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A  HISTORY  OF  INDIA 


BY 


A.  F.  RUDOLF  HOERNLE,  M.A.  (Oxford),  Ph.  D. 
•^  (Tiibingenj,  C.  I.  E., 


Indian    Educational    Service     (Retired    Listj,    Late    Principal 
Calcutta  Madrasah,  and  Fellow  of  the  Calcutta  University ; 
Ex-President  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal,  Ex-Presi- 
dent to  the  Board  of  Examiners  in  Oriental 
Languages,  Fort  William,  Calcutta  ; 


AND 


HERBERT  A.  STARK,  B.A.  (Calcutta;, 

Bengal  Educational  Service,   Head  Master,    Calcutta   Madrasah 
Late  Inspector  of  Schools,  Orissa  Division  ;  Member  of  the 
Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal. 

^Fourth  Edition.  Revised  and  Enlarged. j 


CUTTACK  : 
ORISSA    MISSION    PRESS, 

[all  rights  reserved.] 


DS 
/909 


bC? 


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1903 — PwksfV-^ation  Edition. 
"^Q^^KiR-ST  Edition. 


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igo^, — ^SECoNny  Edition. 
1906— ^^rj^'^Edition. 
^o«^TH  Edition. 


,         1 906 — ^i^^ 


Printed  and  published  at  the  Orissa  Mission  Press,  Cuttack 
by  Rev.  R.  J.  Grundy,  Supt. 


Prefatory   Note  to   First   Eijition. 


IN  writing  this  History,  the  chief  points  the  authors  had  in 
view  were  to  present  it  in  an  interesting  narrative  form,  as 
well  as  in  agreement  with  the  results  of  modern  research,  —  in 
both  respects  (as  they  believe)  a  new  departure 

'Rhe  numerous  inscriptions,  coins,  and  manuscripts,  dis- 
covered in  late  years,  as  well  as  a  more  extended  study  of 
Sanskrit,  Arabic  and  Persian  Literature  have  brought  to  light 
a  mass  of  new  facts  which  have  greatly  modified  many  hitherto 
accepted  views  of  Indian  History.  Having  for  many  years 
acted  as  Philological  Secretary  to  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal 
and  Numismatist  Adviser  to  the  Government  of  India,  the 
first  of  the  joint-authors  has  had  special  facilities  for  the  study 
of  the  new  information.  To  those  who  are  not  familiar  with 
the  latter,  his  presentation  of  the  earlier  history  of  India, 
comprising  the  first  three  Empires,  may  come  as  a  surprise. 
Lengthy  references  to  authorities,  and  discussions  of  rival,  and 
(it  may  be)  di.scredited  theories  would  obviously  be  out  of 
place  in  a  short  School  History.  But  in  order  to  assist 
Teachers  who  may  be  desirous  of  further  informing  themselves, 
a  selected  list  of  the  best  and  latest  writings  on  Indian  Anti- 
quities  has  been  added. 

The  history  of  the  Fourth  and  Fiftli  Empires  has  been 
written  after  consulting  standard  works  on  the  periods  con- 
cerned, and  the  events  recorded  are  those  which  have  been 
established  by  the  investigations  of  discriminative  and  compe- 
tent scholars  of  Indian  History. 

A.    F.    RUDOLF    HOERNLE. 
November,  igo6.  HERBERT    A.    STARK. 

Prefatory   Note  to   Fourth    Edition. 

The  present  edition  has  been  revised  throughout,  and  its 
information  brought  up-to-date  (especially  in  Chapters  vi-viii) 
in  the  light  of  the  most  recent  researches  and  discoveries  up 
to  19&S. 

Septe7jiher  igoH  'I^he  Authors. 


CONTENTS 


'List  of  Recent   Writings  on  the   Early    History  of 

India  .  .  [1-4] 

Matriculation    History    Syllabus    of    the     Calcutta 

Uni\-ersity      ...  [S'S] 

Introduction.     The  Physical  Features  of   India  and 
some  Observations  thereon  i-vii 

Chap.  Page. 

I. — The   Pre-historic  Period.     The  .Aborigines.     Be- 
fore 1500  B.C.  I 
II. — The     Pre-Vedic    Period.     The     Aryans    in    their 

Original  Home.      Before  2000  B.C.  5 

[11^ — The  Vcdic    Period.     The  Aryans  in  the   Punjab. 

About  1800  to  1000  B.C.   .  7 

IV. — The  Brahmanic  Period.     The  I'nited  Indo-.-Aryans 

in  Northern  India,      .\bout   1000  to  550  B.C.  13 

V. — The  Early  Buddhist  Period.    The  Greek  Invasion. 
The  First,  or  .Maurva,  Empire.    The  Rise  of  Bud- 
dhism.    Abt)ul  550  to  150  B.C.  22 
Vi._The  Later   Buddhist  Period.     The   Parthian   and 
Turki   Invasions.     The  New  Buddhism.     .About 
150  B.C.  to  300  A. D.                                                                    41 
VH. — The  Early  Hindu  Period.     The  Second,  or  Gupta, 
Empire.     The   Brahmanic    Revival.      .About  300 
to  650  A. D.  55 
VIII. — The  Later  Hindu  Period.      The  Ciurjara  Empire. 
The  Earlv  Muhammadan  Invasion.      .About  650 
to  1200  A.D.      .                                                                                67 
IX. — The  Earlv  Muhammadan  Period.     The  .Muham- 
madan Conquest.     The  Third  (  First  Muhamma- 
dan), or  Turki,  Empire.     .About  1200  to  1525  A.]).             g2 
X. — The  Later  Muhammadan  Period: — 

Section  I.     The  Fourth  Indian,  or  Second  Muham- 
madan, or  Mughal,    Empire.      1526  to   1803  a.d.  107 
Section  II.     The  Rise  and  the  Fall  of  the  Marathas.  127 
Section  III.     The  Sikhs  ...                    .                     .  140 
XL>— The  Early  Period  of  the  Company — 

Section  I.     The  First  European  Settlers.      1498  to 

1783  A.D.  153 


CONTENTS. 


C^HAP 


Pagj. 


.I.'^ 


Section  II.      The  struggle  between  the  English  and 
the  French.      1741  to  1783  a.d. 

Section  III.     Robert  Clive  and  Warren  Hastings. 

174410  1778  A.D.  ...  ,-.S 

XII.— The  Later  Period  of  the  Co,npan\-.  The  Building 
up  of  the  PZnglish  Empire  in  India.  The  Gover'^ 
nors-General  after  Hastings.  1785  to  1858  a.d.  ,176 
XIII.— India  under  the  Crown.  The  fifth,  or  British, 
P^mpire  of  India.  The  \'iceroys  of  India.  1858 
to  1903  A.D.  ...  ..  , 

XIV.— India,  Past  and  Piesent   ...  ...  2>4 

Index 

Glossary 


1. 1ST  OF  MAPS. 

Physical  Map  of  Ind.a                ...                    .  Facing  Introduction 

1  he  Aryan  Dispersion                 ...                     ..  Facing  page      i 

Ihe  Disintegration  of  the  Gupta  Empire  ...  '74 

The  Mughal  Empire  in  the  Time  of  Aurangzeb  118 

British  India  in  the  Time  of   Lord  CornwalHs  "            1,7 

British  India  in  the  Time  of  Lord  Dalhousie  '"           200 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Reception   of  the   Ambassador* 
King,  Khusrii  II., 


of  the    Persian 


1. 
2. 

4- 
5- 
6. 

7- 

8. 


chha\'i  Oiiecn 


Indian  Silver  Coin  of  Alexander 

Asoka's  Column 

View  of  Rummin  Dei  and  the  Asoka  Column 

Asoka  Inscription 

Buddha  under  the  Tree 

View  of  the  Oldest  Stupa  at  Sanchi 

Inscribed  (basket  of   Buddha's  Relics 

Kanishka's  Cold  Coin  of  Buddha 

Rock   Temple  of   Kaiiasa 

Gold  Coin  of  Chandra  Gupta  and  his 

Iron  Pillar  and  Outub  Minar 

Coin  of   Vishnu  X'ardhrma    ... 

Column  of  Victory 

Kashmir  Coin  of  Vikramaditva 

Autog-raph  of  King  Harsha   . 

Medal  of  the  Horse-sacrifice 

Deccan  Coin  of   Harsha  Deva- 

Gold  Coin  of  Gangeya  Deva 

Indian  Coin  of  Mahmud 

Gold  Sikandar  as-Sani  C^oin  of  Muhammad  I 

Brass  Token  of  Muhammad  II. 

Atala  Mosque 

Tanka  of  the  lunperor  Altamsh 

Kmperor  Babar 

Kmperoi-  Akbar  ... 

Akbar's  Gold  Asirgarh  Medal 

Akbar's  Coin 

Coin  of  Jahanoir  and  Nur  [ahan 

The  Taj  Mahal    . 

Jumma  Mas] id   . 

Dewan-i-Am 

Gold  Coin  of  Shah  Jahan 

Aurangzeb's  Coin 

Sivaji's  Fort  at  Rajgarh 

Robert  Clive 

^^'arren  Hastings 

Lord  Cornwall  is  ... 

Company's  Pice  of   1833 

The  Residency,  Lucknow 


Frontispiece. 

P.\GE. 

25 

26 

28 

3' 
32 
33 
39 
46 
53 
56 
57 
59 
59 
60 
Tm 
63 
73 
S4 
88 
96 
98 
100 
106 
107 

[  Id 
I  I  1 

113 
114 

115 
116 
117 

117 
122 

128 

159 
167 
176 

195 
212 


LIST  OF  RECENT  WRITINGS  ON   THE 
EARLY  HISTORY  OF  INDIA. 


Chapters  I  and  II. 

(1)  1908.     Sir  Herbert  Risley :     The  People  of  India. 

(2)  1906.     Georg-e  A.  Grierson  :     Languages  of  India  and  the 
•  Linguistic  Survey.     (In  Journal,  Society  of  Arts.) 

C3)  IQ03.  Indian  Census  Report  for  1901  :  Part  I.,  Chapter 
VI  I. ,  on  Languages,  by  Dr.  G.  A.  Grierson. 

14)  1901.  O.  Schrader.-  Reallexicon  der  Indogermanischen 
AltL-rthumskunde:  Especially  the  article  "  Urheimat 
der  Indogermanen." 

(5)  1890.  O.  Schrader  and  F.  B.  Jevons:  Pre-historic  Antiqui- 
ties of  the  Aryan  Peoples. 

Chapters  III  and  IV. 

(1)  1900.     A.  A.  MacdoncU  :      History  of  Sanskrit   Literature. 

(2)  1900.     E.  Washburn  Hopkins  :     the  Great  Epic  of   India. 

(3)  1897-      R-  Pick  :     Die  Sociale  Gliederung  im  Nordostlichen 

indien  zu  Buddha's  Zeit.      (Also  for  Chapter  V.) 

(4)  1896.      E.  Senart  :      Les  Castes  dans  I'lnde. 

(5)  189-?.     R.  C.  Dutt  :      History  of  the    Civilization  of  India, 

based  on  Sanskrit  Literature. 

Chapters  III.  to  VIII. 

(^11  1908.  The  Indian  Empire,  Vol.  1 L,  Historical,  (in  the 
Imperial  Gazetteer  of   India.; 

(2)  1908.      Vincent    A.    Smith;     The    Early   History  of   India. 

(2nd  ed.j 

(3)  1906.      Vincant    A.    Smith:     Catalogue    of    Corns    m    the 

Indian   Museum,    Calcutta.     The   Introductions   to 
the  several  Sections. 

Chapter  V. 

Asoka's  Reign. 
(i)      1901.     V.    A.    Smith:     Asoka.      (In    •' Rulers  of    India" 
Series. ) 

(2)  1894.     G.  Bahler;     Asoka's  Edicts.    (In  Epigraphia  India, 

Vol.  II. j 

General    History. 

(3)  1903.     T.  W.  Rhys  Davids:      Buddhist  India.     (In  "Story 

of  the  Nations"  Series.) 

(4)  ^898      E.  l-Rapson:     Indian  Coins.     (In  Encyclopaedia  of 

Indo-Arvan  Research.)     (Also  for  Chapter  VI.) 

(5)  1891.     Sir  A.  Cunningham  :     Coins  of  Ancient  India. 


[       2       ] 


Buddhism  and  Jainism. 

(6)  1898.     A.  F.  Rudolf   Hoernle  :     Jainism  and  Buddhism. 

(In  Calcutta  Review.     Also  in  Annual  Address  to  the 
Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal  ;  in  its  Proceedings.) 

(7)  1898.     W.    C.   Peppe  and   V.  A.   Smith  :      The  Piprahva 

Stupa.     (In  Journal,  Royal  Asiatic   Society.)     Also 
J.  F.  Fleet  (ibid.,  1906-7.) 

(8)  1897.      H.  Oldenberg- :     Buddha,    his    Life,    Doctrine  and 

Ordar.     (English  Translation  of   ist  edition  by   W. 
Hoey,  1882). 

(9)  1895.      H.  Kern;    Manual  of  Buddhism.    (In  Encyclopaedia 

of  Indo- Aryan  Research.) 

History    of    \Vriti)ig. 

(10)  1904.     G.  Buhler:      Indian  Paleography   (In   Indian  Anti- 

quary, Vol.  XXXIII,  Appendix. 

(11)  1898.     G.  Buhler:     Origin  of  the  Indian  Brahma  Alphabet. 

History  of  Art. 

Jas.  Burgess:     Buddhist  .\rt  in  India. 

A.  Foucher  :  L'art  Greco- Bouddhique  du  Gandhara. 


(12)      1901. 
113)      1905- 

Chapter  VI. 


Northern    India. 


(i)      R.  D.  Banerji  :     The  Sc}thian    Period  of  Indian  History. 
(In  Indian  Antiquary,  Vol.  xxxvii.  ) 

(2)  1908.     E.J.Rapson:   Coins  of  the  Andhras,  \V.  Kshatrapas, 

etc.     (British  Museum  Catalogue.       Especially    the 
Historical  Introduction,  pp.  i-CLXV.) 

(3)  1906.     J.  F.  Fleet  :       The   Traditional    Date  of    Kanishka. 

(In  Journal,  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  p.  979). 

(4)  1906.      V.  A.  Smith:     The  Indo-Parthian  Dynasties.     (In 

Journal,  German  Oriental  Society.) 

(5)  1903.      V.  A.  Smith:     The  Kushana  Period.      (In  Journal, 

Royal  Asiatic  Society.) 

(6)  1900.     Boyer  :     L'epoche  de  Kanishka.     (In  Journal  Asia- 

tique.) 

(7)  1899.      D.  R.  Bhandarkar  :     The  Origin  of  the  Saka  Era. 

(In   Journal,  Bombay  Branch  of  the   Royal    Asiatic 
Society.) 

(8)  1889-1893.    Sir  A.  Cunningham  :    In  NumismaticChronicle. 

(9)  1886.     P.  Gardner  :     Coins  of  Greek  and  Scythian  Kings 

in  India.     (British  Museum  Catalogue.) 

Southern  India. 

(10)     1896.     J.  P".  Fleet:      Dynasties  of  the  Kanarese  Districts. 
(In  Bombay  Gazetteer,  Vol.  I.,  Part  II.) 


[     3     ] 

(ii)      1895.      R.  G.  Bhandarkar:     Early  History  of  the  Dekkan. 
(In  Bombay  Gazetteer,  Vol.  I.,  Part  II.) 

Buddhist  Art. 

See  Chapter  V.  No.  12,  13. 

Chapter  VII. 

Gupta  Period. 

(1)  '  1905.     F.  Kielhorn  :     Chronological  Supplements,    in    Ap- 

pendixes I  and  II,  to  Vol.  VIII  of  the  Epigraphia 
Indica. 

(2)  1902.      V.   A.   Smith  :     Revised  Chronology  of    the   Early 

Imperial  Gupta  Dynasty.  (In  Indian  Antiquary, 
Vol.  XXXI.) 

(3)  1889.     A.  F.  Rudolf  Hoernle  and  V.  A.  Smith  :     Inscribed 

Seal  of  Kumara  Gupta.  (In  Journal,  Royal  Asiatic 
Society  of  Bengal.) 

(4)  1889.     V.  A.  Smith  :    Gupta  Coinage.     (In  Journal,  Royal 

Asiatic  Society.) 

(5)  1888.     J.  F.  Fleet:      Inscriptions  of  the  Early  Guptas  and 

their  Successors.  (In  Corpus  Inscriptionum  Indi- 
carum,  Vol.  III.) 

(6)  1909.     Some  Problems  of  Ancient  Indian  History.   No.  IV. 

The  Identity  of  Yasodharman  and  Vikramaditya. 
(In  Journal,  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  p.  8g.) 

Vikramaditya  Period. 

(7)  1903-      ^-  P-  Rudolf  Hoernle  :     Some  Problems  of  Ancient 

Indian  History.  No.  I.  (In  Journal,  Royal  Asiatic 
Society.) 

Revival  of  Brahmanism. 

(8)  igoo.     R.  G.  Bhandarkar  :      Peep  into  the  Early  History  of 

India.     (In  Journal,   Bombay  Branch  of  the  Royal 
Asiatic  Society.) 
See  also  Chapter  VI.,  Nos.  10  and  11. 

Chapter  VIII. 

Northern  Empire. 

(i)      1905.     Girindranath  Dutt  ;     The  Brahmans  and  Kayasthas 
of  Bengal.     (In  The  Indian  Review.) 

(2)  1904.     .■\.  F.  Rudolf   Hoernle:     Some  Problems  of  Ancient 

Indian  History.  No.  II.,  the  Gurjara  Empire,  and 
1905,  No.  III.  the  Gurjara  Clans.  (In  Journal, 
Royal  Asiatic  Society.) 

(3)  ^1902.      D.  R.  Bhandarkar  :    Gurjaras.   (In  Journal,  Bombay 

Branch  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society.) 

(4)  1900.      M.  A.  Stein  :     Translation  of   Rajalarangini. 


[     4     ] 

(5)  i897-     Major  R.  G.  Raverty  :     Translation  of  the  Tabaqat 

i    Nasiri.      (In   the    Bibliotheca   Indica.       Also   for 
Chapter  IX.) 

(6)  1894.     Sir  A.  Cunningham  :     Coins  of  Mediaeval  India. 

Southern  Empire. 

(?)      IQOS-     S.  Krishnasvami  Aiyangar  :  The  Making  of  Mj'sore. 

(8)  1900-03.     J.  F.  Fleet  :     Ganga  and  other  Inscriptions,    (In 

the  Epigraphia  India.) 

(9)  1890.     Sir  Walter  Elliot:     Coins  of  Southern  India.      (In 

Numismata  Orientalia.) 
(10)     See  Chapter  VT.,  Nos.  10  and  11. 

Chapter  IX. 

Northern  India. 

(i)      1903.     Lane  Poole:     Mediaeval  India.     (In  the  "  Story  of 
the  Nations"  Series.) 

(2)  1894.     Lane  Poole :     Muhammadan  Dynasties. 

(3)  1871.     E.Thomas:    Chroniclesof  the Pathan  Kings  of  Delhi. 

Southern  India. 

(4)  1900.     R.  Sewell  :     A  Forgotten  Empire  f  Vijayanagar.) 

(5)  See  Chapter  VI.,  Nos.  10  and  11. 

Chapters  I-IX. 

Perhaps  the  most  useful  guide-book  is  C.  Mabel  Duff's  Chro- 
nology of  India,  giving  in  chronological  order  a  table  of  events 
from  the  birth  of  Buddha  down  to  the  Mughal  conquest,  or  from 
557  B.C.  to  1530  A.D.,  each  entry  being  supported  by  copious  re- 
ferences to  authorities  up  to  the  date  of  publication,  1899. 

Numerous  articles  on  points  of  detail  by  Messrs.  Bendall, 
Bhandarkar,  Biihler,  Fleet,  Hara  Prasada  Shastri,  Hoernle,  Hop- 
kins, Hultzsch,  Jacobi,  Kielhorn,  Levi,  Senart,  Stein,  and  others, 
may  be  found  in  the  following  periodicals  : 

(i)  Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal. 

(2)  Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society. 

(3)  Journal  of  the  Bombay  Branch  of  No.  2. 

(4)  Journal  Asiatique  (French). 

(5)  Journal  of  the  German  Oriental  Society. 

(6)  Journal  of  the  American  Oriental  Society. 

(7)  Indian  Antiquary. 

(8)  Epigraphia  India. 

(9)  Vienna  Oriental  Journal. 

(10)  Archaeological    Survey   Reports  of  Sir  A.  Cunningham, 

J.  Burgess,  and  others.  « 

(11)  Numismatic  Chronicle. 

(12)  Numismata  Orientalia. 


( 


[    5    ] 

Index  to  Subject-Heads  in  the  Matriculation  History 
Syllabus  of  the  Calcutta  University. 


SUBJECTS. 

The  Physical  Features  of  the  Country. 

The  Aborigines  of   India.      Immicrrations  from  the  North-east  and 
North-west. 

The  Aryans.     The  I ndo- Aryans. 

The  Vedas.     Relation  of  the  Rig-- Veda  to  other  Vedas. 

The  Brahmans.     The  Smritis.     Manu. 

The  Caste  System. 

Buddha  and  Buddhism. 

Mahavira  and  the  Jains. 

The   Kingdoms   of  Kosala    and   Magadha.      The    Empire    of  the 
Nan  das. 

Invasion  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

Accounts  of   India  given  by  Greek  Writers. 

The  Maurya  Empire.     Chandra  Gupta.     Asoka. 

The  Kushana  Empire.      Kanishka.     The  Saka  Era.     The  Gupta 
Empire.      Buddhist  Architecture  and  the  Fine  Arts. 

Chinese  Pilgrims.      Kali  Das.      Vikramaditya.     The  Vikrama  Era. 

Rise  of  the  Rajputs. 

Muhammadan  Conquest  of  Sind  and  the  Punjab. 

Mahmud  of  Ghazni. 

Hindu  Civilization  on  the  eve  of  the  Muhammadan  rule  in  Incia. 

The  Tdrki  (Pathan)  Dynasties.      Muhammad  Ghori.     Outbuddin. 

Altamsh.     Raziyyat.     Mughal  Invasion. 


[     6     ] 

Conquest  of  Gujarat;  Malwa  ;  and  the  Deccan.  Incursions  into 
Southern  India.     Allauddin. 

The  Tughlak  Dynasty.  Muhammad  Tug-hlak.  Firuz  Tughlak. 
Timur's  Invasion. 

Break-up  of  the  Pathan  Empire. 

The  Muhammadan  Kingdoms  of  Delhi,  Bengal,  Jatunpur. 
Gujarat,  The  Deccan. 

The  Hindu  Kingdoms  of  Vijayanagar,  Meywar  (Rajputana  and' 
Udaipur)  and  Orissa. 

Rise  of  Religious  Sects  under  Pathan  Rule ;  Ramananda,  Kabir, 
Nanak,  Chaitanya.     Spread  of  Muhammadan  ism. 

Pathan  Architecture.  The  Urdu  Language.  Indian  Literature 
in  Pathan  times. 

The  Mughal  Dynasty,  Babar,  Humayun,  Sher  Shah,  Restoration 
of  Humayun. 

Akbar,  Todar  Mall,  Abul  Fazl. 

Jahangir,  Nur  Jahan,  Sir  Thomas  Roe. 

Shah  Jahan,  Bernier,  Mughal  Architecture. 

Aurangzeb,  Rajput  Revolt.  Aurangzeb's  treatment  of  Hindus, 
Sivaji  and  the  Marathas. 

Break-up  of  the  Mughal  Empire.  The  Successors  of  Aurangzeb, 
Revolt  of  the  Provinces,  Invasion  of  the  Marathas,  Inva- 
sion of  Nadir  Shah  and  .A.hmad  Shah  Abdali,  Struo-crle  for 
supreme  power  between  Muhammadans  and  Marathas. 

The  Maratha  Confederacy.     Extent  of  Maratha  Dominion. 

Contact  of  the  Marathas  with  the  English. 

The  Europeans  in  India.  Discovery  of  the  Cape  route  to  India  by 
the  Portuguese.  The  Dutch,  the  French,  and  the  English 
Merchant  Companies,  and  early  Setdement.  First  Charter  of 
the  East  India  Company.  * 

The  French  in  India.     Duplei.x. 


[     7     3 

The  English  in  India,  Clive.  English  Wars  and  Territorial 
acquisitions  in  Madras,  Bengal  and  Bombay.  Plassey.  The 
Dewani.  Early  History  of  Calcutta.  Clive's  Sj'stem  of  ad- 
ministration. 

Warren  Hastings,  his  Financial,  Revenue  and  Judicial  Reforms, 
his  Relations  with  Native  Powers.  The  Regulating  Act. 
Warren  Hastings  first  Governor- General.  Extent  of  British 
Dominion  in  his  time.      Pitt's  India  Bill. 

Lord    Cornwallis,    his    administration    Reforms.     The    Permanent 

Settlement. 

Sir  John  Shore,   his  Non-intervention  Policy. 

i.ord  Wellesley,  his  wars  with  Mysore,  and  with  the  Marathas. 
The  system  of  Subsidiary  Treaties. 

Lord  Minto,  State  of  Central  India,  Extension  of  Relations  of 
British  Indian  Government  with  Foreign  Powers  outside  India. 
Renewal  of  the  Company's  Charter. 

Lord  Hastings,  his  Wars  with  Nepal,  and  with  the  Marathas. 

Lord  Amherst,  the  first  Burmese  War. 

Lord  William  Bentinck,  his  Social  and  Administration  Reforms, 
Renewal  of  the  Company's  Charter.     Sir  Charles  Metcalfe. 

Lord  .\uckland,  his  Policy,    the  First  Afghan  War. 

Lord  Ellenborough,  the  Sindh  War. 

Lord  Hardinge,  the  first  Sikh  War. 

Lord  Dalhousie,  the  Second  Sikh  War,  the  Doctrine  of  Lapse,  and 
the  Annexation  Policy.  The  Second  Burmese  War.  Material 
Progress  of  the  Country  under  Dalhousie. 

Lord  Canning.  The  Indian  Mutiny,  Probable  Causes,  the  Assump- 
tion of  Direct  Government  by  the  Crown.  The  Queen's 
Proclamation. 

India  Ander  the  Viceroys,  Financial  Reforms.  The  Orissa 
Famine,  and  other  Great  Famines.      The  Second,  and  Third 


[     8     ] 

Afffhan   Wars.     The  Third    Burmese  War.      DeUmitation  of 
Frontier  Boundaries. 

The  Marathas,  their  Rise;  Sivaji  and  his  Successors.  Maratha 
System  of  War,  Administration,  and  Revenue.  Rise  of  the 
Peshwas.  Baji  Rao,  his  Successors.  Origin  of  the  chief  exist- 
ing Maratha  States. 

Mysore:  an  Ancient  Hindu  Kingdom.  Haidar  Ali,  his  Wars  with 
the  Marathas,  the  Nizam  and  the  English.  Tipu  Sultan. 
Restoration  of  the   Hindu   Dynasty. 

The  Sikhs,  Their  origin  and  Religion.  Guru  Govinda.  Their 
struggle  with  Ahmad  Shah  Abdali.  Ranjit  Singh,  his 
Conquests,  the  Khalsa.     Ranjit  Singh's  Successors. 


ft: 


J 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  Physical    Features  of    India,   and    some 
.  Observations  thereon. 

TXDIA  may  broadly  be  divided  into  three  distinct 
parts.  The  first  is  the  Himalayan  region,  which  in- 
cludes Kashmir,  Nepal,  Sikkim  and  Bhutan.  The  second 
is  the  Great  Plain  between  the  Vindhya  Mountains  and 
the  Himalayas.  It  contains  the  Punjab,  Rajputana, 
Central  India,  the  United  Provinces  of  Agra  and  Oudh, 
and  Northern  Bengal.  Th»  third  is  the  Peninsula  of 
India,  otherwise  known  by  the  name  of  the  Deccan. 
It  comprises  all  the  country  lying  between  the  Vindhya 
Mountains  and  Cape  Comorin. 

1.  The  Himalayan  Reg-ion.— The  Himalaya  Moun- 
tains may  be  described  as  a  double  wall  running  from 
east  to  west.  The  Indus,  the  Sutlej,  and  the  Sangpo 
(Brahmaputra)  take  their  rise  on  the  Tibetan  side  of  the 
northern  wall,  while  the  southern  slopes  of  the  first 
or  southern  wall  hold  the  sources  of  the  Ganges  and 
its  northern  tributaries.  From  their  north-western 
extremity  the  Himalayas  send  out  into  Afghanistan 
a  knot  of  wild  and  rugged  mountains  called  the  Hindu 
Kush.  Similarly,  from  the  eastern  extremity  of  the 
Himalayas  the  Patkai  Hills  take  their  start  in  a 
southerlv  direction.  The  Chinese  spent  much  time 
and  labour  in  building  the  Great  Wall  of  China  in  order 
that  they  might  prevent  their  warlike  neighbours  from 
invading  the  country.  But  Nature  has  provided  India 
with  a  mightier  barrier  in  the  Himalayas  on  her  north- 
ern boundary.  These  mountains  have  prevented  the 
Mong5han  races  of  Asia  from  making  incursions  into 
the  rich  plains  of  the  Ganges,  and  India  has  never  been 

A 


ii  INTRODUCTION. 

anxious  about  the  defences  of  the  north.  But  it  must 
not  be  supposed  that  there  is  absolutely  no  way  of 
getting  to  Tibet  from  India.  For  at  the  western  ex- 
tremity of  the  Himalayas,  there  are  two  sets  of  passes, 
one  set  leading  into  Eastern  Turkestan  and  Tibet,  and 
another  set  leading  into  Afghanistan.  Among  the  former 
may  be  mentioned  the  Mustagh,  Karakoram  and  Ghan- 
chenmo  Passes,  and  among  the  latter  the  Khaibar, 
Bholan  and  Gonial  Passes,  and  the  Kuran  Valley,  It 
was  through  the  north-western  passes  that  the  early 
Aryan  and  Turki  immigrants  came  into  India.  The 
gorge  through  which  the  Brahmaputra  enters  India  at 
the  north-eastern  corner  is  so  narrow  that,  though  it 
admitted  Tibeto-Burman  and  Tai  immigrations,  nothing 
is  to  be  feared  from  the  invasion  of  an  enemy  in  that 
direction. 

2.  The  Great  Plain.  -  The  Great  Plain  of  Northern 
India  is  watered  by  three  systems  of  rivers,  (i)  The 
Punjab  is  irrigated  by  the  Indus  and  Sutlej  which  gather 
their  water  on  the  northern  side  of  the  southern  range  of 
the  Himalayas,  and  by  their  tributaries — the  Jhelum, 
Chenab,  Ravi  and  Beas — which  obtain  their  supplies 
from  the  southern  slopes  of  the  same  mountains. 
(2)  Rajputana,  Central  India,  the  United  Provinces, 
and  Northern  Bengal  are  fertilised  by  the  Ganges, 
which,  with  its  tributaries  the  Jumna,  the  Goomti, 
the  Gogra  and  the  Gunduck,  takes  its  rise  in  the 
southern  sides  of  the  Himalaya.  The  southern  con- 
fluents of  the  Ganges,  e.g.,  the  Chambal  and  the 
Sone,  emerge  from  the  Vindhya  Mountains.  The  name 
Hindustan  is  applied  to  the'  tract  of  country  bordered 
on  the  north  by  the  Sutlej  and  on  the  south  by  the 
Chambal,  and  also  includes  the  Trans-Gangetic  provinces 
of  Oudh  and  Rohilkhand.  Its  eastern  portion  between 
the  Ganges  and  the  Jumna  is  designated  the  Doab.  The 
fertihty  of  the  Great  Plain  attracted  the  early  Aryau  and 
other  settlers,  and  it  became  the  scene  of  those  ancient  race 


I 


INTRODUCTION.  Ill 

movements  which  have  permanently  influenced  the 
civiHzation  and  pohtical  destinies  of  the  whole  of  India. 
How  the  Aryans  took  possession  of  the  Great  Plain, 
and  amalgamated  with  the  aboriginal  races  whom  they 
found  there  is  related  in  Chapters  I  and  III. 

3-,  The  Deccan  op  Peninsula  of  India.— The  term 
Deccan  in  its  widest  application  embraces  the  whole  of 
Southern  India  from  the  Vindhya  Mountains  to  Cape 
Comorin,  In  a  somewhat  restricted  sense  it  comprises 
the  Central  Provinces,  Berar,  the  Presidencies  of  Madras 
and  Bombay,  Mysore,  and  several  protected  states,  chief 
among  which  are  those  of  the  Nizam,  Sindhia,  and 
Holkar.  In  its  narrowest  application  it  is  the  name  of 
the  high  inland  tract  between  the  Narbada  and  the 
Krishna.  The  line  which  separates  it  from  the  Great 
Plain  is  formed  by  the  Vindhya  Mountains  and  the 
system  of  hills  connected  with  them — the  Aravalli  Hills, 
the  Satpuras,  the  highlands  of  the  Central  Provinces, 
the  Caimur  Range,  and  the  Rajmahal  Hills.  This  chain 
of  connected  mountain  ridges  for  centuries  protected 
the  Deccan  from  invasions  in  the  same  manner,  though 
in  a  lesser  degree,  as  the  Himalayas  checked  incursions 
into  the  Great  Plain  from  Central  Asia.  But  more  than 
this,  for  several  centuries  they  frustrated  every  effort  to 
bring  the  Deccan  and  Northern  India  under  the  sway 
of  one  and  the  same  emperor. 

From  the  western  and  eastern  extremities  of  the 
Vindhyas  two  mountain  ranges,  known  as  the  West- 
ern and  Eastern  Ghauts  respectively,  run  in  a  southerly 
direction  and  parallel  with  the  sea.  The  margin  between 
the  Arabian  Sea  and  the  Western  Ghauts  is  exceedingly 
narrow,  and  this  tract  of  country  having  been  cut  off  by 
Nature  from  the  rest  of  the  peninsula,  its  people  are  in  a 
backward  condition  when  compared  with  the  inhabitants 
of  other  parts  of  India.  On  the  other  hand,  a  broad  strip 
of  lowland  lies  between  the  Eastern  Ghauts  and  the 
Bay  of  Bengal.     It  is  irrigated  by  the  Mahanadi,  Goda- 


IV  INTRODUCTION. 

veri,  Krishna  and  Kaveri,  which,  taking  their  rise  in 
the  western  side  of  the  Deccan,  flow  across  the  penin- 
sula, and  emerging  through  the  openings  in  the  Eastern 
Ghauts  empty  themselves  into  the  Bay.  Consequently 
the  Karnatic,  the  Northern  Circars,  and  Orissa  have 
always  been  accessible  to  civilizing  influences,  and  in 
them  the  ancient  dynasties  of  Southern  India  fixed  their 
capitals.  The  Western  Ghauts  are  much  higher  than 
the  Eastern  Ghauts,  and  there  are  no  rivers  that  flow 
into  the  Arabian  Sea  between  Surat  and  Cape  Comorin. 
The  inner  triangular  plateau,  shut  in  by  the  Vindhya 
Mountains  and  the  Western  and  the  Eastern  Ghauts,  rises 
from  1,000  to  3,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It 
is  entered  on  the  west  by  several  passes,  the  chief  of 
which,  the  Bhor  Pass,  was  in  ancient  times  regarded  as 
the  key  to  the  Deccan.  Another  important  opening 
into  the  plateau  is  the  Thai  Ghat.  The  physical  features 
of  the  Deccan,  and  particularly  the  rugged  mountains  of 
the  Western  Ghauts,  made  it  possible  for  the  Marathas 
to  develop  those  methods  of  warfare  which  made  them 
a  terror  to  their  neighbours,  and  a  thorn  in  the  side  of 
the  Mughal  Emperors  at  Delhi. 

It  is  common  to  speak  of  India  as  the  central  pen- 
insula of  Asia.  But  this  is  incorrect.  For  if  a  line  be 
drawn  from  Cape  Monze  through  Calcutta  to  Chittagong 
it  will  be  seen  that  only  the  part  of  India  south  of  that 
hne,  which  may  roughly  be  taken  to  coincide  with  the 
Tropic  of  Cancer,  is  a  peninsula,  while  the  portion  of 
the  country  north  of  that  line  belongs  to  the  mainland 
ot  Asia.  Furthermore,  Cape  Comorin  is  onlv  eight  de- 
grees from  the  Equator,  whereas  Kashmir  is  thirtv-six 
degrees  from  it.  While,  therefore,  the  southern  half  of 
India  lies  within  the  Torrid  Zone,  its  northern  half  falls 
withm  the  North  Temperate  Zone.  We  must  therefore 
expect  to  find  the  Deccan  differing  considerably  from  the 
Great  Plain  and  the  Himalayan  Belt  in  respect  of  its 
natura  products  and  inhabitants,  its  climate  and  scenery 
Accordingly,  in  the  Punjab,  North  Rajputana,  Sindh,  and 


INTRODUCTION.  V 

a  part  of  the  United  Provinces,  the  vast  plains,  which 
in  the  summer  months  are  scorched  by  a  burning  sun, 
are  in  the  rainy  and  cold  seasons  covered  with  crops  of 
wheat,  barley,  maize,  and  other  cereals  of  the  temperate 
zone.  In  Lower  Bengal,  on  the  other  hand,  the  vegeta- 
tion is  luxuriant,  and  rice  grows  plentifully.  The  Deccan 
has  ?i  uniform  temperature  throughout  the  year,  and  its 
vegetable  products  are  distinctly  tropical.  Its  western 
side  receives  much  rain  from  the  south-east  monsoons  ; 
but  the  deficiency  of  raiafall  on  its  eastern  half  is 
compensated  by  the  water  derived  from  the  rivers  that, 
passing  through  it.  flow  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  Being 
altogether  dependent  upon  the  rains  for  its  harvests,  any 
excess  or  failure  of  rain  results  in  a  famine,  of  which 
there  have  been  several.  On  the  Malabar  and  Coro- 
mandal  Coasts,  which  are  within  the  influence  of  the 
brine  from  the  sea,  cocoanuts  and  palms  abound.  The 
physical  features  of  Lower  Burma  are  similar  to  those 
of  Lower  Bengal  :  but  Upper  Burma  is  hilly,  less  tropi- 
cal, and  less  fertile.  In  respect  of  climate  every  varia- 
tion of  temperature  prevails,  from  the  eternal  snows  of 
the  Himalayas  to  the  great  iieat  of  the  tropical  south. 
A  corresponding  difference  is  observable  in  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  inhabitants.  In  the  north  we  have  fair 
races  of  people  ;  but  as  we  go  south  the  complexion 
of  the  natives  of  the  country  becomes  darker,  and  thev  are 
less  robust.  Mountains  and  a  cold  climate  produce  good 
fighting  races,  and  hence  the  Ghurkas,  the  Sikhs,  the 
Punjabis,  tlie  Baluchis,  the  Pathans,  the  Dogras,  the 
Rajputs  and  the  Marathas  are  the  best  soldiers  in  the 
Native  Army. 

It  might  reasonably  have  been  expected  that  India, 
with  a  sea  coast  of  5000  miles — from  Cape  Monze  to 
Point  Victoria  in  Tennaserim — would  be  a  great  maritime 
country.  But  such  is  not  the  case.  It  must  be  re- 
membered that  she  has  but  few  harbours,  and  that,  as 
will  be  explained  in  the  next  paragraph,  she  is  a  self- 
contained  country.     Moreover,  in  olden  times  she  was 


vi  INTRODUCTION. 

SO  far  iVom  every  naval  power,  that  she  origmally  had 
nothing  to  fear  from  enemies  from  across  the  seas,  save 
from  such  minor  pests  as  pirates  who  formerly  landed  in  the 
creeks  of  the  Malabar  coast,  or  at  the  mouths  of  the  rivers 
of  the  Coromandal  coast.  She,  therefore,  in  bye-gone 
days,  kept  no  navy  ;  and  thus  she  was  all  unprepared  to 
oppose  the  landing  of  European  nations  when  they  first 
anchored  off  her  shores.  Indeed,  the  only  direction 
from  which  India  may  be  invaded  is  through  the  passes 
along  the  North-West  Frontier,  and  here  the  British 
Government  has  supplemented  the  protection  afforded 
by  Nature  by  building  a  chain  of  fortresses  and  outposts, 
and  by  furnishing  them  with  strong  garrisons  of 
soldiers. 

From  what  has  been  said  it  will  be  seen  that 
India  occupies  a  peculiar  position.  It  may  be  likened 
to  a  fortress,  protected  in  its  northern  half  by  mountain 
ranges  with  almost  insuperable  passes,  and  in  its  southern 
half  by  coasts  almost  destitute  of  natural  harbours ;  while 
within  its  own  borders,  with  its  varying  climes,  it  pos- 
sesses an  abundance  of  desirable  natural  products  of 
man}'  kinds.  This  peculiar  position  of  India  accounts 
to  a  great  extent  for  most  of  the  special  features  of  its 
history  and  its  civilization.  For  it  tended  to  foster  a 
home-staying,  self-contained  population  ;  and  none  of  its 
races  developed  into  either  a  conquering  or  a  seafaring 
nation  like  the  Greeks  or  Romans  of  old,  or  the  English 
of  modern  times.  Its  history  has  been  enacted  wholly 
within  its  own  borders,  which  indeed  are  wide  enough  to 
permit  of  great  variations  and  changes  in  point  of  politics 
and  in  culture.  But  though  well  protected  from  the 
outside  world,  India  never  has  been  entirely  excluded 
from  contact  with  it.  At  an  early  date,  some  maritime 
intercourse  from  its  scanty  harbours  did  take  place  with 
the  Persian  Gulf  in  the  west  and  with  the  Chinese  coast 
in  the  east.  But  though  India,  contented  within  its  own 
borders,  has  never  sent  out  hordes  to  seek  new  abodes, 
or  armies  to  conquer  neighbouring  countries,  it  has  been 


INTRODUCTION..  Vll 

repeatedly  the  victim  of  immigrations  and  invasions  of 
peoples  from  beyond  its  borders.  These  outsiders  modi- 
fied its  political  history  and  added  elements  to  its  culture, 
but  they  were  never  able  to  deprive  either  of  its  pe- 
culiarly Indian  character. 

Only  once  did  the  self-contained  character  of  India 
suffer  a  relaxation.  This  was  when  Buddhism  was 
being  spread  beyond  its  borders  ;  and  this  conspicuous  ex- 
ception shows  how  deeply  the  soul  of  the  people  must 
have  been  stirred  by  that  great  religious  movement. 


CHAPTER    I. 

TJie  Pre=historic  Period  :     The  Aborigines. 

INDIA  is  not  so  much  a  country,  as  a  continent. 
Hence  also  it  exhibits  continental 
characteristics.  One  of  these  is  that  India  &  Europe, 
its  inhabitants  are  of  many  races,  many  languages, 
and  many  religions.  In  a  country  this  might  have 
been  different.  Take,  for  example,  France  or  Germany. 
Their  people  are  of  one  race,  one  language,  and  one 
religion.  But  then  they  are  merely  countries.  The}" 
are  much  smaller  than  India,  which  indeed  is  about 
seven  times  as  large  as  either  France  or  Germany. 
In  fact,  India  is  rather  larger  than  the  whole  continent 
of  Europe,  with  Russia  excluded.  If  now  we  compare 
it  with  Europe,  the  difference  disappears ;  for  Europe, 
like  India,  has  many  races,  languages,  and  religions.  The 
reason  of  this  manifoldness  is  the  same  in  both  cases  ; 
it  is  the  result  of  the  wholesale  migrations  that  often 
took  place  in  ancient  times. 

In  the  earliest  ages  of  which  we  have  any  know- 
ledge, India  was  inhabited  by  a  certain 
race  of  people  who  were  distinguished    Aborfffines 
by  very  dark  skins  and  flat  noses.     We 
call  them  Aborigines,  that  is  the  people  of  the  begin- 
ning, because  we  do  not  know  whence  and  when  they 
came   into  the   countr}*.     There    are   certain    linguistic 
reasons  which  seem  to  show  that  at  some  very  remote 
time  that  race,  which  is  now  known  as  the  Mon-Khmer, 
was  spread  not  only   over  the  whole  of  India,  but  ex- 
tended also  far  eastwards  into  Burma  and  Siam.     At 
the   p^resent   day    the   race   survives  only  in  scattered 
remnants  which  are  called  Mundas,  or,  less  appropriately. 


2  HISTORY    OF   INDIA. 

Kolarians,  and  which  include  most  of  the  uncivihzed 
tribes  that  are  still  found  inhabiting  widely  separate  tracts 
of  India.  They  are  the  Bhils,  Kols,  Santhals,  Juangs, 
and  other  tribes  of  Central  India,  the  Khasis  of  Assam, 
the  natives  of  the  Andaman  and  the  Nicobar  Islands, 
and  the  Veddas  of  Ceylon.  They  still  retain  most  of 
the  characteristic  features  of  their  remote  forelathers. 
These  were  a  savage  people,  living  in  small  bands  in  the 
dense  jungles  and  forests  which  then  covered  most  parts 
of  India.  Their  occupation  was  to  hunt  wild  animals, 
or  to  raid  upon  one  another,  which  they  did  with 
weapons  made  of  stone.  They  lived  on  the  wild  pro- 
duce of  the  jungle,  on  roots,  and  fruits,  and  raw  flesh, 
and  they  knew  neither  the  breeding  of  cattle,  nor  the 
tilling  of  land  ;  nor  had  they  any  settled  laws  or  forms 
of  government.  They  made  pOts  of  clay,  and  baked 
them  in  fire.  They  buried  their  dead,  and  over  their 
graves  they  set  up  upright  slabs  of  rock  or  circles  of 
stones.  It  is  from  these,  and  the  things  dug  up  in  them, 
that  we  are  able  to  form  some  idea  of  the  life  and  the 
customs  of  the  wild  Aborigines. 

But    there    were    other    aboriginal    inhabitants   of 
India   who   were   not   so  wild.     These 
Abor^ines  were  the   Dravidians,  such  as   the  Ta- 

mils,    Kanarese,    Gonds,     and    others. 
There  are,  again,  certain  linguistic  reasons  which  seem 
to  indicate  that  this  race  migrated  into  India  from  the 
south   at   a   very   remote   time,   when    possibly    there 
still   existed  some  land  connection  with  Australia.     It 
would  appear  that  they  gradually  conquered  the  Mun- 
das   whom   they    found  in    occupation  of  the  country. 
With  these  Mundas  they  intermarried  and  amalgamated  ;. 
but  they  preserved  their  own  Dravidian  form  of  speech. 
^      In  fact,  what  happened  in  their  case  was  probably  very 
\y      similar  to  what  occurred  subsequently,  as  we  shall  see 
\     in  the  following  chapters,  in  the  case  of  the  Aryan  im- 
migrants  from   the   north-west.     At   the   present  day, 
the     Dravidians    form    the    prevailing     population    of 


Ch.    I.]  THE   PRE-HISTORIC   PERIOD.  3 

^mtheiD-ljidia,  but  in  tlie  pre-historic  age  they  must  have_ 
been  spread  over  some^parts  of  NoillienLlndiajis  w_ell. 
They  inhabited  everywhere  the  plains  and  valleys  of 
the  large  rivers,  which  they  had  cleared  of  forest,  and 
made  fit  for  the  cultivation  of  land  and  for  the  breeding 
of  cattle.  They  lived  in  settled  communities,  under 
fixed  faws  and  government.  They  possessed  fortified 
strongholds  as  a  protection  against  the  raids  ot  the  sur- 
rounding wild  tribes.  They  wore  garments,  used  im- 
plements and  weapons  of  copper,  and  put  on  ornaments 
of  gold.  Their  religion  included  a  phallic  cult  as  well 
as  the  worship  of  snakes  and  trees,  which  things  were  ^  . 
at  first  repugnant  to  the  Aryan  invaders,  though  later^\  / 
on,  when  the  latter  amalgamated  with  the  earlier  m-P^^ 
habitants,  they  were  admitted  under  the  worship  of 
Siva.  It  is  probable  that  they  carried  on  a  brisk  mari- 
time trade  to  the  Persian  Gulf  from  the  western  shores 
of  India,  and  that  in  connection  with  it,  perhaps  in  the 
seventh  century  B.C.,  they  invented  the  rudiments  of 
the  Indian  system  of  writing.  Most  ot  these  things  we 
know  from  incidental  statements  in  the  Vedic  hymns, 
which  show  that  certain  portions  of  the  aboriginal  in- 
habitants possessed  a  degree  of  civilization  equal  to,  if 
not  higher  than,  that  of  the  Aryan  tribes  which  invaded 
their  country  and  conquered  them. 

Besides  the  Dravidian,  two  other  immigrations  de- 
serve some  notice.  These  came  into 
India  from  the  north-east,  but  as  they  fmm?grJuon° 
never  penetrated  into  the  country  far- 
ther than  the  wild  vaUevs  of  the  Himalaya__and_its 
offshoots  whjch  form  the  n^rth^agtenTcorner  ot  ^_"dia, 
th  eynever  Exerted  any  Influence  on  the_couiseIorTts 
history,  nor  helped  to  mould  its  civilizationTand  a  very 
brief  notice,  therefore,  will  suffice.  The  original  home 
of  these  noithz£a^ieDi-J4niuigrants_is^upposed  to  have 
been  t,he  country  round  the  head-waters  of  the  Yangtse- 
Kiang  in  China,  whence  they  came  down  into  Eastern 
India  by  the  valley  of  the  Brahmaputra.     They  did  so 


4  HISTORY    OF    INDIA. 

in  two  successive  waves.  The  first  to  come  were  the 
so-called  Tibeto-Burman  tribes  which  settled  in  the 
valley  of  Assam  and  in  the  hills  of  the  eastern  frontier 
down  to  Chittagong.  They  have  their  name  from  the 
fact  that  their  main  stream  spread  and  settled  outside 
India  in  Burma  and  Tibet.  Their  entrance  into  India 
lies  far  back,  and  its  date  is  not  exactly  knowii.  The 
second  immigration,  which  is  that  of  the  Tai  tribes, 
took  place  in  comparatively  modern  times.  These 
tribes,  under  the  name  of  the  Shans,  settled  in  Eastern 
Burma  and  Siam  in  the  sixth  century  A.D.,  but  sub- 
sequently a  small  portion  of  them  moved  into  Assam 
about  1228  A.D.  There,  after  several  hundred  years  of 
conflict  with  the  Chutiyas  and  Kacharis,  they  finally 
succeeded,  1540  a.d.,  in  establishing  their  rule.  Their 
kingdom,  known  as  that  of  the  Ahoms,  reached  the 
height  of  its  power  towards  the  end  of  the  seventeenth 
century  ;  but  afterwards  it  fell  a  prey  to  internal  troubles, 
which,  early  in  1825  a.d.,  led  to  Its  being  annexed  to 
the  British  dominions. 


V 

1^ 


CHAPTER   II<    . 

The  Pre=Vedic  Period  :  The  Aryans  in  their  Original 

Home.' 

Before   2000   B.C. 


R 


ESPECTING  the  original  home  of  the  Ar^ajas-two 
\i  main  theories  have  been  held. 
The  older  of  them  places  that  home  in  E{]p(/pi^nc 
Weste,mjjirkestan ;  the  other,  which 
has  the  support  of  a  mass  of  anthropological  and  linguis- 
tic evidence,  refers  it  to^South£m_Russia,  or  some  other 
part  of  Europe.  According  to  this  theory,  there  lived, 
in  pre-historic  periods,  a  hardy  race  of  nomads,  probably 
in  the  extensive  steppes  of  Southern  Russia  in  Europe, 
along  the  banks  of  the  river  Volga.  They  were  mainly 
a  fair-skinned  people,  with  well-shaped  noses  and  hand- 
some faces.  They  wandered  from  one  pasturage  to 
another  with  their  flocks  of  cattle,  goats  and  sheep,  trans- 
porting their  families  and  goods  in  light  waggons  drawn 
by  horses.  Rivers  were  crossed  by  them  in  boats  cut 
out  from  the  trunks  of  trees  which  grew  along  the  banks. 
The  milk  and  the  flesh  of  their  herds  served  as  food,  and 
of  the  skins  the}'  made  for  themselves  simple  garments, 
as  well  as  of  the  hair  or  wool  which  they  spun  and  wove 
in  a  primitive  fashion.  They  also  kept  bees  for  the  sake 
of  the  honey,  from  w^hich  they  prepared  an  intoxicating 
drink  called  mead.  They  used  implements  of  stone,  and 
weapons  of  copper  with  which  they  defended  themselves 
against  the  depredations  of  wolves  and  bears  and  other 
wild  animals.  While  temporarily  settled  on  a  pasturage, 
they  dwelt  in  huts  made  of  wood  and  loam,  or  in  cavities 
dug  in  the  ground.  At  such  times  they  raised  small  crops 
of  barle5'and  millet  which  they  roasted  and  crushed  to  bake 
into  cakes,  and  they  also  trafficked  by  barter  with  neigh- 


6  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

bouring  races  for  such  things  as  their  own  steppes  did  not 
produce.  The  sky,  the  sun,  the  moon,  the  dawn,  fire, 
wind,  and  thunder  seemed  to  them  gods  ;  and  accord- 
ingly they  feared  and  sought  to  propitiate  them.  They 
had  no  priests,  but  cunning  men  among  them  claimed 
by  sorcery  to  control  the  gods  and  to  heal  diseases. 
Their  men  got  for  themselves  wives  by  capture  or  pur- 
chase. The  husband  had  an  absolute  right  of  sale  or 
death  over  his  wife  and  children  ;  and  for  the  widow  of 
a  chief  it  was  considered  proper  to  die  at  the  grave 
of  her  husband.  They  lived  together,  two  or  three 
generations  in  a  joint-family.  Several  such  families  made 
up  a  clan,  and  several  clans  formed  a  tribe.  From  among 
the  clan-lords,  one  was  chosen  chief  or  king  of  the  tribe, 
to  administer  its  common  business,  and  above  all  to  act 
as  supreme  commander  in  war. 

In  course  of  time  the  race  multiplied  to  such  an 

extent  that  the  pasturage  of  the  common 

Dispepsion     of    area  did  not  suffice  for  the  needs  of  all  the 

pelns'!^^'^"''^'  t"^^s-  This  may  have  been  about  four 
thousand  years  ago.  So  those  tribes  who 
lived  on  the  borders  of  the  area,  made  up  their  minds  to 
seek  new  homes  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  Those 
living  on  the  western  border  went  south-west  into 
Europe  and  settled  in  England,  France,  Germany,  Italy, 
Greece  and  elsewhere.  But  one  large  tribe  which 
frequented  the  pasturages  on  the  south-eastern  border 
at  the  head  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  whose  members 
called  themselves  Aryans,  crossed  the  Ural  river  into 
Asia,  and  wandered  south-east  into  the  steppes  of 
Western  Turkestan  between  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the 
river  Yaxartes  or  Sir  Darya.  Here  the  Aryans  were 
settled  for  some  considerable  time. 


CHAPTER     III. 
The  Vedic   Period  :    The  Aryans  in  the  Punjab. 

About  i8oc — looo  B.C. 

AFTER  a  time,  there  arose  among  the  Aryans,  in 
their  new  home  on  the  northern 
side  of  the  Hindu  Kush,  a  religious  re-  fmmigratKm! 
former,  known  by  the  name  of  Zoroaster. 
A  large  portion  of  them,  known  as  the  Iranians,  accepted 
the  reform.  This  gradually  caused  such  serious  discord 
with  the  rest  of  the  Aryans  that  the  Iranians  determi- 
ned to  separate.  They  crossed  the  mountain  barrier,  and 
wandered  westward  and  settled  in  Iran,  or  Persia.  Some 
time  afterwards,  another  portion  of  the  Aryans,  who  had 
not  accepted  Zoroaster's  reform,  also  crossed  the  moun- 
tains. But  these  migratedsouthward  into  India,  and,  for 
that  reason^jvre  knownas  thTIndo- Aryans.^  The  separa- 
tion of  the  Aryans,  and  their  respective  settlements, 
occurred  at  some  time  between  the  i8th  and  i6th  centu- 
ries B.  c.  This  we  know  from  certain  recently  discovered 
cuneiform  inscriptions  In  India,  the  Indo- Aryans  occu- 
pied the  country  on  both  sides  of  the  Indus  and  as  far  as 
the  Jumna,  that  is,  Eastern  Afghanistan  and  the  Punjab. 
Within  this  new  home,  they  remained  settled  for  several 
centuries,  probably  down  to  about  looo  B.  c.  But  it 
must  not  be  supposed  that  the  settlement  was  effected 
in  the  space  of  a  few  years  or  without  any  trouble. 
On  the  contrary,  fierce  fights  took  place  with  the 
aboriginal  race  that  already  occupied  the  country. 

It  has  been  explained,  in  Chapter  I,  that  the  abori- 
ginal Dravidians  were  a  comparatively  „. 
civilized  people.     In    this  respect  they    S?Dravidians. 
were   hardly    interior   to   the    mvading 
Aryans  ;  but  the  latter  were  a  more  hardy  race,  stronger 


8  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

both  physically  and  mentally.  So  it  is  no  wonder  that  the 
Dravidian  civilization  was  overwhelmed  by  that  of  the 
Aryans.  The  most  striking  evidences  of  this  fact  are  that 
.  the  Aryan  language  entirely  ousted  the  Dravidian,  and 
that  the  Dravidian  people,  though  numerically  far  superior, 
were  entirely  subjected  to  the  Aryan  domination,  and 
incorporated  into  the  Aryan  community,  of  which' hence- 
forth they  formed  the  lowest  or  Sudra  class.  At  the  same 
time,  the  incorporation  of  such  a  numerous  class  could  not 
but  leave  its  mark  on  the  physical  constitution  and  the 
social  organization  of  the  Aryans.  At  the  first  contact 
with  the  aboriginal  population,  the  distinction  of  colour 
was  a  marked  feature.  In  the  Vedas  the  Aborigines 
are  described  as  krishna  or  dark,  or  as  being  of  the 
dasa-variia,  that  is,  the  enemies'  colour,  in  contrast  to 
the  arya-var7ia,  or  friends'  (i.e.,  fellow-clansmen's)  colour, 
which  was  fair.  But  by  the  end  of  the  Vedic  period, 
the  distinction  of  colour  had  practically  disappeared. 
For  though  the  word  for  colour  (  varna)  survived  as  a 
general  term  for  caste,  it  was  no  longer  used  as  a  mark 
for  distinguishing  one  caste  from  another. 

Caste,   in    the   proper   sense,    as   we   shall   see   in 

Chapter  IV,  arose  in  the  next  period ; 

Origin  of  Classes,     j^^^  ^^^  necessities  and  vicissitudes  of 

the  Aryan  migration  led  to  the  rise  of  "classes,"  which 
did  not  exist  in  the  original  European  home.  There, 
apart  from  differences  in  wealth,  all  the  individual 
nomads  were  equals  ;  the  only  approach  to  a  distinct 
class  was  made  by  the  magician  or  sorcerer,  who  got  his 
living  not  by  cattle-breeding  but  by  ministering  to  the 
religious  instincts  of  his  clansmen.  But  when  the  Aryan 
people,  in  the  course  of  their  wanderings,  passed  from 
the  steppes  into  a  countr)"  of  mountains  and  forests, 
they  had  to  exchange  a  nomadic  life  for  that  of  the 
vaisya.  or  settler,  whose  occupation  was  to  clear  the 
forest  and  till  the  ground.  Moreover,  though  to  ward 
off  raids  at  first  every  man  had  to  be  a  warrior,  yet  when 
it   came  to  regular  fierce  warfare  with   the  Aborigines 


Ch.  Ill,]  THE   VEDIC   PERIOD.  9 

of  Other  countries,  the  necessity  arose  for  a  class  of 
men  who  devoted  themselves  to  the  practice  of  arms. 
Being  the  fighters  for,  and  the  protectors  of,  the  people, 
under  the  leadership  of  the  raja,  or  chief,  they  came  to 
occupy  a  privileged  position  as  being  the  rajanya,  or  the 
chief  men,  i.e.,  the  nobles.  A  long  course^Fsuecessiul 
wandering  ancl  warfare  naturally  led  the  Aiyan__to  a 
higher  conception  of  his  gods,  to  whose  favour  he  felt 
that  he  owed  it.  Out  of  mysterious  powers  to  be  feared, 
the  gods  grew  to  be,  for  him,  personal  and  beneficent 
beings,  worthy  of  receiving  his  brahman,  that  is,  prayer 
and  praise.  Simultaneously  the^Wizards  of  old  grew  up 
into  a  class  of  cultured  Brahmans,  whose  business  it  was 
to  compose  hymns  in  praise  of  the  gods  and  to  sacrifice 
to  them.  Thus  by  the  time  the  Aryans  had  effected 
their  sgttlemenL-in — oorth-western  India  about_j_ooo 
B.C.,  they  were  divided  into  three  classes,  the 
Rajanya,  Brahinana,  and  Vaisya,  to  which  the  subject 
ABorigines  were  added  as  a~fourth  class  of  Sudras. 
These  classes,  however,  had  not  yet  become  castes  ;  for 
the  Brahmans,  though  very  influential,  were  not  yet  the 
dominant  class,  nor  was  it  impossible  to  pass  from  one 
class  into  another. 

The   high-water  mark  of  the  culture  reached  by 
the  Indo- Aryans  in  the  person  of  their       xj,    d-       a 
Brahmans,  is  exhibited  in  the  Rigveda.  ^^  ^ 

This  is  a  collection  of  upwards  of  a  thousand  skilfully 
composed  hymns,  mostly,  though  not  exclusively,  of  a 
religious  import.  For  that  early  age,  their  literary 
excellence  is  asfonishing  ;  few  compositions  comparable 
to  theTmcan  be  found  among  any  other  people.  The 
collection  must  have  been  finished  as  early  as  1000 
B.C.,  and  has  since  been  handed  down  with  scrupulous 
care  and  accuracy.  Most  of  the  hymns  of  the  collec- 
tion appear  to  have  'been  composed  in  the  extreme 
eastern  portion  of  the  area  occupied  by  the  Aryans, 
that  is^  not  far  from  the  right  bank  of  the  Jumna,  in  the 
district   of   Thanesar,  south   of  Ambala,  between  the 


10  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

two  small  rivers,  the  Sarsati  and  the  Chitang.  Hence 
this  district  was  called  the  BraJimavarta  or  the  home 
of  the  Brahman,  i.e.,  of  the  Vedic  Hymns  of  prayer 
and  praise.  It  was  also  named  Kiinikshetra,  that  is, 
the  land  of  the  Kurus,  who  were  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  tribes  among  the  Aryans  of  India. 

From  the  Rigveda,  which  is  a  contemporary  work,  we 
are  able  to  gather  a  trustworthy  account 
fion^°  Civiliza-  ^f  ^y^^  gj-^^-g  ^^  civilization  of  the  Aryans 
between  three  and  four  thousand  years 
ago.  The  following  are  some  of  the  main  features.  Their 
^cial  division  into  four  classes  has  been  already  men- 
tioned. As  to~tlieir  political  organization,  it  remained 
practically  unchanged,  and  consisted  oflribes,  clans,  and 
joint-families.  Though  the}''  were  conscious  of  their 
unity  in  race,  language  and  religion,  there  was  no  cohesion 
between  the  tribes,  though  for  temporary  purposes 
they  readily  formed  confederations.  Just  as  the  govern- 
ment of  the  joint-family  was  patriarchal,  so  that  of  the 
tribejmL^ionaichical.  i  he  king  being  once  elected  by 
the  clansTThe  office  generally  became  hereditary.  His 
power,  however,  was  limited  b}'  the  will  of  the  people 
expressed  in  the  Samili  or  tribal  assembly.  The  settle- 
ments were  villages,  consisting  of  houses  made  of  wood, 
with  the  domestic  fire  in  the  middle.  There  were  no 
towns,  though  there  were  fortified  enclosures  on  hill-tops, 
made  of  earth  and  stones,  and  stockaded.  Ordinarily, 
however,  these  were  not  inhabited,  but  used  only  as 
places  of  refuge  during  raids  or  floods.  In  manners  and 
customs  we  notice  an  advance  in  refinement.  As  to 
marriage,  contract  takes  the  place  of  capture  or  purchase  ; 
the  wife  occupies  a  position  of  greater  honour  in  the 
household  ;  when  the  husband  dies,  she  is  no  longer  expect- 
ed to  cremate  herself  with  him.  The  commonest  crime 
appears  to  have  been  cattle-liftmg ;  and  the  commonest 
vice,  gambling,  and  in  connection  therewith  ruinous 
debts,  and  indulgence  in  sofna  and  sjira,  two  kinds  of 
spirituous  liquor.     The  chief  articles  of  food  were  milk, 


Ch.  III.]  THE   VEDIC   PERIOD.  II 

ghee,  and  grain  of  various  kinds  ;  flesh,  especially  of 
bulls  which  had  been  sacrificed,  was  also  eaten,  but  only 
on  ceremonial  occasions.  The  chief  occupations  were 
cattle-breeding  and  agriculture,  and  at  certain  times,  ot 
course,  warfare.  The  first  of  these  was  their  principal 
source  of  wealth  ;  accordingly  the  cow  enjoyed  an  almost 
sacred  veneration.  As  to  industries,  such  as  those  of  the 
carpenter,  smith,  potter,  and  tanner,  they  were  only  just 
beginning  to  arise ;  for,  as  a  rule,  every  household  sup- 
plied its  own  needs,  especially  by  weaving  clothes,  and 
making  utensils  of  clay,  wood  or  metal.  There  existed 
much  trade  in  the  form  of  barter.  In  this  the  cow 
formed  the  measure  of  value  ;  though  payment  was  often 
made  in  gold  ornaments  and  jewelry.  Silver  was  not 
known,  but  copper  and  perhaps  iron  were.  Of  these  latter 
metals  the  implements  of  agriculture  were  made  as  well 
as  the  weapons  of  war — ploughs,  spears  and  axes.  But 
the  principal  weapon  was  the  bow  and  arrow.  In  war- 
time the  leading  warriors  went  to  battle  in  chariots, 
protected  by  coats  of  mail  and  helmets,  but  never  on 
horseback.  In  times  of  peace  the  chariot  was  used  for 
racing.  This  was  a  favourite  amusement,  as  well  as 
dancing  in  the  open  air,  and  music  performed  on  the 
drum,  the  flute,  and  the  lute.  The  religious  beliefs,  were 
undergoing  a  change.  Some  of  the  earlier  gods  were 
fading  away,  and  others  were  coming  into  prominence. 
As  a  natural  consequence  of  their  life  of  migration  and 
warfare,  Indra,  the  god  of  battles,  is  now  the  favourite 
and  national  god.  Other  chief  gods  are  Varuna,  the  god 
of  law  and  order,  the  Maruts  or  storm-gods,  and  espe- 
cially Agni  (fire)  and  Soma  (a  certain  plant),  the  gods  of 
the  great  Fire  and  So7na  sacrifices.  Vishnu  and  Siva  are 
hardly  yet  known  ;  nor  do  anv  images  or  temples  seem 
to  have"  existed.  The  gods  had  each  a  distinctive  attri- 
bute ;  but  they  had  several  attributes  also  in  common. 
When  the  hymns  were  composed,  these  geyieral  attri- 
butes we5e  uppermost  in  the  mind  of  the  poet,  and  so 
people  conceived  the  idea  that  the  many   gods  they 


12  HISTORY     OF    INDIA. 

adored  were  but  the  various  aspects  of  One  Divine  Beings 
who  was  present  in  ever}^  part  of  the  universe.  Here 
we  see  the  first  beginnings  of  that  philosophic  thought 
which  was  so  greatly  developed  in  the  next  period,  and 
which  has  ever  distinguished  the  Aryans  of  India. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

The  Brahmanic  Period  :  The  United  lndo=Aryans 
in  Northern  India. 

About  looo — 550   B.C. 

IN  the  preceding  chapter  we  have  seen  the  Aryans 
fully  establisheduiLJil£--Eii«jah_jlawiilo_ab-Qi^ 
B.C.     It   was  about    this  time   that   an 
event  occurred  which  not  only    led  to       Remarks^^'^^ 
a  further  extension  of  the  Aryan  occupa- 
tion of  India,  but  also  produced  those-gxeatjchanges  in 
the  physicaLap^jearance  and  the  social  organizatioQ  of 
the   Aryans  which  transformed   them^Tnto   the    Indo- 
Aryans,  and,  apart  from  their  language,  render  them  so 
thoroughly   distinct    from    their    kinsfolk    dwelhng    in 
Europe. 

This  event,  as  the  linguistic  and  ethnic  conditions 
of  India  seem  to  indicate,  was  a  second 
irruption  of  Aryans  into  India.  Of  the  Second  Aryan 
Aryan  stock  which  remained  behind  in  Immigration, 
the  mountainous  regions  of  Western 
Turkestan  just  north  of  the  Hindu  Kush,  another  portion 
appears  gradually  to  have  migrated  directly  south  into 
the  Punjab,  through  the  passes  of  Chitral  and  Swat. 
In  the  course  of  this  migration  it  absorbed  most  of  the 
aboriginal  population  of  those  parts,  and  in  doing  so  adopt- 
ed some  of  its  peculiar  practices.  Among  these  may  be 
specially  n^ientioned  polyandry  and  witchcraft,  as  testified 
by  the  MahabJiarata  and  the  AiJiarva~Veda.  In  the 
plains  of  the  Punjab,  the  new-comers  came  into  contact 
with  the  earlier  settlers ;  and  a  sharp  struggle  for  the 
possession  of  the  country  ensued  between  them.  The 
former  worked  themselves  into  the  midst  of  the  latter  like 
a  wedge,  forcing  them  to  spread  out  further  in  all  direc- 


14  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

tions,  especially,  at  first,  towards  the  east,  along  the 
valleys  of  the  Jumna  and  the  Ganges,  and  later  also 
across  the  Vindhya  Range  into  the  valley  of  the  Nar- 
bada.  The  ultimate  result,  however,  of  the  conflict  was 
that  the  two  contending  parties,  together  with  their 
allies  among  the  aboriginal  races,  were  welded  into  one 
people,  with  new  physical  characteristics  as  well  as  a 
new  and  unique  civilization,  which  is  known  as  Brah- 
nianic.  All  this  had  come  to  pass  by  about  500  B.C. 
In  the  period  of  conflict  one  of  the  most  important 
of  the  contending  tribes  was  that  of  the 
Conflict  of  the  Bharatas,to  which  the  Kurus,or  Kauravas, 
earlier     and       belonged.     From  this  circumstance  the 

\^^i<^JfJt^^  great  epic,  known  as  the  Mahabharata, 
immigrants.  &^^^  .^^  ^^^^  ^^^^^  ^^^^^^  ^^  ^^^^  Descen- 
dants of  Bharata,  takes  its  name  ;  hence,  also,  India  as 
the  home  of  the  united  parties,  is  known  as  Bharata- 
varsha  or  the  land  of  the  Bharatas.  A  reminiscence 
of  the  conflict  is  preserved  in  the  Rigyeda.  Some  of 
its  hymns  speak  of  a  great  battle— in  which  the  Bharatas 
took  a  prominent  part— as  having  occurred  on  the  banks 
of  the  Ravi,  between  King  Suda's  and  a  confederacy  of 
ten  kings.  In  the  Mahabharata,  another  great  battle 
is  described  as  having  lasted  eighteen  days  near  the  banks 
of  the  Jumna,  and  as  having  been  fought  between 
Yudhishthira,  king  of  the  Pandavas,  and  one  hundred 
Kaurava  princes.  The  former  with  their  polyandric 
customs  represent  the  new-comers,  while  the  Kauravas 
are  the  earlier  settlers  ;  and  it  may  be  that  the  initial 
stage  of  their  conflict  is  described  in  the  Rigveda,  while 
the  Mahabharata  has  preserved  a  tradition  of  its  final 
stage,  which  resulted  in  the  formation  of  the  united 
Indo-Aryan  people.  In  any  case,  the  fact  that  both 
contending  parties  are  represented  as  having  been 
Bharatas,  shows  that  the  conflict  was  one  between  two 
branches  of  the  same  Aryan  stock.  The  story  of  the 
conflict  itself  is  very  ancient,  but  in  the  Mahabharata, 
which  was  composed  in  the  subsequent  period  fsoo  B.C. — 


/ 


Ch.  IV.]  THE    BRAHMANIC   PERIOD.  I5 

500  A.D.),  history  is  treated  poetically.  Two  points, 
however,  we  can  clearly  discern  from  it :  the  growth 
of  a  common  national  feeling,  and  the  rise  of  large 
monarchical  states. 

We  find  mention  of  aboriginal  tribes  fighting  side 
by  sjde  with  the  Aryans  as  friends  and 
brothers.  TheoldVedic  terms  of  ^m/zwrt  peo  ^6^°"^^^^^^ 
or  dark  and  dasa-varna  or  enemy- 
colour,  which  the  fair-skinned  Aryans  contemptuously 
applied  to  the  aboriginal  races,  are  disappearing.  The 
Aryans  and  Aborigines  are  merging  into  each  other,  and 
becoming  the  Indo-Aryan  people — one  in  national  feel- 
ing as  well  as  in  outward  appearance. 

Side  by  side  with  this  evolution,  we  observe  a 
growth  in  political  organization.  The 
small  tribal  communities  of  the  Vedic  ftaSs'^^^"  ^^ 
period  are  now  crystallizing  into  larger 
territorial  states,  which  give  place,  as  we  shall  see  in  the 
next  period,  to  far-reaching  empires.  These  states  possess 
regular  capital  cities,  and  are  ruled  by  Maharajas  or 
Great  Kings,  instead  of,  as  hitherto,  by  mere  Rajas  or 
Chiefs.  Thus  we  find  a  confederate  kingdom  of  Panchala 
or  the  five  cities,  in  the  middle  of  Northern  India,  in 
what  are  now  the  United  Provinces  of  Agra  and  Oudh. 
Some  of  its  capital  cities  were  Kanyakubja  (or  Kanauj), 
Kausambi  and  Mathura,  the  Chief  of  the  last  of  which 
was  Krishna,  who  afterwards,  for  some  reason  no  longer 
ascertainable,  came  to  be  deified  as  an  incarnation  of 
Vishnu.  To  the  east,  Panchala  was  bordered  by  the 
kingdom  of  Kosala,  the  modern  Oudh,  with  its  capital 
at  Ayodhya,  and,  further  on,  the  republic  of  Vaisali, 
forming  a  curious  exception  to  the  general  monarchical 
organization.  In  Kosala  once  reigned  the  famous  king 
Dasaratha,  and  his  still  more  famous  son  Rama,  who  also 
afterwards  came  to  be  deified  as  another  incarnation  of 
Visbiiu.  His  victorious  march  through  Southern  India 
to  the  conquest  of  Ceylon,  poetically  described,  forms 
the   other   great    Indian    epic,   called   the   Ramayana. 


.16  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

Still  further  to  the  east  two  more  kingdoms  arose ; 
those  of  Videha  and  Magadha,  the  modern  North  and 
South  Bihar.  The  former  is  famous  through  its  great 
king  Janaka,  the  father  of  Sita,  who  was  the  queen  of 
Rama  and  the  heroine  of  the  Ramayana.  With  Maga- 
dha was  joined  the  kingdom  of  Chedi,  or  the  country 
round  Jabalpur  and  Bilaspur,  under  the  great  king 
Jarasandha,  who  is  a  prominent  figure  in  the  great 
conflict  of  the  two  Aryan  branches.  Further  south- 
west came  the  kingdoms  of  Nishadha  and  Vidarbha,  on 
the  two  sides  of  the  Narbada  in  Central  India,  roughly 
corresponding  to  Southern  Malwa  and  Berar.  They  are 
the  scene  of  the  beautiful  Nalopakhyana,  the  epic  tale 
which  narrates  the  fortunes  of  Nala,  king  of  Nishadha,  and 
his  consort  Damayanti,  the  daughter  of  the  king  of  Vidar- 
bha. Numerous  legendary  stories  of  this  kind  have  sur- 
vived in  the  Mahabharata  and  Ramayana,  but  of  the  real 
history  of  those  kingdoms  we  know  practically  no  more 
than  their  names,  and  the  fact  that  they  were  formed, 
partly  by  conquest,  but  probably  more  so  by  peaceful 
colonization  in  which  the  forceful  Aryans  prevailed. 
Everywhere  the  latter  constituted  the  ruling  class,  and 
their  language  and  civilization  superseded  everything 
that  existed  before. 

The  form  of  government  in  these  states  was  auto- 
cratic.   The  king's  power  was  not  limited 
Political      and    \yy  ^^vy   assembly   either  of  the  whole 
Economic  Con-      ^      ,-'        c  ^\.        ^■        i  rr    i 

dition.  people  or  of  the  ruhng  class.     He  kept  a 

council  of  ministers  and  a  staff  of  officers, 
but  they  held  office  at  his  pleasure.  His  rule  vras  bene- 
volent or  tyrannous,  according  as  his  character  was  good 
or  bad,  strong  or  weak,  observant  of  law  and  custom  or 
the  reverse.  There  was  no  lack  of  warfare,  but  it  gener- 
ally took  place  on  the  borders  ;  it  was  the  business  of 
the  king,  and  of  the  ruling  military  caste  and  their  mercen- 
aries. The  ordinary  population  was  considered  neutral 
by  both  sides,  and,  on  the  whole,  was  allowed  to  live  in 
the  undisturbed  pursuit  of  agriculture,  trade,  and  industry. 


Ch.  IV.]  THE    BRAHMANIC   PERIOD.  IJ 

The  whole  population  was  practically  divided  into  two 
classes.  One  was  the  ruling  class,  consisting  of  the 
martial  Kshatriya  and  the  learned  Brahmana  castes. 
Both  were  exempted  from  the  payment  of  taxes,  and 
ordinarily  the  king  and  the  government  of  the  country 
belonged  to  the  former.  The  other,  which  was  the  subor- 
dinate class,  was  constituted  of  what  were  collectively 
called  the  Vaisya  and  Sudra  caste,  that  is  of  the  numer- 
ous castes  into  which  the  peasants,  merchants,  craftsmen 
and  labourers  of  every  kind  were  divided.  They  had 
to  pay  taxes  for  the  cost  of  wars,  and  for  the  upkeep 
of  the  king's  court  and  the  government,  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  they  were  exempted  from  military  service, 
and  were  allowed  the  peaceful  pursuit  of  their  daily 
business,  and,  in  many  cases,  the  accumulation  of  much 
wealth. 

It  was  especially  in  the  central  part  of  Northern 
India  that  the  conditions  above  described 
prevailed  ;  that  is  in  that  part  which  Jf^Cas^?^"^ 
embraces  most  of  the  present  United 
Provinces  of  Agra  and  Oudh.  This  is  the  Madhya-desa 
or  Mid-land,  which  was  celebrated  as  the  centre  and 
nursery  of  Brahmanism.  It  was  undoubtedly  that  part 
of  India  which  was  most  thoroughly  aryanized  ;  where 
the  Brahmanic  civilization  developed  ;  and  whence  it 
gradually  spread  over  the  whole  of  India.  The  most 
striking  feature  pf  this^rahniame-Givilizalionjsjta^ystem 
of_caste.  The  history  of  its  origin  has  been  always, 
even  in  ancient  times,  a  matter  of  much  speculation. 
In  the  previous  chapter  we  have  seen  how  the  vicissitudes 
of  the  Aryan- immigration  into  India  tended  to^iyide 
theneople  intolo^^Iasies^  Among  these  a  very  influ- 
entiaTpositionlvas  naturally  held  by  the  Brahmans,  that 
is,  by  those  who  possessed  the  brahman  or  religious 
lore,  and  performed  the  sacrifices,  on  which,  for  the 
Kshatrjya  or  martial  class,  success  in  war,  and  for  the 
ordinary  population,  prosperity  in  agriculture,  pasture, 
and  industry  was.believed  to  depend.    With  the  increasing 


l8  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

complexity  of  the  political  and  economic  conditions, 
this  feeling  of  dependence  on  the  Brahmans  naturally 
Jjecamejncreasingly  strong.  At  the  same  time,  as  with 
the  expansion  of  the  Aryan  occupation  of  India  the 
absorption  of  aboriginal  people  into  the  Aryan  com- 
munity grew  larger,  the,desire  of  the  ruHng  class,  that  is, 
of  the  Brahmans  andiCshatriyas,  grew  stronger  to  pre- 
serve the  purrty^D^3!^?£ISjyan  descent  through  the 
preventiorroiTnTefmarriage^and  sociaj_contact  ;  and  this 
policy,  of  necessity,  tended  to  make  each  class  a  heredi- 
tary institution.  Thus  the  combined  action  of  the 
feeling  of  dependence  and  the  principle  of  heredity  (jaii), 
resulted  eventually  in  the  establishment  of  that  system 
of  caste,  in  which  the  Brahmans  are  supreme,  and  all 
classes  are  divided  from  one  another  by  the  insuperable 
barrier  of  birth  and  the  prohibition  of  intermarrying  and 
eating  together.  It  is  probable  that  it  was  the  Brah- 
man class  who  first  succeeded  in  forming  themselves  into 
an  exclusive  caste  :  but  the  example  of  such  an  influen- 
tial class  naturally  proved  infectious,  and  thus  their  policy 
filtered  downwards  through  all  classes,  till  finally  it 
embraced  the  whole  Indo-Aryan  community,  including 
the  aboriginal  elements  incorporated  in  it.  It  is  not  fair 
to  say  that  the  pride  and  self-interest  of  the  Brahmans 
caused  them  to  build  up  the  caste  system.  The  Brah- 
mans are  no  more  responsible  for  it  than  any  of  the 
other  classes,  except  in  so  far  as  they  may  have  origin- 
ally set  the  example.  Being  the  only  class  with  literar>' 
culture,  they  systematized  the  process  which  was  going 
on  all  around  them,  and  recorded  it  in  their  books  of 
religion  and  law.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  their  systema- 
tized theory  of  four  castes  does  not  agree  with  the 
reality.  Though  the  divisions  of  the  ruling  class,  the 
Brahmans  and  the  Kshatriyas,  especially  the  former,  are 
real  castes,  the  two  divisions  of  the  ordinary  population 
into  Vaisyas  and  Sudras  are  only  theoretic  abstractions. 
As  to  that  population  the  truth  is  that  it  consists  of  a 
very  large  number  of  real  castes,  which  are  based  on 


CH.  IV.]  THE  BRAHMANIC   PERIOD.  1 9 

grounds   of  race   and    occupation,   and   enjoy   varying 
degrees  of  social  rank. 

Simultaneously  with  caste,  there  grew  up  the  other 
institution  of  asrania  or  the  methodical 
division  of  one's  life.  It  was  to  consist  J?  Asrama!^^^'^ 
of  four  stages :  ( i )  study  {brahmacharya) 
in  one's  youth,  (2)  founding  a  household  and  exercising 
a  profession  (grihastha)  in  manhood,  and  (3)  meditation 
either  as  a  settled  recluse  {vanaprastha),  or  (4)  as  a 
houseless  wanderer  {safnnyasin)  in  old  age.  This  institu- 
tion had  a  somewhat  similar  history  to  that  of  caste. 
Started  by  the  Brahmans,  it  was  more  or  less  copied  by 
the  other  castes  :  but  it  never  obtained  the  same  ab- 
solute hold,  as  caste  did,  on  the  imagination  and  practice 
of  the  people. 

It  was  a  natural  consequence  of  the  priestly  func- 
tion of  the  Brahman  class  that  literary  Literature 
culture  first  grew  up  among  them.  It 
was  their  duty  to  preserve  the  ancient  hymns  without 
which  no  sacrifices  could  be  offered.  To  this  end  they 
made  a  Samhita  or  collection  of  all  the  Rich  or  Vedic 
verses  then  known  to  exist,  and  this  collection  is  known 
as  the  Rigveda.  Further,  as  the  verses  were  used  in 
different  sacrifices  for  which  different  rituals  were  want- 
ed, they  sorted  the  hymns  so  as  to  form  three  different 
Satnhitas  or  collections.  Thus  arose  the  collection  of 
Yajus  or  sacrificial  formulas  called  Yajurveda,  and 
the  collection  of  Saman  or  sacrificial  chants  called 
Saniaveda.  Later  on,  there  was  added  a  fourth  collec- 
tion of  Atharva7i  or  incantations,  called  Atharvaveda. 
Moreover,  since  the  ancient  Vedic  hymns  were  by 
this  time  becoming  unintelligible,  the  Brahmans  were 
obliged  to  spend  much  labour  and  ingenuity  in  explain- 
ing them.  Thus  there  grew  up  a  number  of  theological 
works,  under  the  name  of  Brahmana.  Again,  the 
constant  occupation  of  the  Brahmans  with  religious 
matters,  naturally  disposed  them  to  pursue  speculations 
regarding  the  nature  of  God  and  the   World,  and  the 


20  HISTORY   OF    INDIA. 

> 

relation  of  these  to  each  other.  This  study  gave  rise  to 
the  theosophical  and  philosophical  treatises,  known  as 
the  Arayiyaka  and  Upanishad. 

The  growth  of  the  Brahmanic  literature  was  accom- 
: .  panied  by  a  growth  of  Brahmanic  religion 
fffon^^^^  ^^^^"  ^"^^  religious  practices.  The  crude  poly- 
theism of  the  Vedic  period  gradually 
assumed  a  monotheistic  aspect.  The  chief  g-ds  of  that 
period,  Indra  and  Varuna,  sank  into  the  lower  position 
of  the  subordinate  gods  of  the  sky  and  the  sea  ;  and 
Brahma  rose  into  prominence  as  the  Supreme  God  who  is 
the  Prajapati  or  Lord  of  the  Creation.  Later  on,  there 
developed  a  great  division  of  the  people  into  Vaishnavas 
and  Saivas,  according  as  either  Vishnu  or  Siva,  both  origin- 
ally Vedic  deities,  were  adopted  as  the  Supreme  God.  But 
practically  this  division  only  represents  two  different 
views  of  the  same  religion— rOne  more  tender  and  refined, 
the  other  more  coarse  and  passionate  ;  and  this  fact  is 
typified  in  the  so-called  Indian  Trinity  of  Brahma,  Vishnu 
and  Siva,  that  is,  the  Supreme  God  in  his  three  manifesta- 
tions of  Creator,  Preserver,  and  Destroyer.  The  Saiva 
form  of  the  Brahmanic  religion,  however,  more  distinctly 
preserves  traces  of  the  incorporation  of  aboriginal  beliefs 
in  the  worship  of  the  Linga  and  the  reverence  paid  to 
the  snake.  As  to  the  exercise  of  this  religion,  whether 
Vaishnava  or  Saiva,  it  consisted  in  the  mere  mechanical 
performance  of  elalDorate  sacrifices,  or  of  Voga,  that  is, 
asceticism,  of  various  grades  of  severity.  In  either 
case,  the  principal  object  of  the  worshipper  or  the 
ascetic  was  to  secure  from  his  God  some  worldly  ad- 
vantage. 

By  the  side,  however,  of  this  prevailing  ritual  or 
•  pra.ctics.l'view  of  religion  (karma-kha?ida) 
Panthe^sm^  there  always  existed  among  the  more 
spiritual  members  of  the  Indo-Aryan 
community  a  speculative  view  of  it  (/na?ia-khanda). 
For  tl]em  the  aim  was,  not  the  attainment  of  earthly 
happiness,  but  the  release  from  mundane  existence  by 


Ch.  IV.]  THE    BRAHMANIC   PERIOD.  21 

the  absorption  of  the  individual  soul  into  the  Alma?i  or 
World-soul,  and  this  absorption  was  to  be  attained  by 
means  of  jnana,  or  correct  knowledge,  of  the  nature 
of  things.  This,  and  not  sacrifice,  they  maintained,  was 
the  Vedanta,  that  is,  the  real  end  oraim  of  the  Veda. 
This  was  the  view  of  the  few,  the  pious  and  thoughful, 
who,  abandoning  the  performance  of  sacrifices,  often 
retired  from  the  world  to  live  as  recluses  in  the  forest. 
They  held  that  the  visible  world  was  nothing  but  an 
illusion  {maya)  of  the  ignorant,  that  in  reality  there 
existed  but  One  (atman)  who  was  All  in  All ;  and  that 
the  attainment  of  this  conviction  {jnana)  led  to  the  true 
deliverance  imoksha).  Accordingly  they  advised  a  life 
of  contemplation  ;  for  a  life  of  action  [karma],  as  it  tended 
to  keep  a  man  in  a  state  of  ignorance,  could  not  result  m 
his  deliverance  from  misery,  but  only  in  a  continuous 
series  of  re-births,  more  or  less  full  of  misery  according  as 
his;  good  or  bad  actions  had  preponderated  This  is  the 
lamous  Brahmanic  doctrine  of  transmigration  {samsara) 
and  its  cause  (karma),  which  gradually  became  so  firmly 
established  in  the  whole  Indo-Aryan  community  that, 
as  we  shall  see  in  the  next  chapter,  it  was  accepted  by 
Buddha  without  question,  and  included  by  him  in  the 
tundamental  tenets  of  his  religion. 


CHAPTER    V. 
The   Early   Buddhist   Period: 

The  Greek  Invasion,  the  First  (or  Maurya)  Empire,  and 
the  Rise  of  Buddhism. 

About  5§o — i%o  B.C. 

THE  preceding  chapter  has  shown  us  that,  during  the 
Brahmanic  period,  the  Indo-Aryan  occupation  of 

India  had  extended  to  the  borders  of 
Remarks!^^^       Beji^al  and  the  valley  of  the  Narbada. 

In  tire  period  we  are  now  considering 
it  spread  still  further  to  the  east  over  Bengal,  and  to  the 
south  over  the  whole  of  the  Deccan  and  as  far  as  Ceylon. 
It  was,  however,  in  the  main,  not  an  occupation  by 
armed  conquest,  but  a  peaceful  subjection  of  the  whole 
of  India  to  the  morally  and  intellectually  more  powerful 
Indo-Aryan  civilization.  The  only  parts  which  formed 
an  exception  were  the  wilder  regions  of  Central  India. 
Here  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  remained  in  their 
ancient  savage  condition.  Also  in  the  kingdoms  of  the 
east  coast  and  the  south,  such  as  those  of  the  Andhras, 
Cholas,  Keralas,  and  Pandyas,  which  correspond  to  a 
part  of  Haidarabad  and  to  Madras,  Mysore  and 
Travancore,  though  the  Brahmanic  laws  and  customs 
prevailed,  the  government  remained  in  the  hands  of 
the  Dravidians,  and  their  languages  (Telugu,  Tamil, 
and  others)  maintained  their  ground. 

The  spread  of  the  Brahmanic  civilization  was  much 

assisted  by  the  fact  that  gradually  nearly 

'"f  M^^"^^°"^       "^^   whole    of   India   came   under    one 

political  rule.     We  have  seen  how,  in 

the  preceding  period,  a  large  number  of  states  ?rose 

of  varying  sizes.     Gradually  one  state  among  them  be- 


Ch.  v.]         the    early    BUDDHIST   PERIOD.  23 

came  the  most  powerful  and  brought  under  its  subjection 
the  weaker  states  on  its  borders.  The  process,  once 
begun,  went  on  in  ever  widening  circles,  till  at  last  a 
great  empire  was  formed  which  embraced  nearly  the 
whole  of  India.  It  extended  from  beyond  the  Indus 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Ganges,  and  from  the  Himalayas 
down  to  modern  Mysore,  where  it  adjoined  the 
Dravidian  kingdoms  of  the  Cholas,  Keralas  and  Pandyas. 
This  was  the  First  Indian  Empire,  and  the  nucleus  from 
which  it  grew  up  was  the  kingdom  of  Magadha  or  South 
Bihar.  At  the  beginning  of  this  period,  that  kingdom 
was  ruled  by  a  Kshatriya  dynasty,  called  Saisunaga,  the 
fifth  king  of  which  was  Bimbisara,  a  contemporary  of 
Buddha  of  whom  some  account  will  be  given  presently. 
He  ascended  the  throne  about  543  B.C.,  and  his  capital 
was  Rajagriha.  He  was  murdered  by  his  son  Ajatasatru, 
who  succeeded  him  about  491  B.C.  This  king  was  h 
strong  and  aggressive  ruler,  and  it  was  he  who  made  a 
beginning  of  the  empire  by  conquering  the  two  neigh- 
bouring -stales,  the  great  kingdom  of  Kosala  and  the  re- 
public of  Vaisali.  To  enable  him  to  do  so,  he  built  the 
strong  fort  of  Pataliputra,  near  the  site  of  the  present 
Patna.  His  grandson  Udayin,  about  459  B.C.,  raised  a  city 
round  it,  and  made  it  the  royal  residence.  Thenceforth  it 
remained  for  many  centuries  the  capital  of  the  empire. 
With  Udayin's  successors  (about  426-371  B.C.)  the 
Kshatriya  dynasty  appears  to  have  come  to  an  end.  The 
history  of  its  extinction  is  very  obscure ;  but  one  thing 
is  certain,  that  the  Nanda  dynasty  (about  371-321  B.C.), 
which  now  came  to  rule  the  empire,  belonged  to  the 
Sudra  caste.  We  know  this  from  the  Greek  historians 
of  Alexander's  invasion  of  India,  which  took  place 
towards  the  end  of  the  Nanda  rule. 

To  that  celebrated  invasion  we  must  now  turn  our 
attention.      From    the    inscriptions    of 
Darius  Hystaspis,  the  Achemenian  king    vasf(frfof  India" 
of  Persia,  jve  know  -that  he  extended 
his  empire  as  far  as  the  Indus.     This  appears  to  have 


24  •  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

happened  about  512  B.C.  The  province,  or  satrapy  of 
the  Indus  Valley  was  considered  the  richest  and  most 
populous  possession  of  the  Persian  empire.  It  was,  no 
doubt,  this  part  which  induced  Alexander  the  Great,  after 
he  had  overthrown  the  Persian  empire;  to  attempt  to 
push  the  limits  of  his  own  Macedonian  empire  still 
farther  into  India. 

He  crossed  the  Indus  iii  the  spring  of  ^26  B.C.  at 
Ohind,  not  far  north  of  the  modern  Attock.  The 
country  between  the  Indus  and  Jehlum  peacefully  sub- 
mitted. There  the  Greeks,  for  the  first  time,  saw  the 
Brahman  Yogis,  whose  ascetic  practices  and  strange 
doctrines  caused  them  much  astonishment.  Between 
the  Jehlum  and  the  Chenab  lay  the  country  of  the 
Pauravas.  Their  king,  called  Poros  by  the  Greeks,  was 
the  first  to  offer  a  stout  resistance  to  the  mvader  ;  but 
he  was  totally  defeated  in  a  great  battle,  fought  at 
Jehlum,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  of  the  same  name. 
After  this  victory,  Alexander  met  with  no  serious  oppo- 
sition, till  he  reached  the  fortified  town  of  Sangala,  pro- 
bably not  far  from  Amritsar.  This  was  the  capital  of 
the  Kathaeans,  or  Kathis  as  they  are  now  called,  who 
formed  a  kind  of  republic.  With  some  difficulty  the 
town  was  captured,  after  which  Alexander  continued 
his  march  eastward  to  the  right  bank  of  the  Bias.  Here 
his  further  progress  towards  the  panges  was  arrested 
through  the  opposition  of  his  own  Macedonian  troops. 
They  had  heard  of  the  existence  of  a  formidable 
"Eastern"  power,  which  was  preparing  to  bar  their 
progress.  This  was  the  MagadbjL^jnjHie  of  the  Nandas. 
So,  being  already  worn'ourwTth  the  fatigues  of  a  long 
campaign  and  the  hardships  of  the  Indian  climate,  they 
refused  to  march  any  farther.  Alexander,  after  fruitless 
attempts  to  turn  them  from  their  purpose,  was  obliged 
to  retrace  his  steps  to  the  Jehlum.  There  he  embarked 
on  a  fleet  and  sailed  down  to  the  mouth  of  the  Indus. 
On  the  way  he  c<iptured  the  fortified  capital-  of  the 
Malloi,    or    Malava,   tribe,    somewhere    north-east    of 


CH.  v.]        the    early    BUDDHIST   PERIOD.  25 

Multan,  and  subdued  the  principalities  on  both  sides  of 
the  old  course  of  the  Lower  Indus.*  Thus  he  had  now 
completed  the  conquest  of  Sindh  as  well  as  of  the 
Punjab.  In  order  to  secure  his  hold  on  these  two  pro- 
vinces, he  found- 
ed several  new 
cities,  or  rather 
fortifie'd  Greek 
settlements — a- 
them 
Alex- 


mong 
Nicaea, 
andria, 
Patala, 


Indian  Silver  Coin  of  Alexander. 


and 
in  the 
upper  and  lower 
Punjab,  and  in 
Sindh  respect- 
ively. Having  thus,  as  lie  thought,  firmly  established 
his  conquests,  he  marched  back  to  Persia.  But  his 
expectations  were  not  realized.  On  the  civilization  of 
India,  his  invasion  left  practically  no  mark  ;  for  what- 
ever foreign  element  there  appears  in  the  institutions  or 
manners  of  the  succeeding  Mauryan  empire,  such  as  the 
title  of  Satrap  (Kshatrapa),  is  Persian  rather  than  Greek. 
Politically,  at  any  rate,  his  conquest  did  not  endure. 

Poros  had  been  taken  prisoner  in  the  great  battle 
on  the  Jehlum  ;  but  Alexander,  who  ad- 
mired  his  personal  bravery,  had  appoint-  Empira!"''"^^ 
ed  him  civil  administrator  in  the  Punjab 
under  the  Greek  Governor  Philip.  In  323  B.C.,  Poros 
was  treacherously  slain  by  Philip's  successor,  Eudemos. 
This  murder  provoked  a  national  revolt,  which  was 
headed  by  a  young  adventurer,  called  Chandra  Gupta 
Maurya.  "  He  succeeded  in  putting  an_end_la.thp  Greek 
^domination,  and  in  making  himself  the  ruler  of  the 
^PunjaF^d  Sindh.     He  was  a  native  of  Magadha,  and 


^The  old  course  of  the  Indus  and  its  tributaries  is  shown  r 
Map  II.     The  present  course  and  coast-line  are  indicated  by  d  '- 

D 


26 


HISTORY   OF   INDIA 


a  distant  connection  of  the  Nanda  dynasty  ;  but  having 
quarrelled  with  his  royal  relatives,  he  had  been  obliged 
to  flee  for  safety  to  Greek  territory.  Having  now  ex- 
pelled the  Greeks  and  acquired  some  power,  he  deter- 
mined to  revenge  himself  and  conquer  the  kingdom  of 
Magadha.  In  this  enterprise  he  easily  succeeded  ;  for 
the  Naudas  were  detested  on  account  of  their  tyranny. 
In  321  B.C.,  he  captured  the  capital  Pataliputra,  and  de- 
posing the  Nandas,  he  became  the  founder  of  the  famous 
Maurya  dynasty.  Soon  afterwards,  about  305  B.C.,  the 
Greeks  under  Seleukos,  known  as  Nikator  or  the  Con- 
queror, who  had  succeeded  to  the  eastern  portion  of 

Alexander's  empire, 
made  an  attempt  tore- 
conquer  fhejogt  pro- 
vinces  on  the  Indus. 
But  the  attempt  utter- 
ly failed,  and  the  result 
was  that  Seleukos  had 
to  cede  to  Chandra 
Gupta  not  only  the 
Punjab  and  Sindh,  but 
also  Eastern  Afghani- 
stan. Fortified  by 
this  success,  Chandra 
Gupta  proceeded  to 
reduce  to  vassalage 
the  greater  part  of 
India.  We  do  not 
know  the  details  of  his 
campaigns,  but  the 
result  was,  that  he 
built  up  the  First  Em- 
pire of  India,  wliich 
eventually  equalled  in 
extent  the  present  British  Indian  Empire,  excluding 
Burma.  It  reached  its  greatest  size  in  the  time  of  his 
'•andson,  Asoka,  who  added  the  east  coast  to  the  empire 


;g|. 

^  ....^.-ri^rsfeaA*!^ 

-....■ 

■•   "     "'•"' "'  '■ '  -■■■"■■  •    ''  -''- " — ^ 

Asoka's  Column. 


Ch.  v.]        the    early   BUDDHIST    PERIOD.  2/ 

by  the  conquest  of  the  kingdom  of  Kalinga,  that  is, 
Orissa  and  the  Circars.  Asoka  had  the  habit  of 
causing  his  "  Edicts/'  as  they  are  called,  to  be  engraved 
on  boulders,  or  on  columns  of  stone,  or  in  caves,  all 
over  the  empire.  Many  of  these  still  exist,  and  are 
witnesses  to  the  wide  extent  of  the  Maurya  Empire. 
They  are  found  on  the  right  side  of  the  Indus,  in  the 
middle  of  Mysore,  on  the  east  coast  near  Ganjam,  and 
in  the  Nepalese  Terai,  north  of  Basti.  They  prove  that 
the  Maurya  Empire  embraced  the  whole  of  India, 
approximately  down  to  Madras,  as  well  as  Eastern 
Afghanistan. 

Asoka  ascended  the  throne  in  2"] 2  B.C.,  but,  appa- 
rently his  succession  being  disputed  by 
an  elder  brother,  he  was  not  formally  Asoka's  Reign, 
crowned  till  four  years  later.  He  began 
his  rule  in  the  spirit  of  his  grandfather,  Chandra  Gupta, 
by  the  conquest  of  Kalinga.  But  the  horrors  of  that 
war,  and  the  admonitions  of  Buddhist  monks  made 
such  an  impression  on  his  mind  as  to  cause  an  entire 
change  of  character.  He  even  went,  towards  the  end 
of  his  reign,  so  far  as  to  become  a  Buddhist  monk.  He 
also  now  adopted  the  new  name  Piyadassi,  or  the 
Gracious,  by  which  he  calls  himself  in  his  Edicts.  For 
the  remainder  of  his  reign,  which  is  said  to  have  lasted 
altogether  41  years  (272-231  B.C.),  he  became  one  of 
the  most  benificent  rulers  that  India  has  seen.  His 
Edicts  give  us  a  vivid  picture  of  the  care  which  he  bes- 
towed on  the  administration  of  his  empire.  He  planted 
trees  along  the  roads,  dug  wells  and  canals  for  irrigation, 
built  rest-houses  for  travellers  and  hospitals  for  the  sick, 
and  held  regular  assemblies  at  intervals  of  three  or  five 
years  for  the  proper  instruction  of  his  officials.  He 
maintained  a  special  staff  of  high  officers  to  watch  over 
the  interests  of  the  poor  and  the  aged,  to  mitigate  the 
severity  of  the  criminal  laws,  and  to  restrain  the  exces- 
sive destruction  of  animal  life.  With  regard  to  the  last 
point   he  set   a    personal   example    by  abolishing    the 


2S 


HISTORY    OF   INDIA. 


customary  royal  hunting  parties  and  replacing  them  by 
pilgrimages.  In  one  of  these  pilgrimages,  twenty  years 
after  his  coronation,  he  visited  the  birthplace  of  Buddha 
at  Rummin  Dei  in  the  Nepalese  Terai,  and  there  set  up, 
in  commemoration  ol  his  visit,  an  inscribed  stone  pillar, 
which  still  exists,  to  mark  the  spot  where  Buddlia  was 
born.  The  propagation  of  Buddhism  was  a  particular 
object  oi"  his  solicitude.     He  sent  missionaries  not  only 

into  the  remoter 
parts  of  his  empire, 
such  as  Gujarat,  Af- 
ghanistan, Kashmir 
and  Nepal,  but  also 
into  the  independent 
kingdoms  of  South 
India,  and  to  Ceylon. 
In  the  latter  country, 
Asoka's  son,  or,  ac- 
cording to  another 
tradition,  his  young- 
er brother,  Mahen- 
dra,  is  said  to  have 
introduced  B  u  d  d- 
hism.  It  is  not  im- 
probable that  but  for 
Asoka's  missionary 
efforts.  Buddhism 
would  never  have 
spread  much  beyond 
the  limits  of  Maga- 
dha,  nor  have  become 
one  of  the  most 
wide- spread  religions 
of  the  world, 
excellent  policy  appears  to  have  been 
continued  by  his  grandson,  Dasaratha. 
This  we  ma}'  perhaps  conclude  h'om  his 
inscriptions  that  still  exist  carved  on  the 


View  of  Rummin  Dei  and  the  Asoka  Column 

Asoka's 

Asoka's 
Successors. 


Ch.  v.]         the    early   BUDDHIST   PERIOD.  29 

walls  of  the  Nagarjuni  Caves  near  Gaya,  which  he 
caused  to  be  constructed  for  the  benefit  of  the  Ajivika 
(a  sect  of  Jain)  monks.  Bul  after  him  the  dynasty 
rapidly  declined,  and  after  another  three  or  four  feeble 
reigns,  Brihadratha,  the  last  of  the  Mauryas,  was  dethron- 
ed by  his  rebellious  general,  Pushyamitra,  who  founded 
the  Sunga  dynasty.     This  happened  about  185  B.C. 

A  point  of  particular  interest  with  regard  to  Asoka 
is  thatin  the  13th  of  his  Rock-edicts,he  fa     • 

names  five  Greek  kings  as  contempor-  ind\?n°  Histopy! 
aries  of  himself  One  of  them  is  Antio- 
chusTheos,  king  of  Syria,  who  was  a  grandson  of  Seleukos 
Nikator,  the  contemporary  of  Asoka's  grandfather, 
Chandra  Gupta.  It  is  this  double  synchronism  which  has 
enabled  us,  with  the  help  of  the  Greek  dates  which  are 
well-known,  to  fix,  in  the  otherwise  undated  history  of 
ancient  India,  acentral  date  from  which  we  can  calculate 
approximately,  backwards  and  forwards,  the  dates  of 
many  other  important  events. 

The  foundation  of  the  First  Indiimjlm^e  of  the 
Mauryas  was  only  one  of  the  two  great 

events  of  this  period.    The  other  was  the    J^^  ,  J?^^®  °^  . 
c  ^x       ^   ^  u-  ^  Buddhism  and 

rise  01  the  two  great  monastic  systems    jainism. 

known  as  Buddhism  and  Jainism.  It  has 
already  been  shown  in  the  account  of  the  preceding 
period  that  there  existed  small  groups  of  men  who, 
dissatisfied  with  the  popular  religion  of  polytheism  and 
sacrifice,  had  withdrawn  from  the  world  to  devote  them- 
selves to  a  monastic  life  of  religious  speculation.  Such 
speculation  was  at  first  closely  connected  with  the  study 
of  the  Vedas.  Hence,  naturally,  the  men  who  adopted 
the  monastic  life  were  mostly  drawn  from  the  Brahman 
caste  who  were  the  guardians  of  the  Vedic  lore.  But  as 
yet  they  lived  by  themselves  or  in  small  independent 
groups.  There  was  no  general  organization  or  "Order" 
to  which  all  these  Brahraanic  monks  belonged.  The 
innovaPion,  introduced  by  the  founders  of  Buddhism  and 
Jainism,  consisted  just  in  these  two  points  :  that  they 


30  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

organized  all  their  followers  into  a  regular  Society  or 
Order,  and  that,  being  Kshatriyas  themselves,  they  drew 
their  followers  mainly  from  the  Kshatriya  and  the  other 
non-Brahmanic  classes  of  the  people.  They  did  not 
S*efuse  to  admit  Brahmans  into  their  Order,  but  within  it 
they  rejected  all  Brahmanic  pretensions  to  superiority. 
This  policy,  no  doubt,  produced  a  certain  degree  of 
antagonism  between  their  Societies  and  the  general 
brahmanically  constituted  community  around  them. 
But  it  is  quite  erroneous  to  look  upon  them  as  revolts 
against  the  tyranny  of  caste.  They  never  thought  of 
rejecting  the  system  of  caste  as  a  regulating  factor  of 
the  general  community  outside  their  own  Order. 

Siddhartha — better  know^n  as  Gautama — the  founder 
.  of  Buddhism,  and  Mahavira  the  founder 

Jainfs^^^  ^  of  Jainism,  were  scions  of  princely  houses. 
They  were  contemporaries,  though  Ma- 
havira was  somewhat  older  than  Gautama  and  died 
some  years  before  him,  about  490  B.C.,  at  the  age  of 
seventy-two.  Gautama  died,  eighty  years  old,  about  483 
B.c  Not  much  is  known  of  Mahavira's  personal  history. 
He  belonged  to  the  Naya  or  Nata  clan  of  Kshatriyas, 
who  were  settled  near  the  large  town  of  Vaisali,  said  to 
be  represented  by  the  village  of  Besarh,  about  tw^enty- 
seven  miles  north  of  Patna.  That  town  was  the  capital 
of  a  small  oligarchical  republic,  and  Mahavira  w^as  the 
younger  son  of  one  of  its  ruling  Rajas  or  chiefs.  At  the 
age  of  thirty  he  retired  from  the  world,  and  joined  a 
small  monastic  community  of  Parsvanath  which  lived 
near  Vaisali.  From  this  Society,  how^ever,  he  separated 
after  two  years,  in  order  to  establish  another  of  his  own 
with  more  stringent  rules  of  conduct.  In  a  long  wander- 
ing life  of  forty-two  years  he  succeeded  in  gathering  a 
considerable  following  of  monks  in  the  principal  towns 
of  North  and  South  Bihar.  At  first  they  were  known 
as  the  Nirgranthas^  or  men  who  have  discarded  all 
social  bonds  ;  but  after  Mahavira's  death,  whe.j  they 
spread  over  the  whole  of  India,  they  became  know^n  as 


Ch.  v.]        the    early    BUDDHIST   PERIOD.  31 

>aaLa>UJiilUlWXl     the  Jains.    Under  that 

name  they  still  exist  in 

.1.  ivi     jii*.*!    JL     I -,     I  .toil  J    various  parts  of  India. 
HXU/^aSta   dl»fDU   ^tni    Mahavira        claimed 

to     be     a     /ma     or 
C^i^^r^/^-fStk^^Otfd     mCd).     Spiritii^l  Conqner-_ 

or,  just   as   Gautama" 
{^>(ff^i\l!.  t'<^^li      L  o-i/^"*"C    claimed      to      be     a 


HO/X-ld 


BiiddhojOr^  Rnlight- 
ened  One.  Hence 
their    respective    fol- 

Asoka  Inscription  on  the  Column  at  lowers    are    kuOVVn    aS 

Rummin  Dei.  the     Jaius    and     the 

Bauddhas  or  Buddists. 
Gautama    belonged    to    the    Sakyas,    one   of  the 
proudest  of  the   Kshatriya  clans.     This 
clan   was   settled   in   a  small    territory   Life  of  Buddha. 
between  the  upper  Rapti  and  the  Gan- 
dak.     Its  capital  was  Kapilavastu,  which  stood  on  the 
site  of  the  present  village  of  Piprahva,  in  the  north-east- 
ern corner  of  the  Basti  district  in  the  United  Provinces 
of  Agra  and  Oudh.     The  actual  spot  where  Gautama 
was  born  was  the  Lumbini  Park,  about  six  miles  north- 
east of  Kapilavastu,  in   the  Nepalese  Terai.     It  is  now 
called  Rummin  Dei,  and  is  marked  by  a  still-existing, 
inscribed  column  erected  by  Asoka.     He  was  born  as 
the  eldest  son  of  Suddhodana,  the  Raja  or  chief  of  the 
Sakya  clan.     As  heir  to  the  chieftainship  and  the  son  of 
a  wealthy  family,  he  was  provided  with  everything  that 
man  could  wish  to  make  him  happy.     But  Gautama 
was  naturally  of  an  observant  ar.^  thoughtful  disposi- 
tion.    The  sight  of  so  much  decay  and  sufferingjjTOund 
hirn_escited  his~ compassion,  and  set  him  thinking  how 
the  ills  j)Mjfe^m£ht_be_cure3^     PTe  cared  more  for 
meditation  in  solitude,  than  for  the  youthful  sports  of 
his  prin^ly  companions.     His  father,  who  was  afraid 
of  his  monkish  predilections,  married  him  to  a  fair  and 
loving  Sakya  princess  ;  but  this  bond  had  no  permanent 


32 


HISTORY    OF   INDIA. 


effect  on  Gautama.  When  he  was  twenty-nine  years 
old — soon  after  a  son  had  been  born  to  him,  and  thus 
the  succession  had  been  secured — lie  finally  resolved,  in 
'^V'^  spite  ot  the  tears  and  entreaties  of  wife  and  father,  to 
'  ^»,  renounce  his  position  and  his  home,  and  to  adopt  a 
monk's  vocation.  He  went  to  North  Bihar,  where  he 
attached  himself  successively  to  two  Brahman  ascetics 
renowned  for  their  wisdom.  Their  teaching,  however, 
did  not  satisfy  him  ;  and  now  he  commenced  a  seven 
years'  life  of  wandering  and  severe  asceticism,  in  the 
hope  of  discovering  the  truth  regarding  the  cure  of  the 
ills  of  life.  His  austerities  gradually  reduced  him  almost 
to  a  skeleton,  and  brought  him  to  death's  door.  But 
they  did  not  give  him  the  knowledge  he  sought,  and 
the  conviction  was  forced  on  him  that  he  was  on  a  false 
track  ;  so  he  returned  to  a  reasonable  mode  of  life. 
Then  at  the  end  of  the  seventh  year,  when  he  was 
thirty-six  years  old,  one  night  as  he  sat  under  a  pipal 

tree  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Gaya, 
absorbed  in  solitary  meditation, 
there  suddenly  came  to  him,  like  a 
revelation,  the  solution  of  his  prob- 
lem. We  shall  see  presently  what 
that  solution  was.  In  the  mean- 
time, let  us  follow  him,  as  over- 
joyed by  his  discovery  he  rose  up^ 
took  food  and  drink,  and  spent  a 
month  in  the  recovery  of  his 
strength.  Then  he  set  out  to  pro- 
K_  -y^-'^^i^      claim  to  the  world  the  great  revela- 

f-  ■iie^^^^w^     tion  which  he  had  received.     But 

,  before  doingso,  he  had  to  overcome 

a  great  temptation,  suggested,  as 

he  thought,  by  Mara,  or  the  Evil 

(From an andeiit  uuiptutc)  One.    The  cxaltatiou  causcd  by  his 

discovery  was  naturally  followed 
by  a  reaction  of  despondency  and  doubt  as  to  wfiether 
he  should  ever  be  able  to  persuade  his  fellowmen  of  its 


Buddha  under  the  Tree. 


Ch.  v.]         the    early    BUDDHIST    PERIOD. 


33 


reality.  But  with  his  returning  bodily  strength,  the 
temptation  gave  way  to  an  abiding  confidence  in  the 
success  of  his  missionary  enterprise.  The  first  place 
which  he  visited  was  Benares.  Here  he  secured  his  first 
disciples,  and  founded  his  Society,  or  "Order"  of  monks. 
Thence  he  wandered  up  and  down  the  country,  from 
town  to  town,  and  village  to  village,  through  the  whole 
of  South  and  north  Bihar,  and  as  far  as  his  native  Sakya 
country.  In  this  way  he  went  on  for  forty-four  years, 
wandering  and  preaching  ;  and  his  Order  grew  apace  in 
number^;.  At  last  he~died,  eighty  years  old,  in  Kusinagara 
about  483  B.C.  His  body  was  cremated  with  much  cere- 
mony, and  his  relics  were  distributed  among  his  adher- 
ents. His  princely  Sakya  relatives  carried  their  share— 
a  few  bits  of  bone— to  Kapilavastu,  where  they  enclosed 
it  in  a  stone  box,  and  built  over  it  a  huge  slupa  or  pyra- 
midal monument.  This  is  the  Piprahva  Stupa,  the  ruins 
of  which  still  exist,  and  there  Buddha's  bones  have  re- 
cently been  brought  to  light  in  their  stone  box. 


»                A 

<^^V^lK_i 

^ 

-v^.j^Bh^lh 

HL 

■''■''■.-•'.»->'>.--'-■.■■■  -■     :-'      l^"ii^  -  ''  ^'iNri^BlJB 

View   of  the  oldest  Stupa  at   Sanchi. 

But 'what  was  Buddha's  great  discovery  ?  We  shall 
try  briefly  to  explain  it.     We  have  seen  how  sensitive 


34  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

Gautama  was  to  the  misery  which   he 
Doeo'ine!  ^^^^'  everywhere  around  him ;  the  labour 

and  oppression  of  the  poor,  the  rivalries 
and  disappointments  of  the  rich  ;  sickness,  old  age  and 
death  for  all.  It  was  not  merely  the  physical  suffering 
that  moved  him,  but  even  more  the  mental  suffering  of 
men.  "  Whence  comes  all  this  misery  ?"  he  asked  himself; 
and  his  reply  was  :  "  All  men  strive  after  an  enjoyable  life, 
and  in  the  universal  struggle  for  it  they  cannot  but  hurt 
one  another ;  no  one  can  secure  the  good  things  of  this 
world  but  at  the  expense  of  others  ;  hence  comes  the 
general  misery."  "  But  how  can  this  evil  be  remedied  ?" 
So  Gautama  asked  next.  Several  replies  were  possible. 
The  ordinary  man  said  :  "Death  will  end  man's  misery 
and  bring  him  peace."  "Not  so,"  objected  Buddhaj_^r 
there  is  the  transmigration  of  souls  ca.useijr^j^arma, 
or  the  acts,  good  or  bad,  of  one's  life.  When  a  man- 
dies,  he  is  only  re-born  into  another  life  of  misery ; 
and  so  onwards  without  end."  Here  comes  in  that 
belief  in  transmigration  which  had  grown  up  in  the 
preceding  period,  and  in  which  Gautama  as  firmly  be-_ 
lieved  as  did  all  his  contemporaries.  But  there  was 
another  reply  given  by  the  Brahmanical  monks.  They 
said  that  a  man's  misery  is  caused  only  by  his  ignorance. 
If  he  once  comes  to  understand  that  the  whole  visible 
world  is  but  an  illusion,  and  that  he  himself  is  really  one 
with  God  or  the  World-Soul  who  exists  in  perfect  happi-~ 
ness,  then  his  misery  disappears.  This  is  the  reply 
which  Gautama  received  from  the  two  Brahmanical 
teachers  to  whom  he  first  applied  for  enhghtenment.  It 
did  not  satisfy  him  ;  it  seemed  to  him  rather  a  mockery. 
For  whatever  he  might  tki7ik  about  the  reality  of  the 
world,  he  could  not  help  feeling  the  reality  of  the 
misery  of  life.  So  Gautama  went  in  search  of  a  truer 
r^  reply.  At  last  he  found  one  ;  and  it  was  a  very  simple 
a  reply.  It  was  this:  "Seeing  that  the  misery  of  life  is 
\\  caused  by  man's  striving  after  the  good  things  of  this 
\  j    life,  let  him  give  up  that  striving,  and  then  he  will  have 


Ch.  v.]      the    early   BUDDHIST   PERIOD.  35 

peace."     Gautama  tried  this  remedy  in  his  own  case, 
and  he  found  that  it  was  true.     He  knew  the  secret  of 
deliverance.  He  now  was  Buddha,  thaTisr'^^r^gktgagdv^' 
BiiOtiere' still  leuralnHTaTourth  questTOTr"r**How  is  rnarr 
to  give  up  the  striving  after  the  good  things   of  life  ?" 
Buddha  replied  :     "  He  can  do  so  by  self-discipline  ;  he 
must  train  himsell  to  it  by  beirTg  right  iiTthe  following 
eight  points  : — In   belief  and  desire,  in  speech  and  act,  / 
in  life  and  work,  in  feeling  and  thougHf."  In  short,-there  I 
is  enough  in  the  world  to  satisfy  all ;  therefore,  let  a  man  \ 
exercise  self-denial,  contentment,  and  consideration  for  j 
others.     Living  thus,  he  will  attain  peace,"  or  JSliyva?ia, 
aFBuddha  called  it.     It  will  thus  be  seen  that  BuddHa'S 
system    was  a  thoroughly    practical    one  ;    not    one    of 
religion,  but  of  morality.     It  was  summed  up  by  him  in 
the  so-called  "Four  Truths,''  and  the  "Eightfold  Path," 
above  explained.     No  doubt,  his  system  had  also  under 
its  surface  deeper  thoughts  which  were  summed  up  in 
the    so-called    "Chain    of  Twelve    Causes."    But    this 
philosophy  was  taught  by  him  only  to  his  more  advanc- 
ed disciples,  and  it  need  not  detain  us  here.     It  will  now 
be  understood  that  Buddha  did  not  mean   to  teach  a 
new   religion    in    opposition  to  the    prevailing  popular 
Brahmanism.     What  he  wanted  to  do  wasJ:o  found  a > 
Society__of  men   who   should  take  a  vow  t^practise  a. 
righteous  life^  such  as  he  conceived  it.     That  character 
of  "a  JVlonastic  Order  his  Society  retained  in  India  for 
many  centuries.     Gradually,  as  his  teaching  spread  to 
peoples  who  were  not  Indians,  a  kind  of  deification  of 
Buddha  sprang  up,  and  his  system  turned  into  a  popular^ 
religion.     This,  however,  is  a  development  wBfch  took 
place  in  the  succeeding  period,  as  will  be  explained  in 
Chapter  VI. 

Up  to  the  time  of  Asoka  the  Buddhist  Order  was 
practically  confined  to  Bihar,  outside  of  c      v  • 

which     Brahmanism     prevailed.       But  Language 

through  She  missionary  efforts  of  Asoka, 
after  his  conversion  to  Buddhism,  the  latter  faith  spread 


36  HISTORY    OF   INDIA. 

over  the  whole  of  India.  A  few  words  may  be  said 
here  regarding  the  condition  of  Indian  civihzation  under 
the  Brahmanic  influence.  One  of  the  most  striking 
points  is  the  use  ofSanskrit  as  a  hterary  language, 
distinct  from  the  "older  language  of  tITe~Yedas,  and  the 
upgrowth  of  a  Sanskrit  Literature.  We  have  seen  in  the 
preceding  period  that  the  study  of  the  Vedas  was  the 
special  function  of_the_Brahmans.  Now,  the  Vedas  could 
not  be  studied  without  a  knowledge  ot  grammar.  Thus 
teachers  of  grammar  arose  in  the  Brahmanic  schools, 
who  laid  down  rules  as  to  what  was  to  be  considered 
the  correct  form  of  their  language.  The  most  successful 
among  these  teachers  was  a  grammarian  named  Panini, 
who  probably  lived  about  350  B.C.  He  wrote  a  text- 
book, called  the  Ashtadhyayi,  that  is,  the  book  of  eight 
chapters.  It  superseded  all  other  text-books  on  grammar, 
and  thenceforth  no  book  was  considered  as  written  in 
Sanskrit,  that  is,  in  "refined"  or  "correct"  language, 
unless  it  conformed  to  his  rules.  For  some  centuries, 
however,  Sanskrit  remained  the  exclusive  property  of 
the  Brahmanic  schools.  Outside  these  schools,  in  the 
king's  offices,  and  in  the  schools  of  the  Buddhist  and 
Jain  monastic  Orders,  the  language  spoken  by  the  people 
of  the  country  was  used  for  literary  purposes.  Thus 
most  of  the  Edicts  of  Asoka  are  written  in  the  popular 
language  of  Magadha,  commonly  called  Pali  or  Prakrit. 
So  also  are  the  early  Sacred  Books  of  the  Buddhists  and 
the  Jains.  It  was  only  in  the  course  of  the  next  period 
that  Sanskrit  was  generally  adopted  as  the  language  of 
all  public  and  private  records. 

Though  the  art  of  writing,  as  we  shall  see,  was  not 

unknown  in  this  period,  it  was  not  yet 
if^rature  admitted  as  a  means  of  instruction  in  the 

Brahmanic  schools.  Everything  was 
done  by  memory.  But  by  this  time  the  details  in  ritual 
and  custom,  preserved  in  the  Brahmanas  and  in  floating 
tradition,  had  grown  to  such  enormous  dimensions,  that 
memory,  unaided,  was  unequal  to  the  task  ot  master- 


Ch.  V]  THE    EARLY    BUDDHIST   PERIOD.  37 

ing  them.  Hence  it  became  customary  in  the  schools 
to  compile  short  Manuals,  called  Siilras.  They  are  so 
famous  for  their  excessive  conciseness  that  the  whole 
period  has  sometimes  been  called  the  Sutra  Period. 
Such  manuals  were  compiled  for  every  department  of 
knowledge  which  was  taught  at  that  time.  Thus  we 
have  the  Srauta  Sutras  or  Manuals  for  performing  Sacri- 
fices ;  the  Grihya  Sutras,  or  Manuals  of  Domestic  Rites; 
the  Dharma  Sutras,  or  Manuals  of  Civil  and  Criminal 
Law.  We  have  also  a  Sutra  on  Astronomy;  and  Panini's 
Grammar  itself  is  a  Sutra.  The  whole  of  this  technical 
literature  came  to  be  known  by  the  name  of  Smriti,  or 
Tradition,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  literature  of  the 
preceding  period  which  was  looked  upon  as  Sruti,  or 
Revelation  But  "light  literature"  was  not  neglected 
by  the  Brahmans.  It  was  in  this  period  that  the  scat- 
tered legends  and  ballads,  which  described  stirring 
incidents  of  the  early  history  of  the  Indo-Aryans,  were 
collected  to  form  the  two  celebrated  epic  poems,  the 
Mahabharata  and  the  Ramayana.  By  the  side  of  this 
Brahmanic  literature  there  gradually  grew  up  a  large 
body  of  Buddhist  and  Jain  literature  which  dealt  with 
the  peculiar  beliefs  and  practices  of  those  two  monastic 
Orders.  That  of  the  Buddhists  is  known  by  the  collective 
name  of  the  Tripitaka,  or  Three  Baskets,  while  the  sacred 
books  of  the  Jains  are  called  Againas,  or  Traditions. 

All  this  literature  enables  us  to  form  a  fairly  accurate 
idea  of  the  religious,   social   and   intel-  . 

lectual  condition  of  the  people  at  this  condition, 
period.  Forthe  time  of  the  great  Maurya 
Empire  especially  we  have  also  the  witness  of  Asoka's 
inscriptions  and  of  the  reports  of  Megasthenes.  The 
latter  was  a  Greek  who  resided  for  several  years  in  Patali- 
putra  as  the  ambassador  of  Seleukos,  a  Greek  king,  to 
the  court  of  Chandra  Gupta.  From  these  sources  we 
know  that  the  Brahmanical  system  of  caste  was  at  this 
time  flourishing  throughout  India.  It  governed  not  only 
the  social  relations  of  the  people,  but  also  the  civil  and 


^S  HISTORY   OF    INDIA. 

criminal  administration  of  the  country.  The  different 
castes  were  differently  taxed.  The  criminal  laws  were 
cruelly  severe,  but  the  penalties  were  lightened  in  propor- 
tion to  the  offender's  caste.  The  general  government 
of  the  country  was  a  pure  autocracy  of  the  king  or 
emperor,  more  or  less  tempered  by  respect  for  the  cus- 
tomary Brahmanical  laws,  or  by  (ear  of  the  ruling  classes, 
or,  as  in  the  case  of  Asoka,  by  natural  kindness  of  heart. 
As  to  the  popular  rehgion,  the  people  were  divided 
mainly  into  the  great  sections  of  the  Vaishnavas  and 
Saivas.  By  the  side  of  the  Brahmanical  schools  there 
existed  numerous  individuals  or  groups  of  men,  devoting 
themselves  to  religious  speculation  and  ascetic  practices. 
Their  object  was  the  same  as  that  of  Gautama  Buddha — 
to  find  a  way  of  salvation.  But  they  searched  for  it  in 
opposite  directions.  Some  were  followers  of  the  so- 
called  Vedania,  and  their  speculations  were  theistic, 
while  the  others  followed  the  so-called  Sankhya,  which 
was  a  kind  of  atheistic  speculation.  Both  also  practised 
Yoga,  or  ascetic  exercises,  by  which  they  thought  their 
minds  became  better  fitted  for  contemplation.  But  at 
this  time  these  philosophies  had  not  yet  formed  regular 
Schools.  Hence  there  did  not  yet  exist  any  philoso- 
phical Sutras,  or  Manuals.  The  earliest  known  manual 
of  this  kind  is  the  Voga  Sutra,  composed  by  Patanjali, 
quite  at  the  end  of  the  period,  about  150  B.C. 

In  educational  matters  there  was  considerable  activ- 
ity.     The  Brahmanical  schools  formed 
Education   and    something  like  Universities,  where  the 

'/"    wHtin^^^     °^    Vedas,    or    Theology,    Law,    Medicine, 
i/       wpiung.  '  J  4.1 

Grammar,  Astronomy,  and  many  other 

sciences  were  taught.      Among  these  Universities  the 

most  celebrated  was  that  of  Taxila,  in  the  Punjab.     It 

was  frequented  by  young  men  from  Benares  and  other 

distant  parts  of  India.     The  number  of  these  Universities 

was  limited,  but  by  their  side  there  existed  numerous 

elementary    schools   in    all    towns        They    were   kept 

by  Brahmans  for  the  benefit,  principally,  of   the  mer- 


Ch.  V. 


THE    EARLY    BUDDHIST   PERIOD. 


39 


cantile  and  land-holding  classes.  The  subjects  taught  in 
them  were  Writing,  Arithmetic  and  Account-keeping. 
The_  art  oL-WTiting  had  been  introduced  into  India 
towards  the  end  of  the  preceding  period,  probably  about 
600  B.C.  At  that  time  a  maritime  trade  was  carried  on 
from  Broach  and  other  ancient  ports  in  the  Gulf  of 
Cambay,  above  Bombay,  through  the  Persian  Gulf  to 
Babylonia.  In  that  trade  an  early  form  of  the  Aramaean 
script  was  used.  This,  no  doubt,  the  Indian  mariners 
learned  and  brought  with  them  to  their  Indian  home. 
Here  it  was  taken  up  by  the  Brahmans  who  kept  the 

elementary  schools. 
In  their  hands  it  un- 
derwent considerable 
alterations  to  suit  the 
requirements  of  the 
Indo-Aryan  langu- 
age ;  and  thus  it  be- 
came an  entirely  new 
kind  of  writing,  which 
is  known  as  the 
Brahmi.  It  was  pri- 
marily made  in  the 
interest  of  the  Indian 
merchants  and  their 
inland  trade.  Through 
them  the  knowledge 
of  it  was  gradually 
diffused  throughout 
the  length  and 
breadth  of  the  coun- 
try. Atthe  beginning 
of  the  fifth  century 
B.C.  it  was  already 
known  as  far  north 
as  the  Nepalese  Irontier  ;  for  the  oldest  known  Brahmi 
inscription  has  been  found  on  the  box  in  which  Buddha's 
bones  were  buried  by  his  Sakya  relatives  in  the  Piprahva 


Inscribed  Casket  of  Buddha's  Relics. 


40 


HISTORY    OF    INDIA. 


Stupa,  about  483  B.C.  About  two  centuries  later  (260-240 
B.C.)  we  find  the  Brahmi  script  in  general  use  throughout 
India,  as  shown  by  the  Edicts  of  Asoka.  At  this  time, 
however,  we  find  also  an  alternative  script  in  use  in  the 
north-western  frontier  provinces  of  Asoka's  empire. 
This  kind  of  writing,  which  is  now  known  as  the 
Kharoshthi,  is  only  a  slight  modification  of  its  Aramaean 
original ;  but  being  rather  unsuited  to  the  Indo-Aryan 
language,  it  soon  fell  into  disuse,  and  was  entirely  for- 
gotten. On  the  other  hand,  the  Brahmi,  which  is  a  truly 
Indian  invention,  maintained  its  ground,  and  has  become 
the  parent  of  all  the  varying  scripts  which,  at  the  present 
day,  are  current  in  India. 


CHAPTER    VI. 
The  Later  Buddhist  Period : 

The  Parthian  and  Turki  Invasions,  and  the 
New  Buddhism. 

About  B.C.  ISO — A.D.  300. 

THE  preceding  chapter  has  brought  us  down  to  the 
end  of  the  First  Indian  Empire 
about  185  B.C.  During  the  whole  of  the  ifemaS^''^ 
period  which  we  shall  now  consider, 
India  was  politically  in  a  very  perturbed  condition,  and 
the  exact  sequence  of  events  is,  to  some  extent,  still 
uncertain.  The  causes  of  the  troubles  were  partly  internal 
dissensions,  and  partly  foreign  invasions.  The  foreign 
invaders,  this  time,  did  not  come  from  Europe,  but  from 
Central  Asia,  and  belonged  to  two  different  races,  the 
Parthian,  and  the  Turki,  or,  as  it  is  often  called,  Scythian. 
It  was  not  till  the  beginning  of  the  next  period  that  India 
was  once  more  united  in  the  Second  Empire  of  the 
Guptas,  which,  in  extent,  nearly  equalled  the  First  Empire. 
What  the  causes  of  the  internal  dissensions  were 
we  do  not  exactly  know.  One  principal  Causes  of  the 
cause  appears  to  have  been  the  anta-  Disruption  of 
gonism  of  Brahmanism  to  Buddhism  the  First  Em- 
and  Jainism.  For  Pushyamitra,  the  P^''®* 
founder  of  the  Sunga  dynasty,  is  said  to  have  been  a 
bitter  persecutor  of  the  Buddhists,  who,  as  we  have  seen, 
were  much  favoured  by  the  Maurya  dynasty.  The 
general  dii^satisfaction,  thus  created,  soon  led  to  the 
disruption  of  the  empire.  The  outlying  provinces  on 
the  east,  south,  west,  and  north-west  separated,  and 
formed  themselves  into  independent  kingdoms,  so  that 
practically  only  the  central  portion,  Bihar  and  Oudh, 
remained  to  the  Imperial  dynasty. 


42  HISTORY    OF   INDIA. 

The  immediate  cause  of  the  disruption  appears  to 
have  been  a  difference  between  Agnimitra 
The    Indepen-     and  Yajnasena  Satakarni.     The  former 
K^  U^na-a  ^  was  a  son  of  Pushyamitra,  and,  as  viceroy, 

administered  the  western  province  of 
Malwa.  The  latter  was  the  governor,  or  feudatory,  of 
the  southern  provinces  of  Vidarbha  and  Andhra,  that  is 
the  present  Central  Provinces,  Berar,  and  Haidarabad. 
The  territories  of  the  two  governors  adjoined  each  other, 
and  an  ill-considered  attempt  at  a  matrimonial  alliance 
on  the  part  of  Agnimitra  led  to  a  war  between  them. 
In  this  war  Satakarni  was  unsuccessful ;  and  it  was  pro- 
bably with  the  object  of  retrieving  his  failure  thai,  in 
1 68  B.C.,  he  went  with  a  large  army  to  the  assistance  of 
his  eastern  neighbour  Kharavela,  the  feudatory  king  of 
Kalinga,  that  is,  Orissa  and  the  Circars.  Kharavela  was 
a  devoted  Jain,  and  possibly  that  may  have  been  the 
cause  which  brought  him  into  warlike  collision  with  his 
suzerain,  the  Sunga  emperor,  Pushyamitra.  In  this  war, 
by  a  successful  expedition  into  the  very  heart  of  the 
empire,  which  led  him  to  the  capital  Pataliputra  on  the 
banks  of  the  Ganges,  Kharavela  compelled  the  emperor 
to  sue  for  peace  and  acknowledge  his  independence. 
We  know  all  this  from  an  inscription  of  Kharavela,  in- 
cised by  him,  in  157  B.C.,  on  a  rock  in  the  Udaigiri  hills, 
near  Cuttack. 

In  the  meanwhile,  the  fortunes  of  the  empire  had 
been  equally  disastrous  on  the  extreme 
The  Grseeo-Bae-  north-western  frontier.  About  the 
tpian  conquest  of  events  in  this  region  we  have  the  con- 
Nopth-Western^  temporary  evidence  of  numerous  coins, 
Provinces.  and    of    the    celebrated     grammarian, 

Patanjali.  It  appears  that  about  180 
B.C.,  Demetrios,  the  Grecian  king  of  Bactria,  or  Western 
Turkestan,  had  invaded  and  conquered  the  two  north- 
western provinces,  Afghanistan  and  the  Punjab.  About  185 
B.C.  they  were  wrested  from  him  by  a  rival  called  Eukrati- 
des.     At  the  same  time,  another  Grasco-Bactrian  prince, 


Ch.  VI.]      THE   LATER    BUDDHIST   PERIOD.  43 

Menander,  or  Milinda,  as  he^was  called  in  India,  invaded  the 
province  of  Sindh.  The  immediate  cause  of  his  attack 
appears  to  have  been  a  difference  with  the  Sunga  governor, 
Vasumitra,  concerning  a  horse.  In  order  to  celebrate  the 
success  of  Agnimitra  in  the  war  with  the  allied  governors 
of  Andhra  and  Kalinga,  it  appears  that  his  father  Pushya- 
mitra  wanted  to  perform  the  great  Asvamedha  or  "horse- 
sacrifice."  The  horse  for  this  solemnity  was  to  be  sup- 
plied by  Agnimitra's  son,  Vasumitra,  who  was  the 
governor  of  Sindh,  and  the  quarrel  with  Menander  some- 
how arose  on  this  account.  Menander  not  only  conquered 
Sindh,  but  the  adjoining  western  provinces  of  Gujarat 
and  Malwa.  He  carried  his  victorious  arms  even  as  far 
as  Ayodhya  in  Oudh,  to  which  he  laid  siege,  and  Sakala, 
near  Amritsar,  in  the  Western  Punjab.  Thus  he  built  up 
a  very  widely  extended  dominion,  over  which  he  appears 
to  have  ruled  for  many  years,  down  to  about  130  B.C. 

In  the  meantime  there  had  appeared  on  the  borders 
of  India  a  formidable  foe  who  soon  over- 
threw the  whole  of  the  Grseco-Bactrian  invasion^^ 
kingdoms.     These  were  the  Sakas,  a  sec- 
tion of  the  great  Turki,  or  Scythian,  race.     Their  original 
settlements  had  been  in    Eastern    Turkestan.     Thence 
they  were  driven  out,  about  160  B.C.,  by  the  so-called 
Yuechi,  another  section  of  the  same  race.     They  migrat- 
ed to  India,  probably  across  the  passes  of  the  Karako- 
rum    Range,   and   through    the  valleys   of   the    Indus. 
Having  reached  India,  one  portion  marched  west  irito 
Afghanistan,   conquering   the   numerous   small  Gneco- 
Bactrian  sovereignties  which  had  established  themselves 
after  Eukratides'  death,  under  Strato,   Lysias,  and  other 
princes.     They   chiefly  settled  in    the  western  part  of 
Afghanistan,  which  hence  came  to  be  called  Sakasthayia, 
or  the  country  of  the  Sakas,  being  the  modern  Seistan. 
The  best  known  of  their  kings,   about   90   B.C.,   was 
Azes.     The  other  portion  of  the  invading  Sakas  occupied 
the  Punjab,  and  gradually  extended  their  conquest  over 
the  whole  of  the  territory  once  belonging  to  Menander, 


44 


HISTORY    OF    INDIA. 


/ 


i.e.,  Sindh,  Gujrat  and  Malwa.  Each  of  these  provinces 
was  ruled  by  a  governor,  or  Kshatrapa  (Satrap),  as  he 
was  called.  From  two  inscriptions  of  Shodasa,  the 
Satrap  of  Mathura,  and  Liaka,  the  Satrap  of  Taxila 
(Shah  Dheri  in  the  Punjab),  we  know  that,  about  no 
B.C.,  this  portion  of  the  Sakas  was  ruled  by  a  king  called 
Mogas  or  Maues. 

We  have  now  followed  the  fortunes  of  the  Sunga_ 

Empire  down  to  about  loo  B.C.,  and 
The  Revolt  of  traced  its  extensive  losses  in  the  east^ 
Ex?inc?ion"of  Si  ^^'^^V  and  north-west.  Not  long  after- 
First  Empire.  wards  it  lost  also  its  great  southern 

province  of  Andhra,  now  represented 
by  the  Central  Provinces,  Berar  and  Haidarabrid.  From 
the  very  confused  account  of  the  Puranas,  when  fairly 
construed,  it  appears  that,  about  117  B.C.,  a  Simgabhri- 
tya,  or  minister  of  the  Sunga  emperor,  Vasudeva 
by  name,  who  was  a  Brahman  of  the  Kanva  family, 
usurped  the  imperial  power.  For  forty-five  years  he 
and  his  descendants,  known  as  the  Kanvayana  dynasty, 
ruled  the  empire,  just  like  the  Peshwas  in  later  times, 
while  the  members  of  the  Sunga  dynasty  continued  to 
be  the  nominal  sovereigns.  The  establishment  of  this 
Brahman  rule  apparently  only  served  to  intensify  the 
prevailing  sectarian  animosity.  Anyhow,  about  73  B.C., 
the  governor  of  the  Andhra  province,  called  simply 
Satakarni,  revolted.  He  subverted  both  the  actual 
Kanvayana  and  the  nomial  Sunga  dynasties  (about  117- 
j-i,  and  135-73  B.C.,  respectively),  and  himself  seized 
the  paramount  power.  With  this  event  the  First 
Indian  Empire  became  extinct.  The  central  portion, 
Bihar  and  Oudh,  now  sank  to  the  position  of  an  insigni- 
ficant province,  while  in  the  west,  south,  and  east  res- 
pectively, the  great  kingdoms  of  the  Sakas,  Andhras, 
and  Kalingas  took  its  place.  Of  the  subsequent  fortunes 
of  theceniral  portion  nothing  definite  is  known  until  the 
rise  of  the  Second  Indian  Empire  of  the  Guptas  in  tha 
next  period.     From  the  confused  account  in  the  Fnranas 


Ch.  VI. ]      THE    LATER    BUDDHIST   PERIOD.  45 

only  this  much  may  be  concluded,  that  the  unhappy 
country  was  torn  by  a  succession  of  ijiternal  rrmfestg^f 
jTvaliaC-tions  belonging  to  different  castes  and  tribes.  Of 
the  fortunes  of  the  Kalinga  kingdom  also  nothing  is  known 
for  manv  centuries,  till  about  6io  A.D.,  when  we  find  it 
ruled  by  Indravarman  of  the  Ganga  dynasty. 

Let  us  now  return  to  the  history  of  the  Saka 
kingdom.  We  have  seen  that  it  was 
divided  into  a  number  of  "Satrapies,"  The  Parthian 
subject  to  a  paramount  sovereign  who  the^^'vikr^ma 
called  himself  the  "  King  of  Kings."  Era. 
On  the  west  it  was  adjoined  by  the 
Parthian  kingdom,  which  at  that  time  was  in  a  state  of 
great  political  disorder.  The  exact  cause  of  the  occur- 
rence we  do  not  know,  but  from  extant  coins  it  appears 
that,  about  60  B.C.,  Arsaces  Theos,  or  the  Divine,  a  scion 
of  the  Arsacide  dynasty  of  Parthia,  invaded  the  Saka 
territory.  To  meet  this  attack  the  Sakas  had  naturally 
to  withdraw  their  forces  from  the  eastern  parts  of  their 
kingdom.  The  opportunity,  thus  created,  was  utilized 
by  the  warlike  clans  of  the  Malavas  to  combine  and  rise 
against  their  Saka  satrap.  A  great  battle  was  fought  by 
them,  as  it  is  said,  at  Karor  in  the  Punjab,  in  which  the 
Sakas  were  totally  defeated.  This  was  in  57  B c,  and 
it  is  most  probably  from  this  epoch  of  the  Malava  rising 
against  the  Saka  rule  that  the  Malava  or,  as  it  is  now 
called,  the  Vikrama  era  dates.  It  has  received  the  latter 
name  from  a  king,  Vikramaditya,  who,  as  we  shall  see 
in  the  next  period,  also  achieved  at  the  head  of  the 
Malava  clans,  a  great  victory  over  the  Huns  about  A.D. 
525.  The  Saka  kingdom,  which  was  thus  attacked  both 
in  the  east  and  west,  fell  to  pieces.  In  its  place  arose  the 
Indo-Parthian  kingdom,  which,  however,  itself  enjoyed 
but  a  very  short  period  of  existence.  This  kingdom  reach- 
ed the  zenith  of  its  power  and  extent  under  Gondophares, 
whose  long  reign,  according  to  a  still-existing  inscription, 
began  a6out  20  a.d.  But  not  very  long  after  him,  it  was 
overthrown  bv  the  second  Turki  invasion  of  the  Kushanas. 


46  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

We  have  seen  that  about  i6o  B.C.,  the  Sakas  were 
driven  out  of  their  original  settlements 
The  Kushana  in  Eastern  Turkestan  by  the  Yuechi, 
the^aka  Era"'^  another  section  of  the  same  Turki  race. 
The  Yuechi,  in  their  turn,  were  expelled 
by  the  Uighur,  or  Usun,  a  third  section  of  that  race,  and 
migrated  into  Western  Turkestan,  which  they  gradually 
occupied  in  force  on  both  sides  of  the  Oxus.  The 
Yuechi  were  divided  into  five  tribes,  the  principal  of 
which  was  the  Kushana.  About  60  a.d.,  the  chief  of  the 
latter,  Kadphises  I,  having  united  the  five  tribes  into  one 
kingdom,  proceeded  to  conquer  Afghanistan,  and  then 
to  attack  the  Indo-Parthian  kingdom  of  India.  The 
troubles  thus  created  in  that  kingdom,  were  utilized  by 
its  Saka  satraps  in  Gujarat  for  the  assertion  of  their  own 
independence.  This  was  in  78  A.D.,  and  it  is  probably 
from  this  event  that  the  so-called  Saka  era  dates. 
Kadphises  I  eventually  succeeded  in  overthrowing  the 
Indo-Parthian  kingdom,  and  in  establishing  in  its  place 
the  Kushana  empire.  Of  India,  however,  that  empire 
never  included  much  more  than  the  Punjab  and  Kashmir, 
while  its  larger  portion  lay  outside  India  ;  for  this  reason 
it  cannot  strictly  be  classed  as  an  Indian  empire.  Its 
widest  extent  was  reached  under  Kanishka,  who,  as  the 
consensus  of  numismatic,  epigraphic,  literary  and  other 
evidences  renders  ver)'   probable,  came   to  the  throne 

about  125  A.D.  He 
added  Kashmir  to  the 
empire,  and  pushed  its 
Indian  frontier  as  far 
as  Mathura.  He  be- 
came also  a  convert 
to  Buddhism,  and  in 
commemoration  of 
the  fact  struck  medals 

Kanishka's  Gold  Coin  of  Buddha.  bearing  Buddha's 

efifigy.       About    152 
A.D.,  Kanishka  was  succeeded  by  Huvishka,  and  he  by 


Ch.  VI.]       THE   LATER   BUDDHIST    PERIOD.  47 

Vasudeva.  Their  combined  reigns,  both  of  which  were 
very  long,  lasted  down  to  about  225  a.d.  The  subse- 
quent course  of  events  is  not  well  known,  but  this  much 
is  certain  that  the  Kushana  Empire  gradually  broke  up. 
This  was  due,  at  first,  probably  to  invasions  of  the  new 
Sassanian  dynasty  of  Persia,  which  was  founded  in  226 
A.D.,  and  finally  to  the  conquests  of  the  Second  Indian 
Empire  of  the  Guptas,  which  arose  in  the  next  period. 

The  confederacy  of  the   Malava  clans,  as  we  have 
seen,  succeeded  in  throwing  off  the  Saka 
yoke  in   57   B.C.     They  appear,  as  we    Sla^'lltpapy^ 
know  from  their  coins,  to  have  preserved 
their  independence  for  nearly  200  years.     But  in  Gujarat 
the  Saka  rule  does  not  appear  to  have  ever  been  entirely 
subverted.     On  the  contary,  the  satraps  of  that  province 
continued  to  rule  in  dependence  on  the  Indo-Parthian 
"  King  of  Kings"  and,  as  we  have  seen,  they  succeeded 
in  establishing  their  independence  in  78  A.D.,  during  the 
last  struggles  of  those  kings  with  the  Kushana  invaders. 
We  know  from  certain   inscriptions  that  in    119  a.d., 
Gujarat  was  ruled  by  an  independent  Saka  satrap,  called 
Nahapana,  who  had  included   Malwa,  with  its  capital 
Ujain,  in  his  dominions.     About  124  a.d.,  he  was  de- 
feated by  the  Andhra  king,  Gautamiputra.     The  victor 
annexed  Malwa,  and  placed  it  in  charge  of  another  Saka 
Chief,  called  Chashtana,  who  is  mentioned  by  the  cele- 
brated contemporary  Greek  geographer,  Ptolemy,  about 
139  A.D.,  as  ruling  in  Ujain  under  the  name  of  Tiastenes. 
He  took  possession  also  of  Gujarat  and  founded  a  new 
dynasty,  the  members  of  which  afterwards  adopted  the 
title  oi  Maha-kshatrapa,  and  are  commonly  known  as  the 
"  Western  Satraps."     The  third  of  this  dynasty,  Rudra- 
daman,  who  had  married  a  daughter  of  the  Andhra  king 
Pulomavi  II,  quarrelled  with   his   father-in-law,  made 
himself  independent,    and   re-established    the   "  Great 
Satrapy"  or  kingdom  of  Saurashtra,  which  included  both 
Malwa  and  Gujarat.     On  the  rock   of  Junagarh,  which 
bears  an  inscription  of  Asoka,  he  proudly   added  one  of 


48  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

his  own,  in  150  a.d.,  in  which  he  records  his  pohtical 
achievements  as  well  as  his  works  of  pubh'c  utihty.  His 
dynasty,  which  by  this  time  had  become  thoroughly 
Indianised,  comprised  twenty-seven  members,  all  but  the 
first  bearing  Indian  names.  The  last  of  them,  called 
Rudrasnnha,  reigned  well  into  the  next  period,  down  to 
about  395  A.D.,  when  the  "  Great  Satrapy  "  was  annexed 
to  the  Second  Indian  Empire  by  Chandra  Gupta  II. 

In  the  beginning  of  its  existence  the  "Great  Satrapy" 

had  to  figlit  repeatedly  for  its  indepen- 
The  King-dom  of  dence  against  a  formidable  foe  on  its 
and  thl^^KaS  eastern  frontier.  Here  lay  the  great 
ehuri  Epa.  kingdom   of  the  Andhras.     The  origin 

of  this  kingdom  is  still  imperfectly 
known.  It  appears  tiiat  at  the  time  of  the  Maurya 
empire,  the  southern  portion  of  the  latter,  lying  between 
the  Narbada  and  the  Kistna,  was  in  the  occupation  of 
three  peoples,  the  Rathiyas  (or  Rashtrikas),  Satiyas,  and 
Andhras,  in  its  western,  northern  and  eastern  parts  res- 
pectively. The  chiefs  among  the  Rathiyas  were  called 
Maharathivas,  and  from  them  their  country  took  the 
name  of  Maharashtra  But  while  their  country,  as  well 
as  that  of  the  Satiyas,  had  become  so  thoroughly 
aryanized  that  they  had  adopted  the  Aryan  language 
(Marathi)  of  their  rulers,  the  eastern  portion,  ruled  by 
the  Andhra  chiefs,  had  remained,  as  we  saw  in  Chapter 
V,  partially  Dravidian,  and  had  retained  its  Telugu 
language.  These  Andhra  chiefs  had  their  capital  at 
Dharnikot,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Kistna,  and,  as  early 
as  300  B.C.,  as  we  know  from  the  reports  of  Megas- 
thenes,  ruled  a  powerful  kingdom.  Later,  as  we  know 
from  Asoka's  Edicts,  their  country  formed  the  southern 
province  of  the  Maurya  Empire.  With  the  decline  of  that 
empire,  about  200  B  c,  Simuka,  the  Governor  or  Viceroy 
of  the  Andhra  province,  assumed  a  practically  indepen- 
dent position,  and  founded  the  Andhra  dynasty.  He  and 
his  brother  Krishna  even  extended  their  rule  westward 
and  northward  over  North  Maratha  and  Eastern  Malwa. 


Ch.  VI]        THE   LATER    BUDDHIST   PERIOD.  49 

His  son,  Sri  Satakarni,  the  tliird  of  the  dynasty,  as  we 
have  seen,  in  alh'ance  with  Kharavela,  the  governor  of 
Kalinga,  about  168  B.C.,  went  to  war  with  the  Sunga 
emperor  Pushyamitra.  About  j'^  B.C., another  Satakarni, 
the  sixth  of  the  line,  slew  both  the  Sunga  emperor 
Devabhuti  and  his  Brahman  minister  Susarman,  who 
had  made  themselves  detested  by  their  depravity. 
Having  thus  put  an  end  to  the  Sunga  and  Kanvayana 
dynasties,  he  assumed  the  paramount  power  of  the  em- 
pire. Hala,  the  seventeenth  of  the  dynasty,  about  62 
A.D.,  is  noteworthy  as  being  the  reputed  author  of  the 
Sapta-sotaka,  or  Seven  Centuries,  the  well-known  anto- 
logy  of  erotic  verses  in  the  Prakrit  language.  But  its 
widest  extent  the  Andhra  kingdom  attained  under 
Satakarni  Gautamiputra,  the  twenty-third  of  the  dynasty 
(about  106-130  A.D.),  who,  about  124  A. D.,  defeated  the 
before-mentioned  Nahapana,  king  of  the  Great  Satrapy, 
and  added  his  Gujarat  and  Malwa  provinces  to  his  own 
dominions.  These  now  extended  right  across  India  from 
the  eastern  to  the  western  coast,  and  from  north  of  the 
Vindhya  to  Mysore  in  the  south.  The  new  provinces, 
however,  as  previously  related,  were  again  lost  under 
his  son  Pulomavi  II,  Vasishtiputra  (about  127-155  A.D.), 
to  Rudradaman,  the  Great  Satrap.  Early  in  his  reign, 
Pulomavi  II  seems  to  have  acted  at  Paithan  as  viceroy 
of  his  lather,  who  himself  resided  at  Kolhapur.  They 
are  both  mentioned  as  synchronous  rulers  (about  127- 
130  A.D  )  by  their  contemporary  Ptolemy,  Alter  Pulo- 
mavi II  the  Andhra  power  gradually  declined,  till  it 
came  to  an  end  with  Pulomavi  III.  Little  is  known  of 
the  exact  circumstances  under  which  this  event  occurred. 
But  it  appears  that,  about  221  A.D.,  the  Andhras  were 
displaced  in  their  south-western  province  of  Banwasi  by 
their  ministers,  known  as  Andhra-bhrityas,  of  the  Chutu 
race,  who  ruled  that  province  till  they  were  themselves 
displaced  by  the  Kadamba  chiefs.  About  the  same  time 
the  south-eastern  provinces,  which  had  been  the  original 
part  of  the  Andhra  kingdom,  seem  to  have  passed  into 


50  HISTORY    OF   INDIA. 

the  possession  of  Pallava  chiefs,  with  their  capitals  at 
Vengi  and  Kanchipur  fConjeveram).  The  Andhra 
dynasty,  which  still  continued  to  rule  in  the  northern 
provinces,  was  finally  extinguished  about  249  A.D.,  by 
Isvarasena,  an  Abhira  chief,  who  founded  the  Traiku- 
taka  dynast}'.  Hence,  that  year  became  the  epoch  of  a 
new  era,  which  is  now  commonly  known  as  the  Kala- 
churi  or  Chedi  era.  The  Andhra  dynasty,  which  is 
known  also  as  the  Satavahana,  or  Salivahana,  comprised 
altogether  thirty  members,  who  reigned  about  49  years 
(200  B.C. — 249  A.D.).  As  to  the  states  into  which  the 
great  kingdom  of  the  Andhras  was  split  up,  they  were 
all,  as  we  shall  see  in  the  next  chapter,  brought  into 
subjection  to  the  Second  Empire  of  the  Guptas. 

Having  traced  the  political  history  of  India,  we  must 
(^^  now   briefly  turn   our  attention  to  the 

General  Condi-   general    condition  of  the  people  during 
people^  ^^^^  period.     Here  the  most  important 

event  is  the  complete  transformation 
of  Buddhism  from  a  mere  monastic  Order  into  a  new, 
popular  religion.  This  transformation,  in  its  turn,  gradu- 
ally changed  the  whole  condition  of  Indian  religion, 
society  and  thought.  It  finally  resulted,  as  we  shall  see 
in  the  next  period,  in  that  complex  form  of  Indian  civil- 
ization which  is  summed  up  in  the  term  Hinduism. 
Primitive  Buddhism,  as  before  explained,  was  a  system 
of  practical  ethics,  of  self-discipline  and 
Buddhism^  regard  for   others,   superadded   to   the 

ancient  religious  speculations  of  the 
Brahmans  regarding  the  destiny  of  man.  This  two-fold 
teaching  was  the  product  of  Indian  thought,  and  harmon- 
ised with  the  feelings  of  the  Indian  people.  But  when 
it  came  to  be  propagated  among  peoples  whose  mode  of 
thought  and  aspirations  were  entirely  different  from  the 
Indian,  it  necessarily  underwent  an  essential  change. 
This  propagation,  we  have  seen,  had  begun  under  Asoka. 
His  missionaries  carried  Buddhism  into  the  north-western 
provinces  of  his  empire,  into  the  Punjab  and  Afghanistan. 


Ch.  VI.]      THE   LATER    BUDDHIST   PERIOD.  5I 

Here  it  came  into  contact  with  the  Grecian  culture, 
which,  since  Alexander's  invasion,  and  under  his  succes- 
sors (the  Grteco-Bactrian  kings),  had  been  in  the  ascend- 
ant in  those  regions.  Later  on,  when  those  regions  were 
occupied  by  the  Sakas  and  Kushanas,  Buddhism,  along 
with  the  Grecian  culture,  was  readily  adopted  b)'  these 
uncivilized  Turki  people.  To  them,  Brahmanism,  with 
its  exclusive  caste  system,  was  repellent,  while  Buddhism, 
with  its  good-will  toward  all  men,  naturally  proved 
attractive.  But  to  meet  their  aspirations  the  Buddhist 
teachers  had  to  teach  something  more  simple  than  pure 
Buddhism.  These  people  did  not  want  a  system  of 
ethics,  but  gods~"wtrom  they  could  seej-'arrd  tu  whom 
they  could  pray.  So  Buddha  was  gradually  changed 
into  a  divinity,  and  the  prevailing  Greek  Art  supplied 
his  images,  which  hitherto  had  been  unknown  in 
Buddhism.  The  latter,  once  a  select  Order  of  ascetic 
monks,  now  grew  into  a  new  popular  religion,  with  a 
pantheon  of  Buddhas  and  Bodhisatvas  and  attendant 
deities  and  demons,  whose  images  were  adored  in 
spacious  temples,  with  pompous  ceremonials,  and  in 
Hoisy  festivals.  This  new  Buddhism,  as  it  embraced 
the  whole  people,  was  called  the  Mahayana,  or  the 
Great  Vehicle,  in  contrast  with  the  Hinayana,  or  the 
Little  Vehicle,  of  the  primitive  Buddhism,  which  had 
been  only  for  the  select  few.  Just  as  the  emperor 
Asoka  had  been  the  patron  of  the  latter,  so  now  the 
emperor  Kanishka  became  the  patron  of  the  former. 
Under  him,  a  council  of  Buddhist  leaders  took  place 
at  Jalandhar  in  the  Punjab,  where  apparently  the  Canon, 
or  the  collection  of  the  Sacred  Books  of  the  Mahayana, 
was  fixed  ;  and  thus  the  new  Buddhism  received  its 
official  sanction.  Asvaghosha,  the  poet  and  patriarch, 
who  was  a  contemporary  of  Kanishka,  wrote  for  it  a 
book  of  devotion,  called  Buddha  Charita,  being  a 
legendary  Life  of  Buddha.  Its  great  apostle,  about  180 
A.D.,  was  the  celebrated  Nagarjuna,  who  wrote  the 
Prajnaparamita,  or,  the  Perfected  Wisdom,  a  book  which 


S2 


HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 


was  regarded  as  the  highest  authority  on  the  Mahay  ana 
form  of  Buddhism.  In  the  course  of  his  long  hfe, 
Nagarjuna  spread  the  new  Buddhism  throughout  the 
whole  of  India.  It  was  only  in  Ceylon  that  the  older 
form,  the  Hinayana,  survived.  There  it  exists  to  the 
present  day,  while  the  Mahayana  has  perished  in  India. 
Though  the  new  Buddhism  enjoyed  the  general 
favour  of  the  Indian  people,  it  must  not 
State  of  Brah-y  ^^  thought  that  Brahmanism  was  entirely 
manisra.  ^  abandoned.     On  the  contrary,  both  sys- 

tems received  from  the  kings  gifts  of  land  and  property, 
and  the  people  still  resorted  to  the  Biahmans  for  all 
domestic  rites  at  births,  marriages  and  deaths,  and  hved 
under  their  rules  of  caste.  The  evidence  of  this  is 
contained  in  the  famous  Manava  Dharma  Shastra  or 
Code  of  Manu,  which  was  compiled  about  200  A.D.,  and 
which  records  the  system  of  Brahmanism  as  it  existed 
in  this  period.  But,  no  doubt.  Buddhism  had  the 
hon's  share  of  popular  favour  ;  and  it  thus  roused  the 
jealousy  and  even  the  hatred  of  Brahmanism,  which 
circumstance,  as  we  have  seen,  did  not  remain  without 
its  effect  on  the  political  history  of  India.  Another 
effect  of  the  general  fiivour  shown  to  Buddhism,  was 
the  neglect  of  the  Vedic  sacrifices  and  ceremonials,  the 
decay  of  the  Brahmanic  schools,  and  indifference 
to  the  Sanskrit  language  and  literature.  On  the  other 
hand,  with  reference  to  philosophy  and 

PhtinTnn^^S  religious  speculation,  Brahmanism,  rous- 

rniiosopny.  ^^  ^^^  ^^^^^  ^^^  ^j^^  ^.^^^^.^^  ^^  Buddhism, 

developed  a  high  degree  of  activity.  We  have  already 
noticed,  in  the  preceding  period,  the  beginnings  of  the 
Vedanta,  Sankhya,  and  Yoga  philosophies.  In  the 
course  of  this  period,  two  new  systems  branched  off  from 
the  theistic  Vedanta  :  (  i  )  the  Picrva  Mhnamsa  or 
the  Primary  Enquiry,  which  treats  of  the  spiritual  value 
of  the  Vedic  sacrifices  ;  and  (2)  the  Uttara  Mimamsa 
or  Secondary  Enquiry,  which  is  merely  a  fuller  develop- 
ment of  the  older  pantheism  of  the  Vedanta.     Similarly, 


CH.  VI.]       THE   LATER   BUDDHIST   PERIOD. 


53 


two  new  systems  branched  off  from  the  atheistic  Sankhya  : 
(i)  the  Vaisesh/ka,  treating  of  physics  and  psychology, 
and  (2)  the  Nyaya,  treating  principally  of  logic.  Thus 
there  were  now  six  distinct  philosophical  schools,  each 
of  which  was  provided  with  its  own  Sutra  or  Manual. 

While  Brahmanism  thus  devoted  itself  to  the  pursuit 
of  the  mental  sciences,  it  was  in  keeping 
with  the  practical  character  of  the  new  Sciences 

Buddhism  that  it  no  less-fostersd  the  arts 
and  the  applied  sciences.     Medicine,  Architecture  and 
Sculpture  attained  a  high  degree  of  perfection  xlurhigl-he  / 
perioj  gf-llieJKjJshana  ^empire.     At   Kanishka's  court/ 
there  flourished   the  great   physician    Charaka,    whose! 
SamJiita  or  general  text-book  on  Medicine  is  still  con-\ 
sidered  a  standard  work  in  India.     No  less  renowned  is  ' 
the  Samhita  or  general  text-book  of  the  great  surgeon 
SusTuta,  which  is  said  to  have  been  revised  and  enlarged 
by  Nagarjuna.     Under  the  influence  of  Greek   teachers 
ot  Art,  and  in  the  service  of  the  new  Buddhism,  there 
arose  in  Afghanistan  and  the  Punjab  the  famous  Gandhara  * 


/ 


"  Rock-Temple  of  Kailasa." 


54  HISTORY   OF    INDIA. 

School  of  Architecture  and  Sculpture.  It  built  magni- 
ficent Chaityas  or  temples,  and  Viharas  or  monasteries, 
and  decorated  them  with  numberless  statues  of  the 
Buddhist  pantheon,  and  scenes  from  its  mythology.  A 
similar  school  of  a  more  Indian  style  flourished  in 
Central  India,  where  the  still  existing  ruins  of  Bharhut, 
Sanchi,  Amravati,  Nasik  and  other  places,  testify  to  the 
skill  and  enterprise  with  which  the  Buddhist  artists  built 
their  religious  monuments  with  stone,  or  carved  them 
out  of  the  hving  rock. 

There  is  a  very  early  tradition,  going  back  to  the 
third  century  A.D.,  which  tells  us  that 
St.  Thomas,  one  of  the  twelve  Apostles  fipst  Christian 
of  Jesus  Christ,  visited  North-western  india."^^"^  ^° 
India  in  the  reign  of  the  Indo-Partbian 
king,  Gondophares.  That  king  himself,  and  multitudes 
of  people  with  him,  are  said  to  have  embraced  the 
Christian  faith.  St.  Thomas  is  reported  to  have  proceeded 
afterwards  to  the  court  of  another  king,  Mazdai,  by 
wiiose  command  he  was  put  to  death.  There  is  no 
good  reason  for  rejecting  this  old  tradition  ;  but  the 
Christianity,  thus  introduced,  does  not  appear  to  have 
long  survived,  though  it  would  seem  to  have  had  an 
indirect  effect  in  fashioning  some  parts  of  the  popular 
Buddhism  and  Brahmanism  of  that  time.  At  any  rate, 
however,  there  is  no  truth  in  the  story  of  a  mission  of 
St.  Thomas  to  South  India,  in  which  part  of  the  country 
Christianity  was  introduced  at  a  much  later  date,  pro- 
bably in  the  sixth  century  A.D.,  by  Nestorian  mission- 
aries from  Persia. 


CHAPTER     VII. 
The   Early   Hindu    Period  : 

The  Second,  or  Gupta  Empire,  and  the  Brahmanic 

Revival. 

About  joo — 6so  A.D. 

THE  great  event  with  which  this  period  opens  is  the 
establishment    of   the   Gupta,    or  Second  Indian 

Empire.  India,  which,  at  the  end  of  the 
Rema.pks.^''^        preceding  period,  we  saw  broken  up  into 

a  number  of  large  kingdoms,  was  now 
reunited  by  it  under  one  all-embracing  rule.  But  this 
rule  lasted  only  a  little  more  than  two  centuries,  after 
which  India  relapsed  into  its  former  condition  of  political 
disunion.  At  first  there  was  a  number  of  large  states  ; 
but  these,  as  we  shall  see  in  the  next  period,  in  their 
turn  broke  up  into  smaller  units,  and  the  condition,  thus 
created,  of  mutual  distrust,  rivalry,  and  warfare,  rendered 
India  unable  to  withstand  the  shock  of  the  great 
Muhammadan  invasion  which  at  last  surprised  it  near 
the  end  of  the  twelfth  century. 

As  has  been  said,  after  the  fall  of  the  Kanvayana 

dynasty  about  j"^  B.C.,  the  old  Maurya 
Dynast^"''^^       Empire   had  gradually   shrunk    to    the 

small,  insignificant  province  of  Magadha, 
or  Bihar.  This  country  had  been  the  nucleus  of  the 
First  Empire.  It  now  became  also  the  starting  point  of 
the  Second  Empire.  About  280  a.d.,  there  lived  in 
Magadha  a  person  called  Gupta.  He  probably  belonged 
to  the  Sudra  caste.  How  it  happened  we  do  not  know  ; 
but  in  ihe  troubled  political  condition  of  that  time,  he 
came  to  the  front,  and  succeeded  in  raising  himself  to  the 


56 


HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 


(iold  coin  o!  Chandra  Gupta  and  liis 
Lichhavi  Queen. 


position  of  Maharaja,  or  King,  of  Magadlia.  Hjs  grand- 
son, Chandra  Gupta  I, 
contrived  to  marry  a 
princess  of  the  powerful 
clan  of  the  Lichhavis  of 
Nepal.  The  access  of 
influence,  thereby  acquir- 
ed, enabled  him  to  extend 
bis  dominion  as  far  as 
Prayaga,  or  Allahabad, 
and  tbus  to  make  the  first 
beginning  of  tbe  great 
Gupta  Empire,  This  was  in  320  a.d.,  and  it  is,  therefore, 
from  this  year  that  the  so-called  Gupta  era  dates.  But 
it  was  his  son,  Samudra  Gupta,  a  contemporary  of  King 
Meghavarna  of  Ceylon  (304-332  a.d  )  who  was  the  real 
founder  of  the  empire.  He  was  not  only  a  great  soldier, 
but  also  an  accomplished  man  of  letters.  He  transferred 
his  capital  from  Pataliputra,  or  Patna.  to  Kausambi. 
There  he  set  up  a  pillar,  now  standing  in  Allahabad,  on 
which  he  engraved  a  record  of  his  conquests.  From  this 
record  we  know  that,  in  the  course  of  his  long  reign  of 
about  fifty  years  (326-375  A.D.),  Samudraliiipta  subjected 
to^his  rule  the  whole  ot  the  Indian  peninsuia--m£h-J:he 
exception  of  Gujarat  and  the  Punjab  in  tTTewest,  Bengal 
in_the^ast,  and  the  small  Chola  and  PandvjJuQgdoms 
in  thelioutk  Butn3ujaj^aF^^ndn5en^garwife  afterwards 
added  to  the  empire  by  his  son  Chandra  Gupta  II  (375-4 13 
A.D.).  This  we  know  from  a  record  on  the  Iron  Pillar 
at  Delhi,  which  was  incised  after  his  death  in  memory 
of  his  exploits.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that,  as  to  its 
geographical  limits,  the  Gupta  Empire  nearly  rivaled 
that  of  the  Mauryas.  But  over  a  very  large  portion  the 
rule  of  the  Guptas  was  only  indirect,  or  even  nominal. 
Their  effective  rule  never  extended  beyond  that  part  of 
Northern  India  which  we  call  Hindustan.  The  states 
of  the  Deccan,  such  as  the  Kalachuri  and  Pallava,  were 
only  feudatory,  and  those  of  the  north-east,  Bengal  and 


Ch.  VII.]  THE   EARLY   HINDU   PERIOD. 


57 


Assam  paid  only  a  nominal  tribute.  In  the  countries, 
however,  which  were  under  the  direct  rule  of  the  Guptas, 
the  administration,  according  to  the  testimony  of  the 


Iron  Hillar  and  Qutub  Minar  at  Delhi. 


contemporary'  Chinese  pilgrim  Fahian,  rivalled  in  excel- 
lence that  of  the  great  Asoka.     This  was  specially  the 
case  in  'jhe  reign  of  Chandra  Gupta  II  and  in  the  earlif 
years  of  his  son  Kumara  Gupta  I  (about  413-455  A.r 

F 


5^  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

In  the  later  years,  as  we  know  from  an  inscription  of  his 
son  Skanda  Gupta  (about  455  480  a.d.)  the  empire  was 
reduced  to  great  straits.  How  this  exactly  happened 
we  do  not  know  ;  but  it  appears  to  have  been  due  to 
the  aggressive  unrest  of  some  of  the  small  semi-indepen- 
dent states  on  the  western  borders,  which  were  fragments 
of  the  former  great  Kushana  Empire. 

That  empire,   as  we  have    seen  in  the   preceding 
period,  gradually  broke  up  after  226  a.d.     It  survived 
into  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  only  in  the  small 
kingdom  of  the  so-called  Little  Kushans,  who  ruled  in 
Kabul  and  Gandhara  (N.  W.  Punjab).     The  other  frag- 
ments of  the  Kushana    Empire,    mainlv   consisting   of 
foreign  tribes,  who  occupied  what  is  the  modern  Sindh 
and  adjacent  parts,  had  been  brought  into  nominal  sub- 
jection by  Chandra  Gupta  II.     It  was  these  semi-mde- 
pendent  tribes  that  caused  the  decadence  of  the  Gupta 
Empire.    The  most  active  among  them  were  the  Pushya- 
mitras,  or  Maitrakas,  who,  as  their  name  shows,  had,  in 
the  course  of  time,  become  Indianised.    Subsequently,  as 
we  shall  see  in  the  next  period,  they  succeeded  in  form- 
ing the  independent  kingdom  of  Valabhi  ;  but  in  their 
first  attempt  they  failed,  for  Skanda  Gupta,  soon  after 
his   accession,  about  455  a.d.,  signally  defeated  them 
together    with    their    barbarian    allies";    and    thus    re- 
established the  already  tottering  Gupta  Empire.     His 
success,  however,  was   but  temporary.     He   was  soon 
afterwards  confronted  by  far  more  formidable  foemen. 
/These  were   the  so-called  White   Huns,   a    people   of 
/  Mongol  race,  who  coming  from  Central  Asia,  overthrew, 
'  about   465  A.D.,  the  kingdom  of  the   Little    Kushans. 
Having  done  so,  they  penetrated  into  India,  in  irresistible 
hordes,  as  far  as  Eastern  Malwa,  where,  as  we  know 
from  two  inscriptions  of  their  leader  Toramana,  they 
established,  about  480  a.d.,  their  rule  over  the  western 
^ortion  of  the  Gupta  Empire.     About  the  same  time, 
Oi  eastern  portion    passed    to    Skanda    Gupta'r    half- 
oni-her,  Pura  Gupta,  and  soon  afterwards,  about  485  a.d., 


Ch.  VII.]       THE    EARLY    HINDU   PERIOD.  59 

to  the  latter's  son  Narasimha  Gupta.     During  the  time 
of  the   latter's   reign,  Toramana   was  succeeded,  about 

//^l"^     510    A.D.,    by    his    son 


Coin  of  Vishnu  Vardhana. 


Mihiragula.  This  ruler 
was  noted  for  his  inhu- 
man cruelties,  and  it  was, 
no  doubt,  his  cruel  rule 
that  provoked  a  revolt 
throughout  his  domi- 
nions. The  revolt  was 
headed   by  the    Malava 

clans  who  rose  under  their  Chief,  Yasodharman.     In  a 

brilliant  campaign, 

in   which    he    was 

aided  by  the  Vala- 

bhi  governor  Dro- 

nasimha,  he  utterly 

demoHshed,    about 

525  A.D.,  the  Hunic 

power.       In     that 

campaign,  of  which 

Kalidasa,     in      his 

Raghiroamsa,    has 

left    us    a     sketch 

under  the  figure  of 

Rama's      "  world - 

conquest "  ( dig-v'i- 

jaya),    he    carried 

his  victorious  arms 

to    the    banks     of 

the      Indus,      and 

into  Kashmir,  and 

thus  made  himself 

master  of  the  whole 

of  the  western  por- 
tion  of  the  Gupta 

Empire.     But  this  succes  did  not  content  Yasodharman. 

He  now  turned  his  attention  to  the  eastern  portion  of 


faw.'.v^'^Si 


Vishnu  Vardhana's  Column  of  Victory. 


6o 


HISTORY    OF   INDIA. 


that  empire.     Here  the   Gupta  dynast}',  under  Nara- 

simha's  son  Kumara  Gupta  II,  had  grown  so  feeble  that 

Yasodharman,  about  529  A.D.,  easily  set  it  aside,  and 

himself  seizing  the  imperial  power  under  the  name  of 

Vishnu  Vardhana,  founded  the  Malava   Empire.     This 

event  he  commemorated  by  the  erection  of  two  "  Columns 

of  Victory,"  with  duplicate  inscriptions,  the  remains  of 

which  exist  to  the  present  day  at  Mandasor. 

i-l-  The   reign  of  Vishnu  Vardhana  forms  one  of  the 

most  brilliant  epochs  in  the  history  of 

Dvnasty^^^^^       the   Indian    people.       He   was  equally 

great  as   a   patron    of   learning,  as   an 

administrator,  and  as  a  soldier.     He  not  only  re-asserted 

the  imperial  authority  throughout  his  wide  dominions, 

but,  as  we  known  from 
still  existing  coins  as  well 
as  from  the  Rajataran- 
ffhii,  or  Chronicles  of 
Kashmir,  he  also  extend- 
ed their  limits  by  the 
conquest  of  the  latter 
country.  On  the  memor- 
ial pillars  above  referred 
to,  he  records  the  proud 
boast  that  he  not  only  had  defeated  the  Huns  under 
Mihiragula,  but  that  he  also  ruled  a  wider  empire  than 
ever  the  Guptas  had  done.  On  account  of  his  successful 
liberation  of  the  country  from  Hunic  oppression,  he  lived 
ever  after  in  the  memory  and  traditions  of  the  people 
as  Vikramaditya,  or  the  Sun  of  Valour  (popularly  Rajah 
Bikram) — as  shown  b}'-  its  new  name  of  Vikrama  era,  by 
which  the  former  Malava  era  is  now  known.  After  a 
long  and  prosperous  reign  of  about  56  years  he  was 
succeeded,  about  585  a.d.,  by  his  son,  Siladitya,  who 
was  a  man  of  a  very  different  character.  The  unpatriotic 
reversal  of  his  great  father's  anti-Hunic  policy  provoked 
against  him  a  hostile  combination  of  some  of  nis  fore- 
most vassals.    The  confederates  were  headed  bv  Prabha- 


Kashmir  Coins  of  Vikramaditya. 


Ch.  VII.]  THE    EARLY    HINDU   PERIOD.  6l 

kara  Vardhana,  the  powerful  chief  of  Thanesar,  who  was 
related  by  marriage  to  both  the  imperial  houses  of  the 
Guptas  and  Malavas.  The  civil  war  which  now  ensued 
resulted,  about  593  a.d.,  in  the  temporary  dethronement 
of  Siladitya.  Though  subsequently  he  succeeded,  with 
the  help  of  Pravarasena  II,  the  Hunic  king  of  Kashmir, 
in  practically  retrieving  his  position,  he  was  defeated,  in 
606  A  D.,  by  Rajya  Vardhana,  the  elder  son  of  Prabha- 
kara,  in  a  great  battle,  which  finally  put  an  end  to  his 
rule.  A  son  of  his,  Bhandi  by  name,  was  appointed  by 
the  victor  to  succeed  him  in  the  government  of  his 
home  province  Malwa.  There  Bhandi's  family  continued 
to  reign  till  about  780  a.d.,  when,  as  will  be  related  in 
the  next  Chapter,  it  was  extinguished  by  the  Guijara 
Chief  Vatsaraja  upon  his  conquest  of  Malwa.  Rajya 
Vardhana,  on  entering  Kanauj  after  the  battle,  was 
treacherously  murdered  by  his  enemies.  His  younger 
brother,  the  famous  Harsha  Vardhana,  now  assumed  the 
direction  of  affairs,  and  fixing  his  capital  at  Kanauj, 
determined  to  re-unite  the  imperial 
power  in  his  hands.  In  this  enterprise  Dynasty  "^"^ 
he  came  into  collision  with  Pulakesin  II, 
the  Chalukya  king  of  the  Deccan,  by  whom  he  was 
totally  defeated,  about  620  a.d.  Conse- 
quent on  his  victory,  Pulakesin  assumed    Division  of  the 

the  imperial  titles,  and  thus  inaugurated    Second  Empire 
.u         ^^   ,.   .  .         c  ^i     c         J  t?  into    those    of 

the  great  division  01  the  Second  Empire    ^j^g  North  and 

into  those  of  the  South  and  the  North,    the  south. 

In  Northern  India,  on  the  other  hand, 

Harsha  Vardhana  was  altogether  successful  in  establishing 


^4\mwii 


Autograph  or  King  Harsha. 


his    imperial   authority,    after    which    he    got   himself 


62  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

formally  crowned  about  612  a.d.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  the  rebellion  of  Dhruvasena,  king  of  Valabhi 
(or  modern  Gujarat)  about  635  A.D.,  which  Harsha 
successfully  subdued,  peace  and  prosperity  henceforth 
ruled  in  his  empire  ;  and  that  fact  was  signalised  by  him, 
in  644  A.D.,  by  a  great  religious  convocation  which  he 
held  with  much  pomp  in  Prayaga,  and  which  was  attend- 
ed by  all  his  vassal  kings,  and  by  the  most  celebrated 
doctors  of  the  Brahmanic  and  Buddhist  persuasions. 
Thus  in  spite  of  his  partial  failure  in  the  South,  Harsha 
Vardhana's  forty  years'  rule  over  the  Northern  Empire 
forms  another  brilliant  epoch  in  the  history  of  India, 
and  hence  the  year  606  a.d.,  which  is  the  year 
of  his  accession,  has  become  the  starting  point  of 
the  so-called  Harsha  era.  Unfortunately  the  prosperity 
which  Harsha  had  created  did  not  outlast  his  reign. 
When  he  died  at  the  end  of  647,  or  beginning  of  648 
A.D.,  the  throne  was  usurped  by  one  of  his  Brahman 
ministers.  It  so  happened  that  just  at  this  time  an 
envoy — Wang  Hiuen  Tse  by  name— of  the  Chinese 
Emperor,  was  passing  through  Tibet  and  Nepal  on  his 
way  to  the  Indian  Emperor,  Harslja.  On  his  arrival,  he 
found  the  Emperor  dead,  and  himself  most  inhospitably 
received.  His  escort  was  massacred  by  the  usurper,  but 
he  himself  escaped  to  Nepal.  This  treachery  led  to  a 
ioint  Tibeto-Nepalese  war  of  vengeance,  in  which  the 
usurper  was  captured  and  sent  to  China.  As  to  the 
Indian  empire,  the  effect  of  the  war  was  a  complete 
anarchy,  of  which  Dharasena  IV,  the  king  of  Valabhi, 
at  once  took  advantage,  assuming  the  imperial  titles  and 
and  thus  inaugurating  the  permanent  separation  of  the 
kingdom  of  Valabhi  from  the  Northern  Empire. 

We  will  now  briefly  pass  in  review  the  general 

condition  ofthe  people  during  this  period. 

1  /  the  peotSe,  ^^^  distinguishing  feature  is  the  revival  of 

1/  '  Brahmanic  religion  and  literature,  and  the 

rise  of  Hinduism  through  the  blending  of  Brrhmanism 

with  Buddhism.     The  latter  as  we  have  seen  in  the 


Ch.   VII. ]        THE    EARLY    HINDU   PERIOD.  63 

preceding  period,  had  gradually  changed  into  a  popular 
religion,  and  had  almost  monopolised  the  popular 
favour.  Brahmanism  now  made  a  determined  effort  to 
recover  lost  ground,  by  imitating  and  adopting  Buddhis- 
tic beliefs,  rites  and  practices,  such  as  faith  in  numerous 
male  and  female  deities,  worship  of  their  images,  pilgrim- 
ages to  their  shrines,  and  so  forth.  In  this  effort  it  fully 
succeeded,  and  the  result  was  a  thorough  transformation 
Brahmanism,  and  the  upgrowth  of  that  mixed 
civilization  which  is  known  as  Hinduism.  The  revival 
,Brahmanism  commenced  with  the  rise  of  the  Second 
Empire  and  the  Gupta  dynasty.  Samudra  Gupta  revived 
the  famous  horse-sacrifice  and  struck  a  gold  medal  to 

commemorate  it.    On  their 
coins  the  Gupta  emperors 
describe      themselves      as 
parama-bhagavata , or  fore- 
most devotees  of  Vishnu, 
■^^"r^-^^y       or  Krishna.     In  their  time 
•iij^tv^        the  practice  arose  of  record- 
Medal  of  the  Ilorse-sacrifice.  j^g     on    COpper-platCS     the 

grants  of  land  made  to  Brahmans  for  the  maintenance 
of  temples  and  the  service  of  images.  Many  of  these 
medals,  coins,  and  copper-plates  still  exist  as  witnesses 
to  the  religious  condition  of  Northern  India  at  that 
time.  Moreover,  we  have  the  account  of  an  eye-wit- 
ness in  the  reports  of  the  Chinese  Buddhist  pilgrim 
Fahian.  He  traversed  the  whole  of  Northern  India 
between  400  and  411  a.d.,  and  found  Brahman  shrines 
and  Buddhist  temples  flourishing  side  by  side  in  all  its 
large  towns.  Rather  more  than  two  centuries  later,  we 
have  the  account  of  another  Buddhist  pilgrim,  Hiuen 
Tsang.  In  644  a.d.,  he  was  present  at  the  great 
religious  convocation  at  Prayaga  above-mentioned. 
He  travelled  over  a  large  part  of  the  peninsula,  and 
though  he  everywhere  found  many  of  the  finest 
Buddhist  temples  already  in  a  ruined  state,  he  nowhere 
indicates  the  progress  of  any  violent  or  w^arlike  conflict 


64  HISTORY  OF    INDIA. 

between  Brahmanism  and  Buddhism.  This  of  course, 
does  not  exclude  the  occasional  occurrence  of  riots 
between  the  two  sects,  but  it  shows  that  Buddhism  was 
not,  as  has  sometimes  been  erroneously  supposed, 
stamped  out  by  Brahmanist  persecution,  but  that  its 
disappearance  was  the  natural  result  of  a  gradual  and 
peaceful  assimilation  of  the  two  systems  so  as  to 
produce  the  new  system  of  Hinduism. 

Coincident  with  the  revival  of  the  Brahmanic 
religion  was  the  revival  of  Sanskrit  Lan- 
The  Revival  of  guage  and  Literature.  From  the  time 
ua|^"aiff "'  '  ^^  ^^^  Guptas  we  find  Sanskrit  gradually 
terature.  ,  displacing  the  Prakrits,  or  vernaculars,  in 
'  all  records,  public  and  private,  and  in 
every  branch  pf  literature,  and  this  not  only  among  the 
Brahmanists,  but  also  among  the  Buddhists  and  Jains. 
From  this  time  dates  the  religious  and  social  literature 
of  the  new  Brahmanism,  the  eighteen  Piiratias,  or  cyclo- 
paidias  of  knowledge,  the  metrical  Dhartna  Shastras,  or 
law  books,  and  the  numerous  original  Tantras,  or  books 
of  religious  formularies.  In  these  works  learned  Brah- 
mans  sought  to  popularise  the  beliefs  and  practices  of 
the  rising  Hinduism.  The  Vayii  Pnraiia,  the  earliest 
of  them,  was  probably  compiled  about  320  A.D.,  under 
Chandra  Gupta  I.  About  that  time  begins  the  period 
of  what  is  called_thej  Classical '  Sanskrit  Tit.erature.  It 
enjoyed  two  particularly  brilliant  epochs — one  during 
the  reign  of  Vishnu  Vardhana  ( Vikramaditya)  of  Malwa 
about  529-585  A.D.,  and  the  other  during  the  reign  of 
Harsha  Vardhana  of  Kanauj  about  612-647  a.d.  Both 
these  emperors  are  celebrated  as  patrons  of  learning 
and  learned  men.  Harsha,  indeed,  is  himself  said  to 
have  been  a  poet,  and  to  be  the  author  of  the  romantic 
drama  Rabiavali,  or  the  Pearl-Necklace,  which  reflects 
the  court  and  harem  life  of  his  age.  Vikramaditya's 
court  is  said  to  have  been  adorned  by  '  Nine  Gems,'  or 
men  of  great  learning.  The  following  famous  writers, 
certainly,  belonged  to  his  age  :     Varaha  Mihira,  who 


Ch.  VII.]        THE    EARLY    HINDU   PERIOD.  65 

wrote  the  Brihat  Satnhita,  a  sort  of  cyclopaedia  of  all 
knowledge ;  the  great  logician  Dinnaga  ;  and  the  three 
poets,  Bharavi,  the  author  of  the  epic  poem  Kiratar- 
juniya ;  Subandhu,  the  author  of  the  romance  Vasava- 
datta  ;  and  above  all  Kalidasa,  who  probably  lived  at 
the  court  of  Vishnu  Vardhana.  The  last  is  the  greatest 
of  India's  poets.  Some  of  his  best  works  are  the  roman- 
tic drama  Sakiintala,  or  the  love  story  of  King  Dushyanta 
and  the  forest  maiden  Sakuntala  ;  the  epic  poem  Raghu- 
vatnsa,  or  the  life  of  Rama  and  the  history  of  his  race  ; 
and  the  lyric  poem  Meghaduta,  or  the  Cloud  Messenger, 
being  an  exile's  message  sent  by  a  cloud  to  his  wife 
dwelling  far  away.  The  age  of  Harsha  was  no  less 
distinguished  by  its  circle  of  cultured  men.  We  have 
here  the  two  grammarians,  Vamana  and  Jayaditya  of 
Kasi,  or  Benares,  who  wrote  the  Kasikavriti,  the  cele- 
brated commentary  on  Panini's  Grammar ;  the  great 
astronomer  Brahmagupta  ;  and  the  two  poets  Bana  and 
Dandin,  the  authors  respectively  of  the  romance  Kadatn- 
bari  and  the  story  book  Dasa  Kumara  Charita,  or  the 
Adventures  of  the  Ten  Princes.  But  the  most  eminent 
among  them  was  Bhartrihari,  who  was  equally  great  as 
grammarian,  philosopher  and  poet.  Besides  other  works 
he  wrote  the  Bhattikavya,  in  which  he  illustrates  the 
rules  of  Sanskrit  grammar  by  means  of  an  epic  poem  on 
Rama,  and  the  Niti  Sataka,  or  one  Hundred  Verses  on 
Conduct,  in  which  he  inculcates  maxims  for  the  guidance 
of  daily  life. 

Another  striking  feature  of  this  period  is  the  culti- 
vation  of  the  Art  of  Painting.  The  most 
conspicuous  example  of  it  is  presented  Art  of  Painting, 
by  the  celebrated  fresco  paintings  on  the 
walls  of  some  of  the  cave  temples  of  Ajanta.  These 
paintings  belong  to  the  more  peculiarly  Indian  school 
of  art,  and  some  of  them  probably  go  back  to  the  pre- 
ceding period.  They  represent,  with  uncommon  beauty 
and  grate,  incidents  from  the  life  of  Buddha,  as  well  as 
notable  events  in  the  pohtical  history  of  India.     To  the 


66  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

latter  belongs,  e.g.,  the  picture  whi6h  shows  the  recep- 
tion, in  625  A.D.,  of  the  ambassadors  of  the  Persian  king 
Khusru  II,  by  the  Southern  Emperor  Pulakesin  11. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 
The  Later  Hindu  Period  : 

The  Rajput  States,  The  Qurjara  Empire,  and  the 
Early  Mubammadan  Invasions. 

About  650 — 1200  A.D. 

IN  the  preceding  period  we  have  seen  how  the  Second 
Indian  Empire,  founded  by  the  Guptas,  became 
divided  into  the  two  empires  of  the  South 
and  the  North.  At  the  end  of  that  period  Remapks!°^^ 
we  saw  the  beginning  of  the  disrup- 
tion of  the  Northern  Empire  by  the  loss  of  the  kingdom 
of  Valabhi.  In  the  present  period  we  shall  see  how  the 
Northern  Empire  steadily  went  on  disintegrating  into  a 
number  of  still  smaller  kingdoms  or  principalities.  The 
cause  of  this  general  break-up  was  the  rise  to  political 
power  of  the  Jjajput  clangs.  These  clans  appear  to  have 
been  the  natural  outcome  of  the  settlement  in  India  of 
the  vigorous  foreign  ract  s  of  Huns  and  Gurjaras,  and  of 
their  subsequent  blending  with  the  martial  and  ruling 
native  clans  of  India.  With  their  youthful  vigour  these 
newly  formed  Rajput  clans  pushed  themselves  into  the 
political  forefront,  swept  away  the  old  effete  empire, 
and  replaced  it  by  a  large  number  of  smaller  kingdoms 
and  principalities,  which,  for  a  short  time,  were  consoli- 
dated into  the  Gurjara  Empire.  The  mischief  of  this  new 
development,  however,  was  that  the  mutual  rivalries  and 
hostilities,  engendered  between  the  numerous  Rajput 
dynasties,  rendered  it  impossible  for  them  to  oppose  a 
united  front  to  the  great  conqueror  of  India,  Muhammad 
of  Ghor,  at  the  turn  of  the  12th  century. 

At  the  beginning  of  this  period  the  Northern  Empire 
was  shcjrn  of  its  westernmost  provin-  ^he  Later  Gupta 
ces,  that  is,  of  Gujarat,  and  also,  as  we     Dynasty,  and  the 


68  HISTORY   OF    INDIA. 

shall  see  presently,  of  Sindh  and  the 
Disruption  of  the  Punjab.  It  embraced  more  or  less 
Noptliern  Empire  securely  the  rest  of  India  north  of  the 
Narbada,  comprising  Hindustan  in  its 
widest  sense,  and  Bengal.  In  the  reduced  empire,  the 
anarchy  following  the  death  of  Harsha  Vardhana  appears 
to  have  resulted  in  the  ascendancy  of  a  collateral  branch 
of  the  imperial  Gupta  dynasty.  Its  founder  was  Krishna 
Gupta,  who,  under  his  imperial  relatives,  held  a  subordi- 
nate position  in  Malwa.  It  was  Aditya  Sena,  the  seventh 
in  descent,  who  about  675  A.D.,  assumed  the  imperial 
titles,*  and  who,  for  that  reason,  is  traditionally  known 
in  Bengal  as  Adisur,  its  first  king.  His  successors  con- 
tinued to  hold  them  for  about  a  century  longer.  The  last, 
whose  name  is  actually  known  by  an  inscription,  was 
Jivita  Gupta,  who  reigned  about  720  A.D.,  but  as  we 
know  from  the  coins  of  Jaya  Gupta  and  Hari  Gupta, 
the  dynasty  must  have  continued  for  at  least  two 
generations  after  him  down  to  about  785  a.d.  But  its 
rule  was  now  limited  to  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
empire,  viz.,  Bihar  and  Bengal,  where  it  was  finally 
displaced  by  the  Pala  dynasty. 

The  course  of  events  that  led  to  the  break-up  of  the 
Later    Gupta    empire    is    not    exactly 
of  Kanaut^"^    known.     But  we  know  from  a  contem- 
porary Jain  record  that  in  783  a.d.  there 
existed    two  large   kingdoms,   one   with  its  capital   at 
Kanauj,    the    other    at    Ujain,    their   territories   being 
divided,  roughly  speaking,  by  the  Jumna.     The  former 
kingdom,  which  comprised  the  north-western  portion  of 
what  had  been   the  empire  of  Harsha  Vardhana,  and 
contained  its  capital  Kanauj,  enjoyed  for  that  reason  the 


*  These  were  Parayna-bliattaraka,  Maharajdhiraja  and 
Paramesvara,  which  are  usually  translated  "the  Most-Worship- 
ful, the  Great  King  of  Kings,  and  the  Supreme  Lord."  The 
assumption  of  these  titles  is  a  useful  guide  in  iracing  the 
vicissitudes  of  the  empire. 


Ch.    VIII. ]     THE    LATER    HINDU    PERIOD.  69 

great  prestige  of  paramount   empire,  and  hence  became 
the  pivot  of  all  subsequent  political  movements  up  to 
the  time  of  the  Muhammedan  conquest,  which  will   be 
related  in  the  following  Chapter.     In  this  northern  king- 
dom we  find  a  king  Yasovarman  reigning  in   731    a.d., 
in  which  year  he  sent  an  embassy   to  China.     He  was 
the  patron  of  the  two  poets,  Bhavabhuti  and  Vakpatiraja, 
the  latter  of  whom  described  the  king's  military  exploits 
in  the  epic  poem  Gaudavaha,  or  conquest  of  Bengal. 
These  exploits  resulted  in  a  war  with  Kashmir,  which 
led    to    his   utter   discomfiture   by   the    Kashmir   king 
Lahtaditya  Muktapida,  and  to  the  ultimate  extinction  of 
his  dynasty  by  Lalitaditya's  grandson   Jayapida,  about 
780  A.D.     A  new  dynasty  appears  now  to  have  been 
founded  by  Indrayudha,  who  is   known  to  have  been 
reigning   in    'jii'i,    a.d.     This  king  got  involved   in    an 
unsuccessful  war  with  his  eastern  neighbour  Dharmapala, 
the  ambitious  ruler  of  the  above-mentioned  kingdom   of 
Bihar  and  Bengal.     As  a  result  of  the  war  his  brother 
Chakrayudha    was    raised    to   the    throne    under    the 
suzerainty  of  the  victor.     But  Chakrayudha  soon   met 
with  a  similar  fate.     He  was  defeated,  about    814  a.d., 
in  a  war  with  his  southern  neighbour  Nagabhata,  the 
Gurjara  ruler  of  Malwa   and    Rajputana.     The   latter, 
however,  as  we  shall  see  presently,  was  himself  defeated 
by  the  Rashtrakuta  Emperor,  Govinda  III  ;  and  there- 
upon Vajrayudha  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Kanauj. 
It  was  he,  probably,  under  whom  the  northern  kingdom 
of   Kanauj  was  annexed  to   the  southern  kingdom  of 
Ujain,  which    comprised    the  south-western   portion  of 
what  had  been  the  Empire  of  Harsha  Vardhana. 

The  first  ruler  of  the  southern  kingdom  was 
Vatsaraja,  the  Chief  of  the  Gurjara  tribe.  This  tribe 
appears  to  have  come  into  India  in  con-  . 

junction  with  the  Huns.    It  settled  partly       Empire!^"^^^^ 
in  the  Punjab,  a  portion  of  which  is  still 
known  alfter  it  by  the  name  of  Gujarat  and  Gujranwala, 
and  partly  in  Rajputana,  which  in  early  times  was  called 


70  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

also  Gujarat.      From    Rajputana,  where   their   original 
capita]  was  in  Bhinmal,  the  Gurjaras  spread  eastwards 
into    Malwa,  where  Vatsaraja  is  known  to  have  been 
reigning  in  Ujain  in  783  a.d.     They  even  temporarily 
threatened    the    Pala    kingdom  of  Bihar   and   Bengal, 
whose  king  Gopala  was  defeated  by    Vatsaraja,  about 
790  A.D      But  Dhruva,  the  Rashtrakuta  Emperor  of  the 
Southern    Empire,  interfered,   and  defeating  Vatsaraja 
drove  him  back  into  Rajputana.     Not  long  afterwards, 
the   Gurjaras  renewed   their   eastward   advance   under 
Vatsaraja's  son,  Nagabhata.     This  time,  they  penetrated 
to  Kanauj,  whose  king  Chakrayudha,  as  stated  above, 
was  conquered  by  them;  but  Dhruva's  son,  Govinda  III, 
again  interfered,   and  defeating    Nagabhata  about  814 
A.D.,  drove  him  back  once  again  into  Rajputana.     For 
the  third  time,  the  Gujaras  advanced  under  Nagabhata's 
son,  Ramabhadra  (about  820-842  a.d.)     This  time  the 
country  was  permanently  conquered  as  far  as  the  Jumna, 
and  Ramabhadra  assumed  the  Imperial  ritles.     His  son 
Bhoja    I    (about    842-885    A.D.)  resumed    the    Gurjara 
advance   across   the  Jumna,   and  finally  overthrowing 
and  annexing  the  northern    kingdom  about  843  a.d., 
transferred  his  capital  from  Ujain  to  Kanauj.    Under  him 
the  Gurjara  empire  reached  its  widest  extent,  embracing 
the  whole  of   Hindustan  in  its  widest  sense.     It  was 
bordered  in  the  East  by  the  Pala  kingdom  of  Bihar  and 
Bengal,  in    the  South  by  the  Southern  Empire  of  the 
Rashtrakutas  and   in   the  West  by  the   Muhammadan 
kingdoms  on  the  Indus.     Bhoja's  son,   Mahendrapala 
(about  885-910  A.D.j  maintained  the  empire  practically 
unimpaired  ;  but  after  him  it  began  to  decline  rapidly.    In 
the  time  of  his  son  Bhoja  H,  about  9 1 3  a.d.,  Yasovarman, 
the   Chief  of  the  Chandel  Rajputs,   set  himself  up   in 
Bundelkhand   as   an   independent   ruler   with   imperial 
titles.     And   Bhoja  II's  half-brother,   Mahipala,   about 
916  A.D.,  nearly  lost  his  empire  in  a  disastrous  war  with 
his  southern  neighbour,  Indra  III,  the  Rashtrakuta  ruler 
of  the  Southern   Empire.     Though  he  soon  afterwards 


Ch.  VIIL]     the  later  hindu  period.  71 

recovered  the  larger  portion  of  his  empire,  he  had  now 
permanently  lost  the  provinces  of  Malwa  and  Rajputana 
to  the  Chiefs  of  the  Parmar  and  Chohan  Rajputs  res- 
pectively, the  former  of  whom  assumed  the  imperial 
titles.  Under  Mahipala's  son  Vijayapala,  who  about 
970  A.D.  lost  the  Gwalior  province  to  the  Kachhwaha 
Rajputs,  the  empire  became  practically  reduced  to  the 
territory  north  of  the  Jumna  with  the  capital  at  Kanauj, 
In  this  weak  condition  it  was  unable  to  offer  any  effec- 
tive resistance  to  the  now  commencing  encroachments 
of  the  Sultans  of  Ghazni.  About  991  a.d.,  Rajyapala, 
the  son  of  Vijayapala,  was,  together  with  his  ally,  king 
Jayapala  of  the  Punjab,  disastrously  defeated  by  Sultan 
Sabuk  Tigin,  near  the  Khurram  Valley.  Later  on,  he 
was  even  raided  by  the  famous  Sultan  Mahmud,  who 
captured  and  sacked  Kanauj  in  10 19  a.d.  In  the  follow- 
ing year,  having  lost  his  life  in  a  war  with  his  rival,  the 
Chandel  king  Ganda,  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Trilochanapala.  With  him  the  once  powerful  Gurjara 
dynasty  disappears  into  obscurity  till  1097  ^-D.,  when 
we  find  Chandra  Deva,  the  Chief  of  the  Gaharwar 
Rajputs,  in  possession  of  Kanauj. 

The  principality  of  Ajmir  had  always  formed  a  part 
of  the  western  frontier  of  the  Northern 

Empire.    Ithad  been  held bv  the  Chief    l^^.^^J'Jl^^l,^.^ 
r  1     /^i    1       T-.   •     .  r       ii     i-         r    Ajmir  and  Delhi, 
of  the  Chohan  Rajputs  from  the  tmie  of 

the  rise  of  the  Gurjara  power,  about  780  A.D.  Their 
dynasty  comprised  a  very  long  line  of  princes,  who  all 
maintained  a  high  reputation  as  powerful  lords  of  the 
Western  Marches,  and  from  about  1000  A.D.,  under 
Simharaja,  held  a  practically  independent  position. 
The  most  conspicuous  among  them  was  Vigraharaja, 
known  as  Bisal  Deo,  who,  as  we  know  from  certain  in- 
scriptions on  the  famous  Iron  Pillar  (now  at  Delhi;, 
about  1 1 64  A.D. ,  considerably  extended  his  dominions 
southwards  and  northwards.  He  was  great  as  a  poet 
as  also  as  a  warrior.  A  drama,  written  by  him  in  11 53 
A.D.,  and  named  Harakali  Nataka,  has  been  found  in 


12  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

Ajmir,  incised  on  large  marble  slabs.  His  principal 
acquisition  was  the  territory  of  the  Tomara  Chiefs, 
whose  capital  Delhi  had  been  founded  in  993  a.d  ,  and 
fortified  in  the  eleventh  century  b}^  Ananga  Pala  by  the 
erection  of  the  so-called  Lalkot,  or  Red  Fort.  The  last 
of  the  Chohans  was  Prithviraja,  the  son  of  Vigraharaja's 
younger  brother  Someswara.  This  is  the  celebrated 
Prithiraj,  or  Rai  Pithora,  whose  defeat  near  Thanesar,  in 
1192  A.D.,  at  the  hands  of  Muhammad  Ghori,  has  be- 
come famous  as  marking  the  epoch  of  the  Muhammadan 
conquest  of  India. 

The  Gaharwar  dynasty,  which  was  founded  by 
Chandra  Deva  about  1090  A.D.,  ruled 
of  Kanauj^^^^  ^^^^  greatly  reduced  kingdom  of  Kanauj 
down  to  the  time  of  the  Muhammadan 
conquest.  Its  kings  still  laid  claim  to  the  imperial  titles, 
although  the  kingdom  comprised  no  more  than  the 
country  lying,  roughly  speaking,  between  Etawa  and 
Benares,  north  of  the  Ganges.  The  last  of  the  line  was 
Jaya  Chandra.  With  him  the  last  remnant  of  the  old 
Northern  Empire  disappeared  in  1193  a.d.,  when  it  was 
annexed  to  the  Muhammadan  Empire  of  Muhammad 
Ghori. 

We  have  stated  that  Yasovarman,  the  Chandel 
chief  of  Bundelkhand,  with  his  capital 
of  ^Mahaba^^^  ^^  Mahoba,  had  assumed  independence 
about  913  A.D.,  and  had  set  himself  up 
as  a  rival  to  the  Gurjara  Emperor.  In  consequence 
his  dynasty  found  itself  involved  in  perpetual  wars 
with  one  or  other  of  his  neighbours  who  also  claimed 
the  imperial  crown.  These  were,  in  the  north,  the 
Gurjaras  and  Gaharwars  of  Kanauj,  in  the  south-west, 
the  Parmars  of  Malwa,  and  in  the  south,  the  Kalachuris 
of  Chedi.  The  pretensions  of  the  Chandel  dynasty 
were  finally  extinguished  by  Qutbuddin  Aibak,  who, 
under  Muhammad  Ghori's  orders,  reduced  it  to  subjec- 
tion in  1193  A.D. 

At  the  time  when  the  Gurjara  empire  began  todechne, 


THE    EARLY    HINDU   PERIOD. 


73 


The  Farm  EPS 
of  Malwa. 


i 


^iyf^'L 


'^V- 


W"J. 


\^ 


Deccan  Coin  of  Ilarsha  Deva. 


about  916  A.D,,  Mahva  fell  to  the  share 
of  the  Parmar  clan  of  Rajputs.  Their 
chief,  Krishnaraja,  assumed  the  imperial 
titles,  and  founded  the  Parmar  dynasty.  The  pretensions 
to  empire,  as  usual,  involved  the  dynast}  in  almost  per- 
petual warfare  with  its  neighbours.  The  kingdom  attained 
its  widest  extent  under  Harsha  Deva  Siyaka,  the  third 
in  descent,  who,  as  we  know  from  inscriptions  and  coins, 
about  972  A.D.,  made  an  expedition  into  the  Southern 

empire,  and  plundered  the 
wealth  of  Malkher,  the  capital 
of  the  Rashtrakuta  dynasty. 
But  the  best-known  prince  of 
the  dynasty  is  Bhoja,  the  cele- 
brated patron  of  learning, 
whose  long  reign,  from  about 
loio  to  1055  A.D.,  forms  the  most  brilliant  epoch  in 
this  period  of  Indian  history.  Though  repeatedly  the 
victim  of  Muhammadan  raids,  the  dynasty  preserved 
its  independence  down  to  the  beginning  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  when  its  country  was  annexed  to 
the  Muhammadan  Empire  by  Muhammad  I,  of  the 
Khalji  dynast}'. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  the  Later  Gupta  dynasty 
continued  to  rule  in  Bihar  and  Bengal  down  to  about 
785  A.D.  About  that  time  it  appears  to  have  been  over- 
turned by  a  local  chief  of  Bihar  called  Gopala,  who 
resided  at  Mungir  (Monghyr).  He  as- 
sumed the  imperial  titles,  and  his  ambi- 
tion appears  to  have  been  to  conquer 
also  the  kmgdom  of  Kanauj  for  the  sake 
of  the  prestige  of  Empire  attaching  to  it.  The  same 
ambition,  as  we  have  seen,  incited  also  the  Gurjara  Chief 
Vatsaraja  to  his  advance  from  the  West.  The  two  rivals, 
from  the  East  and  West,  met  in  battle,  and  Gopala  was 
defeated,  about  790  a.d.  His  project  was  more 
successAilly  resumed  by  his  son  Dharmapala,  (about  810- 
875  A.U.).     He  conquered  Kanauj,  about  810  A.D.,  but 


The    Palas    of 
Bihar    and 
Bengal. 


74 


HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 


MAP 


Map  illiisirat.rno   Chapters  IV  to!X 


Ch.  VIII.]       THE    LATER    HINDU    PERIOD.  75 

replacing  the  conquered  king  Indrayudha  by  his  own 
nominee  Chakrayudha,  he  contented  himself  with  the 
suzerain  power,  which,  as  known  from  a  land  grant  of  his, 
he  retained  till  about  843  A.D.,  when,  as  previously 
stated,  the  Kanauj  kingdom  passed  into  the  possession 
of  the  Gurjara  emperor,  Bhoja  I.  Dharmapala  was 
followed  by  a  very  long  line  of  kings,  the  ninth  of  whom, 
Mahipala,  is  known  to  have  been  on  the  throne  in  1026 
A.D.  It  was  shortly  after  his  time  that  Bengal  became 
independent  under  the  Senas.  The  whole  Pala  dynasty 
comprised  some  twenty  members.  It  seems  to  have 
never  relinquished  its  allegiance  to  Buddhism  ;  and  it  was 
owing  to  its  patronage  that  Bihar  remained  the  last 
refuge  of  that  Faith  in  Northern  India  up  to  the  very 
time  of  the  Muhammadan  conquest.  The  case  was  differ- 
ent with  the  Bengal  portion  of  its  territory,  which  was 
lost  to  Buddhism  in  the  latter  half  of  the  nth  century. 
The  reason  appears  to  have  been  that,  at  the  time,  Bengal 
was  administered  by  governors  who  belonged  to  the 
zealously  brahmanic  family  of  the  Senas. 
One  of  these,  Vijaya  Sena,  about  1095  of  ^Be^^ffal^ 

A.D.,  made  himself  independent  of  the 
Pala  sovereigns ;  and  his  grandson,  Lakshmana  Sena, 
ousted  them  even  from  Tirhut  or  North  Bihar.  This 
was  in  11 19  a.d.,  and  hence  that  year  has  become  the 
epoch  of  the  so-called  Lakshmaniya  era  which  is  spe- 
cially current  in  Tirhut.  Lakshmana  Sena  had  a  very 
long  reign  ;  and  he  was  still  on  the  throne  in  1193  A.D., 
when  Bihar  and  Bengal  were  conquered  by  Muhammad-i- 
Bakhtiyar,  one  of  Muhammad  Ghori's  generals.  It  was 
thus  that  the  rule  of  the  Pala  and  the  Sena  dynasties 
was  extinguished  at  the  same  time. 

It  was  shown  at  the  end  of  the  preceding  period, 
how,    at    the    time    of    the    anarchy    consequent    on 

Harsha  Vardhana's  death,   the  king-     „,      „.      ,  „ 

J  r  A-  1  1  I  ]         /-   •     ^      The  Kingdom  of 

dom  or   v  alabhi,  or  modern  Gujarat,     Gujarat      under 

was    dv*finitely    separated    from    the     the  Valabhis  and 

Northern   Enipire  by    Dharasena  IV.     ^^^  Chalukyas. 


fd  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

of  the  Valabhi  dynasty.  This  dynasty  was  so  called, 
because  it  had  its  capital  at  Valabhi,  the  modern  Wala 
in  Kathiawad.  It  was  founded,  about  495  A.D.,  by 
Bhatarka,  the  Chief  of  the  Mihira,  or  Mair  clan,  probably 
a  Turki  clan  which  had  come  in  with  the  Sakas,  but  had 
in  the  course  of  time  become  indianised.  Bhatarka  had 
been  appointed  Senapati  or  Military  Governor,  by  the 
Hunic  conqueror  Toramana,  in  the  time  of  the  latter's 
domination  over  the  western  portion  of  the  Gupta  empire. 
His  grandson,  Dronasimha,  as  previously  related,  was 
promoted  to  be  Maharaja  by  the  emperor,  Vishnu  Vard- 
hana  as  a  reward  for  his  aid  in  delivering  India  from  the 
cruel  domination  of  Mihiragula  ;  and  Dharasena  IV,  the 
twelfth  in  descent,  as  has  also  been  stated,  assumed  the 
imperial  titles  in  645  a.d.  His  successors  continued  to 
hold  that  dignity  till  about  770  a.d,,  when  the  Valabhi 
dynasty  became  extinct  with  Siladitya  VI,  the  nine- 
teenth in  descent.  The  exact  cause  is  not  known,  but 
it  was  probably  effected  by  an  Arab  expedition  from 
Sindh.  On  the  retirement  of  the  Arabs,  the  throne  was 
seized  by  a  Chavada  chief,  who  made  his  capital  at 
Anhilvad,  or  Patan.  His  dynasty,  under  the  suzerainty 
of  the  Gurjara  emperors,  reigned  down  to  about  970 
A.D.,  when  it  was  supplanted  by  Mularaja  I,  the  Chief 
of  the  Solanki,  or  Chalukya,  Rajputs.  These  Rajputs 
appear  to  have  been  a  branch  of  the  Gurjara  tribe  ;  for 
they  gave  to  the  country  into  vvhich  they  migrated  the 
name  of  Gujarat  by  which  it  is  now  known.  Mularaja's 
father  is  said  to  have  come  originally  from  the  kingdom 
of  Kanauj,  where  his  ancestors,  for  several  generations, 
had  held  the  Katak,  or  fort  of  Kalyana.  It  is  not 
impossible  that  they  were  a  collateral  branch  of  the 
Gurjara  imperial  dynasty.  Be  that  as  it  may,  Mularaja's 
father  migrated  to  Patan,  and  married  the  daughter  of 
the  last  Chavada  king.  On  the  latter's  death,  Mularaja 
seized  the  throne.  His  Solanki  dynasty  continued  to 
rule  Gujarat  with  the  imperial  titles  down  to  the  very 
end  of  the  thirteenth  century,  when  their  country  was 


Ch.  VIIL]    the  later  hindu  period.  'n 

annexed  to  the  Muhammadan  Empire  by  Muhammad  I 
of  the  Khalji  dynasty. 

It  remains  to  describe  the  fortunes  of  Sindh  and  the 
Punjab — originally  also  provinces  of 
what  was  once  the  great  Northern  Em-  The  Southern 
pire— and  their  conquest  by  the  Muham-  fh^^eaHy"cha- 
madans.  But  before  doing  so,  it  will  be  lukyas. 
convenient  briefly  to  relate  the  history 
of  the  political  divisions  of  South  India,  namely,  the 
Southern  Empire  and  the  kingdoms  of  the  Pallavas, 
Cholas,  and  Pandyas,  and  of  the  Kalachuris  of  Chedi. 
We  have  seen  that  the  Southern  Empire  was  founded 
about  620  A.D.,  by  Pulakesin  II,  of  the  Chalukya  dynasty. 
The  Chalukyas  were  a  Rajput  clan  whose  original  seat 
was  in  the  north.  Thence  for  some  reason,  no  longer 
known,  they  had  migrated  south  about  550  A.D.,  under 
their  chief,  Pulakesin  I,  who  finally  carved  out  for 
himself  a  small  kingdom  with  its  capital  at  Badami. 
His  grandson  Pulakesin  II  (about  609 — 642  A.D.),  the 
sixth  of  the  dynasty,  vigorously  set  himself  to  extend 
the  kingdom  in  all  directions.  He  gradually  brought 
into  more  or  less  effective  subjection  the  whole  of 
Southern  India,  from  sea  to  sea,  and  from  the  Vindhyas 
to  Cape  Comorin.  It  was  thus  that  he  came  into 
conflict  with  the  Northern  Emperor,  Harsha  Vardhana, 
who  aspired  to  the  paramountcy  of  the  whole  of  India. 
In  a  great  battle,  fought  in  Malwa,  about  620  a.d., 
Pulakesin  II  succeeded  in  inflicting  a  decisive  defeat  on 
Harsha  Vardhana,  and  compelling  the  acknowledgment 
of  the  independency  of  the  Southern  Empire.  A  curious 
proof  of  this  achievement  is  afforded  to  us  by  the 
Ajanta  picture,  previously  referred  to,  of  the  compli- 
mentary embassy  from  the  Persian  king,  Khusru  II. 
The  weak  point,  however,  in  Pulakesin's  empire  was 
his  claim  to  suzerainty  over  the  Pallava  kings,  which 
the  latter  persistently  disputed.  By  way  of  safeguard, 
Pulakesirt  appointed,  about  615  a.d.,  his  brother  Vishnu 
Vardhana,  to  the   practically  independent  rule  of  the 


78  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

eastern  province  of  Vengi,  reserving  for  himself  the 
larger  western  portion  of  the  empire,  whence  his  des- 
cendants are  known  as  the  Western 
Chalukvas^-^^e"  Chalukya  dynasty.  The  measure,  how- 
615-753  A.b.  '  ever,  did  not  prove  sufficiently  effective  ;. 
for  at  the  end  of  his  reign,  about  642 
A.D.,  he  suffered  a  crushing  defeat  at  the  hands  of  the 
Pallava  king  Narasimha  Varman,  who  captured  and 
destroyed  Badami.  His  successors,  indeed,  were  able 
to  retrieve  the  disaster  and  maintain  their  supremacy  ;. 
and  Vikramaditya  II,  the  fourth  in  descent  from 
Pulakesin  II,  about  740  A.D.,  even  succeeded  in  shat- 
tering the  Pallava  power.  Nevertheless  the  chronic 
trouble  with  the  Pallavas  so  weakened  the  Chalukya 
power  that,  about  753  a.d.,  the  rule  of 
kutas  ?e^^753-  Kirtivarman  II,  the  last  of  the  dynasty, 
973  A.D."  was  overthrown  by  his  rebellious  feuda- 

tory Dantidurga,  who  thus  became 
the  founder  of  the  Rashtrakuta  dynasty.  After  a 
time  that  dynasty  threw  out  several  branches  reigning 
in  different  parts  of  the  country,  the  capital  of  the 
paramount  line  being  at  Malkher.  It  was,  as  has  been 
already  indicated,  in  a  chronic  state  of  conflict  with 
its  northern  neighbour,  the  Gurjara  dynasty,  several 
members  of  which  were  defeated,  respectively,  by 
Dhruva,  the  third  after  Dantidurga,  about  790  a.d.,  by 
Dhruva's  son  Govinda  III,  about  814  a.d.,  and  by 
Indraraja  III,  about  916  a.d.  But  its  greatest  power 
the  Rashtrakuta  dynasty  enjoyed  during  the  long  reign 
of  Govinda  Ill's  son,  Amoghavarsha,  (815-877  a.d.).. 
He  not  only  maintained  his  suzerainty  over  the  Gangas 
of  Talakad  (Mysore)  and  the  Pallavas  of  Kanchipurand 
apparently  the  Cholas  and  Pandyas  of  the  extreme 
south,  but  also  held  in  subjection  the  Eastern  Chalukyas 
of  Vengi ;  so  that,  at  this  time,  the  Rashtrakuta 
Empire  had  practically  the  same  extent  as  that  of  the 
Early  Chalukyas  under  Pulakesin  II.  After  him, 
however,  the  Rashtrakuta  power  gradually  declined,  till,. 


CH.  VIII.]      THE   LATER   HINDU   PERIOD.  79 

about  973  a.d.,  Tailapa  II,  a  descendant  of  the  Early 
Chalukyas,  and  related  by  marriage  to  the  Rashtrakutas, 
succeeded  with  the  help  of  the  Northern 
Yadava  feudatories  of  Devagiri,  in  over-    The  Later  West- 
throwing  Kakka  II,   the   last   of  the    ef ^TsS  A^d! 
Rashtrakutas.      He  thus    founded  the 
Later  Western  Chalukya  dynasty,  which  is  known  also 
as  the  Chalukyas  of  Kalyani.     The  strongest    member 
of  this  dynasty  was  Somesvara   I   (1040-1069),  but  its 
hold  on  the  empire,  even  in  its   palmiest   days,   was 
imperfect ;  and  after  Somesvara   I   it   grew  still   more 
feeble.     This  was  owing  to  the  rise  of  the  Cholas  of 
Kanchipur    and     Tanjore,    and    of    the    Hoysalas    of 
Dvarasamudra,  the  present  Halobid.     But  it  was  the 
latter  that  more  directly  caused  the   extinction    of  the 
Chalukya  rule.     The  Hoysalas  held   Northern  Mysore 
as  feudatories  of  the  Chalukyas.     They  rose  to  power, 
by  the  conquest  of  their  fellow-feudato- 
ries,  the  Western    Gangas  of  Talakad    J.  io48°1311  A.!)! 
in   southern    Mysore.       In    1173    a.d., 
their    chief,    Ballala     II,    assumed   independence,    and 
even  proceeded   to  contest  with  his  suzerain   for  the 
possession  of  the  imperial  power.    Though  he  succeeded, 
about    1 1 90    A.D.,    in     overturning     Somesvara    IV, 
the  last  of  the  Chalukya  dynasty,  he  did  not  attain 
his  object.     For  Bhillama,  the  Yadava  Chief  of  Devagiri 
took  advantage  of  the  opportunity  to  seize  the  imperial 
power   him.self.       Ballala    for    a    time   continued    the 
contest   tor  that   power   with    the   Yadava   Emperors. 
But  it  ended,  about  12 10  a.d.,  with  his  signal  defeat  by 
Singhana,    the   grandson    of    Bhillama.      This   victory 
finally  disposed  of  the   pretensions  of    the  Hoysalas, 
though  they  continued  to  reign  as   feudatories   down 
to   the    Muhammadan    conquest    in    131 1    a.d.      The 
Yadavas     were    a    Rajput     clan     who    are     said     to 
have   migrated,  about    825   A.D.,   from       ^^^    Yadava 
MathurA  into  the  Deccan  to  their  new       Dynasty  :  e. 
seats  about  Devagiri.     Here,  known  as       1210-1318  A.D. 


So  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

the  Early  Yadavas,  they  lived  as  the  trusty  feudatories 
of  the  Chalukya  and  Rashtrakuta  dynasties  down  to  the 
end  of  the  twelfth  century,  when,  under  the  name  of  the 
Later  Yadava  dynasty,  they  rose,  about  1 190  a.d.,  under 
Bhillama  to  supreme  power.  His  grandson  Singhana 
(1210-1247  A.D.^  and  the  latter's  grandson  Krishna 
(1247-1260)  were  the  two  most  powerful  members  of 
the  dynasty.  They  appear  to  have  succeeded  in  re- 
uniting, for  the  third  time,  what  were  the  original 
territories  of  the  Southern  Empire  of  Pulakesin  11. 
Their  descendants  reigned  down  to  1307  a.d.,  when,  as 
we  shall  see  in  the  next  period,  the  reigning  Yadava 
prince,  Ramadeva,  was  compelled  by  Malik  Kafur  to 
submit  to  the  Muhammadan  Empire.  Nominally  the 
dynasty  continued  to  reign  till  13 18  a.d.,  when  Hara 
Pala,  the  last  of  the  Yadavas,  was  cruelly  slain  by  the 
emperor,  Mubarak  Shah,  against  whom  he  had  rebelled. 
The  Pallavas  or  Pah  lavas,  who  have  been  referred 

to  repeatedly  in  the  preceding  account 
King-dom^^^        ^^  events,  appear  to  have  been  originally 

a  Parthian  tribe,  who  came  into  India 
in  the  time  of  the  Indo-Parthian  domination,  in  the  2nd 
century  A.D.  Under  the  pressure  of  the  subsequent 
Kushana  invasion  they  seem  to  have  wandered  into 
Southern  India,  where  they  settled  on  the  south-east 
coast,  within  the  country  of  the  Andhras  and  Cholas, 
betw^een  the  Godavery  and  Kaveri  rivers,  with 
capitals  at  Vengi  and  Kanchipur  (Conjeveram).  In  the 
meantime,  as  their  names  show,  they  had  become 
thoroughly  indianised,  and  their  foreign  Pathian  origin 
was  forgotten.  We  obtain  the  first  glimpse  of  their 
South-Indian  principality,  about  430  A.D.,  when  their 
Chiefs  Vishnugupta  in  Kanchipur  and  Hastivarman  in 
Vengi,  were  subjected  by  Samudra  Gupta.  On  the 
decline  of  the  Gupta  Empire,  they  formed  an  independent 
kingdom,  which  now  seems  to  have  extended  across 
South  India  to  the  west  coast.  From  the  7th  to  the  9th 
century,  their  kings  persistently,  though   ineffectually, 


Ch.   VIII. ]       THE   LATER   HINDU   PERIOD.  8l 

disputed  the  supremacy  of  the  Early  Chalukya  and 
Rashtrakuta  Emperors  of  the  Southern  Empire.  It 
was  their  king,  Mahendravarman  II,  who,  about  6io 
A.D.,  was  subjected  by  Pulakesin  II,  the  Early  Chalukya. 
But  Narasimhavarman,  about  642  a.d.,  again  asserted 
his  independence  by  the  defeat  of  Pulakesin  II,  and  the 
capture  of  his  capital  Badami.  His  reign  (about  640- 
655  a.d.)  marks  the  height  of  the  Pallava  power,  which 
included  the  suzerainty  over  the  kings  of  the  Cholas 
and  Pandyas.  After  him  it  again  declined,  till  through 
the  successive  victories  of  the  Early  Chalukya  Vikrama- 
ditya  II,  about  740  A.D.,  over  Nandivarman,  and  of  the 
Rashtrakuta  Govinda  III,  about  803  a.d.,  over  Dantiga, 
it  became  so  shattered,  that,  about  900  a.d  ,  under 
Aparajita,  it  was  entirely  overthrown  by  the  Chola  king 
Aditya,  who  annexed  the  Pallava  territories  to  his  own 
kingdom. 

About   615   A.D.,  as  has  been  mentioned,  Vishnu 
Vardhana,    the    younger    brother     of 
Pulakesin  II,  had  become  the  indepen-  The  Eastern  Cha- 
dent  sovereign  of  the  eastern  portion  ^  b30-l07(f  A^dT  ' 
of  the   Southern    Empire.     His   king- 
dom comprised  the  country  lying  along  the  lower  courses 
of  the  Godavery  and  Kistna  rivers,  and  had  Vengi  for  its 
capital.     There  his  descendants,  known  as  the  Eastern 
Chalukya   dynasty,   reigned    without   any   conspicuous 
influence  on  the  course  of  the  history  of  the  Empire, 
down  to  1070  A.D.,  when  their  kingdom  became  merged 
into  that  of  the  Cholas.     About  the  early  Chola  kingdom 
very  little  is  known.     Its  territory  was 
on  the  south-eastern  coast,  north  and  Jhe  Chola  King- 
south  of  Madras.     It  was  known  al-  j^q 
ready    to    the    Sanskrit    Grammarian 
Kaiyayana  in  the  fourth  century  B.C.     As  we  have  seen, 
it  formed  no  part  of  Asoka's  Empire  in  the  third  century 
B.C.,  nor  was  it  included  in  the  conquests  of  Samundra- 
gupta,  at/out  340  A.D.     At  the  latter  date  it  can  have 
been  but  a  small  kingdom.     It  was  so  still  at  the  time 


82  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

when  it  was  reported  on  by  the  Chinese  pilgrim,  Hiuen 
Tsang,  about  640  a.d.,  when  it  was  tributary  to  the 
Pallava  kings  ;  and  it  remained  so  for  about  two  centuries 
longer,  until  it  came  under  the  rule  of  a  new  dynasty. 
The  second  of  this  dynasty,  Aditya  II,  as  previously 
stated,  about  900  A.D.,  shook  off  the  Pallava  supremacy. 
Rajaraja  I,  the  fourth  in  descent  from  Aditya,  but  the 
loth  of  the  dynasty,  by  the  conquest  of  the  Pallava 
and  Pandya  territories,  about  995  a.d.,  succeeded  in 
founding  a  great  rival  Chola  kingdom.  This  kingdom 
reached  the  height  of  its  power  and  extension  in  the 
reign  of  his  son,  Rajendra  I  (1018-1042  a.d  ).  This  king 
conquered  the  Burmese  kingdom  of  Pegu  in  1025-1027 
A.D.,  made  war  with  the  Later  Chalukyas  of  Kalyani, 
and  even  carried  his  raids  as  far  north  as  the  banks  of 
the  Ganges,  in  commemoration  of  which  latter  achieve- 
ment he  built  a  new  capital  at  Gangapuri.  The  kingdom 
continued  flourishing  for  some  time.  In  the  long  reign 
of  Rajendra  II  (1070-1118  A.D.),  who  was  a  grandson 
of  the  Eastern  Chalukya  king  Vimaladitya  by  the  latter's 
maniage  with  a  daughter  of  Rajaraja,  the  Eastern 
Chalukya  territory  was  united  with  the  original  kingdom 
of  the  Cholas.  After  Rajendra  II  the  Chola  power 
gradually  declined.  About  1 1 50  a.d.  it  lost  the  tributary 
kingdom  of  the  Pandyas,  and,  as  a  result  of  the  expedi- 
tion of  Malik  Kafur  and  Malik  Khusru  to  the  Malabar 
coast,  in  131 1  and  1319  a.d.,  it  sank  thenceforth  into 
the  position  of  a  petty  principality. 

Respecting  the  Pandya  kingdom  in  the  earliest  days 
our  information  is  very  meagre.  It 
K?nffdon?^^^  occupied  the  southernmost  portion  of 
the  Indian  peninsula,  south  of  the  Vellaru 
river,  w^ith  Madura  as  its  capital.  Of  its  existence  as 
early  as  the  fourth  century  B.C.  we  know  both  from  Katya- 
yana's  grammatical  notes  and  from  the  reports  of  Megas- 
thenes.  Its  existence,  in  the  third  century  B.C.,  is  shown 
by  the  Edicts  of  Asoka.  According  to  Strabo  a'nd  Pliny, 
who  lived  in  the  first  and  second  centuries  A.D.,  it  was  a 


Ch.  VIII. ]      THE   LATER    HINDU   PERIOD.  83 

flourishing  and  enterprising  kingdom  in  those  days, 
possessing  a  regular  maritime  trade  with  the  West,  and  a 
high  degree  of  culture.  Later  on,  it  seems  to  have 
declined  politically  ;  for  at  the  time  of  Hiuen  Tsang's 
visit  to  Southern  India,  about  640  a.d.,  it  appears  to 
have  been  under  the  suzerainty  of  the  Pallava  kings  of 
Kanchipur  ;  and  still  later,  after  the  fall  of  the  Pallava 
power,  from  about  994  A.D.,  it  was  tributary  to  the  Chola 
kingdom.  About  1250  a.d.  it  appears  to  have  regained 
some  degree  of  independence  under  a  king  named 
Sundara  ;  but  soon  afterwards,  in  131 1  a.d.,  it  shared  in 
the  general  eclipse  of  the  South  Indian  states,  consequent 
on  Mahk  Kafur's  military  expeditions. 

The  kingdom  of  Chedi  was  situated  in  the  country 
south  of  the  Narbada,  corresponding  to 
modern  Berar  and  the  Central  Provinces.  Jf  cSi  °^ 
Of  the  early  history  of  this  country  we 
have  very  little  information.  It  must  have  been  included 
in  the  Maurya  and  Sunga  Empires.  Afterwards  it 
belonged  to  the  great  kingdom  of  the  Andhras.  What 
happened  to  it  at  the  time  of  the  break-up  of  that  king- 
dom, in  the  middle  of  the  third  century  a.d.,  we  do  not 
exactly  know.  It  is  only  towards  the  end  of  the  ninth 
century  a.d.,  that  we  again  obtain  a  glimpse  of  it.  At 
that  time  we  find  that  the  so-called  Kalachuri  era  was 
current  in  the  Chedi  country  ;  and  as  that  era,  as 
previously  observed,  took  its  rise  in  the  Northern 
Konkan  province  at  the  time  of  the  extinction  of  the 
Andhra  dynasty,  in  249  a.d.,  some  close  connection 
appears  to  have  prevailed  in  the  intermediate  period 
between  the  northern  Konkan  and  the  neighbouring 
Chedi  country.  Anyhow,  in  the  ninth  century  we  find  the 
latter  country  in  the  possession  of  the  Haihaya  Rajputs, 
whose  Chief,  Kokalla,  having  married  his  daughter  to 
Krishna  II  of  the  Rashtrakuta  dynasty  of  the  Southern 
Empire,  established,  about  875  a.d.,  an  independent 
kingdonl  and  founded  the  Kalachuri  dynasty.  The  two 
most  powerful  members  of  this  dynasty  were  Gangeya- 


^"1 


84  HISTORY   OF    INDIA. 

deva  and  Karnadeva,  who  between  them  must  have 
reigned  for  about  a  century  (1015-1040  and  1040-1115 
A.D.).  This  was  the  period  of  the  disruption  of  the 
Gurjara  empire  ;  and  those  two  monarchs,  assuming  the 
imperial  titles,  entered  into  warlike  competition  with 
their  neighbours  for  the  paramount  power  hitherto 
wielded  by  Kanauj.  Gangeyadeva,  as  we  know  from 
Alberuni,  reigned  about  1030  a.d.,  and  the  influence 
which  his  rule  exercised  may  be  seen  from  the  fact  that 
a  new  type  of  coin  which  he  introduced  was  thereafter 
^.^^  adopted    bv    his     northern 

i#r!?'^?:^i        ,^^1^^      neighbours,      the     Chandel 
\^  kings  of  Mahoba,  and  even 

the  Gurjara  kings  of  Kanauj. 
It  was  about  this  time  that 
the  sway  of  the  Kalachuris 

Gold  coin  of  Gangeyadeva.         was    extended    southwards 

over  Telingana,  which  gave 
them  one  of  their  titles,  "Lords  of  Trikalinga."  Sub- 
sequently, in  the  twelfth  century,  they  divided  into  two 
branches  reigning  in  the  easLern  and  western  portions  of 
the  country,  called  Dahala  and  Mahakosala,  with 
Ratanpur  and  Tewar  (close  to  Jabalpur)  as  their 
respective  capitals.  Jajalla  I  and  Yasahkarna,  the 
son  of  Karnadeva,  are  known,  from  their  inscriptions, 
to  have  been  reigning  in  the  East  and  West,  in  1114 
and  1120  respectively.  At  the  same  time,  about 
1 1 50  A.D.,   the   southern  portion,   Telingana,   assumed 

independence  under  its  own  Kakatya 
The  Kakatiyas  dynasty,  who  made  their  captial  at 
nbZfiidAsi:^'    Warangal.     About  12 10  A.D.,  the  whole 

territory  became  subject  once  more 
to  the  Southern  Empire  under  the  Yadava  Singhana. 
Ultimately,  in  the  first  quarter  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
sharing  the  fate  of  that  empire,  it  passed  into  the 
povver  of  the  Muhammadan  Empire  under  the  Khalji 
dynasty. 

We  will  now  turn  to  the  history  of  Sindh   and  the 


Ch.  VIII.]  THE    EARLY    HINDU   PERIOD.  85 

Punjab.  We  have  learned  already  that 
these  provinces  had  been  lost  to  the  TheKing-domof 
Northern  Empire  at  the  openhig  of  the  IV^alf  CoSque?t 
present  period.  The  early  history  of 
Sindh  is  not  yet  fully  known.  But  it  w^ould  seem  that 
at  the  time  of  the  Hunic  invasion,  about  515  a.d.,  the 
famous  Mihiragula  of  the  Jabula  clan,  whom  the  Greeks 
knew  as  Gollas,  established  his  rule  over  the  country. 
His  hinduized  descendants,  known  as  the  Raya  dynasty, 
are  said  to  have  reigned  down  to  631  a.d.  In  that  year 
Chach,  their  Brahman  minister,  usurped  the  throne  ;  but 
his  Brahman  dynasty  was  very  short-lived.  Under 
Dahir,  a  son  of  Chach,  it  was  extinguished  by  the  Arab 
conquest  of  Sindh  in  712  a.d.  In  that  year  Muhammad- 
i-Qasim  was  sent  by  Hajjaj,  the  Arab  governor  of 
Babylonia,  to  inflict  punishment  on  Dahir  for  the 
piratical  seizure  of  an  Arab  ship  at  Debal,  a  little 
east  of  the  present  Karachi.  After  storming  Debal, 
Muhammad  marched  up  the  old  course  of  the  Indus 
to  a  fort  called  Rawar,  near  Bahmanabad.  Here  Dahir 
was  defeated  and  slain  in  a  great  battle,  and  his  queen, 
Rani  Bai,  rather  than  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy, 
after  the  capture  of  the  fort,  burned  herself  on  a  funeral 
pyre.  Aror,  Dahir's  capital,  as  well  as  Multan,  after 
prolonged  sieges,  capitulated  ;  and  these  successes 
completed  the  conquest  of  Sindh.  Thenceforward  it 
formed  a  province  of  the  Khalifat,  or  Arab  Empire,  till, 
in  871  A.D,,  it  was  separated  into  two  independent 
kingdoms  with  their  capitals  at  Multan  and  Mansura. 
After  a  long  term  of  comparative  power  and  prosperity, 
they  both  fell  into  disorder  in  935  A.D.,  through  the 
settlement  in  them  of  the  Oarmatians,  a  heretical  sect 
of  Muhammadans.  Finally  in  loio  a.d.,  thej'^  were 
overthrown  by  the  famous  Mahmud,  the  orthodox 
Muhammadan  ruler  of  Ghazni. 

The  early  history  of  the  Punjab  is  no  less  obscure 
than  that  of  Sindh.  So  much,  however,  is  certain  that, 
together    with    Gandhara,   or   Eastern  'Afghanistan,    it 


86  HISTORY    OF   INDIA. 

The  Kingdom  of  formed  a  kingdom  which  was  ruled  by 
tht  Gh"azna^de  ^  dynasty  of  so-called  Turki  Shahis, 
Invasions.  residing  in  Kabul.     Possibly  their  rule 

was  only  a  revival  of  the  kingdom  of  the 
Little  Kushans,  which,  as  we  saw  in  the  preceding  chap- 
ter, had  been  temporarily  overthrown  by  the  Hunic  inva- 
sion about  465  A.D.,  or  they  may  have  been  a  Hunic 
dynasty.  Be  that  as  it  may,  the  rule  of  the  Turki  Shahis 
endured  till  about  870  a.d.,  when,  as  we  know  from  Albe- 
runi's  account,  it  was  supplanted  by  their  Brahman  minis- 
ter Lalliya.  He  founded  the  so-called  Brahman  Shahi 
dynasty,  which  made  Wahand  ( Ohind ),  on  the  Indus,  their 
capital.  Bhima  Deva,  the  fourth  of  the  Hne,  appears  to 
have  been  set  aside,  about  960  A.D.,  by  the  Rajput  prince 
Jaipal,  possibly  a  hinduized  descendant  of  the  Kushan 
dynasty.  Under  him  the  kingdom  became  limited  to 
the  Punjab,  and  its  capital  was  transferred  to  Bhatinda, 
near  Lahore.  This  happened  in  989  a.d.,  as  the  result 
of  an  unsuccessful  war  with  Sabuk  Tigin,  the  Samanide 
governor  of  Ghazni,  who  extended  his  territory  up  to  the 
Indus.  The  Rajput  dynasty  finally  succumbed,  in  102 1 
A.D.,  to  the  repeated  attacks  of  Sultan  Mahmud,  the  son 
and  successor  of  Sabuk  Tigin.  This  celebrated  Sultan  was 
the  real  founder  of  the  Ghaznavide  dynasty  and  empire. 
Having  made  himself  independent  of  the  Samanides,  by 
conquering  nearly  the  whole  of  their  empire  in  Turkestan 
and  Persia,  he  proceeded  to  extend  his  dominions  into 
India,  which  he  is  said  to  have  invaded  no  less  than 
seventeen  times.  With  the  exception  of  three,  all  these 
campaigns  were  devoted  to  the  conquest  and  permanent 
annexation  of  the  frontier  kingdoms  of  Sindh  and  the 
Punjab.  The  former,  as  we  have  seen,  was  reduced  in  loio 
A.D.  Jaipal,  of  the  Punjab,  who  attempted,  in  alliance 
with  Rajyapala,  king  of  Kanauj,  and  Ganda,  king  of  the 
Chandels,  to  resist  the  further  encroachments  of  Mahmud, 
was  defeated  in  100 1  A.D.  Unable  to  bear  his  disgrace, 
he  is  said  to  have  burned  himself  to  death.  His  son, 
Anandpal,    was   defeated   in    1009    a.d.     Trilochanpal, 


Ch.  VIII.]      THE   LATER   HINDU   PERIOD.  87 

who  succeeded  in  10 13  a.d.,  was  also  defeated  and 
driven  to  take  refuge  in  Kashmir.  Thence,  as  we  know 
from  the  Rajatarangini,  or  the  Kashmir  Chronicle,  he 
attempted  in  1021  A.D.,  with  the  support  of  a  Kashmirian 
army,  to  recover  his  kingdom.  But  the  crushing  defeat 
which  Mahmud  inflicted  on  him  and  his  allies  put  an  end 
to  his  life  as  well  as  to  his  dynasty.  Though  a  son  of 
his,  Bhimpal,  escaped  from  the  disaster,  the  Punjab 
formed  henceforth  a  part  of  the  Ghazni  empire,  and  was 
administered  by  Muhammadan  governors. 

In  the  campaign  of  1009  a.d.,  after  the  death  of 
Anandpal,  Mahmud  had  captured  „  ,  a^  n 
Nagarkot,  or  the  Fort  of  Kangra.  S^s  a^t 
Here,  for  generations,  the  wealth  of  the  the  Indian  King- 
kings  of  the  Punjab  and  their  chiefs  doms. 
had  been  stored.  The  whole  of  this  treasure — an 
incredible  amount  of  jewels,  money,  and  objects  of 
silver  and  gold — was  looted  by  Mahmud,  and  trans- 
ported to  Ghazni.  The  sight  of  it  served  to  whet 
the  appetite  for  plunder,  and  crowds  of  Turkis  and 
Afghans  flocked  to  Mahmud's  standard.  With  an  army 
thus  swelled,  Mahmud  set  out  on  his  three  expeditions 
into  the  interior  of  India.  They  were,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  only  far-reaching  raids,  undertaken  with  no  aim  at 
conquest,  but  simply  for  the  sake  of  plunder  and  the 
satisfaction  of  a  vow,  made  at  the  beginning  of  his  reign, 
that  every  year  should  see  him  wage  a  holy  war  against 
the  "infidels"  of  Hindustan.  The  first  campaign,  1018 
A.D.,  was  directed  against  the  kingdom  of  Kanauj. 
Marching  by  way  of  Mathura,  which  he  captured  and 
plundered  of  the  fabulous  wealth  of  its  temples,  he 
advanced  on  Kanauj.  Its  king,  Jaipal,  had  fled.  His 
capital,  with  its  seven  forts,  was  taken  in  one  day,  and 
all  its  gorgeous  temples  were  utterly  despoiled.  After 
treating  similarly  some  other  neighbouring  towns,  Mah- 
mud returned  to  Ghazni.  The  second  campaign  was 
directed  ctgainst  the  kingdom  of  Bundelkhand,  where, 
1023  A.D.,  Mahmud  besieged  Gwahor  and  Kalinjar.     Its 


88  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

king,  Ganda,  saved  himself  only  by  buying  off  the  in- 
vader with  an  enormous  ransom.  The  third  campaign 
took  place  in  1026  a.d.,  and  had  for  its  objective 
Somnath,  the  holy  city  of  Gujarat,  which  lay  at  the 
furthest  extremity  of  Kathiawar  on  the  sea-coast,  and 
was  strongly  fortified  There  stood  one  of  the  most 
sacred  temples  of  the  Hindus,  enshrining  a  far-famed 
Lhiga,  a  conical  stone  of  great  size,  visited  by  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  pilgrims,  and  served,  so  it  is  said,  by  a 
thousand  Brahmans  who  guarded  its  countless  treasures 
of  jewels  and  money.  Mahmud  captured  the  town 
with  great  slaughter,  and  sacked  the  temple.  The  great 
Linga  was  cast  down  and  broken  into  four  pieces,  two 
of  which  were  sent  to  Ghazni,  and  the  others  to  Mecca 
and  Medina,  as  witnesses  of  Mahmud's  zeal  for  the  Faith. 
The  sandal  wood  gates  of  the  temple,  also,  were  carri- 
ed off  to  Ghazni,  and  a 
million  pounds  worth  of 
■r-i  'v'k  treasure  is  said  to  have  re- 
1 '5  I  ,w  warded  the  "Idol-breaker," 
%jy^  by  which  name  Mahmud 
"^i_2l>^  became  hence-forth  known. 
T  J-     ^  •     r  A»  u     J  It  was  his  last   and  most 

Indian  Coin  of  Mahmud.  .  ,  . 

(Struck  at  Lahore,  1027  A.D.)        noteworthy    achievement. 

He  died  four  years  after- 
wards, in  1030  A.D.  His  successors  continued  to  reign 
for  about  150  years  after  his  death  ;  but  their  power  steadily 
waned.  They  were  at  last  expelled  from  Gjiazni,  and  their 
dominion  was  narrowed  down  to  the  Punjab.  The  last  of 
the  dynasty  was  Khusrau  Malik.  With  him  the  line  ended, 
1 186  A.D.,  in  the  general  conquest  of  India  by  Muhammad 
Ghori. 

A  survey  of  the  general  condition  of  the  people  in 

this  period  may  now  be  given.  The 
The  Establish-  process  of  assimilation  of  Brahmanism 
ment  of  Hindu-    ^^^^  Buddhism,  which  was  already  in  full 

operation  in  the  preceding  pe/iod,  now 
ended  with  the  complete  establishment  of  Hinduism.    A 


CH.  VIII]        THE    LATER   HINDU    PEKIOD.  89 

principal  agent  in  effecting  ibis  result  was  the  institution 
of  rival  monastic  Orders  among  the  Brahmanists.     The 
beginning  was  made,  about  800  a.d.,  by   the   famous 
Saiva  reformer,  Sankara  Acharya,  and  his  immediate  dis- 
ciples.    They  founded  the  four  Saiva  Orders,  which  are 
known  as  the  Dasanamis  ;  and  these  Orders,  in  their  turn, 
led  to  the  creation  of  the  Vaishnava  Orders.     All   these 
Brahmanist  Societies  carried  on,  among  the  mass  of  the 
people  throughout  the  whole  of  India,  a  most  effective 
propaganda   in   rivalry    with    the   Buddhist   and    Jain 
monks.     The   difference   between    the   two    parties   of 
rival   monastic  Orders  ultimately  became  one   of  mere 
scholastic   doctrine.      In   their   outward   manifestation, 
so   far   as   it   affected   the   mass   of    the— peo^ikL^jvith 
regard  toj;eligiousjvorship3nd_social  order,  they  both 
constituted   but    one    system    of    Hinduism.     Of  this 
system   we   possess   a   valuable  contemporary  account 
by    the    celebrated    Arab    historian,   Alberuni,   in    his 
Tahqiqul  Hind,  or  Indian  Research,  which  he  completed 
in  103 1  A.D.     As  a  natural  consequence  of  its  develop- 
ment, the  old  Brahmanism,  as  well  as  Buddhism,  died 
out ;  neither  of  them  exist  any  more  in  India.    Hinduism, 
however,  possessed_  tlie  jnherent  weakness  of  being  a 
compromise  -between    two    decaying    systems.       This 
showed  itself  particularly  in   the  decay  of  religion  and 
its  forms  of  worship,  and  in  the  ascendancy  of  the  Sakta 
sect  and  its  religious  practices,  which  consisted  mainly 
in  the  worship  of  Saktis,  or  female  deities,  and  were  of 
a  kind  that  dared  not  show  themselves  in  the  light  of 
day.     It  is  a  form  of  sectarian  religion  which  is  still  onjy 
too  widely  prevalent,  particularly  in    Bengal^  and   ifs 
influence  is  only  now  beginning  to  wane  with  the  pro- 
gress of  modern  enlightenment. 

The  establishrngnt  ofLHinduism  had  anotherjresuh. 
The     cultivaTion    of    Classic     Sanskrit 
literature   and   philosophy,    which    had        c°"^w°t"  °^ 
owed  its  /ise  to  the  early  fervour  of  the        LUerature. 
Brahmanical  revival,  began  to   decline 

H 


90  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

in  this  period.  Still,  from  time  to  time,  we  meet  with 
striking  exceptions.  Thus  we  have  the  two  great 
champions  of  Brahmanism,  Kumarila  Bhatta,  about  725 
A.D.,  and  Sankara  Acharya,  about  800  A.D.,  who  wrote 
the  Tantra  Varttika  and  the  Brahtnasidra  Bhashya, 
the  standard  commentaries  respectivel}'^  on  the  Mimamsa 
and  Vedanta  philosophy.  As  representatives  of  light 
literature  we  have,  about  735  a.d.,  Bhavabhuti,  the 
greatest  dramatist  next  to  KaHdasa,  who,  among  other 
works,  wrote  the  romantic  drama  Malati  Madhava,  or 
the  love  story  of  the  princess  Malati  and  a  young  scholar 
Madhava  ;  about  860  A  D.,  the  poet,  Magha,  who  wrote 
the  epic  poem  Sisupalavadha,  or  the  slaughter  of 
Sisupala  by  Vishnu;  about  910  a.d.,  the  dramatist, 
Rajasekhara,  who  wrote  several  plays  of  exquisite 
lightness  and  grace  ;  and  about  iioo  a.d.,  the  lyric  poet 
Jaya  Deva,  the  author  of  the  famous  Gitagovi7ida,  or 
Song  of  Krishna's  love  for  Radha.  In  the  first  half  of 
the  eleventh  century  specially,  as  we  have  already  seen, 
the  court  of  Bhoja  Deva,  the  Parmar  king  of  Malwa, 
w^as  a  great  centre  of  Sanskrit  learning.  He  is  himself 
said  to  have  been  a  poet,  and,  like  Vishnu  Vardhana 
(Vikramaditya)  and  Harsha  Vardhana,  to  have  delighted 
in  collecting  learned  men  around  him. 

As  the  establishment  of  Hinduism  had  marked  the 
••  :^  earlier  part  of  this  period,  so  its  later 

Son  of  ^Islam!"  P^^^  ^'^^  distinguished  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  Muhammadanism.  The  advent 
of  Islam  in  India  was  co-incident  with  areyolting 
departure  from  previous  methodS-iilf  warfare'.  Wholesale 
massacres  of  the  male  population  of  forts  and  towns,  such 
as  occurred  at  the  time  of  their  capture  by  Muhammadan 
armies,  were  a  feature  liitherto  unknown  in  purely 
Indian  warfare.  Yet  it  would  be  wrong  to  set  it  down 
altogether  to  the  account  of  the  faith  of  the  invaders. 
It  was  rather  due  to  the  fierceness  of  the  natural  tem- 
perament of  the  Arab  and  Turki  races  who  werfe  unable 
to  brook  stubborn  resistance,  and  were  apt  to  be  carried 


Ch.  VIII.]      THE   LATER    HINDU    PERIOD.  91 

away  beyond  all  bounds  by  savage  resentment.     Massa- 
cres in  cold  blood,  or  wanton  cruelty,  cannot  be  proved 
in  the  cases  of  Muhammad-i-Oasim  and  Mahmud  of 
Ghazni.     On  the  contrary,  there  is  evidence  of  much 
toleration.     To  those  who  submitted,  liberal  terms  were 
granted.     Acceptance  of  the   Muhammadan  faith    was 
not  enforced  on  the  general_population,  whatever  rnay. 
have  been  JTie  ]case~"wiI10ndrvTdual s.     Apart  from  the 
actual  moment  of  conquest,  when  temples  were  destroy- 
ed or  turned  into  mosques,  the  institutions  of  Hindu 
worship   and   caste   were   not    interfered   with.       The 
Brahmans  and  their  temples  were  not  only  tolerated,  but 
even  protected,  and  the  Hindu  forms  of  administration 
were  largely  retained.     All  that  was  exacted  from  the 
Hindu  population  was  the  payment  of  the  jiziya,  or  poll- 
tax.     This,  no  doubt,  was  a  heavy  impost,  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  gave  exemption  from  compulsory  military 
service.     Nor  did  intellectual  culture  suffer  through  the 
change  of  rulers,  except  in  one  point.     Wherever  Islain 
became  dominant,  it  was  no  longer  Sanskrit  but  Arabic 
and    Persian  hterature^  and  sciencejwhich  enjoyed  its^ 
patronage^^  ATTtTe'very  time~when   Sanslml  Tetters 
flourisE^raTthe  court  of  King  Bhoja      ... 
Deva  of  Malwa,  the  court  of  Mahmud     sian  Literature' 
in  Ghazni  became  a  brilliant  centre  of 
Persian  learning.     Two  of  the  best  known  among  the 
many  men  of  culture  whom  Mahmud  assembled  round 
him,  were  Alberuni,  the  eminent  chronologist,  who  has 
already  been  mentioned,  and  who  wrote  both  in  Arabic 
and  in  Persian,  and  the  poet  Firdausi,  who  wrote  the 
celebrated   Persian  epic,  called  the  Shahnama,  or   the 
Book   of  Kings,  the  great  store-house  of  the  ancient 
traditions  of  Persia. 


/ 


CHAPTER     IX. 
The  Early  /Huhammadan  Period  : 

The  Mubammadao  Conquest,  and  the  Third  (First  Muham^ 
madan),  or  Turki  Empire. 

About  1 200 — 7525  A.D. 

THE  preceding  period  has  already  given  us  a  glimpse 
of  the  impending  conquest  of  India  by  the  Turkis, 
It  has  shown  us  how  ill-prepared  India  "    ' 

was  to  meet  that  crisis.  We  have  seen  Remark?°^^ 
it  divided  into  a  number  of  smaller 
kingdoms,  which  had  portioned  among  themselves  the 
imperial  inheritance,  and  were  fighting  with  one  another 
for  the  imperial  crown.  In  the  north  there  were  five 
such  kingdoms  :  those  of  BengatT'KangujT^undelkhand, 
Mal\va7"^nd^"^ujaraf^^  Their  rulers  each  claimed"  to  be 
the  rigHtful  '^'^^Tiiperor."  Foremost  among  them  was 
the  King  of  Kanauj,  whose  claims,  as  the  direct  representa- 
tive of  the  older  empire,  were  popularl}'  considered  the 
best.  But  his  power  was  not  equal  to  his  pretensions. 
The  Chohan  lords  of  his  Western  Marches,  Delhi  and 
Ajmir,  were  grow^ing  in  importance  and  inclining  to 
throw  off  the  overlordship  of  Kanauj.  Intent  upon 
nursing  their  mutual  jealousies,  the  kings  and  chiefs  of 
Northern  India  failed  to  detect  the  danger  to  their 
common  country  that  was  growing  up  on  its  western 
borders  in  the  rising  empire  of  the  Turkis. 

In  the  midst  of  Afghanistan,  in  the  mountains  of 
Ghor,  to  the  west  of  Ghazni,  there 
hved  a  hardy  race  of  Tajiks,  or  men  of  Jan  C?nqS^" 
mixed  Arab  descent,  under  a  chief  called 
Suri.  One  of  his  descendants,  Alauddin,  known  as 
Jahansoz,  or  the  World-burner,  on  account  of  his  ferocity, 
revolted  about  1 150  A.D.,  against  his  Ghaznavide  overlord 


Ch.  IX.]  THE  EARLY  MUHAMMADAN  PERIOD.  93 

and  drove  him  into  the  Punjab.  His  nephew,  Ghiyas- 
uddin,  finally  overturned  the  empire  of  Ghazni,  and 
founded  that  of  the  Ghoris.  This  happened  in  1186 
A.D.,  when  Muizuddin,  the  brother  and  co-regent  of 
Ghiyasuddin,  generally  known  as  Muhammad  Ghori, 
conquered  the  Punjab,  the  last  remnant  of  the  once 
powerful  Ghaznavide  empire.  Its  province  of  Sindh 
had  already  been  annexed  by  him  in  1175  a.d.  He 
now  took  in  hand  the  conquest  of  the  Hindu  kingdoms 
on  his  eastern  frontier.  With  a  large  army  of  Turkis, 
Afghans,  and  Tajiks  he  set  out  eastward.  Prithiraj,  the 
Chohan  lord  of  the  Western  Marches,  Delhi  and  Ajmir, 
assembled  all  his  feudal  chiefs  with  their  Rajput  levies 
to  meet  the  attack.  Twice  the  opposing  armies  met  on 
the  same  battlefield  near  Thanesar.  The  first  time,  in 
1 191  A.D.,  Muhammad  Ghori  was  defeated  and  retired 
to  Ghazni,  but  in  the  following  year,  1 1 92  a.d.,  he  return- 
ed, and  this  time  totally  defeated  Prithiraj  who  was 
captured  and  soon  afterwards  slain.  The  immediate  result 
of  the  victory  was  the  capture^  in  1193  a.d.,  of  Delhi 
andAjinir,  and  the  annexation  oTtheir  territofies.  The 
furlher  prosecution  of  the  conquest  was  entrusted  by 
Muhammad  to  his  most  capable  general,  Qutbuddin 
Aibak,  a  Turki  slave.  This  general  first  turned  his  arms 
against  the  kingdom  of  Kanauj,  the  ruler  of  which  Jaya 
Chandra,  it  is  said,  had  refused  to  come  to  the  assistance 
of  his  contumacious  vassal,  Prithiraj.  Jaya  Chandra 
was  defeated  and  slain,  in  1194  a.d.,  in  a  battle  near 
Etawa,  and,  as  a  result,  the  whole  of  his  kingdom,  as  far 
as  Benares,  fell  into  the  power  of  Qutbuddin  The  latter 
now  despatched  Muhammad-i-Bakhtiyar,  who  held  a 
subordinate  command  under  him,  to  continue  the  east- 
ward conquest  of  the  kingdoms  of  Bihar  and  Bengal, 
while  he  himself  undertook  the  task  of  reducing  to 
submission  the  kingdoms  of  Bundelkhand,  Malwa,  and 
Gujarat,  In  this,  however,  he  was  only  partially 
successful.  For  those  three  kingdoms  maintained  them- 
selves in  a  state  of  semi-independence  down  to  the  time 


94  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

of  the  Khalji  dynasty,  in  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  By  the  year  1205  a.d.,  the  conquest  of  the 
whole  of  Northern  India  was  practically  completed. 
In  the  following  year,  1206  a.d.,  Muhammad  Ghori  was 
murdered  in  his  tent  beside  the  Indus  by  some  Musalman 
heretics,  or,  as  others  say,  by  a  band  of  Hindu  Khokhars. 
The     Ghoride     Empire,    founded     by    Muizuddin 

Muhammad,  did  not  outlast  his  death. 
The  Slave  Dyn-  It  separated  into  two  parts.  The  west- 
Y^  i^^O^-^^^O    em  portion,  beyond  the  Indus,  passed  to 

his  son,  while  of  the  eastern  portion 
Qutbuddin  Aibak  assumed  the  sovereignty,  and  thus 
became  the  founder  of  the  Third  Indian,  or  First  Muham- 
madan,  Empire  in  India  (wrongly  called  the  Pathan). 
His  line,  known  as  that  of  the  Turki  Slaves,  and  com- 
prising ten  Sultans,  ruled  down  to  1290  A.D.  But  the 
only  two  important  ones,  beside  himself,  are  the  third, 
Shamsuddin  Altamsh  (1210-1236  A.D.),  and  the  tenth, 
Ghiyasuddin  Balban  (i 266-1 287  a.d.).  Aibak  was  only 
the  nominal  ruler  of  Northern  India  ;  his  actual  rule  ex- 
tended no  further  than  Hindustan.  In  the  provinces  of 
Sindh  and  the  Punjab,  as  well  as  in  Bihar  and  Bengal, 
his  governors  exercised  practically  independent  sove- 
reignty ;  and  the  Hindu  rulers  of  Bundelkhand,  Malwa, 
and  Gujarat  were  never  fully  subjected.  Altamsh,  a 
Turki  slave  and  son-in-law  of  Aibak,  was  engaged, 
throughout  his  long  reign  of  26  years,  in  constant  wars 
with  his  contumacious  governors  and  the  irrepressible 
Rajput  kings.  When  at  last,  1235  a.d.,  he  succeeded 
in  making  his  authority  respected,  he  enjoyed  his 
success  only  one  year,  dying  in  1236  a.d.  Exactly 
the  same  state  of  things  repeated  itself  after  his  death. 
Under  his  immediate  successors,  in  spite  of  the  able,  but 
too  short,  reign  of  his  daughter  Raziyyat,  the  imperial 
authority  again  declined  ;  and  Balban,  a  Turki  slave  and 
father-in-law  of  Mahmud,  son  of  Altamsh,  had  to  go 
once  more  through  the  wearisome  process  of  re'^onstruc- 
tion.     He  performed  his  task  with  conspicuous  ability, 


Ch.  IX.]     THE    EARLY   MUHAMMADAN   PERION.  95 

first,  for  twenty  years,  as  the  all-powerful  minister  of 
Mahmud  I  (1246- 1266  a.d.),  and  then  for  another 
twenty  years  as  sovereign  in  his  own  right  (1266- 1287 
A.D.).  He  has  earned  for  himself  a  reputation  for 
cruelty ;  and  the  extreme  severity  of  his  treatment  of 
his  foes  is  undeniable.  But  it  only  reflected  the  manners 
of  his  time,  and  though  it  may  not  be  justified,  we  can 
understand  it  in  view  of  the  extreme  difficulties  of  the 
emperor's  position.  He  had  to  protect  his  western 
frontiers  against  the  repeated  inroads  of  the  savage 
Mughal  hordes  of  Chingis  Khan's  successors,  and  within 
the  empire  he  had  to  suppress  the  chronic  disaffection 
of  the  Hindu  chiefs,  and  keep  down  thepretensions  of 
his  overbearing  Turki  governors  and  landholders.  All 
this  had  to  be  done  at  one  and  the  same  time :  and  this 
sufficiently  explains  Balban's  severity,  without  which  he 
could  not  have  succeeded  as  he  did.  Yet  his  success  did 
not  long  survive  him.  After  a  feeble  reign  of  three 
years,  his  worthless  grandson,  Kaiqobad,  was  put  to 
death,  in  1290  a.d.,  by  his  great  officers  of  state,  who 
conferred  the  crown  on  one  of  themselves,  the  pious 
and  kindhearted  Jalaluddin. 

As  emperor,  Jalaluddin  styled  himself  Firuz  Shah 
n.  He  was  a  Turki  of  the  Khalji  clan, 
and  his  line  accordingly  is  known  as  the  Dynasty  (1290- 
Khalji  dynasty.  This  dynasty  reigned  132OA.D.) 
for  30  years  (1290-1320  a.d.)  and  com- 
prised six  members.  Among  these  there  was  only  one 
who  is  of  real  importance— the  third  of  the  line,  Alaud- 
din  Muhammad  I  (1296-1316  a.d.).  During  his  long 
reign  of  20  years  the  Empire  attained  its  greatest  power 
and  its  widest  extent.  In  his  personality  and  rule  we 
find,  in  most  respects,  a  curious  repetition  of  Balban. 
He  was  as  able  and  as  strong  as  Balban,  and  even  more 
cruel  than  he,  and  like  him  he  re-organized  an  empire 
which  he  had  received  in  a  process  of  disintegration. 
Having  "stepped  to  the  throne  over  the  body  of  his  uncle 
whom  he  had  treacherously  murdered,  he  energetically 


96 


HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 


set  about  the  reconstruction  of  the  empire.  In  1298 
A.D.,  Gujarat  was  re-conquered,  Rajputana  in  1300, 
and  Malwa  in  1304.  The  mighty  Mughal  hordes  which 
in  repeated  invasions  had  ventured  to  advance  to  the 
very  gates  of  Delhi,  were  finally  beaten  off  in  1305  a.d. 
Intermediately,  Muhammad  I  cruelly  suppressed  a 
serious  mutiny  of  his  troops  and  several  revolts  of  his  own 
kinsmen  and  nobles.  At  the  same  time  he  introduced 
administrative  reforms  regulating  agriculture  and  trade, 
and  by  these  means  he  effectually  secured  the  stability  of 
his  rule.  Having  accomplished  all  this,  he  again  put  his 
hand  to  the  ambitious  plan  of  conquering  Southern 
India — a  plan  which  he  seems  to  have  cherished  from 
the  day  of  his  capture  of  Devagiri  in  1294  ^•^-     This 

is  shown  by  his  as- 
suming the  title  of 
Sikayidar  as-Sani, 
or  the  second 
Alexander,  on  the 
exceedingly  nu- 
merous gold  and 
silver  coins,  which 
he  struck  from  the 
plunder  of  the  vast 
wealth  of  that  place.  He  now  despatched  his  general, 
Mahk  Kafur,  on  four  expeditions  into  the  Deccan.  In 
these  he  successively  reduced  to  subjection  the  Yadavas 
of  Devagiri  in  1307  A.D.,  the  Kakatiyas  of  Warangal  in 
1 3 10,  and  the  Hoysalas  of  Dvarasamudra  in  1311.  He 
even  made  a  plundering  raid  as  far  south  as  the  Malabar 
coast,  near  Madura.  These  expeditions,  as  we  have  seen 
in  the  preceding  chapter,  put  an  end  to  the  old  Southern 
Empire  of  the  Hindus.  They  raised  Muhammad  Is 
reign  and  the  First  Muliammadan  Empire  to  the  zenith 
of  their  glory.  The  latter  empire  now  rivalled  that  of 
the  Guptas  by  embracing  nearly  the  whole  of  India  ; 
but,  as  was  the  case  with  the  Gupta  Empire,  its  sway  was 
neither  effective  nor  enduring.   South  India  acknowledged 


Gold  Sikandar  as-Sani  Coin  of  Muhammad  I, 


Ch.  IXJ  the  early  muhammadan  period.         97 

it  only  so  long  as  she  was  overawed  by  the  imperial 
troops,  and  the  outlying  provinces,  such  as  Bengal, 
respected  it  hardly  more  than  in  name.  Muhammad  I, 
whose  master-mind  alone  held  the  empire  together, 
died  of  dropsy  in  1316  a.d.  After  him,  under  his  profli- 
gate and  faithless  son  Mubarak,  there  ensued  a  general 
breakdown,  both  internal  and  external,  which  culminated 
in  1320  A.D.  in  the  extraordinary  usurpation  of  the 
throne  by  Mubarak's  favourite,  the  utterly  depraved  and 
low-caste  Hindu,  Khusru.  A  reaction  was  not  long 
delayed.  Ghiyasuddin  Tughlaq,  the  governor  of  the 
Punjab,  came  to  the  rescue,  and  defeated  and  executed 
the  usurper  in  the  same  year. 

Seeing  that  the  Khalji  House  had  been  extermin- 
ated by  the  usurper,  Tughlaq  himself 
was  called  to  the  throne  by  the  nobles  TheKaraunaof 
and  officers  of  state.  According  to  Ibn-  Dy§asty'^a320- 
Batuta  he  was  a  Karauna,  i.e.,  of  mixed  1414,  A.D.) 
Turki  and  Indian  descent,  and  he  thus 
became  the  founder  of  the  Karauna  or  Tughlaq-shahi 
dynasty  which  reigned  for  nearly  a  century  (1320-1414 
A.D.)  It  gave  to  India,  in  Muhammad  II,  the  son  of 
Tughlaq  (1325-135 1  a.d.),  the  most  striking  figure  among 
the  rulers  of  the  first  Muhammadan  Empire.  He  was 
a  man  of  high  culture,  great  intellect,  and  indomitable 
will.  His  conduct  was  full  of  contradictions,  acts 
of  extravagant  generosity  alternating  with  others  of 
incredible  cruelty.  Ibn-Batuta,  the  Arab  traveller,  who 
visited  his  court  in  1333  a.d.,  tells  us  that  "  at  his  gate 
there  might  always  be  seen  some  faqir  whom  he  had 
enriched,  or  the  corpse  of  some  one  whom  he  had  slain." 
His  mind  was  that  of  a  genius  with  a  strain  of  madness. 
The  most  striking  administrative  acts  of  his  reign  were 
the  attempted  removal,  in  1339  a.d.,  of  the  capital  from 
Delhi  to  the  more  centrally  situated  Devagiri  which  he 
re-named  Daulatabad,  and  the  attempted  enrichment, 
in  1327  A.D.,  of  the  national  exchequer  by  the  introduc- 
tion  of  a   brass   token   currency.      Both    ideas    were 


98 


HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 


Brass  Token  of  Muhammad  II. 


excellent  in  conception.     Muhammad  II  rightly  saw  that 

a  vast  and  imperfectly- 
welded  empire  such  as 
his  required  a  central 
capital  and  a  well-filled 
treasury.  But  the  pro- 
jects were  enforced 
with  so  little  foresight 
and  brought  so  much 
suffering  on  the  people, 
that  they  utterly  failed 
and  had  to  be  abandoned.  When  he  recognized  their 
failure,  Muhammed  II  was  honest  enough  to  frankly 
abandon  them.  But  the  mischief  was  done  ;  nor  could 
he  repair  it  by  the  confirmation  of  his  sovereignty,  which 
he  secured,  in  1340  a.d.,  from  the  Khalifah  of  Egypt. 
It  resulted  in  the  ruin  of  the  magnificent  empire  which 
he  had  inherited  from  his  father.  Bengal  in  1339  a.d., 
and  the  Deccan  in  1347,  declared  themselves  indepen- 
dent ;  and  when  Muhammad  II  died  in  1351  a.d.,  Oudh, 
Malwa,  Gujarat  and  Sindh  w^ere  in  revolt.  The  further 
disintegration  of  the  empire  was  for  a  time  averted  by 
the  long  and  prosperous  reign  of  his  cousin,  Firuz  III 
(1351-1388  A.D.).  This  mild  and  pious  sovereign  made 
no  attempt  to  recover  the  lost  provinces,  but  applied 
himself,  with  the  help  of  his  wise  wazir,  Maqbul  Khan, 
to  the  better  development  of  those  that  still  remained 
to  him.  His  chief  measures  for  this  purpose  were  the 
abolition  of  certain  oppressive  taxes,  the  construction  of 
the  still-existing  Great  Jumna  Canal  and  other  irrigation 
works,  the  reclamation  of  waste  lands,  and  the  founding 
of  new  towns,  colleges,  serais  and  other  public  buildings. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  mildness  of  his  rule,  combined 
with  his  system  of  granting  whole  provinces  in  fief  to 
successful  courtiers,  directly  contributed  to  the  final 
break-up  of  the  empire,  which  ensued  soon  after  his  death 
in  1 388  A.D.  His  sons  and  grandsons,  six  of  whomreigned 
after  him,  were  unable  to  maintain  their  authority  over 


Ch.  IX.]     THE    EARLY    MUHAMMADAN   PERIOD.  99 

the  viceroys  of  Oudh,  Malwa,  Gujarat,  and  the  Western 
Marches,  Between  1394  and  1401,  these,  one  after  the 
other,  turned  their  fiefs  into  independent  kingdoms. 
They  thus  reduced  the  imperial  possessions  so  much  that 
these  hardly  comprised  more  than  the  home  province  of 
Delhi,  that  is  the  Doab  and  Rohtak.  The  general  turmoil 
of  the  time  reached  its  climax  in  the  fearful  invasion  of 
Timur,  the  celebrated  Mughal  leader,  who  captured  Delhi 
in  December  1398  a.d.  The  invasion  lasted  only  six 
months  ;  but  the  incredible  devastation  which  Timur  left 
in  his  track,  earned  for  him  the  name  of  "the  Scourge 
of  God." 

With  the  death,  in  14 1 2  A.D. ,  of  Mahmud  II,  a  grand- 
son of  Firuz  III,  the  Empire  virtually 
came  to  an  end.  In  mere  name,  it  is  The  Dissolution 
true,  it  continued  to  exist  for  a  little  more  Emp^p^  Third 
than  another  century,  but  in  reality  it 
was  now  divided  into  a  number  of  independent  kingdoms. 
These  were  the  territory  of  Delhi,  which  nominally 
represented  the  Empire,  and  the  kingdoms  of  Oudh, 
Malwa,  and  Gujarat.  To  them  must  be  added  the  king- 
doms of  Bengal  and  the  Deccan,  which,  as  we  have  seen, 
had  already  become  separate  under  Muhammad  II. 

In  1414  A  D.  Khisr  Khan,  who  had  been  the  governor 
of  Multan,  took  possession  of  Delhi, 
and  founded  the  so-called  Sayvid  dy-     The   Kingdoni  of 
nasty.     It   numbered  four  members,     Jj)^  ^^^^'^'^^^^ 
whose  feeble  efforts  were  limited  to 
keeping  a  hold  on  the  small  territory  which  still  laid  claim 
to  the  name  of  "  Empire."     It  was  put  an  end  to  in  1451 
A.D.,  by  Buhlol  Lodi,  the  Afghan  governor  of  Lahore. 
During   his   long   reign    of    38    years   he   succeeded  in 
re-annexing  to  the  empire  the  kingdom  of  Jaunpur.     But 
the  revival  of  its  authority  did  not  outlive  his  reign,  and 
under  his  son,  Ibrahim  II,  the  third  and  last  of  the  Lodi 
dynasty,  the  First  Muhammadan    Empire   was   finally 
extinguished  in  1526  a.d.,  by   Babar,  who  founded  the 
Second  Muhammadan  Empire  of  the  Mughals. 


100 


HISTORY    OF    INDIA. 


The    kingdom  of  Jaunpur  roughly  coincided  with 

what  is  now  called  Oudh.     It  had  been 

The  Kingdom  of    one    of  the    great  fiefs   of  the  empire, 

n394'^7"A  if)    '^^l^o^^  governor,  Malik  Sarwar,  assumed 

independence  in   1394  a.d.,  during  the 

troublous  time  under  Firuz  Ill's  feeble  successors.     He 

founded  the  so- 
called  Sharqi,  or 
Eastern,  dynasty, 
which  included  six 
members.  Only 
one  of  these,  how- 
ever, the  third  of 
the  Ime,  Ibrahim, 
was  of  any  import- 
ance. He  greatly 
extended  his  bor- 
ders, and  at  one 
time  came  near  to 
"%i^  making  himself 
a  Emperor  of  Delhi. 
His  long  reign  of 
39  years  (1 40 1 -1 440 
A.D.lisdistinguish- 
the  finest   specimens 


Atala  Mosque. 


ed  by   the    erection  of  some  of 

of  Muslim  architecture,  such  as  the  Atala  Mosque,  with 
which  he  adorned  his  capital  Jaunpur.  After  him  the 
dynasty  rapidly  declined,  till,  in  1487  a.d.,  the  kingdom 
was  re-annexed  to  the  empire  by  Buhlol  Lodi. 

The  kingdom  of  Malwa  arose  in   1401  a.d.,  when 
its  governor,  Dilawar  Khan,  said  to  have 
been    a   descendant   of  the    old    Ghori    I^f^*"^^4m  °' 
emperors,    made    himself   independent.    issqTa.d!) 
The  Ghori  line,  however,  was  supplanted, 
in  1436  A.D.,  by  the  Khalji  dynasty  of  Mahmud.     Under 
these  two  dynasties,  the  kingdom  of  Malwa,  owing  to 
its  position  between  the  warring  states  of  Delhi,  Jaunpur, 
and   Gujarat,  was  able  to   maintain  only  a  precarious 


Ch.  IX.]    THE  EARLY  MUHAMMADAN  PERIOD.  lOI 

existence,  down  to  1530  A.D  ,  when  it  was  annexed  by 
the  neighbouring  kings  of  Gujarat. 

The  latter  province  broke  away  from  the  Empire 
as  an  independent  kingdom  about  the 
same  time  as  Oudh  and  Malwa.     Zafar    P?^^"^^°E«^ 
Khan,  to  whom  Firuz  III  had  granted    i57^2^a^D.) 
the  fief  of  Gujarat,  assumed  independ- 
ence, in  1396  A.D.,  under  the  style  of  Muzaffar  I.     For 
nearly  two  centuries  thirteen  of  his  descendants  ruled 
ithe  kingdom,  down  to  1572  a.d  ,  when  it  was  annexed 
jby  Akbar  to  the  Mughal  Empire.     The  greatest  among 
them  was  Bahadur  Shah  ( 1 526-1 536  A  D.),  who  annexed 
the  kingdom  of  Malwa.     In  1535  he  lost  his  territories 
to  Humayun,  but  recovered  them  in  the  same  year  with 
the  assistance  of  the  Portuguese,  to  whom  he  ceded  the 
island  of  Diu. 

The  Empire  had  never  had,  for  any  length  of  time, 
an  effective  control  over  Bengal.     Its 
governors  ruled  mostly  in  a  state  of  semi-    The  Kingdom 
independence.     In   1338  a.d.,  however,    Jissg^is^  A.D.) 
the  governor  of  Eastern  Bengal  assumed 
full  independence;  and  in   1339  A. D.,  the  governor  of 
Western  Bengal  followed  his  example.     Both  portions 
of  Bengal  were  united   in    1352  a.d.  under  the  rule  of 
Shamsuddin  Ilyas;  and  his  dynasty  continued  to  reign, 
with  a  short  interruption  of  about  three  years,  down  to 
1487  a.d.    Thenceforward  Bengal  was  ruled  successively 
by  four  different  dynasties,  down  to   1577  a.d.,  when 
it  was  annexed  by  Akbar  to  the  Mughal  Empire. 

Equally  weak  was  the  hold  of  the  Empire  on  the 
Deccan.  In  1347  A.D,  Hasan  Gangu, 
called  Bahman  Shah,  assumed  royalty  at  The  King-dom  of 
Khulbarga.  His  dynasty,  known  as  the  (i^7_i52^6^A.D.) 
Bahmani,  reigned  for  nearly  two  centu- 
ries. Under  Muhammad  II  (1463-1482)  the  kingdom 
attained  its  widest  extension,  and  included  the  whole  of 
the  Deccait  north  of  Mysore.  Shortly  afterwards,  how- 
ever, it  began    to  fall  to   pieces,   through    the   several 


102  HISTORY    OF   INDIA. 

provincial    governors    assuming    independence.      Thus 
there  arose  five  new  states.     These  were  : — 

1.  Berar,  under  the  Imad-shahis  (1485-1572  a.d.). 

2.  Ahmadnagar,  under  the    Nizam-shahis  (1490- 

1636  A.D.). 
5.     Bijapur,  under  the  Adil-shahis  (1490-1686  a.d.). 

4.  Bidar,  under  the  Barid-shahis  (1492-1609  A.D.). 

5.  Golkonda,  under  the  Qutb-shahis  (1512-1687 

A.D.). 

All  these  states,  as  we  shall  see  in  the  next  chapter, 
were  ultimately  absorbed  into  the  Mughal  Empire. 

The  country  to  the  south  of  the  Bahmani  kingdom 

had  attained  its  independence  some- 

The  Hindu  King-    what  earlier.     It  was  about  1336  a.d., 

naffap^^dsH^^^"    ^^"''^  ^^^  ^^^^^  ^^^  subversion  of  the 
1565  A.D.)  Hoysala   kingdom   by  Muhammad   I, 

that  a  Hindu  chief,  called  Harihara  I, 
was  appointed  by  him  to  govern  a  part  of  the 
country.  About  1343  a.d.,  having  formed  a  con- 
federacy of  Hindu  princes,  Harihara  I  expelled  the 
Muhammadans,  and  greatly  enlarged  his  territory. 
His  nephew,  Harihara  II,  about  1379  a.d.,  assumed 
independent  royalty,  making  the  newly-founded  town 
of  Vijayanagar  his  capital.  He  gradually  enlarged 
his  kingdom  so  much  that  it  embraced  not  only  Mysore 
but  also  practically  the  whole  of  the  country  to  the  south 
of  it.  For  about  two  hundred  years,  during  which  it  was 
ruled  by  two  different  Hindu  dynasties,  it  maintained  its 
power  in  constant  warfare  with  its  northern  Muhamma- 
dan  neighbours.  At  last  it  was  overpowered,  in  1565 
A.D.,  in  the  battle  of  Talikot,  by  the  combined  armies  of 
Ahmadnagar,  Bijapur,  and  Golkonda.  But  the  Muham- 
madan  confederates,  divided  by  mutual  jealous}',  were 
unable  to  annex  more  than  a  very  small  part  of  the 
kingdom.  The  rest  of  its  territory  remained  in  the  hands 
of  petty  Hindu  chiefs,  while  a  representative  of  the  old 
dynasty  removed  to  Chandragiri,  and  there  founded  a 
new  line  of  petty  kings.     It  was  from  a  member  of  this 


Ch.  IX.]     THE    EARLY   MUHAMMADAN    PERIOD.         103 

line  that  the  English  received,  in  1639  a.d.,  a  grant  of 
the  site  of  Madras. 

The  establishment  of  the  Bijapur  state  has  a  special 
interest  through  its  connection  with  the 
foundation  of  the  Portuguese  Eastern     th^P^t^^^^^    ^^ 
Empire.     The  Portuguese,  as  will  be  ^^  ug-uese, 

more  fully  told  in  Chapter  XI,  first  arrived  in  India  in 
1498  A.D.,  m  which  year  Vasco  da  Gama  landed  in 
Cahcut,  the  capital  of  a  petty  Hindu  state.  Failing  to 
establish  themselves  there  they  proceeded,  under  the 
celebrated  Admiral  Alfonso  d'  Albuquerque,  to  Goa,  which 
was  comprised  in  the  Bijapur  territory.  This  place  was 
captured  by  them  in  15 10  a.d.,  and  henceforth  formed 
the  capital  of  the  Portuguese  possessions  in  India. 

It  remains  briefly  to  review  the  general  condition 
of  the  people  during  this  period  of  Turki 
rule.  The  form  of  government  was  auto-  The  condition 
cratic  ;  the  emperor's  will  was  absolute.  °nd^^  ^the^^ 
In  theor}',  no  doubt,  it  was  restricted  by  Turki  Empire, 
the  equitable  principles  of  Muhammadan 
law,  but  there  was  no  means  of  enforcing  on  the  emperor 
those  restrictions.  Whether  his  rule  was  benevolent  or 
oppressive  depended  entirely  on  his  personal  character. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  either  case,  it  affected  equally 
the  Muhammadan  and  the  Hindu  ;  religion  made  no 
material  difference.  Moreover,  the  arbitrary  and  oppres- 
sive nature  of  the  Turki  rule  made  itself  felt  principally 
in  relation  to  those  who  were  in  a  position  to  exercise 
any  political  influence.  The  condition  of  the  ordinary 
population,  as  we  know  from  contemporary  writers, 
such  as  the  Arab  Ibn-Batuta  (about  1340  A.D.),  and  the 
Italian  Nicolo  Conti  (about  1430  A.D.),  w^as  practically 
free  from  oppression.  Of  course,  this  remark  applies 
more  praticularly  to  such  benevolent  reigns  as  those  of 
Firuz  II  of  the  Khalji  and  Firuz  III  of  the  Karauna 
dynasties.  But  the  mischief  of  the  despotic  Turki  rule 
was  that  *the  periods  of  benevolent  reign  only  served  to 
encourage    the    numerous    Rajput   chiefs    to    attempt 


104  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

independence,  and  the  Muhammadan  grandees  to 
intrigue  against  the  throne.  These,  in  their  turn,  neces- 
sarily produced  reigns  of  excessive  cruelty  and  oppres- 
sion such  as  were  those  of  Muhammad  I  of  the  Khalji 
and  Muhammad  II  of  the  Karauna  dynasties.  It  was 
this  regular  alternation  of  benevolence  and  tyranny 
which  caused  the  ruin  of  the  Turki  Empire, 

Islam,  as  we  have  seen  in  the  last  chapter,  was 

introduced  only  in  a  limited  sense  by  force. 
Islam^^^  The   Hindu  population  was  offered  the 

choice  of  conversion  or  the  payment  of 
the  poll-tax.  In  the  former  case  the  converts  enjoyed 
the  privileges  of  the  ruling  class,  and  it  can  readily 
be  understood  that  not  a  few  of  the  old  ruling  classes 
among  the  Hindus  preferred  the  adoption  of  the 
Muslim  faith  to  sinking  into  the  abject  position  of 
a  subject  class.  In  addition  to  these  Hindu  converts, 
the  invading  armies  themselves  gave  rise  to  considerable 
colonies  of  Turki  and  Afghan  settlers.  Both  causes 
combined  explain  the  large  proportion  of  Musalmans  in 
the  population  of  those  parts  of  India  which  came  under 
the  direct  rule  of  the  Turki  Empire.  Outside  its  limits, 
in  such  provinces  as,  for  example,  Rajputana,  Bundel- 
khand  and  Mysore,  where  the  old  Hindu  ruling  houses 
continued  to  exist  in  semi-independence,  the  religious 
and  social  state  of  the  people  remained  practically  the 
same  as  before  the  Muhammadan  conquest.  Even  in 
the  Empire  proper,  though  the  Hindu  was  regarded 
with  some  contempt,  he  was,  ordinarily,  not  treated  with 
hostility.  He  was  liable  to  the  jiziya,  but  he  was  not 
molested  in  his  religion  or  in  his  social  customs.  In  fact 
many  Hindus  were  employed,  and  rose  to  high  office,  in 
the  revenue  and  accounts  departments  of  the  government; 
and  though  in  civil  cases,  as  a  rule,  the  Muhammadan 
law  was  administered  by  the  Qazi,  criminal  and  adminis- 
trative cases  were  dealt  with  by  the  emperor's  officers 
in  accordance  with  a  kind  of  common  law,  founded  on 
old  Indian  custom  and  the  sovereign's  discretion.     The 


Ch.  IX.]  THE  EARLY  MUHAMMADAN  PERIOD.  105 

prosperity  of  the  country  is  evidenced  by  the  private 
and  public  buildings,  irrigation  work,  bridges,  serais,  and 
hospitals,  which  were  constructed  throughout  the  empire. 

Hinduism,  which  we  saw  established  in  India  in 
the  course  of  the  preceding  period,  natur- 
ally declined  with  the  advance  of  Islam.  Hinduism  and 
It  was  only  in  the  extreme  south,  in  the  Learnfnff 
Hindu  kingdom  of  Vijayanagar,  beyond 
the  depressing  influence  of  the  Muhammadan  Empire, 
that  it  showed  any  signs  of  vigorous  life.  There  we  find, 
about  1350  A.D.,  the  two  famous  brothers,  Madhava  and 
Sayana — both  ministers  at  the  Vijayanagar  court.  The 
former  wrote  the  Sarvadarsa?ia  Saiigraha,  or  Compen- 
dium of  all  Speculations,  and  other  philosophical  works, 
while  the  second  was  the  author  of  the  celebrated  com- 
mentary on  the  Vedas.  To  the  earlier  Chola  kingdom 
in  the  South,  Hinduism  owed  its  eventual  revival  in 
Northern  India.  Ramanuja,  the  great  Vishnava  re- 
former, lived  there  in  the  twelfth  century,  and  from  him 
were  spiritually  descended  Ramananda  and  Chaitanya, 
the  apostles  of  the  two  branches  of  Vaishnavism  in 
Hindustan  and  Bengal  respectively.  The  former,  who 
hved  chiefly  at  Benares,  in  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  was  the  zealous  propagator  of  devotion  to 
Rama,  while  his  contemporary,  Chaitanya,  a  Brahman 
of  Nadiya,  inspired  by  the  tender  sonnets  of  the  famous 
poet  Vidyapati  to  an  enthusiastic  cult  of  Krishna,  became 
the  founder  of  the  Vaishnava  sect  of  Bengal.  About 
the  same  time,  one  of  Ramananda's  disciples,  Kabir,  a 
weaver  of  Benares,  began  to  preach  a  more  eclectic 
form  of  Hinduism,  which  by  its  insistence  on  simplicity 
and  probity,  appealed  to  both  Hindus  and  Musal- 
mans,  and  thus  gave  rise  to  the  wide-spread  sect  of 
Kabirpanthis. 

Many  of  the  Muhammadan  rulers  of  this  period — 
emperors  as  well  as  kings — were  great 
patrons  of  art  and  learning.     Numerous     cuitu^™^*^^^ 
Persian    historians    flourished   at    their 


io6 


HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 


courts.  Every  great  reign  had  its  own  historian.  Among 
the  more  prominent  hterary  men  may  be  mentioned 
Minhajuddin,  the  historian  (about  1240  A.D.),  Amir 
Khusran,  the  poet  (1300  A.D.),  and  Ibn-Batula,  the  tra- 
veller (about  1335  A.D.).  Some  of  the  most  beautiful 
architectural  monuments  were  erected  during  this  period. 
Thus  in  1235  A.D.,  the  famous  Qutb  Minar  near  Delhi 
was  built  by  Altamsh  in  memory  of  the  Musalman  saint 
Qutbuddin.     In  14 18  Ibrahim,  the  Sharqi  king,  erected 

the  beautiful 
Atala  Mosque 
in  Jaunpur,  and 
in  1526  A.D., 
Nasrat  Shah  of 
Bengal,  built 
the  so-called 
"  Great  Golden 
Mosque "  at 
Gaur.  The  Em- 
peror Altamsh 
started    a    new 


Tanka  of  the  Emperor  Altamsh. 


Indian  currency  of  broad  silver  pieces,  called  Tanka, 
which  are  the  ancestors  of  the  modern  rupee.  The 
empire  even  gave  birth  to  a  new  language,  the  well- 
known  Urdu  or  Hindustani,  which  still  serves  as  a  kind 
of  lingua  franca  for  the  most  part  of  In  dia.  It  arose  in 
the  thirteenth  century,  after  the  conquest  of  the  old  Hindu 
kingdom  of  Kanauj,  from  the  vernacular  dialect  of 
which  it  was  formed  by  combination  with  the  Persian 
language  of  the  Muhammadan  conquerors. 


CHAPTER     X. 


The  Later  Muhammadan  Period.  : 

Section  !♦ 
The  Fourth  Indian,  Second  Muhammadan,  or  Mughal,  Empire, 

About  IS 26 — iSoj  A.D. 

IT  has  already  been  mentioned  that  in  1399  Timur 
invaded  India.  He  did  not,  however,  gain  any 
territories.  It  was  left  for  one  of  his  descendants  to 
establish  a  glorious  empire  such  as  had  never  yet  been 
in  Hindustan.     This  descendant  was  Babar, 

Babar,  1526-1530.— Babar,  i.e.,  the  Lion,  was  born 

in   1482,  and  was  the  sixth  in  descent 

from  Timur.    When  he  v.-as  only  twelve  Babar. 

years  of   age    his  father   died,  and  he 

began  to  rule  the  small  kingdom  of  Farghana  on  the 

Yaxartes,  1494.     He 
conquered       Samar- 
khand  in    1497,   and 
was    made    ruler    of 
Kabul     in     1 504. 
Daulat    Khan    Lodi, 
the  Governor  of  the 
Punjab,     unable     to 
resist  Ibrahim  Lodi  II 
of  Delhi  sinj^le-hand- 
ed,  invited  Babar  to 
come  to  his  assistance. 
Accordingly  in   1526, 
at  the  head  of  a  large 
army,  Babar  entered 
India  with    his   son, 
Huma)'un  ;   defeated 
Ibrahim  Lodi    II.  in 
the    First    Battle   of 
Emperor  Babar.  Panipat  ;    seized  the 


I08  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

throne  of  Delhi,  and  put  an  end  to  the  Lodi  dynasty. 
The  brave  Rajputs  of  Chittor,  under  Rana  Sangram  Sinha 
of  Mewar,  tried  to  drive  him  out  of  India,  but  they 
were  defeated  in  the  battle  of  Fatehpur  Sikri  near  Agra, 
1527.  Babar  died  in  1530,  shortly  after  he  had  subdued 
Bihar,  and  before  he  could  introduce  a  system  of 
government  The  provinces  which  he  acquired  in  India 
were  bound  together  merely  by  the  fact  that  they 
belonged  to  a  common  master. 

Humayun,  1530-1556. — Babar    was    succeeded   by 

his  son   Humayun,  the  story  of  whose 

Humayun    and    reign,  however,  belongs  mainly  to  Kabul. 

onhe^Mughals!  ^^  ^P^"  ^^  ^""^  ^^^^  to  the  throne,  he 
had  to  give  up  that  kingdom  and  West- 
ern Punjab  to  his  brother  Kumran.  He  was  thus  cut  off 
from  the  land  of  his  fathers,  while  at  the  same  time  he 
had  powerful  enemies  to  encounter  in  India.  Chief 
among  these  was  Sher  Khan,  the  Afghan  jagirdar  of 
Saseram  in  Bihar.  Making  himself  master  of  Bihar, 
Jaunpur,  and  parts  of  Bengal  and  Oudh,  he  finally  de- 
feated Humayun  at  Kanauj  (1540).  Unable  to  continue 
the  struggle,  Humayun  fled  to  Persia,  and  on  the  way 
'  a  son — tireliHous~Slc5ar — was  born  to 

Sher       Khan's    him  at  Amarkot  in  Sindh.    Having  esta- 

E'^<Pf'^®r;^'^"l!I^H"  blished  his  supremacy  in   the   tract  of 
stpation       and  ,    .       |  4.1     at    1    j        j 

Character.  country  lymg  between  the  Narbada  and 

the  Himalayas,  Sher  Khan  proclaimed 
himself  emperor  under  the  name  of  Sher  Shah,  and  set 
up  the  Sur  dynasty.  His  own  reign  lasted  from  1540 
to  1545,  and  he  ruled  over  the  Punjab,  Bihar,  Marvvar, 
Chittor,  and  Bengal.  His  administration  was  based 
upon  the  principle  of  unit3^  He  rendered  life  and 
property  secure  by  putting  down  all  violent  crime  ;  and 
though  his  subjects  feared  to  oppose  his  will,  he  did  not 
oppress  the  Hindus.  He  divided  his  territories  into 
many  parganahs  in  order  that  they  might  be  properly- 
administered.      Between    Bengal    and    the   north-west 


Ch.  X.]     THE    LATER    MUHAMMADAN    PERIOD.  IO9 

frontier  he  had  many  roads  made,  and  along  them  he 
had  trees  planted,  wells  dug,  rest-houses  and  mosques 
built.  He  introduced  a  system  of  post  for  the  con- 
veyance of  letters.  The  law  of  Islam  he  replaced  by  a 
civil  and  criminal  code  of  his  own.  He  died  of  injuries 
received  in  the  storming  of  Kalinjar  (1545).  On  the 
whole  he  was  a  good  ruler,  and  his  occasional  treachery 
and  self-will  were  redeemed  by  the  good  government 
he  bestowed  on  his  subjects. 

His  son,  Islam  Shah,  succeeded  him,  and  ruled  for 
nine  years  (1545-1554),  and  the  throne    ^^.^^..       „^ 
then  passed  to  Muhammad  Adil  Shah,    fhe  MifghSs 
This   king  left   all   real   power   in    the 
hands  of  the  Hindu  Wazir,  Hemu.     Naturally  rebellions 
arose.     Ibrahim  Sur  seized  Delhi  and  Agra,  but  he  did 
not  long  enjoy  his  new  possessions,  for  they  were  taken 
from  him  by  Sikandar  Sur  who  had  already  proclaimed 
himself  king  in  the  Punjab.     News  of  all  this  and  of 
other  rivalries,  reached  Huma^un  in   Persia,  and  he  re-, 
garded  it  as  a  favourable  opportunilyjto  tr}^o  win  backj 
India  for  himself.     Accordingly,  in    1555,  he  returned 
with  his  son,  Akbar,  and  a  large  army  which  he  had 
received  from  Shah  Tahmasp,  the  Shah  of  Persia.     He 
retook   Kabul,  but  as  the  country  was  not  quelled  he 
entrusted   the  campaign   against  Sikandar   Sur   in    the 
Punjab  to  Akbar  and  his  Ataliq,  Bairam  Khan.     The 
young  prince,  however,  had  to  give  up  his  operations 
against  Sikandar,  in  order  that  he  might  check  Hemu, 
the  former  Wazir  of  Muhammad  Adil  Shah,  who  was 
marching  on  Agra  with  a  large  army,  ostensibly  in  the 
interests   of  the    Sur   dynasty.      By    the    time   Akbar 
reached  Jalandhar,  Hemu  had  taken  Agra,  an  advantage 
which  he  improved  by  occupying  Delhi,  where  he  pro- 
claimed himself  Raja.     Akbar  hastened  on  to  Delhi  : 
defeated  Hemu,  in  the  Second  Battle  of  Panipat  (5th 
Nov.    1556),    and    recovered    Agra.     This   done,   with 
Bairam  Khan,  he  turned  upon  Sikandar  Sur,  and  even- 
tually became  master  of  the  Punjab.     Thus  was  the 


no 


HISTORY    OF    INDIA. 


Mughal  dynasty  restored  to  power  in  Hindustan,  and 
Hunia^mn  sat  on  the  throne  from  which,  sixteen  years 
previously,  he  had  been  driven.  But  he  was  not  to  reign 
long.  Within  six  months  he  slipped^  on  the  marble 
steps  of  his  palace  in  Delhi,  and  died  from  the  injuries 
he  received.  Akbar  was  at  Kalanaur  in  pursuit  of  the 
vanquished  Sikandar  when  tidings  reached  him  of  his 
father's  death,  and  he  returned  to  Delhi. 


Akbar's 
Minority 


Akbar,  1556-1605.— When  he  came  to  the  throne, 
Akbar  was  only  sixteen  years  of  age ;  but 
he  had  already  commanded  troops,  and 
been  at  the  head  of  public  affairs.     His 
Ataliq,  Bairam  Khan,  seems  to  have  kept  a  strict  hand 

over  him.  This  the 
spirited  prince  resent- 
ed, and  as  soon  as  he 
attained  the  age  of 
twenty  he  took  over 
the  government  from 
Bairam  Khan  who  had 
hitherto  ruled  in  his 
name.  This  displeased 
Bairam  Khan.  He  re- 
volted ;  was  defeated ; 
and  pardoned.  He  set 
out  on  a  pilgrimage  to 
Mecca  ;  but  was  killed 
on  the  way  by  an 
Afghan  whose  father 
he  had  put  to  death. 

Flaving  established 
himselfupon  the  throne, 
Akbar  now  began  to  con- 
solidate his  empire.  Up  to  1567  he  was  occupied  in  settling 
his  eastern  territories  around  Allahabad, 
StndSftln  ind    Benares,  and  Lucknow.     Thdn  he  took 
the  Deeean.  Mewar  from  Udai  Singh,  a  Rajput  chief. 


Emperor  Akbar. 


CH.  X.]    THE   LATER    MUHAMMADAN    PERIOD.  Ill 

To  cement  a  friendship  with  these  brave  people,  he  mar- 
ried two  Rajput  princesses,  one  of  whom  became  the 
mother  of  Jahangir.  In  1572  Gujarat  was  annexed,  and 
Akbar  found  himself  master  of  Western  India.  Broach 
and  Surat  were  next  added  to  his  kingdom.  Thus  in  the 
eighteenth  year  of  his  reign  Akbar  ruled  over  Kabul, 
the  Punjab,  North-Western  India,  Western  India  and 
Central  India.  Bengal,  Bihar,  and  Orissa  were  still 
independent  under  Daud  Khan,  a  king  of  Afghan  birth. 
Akbar  determined  that  they  should  form  part  of  his 
empire,  and  so  he  led  his  army  to  Patna.  The  city  fell, 
and  all  Bihar  became  his.  Daud  was  pursued  as  far 
as  Cuttack,  and  Bengal  too  acknowledged  the  rule  of 
Akbar.  Daud  again  revolted  in  1577,  was  put  to  death, 
and  Orissa  passed  into  Akbar's  hands.  Revolts,  how- 
ever, took  place  in  this  and  in  various  other  parts  of  the 
country  till  1580  ;  but  from  that  date  till  1586  there  was 

practically,  peace  within 
the  empire.  Akbar  next 
took  Kathiwar,  Sindh 
and  Kashmir.  later  on, 
in  1600,  in  order  to 
secure  his  southern 
.,,    ,  ^,,,,  ,,  ,•        frontier,  he  annexed  the 

Akbar  s  Gold  Medal  commemorating  .       ' 

the'Faii  of  Asirgarh.  provmce  of  Kandcsh  and 

a  portion  of  Berar  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  Deccan.  In  Kandesh  he 
captured  the  famous  rocky  fortress  of  Asirgarh,  and  in 
Berar,  the  celebrated  stronghold  of  Ahmadnagar,  where 
the  warlike  queen,  Chand  Bibi,  made  a  stubborn  resis- 
tance. In  the  closing  years  of  his  reign  his  son,  Salim, 
afterwards  known  as  the  Emperor  Jahangir,  rebelled  ;  but 
was  forgiven.  Akbar  died  in  1605,  ^^  ^^^^  ^g^  o^  ^3  years. 
Akbar  was  above  all  things  bent  upon  consoHdating 
hisempire.  He  felt  that,  if  there  was  ever  , 

to  be  rest  and  peace  in  the  land,  there  ary  Sys^m  and 
must  be.only  one  master  in  it.  He  deter-  Administpation 
mined  to  be  that  master.     So  he  waged 


112  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

« 

war  on  his  neighbours,  and  annexed  territory  after 
territory,  in  order  that  he  might  ultimately  establish 
peace.  His  possessions  north  of  the  Vindhya  Range 
were  divided  into  twelve  provinces,  each  under  a  viceroy 
who  was  responsible  solely  to  the  emperor.  Subordinate 
to  the  viceroy  were  local  military  officers,  C3.\\ed  fa i/jdars, 
who  performed  the  duties  of  chiefs  of  police  and  of 
military  commanders.  The  portion  of  the  empire  south 
of  the  Vindhya  Range  was  similarly  divided  into  six 
provinces.  As  soon  as  he  gained  a  new  tract  of  country 
he  tried  to  win  the  good  will  of  its  people  by  respecting 
their  religion,  and  by  arranging  marriages  between  the 
daughters  of  the  conquered  Houses  and  the  princes  ot 
his  Court.  To  the  influential  men  of  newly-acquired 
countries  were  given  important  offices  in  the  army  and 
government.  To  surround  himself  with  a  body  of  loyal 
nobles,  drawn  from  every  race,  he  established  a  feudal 
aristocracy,  called  maasabdars.  They  enjoyed  their 
salaries,  or  grants  of  lands,  at  the  emperor's  pleasure 
and  in  return  rendered  him  military  service.  Moreover, 
the  families  of  the  conquered  were  not  allowed  to  be 
sold  into  slavery.  By  such  measures  he  converted 
enemies  into  allies,  and  robbed  defeat  of  much  of  its 
bitterness.  He  withdrew  the  jiziya,  and  abolished  all 
taxes  on  Hindu  pilgrims,  as  well  as  all  inland  tolls. 
And  although  in  courts  of  justice  the  law  rested  on  the 
Q'ran,  mercy  always  tempered  justice.  He  tolerated  all 
religions,  for  he  felt  that  there  was  some  truth  in  every 
Faith.  He  examined  all  creeds,  and  taking  from  each 
what  he  thought  good  and  true,  he  made  the  Din-i-Ilahi, 
or  the  Divine  Faith,  of  which  he  was  the  head.  The 
learned  in  his  court  met  week  by  week  in  the  Ibadat 
Khana  to  discuss  questions  on  religion,  politics,  and 
philosophy.  Thus  Akbar  was  far-sighted  in  his  policy. 
Instead  of  driving  his  adversaries  to  desperation  by  the 
severity  of  his  measures,  he  reconciled  them  to  their 
defeat  by  letting  them  practise  the  religion  and  ^.ustoms 
of  their  forefathers  so  long  as  they  recognised  in  him 


Ch.  X.]    THE  LATER  MUHAMMADAN    PERIOD.  II3 

their  sole  and  paramount  ruler.  And  so  successfully  did 
he  gain  the  loyal  adherence  of  various  castes  and  creeds, 
that  during  his  reign  India  was  free  from  foreign  in- 
vasions and  enjoyed  a  season  of  internal  tranquillity. 

Akbar  rewarded  merit  in  Hindus  no  less  than  in 
Muhammadans.  To  Bhagwan  Das, 
Man  Singh,  Todar  Mall,  Jhi  Mall  and  Some  celebrated 
Birbal— all  Hindus-he  gave  high  ^^^^^^^  Akbar's 
commands  in  his  army  and  influential 
places  at  his  court.  Moreover,  he  encouraged  learning. 
And  during  his  reign  such  Sanskrit  works  as  the  Rama- 
yana  and  Mahabharata  were  translated  into  Persian. 
The  two  brothers,  Faizi  and  Abul  Fazl,  were  his  intimate 
friends.  Faizi  was  a  poet,  and  had  a  valuable  library  of 
manuscripts.  Abul  Fazl  wrote  in  the  Akbar  Namah, 
a  history  of  Akbar's  reign.  Badauni  wrote  his 
Muntakhahah-ut-Tawariq  which  gives  us  an  account  of 
Akbar's  religious  views,  as  also  sketches  of  the  famous 
men  of  his  reign. 

Akbar  reformed  the  way  in  which  the  taxes  of  his 
empire  were  gathered.   Before  his  reign 

it  had  been  the  rule  for  the  governors     cJ5<S^E!^  Revenue 

.11  /•  ,    •       ^  System, 

to  gather  the  taxes  or  their  own  provin- 
ces, pay  themselves  and  their  army,  and  then  send  the 
balance  to  the  emperor  at  Delhi.  Under  the  advice  of 
his  great  Hindu  minister,  Todar  Mall,  all  taxes  were 
now  paid  into  the  Royal  Treasury  at  Agra,  so  that  all 
payments  might  be  made  from  there.  The  empire  was 
divided  into  fifteen  siibhas  or  provinces,  each  of  which 
had  a  governor  to  maintain  the  peace,  and  a  dizvan  to 
^v.^/,j^  ^^-y-^  collect      the      re- 

/0i?'^*K.  ^;^'|:Jl'^r%v.     venue.     That  the 

•iiX^^^'^m  Mf>  ■■  might  be   fair,  he 

'^q^jif}:^}^/  had    the    country 

'""^'      -—-''/'  .  ^    ._,  surveyed,   and  he 

'  "ir'  '  took       rent       in 

Akbar's  Coin.  money  instead  of 


.V 


114  HISTORY   OF   INIDA. 

in  grain.  The  taxes  and  land  revenue  of  1594  gave  him 
an  income  of  ;^36,ooo,ooo  which  at  the  present  rate  of 
exchange  is  Rs.  545,000,000. 

Akbar  attempted  reforms  also  in   social   matters. 

He  would  not  allow  people  to  be  tortured  to  extract  a 

confession;  he  forbade  animal  sacrifices 

social Retorms.    ^^^  ^j^.j^  marriage.     He  made  widow- 

marriage  lawful,  and  although  he  could  not  stop  Sati,  he 
commanded  that  the  widow  was  not  to  be  forced  to 
burn  herself  with  her  husband's  corpse. 

Jahang-ir,  1605-1628.— Salim,  the  favourite  son  of 
Akbar,  succeeded  his  father,  and  assumed 

Nur  Jahan!'^^^'  ^^^^  ^^^'^  ^^  Jahangir,  that  is  to  say,  the 
Conqueror  of  the  World.  He  formed  a 
striking  contrast  to  his  father,  being  wilful,  indolent  and 
self-indulgent.  His  temper  was  violent  and  uncertain. 
He  was  prone  to  be  arbitrary.  He  was  addicted  to 
strong  drink,  but  could  abstain  from  it  when  occasion 
demanded  sobriety.  As  he  grew  older  and  approached 
the  end  of  his  reign  his  habits  improved.  The  change 
in  his  character  was  largely  due  to  the  influence  which 
his  beautiful  wife,  Nur  Jahan  (The  Light  of  the  World), 

had  on  him.    For  the 

Y/>i-'vl^X  .'.^^>''f*/-'X      greater   part  of    his 

•fi^'^i^A  ^/2^l<^^J>h     feign,  wiih    the  help 

of  her  brother,  Asaf 
Khan,  she  practically 
ruled  the  empire. 
This     was     possible 

Coin  of  Jahangir  and  Nur  Jahan.  becaUSe  Jahangir  waS 

too  fond  of  wine  and 
too  indolent  to  trouble  himself  with  the  weighty  matters 
of  government.  He  openly  recognised  his  queen's  share 
in  the  administration  of  affairs,  by  placing  her  name  on 
the  coins  of  the  realm.  In  1628  his  revenue  from  land 
was  Rs.  295,200,000. 

In  161 5  King  James  I.  of  England  sent  Sir  Thomas 


Ch.  X]     THE  LATER  MUHAMMADAN  PERIOD 


115 


Embassy  of  Sip  Roe  as  ambassador  to  the  Mughal 
Thomas  Roe.  court  of  Delhi.  He  was  received  with 
much  courtesy  by  Jahangir,  but  he  entirely  failed  in  the 
object  of  his  mission — to  secure  protection  against  the 
exactions  of  Mughal  officials. 

Jahangir  had  sufficient  good  sense  to  continue  his 
father's  policy  of  religious  toleration.  On  the  whole  the 
earlier  part  of  his  reign  was  peaceful  and  prosperous  ;  but 
later  on  the  question  of  succession  stirred  up  jealousy 
and  hatred  in  his  sons. 


aa*;i'^^.  .^^^^.ir-ytf, 


The  Taj  Mahal. 


Shah  Jahan,  1628-1658. — Shah   Jahan,    who    suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne,  was  in  the  main 
a  kind  and  just  man.     Throughout  his    Attempted  Con- 
reign  t'fle  Deccan  was  disturbed  bv  wars    T^®^^     o'     the 
and  rebellions.     In  1635  he  compelled 


beeean. 


ii6 


HISTORY    OF    INDIA. 


Shah     Jahan 
founds  New  Delhi 
and  adorns  Agra 
with  noble  Build- 
ings. 


the  Adil  Sahi  king  of  Bijapur  to  pay  a  large  annual 
tribute,  and  a  year  later  annexed  the  Nizam  Shahi  king- 
dom of  Ahmadnagar,  He  then  deputed  his  son, 
Aurangzeb,  to  wage  war  against  Bijapur  and  Golkonda. 
Meanwhile  the  English,  who  had  come  in  1600,  were 
extending  their  trade,  and  in  1640  they  made  a  factory 
for  themselves  at  Hughli. 

Shah  Jahan  was  fond  of  pomp  and  show.  He 
adorned  Agra  with  many  noble  build- 
ings. He  founded  New  Delhi,  and 
there  erected  the  Jumma  Masjid — 
one  of  the  largest  and  most  beautiful 
mosques  in  Asia,  the  Diwan-i-Am,  or 

Hall  of  Public 
Audience,  and  the 
Diwan-i-Khas  or 
Hall  of  Private 
Audience.  In  the 
Divvan-i-Am  he 
placed  the  famous 
Peacock  throne.  It 
was  made  of  gold, 
and  was  set  with 
so  many  precious 
stones  that  it  was 
worth  an  enormous 
sum  of  money.  It 
Teheran. 
Masjid,  and  the   Taj 


Jumma  Masjid. 


IS 


now 

At 

Mahal. 
Mahal. 


in  the  Shah's  palace   at 
Agra  he  built  the   Moti 

The  Taj  is  over  the  grave  of  his  wife  Mumtaj 
It  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  buildings  in  the 
world,  being  overlaid  with  white  marble.  In  1655  his 
land  revenue  yielded  Rs.  450,000,000. 

When  Shah  Jahan  became  feeble  through  old  age, 

he  practically  retired  from  public  life 

hilsol^r  ^"^°°^     and  committed   public  affairs  to  his 

eldest   son,   Dara.     But  this   prince's 
brothers,    Shuja,    Aurangzeb,    and    Murad,    were    not 


Ch.  X.]    THE  LATER  MUHAMMADAN  PERIOD.  II7 

prepared   to  let   him  ascend  the  throne  without  mak- 
ing   a    bid     for    it    themselves.       Murad    proclaimed 

hmiself    king      in  

Gujarat,  and  with  ' 

the  assistance  of 
Aurangzeb  routed 
the  imperial  forces 
near  Ujjain.  But 
Aurangzeb  all  the 
time  had  his  own 
scheme  in  hand. 
He  suddenly  made 
Murad  captive ; 
seized  the  palace  ; 
placed  himself  on 
the  throne ;  and 
sent  his  aged  father.  Shah  Jahan,  to  prison,  where  he 
was  kindly  treated  till  his  death  in   1666.     Dara  and 

iMurad  were  put 

fujvJUdi^^^:     to  death.    Shuja, 
"  '-  —        ^^.j^Q  during    the 

scrimmage  for 
supreme  power 
had  declared  him- 
self king  in 
Bengal,  was  de- 
feated   at   Agra, 


Di\van-i-Am. 


Gold  Coin  of  Shah  Jahan. 


—    __Q.„ 

and  escaping  to  Arakan  was  never  heard  of  again. 
Having  thus  established  himself  upon  the  throne, 
Aurangzeb  removed  the  capital  of  his  empire  from  Agra 
to  New  Delhi. 

A  French  Doctor,  Francois  Bernier,  about  this  time 
resided  at  Delhi  where  he  was  physician 
to     the     Emperor      Aurangzeb.        He  Bernier. 

travelled   from   place  to  place,  and  on 
his  return  to  Europe   he  published  an  account  of  all  he 
had  seenlduring  his  stay  in  India,  and  a  full  and  graphic 
description  of  the  Courts  of  Shah  Jahan  and  Aurangzeb. 


ii8 


HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 


THE    MUGHAL    EMPIRE 

THE   TIME  OF  AuRANGZEB, 

iroo. 


Ch.  X.]  THE  LATER  MU  HAM  MA  DAN  PERIOD.     II9 

Aupang-zeb    (op  Alamg-ir  I),    1658-1707— As    a 

young  man  Aurangzeb  had  taken  a  con- 
spicuous part  in  his  father's  government.    Aurangzeb's 
When  only  eighteen  years  old  he  had    jahan's"  G^o^v^^ 
been  employed  as  governor  of  the  Dec-    ernment. 
can  ;  but  he  had  resigned  the  appoint- 
ment to  become  a  hermit.  The  attractions  of  asceticism, 
however,  had  quickly  faded,  and  within  a  year  he  had 
re-entered  his   father's  service  as  governor  of  Gujarat. 
Then  from  1647  to  1652  he  had  been  engaged  in  expedi- 
tions into  Balkh  and  Kandahar.     The  campaigns,  though 
unsuccessful,  had  afforded  him  a  military  training,  in 
consequence  of  which  he  had  next  been  set  to  the  task 
of  reducing  the  kingdoms  of  Golkonda  and  Bidar  in  the 
Deccan.     In   this  he  succeeded,   being  helped   by   Mir 
Jumla  the  Wazir  of  Golkonda.     He  was  occupied  with 
the  conquest  of  Bijapur,  the  capital  of  the  Adil  Shahi 
kingdom,   when   his  father's  illness  compelled  him    to 
leave  it  to  the  tender  mercies  of  Sivaji,  in  order  that  he 
himself  might  enter  upon  the  fratricidal  struggle  which 
gave  him  the  throne. 

Encouraged  by  the  withdrawal  of  the  Mugnal  troops 
from  Bijapur,  Sivaji  became  more  daring, 
and  beiran  to  raid  even    the  emperor's    War  with   the 

IVi  51  r'Ji^nJ-iQ     in 

territories  in  the  Deccan.  Success  smil-  ^^^  Deeean. 
ed  upon  him  for  a  time.  He  defeated 
Aurangzeb's  army  at  Poona,  and  requited  his  known 
bigotry  by  sacking  Sarat,  "the  Gate  of  Pilgrimage  to 
Mecca."  "  But  eventually  the  tide  of  war  turned  against 
the  Maratha  chieftain,  and  he  had  to  sue  for  peace.  He 
surrendered  several  of  his  forts,  and  his  professions  of 
submission  were  rewarded  with  the  vicero\  alty  of  the 
Deccan.  He  actually  proceeded  to  Delhi  to  pay  homage 
to  the  Emperor.  But  Aurangzeb  treated  him  slight- 
ingly, and  the  "mountain  rat"  in  indignation  escaped  to 
his  fort  in  the  Western  Ghats,  more  determined  than 
ever  to  Ife  an  implacable  enemy.  He  accordingly  re- 
sumed hostilities,  and  so  prospered,  that  the  Emperoi 


120  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

was  compelled  to  acknowledge  him  as  a  Raja,  and  to 
pacify  him  with  an  extensive /a^/r  in  Berar.  But  the 
love  of  adventure  and  plunder  was  too  strong  in  Sivaji 
for  him  long  to  lead  a  peaceful  life.  He  soon  summoned 
his  followers  and  pillaged  Surat,  Khandesh,  and  Broach, 
enriching  himself  with  chant  {ie.,  one-fourth  of  the 
revenues)  as  he  went  along.  Death,  however,  now  cut 
short  his  career,  and  his  son,  Sambhaji  continued  to 
harass  the  Mughal  Emperor.  Aurangzeb  finally  decided 
that  his  own  presence  in  the  Deccan  was  needed  before  the 
Marathas  could  be  repressed,  and  so  he  proceeded  thither 
to  take  command  of  his  troops.  He  pursued  his  enemies 
through  the  Konkan.  But  it  was  not  of  much  use.  The 
Marathas  never  fought  a  pitched  battle.  Their  plain  was 
suddenly  to  fall  upon  unsuspecting  foes,  scatter  them, 
and  overspread  the  country,  burning,  pillaging  and  des- 
troying all  that  came  in  their  way.  As  unexpectedly  as 
they  appeared  so  suddenly  they  dispersed,  and  gathered 
again  in  their  mountain  recesses.  Deprived  of  all  means 
of  direct  retaliation,  Aurangzeb  decided  upon  crippling 
their  resources  by  annexing  Golkonda  and  Bijapur  which 
paid  them  tribute.  Both  kingdoms  were  accordingly 
annexed,  and  their  Adil  Shahi  and  Qutb  Shahi  dynasties 
came  to  an  end.  The  Maratha  cause  was  not  now 
prospering  ;  but  worse  was  in  store,  for  in  1689  Sambhaji 
fell  into  the  Emperor's  hands,  and  was  put  to  death. 
Still  the  Marathas  were  far  from  cr\ished.  For  seventeen 
years  longer  they  continued  to  be  i  thorn  in  Aurangzeb's 
side,  and,  indeed,  when  he  died  in  1707  he  was  still  in 
harness,  vainly  trying  to  hunt  them  down  iVom  their  rocky 
retreats.  It  was  during  this  struggle,  in  1690,  that  he 
granted  the  English  land  at  Sutanati,  our  modern  Calcutta. 
As  will  presently  be  more  fully  explained,  Aurangzeb 
was  a  bigoted  V.  uhammadan.  His 
Rajput  Revolt,  persecution  of  the  H.  ndus  alienated  them 
.  from  him,  and  dro^e  the  Rajputs  into 

rebellion.     Not  satisfied  with  re-imposing  the  ^Jiziya,  in 
his  fanatical  zeal  for  the  spread  of  his  own  Faith,  he 


Ch.  IX.]    THE   LATER   MUHAMMADAN    PERIOD,         121 

attempted  to  get  possession  of  the  two  sons  of  Jeswant 
Singh,  the  Rajput  Maharaja  of  Marwar.  He  wished  to 
have  them  educated  at  Delhi,  and  presumably  brought 
up  as  Musalmans.  The  Rajputs  were  infuriated  at  this, 
and  not  only  refused  to  pay  the  tax,  but  also  hid  the 
princes.  Thereupon  Aurangzeb  marched  upon  Raj  putana, 
where  the  states  of  Udaipur  (Mewar)  and  Jodhpur 
(Marwar)  offered  him  armed  resistance.  What  made 
their  opposition  the  more  bitter  was  that  the  Emperor's 
son,  Akbar,  joined  them.  But  Aurangzeb  contrived  to 
make  it  appear  that  the  prince  was  a  traitor  in  their 
camp,  and  the  luckless  youth,  thus  outwitted  by  his 
father,  had  to  seek  safety  in  flight  to  the  Deccan.  The 
Delhi  army  ravaged  Udaipur ;  but,  as  all  his  attention 
was  called  for  in  the  Deccan,  Aurangzeb  willingly  made 
peace.  No  treaty,  however,  could  heal  the  wounded 
feelings  of  the  Rajputs,  and  all  Rajputana — save  only 
Jaipur  which  had  sided  with  the  Emperor — continued 
in  a  state  of  perpetual  revolt  even  long  after  Aurangzeb's 
death. 

To  understand  Aurangzeb's  statemanship  it  is  neces- 
sary to  remember  that  he  was  an  in- 
tolerant Muhammadan  of  the  Sunni  Charaeter  and 
sect.  He  was  a  pronounced  Image-  Aurangzeb.^ 
Breaker,  and  the  relentless  persecutor  of 
all  who  belonged  to  a  different  Faith.  The  result  was 
that  his  religious  zeal  wrecked  his  kingdom.  Instead 
of  adopting  the  conciliatory  policy  of  Akbar,  or  the 
good-natured  indifference  of  Jahangir,  or  the  splendid 
magnificence  of  Shah  Jahan,  he  pulled  down  Hindu 
temples,  and  on  their  sites,  and  with  their  materials,  he 
raised  Muhammadan  mosques.  Not  satisfied  with  this 
assertion  of  his  own  rehgion,  he  revived  the  hated  jiziya, 
and  re-imposed  taxes  on  Hindu  pilgrims.  In  1697  his 
revenue,  from  all  sources,  amounted  to  Rs.  1,350,000,000. 
The  strength  of  Akbar's  government  lay  in  his  policy  of 
uniting*  naturally  hostile  elements  into  a  peaceful 
organism.     Aurangzeb  began  the  disintegration  of  the 

K 


122 


HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 


Mughal  dynasty  by  resolving  that  organism  once  more 
into  its  antagonistic  constituents.  A  contemporary 
Muhammadan  historian  wrote:  "Every  plan  that  he 
formed  came  to  little  good;  every  enterprise  failed" — 
failed  because  the  Emperor  had  not  the  good  will  of  his 
subjects.  When  he  lay  dying  there  was  disorder  in  the 
north  ;  the  Marathas  were  making  a  desert  of  the  Deccan  ; 

the  Rajputs  were  in 


\jj 


/•» 


^^1^ 


Aurangzeb's  Coin. 


open  rebellion  ;  the 
Jats  had  taken  up 
arms  near  Agra  ;  the 
Sikhs  were  turbulent 
in  Multan  ;  and  the 
imperial  army  was 
ready  to  mutiny  for 
arrears  of  pay.  He 
meant  to  be  a  righteous  and  impartial  ruler,  but  he  was 
blinded  by  his  bigotry.  He  trusted  no  one  ;  and  no  one 
loved  him.  He  was  obliged  to  protect  himself  by 
maintaining  a  large  standing  army,  and  by  surrounding 
himself  with  a  host  of  civil  officers  and  retainers,  who 
owed  their  all  to  him.  And  even  in  this  his  method 
differed  from  Akbar's  policy.  Whereas  the  latter  had 
secured  the  loyal  adhesion  of  Hindu  Chiefs  and  nobles 
by  giving  them  responsible  and  honourable  posts  in  his 
army  and  government,  Aurangzeb  showered  his  favours 
only  upon  Muslims  of  low  and  obscure  origin.  He 
made  them  jnmisabdars  or  Amirs,  and  gave  them  grants 
of  land  and  handsome  incomes.  In  return  they  were 
bound,  in  feudal  fashion,  to  supply  the  Emperor  with 
soldiers  in  time  of  war  :  otherwise  they  were  free  to  do 
their  own  pleasure.  With  no  restraining  power  to  hold 
them  in  check,  they  exacted  money  from  their  hapless 
tenants,  whom  they  cruelly  oppressed.  The  peasants 
and  labouring  classes  lived  in  constant  fear.  They 
buried  their  money  ;  wore  scanty  clothing  ;  and  lived  in 
mean  dvvelhngs  so  as  not  to  excite  the  greed  of  the 
Amir  who  ruled  them.     And  thus  it  was  that  while  the 


Ch.  IX.]    THE    LATER   MUHAMMAD  AN   PERIOD.         1 23 

Emperor  piously  dispensed  strict  justice  at  Delhi,  cor- 
ruption and  misery  prevailed  in  the  land.  The  empire 
had  not  fixed  its  roots  in  the  hearts  of  the  people.  It 
could  have  no  stability,  and  it  had  none.  By  an  iron 
will  Aurangzeb,  the  most  powerful  of  all  the  Mughals, 
had  ruled  over  more  extensive  possessions  and  com- 
manded larger  armies  than  Akbar  ;  but  when  he  died, 
the  empire,  which  had  already  in  his  old  age  begun  to 
slip  from  his  hands,  passed  to  a  line  of  degenerate  suc- 
cessors who  had  not  that  genius  which  alone  could  save 
it  from  ruin. 

The  death  of  Aurangzeb  was  as  usual  the  signal  for 
rivals  to  contend  for  the  vacant  throne. 
Muazzam  brushed  aside  his  younger  J"^®.  Emperors 
brothers  and  had  himself  crowned  as  Bahadur  Shah^ 
Bahadur  Shah.  But  he  had  entered 
upon  a  thorny  way.  He  had  to  deal  with  the  Marathas, 
who  were  still  warring  in  the  Deccan.  But  they  were 
not  now  united,  for  a  rivalry  had  sprung  up  among  them 
for  the  chief  Command.  One  of  the  claimants  to  that 
distinction,  Sahu,  son  of  Sambhaji,  was  a  captive  of  the 
Mughals.  Bahadur  Shah  restored  him  to  liberty  on  the 
condition  that  he  would  not  disturb  the  peace  of  Delhi ; 
and  the  Marathas  in  fighting  out  their  own  differences 
ceased  to  be  a  danger  to  the  empire.  Bahadur  Shah 
next  pacified  the  Rajputs,  and  for  the  time  being  checked 
the  Sikhs  who,  to  avenge  the  murder  of  Guru  Govinda 
Singh  at  the  Mughal  court,  now  raided  the  Punjab  as 
far  as  Lahore  and  Delhi.  He  was  succeeded  by  jahan- 
dar,  Farukhsiyar,  and  Muhammad  Shah  (1719-1748). 
But  they  were  mere  tools  in  the  hands  of  two  nobles, 
the  Sayyid  brothers,  Abdulla  and  Husain  Ali,  who 
played  the  part  of  King-Makers.  Meanwhile  the  empire 
was  crumbling  to  pieces. 

Of  the  provinces  that  had  been  taken  by  the  Mu- 
ghals, the  Deccan  and  Oudh  were  the 
first    to  free   themselves   of  the   Delhi    Jf  the  Mughal 
court.      From    1720- 1748,   the    Deccan    Empire, 


124  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

was  ruled  over  by  the  Nizam-ul-Mulk,  while  the 
governor  of  Oudh  made  himself  master  of  Oudh 
(1732-1743).  The  Sikhs  had  already  tried  to  throw  off 
the  yoke  (1710-1716),  but  had  failed.  However,  Raj- 
putana  and  Jodhpur  became  free  by  1750.  Sahu,  the 
grandson  of  Sivaji,  strengthened  himself  in  the  fort  of 
Satara,  and  wrung  chaut  and  sirdesmukhi  from  the 
Deccan,  Gujarat,  Malwa  (1743),  and  Orissa  (1751),  and 
tribute  from  Bengal  (1751). 

The  Mughal  Empire  which  had  been  much  weak- 
ened by    these  losses,  now  received  a 
Nadtr^Shah  death-blow  from  enemies  that  came  from 

other  lands.  The  first  of  these  was 
Nadir  Shah  of  Persia.  He  made  up  his  mind  to  enrich 
himself  by  robbing  the  Mughals  at  Delhi.  Getting  his 
soldiers  together,  he  marched  through  the  mountain 
passes  into  the  Punjab  without  meeting  with  any  oppo- 
sition till  he  reached  Kurnal,  when  he  defeated  the 
Mughal  troops  (1738),  and  obtained  the  surrender  of 
Muhammad  Shah.  He  made  this  Emperor,  a  grandson 
of  Bahadur  Shah,  join  him  and  march  with  him  to  Delhi. 
Its  citizens  created  a  riot  and  killed  some  of  the  Persian 
troopers.  Nadir  thereupon  let  his  soldiers  massacre 
the  inhabitants  of  Delhi,  and  the  Emperor's  money  and 
jewels,  the  glorious  peacock  throne,  the  wealth  of  the 
nobles,  and  the  goods  of  the  common  people  were 
plundered.  Nadir  had  now  gained  his  object,  and,  that 
being  so,  he  was  willing  to  return  with  the  booty  he  had 
taken.  But  before  leaving  India  he  made  a  show  ot 
being  very  kind  to  Muhammad.  He  made  a  treaty 
with  him,  and  put  him  on  the  throne  of  Delhi.  He  told 
the  nobles  that  he  would  avenge  any  disloyalty  to  the 
Emperor  whom  he  had  set  up.  But  he  really  wanted 
the  Koh-i-Nur,  a  great  diamond  which  Muhammad  wore 
on  his  head ;  and  so  he  ended  the  farce  of  enthroning 
the  unhappy  Mughal  by  exchanging  turbans  with  him. 
He  then  returned  to  Persia.  *^ 

After  a   few   years   the   Marathas  revolted   under 


Ch.  IX.]  THE  LATER  MUHAMMADAN  PERIOD.  1 25 

Baji  Rao.  On  his  death,  his  work  was 
carried  on  by  his  son,  Balaji.  The  latter  St  chaut. 
took  chaut  from  Bengal,  and  won  Malwa 
(1743)  and  Orissa  (1751)  from  the  Mughals.  In  1747 
Ahmad  Shah  Abdali,  who  ruled  after  Nadir  Shah  at 
Kandahar,  made  his  first  inroad  into  India,  but  was 
beaten  off.  In  1751  he  again  invaded 
Hindustan,  and  took  the  Punjab  from  Invasions  of 
his  namesake,  the  Emperor  Ahmad  Shah.  ^gjg?  ^^^^ 
The  Rohillas  rose  against  the  latter  and 
defeated  his  forces.  Then  he  was  dethroned  (1754),  and 
Alamgir  II  was  crowned  in  his  stead.  In  1757  Delhi 
was  again  sacked  by  Ahmad  Shah,  and  now,  in  1759, 
Alamgir  II  was  murdered  by  his  wazir,  Ghaziuddin.  In 
his  fourth  invasion  (1759J  Ahmad  Shah 
Abdali  carried  off  whatever  wealth  Nadir  Closing  yeaps 
Shah  had  left.  After  which  he  returned  Emjip^e 
home,  having  shattered  the  Mughal  Em- 
pire. The  Marathas  meanwhile  had  conquered  a  portion 
of  Northern  India,  and  had  taken  Delhi.  Ahmad  Shah 
Abdah,  however,  led  a  large  army  of  forty-thousand 
Afghans  against  them.  The  two  armies  met  at  Panipat 
(1761),  and  the  third  battle  of  that  name  was  fought. 
The  Maratha  Confederacy  was  signally  defeated.  Ahmad 
Shah  Abdah  then  returned  to  Afghanistan,  leaving 
Ghaziuddin  to  rule  for  him  at  Delhi,  and  the  true  heir  to 
the  Mughal  throne,  Shah  Alam  II,  was  sent  into  exile. 
Meanwhile  the  British,  under  CHve,  had  gained  power 
in  the  land.  In  1765  Shah  Alam  II  had  granted  the  East 
India  Company  the  Diwini  of  Bengal  and  Bihar,  and  had 
placed  himself  under  British  protection.  Till  1 771  he 
lived  at  AUahadad  as  their  pensioner.  He  then  allied  him- 
self with  the  Marathas,  who  restored  to  him  part  of  his 
kingdom.  But  they  really  kept  him  prisoner  at  Delhi 
till  Lord  Lake  broke  their  power  in  the  Second  Maratha 
War,  and  set  the  captive  emperor  at  liberty.  He  was 
given  a  pension  which  was  continued  to  his  son  Akbar 
II  and  to  his  grandson  Muhammad  Bahadur  Shah.   Akbar 


126  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

II  reigned  only  in  name  from  1806  to  1837.  His  successor, 
Muhammad  Bahadur  Shah,  the  last  of  Timur's  line, 
joined  the  rebels  in  the  Sepoy  Mutiny  ("1857),  and 
was  exiled  to  Rangoon,  where  he  died  in  1862,  Thus 
ends  the  history  of  the  once  glorious  Empire  of  Delhi. 


Section  II. 
The  Rise  and  the  Fall  of  the  Marathas. 

WHILE  Shah  Jahan  reigned  at  Delhi,  the  Marathas 
were  growing  into  power.  In  chapter  VI  they 
have  been  referred  to  under  their  original 
name  Rathiyas.  They  lived  in  the  table-  Marathas. 
lands  of  the  Deccan,  and  on  the  moun- 
tains and  plains  of  the  Konkan.  But  their  dominions 
expanded  until  they  included  Orissa,  Malwa,  Nagpur, 
Kandesh,  the  Berars,  the  Nizam's  Dominions,  and  the 
Konkan  from  Goa  to  the  Gulf  of  Cambay.  They  had  been 
subdued  by  the  early  Muhammadan  invaders  of  India, 
and  from  the  reign  of  Akbar  to  that  of  Aurangzeb  part 
of  Maharashtra  was  subject  to  the  Mughal  Empire, 
while  the  rest  of  it  was  ruled  over  by  the  Muhammadan 
kings  of  Ahmadnagar  and  Bijapur.  They  became  power- 
ful under  Shaji  Bhonsla,  a  daring  chief  who  owned  forts 
at  Poona  and  Junir.  In  1634  he  aided  Ahmadnagar  and 
Bijapur  against  the  Mughals.  His  son,  Sivaji,  succeeded 
him  ;  and  by  his  talents  as  a  soldier,  he  made  the  Mughals 
respect  the  Marathas. 

Sivaji  was  born  in  1627.    From  his  very  boyhood  he 
joined  in  plunder  and  bloodshed.   At  the  Sivaii 

age  of  sixteen  he  was  already  the  leader 
of  a  band  of  robbers,  and  had  set  himself  to  repair  his 
father's  mountain  forts.  From  these  he  used  to  attack  the 
dwellers  of  the  plains,  plunder  them,  or  take  chant  and 
tribute,  and  then  return  to  his  mountain  fastnesses.  The 
Sultan  of  Bijapur  at  last  sent  a  powerful  army  under  Afzal 
Khan  against  him.  Sivaji  pretended  to  be  humbled.  He 
begged  for  pardon,  and  promised  to  become  an  ally.  He 
asked  ^r  a  friendly  meeting  with  Afzal  Khan,  so  that 
he  might  make  peace  with  him.     The  General  fixed  the 


128 


HISTORY    OF   INDIA. 


time  and  place  of  meeting.  Sivaji  came  to  the  spot  at 
the  right  time.  He 
assumed  penitence : 
but  while  speaking 
to  him,  he  sudden- 
ly killed  Afzal  Khan 
with  a  weapon 
which  he  had  hid- 
den in  his  clothes. 
Without  delay  the 
Marathas  fell  on 
the  soldiers  of 
Bij  apur,  and, 
having  no  leader, 
they  were  beaten. 
In  1 664  Sivaji  sack- 
ed Surat.  Two 
years  later  he  made 
himself  Raja,  and 
began  to  coin 
money.  But  the 
tide  of  war  turned 
against  him  ;  he 
lost  several  of  his 
fortresses,  and  was 
glad  to  come  to 
terms  with  Aurang- 
zeb.  He  went  to  Delhi  to  pay  homage  to  the  Emperor 
who  had  made  him  Viceroy  of  the  Deccan.  But  when 
he  got  there,  he  found  that  he  was  really  a  prisoner. 
He,  however,  contrived  to  escape,  and  raised  a  revolt  in 
the  Deccan.  After  giving  much  trouble  to  the  Mughals 
he  went  back  to  his  capital  at  Rajgarh.  Here  he 
enthroned  himself  with  great  pomp.  He  weighed 
himself  against  gold,  and  divided  the  precious  metal 
among  the  Brahmans  of  his  court.  The  English  sent 
him  costly  gifts  from  Bombay,  and,  when  he  raided  the 
Kamatic  in   1675,  the  French  paid  him  a  large  sum  of 


Sivaji's    Fort   at    Rajgarh. 


Sec.  II.]  THE    MARATHAS.  1 29 

money  to  be  left  in  peace.  The  last  years  of  his  reign 
were  spent  in  fighting  for,  or  against,  the  Mughals  accord- 
ing as  it  suited  him.  He  died  in  1680,  and  was  succeed- 
ed by  his  son,  Sambhaji,  (1680-1689),  who  was  a  weak 
prince,  and  altogether  unfit  to  rule.  He  was  often 
at  war  with  the  Portuguese  and  the  Mughals.  At  last 
he  fell  into  the  hands  of  Aurangzeb,  who  . 

put  him  to  death.  His  son,  Sahu,  a  child  lahu, 
of  six  years,  was  kept  captive  till  the  death 
of  Aurangzeb.  He  was  then  set  free  on  promising  not 
to  take  up  arms  against  the  Emperor  (1707).  He  was 
crowned  at  Satara.  But  a  childhood  spent  in  the  royal 
harem  at  Delhi,  had  taken  away  from  him  all  manliness 
and  love  of  power.  Although  he  was  Raja  in  name,  all 
real  power  was  in  the  hands  of  his  Brahman  minister, 
Balaji  Vishwanath,  who  was  called  Peshwa.  So  power- 
ful did  the  Peshwa  become,  that  in  the  reigns  of  the  heirs 
of  Sahu,  the  Peshwa's  power  passed  from  father  to  son. 
Sahu's  generals  gained  much  territory,  but  he  himself 
went  mad,  and  the  Peshwa  thenceforth  appropriated  the 
kingly  functions.  Finally,  when  Sahu  died  in  1748,  his 
son  was  thrown  into  prison  by  the  Peshwa,  who  moved 
the  capital  from  Satara  to  Poona,  and  himself  reigned 
there. 

Balaji  Bishwanath,  1712-1721,  was  an  exceedingly 
able  man.     It  will  be  remembered  that 
the   six  successors   of   Aurangzeb  were     The  first  Pesh- 
mere  toys  in  the  hands  of  two  power-     y&hwaliath. 
ful  nobles,  and  were  set  upon  the  throne,     1712-1721, 
or   removed   from   it   as  these  pleased. 
Thus  when  Balaji  Vishwanath  took  up  the  government 
for  Sahu,  Sayyid  Husain  Ali  and  Sayyid  Abdullah  were 
playing  the  part  of  "King-Makers"  with  respect  to  the 
Mughal    Empire   of  Delhi ;  and  when  they  promoted 
Muhammad  Shah   to  the  throne   in    171 9,   they   were 
opposed  by  a  combination  of  other  nobles.     To  Balaji 
Vishwanath    this   seemed   a  favourable  opportunity  to 


130  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

push  forward  Maratha  interests,  and  he  accordingly 
led  an  army  to  Delhi  in  support  of  Say y id  Husain. 
In  return,  he  received,  in  1720,  the  right  to  chatit  from 
the  Deccan,  and  control  of  the  districts  from  Poona  to 
Satara. 

Baji  Rao  1.,  1721-1740,    succeeded  his  father  and 
acquired  for  himself  the  distinction   of 
The     Second       being  the  greatest  of  all  the  Peshwas.   He 
Rao  1  1721  to       entered  upon  a  war  against  the  Emperor 
1740.  Muhammad    Shah,    and   wrested   from 

him  all  Malwa  and  the  tract  of  country 
between  the  Narbada  and  the  Chambal.  He  overthrew 
the  Nizam-ul-Mulk  who  came  from  the  Deccan  to  the 
assistance  of  the  Emperor,  and  made  him  pay  a  penalty 
of  fifty  lakhs  of  rupees.  He  then  raised  his  hand  against 
the  Portuguese  on  the  west  coast,  and  took  Bassein  from 
them.  His  next  effort  was  in  the  direction  of  winning 
the  Deccan  ;  but  its  Nizam  at  Haidarabad  was  more 
than  a  match  for  him,  and  he  was  obliged  to  come  to 
terms  with  him. 

Balaji  Baji  Rao,  1740-1761,     occupied  his  years  of 
office  with  three  wars — two  against  Salabat  Jang,  the 


THE    HOUSE    OF   THE    PESHWAS, 

Balaji   Vishwanath,    ist    Peshwa. 

I 
Baji    Rao    I,,    2nd    Peshwa. 


Balaji    Baji   Rao,   3rcl   Peshwa.  Raghoba, 


II  I  .. 

Viswas   Rao         Madhu    Rao,  Narayan    Rao,     Baji  Rao  II., 

(Slain  at  Panipat).      4th  Peshwa.  5th  Peshwa,         7th  Peshwa, 

I  I 

Madhu  Rao  Narayan,       "Nana  Sahib 

6th   Peshwa.  (Adopted  Son). 


Sec.  II.]  THE    MARATHAS.  13! 

Nizam  of  Haidarabad,   and  the   third 
against    the    Afghan    invader,    Ahmad    ^^^^  "^B^j^^Ba^l 
Shah  Abdah.    In  the  first  of  these  wars    Rao.  1740  to  1761. 
the   Nizam,  with  the  help  of  French 
troops  under  Bussy,  defeated  the  Marathas  ;  but  in  the 
end   the  Nizam  had   to   cede  much    territory    to   the 
Peshwa.     Eight  years  later  Salabat  Jang  attempted  to 
take  Ahmadnagar  from  the  Marathas  ;  but  his  expedi- 
tion failed,  and  he  suffered  a  severe  defeat  at  Udgir,  and 
lost  to  the  enemy  all  the  north-western  portion  of  his 
kingdom.     Meanwhile  the  Peshwa's  brother,  Raghoba, 
invaded  the  Punjab   (1758)    which  the   Afghan   king, 
Ahmad  Shah  Abdali,  had  recently  wrested  from    the 
Mughal  emperor.     The  several  Maratha  chiefs,  who  had 
combined,  as  will  be  presently  detailed,  into  a  powerful 
confederacy  with  the    Peshwa  as   its   head,   stood   by 
Raghoba.     The   anger   of    Ahmad   Shah    Abdali    was 
roused,  and  he  came  with  a  powerful  army  to  punish  the 
insolence  of  the  Marathas.     The  Peshwa  was  down  in 
the  South  fighting  with  the  Nizam,  and  so  Ahmad  Shah 
had  no  difficulty  in  defeating  the  combined  forces  of 
Sindhia  and  Holkar  m  the  Third  Battle  of  Panipat,  1761. 
But    the    Maratha    chiefs   made    another    and    more 
determined  effort  to  withstand  the  invader,  and  secured 
the  assistance  of  200,000  Pindaris.     It  was,  however,  of 
no  avail.     They  experienced  a  still  more  signal  defeat, 
and  their  prospects  of  becoming  the  paramount  power 
in  India  were  considerably  diminished. 

In    the  preceding    paragraph    mention    has   been 
made  of  a  confederacy  of  Maratha  chiefs.     They  were  : 

1.  The  Peshwa,  whose  capital  was  at  Poona.  He 
made  himself  supreme  in  Satara  and  Kolhapur 
where  the  descendants  of  Sivaji 

held  nominal  sway.     The  Treaty      confeSey.^ 
of  Bassein  in  1802, and  the  annexa- 
tion of  Satara  by  Lord  Dalhousie  in    1848,  put 
9ii  end  to  the  House  of  the  Peshwas. 

2.  Sindhia,  Raja  of  Gwaliar. 


132  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

3.  Holkar,  Raja  of  Indore,  and  a  rival  of  Sindhia. 

4.  Bhonsla,  Raja  of  Berar,  the  Karnatic  and  Orissa. 
His  capital  was  at  Nagpur  in  the  Central  Provinces. 
His  kingdom  was  annexed  by  Lord  Dalhousie  in 

1853. 

5.  Damaji  Gaekwar,  Raja  of  Baroda. 

A  short  account  may  here  be  given  of  how  these  chiefs 
came  into  existence.  It  has  been  seen  that  the  Peshwa 
Balaji  Vishwanath  supplanted  the  House  of  Sivaji.  By 
the  time  Balaji  Baji  Rao  ruled  at  Poona  four  viceroys 
had  been  appointed  to  collect  the  revenues  of  Berar, 
Gujarat  and  Malwa.  But  the  temptation  to  rule  in  their 
own  rights  was  too  strong,  and  eventually  Sindhia  and 
Holkar,  dividing  Malwa  between  them,  became  in- 
dependent rulers  at  Gwahor  and  Indore.  Similarly 
Bhonsla  and  Damaji  Gaekwar  set  themselves  upon  the 
thrones  of  Berar  and  Gujarat.  While  professing  allegi- 
ance to  the  Peshwa,  they  practically  neglected  to  take 
him  into  account,  and  framed  their  own  laws  and  entered 
upon  hostilities  with  one  another  or  their  neighbours. 
Had  these  chieftains  held  together,  they  would  have 
formed  a  powerful  combination.  But,  unfortunately  for 
the  Maratha  cause,  they  were  jealous  of  one  another, 
and  often  questioned  even  the  supremacy  of  the 
Peshwa.  A  house  divided  against  itself  cannot  stand, 
and  the  quarrels  which  the  Maratha  chiefs  had  among 
themselves  ruined  the  national  prospects. 

Madhu  Rao  1761-1772  became  Peshwa  when 
he  was  only  seventeen  years  of  age. 
PeshwaTMadhu  During  his  minority  his  uncle,  Raghoba, 
Rao,  1761  to  1772,  acted  as  his  guardian.  The  greater 
part  of  his  rule  was  taken  up  with  suc- 
cessful wars  against  the  Nizam  of  Haidarabad,  the 
Bhonslas  of  Berar,  and  Haidar  Ali,  the  Sultan  of  Mysore. 
During  his  time  a  very  remarkable  woman,  Ahalya 
Bai  of  the  family  of  Holkar,  ruled  at  Indoive.  For 
her    commander-in-chief   she    had    a   talented   soldier, 


Sec.  II.]  THE    MAKATHAS.  I33 

Tukaji   Holkar,  whom  she  adopted  as 

her  son.     She  was  alto^i^ether  a  model    ^uouKfSL- „„h 

J    ,  •     J   T    1        J.  Analya  Bai  ana 

queen,  and  she  raised  indore  to  a  posi-    Tukaji  Holkar- 

tion  of  honour  among  the  Maratha  States. 

She  died   in    1795,   and   is   even   now    worshipped   in 

Malwa  as  an  incarnation  of  the  Deity. 

Narayan    Rao,    1772-1773,    the   younger    brother 
of    Madhu    Rao,  succeeded   him.     He 
was,  however,  murdered  at  the  instance    T^^  ^Nap^^an" 
of  Ananda   Bai,  the  ambitious  wife  of   Rao.  1772-1773. 
Raghoba,  who  desired  to  see  her  hus- 
band installed  as  Peshwa.     No  sooner  had  Raghoba  pro- 
claimed himself  as  such,  than  Nana  Farnavis,  one  of  the 
chief  ministers  at  Poona,  produced  Madhu  Rao  Narayan, 
a  posthumous  son   of  Narayan   Rao,  and  claimed  the 
Peshwaship  for  him  in  1774.     There  was  immediately  a 
division  in  the  Maratha  camp.     Some  of 
the  chiefs   disliked    Raghoba   and   sup-    Contact  with 
ported  the  infant  heir,  while  others  of  fn  tlfe^FiiS 
them  refused  to  believe  that  the  child    Maratha  War. 
was  really  Narayan  Rao's  son,  and  pre- 
pared to  support  Raghoba,     To  settle  the  dispute,  an 
appeal  was  made  to  arms,  and  civil  war  began — the  First 
Maratha  War.     An  account  of  the  conflict  will  be  given 
when  we  come  to  the  administration  of  Warren  Hastings. 
Suffice  it  here  to  say  that  at  its  conclusion,  Madhu  Rao 
Narayan  was  created  Peshwa,  and  Raghoba  was   given 
a  handsome  pension. 

Madhu  Rao  Narayan,  1773-1795.  Meanwhile  the 
Maratha  army,  chiefly  under  the  leader-  -pj^g  sixth  Pesh- 
ship  of  Sindhia,  had  overrun  Northern  wa,  Madhu  Rao 
India,  captured  Delhi,  and  obtained  pos-  J^^^^^^"-  ^'^'^S- 
session  of  the  person  of  Shah  Alam  II., 
the  Mughal  Emperor,  After  this,  Sindhia  made  him- 
self independent  of  the  Peshwa.  He,  however,  died  in 
1794,  and  Nana  Farnavis  was  left  without  a  rival.     This 


134  HISTORY  OF    INDIA. 

enabled  him  to  turn  his  attention  to  the  Nizam  of 
Haidarabad,  who  had  allowed  his  tribute  to  fall  into 
arrears — the  tribute  he  had  arranged  to  pay  after  the 
the  battle  of  Udgir.  Nana  Farnavis  summoned  the 
Maratha  chiefs  to  assist  him  against  the  Nizam,  and 
they  loyally  responded.  The  contending  armies  met  at 
Kurdla,  and  the  Nizam  was  entirely  defeated.  Madhu 
Rao  Narayan  did  not  long  enjoy  the  watchful  care  of 
Nana  Farnavis;  for,  giving  vent  to  a  fit  of  ungoverned 
anger  because  his  whims  were  thwarted,  he  killed  himself. 

Baji   Rao   II,    the  son  of  Raghoba,  now   became 

Peshwa,  1795.     The  jealousies  of  the 

The  Seventh  Maratha   chiefs    continued,     and   the 

fr®^?-^r'^^4'J!5°  tendency  now    was   to    question    the 

IL,  1795,  and  the  ■'       m     d    i  \    j 

Second  Maratha    supremacy  of  the  Peshwa.  And  so  it  was 

War.  that  Jeswant  RaoHolkar,  son  ofTukaji 

Holkar,  took  up  arms  against  both 
Sindhia  and  the  Peshwa.  In  distress  the  latter  appealed 
to  the  English  for  help,  which  was  afforded  him  on  his 
signing  the  Treaty  of  Bassein,  1802.  The  result  was  that 
the  English  were  drawn  into  the  Second  Maratha  War 
in  which  they  fought  against  Daulat  Rao  Sindhia  and 
Raghuji  Bhonsla.  The  story  of  this  war  will  be  fully 
related  when  we  come  to  deal  with  the  adminstration  of 
the  Marquis  of  Wellesley.  It  is  sufficient  here  to  say  that 
the  Maratha  chiefs  \vere  defeated,  and  that  the  third 
Maratha  War  completely  wrecked  their  Confederacy. 

But  in  the  Maratha  Confederacy  itself,  there  were 
internal  causes  which  would  eventually  have  wrought 
its  ruin.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  action  of 
Sindhia  in  making  himself  independent  of  the  Peshwa, 
and  indeed  his  rival.  Another  cause  was 
Causes  of  the  the  struggle  between  Raghoba  and  Nana 
S°aratha°Con!  Farnavis  as  to  who  should  succeed 
federaey.  Narayan  Rao  as  Peshwa.     A  third  cause 

was    the    civil    war   of    Baji  *Rao    II, 
with    Jeswant  Rao  Holkar   and  Daulat    Rao  Sindhia. 


Sec.  II.  THE   MARATHAS. 


135 


A  fourth  cause  lay  in  the  circumstance  that  while  the 
Peshwas  were  Brahmans,  some  members  of  the  Confed- 
eracy were  of  lower  caste.  Finally,  in  the  eyes  of  all 
India,  he  was  paramount  who  had  the  Mughal  Emperor 
for  his  prisoner.  In  1795  the  Marathas  had  had  possession 
of  his  person ;  but  in  the  course  of  the  Second  Maratha 
War,  1803,  Shah  Alam  II,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
English,  and  then  it  was  that  the  last  semblance  of 
power  deserted  the  Marathas. 

Before  closing  this  chapter,  some  account  must  be 
given  of  the  Maratha  army  and  of  the  system  of 
Maratha  war,  administration  and  revenue,  which 
though  devised  by  Sivaji  was  retained,  with  minor 
adaptations,  by  the  Peshwas  and  by  the  several  states 
that  made  up  the  Maratha  Confederacy. 

The  foundation  of  Sivaji's  power  was  his  infantry 
which  numbered  50,000  men.  They 
brought  their  own  arms— a  sword,  a  P®  Maratha 
shield  and  a  match-lock.  Every  tenth  '"^' 
man  carried  a  bow  and  arrows  for  night  attack  and 
surprises.  Their  only  equipage  was  a  single  blanket 
and  a  small  bag  of  parched  grain.  They  mounted 
precipices,  or  scaled  rocks  which  would  defy  others. 
They  received  from  Rs.  3  to  Rs.  10  a  month.  Above  a 
series  of  subordinate  officers  there  were  captains  of 
5000,  who  served  under  the  commander-in-chief  of 
infantry. 

The  cavalry,  presided  over  by  its  own  commander- 
in-chief,  was  divided  into  three  classes  : — Bargis,  whose 
horses  were  supplied  by  the  State  ;  Silidars,  who  pro- 
vided their  own  horses  ;  and  Pagahs,  who  were  the 
chief's  household  troops.  Their  principal  weapon  was 
the  spear.  Camp  equipage  was  unknown.  At  their 
saddles  they  carried  a  small  bag  for  food  and  plunder. 
They  were  as  hardy  as  their  ponies,  and  often  swept  the 
country  at  the  rate  of  from  50  to  80  miles  in  twenty- 
four  hour%  The  chiefs  and  officers  equally  shared  in 
the  privations   of  their  men.      The   latter   were  paid 


136  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

between  Rs  7  and  Rs  40  a  month,  and  at  the  end  of  the 
year  all  accounts  were  made  up,  and  payments  due  to 
soldiers  were  never  allowed  to  fall  into  arrears.  During 
the  rains  the  cavalry  retired  to  the  fortresses  where  com 
and  grass  were  stored  by  retainers,  who  enjoyed  perma- 
nent assignments  of  rent-free  land,  which,  together  with 
the  care  of  the  forts,  descended  from  father  to  son. 
The  foot  soldiers  also  went  to  their  homes  to  cultivate 
their  fields.  While  infantry  and  cavalry  were  thus  resting 
from  warfare,  Sivaji  prepared  his  plans  for  the  operations 
of  the  coming  year.  At  the  Dussera  festival  the  national 
flag  was  unfurled,  and  from  all  sides  the  soldiery  once 
more  swarmed  to  their  chief.  The  Peshwa's  forces 
mustered  60,000  all  told.  The  contingents  from  the 
other  states  of  the  Confederacy  augmented  these  numbers 
by  an  additional  50,000.  But  the  Peshwa's  army  was 
called  together  only  when  he  himself  took  the  field. 
On  his  return  to  Poona,  his  troops  were  disbanded. 

The  heights  of  the  Western  Ghats  were  crowned 
with  numerous  fortresses  which  could 

li^win^  ^^^^^^  be  reached  only  by  a  narrow  flight  of 
01  wd,r.  1  /-  1  • 

steps,  and  from  where  an  unseen  garri- 
son could  hurl  down  massive  stones  upon  the  enemy. 
Here  the  Maratha  troops  found  safety  when  pressed  by 
the  foe.  They  made  it  a  rule  to  avoid  pitched  battles. 
The  infantry  usually  hovered  on  the  skirts  of  an  army  or 
hung  about  a  camp,  and  as  opportunity  offered  they 
carried  off  provisions  and  treasure.  While  the  foot- 
soldiers  were  thus  tormenting  the  enemy,  the  light-horse, 
(some  7000  in  strength  in  the  days  of  Sivaji),  scoured 
the  plains,  harrying  and  plundering  peaceful  villages  in 
alien  territory.  At  the  first  warning  of  an  approaching 
army  they  galloped  back  to  their  fortresses  in  the  hills 
and  jungles.  Or  they  assembled  on  particular  points 
with  secrecy,  and  having  made  a  rapid  foraj^  they 
dispersed,  again  to  form  a  fresh  combination  and  deliver 
an  unexpected  attack.  Their  movements  weife  so  rapid 
that  it  was  impossible  for  any  force  of  regular  cavalry 


Sec.  II.]  THE    MARATHAS.  1 37 

to  overtake  or  intercept  them.  When  they  could  not 
avoid  giving  open  battle,  their  common  plan  was  to 
feign  a  retreat,  and  having  by  this  artifice  lured  the 
enemy  into  an  ambuscade,  they  completed  their  destruc- 
tion. Or  while  the  foe  was  eagerly  pursuing  them,  they 
suddenly  turned  and  routed  them  before  they  could 
recover  from  their  confusion.  As  Sivaji's  cavalry  and 
infantry  were  recruited  from  his  own  peasants,  they 
were  always  available  for  a  campaign,  provided  it  was 
not  seed-time  or  harvest.  Thus  Sivaji  had  command  of 
a  large  body  of  fighting  men,  without  being  put  to  the 
expense  of  keeping  a  standing  army.  With  them  he 
swooped  down  upon  his  prey ;  and  exacted  tribute,  or 
extorted  a  heavy  price  for  peace.  From  part  of  the 
plunder  he  paid  off  his  followers,  and  keeping  the  lion's 
share  for  himself,  he  returned  to  his  hill-fort.  This 
system  of  warfare  was  peculiarly  suited  to  the  instincts 
of  the  Marathas  and  to  the  character  of  their  country. 
By  giving  every  soldier  of  whatever  rank  a  personal 
interest  in  success,  Sivaji  cemented  princes  and  people 
into  a  great  brotherhood,  which  was  not  dissolved  when, 
in  later  years,  the  chiefs  of  the  Maratha  Confederacy 
had  no  king  over  them,  and  when  they  were  fighting 
with  one  another,  or  even  with  the  Peshwa. 

The  administrative  unit  of  Sivaji  was  the  fortress 
with   its  surrounding  tract  of  country. 
The  forts  gave  him  a  local  foot-hold,     of^^AdSimstra^ 
and    a   place   wherein    to   deposit  his     tion. 
plunder.     On   the     plains  the  village 
system  prevailed,  and  the  majority  of  cultivators  were 
hereditary  occupants,  who  could  not  be  dispossessed  so 
long   as   they  paid  their  revenues.     Each   village   was 
under  a  Fatal,  who  supervised  the  cultivation  of  fields, 
managed  the  police,  collected  the  revenue,  and  arranged 
for  the  protection  of  his  charge.     Several  Palais  were 
grouped  together  and  put  in  subordination  to  Deshadhi- 
karis   or   Deshpandias,    whose   office   was   hereditary. 
While  Ihese  officers  held  control  over  the  Patals,  they 


n8  HISTORY   OF.  INDIA. 


^ 


could  not  interfere  with  the  general  management  of  the 
country.  Small  districts  were  presided  over  by  Taliik- 
dars.  Subahdars  held  jurisdiction  over  bazar  areas  which 
contained  one  or  more  forts  in  which  they  deposited 
the  grain  and  money,  which  their  subordinates  collected. 
To  secure  the  ryots  against  unfair  exactions,  all  village 
lands  were  divided  into  fields  which  were  accurately 
entered  into  a  register. 

To  assist  in  the  proper  conduct  of  public  affairs, 
Sivaji  appointed  various  grades  of  officers ;  and  later  on 
his  gradation  was,  with  a  few  necessary  modifications, 
adopted  by  each  of  the  chiefs  of  the  Maratha  Con- 
federacy. The  following  were  the  more  important  servants 
of  the  government :   - 

(i)     The  Peshwa,  or  Prime  minister. 

(2)  The  Mazhndar,  or  Auditor-General  of  Accounts 

and  Superintendent  of  Finance. 

(3)  The  Commander-in-Chief  of  Cavalry. 

(4)  The  Commander-in-Chief  of  Infantry. 

(5)  The  Niadesh,  or  President  of  the  Judiciary. 
Civil  suits  were  tried  by  a  Panchayat, or\oc?i\]Mxy. 

Disputes  between  soldiers  were  settled  by  their  officers. 
The  criminal  laws  were  derived  from  the  Shastras,  and 
were  administered  by  Mayisabdars  and  Siirsubahdars. 
The  Raja  or  Chief  was  the  final  head  of  military  and 
civil  affairs. 

The  Revenue  of  the  Marathas  was  derived  from 
alien  territory  in  the  shape  of  money 
of^Revenue^^^"^  exactions  of  tribute,  and  from  the  home- 
land in  the  shape  of  (i)  land  revenue 
(2)  customs  on  imports  and  exports  ;  (3)  miscellaneous, 
e.g.,  offerings  of  pilgrims,  taxes  on  houses  and  pasturage, 
fines,  etc. 

Of  Maratha  land  the  assessment  of  revenue  was 
yearly  calculated  upon  the  actual  condition  of  the  crops. 
There  was  no  permanent  assessment,  but  annually  the 
state  took  the  money  value  of  two-fifths  of  the  har- 
vests.     Sivaji   set  his    face   against    jagir    lands,  and 


Sec.  II.]  THE   MARATHAS.  139 

against  the  farming  out  of  revenues  to  collectors.  From 
non-Maratha  countries  chant,  i.e.,  one-fourth  of  their 
gross  revenues,  was  3'early  exacted  as  the  price  of  their 
being  left  unmolested.  The  income  thus  derived  went 
into  the  general  funds  of  the  state.  But  over  and  above 
this,  sttrdeshmukhi,  i.e.,  ten  per  cent,  of  the  gross 
revenues  was  levied  (particularly  on  the  six  subhas  of 
the  Deccan)  and  was  assigned  to  the  Raja  himself.  Plunder 
was  the  sole  object  of  all  military  expeditions,  and  it 
was  brought  at  stated  periods  to  Sivaji's  Durbar,  where 
the  men  who  had  taken  it  were  praised,  rewarded  or 
promoted.  From  it  payments  were  made  to  those  in 
the  service  of  the  government.  But  under  the  Peshwas, 
all  military  and  civil  servants  were  paid  by  permanent 
assignments  on  portions  of  the  revenue  of  villages. 
With  this  modification  the  chiefs  of  the  Maratha  Con- 
federacy, as  also  the  Peshwa,  adopted  the  system  of 
revenue  collection  and  distribution  which  Sivaji  had 
established  ;  and  indeed,  no  better  means  could  have 
been  devised  for  holding  together  those  upon  whose 
combination  and  federation  the  integrity  of  the  Maratha 
rule  depended. 


» 


Section   III. 
The  Sikhs. 

THE  Sikhs  were  a  sect  of  Jats  whose  early  home  was 
in  the  valley  of  the  Indus.     They  trace  their  origin 
to  Nanak,  a  celebrated  Hindu  reformer, 
the  Sikhs^  °^      who  was  born  in  Lahore  in  1469.   They 
gradually  spread  over  the  Punjab  and 
Rajputana,  and  pushed  their  colonies  as  far  south  as  the 
Jumna.     They  still  inhabit  these  parts. 

In  all,  they  had  ten  Gurus,  or  temporal  and  spirit- 
ual leaders — Nanak  being  the  first,  and  Govind  Singh 

g  G  ■  d  ^^^  ^^^^'  ^^"^^  formulated  the  Sikh 
Faith,  a  refined  type  of  Hinduism  which 
was  finally  written  into  a  book  called  the  GraJith. 
Govind  Singh  was  leader  of  the  Sikhs  from  1676  to  1708, 
durmg  which  time,  by  abolishing  the  distinction  of  caste, 
he  welded  them  into  a  united  body.  He  also  gave 
them  a  military  character,  and  established  a  Sikh 
common-wealth  under  the  name  of  the  Khalsa. 

The  growing  importance  of  the  Sikhs  alarmed  the 
Emperor  Aurangzcb,  who,  to  satisfy  him- 
Theip  Perseeu-  self  of  their  attitude  towards  him,  sum- 
Mug-half  ^  moned  Govind  Singh  to  attend  his  court. 
After  some  hesitation  the  guru  set  out 
in  obedience  to  the  call,  but  in  the  meantime  Aurangzeb 
died,  and  he  presented  himself  before  his  successor, 
Bahadur  Shah.  He  was  received  with  much  distinction  ; 
but  was  suddenly  assassinated  by  a  Pathan.  This  act 
of  treachery  exasperated  the  Sikhs,  and  they  determined 
to  avenge  their  leader's  death.  By  capturing  Sirhind, 
and  ravaging  the  country  up  to  Lahore,  they  brought 
Bahadur  Shah  into  the  field  against  them.  But  after  six 
years  of  fighting  they  scattered,  and  took  refuge  in  the 
hills  and  jungles.     This  period  of  depression,  however, 


Sec.  III.]  THE  SIKHS.  141 

was  not  without  its  advantages,  for  during  it  they  per- 
fected a  mihtary  system  by  organising  themselves  into 
Confederacies,  or  Missils,  each  under  its 
own  Sardar.  Theoretically  anyone  could  The  Missils. 
win  his  way  to  a  sardarship  ;  but  in 
course  of  time  the  office  became  hereditary.  And  so 
what  had  originally  been  a  brotherhood  of  co-ordinate 
Missils,  became  a  military  aristocracy,  in  which  all  influ- 
ence and  power  continued  in  the  hands  of  a  few  chiefs, 
until  Ranjit  Singh,  in  1800,  brushed  aside  his  rival  sardars 
and  established  a  monarchy  in  which  he  was  the  sole 
ruler. 

It  has  been  related  above  that  for  a  number  of  years 
the  Sikhs  found  refuge  in  retirement  ; 
but  when  Nadir  Shah  was  returning  Their  struggle 
home  from  the  sack  of  Delhi,  in  1738,  shlh  Abdafif 
they  emerged  from  their  obscurity,  fell 
on  the  rear  of  his  army,  and  carried  off  much  plunder 
with  which  they  replenished  their  empty  coffers.  When 
the  subsequent  invasions  of  the  same  Shah,  had  to  a  large 
extent  undermined  the  Mughal  Empire,  they  gathered 
from  all  quarters  at  Amritsar,  and  became  aggressive 
toward  their  no  longer  prosperous  enemy.  The  Mughal 
viceroy  of  Lahore,  therefore  proclaimed  a  general 
massacre  of  the  Sikhs,  and  thousands  of  them  were  put 
to  death.  The  Mughals,  however,  had  to  stay  their 
arm,  for  between  the  years  1748  and  1756,  Ahmad  Shah 
Abdali  made  a  series  of  incursions  which  designed  the 
final  overthrow  of  the  Empire  of  Delhi.  The  Sikhs 
made  no  distinction  between  Afghan  and  Mughal,  and 
defeating  Ahmad  Shah's  troops  at  Lahore  (1758)  they 
declared  the  Khalsa  an  independent  state.  Taking 
advantage  of  Ahmad  Shah's  withdrawal  to  his  own 
kingdom,  the  Mughals,  assisted  by  the  Marathas,  tried 
to  recover  the  Punjab.  Ahmad  Shah  immediately  re- 
turned to  Drevent  this,  and  inflicted  a  severe  defeat  on 
the  Marathas,  in  the  Third  Battle  of  Panipat,  1761. 
Finding  that  the  Afghans  and  Mughals  were  bent   on 


142  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

each  other's  destruction,  the  Sikhs  became  more  daring. 
They  occupied  Sirhind  and  other  fortresses  belonging  to 
the  Afghans  :  but  Ahmad  Shah  soon  rescued  Sirliind 
from  them  and  destroyed  Amritsar,  their  Holy  City. 
They  however  rallied  ;  regained  man)^  of  the  strong- 
holds that  had  been  wrested  from  them  ;  and  took  pos- 
session of  the  tract  of  country  between  the  Jumna  and 
the  Sutlej.  This  brought  Ahmad  Shah  once  more  into 
India.  But  the  Sikhs  having  found  that  they  were  no 
match  for  Afghan  armies  in  an  open  field,  were  now 
careful  not  to  allow  themselves  to  be  drawn  into  battle. 
Ahmad  himself  was  tired  of  an  ineffective  warfare. 
Besides  this,  news  reached  him  of  disturbances  in 
Kabul,  and  he  diplomatically  acknowledged  the  Sikh 
Chief  of  Patiala  as  his  local  Governor.  But  no  sooner 
had  he  departed  to  Kabul,  than  the  Sikhs  captured 
Lahore,  seized  all  the  country  between  the  Sutlej 
and  the  Jhelum,  and  proclaimed  the  Khalsa  to  be  the 
Dominant  Power  in  the  Punjab.  They  now  ruled 
from  the  Jumna  to  the  Jhelum.  In  the  face  of  these 
events  Ahmad  Shah  determined  in  1767  to  make  a  final 
attempt  to  crush  the  irrepressible  Sikhs.  He  succeeded 
in  checking  the  Khalsa  army  on  the  banks  of  the  Sutlej ; 
but  failing  health  compelled  him  to  adopt  a  policy  of 
conciliation,  and  he  set  up  the  Chief  of  Patiala  as  the 
ruler  of  Sirhind.  But  the  Sikhs  were  not  deceived.  In 
this  apparent  kindness  they  saw  a  proof  that  the  Punjab 
was  slipping  out  of  Afghan  hands,  and  no  sooner  had 
Ahmad  Shah  crossed  the  Indus,  they  took  posses- 
sion of  Lahore  and  Rhotas.  Although  from  this  time 
they  suffered  no  more  persecution  and  were  accounted 
one  of  the  great  powers  in  the  land,  they  could  not  yet 
put  off  their  armour.  For  when  Ahmad  Shah  died  in 
1773,  his  son  and  successor,  Timur  Shah,  drove  them 
from  Multan  ;  and  when  twenty  years  later  Shah  Zaman 
was  king  of  Kabul,  he  recovered  Lahore  from  them.  He 
might  have  had  larger  successes,  but  the  turbulence  of  his 
own  subjects  in  Afghanistan  compelled  him,  in  1798,  to  be 


Sec.  III.]  THE    SIKHS.  143 

content  to  receive  merely  the  homage  of  the  Sikh  sardars, 
and  to  appoint  Ranjit  Singh,  as  governor  of  Lahore. 

Ranjit  Sing-h,  the  national  hero  of  the  Sikhs,  was 
born  in  1780.  While  he  was  still  a  child  p  ...  „.  . 
he  lost  an  eye  from  small-pox.  On  the  **^"^^^  ''^"^^• 
death  of  his  father  in  1792  he  succeeded  to  the  sardar- 
ship  of  his  Missil,  but  was  under  guardians  till  he  was 
seventeen  years  old.  He  had  been  ruling  in  his  own  right 
only  one  year,  when,  as  has  been  related.  Shah  Zaman  made 
him  Governor  of  Lahore.  He  soon  proved  that  he  was  a 
born  leader  of  men,  and  steadily  grew  in  influence  and 
popularity.  This  excited  the  envy  of  rival  sardars,  and  a 
coalition  was  formed  against  him.  In  1800  he  brushed 
aside  his  enemies,  and  assuming  the  title  of  Maharajah, 
began  to  mint  money  in  his  own  name.  But  a  one-man- 
rule  was  contrary  to  the  traditions  of  the  Sikhs,  and  the 
sardars  of  the  Cis-Sutlej  States  of  Patiala,  Jhind,  and 
Nabha  protested  against  the  usurpation  of  the  kingly  rank 
by  Ranjit  Singh.  In  1 806,  he  crossed  the  Sutlej  with  the 
intention  of  compelling  the  refractory  chiefs  to  acknow- 
ledge him  as  their  king.  They  appealed  to  the  English 
for.  protection,  on  the  plea  that  inasmuch  as  the  Mara- 
thas  under  Holkar  had  receded  from  their  possessions 
in  Northern  India,  on  the  termination  of  the  Second 
Maratha  War,  in  1803,  the  parts  of  the  country  inhabited 
by  them  was  under  British  influence.  Lord  Minto,  who 
was  Governor-General,  accordingly  sent  an  envoy  to  La- 
hore, with  the  result,  that  Ranjit  Singh  let  the  Cis-Sutlej 
Sikh  chiefs  alone,  and  undertook  to  regard  the  river  as 
the  eastern  boundary  of  his  kingdom. 

Ranjit  Singh's  reign  was  one  protracted  campaign 
for  the  consolidation  of  his  power.  His  ambition  there- 
fore was  to  maintain  a  well  trained  army.  In  order  to 
improve  the  efficiency  of  his  troops  he  appointed  Euro- 
pean officers  to  command  them.  Through  the  services 
of  his_  soldiery  he  converted  the  Afghan  Governor  of 
Pesha^'ar  into  a  vassal,  and  by  1831  he  had  brought 
into  subjection  the  Muhammadan  provinces  of  Multan, 


144  HISTORY    OF  INDIA. 

Kashmir,  the  Rajputana  hill  states,  and  a  number  of 
minor  independent  chiefs.  He  now  ruled  over  territories 
extending  from  the  hills  beyond  the  Indus  to  Ladak  in 
Tibet,  and  from  the  northern  banks  of  the  Sutlej  to 
Kashmir.  On  three  sides  his  possessions  touched  those 
of  the  English.  With  the  latter  he  found  it  prudent  to 
live  on  good  terms,  so  much  so,  that  he  joined  them  when 
it  was  found  expedient  to  eject  Dost  Muhammad  of  Af- 
ghanistan, and  restore  their  lost  kingdom  to  the  Duranis. 
But  while  the  war  was  in  progress  he  died  in  1839. 

On  the  death  of  Ranjit  Singh,  many  princes  in  quick 
succession   filled    his   throne,   but   met 
with  violent  deaths.    The  army  of  the   SXeKTalJa 
Khalsa  usurped  all  power,  and  did  as    Army, 
its  leaders  pleased.     At  last,  in    1843, 
Ranjit  Singh's  youngest  son,  Dhulip  Singh,  a  boy  of  ten, 
was  given  the  crown  with  his  mother  as  Queen-Regent, 
and  with  the  chief  sardars  as  his  Council  of  State  or 
Khalsa. 

But  the  palmy  days  of  the  Sikhs  were  now  a  thing 
of  the  past.  It  is  true  that  they  had  triumphed  over 
Moslem  and  Maratha,  and  had  founded  a  mighty  kingdom 
in  the  Punjab.  But  about  this  time  they  came  into 
conflict  with  the  English,  and  their  great  bravery  was 
of  no  avail  against  the  superior  discipline  and  equipments 
of  British  troops.  As  will  be  seen,  later  on,  they  were 
defeated  in  the  First  and  Second  Sikh  Wars,  and  their 
kingdom  was  finally  absorbed  into  the  British  Empire. 


CHAPTER   XI. 

The  Early  Period  of  the  Company  : 

Section  I. 

The  First  European  Settlers. 

J4g8 — lySs  A.D. 

IN  some  of  the  preceding  chapters,  mention  has  been 
made  of  certain  European  nations,  from  which  it 
will  have  been  inferred  that  they  were  already  in  the 
country.  It  is  now  time  to  relate  when  and  why  they 
came. 

In  very  early  times,  India  was  known  to  Europe. 
The  Romans  traded  with  it,  and  the 
fn  Sty  Siys^^^  Greeks,  as  we  have  seen,  actually  in- 
vaded it.  Alfred  the  Great  of  England 
sent  a  nobleman  of  his  court  as  an  ambassador  to  one  of 
its  princes.  But  Europe  was  so  far  from  India,  and 
navigation  was  so  full  of  danger,  that  it  was  no  easy 
matter  for  trade  to  be  carried  on  between  the  two  Be- 
sides this,  the  nations  of  Europe  were  so  occupied  with 
their  own  wars,  and  other  affairs,  that  they  did  not  have 
the  desire  or  the  opportunity  to  trade.  But  when,  at 
the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  people  had  recovered 
from  the  strain  of  constant  warfare,  a  great  wish  filled 
the  minds  of  many  in  Western  Europe  to  find  a  way  to 
India  by  sea. 

In  1497,  under  the  patronage  of  King  John  II  of 
Portugal,  Vasco  da  Gama  tried  to  reach 
^^I  ^^E^"^"®^®  India  by  sailing  round  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  This  he  accomplished  in  1498, 
landing  at  Calicut.  Here  he  was  kindly  received  by  the 
Zamorin,  or  Hindu  Raja,  and  returned  to  Portugal  with 
a  rich  car^o  of  spices  and  precious  stones.  Encouraged 
by  these  results,  the  King  of  Portugal,  in   1500,  sent  a 


146  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

large  fleet  on  the  same  errand,  under  Pedro  Alvares 
Cabral.  He  effected  a  safe  landing,  and  established  a 
factory  or  agency  at  Calicut,  for  the  sale  of  Portuguese 
wares  and  the  purchase  of  Indian  commodities.  It 
ought  to  be  noticed  that,  at  this  time,  the  bulk  of  Indian 
trade  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Muhammadans,  or  Moplas, 
as  they  were  called.  Naturally  they  resented  the  arrival 
of  the  Portuguese,  in  whose  favour  part  of  the  commerce 
of  the  coast  began  to  be  diverted.  They  used  their 
influence  with  the  Zamorin  so  successfully  that,  when 
Vasco  da  Gama  revisited  India  in  1502,  this  king  quar- 
relled with  him.  But  Vasco  da  Gama  made  allies  of  the 
Rajas  of  Cochin  and  Cannanore,  and  with  their  assistance 
he  defeated  his  former  friend  in  battle.  The  King  of 
Portugal  did  not  approve  of  what  Vasco  da  Gama 
had  done,  and  recalled  him  from  India,  replacing  him, 
in  1505,  by  Francisco  d'  Almeida,  under  the  name 
and  style  of  Governor  and  Viceroy  of  the  Portuguese  in 
India.  Almeida  carried  on  a  profitable  trade  for  his 
master  ;  and  when  he  returned  home,  Alfonso  d' 
Albuquerque  filled  his  place.  The  latter  was  a  very 
successful  ruler,  and  having  won  Goa  for  Portugal  in 
1510,  he  died  there  five  years  latter  (1515).  After  a 
lapse  of  nine  years  Vasco  da  Gama  was  again  sent  out 
to  be  Viceroy  ;  but  he  died  at  Cochin  in  the  following 
year  (1525). 

By  this  time  the  Portuguese  owned  many  towns  on 
the  coast  from  Diu  in  Gujarat  to  Quilon. 
Possesions.  ^^^^  chief  of  these  were  Bassein,  Bombay, 
Goa,  Mangalore,  Cannanore,  Cranganore, 
Calicut,  and  Cochin.  Besides  these,  St.  Thom6  and 
Masulipatam,  and  Negapatam,  all  on  the  East  Coast, 
were  theirs,  as  also  was  a  large  part  of  Ceylon.  Their 
chief  port  was  Diu,  and  Goa  was  their  capital.  Not 
satisfied  with  these  possessions,  they  warred  against 
Gujarat  and  Malabar,  and  entered  Sindh  in  1556.  But 
they  had  no  success.  In  1560  an  Archbishop  was  sent 
to  Goa,  and  from  this  time  the   Portuguese   tried   to 


Ch.  XL]         EARLY   EUROPEAN   SETTLERS.  I47 

convert  the  people  of  the  country  to  Christianity.  They 
were  very  cruel  to  those  who  would  not  accept  this 
religion,  and  so  they  began  to  be  hated  by  both  Hindus 
and  Muhammadans.  This  hatred  was  one  of  the  causes 
of  their  downfall  in  India.  Another  cause,  was  the 
arrival  of  the  Dutch  and  the  English  in  1600. 

Like  the  English,  the  Dutch  at  first  tried  to  reach 
India  by  passing  through  Behring  Straits. 
But  in  this  they  failed.  Cornelius  Hout-  i^dia 
mann  then,  in  1596,  attempted  the  south- 
ern route ;  but  landed  at  Bantam  in  Java.  From  this  place 
he  carried  home  a  cargo  of  spices.  He  made  another 
expedition  in  1599,  and  with  the  help  of  the  natives  he 
took  away  from  the  Portuguese  several  of  their  towns 
m  the  Molucca  Islands.  The  Dutch  had  previously  con- 
quered a  part  of  Ceylon,  and  became,  by  1605,  the 
greatest  maritime  nation  on  Indian  waters.  But  the 
rivalry  between  them  and  the  English  in  the  Eastern 
Seas  led  to  much  fighting,  and  they  eventually  massacred 
the  English  at  Amboyna  in  1623.  This  act  of  cruelty 
did  not  improve  matters,  and  the  two  nations  continued  in 
open  hostility  until  1689,  the  year  in  which  WiUiam  of 
Orange  became  king  of  England.  But  long  before  this 
date  the  power  of  the  Dutch  in  the  East  had  been 
declining,  chiefly  through  their  greed  and  cruelty. 
Their  hopes  of  an  Indian  Empire  were  put  an  end  to  by 
Clive,  who,  in  1758,  took  Chinsurah,  their  capital  in 
Bengal,  away  from  them.  At  present  the  Dutch  own 
no  lands  in  India. 

The  British,  as  has  been  said,  visited  India  in  very 
early  times.  William  of  Malmsbury  ^  ,.  ,  ,^  . 
records,  that  in  833  A.D.  King  Alfred  f„"&VMTa''' 
sent  Sighelmus,  Bishop  of  Sherburn, 
to  present  gifts  at  the  shrine  of  St.  Thomas,  near 
Madras,  and  that  he  came  back  with  spices  and  gems. 
Then  in  1496  John  Cabot  was  sent  to  find  a  way  to  India ; 
but  he*discovered  Newfoundland  instead.  When  Queen 
Mary  came  to  the  throne,  she  sent  Sir  Hugh  Willoughby 


148  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

to  see  if  he  could  get  to  India  through  Behring  Straits. 
But  he  and  his  crew  perished  in  the  Arctic  Seas.  Fro- 
bisher,  Davis,  Hudson,  and  Baffin — all  celebrated  Eng- 
lish navigators — attempted  the  same  voyage,  but  they 
met  with  no  success.  For  a  time  people  gave  up  the 
idea  of  reaching  India  by  crossing  the  seas.  It  seemed 
easier  to  do  so  by  land,  through  Persia.  Accordingly  in 
1583,  John  Nevvbery,  William  Leeds,  and  Ralph  Fitch 
sailed  to  Syria  by  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  reached 
Ormuz  by  way  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  Aleppo  and  Bagdad. 
Here  they  were  thrown  into  prison ;  but  on  being 
liberated,  they  sailed  to  Goa,  the  chief  town  of  the 
Portuguese.  At  the  last  mentioned  city  they  were  cast 
into  prison  ;  but  escaping,  they  travelled  over  a  great 
part  of  India.  From  Agra,  Newbery  went  back  to 
England,  via  Persia,  Leeds,  became  jeweller  to  Akbar. 
Fitch  visited  Benares,  Bhutan,  Hugh,  and  Ceylon,  and 
finally  reached  home  in  1591.  The  accounts  which  he 
gave  of  all  he  had  seen  in  India,  of  its  wealth  and  plenty, 
quickened  anew  pubhc  interest  in  that  country,  and 
without  delay  several  ships,  under  the  guidance  of 
Lancaster,  were  sent  out  round  the  Cape.  Lancaster's 
expedition  was  a  failure  ;  but  Queen  Elizabeth,  in  1599, 
despatched  John  Mildenhall  to  the  Emperor  Akbar. 
Nothing  was  gained  by  his  visit.  Not  to  be  beaten  by 
these  repeated  failures,  a  Company — the  great  East  India 
Company — was  formed  under  royal  charter  in  1600. 
Lancaster  again  led  a  new  fleet  into  Indian  waters,  and 
this  time  his  perseverance  was  rewarded,  for  he  went 
back  with  a  rich  cargo  of  calicoes  and  spices. 

Gratified  by  this  success,  the  Directors  of  the  East 
India  Company  sent  out  ships  every  year 
The  East  India  till  16 10.  The  Dutch  were,  at  this  time, 
the^Duteh  ^°^  ^^^  undisputed  masters  of  the  Eastern 
Seas,  and  they  resented  the  intrusion  of 
the  English.  They  had  already  crushed  the  Portuguese, 
and  they  now  entered  upon  active  hostilities  agamst  the 
English.     They  met  their  ships  at  sea,  and  often  captured 


Ch.  XI.]         EARLY    EUROPEAN   SETTLERS.  149 

them.  King  James  I  thought  that  it  would  be  a  great 
gain  to  enter  into  an  alliance  with  the  Mughal  Emperor. 
And  so,  in  16 15,  he  sent  Sir  Thomas  Roe  as  the  English 
ambassador  to  Jahangir.  The  latter  received  the  embassy 
kindly,  but  no  practical  good  resulted.  The  ill-feeling 
between  the  English  and  the  Dutch  continued  to  grow, 
and  culminated,  as  already  stated,  in  the  massacre  of  the 
English  by  the  Dutch  at  Amboyna  in  1623. 

But  for  all  that  the   English  Company  went  on 
prospering.     It  had  a  factory  at  Gom- 
broon, and  another  at  Surat  which  be-       fetUements 
came  their  capital.     On  the  Coromandal 
Coast,  factories  had  been  estabhshed  at  Masulipatam, 
Puhcat,  Armagaon,Pipli,  and  Madras  (1639).    In  1656  an 
English  doctor  cured  the  child  of  the  Nawab  of  Bengal, 
and  the  grateful  prince  made  a  gift  of  Hughli  to  the 
Company.     Then  factories  were  set  up  at  Patna  and 
Casimbazar.      In  1662  Charles  II  married  Catherine  of 
Braganza,  and  received  Bombay  as  her  dowry.     In  1668 
he  transferred  it  to  the  East  India  Compan}' ,  who  made 
it  their  western  capital.     About  this  time  the  French 
came  to  trade  in  India,  and  leaving  the  history  of  the 
English  for  the  present,  let  us  turn  to  the  new  arrivals. 

The  fact  that  the  Portuguese,  the  Dutch  and  the 
English  had  established  trade  with  India, 
could  not  but  arouse  the  ambition  of  the       ^le'Sene^ 
French  to  do  the  same.     And  so  it  was 
that  in  1667  Louis  XIV  despatched  an  expedition  under 
Francis  Caron   to   open  up  trade  with  India.     Caron 
touched  at  Cochin,  and  by  the  end  of  the  same  year,  the 
first  French  factory  was  established  at  Surat.     He  next 
obtained  permission  from  the  King  of  Golconda  for  the 
French  to  trade  in  that  king's  dominions,  and  to  erect  a 
factory  at  Masulipatam.     Not  content  with  such  gradual 
progress,  he  conceived  the  idea  of  ousting  the  Dutch 
from  their  possessions  in  Ceylon.     He  accordingly  led 
an  expedition  against  them  ;  but  his  hopes  of  acquir- 
ing  a   rpady-made   business    were    disappointed.     The 


150  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

Dutch  defeated  him  at  Point  de  Galle,  and  though 
Trinkamali  fell  into  his  hands,  he  again  lost  it  to  his 
enemies.  When  the  war  ended,  the  only  gain  from  the 
loss  of  much  money  and  many  lives,  was  the  small  and 
unimportant  town  of  St.  Thome,  near  Madras.  The 
home  Government  considered  that  Caron  had  been  a 
failure,  and  he  was  replaced  by  Martin. 

Martin's  policy  was  to  secure  the  prosperity  of  the 
Martin  French  Company,  by  being  on  friendly 

terms  with  all  around  him.  The  French 
had  come  to  trade,  and  trade  depends  upon  peace.  He 
accordingly  entered  into  negotiations  with  Sher  Khan 
Lodi  of  Bijapur  in  the  Karnatic,  and  purchased  from 
him  Puducheri  (Pondichery),  Villanur,  and  Bahur. 
Pondichery  was  excellently  situated  and  healthy. 
While  it  was  protected  against  the  monsoon,  it  also 
afforded  a  safe  landing  place,  and  was  besides,  a  con- 
venient point  from  which  to  traffic  with  the  interior. 
So  it  was  made  the  capital  of  the  Indian  possessions  of 
France.  Martin  fortified  it,  and  raised  regiments  of 
native  soldiers. 

But  trouble  was  at  hand.  In  1675,  Sivaji  the 
powerful  Maratha  chief,  made  a  raid  into  the  Karnatic 
for  plunder.  Sher  Khan  Lodi  fled  before  him,  and  he 
turned  upon  the  French  on  the  pretext  that  they  were 
the  alhesofSher  Khan.  Martin,  however,  warded  off 
the  danger  which  threatened  by  prudently  acknowledg- 
ing the  supremacy  of  the  Marathas,  and  by  paying 
Sivaji  a  sum  of  money  for  the  retention  of  Pondichery, 
and  for  permission  to  continue  to  trade  in  the  Karnatic. 

It  must  be  noted  that,  during  this  period  of  history, 
when  any  two  nations  went  to  war  in  Europe,  it  meant 
that  they  had  to  fight  against  each  other  also  in  India. 
About  this  time  war  broke  out  between  the  French  and 
the  Dutch  on  the  Continent,  and  so  the  hostilities  ex- 
tended to  India.  The  Dutch  had  not  forgotten  how 
Caron  had  attempted  to  expel  them  from  Ceylon,  and 
were  glad  of  an  opportunity    to    pay   off  old"  scores. 


Ch.  XL]        EARLY    EUROPEAN   SETTLERS.  15I 

They  promptly  landed  at  Pondichery,  and  took  it.  But 
four  years  later  the  European  war  was  brought  to  a 
close  by  the  Peace  of  Ryswick,  and  as  one  of  the  condi- 
tions of  the  treaty  was  that  Pondichery  should  be  re- 
stored to  the  French,  it  was  given  back  to  them. 

Some  years  previous  to  this,  1688,  the  Emperor 
Aurangzeb  had  given  Chandarnagar,  in  Bengal,  to  the 
Frencli  ;  and  their  affairs  had  so  prospered  that  when 
in  1 70 1  the  title  of  Governor  of  Pondichery  was  con- 
ferred on  Martin,  he  ruled  over  tracts  of  land  at 
Masulipatam,  Surat,  Chandarnagar,  Balasore,  Dacca, 
Patna,  and  Casimbazar.  During  his  administration,  which 
continued  till  his  death,  in  1709,  trade  flourished,  and 
the  French  were  courted  by  Indian  princes.  But  when 
Law  succeeded  Martin,  things  went  badly  with  the 
French  Company,  and  its  trade  declined.  A  reaction, 
however,  set  in  in  1721  when  Lenoir  assumed  the 
government,  and  prosperity  once  more  returned. 

The  next  French  Governor  was  Dumas.     He  resum- 
ed the   policy  of  Martin,  and   through 
Dost  Ali,  the  Nawab  of  the  Karnatic,  he  Dumas, 

obtained  from  Muhammad  Shah,  of 
Delhi,  permission  to  coin  money.  He  lent  his  troops  to 
a  claimant  to  the  throne  of  Tanjore,  and  received  in 
return  the  town  of  Karikal  and  ten  villages  adjacent  to 
it.  The  Mughal  Empire,  it  will  be  remembered,  was 
at  this  moment  passing  through  a  severe  crisis,  for  Nadir 
Shah  had  invaded  India.  As  though  this  were  not 
enough,  the  Marathas,  jealous  of  the  Emperor's  growing 
influence  in  the  south,  raided  the  Karnatic,  1736,  and 
completely  defeated  Dost  Ali.  The  near  and  distant 
relatives  of  the  Nawab,  as  also  many  minor  chiefs  of  the 
neighbourhood,  flocked  into  Pondichery  for  protection 
against  the  dreaded  enemy.  Protection  was  afforded 
them  by  Dumas,  who  saw  in  this  a  means  of  extending 
French  patronage,  and  an  opportunity  of  bringing  into 
his  debt  those  who,  later  on,  might  be  of  signal  service 
to  the  Frepch.     As  was  to  be  expected,  the  Marathas 


152  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

demanded  that  the  refugees  should  be  dehvered  to  them, 
and  when  Dumas  refused  to  comply,  Raghuji  Bhonsla 
threatened  to  raze  Pondichery  to  the  dust.  But  Dumas 
pacified  him,  and  the  Maratha  chieftain  was  content  to 
return  home  with  what  booty  he  had  gained.  The 
princes  who  had  thus  been  delivered  from  the  hand  of 
the  Marathas,  were  naturally  full  of  gratitude  to  the 
French,  and  they  repaid  their  protectors  by  making 
them  grants  of  land.  Safdar  Ali,  son  and  heir  to  the 
late  Nawab  of  the  Karnatic,  added  to  the  French  pos- 
sessions, and  the  Mughal  Emperor  conferred  upon 
Dumas  the  title  of  Nawab,  and  created  him  a  Com- 
mander of  4,500  Horse,  both  of  which  dignities  were  to 
be  transmitted  to  his  successors.  After  a  most  distinguish- 
ed career  Dumas  retired  in  1741,  and  the  celebrated 
Dupleix  became  Director-General  of  the  French  Posses- 
sions in  'India. 


Section  II. 
Struggle  Between  the  English  and  the  French. 

1741 — 1783  A.D. 

DUPLEIX  had  hitherto  been  in  charge  at  Chandar- 
nagar.    When  he  took  up  the  reins  of  government, 
the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession  was 
brewing  in  Europe,  and  neither  England    Duoleix.    At- 
nor  France  could  spare  either  money    ffs^^V'^F^e^eh 
or  forces  for  operations  in  far-off  India.    Empire. 
Foreseeing  what  was  hkely  to  happen 
when  war  was  declared  at  home,  Dupleix  at  once  began 
to  enter  into  alliances  with  the  princes  around  him,  and 
to  cut  down  the  expenses  of  the  French  factories.     The 
most  important  of  his  new  allies  was  Anwar-ud-din,  the 
Nawab  of  Arcot,  and  the  landlord  of  the  English.     As 
soon  as  the  expected  war — the  War  of   the   Austrian 
Succession — broke  out  in  Europe,  the  Enghsh  attacked 
Pondichery.     Dupleix  appealed  to  the 
Nawab  to  forbid  his  tenants,  the  English,    ^^^  Karnatie 
to  attack  the  Capital  of  his  allies,  the 
French.     The  Nawab  complied;  but,  his  prohibition 
notwithstanding,    the    English  blockaded    Pondichery, 
and  were  on  the  point  oUaking  it,  when  La  Bourdonnais 
opportunely  arrived  with  a  French  fleet.     To  draw  their 
foes  away  from  Pondichery,  the  French  made  up  their 
minds  to  lay  siege  to  Madras.     It  was  now  the  turn  of 
the   English   to  appeal  to  the  Nawab  to  protect  his 
tenants.     But  he  was  not  in  sympathy  with    them ; 
besides,  he  wanted  the   French  to  take  the  city,  for 
Dupleix  had  promised  to  give  him  the  town  as  soon  as 
it  was  wrested  from  the  English.     So  Madras  fell  into 
the  han<is  of  the   French,  and  its  garrison   were  made 
prisoner^  of  war.     But  now  that   he  had  got  Madras, 

M 


154 


HISTORY    OF    INDIA. 


Dupleix  changed  his  mind,  and  decided  to  keep  it. 
This  roused  the  indignation  of  the  Nawab,  and  he  sent 
his  son,  Maphuz  Khan,  with  troops  to  compel  its  pro- 
mised surrender.  But  the  French  were  nothing  daunt- 
ed. They  took  the  field,  and  defeated  their  late  friend 
and  patron,  in  the  decisive  battle  of  St.  Thome.  This 
battle  had  important  results.  Hitherto  the  English 
and  the  French  had  been  contented  to  be  the  vassals 
of  the  Nawab.  Now  the  position  was  inverted.  The 
Europeans  were  proved  to  be  so  strong  in  arms  as  to 
be  able  to  defeat  powerful  Indian  rulers.  They  needed 
no  longer  to  sue  for  protection,  but  could  instead  dictate  . 
terms,  even  to  the  mighty  Nawab  of  the  Karnatic 
himself.  As  for  Duplei.x,  his  ambition  was  kindled,  and 
henceforth  it  became  his  set  purpose  to  bring  all 
Southern  India  under  the  sway  of  France. 

The  French  already  owned  enough  territory  in  India 
to  make  them  wish  for  more.  With  Pondichery,  Madras 
and  Karikal  in  his  power— if  Dupleix  could  only  crush 
the  British,  the  French  would  indeed  be  supreme.  The 
Englishmen  who  escaped  when  Madras  had  been  taken, 
had  strengthened  themselves  in  Fort  St.  David.  With- 
out loss  of  time  Paradis  was  sent  to  drive  them  from 
the  fort.  But  he  was  destined  not  to  succeed,  for  an 
English  fleet,  under  Admiral  Boscawen,  appeared  off 
Pondichery,  and  the  French  had  to  hasten  to  the  pro- 
tection of  their  own  capital.  The  war  had  reached  this 
point  when  the  Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  was  signed  in 
Europe  in  1748,  and  as  one  of  its  conditions  was  the 
mutual  restitution  of  all  conquests,  the  First  Karnatic 
War  terminated  with  the  English  and  French  giving 
each  other  back,  what  each  had  gained  in  the  war. 

Now  that  they  were  at  peace  between  themselves 
and  with  their  neighbours,  the  French 

Second  ^^^d  the  English   had   more  soldiers  in 

Karnatic  war.      ^^^^.^  ^^^^  ^^^^^  ^j^^^.  j,^^^^,  ^^.^^^  ^^  ^^ 

with.    But  it  was  not  long  before  they  found  occupation 
for  them.     In  1748  the  Nizam-ul-Mulk,  Subahdar  of  the 


Sec.  II]       THE    ENGLISH   VS.   THE   FRENCH.  155 

Deccan,  died  at  Haidarabad.  Among  other  descendants 
he  left  two  sons,  Nadir  (or  Nazir)  Jang;  and  Salabat 
Jang,  and  a  grandson,  Muzaffar  Jang.  Nazir  Jang  had 
been  declared  heir  by  his  father.  JMuzaffar  Jang  on  the 
other  hand  put  in  a  claim.  Nazir  Jang,  however,  was 
not  disposed  to  give  up  his  claim  without  resistance. 
So  he  made  preparations  to  fight  for  his  rights,  and  he 
appealed  to  the  English  to  take  up  his  cause.  This 
they  agreed  to  do.  Muzaffar  Jang  forthwith  enlisted 
the  co-operation  of  the  French.  And  so  the  old  rivals 
were  once  more  pitted  against  each  other.  But  another 
complication  now  arose.  When  Dost  Ali,  the  Nawab 
of  the  Karnatic,  had  been  taken  prisoner  by  the  Marathas, 
the  nawabship  had  been  conferred  on  Anwar-ud-din. 
Anwar-ud-din  died  at  this  time,  and  immediately  the 
succession  to  the  throne  of  Arcot  was  disputed  by 
Chand  (or  Chanda)  Sahib,  son-in-law  of  Dost  Ali,  and 
Muhammad  Ali,  son  of  Anwar-ud-din.  Chanda  Sahib 
secured  the  support  of  the  French,  while  the  English 
ranged  themselves  on  the  side  of  Muhammad  Ali. 
There  was  thus  a  strong  combination  of  forces  in  which 
the  English,  Nazir  Jang,  and  Muhammad  Ali  opposed 
the  French,  Muzaffar  Jang,  and  Chanda  Sahib.  Thus 
began  the  Second  Karnatic  War  which  was  to  settle  the 
succession  to  the  thrones  of  Haidarabad  and  Arcot. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  war  the  French  had  much 
success,  and  Muhammad  Ali  fled  to  Trichinopoli,  leaving 
Nazir  Jang  alone  in  the  field.  The  French  and  their 
allies  concentrated  against  Trichinopoli,  and  were  not 
far  from  taking  it  when  Clive  came  to  the  rescue  by 
suddenly  capturing  Arcot,  the  capital  of  the  Karnatic. 
Things  now  went  badly  for  the  French,  and  when  Clive 
won  the  decisive  battle  ofSriramgaon,  1752,  and  Chanda 
Sahib  was  slain,  Muhammad  Ali  was  left  without  a  rival 
in  the  Karnatic.  The  war,  however,  lingered  on,  and 
after  varying  fortunes  on  both  sides,  the  French  suffered 
a  crushiifg  defeat  at  Trichinopoli,  and  were  glad  to  come 
to  terms.     The   French  Government  at  ihome  was  by 


156  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

this  time  weary  of  a  profitless  and  expensive  war. 
Clive  whose  health  had  failed,  was  obliged  in  1753  to 
go  to  England.  Dupleix  was  recalled,  and  Godeheu 
was  sent  out  in  his  stead,  with  express  commands  to 
speedily  make  peace.  The  terms  upon  which  hostilities 
ceased,  were  that  Muhammad  Ali  was  to  be  Nawab  of 
Arcot,  and   Muzaffar   Jang   Subahdar  of  the  Deccan, 

1754- 

But  peace  was  not  long  to  continue.     In  1756,  the 

Seven  Years'  War  broke  out  in  Europe  between  the 
English  and  the  French,  and  so  hostilities  between 
them  were  resumed  in  India.  The  French  general, 
Lally,  promptly  took  Fort  St.  David,  captured  Arcot, 
and  laid  siege  to  Madras.  Meanwhile  the  English  were 
not  without  their  successes.  They  obtained  possession 
of  the  Northern  Circars,  and  induced  the  Subahdar  of 
the  Deccan  to  desert  the  French,  and  throw  in  his  lot 
with  them.  Moreover,  Colonel  Eyre  Coote  worsted 
the  French  at  Wandiwash,  1760,  and  gained  Arcot, 
Devicota,  and  Karikal.  But  now  what  had  happened 
before  happened  again.  In  Europe  peace  was  restored 
by  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  in  1763,  and  Pondicher)'  was 
given  back  to  the  French.  The  war,  however,  had 
rudely  shaken  their  power  in  India. 

The  English,  on  the  other  hand,  prospered  more 

than  before.     In    1765,  the    Mughal 

of"^e   Enff'^^h        Emperor  conferred  on  them  sovereign 

over  the  Fpeneh.      rights  over  the  Northern  Circars,  and 

as  Muhammad  Ali  ruled  over  the 
Karnatic  by  their  permission,  the  East  India  Company 
was  practically,  if  not  actually,  master  of  all  Southern 
India  from  Orissa  to  Cape  Comorin.  Here,  in  the 
south,  Clive  and  Coote  carried  all  before  them,  and  in 
Bengal,  Warren  Hastings  was  building  up  a  lasting 
empire.  While  he  was  Governor-General  of  the  British 
possessions  in  India,  Chandarnagar  and  Pondichery 
were  captured  from  the  French,  in  the  course^  of  the 
Second  Mysore  War.    They  were,  however,  subsequently 


Sec.  II]      THE    ENGLISH    VS.    THE   FRENCH.  1 57 

restored  when  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  was  signed 
in  Europe,  1783.  But  from  this  time  the  French 
gave  up  hopes  of  acquiring  an  empire  in  India,  and  all 
that  now  remains  to  them  in  this  country  is  Chandar- 
nagar,  Karikal,  Mahe,  Ganam  and  Pondichery, 


Section  III. 
Robert  Clive  and  Warren  Hastings. 

1^44— I7j8  A.D. 

IN  1744  Robert  Clive  came  to  Madras  as  a  writer,  or 
clerk,  in  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company. 
But  subsequent  events  proved  that  the  council  chamber 
and  the  battle-field  were  his  proper  spheres.  For  the 
better  understanding  of  the  history  of  the  times,  let  us 
take  a  general  survey  of  India,  and  recapitulate  much 
that  has  already  been  narrated. 

It  will  be  remembered  how,  in  the  closing  years 
of  Aurangzeb's  reign,  the  Mughal  Em- 

eal"^^^upvey^°of'  R'^^  ^^^  begun  to  decline  ;  and  how  the 
India.  '  little  that  was  left  of  it  had  been  shat- 

tered in  1739,  by  the  invasion  of  Nadir 
Shah,  It  has  been  seen  how  various  soldiers  of  fortune,, 
on  the  fragments  of  the  Mughal  Empire,  set  up  kingdoms 
for  themselves  in  Oudh,  Rohilkhand,  Bengal,  and  the 
Deccan.  Meanwhile,  the  warlike  Marathas  acquired  for 
themselves,  province  after  province  in  Southern,  Western,, 
and  Central  India  ;  and  the  Sikhs  disputed  the  sovereign- 
ty of  the  Punjab  with  the  Emperor  Ahmad  Shah. 
The  Deccan,  which  included  the  Northern  Circars  and 
the  Karnatic,  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Nizam-ul-Mulk,. 
who  also  claimed  Trichinopoli.  The  Nawab  of  the 
Karnatic  was  his  vassal ;  but  Mysore,  Travancore  and 
Cochin  were  independent  kingdoms. 

The  other  powers  in  the  south  were  the  English 
and  the  French.  The  former  had  their  head-quarters  at 
Madras,  and  were  the  tenants  of  the  Nawab  of  the 
Karnatic.  The  French  capital  was  Pondichery.  Both 
nations  had  come  merely  to  traffic  in  the  land,  but  they 
were  drawn  into  the  quarrels  which  the  Indian  princes 
had  with  one  another,  and  were  also  subject  to  the  results- 


Sec.  Ill]  ROBERT  CLIVE  AND  WARREN  HASTINGS.   I  59 


Clives  First 
Period. 


of  political  conflicts  in  Europe.     And  so  in  one  way  or 
another  they  had  gained  a  footing  in  the  country. 

The  circumstances   under  which  the  English  and 
French  were  ranged  against  each  other 
in  the  First  Karnatic  War  have  already 
been  explained  ;  and  the  results  of  that 

war  will  be  remember- 
ed. Dupleix  and  Clive 
took  part  in  the  strug- 
gle. When  Paradis 
took  Madras,  in  1746, 
Clive  was  there,  as  also 
in  the  campaign  by 
which  the  English  at- 
tempted to  restore  the 
King  of  Tanjore  to  the 
throne  of  which  the 
French  had  deprived 
him.  He  was  like- 
wise present  in  the 
army  that  resisted 
Dupleix  before  Trich- 
inopoli.  Hitherto,  as 
Robert  Ciive.  Occasion        demanded, 

Clive  had  passed  from  the  chair  in  his  office  to  the  battle- 
field ;  but  now,  1 75 1,  he  finally  resigned  his  clerkship, 
and  entered  the  army.  It  was  at  this  time,  while  the 
French  were  threatening  Trichinopoli  in  the  Second  Kar- 
natic War,  that  he  restored  the  prestige  of  the  Company 
by  capturing  Arcot.  His  next  achievement  was  to  win 
the  Battle  of  Sriramgaon,  1752,  after  which  the  French 
surrendered  at  Trichinopoli,  and  Cauda  Sahib  was  killed 
at  the  gates  of  his  palace.  Clive's  health  now  broke 
down,  and  he  had  to  return  to  England ;  but  he  went 
with  the  satisfaction  of  knowing  that  but  for  him  Dupleix 
would  have  founded  a  French  Empire  in  Southern 
India.  , 

The  year  1755  saw  Clive  back    as   Governor   and 


l60  HISTORY   OF   INDIA, 

,  Commander  of  Fort   St.  George,   with 

and^  ^Hastfng's  succession  to  the  governorship  of  Madras. 
First  Period.  At  that  time  war  with  France  was 
proceeding,  and  he  was  on  the  point  of 
wresting  the  Deccan  from  French  influence,  when  peace 
was  concluded  in  Europe,  and  hostilities  in  India  had  to 
be  dropped.  And  it  was  just  as  well,  for  Bengal  demanded 
the  immediate  services  of  Clive.  In  1750,  a  young  clerk 
had  come  to  Calcutta  * — Warren  Hastings.  For  the 
superior  parts  that  he  exhibited,  he  was  posted,  in  1753, 
to  Kasimbazar,  near  Murshidabad,  the  capital  of  Bengal. 
Three  years  later  Ali  Vardi  Khan,  the  Nawab  of  Bengal, 
Bihar,  and  Orissa,  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  grand- 
son, Siraj-ud-daulah.  This  young  man  picked  a  quarrel 
with  the  English,  suddenly  seized  their  factory  at  Kasim- 
bazar, and  marched  his  prisoners — Hastings  among 
them— to  Murshidabad.  He  then  moved  against  Cal- 
cutta, whence  most  of  the  English  factors  including 
Drake,  the  governor,  fled  for  safety  to  the  ships  on  the 
river.     The  city  and  its  fort  fell  before  the  Nawab,  who 


*  Early  History  of  Calcutta.— it  will  be  remembered  that  in 
1656  the  Nawab  of  Bengal  made  a  gift  of  Hugliin  Bengal  to  the  Company. 
Here  they  established  a  factory  ;  hut  in  1686,  owing  to  the  oppression  of 
the  Mughal  authorities,  they  abandoned  Hughli,  and  migrated  to  the  village 
of  Sutanti,  26  miles  lower  down  the  river.  Four  years  later  the  Emperor 
Aurangzeb,  made  them  a  grant  of  land  there,  and  permitted  them  to  acquire 
the  two  neighbouring  villages  of  Kalikata  and  Govindpur.  And  soil  came 
about  that  Job  Charnock,  the  President,  on  this  site  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  present  city  of  Calcutta.  In  1698,  permission  having  been  obtained 
to  put  the  settlement  in  a  state  of  defence,  a  fort  was  built.  The  town 
.steadily  grew  in  commercial  importance,  and  Portuguese,  Armenian, 
Mughal  and  Hindu  traders  began  to  reside  in  it.  Till  1707  its  aftairs  were 
managed  from  Madras,  but  in  that  year  it  was  made  an  independent 
Presidency.  In  1715  Dr.  Hamilton,  of  the  Company's  Service,  cured  the 
Emperor  Farukhsiyar  of  a  serious  malady,  and  the  grateful  Monarch  gave 
the  English  permission  to  purchase  38  villages  on  either  side  of  the  river, 
ten  miles  south  of  Calcutta  In  1742  there  was  a  scare  that  the  Marathas 
were  planning  an  attack  on  the  city,  ami  the  native  inhabitants  dug  a  ditch 
round  a  portion  of  the  Company's  boundaries  as  a  protection.  In  175'^» 
when  Warren  Hastings  first  came  to  India,  Mr.  Barwell  was  governor  of 
the  City.  In  1752  he  was  succeeded  by  Mr.  Drake — mentior  of  whom 
brings  us  to  the  stirring  times  now  being  chronicled. 


Sec.  Ill]  ROBERT  CLIVE  AND  WARREN  HASTINGS.    l6l 

demanded  the  money  in  the  Company's  Treasury.    Fail- 
ing in  his  attempts  to  find  where  the  money  was  secreted, 
he  permitted  146  English  prisoners  to  be  shut  up  in  a  small 
dungeon,  ever  since  known  in  history  as  the  Black  Hole. 
It  was  the  month  of  June,  and,  as  might 
have  been  expected,  when  next  morning         yioie    1756 
the  only   door  to  the  room  was  opened 
but  2^  of  the  victims  were  dragged  out  alive.     Among 
the  survivors  was  Holwell  w^ho,  in  the  absence  of  Drake, 
had  assumed  the  head  of  affairs.     He  was  put  in  irons, 
and  conveyed  to  Murshidabad.     Clive  was  at  Madras 
when  news  came  oi  this  calamity  in   Bengal.     Forth- 
with he  and  Admiral  Watson  were  despatched  to  take 
vengeance  ;  but  they  did  not  reach  Bengal  till  December. 
Watson  demanded  from  Siraj-ud-daulah  compensation 
for  the  losses  that  had  been   inflicted  on  the  English  ; 
but  he  remained  defiant.     So  the  army  of  retribution 
retook    Calcutta,    and  captured  the  French   town    of 
Chandarnagar — for  the  double  reason  that   the  Seven 
Years'  War  was  going  on  in  Europe  with  the  English 
and  the   French  on  opposite   sides,  and  that  the  latter 
had  become   the  allies  of  the  Nawab.     Meanwhile  this 
ruler  was  not  without  secret  enemies.    His  commander- 
in-chief,  Mir  Muhammad  Jafar,  entered  into  league  with 
the  English  who  promised  to  put  him  on  the  throne  of 
Murshidabad.   This  arrangement  had  been  made  through 
the   agency   of    Umachand   (Amin    or 
Amir  Chand),  a   wealthy  merchant  of  Umaehand. 

Calcutta.  But  at  the  last  moment  Uma- 
chand threatened  to  reveal  the  secret  to  Siraj-ud-daulah, 
unless  a  sum  of  20  lakhs  were  paid  him.  The  position 
in  which  Clive  found  himself  was  most  critical.  He 
resolved  to  fight  the  blackmailer  with  his  own  weapon, 
and  thus  was  led  to  the  questionable  act  of  palming  off 
on  Umachand  a  false  document  which  promised  him  the 
hush-money  he  demanded.  The  Company's  army  then 
marched  on,  and  met  the  troops  of  Siraj-ud-daulah  at 
Plassey*,  There  the  historic  Battle  of  Plassey  was  fought 


1 62  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

p,  on  the   23rd  June,   1757,  and  Siraj-ud- 

Re?ults.    ns?!    "^^"^^^^  fl^d  from  the  field— outmatched 

by  the  daring  of  Clive,  and  betrayed  by 
the  treachery  of  his  own  commander-in-chief.  For,  as 
the  result  of  the  battle  began  to  declare  itself,  Mir  Jafar 
withdrew  his  followers  and  went  over  to  the  enemy. 
The  English  were  now  supreme  in  Bengal,  Bihar,  and 
Orissa,  and  Mir  Jafar  became  the  Nawab  at  Murshidabad. 
For  his  elevation  he  ceded  to  the  English  all  the  lands 
south  of  Calcutta,  delivered  into  the  hands  of  his  patrons 
all  the  French  factories  in  Bengal,  and  paid  one  crore 
of  rupees  to  the  Company.  Of  Siraj-ud-daulah  it  only 
remains  to  relate  that  he  fled  from  Plassey  to  Rajmahal; 
that  he  was  there  captured,  and  brought  down  to  Mir 
Jafar,  who  pitilessly  put  him  to  death. 

Clive  was  now  free  to  turn  his  attention  to  the 
French,  who,  taking  advantage  of  his 
Coote  and  Lally.  absence  in  Bengal,  had  under  Lally, 
captured  Fort  St.  David  and  Arcot,  and  were  besieging 
Madras.  Colonels  Forde  and  Coote  were  despatched 
from  Bengal,  and,  defeating  the  French  in  several  engage- 
ments, gained  possession  of  the  Northern  Circars.  The 
Subahdar  of  the  Deccan,  too,  threw  over  the  French,, 
and  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  English. 

While  these  events  were  transpiring  in  the  south,. 

Mir  Jafar  began  to  realise  that  he  had 
Mir  Jafap.  promised  what  he  could  not  fulfil.     In 

paying  the  price  of  his  nawabship  he 
had  exhausted  his  treasury,  and  he  could  see  no  way  of 
replenishing  it.  The  recurring  demands  for  money 
which  he  made  on  his  wealthy  subjects  drove  them 
into  discontent,  so  much  so,  indeed,  that  the  Raja  of 
Purnia  and  the  Governor  of  Bihar  went  into  open  rebel- 
lion. Nor  were  his  difficulties  decreased  by  a  threatened 
invasion  of  Bengal  by  the  Nawab  Wazir  of  Oudh,  and  by  a 
son  of  Shah  Alam  of  Delhi.  In  his  heart  of  hearts,  Mir 
Jafar  longed  to  rid  himself  of  his  dependence  upon  the 
English,  but  the  present  stress  of  circumstances  obliged 


Sec.  Ill]  ROBERT  CLIVE  AND  WARREN  HASTINGS.    1 63 

him  to  apply  to  them  for  help  against  his  mutinous 
vassals.  Clive  accordingly  led  an  army  to  Patna,  the 
capital  of  Bihar,  and  entered  the  city  in  triumph  (1759). 
While  he  was  thus  engaged,  Mir  Jafar  took  advantage 
of  a  war  between  the  English  and  the  Dutch  in  Europe, 
and  prevailed  upon  the  latter  to  assist  him  in  getting 
free  of  his  bondage  to  the  Company.  The  Dutch  were 
only  too  willing  to  engage  in  hostilities  with  their 
country's  enemy  ;  but  they  were  easil}^  routed  at  Biderra, 
near  Chinsurah,  and  Mir  Jafar  found  himself  in  a  worse 
plight  than  before.  Never  again  did  the  Dutch  disturb 
the  tranquillity  of  India.  Clive  at  this  time,  1760,  went 
to  England  for  a  second  time,  and  left  Mr.  Holwell, 
Governor  of  Calcutta,  in  charge  until  Mr.  Vansittart 
arrived  to  dictate  terms  to  Mir  Jafar.  The  latter,  in 
despair,  resigned  his  nawabship,  and  was  removed  to  a 
suburb  of  Calcutta,  while  his  son-in-law,  Mir  Kasim  AH, 
was  elevated  to  the  vacant  office.  He  contracted  to 
pay  off  the  debts  of  his  father-in-law,  to  endow  the 
Company  with  the  revenues  of  Burdwan,  Midnapur, 
and  Chittagong,  and  to  contribute  five  lakhs  towards  the 
expenses  of  the  war  in  the  Karnatic.  Hastings,  who 
was  stationed  at  Murshidabad  during  these  years,  ren- 
dered valuable  service  in  putting  these  negotiations 
through,  and  he  was  rewarded  with  a  seat  in  the 
Calcutta  Council. 

Mir   Kasim  was   an   upright   and   firm   ruler,    and 
.  as  he  had  undertaken  heavy  monetary 

K-asim.  responsibilities,  he   was  determined  to 

improve  his  revenue  by  all  lawful  means.  His  efforts 
to  do  so  brought  him  into  conflict  with  the  Company. 
The  Company  was  exempted  from  all  tolls  and  transit 
duties  on  articles  of  commerce.  But  it  was  never  intend- 
ed that  the  private  trade  of  the  Company's  servants 
should  escape  taxation  as  it  was  doing.  He,  therefore, 
brought  the  personal  trade  of  Englishmen  under  the 
same  rates  as  those  levied  on  every  other  trader.  But 
he  was  deprived  of  his  dues  by  what  he  considered  the 


164  HISTORY    OF   INDIA. 

dishonesty  of  English  traders,  who  hoisted  the  Com- 
pany's flag  to  protect  there  private  trade  from  taxation. 
This  practice  told  against  other  traders  who  could  not 
escape  the  transit  duties,  and  Mir  Kasim  felt,  that  the 
only  thing  he  could  do  under  the  circumstances  was  to 
abolish  all  tolls  and  taxes  on  commerce.  This  he 
accordingly  did.  The  Calcutta  Council  protested ;  but 
the  Nawab  remained  firm.  The  relation  between 
him  and  the  English  became  more  and  more  strained, 
till  finally  war  was  declared  (1763).  The  English  took 
Patna,  which  the  Nawab  speedily  recovered,  massacring 
the  English  whom  he  found  there.  The  Company's 
troops  then  defeated  the  Nawab  at  Geriah,  and  captured 
Monghyr.  Major  Adams  presently  retook  Patna,  and 
Mir  Kasim  fled  for  protection  to  his  late  enemy,  Shuja-ud- 
daulah,  the  Nawab  Wazir  of  Oudh,  with  whom  the 
homeless  emperor,  Shah  Alam,  also  was  finding  shelter. 
By  this  act  he  was  considered  to  have  vacated  the 
nawabship  of  Bengal,  and  Mir  Jafar  was  reinstated 
on  promising  to  reimpose  all  the  old  transit  duties  against 
his  own  subjects,  and  to  pay  large  sums  of  money  into 
the  Company's  treasury.  The  war  against  Mir  Kasim 
continued.  He  and  his  allies  were  finally  beaten  at  the 
Battle  of  Buxar,  1764,  and  Allahabad  was  taken.  Shuja- 
ud-daulah's  hopes  of  making  conquests  were  now  forever 
extinguished,  and  the  hapless  Shah  Alam  threw  himself 
on  the  mercy  of  the  victors.  In  the  following  year 
Clive  returned,  and  the  Nawab  Wazir  was  obliged  to 
sue  for  peace,  for  Oudh  was  overrun  by  the  Company's 
troops.  The  terms  to  which  Shah  Alam  had  to  agree 
were  that  Chunar  should  become  a  British  possession, 
and  that  the  provinces  of  Kora  and  Allahabad,  should 
be  administered  for  him  by  the  Company,  who  were 
also  to  receive  from  him  a  sum  of  fifty  lakhs.  Moreover, 
the  whole  of  Bengal,  Bihar,  and  Orissa  were  to  be  given 
to  the  English  in  return  for  an  annual  tribute  of  twent)'- 
six  lakhs. 

While  these  arrangements  were  proceeding, -Hastings 


Sec.  Ill]  ROBERT  CLIVE  AND  WARREN  HASTINGS.    1 65 

went    to    England  :    but     as     already 
stated  Clive  had  come  back  as  governor       pepU)d    1765 
of  Calcutta,  to  the  scene  of  his  former 
labours  and  triumphs.  This  was  his  third  stay  in  India^ 
and  he  devoted  it  to  the  introduction  of  several  impor- 
tant reforms.     After  remodelling  the  army,  he  restricted 
the  private  trade  of  the  Company's  servants.     To  com- 
pensate them  for  it,  and  to  remove  from  them  all  tempta- 
tion to  receive  bribes,  he  proposed  to  increase   their 
salaries;   but  this  the   Court  of  Directors   would    not 
sanction. 

When   Mir  Jafar  died  in    1765,  Clive  setup  that 
nawab's   son,   Najm-ud-daulah,   in   his   place,   but   the 
conditions  under  which  he  ruled  were  greatly  altered. 
He  was  to  exercise  only  the  powers  of  Nizam,  and  to 
be  responsible  for  the  peace  of  the  three  provinces  of 
Bengal,   Bihar,   and   Orissa  ;  for   the  administration  of 
justice  in  the  courts  ;  and  for  the  enforce- 
ment of  obedience  to  law.   The  Company    ofGovernmSit. 
reserved   to   itself  the   Diwani  of  the 
provinces,  that  is  to  say,  its  business  would  be  to  collect 
the  revenues,  make  all  payments,  and  remit  the  surplus 
to  its  own  treasury.     This  Dual  System  of  Government 
did  not  work    very  long,  for    Najm-ud-daulah   ceded 
his  Nizamat,  and  was  content  to  be  a  cypher  in  return 
for  an  annual  allowance. 

The  arduous  toils  of  the  years  1765  and  1766 
completed  the  ruin  of  Clive's  health,  and,  having  accom- 
plished his  life's  work,  he  left  the  service  of  the  Company, 
and  returned  to  England  in  1767.  Here  his  health  never 
returned;  and  eventually,  in  1774,  he  put  an  end  to 
himself. 

While  Clive  and  Warren  Hastings  were  away  from 
India,  fresh  complications  took  place  in 
Southern  India,  where   Muhammad  Ali   p.^^^  Mysore 
was  Nawab  of  the  Karnatic,  Nazir  Ali   war,  1767-1769, 
was  Nizafn  of  the  Deccan,  and  Haidar 
Ali  was  Sultan  of  Mysore.    In  1 767  the  Marathas  invaded 


1 66  HISTORY   OF    INDIA. 

Mysore,  *  and  were  bought  off  by  Haidar  Ali,  who 
was  now  joined  by  the  Nizam,  an  ally  ot  the  English, 
who  had  contracted  to  assist  him  against  his  enemies. 
Accordingly,  Colonel  Smith  was  sent  to  support  him ; 
but  he  treacherously  turned  upon  the  English  army. 
He  was  soon  driven  to  sue  for  peace;  but  Haidar 
Ali  had  still  to  be  taken  into  account.  He  pressed 
Madras  so  hard,  that,  in  1769,  the  English  signed 
an  inglorious  treaty  by  which  they  pledged  them- 
selves in  future  to  fight  for  the  Sultan,  when  he  was 
engaged  in  war.  But  it  soon  appeared  that  they 
had  made  a  rash  promise;  for  in  1770,  the  Marathas 
again  invaded  Mysore  to  recover  tribute  that  had  not 
been  paid  to  the  Peshwa,  and  were  assisted  by  Muham- 
mad Ali,  the  Nawab  of  the  Karnatic.  Now,  this  Nawab 
was  a  vassal  of  the  English,  and  if  they  joined  Haidar 
Ali  against  the  Marathas  it  meant  that  they  must  fight 
against  their  ally.  This  they  felt  Ihey  could  not  do, 
and  so  they  did  not  aid  the  Sultan  against  the  Marathas. 
The  result  was  that  the  invaders  appropriated  half  of 
Mysore,  and  Haidar  Ali  never  forgave  the  English  for 
failing  him  in  the  hour  of  his  need. 

In  the  previous  year  Hastings  had  returned  to  India 
as  a  member  of  the  Madras  Council.  In  1771,  how- 
ever,   he    was    sent   to    Calcutta,    where  Verelst   had 


*The  kingdom  of  Mysore  has  been  frequently  mentioned,  and  it  has 
been  seen  that  it  was  ruled  over  by  Hindu  kings.  In  1731  Dud  Kishen 
died,  and  imprisoning  his  successor  Chama  Raj,  his  two  ministers  Deva 
Raj  and  Nanja  Raj  usurped  all  power.  Among  llie  soldiers  of  Nanja  Raj 
was  one  Haidar  Saheb  or  Haidar  Ali,  whose  ance.-lors  came  frum  the 
Punjal).  By  his  talents  he  worked  his  way  up  to  the  command  of  an  inde- 
pendent corps,  and  when  later  on  territories  were  assigned  to  him,  his  am- 
bition became  so  grent  that,  displat  ing  his  patron,  Nanja  Raj,  in  1760,  he 
took  possession  of  all  Mysore,  ascended  its  throne,  and  continued  the 
imprisonment  of  Chama  Raj.  When  hi-;  son,  Tipu,  succeeded  him,  he  abol- 
ished the  farce  of  a  pageant  ruler  by  reducing  Krishna  Raj  VVadiar, 
Chama  Raj's  son  to  beggary',  and  removing  him  and  his  relations  to  a 
miseralile  hovel  outside  the  city.  Here  they  were  found  when  Seringa- 
patani  fell  before  the  Knglish,  in  1779,  and  the  exile  prince  was  taken  under 
the  protection  of  the  British,  and  restored  to  the  throne  of  Mysore. 


Sec.  Ill]  ROBERT  CLIVE  AND  WARREN  HASTINGS.     1 67 


Easting's  Se- 
cond Period. 
His  Financial 
Revenue,  and 
Judicial  Re- 
forms. 


been  succeeded  by  Cartier  as  governor. 
On  assuming  the  governorship  of 
Calcutta,  he  immediately  carried  out 
the  instructions  which  he  had  received 
from  the  Directors  of  the  East  India 
Company,  and  proceeded  to  take  over 
Bengal  and  Bihar  absolutely,  and  to  abolish  the  shadow 
of  power  which  was  all  that  now  belonged  to  the  Nawab 
of  Murshidabad.  These  provinces,  accordingly,  passed 
mto  the  actual  possession  of  the  English,  and  parcels  of 
land  were  farmed  out  to  men  of  means  for  a  fixed  annual 
rental.  This  was  the  origin  of  the  Zemindars  of  Bengal  and 
Bihar.  Hastings  also  removed  the  Company's  exchequer 
from  Murshihabad  to  Calcutta.  He  appointed  European 
officers,  under  the  now  familiar  designation  of  Collectors 
to  superintend  the  ' 

collection  of  reve- 
nue, and  to  preside 
over  the  courts  of 
justice,  which  he  es- 
tablished in  every 
district.  Appeals 
from  these  criminal 
and  civil  courts  lay 
to  theSadarDiwani 
Adalat  or  Chief 
Civil  Court  at 
Calcutta,  where  also 
the  Sardar  Nizamat 
Adalat,  or  Chief 
Criminal  Court,  was 
founded.  For  the 
administration  of 
justice,  Hindu  and 
Muhammadan  laws 
were  codified.  Law- 
lessness o^all  kinds, 
including  ^dakaiti,    was  firmly    put    down.      By  these 


Warren  Hastings. 


1 68  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

measures  Hastings  laid  the  foundations  of  righteous 
rule  over  the  lands  which  Clive's  sword  had  won. 

We  saw  that,  as  a  result  of  the  Battle  of  Buxar,  in 
1 764,  Shuja-ud-daulah,  Nawab  Wazir  of  Oudh,  made  over 
the  districts  of  Kora  and  Allahabad  to  Shah  Alam,  and  it 
was  agreed  that  the  English  should  hold  them  in  his  favour^ 
and  pay  him  annually  twenty-six  lakhs  for  Bengal,  Bihar, 
and  Orissa.  But  when  the  Marathas 
War  ^1772^^         entered  Delhi,  in  1770,  Shah  Alam  ac- 

'         '  cepted  their  offer  to  restore  him  to  the 

throne  of  the  Mughals,  and  he  transferred  to  them 
the  districts  of  Kora  and  Allahabad  which  Clive  had 
restored  to  him,  in  1765.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  when  he 
went  to  Delhi,  he  found  that  he  was  a  prisoner,  and 
Hastings,  therefore,  felt  himself  justified  in  refusing  to 
continue  to  him  the  twenty-six  lakhs  for  Bengal,  Bihar 
and  Orissa,  and  further  in  making  over,  through  ihe  Treaty 
of  Benares,  1772,  Kora  and  AllahalDad  to  the  Nawab 
Wazir  of  Oudh.  In  this  same  year  the  Marathas  invad- 
ed Rohilkhand.  The  Nawab  Wazir  of  Oudh  and  the 
English  joined  hands  to  help  the  Rohillas  against  their 
oppressors.  The  Marathas  were  driven  beyond  the 
Ganges,  and  the  Rohillas  were  rescued  from  danger. 
But  now,  instead  of  paying  the  Nawab  Wazir  the  money 
agreed  upon  as  the  price  of  his  help,  they  entered  into 
negotiations  with  the  Marathas  themselves.  A  com- 
bination between  the  two  endangered  Oudh  and  Bengal, 
and  to  Hastings  it  appeared  that  the  only  alternative 
was  to  conquer  Rohilkhand,  whose  chiefs  had  broken 
faith  with  their  allies.  So  the  Nawab  Wazir  entered 
Rohilkhand,  and  with  the  assistance  of  the  Company's 
troops  defeated  the  Rohillas  at  Katra,  1774,  and  Rohil- 
khand changed  masters. 

These  and  other  similar  matters  made  it  quite  clear 
that  the  East  India  Company  was  some- 
thing  more  than  a  mere  body  of  traders.    Jf  rJ?!. 
It  was  to  be  included  among  the  ruling 
powers  of  the  land  ;  and  it  was  proper  that  the  English 


Sec.  Ill]  ROBERT  CLIVE  AND  WARREN  HASTINGS.    1 69 

Parliament  should  control  its  political  affairs.  Accordingly 
the  Regulating  Act  of  1773  was  passed.  It  established 
the  High  Court  of  Calcutta,  as  the  supreme  court  for  all 
India.  The  Governor  of  Calcutta  was  made  Governor- 
General,  and  was  to  direct  the  Company's  affairs  at 
Bombay  and  Madras,  with  the  assistance  of  a  Council  of 
four  members.  In  practice,  however,  the  Act  did  not 
work  well,  and  Hastings  found  himself  thwarted  at 
every  turn  by  Philip  Francis,  a  member  of  his  Council, 
and  his  bitter  enemy.  Francis  and  two  other  members 
formed  a  perpetual  majority,  and  did  all  they  could  to 
insult  and  humiliate  Hastings  by  opposing  him  in  every 
matter.  For  instance,  when  Shuja-ud-daulah,  Nawab 
Wazir  of  Oudh,  died,  he  left  the  province  to  his  son,  Asaf- 
ud-daulah.  The  Company  was  in  honour  bound  to 
continue  to  him  the  terms  which  had  been  settled  by 
treaty  with  his  father.  But  in  spite  of  Hastings'  pro- 
tests, the  Francis  majority  in  Council,  revised  those 
terms,  and  imposed  harder  ones  on  him. 
He  was  compelled  to  pay  off  his  father's  ^^^^p"^:?|Hl^{} 
debts  to  the  Company  ;  to  increase,  by  ojprested  by 
50,ooorupees,the  monthly  subsidy  for  the  the  Council. 
British  garrison  in  Oudh  ;  and  to  agree 
that  the  revenues  of  Benares  should  be  paid  direct  by  his 
vassal,  Chait  Singh,  to  the  English  and  not  through  him. 
Now,  this  was  altogether  unfair  ;  for  Chait  Singh's  grand- 
father had  acquired  his  property  under  the  Mughals,  and 
was  a  vassal  of  the  Nawab  Wazir  of  Oudh,  and  an  ally 
of  the  English,  inasmuch  as  he  was  under  promise  to 
assist  the  Company  with  troops  in  time  of  need.  But 
more  than  this,  Hastings'  protests  notwithstanding,  the 
Philip  Francis  majority  permitted  Asaf-ud-daulah's  mo- 
ther and  grandmother,  the  Begums  of  Oudh,  to  appro- 
priate about  two  crores  of  rupees,  which  Shuja-ud-daulah 
had  left  in  his  treasury.  They  already  had  large  and 
valuable  estates,  and  by  Muhammadan  law  they  had  no 
right  to  Shuja-ud-daulah's  treasure.  While  Hastings  was 
figh'ting;  for  a  just   cause,    his  personal  enemy,  Nanda 


I/O  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

Kumar,  accused  him  before  his  Council  of  various  acts 
of  fraud,  oppression,  and  corruption.  Hastings  refused 
to  be  judged  by  his  Council,  and  referred  the  matter 
to  the  Board  of  Directors.  But  Nanda  «  h  c 
Kumar  fell  into  the  pit  which  he  had  dug  ^^^^^  Kumar. 
for  Hastings.  He  was  found  guilty  by  the  Supreme  Court 
at  Calcutta  of  obtaining  a  large  sum  of  money  from  the 
estate  of  a  dead  man  by  means  of  a  forged  bond.  The 
punishment  for  forgery  was  death,  and  Nanda  Kumar 
was  sent  to  the  gallows.  It  was  maliciously  said  that 
Hastings  had  contrived  the  removal  of  a  man  dangerous 
to  him.  But  it  has  been  clearly  established  that  Hastings 
was  as  innocent  of  the  charges  brought  against  himself, 
as  he  was  unconnected  with  the  fate  of  Nanda  Kumar. 
It  will  be  remembered  that  in  1773,  the  Maratha 

Peshwa,  Narayan  Rao,  died,  and  his 
First  Maratha  uncle,  Raghunath  Rao  (or  Raghoba  as 
War,  1775.  he    is    commonly    called)    was    made 

Peshwa.  But  Nana  Farnavis  produced 
a  posthumous  son  of  Narayan  Rao,  and  determined  to 
secure  the  peshwaship  to  him,  under  the  name  of  Madhu 
Rao  II.  The  various  Maratha  chiefs  thereupon  entered 
the  lists  on  opposite  sides,  and  civil  war  began.  Raghoba 
applied  for  help  to  the  English  at  Bombay,  and  without 
the  sanction  of  the  Governor-General,  by  the  Treaty  of 
Surat  they  agreed  to  assist  him,  if  he  would  give  them 
Bassein  and  Salsette.  This  he  reluctantly  promised  to  do. 
Although  Hastings  thought  differently,  the  Court  of  Direc- 
tors approved  of  the  Treaty  of  Surat ;  and  so  began  the 
First  Maratha  War.  With  ill-judged  haste  the  Bomba}^ 
army  marched  against  Poona  ;  but  it  was  hemmed  in  by 
the  troops  of  Nana  Farnavis,  and  had  to  retreat  to 
Wargaon.  Here  a  Convention  was  signed,  by  which  the 
English  restored  to  the  Peshwa  all  that  they  had  won  in 
Western  India  since  1765.  Meanwhile,  Raghoba  had 
taken  shelter  with  the  English  at  Surat.  Nana  Farnavis 
demanded  his  surrender,  and  taking  advantage  of  the 
known  hatred  which  Haidar  All,  Sultan  of  Mysore,  bore 


Sec.  Ill]  ROBERT  CLIVE  AND  WARREN  HASTINGS.  I71 

to  the  English,  he  instigated  the  Sultan  to  enter  upon 
hostilities  against  them.  To  do  this  Haidar  Ali  readily 
consented.  Thus  the  Company  was  embroiled 
in  practically  two  wars — one  in  the  west  against  the 
Marathas,  and  one  in  the  south  against  Mysore.  The 
disgrace  that  had  befallen  the  British  at  Wagaon, 
urged  Hastings  to  push  the  war  on  in  earnest  with  the 
Marathas,  and  Colonel  Goddard,  after  a  brilliant  march 
across  the  peninsula,  took  Ahmadabad,  defeated  Sindhia 
and  Holkar,  and  captured  Bassein,  while  Captain 
Pophan  reduced  the  rock-perched  fortress  of  Gwaliar. 
The  Marathas  now  suffered  a  series  of  defeats,  and  were 
ready  to  accept  terms.  Accordingly  the  Treaty  of 
Salbai  was  signed  by  Sindhia  and  his  party,  1782. 
By  it  the  Marathas  undertook  never  more  to  enter 
into  alliance  with  the  French  ;  to  permit  no  nation  other 
than  the  English,  to  trade  in  their  territories  ;  and  to  give 
Raghoba  a  pension  of  four  lakhs  a  year.  The  English 
acknowledged  Madhu  Rao  II  as  Peshwa,  but  retained 
Gwaliar,  and  restored  Bassein  and  Gujarat  to  the  infant 
Peshwa,  for  whom  Nana  Farnavis  had  fought.  Thus 
ended  the  First  Maratha  War. 

Freed  from  the  struggle  with  the  Marathas,  Hastings 
was  now  able  to  give  all  his  attention  to  the  war 
in  the  south.  Its  immediate  cause  was 
that  against  the  remonstrance  of  Haidar  wap,"l78a  ^°^^ 
Ali,  the  English  had  captured  Mahe ; 
a  French  possession  in  Mysore.  Haidar  Ali  was  long- 
ing for  an  opportunity  to  take  revenge  upon  the 
English,  for  allowing  him  to  be  deprived  of  half  of  his 
kingdom  by  the  Marathas,  in  spite  of  the  promise 
they  had  made  him  in  the  Treaty  of  Madras.  So, 
joined  by  the  French,  and  encouraged  by  the  Mara- 
thas, he  suddenly  raided  the  Karnatic,  captured  Arcot, 
and  appeared  within  nine  miles  of  Madras,  while 
his  son,  Tipu,  laid  siege  to  Wandiwash.  Meanwhile 
Colonel  Baillie  was  severely  defeated  at  Conjeve- 
ram*.^'*Poote,  however,  soon  came  to  the  rescue  from 


172  HISTORY    OF   INDIA. 

Bengal,  and  having  worsted  Haidar's  army,  near  Porto 
Novo,  went  to  the  aid  of  Madras.  Alarmed  by  the 
arrival  of  British  reinforcements,  Tipu  raised  the  siege  of 
Wandivvash  ;  and  the  prospects  of  the  Company  still 
further  improved  by  their  victory  at  Shalingarh.  But 
a  new  diversion  was  caused  by  a  war  breaking  out  m 
Europe,  in  which  England  fought  against  Holland  and 
France.  It  spread  to  India,  where  the  Dutch  and  the 
French  offered  assistance  to  Haidar  Ali,  with  the  result 
that  the  field  had  to  be  taken  against  them.  In  1781, 
Negapatam  and  Trincomali  were  taken  from  the  Dutch, 
but  in  the  following  year,  they  regained  Trincomali  and 
Cuddalore.  Haidar  Ah  now  died  at  Chittur,  and  in  his 
turban — so  it  was  said — was  found  a  paper  in  which  he 
directed  his  son,  Tipu,  to  make  peace  with  the  English. 
But  if  the  Marathas  had  laid  aside  their  arms  because  of 
the  Treaty  of  Salbai,  the  French  were  still  waging  war; 
and  Tipu  determined  to  fight  on  with  their  help.  As  has 
been  elsewhere  related,  Bussy  commanded  the  French 
forces,  and  several  battles  were  fought  with  varying  re- 
sults, till  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  terminated  the  warfare 
between  the  Enghsh  and  the  French.  Though  left 
alone,  Tipu  did  not  yield  till  Mangalore  was  taken  from 
him.  Then  he  signed  a  treaty  at  that  place,  and  each 
side  had  its  former  possessions  restored. 

The  Treaties  of  Salbai  and  Mangalore  mark  an  era 
in  Indian  history.  Single-handed  the  English  had  tri- 
umphed over  the  combined  armies  of  the  Marathas,  the 
French,  the  Dutch,  and  Haidar  Ali.  This  finally  estab- 
lished their  superiority.  The  surrounding  powers  saw 
that  a  quarrel  with  the  English  would  plunge  them  into 
a  costly  war,  and  that  the  probabilities  of  success  were 
against  themselves.  The  Marathas,  too,  realised  that  it 
was  vain  to  endeavour  to  build  a  Hindu  Empire  on  the 
ruins  of  the  dominions  of  the  Great  Mughal. 

But  the  prolonged  wars  by  which  this  prestige  was 
won,  had  emptied  the  Company's  treasury.  The  pro- 
prietors of  the  Company  grumbled  at  heavy  exneniiiture 


Sec.  Ill]    ROBERT  CI.IVE  AND  WARREN  HASTINGS.  173 

and  no  profits,  and  Hastings  began  to  Hastings's  Deal- 
look  about  for  means  whereby  to  re-  ings  with  Chait 
plenish  the  Company's  coffers.  It  Singh  and  the 
seemed  to  him  that  Raja  Cbait  Singh  of  Begumsof  Oudh. 
Benares  and  the  Begums  of  Oudh  had  behaved  in  such 
a  way  during  the  recent  wars  as  to  justify  him  in 
punishing  them  with  heavy  fines.  The  conditions  under 
which  Chait  Singh  ruled  from  1775,  have  already  been 
stated.  From  that  date  his  vassalage  had  been  to  the 
Enghsh,  and  not  to  the  Nawab  Wazir  of  Oudh.  He  had, 
moreover,  bound  himself  to  supply  the  English,  in  times 
of  pressing  need  with  money  and  men.  During  the  late 
wars  with  the  Marathas  and  Haidar  Ali,  Hastings 
had  called  upon  him  to  send  some  troops.  He  had 
sent  none.  Were  his  breach  of  faith  to  be  allowed  to 
pass  unvisited,  other  tributary  chiefs  might  follow  his 
example.  This  was  obviously  a  serious  matter  ;  and 
after  some  parle3nng,  Hastings  imposed  a  fine  of  50  lakhs 
on  him.  Chait  Singh  hesitated  ;  Hastings  proceeded  to 
Benares  to  exact  the  penalty  ;  and  Chait  Singh  was  made 
a  prisoner  in  his  own  palace.  He,  however,  managed  to 
escape  to  Ramnagar,  and  put  himself  at  the  head  of  an 
army,  part  of  which  had  been  sent  him  by  the  Begums  of 
Oudh.  He  was  encountered  by  Popham  at  Bijaigarh,  and 
defeated.  But  Popham's  soldiers  looted  all  the  treasure 
they  found,  and  Hastings  therefore  gained  nothing  for 
the  Company.  However,  the  province  of  Benares  was 
given  to  Chait  Singh's  nephew  on  the  condition  that  the 
revenue  which  his  uncle  had  been  accustomed  to  pay 
the  Company  was  to  be  doubled. 

It  has  already  been  related  that  the  Begums  of 
Oudh  had,  with  the  consent  of  the  Council,  but  against 
law,  and  against  Hastings'  wish,  possessed  themselves  of 
about  two  crores  of  rupees,  which  Shuja-ud-daulah  had 
left  on  his  death,  and  which  in  justice  belonged  to  Asaf- 
ud-daulah.  Deprived  of  nearly  half  his  patrimony  this 
prince"*Was  not  able  to  pay  his  dues  to  the  Company, 
indeed,  /ear  by  year  he  was  sinking  deeper  and  deeper 


174  HISTORY    OF   INDIA. 

into  the  Company's  debt.  He  reminded  Hastings  of 
the  circumstances  under  which  the  Begums  had  deprived 
him  of  his  birthright.  Left  to  Hastings  they  would 
never  have  had  the  money,  and  now  that  the  Francis 
majority  no  longer  hampered  him,  Hastings  was  willing 
to  undo  a  shameful  wrong.  Besides  this,  the  Begums 
had  assisted  Chait  Singh  in  his  rebellion,  and  it  was 
necessary  that  they  should  be  punished.  He  therefore 
signed  the  Treaty  of  Chunar  which  gave  Asaf-ud-daulah 
permission  to  resume  the  jagirs  of  the  Begums,  and  to 
recover  from  them  the  two  crores  of  rupees  of  which 
they  had  deprived  him.  The  Begums  did  not  meekly 
submit.  They  fought  against  Asaf-ud-daulah,  but  he 
prevailed,  and  in  addition  to  resuming  their  jagirs 
he  took  away  from  them  the  two  crores  of  rupees. 
Hastings,  however,  saw  that  they  were  provided  with 
liberal  pensions.  Asaf-ud-daulah  now  paid  his  debt  to 
the  Company. 

In  1784  Pitt's  India  Bill  was  passed  by  Parliament. 
Recognising  the  great  political  power 
Pitt's    India        ^-^^^  ^^ie  East  India   Company  had  be- 
come, it  was  now  put  under  the  direct 
control  of  a  Board  of  Ministers. 

Early  in  the  following  year  Hastings  laid  down  the 
reins  of  office  in  favour  of  Sir  John 
ISI'Jwopk.  Macpherson  and  returned  home  His 
career,  if  full  of  anxiety  and  toil,  had 
been  a  distinguished  one.  When  he  came  to  Bengal,  in 
1772,  he  found  the  province  in  disorder  and  distress. 
Lawlessness  prevailed  on  every  side ;  the  strong  ever 
oppressed  the  weak.  The  Nawab  of  Bengal's  officers 
and  the  servants  of  the  Company  plundered  the 
peasants,  and  had  no  respect  for  authority.  There 
was  no  proper  form  of  government.  Before  he  left 
these  shores  he  had  extended  the  influence,  the  prestige, 
and  the  honour  of  the  Company.  He  replaced  dis- 
order by  a  set  form  of  government  and  an  estaoifshed 
code   of  laws.       His    wisdom    and    foresight  were   so 


Sec.  Ill]  ROBERT  CLIVE  AND  WARREN  HASTINGS.   1 75 

great  that  it  may  in  truth  be  said  that  the  Indian 
Government  of  to-day  is  essentially  the  system  which 
he  introduced. 

But  he  was  not  honoured  as  he  deserved  to   be. 

His  many  enemies,  instigated  and  tutor- 
The  Impeach-  ed  by  men  like  Philip  Francis,  impeach- 
iS|s!^        "^^'    ed  him  before  the  House  of  Lords  for 

his  dealings  with  Chait  Singh  and  the 
Begums  of  Oudh,  and  for  the  Rohilla  War.  For  seven 
long  years  the  trial  lasted,  and  he  was  in  the  end 
honourably  acquitted  on  every  charge  that  his  enemies 
had  preferred  against  him.  For  a  century  his  fame 
has  been  tarnished  with  the  suspicion  that  he  was 
responsible  for  the  execution  of  Nanda  Kumar,  and  for 
all  the  misery  that  men  of  the  Francis  type  had  charged 
him  with  producing.  But  recent  investigation  has 
endorsed  his  acquittal  by  Parhament,  and  to-day  we 
remember  him  among  the  greatest  men  whom  England 
has  ever  sent  to  India.  It  is  true  that  the  expenses  of 
a  protracted  trial  ruined  him,  for  he  did  not  return  home 
as  many  others  did,  fabulously  rich.  But  before  he  died, 
in  18 1 8,  he  had  the  satisfaction  of  knowing  that  his 
nation  honoured  him.  For  when  he  was  80  years  old 
he  was  summoned  to  give  evidence  on  Indian  affairs 
before  the  House  of  Commons,  and  as  he  left  the 
House,  the  members  rose,  removed  their  hats,  and 
stood  in  silence. 


CHAPTER    Xll. 


The  Later  Period  of  the  Company  : 

The  Building  up  of  the  English  Empire  in   India, 
The  GovernorS'General  after  Hastings. 

1785—1^58  A.D. 

SIR  John  Macphepson,  1785-1786,— Sir  John  Mac- 
pherson  acted  as  Governor-General  for  twenty 
months;  but  nothing  of  any  importance  took  place 
while  he  managed  the  affairs  of  the  Company.  It  was, 
however,  very  evident  that  Tipu,  though  defeated,  was 
not  crushed,  and  that  he  was  only  waiting  for  something 
to  occur  that  would  give  him  an  excuse  for  declaring 
war  upon  the  English. 

Lord    Copnwallis,    1786-1793.— Lord   Comwallis 
His  Policy  came  to  India  with  the  determination  to 

adopt  a  policy  of  non-intervention  in  the 
affairs  of  native  states, 
and  thus  to  keep  out  of 
wars,  and  to  reform  the 
Company's  service.  It 
will  be  remembered  that 
both  Clive  and  Warren 
Hastings  tried  to  put 
down  bribery  and  private 
trade,  and  that  they  did 
not  meet  with  complete 
success.  Comwallis  took 
more  active  steps  to 
purify  the  service,  and 
though  he  made  himself 
unpopular  by  his  mea- 
sures, still  he  had  the 
satisfaction  of  pu.t^''^.g  an 
,     ,  „         ,,.  end    to    much    of    the 

Lord  Cornwalhs. 


CH.  XII]  GOVERNORS-GENERAL  AFTER  HASTINGS.   1 77 

bribery  and  corruption  that  had  hitherto  been  common 
in  the  Company's  service. 

As  has  been  said,  Tipu  Sultan  was  still  eager  for 
war,  and  so  he  made  an  unprovoked 
attack  on  the  Raja  of  Travancore,  The  Third  Mysore 
knowing  that  he  was  an  ally  of  the  War.  1790-1792. 
English.  Of  course  there  was  no 
help  for  it  but  to  take  up  the  cause  of  the  Raja ; 
and  so  began  the  Third  Mysore  War,  1 790-1 792.  The 
Nizam  of  Haidarabad  was  jealous  of  Tipu,  and  the 
Marathas  were  bitter  against  him  for  his  cruel  persecu- 


ft 


178  HISTORY    OF   INDIA. 

tion  of  Hindus  in  the  Deccan.  It  was,  therefore,  no 
difficult  matter  for  Cornwallis  to  gain  the  co-operation 
of  the  Nizam  and  of  Nana  Farnavis.  When  all  was 
ready  Cornwallis  went  to  the  south,  and  himself 
conducted  the  war.  After  some  reverses,  Bangalore  was 
taken  by  storm,  in  1791,  and  Tipu  retired  tor  shelter  to 
his  capital,  Seringapatam.  The  city  was  on  the  point  ot 
capitulating  when  Tipu  sued  for  peace,  which  was 
granted  him  on  condition  that  he  ceded  to  the  Enghsh 
the  districts  of  Dindigal,  Baramahal,  and  Malabar  ;  that 
he  restored  Coorg  to  its  Hindu  Raja  ;  that  he  paid  a 
heavy  fine  ;  and  that  he  delivered  up  two  of  his  sons  as 
hostages.  Having  concluded  this  war,  Cornwallis 
turned  his  attention  to  the  reformation  of  the  Civil 
Service,  and  to  the  permanent  settlement  of  the  land 
revenues. 

While  the  Mughals  ruled,  the  taxes  on  land  had 
been  arbitrary,  and  the  ryots  never  knew 
what  would  be  exacted  from  them  l^^ZmS'nT^^' 
Ihey,  therefore,  did  not  feel  secure,  and  Bengal,  1793. 
had  no  wish  to  improve  their  fields,  or  to 
reclaim  jungles,  and  uncultivated  areas.  Things  were 
somewhat  better  when  the  English  acquired  the  Diwani 
of  Bengal,  in  1765,  for  then  the  land  taxes  were  fixed  by 
annual  or  five  yearly  assessments.  The  Company's 
servants  collected  the  revenues,  and  after  deducting  the 
Company's  share  of  the  taxes,  handed  the  balance  over 
to  the  zemindars.  In  1789  a  change  was  made  by  which 
the  zemindars  themselves  collected  the  revenues,  and  paid 
its  share  of  the  income  to  the  Company.  But  in  1793 
Cornwallis  decided  upon  fixing  the  revenues  of  Bengal 
once  and  for  all,  so  far  as  the  Company  was  concerned. 
He  accordingly  directed  the  zemindars  to  give  the  ryots 
pattas  of  their  lands  and  to  levy  the  land  tax  fairly. 
When  this  was  done  the  ryots,  feeling  safe  against  exac- 
tions, began  to  clear  jungles  and  reclaim  swamps.  They 
soon  became  a  contented  peasantry,  and  the  zent.iimars 
grew  into  a  body  of  loyal  and  respectable  gentry.  ^  While 


Ch.XII]  governors-general  after  HASTINGS.  1 79 

the  natives  of  the  soil  gained  by  the  Permanent  Settle- 
ment, as  it  is  called,  the  British  have  in  the  end  lost  much 
revenue.  For  whereas  the  value  and  area  of  rented  land 
has  increased  immeasurably,  and  zemindars  are  reaHsing 
greatly  increased  incomes,  the  Government  of  to-day 
is  receiving  just  the  same  revenue  as  it  did  in  1793- 
But  if  there  has  been  a  loss  in  money,  there  has  been 
an  incalculable  gain  politically.  The  loundation  of  all 
government  is  in  the  goodwill  of  the  subjects,  and  the 
Permanent  Settlement  of  Bengal  has  bound  the  people 
in  loyal  devotion  to  the  British  Government. 

The  Civil  Service  was  full  of  inconsistencies.  Some 
rules  prevailed  in  some  places,  other 
Reforms  the  ^.^igg  ^^  q^^^q^-  places.  The  result  was 
uvu  service.  ^^^^  ^^^  servants  of  the  Company  had 
no  proper  set  of  regulations  for  their  guidance.  Corn- 
wallis  desired  to  introduce  more  order  and  uniformity. 
He  therefore  published  a  Code  "  which  defined  and  set 
bounds  to  authority,  created  procedure,  guarded  against 
miscarriage  of  justice,  and  founded  the  Civil  Service  of 
India  as  it  exists  to  this  day." 

Sip  John  Shore,  1793-1798,  was  the    next  Gover- 
nor-General.    He  meant  to   follow  a 
Adopts  the  policy    non-intervention  policy,  that  is  to  say, 
of  Non-interven-    ^gdid  not  think  it  right  for  the  English 
^^^'  to  take  sides  in  the  quarrels  of  Indian 

princes,  or  in  any  way  to  try  to  arbitrate  between  them. 
This  may  at  one  time  have  been  possible  ;  but  previous 
Governors-General  had  promised  certain  rulers,  e.g-., 
the  Nizam  of  Haidarabad,  to  help  them  in  the  event  of 
their  being  attacked  by  another  power.  The  observance 
of  a  non-intervention  policy  necessitated  inaction,  and  in 
such  cases  inaction  amounted  to  a  breach  of  treaties.  The 
Marathas  were  quick  to  observe  that  the  new  Governor- 
General  would  not  act  as  a  check  on  their  ambitions, 
and  ^J€y  saw  in  the  present  a  favourable  opportunity 
for  combining  to    crush   the   Nizam    of    Haidarabad. 


l80  HISTORY    OF   INDIA. 

Nana  Farnavis  led  the  forces  of  the  Maratha  Con- 
federacy, and  the  Nizam  suffered  a  fatal  defeat  at  the 
Battle  of  Kurdla,  1795,  and  was  obliged  to  cede  to  the 
victors  much  of  his  territories,  and  to  pay  them  three 
crores  of  rupees.  But  later  experience  of  Indian  politics 
convinced  Sir  John  Shore  that  a  policy  of  non-interven- 
tion was  a  mistake.  Accordingly,  when  the  misrule  of 
Oudh  became  intolerable,  he  deposed  the  Nawab  Wazir, 
and  set  up  Saadat  Ali  in  his  stead. 

The    Marquis    of     Wellesley,     1798-1805.— Lord 

Mornington,  who  was  afterwards  created 
Marquis  of  Wellesley,  succeeded.  The  Foupth  Mysore 
non-intervention  policy  of  Shore  had  led 
Tipu  Sultan  to  cherish  the  idea  that  he  might  do  as  he 
pleased  without  running  any  risk.  He  even  dared  to 
intrigue  with  the  French  against  the  Enghsh.  To  coun- 
teract their  union,  Wellesley  immediately  entered  into  a 
treaty  with  the  unfortunate  Nizam  of  Haidaradad,  by 
which  the  latter  agreed  to  dismiss  all  French  officers  in 
his  army,  to  employ  no  Frenchmen  in  his  kingdom,  and 
to  accept  an  Enghsh  army  of  6000  sepoys,  with  English 
commanders  and  artillery,  for  his  protection  against 
external  wars.  Two  years  later,  his  much  dreaded  ene- 
mies the  Marathas,  threatened  to  invade  the  Deccan, 
and  the  Nizam,  greatly  alarmed,  asked  for  an  increased 
force,  offering  to  give  the  Company  all  he  had  conquered 
from  Tipu,  and  to  submit  all  his  disputes  to  British 
arbitration. 

Meanwhile,  encouraged  by  the  presence  of  Napoleon 
Bonaparte  in  Egypt  (where  eventually  Nelson  so  com- 
pletely broke  the  power  of  the  French),  Tipu  invited 
the  French  to  join  him  in  waging  war  upon  the  English. 
Wellesley  felt  that  no  time  was  to  be  lost,  and  support- 
ed by  the  Nizam  and  the  Marathas,  he  promptly  sent 
General  Harris  into  Mysore.  Tipu's  army  was  defeated 
at  Malvelli,  and  his  capital  Seringapatam  was  b-^o/eged 
and  taken  (1800).     Tipu  himself  was  slain  in  the  breach 


Ch.  XII]  GOVERNORS-GENERAL  AFTER  HASTINGS.  l8l 

by  which  the  British  entered  the  city.  So  ended  the 
Fourth  (and  last)  Mysore  war.  Kanara,  Coimbatore, 
Darapuram,  and  some  other  portions  of  Mysore  were 
annexed  ;  Gooty  and  Gurramkonda  were  made  over  to 
the  Nizam,  and  what  remained  of  Tipu's  dominions  was 
given  to  Krishna  Raj  Wadiar,  the  lawful  representative 
of  the  old  Hindu  Rajas  of  Mysore,  whom  Haidar  Ali 
had  dispossessed.  Thus  not  only  was  a  troublesome 
neighbour  blotted  out,  but  also  French  influence  received 
another  fatal  blow. 

While  war  was  preparing  between  Tipu  Sultan  and 

the  English,  Muhammad  Ali,  the  Nawab 
Oudh  and  oUier  ^^.  ^^^^  Karnatic,  thought  he  would  secure 
States.  himself  by  joining   what   appeared    to 

him  to  be  the  stronger  side.  And  so 
he  had  entered  into  negotiations  with  Tipu.  For  thus 
forgetting  his  treaty  obligations  to  the  Company, 
on  the  conclusion  of  the  late  war,  the  entire  civil  and 
military  government  of  the  Karnatic  was  assumed  b}'^ 
the  English,  who,  on  Muhammad  Ali's  death,  allowed  his 
heir  one-fifth  of  the  annual  revenues.  At  the  same  time 
by  the  consent  of  the  princes  of  Tanjore  and  Surat  these 
territories  practically  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
Company.  The  province  of  Oudh  had  always  been  the 
cause  of  more  or  less  anxiety  ;  for  beside  its  own 
unsettled  internal  condition,  it  was  the  only  door  through 
which  the  British  possessions  in  Bengal  could  be  invaded. 
A  threatened  invasion  by  Shah  Zeman,  brought  things  to 
a  head,  and  feeling  that  the  Nawab  Wazir,  Saadat  Ali, 
could  not  possibly  repel  the  invader,  Wellesley  demanded 
of  the  Wazir  that  he  should  pay  for  the  maintenance  of 
a  larger  British  subsidiary  army  for  the  protection  of 
Oudh.  After  some  resistance  the  Wazir  signed  the  Treaty 
of  Lucknow,  in  1801,  by  which  he  ceded  the  Doab  and 
Rohilkhand  to  form  a  barrier  between  Oudh  and  enemies 
from  the  north,  and  to  pay  for  the  up-keep  of  the 
increased  British  force  in  Oudh.  Whatever  may  be 
thoughT,of  Wellesley's  dealings  with  the  Wazir,  he  at 


l82  HISTORY    OF   INDIA. 

any  rate  was  satisfied  with  the  reflection  that  whereas 
he  had  found  Oudh  a  danger  to  the  British  in  India,  he 
had  converted  it  into  a  safeguard  and  a  support.  And 
as  we  look  into  the  past  we  are  forced  to  the  conclusion 
that  if  Wellesley  had  at  this  time  taken  complete  control 
of  Oudh,  perhaps  the  Sepoy  Mutiny  of  1857  would 
never  have  occurred. 

On  the  death  of  Nana  Fa  mavis,  in  1800,  there  was 
a  general  scramble  among  the  members 
Treaty  of  of  the  Maratha  Confederacy  for  supreme 

assein  power.     Now    Holkar    prevailed    over 

Sindhia,  and  now  Sindhia  triumphed  over  Holkar ;  and 
between  the  two,  the  Peshwa,  Baji  Rao  II,  was  in  a 
very  difficult  position.  In  1802,  he  was  in  the  power 
of  Sindhia,  so  that  when  Holkar  defeated  his  rival,  and 
entered  Poona  he  made  Warnak  Rao  Peshwa.  Baji 
Rao  II  fled  to  Bassein,  and  there  appealed  to  the 
English  for  help.  His  petition  was  favourably  received, 
and  he  signed  the  Treaty  of  Bassein  by  which  it  was 
agreed  that  an  English  force  was  to  be  always  retained 
in  the  Peshwa's  dominions  ;  that  part  of  these  dominions 
was  to  be  given  to  the  Company  for  the  maintenance 
of  this  force  ;  and  that  the 'peshwa  would  enter  upon 
neither  treaties  nor  wars  without  the  approval  of  the 
English.  This  Treaty  of  Bassein  marks  an  important 
stage  in  the  history  of  the  British  in  India  ;  for  whereas 
previously  to  it  there  had  existed  a  Biiiish  Empire  in 
India,  the   treaty   gave  the  Company   the  Empire  of 

India. 

As  soon   as  the  Marathas   found  that   the  exiled 
Peshwa  had  been  taken  under  the  pro- 
w^^^lsol^^^^^  teclion  of  the  Company  they  were  alarm- 
war,  i»u  .  ^^^   ^^^^    forgetting   their'  own    petty 

jealousies  and  differences,  they  made  a  strong  combina- 
tion against  the  common  foe  whose  armies  had  subdued 
the  Nizam  and  crushed  Tipu.  Under  the  protection  of 
the  English,  Baji  Rao  re-entered  Poona,  and^so  the 
Maratha  chiefs  were  brought  to  bay.    General  Sir  Arthur 


ChXII]  governors-general  after  HASTINGS.    183 

Wellesley  (brother  to  the  Governor-General,  and  better 
known  in  history  as  the  great  Duke  of  Wellington,  who 
won  the  Battle  of  Waterloo),  took  Ahraadnagar,  and, 
while  Holkar  kept  aloof  in  Malwa,  uncertain  how  to 
act,  defeated  the  combined  forces  of  Sindhia  and  Bhonsla 
at  Assaye,  and  the  army  of  the  latter  at  Argaon.  The 
fortress  of  Gawilgarh  was  next  captured,  and  Bhonsla, 
laying  down  arms,  signed  the  Treaty  of  Deogaon,  by 
which  among  other  things  he  gave  up  all  claims  to  chant 
from  the  Nizam,  and  ceded  a  tract  of  country  including 
Cuttack.  Thus  ended  the  war  in  the  Deccan.  Mean- 
while, the  army  of  Sindhia,  under  the  French  general, 
Perron,  held  out  in  Northern  India  where  General  Lake 
took  Aligarh,  and  won  the  Battle  of  Delhi.  After  releas- 
ing the  aged  Emperor,  Shah  Alam,  from  the  imprison- 
ment which  he  had  experienced  for  some  years,  at  the 
hands  of  the  Marathas,  Lake  added  the  capture  of  Agra 
to  his  previous  successes,  and  finally  annihilated  the 
army  of  Sindhia  at  the  Battle  of  Laswari.  This  chieftain 
had  no  alternative  but  to  come  to  terms,  and  he  signed 
the  Treaty  of  Surji  Arjangaon,  by  which  he  gave  the 
English  the  tract  of  land  between  the  Ganges  and  the 
Jumna,  Baroch,  as  well  as  other  portions  of  his  dominions, 
including  Ahmadnagar,  which  was  made  over  to  the 
Peshwa,  Baji  Rao  II.  Moreover,  as  the  French  had 
assisted  him  in  fighting,  he  was  obliged  to  contract  never 
to  entertain  the  subjects  of  any  nation  at  war  with  the 
English.  So  concluded  the  Second  Maratha  War,  which 
began  and  ended  in  1803. 

But  though  Bhonsla  and  Sindhia  had  been  humbled, 
Holkar  had  yet  to  be  disposed  of.     He 
had  not  taken  any  part  in  the  Second    war^iSOS^fsM 
Maratha  War  ;  but  he  had  been  by  no  ' 

means  idle.  He  had  employed  the  interval  in  gathering 
together  an  army  of  80,000  trained  soldiers,  and  when 
he  considered  himself  strong  enough  to  take  the  field, 
even  against  the  English,  he  began  to  ravage  Malwa 
and  kaj^jitana.     Now,  the  Rajput  chiefs   were  British 


184  HISTORY   OF    INDIA. 

allies,  and  the  only  reply  he  gave  to  remonstrances  from 
Calcutta  was  to  sack  Ajmir.  War  was  now  inevitable. 
Accordingly,  three  British  armies  moved  against  him 
from  different  directions.  Lake  advanced  from  Delhi ; 
Colonel  Murray  from  Gujarat,  and  Colonel  Monson  from 
Central  India.  Monson,  worsted  in  every  engagement, 
was  obliged  to  retreat  to  Agra,  but  Murray  gained  pos- 
session of  Indore,  Holkar's  capital.  Holkar  tiien  laid 
siege  to  Delhi,  but  retired  on  the  approach  of  Lake. 
The  English  army  then  triumphed  at  Farukhabad  and 
Dig  ;  but  the  attempt  to  take  the  fortress  of  Bhartpur, 
whose  Raja  had  deserted  the  English  for  Holkar,  failed, 
and  its  Raja  was  given  favourable  terms.  The  progress 
of  the  war,  however,  had  convinced  the  Gaekwar  of 
Baroda  that  the  Enghsh  were  irresistible,  and  he  entered 
into  a  subsidiary  alliance  with  the  Company,  Holkar 
was  now  the  only  member  of  the  Maratha  Confederacy 
who  was  outside  such  an  alliance,  and  though  he  was 
single-handed  in  the  strife,  he  so  bravely  kept  the  field 
that  Sindhia  and  Bhonsla  were  encouraged  to  throw  off" 
their  alliance  with  the  British.  By  this  time  the  Court 
of  Directors  had  grown  weary  of  Wellesley's  ceaseless 
wars,  and  recalled  him.  But  in  order  to  trace  the  present 
war  to  its  close  let  us  anticipate  events.  When,  on  the 
death  of  Lord  Cornwallis,  Sir  George  Barlow  came  as 
Governor-General,  in  1805,  he  brought  with  him  the  dis- 
tinct order  that  peace  should  be  made  without  delay. 
And  so,  although  Holkar  could  not  have  held  out  much 
longer,  the  war  was  concluded  on  the  easiest  terms  by 
Barlow,  who  to  pacify  Sindhia  gave  him  Gohud  and 
Gwaliar. 

In  the  time  of  Akbar,  it  will  be  remembered  that 
peace  had  been  introduced  by  the  presence  of  one  domi- 
nant emperor,  aud  Wellesley  was  convinced  that  the 
only  means  by  which  peace  could  again  be  secured,  was 
by  some  one  power  again  becoming  supreme.  He  deter- 
mined that  the  English  should  be  that  power.^and  his 
administration  was   guided  by  the  leading  Jdea.     He 


Ch.  XII]  GOVERNORS-GENERAL  AFTER  HASTINGS.  185 

therefore  devised  the  system  of  Subsidiary 
AlHances.     Every  native  state  entering    The  System  of 
into  such  an  alliance  paid  for  the  pre-    freatfe^.^^ 
sence   within   it  of   a   body   of  British 
troops  for  the  preservation  of  internal  order,  and  for  its 
protection  against  external  foes.     It  also  maintained  a 
contingent  of  native   soldiers  to  act   with    the  British 
forces  in  times  of  emergency.      It  engaged  to  have  no 
political  dealings  with  other  powers  except  in  concert 
with  the  English  Government,  and  undertook  to  submit 
to  British  arbitration  all  disputes  with  aliens.     Thus  in 
point  of  fact,  in   return  for   protection,  all   subsidiary 
states  placed  themselves  in  a  position  of  dependence 
upon  the  East  India  Company. 

When  Wellesley  came  to  India,  what  with  Tipu 
Sultan,  and  the  French,  and  the  Marathas,  the  land  was 
rent  by  war.  Wellesley  asserted  British  dominancy 
over  them.  By  his  aggressive  policy  he  destroyed  the 
Muhammadan  power  of  the  south.  By  drawing  into 
Subsidiary  Alliances  every  member  of  the  Maratha  Con- 
federacy, excepting  only  Holkar,  he  w  n  1  ' 
created  a  system  of  imperial  rule,  and  Wopk.  ^ 
acquired  for  England  the  Empire  of  India, 
thereby  extinguishing  the  last  lingering  hopes  of  the 
French  and  the  Dutch  in  the  East.  For  this  achievement 
he  holds  a  high  place  among  the  architects  of  British 
fortunes  in  India.  He  changed  the  character  of  the  East 
India  Company  from  a  mere  body  of  traders  to  a  Govern- 
ment with  imperial  responsibihties,  and  he  has  therefore 
been  aptly  called  "  the  Great  Pro-Consul  of  India." 

Lord  Copnwallis  (again)  1805 — Cornwallis,  whose 
previous  administration  had  proved  his  desire  to 
promote  peace  and  to  develop  the  resources  of  the 
British  possessions  in  India,  was  sent  out  to  succeed 
Wellesley.  He  had  clear  instructions  to  terminate  the 
wars,  with  the  Marathas  ;  but  before  he  could  accomplish 
anythmg  he  died  at  Ghazipur,  and  was  buried  there. 

o 


1 86  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

Sir  George  Barlow,  1805-1807.  — It  lias  already 
been  mentioned  that  as  soon  as  Sir  George  Barlow  came 
he  made  peace  with  Holkar,  and  to  such  extremes 
did  he  carry  the  non-intervention  policy,  that  when 
Sindhia  and  Holkar  took  their  revenge  on  the 
Rajputs,  he  left  them  to  the  tender  mercies  of  the 
Marathas — Wellesley's  compact  with  them  notwith- 
standing. 

At  Vellore  the  sepoys  grew  discontented,  and, 
.  urged  by  the  descendants  of  Tipu,  they 
1806  ^  ^^^"^  massacred  113  European  soldiers  in  the 
garrison  The  mutiny  was  easily  put 
down,  and  Tipu's  family  was  removed  to  Bengal.  Sir 
George  Barlow  was  recalled  as  having  been  an  unsuc- 
cessful ruler. 

Lord  Minto,  1807-1813. — Encouraged  by  the  in- 
activity of  the  English,  who  now 
Central  India  allowed  the  non-intervention  policy  to 
regulate  all  their  dealings  with  native 
rulers,  bands  of  outlaws  (the  most  notorious  of  whom 
were  the  Pathans  and  the  Pindaris)  began  to  flourish 
in  Western  and  Central  India,  where  ihey  devasta- 
ted the  countr\%  and  made  the  people  homeless. 
But  when  Bandalkhand,  which  bordered  on  British 
territory,  became  the  scene  of  pillage  and  the  murder  of 
inoffensive  people,  Lord  Minto  thought  it  was  better 
to  put  down  these  outlaws  than  to  wait  till  they  actually 
raided  British  territory.  He  accordingly  sent  troops 
after  them,  and  in  18 12  they  were  suppressed  for  the 
time  being.  Kalinjar  was  taken,  and  the  country  pacified. 
At  the  same  time  a  protective  treaty  was  made  with 
Ranjit  Singh  of  Lahore,  by  which  the  latter  bound 
himself  not  to  interfere  with  the  Sardars  of  the  Cis- 
Sutlej  State. 

War  was  at  this  time  going  on  betv^'een  England 
and  France,  and  it  was  feared  that  the  French  would 
make   one   more    effort   to   drive   the   Engli^li'^ut  of 


Ch.  XII]  GOVERNORS-GENERAL  AFTER  HASTINGS.  1 87 

India.    As  a  safeguard,  Lord  Minto  sent 
embassies  to  the  courts  of  Sindh,  Kabul,    |"^5h^^lf^u*9 
and  Persia,  whose  rulers  in  consequence    and  Per^a 
engaged  to  have  no  dealings  with  the 
French,  nor  give  them  any  assistance.     He  also  made  a 
friendly  treaty  v^'ith  the  Baluchi  chiefs.     But  it  was  felt 
that  something  more  definite  than  this  should  be  done 
to  check  the  French  and  the  Dutch,  who  had  begun  to 
waylay  British  ships  on  the  high  seas,  and  plunder  tiiem. 
Mauritius  and  its  adjacent  islands  belonged  to  France, 
and  from    them   the  piratical  vessels  started  on  their 
errands  of  spoliation.     To  put  a  stop  to  the  loss  thus 
caused  to  the  Company's  trade,  Lord  Minto  sent  an  ex- 
pedition agamst  Mauritius,  and  took  it  and  its  neighbour- 
ing islands  from  the  French.     Similarly  the  Dutch  were 
stripped  of  their  possessions  in  the  East  Indies. 

Another    important    event    took    place    in    18 13. 
Hitherto,  it  will  be  remembered,  the  East 
India  Company  had  held  the  monopoly    Abolition        of 
of  Indian  trade.  That  is  to  say,  no  private    Indian '"^Mono- 
person  or  body  of  merchants  was  allowed    poly,  1813. 
to  carry  on  commerce  with  India.  When 
Parliament    now    renewed   the   Charter,   it    withdrew 
from  the  Company  the  exclusive  right  which  it  had 
hitherto  enjoyed,  of  trading  with  this  country,  but  did 
not  deprive  it  of  its  monopoly  in  tea  or  of  trade   with 
China. 

Lord  Moira,  (afterwards  Marquis  of  Hastings), 
1813-1823,— On  the  retirement  of  Minto, 
Lord  Moira  succeeded.  He  found  that  he  The  Marathas, 
was  called  upon  to  deal  with  a  certain  palhln's.'  ^^^ 
class  of  dangerous  brigands  and  warlike 
men,  known  respectively  as  the  Pindaris  and  the  Pathans. 
Added  to  the  restlessness  which  these  enemies  to  peace 
created,  there  was  the  growing  turbulence  of  the 
Marathas.  The  weakness  shown  in  Lord  Minto's  dc-al- 
ings'^wfth  Holkar  and  Sindhia,  encouraged  in  the  Marathas 


l88  HISTORY  OF    INDIA. 

the  notion  that  the  time  was  near  at  hand  when  they 
would  avenge  the  past,  expel  the  English  from  India, 
and  once  more  restore  the  days  of  Sivaji.  Their  acts  of 
defiant  lawlessness  knew  no  bounds.  In  the  Pindaris 
and  the  Pathans  they  found  allies  ready  to  receive  their 
assistance,  and  quick  to  do  their  bidding.  The  Pindaris 
flourished  in  the  valley  of  the  Narbada.  They  were 
descended  in  most  instances  from  soldiers  who  had  been 
in  the  Mughal  army  during  its  palmy  days.  The  robber 
instinct  was  so  strong  in  them  that  they  could  not  lead 
peaceful  lives.  Under  the  leadership  of  chiefs  like 
Wasil  Muhammad,  Karim  Khan,  and  Chitu,  they  yearly 
set  out  on  their  hardy  ponies  to  burn,  plunder  and 
destroy.  Their  depredations  extended  from  Mysore  to 
the  basin  of  the  Jumna.  They  had  no  form  of  govern- 
ment nor  any  definite  policy,  but  joined  Holkar  or 
Sindhia  as  best  suited  them,  or  as  either  was  the  more 
likely  to  win.  In  1809,  they  had  raided  Gujarat;  in 
1 81 2  they  had  pillaged  Mirzapur  ;  and  now,  in  181 6, 
they  came  like  a  swarm  of  locusts  into  the  Northern 
Circars,  and  Moira  felt  it  was  time  to  extirpate  them. 

The  Pathans  were  a  more  respectable  and  better 
organised  body  of  freebooters.  The  Pindaris  attacked 
villages  and  their  helpless  inhabitants ;  the  Pathans 
preyed  upon  governments  and  princes.  They  were  better 
disciplined  than  the  Pindaris,  and  rendered  obedience 
to  their  leaders,  chief  among  whom  was  Amir  Khan. 
They  devoted  their  energies  especially  to  Rajputana. 

What  with  the  Marathas,  the  Pindaris,  and  the 
Pathans,  Central  India  was  indeed  in  a  sad  plight.  The 
native  states  were  demoralised  ;  society  was  disorganised; 
the  peasants  and  artisans  had  no  heart  to  carry  on  the 
duties  of  their  daily  hfe.  While  robber  bands  infested 
the  country,  the  local  armies  themselves  existed  only  to 
trample  on  the  people.  In  a  word,  government  there 
was  none.  Like  Wellesley,  Hastings  felt  that  the  only 
salvation  of  India  lay  in  the  arising  of  some  one  para- 
mount power  whose  mighty  arm  would  be  strong  en'ough 


Ch.XII]  governors-general  after  HASTINGS.  189 

to  keep  under  the  warring  elements  and  protect  the 
peasantry — a  power  which  by  alHances  and  force  of  arms 
would  build  up  an  empire  even  greater  than  that  of  the 
Mughals.  But  before  he  could  dispose  of  the  Pindaris 
and  the  Pathans,  his  attention  was  demanded  in  another 
direction. 

Of  late  the  hardy  mountaineers  of  Nepal,  known  as 
the  Gurkhas,  had  taken  to  making  in- 
cursions into  the  valley  of  the  Ganges  {g^J^igSs  ^^^' 
which  belonged  to  the  English.  When 
the  Governor-General  proposed  to  fix  their  frontiers, 
they  became  more  daring  and  defiant,  and  as  they  con- 
tinued their  inroads  into  British  territory,  it  was  evident 
that  nothing  short  of  war  would  persuade  them  to  mend 
their  ways.  Accordingly,  the  deep  jungles  of  the 
Himalayas  were  entered  by  a  British  army,  under  com- 
mand of  General  Ochterlony.  The  rugged  mountain 
sides  were  of  great  advantage  to  the  Gurkhas  who  were 
quite  at  home  in  the  precipices  and  ravines  of  the 
greatest  mountain  range  in  the  world.  The  war  opened 
unfavourably  to  the  English ;  for  although  General 
Gillespie  took  the  fort  of  Kalanga,  they  experienced  a 
reverse  at  Jaitak.  The  occupation  of  a  portion  of  the 
Terai,  and  the  co-operation  of  the  Raja  of  Sikkim, 
partially  compensated  for  this  misfortune. 

The  news  of  the  failure  of  Enghsh  arms  in  the  war 
against  the  Gurkhas  naturally  encouraged  the  Marathas, 
who,  like  the  Pathans  and  the  Sikhs,  began  to  give  fresh 
signs  of  activity.  The  Pindaris,  too,  finding  the  Enghsh 
sufficiently  occupied  with  the  Gurkhas,  prepared  to 
make  a  raid  into  British  territory.  Altogether  the  out- 
look was  far  from  pleasant  But  internal  dissensions 
weakened  the  counsels  of  the  Marathas,  and  a  threaten- 
ed attack  on  Ranjit  Singh,  the  leader  of  the  Sikhs,  by 
the  Amir  of  Kabul,  prevented  the  Marathas  and  the 
Sikhs  from  entering  upon  hostilities  against  the  English. 
The' rfhdaris  did  not  feel  that  single-handed  they  could 
defy  the  Enghsh,  and  so  they  too  held  back  from  doing 


190  HISTORY    OF   INDIA. 

any  mischief.  Hastings,  with  a  feeling  of  relief,  bent 
all  his  energies  to  the  war  with  the  Gurkhas.  To  cause 
a  diversion,  with  the  help  of  Rohilla  levies,  he  invaded 
the  Nepalese  province  of  Kumaun,  and  gained  possession 
of  it,  together  with  its  many  strongholds.  The  tide  of 
war  now  turned  in  favour  of  the  English,  and  their 
further  successes  gave  them  possession  of  all  Nepal 
west  of  the  river  Kali,  and  of  Jaitak.  The  Gurkhas 
came  to  terms,  and  signed  the  Treaty  of  Segauli  (1816). 
By  it  they  were  required  to  cede  all  the  country 
conquered  by  the  English  from  the  Sutlej  to  the  Kali, 
and  that  portion  of  the  Terai  between  the  Kali  and  the 
Gandak.  But  the  mountaineers  did  not  ratify  the  treaty 
till  General  Ochterlony  marched  within  20  miles  of 
Katmandu,  and  captured  Hariharpur.  Then  the  in- 
dependence of  the  Sikkim  Raja  was  assured,  and  he  and 
the  Nawab  Wazir  of  Oudh  were  rewarded  for  the  support 
they  had  given.  A  frontier  was  traced  out  and  marked 
by  pillars  of  masonry,  and  in  lieu  of  an  annual  subsidy 
of  two  lakhs  of  rupees  a  greater  part  of  the  Terai  was 
restored  to  Nepal.  Ever  since  this  time  the  Gurkhas 
have  been  loyal  to  the  English. 

Now  that  the  Gurkha  War  was  over,  Hastings 
was  able  to  give  his  attention  to  the 
gmlapi  War,  pjndaris,  who  at  this  time  ravaged  the 
Northern  Circars  and  Orissa.  His  first 
care  was  to  deprive  them  of  allies,  and  so  he  entered 
into  subsidiary  alliances  with  Malwa,  Bhopal,  Udaipur, 
Jodhpur,  Baji  Rao  H,  (the  Peshwa,)  and  Amir  Khan, 
the  chief  of  the  Pathans.  Hastings  himself  took  com- 
mand of  the  army,  and  deprived  the  Pindaris  of  the 
help  which  Sindhia  was  ready  to  give  them,  by  making 
the  latter  come  to  terms  at  Gwaliar.  The  Pindaris, 
from  their  headquarters  in  Malwa,  had  been  watching 
the  progress  of  events.  Unable  any  longer  to  remain 
inactive,  they  raided  Bandelkhand,  being  led  by  Wasil 
Muhammad.  At  the  same  time  the  Peshvytt'^and 
Bhonsla  assisted  them,  and   the  Third  Maratha  War 


CH.XII]  governors-general  after  HASTINGS.  I9I 

began.  But  Hastings  pressed  the  Pindaris  till,  in  18 17, 
they  were  driven  out  of  Malwa  and  beyond  the 
Chambal.  They  then  sued  for  peace,  and  have  since 
never  caused  further  trouble.  To  Amir  Khan,  the 
Pathan  leader,  the  principality  of  Tonk  was  given,  and 
thus  the  Pathan  organisation  came  to  an  end.  The 
Rajput  Chiets  were  rewarded  for  their  loyal  support,  and 
a  British  Resident  was  stationed  at  Ajmir. 

In  their  anxiety  to  see  the  English  expelled  from 
India,  the  Maratha  Houses  combined 
once  more,  and,  as  has  been  said,  openly  war  ISiT-fsiQ.^ 
gave  help  to  the  Pindaris.  Baji  Rao  H, 
the  Peshvva,  throwing  aside  his  treaty,  attacked  the 
British  Residency  at  Poona.  Sindhia  was  not  able  to 
do  much  mischief,  for  he  was  still  overawed  at  Gwaliar. 
Bhonsla's  contribution  to  the  war  was  inconsiderable, 
for  at  the  very  outset  he  was  reduced  to  submission,  and 
was  obliged  to  cede  Berar.  Holkar's  troops  were  put 
to  flight  at  Mehidpur,  1817;  the  young  Mulhar  Rao 
Holkar  became  a  ward  of  the  Company,  and  relin- 
quished all  claims  in  Rajputana.  Baji  Rao  H,  the 
Peshvva,  was  driven  from  Poona,  and  defeated  at  Ashta,  in 
18 1 9.  He  then  surrendered  ;  his  entire  dominions  were 
taken  from  him  ;  Satara  and  Kolharpur  were  restored 
to  descendants  of  Sivaji ;  and  he  remained  a  state 
prisoner  at  Cawnpur  until  his  death.  The  war  was 
now  over,  and  the  Marathas  had  been  finally  crushed. 

With  the  return  of  peace,  Hastings  was  able  to  give 
internal  affairs  his  attention.  He  ex-  „  .  ,  , 
tended  the  subsidiary  system  of  Welles-  "al  Melsure"  " 
ley,  and  knitted  the  various  indepen- 
dent states  together  by  entering  into  alliances  with 
them,  and  the  Briti.-h  Government  of  India  may  be  said 
to  have  at  this  time  received  its  character — an  imperial 
federation  of  friendly  states  clustering  round  one  central 
paramount  power.  Then,  with  respect  to  the  courts  of 
ther^zad,  the  magistrates  were  required  to  perform  the 
duties  of  both  judges  and  collectors  of  revenue.     Hastings 


192  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

opened  schools  for  the  education  of  India,  and  he 
gave  freedom  to  the  vernacular  press.  The  result  was 
that  five  native  journals  began  to  be  printed  and  pub- 
lished. It  is  from  this  time  that  the  moral  and  intellectual 
advancement  of  the  people  of  the  country  has  been 
recognised  as  a  duty  of  the  State,  and  their  claim  to 
participate  in  the  work  of  the  British  Government  has 
been  held  as  an  axiom. 

Lord  Amherst,  1823-1827.— Between  the  de- 
parture of  the  Marquis  of  Hastings  and 
Wa?  1824-182?  ^^^  arrival  of  Lord  Amherst,  there  was 
an  interval  of  seven  months,  during 
which  Mr.  Adam  acted  as  Governor-General.  As  soon 
as  Amherst  arrived  he  found  himself  drawn  into  a  war 
with  Burma.  For  some  years  past  the  Burmese  had 
been  disturbing  the  peace  of  Eastern  India  by  making 
destructive  raids  into  British  territory.  Finding  that 
active  measures  were  not  taken  against  them,  they  be- 
came more  and  more  daring,  and  put  a  climax  to  their 
insolence  by  claiming  Chittagong,  Dacca,  and  Murshida- 
bad  as  being  parts  of  their  ancient  kingdom.  Finally 
they  seized  and  ill-treated  British  subjects,  and  it  be- 
came evident  that  nothing  short  of  war  would  persuade 
them  to  live  at  peace  with  their  neighbours.  Lord 
Amherst  accordingly  made  preparations  for  an  expedi- 
tion into  Burma,  and  British  troops  were  soon  in 
possession  of  Rangoon  and  Kemendine.  But  they 
suffered  a  defeat  at  Ramu.  This  reverse,  however,  was 
speedily  compensated  by  the  conquest,  in  1825,  of  Assam, 
Cachar,  and  Manipur,  and  by  the  occupation  of  Pegu, 
Arrakan,  and  Tenasserim.  Then  came  the  fall  of 
Donabvu,  and  the  capture  of  Prome.  Finding  his  losses 
thickening  around  him,  the  Burmese  king  thought  it 
time  to  make  peace.  So  he  ended  the  war  in  1826  by 
signing  the  Treaty  of  Yendabu  by  which  he  ceded 
Assam,  Arrakan  and  the  coast  of  Tenasserim.  ^.z  also 
undertook  not  to  interfere  with   Manipur,  Cachar,  and 


Ch.  XII]  GOVERNORS-GENERAL  AFTER  HASTINGS.  1 93 

Jaintia  ;  to  pay  an  indemnity  of  one  crore  of  rupees  ; 
and  to  receive  a  British  Resident  at  his  capital. 

When  the  Marathas  were  finally  overthrown  the 
Raja   of  Bhartpur    arranged   with    the 
English   that   his   infant   son,  Balwant  Bhartpup? 

Singh,  should  succeed  him.     But  when  Jany.,  1827. 

the  Raja  died  in  1825,  a  cousin  of  the 
child,  Durjan  Sal,  usurped  the  throne.  Lord  Amherst 
at  first  remonstrated  with  him  ;  but,  as  he  remained 
defiant,  Lord  Combermere  was  sent  to  dislodge  him 
from  Bhartpur.  The  eyes  of  all  India  were  turned  with 
the  keenest  interest  to  this  stronghold,  for  it  was  con- 
sidered impregnable — more  especially  as  in  1805  Lord 
Lake  had  failed  to  take  it  But  it  was  now  captured  ; 
Balwant  Singh  was  set  on  its  throne ;  and  English  prestige 
was  restored.  Lord  Amherst  improved  the  occasion  by 
going  to  Delhi,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Mughals,  and 
there  issuing  a  proclamation  that  the  East  India  Com- 
pany was  the  paramount  power  in  India. 

Lord  William  Bentinek,  1828-1835.  —  Bentinck 
had  formerly  been  Governor  of  Madras,  Re^^^tion  of 
and  so  he  had  the  advantage  of  some  Batta,  and  the 
knowledge  of  Indian  affairs.  The  First  Admission  of 
Burmese  War  had  drained  the  Com-  Jj'jfbnJseJ.yiee.^ 
pany's  treasury,  and  Bentinck's  express 
orders  from  the  Court  of  Directors  were  to  cut  down 
expenditure  and  increase  the  revenue.  He  found  two 
directions  in  w^hich  a  saving  might  be  effected— one  in 
the  army  and  the  other  in  the  civil  service.  Hitherto 
soldiers  on  active  service  had  been  given  an  extra  allow- 
ance called  Batta,  or  more  correctly  Bhatta.  For  some 
years  past  the  Directors  had  objected  to  the  pay- 
ment of  Batta,  and  so  Bentinck  reduced  the  amount 
of  the  allowance,  in  spite  of  the  discontent  his  order 
created.  Furthermore,  every  appointment  in  the  higher 
gradzc6»f  the  civil  service  had  hitherto  been  reserved 
for  Englishmen.     Bentinck  felt   that  educated  Indians 


194  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

would  do  the  work  efficiently  and  on  much  smaller 
salaries.  He,  therefore,  threw  open  various  departments 
of  the  public  services  to  Indians.  This  measure,  without 
in  the  smallest  degree  lowering  the  efficiency  of  the  civil 
services,  resulted  in  a  great  reduction  of  expenditure. 
Then  again  in  casting  about  for  means  whereby  to 
increase  the  revenues,  Bentinck  thought  of  the  opium 
traffic  of  Malvva.  He  accordingly  made  the  manufacture 
of  opium  a  government  monopoly,  and  there  was  an 
immediate  addition  to  the  inci  me  of  the  Company. 
Having  by  these  measures  restored  the  balance  between 
income  and  expenditure,  he  was  free  to  work  out  certain 
important  social  reforms. 

Owing  to  the  breaking  up  of  such  bands  of  men  as 
the  Pindaris,  and  the  lack  of  work  for 
of  ^Thag-f  °"  those  who  had  been  in  the  various  armies 
of  Indian  chiefs,  the  country  abounded 
with  men  for  whom  a  peaceful  life  had  no  charm.  These 
restless  spirits  gathered  together  in  Central  India,  and 
became  the  terror  and  curse  of  the  land  from  Haidarabad 
to  Oudh,  and  from  Bandelkhand  to  Rajputana.  They 
went  by  the  name  of  Thags.  Murder  was  part  of 
their  creed,  and  plunder  their  sole  occupation.  They 
wandered  from  place  to  place  without  anything  to  betray 
who  they  were.  They  joined  themselves  to  travellers, 
gained  their  confidence,  suddenly  strangled  them,  and, 
having  robbed  the  corpses,  buried  them  in  the  jungles. 
With  the  help  of  Major  Sleeman,  Bentnick  determined 
to  stamp  them  out.  Within  six  years  their  bands  were 
broken  up ;  several  thousands  of  them  were  captured  ; 
many  of  them  were  hanged,  and  more  of  them  were 
transported. 

For  centuries  it  had  been  the  practice  of  a  Hindu 

widow  to   burn  herself  with  her  hus- 

Suppression         band's  corpse.    The  English  had  always 

InfanUei(&"^       revolted  against  such  a  cruel  custom,  and 

Bentinck  though  t  it  ought  to  be  pi-itdo  wn. 

Leaders  of  Hindu  society,  hke  Dwarkanath  Tagore  and 


Ch.XII]  governors-general  after  HASTINGS.  195 

Rammohan  Roy,  asserted  that  it  was  opposed  to  the 
teachings  and  spirit  of  Hinduism.  As  a  matter  of  fact  it 
had  already  been  disallowed  by  the  French,  the  Dutch, 
and  the  Danes,  in  their  Indian  territories,  and  even  in 
Enghsh  possessions  where  a  firm  hand  ruled.  Bentinck, 
after  much  careful  consideration,  made  a  law  by  which 
any  one  assisting  at  a  Sati,  as  the  practice  of  widow- 
burning  was  called,  or  any  one  concealing  a  Sati,  was 
guilty  in  the  sight  of  the  law,  and  was  liable  to  severe 
punishment.  He  also  forbade  the  murder  of  infant 
daughters.  In  this  humane  work  he  received  valuable 
help  from  many  distinguished  English  officers,  including 
Colonel  John  Sutherland,  by  whose  influence  with  the 
bigoted  Rajput  Chiefs  these  cruel  practices  were  peace- 
ably suppressed  in  Rajputana,  where  they  had  been 
most  prevalent. 

On  the  eve  of  his  retirement  from  the  country  Lord 
Amherst  had  visited  Simla  which   had 
Simla    and         recently  been  acquired.     In  1830  Ben- 
arjee  ing.  tjnck  purchased  the  remainder  of  the  hill 

from  the  Maharaja  of  Patiala,  and  made  Simla  the 
summer  residence  of  the  Governor-General.  Five  years 
later  he  bought  Darjeeling  from  the  Raja  of  Sikkim,  and 
thus  he  gave  British  India  two  of  its  most  popular  hill 
stations. 


Company's  Pice  of  1833. 

In  1833  Parliament  renewed  the  Charter  of  the 
par,owoi*!.f  tha  East  India  Company  for  another  twenty 
ChS?S,1833      years.     By  the  terms  of  the  new  Charter 


196  HISTORY    OF    INDIA. 

the  Company  retired  from  trade,  and  became  a  Govern- 
ment pure  and  simple.  The  monopoly  of  the  trade 
of  India  had  already  been  withdrawn  (1813),  and  now 
also  trade  with  China  was  thrown  open  to  all  comers. 
The  administrative  affairs  of  the  Company  were  placed 
under  the  control  of  Parliament,  which  guaranteed  it 
against  all  losses.  The  country  has  greatly  benefited 
by  this  Charter;  for  since  its  time  the  Government  has 
not  been  cramped  by  commercial  considerations  when 
these  have  clashed  with  the  interests  of  the  people. 
The  welfare  of  Indian  subjects,  and  not  dividends 
to  shareholders,  has  become  the  only  anxiety  of  our 
rulers. 

In  every  age  and  in  every  country,  the  language  of  the 

rulers  or  the  learned  has  been  the  official 
th?^^0ffleia1^  language  of  the  country.  In  the  early 
Language.  Hindu  period  we  have  seen  that  this  was 

the  case  with  Sanskrit ;  and  when  the 
English  came  in  the  time  of  the  Mughals,  they  found  that 
Persian  was  the  language  of  the  courts  of  the  country. 
Though  the  British  had  become  the  paramount  power 
they  had  not  altered  the  legal  language ;  but  Bentinck 
thought  it  time  that  Persian  should  give  way  to  English. 
Accordingly  ini835  he  made  English  the  official  language 
of  British  India,  and  a  knowledge  of  it  a  qualification  for 
admission  into  the  public  services.  From  18 13  all  teach- 
ing in  Indian  schools  had  been  through  the  vernacular 
languages.  But  from  this  time  English  began  to  be 
taught  in  the  higher  classes  of  schools  ;  and  in  a  country, 
such  as  ours,  with  its  numerous  creeds  and  tongues,  the 
introduction  of  a  common  language  has  done  perhaps 
even  more  than  the  railway  and  telegraph  system  to 
bind  the  peoples  of  India  and  Great  Britain  into  one 
great  brotherhood.  Had  Indians  continued  to  be  taught 
only  Sanskrit,  and  Persian,  and  Arabic,  they  could  never 
have  taken  a  share  in  the  Government  of  India  as  they 
are  doing  to-day.  "^  ' 

The  time,  however,  had  come  for  Bentinck  to  lay 


Ch.XII]  GOVERNOKS-GENEKAL  after  HASTINGS.  1 97 

down  his  office.  How  grateful  our  country  Retirement  of 
is  to  him  may  be  read  on  the  monument  hfs"serviees'"o 
which  chiefly  Hindu  subscriptions  raised  India, 
to  him  in  Calcutta  :— "  Who  never  forgot 
that  the  end  of  Government  is  the  happiness  of  the 
governed ;  who  abolished  cruel  rites ;  who  effaced 
humiliating  distinctions  ;  who  gave  liberty  to  the  ex- 
pression of  public  opinion  ;  whose  constant  study  it 
was  to  elevate  the  intellectual  and  moral  character  of 
the  natives  committed  to  his  charge." 

Sir  Charles  Metcalfe,   1835-1836.— Pending  the 

arrival    of   Bentinck's    successor,    Sir 
Charles  Metcalfe  took  up  the  duties  of  {hefflan  P^"  ^^ 
Governor-General.     He  gave  freedom  ^^^^' 

to  the  Indian  Press  ;  that  is  to  say,  authors  of  books 
and  editors  of  newspapers  were  no  longer  required  to 
obtain  permission  to  publish  what  they  wrote.  This 
was  a  great  gain  ;  for  now  every  one  could  say  what  was 
in  his  mind,  and  Government  received  much  help  from 
what  the  public  thought  on  matters  of  common  interest. 

Lord  Auckland,  1836-1842  — When  Lord  Auckland 
arrived  it  was  feared  that   Russia  had 
designs  upon  India,  and  that  the  Tsar  His  Policy. 

was  therefore  making  friendly  advances 
to  Dost  Muhammad,  the  Amir  of  Afghanistan. 
Desirous  of  gaining  the  alliance  of  the  Amir,  and  so  of 
interposing  a  friendly  power  between  Russia  and  India, 
the  Governor-General  sent  an  ambassador  to  his  Court. 
But  largely  through  mismanagement  of  the  negotia- 
tions, the  embassy  ended  in  the  declaration  of  a  war, 
whose  object  was  to  dethrone  Dost  Muhammad  and 
to  set  upon  the  Kabul  throne  Shah  Shuja,  a  descendant 
of  Ahmad  Shah  Durani.  Shah  Shuja  was  then  an  exile 
under  British  protection  in  Ludhiana, 
and  as  soon  as  the  help  of  Ranjit  Singh  ^^^  Afghan 
was  secfi^ed,  a  large  army  was  marched 


198  HISTORY   OF    INDIA. 

into  Afghanistan,  and  Shah  Shuja  was  proclaimed  Amir 
at  Kandahar.  But  he  was  not  acceptable  to  the 
Afghans.  The  war  had  therefore  to  be  carried  further 
into  the  heart  of  Afghanistan,  and  Kabul  was  taken. 
Ranjit  Singh  died  at  this  time,  and  the  English  troops 
unassisted  by  the  Sikhs,  marched  on  Ghazni  which  fell 
before  them.  Shah  Shuja's  rival,  Dost  Muhammad, 
fled  across  the  Balkan  frontier ;  but  for  all  that  he 
did  not  give  up  fighting,  for  he  had  manv  followers 
who  preferred  him  to  Shah  Shuja.  It  was  not  wise 
to  force  a  king  on  a  people  who  did  not  want  him  ; 
and  the  result  was  that  for  two  years  the  English  had 
to  hold  Afghanistan  by  the  presence  of  an  army  and  of 
a  Resident — Sir  William  MacNaghten — at  Kabul.  But 
in  the  hearts  of  the  Afghans  there  still  was  war ;  and 
when,  in  1840,  Dost  Muhammad  reappeared  with  an 
army,  large  numbers  joined  him.  Eventually  he  sur- 
rendered himself  to  the  English,  and  was  sent  to  India 
(Nov.  1840)  on  a  yearly  pension.  But  the  Atghans 
were  by  no  means  overthrown.  Suddenly  they  mur- 
dered Sir  Alexander  Burnes,  the  Poli  ical  Agent.  Dost 
Muhammad's  eldest  son,  Akbar  Khan,  invited  Mac- 
Naghten to  a  friendly  meeting,  and  while  saluting  him, 
treacherously  murdered  him  (1841).  General  Sale  too 
was  soon  hard  pressed,  being  indeed  cooped  up  in  Jalal- 
abad. On  all  sides  the  enemv,  led  by  Akbar  Khan, 
thickened,  and  the  English  officers  at  Kabul,  to  some 
extent  panic-stricken,  were  glad  to  accept  any  terms 
offered  them.  The  troops  there,  commanded  by  Major 
Pottinger,  were  allowed  to  depart  on  condition  that 
they  abandoned  their  guns  and  treasure  ;  that  they  paid 
a  heavy  fine  ;  and  that  they  gave  four  officers  as  hostages. 
If  they  satisfied  these  demands  they  were  promised  a  safe 
retreat.  It  was  the  depth  of  winter.  The  country  was  a 
net-work  of  mountnins.  The  British  soldiers  were  ill 
clad,  and  many  of  them  perished  in  the  severe  cold.  To 
add  to  their  sufifeiings  the  faithless  enemv  began  to  fire 
upon  them  from  the  heights  above.   They  had .fTo  means 


Ch.XII.]  governor-general  after  HASTINGS.  199 

of  defending  themselves,  for  they  had  given  up  their  guns. 
They  were  now  (January,  18^2 )  in  the  Kurd  Kabul  Pass, 
and  their  case  was  desperate.  Akbar  Khan  made  a 
proposal.  It  was  that  the  ladies  in  the  English  camp 
should  be  placed  under  his  care.  There  seemed  no 
alternative  but  to  consent.  So  the  women  were  com- 
mitted to  his  protection.  But  the  worst  had  yet  to 
come.  On  the  following  day,  as  the  British  were 
marching,  the  enemy  Fell  on  them  in  a  narrow  pass,  and 
cut  them  to  pieces.  Of  the  16,500  who  had  started  in 
retreat  from  Kabul  one  solitary  man.  Dr.  Brydon,  reached 
Jalalabad  to  tell  the  story  of  the  sad  fate  of  the  Indian 
army.  Never  had  such  a  disaster  overtaken  British  arms 
in  the  East.  The  only  bright  spots  in  the  surround- 
ing gloom  were  Jalalabad,  where  General  Sale  was 
making  a  brave  defence,  and  Kandahar,  where  General 
Nott  was  nobly  holding  out.  The  Home  Government 
blamed  Lord  Auckland  for  the  course  of  the  war,  and 
he  was  recalled. 

Lord  EllenboPOUg"h,  1842-1844,  was  sent  to  re- 
trieve British  honour.  He  despatched 
General  Pollock,  who,  taking  AH  Masjid,  ^['j?co1.e!uded 
pressed  through  the  Khaibar  Pass  into 
Aighanistan.  The  enemy  retreated  from  Jalalabad,  and 
raised  the  siege  of  Kandahar.  Shah  Shuja  was,  how- 
ever, at  this  time,  murdered,  and  Akbar  Khan  assumed 
the  reins  of  government  on  behalf  of  his  exiled  father, 
Dost  Muhammad.  Generals  Pollock  and  Nott  moved 
from  different  directions  against  Kabul,  destroying  every 
fortress  in  the  line  of  their  march,  including  the  fortress 
ofGhazni,  whose  Engli.-h  garii^on  had  at  an  earlier 
stage  of  the  war  been  almost  annihilated.  Kabul  was 
then  taken,  and  its  bazar  was  blown  up.  The  Afghans 
were  now  in  a  mood  for  peace.  It  was  clear  to  Ellen- 
borough  that  Dost  Muhammad  was  the  only  man  who 
could  govern  them,  and  as  they  wanted  him  to  be  their 
king,  he*vas  released  from  his  imprisonment  in  Calcutta, 


200  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

and  reinstated  on  the  throne  of  Afghanistan.  The 
British  troops  were  then  withdrawn,  and  the  condition 
of  affairs  before  the  war  was  restored,  except  that  the 
EngHsh  had  forfeited  the  friendship  of  the  Afghans. 

No  sooner  was  the  war  with  Afghanistan  brought 
to  a  close  than  Ellenborough  had  to  turn 
S^dh'^^lSs  ^^  ^^^  attention  to  Sindh,  whose  rulers  were 
Baluchi  Chiefs.  Lord  Minto,  it  will  be 
remembered,  had  made  a  friendly  treaty  with  them  ;  but 
the  reverses  which  the  British  had  experienced  in 
Afghanistan  encouraged  them  to  try  to  rid  themselves 
of  their  obligations  to  the  Enghsh.  They,  therefore, 
made  an  attack  on  the  British  Residency.  Sir  Charles 
Napier  conducted  the  war  for  Ellenborough,  and  signally 
defeated  the  Amir  of  Sindh  in  the  battles  of  Miani  and 
Haidarabad.  The  Chiefs  of  Sindh  were  sent  as  prisoners 
to  Benares,  and  Sindh  itself  was  annexed. 

Scarcely  had  the  war  with  Sindh  been  concluded  when 
Ellenborough  was  called  upon  to  interfere 
Gwaliap  taken  jj^  ^^^  affairs  of  Gwaliar.  A  dispute  be- 
Proteetion.  tween  rival  chiefs  as  to  who  should  be 

Regent  to  the  young  Sindhia,  plunged 
Gwaliar  into  civil  war,  and  the  danger  was  lest  there 
should  be  a  general  rising  in  Northern  India.  Ellen- 
borough felt  this  must  be  averted  ;  and  so  he  sent  Lord 
Gough  with  an  army  against  the  contending  parties  in 
Gwahar.  Gough  won  the  battles  of  Maharajpur  and 
Panniar  and  thus  put  himself  in  a  position  to  settle  the 
disputes  which  had  involved  the  state  in  war.  No 
regent  was  appointed  ;  but  a  council  of  six  Maratha 
nobles  was  created  to  manage  the  affairs  of  the  state, 
and  an  English  force  was  stationed  in  Gwaliar  to  ensure 
the  continuance  of  peace. 

The  Directors  at  home  did  not  approve  of  the 
annexation  of  Sindh,  and  Ellenborough  was  recalled. 
However,  to  have  restored  the  Company's  prestige  in 
Afghanistan  was  an  achievement  with  which  he  had 
every  reason  to  be  satisfied. 


Ch.  Xir  GOVERNORS-GENERAL  AFTER  HASTINGS.  20I 


'J 


Lord  Hardingfe,  1844-1848.— However  much  they 
may  have  wished  it,  it  seemed  impossible  for  the 
English  to  abide  in  India  at  peace  with  their  neighbours. 
Scarcely  was  one  war  over  than  they  found  themselves 
face  to  face  with  another.  On  arrival,  Hardinge  re- 
cognised that  a  Sikh  war  was  not  very  far  off. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  in  an  earlier  chapter 
we  traced  the  history  of  the  Sikhs  up  to  the  time  when 
Dhulip  Singh  was  placed  on  the  throne,  with  the  Khalsa 
for  his  council  and  his  mother  as  Regent.     Well,  the 
Queen-Regent  and  the  Khalsa  were  soon  convinced  that 
they  could  not  control  the  army,  and 
that,  if  it  were  not  engaged  against  a    fgJI^l^'^*^  ^^^' 
foreign    foe,   it   would   turn   upon    the 
Khalsa   itself,  and  plunge  the   Punjab  into   civil   war. 
The  army  was  accordingly,  without  provocation,  led 
across  the  Sutlej  into  English  territory,  and  so  began  the 
First  Sikh  War.     Hardinge  had,  however,  in  anticipation 
of  the  event,  moved  his  forces  unobserved  towards  the 
Sikh  frontier,  and  was  therefore  ready  for  the  Sikhs. 
He  immediately  proclaimed  the  Cis-Sutlej   States  an- 
nexed, and  within  six  days  of  the  Sikhs  crossing  the 
Sutlej,  Sir  Hugh  Gough,  the  commander-in-chief,  with 
Lord  Hardinge  as  second  in  command,  defeated  them 
in  the  battle  of  Mudki.     The  English  army  in  quick 
succession  added  the  victories  of  Ferozeshah  (1845), 
AHwal,    and   Sobraon    (1846).      The    loss    of    life   at 
Sobraon   was   ghastly.     The  Sikhs  were   driven    back 
to  a  bridge  over  the  Sutlej.     The  bridge  gave  away,  and 
thousands  of  them   were  precipitated   into  the   river. 
Hundreds  perished  ;  but  not  a  man  surrendered.     The 
English  then  pushed  on  to  Lahore,  and  a  deputation  of 
Sikh  chiefs,  headed  by   Gulab  Singh,  sued   for  peace. 
The  Treaty  of  Lahore  was  then  signed.     By  it,  though 
Dhulip   Singh   was   retained  on   the    throne    with  his 
mother  as  Queen-Regent,  the  tract  of  country  between 
the  B'2^  and  the  Sutlej  was  ceded  to  the  English  ;  one- 
and-a-hxlf  crores  of  rupees   were  paid  to  them  as  an 


202  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

indemnity  for  the  war ;  Gulab  Singh  was  set  up  as  inde- 
pendent Raja  of  Kashmir  in  return  for  75  lakhs  of  rupees  ; 
and  the  strength  of  the  Sikh  army  was  reduced.  In 
addition  Major  Henry  Lawrence  was  given  a  voice  in 
the  Sikh  Durbar,  and  was  left  at  Lahore  in  charge  of 
political  affairs.  But  Imamuddin,  the  governor  of 
Kashmir,  refused  to  admit  Gulab  Singh's  title  to  the 
throne  of  Kashmir.  Troops  were  sent  against  him,  and 
he  was  obliged  to  yield.  A  Second  Treaty  of  Lahore 
was  then  made.  By  it  the  Government  of  Lahore  was 
to  be  carried  on  on  behalf  of  the  minor  Maharaja,  Dhulip 
Singh,  by  a  council  of  native  nobles  under  the  direction 
of  a  British  Resident,  while  Gulab  Singh  became  a 
vassal  of  the  British  as  well  as  Maharaja  of  Kashmir. 

In   181 9  the  Nawab   Wazir  of  Oudh  had  thrown 

over  his  vassalage  to  the   Mughal  Emperor,  and  had 

assumed  the  title  of  King  of  Oudh.     But  his  misrule 

seemed  to  call  for  rebuke,  and  Hardinge 

Misrule.  Lord  Wellesley  s  treaty  with  Saadat  Ah 

(made  in  1801)  and  govern  his  kingdom 
properly,  the  English  would  be  obliged  to  interfere  in  the 
interests  of  his  subjects. 

Before  returning  to  England  Hardinge  attended  to 
other  matters.  He  continued  the  ex- 
Material  ^  cavation  of  the  Ganges  Canal,  and  ear- 
Progress,  nestly  endeavoured  to  put  down  sati, 
infanticide,  and  human  sacrifices  among 
the  Khonds  of  Orissa.  While  he  was  Governor-General 
the  cultivation  of  tea  was  begun  in  Assam,  the  tax  on  salt 
was  reduced,  education  in  English  was  systematically 
encouraged,  and  Indians  were  more  largely  admitted 
into  the  public  services. 

Lord  Dalhousie,  1848-1856. — The     administration 

of  Lord  Dalhousie,  one  of  the  greatest 

FeaWrel-ofDal-  of=>''  '')<'  Governors-General,  «ay  be 

housie's  Rule.         summed     up    in    the    three     ^^ords — 


Ch.  XII]  GOVERNORS-GENERAL  AFTER  HASTINGS.  203 

Acquisition,  Consolidation,  Development.  He  annexed, 
perhaps,  more  territory  than  any  of  his  predecessors. 
He  knitted  together  the  scattered  British  provinces  by 
a  net-v^ork  of  railways  and  telegraph  wires.  He  did 
much  to  increase  the  trade  and  the  material  prosperity 
of  the  country. 

Though  overthrown  in  the  First  Sikh  War,  the 
Sikhs  were  by  no  means  crushed.  The 
several  divisions  of  the  Punjab  had  been  wap,"l848-1849. 
placed  under  Governors,  or  Diwans,  who 
were  responsible  to  the  British  Resident  at  Lahore. 
This  officer  called  upon  Diwan  Mulraj,  governor  of 
Multan,  to  render  an  account  of  his  administration. 
Mulraj  preferred  to  resign.  On  this  Mr.  Vans  Agnew 
and  Lieutenant  Anderson  were  sent  to  take  over  the 
government  and  fortress  of  Multan.  But  it  had  all  been 
arranged  beforehand,  and  as  soon  as  these  officers  as- 
sumed control  of  public  affairs  they  were  murdered. 
News  of  this  reached  Lieutenant  Herbert  Edwardes  at 
Dera-Fateh-Khan.  But  the  rebellion  of  one  man  had 
now  grown  into  a  revolt  of  the  Sikh  Confederacy.  The 
Afghans,  smarting  under  their  late  humiliation,  readily 
lent  their  assistance  to  the  Sikhs.  Lord  Gough  did  not 
at  first  grasp  the  seriousness  of  the  position,  and  he 
omitted  to  make  preparations  on  a  sufficiently  large 
scale.  However,  Lieutenant  Edwardes  held  the  enemy 
in  check  till  Gough's  army  took  the  field.  Multan  was 
then  captured,  1848,  and  Mulraj  gave  himself  up  to  the 
English.  In  the  following  year  the  Sikhs  were  defeated 
at  Chillianwala  and  Gujarat.  They  then  submitted 
unconditionally  at  Rawal  Pindi,  (1849),  and  the  Afghan 
contingent  was  pursued  to  the  Khaibar  Pass.  The  war 
over,  Dhulip  Singh  was  given  a  liberal  pension  ;  the 
Punjab  was  annexed,  and  put  under  a  Board  of  Control 
consisting  of  Henry  Lawrence,  John  Lawrence,  and 
Charles  Mansel.  Moreover,  the  Sikh  army  was  disband- 
ed, b'lt^its  best  men  were  formed  into  a  military  police. 
The  Kh^alsa  also  was  broken  up,  and  its  members  reduced 


204  HISTORY    OF    INDIA 

to  the  position  of  private  persons.  Ruled  by  the  Sikhs 
the  Punjab  had  groaned  under  the  burden  of  forty-eight 
taxes  ;  Dalhousie  reduced  them  to  six.  A  careful  survey 
was  made  of  the  province,  and  the  land  tax  was  fairly 
levied.  In  other  directions  the  development  of  the 
province  was  assisted.  The  Bari  Duab  Canal  was  ex- 
cavated ;  the  Grand  Trunk  Road  was  extended  across 
the  Punjab  ;  and  education  was  attended  to  by  the  state. 
In  1852,  the  Board  of  Control  at  Lahore  was  dissolved, 
and  John  Lawrence  was  made  Chief  Commissioner  of  the 
Punjab.  Grateful  for  the  consideration  shown  them  in 
the  hour  of  their  humiliation,  the  Sikhs  stood  by  the 
English  throughout  the  Mutiny  of  1857. 

The  Raja  of  Sikkim,  in  1849,  seized  some  English 

travellers.     As  a  punishment  Sikkim 
Sikkim  annexed.     ^,^3  ^^^^^  ^^^^  ^-^ 

The  King  of  Burma,  in  violation  of  the  Treaty  of 
Yendabu  ill-treated  British  subjects  at 
Second  B^urmese  Rangoon,    and,   when    called   upon   to 
'  "  redress    the   wrongs    of    Enghsh   mer- 

chants, he  took  no  notice  of  the  demand.  Friendly 
negotiations  having  had  no  effect,  in  1852  an  expedition 
was  sent  against  him,  and  in  a  short  time  Martaban, 
Rangoon,  Prome,  and  Pegu  were  taken  from  him. 
Dalhousie  stopped  the  war  at  this  stage,  being  of  opinion 
that  the  Burmese  King  had  been  sufficiently  punished. 
A  proclamation  annexing  all  Lower  Burma  was  pub- 
lished, and  the  greater  part  of  the  English  army  was 
withdrawn.  From  this  time  the  southern  part  of  Burma 
has  prospered. 

According  to  a  long  established  Indian  practice, 
dating  from  the  time  of  Akbar  and  Aurangzeb,  when 
a  Hindu  prince  held  his  principality  in  subordination 
to,  or  as  a  gift  from,  the  paramount  power,  in  event 
of  failure  of  male  heirs  of  his  body,  he  was  allowed 
to  adopt  a  son  ;  but  the  condition  of  this 
of  ^Lanse''^'^^  son's  succession  to  the  principality- was 
that  the  adoption   should  have  obtained 


Ch.XII]  governors-general  after  HASTINGS.  205 

the  consent  of  the  paramount  power.  In  the  absence  of 
that  consent,  the  personal  property  of  the  deceased  prince 
was  inherited  by  the  adopted  son,  but  not  the  princi- 
pahty,  which  reverted  to  the  paramount  State.  At  all 
times  the  latter  reserved  to  itself  the  right  of  withholding 
its  consent  to  an  adoption,  and,  when  the  consent  was 
not  given,  of  resuming  the  subordinate  principalit)\ 
This  is  known  as  the  Doctrine  of  Lapse. 

Lord  Dalhousie  came  out  with  instructions  to 
strictly  follow  the  Doctrine  of  Lapse, 
and,  by  resuming  all  petty  states  to  Jexes^^many 
which  there  were  no  heirs  of  the  body,  states, 
to  remove  intermediate  powers  between 
the  British  Government  and  the  people,  w^herever  it 
would  benefit  the  latter.  In  carrying  out  this  principle 
Lord  Dalhousie  annexed  several  minor  states.  The  Raja 
of  Satara  on  his  deathbed  adopted  a  son,  1848,  without 
the  consent  of  the  British  Government.  The  child  was 
given  his  adoptive  father's  personal  property,  but  not 
the  subordinate  State  of  Satara,  which  was  annexed. 
The  matter  was  referred  to  the  Court  of  Directors,  who 
ruled  that  "  the  territory  of  Satara  has  lapsed,  by  failure 
of  heirs,  to  the  Power  who  bestowed  it,  and  we  desire 
that  it  be  annexed  to  the  British  dominions."  On  simi- 
lar grounds,  Sambalpur,  Jhansi,  Udaipur,  Tanjore,  parts 
of  Sindh,  Cachar,  Orissa,  and  Nagpur  were  annexed,  and 
the  pension  of  the  Nawab  of  the  Karnatic  and  of  Nana 
Sahib,  the  adopted  son  of  Baji  Rao  II,  lapsed,  while 
for  arrears  of  payments  due  for  the  maintenance  of 
British  troops  quartered  in  his  territories,  the  Nizam 
of  Haidarabad  ceded  the  Assigned  Districts  to  the 
Company. 

The  annexation  of  Oudh  was  for  different  reasons. 
The  province  of  Oudh  had  been  guaran- 
teed to  the  Nawab  Wazir,  (from  1819    oSdhffsse!^ 
known  as  the  King  of  Oudh)  by  Welles- 
ley's  ^reaty  of  180 1,  only  so  long  as  he  ruled  Oudh  well. 
Bentinck,   Auckland  and   Hardinge  had   each  in   turn 


206 


HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 


warned  the  King  of  Oudh,  that  if  he  did  not  reform  his 
government,  the  Company  would  be  obliged  to  interfere. 
Dalhousie  felt  that  action  could  no  longer  be  delayed. 
Things  had  come  to  such  a  pass  that  he  wrote  to  the 
Court  of  Directors,  "were  it  not  for  the  constant  presence 
of  British  troops  at  Lucknow,  the  people  of  Oudh 
would  speedily  work  their  own  deliverance."  He  re- 
commended that  "  while  the  king  should  be  permitted 
to  retain  his  royal  title  and  rank,  he  should  be  required 


BRITISH    INDIA 

IN    THE    TIME    OF   LORD    DALHOUSIE 
1856. 


•^•i&At 


Ch.  XII]  GOVERNORS-GENERAL  AFTER  HASTINGS.  20/ 

to  vest  the  whole  civil  and  military  administration  of 
Oudh  in  the  hands  of  the  Company."  The  Court  of 
Directors  did  not  approve  of  his  leniency,  and  ordered 
him,  before  he  laid  down  office,  to  annex  Oudh.  It  was 
accordingly  annexed  in  1856. 

It  was  Dalhousie's  great  anxiety  that  a  change  of 
masters  should  not  injure  the  subjects. 
He  everywhere  set  the  rents  and  the  ad-  KviSfels^^^^^" 
ministration  ofjusticeonaproperfooting, 
but  he  nowhere  interfered  with  the  customs,  religions 
and  habits  of  the  people.  These  last  continued  in  the 
full  enjoyment  of  their  rights,  and  in  addition  were  freed 
from  the  oppression  which  they  had  only  too  often  ex- 
perienced from  native  rulers.  District  Officers  were 
appointed  to  preside  over  the  law  courts,  over  the 
gathering-in  of  revenue,  and  over  the  police.  Most  of 
the  newly-acquired  territories  were  made  into  Non- 
Regulation  Provinces. 

Having  completed  his  work  of  acquisition,  Dalhousie 
began  to  consolidate.     He  united  the 
scattered  parts  of  the  British  possessions       Consolidation 
u        -I  ju4^u^i  u        ^  and  Material 

by  railways  and  by  the  telegraph  system.       Progress. 

He  introduced  cheap  postage,  and  con- 
structed roads,  canals,  court-houses,  jails,  and  other  pubhc 
buildings.  Education  was  made  a  department  of  the 
state,  and  government  officers  were  appointed  to  look 
after  the  primary  and  secondary  schools  that  sprang  up 
everywhere.  Lord  Halifax,  in  1854,  drew  up  a  scheme 
of  education  based  upon  the  modern  vernacular  lan- 
guages of  India,  and  its  adoption  eventually  led  to  the 
founding  of  Universities  at  Calcutta,  Madras,  and 
Bombay.  Trade  and  industries  were  encouraged  in 
every  possible  way.  Slavery  was  abolished,  and  agri- 
culture was  promoted.  Appointments  in  the  Civil  Service 
were  thrown  open  to  the  natives  of  India,  and  Indian 
members  were  admitted  to  the  Legislative  Council. 
Dalhousie  tried  to  reorganise  the  native  army,  and  to 
increases  the    number    of    Enghsh    regiments    in     the 


208  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

country ;    but   the    Directors   did   not   consent   to    his 
proposals. 

In  1856,  Dalhousie  retired  from  his  arduous  duties. 

He  had  greatly  increased  the  British 
hoSs^Work     possessions  in  India.     Where  there  had 

been  misrule  and  tyranny  he  substituted 
good  government  and  equal  laws.  By  the  iron  bands 
of  railway  lines  and  telegraph  wires  he  linked  province 
to  province.  By  a  system  of  cheap  postage  he  facili- 
tated the  interchange  of  thought.  By  providing  roads 
and  canals  he  assisted  trade.  By  introducing  a  common 
system  of  state  education  he  created  a  oneness  between 
divergent  creeds  and  races.  By  allowing  Indians  into 
every  department  and  grade  of  the  Civil  Service  he 
satisfied  the  ambitions  of  all  classes  of  people.  These 
statesmanlike  measures  rank  him  with  Hastings,  Clive, 
Wellesley,  and  Bentinck,  and  entitle  him  to  a  foremost 
place  among  the  Governors-General  of  India. 

Lord  Canning".  1856-1858. — Owing  to  Dalhousie's 
measures,  when  Canning  arrived  there  was  in  the  minds 
of  Hindus  and  Muhammadans,  a  suspicion  that  the 
British  Government  was  determined  by  indirect  means 
to  subvert  the  religions  of  the  country,  and  that  national 
customs  were  in  danger  of  being  undermined.  In  ad- 
dition to  this,  the  application  of  the 
Causes  of  the  Doctrine  of  Lapse  had  greatly  alarmed 
of?857^"^^"^  ^^®  chiefs  and  princes,  many  of  whom 
believed  themselves  to  have  been  un- 
justly deprived  of  their  lawful  inheritance.  There  was 
also  a  vague  expectation  in  the  air  because  of  the  pro- 
phecy that  the  hundredth  vear  after  the  battle  of  Plassey 
would  see  the  end  of  British  rule  in  India.  The  sepoys 
knew  that  the)^  outnumbered  the  European  soldiers  in 
the  ratio  of  five  to  one,  and  that  miles  of  country  in- 
tervened between  one  English  garrison  and  another. 
The  army,  too,  had  been  denuded  of  its  British  jgfficers, 
many   of  whom    had   been    given    civil   and  ^  political 


Ch.XII]  governors-general  after  HASTINGS.  209 

appointments.  More  than  this  ;  the  recent  Burmese  War 
had  greatly  irritated  the  sepoys,  for  they  held  that  they 
had  enlisted  exclusively  for  internal  warfare,  and  not 
for  service  beyond  the  seas — crossing  the  seas  being 
believed  to  be  forbidden  by  the  Hindu  religion.  Again, 
many  regiments  were  composed  of  men  who  came  from 
the  same  locality,  who  were  related  to  one  another,  who 
were  of  the  same  caste,  and  who  could  therefore  easily 
combine  for  any  purpose.  The  annexation  of  Oudh 
had  sent  adrift  50,000  Indian  soldiers  who  had  commit- 
ted no  fault.  All  this  combined  to  fill  the  sepoys  with 
discontent.  They  were  thus  ripening  for  mischief  when 
the  rumour  was  spread  that  the  British  Government 
was  conspiring  to  rob  them  of  their  caste  by  greasing 
the  cartridges  of  the  guns  with  fats  that  offended 
Muhammadans  and  Hindus  ahke,  and  that  the  flour 
supplied  to  the  Hindu  sepoys  at  Cawnpur  was  mixed 
with  bone  dust  of  the  sacred  cow. 

While  these  grievances  were  rankling  in  the  minds 
of  the  sepoys,  their  officers  and  the  civil 
authorities  suspected  nothing.  Before  Jjny  begins 
leaving  the  country.  Lord  Dalhousie 
had  advised  the  Home  Government  to  increase  the  num- 
ber of  British  soldiers  in  the  Indian  army,  so  that  they 
might  in  an  emergency  hold  the  sepoys  in  check.  But 
his  advice  had  not  been  heeded.  It  is  true  that  at  more 
than  one  place  the  sepoys  had  been  somewhat  insubor- 
dinate ;  but  no  serious  view  had  been  taken  of  their 
conduct,  and  they  had  been  leniently  treated.  And 
yet  there  were  events  transpiring  which  should  have 
put  the  English  on  their  guard.  At  Meerut  a  religious 
mendicant  publicly  preached  rebellion,  and  Dandu  Pant, 
the  adopted  son  of  the  ex-Peshwa,  and  better  known 
in  history  as  Nana  Sahib,  made  a  tour  of  Delhi,  Luck- 
now  and  Kalpi,  sowing  the  seeds  of  insurrection  as  he 
went.  And  so  it  was  that  the  British  dreams  of  security 
were  rudely  brought  to  an  end  one  Sunday  evening  by 
the   sepoys  of  Meerut    shooting   down  their   officers ; 


210  HISTORY    OF    INDIA. 

killing  every  European  man,  woman,  and  child  they 
met ;  breaking  into  the  jail  and  releasing  the  prisoners  ; 
and  spending  the  night  in  plundering  the  city.  Before 
the  news  of  the  rising  could  be  sent  anywhere,  the 
insurgents  hurried  on  to  Delhi,  and  being  there  joined 
by  the  sepoys  of  that  city,  they  murdered  the  Euro- 
peans of  the  place.  It  was  very  evident  that  their  next 
move  would  be  to  take  possession  of  the  arms  and 
ammunition  stored  there  by  the  English.  But  Lieu- 
tenant Willoughby  was  determined  that  the  powder 
and  shot  should  not  fall  into  their  hands.  To  defend 
the  arsenal  against  them  was  out  of  the  question,  so  he 
set  fire  to  the  powder,  and  was  blown  up  together  with 
2000  of  the  rebels.  Delhi,  however,  was  in  their  posses- 
sion, and  the  mutiny  rapidly  spread  from  province  to  pro- 
vince, and  from  city  to  city.  Rohilkhand  was  ablaze,. 
Jalandhar,  Bandelkhand,  and  Jabalpur  were  in  rebellion. 
The  Rani  of  Jhansi  behaved  with  savage  ferocity.  In 
what  is  now  the  United  Provinces  of  Agra  and  Oudh  the 
people  themselves  joined  the  sepoys.  Lucknow  was 
besieged,  and  Cawnpur  was  at  the  mercy  of  Nana  Sahib 
and  his  general,  Tantia  Topi.  Though  the  South 
Maratha  Country  sympathised  with  the  sepoys,  its 
soldiery  remained  inactive.  Through  the  influence  of 
Sir  Salar  Jang,  Haidarabad  remained  peaceful.  At 
Peshawar,  Barrackpore,  and  some  other  places  the  sepoys 
were  disarmed  before  they  could  rebel.  The  Sikhs, 
who  might  have  been  expected  to  join  the  insurgents,, 
held  aloof,  and  the  Punjab  remained  loyal. 

Delhi,  Lucknow,  and  Cawnpur  were  the  main  centres 

of  the  Mutiny.  At  the  last- mentioned 
Cawnp^u"r!'"Delhl  ^^^y  some  400  English  soldiers  en- 
and  Lucknow.        trenched  themselves  with  their  wives 

and  children,  and  for  a  time  bravely 
withstood  the  fierce  assaults  of  Nana  Sahib  and  Tantia 
Topi.  When  they  felt  they  could  no  longer  hold  out,, 
in  despair  they  accepted  the  offer  which  Nana^Sahib 
made  them  of  safe  conduct  to  Allahabad.     They  were.: 


Ch.XII]  governors-general  after  HASTINGS.  211 

led  to  the  ghat  were  boats  were  in  readiness  for  them. 
But  as  they  pushed  into  midstream  the  treacherous 
enemy  from  the  banks  of  the  river  opened  fire  on  the 
defenceless  boats.  About  206  men,  women,  and  children 
were  made  prisoners,  and  killed  with  every  conceivable 
form  of  cruelty.  Their  corpses  were  thrown  promis- 
cuously into  a  well.  Two  days  after  this  tragic  occur- 
rence, Havelock  arrived  with  a  relieving  army,  and 
Nana  Sahib  fled.  What  became  of  him  is  not  exactly 
known,  but  it  was  at  the  time  believed  that  in  the 
forests  of  Nepal  he  was  devoured  by  a  tiger.  At  any 
rate  he  was  never  heard  of  again. 

Meanwhile  at  Delhi,  the  30,000  rebel  sepoys  in 
possession  of  the  city  were  being  besieged  by  only  7000 
British  troops  under  General  Nicholson.  At  length 
Delhi  fell,  but  not  till  Nicholson  had  been  killed.  The 
Emperor,  Bahadur  Shah,  and  his  two  sons  were  made 
prisoners.  He  was  transported  to  Burma,  and  the  ring- 
leaders of  the  mutinous  sepoys  at  Delhi  were  shot. 
The  fall  of  Delhi  was  a  turning  point  in  the  history  of 
the  Mutiny. 

As  has  already  been  observed,  in  Oudh  the  mutineers 
were  joined  by  the  people.  They  were  misled  into 
rebellion  by  the  Talukdars,  who  had  become  disaffected 
owing  to  the  annexation  of  the  province.  At  Lucknow, 
Sir  Henry  Lawrence  had  fortified  the  Residency,  and  in 
it  about  1700  Europeans  were  besieged  by  the  rebels 
who  were  being  daily  reinforced.  Early  in  the  siege 
Lawrence  was  killed;  but  the  beleaguered  British  bravely 
held  out.  After  three  months  a  relieving  force  under 
Havelock,  Neill,  and  Outram  arrived.  But  the  invest- 
ment of  the  Residency  continued.  Neill  fell.  In  an 
underground  chamber  the  ladies  and  children  dwelt  for 
the  six  dreary  and  anxious  months  that  the  siege  con- 
tinued. The  Residency  yet  stands,  and  its  grey  walls 
riddled  by  bullet  and  cannon  ball,  bear  silent  but 
impressive  witness  to  the  furyof  the  mutineers,  At  last, 
in   No\'ember,  1857,  Sir  Colin  Campbell  cut  his  way 


212 


HISTORY    OF   INDIA. 


through  the  enemy,  and  reheved  the  all  but  exhausted 
garrison.  The  sepoys  fell  back  on  Bareilly,  but  were 
expelled  from  there,  and  were  pursued  from  place  to 
place  till  they  escaped  to  Nepal. 

Sir  Hugh  Rose  was  meanwhile  dealing  with  the 
Mutiny  in  Central  India.  He  took  Kalpi,  and  laid  siege 
to  Jhansi,  whose  cruel  Rani  had  eagerly  combined  with 
Tantia  Topi.  The  Maharaja  of  Gvvahar,  who  had  thrown 
in  his  lot  with  the  English,  was  defeated  by  this  Maratha 
general,  who  forthwith  assumed  the  government  of  the 
place.  Sir  Hugh  Rose,  however,  defeated  him  at  Morar, 
and  retook  Gwaliar.  Sir  Robert  (afterwards  Lord) 
Napier  came  'upon  the  rebel  army  under  Tantia  Topi 
between  Gwaliar  and  Agra,  and  all  but  annihilated  his 
forces.  Tantia  Topi  escaped  from  the  battlefield,  but 
he  was  later  on  betrayed,  and  hanged  for  his  share  in 
the  massacre  at  Cawnpore.  It  was  now  April  of  1859, 
and  the  Mutiny  was  practically  stamped  out. 


The  Residency,  Lucknow 


Ch.  XII]  GOVERNOR-GENERAL  AFTER  HASTINGS  213 

Lord  Canning  dealt  leniently  with  the  mutineers, 
most  of  whom  he  believed  had  been  mis- 
guided into  rebellion.  A  general  pardon  J^jjjf'  ^y  *^he 
was  proclaimed  to  all  who  threw  them-  British  Crown. 
selves  on  the  mercy  of  the  English.  The 
lands  of  the  disloyal  Talukdars  were  confiscated,  and 
the  ringleaders  were  put  to  death.  These  mild  measures 
displeased  many,  and  earned  for  the  Governor-General 
the  nick-name  of"  Clemency  Canning" ;  but  in  truth  the 
epithet  is  a  tribute  to  his  wisdom  and  humanity.  His 
mercy  did  more  than  anything  else  to  pacify  the  country, 
and  to  make  it  the  loyal  India  of  to-day.  In  1858,  an 
Act  was  passed  by  Parliament  abolishing  the  East  India 
Company  and  the  Board  of  Control  and  transferring  the 
government  of  India  to  the  British  Crown  in  the  person 
of  Queen  Victoria.  The  Governor-General  was  created 
Viceroy,  and  was  made  responsible  to  the  Secretary  of 
State  for  India,  who  was  put  at  the  head  of  a  Council  ap- 
pointed to  manage  Indian  affairs.  On  the  ist  November, 
1858,  Queen  Victoria's  Proclamation  was  read  with  due 
ceremonial  splendour  at  every  civil  and  military  station. 
It  guaranteed  to  the  people  fair  and  equitable  treatment ; 
it  assured  the  nobility  that  all  treaties  and  engagements 
made  with  them  in  the  past  would  be  respected ;  the 
Doctrine  of  Lapse  was  declared  to  be  abandoned,  and 
adoption  in  the  event  of  failure  of  natural  heirs  was 
admitted  to  confer  on  the  adopted  the  right  of  succession 
to  the  guddee.  The  Public  Services  were  without 
reserve  thrown  open  to  any  natives  of  India  who,  by 
their  education,  ability  and  integrity,  might  be  capable 
of  performing  duties  that  had  hitherto  largely  been 
discharged  by  Europeans. 


"I; 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

India  under  the  Crown: 

The  Fifth,  or  British,  Empire  of  India. 

The  Viceroys  of  India. 

i8s8—igoi  A.D. 

LORD  Canning",  1858-1862.— The  Queen's  Procla- 
mation made  India  a  dependency  of  England,  and 

Canning  was  created  Viceroy.  As  soon 
as  Vieeroy^*'^^  ^^    peace    was    restored,    he   travelled 

over  Northern  India,  and  reassured  the 
princes  and  people  whose  cities  he  visited.  At  Agra  he 
held  an  assembly,  or  durbar,  of  Indian  chiefs  who  had 
been  loyal  during  the  Mutiny,  and  rewarded  them  with 
titles  and  decorations.  His  next  anxiety  was  to  recoup 
the  vast  sums  which  the  rebellion  had  cost.  An  income 
tax  was  imposed,  customs  duties  were  revised,  and  pro- 
fessions were  required  to  pay  a  license.  Then,  in  1859, 
a  Rent  Act  was  passed  in  the  interests  of  ryots,  and  in 
the  following  year  the  Indian  Penal  Code,  which  Lord 
Macaulay  had  drawn  up,  was  used  in  all  Criminal 
Courts.  The  Sadar  Courts  were  abolished,  and  the 
High  Court  of  Calcutta  was  established. 

Lord  Elg-in,  I.  1862-1863.— Lord  Elgin,  who  had 
been  Governor  of  Canada,  in  America,  was  appointed 
to  succeed  Canning.  During  his  short  rule  of  eighteen 
months  he  had  to  put  down  a  rising  of  the  Wahabis, 
a  fanatical  sect  of  Muhammadans.  While  touring  in 
North-West  of  India,  he  became  seriously  ill,  and 
died  at  Dharamsala.  There  he  was  buried.  Until  the 
next  Viceroy  could  come  out,  Sir  William  Denisun,  the 


Ch.  XIII.]        THE   VICEROYS   OF   INDIA.  215 

Governor  of  Madras,  acted  at  the  head  of  the  Indian 
Government.  It  looked  as  though  fresh  trouble  was 
at  hand,  for  the  Raja  of  Bhutan  raided  the  Duars,  and 
treated  with  scorn  the  ambassador  who  was  sent  to 
remonstrate  with  him. 

Lord  Lawrence,  1864-1869.— Sir  John  Lawrence, 
who  had  so  ably  ruled  in  the  Punjab  during  the  Mutiny, 
was  selected  to  be  the  next  Viceroy,  and  was  created 
Lord  Lawrence.  He  was  very  averse  to  wars,  and 
though  he  might  have  found  reason  for  entering  upon 
hostilities  with  Afghanistan,  he  desisted.  It  was,  how- 
ever, otherwise  in  the  case  of  Bhutan,  The  conduct  of 
the  Raja  of  that  land  could  not  be  tolerated,  and  an 
expedition  was  sent  against  him.  After  a  brief  but 
brave  resistance  he  was  overthrown,  and  the  Bhutan 
Duars  were  annexed,  1864.  Two  years  later  a  terrible 
famine  occurred  in  Orissa,  and  in  spite  of  all  that  was 
done  to  supply  its  people  with  grain,  thousands  died  of 
starvation. 

Lord  Mayo.  "The  Conciliator  of  Princes,"  1869- 
1872. — As  already  hinted,  Sher  Ali  the  new  Amir  of 
Afghanistan,  had  had  a  misunderstanding  with  Lord 
Lawrence,  and  Mayo  thought  of  restoring  friendly  feel- 
ings by  inviting  him  to  a  meeting  at  Ambala.  Sher  Ali 
came,  and  was  treated  with  special  honour  ;  but  he  went 
back  dissatisfied.  The  Viceroy  then  turned  his  attention 
to  internal  reforms  and  improvements.  For  some  years 
past  the  income  of  the  Government  had  fallen  short, 
chiefly  because  the  Local  Governments  made  no  attempts 
to  save  expenditure  that  could  well  be  avoided.  The 
reason  of  their  extravagance  was  that  any  savings  they 
might  effect  lapsed  to  the  Government 
of  India.  To  remedy  this  Mayo  devised  l^^J^^Tsy^^^ 
what  is  known  as  the  Provincial  Con- 
tract S,ystem,  according  to  which  a  certain  portion  of 
the  rev\2nues  and  of  other  incomes  is  allotted  to  the 


2l6  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

Provincial  Governments  for  five  years  at  a  time.  From 
this  allotment  they  have  to  meet  their  expenses,  and  if 
there  be  any  balance  left,  they  may  use  it  for  the 
benefit  of  the  province  concerned.  This  system  with 
unimportant  modifications  continues  to  this  day,  and 
by  it  the  money  affairs  of  the  Government  have  caused 
httle,  if  any,  anxiety. 

Mayo  next  remodelled  the  Supreme  Council.     He 
divided  the  affairs  of  the  Government  into 
the^Sup?SSe        s^^^"    Departments— Foreign ;    Pubhc 
Council.  Works  ;  Home  ;  Revenue  ;  Agriculture, 

Commerce  ;  Financial ;  Mihtary  ;  and 
Legislative.  The  Head  of  each  Department  was  \given 
a  seat  on  the  Supreme  Council  of  which  the  Viceroy 
himself  was  President.  Every  member  was  responsible 
for  his  own  Department,  but  he  had  the  benefit  of  the 
advice  of  the  other  members  assembled  in  Council.  By 
this  means  the  various  parts  of  the  machinery  of  the 
Government  were  made  interdependent,  and  assisted  to 
work  together  in  harmony. 

In  the  Queen's  Proclamation  of  1858  it  was  declar- 
ed that  the  government  of  the  several 
tife^^Feudatopy    Ponces  and  chiefs  who  then  governed 
States.  their  own  territories  should  be  perpetu- 

ated, and  that  the  dignity  of  their  houses 
should  be  maintained.  Lord  Mayo  recognised  that  this 
meant  that  an  area  of  about  600,000  square  miles,  with 
a  population  of  nearly  50  millions,  governed  by  Feuda- 
tory Chiefs  was  part  and  parcel  of  the  British  Indian 
Empire,  and  that  the  Queen  had  made  herself  responsible 
for  its  welfare.  He  therefore  laid  down  the  following 
maxims  for  future  deahngs  with  Feudatory  Chiefs  : — (i) 
The  misrule  of  an  Indian  Chief  was  never  to  be  made 
the  excuse  for  annexation.  (2)  Where  there  was  bad 
government  the  Chief  might  be  replaced  by  his  heir, 
whose  government — if  he  were  a  minor — should  be 
placed  under  a  Native  or  an  European  Regeijiit.  (3) 
The  vounger  Native  Chiefs  should  be   educated  under 


Ch.  XIIL]      the  viceroys  of  india.  217 

the  direction  of  British  officers,  and  be  taught  their  res- 
ponsibihties  to  their  subjects  and  to  the  British  Govern- 
ment. In  working  out  this  poHcy  Mayo  took  in  hand 
the  187  Chiefs  of  Kathiawar,  estabhshed  a  cohege  for 
them,  and  gradually  introduced  among  them  a  better 
system  of  Government.  So  also  the  state  of  Aliwar 
was  placed  under  a  Native  Council  of  Management. 
It  did  not  take  long  for  the  Feudatory  Princes  to  ap- 
preciate the  work  that  Lord  Mayo  was  doing  for  them, 
and  the  genuine  grief  that  filled  them  when  they  heard 
of  his  assassination  by  a  felon  on  the  Andaman  Islands, 
was  only  one  proof  out  of  many  that  in  his  death  they 
felt  they  had  lost  a  true  friend. 

To  avoid  friction   between  England  and  Russia  on 
account  of  Afghanistan,  Lord  Mayo  by 
skilfully  conducted  negotiations  had  the    Afghanfstan  ^^ 
Amir's  boundaries  fixed.  defined. 

The  Viceroy  now  devoted  himself  to  the  extension 
of  railways,  and  to  the  improvement 

of  the  means  whereby,  m  times  of  f^i^SXekt^on.^^'' 
deficient  ramfall,  water  might  be  sup- 
plied to  the  districts  where  there  was  drought.  To 
afford  education  to  the  masses  was  his  wish,  and  he  so 
improved  the  Department  of  Public  Instruction  that  he 
studded  Bengal  with  primary  schools  in  which  all  classes 
of  society  were  taught  Reading,  Writing  and  Arithmetic. 
Knowing  how  the  people  of  this  country  yield  an  affec- 
tionate loyalty  to  the  person  of  their  ruler,  he  arranged 
for  a  visit  to  India  by  his  Royal  High- 
ness the  Duke  of  Edinburgh,  the  second     Visit    of    the 


son  of  Queen  Victoria.     The  tour  of  the     Edinbupg-h 
Duke  touched  the  hearts  of  the  Queen's 
Indian  subjects,  and  put  a  seal  to  the  peace  that  pre- 
vailed in  our  land. 

Lord  Mayo  was  a  man  who  wanted  to  see  things 
for  himself.     Early  in  1872  he  started  on 
a  tour, to  Burma,  the  Andaman  Islands,     Assas^nated 
and  OriSsa.     But  he  did  not  get  further 

R 


2l8  HISTORY    OF     INDIA. 

than  the  Andamans ;  for  as  he  was  leaving  the  shores  of 
Viper  and  Ross  Islands,  one  of  the  convicts — whose 
condition  in  exile  he  had  gon&  to  ameliorate — stabbed 
him ;  and  all  India  went  into  mourning  for  one  of  her 
most  sympathetic  and  noble-hearted  Viceroys. 

Lord  NoPthbPOok,  1 872-1876.— The  year  after  North- 
brook's  arrival  he  was  called  upon  to  combat  a  severe 
famine  that  prevailed  in  Northern  Bengal  and  Bihar. 
Relief  works  were  opened,  grain  was  imported  from 
Burma,  and  every  effort  was  made  to  save  life.  In  1875 
our  Emperor,  Edward  VII.,  then  Prince  of  Wales,  paid 
India  a  visit.  People  of  all  classes  combined  to  give 
him  a  royal  welcome.  Before  retiring  in  the  following 
year  Lord  Northbrook  set  Indian  finances  on  a  firm  basis. 

Lord  Lytton.  1876-1880.  — In  1877  Queen  Victoria 
assumed  the  title  of  Empress  of  India,"^and  at  a  great 
durbar  held  at  Delhi,  Lord  Ly  tton  pubhshed  to  all  Indians 
that  they  were  ruled  over  by  their  own  sovereign.  At 
the  same  time  the  Proclamation  of  1858  was  confirmed, 
and  the  bond  between  England  and  India  was  thereby 
more  closely  drawn. 

Southern  and  Northern  India,  excepting  Bengal  and 

Assam,  was  at  this  time   visited  by  a 

Famine  of  1877.      famine,  and  though  Government  spent 

a  crore  and  ten  lakhs  of  rupees  in 
affording  relief,  hunger  and  disease  claimed  a  large 
number  of  victims. 

Ever  since  the  time  of  Lord  Lawrence  the  relations 
between  Sher  Ali,  Amir  of  Afghanistan, 

Af|han°War.  ^^^  "^^^  English  had  been  strained.  For 
military  purposes  Ouetta  had  lately  been 
occupied  as  an  outpost.  To  this  the  Amir  objected, 
and  regarded  it  as  a  menace  to  his  kingdom.  He  accord- 
ingly entered  into  negotiations  with  Russia,  and  received 
the  Czar's  ambassador  with  marked  honour  at.,Kabul 
As  a  matter  of  political  necessity  Lord  Lytton^sent  an 


Ch.  XIIL]  THE   VICEROYS   OF   INDIA.  219 

English  envoy  to  Sher  Ali,  but  the  Amir  refused  to 
receive  the  British  ambassador.  This  could  not  be 
tolerated,  and  war  was  declared.  An  English  army 
marched  into  Afghanistan,  and  before  the  close  of  1878 
Jallalabad  and  Kandahar  were  in  the  possession  of 
the  English,  and  Sher  Ali  fled  to  Balk.  Here  he 
died  ;  and  in  the  following  year  his  son,  Yakub  Khan, 
sued  for  peace,  and  the  Treaty  of  Gandamak  was  signed. 
He  agreed  to  receive  a  British  Resident  at  Kabul,  and 
was  in  turn  acknowledged  as  Amir. 

But  the  presence  of  a  British  Resident  at  the  capital 
of  their  country  was  distasteful  to  the  Afghans,  and 
suddenly  the  soldiers  of  the  Amir  attacked  Sir  Louis 
Cavagnari,  who  was  Resident,  and  his 
attendants,  and  killed  him  and  them.  The  Thipd 
This  act  of  treachery  necessitated  a  re-  jg'^-^I  ^^' 
newal  of  war,  and  Sir  Frederick  (now 
Lord)  Roberts  marched  on  Kabul,  and  took  it.  At  the 
same  time  Sir  Donald  Stewart  won  a  decisive  battle  at 
Ahmad  Khel,  and  Yakub  Khan  was  brought  down  to 
Calcutta  as  a  prisoner.  This  incensed  the  Afghans,  and 
the  whole  country  rose  up  in  arms.  At  this  time  a 
change  occurred  in  the  Ministry  in  England,  and  Lord 
Lytton  resigned  the  Viceroyalty.  Lord  Ripon  took 
up  the  office  thus  vacated,  and  continued  the  war  which 
he  had  inherited  from  his  predecessor  in  office. 

Lord  Ripon,  "  The  Conciliator  of  the  People, ' 
1880-1884 — Shortly  after  Lord  Ripon's  „,  .  , 
arrival  he  received  the  unwelcome  wapeontinuS! 
news  that  the  English  army  had  been 
defeated  at  Mai  wand  by  Ayub  Khan,  a  brother  of  the 
captive  Amir.  General  Roberts,  however,  saved  the 
position  by  marching  from  Kabul  to  Kandahar,  and  by  com- 
pletely routing  Ayub's  army.  Abdur  Rahman,  a  nephew 
of  Sher  Ali,  was  then  placed  on  the  Afghan  throne,  and 
the  wai' having  ended,  the  English  troops  were  withdrawn. 

Lord    Ripon   felt  that  the  time  had  come    when 


220  HISTORY    OF    INDIA. 

Indian  municipalities  might  be  given  a 
The  Local  Self-  larger  share  in  the  guidance  of  local 
Government     Aet^^^.^^      In  1882  he,  therefore,  passed 

the  Local  Self-Government  Act.  By 
this  means  he  developed  the  municipal  constitution 
which  had  gradually  been  growing  up  since  India  passed 
to  the  Crown.  He  conferred  larger  powers  of  local 
administration  to  rural  and  urban  Boards,  and  the  elective 
principle  received  a  wider  application.  Since  then  pub- 
he  opinion  has  gained  more  and  more  weight,  and  the 
extended  hberty  which  was  at  this  time  given  to  the' 
Indian  press  has  allowed  of  the  free  discussion  of  mat- 
ters connected  with  the  public  welfare.  As  Representa- 
tive Government  and  Education  go  hand  in  hand,  Lord 
Ripon  improved  the  quality  of  the  education  imparted  in 
Indian  schools.  In  all  matters  he  showed  himself  to  be 
in  deep  sympathy  with  the  ambitions  and  aspirations  of 
the  Queen's  Indian  subjects,  and  when  he  retired  in  1884 
his  departure  was  much  regretted. 

Lord  Dufferin,  1884- 1888. -Of  late  years  Russia 
had  been  so  extending  her  territory 
The  Boundary  ^^i^^  she  had  now  come  to  the  confines 
Commission.  ^^  Afghanistan  Indeed  there  was  a 
likelihood  of  her  taking  Herat  itself  Such  a  measure 
would  of  necessity  produce  complications  which  had 
better  be  avoided.  Lord  Dufferin  with  masterly  dip- 
lomacy secured  the  appointment  of  a  Commission  of 
English  and  Russian  officers  who  defined  the  boundaries 
of  Afghanistan.  At  the  same  time  several  border  tribes 
came  under  the  friendly  control  of  the  British.  The 
hands  of  the  Indian  Government  were  at  this  time 
strengthened  by  the  offer  of  troops  by  the  Feudatory 
and  other  chiefs  in  event  of  a  war  with  Russia.  To 
mark  its  appreciation  of  the  loyalty  of  the  native  states, 
the  Government  sanctioned  the  maintenance  of  an  Im- 
perial Service  Contingent  in  the  more  important-.Feuda- 
tory  States. 


Ch.XIII.]       the  viceroys  of  india.  221 

For  some  years  past  affairs  in  Upper  Burma  had 
been  going  from  bad  to  worse.  King 
The  Third  Buf-  Thebaw  recked  little  of  treaties  and 
mese  War  1885.  jggg  Qf  „qq^  government.  He  permitted 
British  traders  to  be  molested,  and  bands 
of  robbers  to  infest  the  land.  Not  content  with  what 
they  could  plunder  in  Burma  itself,  these  made  mcur- 
sions  even  into  British  territory.  The  Viceroy  appealed 
to  Thebaw  to  set  matters  right,  but  he  insolently  threat- 
ened to  invade  British  India  himself.  General  Prender- 
gast  was  sent  with  an  army  against  him.  Mandalay, 
the  capital  of  Upper  Burma,  was  taken  without  a  blow  : 
Thebaw  was  deposed  ;  his  kingdom  annexed,  1886  ;  and 
the  entire  country  of  Burma  was  constituted  a  Chief 
Commissionership.  Since  1897  it  has  been  ruled  by 
a  Lieutenant-Governor,  and  is  now  in  a  prosperous 
condition. 

Lord  Lansdowne,  1888-1894.— The  new  Viceroy 
completed  the  defence  of  the  Afghan  frontier,  and  as- 
sisted the  Feudatory  Chiefs  in  organising  the  Imperial 
Service  Corps  to  defend  that  frontier.  In  Manipur  there 
was  an  unimportant  rebellion  which  was  easily  sup- 
pressed. The  Imperial  and  Provincial  Legislative 
Councils  were  enlarged,  and  the  elective  system  for 
the  return  of  certain  members  to  those  councils  was 
introduced. 

Lord  Elg-in  II.,  1894-1899.— A  disturbance  in 
Chitral,  on  the  Afghan  side  of  the  north-west  frontier, 
led  to  an  expedition,  which  resulted  in  the  English 
occupying  that  distant  outpost.  The  bubonic  plague 
now  broke  out  in  India,  and  in  spite  of  all  that  science 
and  sanitation  can  do  to  check  its  spread  from  cities 
to  rural  tracts,  it  still  prevails.  In  1897  a  severe  famine 
occurred  in  the  Central  Provinces,  Bihar,  and  the  United 
Provinces  of  Agra  and  Oudh.  Public  generosity  and 
relief 'Vorks   saved   many   lives    that   must   otherwise 


222  HISTORY   OF    INDIA. 

have  been  lost.  But  the  misfortunes  of  Lord  Elgin's 
incumbency  were  not  yet  ended.  An  earthquake 
of  considerable  violence  visited  North-Eastern  India 
and  caused  great  loss  of  property,  and  damaged 
many  public  works  and  railways.  In  the  same  year 
the  fierce  tribesmen  of  Tirah,  towards  Afghanistan, 
raided  British  territory,  and  the  Tirah  campaign  was 
undertaken  to  restore  order.     In  this  it  succeeded. 

Lord  Curzon,  1899-1905.— The  first  pubHc  duty 
that  Lord  Curzon  was  called  upon  to  perform  was  to 
organise  relief  for  one  of  the  severest  famines  that  have 
ever  visited  India.  The  unity  of  the  British  Empire  all 
the  world  over  was  illustrated  in  a  remarkable  manner, 
by  the  large  sums  of  money  that  were  sent  from  every 
part  of  that  empire  for  the  supply  of  food  to  the  millions 
who  were  starving  in  an  area  of  400,000  square  miles. 
The  famine  was  severest  in  the  Central  Provinces,  the 
Berars,  Northern  Deccan,  Gujarat,  Rajputana  and 
Mysore.  At  one  time  3^  million  people  were  on  relief, 
and  six  million  pounds  was  expended  in  the  charitable 
work  of  feeding  the  hungry.  In  1 901,  Queen  Victoria 
died,  and  in  January,  1903,  Edward  VII  was  formally  pro- 
claimed Emperor  of  India  at  a  splendid  durbar  at  Delhi. 
With  the  exception  of  the  expedition  to  Tibet,  the 
whole  of  Lord  Curzon's  administration  was  taken  up 
with  internal  measures.  Here-adjusted  the  distribution 
of  British  India,  by  creating  the  North-West  Frontier 
Province,  and  by  adding  parts  of  the  Bengal  Presidency 
to  Assam  to  form  the  new  Province  of  Eastern  Bengal 
and  Assam.  Educational  affairs  occupied  much  o  his 
attention.  He  remodelled  the  lines  upon  which  primary 
and  secondary  schools  had  been  conducted,  revived  in- 
struction in  the  vernaculars,  and  revised  the  constitution 
and  methods  of  the  Indian  Universities.  He  improved 
the  prospects  of  the  Police  Service,  and  minimised  the 
danger  of  corruption  among  its  servants  and  the  oppres- 
sion by  them  of  the  pubhc.     He   established  a  f /epart- 


Ch.    XIII.]  THE   VICEROYS   OF   INDIA.  223 

ment  of  Commercial  Intelligence.  He  extended  railways, 
and  in  every  direction  gave  an  impetus  to  the  fuller 
development  of  the  natural  resources  of  the  country. 
He  visited  Persia,  and  made  a  new  treaty  with  the  Amir 
of  Afghanistan.  To  counteract  the  influence  which 
Russia  had  begun  secretly  to  exert  in  Tibet,  a  Commer- 
cial Expedition  was  made  into  that  land.  By  these 
dealings  with  our  neighbours  on  the  frontier  he  secured 
the  protection  of  India  against  foreign  designs.  As  a 
result  of  continued  financial  prosperity  he  reduced  the 
Salt  and  Income  Taxes.  Important  changes  were  made 
in  army  affairs,  and  these  led  to  his  resignation,  in  1905. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Lord  Minto  II.,  who  is  now  the 
head  of  the  Indian  Government. 


% 


CHAPTER    XIV. 
fndia,  Past  and  Present. 

Material,   Intellectual  and  Moral  Progress. 

IN  addressing  the  vast  concourse  of  Indian  nobles  and 
potentates  assembled  at  the  Dehli  Durbar,  speaking 
of  the  people  of  India,  Lord  Curzon  said  : — "  To  the 
majority  of  these  millions  the  King's  Government  has 
given  freedom  from  invasion  and  anarchy  ;  to  others  it 
has  guaranteed  their  rights  and  privileges  ;  to  others  it 
opens  ever-widening  avenues  of  honourable  employ- 
ment ;  to  the  masses  it  dispenses  mercy  in  the  hour  of 
suffering;  and  to  all  it  endeavours  to  give  equal  justice, 
immunity  from  oppression,  and  the  blessings  of  en- 
lightenment and  peace.  To  have  won  such  a  dominion 
is  a  great  achievement ;  to  hold  it  by  fair  and  righteous 
dealings  is  greater ;  to  weld  it  by  wise  statesmanship 
into  a  single  and  compact  whole  will  be,  and  is,  the 
greatest." 

It  is  difficult  for  us  in  these  days  of  security  to  realise 
what  an  invasion  from  Persia,  Afghani- 
stan, or  Central  Asia  meant.  It  signified    invasion, 
not  merely  a  host  of  20,000  to  100,000 
foreign  soldiers   "on  the  march,  paying  for  nothing,  and 
eating  every  town,  and  cottage,  and  farmyard,  burning 
and  slaughtering  on  the  smallest  provocation  and  often 
in  mere  sport.     It  usually  also  meant  a  grand  final  sack 
and  massacre  at  the  capital  of  the  invaded  country. " 
For  instance,  when   Nadir  Shah  invested  Delhi,  in   a 
single  forenoon  8000  men,  women,  and  children  were 
sabred,  and  the  city  was  pillaged,  and  set  on   fire  in 
several  places.     Within  a  few  years  of  the  departure 
of  Nadir  Shah,  Ahmad  Shah  made  no  less  th^p  five 
inroads  into  India,  and  his  troops  for  a  series  of '  weeks 


Ch.  XIV.]  INDIA   PAST   AND   PRESENT.  225 

made  Delhi  the  scene  of  every  atrocity.  His  Afghan 
cavalry  meanwhile  scoured  the  country,  slaying,  burn- 
ing and  mutilating,  in  the  smallest  village  as  in  the 
largest  town.  His  horsemen  suddenly  swooped  down 
upon  the  sacred  city  of  Muttra  while  it  was  thronged 
with  thousands  of  peaceful  pilgrims  who  had  swarmed 
to  it  for  a  holy  festival.  Before  the  devotees  could  es- 
cape, they  were  burnt  within  their  houses,  or  massacred 
in  the  streets,  or  carried  away  into  captivity.  Such  was 
the  condition  of  Upper  India  not  150  years  ago.  Nor 
did  other  parts  of  the  country  fare  any  better.  Fierce 
aboriginal  tribes,  like  the  Koch  and  Ahoms,  from  time 
to  time  devastated  Assam.  Warlike  neighbours  like  the 
Burmese  overran  Eastern  Bengal  and  laid  it  waste. 
Southern  Bengal,  as  also  the  Coromandal  and  Malabar 
Coasts,  fell  an  easy  prey  to  pirates,  who  sailed  up  the 
large  rivers,  burned  peaceful  villages,  and  put  to  the 
sword  inoffensive  peasants.  All  this  is  now  changed. 
The  mountain  passes  of  the  Himalayas  are  no  longer 
an  open  door  to  enemies  in  the  north  ;  the  eastern  tribes, 
as  well  as  the  Burmese,  are  subject  to  British  rule  ;  and 
pirac}'  is  a  thing  of  the  past. 

Great  as  was  the  suffering  caused  by  the  unprovoked 

incursions  of  foreigners,  greater  was  the 
ArfaiSiv   ^^°™    misery  produced  by  internal   wars.     It 

is  said  that  Muhammad  Shah,  Sultan  of 
Gulburga  once  had  a  quarrel  with  the  Raja  of  Vijaya- 
nagar,  and  that  he  did  not  sheath  his  sword  till  50,000 
of  his  enemy's  subjects  had  been  killed.  The  Marathas 
gave  the  country  no  rest.  "Every  region  which  was 
not  subject  to  their  rule  was  wasted  by  their  incursions. 
Wherever  their  kettledrums  were  heard,  the  peasant 
threw  his  bag  of  rice  on  his  shoulder,  hid  his  small 
savings  in  his  girdle,  and  fled  with  his  wife  and  children 
to  the  mountains  or  the  jungles,  to  the  milder  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  hyena  and  the  tiger."  Nor  were  the 
Pindaris  less  of  a  scourge  to  the  land.  Chitu  led  an 
undiscij)lined  army  of  25,000  ruffians  into  the  Nizam's 


22(>  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

territories,  and  there  they  burned,  destroyed  and  slaugh- 
tered as  far  south  as  the  Krishna.  They  then  entered 
the  Northern  Circars,  and  not  a  town  or  village  escaped 
the  horrors  of  their  cruel  greed.  Then,  too,  the  death 
of  a  Mughal  Emperor  was  the  signal  for  a  civil  war  in 
which  neither  side  showed  any  mercy.  Of  the  twenty 
princes  who  succeeded  Aurangzeb,  fourteen  met  violent 
deaths ;  four  were  blinded,  and  two  died  in  prison.  The 
tale  of  miser}'  was  completed  by  the  depredations  of 
the  Pathans,  the  thags,  and  the  dacoits.  How  many 
deaths,  and  how  much  misery  they  were  responsible  for 
will  never  be  known.  Very  different  is  it  now.  The 
Marathas,  Pindaris,  Pathans,  and  other  avowed  enemies 
of  peace  no  longer  fill  the  land  with  bloodshed.  War 
between  two  Indian  princes  can  no  longer  be  resorted  to, 
and  struggles  for  vacant  thrones  do  not  occur.  The 
domination  of  the  English  has  brought  to  an  end  civil 
discord  and  anarchy. 

It  is  the  natural  right  and  privilege  of  every  man 
to  call  his  life  and  properly  his  own. 
But  this  was  precisely  what  no  one  could  Their  Rights  and. 
do  a  little  over  a  century  ago.  In  those  anteed^t?  aU  ^^" 
days  one's  life  might  be  taken  at  any 
moment,  and  of  all  investments  landed  property  was 
the  least  secure.  The  usual  price  of  a  field  was  the 
crop  standing  on  it.  And  even  at  that  price  it  was  often 
dear,  for  before  it  could  be  reaped,  down  would  come 
a  swarm  of  Marathas  or  Pindaris,  sla}'  the  owner,  and 
carry  off  his  ripened  corn.  People  were  glad  to  escape 
with  their  hves,  and  leave  their  homes  and  belongings 
to  the  enemy.  Owing  to  the  frequency  of  invasions, 
the  borderland  between  Afghanistan  and  India  was  a 
silent  waste.  Along  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas  a  belt 
of  land,  measuring  30,000  square  miles  was  delivered 
over  to  wild  beasts.  Vast  tracts  of  country  in  Assam 
and  Bengal  had  no  inhabitants.  By  the  sea  coast  and 
in  the  deltas  of  the  larger  rivers  many  thousand  ^square 
miles    were    depopulated    by    the   ravages   of  'pirates. 


Ch.  XIV.]  INDIA    PAST   AND   PRESENT.  22^ 

Owing  to  the  general  insecurity  no  one  had  the  heart 
to  grow  more  than  what  would  suffice  for  actual  needs. 
No  industries  flourished,  and  trade  there  was  none. 
People  feared  to  come  together  and  form  towns  or  large 
villages.  They  preferred  to  live  in  small  and  scattered 
groups  so  that  they  might  not  attract  the  attention  of 
a  greedy  foe.  It  is  very  ditferent  now.  The  once  barren 
wildernesses  of  the  Himalayan  borderland  smile  with 
fields  of  grain,  and  tea-plantations  dot  the  slopes  of  the 
mountams  themselves.  Waste  lands  and  swamps  are 
being  everywhere  reclaimed,  and  land  is  now  the  safest 
of  all  investments.  It  is  difficult  to  buy  a  field  for 
even  twenty  crops.  Though  parts  of  the  country  are 
overcrowded,  people  do  not  at  all  seem  willing  to  try 
their  fortunes  in  uncultivated  tracts.  They  prefer  to 
live  in  their  native  towns  or  villages,  being  as  averse  to 
leaving  their  homesteads  as  they  were  formerly  afraid 
to  inhabit  them.  Hence  populous  towns  and  villages 
have  sprung  up  in  abundance,  and  the  great  problem 
of  the  day  is  to  raise  from  the  fields  enough  for  the 
wants  of  so  many  milhons. 

Their  rights  and  privileges  have  been  guaranteed 
not  to  the  masses  only,  but  also  to  the  princes  and 
native  rulers  in  the  land.  The  unsettled  condition  of 
the  country  in  former  days  involved  the  smaller  princes 
and  rulers  in  ruin,  for  their  wealth,  supposed  or  real, 
made  them  the  prey  successively  of  Mughal,  Maratha 
and  Pindari.  Repeatedly  it  was  their  fate  to  ransom 
their  lives  by  paying  all  that  they  possessed.  Their 
estates  were  often  confiscated  for  no  just  reason,  or  they 
were  thrown  into  prison  and  their  lands  given  to  another. 
But  since  Queen  Victoria,  in  1858,  abandoned  the  Doc- 
trine of  Lapse,  and  Lord  Mayo  made  it  law  that  on  no 
account  was  an  Indian  chief  to  have  his  territories 
annexed,  the  native  rulers  of  the  country  have  enjoyed 
security  to  a  degree  formerly  unknown  by  them.  They 
show  their  gratitude  by  their  loyalty  and  devotion  to 
the  Ci^wn.     Some  of  them  maintain   Imperial  Service 


22S  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

Troops  with  which  to  help  the  British  Government  in 
time  of  necessity,  and  Lord  Curzon  created  a  career  for 
princes  by  estabhshing  a  Cadet  Corps  for  the  sons  of 
Indian  chieftains. 

(a)  Agriculture,  Trades  and  Industries. — Security  of 
hfe  and  property  is  the  foundation  upon 
which  the  British  have  built  their  J? ^pg^iel!^"^^ 
Government  of  India.  The  remarkable 
development  of  agriculture  during  the  last  hundred  years 
is  only  a  result  of  continued  peace  and  security.  Rulers 
and  people  alike  have  a  permanent  interest  in  their 
possessions ;  population  has  increased ;  and  commerce 
and  trade  have  become  possible.  Waste  lands  have  been 
brought  under  the  plough,  and  the  poorest  man  endea- 
vours to  obtain  the  best  return  from  his  fields,  for  he 
knows  that  what  he  does  not  require  for  his  own  use  he 
can  readily  sell  in  the  market.  In  large  towns  and 
populous  cities  mills  and  factories  give  the  labouring 
classes  an  industrial  career.  British  capital  has  opened 
out  tea  and  coffee  plantations,  paper,  cotton  and  jute 
mills,  oil  and  coal  mmes,  indigo  and  opium  factories,  not 
to  mention  potteries,  rope  works,  quarries  and  other  lines 
of  business  which  provide  work  for  millions.  In  1907, 
sugar  was  raised  on  2,348,800  acres  of  land,  and  the  yield 
amounted  to  2,223,400  tons.  In  the  same  year  there 
were  533,300  acres  under  tea,  which  produced  240,849,900 
Hbs  of  tea,  and  gave  employment  to  over  500,000  coolies. 
Cotton  plantations  in  the  same  year  covered  22,344,000 
acres,  and  produced  4,908,000  bales,  of  5  maunds  each, 
of  which  Rs.  21,966,000  worth  was  exported  during  the 
year,  the  balance  beingmanufactured  into  cloth  in  2 1 7  local 
cotton  mills,  where  211,100  persons  found  daily  employ- 
ment. Jute  was  in  the  same  year  grown  on  3,883,200 
acres,  and  yielded  9,600,000  bales,  and  provided  167,000 
persons  with  work.  In  1907,  there  were  307  coal  mines 
in  which  on  the  average  128,666  labourers  were  daily 
employed,  and  which  yielded   9,783,200  tons  of  coal. 


Ch.  XIV.]  INDIA,    PAST   AND  PRESENT.  229 

It  is  not  necessary  to  give  details  of  every  trade  and 
industry,  but  some  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  enormous 
proportions  to  which  commerce  has  grown  when  in 
1907  Calcutta  alone  had  a  trade  valued  at  i2oi  crores. 
In  1 906- 1 907,  the  imports  of  all  India  were  valued  at 
Rs.  1,717,359,670,  and  its  exports  at  Rs.  3,519,824,950. 
Thus  in  that  year  the  commerce  of  India  with  other 
lands  yielded  her  a  profit  of  Rs.   1,802,465,280. 

(b)    The  Post  and  Telegraph  Departments.— The 

expansion  of  trade  and  commerce  has  necessitated  rapid 
means  of  communication,  and  cheap  modes  of  carrying 
goods.  In  1837,  the  Postal  Department  was  established. 
Before  that  date  there  was  no  general  system  of  postal 
service  in  India.  Government  had  its  own  arrangements 
for  the  conveyance  of  state  letters  and  parcels,  and 
private  persons  were,  as  a  matter  of  favour,  allowed  to 
use  the  Government  Service.  In  the  absence  of  railways 
and  steamers,  letters  were  carried  b)^  country-boats, 
dak-garies,  horses,  camels,  and  runners.  There  were  no 
postage  stamps,  and  the  charge  from  Calcutta  to  Bombay 
was  one  rupee  per  tola  Now  a  letter  can  be  sent  to 
England  for  one  anna,  and  a  post  card  to  Bombay  costs 
only  one  pice.  The  total  length  of  mail  lines  is  now 
about  153,600  miles,  and  more  than  78,000,000  letters, 
newspapers,  and  parcels  are  carried  by  the  post  in  a 
year.  The  operations  of  the  Post  Office  include  the 
making  or  the  realising  of  payments ;  the  banking  of 
savings ;  the  distribution  of  quinine  :  and  the  insurance 
of  letters  and  parcels.  Fifty  years  ago  there  was  some 
uncertainty  as  to  whether,  at  the  end  of  several  weeks, 
a  letter  would  reach  its  destination  ;  now  we  post  our 
letters  confident  that  in  a  day  or  two  they  will  be  cor- 
rectly delivered.  In  the  year  1907,  the  sum  of  Rs. 
147,500,000  was  held  in  favour  of  depositors  in  the 
Post  Ofifice  Savings  Bank. 

Intimately  associated  with  the  Postal  Service  is  the 
Telegraph    Department.     We  owe   its  introduction  to 


230  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

Dr.  O'Shaughnessy,  a  Professor  of  the  Medical  College 
in  Calcutta.  He  first  experimented  in  telegraphy  at 
the  Botanical  Gardens  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Hugh, 
and  in  185 1  he  worked  an  experimental  line  of  82  miles 
with  such  success  that  Lord  Dalhousie  connected  Calcutta, 
Agra,  Bombay,Peshawar  and  Madras  with  telegraph  wires. 
In  1855,  private  messages  began  to  be  received  for  trans- 
mission. Now  some  67,000  miles  of  telegraph  wires  inter- 
sect the  land,  and  a  message  can  be  flashed  from  Cape 
Comorin  to  Peshawar  in  a  few  minutes  for  a  fee  of  six 
annas  only.  In  1907,  over  14  million  messages  travelled 
by  wire.  The  benefits  of  the  telegraph  system  are  in- 
estimable, and  the  service  it  rendered  during  the  Mutiny 
of  1857  has  established  its  political  importance. 

(c)  TheExpansionof  Commerce.— The  Postal  De- 
partment could  not  do  its  work  without  railw^ays,  nor 
could  commerce  be  carried  on  in  its  present  proportions 
wnthout  trains.  In  former  times  the  journey  from  Cal- 
cutta to  Bhagalpur  occupied  two  months  by  boat  ;  now 
the  distance  is  covered  in  less  than  fifteen  hours  by 
train.  Travelling  has  become  not  only  rapid  but  easy. 
The  wayfarer  of  a  hundred  years  ago  had  to  risk  en- 
counters with  wild  beasts  and  bands  of  desperate  rob- 
bers. The  difficulties  of  the  way  were  increased  b)^ 
bad  roads,  or  famine-stricken  districts,  or  swollen  rivers. 
Railways  have  altered  these  conditions,  and  have  made 
journeying  safe  and  cheap.  Merchandise  of  all  kinds 
is  now  carried  great  distances  at  very  moderate  rates. 
The  first  railway,  20  miles  in  length,  w^as  opened  in  1853 
between  Bombay  and  Thana.  The  next  year  the  East 
Indian  Railway  conveyed  passengers  from  Howrah  to 
Pandua,  a  distance  of  ^8  miles.  In  1856  the  Madras 
Railway  ran  to  Arcot,  65  miles.  At  J3resent  India  is 
covered  w'ith  a  network  of  railways  measuring  30,000 
miles,  and  in  1907  no  less  than  300  million  passengers 
travelled  in  trains,  and  69  milhon  tons  of  goods/. w^ere 
carried.      Over  three  million  people  are  employed  in 


Ch.  XIV.]        INDIA,   PAST   AND    PRESENT.  23I 

working  railways,  and  so,  many  thousands,  who  might 
otherwise  be  in  want,  are  enabled  to  provide  themselves 
with  food. 

(d)  Inland  Roads  and  Canals,  -  Railways  have  open- 
ed up  the  country  to  trade.  In  former  times  the  cost  of 
carrying  grain,  etc.,  to  markets  was  so  great,  that  traffic 
in  local  produce  was  impossible.  Now  all  that  a  trader 
has  to  do  is  to  buy  his  grain  in  the  villages  and  convey 
it  to  the  nearest  railway  station.  This  has  encouraged 
husbandmen  to  grow  in  their  fields  more  than  they 
require,  so  that  they  may  sell  the  surplus,  and  with  the 
money  thus  obtained  procure  for  themselves  some  of 
the  necessaries  and  comforts  of  life.  Railways  have, 
therefore,  called  into  existence  innumerable  roads  and 
their  feeders.  Before  the  British  Government  was  estab- 
lished, there  was  not  a  single  good  road  in  the  country. 
But  from  the  time  that  Bentinck  began  the  Grand  Trunk 
Road  from  Calcutta  to  Delhi,  Local  Governments, 
District  Boards  and  Municipalities  have  been  so  busy  in 
making  roads  that  it  is  comparatively  easy  to  carry  the 
produce  of  distant  fields  to  the  railway.  Where  roads 
do  not  exist,  canals  supply  a  water-way  upon  which 
boats  and  steamers  carry  country  produce  to  trading 
centres. 

(e)  Emig"ration. — Mention  has  already  been  made  of 
the  great  increase  there  is  in  population,  and  it  has  been 
observed  that  one  of  the  most  difficult  problems  ot  the 
day  is  to  feed  the  millions  of  India.  It  is  calculated 
that  there  is  an  increase  of  20,000,000  souls  in  every 
ten  years.  The  growing  population  may  be  provided 
for  by  waste  lands  and  sw^amps  being  converted  into 
fields  ;  bv  agricutrural  methods  being  improved  so  that 
the  same  area  of  fields  may  produce  grain  more  abun- 
dantly ;  and  by  the  excess  of  population  emigrating  to 
less  thickly  inhabited  parts  of  the  country.  The  re- 
clamation of  land  proceeds  slowly.     The  people  are  too 


232  HISTORY   OF   INDIA. 

conservative  to  improve  their  modes  of  cultivation ; 
and  emigration  affords  only  a  partial  solution  of  the  diffi- 
culty. Some  progress,  however,  has  been  made  in  all 
these  directions.  The  waste  lands  along  the  base  of  the 
Himalayas  have  been  reclaimed  for  the  plough  :  but  still 
107,525,236  acres  in  British  India  await  cultivation. 
In  all  schools  the  elements  of  agricultural  knowledge 
are  being  taught,  particularly  in  rural  tracts,  and  it  is 
hoped  that  more  information  on  the  subject  may  lead 
to  improved  husbandry.  Emigration  proceeds  upon  a 
small  scale  to  Assam,  and  to  such  places  as  Mauritius, 
Demerara,  and  Trinidad.  In  1900,  there  were  69,841 
emigrants  to  Assam,  and  about  100,000  emigrants  to  the 
colonies,  and  elsewhere.  But  most  emigrants  return  to 
their  native  homes  after  a  term  of  years,  and  emigration 
therefore  does  not  in  any  great  degree  afford  relief  to 
congested  areas. 

(/)  Education. — Peace  is  conducive  to  the  spread  of 
learning.  Under  no  Indian  dynasty  was  the  education 
of  subjects  regarded  as  a  duty  of  the  state.  Whatever 
learning  there  was,  it  was  confined  to  the  Brahmins, 
who  cultivated  Sanskrit,  and  to  the  Mullahs,  who  made 
a  study  of  Arabic.  Education  for  the  masses  neverexisted. 
In  1 78 1,  Warren  Hastings  established  the  Calcutta  Ma- 
drasah, and  in  1813,  when  the  charter  of  the  East  India 
Company  was  renewed,  a  clause  was  inserted  requiring 
not  less  than  a  lakh  of  rupees  to  be  spent  every  year  in 
the  diffusion  of  knowledge.  When  Bentinck  ruled, 
education  in  English  was  for  the  first  time  generally 
imparted,  and  in  1857  the  Universities  of  Calcutta, 
Madras  and  Bombay  were  founded.  In  later  years  uni- 
versities have  been  added  at  Allahabad  and  Lahore. 
Lord  Mayo  and  Lord  Ripon  extended  education  to  the 
masses,  and  in  1902,  we  had  in  British  India  3,184,000 
pupils  in  92,000  primary  schools;  259,412  pupils  in  5,032 
secondary  schools  ;  and  17,148  students  (including  177 
girls)  in  180  colleges.     The  expense  to  Governmt^nt  for 


Ch.  XIV.]        INDIA,   PAST    AND    PRESENT  233 

education  amounted,  in  1902,  to  about  no  lakhs  of  rupees, 
which  amount  was  required  to  supplement  the  fees  of 
pupils  and  the  subscriptions  of  persons  interested  in  the 
spread  of  education.  The  Universities  are  meanwhile 
preparing  men  for  a  share  in  the  service  of  Government 
and  for  practising  the  learned  professions. 

C^)  Religfious  Toleration — Every  one  is  entitled  to 
his  own  religious  views  and  convictions.  In  former  days 
this  was  not  admitted  by  the  rulers  of  the  land,  and 
there  existed  odious  taxes  such  as  the  jiziya  and  taxes  on 
pilgrims.  Hindu  persecuted  Muhammadan,  and  Mu- 
hammadan  persecuted  Hindu.  But  now  the  British 
Government  allows  every  man  to  follow  his  own  religion 
without  let  or  hindrance.  Missionaries  preach  Christ- 
ianity, just  as  Muhammadans,  or  Buddhists,  or  Brahmos 
endeavour  to  spread  their  respective  faiths.  In  the 
eyes  of  British  law  all  religions  are  equal,  and  no  man's 
religion  or  caste  is  considered  a  disqualification  for  service 
under  Government. 

{h)  Police. — The  Police  is  maintained  for  the  preser- 
vation of  peace  and  for  the  suppression  of  crime.  The 
policemen  of  the  Mughal  Empire  were  an  undisciplined, 
half-starved  soldiery,  who  lived  upon  what  they  could 
extort  from  the  people.  Now  the  policeman  receives  a 
monthly  salary,  and  is  kept  under  strict  discipline.  His 
duties  are  to  check  and  trace  crime,  to  aid  the  meting 
out  of  justice,  and  to  report  breaches  of  law.  For 
protection  against  robbery  and  murder  each  person  pays 
the  Government  a  monthly  Police  Tax  of  less  than  i  pice. 
We  now  have  court  houses,  and  jails,  and  thanas.  In 
the  time  of  the  Mughais  "the  prisons  themselves  were 
ruinous  hovels,  whose  inmates  had  to  be  kept  in  stocks 
and  fetters,  or  were  held  down  under  flat  bamboos,  not 
on  account  of  their  crimes,  but  because,  from  the  in- 
security of  the  jails,  the  jailer  had  no  other  means  of 
preveiUing  their  escape."     Compare  with  this  the  treat- 


234  HISTORY  OF  INDIA 

ment  of  prisoners  in  our  modern  jails.  Thelt  and  crimes 
against  the  person  have  sensibly  diminished,  and  although 
the  Police  is  capable  of  improvement,  through  its  organi- 
zation there  is  now  less  crime  in  India  than  in  many- 
other  lands. 

(i)  The  Dispensing-  of  Justice  with  an  even  hand.— 

The  Mughals  had  no  system  for  their  law  courts.  Judges 
were  not  salaried,  nor  were  they  watched  and  corrected 
by  superior  courts.  They  were  often  merely  sellers  of 
decisions,  and  earned  their  living  by  accepting  payment 
alike  from  plaintiff  and  defendant.  They  were  guided 
by  no  impartial  codes  of  criminal  or  civil  laws,  nor  was 
any  adequate  opportunity  of  defence  given  to  the  accused. 
We  now  have  our  lower  and  our  higher  courts,  so  that 
an  appeal  from  a  subordinate  magistrate  lies  to  his  superior. 
The  law  makes  no  distinction  between  rich  and  poor. 
There  is  the  same  law  for  all.  The  powers  of  magis- 
trates are  restricted  according  to  their  rank,  and  every 
one  charged  with  crime  is  allowed  to  defend  himself  by 
employing  advocates  learned  in  the  law.  Judges  and 
magistrates  are  paid  suitable  and  sufficient  salaries,  and 
they  are  upright  and  just. 

(/)  Social,  Relig-ious  and  Political  Prog-ress.— Social 
life  in  India  is  inseparable  form  religious  rites  and  obser- 
vances. While  the  manners  and  customs  of  a  nation 
may  undergo  changes,  its  religious  teaching  permits  of 
little,  if  any,  modification.  Under  such  circumstances 
religion  inevitably  acts  as  a  check  upon  the  introduction 
of  innovations  in  national  customs  and  practices.  In 
India,  if  this  were  not  the  case,  it  is  certain  that  the  so- 
cial advancement  of  its  people  would  have  kept  pace 
with  the  material  development  of  the  country.  And 
yet  unmistakably  the  feeling  is  yearly  gaining  ground 
that  the  time  has  come  for  the  old  order  of  things  to 
give  way  to  the  requirements  of  new  surroundings.  The 
study  of  Western  literature  has  familiarized  the  .people 


Ch.  XIV.]       INDIA,    PAST   AND   PRESENT  235 

with  new  modes  of  thought  and  with  new  standards  of 
Hfe  ;  commerce  with  other  countries  has  brought  into 
their  homes  commodities  formerly  unknown  ;  and  con- 
tact with  Europeans  has  enlarged  their  outlook.  The 
rigid  exclusiveness  of  a  century  ago  has  disappeared,  and 
in  schools  pupils  of  all  castes  and  creeds  sit  side  by  side 
and  receive  the  same  instruction.  Passengers  of  all  grades 
of  society  crowd  together  into  the  trains.  Members  of 
formerly  despised  classes  fill  offices  of  trust  and  honour 
in  the  State.  Under  the  stress  of  circumstances  the  old 
barriers  that  separated  the  people  into  unsympathetic 
groups  are  being  gradually  removed.  The  lower  orders 
have  risen  in  the  social  scale,  and  though  caste  distinctions 
continue,  much  toleration  is  evinced.  Then,  too,  at 
the  conclusion  of  its  sessions  the  National  Congress  is 
accustomed  to  resolve  itself  into  a  Social  Conference 
for  the  discussion  of  such  subjects  as  the  remarriage  of 
child  widows,  the  education  of  women,  and  the  propriety 
of  crossing  the  seas.  Briefly,  the  general  tendency  is  in 
favour  of  allowing  persons  greater  freedom  in  the  details 
of  every  day  life. 

In  Religion  there  has  been  of  necessity  but  little  to 
call  for  remark.  The  British  Government  of  India  is 
neutral  in  religious  matters,  and  allows  its  subjects  the 
fullest  freedom  in  the  exercise  of  their  Faiths.  Where, 
however,  the  claims  of  humanity  have  demanded  it,  the 
Government  has  intervened,  and  tJia^i,  sati,  infanticide, 
human  sacrifices,  and  hook-swinging  have  been  sup- 
pressed. There  is  now  a  spirit  of  inquiry  abroad,  and 
people  diligently  study  their  Sacred  Books  in  perference 
to  accepting  as  final  the  dogmatic  teaching  of  others. 
Newspapers  and  journals  discuss  questions  of  religion, 
and  missionary  attempts  are  being  made  to  prevent 
people  from  fallingaway  from  theirancientcreeds.  A  reli- 
gious movement  somewhat  analogous  to  the  Protestant 
Reformation  of  the  sixteenth  century  has  taken  place,  and 
the  Sadharan  Brahmo  Somaj  and  the  Adi  BrahmoSomaj 
have  is^ed  as  theistic  rehabilitations  of  Hinduism. 


236  HISTORY    OF     INDIA 

It  is,  however,  in  the  sphere  of  Politics  that  the 
greatest  progress  has  been  made.  Apart  from  the  share 
that  State  servants  of  all  grades  have  in  the  administra- 
tion of  the  land,  non-officials  also  participate  in  the 
conduct  of  public  affairs.  By  the  creation  of  Municipal 
Towns  and  of  District  Boards,  self-government  has  in 
some  measure  been  introduced.  A  certain  number  of 
seats  on  the  Provincial  Legislative  Councils  is  reserved 
for  non-official  Indians  who  are  returned  by  the  votes 
of  constituents.  Moreover,  as  occasion  arises,  the  Viceroy 
appoints  Indians  as  additional  Members  of  his  Council. 
All  Bills  are  published  before  they  are  finally  made  law, 
and  newspapers  and  public  bodies  have  an  opportunity 
of  criticising  the  measures  which  Government  has  in 
contemplation.  The  Indian  National  Congress  assem- 
bles annually  to  ventilate  the  aspirations  and  the  desires 
of  the  people,  and  political  work  is  diligently  carried  on 
throughout  the  year  by  influential  bodies,  such,  for 
example,  as  the  British  Indian  Association  and  the 
Muhammadan  Literary  Society  of  Calcutta. 

The  Mughals  were  as  much  foreign  rulers  of  India 
as  are  the  British.    With  the  solitary  ex- 
Avenues    of       ceptionofAkbar,  no  Mughal  emperor  ad- 

§^"r.^!!5^^i^^  milted  the  Hindus  or  the  Muhammadans 
Employment,  ^  ^,  ■   ,       ^      ^  ■  , 

or  the  country  mto  the  higher  services 

of  the  State.  The  English,  however,  have  been  more  wise 
and  liberal.  They  have  from  the  earliest  time  of  their 
occupation  of  this  land  employed  native  labour.  At 
first  Indians  were  given  only  subordinate  posts,  but  now 
there  is  nothing  to  exclude  them  from  the  best  appoint- 
ments. 

However,  clerkships  and  Government  appointments 
happily  are  not  the  ambition  of  all.  Many  prefer  to  enter 
the  learned  professions,  and  be  physicians,  surgeons,  law- 
yers, civil  engineers,  electricians,  and  journalists.  In  pre- 
English  times  these  avenues  of  honourable  remunera- 
tive employment  did  not  exist.  Then,  too,  tli^ere  are 
many  other  openings  for  men  of  education  and  influence. 


Ch.  XIV.]        INDIA,   PAST   AND   PRESENT  237 

They  may  as  Honorary  Magistrates,  Municipal  Commis- 
sioners, and  members  of  District  Boards,  assist  the 
Government  in  its  scheme  of  Local  Self-Government. 
We  have  so  far  been  considering  those  who  have 
the  blessing:  of  health  and  are  able 
to  ™rk.  What  about  those  that  are  R^<,f 's«fl.*! 
arilicted  with  sickness  and  bodily  infirmi-  ing. 
ties  ?  For  such  people  in  bygone  days 
there  was  no  provision  made  by  the  ruling  dynasty.  But 
now  we  have  hospitals  and  many  charitable  institutions. 
In  1906  there  were  2,411  hospitals,  which  treated  405,000 
in-patients  and  25,000,000  out-patients.  Zenana  hospi- 
tals are  provided  in  several  towns,  and  medical  relief  is 
thus  carried  to  women  whose  social  restrictions  prevent 
their  appearing  in  public.  Besides  hospitals  for  general 
complaints,  there  are  lunatic  and  leper  asylums,  cholera 
hospitals,  plague  hospitals,  small-pox  hospitals,  alms 
houses,  homes  for  the  aged,  and  orphanages  for  the  father- 
less. They  are  maintained  or  aided  by  the  Government 
at  a  great  expense,  and  they  succour  individuals  who 
are  in  distress.  There  are,  however,  occasions  when,  not 
isolated  individuals  only,  but  a  whole  population  is  plung- 
ed into  a  sea  of  suffering.  Too  much  or  too  little  rain 
brings  on  a  famine,  and  millions,  who  from  5'ear  to  year 
depend  entirely  upon  the  season's  crop  of  paddy,  are 
doomed  to  starvation.  In  every  country  there  is  a 
percentage  of  the  population  that  goes  through  life  on 
insufficient  food.  In  India  out  of  300  millions,  40  millions 
are  believed  to  have  but  one  meal  a  day.  During  a 
famine  they  have  to  go  without  even  that  meal.  Fa- 
mines have  occurred  in  India  for  centuries.  One  is  said 
to  have  begun  in  Maharastra  in  1396,  and  to  have  lasted 
twelve  years.  In  1556,  another  prevailed  in  the  Mughal 
districts  east  of  Delhi.  The  sumptuous  Court  of  Akbar 
did  nothing  to  feed  the  hungry.  In  1770,  a  worse 
famine  visited  Bengal,  and  Warren  Hastings  spent  the 
sum  of  Rs.  90,000  in  relieving  the  helpless  inhabitants. 
ThereWere  no  roads,  and  no  means  of  promptly  distri- 


238  HISTORY    OF   INDIA 

buting  rice  to  the  famine-stricken.  Obviously  Rs.90,000 
was  nothing  in  comparison  to  the  money  that  should 
have  been  spent ;  but  Hastings'  action  marked  a  great 
change.  It  publicly  accepted  for  the  Government  the 
responsibility  of  rescuing  people  from  the  pitiless  cruelty 
of  famine.  His  successors  have  inherited  that  responsi- 
bility, and  in  the  famine  of  1874,  ^  ^^^'^  ^^  4^  million 
rupees  was  spent  in  feeding  the  ryots.  In  the  famine 
of  1897,  Rs.  53,256,080  were  expended,  and  on  an 
average  2,778,000  suiferers  were  daily  provided  with 
food.     The  loss  of  life  was  comparatively  small. 

But  Government  is  not  idle  in  years  of  plenty. 
It  does  not  wait  till  calamity  has  overtaken  its  subjects. 
It  does  all  it  can  to  prevent  disaster.  Against  plague 
and  cholera,  sanitation  is  insisted  on  ;  against  the  rav- 
ages of  small-pox  vaccination  is  made  compulsory ;  to 
combat  fevers  quinine  is  dispensed  through  post  offices  ; 
against  famines  from  drought,  canals,  wells,  and  tanks 
are  excavated  ;  and  against  famines  from  floods,  embank- 
ments are  raised  along  rivers  that  are  liable  to  overflow. 
To  provide  food  at  such  times  a  Famine  Fund  is  main- 
tained. There  are  over  14,000  miles  of  canals,  which 
have  been  made  at  a  cost  of  37  crores  of  rupees,  and 
which  with  their  distributaries,  aggregating  40,000  miles 
in  length,  are  able  to  irrigate  more  than  15,000,000  acres 
of  land. 

The  preceding  pages  have  endeavoured  briefly  to 
justify   the   statements    quoted    in    the 
Rernarks"^  opening    paragraph     of    this     chapter. 

It  is  not  pretended  that  the  condition 
of  India  admits  of  no  improvement,  or  that  the  admini- 
stration of  the  country  has  reached  a  state  of  perfec- 
tion. But  it  is  claimed  that  the  English  have  done  more 
for  the  good  of  India  than  any  of  her  earlier  rulers,  and 
that  the  Government  earnestly  endeavours  to  promote 
the  real  well-being  of  its  subjects.  It  would  be  unreason- 
able to  expect  no  weakness  or  defect  in  the  administra- 
tion of  so  vast  a  country  with  its  diverse  races  and"  their 


Ch.   XIV.]         INDIA,    PAST    AND   PRESENT  239 

conflicting  interests.  But  of  any  government  the  highest 
praise  is,  that  it  seeks  to  do  what  is  right.  This  may 
without  hesitation  be  said  of  the  Government  of  India, 
for  the  representatives  of  our  King  Emperor  strenuously 
endeavour  after  Truth,  Justice,  and  Unity,  believing 
that  ''to  have  won  such  a  dominion  is  a  great  achieve- 
ment ;  to  hold  it  by  fair  and  righteous  dealings  is  greater; 
to  weld  it  by  wise  statesmanship  into  a  single  and  com- 
pact whole  will  be,  and  is,  the  greatest." 


% 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


Note. — Capital  Letters  indicate  names  of  persons ;  Italics, 
Sanskrit  and  Oriental  Tertns. 


A. 

Abdulla  Sayyid,  123,  129. 
Ardur     Rahaman,     Amir     of 

Afglianistan,   219. 
Aborigines,  the,  1-3,  13,  14,  15, 

Aborigines,  civilized,  2. 

Aborigines,  savage,  i. 

Abul  Fazl,  Allami,  113. 

Adam,  John,  192. 

Adams,  Major  Thomas,  164. 

Aclil  Shahi  Kingdom,  102,    119, 
120. 

Adisura,  see  Aditya  Sen. 

Aditya  Sen,  68. 

Afghan  War,  first,  198. 

Afghan  War,  second,  218. 

Afghan  War,  third,  219. 

Afghanistan,   7,  157. 

Afghanistan,  definition  of  bound- 
aries of,  217,  220. 

Afghans,  93,  203. 

Afzal  Khan,  127,  128. 

Agamas  (traditions),  37. 

Agnew,       Patrick      Alexander 
Vans,  203. 

Agni  (fire),  II. 

Agnimitra,  42,  43. 

Agra,    adornment   of,  by   Shah 
Jahan,  1 16. 

Agra,  capture  of,  183. 

Agra,  Durbar  at,  214. 

Agricukure,  228. 

Ahalya  Bai,  Maharani,  132. 


Ahmad  Shah  Abdalt,  invasion 

of  India  by,  125,  131,  224. 
Ahmad  Shah  Abdali,  struggle 

of  the  Sikhs  with,  141. 
Ahmad  Shah  Durani,  197. 
Ahmadnagar,  capture  of  strong- 
hold of,   III. 
Ahmed  Khel,  battle  of,  219. 
Ahoms,  4,  225. 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  peace  of,   154. 
Ajatasatru,  23. 
AJivika  (a  sect  of  Jaina)  monks, 

29. 
Ajmir,  71,  92. 
Ajmir,  sack  of,  184. 
Akbar,  110,  204. 

,,       birth  of,  108. 

,,       coin  of,  1 13. 

,,       conquests  of,  iio-iii. 

,,       death  of,  1 11. 

,,  gold  medal  of,  commem- 
orating the  fall  of 
Asirgarh,  1 11. 

,,  military  system  and  ad- 
ministration of,  III. 

,,       reign  of,  no,  et  seq. 

,,      revenue  system  of,  113. 

,,       social  reforms  of,  114. 
Akbar,  son  of  Aurangzeb,  121. 
Akbar  ii.,  125. 
Akbar  Khan,  198,  199. 
Akbar  Namah  (Abul  Fazl),  113. 
Alamgir  I,  see  Aurangzeb. 
Alamgir  II,  125. 
Alauddin    Ghori,    known    as 
Jahansoz,  92. 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


Alauddin  Muhammad  i,    95, 
et  seq. 

Alberuni,  89,  91. 

ALBuauERauE,  Alfonso  d',  146. 

Alexander,  24,  51. 

,,  Indian  silver  coin 

of,  25.  ^ 

Alexander,    invasion  of  India 
by,  23. 

Alfred,  145,  147. 

Ali  Masjid,  199. 

Ali  Verdi  Khan,  death  of,  160. 

Alivval,  battle  of,  201. 

Aliwar,  Native  council  of  man- 
agement in  state  of,  217. 

Alliances,  system  of  subsidiary, 
185. 

Almeida,  Francisco  d',  146. 

Altamash,  94,  106. 

,,         Tanka  of  the  emperor, 
106. 

Alvares,  Pedro,  146. 

Amboyna,  massacre  of  the  Eng- 
lish at,   147. 

Amherst,  William   Pitt,    First 
Earl  rf,  192. 

Amir  Khan,  188,  190,  191. 

Amir  Khusrau,  106. 

Amoghavarsha,  78. 

Ananda  Bai,  133. 

Ananda  Pal,  86. 

Ananga  Pal,  72. 

Anarchy,  freedom  from,  225. 

Andamans,  2,217. 

Anderson,  Lieut.,  203. 

Andhra    dynasty,     members    of 
the,  50. 

Andhra,  revolt  of,  44. 

A?idhra-bhritvas,  49. 

Andhras,  Kingdom  of  the,  48. 

Antiochus  'Iheos,  29. 

Anwar-ud-din,  153. 

death  of,  155. 

Arab  conquest,  85. 

Arabic  literature,  91. 

Arabs,  76,  90,  92. 

Aramaean  script,   39. 


Aranyaka,  the,  20. 

Architecture,  53,  54,  116. 

Arcot,  capture  of,  155,    156. 

Argaon,  battle  of,  183. 

Arithmetic,  39. 

Aror,  85. 

Arsaces  Theos,  45. 

Arts,  53. 

Aryan  civilisation,  10. 

Aryan   dispersion,    map   of  the, 

viii. 
Aryan    immigrants,     conflict    of 

the  earlier  and  later,  14. 
Aryans,  the,  in  the  Punjab,  7. 
Aryans,     the,    in    their    original 

home,  5. 
Aryans,  conflict  of  the,  with   the 

Dravidians,  7. 
Aryans,  first  immigration  of  the, 

Aryans,   second  immigration  of 

the,  13. 
Arya-varna  (friend's  colour),  8. 
AsAF  Khan,  114. 
Asaf-ud-Daulah,  169. 
Astadliyayi,  the  (Panini),  36. 
Asirgarh,  capture  of  fort  of.  III. 
AsoKA,  inscription  on  the  column 

at  Rummin  Dei,  31. 
Asoka's  column,  26. 

,,  ,,         view  of,  28. 

Asoka's    "  Edicts,"    27,   36,   40^ 

48.   ^ 
Asoka's  reign,  27. 
Asrama,  institution  of,  19. 
Assam,  conquest  of,  19. 
Assaye,  battle  of,  183. 
Astronomy,  37,  38. 
Asvaghosa,  51. 
As%'amedlia  (horse-sacrifice),  43. 
Atala  Mosque,  100,  106. 
Atliarva  veda,  13,  19. 
Auckland,  George  Eden,  Earl 

of,  197,  199- 
Aurangzeb  or  Alamgib  i,  204. 
,,  character  anW  policy 

of,  121. 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


AuRANGZEB,    Contrast    of,    with 

Akbar,  122. 
AuRANGZEB,  death  of,  120. 

,,  enthronement  of,  117. 

,,         grant   of   Sutanati   to 
the  English  by,  120. 
AuRANGZEB,  Moghu!  Empire  in 

the  time  of,  1 18. 
AuKANGZEB,  reign  of,  iig. 

,,  re-imposition  of  taxes 

on  Hindu  pilgriiTis  by,  121. 
Aurangzeb's  coin,  122. 

,,  war  with  the   Mara- 

thas  in  the  Deccan,  iig. 
Austrian    Succession,    War    of 

the,  153. 
Ayodhya,   15. 
Ayub  Khan,  219. 
AzEs,  43. 

B. 

Babar,  99,  107,  108. 

Badauni,  113. 

Baffin,  148. 

Bahadur  Shah,  ioi,  123,    140, 

211. 
Bahman  Shah,  ioi. 
Bahmani  Kingdom,  102. 
Bahman  Shahis,  86. 
Baillie,    Lieut. -Col.    WiUiam, 

171. 
Bairam  Khan,  109,  no. 
Baji    Rao    I.,   Second  Peshwa, 

125,    130. 
Baji  Rao  II.,  Seventh  Pesh-wa, 

134,  1S2,  183,  190,  191. 
Balaji  Baji  Rao,  Third  Pesh- 
wa, 125,  130,   131. 
Balaji      V'ishwanath,     First 

Peshwa,  129,    132. 
Bale  AN,  94,  95. 
Ballala  TI.,  79. 
Balwant  Singh,  193. 
Bana,  65. 
Bandelkijand  Kingdom,   70,   72, 

87,  92-94,  104. 


Bangalore,  storming  of,  178. 

Bargis,  135. 

Bari  Duab  Canal,  excavation  of, 

204. 
Barid-Shahi  Kingdom,  102. 
Barlow,  Sir  George,  184,   186. 
Barwell,  Richard,   160, 
Bassein,  Treaty  of,  131,  134,  182. 
Batta    (Bhatta),    reduction    of, 

19.3- 
Begums  of  Oudh,  169,  173,  175. 

Benares,  Treaty  of,  168. 

Bengal,  Kingdom  of,  70,  75,  92, 

93,   97,     IOI. 

Bentinck,  Lord  William  Cav- 
endish, 193-197. 

Bentinck,  monument  to,  197. 

Berar,  102. 

Bernier,  Francois,  117. 

Bhagwan  Das,  113. 

Bhandi,  61. 

Bharatas,  14. 

Bharatvarsha,   14. 

Bharavi,  65. 

Bharhut,  54. 

Bhartpur,  capture  of,  193. 

Bhartrihari,  65. 

Bhatarka,  76. 

Bhattikavya  (Bhartrihari),  65. 

Bhavabhuti,  69,  90. 

Bheels  or  Bhils,  2. 

Bhillama,  79. 

Bhima  Deva,  86. 

Bhima  Pala,  87. 

Bhoja  I.,  70,  75. 

Bhoja  II.,  70. 

Bhoja  Deva,  90. 

Bhonsla,  132. 

Bhutan  Duars,  annexation  of, 
215. 

Bidar,  102,   119. 

Biderra,  batde  of,    163. 

Bihar,  Kingdom  of,  73,  93. 

Bijapur,  102,  116. 

Bimbisara,  23. 

Birbal,  113. 

BiSAL  Deo,  see  Vigraharaja. 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


Black  Hole,  massacre  of  the,  1 6i. 
BosCAWEN,   Admiral  the  Hon. 

Edward,  154. 
Boundary  Commission,  220. 
BraJima,  20. 
Brahmagupta,  65. 
Bralmian  dynasty,  85. 
Brahman         Shahi        dynasty, 

founding  of,  86. 
Brahmana    (theological    work), 

19- 
Brahmanic  civilisation,    14,    17. 
Brahmanic   doctrine    of    trans- 
migration, 21. 
Brahmanic  laws,  38. 
Brahmanic  literature,  19,36,  64. 
Brahmanic  monks,  29,  33. 
Brahmanic  philosophy,  52. 
Brahmanic  religion,  20,  62,  63. 
Brahmanic   schools,   36-39,    52. 
Brahmanism,  new,  62-64,  88,89. 
Brahmanism,old,i7,37,4o,5i,52. 
Brahmanism,  revival  of,  62,  63, 

89. 
Brahmanism,    state    of,     during 

Buddhist  period,  52. 
Brahmanists,      rival      monastic 

orders  among,  89. 
Brahmans,  10,  17-19,  29,  37,  50, 

51,  63-65,  85. 
Brahmasiitra  bhashya  (Sankara 

Ach  arya),  90. 
Brahmavarta.  10. 
Brahmi  script,  39. 
Brahmo  Samaj,  235. 
Brass  token,   98. 
Brihadratha,  29. 
Brihat        Sam  hit  a         (Varaha 

Mihira),  65. 
British      India    in     Dalhousie's 

time,  206. 
Brydon,  Siirgeon-Major 

William,  199. 
Buddha  (enlightenedone), doct- 
rine of,  34. 

,,     Kanishka'sgoldcoinof,  46. 

,,     life  of,  31. 


Buddha,    relics    of,     inscribed 
casket  of,  39. 
,,     under  the  tree,  32. 
Buddha  Charita  (Asvaghosha), 

Buddhism,    introduction    of,    in 

Ceylon,  28. 
Buddhism,  new,  50. 

,,     old,    28,29,35,41,46,50,53- 

,,     propagation  of,  29,  51. 

,,      rise  of,  29. 
Buddhist  Council,  51. 

,,     literature,  41,  64. 

,,      monks,  30,  31. 
BUHLOL  LoDI,  99,   100. 

Bundelkhand,   Mahmud's  cam- 
paign against,  87. 

Burmese  War,  first,  192. 
,,     ,,     second,  204. 
,,      ,,     third,  221. 

BuRNES,  Sir  Alexander,  198. 

BussY,  see  Bussy-Castelnau. 

Bussy-Castelnau,  Charles 

Joseph  Patissier,  Marquis  de, 
172. 

Buxar,  battle  of,  164. 

c. 


Cabot,  John,  147. 

Cabral,  146. 

Cadet  Corps,  establishment  of, 

228. 
Calcutta,      early       history      of, 

120,   160. 
Calcutta  Madrasah,  232. 
Cami'BELL,  Sir  CoWn,  211. 
Canals,  Roads  and,  27,  202,  217, 

231. 
Canning,   Charles  John,  Earl, 
208-213. 

,,     work  of,  as  Viceroy,  214. 
Caron,  Francis,  149. 
Cartier,  John,  167 
Caste,  8,  17,  18  ,38.      C' 
Caste-system,  origin  of,  17. 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


Cavagnari,  Sir  Louis,  2ig. 

Cawnpore  massacre,  211. 

Central  India,  state  of,  186,  194. 

Ceylon,  2,  15,  22,  52. 

Ceylon,  introduction  of  Budd- 
hism in,  28. 

Chach,  85. 

Chait  Sing,  Raja  of  Benares, 
169,  173. 

Chaitanya,  105. 

Chaityas  (temples),  54. 

Chakrayudha,  69,  70,  75. 

Chalukya  dynasty.  Eastern,  81. 
,,      ,,      Western,  78. 

Chalukyas,  61,  76-79. 

Chalukyas,  later  Western, 
known  as  Chalukyas  of 
Kalyani,  79. 

Chama  Raj,  166. 

ChAND   BlBI,    III. 

Chand   (Chanda)   Sahib,    155, 

159- 
Chandels,  of  Mahaba,  72. 

Chandernagore,  capture  of,  161. 

Chandra  Deva,  71. 

Chandragiri,  102. 

Chandra  Gupta,  26,  27,  29,  37. 

,,      ,,     and       his         Lichhavi 
queen,  gold  coin  of,  56, 
Chandra  Gupta  I.,  57,  64. 
Chandra  Gupta  II.,  48,  56,  57. 
Charaka,  53. 
Charnock,  Job,  160. 
Charter,   renewal  of  East  India 

Company's,   195. 
Chasthana,  47. 
Chant,  120,  130,  139. 

,,     exaction  of,  by  Marathas, 

125- 
Chedi  (Kalachuri)  era,  50. 

Chedi  Kingdom,  the,  77,  183. 
Chillianwala,  battle  of,  203. 
Chingis  Khan,  95. 
Chinsura,    taking    of,    by    Lord 

Clive^  147. 
Chitral  disturbance,  13,  221. 
Chitu,  188. 


Chohans  of  Ajmirand  Delhi,  the, 

71,  92. 
Chola  Kingdom,  the,  Bi. 

,,  ,,     revival  of  Hinduism 

in,  105. 
Cholas,  22,  23,  78,  82,  83. 
Christian    Settlement,     first,    in 

India,  54. 
Christianity,  147. 
Civil  Service,  236. 
Civil  Service  Code,    publication 

of,  179. 
Civil  Service,  reforms  in,  179. 
Classes,  origin  of,  8,  17. 
Classical     Sanskrit     literature, 

commencement  of,  64. 
Clive,   Robert,   Lord,  147,  155, 

156,  158. 
Clive,  first  period,  159. 
,,       second  period,  160. 
,,        third  period,  165. 
Code  of  Manu,  52. 
Coins  : 

Akbar's  coin,  1 13. 
Akbar's    Gold    Medal    com- 
memoratingfall  of  Asirgarh, 
III. 
Aurangzeb's  coin,  122. 
Brass    token    of    Muhammad 

II.,  98. 
Coin    of    Jahangir    and    Nur 

Jahan,  1 14. 

Coin  of  Vishnu  Vardhana,  59. 

Deccan      coin      of     Chandra 

Gupta    and     his    Lichhavi 

queen,  56. 

Gold  coin  of  Gangeya  Deva, 

Gold   Sikandar  as-Sani    coin 
of  Muhammad  I.,  96. 

Indian  coin  of  Mahmud,  88. 

Kanishka's      gold      coin      of 
Buddha,  46. 

Silver  Coin  of  Alexander,  25. 

Tanka  of  Emperor  Altamsh, 
106. 
Collectors  of  Revenue,  167. 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


CoMBERMERE^  Field-Mai'slial 
Stapleton  Cotton,  First  Vis- 
count, 193. 

Coni»ientary  on  the  Vedas 
(Sayana),  105. 

Company's  monopoly,  187. 

Commerce,  expansion  of,  230. 

Commercial  Intelligence  Depart- 
ment, establishment  of,  223. 

Condition  of  the  people,  io-i2, 
16-19.  37.  38.  50-52,  62-64, 
88-90. 

CoNTi,  Nicolo,  103. 

Contract  System,  provincial, 
215. 

Convention  of  Wargaon,  170. 

Convocation  of  Prayaga,  63. 

CooTE,  Lieut. -Gen.  Sir  Eyre, 
156,  162,  171. 

Copper-plates,  recording  grants 
of  land  on,  63. 

CoRNWALLis,  Charles,  First 
Marquis,   176. 

CoRNWALLis,  British  India  in 
the  time  of,  177. 

CoRNVv^vLLis,  death  of,  185. 

CuRZON,  George  Nathaniel, 
First  Baron,  222. 


D 


Dad  Kishen  Raj,  166. 

Dahir,  85. 

Dalhousie,  James  Andrew 
Brown- Ramsay,  First  Mar- 
quis, 131,  202-8,  230. 

Dalhousie's  work,  estimate  of, 
208. 

Damayanti,  16. 

Dandin,  65. 

Dandupant,  see  Nana  Sahib. 

Dantidurga,  78. 

Dara,  death  of,  117. 

Darius  Hystaspis,  23. 

Darjeeling-  made  summer  resi- 
dence of  Government,  195. 


DasakumarcJiarita,     (Dandin), 

65. 
Dasannmis,  89. 
Dasaratha,  15,  28. 
Dasaratha,  Maurya,  28. 
Dasa-var}ia,  8,  15. 
Dates  of  ancient  Indian  History, 

29. 
Daud  Khan,  death  of,  iii. 
Daulat  Khan  Lodi,  107 
Daulat  Rao  Sindhia,   214. 
Davis,  148. 
Debal,  85. 
Deccan,  the,  iii. 

,,         attempted   conquest   of 

the,  by  Shah  Jahan,  115. 
Deccan,  climate  of  the,  v. 

,,         Kingdom  of  the,  loi. 
,,         people  of  the,  v. 
,,         temperature  of  the,  v. 
,,         vegetable    products    of 
the,  V. 
Delhi,  batde  of,  183. 

,,      founding  of,  72. 

.,       Kingdom  of,  99. 

,,       proclamation  at,  by  Lord 
Amherst,  193. 
Demetrios,  42. 
Deogaon,  Treaty  of,  183. 
Deslialiikaris,  137. 
DesJipandias,   137. 
Devabhuti,  49. 
Devagiri,  79,  96,  97. 
Dharasena  IV.,  62,  75,  76. 
Dharmapala,  69,  73. 
Dharniashastra,  52,  64. 
Dharniasiitras,      (manuals     for 

civil  and  criminal  law),  37. 
Dharnikot,  48. 
Diiruva,  70. 
Dhuvasena,  62. 
Dhulip  Singh,  144,  201,  203. 
Digvijaya  (world  conquest),  59. 
DiLWAR  Khan,  100. 
Din-i-llalii,  1 12. 
Dinnaga,  65.  •^ 

Diu,  loi,  146. 


GENERAL    INDEX. 


Diwan,  113. 

Divvani  of  Bengal  and  Bihar, 
grant  of,  to  East  India  Com- 
pany, by  Shah  Alam  II.,  125. 

Dhvan-i-Aui,  116,  117. 

Diivan-i-Khas,  116. 

Donab3'u,  fall  of,  192. 

Dost  Ali,  151,  155. 

Dost  Muhammad,  144,  197, 
199. 

Drake,  Roger,  160,  161. 

Dravidian  Kingdoms,  23. 
,,     languages,  22. 

Dravidians,  conflict  of  the,  with 
the  Aryans,  7. 

Dronasimha,  59,  76. 

Dual  system  of  Government, 
165. 

DuFFERiN,  Frederick  Temple 
Hamilton-Temple  Blackwood, 
First  Marquis    of,  220. 

Dumas,  151,  152. 

DuPLEix,  Joseph  Fran9ois,  Mar- 
quis, 152,  153,  156. 

Durbar  at  Agra,   214. 
,,      Delhi,  218. 

DUSHYANTU,  65. 

Dutch,  the,  in  India,  147. 

Dvara  samudra,  79,  96. 

DWARKANATH   TaGORE,    1 94. 

E. 

Earthquakes,  222. 
Eastern  Chalukyas,  81. 
East  India  Company,    abolition 
of,  213. 
,,     and  the  Dutch,  148. 
,,     formation  of,  148. 
,,     grant  of   Dewani  of   Ben- 
gal and  Bihar  to,  125. 
,,      placed   under  direct   con- 
trol     of      a       Board      of 
Ministers,  174. 
East    Inci'a   Company,    renewal 
of  charter  of,  195. 


East   India  Company's   pice  of 

1833.  .195- 
Economic  condition,  ,16. 
Edinburgh,   Duke  of,   visit   to 

India  of,  217. 
"Edicts"  of  Asoka,  27,36,  40,  48. 
Education,    38,    202,    207,    217. 

232. 
Education  and  art  of  writing,  38. 
Edward  vii.  Emperor  of  India, 

2-2.2. 

Edwardes,       Major-Gen.       Sir 

Herbert  Benjamin,  203. 
Elgin    I.,  Eighth  Earl,  James 

Bruce,   214. 
Elgin  II.,  Ninth   Earl,    Victor 

Alexander  Bruce,  221,  222. 
Ellenborough,   Edward  Law, 
First  Earl,   199. 
,,     recall  of,  200. 
Emigration,    231. 
Empire — 

First  (Maurya),  22,  et  seq. 
Second  (Gupta),  55,  et  seq. 
Third  (Turki),  92,  et  seq. 
P'ourth  (Mughal),  107,  etseq. 
Fifth  (British),  214,  et  seq. 
English  and  the  French,  struggle 
between  the,  153-157. 
,,     attempts    to    reach   India, 

147. 
,,     factory  at  Hughli,  116. 
,,     made  the  official  language, 

ig6. 
,,     massacre      of       the,       at 

Amboyna,  147. 
,,      settlements,  early,  149. 
EuDEMos,  25. 
Eukratides,  42. 
Europe  and  India  contrasted,  i. 
,,        ,,        in  early  days, 
145- 


Factory     at      Hughli,      of     the 
English,  1x6. 


8 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


Fahian,  57. 

,,     travels  in  North  India  of , 

63- 
Faizi,  1 13. 
Famine,  218,  222,  237,  238. 

,,      in  Orissa,   215. 

,,     of  1877,  218. 
Faruksiyar,  123,  160. 
Fatehpur  Sikri,  battle  of,  108. 
Faujdars,  1 1  2. 
P'eudatory  Chiefs,  216. 
Feudatory  States,   Lord  Mayo's 

dealings  with,  216. 
FiRDAUsr,  gi. 
First    Christian     settlement    in 

India,  54. 
First      (Maurya)      Empire    25, 
et  seq. 

,,     ,,     causes    of      disruption 
of,  41. 

,,     ,,     extinction  of,  44. 
FiRUZ  II.,  103. 
FiRUZ  III.,  gS,  99,  100,  103. 
FiRUZ  Shah  II.,  see  Jalaluddin. 
Fitch,  Ralph,   160 
FoRDE,  Col.  Francis,  162. 
Francis,  .Wr  Philip,  169, 174, 175. 
French,  Arrival  in  India  of  the, 

149. 
French      Empire,      attempt     to 

establish  a,  153. 

,,  possessions  in    India, 

present,   157. 
vs.  English,  153-157. 
Frobisher,  148. 

G. 

Gaekwar,  132. 
Gaharwar  dynasty,  the,  72. 
Gaharwar  Rajputs,  72. 
Gama,  Vasco  Da,  145,  146. 
Ganda,  71. 

Gandamak,  Treaty  of,  219. 
Ganda  Deva,  88. 
Gandhara  Kingdom,  58. 


Gandhara  school  of  art,  53,  54. 
Ganga  dynasty,  45,  79. 
Ganga  Puri,  82. 
Ganges   Canal,    excavation    of, 

202. 
Gangeya  Deva,  gold  coin  of,  84. 
Cniidavaha  (  V'akpatirajaj,  69. 
Gautama,  see  Buddha. 
Gautamu^utra,  47. 
Geriah,  batde  of,  164. 
Ghazi-uddin,  125. 

GlIAZI-UDDIN   BaLBAN,    93,   94. 

Ghazi-uddin  Ghori,  93. 
Ghazi-uddin  Tughlak,  97. 
Ghazni  Empire,  87. 
Ghori  dynasty,  93,  94. 
Gillespie,      Major-Gen.      Sir 

Robert  Rollo,  189. 
Gitagovinda  (Jayadeva),  90. 
GoDDARD,    Brig-Gen.  Thomas, 

171. 
Godeheu,  156. 
Golden  mosque,  106. 
Golkonda  Kingdom,  102. 
GoLLAS,  see  Mihiragula. 

GONDOPHARES,  45,   54. 

Gonds,  2. 

GOPALA,    70,    73. 

GouGH,  Hugh,    First  Viscount, 

200,  201,  203. 
Government,     dual     system    of, 

165. 
GoviNDA  Singh,  Guru   of  the 
Siklis,  140. 

GOVINDA   III.,  69,   70,   78,   81. 

Grseco-Bactrian  conquest,  42. 

Grammar,  35,  36. 

Grand   Trunk   Road,   extension 

of,  204. 
Granth  (Nanak),  140. 
"Great   Golden     Mosque"     at 

Gaur,  106. 
Great  Plain,  ii. 
"Great     Proconsul     of    India," 

the,  185. 
Great  Satrapy,  rise  of  ^.he,  47. 
Grecian  culture,  51. 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


Grihya      siitras     (manuals      of 

domestic  rites),  37. 
Gujarat,  battle  of,  203. 

,,      Kingdom  of,  46,  47,  56, 
62,  67,   70,   75,  76,  92,  96, 
98,  99,  lOI. 
GuLAB  Singh,  201,  202. 
Gupta  dynasty,   55-57,   63,    68, 

73- 

,,      ,,     later,  67,  68,  73. 

,,     empire,  56,  58-61,  76. 

,,     era,  56. 
Gurjara  empire,  69,  70,  76,  84. 
Gurkha  war,  189. 
Guru     Govinda     Singh,     see 

Govinda  Singh. 
Gwalior,  siege  of,  87. 

,,     taken  under  British    pro- 
tection, 200. 


H. 


Haidar  Ali,  132,  165,  166,  170, 
172,  173,  181. 

,,      death  of,  172. 
Haiderabad,  battle  of,  200. 
Haihayas,  83. 
Hajjaj,  85. 
Hala,  49. 
Hamilton,    Surgeon    William, 

160. 
Hara  Pala,  80. 
Harakali     Nataka       ( Vigraha- 

raja),  71. 
Hardinge,    Henry,   First    \'is- 

count,  201-2. 
Hari  Gupta,  68. 
Harihara  I.,  102. 
Harihara  ii.,  102. 
Hariharpur,  capture  of,  190. 
Harris,  George,  First  Baron,  of 

Seringapatam     and    Mysore, 

180. 
HARSHA'^autograph  of  King,  61. 

T 


Harsha  Deva,  Deccan  coin  of, 

73- 
Harsha  Deva  Siyaka,  73. 
Harsha  era,  62. 
Harsha  Vardhana,  61,  62,  64, 

75.  77- 
Hasan    Gangu,     see     Bahman 

Sha. 
Hastings,     Francis     Rawdon, 
First  Marquis,   1 87 -191. 
,,     internal  measures   of,  191. 
Hastings,  Right  Hon.  Warren, 
133,    156,    160,    166,    167, 
175,  232,  238. 
,,     impeachment  of,   175. 
,,     summary  of  work  of,  174. 
Hastivarman,  80. 
Havelock,      Major-Gen.      Sir 

Henry,  211. 
Hemu,  109. 

High  Court  of  Calcutta,  estab- 
lishment of,  169,  214. 
Himalayan  region,  iii. 
Hinayana  (little  vehicle),  51. 
Hinduism,  50,  235. 

;,       complete    establishment 

of,  88. 
,.       decline  of,  105. 
,,       rise  of,  62-63. 
Hindustan,  iii,  68. 
Hindustani,    106. 
HlUEN  TSANG,  63. 
HOLKAR,    132. 

HoLWELL,  John  Zephaniah,i6i, 

163. 
Horse-sacrifice,  medal  of  the,  63, 

,,     revival  of  the,  63. 
HouTMANN,  Cornelius,  147. 
Hoysala  Kingdom,  102. 
Hoysalas,  the,  79,96. 
Hudson,  148. 

Hughli,  English  factory  at,  116. 
Human  sacrifices,  202,  235. 
Humayun,  ioi,  108-110. 

,,       death  of  no. 
Huns,  58,  60,  67. 


10 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


HuSAiN  Ali,   Sayyid,  123,    129. 
HuvisHKA,  46. 
Hystaspis  Darius,  23. 


I. 


Ibn-Batuta,  103,  106. 
Ibrahim  Lodi  II.,  99,  107. 
Ibrahim  SHARai,  106. 
Ibrahim  Sur,  seizure  of  Delhi 

by,  109. 
I  mad  Shahi  kingdom,  102. 
Imamuddin,  202. 
Immigrations,  north-eastern,  3. 
Immigrations,       north-western, 
7,  12. 
,,     southern,  14,  21. 
Imperial  service  troops,  227. 
Titles,  68,  70,  73,  76. 
Income-tax,  reduction  of,  223. 
India  and  Europe  contrasted,  i . 
,,     Bill,  174. 
,,     direction  from  which  may 

be  invaded, in. 
„      Europe      and,      in      early 

days,  145. 
„     likened  to  a  fortress,  vi. 
,,     past  and  present,  224-235. 
,,     paucity  of  harbours  of,  v. 
,,     peculiar  position  of,  vi. 
,,     physical  features,  i-vi. 
,,     undertheCrown, 2x4,^^5^9. 
Indian  Empire — 

First,  22,  et  seq. 
Second,  55,  et  seq. 
Third,  92,  et  seq. 
Fourth,  107,  et  seq. 
Fifth,  214,  et  seq. 
Indian  National  Congress,  236. 
,,     Press,  liberty  given  to,  197. 
,,     Trinity,  20. 
Indians,   admission  of,   into   the 

public  service,  193. 
Indo-Aryan  people,  the,  15. 
Indo- Aryans,  culture  of,  9. 
,,     language  of,  39. 


Indo-Aryans,  political  condition 
of,  16. 
,,     states,  15. 
,,     united,  in  Northern  India, 

13- 
Indo-Europeans,  the,  5. 

,,     dispersion  of  the,  6. 

Indo- Parthian  Kingdom,   over- 
throw of,  46. 

Indra,  II,  20. 

Indra  III.,  70. 

Indraraja  III.,  78. 

Indravarman,  45, 

Indrayudha,  69,  75. 

Indus    and    its    tributaries,    old 
course  of  the,  74. 

Industries,  228. 

Infanticide,  among  Khonds,  202. 
,,      suppression  of,  194. 

Invasion,  by  Alexander,  23-25. 
,,     freedom  from,  224. 

Iranians,  7. 

Iron  Pillar  and  Qutub  Minar,  57. 

Islam,  introduction  of,  90,  91. 
,,     spread  of,  104. 

Islam  Shah,  109. 

Isvarasena,  50. 

J. 

Jahandar,   123. 
Jahangir,  114.  et  seq,  149. 

,,     and  Nur  Jahan,   coin   of, 
114. 
Jahansoz,  see  Alauddin. 
Jails,  233. 
Jain  literature,  36,  37,  64. 

,,     monks,  89. 
Jainism,  29,  30,  41. 

,,      rise  of,  29. 
Jajalla  I.,  84. 
Jalaluddin  Khalji,  95. 
Janaka,  16. 
Jarasandha,   16, 
Jaunpur,  Kingdom,  100. 
Jaya  Chandra,  72,  9*^. 
Jaya  Deva,  90. 


GENERAL    INDEX. 


II 


Jayaditya,  65. 
Jaya  Gupta,  68. 
Jaya  Pala,  71. 

,,     of  Kanauj,  86,  87. 
,,     of  the  Punjab,  86. 
Jayapida,  69. 

Jeswant  Rao  Holkar,  134. 
Jeswant  Singh,  121. 
Jhansi,  Ra7ii  of,  210. 
Jhi  Mall,  113. 

Jina  (Spiritual  Conqueror),  31. 
JiviTA  Gupta,  68; 
Jiziya,  91. 

,,  re-imposition    of,     by 

Aurangzeb,  120. 
,,         withdrawal      of,      by 
Akbar,  112 
Jumma  Musjid,  116. 
Jumna  Canal,  98. 
Junagarh,    inscriptions     on    the 
rock  of,  47. 


K. 


Kabir,  105. 

Kabirpanthis,  105. 

Kabul,  embassy  to,  187. 

Kadambari  (Bana),  65. 

Kadambas,  49. 

Kadphises  I.,  46. 

Kailasa,  Rock-temple  of,  53. 

Kaiqobad,  95. 

Kakatiya  dynasty,  84. 

Kakka  II.,  79. 

Kalachuri  dynasty,  50,  56,  72. 

Kalachuri  era,  48. 

Kalanga,  capture  of  fort  of,  189. 

Kalidasa,  59,  65. 

Kalinga,  27,  42,  43,  45. 

„     conquest  of,  by  Asoka,  27. 

,,      independence  of,  42. 
Kalinjar,  siege  of,  87. 
Kanarese,  2. 

Kanauj, 'capital,  61,  68,  87. 
,,       dynasty,  61. 


Kanauj,  kingdom,  68. 

,,       Mahmud's       campaign 

against,  87. 
,,       sack  of,  71. 

Kanchipur,  78,  83. 

Kandahar,  188. 

Kangra,  capture  of  fort  of,   87. 

Kanishka,  46,  51. 

,,     gold  coin  of  Buddha,  46. 

Kanvayana  dynasty,  44. 

Kanyakubja,  15. 

Kapilavastu,  31,  33. 

Karauna  dynasty,  97,  104. 

Karim  Khan,  188. 

Kay  ma  (acts),  21,  34. 

Karnadeva,  84. 

Karnatic  War,  first,  153. 
,,     second,  154. 

Karor,  battle  of,  45. 

Kasikavriti  ( Vamana  and  Jaya- 
ditya), 65.^ 

Kathseans  (Kathis),  24. 

Kathiawar,   establishment  of    a 
college  for  chiefs  of,  217. 

Katyayana,  81,  82. 

Kauravas,  14. 

Kausambi,  15,  56. 

Keralas,  22,  23. 

Khalji  dynasty,  of  Delhi,  73,  84. 

94,  95.  97>  103- 

,,     of  Malwa,  100. 
Khalsa    (Sikh   commonwealth), 

140,  141,  142,  144,   201,  203. 

,,     army,    misgovernment   of, 
144. 
Kharavela,  42,  49. 
Kharoshthi  form  of  writing,  40. 
Khasis,  2. 
Khisr  Khan,  99. 
Khonds,  202. 
Khusrau  Malik,  88. 
Khusru,  97. 
Khusru  II,  66,  77. 
Kiratarjuniya  (Bharavi),  65. 
Kirtivarman  II,  78. 
Koch,  225. 
Koh-i-Nur,  124. 


12 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


KOKALLA  I,  83. 

Kolarians,  2. 

Kols,  2. 

Kosala,  15,  23. 

Krishna,  15,  48,  80. 

Krishna  II.,  83. 

Krishna  Gupta.  68,  73. 

Krishna  Raja,    73. 

Krishna    Raja   Wadiar,    166, 

181. 
Krishnavarna,  8,  15. 
Kshatrapa  (satrap),  25. 
Kshatriya,   17,  18,  23,  30,  31. 
KuMARA  Gupta  I.,  57. 
Kumara  Gupta  II.,  60 

KUMRAN,    108. 

Kumarila  Bhatta,  90. 

Kurola,  battle  of,  180. 

Kiiruksheti'a,   10. 

Kurus,  10. 

Kushana  empire,   establishment 

of,  46,  53,  58. 
Kushana  invasion,  46. 
Kushanas,  the  great,  40,  47,  51, 

58. 

,,     the  little,  58,  86. 
Kusinagara,  33. 

L. 

La      Bourdonnais,      Bertrand 
Francis   Mahe  de,  arrival   of, 

'53- 
Lahore,  treaty  of,  201 

,,     second  treaty  of,  202. 
Lake,    Gerard,    first    I'iscount, 

125,  183,  184,  "193. 
Lakshmana  Sena,  75. 
Lakshmaniya  era,  75. 
Lalitaditya  Muktapida,  69. 
Lalkot  or  Red  P'ort,  72. 
Lalliya,  86. 
Lally,    Thomas  Arthur,  Count 

de,  and   Baron  de   Tollendal, 

156,  162. 
Lancaster,  148. 
Land,   recording  grants   of,    on 


copper-plates,  63. 
Language,  Aryan,  8. 

,,      Dravidian,  22. 

,,     Indo- Aryan,  39. 
Lansdow^ne,     Henry     Charles 

Keith  Petty-Fitzmaurice,F?yif/r 
Marquis,  221. 
Lapse,    Doctrine   of,    204,    205, 

208,  213,  227. 
Laswari,  battle  of,  183. 
Law,   151, 
Lawrence,  Sir  Henry  Mount- 

gomery,  202,  203,  211. 

,,     John    Laird     Mair,    First 
Baron,  203,  204,  215. 
Learned  professions,  237. 
Leeds,  William,  148. 
Legislative    Councils,    enlarge- 
ment  of    Imperial    and    Pro- 
vincial, 221. 
Lenoir,  151. 
Liaka,  44. 
Lichhavis,  56. 
Linga,  the,  20,  88. 
Literature,  Arabic,  89. 

,,      Brahmanic,  19. 

,,      Persian,  89,  91. 

,,     Sanskrit,  19,  36,  64,  89. 
Little  Kushans,  58. 
Local  Self  Govt.  Act,  1882,  220. 
Lodi  dynasty,  end  of,  108. 
Lower    Burma,    annexation    of, 

204. 
Lucknow,  treaty  of,    181. 
Lumbini   Park,    now    known  as 

Rummin  Dei,  31. 
Lysias,  43. 
Lytton,  Edward  Robert  Bulwer, 

First    Earl,    218. 

M. 

Maabar  Coast,  96. 
MacNaghten,     Sir     William, 

198.  i 

MACPHERSON,6VrJohn,  174, 176. 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


13 


Madhava,  105. 

Madhu    Rao,    Fourth  Peshwa, 

132. 
Madhu  Rao  II,  Sixth  Peshwa, 

I33>  170.  171- 
Madhu     Rao    Narayana    See 

Madhu  Rao  II. 
Madhya-desa,  17. 
Madras,  siege  of,   156. 
,,         treaty  of,  171. 
Magadha,  16,  22-26. 
Magha,  go. 
Magistrates  required  to  perform 

duties    of     both    judges   and 
■' collectors  of  revenue,  igi. 
Mahaba,  72,  84. 
MaliabJiarata,  14. 
Maharaja,  15,  56,  76. 
Maharajpur,  battle  of,  200. 
Maharashtra,  48,  121. 
Maharathyias,  48. 
Mahavira,  founder  of  Jainism, 

30. 
Mahay  ana  (great  Vehicle),  51. 
Mahel  capture  of,  171. 
Mahendra,  28. 
Mahendrapala,  70. 
Mahendravarman  II.,  81, 
Mahipala,  70,  75. 
Mahmud  I.,  95,  96. 
Mahmud  II.,  97,  99. 
Mahmud,  of  Ghazni,  71,  85-88, 

Mahmud,  campaigns  of,  against 

Indian  kingdoms  87. 
Mahmud,    sack  of    Kanauj  by 

Sultan,  71. 
Mahmud,  Indian  coin  of,  88. 
Maiwand,  battle  of,  219. 
Malati  Madhaba  (Bhavabhuti), 

90. 
Malava  dynasty,   24,  45,  47,  59, 

60. 
Malik  Kafur,   80,  82,  83,  96. 
Malik  Khusru,  82. 
Malik'^Sarwar,  100. 
Malkher,  73,  78. 


Malloi  (Malava)  tribe,  24. 
Malmsbury,  William,  of,  147. 
Malwa  kingdom,  42,  47,  58,  73, 

77,  90,  92,  93,  96,  99,  100,  loi. 
Man  Singh,  113. 
Manava  Dliarnia  Shastra,  52. 
Mandasor,  61. 
Mangalore,  treaty  of,  172. 
Manipur  rebellion,  221. 
Mansabdars,  112,  138. 
Mansel,  Charles  Grenville,  203. 
Mansura  kingdom,  85. 
Manu,  Code  of,  52. 
Maphuz  Khan,  154. 
Maqbul  Khan,  98. 
Mara  (the  Evil  One),  32. 
Maratha  administration,  137. 

,,     army,  135. 

chiefs,  confederacy  of,  131, 
139,  182,  184,  185. 

,,     confederacy,      causes      of 
downfall  of,  134. 

,,     revenue  system,   138. 

,,     system  of  war,  136. 
Maratha  war,  first,  133,  170. 

,,     second,  125,  182. 

,,     third,  183,  191. 
Marathas,  rise  of  the,  127. 
Marathi  language,  48. 
Maritime  trade,  vi,  39. 
Martin,  150-151. 
Maruts,  11. 
Mathura,  15,  44,  87. 
Maues  (Mogos),  44. 
Mauritius,   187. 
Maurya  empire,  22,  etseq. 
Mayo,        Richard        Southwell 

Bourke,  Sixth  Earl,  215-217, 

227,  232. 

,,     assassination  of,  217. 
Mazimdar,  138. 
Medicine,  38,  53. 
Megasthenes,  37,  82. 
Meghduta  (Kalidasa),  65. 
Meghavarana,  56. 
Menander  (or  Milinda),  43. 
Metcalfe,  Sir  Charles,   197. 


14 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


Miani,  battle  of,  200. 

MlHIRAGULA,  59,  60. 
Mihiri  clan,  76. 

MiLDENHALL,  John,    I48. 

MiLiNDA  (Menander)  43. 
Mimanisa  (enquiry),  52. 
MiNHAJUDDIN,    106. 

MiNTo    I.,    Sir    Gilbert   Elliot, 

first  Earl,  186. 
MiNTO  II.,  Gilbert  John  Murray 

Kynynmond     Elliot,     Fourth 

Earl,  223. 
Mir  Jafar,   see   Mir    Muham- 
mad Jafar. 
MiR  JuMLA,  1 19. 
Mir  Kasim  Alt,  163,  164. 
MiR  Muhammad  Jafar,  better 

known  as  Mir  Jafar,  161  162, 

164. 
Missils     (Sikh     confederacies), 

141. 
Mogos  (or  Maues),  44. 
MoiRA,      Lo7'd,     see     Hastings, 

Marquis  of. 
Mong-hyr,  capture  of,  164. 
Mon-khmer,  i. 

Monopoly,     abolition    of    Com- 
pany's Indian,  187. 
Monotheism,  20. 
MoNSON,    Brigadier-Gen.      the 

Hon.  William,  1S4. 
Moplas,  146. 
Moti  Masjid,  116. 
MuAZZAM,  123. 
Mubarak  Shah,  80. 
Mudki,  battle  of,  201. 
Mughal    empire,    break-up    of, 
123. 

,,      ,,      in  the  time  of  Aurang- 
zeb,  118. 
Muhammad  I.,   Khalji,    73,  95, 
96,  97,  104. 

,,    gold  Sikandar-as-Sani  coin 

of,  96. 
Muhammad    II.,    Tughlak   97, 

98,  loi,  104. 
Muhammad,  Brass  token  of,  g8. 


Muhammad  Adil  Shah,  109. 
Muhammad  Alauddin,  92,  95. 
Muhammad  Ali,  155,  156,  165. 
181. 

Bahadur  Shah,  125,  126. 
Ghori,  67,  72,  88,  93,  94. 
i-Bakhtiyar,  75,  93,. 
-i-Oasim,  85. 
Shah,  123,  124. 
Muhammadan    conquest,     the, 
69,  75,  86,  90,  92. 

,,     culture,   105. 

,,      Empire,  first,  94,  et  seq. 
MuizuDDiN,    see     Muhammad 

Ghori. 
Mularaja  I.,  76. 
Mulhar  Rao  Holkar,  191. 
Mulraj    Diwan,    Governor  of 

Multan,  203 
Multan,  capture  of,  203. 

,,     kingdom,  85. 
MuMTAJ  Mahal,  116. 
Mundas,   i. 

Municipalities,  320,   231,  235. 
MuntakhaJiab-ut-Tawariq 

(Badauni),   113. 
Murad,  117. 

,,     death  of,  117. 
Murray,  Col.,  184. 
Mutiny,  Sepoy,  208-212. 
Muzaffar  I.,  of  Gujarat,  loi. 
MuzAFFAR  Jang,   155,  156. 
Mysore,  165,    166,  181. 
Mysore  war,  first,  165. 

,,     ,,     second,   156,  171. 

,,      ,,      third,  177. 

,,     ,,     fourth  180. 


N. 


Nadir  (Nazir)  Jang,  155. 
Nadir  Shah,  124,  141,  151,224. 
,,     ,,     invasion   of   India  by, 
124.  ff 

Nagabhata,  69,  70. 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


1-5 


N agar j una,  51. 
Nagarjuni  caves,  29. 
Nagarkot,  capture  of,  87. 
Nahapana,  47,  49. 
Najmud-daulah,  165. 
Nala,  16. 
Nalopakliyana,   16. 
Nana  Farnavis,  133,  170,    178, 
.  180. 
,,     ,,     death  of,  182 

Nana  Sahib  (Dandu  Pant), 
130,  205,  209,  210. 

Nanak,  Guru  of  the  Sikhs,  140. 

Nanda  dynasty,  23,  24,  26. 

Nanda  Kumar,  170,  175. 

Nandivarman,  81. 

Nanja  Raj,  166. 

Napier,  Sir  Charles,  200. 

Napier,  of  Magdala  and 
Caryngton,  Robert  Cornehus, 
first  Baron,  212. 

Napoleon  Bonaparte,  180. 

Narasimha  Gupta,  59. 

Narasimha  Varman,  78. 

Narayan    Rao,  fifth    Peshwa, 

133.  170- 
Nasrat  Shah,  106. 
Nata  (or  Naya)  clan,  30. 
National  Congress,  235,  236. 
Natives    in    service,     193,     202, 

208,  213. 
Nazir  Ali,  165. 
Nazir  fNadir)  Jang,  155. 
Neill,    Brigadier-Gen.   James 

George  Smith,  211. 
Nelson,  Horatio,  Viscount,  and 

Duke  of  Bronte,  180. 
Nestorian  Missionaries,  54. 
New  Buddhism,  rise  of ,  50. 
New   Delhi,   foundation    of,   by 

Shah  Jahan,  116. 
Newbery,  John,  148. 
Newfoundland,      discovery     of, 

147. 
Newspapers,  192,  197,  235. 

NiadeSii,  138- 
Nicaea,  25. 


Nicholson,    Major-Gen.     Sir 

Lothian,  21 1. 
NicoLO  Conti,  103. 
Nikator,  26. 
Nine  Gems  of   Vikramaditya's 

court,  64. 
Nirgranthas,  30. 
Nirvana  (peace),  35. 
Nishadha,   16. 

Niti  Sataka  (Bhartrihari),  65. 
Nizam  Shahi  kingdom,  102. 
Nizam-ul-Mulk,  154. 
Non-intervention  policy,  179. 
Non- Regulation  Provinces,  207. 
Northbrook,  Thomas  George 

Y^armg,  first  Earl,  218. 
Northern   Empire,  disruption  of 

the,  68. 
NoTT,  Major  Gen.  Sir  William, 

199. 
NuR  Jahan,  i  14. 

Nyaya,  53. 

0. 

Ochterlony,    Brigadier-Gen. 

Sir  David,  189,   190. 
Ohind,  24. 
Orissa  famine,  218. 
O'Shaughnessy,  229, 
Oudh,  annexation  of,   205,  206, 
209. 

„     assumption  of  title  of  king 
by  Nawab  Wazir  of,  202. 

,,     Begums  of,  169,  173. 

,,     Jaunpur  kingdom,  1 00. 

,,     warningto  king  of,  against 
misrule,  202. 
OuTRAM,        Lieut.-Gen.        Str 

James,  211. 

P. 

Pagahs,  135. 

Painting,   cultivation  of   the  art 
of,  65. 


i6 


GENERAL    INDEX. 


Paithan,  49. 

Pala  dynasty,  73. 

Pali  or  Prakrit  language,  36. 

Pallava  kingdom,  80. 

Pallavas,  50,  56  79,  81. 

Panchala,  15. 

Panda  vas,  14. 

Pandyas,  22,  23,  77,  78,  82. 

Panini,  36,  37,  65. 

Panipat,  first  battle  of,  107. 

,,     second  battle  of,  109. 

,;     third  battle  of,  125,   141, 
Panniar,  battle  of,  200. 
Pantheism,  philosophic,  20. 
Paradis,  154. 
Paris,  treaty  of,  156. 
Parmar  dynasty,  71,  72,  73. 
Parasvanath,  30. 
Parthian  invasion,  45. 

,,     race,  41. 
Patala,  137. 

Pataliputra  fort,  23,  26,  42. 
Patanjali,  38,  42. 
Pathan  empire,    [a   misnomer], 

94,  et  seq. 
Pauravas,  24. 
Peacock   throne  of  Shah  Jahan, 

116. 
Permanent         Settlement         of 

Bengal,  178. 
Persia,  embassy  to,  187. 
Persian  gulf,  3. 

,,     language,  106,  195. 

,,     literature,  91 . 
Peshwas,  129-134. 

,,     house  of  the,  130. 
Philosophic  pantheism,  20. 
Philosophy,  12,  20,  53. 
Pice,  Compan3''s,  of  1833,  '95 
Pillar,  inscribed,  26,   28.  56, 
Pindari  war,  190. 
Pindaris,  187,  189,  225-227. 
Piprahva  stupa,  33. 
Pirates,  226. 
Pitt's  India  Bill,  174. 
Piyadassi  (the  gracious)  assum- 
ption of  title  of,  by  .Asoka,  27. 


Plague,  221. 

Plain    of    northern     India,     the 

great,  ii. 
Plassey,  battle  of,  161,  208. 
Pliny,  82. 
Police,  233. 
Political  condition,  16. 

,,     progress,  234. 
Pollock,    Field-Marshal    Sir 

George,  199. 
Pondichery,       capital      of      the 

French,  150-154  156,  157. 
Popham,      Lt.-Gen.      William, 

171.  173- 
PoRos,  defeat  of,  Jhelum,  24.  ' 

,,     murder  of,  25. 

Portuguese,   the,   in    India,  145, 

147. 

arrival  of  the,  103. 

possessions  in    India,  146- 

147. 
Post  and  Telegraph  Depts,  229. 
PoTTiNGER,  Maj or  EXdr ad,  198. 
Prabhakara  Vardhana,  61, 
Prajapati  (  Lord  of  the  Creation  j , 

20. 
Prajnaparamita     ( Nagarjunaj, 

51- 

Prakrit  (Pali)  language,  36,  64. 

Pravarasena  II,  61, 
Prayaga,  56. 

,,     religious    convocation     at, 
62. 
Prendergast,  Sir  Harry  North 

Dalrymple,  221. 
Press,     freedom    of    \'ernacular, 

192. 

,,     liberty  given  to  India,  197. 
Prithvirvja  (or  Rai    Pithora;, 

72,  93- 
Proclamation  at  Delhi,  by  Lord 

Amherst,  193. 

,,     of  Oueen  Victoria,  213. 
Prome,  capture  of,  192. 
Provincial  contract  system,  215. 
Ptolemy,  47,  49.  * 

PuLAKESiN  I.,  77. 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


17 


PULAKESIN.   II.,  61,    66,   77. 
PULOMAVI   II.,   47,   49. 
PULOMAVI     III,  49. 

Punjab,   early   historv   of     the, 

85-86. 
PuRA  Gupta,  58. 
Puranas,  44,  64. 
Purnia,    rebellion    ot     Raja     of, 

162. 
Purva  iniiiuimsu,  52. 
Pushyamitra,  24,  49. 


Q 


Oarmatians,  85. 

Oueen's  Proclamation,  21^,  216, 

■"218. 

Outb  Minar,  106. 

Outb  Shahi  kingdom,  102. 

OUTBUDDIN,    106. 
OuTBUDDIN   .\lBAK,     72,   93. 

Outub  .Minar,  Iron  Pillar  and,  57. 


Raghoba,    120,    121,    132,    133, 
170,    171. 

invasion  of  the  Punjab 

by,  I3»- 
Raghuji  Bhonsla,  134,  152. 
Raghunath  Rao,  see  Raghoba. 
Raghuvamsa  (Kalidasa),  59,  65. 
Raijit  Singh,  189. 
Railways,  217,  231. 
Rajagriha,  23. 
Raj  any  a,  9. 
Rajaraja  I.,  82. 
Rajasekhara,  90. 
Ra'iaiarangini    (Kalhana),    60, 

87. 
Rajendra  I.,  82. 
Rajendra  II.,  82. 
Rajgarh,  Sivaji's  fort  at,  128. 
Rajput -revolt  during    Aurang- 

zeb's  reign,  120. 
Rajputana,  71,  no,   222. 


Rajputs,     pacification      of,     by 
Bahadur  Shah,  123. 

Rajyapala,  71. 

Rajyavardhana,  61. 

Rama,  15. 

Ramabhadra,  70. 

Ramadeva,  80. 

Ramananda,  105. 

Ra.vianuja,  105. 

Ramayana,  15. 

Rammohan  Roy,  Raja,  195. 

Rana  Sanga,  108. 

Rani  Bai,  85. 

Ranjit  Singh,  143,  186,  197. 

Rashtrakutas,  73,  78,  79,  80. 

Rathiyas  (Marathasj,  127. 

Ratnavali  (Harsha),  64. 

Rawar,  85. 

Raya  dynast)-,  85. 

Raziyyat,  Begum,  94. 

Regulating  Act,  168. 

Religion,  20,  233,  235. 

Religion,  Brahmanic,  20. 

Religious  toleration,  233. 

Rent  .\ct,  214. 

Residency  of  Lucknow,  211. 

Rich  (vedic  verse),  19. 

Rigveda,  19. 

description  of  the,  9. 

RiPON,    George    Frederick   Sa- 
muel, First  Marquis,  219. 

Roads  and  canals,  231. 

Roberts,      Frederick      Sleigh, 
First  Earl,  219. 

Rock-temple  of  Kailas,  53. 

Roe,  Sir  Thomas,  149. 
,,     embassy  of,  115. 

Rohilla  war,  168. 

Rohillas,  125,  168. 

Rose,  Sir  Hugh,  212. 

Rudradaman,  47,  49. 

Rudrasimha,  48. 

Rummin  Dei,  28,  31. 


Saadat  Ali,  181,  202. 
Sabuk  Tigin,  17. 


i8 


GENERAL     INDEX. 


Sacrifices,       human,      amon^ 

Khonds,  202. 
Sadar  Courts,  abolition  of.  214. 
Sadar  Diwani  Adalut,  167. 
Safdar  Ali,  152. 
Sahu,  123,  124,  129. 
St.  Thomas,  54. 
St.  Thome,  battle  of,  154. 
Saisunaga  dynasty,  23. 
Saiva  orders,  89. 
Saivas,  20,  38,  89. 
Saka  era,  46. 

,,     invasion,  43. 

,,     satraps,  45-47. 
Sakas,  43-46,  76. 
Sakasthana,  43. 
Sakta,  89. 
Sakti,  89. 

Sakunta/a  (Kalidasa),  65. 
Sakyas,  31,  33,  39. 
Salabat  Jang,  155. 
Salar  Jang,  Nawab  Sir,  210. 
Salbai,  treaty  of,  171,  172. 
Sale,    Major-Gen.  Sir    Robert 

Henry,  198,  199. 
Salim,  see  Jahangir. 
Salt  tax,  reduction  of,  223. 
Samaveda,  19. 
Sambhaji,  120,  129. 
Sam  hit  a  (Charaka),  53. 
Samhitas  (collection),  19. 
Samsara,  21. 
Samudra  Gupta,  56,  80. 

,,  ,,  revival        of 

horse  sacrifice  by,  63. 
Sanchi,  54. 
Sangala,  24. 

Sangrama  Simha,  Rana,  108. 
Sankara  Acharya,  89,  90. 
Sankhya  philosophy,  38,  52. 
Sanskrit  language  and  literature, 

revival  of,  64. 
Sanskrit  literature,    19,   36,   37, 

64,  65,  89,  105. 
Sanskrit,    rise   of,    as   a  literary 

language,  36. 
Santhals,  2. 


Sapta-Sataka   (Hala),49. 
Sarva        Darsana         Sangraha 

(Madhava),  105. 
Sassanian  dynasty,  47. 
Sat.\karni  Gautamiputra,  4q. 
Satara,  annexation  of,  205. 

fort  of,  124. 
Satavahana  dynasty,  50. 
Sati  among  Khonds,  202. 

,.    suppression  of,  194. 
Satiyas,  48. 
Satraps,  25,  44-46,  49. 
Satrapy,  rise  of  the  great,  47. 
Saurashtra,  kingdom  of,  knowrr 

as  the  Great  Satrapy,  47, 
Savana,  105. 
Sayana,  105. 

Sayyid  Abdulla,  123,  129. 
Sayyid  Dynasty,  99. 
Sayyid  Husain  Ali,  123,  129. 
Sciences,  53. 
Sculpture,  53. 
Scythians,  41,  43. 
Second  (Gupta)  empire,  55,  etseq 
Second  empire,   division  of,  into 

north  and  south,  61. 
Segauli,  treaty  of,  190. 
Seleukos  Nik.ator,  26. 
Sena  dynasty,  75. 
Senapati ,  76. 

Sepoy  Mutiny,  203,  208-12,  230. 
Seringapatam,  fall  of,  166. 

,,  siege  of,  180. 

Seven  Years'  War,  156,  161. 
Shah  Alam,  183. 
Shah  Alam  II.,  125,   133,  135, 

164,  168,  183. 
Shah  Jahan,  115-117. 

civil  war  among  sons 
of,  1 16. 

orold  coin  of,  1 17. 

imprisonment  of,  117 

peacock     throne    of, 
116. 
Shah  Shuja,  197,  198,  199. 
Shah  Zaman,  142,  18:. 
Shahnama  (Firdausi),  91. 


GENERAL     INDEX. 


19 


Shahji  Bhonsla,  127. 
Shamsuddin  Altamsh,  94. 

,,  Ilyas,  1 01. 

Shans,  4. 

Sharqui  dynasty,  100. 
Suv-K  Ai.1,  Amir  of  Afghanistan, 

215,  218. 
Sher  Khan,  assumption  of  title 

of  Sher  Shah  by,    108. 
Sher  Khan  Lodi,  150. 
Sher  Shah,  death  of,  109. 
Shodasa,  44. 
Shore,  Sir  }ohn,  179. 
Shuja,  defeat  of,  at  Agra,  117 
9huja-ud-Daulah,  164. 
,.         death  of,  169. 
Siddhartha,  see  Buddha. 
Sighelmus,    Bishop    of    Sher- 

hurn,  147. 
Sikandar-as-Sani ,  96. 

SiKANDAR  SUR,    I09,    IIO. 

Sikh  army,  disbandment  of,  203. 
Sikh  war,  first,  201. 

,,       ,,     second,  203. 
Sikhs,  confederacy  of  the,  139. 

,,        origin  of  the,  140. 

persecution  of  the,  bv  the 
Mug-hals,  140. 

,,        religion  of  the,  140. 

,,       struggle    of      the,      with 
Ahmad  Shah  Abdali  141 . 
Sikkim,  annexation  of,  204, 
SiLADiTYA,  q/J/a/7f a,  dethrone- 
ment of,  61. 
SiLADiTYA  VI.,  of  Gujarat,  76. 
Silidars,  135. 
Simharaja,  71. 
Simla,  made  summer   residence 

of  the  Governor- General,  195. 
SiMUKA,  48. 
Sindh,  annexation  of,  200. 

,,     earl}'  history  of,  85. 

,,     embassy  to,  187. 
SiNDHiA,  132,  133. 

SiNGHANA,   79,   80. 

Siraj-^d-Daulah,  160,   161. 
,,     accession  to  throne  of,  160 


Siraj-ttd-Daulah,  death  of,  162. 
Sisupalabadha  (Magha),  90. 
Sita,  16. 
Siva,  3,  ii,  20. 
SivAji,  119,  188. 

,,     birth  of,   127. 

,,     death  of,  129. 

,,     enthronement  of,  128. 
made      Viceroy      of     the 
Deccan,  128. 

present  of  gifts  to,    by  the 
English,  128. 

,,     ,,     ,,     ,,   the  French,  128. 

,,     raid  of  Karnatic  by,  128. 

,,     sack  of  Surat  by,  128. 
Skanda  Gupta,  58. 
Slave  dynasty,  94. 
Sleeman,  Sir  William  Henry, 

194. 
Smith,  Major-Gen. ]o?,e.\A\,  166. 
Smriti  (tradition^,  37. 
Snake,  cult  of,  3,  20. 
Sobraon,  battle  of,  201. 
Social  condition,  37. 
conference,  235. 

,,      progress,  234. 
Solanki  dynasty,  76. 
Soma,  10,  II. 
Somesvara,  72,  79. 
Somnath,  sack  of  temple  of,  88. 
Southern  empire  under  the  Early 

Chalukyas,  77. 
Srauta     siitras      (manuals     for 

performing  sacrifices),  37. 
Sriramgaon,  battle  of,  155. 
Sri  Satakarni,  49. 
Sritti  (revelation),  37. 
States,  annexation  of,   by   Dal- 

housie,  205. 

„     formation  of,  15. 
Stewart,  Sir  Donald,  219. 
Strabo,  82. 
Strato,  43. 
Stupa,    view    of    the    oldest,    at 

Sanchi,  33. 
Subahs,  division  of   empire  into, 

by  Akbar.  1 13. 


20 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


SUBANDHU,    65. 

Subsidiary   treaties,   system   of, 
185.  , 

SUDAS,    14. 
SUDDHODANA,    3I. 

Sudras,  8,  g,  17,  18,  55. 
Sunga  empire,  44. 
Sungabhritya,  44. 
Supreme    Council,    remodelling- 

of,  126. 
Sur  dynasty,  108. 
Sura,    10, 

Surashtra  kingdom,  47. 
Surat,  establishment  of    French 

factory  at,  149. 

,,     sack  of,  by  Sivaji,   iig. 

,,  treaty  of,  170. 
Surdeslimitklit,  139. 
SuRi,  92. 

Surji  Arjangaon,  treaty  of,  183. 
Sursubahdars,    138. 
SusuRMAN,  49. 

SUSRUTA,   53. 

Sutanati,  grant  of,   to  the   Eng- 
lish by  Aurangzeb,  120. 
Sutherland,  Col.  John,  195. 
Sutra  period,  37. 
Sutras  (manuals),  37. 
Subandhu,  65. 


Tagore,  Dwarkanath,  194. 

Tahmash,  Shah  of  Persia,  109. 

Tahqiqual  Hind  (Alberuni),  89. 

Tai  tribe,  ii,  4. 

Tailapa  II.,  79. 

Taj  Mahal,  115. 

Tajiks,  92,  93. 

Talikot,  battle  of,  102. 

Tamil  language,  22. 

Tamils,  2. 

Tanka,  106. 

Tantia  Topi,  210,  212. 

T antra,  64. 


Tantra  Vartika  (Sankara  Acha- 

rya),  90. 
Taxila  University,  38. 
Tea,  202,  228. 
Telegraph,  207,  229. 
Telingana,  84. 
Telugu  language,  22,  48. 
Thagi,      suppression     of,      194, 

235- 
Thags,  194. 

Thaneswar,  61,  72,  93. 

Thebaw,  King  of  Burma,  221. 

Third    Empire,    dissolution    of, 

99. 
Third   Indian  or  first  Muham- 

madan  Empire,  92,  et  seq. 

TiASTENES,  47. 

Tibet,  62,  144, 

,,      Commercial  expedition  to, 

223. 
Tibeto-Burmans,  ii. 
TiMUR,  99,  107,  126,  142. 

,,       house  of, 

,,       invasionof  India  by,  107. 
Tipu,    166,   171,   172,   176,    177, 

178,  180,  181,  182,  185,  186. 

,,      death  of,   180. 
Tirah  Campaign,  222. 
ToDAR  Mall,  113. 
Toramana,  58,  59,  76, 
Trade,  228. 

Transmigration,  doctrine  of,   21. 
Treaties,  system  of  subsidiary, 

185. 
Trikalinga,  84. 
Trilochanapala,  71. 
Tripitaka  (three  baskets),  37. 
TuGHLAa,  Ghiyasuddin,  97 

,,  Muhammad  II,  97. 

Tughlaq  Shahi  dynasty,  97. 

TUKAJI    HOLKAR,    I33. 

Turki  conquest,  86. 

,,       empire,  condition  of    the 

people  under  the,  103. 
,,       second  invasion,  435. 
,,       Shahis,  86., 
,,       Slaves,  94. 


GENERAL    INDEX. 


21 


U 


Udai  Singh,  no. 
Udayin,  23. 
Uighur  or  Usun,  46. 
Umachand      (Amin     or     Amir 

Chand),  161. 
Universities,  38,  207,  222,  232. 
Upanishad,  20. 
Upper    Burma,    annexation    of, 

221. 
Urdu,  106. 
Uttar  mimanisa,  52. 


Vaccination,  238, 
Vaisali,  15,  23,  30. 
Vaiseshika,  53. 
Vaisnava  orders,  89. 
Vaisnavas,  20,  38,  89,  105. 
Vaisya,  8,  17,  18. 
Vakpatiraja,  69. 
Vallabhi     kingdom,    separation 
of,  from  northern  empire,  62. 
Vamana,  65. 
Vans  Agnew,  203. 
Vansittart,  Henry,  163. 
Varaha  Mihira,  64. 
Varuna,  20. 

Vasavadatta  (Subandhuj,  05. 
Vasco  da  Gama,  103,  145,  146- 
Vasishtiputra,  49. 
Vasudeva  Sungabhritya,  44, 

47- 

Vasumitra,  43. 

Vatsaraja,  61,  69,  70,  73. 

Vayu  Purayia,  64. 

Vedanta,  21,  38,  52,  90. 

Vedas,  105. 

Veddas,  2. 

Vedic  iiymns,  3,  9. 

Vellore  Mutiny,  186. 

Vengi,  78. 

Verelst,  Henry,  166. 

Vernalular  press.f  reedom  of ,  1 92, 

Versailles,  treaty  of,  I57.  ^1-- 


Viceroy,  creation  ot   Go\ernor- 

General  as,  213. 
Victoria,    Queen,    assumption 

of       title      of      Empress      of 
India  by,  218. 

,,     death  of,  222. 
Vidarbha,  16,  42. 
Videha,  16. 

ViDYAPATI,    105. 

Vigraharaja,    knoivii  as  Bisal 

Deo,  71. 
Villa ras  (monasteries),  54. 
Vijayanagar,  102. 

VlJAYAPALA,   71. 

Vijaya  Sena,  75. 
Vikrama  era,  45,  60. 
Vikramaditya,  45. 

„     Kashmir  coins  of,  60. 

,,     "nine  gems"   of  the  court 
of,  64. 
Vikramaditya  H.,  78. 
Vimaladitya,  82. 
Vishnu,  ii,  15,  20,  63,  80. 
Vishnu  Vardhana,  76,  77. 

,,     ,,     coin  of,  59. 

,,     ,,     column  of  victory  of, 59. 

w. 

Wahabis,  214. 
Wandivvash,  siege  of,  171. 
Wang  Hiuen  Tse,  62. 
Warangal,  84,  96. 
Wargaon,  convention  of,  170. 
Warnak  Rao,  182. 
Wasil  Muhammad,  188,  190. 
Waterloo,  battle  of,  180. 
W'atson,  Admiral  Charles,  161. 
Wellesley,    Gen.  Str  Arthur, 

see  Wellington. 
Wellesley,    Richard    Colley, 
Marquis,  1 80,  202. 
,,     work  of,  185. 
Wellington,     Duke    of,    Arthur 

Wellesley,   180. 
Western  Chalukyas,  82. 
Western  Marches,  71,  92,  93,  99, 


22 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


White  Huns,  58. 

William      of       Malmsbury, 

147. 
WiLLOUGHBY,  Sir  Hugh,   147. 
WiLLOUGHBY,  Lieut,  210. 
Writing,    introduction    in    India 

of  art  of,  39. 

Y. 


Yadava  dynasty,  79. 
Yadava  Singhana,  84. 
Yagnasena  Satakarni,  42. 
Vajurveda,  19. 

Yakub  Khan,  Amir  of  Afghani- 
stan, 219. 


Yasodharman,  59. 

,,     assumption    of     name    of 
Vishnu  Vardhana  by,  60. 
Yasovarman,  69,  70,  72. 
Yendabu,  treaty  of,  192,  204. 
Yoga,  20,  38,  52. 
Yoga  sutra  (Patanjali),  38. 
Yudhisthira,   14 
Yuechi,  43,  46. 

z. 

Zafar  Khan,  see  MuzafTar  1. 
Zamorin,   the   (Hindu    Raja  of 

Calicut),   145. 
Zeman  Shah,  see  Shah  Zaman. 
Zemindars,  origin  of,  167. 


DS 

Hoernle,  August  Friedrich 

U% 

Rudoli" 

H6^ 

A  history  of  India 

1909 

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