THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
RIVERSIDE
A Typical Indian Idol
d the use of idols liarc been characteristic of the
us of India from early times. Hjndns. Buddhists, and Jains alike
presentations of their dirinities and sacred per-
lic period cannot be
I STORY
of INDIA
Edited b
A? V. WILLIAMS JACKSON, Ph.D., LL.D.
Professor of Indo-Iranian Languages in Columbia University
VOLUME IX
Historic Accounts of India by Foreign Travellers
Classic, Oriental, and Occidental
Collected and arranged by
A. V. WILLIAMS JACKSON
Professor of Indo-Iranian Languages in Columbia University
LONDON
THE GROLIER SOCIETY
PUBLISHERS
Litton Rationale
Limited to One Thousand Copies
for England and America
Copyright, 7907, by
THE GROLIER SOCIETY
fciiwluini IJrpHB
INTRODUCTION BY THE EDITOR
In this volume I have endeavoured to present a
picture of India as it appeared to foreign travellers
who visited it at different periods in its history. Greek,
Latin, Chinese, Arabic, Persian, Italian, Portuguese,
Dutch, French, and English sources have been drawn
upon, since these are the historic nations which have
come into direct or indirect contact with India.
Among classical writers Strabo was given a prefer-
ence, both for particular merits of his own and because
his description of India includes the reports of his
countrymen, Megasthenes, Onesikritos, and others, who
accompanied Alexander the Great on his invading
march into the land of the Indus. In the second chap-
ter, in which the story of the practice of widow-burning,
from the earliest ages to the time of its abolition, is
told, space has been found for several Latin allusions,
besides the Greek, Moslem, and European references to
this ancient custom. The third chapter will be found
to prove that the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, Hiuan
Tsang, was not only a pious devotee of India's broader
creed, but also a keen observer and careful recorder
of what he saw in the land of the faith that he loved.
For the earlier Moslem period I have chosen a selection
vi INTBODUCTION
from the famous al-Bironi and have added an excerpt
from the Persian geographer Mustaufi, better known
to us as al-Kazvini. The accounts by the Europeans
give a good picture of the manner in which India pre-
sented itself to Occidental eyes from the end of the
fifteenth century onward.
The selections taken from Strabo are from the stand-
ard translation by Hamilton and Falconer, but I have
carefully revised the version with the help of my pupil
Mr. Charles J. Ogden. The chapter from Hiuan Tsang
is based upon the translation by Beal (" Buddhist Rec-
ords "), but has been thoroughly remodelled and like-
wise compared with the version by Watters, this task
being done for me by one of my students, Mr. Kentok
Hori, a Buddhist priest of Japan. The selections from
Roger's early Dutch account of India have been trans-
lated for the first time into English by my friend and
former pupil Dr. Louis H. Gray. Grateful acknowledg-
ment is here made for the privilege of quoting at length
several passages from the Hakluyt Society's publica-
tions, Sachau's al-Biruni, and Beauchamp's translation
of an account of suttee by the Abbe Dubois, the latter
passage being among the citations in the second chap-
ter. In all cases the sources to which I have been in-
debted are indicated in their proper places, and the
text in general has been treated as in the preceding vol-
umes.
The illustrations are taken largely from original
photographs or old prints, but useful aid, as in the
preceding volumes, has been received from such well-
INTRODUCTION vii
known works on India as those of Rousselet, Beveridge,
and Caine. It has been an advantage likewise to have
the use of certain excellent photographs taken by the
Rev. W. M. Zumbro, of Madura, Southern India.
As I close this volume, the last of the series, it is
with thanks again to Mr. Haas and Dr. Gray, who have
given me such material assistance; my special thanks
likewise are due to several members connected with
the publishing staff, to whose ready help I am much
indebted. This prefatory note is written on the eve of
my departure for the third time to the Orient, and as
I look back over the long ages of India's history and
its position in Asia, I can but be struck by the thought
of the ever-increasing interest in the East felt by the
West, and the growing importance of a knowledge of
the great historic nations of the Land of the Dawn.
A. V. WILLIAMS JACKSON.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I. ACCOUNT OF INDIA BY THE GREEK WRITER STRABO . . 1
II. THE PRACTICE OF SUTTEE, OR WIDOW -BURNING, IN INDIA,
ACCORDING TO GREEK, LATIN, ARABIC, PERSIAN, ITALIAN,
DUTCH, FRENCH, AND ENGLISH ACCOUNTS . . . .68
III. A DESCRIPTION OF INDIA IN GENERAL BY THE CHINESE BUD-
DHIST PILGRIM HIUAN TSANG 121
IV. AL-BIRUNI'S ARABIC ACCOUNT OF THE HINDU RELIGION . 154
V. AN ACCOUNT OF THE TEMPLE OF SOMNATH BY THE PERSIAN
GEOGRAPHER KAZVINI 200
VI. THE PORTUGUESE NAVIGATOR VASCO DA GAMA AT CALICUT
AND HIS RECEPTION BY THE ZAMORIN ..... 205
VII. THE PORTUGUESE COMMANDER ALBUQUERQUE'S ENTRANCE
INTO GOA AND DESCRIPTION OF MALABAR .... 227
VIII. HINDU MANNERS AND CUSTOMS AS DESCRIBED BY THE DUTCH
MISSIONARY ABRAHAM ROGER 237
IX. A DESCRIPTION OF BENGAL BY THE FRENCH VOYAGER FRANCOIS
PYRARD DE LAVAL ,. 280
X. THE ITALIAN TRAVELLER PIETRO DELLA VALLE'S DESCRIP-
TION OF AHMADABAD ........ 294
XI. SIR THOMAS ROE'S FIRST AUDIENCE WITH THE GREAT MOGUL 306
XII. FRANCKLIN'S NOTES ON CEYLON AND ON SOUTHERN AND
WESTERN INDIA . 314
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAOB
A Typical Indian Idol Frontispiece
An Indian Decorative Design 1
Coin of Alexander the Great 3
The Ganges at Benares 6
The Sabarmati, a River of Western India, on its Way to the Sea . . 9
The Descending Branches of a Banyan-tree 11
Falls of the Kavari, Swasamudram 15
Bridge of Boats on the Indus . . . 19
At the Monkey Temple, Benares 21
The Great Temple at Madura . 23
A Tent of the Primitive Lepchas in Northeast India .... 24
The North Indian Tribes Conquered by Alexander . . . . .26
A Royal Bengal Tiger 29
Noosing Wild Elephants 33
Elephants at Work Hauling Timber 35
A Snake-charmer at Benares 38
Sawing Timber 41
Preparing Rice for Food 43
The Dilwara Temple at Mount Abu 47
A Hindu Ascetic in a Trance 51
An Indian Scene 52
A Statuette of a Hindu Ascetic 55
Monolithic Carvings of the Temple at Mahabalipuram, Madras Presi-
dency 57
Indian Foot-soldiers 59
An Elephant in a Royal Procession at Baroda 61
Hindus at the Well of Knowledge, Benares 65
An Old Buddhist Relief from the Bharahat Stupa ..... 68
Hindu Races in the Vedic and Epic Ages 69
Lord William C. Bentinck 72
Women at the Village Pond 74
xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
An Indian Woman with her Jewels 77
Hindu Women 79
Suttee, or Widow-burning, in Ancient Times ... ... 81
Indian Musical Instruments 83
Children near a Ruined Shrine in the Bombay Presidency ... 85
An Indian Woman with a Characteristic Necklace . . . . . 87
The Rama Ghat at Ayodhya 90
A Betel-box 93
A Group of Child Widows 96
A Pillar of the Gupta Age 99
A Type of Brahman Woman 101
The Moat and Ramparts at Tanjore 105
An Old Picture of a Widow Preparing to be Burned with her Husband . 109
A Scene at the Village Well Ill
The Sacred Waters of the Ganges 113
A Modern Burning-ghat at Calcutta 115
An Old Buddhist Sculpture from the Bharahat Stupa .... 121
A Scene in the Tista Valley 123
An Indian Picture showing the Signs of the Zodiac . . . . .128
A Gandhara Sculpture, apparently portraying the Bathing of the Infant
Buddha 130
A Fakir 133
An Aged Musician with a Gourd-lyre 135
A Gateway of the Buddhist Stupa at Sanchi 138
A Chinese Buddhist Monastery 140
The Buddhist Tope at Sarnath near Benares 143
A Gandhara Sculpture of Buddha 144
Paraphernalia for a Chinese Buddhist Ritual Observance .... 147
An Indian Representation of Buddha 149
An Indian Pot 153
The God Brahma 157
The God Krishna, or Vasudeva . . . 159
A Hindu Cave Temple at Ellora 161
The Golden Temple and Lake Amritsar 163
A Buddhist Funeral Urn 164
Ruins at Ujjain, said to have been the Native Town of Varahamihira . 166
The Torments of Hell 170
A Group of Women and Children in the Shade of Palm-trees . . . 173
An Inscribed Buddhist Sculpture from Hashtnagar, Dated 384 A. D. . . 176
The Martanda Temple of the Sun in Kashmir 178
The God Skanda, also called Kartikeya 180
Ruins of a Temple to Hanuman, Rama's Ally, in Southern India . .183
A Zoroastrian Dakhmah, or Tower of Silence 187
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xiii
PAGE
Surya, the Hindu Sun-god . .188
On the Banks of the Ganges in Benares 189
A Shrine of Narsimha in the Bombay Presidency 192
A Sacred Lake in India 194
Tank at the Cenotaph of Suraj Mai 195
Sculptured Lions at Sarnath near Benares 199
The So-called Gates of Somnath 202
Dona Vasco da Gama 206
A Native Vessel of Calicut 208
The Pool at Ulwar 211
Vasco da Gama and the Zamorin of Calicut , 216
A Decorated Water Car at Madura in Southern India .... 219
Dom Andr6 Furtado de Mendoga ... 220
An Indian Betel Nut Cutter .224
Affonso de Albuquerque 229
An Old Portuguese Fort near Sanjan 233
Interior of an Ajanta Cave ... 239
Brahman Priests at Rameswara, Southern India 240
A Group of Women and Children 242
Native Indian Ploughs 244
An Indian Spinning-wheel 246
Two Pariahs 248
Among the Katkaris, a Wild Tribe in Western India .... 250
Indian Caste Marks 253
Sculptures of a Southern Indian Temple 257
A Statue of the God Siva at Vellore in Southern India .... 259
A Toda Hut at Utakamand in Southern India . . . . . . 260
An Indian Snake Charmer 263
A Toda Temple at Utakamand in Southern India ..... 267
The Marble Rocks at Jabalpur 270
A Tamil Bathing-place at Trichinopoli 272
A Devil Dancer of Ceylon . . . 275
The Huge Stone Bull at Tanjore 277
Sculptures of the Hindu Divinities Siva and Parvati, at Ellora . . . 278
An Indian Decorative Design 280
India's Great Mountain Barrier on the North ...... 281
The Irawaddy, which Empties into the Gulf of Bengal .... 285
The Temple of the God Vishnu at Conjevaram 287
Giant Bamboos . 288
From a Statuette of an Indian Elephant 290
The Bank of the Ganges at Benares 292
Pietro Delia Valle 296
A Corner of Rani Sipri's Mosque at Ahmadabad 298
xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
The River Sabarmati at Ahmadabad ... ... 300
Rani Sipri's Tomb at Ahmadabad 303
The Taj Mahal at Agra 306
Sir Thomas Roe, Ambassador to the Great Mogul 308
The Moghul Emperor Jahangir and his Son, Prince Khurram, afterwards
Shah Jahan 311
Temple of the Holy Tooth of Buddha at Kandy, Ceylon . . . .315
A Ruined Shrine at Pollonarua in Ceylon 317
A Scene in Travancore, Southwestern India 320
An Indian Bullock-cart 324
Bombay from Malabar Hill 327
A Manuscript of the Avesta with Pahlavi Translation . . . . 328
..-.', - **'" t*.
AN INDIAN DECORATIVE DESIGN.
CHAPTER I
ACCOUNT OF INDIA BY THE GREEK WHITER STRABO
First Century B. C.
AMONG the interesting early accounts of India is
one by the Greek geographer Strabo, who wrote
in the first century before the Christian era. Strabo
was an extensive traveller, and although he had not
visited India itself, he had journeyed sufficiently in
distant lands to be able to judge of the general char-
acteristics of countries described by others, even if he
himself had not seen them. His account of Hindustan
he draws chiefly from Greek records of Alexander's
campaigns and of the historians of Seleukos. He fre-
quently cites Megasthenes and Onesikritos, who accom-
panied the Macedonian conqueror on his victorious
march through the East, but he places more confidence
in Aristoboulos, who was likewise with Alexander on
i
2 ACCOUNT OF INDIA BY STRABO
the expedition, and in Nearchos, the chief commander of
Alexander's fleet. Strabo's account of India is found
in the first portion of the fifteenth book of his Geog-
raphy, and I have reproduced it here with a few unim-
portant omissions. He opens his description as fol-
lows:
* The reader must receive this account of India with
indulgence, for the country lies at a very great distance,
and few persons of our nation have seen it; and those
who have visited it have seen only some portions of it;
the greater part of what they relate is from hearsay,
and even what they saw, they observed during their
passage through the country with an army, and in great
haste. For this reason they do not agree in their ac-
counts of the same things, although they write about
them as if they had examined them with the greatest
care and attention. Some of these writers were fellow
soldiers and fellow travellers, for example, those who
belonged to the army which, under the command of
Alexander, conquered Asia; yet they frequently con-
tradict each other. If, then, they differ so much re-
specting things which they had seen, what must we
think of what they relate from hearsay?
Nor do the writers who, many ages since Alexan-
der's time, have given an account of these countries, nor
even those who at the present time make voyages
thither, afford any precise information. Apollodoros,
for instance, author of the " History of Parthia," when
he mentions the Greeks who occasioned the revolt of
Baktriane from the Syrian kings, who were the sue-
STRABO'S SOURCES AND THEIR VALUE 3
cessors of Seleukos Nikator, says that when they be-
came powerful they invaded India. He adds no new
information to what was previously known, and even
asserts, in contradiction to others, that the Baktrians
had subjected to their dominion a larger portion of
India than had the Macedonians; for Eukratidas (one
of these kings) had a thousand cities subject to his
authority. But other writers affirm
that the Macedonians conquered the
nine nations situated between the Hy-
daspes (Jihlam) and the Hypanis
(Bias), and obtained possession of
five hundred cities, not one of which com OF ALEXANDER
was less than Kos in Meropis (an THE GREAT -
island in the ^Egean Sea), and that Alexander, after
having conquered all this country, delivered it up to
Poros.
Very few of the merchants who now sail from Egypt
by the Nile and the Arabian Gulf to India have sailed
around as far as the Ganges; and, being ignorant per-
sons, are not qualified to give an account of places they
have visited. From one place in India, and from one
king, namely, Pandion, or, according to others, Poros,
presents and embassies were sent to Augustus Caesar.
With the ambassadors came the Indian sophist (or
ascetic), who committed himself to the flames at Ath-
ens, like Kalanos, who exhibited the same spectacle
in the presence of Alexander.
If we set these stories aside and direct our atten-
tion to accounts of the country prior to the expedition
4 ACCOUNT OF INDIA BY STEABO
of Alexander, we shall find them even more obscure.
It is probable that Alexander, elated by his extraordi-
nary good fortune, believed these accounts. According
to Nearchos, he was ambitious of conducting his army
through Gedrosia (Mekran) when he heard that Semi-
ramis and Cyrus (Kyros) had undertaken expeditions
against India (through this country), although both had
abandoned the enterprise, the former escaping with
twenty, and Cyrus with seven men only. For that rea-
son Alexander considered that it would be a glorious
achievement for him to lead a conquering army safe
through the same nations and countries where Semira-
mis and Cyrus had suffered such disasters; and he
therefore gave credence to the stories.
But how can we place any real confidence in the
accounts of India derived from such expeditions as
those of Cyrus and Semiramis? Megasthenes is also of
this opinion, for he advises persons not to credit the
ancient histories of India, owing to the fact that, with
the exception of the expeditions of Herakles (Hercules),
of Dionysos (Bacchus), and the later invasion of Alex-
ander, no army was ever sent out of their country
by the Indians, nor did any foreign enemy ever invade
or conquer it. Sesostris the Egyptian, he says, and
Tearkon the Ethiopian, advanced as far as Europe; and
Nabokodrosoros (Nebuchadrezzar) who was more cele-
brated among the Chaldaeans than Herakles among the
Greeks, penetrated even as far as the Pillars, which
Tearkon also reached; Sesostris conducted an army
from Iberia to Thrake and Pontos; Idanthyrsos the
EARLY INVASIONS OF INDIA 5
Skythian overran Asia as far as Egypt; but not one
of these persons proceeded as far as India, and Semi-
ramis died before her intended enterprise was under-
taken. The Persians had sent for a body of mercenary
troops, the Hydrakes, 1 from India, but they did not
lead an army into that country, and only approached
it when Cyrus was marching against the Massagetai.'
Strabo then gives an account of the storming of the
fortress of Nysa and of Aornos, as described in the
second volume of this series (pp. 35 - 45), and adds some
remarks on the geographical boundaries of India, after
which he turns to the subject of the rivers of Hindu-
stan.
' The whole of India is watered by rivers, some of
which empty themselves into the two largest, the Indus
and the Ganges; others discharge themselves into the
sea by their own mouths. But all of them have their
sources in the Caucasus. At their commencement their
course is toward the south; some of them continue
to flow in the same direction, particularly those which
unite with the Indus; others turn to the east, as
the Ganges. This, the largest of the Indian rivers,
descends from the mountainous country, and when it
reaches the plains, turns to the east, then flowing past
Palibothra, 2 a very large city, it proceeds onward to
the sea in that quarter, and discharges its waters by a
single mouth. The Indus falls into the Southern Sea,
and empties itself by two mouths, encompassing the
1 The Oxydrakai, an autonomous tribe of the Panjab, are meant.
2 Pataliputra, the modern Patna; see above, vol. ii, p. 110.
6 ACCOUNT OF INDIA BY STRABO
country called Patalene, which resembles the Delta of
Egypt.
By the exhalation of vapours from such vast rivers,
and by the Etesian winds, as Eratosthenes affirms,
India is watered by summer rains, and the plains are
inundated. . . .
Nearchos, speaking of the accretion of earth formed
THE GANGES AT BENARES.
by the rivers, adduces the following instances. The
plains of Hermos, Kaystros, Maiandros, and Kaikos have
these names because they have been formed by the
soil which has been carried over the plains by the
rivers; or rather they were produced by the fine and
soft soil brought down from the mountains; whence
the plains are, as it were, the offspring of the rivers,
and it is rightly said that the plains belong to the
THE RIVERS AND RAINS OF INDIA 7
rivers. What is said by Herodotus of the Nile, and
of the land about it, namely, that it is the gift of the
Nile (wherefore Nearchos says that the Nile was synon-
ymous with Egypt) , may be applied equally well to this
country.
Aristoboulos, however, says that rain and snow fall
only on the mountains and the country immediately
below them, and that the plains experience neither one
nor the other, but are overflowed only by the rise of
the waters of the rivers; that the mountains are cov-
ered with snow in the winter; that the rains set in at
the commencement of spring, and continue to increase;
that at the time of the blowing of the Etesian winds
they pour down impetuously, without intermission,
night and day till the rising of Arktouros, and that
the rivers, filled by the melting of the snow and by the
rains, irrigate the plains.
These things, he says, were observed by himself and
by others on their journey into India from the Paropa-
misadai. This was after the setting of the Pleiades,
and during their stay in the mountainous country in the
territory of the Hypasioi, and in that of Assakanos
during the winter. At the beginning of spring they
descended into the plains to a large city called Taxila;
thence they proceeded to the Hydaspes (Jihlam) and
the country of Poros. During the winter they saw no
rain, but only snow. The first rain which fell was at
Taxila. 1 After their descent to the Hydaspes (Jihlam)
1 The ruins of Taxila (Skt. Takshasila) are still to be seen near Rawal Pindi
in Northern India.
8 ACCOUNT OF INDIA BY STKABO
and the conquest of Poros, their progress was eastwards
to the Hypanis (Bias), and thence back to the Hy-
daspes (Jihlam). At this time it rained continually,
and particularly during the blowing of the Etesian
winds, but at the rising of Arktouros the rains ceased.
They remained at the Hydaspes while the ships were
being built, and began their voyage not many days
before the setting of the Pleiades, and were occupied
during the whole autumn, winter, and the ensuing
spring and summer in sailing down the river, and they
arrived at Patalene (in the delta of the Indus) about
the rising of the Dog-star; during the passage down the
river, which lasted ten months, they did not experience
rain at any place, not even when the Etesian winds were
at their height, when the rivers were full and the plains
overflowed; the sea could not be navigated on account
of the blowing of contrary winds, but no land breezes
succeeded.
Nearchos gives the same account, but does not agree
with Aristoboulos respecting the rains in summer, but
says that the plains are watered by rain in the summer,
and that they are without rain in winter. Both writers,
however, speak of the rise of the rivers. Nearchos
says that the men encamped upon the Akesines
(Chinab) were obliged to change their situation for
another more elevated, and that this was at the time
of the rise of the river, and of the summer solstice.
Aristoboulos even gives the measure of the height
to which the river rises, namely, forty cubits, twenty
of which would fill the channel up to the margin, above
THE RIVER -COUKSES AND THEIR CHANGES 9
its previous depth, and the other twenty are the meas-
ure of the water when it overflows the plains. . . .
From what Aristoboulos relates, it is natural that
the country should be subject to shocks of earthquakes,
since the ground is loose and hollow by excess of mois-
ture, and easily splits into fissures, so that even the
course of rivers is altered. He says that when he was
THE 8ABARMATI, A RIVER OF WESTERN INDIA, ON ITS WAY TO THE SEA.
despatched upon some business into the country, he
saw a deserted tract of land which contained more
than a thousand cities with their dependent villages.
The Indus, having left its proper channel, had become
diverted into another and much deeper channel on the
left hand, and precipitated itself into this like a cata-
ract, so that the country on the right hand, from which
it had receded, was no longer watered by the inunda-
tions, since it was elevated above the level, not only
10 ACCOUNT OF INDIA BY STRABO
of the new channel of the river, but above that of the
inundations.
The account of Onesikritos confirms the facts of the
rising of the rivers and of the absence of land breezes.
He says that the seashore is swampy, particularly near
the mouths of rivers, on account of the mud, tides, and
the force of the winds blowing from the sea.
Megasthenes also indicates the fertility of India by
the circumstance of the soil producing fruits and grain
twice a year. Eratosthenes relates the same facts, for
he speaks of a winter and a summer sowing, and of
the rain at the same seasons. For, according to him,
there is no year which is without rain at both those
periods, whence ensues great abundance, the ground
never failing to bear crops.
An abundance of fruit is produced by trees; and
the roots of plants, particularly of large reeds, possess
a sweetness which they have by nature and by coction;
for the water, both from rains and rivers, is warmed
by the sun's rays. The meaning of Eratosthenes seems
to be this, that what among other nations is called the
ripening of fruits and juices, is called among these
coction, and it contributes as much to produce an agree-
able flavour as the coction by fire. To this is attributed
the flexibility of the branches of trees, from which
wheels of carriages are made, and to the same cause
is imputed the growth of wool (*'. e. cotton) upon some
trees. Nearchos says that their fine clothes were made
of this wool, and that the Macedonians used it for mat-
tresses and the stuffing of saddles. The Serika (silks)
THE FERTILITY OF INDIA
11
are also of a similar kind and are made of carded
byssos (or fibre), which is obtained from some sort of
bark of plants. Nearchos states that reeds yield honey,
although there are no bees, and that there is a tree
THE DESCENDING BRANCHES OF A BANYAN -TREE.
from the fruit of which honey is procured, but that
the fruit eaten fresh causes intoxication.
India produces many singular trees. There is one
whose branches incline downwards, and whose leaves
are not less in size than a shield. Onesikritos, describ-
12 ACCOUNT OF INDIA BY STRABO
ing minutely the country of Mousikanos, which he says
is the most southerly part of India, relates that there
are some large trees [the banyan] the branches of
which extend to the length even of twelve cubits. They
then grow downwards, as though bent (by force), till
they touch the earth, where they penetrate and take
root like layers. They next shoot upwards and form
a trunk. They again grow as we have described, bend-
ing downwards, and implanting one layer after another,
and in the above order, so that one tree forms a long
shady roof, like a tent supported by many pillars. In
speaking of the size of the trees, he says their trunks
could scarcely be clasped by five men.
Aristoboulos also, where he mentions the Akesines
(Chinab) and its confluence with the Hyarotis (Ravi),
speaks of trees with their boughs bent downwards and
of a size so great that fifty horsemen, or, according to
Onesikritos, four hundred horsemen, might take shelter
at mid-day beneath the shade of a single tree.
Aristoboulos mentions another tree, not large, bear-
ing great pods, like the bean, ten fingers in length, full
of honey, and says that those who eat this fruit do not
easily escape alive. But the accounts of all these writ-
ers about the size of the trees have been outdone by
those who assert that there has been seen, beyond the
Hyarotis (Ravi), a tree which casts a shade at noon
of five stadia (about 3000 feet).
Aristoboulos says of the wool-bearing trees, that the
flower pod contains a kernel, which is taken out, and
the remainder is carded like wool.
THE PRODUCTS OF INDIA 13
In the country of Mousikanos there grows, he says,
spontaneously grain resembling wheat, and a vine that
produces wine, whereas other authors affirm that there
is no wine in India. Hence, according to Anacharsis,
they had no pipes or any musical instruments, except
cymbals, drums, and rattles, which were used by jug-
glers.
Both Aristoboulos and other writers relate that In-
dia produces many medicinal drugs and roots, both of
a salutary and noxious quality, and dyes yielding a
variety of colours. He adds that, by a law, any person
discovering a deadly substance is punished with death
unless he also discover the antidote; in case he discov-
ers the antidote, he is rewarded by the king.
Southern India, like Arabia and Ethiopia, produces
cinnamon, nard, and other aromatics. It resembles
these countries as regards the effect of the sun's rays,
but it surpasses them in having a copious supply of
water, whence the atmosphere is humid, and on this
account more conducive to fertility and fecundity; and
this applies to the earth and to the water, hence those
animals which inhabit both one and the other are of
a larger size than are found in other countries.'
At this point Strabo allows himself to digress for
a couple of pages on the subject of resemblances be-
tween India and Egypt in regard to the water-supply
of both countries, and then he returns to the more
specific question of the rivers of India and the fertility
caused by their overflow a topic of interest to any
one who is concerned with India's history.
14 ACCOUNT OF INDIA BY STRABO
' It is admitted by those who maintain the resem-
blance of India to Egypt and Ethiopia, that the plains
which are not overflowed do not produce anything for
want of water.
Nearchos says that the old question respecting the
rise of the Nile is answered by the case of the Indian
rivers, namely, that it is the effect of summer rains.
When Alexander saw crocodiles in the Hydaspes (Bias)
and Egyptian beans in the Akesines (Chinab), he
thought that he had discovered the sources of the Nile
and was about to equip a fleet with the intention of
sailing by this river to Egypt; but he found out shortly
afterwards that his design could not be accomplished.
" for between were vast rivers, fearful waters, and r
first of all, the ocean," 1 into which all the Indian rivers
discharge themselves; then come Ariane, the Persian
and Arabian Gulfs, all Arabia and Troglodytike. . . .
We shall speak of the noteworthy rivers that flow
into the Indus, and of the countries which they trav-
erse; with regard to the rest, our ignorance is greater
than our knowledge.
Alexander, who discovered the greatest portion of
this country, first of all decided that it was more ex-
pedient to pursue and destroy those who had treacher-
ously killed Darius, and were meditating the revolt of
Baktriane. He approached India therefore through
Ariane, which he left on the right hand, and crossed
the Paropamisos to the northern parts, and to Bak-
triane. Having conquered all the country subject to
1 Homer, Odyssey, 2, 157.
17
the Persians, and many other places besides, he then
entertained the desire of possessing India, of which he
had received many accounts, although indistinct.
He therefore returned, crossing over the same moun-
tains by other and shorter roads, keeping India on the
left hand; he then immediately turned toward it, and
toward its western boundaries and the rivers Kophes
(the Kophen of Kabul) and Choaspes. The latter river
empties itself into the Kophes, near Plemyrion, after
passing by another city, Gorys, in its course through
Bandobene and Gandaritis.
He was informed that the mountainous and northern
parts were the most habitable and fertile, but that the
southern part was either without water, or was liable
to be overflowed by the rivers at one time, and burnt
up at another, more fit to be the haunts of wild beasts
than the habitations of men. He resolved, therefore,
first to get possession of that part of India which had
been well spoken of, considering at the same time that
the rivers which it was necessary to pass, and which
flowed transversely through the country which he in-
tended to attack, would be crossed more easily near
their sources. He also heard that several of the rivers
united and formed one stream, and that this occurred
more and more frequently the farther they advanced,
so that, in the absence of boats, the country would be
more difficult to traverse. Being apprehensive of this
obstruction, he crossed the Kophes (Kophen of Kabul),
and conquered the whole of the mountainous country
situated toward the east.
18 ACCOUNT OF INDIA BY STRABO
Next to the Kophes was the Indus, then the Hy-
daspes (Jihlam), the Akesines (Chinab), the Hyarotis
(Ravi), and lastly, the Hypanis (Bias). He was pre-
vented from proceeding farther, partly because of some
oracles, and partly because compelled by his army,
which was exhausted by toil and fatigue, but whose
principal distress arose from their constant exposure
to rain. Hence we became acquainted with the eastern
parts of India on this side of the Hypanis, and whatever
parts besides which have been described by those who,
after Alexander, advanced beyond the Hypanis to the
Ganges and Palibothra (Pataliputra, Patna).
After the river Kophes, follows the Indus. The
country lying between these two rivers is occupied by
Astakenoi, Masianoi, Nysaioi, and Hypasioi. 1 Next is
the territory of Assakanos, where is the city Masoga
(Massaga?), the royal residence of the country. Near
the Indus is another city, Peukolai'tis. At this place
a bridge, which was constructed, afforded a passage for
the army.
Between the Indus and the Hydaspes is Taxila, a
large city, and governed by good laws. The neigh-
bouring country is crowded with inhabitants and very
fertile, and here unites with the plains. The people
and their king Taxiles received Alexander with kind-
ness, and obtained in return more presents than they
had offered to Alexander; so that the Macedonians
1 The modern names of most of these places will be found in the descrip-
tion given of Alexander's Indian campaign in the third and fourth chapters of
the second volume of this series.
DISTRICTS TRAVERSED BY ALEXANDER 19
became jealous, and observed that it seemed as if Alex-
ander had found none on whom he could confer favours
before he passed the Indus. Some writers say that this
country is larger than Egypt.
Above this country among the mountains is the
territory of Abisaros (Abhisara), who, as the ambas-
sadors that came from him reported, kept two serpents,
BRIDGE OF BOATS ON THE INDUS.
one of eighty, and the other, according to Onesikritos,
of one hundred and forty cubits in length. This writer
may as well be called the master fabulist as the master
pilot of Alexander. For all those who accompanied
Alexander preferred the marvellous to the true, but
this writer seems to have surpassed all in his descrip-
tion of prodigies. Some things, however, he relates
which are probable and worthy of record, and will not
be passed over in silence even by one who does not
20 ACCOUNT OF INDIA BY STEABO
believe their correctness. Other writers also mention
the hunting of serpents in the Emoda Mountains, and
the keeping and feeding of them in caves.
Between the Hydaspes (Jihlam) and Akesines
(Chinab) is the country of Poros, an extensive and
fertile district, contain ing nearly three hundred cities.
Here also is the forest in the neighbourhood of the
Emoda Mountains in which Alexander cut down a large
quantity of fir, pine, cedar, and a variety of other
trees fit for ship-building, and brought the timber down
the Hydaspes. With this he constructed a fleet on the
Hydaspes, near the cities which he built on each side
of the river where he had crossed it and conquered
Poros. One of these cities he called Boukephalia, from
the horse Boukephalos, which was killed in the battle
with Poros. The name Boukephalos (ox-headed) was
given to it from the breadth of its forehead. It was
an excellent war-horse, and Alexander constantly rode
it in battle. 1 The other city he called Nikaia from
the victory (nike) which he had obtained.
In the forest before mentioned it is said there is a
vast number of monkeys, and they are as large as they
are numerous. On one occasion the Macedonians, see-
ing a body of them standing in array opposite to them
on some bare eminences (for this animal is not less in-
telligent than the elephant) and presenting the appear-
ance of an army, prepared to attack them as real ene-
mies, but being informed of the facts of the case by
Taxiles, who was then with the king, they desisted.
1 See vol. ii, p. 67.
THE CAPTURE OF MONKEYS IN INDIA
21
The chase of this animal is conducted in two differ-
ent manners. It is an imitative creature and takes
refuge up among the trees. The hunters, when they
perceive a monkey seated on a tree, place in sight a
basin containing water, with which they wash their
own eyes; then, instead of water, they put a basin
of bird-lime, go away, and lie in wait at a distance.
The animal leaps down and" besmears itself with the
AT THE MONKEY TEMPLE, BENARES.
bird-lime, and when it winks, the eyelids are fastened
together; the hunters then come upon it and take it.
The other method of capturing them is as follows:
the hunters dress themselves in bags like trousers, and
go away, leaving behind them others which are hairy,
with the inside smeared over with bird-lime. The
monkeys put them on, and are easily taken.
Some writers place Kathaia and the country of So-
peithes (King Subhuti), one of the governors, in the
tract between the rivers (Hydaspes and Akesines);
22 ACCOUNT OF INDIA BY STRABO
some, on the other side of the Akesines and of the
Hyarotis, on the confines of the territory of the other
Poros, the nephew of the Poros who was taken pris-
oner by Alexander, and call the country subject to him
Gandaris.
A very singular usage is related of the high esti-
mation in which the inhabitants of Kathaia hold the
quality of beauty, even in the matter of beauty in
horses and dogs. According to Onesikritos, they elect
the handsomest person as king. [It is likewise their
custom regarding children that] a child undergoes a
public inspection and examination two months after
birth. They determine whether it has the amount of
beauty required by law, and whether it is worthy to
be permitted to live. The presiding magistrate then
pronounces whether it is to be allowed to live or
whether it is to be put to death.
They dye their heads with various and extremely
striking colours, for the purpose of improving their ap-
pearance. This custom prevails elsewhere among many
of the Indians, who pay great attention to their hair
and dress; and the country produces colours of great
beauty. In other respects the people are frugal, but
are fond of ornament.
A peculiar custom is related of the Kathaioi. The
bride and the husband are respectively the choice of each
other, and the wives burn themselves with their deceased
husbands. The reason assigned for this practice is that
the women sometimes fell in love with young men,
and deserted or poisoned their husbands. This law was
o
V
CURIOUS CUSTOMS AND SAVAGE DOGS 23
therefore established in order to check the practice
of administering poison; but neither the existence nor
the origin of the law are probable facts.
It is said, that in the territory of Sopeithes there
is a mountain composed of salt to be mined, sufficient
for the whole of India. Valuable mines also, both of
gold and silver, are situated, it is said, not far off among
other mountains, according to the testimony of Gorgos,
the miner of Alexander. The Indians, unacquainted
with mining and smelting, are ignorant of their own
wealth, and therefore traffic with great simplicity.
The dogs in the territory of Sopeithes are said to
possess remarkable courage; Alexander received from
Sopeithes a present of one hundred and fifty of them.
To test them, two were set at a lion; when these were
mastered, two others were set on; when the battle
became equal, Sopeithes ordered a man to seize one of
the dogs by the leg, and to drag him away or, if he
still held on, to cut off his leg. Alexander at first re-
fused his consent to the dog's leg being cut off, as he
wished to save the dog. But as Sopeithes said, " I
will give you four in the place of it," Alexander con-
sented, and he saw the dog permit his leg to be cut
slowly off, rather than loose his hold.
The direction of the march, as far as the Hydaspes,
was for the most part toward the south. After that,
to the Hypanis, it was more toward the east. The
whole of it, however, was much nearer to the country
lying at the foot of the mountains than to the plains.
Alexander therefore, when he returned from the Hy-
24
ACCOUNT OF INDIA BY STKABO
panis to the Hydaspes and the station of his vessels,
prepared his fleet, and set sail on the Hydaspes.
All the rivers which have been mentioned (the last
of which is the Hypanis) unite in one stream, the Indus.
It is said that there
are altogether fif-
teen rivers of con-
siderable size which
flow into the Indus.
Filled by these va-
rious streams, the
river Indus becomes
enlarged in some
places to the extent
of a hundred stadia,
according to writers
who exaggerate, or,
according to a more
moderate estimate,
to fifty stadia at the
utmost, and at the
least to seven; and they speak of many nations and
cities about this river. It discharges itself by two
mouths into the southern sea and forms the island
called Patalene.
Alexander's intention was to relinquish the march
toward the parts situated to the east, first, because he
was prevented from crossing the Hypanis; next, be-
cause he learned by experience the falsehood of the
reports he had previously received to the effect that
A TENT OF THE PRIMITIVE LEPCHAS IN
NORTHEAST INDIA.
THE TRIBES OF NORTHERN INDIA 25
the plains were burnt up with fire and more fit for
the haunts of wild beasts than for the habitations of
men. He therefore set out in this direction, relinquish-
ing the other track, so that these parts became better
known than the other.
The territory lying between the Hypanis and the
Hydaspes is said to contain nine nations and five
thousand cities, not less in size 'than Kos in Meropis
(in the JEgean Sea) ; but the number seems to be
exaggerated. We have already mentioned nearly all
the nations deserving of notice which inhabit the coun-
try situated between the Indus and the Hydaspes.
Below, and next in order, are the people called Sibai
and the great nations, the Malloi * and Sydrakai (Oxy-
drakai). It was among the Malloi that Alexander was
in danger of losing his life, from a wound he received
at the capture of a small city. The Sydrakai are fabled
to be allied to Dionysos (Bacchus).
Near Patalene is placed the country of Mousikanos,
that of Sabos, whose capital is Sindomana, that of
Portikanos, and of other princes who inhabited the
country on the banks of the Indus. They were all con-
quered by Alexander; last of all he made himself mas-
ter of Patalene, which is formed by the two branches of
the Indus. Aristoboulos says that these two branches
are one thousand stadia distant from each other. Near-
chos adds eight hundred stadia more to this number.
Onesikritos reckons each side of the included island,
1 The Malloi occupied a part of Multan ; the Oxydrakai adjoined them in
the neighbourhood of Lahore.
26
ACCOUNT OF INDIA BY STRABO
which is of a triangular shape, at two thousand stadia;
and the breadth of the river, where it is separated into
two mouths, at about two hundred stadia. He calls the
island Delta, and says that it is as large as the Delta
of Egypt; but this is a mistake. For the Egyptian
Delta is said to have a base of thirteen hundred stadia,
SKETCH MAP
showing position of
AUTONOMOUS TRIBES
CONQUERED BY ALEXANDER
Scale of Miles
THE NORTH INDIAN TRIBES CONQUERED BY ALEXANDER.
Reduced from a map by Vincent A. Smith.
and each of the sides is described as less than the base.
In Patalene is Patala, a considerable city, from which
the island has its name.
Onesikritos says that the greatest part of the coast
in this quarter abounds with swamps, particularly at
the mouths of the river, which is owing to the mud,
the tides, and the absence of land breezes; for these
THE COUNTRY OF MOUSIKANOS 27
parts are chiefly under the influence of winds blowing
from the sea.
He expatiates also in praise of the country of Mou-
sikanos and relates of the inhabitants what is common
to other Indian tribes, that they are long-lived, and that
life is protracted even to the age of 130 years (the
Seres [Chinese], however, are said by some writers to
be still longer lived), and that, although the country
produces everything in abundance, they are temperate
in their habits and healthy.
The following are their peculiarities. They have a
kind of Lacedaemonian common meal, where they eat in
public. Their food consists of what is taken in the
chase. They make no use of gold or silver, although
they have mines of these metals. Instead of slaves,
they employ youths in the flower of their age, as the
Kretans employ the Aphamiotai, and the Lacedaemoni-
ans the Helots. They study no science with attention
except that of medicine ; for they consider the excessive
pursuit of some arts, as that of war and the like, to
be committing evil. There is no process at law except
against murder and outrage, for it is not in a per-
son's own power to escape either one or the other;
but as contracts are in the power of each individual,
he must endure the wrong, if good faith is violated by
another; for a man should be cautious whom he trusts,
and not disturb the city with constant lawsuits.
Such are the accounts of the persons who accom-
panied Alexander in his expedition.
A letter of Krateros to his mother Aristopatra is
28 ACCOUNT OF INDIA BY STRABO
current, which contains many other singular circum-
stances and differs from every other writer, particu-
larly in saying that Alexander advanced as far as the
Ganges. Krateros says that he himself saw the river
and the sea monsters which it produces; and his ac-
count of its magnitude, breadth, and depth far exceeds,
rather than approximates, probability. It is generally
agreed that the Ganges is the largest of known rivers
in the three continents; the next in size is the Indus;
the third is the Istros (Danube); and the fourth, the
Nile. But different authors differ in their account of
the Ganges, some assigning thirty, others three, stadia
as the least breadth. Megasthenes, however, says that
its ordinary width is one hundred stadia, and its least
depth twenty orguiai (about 120 feet).
At the confluence of the Ganges and of another river
there is situated (the city of) Palibothra, in length
eighty stadia, and in breadth fifteen stadia. It is in
the shape of a parallelogram, surrounded by a wooden
wall pierced with openings through which arrows may
be discharged. In front is a ditch, which serves the
purpose of defence and of a sewer for the city. The
people in whose country the city is situated are the
most distinguished of all the tribes, and are called
Prasioi. The king, besides his family name, has the
surname of Palibothros, as the king to whom Megas-
thenes was sent on an embassy had the name of San-
drokottos. 1 The Parthians have a similar custom, for
1 Sandrokottos is Chandragupta, mentioned frequently in connection with
Alexander in the second volume of the present series.
CHARACTER OF THE COUNTRY 29
all have the name Arsakai, although each has his pecul-
iar name of Orodes, Phraates, or some other appella-
tion.
The entire country on the other side of the Hypanis
is said to be very fertile, but we have no accurate
knowledge of it. Both because of ignorance and owing
to its remote situation, everything relative to it is exag-
A ROYAL BENGAL TIGER.
From an old print.
gerated or partakes of the wonderful. As, for example,
the stories of myrmekes, or ants, which dig up gold;
of animals and men with peculiar shapes, and possess-
ing extraordinary faculties; of the longevity of the
Seres, whose lives exceed the age of two hundred years.
They speak also of an aristocratic form of government,
consisting of five hundred counsellors, each of whom
furnishes the state with an elephant.
According to Megasthenes, the largest tigers are
found among the Prasioi, and are almost twice as large
as lions, and of such strength that a tame one led by
30 ACCOUNT OF INDIA BY STRABO
four persons seized a mule by its hinder leg, overpow-
ered it, and dragged it to him. The monkeys are larger
than the largest dogs; they are of a white colour, except
the face, which is black. The contrary is observed in
other places. Their tails are more than two cubits in
length. They are very tame and are not of a mis-
chievous disposition. They neither attack people nor
do they steal.
Stones are found there of the colour of frankincense,
and sweeter than figs or honey.
In some places there are serpents of two cubits in
length, with membranous wings like bats. They fly
at night and let fall drops of urine or sweat, which
causes the skin of persons who are not on their guard
to putrefy. There are also winged scorpions of great
size. Ebony likewise grows there.
There are also dogs of great courage, which do not
let go their hold till water is poured into their nostrils;
some of them have their sight distorted, and the eyes
of others even fall out because of the tenaciousness of
their bite. Both a lion and a bull were held fast by
one of these dogs. The bull was caught by the muzzle,
and died before the dog could be loosened.
In the mountainous country is a river, the Silas, on
the surface of which nothing will float. Demokritos,
who had travelled over a large part of Asia, disbelieves
this, and Aristotle does not credit it, although atmos-
pheres exist so rare that no bird can sustain its flight
in them. Some ascending vapours also attract and
absorb, as it were, whatever is flying over them, as
ANIMAL LIFE IN INDIA 31
amber attracts chaff, and the magnet iron. Perhaps
there may be a similar power in water. As these are
matters belonging to physics and to the question of
floating bodies, they are referred to them; but at pres-
ent we must turn to what follows and to the subjects
more nearly relating to geography.
It is said that the Indians are divided into seven
castes. The first in rank, but the smallest in number,
are the philosophers. Persons who offer sacrifice, or
make oblations to the dead, have the services of these
persons on their private account; but the kings employ
them in a public capacity at the time of the Great
Assembly, as it is called, when, at the beginning of
the new year, all the philosophers repair to the king
at the gate. At that time any useful designs which
they have made relating to a prosperous season for
crops and animals, and any observations they have
made regarding the government of the state are pub-
licly declared. If any one is caught giving false infor-
mation three times, he is enjoined by law to maintain
silence during the rest of his life; but any one who
has made correct observations is exempted from all
contributions and tribute.
The second caste is that of husbandmen, who con-
stitute the majority of natives and are a most mild and
gentle people, as they are exempted from military serv-
ice and cultivate their land free from alarm. They
neither resort to cities to transact private business nor
take part in public turmoils. It therefore frequently
happens that at the same time, and in the same part
32 ACCOUNT OF INDIA BY STRABO
of the country, one body of men are in battle array and
engaged in contests with the enemy, while others are
ploughing or digging in security, having these soldiers
to protect them. The whole of the territory belongs to
the king; and the people rent the land which they
cultivate, besides paying over a fourth part of the
produce.
The third caste consists of shepherds and hunters,
who alone are permitted to hunt, to breed cattle, and to
sell or let out for hire beasts of burden. In return for
freeing the country from wild beasts and birds, which
infest sown fields, they receive an allowance of corn
from the king. They lead a wandering life and dwell
in tents. No private person is allowed to keep a horse
or an elephant. The possession of either one or the
other is a royal privilege, and persons are appointed
to take care of them.
The manner of hunting the elephant is as follows:
a deep ditch is dug around a bare spot, about four or five
stadia in extent, and at the place of entrance a very
narrow bridge is constructed. Into the enclosure three
or four of the tamest female elephants are driven. The
men themselves lie in wait under cover of concealed
huts. The wild elephants do not approach the stockade
by day, but at night they enter the enclosure one by
one; when they have passed the entrance, the men
secretly close it. They then introduce the strongest
of the tame combatants, the drivers of which engage
with the wild animals and also wear them out by starv-
ing them; when the latter become exhausted by fatigue,
THE HUNTING OF ELEPHANTS
33
the boldest of the drivers gets down unobserved and
creeps under the belly of his own elephant. From this
position he creeps beneath the belly of the wild ele-
phant and ties his legs together; when this is done,
a signal is given to the tame elephants to beat those
which are tied by the legs, till they fall to the ground.
NOOSING WILD ELEPHANTS.
From Moore's The Queen's Empire, The Lippincott Co., Philadelphia.
After they have fallen down, they fasten the wild and
tame elephants together by the neck with thongs of
raw hide, and, in order that they may not be able to
shake off those who are attempting to mount them,
the men make cuts in the neck and put thongs of
leather into these incisions, so that they submit to their
bonds through pain, and therefore remain quiet.
Among the elephants which are taken, those are
34 ACCOUNT OF INDIA BY STRABO
rejected which are too old or too young for service;
the remainder are led away to the stables. They tie
their feet one to another and their necks to a post
firmly fastened in the ground, and then tame them by
hunger. They afterwards recruit their strength with
green cane and grass. Then they teach the elephants
to obey; some of them they train by words; others they
pacify by tunes, accompanied with the beating of a
drum. Few of the elephants are difficult to tame, for
they are naturally of a mild and gentle disposition, so
as to approximate to the character of a rational animal.
Some have taken up their drivers, who have fallen
fainting on the ground, and carried them safe out of
battle. Others have fought and protected their drivers,
who have crept between their fore-legs. If they have
killed any of their feeders or masters in anger, they
feel their loss so much that they refuse their food
through grief, and sometimes starve themselves to
death.
Elephants copulate like horses, and they produce
their young chiefly in the spring. That is the season
for the male; he is then in heat and is ferocious. At
this period he discharges some fatty matter through
an opening in the temples. It is the season also for
the females, when this same passage is open. Eighteen
months is the longest, and sixteen the shortest period
of gestation. The dam suckles her young for six years.
Many elephants live as long as men who attain to
the greatest longevity, some even to the protracted age
of two hundred years. . . . Onesikritos says that they
TAMING ELEPHANTS 36
live three hundred years, and under rare circumstances
five hundred, and that they go with young ten years.
He and other writers say that they are larger and
stronger than the African elephants. They will pull
down with their trunks battlements, and uproot trees,
standing erect upon their hind feet.
According to Nearchos, traps are laid in the hunting
ELEPHANTS AT WOBK HAULING TIMBER.
grounds, at certain places where roads meet; the wild
elephants are forced into the toils by the tame ele-
phants, which are stronger and are guided by a driver.
They become so tame and docile that they learn even
to throw a stone at a mark, to use military weapons,
and to be excellent swimmers. A chariot drawn by
elephants is esteemed a most important possession, and
they are driven without bridles. A woman who receives
from her lover an elephant as a present is greatly hon-
oured, but this does not accord with what has been
36 ACCOUNT OF INDIA BY STKABO
said before, that a horse and an elephant are the prop-
erty of kings alone.
This writer says that he saw skins of the myrmekes,
or ants, which dig up gold, and that they are like the
skins of leopards. Megasthenes, however, speaking of
the myrmekes, says that among the Derdai (Dards),
a populous nation of the Indians, living toward the east
and among the mountains, there was a mountain plain
of about three thousand stadia in circumference; that
under this plain there were mines containing gold,
which the myrmekes, in size not less than foxes, dig up.
These animals are excessively fleet, and subsist on what
they catch. In winter they dig holes and pile up the
earth in heaps, like moles, at the mouths of the open-
ings. The gold-dust which these creatures obtain re-
quires little refining. The people of the neighbourhood
go after it stealthily with beasts of burden, for if this
is done openly, the myrmekes fight furiously, pursuing
those that run away, and if they catch them, kill them
as well as the beasts. In order to prevent discovery,
therefore, they put pieces of the flesh of wild beasts in
different places, and when the myrmekes are dispersed
in various directions, the men take away the gold-dust
and dispose of it in its rude state at any price to mer-
chants, for they are not acquainted with the mode of
smelting it.
Having mentioned what Megasthenes and other
writers relate of the hunters and the beasts of prey,
we shall add the following particulars.
Nearchos is surprised at the multitude as well as
GOLD -DIGGING ANTS .AND NOXIOUS SERPENTS 37
the noxious nature of the reptiles. At the period of
the inundations they retreat from the plains to the
settlements, which are not covered with water, and
swarm in the houses. For this reason the inhabitants
raise their beds to some height from the ground, and
are sometimes compelled to abandon their dwellings,
when they are infested by great multitudes of these
creatures; and, if a large proportion of these multi-
tudes were not destroyed by the waters, the country
would be uninhabitable. Both the minuteness of some
animals and the excessive magnitude of others are
causes of danger; the former, because it is difficult to
guard against their attacks; the latter, on account of
their strength, for snakes are to be seen of sixteen
cubits in length. Charmers go about the country and
are supposed to cure serpent bites. This seems to com-
prise almost their whole art of medicine, for disease
is not common among them, owing to their frugal man-
ner of life and to the absence of wine; whenever dis-
eases do occur, they are treated by the Sophistai, or
wise men.
Aristoboulos says that he saw no animals of these
pretended magnitudes, except a snake which was nine
cubits and a span in length, and I myself saw in Egypt
one that was nearly of the same size and had been
brought from India. Aristoboulus also says that he
saw many adders of a much smaller size, and asps and
large scorpions. None of these, however, are so nox-
ious as the slender small serpents, a span long, which
are found concealed in tents, in jars, and in hedges.
38
ACCOUNT OF INDIA BY STRABO
Persons wounded by them bleed from every pore, suf-
fer great pain, and die, unless they have immediate
assistance; but this assistance is easily obtained by
means of the virtues of the Indian roots and drugs.
Few crocodiles are found in the Indus, Aristoboulos
says, and these are
harmless, but most of
the other animals, ex-
cept the hippopota-
mus, are the same as
those found in the
Nile; though Onesi-
kritos says that this
animal also is found
there. On account of
the crocodiles, accord-
ing to Aristoboulos,
none of the sea fish,
except the shad, the
gray mullet, and dol-
phin, ascend the Nile
from the sea; but
great numbers ascend
the river Indus. Small
crawfish go up as far as the mountains, and the larger
as far as the confluence of the Indus and the Ake-
sines.
So much then on the subject of the wild animals of
India. We shall return to Megasthenes and resume our
account of the castes at the point where we digressed.
A SNAKE-CHARMER AT BENARES.
MEGASTHENES ON INDIAN CASTES 39
After the hunters and the shepherds, follows the
fourth caste, which consists, he says, of those who work
at trades, retail wares, and who are employed in bodily
labour. Some of these pay taxes and perform certain
stated services. But the armour-makers and ship-
builders receive wages and provisions from the king,
for whom only they work. The general-in-chief fur-
nishes the soldiers with arms, and the admiral lets out
ships for hire to those who undertake voyages and
traffic as merchants.
The fifth caste consists of fighting men, who pass the
time not employed in the field in idleness and drinking,
and are maintained at the charge of the king. They are
ready whenever they are wanted to march on an expe-
dition, for they bring nothing of their own with them,
except their bodies.
The sixth caste is that of the Ephoroi, or inspectors.
They are intrusted with the superintendence of all that
is going on, and it is their duty to make private reports
to the king. The city inspectors employ the courtezans
of the town as their coadjutors; and the inspectors of
the camp enlist the services of the women who follow it.
The best and most faithful persons are appointed to
the office of inspector.
The seventh caste consists of counsellors and asses-
sors of the king. To these persons belong the offices of
state, tribunals of justice, and the whole administration
of affairs.
It is not permitted to contract marriage with a
person of another caste, or to change from one profes-
40 ACCOUNT OF INDIA BY STEABO
sion or trade to another, or for the same person to
undertake several, unless he is of the caste of philos-
ophers, when permission is given on account of his
superior qualifications.
Of the magistrates, some have charge of the market,
others of the city, others of the soldiery. The first
supervise the rivers, measure the land, as in Egypt,
and inspect the closed reservoirs, from which water is
distributed by canals, so that all may have an equal use
of it. These persons have charge also of the hunters,
and have the power of rewarding or punishing those
who merit either. They collect the taxes and super-
intend the occupations connected with land, as wood-
cutters, carpenters, workers in brass, and miners.
They construct the public roads, and place a pillar at
every ten stadia (20221/2 English yards) to indicate the
byways and distances.
Those who have charge of the city are divided into
six bodies of five each. The first has the inspection of
everything relating to the mechanical arts; members
of the second body entertain strangers, assign lodgings
to them, observe their mode of life by means of attend-
ants whom they attach to them, and escort them out
of the country on their departure. If the strangers die,
they take charge of forwarding their property (to their
relatives), as well as having had the care of them when
sick and burying them when they die.
The third class consists of those who inquire at what
time and in what manner births and deaths take place,
which is done with a view to taxation, and in order that
MAGISTRATES AND ARTISANS
41
the deaths and births of persons both of good and bad
character may not be concealed.
The fourth division consists of those who have to
do with sales and exchanges. They have charge of
SAWING TIMBER.
measures and of the sale of products in season, duly
regulated by stamp. The same person is not allowed
to deal in various kinds of articles, unless he pays a
double tax.
The fifth division presides over works of artisans,
and disposes of articles, as regulated by stamp. New
articles are sold separately from the old, and there is
a fine imposed for mixing them together.
The sixth and last division comprises those who col-
42 ACCOUNT OF INDIA BY STRABO
lect the tenth of the price of the articles sold. Death
is the punishment for committing a fraud with regard
to the tax.
These are the peculiar duties performed by each
class, but in their collective capacity they have charge
both of private and of public affairs, and of the repairs
of public works, walls, markets, harbours, and temples.
Next to the magistrates of the city there is a third
body of governors, to whom is entrusted the care of
military affairs. This class also consists of six divisions,
each composed of five persons. One division is associ-
ated with the chief naval superintendent, another with
the person who has the charge of the bullock-teams, by
which military engines are transported, of provisions
both for the men and beasts, and of other requisites
for the army. They furnish attendants, who beat
drums and carry gongs; and they also provide grooms,
mechanics, and their assistants. They despatch the for-
agers for grass by the sound of the gong, and insure
speed and security by means of rewards and punish-
ments. The third division has the care of the infantry;
the fourth, of the cavalry; the fifth, of the chariots;
the sixth, of the elephants. There are royal stables for
the horses and elephants. There is also a royal maga-
zine of arms; for the soldier returns his arms to the
armoury, and the horse and elephant to their stables.
They use the elephants without bridles. The chariots
are drawn on the march by oxen. The horses are led
by a halter, in order that their legs may not be chafed
and inflamed, nor their spirit broken, by drawing
MILITARY REGULATIONS OF THE HINDUS
43
chariots. Besides the charioteer, there are two persons
who fight by his side in the chariot. With the ele-
phant are four persons, the driver and three bowmen,
who discharge arrows from his back.
All the Indians are frugal in their mode of life, and
PREPARING RICK FOR POOD.
especially in camp. They do not like an unnecessary
rabble and they are, therefore, well disciplined. Theft
is very rare among them. Megasthenes, who was in
the camp of Sandrokottos, which consisted of four
44 ACCOUNT OF INDIA BY STRABO
hundred thousand men, did not on any day see a
report of thefts exceeding the sum of two hundred
drachmai, and this among a people who have no writ-
ten laws, who are ignorant even of writing, and regulate
everything by memory. They are, however, happy on
account of their simple manners and frugal way of life.
They never drink wine, except at sacrifices. Their
beverage is made from rice instead of barley, and their
food consists for the most part of rice pottage. The
simplicity of their laws and contracts appears from
their not having many lawsuits. They have no suits
respecting pledges and deposits, nor do they require
witnesses or seals, but make their deposits and trust
one another. Their houses and property, moreover, are
unguarded. These things denote temperance and sobri-
ety; but there are others, of which no one would ap-
prove, such as their always eating alone, and their not
having one common hour for their meals, but each tak-
ing it as he likes. The contrary custom is more agree-
able to the habits of social and civil life.
As an exercise of the body they prefer friction (or
massage) in various ways, but particularly by making
use of smooth sticks of ebony, which they pass over the
surface of the body. 1
Their burials are simple, and the tumuli of earth
low. In contrast to their parsimony in other things
they indulge in ornament. They wear ornaments made
of gold and precious stones, and flowered robes, and
1 This Indian custom of rubbing or massage is referred to in Sanskrit writ-
ings and also is mentioned by other authors.
VARIOUS HINDU CUSTOMS 46
are attended by persons following them with umbrellas;
for as they highly esteem beauty, attention is given to
everything which can improve their looks.
They respect alike truth and virtue; therefore they
do not assign any privilege to the old, unless they pos-
sess superior wisdom.
They marry many wives, who are purchased from
their parents, and give in exchange for them a yoke of
oxen. Some marry wives to possess obedient attend-
ants, others with a view to pleasure and numerous
offspring, and the wives may prostitute themselves,
unless chastity is enforced by compulsion.
No one wears a garland when sacrificing, or burning
incense, or pouring out a libation. They do not stab,
but strangle the victim, so that nothing mutilated, but
only that which is entire, may be offered to the Deity.
A person convicted of bearing false witness suffers
a mutilation of his extremities. He who has maimed
another not only undergoes in return the loss of the
same limb, but his hand also is cut off. If he has caused
a workman to lose his hand or his eye, he is put to death.
Megasthenes says that none of the Indians employ
slaves, but, according to Onesikritos, this is peculiar to
the people in the territory of Mousikanos. He speaks
of this as an excellent rule and mentions many others
to be found in that country, as the effects of a govern-
ment by good laws.
The care of the king's person is committed to
women, who are also purchased from their parents. The
body-guard, and the rest of the military, are stationed
46 ACCOUNT OF INDIA BY STEABO
outside the gates. A woman, who puts to death a king
when drunk, is rewarded by becoming the wife of his
successor. The sons succeed the father. The king may
not sleep during the day-time, and at night he is obliged
from time to time to change his bed, from fear of
treachery.
Beside leaving his palace in time of war, the king
leaves it also when he goes to sit in his court as a judge.
He remains there all day thus occupied, not suffering
himself to be interrupted even though the time arrives
for attending to his person. This attention to his person
consists of rubbing (or massage) with pieces of wood,
and he continues to listen to the case under considera-
tion, while the friction is performed by four massageurs
who stand around him, Another occasion of the king's
leaving his palace is to offer sacrifice. The third is a
sort of Bacchanalian start on the chase. Crowds of
women surround him, and spearmen are stationed out-
side of these. The road is set off with ropes; a man, or
even a woman, who passes within the ropes is put to
death. The king is preceded by drums and gongs. He
hunts in the enclosures and discharges his arrows from
a high seat. Near him stand two or three armed
women. When hunting in the open, he shoots his
arrows from an elephant. Of the women some are in
chariots, some on horses, and others on elephants; they
are provided with all kinds of weapons, as if they were
going on a military expedition.'
Strabo next devotes a page or more to some fabu-
lous accounts of Eastern peoples, several of them being
THE KINGS AND SAGES OF INDIA
47
tribes in India, as told by Megasthenes and others. He
then proceeds on the authority of Megasthenes to
describe the Hindu philosophers and their remarkable
powers of asceticism.
1 Speaking of the philosophers, Megasthenes says
r
THE DILWARA TEMPLE AT MOUNT ABU.
that those who inhabit the mountains are worshippers
of Dionysos (Bacchus), and show as a proof (of the god
having come among them) the wild vine, which grows
only in their country, the ivy, the laurel, the myrtle,
the box-tree, and other evergreens, none of which are
found beyond the Euphrates, except a few in parks,
which are preserved only with great care. Other Bac-
chanalian customs are the wearing of robes and turbans,
the use of perfumes, dressing in dyed and flowered
garments, and for their kings to be preceded by gongs
48 ACCOUNT OF INDIA BY STKABO
and drums when they leave their palaces and appear
abroad. But the philosophers who live in the plains
worship Herakles (Hercules).
These are fabulous stories and are contradicted by
many writers, particularly what is said about the vine
and wine, because a great part of Armenia and the
whole of Mesopotamia and Media, as far as Persia and
Karmania, are beyond the Euphrates, and yet the
greater part of these countries is said to abound in
vines and to produce wine.
Megasthenes again divides the philosophers into two
kinds, the Brachmanes (Brahmans) and the Garmanes
(Sarmanes). The Brachmanes are held in greater
repute, for they agree with each other more closely in
their views. Even from the time of their conception in
the womb they are under the care and guardianship of
learned men, who go to the mother and seem to per-
form some incantation for the happiness and welfare
of the mother and the unborn child, but in reality they
suggest prudent advice, and the mothers who listen to
them most willingly are thought to be the most for-
tunate in their offspring. After the birth of the chil-
dren, there is a succession of persons who have the
care of them, and as they advance in years, masters
more able and accomplished succeed to the charge.
The philosophers live in a grove in front of the city
within a moderate-sized enclosure. Their diet is frugal,
and they lie upon straw pallets and on skins. They ab-
stain from eating animal food and from sexual inter-
course; their time is occupied in listening to grave dis-
MEGASTHENES ON THE BRAHMAN CASTE 49
course and in imparting it to those who wish to listen
to them; but the hearer is not permitted to speak or
cough, or even to spit on the ground; otherwise, he
is expelled that very day from their society, because
of his lack of self-control. After living thirty-seven
years in this manner, each individual retires to his own
possessions and lives with less circumspection and re-
straint, wearing robes of fine linen and rings of gold
upon the hands and in the ears, but without profuse-
ness. They eat the flesh of animals that do not assist
man in his labour, and they abstain from sharp and
seasoned food. They have as many wives as they please
with a view to numerous offspring, for from many
wives greater advantages are derived. As they have
no slaves, they require more the immediate services
of their children.
The Brachmanes do not communicate their philos-
ophy to their wives, for fear they should divulge to the
profane, if they became depraved, anything which
ought to be concealed; or lest they should abandon
their husbands in case they became good (philosophers)
themselves. For no one who despises alike pleasure
and pain, life and death, is willing to be subject to the
authority of another; and such is the character of a
virtuous man and a virtuous woman.
They discourse much on death, for it is their opinion
that the present life is the state of one just conceived,
and that to philosophers death is birth to the true
and happy life. They therefore discipline themselves
much to prepare for death, and maintain that nothing
60 ACCOUNT OF INDIA BY STEABO
which happens to man is bad or good, for otherwise the
same things would not be the occasion of sorrow to some
and of joy to others, opinions being merely dreams, nor
that the same persons could be affected with sorrow and
joy by the same things on different occasions.
With regard to opinions on physical phenomena,
they display, says Megasthenes, great simplicity, their
actions being better than their reasoning, for their belief
is founded chiefly on fables. On many subjects their
views are the same as those of the Greeks. According
to the Brachmanes, the world was created and is liable
to corruption; it is of a spheroidal figure; the god who
made and governs it pervades the whole of it; the prin-
ciples of all things are different, but the principle of
the world's formation was water; in addition to the
four elements there is a fifth nature, of which the heav-
ens and the stars are composed; the earth is situated
in the centre of the universe. Many other similar
things they say of the principle of generation and of
the soul. They weave in fables also, after the manner
of Plato, on the immortality of the soul, and on the pun-
ishments in Hades, and other things of this kind. Such
is the account which Megasthenes gives of the Brach-
manes.
Of the Garmanes (Sarmanes), the most honourable,
he says, are the Hylobioi, who live in the forests and
subsist on leaves and wild fruits; they are clothed with
garments made of the bark of trees, and they abstain
from intercourse with women and from wine. The
kings hold communication with them by messengers,
HINDU ASCETICS AND PHYSICIANS
concerning the causes of things, and through them wor-
ship and supplicate the Divinity.
Second in honour to the Hylobioi are the physicians,
for they apply philosophy to the study of the nature
of man. They are of frugal habits, but do not live in
the fields, and they sub-
sist upon rice and meal,
which every one gives
when asked; and every
one receives them hos-
pitably. By means of
charms they are able to
cause persons to have nu-
merous offspring and to
have either male or fe-
male children. They cure
diseases by diet, rather
than by medicinal reme-
dies. Among the latter,
the most in repute are
unguents and cataplasms. All others, they suppose,
are, to a large extent, improper to use.
Both this and the other class of persons practise
self-denial, as well in supporting active toil as in endur-
ing suffering, so that they will continue a whole day in
the same posture without moving.
There are enchanters and diviners, versed in the
rites and customs relating to the dead, and they go
about villages and towns begging. There are others,
more civilized and better informed, who inculcate the
A HINDU ASCETIC IN A TRANCE.
52 AN ACCOUNT OF INDIA BY STKABO
vulgar opinions concerning Hades, which tend to piety
and sanctity according to their ideas. Women study
philosophy with some of them, but abstain from sexual
intercourse.
Aristoboulos says that he saw at Taxila two soph-
ists, or wise men, both Brachmanes; the elder had his
head shaved, but the younger wore his hair; both were
AN INDIAN SCENE,
attended by disciples. When not otherwise engaged,
they spent their time in the market-place. They were
honoured as public counsellors, and had the liberty of
taking, without payment, whatever article they liked
that was exposed for sale. When any one accosted
them, he poured over them oil of sesame, in such pro-
fusion that it ran down over their eyes. Of honey
and sesame, which was exposed for sale in large quan-
ALEXANDER AND THE HINDU SOPHISTS 63
tity, they took enough to make cakes, and were fed
without expense.
They came up to Alexander's table and took their
meal standing by, and they gave an example of their
fortitude by retiring to a neighbouring spot, where the
elder, falling flat on the ground, endured the sun and
the rain, which had now set in, as it was the beginning
of spring. The other stood on one leg, with a piece of
wood three cubits in length raised in both hands; when
one leg was tired he changed the support to the other,
and continued thus the whole day. The younger ap-
peared to possess much more self-command; for, after
following the king a short distance, he soon returned to
his home. Alexander sent after him, but he bade the
king to come to him, if he wanted anything of him.
The other accompanied the king to the last. After
being with him he changed his dress and altered his
mode of life, and when reproached for his conduct,
answered that he had completed the forty years of
discipline which he had promised to observe. Alex-
ander made presents to his children.
Aristoboulos relates also some strange and unusual
customs of the people of Taxila. Those who through
poverty are unable to marry their daughters, expose
them for sale in the market-place, in the flower of their
age, to the sound of shell trumpets and drums, with
which the war-note is given. A crowd is thus assem-
bled. First her back is uncovered as far as the shoul-
ders, then the parts in front, for the examination of
any man who comes for this purpose. If she pleases
64 ACCOUNT OF INDIA BY STRABO
Mm, he marries her on such conditions as may be deter-
mined upon.
The dead are thrown out to be devoured by vultures.
To have many wives is a custom common to these and
to other nations. Aristoboulos says he heard from some
persons that wives burned themselves voluntarily with
their deceased husbands, and that those women who
refused to submit to this custom were disgraced. The
same things have been told by other writers. 1
Onesikritos says that he himself was sent to con-
verse with these wise men, because Alexander heard
that they went about naked, practised mortification of
the body, and were held in the highest honour; that,
when invited, they did not go to other persons, but
commanded others to come to them if they wished to
participate in their exercises or their conversation.
Such being their character, Alexander did not consider
it to be consistent with propriety to go to them, or to
compel them to do anything contrary to their inclina-
tion or against the custom of their country; he there-
fore despatched Onesikritos to them.
Onesikritos found, at the distance of twenty stadia
from the city, fifteen men standing in different postures,
sitting or lying down naked, who continued in these
positions until the evening, and then returned to the
city. The most difficult thing to endure was the heat
of the sun, which was so powerful that no one else
could endure without pain to walk on the ground at
mid-day with bare feet.
1 See the descriptions in the next chapter.
THE INDIAN SAGE KALANOS 55
He conversed with Kalanos (Calanus), one of these
sophists, who accompanied the king to Persia and died
after the custom of his country, being placed on a pile
of burning wood. When Onesikritos came, he was lying
upon stones. Onesikritos approached, addressed him,
and told him that he had been sent by the king for the
A STATUETTE OF A HINDU ASCETIC.
purpose of listening to his wisdom, and that he was
to give an account of his interview, and, if there were
no objection, he was ready to listen to his discourse.
When Kalanos saw his mantle, head-covering, and
shoes, he laughed, and said: " Formerly there was
abundance everywhere of corn and barley, as there is
now of dust; fountains then flowed with water, milk,
honey, wine, and oil, but mankind by repletion and
56 ACCOUNT OF INDIA BY STKABO
luxury became proud and insolent. Zeus, indignant
at this state of things, destroyed all and appointed a
life of toil for man. On the re-appearance of temper-
ance and other virtues, there was again an abundance
of good things; but at present the condition of mankind
approaches satiety and insolence, and there is danger
lest the things which now exist should disappear."
When he had finished, he proposed to Onesikritos, if
he wished to hear his discourse, to strip off his clothes,
to lie down naked by him on the same stones, and in
that manner to listen to him. While the latter was
hesitating what to do, Mandanis, 1 who was the oldest
and wisest of the sophists, reproached Kalanos for his
insolence, although he censured such insolence himself.
Mandanis then called Onesikritos to him and said: " I
commend the king, because, although he governs so
large an empire, he is nevertheless desirous of acquiring
wisdom, for he is the only person I ever saw philoso-
phizing in arms. It would be of the greatest advantage,
if those who have the power of persuading the willing
and of compelling the unwilling to learn temperance,
were philosophers. But I am entitled to indulgence
if I am not able to demonstrate the utility of philos-
ophy, when I have to converse through the medium
of three interpreters who know nothing more than the
common people, except the language. To attempt it
is to expect water to flow pure through mud."
The tendency of his discourse, Onesikritos said, was
this, that the best philosophy was that which liberated
1 By Arrian and Plutarch he is called Dandamis.
Monolithic Carvings of the Temple at Mahabalipuram, Madras Presidency.
A DISCOURSE OF THE SAGE MANDANIS 57
the mind from pleasure and grief; that grief differed
from labour in that the former was inimical, the latter
friendly to men, inasmuch as men laboriously exer-
cised their bodies in order to strengthen the mental
powers, by which means they might be able to put an
end to dissensions and give good counsel to all, both to
the community and to individuals; that at present he
certainly would advise Taxiles to receive Alexander as
a friend; for if he entertained a person better than
himself, he might be improved, but if a worse person,
he might dispose the latter to good.
After this Mandanis inquired whether such doc-
trines were taught among the Greeks. Onesikritos
answered that Pythagoras taught a similar doctrine,
and enjoined his disciples to abstain from whatever has
life; that Sokrates and Diogenes, whose discourses he
had heard, held the same opinions. Mandanis replied
that in other respects he thought them wise, but that
in one thing they were mistaken, namely, in preferring
custom to nature, for otherwise they would not be
ashamed of going naked, like himself, and of subsist-
ing on frugal fare; for the best house was that which
required least repairs.
Onesikritos says also that the philosophers occupy
themselves much with physical science, as prognostics,
rain, drought, and diseases. When they repair to the
city, they disperse themselves in the market-places; if
they meet any one carrying figs or bunches of grapes,
they take what is offered gratuitously; if it is oil, it
is poured over them, and they are anointed with it.
58 ACCOUNT OF INDIA BY STRABO
Every wealthy house, even to the women's apartment,
is open to them; when they enter it, they engage in
conversation and partake of the repast. Disease of the
body they regard as most disgraceful, and he who
catches it, prepares a* pyre and destroys himself by
fire. He first anoints himself, then, sitting down upon
the pyre, he orders it to be lighted, remaining motion-
less while he is burning.
Nearchos gives the following account of the soph-
ists. The Brachmanes engage in public affairs, and
attend the kings as counsellors; the rest are occupied
in the study of nature. Kalanos belonged to the latter
class. Women study philosophy with them, and all lead
an austere life.
Of the customs of the other Indians he says that
their laws, whether relating to the community or to
individuals, are not committed to writing, and differ
altogether from those of other people. It is the prac-
tice among some tribes, for example, to set up virgins
as prizes to the victors in a trial of skill in boxing;
wherefore they marry without portions. Among other
tribes the ground is cultivated by families and in
common; when the produce is collected, each takes
a load sufficient for his subsistence during the year;
the remainder is burned, in order to have a reason
for renewing their labour, and not remaining inac-
tive.
Their weapons consist of a bow and arrows, which
are three cubits in length, or a javelin, and a shield,
and a broadsword three cubits long. Instead of bridles,
NEARCHOS ON HINDU CUSTOMS
they use muzzles, which differ little from a halter, and
the lip-straps are perforated with spikes.
Nearchos, producing proofs of the skill of the In-
dians in works of art, says that when they saw sponges
in use among the Macedonians, they imitated them by
sewing hairs, thin threads, and strings in wool; after
the wool was felted, they drew out the hairs, threads,
and strings, and dyed it with colours. There quickly
appeared also manu-
factures of brushes for
the body, and of ves-
sels for oil (lekythoi).
They write letters, he
says, upon cloth that
is smoothed by being
well beaten, although
other authors affirm
that they have no
knowledge of writing. They use brass which is cast
and not wrought. He does not give a reason for this,
although he mentions the strange fact that if vessels
of this description fall to the ground, they break like
those made of clay.
The following custom also is mentioned in accounts
of India, that, instead of prostrating themselves before
their kings, it is usual to address them, and all persons
in authority and high station, with a prayer.
The country produces precious stones, as crystal,
carbuncles of all kinds, and pearls.
As an instance of the disagreement among histori-
INDJAN FOOT - SOLDIERS.
From an Ajanta Cave Painting. (After Griffiths.)
60 ACCOUNT OF INDIA BY STEABO
ans, we may adduce their different accounts of Kala-
nos. They all agree that he accompanied Alexander
and underwent a voluntary death by fire in his pres-
ence, but they differ as to the manner and cause of his
death.
Some give the following account. Kalanos accom-
panied the king, as the rehearser of his praises, beyond
the boundaries of India, contrary to the common Indian
custom; for the philosophers attend upon their kings
and act as instructors in the worship of the gods, in
the same manner as the Magi attend the Persian kings.
When he fell sick at Pasargadai, being then attacked
with disease for the first time in his life, he put himself
to death at the age of seventy-three years, regardless
of the entreaties of the king. A pyre was raised, and
a gilded couch placed upon it. He lay down upon it,
and covering himself up, was burned to death.
Others say that a chamber was constructed of wood,
which was filled with the leaves of trees, and a pyre
being raised upon the roof, he was shut up in it, accord-
ing to his directions, after the procession, with which
he had been accompanied, had arrived at the spot. He
threw himself upon the pyre and was consumed like
a log of wood, together with the chamber.
Megasthenes says that self-destruction is not a
dogma of the philosophers, and that those who commit
this act are accounted foolhardy; that some, who are
harsh by nature, inflict wounds upon their bodies, or
cast themselves down precipices; those who are im-
patient of pain drown themselves; those who can en-
HINDU FESTIVAL PROCESSIONS 63
dure pain strangle themselves; and those of ardent
tempers throw themselves into the fire. Of this last
description was Kalanos, who had no control over him-
self and was a slave to the table of Alexander. Kala-
nos is censured, while Mandanis is applauded. When
Alexander's messengers invited the latter to come to
the son of Zeus, promising a reward if he would comply,
and threatening punishment if he refused, he answered,
" Alexander was not the son of Zeus, for he did not
govern even the smallest portion of the earth; nor did
be himself desire a gift from one who was satisfied with
nothing. Neither did he fear his threats, for as long
as he lived India would supply him with food enough,
and when he died, he should be delivered from the
flesh wasted by old age and be translated to a better
and purer state of existence." Alexander commended
and pardoned him.
Historians also relate that the Indians worship
Zeus Ombrios (" the Kainy "), the river Ganges, and
the local divinities of the country; that when the king
washes his hair, 1 a great feast is celebrated, and large
presents are sent, each person displaying his wealth in
competition with his neighbour.
They say that some of the gold-digging myrmekes
(ants) have wings, and that the rivers, like those of
Iberia, bring down gold-dust.
In processions at their festivals, many elephants
are in the train, adorned with gold and silver, numer-
ous carriages drawn by four horses and by several pairs
*On his birthday, Herodotus, 9. 110.
64 ACCOUNT OF INDIA BY STRABO
of oxen; then follows a body of attendants in full dress,
bearing vessels of gold, large kettles, and huge bowls,
an orguia (about six feet) in breadth, tables, chairs of
state, drinking-cups, and lavers of Indian copper, most
of which are set with precious stones, as emeralds,
beryls, and Indian carbuncles, and wearing garments
embroidered and interwoven with gold. In the proces-
sion are also wild beasts, as buffaloes, panthers, tame
lions, and a multitude of birds of variegated plumage
and of fine song.
Kleitarchos speaks of four-wheeled carriages bear-
ing trees with large leaves, from which were suspended
(in cages) different kinds of tame birds, among which
the orion 1 was said to possess the sweetest note, but
the katreus (bird of paradise?) was the most beautiful
in appearance, and had the most variegated plumage.
In shape it approached nearest to the peacock, but the
rest of the description must be taken from Kleitarchos.
Opposed to the Brachmanes there are philosophers
called Pramnai (Buddhists), contentious and fond of
argument. They ridicule the Brachmanes as boasters
and fools for occupying themselves with natural science
and astronomy. Some of the Pramnai are called Pram-
nai of the Mountains, others Gymnetai, and others again
are called Townsmen and Countrymen. The Pramnai
of the Mountains wear deerskins and carry scrips filled
with roots and drugs; they profess to practise medicine
by means of incantations, charms, and amulets.
The Gymnetai, as their name imports, go naked and
1 JSlian, De Animalium Natura, 17. 22.
KLEITAECHOS ON THE BKAHMANS
65
live chiefly in the open air, practising asceticism for the
space of thirty-seven years, as I have mentioned above.
Women live in their society, but without cohabitation.
The Gymnetai are held in high esteem.
The Townsmen (Pramnai) dwell in cities and wear
fine linen, or also in the country, clothed in the skins
HINDUS AT THE WELL OF KNOWLEDGE, BENARES.
of fawns or antelopes. In short, the Indians wear white
garments, white linen and muslin, contrary to the ac-
counts of those who say that they wear garments of a
bright colour; all of them wear long hair and long
beards, plait their hair, and bind it with a fillet.
Artemidoros says that the Ganges descends from the
Emoda Mountains and proceeds toward the south; when
it arrives at the city Ganges, it turns to the east, and
66 ACCOUNT OF INDIA BY STEABO
keeps this direction as far as Palibothra (Patna) and
the mouth by which it discharges itself into the sea.
He calls one of the rivers which flow into it Oidanes,
which breeds crocodiles and dolphins. Some other cir-
cumstances besides are mentioned by him, but in so
confused and negligent a manner that they are not to
be regarded. To these accounts may be added that of
Mkolaos Damaskenos.
This writer states that at Antioch near Daphne, 1
he met with ambassadors from the Indians, who were
sent to Augustus Caesar. From the letter it appeared
that several persons were mentioned in it, but only
three, whom he says he saw, survived. The rest had
died, chiefly in consequence of the length of the journey.
The letter was written in Greek upon a skin; the im-
port of it was that Poros was the writer; that although
he was sovereign of six hundred kings, he nevertheless
esteemed the friendship of Caesar highly; and that he
was willing to allow him a passage through his country,
in whatever direction he pleased, and to assist him in
any undertaking that was just.
Eight naked servants, with girdles around their
waists and fragrant with perfumes, presented the gifts
which were brought. The presents were a Hermes
(i. e. a man) born without arms, whom I have seen,
large snakes, a serpent ten cubits in length, a river
unimportant town in the pashalic of Aleppo, the modern name of
which is still Antakieh. In ancient times it was distinguished either as An-
tioch on the Orontes, because it was situated on the left bank of that river, or
as Antioch near Daphne, because of a celebrated grove of Daphne, which was
consecrated to Apollo.
THE HINDU EMBASSY TO AUGUSTUS C^SAB 67
tortoise of three cubits in length, and a partridge
larger than a vulture. The ambassadors were accom-
panied by the person, it is said, who burnt himself to
death at Athens. This is the practice with persons in
distress, who seek escape from existing calamities, and
with others in prosperous circumstances, as was the
case with this man. For as everything hitherto had suc-
ceeded with him, he thought it necessary to depart, lest
some unexpected calamity should happen to him by
continuing to live; with a smile, therefore, naked,
anointed, and with his girdle round his waist, he leaped
upon the pyre. On his tomb was this inscription,
HERE LIES ZARMANOCHEGAS,* AN INDIAN, A NATIVE OP BAR-
GOSE, 2 HAVING IMMORTALIZED HIMSELF ACCORDING TO THE
CUSTOM OF HIS COUNTRY.'
1 In Dio Cassius, 54. 9, he is called Zarmanos, a variation probably of Sar-
manos or Garmanos.
2 Bargosa is a corruption of Barygaza mentioned in Arrian's Periplus of the
Red Sea the Sanskrit Bhrigukaccha, the Modern Broach.
AN OLD BCDDHIST BELIEF FROM THE BHAKAHAT STCPA.
CHAPTER II
THE PRACTICE OF SUTTEE, OE WIDOW - BURNING, IN
INDIA, ACCORDING TO GREEK, LATIN, ARABIC, PER-
SIAN, ITALIAN, DUTCH, FRENCH, AND ENGLISH
ACCOUNTS
AMONG the peculiar Hindu customs sanctioned by
antiquity and practised until a century ago, when
it was abolished by an act of the British government,
was the inhuman practice of " suttee," or widow-burn-
ing. The word " suttee," derived from the Sanskrit
sati, literally means " a true wife," and the term was
properly applied to a woman whose faithful devotion
to her husband, during his lifetime, earned for her this
well-deserved title of praise; but it came early to be
used as the special designation of the wife whose love
for her lord and master led her to sacrifice herself in
the flames of his funeral pyre. This latter employment
of the term has unfortunately been the general one for
ages, so that suttee and widow-burning are synonymous.
As was pointed out in the first volume of this series
(p. 61), there has been much discussion as to whether
this Indian custom dates back to the ancient period
88
SUTTEE IN ANCIENT AND MODERN INDIA 71
of the Rig -Veda, and the solution of the question de-
pends largely upon how we are to interpret certain
verses of the Funeral Hymn in the tenth book of that
collection; but the practice is certainly alluded to in
the great Indian epics, Mahabharata and Ramayana,
and is frequently mentioned in the later Sanskrit lit-
erature belonging to the classical period. On foreign
authority, moreover, we can vouch for its existence as
early as the fourth century before the Christian era,
judging from the sources to which Diodoros Sikelos
went back; and during all periods of India's history
there is abundant material to show the prevalence of
the custom throughout the land, as suttee is a subject
regarding which much would naturally be written. 1
The abolition of the terrible practice was due to
the action of the British government in 1829 - 1830, dur-
ing the Indian administration of Lord Bentinck, whose
name will always be connected with this beneficent act
for the advancement of the cause of humanity in India,
and with it likewise will be associated that of the
native ruler, Raja Ram Mohun Roy, who lent his sup-
port to the reform. Although forbidden by legislature,
sporadic instances of the practice of suttee nevertheless
occurred long afterwards, and as recently as November,
1905, the Indian newspapers of Lahore, in Northern
Hindustan, reported the fact that a wretched woman
in one of the outlying districts had thus perished in
the flames a sacrifice to an ancient fanatical custom,
1 Consult, for example, the references in Yule, Hobson-Jobson, article " Suttee,"
and look up the allusions given by Lanman, Sanskrit Reader, p. 382.
72 THE PRACTICE OF SUTTEE
so difficult to stamp out. An occurrence so recent
as that helps to lend colour to the accounts which are
here presented, covering a period of fully two thousand
years, from classic to mediaeval and modern times.
The first selections are from Greek and Latin writers.
The Greek historian Mkolaos Damaskenos, who
LORD WILLIAM C. BENTINCK, UNDER WHOSE ADMINISTRATION SUTTEE
WAS ABOLISHED.
wrote toward the close of the first century B. c., ex-
plicitly states in his " Paradoxical Customs " that
" when the Hindus die, they cause to be burned with
them the most devoted one of their wives; and there
is great rivalry on the part of the wives themselves,
as well as of their friends, each striving to gain the
day." 1 Plutarch, in the first century A. D., reiterates
1 Nikolaos Damaskenos, Paradoxon Ethnikon Synagoge, Fragm. 143.
EAKLY GREEK AND LATIN REFERENCES 73
in his " Morals " the assertion that " among the Hin-
dus the faithful wives are so ardently devoted to their
husbands that they enter into strife and rivalry with
each other as to which of them shall enjoy the privilege
of the pyre; and the one that is successful in the contest
is burnt with her dead husband, while the others extol
her good fortune." 1 ^Elian, also writing in Greek a
century later, repeats the same statement in substance,
to the effect that " Hindu wives enter into the same
funeral pyre as their dead husbands, and they engage
in rivalry with each other for the privilege; and which-
ever of them obtains the lot is burnt with him." 8
The Roman statesman, orator, and philosopher,
Cicero, among the Latin writers of the first century
B. c., breaks forth in his " Tusculan Disputations " with
an impassioned utterance against this barbarous Hindu
usage, that " when the husband dies, the wives dispute
as to which of them loved him most (for polygamy is
customary among them), and she that gains the day
is escorted in triumph by her household and is placed
by the side of her husband on the pyre, while the
unsuccessful wife withdraws in dejection." 3 The Latin
poet Propertius, a late contemporary of Cicero, regards
with poetic sentiment this custom among the Hindus
and felicitates the East upon its having wives that con-
tend with each other to die in the flames with their
beloved, and " feel it a shame not to be permitted to
die, while those who are successful, offer their bosoms
1 Plutarch, Moralia, p. 499c.
2 ^Elian, Varia Historia, 8. 18.
Cicero, Tusculanae Disputationes, 5. 27, 78.
74
THE PRACTICE OF SUTTEE
to the fire and press their burning lips upon those of
their lords." 1 Valerius Maximus, who flourished in
Italy during the first Christian century, had to recog-
nize, like Cicero, the undaunted courage of the Indian
women, " who, although several are married to one
WOMEN AT THE VILLAGE POND.
man according to the custom of their country, never-
theless engage in a struggle and contest, when their
husband dies, as to which of them he loved the most.
The victress, jubilant with exultation and escorted by
her relatives, who wear a glad countenance, throws her-
self into the flames of her husband's pyre and, as if
exceedingly happy, is burned along with him; while
those who are defeated remain in life with sadness and
grief." 2
iPropertius, 4. 12. 15-22.
1 Valerius Maximus, Factorum et Dictorum Memorabilium Libri, 2. 6. 14.
DIODOKUS'S DESCRIPTION OF SUTTEE 75
The fullest classical account of the Indian suttee,
however, is that by the Greek writer Diodoros Sikelos,
in the first century B. c., who refers (as did Strabo,
already cited) to the custom of widow-burning among
the Kathaioi and gives an elaborate description of such
a voluntary sacrifice by the wives of a Hindu general
that was slain in battle. " Among the Kathaioi, " he
says, "it is customary for the wives to be burned with
their husbands a sanctioned custom which became
established among the barbarians on account of one
woman's having made away with her husband by poi-
son." 1 Diodoros 's elaborate and graphic description
of the suttee that followed upon the death of Keteus,
the Indian leader who fell in battle, runs as follows:
' There occurred at this time a strange circumstance
which differs wholly from the customs of the Greeks.
Keteus, the general of the Indian contingent, had been
slain in battle after a noble fight. He left behind him
two wives who had accompanied hi throughout the
campaign. One he had but lately married; the other
had been wedded to him some years previously; and
both loved him devotedly.
Now, owing to an old custom among the Hindus,
for young men and maidens to marry, not according
to their parents' advice, but after their own mutual
inclination, the young people in former times married
rashly. As a result their choice was often a failure,
followed by speedy repentance on both sides; and many
wives, yielding to their passions, became corrupted and
1 Diodoros Sikelos, Historia, 17. 91.
76 THE PRACTICE OF SUTTEE
fell in love with other men. But not being able hon-
ourably to leave those of their original choice, they
made away with their husbands by poison. The means
to do this were more readily found, owing to the many
and various poisonous elements produced in the coun-
try, some of which caused death if merely rubbed on
the food or mixed with the drink. Owing to the prev-
alence of this villainy, and because of many such mur-
ders, and inasmuch as punishing those whose guilt was
proved had failed to deter others from the crime, a law
was made to the effect that widows, unless they were
pregnant or had children, should be burnt with their
dead husbands; and that whosoever should refuse to
obey this law, should remain a widow always and should
be debarred for ever from sacrificial rites and other
privileges because of her impiety. With the establish-
ment of this law the wickedness of the wives was turned
into quite the reverse; for, on account of the enormity
of the disgrace, every woman chose rather to die with
her husband, and as a consequence they not only looked
after the well-being of their husbands, as a matter of
common concern, but even rivalled one another as if
to attain the greatest glory.
Such was the case on this occasion; for although
according to law only one wife was to be burnt, both
entered into a contest at the death of Keteus as to
which should gain the privilege of dying with their
husband. When the generals undertook to decide the
matter, the younger wife said that the other was with
child and could not therefore take advantage of the
THE WIVES OF KETEUS 77
law. The latter, on the other hand, insisted that it was
more proper for herself to have the first place in hon-
our, as being the elder, because among all peoples the
senior always takes precedence over the junior in the
matter of honour and of respect. Upon learning from
those who were skilled in midwifery that the elder
AN INDIAN WOMAN WITH HER JEWELS.
actually was with child, the generals decided in favour
of the younger. Whereupon, she who had lost the
privilege went away weeping, rending her veil, and
tearing her hair, as though she had been told of some
terrible misfortune. The other, on the contrary, over-
joyed at the victory she had won, went forth to the
funeral pyre, receiving from the women of her house-
hold a head-dress (literally, " mitres ") as a crown, and
splendidly decked, as though for a wedding, while she
was escorted also by her kinsmen, who sang hymns in
honour of her heroism.
78 THE PEACTICE OF SUTTEE
As soon as she came to the pyre, she took off her
ornaments and distributed them among her household
and friends, leaving a memento, so to say, to those
who loved her. The ornaments were these: she had
on her fingers a quantity of rings, set with precious
stones of different colours; on her head she wore a
number of golden stars set off by all kinds of jewels;
and around her neck there were several necklaces,
smaller or larger according as they hung higher or
lower upon her breast.
At last, when she had taken leave of her household,
she was placed upon the pile by her brother, and then,
amid the wonderment of the crowds that had assembled
to witness the sight, she brought her life to its heroic
end. The soldiers, all in full armour, marched three
times around the pile before it was kindled; while she
lay down by her husband's side. Not a word did she
utter, not a sign of fear did she betray as the flames
came on. Some of those who witnessed the spectacle
were moved with pity; others were stirred to extrav-
agant praise. Of the Greeks, however, some condemned
the custom as savage and barbarous.'
A notice of the custom of Indian widow-burning
may be cited also from the well-known Arabian trav-
eller Ibn Batuta, whose distant journeys led him to
Hindustan in 1325 A. D. In describing his various ex-
periences and the sights which he saw, Ibn Batuta says
(as translated by Lee) : " I also saw those women who
burn themselves when their husbands die. The woman
adorns herself and is accompanied by a cavalcade of
AN ARABIC ACCOUNT OF SUTTEE
79
the infidel Hindus and Brahmans, with drums, trum-
pets, and men, following her, both Moslems and Infidels,
for mere pastime. The fire had been already kindled,
and into it they cast the dead husband. The wife
HINDU WOMEN.
then threw herself upon him, and both were entirely
burnt. A woman's burning herself with her husband,
however, is not considered as absolutely necessary
among them, but it is encouraged; and when a woman
burns herself with her husband, her family is consid-
ered as being ennobled, and is supposed to be worthy of
80 THE PRACTICE OF SUTTEE
trust. But when she does not burn herself, she is ever
after clothed coarsely, and remains among her rela-
tions on account of her want of fidelity to her husband.
The woman who burns herself with her husband is
generally surrounded by women, who bid her farewell
and commission her with salutations for their former
friends, while she laughs, plays, or dances to the very
time in which she is to be burnt."
The Persian treatise Dabistan or " School of Man-
ners," whose author lived in the first half of the seven-
teenth century and knew India, among other countries
in which he travelled, writes in harmony with the pre-
ceding statements regarding the Hindu widow, and a
passage from his work, as translated by Shea and
Troyer, deserves citation: " If, on her husband's death,
she become not a Suttee, that is burn herself with the
deceased, she is then to reside with his relations, devot-
ing herself to rigid abstinence and the worship of the
Almighty. They say that when a woman becomes a
Suttee, the Almighty pardons all the sins committed
by the wife and husband, and that they remain a long
time in paradise: nay, if the husband were in the
infernal regions, the wife by this means draws him
from thence and takes him to paradise, just as the
serpent-catcher charms the serpent out of his hole.
Moreover the Suttee, in a future birth, returns not to
the female sex; but should she reassume the human
nature, she appears as a man; but she who becomes
not a Suttee, and passes her life in widowhood, is never
emancipated from the female state. It is therefore
Suttee, or Widow-burning, in Ancient Times
Tlic accompanying illustration from an old engraving conveys sninc
idea of the sad scenes that used to be enacted only too often on the banks
of the Ganges and throughout all India, from the earliest ages dozen to
the time when the cruel practice of suttee was abolished in the first half
of the nineteenth century.
THE PERSIAN DABISTAN ON SUTTEE 81
the duty of every woman, excepting one that is preg-
nant, to enter into the blazing fire. A Brahman's wife
in particular is to devote herself in the same fire with
her husband; but others are allowed to perform the
rite in a separate place. It is, however, criminal to
force the woman into the fire, and equally so to prevent
her who voluntarily devotes herself."
In addition to the passages that have already been
given, there are references to " suttee ' : ' in Sanskrit
literature from the early centuries of the Christian era
to the time of the Mohammedan conquest, but their
number precludes citing them here. It is sufficient to
present three European accounts of this Indian prac-
tice, and I shall first quote from the well-known Italian
traveller Pietro della Valle, who visited India in the
first quarter of the seventeenth century and records an
instance of widow.-burning at Ikkeri, now called Ikheri,
in the Mysore district of Southern India, where the
practice was less common than in other parts of India.
His journal, which is accessible in the Hakluyt Soci-
ety's publications, contains the following memoranda
among the entries for November 12, 1623.
' As we returned home at night we met a Woman
in the City of Ikkeri, who, her husband being dead, was
resolv'd to burn herself, as 'tis the custom with many
Indian Women. She rode on Horse-back about the
City with face uncovered, holding a Looking-glass in
one hand and a Lemon in the other, I know not for
what purpose; and beholding herself in the Glass, with
a lamentable tone sufficiently pittiful to hear, went
82 THE PRACTICE OF SUTTEE
along I know not whither, speaking, or singing, certain
words, which I understood not; but they told me they
were a kind of Farewell to the World and herself; and
indeed, being uttered with that passionateness which
the Case requir'd and might produce, they mov'd pity
in all that heard them, even in us who understood not
the Language. She was followed by many other Women
and Men on foot, who, perhaps, were her Relations;
they carry 'd a great Umbrella over her, as all Persons
of quality are wont to have, thereby to keep off the
Sun, whose heat is hurtful and troublesome. Before
her certain Drums were sounded, whose noise she never
ceas'd to accompany with her sad Ditties, or Songs;
yet with a calm and constant Countenance, without
tears, evidencing more grief for her Husband's death
than her own, and more desire to go to him in the other
world than regret for her own departure out of this:
a Custom, indeed, cruel and barbarous, but, withall,
of great generosity in such Women and therefore
worthy of no small praise. They said she was to pass
in this manner about the City, I know not how many
dayes, at the end of which she was to go out of the
City and be burnt, with more company and solemnity.
If I can know when it will be I will not fail to go to
see her and by my presence honour her Funeral with
that compassionate affection which so great Conjugal
Fidelity and Love seem to me to deserve.'
Four days later Pietro della Valle adds to his notes
the following touching description of his interview with
the woman.
PIETRO DELIA VALLE ON SUTTEE
83
' November the sixteenth. I was told that the af ore-
mention 'd Woman, who had resolv'd to burn her self
for her Husband's death, was to dye this Evening.
But upon further enquiry at the Woman's House I
understood that it would not be till after a few dayes
more, and there I saw her sitting in a Court, or Yard,
and other persons beating Drums about her. She was
cloth 'd all in White and deck'd with many Neck-laces,
Bracelets and other ornaments of Gold; on her Head
INDIAN MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.
After originals in the Museum of the East India House.
she had a Garland of Flowers, spreading forth like the
rayes of the Sun; in brief she was wholly in a Nuptial
Dress and held a Lemon in her Hand, which is the
usual Ceremony. She seem'd to be pleasant enough,
talking and laughing in conversation, as a Bride would
do in our Countries. She and those with her took
notice of my standing there to behold her, and, conjec-
turing by my foreign Habit who I was, some of them
came toward me. I told them by an Interpreter that
I was a Person of a very remote Country, where we
had heard by Fame that some Women in India love
their Husbands so vehemently as when they dye to
resolve to dye with them; and that how, having intel-
84 THE PRACTICE OF SUTTEE
ligence that this Woman was such a one, I was come
to see her, that so I might relate in my own Country
that I had seen such a thing with my own Eyes. These
people were well pleas 'd with my coming, and she her-
self, having heard what I said, rose up from her seat
and came to speak to me.
We discours'd together, standing, for a good while.
She told me that her name was Giaccama, of the Race
of Terlenga, that her Husband was a Drummer; whence
I wonder 'd the more; seeing that Heroical Actions, as
this undoubtedly ought to be judg'd, are very rare in
people of low quality. That it was about nineteen
dayes since her Husband's death, that he had left two
other Wives elder than she, whom he had married
before her (both which were present at this discourse),
yet neither of them was willing to dye, but alledg'd for
excuse that they had many Children. This argument
gave me occasion to ask Giaccama (who shew'd me a
little Son of her own, about six or seven years, besides
a little Daughter she had) how she could perswade her
self to leave her own little Children; and I told her,
that she ought likewise to live rather than to abandon
them at that age. She answer 'd me that she left them
well recommended to the care of an Uncle of hers there
present, who also talk'd with us very cheerfully, as if
rejoycing that his Kins- woman should do such an ac-
tion; and that her Husband's other two remaining
Wives would also take care of them. I insisted much
upon the tender age of her Children, to avert her from
her purpose by moving her to compassion for them,
THE SAD STORY OF A YOUNG WIFE
85
well knowing that no argument is more prevalent with
Mothers than their Love and Affection toward their
Children. But all my speaking was in vain, and she
still answer 'd me to all my Reasons, with a Counte-
nance not onely undismayed and constant, but even
CHILDREN NEAR A RUINED SHRINE IN THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY.
cheerful, and spoke in such a manner as shew'd that
she had not the least fear of death.
She told me also, upon my asking her, that she did
this of her own accord, was at her own liberty and not
forc'd nor perswaded by any one. Whereupon, I in-
quiring whether force were at any time us'd in this
matter, they told me that ordinarily it was not, but
onely sometimes amongst Persons of quality, when some
86 THE PRACTICE OF SUTTEE
Widow was left young, handsome, and so in danger
of marrying again (which amongst them is very igno-
minious) or committing a worse fault; in such Cases
the Friends of the deceas'd Husband were very strict,
and would constrain her to burn her self even against
her own will, for preventing the disorders possible to
happen in case she should live (a barbarous, indeed,
and too cruel Law); but that neither force nor per-
suasion was used to Giaccama, and that she did it of
her own free will; in which, as a magnanimous action
(as indeed it was), and amongst them of great honour,
both her Relations and herself much glory M. I ask'd
concerning the Ornaments and Flowers she wore, and
they told me that such was the Custom, in token of
the Masti's joy (they call the Woman, who intends to
burn her self for the death of her Husband, Masti)
in that she was very shortly to go to him and therefore
had reason to re Joyce; whereas such Widows as will
not dye remain in continual sadness and lamentations,
shave their Heads and live in perpetual mourning for
the death of their Husbands.
At last Giaccama caus'd one to tell me that she
accounted my coming to see her a great fortune, and
held her self much honour 'd, as well by my visit and
presence as by the Fame which I should carry of her
to my own Country; and that before she dy'd she
would come to visit me at my House, and also to ask
me, as their custom is, that I would favour her with
some thing by way of Alms toward the buying of fewel
for the fire wherewith she was to be burnt. I answer 'd
THE WIDOW'S DETERMINATION TO DIE
87
her that I should esteem her visit and very willingly
give her something; not for wood and fire wherein to
burn her self (for her death much displeased me, and
I would gladly have disswaded her from it, if I could),
but to do some-
thing else there-
with that her self
most lik'd; and I
promised her that,
so far as my weak
pen could contrib-
ute, her Name
should remain im-
mortal in the
World. Thus I
took leave of her,
more sad for her
death than she
was, cursing the
custom of India
which is so unmer-
ciful to Women.
Giaccama was a Woman about thirty years of age, of
a Complexion very brown for an Indian and almost
black, but of a good aspect, tall of stature, well shap'd
and proportion 'd. My Muse could not forbear from
chanting her in a Sonnet which I made upon her death,
and reserve among my Poetical Papers.' 1
A brief but vivid description of the cruel rite not
1 This sonnet has apparently been lost.
AN INDIAN WOMAN WITH A CHARACTERISTIC NECKLACE.
88 THE PRACTICE OF SUTTEE
only of burning the wife by the side of her dead hus-
band, but sometimes of burying her alive in the same
grave with his body, is given by the Dutch missionary
Abraham Eoger, whose account of India in the first
half of the seventeenth century forms a later chapter
in this book. The section relating to suttee is inserted
here instead of being reserved for its place in that
chapter.
1 So soon as the husband dyeth, if the wife prom-
iseth of her own accord that she will follow him in
death, then the preparations necessary for this business
are hastened, for then is there no longer a loophole open
for the wife, and then may she have no hope more, nor
may the affair suffer any delay, since the wife must
be burnt on the same day on which her husband is
burnt, when the fire is almost become coals. This is
observed very strictly by the Bramines (Brahmans)
and Weinsjaes (Vaisyas); but the Settreaes (Khsha-
triyas) and Soudraes (Sudras) have a custom that,
even though the husband hath died elsewhere and hath
been burnt long before, the wife must also be burnt if
only they receive a token of the husband's death and
are certified thereof. Accordingly, the husband is
brought without delay to a pit which is digged without
the city and is burnt therein; the wife, well adorned
after their fashion, is set upon a seat under a canopy
outside the door; bassoons are blown; drums are
beaten; she is entertained continually by being given
betel to eat; and meanwhile she uttereth the name of
God continually. The last woman whom I attended
ABRAHAM ROGER'S ACCOUNT OF SUTTEE 89
continually said " Naraina ' (Narayana), the which
she repeated so quickly and rapidly that it was a
marvel. The Settrea and the Soudra sometimes hold it
for their custom to give the women somewhat with
their betel whereby they be half-robbed of their senses,
so that they may not become afflicted in spirit at their
approaching pain and anguish, and seek to recall their
word. But the Bramin Padmanaba said that the Bra-
mines do not so to their women, since they may not
bring the women to die as with force, against their will.
When the wife goeth forth of her house, she biddeth
her friends farewell; and if she be of the Settrea or
Soudra caste, she hath a lemon in one hand and a mirror
in the other; and continually she uttereth the name of
God. Some repeat Naraina (Narayana) and some
Ramma (Rama), or any other name wherewith, in their
language, they name the god they serve. But if the
wife be of the caste of the Bramines or of the Weins-
jaes, she holdeth not the aforesaid things in her hand,
but sometimes flowers, red in colour, such as are
common in their temples, to strew on and before her
idol; although the flowers may be those which have
already been offered to the idol. Around her neck
they hang the figure of her idol, and thus the wife
fareth forth of the city to where her husband is burnt,
going either on foot, or, if she be the wife of a
Bramin, in a palanquin. She is accompanied by her
friends, who encourage her with their words, if she be
of the Settrea or Soudra caste; and thus, at length, she
neareth the place where her husband is burnt. But
90
THE PRACTICE OF SUTTEE
before she goeth to leap in the fire, she fareth to a
tank, or pool of water, which is nigh there, to wash her
body. The which being done, they take from her the
jewels wherewith she was adorned, and at that place
THE RAMA GHAT AT AYODHA.
a prayer is offered by a Bramin, and alms are given
to the Bramines. This being done, and having been
clad, in the pool, with a shroud of yellow colour, she
cometh forth from the water and goeth joyfully toward
the place where she shall spring into the fire. Before
her she findeth a deep pit with glowing coals, but that
THE FINAL SCENE AT THE PYRE 91
she should not be affrighted therefrom by the horrible
sight, mats are placed in front so that she may not see
into the pit. Each of the bystanders hath wood in his
hand to cast upon the woman's body, so soon as she
hath sprung into the fire, that she may be burnt to
powder.
When the wife draweth nigh the pit, she findeth a
high place at the end of the pit, which is made of the
earth which is thrown out of the pit; and then she
goeth until she cometh to the mat that preventeth her
from seeing into the awful pit. There she biddeth fare-
well to the friends who are with her, the which encour-
age her good spirit; over the mat, into the fire, she
throweth a pilang, that is, a rice-stamper, and a sioup,
or little fan wherewith the rice is fanned when it is
stamped, and also other things that women commonly
use there in their houses; on her head she hath a
pot of oil, a part whereof she herself poureth over
her head; and meanwhile she uttereth the name of
God continually. And then the mat, which standeth
before her, is taken away, and she falleth down from
above with the pot of oil into the fire, and straightway
she is covered, well-nigh to the height of a man, with
the wood which the bystanders had in their hands.
And thus is this sad spectacle brought to an end when-
soever the women are of the Settreas, Weinsjaes, and
Soudraes.
But when the wives be of a Bramin, then is this
horrible matter carried out with still greater cruelty;
for the wives of the Bramines do not spring into the
92 THE PRACTICE OF SUTTEE
fire like the others; but they lay themselves by their
dead husband on a pile of wood, even as they would
go to rest beside him; and when they have lain down
by him, then is a great mass of wood piled upon their
body. This being done, they kindle the wood at the
head, where some oil is poured that the wood may catch
fire the better. Oh, inhuman cruelty! Who is not hor-
rified at such horrible things, which, nevertheless, be
true and customary in these places? So soon as the
wife is laid in the pit and covered with wood, wailing
and lamentation ariseth from certain women, the which
stand as in a ring and cry and beat upon their breasts
like desperate creatures; but what they mean hereby
I cannot say, for I myself have never investigated it.
It seemeth, in sooth, a wondrous thing that the
women can let themselves be persuaded to such extreme
pain, and to plight their word thereto; but it cometh
to pass through the leasing tongues of the Bramines,
who not only set before them the examples of them
that have done this, but also say that they can do much
good thereby to their husbands whom they held dear;
since if, for love and single affection, they let them-
selves be burnt with their dead husbands, not only shall
this tend marvellously to their weal in the world to
come, but they shall also release their husbands, even
were they godless, from the pain of hell. They also
persuade the women that if they do this for single love,
they will not feel the pain of the fire so much; and
who can bear them other testimony herein, since they
have spoken to none who have told them how they fared
TREATMENT OF HINDU WIDOWS 93
there? And this also aideth much herein that the wives,
if they survive and are not burnt, are a shame and
scandal in the sight of the world. Their hair is shorn
off, they may eat no betel, they may wear no jewelry,
nor may they marry again. In short, every vexation
and indignity that could be imagined is put upon them,
so that the wives, who have
but scant spirit and cour-
age, would not refuse such
a thing; since, more than
this, they are bereft of all
honour and reverence, and
the possession of their goods
is taken from them. For
when the husband dyeth,
then the widow abideth not
in possession of the means
which the husband hath
left; but the sons, and es- A BETEL - BOX -
pecially the eldest, enter into their father's place. Here,
then, the mother may be subordinate and may provide
for the training of the children. Nevertheless, if no
sons, but only daughters, survive, then cometh the
brother of the deceased and entereth into the full pos-
session of all; and he oweth the widow and daughters
no more than their maintenance. So that these women
lose much in their husbands, and have naught else to
expect save indignity and distress. It may readily be
presumed that ofttimes they are reproached their whole
lives long by the dullards who have come into their
94 THE PRACTICE OF SUTTEE
possessions, and who must give them maintenance, for
that they were so frail in their love for their husband
that they would not die with him.
Since the husbands, when death is nigh, urge their
wives to die with them, either by being burnt or buried
alive, and since we have seen in what fashion the burn-
ing taketh place, some may readily be eager to know
how matters go when a wife is buried alive with her
dead husband. To satisfy the curious herein, I shall
also relate the fashion which the heathen have in the
burying of these wives; the which I have not from
hearsay, like the foregoing, but I myself have seen it
there.
The preparations for the burning and the burying
of the wives are one and the same, the difference is
only in the burying itself. When the wife hath bathed
in the pool, in manner as the wives who be burnt, then
fareth she with pipes, drums, bassoons, and such like
tokens of joy, to the melancholy pit which is digged
for her, where she findeth her dead husband. This pit
is digged and made in fashion as a cellar; it hath an
arch of earth, and is also entered by stairs. The wife
who is to be buried goeth along the stairs aforesaid into
the pit, and findeth there, under the arch, a bench, also
of earth, whereon she sitteth and taketh, after that she
hath sat down, her dead husband in her arms; and then
taketh she a pot with fire, wherein she casteth some
incense and burneth incense over her dead husband
therewith.
This being done, they begin softly to fill the pit,
SUTTEE BY BURIAL 95
without throwing in the earth unmannerly and with-
out harming the woman. The wife, like as I have
seen, herself scrapeth the earth about her body. When,
now, the earth beginneth to come about her neck, then
two of them that fill the pit with earth take a cloth,
the which they hold before the mouth of the pit, that
what they do may not be clearly seen of any, and that
the women may not take affright. When, now, they
hold the cloth before the pit, they give the wife some-
what in a shell; the which when I asked of the heathen
that stood by what it was, they said that it was poison.
The which I also saw to be true, for in the woman's
face straightway a great change might be perceived.
The poison being given her, then break they the
woman's neck. But all this is done so dextrously be-
hind a cloth that no one can see it, even though he
press right close to the pit. I ween that they do this
concerning the woman to make short her pain and
anguish. And in this fashion goeth it in the burial of
wives.'
Still more detailed and impressive is the account of
the sacrifice of widows given by Abbe Dubois, a French
missionary of Madras in Southern India between the
years 1792 and 1823, who describes a suttee from actual
experience and repeats the accounts of eye-witnesses
who were present when two queens perished in the
flames of the funeral pyre of the King of Tan j ore.
The abbe's graphic description of the scene of these
gem-decked victims going or being led to self-immola-
tion upon the fiery altar of ancient custom is interest-
96
THE PRACTICE OF SUTTEE
ing to compare with the accounts, given above, by the
Greek writers of nearly two thousand years before.
It reads as follows:
1 Although the ancient and barbarous custom which
imposes on widows the duty of sacrificing themselves
voluntarily on the funeral pyre of their husbands has
not been expressly
abolished, it is much
more rare nowadays s
than formerly, espe-
cially in the southern
parts of the Penin-
sula. In the north of
India and in the
provinces bordering
on the Ganges, how-
ever, women are only
too frequently seen
offering themselves as
victims of this terri-
ble superstition, and,
either through mo-
tives of vanity or through a spirit of blind enthusiasm,
giving themselves up to a death which is as cruel as
it is foolish.
The Mohammedan rulers never tolerated this hor-
rible practice in the provinces subject to them; but,
notwithstanding their prohibition, wretched fanatics
have more than once succeeded in bribing the subordi-
nate representatives of authority to give permission
A GROUP OF CHILD WIDOWS.
ABBE DUBOIS'S ACCOUNT OF SUTTEE. 97
to commit the deed in violation of the laws of humanity
a"nd common sense.
The great European power which nowadays exer-
cises its sway all over the country has tried, by all
possible means of persuasion, to put an end altogether
to this barbarous custom; but its efforts have been only
partially successful, and, generally speaking, it has been
obliged to shut its eyes to this dreadful practice, since
any attempt to remedy it by force would have exposed
it to dangerous opposition.
Nobody is a greater admirer than myself of the wise
spirit that animates this enlightened and liberal gov-
ernment in manifesting to its Hindu subjects such a
full and perfect tolerance in the practice of their civil
and religious usages; and nobody is more fully alive
than I am to the dangers and difficulties that an open
defiance of these prejudices, which are looked upon
as sacred and inviolable, would give rise to. But does
the abominable custom in question form part of Hindu
institutions? Are there any rules which prescribe its
observance by certain castes? All the information
which I have been able to gather on the subject tends
to make me believe that there are no such rules. The
infamous practice, although encouraged by the im-
postors who regulate religious worship, is nowhere pre-
scribed in an imperative manner in the Hindu books.
It is left entirely to the free will and pleasure of the
victims who thus sacrifice themselves. No blame and
no discredit are attached nowadays to the wife whose
own honest judgment suggests that she ought not to
98 THE PRACTICE OF SUTTEE
be in such a hurry to rejoin in the other world the hus-
band who so often made her wretched in this. It would
be quite possible, therefore, by the display of firmness,
combined with prudence, to strike, without any con-
siderable danger, at the very root of this shocking prac-
tice. Certainly it reflects discredit on the government
which tolerates it and manifests no great indignation
with regard to it.
It was principally in the noble caste of rajas that
suttee originated. It was looked upon as a highly hon-
ourable proof of wifely attachment and love, which
enhanced the glory of the families of these wretched
victims of blind zeal. Should a widow, by reason of a
natural fondness for life or through lack of courage,
endeavour to avoid the honour of being burnt alive on
the funeral pyre of her deceased husband, she was con-
sidered to be offering a gross insult to his memory.
I was once able thoroughly to convince myself of the
influence which this false point of honour still exercises
over the minds of fanatical Hindus, and at the same
time to discern that this act of devotion to which these
wretched victims sacrificed themselves is not always
the result of their own free will and resolution. The
Poligar, or Prince, of Kangundi in the Karnatic having
died, neither entreaties nor threats were spared to in-
duce his widow to allow herself to be burned alive with
him. It was urged that this honourable custom had
been observed for a long time past in the family, and
that it would be a great pity, indeed, to allow it to fall
into disuse. The funeral ceremonies were delayed from
A ROYAL SUTTEE
99
day to day in the hope that the widow would at last
make up her mind to prefer a glorious death to a rem-
nant of life spent in contempt and opprobrium. It was
a fruitless attempt! The obstinate princess turned a
deaf ear to all the pressing entreaties of her rela-
tives; and ultimately the deceased was obliged to de-
part alone to the other world.
It must, however, be confessed
that some widows commit this
folly readily enough, spurred on
as they are by the thought of the
wretchedness of widowhood, by
vanity, and by the hope of acquir-
ing notoriety perhaps also by a
genuine feeling of enthusiasm. It
should be remembered that they
are awarded boundless honours,
and are even deified after death.
Vows are made and prayers ad-
dressed to them, and their inter-
cession is sought in times of sick- A PILLAR OF THB OUPTA AOB>
ness and adversity. Such remnants of their bodies as
have not been entirely consumed by the fire are most
devoutly gathered together, and on the spot where they
have sacrificed themselves small monumental pyramids
are erected to transmit to posterity the memory of
these brave victims of conjugal affection a tribute all
the more conspicuous, because the erection of tombs is
almost unknown among the Hindus. In a word, women
who have had the courage to deliver themselves so
100 THE PRACTICE OF SUTTEE
heroically to the flames are numbered among the divin-
ities, and crowds of devotees may be seen coming in
from all sides to offer them sacrifices and to invoke
their protection.
To these inducements of vain and empty glory
sufficient of themselves to make a deep impression on
a feeble mind must be added the entreaties of rela-
tives, who, if they perceive the slightest inclination on
the part of the widow to offer up her life, spare no
means in order to convince her and force her to a final
determination. At times they go so far as to admin-
ister drugs, which so far deprive her of her senses that
under their influence she yields to their wishes. This
inhuman and abominable method of wheedling a con-
sent out of the unhappy woman is in their opinion
justified, because her tragic end would bring great hon-
our and glory to the whole of their family.
Some authors have maintained that this detestable
practice originated primarily either from the jealousy
of husbands, or rather, perhaps, from their fear that
their discontented wives might seek to get rid of them
by poison. As for myself, I have been unable, either
in the writings of Hindu authors, or in my free and
familiar intercourse with many persons well versed in
the manners and customs of the country, to discover
any justification for either of these two theories. And
surely the lot of a wife, even when she is doomed to
suffer wrong at the hands of a cruel and immoral hus-
band, is far preferable to that of a widow, to whom all
hope of a remarriage under happier conditions is for-
CAUSES FOR SELF-IMMOLATION
101
bidden. It is hardly likely, indeed, that Hindu women
would go to the length of committing a crime which
must render their lot much worse than before! At the
same time I am by no means
inclined to attribute these vol-
untary sacrifices to an excess
of conjugal affection. We
should, for instance, be greatly
mistaken were we to allow
ourselves to be deceived by
the noisy lamentations which
wives are accustomed to raise
on the death of their hus-
bands, and which are no more
than rank hypocrisy. During
the long period of my stay in
India, I do not recall two
Hindu marriages character-
ized by a union of hearts and
displaying true and mutual
attachment.
When a woman, after ma-
ture deliberation, has once
declared that she desires to
be burned alive with her de-
ceased husband, her decision is considered irrevoca-
ble. She cannot afterwards retract; and should she
refuse to proceed of her own free will to the funeral
pyre, she would be dragged to it by force. The Brah-
mans who regulate all the proceedings of the tragedy,
A TYPE OF BRAHMAN WOMAN.
102 THE PEACTICE OF SUTTEE
and also her relatives, come by turns to congratulate
her on her heroic decision and on the immortal glory
which she is about to acquire by such a death a death
which will exalt her to the dignity of the gods. All
possible means which fanaticism and superstition can
suggest are brought to bear upon her in order to keep
up her courage, to exalt her enthusiasm, and to excite
her imagination. When, at last, the fatal hour draws
nigh, the victim is adorned with rare elegance; she is
clothed in her richest apparel, is bedecked with all her
jewels, and is thus led to the funeral pyre.
It is impossible for me to describe the finishing
scenes of this dreadful ceremony without feelings of
distress. But, in the meantime, I must solicit the indul-
gence of my readers for a short digression which is
not wholly disconnected with my subject. When a hus-
band has several lawful wives, as often happens in the
caste of the rajas, the wives sometimes dispute as to
who shall have the honour of accompanying their com-
mon husband to the funeral pyre, and the Brahmans
who preside at the ceremony determine which shall
have the preference. Here is an instance to the point
extracted from the Mahabharata [the great Sanskrit
epic to which allusion has often been made, particularly
in the first volume of this series]:
King Pandu had retired into the jungles with his
two wives, there to devote himself to acts of penance.
At the same time a curse was imposed upon him, which
doomed him to instant death should he dare to have
intercourse with either of them. The passion which
SUTTEE IN THE MAHABHAEATA 103
he felt for the younger of his wives, who was extremely
beautiful, overcame all fear of death; and, in spite of
the fact that for several days she continued to represent
to him the dire results that must necessarily follow his
incontinency, he yielded at last to the violence of his
love; and immediately the curse fell upon him. After
his death, it was necessary to decide which of Ms two
wives should follow him to the funeral pyre, and there
arose a sharp altercation between them as to who
should enjoy this honour.
The elder of the two spoke first, and addressing the
assembly of Brahmans who had gathered together for
the purpose, she urged that the fact of her being the
first wife placed her above the second. She should,
therefore, be given the preference. Besides, she urged,
her companion had children who were still young, and
who required their mother's personal care and atten-
tion for their bringing up.
The second wife admitted the seniority of the first;
but she maintained that she alone, having been the
immediate cause of the sad death of their common hus-
band in allowing him to defy the curse which doomed
him to perish, was thereby entitled to the honour of
being burned with him. " As regards the bringing up
my children, " she added, addressing the other wife,
" are they not yours just as much as they are mine?
Do not they too call you mother? And by your age
and experience are you not better fitted than I to at-
tend to their bringing up? r
Tn spite of the eloquence of the younger wife, it was,
104 THE PRACTICE OF SUTTEE
at last, unanimously agreed by the judges that the first
wife should have the preference a decision at which
the latter lady was greatly delighted.
Most Sudras, as well as Hindus of the Saivite sect,
bury their dead instead of burning them, and there are
several instances of wives having been buried alive with
their deceased husbands. But the ceremonies in either
case are nearly the same.
I will relate here two incidents which took place at
no great distance from the place where I was living,
and which will give a good idea of what these deplor-
able scenes of mad fanaticism are like.
In 1794, in a village of the Tan j ore district called
Pudupettah, there died a man of some importance
belonging to the Komatty (Vaisya) caste. His wife,
aged about thirty years, announced her intention of
accompanying her deceased husband to the funeral
pyre. The news having rapidly spread abroad, a large
concourse of people flocked together from all quarters
to witness the spectacle. When everything was ready
for the ceremony, and the widow had been richly
clothed and adorned, the bearers stepped forward to
remove the body of the deceased, which was placed in
a sort of shrine, ornamented with costly stuffs, garlands
of flowers, green foliage, etc., the corpse being seated
in it with crossed legs, covered with jewels and clothed
in the richest attire, and the mouth filled with betel.
Immediately after the funeral car followed the widow,
borne in a richly decorated palanquin. On the way
to the burning-ground she was escorted by an immense
DUBOIS ON A SUTTEE IN TANJORE 107
crowd of eager sightseers, lifting their hands toward
her in token of admiration and rending the air with
cries of joy. She was looked upon as already trans-
lated to the paradise of Indra, and they seemed to envy
her happy lot.
While the funeral procession moved slowly along,
the spectators, especially the women, tried to draw
near to her to congratulate her on her good fortune,
expecting at the same time that, in virtue of the gift
of prescience which such a meritorious attachment
must confer upon her, she would be pleased to predict
the happy things that might befall them here below.
With gracious and amiable mien she declared to one
that she would long enjoy the favours of fortune; to
another, that she would be the mother of numerous
children who would prosper in the world; to a third,
that she would live long and happily with a husband
who would love and cherish her; to a fourth, that her
family was destined to attain much honour and dignity,
and the like. She then distributed among them leaves
of betel; and the extraordinary eagerness with which
these were received clearly proved that great value was
attached to them as relics. Beaming with joy, these
women then withdrew, each in the full hope that the
promised blessings of wealth and happiness would be
showered on her and hers.
During the whole procession, which was a very long
one, the widow preserved a calm demeanour. Her
looks were serene, even smiling; but when she reached
the fatal place where she was to yield up her life in
108 THE PKACT1CE OF SUTTEE
so ghastly a manner, it was observed that her firmness
suddenly gave way. Plunged, as it were, in gloomy
thought, she seemed to pay no attention whatever to
what was passing around her. Her looks became wildly
fixed upon the pile. Her face grew deadly pale. Her
very limbs were in a convulsive tremor. Her drawn
features and haggard face betrayed the fright that had
seized her, while a sudden weakening of her senses
betokened that she was ready to faint away.
The Brahmans who conducted the ceremony, and
also her near relatives, ran quickly to her, endeavour-
ing to keep up her courage and to revive her drooping
spirits. All was of no effect. The unfortunate woman,
bewildered and distracted, turned a deaf ear to all
their exhortations and preserved a deep silence.
She was then made to leave the palanquin, and as
she was scarcely able to walk, her people helped her
to drag herself to a pond near the pyre. She plunged
into the water with all her clothes and ornaments on,
and was Immediately afterwards led to the pyre, on
which the body of her husband was already laid. The
pyre was surrounded by Brahmans, each with a lighted
torch in one hand and a bowl of ghee in the other.
Her relatives and friends, several of whom were armed
with muskets, swords, and other weapons, stood closely
round in a double line, and seemed to await impatiently
the end of this shocking tragedy. This armed force,
they told me, was intended not only to intimidate the
unhappy victim in case the terror of her approaching
death might induce her to run away, but also to over-
THE SCENE AT THE PYEE
109
awe any persons who might be moved by a natural feel-
ing of compassion and sympathy, and so tempted to
prevent the accomplishment of the homicidal sacrifice.
At length, the principal Brahman gave the fatal sig-
nal. The poor widow was instantly divested of all her
AN OLD PICTURE OF A WIDOW PREPARING TO BE BURKED
WITH HER HUSBAND.
jewels, and dragged, more dead than alive, to the pyre.
There she was obliged, according to custom, to walk
three times round the pile, two of her nearest relatives
supporting her by the arms. She accomplished the
first round with tottering steps; during the second her
strength wholly forsook her, and she fainted away in
110 THE PRACTICE OF SUTTEE
the arms of her conductors, who were obliged to com-
plete the ceremony by dragging her through the third
round. Then, at last, senseless and unconscious, she
was cast upon the corpse of her husband. At that
moment the air resounded with noisy acclamations.
The Brahmans, emptying the contents of their vessels
on the dry wood, applied their torches, and in the
twinkling of an eye the whole pile was ablaze. Three
times was the unfortunate woman called by her name.
But, alas! she made no answer.
The last king of Tan j ore, who died in 1801, left
behind him four lawful wives. The Brahmans decided
that two of these should be burnt with the body of
their husband, and selected the couple that should have
the preference. It would have been an everlasting
shame to them and the grossest insult to the memory
of the deceased had they hesitated to accept this singu-
lar honour. Being fully convinced, moreover, that no
means would be spared to induce them to sacrifice
themselves either willingly or unwillingly, they made
a virtue of necessity and seemed perfectly ready to
yield to the terrible lot which awaited them.
The necessary preparations for the obsequies were
completed in a single day. Three or four leagues from
the royal residence a square pit of no great depth, and
about twelve to fifteen feet square, was excavated.
Within it was erected a pyramid of sandalwood, resting
on a kind of scaffolding of the same wood. The posts
which supported it were so arranged that they could
easily be removed, and would thereby cause the whole
>
A DOUBLE SUTTEE 111
structure to collapse suddenly. At the four corners of
the pit were placed huge brass jars filled with ghee, to
be thrown on the wood in order to hasten combustion.
The following was the order of the procession as
it wended its way to the pyre. It was headed by a
large force of armed soldiers. Then followed a crowd
of musicians, chiefly trumpeters, who made the air ring
with the dismal sound of their instruments. Next came
the king's body borne in a splendid open palanquin,
accompanied by his guru, his principal officers, and his
nearest relatives, who were all on foot and wore no
turbans in token of mourning. Among them was also
a large number of Brahmans. Then came the two vic-
tims, each borne on a rich decorated palanquin. They
were loaded, rather than decked, with jewels. Several
ranks of soldiers surrounded them to preserve order
and to keep back the great crowds that flocked in from
every side. The two queens were accompanied by some
of their favourite women, with whom they occasionally
conversed. Then followed relatives of both sexes, to
whom the victims had made valuable presents before
leaving the palace. An innumerable multitude of Brah-
mans and persons of all castes followed in the rear.
On reaching the spot where their untimely fate
awaited them, the victims were required to perform
the ablutions and other ceremonies proper on such
occasions; and they went through the whole of them
without hesitation and without the least sign of fear.
When, however, it came to walking round the pile, it
was observed that their features underwent a sudden
112 THE PEACTICE OF SUTTEE
change. Their strength seemed well-nigh to forsake
them in spite of their obvious efforts to suppress their
natural feelings. During this interval the body of the
king had been placed on the top of the pyramid of
sandalwood. The two queens, still wearing their rich
attire and ornaments, were next compelled to ascend
the pile. Lying down beside the body of the deceased
prince, one on the right and the other on the left, they
joined hands across the corpse. The officiating Brah-
mans then recited in a loud tone several mantras,
sprinkled the pile with their tirtha, or holy water, and
emptied the jars of ghee over the wood, setting fire
to it at the same moment. This was done on one side
by the nearest relative of the king, on another by his
guru, on others by leading Brahmans. The flames
quickly spread, and the props being removed, the whole
structure collapsed, and in its fall must have crushed
to death the two unfortunate victims. Thereupon all
the spectators shouted aloud for joy. The unhappy
women's relatives standing around the pile then called
to them several times by name, and it is said that, issu-
ing from amidst the flames, the word Yen? (What?)
was heard distinctly pronounced. A ridiculous illusion,
no doubt, of minds blinded by fanaticism; for it could
never be believed that the unfortunate victims were at
that moment in a condition to hear and to speak.
Two days after, when the fire was completely ex-
tinguished, they removed from amidst the ashes the
remnants of the bones that had been entirely consumed,
and put them into copper urns, which were carefully
CEREMONIES AFTER THE ROYAL SUTTEE
113
sealed with the signet of the new king. Some time
afterwards, thirty Brahmans were selected to carry
these relics to Kasi (Benares) and to throw them into
the sacred waters of the Ganges. It was arranged
that, on their return from that holy city, they should
receive valuable presents upon producing authenti-
THE SACRED WATERS OF THE GANGES.
cated certificates to the effect that they had really
accomplished the journey, and had faithfully executed
the task entrusted to them. A portion of the bones
was, however, reserved for the following purpose:
they were reduced to powder, mixed with some boiled
rice, and eaten by twelve Brahmans. This revolting
and unnatural act had for its object the expiation of
the sins of the deceased sins which, according to the
popular opinion, were transmitted to the bodies of the
114 THE PRACTICE OF SUTTEE
persons who ate the ashes, and were tempted by money
to overcome their repugnance for such disgusting food.
At the same time, it is believed that the filthy lucre
thus earned can never be attended with much advan-
tage to the recipients. Amidst the ashes, too, were
picked up small pieces of melted gold, the remains of
the ornaments worn by the princesses.
Presents were given to the Brahmans who presided
at the obsequies, and to those who had honoured the
ceremonies with their presence. To the king's guru
was given an elephant. The three palanquins which had
served to carry the corpse of the king and the two
victims to the pile were given away to the three lead-
ing Brahmans. The presents distributed among the
other Brahmans consisted of cloths and of money
amounting to nearly twenty-five thousand rupees. Sev-
eral bags of small coin were also scattered among the
crowds on the roadside as the funeral procession was
on its way to the pyre. Finally, twelve houses were
built and presented to the twelve Brahmans who had
the courage to swallow the powdered bones of the
deceased, and by that means to take upon themselves
all the sins of the dead.
A few days after the funeral the new king made a
pilgrimage to a temple a few leagues distant from his
capital. He there took a bath in a sacred tank, and
was thus purified of all the uncleanness that he had
contracted during the various ceremonies of mourning.
On this occasion also presents were given to the Brah-
mans and to the poor of other castes.
REFLECTIONS OF DUBOIS ON THE SUBJECT 117
On the spot where the deceased king and his two
unhappy companions had been consumed a circular
mausoleum was erected, about twelve feet in diameter,
surmounted by a dome. The reigning prince visits it
from time to time, prostrates himself humbly before
the tombs, and offers sacrifices to the spirit of his
predecessor and to those of his worthy and saintly
spouses.
Crowds of devotees also repair thither to offer up
vows and sacrifices to the new divinities, and to implore
their help and protection in the various troubles of life.
In the year 1802 I heard accounts of a great number
of so-called miracles performed through their inter-
cession.
It is only after long and serious reflection on the
many eccentricities and inconsistencies of the human
mind that one can look without astonishment upon the
deplorable scenes of which a few of the main features
have just been described. It is indeed unaccountable
how these Brahmans, who are so scrupulous and attach
so much importance to the life of the most insignificant
insect, and whose feelings are excited to pity and indig-
nation at the very sight of a cow being slaughtered,
can with such savage cold-bloodedness and wicked sat-
isfaction look upon so many weak and innocent human
beings, incited by hypocritical and barbarous induce-
ments, being led with affected resignation to a punish-
ment so cruel and undeserved. I leave to others the
task of explaining these inconceivable contradictions,
if, that is to say, it is possible to assign any reasons
118 THE PRACTICE OF SUTTEE
for such superstitious fanaticism, whose characteristic
feature is to suppress all natural and rational senti-
ment/
Long after its abolition suttee continued to be prac-
tised here and there, especially among the Rajputs.
The heroic spirit of these princely rulers had fostered
for ages the sentiment of sacrifice, and instances of
wholesale self-immolation by Rajput women have al-
ready been referred to in the preceding volumes (e. g.
iv, 22). Trevor's " Rhymes of Rajputana," based
upon the annals collected by Tod in that warlike dis-
trict, gives well in ballad form an account of the suttee
of Goran's wife when her lord fell in battle. The brev-
ity and swiftness with which the verses tell the tale
admirably represent the Rajput courage when called
upon to act. The ballad is given in full:
' Gorah and Badal, the Chauhans and kin
To fair Padmani, that fierce onslaught led.
Badal, a boy, was wounded ; Gorah dead,
Covered with woimds and honour, was brought in
And laid upon the pyre while drums made din.
His wife, the spirit of the Rajput glowing
Within her breast that swelled with love and pride,
Questioned the boy of how her lord had died ;
What glories crowned his coming and his going.
"Mother," the lad replied " as reapers reap
The wheat, so he the harvest of the battle;
And I who followed 'mid the noise and rattle
Gleaned in the wake of his terrific sweep.
Before he laid him down to rest and sleep,
A MODERN INSTANCE OF SUTTEE 119
He spread a carpet of the slain upon
The gory bed of honour, made a prince
His pillow, rested joyfully, and since
Unto the mansions of the Sun has gone."
"I know," she cried " what more ? go on ! go on !
Tell me again about my love, I pray."
He said, " What further, mother, can I tell ?
He left no foe to dread or praise."
"Farewell,"
She smiled, " my lord will chide me for delay "
Sprang on the pyre, and with him passed away.'
To show the sporadic, though persistent, survival
of the suttee ideal among the folk in our own times,
allusion may be made in conclusion to a recent occur-
rence in the district of Lahore, which the Bombay news-
paper " Jam-e Jamshed," November, 1905, calls " The
Most Recent Suttee," and of which it urges a strict
investigation.
' It is to be hoped that careful investigations will
be made in the case of suttee that has been reported
from Lahore last week. The husband of the Kamboh
woman is reported to have died two or three years back,
and this ought to make the inquiry all the more essen-
tial as to whether the woman was led to perform this
act of her own free will, or whether she was goaded
on to it by others. It has been reported that the woman
made the funeral pyre, set fire to it and perished in
the flames in the presence of a large number of persons.
Who were those persons? Were they all as supersti-
tious as herself, and did none of them dare to save
120 THE PRACTICE OF SUTTEE
her from this act of suicide or run up to fetch the
assistance of the police? Or did some one try and was
prevented from helping the poor woman? We are
indeed told that all efforts to dissuade her proved un-
availing, but was this dissuasion not very much like
consent? Finally, the police did not arrive in time to
save her life. Could it be that all the preparations were
made single-handed by the woman, and yet the police
had no inkling of it till the moment when it was too
late? '
AN OLD BUDDHIST SCULPTURE FROM THE BHARAHAT STUPA.
CHAPTER III
A DESCRIPTION OF INDIA IN GENERAL BY THE CHINESE
BUDDHIST PILGRIM H1UAN TSANG
About 650 A. D.
A LARGE amount of information regarding the
history and conditions of early India has been
contributed by the Chinese travellers who visited Hin-
dustan during the first millennium of the Christian era.
Most of these travellers were Buddhist pilgrims bent
on their pious mission of visiting the scenes which had
been made holy by the presence of the Blessed One.
Among the most valuable records written by one of
these pilgrims from the Celestial Kingdom, as has al-
ready been pointed out in the second volume, was
Hiuan Tsang, the contemporary of the Indian king
Harsha, in the seventh century A. D. This devoted
Buddhist left China in 629 A. D. and s$ent more than
ten years in wandering throughout India. On his re-
turn to his native country he recorded his observations
in a work entitled " Si-yu-ki," and the well-known
chapter here reproduced from it gives a good account
of Indian life as he saw it.
121
122 A CHINESE ACCOUNT BY HIUAN TSANG
* We find that the designations for India (Tien-
chu) differ much according to the various authori-
ties. The old names were Shon-tu or Hien-tou, but
we must now conform to the right pronunciation and
call it In-tu. The people of In-tu call their coun-
try by various names according to their different dis-
tricts. Each country has different customs. Adopting
a general name that is the most acceptable to the peo-
ple, we shall call the country In-tu, which signifies
" moon." The moon has many designations, In-tu
being one of them. It is said that all living creatures
unceasingly transmigrate, revolving through mortal ex-
istences in the long darkness of ignorance without hav-
ing a guiding star. It is like the night after the setting
of the bright sun, when, although people get light by
candles and have the shining light of the stars, these
are not comparable with the brightness of the serene
moon. For this reason the spiritual condition of India
is allegorically compared with the shining moon. 1 The
sages and the wise teachers of this country followed
the norm (of the Buddha) in succession, guided the
people, and exercised rule, as the moon sheds its bright
influences on this account this country is called In-tu.
The people of India are divided into castes, the
Brahmans are noted particularly on account of their
purity and nobility. Tradition has so hallowed the
name of this class that there is no question as to dif-
1 The candles, stars, moon, and sun are here compared allegorically with the
common people, the lay scholars, Buddhist teachers, and the Buddha, according
to the degrees of brightness or enlightenment in spiritual matters.
THE GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIA 125
f erence of place, but the people generally speak of India
as the country of Brahmans (Po-lo-men).
The country embraced under the term India is gen-
erally spoken of as the Five Indies. In circuit this
country is about ninety thousand li 1 (about 30,000
miles); on three sides it is bordered by the great seas;
on the north it is backed by the Snowy Mountains. The
northern part is broad, the southern part is narrow. Its
shape is like the half -moon. The entire land is divided
into more than seventy countries. The seasons are
particularly hot; the land is well watered and moist.
On the north there is a series of mountains and hills,
the ground being dry and salt. On the east there are
valleys and plains, which are fruitful and productive,
as they are well watered and cultivated. In the south-
ern part there is an abundance of herbs and trees; in
the western part the land is barren and stony. Such
is the general account; we shall now briefly give de-
tails.
In point of measurement, there is (first of all) the
league (Chinese yu-shen-na, Sanskrit yojana); from
the time of the holy kings of old this has been regarded
as a day's march for an army. The old accounts say
one yu-shen-na, or yojana, is equal to forty li (about
fourteen miles) ; according to the common reckoning in
India it is thirty li (about ten miles), but in the
sacred books (of the Buddha), the yojana is only six-
teen li (about five miles). In the subdivision of dis-
1 For a detailed discussion of the various values of the K consult Yule,
Hdbson-Jobson, 2d ed., p. 513, article " Lee."
126 A CHINESE ACCOUNT BY HIUAN TSANG
tances, a yojana is equal to eight " shouts " (Chinese
ku-lu-she, Sanskrit krosa) ; a ku-lu-she, or krosa, is the
limit of distance that the lowing of a cow can be heard;
in the division of the krosa, one krosa makes five hun-
dred bow-lengths (Sanskrit dhanu); one bow-length is
divided into four cubits (Sanskrit hasta); a cubit is
divided into twenty-four fingers (Sanskrit anguli)-, a
finger is divided into seven barley-corns (Sanskrit
yava); and so on to a louse, a nit (likshd), a dust grain,
a cow's hair, a sheep's hair, a hare's down, copper
water, and so on for seven divisions, till we come to
a fine dust; a grain of fine dust is divided sevenfold
till we come to an excessively fine dust (anu); this
cannot be divided farther without arriving at nothing-
ness, and so it is called the atom (literally, " infinitely
small," Sanskrit paramdnu).
Although the revolution of the Tin and Tang (Neg-
ative and Positive Principles) and the successive man-
sions of the sun and moon are called by names different
from ours, yet the seasons are the same; the names of
the months are derived from the position of the lunar
asterisms.
The shortest space of time is called an instant (Chi-
nese ts'a-na, Sanskrit kshana); 120 kshanas make a
ta-ts'a-na (Sanskrit tatkshana) ; sixty of these make a
la-fo (Sanskrit lava) ; thirty of these make a mau-hi-li-to
(muhurta)', five of these make a " watch " (Sanskrit
kola, literally, " time "); six of these make a day and
night (dhdratra), but popular custom divides the days
and nights into " watches " (kolas).
HINDU MEASUREMENTS OF SPACE AND TIME 127
The period from the new moon till full moon is
called the white division (Sanskrit sukla-paksha) of
the month; the period from the full moon till the dis-
appearance of the light is called the dark portion
(krishna-paksha) . The dark porlion comprises four-
teen or fifteen days, because the month is sometimes
short and sometimes long. The preceding dark portion
and the following light portion together form a month;
six months form a " march " (Chinese hing, Sanskrit
ay ana}. When the sun moves within the equator, it
is said to be on its northward march; when it moves
without the equator, it is on its southern march. These
two periods form a year (Sanskrit vatsara).
The year, again, is divided into six seasons. From
the sixteenth day of the first month till the fifteenth
day of the third month is the season of gradual heat
(literally " it becomes gradually hot "); from the six-
teenth day of the third month till the fifteenth of the
fifth month is called the season of full heat (literally,
"it is very hot "); from the sixteenth day of the fifth
month till the fifteenth day of the seventh month is
called the rainy season; from the sixteenth of the sev-
enth month till the fifteenth of the ninth month is
called the season of growth (of vegetation); from the
sixteenth day of the ninth month to the fifteenth day
of the eleventh month is called the season of gradual
cold (literally, " the season gradually becomes cold ");
from the sixteenth day of the eleventh month to the
fifteenth day of the first month is called the season of
great cold.
128 A CHINESE ACCOUNT BY HIUAN TSANG
According to the sacred doctrine of the Tathagata
(Buddha), the year has three seasons. From the six-
teenth day of the first month till the fifteenth day of
the fifth month is called the hot season; from the six-
teenth day of the fifth month till the fifteenth of the
AN INDIAN PICTURE SHOWING THE SIGNS OF THE ZODIAC.
ninth month is called the rainy season; from the six-
teenth day of the ninth month to the fifteenth day of
the first month is called the cold season. Sometimes
the year is divided into four seasons spring, summer,
autumn, and winter. The three spring months are
called Chi-ta-lo (Sanskrit Chaitra) month, Fei-she-kie
(Sanskrit Vaisakha) month, She-se-ch' a (Sanskrit
THE YEAR AND ITS SEASONS 129
Jyeshtha) month; these correspond with the time from
the sixteenth day of the last month to the fifteenth day
of the fourth month. The three summer months are
called 'An-sha-cha (Sanskrit Ashadha) month, Chi-lo-
fa-na (Sanskrit Sravana) month, Po-ta-lo-pa-to (San-
skrit Bhadrapada) month; these correspond to the
time from the sixteenth day of the fourth month to
the fifteenth day of the seventh month. The three au-
tumn months are called ' An-shi-fo-ku-che (Sanskrit
Asvayujd) month, Kia-li-ta-ka (Sanskrit Kdrtika)
month, Wi-kia-chi-lo (Sanskrit Mdrgaslrsha) month;
these correspond to the time from the sixteenth day
of the seventh month to the fifteenth day of the tenth
month. The three months of winter are called P'o-sha
(Sanskrit Pushya) month, Ma-ku (Sanskrit Mdgha)
month, and P'o-li-kiu-na (Sanskrit Phdlguna) month;
these correspond with the time from the sixteenth day
of the tenth month to the fifteenth day of the first
month in China. Therefore the Buddhist priests in
India, following the holy teaching of the Buddha, ob-
serve two periods of Retreat during the rainy season,
these being either the former three months or the lat-
ter three months. The former three months correspond
to the period from the sixteenth day of the fifth month
to the fifteenth day of the eighth month, and the latter
correspond to the period from the sixteenth day of
the sixth month to the fifteenth day of the ninth month.
Ancient translators of the Sutras (Chinese King)
and the Vinaya (Chinese Liu) employed the terms
tso-hia (" keeping summer ") and tso-la-hia (" keep-
130
A CHINESE ACCOUNT BY HIUAN TSANG
ing the end of winter ") to signify the retreat during
the rainy season; but this was because the people of
foreign countries did not understand the exact sounds
of the language of the Middle Country (of India),
because the local dialects do not agree, and the trans-
lations therefore contain errors. And for the same
reason there are discrepancies regarding the time of
A GANDHARA SCULPTURE, APPARENTLY PORTRAYING THE BATHING OP THE
INFANT BUDDHA.
From the original in the editor's collection.
Buddha's conception, birth, renunciation, enlighten-
ment, and Nirvana, which we shall notice in the sub-
sequent records.
The towns and villages of India have gates; the
surrounding walls are broad and high; the streets and
lanes are narrow and crooked. The thoroughfares are
dirty and the stalls are arranged on both sides of the
road with appropriate signs. Butchers, fishermen, ac-
tors, executioners, scavengers, and so on, have their
dwellings outside of the city. In coming and going
TOWNS AND HOUSES IN INDIA 131
these persons are bound to keep on the left side of
the road till they arrive at their homes. As to the con-
struction of houses and the enclosing walls, the land
being low and moist, the walls of the towns are mostly
built of bricks or tiles, and the enclosures of the houses
are matted bamboo or wood. The houses have balconies
and belvederes made of wood, as well as flat roofs
with a coating of lime, and are covered with burnt or
unburnt tiles. The buildings are very high, and in style
of construction they are like those in China. Branches
or common grasses or tiles or boards are used for cov-
ering them. The walls are covered with lime, the floor
is smeared with cow's dung as means of purity, and
it is strewn with flowers of the season. In such mat-
ters they differ from us.
Many Samgharamas (Buddhist monasteries) are
constructed with extraordinary skill. A three-storied
tower is erected at each of the four angles. The beams
and the projecting heads are carved with strange fig-
ures. The doors, the windows, and the walls are
painted in many colours; the houses of the ordinary
people are luxurious on the inside but plain on the
outside. The interior and central rooms vary in height
and width. As to the form and construction of the
tiers of terraces and the series of salons, there is no
fixed rule. The doors open toward the east; the royal
throne also faces the east.
When the Hindus sit or rest they all use corded
benches; the royal family, great personages, the offi-
cials, and the gentry use benches variously ornamented,
132 A CHINESE ACCOUNT BY HIUAN TSANG
but in size they are the same. The throne of the
reigning sovereign is exceedingly high and broad, and
it is set with pearls and precious gems; it is called
the lion-throne (Sanskrit simhdsana). It is covered
with extremely fine drapery; the footstool is adorned
with gems. The ordinary officials carve their seats in
various ways and decorate them beautifully according
to their taste.
The outer and the inner clothing of the Hindus is
not cut or fashioned; they affect pure white garments,
but dislike those of mixed colour. The men wind a
cloth around the waist, gather it up under the arm-
pits, and let it fall down across the shoulder to the
right. The women wear robes reaching to the ground
and completely covering the shoulders. They wear a
little knot of hair on the crown of the head and let the
rest of their hair hang down. Some of the men cut off
their moustaches and have other odd customs. The
people crown their heads with garlands and wear neck-
laces on their borders. Their garments are made of
the kiau-she-ye (Sanskrit JcausJieya) of muslin and of
cotton. The kiau-she-ye is a product of the wild silk-
worm.
The people have also garments of ts l o-mo (San-
skrit kshauma), which is a sort of hemp; garments
made of kien-po-lo (Sanskrit kambala), which is woven
from fine wool; and garments made from Jw-la-li (San-
skrit Jcardla). This stuff is made from the wool of a
wild animal; it is fine, soft, and pliable for weaving,
and is therefore excellent and esteemed for clothing.
THE CLOTHING OF THE HINDUS
133
In North India, where the climate is cold, the people
wear short and close-fitting garments, very similar to
those of the Hu people (Tartars). Some wear peacocks'
feathers; some wear as ornaments necklaces made of
skull bones (the Kapala-dharinas) ; some have no cloth-
ing, but go naked (the Nir-
granthas) ; some use grasses
or bark to cover their bodies;
some pull out their hair and
cut off their moustaches; oth-
ers have bushy side-whisk-
ers and their hair braided on
the top of their heads. The
costume of the people is not
uniform in colour, whether
red or white.
The costume of the Sha-
mans (the Buddhist monks)
is the three robes and the
sang-kio-ki and ni-fo-si-na. ^
The cut of the three robes is u
not the same, but depends
on the school. Some have
wide or narrow borders, oth-
ers have small or large folds. The sang-kio-ki cov-
ers the left shoulder and conceals the two armpits.
It is worn open on the left and closed on the right, and
reaches down below the waist. The ni-fo-si-na has
neither belt nor bands. When putting it on, it is plaited
in folds and worn round the loins with a cord to fasten
A FAKIR.
134 A CHINESE ACCOUNT BY HIUAN TSANG
it. The schools differ as to the colour of this garment,
whether yellow or red.
The Kshatriyas and the Brahmans are plain and
simple in their dress, and they live in a homely and
frugal way. The king of the country and the chief
ministers affect clothing of a good and fashionable
style. They adorn their heads with garlands and jew-
elled caps; they ornament themselves with bracelets
and necklaces.
Rich merchants and great traders have merely
bracelets. Most of the people go barefooted; very few
wear sandals. They stain their teeth red or black;
they wear their hair cut even and pierce their ears;
they have handsome noses and large eyes. Such is
their appearance.
The Hindus are cleanly of their own accord and
not by force. They generally wash themselves before
each meal, and they never use that which has been left
over (from a former meal), nor do they use their dishes
a second time. Pottery or wooden vessels, when used,
must be thrown away; vessels of gold, silver, copper,
or iron must be rubbed and polished after each meal.
After eating they cleanse their teeth with a willow
stick, and wash their hands and mouth.
Until these ablutions are finished, they do not touch
one another. Every time they perform the functions
of nature, they wash and rub their bodies with per-
fumes made from sandalwood or turmeric. When the
king goes to his bath, they strike the drums and sing
hymns to the sound of musical instruments. Before
HABITS AND MANNER OF SPEECH
135
offering their religious worship and paying homage,
they wash and bathe themselves.
The letters of their alphabet were made by the god
Brahma, and their forms have been handed down from
the beginning until now. They are forty-seven in num-
ber and are combined so as to form words according
to the object, and different
forms are used according
to the circumstances of the
case. These letters, more-
over, after the manner of
the streams of a river or
the branches of a tree,
have spread far and wide
from their source and have
become somewhat modi-
fied according to the place
and the people. The
spoken language has gen-
erally not varied from the
Original SOUrce, but the AN AGED MUSICIAN WITH A GOURD - LYRE.
speech of Middle India is particularly accurate and
precise. The manner of speaking there is harmonious
and like the language of the gods. The pronunciation of
the words is clear and distinct, and fit to be a model
for all men. The people of the frontiers and of foreign
countries, through repeating mistakes of their teachers
until these have become standard and by yielding to
vulgar habits, have lost the pure style of speaking.
With respect to the records and documents, each
136 A CHINESE ACCOUNT BY HIUAN TSAJSTG
province has its own official for preserving them in
writing. The annals and state papers are collectively
called ni-lo-pi-cW a (Sanskrit nilapita, " blue deposit ").
In these records good and evil events are mentioned,
together with calamities and fortunate occurrences.
To educate and encourage the young, they first teach
them to study the book of " Twelve Chapters " (San-
skrit siddhavastu) . After arriving at the age of seven
years, the young are instructed in the great treatises of
the " Five Sciences ' : (Sanskrit vidyd). The first is
called Grammar, the elucidation of sounds (Sanskrit
sabdavidya) . This treatise explains the meaning of
words and their derivation.
The second science is called kiau-ming (Sanskrit sil-
pasthdnavidyd') ; it treats of the arts and of mechanics,
and it explains the principles of the Yin and Yang
(Negative and Positive Principles) and of the calendar.
The third is called the " Medicinal Treatise " (Sanskrit
chiUitsavidya) ; it illustrates the use of charms, medici-
nal stones, needles, and moxa. The fourth science i
called " Logic " (Sanskrit hetuvidya, " science of rea-
soning "), which determines the right and the wrong
and discriminates between the true and the false. The
fifth science is called the science of " Inward Knowl-
edge r (Sanskrit adhydtmavidha) ; it relates to the
Five Vehicles, and the doctrine of cause and effect
(karma).
The Brahmans study the four Veda treatises. The
first is called Shau (" longevity," *. e. the Ayur-Veda);
it relates to the preservation of life and the regulation
of the natural condition. The second is called Sse
(" worship," i.e. the Yajur-Veda); it relates to sac-
rifice and prayer. The third is called Ping (" peace,
regulation" i.e. the Sanaa- Veda); it relates to deco-
rum, casting of lots, military tactics, and warfare. The
fourth is called Shu (" arts," i.e. the Atharva-Veda) ;
it relates to various branches of science, incantations,
medicine.
The teachers (of these works) must themselves have
closely studied the deep and secret principles which
they contain, and must have penetrated to their remot-
est meaning. They then explain their general sense,
and instruct their pupils in matters of detail. They
urge them on and skilfully guide them. They add lustre
to their poor knowledge and stimulate the dull. When
pupils who are keen and intelligent are inclined to
shirk their tasks and duties, the teacher repeats the
lesson until they acquire it. When the students have
finished their education and are thirty years of age,
their character is formed and their knowledge ripe.
When they have secured an occupation, they first of all
repay their master for his kindness. There are some,
deeply versed in antiquity, who devote themselves to
elegant studies and live apart from the world, leading
lives of self-abnegation. These come and go outside
of the world and wander about apart from mundane
things. Although as insensible to renown as to the con-
tempt of the world, their fame is far spread, and rulers
esteem them highly, but are unable to attract them to
the court. The state honours them on account of their
138 A CHINESE ACCOUNT BY HIUAN TSANG
mental gifts, and the
people exalt their fame
and render them uni-
versal homage. This is
the reason of their de-
voting themselves to
their studies with ar-
dour and resolution,
without any sense of
fatigue. They seek to
acquire a knowledge of
the sciences and go to
visit the man who has
attained it, not taking
the distance of one
thousand li into ac-
count. Although their
family may be pos-
sessed of large wealth,
they nevertheless pre-
fer to live like mendi-
cants and to get their
food by begging as they
wander to and fro.
They have the honour
of knowing the truth
and there is no dis-
grace in being desti-
tute of money. There
are others who lead
A GATEWAY OF THE BUDDHIST STUPA
AT SANCHI.
BUDDHIST SCHOOLS 139
idle lives, abounding in food and luxurious in their
dress, men without any good quality or attainment,
and on such persons come shame and disgrace, and
their ill repute is far spread.
The doctrines of the Tathagata (Buddha) may be
comprehended by men of different qualities; but, as
the time is now remote since the Holy One lived, his
doctrine is presented in a changed form, and is there-
fore understood orthodoxly or heterodoxly, according
to the intelligence of those who inquire into it. The
different schools are constantly at variance, and their
contending utterances rise like the angry waves of the
sea. The different schools have their separate masters,
but they aim to reach one and the same end, though by
different ways.
There are eighteen schools, each claiming pre-emi-
nence. The tenets of the Great and the Little Vehicle
differ widely. There are some of the followers who give
themselves up to meditation, and devote themselves,
whether walking, standing still, or sitting down, to the
acquirement of wisdom and insight. Others, on the
contrary, differ from these in raising noisy contentions
about their faith. According to their fraternity, they
are governed by distinctive rules and regulations, which
we need not name.
The Vinaya (Chinese Liu), the Abhidharmas, or
Discourses (Chinese Luri), and the Sutras (Chinese
King), are equally Buddhist books. He who can ex-
plain one class of these books is exempted from the
control of the prior of the monastery. If he can explain
140
A CHINESE ACCOUNT BY HIUAN TSANG
two classes, lie receives in addition the equipments of
a superior; he who can explain three classes has serv-
A. CHINESE BUDDHIST MONASTERY.
ants allotted to him to wait upon him and obey him;
he who can explain four classes has " pure men "
(cf. Sanskrit upasakas) allotted to him as attendants;
he who can explain five classes of books is allowed an
MONASTIC EULES AND RELIGIOUS DEBATES 141
elephant and carriage; he who can explain six classes
of books is allowed a surrounding escort. When a
man's renown has reached high distinction, -he then at
different times convokes an assembly for discussion of
the treatises. He judges of the superior or inferior
talent of those who take part in it; he distinguishes
their good or bad points; he praises the clever and
reproves the faulty. If one of the assembly distin-
guishes himself by refined language, subtle investi-
gation, eloquent diction, and acute reasoning, he then
is mounted on a richly caparisoned elephant and con-
ducted by a numerous suite to the gates of the mon-
astery.
If, on the contrary, one of the members breaks down
in his argument, or uses poor and inelegant phrases,
or if he violates a rule in logic and adapts his words
accordingly, they daub his face with red and white, and
cover his body with dirt and dust, and then carry him
off to some deserted spot or leave him in a ditch. Thus
they distinguish between the meritorious and the worth-
less, between the wise and the foolish.
The pursuit of pleasure belongs to a worldly life,
to follow knowledge appertains to a religious life; to
return to a worldly life from a life of religion is con-
sidered blameworthy. If one breaks the rules of dis-
cipline, such a transgressor is publicly reproved; for
a slight fault a reprimand 'is given him, for the next
heavier one he is excluded from conversation with the
brethren; for a grave offence expulsion is enforced.
Those who are thus expelled for life go out to seek
142 A CHINESE ACCOUNT BY HIUAN TSANG
some dwelling-place, or, finding no place of refuge,
become wanderers; or sometimes they go back to their
old occupation (i. e. resume lay life).
With respect to the divisions of caste, there are four
classes. The first is called the Brahman (Chinese Po-
lo-men) , men of pure lives. They adhere to the teach-
ings of the religion, live clean lives, and observe the
most correct principles. The second is called Ksha-
triya (Chinese T'sa-ti-li), the royal caste. For ages
they have been the ruling class: they apply themselves
to benevolence and mercy. The third is called Vaisyas
(Chinese Fei-she-li), the merchant class; they engage
in commercial transactions and seek for profit at home
and abroad. The fourth is called Sudra (Chinese Shu-
t'o-lo), the agricultural class; they engage in cultivat-
ing the soil and occupy themselves with sowing and
reaping. These four castes form different classes of
various degrees of ceremonial purity. The members
of a caste marry within their own class; the high and
the low are kept quite separate. They do not allow
promiscuous marriages between relations either on the
father's side or on the mother's side. A woman once
married can never take another husband. Besides these
there are mixed castes, a variety of classes formed by
different grades of people intermarrying. It would be
difficult to speak of these in detail.
The succession of kings' is confined to the Kshatriya
(Chinese T'sa-ti-li) caste; usurpation and bloodshed
have occasionally arisen (in the matter of succession),
and even other castes have assumed the dignity.
The Buddhist Tope at Sarnath near Benares
The great tope, or Buddhist memorial tower, ai Sarnath. near Benares,
is one of the most sacred shrines of the ancient faith of Gautama the
Blessed. It commemorates the place where Buddha, after receiving his
enlightenment, preached his first- sermon and taught the doctrine of
quenching the fire of lust in the human heart, a cardinal tenet of liis
faith.
HINDU CASTES AND ARMIES 143
The chief soldiers of the country are selected from
the bravest of the people, and as the sons follow the
profession of their fathers, they soon acquire a knowl-
edge of the art of war. These dwell in garrison around
the palace (during times of peace), but when on an
expedition they march' in front as an advance guard.
There are four divisions of the army, the infantry,
the cavalry, the chariots, and the elephants. The ele-
phants are covered with strong armour, and their tusks
are provided with sharp spurs. The commander-in-
chief rides on an elephant, with two soldiers on the
right and left to manage the animal. The ordinary
officer rides in a chariot drawn by four horses; he is
surrounded by a file of guards, who keep close to his
chariot wheels.
The cavalry spread themselves in front to resist
an attack, and in case of defeat they carry orders hither
and thither. The infantry by their quick movements
contribute to the defence. These men are chosen for
their courage and strength. They carry a great shield
and a long spear; sometimes they hold a sword or
sabre, and advance to the front with impetuosity. All
their weapons of war are sharp and pointed. Some of
them are these spears, shields, bows, arrows, swords,
sabres, battle-axes, lances, halberds, long javelins, and
various kinds of slings. All these they have used for
ages.
With respect to the ordinary people, although they
are naturally quick-tempered, yet they will not take
anything wrongly and they yield more than justice
144 A CHINESE ACCOUNT BY HIUAN TSANG
requires. In money matters they are without craft,
and in administering justice they are considerate. They
dread the retribution of another state of existence and
A GANDHARA SCULPTURE OF BUDDHA.
make light of the things of the present world. They
are not deceitful or treacherous in their conduct, and
are faithful to their oaths and promises. In their rules
of government there is remarkable rectitude, while in
their behaviour there is much gentleness and sweetness.
HINDU PUNISHMENTS AND ORDEALS 145
The law of the state is sometimes violated by base per-
sons, and plots are made against the ruler. When the
matter has been fully sifted, the offenders are impris-
oned for life. There is no infliction of corporal punish-
ment; they are simply left to live or die, and are not
counted among men. When the rules of propriety or
justice are violated, or when a man fails in loyalty or
filial piety, they cut off his nose or his ears, or his
hands and feet, or expel him from the country, or drive
him out into the desert wilds. For other faults, except
these, a small payment of money will commute the
punishment. In the investigation of criminal cases
there is no use of rod or staff to obtain proofs (of
guilt). In questioning an accused person, if he replies
with frankness, the punishment is proportioned accord-
ingly; but if the accused obstinately denies his fault,
or in spite of it attempts to excuse himself, then in
searching out the truth to the bottom, when it is neces-
sary to pass sentence, there are four kinds of ordeal
used ordeal by water, by fire, by weighing, and by
poison.
When the ordeal is by water, the accused is placed
in a sack connected with a stone vessel and thrown into
deep water. They then judge of his innocence or guilt
in this way if the man sinks and the stone floats, he
is guilty; but if the man floats and the stone sinks,
he is pronounced innocent.
Secondly, by fire. They heat some iron and make
the accused kneel on it and then tread on it, and apply
it to the palms of his hands; moreover, he is made to
146 A CHINESE ACCOUNT BY HIUAN TSANG
pass his tongue over it; if no scars result, he is inno-
cent; if there are scars, his guilt is proved. In the case
of timid and weak persons who cannot endure such a
horrible ordeal, they take a flower-bud and cast it
toward the fire; if it opens, he is innocent; if the
flower is burned, he is guilty.
Ordeal by weight is this: A man and a stone are
placed in a balance evenly, then they judge according
to lightness or weight. If the accused is innocent, then
the man weighs down the stone, which rises in the bal-
ance; if he is guilty, the man rises and the stone falls.
Ordeal by poison is this: They take a ram, cut off
its right hind leg, and put poison upon the portion
of flesh that is assigned to the accused to eat; if the
man is guilty, the poison takes effect and he dies; if
the man is innocent, the poison has no effect and he
survives.
There are nine methods of showing outward respect:
first, by greeting with a kind inquiry; second, by bow-
ing the head reverently; third, by raising the hands
with an inclination of the body; fourth, by bowing
with the hands folded on the breast; fifth, by bending
the knee; sixth, by an obeisance; seventh, by going
down upon the ground on one's hands and knees;
eighth, by going down upon the ground with the knees,
elbows, and forehead; ninth, by prostrating oneself
upon the earth. Of these nine methods the most re-
spectful is to make one prostration on the ground and
then to kneel and laud the virtues of the one addressed.
When at a distance, it is usual to bow low; when near,
ETIQUETTE OF THE HINDUS
147
it is customary to kiss the feet and rub the ankles of
a high personage.
Whenever orders are received at the hands of a
superior, the person lifts the skirts of his robes and
PARAPHERNALIA FOR A CHINESE BUDDHIST RITUAL OBSERVANCE.
makes a prostration. The superior or honourable per-
son who is thus reverenced must speak gently (to the
inferior), either touching his head or patting his back,
and addressing him with good words of direction or
advice to show his affection. When a Sramana (Bud-
dhist monk) or one who has entered on the religious
148 A CHINESE ACCOUNT BY HIUAN TSANG
life, has been thus respectfully addressed, he replies
simply by expressing a benediction. Not only do they
prostrate themselves to show reverence, but many cir-
cumambulate any object that is to be venerated, making
sometimes one circuit, sometimes three circumambula-
tions, or as many as they wish if they have a special
petition in mind.
Every one who falls sick fasts for seven days. Dur-
ing this interval many recover, but if the sickness lasts
they take medicine. The character of these medicines is
different, and their names also vary. The doctors differ
in their modes of examination and treatment. If a
person dies, those who attend the funeral raise lamen-
table cries and weep together. They rend their gar-
ments and tear their hair; they strike their heads and
beat their breasts. There are no regulations as to dress
for mourning, nor any fixed period for observing it.
There are three methods of paying the last tribute to
the dead: first, by cremation wood being made into
a pyre, the body is burnt; second, by water the body
is thrown into a stream to float and fall into dissolution;
third, by desertion, in which case the body is cast into
some forest-wild to be devoured by beasts.
When the king dies, his successor is first appointed,
that he may preside at the funeral rites and fix the dif-
ferent points of precedence. Whilst living they give
their rulers titles of merit according to their character;
when dead there are no posthumous titles.
In a house where there has been a death there is
no eating allowed; but after the funeral they resume
HINDU CUSTOMS LIST SICKNESS AND DEATH
149
their usual habits. There are no anniversaries (of
the death) observed. Those who have attended a fu-
neral are regarded as unclean; they all bathe outside
the town and then enter their houses.
The old and infirm who are approaching death, or
those who are suffering from some incurable disease,
who fear to linger to the end of their days, and through
disgust at life wish to es-
cape from its troubles, or
those who, contemning mor-
tal existence, desire release
from the affairs of the world
and its concerns these per-
sons, after receiving a fare-
well meal at the hands of
their relatives and friends,
they place, amid the sounds
AN INDIAN REPRESENTATION OF BUDDHA.
of music, on a boat which
they propel into the midst of the Ganges, and there
these persons drown themselves. They think in this
way to secure a birth in Heaven. Hardly one out of
ten will not carry out his foolish idea.
The Buddhist brethren are not allowed to lament
or weep for the dead; when the father or mother of a
monk dies, they recite prayers, recounting their obliga-
tions to them and recalling the past, and they carefully
attend to them being now dead. They expect by this
to increase the happiness of the departed.
As the administration of the government is founded
on benign principles, the executive is simple. The fam-
150 A CHINESE ACCOUNT BY HIUAN TSANG
ilies are not entered on registers, and the people are
not subject to forced labour contribution. The private
demesnes of the crown are divided into four principal
parts; the first is for carrying out the affairs of state
and providing sacrificial offerings; the second is for
the endowment of the ministers and chief officers of
state; the third is for rewarding men of distinguished
intelligence, learning, or ability; and the fourth is for
charity to religious bodies, whereby the field of merit
is cultivated (planted). In this way the taxes on the
people are light, and the personal service required of
them is moderate. Each one keeps his hereditary occu-
pation as he pleases and attends to his patrimony.
Those who cultivate the royal estates pay a sixth part
of the produce as rent. The merchants who engage in
commerce come and go in carrying out their transac-
tions. The river-passages and the road-barriers are
open on payment of a small toll. When the public
works require it, labour is exacted but paid for.
The payment is in strict proportion to the work
done.
The military guard the frontiers, or go out to pun-
ish the refractory. They also mount guard at night
round the palace. The soldiers are levied according to
the requirements of the service; they are promised
certain payments and are publicly enrolled. The gov-
ernors, ministers, magistrates, and officials have each
a portion of land consigned to them for their personal
support.
The climate and the quality of the soil being diverse,
ADMINISTERING AND CULTIVATING THE LAND 151
the produce of the land varies in its character. The
flowers and herbs, the fruits and trees are of different
kinds, and have distinct names. There are, for instance,
of the fruits the dmra (ngan-mo-lo, or mango), the dmla
(ngan-mi-lo, or tamarind), the madhuka (mo-tu-Ma, or
Bassia latifolia), the badara (po-ta-lo, or jujube), the
kapittha (kie-pi-ta, or wood-apple), the dmala ('o-mo-lo,
or myrobalan), the tinduka (chin-tu-kia, or Diospyros
embryopteris), the udumbara (wu-tan-po-lo, or Ficus
glomerata), the mocha (mau-che, or plantain), the ndri-
kela (na-li-ki-lo, or cocoa-nut), and the panasa (pan-
na-so, or jack-fruit). It would be difficult to enumerate
all the kinds of fruit; we have briefly named those
most esteemed by the people. As for the date (tsau),
the chestnut (lih), the loquat (p*0> an d the persimmon
(thi), they are not known in India. The pear (Zi), the
wild plum (nai), the peach (tau), the apricot (hang
or mm), the grape (po-tau), and the like have all been
brought from the country of Kashmir, and are found
growing here and there. Pomegranates and sweet
oranges are grown everywhere.
In cultivating the land, those whose duty it is sow
and reap, plough and harrow, and plant according to
the season; and after their labour they rest awhile.
Among the products of the ground, rice and wheat are
most plentiful. With respect to edible herbs and vege-
tables, we may name ginger and mustard, melons and
pumpkins, the heun-to plant (Skt. kunda, properly the
olibanum-tree), and others. Onions and garlic are little
grown, and few persons eat them; if any one uses them
152 A CHINESE ACCOUNT BY HIUAN TSANG
for food, they are expelled beyond the walls of the town.
The most usual food is milk, butter, cream, soft sugar,
sugar-candy, the oil of the mustard-seed, and likewise
all sorts of cakes made of corn. Fish, mutton, the
flesh of the gazelle, and venison they eat generally
fresh, sometimes salted; they are forbidden to eat the
flesh of the ox, the ass, the elephant, the horse, the pig,
the dog, the fox, the wolf, the lion, the monkey, and
all the hairy kind. Those who eat them are despised
and scorned, and are universally reprobated; they live
outside the walls and are seldom seen among men.
With respect to the different kinds of wine and
beverages, there are distinctions in usage. Wines from
the grape and the sugar-cane are used by the Ksha-
triyas as drink; the Vaisyas take strong fermented
drinks; the Sramanas and Brahmans drink a sort of
syrup made from the grape or the sugar-cane, but not
of the nature of fermented wine.
The mixed classes and low born (Sudras) differ in
no way (as to food or drink) from the rest, except in
respect of the vessels they use, which are very different
both as to value and material. There is no lack of
suitable things for household use. Although they have
saucepans and stew-pans, yet they do not know the
steam-boiler used for cooking rice. Their household
utensils are mostly earthenware, few being of brass;
they eat from one vessel, mixing all sorts of condiments
together, which they take up with their fingers. Gen-
erally speaking, spoons and chop-sticks are not used.
When sick, however, they use copper spoons.
FOODS, METALS, AND GEMS OF INDIA 153
Gold and silver, tou-shi (a sort of native brass),
white jade, and crystals are the natural products of
the country, and are very abundant. Bare precious sub-
stances of different sorts and various names are col-
lected from the regions bordering upon the sea, and
are bartered for merchandise. But in their commercial
transactions, gold and silver coins, cowries, and small
pearls are the medium of exchange/
AN INDIAN POT.
CHAPTER IV
AL-BIRUNI'S ARABIC ACCOUNT OF THE HINDU
RELIGION
1030 A. D.
ONE of the most famous of the historic accounts
of India is that written in Arabic by al-Biruni
nearly a thousand years ago. This learned man was
a native of the Transcaspian district of Khwarizm,
corresponding to the modern Khanate of Khiva, but
he lived at the court of Mahmud of Ghazni and died
there in 1048 A. D. His scientific work entitled " Chro-
nology of Ancient Nations," dedicated to Mahmud in
1030 A. D., would alone have sufficed to render his name
renowned. But it was followed by a still more impor-
tant volume, " India," which was the outcome of sev-
eral years of travel and residence in the land between
the Indus and the Ganges, where he studied under
Brahman teachers and thus became acquainted with
the Sanskrit language and their ancient sacred law.
The value of this interesting book for all matters apper-
taining to the geography, history, and culture of the
Hindus has been well brought out by its translator,
Sachau, from whose version selections relating to the
154
THE HINDU IDEA OF GOD 155
Hindu religion and to pilgrimages made to sacred
shrines are here given.
' The belief of educated and uneducated people dif-
fers in every nation; for the former strive to con-
ceive abstract ideas and to define general principles,
while the latter do not pass beyond the apprehension
of the senses and are content with derived rules, with-
out caring for details, especially in questions of relig-
ion and law, regarding which opinions and interests are
divided.
With regard to God, the Hindus believe that he is
one, eternal, without beginning and end, acting by free
will, almighty, all-wise, living, giving life, ruling, and
preserving; one who is unique in his sovereignty, be-
yond all likeness and unlikeness, and neither resem-
bling anything nor having anything resemble him. In
order to illustrate this, we shall produce some extracts
from the Hindu literature, lest the reader should think
that our account is nothing but hearsay.
In the book of Patanjali the pupil asks: " Who
is the worshipped one, by the worship of whom blessing
is obtained? ' : The master says: " It is he who, being
eternal and unique, does not for his part stand in need
of any human action for which he might give as a
recompense either a blissful repose, which is hoped and
longed for, or a troubled existence, which is feared and
dreaded. He is unattainable to thought, being sublime
beyond all unlikeness which is abhorrent and all like-
ness which is sympathetic. By his essence he knows
from all eternity. Knowledge, in the human sense of
156 THE ARAB AL-BIRUNI ON HINDU RELIGION
the term, has as its object that which was unknown
before, whilst not knowing does not apply to God at
any time or in any condition."
Further the pupil asks: " Do you attribute other
qualities to him besides those you have mentioned? '
The master says: " He is height, absolute in the idea,
not in space, for he is sublime beyond all existence in
any space. He is the pure, absolute good, longed for
by every created being. He is the knowledge free from
the defilement of forgetfulness and not-knowing."
The pupil asks: " Do you attribute to him speech
or not? r ' The master says: " As he knows, he doubt-
less also speaks." The pupil asks: "If he speaks
because he knows, what, then, is the difference between
him and the knowing sages who have spoken of their
knowing? ' The master says: " The difference be-
tween them is time, for they have learned in time and
spoken in time, after having been not-knowing and
not-speaking. By speech they have transferred their
knowledge to others. Therefore their speaking and
acquiring knowledge take place in time. And as divine
matters have no connection with time, God is knowing
and speaking from eternity. It was he who spoke to
Brahma and to others of the first beings in different
ways. On the one he bestowed a book; for the other
he opened a door, a means of communicating with him;
a third he inspired so that he obtained by cogitation
what God bestowed upon him."
The pupil asks: " Whence has he this knowing? "
The master answers: " His knowing is the same from
A DISCOURSE ON DIVINITY
157
all eternity, for ever and ever. As he has never been
not-knowing, he is knowing of himself, having never
acquired any knowledge which he did not possess be-
fore. In the Veda which he sent down upon Brahma
he says: ' Praise and celebrate him who has spoken
the Veda, and was before the Veda.' " The pupil asks:
" How do you worship
him to whom the per-
ception of the senses
cannot attain? " The
master says: " His
name proves his exist-
ence, for where there is
a report, there must be
something to which it
refers; and where there
is a name, there must
be something which is
named. He is hidden
to the senses and un-
perceivable by them.
However, the soul per-
ceives him, and thought comprehends his qualities.
This meditation is identical with worshipping him
exclusively, and by practising it uninterruptedly beat-
itude is obtained."
In such a manner the Hindus express themselves in
that very famous book. The following passage is taken
from the conversation between Vasudeva (Krishna)
and Arjuna in the Bhagavadgita :
THE GOD BRAHMA.
From Moor's Hindu Pantheon.
158 THE ARAB AL-BIRUNI ON HINDU RELIGION
" I am the universe, without a beginning by being
born, and without an end by dying. Whatever I do I
do not aim at any recompense. I do not specially be-
long to one class of beings to the exclusion of others,
as if I were the friend of one and the enemy of others.
I have given to each one in my creation what is suf-
ficient for TIJTH in all his functions. Therefore, whoever
knows me in this capacity, and tries to become similar
to me by keeping desire apart from his action, his fet-
ters will be loosened and he will be saved and freed."
Further Vasudeva says in the same book: "It is
desire which causes most men to take refuge with God
for their wants. But if you examine their case closely,
you will find that they are very far from having an
accurate knowledge of him; for God is not apparent
to every one so that he might perceive him with his
senses. Therefore they do not know him. Some of
them do not pass beyond what their senses perceive;
and while some pass beyond this, they stop at the
knowledge of the laws of nature, without learning that
above them there is one who did not give birth nor was
born, the essence of whose being has not been compre-
hended by the knowledge of any one, while his own
knowledge comprehends everything."
This is what educated people believe about God,
They consider the unity of God as absolute, but that
everything beside God which may appear as a unity is
really a plurality of things. The existence of God they
consider as a real existence, because everything that
exists exists through him. It is not impossible to think
LEARNED VERSUS POPULAR IDEAS OF GOD 159
that the existing beings are not and that he is, but it is
impossible to think that he is not and that they are.
If we now pass from the ideas of the educated
people among the Hindus to those of the common
people, we must first state that they present a great
THE GOD KRISHNA, OR VASUDEVA.
variety. Some of them are simply abominable, but
similar errors occur also in other religions. Nay, even
in Islam we must decidedly disapprove of the anthro-
pomorphic doctrines, the teachings of the Jabriyya
sect, the prohibition of the discussion of religious
topics, and such like. Every religious sentence des-
tined for the people at large must be carefully worded,
as the following example shows. Some Hindu scholar
calls God " a point, " meaning to say thereby that the
160 THE ARAB AL-BIRUNI ON HINDU RELIGION
qualities of bodies do not apply to him. Now some
uneducated man reads this and imagines that God is
as small as a point, and he does not find out what the
word " point " in this sentence was really intended to
express. He will not even stop with this offensive com-
parison, but will describe God as much larger, and
will say, " He is twelve fingers long and ten fingers
broad." Further, if an uneducated man hears what
we have mentioned, that God comprehends the universe
so that nothing is concealed from him, he will at once
imagine that this comprehending is effected by means
of eyesight; that eyesight is only possible by means of
an eye, and that two eyes are better than only one;
and in consequence he will describe God as having a
thousand eyes, meaning to describe his omniscience.
Similar hideous fictions are sometimes met with
among the Hindus, especially among those castes who
are not allowed to occupy themselves with science, of
whom we shall speak hereafter.
As the word of confession, " There is no god but
God, Mohammed is his prophet," is the shibboleth of
Islam, the Trinity that of Christianity, and the insti-
tution of the Sabbath that of Judaism, so metempsy-
chosis is the shibboleth of the Hindu religion. There-
fore he who does not believe in it does not belong to
them, and is not reckoned as one of them. For they
hold that the soul, as long as it has not risen to the
highest absolute intelligence, does not comprehend the
totality of objects at once. Therefore it must explore
all particular beings and examine all the possibilities
THE DOCTRINE OF METEMPSYCHOSIS 161
of existence; and as their number is, though not un-
limited, still an enormous one, the soul requires an
enormous space of time in order to finish the contem-
plation of such a multiplicity of objects. The soul
acquires knowledge only by the contemplation of the
individuals and the species, and of their peculiar actions
A HINDU CAVE TEMPLE AT ELLORA.
and conditions. It gains experience from each object,
and thereby gathers new knowledge.
However, these actions differ in the same measure
as the three primary forces differ. Besides, the world
is not left without some direction, being led, as it were,
by a bridle and directed toward a definite scope. There-
fore the imperishable souls wander about in perishable
bodies conformably to the difference of their actions,
162 THE ARAB AL-BIRUNI ON HINDU RELIGION
as they prove to be good or bad. The object of the
migration through the world of reward (i. e. heaven)
is to direct the attention of the soul to the good, that
it may become desirous of acquiring as much of it as
possible. The object of its migration through the world
of punishment (i. e. hell) is to direct its attention to the
bad and abominable, that it may strive to keep as far
as possible aloof from it.
The migration begins from low stages and rises to
higher and better ones, not the contrary, as we state
on purpose, since the one is a priori as possible as the
other. The difference of these lower and higher stages
depends upon the difference of the actions, and this
again results from the quantitative and qualitative
diversity of the temperaments and the various degrees
of combinations in which they appear.
This migration lasts until the object aimed at has
been completely attained both for the soul and matter;
the lower aim being the disappearance of the shape
of matter, except any such new formation as may
appear desirable; the higher aim being the ceasing of
the desire of the soul to learn what it did not know
before, the insight of the soul into the nobility of its
own being and its independent existence, its knowing
that it can dispense with matter after it has become
acquainted with the mean nature of matter and the
instability of its shapes, with all that which matter
offers to the senses, and with the truth of the tales
about its delights. Then the soul turns away from
matter; the connecting links are broken, and the union
THE SOUL'S TRANSMIGRATIONS 163
is dissolved. Separation and dissolution take place,
and the soul returns to its home, carrying with itself
as much of the bliss of knowledge as sesame develops
grains and blossoms, never afterwards separating from
its oil. The intelligent being, intelligence and its object,
are united and become one.
It is now our duty to produce from Hindu literature
some clear testimonies as to this subject, together with
cognate theories of other nations.
In the Bhagavadgita Vasudeva urges Arjuna on to
battle, whilst they stand between the two lines, in the
following words: " If you believe in predestination,
you must know that neither they nor we are mortal,
and do not go hence without returning, for souls are
immortal and unchangeable. They migrate through the
bodies, while man changes from childhood into youth,
into manhood, and into infirm age, the end of which
is the death of the body. Thereafter the soul proceeds
on its return." Further he says: "How can a man
think of death and being killed who knows that the
soul is eternal, not having been born and not perishing;
that the soul is something stable and constant; that
no sword can cut it, no fire burn it, no water extin-
guish it, and no wind wither it? The soul migrates
from its body, after it has become old, into another, a
different one, as the body, when its dress has become
old, is clad in another. What then is your sorrow about
a soul which does not perish? If it were perishable,
it would be more becoming that you should not sorrow
about a thing which may be dispensed with, which
164 THE ARAB AL-BIRUNI ON HINDU RELIGION
does not exist, and does not return into existence. But
if you look more to your body than to your soul, and
are in anxiety about its perishing, you must know that
all that which is born dies, and that all that which dies
returns into another existence. However, both life and
death are not your concern. They are in the hands
of God, from whom
all things come and
to whom they re-
turn. "
In the further
course of conversa-
tion Arjuna asks
Vasudeva: " How
did you dare thus
to fight Brahma,
Brahma who was be-
BUDDHIST FUNERAL URN. fore the world was
and before man was, whilst you are living among us
as a being whose birth and age are known? ' : There-
upon Vasudeva answered: " Externity (pre-existence)
is common both to us and to him. How often have
we lived together when I knew the times of our life
and death, whilst they were concealed from you! When
I desire to appear in order to do some good, I array
myself in a body, since one cannot be with man except
in a human shape."
People tell a tale of a king, whose name I have
forgotten, who ordered his people to bury his body,
after his death, on a spot where never before had a
SALVATION AFTER MANY BIRTHS 165
dead person been buried. Now they sought for such
a spot, but could not find it; finally, on finding a rock
projecting out of the ocean, they thought they had
found what they wanted. But then Vasudeva said unto
them: " This king has already been burned on this
identical rock many times. But now do as you like;
for the king sought only to give you a lesson, and his
aim has now been attained."
Vasudeva says: " He who hopes for salvation and
strives to free himself from the world, but whose heart
is not obedient to his wish, will be rewarded for his
action in the worlds of those who receive a good re-
ward; but he does not attain his last object on account
of his deficiency, therefore he will return to this world,
and will be found worthy of entering a new shape of
a kind of beings whose special occupation is devotion.
Divine inspiration helps him to raise himself in this
new shape by degrees to that which he already wished
for in the first shape. His heart begins to comply with
his wish; he is purified more and more in the different
shapes, until at last he obtains salvation in an unin-
terrupted series of new births."
Further, Vasudeva says: " If the soul is free from
matter, it is knowing; but as long as it is clad in mat-
ter, the soul is not-knowing, on account of the turbid
nature of matter. It thinks that it is an agent, and
that the actions of the world are prepared for its sake.
Therefore it clings to them, and it is stamped with
the impressions of the senses. When, then, the soul
leaves the body, the traces of the impressions of the
166 THE ARAB AL-BIRUNI ON HINDU RELIGION
senses remain in it and are not completely eradicated,
as it longs for 'the world of sense and returns toward
it. And since in these stages it undergoes changes
entirely opposed to each other, it is thereby subject to
the influences of the three primary forces. What, there-
RUINS AT UJJAIN, SAID TO HAVE BEEN THE NATIVE TOWN OF VAKAHAMIHIRA.
fore, can the soul do, its wing being cut, if it is not
sufficiently trained and prepared? "
In the Vishnu-Dharma, Markandeya, speaking of
the spiritual beings, says: " Brahma, Karttikeya, son
of Mahadeva, Lakshmi, who produced the Ambrosia,
Daksha, who was beaten by Mahadeva, and Umadevi,
the wife of Mahadeva, each of them has lived in the
middle of this present age, and they have already been
the same many times." In similar vein the astronomer
Varahamihira speaks of the influences of the comets,
\
SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHIC SPECULATIONS 167
and of the calamities which befall men when they ap-
pear. These calamities compel them to emigrate from
their homes, lean from exhaustion, moaning over their
mishap, leading their children by the hand along the
road, and saying to each other in low tones: " We
are punished for the sins of our kings; " whereupon
others answer: " Not so. This is the retribution for
what we have done in the former life, before we
entered these bodies. "
The following passage is taken from the book of
the philosopher Patanjali: " The soul, being tied on
all sides to ignorance, which is the cause of its being
fettered, is like rice in its cover. As long as it is there,
it is capable of growing and ripening in the transition
stages between being born and giving birth itself. But
if the cover is taken off the rice, it ceases to develop
in this way, and becomes stationary. The retribution
of the soul depends on the various kinds of creatures
through which it wanders, upon the extent of life,
whether it be long or short, and upon the particular
kind of its happiness, be it scanty or ample."
The pupil asks: " What is the condition of the spirit
when it has a claim to a recompense or has committed
a crime, and is then entangled in a kind of new birth
either in order to receive bliss or to be punished? '
The master says: " It migrates according to what it
has previously done, fluctuating between happiness and
misfortune, and alternately experiencing pain or pleas-
ure."
The pupil asks: " If a man commits something
168 THE ARAB AL-BIRUNI ON HINDU RELIGION
which necessitates a retribution for him in a different
shape from that in which he has committed the thing,
and if between both stages there is a great interval of
time and the matter is forgotten, what then? ' The
master answers: "It is the nature of action (i. e.
karma) to adhere to the spirit, for action is its product,
whilst the body is only an instrument for it. Forgetting
does not apply to spiritual matters, for they lie outside
of time, with the nature of which the notions of long
and short duration are necessarily connected. Action, by
adhering to the spirit, frames its nature and character
into a condition similar to that one into which the soul
will enter on its next migration. The soul in its purity
knows this, thinks of it, and does not forget it; but
the light of the soul is covered by the turbid nature
of the body as long as it is connected with the body.
Then the soul is like a man who remembers a thing
which he once knew, but then forgot in consequence of
insanity or an illness or some intoxication which over-
powered his mind. Do you not observe that little chil-
dren are in high spirits when people wish them a long
long life, and are sorry when people imprecate upon
them a speedy death? And what would the one thing
or the other signify to them, if they had not tasted
the sweetness of life and experienced the bitterness
of death in former generations through which they had
been migrating to undergo the due course of retribu-
tion? "
The Hindus call the world loka. Its primary divi-
sion consists of the upper, the low, and the middle.
HEAVEN AND HELL 169
The upper one is called svargaloka, i. e. paradise; the
low, nagaloka, i. e. the world of serpents, which is hell,
and which is also called naraloka, and sometimes also
pdtala, i. e. the lowest world. The middle world, the
one in which we live, is called madhyaloka and ma-
nushyaloka, i. e. the world of men. In the latter, man
has to earn his reward which he receives in the upper,
whilst in the low he receives punishment. A man who
deserves to come to svargaloka or nagaloka there re-
ceives the full recompense of his deeds during a certain
length of time corresponding to the duration of his
deeds, but in either of these worlds there is only the
soul, the soul free from the body.
For those who do not deserve to rise to heaven or
to sink as low as hell, there is another world called
tiryagloka, the irrational world of plants and animals,
through the individuals of which the soul has to wan-
der in metempsychosis until it reaches the human being,
rising by degrees from the lowest kinds of the vegetable
world to the highest classes of the sensitive world. The
stay of the soul in this world has one of the following
causes: either the award which is due to the soul is
not sufficient to raise it into heaven or to sink it into
hell, or the soul is in its wanderings on the way back
from hell; for they believe that a soul returning to the
human world from heaven at once adopts a human body,
whilst that one which returns there from hell has first
to wander about in plants and animals before it reaches
the degree of living in a human body.
The Hindus speak in their traditions of a large num-
170 THE ARAB AL-BIRUNI ON HINDU RELIGION
ber of hells, describing their qualities and their names,
and for each kind of sin they have a special hell. The
number of hells is eighty-eight thousand according to the
Vishnu Purana. We quote what this book says on the
subject:" The man who makes a false claim or bears
false witness, he who helps these two, and he who ridi-
cules people, come into the Raurava hell. He who sheds
THE TORMENTS OP HELL.
From an Indian edition of tbe Mahabharata.
innocent blood, who robs others of their rights and plun-
ders them, and who kills cows, comes into Rodha. Those
also who strangle people come here. Whoso kills a
Brahman, he who steals gold, princes who do not look
after their subjects, and he who commits adultery with
the family of his teacher, or who lies down with his
mother-in-law, come into Taptakumbha. Whoso con-
nives at the shame of his wife for greed, commits adul-
tery with his sister or the wife of his son, sells his child,
or is stingy toward himself with his property in order
to save it, comes into Mahajvala. Whoso is disrespect-
HELL AND ITS TORMENTS 171
ful to his teacher and is not pleased with him, despises
men, commits impurity with animals, contemns the
Veda and Puranas, or tries to make gain by means of
them in the markets, comes into Sabala."
The same book continues its enumeration as follows:
" A man who steals and commits tricks, who opposes
the straight line of conduct of men, who hates his
father, who does not like God and men, who does not
honour the gems which God has made glorious and
who considers them to be like other stones, comes into
Krimlsa. Whoso does not honour the rights of parents
and grandparents, and whoso does not do his duty
toward the angels, and the maker of arrows and spear-
points, come to Ldldbhaksha. The maker of swords and
knives comes to Visasana. He who conceals his prop-
erty, being greedy for the presents of the rulers, and
the Brahman who sells meat or oil or butter or sauce
or wine, comes to Adhomukhd. He who rears cocks and
cats, small cattle, pigs, and birds, comes to Rudhi-
randha."
A further passage in the Vishnu Purana also says:
" Public performers and singers in the markets, those
who dig wells for drawing water, a man who cohab-
its with his wife on holy days, who throws fire into
the houses of men, or betrays his companion and then
receives him, being greedy for his property, come
to Rudhira. He who takes the honey out of the bee-
hive comes to Vaitarani. Whoso takes away by force
the property and women of others in the intoxication
of youth comes to Krishna. Whoso cuts down the trees
172 THE ARAB AL-BIRUNI ON HINDU RELIGION
comes to Asipatravana. The hunter and the maker of
snares and traps come to Vahnijvdla. He who neglects
the customs and rules, and he who violates the laws
and he is the worst of all come to Sandamsaka."
We have given this enumeration only in order to
show what kinds of deeds the Hindus abhor as sins.
Some Hindus believe that the middle world, the one for
earning rewards, is the human world, and that a man
wanders about in it because he has received a reward
which does not lead him into heaven, but at the same
time saves him from hell. They consider heaven as a
higher stage, where a man lives in a state of bliss which
must be of a certain duration on account of the good
deeds he has done. On the contrary, they consider the
wandering about in plants and animals as a lower stage,
where a man dwells for punishment for a certain length
of time, which is thought to correspond to the wretched
deeds he has done. People who hold this view do not
know of any hell but this kind of degradation below
the degree of living as a human being.
All these degrees of retribution are necessary for the
reason that the seeking for salvation from the fetters
of matter frequently does not proceed on the straight
line which leads to absolute knowledge, but on lines
chosen by guessing or chosen because others have
chosen them. Not one action of man shall be lost, not
even the least of all; it shall be brought to his account
after his good and bad actions have been balanced
against each other. The retribution, however, is not
according to the deed, but according to the intention
THE FATE OF THE HUMAN SOUL
173
which a man had in doing it; and a man will receive
his reward either in the form in which he now lives on
A GEOCP OF WOMEN AND CHILDREN IN THE SHADE OF
PALM-TREES.
earth, or in that form into which his soul will migrate,
or in a kind of intermediary state after he has left his
present shape and has not yet entered a new one.
174 THE ARAB AL-BIRUNI ON HINDU RELIGION
Here, now, the Hindus quit the path of philosophical
speculation and turn aside to traditional fables as re-
gards the two places where reward or punishment is
given, saying, for instance, that man exists as an in-
corporeal being in the world beyond the present, and
that, after having received the reward of his actions,
he again returns to a bodily appearance and human
shape in order to be prepared for his further destiny.
Some, therefore, do not consider the reward of para-
dise a special gain, because it has an end and is not
eternal, and because this kind of life resembles the
life of this our world; for it is not free from ambi-
tion and envy, having in itself various degrees and
classes of existence, whilst cupidity and desire do not
cease save where there is perfect equality.
We have already said that, according to the belief
of the Hindus, the soul exists in these two places with-
out a body. But this is only the view of the educated
among them, who understand by the soul an inde-
pendent being. However, the lower classes, and those
who cannot imagine the existence of the soul without
a body, hold very different views concerning this sub-
ject.
One is this, that the cause of the agony of death is
the soul's waiting for a shape which is to be prepared.
It does not quit the body before a cognate being of
similar functions has originated, one of those which
nature prepares either as an embryo in a mother's
womb or as a seed in the bosom of the earth. Then the
soul quits the body in which it has been staying.
HINDU VIEWS CONCERNING THE SOUL 175
Others hold the more traditional view that the soul
does not wait for such a thing, but that it quits its shape
on account of its weakness while another body has been
prepared for it out of the elements. This body is called
ativahika, " that which grows in haste," because it does
not come into existence by being born. The soul stays
in this body a complete year in the greatest agony, no
matter whether it has deserved to be rewarded or to be
punished. For this reason the heir of the deceased
must, according to Hindu usage, fulfil the rites of the
year for the deceased, duties which end with the end
of the year, for then the soul goes to that place which
is prepared for it.
It is well known that the popular mind leans toward
the sensible world and has an aversion to the world
of abstract thought, which is understood only by highly
educated people, of whom there are but few in any
time and any place. And as common people will ac-
quiesce only in pictorial representations, many of the
leaders of religious communities have so far deviated
from the right path as to give such imagery place in
their books and houses of worship. These words of
mine would at once receive a sufficient illustration if
a picture were made of the Prophet, for example, or
of Mecca and the Ka'ba, and were shown to an unedu-
cated man or woman. Their joy in looking at the thing
would bring them to kiss the picture, to rub their cheeks
against it, and to roll themselves in the dust before it,
as if they were seeing not the picture, but the original,
and were performing the rites of pilgrimage, the great
176 THE ARAB AL-BIRUNI ON HINDU RELIGION
and small ones, as if they were present in the holy
places.
This is the cause which leads to the manufacture of
the idols, which are originally monuments in honour
of certain much venerated persons, prophets, sages, and
angels, destined to keep alive their memory when they
are absent or dead, and to create for them a lasting
AN INSCRIBED BUDDHIST SCULPTURE FROM HASHTNAGAR, DATED 384 A. D.
place of grateful veneration in the hearts of men when
they die. But when much time passes by after the
setting up of the monument, its origin is forgotten, it
becomes a matter of custom, and its veneration is devel-
oped into a rule for general practice. This being deeply
rooted in the nature of man, the legislators of antiquity
tried to influence them from this weak point of theirs.
Therefore they made the veneration of pictures and
similar monuments obligatory on them, as is recounted
in historic records, for the times both before and after
HIKDU IDOL- WORSHIP 177
the Deluge. Some people even pretend to know that
all mankind were one large idolatrous body before God
sent them his prophets.
Among the famous idols of Hindustan was that of
Multan, dedicated to the sun, and therefore called
Aditya. It was of wood covered with red Cordovan
leather and in its two eyes were two red rubies. It
is said to have been made over two hundred thousand
years ago. When Mohammad ibn Kasim ibn al-Mu-
nabbi conquered Multan, he inquired how the town
had become so very flourishing and how so many treas-
ures had there been accumulated, and then he found
out that this idol was the cause, for pilgrims came from
all sides to visit it. Therefore he thought it best to
have the idol where it was, but he hung a piece of cow's
flesh on its neck by way of mockery. On the same place
a mosque was built. When the Karmathians occupied
Multan, Jalam ibn Shaiban, the usurper, broke the idol
into pieces and killed its priests. The city of Thanes-
war is highly venerated by the Hindus. The idol of
that place is called Cakrasvamin, " the owner of the
discus." It is of bronze and is nearly the size of a
man. It is now lying in the hippodrome in Ghazni,
together with another idol of vile form. This Cakras-
vamin is said to have been made in the time of Bharata
as a memorial of wars connected with his name. In
Inner Kashmir, about two or three days' journey from
the capital toward the mountains of Bolor, there is a
wooden idol called Sarada, which is much venerated
and frequented by pilgrims.
178 THE ARAB AL-BIRUNT ON HINDU RELIGION
We shall now communicate a whole chapter from
the Brihat-Samhita of Varahamihira relating to the con-
struction of idols, which will help the student thor-
oughly to comprehend the present subject. This au-
thority says: " If the figure is made to represent Rama
the son of Dasaratha, or Bali the son of Virocana, give
THE MART AND A TEMPLE OF THE SUN IN KASHMIR.
it the height of one hundred and twenty digits," *. e.
of idol digits, which must be reduced by one-tenth to
become common digits, in this case one hundred and
eight. To the idol of Vishnu give eight hands, or four,
or two, and on the left side under the breast give him
the figure of the woman Sri. If you give him eight
hands, place in the right hands a sword, a club of gold
or iron, and an arrow, and make the fourth hand as
IMAGES OF THE GODS 179
if it were drawing water; in the left hands give him
a shield, a bow, a discus, and a conch. If you give him
four hands, omit the bow and the arrow, the sword and
the shield. If you give him two hands, let the right
hand be drawing water, the left holding a conch. If the
figure is to represent Baladeva, the brother of Nara-
yana, put earrings into his ears and give him the eyes
of a drunken man.
" If you make both figures, Narayana and Baladeva,
join with them their sister Bhagavati, the wife of Siva,
her left hand resting on her hip a little way from her
side, and her right hand holding a lotus. If you make
her four-handed, place in the right hands a rosary and
a hand drawing water; in the left hands, a book and
a lotus. If you make her eight-handed, place in the
left hands a pot, a lotus, a bow, and a book; in the
right hands, a rosary, a mirror, an arrow, and a water-
drawing hand. If the figure is to represent Samba,
the son of Vishnu, put only a club in his right
hand. If it is to represent Pradyumna, the son of
Vishnu, place in his right hand an arrow, in his
left hand a bow. And if you make their two wives,
place in their right hands a sword, in the left a
buckler.
" The idol of Brahma has four faces toward the four
sides, and is seated on a lotus. The idol of Skanda,
the son of Mahadeva, is a boy riding on a peacock, his
hand holding a sakti, a weapon like a double-edged
sword, which has in the middle a pestle like that of
a mortar. The idol Indra holds in its hand a diamond
180 THE AKAB AL-BIRUNI ON HINDU RELIGION
weapon called vajra. It has a handle similar to the
sakti, but on each side it has two swords which join
at the handle. On his front place a third eye, and make
him ride on a white elephant with four tusks. Like-
wise, make on the front of the idol of Mahadeva a third
eye right above, on his head a crescent, in his hand a
sword and a weapon called sula,
similar to the club but with three
branches; and let his left hand hold
his wife Gauri, the daughter of Him-
avant (the Himalayas), whom he
presses to his bosom from the side.
" To the idol Jina (Buddha) give
a face and limbs as beautiful as
possible; make the lines in the palms
THB GOD SKANDA, ALSO Q f ^jg hands and feet like & lotUS J
CALLED KARTIKEYA.
represent him seated on a lotus;
give him gray hair; and portray him with a placid
expression, as if he were the father of creation. If
you make Arhant, the figure of another aspect of Bud-
dha, represent him as a naked youth with a fine
face and with beautiful hands reaching down to his
knees, and with the figure of Sri, his wife : under his left
breast. The idol of Revanta, the son of the sun, rides
on a horse like a huntsman. The idol of Yama, the
angel of death, rides on a buffalo and holds a club in
his hand. The idol of Kubera, the treasurer, wears a
crown, has a big stomach and wide hips, and rides on
a man. The idol of the Sun has a red face like the
pith of the red lotus, beams like a diamond, protruding
THE FORMS OF VAKIOUS IDOLS 181
limbs, rings in the ears, the neck adorned with pearls
which hang down over the breast, a crown of sev-
eral compartments, two lotuses in the hands, and the
dress of the Northerners which reaches down to the
ankle.
" If you represent the Seven Mothers, group several
of them together in one figure, Brahmani with four
faces toward the four directions, Kaumari with six
faces, Vaishnavi with four hands, Varahi with a hog's
head on a human body, Indrani with many eyes and
a club in her hand, Bhagavati sitting as people generally
sit, and Camunda ugly, with protruding teeth and a slim
waist. Furthermore, join with them the sons of Maha-
deva, Kshetrapala with bristling hair, a sour face, and
an ugly figure, and Vinayaka with an elephant's head
on a human body with four hands."
The worshippers of these idols kill sheep and buf-
faloes with axes, that they may nourish themselves
with their blood. All idols are constructed according
to certain measures determined by " idol-digits " for
every single limb, but sometimes they differ regarding
the measure of a limb. If the artist keeps the right
measure and does not make anything too large nor too
small, he is free from sin, and is sure that the being
which he represents will not visit him with any mis-
hap. " If," Varahamihira continues, however, " he
makes the idol one cubit high, or two cubits together
with the throne, he will obtain health and wealth. If
he makes it higher still, he will be praised. But he must
know that making the idol too large, especially that of
182 THE ARAB AL-BIRUNI ON HINDU RELIGION
the Sun, will hurt the ruler, and making it too small
will hurt the artist. If he gives it a thin belly, this
helps and furthers famine in the country; if he gives
it a lean belly, this ruins property. If the hand of
the artist slips so as to produce something like a
wound, he will have a wound in his own body which will
kill him. If the idol is not completely even ^ on both
sides, so that one shoulder is higher than the other, his
wife will perish. If the artist turns the eye upward,
he will be blind for life; if he turns it downward, he
will have many troubles and sorrows."
If the statue is made of some precious stone, it is
better than if it is made of wood, and wood is better
than clay. The Brihat-Samhita accordingly says: " The
benefits of a statue of precious stone will be common
to all the men and women of the empire. A golden
statue will bring power to him who erects it, a statue
of silver will bring him renown, one of bronze will bring
him an increase of his rule, and one of stone the acqui-
sition of landed property."
The Hindus honour their idols on account of those
who erect them, not on account of the material of which
they are made. We have already mentioned that the
idol of Multan was of wood. In like manner, the idol
which Rama erected when he had finished the war with
the demons was of sand, which he had heaped up with
his own hand. But since the astrologically correct
moment for the erecting of the monument fell before
the moment when the workmen had finished the cut-
ting of the stone monument which Rama had originally
A LEGEND OF KAMA'S TEMPLE 185
ordered, the figure became petrified all at once. Rama
likewise gave very minute instructions regarding the
building of the temple and its peristyle, the cutting
of the trees of four different kinds, the astrological
determination of the favourable moment for the erec-
tion of the shrine, and the celebration of the rites due
on such an occasion. Furthermore, he ordered that
servants and priests should be nominated from differ-
ent classes of the people to minister to the idols. " To
the idol of Vishnu are devoted the class called Bhaga-
vata; to the idol of the Sun, the Maga; to the idol
of Mahadeva (Siva), a class of saints, anchorites with
long hair, who cover their skin with ashes, hang bones
of dead people on their persons, and swim in the pools.
The Brahmans are devoted to the Eight Mothers, the
Shamanians (Buddhists) to Buddha, and the class
called Nagna (i. e. the naked Jains) to the Arhant.
On the whole, to each idol are devoted certain people
who constructed it, for they best know how to serve
it." Our object in mentioning all this is to teach the
reader the accurate description of an idol, if he happens
to see one, and to illustrate what we have said before,
that such idols are erected only for uneducated low-
class people of little understanding; for the Hindus
never made an idol of any supernatural being, much less
of God/
Al-Biruni in a later chapter, the seventy-third, de-
scribes the various ways in which the bodies of the dead
were disposed of in India and elsewhere, and he men-
tions certain ideas associated with these rites. The
186 THE AEAB AL-BIRUNI ON HINDU RELIGION
section is inserted here on account of its direct con-
nection with what has gone before in this and in the
preceding chapter.
' In the most ancient times in India the bodies of the
dead were exposed to the air by being thrown on the
fields without any covering; sick people also were ex-
posed on the fields and in the mountains, and were left
there. If they died there, they had the fate just men-
tioned; but if they recovered, they returned to their
dwellings. Thereupon there appeared a legislator who
ordered people to expose their dead to the wind. In
consequence, they constructed roofed buildings with
walls of rails, through which the wind blew, passing
over the dead, something like the grave towers of the
Zoroastrians. After the Hindus had practised this cus-
tom for a long time, Narayana bade them hand the
dead over to the fire, and ever since they have been
in the habit of burning them, so that nothing remains
of them, and every defilement, dirt, and smell is anni-
hilated at once, so as to leave scarcely a trace behind.
Nowadays the Slavonians, too, burn their dead,
whilst the ancient Greeks seem to have had both cus-
toms, that of burning and that of burying. To the
former method Galen makes a distinct allusion in his
commentary to the apothegms of Hippokrates where he
says: " It is generally known that Asklepios was raised
to the angels in a column of fire, the like of which is
also related of Dionysos, Herakles, and others, who
laboured for the benefit of mankind. People say that
God did thus with them in order to destroy the mortal
A Zoroastrian Dakhmah, or Tower of Silence
The Zoroastrians. arc forbidden by their religion to burn or bury their
dead, or to eonsign them to the rivers, Jest the sacred elements, fire, earth,
and ivatcr, shouhl in any way be defiled. Their sacred books enjoin upon
them to expose corpses upon a " dakhmah!' or Toiler of Silence, to be
devoured by the foivls of the air. The bones denuded of the flesh soon
crumble it, to dust beneath the parching tropical sun. At Bombay these
vulture-haunted foyers stand in a beautiful garden of waring palms on
Malabar Hill, overlooking the city.
BURNING THE DEAD 187
and earthly part of them by fire, and afterwards to
attract to himself the immortal part of them, and to
raise their souls to heaven." In these words there is
a reference to burning as a Greek custom, but it seems
to have been in use only for the great men among them.
The Hindus express themselves in a similar way.
There is a point in man by which he is what he is.
This point becomes free when the mixed elements of
the body are dissolved and scattered by combustion.
Regarding the return of the immortal soul to God,
the Hindus think that it is effected partly by the rays
of the sun, the soul attaching itself to them and ascend-
ing with them, and partly by the flame of the fire, which
raises it to God. Some Hindus used to pray that God
would make his road to himself as a straight line, be-
cause this is the nearest road, and there is no other road
upwards save the fire or the ray. Similar to this is the
practice of the Ghuzz Turks with reference to a drowned
person; for they place the body on a bier in the river,
and make a cord hang down from the foot of the corpse,
throwing the end of the cord into the water. By means
of this cord the spirit of the deceased is to raise him-
self for resurrection. The belief of the Hindus on this
head was confirmed by the words of Vasudeva, which
he spoke in the Bhagavadgita regarding the sign of
him who is liberated from the fetters of bodily exist-
ence. " His death takes place during the northern
revolution of the sun from the winter solstice to the
summer solstice, and during the white half of the
month, between lighted lamps, that is to say between
188 THE ARAB AL-BIRUNI ON HINDU RELIGION
conjunction and opposition (new moon and full moon),
in the seasons of winter and spring." A similar view
is recognized in the following words of Mani: " Other
religious bodies blame us because we worship the sun
and moon, and represent them as an image. But they
do not know their real nature; they do not know that
the sun and moon are our
path, and the door whence
we march forth into the
world of our existence
into heaven, as has been
declared by Jesus." So
he maintains. People re-
late that Buddha ordered
the bodies of the dead to
be thrown into flowing
water. Therefore his fol-
lowers, the Shamanians,
throw their dead into the
rivers.
According to the Hin-
dus, the body of the dead
has the claim upon his heirs that they are to wash and
embalm it, wrap it in a shroud, and then burn it with
as much sandal and other wood as they can get. Part
of the burned bones are brought to the Ganges and
thrown into it, that the Ganges may flow over them as
it flowed over the burned bones of the children of Sa-
gara, thereby releasing them from hell and bringing
them to paradise. The remainder of the ashes is thrown
8URYA, THE HINDU SUN -GOD.
From Moor's Hindu Pantheon.
HINDU FUNERAL RITES
189
into some brook of running water.
On the spot where the body has been
burned, they raise a monument sim-
ilar to a mile-stone, plastered with
gypsum. The bodies of children
under three years are not burned.
Those who fulfil these duties toward
the dead afterwards wash both them-
selves and their clothing
for two days, because
they have become un-
clean by touching
the dead. Those
ON THE BANKS OP THE GANGES IN BENARES.
who cannot afford to burn their dead throw them either
somewhere on the open field or into running water.
190 THE AKAB AL-BIRUNI ON HINDU RELIGION
Now as regards the right of the body of the living,
the Hindus would not think of burning it save in the
case of a widow who chooses to follow her husband, or
in the case of those who are tired of life, and are dis-
tressed over some incurable disease of body, some irre-
movable bodily defect, or old age and infirmity. This,
however, no man of distinction does, but only Vaisyas
and Sudras, especially at those times which are prized
as the most suitable for a man to acquire in them, for
a future repetition of life, a better form and condition
than that in which he happens to have been born and
to live.
Burning oneself is forbidden to Brahmans and to
Kshatriyas by a special law. Such being the case, if
they wish to dispose of themselves by committing sui-
cide, they do so at the time of an eclipse in some other
manner, or they hire somebody to drown them in the
Ganges, keeping them under water till they are dead.
At the junction of the two rivers Yamuna (Jumna)
and Ganges there is a great tree called Prayaga, a
tree of the species called Vata (?). It is peculiar to
this kind of tree that its branches send forth two species
of twigs, some directed upwards, as is the case with
all other trees, and others directed downward like roots,
but without leaves. If such a twig enters into the soil,
it is like a supporting column to the branch whence it
has grown. Nature has arranged this on purpose, since
the branches of this tree are of an enormous extent and
require to be supported. Here the Brahmans and
Kshatriyas are in the habit of committing suicide by
HINDU PLACES OF PILGRIMAGE 191
climbing up the tree and throwing themselves into the
Ganges.'
There is space for a single other citation from al-
Biruni in connection with the religion of the Hindus;
it is taken from his sixty-sixth chapter, in which he
treats of Hindu pilgrimages and of the visits which
they pay to certain sacred places as a part of their
religious duty.
* Pilgrimages are not obligatory upon the Hindus,
although they are facultative and meritorious. A man
sets off to wander to some holy region, to some much
venerated idol, or to some of the holy rivers. He wor-
ships in them, adores the idol, makes presents to it,
recites many hymns and prayers, fasts, and gives amis
to the Brahmans, the priests, and others. He shaves
the hair of his head and beard, and returns home. The
much venerated holy ponds are in the cold mountains
round Meru. The following information regarding
them is found in both the Vayu and the Matsya Pu-
ranas: " At the foot of Meru is Arhata, a very great
pond, described as shining like the moon. In it orig-
inates the river Zanba (Jambu ?), which is very pure,
flowing over the purest gold. Near the mountain Sveta
is the pond Uttaramanasa, and around it twelve other
ponds, each of them like a lake. Thence come two
rivers which flow to Kimpurusha. Near the mountain
Nila is a pond adorned with lotuses. Near the moun-
tain Nishada is the pond Vishnupada, whence comes
the river Sarasvati (Sarsuti). Besides, the river Gan-
dharvi comes from there. In the mountain Kailasa is
192 THE ARAB AL-BIRUNI ON HINDU RELIGION
the pond Manda, as large as a sea, whence comes the
river Mandakini. Northeast of Kailasa is the mountain
Chandraparvata, and at its foot the pond whence comes
A SHRINE OP NARSIMHA IN THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY.
the river Acud. Southeast of Kailasa is the mountain
Lohita, and at its foot a pond called Lohita. Thence
comes the river Lohitanadi. South of Kailasa is the
mountain Sarayusati, and at its foot the pond Manasa.
Thence comes the river Sarayu. West of Kailasa is
A SACRED POND AND ITS LEGEND 193
the mountain Aruna, always covered with snow, which
cannot be ascended. At its foot is the pond Sailoda,
whence comes the river Sailoda. North of Kailasa is
the mountain Gaura with the pond of golden sand at
its foot.
" Near this pond King Bhagiratha led his anchorite
life. His story is as follows: A king of the Hindus
called Sagara had sixty thousand sons, all of them bad,
mean fellows. Once they happened to lose a horse.
They searched for it at once, and in searching they
continually ran about so violently that the surface of
the earth broke in. They found the horse in the interior
of the earth, standing before a man who was looking
down with deep-sunken eyes. When they came near
him, he smote them with his look, in consequence of
which they were burned on the spot and went to hell
on account of their wicked actions. The collapsed part
of the earth became a sea, the great ocean. A king
of the descendants of that king, called Bhagiratha, on
hearing the history of his ancestors, was much affected
thereby. He went to the above-mentioned pond, the
bottom of which was polished gold, and stayed there,
fasting all day and worshipping during the night.
Finally, Mahadeva (Siva) asked him what he wanted;
whereupon he answered: ' I want the river Ganges
which flows in Paradise/ knowing that the sins of him
over whom its water flows are pardoned. Mahadeva
granted him his desire. However, the Milky Way was
the bed of the Ganges, and the Ganges was very
haughty, for nobody had ever been able to stand against
194 THE AEAB AL-BIKUNI ON HINDU KELIGION
it. Now Mahadeva took the Ganges and put it on his
head. When the Ganges could not move away, it be-
came very angry and made a great uproar. However,
Mahadeva held it firmly, so that it was not possible
for anybody to plunge into it. Then he took part of
the Ganges and gave it to Bhagiratha, and this king
A SACEED LAKE IN INDIA.
made the middle one of its seven branches flow over
the bones of his ancestors, whereby they became lib-
erated from punishment. Therefore the Hindus throw
the burned bones of their dead into the Ganges. The
Ganges was also called Bhagiratha, after the name of
that king who brought it to earth."
In every place to which some particular holiness
is ascribed, the Hindus construct ponds intended for
BATHING IN THE SACRED POOLS 197
their ablutions. In this they have attained a very high
degree of art, so that Mohammedans, when they see
them, wonder at them, and are unable to describe them,
much less to construct anything like them. They build
them of great stones of an enormous bulk, joined to
each other by sharp and strong cramp-irons, in the
form of steps or terraces, like so many ledges; and
these terraces run all around the pond, reaching to a
height of more than a man's stature. On the surface
of the stones between two terraces they construct stair-
cases rising like pinnacles. Thus the first steps or ter-
races are like roads leading round the pond, and the
pinnacles are steps leading up and down. If ever so
many people descend to the pond whilst others ascend,
they do not meet each other, and the road is never
blocked up, because there are so many terraces, and
the ascending person can always turn aside to another
terrace than that on which the descending people go.
By this arrangement all troublesome thronging is
avoided.
In Multan there is a pond which the Hindus worship
by bathing themselves, if they are not prevented. The
Brihat-Samhita of Varahamihira relates that in Thane-
sar there is a pond which the Hindus visit from afar
to bathe in its water. Eegarding the cause of this
custom, they say that the waters of all the other holy
ponds visit this particular pond at the time of an eclipse.
Therefore, if a man washes in it, it is as if he had
washed in every single one of all of them. Then Vara-
hamihira continues: " People say that if it were not
198 THE ARAB AL-BIRUNI ON HINDU RELIGION
the head which causes the eclipse of sun and moon, the
other ponds would not visit this pond."
The ponds become particularly famous for holiness
either because some important event has happened at
them, or because there is some passage in the holy
text or tradition which refers to them; and the Hindus
have some places which are venerated for reasons con-
nected with their law and religion, such as Baranasi
(Benares), for their anchorites wander to it and stay
there for ever, as the dwellers of the Ka'ba stay for
ever in Mecca. They want to live there to the end of
their lives, that their reward after death may be the
better for it.
They say that a murderer is always held respon-
sible for his crime and punished with a punishment
due to his guilt, except in case he enters the city of
Benares, where he obtains pardon. Regarding the
cause of the holiness of this asylum they relate the
following story: " Brahma was four-headed in shape.
Now some quarrel happened between him and Sankara
(Siva), and the fight which ensued had the result that
one of the heads of Brahma was torn off. At that
time it was the custom for the victor to take the head
of the slain adversary in his hand and let it hang down
from his hand as an act of ignominy to the dead and
as a sign of his own bravery. Thus the head of Brahma
was dishonoured by the hand of Mahadeva, who always
took it with him wherever he went and whatever he
did. He never once separated himself from it when
he entered the towns, till at last he came to Benares.
BENARES AND OTHER PILGRIM SHRINES
199
After he had entered Benares the head dropped from
his hand and disappeared."
A similar place is Pukara, the story of which is
this: Brahma was once occupied there in offering to
the fire, when a pig came out of the fire. Therefore
they represent his image there
as that of a pig. Outside the
town, in three places, they have
constructed ponds which stand in
high veneration, and are places
of worship. Another place of the
kind is Thanesar, which is also
called Kurukshetra, or " the land
of Kuru," who was a pious, holy
peasant, and worked miracles by
divine power. Therefore the
country was called after him, and
venerated for his sake. Besides,
Thanesar is the theatre of the ex-
ploits of Vasudeva in the wars
of the Mahabharata and of the
destruction of the evil-doers. It
is for this reason that people visit
the place. Mathura, too, is a holy place, crowded with
Brahmans. It is venerated because Vasudeva was born
and brought up there, in a place in the neighbourhood
called Nandagola. Nowadays the Hindus also visit
Kashmir, and lastly they used to visit Multan before
its idol-temple was destroyed.'
SCULPTURED LIONS AT 8AR-
NATH NEAR BENARES.
CHAPTER V
AN ACCOUNT OF THE TEMPLE OF SOMNATH BY THE
PEKSIAN GEOGRAPHER KAZVINI
About 1263 A. D.
THE famous temple at Somnath, with its celebrated
idol which was destroyed by Mahnmd of Ghazni,
" the Image-Breaker/' when he sacked the city in 1025 -
1026 A. D., has been alluded to several times in the
Mohammedan section of this History. An account of
the wonders of the temple and the optical delusion in
connection with the idol is given by the Persian geog-
rapher Zakariyah Kazvini, who wrote, however, in Ara-
bic, about the year 1263 A. D. Kazvini, though not a
traveller himself, drew upon the works of travellers
for his geographical materials, and he gives the follow-
ing interesting account of the famous Somnath shrine,
over whose destruction, two centuries before, he re-
joices with the Moslem joy that hailed the downfall
of a house of idols.
' Somnath is a celebrated city of India, situated on
the shore of the sea and washed by its waves. Among
200
THE FAMOUS HINDU TEMPLE AT SOMNATH 201
the wonders of the place was the temple in which was
placed the idol called Somnath. This idol was in the
middle of the temple without anything to support it
from below, or to suspend it from above. It was re-
garded with great veneration by the Hindus, and who-
ever beheld it floating in the air was struck with amaze-
ment, whether he was a Mussulman or an infidel. The
Hindus used to go on pilgrimage to it whenever there
was an eclipse of the moon, and would then assemble
there to the number of more than a hundred thousand.
They believed that the souls of men used to meet there
after separation from the body, and that the idol used,
at its pleasure, to incorporate them in other bodies, in
accordance with their doctrine of transmigration. The
ebb and flow of the tide was considered to be the wor-
ship paid to the idol by the sea.
Everything that was most precious was brought there
as offerings, and the temple was endowed with the taxes
gathered from more than ten thousand villages. There
is a river, the Ganges, which is held sacred, between
which and Somnath the distance is two hundred para-
sangs. They used to bring the water of this river to
Somnath every day, and wash the temple with it. A
thousand Brahmans were employed in worshipping the
idol and attending on the visitors, and five hundred
damsels sang and danced at the door all these were
maintained upon the endowments of the temple. The
edifice was built upon fifty-six pillars of teak, covered
with lead. The shrine of tne idol was dark, but was
lighted by jewelled chandeliers of great value. Near
202 KAZVINI'S PERSIAN ACCOUNT OF SOMNATH
it was a chain of gold weighing two hundred mans.
When a portion, or watch, of the night closed, this chain
used to be shaken like bells to rouse a fresh lot of Brah-
mans to perform worship.
When Sultan Mahmud, the son of Sabuktagin, went
THE SO-CALLED GATES OF SOMNATH.
to wage religious war against India, he made great
efforts to capture and destroy Somnath, in the hope
that the Hindus would then become Mohammedans.
He arrived there in the middle of Zu-1-ka'da, 416 A. H.
(December, 1025 A. D.). The Indians made a desperate
resistance. They kept going in to the temple weeping
DESTKUCTION OF THE IDOL OF SOMNATH 203
and crying for help, and then they issued forth to battle
and kept fighting till all were killed. The number of
the slain exceeded fifty thousand. The king looked
upon the idol with wonder, and gave orders for the
seizing of the spoil and the appropriation of the treas-
ures. There were many idols of gold and silver, and
countless vessels set with jewels, all of which had been
sent there by the greatest personages in India. The
value of the things found in the temples of the idols
exceeded twenty thousand thousand dinars.
When the king asked his companions what they
had to say about the marvel of the idol, and of its stay-
ing in the air without prop or support, several main-
tained that it was upheld by some hidden support. The
king directed a person to go and feel all around and
above and below it with a spear, which he did, but met
with no obstacle. One of the attendants then stated
his opinion that the canopy was made of loadstone, and
the idol of iron, and that the ingenious builder had
skilfully contrived that the magnet should not exercise
a greater force on any one side hence the idol was
suspended in the middle. Some inclined toward this
explanation, others differed from it. Permission was
obtained from the Sultan to remove some stones from
the top of the canopy to settle the point. When two
stones were removed from the summit, the idol swerved
on one side; when more were taken away, it inclined
still further, until at last it rested on the ground.'
By way of supplement there is here appended a
description of the Somnath idol by the Persian traveller
204 KAZVINI'S PERSIAN ACCOUNT OF SOMNATH
al-Istakhri, who journeyed through India and other
Mohammedan countries in the first half of the tenth
century. His note is as follows:
' The idol has a human shape and is seated with its
legs bent in a quadrangular posture on a throne made
of brick and mortar. Its whole body is covered with a
red skin like morocco leather, and nothing but its eyes
are visible. Some believe that the body is made of wood,
some deny this; but the body is not allowed to be un-
covered to decide this point. The eyes of the idol are
precious gems, and its head is covered with a crown of
gold. It sits in a quadrangular position on the throne,
its hands resting upon its knees, with the fingers closed,
so that only four can be counted. '
CHAPTER VI
THE PORTUGUESE NAVIGATOR VASCO DA GAMA AT
CALICUT AND HIS RECEPTION BY THE ZAMORIN
1498 A. D.
voyage which the Portuguese navigator Vasco
da Gama made to India at the close of the fifteenth
century has frequently been mentioned in the preceding
volumes, especially in the sixth; a brief selection from
the contemporary accounts of it may therefore be wel-
comed here. This celebrated voyager, whom King Man-
uel of Portugal commissioned with the command of a
Portuguese fleet for an expedition to the East, set sail
from Lisbon in the summer of 1497, and after rounding
the Cape of Good Hope, arrived on May 20, 1498, at
Calicut in Malabar, on the southeast coast of India.
Through the favour of the Zamorin, or native ruler of
the place, he was able to establish, between the Indian
states and his own country, a series of friendly relations
for trade and commerce, which proved of the greatest
importance to Portugal. His first visit to the city of
Calicut and his reception at the Zamorin 's court are
well described in the " Roteiro," a journal of Vasco da
Gama's voyage written by a member of the expedition,
although the precise authorship of this Portuguese
205
206
VASCO DA GAMA AT CALICUT
diary has not yet been determined. The brief extract
here given is supplemented by an account of the voy-
ager 's reception written by Gaspar Correa, who was
not with the expedition, although he came to India
fifteen years later and claims to have used the diary
of Figueiro, a Portu-
guese priest who ac-
companied Da Ga-
ma's fleet. Correa 's
" Lendas da India "
is not generally held
in high esteem by
historians, although
the author's many
years of life in India
would particularly
qualify him to de-
scribe the manners at
the Zamorin's court.
The " Roteiro," or
Journal, on the con-
trary, as is empha-
sized by Ravenstein
in his translation for the Hakluyt Society, has the high-
est value, and from it the following description of the
visit at Calicut is taken.
' The city of Calicut is inhabited by Christians.
They are of a tawny complexion. Some of them have
big beards and long hair, whilst others clip their hair
short or shave the head, merely allowing a tuft to re-
DOM VASCO DA GAMA
After a Ms. portrait in the British Museum.
THE INHABITANTS OF CALICUT 207
main on the crown as a sign that they are Christians.
They also wear moustaches. They pierce the ears and
wear much gold in them. They go naked down to the
waist, covering their lower extremities with very fine
cotton stuffs. But it is only the most respectable who
do this, for the others manage as best they are able.
The women of this country, as a rule, are ugly and
of small stature. They wear many jewels of gold round
the neck, numerous bracelets on their arms, and rings
set with precious stones on their toes. All these people
are well-disposed and apparently of mild temper. At
first sight they seem covetous and ignorant.
When we arrived at Calicut the king (the Zamorin)
was fifteen leagues away. The captain-major (Vasco
da Gama) sent two men to him with a message, inform-
ing him that an ambassador had arrived from the King
of Portugal with letters, and that if he desired it he
would take them to where the king then was. The king
presented the bearers of this message with much fine
cloth. He sent word to the captain bidding him wel-
come, saying that he was about to proceed to Calicut.
As a matter of fact, he started at once with a large
retinue.
A pilot accompanied our two men, with orders to
take us to a place called Pandarani, below the place
(Capua) where we anchored at first. At this time we
were actually in front of the city of Calicut. We were
told that the anchorage at the place to which we were
to go was good, whilst at the place we were then it was
bad, with a stony bottom, which was quite true; and,
208 VASCO DA GAMA AT CALICUT
moreover, that it was customary for the ships which
came to this country to anchor there for the sake of
safety. We ourselves did not feel comfortable, and the
captain-major (Vasco da Gama) had no sooner received
this royal message than he ordered the sails to be set,
and we departed. We did not, however, anchor as near
the shore as the king's pilot desired. When we were
at anchor, a message arrived informing the captain-
A NATIVE VESSEL OF CALICUT.
major that the king was already in the city. At the
same time the king sent a bale (Arabic wall, " gov-
ernor "), with other men of distinction, to Pandarani,
to conduct the captain-major to where the king awaited
him. The bale is like an alcaide (Portuguese alcaide,
" governor "), and is always attended by two hundred
men armed with swords and bucklers. As it was late
when this message arrived, the captain-major deferred
going.
On the following morning, which was Monday, May
28th (1498), the captain-major (Vasco da Gama) set
DA GAMA LANDS AT CALICUT 209
out to speak to the king, and took with him thirteen
men, of whom I was one. We put on our best attire,
placed bombards in our boats, and took with us trum-
pets and many flags. On landing, the captain-major
was received by the alcaide, with whom were many
men, armed and unarmed. The reception was friendly,
as if the people were pleased to see us, though at first
appearances they looked threatening, for they carried
naked swords in their hands. A palanquin was pro-
vided for the captain-major, such as is used by men
of distinction in that country, as also by some of the
merchants, who pay something to the king for this
privilege. The captain-major entered the palanquin,
which was carried by six men by turns. Attended by
all these people, we took the road of Calicut, and came
first to another town, called Capua. The captain-major
was there deposited at the house of a man of rank,
whilst we others were provided with food, consisting
of rice, with much butter, and excellent boiled fish.
The captain-major did not wish to eat, and when we
had done so, we embarked on a river close by, which
flows between the sea and the mainland, close to the
coast. The two boats in which we embarked were
lashed together, so that we were not separated. There
were numerous other boats, all crowded with people.
As to those who were on the banks I say nothing; their
number was infinite, and they had all come to see us.
We went up that river for about a league, and saw
many large ships drawn up high and dry on its banks,
for there is no port here.
210 VASCO DA GAMA AT CALICUT
When we disembarked, the captain-major (Vasco da
Gama) once more entered his palanquin. The road was
crowded with a countless multitude anxious to see us.
Even the women came out of their houses with children
in their arms and followed us.
,When we arrived (at Calicut) they took us to a large
church (a Hindu temple), and this is what we saw: 1
The body of the church is as large as a monastery, all
built of hewn stone and covered with tiles. At the
main entrance rises a pillar of bronze as high as a mast,
on the top of which was perched a bird, apparently a
cock. In addition to this, there was another pillar as
high as a man and very stout. In the centre of the
body of the church rose a chapel, all built of hewn stone,
with a bronze door sufficiently wide for a man to pass,
and stone steps leading up to it. Within this sanctuary
stood a small image which they said represented Our
Lady. Along the walls, by the main entrance, hung
seven small bells. In this church the captain-major
said his prayers, and we with him.
We did not go within the chapel, for it is the custom
that only certain servants of the church, called quasees
(Arabic kdzi, " judge "), should enter. These quasees
wore some threads passing over the left shoulder and
under the right arm, in the same manner as our deacons
wear the stole. They threw holy water over us, and
1 The description of this so-called " church " gives a good picture of the
typical Hindu temple, with its columns, shrines, carved images, and Brahman
priests wearing the sacred cord, marked with the characteristic signs of their
caste, and bowing before painted representations of the Indian pantheon.
HINDU TEMPLES AT CALICUT 213
gave us some white earth, which the Christians of this
country are in the habit of putting on their foreheads,
breasts, around the neck, and on the forearms. They
threw holy water upon the captain-major and gave him
some of the earth, which he gave in charge of some one,
giving them to understand that he would put it on
later. Many other saints are painted on the walls of
the church, wearing crowns. They were painted vari-
ously, with teeth protruding an inch from the mouth,
and four or five arms. Below this church there was
a large masonry tank, similar to many others which we
had seen along the road.
After we had left that place, and had arrived at the
entrance to the city (of Calicut), we were shown an-
other church (Hindu temple), where we saw things like
those described above. Here the crowd grew so dense
that progress along the street became next to impos-
sible, and for this reason they put the captain (Vasco
da Gama) into a house, and us with him. The king
sent a brother of the bale, who was a lord of this coun-
try, to accompany the captain, and he was attended by
men beating drums, blowing anafils and bagpipes, and
firing off matchlocks. In conducting the captain they
showed us much respect, more than is shown in Spain
to a king.
The number of people was countless, for in addition
to those who surrounded us, and among whom there
were two thousand armed men, they crowded the roofs
and houses.
The further we advanced in the direction of the
214 VASCO DA GAMA AT CAXICUT
king's palace, the more did they increase in number.
And when we arrived there, men of much distinction
and great lords came out to meet the captain, and joined
those who were already in attendance upon him. It
was then an hour before sunset. When we reached the
palace we passed through a gate into a courtyard of
great size, and before we arrived at where the king was,
we passed four doors, through which we had to force
our way, giving many blows to the people. When, at
last, we reached the door where the king was, there
came forth from it a little old man, who holds a position
resembling that of a bishop, and whose advice the king
acts upon in all affairs of the church. This man em-
braced the captain when he entered the door. Several
men were wounded at this door, and we got in only by
the use of much force.
The king (Zamorin) was in a small court, reclining
upon a couch covered with a cloth of green velvet, above
which was a good mattress, and upon this again a sheet
of cotton stuff, very white and fine, more so than any
linen. The cushions were after the same fashion. In
his left hand the king held a very large golden cup
(spittoon), having a capacity of half an almude (eight
pints). At its mouth this cup was two palmas (sixteen
inches) wide, and apparently it was massive. Into this
cup the king threw the husks of a certain herb which
is chewed by the people of this country because of its
soothing effects, and which they call atambor (Arabic
tambur, " betel-nut "). On the right side of the king
stood a basin of gold, so large that a man might just
AT THE ZAMORIN'S COURT 215
encircle it with his arms: this contained the herbs.
There were likewise many silver jugs. The canopy
above the couch was all gilt.
The captain (Vasco da Gama), on entering, saluted
in the manner of the country; by putting the hands
together, then raising them toward heaven, as is done
by the Christians when addressing God, and immedi-
ately afterwards opening them and shutting the fists
quickly. The king beckoned to the captain with his
right hand to come nearer, but the captain did not ap-
proach him, for it is the custom of the country for no
man to approach the king except only the servant who
hands him the herbs, and when any one addresses the
king he holds his hands before the mouth, and remains
at a distance.
When the king beckoned to the captain he looked
at us others, and ordered us to be seated on a stone
bench near him, where he could see us. He ordered
that water for our hands should be given us, also
some fruit, one kind of which resembled a melon, ex-
cept that its outside was rough and the inside sweet,
whilst another kind of fruit resembled a fig, and tasted
very nice. There were men who prepared these fruits
for us; and the king looked at us eating, and smiled;
and talked to the servant who stood near him supplying
him with the herbs referred to.
Then, throwing his eyes on the captain (Vasco da
Gama), who sat facing him, he invited him to address
himself to the courtiers present, saying they were men
of much distinction, that he could tell them whatever
216
VASCO DA GAMA AT CALICUT
he desired to say, and they would repeat it to him
(the Zamorin). The captain-major (Vasco da Gama)
replied that he was the ambassador of the King of
Portugal, and the bearer of a message which he could
only deliver to him personally. The king said this was
good, and immediately asked him to be conducted to a
VA8CO DA GAMA AND THE ZAMORIN OF CALICDT.
After a painting by Coke Smyth.
chamber. When the captain-major had entered, the
king, too, rose and joined him, whilst we remained
where we were. All this happened about sunset. An
old man who was in the court took away the couch as
soon as the king rose, but allowed the plate to remain.
The king, when he joined the captain, threw himself
upon another couch, covered with various stuffs em-
VASCO DA GAMA AND THE ZAMORIN 217
broidered in gold, and asked the captain what he
wanted.
The captain (Vasco da Gama) told him he was the
ambassador of the King of Portugal, who was lord of
many countries and the possessor of great wealth of
every description, exceeding that of any king of these
parts; that for a period of sixty years his ancestors
had annually sent out vessels to make discoveries in
the direction of India, as they knew that there were
Christian kings there like themselves. This, he said,
was the reason which induced them to order this coun-
try to be discovered, not because they sought for gold
or silver, for of this they had such abundance that they
needed not what was to be found in this country. He
further stated that the captains sent out had travelled
for a year or two, until their provisions were exhausted,
and then returned to Portugal, without having suc-
ceeded in making the desired discovery. There reigned
a king now whose name was Dom Manuel, who had
ordered him to build three vessels, of which he had been
appointed captain-major, and who had ordered him not
to return to Portugal until he should have discovered
this king of the Christians, on pain of having his head
cut off. That two letters had been entrusted to him
to be presented in case he succeeded in discovering him,
and that he would do so on the ensuing day; and,
finally, he had been instructed to say by word of mouth
that he (the King of Portugal) desired to be his friend
and brother.
In reply to this the king said that he was welcome;
218 VASCO DA GAMA AT CALICUT
that, on his part, he held him as a friend and brother,
and would send ambassadors with him to Portugal.
This latter had been asked as a favour, the captain pre-
tending that he would not dare to present himself be-
fore his king and master unless he was able to present,
at the same time, some men of this country.
These and many other things passed between the
two in this chamber, and as it was already late in the
night, the king asked the captain with whom he desired
to lodge, with Christians or with Moors? And the cap-
tain replied, neither with Christians nor with Moors,
and begged as a favour that he be given a lodging by
himself. The king said he would order it thus, upon
which the captain took leave of the king and came to
where we were, that is, to a veranda lit up by a huge
candlestick. By that time four hours of the night had
already gone.
We all went forth then with the captain in search
of our lodgings, and a countless crowd with us. And
the rain poured down so heavily that the streets ran
with water. The captain went on the back of six men
(in a palanquin), and the time occupied in passing
through the city was so long that the captain at last
grew tired, and complained to the king's factor, a Moor
of distinction, who attended him to the lodgings. The
Moor then took him to his own house, and we were
admitted to a court within it, where there was a
veranda roofed in with tiles. Many carpets had been
spread, and there were two large candlesticks like those
at the royal palace. At the top of each of these were
a
(J
Q
<
END OF THE INTERVIEW 219
great iron lamps fed with oil or butter, and each lamp
had four wicks, which gave much light. These lamps
they use instead of torches.
This same Moor then had a horse brought for the
captain to take him to his lodgings, but it was without
a saddle, and the captain refused to mount it. We then
started for our lodgings, and when we arrived we found
there some of our men (who had come from the ships)
with the captain's bed, and with numerous other things
which the captain had brought as presents for the king. '
A more elaborate, if less trustworthy, account of
this audience with the Zamorin is given, as mentioned
above, in Gaspar Correa 's " Lendas; " but this record,
despite its claim to being based on the diary of the
Portuguese monk Figueiro, is less reliable than the
" Boteiro," or Journal, because it was given at second
hand, since Correa did not arrive in India until 1514,
a number of years after the occasion. Nevertheless, as
already stated, the account has a peculiar value of its
own as a description of manners and customs at the
Zamorin 's court, regarding which Correa was fully
qualified to speak, owing to his long stay in India,
where he died some time before 1583, as pointed out
by Stanley in his translation for the Hakluyt Society.
Such observations as those relating to the Zamorin 's
constantly chewing the leaves of the betel-nut during
the interview impart a realistic touch that will be rec-
ognized by any one who has travelled in India.
' The King (the Zamorin) sent to tell the captain-
major (Vasco da Gama) that he was in his palace wait-
220
VASCO DA GAMA AT CALICUT
ing for him. Upon this the captain-major went at once
in the boat and the Moorish broker took him on shore
with all the packages in large Indian boats, and he went
into the factory, where he dressed himself in a long
cloak coming down to his feet, of tawny-coloured satin,
lined with smooth brocade, and underneath a short
tunic of blue satin,
and white buskins,
and on his head a
cap with lappets of
blue velvet, with a
white feather fas-
tened under a
splendid medal;
and a valuable
enamel collar on
his shoulders, and
a rich sash with
a handsome dag-
ger. He had a
page dressed in
red satin, and in
front of him went
the men in file one
DOM ANDRlS FURTADO DE MENDOCA,
Thirty-seventh Portuguese Governor of India (1609).
before another. First after these went the basin, car-
ried wrapped in a napkin by a man who held it against
his breast, and in front another with the ewer; then
a tray with the knives and caps, and then the open
mirror which had doors, and was all splendidly gilt;
next the pieces of silk, and in front of all the chair
CORREA'S ACCOUNT OF THE INTERVIEW 221
carried upon the head of the broker; and there was
in front a piece of scarlet cloth opened so as to show
it. Before these went the trumpets sounding, and the
factor went with a cane in his hand, and his cap off,
as he conducted all the bearers of the presents.
The king was in a balcony and saw everything in
the order in which it came, with great pleasure at see-
ing such rich things. The factor entered in front and
presented each thing to the king, and he placed a cush-
ion upon the chair, and another at its foot (and said),
that the ambassador asked him as a favour to sit on
the chair for him to give him his embassage seated
on that chair, and the king, with the great satisfac-
tion which he experienced, sat upon it. Before arriv-
ing at the palace there was a long street through
which the captain-major went; but the crowd was so
great that our men could not advance, even though
there were many Nairs (soldiers) making the people
keep off, and in that crowd there were a great number
of Moors also with swords and shields, after the fash-
ion of the Nairs. The captain-major went very leisurely
and without fatiguing himself, and remained still until
they had made the people stand off.
Before reaching the palace, by the king's orders,
the catual (Hindustani kotwdl, " seneschal ") of the
king's house came to receive the captain-major; he
is the chief officer of the guard of the king's palace,
and if any one enters where the king dwells, without
his leave, immediately he will order his head to be cut
off at the door of the palace without asking the king's
222 VASCO DA GAMA AT CALICUT
pleasure about it. With this catual the Portuguese pro-
ceeded with less encumbrance, because he ordered the
people to keep off, and they were much afraid of him.
Each time the factor (trader) presented any piece of
goods, the king looked at it for some time, and this
caused much detention. When the captain-major
(Vasco da Gama) arrived, he was conducted through
many courts and verandas to a dwelling opposite to
that in which the king was, beyond, in another room
arranged with silk stuffs of various colours, and a white
canopy, which was of subtle workmanship and covered
the whole room.
The king was sitting in his chair, which the factor
had got him to sit upon; he was a very dark man, half-
naked, and clothed with white cloths from the middle
to the knees; one of these cloths ended in a long point
on which were threaded several gold rings with large
rubies, which made a great show. He had on his left
arm a bracelet above the elbow, which seemed like
three rings together, the middle one larger than the
others all studded with rich jewels, particularly the
middle one which bore large stones which could not
fail to be of very great value; from this middle ring
hung a pendent stone which glittered: it was a dia-
mond of the thickness of a thumb ; it seemed a priceless
thing. Round his neck was a string of pearls about
the size of hazel-nuts, the string took two turns and
reached to his middle; above it he wore a thin round
gold chain which bore a jewel of the form of a heart,
surrounded with larger pearls, and all full of rubies; in
MANNERS OF THE ZAMORIN 223
the middle was a green stone of the size of a large bean,
which, from its showiness, was of great price, which was
called an emerald; and, according to the information
which the Castilian afterwards gave the captain-major
of this jewel, and of that which was in the bracelet on
his arm, and of another pearl which the king wore
suspended in his hair, they all three belonged to the
ancient treasury of the kings of Calicut. The king had
long dark hair, all gathered up and tied on the top of
his head with a knot made in it; and round the knot
he had a string of pearls like those round his neck, and
at the end of the string a pendent pearl pear-shaped,
and larger than the rest, which seemed a thing of great
value. His ears were pierced with large holes, with
many gold earrings of round beads.
Close to the king stood a boy, his page, with a silk
cloth round him; he held a red shield with a border of
gold and jewels, and a boss in the centre of a span's
breadth of the same materials, and the rings inside for
the arm were of gold; also a short drawn sword of an
ell's length, round at the point, with a hilt of gold and
jewelry with pendent pearls. On the other side stood
another page, who held a gold cup with a wide rim,
into which the king spat; and at the side of his chair
was his chief Brahman, who gave him from time to time
a green leaf (the betel leaf) closely folded with other
things inside it, which the king ate and spat into the
cup. That leaf is of the size of an orange leaf, and the
king was always eating it; and after much mastication
he spat it into the cup, and took a fresh one, because he
224 VASCO DA GAMA AT CALICUT
only tasted the juice of this leaf and the mixture that
goes with it of quicklime and other things, which they
call areca, cut up small; it is of the size of a chestnut.
Thus chewed all together, it makes the mouth and teeth
very red, because they use it all day wherever they
may be going, and it makes the breath very pleasant.
The factor having finished presenting all the things
to the king, which he was looking at very leisurely,
AN INDIAN BETEL NUT CUTTEB.
(Exact size.)
the ambassador arrived and made profound salutations
to the king; and the king, bowing his head and his
body a little, extended his right hand and arm, and with
the points of his fingers he touched the right hand of
the captain-major, and bade him sit upon the dais upon
which he was; but he did not sit down, and spoke to
him through the language which Joan Nuz spoke to the
broker, and the broker spoke to the Brahman, who was
by the king; there were also there the overseer of the
treasury and the gozil (vizir).
RELATIONS OF PORTUGAL WITH INDIA 226
Vasco da Gama said to the king: " Sire, you are
powerful and very great above all the kings and rulers
of India, and all of them are under your feet. My
sovereign, the great King of Portugal, having heard
of your grandeur, and it is spoken of throughout the
world, had a great longing to become acquainted with
you and to contract friendship with you as with a
brother of his own, and with full and sincere peace and
amity to send his ships with much merchandise, to
trade and buy your merchandise, and above all pepper
and drugs, of which there are none in Portugal; and
with this desire he sent fifty ships with his captain-
major; and he sent me to go on shore with his present
and message of love and friendship, which I have pre-
sented to you, because I have been separated from the
rest of my company by storms. God has been pleased
to bring me here where I now am, and, therefore, I
truly believe that you are the king and ruler whom we
came in search of, since here we find the pepper and
drugs which our king commanded us to seek, and which
you, Sire, have been pleased to give us; and I have
great hopes in God that before we depart hence another
fleet will arrive here, or some others, for without doubt,
Sire, we came to seek for you; and I tell you, Sire, that
so powerful is my sovereign, the King of Portugal, that
after I shall have returned to him with your reply, and
with this cargo which you are giving me, he will send
hither so many fleets and merchandise, that they will
carry away as many goods as are to be had in this city.
To certify the truth of what I say, here is the letter of
226 VASCO DA GAMA AT CALICUT
the king my sovereign signed with his hand and seal,
and in it you will see his good and true words which
he says to you."
Vasco da Gama then kissed the letter and placed it
upon his eyes, and upon his head, and gave it to the
king with his knee on the ground; the king took it and
placed it on his breast with both hands, showing marks
of friendship, and opened it and looked at it, then gave
it to the overseer of the treasury, telling him to get it
translated. The king then said to Vasco da Gama that
he should go and rest, and that he would see the letter
and answer it; and that he should ask the overseer of
the treasury for whatever merchandise he wished to
put on board, and he would give it him; also whatever
he required for the ships; and that he should send all
his people to the city to amuse themselves, and to buy
whatever they liked, for no one would do them any
harm. He told the gozil to announce this by the crier,
and with that he dismissed Vasco da Gama, saying that
another day he would speak more at leisure, as it was
now late. So Vasco da Gama went out with the over-
seer of the treasury, and the gozil, and the catual of
the king's door, who brought him to the factory, with
his trumpets blowing before him, and there they took
leave of him with salutations. The captain-major slept
at the factory, after his great satisfaction, and the next
day he sent the trumpeters to the ship with a letter in
which he wrote all that had taken place with the king.'
CHAPTER VII
THE PORTUGUESE COMMANDER ALBUQUERQUE'S EN-
TRANCE INTO GOA AND DESCRIPTION OF MALABAR
1510 A. D.
E establishment of Portuguese rule on the west
coast of India dates from the taking of Goa in 1510
by Affonso de Albuquerque (or, as his name is also
written, Afonso Dalboquerque), whose notable achieve-
ments have been described in the sixth volume. This
eminent navigator and founder of the Portuguese power
in the East landed in India in 1503, on the Malabar
coast. By a series of brilliant successes he advanced
Portugal's prestige not only in India, but also in Cey-
lon, Malacca, the Sunda Islands, and the island of
Ormuz on the Persian Gulf. His career, which may
be read in the volumes of the Hakluyt publications,
ended in disappointment, however, without receiving
true recognition from his country, whose interests he
had served so well. He was supplanted in his office
of Portuguese governor by a rival, appointed by his
king, and, in 1515, he died outside the harbour of Goa,
where his genius had won victories for Portugal only
five years before.
The selections in this chapter are taken from the
227
228 ALBUQUERQUE ON GOA AND MALABAR
" Commentaries de Afonso d'Alboquerque," published
at Lisbon by his son, about forty years after the great
commander's death. The first excerpt, reproduced from
the translation published by the Hakluyt Society, tells
how easily Albuquerque took Goa.
' As soon as D. Jeronymo and Garcia de Sousa had
set out to watch the fortress (as I have already de-
scribed), the great Afonso Dalboquerque remained
quiet throughout the night waiting for the break of
day, and advised the captains what course they should
pursue if any resistance should be offered to them when
entering the city. And just as the morning began to
break he ordered the signal to be made to them, of
which he had previously given them notice. When the
captains heard the signal, they weighed anchor, and
steered with all their people about one thousand Por-
tuguese and two hundred men of Malabar toward
the galley where Afonso Dalboquerque was, and from
that point commenced their course, and arriving at the
city when it was clear day, and not meeting with any
resistance, they entered in at the gate, with a cross
carried in front of them; and there was the great
Afonso Dalboquerque, who, kneeling on his knees and
letting fall many tears, gave thanks to our Lord for
that loving-kindness which He had shown him in deliv-
ering into his hands so large and powerful a city with-
out trouble or the death of any one. This cross was
borne aloft by a friar of St. Dominic, and behind it was
carried the royal flag which was made of white satin
with a cross of Christus worked in the centre, and in
GOA DELIVERED TO ALBUQUERQUE
229
this order of procession they all went on up to the gate
of the castle, where the principal Moors of the city,
and the governors thereof, stood in expectation of their
arrival. And these men, casting themselves at the feet
of our party, delivered up to them the keys of the
fortress, and begged
them earnestly of their
kindness that they
would respect the as-
surance of safety that
had been given to
them.
When Afonso Dal-
boquerque had entered
into the fortress, be-
cause he perceived
that many men of the
city were following be-
hind him, he com-
manded Dom Antonio
de Noronha to wait
behind with fifty men
at the gate, and not
suffer any Moor to enter. The Hindus who were inside
approached him in their accustomed courteous manner
and told him that . they wished to become vassals of
the King of Portugal and to place themselves in obedi-
ence to him. He therefore received them with great
affection and consideration, and ordered proclamation
to be made, that under penalty of death for disobedi-
AFFONSO DE ALBUQUERQCE.
From a contemporary Ms.
230 ALBUQUERQUE ON GOA AND MALABAR
ence, no one should touch a single thing belonging
either to the Moors or to the Hindus that were in Goa,
but all should treat them as vassals of his lord, the
King of Portugal.
As soon as this was over, he proceeded to inspect
the fortress and the palace of the Qabaio, which was all
made with joinery work, and had gardens and pools of
water within it. And thence he went on to some large
arsenals, wherein he found many supplies, a great quan-
tity of powder, and many materials for making it, and
many weapons for the men, both infantry and cavalry,
and a very large quantity of merchandise, and, in some
stables of large size, one hundred and sixty horses;
and in divers parts of the city there were captured
forty large field guns and fifty-five howitzers and of
other lesser kinds of artillery a great quantity, and
many other things which I do not write of, so that I
may not tire the reader. To the shore there were
moored forty ships, large and small, and sixteen fustas;
and there was also there a great supply of ropes and
cordage, and boltwork, and everything else that was
necessary for them.
And there, too, Afonso Dalboquerque found all the
women and children of the Turks and Rumes, whom
they could not carry with them, by reason of the haste
they made in fleeing away with Milique Qufegurgij.
For when this man arrived at the pass of Gondali,
intending to cross over to the mainland, so great was
the thronging haste that many fugitives were suffo-
cated in the river and others lost their horses and quan-
CONQUEST OF THE SURROUNDING COUNTRY 231
titles of clothing which they were carrying, because
there were no means of passing over the ford except
by pieces of wood laid across one another. As soon
as Afonso Dalboquerque had gathered the women and
children of the Turks together, he ordered that they
should receive proper attention and be safely kept;
and on the second taking of this city he converted
them to Christianity and married them to Portuguese
men, as I shall show further on.
Now that the great Afonso Dalboquerque was al-
ready in possession of the city, he ordered that the
captains of the ships of Cannanore should be called
together, and then he gave them permission to depart,
and made them accept a part of the spoils that had
been taken there. And when these men had departed,
he called Timoja, and told him he had information that
there yet remained some Turks in the castle of Banda,
and in other strongholds round about it; and as he was
determined that there should not remain any of the
seed of these people in the whole of the kingdom of
Goa, he was desirous of ordering him to destroy those
castles, and put them all to the sword; he would there-
fore earnestly desire him to send his cousin with some
fustas to show our people the entries to the rivers, for
they did not know them.
Timoja replied that he considered it a good plan
to order the casting out of all the Turks from the
island of Goa, and from the neighbouring places, for
as long as they remained therein they would give much
trouble; so he would make his cousin ready with the
232 ALBUQUERQUE ON GOA AND MALABAR
fust as which were necessary for that object. This hav-
ing been agreed upon, Afonso Dalboquerque sent word
to D. Antonio de Noronha, his nephew, to make ready
the ship Sancta Clara, and the Cirne, and the Flor de
la Mar, and the Flor da Rosa, which were stationed
outside the bar (as I have already said), and three
galleys, and go and overrun all those places and des-
troy them, not sparing the life of a single Turk or
Moor whom they might find.
D. Antonio set out and drew up opposite the for-
tress of Banda; and as soon as the fleet had 'dropped
anchor, he got into the galleys and ships' boats, and
made his way up the river, taking with him in the front
rank the cousin of Timoja with three fust as. When
the Hindus of the land perceived our fleet, inflamed
with hatred against the Turks, they all rose up against
them, and these, terrified at our men, deserted the
fortress and fled away into the interior country, so
that when D. Antonia de Noronha arrived, the Hindus
were already in possession of it, and their captain
immediately had an audience with D. Antonio, and
paid him homage for the fortress, promising to hold
himself in obedience to the King of Portugal.
As soon as the news that Banda had surrendered
ran along the coast, the Turks who were in the fortress
of Condal distrusting the Hindus who were elated at
the favourable treatment they had received from our
fleet deserted it and fled lip the river. And when it
was known in the land that the Turks had fled, a Hindu
captain came with a large body of men, and put him-
THE HINDUS SUBMIT TO THE POETUGUESE 233
self into the fortress, and sent his submission to Af onso
Dalboquerque, holding himself to be a subject of the
King of Portugal, and D. Antonio returned to Goa, and
passed up the river with the large ships, and gave an
account of what had taken place to his uncle, and how
AN OLD PORTUGUESE FORT NEAR 8ANJAN.
he had set fire to four vessels which the Humes had
in the river at Banda.'
Of a more descriptive character is the account of
the province of Malabar, and the statements concerning
the manners and customs of the people are worthy of
citation and may be compared with some of the descrip-
tions by the other writers quoted in this volume.
1 The Province of Malabar commences at the port
of Maceirao, close to Mangalore, and reaches as far as
the Cape of Comorin in the interior country, bounded
234 ALBUQUERQUE ON GOA AND MALABAR
by the great Kingdom of Narsinga; and all along this
land there runs a very lofty mountain range which
divides the province of Malabar from the kingdom of
Narsinga. The greatest breadth of this land from the
seacoast up to the range is about fifteen leagues. These
ranges of mountains are so lofty that the natives of
Narsinga say that in their country the east winds never
blow, because they are prevented from passing over
from the other side by reason of the great height. The
length of the coast-line of this province would be about
a hundred and thirty leagues. In it there are many
kings, and all the people are heathens.
The sons of the kings do not inherit, but their
nephews, sons of their sisters, not the sons of their
brothers, for they hold it to be a very doubtful matter
whether their sons are their own. Wherefore, if they
have a sister, they give her to a Brahman, who keeps
her as his mistress, and the sons of this sister inherit
the kingdom. And if they can get Brahman Patamares
(messengers, or runners, among the Canarese), who
come from the kingdom of Cambaya (and are held in
these parts as a more noble race than any other), to
them they give their sisters to take them from their
earliest girlhood, and with this charge they give the
Brahmans large sums of money that they may be will-
ing to take this trouble, which they perform very rig-
orously, and the sons of these sisters inherit the king-
dom.
These Brahmans are a set of religious men (just
as our priests among us here), who take care of their
MALABAR AND ITS INHABITANTS 235
pagodas. They have among themselves a scientific
language, which is like the Latin among us, that no
one understands unless he is instructed in it. They
are married to one wife only; they do not eat flesh
nor fish, nor anything which may suffer death; their
food is rice, milk, butter, and fruits, and their drink,
water. And in order that this kind of substance may
never fail for the Brahmans, who were numerous, the
ancient people of this land forbade that cows or bulls
should be killed, under penalty of death; and this law
was so strictly observed that not only do they not kill
them, but they worship them and they are even held
as objects of sanctity. They have knowledge of the
Trinity and of Our Lady, whereby it appears that an-
ciently they were Christians.
The Naires of this land are the military men and
esteemed cavaliers, and the most honourable people of
all the country; and it is said that in this province
there would be about two hundred thousand of these
men. They are very loyal to their king, and worship
him; and it has never been found that a Naire has been
guilty of treason.
They have physicians, whose method of cure is in
this wise. To those who are suffering from fevers they
give meat and fish to eat, and purge them with the
seed of the figueira de Inferno, " the fig-tree of hell "
(the castor-oil plant), or give the leaves pounded to
them in water to drink. If one suffers from diarrhoea,
they give him to drink the fresh water of cocos (the
cocoa-nut), and it is stopped immediately. If any are
236
ALBUQUEEQUE ON GO A AND MALABAR
sick, they wash their heads for them with cold water,
and the vomiting ceases. If wounded, they give warm
oil three times a day, and cure them in this manner.
In prolonged illnesses, the remedy which they give to
the sufferers is to take musicians and make pilgrimages
to their pagodas.
In the province of Malabar there are between
Chetua and Coulao many Christians of the time of
St. Thomas, and there are many churches. Many other
customs have they, concerning which I do not write,
to avoid digression; but I leave the account of them
to those who will write the history of India.'
CHAPTER VIII
HINDU MANNERS AND CUSTOMS AS DESCRIBED BY
THE DUTCH MISSIONARY ABRAHAM ROGER
1640 A. D.
ONE of the most interesting accounts of the man-
ners and customs of the people of Southern India
is given by the Dutch missionary Abraham Roger, who
resided at Pulicat, north of Madras, from 1631 to 1641.
His chief informant was an outcast but intelligent
Brahman named Padmanabha, who conversed with him
in Portuguese. Roger returned to Holland, after five
years at Batavia, in 1647, and died at Gonda in 1649.
Two years later his widow published at Leyden his
memoirs of India, entitled De Open-Deure tot het ver-
~borgen Heydendom, or " The Open Door to Hidden
Heathendom," which appeared in a German version at
Nuremberg in 1663 and in a French rendering at Am-
sterdam in 1670. Dr. Louis H. Gray has here trans-
lated portions of the work into English for the first
time; and his version, which is comprised in this chap-
ter, preserves the atmosphere of the original in a par-
ticularly happy manner.
' Our purpose in this treatise is not only to set
forth the life and the customs of the Bramines, but
237
238 AN EARLY DUTCH ACCOUNT OF INDIA
also to reveal their belief and religion. But before
we begin to speak of these matters and of that which
pertaineth thereunto, we must first make a brief preface
on the races and castes of which the heathen nation on
the coast of Coromandel doth consist; for that will give
light and clearness, the better to understand what shall
be said hereafter.
The Bramin Padmanaba (Padmanabha), from whose
mouth I have all the mysteries of heathendom which
are revealed in this book, beareth witness that there
were four general castes or races in this nation. For
though it seemeth that five castes should be reckoned
thereto, yet they say that there are but four, since the
fifth is not really and truly counted among the castes.
These four are the caste of the Bramines (Brahmans),
the caste of the Settreas (Kshatriyas), of the Weinjas
(Vaisyas), and of the Soudras (Sudras). They follow
each other in order, like as they are placed here, and
also surpass each other in honour. So that the first and
the most esteemed is the caste of Bramines; yea, they
also say that these are pre-eminent, and most accep-
table in the sight of God. The Bramin Padmanaba
said that as among all beasts the kine, among all birds
the bird Garouda (which is a red sparrow-hawk with
a white ring about his neck), and among all trees the
tree rawasittou, so also among all men and races the
caste of Bramines is the first and the most honourable
in the eyes of God. Also they have much reverence
among that people, so that with them it is a thing be-
yond all gainsaying that the caste of Bramines hath the
Interior of an Ajanta Cave.
From a Photograph.
THE BRAHMAN CASTE 239
first place among the people; and all others, of how-
ever reverend race they be, gladly acknowledge that
the caste of Bramines doth surpass them in excellence.
The Vedam, or the law-book of these heathen, hath
brought much honour to this caste, in that it, as through
divine ordinance, hath commanded that no Bramin may
be put to death for any fault, however evil or shameful
it may be; but whensoever a Bramin so goeth astray
as to be worthy of death, his eyes are blinded instead
thereof. For, as they say, to slay a Bramin is one of
the five great sins that may not easily be forgiven; so
that the Vedam, or heathen's law-book, hath ordained
that he who slayeth a Braynin must go on a pilgrimage
for twelve years, and that he must beg for alms with
the skull of the slain Bramin in his hand, and that he
must eat and drink of what he hath begged, and that,
after the lapse of the time aforesaid, he must give many
alms and build a temple in honour of Eswara (Isvara,
or Vishnu). Nevertheless, if a Bramin goeth to war
to kill others, then is it not so great a sin to slay a
Bramin; and in that case the slayer is not bound to
perform all the aforesaid in atonement, but he can here
make recompense (if so be that he have the means)
by building a temple in honour of Eswara.
The second caste in order is the caste of the Settreas,
which also is a fact beyond dispute and recognized as
true by all the other lesser castes. These are the nobles
of the land, and there are called Rajes, whose head is
the king, wherefore he writeth at the beginning of his
letters: " The Raja of Rajes, the god of Rajes." In
240
AN EARLY DUTCH ACCOUNT OF INDIA
olden times the race of nobles had only two branches,
whereof the first was called Souriwansjam (Sanskrit
surya-vamsa, " of the solar race "), and had their name
from the sun, since souri signifieth " sun " in Sams-
cortam (Sanskrit), which is a language wherein all
BRAHMAN PRIESTS AT RAMESWAUA, SOUTHERN INDIA.
the mysteries of heathendom are writ, and which is
esteemed among the Braynin es like as the Latin tongue
among the learned in Europe. These are so named
because they are the true stock of nobles. The other
branch is called Somowansjam (Sanskrit soma-vamsa,
11 of the lunar race ") and have their name from the
moon, since in the language aforesaid somo betokeneth
" moon." Besides these two branches, there are many
THE KSHATRIYAS AND VAISYAS 241
others whose nobility is not so great, for that they have
mingled with other races and thereby greatly abased
their high estate. The two first named intermarry,
but they may not wed with those who have fallen so
far from their nobility.
The duty of the nobles is to protect the land and
to provide for it, forcibly to withstand the foe, to see
that the Bramines suffer no lack, likewise to make
sure that all goeth well in the land, that right and
justice make progress; and, in short, it is their duty
to govern the realm well. Nevertheless, if they be poor,
even as there be many poor nobles, it doth sometimes
hap that they must live on their estates, and as, more-
over, they have no other income and may not take any
mercature in hand, and as their household doth oft-
times multiply much because of children, they oft need
more than their income bringeth, so that many times
they leave behind impoverished children who must then
serve as soldiers unto those nobles who have wealth.
The third caste is the caste of the Weinsjas. In
this caste some are the Comitijs (Komatis) and some
are they who are called Sitti weapari. Each of these
claim to be the true Weinsjas. These people gain their
livelihood in merchantry and live therefrom; and the
Bramin Padmanaba said that they must act therein
rightly and without guile, so that they may not win
much even from mercature. These folk bear themselves
in their manner of life well-nigh like the Bramines,
whereas the caste of the Settreas and that of the Sou-
draes eat fish and flesh, excepting the flesh of kine, which
242
AN EARLY iftlTCH ACCOUNT OF INDIA
is forbidden to all castes alike by the Vedam; so that,
like as the Mohammedans abstain from the flesh of
swine, so also all the castes here refrain from the meat
of kine, and have more fear and horror thereof than
the Mohammedans feel for the flesh of the pig. Thus
A GROUP OF WOMEN AND CHILDREN.
the Weinsjas likewise refrain from all that hath had
life, even as the Bramines.
The fourth caste is the Soudraes (Sanskrit Sudra),
who be the common people. This caste hath within it
many and divers divisions, whereof each pretendeth to
surpass the others; and therefore it doth ofttimes hap
that great strife ariseth in the land, insomuch as one
caste or another, be it in marriage or in burial of the
dead, goeth beyond what is the custom. Therefrom
a whole city ofttimes falleth in an uproar, even as I
THE SUDRA CASTE 243
do mind me that in the year 1640, in the month of Jan-
uary, the whole city of Paliacatta (Pulicat) on the coast
of Coromandel was in tumult, for that the Palijs, which
is the caste of poulterers, spread a cloth upon the earth
while burying one of their dead, to the end that the
corpse might be carried thereover. This the caste of
Cauwreaes (Kafirs, i. e. " infidels, outcasts ") would not
suffer, declaring that this was proper for them but
not for the Palijs, and that, though they had put up
with it for a long time, they would bear it no longer;
so that the corpse remained unburied for some days,
until it was interred by the authority of the governor
of our nation. Thereat the Palijs were so wroth that
they went forth from the city with their wives and
children, and called the Cauwreaes to open battle; and
inasmuch as these Palijs have some among the castes
of Soudraes who must hold with them in time of par-
lousness, therefore they called forth these folk from
the city for the space of three months; and so, on
January 23, all the carpenters, smiths, and workers
in gold, and all who were of these trades, were called
forth of the city, and they who remained therein would
not work. But before the battle might be joined, time
of great unrest ensued, nor was the matter ended
without effusion of blood, for in the month of March
fifteen Palijs and Cauwreaes were slain in fight, so
that ye may see how nicely each caste of Soudraes
standeth on its own.
It hath already been said that the caste of Soudraes
compriseth many divisions. These have each a special
244 AN EARLY DUTCH ACCOUNT OF INDIA
name, whereby they are distinguished one from another,
and ofttimes different trades, whereby they support
themselves; but one of the best castes was held the
Wellala (Vellalars), some of whom bear rule and oth-
ers live by agriculture. Next follow, say they, the
Ambria, the most of whom live by sowing and some
serve the great, although at Paliacatta they also gain
their livelihood by building houses. The other castes I
NATIVE INDIAN PLOUGHS.
shall not here set forth according to their order, for
that there is no unanimity among them as to which
precedeth, but each mightily claimeth and pretendeth
that his own caste is best. The Cauwreaes are a very
great caste, called " the race of the three hundred."
In this caste are received all those that have lost their
caste, and therefore they are, as it were, without caste;
and therefore they liken this caste to the sea, which
receiveth all the water of the rivers, yet doth not be-
come full thereof. Some of this caste govern; many
are painters who paint the linen cloth which is needful
for the clothing of their nation, as well as of others
oversea, especially in Aracan and most of all in Pegu,
wheresoever these paintings are much affected and
desired. Many are soldiers.
DESCRIPTION OF VARIOUS SUB -CASTES 245
The Sittijs (Sittars, " saints ") are merchants and
also porters, whensoever they have no means of trade.
The Palijs deal in poultry and swine, as well as in mer-
chandise; and some, they say, are painters, and some
are soldiers. In ancient times, it is said, they were
famed for valour in war and were men in the world.
The lenea are weavers, although each twentieth one
is a soldier. The Cottewanias sell fruits, such as the
pisang, even as the Sittijs. The niewanias (Dlavars)
also sell such fruits as figs and cocoanuts, as well as
iagara (Anglo-Indian jaggery), that is, brown sugar.
The Kaikulle is a despised people; the women are
mostly courtezans, the which is not held to be shame
among them; the men are dancers, but some are weav-
ers, some sowers, and some serve as soldiers. The Sitti-
caram are merchants, but they differ from the Sittijs
aforesaid, who also are merchants, by the sort of wares
wherein they deal. The Caltaja are goldsmiths, black-
smiths, stonemasons, carpenters, and builders. The
Carreas are fishers who fish with great nets. The
Patnouwa fish with little nets. The Maccoba also fish
with great nets. The Callia (Kalyara) are likewise
fishermen, and have their special mode of fishing. The
Conacapule are writers. The Gurrea are herdsmen.
The Bargeurrea are also herdsmen, but these are
Bergas, which is a race highly honoured among this
people. The Riddi (Reddis) are farmers, and some are
soldiers. The Camawaer (Kanuna Varus) are farmers,
though many are soldiers. The Berga-willala are chiefly
farmers. The Innadi are mostly soldiers, but a few
246
AN EARLY DUTCH ACCOUNT OF INDIA
are farmers. The Moutrea are chiefly soldiers. The
caste of Tolowa doth exist no longer, and they say that
only the name is known.
The caste of Palla is the meanest of all the castes
of Soudraes, although it hath somewhat better fame
than the Perreaes (Pariahs), of whom we shall speak
hereafter. To the Soudraes belongeth also the caste
of Correwaes, which is a caste that hath somewhat
strange and peculiar; for these people have no home
or abiding city, like the other castes, but ever go to
and fro through the land with
wife and children. They live
in little huts, which they set
up for a brief space without
the cities; and whensoever
they depart, they put these
huts with their scanty house-
hold stuff, together with their
pots and pans, on little asses, which they have by them
for this end. These people gain their livelihood by
making little fans wherewith to fan the rice when it
is threshed, and by making covers wherewith the pot
is covered when the rice is cooked, so that the water
may be let run off from the rice through them. These
people also carry salt from the seashore into the coun-
try on their little asses; and because that their asses
are small and can carry little, therefore are they free
of tax in the land and left unmolested. It is said that
the women of these Correwaes, who commonly go with
a basket under their arm, can prophesy; and since they
AN INDIAN SPINNING - WHEEL.
THE PARIAHS, OR OUTCASTS 247
make the people believe that what they experience is
not harmful for them, they receive no small gain from
the folk/
Roger then proceeds to devote a chapter to the sub-
ject of the outcast Pariahs, or " Perreaes," as he calls
them, a class despised to such a degree that even the
heathen did not deem them worthy to be reckoned
among their castes.
1 In the foregoing division we have spoken of the
four chief castes of the heathen nation on the coast of
Coromandel and the land thereabout. In this division
we shall treat of the Perreaes, the which is a much
despised folk among the heathen, and not deemed
worthy to be reckoned as a caste among their castes.
They will not even suffer them to dwell among them,
but these Perreaes and Perresijs (with the first name
are named the men, and with the second the women,
of this despised people) dwell in places by themselves,
living in a quarter of the city and in the open country.
Nor do they build their houses in villages, but a great
way off from villages, so that they themselves seem
to be a little village. They may draw no water from
the wells which the villagers use, but have their own
wells nigh their houses ; and lest the other castes should
unwittingly draw water from the wells of the Perreaes,
the latter are obliged to put about their wells bones
of dead beasts for a sign and a warning that these be
Perrea wells; the which is obeyed and fulfilled, whereby
the wells are known. These people may not go in the
city streets where the Bramines dwell, nor may they
248
AN EARLY DUTCH ACCOUNT OF INDIA
set foot in the open lands in the villages of the Bra-
mines; moreover, all entrance into the temple of their
god Wistnou, or Eswara (Isvara, or Vishnu), is for-
bidden. It is said that they are considered unclean
by the Bramines, and, by reason of their uncleanness,
they would therefore defile the Bra-
mines and also the temples, which
are held to be sacred places.
These people gain their liveli-
hood in the land by sowing, by dig-
ging and delving, and by the mur-
ing of houses, which are made of
earth; and they build well-nigh all
the houses of the common people,
for the carpenter findeth little
work there, and ofttimes none.
Likewise, they perform all foul
tasks that no one else will do; and
are fain thereto, for that is their
calling. These people be very foul
of food, for besides edible stuff, they eat cows, horses,
goats, hens, and all manner of beasts that have dieft,
so that it is no marvel that they are right little es-
teemed and are held to be unclean, especially by the
Bramines, who hold so much to outward purity, like
as the Pharisees.
Of this caste there are two sorts, the first whereof
is called simply Perreaes, and the other Siriperen. The
handiwork of the latter is to go about with leather and
to prepare it, making bridles thereof and other more
TWO PARIAHS.
THE WKETCHED ESTATE OF THE PARIAHS 249
things for beasts. Some of them serve as soldiers. The
Perreaes first named are held to be better in caste than
the second, wherefore they may in no wise eat in the
houses of the Siriperen. Nevertheless, the Siriperen
may well eat in the houses of the Perreaes, and they
must also do worship unto them, raising their hands
and standing up before them. And since, in the year
1640, a certain Siripere in Paliacatta would not do this,
the Perreaes seized him and cut off his hair, the which
is the greatest affront and shame that can be done to
any one.
When these Siriperen marry, they may not erect
any pandael (shed) with more than three stakes. You
must know that in this land the custom is that, when-
ever a bride is in the house, some stakes are set up
before the door, which are covered above, somewhat
higher than a man, with lighter sticks, on which verdure
is laid to cast shade beneath; and on the stakes which
are the posts and stand upright, pisang leaves are fas-
tened as tokens of joy. The structure aforesaid is called
pandael in the language of the country. Now in the
construction of such a pandael these people may have
no more than three stakes, and in case they should
transgress herein, the entire city would be in an uproar.
On the neck of these people lieth certain servitude,
since whensoever one of the caste of Comitijs, Sittijs,
oil-millers, Palijs, smiths, or goldsmiths, is dead, and
of wealth, and will have a shroud bought for him, the
which they give to the Siriperen, then must these Siri-
peren dishevel their beards; and whensoever the dead
250
AN EARLY DUTCH ACCOUNT OF INDIA
man is brought outside the city or village to be burnt
or buried, they must go behind the corpse. But those
that are not wealthy merely bid them go behind the
corpse, and give to each of the aforesaid, in considera-
AMONG THE KATKARIS, A WILD TRIBE IN WESTERN INDIA.
tion of this, a fanum, or one and one-half, that is, a
piece of money that is there worth seven groats.
The Bramin Padmanaba said that the Bramines had
their name from Bramma (Brahma) and that they bear
this name in honour of him, reckoning themselves to be
descended from him. It is, indeed, true that they feel
that the other castes likewise are descended from him;
ORIGIN OF THE SEVERAL CASTES 261
nevertheless, they receive their name from Bramma for
that they be sprung from his chief est part, namely, from
his head; whilst that the Settreaes are sprung from his
arms, the Weinsjas from his thighs, and the Soudraes
from his feet: the which is used by the Bramines for
a proof of their greater worthiness above other castes.
The Bramines are distinguished from one another both
in respect of their faith and in respect of their manner
of life. In respect of their faith the Bramines are of
six kinds: the Weistnouwa, the Seivia, the Smaerta, the
Schaerwaecka, the Pasenda, and the Tschectea (Vaish-
navas, Saivas, Smartas, Sarvakas, Pasendas (?), Sak-
tas).
They of the sect of the Weistnouwa (Vaishnavas)
say that Wistnou (Vishnu) is the highest god, and that
none is like unto him; and for that they recognize
Wistnou as the highest god, are they called Weist-
nouwa. Moreover, they of the caste of the Soudraes,
whensoever they agree in their faith with these, are
termed daetseri, that is, " servants." But it must be
known that, when they are so called, it is to be under-
stood, as the Bramin Padmanaba said, that they are
servants to the Bramines; which service the Bramines
hold to be a great honour for the Soudraes, in that they
should be esteemed worthy to be servants to the Bra-
mines. They persuade these people that the deity
esteemeth the service which they do the Bramines even
as it were done to himself; and they testify to the
Soudraes that whosoever of their caste yieldeth up his
life to protect Bramines, cometh after death to the
252 AN EARLY DUTCH ACCOUNT OF INDIA
realm of Dewendre (Devendra, or the god Indra).
So, whensoever Bramines are named Daetsja, or Dasa,
which also betokeneth " servant," it must be under-
stood that they are servants to God and peculiar to
Him; but it is not to be understood of them as of the
Soudraes, for it lieth far from them to confess that they
be servants to any caste.
The sect of Weistnouwa aforesaid is again divided
into two parts, the first being named Tadwadi Weist-
nouwa or Madwa Weistnouwa. This name they bear
from Tadwadi Weistnouwa, for that they, so they pre-
tend, are mighty disputants, who know how to discourse
profoundly of God and of divine matters, and to defend
their words. For in the Samscortam tongue tadwadi
betokeneth " disputant, " and tadwa " knowledge of
God." And the name of Madwa they bear from one
Madwa Atsjaria (Madhava Acharya), who, they say,
was the first finder, or poet, of this sect. The second
sort of Weistnouwa are called Ramanouja Weistnouwa.
This name of Ramanouja they have from one Rama-
nouja Atsjaria (Ramanuja Acharya), who was a founder
and poet of this sect. Each of these Weistnouwa hath
his own special mode and manner of marking himself.
The Tadwadi mark themselves daily with a little white
stripe which runneth from the nose up to the forehead,
and also on the sides of the head to the place where
the arms are joined to the shoulder-blades; and like-
wise on both breasts with a round mark as large as a
double stiver. They say that this is the mark of Wist-
nou, and that it serveth them as a weapon whereby
V
II
M
II
II
IS
u
IB
17
H
UJ
eo
III
A
w ai
o o e
INDIAN CASTE HARKS.
From Birdwood's Indian Arts.
Nos. 1-5, Brahma and the Trimurti.
Nos. 6-35, Sectarial Marks of the Vaishnavas.
Nos. 36-69, Sectarial Marks of tbe Saivas.
No. 70, Mark of tbe Sakti Sects.
Nos. 71-74, Marks of tbe Buddhists and Jainas
HINDU CASTE MARKS 255
they are protected against the devil, or lamma (Yama),
the judge of hell, so that none of them may lay hands
upon them or draw nigh them.
The Tadwadi promise Wistnou to acknowledge him
as the only god and to obey him without accepting any
other one deity or obeying any other god. Nevertheless,
they add hereto that it is not enough to make such a
promise, but that a godly and virtuous life must be led
at all times, and that a promise which is not fulfilled
shall profit nothing, but that such service shall find its
meet punishment. The Tadwadi Weistnouwa have a
chief of their sect who liveth in the neighbourhood of
Paliacatta, in a place called Combeconne, where he is
well known. He weareth no cord about his neck like
the other Bramines, nor hath he any wife, but when he
entereth upon his dignity, he leaveth all, and commonly
goeth with a bamboo reed in his hand.
The Ramanouja Weistnouwa mark themselves with
a mark which is almost a Greek upsilon, making it on
the forehead extending upward from the nose. For this
they use namou, a material almost like white chalk; but
where the arms join the shoulder-blades, they brand
another mark, and say that this mark branded in their
flesh is enough, and that they need not mark all their
limbs daily. They say that when they have given them-
selves to their god with a good and upright heart, and
have promised to be his servants without recognizing
any other, that this is enough, and that, even if they
do not conduct themselves well for the rest of their
life, nevertheless God will be gracious unto them be-
256 AN EARLY DUTCH ACCOUNT OF INDIA
cause of their promise, and that he will not reckon the
evil end of a sinful life to their punishment. They
say that Wistnou will never abandon those whom he
hath accepted in his love; and they add hereto that
no father can kill his child that goeth astray; that man
cannot live without sin; and that it is therefore im-
possible that Wistnou, having accepted any one, should
again abandon him. There are, moreover, many other
things wherein these Ramanouja differ from the Tad-
wadi Weistnouwa.
These Ramanouja Weistnouwa may not cover their
heads with any covering, as the other Bramines do, but
go bareheaded. Their hair is cut short, except a tuft
on the crown of their head, which hangeth down behind
and hath a knot tied in it. Nevertheless, the chief of
this sect, who hath his residence in Cansjewaram (Con-
jevaram), a very great city in the kingdom of Carnatica
(the Karnatic), and therefore is a man of honour and
regard, hath the pre-eminence over his fellows in that
he may have a covering on his head; yet not always
hath he such a covering, but whensoever he standeth
to speak with any.
The Ramanouja say that their sect is better than
the Tadwadi, and therefore they say that they may not
meddle in any mercature, and also that they go not into
bawdy houses, else might it hap to any one of them
to be bitterly and severely punished by their chief for
this sin. Nor is it permitted the Tadwadi to go into
such houses, yet even if they do it, yet are they neither
reproved nor punished, as is the case among the Ra-
FOLLOWEKS OF VISHNU AND SIVA
257
manouja, even as the Bramin Damersa, being of the
sect of the Tadwadi, hath himself borne witness.
The second sect of the Bramines, named Seivia (Sai-
SCULFTURES OF A SOUTHEBS IWDIAN TEMPLE.
vites) and also Aradh-iha (Sanskrit Aradhya, " wor-
shipful "), say that one Eswara (Isvara, Siva) is the
highest god, and that all others stand below him and
258 AN EAKLY DUTCH ACCOUNT OF INDIA
are less than he, yea, even Wistnou, whom the Weist-
nouwa pretend to be the chiefest god. Those of the
Soudra caste who agree herein with these Bramines are
called Sjangam (Sanskrit sanga, " company "). This
sect mark their heads with three or four streaks of
ashes of burnt cow-dung. Some of them wear about
their necks a certain stone, or idol, which they call
lingam, and some wear it in the hair of their heads;
they let their children, when they are eight or ten years
old, wear it covered with wax, bound to their arm with
a cord. They that wear this lingam, do it for a proof
and open avowal that they put their full trust and con-
fidence in Eswara, and that they recognize no other
god but him. The Soudraes who wear this lingam re-
frain from fish and flesh and from all that hath died,
even as the Bramines.
The third sect is called Smaerta (Sanskrit, Smdrta,
" traditionalists ") and had, as the Bramin Padmanaba
testified, who himself was of this sect, one Sancra Ats-
jaria (Sankara Acharya) as a poet and founder of their
sect. They say that Wistnou and Eswara are one, even
though they be worshipped under different images, and
they are averse to some saying that Wistnou is the
chiefest god and object to others esteeming Eswara as
of this rank. I have not been able to find that these
Smaertas mark themselves outwardly with any mark
whereby they may be distinguished from each other.
They seem not to have many followers among the com-
mon folk, since this matter is somewhat too high for
their understanding and their concept cannot be at-
A Statue of the God Siva at Vellore in Southern India
The Hindu divine triad consists of Brahma tlic Creator, Vishnu the
Preserver, and Siva the Destroyer. The Indian representations of Siva,
or Mahadcva, as he is often called, are many and various, but he always
holds in one of his hands the " trisul," or trident, as his characteristic
emblem.
OTHER HINDU SECTS 259
tained, and this the less since the Bramines hold it as
a mystery.
The fourth sort, called Schaerwaecka (Sarvaka), are
of the race of Epicureans and believe that life is the end
of man, and that after this life no other f olloweth. All
that others say of the future life, that they deny, and
say that men must prove and show to them so that they
may see with their own eyes; otherwise, they will not
believe. The Bramin Padmanaba said that if in their
dealings with men they conduct themselves well, they
do it not to gain any good therefor in the future
life, but to win them praise from men. These seem
mostly to be of the humour of Pliny, who ridiculed all
that men say of the abode of the soul after the death
of the body, and who held such things for madness
and a dream; and said that after the corpse is dead,
there remaineth no more of the man than there was
before he was conceived and born; and who laughed
at those who believed that souls survived, and sought
thereby to console themselves in the hour of death.
The fifth sect are called Pasenda. They say that
the law, that is, the teaching which is taught every-
where amongst the heathen, is not true; nor do they
regard it, but care alone for their belly and let all
go its own gait; inasmuch as they hold with the
former sort that man endeth with this life. How can
it be, they say, that a man who is burnt to ashes and
hath become dust should again be made alive? Yet
herein they argue not nor speak against the Christian
belief of the resurrection of the dead, whereof they have
260
AN EARLY DUTCH ACCOUNT OF INDIA
no knowledge, but in this they do attack the notion
of the heathen, who believe in the cycle of the ages and
pretend that sometime the day will come when all shall
be again even as it now is. That belief they reject and
will have none of it. These, said the Bramin Pad-
manaba, are worse than the preceding, not alone be-
A TODA HUT AT UTAKAMAND IN SOUTHERN INDIA.
cause they have this belief and regard not caste, but
also because, even as the beasts, they make no difference
between father and mother, brother and sister; they
eat with each one of them, they sleep with each one
of them, and say that in the person of another woman
they but mate with their own wives. The Bramin Pad-
manaba testified that this godlessness sprang up be-
cause that these men sought not for a good name among
mankind nor expected any other life after this life.
HINDU MARRIAGES 261
Nevertheless they are afraid, like the preceding, to
avow their belief openly, for that they fear peril of
their lives, since the zealous souls of others could not
endure this horrible godlessness, but such would readily
fall upon them, even as many of them have been killed
for this belief aforetime.
The sixth sect is named Tschectea (Saktis), who
say that neither Wistnou nor Eswara is the chief god,
but one Tschecti (Skt. Sakti, " power "), from whom
Wistnou, Eswara, and Bramma have their origin, and
that they exist through his might, and that the world
and all that is therein hath its being through him. These
are like the aforesaid in that they will not submit them-
selves to the Vedam, but require that men shall prove
all things to them so that they may see it with their
own eyes and that their hands may handle it. These
three last sects are held as heretics by the heathen and
have but few followers of their evil belief.'
In the eleventh chapter of the first book of his
" Open Door " Roger deals with the subject of mar-
riage among the Brahmans, telling of the early age
at which children are married and the manner in which
the match is made, and describing the performance of
the marriage ceremony.
' The Bramins are concerned right early to see that
their sons obtain a wife and their daughters a husband;
but it must be known that the Bramines, the Settreas,
and also the Weinsjas may not take this matter in hand
before that their sons have received the Brahmanical
cord. They that be wealthy and rich are much earlier
262 AN EARLY DUTCH ACCOUNT OF INDIA
about this matter than they that be poor, and the rich
are ofttimes busied herewith when their children are
but eight years old, yea, some so soon as they have
received the cord, that is, in their fifth year. And it
is also carefully observed of the Bramines that they
ever look for a daughter who is younger than their son.
The reason is, so the Bramin testified, because that the
Bramines may not marry women who have already
had their flowers; wherefore the Bramines are right
careful to marry their daughters off full soon, since
if a daughter of a Bramin be not married before
her time, no one may take her to wife. Whensoever
daughters remain long with their parents, they hide
this fact to avoid disquietude, and in order that their
daughters may not be prevented from being married.
Nevertheless, they of the Settrea caste pay not the
least heed hereto, but marry not only with girls who
have never had their flowers, but also with those whom
they know have had them; though they also hold it
more honourable that they give regard to this matter.
Whensoever a Bramin setteth forth to make provi-
sion for his son, he must pay right close heed to the
omens which meet him, whether they be good or bad;
for if an evil omen happeneth to him when he goeth
to make his first suit, then must he defer it until 4he
next day. If then, before the second journeying, an
ill omen meeteth him, he must again defer it till another
day. But if again, for the third time, an evil omen
encountereth him, then must he wholly abandon his
marriage suit, deeming that it will be an unlucky mar-
CHOOSING A WIFE
263
riage. Now they of the "Weinsja caste (of merchants),
when any one speaketh of a snake on the day that they
purpose to go make their first suit, hold that for an
AN INDIAN SNAKE CHARMER.
ill omen; but if they see a snake on that day, then
must they let the matter rest and never again think
of carrying out their purposed suit, since they deem
that this would be an evil and unlucky marriage. Also
these Weinsja take a half pagode, or a half-ducat of
264 AN EAELY DUTCH ACCOUNT OF INDIA
gold, the which they melt, and if the molten gold show-
eth clear, they hold it for a good omen and think that
it is proper to proceed with the marriage; but if it
showeth dark, it is an ill omen and the marriage is
deferred. Nevertheless, the Bramines hold very little
to this omen.
Whenever a daughter is sought in marriage by any
one, then must the father of the daughter seek to see
the man by whom this suit is made, and to have knowl-
edge of his position, and after he hath been acquainted
therewith, if the man pleaseth him, he then permitteth
the bachelor to come unto the friends of the daughter
and that he may also see the daughter with his own eyes.
If, then, they fancy each the other, and if this be well
pleasing to the friends, the marriage is concluded and
confirmed. But those of the Soudra caste will not grant
their daughters except the bridegroom count out for
the daughter a certain sum of money which the father
bespeaketh; so that he seemeth to buy her. Neverthe-
less, they will not call this money purchase-money, but
a gift.
When a marriage is agreed upon, then is a time set
for a certain good day, that the friends may come to-
gether from every side to perform the ceremonies which
are by custom used amongst them whensoever two per-
sons have plighted their marriage troth. And these
are as follows: the father of the bride giveth betel to
the friends of the bridegroom, and he testifieth in the
presence of all them that are there present that he hath
given his daughter unto N., sib of the friends there
COURTSHIP, BETROTHAL, AND MARRIAGE 265
present. Thereat the friends of the bridegroom also
give betel to the friends of the bride and bear witness
as aforesaid, and they take to be witnesses them that
be present. When the time for the marriage is come,
then they proceed, with no long delay, to the celebration
of their nuptials. I say " when the time for the mar-
riage is come," for these heathen do not marry through-
out the entire year, but only in the months of February,
May, June, October, and in the beginning of Novem-
ber, on certain good days and hours, in the observance
whereof they are very nice.
Whensoever the appointed time is come for the mar-
riage to be completed, then prepare they the homam
(soma) fire from the wood of a tree which in their
tongue is hight rawasittou and is full holy. This fire
is for a witness of the wedlock which is here begun,
and thereover the Bramin speaketh a prayer. There-
after the bridegroom thrice taketh his hands full of
rice and casteth it over the head of his bride, and so
also doth the bride to the bridegroom. Then the father
of the bride taketh some garments, jewels, and the
like, according to his ability, and adorneth the bride
therewith; and likewise doth he also to the bridegroom.
Then washeth he the bridegroom's feet, and the bride's
mother poureth water over them. Thereafter the father
taketh the hand of his daughter in his hand and poureth
water therein and some gold; and if that he be rich,
he holdeth much more in his hand, and thus he giveth
his daughter's hand over to the bridegroom in the name
of God, and saith: " I have no more to do with thee;
266 AN- EARLY DUTCH ACCOUNT OF INDIA
I give thee over." But when the father giveth over his
daughter's hand to the bridegroom, then is there on
her hand a little cord, whereon is fastened the golden
head of an idol, the which they call a tali. This tali
is shown to the bystanders, and after some prayers and
felicitations, the bridegroom taketh this tali and bindeth
it about the neck of his bride; and whenas this knot
is tied, so are the bonds of marriage firm; but so long
as this tali is not bound by the bridegroom about the
bride's neck, the marriage may be broken off without
shame, even though all the things aforesaid have been
done. It also happeth among them that whensoever
the bridegroom is come to bind the tali on the bride,
but doth not give the father enough for a wedding por-
tion, one of them that stand by, envying him the quarry,
doth give more and winneth the bride, and the father
letteth him succeed, for that he gaineth more gold
thereby. The heathen governor at Paliacatta, hight
Sinanna, said that this was the custom mostly among
the Bramines; but methinks they would deny it for
shame, albeit it may well hap, though not so much from
greed as from poverty, since for the most part the
Bramines have no abundant wealth.
Since the tali aforesaid, bound about the neck of the
bride, maketh the marriage tie, therefore, when the hus-
band dieth, it is burnt with him for a token that the
bonds of marriage are broken; but if the wife be burnt
with her husband, then is the tali burnt with her.
The matters which we have related thus far are
performed in the house of the bride; but since the
THE PUBLIC WEDDING CEREMONIES
267
wedding is a thing which doth attract the populace and
must be known, therefore they make public pronounce-
ment that the marriage is to be performed; and when
this cometh to pass, they do it before the eyes of all
A TODA TEMPLE AT TTTAKAMAND IN SOUTHERN INDIA.
the world. Accordingly, when they proceed to perform
the marriage, they make, a few days before it, a pan-
dael, that is, a shed, before the bride's door, where the
marriage is to be performed. And, if it be possible,
they have four pisang-trees, whereby it is known that
a marriage is to be performed in such-and-such a house
where this structure standeth. On the day that the
268 AN EARLY DUTCH ACCOUNT OF INDIA
marriage is performed and the ceremonies aforesaid
are observed, which is the first day, the father of the
bride giveth a feast unto the friends and also food to
the poor, the which lasteth five days in succession, and
the homam aforesaid may likewise last the five days.
On the seventh day the bride goeth forth with the
bridegroom and is borne, even by night, through the
principal streets of the city in a palakijn (palanquin)
with many torches and bassoons and fireworks, accom-
panied by their friends, some on horses, some on ele-
phants, since they seek to make their estate honourable
in every wise; and thus the bride is brought openly
to the house of the bridegroom. There she abideth
three or four days if she be young and be yet unable
to know man; and then they bring her again to her
father's house. But when she is come to woman's
estate, then she abideth henceforth with her husband.
When the children of the Bramines are wedded, they
are no more called 'bramasarijs (Sanskrit "brdhmacarya,
11 chaste "), but grahastas (Sanskrit grihastha, " house-
holder "), and receive the second cord, consisting of
three strings. And commonly they add to the second
cord the third also, and it serveth them for an upper
garment; for the Bramines may not go with the upper
part of the body bare. And although they go with the
upper portions of their persons exposed, as is the com-
mon practice, nevertheless, since they have the third
cord, they hold it as a garment, and it is counted among
them as if they went with their bodies covered. Every
ten years that they gain in age, they add yet another
CHILD - MARRIAGES 269
cord to the previous ones; and also each time that a
child is born to them, they may add a cord to the former
ones. This the Vedam doth ordain, yet the Bramin
Padmanaba said that it was not obeyed so nicely by
all; but the more zealous each among them is in heathen-
dom, the nicer he is to obey whatsoever the Vedam
hath ordained respecting these cords/
' The Bramines may not marry their children,
whether sons or daughters/ says Roger in his twelfth
chapter, l save to those who be of their caste, and herein
are they very precise. And although the other castes
also do not ordinarily marry their children except to
their own caste, nevertheless it doth sometimes come to
pass that they give their daughters to men who are
of a higher caste, being led thereto by marking the rev-
erence of the caste. But the Bramines cannot be led
or enticed by such considerations, since if they should
give their daughters to another caste, they must neces-
sarily do despite to their own caste, for that it is the
first in reverence.
One might ask, however: " Be there, then, no Bra-
mines who have wives from other castes? *' I answer,
" Yes," but that cometh to pass thus: These sons of
Bramines, when they are old in years and are no longer
content with the wife of their youth, with whom they
were wedded by their fathers' care, but seek to give
rein to their lusts and to delight the flesh, ofttimes take
to themselves wives of other castes who are well pleas-
ing in their eyes both for the fair comeliness of their
bodies and for the colour which adorneth them. Never-
270 AN EAELY DUTCH ACCOUNT OF INDIA
theless, according to the opinion of the Bramines them-
selves, it is a deed of imprudence when a Bramin taketh
THE MARBLE ROCKS AT JABALPUR.
to himself a wife from the Soudra caste; since when-
soever a Bramin leaveth behind him offspring from
such a wife, then that Bramin, so they are persuaded,
CASTE RESTRICTIONS IN MARRIAGE 271
is deprived of heaven on his death, so long as his de-
scendants be on earth. Wherefore the Bramin Pad-
manaba also said that it was a very great sin to leave
offspring by such a wife. In their Poranes (Puranas),
that is, ancient histories, it is also found that a certain
Bramin of great fame among them, hight Sandragou-
peti Naraia (Chandragupta Narayana), being old, was
sore afflicted when he saw that his son Barthrouherri
(Bhartrihari), born to him by a wife of the Soudra
caste, had three hundred wives, since he concluded
therefrom that he must long miss heaven for this cause.
Although the Bramines take such nice heed to whom
they marry their children, like as we have understood,
nevertheless one might very easily marvel whether they
also pay any regard lest they marry them to those who
be too near akin to them, either by blood or by affinity.
In sooth, they do mind them thereof and have horror
of incest. The Bramin Padmanaba, once speaking with
me of this matter, said that this was one of the five
great sins which may not lightly be forgiven, and that
the Vedam had ordained that they who might come to
err therein should have their privities cut off and given
them in their hands, and that such should then be let
die of themselves without permitting them to be healed;
but on the women no punishment was laid for this,
since they themselves could not fall into this sin save
through seducement. In this connection, to show how
horrible this sin was deemed among them, the Bramin
related that a certain Bramin near Paliacatta, the which
still lived, had unwittingly slept with his mother by
272 AN EAELY DUTCH ACCOUNT OF INDIA
night, for that he found her in the place where he was
wont to find his wife, and the mother thought that he
was her husband. But when this Bramin discovered
the sin which he had done, he unmanned himself and
went to drown himself. However, he was haled out
and cured, for that he had done it unwittingly.
It must be noted, nevertheless, that in the reckon-
ing of blood kinship and affinity, within which it is
A TAMIL BATHING - PLACE AT TBICHINOPOLI.
permitted to wed or not, these heathen differ much
from us and from other nations. For among them it
is allowed to marry a wife's sister, yea, to have two,
three, and more sisters together; but that two brothers
should each have a sister, that is not permitted among
them and would be incest. They may also wed the
daughter of their father's sister, but not the daughter
of their father's brother; likewise the daughter of their
sister, but not the daughter of their brother. But the
Bramin Padmanaba said that, notwithstanding that
THE DOCTRINE OF TRANSMIGRATION 273
this last was not permitted to the Bramines, it was
allowed to the Soudraes; the which was manifest from
the heathen governor Sinanna, who, in the time of my
residence at Paliacatta, ruled the city in the name of
the king of Carnatica, who had married his brother's
daughter. The heathen of Siam and Pegu also differ
much herein from the heathen on the coast of Coro-
mandel, since they may also wed with their father's
brother's wife, which these may not do.'
' The belief of the Hindus,' continues Eoger in an-
other chapter, ' is that more or less punishment doth
befall the wicked after this life, and that some are to
be punished in this world after their death, and some
outside this world. And in what fashion all this is to
take place we shall now set forth. They believe that
it is because of sin that the souls of some pass from
their bodies into another body so soon as they die.
These heathen agree herein with Plato, who likewise
was of the opinion that the soul of one migrateth to
another, and not alone into the body of another man,
but also into the bodies of beasts. This hath Plato
believed, who was a marvel among the heathen in his
time; this hath his disciple, Plotinus, also held to be
good. But this hath displeased Porphyry, who hath
thought that after death the souls of men migrate only
into the bodies of men, and not into the bodies of beasts.
And the reasons that moved him to make changes in
the belief of his master were that he held it shameful
for the soul of a mother to migrate into a mule and
draw her own son. But he did not take into consid-
274 AN EAKLY DUTCH ACCOUNT OF INDIA
eration that it was still more shameful that the soul
of a mother might pass into a young girl and be known
by her own son. Nevertheless, these heathen make no
difficulty either of the one or the other, but it is their
firm belief that the souls of men pass from one body
to another, whether of men, beasts, or herbs, and that
this befalleth each man according to his deeds. But
of those who migrate into the bodies of beasts, they
deem them the luckiest who enter into kine; since the
body of these beasts they hold to be the most lucky
gaol or prison, for that they believe that among all
sorts of beasts kine are the most acceptable to God,
and that Nandi, or Baswa (Sanskrit vrishdba, " bull "),
was an ox and the wahanam, that is, carrier, whereon
Eswara (Siva) was carried; wherefore these heathen
hold kine in high honour. They may not slaughter any
of them, but as great horror as the Mohammedans have
of pork, so great horror have they of eating beef. I
have seen more reverence done a dead ox belonging
to a pagoda than if he had been a man; for even as
it is the custom, wherever there is a dead man, for
bassoons to be blown, so was it done regarding this
ox; and moreover he was covered with a robe in stately
wise, and had incense burned over him.
They also believe that some persons become devils
because of their sins, and that they wander through
the air until the time of their punishment be passed.
They say that these suffer very great hunger, and that
they cannot get a single blade of grass from the earth
to fill their hungry bellies, and that they can enjoy
BELIEFS CONCERNING THE FUTURE LIFE
275
naught from this earth save what is given them by
men as alms; and this is the reason that the friends
of the deceased put food before the speckled crows for
the first nine days after his death, so that if the soul
of the departed hath become a devil, nevertheless he
A DEVIL DANCER OP CEYLON.
may come and eat. According to their belief, these also
come sometimes among men in human guise; but since
they can do no harm, therefore they say that none need
fear them.
They that be punished outside this world are they
who are tormented in lamma-locon (Sanskrit Yama-
loka, " world of Yama "), that is, hell. But it must
276 AN EARLY DUTCH ACCOUNT OF INDIA
be known that some of them who are punished in
lamma-locon win forth therefrom after that they have
been therein for the space that was ordained them for
their sins; and having passed this space, they them-
selves come again to this world and enter into one or
another body. Howbeit, some of them that fare to hell,
win not forth, but must be punished there to all eter-
nity, and these are they that fare unto Antam tappes,
that is, the pit of darkness. They say that this is a
dark pit, which is called Antam tappes because of its
darkness; and that they who fall therein never win
forth from it, but ever abide there, yet without dying;
and that there they must endure all manner of pains
and torments. There, they say, are thorns; there are
crows with iron beaks; there are savage dogs; there
are gnats that bite cruelly; cold, and all that may serve
for the increase of pain and torment.
Let us now go investigate also what they believe
concerning the state of them who are blessed after their
death. Here it must be known that some of them may
come again to this world after their death, when that
a certain definite space of years be passed; and that
some never return, but win to eternal and everlasting
beatitude. For them that depart hence but may come
again to this world, they say there are seven places,
which are Indre-locon or Dewendre-locon, Agni-locon,
Niruti-locon, Wajouvia-locon, Cubera-locon, Isanja-lo-
con, and Warrouna-locon. Each of these places is
named after the head who ruleth over it. They say
that in each of these places they who win to them
The Huge Stone Bull at Tanjore
The bull, usually called Nandi, is ihc sacred animal of the g<<d Siva,
or Mahadeva. among the Hindus. One of tlie most famous images of
Siva's bull is the great stone idol at Tanjore in Southern India. This
massii'C figure of black granite, sixteen feet long and twelve feet high,
is an object of pious veneration to countless numbers of faitfifitl Hindus.
JOYS OF THE BLESSED DEAD 277
enjoy such beatitude that they wish none better, and
even that each one deemeth his own place to be the
best. But besides these seven, which are all comprised
under the general name Dewendre-locon or Surgam
(Sanskrit svarga, " heaven "), is Bramma-locon, that
is, the place where Bramma (Brahma) is, which place
seemeth to be nighest of all unto heaven. They who
come thither may also return to this world after that
a certain space of years is passed; but these, when
they have come again to this world and have lived
their time here, then win indubitably to heaven itself,
where they abide for ever without returning again to
this world.
They that dwell in Surgam call themselves Dewetaes
(Sanskrit devata, " divinity ") and are of two sorts.
Some abide there for a time and may come again to
this world to be reborn; and they believe concerning
these that they enjoy all bliss and sleep with women,
but without having children. And since that death
may not be known in Surgam, therefore they do believe
that these Dewetaes, when their time of biding there
is lapsed, are thrust out of Surgam with soul and body,
and that the soul then passeth into another body and
leaveth that in which it was; but the Bramin wot not
to say where that the body abode wherewith the Deweta
was thrust out of Surgam. Moreover, there be also
Dewetaes in Surgam who abide there eternally, since
there be the sun, the moon, the stars, and the like.
These also beget children who dwell in Surgam. They
believe that no sin is done in Surgam, but that God
278
AN EARLY DUTCH ACCOUNT OF INDIA
Himself sometimes appeareth unto them and teacheth
them.
But the most blessed of all them that pass from this
world are they who receive for their lot Weicontam
.
BH^^B^HulNrM;
SCULPTURES OP THE HINDU DIVINITIES SIVA AND PARVATI, AT ELLORA.
(Sanskrit V&kuntka, " Vishnu's heaven "), that is,
heaven itself. Nevertheless, it must be known that the
Bramines say that Weicontam is twofold: one, Lila-
Weicontam, that is, the sportful heaven; and a heaven
which they call simply Weicontam, where God Himself
hath His abode. The Bramin Padmanaba said that it
was disputed mightily among the Bramines whether
THE HIGHEST HEAVEN OF ALL 279
they that come unto Lila-Weicontam may return again
to this world; some say " nay," and some " yea."
Concerning the heaven which is hight simply Weicon-
tam, therein are they completely in accord that they
who win there return not to this world, but that they
there enjoy eternal beatitude. This Weicontam they
promise to them that serve Wistnou loyally ever and
in all things; but they that are deficient and do this
only in part shall, they say, win Surgam. Nevertheless,
they believe that there be few who so order their life
that after death they win to Weicontam, but that Sur-
gam is commonly the lot and portion, even of the best
among them.'
AN INDIAN DECORATIVE DESIGN.
CHAPTER IX
A DESCRIPTION OF BENGAL BY THE FRENCH VOYAGER
FRANCOIS PYRARD DE LAVAL
1607 A. D.
f'llHE interest of France in India, like that of Por-
J- tugal, Holland, and England, led to expeditions
for the purpose of trade and settlement in Hindustan,
and among the most interesting accounts of India at the
opening of the seventeenth century is that given by
Francois Pyrard of Laval, who set out for the Orient
in 1601 and spent nearly ten years in travelling in the
East Indies, the Maldives, the Moluccas, and various
parts of India, returning to his home in 1611. In the
account of his travels, Pyrard devotes considerable
space to places along the coast of India, including the
district of Bengal, where he spent a month. In spite
of the fact that he complains of the shortness of his
sojourn in Bengal, he has given a good account of the
country, as will be seen in the following selection from
Albert Gray's translation for the Hakluyt Society.
1 After a month's voyage, we arrived at Chartican
(Chittagong, properly Chatigam), a port of the kingdom
280
THE KINGDOM OF BENGAL 283
of Bengal, where we were received by the inhabitants
with much rejoicing. On landing, they took me with
them to salute the king, who is not, however, the great
king of Bengal, but a petty king of this province, or
rather a governor, with the title of king, as is generally
the case in those parts. The great king of Bengal lives
higher up the country, thirty or forty leagues off. On
being presented to this petty king, he received me with
great kindness, and gave me my full liberty, saying that
if I would remain with him he would do great things
for me: and, indeed, he bade bring me raiment and
food day by day in great abundance. But after a
month's sojourn there I found a ship of Calicut, whose
master asked if I would go with him, saying that the
Hollander's ships often came to Calicut, and there
might be some in which I could get a passage to France,
since I was minded to return thither; whereto I gladly
agreed, seeing I had no other aim but that, and on that
score I declined all other favours. I therefore took my
leave of the king, which was granted me without dif-
ficulty.
I was so short a time in Bengal, that I cannot record
many of its characteristics; however, here is what I
picked up.
The kingdom of Bengal is of great extent; it lies
in the middle country of the Indies, and is said to be
four hundred leagues in length, so the king is the most
puissant prince in India, after the grand Mogor. About
the time I left, the Mogor had declared war against
him, and the king was preparing to receive him with
284 PYRAED DE LAVAL'S DESCRIPTION OF BENGAL
more than two hundred thousand men and ten thousand
elephants. He has many tributary kings: for instance,
the kings of Aracan, of Chaul, 1 and other great lords,
as well Mohammedan as Gentile, who are bound to fur-
nish him, when he goes out to war, with a certain num-
ber of men, elephants, and horses. They also pay him
tribute for such harbours as they have in their terri-
tories; and at all of these a great trade is carried on
in all sorts of merchandise, the merchants exporting
large quantities of goods, by reason whereof they dare
not risk the loss of this king's good- will.
The country is healthy and temperate, and so won-
drous fertile that one lives there for almost nothing;
and there is such a quantity of rice, that, besides sup-
plying the whole country, it is exported to all parts
of India, as well to Goa and Malabar, as to Sumatra,
the Moluccas, and all the islands of Sunda, to all of
which lands Bengal is a very nursing mother, who sup-
plies them with their entire subsistence and food.
Thus, one sees arrive there every day an infinite num-
ber of vessels from all parts of India for these pro-
visions; and I believe it would be still greater, were
not the navigation so perilous by reason of the banks
and shallows wherewith all this Gulf of Bengal is full.
So it happens that when the Bengal ships are behind
their time, or are lost, rice is fabulously dear, and there
is a cry, as it were, of the extremity of famine. On the
contrary, when the navigation is good, the rice is as
cheap as if it grew in the country, and fetches no more
1 Possibly the district of the Chaul Khoya River, Assam.
PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE COUNTKY
285
than four deniers the pound. The country is well sup-
plied with animals, such as oxen, cows, and sheep; flesh
THE IRAWADDY, WHICH EMPTIES INTO THE GULF OF BENGAL.
is accordingly very cheap, let alone milk-foods and
butter, whereof they have such an abundance that they
286 PYEAED DE LAVAL'S DESCEIPTION OF BENGAL
supply the rest of India; and pile carpets of various
kinds, which they weave with great skill.
There are many good fruits, not, however, cocos
or bananas; plenty of citrons, limes, oranges, pome-
granates, cajus, pineapples, etc., ginger, long pepper,
of which, in the green state, they make a great variety
of preserves, as also of lemons and oranges. The coun-
try abounds with sugar-cane, which they eat green or
else make into excellent sugar for a cargo to their
ships, the like not being made in any part of India
except in Cambaye and the other countries of the
Mogor adjacent to Bengal, these countries being of the
same climate, language, and fertility. There is like-
wise exported from Bengal much scented oils, got from
a certain grain, and divers flowers; these are used by
all the Indians after bathing to rub their bodies withal.
Cotton is so plentiful, that, after providing for the
uses and clothing of the natives, and besides exporting
the raw material, they make such a quantity of cotton
cloths, and so excellently woven, that these articles are
exported, and thence only, to all India, but chiefly to
the parts about Sunda. Likewise is there plenty of
silk, as well that of the silkworm as of the (silk) herb,
which is of the brightest yellow colour, and brighter
than silk itself; of this they make many stuffs of divers
colours, and export them to all parts. The inhabitants,
both men and women, are wondrously adroit in all man-
ufactures, such as of cotton cloth and silks, and in nee-
dlework, such as embroideries, which are worked so
skilfully, down to the smallest stitches, that nothing
u
3
.2
o
_OJ
a
4
PRODUCTS OF BENGAL 287
prettier is to be seen anywhere. Some of these cottons
and silks are so fine that it is difficult to say whether
a person so attired be clothed or nude. Many other
kinds of work, such as furniture and vessels, are con-
structed with extraordinary delicacy, which, if brought
here, would be said to come from China.
In this country is made a large quantity of small
black and red pottery, like the finest and most delicate
terre sigillee; in this they do a great trade, chiefly in
gargoulettes (earthenware vessels) and drinking-ves-
sels and other utensils. There is a great quantity, too,
of huge reeds or canes, as big as a man's thigh, and six
or seven fathoms high, hollow inside, and knotted like
those here. They are harder to break than any wood
in the world; of these, levers and rods are made to
carry over the heaviest weights, and are used through-
out India, even at Goa and elsewhere: so much so, that
the Portuguese and the Indians use no other poles
for their palanquins and litters: these are everywhere
called Bambou (bamboo). When one of these is bent
into any required curve and heated, it remains so al-
ways, and will sooner break than lose its curve. Of
these, too, are made their measures for measuring all
their goods, such as rice, grain, oil, butter, and the like.
Measures of all sizes are made of them. These reeds
grow in quantity elsewhere in India; but this is their
original home, and here they are found in greatest
plenty. These canes will not bend double; and they
are mottled black and white. There is another kind,
of a different shape and thickness, the largest of this
288 PYRARD DE LAVAL'S DESCRIPTION OF BENGAL
sort being no more than four thumbs' girth, and very
tall. It is porous, hard, and very pliant, so that you can
GIANT BAMBOOS.
bring the two ends together without its breaking, and
yet it is very strong; of this are made walking-sticks
and canes for chastisement; they raise the skin wher-
ever they fall, but never break it, however tender it
THE FLORA AND FAUNA OF BENGAL 289
may be. They are neatly shaped, and are naturally of
a mottled colour, white, yellow, and black. There is
a great trade in them to all parts of India, for they are
found nowhere else. By rubbing hard two sticks of this
cane together, fire is produced as from a match; and
they are used for this purpose. There is yet another
sort of cane, which never grows thicker than the little
finger, of the same form and growth as the other; it
is as pliant as an osier, and is called Rotan (rattan).
Ships* cables are made of it, and many kinds of neatly
plaited baskets, and other wicker things. In short, it
is used as cord, and can be split into any number of
strips. It is a fathom and a half in length. It is traf-
ficked in everywhere, and is in great demand for its
use in manufacture; it is white, and not mottled.
This country abounds with elephants, which are ex-
ported hence to all parts of India. There are rhinoc-
eroses also, and some say unicorns, too, which are said
to be found in this land only. They say other animals
will not drink at a well until a female unicorn has
steeped her horn in the water, so they all wait on the
bank till she comes and does so.
In short, I find no country in all the East Indies
more abundantly supplied with all things needful for
food, with the riches of nature and art; and were not
the navigation so dangerous, it would be the fairest,
most pleasant, fertile, and profitable in the whole world.
They usually keep an ambassador at Gtoa; but when I
was preparing to leave Goa to come home, there ar-
rived an ambassador extraordinary at the court of the
290 PYEAED DE LAVAL'S DESCEIPTION OF BENGAL
viceroy, and it was said that lie had come to ask some
assistance.
One of the greatest trades in Bengal is in slaves;
for there is a certain land subject to this king where
fathers sell their children, and give them to the king
FKOM A STATUETTE OF AN INDIAN ELEPHANT.
as tribute; so most of the slaves in India are got
from hence. Nowhere in India are slaves of so little
value, for they are all old and knavish villains, both
men and women. The people are well formed in body,
the women are pretty, but more shameless than else-
where in India. The men are much given to traffick-
ing in merchandise, and not to war or arms, a soft,
courteous, clever people, but having the repute of great
cheats, thieves, and liars. They trade in many places,
making long voyages; so do many strangers frequent
their country, for example, Persians, Arabs, and the
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE BENGALESE 291
Portuguese merchants of Goa and Cochin. Under the
government of this king are men of many religions,
Jews, Mohammedans, and Gentiles, or pagans, these lat-
ter showing as great a diversity of ceremonies as of
countries and provinces. The great king is a pagan; he
of Chartican, whom I saw, was a Mohammedan.
The Gentile people of this Bengal country have for
their pagoda, or idol, a white elephant; it is but rarely
met with, and is deemed sacred. The kings worship
it, and even go to war to get it from their neighbours,
not having one themselves, and sometimes grand battles
are fought on this score.
As for dress, the men attire themselves bravely with
very large cotton shirts, which fall to the ground; over
it is worn a silk mantle, and on the head a turban of
very fine linen. The women wear little chemisettes of
cotton or silk, reaching to the waist; round the rest of
the body is thrown a cloth or taffetas; when they go
abroad, they wear about that a large piece of silk, with
one end brought over the head. They are disorderly
and very barbarous in their eating and drinking; they
have many servants, and have each three or four wives,
very richly adorned with gold chains and pearls. They
make wines of sugar and other materials, and get drunk
therewith. A large number of Portuguese dwell in
freedom at the ports on this coast of Bengal; they are
also very free in their lives, being like exiles. They do
only traffic, without any fort, order, or police, and live
like natives of the country; they durst not return to
India, for certain misdeeds they have committed, and
292 PYKAED DE LAVAL'S DESCRIPTION OF BENGAL
they have no clergy among them. There is one of them
named Jean Garie, who is greatly obeyed by the rest;
he commands more than ten thousand men for the King
of Bengal, yet he makes not war against the Portu-
guese, seeing they are friends.
In this land is the great river Ganga, otherwise
called the Ganges, the most renowned in the world.
THE BANK OF THE GANGES AT BENARES.
The natives hold that it comes from the Earthly Para-
dise; their kings have been curious to have its source
discovered, but they have never discovered it, for all
their journeys and expense. Its mouth is at twenty-
three degrees from the equinoctial, toward our pole;
but whether this is the famous Ganges of the ancients,
or that of Canton in China, as some will have it nowa-
days, I leave to the discussion and decision of the
learned in such things; anyhow, the common opinion
of the Portuguese and many others is that this is the
THE SACKED RIVER GANGES 293
true Ganges; if its situation does not correspond, at
least its name does. From this river comes that excel-
lent wood called Calamba (aloes-wood), which is be-
lieved to come from the Earthly Paradise. It is very
dear throughout India, and more esteemed than any
other, being more rare and odoriferous; very little of
it is found, and then it comes floating to the seashore,
or the banks of the river; it is also found on the shores
of the Maldives, and I have met with it there many a
time.
This river breeds also a' large number of crocodiles,
and is marvellously rich in fish; in short, it is the
wealthiest in all produce in the East Indies, and after
it comes the Indus, the river of Surate and Cambaye.
The Indians regard the Ganges as holy, and believe
that when they have washed therein they are absolved
of all their sins; and Mohammedans as well as Gentiles
deem the water to be blessed, and to wash away all
offences, just as we regard confession. They, however,
believe that, after bathing there, they are altogether
sanctified, even saints. And they come from afar to
wash them there, as do the Mohammedans at the sepul-
chre of Mohammed at Mecca. This is all I was able to
observe of this kingdom during the short time I was
there.'
CHAPTER X
THE ITALIAN TRAVELLER PIETRO DELLA VALLE'S
DESCRIPTION OF AHMADABAD
1623 A.D.
AMONG- the best-known names of all the European
travellers who have left accounts of their journeys
in the East is that of Pietro della Valle the Italian,
who spent more than ten years, from 1614 to 1628,
visiting various lands of the Orient Turkey, Egypt,
Palestine, Persia, and India. The account of his wan-
derings, written in the form of letters to a friend, was
published in 1650 - 1663, long after his return, and was
translated from Italian into English in 1664, more than
a decade after his death. Almost every page of his
journal contains matters of interest and value, as is
manifest from his notes on " Ahmedabad " (Ahma-
dabad).
' About noon, having travelled twelve, or, as others
said, fourteen Cos, we arriv'd at Ahmedabad, and our
journey from Cambaia hither was always with our
Faces toward the northeast. Being entred into the
City, which is competently large, with great suburbs,
we went directly to alight at the house of the English
Merchants, till other lodgings were prepared for us,
294
CARAVANSARAIS AND STREETS OF AHMADABAD 295
where also we din'd with them. After which we re-
tir'd to one of the houses which stand in the street,
which they call Terzi (Darzi) Carvanserai, that is the
Tayler's Tnn. For you must know that the Carvan-
serai, or Inns, in Ahmedabad, and other Great Cities
of India, are not, as in Persia and Turkey, one single
habitation, made in form of a great Cloyster, with
abundance of Lodgings round about, separate one from
another, for quartering of strangers; but they are whole
great streets of the City destinated for strangers to
dwell in, and whosoever is minded to hire a house; and
because these streets are lockt up in the night time
for security of the persons and goods which are there,
therefore they call them Carvanserai. Notwithstanding
the wearisomness of our journey, because we were to
stay but a little while at Ahmedabad, therefore after
a little rest we went the same evening to view the
market-place, buying sundry things. It displeas'd me
sufficiently that the streets not being well pav'd, al-
though they are large, fair and strait, yet through the
great dryness of the earth they are so dusty that there's
almost no going afoot, because the foot sinks very deep
in the ground with great defilement; and the going on
horseback, or in a coach, is likewise very troublesome
in regard of the dust, a thing indeed of great dispar-
agement to so goodly and great a city as this is. I saw
in Ahmedabad roses, flowers of jasmin and other sorts,
and divers such fruits as we have in our countries in
the summer; whence I imagin'd, that probably, we had
repass'd the Tropick of Cancer, and re-enter M a little
296
into the Temperate Zone; which doubt I could not clear
for want of my astrolabe, which I had left with my
other goods at Surat.
On Tuesday following, which to us was the day of
Carnoval, or Shrove Tuesday, walking in the morning
about the town, I saw a
handsome street, straight,
long and very broad, full
of shops of various trades;
they call it Bezari Kelan
(Bazar-i Kalan), that is,
the Great Merkat (Market),
in distinction from others
than which this is bigger.
In the middle is a structure
of stone athwart the street,
like a bridge with three
arches, almost resembling
PIETRO BELLA VALLE.
After an old woodcut.
the triumphal arches of
Kome. A good way beyond this bridge, in the middle
of the same is a great well, round about which is built
a square piazetta, a little higher than the ground. The
water of the well is of great service to all the city, and
there is always a great concourse of people who come
to fetch it.
Going forwards to the end of the market, we came
to the great gate which stands confronting the street,
and beautifi'd with many ornaments between two goodly
towers; 'tis the Gate of a small castle, which they call
by the Persian word Cut (Khat). Nor let it seem
A BAZAAR AND A CASTLE 297
strange that in India, in the countries of the Moghol,
the Persian tongue is us'd more perhaps than the In-
dian itself, since the Mogholian princes being originally
Tartars, and of Samarkand, where the Persian is the
natural tongue of the country, have therefore been
willing to retain their native speech in India; in brief,
the Persian is the language of the Moghol 's court, most
spoken and us'd in all publick writings.
Near this castle gate, in a void place of the street
are two pulpits handsomely built of stone, somewhat
rais'd from the ground, wherein 'tis the Custome to read
the king's commandments publickly, when they are to
be proclaim 'd. Thence turning to the right hand, and
passing another great gate, and through a fair street
we came to the royal palace; for Ahmedabad is one
of the four cities, 1 amongst all the others of his domin-
ions, where the Grand Moghol by particular privilege
hath a palace and a court; and accordingly he comes
sometimes to reside there. This palace hath a great
square court, surrounded with white and well polish 'd
walls. In the midst stands a high post to shoot at with
arrows, as is also usual in the piazzas of Persia. On
the left side of the court as you go in are the king's
lodgings, a small and low building. What 'tis within
side I know not, for I enter 'd not into it; but without
'tis as follows. Under the king's windows is a square
place inclos'd with a rail of colour 'd wood, and the
pavement somewhat rais'd; within which, if the king
is there, are wont to stand certain officers of the militia,
1 The other three cities being Agra, Mandu, and Lahore.
298
PIETEO DELLA VALLE AT AHMADABAD
whom they call Mansubdar, 1 and they are almost the
same with our Colonels; their Command extends not
A CORNER OF RANI SIPRl's MOSQUE AT AHMADABAD (1431 A.D.).
to above a thousand horse; nor are they all equal, but
from a thousand downwards some have more, some
less, under them. Within this inclosure of the Man-
1 Properly Mansabdtir; on these officers see vol. iv, p. 32.
THE ROYAL PALACE 299
subdary, under the king's balconies, stand two carv'd
elephants of emboss 'd work, but not large, painted
with their natural colours; and in the front of the
royal lodgings are other such ornaments, after their
mode, of little consideration. Some said that a while
ago in one of the Balconies stood expos 'd to publick
view an image of the Virgin Mary, plac'd there by Sciah
Selim, who, they say, was devoted to her, and to whom
perhaps it was given by one of our priests, who fre-
quent this court out of a desire to draw him to the
Christian faith; but the image was not there now, and
possibly was taken away by Sultan Chorrom his Son
(reported an enemy of the Christians and their affairs)
since his coming to the government of those parts of
Guzarat. The station of the greater captains, and of
higher dignity than the Mansubdary, as the Chans and
others of that 'rank, is in the king's balconies, or near
hand above there within the rooms. The inferior soul-
diers, that is such as have onely two or three horses,
stand upon the ground in the court without the above
mention 'd inclosure. In the front of the court is an-
other building, with an inclosure also before it, but
less adorn 'd; 'tis the place where the king's guard
stands with all its captains; and the same order, I
believe, is always observed in the Moghol's court, in
whatsoever place or city he happens to be. Within
this court is another on the left hand, surrounded with
other buildings for necessary offices, but not so well
built nor polish 'd.
Having seen what we could of the royal palace, we
300
PIETKO DELLA VALLE AT AHMADABAD
returned by the same way we came to the street of the
great market. From whence we went to see a famous
temple of Mahedeu, to which there is hourly a great
concourse of people, and the street which leads to it
is always full, not onely of goers and comers to the
THE RIVER SABARMATI AT AHMADABAD.
Near its bank is an old temple of Mabadeva, or Siva.
temple, but also of beggars who stand here and there
asking alms of those that pass by. The building of this
temple is small, the entrance narrow and very low,
almost under ground; for you descend by many steps,
and you would think you were rather going into a
grotto than into a temple, and hence there is always
a great crowd there. On high hung a great number of
bells, which are rung every moment with great noise
by those who come to worship. Within the temple con-
tinually stand many naked Gioghi, having onely their
A TEMPLE OF SIVA 301
privities (not very well) cover 'd with a cloth; they
wear long hair dishevel'd, dying their fore-heads with
spots of sanders, saffron, and other colours suitable to
their superstitious ceremonies. The rest of their bodies
is clean and smooth, without any tincture or impurity;
which I mention as a difference from some other Gioghi,
whose bodies are all smear 'd with colours and ashes,
as I shall relate hereafter. There is no doubt but these
are the ancient Gymnosophists so famous in the world,
and, in short, those very Sophists who then went naked
and exercis'd great patience in sufferings, to whom
Alexander the Great sent Onesicritus to consult with
them, as Strabo reports from the testimony of the same
Onesicritus. 1 Many of them stood in the temple near
the idols, which were plac'd in the innermost penetral,
or chancel of it, with many candles and lamps burning
before them. The idols were two stones, somewhat
long, like two small termini, or land-marks, painted
with their wonted colours; on the right side whereof
was a stone cut into a figure, and on the left another
of that ordinary form of a small .pillar, according to
which as I said before that they use to shape Mahedeu.
And before all these another like figure of Mahedeu,
made of crystal, upon which the offerings were lay'd,
as milk, oyle, rice and divers such things. The assistant
Gioghi give every one that comes to worship some of
the flowers, which are strew 'd upon and round about
the idols, receiving in lieu thereof good summs of alms.
Coming out of this temple, and ascending up the
1 See pages 54-57 of this volume.
302 PIETRO DELIA VALLE AT AHMADABAD
wall of the city which is hard by, we beheld from that
height the little river call'd Sabenneti (Sabarmati),
which runs on that side under the walls without the
city. Upon the bank thereof, stood exposed to the sun
many Gioghi of more austere lives, namely such as are
not onely naked like those above describ'd, but go all
sprinkled with ashes, and paint their bodies and faces
with a whitish colour upon black, which they do with
a certain stone that is reduced into powder like lime. 1
Their beards and hair they wear long, untrim'd, rudely
involv'd, and sometimes erected like horns. Painted
they are often, or rather daub'd with sundry colours
and hideous figures; so that they seem so many devils,
like those represented in our comedies. The ashes
wherewith they sprinkle their bodies are the ashes of
burnt carkasses; and this to the end they may be con-
tinually mindful of death. A great crew of these, with
their chief, or leader (who conducts them with an ex-
travagant banner in his hand, made of many shreds
of several colours, and whom they all religiously obey)
sat by the river's side in a round form, as their cus-
tom is; and in the field there were many people, who
came some to walk, and others to wash themselves; the
pagan Indians holding their rivers in great veneration,
and being not a little superstitious in bathing themselves
therein. From the same place I beheld a little cSappel
built upon two small figures of Mahadeu, not upright,
but lying along upon the ground, and carv'd in basse
relief, where also were lamps burning, and people mak-
1 This powder is made from burned shells.
fSlfc^
^Iglglgf;
THE YOGI ASCETICS OF AHMADABAD 305
ing their offerings. One of the Gioghi, laying aside
all other care, remain 'd continually in this chappel with
great retiredness and abstraction of mind, scarce ever
coming forth, although it was very troublesome abiding
there, in regard to the heat of the lights, and incon-
venient too, by reason the chappel was so little that
it could scarce contain him alone as he sat upon the
pavement (which was somewhat rais'd from the Earth)'
with his leggs doubled under him and almost crooked.
Returning home by the same way of the great Bazar,
or Market, I saw carvanserai, or inns, made with cloys-
ters like those of Persia; one greater and square of
the ordinary form, and another less, narrow and long.
Of divers other streets, in which I saw nothing ob-
servable, I forbear to speak.'
THE TAJ MAHAL AT AGRA.
CHAPTER XI
SIE THOMAS EOE'S FIKST AUDIENCE WITH THE GEEAT
MOGUL
SIB THOMAS ROE is one of the most distinguished
and picturesque figures in the history of interna-
tional diplomacy, and his presence at the court of Ja-
hangir, the Great Mogul, as accredited ambassador
of King James of England, gained advantages for Eng-
land that were of the greatest value, as has been
pointed out in a previous volume (vol. iv, pp. 67-79).
His diary is well known, but its value consists in its
record of court life at the Moghul capital, and not in
its meagre account of the country in general. An event
of great import for English history was the meeting
of Sir Thomas, as a royal envoy, with the Great Mogul.
Roe had been seriously ill at Ajmir, but the emperor
was so desirous of seeing him that he sent a special
messenger to inquire whether his condition would not
allow him to come to court. The emperor gave strict
orders to his messenger and, as Roe says, " chardged
him to see mee, so that I was forced to admitt him into
my Chamber, wher he saw my weaknes and gave sat-
306
SIR THOMAS ROE BIDDEN TO COURT 307
isf action to the king." This was on December 31, 1615,
and on the following day, New Year's, Sir Thomas
opens his diary as follows:
' January 1-4, 1616. I began to recouer and sitt vp.
January 5. Master Edwardes departed for Suratt.
January 6 - 9. I prepared to see the king.
January 10. I went to Court at 4 in the euening
to the Durbar, which is the Place wher the Mogull sitts
out daylie, to entertayne strangers, to receiue petitions
and presents, to giue Commandes, to see, and to bee
seene. To digresse a little from my reception, and
declare the Customes of the Court, will enlighten the
future discourse. The king hath no man but Eunuchs
that Comes within the lodgings or retyring roomes of
his house: His weomen watch within, and guard him
with manly weapons. They doe Justice on vpon an-
other for offences. He comes every Morning to a wyn-
dow called the Jarruco looking into a playne before his
gate, and showes him selfe to the Common People. At
noone hee returns thither and sitts some howers to see
the fight of Eliphants and willd beasts; vnder him
within a rayle attend the men of rancke; from whence
hee retiers to sleepe among his woemen. At afternoone
he returnes to the Durbar before mentioned. At 8
after supper he Comes downe to the Gazelcan, a faire
Court, wher in the middest is a Throune erected of
free stone wherein he sitts, but some tymes below in
a Chayre; to which are none admitted but of great
qualetye, and few of these without leaue; wher he dis-
courses of all matters with much Affabilitye. Ther
308 KOE'S AUDIENCE WITH THE GEE AT MOGUL
is noe busines done with him Concerning the state,
gouerment, disposition of warr or peace, but at one
of these two last Places, wher it is publiquely pro-
pounded, and resolued, and soe registred, which if it
were woorth the Curiositye might bee seene for two
shillings, but the Common
basse people knew as much
as the Councell, and the
Newes euery day is the
kings new resolutions
tossed and censured by
euery rascall. This Course
is vnchangeable, except
sicknes or drinck preuent
yt; which must be known,
for as all his Subjects are
slaues, so is he in a kynd
of reciprocall bondage, for
he is tyed to obserue these
howres and Customes so
BIB THOMAS ROE, AMBASSADOR TO THE
GREAT MOGUL. precisely that if hee were
vnseene one day and noe sufficient reason rendred the
people would mutinie ; two dayes noe reason can excuse,
but that he must consent to open his doores and bee
seene by some to satisfye others. 6n Tuesday at the
Jarruco he sitts in Judgment, neuer refusing the poor-
est mans Complaynt, where hee heares with Patience
both parts: and some tymes sees with too much delight
in blood the execution done by his Eliphants. Illi
meruere; sed quid tu vt adesses?
AN AUDIENCE WITH JAHANGIR 309
At the Durbar I was led right before him, at the
enterance of an outward rayle, where mett mee two
Principall Noble slaues to conduct mee nearer. I had
required before my going leaue to vse the Customes of
my Country, which was freely granted, soe that I would
performe them Punctually. When I entred within the
first rayle I made a reuerance; entering in the inward
rayle a Nother; and when I came vnder the king a
theird. The Place is a great Court, whither resort all
sorts of people. The king sitts in a little Gallery ouer
head; Ambassidors, the great men and strangers of
qualety within the inmost rayle vnder him, raysed from
the ground, Couered with Canopyes of veluet and silke,
vnder foote layd with good Carpetts; the Meaner men
representing gentry within the first rayle, the people
without in a base Court, but soe that all may see the
king. This sitting out hath soe much affinitye with a
Theatre the manner of the king in his gallery; The
great men lifted on a stage as actors; the vulgar below
gazing on that an easy description will informe of the
place and fashion. The king preuented my dull enter-
preter, bidding me welcome as to the brother of my
Master. I deliuered his Majesties lettre translated;
and after my Commission, wheron hee looked Curi-
ously; after, my presents, which Were well receiued.
He asked some questions, and with a seeming Care of
my health, offering me his Phisitions, and aduising mee
to keepe my house till I had recouered strength; and
if in the interim I needed anything I should freely send
to him, and obteyne my desiers. He dismissed me with
310 KOE'S AUDIENCE WITH THE GREAT MOGUL
more fauour and outward grace (if by the Christians
I were not flattered) then euer was showed to any
Ambassador, eyther of the Turke or Persian, or other
whatsoeuer.
January 12. Hee sent a gentellman for my Com-
mission to show his queene the seale, which he kept
one night, and returned yt with such care that the
bringer durst not deliuer it but to my owne handes.
January 14. I sent to the Prince Sultan Coronne,
his third sonne by byrth but first in fauour, that I
determined to visitt him, not doubting that he would
vse me with due respect; for I was enformed he was
enemy to all Christians and therfore feared some af-
front. He answered I should be welcome, and receiue
the same Content I had from his father. Hee is lord
of Suratt, our cheefe residence, and his fauour impor-
tant for us.
January 15 - 21. These Dayes I stirred not abroad,
the king and Prince beeing often a hunting, from whom
I receiued two wild hoggs, part of their quarry.
January 22. I visited the Prince, who at 9 in the
Morning sitts out in the same manner as his father,
to dispatch his business and to be scene of his followers.
He is Proud Naturally, and I feard my entertaynment.
But on some occasion he not resoluing to come out,
when he heard of my arriuall, sent a Principall Officer
to meete mee, who conducted mee into a good Roome
(neuer before done to any), and entertayning me with
discourse of our own business halfe an hower vntill the
Prince was ready; who came abroad on purpose and
PRINCE KHURRAM, AFTERWARDS SHAH JAHAN 311
vsed me better then his promise. I deliuered him a
Present, such as I had, but not in the name of his
Majestic, it beeing too meane; but excused it that the
king could not take knowledge of his beeing lord of
Suratt so lately conferred on him, but hereafter I
doubted not his Majestic would send to him according
'Pictures oiiteftfif<Jiulun Copies made ty we Moaols painter
&
THE UOOHCL EMPEROR JAIIANGIR AND HIS SON, PEINCE KHURRAM,
AFTERWARDS SHAH JAHAN.
From an old print.
to his woorth: This was the respect of the Merchants,
who humbly recommended themselues to his fauour and
protection. He receiued all in very good part; and
after opening of some greauances and Iniuries suffered
at Suratt by vs from his Gouernors, of which, for re-
spect to him, I had forborne to Complayne to the king
off, He promised mee speedy and effectuall Justice,
and to confirme our securytye by any propositions I
312 EOE'S AUDIENCE WITH THE GEEAT MOGUL
should offer; professing to be ignorant of anything
past, but what hee had receiued by Asaph Chan deliu-
ered by mee; especially of any Command to dismisse
us, which the Gouernor had falsly Coyned and for
which he should dearly answer. Soe he dismissed mee
full of hope to rectifye the decayed estate of our repu-
tation, with promise of a firmaen for Suratt effectually.
January 24. I went to the Durbar to visitt the
King, who, seeing mee afarr off, beckned with his hand,
giuing signe I should not staye the Cerimony of Ask-
ing leaue but Come vp to him; where hee appoynted
me a place aboue all other men, which I after thought
fitt to mayntayne. I gaue him a small present, it beeing
the Custome when any body hath business to giue some-
what, and those that cannot come neare to speake send
in or hould up their guift, which hee eccepts, bee it
but a rupie, and demands their bussines. The same
course hee held with mee. Having looked Curiously
and asked many questions of my present, he demanded
what I required of him. I answered: Justice: That, on
the assurance of his Majesties Firmaen sent into Eng-
land, the king my Master had not only giuen leaue to
many of his subjects to come a dangerous voyadge with
their goodes, but had sent mee to Congratulate the
amytye so happely begunne betweene two soe mighty
Nations, and to Confirme the same: But that I found
the English seated at Amadauas * enjured by the Gouer-
nor in their Persons and goodes, fined, exacted upon,
and kept as prisoners: That at euerie Towne new Cus-
1 Ahraadabad.
JAHANGIR'S ATTENTIONS TO THE AMBASSADOR 313
tomes were taken of our goodes passing to the Port,
contrarie to all Justice and the former Articles of trade.
To which hee answered hee was sorry; it should be
amended; and presently gaue order for two firmanes
very effectually according to my desire to be signed,
one to the Gouernor of Amadavaz to restore mony ex-
acted from Master Kerridge, and to vse the English
with all fauour. The other to release all Custumes
required on any pretence on the way, or if any had
beene taken to repay it; of his owne accord wishing
mee that, if these gaue not speedy remedy, I should
renew my Complaynt against the disobeyour, and hee
should be sent for to answer there. And soe hee dis-
missed mee.'
CHAPTER XII
FRANCKLIN'S NOTES ON CEYLON AND ON SOUTHERN
AND WESTERN INDIA
1786 A. D.
following descriptive notes are taken from the
diary of the English ensign William Francklin, of *
the East India Company's service, who visited Southern
India on his way by sea from Bengal to Persia in 1786.
Francklin touched at Point de Galle, Ceylon, on March
24th, and proceeded thence along the Malabar coast and
the western shores of India, making stops at Anjengo
in the district of Travancore, at Cochin and Tellicherri
in Malabar, at Goa, and at Bombay. His observations
give us a view of these places at the close of the eight-
eenth century.
' Point de Galle is a small fort, situated on the
southwest side of the island of Ceylon, belonging to
the Dutch East India Company, and has a commandant
and a small military force. The commandant is sub-
ject to the orders of the governor of Colombo, the chief
residency on the same island; the inhabitants, except-
ing the Dutch, are a mixture of Malabars and native
Portuguese, but great numbers of the latter, especially
of the lower class of people. There is a tolerable tavern
314
THE ISLAND OF CEYLON
315
here, the only one in the place; the living very cheap.
There is little trade at this place, excepting on account
of the Dutch Company. Topazes, amethysts, and other
precious stones are found on the island of Ceylon and
brought here for sale; but it is dangerous to purchase
them, when set, without being skilled in those com-
modities, the people who sell them being very expert
TEMPLE OP THE HOLT TOOTH OF BUDDHA AT KANDY, CEYLON.
in making, the false stones appear like true ones, by
colouring them at the bottom. No kind of spice, nut-
megs, or any other rarities for which this island is so
celebrated, are to be met with at this place; nor 'did
we, on our approach to the island, perceive any of those
odoriferous gales described by travellers as exhaling
from the cinnamon and other spices with which this
island abounds. The harbour is circular; at the en-
trance of it lie many rocks, just above the surface of
the water, which make it very dangerous for strange
ships to go in without a pilot; the waves beat with
316 FRANCKLIN'S NOTES ON CEYLON AND INDIA
amazing violence against the fortifications. Along and
almost all around the harbour are the country homes
of the inhabitants, which have a pleasing effect to the
eye; the road to these by land is through a grove of
cocoanut-trees, which forms an agreeable shade. How-
ever, this place must be very unhealthy, as very high
hills lie close behind the houses and exhale noxious
vapours both morning and evening, which make it very
precarious to the inhabitants in point of health; they
are in general sickly, but particularly the Europeans.
I observed in the course of a few hours' stay on shore
several people whose legs were swelled in a most ex-
traordinary manner; this the natives account for from
the badness of the water and the vapours which arise
from the adjoining hills. I have heard that the inhab-
itants of Malacca are liable to the same disease and
from similar causes.
Fish is to be had here in great plenty; poultry of
all kinds is very scarce; the fruits are chiefly plan-
tains, pineapples, and pumple noses; the cocoa-nuts
are also in great plenty and very good; the bread is
tolerable, but the butter execrable, it being little better
than train oil; and indeed this is the case in all the
Dutch settlements and most other foreign ones, the
French and English excepted. We slept on shore that
night, and, not being able to sell any part of the cargo,
the next morning went on board and sailed immediately.
On the 29th of March we saw the land a little to the
eastward of Cape Comorin, and the 31st of March came
to anchor in the roads of Anjengo, where we found
AJSTJENGO IN TRAVANCORE 317
the Company's ship, the Duke of Montrose, waiting for
a cargo of pepper. On the 1st of April went on shore
at daylight, and returned on board in the evening.
Anjengo is a small fort and English residency, the
first that you arrive at upon the Malabar coast from
Cape Comorin; the inhabitants are Malabars and native
A RUINED SHRINE AT POLLONARUA IN CEYLON.
Portuguese, mixed. It is reported to be one of the
first places in India for intelligence, and the English
have received great service from it in that respect dur-
ing the late war; it would be still more advantageous
if the road to Europe by way of Suez was open, but
that has been for some time shut up, on account of some
unhappy differences. At Anjengo there is a post to
several parts of India; this is but lately established.
On the 2d of April, sailed; 6th, saw a ship at anchor
in Cochin roads, which we could not enter, being driven
318 FRANCKLIN'S NOTES ON CEYLON AND INDIA
off by the most violent gale of wind I ever experienced;
it lasted six-and-thirty hours without cessation, the sea
miming mountains high. Fortunately the ship received
no damage, excepting the loss of the main-yard, which
was broken in two. On the 8th we found ourselves,
by observation, to the northward of our port, and on
the 9th, came to anchor in Cochin roads, and went on
shore immediately.
Cochin is a large settlement belonging to the Dutch
East India Company. It is very populous and a place
of great trade; the inhabitants are a mixture of a vari-
ety of Eastern nations, being composed of Malabars,
Armenians, Persians, Arabians, Jews, Indians, and na-
tive Portuguese. The Jews occupy a whole village, a
little to the westward of the town; they live separate
from the rest of the inhabitants. I went into several
of their houses and could not help observing in this
people a striking peculiarity of features, different from
any I had ever seen; a resemblance seemed to run
through the whole, as if they were all of one family.
They seldom or never marry out of their own tribe, by
which the likeness is preserved, from father to son,
for a long time. I am told there is the same similarity
of features to be observed amongst the Jews of Amster-
dam in Holland and other parts of Europe. This cer-
tainly serves to distinguish them more as an original
people than any other. They have a good synagogue
here, and are less oppressed, and have more liberty
than in most other parts of the East. The raja of
Cochin resides here, but lives in an indifferent state,
COCHIN ON THE MALABAR COAST 319
being so much oppressed by the Nabob Tippu on the
one hand, and the Dutch on the other, as to have little
or nothing left for himself. He is a Gentoo (Hindu).
Cochin, in former times, was a place of considerable
celebrity, and was one of the places pitched upon by
the first Portuguese settlers in the East after the dis-
covery of the passage round the Cape of Good Hope
by Vasco da Gama; but that people have now very
little left of the vast wealth and power they formerly
enjoyed; a revolution of three centuries has reduced
them below mediocrity in the general scale of Euro-
pean adventurers. The fort is a very large one, and
very well fortified on the land side; toward the sea not
so well, but it is secured by a very dangerous bar, which
will not admit of ships coming nearer the shore than
three or four miles. There are some regular Dutch
troops in the garrison, and a few native militia; there
was also here a part of a French regiment, which the
Dutch borrowed during the late war. Provisions of
every kind are to be had here in the greatest plenty.
The 10th sailed; on the 15th we came to anchor in Telli-
cherri roads; 16th, having received a very polite invi-
tation from my friend and schoolfellow Mr. Ince, I went
on shore and spent several very pleasant days with him.
Among other places I saw in and about Tellicherri,
I had a view of the fortifications, or rather of the reg-
ular lines drawn round Tellicherri, for the defence of
the place against the Nabob Hyder Ali during the late
war. These lines are exceedingly strong; they take in
a space of about three miles and a half in circumference,
320 FRANCKLIN'S NOTES ON CEYLON AND INDIA
and are well defended by batteries and redoubts; a
river runs parallel to the western angle, which, break-
ing off from thence, runs among the hills. Here the
English troops sustained a severe siege for several years
against the army of Hyder under the command of Sadik
Khan; however, on the arrival of Major Abingdon with
a reinforcement from the Bombay settlement, the gar-
A SCENE IN TRAVANCORE, SOUTHWESTERN INDIA.
rison made a most spirited and successful sally, in which,
having defeated the enemy and killed great numbers of
them, they at length compelled them to raise the siege,
obtaining, at the same time, a considerable booty of
horses, tents, and elephants. The general of the enemy
was dangerously wounded and taken prisoner, and died
a few days after, of that and a broken heart, at Telli-
cherri. I am informed that if he had lived and returned
to the presence, he would have been cashiered, as the
Nabob Hyder had set his heart on the reduction of the
place. He lies buried close to the fort of Tellicherri;
TELLICHERRI IN SOUTHWESTERN INDIA 321
a tomb has been erected to him, in which lamps are
continually burning, which many Mussulmans visit out
of respect to the memory of the deceased. The lines
in some parts appear rather out of order, as they have
not been thoroughly repaired since the siege of the
place, and I am inclined to think a great number of
troops would be requisite for their defence against a
resolute enemy, owing to their great extent. They are
now repairing throughout, as the government entertains
an idea of the importance of the place, which is cer-
tainly considerable, in case of a war with Hyder, as
by his being in possession of it he might greatly injure
the other settlements of the English on the Malabar
Coast.
The garrison of Tellicherri consists generally, in
time of peace, of one battalion of sepoys, a company
of artillery, and sometimes a company of European
infantry; they are also able to raise about three thou-
sand native militia. The view of the country round
Tellicherri is very pleasant, consisting of irregular hills
and valleys. The boundaries of the English are ter-
minated by the opposite side of the river, and at a very
little distance is a strong fortress of the Nabob Hyder;
if the lines were once to be forced, the place would soon
fall, the fort of Tellicherri itself having no kind of
defence. Tellicherri is esteemed by all who reside there
to be one of the healthiest places in India, Europeans
seldom dying there; it is also much resorted to by con-
valescents ; the sea produces plenty of very fine oysters,
and provisions of all kinds are to be had in abundance.
322 FRANCKLIN'S NOTES ON CEYLON AND INDIA
I observed, in the Company's garden, the pepper vine,
which grows in a curious manner, and something similar
to the grape; the pepper on it, when fit to gather,
appears in small bunches; it is in size something larger
than the head of a small pea; the pepper, however,
for the Company's ships' cargoes, is brought from some
distance in the country. Tellicherri also produces the
coffee-tree.
On the 28th, in the evening, we sailed; and on the
29th we anchored in the roads of Goa, off the Fort
Alguarda.
Goa is a large city, and was once populous; it is
the capital of the Portuguese settlements on this side
the Cape of Good Hope; it is the residence of a Captain-
General sent from Portugal, who lives in great splen-
dour. The city stands upon the banks of a river of the
same name, about twelve miles distance from the en-
trance of the harbour. The view up this river is truly
delightful, the banks on either side are adorned with
churches and country-seats of the Portuguese, inter-
spersed with groves and valleys; the river has several
pleasing openings as it winds along, its banks are low,
but the hills behind rise to an amazing height, and
add grandeur to the spectacle, greatly tending also to
beautify the prospect. The city of Goa itself is adorned
with many fine churches, magnificently decorated; and
has several handsome convents. The church of Saint
Augustine is a noble structure, and is adorned in the
inside by many fine pictures; it stands on the top of
a hill, from whence you have an extensive view of the
THE OLD CITY OF GOA 323
city and adjacent country. It is a circumstance that
has always been observed, and very justly, that the
Portuguese have ever chosen the spots for their con-
vents and churches in the most delightful situations.
I have observed it in the Brazils, and the inhabitants
of Goa have by no means failed in attention to this
point, all their public buildings being well situated.
The body of this church is spacious, and the grand altar-
piece finished in the most elegant style. The building
of the choir is of Gothic architecture, and therefore of
antiquity. This church has a convent adjoining to it,
in which live a set of religious monks of the order of
St. Augustine. Some of the brothers of this convent
have given Popes and cardinals to the Roman See, as
appears by their portraits which are hung up in a neat
chapel dedicated to St. Augustine, the patron of the
order. Adjoining to this church is a convent of relig-
ious women, who have taken the veil and are therefore
prohibited from all kind of intercourse with the world.
These chiefly consist of the daughters and nieces of the
Portuguese inhabitants of the place, and a sum of
money is generally given with them on their entrance
into the convent.
A little lower, on the declivity of the hill, stands
another church, dedicated to the Bon Jesus, in which
is the chapel of Saint Francisco de Xaviere, whose tomb
it contains. This chapel is a most superb and magnifi-
cent place; the tomb of the saint is entirely of fine
black marble, brought from Lisbon. On the four sides
of it the principal actions of the life of the saint are
324 FRANCKLIN'S NOTES ON CEYLON AND INDIA
most elegantly carved in basso relievo; these represent
Ms converting the different nations to the Catholic
faith; the figures are done to the life, and most ad-
mirably executed. It extends to the top in a pyramid-
ical form, which terminates with a coronet of mother-
of-pearl. On the sides of this chapel are excellent paint-
AN INDIAN BULLOCK -CART.
ings, done by Italian masters, the subjects chiefly from
scripture. This tomb and the chapel appertaining to
it must have cost an immense sum of money; the Por-
tuguese justly esteem it the greatest rarity in the place.
In the valley below is another convent for young ladies
who have not taken the veil; out of this convent the
Portuguese and others who go there may marry; some
of the ladies have small portions, others none. As far
as I could learn, the ceremony observed on taking out
CUSTOMS OF THE PORTUGUESE AT GOA 325
one of these ladies is as follows: when a gentleman,
after visiting often at the grate, shall have chosen one
to whom he wishes to pay his addresses, an exchange of
rings between the parties is first made, after which the
lover is permitted to visit his mistress in the convent,
in the presence of one of the matrons; then if he still
holds his purpose, he is obliged to make a solemn prom-
ise of marriage, in the presence of the archbishop of
the place, which being done, he may take her away
whenever he pleases; after which the archbishop mar-
ries them. It is, however, to be observed that the lover,
whoever he is, must first make profession of the Roman
Catholic persuasion, otherwise no connection would be
allowed. I saw three of the young ladies, who were
really fine girls, and could not help making some reflec-
tions on their unhappy situation. Shut up in a wretched
convent, where they must pine away their youth, unless
capricious chance should befriend them in the appear-
ance of a husband, and being deprived of the company
of men, for whom they were formed to grace society
and create affection, they must, if capable of reflection,
think themselves most unhappy.
The Captain-General of Goa is also Commander-in-
chief of all the Portuguese forces in the East Indies.
They have here two regiments of European infantry,
three legions of sepoys, three troops of native light
horse, and a militia; in all, about five thousand men.
Goa is at present on the decline and in little or no
estimation with the country powers; indeed their big-
otry and superstitious attachment to their faith is so
326 FRANCKLIN'S NOTES ON CEYLON AND INDIA
general that the inhabitants, formerly populous, are
now reduced to a few thinly inhabited villages, the chief
part of whom have been baptized, for they will not
suffer any Mussulman or Gentoo to live within the
precincts of the city; and these few are unable to carry
on the husbandry or manufactures of the country. The
court of Portugal is obliged to send out annually a very
large sum of money to defray the current expenses of
the government; which money is generally swallowed
up by the convents and soldiery. If other measures
are not pursued, Goa must, in a very few years, sink
to nothing. Although it is evident that the internal
decay of the government has been occasioned by the
oppression and bigotry of the priests and the expulsion
of so many useful hands, yet the court of Portugal can-
not be prevailed upon to alter its measures, although
the flourishing situation of the English and other Euro-
pean settlements (and of which one cause is certainly
the mild and tolerant principles adhered to in points
of religion, provided it interferes not with the affairs
of government) is continually before their eyes. The
Nabob Tippu has lately shown an inclination to attack
them, but was suddenly called off by the Marathas.
The Portuguese much fear he will return; and should
he, there is little doubt but that the place will surren-
der to him. The glorious times of Albuquerque are
now no more; power and wealth have long since taken
their flight from the discoverers of the East. There
was formerly an inquisition at this place, but it is now
abolished; the building still remains, and by its black
_
d
CQ
THE ISLAND OF BOMBAY 327
outside appears a fit emblem of the cruel and bloody
transactions that passed within its walls! Provisions
are to be had at this place in great plenty and per-
fection; the Captain-General lives in great state; he
is a well-bred man, and fond of the company of the
English, whom he treats with great hospitality. On
the 24th sailed; May 13th saw the lighthouse at Bom-
bay, about nine in the morning.
The island of Bombay is in the possession of the
English East India Company; it is situated on the
coast of Conkan, in lat. 19 north, and long. 72.38 east;
it was granted, as part of the marriage portion with
the Infanta of Portugal, to Charles H. The harbour
is capable of containing three hundred sail of ships
with the greatest safety: there is also a most excellent
dock, in which ships of his Majesty's squadron, and
others, are repaired, refitted, and completely equipped
for sea. They build also here all sorts of vessels; and
the workmen in the yard are very ingenious and dex-
terous, not yielding to our best shipwrights in England.
This island is very beautiful, and as populous for its
size as any in the world; merchants and others coming
to settle here from the different parts of the Deccan,
Malabar, and Coromandel, as well as the Guzarat coun-
try. Amongst those of the latter place are many Per-
see (Parsi) families; these are descended from the re-
mains of the ancient Gubres, or worshippers of fire ; most
of the country merchants, as well as the menial servants
of the islands, are of this faith. They are very rich, and
have in their hands the management of all mercantile
328 FEANCKLIN'S NOTES ON CEYLON AND INDIA
affairs. Their religion, as far as I could gain any in-
formation, is much corrupted from the ancient worship;
they acknowledge that several Hindu forms and cere-
monies have crept in amongst them, probably in com-
A MANU8CKIPT OP THE AVE8TA WITH FAHLAVI TRANSLATION.
pliance to the natives, in order to conciliate their affec-
tions. I have heard it observed, however, that the
Hindu religion does, in itself, bear some analogy to the
ancient Persian worship. It seems that their sacred
book, the Zend, which is said to have been written by
their celebrated prophet Zerdusht (called by us Zo-
roaster), is at present only a copy of a few centuries;
THE PARSIS OF BOMBAY 329
which must, of course, invalidate its authenticity, as
that prophet, according to the Persian historians, lived
more than three thousand years ago; and indeed it is
an indisputable fact that what religious books were
in being at the time of the Grecian conquests of that
country were carefully collected and burnt, by the
express orders of Alexander, and were totally destroyed
at the subsequent conquests of that country by the
Saracens, at which period also happened the introduc-
tion of the Mohammedan religion. By these means
their religion and language underwent a total change,
the very traces of both which have long since disap-
peared, as is evident by the many fruitless efforts made
to decipher those inscriptions still discernible on the
walls of Persepolis, bearing not the least analogy to
any character now existing. Hence it may be inferred
that what is now given as the ancient character and
language of this celebrated people is no more than an
invention of a later date, and there remains not a prob-
ability that their real Zend will ever be known. 1
The island of Bombay is about eight miles in length,
and twenty in circumference: the most remarkable
natural curiosity the island produces is a small fish;
this fish, according to the description of a gentleman
who has seen it, and from whom I received my infor-
mation, is in form somewhat like a mussel, about four
inches long, and has upon the top of its back, and near
the head, a small valve, on the opening of which you
1 This statement is inaccurate, as the authenticity of the Avesta (wrongly
called Zend) has been fully proved since the time when Francklin wrote.
330 FRANCKLIN'S NOTES ON CEYLON AND INDIA
discover a liquor of a strong purple colour, which, when
dropped on a piece of cloth, retains the hue. It is found
chiefly in the months of September and October, and
it is observed the female fish has not this valve which
distinguishes the sexes. It is not improbable to sup-
pose that this fish is of the same nature as the ancient
Murex, or shell-fish, by which the Romans attained the
art of dyeing to such perfection, and is similar to that
found formerly on the coasts of Tyre. The Company's
forces at this Presidency consist of eight battalions of
sepoys, a regiment of European infantry, and a corps
of European artillery and engineers. During the late
long and very severe war, the Bombay troops have dis-
tinguished themselves in a peculiar manner, and the
campaign of Bedanore and the sieges of Tellicherri and
Mangalore will long remain testimonials of high mili-
tary abilities, as well as of their bravery and patience
under severe duty. The breed of sheep on this island
is very indifferent, and all the necessaries of life are
much dearer than in any other part of India. A work
on this island is worthy of observation. It is a cause-
way on the southern part, about a mile in length and
forty feet in breadth, eight of which on each side are
of solid stone; the remainder in the centre is filled up
with earth, a cement of clay, and other materials; the
whole forming such a body as will endure for many
ages. This work keeps up the communication with the
other parts of the island during the season of the mon-
soon, which would otherwise overflow it, and cause
indefinite damage.
ADIEU TO INDIA 331
Dec. 13th, after being detained seven months at this
island, for want of a passage, I at length embarked
on board an Arabian ship, bound for Bussora, in com-
pany with Captain Mitchell and Lieuts. James and
Curry of the Madras military establishment, who were
on their way to Europe over land. We had on board
an exact epitome of Asia, being a collection of Arme-
nians, Persians, Arabians, Ethiopians, Jews, Greeks,
and Indians, who created as much confusion of tongues
as at the building of the tower of Babel. On the 24th,
in the evening, we saw Cape Rosalgate; and on the
1st of January, 1787, came to anchor in the harbour
of Muscat/
INDEX
INDEX
Abhidharmas, 139
Abisaros (Abhisara), an Indian king, 19
Aditya, an idol in Multan dedicated to
the sun, description of, 177
Destroyed by Jalam ibn Shaiban, 177
JEli&n, mention of suttee by, 73
Agriculture, Hindu, 151
Ahmadabad (Ahmedabad), Pietro della
Valle arrives at, 294
Description of the caravanserai in, 295
Condition of streets and roads in, 295
Description of the market-place of,
296-297
Persian the prevailing language in, 297
Description of the Great Mogul's
palace at, 297-299
Description of a small chapel near,
302, 305
Wrongs of the English at, righted by
Jahangir, 312-313
Akesines (Chinab), a river of India, 8, 18
Egyptian beans found in the, 14
Albiruni, see al-Biruni
Albuquerque, Affonso de, reaches India
in 1503, 227
Gains possession of Goa, 228-233
Issues a proclamation that the inhabi-
tants of Goa should be immune from
pillage, 229-230
Cares for the abandoned women and
children of the Turks and Rumes in
Goa, 230-231
Death of, in 1515, 227
Alexander the Great, march of, through
the East, 1
Restores his conquered Indian terri-
tories to Poros, 3
Determines to invade Egypt from
India, but abandons his plans, 14
Route of, in India, 14, 17
Crosses the Kophes and conquers the
country to the east, 17
Army of, halts exhausted, at the Hy-
panis, 18
Courteously received by King Taxiles,
18
Obtains material for shipbuilding from
the Emoda Mountains, 20
Conquers Poros, 20
Builds two cities on opposite sides of
the Hydaspes, 20
Marches to the Hypanis and returns to
the Hydaspes and sails down it, 23-
24
Makes the lands adjacent to the Indus
and its tributaries well known, 24-25
In danger of losing his life from a
wound, 25
Conquers Patalene, 25
According to Krateros, advanced to
the Ganges, 28
Aloes-wood found in the Ganges River,
293
Alphabet, Indian, 135
Ambria, sub-caste of the Sudras, 244
Animals of India, 32-38
Anjengo, description of, by William
Francklin, 317-318
Aornos, storming of the fortress of, 5
Apollodorus, author of the " History of
Parthia," 2
Aradh-iha (Seivia), a sect of the Brah-
mans, 257-258
Architecture, Hindu, 131
Arhant (an aspect of Buddha), di-
rections for constructing an idol of,
180
Arhata, a sacred pond, 191
Aristoboulos, a Greek historian, 1
On the irrigation of India, 7-8
Arkturos (Arktos), the Great Bear, 7
Army, Hindu, four divisions of a, 143
Ascetics, Hindu, description of, 137-139
Assakanos, king of Masoga, 7, 18
Astakenoi, a tribe of India, 18
Astronomical terms, divergent in San-
skrit and Chinese for the same
objects, 126
Atharva-Veda, the, studied by the Brah-
mans, 137
335
336
INDEX
Augustus Caesar, receives embassies from
either Pandion or Poros, 3
Hindu embassy to, 66-67
Avesta, age of the, 328-329
Ayur-Veda, a Sanskrit medical work,
studied by the Brahmans, 137
B
Baktriane (modern Bokhara), revolt of,
from the Syrian longs, 2
Baladeva, brotner of Narayana, direc-
tions for constructing an idol of, 179
Bali, son of Virocana, directions for con-
structing an idol of, 178
Banda, Albuquerque decides to drive the
Turks from the castle of, 231
Surrenders to Antonio de Noronha,
232
Banyan-tree, description of the growth
of a, 11-12
Bargeurrea, sub-caste of the Sudras, 245
Benares (Baranasi), sanctity of, 198
Legend of cause of holiness of, 198
Benches, Hindu, description of, 131-132
Bengal, size of, 283
Emperor of Delhi declares war against,
283
Preparations of the king of, to meet the
Emperor of Delhi in war, 284
Fertility of, 284
Large rice crops of, exported, 284
Climate of, 284
Domestic animals of, 285
Abundance of cotton raised in, 286
Scented oils exported from, 286
Abundance of fruit and sugar cane in.
286
Silk raised abundantly in, 286
Handicrafts of, 286-287
Pottery of, 287
Bamboo and rattan, uses of, in, 287-
289
Wild animals of, 289
Large slave-trade of, 290
Manners and customs of the people of,
290-291
Dress of the inhabitants of, 291
Variety of religions in, 291
Bengal, Gulf of, perilous navigation in
the, 284
Bergas, sub-caste of the Sudras, 245
Berga-willala, sub-caste of the Sudras,
245
Betel, mention of the chewing of, 214-
215, 223-224
Beverages, Hindu, 152
Bhagavadgita, extracts from the, 157-
158, 163-166, 187-188
Bhagavatas, priests of Vishnu, 185
Bhagavati, the wife of Siva, directions
for constructing an idol of, 179
One of the " Seven Mothers " group
of idols, 181
Bhagiratha, King, legend of, 193-194
Bias, see Hypanis
al-Biruni, account of the Hindu religion
by, 154-199
Blessings after death, Hindu beliefs re-
garding, 276-279
Bombay, description of, by William
Francklin, 327-330
Brahma, directions for the construction
of an idol of, 179
Brahmani, one of the " Seven Mothers "
group of idols, 181
Brahmans (Brachmanes, Bramines), the
Hindu caste of philosophers, accord-
ing to Megasthenes, 48-50
Customs and beliefs of the, 48-50, 52-53
Simplicity of the life of the, 134
The highest caste in India, 142, 238-
239, 250-252, 255-261
Affect the worship of the " Eight
Mothers," 185
Forbidden by a special law to burn
themselves alive, 190, 239
Traces of Christianity attributed by
Albuquerque to the, in Malabar, 235
Customs and language of the, in Mala-
bar, 235
Brihatsamhita of Varahamihira, ex-
tracts from, relating to the con-
struction of idols, 178-182
Quotations from, regarding ablutions
in sacred ponds, 197-198
Buddha (Jina), discrepancies between
Chinese and Hindu accounts of, due
to misunderstanding of the lan-
guage, 130
Directions for construction of an idol
of, 180
Buddhist division of the Hindu year, 128
Books, rewards for knowledge of, 139-
141
Books, punishment for ignorance of,
141
Buddhists, Hindu schools of the, 139
Devoted to the worship of Buddha, 185
Bukephalia, a city founded by Alexander
on the banks of the Hydaspes, 20
Bukephalos, Alexander's battle-horse, 20
(^abaio, fortress and palace of the, in-
spected by Albuquerque, 230
Cakrasvamin (" the owner of the dis-
cus "), an idol of Thaneswar, de-
scription of, 177
INDEX
337
Calicut, personal appearance, habits, and
customs of the inhabitants of, 206-
207
Description of a Hindu temple at, 210,
213
Zamorin of, gives an audience to Vasco
da Gama, 214-218, 222-226
Description of a house in, 218-219
Zamorin of, receives gifts from Vasco
da Gama, 221
Gallic (Kalyara), a sub-caste of the Su-
dras, 245
Caltaja, a sub-caste of the Sudras, 245
Camawaer (Kamma Varus), a sub-caste
of the Sudras, 245
Camunda, one of the " Seven Mothers "
group of idols, 181
Cannanore, captains of the ships of,
given permission to depart from
Goa, 231
Carpet-weaving an industry of Bengal,
286
Carreas, a sub-caste of the Sudras, 245
Cauwreaes, a sub-caste of the Sudras,
243, 244
Cavalry, a division of a Hindu army, 143
Caste rules, on marriage, 39
General, 39-40
Castes, seven Indian, according to Me-
gasthenes, 31-32, 39
In India, according to Hiuan Tsang,
122, 125, 142
Mixed, 142
In India, according to Roger, 238-261
Ceylon, Portuguese power in, advanced
by Albuquerque, 227
Chariots, part of military equipment in
ancient India, 42, 43, 143
Chinab, see Akesines
Cicero, reference of, to suttee, 73
Cochin, description of, by William
Francklin, 318-319
Comitijs (Komatis), a division of the
Weinsja caste, duties of the, 241-242
" Commentaries de Afonso d'Albo-
querque," extracts from, 228-236
Conacapule, a sub-caste of the Sudras, 245
Condal, fortress of, deserted by the
Turks and taken by the Hindus, who
turn it over to Albuquerque, 233
Correa, Gaspar, quotation from, regard-
ing Vasco da Gama's audience with
the Zamorin of Calicut, 219-226
Correwaes, a sub-caste of the Sudras,
peculiar manners of the, 246-247
Costume, Hindu, 132-134
Cottewanias, a sub-caste of the Sudras,
245
Crown, Hindu, fourfold division of
private demesnes of the, 150
Cyrus said to have made expeditions
against India, 4
Marches against the Massagetai, 5
D
Dabistan, suttee described in the, 80-
81
Da Gama, Vasco, voyage of, to Calicut,
205
Journeys to Calicut and has an inter-
view with the Zamorin, 207-210,
213-219
Brings gifts to the Zamorin of Calicut,
220-221
Dalboquerque, Afonso, see Albuquerque,
Affonso de
Dead, abandonment of the, 148
Burning of the, 148
Committed to the water, 148
Exposed to the air in ancient times in
India, 186
Exposed to the wind, in houses con-
structed for the purpose, in ancient
India, 186
Narayana ordered the burning of the,
Hindu treatment of the bodies of the,
188-189
Diodoros Sikelos describes suttee, 75
Diogenes, similarity of the doctrines of,
to those of the Hindus, 57
Dionysos (Bacchus), said to have in-
vaded India, 4
Dogs in India, size and strength of, 30
Dubois, Abbe 1 , a French missionary, de-
scribes suttee, 95-104, 107-114, 117-
120
E
Ebony found in India, 30
Education, Hindu method of, 137
Elephants, manner of hunting, 32-33
Taming of, 34
Long life of, 34-35
Strength of, 35
Part of military equipment in ancient
India, 42, 43, 143
Emoda Mountains, a spur of the Hima-
layas, 20
Eratosthenes on the irrigation of India,
6, 10
Etesian winds, effect of, on India, 6, 7, 8
Etiquette, Hindu, 146-148
Of the mixed castes and Sudras, at
table, 152
Eukratidas, Bactrian king, made con-
quests in India, 3
Exchange, Hindu mediums of, 153
INDEX
Festival processions, order of march of,
63-64
Fire, Hindu ordeal by, 145
Food, Hindu, 152
Francklin, William, descriptive notes on
India, from the diary of, 314-331
Funeral ceremonies, Hindu, 148, 149
Buddhist, 149
G
Galen, quotation from, on the burning of
the dead, 186-187
Gama, Vasco da, see Da Gama
Gaudaris, according to some writers, the
country of Sopeithes, 20
Gandharvi, a river having its source in
the sacred pond Vishnupada, 191
Ganges, the largest river of India, 5
Description of the, by Krateros, 28
Account of the, by Artemidoros, 65-66
Discussion concerning the source of
the, 292-293
Sanctity of the, 293
Garie, Jean, a Portuguese soldier of
fortune in the service of Bengal, 292
Gar manes (Sarmanes), a Buddhist caste
of philosophers, according to Me-
gasthenes, 50-52
Gedrosia (Mekran), Alexander ambitious
of conducting his army through, 4
Gems found in India, 153
Ghuzz Turks, practice of the, with re-
gard to a drowned person, 187
Gioghi (Yogis), attendants of the temple
of Mahadeva, 300-301
Goa comes into the hands of Albu-
querque, 228-233
Ample military supplies found by
Albuquerque in, 230
The capital of the Portuguese, 322
Churches at, 322-323
Description of, by William Francklin,
322-327
Convents at, 323, 324-325
Captain-General of, commander-in-
chief of all the Portuguese forces in
the East Indies, 325
Decline of, 325-326
Gold-dust dug up by ants in India, 36
Gold-mines in India, 23, 27
Gorges, a mining expert of Alexander, 23
Government, Hindu, 149-150
Grammar, the first Hindu science, 136
Greeks buried or burned their dead m
ancient times, 186
Gurrea, sub-caste of the Sudras, 245
Gymnetai, a division of the Pramnai,
64-65
Heaven, Hindu idea of, 172
Herakles (Hercules), said to have in-
vaded India, 4
Hermos, formation of the plain of, 6
Hindu beliefs regarding God, 159-160
Belief regarding the soul, 160-163,
167-168
Hells, according to the Vishnu-Purana,
170
Belief regarding the return of the soul
to God, 187
Temple at Calicut, description of, 210,
213
Hindus, personal habits of the, 134-135
Manners and customs of the, 143-144
Pilgrimages not obligatory upon, 191
Of Goa offer allegiance to Portugal
through Albuquerque, 229
Hindustan, Strabo's account of, derived
from Greek records, 1
Hiuan Tsang, Chinese Buddhist pilgrim,
account of India by, 121-153
Horses, part of military equipment hi
ancient India, 42
Hyarotis (Ravi), a river of India, 18
Hydaspes (Jihlam), a river of Northern
India, 3, 7, 18
Crocodiles in the, 14
Alexander sails down the, 24
Hydrakes (Oxydrakai), a tribe of the
Panjab allied with the Persians, 5
Hylobioi, principal division of the Gar-
manes, customs of the, 50-51
Hypanis (Bias), a river of Northern
India, 3, 18
Fabulous stories told of lands beyond
the, 29
Hypasioi (Asvaka), a people of Northern
India, 7, 18
Iberia, Sesostris leads an army from, 4
Ibn Batuta, an Arabian traveller, de-
scribes suttee, 78-80
Idanthyrsos, a king of the Scythians,
overran Asia, 4-5
Idols, Hindu, causes leading to the con-
struction of, 175-177
Measures for constructing, 181
Animal sacrifice offered to, 181
Reward or punishment meted out to
the artist of, according to his work,
181-182
Honored by Hindus for the sake of
their makers, 182
Materials preferred for, 182
Erected only for the uneducated
classes, 185
INDEX
339
In the temple of Mahadeva, 300-301
lenea, a sub-caste of the Sudras, 245
Ikkeri (modern Ikheri), a city in the
Mysore district of Southern India,
81
Illewanias (Illavars), a sub-caste of the
Sudras, 245
India, invasion of, by the Graeco-Bac-
trians, 3
Macedonian conquests in, 3
Accounts of, prior to the expedition
of Alexander, very obscure, 3-4
Rivers of, 5, 8, 9
Cities of, formed by accretions of earth
carried inland by the rivers, 6
Natural irrigation of, 6, 7-10
Subject to earthquake shocks, 9
Two harvests yearly in, 10
Abundance and productiveness of trees
in, 10-12
Animals in, 13
Produces medicinal drugs, roots, and
dyes, 13
Musical instruments of, 13
Southern, produces cinnamon and
nard, 13
Southern, climate of, 17
Northern, habitable and fertile, 17
Remarkable courage of dogs found in,
23
Exaggerated accounts of the popula-
tion in certain portions of, 25
Size, boundaries, surface, and climate
of, 125
Flora of, 151
Portuguese power in, advanced by
Albuquerque, 227
Indians frugal in their mode of life, 43
Customs of the, 43-45
Customs of the, as described by Near-
chos, 58-59
Gods of the, 63
Indra, directions for constructing an
idol of, 179-180
Indrani, one of the " Seven Mothers "
group of idols, 181
Indus, of a river of India, 5, 18
Change of course of the, 9-10
Size of the, 24
Contains the waters of fifteen smaller
rivers, 24
Different authorities on the width of
the delta of the, 25-26
Comparison of the width of the delta
of the, with that of the Nile, 26
Animals and fish inhabiting, 38
Infantry, a division of a Hindu army,
143
Innadi, a sub-caste of the Sudras, 245
Islam, teachings of, 159
Jahangir, royal state of, 307-309
Roe's first interview with, 309-310
Roe's second interview with, 312-
313
Jains, naked, worship the Arhant (Jina),
185
Jalam ibn Shaiban destroyed the idol
Aditya, and killed its priests, 177
Jihlam, see Hydaspes
Jina (Buddha), directions for construct-
ing an idol of, 180
K
Kaikos, formation of the plain of, 6
Kaikulle, a sub-caste of the Sudras, 245
Kalanos, an Indian gymnosophist, fol-
lowed Alexander to Persia and later
burned himself to death, 3, 55
Incidents of an interview of, with
Onesikritos, 56
Various accounts of the death of, 60,
63
Kamma Varus, see Camawaer
Kashmir, a place of Hindu pilgrimage,
199
Kathaia, situation of, disputed, 21-22
Customs of the inhabitants of, 22, 23
Kaumari, one of the " Seven Mothers "
group of idols, 181
Kaystros, formation of the plain of, 6
Kazvini, a Persian geographer, describes
the temple at Somnath, 200-204
Keteus, an Indian leader, Diodoros's
account of suttee at death of, 75-78
King, Indian, care of the person of an,
45-46
Of the Kshatriya caste, 142
Leave the palace on special occasions
and with great ceremony, 46
Komatis, see Comitijs
Kophes (Kophen of Kabul), a river
crossed by Alexander, 17
Kos (ancient Meropis), an island in the
JSgean Sea, 3
Krateros, letter of, to his mother, gives
added information of Alexander's
invasion of India, 27
Kshatriyas, simplicity of life of the, 134
Royal or warrior caste of India, 142,
238, 239, 251
Forbidden by a special law to burn
themselves alive, 190
Duties of the, 241
Kshetrapala, son of Mahadeva, directions
for constructing an idol of, 181
Kubera, the treasurer, directions for
constructing an idol of, 180
340
INDEX
Language of India, Chinese account of
the, 135
Law, Hindu criminal, 145
Living, conditions under which the bodies
of the, are burned, 190
Logic, the fourth Hindu science, 136
Lohita, a sacred pond, 192
Lohitanadi, a river having its source in
the sacred pond Lohita, 192
M
Maccoba, a sub-caste of the Sudras, 245
Macedonian conquests in India, 3
Magas, priests of the Sun, 185
Magistrates in charge of a city, 40-42
Specific duty of various groups of, 40-
42
Duties of, in general, 40-42
Mahabharata, suttee alluded to in the, 71
Extract from the, as to which wife
shall perform suttee, 102-103
Mahadeva (Siva), directions for con-
structing an idol of, 180
Worshipped by anchorites, 185
Description of the temple of, at Ah-
madabad, 300
Mahmud of Ghazni destroys Somnath,
200, 202-203
Maiandros, formation of the plain of, 6
Malabar (province) size, boundaries, and
natural defences of, 233-234
Royal succession in, 234
Royal marriage customs of, 234
Methods of treatment by the physi-
cians of, 235-236
Malacca, Portuguese power in, advanced
by Albuquerque, 227
Malloi, a tribe of Northern India, 25
Manasa, a sacred pond, 192
Manda, a sacred pond, 192
Mandakini, a river having its source in
the sacred pond Manda, 192
Mandanis. a Hindu gymnosophist, dis-
course of, with Onesikritos, 56-57
Considered superior to Kalanos, 63
Mani, quotation from, regarding worship
of the heavenly bodies, 188
Marriage, caste and affinity rules regu-
lating, 142
Customs, Hindu, 261-273
Masianoi, a tribe of India, 18
Masoga (Massaga?), capital city of the
tribe of Assakanos in India, 18
Massagetai, Cyrus marches against the, 5
Mathura, reasons for the sanctity of, 199
Matsya Purana. quotation from the, re-
garding places of pilgrimage, 191-
194
Meats, kinds of, permitted and forbidden
to the Hindus, 152
Mecca, sanctity of, 198
Medical treatment, Hindu, 148
Megasthenes, a Greek writer, 1
Discredits the ancient histories of
India, 4
Mekran, see Gedrosia
Meropis, see Kos
Metals, precious, of India, 153
Metempsychosis the shibboleth of the
Hindu religion, 160
Metrics, Hindu, Chinese account of, 125-
126
Military affairs in India controlled by
six divisions of governors, 42
Monasteries, Buddhist, architecture of,
131
Monkeys in India, 20-21
Two methods followed in capturing, 21
Size of, 30
Monks, Buddhist, costume of, 133-134
Month, Hindu, divisions of the, 127
Moon, fanciful comparison of the, with
India, 122
Mousikanos, king of Alor in Upper Sind,
12,13
Customs of the inhabitants of the
country of, 27
Inhabitants of the country of, are long-
lived, 27
Moutrea, sub-caste of the Sudras, 246
Multan, sacred pond of, 197
A former place of Hindu pilgrimage,
199
Muscat, harbour of, 331
Mynnekes (ants), habits of, 36
N
Nabokodrosoros (Nebuchadrezzar), Bab-
ylonian monarch, advances as far
as the Pillars of Herakles, 4
Naires of Malabar, 235
Narayana, directions for constructing
an idol of, 179
Bids ancient Hindus burn their dead, 1 86
Nearchos, chief commander of Alexan-
der's fleet in the Persian Gulf, 2
On the irrigation of India, 8
Nikaia, name of a city on the Hydaspes,
founded by Alexander, 20
Nikolaos Damaskenos, Greek historian,
writes of suttee, 72
Nile, width of the delta of the, 26
Animals and fish inhabiting the, 38
Noronha, Antonio de, gains possession of
Banda, 232-233
Nysa, storming of the fortress of, 5
Nysaioi, a tribe of India, 18
INDEX
341
O
Oidanes, a river flowing into the Ganges,
66
Onesikritos, a Greek historian, 1
On the irrigation of India, 10
Sent by Alexander to interview the
sophists, 54-57
Ordeals, four Hindu, 145
Ormuz, Portuguese power in the island
of, advanced by Albuquerque, 227
Padmanabha, an outcast Brahman, the
informant of Roger, 237
Paliacatta (Pulicat), conflicts of castes
at, 242-243
Palibothra (modern Patna), a city of
India, 5
Shape and size of, 28
Defences of, 28
Palibothros, surname of the king of
Palibothra, 28
Palijs, a sub-caste of the Sudras, 243, 245
Palla, the meanest of the sub-castes of
the Sudras, 246
Pandion, an Indian king, 3
According to some authorities sends
presents and embassies to Augustus
Caesar, 3
Patanjali, extracts from, 155-157, 167-
168
Pariahs (Perreaes), outcasts, rules gov-
erning, 247-249
Paropamisadai, a tribe of Kabulistan and
Afghanistan, 7
Parthians, the custom of giving a sur-
name found among the, 28-29
Pasenda, a sect of the Brahmans, 259-261
Patala, a city in Patalene, 26
Patalene, the land about the delta of the
Indus, 5-6, 8, 24, 26
Conquered by Alexander, 25
Patna, see Palibothra
Patnouwa, a sub-caste of the Sudras, 245
Perreaes, see Pariahs
Persian the prevailing language in Ah-
madabad, 297
Peukolaltis, a city of India, 18
Philosophers, Strabo's description of
Indian, based on the statements of
Megasthenes, 47-52
Account of, by Onesikritos, 57-58
Physicians, the second class of the Gar-
manes, customs of the, 50-52
Pleiades, a constellation, 7
Plutarch, mention of suttee by, 72-73
Point de Galle, description of, by William
Francklin, 314-317
Poison, Hindu ordeal by, 147
Ponds, description of the construction
of the sacred, 197
Sacred Hindu, reasons for the sanctity
of, 198
Pontos, Sesostris conducts an army to, 4
Poros, king of Indian provinces east of
the Hydaspes river, 3
According to some authorities sends
presents and embassies to Augustus
Caesar, 3
Conquest of, 8, 20
Situation and size of the country of, 20
Poros (nephew of above), taken pris-
oner by Alexander, 22
Portikanos, an Indian prince whose
territory lay near the Indus, 25
Portuguese, established on the west
coast of India hi 1510, 227
Disorderly life of the, in Bengal, 291
Pradyumna, son of Vishnu, directions
for constructing an idol of, 179
Pramnai (Buddhists), subdivisions and
customs of the, 64-65
Prasioi, the most distinguished tribe of
India, 28
Prayaga, sacred tree of, 190-191
Propertius, a Latin poet, writes of suttee,
73-74
Pukara, legend of the cause of the holi-
ness of, 199
Pulicat, conflicts of castes at, 242-243
Punishment after death, Hindu beliefs
regarding, 273-276
Pyrard de Laval, Francois, a French
traveller in India, 280
Arrives at Chartican, in Bengal, and
is presented to the governor, 280,
283
Pythagoras, similarity of the doctrines of,
to those of the Hindus, 57
R
Rama, son of Dasaratha, directions for
constructing an idol of, 178
Legend of a temple founded by, 182,
185
Ramanouja Weistnouwa, a sub-sect of
the Brahmans, 252, 255-256
Ramayana, suttee alluded to in the, 71
Ravi, see Hyarotis
Records and documents, Hindu, careful
preservation of, 135-136
Reptiles in India, 37-38
Retribution, degrees of, hi Hindu be-
liefs, 172-173
Revanta, the son of the Sun, directions
for constructing an idol of, 180
Rice, abundance of the crop of, in Bengal,
284
342
INDEX
Riddi (Reddis), a sub-caste of the Sudras,
245
Rig- Veda, funeral hymn of the, 71
Roe, Sir Thomas, ambassador from
James I of England to Jahangir, the
Great Mogul, 306
Roger, Abraham, a Dutch missionary,
resident at Pulicat, describes suttee,
88-95
Describes the manners and customs
of the Hindus, 237-279
Death of, in 1649, 237
" Roteiro," quotation from the, regard-
ing Vasco da Gama's visit to Calicut,
205-210, 213-219
Royal succession, Hindu, 148
Sabarmati (Sabermeti), a river, the
favourite resort of ascetics, 302
Sabos (Sambos), an Indian prince whose
territory bordered on Patalene, 25
Sagara, King, legend of the sons of, 193-
194
Sailoda, a sacred pond, the source of the
river of the same name, 193
St. Thomas Christians in Malabar, 236
Saktis (Tschectea), a sect of the Brah-
mans, 261
Salt mines in India, 23
Salutation, nine Hindu forms of, 146-
147
Sama-Veda, studied by the Brahmans,
137
Samba, son of Vishnu, directions for con-
structing an idol of, 179
Sandrokottos, Indian king, ruler of the
nation of the Gangaridai and Pra-
sioi, 43
Sarada, a wooden idol in Inner Kashmir,
177
Sarasvati (Sarsuti), a river having its
source in the sacred pond Vishnu-
pada, 191
Sarayu, a river having its source in the
sacred pond Manasa, 192
Sarmanes, see Garmanes
Schaerwaecka (Sarvaka), a sect of the
Brahmans, 259
Sciences, five Hindu, 136
Seasons of the Hindu year, 127-129
Seivia (Aradh-iha, Saivites), a sect of
the Brahmans, 257-258
Seleukos Nikator, a general of Alexander
the Great, and founder of the
Grseco-Syrian empire, 1
Semiramis said to have made expeditions
against India, 4
Seres (Chinese), long life of, 27
Serpents, found in the Emoda Mountains,
20
In India, 30, 37-38
Sesostris, an Egyptian ruler, advances as
far as Europe, 4
Settreas, see Kshatriyas
" Seven Mothers," directions for con-
structing an idol of the, 181
Shamanians (Buddhists), devoted to the
worship of Buddha, 185
At the instance of Buddha, throw their
dead into flowing water, 188
Sibai, a tribe of Northern India, 25
Sickness, fasting in case of, 148
Suicide to escape from, 149
Persons exposed and abandoned in case
of, in ancient times in India, 186
Silas, a river of India, on the surface of
which nothing will float, 30-31
Silver-mines in India, 23, 27
Sindomana (identified with Sehwan), the
capital of Sabos, 25
Siriperen, a sub-caste of the Pariahs, 248-
250
Sitticaram, a sub-caste of the Sudras, 245
Sittijs (Sittars), a sub-caste of the Sudras,
245
Sitti weapari, a division of the Vaisya
caste, duties of the, 241-242
Siva worshipped by anchorites, 185
" Si-yu-ki," by Hiuan Tsang, quotation
from, 121-153
Skanda, son of Mahadeva, directions for
constructing an idol of, 179
Slave trade in Bengal, 290
Slavonians, custom of the, to burn their
dead, 186
Smaerta (Smartas), a sect of the Brah-
mans, 2S&-259
Sokrates, similarity of the doctrines of,
to those of the Hindus, 57
Soldiery, Hindu, 143, 150
Somnath, description of the shrine and
temple of, 200-204
Destroyed by Mahmud of Ghazni, 200,
202-203
Hindus make pilgrimages to, at an
eclipse of the moon, 201
Worship of, 201-202
Somowansjam, a division of the Ksha-
triyas, derivation of the name of the,
240
Sopeithes (Subhuti), king of Northern
India, dispute as to the situation of
the country of, 20
Sophistai (Sophists), wise men of India,
37
Account of, by Nearchos, 58
Soul, Hindu beliefs regarding the, 160-
163, 167-168, 174-175
INDEX
343
Souriwansjam, a division of the Ksha-
triyaa, derivation of the name of, 240
Stables royal Indian, maintained for
horses and elephants, 42
Strabo, Gi^eek traveller and geographer, 1
Opening sentences of the description of
India by, 2-5
Sudras (Soudraes), the fourth caste of
India. 142
Burn the bodies of the living, 190
The caste of the common people, divi-
sions and subdivisions of the, 238,
242-247, 251, 258
Suicide among the Hindus, 149
Sun, directions for constructing an idol
of the, 180
Sunda Islands, Portuguese power in the,
advanced by Albuquerque, 227
Surat, wrongs or the English at, righted
by Prince Khurram, 310-312
Sutras, Buddhist, 139
Suttee in India, according to Aristobou-
los, 54
Derivation and meaning of the word,
68
Abolished by the English in 1829-30,
68,71
Discussion as to the date of the be-
ginning of, 68, 71
The practice of, according to Greek,
Latin, Arabic, Persian, Italian,
Dutch, French, and English writers,
68-120
Late sporadic instances of, 71-72, 119-
120
Sydrakai (Oxydrakai), a tribe of North-
ern India, 25
Said to be allied to Dionysos, 25
Tadwadi (or Madwa) Weistnouwa, a sub-
sect of the Brahmans, 252, 255-256
Taxila, a ruined city of Northern India, 7
Fixed government of, 18
Customs of the people of, 53-54
Tearkon the Ethiopian advances as far
as Europe, 4
Tellicherri, description of, by William
Francklin, 319-322
Fortifications of, 319-320
Siege of, 320
Strength of the garrison of, in time of
peace, 321
An important base of operations in
case of war, 321
Thaneswar highly venerated by the
Hindus, 177
A sacred pond at, 197
Reasons for the sanctity of, 199
Thrake, Sesostris conducts an army to,
4
Throne, Hindu, description of a, 132
Tigers in India, size of, 30
Time, Chinese account of Hindu meas-
ures of, 126
Tolowa, an extinct sub-caste of the Su-
dras, 246
Towns, Hindu, Hiuan Tsang's descrip-
tion of, 130-131
Trevor, " Rhymes of Rajputana," ballad
from, on the suttee of Goran's wife,
118-119
Tschectea, see Saktis
" Twelve Chapters," the first book used
in the education of the young, 136
U
Utensils, household, 152
Uttaramanasa, a sacred pond, 191
Vaishnavas, a sect of the Brahmans, 251-
252
Vaishnavi, one of the " Seven Mothers "
group of idols, 181
Vaisyas, the merchant caste of India,
142, 238, 241-242, 251
Burn the bodies of the living, 190
Duties of the, 241-242
Valerius Maximus, writes of suttee, 74
Valle, Pietro della, an Italian traveller
in India, describes suttee, 81-87
Interviews a woman about to be
burned with her husband, 83-87
Description of Ahmadabad by, 294
Varahamihira, extract from, regarding
transmigration, 166-167
Varahi, one of the " Seven Mothers "
group of idols, 181
Vasco da Gama, see Da Gama
Vayu Purana, quotation from the, re-
garding places of pilgrimage, 191-
194
Vedas, four, studied by Brahmans, 136,
239
Vellalars, see Wellala
Vinaya, a Buddhist book, 139
Vinayaka, son of Mahadeva, directions
for constructing an idol of, 181
Vishnu directions for constructing an
idol of, 178-179
Vishnu, Dharma, extract from the, re-
garding transmigration, 166
Vishnu Purana, extracts from the, re-
lating to the hells of the Hindus,
170-172
Vishnupada, a sacred pond, 191
344
INDEX
W
Water, Hindu ordeal by, 145
Weapons, Hindu, 143
Weight, Hindu ordeal by, 146
Weinsjas, see Vaisyas
Weistnouwa, see Vaishnavas
Wellala (Vellalare), a sub-caste of the
Sudras, 244
World, three primary divisions of the,
168-169
Xavier, St. Francis, description of the
chapel and tomb of, at Goa, 323-
324
Yajur-Veda, studied by Brahmans, 137,
Yama, the angel of death, directions for
constructing an idol of, 180
Year, Hindu, seasons of the, 127-129
Zamorin of Calicut, royal state of the,
214-215, 222
Zanba (Jambu?), a river having its
source in the pond Arhata, 191
Zarmanochegas, a Hindu who immolated
himself, epitaph of, 67
Zend, see Avesta
Zeus Ombrios (Indra), a Hindu god, 63
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