portion  of  his  dominions  to  Prus- 
sia and  Hanover.  Europe  sympathized  with  the  unfortunate  sovereign 
on  this  partition  of  his  dominions,  yet  it  cannot  be  denied  that  he  brought 
his  disasters  on  himself:  he  had  cast  in  his  lot  with  Napoleon,  largely 
participated  in  the  French  Emperor's  conquests,  and  to  the  last  resisted 
all  attempts  of  the  allies  to  detach  him  from  the  interests  of  France. 

The  congress  of  Vienna  also  established  certain  edicts  for  regulating 
the  navigation  of  the  great  rivers  of  Central  Europe,  especially  the  Rhine, 
the  Neckar,  and  the  Meuse.  Moderate  duties  were  prescribed,  to  be 
collected  by  a  central  board  and  allotted  to  each  of  the  sovereign  pro- 
prietors in  proportion  to  their  respective  interests.  The  tolls  amounted 
to  five  hundred  and  eleven  thousand  florins  per  annum.  The  abolition  of 
the  slave  trade  occupied,  also,  the  attention  of  the  congress.  The  British 
House  of  Commons  had,  long  before,  petitioned  the  King  of  England  to 
exert  his  influence  with  other  civilized,  nations  in  this  behalf;  Denmark, 
as  early  as  1794,  had  prohibited  the  traffic;  and  the  court  of  Rio  Ja- 
neiro, in  1810,  and  Sweden  in  1813,  had  entered  into  treaty  with  Great 
Britain  on  the  subject.  The  congress  of  Vienna,  however,  adopted  no 
further  measures  than  the  issuing  of  a  joint  declaration  expressive  of  its 
abhorrence  of  the  traffic,  and  their  desire  for  its  total  extinction. 

With  a  blindness  to  the  probable  course  of  events  which  is  now  scarcely 
conceivable,  the  unreflecting  generosity  of  the  allied  sovereigns  had  as- 
signed to  Napoleon,  in  independent  sovereignty,  a  little  island  on  the  Tus- 
can coast,  within  sight  of  Italy,  within  a  few  days'  sail  of  France,  and  in  a 
position,  above  all  others,  the  most  favorable  for  carrying  on  political  in- 
trigues with  both  of  those  countries.  As  if,  too,  to  invite  a  second  descent 
into  the  arena  of  war,  he  was  placed  there  with  an  ample  revenue ;  an 
armed  force,  which,  by  the  addition  of  veterans  who  joined  him  in  small 
parties  from  the  neighboring  shores,  soon  exceeded  a  thousand  tried  and 
experienced  soldiers  ;  and  three  small  vessels  of  war  were  at  his  disposal. 
The  allied  commissioners  were  indeed  on  the  island,  and  enjoyed  a  large 
share  of  the  society  of  the  Emperor,  but  they  were  merely  a  kind  of 
accredited  diplomatists  at  his  court ;  they  could  apprise  their  respective 
governments  only  of  what  they  saw,  without  having  any  authority  to 
restrain  the  movements  of  Napoleon,  or  any  force  at  their  command  to 
interfere  with  his  pleasure.  It  is  true,  an  English  brig  of  eighteen  guns 
cruised  off  the  island  ;  but  it  was  idle  to  suppose  that  such  a  vessel  could 
blockade  even  the  harbor  of  Porto  Ferrajo.  The  result  should  have  been 
foreseen.  A  regular  correspondence  was  maintained  by  Napoleon  with 
his  adherents  in  France  and  Italy  ;  his  friends  and  relations  continually 
visited  him  ;  and  soon,  a  vast  conspiracy  was  formed — having  its  centre 
in  Paris,  and  its  ramifications  throughout  the  army  and  civil  departments 
in  France — the  object  of  which  was,  to  overturn  the  dynasty  of  the  Bour. 
bons  and  replace  Napoleon  on  the  throne.  The  defection  in  the  army, 
especially  among  the  private  soldiers,  was  almost  universal ;  they  waited 
with  impatience  for  Napoleon's  appearance  among  them ;  and  although 


438  HISTORY    OF     EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLVIIL 

the  secret  was  possessed  by  thousands  and  tens  of  thousands  of  the  troops 
in  France,  it  did  not  in  a  single  known  instance  transpire  beyond  its  de- 
signated limits.  Murat  was  among  the  first  to  join  Napoleon  in  his  en- 
terprise. His  vacillation  and  weakness  had  already  ruined  him  with 
ihe  allies,  who  in  consequence  neglected  his  interests  at  the  congress  of 
Vienna,  and  he  once  more  threw  himself  into  the  arms  of  France. 

All  things  being  at  length  in  readiness,  Napoleon,  on  the  26th  of 
February,  gave  a  brilliant  ball  at  Porto  Ferrajo  to  the  principal  persons 
n  the  island.  His  mother  and  sister  directed  the  festivities  of  the  even- 
ing, while  he  walked  around  the  room,  conversing  in  the  most  affable  man- 
ner with  his  guests ;  at  the  same  time,  secret  orders  were  dispatched  to 
the  guards,  eleven  hundred  in  number,  to  hold  themselves  in  readiness  on 
the  quay.  Napoleon  joined  them  at  half  past  four  o'clock,  and  the  em- 
barkation commenced  ;  by  seven  o'clock  all  was  completed,  and  he 
stepped  on  board  the  Inconstant  brig.  The  destination  of  the  flotilla, 
which  consisted  of  seven  small  vessels,  was  yet  unknown  both  to  the 
sailors  and  soldiers ;  but  when  the  squadron  was  some  two  leagues  from 
the  shore,  Napoleon  announced  his  intention  in  these  words :  "  Officers 
and  soldiers  of  my  Guard,  we  are  going  to  France !"  Loud  cries  of 
"  Vive  1'Empereur !"  answered  him ;  and  for  a  time,  a  feeling  of  wild 
enthusiasm  took  possession  of  the  soldiers.  Light  winds  prevailed  during 
the  voyage,  and  the  vessels  made  slow  progress ;  but  at  length,  on  the  1st 
of  March,  they  cast  anchor  in  the  gulf  of  St.  Juan,  on  the  coast  of  Pro- 
vence. The  landing  was  accomplished  without  opposition,  horses  were 
purchased  for  the  officers  with  money  furnished  by  Napoleon,  and  at  night 
the  watches  were  set  and  the  troops  bivouacked  as  on  the  eve  of  the  bat- 
tle of  Austerlitz. 

The  dangers  of  the  voyage  were  now  past ;  but  the  perils  of  the  shore 
remained,  and  they  were  sufficient  to  daunt  the  most  resolute.  The  con- 
spiracy had  its  adherents  in  almost  every  regiment  of  the  army  ;  but  few 
of  the  superior  officers  were  gained,  and  it  was  yet  uncertain  whether  the 
men  would  act  without  their  orders.  The  first  attempt  failed  entirely. 
Twenty-five  of  the  Old  Guard  were  sent  to  Antibes,  to  seduce  the  garri- 
son in  the  Emperor's  name ;  but  they  were  arrested  by  the  commander  of 
the  fortress,  General  Corsin  :  and  when  a  second  detachment  came  for- 
ward, and  began  to  read  at  the  foot  of  the  ramparts  a  proclamation  of 
Napoleon,  he  dispersed  them  by  a  threat  of  firing  on  them  with  his  artil- 
lery. This  check  discouraged  the  soldiers,  and  for  a  moment  caused  the 
Emperor  himself  to  hesitate  ;  but  he  had  gone  too  far  to  recede,  and  at 
four  o'clock  the  next  morning  he  took  the  road  through  the  mountains  to 
Grenoble.  The  district  traversed  by  this  road  was  more  favorable  than 
any  other  to  his  designs  :  it  contains  no  great  towns  or  wealthy  districts, 
and  the  inhabitants,  for  the  most  part  holders  of  the  national  domains, 
were  strongly  imbued  with  revolutionary  principles.  Th^y  consequently 
received  the  adventurer  with  open  arms.  The  little  army,  under  such 
circumstances,  made  rapid  progress  through  the  country,  and  on  the  6th 
of  March  the  leading  companies  approached  Grenoble.  But  here  they 
encountered  the  advanced  guard  of  the  garrison  of  that  town.  General 
Cambronne,  who  led  Napoleon's  party,  was  alarmed  to  find  from  the 
steadiness  of  the  royalist  troops,  that  a  determined  resistance  awaited 
him  ;  and  he  dispatched  an  aid-de-camp  to  inform  the  Emperor.  "  We 
have  been  deceived,"  said  Napoleon  to  Bertrand  on  receiving  this  intel 


1815.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE  439 

ligence  ;  "  but  it  is  no  matter — forward  !"  He  hastened  to  the  head  of 
the  column,  and  stepping  thence  toward  the  hostile  troops,  he  addressed 
them  in  a  voice  tremulous  from  emotion :  "  Comrades,  do  you  know  me  ?" 
"  Yes,  sire,"  replied  the  men.  "  Do  you  recognize  me,  my  children  ?" 
he  continued ;  "  I  am  your  Emperor :  fire  on  me,  if  you  will :  fire  on 
your  father:  here  is  my  bosom;"  and  he  bared  his  breast  as  he  spoke. 
These  words  were  irresistible.  The  soldiers  broke  their  ranks  and 
crowded  around  Napoleon  with  loud  shouts  of  "  Vive  1'  Empereur  !"  In 
a  moment  every  man  displayed  the  tri-color  cockade ;  the  eagles  reap- 
peared on  the  standards,  and  the  whole  detachment  joined  the  Emperor's 
ranks.  Hardly  was  this  done,  when  Labedoyere,  in  defiance  of  the  orders 
of  General  March'and,  marched  out  from  the  garrison  with  his  regiment 
and  joined  Napoleon,  who,  now  at  the  head  of  three  thousand  men,  ap- 
proached Grenoble  in  the  afternoon.  Marchand  and  the  prefect  did  their 
utmost  to  preserve  order  and  keep  the  troops  to  their  colors ;  but  the  pres- 
ence of  Napoleon  overcame  all  their  arguments ;  and  finding  the  soldiers 
resolved  to  abandon  the  Bourbon  cause,  they  retired  from  their  command, 
maintaining  at  least  their  own  loyalty  and  honor.  Napoleon  made  his 
entry  into  Grenoble  late  in  the  evening,  amid  the  acclamations  of  the  in- 
habitants. 

On  the  morning  of  March  3rd,  a  telegraphic  dispatch  announced  at 
Paris  the  landing  of  Napoleon  in  Provence.  M.  Blacas,  the  premier  of 
the  new  government,  treated  the  enterprise  with  contempt,  as  the  last  ef- 
fort of  a  madman ;  but  Louis  judged  differently.  His  opinions,  however, 
were  not  generally  adopted,  until  the  Emperor's  advance  to  Grenoble, 
and  the  defection  of  the  garrison  there  became  known ;  when  all  classes 
were  filled  with  alarm,  and  indescribable  confusion  prevailed  at  the  Tuil- 
eries.  The  two  Chambers  were  immediately  convoked  ;  the  Count  dj- 
Artois  with  the  Duke  of  Orleans  and  Marshal  Macdonald,  departed  for 
Lyons  to  maintain  order  and  secure  the  loyalty  of  the  troops;  the  Duke 
d'  Angouleme  set  out  for  Bordeaux  to  rouse  the  southern  provinces ;  the 
Duke  de  Bourbon  hastened  to  La  Vendee  for  a  similar  purpose ;  and  the 
Duke  de  Berri  assumed  the  command  of  an  army  of  reserve  to  be  formed 
at  Essone  and  Fontainebleau. 

The  inhabitants  of  Paris  proved  lukewarm  in  their  support  of  the  king, 
but  the  marshals  and  other  dignitaries  of  the  Empire  were  loud  in  pro- 
testations of  loyalty.  Soult,  minister  of  war,  issued  a  vehement  procla- 
mation to  the  soldiers,  stigmatizing  the  ex-Emperor's  enterprise  with  the 
severest  opprobium,  and  conjuring  the  troops  to  remain  faithful  to  their 
king.  The  municipalities  of  Paris  and  the  other  large  towns,  together 
with  the  courts  of  law,  universities  and  colleges,  as  well  as  the  marshals 
and  other  officers  in  command,  also  sent  in  assurances  of  adhesion  to 
the  king.  Marshal  Ney,  in  particular,  expressed  in  the  loudest  terms 
his  indignation  at  the  Emperor's  conduct :  and  the  government  so  impli- 
citly relied  on  his  fidelity,  that  they  intrusted  to  him  the  army  assembling 
at  Lons-le-Saulnier  to  stop  the  progress  of  the  invaders.  On  the  7th  of 
March,  he  presented  himself  at  the  king's  levee,  at  the  Tuileries,  to  take 
leave  of  his  majesty  previous  to  assuming  the  command  of  the  army. 
"  Sire,"  said  he,  "  I  will  bring  Bonaparte  back  in  an  iron  cage."  Mor- 
tier  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  troops  in  the  north  of  France ;  Augo- 
reau  was  dispatched  to  Normandy ;  full  powers  were  transmitted  to 
Massena,  at  Toulon ;  and  Oudinot  took  direction  of  the  forces  at  Mar 

30 


440  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLVIIL 

seilles.  Everything  announced  a  vigorous  resistance  ;  but,  in  the  mean- 
time,  Napoleon's  advance  was  unopposed.  Defection  after  defection 
occurred  in  the  army ;  and  it  was  soon  ascertained  that  the  corps  of  thirty 
thousand  men,  posted  by  order  of  Soult  on  the  frontier  between  Besanc_on 
and  Lyons-,  were  in  large  masses  deserting  the  royal  standard.  The 
Count  d'  Artois,  the  Duke  of  Orleans  and  Macdonald,  could  make  no 
impression  either  on  the  troops  or  on  the  lower  orders  of  the  people  ;  they 
herefore  returned,  and  Napoleon,  on  the  12th  of  March,  took  possession 
of  Lyons.  This  great  success  at  once  gave  him  command  of  the  centre 
of  France ;  and  considering  himself  now  virtually  invested  with  the  su- 
preme authority,  he  issued  four  decrees ;  the  first,  dissolving  the  Chambers 
of  Peers  and  Deputies,  enjoining  the  members  to  return  forthwith  to  their 
homes,  and  convoking  the  electoral  colleges  for  an  extraordinary  assem- 
bly in  May  ensuing  ;  the  second,  banishing  anew  the  emigrants  returned 
to  France,  who  had  not  already  obtained  letters  of  amnesty  from  the 
Imperial  or  Republican  governments ;  the  third,  abolishing  titles  of  honor 
and  noblesse  and  restoring  the  laws  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  on  that 
subject,  with  an  exception  in  favor  of  those  who  had  received  titles  for 
services ;  the  fourth,  striking  from  the  list  all  officers  of  the  army  who 
had  taken  commissions  since  April  1st,  1814,  and  prohibiting  the  Minister 
at  War  from  granting  them  pay,  even  for  arrearages. 

Marshal  Ney,  meantime,  reached  Auxerre  on  his  road  to  take  com- 
mand of  the  army.  He  there  met  M.  Gamott,  his  brother-in-law,  and  a 
warm  partisan  of  Napoleon.  On  this  occasion,  for  the  first  time,  doubts 
were  instilled  into  his  mind  as  to  the  possibility  of  upholding  the  Bour- 
bons. The  Emperor,  too,  well  aware  of  the  vacillating  character  of  his 
old  lieutenant,  caused  him  to  be  beset  with  emissaries,  who  represented 
the  hopes  of  the  Bourbons  to  be  irrevocably  ruined,  assuring  him,  at  the 
same  time,  that  "  the  Emperor  feels  no  rancor  toward  you  :  he  stretches 
out  his  arms  to  receive  you :  he  agrees  with  you  as  to  the  stranger :  there 
will  be  no  more  war;  the  national  principles  are  about  to  triumph." 
These  appeals  proved  too  much  for  the  fidelity  of  the  marshal.  His  own 
account  of  his  deplorable  and  disgraceful  treachery  is  perhaps  the  most 
charitable  one  for  the  historian  to  adopt.  "  I  had  indeed,"  said  he,  on 
his  subsequent  trial,  "  kissed  the  hand  of  the  king,  his  majesty  having 
presented  it  to  me  when  he  wished  me  a  good  journey.  The  descent  of 
Bonaparte  appeared  to  me  so  extravagant,  that  I  spoke  of  it  with  indig- 
nation, and  made  use  of  the  expression  charged,  relative  to  the  iron  cage. 
In  the  night  of  March  13th — down  to  which  time,  I  protest  my  fidelity — 
I  received  a  proclamation,  drawn  by  Napoleon,  which  I  signed.  Before 
reading  it  to  the  troops,  I  submitted  it  to  General  Bourmont,  who  said  it 
was  necessary  to  join  Bonaparte,  and  that  the  Bourbons  had  committed 
such  follies  that  they  could  no  longer  be  supported."  On  the  14th,  this 
fatal  proclamation,  which  cost  him  his  life  and  has  disgraced  his  memory, 
was  published  to  the  army. 

The  defection  of  Ney,  followed  by  that  of  his'  army,  at  once  proved  fa- 
tal to  the  royal  authority.  Not  only  were  all  obstacles  removed  between 
Napoleon  and  the  capital,  but  his  advance  was  aided  by  every  possible 
facility  :  for  as  the  troops  sent  to  oppose  him  had  joined  his  standard,  he 
had  command  of  an  irresistible  military  force. 

In  this  extremity,  the  measures  of  the  government  were  as  vigorous  as 
the  emergency  was  exigent ;  but  all  efforts  were  unavailing,  from  the  want 


1815.]  HISTORY    O'F    EUROPE.  441 

of  soldiers  to  defend  the  throne.  The  Chamber  of  Deputies  met,  on  the 
llth  of  March,  in  obedience  to  the  summons  of  the  king,  and  passed  loyal 
addresses  by  a  large  majority;  so  that  the  court,  for  a  brief  season,  be- 
lieved the  influence  of  the  legislature  on  the  public  mind  would  check  the 
progress  of  treason  in  the  army,  and  arrest  the  disaffection  of  the  people. 
But  the  time  was  past  when  a  vote  of  the  legislature  could  make  the  wea- 
pons drop  from  the  soldiers'  hands.  The  fatal  news  of  Ney's  treachery 
filled  every  heart  with  dismay ;  for  its  result  proved  that  the  army  had 
determined  to  place  the  Emperor  on  the  throne,  and  therefore  that  all  hope 
for  the  Royalists  was  lost.  As  a  last  resource,  the  king  appealed  to  the 
honor  and  loyalty  of  the  French  character.  "  I  have  pledged  myself," 
said  he,  "to  the  allied  sovereigns  for  the  fidelity  of  the  army.  If  Napo- 
leon triumphs,  five  hundred  thousand  strangers  will  immediately  inundate 
France.  In  you,  who  are  now  following  other  standards  than  mine,  I  see 
nothing  but  children  led  astray :  abjure  your  error :  come  and  throw  your- 
selves into  the  arms  of  your  father,  and  I  give  you  my  honor  that  all  shall 
be  forgotten."  But  these  words  were  uttered  in  vain. 

On  the  19th  of  March,  a  review  of  the  National  and  Royal  Guards  took 
place.  Only  a  small  number,  however,  of  the  first  mentioned  corps  ap- 
peared on  the  ground  ;  and  when  the  parade  was  over,  the  latter,  instead 
of  taking  the  road  to  Fontainebleau,  as  had  been  announced,  to  combat  the 
enemy,  defiled  toward  Beauvais,  evidently  for  the  purpose  of  covering 
the  retreat  of  the  royal  family.  At  dinner,  on  that  day,  the  king  informed 
the  few  friends  who  still  remained  faithful,  that  he  was  about  to  abandon 
the  Tuileries.  Tears  fell  from  every  eye  ;  and  the  mournful  prospect  of 
a  second  exile — of  France  subjected  again  to  military  despotism,  van- 
quished, overrun,  and  probably  partitioned — arose  in  gloomy  perspective 
to  the  minds  of  all  present.  The  king  addressed  a  few  words  of  comfort  to 
each  of  his  guests,  and  then  signed  a  proclamation  dissolving  the  Cham- 
bers, directing  the  members  to  separate  forthwith,  and  to  assemble  again 
at  such  time  and  place  as  he  should  afterward  appoint.  This  proclama- 
tion appeared  in  the  Moniteur  of  March  20th,  when  Paris  was  literally 
without  a  government,  the  king  and  royal  family  having  departed  at  mid- 
night on  the  19th.  The  party  travelled  rapidly  and  the  following  evening 
reached  Lille,  the  capital  of  French  Flanders,  where  they  remained  until 
the  24th,  and  then  continued  their  flight  toward  Ghent. 

Napoleon  arrived  at  Fontainebleau  on  the  19th,  and  proceeded  to  Paris 
on  the  20th.  He  reached  the  Tuileries  at  nine  o'clock  in  the  evening. 
The  moment  his  carriage  stopped  at  the  gates,  he  was  seized  by  the  at- 
tendants, borne  aloft  in  their  arms  amid  deafening  cheers,  through  a  dense 
and  brilliant  crowd  of  epaulettes,  and  hurried  up  the  great  stair  into  the 
saloon  of  reception.  Here,  a  splendid  array  of  ladies  of  the  Imperial 
court  received  him  with  transports,  and  imprinted  kisses  on  his  cheeks, 
his  hands,  and  even  his  dress  :  he  might  well  have  asked,  like  Voltaire,  on 
his  last  return  to  Paris,  whether  the  citizens  meant  to  make  him  die  of 
joy.  He  has  himself  described  this  entire  day  as  one  of  the  most  delight- 
ful of  his  life  :  and  he  might  have  added,  that  it  was  also  his  last  day  of 
unmixed  satisfaction. 

After  Napoleon  retired  to  rest  in  the  Imperial  apartments  in  the  Tuile- 
ries, he  had  leisure  to  reflect  on  his  situation,  and  the  means  he  possessed 
of  maintaining  himself  on  the  dizzy  pinnacle  to  which  he  was  again  ele- 
vated. When  he  stepped  ashore  on  the  coast  of  France,  his  first  words 


442  HISTORY     OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLVIII. 

were,  in  relation  to  the  congress  of  Vienna,  "  There  !  the  congress  is  dis- 
solved !"  but  he  well  knew  that  his  movements  would  produce  exactly 
the  contrary  effect:  that  his  return  from  Elba  would  terminate  the  divi- 
sions of  the  European  sovereigns,  and  that  legions  as  formidable  as  those 
which  had  already  crushed  him,  would  again  overspread  his  dominions. 
To  meet  these  forces,  he  had  but  a  fearfully  diminished  host :  the  troops 
under  arms  in  France  did  not  exceed  one  hundred  thousand  men,  and  if 
all  his  veterans  could  be  recalled  and  rallied  around  his  standard,  the  total 
number  would  barely  reach  two  hundred  thousand.  Besides,  through  all 
the  triumphs  of  his  march  from  Provence,  he  had  perceived  with  secret 
disquietude,  that  his  adherents  were  chiefly  among  the  lowest  classes,  and 
that  the  more  respectable  peasants  in  the  country  and  citizens  in  the  towns, 
gazed  with  silent  wonder  as  he  passed  along.  General  support,  therefore, 
from  the  physical  strength  of  the  nation,  he  could  not  expect :  for  the  re- 
membrance of  the  conscription  was  too  recent ;  the  detestation  of  the  war, 
too  strong ;  the  exhaustion  of  the  military  population,  too  complete. 

The  next  morning  after  his  arrival  in  Paris,  he  was  forced  to  see  the 
precarious  footing  of  his  authority.  The  Imperialist  party  were  in  rap- 
tures at  his  return,  but  very  few  of  them  seemed  willing  to  accept  the 
perilous  honor  of  a  responsible  situation  under  his  government.  He  first 
applied  to  Fouche ;  and  a  stronger  proof  of  the  strait  to  which  he  was 
reduced  could  not  well  be  furnished,  than  his  commencing  with  this  old 
blood-stained  regicide.  Fouche,  aware  of  his  importance  as  head  of  the 
Republican  party,  made  his  own  terms.  He  at  first,  indeed,  asked  to  be 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs ;  but  Napoleon  desired  him  to  resume  his 
former  situation  at  the  head  of  the  police ;  and  he  consented  to  do  so,  in 
the  well-founded  belief  that  this  office  would  give  him  entire  command 
of  the  Interior.  Cambaceres  declined  the  office  of  Minister  of  Justice, 
but  was  induced  to  accept  it  on  condition  that  he  should  not  be  required 
to  take  part  in  any  public  measures.  Even  Caulaincourt  refused  the 
portfolio  of  Foreign  Affairs ;  and  M.  Mole  also  refused  it,  frankly  assu- 
ring the  Emperor  that,  in  his  opinion,  the  drama  was  concluded,  and  the 
dead  could  not  be  revived.  Caulaincourt  was  subsequently  compelled, 
by  Napoleon's  peremptory  command,  to  take  the  rejected  office ;  and  Maret, 
under  similar  compulsion,  took  the  portfolio  of  Secretary  of  State  ;  while 
Davoust,  who  had  been  in  disgrace  during  the  restoration,  readily  agreed 
to  fill  the  place  of  Minister  at  War.  In  fact,  the  same  disinclination  for 
office  was  manifested  in  all  the  inferior  departments  of  the  government ; 
and  it  soon  became  evident,  that  the  once  colossal  power  of  the  Emperor 
had  been  almost  wholly  undermined  by  his  defeat  and  abdication. 

His  march  to  Paris  was  so  rapid,  that  the  inhabitants  in  many  of  the 
provinces  were  ignorant  of  his  having  advanced  beyond  Grenoble  when 
they  heard  of  his  arrival  at  the  capital.  This  sudden  and  portentous 
movement  stupefied  them ;  and  far  from  being  disposed  to  transfer  their 
allegiance  and  trample  under  foot  their  oaths,  the  people  of  Guienne, 
Languedoc  and  Provence,  spontaneously  took  up  arms ;  the  Duke  d'An- 
gouleme  actively  commenced  the  organization  of  new  levies  in  the  south- 
ern districts ;  and  the  presence  of  the  Duchess  d'Angouleme  at  Bordeaux, 
so  excited  the  loyalty  of  the  inhabitants,  that  fifteen  thousand  National 
Guards  in  that  city  and  its  departments,  declared  for  the  Bourbons. 
Napoleon,  indeed,  soon  succeeded  in  quelling  these  dangerous  outbreaks 
by  means  of  the  powerful  forces  at  his  command,  and  the  great  influence  of 


1815.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  443 

his  name  ;  but  the  fact  of  such  a  simultaneous  rising  against  his  authority 
was  ominous ;  and  he  could  not  fail  to  reflect  that  a  similar  revolt, 
when  his  armies  were  occupied  with  repelling  foreign  invasion,  might 
lead  to  much  more  disastrous  results. 

When  the  allied  powers  at  Vienna  received  intelligence  of  Napoleon's 
marvellous  success,  and  found  that  the  authority  of  the  abdicated  Emperor 
was  again  fully  established  in  France,  they  resolutely  prepared  to  ac- 
complish his  destruction.  They  saw,  in  his  elevation  to  the  throne  on 
the  bucklers  of  his  troops,  the  clearest  proof  that  he  would  be  compelled 
to  make  war :  that  a  rapacious  soldiery,  which  hailed  his  return  as  a 
restoration  to  the  days  of  past  glory,  would  never  be  contented  until  again 
plunged  in  the  career  of  conquest ;  and  that  even  were  Napoleon  himself 
desirous  of  peace,  he  would  be  forced  into  hostilities  by  the  passions  and 
necessities  of  his  followers.  Acting  on  these  opinions,  the  Congress  con- 
cluded a  new  treaty  on  the  25th  of  March,  which,  in  effect,  revived  the 
treaty  of  Chaumont.  The  cabinets  of  Russia,  Prussia,  Austria  and 
Great  Britain,  "  engaged  to  unite  their  forces  against  Bonaparte  and  his 
faction,  in  order  to  prevent  him  from  again  troubling  the  peace  of  Europe ; 
they  each  agreed  to  furnish  one  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  men  for  the 
prosecution  of  the  war ;  and,  if  necessary,  to  draw  forth  their  entire 
military  force  of  every  description."  By  a  secret  treaty,  concluded  on 
the  same  day,  it  was  stipulated  that  the  contracting  parties  should  not  lay 
down  their  arms  until  they  had  effected  the  destruction  of  Napoleon  ;  and 
all  the  lesser  powers  of  Europe  acceded  to  these  treaties,  within  a  fort- 
night after  their  ratification. 

On  the  31st  of  March,  in  a  secret  meeting  held  at  Vienna,  it  was  re- 
•olved  to  form  forthwith  three  great  armies  from  the  allied  forces  ;  the 
first,  of  two  hundred  and  sixty-five  thousand,  chiefly  Austrians  and  Bava- 
rians, to  be  stationed  on  the  Upper  Rhine,  and  commanded  by  Schwartz- 
enberg  ;  the  second,  of  a  hundred  and  fifty-five  thousand  Prussians,  on  the 
Lower  Rhine,  under  Blucher ;  the  third,  of  a  similar  number,  composed  of 
English,  Hanoverians  and  Belgians,  in  the  Low  Countries,  under  Welling- 
ton. It  was  further  resolved,  that  military  operations  should  be  commenced 
early  in  June  ;  previous  to  which  time,  the  Russian  army,  a  hundred  and 
seventy  thousand  strong,  might  be  expected  to  reach  the  Upper  Rhine 
from  Poland ;  and,  entering  France  by  Strasburg  and  Besancon,  form  a 
reserve  to  the  invading  armies  from  the  eastward.  In  addition  to  the 
operations  of  these  large  masses,  lesser  movements  were  to  be  made  on 
the  side  of  Switzerland  and  the  Pyrenees. 

From  this  plan  of  the  campaign,  it  was  evident  that  the  British  troops 
in  Flanders  would  first  be  exposed  to  the  shock  of  war ;  and  the  British 
cabinet  made  exertions  proportionate  to  the  emergency.  On  the  6th  of 
April,  a  message  from  the  Prince  Regent  formally  announced  to  both 
Houses  of  Parliament  the  events  which,  in  direct  contravention  of  the 
treaty  of  Paris,  had  recently  occurred  in  France,  the  measures  adopted 
by  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  and  the  necessity  of  augmenting  the  military 
and  naval  forces  of  the  Empire.  The  address  was  approved  of  in  the 
House  of  Peers,  without  a  dissenting  voice,  and  in  the  Commons,  the  vote 
stood  two  hundred  and  twenty  to  thirty-seven.  The  supplies  of  men  and 
money  requisite  to  the  present  undertaking,  were  with  equal  readiness 
voted  by  Parliament ;  and  in  addition  to  the  enormous  sums  called  for  to 
iupport  her  own  naval  and  military  establishments,  Great  Britain  granted 

40 


444  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XL  VIII. 

and  paid  to  the  several  allied  powers  within  the  year,  subsidies  to  the 
amount  of  more  than  eleven  millions  sterling. 

Nothing  that  vigor  and  activity  could  accomplish  was  wanting  on  the 
part  of  Napoleon,  to  provide  means  of  defence  against  the  prodigious 
phalanx  of  his  enemies  :  yet,  owing  to  the  exhaustion  of  the  country  and 
the  apathy  or  despair  of  the  people,  the  raising  of  an  adequate  force  was 
totally  impossible.  His  first  care  was  to  restore  to  the  old  regiments  their 
numbers  and  their  eagles,  so  unwisely  taken  away  by  the  late  govern- 
ment. He  next  organized  the  entire  veteran  force,  now  returned  from  the 
fortresses  on  the  Elbe,  the  Oder,  and  the  Vistula,  together  with  the  pris- 
oners of  the  Russian  campaign,  who  had  been  disbanded  by  Louis  XVIII., 
and  dispersed  over  France.  The  National  Guard  was  then  put  in  a  con- 
dition for  maintaining  the  internal  defence  of  the  country,  so  that  the 
regular  troops  might  all  be  relied  on  for  offensive  operations :  and  by 
these  means,  the  strength  of  the  army  was  so  augmented,  that  Napoleon 
hoped  to  take  the  field,  by  the  first  of  June,  with  two  hundred  thousand 
effective  and  veteran  troops. 

To  provide  arms  and  the  munitions  of  war  for  this  number  of  men, 
from  the  impoverished  arsenals  and  exhausted  finances  of  the  country, 
seemed  a  still  more  difficult  task :  yet  here,  too,  the  Emperor's  herculean 
efforts  were  attended  with  surprising  success.  Foundries  were  put  in 
operation,  swords,  muskets,  and  cannon  were  manufactured,  and  horses 
to  a  very  great  extent  purchased  ;  but  it  may  well  be  believed  that  the 
enormous  expense  thus  incurred  was  not  discharged  in  ready  money ; 
orders  on  the  treasury,  at  distant  dates,  were  lavishly  given,  and  under  a 
despotic  military  government,  this  sort  of  currency,  however  valueless, 
could  not  be  refused  ;  in  short,  to  meet  his  emergencies,  Napoleon  set  at 
work  the  old  system  of  terror  and  compulsion ;  and  it  produced — as  for  a 
time  it  always  must — magical  results. 

However  absolutely  and  ably  Napoleon  might  direct  his  military  affairs, 
he  was  forced  to  intrust  his  civil  administration  to  Fouche  and  the  repub- 
licans— and  they  steadily  pursued  one  object,  namely,  providing,  by  the 
revival  of  a  republican  spirit  in  the  people,  a  counterpoise  to  the  Empe- 
ror's power.  The  old  regicides  and  Jacobins  were,  through  Fouche's 
intrigues,  everywhere  called  into  activity  ;  and  the  approaching  election, 
ordered  by  Napoleon,  came  almost  entirely  under  their  control.  The 
language  of  Fouche  to  his  Republican  allies  was  quite  unreserved :  "If 
that  man,"  said  he,  "  should  attempt  to  curb  the  Jacobin  principles,  we 
will  overturn  him  at  once  and  for  ever."  Napoleon  was  aware  of  all  this, 
and  greatly  desired  to  resent  it ;  but  his  own  precarious  position  compelled 
him  to  dissemble  his  wrath  and  continue  Foucne  in  power. 

The  framing  of  a  new  Constitution  was  also  one  of  the  tasks  of  this 
exciting  period ;  but  in  a  country  so  habituated  to  that  species  of  manu- 
facture, such  an  undertaking  was  a  matter  of  little  comparative  difficulty. 
The  president  of  the  commission  intrusted  with  this  duty  was  Benjamin 
Constant,  and  his  first  draft  of  a  charter  was  so  visionary  and  democratic 
that  Napoleon  at  once  rejected  it.  The  Liberal  party  then  prepared 
another  Constitution,  styled  by  Constant  the  "Acte  Additionel,"  which  in 
many  respects  strongly  resembled  the  Charter  of  Louis  XVIII.  But  in 
three  particulars  it  materially  differed  from  that  instrument ;  and  these 
points  showed  how  much  more  clearly  its  framers  understood  the  exi- 
gencies of  the  times  and  the  necessity  of  a  bulwark  to  power,  than  the 


1815.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  445 

Bourbons  had  done.  In  the  first  place,  the  peerage  was  declared  to  be 
hereditary — not  for  life  only.  Secondly,  the  punishment  by  confiscation 
of  property,  abolished  by  Louis  XVIII.,  was  restored  in  cases  of  high 
treason.  Thirdly,  the  family  of  the  Bourbons  was  for  ever  proscribed, 
and  even  the  power  of  recalling  them  denied  to  the  people.  While  these 
articles  were  thus  hostile  to  a  second  restoration  of  the  royal  family,  they 
pointed  unequivocally  to  the  establishment  of  a  strong  monarchy  for  the 
family  of  Napoleon,  and  the  publication  of  the  "  Acte  Additionel,"  on  the 
25th  of  April,  excited  a  violent  opposition  from  the  two  parties  that  divided 
the  country.  One  of  the  publications  of  the  day,  in  a  journal  called  the 
"  Censeur  Europeen,"  was  entitled  "  The  influence  of  the  moustache  on 
the  rnind,  and  the  necessity  of  the  sword  in  government."  "What," 
exclaimed  this  fearless  writer,  "  is  glory  ?  Has  a  lion,  which  ma-kes  all 
the  animals  of  a  surrounding  country  tremble — has  he  glory  ?  Or,  a 
miserable  people,  who  know  not  how  to  govern  themselves  and  are  to  their 
neighbors  an  object  only  of  terror  and  hatred — have  they  glory  ?  If  glory 
be  the  attribute  solely  of  men  who  have  benefited  their  race,  where  is 
the  glory  of  a  conquering  people  ?"  The  public  clamor  soon  became  so 
vehement,  especially  among  the  Republicans,  that  Carnot,  who  felt  him- 
self compromised  with  his  party  by  the  "Acte  Additionel,"  wrote  to  the 
Emperor,  that  "dissatisfaction  was  universal,  civil  war  was  on  the  point 
of  breaking  out,  and  that  it  was  indispensable  to  publish  a  decree  autho- 
rizing the  Chambers  to  modify  the  Constitution  at  the  next  session,  and  to 
submit  such  modification  to  the  primary  assemblies  of  the  people."  Na- 
poleon replied,  "  With  you,  Carnot,  I  have  no  need  of  disguise :  you  are 
a  strong-headed  man  with  sagacious  intellect.  Let,  us  first  save  France : 
after  that,  we  will  arrange  everything.  Let  us  not  sow  the  seeds  of  dis- 
cord when  the  closest  union  is  requisite  to  save  the  country."  Carnot 
acceded  to  these  views,  and  from  that  hour  offered  no  opposition  to  the 
Emperor's  temporarily  assuming  a  dictatorial  power. 

Caulaincourt  at  this  time  made  great  efforts  to  open  a  diplomatic  inter- 
course with  the  allied  powers.  This  was  a  matter  in  which  everything 
depended  on  the  success  or  failure  of  the  first  step :  for  if  the  allies  con- 
sented to  any  form  of  negotiation  with  the  Emperor,  they  would  thereby 
virtually  recognize  his  authority  and  revoke  their  own  decree.  But 
Caulaincourt's  attempts  were  ineffectual.  "  We  can  have  no  peace,"  said 
Alexander  :  "  there  is  a  mortal  duel  between  me  and  the  Emperor  Napo- 
leon ;  he  has  broken  his  word  with  me.  I  am  freed  from  my  engagement, 
and  Europe  requires  an  example."  "  Europe,"  said  Metternich,  "  has 
declared  war  against  Bonaparte.  France  can  and  should  prove  to  Europe 
that  she  knows  her  own  dignity  too  well  to  submit  to  the  dictation  of  one 
man.  The  French  nation  is  powerful  and  free  ;  its  power  and  freedom 
are  essential  to  the  equilibrium  of  Europe  ;  and  it  has  but  to  deliver  itself 
from  its  oppressor,  and  return  to  the  principles  on  which  social  order 
securely  rests." 

Murat  first  commenced  hostilities  in  the  ever  memorable  campaign  of 
1815.  Austria,  desiring  to  detach  him  from  Napoleon  and  preserve  peace 
in  Italy,  had  previously  offered  to  procure  for  him  a  recognition  of  his 
title  by  all  the  sovereigns  represented  at  Vienna,  if  he  would  declare 
for  the  allies :  but,  when  the  infatuated  soldier  heard  of  Napoleon's  sue- 
cess  in  France,  he  thought  the  time  had  come  to  secure,  not  what  the  al- 
lies offered  him,  but  the  sovereignty  of  the  whole  Italian  Peninsula. 


446  HISTORYOFEUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLVIH. 

He  therefore,  with  little  previous  notice  of  his  intentions,  crossed  the  Po 
with  thirty  thousand  men,  on  the  31st  of  March,  and,  in  an  inflated  pro- 
clamation, called  on  the  Italians  to  assert  their  independence.  In  the 
outset  he  gained  sjome  slight  advantage ;  but  the  Austrian  generals,  Belle- 
garde,  Bianci,  and  Frimont  united  their  forces  and  attacked  him  at  To- 
lentino  on  the  9th  of  April.  His  troops  were  splendidly  equipped  and, 
on  a  parade,  made  as  fine  an  appearance  as  any  soldiers  in  Europe :  but 
hey  were  Neapolitans,  and  unlike  the  French  veterans  whom  Murat  had 
een  accustomed  to  lead,  they  fled  at  the  very  first  fire  of  the  Austrian 
battalions,  and  regained  their  own  frontier  in  the  last  state  of  dispersion 
and  disorganization.  Murat  himself,  entirely  deserted  by  his  army,  es- 
caped to  Toulon :  and  the  Sicilian  family  immediately  took  possession  of 
their  rightful,  and  now  vacated  throne.  Their  accession  was  promptly 
recognized  by  all  the  sovereigns  of  Europe. 

On  the  first  of  May,  Louis  La  Rochejaquelein  made  his  appearance  on 
the  coast  of  La  Vendee,  and  excited  a  general  outbreak  in  that  loyal  dis- 
trict. In  a  short  time,  no  less  than  twenty  thousand  men  were  assembled 
around  the  Bourbon  standard  ;  and  Napoleon,  justly  alarmed  at  so  serious 
a  rising  against  his  authority  within  the  French  territory,  dispatched 
Generals  Lamarque  and  Travot  with  a  large  force  to  quell  the  disturb- 
ance.  Simultaneously  with  the  movement  of  these  troops,  Fouche  opened 
a  secret  negotiation  with  the  royalist  leaders  in  La  Vendee.  That  saga- 
cious minister,  foreseeing  a  second  restoration,  and  having  already  taken 
measures  to  secure  his  own  ascendency  when  it  should  occur,  thus  ad- 
dressed the  royalists  through  his  emissaries :  "  Why  should  the  Vende- 
ans  go  to  war  ?  French  blood  will  soon  flow  in  streams  sufficiently  large  ; 
their's  need  not  be  mingled  with  it.  Let  them  wait  a  month  or  two  and  all 
will  be  over.  Conclude  an  armistice  till  the  restoration.  La  Vendee  is 
but  an  incident  in  the  great  European  war  about  to  break  out  in  the  plains 
of  Belgium.  The  contest  between  the  Blues  and  the  Whites  is  henceforth 
without  an  object."  By  these  means  Fouche  hoped  to  gain  credit  with 
Napoleon,  with  the  Bourbons,  and  with  the  nation :  with  Napoleon,  for 
terminating  the  strife  in  La  Vendee  ;  with  the  Bourbons,  for  detaching 
twenty  thousand  men  from  the  standard  of  Napoleon  to  check  these  dis- 
turbances, at  the  most  critical  period  of  his  fortunes  ;  .and  with  the  nation, 
for  having  closed  the  frightful  gulf  of  civil  war.  This  complex  scheme 
of  the  eld  policeman  was  crowned  with  complete  success.  One  of  the 
Vendcan  leaders,  indeed,  Auguste  La  Rochejaquelein,  refused  to  follow 
the  suggestions  of  Fouche  and,  engaging,  with  his  little  band  of  heroes, 
a  greatly  superior  number  of  veteran  troops,  he  lost  both  the  battle  and 
his  life  :  but  the  others  withdrew  from  the  contest  and  awaited  the  pro- 
gress of  events. 

The  new  elections  took  place  in  conformity  to  Napoleon's  proclamation, 
but  they  were  in  all  quarters  a  mere  formality,  and  by  no  means  indi- 
cated the  true  state  of  the  public  mind.  In  many  departments,  not  a 
tenth  part  of  the  qualified  persons  came  forward  to  vote  :  in  those  of  Bou- 
ches  du  Rhone  and  La  Vendee,  the  deputies  were  appointed  by  five  elect- 
ors; and  in  twenty-nine  departments  no  elections  whatever  were  held. 
The  respectable  citizens  in  almost  every  quarter  kept  aloof  from  a  politi- 
cal contest  directed  by  such  men  as  Fouche,  Carnot,  and  other  violent 
Republicans  ;  and  men  of  property  deemed  it  unnecessary  to  meddle  with 
an  ephemeral  legislature,  or  to  make  any  efforts  for  or  against  a  cause- 


1815.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  447 

which  they  conceived  would  soon  be  determined  by  the  bayonets  of  the 
allies.  The  deputies  returned  were  therefore,  for  the  most  part,  needy 
and  unprincipled  adventurers.  The  new  legislature  was  convened  at 
Paris  on  occasion  of  the  fete  of  the  Champ  de  Mai,  celebrated  with  great 
pomp  in  the  beginning  of  June ;  and,  the  "  Acte  Additionel"  being  then 
and  there  submitted,  was  approved  by  a  large  majority. 

Still,  opinions  at  Paris  were  greatly  divided  ;  a  formidable  opposition 
to  the  Emperor  arose  in  this  very  Chamber  of  Deputies  which  his  indi- 
vidual act  had  created,  and  some  of  his  ministers  were  so  deeply  impli- 
cated in  secret  correspondence  with  his  enemies,  that  he  at  one  time 
resolved  to  sacrifice  them,  at  whatever  risk  to  his  own  safety.  When  the 
old  Girondist,  Lanjuinais,  was  chosen  president  of  the  chamber,  instead  of 
Lucien  Bonaparte,  whom  Napoleon  had  designated,  the  Emperor  deter- 
mined  to  refuse  his  confirmation  of  the  appointment :  but  he  afterward 
sent  back  the  committee  who  brought  the  announcement,  saying,  coldly, 
"  I  will  return  my  answer  by  one  of  my  chamberlains."  This  message 
raised  a  storm  in  the  chamber.  To  return  an  answer  by  a  chamberlain, 
was  considered  a  direct  insult  to  the  national  representatives.  At  length, 
however,  Napoleon,  of  necessity,  submitted  to  the  pleasure  of  the  depu- 
ties, in  the  matter  of  their  president ;  he  was  moreover  unable  to  control, 
or  even  to  influence  the  choice  of  vice-presidents,  to  which  offices  M. 
Flarequerguis,  Dupont  de  1'Eure,  La  Fayette,  and  Grenier,  were  seve- 
rally elected.  Napoleon  opened  the  sitting  of  the  chamber  in  person ; 
but  his  speech,  though  abundantly  liberal,  was  coldly  received.  A  re- 
view of  forty-eight  battalions  of  the  National  Guard  was  still  more  unsatis- 
factory :  few  cries  of  "  vive  1'Empereur"  were  heard  from  the  ranks  ;  and 
a  procession  of  the  fedf.rts  of  the  suburbs,  so  hideous  and  disorderly  that 
it  recalled  the  worst  days  of  the  Revolution,  followed  the  march.  Every- 
thing, in  short,  announced  that  the  reign  of  lawyers  and  adventurers  was 
recommencing  in  the  Chambers,  and  that  of  Jacobins,  massacre  and  revo- 
lution in  the  metropolis. 

In  the  midst  of  this  confusion,  the  time  arrived  when  it  became  neces- 
sary for  Napoleon  to  take  command  of  the  army.  For  the  direction  of 
public  affairs  during  his  absence,  he  appointed  a  provisional  government, 
consisting  of  fourteen  persons,  namely:  his  brother  Joseph,  president, 
Lucien  Bonaparte,  Cambaceres,  Davoust,  Caulaincourt,  Fouche,  Carnot, 
Goudin,  Molliere.  Decres,  Regnaud  de  St.  Angely,  Boulay  de  Meurthe, 
Desermont  and  Merlin.  The  last  four,  though  not  holding  office  other- 
wise, were  admitted  to  the  council  by  reason  of  their  powers  of  oratory, 
and  the  consideration  they  enjoyed  with  the  popular  party.  The  actual 
power  of  this  council  rested  in  the  hands  of  Fouche  and  Carnot,  as  they 
alone  were  really  in  communication  with  the  influential  parties  of  the 
country.  Napoleon  well  knew  both  the  power  and  the  treachery  of 
Fouche,  but  he  did  not  venture  to  dismiss  or  punish  him.  Just  before  his 
departure,  however,  he  gained  some  information  relative  to  a  secret  dis- 
patch from  Metternich  to  the  minister  of  police  ;  and  the  messenger  who 
conveyed  it,  having  been  arrested,  revealed  various  important  details  Oi 
the  correspondence.  Napoleon  ordered  Fouche  to  be  sent  for,  charged 
him,  before  the  council,  with  being  a  traitor,  and  declared  that  he  should 
be  shot  the  next  morning.  Carnot  coolly  replied  to  this  threat,  "You  can 
shoot  Fouche  to-morrow,  but  when  he  dies,  your  own  power  is  annihilated." 
"  How  so  ?"  demanded  Napoleon.  "  This,  sire,"  said  Carnot,  "  is  no  time 

40* 


448  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLVIH 

tor  dissembling.  The  men  of  the  Revolution  allow  you  to  reign,  only 
because  they  believe  that  you  will  respect  their  rights.  If  you  destroy 
Fouche,  whom  they  regard  as  one  of  their  surest  guarantees,  you  will 
lose  their  support  and  cease  to  reign."  Here,  again,  Napoleon  was  forced 
to  yield ;  but,  before  leaving  Paris,  he  said  to  Fouche,  "  Like  all  other 
persons  who  are  ready  to  die,  we  have  nothing  to  conceal  from  each  other : 
if  I  fall,  the  patriots  fall  too;  you  will  play  your  game  ill,  if  you  betray 
me.  Your  party  will  perish  under  the  rule  of  the  Bourbons:  I  am  your 
last  dictator — remember  that." 

Wellington,  after  careful  deliberation,  resolved  to  invade  France  di- 
rectly from  Flanders,  between  the  Maine  and  the  Oise ;  but  in  order  to 
conceal  his  design,  he  recommended  that  the  Austrians  and  Russians 
should  first  cross  the  French  frontier  by  Befort  and  Huningen,  and  when 
this  was  accomplished,  that  the  British  and  Prussians  united,  should  march 
upon  Paris  by  Mons  and  Namur.  He  had  eighty  thousand  men  under  his 
orders,  and  Blucher  had  a  hundred  and  ten  thousand.  The  British  army 
was  composed  of  forty-six  thousand  native  troops,  fourteen  thousand  vete- 
rans of  Brunswick  and  Hanover,  and  twenty  thousand  fresh  levies,  en- 
tirely  inexperienced,  from  Hanover  and  Belgium.  Blucher's  forces  were 
principally  veterans,  of  one  nation,  inspired  with  the  strongest  hatred 
against  the  French,  and  filled  with  confidence  in  themselves  and  their 
commander. 

Napoleon's  plan  of  campaign  was  based  on  the  necessities  of  his  situ- 
ation, and  the  great  advantages  likely  to  result  from  a  decided  success 
in  the  outset.  He  had  a  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  men  under  his 
immediate  command,  all  chosen  veterans,  whom  the  peace  of  Paris  had 
liberated  from  the  various  countries  with  which  France  had  been  at  war, 
and  he  resolved  to  interpose  this  force  between  the  British  and  Prussian 
armies,  and  defeat  them  in  detail,  before  their  junction  should  render  them 
invincible. 

On  the  2nd  of  June,  Soult  was  appointed  major-general  of  the  army ; 
and  when  he  took  the  command,  he  issued  a  proclamation  that  contrasted 
strangely  with  the  one  he  had,  but  three  months  previously,  promulgated 
as  Minister  at  War  to  the  Bourbons.  Napoleon  left  Paris  at  one  o'clock 
in  the  morning  of  the  12th  of  June,  breakfasted  at  Soissons,  slept  at  Laon, 
and  arrived  at  Avesnes  on  the  13th.  He  found  his  army  concentrated 
between  the  Sambre  and  Philipville,  and  the  returns,  on  the  evening  of 
the  14th,  gave  a  hundred  and  twenty-two  thousand  men  present,  under 
arms.  The  camp  was  placed  behind  some  small  hills,  a  league  from  the 
frontier,  in  such  a  situation  as  to  be  screened  from  the  view  of  an  ap- 
proaching enemy.  The  arrival  of  the  Emperor  raised  the  spirit  of  the 
soldiers  to  the  very  highest  pitch;  and  of  this  army  it  may  be  truly  said, 
they  were  firmly  resolved  to  conquer  or  to  die. 

Wellington  and  Blucher  were  now  acting  on  secret  intelligence  which 
they  had  received  from  Fouche.  The  most  vigorous  measures  had  been 
adopted  by  Napoleon  to  prevent  any  communication  from  crossing  the 
frontier :  yet  Wellington  knew,  on  the  6th  of  June,  that  Napoleon  was 
expected  to  be  in  Laon  that  day ;  and,  in  consequence,  he  issued  orders  to 
declare  Antwerp,  Ypres,  Tournay,  Ath,  Mons  and  Ghent  in  a  state  of 
siege  the  moment  that  the  enemy  should  cross  the  frontier.  On  the  10th, 
the  British  commander  received  information — but  it  proved  to  be  prema- 
ture— that  Napoleon  had,  on  the  preceding  day,  reached  Maubeuge  with 


1815.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  44$ 

his  troops :  yet,  despite  the  supposed  proximity  of  such  a  leader  at  the 
head  of  such  an  army,  neither  Blucher  nor  Wellington  took  any  steps  to 
concentrate  their  forces ;  and  when  the  French  troops  crossed  the  fron- 
tier near  Fleurus  on  the  15th,  Wellington's  men  lay  in  cantonments  from 
the  Scheldt  to  Brussels,  and  Blucher's  extended  as  far  as  Namur.  This 
extraordinary  inactivity  would  be  both  indefensible  and  inexplicable,  but 
for  the  account  of  the  matter  given  by  Fouche  in  his  own  memoirs. 

That  unparalleled  intriguer,  who  had  been  in  constant  communication 
with  Wellington  and  Metternich  ever  since  Napoleon's  return  from  Elba, 
had  promised  to  furnish  the  British  commander  not  only  with  information 
as  to  the  precise  moment  when  the  French  would  commence  hostilities, 
but  also  with  a  detailed  plan  of  the  campaign.  Wellington  therefore  was 
in  hourly  expectation  of  this  intelligence,  and  quietly  awaited  its  arrival. 
Why  he  did  not  receive  it,  Fouche  himself  has  said :  "  My  agents  with 
Metternich  and  Lord  Wellington  had  promised  everything,  and  the  Eng- 
lish general  at  least  expected  I  would  give  him  the  plan  of  the  campaign. 
I  knew  that  Napoleon  would  attack  the  British  army  on  the  16th,  or,  at 
latest,  on  the  18th,  after  having  marched  right  over  the  Prussians.  He 
had  the  greater  reason  to  expect  success,  inasmuch  as  Wellington,  de- 
ceived by  false  reports,  believed  that  the  opening  of  the  campaign  might 
be  deferred  till  the  beginning  of  July.  Napoleon,  therefore,  trusted  to  a 
surprise,  and  I  arranged  my  plans  in  conformity.  On  the  day  of  his  de- 
parture, I  dispatched  Madame  D with  notes,  written  in  cipher,  con- 
taining the  whole  plan  of  the  campaign  :  but  at  the  same  time,  I  sent  such 
orders  to  the  frontier  as  would  prevent  her  reaching  Wellington's  head- 
quarter's  until  after  the  catastrophe.  This  is  the  true  explanation  of  the 
generalissimo's  inactivity,  which,  at  the  time,  excited  such  universal  as- 
tonishment." 

The  French  army  crossed  the  frontier  at  daybreak  on  the  15th,  and 
moved  upon  Charleroi.  The  Prussian  force,  which  occupied  that  town, 
evacuated  it  as  the  French  approached,  and  retired  to  Fleurus.  Thus, 
Napoleon's  first  object,  that  of  taking  his  enemy  by  surprise,  was  accom- 
plished, and  he  now  confidently  expected  to  separate  the  two  allied  armies. 
For  this  purpose,  he  dispatched  Ney  with  the  left  wing,  forty-six  thousand 
strong,  to  Quatre-Bras,  a  point  of  intersection  of  the  roads  from  and  to 
Brussels,  Nivelles,  Charleroi  and  Namur ;  while  he  himself,  with  seventy- 
two  thousand  men,  pushed  on  toward  Fleurus  to  assail  Blucher,  who  was 
concentrating  his  army  with  all  possible  haste,  and  falling  back  upon 
Ligny.  Wellington  received  intelligence  of  these  movements  at  Brussels 
on  the  evening  of  the  15th,  and  he  immediately  sent  orders  to  his  troops 
to  concentrate  at  Quatre-Bras. 

Blucher's  army,  excepting  the  fourth  corps  which  had  not  yet  come  up, 
arrayed  themselves,  on  the  16th,  on  the  heights  between  Brie  and  Som- 
bref,  and  strongly  occupied  the  villages  of  St.  Amand  and  Ligny  in  front. 
The  position  was  well  chosen.  The  villages  afforded  an  excellent  shelter 
to  the  troops,  while  the  artillery,  placed  on  a  semicircular  ridge,  between 
them,  commanded  the  entire  field,  and  the  elevation  in  the  rear,  sur- 
mounted by  the  windmill  of  Bussy,  formed  a  good  rallying  point  in  case 
of  disaster.  Blucher's  force,  in  the  absence  of  his  fourth  corps,  amounted 
to  eighty  thousand  men,  and  Napoleon's,  as  already  mentioned,  was 
seventy-two  thousand  strong.  The  orders  of  Napoleon  to  Ney  required 
that  marshal  to  move  early  in  the  morning,  and  occupy  Quatre-Bras  be- 


450  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XT,  VIII. 

fore  the  British  army  could  assemble  there,  and  thence  march  with  half 
of  his  men  upon  Brie,  so  as  to  fall  on  the  Prussian  rear.  His  own  attack 
in  front  was  to  be  delayed  until  he  heard  Ney's  guns  in  the  direction  of 
Brie  ;  he  therefore  waited  impatiently,  with  his  army  prepared  for  battle, 
until  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon :  but  up  to  that  hour  not  a  sound  was 
heard  from  the  rear,  although  a  loud  and  increasing  cannonade  in  the 
direction  of  Quatre-Bras,  told  clearly  that  a  desperate  engagement  was 
there  in  progress. 

At  four  o'clock  Napoleon,  fearing  that  Blucher's  fourth  corps,  under 
Bulow,  would  arrive,  gave  signal  for  battle.  He  made  the  first  demon- 
stration against  St.  Arnand  on  his  left,  and  this  village,  after  a  vigorous 
resistance,  was  carried  by  the  French  troops  under  Vandamme.  While 
Blucher's  attention  was  drawn  to  this  point,  Napoleon's  centre,  thirty 
thousand  strong,  advanced  suddenly  upon  Ligny  and  commenced  a  furious 
assault.  The  action  was  here  contested  with  the  most  determined  obsti- 
nacy. Three  times  successively  the  French  grenadiers  carried  the  vil- 
lage, and  three  times  the  Prussians  regained  it  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet. 
Each  column  of  attack  was  constantly  reenforced,  and  at  length  the 
combat  became  so  desperate,  that  neither  party  could  drive  back  its  an- 
tagonist, but  the  men  fought  hand  to  hand  in  the  streets  and  houses  with 
unconquerable  resolution.  At  seven  o'clock,  the  action  was  yet  unde- 
cided, and  Blucher,  in  the  meantime,  had  retaken  a  part  of  the  village  of 
St.  Amand. 

Blucher's  reserves  were  at  length  all  engaged,  and  his  situation  became 
critical ;  for  the  attack  of  the  French  centre  continued  with  undiminishing 
spirit,  and  neither  Bulow's  corps'  on  the  one  flank,  nor  the  British  succors 
on  the  other,  had  arrived  to  take  part  in  the  struggle.  Indeed,  the  leaders 
on  both  sides  began  to  look  eagerly  for  reinforcements,  for  Napoleon  at 
this  time,  declared  that  the  fate  of  France  depended  on  Ney's  obeying  the 
orders  he  had  received.  Soon  after  seven,  D'Erlon  appeared  on  the 
extreme  Prussian  right  with  a  part  of  Ney's  force ;  and  Napoleon,  now 
entirely  relieved,  brought  forward  his  reserve  for  a  decisive  attack  on  the 
centre.  Milhaud's  cuirassiers  advanced  at  a  gallop,  brandishing  their 
sabres  in  the  air  ;  the  artillery  under  Drouet  rapidly  followed,  and  behind 
them  came  a  dense  column  of  the  Old  Guard.  This  at'.ack,  supported 
by  D'Erlon's  charge  on  the  Prussian  right,  proved  decisive:  Blucher's 
infantry  began  to  retire;  the  village  of  Ligny  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
French,  and  in  the  confusion  of  a  retreat,  commenced  just  as  night  over- 
spread the  field,  the  Prussians  abandoned  several  pieces  of  artillery. 
Blucher  himself,  as  he  was  leading  on  a  body  of  cavalry  to  cover  his  re- 
tiring columns,  had  his  horse  shot  under  him,  and  he  lay  entangled  with 
his  dying  steed,  while  two  charges  of  the  French  cuirassiers  weie  made 
and  repulsed  over  the  spot  where  he  fell.  The  French  loss  in  this  battle 
was  nearly  seven  thousand  men,  and  that  of  the  Prussians  fifteen  thou- 
sand, besides  four  standards  and  twenty-one  pieces  of  cannon. 

A  desperate  action  had,  in  the  meantime,  been  fought  at  Quatre-Bras. 
About  twenty  thousand  British  troops,  in  obedience  to  Wellington's  orders, 
were  already  assembled  at  this  point,  when  Ney  approached  with  his  en- 
tire corps,  forty-six  thousand  strong.  Had  the  French  marshal  attacked 
with  his  whole  force,  he  must  inevitably  have  gained  a  decided  victory  ; 
but,  in  conformity  to  orders,  as  already  related,  he  detached  more  than 
half  his  troops  under  D'Erlon  to  the  aid  of  Napoleon  at  Ligny,  and 


UB15.J  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  451 

thereby,  for  the  time,  reduced  his  army  to  nearly  the  same  number  as  the 
allies  who  opposed  him.  The  battle  of  Quatre-Bras  continued  until 
nightfall,  when  Ney  retreated  to  Frasnes,  one  mile  in  the  rear,  and  the 
British,  wearied  with  marching  and  fighting  throughout  the  day,  did  not 
pursue,  but  bivouacked  on  the  field.  The  British  loss  in  this  action  was 
five  thousand  two  hundred  men,  and  that  of  the  French,  four  thousand 
one  hundred.  No  guns  and  few  prisoners  were  taken  on  either  side; 
and  the  fact  that  the  victors  suffered  more  than  the  vanquished,  was 
owing  to  the  want  of  artillery  on  the  part  of  the  former:  for,  as  the  Brit- 
ish hastened  to  Quatre-Bras  by  a  forced  march,  their  guns  could  not  be 
brought  forward  in  time  to  take  part  in  the  combat. 

During  the  night  of  the  16th,  intelligence  reached  Wellington  of  the 
defeat  of  the  Prussians  at  Ligny,  and  of  their  retreat  on  Wavre.  As 
this  retrograde  movement  of  his  allies  exposed  the  flank  of  his  columns, 
which  were  now  advanced  to  Quatre-Bras,  he  ordered  a  retreat  through 
Genappe  to  WATERLOO.  Napoleon  followed  with  the  principal  part  of 
his  army,  and  took  post  nearly  opposite  to  the  British  lines  on  both  sides 
of  the  high  road  leading  from  Charleroi  to  Brussels.  He  had  detached 
thirty-one  thousand  men  under  Grouchy  to  observe  Blucher,  who  was 
moving  toward  Wavre ;  and  this  deduction,  with  the  losses  in  the  actions 
of  the  preceding  day,  reduced  his  entire  force  to  eighty  thousand  men. 
Wellington's  troops,  also  reduced  by  the  action  at  Quatre-Bras,  and  by 
a  detachment  sent  to  Hal,  were  not  more  than  seventy-two  thousand 
strong  ;  they  were  also  inferior  to  the  enemy  in  artillery  and,  on  the  whole, 
in  their  quality  as  soldiers;  for  the  British  guns  amounted  to  but  a  hun- 
dred and  eighty-six,  while  the  French  had  two  hundred  and  fifty-two ; 
and  the  British  army  was  in  part  composed  of  fresh  Hanoverian  and  Bel- 
gian levies,  while  Napoleon's  men  were  all  native  veterans,  accustomed 
to  act  together  and  habituated  to  victory. 

The  field  of  Waterloo,  rendered  immortal  by  the  battle  now  about  to 
take  place,  extends  nearly  two  miles  in  length,  from  the  chateau,  garden, 
and  inclosures  of  Hougoumont  on  the  right,  to  the  extremity  of  the  hedge 
of  La  Haye  Sainte  on  the  left.  The  great  road  from  Brussels  to  Char- 
leroi runs  through  the  centre  of  the  field,  something  less  than  three-quar- 
ters of  a  mile  south  of  the  village  of  Waterloo,  and  three  hundred  yards 
in  front  of  the  farm-house  of  Mont  St.  Jean.  The  British  army  occupied 
the  crest  of  a  range  of  low  hills  crossing  the  high  road  at  right-angles, 
two  hundred  yards  in  the  rear  of  the  farm-house  of  La  Haye  Sainte, 
which  adjoins  the  road.  The  French  troops,  at  the  opposite  side  of  the 
valley,  were  posted  along  a  corresponding  line  of  hills,  stretching  on  either 
side  of  the  hamlet  of  La  Belle  Alliance.  The  summit  of  these  hills  af- 
forded an  excellent  position  for  the  French  artillery ;  but  their  attacking 
columns  while  marching  into  the  valley  and  ascending  from  it,  would 
necessarily  be  exposed  to  a  severe  cannonade  from  the  British  batteries. 

Wellington  had  stationed  General  Hill  with  seven  thousand  men  at  Hal, 
six  miles  on  the  right,  to  cover  the  road  from  Mons  to  Brussels ;  and  he 
dispatched  letters  to  Louis  XVIII.  at  Ghent,  early  on  the  morning  of  the 
18th,  recommr.nding  that  monarch  to  retire  to  Antwerp,  if  the  enemy's 
approach  should  expose  him  to  any  danger.  Blucher,  during  the  night 
of  the  17th,  sent  word  lo  Wellington  that  he  would  be  at  Waterloo,  not 
only  with  the  two  corps,  which  the  British  commander  had  requested,  but 
with  his  whole  army  :  he  further  promised  to  arrive  on  the  ground  by  one 


452  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLVIIL 

o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  and  fall  on  the  French  flank  after  the  battle  was 
fully  begun. 

The  allied  army  was  drawn  up  in  the  following  order  :  General  Byng's 
brigade  of  Guards  occupied  the  chateau,  walled  garden,  and  wood  of 
Hougoumont ;  a  battalion  of  the  King's  German  Legion  was  posted  at  the 
farm-house  of  La  Haye  Sainte  ;  the  divisions  of  Picton  and  Chiton  lay  on 
the  left  of  La  Haye  Sainte,  and  Cole's  division  with  the  Hanoverians, 
Brunswickers,  and  Belgians  stood  in  the  centre.  The  cavalry  was  in  the 
rear ;  and  the  artillery  was  placed  along  the  whole  front,  and  so  disposed 
as  to  command  the  open  field  between  the  two  armies.  The  French  can- 
non  were  in  like  manner  placed  on  the  summits  of  the  opposite  ridge, 
distant  nearly  three-quarters  of  a  mile  from  the  allied  line.  D'Erlon 
commanded  on  the  French  right ;  Reille  and  Foy,  in  the  centre  ;  and  Je- 
rome on  the  left  in  front  of  Hougoumont.  Ney  had  direction  of  the 
reserve  and  the  Old  Guard  in  the  rear. 

The  village  clock  of  Nivelles  was  striking  eleven,  when  the  first  gun 
was  fired  from  the  French  centre,  and  a  quick  rattle  of  musketry  followed 
as  Jerome,  with  a  column  six  thousand  strong,  advanced  upon  the  inclo- 
sures  of  Hougoumont.  The  English  light  troops  fought  bravely  in  the 
wood  where  they  were  posted,  and,  though  gradually  "driven  back,  con. 
tested  every  tree  and  bush  in  their  route.  The  assailants  at  length  car- 
ried the  wood  around  the  chateau  ;  but  the  garden  and  the  chateau  itself 
were  successfully  defended  against  every  attack,  although  a  battery  of 
howitzers  played  with  such  effect  on  the  building,  that  it  finally  took  fire 
and  burned  to  the  ground. 

While  this  contest  was  at  its  height,  a  dark  mass  appeared  through  the 
opening  of  a  wood  in  the  direction  of  St.  Lambert.  The  glasses  of  the 
officers  were  immediately  turned  in  that  direction  :  "I  think,"  said  Soult, 
"it  is  five  or  six  thousand  men;  probably  a  part  of  Grouchy's  corps." 
Napoleon  thought  otherwise  :  he  did  not  for  an  instant  doubt  that  the  troops 
were  Prussians.  Three  thousand  horse  were  detached  to  observe  this 
corps,  two  divisions  of  infantry  followed,  and  an  order  was  soon  after 
dispatched  to  Grouchy,  requiring  him  to  make  all  possible  haste  toward 
Waterloo.  The  cannonade  now  became  animated  along  the  whole  line  ; 
and  Ney  was  directed  to  lead  twenty  thousand  men  from  the  right  and 
centre  against  the  farm-house  of  La  Haye  Sainte  and  the  troops  on~  its  left, 
in  order  to  force  back  the  British  left  wing  and  interpose  between  it  and 
the  Prussians,  who  remained  stationary  in  the  wood  where  they  were  first 
discovered.  It  was  now  noon.  Ney  pushed  forward  his  batteries  to  the 
most  advanced  heights  on  the  French  side  of  the  field,  and  his  troops 
marched  to  the  attack  in  four  columns  :  D'Erlon's  men  on  the  right  moved 
against  the  hedge  of  La  Haye  Sainte,  Ney  led  the  centre  upon  the  farm- 
house, and  large  masses  of  cavalry  followed  to  improve  any  advantage 
gained  by  the  infantry  and  artillery. 

Wellington  made  immediate  preparations  to  resist  this  formidable  move- 
ment. He  ordered  up  Sir  William  Ponsonby's  brigade  of  horse,  consisting 
of  the  Scotch  Grays,  Queen's  Bays,  and  Enniskillens,  to  the  rear  of 
Picton's  division,  and  stationed  Vandeleur's  brigade  of  light  cavalry  on  the 
left.  A  Belgian  brigade  formed  the  first  line,  but  this  speedily  gave  way 
before  the  French  onset ;  and  D'Erlon's  troops,  bravely  sustaining  a  heavy 
discharge  of  musketry  and  artillery,  pressed  on  until  they  came  within 
twenty  yards  of  the  British  line.  Here  they  halted;  and,  for  a  time,  a 


1815.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  453 

murderous  fire  was  maintained  on  both  sides.  Picton  presently  directed 
Pack's  brigade,  from  the  rear,  to  fall  upon  the  French  line,  which  it  did 
with  such  impetuosity  that  the  enemy  broke  and  recoiled  in  great  disorder. 
At  this  moment,  Picton  was  shot  dead  with  a  musket  ball,  and  Kempt, 
taking  the  command,  ordered  a  charge  of  cavalry  on  D'Erlon's  retreating 
column.  The  shock  of  this  charge  was  irresistible :  in  a  few  seconds  the 
whole  mass  was  pierced  through,  the  soldiers  fell  on  their  faces  and  called 
for  quarter,  and  two  thousand  prisoners,  with  two  eagles,  were  taken. 
Ponsonby's  victorious  cavalry,  supported  by  Vandeleur's  light  horse,  next 
ruehed  on  a  battery  of  D'Erlon's  guns,  consisting  of  twenty-four  pieces, 
and  carried  them  almost  instantly ;  and,  still  pressing  forward,  they  attacked 
a  third  line  of  artillery  and  lancers,  and  again  they  were  triumphant. 
Napoleon,  who  anxiously  watched  this  onset,  exclaimed  to  Lacoste,  his 
Belgian  guide,  "  How  terribly  those  gray  horsemen  fight !"  He  then  com- 
manded Milhaud's  cuirassiers  to  charge  Ponsonby's  brigade ;  and  these 
fresh  troops,  clad  in  steel  armor,  readily  overthrew  the  now  exhausted 
cavalry.  Ponsonby  himself  was  killed  in  the  retreat,  and  hardly  a  fifth 
part  of  his  men  regained  their  lines  ;  but  a  similar  body  of  horse  has  sel- 
dom achieved  such  success  on  the  field  :  for  they  not  only  destroyed  a 
column  five  thousand  strong  and  made  two  thousand  prisoners,  but  they 
carried  and  rendered  useless  for  the  remainder  of  the  day  no  less  than 
eighty  pieces  of  cannon. 

In  this  contest,  Ney  lost  all  his  artillery;  one  of  his  columns  was 
destroyed,  and  another  driven  back  in  confusion.  Napoleon,  however, 
ordered  forward  fresh  columns  from  the  centre,  and  the  farm-house  of 
La  Haye  Sainte  was  enveloped  by  twenty  thousand  men.  The  Hanove- 
rians of  the  King's  German  Legion,  three  hundred  and  eighty  in  number, 
maintained  themselves  for  a  time  against  this  overwhelming  host,  but  the 
gates  were  at  last  forced  open  and  the  men  nearly  all  put  to  death.  Having 
thus  carried  the  advanced  post  of  the  British  position,  Napoleon  ordered 
Ney  to  move  forward  his  columns,  supported  by  a  brigade  of  cuirassiers 
against  the  centre.  The  strife  now  recommenced  with  great  fury  ;  but  at 
length  the  French  infantry  were  entirely  repulsed,  and  the  cuirassiers 
destroyed  almost  to  a  man.  Nevertheless,  Napoleon  would  not  yet  aban 
don  his  project  of  breaking  the  British  centre  ;  he  therefore  ordered  his 
light  cavalry  to  renew  the  attack,  and  such  was  the  ardor  of  the  French 
horsemen,  many  of  the  reserve  brigades  followed  without  orders,  and  in  a 
short  time  all  the  Emperor's  cavalry  and  cuirassiers  precipitated  them- 
selves upon  the  allied  lines.  The  British  infantry,  formed  in  squares, 
received  the  charge  of  twelve  thousand  Imperial  hors^  without  wavering; 
and  they  steadily  repelled  every  attempt  of  the  cuirassiers  to  disorder 
their  ranks,  while  a  storm  of  musketry  from  the  centre  of  those  immovable 
squares  swept  off  their  frantic  assailants  with  a  frightful  slaughter. 

During  this  terrible  struggle  in  front  of  Mont  St.  Jean  and  around  La 
Haye  Sainte,  Blucher  was  pressing  forward  toward  the  field  of  battle ; 
but  the  bad  state  of  the  roads  so  impeded  his  route,  that  Bulow,  who  led 
the  advanced  guard,  did  not  emerge  from  the  wood  until  half-past  four 
o'clock.  Then,  however,  he  appeared  at  the  head  of  sixteen  thousand 
men,  who,  marching  in  echelon,  fell  with  their  front  and  centre  perpen- 
dicularly on  the  French  flank.  As  it  was  of  vital  consequence  to  Napo- 
leon to  prevent  the  confusion  that  must  ensue  from  any  disaster  in  this 
quarter,  he  sent  forward  two  powerful  detachments  of  the  Young  and  Old 


454  HISTORY     OF    EUROPE.  ,CHAP.  XLVIII. 

Guard  ;  and  after  some  desperate  fighting  Bulow  was  forced  back  into  the 
wood,  where  he  awaited  the  arrival  of  Blucher  with  the  main  body  of  the 
Prussian  army. 

Although  Napoleon  had  thus  for  a  time  secured  his  flank,  he  knew  that 
it  would  soon  be  assailed  by  a  larger  force ;  he  therefore  resolved  to  make 
a  final  and  decisive  attack  on  the  British  centre  before  the  remainder  of 
the  Prussians  could  come  up.  For  this  purpose,  he  divided  the  Imperial 
Guard  into  two  columns,  which,  marching  from  different  parts  of  the  field, 
were  to  unite  on  the  designated  point,  midway  between  La  Haye  Sainte 
and  the  inclosures  of  Hougoumont.  Reille  headed  the  first  column ;  Ney, 
the  second  ;  and  Napoleon  accompanied  the  latter  a  part  of  the  way,  to 
encourage  the  men  by  personal  appeals  to  their  courage  and  loyalty. 

Reille  led  his  column  to  the  attack  at  a  quarter  past  seven  o'clock  ;  but 
the  concentric  fire  of  the  British  artillery  swept  down  the  assailants  with 
such  slaughter  that,  though  constantly  advancing  from  the  rear,  they  could 
not  gain  one  foot  of  ground  beyond  the  prescribed  range  of  the  British 
guns.  Presently,  Ney's  masses  came  on  at  a  rapid  pace  :  the  veterans 
of  Wagram  and  Austerlitz  were  thsre ;  they  had  decided  every  previous 
battle,  and  no  force  on  earth  seemed  capable  of  withstanding  them.  As 
Ney  was  cheering  them  forward,  his  horse,  struck  by  a  cannon  shot,  fell 
dead  under  him  ;  but  he  bravely  continued  his  course  on  foot,  pointing  with 
his  drawn  sabre  toward  the  enemy's  ranks. 

The  impulse  of  this  charge  was  at  first  irresistible  :  the  artillery  drew 
back,  and  the  French  grenadiers  dashed  onward,  in  full  confidence  of 
victory,  to  within  forty  paces  of  the  British  infantry — who,  to  avoid  the 
fire  of  Napoleon's  cannon,  were  lying  on  their  faces,  by  the  side  of  the 
road  that  runs  along  the  summit  of  the  ridge.  "  Up.  Guards,  and  at  them  f" 
cried  Wellington,  at  this  critical  instant.  The  British  soldiers  sprang  to 
their  feet,  poured  in  one  deadly  volley  upon  the  advancing  column,  and 
rushed  forward  with  levelled  bayonets.  The  Imperial  Guard  hesitated — 
wavered — broke — and  a  squadron  of  British  dragoons,  following  up  the 
charge  of  the  victorious  infantry,  drove  the  disordered  mass  headlong  down 
the  hill. 

From  morning  till  night  of  this  eventful  day,  the  British  squares  had 
stood  as  if  rooted  to  the  earth,  enduring  every  loss  and  repelling  every 
attack  with  unparalleled  fortitude  :  but  the  hour  of  victory  came  at 
last.  As  Ney's  broken  column  fled  toward  the  valley,  Wellington  caught 
sight  of  Blucher's  standards  in  the  wood  beyond  Ohain,  and  he  at  once 
commanded  all  his  troops  to  advance  in  the  order  in  which  they  stood  ; 
the  British  in  line,  f<jur  deep ;  the  Germans  and  Belgians,  partly  in  col- 
umn  and  partly  in  square.  At  the  same  moment,  Bulow's  and  Zeithen's 
corps  of  Prussians,  thirty-six  thousand  strong,  emerged  entirely  from  the 
wood,  and  pressing  on  in  double-quick  time,  joined  the  attack.  Despair 
now  seized  upon  the  French  soldiers :  they  saw  that  all  was  lost,  and 
horse,  foot,  and  artillery,  fled  tumultuously  to  the  rear. 

Napoleon  had  intently,  though  with  perfect  calmness,  watched  the  pro- 
gress of  Ney's  column,  as  it  rushed  up  the  hill  for  the  final  charge ;  but 
when  his  veteran  Guards  faltered  and,  in  the  next  instant,  the  British 
cavalry  swept  through  their  ranks,  he  turned  deadly  pale,  and  remarked 
to  the  guide,  "  They  are  mingled  together  !"  The  rapid  approach  of  the 
British  and  Prussian  cavalry  soon  rendered  it  necessary  for  him  to  retire ; 
and  he  turned  to  Bertrand,  saying,  "It  is  all  over  for  the  present.  Let 


1815-]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  455 

us  save  ourselves!"  He  then  fled  across  the  fields  in  great  naste,  accom- 
panied only  by  a  few  followers.  Meantime,  the  Old  Guard,  disdaining 
to  retreat,  threw  themselves  into  four  large  squares,  and  strove  to  stem 
the  tide  of  disorder.  But  their  heroic  efforts  were  vain.  The  British 
cavalry  charged  their  flanks  ;  the  mass  of  French  fugitives  overwhelmed 
their  front  and  prevented  their  firing,  and  in  a  few  minutes  they  were 
broken,  cut  down,  and  made  prisoners,  with  their  generals  Duhesme, 
Lobau  and  Cambronne.  All  resistance  now  ceased,  and  Blucher  ordered 
every  man  in  his  army  to  join  the  pursuit,  which  continued  during  the 
whole  night.  Nine  several  times  the  exhausted  French  soldiers  tried  to 
form  bivouacs,  but  each  time  they  were  roused  by  the  Prussian  trumpets 
and  forced  to  continue  their  flight :  the  greater  part  of  the  foot  soldiers 
threw  away  their  arms,  and  the  cavalry,  entirely  dispersed,  rode  for  life 
across  the  country. 

•  While  this  terrible  battle  was  in  progress,  Marshal  Grouchy  had  been 
engaged  with  Thielman's  Prussians,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Wavre.  At 
noon-day,  he  distinctly  heard  the  cannon  of  Wellington's  and  Napoleon's 
armies,  and  he  was  strongly  urged  by  his  officers  to  hasten  to  Waterloo ; 
but  his  orders  were  precise,  and  he  refused  to  move.  At  five  o'clock, 
however,  a  dispatch  was  brought  to  him  from  Soult,  enjoining  him  to 
march  upon  St.  Lambert,  where  Bulow's  corps  had  assumed  a  menacing 
attitude ;  but  it  was  then  too  late  to  render  any  efficient  aid  to  Napoleon. 
In  the  morning  of  the  19th,  he  received  intelligence  of  the  Emperor's 
defeat,  accompanied  by  an  order  to  fall  back  on  Laon,  which  he  accord- 
ingly did,  with  his  entire  force,  thirty-two  thousand  strong. 

The  loss  of  the  allies  in  the  battle  of  Waterloo  was  about  twenty  thou- 
sand men ;  and  that  of  the  French — in  killed,  wounded,  prisoners,  and 
deserters — at  least  forty  thousand,  including  two  hundred  and  twenty-five 
pieces  of  cannon :  indeed,  after  the  troops  had  crossed  the  Sambre  and 
regained  their  own  country,  they  became  desperate,  sold  their  arms  and 
horses,  and  dispersed  to  such  a  degree  that  they  could  never  again  be 
assembled  together  in  the  field. 

Napoleon  reached  Paris  at  four  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  the  21st  of 
June.  He  immediately  sent  for  Caulaincourt,  but  his  agitation  was  so 
extreme  that  he  could  hardly  speak.  "  The  army,"  said  he,  "  has  per- 
formed prodigies,  but  a  sudden  panic  seized  the  men  and  all  is  lost.  Ney 
conducted  himself  like  a  madman.  I  can  do  no  more.  I  must  have  a 
warm  bath  and  two  hours  of  repose,  before  I  can  attend  to  business." 
After  he  had  taken  the  bath  he  became  more  collected,  and  spoke  with 
anxiety  of  the  Chambers — insisting  that  a  dictatorship  alone  could  save 
the  country,  and  saying  that  although  he  would  not  seize  it,  he  hoped  the 
Chambers  would  offer  it  to  him.  "  I  have  no  longer  an  army,"  he  added; 
"  they  are  but  a  set  of  fugitives :  I  may  find  men,  but  how  shall  I  arm 
them  ?  I  have  no  muskets.  Nothing  but  a  dictatorship  can  save  the 
country."  The  Deputies,  however,  had  resolved  on  a  different  policy 
Carnot  and  Lucien  urged  a  dictatorship ;  but  Fouche,  La  Fayette,  Dupia 
and  other  leaders  of  the  popular  party  entered  into  a  coalition  to  establish 
the  absolute  sovereignty  ofvthe  National  Assembly.  "  The  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives," said  La  Fayette,  "  declares  that  the  independence  of  the  na- 
tion is  menaced.  The  Chamber  declares  its  sittings  permanent.  Every 
attempt  to  dissolve  it  is  declared  high  treason.  The  National  Guards 
have,  for  six-and-twenty  years,  preserved  the  internal  peace  of  the  country 

31 


456  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLVIII. 

and  the  persons  of  its  representatives ;  and  the  means  of  increasing  the 
numbers  of  that  force  must  be  now  considered."  This  resolution  was 
carried  by  acclamation,  whereupon  Lucien  accused  La  Fayette  of  ingrat- 
itude to  Napoleon.  "  I  wanting  in  gratitude  to  Napoleon !"  exclaimed 
La  Fayette,  indignantly :  "  do  you  know  what  we  have  done  for  him  ? 
Have  you  forgotten  that  the  bones  of  our  brothers  and  our  children  every- 
where attest  our  fidelity  to  him — amid  the  sands  of  Africa — on  the  shores  of 
the  Guadalquiver  and  the  Tagus — on  the  banks  of  the  Vistula,  and  in 
the  frozen  deserts  of  Muscovy  ?  Three  millions  of  Frenchmen  have  per. 
ished  for  one  man,  who  still  wishes  to  fight  the  combined  powers  of  Eu- 
rope. We  have  done  enough  for  Napoleon  ;  let  us  now  try  to  save  our 
country." 

A  commission  of  five  of  Napoleon's  political  opponents  was  appointed, 
to  confer  with  two  committees  from  the  Peers  and  Council  of  State  on  the 
measures  required  by  the  emergency  ;  and,  after  a  brief  adjournment,  the 
Chamber  resumed  its  sittings  in  the  evening.  The  call  for  Napoleon's 
abdication  now  became  universal.  "  I  propose,"  said  General  Solignac, 
that  a  committee  wait  on  the  Emperor  for  his  immediate  decision."  "Let 
us  delay  an  hour,"  cried  Lucien.  "  An  hour,  but  no  more,"  replied  So- 
lignac." "  If  the  answer  is  not  returned  at  that  time,"  said  La  Fayette, 
"  I  will  move  for  his  dethronement." 

When  Lucien  went  with  this  commission  to  Napoleon,  he  found  him 
in  the  utmost  agitation,  debating  with  himself,  whether  to  commit  suicide 
or  to  dissolve  the  Chambers  by  force.  Lucien  told  him  distinctly,  that  he 
must  either  abdicate,  or  dismiss  the  Chambers  and  seize  the  supreme  power; 
and  recommended  him  to  adopt  the  latter  course.  On  the  other  hand, 
Maret  and  Caulaincourt  advised  the  abdication.  "  The  Chamber,"  said 
Napoleon,  "  is  composed  of  Jacobins,  of  madmen,  who  wish  for  power  and 
disorder :  I  ought  to  have  denounced  them  and  drove  them  from  their 
places.  Dethrone  me  !  They  dare  not  do  it !"  "  In  an  hour,"  replied 
Regnaud  de  St.  Angely,  "  your  dethronement,  on  the  motion  of  La  Fay- 
ette, will  be  irrevocably  pronounced  :  they  have  given  you  only  an  hour's 
grace — do  you  hear?  Only  an  hour."  Napoleon  turned  to  Fouche  and 
said  with  a  bitter  smile,  "  Write  to  the  gentlemen  to  keep  themselves  quiet : 
they  shall  be  satisfied."  Fouche  wrote  accordingly,  that  the  Emperor 
was  about  to  abdicate,  and  the  intelligence  "excited  the  liveliest  joy  among 
the  Deputies.  The  abdication  was  presently  drawn  and  signed  by  Na- 
poleon, in  these  words :  "  In  commencing  the  war  to  sustain  the  national 
independence,  I  counted  on  the  union  of  all  efforts,  of  all  inclinations,  and 
of  all  the  public  authorities.  I  had  good  reason  to  hope  for  success,  and 
I  braved  all  the  declarations  of  the  allied  powers  against  me.  Circum- 
stances now  appear  to  be  changed,  and  I  offer  myself  as  a  sacrifice  to  the 
hatred  of  the  enemies  of  France.  May  they  prove  sincere  in  their  de- 
clarations, and  direct  their  hostility  against  myself  alone  !  My  political 
life  is  ended ;  and  I  proclaim  my  son  Emperor  of  the  French  with  the  title 
of  Napoleon  the  Second.  The  existing  ministers  will  form  the  council 
of  government.  The  interest  which  I  feel  for  my  son  induces  me  to  in- 
vite  the  Chambers  to  appoint  a  regency  without  delay.  Let  all  unite  for 
the  public  safety  and  the  maintenance  of  the  national  independence." 

A  stormy  scene  ensued  in  the  Chamber  of  Peers  when  Lucien,  Labe- 
doyere,  arid  Count  Flahault  advocated  the  claim  of  the  young  Napoleon. 
Davoust  read  an  exaggerated  report  on  the  military  resources  of  France. 


1815.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  457 

and  Carnot  commenced  a  set  speech  based  on  Davoust's  statements,  when 
Ney,  who  had  just  arrived  from  Waterloo,  rushed  in  and  interrupted  him: 
"  That  is  false  !  it  is  all  false  !"  said  he.  "  The  enemy  is  everywhere 
victorious.  We  can  never  again  collect  sixty  thousand  men.  Welling- 
ton is  at  Nivelles  with  eighty  thousand,  and  Blucher  is  following  with  as 
many  more  :  in  six  or  seven  days  they  will  be  at  our  gates."  Neverthe- 
less, Lucien  and  his  partisans  proclaimed  Napoleon  the  Second,  and  en- 
deavored to  gain  the  votes  of  the  Peers  in  his  favor ;  but  the  members 
adapted  a  middle  course,  and  appointed  Fouche,  Caulaincourt,  Quenett, 
Carnot  and  Grenier,  to  carry  on  the  government. 

The  affairs  of  France,  however,  were  not  to  be  decided  by  debates  in 
the  Chambers :  an  overwhelming  foreign  force  was  at  hand,  and  every- 
thing depended  on  negotiation  with  the  allied  generals,  and  on  the  meas- 
ures that  might  be  undertaken  to  defend  the  capital.  Carnot  made  great 
exertions  to  strengthen  the  defence  of  Paris  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Seine, 
and  in  a  speech,  on  the  2nd  of  July,  endeavored  to  show  that  resistance  was 
yet  practicable.  But  Soult  and  Massena  declared  that  the  city  could  not 
be  defended ;  and  a  commission  of  all  the  marshals  and  military  men  in 
the  capital,  to  whom  the  matter  was  referred,  unanimously  pronounced  a 
similar  decision.  A  capitulation  was,  therefore,  concluded  with  the  allied 
generals  on  the  3rd  of  July,  which  stipulated  that  the  French  troops  should, 
on  the  4th,  commence  the  evacuation  of  Paris :  that  they  should  carry 
with  them  their  arms,  artillery,  caissons  and  personal  effects :  that  within 
eight  days,  they  should.be  withdrawn  to  the  south  of  the  Loire  :  that  pri- 
vate and  public  property,  except  that  of  a  warlike  character,  should  be 
preserved  sacred.  The  terms  of  the  capitulation  embraced  many  other 
points,  and  among  them  was  this,  which  acquired  a  painful  interest  by  the 
event  that  followed  :  "  Individual  persons  and  property  shall  be  respected ; 
and,  in  general,  all  persons  at  present  in  the  capital,  shall  continue  to  en- 
joy their  rights  and  liberties,  without  being  disquieted  or  prosecuted  in 
regard  to  the  functions  they  exercise  or  may  have  exercised,  or  to  their 
political  opinions  or  conduct."  On  the  7th  of  July,  the  allied  armies  took 
possession  of  Paris,  entering  by  the  barrier  of  Neuilly :  the  British  en- 
camped in  the  Bois  de  Boulogne,  ard  the  Prussians  bivouacked  in  the 
churches,  on  the  quays,  and  along  the  principal  streets.  On  the  8th,  Louis 
XVIII.,  who  had  followed  in  the  rear  of  the  British  army  from  Ghent, 
made  his  public  entrance  into  the  capital,  escorted  by  the  National  Guard. 

The  allied  sovereigns  had  already  determined,  that  they  would  no 
longer  recognize  Napoleon  as  a  crowned  head,  nor  suffer  him  to  remain 
in  Europe ;  and  that  his  residence,  wherever  it  was,  should  be  under  such 
supervision  and  restriction,  as  effectually  to  prevent  his  again  breaking 
loose  to  desolate  the  world.  He  was  himself  anxious  to  embark  foi 
America,  and  the  provisional  government  did  everything  in  its  power  to 
facilitate  his  journey.  After  a  melancholy  sojourn  of  six  days  at  Mal- 
maison,  JNrapoleon  set  out  for  Rochefort  with  a  train  of  carriages,  contain- 
ing  whatever  valuables  he  could  collect  from  the  palaces  within  his  reach, 
and  arrived  at  that  port  on  the  3rd  of  July.  But  he  found  that  the  block- 
ade of  the  English  cruisers  was  too  vigilant  to  permit  his  escape  from 
Rochefort  by  sea ;  and,  after  ten  days  of  vacillation,  during  which  every 
possible  project  for  flight  was  canvassed,  he  resolved  to  throw  himself  on 
the  generosity  of  the  British  government.  He  therefore,  on  the  13th  of 
July,  sent  to  Captain  Maitland,  of  the  English  frigate  Bellerophon,  the 


458  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XLVIII. 

following  letter  addressed  to  the  Prince  Regent:  "Exposed  to  the  factions 
which  divide  my  country,  and  to  the  hostility  of  the  great  powers  of 
Europe,  I  have  terminated  my  political  career;  and  I  come,  like  Themis- 
tocles,  to  seat  myself  by  the  hearth  of  the  British  people.  I  put  myself 
under  the  protection  of  their  laws  ;  and  claim  it  from  your  royal  highness 
as  the  most  powerful,  the  most  constant,  and  the  most  generous  of  my 
enemies."  On  the  14th,  he  embarked  on  board  the  Bellerophon,  and  was 
received  with  the  honors  due  to  his  rank  as  a  general  by  Captain  Maitland, 
who  immediately  set  sail  with  his  prisoner  for  England. 

Had  the  British  ministers  been  acting  alone  in  regard  to  Napoleon,  this 
event  might  have  thrown  them  into  great  embarrassment — for  a  more 
touching  appeal  was  never  made  to  the  humanity  of  a  great  nation.  But 
Britain  was  a  single  power  of  a  great  alliance  in  which  all  the  parties 
acted  together.  The  ascendency  of  Napoleon  over  his  troops  had  recently 
been  evinced  in  a  manner  so  striking,  and  his  disregard,  for  the  solemn 
obligation  of  treaties  was  so  notorious,  it  was  obviously  out  of  the  question 
to  think  of  suffering  him  to  remain  in  Europe.  The  English  cabinet 
therefore,  courteously,  but  firmly  informed  him,  that  the  determination  of 
the  allied  sovereigns  was  *inal.  and  that  he  must  be  removed  to  St.  Helena. 
Napoleon  vehemently  pretested  against  this  measure,  and  alleged  that 
it  was  a  breach  of  the  understanding  on  which  he  had  surrendered  him- 
self  to  Captain  Maitland :  although  in  fact  he  made  no  terms  with  that 
officer,  and  had  no  claim,  except  on  the  generosity  of  the  British  govern- 
ment. After  remaining  a  fortnight  in  Plymouth  Roads,  he  was  taken  on 
board  the  Northumberland  and  set  sail  for  St.  Helena,  where  he  arrived 
on  the  16th  of  October. 

Paris  presented  a  melancholy  aspect  after  the  return  of  Louis  XVIII. 
The  charm  of  the  Revolution,  even  to  the  Royalists,  was  gone.  Strong 
bodies  of  infantry  and  artillery  occupied  the  bridges,  and  all  the  principal 
points  of  the  town.  Detachments  of  cavalry  patrolled  every  street,  and 
the  reality  of  subjugation  was  present  to  every  eye.  Blucher  kept  aloof 
from  the  court,  and  haughtily  demanded  a  contribution  of  a  hundred  mil- 
lions  of  francs  for  the  pay  of  his  troops,  as  Napoleon  had  done  after  the 
capture  of  Berlin.  The  Prussian  soldiers,  too,  insisted  on  destroying  the 
pillar  of  Austerlit?.,  as  Napoleon  had  destroyed  the  pillar  of  Rosbach ; 
and  Blueher  was  so  bent  upon  demolishing  the  bridge  of  Jena,  that  he  had 
actually  run  mines  beneath  its  arches.  A  negotiation  ensued  between 
him  and  Wellington  on  this  subject,  and  the  bridge  was  preserved  at  last 
only  by  Wellington's  placing  a  sentinel  on  it,  and  declaring  that  if  it  were 
blown  up,  he  would  consider  the  act  as  a  rupture  with  Great  Britain,  and 
govern  himself  accordingly.  The  Prussian  officers  and  soldiers  assumed 
a  rude  and  harsh  deportment,  and  beyond  the  limits  of  Paris  they  indulged 
in  every  kind  of  pillage — not  because  they  were  naturally  fierce  or  un- 
generous, but  the  opportunity  to  revenge,  in  part,  the  deep  injuries  .their 
country  had  sustained  at  the  hands  of  Napoleon,  was  too  tempting  to  be 
resisted. 

When  the  allied  sovereigns  arrived  in  Paris,  they  insisted  on  restoring 
to  the  several  states,  whence  they  had  been  pillaged  by  Bonaparte,  the 
valuable  curiosities  and  works  of  art  in  the  Museum  of  the  Louvre.  The 
Justice  of  this  demand  could  not  be  contested  :  it  was  only  wresting  booty 
from  the  robber.  Talleyrand,  who  had  resumed  his  functions  as  Minister 
of  Foreign  Affairs,  appealed  to  the  article  in  the  capitulation  of  Paris, 


1815.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  459 

which  guarantied  the  safety  of  public  and  private  propeity :  but  it  was 
justly  replied,  that  these  objects  of  art,  seized  contrary  to  the  law  ;>f  na- 
tions, could  not  be  regarded  as  the  property  of  France.  The  restitution 
was  therefore  resolved  on  and  commenced  forthwith  under  the  care  of  the 
British  and  Prussian  troops,  who  occupied  the  Place  du  Carrousel  during 
the  time  of  the  removal. 

The  breaking  up  of  the  National  Museum  was  an  ominous  event  to 
France,  for  the  neighboring  powers  had  territories,  as  well  as  pictures,  to 
reclaim ;  and  the  spirit  of  conquest  and  revenge  loudly  demanded  the 
cession  of  many  provinces  which  had  been  added  by  the  Bourbon  princes 
to  the  monarchy  of  Clovis.  Austria  claimed  Lorraine  and  Alsace  ;  Spain, 
the  Basque  Provinces ;  Prussia,  Mayence,  Luxemburg,  and  the  frontier 
districts  adjoining  her  territory  ;  and  the  King  of  the  Netherlands,  all  the 
French  fortresses  on  the  Flemish  boundaries.  The  negotiations  on  these 
points  were  protracted  at  Paris  until  late  in  the  autumn  ;  at  length,  how- 
ever, in  November,  1815,*«the  second  treaty  of  Paris  was  concluded. 

By  this  treaty,  France  was  restricted  to  her  limits  as  they  stood  in 
1790  ;  and  therefore  lost,  of  what  had  been  conceded  to  her  by  the  treaty  of 
1814,  the  fortresses  of  Landau,  Sarre-Louis,  Philipville,  and  Marienburg, 
with  their  adjacent  territories.  Versoix,  with  a  small  district  around  it, 
was  given  to  the  Canton  of  Geneva ;  the  fortress  of  Huningen  was  to  be 
demolished,  and  France  retained  the  county  of  Venaisin,  the  first  conquest 
of  the  Revolution.  Seven  hundred  millions  of  francs  were  to  be  paid  to 
the  great  allied  powers,  and  one  hundred  millions  to  the  lesser  powers,  for 
the  expenses  of  the  war ;  and,  in  addition  to  this,  one  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  allied  troops  were  to  occupy,  for  a  period  not  less  than  three  nor 
more  than  five  years,  all  the  frontier  fortresses  of  France,  from  Cambray  to 
Fort  Louis  ;  including  Valenciennes,  Quesnoi,  Maubeuge,  and  Landrecy, 
and  to  be  supported  entirely  at  the  expense  of  the  French  government. 
The  different  powers  were  also  to  be  indemnified  for  spoliations  suffered 
during  the  Revolution,  to  the  amount  of  seven  hundred  and  thirty-five 
millions  of  francs.  Great  Britain  relinquished  her  share  of  the  indem- 
nity, amounting  to  nearly  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  millions  of  francs, 
in  favor  of  the  King  of  the  Netherlands. 

The  allied  powers  had  been  irritated  beyond  endurance  at  the  treachery 
of  the  whole  French  army,  on  the  return  of  Napoleon  from  Elba  ;  and 
they  insisted  peremptorily,  that  the  new  government  should  adopt  some 
measures  of  severity  toward  ihe  guilty  leaders.  They  at  first  rendered 
a  long  list  of  proscriptions,  which  was  finally  reduced  to  fifty-eight  per- 
sons to  be  banished,  and  three  to  be  executed.  Ney,  Labedoyere,  and 
Lavalette,  were  selected  for  the  latter  fate  ;  and  were  accordingly  brought 
to  trial  and  convicted,  on  the  clearest  evidence,  of  high  treason.  Lava- 
lette was  saved  by  the  heroic  devotion  of  his  wife,  who  visited  and  ex- 
changed dresses  with  him  in  prison :  but  the  other  two  were  shot. 

The  guilt  of  Ney  was  obvious ;  and  probably  the  penalty  of  the  law 
was  never  inflicted  on  one  who  more  richly  deserved  his  fate ;  but  another 
question  arises  :  was  he  not  protected  by  the  capitulation  of  Paris  ?  An 
article  of  that  compact,  as  already  quoted,  declared  that  all  persons  then 
in  Paris  should  enjoy  their  rights  and  liberties,  without  molestation  for  their 
past  political  opinions  or  conduct ;  and  as  Ney  was  at  that  time  in  Paris, 
it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  protection  extended  to  him.  It  is  true,  an 
example  was  required ;  and  equally  true  that  Ney's  treason  was  more 

41* 


460  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  [CHAP.  XL  VIII. 

flagrant  than  that  of  any  other  man ;  but  these  facts  do  not  justify  the 
breach  of  a  capitulation.  The  very  time,  above  all  others,  for  justice  to 
interpose,  is  when  public  interest  or  state  necessity  is  urgent  on  the  on9 
hand,  and  an  unprotected  criminal  exists  on  the  other. 

Another  of  the  paladins  of  the  French  Empire  perished  not  long  after, 
under  circumstances  to  which  the  most  fastidious  sense  of  justice  can 
take  no  exception.  Murat,  tormented  with  the  thirst  for  power,  and  eager 
to  regain  his  dominions,  was  fool-hardy  enough  to  make  a  descent  on  the 
coast  of  Naples,  with  a  few  followers,  in  order  to  excite  a  revolt  against 
the  Bourbon  government.  He  was  seized,  tried  by  a  military  commission, 
and  shot. 

Napoleon  did  not  long  survive  his  old  companions  in  arms.  Although 
subjected  to  little  restraint  in  St.  Helena,  permitted  to  ride  over  the  island, 
and  enjoy  a  degree  of  comfort  and  luxury  that  bore  a  striking  contrast  to 
the  severity  with  which  he  had  treated  state  prisoners ;  his  spirit  chafed 
against  the  coercion  of  being  confined  at  all.  ^Nevertheless,  it  was  indis- 
pensable to  the  peace  of  the  world,  that  his  escape  should  be  prevented ; 
and  his  expedition  from  Elba  had  shown,  that  no  reliance  whatever  could 
be  placed  on  his  promises  or  his  treaties.  Detention  and  safe  custody 
therefore  became  unavoidable  ;  and  every  comfort,  consistent  with  these  ob- 
jects, was  afforded  him  by  the  British  government.  He  was  allowed  the 
society  of  the  friends  who  accompanied  him  in  his  exile ;  he  had  books  in 
abundance  to  amuse  his  leisure  hours ;  saddle-horses  were  at  his  com- 
mand ;  Champaigne  and  Burgundy  were  his  daily  beverage  ;  and  the  bill 
of  fare  of  his  table,  which  Las  Cases  gives  as  a  proof  of  the  severity  of 
the  British  authorities,  would  be  thought  by  most  persons  a  sumptuous  and 
luxurious  provision.  If  England  had  acted  toward  Napoleon  as  Napo- 
leon did  toward  his  imprisoned  enemies,  she  would  have  shut  him  up  in  a 
fortress  and  murdered  him  in  cold  blood — as  the  Duke  d'Enghein  was 
murdered  at  Vincennes. 

In  February,  1821,  Napoleon,  who  had  been  for  some  time  suffering 
with  a  cancer  in  the  stomach,  grew  rapidly  worse.  He  dictated  his  Will, 
with  a  great  variety  of  minute  bequests,  but  obstinately  refused  to  take 
medicine.  "  All  that  is  to  happen,"  said  he,  "  is  written  down  ;  our  hour 
is  marked;  we  cannot  prolong  it  a  moment  beyond  the  limit  that  fate  has 
predestined."  At  two  o'clock  on  the  3rd  of  May,  he  received  extreme 
unction,  and  declared  that  he  died  in  the  Roman  Catholic  faith.  On  the 
5th,  a  violent  storm  of  wind  and  rain  arose,  and  he  expired  during  its 
greatest  fury,  uttering  the  words,  "  t£te  d'armee."  Two  singular  items 
in  his  will  deserve  to  be  recorded :  one  was  a  request,  that  his  body 
"  might  repose  on  the  banks  of  the  Seine  among  the  people  whom  he  had 
loved  so  well ;"  and  the  other,  a  legacy  of  ten  thousand  francs  to  a  man 
who  had  been  detected  in  an  attempt  to  assassinate  the  Duke  of  Wellington. 

Napoleon  had  previously  indicated  the  spot,  in  St.  Helena,  in  which  he 
wished  his  remains  to  be  deposited.  It  was  a  small  hollow  called  Slane's 
Valley,  where  a  fountain,  shaded  with  weeping  willows,  had  long  been  his 
favorite  retreat.  He  was  laid  in  the  coffin  with  his  three-cornered  hat, 
military  surtout,  leather  under-dress  and  boots,  as  he  used  to  appear  on 
the  field  of  battle.  The  body,  after  lying  in  state,  was  carried  to  the 
place  of  interment  on  the  8th  of  May,  and  buried  with  military  honors : 
a  stone  of  great  size,  but  without  inscription,  covered  the  grave. 


1840.]  HISTORY    OF    EUROPE.  401 

Time  rolled  on  with  its  changes.  The  dynasty  of  the  Restoration  proved 
unequal  to  the  task  of  coercing  the  desires  of  the  Revolution  :  a  new  gen- 
eration arose,  teeming  with  the  passions  and  forgetful  of  the  sufferings  of 
former  days ;  the  revolt  of  the  barricades,  in  1830,  restored  the  tricolor- 
flag,  and  established  a  semi-revolutionary  dynasty  on  the  French  throne. 
England  shared  in  the  convulsion  of  the  period :  a  change  in  her  consti- 
tution placed  the  popular  party  in  power ;  a  temporary  alliance,  founded 
on  political  passion,  not  national  interest,  united  her  government  with  that 
of  France ;  and,  under  M.  Thiers's  administration,  a  request  was  made 
by  France  for  the  remains  of  her  Emperor. 

England  granted  the  request.  The  body  of  Napoleon  was  conveyed 
to  Havre  de  Grace  in  the  frigate  La  Belle  Poule,  and  thence  transferred 
to  Paris.  It  was  interred  in  the  church  of  the  Invalides  on  the  6th  of 
December,  1840 ;  and  although  the  weather  was  intensely  cold,  six  hun- 
dred thousand  persons  assembled  to  witness  the  ceremony.  Louis  Phi- 
lippe and  his  court  officiated  on  the  occasion;  but  nothing  awakened  such 
deep  feeling  as  a  band  of  the  mutilated  veterans  of  the  Old  Guard  who, 
with  mournful  visages  but  a  military  air,  attended  the  remains  of  their 
beloved  chief  to  his  last  resting-place. 


APPENDIX 


LMr.  Alison's  forty-first  Chapter,  which  in  the  original  work  follows  the  campaign  of  Austitrlitz,  in  1805,  COD- 
lains  much  valuable  information  combined  with  ninny  arguments  and  opinions  on  which  the  world  U  divided. 
It  w:is  omitted  in  the  body  of  this  volume  because  it  could  not  well  be  abridged,  and  because,  if  given  entire,  it 
would  too  greatly  have  interrupted  the  narrative:  it  is  therefore  introduced  here  in  the  form  of  an  Appendix  and 
precisely  in  Mr.  Alison's  own  words.] 


THE  BRITISH  FINANCES,  AND  MR. 

IT  would  be  to  little  purpose  that  the  mighty  drama  of  the  French  Revolutionary  wars 
was  recorded  in  history,  if  the  mainspring  of  all  the  European  efforts,  the  BRITISH 
FINANCES,  were  not  fully  explained.  It  was  in  their  boundless  extent  that  freedom  found 
a  never-failing  stay,  in  their  elastic  power  that  independence  obtained  a  permanent  sup. 
port.  When  surrounded  by  the  wreck  01'  other  nations ;  when  surviving  alone  the  fall 
of  so  many  confederacies,  it  was  in  their  inexhaustible  resources  that  England  found 
the  means  of  resolutely  maintaining  the  contest,  and  waiting  calmly,  on  her  citadel 
amid  the  waves,  the  return  of  a  right  spirit  in  the  surrounding  nations.  Vain  would  have 
been  the  prowess  of  her  seamen,  vain  the  valor  of  her  soldiers,  if  her  national  finances 
had  given  way  under  the  strain;  and  the  conquerors  of  Trafalgar  and  Alexandria  must 
have  succumbed  in  the  contest  they  so  heroically  maintained,  if  they  had  not  found  in 
the  resources  of  government  the  means  of  permanently  continuing  it.  Vain  even  would 
have  been  the  reaction  produced  by  suffering  against  the  French  Revolution  :  vain  the 
charnel-house  of  Spain  and  the  snows  of  Russia,  it  England  had  not  been  in  a  situation 
to  take  advantage  of  the  crisis  ;  if  she  had  been  unable  to  aliment  the  war  in  the  Pe- 
ninsula when  its  native  powers  were  prostrated  in  the  dust;  and  the  energies  of  awak. 
ened  Europe  must  have  been  lost  in  fruitless  efforts,  if  the  wealth  of  England  had  nor 
at  last  arrayed  them,  in  dense  and  disciplined  battalions,  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine. 

How,  then,  did  it  happen  that  this  inconsiderable  island,  so  small  a  part  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  was  enabled  to  expend  wealth  greater  than  ever  had  been  amassed  by  the  an. 
cient  mistress  of  the  world  ;  to  maintain  a  contest  of  unexampled  magnitude  for  twenty 
years  ;  to  keep  on  foot  a  fleet  which  conquered  the  united  navies  of  Europe,  and  an 
army  which  carried  victory  into  every  corner  of  the  globe;  to  acquire  a  colonial  empire 
that  encircled  the  earth,  and  subdue  the  vast  continent  of  Hindostan,  at  the  very  time 
that  it  struggled  in  Spain  with  the  land-forces  of  Napoleon,  and  equipped  all  the  armies 
of  the  North  for  the  liberation  of  Germany  ?  The  solution  of  the  phenomenon,  unex. 
ampled  in  the  history  of  the  world,  is  without  doubt  to  be  in  part  found  in  the  perseve- 
ring industry  of  the  British  people,  and  the  extent  of  the  commerce  which  they  maintained 
in  every  quarter  of  the  globe  ;  but  the  resources  thus  afforded  would  have  been  in- 
adequate to  so  vast  an  expenditure,  and  must  have  been  exhausted  early  in  the  struggle, 
if  they  had  not  been  organized  and  sustained  by  an  admirable  system  of  finance,  which 
seemed  to  rise  superior  to  every  difficulty  with  which  it  had  to  contend.  It  is  there  that 
the  true  secret  of  the  prodigy  is  to  be  found.;  it  is  there  that  the  noblest  monument  to 
Mr.  Pitt's  wisdom  has  been  erected. 

The  national  income  of  England  at  an  early  period  was  very  inconsiderable,  and  totally 
incommensurate  to  the  important  station  which  she  occupied  in  the  scale  of  natiuns.  In 
the  time  of  Elizabeth  it  amounted  only  to  JC400,000  a  year,  and  that  of  James  I.  to 
J&450,000  ;  and  even  including  all  the  subsidies  received  from  Parliament  during  hia 
reign,  .£480,000  a  year:  sums  certainly  not  equivalent  to  more  than  JC800,000,  or 


464  APPENDIX. 

£1,000,000  of  our  money.*  That  enjoyed  by  Charles  I.  amounted,  on  an  average,  tc 
£895,000,  annually  :  a  sum  perhaps  equal  to  £1,500,000  in  these  thnes.t 

It  was  the  long  parliament  which  first  gave  the  example  of  a  prodigious  levy  of  money 
from  the  people  in  England  ;  affording  thus  a  striking  instance  of  the  eternal  truth,  that 
no  government  is  so  despotic  as  that  of  the  popular  leaders,  when  relieved  from  all  con- 
trol on  the  part  of  the  other  powers  in  the  state.  The  sums  levied  in  England  during 
the  Commonwealth,  that  is,  from  the  3rd  of  November,  1640,  to  the  5th  of  November, 
1659,  amounted  to  the  enormous,  and,  if  not  proved  by  authentic  documents,  incredible 
sum  of  £83,000,000,  being  at  the  rate  of  nearly  £5,000,000  a  year  ;  or  more  than  five 
times  that  which  had  been  so  much  the  subject  of  complaint  in  the  times  of  the  unhappy 
monarch  who  had  preceded  it.t  The  permanent  revenue  of  Cromwell  was  raised  from 
the  three  kingdoms  to  £1,868,000  :  or  considerably  more  than  double  that  enjoyed  by 
Charles  I.§  The  total  public.  income  at  the  death  of  Charles  II.  was  £1,800,000,  of  James 
II.  £2,000,000  ;  sums  incredibly  small,  when  it  is  recollected  that  the  price  of  wheat 
was  not  then  materially  different  from  what  it  is  at  the  present  moment.||1T 

These  inconsiderable  taxes,  however,  were  destined  to  be  exchanged  for  others  of  a 
very  different  character,  upon  the  accession  of  the  house  of  Brunswick  to  the  throne. 
The  intimate  connexion  of  the  princes  of  that  family  with  Continental  politics,  and  the 
long  wars  in  which,  in  consequence,  the  nation  was  involved,  soon  led  to  a  more  bur- 
densome  system  of  taxation,  and  the  raising  of  sums  annually  from  the  people  which  in 
former  times  would  have  been  deemed  incredible.  So  great  was  the  increase  of  the 
public  burdens  during  the  reign  of  William,  that  the  national  income,  in  the  thirteen 
years  that  he  sat  on  the  throne,  was  nearly  doubled  ;  being  raised  from  £2,000,000  a  year 
to  £3,895,000.  But  the  addition  made  to  the  public  revenue  was  the  least  important  part 
of  the  changes  effected  during  this  important  period.  It  was  then  that  the  NATIONAL 
DEBT  began  ;  and  government  was  taught  the  dangerous  secret  of  providing  for  the 
necessities,  and  maintaining  the  influence  of  present  times,  by  borrowing  money  and 
laying  its  payment  on  posterity.** 

Various  motives  combined  to  induce  the  government,  immediately  after  the  Revolu- 
tion, to  adopt  the  system  of  borrowing  on  the  credit  of  the  state.  Notwithstanding  the 
temporary  unanimity  with  which  the  Revolution  had  bee^n  brought  about,  various  heart- 
burnings  and  divisions  had  succeeded  that  event,  and  the  exiled  dynasty  still  numbered 
a  large  and  resolute  body,  especially  in  the  rural  districts,  among  their  adherents.  Ex- 

*  Hume  v.,  412.  vi.,112.  t  Ib.  vii.,  341.    Pebrer,  45. 

t  "  It  is  seldom,"  says  Hume,  "  that  the  people  gain  anything  by  revolutions  in  government,  because  the  new 
•ettlement,  jealous  and  insecure,  must  commonly  be  supported  with  more  expense  and  severity  than  the  old; 
but  on  no  occasion  was  the  truth  of  this  maxim  more  sensibly  felt  than  in  England  after  the  overthrow  of  the 
royal  authority.    Complaints  against  the  oppression  of  ship-money,  and  the  tyranny  of  the  star  chamber,  had 
roused  the  people  to  arms,  and,  having  gained  a  complete  victory  over  Ui2  crown,  they  found  themselves  loaded 
with  a  multiplicity  of  taxes  formerly  unknown,  while  scarce  an  appearance  of  law  and  liberty  remained  in  any 
part  of  the  administration.'^ 

The  following  are  some  of  the  items  in  this  enormous  aggregate  of  £83,000,000  raised  from  the  nation  during 
the  Commonwealth—  a  striking  proof  of  the  despotic  character  of  the  executive  during  that  period: 

Land-tax  ....................  ..............................................     £32,000,000 

Excise  .......................................................................         8,000,000 

Tonnage  and  poundage  ....................................................         7,600,000 

Sale  of  church  lands  .....................................................  !.  .        10,035,000 

Sequestrations  of  bishops,  deans,  and  inferior  clergy,  for  four  years  ..........         3,528,000 

Sequestrations  of  private  estates  in  England  ................................         4,564,000 

Fee-farm  rents  for  five  years  .................................................         2,963,000 

Compositions  with  delinquents  in  Ireland  ..................................         1,000.000 

Sales  of  estates  in  Ireland  ...................................................        3,567,000 

Other  lesser  ............  .  ..................................................  ,     10,074,000 


Total  .....................                 .  £83,331,000 

"*>EBRER.  139,  140. 

§  Of  this  sum,  there  was  drawn 

from  England  ................................................................    £1,517,274 

from  Scotland  ................................................................  143,632 

from  Ireland  .................................................................  207,790 

-Ibid,  140.  £1,868,716 

||  The  quarter  of  wheat  from  1636  to  1701,was,  on  an  average  ____  51s.  11*4 

from  1700  to  1765  ..................  ?  ..........................  40*.  64" 

from  1764  to  1794  ..............................................  44.v.  Id. 

In  1835.  the  average  of  the  quarter  in  Great  Britain  was  38s.  Sd..  and  the  average  of  the  last  five  years  was  only 
48s.—  SMITH'S  Wealth  of  Jtations,  i.,  358,  and  Corn  Average,  1835. 

IT  Pebrer.  139,  143.                                        **  Pebrer,  59,  60.  a  Hume  vii.,  U5. 


APPENDIX.  465 

tensive  patronage,  and  no  small  share  of  corruption  were  necessary  to  secure  the  influ- 
ence of  government  over  a  nation  thus  divided  :  foreign  wars  were  deemed  requisite 
to  maintain  the  ascendant  of  the  Protestant  principles,  to  which  the  king  owed  his  acces. 
sion  to  the  throne,  and  the  Continental  connexions  of  the  house  of  Orange  imperiously 
required  the  intervention  of  Great  Britain  in  those  desperate  struggles  by  which  the  very 
existence  of  the  Commonwealth  of  Holland  was  endangered.  The  same  causes  which 
led  to  the  duplication  of  the  public  burdens  of  France  by  Louis  Philippe  after  the  Rev. 
olution  of  1830,  produced  a  similar  increase  in  the  taxes  of  Great  Britain  after  the 
change  of  dynasty  in  1688,  and  engendered  the  dangerous  system  of  borrowing  on  the 
security  of  the  assessments  of  future  years.*  It  was  justly  thought  that  the  present  influence 
of  government  could  in  this  way  be  increased  to  an  extent  altogether  impracticable  if  the 
expenditure  of  each  year  were  to  be  limited  to  the  supplies  raised  within  itself;  and  that, 
by  the  distribution  of  the  debt  among  a  great  number  of  public  creditors,  an  extensive  and 
influential  body  might  be  formed,  attached  by  the  strong  tie  of  individual  interest  to  the 
fortunes  of  the  ruling  dynasty;  because  they  were  aware  that  their  claims  would  be  dis- 
regarded by  the  legitimate  monarchs,  if  restored  to  the  throne.  The  expedient,  there- 
fore, was  fallen  upon  of  contracting  a  debt  transferable  by  a  simple  power  of  attorney, 
in  the  smallest  shares,  from  hand,  to  hand  ;  and  capable  of  being  used  almost  like  the 
highest  and  most  valuable  species  of  bank  notes,  in  the  transactions  of  the  nation.  To 
the  steady  prosecution  of  this  system,  and  the  formation  of  a  secure  deposite  by  its 
means  for  the  savings  of  the  nation,  much  of  the  subsequent  prosperity  and  grandeur  of 
England  is  to  be  ascribed  :  but,  like  all  other  human  things,  it  has  its  evils  as  well  as  its 
advantages;  and  in  the  perilous  facility  of  borrowing,  which  the  magnitude  of  the  national 
resources  and  the  fidelity  with  which  the  public  engagements  were  fulfilled  produced,  is 
to  be  found  the  remote  but  certain  cause  of  financial  embarrassments,  now  to  all  appear- 
ance irremediable. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  follow  the  successive  steps  by  which  both  the  public  revenue  and 
the  national  debt  of  Great  Britain  were  increased  after  this  period.  Suffice  it  to  say,  that 
both  were  largely  augmented  during  the  glorious  War  of  the  Succession  ;  that  the  long 
and  pacific  administration  which  followed  effected  no  sensible  reduction  in  their  amount; 
that  the  checkered  contest  of  1739,  and  the  more  triumphant  campaigns  of  the  Seven 
Years'  War,  contributed  equally  to  their  increase  ;  and  that  the  disasters  of  the  American 
struggle  were  attended  by  so  great  an  augmentation  of  the  national  burdens,  that  at  its 
termination  in  1783,  in  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Hume  and  Adam  Smith,  they  must  inevitably 
prove  fatal  in  the  end  to  the  independence  of  the  nation.  At  the  close  of  the  last  con- 
test the  public  revenue  was  £12,000,000,  and  the  debt  .£240,000,000,1  the  interest  of 
which  absorbed  no  less  than  £9,319,000  of  the  annual  income  of  the  state ;  the  loans 
contracted  during  the  last  unfortunate  contest  having  been  no  less  than  one  hundred 
millions.^ 

*  The  following  is  a  statement  of  the  budgets  of  France  before  and  after  the  Revolution  of  July.  It  Is  a  curt 
ous  and  instructive  object  of  contemplation,  to  observe  a  similar  convulsion  leading,  in  countries  so  widely 
different  in  their  character,  customs  and  institutions,  as  France  and  England  were  at  the  accessions  of  the  dynas- 
ties of  Orange  and  Orleans  to  their  respective  thrones,  to  a  result  so  precisely  similar : 

Francs. 
1824 951,000,000,  or  about  £38,100,000 


1825 946,000.000,  or 

1826 942,000,000.  or 

1827 986,000,000.  or 

1828 939,100,000,  or 

1829....                                  , 975,000,000,  or 


1830  Revolution  in  July 981,000000,  or 

1831  Louis  Philippe 1.511, OCO'oOO,  or 

1832  Do.  1,100,000,000,  or 

1,120,000.000,  or 


37.800.COO 


38,730,000 
37.300,000 
3?,ti40,000 


60,000.000 
44.000,000 
44,500,000 


—See  Stat.  de  France,  pubb'shed  by  government, 
t  Pebrer,  245. 

t  The  following  table  exhibits,  in  a  clear  and  condensed  form,  the  increase  of  the  public  revenue,  and  pro- 
ive  growth  of  the  debt,  from  the  Revolution  in  1668  to  the  present  time: 

Debt.  Interest.      Public  Reventu. 

National  debt  at  the  Revolution £664,263  39,865           2,001,885 

Increase  during  the  reign  of  William 15.730.439  1.271.087 

Debt  at,  the  accession  of  Queen  Anne 16,394.702  1,310,952           3,895,205 

Increase  during  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne 37,750.661  2,040,416 

Debt  at  the  accession  of  George  1 64.145,363  3,351,368 

Decrease  during  the  reign  of  George  1 2.0.33.128  133.807 


466 


APPENDIX. 


It  was  at  this  period  that  Mr.  Pitt  cnrne  into  office,  on  the  resignation  of  Mr.  Fox  and 
the  coalition  ministry.  His  ardent  and  sagacious  mind  was  immediately  turned  to  the 
consideration  of  the  finances,  and  the  means  of  extricating  the  nation  from  the  embar- 
rassments, to  ordinary  observers  inextricable,  in  which  it  had  been  involved  by  the  im. 
provident  expenditure  of  preceding  years.  It  was  evident,  from  a  retrospect  of  history, 
that  no  sensible  impression  had  been  rna Je  on  the  debt  by  any  efforts  of  preceding  times ; 
that  though  a  sinking  fund  had  long  existed  in  name,  yet  its  operations  had  been  very 
inconsiderable;  and  that  all  the  economy  of  the  long  periods  of  peace  which  had  inter, 
vencd  since  the  Revolution,  had  done  little  more  than  discharge  a  tenth  of  the  burdena 
contracted  in  the  previous  years  of  hostility.  The  interest  of  the  debt  absorbed  now 
more  than  two-thirds  of  the  public  revenue.  It  was  impossible  to  conceal  that  such  a 
state  of  tilings  was  in  the  hignest  degree  alarming  ;  not  only  as  affording  no  reasonable 
prospect  that  the  existing  engagements  could  ever  be  liquidated,  but  as  threatening,  at 
no  distant  period,  to  render  it  impossible  for  the  nation  to  make  those  efforts  which  ita 
honor  or  independence  might  require.  It  was  easy  to  foresee  that,  in  the  course  of  events, 
wars  and  changes  would  arise,  which  would  render  it  indispensable  for  the  government 
to  assume  a  menacing  attitude,  and  possibly  engage  in  a  long  course  of  hostilities  ;  but 
how  could  any  administration  venture  to  assume  the  one,  or  the  people  bear  the  other, 
if  an  immense  load  of  debt  hung  about  their  necks,  absorbing  alike  by  its  interest  their 
present  revenues,  and  paralyzing  by  its  magnitude  the  credit  by  which  their  resources 
migln  be  increased  on  any  unforeseen  emergency  ? 

These  dangers  took  strong  possession  of  tne  mind  of  Mr.  Pitt;  but,  instead  of  sink- 
ing in  despair  under  the  difficulties  of  the  subject,  he  applied  the  energies  of  his  under, 
standing  with  the  greater  vigor  to  overcome  tliem.  Nor  was  it  long  before  he  perceived 
by  what  means  this  great  object  could  with  ease  and  certainty  be  effected.  The  public 
attention  at  this  period  had  been  strongly  directed  to  the  prodigious  powers  of  accumu- 
lation of  money  at  compound  interest ;  and  Dr.  Price  had  demonstrated,  with  mathe- 
matical certainty,  that  any  sum,  however  small,  increasing  at  that  ratio,  would  in  a 
given  time  extinguish  any  debt,  however  great.*  Mr.  Pitt,  with  the  instinctive  sagacity 
ot  genius,  laid  hold  of  this  simple  law  u  establish  a  machine  by  which  the  vast  debt  of 
England  might  without  difficulty  be  discharged.  All  former  sinking  funds  had  failed 
of  producing  great  effects,  because  they  were  directed  to  the  annual  discharge  of  a 
certain  portion  of  debt;  not  the  formation,  by  compound  interest,  pf  a  fund  destined  to 
its  future  and  progressive  liquidation  ;  they  advanced,  therefore,  by  addition,  not  multi- 
plication, in  an  arithmetical,  not  a  geometrical  progression.  Mr.  Pitt  saw  the  evil,  and 
not  merely  applied  a  remedy,  but  m  >re  than  a  remedy;  he  not  only  seized  the  battery, 
but  turned*  it  against  the  enemy.  Tne  wonderful  powers  of  compound  interest,  the  vast 

Dtbt. 

Debt  at  the  accession  of  George  II £52.0:2,235 

Decrease  during  the  peace 5,137,612 

l)el)t  at  the  opening  of  the  war,  1739 46,954,623 

Increiise  during  the  war 31,338,683 

Debt  at  the  end  of  the  vvnr,  1748 78,293,312 

Decrease  during  the  peace 3,721,472 

Delitat  the  opening  of  tlie  war,  1756 74,571,840 

Increase  during  the  war 72,111,004 

Debt  at  the  end  of  the  war  in  1763 146,682,844 

Decrease  during  the  peace 10,739.793 

Debt  at  the  opening  of  ±e  American  war,  1776 135,943,051 

Increase  during  the  war •.    102,541,819 

Debt  at  the  peace  of  1783 

Decrease  during  the  pence 


4,751,261 


Debt  at  the  opening  of  the  war,  1793 233,733,609 

Increase  during  the  war 295,105.663 

Debt  at  the  peace  of  Amiens,  1st  February,  1801 528,839,277 

Increase  during  the  second  war 335,983,161 

Debt  at  the  peace  of  Paris,  1st  February,  1816 864,822,441 

Decrease  since  the  peace > 2, 155,207 

Debt  on  the  bt'.i  of  January,  ia32 £782.667,234 

— MOREAU  and  PKBRER'S  Tablet,  70,89,152,245,  and  PORTKR'B  Part.  Tables,  i.,  1. 

A  penny  laid  out  at  compound  interest  at  the  hi-rli  df  our  Saviour,  would  in  the  year  1775  have  amounted  to 
a  tol'd  mass  of  gold  eighteen  hundred  times  the  whole  weight  of  the  globe. 


Interest. 

Public  Revenue. 

£3,217,561 

£6.762,463 

253.526 

2.964,035 

6.874,000 

1,096,979 

4,001,014 

6,923,000 

664.287 

3,396,737 

7,127,164 

2.444,104 

5,840,851 

8,523,440 

3&4.000 

5,476,811 

10,365,405 

3,843,084 

9,319,925 

11,962.000 

143,569 

9,176,356 

16.658.814 

10,252,152 

19^508 

34,113.146 

12,796,796 

32.225,304 

72,210,512 

3,833,841 

£28,341,463 

£50,900,000 

APPENDIX.  467 

lever  of  geometrical  progression,  so  long  and  sorely  felt  by  debtors,  were  now  to  be 
applied  to  creditors;  and,  inverting  the  process  hitherto  experienced  among  mankind, 
the  swift  growth  of  the  gangrene  was  to  be  turned  from  the  corruption  of  the  sound  to 
the  eradication  of  the  diseased  part  of  the  system.  Another  addition,  like  the  discovery 
of  gravitation,  the  press,  and  the  steam-engine,  to  tlie  many  illustrations  which  history 
aiK-rds  of  the  lasting  truth,  that  the  greatest  changes,  both  in  the  social  and  material 
world,  are  governed  by  the  same  laws  as  the  smallest;  and  that  it  is  by  the  felicitous 
application  of  familiar  principles  to  new  and  important  objects,  that  the  greatest  and 
moat  salutary  discoveries  in  human  affairs  are  effected. 

Mr  Pitt's  mind  was  strongly  impressed  with  the  incalculable  importance  of  this  sub. 
ject,  one  before  which  all  wars  or  subjects  of  present  interest,  excepting  only  the  preser- 
vation of  the  Constitution,  sunk  into  insignificance.  From  the  time  of  his  accession  to 
ofiice  in  17d4,  his  attention  had  been  constantly  riveted  to  the  subject,  and  he  repeatedly 
expressed,  in  the  most  energetic  language,  his  sense  of  its  overwhelming  magnitude. 
"  Upon  the  deliberation  of  this  day,"  said  he,  in  bringing  forward  his  resolutions  on  the 
subject,  on  the  29th  of  March,  178G,  "  the  people  of  England  place  all  their  hopes  of  a 
full  return  of  prosperity,  and  a  revival  of  that  pubhc  security  which  will  give  vigor  and 
confidence  to  those  commercial  exertions  on  which  the  flourishing  state  of  the  country 
depends.  Yet  not  only  the  public  and  this  house,  but  other  nations  are  intent  upon  it; 
for  upon  its  deliberations,  by  the  success  or  failure  of  what  is  now  proposed,  our  rank 
will  be  decided  among  the  powers  of  Europe.  To  behold  this  country,  when  just 
emerging  trora  a  most  unfortunate  war,  which  had  added  such  an  accumulation  to  sums 
before  immense,  that  it  was  the  belief  of  surrounding  nations,  and  of  many  among  our- 
selves, that  we  must  sink  under  it — to  behold  this  nation,  instead  of  despairing  at  its 
alarming  condition,  looking  boldly  its  situation  in  the  face,  and  establishing  upon  a 
spirited  and  permanent  plan  the  means  of  relieving  itself  from  all  its  encumbrances, 
must  give  such  an  idea  of  our  resources  as  will  astonish  the  nations  around  us,  and 
enable  us  to  regain  that  preeminence  to  which,  on  many  accounts,  we  are  so  justly 
entitled.  The  propriety  and  even  necessity  of  adopting  a  plan  for  this  purpose  is  now 
universally  allowed,  and  it  is  also  admitted  that  immediate  steps  ought  to  be  taken  on 
the  subject.  It  is  well  known  how  strongly  my  feelings  have  been  engaged,  not  only 
by  the  duties  of  my  situation,  but  the  consideration  of  my  own  personal  reputation, 
which  is  deeply  committed  in  the  question,  to  exert  every  nerve,  to  arm  every  vigilance, 
to  concentrate  my  efforts  toward  that  great  object,  by  which  alone  we  can  have  a 
prospect  of  transmitting  to  posterity,  that  which  we  ourselves  have  felt  the  want  of — an 
efficient  sinking  fund  for  the  national  debt.  To  accomplish  this  is  the  first  wish  of  my 
heart,  and  it  would  be  my  proudest  hope  to  have  my  name  inscribed  on  a  pillar  to  be 
erected  in  honor  of  the  man  who  did  his  country  the  essential  service  of  reducing  the 
national  debt."*t 

In  pursuance  of  these  designs,  Mr.  Pitt  proposed  that  a  million  yearly — composed 
partly  of  savings  effected  in  various  branches  of  the  public  service,  to  the  amount  of 
.£900,000,  and  partly  of  new  taxes,  to  the  amount  of  .£100,000 — should  be  granted  to 
his  majesty,  to  be  vested  in  commissioners  chosen  from  the  highest  functionaries  in  the 
realm  ;  that  the  payments  to  them  should  be  made  quarterly  ;  and  that  the  whole  sums 
thus  drawn  should  be  by^thern  invested  in  the  purchase  of  stock,  to  stand  in  the  name 
of  the  commissioners,  the  dividends  on  which  were  to  be  periodically  applied  to  the 
further  purchase  of  stock,  to  stand  and  have  its  dividends  invested  in  the  same  manner. 
In  this  way,  by  setting  apart  a  million  annually,  and  religiously  applying  its  interest  to 

*  Parl.  Hist.,  xxvi.,  12&3,  1313, 1109. 

t  It  is  worthy  of  especial  notice,  however,  that  though  thus  deeply  impressed  with  the  paramount  importance 
of  raising  up  an  effective  sinking  fund  for  the  reduction  of  the  public  debt,  Mr.  Pitt  was  equally  resolute  not  to 
attempt  it  by  any  measure  by  which  the  public  security  might  be  impaired,  and,  on  the  contrary,  at  the  very 
•ame  time  strongly  advocated  and  carried  a  bill  for  the  fortification  of  Portsmouth  and  Plymouth,  which 
-equired  several  hundred  thousand  pounds.  "  He  who  would  be  seduced,"  said  he,  "  by  the  plausible  and  popu- 
Inr  name  of  economy :  he  who  would  not  call  it  only  plausible  and  popular,  he  would  rather  say  the  sacred 
•ame  of  economy,  to  forego  the  reality  ;  and  for  the  sake  of  adding  a  few  hundred  thousand  pounds  ;it  the  out- 
•et  to  the  sinking  fund,  perhaps  render  for  ever  abortive  the  sinking  fund  itself.  Every  saving,  consistently  with 
national  safety,  he  would  pledge  himself  to  make :  but  he  would  never  consent  to  starve  the  public  service,  and 
to  withhold  those  supplies,  without  which  the  nation  must  be  endangered. "a  Every  measure  of  this  great  man 
was  directed  to  great  and  lasting  national  objects  ;  he  was  content  to  impose  present  burdens,  to  forego  present 
advantages,  and  incur  present  unpopularity,  for  the  sake  of  ultimate  public  advantage ;  theonly  principle  which 
ever  yet  led  to  greatness  and  honor,  either  in  nations  or  individuals,  as  the  opposite  system,  gilded  by  present 
popularity  or  enjoyment,  is  the  certain  forerunner  of  ultimate  ruin. 

a  Parl.  Hist,  xxvi,  1108. 

42 


468  APPENDIX. 

the  purchase  of  stock,  the  success  of  the  plan  was  secured ;  because  the  future  accu. 
mutations  would  spring,  not  from  any  additional  burdens  imposed  on  the  people,  but 
the  dividends  on  the  stock  thus  bought  up  from  individuals,  and  vested  in  the  public 
trustees.  The  powers  of  compound  interest  were  thus  brought  round  from  the  side  of 
the  creditor  to  that  of  the  debtor — from  the  fundholders  to  the  nation  ;  and  the  national 
debt  was  eaten  in  upon  by  an  accumulating  fund,  which,  increasing  in  a  geometrical 
progression,  would  to  a  certainty,  at  no  distant  period,  effect  its  total  extinction.*  "  If 
this  million,"  said  Mr.  Pitt,  "  to  be  so  applied,  is  to  be  laid  out  with  its  growing  interest, 
it  will  amount  to  a  very  great  sum  in  a  period  that  is  not  very  long  in  the  life  of  an 
individual,  and  but  an  hour  in  the  existence  of  a  great  nation ;  and  this  will  diminish 
the  debt  of  this  country  so  much  as  to  prevent  the  exigencies  of  war  from  raising  it  to 
the  enormous  height  it  has  hitherto  done.  In  the  period  of  twenty-eight  years,  the  sum 
of  a  million,  annually  improved,  would  amount  to  four  millions  per  annum.  But  care 
must  be  taken  that  this  sum  be  not  broken  in  upon.  This  has  hitherto  been  the  bane 
of  this  country ;  for  if  the  original  sinking  fund  had  been  properly  preserved,  it  can 
easily  be  proved  that  our  debts  at  this  moment  would  not  have  been  very  burdensome  ; 
but  this,  hitherto,  has  been  found  impracticable,  because  the  minister  has  uniformly, 
when  it  suited  his  convenience,  gotten  hold  of  this  sum,  which  ought  to  have  been 
regarded  as  most  sacred.  To  prevent  this,  I  propose  that  this  sum  be  vested  in  certain 
dignified  commissioners,  to  be  by  them  applied  quarterly  to  buy  up  stock ;  by  which 
means  no  considerable  sum  will  ever  be  open  to  spoliation,  and  the  fund  will  go  pn 
without  interruption.  Long,  and  very  long,  has  the  country  struggled  under  its  heavy 
load,  without  any  prospect  of  being  relieved  ;  but  it  may  now  look  forward  to  the 
object  upon  which  the  existence  of  the  country  depends.  A  minister  could  never  have 
the  confidence  to  come  down  to  the  House  and  propose  the  repeal  of  so  beneficial  a 
law — of  one  so  directly  tending  to  relieve  the  people  from  their  burdens.  The  essence 
of  the  plan  consists  in  the  fund  being  invariably  applied  in  diminution  of  the  debt ;  it 
must  for  ever  be  kept  sacred,  and  especially  so  in  time  of  war.  To  suffer  the  fund  at 
any  time,  or  on  any  pretence,  to  be  diverted  from  its  proper  object,  would  be  to  ruin, 
defeat,  and  overturn  the  whole  plan."tt 

Nor  was  Mr.  Fox  behind  his  great  rival  in  the  same  statesmanlike  and  heroic  senti. 
ments  ;  but  he  pointed  out,  with  too  prophetic  a  spirit,  the  dangers  to  which  the  reserved 
fund  might  be  exposed,  amid  the  necessities  or  weakness  of  future  administrations. 
"  No  man,"  said  he,  "  in  existence  was,  or  ever  had  been,  a  greater  friend  to  the  prin- 
ciple of  a  sinking  fund  than  I  have  been  from  the  very  first  moment  of  my  political  life. 
I  agree  perfectly  with  the  right  honorable  gentleman  in  his  ideas  of  the  necessity  of 
establishing  an  effective  sinking  fund  for  the  purpose  of  applying  it  to  the  diminution  of 

*  The  following  table  will  exemplify  the  growth  of  capital  when  its  interest,  at  the  rate  of  5  per  cent.,  is  stead- 
ily applied  to  the  increase  of  the  principal.  Suppose  that  £20,000,000  is  borrowed ;  and  that,  instead  of  provid- 
ing by  taxes  for  the  interest  merely  of  this  large  sum,  provision  is  made  for  £1,200,000  yearly,  leaving  the  surplus 
of  £200,000  to  be  annually  applied  in  the  purchase  of  a  certain  portion  of  the  stock,  by  commissioners,  for  the 
reduction  of  the  principal,  the  dividends  on  the  stock  so  purchased  being  annually  and  progressively  employed 
in  the  same  manner.  The  progressive  growth  in  ten  years  will  stand  as  follows : 

First  year's  surplus £200,000       Sixth £253.078 

Second 210,000       Seventh 265,654 

Third 220,500       Eighth 278,286 

Fou-th 231,250       Ninth 292,114 

Fifth 242,562       Tenth 306,661 

£2,500,105 

The  wonderful  rate  at  which  this  fund  increases  must  be  obvious  to  every  observer,  and  it  is  worthy  of  es^cial 
notice,  that  this  rapid  advance  is  gained  without  imposing  one  farthing  additional  upon  the  country,  by  the 
mere  force  of  an  annual  fund,  steadily  applied  year  after  year,  with  all  its  fruits,  to  the  reduction  of  the  princi- 
pal debt, 

t  Pad.  Hist.,  xxvi.,  1309, 1322. 

J  The  speech  delivered  by  Mr.  1'itt  on  this  occasion,  which  went  over  the  whole  details  of  our  financial  system, 
is  one  of  the  most  luminous  of  his  whole  Parliamentary  career.  An  intimate  friend  of  his  luts  recorded1.  "  That 
having  passed  the  morning  of  this  most  important  day  in  providing  and  examining  the  calculations  and  resolu- 
tions for  the  evening,  he  said  he  would  take  a  walk  to  arrange  in  his  mind  what  was  to  be  said  in  the  House  in 
the  evening.  His  walk  did  not  lost  above  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  and  when  he  came  back  he  said  he  believed  he 
was  prepared.  He  then  dressed,  and  desired  his  dinner  to  be  sent  up ;  but  hearing  that  his  sister  and  another  lady 
re«idine  with  her  in  the  family,  were  going  to  dine  with  him  at  the  same  early  hour,  he  desired  that  they  might 
dine  together.  Having  passed  nearly  an  hour  with  those  ladies,  and  several  friends  who  called  on  their  way  to 
the  House,  talking  with  his  usual  liveliness  and  gayety,  as  if  he  had  nothing  on  his  mind,  he  then  went  imme- 
diately to  the  House  of  Commons,  and  made  that  elaborate  and  far-extended  speech,  as  Mr.  Fox  called  it,  with- 
out one  omission  or  error."  See  No.  V.  WILLIAM  PITT,  Blackwood's  Magazine,  xxxvi.,  852 :  a  series  of  papers 
on  the  character  of  this  illustrious  man,  by  one  of  the  ablest  writers  of  the  age,  containing  by  far  the  best  account 
•f  his  policy  and  character  extant  in  any  language. 


APPENDIX.  469 

the  national  debt,  however  widely  I  may  differ  from  him  as  to  the  subordinate  parts  of 
the  plan.  Formerly,  the  payment  of  the  national  debt  was  effected  by  a  subscription  of 
individuals,  to  whom  the  faith  of  Parliament  had  been  pledged  to  pay  off  certain  specified 
portions,  at  stated  periods.  Under  that  system,  when  the  nation,  or  when  Parliament^ 
stood  bound  to  individuals,  the  pledge  was  held  as  sacred  as  to  pay  the  interest  of  the 
national  debt  at  present ;  whereas,  under  the  new  system,  when  no  individual  interests 
were  concerned,  nothing  would  prevent  a  future  minister,  in  any  future  war,  from  com. 
ing  down  to  the  House  and  proposing  the  repeal  of  the  sinking  fund,  or  enabling  govern- 
ment to  apply  the  whole  money  or  stock  in  the  hands  of  the  commissioners  to  the  public 
service.  What  would  prevent  the  House  from  agreeing  to  the  proposition  ?  or  was  it 
at  all  likely  that,  under  the  exigency  of  the  moment,  they  would  not  immediately  agree 
to  it,  when  so  much  money  could  so  easily  be  got  at,  and  when  they  could  so  readily 
save  themselves  from  the  odious  and  unpleasant  task  of  imposing  new  taxes  on  them- 
selves and  their  constituents?"*  Memorable  words  from  both  these  great  men!  when 
it  is  recollected  how  exactly  the  one  predicted  the  wonderful  effects  which  experience 
has  now  proved  his  system  was  calculated  to  have  produced,  in  reducing,  in  a  period  of 
time  smaller  than  the  most  ardent  imagination  could  have  supposed,  a  debt  double  the 
amount  of  that  which  he  estimated  as  so  great  an  evil ;  and  with  how  much  accuracy 
the  other  pointed  out  the  vulnerable  point  in  its  composition,  and  predicted  the  cause, 
springing  from  the  necessities  or  weakness  of  future  administrations,  which  would  ulti 
mately  prove  its  ruin  ! 

The  bill  passed  both  Houses  without  a  dissenting  voice  ;  and  on  the  26th  of  May  the 
king  gave  it  the  royal  assent  in  person,  to  mark  his  strong  sense  of  the  public  importance 
of  the  measure. 

The  sinking  fund  thus  provided  was  amply  sufficient  to  have  discharged  all  the  exist- 
ing debt  within  a  moderate  period ;  and  so  well  aware  was  its  author  of  its  vast  pro. 
ductive  powers,  that  he  observed,  that  when  it  rose  to  four  millions,  it  should  be 
submitted  to  Parliament  whether  it  should  thenceforth  be  suffered  to  increase  at  com- 
pound interest.  But  the  events  which  followed,  soon  not  only  rendered  illusory  all 
danger  of  the  debt  being  too  rapidly  reduced,  but  made  an  addition  to  the  system 
unavoidable  to  meet  the  new  and  overwhelming  obligations  contracted  during  the  war. 
Some  expedient,  therefore,  was  necessary  to  provide  for  the  liquidation  of  these  vast 
additional  debts  ;  and  it  was  in  the  means  taken  to  do  so  that  the  extensive  foresight 
and  unshaken  constancy  of  Mr.  Pitt  are  to  be  discerned.  He  laid  it  down  as  a  prin- 
ciple, which  was  never,  on  any  pretence  whatever,  to  be  departed  from,  that,  when  any 
additional  loan  was  contracted  for,  provision  should  be  made  for  its  gradual  liquidation. 
"We  ought,"  said  Mr.  Pitt,  "not  to  confine  our  views  to  the  sinking  fund,  compared 
with  the  debt  now  existing.  If  our  system  stops  there,  the  country  will  remain  ex- 
posed to  the  possibility  of  being  again  involved  in  those  embarrassments  which  we 
have  in  our  own  time  severely  experienced,  and  which  apparently  brought  us  to  the 
verge  of  bankruptcy  and  ruin.  To  guard  against  such  dangers  hereafter,  we  should 
enact  that,  whenever  any  loan  shall  take  place  in  future,  unless  it  be  raised  on  annui- 
ties, which  will  terminate  in  a  moderate  number  of  years,  there  should,  of  course,  be 
issued  out  of  the  consolidated  fund,t  to  the  commissioners  for  the  reduction  of  the 
national  debt,  an  additional  sum,  sufficient  to  discharge  the  capital  of  such  loan  in  the 
same  period  as  the  sinking  fund,  after  reaching  its  largest  amount,  will  discharge  what 
will  then  remain  of  the  present  debt.  To  do  this,  one  hundredth  part  of  the  capital 
borrowed  would  be  sufficient  to  be  raised  from  the  country  on  such  emergencies  ;  for 
instance,  supposing  it  were  necessary  to  raise  by  loan  ten  millions,  .£100,000  should  be 
raised  in  addition  to  the  existing  funds  appropriated  to  the  redemption  of  the  debt,  in 
order  to  relieve  the  country  within  a  given  time  of  this  additional  burden.  In  addition 
to  this,  I  propose  that  ,£200,000  a  year  additional  should  from  this  time  forward,  be 
regularly  granted  out  of  the  ordinary  revenue  of  the  country  to  the  sinking  fund." 
Mr.  Fox  stated,  "  that  he  had  ever  maintained  the  necessity  of  establishing  a  fund  for 
reducing  the  national  debt,t  and  that  as  strongly  when  on  the  ministerial  as  the  oppo- 
sition benches.  He  had  not  the  power  to  promote  it  as  effectually  as  Mr.  Pitt,  but  he 
wished  it  as  warmly."  In  pursuance  of  the  united  opinion  of  these  great  men,  it  was 

*  Parl.  Hist.,  xxvi,,  1318. 

tThe  consolidated  fund  was  a  certain  portion  of  the  ordinary  taxes,  which  were  amassed  together  and  devoted 
to  certain  fixed  objects  of  national  expenditure.  The  surplus  of  this  fund,  as  it  was  called,  or  the  excess  of  thoa* 
biaitches  of  revenue  above  the  charges  fixed  on  them,  was  annually  appropriated,  during  the  war,  among  th* 
ways  and  means  to  the  current  war  expenditure. 

JParl.  Hist.,  xxix..  1050, 1058. 


470  APPENDIX. 

enacted  by  the  statute  passed  on  the  occasion,  "  that  whenever,  in  future,  any  sums 
should  be  raised  by  loans  on  perpetual  redeemable  annuities,  a  sum  equal  to  one  per 
cent,  on  the  stock  created  by  such  loan  should  be  issued  out  of  the  produce  of  the  con. 
solidated  fund  quarterly,  to  be  placed  to  the  account  of  the  commissioners."*  Every 
additional  loan  was  thus  compelled  to  draw  after  itself,  as  a  necessary  consequence,  a 
fresh  burden,  by  the  annual  payment  of  which  the  extinction  of  the  principal  might  to 
a  certainty,  in  little  more  than  forty  years,  be  expected. 

Under  this  system  the  whole  loans  were  contracted,  and  the  sinking  fund  was  man. 
aged  till  181)2  ;  and  as  immense  sums  were  borrowed  during  that  period,  the  growth  of 
the  sinking  fund  was  far  more  rapid  than  had  been  originally  contemplated.  In  that 
year  an  alteration  of  some  importance  was  made,  not,  indeed,  by  Mr.  Pitt,  but  by  Mr. 
Addington,  then  chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  with  his  consent  and  approbation. 
"The  capital  of  the  debt,"  said  he,  "  is  now  £488,000,000  ;  its  interest,  including  the 
charges  of  the  sinking  fund,  .£23,000,000  :  it  is  impossible  to  contemplate  either  the  one 
or  the  other  without  the  utmost  anxiety.  What  I  now  propose  is,  that  the  limitation 
which  was  formerly  provided  against  the  accumulation  of  the  original  sinking  fund 
should  be  removed;  and  that  both  that  original  fund  and  the  subsequent  one,  created 
by  the  act  of  1792,  should  be  allowed  to  accumulate  till  they  have  discharged  the  whole 
debt."  This  proposition  was  unanimously  agreed  to  ;  it  being  enacted  "  that  this  fund 
should  accumulate  till  the  whole  existing  redeemable  annuities  should  be  paid  off." 
By  this  act,  the  original  sinking  fund  of  £1,000,000,  with  the  £200,000  subsequently 
granted,  and  the  one  per  cent,  on  all  the  subsequent  loans,  were  combined  into  one 
consolidated  fund,  to  be  applied  continually,  at  compound  interest,  till  the  whole  debt 
then  existing  was  paid  off,  which  it  was  calculated  would  be  in  forty-five  years.t 

Under  these  three  acts  of  1786,  1792,  and  1802,  the  sinking  fund  continued  to  be 
administered  with  exemplary  fidelity,  not  only  during  Mr.  Pitt's  life,  but  after  his  death, 
till  1813,  when  a  total  change  in  the  system  took  place,  which  eventually  led  to  its  ruin, 
and  has,  to  all  appearance,  rendered  the  financial  state  of  the  country  almost  desperate. 
To  obtain  a  clear  view  of  the  practical  effects  of  Mr.  Pitt's  system,  it  is  necessary  to 
anticipate  somewhat  the  march  of  events,  and  give  a  summary  of  the  operation  of  the 
sinking  fund  which  he  established  down  to  the  period  when  it  was  abandoned  by  his 
more  embarrassed  and  less  provident  successors. 

From  the  accounts  laid  before  Parliament,  it  appears  that  the  sinking  fund  of  a  mil- 
lion which  Mr.  Pitt  established  in  1786,  had  increased  by  accumulation  at  compound 
interest,  and  the  vast  additions  drawn  from  the  one  per  cent,  on  all  subsequent  loans, 
to  the  enormous  sum  of  fifteen  millions  and  a  half  yearly  in  1813,  while  the  debts 
which  it  had  discharged  during  that  period  amounted  to  no  less  than  £238,231,000  ster- 
ling. This  great  increase  had  taken  place  in  twenty-seven  years,  whereas  Mr.  Pitt  had 
calculated  correctly  that  his  original  million  would  be  only  four  millions  in  twenty- 
eight  years  :  the  well-known  period  of  the  quadruplication  of  the  sum  at  compound 
interest  of  5  per  cent.  The  subsequent  £200,000  a  year  granted,  certainly  accelerated 
in  a  certain  degree  the  rate  of  its  advance  ;  but  the  true  cause  of  the  extraordinary 
and  unexpected  rapidity  of  its  increase  is  to  be  found  in  the  vast  accumulation  which 
the  one  per  cent,  on  subsequent  loans  produced.  This  distinctly  appears  from  the  table 
compiled  below,  showing  the  sums  paid  off  by  the  sinking  fund  in  every  year  from 
1786  to  1813,  the  loans  contracted  during  that  period,  the  stock  redeemed  by  the  com- 
missioners, and  the  proportion  of  each  loan  paid  to  them  for  behoof  of  the  public  debt. 
It  thence  appears  how  rapidly  and  suddenly  the  sinking  fund  rose,  with  the  immense 
sums  borrowed  at  different  periods  during  the  war  ;  and  when  it  is  recollected  that  the 
loans  contracted  from  1792  to  1815  were  £585,000,000,  it  will  not  appear  surprising 
that  even  the  small  sum  of  one  per  cent,  on  each,  regularly  issued  to  the  national  debt 
commissioners,  should  have  led  to  this  extraordinary  and  unlooked-for  accumulation.^ 

It  is  this  subsequent  addition  of  one  per  cent,  on  all  loans  contracted  since  the  in. 
stitution  of  the  sinking  fund  which  has  been  at  once  the  cause  of  its  extraordinary 
increase  and  subsequent  ruin.  While  the  nation  in  general  were  entirely  satisfied  with 
Mr.  Pitt's  financial  statements,  and,  delighted  with  the  rapid  growth  of  the  sinking 
fund,  never  examined  whether  the  funds  for  its  prodigious  extension  were  provided  by 
the  fictitious  supply  of  loans  or  the  solid  growth  of  the  revenue  above  the  expenditure, 

*  32  Geo.  in.,  c.  69.  t  Par!.  Hist.,  xxxvi.  890,  892. 

t  Table  showing  the  sums  paid  to  the  commissioners  for  the  reduction  of  the  national  debt  in  every  yeAr 
from  1786  to  1816;  the  stock  redeemed  by  them  in  each  year,  the  loans  contracted,  and  proportion  of  those  loam 
paid  to  those  commissioners  in  every  year  for  that  period ;  with  the  public  revenue  of  tbe  state  for  the  saina 


APPENDIX. 


471 


a  few  more  sagacious  observers  began  to  inquire  into  the  solidity  of  the  whole  system, 
and  mistaking  its  past  operation,  which  had  been  almost  entirely  during  the  war,  for 
its  permanent  character,  loudly  proclaimed  that  it  was  founded  entirely  on  a  delusion ; 
that  a  great  proportion  of  the  rums  which  it  paid  off  had  been  raised  by  loans ;  that,  at 
all  events,  a  much  larger  sum  than  the  amount  of  the  debt  annually  redeemed  had  been 
annually  borrowed  since  the  commencement  of  the  war ;  that  it  was  impossible  that  a 
nation,  any  more  than  an  individual,  could  discharge  its  debts  by  mere  financial  opera- 
tions ;  and  that  the  only  way  of  really  getting  quit  of  encumbrances  was  by  bringing 
the  expenditure  permanently  under  the  income.* 

These  doctrines  soon  spread  among  a  considerable  part  of  the  thinking  portion  of 
the  nation  ;  but  they  made  little  general  impression  till  the  return  of  peace  had  diverted 
into  different  channels  the  attention  of  the  people,  formerly  concentrated  on  the  career 
of  Napoleon  :  and  Democratic  ambition,  taking  advantage  of  national  distress,  had 
begun  to  denounce  all  that  had  formerly  been  done  by  the  patriots  who  had  triumphed 
over  its  principles.  Then  they  speedily  became  universal :  attacks  on  the  sinking  fund 
were  rapidly  diffused  and  generally  credited — the  delusion  of  Mr.  Pitt's  system — the 
juggle  so  long  practiced  on  the  nation,  were  in  every  mouth ;  the  meanest  political 
quacks,  the  most  despicable  popular  demagogues,  ventured  to  discharge  their  javelina  at 
the  giants  of  former  days ;  and  a  system  on  which  the  greatest  and  best  of  men  in  the 
last  age  had  been  united,  in  commendation  of  which  Mr.  Fox  had  vied  with  Pitt,  and 
Sheridan  with  Burke,  was  universally  denounced  as  the  most  complete  and  ruinous  de- 
ception that  ever  had  been  palmed  off  by  official  fraud  on  the  credulity  of  mankind. 

Had  these  doctrines  been  confined  to  the  declamation  of  the  hustings  or  the  abuse  of 
newspapers,  they  would  have  furnished  the  subject  only  of  curious  speculation  on  the 
way  in  which  principles,  just  to  a  certain  extent,  and  truths,  undeniable  as  they  were 
originally  stated,  became  perverted,  when  they  were  employed  as  an  engine  for  the 
purposes  of  faction  or  ambition.  But,  unhappily,  the  evil  soon  assumed  a  much  more 
serious  complexion  :  the  prevailing  ideas  spread  to  tho  Legislature,  and  the  statesmen 
who  succeeded  to  the  government,  imbued  partly  with  the  declamation  of  the  period, 
influenced  partly  by  the  desire  of  gaining  a  temporary  popularity  by  the  reduction  of 
the  public  burdens,  without  any  regard  to  the  interests  of  future  times,  went  on  bor-. 
rowing  or  abstracting  from  the  sinking  fund  till  it  was  totally  extinguished  during  the 
great  convulsion  of  1832  :  and  the  commissioners  for  the  reduction  of  the  national  debt 
issued  an  official  intimation  that  their  purchases  for  the  public  service  had  altogether 
ceased.  The  principle  acted  upon  since  that  time  has  been  to  apply  to  the  reduction 
of  debt  no  more  than  the  annual  surplus  of  the  national  income  above  its  expenditure  ; 
and  as  that  surplus,  under  the  present  Democratic  system,  can  never  be  expected 


time.-MoREAu's  Tables ;  PEBRIR'S  Tables,  153. 154, 246 ;  Par/.  Pap.,  1822.,  &c.,  145 ;  PORTER'S.  Par/. 
i.,  1 ;  COLQUHOUN,  292,  234. 

Table  showing  the  progressive  growth,  of  the  sinking-fund. 


Years. 


17&3 


Sinking-fund 


Stock  re- 
deemed by 
inking-fund. 


14,171,407 
13.9&5.824 
14.352771 
15.ffi9.194 
18,147,245 
21,108.442 
24,120.867 
" 


Loans 
contracted. 


*  Hamilton  on  the  Sink  inn  Fund,  and  others. 


Proportion  of 
loan  paid  to 
sinking-fund. 


£1.630,615 

1.872,200 
2,143,595 
2,639:724 


4,620,4 
5,117,7 
5,ti85,542 
6,018,179 
0,521,394 
7,181,482 
7,8^),5K8 
8,908,673 
9|S65,853 
10,170,104 
10,813,016 


14,181,006 
12,748,231 
11,902,051 


32 


Expenditure, 
includinc    in 
;erest  of  debt,  of  debt 
fondled  &  un- 
funded, and 
tin  king-fund. 


.£16,179,347 
17,434,767 
22.754.366 
29.305,477 
39.751091 
40,791,533 
50789857 
51,241,798 
59,296.081 
61,617,988 


54,912,890 
67,619,475 
76,056,796 
75,154  548 


4,797,080 
88,892, 551 

J. 360.728 
004.241 
,644,085 
122.235.fi60 
129,74 


Total  charsre 
if  debt,  inclu- 
ding sinking 
fund. 


Revenue, 


17,440.e 
17,374,? 


472 


APPENDIX. 


to  be  considerable,  Mr.  Pitt's  sinking  fund  may  now,  to  all  practical  purposes,  be  con. 
sidered  as  destroyed.* 

In  the  preceding  observations,  the  march  of  events  has  been  anticipated  by  nearly 
thirty  years,  and  changes  alluded  to  which  will  form  the  important  subject  of  analysis  in 
the  subsequent  volumes  of  this,  or  some  other  history.  But  it  is  only  by  attending  to 
the  dissolution  of  Mr.  Pitt's  system,  and  the  eflbcts  by  which  that  change  has  been,  and 
must  be  attended,  that  the  incalculable  importance  of  his  financial  measures  can  be 
appreciated,  or  the  wisdom  discerned  which,  so  far  as  human  wisdom  could,  had 
guarded  against  the  evils  which  must,  in  their  ultimate  consequences,  dissolve  the 
British  Empire. 

It  is  perfectly  true,  as  Mr.  Hamilton  and  the  opponents  of  the  sinking  fund  have  argued, 
that  neither  national  nor  individual  fortunes  can  be  mended  by  mere  financial  opera- 
tions,  by  borrowing  with  one  hand  while  you  pay  off  with  another  ;  and  unquestionably 
Mr.  Pitt  never  imagined  that,  if  the  nation  was  paying  off  ten  millions  a  year  and  bor- 
rowing twenty,  it  was  making  any  progress  in  the  discharge  of  its  debt.  In  this  view, 
it  is  of  no  moment  to  inquire  what  proportion  of  the  debt  annually  contracted  was  applied 
to  the  sinking  fund ;  because,  as  long  as  larger  sums  than  that  fund  was  able  to  dis- 
charge were  yearly  borrowed  by  the  nation,  it  is  evident  that  the  operation  of  the  system 
was  attended  with  no  present  benefit  to  the  state  :  nay,  that  the  cost  of  its  machinery 
was,  for  the  time  at  least,  an  addition  to  its  burdens.  But  all  that  notwithstanding,  Mr. 
Pitt's  plan  for  the  redemption  of  the  debt  was  not  only  founded  on  consummate  wisdom, 
but  a  thorough  knowledge  of  human  nature.  He  never  looked  to  the  sinking  fund  as 
the  means  of  paying  off  the  debt  while  loans  to  a  larger  amount  than  it  redeemed  were 
contracted  every  year  ;t  he  regarded  it  as  a  fund  which  would  speedily  and  certainly 


*  The  following  table  exhibits  the  progression  and  decline  of  the  sinking  fund  from  the  time  of  its  being  first 
instituted  in  1786,  till  it  was  broken  upon  by  Mr.  Vansittart  in  1813,  and  till  its  virtual  extinction  in  1832. 
Table  showing  its  progressive  growth,  decline,  and  final  extinction. 


Total  am't       i  «f     L-      ^         I  Money  applied  I  Total  ana't 

of  funded          Years.       btockjfdeem|to  reduction  of  of  funded 

debt.  ed-  debt.          |      debt. 


debt 


£13,075,977 
14,078,577 
16.064,057 
14,830,957 
H,241,a97 
13,945,117 
14,514.457 
15.339,483 
16,305,590 
17,499,773 
17,2 19.£ 
18,889,319 
7.482,325 
10,652,0:>9 
6,093,475 
5.621,231 
5,704,706 
4.667,965 

...... 

13;759,607 

15,341,799 

16,0..4,962 

16,181,68!) 

16.656,643 
— PORTKR'S  Purl.  Tables,  i.,  and  ii.,  6,  8, :  PKBRER'S,  Tables,  247 :  MORKAU'S  Tables. 

N.  B. — This  table  exhibits  the  progress  of  the  sinking  fund  and  stock  redeemed  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
which  explains  its  difference  from  the  preceding  table,  applicable  to  Great  Britain  alone. 

t  Mr.  Pitt's  speech  on  the  budget,  in  1798,  affords  decisive  evidence  that  he  labored  under  no  delusion  on  the 
subject  of  the  operation  of  the  sinking  fund  during  war,  but  always  looked  forward  to  its  effects  when  loans  had 
ceased  by  the  return  of  peace,  as  exemplifying  its  true  character,  and  alone  effecting  a  real  reduction  of  the  debt. 
"  By  means  of  the  sinking  fund,"  said  he,  "  we  had  advanced  far  in  the  reduction  of  the  debt  previous  to  the 
loans  necessarily  made  in  the  present  war,  and  every  year  was  attended  with  such  accelerated  salutary  effects  as 
outran  the  most  sanguine  calculation.  But,  having  done  so,  we  have  yet  far  to  go,  as  tilings  are  circumstanced. 
If  the  reduction  of  the  debt  be  confined  to  the  operations  of  that  fund,  and  the  expenses  of  the  war  continue  to 
impede  our  plans  of  economy,  we  shall  have  to  go  far  before  the  operation  of  that  fund,  even  during  peace,  can 
be  expected  to  counteract  the  effects  of  the  war.  Yet  there  are  means  by  which  I  am  confident  it  would  be  pos- 
sible, in  not  many  years,  to  restore  our  resources,  and  put  the  country  in  a  state  equal  to  all  exigences.  Not. only 
do  I  conceive  that  the  principle  is  wise  and  the  attempt  practicable  to  procure  large  supplies  out  of  the  direct 
taxes  from  the  year,  but  I  conceive  that  it  is  equally  wise  and  not  less  practicable  to  make  provision  for  the 
amount  o'f  the  debt  incurred  and  funded  in  the  same  year ;  and  if  the  necessity  of  carrying  on  the  war  shall  entail 
upon  us  the  necessity  of  contracting  another  debt,  this  principle,  if  duly  carried  into  practice,  with  the  assistance 
of  the  sinking  fund  to  cooperate,  will  enable  us  not  to  owe  mon  than  we  did  at  its  commencement.  /  cannot, 
indeed,  take  it  upon  me  to  say  that  the  war  will  not  stop  the  progress  of  liquidation,  but  if  the  means  I  have 
pointed  on  are  adopted  and  resolutely  adhered  to,  it  will  leave  us  at  least  stationary."— Parl.  Hist.,  xxxiii 
1053,1054. 


ffi 

1788 
1789 
1790 
1791 
1792 
1793 
1794 
1795 

>s 

1798 
1799 
1800 
1801 
1802 
1803 
1804 
1805 


1808 


1,503,000 
1,506,000 
1,558,000 
1,587,500 
1,507,100 
1962,650 
2,174,405 
2,804,945 
3,083,455 
4,390,670 
6790023 
8,102.875 
9.550,094 
10;713,168 
10,491,325 
9,436,389 
13,181,667 
12,860,6 


1811 

1812 
1813 
1814 
1815 
1816 
1817 
1818 
1819 


1824 
1825 

1826 
1827 
1828 
1829 
1830 


1834 
1835 


£17,884,234 
20,733,354 
24.24H.O.?* 
27522,230 
22,599.653 
24,001.083 
23,117 


19,648,496 

§,191,702 
,518,885 
,605.931 

}  7,966,680 
4. 


3.3W,834 

7J281.414 

6,033,414 

6,425,465 

3,304,723 

9,079 


APPENDIX.  473 

effect  the  reduction  of  the  debt  in  time  of  peace.  And  the  admirable  nature  of  the 
institution  consisted  in  this,  that  it  provided  a  system,  with  all  the  machinery  requisite 
for  its  complete  and  effective  operation,  which,  although  overshadowed  and  subdued  by 
the  vast  contraction  of  debt  during  war,  came  instantly  into  powerful  operation  the 
moment  its  expenditure  was  terminated.  This  was  a  point  of  vital  importance  ;  indeed, 
without  it,  as  experience  has  since  proved,  all  attempts  to  reduce  the  debt  would  have 
proved  utterly  nugatory.  Mr.  Pitt  was  perfectly  aware  of  the  natural  impatience  of 
taxation  of  mankind  in  general,  and  the  especial  desire  always  felt  that,  when  the  excite, 
ment  of  war  ceased,  its  expenditure  should  draw  to  a  termination.  He  foresaw,  there, 
fore,  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  get  the  popular  representatives  at  the  conclusion  of 
the  war  to  lay  on  new  taxes,  and  provide  for  a  sinking  fund  to  pay  off  the  debt  which 
had  been  contracted  during  its  continuance.  The  only  way,  therefore,  to  secure  that 
Inestimable  object,  was  to  have  the  whole  machinery  constructed  and  in  full  activity  du. 
ring  war,  so  that  it  might  be  at  once  brought  forward  into  full  and  efficient  operation 
upon  the  conclusion  of  hostilities,  without  any  legislative  act  or  fresh  imposition  what, 
ever,  by  the  mere  termination  of  the  contraction  of  loans. 

The  result  has  completely  proved  the  wisdom  of  these  views.  Crippled  and  mangled 
as  the  sinking  fund  has  been  by  the  enormous  encroachments  made  upon  it  by  the  ad- 
ministrations  of  later  times,  it  has  yet  done  much  during  the  peace  to  pay  off  the  debt ; 
amply  sufficient  to  demonstrate  the  solidity  of  the  principles  on  which  it  was  founded. 
In  sixteen  years,  even  after  these  copious  reductions,  it  has  discharged  more-man  eighty- 
two  millions  of  the  debt,  besides  the  addition  of  seven  millions  made  by  the  bonus  of  5 
per  cent,  granted  to  the  holders  of  the  five  per  cents.,  who  were  reduced  to  four  :  that  it 
has  paid  off  in  that  time  nearly  ninety  millions.*  It  is  not  a  juggle  which,  in  a  time  so 
short  in  the  lifetime  of  a  nation,  and  during  the  greater  part  of  which  Great  Britain  was 
laboring  under  severe  distress  in  almost  all  the  branches  of  its  industry,  was  able,  even 
on  a  reduced  scale,  to  effect  a  reduction  so  considerable. 

Nor  has  the  experience  of  the  last  twenty  years  been  less  decisive  as  to  the  absolute 
necessity  of  making  the  provision  for  the  liquidation  of  the  debt  part  of  a  permanent 
system,  to  which  the  national  faith  is  absolutely  and  unequivocally  bound,  and  which 
depends  for  no  part  of  its  efficiency  upon  the  votes  or  financial  measures  of  the  year. 
Since  this  ruinous  modification  of  Mr.  Pitt's  unbending,  self-poised  system  was  intro- 
duced ;  since  the  fatal  precedent  was  established  of  allowing  the  minister  to  determine, 
by  annual  votes,  how  much  of  the  sinking  fund  was  to  be  applied  to  the  current  service? 
of  the  year,  and  how  much  reserved  for  its  original  and  proper  destination,  the  encroach, 
ment  on  the  fund  has  gone  on  continually  increasing,  till  at  length  it  has, 'to  all  practical 
purposes,  swallowed  it  entirely  up.  The  sinking  fund,  when  thus  broken  upon,  has 
proved,  like  the  chastity  of  a  woman,  when  once  lost,  the  subject  of  continual  subsequent 
violation,  till  the  shadow  <ven  of  respect  for  it  is  gone.  If  such  has  been  the  fate  of 
this  noble  and  truly  patriotic  establishment,  even  when  no  increased  burden  was  required 
to  keep  it  in  activity,  and  the  temptation  which  proved  fatal  to  its  existence  was  merely 
the  desire  to  effect  a  reduction  of  taxes  long  borne  by  the  nation,  it  is  easy  to  see  how 
utterly  hopeless  would  have  been  any  attempt  to  make  considerable  additions  to  the 
annual  burdens  upon  the  conclusion  of  hostilities  with  a  view  to  effect  a  diminution  of 
its  public  debt :  and  how  completely  dependent,  therefore,  the  sinking  fund  was  for  its 
very  existence  upon  Mr.  Pitt's  system  of  having  all  its  machinery  put  in  motion  at  the 
time  the  loans  were  contracted  during  war,  and  its  vast  powers  brought  into  full  view 
without  any  application  to  the  Legislature,  by  the  mere  cessation  of  borrowing  on  the 
return  of  peace.l 

*  Funded  debt  on  January  5, 1816 £816,311,940 

Unfunded do 46.510,501 

Total £864,832,441 

Total  debt  on  5th  January,  1833:  viz., 

Funded ." £754,100,549 

Unfunded 27,752,650 

-781,853.199 

Paid  off  in  sixteen  years £82,969,242 

—Annual  Finance  Statemmt,l8Z3,  and  PKBRER,  246,  and  PORTER'S  Parliamentary  Tables,  ii., 6. 

t  In  Mr.  Pitt's  Financial  Resolutions  in  the  year  1799,  which  embrace  a  vast  variety  of  important  financial 
details,  there  is  the  clearest  indication  of  the  lasting  and  permanent  system  to  which  he  looked  forward  with  per- 
fect justice  for  the  entire  liquidation  of  the  public  debt.  One  of  these  resolutions  was,  "That,  supposing  the 
price  of  3  per  cent,  stock  to  be  on  an  average,  after  the  year  1800,  £90  in  time  of  peace,  and  £75  in  time  of  war. 
and  the  proportion  of  peace  and  war  to  be  the  same  as  for  the  last  hundred  years,  the  average  price  of  peace  and 
war  will  be  about  £85 ;  that  the  whole  debt  created  in  each  year  of  the  present  war  will  be  redeemed  in  about 


474  APPENDIX. 

Not  a  shadow  of  doubt  can  now  remain  that  Mr.  Pitt*s  and  Mr.  Addington's  antici- 
nations  were  well  founded,  and  that,  if  their  system  had  heen  adhered  to  since  the 
peace,  the  whole  national  debt  would  have  been  discharged  by  the  year  1843.  The 
payment  of  eighty  millions,  under  the  mutilated  system,  since  1815,  aftords  a  sample  of 
What  might  have  been  expected,  had  its  efficiency  not  been  impaired.  Even  supposing 
that,  for  the  extraordinary  efforts  of  1813,  1814,  and  1815,  it  had  been  necessary  to  bor- 
row from  the  commissioners  the  whole  sinking  fund  during  each  of  these  years,  still,  if 
the  nation  and  its  government  had  posessed  sufficient  resolution  to  have  resumed  the 
system  with  the  termination  of  hostilities,  and  steadily  adhered  to  it  since  that  time,  the 
debt  discharged  by  the  year  1836  would,  at  5  per  cent.,  have  been  nearly  six  hundred 
millions,  and  the  sinking  fund  would  now  have  been  paying  off  above  forty  millions  a 
year.  Or,  if  the  national  engagements  would  only  have  permitted  the  sinking  fund  to 
have  been  kept  up  at  ten  millions  yearly  from  the  produce  of  taxes,  and  if  the  accumu- 
lation were  to  be  calculated  at  four  per  cent.,  which,  on  an  average,  is  probably  not  far 
from  the  truth,  the  fund  applicable  to  the  reduction  of  debt  would  now  have  been  above 
twenty  millions  annually,  arid  the  debt  already  discharged  would  have  exceeded  three 
hundred  and  thirty  millions !  A  more  rapid  reduction  of  funded  property  would  not 
probably  have  been  consistent,  either  with  a  proper  regard  to  the  employment  of  capital, 
or  the  due  creation  of  safe  channels  of  investment,  to  receive  so  vast  an  annual  discharge 
from  the  public  treasury.* 

forty  years  from  such  year  respectively,  and  the  whole  of  the  capital  debt  existing  previous  to  1793  will  be 
redeemed  in  about  forty-seven  years  from  the  present  time;  that  from  1808 to  1833 (at  which  ti  ne  the  capital 
debt  created  in  the  first  year  of  the  present  war  would  be  redeemed,  and  the  taxes  applicable  to  the  charges 
thereof  would  become  disposable,)  taxes  would  be  set  free  in  each  year  of  peace  to  the  amount  of  .£133,000,  and 
of  war  to  that  of  £168,000;  that  the  amount  of  the  sum  annually  applicable  to  the  reduction  of  thedel>t  would  in 
the  course  of  the  same  period  gradually  rise  from  £5,000,000  to  ,£10,400,000;  and  that,  on  the  suppositions  before 
stated,  taxes  equal  to  the  amount  of  the  charges  created  during  each  year  of  the  present  war  will  be  successively 
set  free,  from  1833  to  1840,  to  the  amount  in  the  whole  of  £10,500,000,  and  about  1846,  further  taxes  to  the  amounS 
of  £4,200,000,  being  the  sum  applicable  fiora  1808  to  the  reduction  of  the  debt  existing  previous  to  1793 ;  making 
in  all,  when  the  whole  debt  is  extinguished  in  1846,  a  reduction  of  £19,000,000  yearly."a  Such  was  the  far-seeinj 
and  durable  system  of  thia  great  statesman  ;  and  experience  has  now  proved  that,  if  his  principles  had  been  ad- 
hered to,  and  the  taxes  applicable  to  the  charges  of  the  debt  had  not  been  imprudently  repealed,  these  antici- 
pations would  have  been  more  than  realized,  notwithstanding  the  vast  increase  of  the  debt  since  that  time. 

*  Tables  showing  the  progressive  growth  of  the  Sinking  Fund  of  fifteen  or  ten  millions,  since  1816  to  1836, 
Table  I.,  showing  what  the  Sinking  Fund,  accumulating  at  5  per  cent.,  if  maintained  at  £15,000,000  a  year 
ve  paid  off  from  1816  to  1836. 

1816 £15.000,000  Brought  forward £212,660,625 

1817 15,750,000  1827 25.530,240 

1818 16.537,500  1828 26,839,360 

1819 17.363,870  1829 28,181.423 

1820 18.231,973  1830 29,590,464 

1821 19,143,566  1831 31,579,590 

1822 20,100,774  1832 33.158,577 

1833 34,816.000 


1835 37,238,312 

1836 39,099,214 


Carry  forward  £212,660,625  Total  in  20  years  £534,127,430 

Table  II.,  showing  what  the  Sinking  Fund,  if  maintained  from  the  taxes  at  £10,000  000  sterling,  and  if  acco- 
relating  at  4  per  cent,  only,  would  have  paid  off  from  1816  to  1836. 

1816 £10,000,000  Brought  forward £138,243,700 

1817 10,400,000  1827 16,032,580 

1818 10,816.000  1828 


1829 17,340,832 

1820 11,715,560                1830 18034464 

I*21 12,671,544                1831 is',754',840 

1822 13.178,404                1832 19,505,032 

1823 13,705.540         ,      1833 20,285,232 

1824 14.253,760                1834 21.096,640 

I825 14,822,948                1835 21,930,504 

18K 15,415,944                1836 23107724 


Carry  forward  £138,243,700  Total  in  20  years  £331,005,428 

Supposing  the  stock,  in  the  first  case,  purchased  on  an  average  at  90  by  the  commissioners,  the  £534,027.4t>* 
Herling  money  would  have  redeemed  a  tenth  more  of  the  stock,  or  £587,000.000  of  the  stock.  Supposing  it 
bought,  in  the  second  case,  at  an  average  at  85,  which  would  probably  have  bean  about  the  mark,  the  £342  000. 
aOO  sterling  money  would  have  purchased  nearly  a  seventh  more  of  stock,  or  £385,357,000,  being  just  about  a 
half  of  the  debt  existing  at  this  moment. 

a  Parl.  Hist.,  xxxiv..  1155 


APPENDIX. 


475 


Everything,  therefore,  conspires  to  demonstrate  that  Mr.  Pitt's  system  for  the  reduc 
tion  of  the  national  debt  was  nut  only  founded  on  just  principles  and  profound  fore- 
sight, but  an  accurate  knowledge  of  human  nature  and  a  correct  appreciation  of  the 
principles  by  which  such  a  salutary  scheme  was  likely  to  be  defeated,  and  the  means 
by  which  alone  its  permanent  efficiency  could  be  secured.  And  no  doubt  can  now  re- 
main in  any  impartial  mind  that,  if  that  system  had  been  resolutely  adhered  to,  the 
whole  debt  contracted  duri/ig  the  war  with  the  French  Revolution  might  have  been 
discharged  in  nearly  the  same  time  that  it  was  contracted. 

What  is  it,  then,  which  has  occasioned  the  subsequent  ruin  of  a  system  constructed 
with  so  much  wisdom,  and  so  long  adhered  to,  under  the  severest  trials,  with  unshaken 
fidelity  ?  The  answer  is  to  be  found  in  the  temporary  views  and  yielding  policy  of  sue- 
ceeding  statesmen;  in  the  substitution  of  ideas  of  present  expedience  for  those  of  per- 
manent advantage  ;  in  the  advent  of  times,  when  government  looked  from  year  to  year, 
not  from  century  to  century ;  in  the  mistaking  the  present  applause  of  the  unreflecting 
many  for  that  sober  approbation  of  the  thoughtful  few,  which  it  should  ever  be  the  chief 
object  of  an  enlightened  statesman  to  obtain.  When  a  Greek  orator  was  applauded  by 
the  multitude  for  his  speech,  the  philosopher  chid  him :  "  For,"  said  he,  "  if  you  had 
spoken  wisely,  these  men  would  have  given  no  signs  of  approbation."  The  observa- 
tion is  not  founded  on  any  peculiar  fickleness  or  levity  in  the  Athenian  people,  but  on 
the  permanent  principles  of  human  nature,  and  that  general  prevalence  of  the  desire  for 
temporary  ease  over  considerations  of  permanent  advantage,  which  it  is  the  great  ob- 
ject of  the  moralist  to  combat,  and  to  the  influence  of  which  the  greatest  disasters  of 
private  life  are  owing.  And,  without  relieving  subsequent  statesmen  of  their  full  share 
of  responsibility  for  an  evil  which  will  now  in  the  end  probably  consign  the  British  Em- 
pire to  destruction,  it  may  safely  be  affirmed  that  the  British  people,  and  every  individ- 
ual among  them,  must  bear  their  full  share  of  the  burden.  A  general  delusion  seized 
the  public  mind.  The  populace  loudly  clamored  for  a  reduction  of  taxation,  without 
any  regard  to  the  consequences,  not  merely  on  future  times,  but  their  own  present  advan- 
tage ;  the  learned  fiercely  assailed  the  sinking  fund,  and,  with  hardly  a  single  excep- 
tion, branded  the  work  of  Pitt  and  Fox  as  a  vile  imposture,  unfit  to  stand  the  test  of 
reason  or  experience  ;  the  opposition  vehemently  demanded  the  remission  of  taxes;  the 
government  weakly  granted  the  request.  Year  after  year  passed  away  under  this  mis- 
erable delusion ;  tax  after  tax  was  repealed  amid  the  general  applause  of  the  nation  ;* 
the  general  concurrence  in  the  work  of  destruction  for  a  time  almost  obliterated  the 


Table  showing  the  amount  of  direct  and  indirect  taxes  repealed  since  1814. 

Nett  produce.  Gross  produce. 

1814,  War  duties  on  goods,  &c £932,000  £948.861 

1815,  Ditto 222,000 

1816,  Property -tax  and  war  malt 17,547,000 

1817,  Sweet  wines 37,000  37,812 

1818,  Vinegar,  &c 9,500  9,524 

1819,  Plate  glass,  &.c 269,000  273.573 

181X),  Beer  in  Scotland 4,000  4,000 

1821,  Wool 471,000  490,113 

1822,  Annual  malt  and  hides 2,139,000  2,164,037 

1823,  Stilt  and  assessed  taxe.- 4,185,000  4,286,389 

1824,  Thrown  silk  and  salt 1,801,000  1,805,467 

1835,  Wine,  salt,  &c 3,676,000  3,771.019 

1836,  Rum  and  British  spirits 1,967,000  1,973,915 

1827,  Sumps 84,000 

1828.  Rice.&c 51,000 

1830,  8ilk,&c 126,000  126,406 

1830,  Beer,  hides,  and  sugar 4,070,000  4,264,423 

1831,  Printed  cottons,  and  coals 1,588.000  3,189,312 

1832,  Candles,  almonds,  raisins.  &c 747,000  754,996 

1833,  Soap,  tiles,  &c 1,000,000  1.100,000 

1834,  House  duty 1,200,000  1,400.000 

£42,125,500  £44,845.539 

Laid  on  in  the  same  time          5,813,000 

Nett  taxation  reduced £36.312,500 

Of  wl.ich  was  direct 18.690.000 

Indirect 17.490.000 


<  Part.  Paper,  Mth  June,  1833,  and  Budget,  1834,  Parl.  Deb. 


£36.180,008 


476  APPENDIX. 

deep  lines  of  party  distinction,  and,  amid  mutual  compliments  from  the  opposition  to 
the  ministerial  benches,  the  deep  foundations  of  British  greatness  were  loosened,  the 
provident  system  of  former  times  was  abandoned  ;  revenue  to  the  amount  of  forty-two 
millions  a  year  surrendered  without  any  equivalent,  and  the  nation,  when  it  wakened 
from  its  trance,  found  itself  saddled  for  ever  with  eight-and-twenty  millions  as  the  inte- 
rest of  debt,  without  any  means  of  redemption,  and  a  Democratic  constitution  which 
rendered  the  construction  of  any  such  in  time  to  come  utterly  hopeless. 

The  people  were  entitled  to  demand  an  instant  relaxation  from  taxation  upon  the  ter- 
mination of  hostilities ;  the  pressure  of  the  war  taxes  would  have  been  insupportable 
when  its  excitement  and  expenditure  were  over.  The  income-tax  could  no  longer  be 
endured ;  the  assessed  taxes  and  all  the  direct  imposts  should  at  once  have  been  re- 
pealed; no  man,  excepting  the  dealers  in  articles  liable  to  indirect  taxation,  should 
have  paid  anything  to  government.  This  was  a  part,  and  a  most  important  part,  of  Mr. 
Pitt's  system.  He  was  aware  of  the  extreme  and  well-founded  discontent  which  the 
payment  of  direct  taxes  to  government  occasions;  he  knew  that  nothing  but  the  ex- 
citements and  understood  necessities  of  war  can  render  it  bearable.  His  system  was 
therefore  to  provide  for  the  extra  expenses  of  war  entirely  by  loans  or  direct  taxes,  and 
to  devote  the  indirect  taxes  to  the  interest  of  the  public  debt  and  the  permanent  charges 
of  government,  those  lasting  burdens  which  could  not  be  reduced  without  injury  to  the 
national  credit  or  security  on  the  termination  of  hostilities.  In  this  way  a  triple  ob- 
ject was  gained :  the  nation  during  the  continuance  of  war  was  made  to  feel  its  pres- 
sure by  the  payment  of  heavy  annual  duties,  while,  upon  its  conclusion,  the  people 
experienced  an  instant  relief  in  the  cessation  of  those  direct  payments  to  government, 
which  are  always  felt  as  most  burdensome  ;  and  at  the  same  time  the  permanent  char- 
ges of  the  state  were  provided  for  in  those  indirect  duties,  which,  although  by  far  the 
most  productive,  are  seldom  complained  of,  from  their  being  mixed  up  with  the  price 
of  commodities,  and  so  not  perceived  by  those  who  ultimately  bear  their  weight.  Mr. 
Pitt's  system  of  taxation,  in  short,  combined  the  important  objects  of  heavy  taxation 
during  war,  instant  relief  on  peace,  and  a  permanent  provision  for  the  lasting  expenses 
of  the  state,  in  the  way  least  burdensome  to  the  people.  The  influence  of  these  admi- 
rable principles  is  to  be  seen  in  the  custom  so  long  adhered  to,  and  only  departed  from 
amid  the  improvidence  of  later  times,  of  separating,  in  the  annual  accounts  of  the  na- 
tion, the  war  charges  from  the  permanent  expenses,  and  providing  for  the  former  by 
loans  and  temporary  taxes,  for  the  most  part  in  the  direct  form,  while  the  latter  were 
met  by  lasting  imposts,  which  were  not  to  be  diminished  till  the  burdens  to  which  they 
were  applicable  were  discharged. 

Following  out  these  principles,  the  income  tax,  the  assessed  taxes,  the  war  malt  tax, 
and,  in  general,  all  the  war  taxes,  should  have  been  repealed  on  the  conclusion  of  hos- 
tilities or  as  soon  as  the  floating  debt  contracted  during  their  continuance  was  liquida- 
ted ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  indirect  taxes  should  have  been  regarded  as  a  sacred 
fund  set  apart  for  the  permanent  expenses  of  the  nation,  the  interest  6f  the  debt,  and 
the  sinking  fund  ;  and  none  of  them  repealed  till,  from  the  growth  of  a  surplus  after 
meeting  those  necessary  charges,  it  had  become  apparent  that  such  relief  could  be  af- 
forded without  trenching  on  the  financial  resources  of  the  state.  That  the  growth  of 
population  and  the  constant  efforts  of  general  industry  would  progressively  have  ena 
bled  government,  without  injuring  these  objects,  to  afford  such  relief,  at  least  by  the  re 
peal  of  the  most  burdensome  of  the  indirect  taxes,  as  the  salt  tax,  the  soap  and  candle 
tax,  and  pan  of  the  malt  tax,  is  evident,  from  the  consideration  that  the  taxes  given  up 
since  the  peace  amount  to  X42,000,OtfO,  and  consequently,  after  the  repeal  of  the  in- 
come tax,  assessed  taxes,  and  these  oppressive  indirect  taxes,  an  ample  fund  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  sinking  fund,  even  at  the  elevated  rate  of  fifteen  millions  a  year, 
would  have  remained.*  Thus  Mr.  Pitt's  system  involved  within  itself  the  important 

*  Total  taxes  repealed  since  the  peace,  £42,115,000; 
Mieht.  have  been  repealed,  viz. : 

Property-tax  and  war  malt £17,547,000 

War  duties  on  goods I.ISI.OOO 

Annual  malt  and  hides 2,139,000 

Salt  and  assessed  taxes 4,185,000 

Candles 


Soap-tax 800000 

House-tax 1,200,000 


£27.635,000 
Leaving  to  support  the  sinking  fund..; 14,490,000 

£42115,000 
Baatdoc  £5,813.000  of  fresh  taxes  imposed  during  the  same  period. 


APPENDIX  477 

and  invaluable  qualities  of  providing  amply  for  the  necessities  of  the  moment,  affording 
instant  relief  on  the  termination  of  hostilities,  and  yet  reserving  an  adequate  fund  for 
the  liquidation  of  all  the  national  engagements  in  as  short  a  time  as  they  were  con- 
tracted. 

If,  indeed,  the  nation  had  been  positively  unable  to  bear  the  burden  of  the  sinking 
fund  of  fifteen  millions  drawn  from  the  indirect  taxes,  it  might  have  been  justly  argued 
that  the  evil  consequences  of  its  abandonment,  however  much  to  be  deplored,  were 
unavoidable,  and,  therefore,  that  the  present  hopeless  situation  of  the  debt  may  be  the 
subject  of  regret,  but  cannot  be  reproached  as  a  fault  to  any  administration  whatever. 
But,  unfortunately,  this  is  by  no  means  the  case.  To  all  appearance,  the  nation  has 
derived  no  material  benefit  from  a  great  part  of  the  taxes  thus  improvidently  abandoned, 
but  has,  on  the  contrary,  suffered  in  all  its  present  interests,  as  well  as  future  prospects, 
from  the  change. 

In  proof  of  this,  it  is  only  necessary  to  recollect  that  during  the  war  the  nation  not 
only  existed,  but  throve  under  burdens  infinitely  greater  than  have  been  imposed  since 
its  termination,  and  that,  too,  although  the  exports  and  imports  at  that  period  were  little 
more  than  half  of  what  they  have  since  become.  During  the  last  four  years  of  the  war, 
the  sum  annually  raised  by  taxes  was  from  sixty-five  to  seventy-five  millions,  while 
twenty  years  after  it  was  from  forty-five  to  fifty;  although,  during  the  first  period,  the 
exports  ranged  from  forty-five  to  sixty  millions,  and  the  imports  from  twenty-five  to 
thirty  ;  while,  during  the  latter,  the  exports  had  risen  to  seventy-five  millions,  and  the 
imports  to  forty-five.*  Without  doubt,  the  prosperity  of  the  latter  years  of  the  war 
was,  in  a  great  degree,  fictitious;  most  certainly  it  depended  to  a  certain  extent  on  the 
feverish  excitement  of  an  extravagant  issue  of  paper,  and  was  also  much  to  be  ascribed 
to  a  large  portion  of  the  capital  of  the  nation  being  at  that  period  annually  borrowed 
and  spent  in  an  unproductive  form,  to  its  great  present  benefit  and  certain  ultimate  em- 
barrassment. It  is  equally  clear  that,  if  this  had  gone  on  for  some  years  longer,  irrepa- 
rable ruin  must  have  been  the  result.  But  there  is  a  medium  in  all  things.  As  much 
as  the  public  expenditure  before  1816  exceeded  what  a  healthful  state  of  the  body  poli- 
tic could  bear,  so  much  has  the  expenditure  since  that  time  fallen  short  of  it.  Violent 
transitions  are  as  injurious  in  political  as  private  life.  To  pass  at  once  from  a  state 
of  vast  and  unprecedented  expenditure  to  one  of  rigid  and  jealous  economy,  is  in  the 
highest  degree  injurious  to  a  nation  ;  it  is  like  making  a  man  who  has  for  years  drank 
two  bottles  of  port  a  day  suddenly  take  to  toast  and  water.  '  It  may  sometimes  be  una- 
voidable, but,  unquestionably,  the  change  would  be  much  less  perilous  if  gradually  ef- 
fected. 

It  was  unquestionably  right,  at  the  conclusion  of  the  war,  to  have  made  as  large  a 
reduction  as  was  consistent  with  the  public  security  in  the  army  and  navy,  and  to  stop 
at  once  the  perilous  system  of  borrowing  money.  Such  a  reduction  at  once  permitted 
the  repeal  of  the  whole  direct  war  taxes.  But  having  done  this,  the  question  is,  Was  it 
expedient  to  go  a  step  farther,  and  make  such  reductions  in  the  indirect  taxes,  of  which 
no  serious  complaint  was  made,  as  amounted  to  a  practical  repeal  of  the  sinking  fund? 
That  was  the  ruinous  measure  !  The  maintenance  of  that  fund  at  twelve  or  fifteen 
millions  a  year,  raised  from  taxes,  with  its  growing  increase,  would,  to  all  appearance, 
have  been  a  happy  medium,  which,  without  adding  to,  but,  on  the  contrary,  in  the  long 
run  diminishing  the  national  burdens,  would,  at  the  same  time,  have  prevented  that  vio- 
lent transition  from  a  state  of  expenditure  to  one  of  retrenchment,  under  the  effects  of 
which,  for  eighteen  years  after  the  peace,  all  branches  of  industry,  with  only  a  few  in- 
tervals, continued  to  labor. 

No  one  branch  of  the  government  expenditure  would  have  gone  farther  to  uphold, 
during  this  trying  time,  the  industry  and  credit  of  the  country,  and  diffuse  an  active 
demand  for  labor  through  all  classes,  than  that  which  was  devoted  to  the  sinking  'fund. 
Such  a  fund,  beginning  at  twelve  or  fifteen  millions  a  year  derived  from  taxes,  and 

»  Official  value.  Official  value. 


ain 

and  Ireland.  and  Ireland 

1813  ............................  ..£63,211,000                   £38,226,283  £25,163.411 

1814  ..............................   70,936,000  Records  destroyed  by  fire. 

1815  ..............................   72,131,000                      52.573,034  33.755.2t4 

1816  ..............................   76,834,000                      58,624,600  32,967.3% 

1830  .............................  £55,824.802                   £69,691.302  £46,245,241 

1831  .............................   54,810,190                      71,429,004  49.713.86y 

1832  ..............................   50.9^315                      76.071,572  44.586,241 

—  PEBRER'S  Tables,  IM,  341  ;  PORTER'S  Pwrl.  Tables,  i..  48.  and  u.,  49. 


478  APPENDIX. 

progressively  rising  to  twenty  or  thirty  millions,  annually  applied  to  the  redemption  of 
stock,  must  have  had  a  prodigious  effect,  both  in  upholding  credit  and  spreading  com- 
mercial  enterprise  through  the  country.  It  would  have  produced  an  effect  precisely 
opposite  to  that  which  the  annual  absorption  of  the  same  sum,  during  the  war,  in  loans 
occasioned.  The  public  funds,  under  the  influence  of  the  prodigious  and  growing  pur- 
chases of  the  commissioners,  must  have  been  maintained  at  a  very  high  level ;  it  is 
probably  not  going  too  far  to  .«ay,  that  since  1820  they  would  have  been  constantly  kept 
from  90  to  100.  The  effect  of  such  a  state  of  things  in  vivifying  and  sustaining  com- 
mercial  enterprise,  and  counteracting  the  depression  consequent  upon  the  great  diminu- 
tion of  the  government  expenditure  in  other  departments,  must  have  been  very  great. 
The  money  given  for  the  stock  purchased  by  the  commissioners  would  have  been  let 
loose  upon  the  country ;  their  operations  must  have  continually  poured  out  upon  the 
nation  a  stream  of  wealth,  constantly  increasing  in  size,  which,  in  the  search  for  profit, 
able  investment,  could  not  have  avoided  giving  a  most  important  stimulus  to  every 
branch  of  national  industry.  The  sinking  fund  must  have  operated  like  a  great  forcing, 
pump,  which  drew  a  large  portion  of  the  capital  of  the  coun'ry  annually  out  of  its  un- 
productive investment  in  the  public  funds,  and  directed  it  to  the  various  beneficial 
channels  of  private  employment.  Doubtle,  i  the  funds  necessary  for  the  accomplishment 
of  this  great  work  must  have  been  drawn  fiom  the  nation,  or  the  proceeds  of  the  stock 
purchased  by  the  commissioners,  just  as  the  produce  of  the  taxes  is  all  extracted  from 
the  national  industry;  but  experience  has  abundantly  proved  that  such  a  forcible  direc- 
tion of  a  considerable  part  of  the  national  income  to  such  a  productive  investment,  is 
often  more  conducive  to  immediate  prosperity,  as  well  as  ultimate  advantage,  than  if, 
from  an  undue  regard  to  popular  clamor,  it  is  allowed  to  remain  at  the  disposal  of  indi. 
viduals.  It  is  like  compelling  a  spendthrift  and  embarrassed  landowner  not  only  to  pro. 
vide  annually  for  the  interest  of  his  debts,  but  to  pay  off  a  stated  portion  of  the  principal, 
which,  when  assigned  to  his  creditors,  is  immediately  devoted  to  the  fertilizing  of  his 
fields  and  the  draining  of  his  morasses.  Nor  is  this  all.  The  high  price  of  the  funds 
consequent  upon  the  vast  and  growing  purchases  of  the  commissioners  would  have  gone 
far  not  only  to  keep  up  that  prosperous  state  of  credit  which  is  essential  to  the  well- 
being  of  a  commercial  country,  but  would  have  induced  numbers  of  private  individuals 
to  sell  out  in  order  to  realize  the  great  addition  to  their  capitals  which  the  rise  of  the 
public  securities  had  occasioned.  To  assert  that  this  forced  application  yearly  of  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  national  capital  to  the  redemption  of  the  debt  would  have 
altogether  counteracted  the  decline  in  the  demand  for  labor  consequent  on  the  transi. 
,tion  from  a  state  of  war  to  one  of  peace,  would  be  going  farther  than  either  reason  or 
experience  will  justify  ;  but  this  much  may  confidently  be  asserted,  that  the  general 
prosperity  consequent  on  this  state  of  things  could  not  have  failed  to  have  rendered  the 
taxation  requisite  to  produce  it  comparatively  a  tolerable  burden  ;  that  the  nation  would, 
to  all  appearance,  have  been  much  more  prosperous  than  it  has  been  under  the  opposite 
system,  and,  at  the  same  time,  would  have  obtained  the  incalculable  advantage  of  having 
paid  off,  during  these  prosperous  years,  above  two-thirds  of  the  national  debt.  This 
prosperity  doubtless  would  have  been  partly  owing  to  a  forced  direction  of  capital ;  but 
whatever  danger  there  may  be  in  such  a  state  of  things  while  debt  is  annually  contracted, 
there  is  comparatively  little  when  it  is  continued  only  for  its  discharge  ;  and  when  an 
artificial  system  has  contributed  to  the  formation  of  a  burden,  it  is  well  that  it  should 
not  be  entirely  removed  till  that  burden  is  reduced  to  a  reasonable  amount. 

Every  one,  when  this  vast  reduction  of  indirect  taxes  was  going  on,  to  the  entire 
destruction  of  the  sinking  fund  and  Mr.  Pitt's  provident  system  of  financial  policy, 
looked  only,  even  with  reference  to  present  advantage,  to  one  side  of  the  account.  They 
forgot  that,  if  the  demands  of  government  on  the  industry  of  the  nation  were  rapidly 
reduced,  their  demands  on  government  must  instantly  undergo  a  similar  diminution  ;  that, 
if  the  Exchequer  ceased  to  collect  seventy  millions  a  year,  it  must  cease  also  to  expend 
it.  Every  reduction  of  taxation,  even  in  those  branches  where  it  is  not  complained  bf, 
was  held  forth  as  an  alleviation  of  the  burdens  of  the  nation,  and  a  reasonable  ground 
for  popularity  to  its  rulers ;  whereas,  in  truth,  the  relief  even  at  the  moment  was  more 
nominal  than  real,  as  though  a  diminution  of  those  burdens  was  effected  :  it  took  place 
frequently  in  quarters  where  they  were  imperceptible,  and  drew  after  it  an  instantane. 
ous  and  most  sensible  reduction  in  the  demand  for  labor  and  the  employment  of  the 
industrious  classes,  at  a  time  when  it  could  ill  be  spare.d,  from  the  same  effect  having 
simultaneously  ensued  from  other  causes.  Great  part  of  the  distress  which  has  been 
felt  by  all  classes  since  the  peace  was  the  result  of  the  general  diminution  of  expend!, 
ture,  which  the  too  rapid  reduction  of  so  many  indirect  taxes,  and  consequent  abandon. 


APPENDIX  479 

ment  of  the  sinking  fund,  necessarily  occasioned,  and  which  the  maintenance  of  ita 
machinery  till  it  had  fulfilled  its  destined  purpose  would,  to  a  very  great  degree,  have 
alleviated.  It  augments  our  .regret,  therefore,  at  the  abandonment  of  Mr.  Pitt's  finan- 
cial system,  that  the  change  hud  not  even  the  excuse  of  present  necessity  or  obvious 
expedience  for  its  recommendation,  but  was  the  result  of  undue  subservience  to  partic- 
ular interests,  or  desire  for  popularity  on  the  part  of  our  rulers,  uattended  even  by  the 
temporary  advantages  for  the  sake  of  which  its  incalculable  ultimate  benefits  were  re- 
linquished. 

Lord  Castlereagh  made  a  most  manly  endeavor,  in  1816,  to  induce  the  people  to 
submit  for  a  few  years  to  that  elevated  ntte  of  taxation  by  which  alone  permanent  relief 
from  the  national  embarrassments  cuuld  be  expected  ;  but  he  committed  a  signal  error 
in  the  tax  which  he  selected  for  the  struggle,  and  deviated  as  much  from  Mr.  Pittfs 
principles  in  the  effort  to  maintain  that  heavy  impost  as  subsequent  administrations  did 
in  their  abandonment  of  others  of  a  lighter  character.  The  income-tax,  being  a  direct 
war  impost  of  the  most  oppressive  and  invidious  description,  was  always  intended  by 
that  great  statesman  to  come  to  a  close  with  the  termination  of  hostilities  ;  and  its 
weight  was  so  excessive,  that  it  was  impossible  and  unreasonable  to  expect  the  people 
to  submit  any  longer  to  its  continuance.  Nothing  could  be  more  impolitic,  therefore, 
than  to  commit  government  to  a  content  with  the  people  on  so  untenable  a  ground.  It 
was  the  subsequent  repeal  of  indirect  taxes  to  the  amount  of  above  five-and- twenty 
millions  a  year,  when  they  were  not  complained  of,  and  the  fall  in  the  price  of  the  taxed 
articles,  from  the  change  in  the  value  of  money,  had  rendered  their  weight  impercepti- 
ble, which  was  the  fatal  deviation  from  Mr.  Pitt's  principles.  The  administrations  by 
whom  this  prodigious  repeal  was  effected  are  not  exclusively  responsible  for  the  result: 
it  is  not  unlikely,  that  from  the  growing  preponderance  of  the  popular  branch  of  the 
Constitution,  it  had  become  impossible  to  carry  on  the  government  without  the  annual 
exhibition  of  some  such  fallacious  benefit,  to  gain  the  applause  of  the  multitude;  and  it 
is  more  than  probable  that,  from  the  excessive  influence  which  in  later  years  it  acquired, 
the  maintenance  of  any  fixed  provident  system  of  finance  had  become  impossible.  But 
they  are  to  blame,  and  posterity  will  not  acquit  them  of  the  fault,  for  not  having  con- 
stantly and  strenuously  combated  this  natural,  though  ruinous  popular  weakness;  and 
if  they  could  not  prevail  on  the  House  of  Commons  to  adhere  to  Mr.  Pitt's  financial 
system,  at  least  laid  on  them  the  responsibility  of  all  the  consequences  of  its  abandon- 
ment. 

It  was  impossible  to  explain  Mr.  Pitt's  system  for  the  reduction  of  the  debt,  without 
anticipating  the  course  of  events,  and  unfolding  the  ruinous  results  which  have  followed 
the  departure  from  its  principles.  The  paramount  importance  of  the  subject  must  plead 
the  author's  apology  for  the  anachronism  :  and  it  remains  now  to  advert,  with  a  aiffer- 
ent  measure  of  encomium,  to  the  funding  system  on  which  that  statesman  so  largely 
acted,  and  the  general  principles  on  which  his  taxation  was  founded. 

It  is  evident  that  in  some  cases  the  funding  system,  or  the  plan  of  providing  for  ex- 
traordinary public  expenses  by  loans,  the  interest  of  which  is  alone  laid  as  a  burden  on 
future  years,  is  not  only  just,  but  attended  with  very  great  public  advantage.  When  a 
war  is  destined  apparently  to  be  of  short  endurance,  and  a  great  lasting  advantage  may 
be  expected  from  its  results,  it  is  often  impossible,  and,  if  possible,  would  be  unjust,  to 
lay  its  expenses  exclusively  upon  the  years  of  its  continuance.  In  ordinary  contests, 
indeed,  it  is  frequently  practicable,  and  when  so,  it  is  always  advisable,  to  make  the 
expenses  of  the  year  fall  entirely  upon  its  income,  so  that  at  the  conclusion  of  hostilities 
no  lasting  burden  may  descend  upon  posterity.  But  in  other  cases  this  cannot  be  done 
When,  in  consequence  of  the  fierce  attack  of  a  desperate  and  reckless  enemy,  it  has 
become  necessary  to  make  extraordinary  efforts,  it  is  altogether  out  of  the  question  to 
raise  supplies  in  the  year  adequate  to  its  expenditure  :  nor  is  it  reasonable,  in  such 
cases,  to  lay  upon  those  who,  for  the  sake  of  their  children  as  well  as  themselves,  have 
engaged  in  the  struggle,  the  whole  charges  of  a  contest  of  which  the  more  lasting  bene- 
fits are  probably  to  accrue  to  those  who  are  to  succeed  them.  In  such  cases,  necessity 
in  nations,  not  less  than  individuals,  calls  for  the  equalization  of  the  burden  over  all 
those  who  arc  to  obtain  the  benefit ;  and  the  obvious  mode  of  effecting  this  is  by  the 
funding  system,  which,  providing  at  once  by  loan  the  supplies  necessary  for  carrying  on 
the  contest,  lays  its  interest  as  a  lasting  charge  on  those  for  whose  behoof  the  debt  had 
been  contracted.  Nor  is  it  possible  to  deny,  amid  all  the  evils  which  the  abuse  of  this 
system  has  occasioned,  its  astonishing  effect  in  suddenly  augmenting  the  resources  of  a 
nation :  or  to  resist  the  conclusion  deducible  from  the  fact,  that  it  was  to  its  vigorous 

43 


480  APPENDIX. 

and  happy  application  at  the  close  of  the  war  that  the  extraordinary  successes  by  which 
it  was  distinguished  are  in  a  great  degree  to  be  ascribed.* 

But  this  system,  like  everything  good  in  human  affairs,  has  its  limits ;  and  if  extra- 
ordinary benefits  may  sometimes  arise  from  its  adoption,  extraordinary  evils  may  still 
more  frequently  originate  in  its  abuse.  Many  individuals  have  been  elevated,  by  means 
of  loans  contributed  at  a  fortunate  moment,  to  wealth  and  greatness ;  but  many  more 
have  been  involved,  by  the  fatal  command  of  money  which  it  confers  for  a  short  period, 
in  irretrievable  embarrassments.  Unless  suggested  by  necessity  and  conducted  with 
prudence  ;  unless  administered  with  frugality  and  followed  by  parsimony,  borrowing  is, 
to  nations  not  less  than  individuals,  the  general  road  to  ruin.  It  is  the  ease  of  contract- 
ing compared  with  the  difficulty  of  discharging  ;  the  natural  disposition  to  get  a  present 
command  of  money,  and  leave  the  task  01  paying  it  off  to  posterity,  which  is  the  temp, 
tation  that,  to  communities  not  less  than  single  men,  so  often  proves  irresistible.  Opulent 
nations,  whose  credit  is  high,  become  involved  in  debt  from  the  same  cause  which  has 
drowned  almost  all  the  great  estates  in  Europe  with  mortgages :  the  existence  of  the 
means  of  relieving  present  difficulties,  by  merely  contracting  debt,  is  more  than  the 
firmness  either  of  the  heads  of  families  or  the  rulers  of  empires  can  resist.  And  there  is 
this  extraordinary  and  peculiar  danger  in  the  lavish  contraction  of  debt  by  government, 
that  by  the  great  present  expenditure  with  which  it  is  attended,  a  very  great  impulse  is 
communicated  at  the  time  to  every  branch  of  industry,  and  thus  immediate  prosperity 
is  generated  out  of  the  source  of  ultimate  ruin. 

Mr.  Pitt  was  fully  aware  both  of  the  immediate  advantages  and  ultimate  dangers  of 
the  funding  system.  His  measures,  accordingly,  varied  with  the  aspect  which  the  war 
assumed,  and  the  chances  of  bringing  it  to  an  immediate  issue,  which  present  appear, 
ances  appeared  to  afford.  During  its  earlier  years,  when  the  Continental  campaigns 
were  going  on,  and  a  rapid  termination  of  the  strife  was  constantly  expected,  as  was  the 
case  with  the  Spanish  Revolution  in  1823,  or  the  Polish  in  1831,  large  loans  were  annu- 
ally contracted,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  war-supplies  of  the  year  were  raised  by  that 
means  ;  provision  being  made  for  the  permanent  raising  of  the  interest,  and  the  sinking 
fund  for  its  extinction,  in  the  indirect  taxes  which  were  simultaneously  laid  on,  and  to 
the  maintenance  of  which  the  national  faith  was  pledged,  till  the  whole  debt  thus  con. 
tracted,  principal  and  interest,  was  discharged/!"  It  is  no  impeachment  of  the  wisdom 
of  this  system,  so  far  as  finance  goes,  that  the  expectations  of  a  speedy  termination  of 
the  contest  were  constantly  disappointed,  and  that  debt  to  the  amount  of  £116,000,000 
was  contracted  before  the  Continental  peace  of  Campo  Formio  in  1797,  without  any 
other  result  than  a  constant  addition  to  the  power  of  France.  The  question  is  not 
Whether  the  resources  obtained  from  these  loans  were  beneficially  expended,  but  whe- 
ther the  debts  were  contracted  yearly  under  a  belief,  founded  on  rational  grounds,  that 
by  a  vigorous  prosecution  of  the  contest,  it  might  speedily  be  brought  to  a  successful 
issue.  That  this  view,  so  far  as  mere  finance  considerations  are  concerned,  was  well 
founded,  is  obvious  from  the  narrow  escapes  which  the  French  Republic  repeatedly 
made  during  that  period,  and  the  many  occasions  on  which  the  jealousies  of  the  allies, 
or  the  niggardly  exertion  of  its  military  resources  by  Great  Britain,  threw  away  the 
means  of  triumph  when  within  their  grasp.  The  financial  measures  of  the  British 
ministry,  therefore,  during  this  period,  were  justifiable  and  prudent :  the  real  error  con. 
sisted  in  the  misapplication,  or  undue  husbanding  of  its  land-forces,  for  which  it  is  not 
so  easy  to  find  an  apology. 

But  after  the  peace  of  Campo  Formio  this  system  of  lavish  annual  borrowing,  in 
expectation  of  an  immediate  and  decisive  result,  necessarily  required  a  modification, 

*  Lonns  contracted  by  the  British  government  in  the  latter  years  of  the  war. 

1812 £24.000,000        I        1814 .£58,763000 

1813 27.871,000        |        1815 18,500,000 

Of  these  gre;it  loans  upward  of  £12,000,000  was,  in  1813, 1814,  and  1815,  applied  annually  to  foreign  powers ;  in 
consequence  of  which,  the  whole  armies  of  Europe  came  to  he  arrayed  in  British  pay  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine; 
while,  at  the  same  time,  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  at  the  head  of  60,000  men,  was  maintained  on  the  southern 
frontier  of  France.— MOREAU'S  Tables;  PEBRER,  246. 
t  Loan  Contracted. 

1793 £4,500,000 

1794 12,907,451 

1795 42.030.346 

1796 42,736,196 

1797 14,629,000 

—MOREAU'S  Tables 


APPENDIX.  481 

Great  Britain  was  then  left  alone  in  the  struggle.  Her  Continental  allies  had  all  disap. 
peared  from  the  field  of  battle  ;  and  the  utmost  that  she  could  now  expect  was  to  con- 
tinue a  defensive  warfare,  till  time  or  a  different  series  of  events  had  again  brought  their 
vast  armies  to  her  side.  To  have  continued  the  system  of  borrowing  for  the  war  ex- 
penses  of  the  year,  in  such  a  state  of  the  contest,  would  have  been  to  go  on  with  meas- 
ures which  were  likely  to  lead  to  perdition.  The  war  having  now  assumed  a  defensive 
and  lasting  complexion,  the  moment  had  arrived  when  it  became  necessary  to  bring  the 
taxes  within  the  year  nearer  to  a  level  with  the  expenditure.  This  change,  and  the 
reasons  for  it,  are  thus  detailed  in  Mr.  Pitt's  speech  on  the  budget  for  the  year  1798  : 
"  Nineteen  millions  is  the  sum  which  is  required  for  extraordinary  expenses  in  the 
present  year.  According  to  the  received  system  of  financial  operations,  the  natural  and 
ordinary  mode  of  providing  for  this  would  be  by  a  loan.  I  admit  that  the  funding  sys- 
tem, which  has  so  long  been  the  established  mode  of  supplying  the  public  wants,  is  not 
yet  exhausted,  though  I  cannot  but  regret  the  extent  to  which  it  has  been  carried.  If 
we  look,  however,  at  the  general  diffusion  of  wealth  and  the  great  accumulation  of 
capital ;  above  all,  if  we  consider  the  hopes  which  the  enemy  h,as  of  wearing  us  out  by 
the  embarrassments  of  the  funding  system,  we  must  admit  that  the  true  mode  of  pre- 
paring  ourselves  to  maintain  the  contest  with  effect  and  ultimate  success,  is  to  reduce 
the  advantages  which  the  funding  system  is  calculated  to  afford  within  due  limits,  and 
to  prevent  the  depreciation  of  our  national  securities.  We  ought  to  consider  how  far 
the  efforts  we  shall  exert  to  preserve  the  blessings  we  enjoy  will  enable  us  to  transmit 
the  inheritance  to  posterity  unencumbered  with  those  burdens  which  would  cripple  their 
vigor,  and  prevent  them  from  asserting  that  rank  in  the  scale  of  nations  which  their 
ancestors  so  long  and  gloriously  maintained.  It  is  in  this  point  of  view  that  the  object 
ought  to  be  considered.  Whatever  objections  might  have  been  fairly  urged  against  the 
funding  system  in  its  origin,  no  man  can  suppose  that,  after  the  form  and  shape  which  it 
has  given  to  our  financial  affairs,  after  the  heavy  burdens  which  it  has  left  behind  it,  we 
can  now  recur  to  the  notion  of  making  the  supplies  raised  within  the  year,  on  such  a 
scale  of  war  expense  as  we  are  now  placed  in,  equal  the  expenditure.  If  such  a  plan, 
how  desirable  soever,  is  evidently  impracticable,  some  medium,  however,  may  be  found 
to  draw  as  much  advantage  from  the  funding  system  as  it  is  fit,  consistently  with  a  due 
regard  to  posterity,  to  afford,  and  at  the  same  time  to  obviate  the  evils  with  which  its 
excess  would  be  attended.  We  may  still  devise  some  expedient  by  which  we  may 
contribute  to  the  defence  of  our  own  cause  and  to  the  supply  of  our  own  exigencies,  by 
which  we  may  reduce  within  equitable  limits  the  accommodation  of  the  funding  system, 
and  lay  the  foundation  of  that  quick  redemption  which  will  prevent  the  dangerous  con- 
sequences of  an  overgrown  accumulation  of  our  public  debt. 

"  To  guard  against  the  undue  accumulation  of  the  public  debt,  and  to  contribute  that 
share  to  the  struggle  in  which  we  are  engaged  which  our  abilities  will  enable  us,  with- 
out inconvenience  to  those  who  are  called  upon  to  contribute,  to  afford,  appears  essen- 
tially necessary.  I  propose,  with  this  view,  to  reduce  the  loan  for  this  year  (1793)  to 
twelve  millions,  and  to  raise  seven  millions  by  additional  taxation  within  the  year.  1 
am  aware  that  this  sum  does  far  exceed  anything  which  has  been  raised  at  any  former 
period  at  one  time  ;  but  I  trust  that,  whatever  temporary  sacrifices  it  may  be  necessary 
to  make,  the  House  will  see  that  they  will  best  provide  for  the  ultimate  success  of  the 
struggle,  by  showing  that  they  are  determined  to  be  guided  by  no  personal  conside- 
rations, and  that  while  they  defend  the  present  blessings  they  enjoy,  they  are  not  regard- 
less of  posterity.  If  the  sacrifices  required  be  considered  in  this  view  ;  if  they  be  taken 
in  reference  to  the  objects  for  which  we  contend,  and  the  evils  we  are  laboring  to  avert, 
great  as  they  may  be  compared  with  former  exertions,  they  will  appear  light  in  the 
balance. 

"  The  objects  to  be  attained  in  the  selection  of  the  tax  to  meet  this  great  increase 
ore  threefold.  One  great  point  is,  that  the  plan  should  be  diffused  as  extensively  as 
possible,  without  the  necessif  of  such  an  investigation  of  property  as  the  customs,  the 
manners,  and  the  pursuits  of'  ne  people  would  render  odious.  The  next  is,  that  it  should 
exclude  those  who  are  leasi  able  to  contribute  or  furnish  means  of  relief.  The  third, 
that  it  should  admit  of  thosr,  abatements  which,  in  particular  instances,  it  might  be  pru- 
dent to  make  in  the  portion  of  those  who  might  be  liable  under  its  general  principles. 
No  scheme,  indeed,  can  be  practically  carried  into  execution  in  any  financial  arrange, 
ment,  much  more  in  one  embraced  in  such  difficult  circumstances  as  the  present,  with 
such  perfect  dispositions  as  to  guard  against  hardships  in  every  individual  instance;  but 
these  appear  to  me  to  be  the  principles  which  should  be  kept  in  view  in  the  discussion 
of  the  proper  method  to  be  adopted  for  meeting  the  large  deficiency,  which,  from  the  con- 


482  APPENDIX 

traction  of  the  loan,  it  will  become  necessary  to  make  good  by  taxation  within  the  pros, 
ent  year."* 

In  pursuance  of  these  admirable  principles,  Mr.  Pitt  proposed  to  treble  the  assessed 
taxes,  which  fell  chiefly  on  the  rich,  such  as  servants,  horses,  carriages :  and  that  the 
house  and  window  tax,  which  in  a  great  measure  are  borne  by  the  middling  ranks,  should 
only.be  doubled  ;  both  under  various  restrictions,  to  restrain  their  severity  in  affecting 
the  humbler  class  <  f  citizens.  This  w;is  agreed  to  by  the  committee  of  the  House  of 
Commons  ;  and  thus  the  first  step  was  made  in  the  new  system  of  contracting  the  loan 
within  narrower  limits,  and  making  the  supplies  raised  within  the  year  more  nearly 
approach  to  its  expenditure.  But  the  produce  of  the  tax  fell  greatly  short  of  the  expec- 
tations of  government,  as  they  had  calculated  on  its  reaching  seven  millions,  whereas  it 
never  cleared  four  millions  and  a  half;  a  deficiency  which  rendered  a  recurrence  to 
borrowing  necessary  in  that  very  year.t 

The  trebled  assessed  taxes  thus  imp.jsed,  however,  were,  acccording  to  Mr.  Pitt's  plan, 
to  be  continued  only  for  a  limited  rime,  and  kept  up  only  as  a  war  burden.  "  I  propose,'* 
eaid  he,  "  that  the  increased  assessment  now  voted  shall  be  continued  till  the  principal 
and  interest  of  the  loan  contracted  this  year  shall  be  discharged  :  so  that  after  the  seven 
millions  shall  have  been  raised  within  this  year,  the  same  sums  continued  next  year, 
with  the  additional  aid  of  the  sinking  fund,  will  pay  off  ail  that  principal  and  inter- 
mediate interest.  If  you  feel  yourselves  equal  to  this  exertion,  its  effects  will  not  be 
confined  to  the  benefits  I  have  stated  in  the  way  of  general  policy;  it  will  go  to  the 
exoneration  of  the  nation  from  increased  burdens.  Unless  you  feel  that  you  have  a 
right  to  expect  that,  by  less  exertion,  you  will  be  equally  secure,  and  indulge  in  the  hope 
that,  by  stopping  short  of  this  effort,  you  will  produce  a  successful  termination  of  the  war, 
you  must  put  aside  all  apprehensions  of  the  present  pressure,  and  by  vigorous  exertion, 
endeavor  to  secure  your  future  stability,  the  happy  effects  of  which  will  soon  be  seen 
and  acknowledged.  I  am  aware  it  will  be  said  it  would  be  fortunate  if  the  system  of 
funding  had  never  been  introduced,  and  that  it  is  much  to  be  lamented  that  it  is  not  ter- 
minated ;  but  if  we  are  arrived  at  a  moment  which  requires  a  change  of  system,  it  is  some 
encouragement  for  us  to  look  forward  to  benefits  which,  on  all  former  occasions,  have 
been  unknown,  because  the  means  of  obtaining  them  were  neglected.  Raise  the  pres- 
ent sums  by  taxation  in  two  years,  and  you  and  your  posterity  are  completely  exonerated 
from  it;  but  if,  on  the  other  hand,  you  fund  its  amount,  it  will  entail  an  annual  tribute 
for  its  interest,  which  in  forty  years  will  amount  to  no  less  than  forty  millions.  These 
are  the  principles,  this  is  the  conduct,  this  is  the  language  fit  for  men  legislating  for  a 
country,  that  from  its  situation,  character,  and  institutions,  bears  the  fairest  chance  of 
any  in  Europe  for  perpetuity.  You  should  look  to  distant  benefits,  and  not  work  in  the 
narrow,  circumscribed  sphere  of  short-sighted,  selfish  politicians.  You  should  put  to 
yourselves  this  question,  the  only  one  now  to  be  considered,  'Shall  we  sacrifice,  or  shall 
we  save  our  posterity  a  sum  of  between  forty  and  fifty  millions  sterling?'  And  above 
all,  you  should  consider  the  effect  which  such  a  firm  and  dignified  conduct  would  have  on 
the  progress  and  termination  of  the  present  contest,  which  may,  without  exaggeration, 
involve  everything  dear  to  yourselves,  and  decide  the  fate  of  your  posterity. "i  Here 
was  a  great  change  of  system,  and  a  remarkable  approximation  to  a  more  statesmanlike 
and  manly  mode  of  raising  the  supplies  required  for  the  existing  contest.  Instead  of 
providing  taxes  adequate  to  the  interest  merely  of  the  sums  borrowed,  direct  burdens 
were  now  to  be  imposed,  which  in  two  or  three  years  would  discharge  the  whole  prin- 
cipal sums  themselves  :  an  admirable  plan,  and  the  nearest  approximation  which  was 
probably  then  practicable  to  the  only  safe  system  of  finance,  that  of  making  the  supplies 
raised  within  the  year  equal  or  nearly  equal  to  the  expenditure,  but  which  was  soon 
departed  from  amid  the  necessities  or  profusion  of  future  years  ;  and  which,  from  the 
heavy  burdens  which  it  imposes  at  the  moment,  and  from  its  withdrawing  as  much  capi- 
tal from  the  private  employment  of  labor  as  it  added  to  the  public,  was  necessarily  at- 
tended both  with  greatly  more  suffering,  and  far  less  counteracting  prosperity,  than  the 
more  encouraging  and  delusive  system  of  providing  for  all  emergencies  by  lavish  bor- 
rowing, which  had  previously,  and  for  so  long  a  period,  been  adopted. 

The  new  system,  thus  commenced,  was  continued  with  more  or  less  resolution  during 
all  the  remainder  of  Mr.  Pitt's  administration.  But  in  spite  of  the  clear  perception  which 
all  statesmen  had  now  attained  of  the  ultimate  dangers  of  ihe  funding  system,  it  was 
found  to  be  impossible  to  continue  the  new  plan  to  the  full  extent  originally  contenv 
plated  by  its  author.  In  the  next  year,  the  war  again  broke  out  under  circumstances 
the  most  favorable  to  the  European  powers,  and  sound  policy  forbade  a  niggardly 

*  Par)  Hist.,  xxxiii.,  1042, 1045.          t  Purl.  Hist.,  xxxiii.  1076.  I  Purl.  Hist.,  xxxiii.,  1054. 1055. 


APPENDIX.  483 

system  of  finance,  when,  by  a  great  combined  effort,  it  appeared  possible  to  attain, 
during  the  absence  of  Napoleon  on  the  sands  of  Egypt,  all  the  objects  of  the  war  in  a 
single  campaign.  Impressed  with  these  considerations,  Mr.  Pitt  proposed  the  income, 
tax  in  1~99  ;  a  great  step  in  financial  improvement,  and,  if  considered  as  a  war  impost, 
and  regulated  according  to  a  just  scale,  the  most  productive  and  expedient  that  could 
be  adopted.  The  grounds  on  which  this  great  addition  to  the  national  burdens  was 
proposed,  were  thus  stated  by  Mr.  Pitt:  "The  principles  of  finance  which  the  House 
adopted  last  year  were,  first,  to  reduce  the  total  amount  to  be  at  present  raised  by  loan; 
and  next,  to  provide  for  the  deficiency  by  a  temporary  tax,  which  should  extinguish  the 
loan  within  a  limited  time.  The  modifications,  however,  which  it  became  necessary  to 
introduce  into  the  increase  of  the  assessed  taxes  last  year,  considerably  reduced  its 
amount,  and  it  is  now  necessary  to  look  for  some  more  general  and  productive  impost, 
which  may  enable  us  to  continue  the  same  system  of  restraining  the  annual  loan  within 
reasonable  limits.  With  this  view,  it  is  my  intention  that  the  presumption  on  which 
the  assessed  taxes  is  founded  shall  be  laid  aside,  and  that  a  general  tax  shall  be  imposed 
on  all  the  leading  branches  of  income.  No  scale,  indeed,  can  be  adopted  which  shall 
not  be  attended  with  occasional  hardship,  or  withdraw  from  the  fraudulent  the  means 
of  evasion  ;  but  I  trust  that  all  who  value  the  national  safety  will  cooperate  in  the 
desirable  purpose  of  obtaining,  by  an  efficient  and  comprehensive  tax  upon  real  ability, 
every  advantage  which  flourishing  and  invigorated  resources  can  confer  upon  national 
efforts."* 

In  pursuance  of  these  principles,  he  proposed  that  no  income  under  £60  a  year 
should  pay  anything;  that  from  that  up  to  £200  a  year,  it  should  be  on  a  graduated 
scale  ;  and  that  for  £200  a  year  and  upward,  it  should  be  ten  per  cent.  No  one  was 
to  be  called  on  to  disclose  to  the  commissioners ;  but  if  he  declined,  he  was  to  be  liable 
to  be  assessed  at  the  sum  which  they  should  fix :  if  he  gave  in  a  statement  of  his 
receipts,  he  was,  if  required,  to  confirm  it  on  oath.  Funded  property  was  to  be  assessed 
as  well  as  ar*y  other  sources  of  income,  and  the  profits  of  tenants  were  to  be  estimated 
at  three-fourths  of  the  rack-rent  of  their  lands.  The  total  taxable  income  of  Great 
Britain  he  estimated  at  .£102,000,000  a  year,  and  calculated  the  produce  of  the  tax  at 
ten  millions  sterling.  In  consideration  of"  this  great  supply,  he  proposed  to  reduce  the 
trebled  assessed  taxes  to  their  former  level,  and  to  restrict  the  loan  to  £9,500,000,  for 
which  the  income-tax  was  to  be  mortgaged,  after  the  mortgage  imposed  for  the  loan  of 
the  former  year  had  been  discharged.! 

In  opposition  to  this  bill,  it  was  urged  by  Sir  William  Pultney  and  a  considerable 
body  of  respectable  members,  "  That  the  general  and  wise  policy  of  the  country,  from 
the  Revolution  downward,  had  been  to  lay  taxes  on  consumption,  and  consumption  only  ; 
and  to  this  there  was  no  exception  but  the  land  tax,  which  was  of  inconsiderable 
amount ;  for  even  the  window  tax  was  a  burden  on  a  luxury  which  might  be  diminished 
at  pleasure.  Now,  however,  the  dangerous  precedent  is  introduced  of  levying  a  heavy 
impost,  not  on  expenditure  or  consumption,  but  income  :  that  is,  of  imposing  a  burden 
which  by  no  possibility  can  be  avoided.  If  this  principle  be  once  introduced,  it  is 
impossible  to  say  where  the  evil  may  stop  :  for  what  is  to  hinder  the  government  to 
increase  the  tax  to  a  fifth,  a  third,  or  even  a  half;  that  is,  to  introduce  the  confiscations 
which  have  always  distinguished  arbitrary  governments,  and  have  been  in  an  especial 
manner  the  disgrace  of  the  French  Revolution?  The  great  danger  of  this  tax,  there, 
fore,  is,  that  it  not  only  sanctions  a  most  odious  and  dangerous  inquisition  into 
every  man's  affairs,  but  it  is  so  calculated  as  to  weigh  with  excessive  severity  on  the 
middling  orders  of  society,  while  it  would  bear  but  slightly  in  comparison  upon  the 
highest,  and  totally  exempt  the  lowest.  It  would  destroy  the  middling  class,  and  do  it 
soon  ;  it  would  totally  prevent  the  accumulation  of  small  capitals,  the  great  source  of 
general  prosperity,  and  then  we  should  have  only  two  classes  in  the  community,  and  a 
miserable  community  it  would  be,  of  noblemen  and  peasants.  The  principle  that 
every  man  should  contribute  according  to  his  means  is  doubtless  just ;  but  is  this  a 
contribution  according  to  means?  Quite  the  contrary ;  it  is  a  tax  which  falls  with  un- 
due severity  upon  some  classes,  and  improper  lightness  on  others.  A  person  possessing 
permanent  and  independent  income  might  spend  what  portion  of  it  he  chose  without 
injury  to  his  heirs  ;  but  income  resulting  from  personal  industry  or  from  profession  stood 
in  a  very  different  situation,  for  it  was  necessary  that  a  part  of  the  income  of  these 
descriptions  should  be  laid  by  as  a  provision  for  eld  age  or  helpless  families.  Expen- 
diture, therefore,  is  the  only  sure  criterion  of  taxation,  because  it  alone  is  accommodated 
to  the  circumstances  or  necessities  of  each  individual  taxed :  and  if  a  few  misers 

*  Parl.  Hist.,  xxxiv.,  6.  6.  t  Parl.  Hist,  xxxiv..  6.  16, «. 

43* 


484  APPENDIX 

under  such  a  system,  may  avoid  contributing  their  proper  share,  they  are  only  postponing 
the  day  of  payment  to  their  heirs,  who  in  all  probability  will  be  t'ue  more  extravagant, 
and  far  better  that  such  insulated  individuals  should  escape,  than  the  far-spread 
injustice  should  be  inflicted,  which  would  result  from  the  adoption  of  the  proposed 
alteration."* 

The  income-tax,  notwithstanding  these  objections,  was  adopted  by  the  House  of 
Commons  in  the  year  1799  ;  the  loan  of  that  year  being,  for  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
£18,500,000,  besides  .£3,000,000  of  Exchequer  bills.  But  in  comparing  the  amount 
of  the  loans  which  would  have  been  necessary  if  this  system  of  increasing  the  supplies 
raised  within  the  year  had  not  been  adopted,  with  that  actually  contracted  under  the 
new  system,  it  was  satisfactorily  shown  by  Mr.  Pitt  that  no  less  than  .£120,000,000 
would  ultimately  be  saved  to  the  nation  by  the  more  manly  policy,  when  the  interest 
which  was  avoided  was  taken  into  account :  a  striking  proof  of  the  extraordinary  dif. 
ference  to  the  ultimate  resources  of  a  country,  which  arises  from  raising  the  supplies 
within  the  year,  and  providing  them  in  great  part  by  the  funding  system.t 

The  regulation  of  Mr.  Pitt,  however,  in  regard  to  these  direct  taxes,  was,  in  one  im- 
portant particular,  a  deviation  from  his  general  financial  policy,  and  the  embarrassing 
consequences  of  this  deviation  speedily  became  conspicuous.  At  the  first  imposition 
of  the  treble  assessment,  it  was  intended  as  an  extraordinary  resource,  which  there  was 
no  likelihood  would  be  required  beyond  one  or  two  years,  and,  in  consequence,  it  was 
mortgaged  for  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  loans  contracted  in  the  years  when  it  was 
in  operation  ;  and  the  same  principle  was  continued  when  it  was  commuted  for  the 
income-tax.  But  when  this  system  continued  for  several  years  in  succession,  it  came 
to  violate  the  principle  that  these  direct  taxes,  being  a  painful  impost,  should  be  con- 
tinued only  while  the  war  lasted  ;  for  in  the  years  from  1798  to  1801  the  amount  thus 
fixed  as  a  preferable  burden  on  the  direct  war  taxes  was  no  less  than  fifty-six  millions. 
The  magnitude  of  this  mortgage  obliged  Mr.  Pitt,  in  1801,  to  return  to  his  old  mode  of 
contracting  loans,  by  providing,  in  the  increase  of  indirect  taxes,  for  their  interest  and 
the  sinking  fund  required  for  their  redemption  ;  and  in  1802,  when  Mr.  Addington  came 
to  arrange  the  finances  for  a  peace  establishment,  he  got  quit  altogether  of  this  embar 
rassing  load  on  the  direct  taxes,  which  would-  have  required  them,  contrary  to  all  prin- 
ciple, to  be  continued  for  nine  years  after  the  war  had  ceased,  and  boldly  funded  at 
once  the  whole  of  this  £56,000,000,  as  well  as  £40,000,000  of  unfunded  debt  which 
existed  at  the  end  of  the  war;  and  for  the  whole  of  this  immense  sum  of  £96,000,000 
he  contrived  to  find  sufficient  taxes,  even  when  adhering  to  Mr.  Pitt's  system  of  making 
provision  in  the  funding  of  loans,  not  only  for  its  annual  interest,  but  the  sinking  fund 
destined  for  its  redemption.  There  can  be  no  doubt  but  this  was  a  very  great  improve- 
ment, and  that  it  restored  this  branch  of  our  finances  to  their  true  principle,  which  is, 
that  the  whole  sums  required  for  the  interest  and  redemption  of  the  debt  should  be 
raised  by  indirect  taxes,  and  direct  burdens  reserved  only  for  the  extraordinary  efforts 
intended  during  the  continuance  of  the  war — to  make  the  supplies  raised  within  the 
year  as  nearly  as  possible  equal  its  expenditure.t 

The  changes  which  have  now  been  mentioned  embraced'  all  the  leading  principles 
of  Mr.  Pitt's  financial  system.  In  subsequent  years  the  same  policy  was  adopted  which 
had  been  introduced  with  so  much  success  in  later  times,  of  augmenting  as  much  as 
possible  the  supplies  raised  within  the  year,  and  diminishing  as  much  as  might  be  the 
loan  which  it  was  still  necessary  annually  to  contract.  And  of  the  success  with  which 
this  system  was  attended,  and  the  rapid  growth  of  the  machinery  erected  for  the  ex- 
tinction of  the  debt,  the  best  evidence  is  preserved  in  the  honest  testimony  of  his  Whig 
successor  in  the  important  office  of  chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  :  "  In  the  year  1803," 
said  Lord  Henry  Petty,  afterward  Lord  Lansdowne,  "  the  proportions  of  the  sinking 
fund  to  the  unredeemed  debt  was  as  one  to  eighty-two;  the  former  being  £5,835,000, 
and  the  latter  £480,572,000.  But  in  the  year  ending  the  1st  of  February,  1806,  the 
sinking  fund  amounted  to  £7.566,000,  and  the  unredeemed  debt  was  then  £517,280,000, 
making  the  proportion  one  in  sixty-eight.  After  this,  it  is  unnecessary  for  me  to  enter 
into  any  eulogium  on  the  sinking  fund,  or  to  detain  the  House  with  any  panegyric  on 
its  past  effects  or  future  prospects.  Its  advantages  are  now  fully  felt  in  the  price  ot 
etock  and  contracting  of  loans ;  and,  independent  of  all  considerations  of  good  faith, 
which  would  induce  the  House  to  cling  to  it  as  their  sheet-anchor  for  the  future,  they 
were  pledged  to  support  it,  having  had  positive  experience  of  its  utility.  And  uf  the 
vast  importance  of  raising  a  great  part  of  the  supplies  within  the  year,  no  better  proof 
can  be  desired  than  is  furnished  by  the  fact  that  during  the  first  ten  years  of  the  war 

•  Parl  Hist.,  «xiv.,  134.  147.  T  Ib.  xxxiv.,  1153.  t  Part.  Deb.,  viii.,  573.  S1& 


APPENDIX.  485 

die  increase  of  the  debt  was  .£253,000,000,  being  at  the  rate,  on  an  average,  of  twenty. 
live  millions  a  year;*  whereas  during  the  three  years  of  the  present  war,  irom  1803 
downward,  the  total  sum  borrowed  has  been  £36,000,000,  being  at  the  rate  of  twelve 
millions  a  year  only." 

With  the  exception,  however,  of  the  war  taxes  thus  imposed  for  a  special  purpose, 
and  which  were  pledged  to  be  temporary  burdens,  enduring  only  for  the  year  in  which 
they  were  raised,  or  at  most  for  a  year  or  two  after  it,  all  the  other  taxes  imposed  by 
Mr.  Piit  were  in  the  indirect  form.  And  in  particular,  the  interest  of  the  loans  annually 
contracted,  when  laid  as  a  permanent  burden  on  the  nation,  and  for  the  immediate  re- 
demption of  the  principals  of^which  the  war  taxes  were  not  mortgaged,  as  was  done  in 
1799,  were  all  provided  for  in  this  mitigated  form.  The  wisdom  of  this  arrangement 
cannot  be  better  stated  than  in  the  words  of  Mr.  Hume  :  "  The  b-rst  taxes  are  such  as 
are  levied  upon  consumption,  especially  those  of  luxury,  because  such  taxes  are  least 
felt  by  the  people.  They  seem  in  some  measure  voluntary,  since  a  man  may  choose 
how  far  he  will  use  the  commodity  which  is  taxed.  They  are  paid  gradually  and  in- 
sensibiy;  they  naturally  produce  sobriety  and  frugality,  if  judiciously  imposed;  and, 
being  confounded  with  the  natural  price  of  tbe  commodity,  they  are  scarcely  perceived 
by  the  consumers.  Their  only  disadvantage  is,  that  they  are  expensive  in  the  levying. 
Taxes,  again,  upon  possessions,  are  levied  without  expense,  but  have  every  other  dis- 
advantage. Most  statesmen  are  obliged  to  have  recourse,  however,  to  them,  in  order  to 
supply  the  deficiencies  of  the  other.  Historians  inform  us  that  one  of  the  chief  causes 
of  the  destruction  of  the  Roman  state  was  the  alterations  which  Constantine  introduced 
into  the  finances,  by  substituting  a  universal  direct  tax  in  lieu  of  almost  all  the  tithes, 
customs,  and  excise  which  formerly  composed  the  revenue  of  the  Empire.  The  people 
in  all  the  provinces  were  so  grinded  by  this  imposition,  that  they  were  glad  to  take 
refuge  under  the  conquering  arms  of  the  barbarians,  whose  dominion,  as  they  had  fewer 
necessities  and  less  art,  was  found  to  be  preferable  to  the  refined  tyranny  of  the  Ro- 
mans."! It  is  to  be  regarded,  therefore,  as  a  capital  excellence  in  Mr.  Pitt's  financial 
measures,  that  he  not  only  provided  in  permanent  imposts  for  the  interest  of  the  whole 
public  debt  and  the  sinking  fund  necessary  for  its  redemption,  but  made  that  provision 
exclusively  in  taxes  in  the  indirect  form,  the  burden  of  which  is  imperceptible,  and  is 
never  the  subject  of  any  general  complaint ;  whereas  the  direct  taxes,  which  are  always 
felt  as  so  oppressive,  were  reserved,  as  a  last  resource,  for  the  unavoidable  exigencies 
of  war,  and  specially  set  apart  for  those  years  only  when  the  excitement  and  necessities 
of  the  actual  contest  were  experienced. 

In  addition  to  these  forcible  reasons  for  ever,  except  in  cases  of  obvious  necessity, 
and  when  its  resources  are  exhausted,  preferring  indirect  to  direct  taxation,  there  is 
Another  of  perhaps  still  greater  importance,  which  has  never  yet  met  with  the  attention 
it  deserves.  It  has  often  been  observed  with  surprise  by  travellers,  that  though  the 
sums  which  are  extracted  from  the  people  in  a  direct  form  by  the  Turkish  pachas  or  the 
Indian  rajahs  have  frequently  the  effect  of  totally  ruining  industry,  yet  they  are  incon- 
siderable when  compared  to  the  immense  revenue  derived  from  the  customs  and  excise 
in  the  European  states,  without  any  sensible  impediment  to  its  exertions.  The  reason 
is  obvious :  it  consists  in  the  difference  upon  the  meadows  beneath,  between  drawing 
off  water  from  the  fountain-head  and  drawing  it  off  at  a  vast  distance  below,  after  it  has 
fertilized  innumerable  plains  in  its  course.  If  you  abstract  money  in  a  direct  form  from 
the  cultivator  or  the  artisan,  the  revenue  taken  goes  at  once  from  the  producer  to  tht 
public  treasury  ;  but  if  you  withdraw  it  from  the  person  who  ultimately  sells  the  manu- 
factured article  to  the  consumer,  it  has,  before  it  is  withdrawn,  put  the  industry  of  a 
dozen  different  classes  of  persons  in  motion.  The  sum  received  by  the  government 
may  be  the  same  in  both  cases  :  but  how  immense  the  difference  between  the  effect 
upon  general  industry  when  it  is  seized  upon  by  the  tax-collector  early  in  its  course,  and 
only  withdrawn  after  it  has  given  all  the  encouragement  to  different  branches  of  employ, 
ment  it  is  capable  of  effecting !  Fifty  different  individuals  are  often  put  to  their  shifts 
to  meet  the  burden  of  an  indirect  tax — a  direct  one  falls  in  undivided  severity  on  one 
alone.  So  important  is  this  distinction,  that  it  may  safely  be  affirmed  that  no  nation 
ever  yet  was  ruined  by  indirect  taxation;  nor  can  it  be  so,  for  before  it  becomes  oppres. 
sive  it  must  cease  to  be  productive.  Many,  however,  have  been  exterminated  by  much 
smaller  sums  levied  in  the  direct  form,  that  method  of  raising  the  supplies  being  attended 
with  this  most  dangerous  quality,  that  it  is  often  most  productive  when  it  is  trenching  most 
deeply  on  the  sources  of  future  existence. 

Nor  is  there  any  foundation  for  the  obvious  reply  to  this  argument,  based  on  the  ob- 

*  Ann.  Reg.  1806.  70.   Purl.  Deb.,  vi.,  567.  570.  t  Home's  Essays,  I,  365.  366. 


486  APPENDIX. 

aervation,  that  if  the  productions  of  industry  are  taxed  in  the  person  of  the  consumer,  he 
must  diminish  the  quantity  which  he  can  purchase,  and  thus  industry  will  be  as  effe-ctu- 
ally  paralyzed  as  if  the  impost  were  laid  directly  upon  the  producer.  Plausible  as  this 
argument  undoubtedly  is,  the  common  sense  and  experience  of  mankind  have  every, 
where  rejected  its  authority.  No  complaint  was  made  during  the  war  of  fifty-five  mil. 
lions  levied  annually,  by  means  of  indirect  taxes,  on  the  people  of  Great  Britain  ;  but 
BO  burdensome  was  the  income-tax,  producing  only  fourteen  millions  a  year,  felt  to  be, 
that  all  the  efforts  of  government  could  not  keep  it  on  for  one  year  after  its  termination. 
When  the  voice  of  the  people  was  directly  admitted,  through  the  portals  opened  hy  the 
Reform  Bill,  upon  the  Legislature,  it  was  not  the  forty-two  millions  levied'annually  in  the 
indirect  form,  but  the  four  million  and  a  half  extracted  directly  by  the  assessed  taxes, 
which  was  ma^e  the  subject  of  such  loud  complaint  that  a  great  reduction  in  those  bur. 
dens  became  indispensable.  The  people,  however  unfit  to  judge  of  most  matters  in 
legislation,  may  be  referred  to  as  good  authority  in  the  estimation  of  the  burdens  which 
are  most  oppressive  upon  them  at  the  moment.  Nor  is  it  difficult  to  perceive  the  reason 
of  this  universal  opinion  among  all  practical  men,  how  adverse  soever  it  may  be  to  the 
theoretical  opinions  of  philosophers.  Indirect  taxes,  if  judiciously  laid  on,  and  not  car- 
ried to  such  an  excess  as  to  render  them  unproductive,  often  do  not,  in  reality,  fall  on 
any  one  individual  with  overwhelming  severity;  they  are  defrayed  by  the  economy,  skill, 
or  improved  machinery  of  all  the  many  persons  who  are  employed  in  the  manufacture 
of  the  taxed  article.  The  burden  is  so  divided  as  to  be  imperceptible.  Portioned  out 
among  fifteen  or  twenty  different  hands,  the  share  falling  on  each  is  easily  compensated. 
A  slight  increase  in  the  economy  of  the  manufacturer,  a  trifling  improvement  in  the 
machinery  of  its  production,  in  the  many  hands  engaged  in  its  preparation,  more  than 
extinguish  the  burden.  The  proof  of  this  is  decisive  :  the  manufactures  of  England  not 
only  existed,  but  prospered  immensely,  under  the  combined  pressure  of  the  heavy  in- 
direct taxation  and  the  enormous  rise  of  prices  occasioned  by  the  suspension  of  cash 
payments  during  the  war;  many  of  them,  though  the  value  of  money  had  fallen  to  a  half 
during  its  continuance,  were  sold  at  half  the  price  at  its  termination  which  they  were 
at  its  commencement.  Of  all  the  parts  of  Mr.  Pitt's  financial  system,  none  was  more 
worthy  of  admiration  than  that  which  provided  for  all  the  permanent  expenses  of  the 
nation  in  the  indirect  taxes:  of  all  the  errors  committed  by  his  successors,  none  has  been 
more  prejudicial  than  the  obstinate  retention  of  direct,  and  the  lavish  relinquishment  of 
indirect  taxes.* 

*  It  results  from  these  principles,  that  when  an  indirect  tax  is  very  heavy,  and  laid  on  a  raw  material,  or  one 
ubjected  to  but  a  slight  manufacturing  process,  it  is  frequently  impossible  for  the  producer  either  to  compensate 
the  tax  by  increased  skill  or  economy  of  the  article  or  luy  it  upon  the  consumer.  In  such  cases  the  tax  ceases  to 
be  an  indirect  impost  on  consumption;  it  becomes  a  direct  burden  on  production,  and  if  unduly  heavy,  may  ter- 
minate in  the  total  ruin  of  the  class  on  whom  it  was  imposed,  A  signal  instance  of  this  occurred  in  regard  to  the 
heavy  impost  duties  upon  sugar.  The  burden  formerly  of  30s.,  then  27s.,  and  now  of  24s.  the  hundred  weight  on 
West  India  sugar,  was  little  felt  during  the  war,  when  that  article  sold  for  forty  or  forty-five  pounds  the  hogshead 
(from  £6  to  £6  10s.,  the  cwt. ;)  but  when,  on  the  return  of  peace,  prices  fell  to  .£12  or  £15  the  hogshead,  (from  50s. 
to  60s.  the  cwt.,  including  duty,)  it  became  intolerably  severe.  It  then  became  nearly  a  hundred  per  cent,  on  the 
rude  material ;  the  same  as  if  a  duty  of  fifty  shillings  a  quarter  had  been  laid  on  wheat  raised  in  England  for  the 
home  consumption.  Nor  had  either  the  planter  or  refiner  the  means  of  eluding  this  tax  to  any  considerable  de- 
gree, by  either  raising  the  price  of  the  article  to  the  consumer,  or  diminishing  by  economy  or  machinery  the  cost 
of  its  production :  the  cost  of  raising  rude  agricultural  produce  can  hardly  ever  be  diminished  to  any  considera- 
ble extent  by  the  application  of  machinery  ;  and  the  stoppage  of  the  slave-trade  necessarily,  in  the  first  instance 
at  least,  increased  the  cost  of  production,  while  the  only  way  in  which  it  seemed  possible  to  render  the  burden 
tolerable  was  by  augmenting  the  quantity  raised,  which  necessarily  depressed  to  an  undue  extent  the  price  which 
it  bore  in  the  market.  Being  unable  to  diminish  the  cost  of  production  from  these  causes,  all  the  efforts  of  the 
planters  to  make  head  against  their  difficulties  and  defray  the  interest  of  their  mortgages,  by  raising  more  exten 
•ive  crops  of  sugar,  only  tended  to  lower  prices  and  throw  the  taxes  as  an  exclusive  burden  on  themselves. 
The  proof  of  this  is  decisive :  the  price  of  sugar  in  America  is  generally  higher  than  in  England,  if  the  duty  be 
deducted,  sometimes  by  fully  a  third.  In  1831,  the  price  per  cwt.  was  in  Great  Britain  23s.  8d.,  excluding  duty, 
while  in  America  it  was  36s.  per  cwt.  in  the  same  year.  Taking  into  view  the  greater  expense  of  freight  lo  Bri 
tain  than  America  from  these  islands,  there  can  be  ao  doubt  that  almost  the  whole  tax  has  been  paid  in  many 
years  by  the  producers,  amounting  though  it  now  does  to  100  per  cent.  Nothing  more  is  requisite  to  explain  the 
almost  total  ruin  which  has  fallen  on  these  splendid  colonies,  even  before  the  last  fatal  measure  of  emancipating 
the  slaves  was  carried  into  effect.— See  Commons1  Report,  1832,  on  West  Indies,  p.  7. 

In  all  fiscal  measures  on  this  subject  there  is  one  principle  to  be  constantly  kept  in  view,  to  the  neglect  or  over- 
sight of  which,  more  than  anything  else,  the  ruin  of  the  West  Indies  is  to  be  ascribed.  This  is,  that  while  many 
branches  of  manufacturing  industry  possess  the  means,  by  improvements  in  machinery  or  the  division  of  labor, 
of  compensating  very  heavy  fiscal  burdens,  the  raisers  of  rude  produce  can  hardly  ever  do  the  same :  so  that,  unless 
they  can  succeed  in  laying  the  tax  upon  the  consumer,  which  is  very  often  altogether  beyond  their  power,  they 
are  forced  to  pay  it  entirely  themselves,  and  it  becomes  a  ruinous  direct  burden  on  industry.  No  doubt  can  ex- 
ist on  this  head,  when  it  is  recollected  not  merely  how  slight  is  the  improvement  which  agriculture  has  ever  re- 
ceived from  the  aid  of  machinery,  but  that,  while  in  the  most  highly  civilized  stales,  such  as  England,  the  cost 
of  raising  manufactures  is  always,  notwithstanding  heavy  taxes  and  a  plentiful  currency,  less  than  in  ruder 


APPENDIX.  487 

Such  were  the  genera^  features  of  Mr.  Pitt's  financial  policy.  Decried  by  the  spiri* 
Df  party  during  his  own' lifetime,  and  that  of  the  generation  which  immediately  suc- 
ceeded ;  stigmatized  by  the  age  which  found  itself  oppressed  by  the  weight  of  the  bur- 
dens he  had  imposed,  and  which  had  forgotten  the  evils  he  had  averted;  obliterated 
almost,  amid  the  temporary  expedients  and  conceding  weakness  of  the  governments  by 
whom  he  was  succeeded,  it  is  yet  calculated  to  stand  the  test  of  ages,  and  appears  now 
in  imperishable  lustre  from  the  bitter  and  experienced,  though  now  irrevocab  e  conse- 
quences of  its  abandonment.  Grandeur  of  conception,  durability  of  design,  far-seeing 
eagacity,  were  its  great  characteristics.  It  was  truly  conceived  in  a  heroic  spirit.  Bur- 
dening,  perhaps  oppressing  the  present  generation,  it  was  calculated  for  the  relief  of  fu- 
ture ages:  inflicting  on  its  authors  a  load  of  present  odium,  it  was  fitted  to  secure  the 
blessings  of  posterity  when  they  were  mouldering  in  their  graves.  Founded  on  that 
sacrifice  of  the  present  to  the  future  which  is  at  once  the  greatest  violence  to  ordinary 
inclinations,  the  invariable  mark  of  elevated  understanding,  and  the  necessary  antece- 
dent of  great  achievements,  it  required  for  its  successful  development  patience,  self- 
denial,  and  magnanimity  in  subsequent  statesmen  equal  to  his  own.  It  fell  because  such 
virtues  could  not  be  found  in  the  age  by  which  he  was  succeeded.  In  contemplating 
his  profound  plans  for  the  ultimate  and  speedy  liberation  of  England,  even  from  the 
enormous  burdens  entailed  on  its  finances  by  the  Revolutionary  war,  we  feel  that  we 
are  conversing  with  one  who  lived  for  distant  ages,  and  who  voluntarily  underwent,  not 
the  fatigues  which  are  forgotten  in  the  glory  of  the  conqueror,  but  the  obloquy  conse- 
quent  on  the  firmness  of  the  statesman  in  the  prosecution  of  what  he  felt  to  be  for  the 
ultimate  good  of  the  nation.  In  comparing  his  durable  designs  with  the"  temporary  ex- 
pedients of  the  statesmen  who  preceded  and  followed  him,  we  experience  the  same 
painful  transition  as  in  passing  from  the  contemplation  of  the  stately  monuments  of  an- 
cient Egypt,  wrought  in  granite,  and  calculated  for  eternal  duration,  to  that  of  the  gaudy 
but  ephemeral  palaces  of  the  Arabs,  who  dwell  amid  their  ruins,  and  whose  brilliancy 
cannot  conceal  the  perishable  nature  of  the  materials  of  which  they  are  composed. 

While  doing  justice,  however,  to  the  great  qualities  of  this  illustrious  financier,  it  is 
indispensable  not  to  draw  a  veil  over  his  faults  ;  and  the  application  of  his  own  princi- 
ples to  the  measures  which  he  sometimes  adopted  will  best  explain  the  particulars  in 
which  he  was  led  astray. 

I.  The  first  great  defect  which  history  must  impute  to  the  financial  measures  of  Mr. 
Pitt,  is  having  carried  too  far  and  continued  too  long  the  funding  system,  and  not  earlier 
adopted  that  more  manly  policy  of  raising  as  large  a  portion  as  possible  of  the  supplies 
within  the  year,  the  benefits  of  which  he  himself  afterward  so  fully  explained.     During 
the  years  1793  and  1794,  indeed,  when  formidable  armies  menaced  France  on  every 
side,  and  the  iron  barrier  of  the  Netherlands  was  broken  through  to  an  extent  never 
achieved  by  Marlborough  or  Eugene,  a  speedy  termination  of  the  war  might  reasonably 
be  expected,  and  it  was  just,  therefore,  to  lay  the  vast  expenses  of  those  years  in  a  great 
degree  on  the  shoulders  of  posterity.     But  after  that  crisis  was  passed  ;  after  Flanders 
and  Holland  had  )'ielded  to  the  victorious  arms  of  Pichegru  ;  after  Spain  had  retired 
from  the  struggle,  and  the  Republic,  instead  of  contending  for  its  existence  on  the  Rhine, 
was  pursuing  under  Napoleon,  the  career  of  conquest  in  Italy,  it  had  become  evident 
that  a  protracted  contest  was  to  be  expected,  and  measures  of  finance  suitable  to  such 
a  state  of  things  should  have  been  adopted.    The  resolute  system  of  raising  a  consider- 
able portion  of  the  supplies  within  the  year  should  have  been  embraced,  at  latest,  in 
1796,  and  the  enormous  loans  of  that  and  the  two  following  years  reduced  to  one  half. 
Those  loans  amounted  to  seventy-five  millions ;  if  forty  millions  had  been  raised  in  the 
time  by  taxation,  in  addition  to  the  imposts  actually  paid,  the  difference  in  the  sum  since 
paid  by  the  nation  down  to  this  time,  on  account  of  the  loans  of  those  years,  would  have 
been  above  £120,000,000 !     So  prodigious  is  the  difference  in  the  ultimate  accumula- 
tion of  burdens,  between  the  energetic  and  intrepid  system  of  raising  a  large  portion  of 
the  supplies  within  the  year,  and  the  more  acceptable  but  delusive  policy  of  providing 
at  the  moment  only  for  the  interest,  and  leaving  to  posterity  the  charge  of  providing  for 
the  liquidation  of  the  principal. 

II.  But  if  the  insidious  advantages  of  the  funding  were  to  be  preferred  to  the  ultimate 

states,  it  is  always  much  greater  of  producing  agricultural  produce.  Great  Britain  can  undersell  the  world  in 
manufactures,  but  her  farmers  would  be  ruined  without  acorn-law;  a  fact  strikingly  illustrative  of  this  vitul 
distinction,  and  pointing  to  a  very  different  rate  of  indirect  taxation  when  applied  to  rude  produce  and  manu- 
factured articles,  which  has  never  yet  met  with  adequate  attention.— See  BERNARD'S  Theory  of  the  Constitit 
tion.  356,  358;  a  work  which,  amid  much  exaggeration  and  declamation,  contains  many  just  and  profound  ob- 
•crvations  on  the  changes  the  country  has  undergone  during  the  last  half  century,  and  is  deserving  of  much  mow 
attention  than  it  has  received.  q  o 


488  APPENDIX. 

benefits  of  the  taxing  system,  it  was  indispensable  that  the  warlike  resources  of  the  state 
should  have  been  put  forth  on  a  scale  and  in  a  way  calculated  to  reap  sudden  advan. 
tages  commensurate  to  the  immense  burdens  thus  imposed  on  posterity  ;  that  the  con. 
test,  if  gigantic  and  expensive,  was  at  least  to  be  short  and  decisive.  That  the  military 
power  of  England  was  capable,  if  properly  directed  and  called  forth,  of  making  such  an 
effort,  is  now  established  by  experience. 

The  more  the  history  of  the  campaigns  from  1793  to  1800  are  studied,  the  more 
clearly  will  it  appear  that  the  armies  of  France  arid  the  coalition  were  very  equal! ; 
poised  ;  that  the  scale  sometimes  preponderated  to  one  side  and  sometimes  to  the  other, 
but  without  any  decisive  advantage  to  either  party.  After  three  years  of  protracted 
strife,  the  Republican  armies,  in  the  close  of  1795  were  still  combating  for  existence  on 
the  Rhine,  and  gladly  accepted  a  temporary  respite  from  the  victorious  arms  of  Clair- 
fait :  after  three  additional  years  of  desperate  warfare,  they  were  struggling  for  the 
frontiers  of  the  Var  and  the  Jura  with  the  terrible  armies  of  Suvvarrow  and  the  Arch- 
duke Charles.  No  doubt  can  remain,  therefore,  that  the  forces  on  the  opposite  sides  of 
that  great  contest  were,  at  that  period  at  least,  extremely  nearly  matched.  With  what 
effect,  then,  might  the  arms  of  England  have  been  thrown  in  upon  the  scene  of  war. 
fare  ;  and  how  would  the  balance,  so  long  quivering  in  equilibrium,  have  been  sub- 
verted by  the  addition  of  fifty  thousand  British  soldiers  on  the  theatre  of  Blenheim  or 
Ramilies  I  Herein,  therefore,  lay  the  capital  error  of  Mr.  Pitt's  financial  system,  con- 
sidered with  reference  to  the  warlike  operations  it  was  intended  to  promote,  that  while 
the  former  was  calculated  for  a  temporary  effort  only,  and  based  on  the  principle  of 
great  results  being  obtained  in  a  short  time  by  an  extravagant  system  of  expenditure, 
the  latter  was  arranged  on  the  plan  of  the  most  niggardly  exertion  of  the  national 
strength,  and  the  husbanding  of  its  resources  for  future  efforts,  totally  inconsistent  with 
the  lavish  dissipation  of  its  present  funds.  No  one  would  have  regretted  the  great 
loans  from  1793  to  1799,  amounting  though  they  did  to  a  hundred  and  fifty  millions 
sterling,  if  proportional  efforts  in  the  field  had  at  the  same  time  been  made  ;  and  it 
was  evident  that  nothing  had  been  omitted  which  could  have  conduced  to  the  earlier 
termination  of  the  war ;  but  our  feelings  are  very  different  when  we  recollect  that  du- 
ring these  six  years,  big  with  the  fate  of  England  and  the  world,  only  208,000  men  were 
raised  for  the  regular  army,  and  that  a  nation  reposing  securely  in  a  sea  girt  and  inac- 
cessible citadel  never  had  above  twenty  thousand  soldiers  in  the  field,  and  that  only  in 
the  first  two  years  of  the  war,  out  of  a  disposable  force  of  above  a  hundred  thousand. 
Mr.  Pitr's  plans  for  military  operations  were  all  based  on  the  action  of  Continental  ar- 
mies, while  the  troops  of  his  own  country  were  chiefly  employed  in  distant  colonial  ex. 
peditions  ;  picking  up  pawns  in  this  manner  at  the  extremity  of  the  board,  when  by 
concentrated  moves  he  might  have  given  checkmate  to  his  adversary  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  game.  His  military  successes,  in  consequence,  amounted  to  nothing,  while 
his  financial  measures  were  daily  increasing  the  debt  in  a  geometrical  progression  : 
and  thence,  in  a  great  measure,  the  long  duration  and  heavy  burdens  of  the  war. 

III.  But  the  greatest  of  all  Mr.  Pitt's  errors,  and  the  one  which  was  the  most  inex- 
cusable, because  it  was  most  at  variance  with  the  admirable  foresight  and  enduring  for- 
titude of  his  other  financial  measures,  was  the  extent  to  which  he  carried  the  ruinous 
system  of  borrowing  in  the  three  per  cents. ;  in  other  words,  inscribing  the  public  cred- 
itor for  £100  in  the  books  of  the  Bank  of  England,  in  consideration  of  only  sixty  ad- 
vanced to  the  nation.  That  this  policy  had  the  effect  of  lowering  the  interest  of  the 
loans  contracted,  and  thereby  diminishing  the  burdens  at  the  moment,  may  be  perfectly 
true,  but  what  was  the  advantage  thus  gained,  compared  to  the  enormous  burden  of 
saddling  the  nation  with  the  payment  of  forty  pounds  additional  to  every  sixty  which 
it  had  received  ?  The  benefit  was  temporary  and  inconsiderable  ;  the  evil  permanent 
and  most  material.  Of  the  seven  hundred  and  eighty  millions  which  now  compose  the 
national  debt,  about  six  hundred  millions  has  been  contracted  in  the  tl.reo  per  cents. , 
and  if  this  whole  debt  were  to  be  paid  off  at  par,  the  nation  would  have  to  pay,  in  all, 
two  hundred  and  fifty  millions  more  than  it  ever  received.  Supposing  it  to  be  redeemed 
by  a  sinking  fund  at  80,  on  an  average,  which,  taking  a  course  of  years  together,  of 
peace  and  war,  is  probably  not  far  from  the  mark,  and  which  coincides  with  Mr.  Pin's 
estimate  in  1799,  the  surplus  to  be  paid  above  what  was  received  would  still  be  tvvo 
hundred  millions. 

Nor  have  the  evils  of  this  most  improvident  system  of  borrowing  been  limited  to  the 
great  addition  thus  unnecessarily  made  to  the  capital  of  the  national  debt.  Its  effect 
upon  the  burden  of  the  interest  has  been  equally  unfortunate.  Doubtless  the  loans 
were,  in  the  first  instance,  contracted  during  the  war  on  more  favorable  terms,  as  to  in 


APPENDIX. 


469 


terest,  than  could  have  been  obtained  if  the  money  had  been  borrowed  in  the  five  per 
cents. ;  that  is,  if  a  bond  for  .£100  had  been  given  for  each  £100  only  paid  into  the 
treasury.  But,  as  a  set-off  against  this  temporary  and  inconsiderable  advantage,  what 
is  to  be  said  to  the  experienced  impossibility,  with  funds  so  contracted,  of  lowering  the 
interest  in  time  of  peace  ?  It  is  impossible  to  lower  the  interest  of  the  three  per  cents, 
till  interest  generally  falls  below  three  per  cent. ;  because,  if  it  were  attempted  when 
the  rate  was  higher,  ail  the  stockholders  would  immediately  demand  their  money,  and 
government,  being  unable  to  borrow  below  the  market  rate,  would  become  bankrupt. 
Nevertheless,  it  may  safely  be  affirmed  that  interest,  on  an  average,  since  1815,  has 
not  exceeded,  if  it  has  reached,  four  per  cent.  Had  the  national  debt  all  been  con. 
tracted  in  the  five  per  cents,  it  might  all  have  been  subjected  to  the  operation  which 
in  1824  proved  so  successful  with  the  five  per  cents.,  and  which,  on  .£157,000,000  only 
of  the  debt,  the  amount  of  that  stock,  saved  the  nation  at  that  time  £1,700,000  a  year, 
to  which  is  to  be  added  the  half  of  that  sum  since  gained  by  the  reduction  of  the  same 
stock  to  three  and  a  half,  which,  after  taking  into  view  the  dissentients,  has  saved  the 
nation,  for  ever,  £2,400,000  yearly.  Calculating  the  interest  of  the  £600,000,000  in  the 
three  per  cents.  (£360,000,000  sterling)  at  £18,000,000  a  year,  the  proportion  of  this 
annual  burden,  which  would  have  been  saved  by  the  first  reduction  of  one  per  cent., 
would  have  been  £3,600,000,  and  by  the  second  of  half  per  cent.,  £1,800,000  more; 
in  all  £5,400,000  for  ever.  The  sum  already  saved  to  the  nation,  on  interest  alone,  paid 
since  1824,  would  have  been  above  fifty  millions  sterling.  Every  twenty  years,  in  fu- 
ture, the  sum  saved,  with  interest,  would  exceed  a  hundred  and  fifty  millions  a  year ! 

The  temporary  reduction  of  interest  obtained  by  contracting  the  debt  in  this  ruinoua 
manner  will  bear  no  sort  of  comparison  with  these  serious  losses  with  which  the  sys. 
tern  was  ultimately  attended.  It  appears,  from  the  curious  table  of  loans  contracted 
during  the  war,  compiled  by  Moreau,  that  the  difference  in  the  interest  of  the  loans  in 
the  three  per  cents,  and  the  five  per  cents,  was  seldom  above  a  half  per  cent.,  gene 
rally  not  more  than  a  quarter.*  What  is  the  additional  burden  thus  undertaken  during 
the  contest,  to  the  permanent  reduction  which  the  opposite  system  would  have  enabled 
government  to  have  effected  on  the  return  of  peace  ?  Even  supposing  the  difference 
of  interest  on  the  loans  while  the  war  lasted  had  been  on  an  average  one  per  cent., 
what  was  this  burden,  during  its  continuance,  to  the  reduction  of  the  interest  for  ever  to 
four  or  three  and  a  half  per  cent.  ?  This  thing  is  so  clear  that  it  will  not  admit  of  an 
argument ;  and  if  the  public  necessities  had  rendered  it  impossible  to  have  raised 
the  additional  interest  during  the  year,  it  would  have  been  better  to  have  con. 
tracted  an  additional  loan  every  year  while  the  disability  lasted,  to  defray  the  additional 
interest,  than,  by  contracting  the  debt  on  such  disadvantageous  terms,  disabled  poster, 
ity  for  ever  from  taking  advantage  of  the  return  of  peace  to  effect  a  permanent  reduc- 
tion of  the  public  debts.  So  strongly,  indeed,  has  the  impolicy  of  this  mode  of  con- 
tracting debt  now  impressed  itself  upon  the  minds  of  our  statesmen,  that  by  a  solemn 

*  Take,  for  example,  the  fblowing  loans,  contracted  in  the  three  and  five  per  cents,  at  different  periods  during 
the  war : 


Sums  borrowed,  ac- 
tually paid  into 
Treasury. 

Interest. 

Rate  per  cent. 

1TO4.  Loan 

n  5  per  cents  

£1,007,451 
10806000 

£96.326 
502  791 

5  per  cent. 

1,490,646 

80*494 

do 

17,777,163 

841,374 

4f  per  cent. 

1796.  Loan 
do 

n  5  per  cents  

2,024,889 
8,500,000 

101,744 
493  T45 

5  per  cent. 

1797.  I.odii 
do 

n  5  per  cents  

i;,  815,918 
13000000 

1,006,242 
825  500 

5i  per  cent. 

1801   Loan 

2'22?;012 

lll'380 

1806.  Loan 
1807.  Loan 
do 

1809  Lo'in 

n  3  per  cents  
n  5  per  cents  
n  3  per  cents  

27,519,544 
1,293,200 
10,800,000 

7932100 

1,344,487 
64,660 
512,400 

408878 

5|  per  cent. 
5i  per  cent. 

4i  p,er^nt>  :  ,but  £l®  of  ^och  created  tot 
each  £60  paid. 

do 
1811.  Loan 
do 
1814.  Loan 
do 

n  3  and  4  per  cents..  . 
n  5  per  cents  
n3  and  4  per  cents... 
n  c  per  cents  

11600000 

4,909,350 
11,925,243 
5,549,400 
12  345  076 

538',433 
258,315 
569,500 
277,470 
574362 

41  per  cent. 
5*  per  cent. 
4?  per  cent. 
5  1-7  per  cent 

1815  Loan 

.  •       J     * 

10  313  000 

603310 

r  j    j- 

do 

n  3  and  4  per  cents... 

27;ooo;ooo 

1,617,400 

5i  per  cent. 

— SeeTEBRER's  Tables,  246,  from  MOREAU. 

It  clearly  appears,  from  this  most  instructive  table,  that  the  difference  between  the  interest  paid  on  loans  in  ttw 
three  and  five  per  cents.,  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  war,  varied  only  from  a  half  to  an  eighth  per  cent. 
And  the  real  difference  was  even  less  than  here  appears,  for  the  public  creditors  were,  frequently  in  the  3  per  cents., 
inscribed  for  much  more  than  £100  in  consideration  of  £60  advanced.  In  particular,  in  1807,  they  received  no  less 
than  £140  of  stock  fur  each  £60  paid. 


490 


APPENDIX 


resolution  in  1824,  Parliament  pledged  itself  never  again,  under  any  pressure,  to  bor- 
row  money  in  any  other  way  than  in  the  five  per  cents. ;  a  resolution  worthy  of  the 
British  Legislature,  and  which  it  is  devoutly  to  be  hoped  no  British  statesman  will  ever 
forget,  but  which  is  too  likely  to  be  overlooked,  like  so  many  other  praiseworthy  deter- 
ruinations,  amid  the  warlike  profusion  or  Democratic  pressure  of  subsequent  times.* 

It  is  true,  as  Mr.  Pitt  contemplated  the  extinction  of  the  whole  public  debt  before  the 
year  1846  by  the  operation  of  the  sinking  fund,  and  had  provided  means,  which,  if  stead- 
ily  adhered  to,  would  unquestionably  have  produced  that  result  even  at  an  earlier  pe. 
riod,  the  disastrous  effects  which  have  actually  occurred  from  this  mode  of  contracting 
so  large  a  portion  of  the  debt  are  not  to  be  charged  so  strongly  as  an  error  in  his  finan- 
cial system.  In  the  contracting  of  loans,  present  relief  was,  in  his  estimation,  the  great 
object  to  be  considered,  because  the  means  of  certainly  redeeming  them  within  a  mod- 
erate  period,  on  the  return  of  peace,  were  simultaneously  provided.  It  was  of  compar- 
atively little  importance  that  the  interest  of  the  three  per  cents,  could  not  be  reduced 
•i tiring  peace,  >.vhen  the  speedy  liquidation  of  the  principal  itself  might  be  anticipated  ; 
and  the  addition  of  nearly  double  the  stock  to  the  sum  borrowed  appeared  of  trifling 
moment,  when  the  only  mode  of  redeeming  the  debt  which  any  one  contemplated  was 
the  purchase  of  stock  by  the  sinking  fund  commissioners  at  the  current  market  rates. 
Still,  though  these  considerations  go  far  to  excuse,  they  do  by  no  means  exculpate  Mr. 
Pitt  in  these  measures.  Admitting  that  the  reduced  rate  of  interest  during  the  war 
might  be  considered  as  a  fair  set-off  against  the  enhanced  rate  for  the  pacific  period  of 
nearly  the  same  amount  which  elapsed  before  the  debt  was  discharged,  still  what  is  to 
he  said  in  favor  of  a  system  which  redeems  at  85  or  90  a  debt  contracted  at  58  or  60  ? 
In  looking  forward  to  this  method  of  liquidating  the  debt,  as  calculated  to  obviate  all 
the  evils  of  inscribing  the  public  creditor  for  a  larger  amount  of  stock  than  he  had  ad- 
vanced of  money,  Mr.  Pitt  forgot  the  certain  enhancement  of  the  price  of  stock  by  the 
admirable  sinking  fund  which  he  himself  had  established,  and  that  the  more  strongly 
and  justly  he  elucidated  tne  salutary  tendency  of  its  machinery  to  uphold  the  public  credit, 
the  more  clearly  did  he  demonstrate  the  ruinous  effect  of  a  method  of  borrowing  which 
turned  all  that  advance  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  nation  in  discharging  its  engagements.t 


*  The  author  was  early  in  life  impressed  with  the  disastrous  effects  of  this  borrowing  in  the  three  per  cents.,  but 
it  was  long  before  he  foiinu  any  converts  to  an  opinion  now  generally  received.  In  the  year  1813,  when  a  student 
at  college,  he  maintained  the  doctrines  stated  in  the  text  on  this  subject,  in  a  company  consisting  of  the  most  emi- 
nent and  intelligent  bankers  in  Scotland  ;  and,  in  particular,  contended  that,  if  Mr.  Pitt  could  not  have  afforded 
to  pay  annually  from  the  taxes  a  larger  interest  for  his  loans  than  h«*  actually  undertook,  he  should  have  "  bor- 
rowed a  little  loan  to  r»  v  the  interest  of  the  great  loan,  rather  than  have  contracted  debt,  in  the  three  per  cents." 
They  all,  however,  disputed  the  justice  of  the  opinion,  maintaining  that  money  could  not  have  been  obtained  on 
other  terms,  and  the  "little  loan"  became  a  standing  joke  against  the  author  for  many  years  after.  Should 
tliese  lines  meet  the  eye  of  Mr.  Anderson  of  Moredun,  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  vnlued  oftlie  author's  friends, 
and  now  one  of  the  leading  partners  of  the  highly  respectable  firm  of  Sir  William  Forbes  &.  Co.,  of  Edinburgh. 
he  will  recur,  perhaps,  not  without  interest,  to  this  incident, 

f  It  is  a  common  opinion,  that  the  great  expenses  of  Mr.  Pitt's  administration  were  owing  to  the  subsidies  so 
imprudently  and  needlessly  advanced  to  foreign  powers,  to  induce  orenablethem  to  carry  on  the  contest.  This, 
however  is  a  mistake.  The  loans  and  subsidies  to  foreign  powers  during  the  whole  war  only  amounted  to  £j2.- 
528.470 ;  of  which  no  less  than  .£33,000,000  were  advanced  during  the  last  three  years.  At  Mr.  Pitt's  death  the 
•urn  was  only  JC6.370.000.  The  subsidies  granted,  with  the  years  when  they  were  received,  and  the  other  items  of 
the  expenditure  of  the  war,  were  as  follows.— {  MORE  AU.) 


Subsidies 

to  Foreign 

Powers. 


Army. 


Binary. 


Civil  List. 


Ordnnnce. 


Navy  Total 


Total  charge 

of  Debt, 
Funded  and 

Unfunded. 


Tot;«l 
Expenditure 


, 

1795 
1795  ! 
17»7    i 

I'm  ' 
im  ! 


1801 

1802 


£2,198,200 

4,000 

810.500 

99,509 

120,012 

325,000 

2,613,178 

200,114 


1805   I          - 


JSS  i 


1812   | 

1813 

I8J4 

Totals 


1,400.000 
2,050,000 
2.660,1«J 
2  977.747 
5,315,838 
11.294.416 
10,024,624 
11,035,248 


53,128,470 


£4,167,312 
9,209.236 
14.562,737 

7,986,2W[  3,165,854 
9,898716  4,241,433 
91971889  3,906,000 
8838208  5,34  ,174 
6,951,1931  2,6S),063 
8,134,315  3,165,092 
12183891  3,560.804 
10,758,343  6,261,387 
9283  492  5  829000 
9,956,684!  5,431,867 
11,353390  ' 
12,591,041! 
11,357,623; 
13,753,163  10,116:196 
15, 382, 050  9,605,313 
18,500,98),  10,968,5:15 
16.532.fl4M  17.662,610 
23.172.137 

384.787.438 


£1,021,536 
1,027,7C1 
1,025,842 
1,125,053 
1.081,046 
1,111,376 
1,208,067 
1,247,420 
1,290,136 


1,500,7 


2,590,000 


5,847,762 

5.872.054 


1,425,545 
1,417,517 
1,914,104 
1,676,323 
1,680,061 
1,724,147 
1,696,994 
1,651,207 
1, 582,097 
1,748,349 
1,708, 52'! 
1,675,1.V2 
1.682.021 
32,936,125 


1715X55 
2,221516 

1,918,967 
2,l«->,909 
1,50'  ',733 
1,827,150 
3,5.50,142 
4,782,289 
5,511,0t>4 
4,190,748 
5,108,960 
4,374.184 
4.iM2.33'J 
4,557,509 
4,252,416 
3,404,ri82 
4.480,729 


£2,464,307 
4,219,1,56 
8,135,140 

7,780,868 
11,984,031 
12,. 591, 728 
13,036,490 


£10,715,941 
11,081,159 


_j 
71,082.262" 


17,303,370 
11, 704,405 
7,979,878 
11,759,352 
14,466,998 
16,084,028 
16.775.762 
17,467,891 
19,236,0-17 
20,0.54,412 
19.540.679 
20,500.339 
2l.996.B24 
21,931,567 
16.373.870 
328,236.415 


6~19.830.173 ' 


£22,754,366 
29.305.477 
39,751,091 
40,761,583 
50,739,857 
51.241.7P8 
59.29IJ.OS1 
61,617,988 
73.072,468 
62.373.480 
54.912.899/ 
67,619.475 
76,0>6,79o 
75.154,548 
78,369,158:) 
84,797,080 
88,792,551 
74.360.728 


, 

107.fc4l.08i 
122,2r,,660 
139.742.  399 

1,490,000.888 


APPENDIX.  491 

To  Mr.  Pitt's  financial  system  there  belongs  a  subject  more  vital  in  its  ultimate  effects 
than  any  which  has  been  considered,  and  the  whole  results  of  which  are  far  from  being 
exhausted.  The  SUSPENSTON  OF  CASH  PAYMENTS  in  1797,  already  noticed  in  the  trans- 
actions of  that  year,  was  a  measure  of  incomparably  more  importance  than  any  financial 
step  of  the  past  or  the  present  century,  and,  when  taken  in  conjunction  with  the  almost 
total  destruction  of  the  Spanish  mines  in  America,  in  consequence  of  the  revolution 
which  broke  out  in  that  country  in  1808,  and  the  subsequent  and  unavoidable  resump- 
tion of  cash  payments,  by  the  bill  of  1819,  in  Great  Britain,  opened  the  way  to  a  series 
of  changes  in  prices,  and,  of  consequence,  in  the  relative  situation,  power,  and  influence 
of  the  different  classess  of  society,  more  material  than  any  which  had  occurred  since  the 
discovery  of  the  mines  of  Potosi  and  Mexico,  and  to  which  the  future  historian  will  per- 
haps point  as  the  principal  cause  of  the  great  revolution  of  England  in  1832,  ami  the 
ultimate  fall  of  the  British  Empire.  This  important  and  vital  subject,  however,  so  mo- 
mentous in  its  consequences,  so  interesting  in  its  details,  requires  a  separate  chapter  for 
its  development,  and  will  more  appropriately  come  to  be  considered  in  a  future  volume, 
when  the  effects  of  the  momentary  changes  during  the  whole  war  are  brought  into  view, 
and  the  commencement  of  another  set  of  causes,  having  an  opposite  tendency  from  the 
rapid  decay  of  the  South  American  mines  at  its  close,  is,  at  the  same  time,  made  the 
subject  of  discussion. 

At  present,  it  only  requires  to  be  observed,  that  the  effects  of  the  suspension  of  cash 
payments,  whether  good  or  evil,  are  not  fairly  to  be  ascribed  to  Mr.  Pitt.  They  were 
not,  like  the  consequences  of  the  issue  of  assignats  in  France,  the  result  of  a  barbarous 
and  inhuman  confiscation,  nor  like  subsequent  changes  in  this  country,  of  theoretical  01 
abstract  opinions.  They  were  forced  on  the  British  statesman  by  stern  necessity. 
Bankruptcy — irretrievable  national  bankruptcy  stared  him  in  the  face  if  the  momentous 
step  were  any  longer  delayed.  Once  taken,  the  fatal  measure  could  not  be  recalled  ;  a 
resumption  of  cash  payments  during  the  continual  pressure  and  vast  expenditure  of  the 
war  was  out  of  the  question.  The  nation  has  had  ample  experience  of  the  shock  it 
occasioned,  and  the  protracted  misery  it  produced,  at  a  subsequent  period,  even  in  the 
midst  of  profound  peace.  To  have  attempted  it  during  the  whirl  and  agitation  of  the 
contest,  would  at  once  have  prostrated  all  its  resources. 

No  doubt,  however,  can  remain,  that  the  suspension  of  cash  payments  contributed 
essentially  to  increase  the  available  resources  of  Great  Britain  for  carrying  on  the  war. 
An  extension  of  the  circulating  medium,  especially  if  accompanied  by  a  great  and  in- 
creasing present  expenditure,  never  fails  to  have  this  effect.  It  is  when  the  subsequent 
stoppage  or  contraction  takes  place  that  the  perilous  nature  of  the  experiment  becomes 
manifest.  Great  immediate  prosperity  to  all  around  him  is  often  produced  by  the  prod- 
igality of  the  spendthrift;  but  if  he  trenches  deep,  amid  this  beneficent  profusion,  on 
the  resources  of  future  years,  the  day  of  accounting  will  enevitably  come  alike  to  him- 
self and  his  dependents.  In  seeking  for  the  causes  of  the  vast  and  continued  warlike 
exertions  of  England  during  the  war,  and  of  the  apparently  boundless  financial  resour- 
ces which  appeared  to  multiply,  as  if  by  magic,  with  every  additional  demand,  just  as 
in  investigating  the  causes  of  the  difficulties  under  which  all  classes  have  labored  since 
the  peace,  a  prominent  place  must  be  assigned  to  the  alterations  on  the  currency,  as  pro- 
ductive of  present  strength  as  they  were  conducive  to  future  weakness.  No  financial 
embarrassments  of  any  moment  were  experienced  subsequent  to  1797  ;  in  vain  Napo- 
leon waited  for  the  blowing  up  of  the  funding  system,  and  the  stoppage  of  England's 
financial  resources  ;  year  after  year  the  enormous  expenditure  continued  ;  loan  after 
loan,  with  incredible  facility,  was  obtained,  and  at  the  close  of  the  war,  when  the  reve- 
nues of  France  and  all  the  Continental  states  were  fairly  exhausted,  the  treasures  of 
Great  Britain  were  poured  forth  with  a  profusion  unexampled  during  any  former  period 
of  the  struggle.  No  existing  wealth,  how  great  soever,  could  account  for  so  prodigious 
an  expenditure.  Its  magnitude  points  to  an  annual  creation  of  funds,  even  greater  than 
j  those  which  were  dissipated.  It  is  in  the  vast  impulse  given  to  the  circulation  by  the 
'  suspension  of  cash  payments,  and  subsequent  extension  of  paper  credit  of  every  descrip. 

This  most  instructive  table  proves  at  a  glance  how  little  share  either  the  foreign  subsidies  or  civil  expenditure 
had  in  the  vast  outlay  of  seventeen  hundred  millions  during  the  war.  The  first  was  only  a  thirty-third,  the  latter 
hardly  a  fifteenth  of  the  total  expenditure.  The  vast  sums  absorbed  by  the  debt  is  a  striking  feature,  amounting  to 
more  tlwn  a  third  of  the  whole ;  but  it  was  in  a  certain  degree  unavoidable.  The  cost  of  the  navy,  nmouming 
to  about  a  fifth,  is  not  to  be  regretted,  for  it  eave  England  the  naval  dominion  of  the  globe.  It  was  the  pro 
digious  expenditure  for  the  army,  amounting  to  almost  a  fourth  of  the  whole,  which  is  the  real  subject  of  regret, 
attended  as  it  was  with  no  exploits  worthy  of  being  recorded  till  the  last  eight  years  of  the  war ;  coinciding  thus 
\vith  what  every  other  consideration  indicates,  that  it  wn.  the  niggardly  use  of  that  arm.  and  the  ignorance  whjch 
prevailed  as  to  its  efficacy,  which  was  the  real  reproach  to  Mr  Pitt's  administration. 

44 


492 


APPENDIX. 


tion,  that  one  great  cause  is  to  be  found  of  the  never-failing  resources  of  Great  Britain 
during  so  long  a  period.  Her  fleets  commanded  the  seas;  her  commerce  extended  into 
every  quarter  of  the  globe ;  her  colonies  embraced  the  finest  and  richest  of  the  tropical 
regions ,  and  in  the  centre  of  this  magnificent  dominion  was  the  parent  state,  whose 
quickened  and  extended  circulation  spread  life  and  energy  through  every  part  of  the 
immense  fabric.  Great  as  was  the  increase  of  paper  in  circulation  after  the  obligation 
to  pay  in  specie  was  removed,  it  was  scarcely  equal  to  the  simultaneous  increase  in  ex. 
ports,  imports,  and  domestic  industry ;  and  almost  boundless  as  was  the  activity  of  Briu 
ish  enterprise  during  those  animating  years,  it  must  have  languished  from  want  of  com- 
mensurate credit,  if  not  sustained  by  the  vivifying  influence  of  the  extended  currency.* 
It  is  evident,  also,  that  the  funding  system,  with  all  its  dangers  and  ultimate  evils,  of 
which  the  nation  since  the  peace  has  had  such  ample  experience,  was  eminently  calcu- 
lated to  increase  this  feverish  action  cf  the  body  politic,  and  produce  a  temporary  flow 
of  prosperity,  commensurate,  indeed,  to  the  ultimate  embarrassments  with  which  it  was 
to  be  attended,  but  still  exciting  a  degree  of  transient  vigor,  which  could  never  have 
arisen  under  a  more  cautious  and  economical  system  of  management.  The  contracting 
and  immediately  spending  loans,  to  the  amount  of  thirty  or  forty  millions  a  year,  in  ad. 
dition  to  a  revenue  raised  by  taxation  or  equal  amount,  had  an  extraordinary  effect  in* 
encouraging  every  branch  of  industry,  and  enabling  the  nation  to  prosper  under  burdens 
which  at  first  sight  would  have  appeared  altogether  overwhelming.  Government  is  pro- 
verbially  a  good  paymaster,  and  never  so  much  so  as  during  the  whirl  and  excitement  of 
war.  The  capital  thus  sunk  in  loans  was,  indeed,  withdrawn  from  the  private  encour- 
agement of  industry,  but  it  was  so  only  in  consequence  of  being  directed  into  a  channel 
where  its  influence  in  that  respect  was  still  more  powerful  and  immediate  than  it  ever 
would  have  been  in  the  hands  of  individuals :  it  was  in  great  part  dissipated,  indeed,  in 
a  form  which  did  not  reproduce  itself,  and  afforded  no  means  of  providing  for  its  charges 
hereafter ;  but  still  that  circumstance,  how  fatal  soever,  to  the  resources  of  the  state  in 
future  times,  did  not  diminish  the  temporary  excitement  produced  by  its  expenditure. 
Under  the  combined  influence  of  this  vast  contraction  of  loans  and  extended  paper  cir- 
culation, the  resources  of  the  nation  were  increased  in  a  rapid  and  unparalleled  progres- 
sion: exports  and  imports  doubled,  the  produce  of  taxes  was  continually  rising,  prices 


*  Table  showing  the  amount  of  Bank  Notes  in  circulation  from  1792  to  1815,  with  the  Commercial  Paper  under 
discount  at  the  Bank  during  the  same  period,  and  the  Gold  and  Silver  annually  coined  at  the  Bank,  with  Jie 
Exports,  Imports,  and  Revenue  for  the  same  period. 


'. 

•£§ 

3 

ii- 

1 

ft 

Js.s 

Jjj 

d 
I 

-2 

3 

tu 

|| 

1 

jil 

"3 

o 

1 

il 

sLag 

c> 

If 

A 

n 

EH 

G1-1^ 

o^o 

a 

1791 

11,307,380 





1,171,863 

11,307.380 

19,859,358 

24,904,850 

17,864,464 

1,540,14 

1793 

11,388.910 



__ 

2,747,430 

11,388,910 

19,659,357 

20,390,179 

17,707,983 

1794 
1795 

S 

1798 

10,744,020 
14,017,510 
10,729,520 
9,674,780 
11,647,610 

,867^585 
1,448,220 

2,946,500 
3505,000 
5,350,000 
4,490,600 

2,558,895 
493,416 
464,  680 
.   2,600,297 
2,967,565 

10,744,020 
14,017,510 
16,729,520 
11,114,120 
13,095,830 

22,294,893 
23.736.889 
23,187,319 
21,013,956 
2i.122.203 

26,748,082 
27,123,338 
30,518,913 
28,917,010 
27.317,087 

17,899,294 
18,456,298 
18,548.628 
19,852,646 
30,492,995 

- 

1799 

11,494,150 

1,465.650 

5,403,900 

449,962 

12,959,610 

24,066,700 

99  5^6  ^37 

35,311,018 



1800 
1801 

15,372,980 
13,578,520 
12,574,860 

1.471,540 

2,634,760 
2,612,020 

6,401,900 
7.905,100 
7,523,300 

189,937 

450,242 
437,019 

16,854,800 
16,203,280 
15,186,880 

28,257,781 
30,43.5,268 
28.308,373 

»<38l!617 

34,838,564 
37.873,324 

34,069.457 
35,516,351 
37,111,'=20 

1,905,43% 

1804 

12,350,970 
12.546,560 

2.9(8  9f!0 
4,531,270 

10,747,600 
9.982,400 

596,445 

15.849.aSO 
17.077.8  » 

25,104.541 
26,454,281 

28,075.239 
31,071,108 

38,203,937 
45,515,152 

— 

1805 
1806 

13,011,010 
13,271,529 

4,860.160 
4,458.600 

11,365,500 
12.380.100 

54i(i68     17,870,'170 
405,106!   17,730,120 

27,341.720 
25,504  478 

30,540.491 
32.984.101 

50,555,190 
54,071,908 

— 

1807 

12,840  790 

4,109,89(1  !   13;484;600 

None.     '  16.9V1.680 

23,326,845 

8n,.588,u84 

59,406.731 



1808 
1809 

14,093.690 
14,241,360 

4,m',m     15.'475.'700J 

371,714 
298,946 

14,183,860 

18,542.860 

25,660,9:13 
30,170  2^2 

29,956,629 
45,667.216 

(G,  147.601 
63,879,802 

— 

1*10 

15,159,180 

5,860,420 

20,070,600 

316,936 

21  019  600 

37.613,294 

42,656.843 

67,825,597 

2,406.044 

ill 

16,246.130 
15951,290 

7,114,090 

7,4-57,030 

14,355,400 
14,291,600 

312,263 

None. 

2:3.360,220 
23,408,320 

25,240,704 
24,923,  22 
Records 

37,8^7,2  2 
27,982,977 

65,309,K>0 
6,5,752,125 

2,474.774 
2,478,799 

1813 

15,407,320 

7,713.610 

12,330,200 

519,722 

23,210,930 

destroyed 

68,302,830 

— 

1814 

16,455,540 

8,345,540 

13,285,800 

None. 

24,801,080 

32,622,771 

-,1  V*  3T-8 

70.2.W.313 



1815 
1816 

18,226,400 

i8.on.aflo 

9!OOT|400_  11I416I400 

None. 
None. 

27,261,650 
27,013,620 

31,822,053 
98,374.921 

57!4?0!4T7 

48,216.186 

72.203.142 
62.»^0,711 

2,643,593 

—Parl.  Drb.,  vii.,  xiv.,  xv. ;  j3pp.  Part.  Hist.,  xxxv.,  1563.    COLQBHOITN,  99.  MORKAU'S  Tables,  and  PEBRER, 
279.    MARSHALL'S  Digest,  pp.  97, 147,  236. 

Thus,  in  the  twenty-four  years  from  1792  to  1816,  the  circulation  of  England,  including  the  large  and  smaM 
notes  and  commercinl  p;iper  discounted  at  the  Bank,  was.  more  than  tripled  :  the  revenue  tripled,  and  theexporU 
more  than  doubled:  the  imports  increased  a  half.  The  increase  of  commercial  paper  from  1792  to  1810  wa» 
tnenfold:  indicating,  perhaps,  the  greatest  and  most  rapid  rise  in  mercantile  transactions  in  the  wholr  history 
«f  the  world. 


APPENDIX.  493 

of  ever)  sort  quickly  rose,  interest  was  high,  profits  still  higher,  and  all  who  made  their 
livelihood  by  productive  industry,  or  by  buying  and  selling,  found  themselves  in  a  state 
of  extraordinary  and  increasing  prosperity.  That  these  favorable  appearances  were,  to 
a  certain  extent,  delusive  ;  that  the  flood  of  prosperity  thus  let  in  upon  the  state 
was  occasioned  by  exhausting,  in  a  great  degree,  the  reservoirs  of  wealth  for  future 
emergencies  ;  and  that  a  long  period  of  languor  and  depression  was  to  follow  this  fever- 
ish and  unnatural  tract  of  excitement,  is  indeed  certain  ;  but  still  the  effect  at  the  moment 
was  the  same,  and  in  the  activity,  enterprise,  and  opulence  thus  created  were  to  be  found 
the  most  powerful  resources  for  carrying  on  the  contest.  How  beneficial  soever  to  the 
finances  of  the  state,  in  future  times,  it  might  have  been  to  have  raised  the  whole  sup- 
plies by  taxation  within  the  year,  it  was  impossible  that  from  such  a  prudent  and  parsi- 
monious system  there  could  have  arisen  the  extraordinary  vigor  and  progressive  creation 
of  wealth  which  resulted  from  the  lavish  expenditure  of  the  national  capital  in  maintain- 
ing the  conflict ;  and  but  for  the  profuse  outlay,  which  has  been  felt  as  so  burdensome 
in  subsequent  times,  the  nation  might  have  sunk  beneath  its  enemies,  and  England,  with 
all  its  glories,  been  swept  for  ever  from  the  book  of  existence. 

Had  Mr.  Pitt's  system,  attended  as  it  was,  however,  with  this  vast  expenditure  of 
capital  instead  of  income  on  the  current  expenses,  made  no  provision  for  the  ultimate 
redemption  of  the  debt  thus  contracted,  it  would,  notwithstanding  the  prodigious  and 
triumphant  results  with  which  it  was  attended,  have  been  liable  to  very  severe  repre- 
hension. But  every  view  of  his  financial  policy  must  be  imperfect  and  erroneous,  if 
the  sinking  fund,  which  constituted  so  essential  a  part  of  the  system,  is  not  taken  into 
consideration.  Its  great  results  have  now  been  completely  demonstrated  by  experience  ; 
and  there  can  be  no  question  that,  if  it  had  been  adhered  to,  the  whole  debt  might  have 
been  extinguished  with  ease  before  the  year  1840  :  that  is,  in  nearly  as  short  a  time 
as  it  was  created.  Great  as  were  the  burdens  of  the  war,  therefore,  he  had  established 
the  means  of  rendering  them  only  temporary ;  durable  as  the  results  of  its  successes  have 
proved,  the  price  at  which  they  were  purchased  admitted,  according  to  his  plan,  of  a 
rapid  liquidation.  It  is  the  subsequent  abandonment  of  the  sinking  fund,  in  consequence 
of  the  unnecessary  and  imprudent  remission  of  so  large  a  proportion  of  the  indirect  taxes, 
which  is  the  real  evil  that  has  undone  the  mighty  structure  of  former  wisdom  ;  and  for 
a  slight  and  questionable  present  advantage,  rendered  the  debt,  when  undergoing  a  rapid 
and  successful  process  of  liquidation,  a  lasting  and  hopeless  burden  on  the  state.  The 
magnitude  of  this  change  is  too  great  to  be  accounted  for  by  the  weakness  or  errors  of 
individuals  :  the  misfortune  thus  inflicted  upon  the  country  too  irreparable  to  be  ascribed 
lo  the  improvidence  or  short-sighted  policy  of  subsequent  governments.  Without  excul- 
pating the  members  of  the  administrations  who  did  not  manfully  resist,  and,  if  they  could 
not  prevent,  at  least  denounce  the  growing  delusion,  it  may  be  safely  affirmed  that  the 
great  weight  of  the  responsibility  must  be  borne  by.the  nation  itself.  If  the  people  of 
Great  Britain  have  now  a  debt  of  seven  hundred  and  seventy  millions,  with  hardly  any 
fund  for  its  redemption,  they  have  to  blame,  not  Mr.  Pitt,  who  was  compelled  to  con. 
tract  it  in  the  course  of  a  desperate  struggle  for  the  national  independence,  and  left 
them  the  means  of  its  rapid  and  certain  liquidation,  but  the  blind  Democratic  spirit, 
which  first,  from  its  excesses  in  a  neighboring  state,  made  is  expenditure  unavoidable, 
and  then,  from  its  impatience  of  present  sacrifice  at  home,  destroyed  the  means  of  its 
discharge.  "  All  nations,"  says  M.  Toqueville,  in  his  profound  work  on  American 
Democracy,  "  which  have  made  a  great  and  lasting  impression  on  human  affairs,  from 
the  Romans  to  the  English,  have  been  governed  by  aristocratic  bodies :  the  instability 
and  impatience  of  the  Democratic  spirit  render  the  states  in  which  it  is  the  ruling  power 
incapable  of  durable  achievements."*  The  abandonment  of  a  system  fraught  with  such 
incalculable  future  advantages  as  the  sinking  fund,  but  requiring  a  present  sacrifice  for 
its  maintenance,  affords  decisive  evidence  that  the  balance  of  the  Constitution  had 
become  overloaded  in  reality,  before  it  was  so  in  form,  on  the  popular  side,  and  that 
the  period  had  arrived  when  an  ignorant  impatience  of  taxation  Was  to  bring  about  that 
disregard  of  everything  but  present  objects  which  is  the  invariable  characteristic  of  the 
majority  of  mankind.  With  the  prevalence  of  aristocratic  rule  in  England,  that  nobta 
monument  of  national  foresight  and  resolution  progressively  prospered  :  with  its  decline 
the  efficiency  of  the  great  engine  of  redemption  was  continually  impaired  amid  the 
general  influence  of  the  unthinking  multitude  ;  and  at  length,  upon  its  subversion  by  the 
great  change  of  1832,  it  finally,  to  all  practical  purposes,  was  destroyed.  Irretrievable 
ultimate  ruin  his  thus  been  brought  upon  the  state  ;  for  not  only  is  the  burden  now  fixed 

*  Toqueville.  ii,.  237 


494  APPENDIX. 

upon  its  resources  inconsistent  with  the  permanent  maintenance  of  the  nntional  inde. 
pendence,  but  the  steady  rule  has  been  terminated,  under  which  alone  its  liquidation 
could  have  been  expected.  But  if  the  sun  of  British  greatness  is  setting  in  the  Old,  it 
is,  from  the  same  cause,  rising  in  renovated  lustre  in  the  New  World.  The  imp-itience 
of  the  Democratic  spirit,  both  in  the  British  isles  and  on  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic  ;  the 
energy  it  developes,  the  insatiable  desires  it  creates,  the  national  burdens  which  it  per- 
petuates, the  convulsions  which  it  induces,  all  conspire  to  impel  the  ceaseless  wave  of 
emigration  to  the  West ;  and  the  very  distresses  consequent  on  an  advanced  stage  of 
existence  force  the  power  and  vigor  of  civilization  into  the  primeval  recesses  of  thi" 
fore-t.  In  two  centuries  the  name  of  England  may  be  extinct,  or  survive  only  under  the 
shadow  of  ancient  renown  ;  but  a  hundred  and  fifty  millions  of  men  in  North  America 
will  be  speaking  its  language,  reading  its  authors,  glorying  in  its  descent.  Nations, 
like  individuals,  were  not  destined  for  immortality ;  in  their  virtues,  equally  as  their 
vices,  their  grandeur  as  their  weakness,  they  bear  in  their  bosoms  the  seeds  of  mortality  ; 
but  in  the  passions  which  elevate  them  to  greatness,  equally  as  those  which  hasten  their 
decay,  is  to  be  discerned  the  unceasing  operation  of  those  principles  at  once  of  corrup. 
tion  and  resurrection  which  are  combined  in  humanity,  and  which,  universal  in  commu- 
nities as  in  single  men,  compensate  the  necessary  decline  of  nations  by  the  vital  fire  «• 
which  has  given  an  undccaying  youth  to  the  human  race. 


QUESTIONS. 


NOTE — The  figures  in  the  margin  denote  the  pages  in  the  history  to  which  the  questions  refer 


CHAPTER  I. 

1 .  Why  is  the  era  of  Napoleon  important 
in  History? 

With  what  other  great  eras  is  that  of  Na- 
poleon to  be  ranked  and  compared  ? 

To  what  must  the  extraordinary  ferocity 
and  destructiveness  of  the  French  Revolution 
be  attributed  ? 

For  how  long  a  period,  previous  to  the 
Revolution,  had  France  enjoyed  the  bles- 
sings of  peace  ? 

2.  Who  flew  to  arms  when  the  insurrec- 
tion finally  broke  out  ? 

What  are  the  names  of  the  French  Philos- 
ophers who  interfered  in  politics  before  the 
Revolution  ? 

Why  were  not  the  public  authorities  alarm- 
ed at  the  speculations  of  these  Philosophers  ? 

Who  was  Madame  Roland  ? 

What  did  she  do,  when  but  nine  years  old  ? 

Of  what  class  of  people  were  the  bishops 
and  the  more  powerful  clergy  composed  ? 

What  were  the  character  aud  conduct  of 
the  humbler  clergy  ? 

How  many  classes  of  people  were  there  in 
France? 

How  numerous  were  the  aristocracy  or 
privileged  class  ? 

On  whom  did  the  taxes  principally  fall  ? 

3.  Where  did  the  rich  landholders  usually 
reside  ? 

What  was  the  consequence  of  their  living 
abroad  ? 

What  was  the  state  of  education  among 
the  French  peasantry  ? 

What  was  the  extent  of  the  royal  prerog- 
ative previous  to  the  Revolution  ? 

What  was  the  moral  character  of  the 
court  of  Louis  XV.  ? 

What  was  the  immediate  cause  of  the  Rev- 
olution ? 

On  what  day  and  year  were  the  States- 
General  convened  ? 

What  might  that  day,  strictly  speaking,  be 
called  ? 

Where  was  the  Assembly  of  the  States- 
General  convened  ? 

4.  Of  what  members  was  the  Assembly 
composed  ? 

What  did  the  members  do  when  the  King 
seated  himself  on  the  throne  ? 

Who  was  King  of  France  at  this  time  ? 

What  took  place  on  the  Gih  of  May  and  j 
for  several  weeks  afterward  ? 

44* 


Which  of  the  three  orders  in  the  Assembly 
endeavored  to  bring  about  a  union  between 
the  three  ? 

How  did  they  propose  to  accomplish  this? 

What  reply  was  made  by  the  commons? 
and  who  was  the  member  that  gave  the 
reply  ? 

5.  What  was  the  conduct  of  the  Court  at 
this  crisis  ? 

What  should  Neckarhave  done  ?  and  what 
did  he? 

What  did  the  commons  finally  resolve 
upon  ? 

What  course  was  pursued  by  the  King? 

Who,  among  the  nobility,  was  the  first  to 
abandon  his  principles  and  his  high  trust^ 
and  join  the  Revolutionary  party? 

How  did  the  King  endeavor  to  repair  the 
consequences  of  his  own  imprudence  ? 

Whom  did  he  dismiss  and  banish  ? 

6.  How  did  the  people  receive  the  intelli- 
gence of  his  banishment  ? 

Who  headed  the  tumult  in  the  Palais- 
Royal  ? 

What  did  he  urge  the  people  to  do  ? 

What  body  of  troops  was  organized  after 
the  mob  had  broken  open  the  arsenals  and 
armed  themselves  with  muskets  and  cannon? 

What  took  place  on  the  14th  of  July? 

7.  What  was  done  in  the  French  provinces 
after  the  capture  of  the  Bastile  ? 

What  was  the  condition  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Paris  after  these  events  ? 

What  did  they  resolve  to  do  ? 

Who  was  the  commander  of  the  National 
Guard  ? 

What  did  the  people  do  when  they  arrived 
at  Versailles? 

What  did  La  Fayette  do,  after  order  was 
partially  restored  ? 

What  took  place,  early  the  next  morning, 
at  the  Palace  f 

8.  What  course  was  adopted  by  the  mob 
and  by  the  Assembly,  after  La  Fayette  had 
protected  the  Palace  and  its  inhabitants  from 
immediate  destruction  ? 

How  long  a  time  elapsed  between  the 
meeting  of  the  States-General  and  the  im- 
prisonment of  the  King  in  his  own  capital  ? 

Into  who»e  hands  did  the  real  administra- 
tion of  (.he  government  fall  after  the  King's 
imprisonment  ? 

9.  What  measures  were  first  taken  by  the 
Assembly  to  relieve  the  embarrassment  of 
the  national  finances  ? 


496 


QUESTIONS. 


What  was  the  value  of  the  church  lands 

How  were  they  sold  ? 

How  were  they  paid  for  ? 

What  kind  of  money  eventually  came  into 
ordinary  use  in  France  ? 

What  did  the  nobility  do,  when  they  founc 
that  the  Assembly  were  detei mined  to  ruin 
the  country? 

When  did  the  National  Assembly  close  its 
sittings  ? 

What  was  the  title  of  the  Assembly  that 
succeeded  to  the  administration  of  the  gov- 
ernment ? 

How  long  had  the  Revolution  now  been  in 
progress  ? 


CHAPTER  II. 

1 0.  What  was  the  character  of  the  mem- 
bers composing  the  Legislative  Assembly? 

When  did  the  Assembly  commence  its 
sittings  ? 

How  were  the  members  divided  ? 

What  were  the  names  of  those  three 
parties  ? 

Who  were  the  leaders  of  the  three  parties  ? 

Wherein  consisted  the  real  strength  of  the 
Jacobins  ? 

What  measures  did  the  Assembly  take 
with  regard  to  the  clergy  ? 

Did  the  King  approve  these  measures  ? 

Against  what  nations  did  the  Assembly 
declare  war  ? 

1 1 .  How  did    the   people   receive    this 
measure  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  first  encounters 
between  the  French  and  their  enemies  ? 

What  was  the  conduct  of  the  King,  after 
the  Assembly  disbanded  his  guard  ? 

How  did  the  Girondists  proceed  after  the 
King  had  estranged  himself  from  them  ? 

What  was  now  the  only  hope  of  the  King 
and  Court  ? 

What  proclamation  was  issued  by  the  Duke 
of  Brunswick  ?  and  what  was  the  effect  of  it 
on  the  people  of  France  ? 

1 2.  What  personal  danger  now  threatened 
the  King  ? 

By  whom  was  he  defended  in  this  ex- 
tremity ? 

On  what  day  did  this  take  place  ? 

What  was  next  done  with  the  royal  family? 

Which  party  did  La  Fayette  seek  to  sup- 
port? 

What  fate  overtook  him  ?  and  what  course 
was  pursued  toward  him  by  the  Assembly  ? 

Who  now  had  actual  control  of  the  French 
governmei  t  ? 

What  were  they  called  ? 

What  did  they  first  demand  of  the  As- 
sembly ? 

1 3 .  Was  the  appointment  of  this  Revo- 
lutionary Tribunal  granted  to  them? 

What  steps  were  immediately  taken  by 
this  Tribunal  ? 

How  many  people,  and  of  what  class, 
were  arrested  ? 

Who  directed  the  operations  of  the  Tri- 
bunal? 


Who  were  assembled  around  the  Hotel  de 
Ville  on  the  morning  of  the  2d  of  September  ? 

Who  were  at  that  time  confined  in  the 
Hotel  de  Ville? 

How  were  they  removed  thence  ?  and 
where  were  they  carried  ? 

What  was  done  to  them  there  ? 

What  took  place  immediately  afterward  in 
the  prison  of  the  Abbaye  ? 

Who  presided  over  this  prison  tribunal  ? 
_  Who  was  first  summoned  to  appear  before 
him  ?  and  what  was  his  fate  ? 

What  was  the  fate  of  those  who  followed 
him? 

What  demand  was  made  by  the  mob  after 
this  butchery  had  proceeded  for  some  time  ? 

What  is  related  of  Mademoiselle  de  Som- 
brieul  ? 

1 4.  How  many  people  were  massacred  at 
this  period? 

How  long  did  the  massacres  continue  ? 

What  was  done  with  the  bodies  of  the 
slain  ? 

Were  the  people  of  Paris  capable  of  re- 
sisting these  outrages  ? 

Why  did  they  not  do  so  ? 

What  public  body  succeeded  the  Legisla- 
tive Assembly  in  the  government  ? 

Who  were  the  leaders  of  the  National 
Convention  ? 

Of  what  parties  was  it  composed  ? 

15.  What  was  the  first  measure  of  the 
Convention  ? 

When  was  the  Republic  proclaimed 

What  was  done  with  the  Calendar  ? 

What  amount  of  assignats  had  been  issued 
for  the  expenses  of  the  government  during 
three  years  ? 

What  change  was  made  in  the  constitution 
at  the  instance  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans  ? 

What  measure  was  undertaken  by  the  Gi- 
rondists ? 

For  what  great  event  did  the  Jacobins  now 
prepare  ? 

What  was  the  nature  of  the  charges 
against  Louis  XVI.? 

What  treatment  did  he  and  the  other  mem- 
bers of  the  royal  family  experience  while 
confined  in  the  Temple  ? 

16.  Who  undertook  to  defend  the  King 
on  his  trial? 

What  advice  did  the  King  give  his  son 
n  his  Testament  ? 

On  what  day  and  year  did  the  trial  com- 
mence ?  and  how  long  did  it  continue  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  trial  ? 

By  what  majority  was  the  King  condemned 
o  death  ? 

How  many  of  the  Girondists  voted  for  his 
death? 

What  was  their  subsequent  fate  ? 

1  7.  When  the  King  received  his  sentence, 
vhat  did  he  demand  ?  and  what  was  granted 
o  him  ? 

Describe  the  last  interview  of  the  King 
with  his  family. 

On  what  day  and  year  was  he  conducted 
o  the  scaffold  ? 

How  was  he  conducted  thither  ? 

Who  attended  the  King-  in  Lis  last  mo- 
ments  ? 


QUESTIONS. 


497 


18.  Where  was  the  body  removed? 
Where  did  the  execution  take  place  ? 
Who  were  afterward  executed  on  the  same 
spot? 

How  is  that  place  now  ornamented  ? 
What  was  the  character  of  Louis  XVI.? 


CHAPTER  III. 

What  was  the  effect  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution on  the  adjoining  kingdoms  of  Europe? 

19.  What  nations,  at  this  time,  were  the 
most  prominent  and  powerful  in  Europe  ? 

For  how  long  a  period  had  Great  Britain 
enjoyed  peace  before  the  Revolution  broke 
out? 

What  was  the  amount  of  her  national  debt 
at  this  time  ? 

How  many  soldiers  can  Great  Britain  mus- 
ter at  one  point  on  the  continent  of  Europe  ? 

In  what,  chiefly,  did  the  strength  of  Great 
Britain  consist  ? 

What  were  the  opinions  of  the  people  of 
Great  Britain  on  the  French  Revolution  ? 
who  approved  it?  and  who  were  alarmed 
at  it? 

Who  was  at  the  head  of  the  party  approv- 
ing it? 

Who  was  the  leader  of  the  opposite  party  ? 

What  was  the  character  of  Pitt  ? 

20.  How  old  was  he  when  he  was  made 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  ? 

How  did  he  maintain  himself  in  the  strug- 
gle with  his  political  opponents  ? 

Of  whom  was  a  third  party  composed? 

Who  was  the  leader  of  this  party  ? 

Of  what  great  work  is  he  the  author  ? 

What  nation  was  the  most  formidable  con- 
tinental rival  of  France  at  this  time  ? 

How  many  inhabitants  did  Austria  then 
contain  ? 

What  was  her  form  of  government  ? 

What  was  her  military  strength  at  that 
time? 

21.  What  was  the  military  strength  of 
Prussia  ? 

What  was  the  population  of  Prussia  ? 

What  was  the  system  of  Prussia's  military 
organization  ? 

What  was  the  Prussian  form  of  govern- 
ment ? 

What  was  the  situation  of  Russia  ? 

What  was  the  military  strength  of  Russia  ? 

22.  What  was  the  population  of  Russia  ? 
What  national  triumph  had  Sweden  re- 
cently achieved  ? 

What  was  her  position  in  the  political  scale 
of  Europe  ? 

What  was  the  condition  and  importance 
of  Turkey? 

And  of  Italy  ? 

And  of  Piedmont,  ? 

23.  And  of  Holland  ? 
And  of  Switzerland  ? 

What  were  the  characteristics  of  the  peo- 
ple of  Spain? 

In  what  class  of  the  Spaniards  did  the 
strength  of  the  country  consist? 

What  was  the  military  strength  of  Spain? 

What  was  the  military  strength  of  France  ? 


What  had  caused  a  decline  of  discipline  ID 
the  French  troops  ? 

How  was  this  evil  remedied  ? 

Who  ascended  the  Austrian  throne  at  this 
time  ? 

How  old  was  he  when  he  began  to  reign  I 

What  was  the  character  of  his  reign  ? 

What  did  he  say,  when  ordering  the  news- 
papers to  discontinue  their  praise  of  him  ? 

24.  What  measures  Avere  taken  by  the 
French  Jacobins  to  extend  their  Revolution- 
ary principles  to  other  countries  ? 

What  countries  were  revolutionized  by 
them  ? 

What  decree  was  passed  on  the  19th  of 
November  by  the  Convention  ? 

Against  whom  did  the  French  Convention 
declare  war  on  the  3d  of  February,  1793? 


CHAPTER  IV. 

25.  What  generals  had  command  of  the 
French  armies  at  the  opening  of  the  cam- 
paign  of  1792  ? 

What  was  the  state  of  discipline  in  these 
armies  ? 

What  forces  were  arrayed  against  the 
French  ? 

Where  did  the  French  troops  make  their 
first  invasion  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  that  invasion  ? 

What  did  the  Prussians  say  of  the  French 
soldiers  ? 

26.  What  fortresses  had  the  French  on 
their  eastern  frontier  ? 

What  course  should  the  allies  have 
adopted? 

What  course  did  they  adopt  ? 

Who  took  command  of  the  French  troops 
to  resist  the  invaders  ?  • 

What  forced  Dumourier  to  retreat  to  St. 
Menehould  ? 

What  was  the  position  of  the  two  armie* 
after  this  retreat  f 

What  battle  now  took  place  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  battle  ? 

How  does  an  indecisive  action  affect  an 
invading  army  ? 

27.  What  effect  did  this  battle  have  on 
the  minds  of  the  French  soldiers  ? 

What  was  the  secret  cause  of  the  Duke  of 
Brunswick's  inactivity  ? 

What  was  Dumourier's  motive  in  negotia- 
ting with  the  allies  ? 

What  did  he  propose  to  the  allies? 

What  did  the  allies  do,  in  accordance  to 
his  proposals  ? 

28.  What  town  did  the  Austrians  besiege 
in  the  Low  Countries  ? 

How  did  that  siege  progress  and  terminate  ? 

After  the  repulse  of  the  Austrians  from 
Lisle,  what  towns  did  Custine  capture? 

At  what  place  did  Dumourier  encounter 
the  Austrian  forces  on  the  6th  of  November  ? 

What  young  French  officer  distinguished 
himself  in  the  battle  of  Jemappes  ? 

29.  What  was  the  result  of  this  battle? 
What  were  the  consequences  which  fol- 
lowed the  defeat  of  the  Austrians  1 


498 


QUESTIONS. 


What  did  the  Revolutionary  party  in  Flan- 
ders gain  by  the  success  of  the  French  ? 

Where  did  the  King  of  Prussia  gain  ad- 
vantage over  the  French? 

What  was  the  condition  of  the  French  ar- 
mies at  the  close  of  the  campaign  ? 


CHAPTER  V. 

3O.  What  difficulties  did  the  people  of 
Paris  have  to  encounter  in  February  and 
March,  1793? 

What  course  did  Marat  recommend  in  the 
newspaper  of  which  he  was  editor  ? 

Did  the  people  follow  his  suggestion  ? 

How  did  the  shopkeepers  like  the  result  of 
their  own  revolutionary  principles  when  ap- 
plied to  themselves  ? 

What  Tribunal  did  the  Jacobins  now  or- 
ganize ? 

What  were  the  powers  of  the  Revolution- 
ary Tribunal  ? 

Who  held  the  office  of  Public  Accuser  in 
this  Tribunal  ? 

3  I .  What  did  the  Girondists  propose  to 
do,  to  counteract  the  effects  of  this  Tribunal  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  trial  of  Mnnit  ? 

What  was  next  proposed  by  Guadet  in  be- 
half of  the  Girondists  ? 

What  did  Barere  propose  as  a  substitute 
for  Guadet's  project? 

Which  of  the  two  was  adopted  ? 

What  was  first  done  by  the  Commission  of 
Twelve? 

What  course  did  the  municipality  adopt 
after  the  arrest  of  Hebert  ? 

How  did  Fsnard  reply  to  the  mob  ? 

What  did  the  conspirators  next  undertake  ? 

How  many  of  the  Sections  joined  them  ? 

How  many  Sections  could  the  Commission 
of  Twelve  rely  on? 

32.  What  report  was  made  by  Garat  to 
the  Girondists  while  surrounded  by  the  mul- 
titude ( 

What  ensued  in  the  Convention  ? 

What  was  done  by  the  Girondists  the  next 
morning  ? 

Who  took  command  of  the  Jacobin  forces  ? 

What  measure  did  he  compel  the  Conven- 
tion to  adopt  ? 

Were  the  Revolutionists  satisfied  with  this 
triumph  ? 

What  demonstration  did  they  make  on  the 
2d  of  June  ? 

What  announcement  was  made  to  the  Con- 
vention by  Lacroix  ? 

What  did  the  members  then  do,  at  the 
recommendation  of  Danton  ? 

33.  What  took  place  between  the  mem- 
bers and  'he  soldiers  ? 

What  declaration  was  made  by  Marat  after 
the  members  returned  to  the  hall  ? 

What  did  Couthon  propose  ? 

What  became  of  the  proscribed  members?. 

What  party  had  now  the  entire  control  of 
the  Convention  ? 

What  committees  had  the  management  of 
public  affairs  ? 

How  were  opinions  divided  in  the  Prov- 
inces* 


What  department,  in  the  Provinces,  gave 
the  first  signal  of  insurrection  against  th* 
Jacobins  ? 

Why  was  not  the  insurrection  more  suc- 
cessful * 

What  powers  were  now  assumed  by  the 
Committee  of  Public  Safety  '. 

34.  What  was  the  law  in  regard  to  sus- 
pected persons  ? 

How  numerous  did  the  Revolutionary  Com- 
mittees now  become  ?  and  of  what  class 
were  they  composed  ? 

What  was  the  character  of  their  proceed- 
ings, as  reported  by  Laplanche  ? 

What  changes  in  the  division  of  time  were 
made  by  the  Convention  ? 

When  did  they  make  the  year  commence? 

What  female  enthusiast  distinguished  her- 
self at  this  time  ? 

What  act  did  she  commit  ?  and  how  was 
she  punished  ? 

35.  How  was  the   royal  family  treated 
after  the  King's  death? 

What  was  the  fate  of  the  young  prince? 

And  of  the  Queen? 

What  followed  the  execution  of  the  Queen? 

What  measures  were  taken  by  the  Conven- 
tion in  regard  to  Christianity  ? 

What  were  the  consequences  of  their  thus 
abjuring  the  Christian  religion? 

What  inscription  was  placed  on  the  public 
cemeteries  ? 

3Ci.  What   leaders  among  the   Jacobins 
were  first  led  to  the  scaffold  ? 
Whom  did  Robespierre  cause  to  be  arrested? 

What  did  Danton  and  Desmoulins  say  on 
their  trial  ? 

What  was  their  fate  ? 

What  was  the  real  question  before  the 
Convention  in  all  the  trials  at  this  period? 

Who  became  sole  dictator  of  the  Republic 
after  the  death  of  Danton  ? 

What  was  now  the  number  of  prisoners  in 
Paris  ?  and  in  France  ? 

What  number  of  these  were  executed  daily 
in  Paris? 

How  many  were  executed  in  Arras,  by 
order  of  Le  Brun  ? 

What  was  done  by  Carrier,  at  Nantes? 

37.  And  by  Collot  d'Herbois,  at  Lyons? 
What  effects  did  these  continued  massacres 

have,  at  length,  on  the  people  of  Paris? 

What  conspiracy  did  they  organize  ? 

What  was  Robespierre's  deportment  be- 
fore the  Convention  ? 

Who  advocated  Robespierre's  cause  ? 

How  did  Tallien  interrupt  St.  Just  ? 

What  was  the  decision  of  the  Convention? 

What  course  was  pursued  by  the  partisans 
of  Robespierre  after  he  was  arrested  ? 

38.  Were  the  Convention  intimidated  by 
Robespierre's  partisans  ? 

What  order  was  given  by  Henriot  ? 

Did  the  artillery-men  obey  him  ? 

Which  side  did  the  National  Guard  take  ? 

How  was  Robespierre  arrested  at  the  Ho. 
tel  de  Ville  ? 

What  took  place  at  his  execution? 

On  what  day  was  he  executed  ? 

What  is  the  number  of  victims  massacred 
during  the  Reign  of  Terror  ? 


QUESTIONS. 


499 


CHAPTER  VI. 

39.  What  were  the  character  and  situa- 
tion of  the  inhabitants  of  La  Vendee  ? 

What  part  did  they  take  in  the  Revolution  ? 

Who  were  the  principal  Royalist  leaders 
in  La  Vendee  ( 

4  <>.  What  number  of  troops  did  the  Yen- 
deans  muster  ? 

Whit  orders  did  the  Convention  issue  to 
their  own  troops  ? 

What  was  the  first  achievement  of  the 
Royalists? 

What  was  a  remarkable  feature  of  this 
victory  ? 

What  towns  did  the  Royalists  next  cap- 
ture ? 

What  did  Lescure  do  to  encourage  his  sol- 
diers at  the  attack  on  Fontenay  ? 

What  did  the  Royali*ts  do  with  their  pris- 
oners ? 

4  1 .  What  important  town  was  next  taken 
by  the  Royalists  ? 

Where  did  the  Royalists  meet  with  dis- 
aster ? 

What  three  Republican  generals  were  suc- 
cessively defeated  in  their  invasions  of  Ven- 
dee ? 

42.  What  was  the  whole  number  of  reg- 
ular troops  conquered  in  these  battles  by  the 
Royalists  ? 

What  measures  were  now  taken  by  the 
Convention  to  bring  the  war  to  a  close  ? 

How  were  the  proceedings  of  the  Repub- 
licans reported  to  the  Convention  by  Bourbotte 
and  Turreau? 

What  took  place  on  the  very  day  that 
Bourbotte  and  Turreau  made  this  Report  to 
the  Convention  ? 

At  what  towns  were  the  Royalists  again 
victorious  ? 

43.  How  did  the  Royalists  treat  their 
prisoners  ? 

Why  were  these  numerous  victories  of  so 
little  value  to  the  Royalists  ? 

What  ensued  at  the  attack  of  Mons  by  the 
Republicans  ? 

Who  commenced  a  war  of  extermination 
against  the  Vendeans? 

What  were  his  troops  called  ? 

44.  What  orders  aid  he  give  his  troops  ? 
What  was  done  by  Carrier  at  Nantes? 
How  many  children  were  massacred  by 

Carrier  ? 


CHAPTER  VII. 

By  what  was  the  year  1793  distinguished? 

What  number  of  troops  were  mustered  by 
the  allies  ? 

And  how  many  by  the  French? 

What  advantages  of  position  had  the 
French  ? 

4.1.  What  quality,  essential  to  victory, 
was  wanting  by  the  allies  ? 

Who  was  the  leader  of  the  allies?  and 
how  was  he  qualified  to  be  their  leader  ? 

What  difficulties  had  the  French  troops  to 
contend  with  ? 


How  did  the  French  provide  money  to 
carry  on  the  war  ? 

With  what  siege  did  the  French  open  the 
campaign  ? 

What  young  officer  had  command  of  the 
Austrian  grenadiers  ? 

Which  side  had  the  advantage  at  the  open- 
ing of  the  campaign  ? 

Who  took  command  of  the  French  after 
their  retreat  to  Louvain  ? 

46.  Where  did  he  encounter  the  Austri- 
ans  in  a  general  action  ? 

Who  gained  the  battle  ? 

What  were  Dumourier's  political  projects 
at  this  time  ? 

How  did  he  succeed  in  his  plans? 

What  did  he  do  when  his  plans  were  dis- 
covered and  defeated  by  his  countrymen  ? 

What  congress  of  ministers  was  now 
formed  at  Antwerp  ? 

What  were  their  opinions  as  to  the  condi- 
tion of  the  French  Convention  ? 

What  resolution  did  they  adopt  ? 

What  was  the  effect  of  this  ? 

What  measures  were  taken  by  the  Conven- 
tion ? 

41.  What  was  the  result  of  the  war  on 
the  eastern  frontier  of  France? 

What  town  of  importance  was  there  cap- 
tured by  the  allies  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  war  on  the 
Flemish  frontier? 

What  was  the  position  of  the  allies  after 
defeating  the  French  at  the  camp  of  Csesar  ? 

What  might  the  allies  now  have  done? 
and  what  did  they  do  ? 

48.  How  did  the  Convention  proceed  in 
preparations  for  continuing  the  war  ? 

Who  was  at  the  head  of  the  French  mil- 
itary department  ? 

What  was  his  character  ?  and  his  misfor- 
tune ? 

What  has  he  asserted  in  his  defence  ? 

What  improvement  in  the  military  art  did 
he  originate  ? 

What  success  did  the  Austrians  gain  at 
Quesnoy  ? 

How  did  the  English  conduct  the  siege  ot 
Dunkirk  ? 

What  French  general  was  sent  to  relieve 
Dunkirk? 

How  did  he  succeed  at  first  ? 

49.  How  did  he  fare  at  Courtray  ? 

How  did  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal  rec- 
ompense his  services  ? 

Who  now  took  command  of  the  French 
army  of  the  north  ? 

How  did  he  succeed  ? 

Who  had  command  of  the  French  on  the 
Moselle  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  his  attack  on  the 
Prussians  at  Permasin  ? 

Where  did  the  French  intrench  themselves  ? 

50.  What  was  the  result  of  the  allies' 
attack  on  the  lanes  at  Weissenberg  ? 

What  did  the  inhabitants  of  Strasburg  pro- 
aose  to  Wurmser  ? 

What  was  Wurmser's  reply  ? 

What  was  done  by  the  Republicans  to  the 
nhabitants  of  Strasburg  ? 


500 


QUESTIONS. 


What  measure  was  now  contemplated  by 
the  King  of  Prussia  ? 

What  induced  him  to  forego  his  intentions  ? 

What  directions  did  he,  nevertheless,  give 
to  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  ? 

What  was  accomplished  by  the  French 
troops  under  Generals  Pichegru  and  Hoche  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  campaign  on 
the  western  side  of  the  Spanish  frontier  ? 

5 1 .  What  was  the  result  on  the  eastern 
side? 

In  what  two  battles  on  this  frontier,  were 
the  French  totally  defeated  ? 

In  what  three  towns,  in  the  south  of  France, 
were  insurrections  organized  against  the  Jac- 
obins ? 

Which  of  the  three  was  first  attacked  by 
the  troops  of  the  Convention  ? 

Which  one  did  they  next  attack  ? 

52.  How  did  the  garrison  and  citizens  of 
Lyons  defend  themselves? 

What  exploit  was  performed  by  Precy  ? 

What  was  done  by  Couthon  after  the  Re- 
publicans had  taken  possession  of  Lyons  ? 

How  were  his  directions  carried  out  ? 

How  long  did  the  work  of  destruction  pro- 
ceed in  Lyons  ?  and  what  was  its  expense  to 
the  government  ? 

What  course  was  now  adopted  by  the  in- 
habitants of  Toulon  ? 

53.  How  many  troops  were  mustered  for 
the  defence  of  Toulon  ? 

How  numerous  were  the  Republican  forces 
sent  against  Toulon  ? 

Who  commanded  the  Republican  forces  ? 

And  who  the  garrison  of  Toulon  ? 

Under  whose  superintendence  did  the  Re- 
publicans make  their  first  attack  on  the  forts 
of  the  harbor  ? 

54.  What  plan  did  Bonaparte  suggest  and 
execute  to  compel  the  garrison  to  evacuate 
Toulon  ? 

What  offer  was  made  by  the  British  admi- 
ral to  the  inhabitants  of  Toulon? 

How  many  availed  themselves  of  this 
offer? 

How  many  French  ships  did  the  allies  de- 
stroy before  they  sailed  from  Toulon  ? 

What  was  the  fate  of  the  remainder  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Toulon  ? 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

55.  What  was  the  strength  of  the  French 
navy  at  the  commencement  of  the  war  ? 

What  was  the  strength  of  the  British 
navy  ? 

What  conquests  were  made  by  the  British 
fleet  in  the  West  Indies  ? 

And  in  the  Mediterranean? 

For  what  purpose  and  with  how  many 
ships  did  Admiral  Joyeuse  put  to  sea  on  the 
20th  of  May,  1794? 

What  was  the  strength  of  the  British 
fleet,  under  Lord  Howe  ? 

56.  What  was  the  result  of  the  battle 
that  took  place  on  the  1st  of  June  ? 

How  were  the  Republicans  consoled  for 
this  defeat  * 


What  was  the  effect  of  Lord  Howe's  vic- 
tory in  England  ? 

57.  What  were  the  number  and  disposi- 
tion of  the  troops  on  both  side's,  at  the  open* 
ing  of  the  campaign  of  1794? 

Why  was  the  French  government  enable*! 
to  raise  such  an  immense  number  of  soldiers  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  siege  of  Lan- 
drecy  ? 

On  what  points  of  the  allied  line  were  the 
French  defeated  ? 

On  what  point  were  they  successful? 

58.  Where  were  the  French,  under  Jour- 
dan,  defeated? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  campaign  in 
West  Flanders  ? 

What  did  the  Emperor  of  Austria  resolve 
to  do? 

How  was  the  siege  of  Charleroi  conducted  ? 
and  how  did  it  finally  terminate? 

59.  At  what  place  was  a  battle  fought 
between   the  French  and  the  allies  on  the 
26th  of  June  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  battle  of 
Fleurus  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  General  Dumas' 
operations  in  Piedmont  ? 

And  of  Bonaparte's  on  the  frontiers  of 
Nice? 

What  was  the  situation  of  the  Spanish 
troops  at  the  commencement  of  1794? 

What  was  the  result  of  their  combats  with 
the  French  forces  ? 

60.  What  did  the  Spanish  government  do 
after  these  defeats  ? 

What  did  the  French  gam  by  a  treaty  of 
peace  with  the  Spaniards  ? 

What  was  done  by  Jourdan  and  Kleber  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  ? 

And  by  Moreau  in  the  Low  Countries? 

And  by  Pichegru  ? 

With  what  success  did  the  French  open 


their  winter  campaign? 
What  was  done  by 


>y  the  States-General  of 
Holland  ? 

How  did  the  Convention  reply  to  their  pro- 
posals ? 

What  was  done  by  the  Prince  of  Orange  ? 

6 1 .  How  was  Amsterdam  taken  by  the 
French  ? 

What  other  towns  submitted  in  the  same 
manner? 

How  was  the  Dutch  fleet  captured  ? 


CHAPTER  IX. 

What  was,  formerly,  the  extent  of  the 
kingdom  of  Poland  ? 

What  was  Poland  formerly  called  ? 

What  kingdoms  and  countries  are  frag- 
ments of  the  Polish  dominions  ? 

What  ancient  conquerors  came  out  from 
Poland  ? 

62.  What  is  the  cause  of  the  various 
revolutions  that  have  taken  place  in  Poland? 

What  were  the  form  and  characteristics  of 
her  government  ? 

How  did  the  Poles  secure  unanimity  in 
their  legislation  * 


QUESTIONS. 


501 


And  how  did  they  justify  this  ? 

Who  were  the  clergy  in  Poland  ? 

What  was  the  maxim  of  the  Polish  no- 
bility ? 

What  was  their  constant  policy  ? 

63.  What  was  the  chief  duty  of  the  King  ? 

How  were  his  sentences  enforced  ? 

What  is  illustrated  in  the  history  of  John 
Sobieski  ? 

With  how  many  troops  did  he  attack  and 
defeat  eighty  thousand  Turkish  veterans 
trongly  intrenched? 

With  how  many  did  he  defeat  three  hun- 
dred thousand  Turks  at  Vienna  ? 

What  was  the  effect  of  that  victory  ? 

How  was  he  afterward  treated  by  his  own 
people  ? 

What  did  he  prophesy  on  his  death-bed  ? 

Who  always  reigned  in  Poland  after  So- 
bieski's  death  ? 

64:.  By  whom  was  Poland  partitioned  in 
1793? 

What  was  now  the  condition  of  Poland  ? 

Whom  did  the  Poles  choose  for  their 
leader  ? 

Where  was  Kosciusko  educated? 

Where  had  he  afterward  served  with  dis- 
tinction ? 

What  was  the  result  of  his  first  encounter 
with  the  enemies  of  Poland  ? 

What  took  place  in  Warsaw,  after  the  vic- 
tory of  Ralsowice  ? 

What  was  now  done  by  the  Russians  and 
Prussians  ? 

65.  What  occurred  at  Sckoczyre  ? 
What  was  the  result  of  the  siege  of  War- 
saw? 

What  was  the  result  of  Kosciusko's  attack 
upon  General  Fersen,  on  the  4th  of  October  ? 

What  occurred  to  the  Poles  after  the  fall 
of  Kosciusko  ? 

Upon  what  town  did  Suwarrow  now  ad- 
vance ? 

What  was  the  result  of  his  attack  upon 
Praga? 

How  many  soldiers  and  citizens  were 
slain  ? 

66.  What  feeling  was  produced  in  Europe 
by  the  fall  of  Poland? 

What  lines  did  Campbell,  the  poet,  write 
on  this  occasion  ? 


Is  this  fine  poetry  historically  just? 
What  were  the  true  causes  of 


the  fall  of 


Poland  ? 


CHAPTER  X. 

What  parties  remained  in  Paris,  after  the 
fall  of  Robespierre  ? 

Of  whom  were  the  Thermidorians  com- 
posed ? 

61.  What  proposal  was  made  by  Barere 
on  the  30th  of  July  ? 

What  was  heard  in  the  assembly  when 
Tinville's  name  was  pronounced  ? 

What  did  Freron  propose  ? 

What  was  done  with  Tinville  ? 

What  measures  did  the  Convention  next 
adopt  ? 


Whom  did  the  Thermidorians  enlist  on 
their  side  ? 

What  decree  did  the  Convention  pass  in 
relation  to  the  Jacobin  clubs  ? 

What  laws  of  the  Revolutionary  govern- 
ment did  the  Convention  now  repeal? 

Who  did  they  impeach  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  trial  of  these 
men  ? 

What  sentence  was  passed  upon  them  ? 

68.  What  was  done  by  the  Jacobin  mob 
on  the  20th  of  May,  1795  ? 

How  did  the  Convention  act  through  their 
committees  ? 

What  punishment  did  the  Convention 
inflict  on  the  Jacobins  ? 

What  was  the  character  of  the  Constitu- 
tion that  the  Convention  now  formed  ? 

What  was  done  in  the  south  of  France  ? 

69.  How  many  Constitutions  had  been 
formed  in  France  within  a  few  years  ? 

How  was  the  legislative  power  now  di- 
vided ? 

What  were  the  powers,  respectively,  of 
the  Five  Hundred  and  the  Ancients  ? 

With  whom  was  the  executive  power 
lodged? 

What  powers  had  the  Directory  ? 

What  regulations  were  made  with  regard 
to  the  elective  franchise  ? 

What  is  it  important  to  recollect  concern- 
ing this  Constitution  ? 

What  additional  clause  in  the  Constitution 
was  decreed  by  the  Convention  ? 

How  was  this  received  by  the  people  ? 

Who  opposed  its  adoption  ? 

10.  What  had  the  Convention  to  rely  on 
for  support  ? 

What  decision  was  given  by  the  soldiers  ? 

What  did  the  Sections  resolve  to  do  ? 

Whom  did  the  Convention  appoint  to  lead 
the  troops  ? 

How  did  Menou  acquit  himself  of  his  trust  ? 

Who  was  appointed  to  succeed  him  ? 

For  whom  did  Barras  obtain  the  appoint- 
ment of  second  in  the  command  ? 

What  disposition  did  Bonaparte  make  of 
his  forces  ? 

Which  party  was  victorious  ? 

What  course  did  many  of  the  allied  pow 
ers  pursue  early  in  the  year  1795  ? 

Which  powers  remained  firm  in  their  hos- 
tility to  France  ? 

1 1 .  What  new  treaty  did  they  form  ? 
What  other  power  joined  the  new  alliance 

in  February  ? 

What  naval  operations  took  place  in  the 
winter  of  1794-5? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  campaign  in 
the  maritime  Alps  ? 

12.  What  success  was  gained  by  Jourdan 
on  the  Rhine  ? 

What  did  the  Austrian  commander,  Clair- 
fait,  accomplish  in  the  same  quarter  ? 

What  expedition  was  undertaken  by  the 
Royalist  emigrants  in  this  year  ? 

Where  did  their  troops  land  ? 

13.  What  did  the  resident  Royalists  d<j> 
on  this  occasion  ? 

Who  led  the  Republican  troops  to  oppose 
the  invasion  ? 


502 


QUESTIONS. 


What  was  the  result  of  Hoche's  attack? 
What  was  done  by  Tallien  ? 
What  colonial  conquest  was  made  by  the 
British  in  September  of  this  year  ? 


CHAPTER  XL 

74.  Who,  in  the  month  of  March,  1796, 
ubmitted  to  the  Convention  a  plan  for  a  cam- 
aign  in  Italy  ? 

On  whom  was  the  command  of  the  army 
of  Italy  conferred? 

^  What  were  the  numbers  and  what  the  con- 
dition of  this  army  ? 

What  force  had  the  allies  to  oppose  them  ? 

Where  did  Bonaparte  first  encounter  the 
allies  ? 

For  what  was  the  battle  of  Montenotte 
celebrated  ? 

75.  What  was  the  effect  of  Bonaparte's 
victory  ? 

What  was  the  general  result  of  a  series  of 
smaller  actions  that  followed  the  battle  of 
Montenotte  ? 

What  course  was  pursued  by  the  King  of 
Sardinia  ? 

How  did  Napoleon  deceive  Beaulieu? 

What  advantage  did  Napoleon  gain  by  this 
artifice  ? 

76.  With  whom  did  Napoleon  next  make 
%  treaty  of  peace?  and  what  was  the  price 
of  the  treaty? 

At  what  bridge  did  a  desperate  action  take 
place  between  the  French  and  Austrians  ? 

Into  what  city  did  Napoleon  make  a  tri- 
umphant entry  ? 

How  was  he  received  by  the  Milanese  ? 

How  did  Napoleon  return  their  hospital- 
ities? 

What  was  the  Duke  of  Modena  compelled 
to  do? 

What  measures  were  taken  by  the  French 
to  revolutionize  these  countries  ? 

What  took  place  in  Pavia? 

77.  What  course  was  adopted  by  the  Ve- 
netian Senate? 

What  important  fortre'j  Tras  now  invested 
by  Napoleon  ? 

What  towns  did  he  laic  possession  of 
while  the  blockade  of  Mantua  was  in  prog- 
ress? 

What  was  done  by  Murat  at  Leghorn  ? 

78.  What  Austrian  force  was  now  brought 
ilgainst  Napoleon  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  Austrian  at- 
tacks on  the  French  line  ? 

What  measures  did  Napoleon  adopt  after 
these  defeats  ? 

What  was  Napoleon's  position  when 
Wurmser  crossed  the  Mincio  and  retook 
Salo? 

How  did  he  extricate  himself? 

79.  What  occurred  to  him  at  Lonato  ? 
What  was    the  result  of  the    battle    at 

Medola  ? 

What  had  Wurmser  accomplished  iit  his 
brief  expedition  ? 

What  did  he  also  lose  by  it  ? 

What  policy  was  still  pursued  by  the 
Aulic  Council  ? 


By  what  means  was  Napoleon  made  aware  01 
the  secret  plans  of  the  Austrian  commander  1 
What  advantage  was  this  to  Napoleon  ? 
SO.  What   did  Wurmser  finally  accom- 
plish by  his  efforts  to  relieve  Mantua? 

Where  was  Napoleon  defeated  in  a  pitched 
battle  for  the  first  time  in  this  campaign  *     ' 
How  long  did  the  battle  of  Arcola  cor. 
tinue  ?  and  what  was  its  final  result  ? 

Where  was  a  great  battle  fought  on  the 
14th  of  January  ? 

By  what  artifice  did  Napoleon  save  him- 
self from  a  total  overthrow? 
How  did  the  battle  terminate  ? 
What  was  the  fate  of  Mantua? 
8  ! .  Where  did  Napoleon  next  direct  his 
troops  ? 

And  with  what  success  ? 
What  was  the  grand  result  of  the  cam- 
paign of  1796? 

What  occurred  in  La  Vendee  and  Brittany  ? 
What  was  the  condition  of  England  at  the 
close  of  1795? 

What  outrages  were  committed  by  the 
populace  in  England  ? 

*•*'£.  What  very  unusual  course  was  taken 
by  Mr.  Fox  and  his  party  after  the  passage 
of  a  bill  in  the  House  of  Commons  to  which 
he  and  they  were  opposed  ? 

What  reply  was  made  by  the  French  gov- 
ernment to  the  British  proposals  for  peace  ? 
Who    was    appointed    to    command    the 
armies  on  the  Rhine  ? 
Who  opened  the  campaign  in  that  quarter  ? 
What  induced  the  French  to  retreat,  when 
the  two  hostile  armies  were  brought  nearly 
into  contact  with  each  other  ? 

What  exploit  was  accomplished  by  Mo- 
reau? 

83.  What  was  the  result  of  Moreau's 
ictory  at  Renchen  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  battle  at 
Malsch  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  battle  near 
Esslingen  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  battle  at 
Neresheim  ? 

4.  What    saved    the    French  army  a. 
Amberg  ? 

In  how  many  more  instances  during  this 
campaign  were  the  French  under  Jourdan 
defeated? 

What  great  exploit  was  achieved  by  Mo- 
re au  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  battle  at  Em- 
mendingen  ? 

What  prevented  the  destruction  of  Mo- 
reau's army  at  Schliengen? 
Where  did  Moreau  retreat  ? 
What  was  the  result  of  the  Archduke's 
attack  upon  Kehl  ? 

85.  What  other  town  was  captured  in  the 
same  month  by  the  Austrians  ? 

What  were  the  conditions  of  the  treaty 
Between  France  and  Spain  ? 

What  course  did  Spain  pursue  toward 
Great  Britain  ? 

What  proposals  were  made  by  Mr.  Pitt  ? 
and  what  was  the  result  ? 

What  took  place  in  Ireland  at  this 
ime? 


QUESTIONS. 


503 


What  agency  had  the  French  in  these  dis- 
turbances ? 

\Vhat  forces  did  the-  French  prepare  to 
send  to  Ireland  ? 

What  reports  were  put  in  circulation  as  to 
the  object  of  this  great  armament  ? 

What  occurred  to  the  expedition  after  it 
set  sail  ? 

86.  What  European  sovereigns  died  at 
the  close  of  this  year  ? 

What  was  the  character  of  the  Empress 
Catherine  ? 

What  distinguished  American  died  in  the 
same  year? 

What  was  his  character— as  given  by  an 
English  historian  ? 


CHAPTER  XII. 

What  was  the  aspect  of  affairs  in  England 
at  the  commencement  of  1797? 

8T.  What  was  the  situation  of  the  Bank 
of  England? 

What  course  was  adopted  in  behalf  of  the 
Bank? 

How  long  did  the  suspension  of  specie 
payments  continue  ? 

What  effect  upon  the  affairs  of  the  govern- 
ment was  produced  by  the  suspension  ? 

What  famous  event  occurred  in  England  at 
this  time  ? 

88.  What  is  related  of  the  mutiny  of  the 
fleet? 

Where  did  another  and  more  serious  mu- 
tiny break  out  ? 

Who  was  the  leader  of  this  mutiny  ? 

How  did  this  mutiny  progress  and  termi- 
nate ? 

89.  What  great  naval  action  took  place 
in  February  of  this  year  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  battle  of  Cape 
8t.  Vincent? 

What  British  naval  officers  distinguished 
themselves  in  this  battle  ? 

What  naval  action  took  place  in  October  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  battle  of  Cam- 
perdown  ? 

90.  What    circumstances    distinguished 
these  two  British  victories  ? 

What  effects  did  they  produce  in  England  ? 

What  great  British  statesman  died  in  July 
of  this  year  ? 

What  policy  was  pursued  hy  the  Emperor 
Paul? 

What  frontier  of  the  Austrian  dominions 
was  the  most  assailable  in  1797? 

How  did  the  Directory  regard  Napoleon  ? 

What  was  the  fault  of  the  Austrian  move- 
ments ? 

Where  did  Napoleon  make  his  first  attack  ? 

91.  What  stratagem  did  Napoleon  resort 
to? 

How  did  the  stratagem  operate  ?  and  what 
was  the  result  of  the  battle  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  mano3uvres  and 
actions  of  the  two  contending  parties,  as 
related  in  the  next  paragraph  ? 

What,  now,  embarrassed  Napoleon? 


Austrians  ? 


,         , 
.  What  proposals  did  he  make  to  the 


34 


What  was  agreed  on  at  Leoben  ? 

What  treaty  was  concluded  on  the  9th  of 
April  i 

Who  signed  it  on  behalf  of  the  French 
government  ? 

What  were  its  conditions  ? 

What  is  said  of  the  partition  of  Venice  ? 

What  three  events  had  shaken  the  power 
of  Venice  ? 

What  three  things  had  deteriorated  the 
character  of  the  Venetians  ? 

93.  What  was  the  present  situation  of 
Venice  ? 

What  propagated  democratic  principles 
among  the  Venetians  ? 

What  course  did  Napoleon  secretly  pursue 
in  regard  to  the  spread  of  Revolutionary 
doctrines  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  these  measures  ? 

What  was  done  by  the  Senate  ? 

And  by  Napoleon? 

What  took  place  at  Verona  on  the  17th  of 
April  ? 

9*.  What  was  done  by  General  Chabran? 

What  took  place,  in  the  meantime,  at 
Venice  ? 

What  was  done  by  the  French  troops  in 
Venice  ? 

What  took  place  at  Berlin,  16th  of  No- 
vember ? 

Who  succeeded  the  King  of  Prussia  on  the 
throne  ? 

What  took  place  in  Genoa  ? 

9. '5.  How  did  Napoleon  interfere  ? 

What  was  the  result  ? 

Where  did  Napoleon  establish  himself? 

Who  were  now  assembled  at  Montebello  ? 

What  treaty  was  the  result  of  the  negoti- 
ations at  Montebello  ? 

What  was,  now,  the  domestic  state  of 
France  ? 

96.  What  was  the  result  of  the  election 
in  May,  1797? 

How  was  the  Directory  divided? 

In  what  did  the  strength  of  the  two  par- 
ties, out  of  the  Assembly,  consist  ? 

What  was  the  proportion  of  Jacobins  and 
of  Royalists  among  the  deputies  ? 

What  did  the  Jacobin  members  of  the 
Directory  especially  fear  ? 

What  measures  did  they  adopt  ? 

What  distinguished  politician  sided  with 
them? 

Which  party  did  Napoleon  resolve  to  sup- 
port ? 

Of  what  were  the  more  numerous  party 
destitute  ? 

What  restrained  them  in  their  proceed- 
ings? 

9T.  Had  the  Directory  any  scruples? 

What  measures  did  they  take  ? 

What  did  they  do  with  their  opponents  ? 

How  did  they  govern  France? 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

What  did  Napoleon  do,  after  the  peace  of 
Campo  Formio? 
What  expedition  did  he  soon  after  propose  ? 


504 


QUESTIONS. 


What  was  professed  to  be  the  destination 
of  the  armament  ? 

98.  What  was  done  by  the  British  gov- 
ernment ? 

What  was  the  strength,  naval  and  mili- 
tary, of  the  French  armament  ? 

Of  what  fortress  did  the  French  take  pos- 
session on  their  voyage  ? 

What  was  done  by  Nelson  ? 

What  occurred  on  the  night  of  the  29th  of 
June  ? 

When  did  the  French  land  in  Egypt  ? 

What  place  did  they  capture  ? 

Where  did  the  French  encounter  Mourad 
Bey? 

99.  What  was  the  result  of  the  battle  of 
the  Pyramids? 

What  did  Nelson  do,  in  the  meantime  ? 

What  was  his  plan  of  attack  on  the  French 
fleet? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  battle  of  the 
Nile? 

What  honors  were  bestowed  on  Nelson  ? 

0 OO.  What  remark  did  Mr.  Pitt  make  on 
this  subject  ? 

What  was  the  effect  of  the  battle  of  the 
Nile  on  the  French  ? 

And  what  were  its  effects  in  Europe  ? 

Where  did  Napoleon  march  after  being 
thus  cut  off  from  intercourse  with  Europe  ? 

Wrhat  town  in  Syria  did  he  attack  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  his  attack  ? 

What  was  done  with  the  prisoners  taken 
by  Napoleon  ? 

What  sort  of  monument  are  the  bones  of 
these  murdered  men  ? 

1  0 1 .  What  place  was  next  invested  by 
the  French? 

Who  commanded  the  British  squadron  at 
Acre  ? 

What  did  he  capture  from  the  French  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  Napoleon's  first 
two  attacks  ? 

What  fleet  came  now  to  the  aid  of  Acre  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  Napoleon's  final 
attack  ? 

Where  did  Napoleon  next  attack  the 
Turks? 

1O2.  What  was  the  result  of  the  battle 
of  Aboukir  * 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

What  measures  were  taken  in  England  to 
resist  the  contemplated  invasion  of  the 
French  ? 

How  were  the  Dutch  pleased  with  the 
change  of  government  forced  upon  them  by 
the  French  ? 

WThat  did  the  Dutch  assembly  undertake 
to  do? 

How  were  they  overawed  and  controlled 
in  their  deliberations  ? 

What  were  the  provisions  of  the  new  Con- 
stitution ? 

1 03.  How  was  the  sitting  terminated  ? 

What  did  the  people  of  Holland  soon  dis- 
cover ? 

What  measures  were  taken  by  the  new 
Directory  ? 


What  was  d<,ne  by  General  Daendels? 

What  sort  of  government  was  finally  estab 
lishedin  Hollaud?  • 

What  nation  did  the  French  Directory  next 
attack  ? 

What  was  the  character  of  the  govern- 
ment in  Switzerland  ? 

What  was  the  situation  of  the  people? 

What  was  the  chief  defect  in  the  Helvetic 
Confederacy  ? 

I  O4:.  Would  this  defect  have  been  of 
much  importance  if  the  Swiss  had  not  been 
interfered  with  by  the  French  ? 

What  was  the  first  expedient  adopted  by 
the  French  to  raise  difficulties  and  insurrec- 
tions in  Switzerland  ? 

What  was  the  second  expedient  ? 

What,  finally,  did  Napoleon  do  ? 

What  decision  did  he  give  when  called  on, 
at  Montebello,  to  adjust  the  difficulties  he 
had  himself  created  ? 

What  followed  in  other  districts  of  Swit- 
zerland ? 

What  bold  step  was  finally  taken  by  the 
Senate  of  Berne  ? 

1  O5.  What  did  the  Directory  do,  in  an- 
swer to  the  proposition  of  the  Swiss  ? 

What  took  place  when  peace  was  found  to 
be  impossible  ? 

Who  had  command  of  the  Swiss  troops  ? 

What  error  did  D'Erlach  commit? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  insurrection  at 
this  time  ? 

1  O6.  What  took  place  after  the  French 
captured  Berne  ? 

What  was  the  substance  of  the  new  Con- 
stitution ? 

What  Cantons  rejected  this  Constitution  ? 

Who  took  the  lead  in  resisting  it  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  Reding's  insur- 
rection? 

1OT.  WThat  was  the  condition  of  the 
Swiss  after  peace  was  restored  ? 

What  couise  was  pursued  by  the  French 
authorities  ? 

What  Cantons  again  resisted  the  French  ? 

What  was  their  fate  ? 

What  was  the  next  object  of  attack  ? 

1O8.  What  had  long  been  an  avowed 
object  of  French  Revolutipnary  ambition  ? 

Who  was  appointed  ambassador  to  Rome  ? 

Why  was  General  Duphot  appointed  to 
accompany  Joseph  ? 

What  was  done  by  the  French  on  the  27th 
of  December  ? 

What  was  done  by  the  papal  ministers  ? 

What  happened  to  Duphot  ? 

What  was  really  the  cause  of  this  catas- 
trophe ? 

What  was  evinced  by  the  promptitude  o 
the  Directory  in  declaring  war  against 
Rome  ? 

Who  was  pope  at  this  time  ? 

How  did  Berthier  manage  to  get  possession 
of  Rome? 

What  did  the  Directory  demand  ot  tne 
pope  ? 

What  was  his  reply? 

1  O9.  Relate  what  was  done  to  the  pope. 

What  was  the  result  of  the  cruel  treatKient 
of  the  pope  ? 


QUESTIONS. 


505 


What  was  done  in  Rome  by  the  French 
troops  ? 

What  was  done  in  the  Roman  States  ? 

What  was  done  in  the  Cis- Alpine  Republic  ? 

What  was  the  treatment  of  the  King  of 
Sardinia? 

lip.  What  kingdom  next  occupied  the 
attention  of  the  French  intriguers  ? 

What  occurred  in  Naples  after  the  battle 
of  the  Nile  ? 

What  expedition  was  undertaken  by  the 
Neapolitan  troops  under  General  Mack  ? 

AVhat  was  the  success  of  the  expedition  ? 

111.  What  was  done  by  the  Neapolitan 
court  after  the  defeat  of  their  troops  ? 

What  course  was  pursued  by  the  people 
after  they  were  thus  deserted  by  their  sov- 
ereign ? 

Who  commanded  the  French  troops  led 
against  Naples  ? 

How  were  the  attack  and  defence  of  Na- 
ples conducted? 

How  was  the  battle  terminated  ? 

Where  did  the  Revolutionary  principles 
next  develope  themselves  ? 

112.  What  portion  of   the   Irish  were 
Catholics  ? 

For  what  purposes  were  they  now  leagued 
together  ? 

What  was  the  name  taken  by  the  members 
of  this  league  ? 

What  inducements  to  join  this  Society 
were  held  out  to  the  lower  classes  ? 

What  was  the  motive  submitted  to  the 
country  at  large  ? 

What  opposition  society  was  formed  ? 

What  question  became  difficult  to  decide, 
as  between  the  two  societies? 

What  information  had  the  British  govern- 
ment on  this  subject  ? 

What  interfered  with  the  projects  of  the 
insurgents  ? 

What  did  they  proceed  to  do,  nevertheless  ? 

How  were  these  disorders  repressed  ? 

What  was  done  by  Lord  Moira  ? 

113.  What  was   the  resolution  of  the 
Irish  Committees  ? 

How  were  the  insurgents  finally  subdued  ? 

What  decree  occasioned  a  disturbance 
between  France  and  the  United  States  of 
America? 

What  took  place  by  reason  of  this  decree  ? 

What  success  had  the  American  envoys  at 
Paris  ? 

What  course  was  adopted  by  the  Americans 
in  retaliation  ? 

What  neutral  towns  were  subjected  to 
French  spoliation  ? 

114.  What  had  France  done  during  one 
year  of  nominal  peace  ? 

What  course  was  adopted  by  the  other 
European  powers  on  account  of  these  en- 
troachments  ? 


CHAPTER  XV. 

What  had  the  Emperor  of  Austria  done, 
while  apparently  at  peace  with  France  ? 
What  was  done  by  Russia  ? 
And  by  England  ? 


To  whom  did  the  Emperor  of  Russia  give 
an  asylum  ? 

What  course  was  adopted  by  Prussia  ? 
What  might  Prussia  have  done  ? 

115.  How  was  she  rewarded  seven  years 
afterward? 

What  tax  was  proposed  by  Mr.  Pitt? 

What  was  the  condition  of  the  French 
forces  ? 

What  French  general  opened  the  campaign 
on  the  Rhine  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  his  first  move- 
ments ? 

Where  did  he  attack  the  Austrians  20th  of 
March  ? 

116.  What  was  the  result  of  the  battle 
of  Liptingen  ? 

What  opportunity  was  now  presented  to 
the  Archduke  Charles  ? 

What  prevented  him  from  improving  it  ? 

What  was  accomplished  by  Scherer  in  the 
earlier  part  of  the  campaign  in  Italy  ? 

Where  was  he  finally  defeated  by  the  Aus- 
trians ? 

How  did  he  conduct  himself  after  his 
defeat  ? 

What  place  surrendered  to  the  Turks  and 
Russians  in  March  ? 

Who  took  command  of  the  French  forces 
after  Jourdan  withdrew  ? 

117.  Who  attacked  Massena's  lines  on 
the  14th  of  May? 

What  was  the  loss  on  each  side  in  this 
battle  ? 

Where  did  the  Archduke  again  attack 
Massena  on  the  5th  of  June  ? 

How  did  the  Archduke  succeed  in  this 
attack  ? 

What  did  Massena  do  after  the  battle  ? 

Who  joined  the  Austrian  forces  on  the 
Mincio  ? 

What  was  Suwarrow's  favorite  weapon  ? 

What  was  his  opinion  of  reconnoitering  ? 

Who  succeeded  to  the  command  of  Sche- 
rer's  army  ? 

118.  How  did  he  fare  in  contending  with 
Suwarrow  ? 

Into  what  town  did  Suwarrow  make  a  tri- 
umphal entry  ? 

Where  did  he  pursue  and  attack  Moreau 
on  the  27th  of  May  ? 

What  spoils  of  war  did  he  gain  by  the 
capture  of  Turin  ? 

119.  What    had   now  occurred  to  the 
French  within  three  months  ? 

What  took  place  at  Naples  while  these 
events  were  in  progress  ? 

What  was  Macdonald  ordered  to  do? 

What  did  he  propose  to  do  in  connexion 
with  Moreau  ? 

What  was  done  by  Suwarrow  ? 

Where  did  Macdonald  attack  the  allied 
forces  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  first  day's 
action  ? 

On  what  battle-ground  did  the  hostile 
troops  encamp  ? 

1  2O.  What  was  the  result  of  the  second 
day's  action  ? 

How  many  days,  in  all,  did  the  battle  con- 
tinue? 


506 


QUESTIONS. 


What  was  the  final  result  ? 

What  occurred  on  the  morning  of  June 
20th? 

What  did  Suwarrow  do,  in  consequence  of 
this? 

What  citadel  now  surrendered  to  the  allies  ? 

What  was  done  by  the  King  of  Naples 
nfter  Macdonald  retreated  ? 

What  was  done  with  the  French  garrisons  ? 

What  was  done  with  the  Neapolitan  insur- 
gents? 

Why  were  these  executions  unjustifiable  ? 

What  course  did  Nelson  pursue,  in  regard 
to  these  executions  ? 

121.  What  person  of  distinction  suffered 
among  the  rest  ( 

What  three  important  fortresses  now  sur- 
rendered to  the  allies  ? 

Who  was  appointed  to  supersede  Moreau 
in  command  of  the  French  troops  ? 

What  were  his  qualifications  for  the  com- 
mand ? 

Where  did  he  expose  himself  to  the  allies? 

What  befell  him  in  the  battle  ? 

Who  took  the  command  after  his  death  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  battle  ? 

122.  What  order  was  issued  to  the  Arch- 
duke Charles,  in  Switzerland,  by  the  Aulic 
Council  ? 

What  was  done  by  Massena  after  the 
Archduke  withdrew? 

Where  did  Korsakow  collect  his  forces  ? 

How  did  Massena  plan  his  attack  on 
Zurich  ? 

How  did  he  succeed? 

What  resolution  was  formed  by  Korsakow  ? 

123.  What  error  did  he  commit  in  ar- 
ranging his  columns  ? 

With  what  losses  did  he  effect  his  escape  ? 

Where  was  Suwarrow  opposed  by  the  Re- 
publicans on  the  21st  of  September? 

What  was  said  and  done  by  him  when  his 
troops  were  checked  in  their  ascent  ? 

How  did  the  Russians  answer  this  appeal  ? 

What  was  Suwarrow's  situation  when  he 
reached  Altdorf  ? 

What  terrible  defile  did  he  undertake  to 
pass? 

What  had  he  to  encounter  in  this  passage  ? 

What  was  his  situation  when  he  reached 
Mutten  ? 

What  was  he  compelled  to  do,  for  the  first 
time? 

1 24.  By  what  route  did  he  retreat,  after 
being  checked  by  Molitor  at  Naefels  ? 

What  sort  of  ground  did  he  pass  over  on 
this  route  ? 

To  what  did  this  succession  of  disasters 
lead? 

What  took  place  in  consequence  of  their 
jealousies  ? 

What  treaty  was  formed  between  Russia 
and  Great  Britain  ? 

What  was  accomplished  by  the  British 
troops  ? 

What  was  accomplished  by  the  British 
feet? 

125.  What  did  the  combined  forces  of 
Russia  and  Great  Britain  effect  ? 

What  was  their  situation  notwithstanding 
their  victory? 


What   expedition  did  they  undertake,  to 

relieve  themselves? 

How  did  they  succeed  in  this  ? 

What  were  they  compelled  to  do  on  the 
17th  of  October? 

What  were   the  conditions  of  their  sin 
render? 

Who  succeeded  Suwarrow  in  the  command 
of  the  allied  forces  in  Italy  ? 

What  place  did  he  besiege  ? 

126.  What  error  did  Championnet  com- 
mit in  his  attack  on  the  allied  position  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  his  attack  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  siege  of  Coni  ? 

What  two  other  fortresses  surrendered  ? 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

Through  what  changes  had  the  French 
Revolution  now  passed  ? 

What  last  stage  remained  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  election  of 
1799? 

Who  succeeded  Rewbell  in  the  Directory  ? 

What  was  the  feeling  of  the  people  ? 

What  new  influence  was  brought  against 
the  government  ? 

12T.  What  changes  took  place  in  the 
Directory? 

What  was  done  to  control  the  Jacobins  ? 

How  was  the  new  Directory  liked  ? 

What  measure  did  they  take  to  protect 
themselves  ? 

What  remark  was  made  by  Si&yes,  in  the 
troubles  and  difficulties  that  ensued  ? 

Toward  whom  were  all  eyes  turned  in  thi» 
emergency  ? 

How  did  Napoleon,  in  Egypt,  learn  the 
position  of  affairs  in  France  ? 

What  resolution  did  he  adopt  ? 

With  whom  did  he  embark  to  return  to 
Europe  ? 

When  did  he  arrive  in  France  ? 

What  was  the  effect  of  his  arrival  ? 

128.  How  was  he  received  by  the  Di- 
rectory ? 

What  projects  had  been  on  foot  previous 
to  his  return  ? 

What  took  place  at  his  residence  in  the 
Rue  Chantereine  ? 

Where  was  a  banquet  given  on  the  5th  ot 
November  ? 

What  was  arranged  between  Sieyes  and 
Napoleon  ? 

129.  What  decree  was  passed  by  the 
Council  in  the  morning  of  November  &th  ? 

What  was  done  in  the  Council  of  Ancients  I 

What  was  done  in  the  Council  of  Five 
Hundred? 

What  was  done  with  the  Directory  ? 

What  was  resolved  on  by  the  Five  Hun- 
dred at  St.  Cloud  ? 

How  was  Napoleon  received  when  he  ap 
peared  in  the  hall  of  the  Five  Hundred  ? 

How  was  he  removed? 

130.  How  did  he  address  the  troops  ? 
How  did   the  grenadiers  conduct  them- 
selves ? 

What  office  did  Napoleon  assume  as  th» 
result  of  the  proceedings  at  this  time  ? 


QUESTIONS. 


507 


Whom  did  he  appoint  minister  of  Foreign 
Affairs  and  of  the  Police  ? 

Who  were  associated  with  him  as  Consuls  ? 

What  was  one  of  Napoleon's  tirst  meas- 
ures on  arriving  at  the  Consular  throne  ? 

What  did  he~propose  ? 

What  did  Lord  (irenville  reply? 

How  was  the  debate  on  the  question  of 
continuing  the  war  decided  in  the  British 
Parliament  ? 

131.  What  domestic  measures  of  im- 
portance were  adopted  by  Parliament  ? 

What  had  been  the  condition  of  the  peo- 
ple of  Great  Britain  since  1797? 

What  measures  were  taken  to  alleviate 
the  evils  of  the  famine  of  1799? 

What  was  the  feeling  of  Russia  toward 
Great  Britain  ? 

How  did  Napoleon  take  advantage  of  this  ? 

13  t.  What  did  the  Archduke  Charles 
recommend  to  the  Aulic  Council  ? 

What  reply  did  the  Council  make  ? 

What  measures  were  taken  by  Napoleon 
to  prepare  for  war  ? 

Whac  measures  did  he  introduce  into  the 
domestic  and  civil  departments  of  the  gov- 
ernment ? 

Where  did  he  take  up  his  residence  on  the 
19th  of  February  ? 

What  was,  on  that  day,  in  effect,  restored 
to  France  ? 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

133.  What  were  the  strength  and  position 
of  the  Austrian  forces  under   Kray  at  the 
opening  of  the  campaign  of  1800? 

Who  had  command  of  the  French  forces  ? 

What  was  Moreau's  plan  for  opening  the 
campaign  ? 

Which  party  had  the  advantage  in  the  pre- 
liminary movements  and  actions  of  the  cam- 
paign ? 

134.  What  was  the  result  of  the  battle 
of  Moeskirch  ? 

For  what  purpose  did  Kray  move  upon 
Biberach  ? 

How  did  he  succeed  ? 

What  brought  the  French  army  to  a  stand  ? 

What  effort  was  made  by  Moreau  to  drive 
Kray  from  his  stronghold  ? 

135.  What  exp3dient  did  he  try  after 
Suzanne  was  defeated  ? 

What  was  Kray's  conduct  on  this  occasion  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  Moreau's  subse- 
quent attack  upon  Kray's  position  at  Ulm  ? 

What  led  to  a  suspension  of  hostilities  in 
this  quarter  ? 

How  did  the  Austrians,  under  Melas,  com- 
mence operations  in  Italy? 

How  did  Melas  succeed  in  his  various 
attacks  ? 

What  was,  now,  the  situation  of  the 
French  ? 

136.  Against  what  towns  were  the  efforts 
of  the  Austrians  now  directed  ? 

What  measures  were  taken  by  Massena  to 
defend  Genoa  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  Soult's  attack  on 
the  13th  of  May  ? 


45* 


How  did  the  siege  of  Genoa  finally  end? 

Where  did  Napoleon  escme  iu  cross  the 
Alps? 

What  conversation  took  place  between 
him  and  Marescot  ? 

131.  Describe  the  ascent  to  St.  Bernard. 

What  did  the  monks  furnish  to  the  sol- 
diers ? 

What  arrested  the  march  of  the  troops 
after  they  began  to  descend  on  the  other  side 
of  the  mountain  ? 

What  was  the  situation  (if  this  fort  ? 

What  was  done  by  Napoleon? 

138.  How  did  the  Austrian  commander 
answer  Napoleon's  summons  to  surrender  ? 

By  what  artifice  did  Napoleon  escape  this 
dilemma  ? 

How  many  French  troops  crossed  the 
Alps? 

139.  What  was  the  result  of  the  battle  at 
Montebello  ? 

What  was  now  the  position  of  Melas  ? 
What  did  he  resolve  to  do  ? 
Where  did  Napoleon  resolve  to  give  battle 
to  Melas  ? 
Did  Napoleon  expect  to  be  attacked  ? 

140.  How  did  the    battle   of  Marenge 
progress  up  to  eleven  o'clock  ? 

What  did  Napoleon  accomplish  when  he 
arrived  with  the  right  wing  of  his  army  ? 

What  was  said  by  Desaix  and  Napoleon  at 
four  o'clock  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  Desaix's  charge? 

Who  saved  the  battle  for  the  French  ? 

How  did  Kellerman  accomplish  this  ? 

141.  What  was  the  result  of  the  battle? 
What  was  the  effect  of  the  battle  ? 

How  did  Napoleon  reward  Kellerman  for 
gaining  the  battle  of  Marengo  ? 
What  followed  after  the  battle  ? 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

What  occurred  two  days  before  intelli- 
gence was  received  of  the  battle  of  Marengo? 

What  course  was  taken  by  Thugut,  the 
Austrian  minister  ? 

142.  What  was  the  condition  of  Aus- 
tria notwithstanding  the  battle  of  Marengo  ? 

What  did  the  Austrian  cabinet  resolve 
to  do? 

What  letter  did  the  Count  St.  Julien  take 
to  Paris  ? 

What  was  provided  in  reference  to  the 
articles  signed  by  the  Count  St.  Julien  ? 

What  notice  was  given  on  the  15th  of 
August  ? 

What  proposal  did  Napoleon  make  to 
Great  Britain  ? 

What  was  the  object  of  this  novel  propo- 
sition ? 

What  did  the  British  government  reply  to 
this  proposal  for  a  naval  armistice  ( 

1 43.  What  did  Napoleon  insist  in  ? 
What  was  done,  when  it  was  found  that 

Great  Britain  would  not  accede  to  Napoleon's 
demands  ? 

What  plot  was  discovered  on  the 
day? 


508 


QUESTIONS. 


What  was  the  condition  and  strength  of 
the  French  armies  ? 

What  was  the  strength  of  the  Austrians  ? 
How  was  their  efficiency  impaired  ? 

144.  What  fortress  in  the  Mediterranean 
was  captured  by  the  British  in  September  ? 

What  conquests  did  the  British  make  in 
the  West  Indies  ? 

Who  was  now  the  pope  ? 

What  induced  the  pope  to  listen  to  Napo- 
eon's  proposals  ? 

How  were  the  French  regarded  in  other 
parts  of  Italy  ? 

How  were  the  Austrians  posted  ? 

What  was  their  true  policy  ? 

What  took  place  between  the  two  contend- 
ing parties  on  the  29th  of  November  ? 

Where  did  Moreau  retire  ? 

What  was  the  error  of  the  Archduke  John  ? 

What  did  he  resolve  upon  afterward  ? 

145.  How  did  the  battle  of  Hohenlinden 
progress  arid  terminate  ? 

What  did  Moreau  discover  from  the  man- 
ner of  the  Archduke's  retreat  ? 

146.  With  what  success  did  his  troops 
pursue  the  Austrians  ? 

Who  arrived  and  took  command  of  the 
Austrians  ? 

What  was  their  condition  ? 

What  did  the  Archduke  therefore  solicit  ? 

Where  did  Macdonald  undertake  to  cross 
the  Alps? 

Relate  the  particulars  of  this  passage  of 
the  Alps. 

147.  What  other  difficulties  had  Mac- 
donald to  encounter  ? 

What  brought  military  operations  to  an 
end  in  this  quarter  ? 

How  was  Napoleon  pleased  with  this  ar- 
mistice ? 

Where  did  Napoleon  now  direct  a  corps  to 
advance? 

What  was  done  by  the  Queen  of  Naples  ? 

What  were  the  conditions  of  the  treaty 
between  Naples  and  France  ? 

148.  What  step  was  taken  by  Napoleon 
under  cover  of  this  treaty  ? 

What  treaty  was  made  between  France 
and  A  ustria  ? 

What  were  the  conditions  of  this  treaty  ? 
Why  were  those  conditions  remarkable  ? 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

What  subject  was  now  much  discussed  hi 
Europe  ? 

What  took  place  in  the  straits  of  Gibraltar, 
in  December? 

What  took  place  on  the  25th  of  July,  ]SOO? 

149.  What  did  the  British  government 
learn,  which  induced  them  to  anticipate  an 
attack  ? 

What  measures  did  they  pursue,  in  conse- 
quence ? 

What  was  the  result  of  these  measures  ? 

What  course  was  pursued  by  the  Emperor 
of  Russia  ? 

What  was  done  when  Russia  made  com- 
mon ;ause  with  the  northern  powers  ? 


What  were  the  terms  of  the  treaty  be- 
tween these  powers  ? 

15O.  What  would  have  been  the  effect  of 
this  code  of  maritime  law  if  recognised  and 
practised  ? 

What,  therefore,  did  Mr.  Pitt  resolve  upon  ? 

What  was  done  by  the  British  government 
and  the  House  of  Commons  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  this  measure  ? 

What  circumstances  led  to  Mr.  Pitt's  res- 
ignation ? 

15*.  What  was  the  real  question  on 
which  Mr.  Pitt  resigned  ? 

What  was  said  by  Bignon  upon  this  ? 

What  were  the  forces  of  the  maritime 
league  ? 

What  expedition  was  undertaken  by  Great 
Britain  to  anticipate  the  movements  of  their 
enemies  ? 

How  did  the  British  fleet  pass  the  Sound  ? 

152.  How  was  Copenhagen  defended  ? 

153.  What  was  the  result  of  the  battle 
of  Copenhagen  ? 

What  was  done  by  Prussia  on  the  same 
day? 

What  event  now  altered  the  aspect  of 
affairs  ? 

Who  succeeded  the  Emperor  Paul  ? 

What  were  the  causes  and  the  manner  of 
Paul's  death? 

What  proclamation  was  made  by  Alexan- 
der on  coming  to  the  throne  ? 

What  was  one  of  his  first  acts  ? 

154.  To  whom,  and  to  what  effect,  did  he 
write  a  letter  ? 

What  was  the  substance  of  the  treaty 
between  Russia  and  Great  Britain  ? 

How  was  Napoleon  pleased  with  this 
treaty  ? 

What  course  was  adopted  by  Denmark  and 
Sweden  ? 


CHAPTER  XX. 

155.  What  was  the  Turkish  army,  de- 
stroyed at  Aboukir  ? 

Where  did  Kleber  now  turn  his  attention  ? 

What  were  the  conditions  of  the  conven- 
tion entered  into  between  the  French  and 
the  Turks  ? 

What  course  was  taken  by  Great  Britain, 
in  reference  to  this  convention  ? 

What  were  the  result  and  consequences  of 
the  battle  of  Heliopolis? 

What  was  done  by  the  British  government? 

156.  What  was  the  result  of  the  battle  of 
Alexandria  ? 

What  great  loss  did  the  British  sustain  ? 
Where  was  Belliard  defeated  ? 
On  what  conditions  did  he  surrender? 
On  what  conditions  did  Menou  surrender? 
What  were  the  military  results  of  this 
conquest  ? 

157.  What  did  Napoleon  do  in  reference 
to  Egypt,  and  how  did  he  succeed? 

What  took  place  between  the  British, 
Spanish,  and  French  fleets  after  Sir  James 
Saumarez  sailed  from  Gibraltar,  July  12th? 

What  terrible  catastrophe  happened  to  the 
Spaniards  ? 


QUESTIONS. 


509 


15S.  What  treaty  was  now  made  between 
Spain  and  France  ? 

What  was  Portugal  compelled  to  do,  in 
consequence  ? 

To  what  did  Napoleon  now  direct  his  at- 
tention ? 

What  took  place,  notwithstanding  these 
hostile  preparations  ? 

What  \\as  the  feeling  in  Europe,  when 
peace  was  declared  ? 

What  did  Napoleon  next  undertake? 

159.  What  armament  did  he  despatch  to 
the  West  Indies  ? 

What  measures  were  taken  by  Toussaint  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  campaign  ? 

How  did  the  French  observe  the  conditions 
of  the  treaty? 

What  was,  now,  the  condition  of  the 
French  troops  ? 

160.  What  Europeon  measure  produced 
relief  to  the  negroes  and  discomfiture  to  the 
Trench  ? 

What  was  the  comparative  condition  of 
St.  Domingo  in  17S9  and  1832? 

What  was  the  eleventh  article  of  the 
treaty  of  Luneville  ? 

What  did  the  allies  understand  by  thjs  ? 

How  did  Napoleon  choose  to  interpret  it? 

What  did  Napoleon  undertake  in  Holland  ? 

What  was  the  conduct  of  the  Dutch  Legis- 
lature ? 

What  does  the  conduct  of  the  Dutch  prove  ? 

161.  What  was  done  by  the  great  mass 
of  the  inhabitants  in  Holland  ? 

What  revolutions  took  place  in  Italy  ? 

What  public  works  did  Napoleon  construct 
in  that  quarter  ? 

What  was  the  condition  of  England  during 
this  time? 

What  was  the  first  cause  of  irritation  that 
sprung  up  between  France  and  Great  Britain  ? 

162.  What  demands  did  Napoleon  make 
of  Great  Britain  ? 

What  did  the  British  government  reply? 

What  complaint  did  the  French  journals 
make? 

How  did  the  English  reply  ? 

What  soon  became  manifest  from  these 
things  ? 

Itttf.  Who  was  ordered  to  take  command 
of  the  British  fleet  in  the  Mediterranean  ? 

What  took  place  at  the  Tuileries  between 
Napoleon  and  Lord  Whitworth? 

What  resulted  from  all  this  ? 

What  barbarous  act  did  Napoleon  now 
commit  ? 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

164.  What  was  the  condition  of  France 
when  Napoleon  seized  the  reins  of  power? 

What  would  it  be  well  for  those  to  show, 
who  reproach  Napoleon  for  establishing  a 
despotic  government  ? 

165.  What  was  one  of  Napoleon's  first 
measures  ? 

What  event  did  he  make  use  of  as  a  pre- 
text for  persecuting  the  Jacobins? 

Who  were,  actually,  the  authors  of  this 
pint? 


What  did  Napoleon,  nevertheless,  insist 
upon  ? 

Who  suffered  by  reason  of  this  decree  of 
the  Senate  ? 

What  measure  did  Napoleon  adopt  to  re- 
store the  ranks  of  society  ? 

What  did  the  final  adoption  of  the  Legion 
of  Honor  prove,  in  regard  to  Napoleon's  dis- 
cernment ? 

166.  What  other  important  measure  did 
Napoleon  introduce  ? 

Was  this  done  by  Napoleon  because  he 
had  any  respect  for  religion  ? 

Who  expressed  disapprobation  at  this  pro- 
ceeding ? 

How  did  the  people  of  France  receive  this 
new  measure  ? 

What  was  published  on  the  29th  of  April  ? 

How  many  persons  returned  to  France  in 
consequence  of  this  ? 

What  was  introduced  in  May  ? 

What  tuition  was  avoided  in  the  decree  ? 

What  did  the  Legislature  do,  on  the  8th  of 
May? 

What  did  the  Council  of  State  do  after- 
ward ? 

By  what  vote  was  Napoleon  made  Consul 
for  life* 

167.  What  inference  is  to  be  drawn  from 
this  vote  ? 

What  changes  in  the  Constitution  now 
ensued? 

What  had  the  government  now  become  ? 

How  was  the  inconsistency  of  the  Parisian 
multitude  evinced? 

What  communication  did  Napoleon  make 
to  Louis  XVIII.? 

What  answer  did  Louis  return  ? 

What  great  civil  undertaking  did  Napoleon 
commence  in  this  year  ? 

168.  What  is,  now,  the  clearest  proof  of 
the  wisdom  of  the  Code  Napoleon  ? 

What  did  Napoleon  say  of  this  Code  ? 

What  law  was  too  firmly  established  for 
Napoleon  to  disturb  it  ? 

How  did  he  modify  it  ? 

What  was  the  great  and  crying  sin  of  the 
Revolution  ? 

What  consequences  have  followed  that  con- 
fiscation ? 

169.  How  is  this  explained  and  illustrated 
in  this  History  ? 

Who,  of  Napoleon's  officers,  was  opposed 
to  him  ? 

What  course  was  pursued  by  Moreau  ? 

What  Republican  general  took  direction  of 
the  Royalist  party "! 

To  whom  did  Pichegru  communicate  his 
conspiracy  ? 

170.  Were  Moreau's  principles  similar  to 
Pichegru's? 

What  was  done  by  the  police  ? 

What  did  Napoleon  ascertain  during  the 
examination  of  the  prisoners  ? 

Who  did  Napoleon  affect  to  believe  this 
was  ? 

What  subsequently  appeared  ? 

What  did  Napoleon  do,  nevertheless  ? 

Where  was  the  Duke  d'Enghien  arrested? 

What  sort  of  trial  was  he  subjected  to  ? 


510 


QUESTIONS. 


171.  What  sentence  was  pronounced  by 
the  court? 

How  was  this  atrocious  sentence  carried 
out  ? 

What  was  the  feeling  in  Paris,  when  this 
murder  was  known  ? 

Who  was  found  murdered  in  prison  soon 
after  this  ? 

Who  was  suspected  of  being  implicated  in 
this  murder  ? 

1  7  2.  Who  else  was  found  murdered  in 
prison  ? 

What  occurred  on  Moreau's  trial? 

Where  did  Moreau  go,  after  his  trial? 

What  was  done  by  Napoleon  in  the  midst 
of  these  bloody  events  ? 

By  what  vote  was  his  assumption  of  the 
imperial  throne  approved? 

What  was  said  by  Madame  de  Stael  of  the 
folly  of  the  French  court  at  this  period  ? 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

173.  What  neighboring  states  did  Napo- 
leon occupy  with  his  troops  on  the  teconi- 
mencement  of  the  war? 

What  was  done  in  Italy  ? 
What  great  project  did  Napoleon  under- 
take ? 

174.  What  harbor  was  chosen  as  a  place 
of  rendezvous  ? 

How  many  vessels  were  assembled  at  Bou- 
logne ? 

What  was  Napoleon's  secret  design  ? 
What  measures  were  taken  in  England  ? 
What  occurred  in  Ireland  at  this  time  ? 

175.  What  events  in  England  led  to  the 
reappointment  of  Mr.  Pitt  ? 

What  took  place  in  the  currency  of  Aus- 
tria during  these  times  ? 

1  7  C>.  What  was  the  population  of  Aus- 
tria in  1801  ? 

What  was  the  population  of  Prussia  in 
1804? 

What  was  the  number  and  character  of 
the  Prussian  troops  ? 

How  did  the  Emperor  Alexander  com- 
mence his  reign  ? 

177.  What  was  the  population  of  Russia 
in  1804? 

What  was  the  number  of  the  Russian  sol- 
diers ? 

What  effect  was  produced  on  the  minds  of 
the  sovereigns  and  the  people  of  Europe 
when  intelligence  reached  them  of  the  mur- 
der of  the  Duke  d'Enghien,  Pichegru,  and 
Wright  ? 

What  extraordinary  arrangement  did  Na- 
poleon make  in  reference  to  his  coronation  ? 

178.  By  whom  was  the  crown  placed  on 
Napoleon's  head  ? 

By  what  was  the  close  of  this  year 
marked  ? 

What  first  occasioned  a  remonstrance  on 
the  part  of  Great  Britain  ? 

What  was  discovered  not  long  after? 

What  orders  were  issued  by  the  British 
Cabinet  ? 

How  were  these  orders  executed  ? 


How  much  money  was  ta*>.en  in  the  thie* 
ships  ? 
What  course  was  taken  by  Spain  ? 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

179.  For  what  purpose  did  Napoleon 
journey  through  Italy  ? 

What  were  the  five  objects  set  forth  in  the 
treaty  between  Great  Britain  and  Russia? 

What  other  of  the  principal  powers  ol 
Europe  joined  the  league  against  France  ? 

What  power  refused  so  to  join  ? 

ISO.  What  new  system  of  organization 
did  Napoleon  introduce  into  his  armies  ? 

How  was  the  flotilla  organized  ? 

What  naval  force  did  he  rely  on  to  sustain 
the  contemplated  invasion  of  England  ? 

181.  Of  what  did  the  British  government 
now  become  aware  ? 

What  orders  did  they  issue,  in  conse- 
quence ? 

What  was  done  by  Nelson  ? 

What  had  Villeneuve  done  in  the  mean- 
time ? 

What  final  orders  did  Villeneuve  receive 
from  Napoleon  ? 

What  information  did  Nelson  receive  at 
Antigua? 

What  did  he  then  do  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  Nelson's  foresight 
and  discretion  ? 

What  orders  did  the  Admiralty  issue  ? 

Where  did  Sir  Robert  Calder  come  in  sight 
of  the  French  fleet  ? 

182.  What  was  the  result  of  the  action 
that  ensued? 

Why  was  this  action,  so  trivial  in  itself,  so 
important  in  its  consequences  ? 

What  was  Napoleon's  feeling  when  he 
heard  of  the  interruption  of  his  plans  ? 

What  new  project  did  he  form  on  the 
instant  ? 

What  is  said  of  the  accuracy  of  his  plans 
and  of  the  corresponding  accuracy  with 
which  they  were  executed  ? 

183.  Where  did  Nelson  now  repair? 
How  did  Villeneuve  manifest  his  fear  ot 

Nelson? 

What  stratagem  did  Nelson  practise  tc 
draw  Villeneuve  out  from  Cadiz  ? 

Where  did  Nelson  discover  the  allied  fleet, 
on  the  21st  of  October? 

What  order  did  Nelson  issue  to  his  fleet  ? 

What  was  said  by  Nelson  and  Collingwood, 
respectively,  as  the  ships  were  going  into 
action  ? 

How  was  Nelson  wounded  soon  after  this  1 

184.  What  direction  did  he  give  to  Hardy 
just  before  he  died? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  battle  of  Traf- 
algar ? 

What  was  the  consequence  of  Hardy's 
neglecting  to  obey  Nelson's  dying  com- 
mands ? 

What  occurred  in  England  after  the  battle 
of  Trafalgar? 

185.  What  was  the  result  of  Napoleon's 
negotiations  with  Prussia  ? 


QUESTIONS. 


What  request  was  made  of  Prussia  by  the 
Russian  minister  ? 

What  did  the  refusal  of  Prussia  enable 
Napoleon  to  do  ? 

Waat  course  had  Bernadotte  orders  to  pur 
sue  when  he  reached  Anspaoh  ? 

What  was  the  effect  of  this  violation  o 
Prussian  neutrality  ? 

What  was  the  feeling  of  the  King  ant 
Cabinet  of  Prussia,  when  they  heard  of  this 
violation  ? 

Wriat  did  they  learn  from  it  ? 

What  course  did  they  adopt  in  consequence 
of  it? 

What  was  now  Mack's  situation  at  Ulm? 

188.  How  did  General  Auffeaiberg  distiu 
guish  himself? 

What  project  was  undertaken  by  the  Arch- 
duke Ferdinand  ? 

How  did  he  carry  it  into  execution  ? 

187.  What  was  Mack  now  compelled  to 
do? 

What  faults  were  committed  by  the  Aulic 
Council  ? 
What  took  place  at  Verona  ? 

188.  What  was  done  by  the   Archduke 
Charles,  when  he  heard  of  the  exposure  of 
Vienna  ? 

What  were  Napoleon's  movements  after 
his  success  at  Ulm  ? 

Who  now  approached  to  cover  Vienna  ? 

What  was  done  by  Prussia  at  this  crisis  ? 

How  did  the  Prussian  government  and 
minister  perform  their  promises,  as  embod- 
ied in  their  treaty  with  Russia  ?  ' 

189.  What  would  have  been  the  effect  on 
the  campaign  of  Prussia's  acting  boldly  and 
honestly  at  this  time  ? 

Wrhat  was  accomplished  by  Ney  and  Au- 
gereau  in  the  Tyrol  ? 

Where  did  Napoleon  establish  his  head- 
quarters on  the  6th  of  November  ? 

For  what  purpose  did  he  detach  Mortier 
with  twenty  thousand  men  ?  ' 

What  reply  did  Napoleon  make  to  the 
Count  Giulay  ? 

190.  What  took  place  between  Kutusoff 
and  the  French  forces  ? 

What  was  done  by  the  Emperor  Francis 
as  the  French  approached  his  capital  ? 

What  stratagem  was  practised  by  Murat 
to  overtake  Kutusoff? 

What  was  the  result  of  it  ? 

191.  Where  did  Napoleon  march  when 
he  found  that  the  junction  of  the  allies  was 
inevitable  ? 

What  was  done  by  both  Napoleon  and 
Alexander  to  gain  time  ? 

What  did  Napoleon  recommend  to  Haug- 
witz  ? 

What  position  was  taken  by  the  French 
troops  at  Austerlitz  ? 

What  plan  of  attack  was  formed  by  the 
allies? 

What  remark  was  made  by  Napoleon, 
when  he  saw  the  allies  commence  this  stupid 
manoeuvre  ? 

192.  What  was  the  result  of  the  battle  of 
Austerlitz  ? 

What  agreement  immediately  followed  the 
battle? 


511 


proposal  was  made  by  Alexander  to 
the  government  of  Prussia? 

What  had  the  Russian  diplomatist  po«y  ia 
view? 

What  compact  was  made  between  Napo 
Icon  and  llaugwitz  ? 

193.  What  were  the  conditions  of  the 
treaty  of  Presburg  ? 

What  were  the  secret  articles  of  that 
treaty  ? 

By  what  unprecedented  measure  was  the 
treaty  of  Presburg  followed  ? 

What  effect  had  the  dissolution  of  the 
European  confederacy  on  Mr.  Pitt  ? 

What  has  Chateaubriand  said  of  Mr.  Pitt? 

What  is  the  true  cause  of  Pitt's  fame  ? 

194.  How  is  Pitt  now  regarded  in  Ensr- 
land  ? 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

What  was  the  position  of  the  several  king, 
doms  of  Europe  after  the  peace  ot  Presburg? 

195.  What  statesman  did  the  King  of 
England  consult  with  after  the  death  of  Mr, 
Pitt  ? 

What  office  did  Mr.  Fox  take  ? 

What  policy,  in  relation  to  the  war,  was 
pursued  by  the  new  cabinet  ? 

Of  what  was  this  fact  significant  ? 

What  was  the  financial  condition  of  France 
on  the  return  of  Napoleon  to  Paris  ? 

What  military  monument  was  now  con- 
structed in  Paris  ? 

What  was  done  in  regard  to  Naples  ? 

How  did  Joseph  Bonaparte  enjoy  this  ac- 
quisition of  power  ? 

198.  What  is  said  in  regard  to  the  battle 
of  Maida  ? 

Who  was  made  King  of  Holland  ? 

What  now  took  place  between  the  naval 
forces  of  Great  Britain  and  France  ? 

197.  What    difficulties    arose    between 
Great    Britain    and    the    United    States    of 
America? 

How  were  these  difficulties  adjusted  ? 

What  was  the  nature  of  the  embarrass- 
ment experienced  by  the  Cabinet  of  Berlin 
when  news  was  received  of  the  treaty  be- 
tween Napoleon  and  Haugwitz  ? 

198.  What  course  did  the  King  of  Prus- 
ia  adopt  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  negotiations 
jetween  Prussia  and  France  ? 

What  was  done  by  the  British  government 
when  they  learned  the  perfidious  conduct  of 
Prussia  ? 

What  were  the  motives  of  Prussia  in  con- 
senting to  this  infamous  treaty  with  France  ? 

How  far  was  the  latter  object  accomplished? 

What  hostile  measures  did  Napoleon  take 
oward  Prussia? 

What  did  he  also  do  against  Austria? 

199.  What  was  done,  in  turn,  by  the 
Emperor  Francis  ? 

What  proposals  did  Napoleon  make  to 
England  * 

What  did  this  provoke  the  King  of  Prussia 
to  do? 


512 


QUESTIONS. 


What  success  did  Prussia  meet  with  in  her 
attemuts  to  conciliate  the  European  powers  ? 

What  repiy  aid  Austria  make  ? 

From  what  quarter  did  Prussia  receive 
unexpected  encouragement  ? 

Why  ivas  the  whole  weight  of  the  contest 
now  to  fall  on  Prussia  alone  ? 

2OO.  What  had  Prussia  neglected  in  un- 
dertaking this  war  ? 

What  were  the  views  and  the  errors  of  the 
Duke  of  Brunswick  ? 

Of  what  were  all  the  Prussians  unaware  ? 

With  what  manoeuvre  did  the  Prussians 
propose  to  open  the  campaign  ? 

Wrhat  was  the  fault  of  this  plan  ?  and  what 
other  manoeuvre  did  it  resemble  ? 

What  were  Napoleon's  movements  ? 

2O  I.  WThat  movements  next  took  place 
on  both  sides  ? 

When  did  the  battle  of  Jena  take  place  ? 

How  did  it  result  ? 

How  did  the  French  and  Prussians  come 
into  collision  at  Auerstadt? 

202.  What  was  the  result  of  the  battle 
of  Auersta/lt? 

What  took  place  while  the  Prussians  were 
Retreating  at  night  ? 

What  was  the  loss  of  the  Prussians  in 
these  two  battles  ? 

What  other  losses  did  the  Prussians  sus- 
tain as  a  consequence  of  these  defeats  ? 

What  occurred  to  Hohenlohe  on  the  28th 
of  October? 

203.  Under  what  circumstances  was  the 
fortress  of  Custrin  surrendered  to  the  French  ? 

What  corps  of  the  Prussians  had  yet 
escaped  destruction  ? 

What  was  Blueher  finally  compelled  to  do  ? 

204.  What  did  the  King  of  Prussia  seek 
to  obtain? 

What  reply  was  made  by  Napoleon  ? 

What  was  done  by  Napoleon  in  Berlin  to 
wound  the  feelings  of  his  vanquished  antag- 
onists ? 

How  did  he  treat  the  brave  old  Duke  of 
Brunswick  ? 

What  followed  in  the  rear  of  the  French 
armies  ? 

205.  What  was  the  general  result  of  the 
campaign  of  Jena  ? 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

What  were  the  numbers,  respectively,  of 
the  French  and  allied  troops  ? 

Who  were  the  principal  officers  of  the 
allied  forces  ? 

What  application,  and  for  what  reason, 
was  made  by  Russia  to  Great  Britain  ? 

What  answer  was  returned  by  Great  Brit- 
ain ? 

Was  this  creditable  to  Great  Britain  ? 

2OS.  What  took  place  on  Napoleon's 
arrival  at  Warsaw  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  several  actions 
that  took  place  between  the  French  and  allied 
forces,  as  related  on  pages  206  and  207? 

2O7.  What  were  the  opinions  throughout 
Europe  when  this  result  was  known  ? 


What  expedition  was  undertaken  by  Ben 
ningsen  ? 

208.  What  was  the  result  of  this  attack  ? 
What  was  found  among  Bernadotte's  pri- 
vate baggage  ? 

Where,  after  a  series  of  partial  actions 
and  retreats,  did  Benningsen  resolve  to  make 
a  stand? 

209.  What  was  the  strength  of  the  two 
armies  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  Augereau's  attack 
on  the  Russian  right  ?  ^ 

Whas  success  had  Soult  in  his  attack  on 
the  Russian  centre  ? 

What  forces  did  Napoleon  interpose  to 
check  the  advance  of  the  Russian  centre  ? 

What  was  the  fate  of  this  column  ? 

What  success  had  Davoust  on  the  Russian 
left? 

In  what  condition  was  Napoleon's  whole 
army,  when  night  separated  the  combatants  ? 

210.  What  were  the  losses  in  the  battle 
of  Prussich-Eylau  ? 

How  long,  and  under  what  circumstances, 
did  Napoleon  remain  at  Eylau? 

What  step  did  Napoleon  at  length  take? 

Why  did  the  King  of  Prussia  refuse  to 
treat  for  peace  ? 

What  was  Napoleon  compelled  to  do, 
when  his  attempts  at  negotiation  failed  ? 

What  effect  was  produced  in  Europe  by 
the  battle  at  Eylau  ? 

What  demands  on  France  were  made  by 
Napoleon  ? 

211.  What  was  done  by  Sebastjana,  in 
Turkey,   to   create  a  misunderstanding   be- 
tween that  country  and  Russia  ? 

What  was  threatened  by  Mr.  Arbuthnot? 

What  insult  was  offered  to  a  Russian  brig? 

W7hat  new  threats  did  this  call  forth  ? 

What  was  done  by  the  Sultan  ? 

When  did  the  Divan  declare  war  against 
Russia? 

Against  whom  did  they  declare  war  in 
January  ? 

212.  What  was  done  by  Sir  John  Duck- 
worth ? 

Into  what  danger  did  the  British  fleet  now 
tall? 

How  did  they  escape  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  naval  action  on 
the  1st  of  July? 

What  change  of  ministers  took  place  in 
England  ? 

What  effect  was  produced  on  continental 
affairs  by  this  change  ? 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

213.  How  long,  after  the  battle  of  Eylau, 
did  the  two  armies  remain  quiet  ? 

What  was  the  situation  and  what  the  con- 
dition of  Dantzic  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  siege  of  Dant 
zic? 

214.  What  were  the  numbers,  respect- 
ively, of  the  French  and  allied  troops  at  the 
reopening  of  the  campaign  ? 

Where  did  Benningsen  propose  an  attack 
after  the  fall  of  Dantzic  ? 


QUESTIONS. 


513 


What  was  the  result  of  the  attack  ? 

Why  was  it  not  more  successful? 

What  was  the  result  of  Napoleon's  attack 
Upon  Benningsen  on  the  10th  of  June? 

How  did  Benningsen  learn  that  another 
attack  was  contemplated  by  the  French? 

'2  1  5 .  What  was  the  result  of  this  attack  ? 

To  what  place  did  Benningsen  retreat  by 
a  forced  march  ? 

What  is  the  situation  of  Friedland  ? 

Where  did  Benningsen  resolve  to  make 
a  preliminary  attack  on  the  French? 

How  was  this  attack  to  be  made  ?  and 
what  was  necessary  to  be  considered  in 
making  it  ? 

2  1 1>.  What  circumstances  brought  on  a 
general  action  ? 

What  remark  was  made  by  Napoleon, 
when  he  came  up  ? 

What  result  was  inevitable,  considering 
the  relative  position  of  the  two  armies  ? 

How  did  the  Russians  defend  themselves? 

What  were  the  movements  of  the  Russians 
after  the  battle  ? 

What  considerations  induced  Alexander  to 
wish  for  peace  ? 

211.  How  was  Napoleon  disposed  for 
peace  ? 

What  had  France  to  ask  from  Russia  ? 

And  what  had  Russia  to  demand  from 
France  ? 

What  took  place  on  the  25th  of  June  ? 

What  were  the  conditions  of  the  treaty 
between  France  and  Russia  ? 

What  were  the  conditions  of  the  treaty 
between  France  and  Prussia? 

218.  What  effect  did  the  conditions  of 
this  treaty  have  on  Prussia  ? 

What  was  the  substance  of  the  secret  con- 
vention ? 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

What  were  the  two  parts  of  the  plan  now 
devised  by  Napoleon  to  subdue  the  kingdom 
of  Great  Britain  ? 

2  1 9.  What  measures  did  he,  at  the  same 
time,  take  in  reference  to  constructing  a 
French  navy  ? 

.  What  was  the  substance  of  the  Berlin 
Decree  ? 

How  was  this  Decree  received  by  Holland  ? 

And  in  the  north  of  Germany  ? 

What  reply  was  made  by  the  British  gov- 
ernment ? 

2  2O.  What  new  order  was  issued  by  the 
British  government  on  the  1 1th  of  November  ? 

What  decree  did  Napoleon  issue  in  reply  ? 

To  what  did  the  extravagance  of  these 
measures  lead  ? 

221.  What  was  done  in  regard  to  li- 
censes ? 

How  was  Napoleon  received  in  Paris  after 
the  war  ? 

What  did  Napoleon  now  eradicate  ? 

222.  What  was  done  in  regard  to  books 
and  newspapers  ? 

What  degree  of  ignorance  among  the  peo- 
ple resulted  from  the  censorship  of  the  press  ? 

Wha*  occurred  to  Madame  de  Stael  f 


223.  What  effect  had  Napoleon's  gov- 
ernment on  the  internal  prosperity  of  France  ? 

What  was  cultivated  for  making  sugar  ? 

How  were  the  public  works,  undertaken  by 
Napoleon,  paid  for ? 

What  became  of  individual  freedom? 

What  sort  of  Penal  Code  was  enacted  ? 

What  were  the  circumstances  that  aggra- 
vated the  effects  of  this  law  ? 

What  were  the  nature  and  operation  of  the 
conscription  ? 

224.  What  were  the  penalties  of  evading 
the  conscription  ? 

What  political  changes  took  place  in  the 
Duchy  ot  Warsaw? 

What  took  place  in  Westphalia  ? 

Where,  beside,  was  this  plan  of  govern 
ment  adopted  ? 

225.  What  took  place  in  Prussia? 
Who  had  chief  direction  of  the  Prussian 

government  ? 

What  system  was  applied  to  the  Prussian 
military  department  ? 

What  clause  in  the  treaty  did  Scharnhorst 
evade  ? 

How  did  he  evade  it? 

What  secret  society  was  formed  in  Prussia? 

226.  What    measures    were    taken    by 
Austria  ? 

What  took  place  in  Sweden  ? 

How  did  the  British  government  discover 
the  intentions  of  France  toward  Denmark? 

What  was  Great  Britain  now  menaced 
with  ? 

What  steps  did  she  take  ? 

What  proposal  was  made  by  the  British 
envoy  ? 

What  did  Denmark  reply  ? 

227.  What  was  done,  by  the  British  ? 
How  did  the  action  result  ? 

What  prizes  did  the  British  take  to  Eng- 
land? 

What  were  the  progress  and  result  of  the 
negotiations  for  peace  at  this  time  ? 

What  government  broke  off  its  friendly 
relations  with  Napoleon  ? 

What  took  place  in  Italy? 

What  territories  and  towns  were  ceded  to 
France  ? 

228.  In  what  did  the  chief  importance  of 
these  proceedings  consist  ? 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

On  what,  and  for  what  purpose,  did  Napo- 
leon fix  his  attention,  on  his  return  to  Paris  ? 

What  had  excited  the  indignation  of  the 
Spaniards  ? 

What  treaty  was  made  between  Spain  and 
Russia? 

How  did  Napoleon  discover  this  treaty  ? 

229.  What  did  Napoleon  see  as  the  con- 
sequences of  this  and  its  concomitant  pro- 
ceedings in  Spain  and  Portugal  ? 

What  senti.nent  had  he  in  common  with 
Louis  XIV.? 

What  gave  Napoleon  an  opportunity  to 
carry  out  his  views  ? 

What  did  he  require  of  Portugal  ? 

What  was  done  at  Bayonne  ? 


514 


QUESTIONS. 


What  was  Junot  next  ordered  to  do  ? 
What  was  the  condition  of  Lisbon  ? 
Wherein  consisted  the  impolicy  of  resist- 
ance on  the  part  of  the  Portuguese  ? 

230.  What  was  done  by  the  royal  family 
of  Portugal  ? 

What  was  done  by  the  British  squadron  as 
the  exiled  family  passed  them  ? 

How  were  the  French  soldiers  received  in 
Lisbon  ? 

What  policy  was  at  first  pursued  by  Junot  ? 

What  did  he  soon  afterward  do  ? 

Who  was  King  of  Spain  at  this  time  ? 

231.  By  whom  was  he  controlled  ? 
Who  was  the  heir  apparent  to  the  Spanish 

throne  ? 

By  whom  was  he  chiefly  influenced  ? 

What  course  was  pursued  by  Napoleon  ? 

What  was  done  on  the  22d  of  November  ? 

What  fortresses  \vere  taken  by  the  French? 

How  were  these  fortresses  taken? 

What  had  now  been  done  before  hostilities 
were  proclaimed  between  Spain  and  France  ? 

What  demand  was  next  made  by  Napo- 
leon ? 

232.  Why  was  the  condition  he  proposed, 
illusory  ? 

What  did  the  King  of  Spain  resolve  to  do  ? 

What  letter  was  sent  to  the  King  by  Na- 
poleon ? 

What  was  done  by  the  people  of  Madrid 
when  the  King  attempted  to  flee  the  country? 

Who  was  appealed  to,  to  insure  the  public 
safety  ? 

What  was  done  by  the  King  on  the  19th 
of  March? 

Under  what  title  did  the  Prince  of  Asturias 
ascend  the  throne  ? 

233.  What  was  Murat  doing  in  the  mean- 
time ? 

How  did  he  march  through  Spain  ? 

When  did  he  arrive  at  Madrid  ? 

What  was  done  toward  Murat  by  Ferdi- 
nand and  Charles  IV.,  respectively? 

What  did  Murat  do  with  Madrid  ? 

What  proposals  did  he  make  to  Don  Car- 
los and  Ferdinand? 

234.  To  ytfiom  did  Napoleon  offer  the 
crown  of  Spain? 

What  was  said  by  Isquierdo,  when  Napo- 
leon proposed  to  take  that  crown  himself? 

What  did  this  answer  induce  Napoleon  to 
undertake  ? 

What  instructions  did  he  give  to  Savary  ? 

What  was  done  by  Savary? 

And  by  Ferdinand? 

What  occurred  at  Burgos  ? 

What  warning  did  the  King  receive  at 
Vittoria  ? 

What  did  he  do,  nevertheless  ? 

235.  What  was  was  done  by  Murat  after 
Ferdinand's  departure  ? 

What  directions  were  given  to  Murat  by 
Napoleon  ? 

What  encounter  took  place  in  the  streets 
of  Madrid? 

What  was  done  by  Murat  to  restore  order? 

How  was  this  outrage  revenged  by  the 
Spaniards  ? 

23 6.  How  far  was  either  party,  thus  far, 
in  fault  ? 


What  further  outrage  was  perpetrated  by 
Murat  ? 

What  were  the  consequences  of  this  mas 
sacre  throughout  Spain  ? 

237.  What  occurred,  in  the   meamhne, 
between  Napoleon  and  Ferdinand  ? 

What  answer  was  made  by  Ferdinand  to 
Napoleon's  demands? 

What  course  did  Napoleon  next  adopt  ? 

W7hat  course  did  Ferdinand  still  persist  in? 

What  was  finally  done  by  the  old  King  ? 

What  secret  deputation  reached  Ferdi- 
nand ? 

What  answer  did  he  send  back  ? 

238.  What   course  did    Napoleon    take 
when  he  heard  of  the  disturbances  in  Madrid  ? 

What  was  done  by  Ferdinand  ? 

Where  were  Ferdinand  and  his  brothers 
removed? 

What  was  now  done  with  the  throne  of 
Spain  and  of  Naples  ? 

What  was  provided  by  the  new  Constitu- 
tion in  Spain  f 

239.  When  did  the  new  King  arrive  at 
Madrid  ? 

How  was  he  received  ? 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

What  sort  of  a  country  is  the  Spanish  Pen- 
insula, physically  considered? 

240.  What  were  the  number  and  charac- 
ter of  Napoleon's  troops,  with  which  he  was 
prepared  to  overrun  Spain  ? 

What  events  in  the  principal  towns  of 
Spain  followed  the  massacres  in  Madrid? 

What  did  the  Spaniards  achieve  in  the 
harbor  of  Cadiz  ? 

241.  Where,  and  with  what  success,  did 
the  French  open  the  campaign  ? 

Where  did~Palafox  prepare  for  defence  ?  . 
What  sort   of  fortifications  and  defences 
had  Saragossa  ? 

What  did  Colmenar  say  of  Saragossa  ? 

242.  Who  took  part  in  the  defence  of  Sar- 
agossa ? 

How  was  the  town  defended  after  the 
French  entered  the  streets? 

How  long  did  this  continue? 

What  had  the  French  accomplished  by  that 
time? 

What  other  Spanish  town  made  a  brave 
defence  ? 

What  effect  had  these  events  on  the  minds 
of  the  Spaniards  ? 

What  military  preparations  did  they  make? 

243.  What  was  the  error  of  Cuesta's  dis- 
positions for  the  battle  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  action  ? 

What  remark  was  made  by  Napoleon 
when  he  heard  of  the  battle? 

Of  what  town  did  Duppnt  take  possession  ? 

What  outrages  did  he  suffer  his  troops  to 
commit  ? 

What  is  it  important  to  observe  in  regard 
to  this  ? 

What  induced  Dupont  to  retreat  from  Cor- 
dova ? 

244.  What  was  the  result  of  his  retreat  ? 


QUESTIONS. 


515 


What  was  said  and  done  by  Napoleon 
when  lie  heard  of  this  surrender  ? 

What  occurred  to  the  French  prisoners  on 
their  in.irch  toward  Cadiz  ? 

What  was  done  when  they  reached  Cadiz  ? 

Waat  \va.f  done  by  Joseph  Bonaparte  on 
the  30th  of  July  ? 

What  was  done  by  the  French  troops  on 
their  march  ? 

2  i5.  What  took  place  in  Catalonia  ? 

And  at  Gerona? 

Who  was  sent  to  Portugal  in  command  of 
the  British  troops  ? 

What  did  Sir  Arthur  discorer  in  regard  to 
the  Portuguese  soldiers? 

Where,  and  with  what  success,  did  Sir 
Arthur  first  encounter  the  French  troops  ? 

Where  did  Wellington  await  the  attack  of 
Junot  ? 

2  lii.  What  was  accomplished  by  Col. 
Walker  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  battle  ? 

What  prevented  Sir  Arthur  from  destroy- 
ing the  French  retreating  columns  ? 

What  was  said  by  Sir  Arthur  on  this 
occasion  ? 

Who  succeeded  Sir  Harry  Burrard  in  com- 
mand of  the  British  troops  ? 

What  was  proposed  through  Kellerman  ? 

In  what  did  the  armistice  terminate  ? 

What  was  provided  by  the  Convention  of 
Cintra  ? 

What  was  stipulated  in  a  separate  clause  ? 

What  was  further  provided  ? 

How  and  for  what  reason  was  this  latter 
provision  modified  ? 

What  was  done  in  Great  Britain  in  refer- 
ence  to  the  Convention  of  Cintra? 

Who  of  the  three  British  commanders  was 
retained  ? 

Who,  while  their  trials  were  in  progress  in 
England,  took  command  of  the  British  troops 
in  Portugal  ? 

247.  What    new    treaty    did    Napoleon 
make  with  Prussia  ? 

Where  did  he  solicit  and  obtain  an  inter- 
view with  Alexander  ? 

What  occurred  at  this  interview  to  destroy 
the  confidence  of  Alexander  in  Napoleon  ? 

248.  What  forces  did  Napoleon  assemble 
against  Spain  ? 

What  number  of  troops  could  Spain  muster? 

Who  were  in  command  of  the  several 
Spanish  corps? 

What  was  undertaken  by  Blake,  and  how 
did  he  succeed  in  his  several  attempts? 

Where  was  Blake  finally  driven  by  Soult  ? 

249.  What  was    the    result    of    Soult's 
attack  at  Burgos  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  Ney's  attack  at 
Tudela  ? 

Where  did  Napoleon  direct  his  march  ? 

What  means  of  defence  had  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Madrid  ? 

When  did  the  French  take  possession  of 
Madrid  ? 

What  was  the  appearance  of  Madrid  soon 
after  ? 

What  did  Napoleon  abolish  ? 

250.  What  plan  did  Sir  John  Moore  pro- 
pose? 

4,6 


What  was  done  by  Napoleon  when  he 
heard  of  Moore's  advance  ? 

What  did  Napoleon  write  to  Soult  ? 

What  movement  did  Moore  make  in  con- 
sequence  of  Napoleon's  advance  ? 

251.  By  whom  was  Napoleon  overtaken 
on  the  '1st  of  January? 

What  did  he  do  {  and  what  did  he  leara 
from  the  despatches  ? 

Where  did  he  go  after  gaining  this  infor- 
mation ? 

What  was  the  condition  of  the  British 
army  on  its  retreat  ? 

To  what  place  did  Moore  still  further  re- 
treat  on  the  llth  of  January  ? 

What  was  now  the  only  alternative  for  the 
British  General  ? 

252.  What  were  the  numbers  of  troops 
in  the  two  armies  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  battle  of  Co- 
runna  ? 

What  great  loss  did  the  British  sustain? 

How  was  Sir  John  Moore  buried  ? 

Who  erected  a  monument  to  his  memory  ? 


CHAPTER  XXX. 

253.  How  had  Austria  improved  the  in- 
terval of  peace  ? 

What  would  have  been  the  result,  had 
Austria  pressed  her  operations  more  vigor- 
ously ? 

How  were  the  armies  of  both  nations  situ- 
ated on  the  17th  of  March? 

What  could  easily  have  been  done  to  the 
French  ? 

What  order  was  given  by  the  Aulic 
Council? 

What  was  the  effect  of  this  order  ? 

254.  What  were  Napoleon's  instructions 
to  Berthier? 

How  did  Berthier  manage,  despite  these 
nstructions  ? 

By  what  further  movements  did  both  the 
Archduke  Charles  and  Berthier  evince  great 
stupidity  ? 

Vhat  was  the  result  of  their  joint  move- 
ments ? 

Who  now  arrived  to  take  command  of  the 
French  troops  ? 

255.  Where  did  the  Archduke  Charles 
move  with  the  main  body  of  his  army  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  action  at 
Thaun? 

When  Napoleon  resolved  to  assume  a  vig- 
orous offensive,  what  was  the  relative  posi- 
ion  of  the  two  armies  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  Napoleon's  attack  ? 

What  town  did  the  Archduke  Charles  cap- 
ure  on  the  same  day  ? 

What  town  did  Napoleon  capture  on  the 
2 1st  of  April? 

256.  What  was  the  essential  difference 
n  the  arrangements  of  the  two  command- 
ers, when  they  prepared  for  battle? 

What  was  the  effect  of  this  division  of  the 
Austrians  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  attack  on  the 
Austrian  left,  centre,  and  right  ? 


516 


QUESTIONS. 


How  did  the  Archduke  endeavor  to  pro- 
tect his  army's  retreat  ? 

What  occurred  between  the  Austrian  and 
French  cuirassiers  ? 

Which  finally  prevailed  ? 

What  did  the  Austrian  cuirassiers  accom- 
plish, though  defeated  ? 

257.  What  was  the  general  result  of  the 
battle  of  Echmul  ? 

How  did  the  Archduke  effect  his  retreat  ? 

What  occurred  to  Napoleon  in  his  attack 
on  Ratisbon  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  attack  ? 

What  had  taken  place  in  twelve  days  ? 

What  now  became  manifest  in  regard  to 
the  French  troops  ? 

258.  Where   did  Killer  defeat  Wrede's 
Bavarians  ? 

What  occurred  to  Eugene  Beauharnais? 
Where  was  Napoleon  resolved  to  march  ? 
What  obstacles  did  the  French  encounter 
at  Ebersberg? 

Describe  the  assault  of  the  long  bridge. 
What  was  the  result  of  the  attack  ? 

259.  Did  Napoleon  encounter  any  other 
obstacles  of  importance   on  his  march   to 
Vienna  ? 

On  what  day  did  he  take  possession  of 
Vienna? 

What  was  the  Archduke  Charles  doing  in 
the  meantime  ? 

260.  What  advantage  did  Eugene  Beau- 
harnais  gain  over  the  Archduke  John  ? 

What  was  the  size  of  the  two  armies  now 
assembled  near  Vienna  ? 

What  are  the  size  and  situation  of  the 
Island  of  Lobau  ? 

Where  did  Napoleon  cross  the  Danube  ? 

What  was  the  plan  of  the  Archduke 
Charles  ? 

Where  did  the  bridge  over  the  Danube  ter- 
minate? 

What  are  the  names  of  the  two  villages  on 
each  side  of  this  point  ? 

How  did  the  battle  progress,  during  the 
day,  at  As  pern? 

261.  What  took  place  on  the  plain  ? 
How  did  the  attack  on  Esslin  terminate  ? 
How  was  the  night  passed  ? 

How  did  the  battle  progress  during  the 
next  day  ? 

What  measure  did  Napoleon  adopt  to 
bring  the  contest  to  a  close  ? 

How  did  the  Archduke  meet  this  move- 
ment ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  French  at- 
tack ? 

262.  What  movement  was  made  by  Ho- 
henzollern  ? 

What  intelligence  now  spread  through  the 
ranks? 

What  order  did  Napoleon  give  ? 

What  enabled  the  Archduke  now  to  turn 
his  advantage  to  the  best  account  ? 

How  did  he  improve  his  advantage  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  battle  of  As- 
•pern  ? 

What  was  the  situation  of  the  French  that 
night? 

What  plan  did  Napoleon  resolve  on  ? 

How  did  he  accomplish  this  ? 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 

263.  What    preparations  did    Napoleon 
make  to  cross  the  Danube  ? 

What  was  done  by  the  Archduke  to  op- 
pose him  ? 

What  number  of  soldiers  had  the  Arch- 
duke Charles,  and  how  were  they  stationed  ? 

264.  How  many  men  had  Napoleon  ? 
What  expedient  was  resorted  to  by  Napo- 
leon to  deceive  the  Archduke  ? 

How  and .  where  did  the  French  actually 
cross  the  river? 

What  was  seen  and  done  by  the  Archduke  ? 

How  is  the  plateau  of  Wagram  situated? 

How  did  the  French  advance  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  Oudinot's  attack 
on  the  Austrian  lines  ? 

265.  What  was   the  result  of  Eugene's 
attack  ? 

What  was  accomplished  by  Macdonald, 
Dupas,  aud  Lamarque? 

What,  in  turn,  was  accomplished  by  the 
Archduke  ? 

What  occurred  between  the  Saxons  and 
the  French  ? 

What  might  the  Archduke  now  have  done  ? 

What  was  proposed  and  done  by  the  Arch- 
duke on  the  morning  of  the  6th  of  July  ? 

What  was  Napoleon's  plan  at  the  same 
time? 

How  was  Napoleon  surprised  on  the  morn 
ing  of  the  6th  ? 

266.  What  checked  the  Austrian  advance? 
What  took  place  between  St.  Cyr  and  the 

Archduke  ? 

How  did  Napoleon  re-form  the  broken 
columns  ? 

What  was  done  by  Kollowrath  and  Klenau 
at  As  pern? 

What  took  place  on  the  Austrian  left? 

267.  What  movement  did  Napoleon  now 
undertake  ? 

What  did  Napoleon  say  to  Reille  ? 

What  occurred  to  the  French  cavalry  ? 

How  did  the  French  infantry  succeed? 

How  did  the  Archduke  conduct  his  re- 
treat ? 

What  was  said  by  Napoleon  after  the  re- 
treat ? 

What  would  have  happened  had  the  Arch- 
duke John  arrived  earlier  on  the  field  ? 

What  were  the  losses  in  the  battle  of  Wa- 
gram? 

What  line  of  retreat  did  the  Archduke 
take? 

268.  Where  was  his  retreat  arrested? 
What  occurred  at  this  juncture  ? 

What  were  the  conditions  of  the  treaty  of 
Vienna  ? 

What  effect  had  this  treaty  on  the  cabinet 
of  St.  Petersburg? 

269.  What  declaration  did  Napoleon  mako 
to  pacify  Alexander  ? 

What  barbarous  order  did  Napoleon  give 
before  going  to  Paris  ? 

How  was  this  destruction  effected? 

Why  was  this  so  great  an  outrage  ? 

What  took  place  in  the  Tyrol  about  this 
time? 

Who  took  command  of  the  Swiss  ? 


QUESTIONS. 


517 


How  did  Lefebvre  succeed  in  his  expedi- 
tion against  the  Swiss  ? 

270.  What   was    the   result   of   Hofer's 
attack  on  Innspruck  ? 

What  was  done  by  Hofer  when  he  found 
the  French  assembled  against  him  in  over- 
whelming numbers  ? 

What  was  Hofer's  fate  ? 

What  is  said  of  Napoleon's  conduct  tow- 
ard Hofer  ? 

What  expedition  was  this  year  undertaken 
by  the  British  ? 

271.  What  armament  was  sent  on  this 
expedition  ? 

What  was  accomplished  by  the  British  in 
three  days  ? 

How  did  they  afterward  follow  up  their 
success  ? 

272.  WKat  took  place  at  Antwerp  while 
the  British  were  wasting  time  in  approaching 
it? 

What  did  the  pope  expect  from  Napoleon, 
in  return  for  his  concessions  ? 

What  return  did  Napoleon  make,  so  far  as 
military  operations  were  concerned  ? 

What  was  next  done  to  the  pope  person- 
ally ? 

What  was  done  by  Napoleon  on  the  17th 
of  May  ? 

How  did  the  pope  reply  to  this  ? 

273.  What  did  Napoleon  resolve  to  do? 
How  was  the  pope  arrested  ? 

What  was  done  with  the  pope  after  his 
arrest  ? 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 

274.  Where  was  Admiral  Villaumer  block- 
aded by  Lord  Gambier  ? 

To  what  sort  of  attack  were  the  French 
ships  exposed  ? 

How  did  Villaumer  prepare  for  defence  ? 
How  did  the  British  commence  the  attack? 
What  was  done  by  Lord  Gambier  ? 
What  did  this  enable  the  French  to  do  ? 

275.  What  was  done  by  Lord  Cochrane? 
What  did  Napoleon  say  of  these  proceed- 
ings? 

What  colonial  conquests  were  made  by 
Great  Britain  ? 

What  was  done  by  Collingwood  ? 

What  was  the  situation  of  Spain  in  the 
beginning  of  1809? 

276.  What  were  the  number  and  position 
of  the  French  troops  ? 

Who  was  appointed  Field-marshal  in  the 
Portuguese  service  ? 

What  measures  did  he  take  ? 

What  measures  were  taken  by  the  Central 
Junta  of  Spain  ? 

How  did  the  French  open  the  campaign  ? 

How  was  the  contest  now  waged  at  Sara- 
gossa ? 

277.  How  long  did  the  fight  continue? 
What  was  said  by  the  French  soldiers  ? 
What  was  suffered  by  the  inhabitants  of 


What  name  has  Saragossa  left  behind  her  ? 
On  what    terms  was    Saragossa   surren- 
dered? 


WThat  was  the  condition  of  the  town  when 
the  French  took  possession  ? 

278.  What  had,  in  reality,  subdued  Sanu 
gossa  ? 

What,  rapacious  acts  were  committed  by 
the  French  Marshals  ? 

What  consequences  followed  the  fall  of 
Saragossa  ? 

What  was  undertaken  by  Blake  ? 

What  success  had  he  at  first  ? 

279.  What  ridiculous  plan  of  fighting  had 
all  the  Spanish  commanders  at  this  time  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  Blake's  attack  on 
Saragossa  ? 

What  occurred  at  Belchite  to  frighten  the 
Spaniards  ? 

How  fast  did  the  Spaniards  run  after  this? 

What  was  next  undertaken  by  the  French  ? 

Who  was  the  governor  of  Gerona  ? 

Where  did  the  French  commence  their 
attack  ? 

How  did  the  contest  proceed? 

How  did  St.  Cyr  change  his  plan? 

280.  What  was  the  result  of  the  assault 
on  the  town  ? 

What  did  St.  Cyr  undertake  when  he  found 
he  could  not  carry  Gerona  by  assault  ? 

What  was  the  fate  of  Gerona  at  last  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  action  at  Ulces, 
January  13th? 

Where  were  the  Spaniards  next  defeated  ? 

Who  was  sent  into  Portugal  ? 

Toward  what  place  did  Soult  direct  his 
march  ? 

281.  When  did    he   arrive   opposite    to 
Oporto  ? 

Who  now  took  command  of  the  British 
troops  in  Portugal  ? 

Where  did  Wellington  march  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  Wellington's  attack? 

How  completely  did  Wellington  surprise 
Soult  ? 

In  what  condition  was  Soult  on  the  next 
morning? 

282.  What  .course   did   Soult   adopt    to 
escape  ? 

Where  did  Wellington  next  advance  ? 

Where  did  Joseph  arrive  on  the  26th  of 
July? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  battle  of  Tal- 
avera  ? 

What  was  said  of  the  battle  by  Jomini  ? 

What  intelligence  did  Wellington  receive 
on  the  2d  of  August  ? 

283.  What  course  was  Wellington  forced 
to  adopt,  by  reason  of  the  cowardice  aiid 
inefficiency  of  the  Spanish  troops  ? 

What  did  Wellington  offer  to  Cuesta  ? 

How  did  Cuesta  perform  the  duty  devolved 
on  him  ? 

What  took  place  for  nearly  a  month  after 
Wellington's  march  to  the  Tagus? 

What  did  Wellington  experience,  from  the 
moment  he  entered  Spain  ? 

What  were  the  Spaniards  willing  to  re- 
ceive ? 

What  did  they  do  for  themselves  ? 

What  course  did  Wellington  finally  adopt? 

284.  What  was  the  only  kind  of  warfare 
that  the  Spaniards  were  capable  of  main- 
taining ? 


518 


QUESTIONS. 


Who  had  command  of  the  Spaniards  at 
Ocana  ? 

How  did  h«  arrange  his  troops  ? 

Where  did  he  hide  himself  after  this  ar- 
rangomc..t  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  battle  ? 

What  became  of  Areizaga? 

What  resolution  was  taken  by  Wellington  ? 

What  was  the  British  mode  "of  warfare? 

285.  What  was  the  French  mode  of  war- 
fare ? 

WThat  resulted  from  this  difference  ? 


CHAPTER  XXXIII. 

What  was  now  wanting  to  Napoleon  ? 
What,  in  this  view  of  the  case,  became 
accessary  to  Napoleon  ? 

286.  What  resolution  did  Napoleon  adopt? 
How  did  he  communicate  this  resolution  to 

Josephine  ? 

How  did  she  receive  it  ? 

What  did  she  afterward  suffer  in  conse- 
quence ? 

287.  What  was  done  for  Josephine? 

To  what  courts  were  proposals  made  for 
Napoleon's  marriage  ? 

By  whom  were  the  proposals  accepted  ? 

What  was  the  name  of  the  new  Empress  ? 

What  effect  had  this  marriage  on  Alex- 
ander ? 

What  took  place  between  Napoleon  and 
his  brother  Louis  ? 

What  took  place  between  Napoleon  and 
Lucien? 

What  was  Joseph  desirous  to  do  ? 

288.  Where  did  Soult  commence  opera- 
tions in  Spain  ? 

How  did  he  succeed? 

What  town  did  Victor  attempt  to  capture  ? 

Who  interfered  with  and  defeated  his  pro- 
ject? 

What  success  had  the  French  in  Catalonia  ? 

What  forces  were  directed  against  Portu- 
gal, and  by  whom  were  they  commanded  ? 

What  force  had  Wellington  to  meet  the 
French  ? 

289.  What  towns  were  taken  by  Massena? 
Why  did   not  Wellington    defend    these 

towns  ? 

Where  did  Wellington  take  post  to  give 
battle  to  Massena? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  French  attack  ? 

What  were  the  losses  in  the  action  ? 
'     29O.  Where  did  Wellington  fall  back  ? 

Describe  the  lines  of  Torres  Vedras  ? 

What  course  was  pursued  by  Massena 
when  he  had  reconnoitered  Wellington's  po- 
sition ? 

What  was  done  by  Wellington  when  Mas- 
sena retreated  ? 

Where  did  Massena  at  length  retreat  ? 

What  Spanish  town  did  Soult  besiege  ? 

291.  How  was  he  enabled  to  capture  Ba- 
dajoz  ? 

What  was  undertaken  by  Sir  Thomas 
Graham  ? 

What  prevented  Sir  Thomas  from  defeat- 
ing Victor  ? 


What  was  the  final  success  of  Massena's 
retreat  ? 

What  were  his  losses,  nevertheless  ? 

Where  did  the  French  attack  Wellington 
on  the  4th  of  May? 

292.  By  what  manoeuvre  did  Wellington 
protect  his  right  wing  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  charge  of  bay- 
onets between  the  Imperial  Guard  and  the 
Highlanders? 

How  did  the  battle  terminate  ? 

What  occurred  to  George  III.,  King  of 
England  ? 

What  three  propositions  were  made  in  the 
House  of  Commons  by  Mr.  Percival  ? 

How  was  the  third  proposition  eventually 
decided  ? 

293.  What  prevented  the  exchange  of 
prisoners  from  taking  place  between  France 
and  Great  Britain  ? 

What  remaining  memorable  event  took 
place  in  this  year  ? 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 

What  was  the  result,  in  the  first  instance, 
of  the  preservation  of  Cadiz  ? 

What,  nevertheless,  has  resulted  from  the 
proceedings  of  the  Cortez  ? 

What  was  the  character  of  its  legislation  ? 

294.  What    provisions  and    enactments 
were  made  by  the  party  in  power? 

How  was  this  constitution  received  by  the 
people  ? 

What  was  Wellington's  view  of  it  ? 

How  have  his  predictions  corresponded  to 
the  subsequent  events  ? 

295.  What  took  place  at  Seville  ? 
What  instructions  did  Napoleon  give  to  his 

ambassador  at  Madrid  ? 

What  was  done  by  Joseph,  when  he  be- 
came convinced  of  the  incorrigible  perfidy  of 
Napoleon  ? 

What  was  he  afterward  persuaded  to  do  ? 

And  what  did  he  find,  in  the  end  l. 

296.  What  place  was  captured  by  Suchpt 
on  the  2d  of  January  ? 

What  was  achieved  by  Martinez  ? 

What  was  done  by  Macdonald  at  Man. 
resa? 

How  did  the  inhabitants  of  Manresa,  in 
part,  revenge  this  ? 

What  place  was  next  besieged  by  Suchet? 

How  was  Taragona  situated  and  defended  ? 

297.  How  did  the  siege  progress  and  ter- 
minate ? 

What  outrage  was  perpetrated  by  Suchet 
after  Taragona  surrendered  ? 

What  must  this  and  similar  events  call 
down  from  mankind  ? 

What  place  did  Suchet  besiege  after  the 
surrender  of  Taragona  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  first  two  at- 
tacks on  Saguntum  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  Blake's  attempt  to 
relieve  Saguntum? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  siege  ? 

298.  What  other  town  did  Suchet  capture? 
What  was  the  consequence  of  this  capture7 


QUESTIONS. 


519 


To  what  place  did  Wellington  turn  his 
attention  ? 

Why  "was  Badajoz  a  place  of  importance  ? 

What  was  done  hy  Soult  ? 

•Where  did  he  find  Beresford  posted  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  Soult's  attack  on 
the  right  wing  ? 

What  measures  did  Beresford  take  to  re- 
store the  day  ? 

299.  What  preparations  did  he  finally 
make  ? 

Who  changed  the  fate  of  the  day? 
What  orders  did  he  issue  ? 
What  was  the  result  of  the  British  charge  ? 
What  French  officer  saved  Soult's  army  on 
its  retreat  ? 

300.  What    compelled    Wellington    to 
raise  the  siege  of  Badajoz? 

What  siege  did  he  next  undertake  ? 
.What  prevented  his  pursuing  the  siege  of 
Ciudad  Rodrigo  ? 


CHAPTER  XXXV. 

301.  What  enabled  Wellington  to  renew 
his  attempt  upon  Ciudad  Rodrigo  ? 

How  did  he  conceal  his  design  ? 
What  progress  was  made  in  three  days  ? 
Who  had  charge  of  the  assault  ? 
What  orders  were  given  to  the  men  ? 
What  were  the  preparations  of  the  garrison? 
What  were  Wellington's  orders  for  the 
day? 

0 O2.  At  what  hour  did  the  assault  com- 
mence ? 

How  did  it  result  ? 

What  outrages  were  committed  in  the 
town? 

What  is  the  essential  difference  between 
the  outrages  of  the  British  and  French  on 
these  occasions  ? 

What  expedition  did  Wellington  under- 
take, afte/  the  capture  of  Ciudad  Rodrigo  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  first  assault  ? 

What  was  achieved  by  Picton  in  the  mean- 
time ? 

303.  What  was  done  by  Walker  ? 
What  was  the  result  of  the  siege  ? 
What  did  Wellington  gain  by  the  capture 

of  these  two  places  ? 

What  did  Wellington  next  undertake  ? 

What  took  place  at  Salamanca  on  Welling- 
ton's arrival  ? 

What  had  the  French  done  in  Salamanca  ? 

3O*.  How  far  did  Wellington  pursue  the 
French  ? 

What  induced  him,  in  turn,  to  retreat? 

What  was  there  novel  and  exciting  in  his 
retreat  ? 

Where  did  Wellington  take  up  a  position  ? 

What  step  was  taken  by  Marmont  that 
induced  Wellington  to  check  his  retreat  ? 

What  preliminary  movements  were  made 
by  the  two  armies  before  the  battle  began  ? 

3O5.  What  was  the  result  of  the  battle 
of  the  Arapeiies  ? 

What  was  the  loss,  respectively,  of  the 
British,  Portuguese,  and  Spaniards' 

What  was  the  French  loss  ? 

35 


Against  what  army  did  Wellington  now 
march  ? 

When  did  he  reach  Madrid  ? 

How  was  he  received  by  the  people  of 
Madrid  ? 

3O6.  What  military  spoils  did  Welling- 
ton gain  by  the  capture  of  the  Retire? 

What  various  disasters  now  overtook  the 
French  in  Spain  ? 

To  what  place  did  Wellington  lay  siege  on 
the  19th  of  September? 

What  was  lacking  in  his  preparations  for 
this  siege  ? 

3OT.  How  did  the  siege  terminate? 

With  what  amount  of  troops  did  Welling- 
ton take  up  a  position  on  the  heights  of  the 
Arapeiies  ? 

What  amount  of  French  troops  were  ar- 
rayed against  Wellington  ? 

Why  did  not  the  French,  with  such  supe- 
rior numbers,  attack  the  British  position  ? 

What  did  Wellington  do,  when  the  French 
declined  to  give  battle  ? 


CHAPTER  XXXVI. 

What  ukase  was  issued  by  Russia  in  1810? 

3  OS.  Who  was  placed  in  command  of  the 
Russian  troops  ? 

What  did  he  accomplish  between  the  15th 
of  May  and  the  17th  of  June? 

To  what  fortress  did  he  next  lay  siege  ? 

What  is  the  position  of  Schumla  ? 

What  were  its  defences  ? 

What  success  had  Kaminski  in  the  siege  ? 

What  other  place  did  he  besiege  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  first  assault  ? 

And  of  the  second  ? 

309.  What  force  approached  Kaminski, 
while  he  lay  in  front  of  Rondschouck  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  Kaminski's  first 
attack  on  this  Turkish  army  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  his  attack  the  next 
day? 

What  successes  followed  this  victory  of 
the  Russians  ? 

What  befell  Kaminski  after  this  ? 

Who  succeeded  him  in  the  command  ? 

How  did  the  campaign  of  1811  commence? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  battle  at 
Rondschouck  on  the  2d  of  July  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  Turkish  attack 
on  Kutusoff,  8th  of  September  ? 

How  did  Kutusoff  revenge  this  defeat  ? 

What  was  the  Russian  loss  in  this  affair  ? 

Where  did  Kutusoff  next  attack  the 
Turks  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  that  attack  ? 

310.  What  was    the    substance   of  the 
treaty  concluded  between  Russia  and  Turkey? 

What  expedition  was  undertaken  by  the 
Russians  in  1808? 

What  places  did  the  Russians  capture  at 
this  time  ? 

What  conquest  followed  these  successes  ? 

What  was  done  by  Gustavus,  King  ot 
Sweden  ? 

What  was  done  to  Gustavus  by  his  people  ? 

Who  was  made  King  in  his  place  ? 


520 


QUESTIONS. 


What  measures  were  taken  by  Charles 
XIII.? 

311.  What  occurred  to  the  Crown  Prince, 
in  1810? 

What  was  the  object  of  the  intrigues  that 
followed  ? 

On  whom  did  the  choice  of  Crown  Prince 
fall  ? 

What  decrees  were  passed  by  the  Senate 
of  Napoleon  in  1810? 

What  was  the  effect  of  the  second  decree  ? 

What  was  done  by  Alexander,  when  he 
heard  of  the  spoliation  of  the  Grand-Duke  of 
Oldenburg  ? 

312.  What  occurred  in  Paris,  on  the  20th 
of  March  ? 

What  arrangements  were  made  about  the 
guns  from  the  Invalides  ? 

What  effect  had  the  secession  of  Russia 
from  the  continental  system  ? 

What  was  done  by  Denmark  ? 

And  by  Prussia  ? 

What  did  Napoleon  say  in  regard  to  Swe- 
den ? 

What  was  Sweden  forced  to  do  ? 

Why  did  not  her  declaration  of  war  free 
her  from  Napoleon's  tyrannical  exactions  ? 

What  further  outrages  were  committed 
upon  Sweden  by  Napoleon  ? 

What  treaty  was  made  in  consequence  of 
all  these  outrages  ? 


CHAPTER  XXXVII. 

313.  With  what  forces  did  Napoleon  un- 
dertake the  Russian  campaign  ? 

How  were  these  troops  divided  at  the 
commencement? 

Whai  forces  had  the  Russians  actually  in 
the  field  ? 

What  point  did  Napoleon  reach  on  the 
23d  of  June  ? 

What  incident  occurred  on  the  banks  of 
'.he  river  ? 

What  did  some  one  exclaim  ? 

What  part  of  Napoleon's  troops  had  al- 
ready begun  to  suffer  ? 

314.  What  rendered  it  necessary  for  the 
Russians  to  adopt  a  defensive  policy? 

What  occurred  to  the  French  before  a  shot 
had  been  fired,  and  when  they  had  been  but 
six  days  in  the  Russian  dominions  ? 

How  long  did  Napoleon  remain  in  Wilna  ? 

What  is  said  of  this  delay  in  Napoleon's 
movements  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  first  skirmish- 
ing that  took  place  between  the  French  and 
Russians  ? 

315.  Where  was  Barclay's  army  drawn 
up  on  the  27th  of  July  ? 

What  remark  did  Napoleon  make  when  he 
resolved  to  attack  Barclay  on  the  next  day? 

What  resolution  was  adopted  by  Barclay  ? 

How  did  he  execute  this  resolution  ? 

What  was  done  at  Moscow  by  the  Russian 
nobles  and  merchants  ? 

Where  did  Wittgenstein  take  up  a  position  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  Oudinot's  attack 
on  Wittgenstein  ? 


What  was  accomplished  by  Tormasoff 
about  the  same  time  f 

31tt.  What  great  brilliant  retreat  and  de- 
fence were  made  by  the  Russian  general, 
Newerofskoi  ? 

Where  did  Barclay  find  the  French  army 
drawn  up  under  Napoleon  ? 

What  is  the  situation  of  Smolensko  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  Ney's  assault  on 
the  citadel  ? 

What  did  Napoleon  suppose  and  what  did 
he  do? 

What  was,  in  fact,  Barclay's  plan  ? 

What  movement  did  he  accomplish  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  Napoleon's  assault 
on  the  17th? 

317.  What  followed  at  night,  when  the 
cannonade  had  ceased  ? 

What  did  Davoust  discover  the  next  morn- 
ing?  . 

What  had  the  Russian  commander  accom- 
plished ? 

What  were  Napoleon's  trophies  ? 

WThat  was  the  result  of  the  action  on  the 
19th? 

What  was  done  by  Napoleon  when  visiting 
the  battle-field  ? 

What  did  the  young  conscripts  discover, 
on  their  march  to  join  the  army  ? 

318.  What  were  the  feelings  of  the  vet- 
erans and  the  officers,  in  front? 

What  diseases  broke  out  in  the  army  ? 
What  had  Wilna  and  Witepsk  become  ? 
What  did  the  Russian  general  begin  to 
doubt  ? 

319.  When  did  Napoleon  set  out  from 
Smolensko  ? 

By  whom  was  Barclay  succeeded  in  com- 
mand of  the  Russian  troops  ? 

What  were  Barclay's  qualities  as  a  general  ? 

Where,  and  for  what  purpose,  did  Kutusoff 
make  a  halt  on  the  2d  of  September? 

What  was  the  number  of  troops  in  each 
army? 

320.  What  was  the  result  of  Davoust's 
and  Ney's  attack  on  the  Russian  left  ? 

How  long  a  time  did  Davoust  and  Ney  con- 
tend, without  success,  against  the  right  of 
the  Russian  centre  ? 

What  request  did  they  send  to  the  Em- 
peror ? 

What  force  did  Napoleon  send,  in  reply? 

What  movement  was  made  by  Bagrathion  ? 

How  did  the  contest  here  terminate  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  attack  on  the 
centre,  where  Barclay  commanded  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  whole  battle  ? 

What  were  the  losses  in  the  battle  of 
Borodino  ? 

321.  How  did  Kutusoff  conduct  his  re 
treat  from  Borodino  ? 

When  did  Kutusoff  reach  Moscow? 

What  course  did  he  adopt  in  regard  to  the 
defence  of  Moscow  ? 

What  was  done  by  the  inhabitants  of  Mos- 
cow, when  the  troops  were  ordered  to  aban- 
don the  town  to  its  fate  ? 

What  was  said  by  Napoleon  whea  he  came 
in  sight  of  Moscow  ? 

322.  What  terrible  catastrophe  took  place 
after  the  French  occupied  Moscow  ? 


QUESTIONS. 


521 


What  portion  of  Moscow  was  destroyed 
by  the  fire  ? 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII. 

For  what  purpose  did  Napoleon  remain 
inactive  at  Moscow  ? 

What  change  in  the  weather  took  place 
while  he  thus  waited  ? 

What  was  the  condition  of  his  troops  in 
the  meantime  ? 

What  was  the  condition  of  the  Russian 
troops  ? 

323.  What  was    accomplished   by  the 
Cossacks  during  the  interval  that  Napoleon 
awaited  a  reply  from  Alexander  ? 

What  orders  did  Napoleon  issue  in  antici- 
pation of  his  retreat  ? 

For  what  secret  purpose  were  Napoleon's 
proposals  received  by  the  Russians  ? 

What  induced  Napoleon  to  make  prepara- 
tions for  retreat  ? 

324.  What  event  still  further  hastened 
Napoleon's  movements  ? 

With  how  many  troops  did  he  leave  Mos- 
cow? 

By  what  mano2uvre  did  he  conceal  his  line 
of  march? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  action  at  Malo- 
Jaroslawitz  ? 

What  position  was  taken  by  Kutusoff  du- 
ring the  action  ? 

What  occurred  at  Napoleon's  head-quarters 
on  the  night  of  the  24th  of  October  ? 

325.  What  disaster  did  he  escape  the 
next  morning  ? 

How  was  the  march  of  the  several  French 
corps  arranged  ? 

What  took  place  on  the  march,  before  the 
French  were  seriously  harassed  by  the  Rus- 
sians ? 

What  occurred  to  Davoust's  corps  on  the 
3d  of  November  ? 

What  had  Davoust  lost  previous  to  this 
action  ? 

What  change  in  the  weather  took  place  on 
the  6th  of  November  ? 

326.  How  did  the    soldiers   bear   this 
change  ? 

How  did  they  fare  at  night  ? 

What  place  did  they  soon  reach? 

What  occurred  when  they  arrived  at  Smo- 
lensko  ? 

What  compelled  Napoleon  to  continue  his 
retreat  beyond  Smolensko  ? 

What  new  organization  of  his  troops  did 
he  make  when  he  departed  from  Smolensko  ? 

What  opposition  did  Napoleon  encounter 
on  his  retreat? 

327.  What  occurred  to  Eugene  on  the 
next  day  ? 

What  was  undertaken  by  Kutusoff  on  the 
17th? 

What  movement  did  Napoleon  make,  in 
consequence  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  battle  ? 

Where  was  Ney's  retreat  interrupted  ? 

What  answer  did  Ney  make  to  KutusofPs 
summons  ? 

How  did  Ney  escape  a  total  defeat  ? 


How  did  he  find  a  place  to  cross  the 
Dnieper  ? 

What  was  the  general  result  of  the  ac- 
tions near  Krasnoi  ? 

328.  What  was  now  Napoleon's  personal 
condition  ? 

Where  did  the  French  gain  some  respite 
from  their  sufferings  ? 

What  occurred  to  place  Napoleon  in  a 
very  critical  situation  ? 

What  movement  did  he  undertake  ? 

How  did  he  conceal  his  intentions  ? 

How  many  bridges  did  the  French  con- 
struct? 

329.  What  preparations  were  made  by 
Tchichagoff  and  Wittgenstein  ? 

What  was  accomplished  by  the  Russians 
on  the  right  bank  ? 

What  was  done  by  Wittgenstein  on  the 
left? 

What  occurred  to  the  artillery-bridge  ? 

What  ensued  when  the  bridge  broke  down  ? 

What  touching  incidents  took  place  at  this 
dreadful  crisis  ? 

What  was  done  by  Victor  and  his  rear- 
guard? 

330.  What  was  Victor  forced  to  do  in 
the  morning,  when  the  Russian  advanced 
guard  approached  ? 

What  did  the  passage  of  the  Beresina 
complete  ? 

What  was  now  the  condition  of  all  the 
troops  ? 

When  did  Napoleon  reach  Smorgoni  ? 

What  step  did  he  there  take  ? 

Who  was  left  in  command  of  the  army  ? 

Describe  the  condition  and  sufferings  of 
the  troops  after  Napoleon's  departure. 

331.  Where  did  the  army  next  make  a 
halt? 

How  long  did  they  remain  at  Wilna  ? 

Who  and  what  did  the  Russians  find  in 
Wilna? 

What  was  done  by  Ney  at  Kowno  ? 

What  took  place  at  the  house  of  a  French 
physician  in  Gumbinnen? 

When  did  the  Russians  give  over  the  pur- 
suit? 

What  were  the  losses  of  the  French  in  the 
Russian  campaign  ? 


CHAPTER  XXXIX. 

332.  When  did  Napoleon  arrive  at  Paris  ? 
What  was  the  effect  of  the  news  of  his 

disasters  on  the  Parisians  ? 

What  was  Napoleon's  deportment  ? 

What  did  he  say  of  the  expedition  ? 

What  chiefly  occupied  his  thoughts  at  this 
time? 

333.  Who  was  at  the  head  of  this  con- 
spiracy ? 

Who  were  his  accomplices  ? 

How  did  he  support  his  story  ? 

How  did  he  manage  after  he  escaped  from 
prison  ? 

Where  did  he  meet  the  chief  difficulty  ? 

How  did  he  then  proceed?  and  howwma 
he  finally  interrupted? 


522 


QUESTIONS. 


334.  What  has  Savary  said  of  this  con- 
spiracy ? 

What  did  Napoleon  learn  from  the  exist- 
ence of  this  conspiracy  ? 

What  measures  did  he  take  to  prevent 
mich  a  result  ? 

What  measures  did  he  take  to  raise  an 
army? 

What  did  he  next  set  about  ? 

What  had  heen  the  pope's  situation  for  a 
long  time  ? 

335.  What  was  arranged  between  Napo- 
leon and  the  pope  ? 

What  was  done  by  the  pope's  counsellors? 
What  was  France  able  to  do,  despite  her 
losses  ? 


CHAPTER  XL. 

Who  abandoned  the  cause  of  Napoleon 
after  the  disasters  of  the  Russian  campaign  ? 

What  movements  were  made  by  the  Rus- 
sians in  January  and  February  ? 

336.  What  was  done  by  Murat  ? 

What  were  Eugene's  movements  after  he 
took  command  ? 

What  loss  did  the  Russians  meet  with  ? 

Who  succeeded  Kutusoff  ? 

What  effect  had  the  Russian  successes  on 
the  people  of  Prussia  ? 

What  course  was  pursued  by  the  King  of 
Prussia  ? 

What  decree  was  issued  from  Breslau  ? 

What  clauses  were  introduced  into  this 
decree  ? 

Why  were  these  clauses  unnecessary  ? 

337.  What  had  the  Prussians  now,  in  ad- 
dition to  patriotic  ardor  and  devotion  ? 

How  did  Napoleon  treat  the  King  of  Prus- 
sia's overtures  ? 

What  did  the  King  then  do  ? 

What  treaty  was  then  made  by  Prussia  ? 

What  resulted  from  this  treaty,  and  from 
the  advance  of  the  Prussians  and  Russians, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Elbe  ? 

What  was  the  position  of  Saxony  ? 

What  course  did  the  King  of  Saxony 
adopt  ? 

What  was  done  by  Denmark?  and  by 
Sweden  ? 

What  were  the  views  of  the  Emperor  of 
Austria  ? 

338.  What  order  was  instituted  in  Prussia? 
What  sacrifices  did  the  institution  of  this 

order  imply  ? 

What  inscription  was  placed  on  the  iron 
ornaments  ? 

What  secret  society  became  now  the  soul 
of  the  general  insurrection  ? 

339.  How  were  its  influences  directed  ? 

What  were  the  numbers  and  what  the  po- 
sitions of  the  French  troops  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Elbe  ? 

What  were  the  position  and  strength  of 
the  Prussians  ? 

i4O.  What  was  the  effective  force  of  the 
Russians  ? 

What  was  the  first  movement  in  the  cam- 
paign ? 

How  were  the  allies  received  hi  Hamburg  ? 


At  what  were  the  Hamburgers  astonished? 

What  other  towns  were  taken  by  the  allies? 

What  towns  freed  themselves  from  their 
oppressors  ? 

What  contributions  were  made  by  England? 

What  progress  was  now  made  by  the  allies 
up  to  the  5th  of  April  ? 

341.  What  was  done  by  Napoleon  before 
setting  out  to  join  his  army  ? 

Where  did  the  allies  resolve  to  give  battle? 
What  occurred  to  Napoleon  on  the  morn- 
ing of  May  2d  ? 

342.  What  order  of  march  was  taken  by 
the  allies  before  they  were    seen    by  the 
French  troops  ? 

Where  did  the  allies  attack?  and  with 
what  success  ? 

What  did  Ney  strive  to  accomplish  ?  and 
how  did  he  succeed  ? . 

What  was  accomplished  by  Wittgenstein 

What  was  done  by  Napoleon  ? 

How  did  the  action  terminate  ? 

What  were  the  losses  in  the  battle  of 
Lutzen? 

343.  How  and  where  did  the  allies  re« 
treat  ? 

What  took  place  between  Napoleon  and 
the  magistrates  of  Dresden  ? 

What  was  done  by  the  King  of  Saxony  on 
the  12th  of  May? 

Where  did  the  allies  retire  ? 

To  what  were  they  liable  in  this  position  ? 

344.  What  was  the  result  of  Napoleon's 
attack  on  the  20th  ? 

How  had  the  Prussian  soldiers  behaved  ? 

Where  was  the  attack  of  the  French  made 
on  the  morning  of  the  21st  ? 

How  did  this  attack  progress  ? 

What  occurred  a  few  minutes  past  ten 
o'clock  ? 

What  note  did  Napoleon  send  to  Paris  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  Ney's  attack  ? 

345.  What  was  the  result  of  Napoleon's 
attack  on  the  centre  ? 

What  brilliar.t  scene  was  presented  on  the 
retreat  of  the  allies? 

What  success  had  the  French  cuirassiers 
in  attempting  to  disorder  the  allied  columns  ? 

Where  did  the  allies  retire  ? 

What  were  the  losses  in  the  battle  of 
Bautzen  ? 

What  success  had  Napoleon  the  next  day  ? 

How  long  did  the  allies  continue  to  re- 
treat ? 

What  was  at  length  wished  for  by  both 
parties  ? 

Why  did  they  wish  for  this? 

What  took  place  accordingly? 


CHAPTER  XLI. 

346.  What  was  the  position  of  Great 
Britain  at  this  crisis  ? 

What  compact  was  made  by  Sir  Charles 
Stewart,  on  behalf  of  the  British  govern- 
ment ? 

What  did  the  governments  of  Russia  and 
Prussia  agree,  in  turn,  to  do  ? 

347.  What  were  the  conditions  of  the 
treaty  of  Reichenbach  ? 


QUESTIONS. 


523 


What  were  the  conditions  of  another  ant 
relative  treaty  between  Russia  and  Grea 
Britain  ? 

What  arrangement  was  made  on  accoun 
of  the  want  of  specie  ? 

What  further  arrangements  became  neces 
sary  in  the  month  of  September,  by  reasoi 
of  the  scarcity  of  specie  ? 

348.  What  was   thus  accomplished  bj 
the  national  credit  of  Great  Britain  ? 

What  treaty  did  Napoleon  conclude  with 
Denmark  ? 

What  advantages  did  he  gain  by  this 
treaty  ? 

What  nation  now  held  the  balance  o 
power  ? 

What  was  Metternich  anxious  to  do  ? 

What  were  the  preliminary  proceedings  in 
the  negotiations  that  ensued  between  th< 
various  powers  ? 

349.  What  is  the  substance  of  Napoleon's 
remarks  to  Metternich  ? 

What  conversation  followed  this  long 
harangue  of  Napoleon  ? 

350.  What,  again,  did  Napoleon  reply 
With  what  words  did  he  conclude  his  re- 
marks ? 

What  actions  followed  these  words  ? 

351.  What  advantage  did  Metternich  at 
length  obtain  over  Napoleon  ? 

What  intelligence  induced  the  Austrian 
government  to  join  the  allies  against  Napo- 
leon? 

What  total  amount  of  forces  did  Napoleon 
muster  to  continue  the  war? 

What  numbers  had  the  allies  in  the  field  ? 

352.  Where  had  General  Moreau  resided 
since  1804? 

Who  opened  a  correspondence  with  him  ? 
What  course  was  taken  by  Moreau  ? 
How  was  he  received  in  Europe  ? 
Who  was  appointed  commander-in-chief 
of  the  allies? 


CHAPTER  XLII. 

353.  What  was  the  first  movement  in 
the  campaign  ? 

How  did  the  allies  succeed  in  this  move- 
ment ? 

What  was  the  result  when  Napoleon  ar- 
rived ? 

What  was  the  preconcerted  plan  of  the 
allies  ? 

How  many  men  had  the  allies  assembled 
around  Dresden  on  the  25th  of  August? 

What  was  Moreau's  advice  ? 

Why  was  it  not  followed  ? 

What  movement  was  made  by  Napoleon  ? 

What  was  at  length  done  in  the  afternoon 
of_the  26th  of  August  * 

354.  Of  what  were  the  allies  unaware 
when  they  moved  on  to  assault  Dresden  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  that  assault  ? 

What  were  the  position  and  numbers  of 
Napoleon's  troops  on  the  morning  of  the  27th? 

What  were  those  of  the  allies  ? 

What  defect  existed  in  the  allied  position  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  French  attack 
on  the  allied  left  ? 


How  did  the  allied  right  and  centre  main- 
tain themselves  ? 

355.  What  catastrophe  induced  the  allies 
to  retreat  ? 

What  was  the  order  of  retreat  adopted  by 
the  allies? 

What  were  the  losses  in  the  battle  of 
Dresden  ? 

What  losses  did  the  allies  sustain  after  the 
battle  ? 

What  was  undertaken  by  Vandamme  ? 

What  was  the  final  result  of  his  expedition? 

356.  What  took  place  between  Macdon-. 
aid  and  Blucher  in  upper  Silesia  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  Blucher's  attack 
at  the  ravine  of  Neisse  ? 

What  took  place  to  impede  Macdonald;s 
retreat  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  battle  of  the 
Katzbach  ? 

What  were  the  losses  on  each  side  ? 

What  took  place  between  Bernadotte  and 
Oudinot  north  of  the  Elbe  ? 

35T.  Where  did  both  armies  prepare  for 
a  general  action  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  action  of  Gros 
Beeren  ? 

What  moral  effect  was  produced  by  that 
battle  ? 

What  was  the  general  result  of  the  contest 
in  this  quarter  ? 

What  movement  did  Napoleon  make  when 
he  heard  of  these  several  defeats? 

How  were  his  troops  divided  and  by  whom 
commanded  after  he  had  completed  the 
change  in  his  combinations  ? 

Where  did  Napoleon's  advanced  guard 
encounter  the  van  of  Blucher's  army  ? 

What  movement  was  made  by  Blucher  ? 

What  was  the  subject  of  Napoleon's  mu- 
sing in  the  farm-house  ? 

Where  did  he  move,  at  the  close  of  his 
revery  ? 

358.  Where  did  the  allies  under  Berna- 
dotte encounter  the  French  under  Ney  ? 

How  did  the  battle  of  Dennewitz  progress 
while  it  was  sustained  by  the  Prussians 
alone  ? 

What  resulted  when  the  Swedes  and  Rus- 
sians came  into  the  field  ? 

What  were  the  losses  in  the  battle  ? 

What  is  the  proof  that  the  Prussians  earned 
the  glory  of  this  victory  ? 

What  were  the  circumstances  of  Schwartz- 
enberg's  advance  upon  Dresden  and  retreat 
"rom  it  on  the  9th  of  September  ? 

359.  Where  did  Napoleon  next  move  to 
an  attack  ? 

Where  did  he  sleep  on  the  night  of  the  22d? 

What  feeling  now  pervaded  the  French 
rmy? 

What  was  done  on  the  23d  ? 

What  exploit  was  accomplished  by  Cher- 
icheff? 

3 GO.  What  reflections  followed  this 
achievement? 

What  were  the  consequences  of  it  ? 

For  what  purpose  did  Napoleon  leave  Ores- 
[en  on  the  7th  of  October/ 

To  what  place  did  Napoleon  subsequently 
etreat  ? 


524 


QUESTIONS. 


Descnbe  the  city  of  Leipsic. 

361.  How  were   Napoleon's  troops   dis 
posed  around  Leipsic  on  the  loth  of  October 

How  were  Schwartzenberg's  troops  posted 
What  signals  were  made  at  midnight  from 
the  allied  camps  ? 

362.  How  did  the  action  commence  on 
the  16th? 

What  was  accomplished  up  to  the  hour  o 
noon? 

What  manoeuvre  did  Napoleon  then  under 
take? 

How  did  this  manoeuvre  succeed  ? 

What  effort  did  Napoleon  next  make  ? 

How  did  this  succeed  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  conflict  be- 
tween Ney  and  Blucher  ? 

Who  had  an  interview  that  evening  with 
Napoleon  ? 

363.  What  proposals  did  Napoleon  send 
through  Meerfeldt  to  the  allies  ? 

What  were  Napoleon's  parting  words  to 
this  officer? 

What  was  the  fate  of  these  proposals  ? 

How  did  the  battle  begin  on  the  18th? 

How  did  the  allies  succeed  ? 

What  did  Schwartzenberg  do  in  the  after- 
noon ? 

What  was  undertaken  by  Lauriston  and 
Victor  ? 

How  did  they  succeed  ? 

What  incident  took  place  on  the  north  of 
Leipsic,  where  Blucher  and  Ney  were  con- 
tending ? 

364.  What  was  the  result  of  the  action 
here? 

What  scene  took  place,  at  night,  at  Napo- 
leon's head-quarters  ? 

What  was  done  by  the  French  on  the  19th  ? 

What  road  was  open  for  the  French  re- 
treat ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  allies'  attack 
on  Leipsic? 

What  took  place  at  this  moment  ? 

365.  What  ensued  after  the  bridge  was 
destroyed  ? 

\Vhat  befell  Poniatowski  ? 

What  was  the  total  loss  of  the  French  in 
the  battle  of  Leipsic  ? 

What  was  the  loss  of  the  allies  ? 

How  was  this  loss  atoned  for  ? 

Where  did  Napoleon  halt  on  his  retreat  ? 

Who  abandoned  him  at  this  place  ? 

What  new  enemy  did  Napoleon  encounter 
on  his  retreat  ? 

366.  Where  did  the  Bavarians  make  a 
stand  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  battle  of 
Hanau  ? 

When  did  Napoleon  bid  a  final  adieu  to  the 
German  plains  ? 

When  did  Schwartzenberg  enter  Frankfort? 

In  what  positions  did  the  several  armies  go 
into  winter  quarters  ? 

367.  What  were  Bernadotte's  movements? 

What  was  undertaken  by  Klenau  after  the 
battle  of  Leipsic  ? 

How  did  the  blockade  of  Dresden  termi- 
nate ? 

What  were  the  terms  of  the  capitulation 
as  made  by  Klenau  ? 


What  was  done  by  the  allied  sovereigns  in 
reference  to  this  capitulation  ? 

What  other  places  and  military  spoils  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  allies? 

368.  What  remained  to  Napoleon  ? 

What  took  place  in  Holland  ? 

What  took  place  in  Italy? 


CHAPTER  XL1II. 

369.  What  was  done  by  Wellington  in 
the  winter  that  followed  the  campaign  of 
Salamanca  ? 

What  did  Wellington  undertake,  in  regard 
to  the  improvement  of  the  Spanish  troops  ? 
How  did  he  succeed  in  this  undertaking? 

370.  What  was  done  by  Wellington  in 
Cadiz  ? 

How  was  his  advice  relished  by  the  Cortez  ? 
What  did  the  Cortez  proceed  to  do  { 
What  number  of  efficient  troops  was  Wel- 
lington able  to  muster  ? 

371.  What  were  the  numbers,  condition, 
and  position  of  the  French  troops  ? 

Where  was  the  campaign  commenced  ? 

How  did  this  action  progress  and  terminate? 

What  were  Wellington's  feelings  and  what 
was  his  remark,  as  he  crossed  the  frontiers 
of  Spain  ? 

What  occurred  at  Burgos  as  the  French 
withdrew  ? 

Who  Jed  the  French  retreat  ? 

372.  How  was  his  flight  encumbered  ? 
For  what  purpose  did  he  make  a  stand  at 

Vittoria  ? 

What  is  the  position  of  Vittoria? 

By  what  amount  of  forces  was  Vittoria 
defended  ? 

What  was  the  number  of  Wellington's 
troops  ? 

What  success  had  Hill  in  leading  the  Brit 
ish  right  wing  to  the  attack  ? 

How  did  Wellington  succeed  in  the  centre  ? 

373.  How  did  Graham  succeed  on  the  left  ? 
What  was  the  result  of  the  battle  of  Vit- 

loria  ? 

What  spoils  of  victory  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  conquerors  ? 

What  now  remained  to  be  done  by  Wel- 
lington ? 

Who  took  command  of  the  French  troops? 

How  many  men  had  Soult  at  his  disposal  ? 

What  ground  was  occupied  by  each  of  the 
contending  armies  { 

What  difference  was  there  between  the 
sositions  ? 

374.  What  movements  were  made    by 
Soult  and  his  generals  ? 

What  three  objects  had  he  in  vtew? 

How  did  Soult  and  D'Erlon  succeed  in 
:heir  attacks  ? 

Where  did  Soult  press  forward  to  ? 

Whom  did  he  find  near  Pampeluna? 

How  did  he  commence  the  battle? 

How  did  the  action  terminate  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  action  on  the 
next  day? 

What  were  the  losses  on  each  side  ? 

What,  now,  was  Soult's  condition  ? 


QUESTIONS. 


How  did  he  eventually  escape  ? 

375.  What    did  Wellington    undertake 
after  this  ? 

How  did  the  siege  of  St.  Sebastian  end  ? 

What  took  place  after  the  town  was  cap- 
tured? 

How  did  Soult  succeed  in  his  efforts  to 
raise  the  siege  ? 

What  did  the  British  government  now  de- 
sire ? 

Why  did  Wellington  oppose  this  ? 

376.  What  occurred  between  Wellington 
and  the  Cortez  ? 

Why  did  the  British  government  insist  on 
the  invasion  ? 

What  course  did  Wellington  adopt  when 
his  views  were  overruled  ? 

Describe  Soult's  position  on  the  northern 
side  of  the  Bidassoa? 

How  did  Wellington  plan  his  attack  ? 

What  was  the  effect  of  Wellington's  leav- 
ing his  tents  standing  on  the  heights  ? 

377.  How  complete  was  the  surprise  of 
Soult  ? 

How  was  the  crossing  of  the  river  accom- 
plished ? 

What  was  Wellington's  first  care  on  enter- 
ing the  dominions  of  France  ? 

What  proclamation  did  he  issue  ? 

What  proof  did  Wellington  give  of  being 
in  earnest  ? 

When  did  Pampeluna  surrender  ? 

What  defences  had  Soult  completed,  mean- 
while ? 

How  many  troops  had  Soult  to  protect 
these  works  ? 

Where  did  Wellington  resolve  to  attack  ? 

378.  How  did  he  succeed  in  his  attempt 
on  the  Lesser  Rhune  ? 

How  did  the  allies  progress  after  this  fort 
was  captured  ? 

How  did  the  battle  terminate  ? 

Where  did  Soult  arrive  on  the  llth? 

Describe  Soult's  position  at  Bayonne. 

What  difficulties  had  Soult  to  contend  with? 

What  was  said  in  a  French  official  letter 
from  Bayonne  ? 

When'  did  Wellington  attack  Soult's  po- 
sition  ? 

379.  How  long  did  the  battle  continue? 
What  was  its  result  ? 


CHAPTER  XLIV. 

What  had  been  accomplished  by  the  allies 
within  a  little  more  than  three  months  ? 

What  change  was  now  to  take  place  in  the 
affairs  of  Europe  ? 

38O.  What  was  done  by  Napoleon  on  his 
return  to  Paris  ? 

What  example  was  set  by  Napoleon  ? 

What  measure  of  arbitrary  exaction  did  he 
enforce  ? 

What  was  the  condition  of  the  public 
finances? 

What  effect  did  these  reiterated  oppres- 
sions of  Napoleon  begin  at  last  to  have  on 
the  people  of  France  ? 


What  was  affixed  to  the  column  in  the 
Place  VendOme  ? 

What  was  suffered  by  the  soldiers  and  in- 
habitants on  the  western  bank  of  the  Rhine  ? 

381.  What  took  place  at  Mayence  ? 
What  took  place  in  other  towns  ? 

What  was  the  character  of  Marie  Louise's 
government  ? 

What  conscriptions  were  ordered  in  Sep- 
tember and  October? 

What  was  the  age  of  youths  forced  into 
the  army? 

What  still  further  demand  was  made  by 
Napoleon  the  day  after  he  returned  to  Paris  ? 

What  orders  did  Napoleon  issue  to  his 
engineers  ? 

What  did  they  see  when  they  became  ac- 
quainted with  the  true  condition  of  things  ? 

382.  What  domestic  difficulties  arose  in 
France  ? 

What  took  place  in  England  at  the  same 
time  ? 

What  declaration  was  made  in  the  speech 
from  the  British  throne  ? 

383.  What  measure  was  adopted  by  the 
allied  sovereigns  ? 

On  what  basis  were  they  willing  to  treat 
for  peace  ? 

What  course  was  pursued  by  Maret  ? 

What  manifesto  was  published  by  the 
allies  ? 

384.  What  answer  might  have  been  ex- 
pected from  Napoleon  ? 

What  course  did  he  adopt,  nevertheless? 

What  was  Napoleon's  motive  in  pretend- 
ing to  desire  peace  at  all  ? 

What  was  the  disposition  of  the  French 
Chamber  of  Deputies  ? 

What  is  the  substance  of  the  report  sub- 
mitted in  the  Chamber  by  Laine  ? 

385.  What  effect  was  produced  by  the 
reading  of  this  report? 

What  did  the  president  of  the  Chamber 
say  to  Laine  ? 

What  was  Laine's  bold  reply  ? 

By  what  vote  was  Laine's  report  adopted  ? 

What  was  done  by  Napoleon  ? 

386.  What  were  the  terms  of  the  treaty 
of  Valencay  ? 

What  other  concession  was  made  by  Na- 
poleon ? 

How  did  Napoleon  succeed  in  attempting 
to  make  conditions  with  the  pope  ? 

What  was  done  by  Murat  f 

387.  What  was  done  by  Eugene  Beau- 
harnais  ? 

What  was  the  disposition  of  the  Danes 
toward  Napoleon  ? 

What  were  they,  nevertheless,  forced  to  do? 

What  treaties  were  concluded  at  Frankfort 
in  November  ? 

What  power  acceded  to  the  alliance  on 
the  29th  of  December  ? 

3H8.  How  were  the  forces  of  the  allied 
powers,  prepared  to  invade  France,  divided 
and  posted  ? 

What  was  the  grand  total  of  aU  these 
armies  ? 

What  forces  had  Napoleon?  and  ho-w  were 
they  distributed  ? 

Why  had  he  so  few  men  at  his  command  I 


526 


QUESTIONS. 


CHAPTER  XLV. 

389.  When  did  Schwartzenberg  cross  the 
Rhine  ? 

How  many  men  had  he  then  at  his  disposal? 

How  did  they  spread  themselves  upon  the 
French  territory  ? 

When  did  Blucher  cross  the  Rhine  ? 

What  monument  did  his  soldiers  discover 
in  Coblentz  ? 

What  was  its  inscription  ? 

What  other  inscription  did  Colonel  Mar- 
deuke  cause  to  be  recorded  on  the  monument  ? 

What  was  accomplished  by  the  allies 
within  a  month  from  their  invasion  of  the 
French  territory  ? 

390.  What  was  done  by  Napoleon  before 
taking  command  of  the  army? 

What  address  did  he  make  to  the  National 
Guard  ? 

What  did  he  do,  on  the  day  following  ? 

What  false  movement  was  made  by  Blu- 
eher,  after  Napoleon  took  the  field  ? 

How  did  Napoleon  take  advantage  of  this  ? 

391.  What  is  the  situation  of  Brienne  ? 
How  did  Napoleon  succeed  in  his  attack 

on  Brienne  ? 

What  movements  were  now  made  by  the 
allies  ? 

What  did  it  become  necessary  for  Napo- 
leon to  do  ? 

What,  at  first,  was  the  result  of  the  allies' 
attack  on  Napoleon's  position,  on  the  1st  of 
February  ? 

How  did  Napoleon  succeed  in  his  final 
charge  ? 

What  was  he  fearful  of  at  night  ? 

392.  Where  did  he  retreat  ? 

How  did  the  allies  conduct  the  pursuit  ? 

What  losses  did  Napoleon  suffer  on  the 
retreat  ? 

What,  on  the  other  hand,  was  done  by  the 
allies,  as  if  to  compensate  Napoleon  for  his 
losses  ? 

What  was  done  by  Napoleon  when  he  dis- 
covered the  stupidity  of  his  enemies  ? 

What  plan  was  devised  by  Bluchrr  ? 

Why  had  Blucher  no  fear  of  Napoleon  in 
these  movements  ? 

393.  Why   had    Napoleon    no    fear    of 
Schwartzenberg  ? 

What  did  he  therefore  undertake  ? 

What  obstacles  did  he  encounter  on  his 
march  ? 

What  took  place  at  Champaubert  ? 

Why  was  so  small  a  battle  of  so  great 
importance  to  Napoleon  ? 

What  did  Napoleon  accomplish  against 
Sacken  ? 

Where  did  Blucher  attack  Marmont? 

What  checked  Blucher's  success  ? 

What  difficulties  had  Blucher  to  encounter 
in  his  retreat  ? 

How  did  he  accomplish  his  retreat,  never- 
theless ? 

394.  How  many  years  had  now  elapsed 
since  the  execution  of  Louis  XV I .  ? 

Where  was  a  quiescent  conspiracy  formed 
among  the  adherents  of  royalty  ? 

Wh^re  did  the  exiled  members  of  the 
royal  family  reside  in  the  meantime  ? 


What  present  was  made  to  the  Count 
d'Artois  by  the  Empress  Catherine  ? 

What  use  did  the  Count  make  of  this  sword'? 

What  were  the  fortunes  of  the  Count  de 
Lille  ? 

395.  What  was  called  for  by  the   ap- 
proach of  the  allies  on  the  Rhine   and  of 
Wellington  in  the  south  of  France  ? 

What  proclamation  was  made  bv  Louis 
XVIII.? 

What  was  done,  subsequently,  by  the  dif- 
ferent members  cf  the  royal  family  ? 

What  took  place  when  the  allies  entered 
Troyes? 

What  was  requested  of  the  Emperor  Alex- 
ander ? 

What  reply  did  Alexander  make  ? 

What  further  conversation  ensued? 

How  soon  did  Alexander's  words  prove 
prophetic  ? 

396.  What  success  did  Schwartzenberg 
gain  after  leaving  Troyes  ? 

What  was  learned  from  the  French  pris 
oners? 

What  movements  were  made  in  conse- 
quence? 

What  success  had  the  allies  after  these 
movements  ? 

What  was  now  done  by  Napoleon  ? 

What  was  the  fate  of  Wittgenstein's  ad- 
vanced guard  ? 

Where  did  Victor  attack  the  allies  ? 

How  did  he  succeed  in  this  attack  ? 

397.  Who  next  attacked  the   allies  at 
Montereau  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  this  action  ? 

What  town  did  Schwarizenberg  evacuate 
as  Napoleon  approached  ? 

What  place  had  been  appointed  for  con- 
ducting the  negotiations  for  peace  ? 

When  did  the  congress  commence  its 
session  ? 

Who  composed  this  congress  on  the  part 
of  the  allies  f 

Who  represented  Napoleon  ? 

What  soon  became  evident  ? 

What  were  the  purposes  of  Great  Britain 
throughout  the  war? 

398.  What  were  Lord  Castelreagh's  in- 
structions from  his  government  ? 

What  points  were  purposely  omitted  in 
these  instructions? 

What  modified  Napoleon's  views  in  refer- 
ence to  the  congress  ? 

What  instructions  did  he  then  give  Cau- 
lain court  ? 

What  correspondence  took  place  between 
Caulaincourt  aud  Napoleon  ? 

What  occurred  between  Maret  and  Napo- 
leon in  reference  to  this  correspondence  ? 

What  diplomatic  note  was  issued  by  the 
allied  powers  on  the  7th  of  February  ? 

399-  What,  now,  seemed  likely  to  be 
accomplished? 

What  delayed  this  result? 

What  had  taken  place  when  the  congress 
resumed  its  sittings? 

What  new  directions  did  Napoleon  give  to 
Caulaincourt  ? 

What  took  place  between  Nupoleon  and 
Eugene  ? 


QUESTIONS. 


527 


What,  therefore,  was  the  consequence  of 
his  temporary  success  at  this  crisis  ? 

What  change  took  place  in  the  congress  ? 

What  treaty  resulted  from  the  change  ? 

4OO.  What  were  the  terms  of  the  treaty 
of  Chaumont  ? 

What  advice  did  Caulaingourt  give  to  Na 
poleon  ? 

Where  was  Oudinot  attacked  by  the  allies  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  action  ? 

With  whom  did  Oudinot  then  form  a 
junction  ? 

4O  I.  Who  conducted  the  attack  on  Mac- 
donald's  position  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  attack  ? 

How  was  Blucher  occupied  in  the  mean- 
time ? 

What  was  it  necessary  for  Blucher  to  do, 
in  order  to  form  a  junction  with  Bulow  and 
Winzingerode  ? 

What  remarkable  circumstance  enabled 
him  to  cross  the  bridge  ? 

How  narrow  was  this  escape  of  Blucher  ? 

What  did  Napoleon  still  resolve  to  do  ? 

How  were  Blucher's  troops  divided  ? 

4:02.  How  did  the  action  proceed  on  the 
first  day  ? 

>  Where  did  Napoleon  order  an  assault  the 
next  day  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  this  attack  ? 

How  was  Blucher's  retreat  conducted  ? 

What  was  the  nature  of  the  ground  at  the 
extremity  of  the  plateau  ? 

What  movements  were  made  by  the  in- 
fantry and  by  the  cavalry  ?  . 

What  progress  was  made  by  the  French 
Imperial  Guard  when  they  approached  this 
position  ? 

What  movements  were  subsequently  made 
by  the  allied  troops  ? 

What  did  Napoleon  gain  in  this  battle  ? 

What  were  the  losses  on  each  side  ? 

4O3.  What  was  done  by  Blucher  on  the 
following  day  ? 

Describe  the  town  of  Laon  ? 

What  was  the  position  of  the  allied  troops  ? 

What  was  the  position  of  the  French  troops? 

For  what  did  Napoleon  wait  before  com- 
mencing a  general  battle  ? 

What  did  Blucher  perceive  ? 

What  did  he  resolve  to  do,  in  consequence 
of  this  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  Blucher's  night- 
attack? 

4.O4-.  How  did  Napoleon  hear  of  this 
disaster  ? 

What  course  did  he  resolve  upon  to  escape 
his  present  dilemma  ? 

How  was  his  plan  executed?  and  how  did 
it  succeed  ? 

What  was  accomplished  by  General  St. 
Priest  ? 

What  eventually  befell  himself  and  his 
corps  of  Russians  ? 


CHAPTER  XL VI. 


4O5.  Where  did  the  tricolor-flag  wave 
after  the  expulsion  of  the  French  from  Hol- 
land? 


47 


Where  was  the  French  force  concentrated  ? 

WTho  was  sent  to  the  defence  of  Antwerp  ? 

What  forces  were  sent  against  Antwerp  ? 

With  what  view  did  Bulow  invest  Antwerp? 

Who  was  now  made  governor  of  Antwerp? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  bombardment? 

4:06.  What  subsequently  took  place  in 
Flanders  ? 

What  position  was  taken  by  Eugene  in 
December  ? 

What  compelled  him  to  retreat  ? 

What  bold  measure  did  he  resolve  on  after 
retreating  behind  the  Mincio  ? 

How  did  Eugene  succeed  in  his  attack  ? 

What  conquests  were  made  in  other  parts 
of  Italy  by  the  allies? 

407 .  Where  was  Augereau  now  engaged  ? 
What  was  the  result  of  the  allies'  attack 

on  Lyons  ? 

What  was  undertaken  by  Wellington  in 
February  ? 

How  did  he  succeed  ? 

Where  did  Soult  take  up  a  position,  after 
abandoning  Bayonne  to  its  fate  ? 

What  force  did  Wellington  bring  to  attack 
Soult  at  Orthes? 

408.  How  was  the  action  at  Orthes  com- 
menced? 

What  was  the  height  and  position  of  the 
conical  hill  where  Wellington  took  his 
station  ? 

How  did  the  attack  on  St.  Boes  progress 
and  terminate  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  battle  of 
Orthes  ? 

What  were  the  losses  on  each  side  ? 

Where  did  Wellington  now  advance  ? 

What  had  taken  place  in  Bordeaux  ? 

What  did  the  citizens  request  of  Welling- 
ton through  La  Rochejaquelein? 

What  did  Wellington  do,  in  answer? 

Who  took  command  of  these  twelve  thou- 
sand men  ? 

How  was  he  received  at  Bordeaux  ? 

4:09.  Where  had  Soult  withdrawn  in  the 
meantime  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  Wellington's  attack 
there  ? 

What  was  now  the  position  of  the  allies 
under  Schwartzenberg? 

What  movement  was  made  by  Napoleon 
on  the  20th  of  March? 

What  simultaneous  movement  was  made 
by  Schwartzenberg  ? 

What  was  the  effect  of  these  joint  move- 
ments ? 

How  did  Napoleon  arrange  his  troops  ? 

How  were  the  allies  posted  ? 

410.  What  was  the  result  of  the  first 
day's  contest  ? 

Describe  the  position  and  appearance  of 
the  two  armies  on  the  following  morning. 

What  movement  on  the  part  of  the  French 
finally  induced  the  allies  to  attack  ? 

How  did  the  battle  terminate  ? 

What  effect  had  this  battle  on  the  cause  of 
Napoleon  ? 

Why  was  this  ? 

411.  What  movement  did  he  make,  in 
place  of  advancing  to  Paris  ? 

What  took  place  at  Vitry? 


528 


QUESTIONS'. 


What  was  tne  feeling  of  the  army  at  St. 
Dizier  ? 

What  was  discussed  and  what  was  said  ? 

What  important  capture  was  made  at 
Sommepuy  ? 

What  was  done  by  the  allies,  while  Napo- 
leon proposed  to  attack  their  communica- 
tions ? 

What  decision  was  taken  by  the  allied 
sovereigns  ? 

412.  What  directions  had  been  given  by 
Napoleon  to  Mortier  and  Marmont? 

What  prevented  their  obeying  the  order  ? 

Where  did  they  fall  back  I 

What  was  the  result  of  the  allies'  attack 
upon  them  ? 

What  other  success  was  at  the  same  time 
gained  by  the  allies  ? 

What  was  said  by  Napoleon  when  he 
received  intelligence  of  the  advance  of  the 
allies  upon  Paris  ? 

What  temptations  were  presented  to  the 
invading  soldiers? 

What  measures  were  taken  by  Alexander 
on  this  subject  ? 

413.  What    was    the    effect    of    these 
measures  ? 

What  was  done  in  the  French  capital  ? 

What  did  the  council  resolve  on  by  a  vote 
of  nineteen  to  four  ? 

Describe  the  departure  from  Paris  of  Na- 
poleon's family. 

How  is  Paris  situated? 

41  IT.  Give  a  brief  description  of  Paris, 
as  related  on  page  414. 

What  troops  had  Joseph  Bonaparte  at  his 
disposal  ? 

415.  How  were  the  troops  placed  for  the 
defence  of  Paris  ? 

What  numbers  of  the  allies  were  arrayed 
against  Paris  ? 

How  did  the  battle  commence,  at  six 
o'clock,  on  the  30th  of  March? 

How  did  the  action  progress  at  Romain- 
ville? 

What  order  was  issued  by  Alexander  ? 

When  did  Blucher  arrive  ? 

416.  What   was    accomplished    by  the 
Prince  Royal  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  general  ad- 
vance of  the  whole  line  ? 

What  was  done  by  Joseph,  when  he  per- 
ceived the  day  was  lost  ? 

What  took  place  on  the  heights  of  Mont- 
martre  ? 

What  was  said  by  a  Russian  artilleryman, 
as  he  brandished  the  linstock  over  his  gun  ? 

What  was  Napoleon  doing,  meantime  ? 

What  intelligence  reached  him  as  he  ad- 

meed  ? 

What  took  place  at  Fromenteau  ? 

What  is  the  substance  of  his  remarks,  as 
he  hurried  along  on  foot  with  Caulaincourt 
and  Berthier? 

4 1 7 .  Where  did  he  at  length  retire  ? 
What  were  the  terms  of  the  capitulation 

of  Paris? 

What  was  said  by  Alexander  to  the  magis- 
trates of  Paris  ? 

418.  What  was  done  in  Paris  by  the 
Royalists  ? 


At  what  hour  did  the  allied  troops  enter 
Paris  ? 

What  was  the  feeling  of  the  inhabitants  ? 

With  what  shouts  did  they  welcome  their 
deliverers  ? 

What  three  courses,  to  be  considered  by 
the  allies,  were  stated  by  Alexander  ? 

419.  Which  one  of  the  three  was 
adopted  ? 

How  was  this  announced  to  the  citizens  ? 

What  orders  were  sent  to  the  police  ? 

What  was  done  by  Talleyrand  on  the  1st 
of  April  ? 

How  many  members  obeyed  the  sum- 
mons ? 

Who  were  among  these  ? 

What  government  was  established  ? 

What  was  said  by  Alexander  to  the 
Senate  ? 

What  was  said  by  Napoleon  when  he  took 
possession  of  Berlin  ? 

How  did  his  conduct  contrast  with  Alex- 
ander's ? 

4  2O.  What  was  done  by  the  Senate  on 
the  2d  of  April  ? 

What  policy  was  pursued  by  Talleyrand  ? 

What  was  the  next  important  consider- 
ation ? 

What  was  the  decision  of  the  troops  ? 

What  was  done  by  Napoleon,  when  he 
heard  of  this  ?  . 

What  did  he  subsequently  do  ? 

What  answer  was  returned  from  Paris  by 
the  allies  ? 

What  was  done  by  Macdonald  and  Cau- 
laincourt? 

What  was  done  by  Ney  ? 

421.  What  was  the  prevalent  desire  of 
the  people  of  France  ? 

What  instrument  did  Napoleon  sign  after 
the  return  of  Caulaincourt  and  Macdonald  ? 

What  were  the  terms  of  the  treaty  be- 
tween Napoleon  and  the  allies,  subscribed  on 
the  llth  of  April? 

What  signatures  did  this  treaty  bear? 

Who  accompanied  Napoleon  on  his  journey 
from  Fontainebleau  ? 

What  did  Napoleon  see  at  Valence  ? 

What,  also,  at  Avignon  ? 

How  far  did  the  popular  dissatisfaction 
increase,  as  he  journeyed  south  ? 

In  what  vessel  did  he  embark  for  Elba? 

422.  How  was  he  received  on  board  this 
vessel ? 

How  was  he  affected  by  this  reception  ? 

What  was  Josephine's  fate  ? 

When  did  Louis  XVIII.  make  his  entry 
into  Paris  ? 

What  duties  awaited  Louis  XVIII.  on 
ascending  the  throne  of  France  ? 

What  had  been  provided  by  the  convention 
of  April  23d  ? 

What  did  France  surrender  in  virtue  of  this 
compact  ? 

423.  What  were  the  conditions  of  the 
treaty  of  Paris  ? 

What  was  done  to  the  pope  ? 
What  was  presented  to  him  by  Murat  at 
Cesina  ? 

What  did  he  do  with  this  paper  ? 
What  reply  did  he  make  to  the  nobles? 


QUESTIONS. 


529 


CHAPTER  XLVII. 

424.  What  were  the  feelings  of  the  peo- 
ple of  England  on  the  termination  of  the 
war? 

What  expectations  were  indulged  by  the 
more  unreflecting  portions  of  the  commu- 
nity? 

Were  these  expectations  well-founded  ? 

425.  What  was  voted  by  the  House  of 
Commons  to  Lord  Wellington  ? 

What  was  also  voted  to  Sir  Thomas  Gra- 
ham and  others  ? 

What  honors  were  conferred  on  several  of 
the  British  officers  ? 

What  interesting  question  arose  at  this 
time  in  Parliament  ? 

What  was  the  origin  and  nature  of  the 
dilemma  in  which  the  British  government 
stood? 

How  was  the  question  decided  ? 

What  was  done  by  Bernadotte  ? 

426.  What  success  did  Bernadotte  meet 
with  in  his  invasion  of  Norway? 

What  effect  had  these  disasters  on  the 
Norwegians  ? 

What  were  the  terms  of  the  convention 
made  between  Norway  and  Sweden? 

How  have  the  Norwegians  prospered  under 
the  rule  of  Bernadotte  ? 

What  other  subject  of  great  public  interest 
was  discussed  in  the  British  Parliament  ? 

427.  What  had  been  the  effect  of  foreign 
exclusion  and  domestic    encouragement  of 
grain  in  the  latter  years  of  the  war  ? 

What  question,  then,  was  presented  for 
consideration  ? 

Who  were  in  favor  of  the  Corn  Law  ? 
Who  opposed  it  ? 
What  bill  was  finally  passed  ? 
What  task  now  devolved  on  Louis  XVIII.  ? 

428.  On  what  conditions  had  the  Repub- 
licans joined  Talleyrand  and  the  Royalists? 

What  was  looked  on  as  the  basis  of  the 
new  monarchy  ? 

What  course  was  resolved  on  by  Louis  ? 

Who  were  appointed  to  prepare  a  Consti- 
tution ? 

When  was  the  instrument,  thus  prepared, 
promulgated  ? 

How  did  the  King  conclude  the  address 
with  which  he  introduced  this  charter  ? 

What  was  said  afterward  by  D'Ambray? 

What  was  remembered  by  the  veterans  of 
the  Revolution,  when  they  heard  the  remarks 
of  D'Ambray? 

429.  What  several  things  were  amply 
secured  by  the  charter  ? 

How  was  the  Chamber  of  Peers  to  be  com- 
posed ? 

What  did  the  Legislative  Body  become  ? 

What  two  things  were  connected  with  the 
formation  of  this  chamber  ? 

What  was  the  limit  and  proportion,  of  the 
constituency  ? 

What  were  the  various  further  provisions 
of  the  Charter  ? 

What  did  all  these  enactments  contain  ? 

What  renders  laws  inoperative? 

On  what  condition  are  regulations  for  lib- 
erty vain  ? 


430.  In  what  four  particulars  was  the 
Charter  defective  ? 

What,  in  France,  was  now  a  still  more  dif- 
ficult task  than  the  forming  of  a  Constitution  ? 

In  what  instances  has  Restoration  proved 
a  work  of  peril  ? 

What  occurred  when  the  former  evils  of 
France  passed  away  ? 

What  was  the  condition  of  the  army  ? 

What  was  another  serious  evil  ? 

431.  Who  made  demands  on  the  govern- 
ment  for  support  ? 

What  was  due  lo  the  troops  ?' 

What,  nevertheless,  was  the  condition  of 
the  treasury  ? 

What  was  the  financial  condition  of  the 
country  at  large  ? 

What  was  the  amount,  respectively,  of  the 
annual  income  and  expenditure  ? 

What  did  Louis  and  his  ministers  lack,  in 
this  emergency  ? 

What  system  did  they  adopt? 

What  was  the  capital  error  of  these 
measures  ? 

What  did  they  proceed  to  do,  in  reference 
to  the  troops  and  the  organization  of  the 
army? 

432.  What  was  the  substance  of  the  mil- 
itary regulations  as  regarded  the  palace  ? 

What  was  done  in  regard  to  the  Sabbath  ? 

What  was  the  effect  of  this  ordinance  ? 

What  other  causes  of  grievance  and  dis- 
turbance occurred  in  the  administration  of 
civil  affairs  ? 

What,  in  fact,  was  the  nature  of  the  civil 
government  of  the  .Restoration  ? 

To  what  pitch  did  the  general  exasperation 
at  length  rise  ? 

What  several  public  ceremonies  took  place? 
and  how  were  they  regarded  by  the  disaf. 
fected  people  ? 


CHAPTER  XLVIII. 

433.  When  did  the  Congress  of  Vienna 
commence  its  deliberations  ? 

Who  were  among  the  members  of  this 
Congress  ? 

What  was  the  first  difficulty  that  arose 
among  the  members  ? 

How  was  this  adjusted  ? 

What  difficulty  came  next  ? 

How  was  this  eventually  disposed  of? 

What  national  affairs  were  settled  under 
this  decision  ? 

434.  What  took  place  in  reference  to 
Poland,  Saxony,  and  Genoa? 

What  course  was  taken  by  Alexander, 
when  he  lost  patience  at  the  proceedings  of 
France  ? 

What  followed  these  angry  words  ? 

What  seemed  likely  to  be  the  result  of  the 
deliberations  of  a  Congress  met  to  arrange  a 
pjace  ? 

What  brought  these  matters  to  a  crisis  ? 

What  were  the  provisions  of  this  treaty? 

What  was  its  effect  when  it  transpired  ? 

435.  What  various  national  affairs  were 
now  adjusted  ? 


530 


QUESTIONS. 


What  reached  Vienna  toward  the  end  of 
February  ? 

What  was  discussed  in  consequence  of 
these  rumors  ? 

What  did  Alexander  say  to  this  proposal? 

What  questions  were  propounded  by  Met- 
lernich  to  Fouche  ? 

What  replies  did  Fouche  send  ? 

What  intelligence  reached  Vienna  at  this 
time? 

What  had  Napoleon  proclaimed,  in  refer- 
ence to  Austria  ? 

436.  What  was  averred  by  Metternich, 
in  answer  to  this  ? 

What  declaration  was  issued  by  the  con- 
gress ? 

Who  signed  this  instrument  ? 

How  did  the  allies  proceed  to  give  it 
efficacy  ? 

437.  What  unfinished  details  of  the  busi- 
ness before  the  congress  were  now  adjusted  ? 

What  was  done  in  reference  to  the  slave 
trade  ? 

Under  what  circumstances  had  the  unre- 
flecting generosity  of  the  allies  placed  Na- 
poleon in  Elba  ? 

What  result  followed  from  all  this,  which 
should  have  been  foreseen  ? 

43N.  Who  was  among  the  first  to  join 
Napoleon  in  his  enterprise  ? 

What  was  done  at  Porto  Ferrajo  on  the 
26th  of  February  ? 

What  was  done  during  the  night  by  Napo- 
leon and  his  guards  ? 

What  was  the  size  of  the  flotilla  ? 

When  and  where  did  the  troops  make  their 
landing  in  France? 

What  was,  now,  the  chief  difliculty  of 
Napoleon  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  attempts  to 
gain  over  the  garrison  of  Antibes  ? 

What  course  did  Napoleon  take  ? 

What  did  he  encounter  at  Grenoble  ? 

What  did  he  say  to  Bertrand? 

439.  What  did  he  do  and  say  to   the 
troops  that  opposed  him  ? 

What  was  the  conduct  of  the  soldiers  ? 

What  was  done  by  the  garrison  of  Gren- 
oble ? 

WThen  did  intelligence  of  Napoleon's  return 
reach  Paris  ? 

What  was  done  at  Paris  ? 

What  was  the  feeling  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Paris  ? 

What  was  the  course  of  the  marshals  and 
dignitaries  of  the  empire  ? 

What  was  said  and  done  by  Marshal  Ney? 

440.  What  occurred  in  the  army  as  Na- 
poleon moved  on  ? 

Of  what  town  did  he  take  possession  on 
the  12th  of  March? 

What  was  the  effect  of  this? 

What  four  decrees  did  he  issue  ? 

What  were  the  proceedings  of  Marshal 
Ney? 

What  is  his  own  account  of  his  treachery? 

What  followed  Ney's  defection  ? 

441.  What  was  done  by  the  King's  gov- 
t rnment  ? 

What  final  appeal  did  the  King  make  ? 
What  effect  had  this  appeal  ? 


When  did  the  King  announce  his  intention 
of  abandoning  the  Tuileries  ? 

What  prospect  offered  itself  to  his  guests? 
Where  did  the  royal  family  go  t 
When  did  Napoleon  reach  Paris? 
flow  was  he  received  at  the  Tuileries  ? 
What  has  he  said  of  this  day  ? 

442.  What   might   have   been   the   sub- 
stance of  his  reflections  that  night  ? 

What  did  he  discover  the  next  morning? 

What  did  his  application  to  Fouche  prove  ? 

What  course  was  taken  by  other  distin- 
guished men,  in  reference  to  the  acceptance 
of  office  ? 

What  soon  became  evident  ? 

443.  For  what  did  the  powers  at  Vienna 
resolutely  prepare  ? 

What  did  they  bee,  in  Napoleon's  elevation 
to  the  throne  ? 

What  new  treaty  was  now  concluded? 

What  was  the  secret  treaty  ? 

What  three  great  armies  was  it  resolved 
to  form  ? 

444.  What  sum  of  money  was  voted  and 
paid  by  Great  Britain  to  the  several  allied 
powers  within  the  year? 

What  men  did  Napoleon  embody  in  his 
army  ? 

What  efforts  did  he  make  to  prepare  arms 
and  the  munitions  of  war  for  his  troops  ? 

To  whom  was  Napoleon  forced  to  intrust 
the  administration  of  the  civil  government? 

What  did  Fouche  say  to  his  Republican 
allies  ? 

What  was  the  title  of  the  new  constitu- 
tion, prepared  by  the  Liberal  party  ? 

445.  In  what  three  particulars  did  this 
Constitution  differ  from  the  charter  of  Louis 
XVIII.? 

What  effect  was  produced  by  the  publica- 
tion of  the  u  Acte  Additionel?" 

What  was  the  title  of  an  article  published 
in  the  Censeur  Europeen? 

What  did  this  fearless  writer  say  ? 

What  was  written  to  the  Emperor  by 
Carnot  ? 

What  did  Napoleon  reply  ? 

What  was  attempted  by  Caulaincourt  ? 

What  was  said  on  this  subject  by  Alex- 
ander  ? 

And  by  Metternich? 

Who  commenced  hostilities  in  this  cam- 
paign ? 

What  offers  had  been  made  to  him  ? 

446.  What  was  the  result  of  the  action 
at  Tolentino? 

What  was  done  in  La  Vendee  by  La  Roche- 
jaquelein  ? 

What  was  said  by  Fouche  to  the  Vendeans  ? 

What  three  objects  did  Fouchfe  seek  to 
attain  ? 

How  did  his  complex  scheme  succeed? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  new  elections  ? 

What  was  done  by  the  respectable  citizen* 
in  regard  to  the  election? 

447.  What  sort  of  men  were  the  new 
deputies? 

What  did  Napoleon  encounter  in  this  Cham- 
ber of  his  own  creation  ? 

What  occurred  in  tbi  election  of  president 
of  the  Chamber  ? 


QUESTIONS. 


How  was  Napoleon's  speech  received  by 
the  Chamber  ? 

How  was  he  -welcomed  in  reviewing  the 
National  Guard  ? 

What,  in  short,  did  everything  announce  ? 

What  became  necessary  in  this  confusion  ? 

What  provisional  government  did  Napo- 
leon appoint  ? 

With  whom  did  the  actual  power  of  this 
council  rest  ? 

What  did  Napoleon  discover,  just  before 
his  departure  ? 

What  did  Napoleon  threaten  to  do  with 
Fouche  ? 

What  did  Carnot  reply? 

448.  What    further    conversation    took 
place  ? 

What  were  Napoleon's  final  remarks  to 
Fouche  ? 

What  was  Wellington's  plan  of  campaign  ? 

With  what  forces  did  he  propose  to  unite  ? 

How  many  men  had  Wellington  ? 

How  many  had  Blucher? 

How  many  had  Napoleon  ? 

What  did  Napoleon  resolve  to  do? 

Who  was  appointed  major-general  of  the 
French  army  ? 

Where  did  Napoleon  join  his  army? 

449.  What  account  does  Fouche  give  of 
his  intrigues  with  the  allies  ? 

Where  did  the  French  troops  move  on  the 
15th  of  June  ? 

What  did  Napoleon  now  expect  to  accom- 
plish ? 

Where,  and  with  what  force,  did  he  send 
Ney? 

Where  did  he  march  himself? 

Where  did  Wellington  concentrate  his 
troops  ? 

Where  and  how  was  Blucher's  army  posted? 

450.  For  what  did  Napoleon  wait,  before 
he  commenced  his  attack  on  Blucher? 

When  did  he  give  the  signal  for  battle? 

How  did  his  attack  on  St.  Amand  succeed? 

How  did  the  battle  progress  in  the  centre  ? 

How  did  it  stand  at  seven  o'clock  ? 

For  what  did  the  leaders  on  both  sides 
begin  to  look  with  eagerness  ? 

Which  party  received  such  reinforcements? 

What  movement  did  Napoleon  now  make  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  attack  ? 

What  occurred  to  Blucher  personally  ? 

What  were  the  losses  in  the  battle  of 
Ligny  ? 

Where  had  another  desperate  action  been 
fought  in  the  meantime  ? 

451.  What  was  the  result  of  the  battle 
of  Quatre-Bras? 

What  movement  did  Wellington  make 
when  he  heard  of  Blucher's  defeat  ? 

What  movement  was  made  by  Napoleon? 

What  number  of  troops  had  Napoleon  at 
Waterloo  ? 

What  number  had  Wellington  ? 

In  what,  besides  in  the  number  of  his  men, 
was  Wellington's  army  inferior  to  Napo- 
leon's ? 

How  were  the  British  posted  at  Waterloo  ? 

How  were  the  French  posted  ? 

What  word  was  sent  by  Blucher  to  Wel- 
lington ? 

47 


531 


the 


452.  How,  and  at  what  time,  did 
battle  of  Waterloo  begin  ? 

How  did  this  first  attack  result? 

What  was  seen  while  this  contest  was  ia 
progress  ? 

What  did  Soult  say? 

What  did  Napoleon  think  ?  and  what  move- 
ment did  he  order  in  reference  to  the  new 
comers? 

What  movement  was  made  by  Ney,  at 
noon  ? 

What  orders  were  issued  by  Wellington  to 
repel  Ney's  attack  ? 

How  did  the  French  attack,  at  first,  suc- 
ceed ? 

453.  What  was  done  by  Pack's  brigade  ? 
What  was  the  result  of  Kempt's  charge  of 

cavalry  ? 

What  was  done  by  Ponsonby's  cavalry  and 
yandeleur's  light  horse  ? 

What  was  said  by  Napoleon,  as  he  watched 
the  progress  of  the  British  cavalry? 

What  movement  did  Napoleon  order? 

How  did  Milhaud  succeed  ?     - 

What  had  been  achieved  by  the  British 
cavalry  ? 

What  was  the  result  of  the  attack  on  La 
Haye  Sainte  ? 

What  movement  was  next  made  by  Ney  ? 

How  did  this  succeed  ? 

What  still  further  movement  was  ordered 
by  Napoleon  to  break  the  British  centre  ? 

How  did  the  British  infantry  receive  this 
charge  ? 

At  what  hour,  and  with  what  force,  did 
Bulow  enter  upon  the  battle-field  ? 

What  direction  did  he  give  to  his  columns  ? 

What  counter-movement  was  made  b) 
Napoleon  ? 

454.  What  was  the  success  of  the  French 
attack  ? 

A'ith  what  motive  did  Napoleon  order  a 
final  attack  on  the  British  centre  ? 

How  did  he.  prepare  for  this  attack  ? 

What  success  had  Reille  ? 

Who  followed  on  at  a  rapid  pace  ? 

What  men  composed  Ney's  column? 

How  near  to  the  British  infantry  did  Ney's 
column  advance  ? 

What  was  the  position  of  the  British  in- 
fan  try  ? 

What  order  was  now  given  by  Wellington  ? 

What  was  done  by  the  British  soldiers? 

What  followed  this  charge  of  the  bayonet  ? 

Who  appeared  on  the  field  at  this  crisis  ? 

What  took  place  among  the  French  sol- 
diers ? 

What  did  Napoleon  do  and  say  when  he 
saw  the  British  cavalry  sweeping  through 
his  ranks  ? 

What  did  he  do  and  say  when  the  allied 
cavalry  approached  ? 

455.  What  was  done  by  the  Old  Guard? 
How  were   the  pursuit  and  retreat    con- 
ducted ? 

What  were  Grouchy's  movements  ? 
What  were  the  losses  in  the  battle  of  Wa- 
terloo ? 

When  did  Napoleon  reach  Paris  ? 
What  did  he  say  to  Caulaincourt  ? 
What  did  he  say  after  he  had  taken  a  bath  * 


532 


QUESTIONS. 


What  had  the  Deputies  resolved  on  ? 

What  was  said  by  La  Fayette  ? 

456.  What  reply  was  made  by  Lucien  ? 

What  was  La  Fayette's  indignant  answer? 

What  was  said  in  the  Chamber  in  the 
evening  ? 

What  course  did  Napoleon  finally  adopt  ? 

What  was  the  substance  of  his  abdication  ? 

What  took  place  in  the  Chamber  of 
Peers  ? 

45  7.  What  declaration  was  made  by 
Soult  and  Massena? 

What  was  concluded  with  the  allied  gen- 
erals ? 

What  were  the  terms  of  the  capitulation  ? 

What  course  did  Napoleon  take  ? 

When  he  found  it  impossible  to  escape, 
what  did  he  resolve  upon  1 

458.  What  did  he  send  to  Captain  Mail- 
land? 

What  did  the  British  cabinet  resolve  to  do 
with  Napoleon  ? 

When  did  he  arrive  at  St.  Helena  ? 

WThat  was  the  appearance  of  Paris  after 
the  return  of  Louis  XVIII.  ? 

What  was  undertaken  by  Blucher  ? 

What  was  the  deportment  of  the  Prussians 
in  Paris? 


459.  What  great  public  restitution  wat 
now  insisted  on  and  made  by  the  allies  ? 

What  followed  the  breaking  up  of  the  Na- 
tional Museum  ? 

What  treaty  was  finally  concluded? 

What  were  the  provisions  of  this  treaty  ? 

What  did  the  allied  powers  now  insist 
upon,  in  regard  to  the  guilty  leaders  of  the 
late  revolution  ? 

What  was  the  fate  of  these  leaders  ? 

What  is  said  in  regard  to  Ney  ? 

460.  What  was  the  fate  of  Murat? 
What  was    Napoleon's    condition   in  St 

Helena? 

What  would  England  have  done;  had  she 
treated  Napoleon  as  he  treated  his  impris- 
oned enemies  ? 

When  did  Napoleon  die? 

What  items  in  his  will  are  memorable  ? 

Where  and  how  was  Napoleon  buried  ? 

461.  What   changes  followed  with  the 
course  of  time  ? 

What  request  was  made  by  France  of 
England  ? 

What  was  done  with  the  body  of  Na- 
poleon ? 

Who  attended  his  remains  to  their  final 
resting-place  ? 


THE  JUID. 


*  * 


023