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Messrs. Tr'ubner & Co. have received the following
opinions on Professor Aibrecht Weber s "History
of Indian Literature : " —

Dr. BUHLKR, Inspector of Schools in India, writes : —

" I am extremely glad to learn that you are about to publish
an English translation of Professor A. Weber's 'History of
Indian Literature.' When I was Professor of Oriental Languages
in Elpliinstone College, I frequently felt the want of such a work
to which I could refer the students. I trust that the work which
you are now publishing will become a class-book in all the Indian
Colleges, as it is the first and only scientific one which deals with
the whole field of Vedic, Sanskrit, and Prakrit literature."

Professor CowELL, of Cambridge, writes : —

" The English translation of Professor A. Weber's ' History of
Indian Literature ' will be of the greatest use to those who wish
to take a comprehensive survey of all that the Hindu mind has
achieved. It will be especially useful to the students in our
Indian Colleges and Universities. I used to long for such a book
when I was teaching in Calcutta. Hindu students are intensely
interested in the history of Sanskrit literature, and this volume
will supply them with all they want on the subject. I hope it
will be made a text-book wherever Sanskrit and English are
taught."

J. EGGELING, Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative
Philology in the University of Edinburgh, writes : —

" I am delighted to hear that the English translation of Pro-
fessor Weber's ' Lectures on Hindu Literature ' is at last ready
for publication. The great want of a general critical survey of
Sanskrit literature in English, such as Professor Weber gave to
German students more than a quarter of a century ago, must
have been felt by all scholars engaged in teaching Sanskrit in

British and American Universities. The translation, I have no
doubt, will be welcomed even more cordially by Hindu students,
to whom, with few exceptions, Professor Weber's Lectures must
hitherto have been a sealed book. Hindu scholars and students
have expressed to me repeatedly how much they feel the want of
English translations of German works such as Weber's Lec-
tures and Lassen's ' Indian Antiquities,' an acquaintance with
which is indeed indispensable in dealing with questions of
Sanskrit Literature. From what I have seen in proof of the
English edition, I may say that the translation seemed to me
exceedingly well done, and that it does great credit to the gentle-
men engaged on it."

Dr. R. ROST, Librarian of the India Office, writes : —

" I have carefully examined and compared with the original
German the English translation of pp. 1-24 of Weber's 'Vorle-
sungen,' and am able to state that it is more than a mere faith-
ful reflex of the original work, and that it has the advantage of a
very readable style and great clearness of expression. If the
remainder of the translation is executed as carefully and as
conscientiously as is the portion I have read, the whole will
reflect the greatest credit upon the scholars who have been
engaged upon it."

Professor WHITNEY, Yale College, Newhaven, Conn.,
U.S.A., writes : —

" I am the more interested in your enterprise of the publica-
tion of Weber's ' Sanskrit Literature' in an English version, as I
was one of the class to whom the work was originally given in
the form of academic lectures. At their first appearance they
were by far the most learned and able treatment of their subject;
and, with their recent additions, they still maintain decidedly
the same rank. Wherever the language, and institutions, and
history of India are studied, they must be used and referred tc
as authority."

TRUBNER'S

ORIENTAL SERIES.

THE HISTORY

INDIAN LITERATURE.

ALBRECHT WEBER

9Tran0lateti from tfje Sectmti ©etman <Etu'tt0n

JOHN MANN, M.A.,

AND

THEODOR ZACHARIAE, Pn.D.,

iitfj tfje Sanrtton nf tfjc

Nil desperari —

Anch hier ivird es tagen.

THIBD EDITIOX.

LONDON:
KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER, & CO.

PATEEXOSTER HOUSE, CHARING CROSS ROAD.
1892.

The rights of translation and of reproduction arc reserved.

TRANSLATORS' NOTE.

ACCORDING to the original intention, the English trans-
lation of this work was to have appeared shortly after the
second German edition, which came out in the end of 1875,
and which, as mentioned by the author in his preface, was
in part prepared with a view to this translation. In con-
sequence, however, of the death of Professor Childers,
under whose direction it was in the first instance begun,
and of whose aid and supervision it would, had he lived, have
had the benefit, the work came to a stand -still, and some
time elapsed before the task of continuing and completing
it was entrusted to those whose names appear on the title-
page. The manuscript of the translation thus interrupted
embraced a considerable part of the text of the first divi-
sion of the work (Vedic Literature). It had not under-
gone any revision by Professor Childers, and was found to be
in a somewhat imperfect state, and to require very material
modification. Upon Mr. Zachariae devolved the labour of
correcting it, of completing it as far as the close of the
Vedic Period, and of adding the notes to this First Part,
none of which had been translated. From the number of
changes introduced in the course of revision, the portion
of the work comprised in the manuscript in question
has virtually been re-translated. The rendering of the
second division of the volume (Sanskrit Literature) is
entirely and exclusively the work of Mr. Mann.

The circumstances under HThich the translation has been

2004829

viii TRANSLATORS1 NOTE.

produced have greatly delayed its appearance. But for
this delay some compensation is afforded by the Supple-
mentary Notes which Professor Weber has written for
incorporation in the volume (p. 3 1 1 ff.), and which sup-
ply information regarding the latest researches and the
newest publications bearing upon the subjects discussed in
the work. Professor "Weber has also been good enough to
read the sheets as they came from the press, arid the trans-
lators are indebted to him for a number of suggestions.

A few of the abbreviations made use of in the titles of
works which are frequently quoted perhaps require ex-
planation : e.g., I. St. for Weber's Indisclie Studien ; I. Sir.
for his Indisclie Streifen ; I. AK. for Lassen's Indische
Alterthumskunde ; Z. D. M. G. for Zeitsehrift der deutsclien
morgenlandischen Gesellschaft, &c.

The system of transliteration is in the main identical
with that followed in the German original; as, however, it
varies in a few particulars, it is given here instead of in
the Author's Preface. It is as follows: —

a ;t i i u u i'i pi

li U e ai <> an ;

k kh g gh fi ;

ch chh j jh 11 ;

r th d dh ii ;

t th d dh n :

p ph h bh in ;

y r 1 v ;

* sh s h ;

Anusvstr.1 qi, in the middle of ;x word before sibilant :'i ;

July, 1878.

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

THE work of my youth, which here appears in a new edi-
tion, had been several years out of print. To have repub-
lished it without alteration would scarcely have done ;
and, owing to the pressure of other labours, it was im-
possible for me, from lack of time, to subject it to a com-
plete and systematic remodelling. So the matter rested.
At last, to meet the urgent wish of the publisher, I re-
solved upon the present edition, which indeed leaves the
original text unchanged, but at the same time seeks, by
means of the newly added notes, to accommodate itself to
the actual position of knowledge. In thus finally decid-
ing, I was influenced by the belief that in no other way
could the great advances made in this field of learning
since the first appearance of this work be more clearly ex-
hibited than precisely in this way, and that, consequently,
this edition might at the same time serve in some measure
to present, in nuce, a history of Sanskrit studies during
the last four-and-twenty years. Another consideration
was, that only by so doing could I furnish a critically
secured basis for the English translation contemplated by
Messrs. Triibner & Co., which could not possibly now give
the original text alone, as was done in the French transla-

x PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

tion,* which appeared at Paris in 1859. It was, indeed,
while going over the work with the view of preparing it
for this English translation, that the hope, nay, the con-
viction, grew upon me, that, although a complete recon-
struction of it was out of the question, still an edition
like the present might advantageously appear in a German
dress also. I rejoiced to see that this labour of my youth
was standing well the test of time. I found in it little
that was absolutely erroneous, although much even now
remains as uncertain and unsettled as formerly ; while, on
the other hand, many things already stand clear and sure
which I then only doubtfully conjectured, or which were
at that time still completely enveloped in obscurity.

The obtaining of critical data from the contents of Indian
literature, with a view to the establishment of its internal
chronology and history — not the setting forth in detail of
the subject-matter of the different works — was, from the
beginning, the object I had before me in these lectures ;
and this object, together with that of specifying the publi-
cations which have seen the light in the interval, has con-
tinued to be my leading point of view in the present
annotation of them. To mark off the new matter, square
brackets are used.f

The number of fellow-workers has greatly increased
during the last twenty-four years. Instead of here running
over their names, I have preferred — in order thus to faci-

* l/istoire de la Littcrature Indicnnc, trad, de I'Allcmand par Alfred
£adous. Paris : A. Durand. 1859.

t In the translation, these brackets are only retained to mark new
matter added in the second edition to the original notes of the first ; the
notes which in the second edition were entirely new are here simply indi-
cated by numbers. — Tu.

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. xi

litate a general view of this' part of the subject — to add to
the Index, which in other respects also has been con-
siderably enlarged, a new section, showing where I have
availed myself of the writings of each, or have at least
referred to them. One work there is, however, which, as
it underlies all recent labours in this field, and cannot
possibly be cited on every occasion when it is made use of,
calls for special mention in this place — I mean the Sanskrit
Dictionary of Bohtlingk and Eoth, which was completed
in the course of last summer.* The carrying through of
this great work, which we owe to the patronage of the St.
Petersburg Academy of Sciences, over a period of a quarter
of a century, will reflect lasting honour upon that body as
well as upon the two editors.

A. AV.

BERLIN, November,. 187 5.

* The second edition bears the inscription : 'Dedicated to my friends,
Bohtlingk and Roth, on the completion of the Sanskrit Dictionary.' — Tu.

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

THE lectures herewith presented to the narrow circle of
my fellows in this field of study, and also, it is hoped, to
the wider circle of those interested in researches into the
history of literature generally, are a first attempt, and as
such, naturally, defective and capable of being in many
respects supplemented and improved. The material they
deal with is too vast, and the means of mastering it in
general too inaccessible, not to have for a lengthened
period completely checked inquiry into its internal relative
chronology — the only chronology that is possible. Nor
could I ever have ventured upon such a labour, had not
the Berlin Royal Library had the good fortune to possess
the fine collection of Sanskrit MSS. formed by Sir li.
Chambers, the acquisition of which some ten years ago,
through the liberality of his Majesty, Frederick William
IV., and by the agency of his Excellency Baron Bunsen,
opened up to Sanskrit philology a fresh path, upon which
it has already made vigorous progress. In the course of
last year, commissioned by the Royal Library, I undertook
the work of cataloguing this collection, and as the result
a detailed catalogue will appear about simultaneously with
these lectures, which may in some sense be regarded as a

xiv PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

commentary upon it. Imperfect as, from the absolute
point of view, both works must appear, I yet cherish the
hope that they may render good service to learning.

How great my obligations are, in the special investiga-
tions, to the writings of Colebrooke, Wilson, Lassen, Bur-
nouf, Eoth, Eeinaud, Stenzler, and Holtzmann, I only
mention here generally, as I have uniformly given ample
references to these authorities in the proper place.

The form in which these lectures appear is essentially
the same in which they were delivered,* with the excep-
tion of a few modifications of style: thus, in particular,
the transitions and recapitulations belonging to oral de-
livery have been either curtailed or omitted; while, on
the other hand, to the incidental remarks — here given as
foot-notes — much new matter has been added.

A. W.

BERLIN, July, 1852.

* In the Winter-Semester of

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION, 1-7

Antiquity of Indian literature, 2 ; proved by geographical
evidence, 3-4 ; by internal evidence from the history
of the Hindi! religion, 5 ; by evidence drawn from the
language, 6 ; want of external chronology, 7.

FIRST PERIOD— VED1C LITERATURE.

PRELIMINARY SURVEY, ....... 8-30

(I.) The Samhitds, 8-11.

Samhitas of the three older Vedas, 8-9 ; mutual relation of
these three Vedas, 9-10 ; period of their final compila-
tion, IO ; Sainhita" of the Atharvan, n.

(2.) The Brdhmanas, 11-15.

Their character, 12, and origin, 13; mutual relation of
the Brdhmanas of the several Vedas, 14 ; their common
name Sruti, 15.

(3.) The Stitras, &c.

Their character and origin, 1 6 ; Srauta-Sutras, 17 ; Grihya-
or Smdrta-Sutras, 17; gradual transformation of the
original Smriti (Custom and Law), 17, 18; origin of
caste, 1 8 ; connection between the Grihya-Sutras and
the legal literature, 19-20 ; linguistic Sutras, their
origin, 20, 21 ; character of the time in question, 21,
22 ; Prdtis'dkhya- Sutras, 23 ; metric, 23 ; Anukramanis,
24 ; tradition — Brihaddevata^ 24 ; Nighan^u, Nirukti,
the Veddngas, 25 ; science of grammar, 26 ; philoso-
phical speculation, 26 ff. ; names applied to the early
sages, 28 ; Upanishads, Aranyakas, 28, 29 ; astronomy
and medicine, 29, 30.

4.— RIGVEDA, 31-63

(a) SarpJiitd, 31-44.

Its divisions, 31, 32 ; Sdkala and Vashkala recensions.

xvi TABLE OF CONTENTS.

32 ; Vdrkali, the school of the Sunakas, 33 ; £aunaka,
F'anchdla Bdbhravya, 34 ;• mythology of the primitive
Indo-Germanic time, 35 ; Persian and Indian cycles of
legend, 36, 37 ," mode of life of the Indians in their
ancient home, 37, 38 ; reasons why they left their
ancient homes, 38, 39 ; different constituents of Rigveda-
Samhitd, 39 ; gods to whom the hymns are addressed,
40 ; exegetic literature connected with the Saniliitd :
Y&ka, 41 ; Sdyana, 41, 42 ; editions, translations, &c.,

43, 44-

(1) Brdkmanas, 44-52.

Aitareya- and Sdnkhdyana-Bralimanas, 44 ; data therein
bearing on time of their composition, 45 ; they presup-
pose earlier compositions with similar contents, 45-47 ;
fables and legends contained in these two Brdhmanas,
47 ; the Aranyakas of the Rik : Aitareya-Aranyaka, 48 ff. ;
Kaushitakdranyaka, Kaushitakopanishad,- 50. 51 ; Sam-
kara's commentaries on the Upanishads, 51; Vashkala-
Upanishad, 52.

(e] Sutras, 52, 62.

The Srauta-Sutras of Asvaldyana and Sdfikhdyana, 52 ff. ;
commentaries thereon, 54, 55 ; the Grihya-Sutras of
Asvaldyana and Sdnkhdyana, 55 ff. ; the literature pre-
supposed in these, 56, 57 ; Rik-PrdtL4dkhya, Upalekha,
59, 60 ; Sikshd, Chhandas, Jyotisha, 60, 6l ; Anukra-
manls, 6l ; Brihaddevatd, Rigvidhdna, Pari^ishtas, 62.
/; — SAMAVEDA, 63 85

(a) Samhitd, 63-66.

Its arrangement, 63 ; the Gdnas, 64 ; antiquity of the
readings of the Sitma-Samhitd, 64, 65 ; recensions, 65 ;
editions, &c., 65, 66.

(6) Brdkmanas, 66-75.

The Tdndya-Pauchavinsa-Brdhniana, 66 ff. ; geographical
and other data contained therein, 67-68 ; ShadvinsV
Brdhmana, 69 ; Chhdndogyopanishad, its relation to the
Vrihad-Aranyaka, 70, 71 ; literary and other data in the
Chhdndogyop., 71, 72; Kenopauishad, 73; the smaller
I'idhmanas of the Sduiah — Sdmavidhana, &c., 74, 75.

Srauta-Sutras: the Kalpa-Sutra of Mawaka, 75-76; Ld-
tydyana-Siitra, 76 ff. ; literature therein presupposed, .
76, 77 > position of non-Brahmanical tribes in this work,
77 ; existence of Buddhism presupposed, 78 ; Sutra of
Drdhydyana, 79 ; its relation to the Sutras of the other

TABLE OF CONTENTS. xviS

Vedas, 80 ; Anupada- Sutra, 80, 8l ; Niddna-Sutra, 81,
82 ; the Pushpa-Sutra of Gobhila, 82 ; Sdma-Tantra,
Panchavidhi-, PratihaVa-, Tandalakshana-, and Upa-
grantha-Sutras, 83 ; the Grihya-Sutra of Gobhila, 84 ;
the Karrna-pradipa of Kdtydyana, 84 ; Paddhatis and
Pari&shtas, 85.

<7.— YAJURVEDA 85-145

I. — THE BLACK YAJUS, 85-103

(a) Samhitds, 85-91.

Difference between the Black and the White Yajus, 86 ;
names of the Black Yajus, 86 ff. ; Charaka, Taittiriya,
and Khdndikiya, 87, 88 ; schools of the Black Yajus :
Taittiriya- Samhita" (Apastamba), the Kdthaka, and the
Atreyi 6dkhd, 88 ; Samhitds of the Apastamba and
Atreya schools, and the Kdthaka, 89 ; data contained
therein, 90 ; Ydska's connection with the arrangement
of the Samhitd, of the Black Yajus, 91 ; the Mdnava and
the Maitra, 91.

(b) Brdhmanas, 92-99.

The Brdhmanas of the Apastamba and Atreya schools ; the
Kdthaka portion of the Taitt. Brdhmana, 92 ; Taittiriya-
Aranyaka, 93 ; Upanishads of the Taitt. Ar., 93, 94 ;
schools of the Bhdllavins, Sdtydyanins, Sdkdyauins, &c.,
95 ; Svetasvataropanishad, 96 ; Maitrayana-Upanishad,
its modern date, 97 ; the planets, &c., in the Maitr. Up.,
98 ; possible relation of the work to Buddha, 99.

Srauta-Stitras, 99-101 ; Grihya- Sutras, 101, 102 ; Pra"ti-

&tkhya-Sutra, 102 ; Anukramanis, 103.
II. — THE WHITE YAJUS, .... 103-145

The name explained, 103 f. ; the name ' Vajasaneya,' 104
f. ; the two schools of the Kdnvas and Mddhyaindinas,
105 ; possible connection of the Maclhyamdinas with the
MaStapStfof, 106.
(a) Samhitd, 107-116.

Division of the Va'jasaneyi-Samhita', 107 ; later origin of
the last fifteen adhydyas, 108 ; relation of the several
parts of the Vdj. S. to the Black Yajus, 108 ; to its
own Brdhmana, and to each other, 109-1 10 ; probable
date of the Rudra-book, no; the mixed castes, III ;
position of the Mdgadha, 1 1 1 ; nis position in the
Atharva-Veda, 112 ; astronomical and other data in the
Vdj. S., 113; position of the Kurus and Panchdlas,
the names Subhadrd and Kampila, 114; Arjuna and

xviii TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Phalguna as (secret) names of Indra, 115; the richas
incorporated in the Yajus, 115, 116; editions, commen-
taries, 1 1 6.

(b) Brdhmana, 116-139.

The Satapatha-Brdhmana, 116 ; its name and extent, 117 ;
relation of the Brdhmana of the Kdnva school to that of
the Mddhyaindinas, 117, 118; relation of the several
ledndas to the Samhitd and to each other, 1 18, 119;
posteriority of the last five Tcdndas, 1 20 ; Agnirahasya-
kdnda, 120, 121; Ashtddhydyi-kdnda, 121 ; subjects of
study named therein, 121, 122; other data, 122, 123;
AsVamedha-kdnda, 124 ff. ; Gdthds, 124, 125; position
of Janamejaya, 125; of the Pdrikshitiyas, 126; the
Aranyaka-kdnda, 126 ; the Vrihad-Aranyaka : — Madhu-
kdnda, 127; its name and list of teachers, 128 ; Ydjna-
valkiya-kdnda, 129; Khila-kdnda, 130; the concluding
vansa of the Satapatha-Brdhmana, 131 ; probable north-
western origin of kdndas vi.-x. of the Satap. Br., 132 •
the whole blended together by one arranging hand,
133 ; teachers mentioned in the i-iatap. Br., 133, 134;
legends, 134 ff. ; relation of these to the Epic legends,
135; position of the Kuru-Panchdlas compared with
that of the Pdrikshitas, 136 ; the Pdndavas not men-
tioned, 137; points of contact with the Sdrnkhya tradi-
tion, 137 ; with Buddhist legend, 138; commentaries on
the Satap. Br., editions, &c., 139.

The Srauta-Sutra of Kdtydyana, teachers mentioned there-
in, 139; other data, 140; commentaries, 141; Pad-
dhatis and Pari^ishtas : Nigama-Pari&shta, Pravard-
dhydya, Charana-vyuha ; the Vaijavdpa-Sutra, 142; the
Kdtiya-Grihya-Sutra of Pdraskara, 142, 143 ; the Prdti-
6"dkhya-Sutra of the Vdjasaneyi-Samh., 143, 144; Anu-
kramani, 144, 145.

D.— ATHARVAVEDA, 145- 171

(a) Samhitd, 145-150.

Extent and division of Atharvaveda-Sarnhitd, 145* 146 ;
its contents and arrangement, 146 ; it probably origi-
nated in part with the unbrdhmanised Aryans of the
West, 147; data furnished by the Ath. S., the name
'Atharvan,' 148; earliest mention of this name, 149;
the name 'Brahmaveda,' its meaning, 149, 150; edi-
tions, &c., of the Ath. S., 150.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

(u) Brdhmana.

The Gopatha-Bra"hmana, 150-151.

The Saunakiya" Chaturadhya'yika', 15.1 ; Anukramani, 152 ;
the Kausika-Sutra, 152; Kalpas and Parisishtas, 153.

UPANISHADS, 153-171.

Number of the Upanishads, 154, 155; Upanishads be-
longing to the three older Vedas, 155, 156 ; special divi-
sion of the Atharvopanishads into three groups : Veddnta,
Yoga, and Sectarian Upanishads, 156 ; Atharvan re-
cension of Upanishads borrowed from the other Vedas,
157. THE ATHARVOPANISHADS PROPER : (i.) those of the
Veddnta class — the Mundakopanishad, 1 58, 1595 Pra£-
nopanishad, 159, 160; Garbhopanishad, 160; Brahmopa-
nishad, 160, 161 ; Ma"ndukyopanishad, 161 ; remaining
Upanishads of the Veddnta class: Prdndgnihotrop., Arshi-
kop., 161, 162 ; (2) Atharvopanishads of the Yoga class :
Ja"ba"la, Kathasruti, Arunika, Bhdllavi, and others, 163 ;
range of ideas and style in this class of Upanishads, 165 ;
(3) the Sectarian Upanishads, 165 ff. ; (a) those in which
worship of Vishnu (under the names NaYdyana, &c.) is in-
culcated, 166; Nrisinhata'paniyopanishad, 167 ; Rdmata"-
paniyopanishad, 1 68 ; Gopdlatdpaniyopanishad, 169;
(P) Upanishads of the Siva sects : ^atarudriya, Kaivalyo-
panishad, 169; Atharvas"iras, 169, 170; remaining
Upanishads of the Siva sects, 170, 171.

SECOND PERIOD— SANSKRIT LITERA TURE.

WHEREIN DISTINGUISHED FROM FIRST PERIOD, . . 175-183
Distinction in respect of language, 175; gradual develop-
ment of Indo-Aryan Bhdshd, 176; influence of Indian
aborigines thereon, 177 ; separation of written language
from popular dialects — ancient dialectic differences,
178; rock- inscriptions in popular dialects, 179; in-
ternal evidence for posteriority of second period, 180 ;
critical condition of texts in this period — age of MSS.,
181 ; distinction as regards subject-matter, 182 ; classi-
fication of Sanskrit literature, 183.

4.-WORKS OF POETRY, 183-215

I. EPIC POETRY, 183-196.
(a) Itihdsa, 183-189 : forerunners of Epic poetry in Vedio

xx TABLE OF CONTENTS.

period, 183; the Mahd-Bha'rata, 184; existence of a
work resembling it in first century A. D., 186; legend
of Mahd-Bha'rata, its relation to ^atapatha-Bra'hinana,
&c., 186 ; text of Mahd-Bha'rata, non-epic constituents,
187; Kavi translation ; Jaimini-Bbdrata, 189; (b) Pu-
rdnas : their general character — ancient Purdnas lost —
absence of epic and prominence of ritual element in
existing Purdnas and Upa-purdnas, 190, 191 ; (c) Kd-
vyas, 191-196 : the Rdmdyana, 191 ; its allegorical
character, 192 ; colonisation of Southern India, 193 ;
Rdmdyana the work of a single author, 193; different
recensions of the text, 194; remaining Kdvyas, artificial
Epic, 195.

2. DRAMATIC POETRY, 196-208.

Origin of Drama from dancing, 196 ; Nata-Stitras men-
tioned in Pdnini, 197 ; dancing at the great sacrificial
festivals, 198 ; alleged mention of dramas in oldest (?)
Buddhistic writings, 199; age of surviving dramas,
200 ; no foundation for the view which places Kdliddsa
in the first century B.C., 201, 202 ; internal evidence from
Kdliddsa's dramas themselves on this point, 203 ; authen-
ticity of the Malavikdgnimitra, 204 ; age of Sudraka's
Mrichhakati, 205 ; subject-matter and special peculi-
arities of the Hindti drama, 206 ; possibility of Greek
influence on its development, 207.

3. LYRICAL POETRY, 208-210.

Religious lyric, 208 ; Erotic lyric : Megha-duta, £c., 209 ;
mystical character of some of these poems — the Gita-
govinda, 210.

4. ETHICO-DIDACTIC POETRY, 210-213.

Niti-s"a"stras, 210; ' Beast-Fable,' 211 ; Pancha-tantra, Hito-
padesa, 212 ; popular tales and romances, 213.

5. HISTORY AXD GEOGRAPHY, 213-215.
Rdja-taramgini, 213 ; inscriptions, grants, and coins, 215.

/»'.— WORKS OF SCIENCE AND ART, .... 215-276
i. SCIENCK OF LANGUAGE, 216-232.

(a) Grammar, 216-225 : Pslnini's Grammar, its peculiar
terminology, 216; Pilnini's date — statements of the
Chinese traveller Hiuati Thsang, 217 ; weakness of the
evidence on which Bohtlingk's view rests, 218; exist-
ence of Mahfibhilshya in the time of Abhimanyu, 219 ;
acquaintance with Greeks presupposed in Pdnini, 220 ;
' Yavandni,' 221 ; commentaries on Pdnini — Paribhashda,

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Varttikas, Mahiibha'shya, 222 ; date of Kityayana, 222 ;
of the Mahdbha'shya, 223 ; critical condition of the text
of Pa'nini, 224 ; Gana-pdtha, &c., 225 ; other gram-
matical systems, 226. (6) Lexicography, 227-230 :
Amara-kosha, no foundation for the view which places
it in the first century B.C., 228 ; internal evidence against
this view, 229 ; age of the work still uncertain, 230 ;
Dhitu-pdthas, 230. (c) Metric, Poetics, Rhetoric, 231,
232 : Chhandah-s'a'stra of Pingala, Alamka'ra-s'iistra of
Bharata, Sdhitya-darpana, 231.

3. PHILOSOPHY, 232-246.

High antiquity of philosophical speculation among the
Hindus, 232 ; ' Development,' ' Arrangement,' ' Crea-
tion ' theories of the world, 233 ; gradual growth of
these theories into philosophical systems, 234; the
Samkhya-system, 235, 236 ; the Yoga-system, 237 ;
Deistic sects, 238 ; influence of Sainkhya-Yoga on
development of Gnosticism and 6ufism, 239 ; the two
Mimdnsds, 239 ; Karma-Mimdnsd-Stitra of Jaimini, 240 ;
Brahma-Mimdnsd-Sutra of Bddarayana, 242 ; age of
Biidarayana, 243 ; the two logical systems, Nydya and
Vais'eshika, 244 ; Heterodox systems, 246.

3. ASTRONOMT AND AUXILIARY SCIENCES, 246-264.

Antiquity of astronomy, 246 ; solar year, quinquennial
cycle, Yugas, 247 ; the lunar asterisms, 247 ; mention
of these in Rik-Sarnhitd, 248 ; Jyotisha, 249; the planets,
249 ; their peculiar Indian names and number, 250 :
importance of Greek influence here, 251 ; relations of
Greeks with India, 251 ; the Yavanas, teachers of the
ancient Indian astronomers, 252 ; 'Ptolemaios,' 'Asura-
Maya,' 253 ; Romaka-Siddha'nta, Paulis'a-Siddha'nta,
253 ; Greek terms in Vardha-Mihira, 254, 255 ; further
development of Indian astronomy : Hindus the teachers
of the Arabs, 255 (also in algebra and arithmetic, — the
arithmetical figures, 256), and through the Arabs, of Euro-
pean mediaeval astronomers, 257 ; Aryabha^a, 257 > the
five Siddhdntas, 258 ; Brahmagupta, Vardha-Mihira,
259 ; date of Vardha-Mihira, ^atsinanda, and Bhdskara,
260, 261 ; Albiruui's statements regarding Bhjiskara (?),
262. Later period : Arabs in turn the teachers of the
Hindus in astrology, 263; Arabic technical terms in
Indian and European astrological works, 263, 264; lore
of omens and portents, 264; magic, &c., 264.

xxii TABLE OF CONTENTS.

4. MEDICAL SCIENCE, 265-271.

Its earliest representatives, 265 ; Charaka, SusYuta, Dhan«
vantari, 266 ; Sdlihotra, Vdtsyayana, 267 ; uncertain
date of extant medical works, 268 ; Hindu medicine
apparently an independent development, 269 ; ques-
tionable authenticity of existing texts, 269 ; importance
of Indian medicine, 269 ; its influence on Arabs, 270.

5. ART OP WAR, Mo sic, FORMATIVE AND TECHNICAL ARTS,

271-276.

Art of war (Dhanur-veda) : Vis'va'mitra, Bharadvaja, 271 ;
music (Gandharva-veda), 271 (musical notation, 272) ;
Artha-s^istra, 273 : painting and sculpture, 273 ; archi-
tecture, 274 j technical arts, 275.

C.— WORKS ON LAW, CUSTOM, AND RELIGIOUS WOR-
SHIP, 276-283

The Pharma-J-iastras, 276 ; Code of Manu, Brahmanical
organisation as here presented, 276 ; highly developed
judicial procedure here exhibited, 277 ; connection of
Dharma-Sastras with Grihya-Sdtras, 277, 278; critical
questions connected with existing text of Manu, 279 ;
different redactions of Manu and the other Dharma-
Sdstras, number of these, 280 ; relation of Manu's Code
to that of Ydjnavalkya, date of the latter, 280, 281 ;
Epic poetry and Purdnas also sources for Hindu, law,
282; modern jurisprudence, 282; Dekhan the chief
seat of literary activity after eleventh century, 283.

D. -BUDDHISTIC SANSKRIT LITERATURE, . . . 283-310
Buddhism, its origin from Sdinkhya doctrine, 284 ; rela-
tion of Buddhist legend to the later portions of Vedic
literature, 285 ; princes of same name in Buddhist
legend and Satapatha-Brahmana, 286 ; position in former
of Kuru-Panchdlas, Pandavas, Mdgadhas, 286, 287 ;
Buddhist eras, 287 ; discordance of these with other
historical evidence, 287 ; earliest demonstrable use of
these eras, 288 ; Buddha's doctrine, 288 ; his novel way
of promulgating it, and opposition to Brahmanical
hierarchy, 289 ; tradition as to redaction of Buddhistic
eacred scriptures, Northern and Southern, 290 ; mutual
relation of the two collections, 292 ; Pdli historical litera-
ture, 293 ; scriptures of Northern Buddhists, their
gradual origin, 294 ; language in which Southern
scriptures were at first preserved different from that in
which the Northern scriptures were recorded at third

TABLE OF CONTENTS. xxiii

council, 295, 296 (Jaina-literature, 296) ; data furnished
by Buddhistic Sanskrit literature of doubtful authority
for Buddha's age, 297.

(a) The Sutra-Pitala : distinction between the simple and
the MahaVaipulya-Sutras, 298 ; poetical pieces in latter,
Ga'tha'-dialect, 299 ; contents of the simple Sutras :
Ityukta, Vyakarana, Avaddna, Adbhuta-dharma, Geya,
Gathd, Upades"a, Niddna, Jdtaka, 300, 301 ; their Pantheon
different from that of the Brahmana-texts, 301 j but
identical with that of the Epic poetry, 303 ; other
chronological data in the Sutras, 304.— (6) The Vinaya-
Pitaka: discipline of clergy, system of mendicancy,
305 ; Buddhistic hierarchy as distinguished from the
Brahmanical, Buddhist cult, 306 ; points of connection
with Christian ritual, 307. — (c) The Abhidharma-Pitaka,
307 ; schools of Buddhist philosophy, 308 ; relation to
the Sa'mkhya-system, 308; and to Gnosticism, 309. —
Commentaries on the sacred scriptures, 309; Tantras,
3io.

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES, 31 x

INDICES :

SANSKRIT INDEX, ,2o

INEEX OP MATTERS, fee. » 353

INDEX OF AUTHORS, ...,.,,, 358

LECTURES

HISTORY OF INDIAN LITERATURE.

AT the very outset of these lectures I find myself in a
certain degree of perplexity, being rather at a loss how
best to entitle them. I cannot say that they are to treat
of the history of " Indian Literature ; " for then I should
have to consider the whole body of Indian languages, in-
cluding those of non- Aryan origin. Nor can I say that
their subject is the history of " Indo- Aryan Literature;"
for then I should have to discuss the modern languages of
India also, which form a third period in the development
of- Indo- Aryan speech. Nor, lastly, can I say that they
are to present a history of " Sanskrit Literature ; " for the
Indo- Aryan language is not in its first period " Sanskrit,"
i.e., the language of the educated, but is still a popular
dialect ; while in its second period the people spoke not
Sanskrit, but Prakritic dialects, which arose simultaneously
with Sanskrit out of the ancient Indo- Aryan vernacular.
In order, however, to relieve you from any doubt as to
what you have to expect from me here, I may at once
remark that it is only the literature of the first and second
periods of the Indo-Aryan language with which we have
to do. For the sake of brevity I retain the name " Indian
Literature."

I shall frequently in the course of these lectures be
forced to draw upon your forbearance. The subject they
discuss may be compared to a yet uncultivated tract of

2 LECTURES ON THE

country, of which only a few spots have here and there
been cleared, while the greater part of it remains covered
with dense forest, impenetrable to the eye, and obstructing
the prospect. A clearance is indeed now by degrees being
made, but slowly, more especially because in addition to
the natural obstacles which impede investigation, there still
prevails a dense mist of prejudice and preconceived opinions
hovering over the land, and enfolding it as with a veil.

The literature of India passes generally for the most
ancient literature of which \ve possess written records, and
justly so.1 But the reasons which have hitherto been
thought sufficient to establish this fact are not the correct
ones; and it is indeed a matter for wonder that people
should have been so long contented with them. In the first
place, Indian tradition itself has been adduced in support of
this fact, and for a very long time this was considered suffi-
cient. It is, I think, needless for me to waste words upon
the futile nature of such evidence. In the next place, as-
tronomical data have been appealed to, according to which
the Vedas would date from about 1400 B.C. But these
data are given in writings, which are evidently of very
modern origin, and they might consequently be the result
of calculations2 instituted for the express purpose. Fur-

1 In so far as this claim may not other hand, the opinion expressed in
now be disputed by the Egyptian the first edition of this work (1852), to
monumental records and papyrus the effect that the Indians may either
rolls, or even by the Assyrian litera- have brought the knowledge of these
ture which has but recently been lunar mansions, headed by Krittikd,
brought to light. with them into India, or else have

2 Besides, these calculations nre of obtained it at a later period through
a very vague character, and do not the commercial relations of the Phoe-
yield any such definite date as that nieians with the Panjttb, has recently
given above, but only some epoch gained considerably in probability ;
lying between 1820-860 B.C., see and therewith the suggestion of
1. St., x. 236; Whitney in Jouni. Babylon as the mother country of the
R. A. S., i. 317, ff. (1864). True, observations on which this date is
the circumstance that th« oldest re- established. See the second of my two
cords begin the series of nakghatras treatises, Die vcdischen Nachrichten
with the sign Krittikd, carries ns von d-n Nakshatra (Berlin, 1862), pp.
back to a considerably earlier period 362-400; my paper, Ueber den Veda-
even than these dates, derived from kalender Namens Jyotisha (1862), p.
the so-called Vedic Calendar, viz., 15 ; 7. St., x. 429. ix. 241, ff.; Whit-
tw a period between 2780-1820 B.C., ney, Oriental and Linguistic Studies
since the vernal equinox coincided (1874), ii. 418. — Indeed a direct re-
with 77 Tauri (Krittikd), in round ference to Babylon and its sea trade,
numbers, about the year 2300 B.C., in which the exportation of peacocks
eee /. St., x. 234 236. But, on the is mentioned, has lately come to light

f US TORY OF INDIAN LITERATURE.

tlier, one of the Buddhist eras has been relied upon,
according to which a reformer is supposed to have arisen
in the sixth century B.C., in opposition to the Brahraanical
hierarchy ; hut the authenticity of this particular era is
still extremely questionable. Lastly, the period when
Panini, the first systematic grammarian, flourished, has
been referred to the fourth century B.C., and from this, as a
starting-point, conclusions as to the period of literary deve-
lopment which preceded him have been deduced. But the
arguments in favour of Panini's having lived at that time3
are altogether weak and hypothetical, and in no case can
they furnish us with any sort of solid basis.

The reasons, however, by which we are fully justified in
regarding the literature of India as the most ancient lite-
rature of which written records on an extensive scale have
been handed down to us, are these : —

In the more ancient parts of the Rigveda-Samhita, we
find the Indian race settled on the north-western borders
of India, in the Panjab, and even beyond the Panjab, on
the Kubha, or Koi^v, in Kabul.4 The gradual spread of

in an Indian text, the Baverujdtaka,
see Minayeff in the Melanges Asia-
tiques (Imperial Russian Academy),
vi. 577, ff. (1871), xn&Monatsberickte
of the Berlin Academy, p. 622 (1871).
As, however, this testimony belongs
to a comparatively late period, no
great importance can be attached to
it. — Direct evidence of ancient com-
mercial relations between India and
the West, has recently been found in
hieroglyphic texts of the seventeenth
century, at which time the Aryas
would appear to have heen already
settled on the Indus. For the word
kapi, 'ape,' which occurs in I Kings
x. 22, in the form qof, Gr. KTJTTOS, is
found in these Egyptian texts in the
form kafu, see Joh. Diirnichen, Die
Flotte cincrcyypt. Koniyin ausdcm 17.
Jahrh. (Leipzig, 1868), table ii. p. 17.
Lastly, tuk/iiim, the Hebrew name
for peacocks (l Kings x. 22, 2 Chron.
ix. 21) necessarily implies that al-
ready in Solomon's time the Phoeni-
cian ophir-merchants "onteu affaire
soil an pays meme des Abhira soit
sur un autre point de la coto de

1'Inde avec des peuplades dravidi-
ennes," Julien Vinson, Revue de
Linyuistiquc, vi. 120, ff. (1873). See
also Burnell, Elements of South In-
dian Pala?ographyr p. 5 (Mangalore,
1874).

3 Or even, as Goldstiicker sup-
poses, earlier than Buddha.

4 One of the Vedic Rishis, asserted
to be Vatsa, of the family of Kanva,
extols, Rik, viii. 6. 46-48, the splen-
did presents, consisting of horses,
cattle, and vshtras yoked four toge-
ther—(Roth in the St. Petersburg
Diet, explains uslitra as ' buffalo,
humped bull;' generally it means
' cnmel ') — which, to the glory of the
Yadvas, he received whilst residing
with Tirimdira and Pars'u. Or have
we here only a single person, Tirirn-
dira Parsu ? In the Sdukhdyana
Srauta-Sutra, xvi. 1 1 . 20, at least,
he is understood as Tirimdira Pa>a-
s'avya. These names suggest Tiridiites
and the Persians; see J.St.. iv. 379, n.,
but compare Girard de Rialle, Revue,
de Linyuist., iv. 227 (1872). Of
course, we must not think of th»-

4 LECTURES ON THE

the race from these seats towards the east, beyond the
Saras vati and over Hindustan as far as the Ganges, can be
traced in the later portions of the Vedic writings almost
step by step. The writings of the following period, that
of the epic, consist of accounts of the internal conflicts
among the conquerors of Hindustan themselves, as, for
instance, the Maha-Bharata ; or of the farther spread of
Brahmanism towards the south, as, for instance, the Ea-
mayana. If we connect with this the first fairly accurate
information about India which we have from a Greek
source, viz., from Megasthenes,* it becomes clear that at
the time of this writer the Brahmanising of Hindustan was
already completed, while at the time of the Peri plus (see
Lassen, /. AK., ii. 150, n. ; /. St., ii. 192) the very south-
ernmost point of the Dekhan had already become a seat of
the worship of the wife of Siva. What a series of years,
of centuries, must necessarily have elapsed before this
boundless tract of country, inhabited by wild and vigorous
tribes, could have been brought over to Brahmanism ! ! It
may perhaps here be objected that the races and tribes
found by Alexander on the banks of the Indus appear to
stand entirely on a Vedic, and not on a Brahmanical foot-
ing. As a matter of fact this is true ; but we should not
be justified in drawing from this any conclusion whatever
with regard to India itself. For these peoples of the Pan-
jab never submitted to the Brahmanical order of things,
but always retained their ancient Vedic standpoint, free
and independent, without either priestly domination or
system of caste. For this reason, too, they were the ob-
jects of a cordial hatred on the part of their kinsmen, who
had wandered farther on, and on this account also Buddh-
ism gained an easy entrance among them.

Persians after Cyrus : that would current, of the word Tiri in Tiridates,

bring us too far down. But the Per- &c., from the Pahlavi tir—Zund tis-

sians were so called, and had ttieir trya (given, e.g., by M. Br&il, De

own princes, even before the time of Pcrsicis nominibiis (1863), pp. 9, IO),

Cyrus. Or ought we rather, ns sug- is hardly justified,
peated by Olshausen in the Berliner * Who as ambassador of Seleucus

Monatsberickte (1874), p. 708, to resided for some time at the court

think of the Parthavas, i.e., Parthi- of Chandragupta. His reports are

.ins, who as well as Pur f? as are men- preserved to us chiefly in the 'IvStxd

tioned in the time of the Achseme- of Arrian, who lived in the secoud

nidro ? The derivation, hitherto century A.D.

HIS TOR V OF INDIAN LITER A TURE. 5

And while the claims of the written records of Indian
literature to a high antiquity — its beginnings may per-
haps be traced back even to the time when the Indo-
Aryans still dwelt together with the Persa- Aryans — are
thus indisputably proved by external, geographical testi-
mony, the internal evidence in the same direction which
may be gathered from their contents, is no less conclusive.
In the songs of the Rik, the robust spirit of the people
gives expression to the feeling of its relation to nature,
with a spontaneous freshness and simplicity ; the powers
of nature are worshipped as superior beings, and their
kindly aid besought within their several spheres. Begin-
ning with this nature- worship, which everywhere recog-
nises only the individual phenomena of nature, and these
in the first instance as superhuman, we trace in Indian
literature the progress of the Hindu people through almost
all the phases of religious development through which the
human mind generally has passed. The individual pheno-
mena of nature, which at first impress the imagination as
being superhuman, are gradually classified within their
different spheres ; and a certain unity is discovered among
them. Thus we arrive at a number of divine beings, each
exercising supreme sway within its particular province,
whose influence is in course of time further extended to
the corresponding events of human life, while at the same
time they are endowed with human attributes and organs.
The number — already considerable — of these natural
deities, these regents of the powers of nature, is further
increased by the addition of abstractions, taken from ethi-
cal relations ; and to these as to the other deities divine
powers, personal existence, and activity are ascribed. Into
this multitude of divine figures, the spirit of inquiry seeks
at a later stage to introduce order, by classifying and
co-ordinating them according to their principal bearings.
The principle folloMred in this distribution is, like the con-
ception of the deities themselves, entirely borrowed from
the contemplation of nature. We have the gods who act
in the heavens, in the air, upon the earth ; and of these
the sun, the wind, and fire are recognised as the main repre-
sentatives and rulers respectively. These three gradually
obtain precedence over all the. other gods, who are only
looked upon as their creatures and servants. Strength- .

6 LECTURES ON THE

ened by these classifications, speculation presses on and
seeks to establish the relative position of these three
deities, and to arrive at unity for the supreme Being. This
is accomplished either speculatively, by actually assuming
such a supreme and purely absolute Being, viz., " Brah-
man" (neut.), to whom these three in their turn stand
in the relation of creatures, of servants only ; or arbi-
trarily, according as one or other of the three is worshipped
as the supreme god. The sun-god seems in the first
instance to have been promoted to this honour ; the Persa-
Aryans at all events retained this standpoint, of course
extending it still further; and in the older parts of the
Brahmanas also — to which rather than to the Samhitas
the Avesta is related in respect of age and contents — we
find the sun-god here and there exalted far above the other
deities (jjrasavitd devdndni). We also find ample traces of
this in the forms of worship, which so often preserve
relics of antiquity.5 Xay, as " Brahman " (masc.), he has
in theory retained this position, down even to the latest
times, although in a very colourless manner. His col-
leagues, the air and fire gods, in consequence of their
much more direct and sensible influence, by degrees ob-
tained complete possession of the supreme power, though
constantly in conflict with each other. Their worship has
passed through a long series of different phases, and it
is evidently the same which Megasthenes found in Hin-
dustan,* and which at the time of the Periplus had pene-
trated, though in a form already very corrupt, as far as the
southernmost point of the Dekhan.

But while we are thus justified in assuming a high
antiquity for Indian literature, on external geographical
grounds, as well as on internal evidence, connected with
the history of the Hindu religion,6 the case is sufficiently
unsatisfactory, when we come to look for definite chrono-

5 Cf. my paper. Zmi reJhclic Texte popular dialects, for whose gradual
ubcr Omina mid Porteitta (1859), pp. development out of the language of
392-393. the Vedic hymns into this form it is

6 To these, thirdly, we have to absolutely necessary to postulate the
add evidence derived from the Ian- lapse of a series of centuries,
puage. The edicts of Piyadasi, * According to Strabo,, p. 117,
whose date is fixed by the mention A^vvaos (Rndra, Soma, Siva) was
therein of Greek kings, and even of worshipped in the mountains, 'Hpa-
Alexander himself, are written iu *c\?js (Inunt, Vishnu) in the plain.

HISTORY OF INDIAN LITERATURE. 7

logical dates. "We must reconcile ourselves to the fact
that any such search will, as a general rule, be absolutely
fruitless. It is only in the case of those branches of
literature which also became known abroad, and also in
regard to the last few centuries, when either the dates of
manuscripts, or the data given in the introductions or
closing observations of the works themselves, furnish us
some guidance, that we can expect any result. Apart
from this, an internal chronology based on the character
of the works themselves, and on the quotations, &c.,
therein contained, is the only one possible.

Indian literature divides itself into two great periods,
the Vedic and the Sanskrit. Turning now to the former,
or Vedic period, I proceed to give a preliminary general
outline of it before entering into the details.

FIRST PERIOD.

VEDIC LITERATURE.

WE have to distinguish four Vedas — the Rig- Veda, the
Sama-Veda, the Yajur-Veda, which is in a double form,
and the Atharva-Veda. Each of these is again subdivided
into three distinct parts — Samhita, Brahmana, and Sutra.
Their relation to each other is as follows : —
The Samhita * of the Rik is purely a lyrical collection,
comprising the store of song which the Hindus brought
with them from their ancient homes on the banks of the
Indus, and which they had there used for " invoking pro-
sperity on themselves and their flocks, in their adoration
of the dawn, in celebration of the struggle between the
god who wields the lightning and the power of darkness,
and in rendering thanks to the heavenly beings for pre-
servation in battle." f The songs are here classified
according to the families of poets to which they are as-
cribed. The principle of classification is consequently, so
to speak, a purely scientific one. It is therefore possible,
though more cannot be said, that the redaction of the text
may be of later date than that of the two Samhitas which

* The name Sarnhitii (collect-ion) vi>li/<i, svddliydya, adltyayana , also

first occurs in the so-called Aran- ' Veda,' alone. It is in the Stltras

yakas, or latest supplements t<> the that \ve first find the term Chhandas

Brahmanas, and in the Sutras ; but specially applied to the Samhitiis,

whether in the above meaning, is and more particularly in Pdnini,

not as yet certain. The names by by whom Rixhi, Nigama, Mantra (?)

which the Samhitds are designated are also employed in the same

in the Brdhmanasare — either richah, manner.

mimdni, yajnnslii, — or Rigveda, Sa- -f- See Roth, Zur Littcratur und

maveda, Yajurveda, — or Buhvricha.s, Gesc/iiclife <lcs Weda, \>. 8 (Stutt-

Ciihutidugas, Adhvuryu?, — or trayi gurt, 1846).

THE SAMHITAS. 9

will come next under our consideration, and which, pro-
viding as they do for a practical want, became necessary
immediately upon the institution of a worship with a fixed
ritual. For the Samhita of the Saman, and both the
Samhitas of the Yajus, consist only of such richas (verses)
and sacrificial formulas as had to be recited at the cere-
monies of the Soma offering and other sacrifices, and in
the same order in which they were practically used ; at
]east, we know for certain, that this is the case in the
Yajus. The Samhita of the Saman contains nothing but
verses (richas); those of the Yajus, sentences in prose
also. The former, the richas, all recur, with a few ex-
ceptions, in the Rik-Samhita, so that the Sama-Samhita
is nothing more than an extract from the songs of the
latter, of the verses applied to the Soma offering. Now
the richas found in the Sama-Samhita and Yajuh-Samhita
appear in part in a very altered form, deviating consi-
derably from the text of the Rik, the Rik-Samhita. Of
this a triple explanation is possible. First, these read-
ings may be earlier and more original than those of the
Rik, liturgical use having protected them from alteration,
while the simple song, not being immediately connected
with the sacred rite, was less scrupulously preserved. Or,
secondly, they may be later than those of the Rik, and
may have arisen from the necessity of precisely adapting
the text to the meaning attributed to the verse in its
application to the ceremony. Or, lastly, they may be of
equal authority with those of the Rik, the discrepancies
being merely occasioned by the variety of districts and
families in which they were used, the text being most
authentic in the district and family in which it originated,
and less so in those to which it subsequently passed. All
three methods of explanation are alike correct, and in
each particular case they must all be kept in view. But
if we look more closely at the relation of these verses, it
may be stated thus : The richas occurring in the Sama-
Samhita generally stamp themselves as older and more
original by the greater antiquity of their grammatical
forms ; those in the two Samhitas of the Yajus, on the
contrary, generally give the impression of having under-
gone a secondary alteration. Instances which come
under the third method of explanation are found in equal

10 VEDIC LIT ERA TITRE.

numbers, both in the Sama-Samhita and the Yajuh-
Samhita. Altogether, too mucli stress cannot be laid on
this point, namely, that the alterations which the songs
and hymns underwent in the popular month during their
oral transmission, must in any case be regarded as very
considerable; since preservation by means of writing is
not to be thought of for this period. Indeed we can
hardly admit it for the time of the Brahmanas either,
otherwise it would be difficult to account for the numerous
deviations of the various schools with regard to the text
of these works also, as well as for the great number of
different schools (Sakhas) generally.

But although the songs of the Rik, or the majority of
them, were composed on the banks of the Indus, their
final compilation and arrangement can only have taken
place in India proper ; at what time, however, it is diffi-
cult to say. Some portions come down to an age so recent,
that the system of caste had already been organised; and
tradition itself, in ascribing to Sakalya and Panchala
Babhravya a leading part in the arrangement of the Rik-
Samhita, points us to the flourishing epoch of the Videhas
and Panchalas, as I shall show hereafter. The Samhita
of the Saman, being entirely borrowed from the Rik, gives
no clue to the period of its origin; only, in the fact that it
contains no extracts from any of the later portions of the
Rik, we have perhaps an indication that these were not
then 'in existence. This, however, is a point not yet in-
vestigated. As for the two Samhitas of the Yajus, we
have in the prose portions peculiar to them, most distinct
proofs that both originated in the eastern parts of Hin-
dustan,7 in the country of the Kurupafichalas, and that
they belong to a period when the Brahman ical element
had already gained the supremacy, although it had still to
encounter many a hard struggle, and when at all events
the hierarchy of the Brahmans, and the system of caste,
were completely organised. Nay, it may be that "we have
even external grounds for supposing that the present re-
daction of the Samhita of the White Yajus dates from
the third century B.C. For Megasthenes mentions a people
called Ma&iavSivoi, and this name recurs in the Ma-

7 Or rather to the eaat of the Indus, in Hindustan.

THE BRAHMANAS. TI

dhyamdinos, the principal school of the White Yajus.
More of this later on.

The origin of the Atharva-Snmhita dates also from the
period when Brahmanism had become dominant. It is in
other respects perfectly analogous to the Rik-Samhita, and
contains the store of song of this Brahmanical epoch.
Many of the?e songs are to be found also in the last, that
is, the least ancient book of the Rik-Samhita. In the
latter they are the latest additions made at the time of
its compilation ; in the Atharvan they are the proper and
natural utterance of the present. The spirit of the twu
collections is indeed entirely different. In the Rik there
breathes a lively natural feeling a warm love for nature ;
while in the Atharvan there prevails, ontlie contrary, only
fin anxious dread of her evil spirits, and their magical
powers. In the Rik we find the people in a state of free
activity and independence; in the Atharvan we see it
bound in the fetters of the hierarchy and of superstition.
But the Atharva-Samhita likewise contains pieces of great
antiquity, which may perhaps have belonged more to the
people proper, to its lower grades ; whereas the songs of
the Rik appear rather to have been the especial property
of the higher families.* It was not without a long strugg e
that the songs of the Atharvan were permitted to take
their place as a fourth Veda. There is no mention made
of them in the more ancient portions of the Brahmanas of
the Rik, Saman, and Yajus ; indeed they only originated
simultaneously with these Brahmanas, and are therefore
only alluded to in their later portions.

We now come to the second part of Yeclic literature,
the Brahmanas.

The character of the Brahmanas f may be thus gene-

* This surmise, based upon cer- vcdische Texte uber Omina und Por-
tn in passages in the Atharvan, would tenta, pp. 346-348.]
certainly be ;it variance with the + This term signifies ' that which
name ' Atharvangi rasas,' borne by relates to prayer, brahman.' Brah-
tlr.s Samhitd ; according to which man itself means 'drawing forth,' as
it would belong, on the contrary, to well in a physical sense ' producing,'
the most ancient and noble Brah- ' creating,' HS in a spiritual one 'lift-
man families. But I have elsewhere ing up,' 'elevating,' ' strengthen-
advanced the conjecture, that this ing.' The first mention of the name
name was simply assumed in order Urdhmana, in the above sense, is
to impart a greater sanctity to the found in the Brdhmnna of the White
contents, see /. St., i. 295. [Zwei Yajus, uud especially ill its thir-

12 VEDIC LITERATURE.

rally defined: Their object is to connect the sacrificial
songs and formulas with the sacrificial rite, by pointing
out, on the one hand, their direct mutual relation ; and, on
the other, their symbolical connection with each other.
In setting forth the former, they give the particular ritual
in its details: in illustrating the latter, they are either
directly explanatory and analytic, dividing each formula
into its constituent parts, or else they establish that con-
nection dogmatically by the aid of tradition or specula-
tion. We thus find in them the oldest rituals we have,
the oldest linguistic explanations, the oldest traditional nar-
ratives, and the oldest philosophical speculations. This
peculiar character is common generally to all works of
this class, yet they differ widely in details, according to
their individual tendency, and according as they belong to
this or that particular Veda. With respect to age they
all date from the period of the transition from Vedic
civilisation and culture to the Brahmanic mode of thought
and social order. Nay, they help to bring about this very
transition, and some of them belong rather to the time of
its commencement, others rather to that of its termina-
tion.* The Brahmanas originated from the opinions of
individual sages, imparted by oral tradition, and preserved
as well as supplemented in their families and by their
disciples. The more numerous these separate traditions
became, the more urgent became the necessity for bring-
ing them into harmony with each other. To this end, as
time went on, compilations, comprising a variety of these
materials, and in which the different opinions on each
subject were uniformly traced to their original represen-

teenth book. In cases where the commentary, in the same sense ;

dogmatical explanation of a cere- they also mention Anubrdhmana, a

tnotiial or other precept has already term which does not occur elsewhere

been given, we there find the ex- except in Panini. •
press! on tasyoktam brdhmanam, 'of * Pauini, iv. 3. 105, directly men-

this the Biulimana has already been tions ' older (purdnaprokta) Bnih-

star.ed ; ' whereas in the books pre- manas;' and in contradistinction to

ceding the thirteenth, we find in these there must, of course, have

such cases tasi/oktobandftuh' its con- been in existence in his day 'more

nection has already been set forth." modern (or as the scholiast says, tid-

[f. St., v. 60, ix. 351.] — Besides yakdln) Brahmanas.' [See on this

Bnihmana, Pravachana is also used Goldstiicker, Piinini, p. 132, ff., and

in the Sanu- Sutras, according to the my rejoinder in /. St., v. 64, H'.]

THE BRAHMANAS. 13

tatives, were made in different districts by individuals
peculiarly qualified for the task. But whether these com-
pilations or digests were now actually written down, or
•\vere still transmitted orally only, remains uncertain. The
latter supposition would seem probable from the fact that
of the same work we here and there find two texts en-
tirely differing in their details. Nothing definite, how-
ever, can be said on the subject, for in these cases there
may possibly have been some fundamental difference in
the original, or even a fresh treatment of the materials.
It was, moreover, but natural that these compilers should
frequently' come into collision and conflict with each
other. Hence we have now and then to remark the
exhibition of strong animosity against those who in the
author's opinion are heterodox. The preponderant in-
fluence gradually gained by some of these works over the
rest — whether by reason of their intrinsic value, or of the
fact that their author appealed more to the hierarchical
spirit* — has resulted, unfortunately for us, in the preserva-
tion of these only, while works representative of the dis-
puted opinions have for the most part disappeared. Here
and there perhaps in India some fragments may still be
found ; in general, however, here as everywhere in Indian
literature, we encounter the lamentable fact that the
works which, in the end, came off victorious, have almost
entirely supplanted and effaced their predecessors. After
all, a comparatively large number of Brahmanas is still
extant — a circumstance which is evidently owing to their
being each annexed to a particular Veda, as well as to the
fact that a sort of petty jealousy had always prevailed
among the families in which the study of the different
Vedas was hereditarily transmitted. Thus in the case of
each Veda, such works at least as had come to be con-
sidered of the highest authority have been preserved,
although the practical significance of the Brahmanas was

* The difficulty of their preserva- writing in India, it is important to
tion is also an important factor in point out that the want of suitable
the case, as at that time writing material?, in the North at least, be-
either did not exist at all, or at any fore the introduction of paper, must
rate wns but seldom employed, have been a great obstacle to its
[" In considering the question of peneral use." — Burnell, Elements of
the age and extent of the use of South Indian Palaeography, p. 10.]

I4 VEDIC LITERATURE.

gradually more and more lost, and passed over to the
Sutras, &c. To the number of the Brahmanas, or recen-
sions of the Samhitas, which were thus lost, belong those
of the Vashkalas, Paiiigins, Bhallavins, Satyayanins,
Kalabavins, Lamakayanins, Sambuvis, Khadayanins, and
Silankayauins, which we find quoted on various occasions
in writings of this class ; besides all the Chhandas works
(Samhitas) specified in the gaiw, 'Saunaka' (Pan., iv. 3.
106), whose names are not so much as mentioned else-
where.

The difference between the Brahmnnas of the several
Vedas as to subject-matter is essentially this : The Brah-
mnnas of the Rik, in their exposition of the ritual, gene-
rally specify those duties only which fell to the Hotar, or
reciter of the richas, whose office it was to collect from the
various hymns the verses suited to each particular occa-
sion, as its sastra (canon). The Brahmanas of the Saman
confine themselves to the duties of the Udgatar, or singer
of the sdmans; the Brahmanas of the Yajus, to the duties
of the Adhvaryu, or actual performer of the sacrifice. In
the Brahmanas of the Rik, the order of the sacrificial per-
formance is on the whole preserved, whereas the sequence
of the hymns as they occur in the Rik-Samhita is not
attended to at all. But in the Brahmanas of the Saman and
Yajus, we find a difference corresponding to the fact that
their Samhitas are already adapted to the proper order of
the ritual. The Brahmana of the San.an enters but sel-
dom into the explanation of individual verses; the Brah-
mana of the White Yajus, on the contrary, may be almost
considered as a running dogmatic commentary on its
Samhita, to the order of which it adheres so strictly, that
in the case of its omitting one or more verses, we might
perhaps be justified in concluding that they did not then
form part of the Samhita. A supplement also has been
added to this Brahmana for some of those books of the
Samhita which were incorporated with it at a period sub-
sequent to its original compilation, so that the Brahmana
comprises 100 adliyAyas instead of 60, as formerly seems
to have been the case. The Brahmana of the Black
Yajus does not, as we shall see further on, differ in its
contents, but only in point of time, from its Samhita. It
is, in fact, a supplement to it. Ihe Brahmana of the

THE SUTRAS. 15

Atharvan is tip to the present time unknown, though there
are manuscripts of it in England.8

The common name for the Brahmana literature is Sruti,
' hearing,' i.e., that which is subject of hearing, subject of
exposition, of teaching, by which name their learned, and
consequently exclusive, character is sufficiently intimated.
In accordance with this we find in the works themselves
frequent warnings against intrusting the knowledge con-
tained in them to any profane person. The name Sruti is
not indeed mentioned in them, but only in the Sutras,
though it is perfectly justified by the corresponding use of
the verb sru which occurs in them frequently.

The third stage in Vedic literature is represented by the
Sutras.'' These are, upon the whole, essentially founded

8 It has since been published, see
below. It presents no sort of di-
rect internal relation to the Ath.
Sumhita.

* The word Sutra in the above
senseoccurs first in the Madhukandi,
one of the latest supplements to the
Brahmana of the White Ynjus, next
in the two Grihya-Sutras of the Rik,
and finally in Pdnini. It means
'thread,' 'band,' cf. Lat. sitere.
Would it be correct to regard it as
an expression analogous to the Ger-
man band (volume) '! If so, the term
would have to be understood of the
fastening together of the leaves, and
would necessarily presuppose the
existence of writing (in the same
way, perhaps, as grantha does, a
term first occurring in Pdnini?).
Inquiry into the origin of Indian
writing has not, unfortunately, led
to much result as yet. The oldest
inscriptions, according to Wilson,
date no earlier than the third century
B.C. Nearchus, however, as is well
known, mentions writing, and his
time corresponds very well upon the
whole to the period to which we
must refer the origin of the Sutras.
But as these were composed chiefly
with a view to their being committed
to memory — a fact which follows
from their form, and partly accounts
for it — there might be good grounds

for taking exception to the etymo-
logy just proposed, and for regard-
ing the signification 'guiding-line,'
'clue,' as the original one. [This is
the meaning given in the St. Peters-
burg Dictionary. — The writing of
the Indians is of Semitic origin :
see Benfey, Indien (in Ersck and
Gruber's Encydopcedia, 1840), p. 254;
my Indiscfie Skizzcn (1856), p. 127,
ff. ; Burnell, El<m. of South Indian
Pal., p. 3, ff. Probably it served in
the first instance merely for secular
purposes, and was only applied sub-
sequently to literature. See Miiller,
A lie. S. Lit., p. 507 ; I. St., v. 20, ff. ;
J.Sir., ii. 339. Goldstiicker (Pdnini,
1860, p. 26, ff.) contends that the
words siitra and grantha must abso-
lutely be connected with writing.
See, however. /. St. , v. 24, ff. ; xiii.
476.] — Nor does etymology lead
us to a more certain result in the
case of another word found in this
connection, viz., akshara, 'syllable.'
This word does not seem to occur in
this sense in the Sarphita of the Rile
(or Saman) ; it there rather signifies
'imperishable.' The connecting link
between this primary signification
nnd the meaning 'syllable,' which is
first met with in the Samhitd of the
Yajus, might perhaps be the idea of
writing, the latter being the making
imperishable, as it were, of otherwise

1 6 VEDIC LITERATURE.

on the Brahmanas, and must be considered as their neces-
sary supplement, as a further advance in the path struck
out by the latter in the direction of more rigid system and
formalism.9 While the Brahmanas, with the view of ex-
plaining the sacrifice and supporting it by authority, &c.,
uniformly confine themselves to individual instances of
ritual, interpretation, tradition, and speculation, subjecting
these to copious dogmatic treatment, the object of the
Sutras is to comprehend everything that had any reference
whatever to these subjects. The mass of matter became
too great ; there was risk of the tenor of the whole being
lost in the details ; and it gradually became impossible to
discuss all the different particulars consecutively. Diffuse
discussion of the details had to be replaced by concise
collective summaries of them. The utmost brevity was,
however, requisite in condensing this great mass, in order
to avoid overburdening the memory; and this brevity
ultimately led to a remarkably compressed and enigmatical
style, which was more and more cultivated as the litera-
ture of the Sutras became more independent, and in pro-
portion as the resulting advantages became apparent.
Thus the more ancient a Sutra, the more intelligible it is ;
the more enigmatical it is, the more modern will it prove.*
But the literature of the Sutras can by no means be
said to rest entirely upon the Brahmanas, for these, as
a rule, give too exclusive a prominence to the ritual of
the sacrifice. Indeed, it is only one particular division of
the Sutras — viz., the Kalpa-Siitras, aphorisms exclusively
devoted to the consideration of this ritual 10 — which bears

fleeting and evanescent words and 8 On the mutual relations of the

syllables (!). Or is tlie notion of the Brahmanasand Sutras, see also/. St.,

imperishable Xo70j at the root of viii. 76, 77 ; ix. 353, 354.

this signification ? [In the Errata * Precisely as in the case of the

to the first German edition it was Bnihmanas, so also in the case of the

pointed out, on the authority of a Kalpas, i.e., Kalpa-Sutras, Panini,

communication received from Pro- iv. 3. 105, distinguishes those com-

fessor Aufrecht, that aksltara is twice }>osed by the ancients from those

used in the Ilik of the ' measuring of that are nearer to his own time.

speech,' viz., i. 164. 24 (47), and 10 On the sacrifice and sacrificial

ix. 13. 3, and consequently may implements of the Srauta-Sutras, see

there mean 'syllable.' According to M. Miillerin Z. D. M. G., IX. xxxvi.-

tlie St. Petersburg Dictionary, this Ixxxii. ; Hang's notes to his transla-

latter meaning is to be derived from tion of the Aitareya-Bnlumana ; and

the idea of ' the constant, simple' ele- my paper, Zur Kenntnissdesvedischcn

ment in language.] Opferritua'.s, /. St., x. xiii.

THE SUTRAS. 17

the special name of Srauta- Sutras, i.e., " Sutras founded
on the Srati." The sources of the other Sutras must be
sought elsewhere.

Side by side with the Srauta- Sutras we are met by a
second family of ritual Sutras, the so-called Grihy a- Sutras,
which treat of domestic ceremonies, those celebrated at
birth and before it, at marriage, as well as at death and
after it. The origin of these works is sufficiently indi-
cated by their title, since, in addition to the name of
Grihy a-Siitras, they also bear that of Smarta- Sutras, i.e.,
" Sutras founded on the Smriti." Smriti, ' memory,' i.e.,
that which is the subject of memory, can evidently only
be distinguished from Sruti, ' hearing/ i.e., that which is
the subject of hearing, in so far as the former impresses
itself on the memory directly, without special instruction
and provision for the purpose. It belongs to all, it is the
property of the whole people, it is supported by the con-
sciousness of all, and does not therefore need to be spe-
cially inculcated. Custom and law are common property
and accessible to all; ritual, on the contrary, though in
like manner arising originally from the common conscious-
ness, is developed in its details by the speculations and
suggestions of individuals, and remains so far the property
of the few, who, favoured by external circumstances, under-
stand how to inspire the people with a due awe of the
importance and sanctity of their institutions. It is not,
however, to be assumed from this that Smriti, custom and
law, did not also undergo considerable alterations in the
course of time. The mass of the immigrants had a great
deal too much on their hands in the subjugation of the
aborigines to be in a position to occupy themselves with
other matters. Their whole energies had, in the first in-
stance, to be concentrated upon the necessity of holding
their own against the enemy. When this had been
effected, and resistance was broken down, they awoke
suddenly to find themselves bound and shackled in the
hands of other and far more powerful enemies ; or rather,
they did not awake at all ; their physical powers had been
so long and so exclusively exercised and expended to the
detriment of their intellectual energy, that the latter had
gradually dwindled away altogether. The history of these
new enemies was this : The knowledge of the ancient songs

T8 VEDIC LITERATURE.

with which, in their ancient homes, the Indians had wor-
shipped the powers of nature, and the knowledge of the
ritual connected with these songs, became more and more
the exclusive property of those whose ancestors perhaps
composed them, and in whose families this knowledge had
been hereditary. These same families remained in the
possession of the traditions connected with them, and
which were necessary to their explanation. To strangers
in a foreign country, anything brought with them from
home becomes invested with a halo of sacredness; and
thus it came about that these families of singers became
families of priests, whose influence was more and more
consolidated in proportion as the distance between the
people and their former home increased, and the more
their ancient institutions were banished from their minds
by external struggles. The guardians of the ancestral
customs, of the primitive forms of worship, took an in-
creasingly prominent position, became the representatives
of these, and, finally, the representatives of the Divine
itself. For so ably had they used their opportunities, that
they succeeded in founding a hierarchy the like of which
the world lias never seen. To this position it would have
been scarcely possible for them to attain but for the ener-
vating climate of Hindustan, and the mode of life induced
by it, which exercised a deteriorating influence upon a
race unaccustomed to it. The families also of the petty
kings who had formerly reigned over individual tribes,
held a more prominent position in the larger kingdoms
which were of necessity founded in Hindustan ; and thus
arose the military caste. Lastly, the people proper, the
Visas, or settlers, united to form a third caste, and they in
their turn naturally reserved to themselves prerogatives
over the fourth caste, or Sudras. This last was composed
of various mixed elements, partly, perhaps, of an Aryan
race which had settled earlier in India, partly of the
aborigines themselves, and partly again of those among
the immigrants, or their Western kinsmen, who refused
adherence to the new Brahmanical order. The royal

* Who were distinguished by their colour, for caste. [See 7. £2., x. 4,
very colour from the three other 10.]
castes ; hence the name varna, i.e.

THE SUTRAS. 19

families, ike warriors, who, it may be supposed, strenu-
ously supported the priesthood so long as it was a ques-
tion of robbing the people of their rights, now that this
was effected turned against their former allies, and sought
to throw off the yoke that was likewise laid upon them.
These efforts were, however, unavailing; the colossus was
too firmly established. Obscure legends and isolated
allusions are the only records left to us in the later
writings, of the sacrilegious hands which ventured to at-
tack the sacred and divinely consecrated majesty of the
Brahmans ; and these are careful to note, at the same
time, the terrible punishments which befell those impious
offenders. The fame of many a Barbarossa has here
passed away and been forgotten !

The Smarta-Sutras, which led to this digression, gene-
rally exhibit the complete standpoint- of Brahmanism.
Whether in the form of actual records or of compositions
orally transmitted, they in any case date from a period when
more than men cared to lose of the Smriti — that precious
tradition passed on from generation to generation — was in
danger of perishing. Though, as we have just seen, it had
undergone considerable modifications, even in the families
who guarded it, through the influence of the Brahmans,
yet this influence was chiefly exercised with reference
to its political bearings, leaving domestic manners and
customs11 untouched in their ancient form; so that these
works cover a rich treasure of ideas and conceptions of
extreme antiquity. It is in them also that we have to
look for the beginnings of the Hindu legal literature,12
whose subject-matter, indeed, in part corresponds exactly
to theirs, and whose authors bear for the most part the
same names as those of the Grihy a- Sutras. With the
strictly legal portions of the law-books, those dealing with

11 For the ritual relating to birth (1854), and M. Miiller, ibid., IX.

fee Speijer's book on the Jdtakarma i.-xxxvi. (1855) ; and lastly, 0. Don-

(Leyden, 1872) — for the marriage uer's Pindapilriyajna (1870).

ceremonies, Haas'a paper, Utber die la Besides the Grihya-Sutras we

I/eirathsf/tbrduche der alttn Indcr, find some texts directly called Dhar-

\vith additions by myself in /. &t., ma-Sutras, or Siimaydchiirika-Sutras.

v. 267, ff. ; also my paper Vedisc/ie which are specified as portions of

J/oc/izeitssfjruche, ibid., p. 177, ff. 6rauta-Sutras, but which were no

(1862)— on the burial of the dead, doubt subsequently inserted into

lioth in Z. D. M. G., viii. 487, ff. these.

20 VEDIC LITERATURE.

civil law, criminal law, and political law, we do not, it is
true, find more than a few points of connection in these
Sutras ; but probably these branches were not codified at
all until the pressure of actual imminent danger made it
necessary to establish them on a secure foundation. The
risk of their gradually dying out was, owing to the con-
stant operation of the factors involved, not so great as in
the case of domestic customs. But a far more real peril
threatened them in the fierce assaults directed against the
Brahmanical polity by the gradually increasing power of
Buddhism. Buddhism originally proceeded purely from
theoretical heterodoxy regarding the relation of matter to
spirit, and similar questions; but in course of time it
addressed itself to practical points of religion and worship,
and thenceforth it imperilled the very existence of Brah-
manism, since the military caste and the oppressed classes
of the people generally availed themselves of its aid in
order to throw off the overwhelming yoke of priestly
domination. The statement of Megasthenes, that the
Indians in his time administered law only UTTO ^1/77^779,
' from memory,' I hold therefore to be perfectly correct,
and I can see no grounds for the view that p-vr^ir) is but a
mistranslation of Smriti in the sense of Smriti-Sastra, ' a
treatise on Smriti.' * For the above-mentioned reason,
however — in consequence of the development of Bud-
dhism into an anti-Brahmanical religion — the case may
have altered soon afterwards, and a code, that of Manu,
for example (founded on the Manava Grihya-Sutra), may
have been drawn up. But this work belongs not to the
close of the Vedic, but to the beginning of the following
period.

As we have found, in the Smriti, an independent basis for
theGrihya-Siitras — in addition to the Brahmanas, where but
few points of contact with these Sutras can be traced — so
too shall we find an independent basis for those Sutras
the contents of which relate to language. In this case it
is in the recitation of the songs and formulas at the sac-
rifice that we shall find it. Although, accordingly, these

* This latter view has been best nell, Elements of S. Ind. Palaogr^
set forth by Sclnvanbeck, Mfijns- p. 4.]
thcnes, pp. 50, 51. [But see also Bur-

THE SUTRAS. 21

Sutras stand on a level with the Brahmanas, which owe
their origin to the same source, yet this must be under-
stood as applying only to those views on linguistic rela-
tions which, being presupposed in the Sutras, must be
long anterior to them. It must not be taken as applying
to the works themselves, inasmuch as they present the
results of these antecedent investigations in a collected
and systematic form. Obviously also, it was a much more
natural thing to attempt, in the first instance, to elucidate
the relation of the prayer to the sacrifice, than to make
the form in which the prayer itself was drawn up a sub-
ject of investigation. The more sacred the sacrificial per-
formance gre\v, and the more fixed the form of worship
gradually became, the greater became the importance of
the prayers belonging to it, and the stronger their claim to
the utmost possible purity and safety. TQ effect this, it
was necessary, first, to fix the text of the prayers ; secondly,
to establish a correct pronunciation and recitation ; and,
lastly, to preserve the tradition of their origin. It was
only after the lapse of time, and when by degrees their
literal sense had become foreign to the phase into which the
language had passed — and this was of course much later
the case with the priests, who were familiar with them,
than with the people at large — that it became necessary
to take precautions for securing and establishing the sense
also. To attain all these objects, those most conversant
with the subject were obliged to give instruction to the
ignorant, and circles were thus formed around them of
travelling scholars, who made pilgrimages from one teacher
to another according as they were attracted by the fame
of special learning. These researches were naturally not
confined to questions of language, but embraced the whole
range of Brahmanical theology, extending in like manner
to questions of worship, dogma, and speculation, all of
which, indeed, were closely interwoven with each other.
We must, at any rate, assume among the Brahmans of this
period a very stirring intellectual life, in which even the
women took an active part, and which accounts still
further for the superiority maintained arid exercised by the
Brahmans over the rest of the people. Nor did the mili-
tary caste hold aloof from these inquiries, especially alter
they had succeeded in securing a time of repose from

22 VEDIC LITERATURE.

external warfare. We have here a faithful copy of the
scholastic period of the Middle Ages; sovereigns whose
courts form the centres of intellectual life ; Brahmans who
with lively emulation carry on their inquiries into the
highest questions the human mind can propound ; women
who with enthusiastic ardour plunge into the mysteries
of speculation, impressing and astonishing men by the
depth and loftiness of their opinions, and who — while in
a state which, judging from description, seems to have been
a kind of somnambulism — solve the questions proposed to
them on sacred subjects. As to the quality of their solu-
tions, and the value of all these inquiries generally, that
is another matter. But neither have the scholastic sub-
tleties any absolute worth in themselves ; it is only the
striving and the effort which ennobles the character of
any such period.

The advance made by linguistic research during this
epoch was very considerable. It was then that the text
of the prayers was fixed, that the redaction of the various
Samhitas took place. By degrees, very extensive pre-
cautions were taken for this purpose. For their study
(Pat ha), as well as for the different methods of preserving
them — whether by writing or by memory, for either is
possible13 — such special injunctions are given, that it seems

13 All the technical terms, how- by the rest of the Brahmans. On

ever, which occur for study of the the other hand, Goldstiicker, Boht-

Veda and the like, uniformly refer lingk, Whitney, and Roth (Der

to speaking and reciting only, and Atharvaveda in Kashmir, p. 10), are

thereby point to exclusively oral of the opposite opinion, holding, in

tradition. The writing down of the particular, that the authors of the

Vedic texts seems indeed not to Pnttisakhyas must have had written

have t;iken place until a com para- texts before them. Benfey also

tively late period. See I. St. , v. 18, formerly shared this view, but re-

ff. (1861). Miiller, Anc. S. Lit., p. cently (Einleitung in die Gramma-

507, ff. (1859) : Westergaard, Udcr tik dcr vrd. Sprache, p. 31), lie baa

den altcstai Zcitraum der indischcn expressed the belief that the Vedic

Gcschichte (1860, German transla- texts were only committed to writ-

tioii 1862, p. 42, ff.); and Hang, ing at a late date, long subse-

Ucber das Wesen des vcdischen Ac- quent to their ' diaskeuasis.' Bur-

cents (1873, p. 16, ff.), have declared nell also, 1. c., p. I O, is of opinion

themselves in favour of this theory, that, amongst other things, the very

Hang thinks that these Brahmans scarcity of the material for writing

who were converted to Buddhism in ancient times " almost precludes

were the first who consigned the the existence of MSS. of books or

Veda to writing — for polemical pur- long documents."
^poses — and that they were followed

THE SUTRAS. 23

all but impossible that any alteration in the text, except
in the form of interpolation, can have taken place since.
These directions, as well as those relating to the pronun-
ciation and recitation of the words, are laid down in the
Pratisakhya-Siitras, writings with which we have but
recently been made acquainted.* Such a Pratisakhya-
Siitra uniformly attaches itself to the Samhita of a single
Veda only, but it embraces all the schools belonging to it ;
it gives the general regulations as to the nature of the
sounds employed, the euphonic rules observed, the accent
and its modifications, the modulation of the voice, &c.
Further, all the individual cases in which peculiar phonetic
or other changes are observed are specially pointed out • u
and we are in this way supplied with an excellent critical
means of arriving at the form of the text of each Samhita
at the time when its Prati^akhya was composed. If we
find in any part of the Samhita phonetic peculiarities
which we are unable to trace in its Pratis*akhya, we may
rest assured that at that period this part did not yet
belong to the Samhita. The directions as to the recital of
the Veda, i.e., of its Samhita, f in the schools — each indivi-
dual word being repeated in a variety of connections — pre-
sent a very lively picture of the care with which these
studies were pursued.

For the knowledge of metre also, rich materials have
been handed down to us in the Sutras. The singers of
the hymns themselves must naturally have been cognisant
of the metrical laws observed in them. But we also find
the technical names of some metres now and then men-
tioned in the later songs of the Rik. In the Brahmanas
the oddest tricks are played with them, and their harmony
is in some mystical fashion brought into connection with
the harmony of the world, in fact stated to be its funda-

* By Roth in his essays, Zitr separately in their original form,

Littcratur und Geschichte des IVeda, unaffected by samdhi, i.e., the influ-

p. 53, ff. (translated in Journ. As. ence of the words which immedi-

JSoc. Bengal, January 1848, p. 6, ff.). ately precede and follow. Whatever

14 This indeed is the real purpose else, over and above this, is found
of the Prdtisitkhy.is, namely, to in the Prdtis'a'khyas is merely acces-
show how the continuous SarnhitfC sory matter. See Whitney in Jour-
text is to be reconstructed out of nal Am. Or.Soc., iv. 259 (1853).
the Pada text, in which the indivi- + Strictly speaking, only these
dual words of the text are given (the Sarphitds) are Veda.

24. VED 1C LITERATURE.

mental cause. The simple minds of these thinkers were
too much charmed by their rhythm not to be led into
these and similar symbolisings. The further development
of metre afterwards led to special inquiries into its laws.
Such investigations have been preserved to us, both in
Sutras 15 treating directly of metre, e.g., the Nidana-Siitra,
and in the Anukramanis, a peculiar class of works, which,
adhering to the order of each Sarnhita, assign a poet, a
metre, and a deity to each song or prayer. They may,
therefore, perhaps belong to a later period than most of
the Sutras, to a time when the text of each Samhita was
already extant in its final form, and distributed as we
there find it into larger and smaller sections for the better
regulation of its study. One of the smallest sections
formed the pupil's task on each occasion. — The preserva-
tion of the tradition concerning the authors and the origin
of the prayers is too intimately connected herewith to be
dissociated from the linguistic Sutras, although the class
of works to which it gave rise is of an entirely different
character. The most ancient of such traditions are to be
found, as above stated, in the Brahmana? themselves. These
latter also contain legends regarding the origin and the
author of this or that particular form of worship ; and on
such occasions the Brahinana frequently appeals to Gathas,
or stanzas, preserved by oral transmission among the
people. It is evidently in these legends that we must
look for the origin of the more extensive Itihasas and
Puranas, works which but enlarged the range of their sub-
ject, but which in every other respect proceeded after the
same fashion, as is shown by several of the earlier frag-
ments preserved, e.g., in the Mahd-Bharata. The most
ancient work of the kind hitherto known is the Brihad-
devata by Saunaka, in 6lokas, which, however, strictly fol-
lows the order of the Rik- Samhita, and proves by its very
title that it has only an accidental connection with this
class of works. Its object properly is to specify the deity
for each verse of the Rik-Samhita. But in so doing, it
supports its views with so many legends, that we are fully
justified in classing it here. It, however, like the other
Anukramanis, belongs to a much later period than most

18 See Part i. of my paper ou Indian Prosody, I, St., viii. I, ff. (1863).

NIGHANTU—NIRUKTI. 25

of the Sutras, since it presupposes Yaska, the author of
the Nirukti, of whom I have to speak presently ; it is, in
fact, essentially based upon his work. [See Adalb. Kuhn
in /. St., i. 1 01- 1 20.]

It was remarked above, that the investigations into the
literal sense of the prayers only began when this sense
had gradually become somewhat obscure, and that, as this
could not be the case among the priests, who were fami-
liar with it, so soon as amongst the rest of the people, the
language of the latter may at that time have undergone
considerable modifications. The first step taken to ren-
der the prayers intelligible was to make a collection of
synonyms, which, by virtue of their very arrangement, ex-
plained themselves, and of specially obsolete words, of which
separate interpretations were then given orally. These
collected words were called, from their being " ranked/''
" strung together," Nigranthu, corrupted into Nighantu*
and those occupied with them Naighantukas. One work
of this kind has been actually preserved to us.16 It is in
five books, of which the three first contain synonyms ; the
fourth, a list of specially difficult Vedic words ; and the
fifth, a classification of the various divine personages who
figure in the Veda. We also possess one of the ancient
expositions of this work, a commentary on it, called
Nirukti, " interpretation," of which Yaska is said to be the
author. It consists of twelve books, to which two others
having no proper connection with them were afterwards
added. It is reckoned by the Indians among the so-called

V r ^

Vedangas, together with Siksha, Chhandas, and Jyotisha
— three very late treatises on phonetics, metre, and astro-
nomical calculations — and also with Kalpa and Vya-
karana, i.e., ceremonial and grammar, two general cate-
gories of literary works. The four first names likewise
originally signified the class in general,17 and it was only
later that they were applied to the four individual works

* See lloth, Introduction to the 17 Sikshd still continues to be the

Nirukti, p. xii. name of a species. A considerable

16 To this place belong, further, the number of treatises so entitled have

Nighan^u to the Atharva-S., men- recently been found, and more are

tioned by Haug (ef. /. St., ix. 175, constantly being brought to light.

176,) and the Nigama-Parisishta of Cf. Kielhorn, /. St., xiv. 160.
the \Yhite Yajus.

26 VEDIC LITER A TURE.

now specially designated by those titles. It is in Yaska's
work, the Nirukti, that we find the first general notions of
grammar. Starting from the phonetic rules, the observ-
ance of which the Pratisakhya-Sutras had already estab-
lished with so much minuteness — but only for each of the
Veda-Samhitas — advance was no doubt gradually made, in
the first place, to a general view of the subject of phone-
tics, and thence to the remaining portions of the domain
of language. Inflection, derivation, and composition were
recognised and distinguished, and manifold reflections
were made upon the modifications thereby occasioned in
the meaning of the root. Yaska mentions a considerable
number of grammatical teachers who preceded him, some
by name individually, others generally under the name of
Nairuktas, Vaiyakaranas, from which we may gather that
a very brisk activity prevailed in this branch of study.
To judge from a passage in the Kauslritaki-Brahmana,
linguistic research must have been carried on with pecu-
liar enthusiasm in the North of India ; and accordingly, it
is the northern, or rather the north-western district of
India that gave birth to the grammarian who is to be
looked upon as the father of Sanskrit grammar, PaninL
Now, if Yaska himself must be considered as belonging
only to the last stages of the Vedic period, Panini — from
Yaska to whom is a great leap — must have lived at the
very close of it, or even at the beginning of the next
period. Advance from the simple designation of gram-
matical words by means of terms corresponding to them
in sense, which we find in Yaska, to the algebraic symbols
of Panini, implies a great amount of study in the interval.
P>esides, Panini himself presupposes some such symbols
as already known ; lie cannot therefore be regarded as
having invented, but only as having consistently carried
out a method which is certainly in a most eminent degree
suited to its purpose.

Lastly, Philosophical Speculation also had its peculiar
development contemporaneously with, and subsequently
to, the Brahmanas. It is in this field and in that of
grammar that the Indian mind attained the highest pitch
of its marvellous fertility in subtle distinctions, however
abstruse or naive, on the other hand, the method may
occasionally be.

PHILOSOPHY. 27

. Several hymns of a speculative purpovt in the last book
of the Rik-Samhita testify to a great depth and concen-
tration of reflection upon the fundamental cause of things,
necessarily implying a long period of philosophical research
in a preceding age. This is home out by the old renown
of Indian wisdom, by the reports of the companions of
Alexander as to the Indian gynmosophists, &c.

It was inevitable that at an early stage, and as soon as
speculation had acquired some vigour, different opinions
and starting-points should assert themselves, more espe-
cially regaining the origin of creation ; for this, the most
mysterious and difficult problem of all, was at the same
time the favourite one. Accordingly, in each of the Brah-
manas, one at least, or it may be more, accounts on the
subject may be met with ; while in the more extensive
works of this class we find a great number of different
conjectures with regard to cosmogony. One of the prin-
cipal points of difference naturally was whether indiscrete
matter or spirit vras to be assumed as the First Cause.
The latter theory became gradually the orthodox one, and
is therefore the one most frequently, and indeed almost
exclusively, represented in the Brahmanas. From among
the adherents of the former view, which came by degrees
to be regarded as heterodox, there arose, as thought de-
veloped, enemies still more dangerous to orthodoxy, who,
although they confined themselves in the first place solely
to the province of theory, before long threw themselves
into practical questions also, and eventually became the
founders of the form of belief known to us as Buddhism.
The word buddha, " awakened, enlightened," was originally
a name of honour given to all sages, including the ortho-
dox. This is shown by the use both of the root budh in
the Brahmanas, and of the word buddha itself in even the
most recent of the Vedantic writings. The technical
application of the word is as much the secondary one as it
is in the case also of another word of the kind, sramana,
which was in later times appropriated by the Buddhists
as peculiarly their own. Here not merely the correspond-
ing use of the root sram, but also the word sramana itself,
as a title of honour, may be pointed out in several passages
in the Brahmanas. Though Megasthenes, in a passage
quoted by Strabo, draws a distinct line between two sects

28 VEDIC LITERATURE.

of philosophers, the Bpa^a^e? and the 2ap/j,dvat, yet we
should hardly be justified in identifying the latter with
the Buddhist mendicants, at least, not exclusively ; for he
expressly mentions the v\6/3iot, — i.e., the Brahmacharins
and Vanaprasthas, the first and third of the stages into
which a Brahman's life is distributed —as forming part of
the 2apfj,dvai. The distinction between the two sects pro-
bably consisted in this, that the B pa^aves were the " phil-
osophers" by birth, alsq those who lived as householders
(Grihasthas) ; the Sapfidvat, on the contrary, those who
gave themselves up to special mortifications, and who
might belong also to other castes. The Ilpdfivat,, men-
tioned by Strabo in another passage (see Lassen, /. AK.
i. 836), whom, following the accounts of Alexander's time,
he describes as accomplished polemical dialecticians, in
contradistinction to the Bpa^u-ai/e?, whom he represents
as chiefly devoted to physiology and astronomy, appear
either to be identical with the ^ap^dvat, — a supposition
favoured by the fact that precisely the same things are
asserted of both — or else, with Lassen, they may be re-
garded as Pramanas, i.e., founding their belief on pramdna,
logical proof, instead of revelation. As, however, the word
is not known in the writings of that period, we should in
this case hardly be justified in accepting Strabo's report
as true of Alexander's time, but only of a later age.
Philosophical systems are not to be spoken of in connec-
tion with this period ; only isolated views and speculations
are to be met with in those portions of the Brahmanas
here concerned, viz., the so-called Upanishads (upanishod,
a session, a lecture). Although there prevails in these a
very marked tendency to systematise and subdivide, the
investigations still move within a very narrow and limited
range. Considerable progress towards systematising/ and
expansion is visible in the Upanishads found in the Aran-
yakas,* i.e., writings supplementary to the Brahmanas, and
specially designed for the v\6@ioi ; and still greater pro-
gress in those Upanishads which stand by themselves, i.e.,

* The name Aranyaka occurs first passages in contradistinction to

in the vdrttika to Pan. iv. 2. 129 [see ' Veda'), iii. no, 309 ; and in the

011 this, I. St., v. 49], then in Manu, Atharvopanishads (see /. St., ii. 179).
iv. 123 ; Yiijuavalkya, i. 145 (ia both

ASTRONOMY— MEDICINE. 29

those which, although perhaps originally annexed to a
Brahmana or an Arariyaka of one of the three older Vedas,
have come down to us at the same time — or, it may be,
have come down to us only — in an Atharvan recension.
Finally, those Upanishads which are directly attached to
the Atharva-Veda are complete vehicles of developed
philosophical systems ; they are to some extent sectarian
in their contents, in which respect they reach down to the
time of the Puranas. That, however, the fundamental
works now extant of the philosophical .systems, viz., their
Sutras, were composed much later than has hitherto been
supposed, is conclusively proved by the following consider-
ations. In the first place, the names of their authors are
either not mentioned at all in the most modern Brahmanas
and Aranyakas, or, if they are, it is under a different form
and in other relations — in such a way, however, that their
later acceptation is already foreshadowed and exhibited in
the germ. Secondly, the names of the sages mentioned
in the more ancient of them are only in part identical with
those mentioned in the latest liturgical Sutras. And,
thirdly, in all of them the Veda is expressly presupposed
as a whole, and direct reference is also made to those
Upanishads which we are warranted in recognising as the
latest real Upanishads ; nay, even to such as are only found
attached to the Atharvan. The style, too, the enigmatical
conciseness, the mass of technical terms — although these
are not yet endowed with an algebraic force — imply a long
previous period of special study to account for such pre-
cision and perfection. The philosophical Sutras, as
well as the grammatical Sutra, should therefore be con-
sidered as dating from the beginning of the next period,
within which both are recognised as of predominant
authority.

In closing this survey of Vedic literature, I have lastly
to call attention to two, other, branches of science, which,
though they do not appear to have attained in this period
to the possession of a literature — at least, not one of which
direct relics and records have reached us — must yet have
enjoyed considerable cultivation — I mean Astronomy and
Medicine. Both received their first impulse from the
exigencies of religious Worship. Astronomical observa-
tions— though at first, of course, these were only of the

30 VEDIC LITERATURE.

rudest description — were necessarily required for the regu-
lation of the solemn sacrifices ; in the first place, of those
offered in the morning and evening, then of those at the
new and full moon, and finally of those at the commence-
ment of each of the three seasons. Anatomical observa-
tions, again, were certain to be brought about by the dis-
section of the victim at the sacrifice, and the dedication of
its different parts to different deities. The Indo-Germanic
mind, too, being so peculiarly susceptible to the influences
of nature, and nature in India more than anywhere else
inviting observation, particular attention could not fail to
be early devoted to it. Thus we find in the later portions
of the Vajasaneyi-Samhita and in the Chhandogyopani-
shad express mention made of " observers of the stars "
and "the science of astronomy;" and, in particular, the
knowledge of the twenty-seven (twenty-eight) lunar man-
sions was early diffused. They are enumerated singly in
the Taittiriya-Samhita, and the order in which they there
occur is one that must necessarily* have been established
somewhere between 1472 and 536 B.C. Strabo, in the
above-mentioned passage, expressly assigns acrrpovo^ia as
a favourite occupation of the Bpaxjj,dves. Nevertheless,
they had not yet made great progress at this period ; their
observations were chiefly confined to the course of the
moon, to the solstice, to a few fixed stars, and more par-
ticularly to astrology.

As regards Medicine, we find, especially in the Sam-
hita of the Atharvan, a number of songs addressed to
illnesses and healing herbs, from which, however, there is
not much to be gathered. Animal anatomy was evidently
thoroughly understood, as each separate part had its own
distinctive name. Alexander's companions, too, extol
the Indian physicians, especially for their treatment of
snake-bite.

* See I. St., ii. 240, note. [The seems to be that contained in the

correct numbers are rather 2780- Jyotisha, we obtain the years 1820-

1 820 B.C., see /.£«., x. 234-236(1866); 860, ibid. p. 236, ff. See further

and for the l/tarayi series, which the reuurka in uote 2 above.]

RIGVEDA-SAMHITA. ji

'From this preliminary survey of Vedic literature we
now pass to the details. Adhering strictly to the Indian
classification, we shall consider each of the four Vedas
by itself, and deal with the writings belonging to them
in their proper order, in connection with each Veda sepa-
rately.

And first of the Rigveda. The Rigveda-Samhitd pre-
sents a twofold subdivision — the one purely external,
having regard merely to the compass of the work, and
evidently the more recent ; the other more ancient, and
based on internal grounds. The former distribution is
that into eight aslitakas (eighths), nearly equal in length,
each of which is again subdivided into as many adhyayas
(lectures), and each of these again into about 33 (2006 in
all) vargas (sections), usually consisting of five verses.18
The latter is that into ten mandalas (circles), 85 anuvakas
(chapters), loifstiktas (hymns), and 10,580 richas (verses) ;
it rests on the variety of authors to whom the hymns are
ascribed. Thus the first and tenth mandalas contain
songs by Rishis of different families ; the second mandala,
on the contrary (asht. ii. 71—113), contains songs belong-
ing to Gritsamada; the third (asht. ii. 114-119, iii. 1-56)
belongs to Visvamitra; the fourth (asht, iii. 57-114) to
Vamadeva; the fifth (asht. iii. 115-122, iv. 1-79) to Atri:
the sixth (asht. iv. 80-140, v. 1-14) to Bharadvaja; the
seventh (asht. v. 15-118) toVasishtna; the eighth (asht.
v. 119-129, vi. 1-81) to Kanva; and the ninth (asht. vi.
82-124, vn- I~7I) to Angiras.19 By the names of these
Rishis we must understand not merely the individuals, but
also their families. The hymns in each separate mandala
are arranged in the order of the deities addressed.19" Those
addressed to Agni occupy the first place, next come those

18 For particulars see /. St., iii. gtiktas) ; the ninth 7 an. 1 14*.; and

255 ; Miiller, Anc. S. Lit., p. the tenth 12 are. 191 s.
220. 19b Delbruek, in his review of Sie-

ltf The first mandala contains 24 benziy Liedcr dcs Rif/vcda (cf. note

anuvdkas and 191 siiktas; the second 32) in the Jenaer Liter at urzeitung

4 an. 43 s.; the third 5 an. 62 s.; the (1875, p. 867), points out that in

fourth 5 an. 58 s.; the fifth 6 an. books 2-7 the hymns to Agni and

87 a.; the sixth 6 an. 75 «.; the Indra are arranged in a descending

seventh 6 an. 104 s.; the eighth 10 gradation as regards tbo number of

an. 92 ». (besides n vdlakhilya- verses.

J2 VEDIC LITERATURE.

to Indra, and then those to other gods. This, at least, is
the order in the first eight mandalas. The ninth is ad-
dressed solely to Soma, and stands in the closest connec-
tion with the Sama-Samhita, one-third of which is bor-
rowed from it ; whereas the tenth mandala stands in a
very special relation to the Atharva-Samhita. The earliest
mention of this order of the mandalas occurs in the
Aitareya-Aranyaka. and in the two Grihya-Sutras of
Asvalayana and Saiikhayana. The Pratiiakhyas and
Yaska recognise no other division, and therefore give to
the Rik-Samhita the name of dasatayyas, i.e., the songs
" in ten divisions," a name also occurring in the Sama-
Sutras. The Anukramani of Katyayana, on the contrary,
follows the division into ashtakas and adhydyas. The
name sukla, as denoting hymn, appears for the first time in
the second part of the Brahmana of the White Yajus ; the
Rig-Brahmanas do not seem to be acquainted with it,20 but
we find it in the Aitareya-Aranyaka, &c. The extant re-
cension of the Rik-Samhita is that of the Sakalas, and
belongs specially, it would seem, to that x branch of this
school which bears the name of the Sai^iriyas. Of
another recension, that of the Vashkalas, we have but
occasional notices, but the difference between the two does
not seem to have been considerable. One main distinc-
tion, at all events, is that its eighth mandala contains
eight additional hymns, making 100 in all, and that, con-
sequently, its sixth ashtaka consists of 132 hymns.21 Th»
name of the Sakalas is evidently related to Sakalya, a
sage often mentioned in the Brahinanas and Sutras, who is

20 This is a mistake. They formed part of the eight!) mandala.
know the word not only in the When I wrote the above I was pro-
above, but also in a technical sense, b.ibly thinking of the Vdlakhilyas,
viz., as a designation of one of the whose number is given by Sayana,
six parts of the »astra (' canon '), in his commentary on the Ait. Br.,
more especially of the main sub- as eight (cf. Roth, Zur Litt. und
stance of it ; when thus applied, Gcsch. des Weda, p. 35 ; Haug on
siikta appears in a collective mean- Ait. Br., 6. 24, p. 416), whereas the
ing, comprising several suktas. Cf. editions of Jliiller and Aufrecht
Sankh. Brahm., xiv. I. have eleven. But as to whether

21 I arn at present unable to corro- these eight or eleven Vstlakhilyas
borate this statement in detail. I belong specially to the Vstshkalas, I
can only show, from S.iunaka's cannot at present produce any direct
Anuvakiitiukramani, that the recen- evidence. On other differences of
eion of the Vashkalas had eight the Vd«hkala school, &c., see Adalb.
hymns more than that of the Saka- Kulin, in /. St., i. 108, If.

las, but not that these eight hymns

RIGVEDA-SAMHITA.

stated by Yaska22 to be the author of the Padapatha*
of the Rik-Samhita.f According to^ the accounts in the
Brahmana of the "White Yajus (the Satapatha-Brahmana),
a Sakalya, surnamed Vidagdha (the cunning ?), lived con-
temporaneously with Yajnavalkya as a teacher at the
court of Janaka, King of Videha, and that as the declared
adversary and rival of Yajnavalkya. He was vanquished
and cursed by the latter, his head dropped off, and his
bones were stolen by robbers. — Varkali also (a local form of
Vashkali) is the name of one of the teachers mentioned in
the second part of the Satapatha-Brahmana.23

The Sakalas appear in tradition as intimately connected
with the Sunakas, and to Saunaka in particular a number
of writings are attributed,^ which he is said to have com-
posed with a view to secure the preservation of the text
(rigvedaguptaye), as, for instance, an Anukramani of the
Rishis, of the metres, of the deities, of the anuvdkas, of the
hymns, an arrangement (? Vidhana) of the verses and their
constituent parts,24 the above-mentioned Brihaddevata,

22 Or rather Durga, in his comm.
on Nir. iv. 4 ; see Roth, p. 39, in-
troduction, p. Ixviii.

* This is the designation of that
peculiar method of reciting the Veda
in which each word of the text
stands by itself, unmodified by the
euphonic changes it has to undergo
when connected with the preceding
and f ol 1 owing words. [See above, p. 23.]

t His name seems to point to
the north-west (?). The scholiast on
Piinini [iv. 2. 117], at least, proba-
bly following the Mahdbhdshya, cites
Sakala in connection with the Bdhi-
kas ; see aloo Burnouf, Introduction
a VHist. du Buddh., p. 620, ff. The
passage in the sutra of Panini, iv. 3.
128, has no local reference [on the
data from the Mahdbhdshya bearing
on this point, see /. St., xiii. 366,
372, 409, 428, 445]. On the other
hand, we find Sakyas also in the
Kosala country in Kapilavastn, of
whom, however, as of the Sdkii-
yanins in the Yajus, we do not ex-
actly know what to make (see be-
low). [The earliest mention of the
word Sakala, in immediate reference

to the Rik, occurs in a memorial
verse, yajnagdthd, quoted in the
Ait. Brdhm., iii. 43 (see I. St., ix.
277). — For the name SaisMriya I can
only cite the pravara section added
at the close of the AsvaMyana-
Srauta-Sutra, in which the Saisiris
are mentioned several times, partly
by themselves, partly^ beside and in
association with the Sungas.]

23 This form of name, which might
be traced to vrikata, occurs also in
the Sdnkhdyana Arnnyaka, viii. 2 :
" asitisahasram Vdrkalino Irihatir
ahar abhisampddayanti;" though the
parallel passage in the Aitar. Arany.,
iii. 8, otherwise similarly worded,
reads instead of " Vdrkalino, " " vd
(i.e., vai) Arkalino!"

+ By Shadgumsishya, in the in-
troduction to his commentary on
the Rig-Anukramani of Kdtyayana.

24 Rather two Vidhdna texts (see
below), the one of which has for its
object the application of particular
fic/ias, the other probably that of
particular pddas, to superstitious
purposes, after the manner of the
Sdmavidhdna-Brdhmana.

34 VEDIC LITERATURE.

the PratiSakhya of the Rik, a Smarta-Sutra,* and also a
Kalpa-Sutra referring specially to the Aitareyaka, which,
however, he destroyed after one had been composed by his
pupil, Aivalayana. It is not perhaps, on the face of it,
impossible that^ all these writings might be the work of
one individual Saunaka ; still they probably, nay, in part
certainly, belong only to the school which bears his name.
But, in addition to this, we find that the second mandala
of the Samhita itself is attributed to him ; and that, on the
other hand, he is identified with the Saunaka at whose
sacrificial feast Sauti, the son of Vai^ampayana, is said
to have repeated the Maha-Bharata, recited by the latter
on an earlier occasion to Janamejaya (the second), together
with the Harivan^a. The former of these assertions must,
of course, only be understood in the sense that the family
of the Sunakas both belonged to the old Rishi families
of the Rik, and continued still later to hold one of the
foremost places in the learned world of the Brahmans.
Against the second statement, on the contrary, no direct
objection can be urged ; and it is at least not impossible
that the teacher of A^valayana and the sacrificer in the
Naimishaf forest are identical. — In the Brahmana of the
White Yajus we have, further, two distinct Saunakas men-
tioned ; the one, Indrota, as sacrificial priest of the prince
who, in the Maha-Bharata, appears as the first Janame-
jaya (Parikshita, so also in M.-Bh. xii. 5595, ff.), the other,
Svaidayana, as Auclichya, dwelling in the north.

As author of the Krama-patha of the Rik-Samhita a
Panchala Babhravya25 is mentioned. Thus we see that^to
the Kuru-Panchalas and the Kosala-Videhas (to whom Sa-
kalya belongs) appertains the chief merit of having fixed and
arranged the text of the Rik, as well as that of the Yajus ;

* On the Grihya of Sauoaka, see quoted as an authority in the text

Stenzler, 7. St., i. 243. of the Rik-Prdtisdkhya itself, viz.,

t The sacrifice conducted by this ii. 12, 44, and that beside the

Saunaka in the Naimisha forest Prdchyas (people of the east), the

would, in any case, hare to be dis- above conclusions still hold good,

tinguished from the great sacrificial See Regnier on Rik^Pr, ii.( 12, p.

festival of the Naimishiyas, so often 113. Compare also Stinkb. Sr., xii.

mentioned in the Brjthmanas. 13. 6 (panchdlapadarrittih), and

24 In the Rik-Prtlt. , xi. 33, merely 8amhitopanishad-Brdlimana,' § 2

Babhravya ; only in Uata's scholium (sarvatra Prdchyn Pdnchdllshu muk-

is he designated as a Pancbala. .As, turn, sarvatra 'muktam).
however, the Panclidlas are twica

RIGVEDA-SAMHITA. 35

and this was probably accomplished, in the case of both
Vedas, during the most flourishing period of these tribes.

For the origin of the songs themselves we must go back,
as I have alre idy repeatedly stated, to a far earlier period.
This is most clearly shown by the mythological and geo-
graphical data contained in them.

The former, the mythological relations, represented in
the older hymns of the Rik, in part carry us back to the
primitive Indo-Germanic time. They contain relics of
the childlike and naive conceptions then prevailing, such
as may also be traced among the Teutons- and Greeks.
So, for instance, the idea of the change of the departed
spirit into air, which is conducted by the winged wind, as
by a faithful dog, to its place of destination,, as is shown
by the identity of Sarameya and 'Kp/Aeias* of Sabala and
Kepfiepos.'f Further, the idea of the celestial sea, Varuna,
Ovpavos, encompassing the world; of the Father -Heaven,
Dyaushpitar, Zeu?, Diespiter ; of the Mother - Earth,
Arjfj,ijrrip; of the waters of the sky as shining nymphs;
of the sun's rays as cows at pasture ; of the dark cloud-god
as the robber who carries off these maidens and cows ; and
of the mighty god who wields the lightning and thunder-
bolt, and who chastises and strikes down the ravisher;
and other such notions.^ Only the faintest outlines of
this comparative mythology are as yet discernible ; it will
unquestionably, however, by degrees- claim and obtain, in
relation to classical mythology, a position exactly analo-
gous to that which has already, in fact, been secured by
comparative Indo-Germanic grammar in relation to classi-
cal grammar. The ground on which that mythology has
hitherto stood trembles beneath it, and the new light
about to be shed upon it we owe to the hymns of the Rig-
veda, which enable us to glance, as it were, into the work-
shop whence it originally proceeded.§

* See Kuhn, in Haupt's Deutsche § Sea Z. D. M. £., v. 112. [Since

Zeitschrift, vi. 125, ff. I wrote the above, comparative my-

•f /. St., ii. 297, ff. [and, still ear- thology has been enriched with much

lier, Max Miill^r ; see his Chips valuable matter, but much also that

from a German Workshop, ii. 182]. is crude and fanciful has been ad-

J See Kuhn, 1. c., and repeatedly vanced. Deserving of special men-

in the Zeitschrift fur vcryleichcndc tion, besides various papers by Ada! b.

Sprachforschuny, edited by him Kuhn in his Zeitschrift, are two

jointly with Aufrecht (vol. i., 1851). papers by the same author, entitled,

36 VEDIC LITERATURE.

Again, secondl}^ the hymns of the Rik contain sufficient
evidence of their antiquity in the invaluable information
which they furnish regarding the origin and gradual de-
velopment of two cycles of epic legend, the Persian and
the Indian. In both of these the simple allegories of
natural phenomena were afterwards arrayed in an historic
garb. In the songs of the Rik we find a description,
embellished with poetical colours, of the celestial contest
between light and darkness, which are depicted either
quite simply and naturally, or else in symbolical guise as
divine beings. In the Persian Veda, the Avesta, on the
other hand, " the contest * descends from heaven to
earth, from the province of natural phenomena into the
moral sphere. The champion is a son, born to his father,
and given as a saviour to earth, as a reward for the pious
exercise of the Soma worship. The dragon slain by him
is a creation of the Power of Evil, armed with demoniacal
might, for the destruction of purity in the world. Lastly,
the Persian epic enters upon the ground of history. The
battle is fought in the Aryan land ; the serpent, Aji
Dahaka in Zend, Ahi [Dasaka] in the Veda, is trans-
formed into Zohak the tyrant on the throne of Iran ; and
the blessings achieved for the oppressed people by the
warlike Feredun — Traitana in the Veda, Thrae'taono in
Zend — are freedom and contentment in life on the pater-
nal soil." Persian legend traversed these phases in the
course of perhaps 2000 years, passing from the domain
of nature into that of the epic, and thence into the field of
history. A succession of phases, corresponding to those
of Feredun, may be traced also in the case of Jemshid
(Yama, Yima) ; a similar series in the case of Kaikavus
(Kavya Usanas, Kava Us) ; and probably also in the case
of Kai Khosrii (Susravas, Husravaiih). Indian legend in
its development is the counterpart of the Persian myth.
Even in the lime of the Yajurveda the natural significance

l)ie Herabkunft dcs Feuers imd des culeetCacus(i86^} ; Cox, Mythology

Gottertranks (1859), and Ucber Enl- of the Aryan Nations (1870, 2 vols.);

wicklunyxstufen der Mythenbildung A. de Gubernatis, Zoological Mytho-

(1874); further, Max Miiller's Jnijy (iSj2, 2 vols.); and Mitoloyia

'Comparative Mythology,' in the Vedica (1874).]

Oxford Assays (1856), reprinted in * See Ruth, in Z. D. M. G., ii.

the Chips, vol. ii. ; M. Breul, Her- 216, ff.

RIGVEDA-SAMHITA. 37

of the myth had become entirely obliterated. Indra is
there but the quarrelsome and jealous god, who subdues
the unwieldy giant by low cunning ; and in the Indian
epic the myth either still retains the same form, or else
Indra is represented by a human hero, Arjuna, an incarna-
tion of himself, who makes short work of the giant, and
the kings who pass for the incarnations of the latter. The
principal figures of the Maha-Bharata and Bamayana fall
away like the kings of Eirdusi, and there remain for his-
tory only those general events in the story of the people
to which the ancient myths about the gods have been
applied. The personages fade into the background, and in
this representation are only recognisable as poetic crea-
tions.

Thirdly, the songs of the Rik unfold to us particulars
as to the time, place, and conditions of their origin and
growth. In the more ancient of them the Indian people
appear to us settled on the banks of the Indus, divided
into a number of small tribes, in a state of mutual hos-
tility, leading a patriarchal life as husbandmen and
nomads ; living separately or in small communities, and
represented by their kings, in the eyes of each other by the
wars they wage, and in presence of the gods by the com-
mon sacrifices they perform. Each father of a family acts
as priest in his own house, himself kindling the sacred
fire, performing the domestic ceremonies, and offering up
praise and prayer to the gods. Only for the great com-
mon sacrifices — a sort of tribe-festivals, celebrated by the
king — are special priests appointed, who distinguish them-
selves ~by their comprehensive knowledge of the requisite
rites and by their learning, and amongst whom a sort of •
rivalry is gradually developed, according as one tribe or
another is considered to have more or less prospered by
its sacrifices. Especially prominent here is the enmity
between the families of Vasishtha and Visvamitra, which
runs through all Vedic antiquity, continues to play an
important part in the epic, and is kept up even to the
latest times ; so that, for example, a commentator of the
Veda who claims to be descended from Vasishtha leaves
passages unexpounded in which the latter is stated to have
had a curse imprecated upon him. This implacable hatred
owes its origin to the trifling circumstance of Vasishtha

38 VEDIC LITERATURE.

having once been appointed chief sacrificial priest instead
of ViSvamitra by one of the petty kings of these early
times. — The influence of these royal priests does not, how-
ever, at this early period, extend beyond the sacrifice ;
there are no castes as yet ; the people is still one united
whole, and bears but one name, that of visas, settlers.
The prince, who was probably elected, is called Vispati, a
title still preserved in Lithuanian. The free position held
by women at this time is remarkable. We find songs of
the most exquisite kind attributed to poetesses and queens,
among whom the daughter of Atri appears in the foremost
rank. As regards love, its tender, ideal element is not
very conspicuous ; it rather bears throughout the stamp of
an undisguised natural sensuality. Marriage is, however,,
held sacred; husband and wife are both rulers of the
house (dampat'C), and approach the gods in united prayer.
The religious sense expresses itself in the recognition of
man's dependence on natural phenomena, and the beings
supposed to rule over them ; but it is at the same time
claimed that these latter are, in their turn, dependent
upon human aid, and thus a sort of equilibrium is estab-
lished. The religious notion of sin is consequently want-
ing altogether, and submissive gratitude to the gods is as
yet quite foreign26 to the Indian. 'Give me, and I Mill
render to thee,' he says,27 claiming therewith a right on
his part to divine help, which is an exchange, no grace.
In this free strength, this vigorous self-consciousness, a
very different, and a far more manly and noble, picture of
the Indian is presented to us than that to which we are
accustomed from later times. 1 have already endeavoured
above to show how this state of things became gradually
altered, how the fresh energy was broken, and by degrees
disappeared, through the dispersion over Hindustan, and
the enervating influence of the new climate. But what it
was that led to the emigration of the people in such masses
from the Indus across the Sarasvati towards the Ganges,

*• 'Quite foreign' is rather too (1851). There are different phases
strong tin expression. See Roth's to lie ilistinguished.
paper, Die hochsten G'otter der art- -7 Vdj. S., iii. 50; or, " Kill him,
schen Volker, in Z. D. M. G., vi. 72 then will I sacrifice to thee," Taut.

8., vi. 4. 5. 6.

RIGVEDA-SAMHITA. 39

what was its principal cause, is still uncertain. Was it
the pressure brought about by the arrival of new settlers ?
Was it excess of population ? Or was it only the longing
i'or the beautiful tracts of Hindustan ? Or perhaps all
these causes combined ? According to a legend preserved
in the Brahmana of the White Yajus, the priests were in
a great measure the cause of this movement, by urging
it upon the kings, even against their will [/. St., i. 178].
The connection with the ancestral home on the Indus
remained, of course, at first a very close one ; later on,
however, when the new Brahmanical organisation was
completely consolidated in Hindustan, a strong element of
bitterness was infused into it, since the Brahmans looked
upon their old kinsmen who had remained true to the cus-
toms of their forefathers as apostates and unbelievers.

But while the origin of the songs of the Rik dates from
this primitive time, the redaction of the Rik-Samhita only
took place, as we observed, at a period when the Brah-
manical hierarchy was fully developed, and when the
Kosala-Videhas and Kuru-Panchalas.* who are to be re-
garded as having been specially instrumental in effect-
ing it, were in their prime. It is also certain that not
a few of the songs were composed either at the time of
the emigration into Hindustan, or at the time of the
compilation itself. Such songs are to be found in the last
book especially, a comparatively large portion of which, as
I have already remarked, recurs in the Atharvaveda-Sam-
hita. It is for the critic to determine approximately in
the case of each individual song, having regard to its con-

* Manda^a x. 98 is a dialogue scribed in this epic had been fought

between Devdni and Samtanu, the out Ions: before the final arrange-

two ' Kauravyau' as Ya"ska calls ment of tlie Rik-SamhiUl ! It is,

them. In the Mahd- Bharata Sam- however, questionable whether the

tanu is the name of the father of Samtanu of the Mahd-Bhtlrata is

Bhishma and Vichitravirya, by identical with the Samtanu men-

whose two wives, Ambika" and Am- tioned in the Rik ; or, even if we

Icilika*, Vyitsa became the father of take this for granted, whether he

Dhritara'shtra and Pdndu. This may not merely have been associated

Samtanu is, therefore, the grand- with the epic legend in majorem rei

father of these latter, or the great- gloriam. Dovapi, at least, who,

grandfather of the Kauravas and according to Ydska, is his brother,

Pandavas, the belligerents in the has in the Rik a different father

Maha'-BhaVata. We should thus from the one given in the epic. See

have to suppose that the feud de- /. St., i. 203.

40 VEDIC LITERATURE.

tents, its ideas, its language, and the traditions connected
with it, to what period it ought possibly to be ascribed.
But as yet this task is only set ; its solution has not yet
even begun.28

The deities to whom the songs are for the most part
addressed are the following : — First, Agni, the god of fire.
The songs dedicated to him are the most numerous of all
— a fact sufficiently indicative of the character and import
of these sacrificial hymns. He is the messenger from men
to the gods, the mediator between them, who with his far-
shining flame summons the gods to the sacrifice, however
distant they may be. He is for the rest adored essentially
as earthly sacrificial fire, and not as an elemental force.
The latter is rather pre-eminently the attribute of the god
to whom, next to Agni, the greatest number of songs is
dedicated, viz., Indra. Indra is the mighty lord of the
thunderbolt, with which he rends asunder the dark clouds,
so that the heavenly rays and waters may descend to bless
and fertilise the earth. A great number of the hymns,
and amongst them some of the most beautiful, are devoted
to the battle that is fought because the malicious demon
will not give up his booty ; to the description of the
thunderstorm generally, which, with its flashing light-
nings, its rolling thunders, and its furious blasts, made a
tremendous impression upon the simple mind of the
people. The break of day, too, is greeted ; the dawns are
praised as bright, beautiful maidens ; and deep reverence
is paid to the flaming orb of the mighty sun, as he steps
forth vanquishing the darkness of night, and dissipating it
to all the quarters of the heavens. The brilliant sun-god
is besought for light and warmth, that seeds and flocks
may thrive in gladsome prosperity.

Besides the three principal gods, Agni, Indra, and Siirya,
we meet with a great number of other divine personages,
prominent amongst whom are the Maruts, or winds, the
faithful comrades of Indra in his battle ; and Eudra, the
howling, terrible god, who rules the furious tempest. It
is not, however, my present task to discuss the whole
of the Yedic Olympus ; I had only to sketch generally

28 See now Pertsch, Upalckha, p. trnlh'alt, 1875, p. 522) ; 7. St., ix.
57 (1^54; compare Litcrarisckts Ltn- 299, xui. 279, 280; 1. Str., i. 19.

RIGVEDA-SAMHITA. 41

the Groundwork and the outlines of this ancient edifice.29
Besides the powers of nature, we find, as development pro-
gresses, personifications also of spiritual conceptions, of
ethical import; but the adoration of these, as compared
with the former, is of later origin.

I have already discussed the precautions taken to secure
the text of the Kik-Samhita, i.e., the question of its authen-
ticity, and I have likewise alluded to the aids to its ex-
planation furnished by the remaining Vedic literature.
These latter reduce themselves chiefly to the Nighantus,
and the Nirukta of Yaska.30 Both works, in their turn,
found their commentators in course of time. For the
Nighantus, we have the commentary of Devarajayajvan,
who belongs to about the fifteenth or sixteenth century.
In the introduction he enlarges upon the history of their
study, from which they appear to have found only one
other complete commentator since Yaska, viz., Skanda-
svamin. For Yaska's Nirukta a commentary has been
handed down to us dating from about the thirteenth cen-
tury, that of Durga. Both works, moreover, the Nighan-
tus as well as the Nirukta, exist in two different recen-
sions. These do not materially differ from one another,
and chiefly in respect of arrangement only ; but the very
fact of their existence leads us to suppose that these works
were originally transmitted orally rather than in writing.
A commentary, properly so called, on the Rik-Samhita, has
come down to us, but it dates only from the fourteenth
century, that of Sayanacharya.* " From the long series of

29 Muir's Original Sanskrit Texts, again is quoted by Pdnini; see
vol. v. (1870), is the best source of 1. St., iii. 475. A direct reference
information for Vedic mythology. to Ya"ska is made in the Rik-Pntt.

30 This name appears both in the and in the Brihaddevata"; see also
Vansas in the last hook of the Satap. /. St., viii. 96, 245, 246.

Br., ,and in the Kiindiinukrama of * The circumstance that com-

the Atreyi school, where he is called mentaries on almost all branches of

Paingi, and described as the pupil the Vedas,andonvariousotherimpor-

of Vaisampdyana, and teacher of taut and extensive works as well,

Tittiri. From Pdn., ii. 4. 63, it are ascribed to Sdyana and his

follows that Panini was cognisant of brother Aludhava, is to be explained

the name Yaska, for he there teaches by the practice prevailing in India

the plural Yaskds for the patronymic by which works composed by order

Yaska. Compare on this the pravara of some distinguished person bear

section in the AsvaMyana-^rauta- his name as the author. So in the

Sutra. The Yaska Gairikshitdh are present day the Pandits work for the

mentioned in the Kttyhaka, which person who pays them, and leave

42 VEDIC LITERATURE.

centuries* between Yaska and Sayana but scanty remains
of an exegetic literature connected with the Rik-Samhita
are left to us, or, at any rate, have as yet been discovered.
Samkara and the Vedantic school turned their attention
chieHy to the TJpanishads. Nevertheless, a gloss upon a
portion at least of the Rik-Samhita was drawn up by
Anandatirtha, a pupil of Samkara, of which there is an
exposition by Jayatirtha, comprising the second and third
adhy&yas of the first ashtalca, in the Library of the India
House in London." Sayana himself, in addition to Durga's
commentary on the Nirukti, only quotes Bhatta Bhaskara
Misra and Bharatasvamin as expositors of the Vedas.'31
The former wrote a commentary upon the Taitt. Yajus,
not the Rik-Samhita, in which he refers to Kas'akritsna,
Ekachurni, and Yaska as his predecessors in the work.
For Bharatasvamin we have no further data than that his
name is also cited by Devaraja (on the Nighantus), who
further mentions Bhatta Bhaskara Mis'ra, Madhavadeva,
Bhavasvamin, Guhadeva, Srinivasa, and Uvatta. The
latter, otherwise called "CTata, wrote a commentary on the

the fruit of their labour to him as
his property. Madhava, and prob-
ably also Saynna, were ministers at
the court of King Bukka at Vijaya-
nagara, and took advantage of their
position to give a fresh impulse to
the study of the Veda. The writings
attributed to them point, by the very
difference of their contents and style,
to a variety of authorship. [Accord-
ing to A. 0. Burnell, in the preface
to his edition of the VanSa-Brdh-
mana, p. viii., ff. (1873), the two
names denote one person only.
Sayana, lie savs, is "the Bhoga-
naiha, or mortal body, of Madhava,
the soul identified with Vishnu."
Burnell is further of opinion that
the twenty-nine writings current
under the name of Mddhava all pro-
ceed from Miidbava himself, unas-
sisted to any large extent by others,
and that they were composed by
him during a period of about thirty
of the fifty-five years between 1331-
1386 A.D., which he spent as abbot
of the monastery at Sriiigeri, under

the name Vidya'ranyasva'min. See
my remarks to the contrary in Lite.-
rarisches Centralblatt (1873), P- 1421.
Burnell prefers the form Vidydna-
gara to Vijayanagara. Cowell, in
his note on Colebr., Misc. Ess., i.
235, has Vidya0 and Vijaya0 side by
side.]

* See Roth, Zur Lift., p. 22.

81 To these have to be added
Skandasvdmin (see p. 41) and Ka-
pardin (see below) ; and as anterior
to Stfynna we must probably regard
the works of Atrn:inanda, Rdvana,
and Kausika (or is the latter iden-
tical with Blntta Kausika Bhdskara
Misra ? cf. Burnell, Catalogue of
Vedic MSS., p. 12}, and the G6-
dhilrtharatnama'lji; Burnell, Vamabr.,
p. xxvi., ff. ; Miiller, in the preface
to his large edition of the Rik-
Samhita', vol. vi. p. xxvii., ff. Some
extracts from Rdvana's commentary
have been published by Fit/- Edward
Hall in Journal At. Soc. Beny.,
1862, pp. 129-134.

RIGVEDA-SAMHITA. * 43

Sarnhita of the White Yajus, not the Rik-Samhita, as well
as commentaries on the two Pratisakhyas of the Rik and
the White Yajus.

As regards European researches, the Rik-Samhita, as
well as the other Vedas, first became known to us through
Colebrooke's excellent paper " On the Vedas," in the As.
Res. vol. viii. (Gale. 1 805). To Rosen we are indebted for the
first text, as given partly in his Rigvedce Specimen (London,
1830), partly in the edition of the first ashtaka, with Latin
translation, which only appeared after the early death of
the lamented author (ibid. 1838). Since then, some other
smaller portions of the text of the Rik-Samhita have here
and there been communicated to us in text or translation,
especially in Roth's already often quoted and excellent
Abhandlungen zur Litteratur und Geschickte dcs Weda
(Stuttgart, 1846). The entire Samhita, together with the
commentary of Sayana, is now being published, edited by
Dr. M. Mtiller of Oxford, at the expense of the East India
Company ; the first ashtaka appeared in 1849. At the same
time an edition of the text, with extracts from the com-
mentary, is in course of publication in India. From Dr.
M. Miiller, too, we may expect detailed prolegomena to
his edition, which are to treat in particular of the position
held by the songs of the Rik in the history of civilisation.
A French translation by Langlois comprises the entire
Samhita (1848-1851); it is, of course, in many respects
highly useful, although in using it great caution is neces-
sary. An English translation by Wilson is also begun, of
which the first ashtaka only has as yet appeared.32

32 Miiller's edition of the text, Indica, Nos. 1-4 (Calc. 1849), on^y

together with the commentary of reaches to the end of the second

Sflyana, a complete index of •words, adhydya. A fragment of the text,

and list of pratikas, is now com- edited by Stevenson so long ago as

plete in six vols., 1849-1875. He 1833, extends l>ut a little farther

has also published separately the (i. 1-35). — Of Wilson's translation,

text of the first mandala, in sam- five volumes have appeared; the

hitd- and pada-pdtha (Leipzig, 1856- last, in 1866, under the editorship

69), as also the whole 10 mandalas, of Cowell, brings it np to mand.

likewise in double form (London, viii. 20. Benfey published in his

1873). The first, complete edition Orient und Occident (1860-68) a

of the text was published, in Koman critical translation of mand. i. i-

transliteration, by Aufrecht, in vols. 118. Twelve hymns to the Maruts

vi. arid vii. of the hidische Studien are translated and furnished with a

(1861-63). Koer's edition of text detailed commentary in vol. i. of Max

and commentary, in the Bibliotheca Muller'a Rigveda JSam/iitd, trans-

44 VED1C LITERA TURK.

We now turn to the Brdlimanas of the Rik.

Of these, we have two, the Aitareya-Brdhmana and the
Sdnkhdyana- (or Kaushitaki-} Brdhmana. They are closely
connected with one another,* treat essentially of the same
matter, not unfrequently, however, taking opposite views
of the same question. It is in the distribution of their
matter that they chiefly differ. In the Saiikhdyana- Brah-
man a we have a perfectly arranged work, embracing on
a definite plan the entire sacrificial procedure; but this
does not seem to be the case in an equal degree in the
Aitareya-Brdhmana. The latter, moreover, appears to
treat exclusively of the Soma sacrifice ; whereas in the
former it merely occupies the principal place. In the
Sdiikhdyaiia-Brdhmana we meet with nothing at all cor-
responding to the last ten adhydyas of the Aitareya-Brdh-
mana, a gap which is only filled up by the Safikha-
yana-Siitra ; and for this reason, as well as from internal
evidence, it may perhaps be assumed that the adhydyas
in question are but a later addition to the Aitareya-Brdh-
mana. In the extant text, the Aitareya-Brdhmana con-
tains 40 adhydyas (divided into eight palichilcds, or pen-

latcd and explained (London, 1869). Rig- itnd Atharvavcda ilber Geogra-

But the scholar who has done most )>/<ie, Geschichte und Verfassung des

by far for the right understanding alien Indiens (the identification here

of the Rik is lloth ; both in the mentioned, p. 13, of the Vedic

commentary added to his edition of Sarasvati with tiie Indus, was first

Yiiska's Nirukta (Gottiniren, 1848- nude by myself ; cf. Vaj. S. Spec., ii.

52), and in the great St. Petersburg 80 n., 1847), and Die philosophi-

Sm.skrit Dictionary (>eveu vols., scken und rcliyiosen Anschauungen

1853-75), edited by Bohtlingk and des Veda (Prag, 1875); Alfred Hil-

Inm. Here we may also mention the lebrandt, Ueber dieGottin Aditi(Bre&-

fol lowing works: — Grassmann, War- lau, 1876); H. Zimmer, Parjanya

tvbucfi zum Rlgvcda (1873, ff'.) ; FiSrgyn Vdfa Wodan in Zeitschrift

Del bru.uk, Das aitindiscke Verbum fur Deutsckes Alterthum. New Series,

(1874) ; Ben fey, Einleituny in die vii. 164, fF. Lastly, we have to draw

Grammatik dcr vf-dischcn S/irache attention specially to Muir's Original

(1874), and JHc Quant itdlsrcrsckie- Sanskrit Texts (5 vols., second edit. ,

dcnltcitcn in den Samhitd- und Pad <- London, 1868, ff.), in which the

Tcxtcn dcr Ve<Icn ; BollenS''n, Die antiquarian information contained

Liedcr des Pardwtra, in Z. D. M. (>'. in the Rik-Siimhit«i on the different

xxii. (1868) ; Siebenziy Liedcr des stages and phases of Indian life at

Ri'/vcda, ubersctzt run Karl (Jeldner that early period is clearly and com-

nnd Adolf Kaegi, mit lieitrdf/cn ron prehensively grouped: translations

1!. Roth (Tubingen, 1875)— reviewed of numerous Vedic passages and

by Abel Bergaigno in the Revue pieces are given.
Critifjite, Dec. II and 18, 1875 ; * See on this 7. St., ii. 289, ff

All' red Ludwig, Die Nachric/tten des [and ix. 377].

BRAHMAN AS OF THE RIK. 45

tads), while the Sankhayana-Brahmana contains 30 ; and
it is perhaps allowable to refer to them the rule in Panini
v. i. 62, which states how the name of a Brahmana is to
be formed if it contain 30 or 40 adhyayas, — a view which
would afford external warrant also of the fact of their
existence in this form in Panini's time, at all events.
Geographical or similar data, from which a conclusion
might be drawn as to the time of their composition, are of
very rare occurrence. Most of these, together with really
historical statements, are to be found in the last books of
the Aitareya-Brahmana (see /. St., i. 199, ff.), from which
it at any rate specially follows that their scene is the
country of the Kuru-Panchalas and Vas"a-Usinaras (see
viii. 14). In the Safikhayana-Brahmana mention is made
of a great sacrifice in the Naimisha forest ; but this can
hardly be identified with the one at which, according to
the accounts of the Maha-Bharata, the second recitation
of this epic took place. Another passage implies a very
special prominence amongst the other gods of the deity
who is afterwards known to us exclusively by the name
of Siva. He here receives, among other titles, those of
Isana and Mahadeva, and we might perhaps venture to
conclude from this that he was already the object of a very
special worship. We are at any rate justified in inferring,
unless the passage is an interpolation, that the Safikha-
yana-Brahmana ranks chronologically with the last books
of the Samhita of the White Yajus, and with those por-
tions of its Brahmana and of the Atharva-Samhita in
which this nomenclature is likewise found. Lastly, a
third passage of the Sankhayana-Brahmana implies, as
already hinted, a special cultivation of the field of lan-
guage in the northern parts of India. People resorted
thither in order to become acquainted with the language,
and on their return enjoyed a special authority on ques-
tions connected with it. [/. St., ii. 309.]

Both Brahmanas presuppose literary compositions of
some extent as having preceded them. Thus mention is
made of the dkhydnavidas, i.e., "those versed in tradition;"
and gdthds, abhiyajna-gdthds, a sort of memorial verses
(kdrikds), are also frequently referred to and quoted. The
names Rigveda, Samaveda, and Yajurveda, as well as trayi
vidyd, a term used to express them collectively, repeatedly

45 VEDIC LITER A JURE.

occur. In the Saiikhayana-Brahrnari.'T, however, special
regard is had to the Paingya and Kaushitaka, whose views
are very frequently quoted side by side, that of the Kau-
shitaka being always recognised as final. The question
now arises what we are to understand by these expres-
sions, whether works of the Brahmana order already ex-
tant in a written form, or still handed down orally only —
or merely the inherited tradition of individual doctrines.
Mention of the Kaushitaka and the Paingya occurs in the
Aitareya-Brahmana only in a single passage — and that
perhaps an interpolated one — in the latter part of the
work. This at all events proves, what already seemed pro-
bable from its more methodical arrangement, that the
Safikhayana-Brahmana is to be considered a later produc-
tion than the Aitareya-Brahmana, since it appears to be a
recast of two sets of views of similar tenor already extant
under distinct names, while the Aitareya-Brahmana pre-
sents itself as a more independent effort. The name
Paingya belongs to one of the sages mentioned in the
Brahmana of the White Yajus and elsewhere, from whose
family Yaska Paiilgi* was descended, and probably also
Pingala, the author of a treatise on metre. The Painyi
Kalpali is expressly included by the commentator of
Panini, probably following the Mahabhashya. among the
ancient Kalpa-Sutras, in contradistinction to the Asmara-
tliali Kalpali, with which M-e shall presently become
acquainted as an authority of the As'valayana-Sutra.
The Paiiigins are, besides, frequently mentioned in early
writings, and a Paingi-Brahmana must still have been in
existence even in Sayana's time, for he repeatedly refers
to it. The case stands similarly as regards the name
Kaushftaka, which, is, moreover, used directly, in the ma-
jority of passages where it is quoted for the Sankhayana-
Brahmana itself — a fact easy of explanation, as in the latter
the view represented by the Kaushitaka is invariably
upheld as the authoritative one, and we have in this
Brahmana but a remoulding by Sankhayana of the stock
of dogma peculiarly the property of the Kaushitakins.
Further, in its commentary, which, it may be remarked,

* The quotations from BnUimanas Paingi Kalpah in the Mahiibhilshya,
in Yaska, therefore, belong in part see /. St., xiii, 455-J
perhaps to the Paiflgya (.')• [On the

BRAHMANAS OF THE RIK. 47

interprets the work under the sole title of the " Kaushi-
taki-Brahmana," passages are frequently quoted from a
Maha-Kaushitaki-Brahmana, so that we have to infer the
existence of a still larger work of similar contents, — pro-
bably a later handling of the same subject (?). This com-
mentary further connects the Kaushitaki-Brahmana with
the school of the Kauthumas — a school which otherwise
belongs only to the Samaveda : this, however, is a relation
which has not as yet been cleared up. — The name Saii-
khayana-Brahmana interchanges occasionally with the
form Sankhyayana-Brahmana, but the former would seem
to deserve the preference ; its earliest occurrence is pro-
bably in the Pratis'akhya-Sutra of the Black Yajus.

The great number of myths and legends contained in
both these Brahmanas of the Rik invests them with a
peculiar interest. These are not indeed introduced for
their own sake, but merely with a view to explain the
origin of some hymn ; but this, of course, does not detract
from their value. One of them, the legend of SunahsSepa,
which is found in the second part of the Aitareya-
Brahmana, is translated by Roth in the Indische Studien,
i. 458-464, and discussed in detail, ibid., ii. 112-123.
According to him, it follows a more ancient metrical ver-
sion. We must indeed assume generally, with regard to
many of these legends, that they had already gained a
rounded, independent shape in tradition before they were
incorporated info the Brahmana, and of this we have fre-
quent evidence in the distinctly archaic character of their
language, compared with that of the rest of the text. Now
these legends possess great value for us from two points
of view : first, because they contain, to some extent at
least, directly or indirectly, historical data, often stated in
a plain and artless manner, but at other times disguised
and only perceptible to the eye of criticism ; and, secondly,
because they present connecting links with the legends
of later times, the origin of which would otherwise have
remained almost entirely obscure.

On the Aitareya- Brahmana we have a commentary by
Sayana, and on the Kaushitaki-Brahmana one by Vina-
yaka, a son of Madhava.33

33 The Aitareya-Bnihmana has by Martin Haug, 2 vols., Bombay,
been edited, text with translation, 1863, see /. St., ix. 177-380(1865).

48 VED1C LITERATURE.

To each of these Brahmanas is also annexed an Aran-
yaka, or ' forest-portion/ that is, the portion to be studied
in the forest by the sages known to us through Mega-
sthenes as vXofiioi, and also by their disciples. This
forest-life is evidently only a later stage of development
in Brahmanical contemplation, and it is to it that we must
chiefly ascribe the depth of speculation, the complete
absorption in mystic devotion by which the Hindus are
so eminently distinguished. Accordingly, the writings
directly designated as Aranyakas bear this character im-
pressed upon them in" a very marked degree ; they consist
in great part of Upanishads only, in which, generally
speaking, a bold and vigorous faculty of thought cannot
fail to be recognised, however much of the bizarre they
may at the same time contain.

The Aitareya- Aranyakazy° consists of five books, each
of which again is called Aranyaka. The second and third
books* form a separate Upanishad ; and a still further sub-
division here takes place, inasmuch as the four last sections
of the second book, which are particularly consonant with
the doctrines of the Vedanta system, pass KO.T' e'fo^i/ as the
Aitareyopanishad.3* Of these two books Mahidasa Aitareya
is the reputed author; he is supposed to be the son of
Visala and Itara, and from the latter his name Aitareya
is derived. This name is indeed several times quoted
in the course of the work itself as a final authority, a cir-
cumstance which conclusively proves the correctness of trac-
ing to him the views therein propounded. For we must
divest ourselves of the notion that a teacher of this period
ever put his ideas into writing ; oral delivery was his only
method of imparting them to his pupils ; the knowledge of
them was transmitted by tradition, until it became fixed in

The legend of Sunahsepa (vii. 13- come to hand (Nov. 30, 1875), see

1 8), had been discussed by Roth; see Bibliotheca Indica, New Series, No.

also M. Miiller, Hist, of A.S.L., p. 325; the text reaches as far as i.

573, ff. Another section of it (viii. 4. i.

5-20), treating of roval inausrura- * See I. St., i. 388, ff.

lions, had previously been edited by 34 This Aitareyopanishad, amongst

Schonborn (Berlin, 1862). others, has been edited (with Sam-

33b The first fasciculus of an edi- kara's commentary) and translated

tion, toirether with Sayana's com- by Roer, Bill. Ind., vii. 143, ff.

menrary, of the Aitareya-Aranyaka, (Calc. 1850), xv. 28, ff. (1853).
liy< Rajendra Leila Mitra, has just

BRAHMANAS OF THE RIK. 49

some definite form or other, always however retaining his
name. It is in this way that we have to account for the fact of
our finding the authors of works that have been handed down
to us, mentioned in these works themselves. For the rest,
the doctrines of Aitareyamust have found especial favour,
and his pupils have been especially numerous ; for we find
his name attached to the Brahmana as well as the Aran-
yaka. With respect to the former, however, no reasons
can for the present be assigned, while for the fourth
book of the Aranyaka we have the direct information that
it belongs to As"valayana,* the pupil of Saunaka; nay,
this S.mnaka himself appears to have passed for the
author of the fifth book, according to Colebrooke's state-
ments on the subject, Misc. Ess., i. 47, n. The name of
Aitareya is not traceable anywhere in the Brahmanas;
he is first mentioned in the Chhandogyopanishad. The
earliest allusion to the school of the Aitareyins is in the
Sama-Sutras. — To judge from the repeated mention of
them in the third book, the family of the Mandukas, or
Mandukeyas, must also have been particularly active in
the development of the views there represented. Indeed,
we find them specified later as one of the five schools of
the Rigveda; yet nothing bearing their name has been
preserved except an extremely abstruse Upanishad, and
the Manduki-Siksha, a grammatical treatise. The former,
however, apparently only belongs to the Atharvan, and
exhibits completely the standpoint of a rigid system. The
latter might possibly be traced back to the Mandukeya
who is named here as well as in the Rik-Pratis'akhya.

The contents of the Aitareya-Aranyaka, as we now
have it,35 supply no direct c.lue to the time of its composi-

* I find an Asvala'yana-Bra'hm.a'y.a tlie high importance of those f ami -
also quoted, but am unable to give liar with them. Among the names
any particulars regarding it. [In mentioned in the course of the work,
a MS. of the Ait. Ar., India Office Agnivesydyana is of significance on
Library, 986, the entire work is account of its formation. The in-
described at the end as Asvaldyanok- teresting passages on the three
tarn Aranyakam.} jxithas of the Veda, nirbhvja = gam-

35 See' /. St., 1.387-392. lam ^tdpdtha, pratrmna = padapdtha,

now in possession ot the complete *ndub/iayamantarena = kramapd(ha,

text, hut have nothing material to are discussed by M. Miiller on Rik-

add to the above remarks. Great 1 rilfc-' '• 2-4(see also ibid., Nachtrwje,

stress is laid upon keeping the par- P* **/•
ticular doctrines secret, and upon

50 VEDIC LITERATURE.

tion, other than the one already noticed, namely, that in
the second chapter of the second book the extant arrange-
ment of the Rik-Samhita is given. Again, the number
of teachers individually mentioned is very great, particu-
larly in the third book — among them are two Sakalyas, a
Krishna Harita, a Panchalachanda — and this may be con-
sidered as an additional proof of its more recent origin, a
conclusion already implied by the spirit and form of the
opinions enunciated.33

The Kaushitakaranyaka, in its present form, consists of
three books ; but it is uncertain whether it is complete.37
It was only recently that I lighted upon the two first
books.* These deal rather with ritual than with specula-
tion. The third book is the so-called Kamhitaky-Upani-
shad,^ a work of the highest interest and importance. Its
first adhydya gives us an extremely important account of
the ideas held with regard to the path to, and arrival in,
the world of the blessed, the significance of which in
relation to similar ideas of other races is not yet quite
apparent, but it promises to prove very rich in information.
The second adhydya gives us in the ceremonies which it
describes, amongst othur things, a very pleasing picture of
the warmth and tenderness of family ties at that period.
The third adhydya is of inestimable value in connection
with the history and development of the epic myth, inas-
much as it represents Indra battling with the same powers
of nature that Arjuna in the epic subdues as evil demons.
Lastly, the fourth adhydya contains the second recension
of a legend which also appears, under a somewhat different

56 The circumstance here empha- 9 gives the rivalry of the senses

sised maybe used to support the (like Satnp. Br, 14. 9. 2).
very opposite view; indeed I have * See Catalogue of the Berlin

so represented it in the similar case Skr. MSS., p. 19, n. 82.
of the l-idtyayana-Sutra (see below). f See /. St., i. 392-420. It would

This latter view now appears to me be very desirable to know on what

to have more in its favour. Poley's assertion is founded, " that

37 A manuscript sent to Berlin the Kaushitaki-Brdhmana consists

by Biihler (MS, Or. foL 630) of the of nine adhydyas, the first, seventh,

' Sdnkhdyana-Aranyaka ' (as it is eighth, and ninth of which form the

there called) presents it in 15 adky- Kaushitaki-Bra'hmana-Upanishad."

dyas;, the first two correspond to I have not succeeded in finding any

Ait. Ar. i., v. ; adliy. 3-6 are made statement to this effect elsewhere,

up of the Kaush. tip.,; adky. 7, 8 [See now Cowell's Preface, p. vii.,

correspond to Ait. Ar. iii.; adky. to his edition of the Kaush. Up. in

tlie Bill. Ind.]

BRAHMANAS OF THE RIK. 51

form, in the Aranyaka of the White Yajus, the legend,
namely, of the instruction of a Brahman, who is very wise
in his own esteem, by a warrior called Ajatatfatru, king of
Kasi. This Upanishad is also peculiarly rich in geogra-
phical data, throwing light upon its origin. Thus the
name of Chitra Gangyayani, the wise king in the first
adhydya who instructs Arum, clearly points to the Ganga.
According to ii. 10, the northern and southern mountains,
i.e., Himavant and Vindhya, enclose in the eyes of the
author the whole of the known world, and the list of the
neighbouring tribes in iv. i perfectly accords with this.
That, moreover, this Upanishad is exactly contemporaneous
with the Vrihad- Aranyaka of, the White Yajus is proved
by the position of the names Aruni, $vetaketu, Ajata^atru,
Gargya Balaki, and by the identity of the legends about
the latter. [See I. St., i. 392-420.] f

We have an interpretation of both Aranyakas, that, is to
say, of the second and third books of the Aitareya-Aran-
yaka, and of the third book of the Kaushitaki- Aranyaka
in the commentary of Samkaracharya, a teacher who lived
about the eighth century A.D.,38 and who wras of the
highest importance for the Vedanta school. For not
only did he interpret all the Yedic texts, that is, all the
Upanishads, upon which that school is founded, he also
commented on the Vedanta-Siitra itself, besides composing
a number of smaller works with a view to elucidate and
establish the Vedanta doctrine. His explanations, it is
true, are often forced, from the fact of their having to
accommodate themselves to the Yedanta system; still
they are of high importance for us. Pupils of his, Anan-
dajnana, Anandagiri, Anandatirtha, and others, in their
turn composed glosses on his commentaries. Of most of
these commentaries and glosses we are now in possession,
as they have been recently edited, together with their
Upanishads, by Dr. Eoer, Secretary to the Asiatic Society
of Bengal, in the Bibliotlieca Indica, a periodical appearing
under the auspices of that Society, and devoted exclusively

5)8 Sarnkara's date has not, uiifor- called a Saiva, or follower of Siva,

tunately, been more accurately ne- In bis works, however, he appears

termined as yet. He passes at the as a worshipper of Va"sudeva, whom

eiime time for a zealous adversary he puts forward as the real incarna-

»f the Buddhists, and is therefore tiou or representative of braltman.

52 VEDIC LITERA TURE.

to the publication of texts. Unfortunately the Kaushf-
taki-Upanishad is not yet among the number, neither
is the Maitrayany-Upanishad, of which we have to speak
in the sequel. It is, however, to be hoped that we shall
yet receive both.39 — And may yet a third, the Vashkala-
Upanishad, be recovered and added to the list of these
Upanishads of the Rik ! It is at present only known to
us through Anquetil Duperron's Oupnckhat, ii. 366-371 ;
the original must therefore have been extant at the time
of the Persian translation (rendered into Latin by Anque-
til) of the principal Upanishads (1656). The Vashkala-
Sruti is repeatedly mentioned by Sayana. We have seen
above that a particular recension of the Rik-Samhita,
which has likewise been lost, is attributed to the Vash-
kalas. This Upanishad is therefore the one sorry relic
left to us of an extensive cycle of literature. It rests
upon a legend repeatedly mentioned in the Brahmanas,
which in substance, and one might almost say in name
also, corresponds to the Greek legend of Gany-Medes.
Medhatithi, the son of Kanva, is carried up to heaven by
liidra, who has assumed the form of a ram, and during
their flight he inquires of Indra who he is. Indra, in
reply, smilingly declares himself to be the All-god, identi-
fying himself with the universe. As to the cause of the
abduction, he goes on to say that, delighted with Medha-
tithi's penance, he desired to conduct him into the right
path leading to truth ; he must therefore have no further
misgiving. With regard to the date of this Upanishad,
nothing more definite can of course at present be said
than that its general tenor points to a tolerably high
antiquity.40

We now descend to the last stage in the literature of
the Rigveda, viz.^ to its Sutras.

First, of the Srauta-Sutras, or text-books of the, sacri-
ficial rite. Of these we possess two, the Sutra of Asvala-
yana in 12 adhydyas, and that of Saiikhayana in 18

39 Both have now been published Maitri-TJp. with that of Rdmatirtha

and translated by Cowell in the (1863-69).

Bibliotheca Indica. The Kaush.-Up. 4U See now my special paper on the

(C'alc. 1861) is accompanied with subject in I. St., ix. 38-42 ; the ori-

the comm. of Sainkaninanda, the ginul text has not yet been met with,

SUTRAS OF THE RIK. 53

adh'ijuyas. The former connects itself with the Aitareya-
Brahuiana, the latter with the Sankhayana-Brahmana, and
from these two works frequent literal quotations are re-
spectively borrowed. From this circumstance alone, as
well as from the general handling of the subject, we might
infer that these Sutras are of comparatively recent origin ;
and direct testimony is not wanting to establish the fact.
Thus the name Asvalayana is probably to be traced back
to Asvala, whom we find mentioned in the Aranyaka of
the White Yajus as the Hotar of Jauaka, king of Videha
(see /. St., i. 441). Again, the formation of the word by
the affix ayana* probably leads us to the time of estab-
lished schools (ayana) ? However this may be, names
formed in this way occur but seldom in the Brahmanas
themselves, and only in their latest portions ; in general,
therefore, they always betoken a late period. We find
corroboration of this in the data supplied by the contents
of the AsValayana-Siitra. Among the teachers there
quoted is an Asmarathya, whose kalpa (doctrine) is con-
sidered by the scholiast on Panini, iv. 3. 105, probably
following the Mahabhashya.,41 as belonging to the new
kalpas implied in this rule, in contradistinction to the old
kalpas. If, then, the authorities quoted by Asvalayana
were regarded as recent, Asvalayana himself must of
course have been still more modern; and therefore we
conclude, assuming this statement to originate from the
Mahabhashya,41 that Asvalayana was nearly contemporane-
ous with Panini. Another teacher quoted by ASvalayana,
Taulvali, is expressly mentioned by Panini (ii. 4. 61) as
belonging to the prdnchas, or " dwellers in the east." — At
the end there is a specially interesting enumeration of the
various Brahmana-families, and their distribution among
the family stems of Bhrigu, Afigiras, Atri, VisVamitra,
Kasyapa, Vasishtha, and Agastya. — The sacrifices on the
Sarasvati, of which I shall treat in the sequel, are here only
briefly touched upon, and this with some differences in the

* As in the case of Agnivesyd- kdyana (?), Ldmakdyana, VdrsliTjf-

yana, AlumbdynnA, Aiti&tyana, Art yani, Sdkatdyana, Ji-idnkhdyana, ^d-

(lumbarayana, Kdndamdyana, Kd- ^ydyana, Sdndilydyana, Sdlamkdyana,

tyayaiia, Klidddyana, Drdhydyana, Saitydyana, Saulvdyana, &c.
Pidkslidynn-i, Bddardyana, Miindukd- 41 The name is not known in the

yaiia, lidudyana, Ldtydyaua, Ldbu- Mahdbhdshya, see /. St., xiii. 455.

54 VEDIC LITERATURE.

names, which may well be considered as later corruptions.
We have also already seen that Asvalayana is the author
of the fourth book of ^the Aitareya-Aranyaka, as also that
he was the pupil of Saunaka, who is stated to have de-
stroyed his own Sutra in favour of his pupil's work.

The Sutra of Sankhayana wears in general a somewhat
more ancient aspect, particularly in the fifteenth and six-
teenth books, where it assumes the appearance of a Brah-
mana. The seventeenth and eighteenth books are a later
addition, and are also ranked independently, and sepa-
rately commented upon. They correspond to the first two
books of the Kaushitaki-Aranyaka.

From my but superficial acquaintance with them, I am
not at present in a position to give more detailed informa-
tion as to the contents and mutual relation of these two
Sutras.42 My conjecture would be that their differences
may rest upon local grounds also, and that the Sutra of
Asvalayana, as well as the Aitareya-Brahmana, may, be-
long to the eastern part of Hindustan ; the Sutra of Sali-
khayana, on the contrary, like his Brahmana, rather to
the western.* The order of the ceremonial is pretty much
the same in both, though the great sacrifices of the kings,
&c., v\z.,vdjapcya (sacrifice for the prospering of the means
of subsistence), rdjasuya (consecration of the king), asva-
medka (horse sacrifice), purushamedha (human sacrifice),
sarvamcdha (universal sacrifice), are handled by Sankha-
yana with far more minuteness.

For Asvalayana I find mention made of a commentary
by Nurayana,43 the son of Krishnajit, a grandson of
Siipati. A namesake of his, but son of Pasupatisarman,

42 The Asvalityana-Siitra has since 43 Tins is a confusion. Theabove-

been printed, Bill. Ind. (Calc. 1864- named Niintyana wrote a common-

74), accompanied with the coiimi. tury upon the Saukliilyaiia-Gfihya ;

of N.iniyana Giirjrya, edited by liaina- but the one who commented the

Xaniynna and Anandachundra. A Asvalayana-Srauta-Stitra calls him-

special comparison of it, with tbe self in the introduction a son of

Saiikhayana-Siitra is still wanting. Karnsinha, just as Ndniyann, the

Buhler, Catalogue of AISS. from commentator of the Uttara-Nai-

Crtijardt, i. 154 (1871), cites a com- shadhiya, does, who, according to

mentary by Devatnita on the Asv. tradition (Roer, Pref., p. viii., 1855),

Sr. S., likewise a partial one l>y lived some five hundred years ago.

Vidyaranya. Are these two to he regarded as one

'Perhaps to the Naimisha fo- and the snmepersou? fciee /. Sir.,

rest (?}. See below, p. 59. 2, 298 (1869).

SUTRAS OF THE RIK. 55

composed a, paddhati ('outlines') to Saiikhayana, after the
example of one Brahmadatta. When lie lived is uncer-
tain, but we may with some probability assign him to the
sixteenth century. According to his own statements he
was a native of Malayade^a. Further, for the Sutra of
S.iiikhdyaua we have the commentary of Varadattasuta
Anarttiya. Three of its adhydyas were lost, and have
been supplied by Dasas'arman Munjasuriu, viz., the ninth,
tenth, and eleventh.44 On the last two adhydyas, xvii.,
xviii., there is a commentary by Govinda. That these
commentaries were preceded by others, which, however,
have since t been lost, is obvious, and is besides expressly
stated by Anarttiya.

Of the Grihya-Stitras of the Rigveda we likewise only
possess two, those of Asvalayana (in four adhydyas) and
of Suiikhayana (in six adhydyas). That of Sauuaka is
indeed repeatedly mentioned, but it does not seem to be
any longer in existence.

However widely they may differ as to details, the con-
tents of the two works are essentially identical, especially
as regards the order and distribution of the matter. They
treat mainly, as I have already stated (p. 17), of the
ceremonies to be performed in the various stages of con-
jugal and family life, before and after a birth, at marriage,
at the time of and after a death. Besides these, however,
manners and customs of the most diverse character are
depicted, and " in particular, the sayings and formulas to
be uttered on different occasions bear the impress of a very
high antiquity, and frequently carry us back into the time
when Brahmanism had not yet been developed" (see
Stenzler in /. St., ii. 159). It is principally popular and
superstitious notions that are found in them ; thus, we are
pointed to star-worship, to astrology, portents, and witch-
craft, and more especially to the adoration and propitia-
tion of the evil powers in nature, the averting of their
malign influence, &c. It is especially in the pitritarpana,
or oblation to the Manes, that we find a decisive proof of

44 Sections 3-5 of the fourth book Streiter (1861) ; the variants pre-

hav«* been published by Donner in seuted therein to the parallel pas-

liis Pindapitriyajna (Berlin, 1870), sage in the Ait. Bnthm. had already

and the section relating to the le- been given by M. Miiller, A. £'. L.,

gend of Suuahsepa (xv. 17-27) by p. 573, tf,

$5 VEDIC LITERATURE.

the modern composition of these works, as the forefathers
are there enumerated individually by name — a custom
which, although in itself it may be very ancient (as we
find a perfect analogy to it in the Yeshts and Nerengs of
the Parsis), yet in this particular application belongs to a
very recent period, as is apparent from the names them-
selves. For not only are the Rishis of the Rik-Samhita
cited in their extant order, but all those names are like-
wise mentioned which we encounter as particularly signi-
ficant in the formation of the different schools of the Rik,
as well as in connection with its Brahmanas and Sutras ;
for example, Vashkala, Sakalya, Mandukeya, Aitareya,
Paiiigya, Kaushitaka, Saunaka, AsValayana, and £ankha-
yana themselves, &c. Joined to these, we find other
names with which we are not yet otherwise acquainted,
as also the names of three female sages, one of whom,
Gargf Vachaknavi, meets us repeatedly in the Vrihad-
Aranyaka of the White Yajus, as residing at the court of
Janaka. The second45 is unknown ; but the name of the
third, Sulabha Maitreyi, is both connected with this very
Janaka in the legends of the Alaha-Bharata,* and also
points us to the Saulabhdni Brdhmandni, quoted by the
scholiast on Panini, iv. 3. 105, probably on the authority
of the Mahabhashya,46 as an instance of the 'modern'
Brahmanas implied by this rule. Immediately after the
Rishis of the Rik-Samhita, we find mention of other names
and works which have not yet been met with in any other
part of Vedic literature. In the Saiikhayana-Grihya we
have these: Sumantu-Jaimini- Vaisampdyana-Paila-s'&tra-
Ihdskya [-Gdryya-Uabhru] . . .; and in the AsValayana-
Grihya these : Sumantu-Jaimini-Vaisampdyana-Paila-
sutra-Widrata-mahdbhdrata-dliarmdclidrydhtf The • latter

45 Her name is Vsidavd Pra*ti- They are tliere cited a second time
theyi; a teacher called PratWii is also, to Pa"n., iv. 2. 68, and are ex-
mentioned in the Vausa-Briilunani plained Ky Kaiya^a as Sulabhena
of the Siimaveda. prnktAni.

* [Cf. S.imkara's statements as to 47 The word b/tdshya is to be in-

this in Ved. Sdtrabh, to iii. 3. 32, serted above between siitra and bhd-

V- 915, ed. lUma Na"niy;ma.] J5uil- rata; though wanting in the MS.

dha's uncle is called by' the Hud- used by me at the time when I

dhists Sulabha ; see Scliiefner, Le- wro'e, it ig found in all the other

ben df* Sdkyamuni, p. 6. MS.S,

*• a^s on tliia /. .&., xiii. 429.

SUTRAS OF THE RIK. 57

passage is evidently the more modern, and although we
must not suppose that the Maha-Bharata in its present
form is here referred to, still, in the expression " Vaisam-
pdyano mahdblidratdchdryaJi," apparently indicated by this
passage, there must at all events be implied a work of
some compass, treating of the same legend, and there-
fore forming the basis of our extant text. The passage
seems also to indicate that the same material had already
been handled a second time by Jaimini, whose work,
however, can have borne but a distant resemblance to the
Jaimini-Bharata of the present day. We shall find in
the sequel frequent confirmation of the fact that the origin
of the epic and the systematic development of Vedic litera-
ture in its different schools belong to the same period. Of
a Sutra by Sumantu, and a Dharma by Paila, we have no
knowledge whatever. It is only in more modern times,
in the Puranas and in the legal literature proper, that I
find a work attributed to Sumantu, namely, a Smriti-
Sastra; while to Paila (whose name appears from Pan.
iv. i . 1 1 8) is ascribed the revelation of the Rigveda — a
circumstance which at least justifies the inference that he
played a special part in the definitive completion of its
school development. — It is, however, possible to give a
wholly different interpretation of the passage from Asva-
layanu ; and in my opinion it would be preferable to do so.
We may divest the four proper names of any special rela-
tion to the names of the four works, and regard the two
groups as independent,48 as we must evidently asstime
them to be in the Sankhayaiia-Grihya.* If this be done,
then what most readily suggests itself in connection with
the passage is the manner in which the Puranas apportion

48 This interpretation becomes tinction to one another, just as in

imperative after the rectification of the Prdtisdkhya of the Black Yajua

the text (see the previous note), (ii. 12) we tind chhandasanA bkdslid,

according to which no longer four, and in Ydska anvadhydya and

but five names of works are in ques- bhdxhd. We must, therefore, under-

tion. stand by it ' works in bhds/ui,'

* What is meant in the latter though the meaning of the word

[and cf. note 47 in the As>. Grill. '8 'iere more developed than in the

too] by the word bhdshya, appears works just mentioned, and ap-

froin the Pra'tisdkhya of the White proaches the sense in which Pa"nini

Yajus, where (i.i. 19, 20) vedeshu a.i\d uses it. I shall return to the sub-

Ihdtshye-ihu are found in contradis- ject further on.

58 VED1C LITERATURE.

the revelation of the several Vedas; inasmuch as they
assign the Atharvaveda to Sumantu, the Samaveda to
Jaimini, the Yajurveda to VaiiSampayana, and the Rigveda
to Paila. But in either case we must assume with Roth,
who first pointed out the passage in Alvalayana (op. c., p.
27), that this passage, as well as the one in Suiikhayana,
has been touched up by later interpolation ;49 otherwise
the dates of these two Grihya-Sutras would be brought
down too far ! For although, from the whole tenor of both
passages, that in the Asvalayana-Grihya, as well as that in
the &inkhayana-Grihya — which for the rest present other
material discrepancies of detail — it is sufficiently clear
that they presuppose the literature of the Rigveda as
entirely closed, still the general attitude of both works
sho\vs their comparatively ancient origin. — The question
whether any connection exists between the Smriti-Sastra
of Sankha and the Grihya-Sutra of Siiikhayana, remains
still unanswered.

For both Grihya-Sutras there are commentaries by the
same Narayana who commented the Srauta-Siitra of AsVa-
layana.50 They probably belong to the fifteenth century.*
There are, besides, as in the case of the Srauta-Siitras,

__ K

49 We find tlie Suniantii-Jaimini- comm. of the Sankh. Grihya,;son of
Vaisampdyana - 1'ailddyd dchdrydh Krislinnjit, and grandson of Sripati.
quoted a second time in the Slfikh. (Tliis third Ndr. lived A.D. 1538; see
G., in its last section (vi. 6), which Catalogue of the Berlin MssS., p.
is probably of later origin ; and here, 354, rsub No. 1282.) — The text of
without any doubt, the reference is the AsVal. Grihya has been edited
to the same distribution of the four by Stenzler, with a translation (In-
Vedas among the above-named per- discke JIausrcr/e/n, 1864-65) ; the
Bonages which occurs iu the Vishnu- text, with >.'arayana's comtn., by
Puran i, iii. 4. 8, 9. Both times the Rdman.irayana and Anandachandra,
representative of the Atharvan in Bibl. Ind. (1866-69). The see-
comes first, that of the Rik last, tions relating to marriage ceremo-
wlik'h in a Rik text serves as a clear nies have been edited by Haas, /.
proof that we have here to do with Ft., v. 283, ff. ; those relating to
later appendages. A similar prece- funeral riies, by Miiller, Z. D. M.
dence is given to the Atharvaveda in Cr'.,'ix.

the Muhabhashya ; cf. /. St., xiii. * Two glosses on Samkara's com-

431. mentaryon the Pra.snopanishad and

50 This is a mistake, see note the Mnndikopanishad bear the same
43; all three Niirayanas must be name, so that possibly the author of
kept distinct. The commentator of them ig identical with the above-
the Asval. Sr. S. calls himself a named NaYayana. Ace. to what has
Giirgya, and son of Narasinha ; tlie just been remarked in note 50, this
comm. of the Asval. Grihya, a Xai- must appear ct, priori very doubtful,
dhruva, and son of Divakara ; the aince a considerable number of other

SUTRAS OF THE RIK. 59

many small treatises in connection with the Grihya-
Siitras, some of them being summaries, in which the larger
works are reduced to system. Among them is a Paddhati
to the Sankhayana-Grihya by Ramachandra, who lived in
the Naimisha forest in the middle of the fifteenth century;
and I am inclined to think that this Naimisha forest was
the birthplace of the Sutra itself. It is perhaps for this
reason that the tradition connected with it was so well
preserved in that district.

The extant PrMisdkhya-Sutra of the Rik-Samhita is
ascribed to Saunaka, who has been repeatedly mentioned
already, and who was the teacher of Asvalayana. This
extensive work is a metrical composition, divided into
three kdndas, of six patalas each, and containing 103
kandikds in all. The first information regarding it was
given by Eoth, op. c., p. 53, ff. According to tradition, it
is of more ancient origin than the Sutras of Asvalayana
just mentioned, which only purport to be written by the
pupil of this Saunaka ; but whether it really was composed
by the latter, or whether it is not much more probably
merely the work of his school, must for the present remain
undecided. The names quoted in it are in part identical
with those met with in Yciska's Nirukti and in the Sutra
of Panini. The contents of the work itself are, however,
as yet but little known&1 in their details. Of special in-
terest are those passages which treat of the correct and
incorrect pronunciation of words in general. There is an
excellent commentary on it by tlata, which professes in
the introduction to be a remodelling of an earlier com-
mentary by Vishnuputra. — The Upalckha is to be con-

authors bear the same name. But he is probably identical with the

in this particular case we are able author of the dipikd on the small

to bring forward definite reasons Atharvopanishads published in the

against this identification. The Bibl. Jnd. in 1872, who (ibid., p.

glossarist of the Prasnop. was called 393) is called Khatta Ndrdyana, and

Adrdyanendra according to 1. tit. , son of Bhatta Ratnakara.]

1.470; according to the note, ibid., 51 We are now in possession of

i. 439, Ndn'yann Sarasvati ; accord- two editions of this most important

ing to Aut'recht, Catalogue of the work, text and translation, with

Oxford MSS., p. 366 (1859-64), elucidatory notes, by Ad. Kegnier

rather Rdyanmdrataratvat/l (!). The (Paris, 1857-58), and M. Miiller

glossarist of the Mundakop., on the (Leipzig, 1856-69) ; see /. Sir., ii.

other hand, was, according to /. St., 94, it'., 127, ff., 159, ff'. ; Lit. Ccn-

i. 470, called Xdi-dyanabha (fa; and tralblatt, 1870, p. 530.

60 VEDIC LITER A TURE.

sidered as an epitome of the Pratis"akhya- Sutra, and to
some extent as a supplement to it [specially to chapters
x. xi.]. It is a short treatise, numbered among the
Parisishtas (supplements) ; and it has in its turn been
repeatedly commented upon.52

A few other treatises have still to be noticed here, which,
although they bear the high-sounding name of Veddngas,
or ' members of the Veda/ are yet, as above stated (p. 25),
only to be looked upon as later supplements to the litera-
ture of the Rigveda : the Sikshd, the Chhandas, and the
Jyotisha. All three exist in a double recension according
as they profess to belong to the Rigveda or to the Yajur-
veda. The Chhandas is essentially alike in both recen-
sions, and we have to recognise in it the Sutra on prosody
ascribed to Pingala.53 It is, moreover, like both the other
treatises, of very recent origin. We have a proof of this,
for instance, in the fact that, in the manner peculiar to
the Indians, it expresses numbers by words,54 and feet by
letters, and that it treats of the highly elaborated metres,
which are only found in modern poetry.55 The part deal-
ing with Vedic metres may perhaps be more ancient. The
teachers quoted in it bear in part comparatively ancient

82 Edited by W. Pertsch (Berlin, e3 Edited and commented by my-

1854) ; this tract treats of the krama- self in /. St., viii. (1863); the" text,

jiiitha, an extended form of the pa- together witli the commentary of

dapdtha, which at the same time Haldyudha, edited by VisVansttha-

gives the text in the samhitd form, &istrin in J3M. Indica (1871-74).

namely, each word twice, first joined 54 See Albinini's account in Woep-

with the preceding, and then with cke's Memoire sur la propagation

the following word (thus : ab, be, cd, des chiffres indicns, p. IO2, if. (1863).

de . . .). There are also other still Burnell, Elcm. of S. 1, Palaogr.,

more complicated modes of reciting p. 58.

the Veda, as to which cf. Thibautin S5 On the other hand, there are

his edition of the Jatipatala (1870), metres taught in this work which

p. 3^) ff- 'l''ie n(;xt step, called but rarely occur in modern litera-

jatd, exhibits the text in the follow- ture, and which must be looked

insr manner : ab ba ab, be cb be, and upon as obsolete and out of fashion.

MSS. of this kind have actually Therefore, in spite of what has been

been preserved, e.g., in the case of said above, we must carry back the

the Vajas. Sarnh. The following date of its composition to a period

step, called ghana, is said to be still about simultaneous with the close

in use; cf. lihand irkar, Indian An- of the Vedic Sutra literature, or the

ti'/iiary, iii. 133 ; Hang, Utber das commencement of the astronomical

Wesen des vedischen Accents, p. 58 ; and algebraical literatures; see/. St.,

it runs : a& ba abc cba abr, be cb be viii. 173, 178.
bed deb bed.

VEDANGAS—ANUKRAMANIS OF THE RIK. 61

names. These are : Kraushtuki, Tandin, Yaska, Saitava,
Rata, and Mandavya. The recensions most at variance
with each other are those of the Siksha and Jyotisha
respectively. The former work is in both recensions
directly traced to Panini, the latter to Lagadha, or Lagata,
an otherwise unknown name in Indian literature.*— Besides
the Paniniya Siksha, there is another bearing the name of
the Mandiikas, which therefore may more directly follow
the Rik, and which is at any rate a more important work
than the former. As a proof of the antiquity of the name
'Siksha' for phonetic investigations, we may adduce the
circumstance that in the Taitt. Arany., vii. i, \ye find a
section beginning thus : " we will explain the Siksha ; "
whereupon it gives the titles of the topics of the oral
exposition which we may suppose to have been connected
therewith (1. St., ii. 211), and which, to judge by these
titles, must have embraced letters, accents, quantity, arti-
culation, and the rules of euphony, that is to say, the same
subjects discussed in the two existing Sikshas.56

Of the writings called Anukramani, in which the
metre, the deity, and the author of each song are given in
their proper order, several have come down to us for^the
Rik-Samhita, including an Anuvdkdnukramani by Sau-
naka, and a Sarvdnukramani by Katyayana.57 For both
of these we have an excellent commentary by Shadguru-

* Reinaud in his Memoire tur M The Pnniniyd Sikshd has been

I'Inde, pp. 331, 332, adduces from printed with a translation in /. St.,

Albiruni a Lata, who passed for the iv. 345-371 (1858); on the numerous

author of the old Surya-Siddhdnta ; other treatises bearing the same

might he not be identical with this name, see Kdjendra Lala Mitra,

Lagadha, Lagata? According to Notices of Sanskrit MSS., i. 71, ff.

Colebr., L'ss., ii. 409, Brahmagupta (1870), Burnell, Catalogue of Vcdic

quotes a Lddlidcharya ; this name ill SS., pp. 8, 42 (1870), my essay on

also could be traced to Lagadha. the Pratijna.su.tra (1872), pp. 70-74;

[By Suryadeva, a scholiast of Arya- specially on the Mdnduki Siksha', pp.

bhata, the author of the Jyotisha is 106-112; Haug, Ueber dus Wescn

cited under the name of Lagadu- des vedischcn Accents,^ p. 53, ff.

chdrya ; see Kern, Preface to the (1873), on the Ndrada-Sikshd, ibid.,

Aryabhatiya, p. ix., 1874. An edi- 57, it'., and lastly Kielhorn, /. St.,

tiou of the text of the Jyotisha, to- xiv. 160.

gether with extracts from Somd- 87 In substance published by

kara's commentary and explanatory Miiller in the sixth volume of his

notes, was published by me in 1862 large edition of the Rik, pp. 621-

under the title : Ueber den Vedaka- 671.
lender, Namcns Jyotitham.]

62 VEDIC LITERATURE.

Sishya, whose time is unknown,53 as also his real name.
The names of the six teachers from whom he took this
surname are enumerated by himself; they are Vinayaka,
TriSulanka, Govinda, Surya, Vyasa, and Sivayogin, and he
connects their names with those of the corresponding
deities. — Another work belonging to this place, the Bri-
haddevata, has been already mentioned (p. 24), as attri-
buted to Saunaka, and as being of great importance, con-
taining as it does a rich store of mythical fables and
legends. From Kuhn's communications on the subject
(/. St., i. 101-120), it appears that this work is of tolerably
late origin, as it chiefly follows Yaska's Nirukta, and pro-
bably therefore only belongs to Saunaka in the sense of
having proceeded from his school. It mentions a few
more teachers, in addition to those quoted by Yaska, as
Bhaguri and Asvalayana ; and it also presupposes, by fre-
quently quoting them, the existence of the Aitareyaka,
Bhallavi-Brahmana, and Nidana-Sutra. As the author
strictly adheres to the order of the hymns observed in the
Samhita, it results that in the recension of the text used
by him there were a few deviations from that of the
Sakalas which has been handed down to us. In fact, he
here and there makes direct reference to the text of the
Vashkalas, to which, consequently, he must also have had
access. — Lastly, we have to mention the writings called
JRigvidhdna, &c., which, although some of them bear the
name of Saunaka, probably belong only to the time of the
Puranas. They treat of the mystic and magic efficacy of
the recitation of the hymns of the Rik, or even of single
verses of it, and the like. There are, likewise, a number
of other similar Parisishtas (supplements) / under various
names ; for instance, a Bahvricha-Paris'ishta, Sankhayana-P.,
Asvalayana-Grihya-1'., &c.

58 His work was composed towards about 1187 A.D. • cf. I. St,, viii. l6o,
the close of the twelfth century, n. (1863).

SAM A VEDA-SAMHITA. 63

I now turn to the Sdmavcda*

The Samhitd of the Samaveda is an anthology taken
from the Rik-Samhita, comprising those of its verses
which were intended to be chanted at the ceremonies of
the Soma sacrifice. Its arrangement would seem to be
guided by the order of the Rik-Samhita ; but here, as in
the case of the two Samhitas of the Yajus, we must not
think to find any continuous connection. Properly speak-
ing, each verse is to be considered as standing by itself: it
only receives its real sense when taken in connection with
the particular ceremony to which it belongs. So stands
the case at least in the first part of the Sama-Samhita.
This is divided into six prapdthaJcas, each of which f con-
sists of ten dasats or decades, of ten verses each, a division
which existed as early a? the time of the second part of
the Satapatha-Brahmana, and within which the separate
verses are distributed according to the deities to whom
they are addressed. The first twelve decades contain in-
vocations of Agni, the last eleven invocations of Soma,
while the thirty-six intermediate ones are for the most
part addressed to Indra. The second part of the Sama-
Samhita, on the contrary, which is divided into nine pra-
pdthakas, each of which again is subdivided into two or
occasionally three sections, invariably presents several,
usually three, verses closely connected with one another,
and forming an independent group, the first of them having
generally appeared already in the first part. The prin-
ciple of distribution here is as yet obscure.59 In the Sam-
hita these verses are still exhibited in their n'c/t-form,
although with the sdman-a,ccents ; but in addition to this
we have four gdnas, or song-books, in which they appear
in their tdman-foTHL For, in singing they were consider-

* See 1. St., i. 28-66. use of which my example has

t Except the last, which contains niisled Miiller also, History of

only nine decades. A. S. L., p. 473, n., is wrong, see

59 The first part of the Sainhitit is Monatsberickte derBcrl. Acad.,iS68,

referred to under the names drc/ti&a, p. 238. According to Durga, the

c/ihandas, clihandasikd, the second author of the pudapdtha of the

as uttardrchika or uttard ; the de- Sdma-Sainhita was a Gdrgya ; see

signation of the latter as staubhika Roth, Comin., p. 39 (respecting this

(see /. St., i. 29, 30, 66), into the family, see /. St., xiii. 411).

64 ~ VEDIC LITERATURE.

ably altered by the prolongation and repetition of the
syllables, by the insertion of additional syllables, serving
as a rest for the chanting, and so forth ; and only thus
were they transformed into sdmans. Two of these song-
books, the Grdmageya-gdna (erroneously called Vcya-
gdna), in seventeen prapdthakas, and the Aranya-gdna.
in six prapdthakas, follow the order of the richas contained
in the first part of the Samhita; the former being intended
for chanting in the grdmas, or inhabited places, the latter
for chanting in the forest. Their order is fixed in a com-
paratively very ancient Anukramanf, which even bears
the name of Brahmana, viz., Rishi-Brdhmatw. The other
twoffdnas, the UJia-gdna, in twenty- three prapdthakas, and
the fjhya-gdna, in six prapdthakas, follow the order of the
richas contained in the second part of the Samhita. Their
mutual relation here still requires closer investigation.
Each such sdman evolved out of a rich has a special tech-
nical name, which probably in most cases originated from
the first inventor of the form in question, is often, how-
ever, borrowed from other considerations, and is usually
placed in the manuscripts before the text itself. As each
rich can be chanted in a great variety of ways, in each of
which it bears a particular name, the number of sdmans,
strictly speaking, is quite unlimited, and is of course far
greater than that of the ricJias contained in the Samhita.
Of these latter there are 1 549,* of which all but seventy-
eight have been traced in the Rik-Samhita. Most of them
are taken from its eighth and ninth mandalas.

I have already remarked (p. 9) upon the antiquity of
the readings of the Sama- Samhita as compared with those
of the Rik-Samhita. It follows from this almost with

* Benfey [Einleituny, p. xix.] much as 249 of those occurring in

erroneously states the number as the first part .are repeated in the

1472, which I copied from him, T. second, three of them twice, while

St., i. 29, 30. The above number is nine of the richas which occur in

borrowed from a paper by Whitney, the second part only, appear twice,

which will probably find a place in [See on this Whitney's detailed table

the IndischeStudien. The total nurn- at the end of his Tabettarische Dar-

ber of the richas contained in the sfel/uny der gcyenscitigcn Vet-halt-

Sama-Siimhitii is 1810 (585 in the nisse dcr Samhiuis des Rik, Sdman,

first, 1225 in the second part), froin Weisscn Yajus, und Atharvan, 7. .*><.,

which, however, 261 are to be de- ii. 321, ff., 363 (1853)].
ducted as mere repetitious, inus-

SAM A VEDA-SAMHITA. 65

certainty that the richas constituting the former were bor-
rowed from the songs of the latter at a remote period,
before their formation into a Rik-Samhita had as yet
taken place ; so that in the interval they suffered a good
deal of wearing down in the mouth of the people, which
was avoided in the cass of the richas applied as sdmans, and
so protected by being used in worship. The fact has also
already been stated that no verses have been received into
the Sama-Samhita from those songs of the Rik-Samhita
which must be considered as the most modern. Thus we
find no sdmans borrowed from the Purusha-Sukta, in the
ordinary recensions at least, for the school of the Naigeyas
has, in fact, incorporated the first five verses of it into the
seventh prapdthaka of the first part — a section which is
peculiar to this school. The Sama-Samhita, being a purely
derivative production, gives us no clue towards the deter-
mination of its date. It has come down to us in two
recensions, on the whole differing but little from each
other, one of which belongs to the school of the Banayani-
yas, the other to that of the Kauthunias. Of this latter
the school of the Negas, or Naigeyas, alluded to above, is
a subdivision, of which two Anukramanis at least, one ot
the deities and one of the Rishis of the several verses,
have been preserved to us.60 Not one of these three
names has as yet been traced in Vedic literature; it is
only in the Sutras of the Samaveda itself that the first
and second at least are mentioned, but even here the name
of the Negas does not appear. — The text of the Eanayani-
yas was edited and translated, with strict reference to
Sayana's commentary, by the missionary Stevenson in
1842; since 1848 we have been in possession of another
edition, furnished with a complete glossary and much

60 The seventh pmpdthaka, which specially refers to the Aranyaka-

is peculiar to it, has since been dis- Sarrihita, see Burnell, Catalogue of

covered. It bears the title Aran- ^edt'c MSS. (1870), p. 39. — Of the

yaka-Samhita', and has been edited Aranyaka-gilna as well as of the

by Siegfried Goldschmidt in Mo- Gramageya-gana we find,?&!'rf.,p. 49,

natsberichte der Berl. Acad. 1868, pp. a text in the Jaimini-S\ikhil also.

228-248. The editor points out that According to Itajendra Ldla Mitra

the Aranya-giina is based upon the (Preface to Translation of Chhdnd.

Archika of the Naigeya text (/. c., p. Up., p. 4), ' the Kauthuma (-&lkha)

238), and that MSS. have probably is current in Guzerat, the Jaitm-

been preserved of its uttardrchika niya in Karndtaka, and the llandya-

also (p. 241). — A London MS. of niya in Maharashtra.'

l>haratasv;iui in's Saimvedavivanma E

66 VEDIC LITERATURE.

additional material, together with translation, which we
owe to Professor Benfey, of Gottingen.61

Although, from its very nature, the Samhita of the
Samaveda is poor in data throwing light upon the time of
its origin, yet its remaining literature contains an abun-
dance of these ; and first of all, the Brdhmanas.

The first and most important of these is the Tdndi/a
Brdlnnana, also called Panchavinsa, from its containing
twenty-five books. Its contents, it is true, are in the
main of a very dry and unprofitable character; for in
mystic trifling it often exceeds all bounds, as indeed it
was the adherents of the Samaveda generally who carried
matters furthest in this direction. Nevertheless, from its
great extent, this work contains a mass of highly interest-
ing legends, as well as of information generally. It refers
solely to tli e celebration of the Soma sacrifices, and to the
chanting of the sdmans accompanying it, which are quoted
by their technical names. These sacrifices were celebrated
in a great variety of ways ; there is one special classifica-
tion of them according as they extended over one day or
several, or finally over more than twelve days.62 The
latter, called sattras, or sessions, could only be performed
by Brahmaris, and that in considerable numbers, and might
last 100 days, or even several years. In consequence of
the great variety of ceremonies thus involved, each bears
its own name, which is borrowed either from the object of
its celebration, or the sage who was the first to celebrate
it, or from other considerations. How far the order of the
Samhita is here observed has not yet been investigated,

61 Recently a new edition, like- is said to be still in existence in

•wise very meritorious, of the first Malabar ; see Host, /. St., ix.

two books, the dr/ncyam and the ain- 176.

dram parva, of the drchika (up to i. 62 To each Soma sacrifice belong

5. 2. 3. 10), has been published by several (four at least) preparatory

Satyavrata Samasramin, in the Bib- days ; these are not here taken into

liotheca Indica (1871-74), aecom- account. The above division refers

panied by the corresponding por- only to those days when Soma juice

tions (jtrapdthakns i-\z] of the is expressed, that is, to the sutyd

Geyagdna, and the complete com- days. Soma sacrifices having only

rnentary of Sityana, and other illns- one such day are called ekdlta ; those

irative matter. — The division of the with from two to twelve, ahina.

Siimans into parvans is first men- Sattras lasting a whole year, or even

lioned by Pdraskarn, ii. 10 (adhyd- longer, are called ayana. For the

l/ddin praltruydd, riskimukhdni bah- suiyd festival there are seven fundu-

vrfafidndm, parrdni chhandoydndm). mental forms, called sumstliu; I. St.,

A Rdvanabhiishjji on the Samaveda x. 352-355.

BRAHMANAS OF THE SAMAN. 67

but in any case it would be a mistake to suppose that for
all the different sacrifices enumerated in the Brahmana
corresponding prayers exist in the Samhita. On the con-
trary, the latter probably only exhibits the verses to be
chanted generally at all the Soma sacrifices; and the
Brahmana must be regarded as the supplement in which
the modifications for the separate sacrifices are given, and
also for those which arose later. While, as \ve saw above
(p. 14), a combination of verses of the Rik for the pur-
pose of recitation bears the name iastra, a similar selec-
tion of different sdmans united into a whole is usually
called uktha (Jvach, to speak), stoma (V stu, to praise), or
prishtlia ( *J prachh, to ask) ; and these in their turn, like
the sastras, receive different appellations.63

Of special significance for the time of the composition
of the Tandya Brahmana are, on the one hand, the veiy
minute descriptions of the sacrifices on the Sarasvati and
Drishadvati ; and, on the other, the Vratyastomas, or
sacrifices by which Indians of Aryan origin, but not living
according to the Brahmanical system, obtained admission
to the Brahman community. The accounts of these latter
sacrifices are preceded by a description of the dress and
mode of life of those who are to offer them. " They drive-
in open chariots of war, carry bows and lances, wear tur-
bans, robes bordered with red and having fluttering ends,,
shoes, and sheepskins folded double; their leaders are
distinguished by brown robes and silver neck-ornaments ;
they pursue neither agriculture nor commerce ; their laws-
are in a constant state of confusion; they speak the same
language as those who have received .Brahmanical conse-
cration, but nevertheless call what is easily spoken hard
to pronounce." This last statement probably refers to

M The term directly opposed to The simple recitation of the fastras

dastra is, rather, stvtra. Prishtha, by the Hotar and his companions

specially designates several sto/ras always comes after the chanting

belonging to the mid-day sacrifice, recitation of ihe same verses by the

and forming, as it is expressed, its Udgdtar and his assistants (grahrfya

"buck;" uktha is originally em- grihltaya stuvaie 'tha fansati, Sat.

ployed as a synonym of sastra, and viii. i. 3. 3). The differences of the

only at a later period in the mean- seven samst/tds, or fundamental types

ing of sdman (I. St., xiii. 447); of the ijoma sacrifice, rest mainly

stoma, lastly, is the name for the six, upon the varying number of the

seven, or more ground-forms of the sastras and stoiras belonging to their

gtotras, after which these latter are i,utyd days. See /. St., x. 353, ff.,

il fur the purposes of churning, ix. 229.

68 VEDIC LITER A TURE.

prakritic, dialectic differences, to the assimilation of groups
of consonants, and similar changes peculiar to the Prakrit
vernaculars. The great sacrifice of the Naimishiya-Rishis
is also mentioned, and the river Sudaman. Although we
have to conclude from these statements that communica-
tion with the west, particularly with the non-Brah manic
Aryans there, was still very active, and that therefore the
locality of the composition must be laid more towards the
west,64 still data are not wanting which point us to the
east. Thus, there is mention of Para Atnara, king of the
Kosalas ; of Trasadasyu Purukutsa, who is also named in
the Rik-Samhita ; further of Namin Sapya, king of the
Videhas (the Nimi of the epic) ; of Kurukshetra, Yamuna,
&c. The absence, however, of any allusion in the Tandya-
Brahmana either to the Kuru-Panchalas or to the names
of their princes, as well as of any mention of Janaka, is
best accounted for by supposing a difference of locality.
Another possible, though less likely, explanation of the
fact would be to assume that this work was contemporary
with, or even anterior to, the flourishing epoch of the
kingdom of the Kuru-Paiichalas. The other names quoted
therein seem also to belong to an earlier age than those of
the other Brahmanas, and to be associated, rather, with the
Rishi period. It is, moreover, a very significant fact that
scarcely any differences of opinion are stated to exist
amongst the various teachers. It is only against the
Kausliitakis that the field is taken with some acrimony ;
they are denoted as vrdtyas (apostates) and as yajndvakirna
(unfit to sacrifice). Lastly, the name attached to this
Brahmana,* viz., Tandya, is mentioned in the Brahmana
of the White Yajus as that of a teacher; so that, com-
bining all this, we may at least safely infer its priority to
the latter work.65

61 The fact that the name of Chi- the other Sutras invariably quoting

ti aratha (ctena vai Chitraratham Kd- it by ' iti sruteh.'
peyd aydjayan . . . tasmdch Ciiui- 65 The Tdndya-Bnihmana lias been

traratldndme.kahlcsliatrapatir j&yate edited, together with Sayana's com-

'nulamba iva dvitiyah, xx. 12, 5) mentary, in the Bibl. Ind. (1869-74),

occurs in the fjana, Jtdjadnnta' to by Anandachandra Vedttntavagisa.

lYm., ii. 2. 31, joined with the name At the time of the Bh&thika-Sutra

IVm lik;i iii a compound (Cldtraratli.a- (see Kielhorn, /. &t., x. 421) it must

Bdhlikam), is perhaps also to be still have been accentuated, and(that

taken in this connection. in the same manner as the Sata-

* The first use of this designation, patha ; in KnmdVilabhattrt's time,

it is true, only occurs in L;ity;iyuna, on the contrary (the last half of the

BRAHMANAS OF THE SAMAN. 69

The ShadvinSa-Brdhmana by its very name proclaims
itself a supplement to the PanchaviiiSa-Brabmana. It
forms, as it were, its twenty-sixth Look, although itself
consisting of several books. Sayana, when giving a sum-
mary of its contents at the commencement of his here
excellent commentary, says that it both treats of such
ceremonies as are not contained in the Panchavins'a-Brah-
mana, and also gives points of divergence from the latter.
It is chiefly expiatory sacrifices and ceremonies of impre-
cation that we find in it, as also short, comprehensive
general rules. The fifth book (or sixth adhydya) has
quite a peculiar character of its own, and is also found as
a separate Brahmana under the name of Adbhuta-Brdh-
mana ; in the latter form, however, with some additions
at the end. It enumerates untoward occurrences of daily
life, omens and portents, along with the rites to be per-
formed to avert their evil consequences. These afford us
a deep insight into the condition of civilisation of the
period, which, as might have been expected, exhibits a
very advanced phase. The ceremonies first given are
those to be observed on the occurrence of vexatious events
generally ; then come those for cases of sickness among
men and cattle, of damaged crops, losses of precious things,
&c. ; those to be .performed in the event of earthquakes,
of phenomena in the air and in the heavens, &c., of mar-
vellous appearances on altars and on the images of the
gods, of electric phenomena and the like, and of mis-
carriages.60 This sort of superstition is elsewhere only
treated of in the Grihya-Sutras, or in the Parisishtas (sup-
plements) ; and this imparts to the last adhydya of the
Shadvin^a-Brahmana — as the remaining contents do to
the work generally — the appearance of belonging to a
very modern period. And, in accordance with this, we
find mention here made of Uddalaka Aruni, and other
teachers, whose names are altogether unknown to the
Panchavins'a- Brahmana. — A sloka is cited in the course of

seventh century, according to Bur- M The Adbhuta-Brdhmana has

nell), it was already being handed been published by myself, text with

down without accents, as in the pre- translation, and explanatory notes,

sent day. See Muller, A. S. L., p. in Zv:ei vedische Texte iiiicr Omina

348; Burnell, Sdmavidhdna-Bnili- und 1'nrtenta (1859).
tuiina, Preface, p. vi.

70 VEDIC LITER A TURE.

the \vork, in which the four yuyas are still designated by
their more ancient names, and are connected with the
four lunar phases, to which they evidently owe their
origin, although all recollection of the fact had in later
times died out.67 This £loka itself we are perhaps justified
in assigning to an earlier time than that of Megasthenes,
who informs us of a fabulous division of the mundane
ages analogous to that given in the epic. But it does not
by any means follow that the Shadvins'a-Brahmana, in
which the sloka is quoted, itself dates earlier than the
time of Megasthenes.

The third Brahmana of the Samaveda bears the special
title of Chhdndogya-Brdhmana, although Chhandogya is
the common name for all Saman theologians. We, how-
ever, also find it quoted, by Samkara, in his commentary
on the Brahma- Sutra, as " Tdndindm sruti" that is to say,
under the same name that is given to the Panchavin^a-
Brahmana. The two first adhydyas of this Brahmana are
still missing, and the last eight only are preserved, which
also bear the special title of Clihdndogyopanishad. This
Brahmana is particularly distinguished by its rich store
of legends regarding the gradual development of Brah-
manical theology, and stands on much the same level as
the Vrihad-Aranyaka of the White Yajus with respect to
opinions, as well as date, place, and the individuals men-
tioned. The absence in the Vrihad-Aranyaka, as in the
Brahmana of the White Yajus generally, of any reference
to the Nairnisiya-Rishis, might lead us to argue the pri-
ority of the Chluindogyopanishad to the Vrihad-Aranyaka.
Still, the mention in the Chkandogyopanishad of these, as
well as of the Mahavrishas and the Gandharas — the latter,
it is true, are set down as distant — ought perhaps only to
be taken as proof of, a somewhat more western origin ;
whereas the Vrihad-Aranyaka belongs, as we shall here-
after see, to quite the eastern part of Hindustan. The
numerous animal fables, on the contrary, and the mention
of Mahidasa Aitareya, would sooner incline me to suppose
that the, Chluindogyopanishad is more modern than the
Vrihad-Aranyaka. With regard to another allusion, in

97 Differently llotk in his essay Die Lehre von den vier WdtaLcrn

(Tubingen, 1860).

BRAHMANAS OF THE SAM AN. 71

itself of the greatest significance, it is more hazardous to
venture a conjecture : I mean the mention of Krishna
Devakiputra, who is instructed by Ghora Angirasa. The
latter, and besides him (though not in connection with
him) Krishna Angirasa, are also mentioned in the Kau-
shitaki-Brahmana; and supposing this Krishna Angirasa
to be identical with Krishna Devakiputra, the allusion to
him might perhaps rather be considered as a sign of priority
to the Vrihad-Aranyaka. Still, assuming this identifica-
tion to be correct, due weight must be given to the fact
that the name has been altered here : instead of Angirasa,
he is called Devakiputra, a form of name for which we
find no analogy in any other Vedic writing ^xcepting the
Vansas (genealogical tables) of the Vrihad-Aranyaka, and
which therefore belongs, at all events, to a tolerably late
period.* The significance of this allusion for the under-
standing of the position of Krishna at a later period is
obvious. Here he is yet but a scholar, eager in the pur-
suit of knowledge, belonging perhaps to the military caste.
He certdinly must have distinguished himself in some
way or other, however little we know of it, otherwise his
elevation to the rank of deity, brought about by external
circumstances, would be inexplicable.63

The fact of the Chhandogyopanishad and the Vrihad-
Aranyaka having in common the names Pravahana Jai-
vali, Ushas^i Chakrayana, Sandilya, Satyakama Jabala,
Uddalaka Aruni, Svetaketu, and Asvapati, makes it clear
that they were as nearly as possible contemporary works ;
and this appears also from the generally complete identity
of the seventh book of the former with the corresponding
passages of the Vrihad-Aranyaka. What, however, is of
most significance, as tending to establish a late date for

* Compare also Pan., iv. I. 159, mythical relations to Indra, &c., are

and the names Sambuputra, IWrnl- at the root of it; see I. St., xiii.

yauiputra, in the Sama-Sut.ras ; as 349, ff. The whole question, how-

also Katyiiyaniputi-a, Maitrayani- ever, is altogether vague. Krishna-

fiutra, Viitsiputra, &c., among the worship proper, i.e., the sectarian

Buddhists. [On these metronymic worship of Krishna as the one God,

names in putra see /. <S(., iii. 157, probably attained its perfection

485,486; iv. 380, 435 ; v. 63, 64.] through the influence of Christi-

68 By what circumstances the ele- anity. See my paper, Krishna's

vatiou of Krishna to the rank of Geburtsfest, p. 316, ff. (where also

deity was brought about is as yet are further particulars as to the nauie

obscure ; though unquestionably Devaki).

72 VEDIC LITERATURE.

the Chhandogyopanishad, is the voluminous literature, the
existence of which is presupposed by the enumeration at
the beginning of the ninth book. Even supposing this
ninth book to be a sort of supplement (the names of Sanat-
kumara and Skanda are not found elsewhere in Vedic
literature ; Narada also is otherwise only mentioned in
the second part of the Aitareya-Brahmana69), there still
remains the mention of the ' Atharvaiigirasas,' as well as of
the Itihasas and Puranas in the fifth book. Though we
are not at Liberty here, any more than in the correspond-
ing passages of the Vrihad-Aranyaka, to understand by
these last the Itihasas and Puranas which have actually
come down to us, still we must look upon them as the
forerunners of these works, which, originating in the
legends and traditions connected with the songs of the
Rik, and with the forms of worship, gradually extended
their range, and embraced other subjects also, whether
drawn from real life, or of a mythical and legendary
character. Originally they found a place in the Brah-
manas, as well as in the other expository literature of the
Vedas; but at the time of this passage of the Chhan-
dogyopanishad they had possibly already in part attained
an independent form, although the commentaries,* as a
rule, only refer such expressions to passages in the Brah-
manas themselves. The Maha-Bharata contains, especially
in the first book, a few such Itihasas, still in a prose form;
nevertheless, even these fragments so preserved to us be-
long, in respect both of style and of the conceptions they
embody, to a much later period than the similar passages
of the Brahrnanas. They however suffice, together with
the slokas, gdthds, &c., quoted in the Brahmanas them-
selves, and with such works as the Barhaddaivata, to
bridge over for us the period of transition from legend to
epic poetry.

We meet, moreover, in the Chhandogyopanishad with
one of those legal cases which are so seldom mentioned in
Vedic literature, viz., the infliction of capital punishment
for (denied) theft, exactly corresponding to the severe

c8 And a few times in the Atharva- ca?e, but Sstyana, Harisvdmin, and

S^iinliita', as also in the Vi.ftsa of the ] H'ivedagafma in similar passages of

hani;ividh;iiia-Bnihin;mu. the S;U;i|>atha-Bnlu,man.a and Ta.it-

* Nut Sainkara, it is true, in this thiva-Aianyaka.

BRAHAfANAS OF THE SAMAN. 73

enactments regarding it in Manu's code. Guilt or inno-
cence is determined by an ordeal, the carrying of a red-
liot axe ; this also is analogous to the decrees in Maim.
We find yet another connecting link with the state of
culture in Manu's time in a passage occurring also in the
Vrihad-Aranyaka, viz., the doctrine of the transmigration
of souls. We here meet with this doctrine for the first
time, and that in a tolerably complete form ; in itself,
however, it must certainly be regarded as much more
ancient. The circumstance that the myth of the creation
in the fifth book is on the whole identical with that found
at the beginning of Manu, is perhaps to be explained by
regarding the latter as simply a direct imitation of the
former. The tenth book, the subject of which is the soul,
its seat in the body and its condition on leaving it, i.e., its
migration to the realm of Brahman, contains much that is
of interest in this respect in connection with the above-
mentioned parallel passage of the Ivaushitaky-Upanishad,
from which it differs in some particulars. Here also for
the first time in the field of Vedic literature occurs the
name Balm, which we may reckon among the proofs of
the comparatively recent date of the Chhandogyopanishad.

Of expressions for philosophical doctrines we find only
UpanisJwd, Adcsa, Guhya Adcsa (the keeping secret of doc-
trine is repeatedly and urgently inculcated), Updkkydna
(explanation). The teacher is called dchdrya [as he is
also in the Sat. Br.]; for " inhabited place," ardka is used;
single slokas and gdthds are very often quoted.

The Chhandogyopanishad has been edited by^Dr. Roer
in the Bibliothcca Jndica, vol. iii., along with Samkara's
commentary and a gloss on it.70 i>. "VVindischmann had
previously given us several passages of it in the original,
and several in translation; see also /. St., i. 254-273.

The Kenopanishad has come down to us as the rem-
nant of a fourth Bralmuina of the Samaveda, supposed to
be its ninth book.* In the colophons and in the quota-
tions found in the commentaries, it also bears the other-

70 In this series (1854-62) a trans- first eight books, Samkara furnishes

Jation also has been published \>y us with information in the uegm-

liajendra Lala Mitra. iiing of his commentary.

* Regarding the contents of the

74 VEDIC LITER A TURE.

wise unknown name of the TalavaJcdras* It is divided
into two parts : the first, composed in Slokas, treats of the
being of the supreme Brahman, appealing in the fourth
verse to the tradition of the " earlier sages who have
taught us this" as its authority. The second part con-
tains a legend in support of the supremacy of Brahman,
and here we find Uma Haimavati, later the spouse of Siva,
acting as mediatrix between Brahman and the other gods,
probably because she is imagined to be identical with
Sarasvati, or Vach, the goddess of speech, of the creative
word.f

These are the extant Brahmanas of the Samaveda.
Sayana, indeed, in his commentary on the Samavidhana
enumerates eight (see Miiller, Rik i. Pref. p. xxvii): the
Praudha- or Malid-Brdhmana (i.e., the Panchavinsa), the
S/iadvinsa, the Sdmavidhi, the Arslieya, the Devatddhydya,
the Upanishad, the Samhitopanishad, and the Van£a.
The claims, however, of four of these works to the name of
Brahmana, have no solid foundation. The Arsheya is, as
already stated, merely an Anukramani, and the Devata-
dhyaya can hardly be said to be anything else ; the Vaiisa
elsewhere always constitutes a part of the Brahmanas
themselves : the two latter works, moreover, can scarcely
be supposed to be still in existence, which, as far as the
Yaiisa is concerned, is certainly very much to be regretted.
The Samavidhana also, which probably treats, like the
portion of the Latyayana- Sutra bearing the same name, of
the conversion of the richas into sdmans, can hardly pass
for a Brahmana.71 As to the S.imliitupamshad, it appears

* Might not this name be trace- mi Anukramnni, but only contains

able to the same root Idtl, land, from some information as to the deities

which Tdndya is derived ? of the different sdmans, to which a

t On the literature, &e., of the few other short fragments are added.

Kenopanishad, see /. W., ii. 181, ff. Finally, the Sitinavidhitna- Brdh-

[\Ve have to add Roer's edition with Diana does not treat of the conver-

.Samkara's commentary, in lllblio- sion of richas into sdmans; on tlie

thci'a ludica, vol. viii., and his trans- contrary, it i.s a work similar to the

lation, ibid., vol. xv.] Rigvidhitna, and relates to the em-

71 The above statements require ]>loyinent of the sdmans for all sort?

to be corrected and supplemented of superstitious purposes. Both

in several particulars. The Vai'isa- texts have likewise been edited by

Brahmana was first edited by myself Bnrnell, with Sayana's commentaries

in /. St., iv. 371, ff., afterwards by (1873). By Kumtlrda, too, the mini-

Burnell with JSiiyana's commentary ber of the Br.lhmnnas of the Sitma-

(1873). The Devatudhyiiya is riot veila is given as eight (Miiller,

SUTRAS OF THE SAM AN. 75

to me doubtful whether Sayana meant by it the Iveno-
panishad ; for though the samhitd (universality) of the
Supreme Being certainly is discussed in the latter, the sub-
ject is not handled under this name, as would seem to be
demanded by the analogy of the title of the Samhitopa-
nishad of the Aitareya-Aranyaka as well as of the Taittiriya-
Aranyaka. My conjecture would be that he is far more
likely to have intended a work72 of the same title, of which
there is a MS. in the British Museum (see /. St., i. 42) ; and
if so, all mention of the Kenopanishad has been omitted by
him ; possibly for the reason that it appears at the same
time in an Atharvan-recension (differing but little, it is
true), and may have been regarded by him as belonging to
the Atharvan ?

There is a far greater number of S-titras to the Sama-
yeda than to any of the other Vedas. We have here three
Srauta-Sutras ; a Sutra which forms a running commen-
tary upon the Paiichavins'a-Brahmana ; five Sutras on
Metros and on the conversion of richas into sdmans ; and
a Grihya-Sutra. To these must further be added other
similar works of which the titles only are known to us, as
well as a great mass of different Pari^ishtas.

Of the Srauta-Sutras, or Sutras treating of the sacrifi-
cial ritual, the first is that of Masaka, which is cited in
the other Sama-Sutras, and even by the teachers men-
tioned in these, sometimes as Arslieya-Kalpa, sometimes
as Kalpa, and once also by Latyayana directly under the
name of Masaka.73 In the colophons it bears the name of
Kalpa- Sutra. This Sutra is but a tabular enumeration of
the prayers belonging to the several ceremonies of the
Soma sacrifice ; and tiiese are quoted partly by their tech-
nical Saiuan names, partly by their opening words. The

A. S. L., p. 348) ; in his time all of since this text appears there, as well

them were already without accents, as elsewhere, in connection with the

One fact deserves to be specially Vansa - Bralimana, &c. It is not

noticed here, namely, that several much larger than the Devatddhydya,

of the teachers mentioned in the but has not yet been published ; see

Vansa - Brahmana, by their very /. St., iv. 375.

names, point us directly to the north- 73 Latyayana designates Masaka as

west of India, e.g., Kamboja An- Gdrgya. Is this name connected

pamanyava, Madragdra Saungayani, with the Md<r<r<rya of the Greeks?

Siiti Aushtrdkshi, Salamkayana, aud Lassen, I. AK., i. 130; /. St., iv

Kauhala ; see 1. St., iv. 378-380. 78.
Ti This is unquestionably correct,

76 VEDIC LITERATURE.

order is exactly that of the Panchavins'a-Bralimana ; yet a
few other ceremonies are inserted, including those added
in the Shadvins'a-Brahmana, as well as others. Among
the latter the Janakasaptardtra deserves special notice,
— a ceremony owing its origin to King Janaka,74 of
whom, as we saw above, no mention is yet made in the
Panchavins'a-Brahmana. His life and notoriety therefore
evidently fall in the interval between the latter work
and the Sutra of MaSaka. — The eleven prapdthaJcas of this
Sutra are so distributed that the eJcdhas (sacrifices of one
day) are dealt with in the first five chapters ; the ahinas
(those lasting several days) in the following four ; and the
sattras (sacrifices lasting more than twelve days) in the
last two. There is a commentary on it, composed by
Varadaraja, whom we shall meet with again as the com-
mentator of another Sama-Sutra.

The second Srauta-Sutra is that of Ldtydyana, which
belongs to the school of the Kauthumas. This name ap-
pears to me to point to Lata, the Aapucij of Ptolemy,75 to
a country therefore lying quite in the west, directly south
of Surashtra (2vpa<rrpvjvtf). This would agree perfectly
with the conjecture above stated, that the Panchavin^a-
Brahmana belongs more to the west of India ; and is borne
out by the data contained in the body of the Sutra itself,
as we shall see presently.

This Sutra, like that of MaSaka, connects itself closely
with the Panchavinsa-Brahmana, and indeed often quotes
passages of some length from it, generally introducing
them by ' tad uhtam brdhmanena ;" or, " iti brdhmanam bhav-
ati ; " once also by " tathd purdtyam Tdndam" It usually
gives at the same time the different interpretations which
these passages received from various teachers. Sandilya,
Dhanamjayya, and Sandilyayana are most frequently
mentioned in this manner, often together, or one after the
other, as expounders of the Panchavin^a-Brahmana. The
first-named is already known to us through the Chhando-
gyopanishad, and he, as well as Sandilyayana, is repeatedly

74 Silyana, it is true, to Panch. 75 Ldtika as early as the edicts of

xxii. 9. I, takes janaka as an ap- Piyadasi ; see Lasaen, /. AK., i. 108;

pellative in the sense of prqfdpati, ii. 793 u.
which is the reading of tlie Paficha-

SUTRAS OF THE SAMAN. 77

mentioned also in another Sutra, the Nidiina- Sutra ; the
same is the case with Dhanamjayya. Besides these, how-
ever, Liityayana mentions a number of other teachers and
schools, as, for example, his own dchdryas, with especial
frequency ; the Arsheya-Kalpa, two different Gautamas,
one being distinguished by the surname Sthavira (a tech-
nical title, especially with the Buddhists); further Sauchi-
vrikshi (a teacher known to Panini), Kshairakalambhi,
Kautsa, Varshaganya, Bhanditayana, Lamakayana, Eana-
yam'putra, &c. ; and in particular, the Satyayanins, and
their work, the Satyayanaka, together with the Salanka-
yanins, the latter of whom are well known to belong to
the western part of India. Such allusions occur in the
Sutra of Latyayana, as in the other Sutras of the Sama-
veda, much more frequently than in the Sutras of the
other Vedas, and are in my opinion evidence of their
priority to the latter. At the time of the former there
still existed manifold differences of opinion, while in that
of the latter a greater unity and fixedness of exegesis, of
dogma, and of worship had been attained. The remaining
data appear also to point to such a priority, unless we
have to explain them merely from the difference of loca-
lity. The condition of the Siidras, as well as of the Nisha-
das, i.e., the Indian aborigines, does not here appear to be
one of such oppression and wretchedness as it afterwards
became. It was permitted to sojourn with them (Sandi-
lya, it is true, restricts this permission to " in the neigh-
bourhood of their gramas'"), and they themselves were
allowed to attend in person at the ceremonies, although
outside of the sacrificial ground. They are, moreover, now
and then represented, though for the most part in a mean
capacity, as taking an actual part on such occasions, which
is not to be thought of in later timee. Toleration was
still a matter of necessity, for, as we likewise see, the
strict Brahmanical principle was not yet recognised even
among the neighbouring Aryan tribes. These, equally
with the Brahmanical Indians, held in high esteem the
songs and customs of their ancestors, and devoted to them
quite as much study as the Brahmanical Indians did ; nay,
the latter now and then directly resorted to the former,
and borrowed distinct ceremonies from them. This is
sufficiently clear from the particulars of one ceremony of the

78 VEDIC LITER A TURE.

kind, which is embodied, not indeed in the Panchavin£a-
Brahmana, but in the Shadvins'a-Brahmana, and which is
described at full length by Latyayana. It is an imprecatory
ceremony (called syena, falcon); and this naturally sug-
gests the idea that the ceremonial of the Atharvan, which
i.s essentially based upon imprecations and magical expe-
dients,— as well as the songs of the Atharvan itself, — may
perhaps chiefly owe its cultivation to these western, non-
Brahmanical, Aryan tribes. The general name given to
these tribes by Latyayana (and with this Panini v. 2. 21
agrees) is Vratinas, and he further draws a distinction
between their yaudhas, warriors, and their arJiants,
teachers. Their antichdnas, i.e., those versed in Scripture,
a^re to be chosen priests for the above-mentioned sacrifice.
Sandilya limits this to the arliants alone, which latter
word — subsequently, as is well known, employed exclu-
sively as a Buddhistic title — is also used in the Brahmana
of the White Yajus, and in the Aranyaka of the Black
Yajus, to express a teacher in general. The turban and
garments of these priests should be red (lohita) according
to Shadvinsa and Latyayana ; and we find the same colour
assigned to the sacrificial robes of the priests of the Ra-
kshasas in Lanka, in the Ramayana, vi. 19. no, 51. 21 ;
with which may be compared the light red, yellowish red
(kashdjja) garments of the Buddhists (see for instance
Mrichnakat., pp. 112, 114, ed. Stenzler; M.-Bhar., xii. 566,
11898; Yajnav., i. 272), and the red (rakta) dress of the
Samkhyabhikshu * in the Laghujataka of Varaha-Mihira.
]Srow, that these western non-Bralimanical Vrtityas, Vrati-
nas, were put precisely upon a par with the eastern non-
Brahmanical, i.e., Buddhistic, teachers, appears from an
addition which is given by Latyayana to the description
of the Vratyastomas as found in the Paiichaviii^a- Brah-
mana. "We are there told that the converted Vratyas, i.e.,
those who have entered into the Brahman community,
must, in order to cut off all connection with their past,
hand over their wealth to those of their companions who
still abide by the old mode of life — thereby transferring to
these their own former impurity — or else, to a " Brahma-

* According to the commentary; or should this be $dkyabhiki>li u t
See I. St., ii. 287.

SUTRAS OF THE SAMAN. 79

bandhu Magadhadesiya." This latter expression is only
explicable if we assume that Buddhism, with its anti-
Brahmanical tendencies, was at the time flourishing in
Magadha; and the absence of any such allusion in the
Pafichavins'a-Brahmana is significant as to the time which
elapsed between this work and the Sutra of Latyayana.*

The first seven prapdthakas of the Latyayana-Sutra
comprise the rules common to all Soma sacrifices; the
eighth and part of the ninth book treat, on the contrary,
of the separate ekdhas ; the remainder of the ninth book,
of the ahinas ; arid the tenth, of the sattras. We have
an excellent commentary on it by Agnisvamin,76 who be-
longs probably to the same period as the other commen-
tators whose names terminate in svdmin, as Bhavasvamiu,
Bharatasvamin, Dhurtasvamin, Harisvamin, Khadirasva-
min, Meghasvamin, Skandasvamin, Kshirasvamin, &c. ;
their time, however, is as yet undetermined.77

The third Sama-Sutra, that of Drdliydyana, differs but
slightly from the Latyayana-Sutra. It belongs to the
school of the Eanayaniyas. We meet with the name of
these latter in the lianayaniputra of Latyayana; his
family is descended from Vasislitha, for which reason this
Sutra is also directly called Yds isht ha- Sutra. For the
name Drahyayana nothing analogous can be adduced.78
The difference between this Sutra and that of Latyayana

* In the Rik-Snmliitd, where the bitants regarding it as a means of

Kikatas — the ancient name of the recovering their old positkm though

people of Magadha — and their king under a new form.

Praniagamda are mentioned as hos- 76 We now possess in the Bibl.

tile, we have probably to think of Jndica (1870-72) an edition of the

the aborigines/ of the country, and Ldtydyana-Sutra, with Agnisvdmin's

not of hostile Aryas (?). Itfeeems not commentary, by Anandachandra

impossible that the native iuhabi- Vedsintavdgisa.

tints, being particularly vigorous, 77 We find quite a cluster of Brah-
retained more influence in Magadha man names in -svdmin in an inscrip-
than elsewhere, even after the coun- tion dated S<ika627 in Journal £om-
try had been brahmanised, — a pro- bay Branch 11. A. S., iii. 208 (1851),
cess which perhaps was never com- and in an undated inscription in
pletely effected ; — that they joined Journal Am. Or. Soc., vi. 589.
the community of the Bralmians as "8 It first occurs in the Vansa-
Kshatriyas, as happened elsewhere Brdhniana, whose first list of teach-
also ; and that this is how we have t-rs probably refers to this very
to account for the special sympathy school ; see /. St., iv. 378 : draha
and success which Buddhism met is said to be a Prakrit corruption of
with in Magadha, these native inlia- hrada ; see Hem. Prdkr., ii. 80, 120.

So VEDIC LITER A TURE.

is mainly confined tcr the different distribution of the
matter, which is on the whole identical, and even ex-
pressed in the same words. I have not yet met with a
complete codex of the whole work, but only with its begin-
ning and its end, in two different commentaries, the date
of which it is not yet possible to determine — the begin-
ning, namely, in Maghasvamin's commentary, remodelled
by Rudraskanda; the end in the excellent commentary of
Dhanvin.

The only knowledge I have of a Srauta-Siitra by Go-
bhila is derived from a notice of Roth's (op. c., pp. 55, 56),
according to which Krityachintamani is said to have com-
posed a commentary upon it.79

In a far more important degree than he differs from
Drahyayana does Latyayana differ, on the one hand, from
Katyayana, who in his Srauta-Siitra, belonging to the
White Yajus, treats in books 22-24 of the ekdhas, ahinas,
a,nd sattras; and f on the other, from the Rik-Siitras of
A^valayana and Sankhayana, which likewise deal with
these subjects in their proper place. In these there is no
longer any question of differences of opinion ; the stricter
view represented by Sandilya in the Latyayana-Sutra has
everywhere triumphed. The ceremonies on the Sarasvati
and the Vratyastomas have also become, in a local sense
too, further removed from actual life, as appears both from
the slight consideration with which they are treated, and
from modifications of names, &c., which show a forgetting
of the original form. Many of the ceremonies discussed
in the Sama-Sutras are, moreover, entirely wanting in the
Sutras of the other Vedas ; and those which are found in
the latter are enumerated in tabular fashion rather than
fully discussed — a difference which naturally originated
in the diversity of purpose, the subject of the Sutra of the
Yajus being the duties of the Adhvaryu, and that of the
Sutras of the Rik the duties of the Hotar.

A fourth Sama-Sutra is the Amqmda-Sutra, ill ten
prapdtlwkas, the work of an unknown author. It explains

79 The name ' Krityachintamani ' on a Srauta-Sutra of Gobhila re-

probably belongs to the work itself ; mains doubtful in the meantime,

compare /. St., i. 60, ii. 396 ; Auf- since such a work is not mentioned

recht, Catalof/tts, p. 365" ; but elsewhere,
whether it really was a commentary

SUTRAS OF THE SAMAN. 81

the obscure passages of the PafichavinSa-Brahmana, and,
it would appear, of the Shadvinsa-Brahmana also, accom-
panying the text step by step. It has not as yet been
closely examined ; but it promises to prove a rich mine of
material for the history of BrahmaniGiil theology, as it
makes mention of, and appeals to, an extremely large
number of different works. For example, of schools of
the Rik, it cites the.Aitareyins, the Paiiigins, the Kaushi-
taka ; of schools ^of the Yajus, the Adhvaryus in gene-
ral; further, the Satyayanins, Khadayariins, the^ Taittiri-
yas, the Kathaka, the Kalabavins, Bhallavins, Sambuvis,
Vajasaneyins; and frequently also sruti, smriti, dchdryas,
&c. It is a work which deserves to be very thoroughly
studied.80

While the above-named four Sutras of the Samaveda
specially attach themselves to the Panchavins'a-Brahmana,
the Sutras now to be mentioned stand out more indepen-
dently beside the latter, although of course, in part at
least, often referring to it. In the first place, we have to
mention the Niddna-Stitra, which contains in ten pra-
pdthakas metrical and other similar investigations on the
different ukthas, stomas, and gdnas. The name of the
author is not given. The word niddna, 'root,' is used
with reference to metre in the Brahmana of the White
Yajus;81 and though in the two instances where the
Naidanas are mentioned by Yaska, their activity appears
to have been directed less to the study of metre than to
that of roots, etymology, still the Nidanasamjnaka Grantha
is found cited in the Brihaddevata, 5. 5, either directly as
the Sruti of the Chhandogas, or at least as containing
their Sruti.* This Sutra is especially remarkable for the
great number of Vedic schools and teachers whose various
opinions it adduces ; and in this respect it stands on pretty
much the same level as the Anupada-Sutra. It differs
from it, however, by its particularly frequent quotation

80 Unfortunately we do not even or yo vd atrd 'ynir gdyatri sa nidd-
now know of more thau one MS. ; neiia).

see /. St., i. 43. * A'iddna, in the sense of 'cause,

81 This is wrong ; on the con- foundation,' is a favourite word in
trary, the word hae quite a general the Buddhistic Sutras ; see Burnouf ,
meaning in tiie passages in question Jntrod. (i V Hisloire du Buddhisnu
(e.g., in gdyutri rd eslid niddnena, Indicn, pp. 59, ff., 484, ff.

82 VEDIC LITERA TURE.

also of the views of the Saman theologians named by Latya-
yana and Drahyayana, viz., Dhanamjayya, Sandilya, $aii-
chivrikshi, &c. — a thing which seldom or never occurs
in the former. The animosity to the Kaushrtakis, with
which we have already become acquainted in the Pancha-
vins'a-Brahmana, is here again exhibited most vividly in
some words attributed to Dhanamjayya. With regard to
the Rigveda, the dasatayi division into ten maydalas is
mentioned, as in Yaska. The allusion to the Atharva-
nikas, as well as to the Anubrahmanins, is particularly to
be remarked ; the latter peculiar name is not met with
elsewhere, except in Panini. A special study of this
Siitra is also much to be desired, as it likewise promises
to open up a wealth of information regarding the condi-
tion of literature at that period.82

Not much information of this sort is to be expected
from the Pushpa-Sutra of Gobhila,* which has to be
named along with the Nidana-Sutra. The understanding
of this Sutra is, moreover, obstructed by many difficulties.
For not only does it cite the technical names of the
sdmans, as well as other words, in a very curtailed form,
it also mikes use of a number of grammatical and other
technical terms, which, although often agreeing with the
corresponding ones in the Prati^akhy a- Sutras, are yet also
often formed in quite a peculiar fashion, here and there,
indeed, quite after the algebraic type so favoured by
Panini. This is particularly the case in the first four
prapdthakas ; and it is precisely for these that, up to the
present time at least, no commentary has been found ;
whereas for the remaining six we possess a' very good
commentary by Upadhyaya Ajata^atru.t The work
treats of the modes in which the separate richas, by various
insertions, &c., are transformed into sdmans, or " made to
blossom," as it were, which is evidently the origin of the
name Pushpa- Sutra, or " Mower-Sutra." In addition to

82 See /. St., i. 44, ff. ; the first * So, ;xt least, the author is called

two patalas, which have special re- in the colophons of two chapters in

ference to metre, have been edited MS. Chambers 22O [Catalogue of

and translated by me in /. St., viii. the Berlin MSS., p. 76].

85-124. , For Anubrdhinanin, °na, •(• Composed for his pupil, Vi»li-

Kee also As>. Sr., ii. 8. II, and Schol. jmyasas.
en T. S., i. 8. i. i.

SUTRAS OF THE SAM AN. 83

the I'ravachana, i.e. (according to the commentary), Brah-
niana, of the Kalabavins and that of the Satyayanins, [
found, on a cursory inspection, mention also of the Kau-
thumas. This is the first time that their name appears in
a work connected with Vedic literature. Some portions
of the work, particularly in the last books, are composed
in Slokas, and we have, doubtless, to regard it as a com-
pilation of pieces belonging to different periods.83 In close
connection with it stands the Sdma-Tantra, composed in
the same manner, and equally unintelligible without a
commentary. It treats, in thirteen prap&thakas, of accent
and the accentuation of the separate verses. A commen-
tary on it is indeed extant, but at present only in a frag-
mentary form. At its close the work is denoted as the
vydkaraim, grammar, of the Saman theologians.84

Several other Siitras also treat of the conversion of
ricttas into sdtnans, &c. One of these, the J'anchavidhi-
Sutra (Pdnckavidhya, Panchavidheya), is only known to
me from quotations, according to which, as well as from
its name, it treats of the five different vidhis (modes) by
which this process is effected. Upon a second, the Prati-
hdra-Sutra, which is ascribed to Katyayana, a commentary
called Dasatayi was composed by Varadaraja, the above-
mencioned commentator of Masaka. It treats of the
aforesaid five vidhis, with particular regard to the one
called pratihdra. The Tanddlakshana - Sutra is only
known to me by name, as also the Upayrantha- Sutra*
both of which, with the two other works just named, are,
according to the catalogue, found in the Fort-William

83 In Deklian MSS. the work is tram,' by which he explains the
called P/tw^a-Sutra, and is ascribed vord ukthdrtha, which, according to
to Vararuchi, not to Gobhila ; see the MaMbhdshya, is at the fouuda-
ISurnell, Catalogue, pp. 45, 46. On tion of aukthiku, whose formation is
tliis and other points of difference, taught by Panini himself (iv. 2. 60);
see my paper, Uebcr das Saptatata- see /. St., xiii. 447. According to
knm dcs lldla (1870), pp. 258, 259. this it certainly seems very doubtful
I now possess a copy of the text and whether the Siiiaalakshana men-
commentary, but have nothing of tioned by Kaiyafa is to be identified
consequence to add to the above re- with the extant work bearing the
murks. same name.

8'1 See also Burnell, Catalogue, * Shadgurussishya, in the intro-

]>p. 40, 41. — Ibid , p. 44, we find a duction to his commentary on the

'Svaraparibhiislia, or Samalakshann,' Amikramani of the Ilik, dt-pcribes

unecified. Kaiyata also mentions a Kittyayana as ' upayranthasya ku-

pratisdklnjam ids- raku.'

84 VED1C LITERATURE.

collection of MSS. By the anonymous transcriber of the
Berlin MS. of the MaSaka-Sutra, who is of course a very
weak authority, ten Srauta-Siitras for the Samaveda are
enumerated at the close of the MS., viz., besides Latyayana,
Anupada, Nidana, Kalpa, Tandalaksliana, Panchavidheya,
and the Upagranthas, also the Kalp&nupada, Anustotra,
and the Kshudras. What is to be understood by the three
last names must for the present remain undecided.85

The Grihya-Sutra of the Samaveda belongs to Gobhila,
the same to whom we also found a Srauta-Sutra and the
Pushpa-Sutra ascribed.86 His name has a very unvedic
ring, and nothing in any way coresponding to it appears
in the rest of Vedic literature.87 In what relation this
work, drawn up in four prapdthaJcas, stands to the Grihya-
Siitras of the remaining Yedas has not yet been investi-
gated.88 A supplement (parisishfa) to it is the Karma-
pradipa of Katyayana. In its introductory words it ex-
pressly acknowledges itself to be such a supplement to
Gobhila ; but it has also been regarded both as a second
Grihya-Sutra and as a Smriti-Sastra. According to the
statement of A^drka, the commentator of this Karma-
pradipa, the Grihya-Sutra of Gobhila is authoritative for
both the schools of the Samaveda, the Kauthuinas as well
as the Iianayam'yas.* — Is the Kliddira-Grihya, which is
now and then mentioned, also to be classed with the
Samaveda ? 89

85 On the Paiichavidhi-Sdtra and drakanta Tarkitlamkdra, has been
the Kalpauupada, each in two pra- commenced in the J3ibl. Indica
2>i'ttltakas, and the Kshaudra, in (1871); the fourth fasciculus (1873)
three prapdthakas, see Muller, A. •$, reaches to ii. 8. 12. See the sections
L., p. 210; Aufrecht, Cataloytis, p. relating to nuptial ceremonies in
377b. Tho Upngrantha-Sutra treats Haas's paper, 7. St., v. 283, ff.

of expiations, prtiyadc/tittas, see ll;i- * Among the authors of the

jendra L. M., JVoticcs of Sanskrit Smriti-Sastras a Kntiinmi is also

MSS., ii. 182. mentioned.

86 To him is also ascribed a Nai- 89 Certainly. In Burnell's Cata-
peya-Sutra, "a description of the loyue, p. 56, the Drdhyttyana-Grihya-
Metres of the Samaveda," see Colin iSutra (in ionr patalas) is attributed
lirowiiing. Catalogue of Sanskrit to Kluldira. llndraskandasvdmin
MSS. cxistiiiff in 0"de (1873), P- 4- composed a vritti on this work

87 A list of teachers belonging to also (see p. 80) ; and Vamana is
the Golihila school is contained in named as the author of 'kdrikds to
the Van4a-Brahtnana. the Grihya-Siitras of Khadira,' Bur-

ts8 Au edition of the Golihila- nell, p. 57. To the Grihya-Siitras
Grihya-Siitra, with a very diffuse of the S.imaveda probably belong
commentary by the editor, Chan- also Gautama's Pitfimcdlta- S&tra

YAJURVEDA. 85

As representative of the last stage of the literature of
the Samaveda, we may specify, on the one hand, the
various Paddhatis (outlines) and commentaries, &c., which
connect themselves with the Sutras, and serve as an ex-
planation and further development of them ; and, on the
other, that peculiar class of short treatises bearing the
name of Parisishtas, which are of a somewhat more inde-
pendent character than the former, and are to be looked
upon more as supplements to the Sutras. * Among these,
the already mentioned Arsha and Daivata — enumerations
of the Risiiis and deities — of the Samhita in the Naigeya-
Sakha deserve prominent notice. Both of these treatises
refer throughout to a comparatively ancient tradition ;
for example, to the Nairuktas, headed by Yaska and Saka-
puni, to the Naighantukas, to Saunaka (i.e., probably to
his Anukramani of the Rik), to their ^own Brahmana, to
Aitareya and t he Aitareyins, to the Satapathikas, to the
Pravachana Kathaka, and to As*valayana. The Ddlbhya-
Parisishta ought probably also to be mentioned here; it
bears the name of an individual who appears several times
in the Chhandogyopanishad, but particularly often in the
I'unlnas, as one of the sages who conduct the dialogue.

The Yajurvcda, to which we now turn, is distinguished
above the other Vedas by the great number of different
schools which belong to it. This is at once a consequence
and a proof of the fact that it became pre-eminently the
subject of study, inasmuch as it contains the formulas for
the entire sacrificial ceremonial, and indeed forms its

(cf. Burnell, p. 57 ; the commeuta- inry on the Grihya-Sutra of the
tor AnantayH j van identifies the an- White Yujus, several times ascribes
thor with Akshapddfl, the author of their authorship to a Kdtyiiyaiui
the Ny.iya Stitra), and the Gautama- (India Office Library, No. 440, fol.
Dharma-Siitra; see the section treat- 52% 56*, 58% &c.) ; or do these quo-
ing of the legal literature. tations only refer to the ubovo-
* ltdmakrishna, iu his cominen- uamed Karniapradi1>a?

86 VEDIC LITERA TURF.

proper foundation; whilst the Rigveda prominently, and
the Samaveda exclusively, devote themselves to a part of
it only, viz., to the Soma sacrifice. The Yajurveda divides
itself, in the first place, into two parts, the Black and the
White Yajus. These, upon the whole, indeed, have their
matter in common ; but they differ fundamentally from
each other as regards its arrangement. In the Samhita of
the Black Yajus the sacrificial formulas are for the most
part immediately followed by their dogmatic explanation,
&c., and by an account of the ceremonial belonging to
them ; the portion bearing the name of Brahmana differing
only in point of time from this Samhita, to which it must
be viewed as a supplement. In the White Yajus, on the
contrary, the sacrificial formulas, and their explanation
and ritual, are entirely separated from one another, the
first being assigned to the Samhita, and their explanation
and ritual to the Brahmana, as is also the case in the Rig-
veda and the Samaveda. A further difference apparently
consists in the fact that in the Black Yajus very great
attention is paid to the Hotar and his duties, which in the
White Yajus is of rare occurrence. By the nature of the
case in such matters, what is undigested is to be regarded as
the commencement, as the earlier stage, and what exhibits
method as the later stage ; and this view will be found to
be correct in the present instance. As each Yajus pos-
sesses an entirely independent literature, we must deal
with eacli separately.

First, of the Black Yajus. The data thus far known to
us concerning it open up such extensive literary perspec-
tives, but withal in such a meagre way, that investigation
lias, up to the present time, been less able to attain to
approximately satisfactory results* than in any other field.
In the first place, the name "Black Yajus" belongs only
to a later period, and probably arose in contradistinction
to that of the White Yajus. AVhile the theologians of the
Rik are called Bahvrichas, and those of the Saman Chhan-
dogas, the old name for the theologians of the Yajus is
Adhvaryus ; and, indeed, these three names are already so

* See J. St., 5. 68, ff. [All the been published ; aee the ensuing
texts, with the exception of the notes.]
Sutras relating to ritual, have now

THE BLACK YAJUS. 87

employed in the Samhita of the Black Yajus and the
Brahinana of the White Yajus. In the latter work the
designation Adhvaryus is applied to its own adherents,
and the Charakadhvaryus are denoted and censured as
their adversaries — an enmity which is also apparent in a
passage of the Samhita of the White Yajus, where the
Charakacharya, as one of the persons to be dedicated at
the Purushamedha, is devoted to Dushkrita, or "111 deed."
This is all the more strange, as the term charaJca is other-
wise always used in a good sense, for " travelling scholar ; "
as is also the root char, " to wander about for instruction."
The explanation probably consists simply in the fact that
the name Charakas is also, on the other hand, applied to
one of the principal schools of the Black Yajus, whence
we have to assume that there was a direct enmity between
these and the adherents of the White Yajus who arose in
opposition to them — a hostility similarly manifested in
other cases of the kind. A second name for the Black
Yajus is " Taittiiiya," of which no earlier appearance can
be traced than that in its own Prati^akhya-Siitra, and in
the Sama-Sutras. Panini * connects this name with a
Rishi called Tittiri, and so does the Anukramani to the
JLtreya school, which we shall have frequent occasion to
mention in the sequel. Later legends, on the contrary,
refer it to the transformation of the pupils of Vais"ampa-
yana into partridges (tittiri), in order to pick up the yajus-
verses disgorged by one of their companions who was
wroth with his teacher. However absurd this legend may
be, a certain amount of sense yet lurks beneath its sur-
face. The Black Yajus is, in fact, a motley, undigested
jumble of different pieces ; and I am myself more inclined
to derive the name Taittiriya from the variegated par-
tridge (tittiri) than from the Rishi Tittiri ; just as another
name of one of the principal schools of the Black Yajus,
that of the Khandikiyas, probably owes its formation to

* The rule referred to (iv. 3. IO2) however, is several times mentioned

is, according to the statement of in the Bbdshya, see /. St., xiii. 442,

the Calcutta scholiast, not explained which is also acquainted with ' Tit-

in Patamjali's Bhdshya ; possibly, tirind proktdh slokdh,' not belonging

therefore, it may not be Pdnini's at to the Chhandas, see /. St., v. 41 ;

all, but may be later than Patam- Goldstiicker, Panini, p. 243.]
jali. [The name Taittiiiya itself,

88 VEDIC LITER A TURE.

this very fact of the Black Yajus being made up of
khandas, fragments, although Panini,* as in the case of
Taittiriya, traces it to a Rishi of the name of Khandika,
and although \ve do really meet \vith a Khandika (Aud-
bhari) in the Brahmana of the White Yajus (xi. 8. 4. i).

Of the many schools which are allotted to the Black
Yajus, all probably did not extend to Samhita and Brah-
mana ; some probably embraced the Sutras only.f Thus
far, at least, only three different recensions of the Samhita
are directly known to us, two of them in the text itself,
the third merely from an Anukramani of the text. The
two first are the Taittiriya- Samhita, Kar egoxyv so called,
which is ascribed to the school of Apastamba, a subdivision
of the Khandikiyas ; and the Kathaka, which belongs to
the school of the Charakas, and that particular subdivision
of it which bears the name of Charayam'yas.J The Sam-
hita, &c., of the Atreya school, a subdivision of the Au-
khiyas, is only known to us by its Anukramani ; it agrees
in essentials with that of Apastamba. This is not the
case with the Kathaka, which stands on a more indepen-
dent footing, arid occupies a kind of intermediate position
between the Black and the White Yajus, agreeing fre-
quently with the latter as to the readings, and with the
former in the arrangement of the matter. The Kathaka,
together with the Hdridramka — a lost work, which, how-
ever, likewise certainly belonged to the Black Yajus, viz.,
to the school of the Haridraviyas, a subdivision of the
Maitrayaniyas — is the only work of the Brahmana order
mentioned by name in Yaska's Nirukta. Panini, too,
makes direct reference to it in a rule, and it is further
alluded to in the Amrpada-Siitra and Brihaddevata. The
name of the Kathas does not appear in other Vedic
writings, nor does that of ApastambaJ

* Tbe rule is the same as that for |hala-Kathas ; the epithet of these

Tittiri. The remark in the previous last is found in Pdnini (viii. 3. 91),

note, therefore, applies here also. and Megasthenes mentions the

f As is likewise the case with the KayU/3t'<j0oAo( ns a people in the Pan-
other Vedas. j;il>- — In the Fort-William Catalogue

£ Besides the text, we have also a Kapishthala-Saiphitd is mentioned

a Rishyanukramani for it. [.-ee I, £t., xiii. 375, 439. — At the

§ In later writings several Kathas time of tlie MahSbliasliya the posi-

are distinguished, the Katlias, the tion of the Kathas must have been

Piich^a-Ka^has, and the Kapish- one of great consideration, since

SAMHITAS OF THE BLACK YAJUS. 89

The Samhita of the Apastamba school consists of seven
books (called ashtakas /) ; these again are divided into 44
prasnas,6^i anuvdkas, and 2198 kandikds,ih.Q latter being
separated from one another on the principle of an equal
number of syllables to each.90 Nothing definite can be ascer-
tained as to the extent of the Atreya recension ; it is like-
wise divided into kdndas, prasnas, and anuvdkas, the first
words of which coincide, mostly with those of the corre-
sponding sections of the Apastamba school. The Kathaka
is quite differently divided, and consists of five parts, of
which the three first are in their turn divided into forty
sthdnakas, and a multitude of small sections (also pro-
bably separated according to the number of words); while
the fourth merely specifies the richas to be sung by the
Hotar, and the fifth contains the formulas belonging to the
horse- sacrifice. In the colophons to the three first parts,
the Charaka-Sakha is called Ithimikd, Madhyamikd, and
Orimikd, respectively: the first and last of these three
appellations are still unexplained.91 The Brahrnana por-
tion in these works is extremely meagre as regards the
ritual, and gives but an imperfect picture of it ; it is, how-
ever, peculiarly rich in legends of a mythological cha-
racter. The sacrificial formulas themselves are on the
whole the same as those contained in the Samhita of the
White Yajus; but the order is different, although the

they — and their texi^ the Kdthaka constitutes the norm ; fifty words,

. — are repeatedly mentioned ; see as a rule, form a kandikd;see I. St.,

I. St., xiii. 437, ff. The founder of xi. 13, xii. 90, xiii. 97-99. —Instead

their school, Katha, appears in the of astttaka, we find also the more

Mahabhashya as Vais'ampa'yana's correct name kdnda, and instead of

pupil, and the Kathas themselves prasna, which is peculiar to the

appear in close connection with the Taitt.iriya texts, the generally em-

Kalapas and Kauthumas, both ployed term, prapdthaka; see I. St.,

schools of the Sdman. In the Rdrna"- xi. 13, 124.— The Taitt. Brdhm. and

yana, too, the Katha-Kdliipas are the Taitt. Ar., are also subdivided

mentioned as being much esteemed into kandikds, and these 9 gain into

in Ayodhyd, (ii. 32. 18, Schlegel). very small sections; but the priuci-

Haradatta's statement, " Bakvfichd- pie of these divisions has not yet

nciir.apya.8ti Kathaidkhd'' (K\\attoj\'s been clearly ascertained.

Siddh. Kauni. ed. Tara'ua'tha (1865), 91 Ithimikii is to be derived from

vol. ii. p. 524, on ran., vii. 4. 38), Jietthima, (from liettho, i.e., adhasfdl),

probably rests upon some misunder- and Orimikd from urarima (from

etanding ; see 7. St , xiii. 438.] vpari) • see my paper, Ueber dieBha-

w It is not the number of sylla- yai'ati dir Jaina, i. 404, n.
bles, but the number of words, that

90 VEDIC LITERATURE.

order of the ceremonial to which they belong is pretty
much the same. There are also many discrepancies with
regard to the words; we may instance, in particular, the
expansion of the semi-vowels v and y after a consonant
into uv and iij, which is peculiar to the Apastamba
school.92 As to data, geographical or historical, &c. (here,
of course, I can only speak of the Apastamba school and
the Kathaka), in consequence of the identity of matter
these are essentially the same as those which meet us in
the Samhita of the White Yajus. ( In the latter, however,
they are more numerous, formulas being also found here
for ceremonies which are not known in the former — the
purushamedha, for instance.) Now these data — to which
we must add some other scattered allusions* in the por-
tions bearing the character of a Brahmana — carry us back,
as we shall see, to the flourishing epoch of the kingdom of
the Kuru-Panchalas,93 in which district we must there-
fore recognise the place of origin of both works. Whether
this also holds good of their final redaction is another
question, the answer to which, as far as the Apastamba-
Samhita is concerned, naturally depends upon the amount
of influence in its arrangement to be ascribed to Apa-
stamba, whose name it bears. The Kathaku, according to
what has been stated above, appears to have existed as an
entirely finished work even in Yaska's time, since he
quotes it ; the Anukramani of the Atreya school, on the
contrary, makes Yaska I'aingi94 (as the pupil of Vais*am-
payana) the teacher of Tittiri, the latter again the in-

'- For further particulars, see [This remains correct, though the

/, Ft., xiii. 104-106. position of the case itself is some-

* Amongst them, for example, what different ; see the notes above,

the enumeration of the whole of the p. 2 and p. 30. In connection "with

lunar asterisms in the Apastamba- the enumeration of the Nakshatras,

S-.imhitit, where they appear in an compare especially my essay, Die

order deviating from that of the vedischen Nachric/iten von den Na-

later series, which, as I have pointed ish'ttra, ii. 299, ff.]
out above (p. 30), must necessarily 93 Of peculiar interestis the men-

liave been fixed between 1472 and tion of Dhritantshtra Vaichitravirya,

536 B.C. But all that follows from as also of the contests between the

this, in regard to the passage in Panclialas and the Kuntis in the

question, is that it is not earlier Kathaka; see 7. St., iii. 469-472.
than 1472 B.C., which is a matter of !ii Bhatta BMskara Misra, on the ,

course; it nowise follows that it contrary, gives Yitjnavalka instead

may not be later than 53') B.C. So of Pairigi ; see Btiruell'a Catalogue,

we obtain nothing definite here. p. 14.

SAMH1TAS OF THE BLACK YAJUS. 91

structor of Ukha, and Ukha the preceptor of Atreya.*
This at least clearly exhibits its author's view of the
priority of Yaska to the schools and redactions of the
Black Yajus bearing the names of Tittiii and Atreya. ;
although the data necessary to prove the correctness of
this view aie wanting. Thar, however, some sort of influ-
ence in the arrangement of the Samhita of the Black Yajus
is certainly to be attributed to Yaska, is evident further
from the fact that Bhatta Bhaskara, Misra, in an extant
fragment of his commentary on the Apastamba-Samhita.f
quotes, side by side with the views of Kasakritsna and
Ekachiirni regarding a division of the text, the opinion of
Yaska also.

Along with the Kathaka, the Mdnara and the Maitra
are very frequently quoted in the commentaries on the
Kati'ya-Sutra of the White Yajus. We do not, it is true,
find these names in the Sutras or similar works ; but at all
events they are meant for works resembling the Kathaka,
as is shown by the quotations themselves, which are often
of considerable length. Indeed, we also find, although only
in later writings, the Maitrayaniyas, and, as a subdivision
of these, the Manavas, mentioned as schools of the Black
Yajus. Possibly these works may still be in existence in
India.!

* Atreya \vas the padakdra of his with Sayana's completecommentary,

school; Kundina, on the contrary, was commenced by Roer (1854), con-

the vrittikdra. The meaning of tinued by Cowell and Rdma NaVd-

vritti is here obscure, as it is also in yana, and is now in the hands of

Schol. to Pan., iv. 3. 108 (mddhuri Mahesachandra Ny.iyaratna (the last

vrittilf) [see 1. St., xiii. 3-Sl]. part, No. 28, 1874, reaches to iv.

t We have, besides, a commen- 3. 1 1) ; the complete text, in Roman

tary by Sayana, though it is only transcript, has been published by

fragmentary; another is ascribed to myself in 7. St., xi., xii. (1871-72).

a Bdlakrishna. [In Burnell's Col- On the Kiithaka, see 1. St., iii. 451-

lection of MSS., see his Catalogue, 479.]

pp. 12-14, is found the greater por- £ According to the Fort-William

tion of Bhatta Kanaka Ehaskaia Catalogue, the ' Maitrayani-Sa'khd '

MisVa's commentary, under the name is in existence there. [Other MSS.

Jndnayajna ; the author is said to have since been found ; see Haug in

have lived 400 years before Sayana ; I. St., ix. 175, and his essay Brahma

he quotes amongst others Bhavasvd- vnd die Jlrahmanen, pp. 31-34

mil), and &eems to stand in special (1871), and Biihler's detailed survey

connection with the Atreyi school, of the works composing this Sdklut

A Paisdchablidshya on the Black in I. St., xiii. 103, 117-128. Accord-

Yajus is alsc mentioned ; see 7. St., ing to this, the Maitr. Sainhitd con-

ix. 176. — An edition of the Tail- sists at present of five kdndas, two

tiriyu-Samhitii in the Bill. Indica, of which, however, are hut later ad-

92 VEDIC LITER A TURE.

Besides the Samhita so called, there is a Brahmana
recognised by the school of Apastamba, and also by that
of Atreya,* which, however, as I have already remarked,
ditiers from the Samhita, not as to the nature of its con-
tents, but only in point of time ; it is, in fact, to be regarded
merely as a supplement to it. It either reproduces the
formulas contained in the Samhita, and connects them
with their proper ritual, or it develops further the litur-
gical rules already given there ; or again, it adds to these
entirely new rules, as, for instance, those concerning the
purusliamedha, which is altogether wanting in the Sam-
hita, and those referring to the sacrifices to the lunar
asterisms. Only the third and last book, in twelve prapd-
tliakas, together with Sayana's commentary, is at present
known.95 The three last prapdthakas, which contain four
different sections, relating to the manner of preparing cer-
tain peculiarly sacred sacrificial fires, are ascribed in the
Anukramani of the Atreya school (and this is also con-
firmed by Sayana in another place) to the sage Katha.
Two other sections also belong to it, which, it seems,, are
only found in the Atreya school, and not in that of Apa-
stamba; and also, lastly, the two first books of the Tait-
tin'ya-Aranyaka, to be mentioned presently. Together
these eight sections evidently form a supplement to the
Ivathaka above discussed ; they do not, however, appear
to exist as an independent work, but only in connection
with the Brahmana and Aranyaka of the Apastamba-
(and Atreya-) schools, from which, for the rest, they can
be externally distinguished easily enough by the absence of
the expansion of v and y into uv and iy. The legend
quoted towards the end of the second of these sections
(prap. xi. 8), us to the visit of Nachiketas, to the lower

BRAHMAN AS OF THE BLACK YAJUS. 03

world, gave rise to an Upanishad of the Atharvau which
bears the name of Kathakopanishad. Now, between thio
supplement to the Kathaka and the Kathaka itself a con-
siderable space of time must have elapsed, as follows from
the allusions made in the last sections to Maha-Meru,
Krauncha, Mainaga; to Vaisampayana, Vyasa Paras'arya,
&c. ; as well as from the literature therein presupposed as
existing, the ' Atharvaiigirasas,' Brahmanas, Itihasas, Pura-
nas, Kalpas, Gathas, and Nara^ansis being enumerated as
subjects of study (svddhydya). Further, the last but one
of these sections/ is ascribed to another author, viz., to the
Arunas, or to Aruna, whom, the scholiast on Panini90
speaks of as a pupil of Vaisampayana, a statement with
which its mention of the latter as an authority tallies
excellently ; this section is perhaps therefore only errone-
ously assigned to the school of the Kathas. — The Tait-
tiriya-Aranydka, at the head of which that section stands
(as already remarked), and which belongs both to the
Apastamba and Atreya schools, must at all events be
regarded as only a later supplement to their Brahmana,
and belongs, like most of the Aranyakas, to the extreme
end of the Vedic period. It consists of ten books, the
first six of which are of a liturgical character : the first
and third books relate to the manner of preparing certain
sacred sacrificial fires ; the second to preparatives to the
study of Scripture; and the fourth, fifth, and sixth to
purificatory sacrifices and those to the Manes, correspond-
ing to the last books of the Samhita of the White Yajus.
The last four books of the Aranyaka, on the contrary,
contain two Upanishads; viz., the seventh, eighth, and
ninth books, the Taittiriyopanishad, tear egoxyv so called,
and the tenth, the Ydjniki- or Ndrdyaniyd-Upanisliad.
The former, or Taittiriyopanishad, is in three parts. The
first is the Samhitopamthad, or Sikslidvalli* which begins
with a short grammatical disquisition,97 and then turns to

IJG Kaiyata on P;in., iv. 2. 104 * Valli means 'a creeper;' it ia
(Mahabluisliya, fol. 73*, ed. Benares) ; perhaps meant to describe these U pa-
he calls him, however, Aruni in- nishads as ' creepers,' which have
etead of Aruna, and Derives from nttached themselves to the Veda-
him the school of the Anmins (cited Sakha.

in theBhashya, ibid.); the Arimis are 87 See above, p. 6l; Miiller, A.S. L.,

cited in the Kathaka itself; see p. 113, ff. ; Haug, Ucbcr dot Wescn

I. St., iii. 475. dcs vcditchen Accents, p. 54.

VEDIC LITERATURE.

the question of the unity of the world-spirit. The second
and third are the Anandavalli and BhriguvalU, which
together also go by the name of Vdruni-Upaniskad, and
treat of the bliss of entire absorption in meditation upon
the Supreme Spirit, and its identity with the individual
soul.* If in these we have already a thoroughly systematised
form of speculation, we are carried even further in one
portion of the Yajniki-Upanishad, where we have to do
with a kind of sectarian worship of Narayana : the remain-
ing part contains ritual supplements. Now, interesting as
this whole Aranyaka is from its motley contents and evi-
dent piecing together of collected fragments of all sorts,
it is from another point of view also of special importance
for us, from the fact that its tenth book is actually extant
in a double recension, viz., in a text which, according to
Say ana's statements, belongs to the Dravidas, and in an-
other, bearing the name of the Andhras, both names of
peoples in the south-west of India. Besides these two
texts, Sayana also mentions a recension belonging to the
Karnatakas, and another whose name he does not give.
Lastly, this tenth bookt exists also as an Atharvopa-
nishad, and here again with many variations ; so that there
is here opened up to criticism an ample field for researches
and conjectures. Such, certainly, have not been wanting
in Indian literary history ; it is seldom, however, that the
facts lie so ready to hand as we have them in this case,
and this we owe to Sayana' s commentary, which is here
really excellent.

When we look about us for the other Brahmanas of the
Black Yajus, we find, in the first place, among the schools

* See a translation, &c., of the vii.-ix., see the previous note), in

Tnitt. Upanishad in I. tit., ii. 207- Mil. Ind. (1864-72), by IMjendra

255. It has been edited, with S;irn- Lala Mitra ; the text is the DnivitU

kura's commentary, by lloer in Jiibl. text commented upon by Sayana, in

Indica, vol. vii. [; the text alone, as sixty-four anurdkfit, the various

a portion of the Taitt. Ar., by llajeii- readings of the Andhra text (in

dra L,ila Mitra also, see next note, eighty annrdkas) being also added.

Uoer's translation appeared in vol. Jn Burnell's collection there is also

xv. of the Bibliotheca Indica]. a commentary on the Taitt. Ar., by

t See a partial translation of it in Bhntta Biutskara Misra, which, like

/. £l. ,ii. 78-100. [It is published that on the Sarnhita, is entitled

in the. complete edition of the Jniinayajna ; see Biirnell'8 Cata-

Taitt. Aranyaka, with Sayana's com- loyue, pp. 16, 17.]
mentary thereon (excepting books

BRAHMANAS OF THE BLACK YAJUS. 35

fcited in the Sama-Sutras two which must probably be
considered as belonging to the Black Yajus, viz., the Bhdi-
lavins and the Sdfydyanins. The Brahmana of the BMl-
lavins is quoted by the scholiast on Panini, probably fol-
lowing the Mahabhashya,93 as one of the ' old ' Brahmanas :
we find it mentioned in the Brihaddevata; SuresVaracharya
also, and even Sayana himself, quote passages from the
Bhallavi^ruti. A passage supposed to be borrowed from
the Bhallavi-Upanishad is adduced by the sect of the
Madhavas in support of the correctness of their (Dvaita)
belief (As. Res., xvi. 104). That the Bhallavins belong to
the Black Yajus is, however, still uncertain ; I only con-
clude so at present from the fact that Bhallaveya is the
name of a teacher specially attacked and censured in the
Brahmana of the White Yajus. As to the £d(ydyanins,
whose Brahmana is also reckoned among the ' old ' ones by
the scholiast on Panini," and is frequently quoted, espe-
cially by Sayana, it is pretty certain that they belong to
the Black Yajus, as it is so stated in the Charanavyiiha, a
modern index of the different schools of the Vedas, and,
moreover, a teacher named Satyayani is twice mentioned
in the Brahmana of the White Yajus. The special regard
paid to them in the Sama-Sutras, and which, to judge
from the quotations, they themselves paid to the Saman, is
probably to be explained by the peculiar connection (itself
still obscure) which we find elsewhere also between the
schools of the Black Yajus and those of the Saman.100 Thus,
the Kathas are mentioned along with the Saman schools

•s This is not so, for in the Bhd- tbority in this case either, for it does

sliya to the particular sMra of Pdn. not mention the Sdtydyanins in it.i

(iv. 3. 105), the Blidllavins are not comment on the st'iira in question

mentioned. They are, however, (iv. 3. 105). But Kaiyata cites the

mentioned elsewhere in the work, at Brdhmanas proclaimed by Sdtyd-

iv. 2. 104 (here Kaiya^a derives them yaua, &c., as contemporaneous with

from a teacher Bhallu : Bhallund the Ydjnaralkdni Brdhmandni and

proktam adltiyatt) ; us a Bhdllavei/o Sanlablidni Kr., which ;ire mentioned

Matsyo rdjaputrah is cited in the in the M ahdbhdshya (see, however,

Anupada, vi. 5, their home may /. St., v. 67, 68) ; and the Mahdbha-

liave been in the country of the shya itself citestheSdtydyaninsalong

Matsyas ; see 7. St., xiii. 441, 442. with the Bhdllavins (On iv. 2. 104) ;

At the time of the Bhdshika-Sutra they belonged, it would seem, to the

their Brdhmana text was still accen- uorth ; see 7. St., xiii. 442.
tuated, in the same way as the Sata- 10° See on this /. St., iii. 473, xiii

patha ; see Kielhorn, /. St , x. 421. 439.

afl The Mahdbhdshya is not his au-

^6 VEDIC LIT ERA TURE.

of the Kalapas and Kauthumas; and along with the latter
the Laukakshas also. As to the Sakayanins,* Sayakayani ns,
Kalabavins, and Salankayanins,101 with whom, as with the
Satyayanins, we are only acquainted through quotations,
it is altogether uncertain whether they belong to the Black
Yajus or not;. The Chhagalins, whose name seems to be
borne by a tolerably ancient Upanishad in Anquetil's
Oupneklu.it, are stated in the Charanavvuha 102 to form a
school of the Black Yajus (according to Panini, iv. 3. 109,
they are called Chhagaleyins) : the same is there said of
the Svetd&vataras. The latter gave their name to an
Upanishad composed in a metrical form, and called at its
close the work of a SvetasVatara : in which the Samkhya
doctrine of the two primeval principles is mixed up with
the Yoga doctrine of one Lord, a strange misuse being
here made of wholly irrelevant passages of the Samhita,
&c., of the Yajus; and upon this rests its sole claim to be
connected witli the latter. Kapila, the originator of the
Samkhya system, appears in it raised to divine dignity
itself, and it evidently belongs to a very late period ; for
though several passages from it are quoted in the Brahma-
Sutra of Badarayana (from which its priority to the latter
at least would appear to follow), they may just as well
have been borrowed from the common source, the Yajus.
It is, at all events, a good deal older than Samkara, since
he regarded it as Sruti, and commented upon it. It has
recently been published, together with this commentary,* by
Dr. lioer, in the Bibliothcca Inclica, vol. vii. ; see also Ind.
Stud., i. 420, ff. — The Maitrdijana Upanishad at least bears
a more ancient name, and might perhaps be connected

* They are mentioned in the tion to this extent, that the Chara-

tenth book of the Bnihrnana of the navyuha does not know the name

White Yajus [see also Kathaka 22. Chhagalin at all (which is mentioned

7, 7. St., iii. 472] ; as is also Sityakii- by Panini alone), but speaks only of

ya.ua. Chhageyas or Chhdgaleyas ; see /.

101 The Sdlankdyanas are ranked as St., iii. 258 ; Muller, A . S. L., p. 370.

Bnlhmanas ainonsr the Vilhikas iti On Anquetil's ' Tschakli ' Upanishad

the Calcutta scholium to Pan. v. 3. see now 7. St., ix. 42-46.

114 (bhdshycna vydkhytHam}. Vyd- * Distinguished by a great num.

na's mother, Satyavati, is called ber of sometimes tolerably long

Sulankilyanaja, and Pa"nini himself quotations from the Punlnas, &c.

Sdlafiki ; see 7. St., xiii. 375, 395, [Roer's translation was published iu

428, 429. the B'M. hid., vol. xv.]

iiw 'i'^ja statement needs correc-

BRAHMANAS OF THE BLACK YAJUS. 97

with the above-mentioned Maitra (Brahmana). Its text,
however, both in language and contents, shows that, corn-
pared with the latter, it is of a very modern date. At pre-
sent, unfortunately, I have at my command only the four
first prapdlhakas, and these in a very incorrect form,* —
whereas in Anquetil's translation, the Upanishad consists
of twenty chapters, — yet even these are sufficient clearly
to determine the character of the work. King Brihadra-
tha, who, penetrated by the nothingness of earthly things,
resigned the sovereignty into the hands of his son, and
devoted himself to contemplation, is there instructed by
Sakayanya (see gana 'Kunja^') upon the relation of the
dtman (soul) to the world; Sakayanya communicates to
him what Maitreya had said upon this subject, who in his
turn had only repeated the instruction given to the Bala-
khilyas by Prajapati himself. The doctrine in question is
thus derived at third hand only, and we have to recognise
in this tradition a consciousness of the late origin of this
form of it. This late origin manifests itself externally
also in the fact that corresponding passages from other
sources are quoted with exceeding frequency in support of
the doctrine, introduced by " athd 'nyatrd 'py uJctam," " etad
apy uldani" " atre 'me £lokd bhavanti," " atlia yatlie 'yam
Kautsdyanastutih" The ideas themselves are quite upon
a level with those of the fully developed Samkhya doc-
trine,t and the language is completely marked off from the

* I obtained them quite recently, to the commentary, on the one

in transcript, through the kindness hand, the two last books are to be

of Baron d'Eckstein, of Paris, to- considered as khilas, and on the

gether with tlie tenth adhydya of a other, the whole Upanishad belongs

metrical paraphrase, called Anabhu- to a purvakdnda, in four books, of

liprakdsa, of this Upauishad, extend- ritual purport, by which most likely

ing, in 150 slokas, over these four is meant the Maitrdyani-Samhita

prapdthakns. The latter is copied discussed by Biihler (see 1. St., xiii.

from E. I. H., 693, and is probably 119, ff.), in which the Upanishad is

identical with the work of Vidyii- quoted as the second (!) kdnda ; see

ranya often mentioned by Cole- I. c., p. 121. The transcript sent me

brooke. [It is really so ; and this by Eckstein shows manifold devia-

portion has since been published, tions from the other text ; its ori-

together with the Upanishad in full, ginai has unfortunately not been

by Cowell, in his edition of the discovered yet.]

Maitr. Upanishad, in seven prapA- f Brahman, Rudra, and Vishnu

thakas, with Rdmatirtha's comtnen- represent respectively the Sattva,

tary and an English translation, in the Tamas, and the liajas eleuieuK.

the Bill. Ind. (1862-70). According of Praj;ipati.

98 VEDIC LITERATURE,

prose of the Brahmanas, both by extremely long com-
pounds, and by words entirely foreign to these, and only
belonging to the epic period (such as sura, yakslia, uraga,
IMUagana, &c.). The mention also of the grahas, planets,
arid of the motion of the polar star (dhruvasya pracha-
lanam), supposes a period considerably posterior to the
Brahmana.103 The zodiacal signs are even mentioned in
Anquetil's translation; the text to which I have access
does not unfortunately extend so far.104 That among the
princes enumerated in the introduction as having met
their downfall, notwithstanding all their greatness, not one
name occurs belonging to the narrower legend of the
Maha-Bharata or Ivamayana, is no doubt simply owing to
the circumstance that Brihadratha is regarded as the pre-
decessor of the Pandus. For we have probably to identify
him with the Brihadratha, king of Magadha, who accord-
ing to the Maha-Bharata (ii. 756) gave up the sovereignty
to his son Jarasamdha, afterwards slain by the Pandus,
and retired to the wood of penance. I cannot forbear con-
necting with the instruction here stated to have been given
to a king of Magadha by a Sdkdyanya the fact that it
was precisely in Magadha that Buddhism, the doctrine of
Sdkyamuni, found a welcome. I would even go so far as
directly to conjecture that we have here a Brahmanical
legend about Sakyaimmi; whereas otherwise legends of
this kind reach us only through the adherents of the Bud-
dhist doctrine. Maitreya, it is well known, is, with the
Buddhists, the name of the future Buddha, yet in their
legends the name is also often directly connected with
their Sakyamuni ; a Purna Maitrayaniputra, too, is given
to the latter as a pupil. Indeed, as far as we can judge at

1 1;! According to Cowell (p. 244), journeys (vi. 14; Cowell, pp. 119,
by r/ralia we have here to under- 266) ; see ou this I. St., ix. 363.
(stand, once at least (i. 4), not thu u'4 The text has nothing of this
planets but lidlayrahas (children's (vii. i, p. 198); but special mention
diseases); " Dhruvasya praclialanam is here made of Saturn, iani (p.
probably only refers to a pralaya ; 201), and where &ukra occurs (p.
then even ' the never-ranging pole 200), we might perhaps think of
star* is forced to move." In a, Venus. This last adliydya through-
second passage, however (vi. 16, p. out clearly betrays its later origin ;
124), the grahas appear along with of special interest is the bitter pole-
the moon and the rikshas. Very rnic against heretics and unbelievers
peculiar, too, is the statement as to (p. 206).
thu stellar limits of the sun's two

SUTRAS OF THE BLACK YAJUS. 99

present, the doctrine' of this Upanishad stands in close
connection with the opinions of the Buddhists,105 although
from its Brahmanical origin it is naturally altogether free
from the dogma and mythology peculiar to Buddhism.
We may here also notice, especially, the contempt for
writing (grantlia) exhibited in one of the Mokas* quoted
in corroboration.

Neither the Chhagalins, nor the SvetasVataras, nor the
Maitrayaniyas are mentioned in the Sutras of the other
Vedas, or in similar works, as schools of the Black Yajus ;
still, we must certainly ascribe to the last mentioned a
very active share in its development, and the names
Maitreya and Maitreyi at least are not uufrequently
quoted in the Brahmanas.

In the case of the Sutras, too, belonging to the Black
Yajus, the large number of different schools is very
striking. Although, as in the case of the Brahmanas, we
only know the greater part of them through quotations,
there is reason to expect, not only that the remarkably
rich collection of the India House (with which I am only
very superficially acquainted) will be found to contain
many treasures in this department, but also that many of
them will yet be recovered in India itself. The Berlin
collection does not contain a single one. In the first
place, as to the Srauta-Stitras, my only knowledge of the
Katha- Sutra, f the Mamt- Sutra, the Maitra-Sutra, and
the Laur/dkshi-Sutra is derived from the commentaries on
the Katiya-Sutra of the White Yajus; the second, how-
ever,106 stands in the catalogue of the Fort-William col-

10j Buna's Harshacharitra informs whether the word grant/ia ought

us of a Ma,itr;iy;miya Divdkara who really & priori and for the earlier

embraced the Buddhist creed ; and period to be understood of written

]>hau Daji (Journal Bombay Branch texts (cf. /. St., xiii. 476), yet in

It. A. S., x. 40) adds that even now this verse, at any rate, a different

Maitr. Brahinans live near Bhadgaon interpretation is hardly possible;

at the foot of the Vindhya, with see below.]

whom other Brahmans do not eat •)• Laugakslii and the ' Ldmakdya-

in common ; * the reason may have nlndm Brdhmanam ' are said to be

been the early Buddhist tendencies quoted therein,
of many of them.' 10S On this, as well as on the con-

* Which, by the way, recurs to- tents and the division of the work,

gether with some others in precisely see my remarks iu /. St., v. 13-16,

the same form in the Au.ritavin- in accordance with communications

<iu- (or Brahmavindu-) Upanishad. received from Professor Cowell ; cf.

[Though it may be very doubtful also Haug, ibid., ix. 175. A ildnavn

ioo VEDIC LITERATURE.

lection , and of the last, whose author is cited in the
Katha-Sutra, as well as in the Katiya-Sutra, there is, it
appears, a copy in Vienna. Mahadeva, a commentator of
the Kalpa-Siitra of Satyashadha Hiranyakes"i, when enu-
merating the Taittiriya-Siitras in successive order in his
introduction, leaves out these four altogether, and names
at the head of his list the Sutra of Baudhdyana as the
oldest, then that of Bhdradvdja, next that of Apastamba,
next that of Hiranyakesi himself, and finally two names
not otherwise mentioned in this connection, Vdclktina
and Vaikhdnasa, the former of which is perhaps a cor-
rupted form. Of these names, Bharadvaja is the only one
to be found in Vedic works ; it appears in the Brahmana
of the White Yajus, especially in the supplements to the
Arrihad-Aranyaka (where several persons of this name are
mentioned), in the Katiya-Sutra of the same Yajus, in the
Pratisakhya-Siitra of the Black Yajus, and in Panini.
Though the name is a patronymic, yet it is possible that
these last citations refer to one and the same person, in
which case he must at the same time be regarded as the
founder of a grammatical school, that of the Bharadvajiyas.
As yet, I have seen nothing of his Sutra, and am acquainted
with it only through quotations. According to a state-
ment by the Mahadeva just mentioned, it treats of the
oblation to the Manes, in two prasnas, and therefore shares
with the rest of the Sutras this designation of the sections,
•\yhich is peculiar to the Black Yajus.107 The Sutra of
Apastamba * is found in the Library of the India Hou«e,
and a part of it in Paris also. Commentaries on it by

Srauta-Sutra is also cited in Biihler's Kumdrilasviimin was the author of

Catalogue of A1SS. from Gnjardt, i. the commentary seems still doubt-

188 (1871) ; it is in 322 foil. The ful.

manuscript edited in facsimile by 107 The Bhitradvdjiya - Sutra has

Goldstiieker under the title, ' Ma- now been discovered by Biihler ; see

nava Kalpa-Stitra, being a portion of his Catal. of MSS. from Guj., i. 186

tkis ancient work on Vaidik rites, to- (212 foil.) ; the Vaikhdnasa-Sfitra is

{/ether with the Commentary of Kit- also quoted, ib. i. 190 (292 foil.) ; see

mdrilasvdmin' (1861), gives but little also Hang in 7. St., ix. 175.

of the text, the commentary quoting * According to the quotations, the

only the first words of the passages Y;ijasaney:ika, Bahvricha-Brdhinana,

commented upon ; whether the con- and Siityayanaka are frequently meu-

eluding words, ' Knnuire'ablxlshyam tioned therein.
iamuptam,' really indicate that

SUTff AS OF THE L'LACK YAJUS.

101

Dhurtasviimin and Talavrintanivasin are mentioned,108 also
one on the Sutra of Baudhayana by Kapardisvamin.109
The work of Satyashadha contains, according to Maha-
deva's statement,110 twenty-seven prasnas, whose contents
agree pretty closely with the order followed in the Katiya-
Sutra; only the last nine form an exception, and are quite
peculiar to it. The nineteenth and twentieth prasnas refer
to domestic ceremonies, which usually find a place in the
Grihya- and Smarta-Sutras. In the twenty-first, genealo-
gical accounts and lists are contained; as also in aprasna
of the Baudhayana-Sutra.*

Still scantier is the information we possess upon the
Grihya-Sutras of the Black Yajus. The Kdtkaka Grihya-
Sutra is known to me only through quotations, as are also
the Sutras of LaudJidyana (extant in the Fort-William

108 On the Apastamha-Srauta-Su-
tra and the commentaries helonging
to it, by Dhurtasv., Kapardisv&nin,
lludradatta, Gunxlevasvdmit), Ka-
ravindasvdmin, Tdlav., Ahobalasuri
(Adabilain Biihler, 1. c., p. 150, who
also mentions a Nrisinha, p. 152),
and others, see Biirnell in his Cata-
logue, pp. 18-24, iU'd in t"e Indian
Antiquary, i. 5, 6. According to
this the work consists of thirty
prasnas ; the first twenty-three treat
of the sacrificial rites in essentially
the same order (from darsapurna-
mdsnu to sattrdyanam) as in Hiran-
yakesi, whose Sutra generally is
almost identical with that of Apa-
p ram ha ; see Buhler's preface to the
Ap. Dharma-Sutra, p. 6 ; the 24th
prasna contains tlie general rules,
jxiribhdshds, edited by M. Miiller in
Z. D. M. G., ix. (1855), a pravara-
khanda and a hautraka ; prasnas 25-
27 contain the Grihya-Sutra ; pras-
nas 28, 29, the Dharina-Sutra, e«iited
by Biihler^^S); and finally, prasna
30, the Sulva-Sutra (sulva, ' mea-
suring cord ').

109 On the Baudh,iyana-Sutra corn-
pare likewise Biirnell's Catalogue, pp.
24-30. Bhavasviimin, who amongst
others commented it, is mentioned
by Btiatta Bhdskara, and is conse-
quently placed by Buruell (p. 26) iu

the eighth century. According to
Kielhorn, Catalogue of S. MSS. in
the Sout/i Division of the Bombay
Pres., p. 8, there exists a commen-
tary on it by Sdyanaalso, for whom,
indeed, it constituted the special
text-book of the Yajus school to
which he belonged ; see Buruell,
Vansa-Brdlimana, pp. ix.-xix. In
Biihler's Catalogue of MS&. from
Guj., i. 182, 184, Anautadeva, Na-
vahasta, and Sesha are also quoted as
scholiasts. The exact compass of the
entire work is not yet ascertained ;
the Baudhayana - Dharma - Stitra,
which, according to Buhler, Digest
of Hindu Lau\ i. p. xxi. (1867),
forms part of, the Srauta-Sut7-a, as
in the case of Apastamba and Hiran-
yakesi, was commented by Goviuda-
bvdrnin : see Burnell, p. 35.

110 Mdtridatta and Vslnc lies' vara (?)
are also mentioned as commentators ;
see Kielhorn, 1. c., p. IO.

* Such lists are also found in
Asvaliiyana's work, at the end,
though only in brief: for the Kdtiya-
Sutra, a Pari.4ishta conies in. [Pras-
iias 26, 27, of Hiranyake^i treat of
dharmas, so ( that here also, as in
the case of Apast. and Baudh., the
Dharma-Sutra forms part of the
Srauta- Sutra.]

103 VEDIC LITERATURE.

collection), of Bhdradvdja, and of Satydshddlia, or Hira.'n-
yake£i, unless in this latter case only the corresponding
prasnas of the Kulpa-Sutra are intended.111 I have myself
only glanced through a Paddhati of the Grihya-Sutra of
the Maitrdyaniya. school, which treats of the usual subject
(the sixteen samskdras, or sacraments). I conclude that
there must also have been a Grihya-Sutra112 of the Mdnava
school, from the existence of the Code bearing that name,113
just as the Codes ascribed to Atri, Apastamba, Chhaga-
leya, Baudhayana, Laugakshi, and Satyayana are probably
to be traced to the schools of the same name belonging
to the Black Yajus, that is to say, to their Grihy a- Sutras.114
Lastly, the Prdtisdkhya-Sutra has still to be mentioned
as a Sutra of the Black Yajus. The only manuscript with
which I am acquainted unfortunately only begins at the
fourth section of the first of the two pra£nas. This work
is of special significance from the number of very peculiar
names of teachers * mentioned in it : as Atreya, Kaundinya
(once by the title of Sthavira), and Bharadvaja, whom we
know already ; also Vdliriiki, a name which in this con-
nection is especially surprising ; and further Agnives*ya,
AgnivesVayana, Paushkarasadi, and others. The two last
names, as well as that of Kaundinya/f are mentioned in
Buddhist writings as the names either of pupils or of con-
temporaries of Buddha, and Paushkarasadi is also cited
in the vdrttikas to Panini by Katvavana, their author.

• \J *, •/

Again, the allusion occurring here for the first time to the
Mimarisakas and Taittiriyakas deserves to be remarked;

111 This ia really so. On Apa- shadvati and Snrnsvati as the proper

stambn- and BhitradvKja-Gj-ihyii, see home of the Mtlnavas. This appears

Jiiirnell, Cata/nyuc, pp. 30-33. The somewhat too strict. At any rate,

section a <>f two ' pwynyas,' of both the statements as to the extent of

texts, relating to birth ceremonial, the Madhyade.sa which are found in

have been edited by Speijer in his the Pratijn^-Piirisishta of the White

book De Cercmonia a/nid Jiulos quce Yajus point ns for the latter more

rncatur jtitakarma (Leyden, 1872). to the east ; see my essay Ueber das

n- It is actually extant ; see Bull- Pratijnd-SAtra (1872), pp. 101,105.

W, Cutnloyuc, i. 1 88 (So foil.), and lu See Johautgen, /. c.f p. 108,

Kielhorn, 1. c., p. 10 (fragment). 109.

13 Johiintgen in his valuable tract * Their number is twenty; we

7'cbcr das Gcsctzbuch dcs Manu Roth, Zur Lift, und Gesch., pp. 6c,

(1863), p. 109, tt'., has, from the geo- 66.

graphical data in Manu, ii. 17, ff., t ?ee 7. St., i. 441 not. [xiii. 387,

fixed the territory between the Dp- ff., 418],

THE WHITE YAJUS. ioj

also the contradistinction, found at the close of the work,
of Chhandas and Bhdshd, i.e., of Vedic and ordinary lan-
guage.115 The work appears also to extend to a portion of
the Aranyaka of the Black Yajus ; whether to the whole
cannot yet be ascertained, and is scarcely probable.116

In conclusion, I have to notice the two Anukramams
already mentioned, the one belonging to the Atreya school,
the other to the Charayaniya school of the Kathaka. The
former n7 deals almost exclusively with the contents of the
several sections, which it gives in their order. It consists
of two parts. The first, which is in prose, is a mere no-
menclature ; the second, in thirty-four slokas, is little more.
It, however, gives a few particulars besides as to the trans-
mission of the text. To it is annexed a commentary upon
both parts, which names each section, together with its
opening words and extent. The Anukramani of the Ka-
thaka enters but little into the contents ; it limits itself,
on the contrary, to giving the Rishis of the various sections
as well as of the separate verses; and here, in the case of
the pieces taken from the Rik, it not unfrequently exhi-
bits considerable divergence from the statements given in
the Anukramani of the latter, citing, in particular, a num-
ber of entirely new names. According to the concluding
statement, it is the work of Atri, who imparted it to
Laugakshi.

We now turn to the White Yajus.

With regard, in the first place, to the name itself, it
probably refers, as has been already remarked, to the fact
that the sacrificial formulas are here separated from their

116 In the passage in question Ar. or Taitt. Brdhm. is made in the
(xxiv. 5), ' chk'indob/ids/id ' means text itself ; on the contrary, it con-
rather 'the Veda language ;' see fines itself exclusively to the Taitt.
Whitney, p. 417. S. The commentary, however, in

116 We have now an excellent edi- some few instances goes beyond the

tion of the work hy Whitney, Jour- T. S. ; see Whitney's special discus-

nal Am. Or. Soc., ix. (1871), text, sion of the points here involved, pp.

translation, and notes, together with 422-426; cf. also 7. St., iv. 76-79.
a commentary called Tiibhdshya- 117 See /. St., iii. 373-401, xii.

rntna, by an anonymous author (or 350-357, and the similar statements

is his name Kdrttikeya?), a compila- ir>ni Bhntta Bhdskara MisVa in Bur-

^ion from three older commentaries nell's Catalogue, p. 14. The Atreyi

by Atreya, Mdhiehrya, and Vara- text here appears in a special rehv-

ruchi. — Ko reierence to the Taitt. ttou to a sdrasvata pdtha.

101 VF.DIC LITERATURE.

ritual basis and dogmatical explanation, and that we have
here a systematic and orderly distribution of the matter
so confusedly mixed up in the Black Yajus. This is the
way in which the expression §ukldni yajtinshi is explained
by the commentator Dviveda Ganga, in the only passage
where up till now it has been found in this sense, namely,
in the last supplement added to the Vrihad-Aranyaka of
the White Yajus. I say iu the only passage, for though it
appears once under the form hikrayajunshi, in the Aranyaka
of the Black Yajus (5. 10), it has hardly the same general
meaning there, but probably refers, on the contrary, to the
fourth and fifth books of that Aranyaka itself. For in the
Anukramani of the Atreya school these books bear the
name £ukriyakdnda, because referring to expiatory cere-
monies ; and this name tiukriya, ' expiating ' [probably
rather 'illuminating'?] belongs also to the correspond-
ing parts of the Samhita of the White Yajus, and even to
the sdmans employed at these particular sacrifices.

Another name of the White Yajus is derived from the
surname Vajasaneya, which is given to Yajnavalkya, the
teacher who is recognised as its author, in the supplement
to the Vrihad-Aranyaka, just mentioned. Mahidhara, at
the commencement of his commentary on the Samhita of
the White Yajus, explains Vajasaneya as a patronymic,
" the son of Vajasani." Whether this be correct, or whe-
ther the word vdjasani is to be taken as an appellative, it
at any rate signifies * " the giver of food," and refers to the
chief object lying at the root of all sacrificial ceremonies,
the obtaining of the necessary food from the gods whom
the sacrifices are to propitiate. To this is also to be traced
the name vdjin, " having food," by which the theologians
of the White Yajus are occasionally distinguished.118 Now,
from Vajasaneya are derived two forms of words by which
the Samhita and Bnihmana of the White Yajus are found

* Tn Mah<l-Bha>ata, xii. 1507, the by 'food' (anna) is probably purely

word is an epithet of Krishna, a scholastic one.]

[Here also it is explained as above ; 118 According to another explana-

for the Rik, however, according to tion, this is because the Sun as

the St. Petersburg Dictionary, we Horse revealed to Ydjnavalkya the

have to assign to it the meaning of aydtaydmasamjndni yajiinshi ; see

'procuring courage or strength, Vi&hmi-Purana, iii. 5. 28; 'swift,

victorious, gaining booty or prize.' courageous, horse,' are the funda-

The explanation of the word viija mental meanings of the word.

THE WHITE YAJUS. ic$

cited, namely, Vdjasancyaka, first used in the Taittiriya-
Siitra of Apastamba and the Kati'ya-Siitra of the White
Yajus itself, and Vdjasaneyinas* i.e., those who study the
two works in question, first used in the Anupada- Sutra of
the Samaveda.

In the White Yajus we find, what does not occur in the
case of any other Veda, that Samhita and Brahmana have
been handed down in their entirety in two distinct recen-
sions ; and thus we obtain a measure for the mutual rela-
tions of such schools generally. These two recensions
agree almost entirely in their contents, as also in the dis-
tribution of them ; in the latter respect, however, there are
many, although slight, discrepancies. The chief difference
consists partly in actual variants in the sacrificial formulas,
as in the Brahmana, and partly in orthographic or orthoepic
peculiarities. One of these recensions bears the name of
the Kdnvas, the other that of the Mddhyamdinas, names
which have not yet been found in the Sutras or similar
writings. The only exception is the Pratis'akhya-Sutra of
the White Yajus itself, where there is mention both of a
Kanva and ofrthe Mddhyamdinas. In the supplement
to the Vrihad-Aranyaka again, in the lists of teachers, a
Kanviputra (vi. 5 i) and a Madhyamdinayana (iv. 6. 2) at
least are mentioned, although only in the Kanva recension,
not in the other ; the former being cited among the latest,
the latter among the more recent members of the respec-
tive lists. The question now arises whether the two
recensions are to be regarded as contemporary, or if one is
older than the other. It is possible to adopt the latter
view, and to consider the Kanva school as the older one.
For not only is Kanva the name of one of the ancient
Rishi families of the Rigveda — and with the Rigveda this
recension agrees in the peculiar notation of the cerebral d
by / — but the remaining literature of the White Yajus
appears to connect itself rather with the school of the
Madhyamdinas. However this may be,119 we cannot, at

* Occurs in the gana 'Saunaka.' vaka, a yellow (pingala) Krfnva, and

[The Vajasaneyaka is also quoted by a Kdnvyayana, and also their pupils,

Latydyana.] nre mentioned ; see /. St., xiii. 417,

119 The Mddbyamdinas are not 444. The school of the Kanvds

mentioned in Patamjnli's Mahfi- Kausravasds is mentioned in the

Lhsishya, but the Kunvas, the Kdg- Kdtliuka, see on this 7. St., iii. 475,

loS VEDIC LITERATURE.

a»iy rate, assume anything like a long interval between the
two recensions ; they resemble each other too closely for
this, and we should perhaps do better to regard their
distinction as a geographical one, orthoepic divergencies
generally being best explained by geographical reasons.
As to the exact date to be ascribed to these recensions, it
may be, as has already been stated in our general survey
(p. i o), that we have here historical ground to go upon—
a thing which so seldom happens in this field. Arrian,
quoting from Megasthenes, mentions a people called
MaSiavSivol, "through whose country flows the river An-
dhomati," and I have ventured to suggest that we should
understand by these the Madhyamdinas,120 after whom one
of these schools is named, and that therefore this school
was either then already in existence, or else grew up at
that time or soon afterwards.* The matter cannot indeed
be looked upon as certain, for this reason, that mddhyam-
dina, ' southern/ might apply in general to any southern
people or any southern school ; and, as a matter of fact,
we find mention of mddliyamdina-Kauthumds, ' southern
Kauthumas.' f In the main, however, this date suits so
perfectly that the conjecture is at least not to be rejected
offhand. Prom this, of course, the question of the time
of origin of the White Yajus must be strictly separated;
it can only be solved from the evidence contained in the

andin tlie Apastamba-Dharma-Sutra quotes in the case of the Yajurveda
also, reference is sometimes made to the beginning of the Viijas. S., and
a teacher Kanva or Kanva. Kanva not that of the Taitt. S. (or Kdth.).]
and Kdnva appear r further in the + [Vinayaka designates his Kau-
pravarn section of AsValayana, and shitaki-Brdhniana-Bhashya as Ma-
in Panini himself (iv. 2. in), &c. ilhyamdina - Kauthumdnugam ; but
;o The country of the MaSiavStvol does he not here mean the two
is situate precisely in the middle of schools so called (Mddhy. and
that ' Madhyadesa' the limits of Kauth.) ? They appear, in like man-
which are given in the Pratijna-Pa- ner, side by side in an inscription
risishta ; see my paper L'cber das published by Hall, Journal Am. Or.
Prntijnd-Sutra, pp. 101-105. Soc., vi. 539.] In the Kd^ik^ (to
* Whether, in that case, we may Pan. vii. i. 94) a grammarian, Ma-
assume that all the works now coin- dhyamdini, is mentioned as a pupil
prised in the Madhyamdina school of Vyaghrapa'd ( Vydghrapaddm vari-
had already a place in this redaction th(kah) ; see Bb'htlingk. Panini, In-
is a distinct question. [An interest- trod., p. 1. On this it is to be re-
ing remark of Muller's, Hist. A. S. marked, that in the Brdhmana two
L.t p. 453, points out that the Go- Vaiydghrapadyas and one Vaiydgh-
patha-Brdhmana, in citing the first rapadiputra are mentioned,
words of the different Vedas (i. 29),

SAMHITA OF THE WHITE YAJUS, 107

work itself. Here our special task consists in separating
the different portions of it, which in its present form are
bound up in one whole. Fortunately we have still data
enough here to enable us to determine the priority or pos-
teriority of the several portions.

In the first place, as regards the Samhita of the White
Yajus, the Vdjasaneyi-Samhitd, it is extant in both recen-
sions in 40 adhydyas. In the Madhyamdina recension
these are divided into 303 anurdkas and 1975 kandikds.
The first 25 adhydyas contain the formulas for the general
sacrificial ceremonial;121 first (i., ii.) for the new and full-
moon sacrifice ; then (iii.) for the morning and evening fire
sacrifice, as well as for the sacrifices to be offered every
four months at the commencement of the three seasons ;
next (iv.-viii.) for the Soma sacrifice in general, and (ix., x.)
for two modifications of it; next (xi.— xviii.) for the con-
struction of altars for sacred fires ; next (xix.— xxi.) for the
sautrdmani, a ceremony originally appointed to expiate
the evil effects of too free indulgence in the Soma drink ;
and lastly (xxii.-xxv.) for the horse sacrifice. The last
seven of these adhydyas may possibly be regarded as a
later addition to the first eighteen. At any rate it is cer-
tain that the last fifteen adhydyas which follow them are of
later, and possibly of considerably later, origin. In the
Anukramani of the White Yajus, which bears the name of
Katyayana, as well as in a Parisishta122 to it, and subse-
quently also in Mahidhara's commentary on the Samhita,
xxvi.-.xxxv. are expressly called a Khila, or supplement,
and xxxvi.-xl., £ukriya, a name above explained. This
statement the commentary on the Code of Yajnavalkya
(called Mitiikshara) modifies to this effect, that the Bukriya
begins at xxx. 3, and that xxxvi. i forms the beginning of
an Aranyaka.* The first four of these later added adhyd-
yas (xxvi.-xxix.) contain sacrificial formulas which belong
to the ceremonies treated of in the earlier adhydyas, and

121 A comprehensive but con- * That a portion of these, last
densed exposition of it has been books is to be considered as an Aran-
connnenced in my papers, Zur yaka seems to be beyond doubt ;
Kcnntniss dcs vtdischcn Opferrituals, for xxxvii.-xxxix., in particular,
in /. St., x. 321-396, xiii. 217-292. this is certain, as they are explained

122 See my pnper, L'cbcr das Pra- in the Aranyaka part of the Brdh-
tijnd-Stitra (1872), pp. 102-105. mnna.

io8 VEDIC LITERATURE.

must be supplied thereto in the proper place. The ten
following adhydyas (xxx.-xxxix.) contain the formulas for
entirely new sacrificial ceremonies, viz., the puruslia-medJia
(human sacrifice),123 the sarva-medha (universal sacrifice),
the pitri-medha (oblation to the Manes), and the pravargya
(purificatory sacrifice).124 The last adhydya, finally, has no
sort of direct reference to the sacrificial ceremonial. It is
also regarded as an Upanishad,* and is professedly designed
to fix the proper mean between those exclusively engaged
in sacrificial acts and those entirely neglecting them. It
belongs, at all events, to a very advanced stage of specu-
lation, as it assumes a Lord (is} of the universe.1! — Inde-
pendently of the above-mentioned external testimony to
the later origin of these fifteen adhydyas, their posteriority
is sufficiently proved by the relation in which they stand
both to the Black Yajus and to their own Brahmana, as well
as by the data they themselves contain. In the Taittiriya-
Samhita only those formulas appear which are found in
the first eighteen adhydyas, together with a few of the man-
tras belonging to the horse sacrifice ; the remainder of the
latter, together with the mantras belonging to the S'lutrd-
mani and the human sacrifice, are only treated of in the
Taittiriya-Brahmana; and those for the universal and the
purificatory sacrifices, as well, as those for oblations to the
Manes, only in the Taittiiiya-Aranyaka. In like manner, the
lirst eighteen adhydyas are cited in full, and explained word
by word in the iirst nine books of the Brahmana of the
White Yajus ; but only a few of the formulas for the sau-
trdmuni, the horse sacrifice, human sacrifice, universal

353 See my essay, Utber Menschen- * Other parts, too, of the Vd-

opfer bci den Indtrn der vedischen jas. S. have in later times been

Zcit, in /. Str., i. 54, ff. looked upon as Upanishads ; for ex-

r-4 This translation of the word ample, the sixteenth book (Sata-
pravaryya is not a literal one (for r/idriya], the thirty-first (PurusJia-
this see the St. Petersburg Diet., siikta), thirty-second (Tadeva), and
under root varj with prep, pro), the beginning of the thirty-fourth
but is borrowed from the sense and book (Sivasamkalpa).
purpose of the ceremony in ques- f According to Mahidhara'a cona-
tion ; the letter is, according to mentary, its polemic is directed par-
Haugon Ait. Brdhm., i. 18, p. 42, "a tially against the Bauddhas, that
preparatory rite intended for provid- is, probably, against the doctrines
ing the sacrificer with a heavenly which afterwards were called Siiiu-
body, with which alone he is permit,- khya.
ted to enter the residence of thegods."

SAMHITA OF THE WHITE YAJVS. 109

sacrifice, and oblation to the Manes (xix.— xxxv.) are cited
in the twelfth and thirteenth books, and that for the
most part only by their initial words, or even merely
by the initial words of the anuvdkas, without any sort
of explanation ; and it is only the three last adhydyas
but one (xxxvii. — xxxix.) which are again explained
word by word, in the beginning of the fourteenth book.
In the case of the mantras, but slightly referred to by
their initial words, explanation seems to have been con-
sidered unnecessary, probably because they were still
generally understood ; we have, therefore, of course, no
guarantee that the writer of the Brahmana had them
before him in the form which they bear at present. As
to those mantras, on the contrary, which are not men-
tioned at all, the idea suggests itself that they may not yet
have been incorporated into the Samhita text extant when
the Brahmana was composed. They are, roughly speak-
ing, of two kinds. First, there are strophes borrowed
from the Rik, and to be recited by the Hotar, which
therefore, strictly speaking, ought not to be contained in
the Yajus at all, and of which it is possible that the Brah-
inana may have taken no notice, for the reason that it has
nothing to do with the special duties of the Hotar ; e.g.,
in the twentieth, thirty-third, and thirty-fourth adhydyas
especially. Secondly, there are passages of a Brahmana
type, which are not, however, intended, as in the Black
Yajus, to serve as an explanation of mantras preceding
them, but stand independently by themselves ; e.y., in par-
ticular, several passages in the nineteenth adhydya, and
the enumeration, in the form of a list, of the animals to
be dedicated at the horse sacrifice, in the twenty-fourth
adhydya. In the first eighteen adhydyas also, there occur
a few sacrificial formulas which the Brahmana either fails
to mention (and which, therefore, at the time when it was
composed, did not form part of the Samhita), or else cites
only by their initial words, or even merely by the initial
words of the anuvdkas. But this only happens in the
sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth adhydyas, though
here with tolerable frequency, evidently because these
adhydyas themselves bear more or less the character of a
Brahmana. — With regard, lastly, to the data contained in
the last adhydyas, and testifying to their posteriority, these

i io VEDIC LITERA TURE.

are to be sought more especially in the thirtieth and
thirty-ninth adhydyas, as compared with the sixteenth.
It is, of course, only the Yajus portions proper which can
here be adduced, and not the verses borrowed from the Rik-
Samhita, which naturally prove nothing in this connection.
At most they can only yield a sort of measure for the time
of their incorporation into the Yajus, in so far as they
may be taken from the latest portions of the Rile, in which
case the existence of these at that period would necessarily
be presupposed. The data referred to consist in two facts.
First, whereas in the sixteenth book litidrn, as the god of the
blazing fire, is endowed wjth a large number of the epithets
subsequently applied to Siva, two very significant epithets
are here wanting which are applied to him in the thirty-
ninth book, viz., isdna and mahddeva, names probably
indicating some kind of sectarian worship (see above,
p. 45). Secondly, the number of the mixed castes given
in the thirtieth is much higher than that given in the
sixteenth book. Those mentioned in the former can hardly
all have been in existence at the time of the latter, or we
should surely have found others specified besides those
that are actually mentioned.

Of the forty books of the Samhita, the sixteenth and
thirtieth are those which bear most distinctly the' stamp
of the time to which they belong. The sixteenth book, on
which, in its Taittiriya form, the honour was afterwards
bestowed of being regarded as an Upanishad, and as the
principal book of the Siva sects, treats of the propitiation
of lludra; and (see I. St., ii. 22, 24-26) by its enumeration
and distinction of the many different kinds of thieves,
robbers, murderers, night-brawlers, and highwaymen, his
suppdsed servants, reveals to us a time of insecurity and
violence : its mention, too, of various mixed castes indi-
cates that the Indian caste system and polity were already
fully developed. Now as, in the nature of things, these
were not established without vigorous opposition from
those who were thrust down into the lower castes, and as
this opposition must have manifested itself chiefly in
feuds, open or secret, with their oppressors, I am inclined
to suppose that this Rudra book dates from the time of
these secret feuds on the part of the conquered aborigines,
as well as of the Vratyas or unbrahmanised Aryans, after

SAM HIT A OF THE WHITE YAJUS. in

their open resistance had been more or less crushed.125 At
such a time, the worship of a god \vho passes as the pro-
totype of terror and fury is quite intelligible.— The thirtieth
book, in enumerating the different classes of persons to be
dedicated at the purusha-medha , gives the names of most
of the Indian mixed castes, whence we may at any rate
conclude that the complete consolidation of the Brah-
manical polity had then been effected. Some of the names
here given are of peculiar interest. So, for example, the
mdyadha, who is dedicated in v. 5 " atikrushtdya." The
question arises, What is to be understood by mdgadha ?
If we take atikrushta in the s^nse of " great noise," the
most obvious interpretation of mdgadka is to understand
it, with Mahidhara, in its epic sense, as signifying a
minstrel,* son of a Vaisya by a Kshatriya. This agrees
excellently with the dedications immediately following (in
v. 6), of the suta to the dance, and of the sailusha to song,
though not so well, it must be admitted, with the dedica-
tions immediately preceding, of the kliba (eunuch), the
ayogu (gambler?), and the punschalu (harlot). The
mdyadha again appears in their company in v. 22,f and
they cannot be said to throw the best light upon his moral
character, a circumstance which is certainly surprising,
considering the position held by this caste in the epic;
though, on the other hand, in India also, musicians,
dancers, and singers (sailusJuis) have not at any time
enjoyed the best reputation. But another interpretation
of the word mdgadlta is possible.^ In the fifteenth, the

125 By the Buddhist author Ya- sides, an express condition is laid

somitra, scholiast of the Abhidhar- down that the four must belong

niakosa, the Satarudriya is stated neither to the Sudra nor to the

to be a work by Vydsa against Brahmana caste. [By ayogfi may

Buddhism, whence, however, we also be meant an unchaste woman ;

have probably to conclude only see/. Str., i. 76]

that it passed for, and, was used as, £ Sdyana, commenting on the

a principal support for Siva worship, corresponding passage of the Taitt.

especially in its detached form as a Brdhmana (iii. 4. i), explains the

separate Upanishad ; see Burnouf's word atikrushtdya by atinindita-

Introduction d, VHistoire du Budd't- devdya, "dedicated to the very

isme, p. 568 ; /. St., ii. 22. Blameworthy as his deity " [in Rd-

* How he comes by this name is, jendra Ldla "kitra's edition, p. 347] ;

it is true, not clear. this 'very Blameworthy,' it ia true,

t Here, however, the kitava is might also refer to the bad moral

put instead of the ayogti, and be- '•ermtation of the minstrels.

1 1 2 VEDIC LITER A TURE.

so-called Vratya book* of the Atharva-Samhita, the Vratya
(i.e., the Indian living outside of the pale of Brahmanism)
is brought into very special relation to the pun&hali and
the mdgadha ; faith is called his harlot, the mitra (friend ?)
his mdgadJia ; and similarly the dawii, the earth (?), the
lightning his harlots, the mantra (formula), hasa (scorn ?),
the thunder his mdgadhas. Owing to the obscurity of the
Vratya book, the proper meaning of this passage is not
altogether clear, and it is possible, therefore, that here also
the dissolute minstrel might be intended. Still the con-
nection set forth in the Sama-Sutras of Latyayana and'
Drahyayana, as well as in the corresponding passage of the
Katiya-Sutra between the Vratyas and the magadhadesiya
Irahmdbandhu™ and the hatred with which the Magadhas
are elsewhere (see Roth, p. 38) spoken of in the Atharva-
Samhita, both lead us to interpret the mdgadha of the
Vratya book as an heretical teacher. For the passages,
also, which we are more immediately discussing, this inter-
pretation vies with the one already given ; and it seems,
in particular, to be favoured by the express direction in
v. 22, that " the mdgadha, the harlot, the gambler, and the
eunuch " must neither be Siidras nor Brahinans, — an in-
junction which would be entirely superfluous for the mdga-
dha at least, supposing him to represent a mixed caste, but
which is quite appropriate if the word signifies " a native
of the country Magadha." If we adopt this latter inter-
pretation, it follows that heretical (i.e., Buddhist) opinions
must have existed in Magadha at the time of the com-
position of this thirtieth adhydya. Meanwhile, however,
the question which of these two interpretations is the
better one remains, of course, unsolved. — The mention of
the nakshatradarsa, "star-gazer," in v. 10, and of the

* Translated by Aufrecht, 1. St., Mdgadha — explained by Siiyaivi as

i. 130, ff. [Tlie St. Petersburg Diet., MayadliadcSotpanno brahmachdrl —

!>. v., considers 'the praise of the is contemptuously introduced by

Vnttya in Ath. xv. as an idealising the SiitrakaYa (probably Baudha-

of the devout vagrant or mendicant yana ?) to T. S., vii. 5. 9. 4, in asso-

(parivrdjaka, &c.) ;' the fact of his elation with a punschali ; see /. St.,

being specially connected with the xii. 330. — That there were good

punschali and the mdyadha remains, Brahinans also in Magadha appears

nevertheless, very strange, and even from the name Magadhardsl, which

with this interpretation leads us to is given to Prdtibodhiputra, the

Biirmise suggestions of Buddhism.] second son of Hrasva Mdndukeya, in

120 In the very sime way, the Sankh. Ar., vii. 14.

SAME IT A OF THE WHITE 'YAJUS. 113

ganaka, "calculator," in v. 20, permits us, at all events, to
conclude that astronomical, i.e., astrological, science was
then actively pursued. It is to it that, according to Mahi-
dhara at least, the "questions" repeatedly mentioned in v. 10
relate, although Sayana, perhaps more correctly, thinks
that they refer to the usual disputations of the Brahmans.
The existence, too, of the so-called Vedic quinquennial
cycle is apparent from the fact that in v. 15 (only in
xxvii. 45 besides) the five names of its years are enume-
rated ; and this supposes no inconsiderable proficiency in
astronomical observation.127 — A barren wife is dedicated in
v. 1 5 to the Atharvans, by which term Sayana understands
the imprecatory and magical formulas bearing the name
Atharvan; to which, therefore, one of their intended effects,
barrenness, is here dedicated. If this be the correct ex-
planation, it necessarily follows that Atharvan - songs
existed at the time of the thirtieth book. — The names of
the three dice in v. 18 (krita, tretd, and dvdpara) are
explained by Sayana, commenting on the corresponding
passage of the Taittiriya-Brahmana, as the names of the epic
yufjas, which are identical with these — a supposition which
will not hold good here, though it may, perhaps, in the
case of the Taittiriya-Brahmana.* — The hostile reference
to the Charakacharya in v. 18 has already been touched
upon (p. 8;).128

In the earlier books there are two passages in particular
which give an indication of the period from which they
date. The first of these exists only in the Kanva recen-
sion, where it treats of the sacrifice at the consecration of
the king. The text in the Madhyamdina recension (ix.
40, x. 1 8) runs as follows : " This is your king, 0 ye So and
So," where, instead of the name of the people, only the
indefinite pronoun ami is used; whereas in the Kanva

U7 Since samvatsara is here men- * Where, moreover, the fourth

tioned twice, at the beginning and name, kali, is found, instead of the

at the end, possibly we have here to dskanda given here [see 1. Str.t i.

do with a sexennial cycle even (cf. 82].

T. Br., iii. 10. 4. i) ; see my paper, 128 Sayana on T. Br., iii. 4. 16, p.

]~>ie vedischen R achrichten von dtn 361, explains (!)theword by 'teacher

Nakshatra, ii. 298 (1862). The of the art of dancing on the point

earliest allusion to the quinquennial of a bamboo ; ' but the vansanartin

yuga occurs in the Rik itself, iii. is introduced separately in v. 21 (T.

55.18(1.25.8). Br., iii. 4. 17).

1 14 VEDIC LITER A TURK.

recension we read (xi. 3. 3, 6. 3) : " This is your king, 0 yo
Kurus, 0 ye Panchalas." * The second passage occurs in
connection with the horse sacrifice (xxiii. 18). The ma-
hishi, or principal wife of the king, performing this
sacrifice, must, in order to obtain a son, pass the night by
the side of the horse that has been immolated, placing its
sisna on her upastha; with her fellow- wives, who are
forced to accompany her, she pours forth her sorrow in
this lament : " 0 Amba, 0 Ambika, 0 Ambalika, no one
takes me (by force to the horse) ; (but if I go not of myself),
the (spiteful) horse will lie with (another, as) the (wicked)
Subhadra who dwells in Kampila."f Kampila is a town
in the country of the Panchalas. Subhadra, therefore,
would seem to be the wife of the king of that district,!
and the benefits of the asvamedha sacrifice are supposed
to accrue to them, unless the mahislii consents voluntarily
to give herself up to this revolting ceremony. If \ve
are justified in regarding the maliishi as the consort of a
king of the Kurus, — and the names Ambika and Amba-
lika actually appear in this connection in the Maha-
Bharata, to wit, as the names of the mothers of Dhrita-
rashtra and Pandu, — we might then with probability
infer that there existed a hostile, jealous feeling on the
part of the Kurus towards the Panchalas, a feeling which
was possibly at that time only smouldering, but which
in the epic legend of the Maha-Bharata we find had burst
out into the fiame of open warfare. However this may
be, the allusion to Kampila at all events betrays that, the
verse, or even the whole book (as well as the correspond-

* Sdyana, on the corresponding subhudrikdtn kdmpllavdsinlm are

passage of the Brdhmnna (v. 3. 3. wanting in it.

Il), remarks that Baudhayana reads J As a matter of fact, we find in

esha vo Bharatd rdjeti [thus T. S., the Maha-Blidrata a Subhadni as

i, 8. IO. 2 ; T. Br., i. 7. 4. 2]. wife of Arjnna, the representative

Apastarnba, on the contrary, lets us of the Panchdlas ; on account of a

choose between Bharald, Kuravo, Subhadrd, (possibly on account of

Panchdld, Kumpdn,chdld, or jand her abduction, related in the Mahii-

rdjd, according to the people to Bhdrata?) a great war seems to

whom the king belongs. [The have arisen, as appears from some

Kdth., xv. 7, has cska te janate words quoted several times by the

rdjd.] scholiast on Piinini. Has he the

t The Brdhmana of the White authority of the Mahdbhdshya for

Yajus quotes only the beginning of this ? [the Mahabhdshya has nothing

this verse ; consequently the words about it].

SAM HIT A OF THE WHITE YAJUS. 115

ing passages of the Taitt. Brahmana), originated in tho
region of the Panchalas ; and this inference holds good
also lor the eleventh book of the Kanva recension.129 We
might further adduce in proof of it the use of the word
arjuna in the Madhyamdina, and of phalguna in the
Kanva recension, in a formula130 relating to the sacrifice
at the consecration of the king (x. 21) : " To obtain intre-
pidity, to obtain food(, I, the offerer, ascend) thee(, 0
chariot,) I, the inviolate Arjuna (Phalgun;i)," i.e., Indra,
Indra-like. Por although we must take both these words
in this latter sense, and not as proper names (see /. St.,
i. 190), yet, at any rate, some connection must be assumed
between this use and the later one, where they appear as
the appellation of the chief hero of the Pandus (or Pafi-
chalas?); and this connection consists in the fact that
the legend specially applied these names of Indra* to
that hero of the Pandus (or Panchalas ?) who was pre-
eminently regarded by it as an incarnation of Indra.

Lastly, as regards the critical relation of the richas in-
corporated into the Yajus, I have to observe, that in general
the two recensions of the Kanvas and of the Madhyam-
dinas always agree with each other in this particular, and
that their differences refer, rather, to the Yajus -portions.
One half of the Vajasaneyi-Samhita consists of richas, or
verses; the other of yajuilshi, i.e., formulas in prose, a
measured prose, too, which rises now and then to a true
rhythmical swing. The greater number of these richas

, 129 In T. S., vii. 4. 19. I, Krfth. 13° See V. S., x. 21 ; the parallel
As'., iv. 8, there are two vocatives pncsages in T. S., i. 8, Is, T. Br.,
instead of the two accusatives ; be- i. 7. 9. i, Kdth., xv. 8, have no-
sides, we have subhage for subfiad- thing of this.

ram. The vocative kdmpilardsini * The Bnthmana, moreover, ex-
is explained by Sayana, ' (J thou pressly designates arjuna as the
that art veiled in a beautiful gar- ' secret name ' (yuliyamndma) of In-
inent' (kdinpUasabdenasldyhyovastra- dra [ii. I. 2. II, v. 4. 3. 7]. How is
rticsha uckyate; see 7. St., xii. 312). this to be understood ? The com-
This explanation is hardly justifi- rnentary remarks on it : arjuna
able, and Mahldhara's reference of iti lundrasya rahasyam ndma \ ata
the word to the city of Kdmpila era Main tatputre Pandavamadh-
must be retained, at least for the yame fratfitlih. [What is the
wording of the text which we have reading of the Kitnva recension in
in the V. S. In the Pratijiul- these passages ? Has it, as in the
Parisishta, Kurnpilya is given as the Samhitif, so here also, not arjuna,
eastern limit of Madhyadesa ; see but jihalyuna ?]
my Pratijndsulra, pp. 101-105.

n6 VEDIC LITERATURE.

recur in the Rik-Samhita, and frequently with consider-
able variations, the origin and explanation of which I have
already discussed in the introduction (see above, pp. 9, 10).
Readings more ancient than those of the Rik are not found
in the Yajus, or at least only once in a while, which results
mainly from the fact that Rik and Yajus agree for the
most part with each other, as opposed to the Saman. We
do, however, find that verses have undergone later altera-
tions to adapt them to the sense of the ritual. And
finally, we meet with a large number of readings which
appear of equal authority with those of the Rik, especi-
ally in the verses which recur in .those portions of the
Rik-Samhita that are to be regarded as the most modern.

The Vajasaneyi-Samhita, in both recensions, has been
edited by myself (Berlin, 1849—52), with the commentary
of Mahidhara,131 written towards the end of the sixteenth
century ; and in the course of next year a translation is
intended to appear, which will give the ceremonial belong-
ing to each verse, together with a full glossary.* Of the
work of tTata, a predecessor of Mahidhara, only fragments
have been preserved, and the commentary of Madhava,
which related to the Kanva recension,132 appears to bo
entirely lost. Both were supplanted by Mahidhara's work,
and consequently obliterated; an occurrence which has hap-
pened in a similar way in almost all branches of Indian
literature, and is greatly to be regretted.

I now turn to the Brdhmana of the White Yajus, the
Sa'apatka-Brdlimana, which, from its compass arid con-
tents, undoubtedly occupies the most significant and im-
portant position of all the Bralnnanas. First, as to its

131 p\)r wbich, unfortunately, no tary (lately again by Roer in the

sufficient manuscript materials were Bibliotheca Jndica, vol. viii.) [and

at my disposal ; see Miiller, Preface vol. xv. — A lithographed edition of

to vol. vi. of his large edition of the the text of the Vajas. Sainhitd, with

Ilik, p. xlvi. sqq., and my reply in a Hindi translation of Mahidhara's

I '.iterarisckcs Centralblatt, 1875, pp. commentary, has been published ty

519, 520. Giriprassidavarman, Rdja of Besma,

* [This promise has not been ful- 1870-74, in Besma].
filled, owing to the pressure of other 132 Upon what this special state-
labours.] The fortieth adhydya, the ment is based I cannot at present
Isopanishad, is in the Kanva recen- show; but that Mddhava commented
sion commented by Sumkara ; it has the V. S. also is shown, for example,
been translated and edited several by the quotation in Mahidhara to
times together with this commen- xiii. 45.

BRAHMAN A OF THE WHITE YAJUS. 117

extent, — this is sufficiently denoted by its very name,
which describes it as consisting of 100 patltas (paths), or
sections. The earliest known occurrence of this name is
in the ninth vdrttika to Pan. iv. 2. 60, and in the gana,
to Pan. v. 3. 100, both authorities of very doubtful* anti-
quity. The same remark applies to the Naigeya-daivata,
where the name also appears (see Benfey's Sdmaveda, p.
277). With the single exception of a passage in the twelfth
book of the Maha-Bharata, to which 1 shall revert in the
sequel, I have only met with it, besides, in the commen-
taries and in the colophons of the^ MSS. of the work itself.
In the Madhyamdina school the Satapatlia-Brahrnana con-
sists of fourteen kdndas, each of which bears a special
title in the commentaries and in the colophons : these
titles are usually borrowed from the contents ; ii. and vii.
are, however, to me inexplicable^ The fourteen kdnda$
are together subdivided into 100 adhydyas (or 68 pra-
pdthakas), 438 brdhmanas, and 7624 kandikds.133 In tho
Kanva recension the work consists of seventeen kdndas,
the first, fifth, and fourteenth books being each divided
into two parts ; the first book, moreover, has here changed
places with the second, and forms, consequently, the second
and third. The names of the books are the same, but the
division into prapdthakas is altogether unknown : the adhy-
dyas in the thirteen and a half books that have thus far
been recovered * number 85, the brdhmanas 360, the kan-
dikds 4965. The total for the whole work amounts, accord-
ing to a list accompanying one of the manuscripts, to 104
adhydyas, 446 brdhmanas, 5866 kandikds. If from this
the recension of the Kanva school seems considerably

* The ffana is an dkritiyana, and Ekapddikd, that of the seventh Has-

the sutra to which it belongs is, ac- tighuta.

cording to the Calcutta edition, not Jj3 For statements disagreeing

explained in the Malulbhdshya ; with this, which are found in the

possibly therefore it does not belong MSS., see note on pp. 119, 120.

to the original text of Panini. [The J Of the fourth book there exists

vdrtlika in question is, in point of only the first half ; and the third,

fact, explained in the Mahttbhashya thirteenth, and sixteenth books are

(fol. 67b), and thus the existence of wanting altogether. [It is much to

the name satapatha, as well as shath- be regretted that nothing has yet

tipatha (see p. 119), is guaranteed, been done for the Kiinva recension,

at least for the time when this work and that a complete copy has not

was composed ; see /. St., xiii. 443-J yet been recovered.]

f The name of the second book is

iig ' VEDIC LITERATURE.

shorter than that of the Madhyamdinas, it is so only in
appearance; the disparity is probably rather to be ex-
plained by the greater length of the kandikds in the for-
mer. Omissions, it is true, not unfrequently occur. For
the rest, I have no means of ascertaining with perfect
accuracy the precise relation of the Brahmana of the
Kanva school to that of the Madhyamdinas ; and what I
have to say in the sequel will therefore relate solely to the
latter, unless I expressly mention the former.

As I have already remarked, when speaking of the
Samhita, the first nine kdndas of the Brahmana refer to
the first eighteen books of the Samhita ; they quote the
separate verses in the same order* word for word, explain-
ing them dogmatically, and establishing their connection
with the ritiial. The tenth Jednda, which bears the name
of Agni-rahasya (" the mystery of fire "), contains mystical
legends and investigations as to the significance, &c., of the
various ceremonies connected with the preparation of the
sacred fires, without referring to any particular portions of
the Samhita. This is the case likewise in the eleventh
Jednda, called from its extent As/if ddJiydyi, which contains
a. recapitulation of the entire ritual already discussed, with
supplements thereto, especially legends bearing upon it,
together with special particulars concerning the study of
the sacred works and the provisions made for this pur-
pose. The twelfth Jednda, called Madhyama, " the middle
one," treats of prdyascluttas or propitiatory ceremonies
lor untoward events, either previous to the sacrifice, dur-
ing, or after it ; and it is only in its last portion, where
the Sautramani is discussed, that it refers to certain of the
formulas contained in the Samhita (xix.— xxi.) and relating
to this ceremony. The thirteenth Jednda, called ASvamedJut,
treats at some length of the horse sacrifice ; and then with
extreme brevity of the human sacrifice, the universal sac-
rifice, and the sacrifice to the Manes; touching upon the
relative portions of the Samhita (xxii.-xxxv.) but very
.seldom, and even then very slightly. The fourteenth
Jednda, called Aranyalea, treats in its first three adhydyas

* Only in the introduction does of the new moon and full moon sac-

a variation occur, as the Briihinan i rifices, which is evidently more cor-

treats first of the morning and even- rect systematically,
ing sacrifice.*, and not till afterwards

BRAHMANA OF THE WHITE YAJUS. 119

of the purification of the fire,134 and here it quotes almost
in their entirety the three last books but one of the Sam-
hita (xxxvii.— xxxix.) ; the last six adhydyas are of a purely
speculative and legendary character, and form by them-
selves a distinct work, or Upanishad, under the name of
Vrihad-Aranyaka. This general summary of the con-
tents of the several kdndas of itself suggests the conjec-
ture that the first nine constitute the most ancient part
of the Brahmana, and that the last five, on the contrary,
are of later origin, — a conjecture which closer investiga-
tion reduces to a certainty, both on external and internal
evidence. With reference to the external evidence, in the
first place, we find it distinctly stated in the passage of
the Maha-Bharata above alluded to (xii. 11734) that the
complete Satapatha comprises a Raliasya (the tenth kdnda),
a Samgraha (the eleventh kdnda), and a PariSesha (the
twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth kdndas). f Further, in
the vdrttika already quoted for the name Satapatha, we
also meet with the word shashtipatha 135 as the name of a
work ; and I have no hesitation in referring this name to
the first nine kdndas, which collectively number sixty
adhydyas. On the other hand, in support of the opinion
that the last five kdndas are a later addition to the first
nine, I have to adduce the term Madhyama ("the middle
one "), the name of the twelfth kdnda, which can only be
accounted for in this way, whether we refer it merely to
the last three kdndas but one, or to all the five.*

134 The pravargya concerns, ra- third adliydya (viz., of the kdnda),

ther, the lustration of the sacrificer so that xvi. and xvii. coincide. — [A

himself ; see above note 124, p. 108. highly remarkable statement is found

133 It is found in the Pratijnd- in the MSS. of the Mitdhyamdina

Parisishta also, and along with it recension at v. 3. I. 14, to the effect

the name antij)atlia (!) ; satapatha, that this point marks not only ktin-

on the contrary, is apparently want- dasyd 'rd/iam, with 236 kandikds,

ing there ; see my essay on the Pra- but also, according to a marginal

tijnii- Sutra, pp. 104, 105. gloss, satapathasyd 'rdham, with

* In the latter case a difficulty is 3129 kandikds ; see p. 497 of my

caused by the Kdnva recension, which edition. As a matter of fact, the

subdivides the last kdnda into two preceding kandikdt do amount to

parts (xvi., xvii.) ; this division, this latter number ; but if wo fix it

however, seems not to have been as the norm for the second half,

generally received, since in the MSS. we are only brought down to xii. 7.

of Snmkara's commentary, at least, 3. 18, that is, not even to the close

the Upanishad (xvii.) is reckoned of the twelfth book ! The point

throughout as beginning with the which marks the exact half for tha

120 VEDIC LITERATURE.

Now these last five kdndas appear to stand in the same
order in which they actually and successively originated ;
so that each succeeding one is to be regarded as less
ancient than the one that precedes it. This conjecture is
based on internal evidence drawn from the data therein
contained, — evidence which at the same time decides the
question of their being posterior to the first nine kdndas,
In the first place, the tenth kdnda still connects itself
pretty closely with the preceding books, especially in its
great veneration for Sandilya, the principal authority upon
the building of altars for the sacred fires. The following
are the data which seem to me to favour the view that it
belongs to a different period from the first nine books. In
i. 5. i, if., all the sacrifices already discussed in the pre-
ceding books are enumerated in their proper order, and
identified with the several ceremonies of the Agni-chayana,
or preparation of the sacred fireplace. — Of the names
of teachers here mentioned, several end in -dyana, a ter-
mination of which we find only one example in the
seventh, eighth, and ninth kdndas respectively : thus we
meet here with a Rauhinayana, Sayakayana, Vamaka-
kshayana (also in vii.), Rajastambayana, Sandilyayana (also
in ix.), Satyayani (also in viii.), and the Sikayanins. — The
Vansa appended at the close (i.e., the list of the teachers
of this book) differs from the general Van^a of the entire
Brahmana (at the close of the fourteenth book) in not
referring the work to Yajnavalkya, but to Sandilya, and
also to Tura Kavasheya (whose ancestor Kavasha we find
on the banks of the Sarasvati in the Aitareya-Brahmana).
The only tribes mentioned are the Salvas and Kekayas
(especially their king, A^vapati Kaikeya), — two western
tribes not elsewhere alluded to in the Brahmanas. — The

present extent of the work (3812 k.) marking of the accents is earlier in

is at vi. 7. I. 19, where also the date than the division of the text

MSS. repeat the above statement into kandikds. As, however, we

(P- 555)- — ^ deserves special men- find exactly the same state of things

lion that the notation of the accents with regard to the final and initial

operates beyond the limits of the words of the individual bnihmanas

individual kandikds, the accent at (see Jcnacr Litcraturzcitung, 1875, p.

the end of a kandikd being modified 314), we should also have to refer

by the accent of the first word of the bnihmana division to a later

the next kandikd. From this we date, aud this is hardly possible],
might perhaps conclude that the

BRAHMAN A OF THE WHITE YAJUS. 12 1

legends here as well as in the four succeeding Mndas are
mostly of an historical character, and are besides chiefly
connected with individual teachers who cannot have lived
at a time very distant from that of the legends themselves.
In the earlier Mndas, on the contrary, the legends are
mostly of a mythological character, or, if historical, refer
principally to occurrences belonging to remote antiquity ;
so that here a distinct difference is evident. — The trayi
vidyd (the three Vedas) is repeatedly discussed in a very
special manner, and the number of the rickets is stated to
be 12,000, that of the yo/ws- verses 8000, and that of the
sdmans 4000. Here also for the first time appear the
names Adhvaryus, Bahvrichas, and Chhandogas side by
side ; * here, too, we have the first occurrence of the words
iipanishud (as t>dra of the Veda), upanishaddm ddesdh,
mimdnsd (mentioned once before, it is true, in the first
kdnda), adhidevatam, adhiyajnam, adhydtmam ; 13° and
lastly, here for the first time we have the form of address
Ihavdn (instead of the earlier bhagavdri). Now and then
also a sloJca is quoted in confirmation, a thing which occurs
extremely seldom in the preceding books. Further, many
of the technical names of the sdmans and sastras are men-
tioned (this, however, has occurred before, and also in the
tenth book of the Samhita) ; and generally, frequent refer-
ence is made to the connection subsisting with the riclias
and sdmans, which harmonises with the peculiarly mys-
tical and systematising character of the whole kdnda.

That the eleventh kdnda is a supplement to the first
nine is sufficiently evident from its contents. The first
two adhydyas treat of the sacrifices at the new and full
moon; the four following, of the morning and evening sacri-
ficial fires, of the sacrifices at the three seasons of the year,
of the inauguration of the pupil by the teacher (dclidrya), of
the proper study of the sacred doctrines, &c. ; and the last
two, of the sacrifices of animals. The Riyvcda, Yajurveda,
and Sdmaveda, the Atharvdngirasas, the anusdsanas, the
vidyds, the vdkovdkya, the itiha&apurdna, the ndrdsansis,
and the gdthds are named as subjects of study. We have

* Along with the ydtuvidas (those 136 Mimdnsd, adlridaivataqi, and

skilful ^a witchcraft), sarparidas adhydtmam occur several times iu

(serpent - charmers), devajanavidas, the earlier books.
&c.

122 VEDIC LITERATURE.

already met with this enumeration (see p. 93) in the
second chapter of the Taitt. Aranyaka, although in a con-
siderably later form,* and we find a similar one in the
fourteenth kdnda. In all these passages, the commen-
taries^ probably with perfect justice, interpret these ex-
pressions in this way, viz., that first the Samhitas are speci-
fied, and then the different parts of the Brahmanas ; so that
by the latter set of terms we should have to understand, not
distinct species of works, but only the several portions
respectively so designated which were blended together in
the Brahmanas, and out of which the various branches of
literature were in course of time gradually developed. The
terms anu$dsana (" ritual precept " according to Sayana,
but in Vrihad-Ar., ii. 5. 19, iv. 3. 25, Kathopan., 6. 15,
" spiritual doctrine "), vidyd, " spiritual doctrine," and
(jdthd, " strophe of a song " (along with sloJca), are in fact
so used in a few passages (gdthd indeed pretty frequently)
in these last five books, and in the Brahmanas or Upa-
nishads of the Rik and Saman. Similarly vdkovdkya in the
sense of "disputation" occurs in the seventh kdnda, and
itilidsa at least once in the eleventh Jcdnda itself (i. 6. 9).
It is only the expressions purdna and ndrdsansis that do
not thus occur ; in their stead — in the sense of narrative,
legend — we find, rather, the terms dkliydna, vydkhydna,
anvdkhydna, updkhydna. Vydkhydna, together with anu-
vydkhydna and upavydkhydna, also occurs in the sense of
" explanation." In these expressions, accordingly, wre have
evidence that at the time of this eleventh kdnda certain
Samhitas and Brahmanas of the various Vedas, and even
the Atharva-Samhita itself, were in existence. But, fur-
ther, as bearing upon this point, in addition to the 'single
verses from the songs of the Rik, which are here, as in the
earlier books, frequently cited (by " tad etad rishind 'bhy-
anuktam"), we have in the eleventh kdnda one very special
quotation, extending over an entire hymn, and introduced
by the words " tad etad uktapratyuktam panchadasarcham
L'ahvrichdh prdhuli" It is an interesting fact for the
critic that in our text of the Rik the hymn in question

* From it has evidently originated t Here Sttyana forms an excep-

fi passage in Y.ijnavalkya's Code (i. tion, as he at least states the other

45), which does not harmonise at all explanation also,
with the rest of that work.

BRAHMANA OF THE WHITE YAJUS. 123

(maiid. x. 95) numbers not fifteen but eighteen richas.
Single slokas are also frequently quoted as confirmation.
From one of these it appears that the care taken of horses
in the palace of Janamejaya had at that time passed into
a proverb : this is also the first mention of this king.
Budra here for the first time receives the name of Maha-
cleva* (v. 3. 5). — In iii. 3. I, ff, special rules are for the first
time given concerning the begging (bhikshd) of the brahma-
chdrins, &c., which custom is besides alluded to in the
thirtieth book of the Samhita [v. 18]. — But.wnat throws
special light upon the date of tlie eleventh kdnda is the fre-
quent mention here made, and for the first time, of Janaka,
king (samrdf) of Videha, as the patron of, Yajnavalkya.
The latter, the Kaurupanchala Uddalaka Aruni and his
son Svetaketu, are (as in the Vrihad-Aranyaka) the chief
figures in the legends.

The twelfth kdnda alludes to the destruction of the
kingdom of the Srinjayas, whom we find in the second
kdnda at the height of their prosperity, and associated
with the Kurus. This connection may still be traced here,
for it seems as if the Kauravya Valhika Pratipiya wished
to take their part against Chakra, their enemy, who was a
native of the country south of the Beva, and priest of King
Dushtaritu of Dasapurushamrajya, but that his efforts
failed. — The names Vtirkali (i.e., Vashkali) and Naka
Maudgalya probably also point to a later period of time ;
the latter does not occur elsewhere except in the Vrihad-
Aranyaka and the Taittiriyopanishad. — The Rigveda, the
Yajurvecia, and the Samaveda are mentioned, and we find
testimony to the existence of the Vedic literature generally
in the statement that a ceremony once taught by Indra to
Vasishtha and formerly only known to the Vasishthas —
whence in former times only a Vasishtha could act as
brahman (high priest) at its performance — might now be
studied by any one who liked, and consequently that any
one might officiate as brahman thereat.137 — In iii. 4. i
occurs the first mention of purusha Ndrdyana. — The name
of Proti Kau^dmbeya Kausurubindi probably presupposes
the existence of the Panchala city KauSambi.

* In the sixth l-dnda he is still 137 See on this J. St., i. 34, 35.
called mahdn derah.

1 24 VEDIC LITER A TURK.

The thirteenth Icdnda repeatedly mentions puruslia Nd-
rdyana. Here also Kuvera Vais>avana, king of the Raksh-
asas, is named for the first time. So, too, we find here
the first allusion to the suktas of the Rik, the anuvdkas *
of the Yajus, the dasats of the Saman, and the parvans of
the Atharvanas and Aiigirasas, which division, however,
does not appear in the extant text of the Atharvan. A
division into parvans is also mentioned in connection with
the Sarpavidya and the Devajanavidya, so that by these
names at all events distinct works must be understood.
Of Itihasa and Parana nothing but the name is given ;
they are not spoken of • as divided into parvans, a clear
proof that even at that time they were merely understood
as isolated stories and legends, and not as works of any
extent.133 — While in the first nine books the statement
that a subject has been fully treated of already is expressed
by tasyokto bandhuh [or, so 'sdv eva bandhuh, and the like],
the same is expressed here by tasyoktam brdhmanam. — The
use in v. I. 18 of the words ekavachana and lahuvachana,
exactly corresponds to their later grammatical significa-
tion.— This kdnda is, however, very specially distinguished
by the number of gdthds, strophes of historical purport,
which it quotes at the close of the account of the horse
sacrifice, and in which are given the names of kings who
celebrated it in earlier times. Only one of these gdthdi
appears in the Rik-Samhita (maiid. iv. 42. 8) ; the greater
number of them recur in the last book of the Aitareya-
Lrahmana, and in the Maha-Bharata, xii. 910, ff., in both
places with many variations.t The question here arises
whether we have to regard these gdt/ids as fragments of
more lengthy hymns, or if they must be looked upon
merely as separate memorial verses. The fact that in con-
nection with some of these names (if we take into account

* This term, however, occurs in terms iu the Sdukh. 6r., xvi, 2; AM

the preceding kdndas also, e.g., in val. Sr.,x. 7.

ix. I. I. 15. t I1'10 passages in the Mahd-Bhd-

ia8 This is favoured also by the rata evidently connect themselves

fact that they are here attributed to with the Satapat.ha-Brdhmana, to

fishermen and fowlers ; with which which, as well as to its author Ydj-

inay be compared the tale of the navalkya, and his patron Janaka,

fishermaiden as mother of Vydsa, in special regard is had in this book of

the Mahst-Bluirata. The whole state- the Maha- Bhdrata. [See also Sdfikh.,

lueut recura iu almost identical xvi. 8. 25-29. 32.]

BRAHMAN A OF THE WHITE YAJUS. 125

the Aitareya-Brahmana also) two, three, four, five, und
even six verses are quoted, and always in the same metre,
in slokas, certainly favours the former view. Only one ex-
ception occurs where the first and fourth verses are Slokas,
but the second trishtubh, the third not being quoted at -all ;
it is, however, according to the commentary, understood by
implication, so that this instance tells, perhaps, with a very
special force in favour of the view in question. The ana-
logy of the gdthds or slokas of non-historic purport quoted
elsewhere cannot be brought forward in support either of
the one view or of the other, for the very same uncertainty
exists respecting them. Moreover, these verses repeatedly
contain very old Vedic forms.* Again, their expressions
of eulogy are for the most part very hyperbolical, and they
might therefore perhaps be looked upon as the utterance
of a still fresh feeling of gratitude ; so that we should have
to consider their origin as in part contemporary with the
princes they extol: otherwise this circumstance does not
readily admit of explanation.f A passage in the thirteenth
kdnda itself directly favours this view (see /. St., i. 187).
Among the kings here named the following deserve special
mention: Bharata, son of Duhshanta and the Apsaras
Sakuntala, and descendant of Sudvumua — SatanikaJ Sat-
rajita, king of the Bharatas, and enemy of Dhritarashtra,
king of the Kasis — Purukutsa§ Aikshvaka — Para Atnara
Hairanyanabha Kausalya — but above all, Janamejaya
Parikshita, with the Parikshitiyas (his three brothers), Bhi-
masena, Ugrasena, and Srutasena, who by means of the
horse sacrifice were absolved from " all guilt, all brahma-
hatyti." The time when these last four lived cannot be con-
sidered as very distant from that of tlietkdnda itself, since
their sacrificial priest Indrota Daivapa Saunaka (whom the
Maha- Bharata, xii. 5595, also specifies as such) is once
mentioned in it apparently as coming forward in opposi-

* And names too: thus, tlie king Still this is both in itself a very

of the Panehdlas is called Kraivya, forced explanation, and besides many

the explanation given by the Bnih- of these verses are of purely histori-

mi\na being that the Panehdlas were cal purport, and contain no allusion

' formerly' called Krivis. to the presents given to the priests.

f Unless these verses were merely J See Vaj. S., 34. 52 (not in tho

invented by priests in order to sti- Rik).

mulate kings to copy and emulate § See Rik, mand. iv. 42. 8.
Hie liberality of their ancestors.

1 26 • VEDIC LITER A TURE.

tion to Bhallaveya ; while his own opinion, differing from
that of the latter, is in turn rejected by Yajnavalkya. On
account of the interest of the subject I introduce here an-
other passage from the fourteenth book, from which we
may gather the same result. We there find a rival of
Yajnavalkya testing him with a question, the solution of
whicli the former had previously obtained from a Gan-
dharva, who held in his possession the daughter of Kapya
Patamchala of the country of the Madras ; — the question,
namely, " Whither have the Parikshitas gone ?" the solu-
tion of which therefore appears to have been looked upon
as extremely difficult. Yajnavalkya answers : " Thither
where (all) asmmedha sacrificers go." Consequently the
Parikshitas must at that time have been altogether
extinct. Yet their life and end must have been still
fresh in the memory of the people, and a subject of
general curiosity.* It almost seems as though their " guilt,
their brahmahatyd," had been too great for people to be-
lieve that it could have been atoned for by sacrifices were
they ever so holy ; or that by such means the Parikshitas
could have become partakers of the reward fixed for other
less culpable evil-doers. It appears further as if the Brah-
mans had taken special pains to rehabilitate their memory,
and in this undoubtedly they were completely successful.
Or was it, on the contrary, that the majesty and power of
the Parikshitas was so great and dazzling, and their end so
surprising, that it was difficult to believe they had really
passed away ? I prefer, however, the former explanation.
The fourteenth Jcdnda, at the beginning of its first part
(that relating to ritual), contains a legend of a contention
among the gods, in which Vishnu came off victorious,
whence it became customary to say, " Vishnu is the
srcshtha (luckiest ?) of the gods." This is the first time
that we find Vishnu brought into such prominence;
indeed, he otherwise only appears in the legend of
the three strides, and as the representative of the
sacrifice itself, — a position which is, in fact, ascribed to

* The country of the Madras lies wife of Pundu and mother of the

in the north-west, and is therefore two youngest Pdndavas, Nakula and

remote from the country of the Sahadeva, was a native of this re-

Kururi. According to the Maba"- gion, and Pariksh.it also had a Md-

however, Mildri, second dravati to wife.

BRAHMAN A OF THE WHITE YAJLS. 127

him here also. Indra, as here related, afterwards strikes
off his head in jealousy.139 The second part of this kdnda,
the VriJiad-Aranyaka, which consists of five prapdthakas,
or six adhydyas, is again divided into three Jcdndas, the
Madhukdnda, adhy. i. ii. (prap. i. i-ii. 5) ; the Ydjnaml-
kiya-kdnda, adliy. iii. iv. (prap. ii. 6-iv. 3) ; and the KTiila-
kdnda, adhy. v. vi. (prap. iv. 4~v. 5). Of these three divi-
sions, each succeeding one appears to be later than that which
precedes it, and each closes with a Yans'a or statement of
the line of teachers, carried back to Brahman, the primeval
source. The third brdhmana of the Madhu-kanda is an
explanation of three sloJcas prefixed to it, a form of
which we have no previous example. The fifth (adhy. ii.
i) contains, as has already been stated (p. 51), another
recension of the legend related in the fourth adhydya of
the Kaushitaky-Upanishad, of Ajatasatru, the king of
Kasi, who was jealous of Janaka's fame as a patron of
learning. The eighth (adliy. ii. 4) contains another re-
cension of the closing legend in the Yajnavalkiya-kanda,
of Yajnavalkya's two wives, Maitreyi and Katyayani, —
this being the first mention we have of these names.
Here, as also in the eleventh kanda, we find an enumera-
tion of the subjects of Vedic study, namely, Rigvcda,
Yajurveda, Sdmavcda, the Atliarvdngirasas, itihdsa, pu-
rdna, vidyds, ujyanishads, SloJcas, stitras, anuvydkhydnas,
vydkhydnas* The same enumeration recurs in the Yajna-
valki'ya-kanda (adhy. vi. 10). Samkara and Dvivedaganga,
the commentators of the Vrihad-Aranyaka, both, like
Sayana (on the eleventh kdnda), take the expressions
itihdsa, &c., to mean sections in the Brahmanas. . They
are, in fact, as I have already pointed out (p. 122), used in

139 This is wrong. The gods seud the Pahch. Br. of Muklia alone (cf.

forth ants to gnaw the bowstring of also T. S., iii. 2. 4. I). In the

Vishnu, who stands leaning on his Satapatha, Makha is only mentioned

V>ended bow ; the string, snapping among the gods who assembled,

and springing upwards, severs his though, to be sure, lie appears im-

head from his body. The same mediately before Vishnu,

legend recurs not only in the par- * The last five expressions tnke

allel passage of the Taitt. Ar. (v. here the place of anusdsana, vdko-

i), but also in the Panch. Br., vii. 5. vdkya, ndrdsansis, and gdthds in

6 ; but whilst in the Sat. Br. it, is the eleventh book. The latter ar«

related of Vishnu, the Taitt. Ar. clearly the more ancient.
tells it of Makha Vaishnava, and

1^8 VEDIC LITERATURE.

this sense in the Brahmanas themselves. It is only in
regard to stitra* that I am unable to prove a similar use
(though Dvivedaganga pretty frequently calls certain
sentences by the name of s&tra, e.g., i. 2, 18, 22, 3. I, &c.);
and this term raises a doubt whether the opinion of the
commentators ought to hold good with reference to these
passages also, and their time. The ninth (which is the
last) brdhmana is evidently the one from which the
Madlm-karida received its name. It treats of the intimate
relation existing between the four elements (earth, water,
fire, air), the sun, the quarters of the heavens, the moon,
lightning, thunder, dM£a (ether), &c., on the one hand,
and all beings on the other; this relation being set forth
by representing the one as the madhu (honey) of the
other. This doctrine is traced to Dadhyanch Atbarvana,
as is also, in fact, done in the Rik-Samhita itself (i. 116.
12, 1 17. 22). In the beginning of the fourth Jcdnda of the
Satap. Brahmana also (iv. i. 5. 18) we find the madhu
ndma brdhmanam mentioned expressly in this connection ;
Sayana, too, quotes Sdfydyana (- V&jasaneyau] in support
of it. A very early date is thus guaranteed for the
name at least, and probably also for the contents of this
chapter; though its form, of course, cannot make any
pretension to high antiquity. The concluding Vans'a hire,
as elsewhere, varies very much in the two schools ; that
is, as regards the last twenty members or so back to Yaska
and Asurayana ; but from these upwards to the mythical
fountain-heads the two schools generally agree. Asura-
yana himself (consequently, also Yaska, who is recorded
as his contemporary) is here placed two stages after Asuri ;
at the end of the Khila-kanda he is even designated as
his pupil; Asuri, again, being set down as the pupil of
Y.djnavalkya. The list closes, therefore, with about the
twenty-fifth member from the latter. It must conse-
quently have been continued long after the Madhu-kanda
had been finally put into shape, since both the analogy of
the Van£a contained in the last brdhmana but one of the
Khila-kanda and the very nature of the case forbid the

* The word siitra is found several supreme Brahman itself, which, like
times here, but in the sense of a band, embraces and holds together
4 thread, band,' only, to denote the everything.

BRAHMANA OF THE WHITE YAJUS. 129

conclusion that its redaction could have taken place so
late as the twenty-fifth generation from Yajnavalkya. The
commentators never enter into any explanation of these
Vans'as; doubtless, therefore, they too regarded them as
supplements. The names themselves are naturally highly
interesting, and, as far at least as the later stages are con-
cerned, are probably strictly authentic. — The aim of the
Ydjnavalkiya-lcdnda is the glorification of Yajnavalkya,
and it recounts how, at the court of his patron Janaka,
king of Videha, he silenced all the Brahmans * of the
Kurupanchalas, &c., and gained his patron's full confidence
(like the corresponding legends in the twelfth book of the
Maha-Bharata). The legend narrated in the eleventh Jcdnda
(vi. 3. i. ff.) may perhaps have been the model; at least
the Yajnavalkiya here begins in exactly the same manner,
and gives also, almost in the same words, the account of
the discomfiture and punishment of Vidagdha Sakalya,
which alone is given in the eleventh Jcdnda. It closes with
a legend already given in the Madhu-kanda, but with some
deviations. The expressions pdnditya, muni, and mauna,
occurring in this Jcdnda, are worthy of special notice as
being new140 (iii. 2. I, iv. 2. 25); further, ekaJiansa, £ra-
mana, tdpasa (iv. i. 12, 22), pravrdjin (iv. 2. 25, where
Wiikslidcharya is recommended), and pratibuddha (iv. 2.
17 ; the verb pratibudh occurs in this sense i. 2. 21), and
lastly, the names chdnddla and paulkasa (iv. i. 22). I am
now of opinion t that it is to this Yajnavalkiya-kanda
that the vdrttiJca to Panini iv. 3. 105 refers when it speaks
of the Ydjnaralkdni brdJimandni as not purdna-proJcta,
but tulyakdla, " contemporaneous," i.e., with Panini. The
wording of the vdrttika does not necessarily imply that

* Among them Asvala, the king's hitii, viz., viii. 17. 14, and x. 136.

Hotar, Vidagdha 6akalya, who lost 2-5." — First German edition, Errata,

his life for his impertinence, Kahola Paulkasa is found also in V. S. 30.

Kaushitakeya, and Gdrgi Vsicha- 17.

knavi, who all four (the latter, at f Formerly I was of different

least, according to the Grihya- Sutra) opinion ; see /. St., i. 57. Many of

may be looked upon as representa- the views there expressed — especi-

tives of the Rik, towards which ally pp. 161-232 — have here either

therefore a kind of jealousy is here been further developed or modified

unmistakably exhibited. after careful consideration of the

140 " The word muni occurs in various passages, as may be perceived

the Inter portions of the Ilik-Sam- by comparison.

. 1 30 VEDIC LITER A TURE.

these Brahmanas originated from Yajnavalkya himself;
consequently they might bear his name simply because
treating of him. I prefer the latter view, for it appears to
me very hazardous to regard the entire Satapatha-Brah-
mana, or even its last books only, as directly bearing the
name of Yajnavalkya, — however fully it may embody his
system, — or to set it down as contemporaneous with, or
but little anterior to, Panini. In regard to the Yajnaval-
kiya-kanda, however, I have not the slightest hesitation in
doing the latter.1*1 — Finally, the Khila-Mnda, or last kdnda
of the Vrihad-Aranyaka, is uniformly described by the
commentators as such a Tchila, or supplement ; and as a
matter of fact it is clearly enough distinguished from the
o,ther kdndas. Its first adhydya — the fifth of the Vrihad-
Aranyaka — is made up of a number of small fragments,
which contain for the most part mystical plays upon words,
of the most clumsy description. The second adhydya con-
tains 'two brdhmanas, parts of which, as I have already
remarked (p. 71), recur in precisely the same form in the
Chhandogyopanishad vii. i, 3. Of the third brdJimana,
which contains ritual injunctions, we also find another
recension, ibid. vii. 2. It concludes with a Van£a, not,
however, in the form of a list, but of a detailed account.
According to it^the first author of the doctrine here taught
was Uddalaka Aruni, who imparted it to Yajnavalkya, here
for the first time called Vajasaneya ; * his pupil was Madh-
uka Paiugya, from whom the doctrine was transmitted to
Chuda Bhagavitti, then to Janaki Ayahsthuna, and lastly
to Satyakarna Jabala. The name of the latter (a teacher
often alluded to in the Chhandogyopanishad) is in fact
borne in later works by a school of the White Yajus, so

141 On this subject compare Gold- nini. Although he here counts

stacker's detailed discussion in his Ydjnavalkya among the purdnas,

Panini, p. 132-140, and my special 'ancients,' — and this interpretation

rejoinder, /. St., v. 65-74, xiii. 443, is required by the wording of the

444, /. £<>•., ii. 214. According to vdrttika, — yet the KiMika", on the

these expositions, the author of the contrary, expressly declares him to

vdrttikas must, on the one hand, have be "not chirakdla."
considered the Ydjnavalkdni ttrdh- * In the Ydjtiavalkiyakdnda Ud-

mandni as originally promulgated ddlaka Aruni is, like the other Brah-

(prokta) by Ydjnavalkya ; but, on mans, silenced by Ydjnavalkya, no

the other hand, he must also have mention being made of his being

looked, upon the recension then ex- the preceptor of the latter.
Unt as contemporaneous with Pa"-

BRAHMANA OF THE WHITE YAJUS. 131

that we might perhaps ascribe to him the final adjustment
of this doctrine in its existing form. The fourth and last
brdhmana, of this adhydya is, like the third, surprising,
from the nature of its contents, which, consisting as they
do of the rites to be observed before, arid at the time of,
coitus, as well as after the birth of a son, more properly
pertain to a Grihya-Sutra. It too closes with a VansX*
this time of quite unusual length, and distinguished, as far
as the more recent members are concerned, by this peculi-
arity, that their names are formed by the addition of putra
to the mother's name (see above p. 71), and that both
parts of the names are accentuated. Asuri is here called
the pupil of Yajnavalkya, and the latter the pupil of
Uddalaka, Then, having passed through ten more stages
and arrived at Aditya. the sun-god, as the original author,
we find the following words as the close of the whole
Brahmana : dditydni 'mdni sulddni yafanshi Vdjasaneyena
YdjnavaUq/end "kliydyante, ' these "White Yajus-texts ori-
ginating t from Aditya are transmitted by Vajasaneya
Yajnavalkya.' According to Snmkara and Dvivedagaiiga,
this Vaiisa does not refer to the Khila-kanda, but to the
entire Pravaehana, the entire Veda (i.e., the White Yajus).
This view is at all events favoured by the fact that the
Vaiisa at the close of the tenth book (the only one which
appears in the whole of the Satapatha-Brahmana, besides
those of the Madhu-kanda, Yajnavalkiya-kanda, and Khila-
kanda) J evidently refers to this Van^a, and presupposes
its existence when at its commencement it says : samdnam
d Sdmjiviputrdt, ' up to Samjiviputra the teachers are the
same.' For, ascending from this Samjiviputra, there are
still in this VaiiSa three steps up to Yajnavalkya, while in
the tenth book, as before remarked, the doctrine is not
traced up to the latter at all, but from Samjiviputra
through five steps to Sandilya, and through two more to
Tura Kavasheya.§ — This latter circumstance suggests to

* la the Kdnva recension the Vans'a here too at the close after

Vansaa invariably form separate the words : Ydjnavalkyend "khyd-

cliapters. yante.

•)• Or : ' these White Yajus-texts § Who is quoted in the Aitar.

are named by Vdjasaneya Ydjnaval- Brsthmana as contemporaneous with

kya as originating from Aditya' (?). Janamejaya (as his sacrificial priest);

J The Kdnva recension adds this see /. St., i. 203, note.

I 3 2 VEDIC LITER A TURE.

us, moreover, the possibility of yet another division of the
Satapatha-Brahmana with reference to the origin of the dif-
ferent kdndas. For in the first five and the last four kdndas
the name of Yajnavalkya meets us exclusively, and very fre-
quently, as that of the teacher whose opinion is appealed to
as the decisive authority, whose system consequently is in
any case there set forth.* Further, if we except the Yajna-
vaikiya-kanda and the gdthds in the thirteenth Mnda, races
settled in eastern or central Hindustan are the only ones
mentioned in^ these Mndas, viz., the Kurupanchalas, Ko-
salavidehas, Sviknas, and Srinjayas. Once only the Pra-
chyas (eastern tribes) are opposed to the Vahikas (western
tribes) ; again there is once mention madeof thelldichyas (in-
habitants of the north) ; and lastly, the (southern) Nishadhas
are once alluded to in the name of their king, Nala Naisha-
dha (or, as he is here called, Naishidha). From this the
remaining kdndas — the sixth to the tenth — differ palpably
enough. They recognise Sandilya as the final authority f
instead of Yajnavalkya, whom they do not even name ;
neither do they mention any but north-western races,
viz., the Gandluiras with their king Nagnajit, the Salvas,
and the Kekayas.J May not the above-mentioned Van£a
apply not only to the tenth book, but to these five Jcdndas?
Since the latter treat specially of the fire-ritual, of the
erection of the sacred fire-altars, their possible north-

* The fact that this is so clear later times. Besides, his patron Ja-
inay easily account for the circutn- naka is mentioned at least in the
stance that the Punlnas have here Kaushitaky - Upanishad. [In two
for once a statement in conformity sections of the Kaushitaki-, or,
with fact, as they cite Yajnavalkya Siiukhiiyana-Arnnyaka, which, how-
as the author of the White Yajus. ever, are clearly of very late origin,
We may here mention that the name Yajnavalkya himself is actually
of Yajnavalkya occurs nowhere else cited (9. 7 and 13. l) ; but these
in Vedic literature, which might be passages are themselves direct quo-
explained partly by the difference of tations from Satap. Br. xiv. — lu the
locality, partly by his having edited Gopatha-Br., which shows so many
the White Yajus after the text of special points of relationship to the
the other Vedas had been fixed ; Satapatha, Ydjnavalkya is never
though the latter reason seems in- mentioned.]

sufficient, since other teachers of f So do the Sttma-Sutras ; S.in- '

the White Yajus are mentioned fre- dilya is mentioned besides in the

quently in later Vedic literature, as, Chhdndogyop. only.
for instance, Arimi, Svetaketu, Satya- + The legend concerning these re-

kama J.ibala, &c., who are either curs in the Chhdndogyop.
his contemporaries, or belong to even

BRAHMAN A OF THE WHITE YAJUS. 153

western origin might be explained by the fact that the
doctrine upon this subject had, though differing from that
of the Persa- Aryans, been kept particularly pure in the
north-west owing to the proximity of this latter people.*
However this may be, whether the north-western origin of
the doctrine of these five kdndas be well founded or other-
wise,142 they at any rate belong, in their present form,
to the snme period as (the tenth possibly to a somewhat
later period than) the first five kdndas. f On this point the
mention of Aruria Aupaves'i, Arum, Svetaketu Aruneya,
and of Indradyumna (in the tenth book), as well as the
frequent reprehension of the Charakadhvaryus, is decisive.
That the various parts of the Brahmana were blended to-
gether by one arranging hand 143 is evident in particular
from the repeated occurrence of phrases intimating that a
subject has already been treated of in an earlier part, or is
to be found presented more in detail in a later part. A
closer investigation of the various instances where this
occurs has not as yet been within my power.

The number of deviations in regard to ritual or readings
cited in the Brahmana is very great. To these regard is
had here and there even in the Samhita itself, two differ-
ent mantras being quoted side by side as equally good.
Most frequently the citation of such variations in the
Brahmana is introduced by the words ity eke, or tad dhuTi ;
yet pretty often the names of individual teachers are also
mentioned, who must here, in part at least, be looked upon
as representing the schools which bear their names. Thus
in addition to those already named we have: Ashadha
Sdvayasa, Barku ^Varshna, Aupoditeya, Panchi, Takshan,
Jivala Chailaki, Asuri, Madhuki, Kahoda Kaushitaki, Var-
shnya Satyayajna, Satyayajni, Tandya, Budila AsVatarasVi,

* Ought we to bring the Sdkd- 14t The strong censure passed up-

yanins into direct connection with on the residents on the seven western

the latter? But then what would rivers in ix. 3. I. 24 must be ascribed

become of the connection between to this 'arranging hand ;' see 1. St.,

Sakayanya (in the Maitray;mi-Upa- xiii. 267. — That the White Yajus

nishad) and the Sitkyas? (!). was arranged iu eastern Hindustdn,

14- See on this my detailed dis- seems to be proved by the statements

cussion in I. St., xiii. 265-269, where in the Pratijnd-Parisishta respecting

I call special attention to various the extent of the Madhyades'a ; see

differences in point of language be- my essay on the Pratijnd- Sutra, pp.

tweeu books i.-v. and vi.-ix. 101, 105.

1 34 VEDIC LITER A TURE.

Rama Aupatasvini, Kaukusta, Mahitthi, Mudimbha* Au-
danya, Saumapau Manutantavyau, Satyakama Jabala, Sai-
lali, &c. Besides the Charakadhvaryus, Bhallaveya in par-
ticular is regularly censured, from which I conclude, as
already stated (p. 95), that the Bhallavi-Brahmana should
be reckoned among those of the Black Yajus. By the
"eke," where these are found fault with, we should pro-
bably also understand (e.g., once for certain in the lirst
kdnda) the adherents of the Black Yajus. Once, however
(in the eighth kdnda}, a reading of the Kanva school is
quoted by " eke " and disputed. How the matter stands
in the Brahmana of the latter as to this passage, whether
it finds fault with the reading of the Madhyamdina school,
I arn not able to say. A collection of passages of this
kind would naturally be of peculiar interest.

The legends interspersed in such numbers throughout
the Brahmana have a special significance. In some of
them the language is extremely antiquated, and it is pro-
bable therefore that before their incorporation into it they
possessed an independent form. The following deserve
special mention from their being treated in detail, viz., the
legends of the Deluge and the rescue of Manu; of the
emigration of Videgha Mathava Irom the Sarasvati to the
Sadanira in the country of the Kosala-Videhas ; of the
restoration to youth of Chyavana by the AsVins at the
request of his wife Sukanya, the daughter of Saryata Ma-
nava ; of the contest between Kadrii and Suparni ; of the
love and separation of Puriiravas and Urvasi, and others.
Many of them reappear as episodes in the epic, in a
metrical garb, and often very much altered. It is
obvious that we have here a much more intimate con-
nection with the epic than exists in the other Brah-
manas. The names Valhika, Janamejaya, and Nagnajit
have the most direct reference to the legend of the Maha-
Bharkta; as also the names already discussed above in
connection with the Samhita, Amba, Ambika, Ambalika,
Subhadra, and the use there made of the words arjuna and
plialyuna. In any case, we must look for the explanation

* Compare the Mutibhas in the M;i<lhuki (or Paifigya), and Kansii:-
Aitar. Br. — Of the above, only Bu- taki are mentioned elsewhere.
U.la, the Saumapau, Sutyakuma,

B RAH MAN A OF THE WHITE YAJUS. 135

of this in the circumstance, that this Brahmana substan-
tially originated and attained its final shape among the
tribes of the Kurupanchalas and the neighbouring Kosala-
Videhas. The king of the latter, Janaka, who is repre-
sented in it as the chief patron of the sacred doctrine it
embodies, bears the same name as the father of Sita and
father-in-law of Earna, in the Bamayana. This is, how-
ever, the only point of contact with the Eamayana legend
which can here be traced, and as the name Janaka seems
to have belonged to the whole family, it also virtually dis-
appears. Nevertheless I am inclined to identify the father
of Sita with this exceptionally holy Janaka, being of
opinion that Sita herself is a mere abstraction, and that
consequently she had assigned to her the most renowned
father possible. As regards the special relation in which
the Brahmana stands to the legend of the Maha-Bharata,
Lasseu, it is well known, takes as the fundamental feature
of the latter a conflict between the Kurus and the Pari-
chalas, ending in their mutual annihilation, the latter being
led by the family of the Pandus, who came from the west.
Now at the time of the Brahmana, we find the Kurus and
the Panchalas still in full prosperity,* and also united in
the closest bonds of friendship as one people.f Conse-
quently this internecine strife cannot yet have taken place.
On the other hand, in the latest portions of the Brahmana,
we find the prosperity, the sin, the expiation, and the fall
of Janamejaya IMrikshita and his brothers Bhimasena,
Ugrasena, and Srutasena, and of the whole family of the
Parikshitas, apparently still fresh in the memory of the
people and discussed as a subject of controversy. In the
Maha-Bharata boundless confusion prevails regarding these
names. Janamejaya and his brothers, already mentioned,
are represented either as great-grandsons of Kuru, or else
as the great-grandsons of the Panduid Arjuna, at whose
snake-sacrifice Vai^ampayana related the history of the

* Though certainly in the lastpor- -j- At least I am not able to offer

tions of the Br. the Kosala-Videhas .another explanation of the word

iseem to have a certain preponder- Kurupanch.ila ; it is, moreover, note-

ance ; and there had perhaps existed worthy that no name of a king of the

as early as the time of the Samhitti Kurupanchdlas is ever mentioned,

(see p. 114) a certain rivalry between Such names are quoted only for

the Kurus and Paiichdlas. Kauravya- or Paiichiila- kings.

136 VEDIC LITERATURE.

great struggle between the Kurus and the Piinclus. Adopt-
ing the latter view, which appears to be the better war-
ranted, from the fact that the part of the Maha-Bharata
which contains it is written in prose, and exhibits a pecu-
liarly ancient garb, the supposed great internecine conilict
between the Kurus and the Panchalas, arid the dominion
of the Pandavas, must have been long past at the time of
the Brahmana. How is this contradiction to be explained ?
That something great and marvellous had happened in the
family of the Parikshitas, and that their end still excited
astonishment at the time of the Brahmana, has already
been stated. But what it was we know not. After what
has been said above, it can hardly have been the overthrow
of the Kurus by the Panchalas ; but at any rate, it must
have been deeds of guilt ; and indeed I am inclined to regard
this as yet unknown ' something ' as the basis of the legend
of the Maha-Bharata.144 To me it appears absolutely neces-
sary to assume, with Lassen, that the Pandavas did not
originally belong to the legend, but were only associated
with it at a later time,145 for not only is there no trace of
them anywhere in the Brahmanas or Sutras, but the name
of their chief hero, Arjuna (Phalguna), is still employed
here, in the Satapatha- Brahmana (and in the Samhita), as
a name of Indra ; indeed he is probably to be looked upon
;is originally identical with Indra, and therefore destitute
of any real existence. Lassen further (I. AK., i. 647, ff.)
concludes, from M'l.at Megasthenes (in Arrian) reports of
the Indian Heracles, his sons and his daughter HavBaia, and
also from other accounts in Curtius, Pliny, and Ptolemy,*
that at the time when Megasthenes wrote, the mythical
association of Krishna (?) with the Pandavas already ex-

144 See Indian Antiquary, ii. 58 1-4 (Ath., xx. 127. ^-lo), serve;

(1873). I may add the following, as although in Ait. Br., vi. 22 (Sdnkh.

it possibly has a bearing here. Yrid- Br., xxx. 5), they are referred to

ilhadyuimia Abhipratdnn i (=ee Ait. ' fire ' or 'year;' but see Gopatha-

Br., iii. 48) was cursed by a Brahman Br., xi. 12. Another legend re-

<>ii account of improper sacrifice, to specting Janamejaya PaYikshita is

the effect that : imam era prati s«- found in the Gopatha-Br., ii. 5.

muramKurarahKwukshetrdchchyo- U5 See my detailed discussion of

sliyanta iti, Saiikh., xv. 16. 12 (and this in /. St., ii. 402-404.

K" it came to pass). For the glorifica- * Curtius and Pliny wrote in the

tion of the Kauravya king Parikshit first, Arrian and Ptolemy ill the

the four verses, &llikh, Sr., xii. 1 7. second century A.D.

BRAHMANA OF THE WHITE YAJUS. 13?

isted. But this conclusion, although perhaps in itself pro-
bable, is at least not certain ;* and even it' it were, it would
not prove that the Pandavas were at that time already
associated with the legend of the Kurus. And if we have
really to assign the arrangement of the Madhyamdina re-
cension (see p. 106) to about the time of Megasthenes, it
may reasonably be inferred, from the lack of all men-
tion of the Pandavas in it, that their association with
the Kurus had nut then been established; although, strictly
speaking, this conclusion has weight not so much for the
period when the arrangement of the work actually took
place, as for the time to which the pieces arranged belong.
As with the epic legends, so also do we h'nd in the
Satapatha- Brahmana several points of contact with the
legends of the Buddhists, on the one hand, and with the
later tradition concerning the origin of the Samkhya doc-

O O * / */

trine, on the other. First, as regards the latter. Asuri, the
name of one of its chief authorities, is at the same time the
name of a teacher frequently mentioned in the Sitapatha-
Brahmana. Again, though only in the Yajnavalkiya-kanda,
we have mention of a Kapya Patamchala of the country of
the Madras as particularly distinguished by his exertions
in the cause of Brahmanical theology ; and in his name we
cannot but see a reference to Kapila and Patamjali, the
traditional founders of the Samkhya and Yoga systems.
As regards the Buddhist legends, the Sakyas of Kapilayastu
(whose name may possibly be connected with the Saka-
yanins of the tenth kdnda, and the Sdkayanya of the
Maitrayana-Upanishad) called themselves Gautamas, a
family name which is particularly often represented among
the teachers and in the lists of teachers of the Brahmana.
It is, moreover, the country of the Kosalas and Videhas that
is to be looked, upon as the cradle of Buddhism. — Sveta-
ketu (son of Arum), one of the teachers most frequently
mentioned in the Satapatha-Brahmana, is with^ the Bud-
dhists the name of one of the earlier births of Sakyamuni

"The incest of Hercules with and Arjuna occur together in Pda,

Ila.v5a.ia must certainly be traced iv. 3. 98, cannot be considered as a

to the incest of Prajdpati and his proof of their being connected with

daughter, so often touched ou iu each other ; see /. St., xiii. 349, ff.]
the Brdhmiinas. [That Vdsudeva

133 VEDIC LITERATURE.

(see Ind. Stud., ii. 76, note). — That the mdyadka of the
JSamhita may perhaps also be adduced in this connection is
a point that lias already been discussed (pp. in, 112). — The
words arhant (iii. ,4. I. 3, ff.), framana (Vrih. Ar., iv. I. 22,
as well as Taitt. Ar., ii. 7, beside tdpasa), mahdbrdhmana *
(Vrih. Ar., ii. I. 19. 22), and pratibuddha, although by no
means used in their Buddhistic technical sense, yet indi-
cate how this gradually arose. — The name Chelaka also iu
the Brahmana may possibly have some connection with
the peculiarly Buddhistic sense attached to the word chela.
Ajata^atru and Brahmadatta,t on the contrary, are probably
but namesakes of the two persons designated by the Bud-
dhists under these names as contemporaries of Buddha (?).
The same probably also applies to the Vatsiputriyas of the
Buddhists and the Vatsiputras of the Vrih. Arany. (v. 5.
31), although this form of name, being uncommon, perhaps
implies a somewhat closer connection. It is, however, the
family of the Katyayanas, Katyayaniputras, which we find
represented with special frequency among the Buddhists
as well as in the Brahmana (although only in its very
latest portions). We find the first mention]; of this name
in the person of one of the wives of Yajnavalkya, who is
called Katyayani, both in the Madhu-kanda and the
Ynjnavalkiya-kanda ; it also appears frequently in the lists
of teachers, and almost the whole of the Sutras belong-

* Beside mnhdrujn, which is found Keel. St.,v.6i, 63,64. A Ksityii-
even earlier, i. 5. 3- 21, ii. 5- 4- 9- yaniputra Jat&karnya is quoted in

+ With the surname Chaikitdneya tbeSttfikh. Ar., viii. 10. Patamjaliin

Vrih. Ar. Mddhy., i. I. 26. — In the MahabhrUhya mentions several

Maha-BhaYata, xii. 5136, 8603, a K.ityas (I. St., xiii. 399, 407), and

Pdilchdlyo rc'ijd named Brahmadatta indeed the vdrttikakdra directly be-

is mentioned, who reigned in K.im- longs to this family. In no other

pilya. — Cliaikitiineya is to be distin- Vedic texts have I found either the

guished from Chaikitdyana in the Kntas or the Kiltyas, Kdtydyanas,

Clihitndogyopaii., iii. 8. — [On a euri- excepting in the^srawnv^section ap-

ons coincidence of a legend in the Bended .at the end of the Asvaldyana-

A'rihad-Ar. with a Buddhist legend, Srauta-Stitra, xii. 13-15, in which

see 7. St., iii. 156, 157-1 the Katas and the patronymic,

* Tn the tenth book of the Taitt. Kittya, are mentioned several times.
Ar., Kiltyiiyana (instead of °ni) is a The Kuru-Katas are cited in the
name of Durg.-l ; on this use see /. r/rma ' Garya,' and the family of the
St., ii. 192 [xiii. 422]. — In the Gana- Katas seems therefore to have been
pdtha to Pitnini, Katyayana is want- (specially connected with the Kurus ;
ing. [But Kfitydyani is to be gath- see /. St., i. 227, 228.]

cred from Panini himself, iv. I. 18 ;

SUTRAS OF THE WHITE YAJUS. 139

ing to the White Yajus Lear this name as that of their
author. f

The Satnpatha-Bnihmana has been commented in the
Madhyamdina recension by Harisvamin and Sayana; but
their commentaries are so far extant only in a fragmentary
form.140 The Vrihad-Aranyaka has been explained by
Dviyeda Gaiiga (of Gujarat) ; and in the Kanva recension
by Samkara, to whose commentary a number of other
works by his pupils, &c., attach themselves. As yet only
the first kdnda, with extracts from the commentaries, has
been published, edited by myself. In the course of the
next three years, however, the work will be printed in its
entirety.147 The Vrihad-Aranyaka in the Kanva recension
has been edited by Poley, and recently by Koer, together
with Samkara's commentary and a gloss thereon.148

I now turn to the Stitras of the White Yajus. The first
of these, the Srauta-Stitra of Kdfydyana, consists of
twenty-six adhydyas, which on the whole strictly observe
the order of the Brahmana. The first eighteen correspond
to its first nine kdndas ; the Sautramani is treated of in
the nineteenth, the horse sacrifice in the twentieth adhy-
dya ; the twenty-first contains the human, universal, and
Manes sacrifices. The next three adhydyas refer, as before
stated (p. 80), to the ceremonial of the Samaveda, to its
several ckdhas, ahinas, and sattras ; yet they rather specify
these in the form of lists than present, as the other adhy-
dyas do, a clear picture of the whole sacrificial proceedings.
The twenty-fifth adhydya treats of the prdyaschittas, or
expiatory ceremonies, corresponding to the first part of the
twelfth kdnda ; and lastly, the twenty-sixth adhydya con-
tains the pravargya sacrifice, corresponding to the first part
of the fourteenth kdnda. — Only a few teachers are cited
by name, and among these are two belonging to authors of
Sutras of the Black Yajus, viz., Laugakshi and Bharadvaja;
besides whom, only Jatukarnya, Vatsya, Badari, Kdita-

146 And in very bad manuscripts. 148 Roer's translation (1856) in-

147 Thelastfasciculuswaspublished eludes the commentary of the first
in 1855. A translation of the first adhydya; he also gives several ex-
book, and also of some legends spe- tracts from it in the subsequent
cially mentioned above, is printed in chapters.

vol. i. of my Indischc Strcifcn (1868).

1 40 VEDIC LIT ERA TURE.

kritsni, and Karshnajini are named. We meet with the
three last of these elsewhere only 149 in the Yedanta-Sutra
of Badarayana, Badari excepted, who appears also in the
Mimansa- Sutra of Jaimini. Vatsya is a name which oc-
casionally occurs in the Van^as of the Satapatha-Brah-
mana ; 15° and the same applies to Jatiikarnya, who appears
in the Yans'a of the Madhu- and ^Yajnavalkiya-kandas in
the Kanva recension as a pupil of Asurayana and of Yaska.
(In the Madhyamdina recension, another teacher inter-
venes between the last-named and Jatiikarnya, viz., Bha-
radvaja.) He is also mentioned in the Aitareya-Aranyaka,
and repeatedly in the Pratilakhya-Sutra of the White Yaj us.
Besides these, " eke" are frequently quoted, whereby refer-
ence is made to other Sakhas. One passage gives expression
to a certain hostility towards the descendants of^the daugh-
ter of Atri (the Haleyas, Valeyas, Kaudreyas, Saubhreyas,
Ycdmarathyas, Gopavanas) ; while the descendants of Atri
himself are held in especial honour. A similar hostility
is exhibited in other passages towards the descendants of
Kanva, Kas"yapa, and Kautsa; yet these three words, ac-
cording to the commentaries, may also be taken as appel-
latives, kanva as " deaf," kasyapa as " having black teeth"
(sj/dvadanta), and kautsa as " doing blamable things."
The first adhy&ya is of peculiar interest, as it gives the
paribhdshds, or general rules for the sacrificial ceremonial.
Otherwise this work, being entirely based upon the Brah-
mana, and therefore in no way an independent production,
contains but few data throwing light upon its probable
age. Amongst such we may reckon in particular* the
circumstance that the word vijaya, " conquest," sc. of the

149 Kitsakritsni appears as a gram- pointing to later times; it belongs

marian also; he is possibly even to the same class as agnl = 3, bhA =

earlier than Piinini ; see 7. St., xiii. I, &c. [This is wrong; a little be-

398, 413. On a Vedic commentator fore, in xx. 5. 16, mention is made

KitsMkritsnn, see above, pp. 42, 91. of 101 manis, and in xx. 7. I we have

15U In addition to this there is simply a reference back to this. We

quoted in ix. 5. I. 62 the opinion of might rather cite gdyatrisampannd.

a teacher bearing this name ; r a &c., xx. II. 21, ff., in the sense of

Viltsa is mentioned in the Aitar. Ar. 24. &c., but there is this material dif-

and Sdflkh. Ar. furence from the later use, that it is

* The use of mani, xx. 7- r> to \wtgdyatri alone which means 24, but

denote 101, may also be instanced as ydyatrisampanna .]

SUTRAS OF THE WHITE YAJUS. 141

points of the compass,* is once used in the sense of " the
points of the compass " themselves (xx. 4. 26), which evi-
dently presupposes the custom of the dig-vijayas — probably
also poetical descriptions of them (?). The adhydyas relat-
ing to the Saman ceremonial (xxii.-xxiv.) are the richest
in this kind of data. They treat, for instance, like the
Sama-Sutras, of the sacrifices on the Sarasvati, and also of
the Vratya-sacrifices, at which we find the Mdfjadhadesiya
Irahmabandhu (xxii. 4. 22) occupying the same position as
in Latyayana.

The Katyayana-Siitra has had many commentators, as
Yasoga,161 Pitribhuti, Karka (quoted by Sayana, and there-
fore prior to him152), Bhartriyajna, Sri-Ananta, Devayaj-
nika (or Yajnikadeva), and Mahadeva* The works of the
three last,f and that of Karka are, however, the only ones
that seem to have been preserved. The text, with extracts
from these commentaries, will form the third part of my
edition of the White Yajus.153 — To this Sutra a multitude

* See Lassen, /. AK., i. 542.
[According to the St. Petersburg
Dictionary, the word in the above
passage should only mean ' gain, the
thing conquered, booty ; ' but a re-
ference to locality is made certain by
the parallel passage, I-dty., ix. 10.
17: vijitasya ra madhye yajet (yo
yasya deso vijitah sydt, so, tasya m.
y.} ; forthedigvijayas, it is true, we
do not gain anything by this pas-
sage.]

151 This name must be read Ya.so-
gopi ; see my edition, Introd., p. vii.

152 A Dltumrdyanasagotra Karkd-
dhydpaka occurs in an inscription
published by Dowson in Journal R.
A. 8., i. 283 (1865), of Sridattaku-
salin (Prasantardffa), dated sam. 380
(but of what era?).

f [They are, however, incom-
plete, in part exceedingly so.] The
earliest MS. hitherto known of the
rydkhyd of Yajnikadeva is dated
samvat 1639. — I have given the
names of these commentators in the
order in which they are cited by one
another ; no doubt there were other
commentators also preceding Yasoga
[Yas"ogopi]. In the Fort William

Catalogue, under No. 742, a com-
mentary by Mahidhara is mentioned,
but I question provisionally the cor-
rectness of this statement. [The
correct order is : Karka, Pitribhuti,
Yasogopi, Bhartriyajna. They are
so cited by Ananta, who himself
seems to have lived in the first half
of the sixteenth century, provided
he be really identical with the Sri-
Niadanantjlkhyachdturma'syayjtjin,
whom' Ndrayana, the author of the
Mtihuilaniiirtanda, mentions as his
father; see my Catalogue of the
Berlin MSS., No. 879. Deva on i.
IO. 13 quotes a NaYayanabhjtshya ;
might not Ananta's son be its au-
thor ?]

153 This pnrt was published 1856-
59 ; Deva's Paddhati to books i.-v.
is there given in full, also his com-
mentary on book i. ; the extracts
from the scholia to books ii.-xi.
are likewise taken from Deva's com-
mentary: those to books ii.-v. there
exhibit, as to style, some differences
from the original wording, resulting
from abbreviations ; the extracts
for books xii.-xxvi. come from the
scholium of Karka and from an ano*

142 VEDIC LITERATURE.

of Paddhatis (outlines), extracts, and similar works * attach
themselves, and also a large number of Pari&shtas (supple-
ments), which are all attributed to Katyayana, and have
found many commentators. Of these, we must specially
draw attention to the Nigama-Pari&shta, a kind of syno-
nymic glossary to the White Yajus ; and to the Pravard-
dhydyaf an enumeration of the different families of the
Brahmans, with a view to the proper selection of the sacri-
ficial priests, as well as for the regulation of the inter-
marriages forbidden or permissible among them. The
Charana-vyuha, an account of the schools belonging to the
several Vedas, is of little value. Its statements may for
the most part be correct, but it is extremely incomplete,
and from beginning to end is evidently quite a modern
compilation.154

The Sutra of Vaijavdpa, to which I occasionally find
allusion in the commentaries on the Katiya-Sutra, I am
inclined to class among the Sutras of the White Yajus, as
I do not meet with' this name anywhere else except in the
Vargas of the Satap. Br. Here we have both a Vaijavapa
and a Vaijavapayana, both appearing among the most
recent members of the lists (in the Kanva recension I find
only the latter, and he is here separated by five steps only
from Yaska). A Grihya-Sutra of this name is also cited.

The Kdtiya Grihya-Sutra^5 in three Jcdndas, is attri-
buted to Paraskara, from whom a school of the White

nyinons epitome (samkskiptasdra) of ff.), contain by far richer material.

Deva, the MS. of which dates from If all these schools actually existed

samvat 1609. None of these com- — but there is certainly a great deal

militaries is complete. of mere error and embellishment in

* By Gadddhara, Harihararnisra, these statements — then, in truth,

Kenudikshita, GangaVlhara, &c. lamentably little has been left to us !

t Printed, but unfortunately from 15S See Stenzler's account of its

a very bad codex, in my Catalogue contents in Z. D. M. G., vii. (1853).

of the Berlin MSS., pp. 54-62. [See and his essay ou the arghdddna

I. St., x. 88, ff.] (Filr., i. S^Breslau, 1855).— The sec-

154 Edited in /. St., iii. 247-283 tions on marriage ceremonial have

(1854); see also Miiller, A, S. L., been published by Haas, /. St., v.

p. 368, ff., and Rcijendra Lstla Mitra 283, ff., whilst the sections on the

in the preface to his translation of jdtakarman have been edited by

the Chhdndogyopanishad, p. 3. The Speijer (1872), together with critical

enumerations of the Vedic schools variants (pp. 17-23) to the MS. of

in the Vishnn-Purdna, iii. 4, and the whole text which was used by

especially in the Vdyu-Purdna, chap. Stenzler.
Ix. (see Aufrecnt's Cataloyus, p. 54,

SUTRAS OF THE WHITE YAJUS. i.jj

Yajus also (according to the Charanavyuha) derived its
name. The word Paraskara is used as a samfnd, or proper
name — but, according to the gana, to denote a district —
in. tliC: Sutra of Panini ; but I am unable to trace it in
Vedic literature. To this Grihya-Sutra there are still ex-
tant a Paddhati by Vasudeva, a commentary by Jayarama,
and above all a most excellent commentary by Rama-
krishna under the title of Samskdra-ganapati, which ranks
above all similar works from its abundant quotations and
its very detailed and exhaustive handling of the various
subjects. In the introduction, which deals with the Veda
in general and the Yajurveda in particular, Eamakrishna
declares that the Kanva school is the best of those belong-
ing to the Yajus. — Under the name of Paraskara there
exists also a Smriti-Sastra, which is in all probability
based upon this Grihya-Sutra. Among the remaining
Smriti-Sastras, too, there are a considerable number whose
names are connected with those of teachers of the White
Yajus; for instance, Yajnavalkya, whose posteriority to
Manu quite corresponds to the posteriority of the White
Yajus to the Black Yajus — and no doubt also to that of
the Katiya-Sutra to the Manava-Siitra ; — further, Katya-
yana (whose work, however, as we saw,^ connects itself
with the Sumaveda), Kanva, Gautama, Sandilya, Jabali,
and Para^ara. The last two names appear among the
schools of the White Yajus specified in the Cliaranavyuha,
and we also find members of their families named in the
Vaii^as of the Satapatha-Brahmana, where the family of
the Parasaras is particularly often represented.*

The Prdtisdlchya-Sutra of the White Yajus, as well as
its Anukramani, names at its close Katyayana as its author.
In the body of the work there is mention, first, of three
grammarians, whom we also find cited in the PratiSakhya
of the Rik, in Yaska, and in Panini, viz;., Sakatayana,
Sakalya, and Gargya ; next, of Kasyapa, likewise men-
tioned by Panini; and, lastly, of Dalbhya, Jatukarnya,
Saunaka (the author of the Rik-Prati^akhya ?), Aupasivi,

* [See /. St., i. 156.] Pilnini, iv. cants. [The Pdrd&arino bkikshavah

3. no (a rule which possibly does are mentioned in the Mahdbh£«hya

not belong to him), attributes to a also, and besides a Kalpa by Puni-

PaYasarya a Bhikshu-Stitra, i.e., a sura; see /. St., xiii. 340, 445.]
compendium for religious uiendi-

144 VEDIC LITERATURE.

Ktinva, and the Madhyamdinas. The distinction in i. I.
1 8, 19 between veda and Widshya, i.e., works in Ikdskd,
— which corresponds to the use of the latter word in Panini,
— has already been mentioned (p. 57). The first of the
eight adhydyas contains the samjnds and paribhdshds, i.e.,
technical terms * and general preliminary remarks. The
second adhy. treats of the accent; the third, fourth, and
fifth of samsktira, i.e., of loss, addition, alteration, and
constancy of the letters with reference to the laws of
euphony ; the sixth of the accent of the verb in the sen-
tence, &c. ; the eighth contains a table of the vowels and
consonants, lays down rules on the manner of reading 15°
(svddhydya), and gives a division of words corresponding
to tli at of Yaska. Here, too, several slokas are quoted re-
ferring to the deities of the letters and words, so that I am
almost inclined to consider this last adhydya (which is,
moreover, strictly speaking, contained in the first) as a
v'ater addition. f We have an excellent commentary on
this work by TJvatn, who has been repeatedly mentioned,
under the title of Mdtrimodaka.157

The Anukramani of Katyayana contains, in the first
place, in the first four adhydyas (down to iv. 9), an index
of the authors, deities, and metres of the several sukldni
yafunski "White Yajus-formulas" contained in the "Mddh-
yamdiniye Vdjasaneyake Yajurvcddmndye sarve [?] salchile
sasukriye," which the saint Yajnavalkya received from
Vivasvant, the sun-god. For their viniyoya, or liturgical
use, we are referred to the Kalpakara. As regards the
names of authors here mentioned, there is much to be re-
marked. The authors given for the richas usually agree
with those assigned to the same verses in the Rig-anukra-
mani ; there are, however, many exceptions to this. Very
often the particular name appears (as is also the case in

* Anion^ them tin, krit, tmliUiita, latiou, with critical introduction and

and u]>adlid, terms quite agreeing explanatory notes, in I. St., iv. 65-

with Pimini's terminology. 160, 177-331, Goldstiicker in his

158 Rather: 'reciting;' because J'tinini, pp. 186-207, started a spe-

here too we must dismiss all idea cial controversy, in which inter alia

of writing and reading. he attempts in particular to show

. "t In that case the mention of the that the author of tbiswork is iden-

Madhyamdmas would go for nothing, tical with the author of the rtlrttikas

167 In connection with my edition to Panini ; see my detailed rejoinder

of this Prdtisitkhya, text and trans- in 7. St., v. 91-124.

A THAR VA-SAMHITA. 145

the Rig-anukramani) to be borrowed from some word
occurring in the verse. In the case where a passage is
repeated elsewhere, as very often happens, it is frequently
assigned to an author different from the one to whom it
had previously been attributed. Many of the Rishis here
mentioned do not occur among those of the Rik, and be-
long to a later stage than these ; among them are several
even of the teachers mentioned in the Satapatha-Brahmana.
The closing part of the fourth adhydya* contains the
dedication of the verses to be recited at particular cere-
monies to their respective Rishis, deities, and metres, to-
gether with other similar mystical distributions. Lastly,
the fifth adhydya gives a short analysis of the metres
which occur. In the excellent^ but unfortunately not alto-
gether complete Paddhati of Srihala to this Anukramani
we find the liturgical use of each individual verse also
given in detail.

The Yajus recension of the three works called Vedaiigas,
viz., Siksha, Chhandas, and Jyotisha, has already been dis-
cussed (p. 60). f

We come now to the Atharvaveda.

The Samhitd of the Atharvaveda contains in twenty
Mndas 158 and thirty-eight prapdthakas nearly 760 hymns
and about 6000 verses. Besides the division into prapd-
fhakas, another into anuvdkas is given, of which there are

* Published together with the into twenty books is attested for the

fifth adhydya, and the beginning of period of the author of the vdrttikas,

the work, in my edition of the Yaja- and also by the Gopatha-Bra'hmana

saneyi - Sarphitd, introduction, pp. i. 8; see I. St., xiii. 433; whereas

Iv.-lviii. both the Ath. S. itself (19. 22, 23)

t For particulars I refer to my and the Ath. Par. 48. 4-6 still con-

Catalogue of the Berlin MSS., pp. tain the direct intimation that it

96-100 [and to my editions, already formerly consisted of sixteen books

mentioned, of these three tracts]. only ; see /. St., iv. 432-434.

158 This division of the Ath. S.

1 46 VEDIC LITER A TURE.

some ninety. The division into parvans, mentioned in the
thirteenth book of the Satapatha-Brahmana, does not ap-
pear in the manuscripts ; neither do they state to what
school the existing text belongs. As, however, in one of
the PariSishtas to be mentioned hereafter (the seventh), the
rich as belonging to the -ceremony there in question are
quoted as Paippalddd mantrdh, it is at least certain that
there was a Samhita belonging to the Paippalada school,
and possibly this may be the Samhita now extant.169 Its
contents and principle of division are at present unknown100
in their details. We only know generally that " it prin-
cipally contains formulas intended to protect against the
baneful influences of the divine powers,* against diseases
and noxious animals ; cursings of enemies, invocations of
healing herbs ; together with formulas for all manner of
occurrences in every-day life, prayers for protection on
journeys, luck in gaming, and the like" f — all matters for
which analogies enough are to be found in the hymns of
the Rik-Samhita. But in the Rik the instances are both
less numerous, and, as already remarked in the introduc-
tion (p. 11), they are handled in an entirely different
manner, although at the same time a not inconsiderable
portion of these songs reappears directly in the Rik, par-
ticularly in the tenth mandala* As to the ceremonial for
which the hymns of the Atharvan were used, what corre.-

159 According to a tract recently riage, xv. of the glorification of
published by Kotli, Dcr Atkarvareda Vnitya, xvi., xvii. of certain con-
in Kashmir (1875), this 's n°t the jurations, xviii. of burial and the
case ; the extant Samhit<i seems festival of the Manes. Book xix. is
rather to belong to the school of a mixture of supplementary pieces,
the Sannakas, whilst the Paippaliida- part of its text being in a rather
Samhitd has come down to us in a corrupt condition ; book xx. con-
second recension, still preserved in tains, — with one peculiar exception,
Kashmir. the so-called kuntdpastikta, — only

160 The arrangement in books i.- complete hymns addressed to Indra,
vii. is according to the number of which are borrowed directly and
verses in the different pieces ; these without change from the Rigveda.
have, on an average, four verses in Neither of thess two last books is
book i., five in ii., six in iii., seven noticed in the Atharva-Prdtisitkhya
in i v., eight to eighteen in v., three (see note 167), and therefore they did
in vi., and only one in vii. Books not belong to the original text at
viii.-xiii. contain longer pieces. As the time of this work.

to the contents, they are indiscrimi- * Of the stars, too, i.e., of the

nately mixed up. Books xiv.— xviii., lunar asterisms.

on the 'contrary, have all a uniform f See lloth, Zur Lilt, und Gcscti,

lubject-matter ; xiv. treats of mar- dcs Wcdn, p. 12.

ATHARVA-SAMHITA. 147

spends to it in the other Vedas is found, not in the Srauta-
Sutras, but with few exceptions in the Grihya-Sutras only ;
and it appears therefore (as I have likewise already re-
marked) that this ceremonial in its origin belonged rather
to the people proper than to the families of priests. As
in the Shadvin£a-Brahmana and in the Sama-Sutras we
actually meet with a case (see p. 78) where an imprecatory
ceremony is borrowed from the Vratinas, or Aryans who
had not adopted the Brahmanical organisation, we may
further reasonably conjecture that this was not a solitary
instance; and thus the view naturally presents itself that,
though the Atharva-Samhita originated for the most part
in the Brahmanical period, yet songs and formulas may also
have been incorporated into it which properly belonged to
these unbrahmanical Aryans of the west.* And as a mat-
ter of fact, a very peculiar relation to these tribes is unmis-
takably revealed in the fifteenth kdnda, where the Supreme
Being is expressly called by the name of Vratya,161 and is
at the same time associated with the attributes given in
the Samaveda as characteristics of the Vratyas. In the
same way, too, we find this word Vratya employed in the
Atharva-Upanishads in the sense of " pure in himself" to
denote the Supreme Being. The mention of the mdyatVia
in the Vratya-book, and the possibility that this word may
refer to anti-brahmanical Buddhist teachers, have already
been discussed (p. 1 1 2). In a passage communicated by
Roth, op. c. p. 38, special, and hostile, notice is taken of the
Afigas and Magadhas in the East, as well as of the Gan-
dhfiris, Mujavants, Sudras, Mahavrishas, and Valhikas in
the North-West, between which tribes therefore the Brah-
manical district was apparently shut in at the time of
the composition of the song in question. Intercourse
with the West appears to have been more active than
with the East, five of the races settled in the West
being mentioned, and two only of those belonging to the

* In the Vislinu-Piirdna the Sain- the Chulikopanishad, v. n (see 7.

dhavas, Saindhaviiyanaa are men- St., i. 445, 446, ix. 15, 16). Ac-

tioned as a school of the Atharvan. cording to Roth, on the contrary

161 This explanation of the con- (see above p. 112, note), the purpose

tents of this book and of the word of the book is rather " the idealising

vrdtya is based upon its employment of the devout vagrant or mendicant

iu the Prasnopanishad 2. 7, and in (parivrdjaka, &c.)."

\ 48 VEDIC LITER A TURE.

East. In time it will certainly be possible, in the Atharva-
Samhita also, to distinguish between pieces that are older
and pieces that are more modern, although upon the whole
geographical data are of rare occurrence. Its language
exhibits many very peculiar forms of words, often in a
very antique although prakritized shape. It contains,
in fact, a mass of words used by the people, which from
lack of occasion found no place in the other branches of the
literature. The enumeration of the lunar asterisms in the
nineteenth Icdnda begins with krittikd, just as in the Tait-
tiriya-Samhita, but otherwise it deviates considerably from
the latter, and gives for the most part the forms of the
names used in later times.162 No direct determination of
date, however, can be gathered from it, as Colebrooke ima-
gined. Of special interest is the mention of the Asura
Krishna * Kesin, from the slaying of whom Krishna (Aiigi-
rasa ?, Devakiputra) receives the epithets of Kesihan, Kesi-
sudana in the Epic and in the Puranas. In those hymns
•which appear also in the Rik-Samhita (mostly in its last
mandala), the variations are often very considerable, and
these readings seem for the most part equally warranted
with those of the Rik. There are also many points of
contact with the Yajus.

The earliest mention of the Atharvan-songs occurs under
the two names "Atharvanas" and " Aiigirasas," names
which belong to the two most ancient Rishi-families, or to
the common ancestors of the Indo- Aryans and the Persa-
Aryans, and which are probably only given to these songs
in order to lend all the greater authority and holiness
to the incantations, &c., contained in them.f They are
also often specially connected with the ancient family
of the Bhrigus.103 Whether we have to take the " Atliar-

1(i- The piece in question proves, and if, according to the Bhavishya-

on special grounds, to be a later sup- Parana (Wilson in Reinaud's Mem.

plement ; see 7. St., iv. 433, n. surl'Indc, p. 394), the Parsis (Macas)

* An Asura Krishna we find even have four Vedas, the Vada (! Yas-

in the Rik-Samhitii, and he plays a na?), Visvavada (Vispered), Vidut

prominent part in the Buddhist (Vendidad), and fig i rasa, this is a

legends (in which he seems to be purely Indian view, though indeed

identified with the Krishna of the very remarkable,

epic (':'!). 1<i3 See my essay Zwei vcdische

•f Spe I. St , i. 295, ff. That these Tcxte iibcr Omina und Porlenta, pp.

names indicate any Persa-Aryan in- 346-348.
nuence is not to be thought of ;

A THARVA-SAMHITA. 149

vanas" in the tiiirtieth book of the Vaj. Samhita as
Atharvan-songs is not yet certain ; but for the period to
which the eleventh, thirteenth, and fourteenth books of
the Satapatha-Brahniana, as well as the Chhandogyopa-
nishad and the Taittiriya-Aranyaka (ii. and viii.), belong,
the existence of the Atharvan-songs and of the Atharva-
veda is fully established by the mention of^ them in
these works. The thirteenth book of the Satapatha-
Brahmana even mentions a division into parvans* which,
as already remarked, no longer appears, in the manuscripts.
In the eighth book of the Taittiriya-Aranyaka, the ddesa,
i.e., the Brahmana, is inserted between the three other
Vedas and the " Atharvangirasas." Besides these notices,
I find the Atharvaveda, or more precisely the "Athar-
vanikas," only mentioned in the Nidana-Sutra of the
Samaveda (and in Panini). The names, too, which belong
to the schools of the Atharvaveda appear nowhere in
Vedic literature,f with the exception perhaps of Kaus"ika;
still, this patronymic does not by any means involve a
special reference to the Atharvan.j Another name, which
is, however, only applied to the Atharvaveda in the later
A tharvan- writings themselves, viz., in the Parislshtas, is
"Brahma- veda." This is explained by the circumstance that
it claims to be the Veda for the chief sacrificial priest, the
Brahman,10* while the other Vedas are represented as those
of his assistants only, the Hotar, Udgatar, and Adhvaryu,

* Corresponding to the stiktns, athnrvdiigirasih, as magic formulas ;

anuvdkas, and dasats of the Rik, in the lidmayana likewise only once

Yajus, and Sdman respectively. ii. 26. 2O (Gorr.) the mantras

t Members of the family of the chdtkarvands (the latter passage I

Atharvans are now and then men- overlooked in /. St., i. 297). [In

tioned ; thus especially Dadhyanch Patamjali's Malidbbsishya, however,

Ath., Kahandha Ath., whom the the Atharvan is cited at the head

Vishnti-Purana designates as a pupil of the Vedas (as in the Rig-Grihyas,

of Sumantu (the latter we met in the see above, p. 58), occasionally even

Grihya-Sutras of the Rik, see above, as their only representative ; see

[>.' 57), and others. 1. St., xiii. 431-32.]

£ It seems that even in later 164 This explanation of the name,

times the claim of the Atharvan to though the traditional one, is yet

rank as Vfda was disputed. Yaj- very likely erroneous ; by Bralmia-

navalkya (i. 101) mentions the two veda (a name which is first men-

eeparately, veddiharva ; though in tioned in the Sdiikh. Grihya, i. 16)

another passage (i. 44) the " Athar- we have rather to understand 'the

v.ing i rasas " occvir along with Rich, Veda of braltmdni,' of prayers, i.e.,

Siiman, and Yajus. In Mann's here in the narrower sense of ' in-

Code we only once find the srutir cantations.' (St. Petersburg Diet.)

1 50 VEDIC LITER A TURE.

— a claim which has probably no other foundation than
the circumstance, cleverly turned to account, that there
was, in fact, no particular Veda for the Brahman, who
was bound to know all three, as is expressly required
in the Kaiishitaki-Brdhmana (see 1. St., ii. 305). Now
the weaker these pretensions are, the more strongly are
they put forward in the •Atharvan- writings, which indeed
display a very great animosity to the other Vedas. To-
wards one another, too, they show a hostile enough spirit ;
for instance, one of the Parisishtas considers a Bhargava,
Paippalada, and Saunaka alone worthy to act as priest to
the king,* while a Mauda or Jalada as puroliita would
only bring misfortune.

The Atharva-Samhita also, it seems, was commented
upon by Say ana. Manuscripts of it are comparatively
rare on the Continent. Most of them are distinguished by
a peculiar mode of accentuation.f A piece of the Samhita
of some length has been made known to us in text and
translation by Aufrecht (I.St.,i. 121-140); besides this,
only some fragments have been published.105

The Brahmana-stage is but very feebly represented in
the Atharvaveda, viz., by the Gopatka-Brdhmana, which,
in the manuscript with which I am acquainted (E. I. H.,
2 142), comprises a ptirva- and an uitara-poition, each con-
taining five prapdthakas; the MS., however,- breaks ofl
with the beginning of a sixth (i.e., the eleventh) prapd-

h Yajnavalkya (i. 312) also re- Ka-hmlr (1875'). In the Gopatha-

quires that Mich an one be well Bnthmana (i. 29), and in Patarpjali's

versed atharrdngirase. Mah&bhdshya (see /. St., xiii. 433 ;

t Dots ;ire here used instead of although, according to Burnell, ln-

lines, and the svarita stands mostly trod, to Vnn.4;i-Brahinann, p. xxii.,

beside, not above, the aksliara. the South Indian MSS. omit the

163 The whole text has been quotation from the Atharvaveda),

edited long since (1855*56) by Roth the beginning of the Sumhitii is given

and Whitney. The first two books otherwise than in onr text, as it

have been translated by me in /. commences with i. 6, instead of i. I.

St., iv. 393-430, and xiii. 129-216, It is similarly given by Bh;ind,irkar,

and the nuptial formulas contained Indian Antiquary, in. 132 ; and two

in the fourteenth book, together 1V1SS. in Hang's possession actually

with a great variety of love charms begin the text in this manner ; see

and similar formulas from the re- Hang's Braliman und die Brahma-

maining books, ibid., v. 204-266. vr-n, p. 45. — Burnell (Introd. to

For the criticism of the text see Van^a-Br., p. xxi.) doubts whether

Iloth's tracts, L'ebcr</en Atharravcda the Ath. S. was commented by

(1856), and Der Atharravcda in Siiy;ina.

SUTRAS OF THE ATI! ARYAN. 151

{haka. In one of the Parisishtas the work is stated to
have originally contained 100 prapdthaJcas. The contents
are entirely unknown to me. According to Colebrooke's
remarks on the subject, Atharvan is here represented as a
Prajapati who is appointed by Brahman as a Demiurge ;
and this is, in fact, the position which he occupies in the
Parisishtas and some of the Upanishads. The division of
the year into twelve (or thirteen) months consisting of
360 days, and of each day into thirty muhurtas, which
Oolebrooke points out as remarkable, equally appears in
the Brahmanas of the Yajus, &c.100

Departing from the order hitherto followed I will add
here what I have to say about the Stitras of the Atharva-
veda, as these are the only other writings which have
reference to the Samhita, whereas the remaining parts of
the Atharvan-literature, corresponding to the Aranyakas
of the other Vedas, have no reference to it whatever.

In the first place, I have to mention the Saunakiyd
chatur - adhydyikd,lGQ" a kind of Pratisiikhya for the
A tharva- Samhita, in four adhydyas, which might possibly
go back to the author of the Rik-Pratisakhya, who is
also mentioned in the Prati^akhya of the "White Yajus.
The Saunakas are named in the Charanavyuha as a school
of the Atharvan, and members of this school are re-
peatedly mentioned in the Upanishads. The work bears
here and there a more generally grammatical character
than is the case with the remaining Prati^akhyas. Saka-

1"ti M. Miiller nrst gave us some of which appear in the game form as

information as to the Gopatha- in the Satnpatha-Brdhmnna, xi. xii.,

Brdhmana in his History of A. S. L., and are therefore probably simply

p. 445-455 ; and now the work itself copied from it. The second half

lias been published by Rdjendra Ldla contains a brief exposition of a

Mitra and Harachandra Vidydbhu.- variety of points connected with the

shnna in the Bibl. Indira (1870- Srauta ritual, specially adapted, as

72). According to this it consists it seems, from the Aitar. Br. Very

of eleven (i.e., 5 + 6) prapdthakas remarkable is the assumption in i.

only. We do not discover in it any 28 of a doshapati, lord of evil (! ?),

npecial relation to the A th. S., apart who at the beginning of the livsi-

from several references thereto under para (-yuga) is supposed to have

different names. The contents are acted as '•fishindm ekadeicih.' This

a medlt-y, to a large extent derived reminds us of, and doubtless rests

from other sources. The first half upon, the MaYa of the Buddhists,
is essentially of speculative, cos. 166b The form of name in the

mogonic import, and is particularly MS. is : chalurddTiydyikd.
rich in kgends, a good number

152 VED 1C LITERATURE.

tayana and other grammatical teachers are mentioned.
In the Berlin MS. — the only one as yet known — each rule
is followed by its commentary.167

An Anukramant to the Atharva-Samhita is also ex-
tant ; it, however, specifies for the most part only divine
beings, and seldom actual Rishis, as authors.

The Kausika- Sutra is the sole existing ritual Sutra of
the Atharvaveda, although I am acquainted with an
Atharvana-Grihya through quotations.163 It consists of
fourteen adhydyas, and in the course of it the several
doctrines are repeatedly ascribed to Kausika. In the intro-
duction it gives as its authorities the Mantras and the
Brahmanas, and failing these the sampraddya, i.e., tradi-
tion, and in the body of the work the Brahmana is likewise
frequently appealed to (by iti lr.} ; whether by this the Go-
patha-Brahmana is intended I am unable to say. The style
of the work is in general less concise than that of the other
Sutras, and more narrative. The contents are precisely
those of a Grihya-Sutra. The third adhydya treats of the
ceremonial for Nirriti (the goddess of misfortune) ; the
fourth gives bhaisJiafyas, healing remedies ; the sixth, &c.,
imprecations, magical spells ; the tenth treats of marriage ;
the eleventh of the Manes-sacrifice; the thirteenth and
fourteenth of expiatory ceremonies for various omens and
portents (like the Adblmta-Bnihmana of the Samaveda).109

107 Of this Prdtisiikhya also Whit- 168 By which is doubtless ,meanb

ney has given us an excellent edition just this Kaulika-Stitra, A Srauta-

in Journal Am. Or. Soc., vii. (1862), Sutra belonging to the Atharvaveda

x. 156, ff. (1872, additions). See also- has recently come to light, under

my remarks in /. St. , iv. 79-82. the name of Vaitdua - Sutra ; see

According to Whitney, this work Hang, /. St., ix. 176; Biihler,

takes no notice of the two last books Cat. of MSS. from Gujardt, i. 190,

of the existing Ath. text, which it and Monatxberichte of the Berl.

otherwise follows closely; since Acad. 1871, p. 76; and some fuller

therefore the Atharva-Samhitd in accounts in lloth's Atharvaveda in

Patamjali's time already comprised Kashmir, p. 22.

twenty books, we might from this 169 These two sections are pub-

directly infer the priority of the lished, with translation and notes,

Saun. chat.; unless Patamjali's state- in my essay, Zuiei vedische Texte

ment refer not to our text at all, iiber Omina und Portenta (1859);.

but rather to that of the Paippa- the section relating to marriage

liida school ; see lloth, Dcr Atharva- ceremonies is communicated in a

reda in Kashmir, p. 15. — Biihler has paper by Haas, Ueber die Ileiratksge-

discovered another quite different braitcJie dcr ultcn Indcr in /. St., v.

Ath. Pnltisdkhya ; see Monntsbcr. 378, ff.
01' the Berl. Aoad. 1871, \\ 77.

UPANISHADS OF THE A THAR VAN. 153

To this Sutra belong further five so-called Kcdpas : the
Nakshatra-Kalpa, an astrological compendium relating to
the lunar mansions, in fifty Jcandikds ; the Sdnti-Kalpa,
in twenty-five kandikds, which treats likewise of the ador-
ation of the lunar mansions,170 and contains prayers ad-
dressed to them ; the Vitdna-Kcdpa, the Samhitd-Kalpa,
and the Abliicliara-Kalpa. The Vishnu-Purana and the
Charanavyuha, to be presently mentioned, name, instead
of the last, the Angirasa-Kalpa. Further, seventy-four
smaller Pari^ishtas in also belong to it, mostly composed in
sloJcas, and in the form of dialogues, like the Puranas.
The contents are Grihya-subjects of various kinds ; astro-
logy,172 magic, and the doctrine concerning omens and por-
tents are most largely represented. Some sections corre-
spond almost literally to passages of a like nature in the
astrological Samhitas. Among these Paris*ishtas, there is
also a Charana-vy&ha, winch states the number of the richas
in the Atharva-Samhita at 12,380, that of the parydyas
(hymns) at 2000 ; but the number of the Kausikoktdni
parisislitdni only at 70. Of teachers who are mentioned the
following are the chief: first, Brihaspati Atharvan, Bhaga-
vant Atharvan himself, Bhrigu, Bhargava, Afigiras, Angi-
rasa, Kavya (or Kavi) Us*anas; then Saunaka, Narada,
Gautama, Kamkayana, Karmagha, Pippalada, Mahaki,
Garga, Gargya, Vriddhagarga, Atreya, Padmayoni, Kraush-
tuki. We meet with many of these names again in the
astrological literature proper.

I now turn to the most characteristic part of the lite-
rature of the Atharvan, viz., the Upanisliads. Whilst the
Upanishads rear' ^o-^rjv so called, of the remaining Vedas
all belong to the later, or even the latest, portions of these

170 An account of the contents of kind are quoted even in the Mahii-
both texts is given in my second blul*hya ; see /. St., xiii. 463.
essay on the Nakshatras, pp. 390- 172 Une of the Parisishtas relating
393 (1862) ; Hnug in 7. St., ix. 174, to this subject has been coimnuni-
meations an Aranyaka-Jyutisha, dif- cated by me in /. St., x. 317, ff. ; it is
ferent from the Nakshatra-Kalpa. the fifty-first of the series. The state-

171 Haug, I. C., speaks of 72; men ts found therein concerning the
amongst them is found a Nighantn, planets presuppose the existence cf
which is wanting in the Berlin MS. (Jreek influence; cf. ibid., p. 319,
Compare the Nigaina-l'arisishta of viii. 413.

tiie White Yajus. — Texts of this

154 VEDIC LITERATURE.

Vedas, they at least observe a certain limit which they
never transgress, that is to sav, they keep within the range
of inquiry into the nature of the Supreme Spirit, with-
out serving sectarian purposes. The Atharvan Upani-
shads, on the contrary, come down as far as tiie time of the
Puranas, and in their final phases they distinctly enter the
lists in behalf of sectarian views. Their number is as yet
undetermined. Usually only fifty-two are enumerated.
But as among these there are several which are of
quite modern date, I do not see why we should separate
these fifty-two Upanishads from the remaining similar
tracts which, although not contained in the usual list,
nevertheless call themselves Upanishads, or Atharvopani-
shacls ; more especially as this list varies in part accord-
ing to the different works where it is found, and as the
manuscripts mix up these fifty-two with the remaining
Upanishads indiscriminately, indeed, with regard to the
Upanishad literature we have this peculiar state of things,
that it may extend down to very recent times, and
consequently the number of writings to be reckoned as
belonging to it is very considerable. Two years ago, in
the second part of the Indische Stndien, I stated the num-
ber at ninety- five, including the Upanishads contained in
the older Vedas.* The researches instituted by Walter
Elliot in Masulipatam among the Telingana Brahmans on
this subject have, however, as Dr. Roer writes to me,
vieldud the result that amons the.-e Brahmans there are

* This number is wrong ; it ought vopanishad) being different from

to be ninety-three. I there counted the former. —The number now

the Anandavalli and Bhriguvalli llere finally arrived at — ninety,

twice, first among the twenty-three six — is obtained (l) by the addi-

Atharvopr in! shads omitted by An- tion of six new Upanishads, viz.,

quetil, and then among the nine the Bhdllavi-Upanishad, the Sam-

Upanishads borrowed from the other varton., the second Mahopanishad,

Vedas which are found in his work, and three of the Upanishads con-

The number would further have to taiued in the Atharvasiras (Gana.

be reduced to ninety-two, since I pati, Surra, Devi) ; (2) by the

cite Colcbrooke's Amritavindu and omission of two, the Iludropanishad

Anquetil's Amritandda as distinct, and the Atharvaniya- Iludropanishad,

Upanishads, whereas in point of fact which are possibly identical, with

they are identical ; but then, on the others of those cited ; and (3) by

other hand, two Upanishads identi- counting the Mahdna'ra'yanopanishad

Red by me ought to he kept distinct, as only one, whereas Colebrooka

viz., Colebrooke's Prdndgnihotra and counts it as two.
Anquetil's I'ranou, the latter (Prana-

UPANISHADS OF THE ATH ARYAN. 15;

123 Upnnishads actually extant; and if we include those
which they do not possess, but which are contained in my
list just referred to, the total is raised to 147.* A list of
these 123 is given in two of them, viz., in the Mahavak-
yamuktavali and in the Muktikopanishad, and is exactly
the same in both. According to the statement given
above, there must be among these 123 fifty-two f in
all which are wanting in my own list, and these include the
two names just mentioned. — A Persian translation made
in 1656 of fifty Upanishads is extant in Anquetil du Per-
ron's Latin rendering.

If now we attempt to classify the Upanishads so
far known, the most ancient naturally are those (i-
12) which are found in the three older Vedas only.+
1 have already remarked that these never pursue sectarian
aims. 7A seeming — but only a seeming — exception to this
is the Satarudriya ; for although the work lias in fact been
used for sectarian purposes, it had originally quite a
different significance, which had nothing to do with the
misapplication of it afterwards made ; originally, indeed, it
was not an Upanishad at all.§ A real exception, however,
is the Svetasvataropanisliad (13), which is in any case
wrongly classed with the Black Yajus; it is only from its
having incorporated many passages of the latter that it has
been foisted in here. It belongs to about the same rank
and date as the Kaivalyopanishad. Nor can ihcMaitrdyana-
Upanisliad ( 1 4) reasonably claim to be ranked with the Black

* Accoidiug to the previous note, Since then many new names have

only 145. been brought to our knowledge by

+ According to last note but one, the Catalogues of MSS. published by
only fifty. [In the list published by Ikirnell, Biihler, Kielhorn, Ra"jendr;i
W. Elliot of the Upanishads in the Lala Mitra, Haug (Brahman und die
]\Iuktikopan., see Journal As. Soc. Brahmanen, pp. 29-31), £c. ; so that
Bcng., 1851, p.' 607, ff., 108 names at present I count 235 Upanishads,
are directly cited (and of Ihese 98 many of which, however, are pro-
are analysed singly in Taylor's Cata- bably identical with others, as in
logue (1860) of the Oriental MSS. of many cases the names alone are at
fort St. George, ii. 457-474). But present known to us.]
to these other names have to be J Namely, Aitareya, Kaushitaki,
added which are there omitted ; see Vashkala, Chhdndogya, Satarudriya,
/. St., iii. 324-326. The alphabe- Sikshdvalli or Taitt. Samhitopani-
tical list published by M. Miiller iu shad, Chha'galeya (?), Tadeva, Siva-
Z. D. M. G., xix. 137-158 (1865), samkalpa, Purushusukta, tsd, Vri.
brings the number up to 149 (170, had-Aranyaka.
Burnell, Indian Antiquary, ii. 267). § See on this 7. St., ii. 14-47.

156 VEDIC LITERATURE.

Yajus; it belongs rather, like the Svetasvataropanishad, only
to the Yoga period. Still it does not, at least in the part
known to me,173 pursue any sectarian aim (see pp. 96-99).

Apart from the two last-named Upanishads, the transi-
tion to the Atharvopanishads is formed on the one hand
by those Upanishads which are found in one of the other
three Veda,s, as well as in a somewhat modified form in an
Atharvan-recension, and on the other hand by those Upa-
nishads of which the Atharvan-recension is the only one
extant, although they may have formerly existed in the
other Vedas as well. Of the latter we have only one
instance, the Kdthaka-Upanishad (15, 16); of the former,
on the contrary, there are several instances (17-20), viz.,
Kcna (from the Samaveda), Bhriguvalli, Anandavalli, and
L'r ihanndrdyana (Taitt. Ar., viii.— ix.).

The Atharvopanishads, which are also distinguished ex-
ternally by the fact that they are mostly composed in
verse, may themselves be divided into three distinct
classes, which in their beginnings follow the earlier Upani-
shads with about equal closeness. Those of the first class
continue directly to investigate the nature of Atman, or the
Supreme Spirit; those of the second deal with the subject
of absorption (yoyo) in meditation thereon, and give the
means whereby, and the stages in which, men may
even in this world attain complete union with Atman;
and lastly, those of the third class substitute for Atman
some one of the many forms under which Siva and
Vishnu, the two principal gods, were in the course of
time worshipped.

Before proceeding to discuss these three classes in their
proper order, I have to make some observations on the
Atharvan-recensions of those Upanishads which either
belong at the same time to the other Vedas also, or at any
rate oiiginally did so.

The Atharvan-text of the Kenopanishad, in the first
place, differs but very little from its Samoa-text. The
reason why this Upanishad has been incorporated into the
Atharvan collection seems to be the fact that Uma Hai-
rnavati is here (and for tho first time) mentioned, as she

173 In the remaining parts also there is nothing of the kind to ba
found.

UP A N IS H ADS OF THE AT H ARYAN. 157

was probably understood in the sense, of the Siva sects.
"With, the Atharvan-text both of the Anandavalli and of
the Bhriguvalli * I am unacquainted. Of the Brihannara-
yanop. f also, which corresponds to the Narayaniyop. of
the Taitt. Aranyaka, only a few data are known to me ;
these, however, sufficiently show that the more ancient
and obscure forms have here throughout been replaced
by the corresponding later and regular ones.* — The two
Kathavallis, for the most pare in metrical form, are extant
in the Atharvan-text only.§ The second is nothing but a
supplement to the first, consisting as it does almost exclu-
sively of quotations from the Vedas, intended to substan-
tiate more fully the doctrines there set forth. The first is
based upon a legend (see pp. 92, 93) related in the Taitt.
Brahmana [iii. 11. 8]. Nachiketas, the son of Aruni || asks
Death for a solution of his doubt whether man exists after
death or not. After much reluctance, and after holding
out enticements of all kinds, which Nachiketas withstands,
Death at length initiates him into the mystery of exist-
ence. Life and death, he says, are but two different phases
of development; true wisdom consists in the perception of
identity with the Supreme Spirit, whereby men are ele-
vated above life and death. The exposition in this first part
is really impressive : the diction, too, is for the most part
antique. A few passages, which do not harmonise at all
with the remainder, seem either to have been inserted at
a later time, or else, on the contrary, to have been retained

* Two lists of the Atharvopani- || Two other names, which are

bhads in Chambers's Collection (see given to the father of Nachiketas,

jny Catalogue, p. 95) cite after these viz., Audddlaki and Vajasravasa,

two oallis (39, 40), also &madhyavalli conflict with the usual accounts,

and an uttaravalll (41, 42) ! Vajasravasa appears also in the pas-

t By Colebrooke it is reckoned as sage above referred to of the Tait-

two Upanishads. tiriya-Brdhmana ; whether Audda-

+ Thus we have visasarja instend laki does so likewise I am unable to

of vya-cha-sarja ; Kanydkumdrlm in- say. [Audddlaki is wanting in the

stead of "ri ; Kdtydyanyai instead of T. Br., as also the whole passage

oyandya, &c. itself.] Benfey (in the Gottingei-

§ See /. St., ii. 195, ff, where the Gclehrte Anzcvjcn. January 1852, p.

various translations and editions are 129) suggests that we should refer

cited. Since then this Upanishad A uddalaki Aruni to Nachiketas ; but

has appeared in a new edition, with the incompatibility of the two names

Samkara's commentary, in the Jlibl. is not thereby removed. Arnni is Ud-

htdica, vol. viii., edited by Dr. Koer ddlaka, and Auddulnki is Arnneya.
[and translated in vol. xv.].

1 58 VEDIC LITER A TURE.

from a former exposition drawn up more for a liturgical
purpose. Its polemics against those holding different
opinions are very sharp and bitter. They are directed
against tarka, " doubt," by which the Samkhyas and Baud-
dhas are here probably intended. The sacredness of the
word om as the expression for the eternal position of things
is very specially emphasised, a thing which has not occurred
before in the same way. The gradation of the primeval
principles (in iii. 10, 1 1) exactly corresponds to the system
of the deistical Yoga, whereas otherwise the exposition
bears a purely Vedantic character.

Of the Atharvopanishads proper the Mundaka- and
Prasna - Upanishads (21, 22) connect themselves most
closely with the Upanishads of the older Vedas and with
the Vedanta doctrine;174 indeed, in the Vedanta-Siitra
of Badarayana reference is made to them quite as often
as to these others. The Miindaka-Upanishad, mostly in
verse, and so called because it " shears " away, or frees
from, all error, is very like the Kathakop. with regard
to doctrine and style ; it has, in fact, several passages in
common with it. At the outset it announces itself as an
almost direct revelation of Brahman himself. For Augiras,
who communicates it to S.iunaka, has obtained it from
Bharadvaja Satyavaha, and tha latter again from Angir,*
the pupil of Atharvan, to whom it was revealed by Brah-

174 The list of the Atharvopani- following Up. to other Siikhas. But
shads begins, as a rule, with the Ndfstyana, with whom, as regards
Mundakopauishad ; and, according the order of the first twenty-eight
to the statements in Narayanabhat- names, Colebrooke agrees in the
t I's scholium on the smaller Atii. main (from this point their state-
Upanishads now being edited (since men ts differ), also quotes the Sauna-
1872) in the Bibl. Indica by Kama- kagranthavistwa for the Brahma-
maya Tarkaratna, a settled order of vindu No. 18, and the sdkhd
these Upmishads must still have Saunakavartitd for the Atmopani-
been in existence in the time of shad No. 28, as authority for these
N'arayanabhatta, since he denotes numbers, or places, of the two Up-
the individual Upanishads as, e.g., anishads. The Gopdlatiipani, how-
the seventh, the eighth, &c., reckon- ever, is marked by him as the forty-
iug from the Munduka. This order sixth ' Atharva-Paippah,' and the
is occasionally ascribed by him to Vasudevopanishad as the forty-ninth
the Saunaka-school. Compare as to ' kshudragraiithaya^e;' see ll.ojen-
tliis the remarks of Colebrooke, Misc. dra Lala Mitra, Notices of Sanskrit
Ess., i. 93, according to which the MSS., i. 18 (1870).
first fifteen Upanishads only would * Angir is a name which occurs
belong to the Sauuakiyas, and the nowhere else.

UPANISHADS OF THE ATH ARYAN. 159

man himself. Shortly afterwards, Vedic literature is op-
posed, as the inferior science, to speculation. The former
is stated to consist of the four Vedas, and of the six
Vedarigas, which are singly enumerated. Some manu-
scripts here insert mention of the itih&sa-purdna-nydya-
mimdnsd-dharmasd-'-trdni ; but this is evidently a later
addition. Such additions are also found in other passages
of this Upanishad in the manuscripts. This enumeration
(here occurring for the first time) of the different Vedangas
is of itself sufficient to show that at that time the whole
material of the Vedas had been systematically digested,
and that out of it a new literature had arisen, which no
longer belongs to the Vedic, but to the following poriocl.
We may further conclude from the mention of the Treta
in the course of the work that the Yuga-system also had
already attained its final form. On the other hand, we
here find the words kdli (the dark one) and kardli (the
terrible one) still reckoned among the seven tongues of
fire, whereas in the time of the dramatic poet Bhavablmti
(eighth century A.D.) they are names of Durga — the wife of
Siva, developed out of Agni (and Eudra) — who under these
names was the object of a bloody sacrificial .worship. Since
evidently a considerable time is required for the transition
from the former meaning to the latter, the Mundakop.
must be separated by a very wide interval from the date
of Bhavabhuti, — a conclusion which follows besides from
the circumstance that it is on several occasions turned to
account in the Vedanta-Sutra, and that it has been com-
mented by Samkara. — The Prasnopanishad,iu prose, seems
to be borrowed from an Atharva-Brahmana, viz., that of
the Pippalada-school.* It contains the instruction by
Pippalada of six different teachers, amongst whom the
following names are especially significant in regard to the
date of the Upanishad : Kausalya Asvalayana, Vaidarbhi
Bhargava, and Kabandhin Katvavana. In the course of

* In the colophons, at least, it is Pippalada is probably to be traced

once so described ; by Samkara, too, to the conception found in the first

at the beginning of his commentary, verse of the Mnndaka iii. I (taken

it is called brdkmana, although this from Rik mand. i. 164. 2O)J[?). The

proves but little, since with him all same verse recurs in the Svettivsa-

the Upanishads he comments pass t-tropanishad iv. 6 and in Nir xiv.

a. sruti and brdkmana. — The name 30.

i6o VEDIC LITERATURE.

the work Hiranyanabha, a prince of the Ko£alas, is also
mentioned, — the same doubtless who is specially extolled
in the Puranas. As in the Mundakopan., so here also some
interpolated words are found which betray themselves as
such by the fact that they are passed over by Samkara in
his commentary. They refer to Atharvan himself, and to
the half mdtrd (inora), to which the word om, here appear-
ing in its full glory, is entitled in addition to its three mone
(a, u, m), and are evidently a later addition by some one
who did not like to miss the mention of these two subjects
in an Atharvopanishad, as in these they otherwise invari-
ably occur. Both Mundaka and Prasna have been several
times edited and translated, see /. St., i. 280, if., 439, ff.,
again recently by Dr. Eoer in vol. viii. of the JBibliotheca

i/ V f

Indica together with Samkara's commentary.175 — The name
of Pippalada is borne by another Upanishad, the Garbha-
UpanisJmd (23), which I add here for this reason, although
in other respects this is not quite its proper place. Its
contents differ from those of all the other Upanishads, and
relate to the human body, to its formation as embryo and the
various parts of which it is composed, and the number and
weight of these. The whole is a commentary on a tri-
s/itubh strophe prefixed to it, the words of which are passed
in review singly and further remarks then subjoined. The
mention of the names of the seven musical notes of the
present day, as well as of the weights now in use (which
are found besides in Varaha Mihira), brings us to a toler-
ably modern date ; so also the use of Devadatta in the
sense of Gains. A few passages in which, among other
things, mention is made, for instance, of Narayana as
Supreme Lord, and of the Samkhya and Yoga as the
means of attaining knowledge of him, reappear in the
fourteenth book — & supplementary one — of Yaska's Nir-
ukti. Whether Samkara expounded this Upanishad is
as yet uncertain. It is translated in Ind. Stud., ii. 65-
7 1.176 — In the Brahmopanisliad also (24), Pippalada ap-
pears, here with the title Wiayavdn Aiiyirds ; he is thus
identified with the latter, as the authority for the particular

175 Roer's translation is published 1872; in his introduction described
in vol. xv. of theSibl. Indica (1853). as pancfiakhandd 'shtamdn (read

176 Edited with Ndntynna's coin- °ml!) Munddt Paippaldddbhidhd
inentary in the Bibliotkcca Indica, tathd.

UPANISHADS OF THE ATHARVAN. 161

doctrine here taught which he imparts to Saunaka (mahd-
sdla), exactly as is the case in the Mundakopanishad.
There is, for the rest, a considerable difference "between
this Upanishad177 and the Mundaka and Pras"na; it be-
longs more to the Yoga-Upanishads properly so called.
It consists of two sections: the first, which is in prose,
treats, in the first place, of the majesty of Atman ; and
later on, in its last portion, it alleges lirahman, Vishnu,
Eudra, and Akshara to be the four pddas (feet) of the
nirvdnam brahma ; the first eleven of the nineteen verses
of the second section discuss the subject of the Yogin
being allowed to lay aside his yajnopamta, or sacred thread,
as he stands in the most intimate relation to the sutra, or
mundane thread; the whole therefore amounts to a mere play
upon words. The last eight verses are borrowed from the
Svetasvataropanishad, Mundakopanishad, and similar Upa-
nishads, and again describe the majesty of the One. — The
Mdndtikyopanisliad (25-28) is reckoned as consisting of
four Upanishads, but only the prose portion of the first of
these, which treats of the three and a half mdtrds of the
word om, is to be looked upon as the real Mandukyopani-
shad, all the rest is the work of Gaudapada,* whose pupil
Govinda was the teacher of Samkara ; it dates therefore
from about the seventh century A.D. Similarly, there are
two works by Samkara himself specified among the Upa-
nishads, viz., the Aptavajrasuclii (29), in prose, and the
Tripuri (30), likewise in prose ; both composed in a Ve-
danta sense. The former treats at the outset of what
makes a Brdhmana a Brdhmana ; it is not jati (birth),
varna (colour), pdnditya (learning) ; but the Brahmavid
(he who knows Brahman} is alone a Brdhmana.^ Then
it passes to the different definitions of moksha (liberation),

177 Edited with NaYayana's comm. entire Mdndtikyopanishad together

in Bibl. Ind. 1873 ; in the introduc- with Samkara's comm. in Bibl. hid.

tion described as chatushkhandd vol. viii., also a translation of sect.

dasami ; the two sections of the i in vol. xv.]

text seem to have been transposed •}• This portion has been used by

in some of the MSS. a Buddhist (As>aghosha), almost

* As such, it has been commented literally, against the system of caste

on by Samkara under the tMedgama- in general, in the tract of the same

idstra. For particulars see /. St., ii. title which is given by Gildemeister,

100-109. [Roer has published the Bibl. S., Praef. p. vi. not. ; see also

i6z VEDIC LITERATURE.

stating the only correct one to be the perception of the
oneness oijiva (the individual soul) and parameSvara (the
All-Soul), and lastly, distinctly rejecting all sects, it ex-
pounds the two highly important words tat (the Absolute)
and tvam (the Objective). The Tripuri treats of the rela-
tion of Atman to the world, and stands as fourth prakarana
iti a series of seven little Vedanta writings attributed to
Samkara.178 The Sarvopaniskatsdropanishad (3 1 ), in prose,
may be considered as a kind of catechism of these doctrines;
its purpose is to answer several queries prefixed to it as an
introduction.179 The same is the case with the Nirddam-
l)opanishad (32),180 which, however, exhibits essentially
the Yoga standpoint. The Atmopanishad (33), in prose,
contains an inquiry by Angiras into the three factors
(purushas), the body, the soul, and the All-Soul.* The
Prdndgnihotropanishad (34), in prose, points out the rela-
tion of the parts and functions of the body to those of the
sacrifice, whence by implication it follows that the latter
is unnecessary. At its conclusion it promises to him who
reads this Upanishad the same reward as he receives
who expires in Varanasi, viz., deliverance from transmigra-
tion.181 The ArshiJcopanishad (?35) contains a dialogue
on the nature of Atman between Vi^vamitra, Jamadagni,
Bharadvaja, Gautama, and Vasishtha, the last of whom,
appealing to the opinion of "K'hak" (? another MS. in
Anquetil has " Kapl " = Kapila ?), obtains the assent of the
others.182

Burnouf, Introd. a I' Hist, du Buddh. !8° See Riijendra Ldla Mitra, ii. 95.

Ind., p. 215. [Text and translation Taylor, Cataloyue of Oriental A1SS.

see now in my essay Die Vajrasuchl of t/ie College Fort St. George, ii.

<!cs Atcayhosha (1860). By Haugr, 462.

Jiratiman und die Rrahmanen, p. 29, * Translated in /. St., ii. 56, 57.

the Upanishad is described as sdma- [Text and Ndrayana's comm. in Bibl.

rcdoktd.] Jnd. 1873; described in the introd. as

17lj See my Catalogue of the Berlin kkandatraydnvitd \ ash tdvinfl rjran-

^tSS., p. 180. By llftjendra Ldla thasamyJie sdkhd Saunakarartitd.]

Mitra, however (Notices of Sanskrit 181 Text and Niinlyana's comm. in

MSS., i. 10, ii), a different text is BiU. Ind. 1873; described in the

c-ited as the srimachhamkardcJu'trya- introd. as ekddasi Saunakiye ; see

virachitd tripuryupanishad. Taylor, ii. 472. Rdjendra L. M. i.

179 See /. St., i. 301 ; edited with 49. Burnell, Cataloyue, p. 63.

Naravana's comm. in Bibl. Ind. 1874; 182 See 7. St., ix. 48-52. The

described in the introd. as Taittiri- name of the Upanishad is not yet

j/ake | sari'opanisliaddm sdrah scqrta- certain.
triiiic chaturdatc (! ?).

UPANISHADS OF THE ATH ARYAN. 163

The second class of the Atharvopanishads, as above
stated, is made up of those whose subject is Yoga, or
absorption in Atman, the stnges of this absorption, and the
external means of attaining it. These last chiefly consist
in the giving up of all earthly connections, and in the
frequent repetition of the word om, which plays a most
prominent part, and is itself therefore the subject of deep
study. Yajnavalkya is repeatedly named in the Upani-
shads of this class as the teacher of the doctrines they set
forth ;* and indeed it would seem that we ought to look upon
him as one of the chief promoters of the system of religious
mendicancy so intimately associated with the Yoga-doctrine.
Thus, in the Tdrakopanisliad (36) he instructs Bharadvaja
as to the saving and sin-dispelling efficacy of the word
om,183 and similarly in the Sdkalyopanishad (37)* Sakalya
as to true emancipation.184 The one, however, in which he
stands out most prominently is the Jdbdlopanishad (38),
in prose, which, moreover, bears the name of a school of
the White Yajus, although no doubt wrongly, as it must
in any case be considered as merely an imitation of the
Aranyaka of this Veda (see /. St., ii. 72-77). Still, it
must have been composed before the Badarayana-Sutra,
as several passages of itf seem to be given in the
latter (unless these passages have been borrowed from
a common source ?). Of special importance with regard
to the mode of life of the Paramahansas, or religious
mendicants, are also, in addition to the Upanishad just
mentioned, the Kafhasruti (39; Colebrooke gives the
name incorrectly as Kantkasrut'i), in prose, and the
Arunikopanishad (40), likewise in prose ; J both are to be
4

1 3 See 7. Ft., is. 46-48. jendra L. M. i. 92 (Commentary by

* This name seems to result as Samkardnauda). There are, besides,

the most probable one from com- quite a number of other Upanishads

paiison of the variants in Anquetil. bearing the name of Jdbdla, viz.,

184 See /. St., ii. 170. Bfihajjdbala, Mahdjdbdla, Laghu-

t They presuppose the name Vd- jdMla, Buasma", Rudra", Rudrd-

rdnasi for Benares. [The text of kshd0.]

the Jdbdlopanishad with Ndrdyana's £ Translated in 7. St., ii. 176-

coinm. appeared in Bibl. Ind. 1874; 181. [Text and Ndrdyana's comm.-

it is described in the introd. as in BiU. Ind., 1872 ; described in

ydjushi and ckachatvdrinsattaml (the the introd. as jmfickavinM. There

latter, however, is said of the i;s also a commentary upon it by

Kaivalyopanisltad also!); see also Samkardnanda ; see Rdjendra L. M.

Burnell, p. 61, Taylor ii. 474, Rd- 5. 92. — The Kaiha&ruti, also, is

1 6a. VEDIC LITERATURE.

regarded as supplements to the Aranyaka of the Black
Yajus, as the Jabalopanishad is to that of the White
Yajus. The Bhdllam-Upanishad (41) also belongs to this
class, to judge by quotations from it, and so does the
Samvartasruti (42) ; similarly the Samnydsopanishad (43)
and the Paramahansopanishad (44), both in prose.* The
Hansopanisliad (45) I have not yet met with ; but from
its name it probably also belongs to this place.185 The
Asramopanishad (46), in prose, gives a classification of
the four Indian orders — the Brahmacharins, Grihasthas,
Vanaprasthas, and Parivrajakas. It is even quoted by
Samkara, and the names applied in it to the several classes
are now obsolete. The Srimaddattopanishad (47) consists
of twelve slokas put into the mouth of one of these reli-
gious mendicants, and uniformly concluding with the
refrain: tasyd 'ham panckamdsramam, "I am his, i.e.,
brahman's, fifth Asrama" Apart from the two Upanishads
already mentioned, the Mandukya and the Taraka, the
investigation of the sacred word om is principally con-
ducted in the Atharvasikhd (48), in prose (explained by
Samkara), in which instruction is given on this subject by
Atharvan to Pippalada, Sanatkumara, and Angirasjt
further, in the BrahmavidyA (49), in thirteen £lokas, now
and then quoted by Samkara; J and lastly, in the tiaunalca

edited in Bill. Ind. (1873), with anuvdkas of the Ath. S. (xviii.) ;

Nardyana's commentary; although their text is therefore given by the

under the name Kantha0, it is clear editor in the scholium, and that in

from Ndrdyana's words in his intro- a double form ace. to two MSS. (pp.

duction, Yajarvede tu Ckarakd dvd- 131-175); see also Rajendra L. M.

dasai 'slid kanthdsrayah (!) | samnyd- i. 54, Taylor, ii. 469.]

sopanishattidyd chafyhkhandd krita( \ } 183 Text and Ntir. 's comm. in Sibl.

frutih || that this mode of spelling Ind., 1874 ; described in the introd.

here, as well as in Burnell's Cata- ns ashtalrinsattami \ dtharvane. By

loyue, p. 60, is a mere mistake, and HajendraMl., i. 90, a comui. by

that Nitrayana himself connected 8amkartinanda is specified ; see be-

the Upanisliad with the Kathas ; see sides Burnell, p. 65.

also Biihler, Catalogue of MSS. froin t See 7. St., ii. 55. — Here, there-

Guf., i. 58.] fore, we have Pippalada andAfigiras

r Tlie Paramnf/ansopanisJiad is appearing side by side (see above,

translated in 7. St., ii., 173-176. p. 160). [Text and Ndr.'s comm.

[Text with Nar.'s comm. in Bill, in Sibl. Ind., 1873; described in

Ind., 1874; described in the introd. as the introd. as saptaml munddt.]

triJchandd 'tharvatikharc chatvdrin- J Translated in 7. St., ii. 58.

fattami. — The Samnydsopanishad, [Text and Ntir.'s comm. in

too, is printed Hid., 1872 ; we there Ltd., 1873.]
find a direct reference made to four

UPANISHADS OF THE ATH ARYAN. 165

(50) and the Pranava (51). These two are found in
Anquetil only.186 The various stages of gradual absorp-
tion into Atman form the contents ;f the following
Upanishads (52-59): Hamandda (in prose), Kshurika,
(24 Slokas), Nddavindu (20 Slokas), Bralimavindu (22
slokas ; also called Amritavindu), A mritavindu (38 Slokas;
also called Amritandda\ Dhydnavindu (23 sloJeas), Yoga-
sikhd (10 Slokas), and Yogatattva (15 Slokas'); while the
majesty of Atman himself is depicted in the Chtilikd
(60, in 21 Slokas) and Tejovindu (61, in 14 slokas}: * in the
former direct reference is repeatedly made to the doctrine
of the Atharvans. The range of ideas and the style are
quite identical in all the Upanishads just enumerated.
The latter frequently suffers from great obscurity, partly
because there occur distinct grammatical inaccuracies,
partly because the construction is often very broken and
without unity. Many verses recur in several of them;
many again are borrowed from the SvetaSvataropanishad
or Maitrayanopanishad. Contempt for caste as well as
for writing (grantJia) is a trait which appears again and
again in almost all these Upanishads, and one might
therefore be inclined to regard them as directly Buddhistic,
were they not entirely free from all Buddhistic dogma.
This agreement is to be explained simply by the fact that
Buddhism itself must be considered as having been origi-
nally only a form of the Samkhya-doctrine.

The sectarian Upanishads have been set down as form-
ing the third class. They substitute for Atman one of the
forms of Vishnu or &va, the earlier ones following the
Yoga-doctrine most closely, whilst in those of a modern
date the personal element of the respective deities comes

186 See 7. St., ix. 52-53 and 49- yana's comm. (1872-73), excep-

52; the Pranavopanishad is men- ting the ffansanddopanishad, which,

tioned by Taylor, ii. 328. however, seems to be identical with

* For the Hanstanddu, see 7. St., the Ifansopanishad printed ibid.

\. 385-387; the Kslturikd, is trans- In the Introductions to the comm.

lated, ib., ii. 171-173; likewise /I w/fi- Chillikd is described as panchamt ;

tavindu, ii. 59-(>2 ; Tejovindu, ii. Bralimavindu as asktdd.asi Sauna-

62-64; Dhydnavindu, ii. 1-5; Yo- kagranthavistare ; Dhydnavindu as

yasikhd [so we ought to read] and vinid (vinsiJ) ; Tejovindu as ekaviii-

Yoyatattva, ii. 47-50, [Amritandda, £am; Yoga6ik/idn.&granthamndohe(l)

is. 23-28; C/iiilikd, ix. IO-2I. All dvdtrinfatitami (probably meant for

these Upanishads are now published dvdriiis0 !) ; Yogatattva as trayovinsd

iu the B'Miothcca Indica with Nata- ("«)]•

1 66 VEDIC LIT ERA TV RE.

more and more into the foreground. A special charac-
teristic of this class are the unmeasured promises usually
held out at the close of the work to him who reads and
studies it, as also the quotation and veneration of sacred
formulas containing the name of the particular deity.

First, as regards the Upanishads of the Vishnu-sects, —
the oldest form under which Vishnu is worshipped in
Ndrdyana. We find^ this name for the first time in the
second part of the Satapatha-Brahmana, where, however,
it is not in any way connected with Vishnu; it rather
stands, as at the commencement of Manu and the Vishnu-
Purana, in the sense of Brahman (mascul.). This is also
the case in the Narayaniyopanishad of the Taittiriya-
Aranyaka, and in its Atharvan-recension as Brihannara-
yanopanishad, although in the latter he is at least called
Ilari, and in one passage brought into direct relation to
Viisudeva and Vishnu. It is in the Mahd-Upanishad
(62), — a prose tract, which* in its first part contains
the emanation of the universe from Narayana, and in its
second a paraphrase of the principal passage of the Nara-
yaniyopanishad,— that Narayana first distinctly appears as
the representative of Vishnu, since Sulapani (Siva) and
Brahman proceed from him, and Vishnu is not mentioned at
all. In the Ndrdyanopanishad (64, in prose),187 on the
contrary, Vishnu also emanates from him, exactly as in the
Narayana section t of the twelfth book of the Maha-Bha-
rata (a book which in other respects also is of special sig-
nificance in relation to the Samkhya- and Yoga-doctrines).
The sacred formula here taught is : om namo Ndrdyandya.
There exists of this Upanishad another, probably a later,
recension which forms part of the Atharvasiras to be men-
tioned hereafter, and in which Devakiputra Madlmsudana
is mentioned as particularly brahmanya, pious, as is also
the case in the Atmaprdbodlia-Upanishad (65), which like-

* Translated in 7. St., ii. 5-8 [see 187 See also Edjendra L. M. i. 12,
also Taylor, ii. 468, Rajendra L. M. 91 (cotiitn. by Sarjikardnanda).
i. 25]; besides it there must have -f At the time of the (last?) ar-
existed another Mahd-Upan. (63), rangement of the present text of the
\vhicliiscitedbytheadherentsofthe Mah.i - Bhdrata, Ndnlyana worship
Mddhava sect as a warrant for their must have been particularly flourish-
belief in a personal soul of the uni- ing.
verse, (vstinct from the soul of man.

UPANISHADS OF THE ATH ARYAN. 167

vise celebrates Nardyana as the Supreme Lord;188 see /.
St., ii. 8, 9. He (Narayana) is named, besides, in the
same quality in the Garbhopanishad (in a passage re-
curring in the Nirukti, xiv.) and in the &akalyopanishad.

The second form under which we find Vishnu wor-
shipped is Nrisinha: The earliest mention of him hitherto
known appears in the Taitt. Ar., x. I. 8 (in the Xardyam-
yop.), under the name of Narasinha, and with the epithets
vajranakha and tikshnadansht^a. The only Upanishad in
which he is worshipped is the Nrisinhatdpan'iyopanishad
(in prose). It is relatively of considerable extent, and
is also counted as six separate Upanishads (66-71), as it
consists of two parts,* the first of which is in turn subdi-
vided into five distinct Upanishads. The first part treats
of the Anushtubh-formula f sacred. tt) Nrisinha, the man-
trardja ndrasinha dnusktubha, with which the most won-
drous tricks are played ; wherein we have to recognise the
first beginnings of the later Malamantras with their Tan-
tra-ceremonial. A great portion of the Mandukyopanishad
is incorporated into it, and the existence also of the Athar-
vas'ikha is presupposed, as it is directly quoted. The
contents of the second part are of a more speculative
character; but in respect of mystical trifling it does not
yield to the first part. In both, the triad — Brahman,
Vishnu, and Siva — is repeatedly mentioned. As regards
language, the expression buddha for the supreme Atman,
which occurs (along with nitya, suddka, satya, mukta, &c.)
in the second part, is of peculiar interest ; and the expres-
sion is still retained in Gaudapada and Samkara; originally
it belongs evidently to the Samkhya school (see above, pp.
27, 129).

This Upanishad has been interpreted by Gaudapada
and Samkara; and in addition to much that is quite
modern, it presents a great deal that is ancient. It pro-
bably dates from about the fourth century A.D., as at that

188 See also Rtjendra L. M., iii. num jvalantam sarvatomukham \

36 ; Taylor, ii. 328. nrisinham bhlshanam bhadram

* The above-mentioned lists of mrityumrityum namdmy aham, \\ " [

Upanishads in the Chambers collec- worship the terrible, powerful,

tion admit a Madhyatdpini also [see mighty Vishnu, the flaming, theom-

my Catalogue, p. 95]. nipresent; Nrisinha, the (Irani, tbe

f It runs vyram viram mahdviah' holy one, the death of death."

1 68 VEDIC LITERATURE,

time the Nrisinha worship flourished on the western coast
of India, while otherwise we find no traces of it.189

The Rdmatdpaniyopanishad (72, 73), in which Rama is
worshipped as the Supreme God, shows a great resemblance
to the Nrisinhatapam'yop., especially in its second part.
This second part, which is in prose, is, properly speaking,
nothing but a collection of pieces from the Tarakopanishad,
Mandukyopanishad, Jabalopanishad, and Nrisinhopani-
shad, naturally with the necessary alterations. Yajna-
valkya here appears as the proclaimer of the divine glory
of Kama. A London MS. adds at the close, a long passage
which is unknown to the commentator Anandavana (a
native of the town Kundina). The crowning touch of the
sectarian element in this Upanishad ;is found in the cir-
cumstance that Kama is implored by Siva (Samkara) him-
self to spare those a second birth who die in Manikarnika
or in the Gaiiga generally, the two principal seats of the
Siva worship. The first part, in ninety-five £lokas, contains
at the beginning a short sketch of Kama's life, which bears
a great similarity to that at the beginning of the Adhyat-
maramayana (in the Brahmanda-Purana). The Mantraraja
is next taught by the help of a mystical alphabet, speci-
ally invented for the purpose.* This Upanishad evidently
belongs to the school of Kamanuja, possibly to Kamanuja
himself, consequently its earliest date would be the
eleventh century A.D.190

Under the names Vishnu, Purushottama, and Vasudeva,
Vishnu is mentioned as the supreme Atman in several

189 See text and translation of this shad (1864); text and Ndray.'a

Upanishad in I. St., ix. 53-173 ; and comm. in Bill. Ind. also (1873) ; in

specially on the chronological ques- the introductions the two sectionsare

tion, pp. 62, 63. la the Bibl. In- called panchatrinsattama and shat-

dica also, this Upanishad has been trinsa respectively. The time of

published by lldmamaya Tarkaratna composition is probably even later

(1870-71), with Samkara' s common- than above supposed. In the first

tary (it is, however, doubtful whe- pi-ice, according to Xrisinha's state-

tlier the commentary on the second merits in his Smfityarthasdra (see

part belongs to Saiukara), together Anfrecht, Catalogus, pp. 285b, 286"),

with tbe small (Ndrasinha) shatchalc- liamdnuja flourished as late as the

ropanishad and Ndrayana's comm. twelfth century (take 1049 = A.D.

mi it. 1127). But further, the Ramatiipani

* The Nitrasinha- and a Va*ra"ha- displaysstillcloserrelationstoRdmd-

Mautra are also mentioned. nanda, who is supposed to have lived

"° See text and translation in my towards the end of the fourteenth

essay Die lidmu- Tdpanlija- Vp^nl- century ; see my essay, p. 382.

UPANISHADS OF THE ATHARVAN. 169

Upanishads ; * Krishna Devakiputra appears likewise in
some of them (the Atmaprabodha and Narayana), not,
however, as supreme Atman, but merely, as in the Chhan-
dogyop., as a particularly pious sage. It is in the Go-
pdlatdpaniyopanislwd (74/75) that we first find him ele-
vated to divine dignity. Of this Upanishad, the second
part at least, in prose, is known to me.f It treats
first of the gopis of Mathura and Vrnja, then it passes to
the identification of Mathura with Brahmapura, &c. ; and
it belongs without doubt to a very modern period, as it ex-
hibits hardly any points of contact with other Upanishads
in regard to contents and language.191 The Gopichandano-
panishad (76) also probably belongs to this place : 192 I
know it only by name.

At the head of the Upanishads belonging to the Siva-
sects stands, according to the use that has been made of
it, the £atarudriya. I have already remarked, however,
that this^is nothing but an abuse. In its germs the wor-
ship of Siva may be traced even in the later portions of
the Yajus.J He appears very prominently as Mahadeva
in a portion of the Narayamyopanishad, and here he is
already associated with his spouse. The SvetasVataropani-
shad also pays homage to him. Among the Atharvo-
pariishads the most ancient in this regard is the Kaivalyo-
panisliad (77), a mixture of prose and £lokas, in which
Wiagavdn makddevah himself instructs As"valayana con-
cerning his own majesty ; in a similar way he acts as his
own herald § in the Atharvasiras (78), in prose. The latter

* And also, in particular under as shatchatrdrinsati cha ptirnd did

the name V.isudeva, in the writings 'tharvapaippale. — See an analysis of

ascribed to Sarnkara. the second section in Taylor, ii. 472.

•(• The lists in the Chambers collec- 18:! So also according to Eajen-

ti on specify a Gopdlatdpinl.Madhya- dral., i. 20 (comm. by Ndr.), 60; it

tdpini, Uttaratdpini, and Brihadut- is specially " a treatise on the merits

taratdpiid / of putting on sectarial marks on the

15)1 The text of this Upanishad, forehead 'with an ochrous earth,

•with Visvesvara's commentary, is called gopichandaiia."

printed in the Bill. Indica (1870), J As in the Atharva-Samhitd and

edited by Iliirachandra Vidvdbhu- in the Sdnkhdyana-Bruhmana (see

Bliana and "Visvandthasastrin. Oc- pp. 45, no).

casionally extracts are added from § Like Krishna in the Bhagavad-

the commentaries by Ndrtlyana and gitd. The Kaivalyopanishad it

Jivagosvdmin. According to I'njen- translated /. St., ii. 9-14 ; on Atliar-

dral., i. 18, its first section is de- vaiiras see ibid., i. pp. 382-385.

scribed in Karayana's introduction [Text of, and two commentaries on,

VEDIC LITERATURE.

Upanishad has been expounded by Samkara. Under the
same title, " head of Atharvan," — a name that is also borne
by Brahman himself, although in a different relation, —
there exists a second Upanishad, itself a conglomeration of
five different Upanishads referring to the five principal
deities, Ganapati (79), Narayana, lludra, Siirya (80), and
Devi (Si).* Its Narayana-portion is a later recension of
the Narayanopanishad (64, see aboye, p. 166), and the
Itudra-portion follows the first chapter of the Atharvas'iras
proper. All five have been translated by Vans Kennedy.
In the Malia-Bharata (i. 2882), and the Code of Vishnu,
where the Atharvasiras is mentioned along with the Blw-
rundani sdmdni,a,nd in Vishnu also, where it appears beside
the Satarudriya (as the principal means of expiation), the
reference probably is to the Upanishad explained by Sam-
kara (?). — The Eudrop. and Alharvaniya-Rudrop. are known
to me only through the Catalogue of the India Office Library.
Possibly they are identical with those already named ; I
therefore exclude them from my list. The Mrityulangli-
anopanisliad (82) t is quite modern, and with it is wor-

tbe Kaivalyonanishad printed in
Bibl. Jncl., 1874; the first commen-
tary is that, of Naraynrri ; the second
is described by the editor as that of
Samkara, in the colophon as that of
Samkanlnanda ; it follows, however,
from llaj"ndra Lala Mit.ra's Cata-
logue, i. 32, that it is different from
tue commentary written by the lat-
ter ; and according to the same
authority, ii. 247, it is identical
rather with that of Vidyaranya. In
Xaray.m I's introduction this Upa-
nishad is described (exactly like the
.Tahiti op. !) as ekachatvdrinsfittaml.
Tiie Siras- or Atharvasiraa~Upa.ni-
shad is likewise printed in Bibl.
Ind. (1872), with Nttrayana's comm.,
which describes it as rudrddliydyah
gaptakhnndah. See also Rajendral.,
i. 32 (comm. by Samkardnanda),
48.]

* Sco I. St.,\\. 53, and Vans Ken-
nedy, Researches into the Nature and
Affinity of Hindu and Ancient Mytho-
l"!/y> P- 442- &c. [Taylor, ii. 469-
471. By Iktjendral., i. 61, a Gu.no,-

patyaptirvatdpantyopanishad is men-
tioned ; by Biihler, Cat. of MSS.
from, Guj., i. 70. a Ganapatiptirvatd-
pini and a Gancsatdpini ; and by
V^\Q\\\f>rn. Sanskrit MSS. intheSouth-
ern Division of tfie Bombay Pres.
(1869), p. 14, a Ganapatiptirvatd'
pan iyopa n ishad. ]

f So \ve have probably to under-
stand Anquetil's Amrat Lnnkoul,
since he has also another form, Mrat
Lankoun ; instead of, id est ' lialitus
mortis,' we outrht to read ' salitus
mortis.' [See now /. St., ix. 21-23 »
according to this it is doubtful whe-
ther the name ought not to be writ-
ten Mrityuldngula(T). An Upanishad
named Mfityulanghana is mentioned
by Buliler, Cat. of MSS. from Guj.,
\. 1 20 ; a Mrityuldiiglila, however,
appears as 8ad Upanishad in the
Catalogue of Pandit Kddhdkrishna'a
library. Finally, Burnell, in pub-
lishing the text in the Indian Anti-
quary, ii. 266, gives the form Afrit-
yuldnyala.]

UFA NISHA DS OF THE A THAR VA N. 171

tliily associated the Kdldgnirudropanishad (83),193 in prose,
of which there are no less than three different recensions,
one of which belongs to the NandikesVara-Upapurana.
The Tripuropanishad (84) also appears from its name —
otherwise it is unknown to me — to belong to this divi-
sion ; 194 it has been interpreted by Bhatta Bhaskara
Mis'ra. The Skandopanishad (85), in fifteen slokas, is also
Siva-itic 195 (likewise the Amritanddopanishad). The ado-
ration of Siva's spouse, his Sakti, — the origin of which may
be traced back to the Kenopanishad and the Narayaniyo-
panishad, — is the subject of the Sundaritdpaniyopanishad
(known to me by name only), in five parts (86-90), as well
as of the Devi-Upanishad (79), which has already been
mentioned. f The Kaulopanishad (91), in prose, also be-
longs to a Sakta sectary.'"'

Lastly, a few Upanishads (92-95) have to be mentioned,
which are known to me only by their names, names which
do not enable us to draw any conclusion as to their con-
tents, viz., the Pindopanishad, Nilaruhopanishad (Cole-
brooke has J^ilarudra), Paingalopanishad, and Darsano-
vanishad.1®6 The Garudopanishad (96), of which I know
two totally different texts, celebrates the serpent-destroyer
Garuda,t and is not without some antiquarian interest.

193 It treats specially of the tri- saptavinsatipurani, the latter as sho-

pundravidhi • see Taylor, i. 461 ; da£i: it is addressed to Rudra (see

liajendr., i. 59; Burnell, p. 6l. also Eajendral., i. 51), and consists

ia4 See on it Taylor, ii. 470 ; Bur- only of verses, which closely follow

iiell, p. 62. those contained in Vaj. S. xvi. On

195 «< Identifies Siva with Vishnu, the Paingalop. and Darsanop., see

and teaches the doctrines of the Taylor, ii. 468-471.
Advaita school." Taylor, ii. 467 ; t As is done in the Ndr&yaniyo-

Burnell, p. 65. panislutd also, and more especially

* In the Tejovindu (61) also, in the Suparnddhydya, which is con-

Irahman is described as dnava, sdm- sidered to belong to the Rik [edited

Ihfira, fdkta. by Elimar Grube, 1875 ; see also 7.

195 The Pindop. and the Nilarud- St., xiv. I, If'. — Tne Garudopanishad

fop, — this is its proper name — are is now printed in Bill. Jnd. (1874),

now printed in BibL Jnd. (1873), with Ndrdyana's commentary; in

with Kardyana's comm. ; the former, the introduction it is described us

which treats of the pindas to the chatuschatvdrinsattaml.]
pretas, is described by Ndrdyaga as

SECOND PERIOD.

SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

SECOND PERIOD.
SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

HAVING thus followed the first period of Indian literature,
in its several divisions, down to its close, we now turn to
its second period, the so-called Sanskrit literature. Here,
however, as our time is limited, we cannot enter so much
into detail as we have hitherto done, and we must there-
fore content ourselves with a general survey. In the case
of the Vedic literature, details were especially essential,
both because no full account of it had yet been given, and
because the various works still lie, for the most part, shut
up in the manuscripts ; whereas the Sanskrit literature
has already been repeatedly handled, partially at least, and
the principal works belonging to it are generally accessible.

Our first task, naturally, is to fix the distinction between
the second period and the first. This is, in part, one of
age, in part, one of subject-matter. The former distinction
is marked by the language and by direct data ; the latter
by the nature of the subject-matter itself, as well as by
the method of treating it.

As regards the language, in the first place, in so far as
it grounds a distinction in point of age between the two
periods of Indian literature, its special characteristics in
the second period, although apparently slight, are yet, in
reality, so significant that it appropriately furnishes the
name for the period ; whereas the earlier one receives its
designation from the works composing it.

Among the various dialects of the different Indo-Aryan
tribes, a greater unity had in the course of time been
established after their immigration into India, as the natural
result of their intermingling in their new homes, and of

176

SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

their combination into larger communities. The gram-
matical * study, moreover, which by degrees became neces-
sary for the interpretation of the ancient texts, and which
grew up in connection therewith, had had the effect of
substantially fixing the usage ; so that a generally re-
cognised language, known as the bhdshd, had arisen, that,
namely, in which the Brahmanas and Sutras are com-
posed.f Now the greater the advance made by the study
of grammar, the more stringent and precise its precepts
and rules became, and all the more difficult it was for
those who did not occupy themselves specially therewith
to keep in constant accord with grammatical accuracy.
The more the language of the grammatically educated
gained on the one hand in purity, and in being purged of
everything not strictly regular, the more foreign did it
become on the other hand to the usage of the majority of
the people, who were without grammatical training. In
this way a refined language gradually disconnected itself
from the vernacular, as more and more the exclusive pro-
perty of the higher classes of the people ; J the estrange-

* Respecting the vise of the verb
vydkri in a grammatical signification,

Siiyana in his introduction to the
Rik (p. 35. 22 ed. Miiller) adduces
a legend from a Brahmana, which
represents Indra as the olde.sr, gram-
marian. (See Lnssen, I. AK., ii.
475.) [The legend is taken from the
TS. vi. 4. 7. 3. All that is there
stated, indeed, is that vdch was
vi/dkritdby Indra; manifestly, how-
ever, the later myths which do actu-
ally set up Indra as the oldest gram-
marian connect themselves with this
passage.]

t BhdsJdka-svara in Kiltyayana,
Srauta-Sutra, i. 8. 17, is expressly
interpreted as brukmann-svara ; see
\'dj. Samh. Specimen, ii. 196. 197.
[/. St., x. 428-429, 437.] Yaska
repeatedly opposes bkds/idydtn and
anvadhydyam (i.e., 'in the Veda
reading,' ' in the text of the hymns ')
to each other ; similarly, the Pniti-
&tkhya - Sutras employ the words
bkdshd and bkdshya as opposed to
chkandas and veda, i.e., samhitd (see
above, pp. 57, 103. 144). The way in

which the word bltdsfiya is used in
the Grihya- Sutra of ^.inkhdyana,
namely, in contradistinction toSiitra,
shows that its meaning had already
l>y this time become essentially mo-
dified, and become restricted, pre-
cisely as it is in Panini, to the extra-
Vedic, rso to say, profane literature.
(The Asvahtyana-Grihya gives in-
stead of bhdski/a, in the correspond-
ing passage, bkdrata - mahdbhdrala-
dkarma.) [This is incorrect ; rather,
in the passage in question, these
words follow the word Uidshya ; see
the note on this point at p. 56.] In
the same way, in the Nir. xiii. 9,
mantra, kalpa, brdhmana, and the
vydvahdriki (se. bkds'id) are opposed
to each other (and also Rik, Yajus,
Sdman, and the vydvahdrikl).

i Ought the passage cited in Nir.
xiii. 9 from a Brdhmana [cf. Kath.
xiv. 5], to the effect that the Brah-
man s spoke both tongues, that of
the gods as well as that of men, to
be taken in this connection ? or has
this reference merely to a conception
resembling the Homeric one ?

SANSKRIT LITERATURE. 177

ment between the two growing more and more marked, as
the popular dialect in its turn underwent further develop-
ment. This took place mainly under the influence of
those aboriginal inhabitants who had been received into
the Brahmanic community ; who, it is true, little by little
exchanged their own language for that of their conquerors,
but not without importing into the latter a large number
of new words and of phonetic changes, and, in particular,
very materially modifying the pronunciation. This last
was all the more necessary, as the numerous accumulations
of consonants in the Aryan bhdskd presented exceeding
difficulties to the natives; and it was all the easier, as
there had evidently prevailed within the language itself
from an early period a tendency to clear away these trouble-
some encumbrances of speech, — a tendency to which, in-
deed, the study of grammar imposed a limit, so far as the
educated portion of the Aryans was concerned, but which
certainly maintained itself, and by the very nature of the
case continued to spread amongst the people at large.
This tendency was naturally furthered by the native inhabi-
tants, particularly as they acquired the language not from
those who were conversant with grammar, but from inter-
course and association with the general body of the people.
In this way there gradually arose new vernaculars, proceed-
ing directly from the common bhdshd* and distinguished
from it mainly by the assimilation of consonants, and by

* And therefore specially so called ceeding in common from.' The term

down even to modern tiine.s ; where- directly opposed to it is nut sam-

as the grammatically refined bhdshd skrita, but vaikrita ; see, e.g., Ath.

afterwards lost this title, and sub- P;iris.49. l,"varndnptin>amvydkhyd-

stituted for it the name Samskrita- aydmah prdkritd ye cha vaikritdh."]

bhdsJtd, 'the cultivated speech.' The earliest instances as yet known

The name Prdkrita-bhdstid, which of the name Samskrit as a designa-

was at the same time applied to the tion of the language occur in the

popular dialects, is derived from the Mrichhakati (p. 44. 2, ed. Stenzler),

word prakriti, 'nature,' 'origin,' and in Vardha-Mihira's Brihat-Sam-

and probably describes these as the hitd, 85. 3- The following passages

' natural,' ' original ' continuations also of the Rdmdynna are doubtlesi

of the ancient bhdshd: or does prd- to be understood in this sense, viz.,

Jcrita here signify 'having & prakriti v. 18. 19, 29. 17, 34 (82. 3), vi. 104,

or origin,' i.e., 'derived'? [Out of 2. Pdnini is familiar with the word

the signification 'original,' 'lying at Samskrita, but does not use it in

the root of (prakriti-bhiita), 'un- this sense; though .the Pdniniy.i-

modified,' arose that of 'normal,' Sikshd does so employ it (v. 3), in

then that of ' ordinary,' ' communis,' contradistinction to prtikrita.
' vulyaris,' and lastly, that of ' pro-

SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

the curtailment or loss of terminations. Not unfrequently,
however, they present older forms of these than are found
in the written language, partly because the latter has rigo-
rously eliminated all forms in any way irregular or obso-
lete, but partly also, no doubt, from the circumstance that
grammar was cultivated principally in the north or north-
west of India, and consequently adapted itself specially to
the usage there prevailing. And in some respects (e.g., in
the instr. plur. of words in a ?) 197 this usage may have
attained a more developed phase than appears to have
been the case in India Proper,* since the language was not
there hampered in its independent growth by any external
influence; whereas the Aryans who had passed into India
maintained their speech upon the same internal level
on which it stood at the time of the immigration,^ how-

197 This example is not quite per-
tinent, as the instr. plur. in -dis is
of very ancient date, being reflected
not only in Zend, but also in Sla-
vonic and Lithuanian ; see Bopp,
Veryl. Gram., i. I563 (i593).

* The difference in usage between
the Eastern and Western forms of
speech is once touched upon in the
Hrdhmana of the White Yajus,
where it is said that the Vahikas
style Agni Bhava, while the Prdch-
yas, on the contrary, call him Sana.
Yaska (ii. 2) opposes the Kambojas
(the Persa- Aryans?) to the Ary as (the
Indo- Aryans?), statingthat the latter,
for instance, possess derivatives only
of the root su, whereas the Kam-
bojas possess it also as a verb.
(Grammarians of the Kambojas are
hardly to be thought of here, as
I'otli, Zur Lit., p. 67, supposes.)
Yaska further opposes the Prachyas
and the Udichyas, and the same is
done by Panini. According to the
Hrahinana, the Udichyas were most
conversant with grammar [see 7.
Sf., i. 153, ii. 309, 310, xiii. 363, ff.
Utirnell's identification of the Kam-
bojas here, and in the other earlk-r
passages where thev are mentioned,
with Cambodia in Farther India, see
his Elements of South. Indian Pa/ceo-
'jraphy, pp. 31, 32, 94, is clearly a
mistake. For the time of the Pali

Abhidha'nappadipika' (v. Childers,
Pali Diet.) this identification may
perhaps be correct ; but the older
Pali texts, and even the inscriptions
of Piyadasi (e.g., most, distinctly the
facsimile of the Khalsi inscription
in Cunningham's Arck&ological Sur-
vey, i. 247, pi. xli., line 7), intro-
duce the Kambojas in connection
with the Yavanas ; and this of itself
determines that the two belonged
geographically to the same region
in the north-west of India; see
I. Str., ii. 321. In addition to
this we have the name Kabujiya =
T\.a./jLt3i>(Tr)s, and therewith all the
various references to this latter
name, which point to a very wide
ramification of it throughout, Ir4n ;
see 7. S:r., ii. 493. To Farther
India the name Kamboja evidently
found its way only in later times,
like the names Ayodhyd, Indra-
prastha, IraVati, Champd ; though
it certainly remains strange that
this lot should have fallen precisely
to it. Perhaps causes connected
with Buddhism may have helped to
bring this about. See on this point
the Jenaer Litcraturzeitung, 1875.
p. 418 ; Indian Antiquary, iv. 244.]
t Much as the Germans did, who
in the middle ages emigrated ta
Trangvlvania.

SANSKRIT LITERATURE. 179

ever considerable were the external modifications which, it
underwent.

The second period of Indian literature, then, commences
with the epoch when the separation of the language of
the educated classes — of the written language — from the
popular dialects was an accomplished fact. It is in the
former alone that the literature is presented to us. Xot
till after the lapse of time did the vernaculars also in their
turn produce literatures of their own, — in the first instance
under the influence of the Buddhist religion, which ad-
dressed itself to the people as such, and whose scriptures
and records, therefore, were originally, as for the most part
they still are, composed in the popular idiom. The epoch
in question cannot at present be precisely determined ;
yet we may with reasonable certainty infer the existence
of the written language also, at a time when we are in a
position to point to the existence of popular dialects ; and
with respect to these we possess historical evidence of a
rare order, in those rock-inscriptions, of identical purport,
which have been discovered at Girnar in the Gujarat
peninsula, at Dhauli in Orissa, and at Kapur di Giri198 in
Kabul. J. Prinsep, who was the first to decipher them, and
Lassen, refer them to the time of the Buddhist king Asoka,
who reigned from B.C. 259; but, according to the most
recent investigations on the subject — by Wilson, in the
"Journal of the Hoy al Asiatic Society," xii., 1850 (p. 95 of
the separate impression) — they were engraved " at some
period subsequent to B.C. 205," * and are are still, there-
fore, of uncertain date. However this question may be
settled, it in any case results with tolerable certainty

198 This name ou^ht probably to * And tbat not much later ; asia

be written Kapardigiri? See my vouched for by the names of the

paper on the Satrurpjaya Mdhcitmya, Greek kings therein mentioned —

p. llS. In these inscriptions, more- Alexander, Antigonus, Magas, Pto-

over, we have a text, similar in pur- lerny, Antiochus. These cannot, it

port, presented to us in three distinct is true, be regarded as conternpora-

dialects. See further on this subject neous with the inscriptions; but

Burnout's admirable discussion of their notoriety in India can hardly

these inscriptions in his Lotus de la have been of such lorg duration

bonne Loi, p. 652, ff. (1852) ; /. St., that the inscriptions can have been

iii. 467, ff. (1855) ; and Kern, De Ge- composed long after their time. See

denkxtukken van Aioka den Buddhist Wilson, I. c.
(1873, particularly p. 32 ff., 45 ff).

i So SANSKRIT LITER A TURE.

that these popular dialects were in existence in the third
century B.C. But this is by no means to be set down as
the limit for the commencement of their growth ; on the
contrary, the form in which they are presented to us suffi-
ciently shows that a very considerable period must have
elapsed since their separation from the ancient bhdshd.
This separation must therefore have taken place compara-
tively early, and indeed we find allusions to these vernacu-
lars here and there in the Brahma nas themselves.*

The direct data, attesting the posteriority of the second
period of Indian literature, consist in these facts : first,
that its opening phases everywhere presuppose the Vedic
period as entirely closed ; next, that its oldest portions are
regularly based upon the Vedic literature ; and, lastly, that
the relations of life have now all arrived at a stage of de-
velopment of which, in the first period, we can only trace
the germs and beginning. Thus, in particular, divine wor-
ship is now centred on a triad of divinities, Brahman,
Vishnu, and Siva; the two latter of whom, again, in course
of time, have the supremacy severally allotted to them,
under various forms, according to the different sects that
grew up for this purpose. It is by no means implied that
individual portions of the earlier period may not run on
into the later ; on the contrary, I have frequently endea-
voured in the preceding pages to show that such is the
case. For the rest, the connection between the two periods
is, on the whole, somewhat loose : it is closest as regards
those branches of literature which had already attained a
definite stage of progress in the first period, and which
merely continued to develop further in the second, —
Grammar, namely, and Philosophy. In regard to thoso
branches, on the contrary, which are a more independent

8 Tints in the second part of the mans are warned against such forms

Aitarcya-Brdhiflanatha Sydpnrnas, a of speech; " tasmdd brdkmano na

clan (?) of the western Salvas, are mlcchhet." — I mny remark here in

mentioned as " putdyai vdrlio vadi- passing that M. Muller, in his edi-

tdrcih," 'speaking a filthy tongue-;' tion of the Rik, in Sayana's intro-

and in the Pauchavinsa-BriihinnnM, duction, p. 36. 21, erroneously

the Vnityas are found fault with writes hclayo as one word: it stands

for their debased language. The for he'layo, — theAsura corruption

A suras are similar!}' censured in the of the battle-cry he 'rayo (arayo) :

Satapatha-Brdhmana (iii. 2. i. 24), according to the 6atapatha-Bra'h-

K'here, at the same time, the Brah- rnana, it even took the form he 'lavo.

SANSKRIT LITER A TURE. i S r

growth of the second period, the difficulty of connecting
them with the earlier age is very great. We have here a
distinct gap which it is altogether impossible to fill up.
The reason of this lies simply in the fact, that owing to
the difficulty of preserving literary works, the fortunate
successor almost always wholly supplanted the predecessor
it surpassed : the latter thus became superfluous, and was
consequently put aside, no longer committed to memory,
no longer copied. In all these branches therefore — unless
some other influence has supervened — we are in possession
only of those master- works in which each attained its cul-
minating point, and which in later times served as the
classical models upon which the modern literature was
formed, itself more or less destitute of native productive
energy. This fact has been already adduced as having
proved equally fatal in the case of the more ancient JBrah-
inana literature, &c. ; there, much to the same extent as
here, it exercised its lamentable, though natural influence.
In the Vedie literature also, that is to say, in its Sakhas,
we iind the best analogy for another kindred point, namely,
that some of the principal works of this period are extant
in several — generally two— recensions. J>ut along with
this a further circumstance has to be noted, which, in con-
sequence of the great care expended upon the sacred lite-
rature, has comparatively slight application to it, namely,
that the mutual relation of the manuscripts is of itself such
as to render any certain restoration of an original text for
the most part hopeless. It is only in cases where ancient
commentaries exist that the text is in some degree certain,
for the time at least to which these commentaries belong.
This is evidently owing to the fact that these works were
originally preserved by oral tradition; their consignment
to writing only took place later, and possibly in different
localities at the same time, so that discrepancies of all sorts
were inevitable. But besides these variations there are
many alterations and additions which are obviously of a
wholly arbitrary nature, partly made intentionally, and
partly due to the mistakes of transcribers. In reference to
this latter point, in particular, the fact must not be lost
sight of that, in consequence of the destructive influ-
ence of the climate, copies had to be renewed very fre-
quently. As a rule, the more ancient Indian manuscripts

i$2 SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

are only from three to four hundred years old ; hardly any
will be found to date more than five hundred years back.1*1
Little or nothing, therefore, can here be effected by means
of so-called diplomatic criticism. We cannot even depend
upon a text as it appears in quotations, such quotations
being generally made from memory, — a practice which, of
course, unavoidably entails mistakes and alterations.

The distinction in point of subject-matter between the
first and second periods consists mainly in the circum-
stance that in the former the various subjects are only
handled in their details, and almost solely in their relation
to the sacrifice, whereas in the latter they are discussed in
their general relations. In short, it is not so much a prac-
tical, as rather a scientific, a poetical, and artistic want that
is here satisfied. The difference in the form under which
the two periods present themselves is in keeping with this.
In the former, a simple and compact prose had gradually
been developed, but in the latter this form is abandoned,
and a rhythmic one adopted in its stead, which is employed
exclusively, even for strictly scientific exposition. The
only exception to this occurs in the grammatical and phi-
losophical Sutras ; and these again are characterised by a
form of expression so condensed and technical that it can-
not fittingly be termed prose. Apart from this, we have
only fragments of prose, occurring in stories which are now
and then found cited in the great epic ; and further, in the
fable literature and in the drama; but they are uniformly
interwoven with rhythmical portions. It is only in the
Buddhist legends that a prose style has been retained, the '

1 °~ Regarding the age, manner MSS. in Eiihler's possession, the
of preparation, material, and condi- Ava.syaka-S6.tra, dated Samrat 1189
tion of text of Indian MS*., see Raj. (A.D. 1132), is annexed to the above-
Litla Mitra's excellent report, dated mentioned report : " it is the oldest
1 5th February 1875, o;i tue searches Sanskrit MS. that has come to no-
instituted by him in native libraries tice," Raj. L. Mitra, Notices, iii. 68
down to the end of the previous (18/4). But a letter from Dr. Rost
year, which is appended to No. IX. (igth October 1875) intimates that
of his Notices of Sanskrit MSS. in one of the Sanskrit MSS. that
Quite recently some Devandgarl have lately arrived in Cambridge
MSS. of Jaiua texts, written on from Nepal, he has read the date
broad palm-leaves, have been dis- 128 of the Nep;ll era, i.e., A.D. 1008.
covered by Blihler, which date two Further confirmation of this, of
centuries earlier than any previously course, still remains to be given,
known. A facsimile of one of these

EPIC POETRY. 183

language of which, however, is a very peculiar one, and is,
moreover, restricted to a definite field. In fact, as the re-
sult of this neglect, prose-writing was completely arrested
in the course of its development, and declined altogether.
Anything more clumsy than the prose of the later Indian
romances, and of the Indian commentaries, can hardly be ;
and the same may be said of the prose of the inscriptions.

This point must not be left out of view, when we now
proceed to speak of a classification of the Sanskrit litera-
ture into works of Poetry, works of Science and Art, and
works relating to Law, Custom, and Worship. All alike
appear in a poetic form, and by ' Poetry ' accordingly in
this classification we understand merely what is usually
styled belles-lettres, though certainly with an important
modification of this sense. For while, upon the one hand,
the poetic form has been extended to all branches of the
literature, upon the other, as a set-off to this, a good deal
of practical prose has entered into the poetry itself, im-
parting to it the character of poetry ' with a purpose/ Of
the epic poetry this is especially true.

It lias long been customary to place the Epic Poetry at
the head of Sanskrit literature; and -to this custom we
here conform, although its existing monuments cannot
justly pretend to pass as more ancient than, for example,
Panini's grammar, or the law-book which bears the name
of Manu. We have to divide the epic poetry into two
distinct groups : the Itihdsa-Purdnas and the Kdvyas. We
have already more than once met with the name Itihasa-
Purana in the later Brahmanas, namely, in the second part
of the Satapatha-Brahmana, in the Taittiriya-Aranyaka,
and in the Chhandogyopanishad. We have seen that the
commentators uniformly understand these expressions to
apply to the legendary passages in the Brahmanas them-
selves, and not to separate works ; and also that, from a
passage in the thirteenth book of the Satapatha-Brahmana,
it results with tolerable certainty that distinct wrorks of
this description cannot then have existed, inasmuch as the
division into parvans, which is usual in the extant writings
of this class, is there expressly attributed to other works,
and is not employed in reference to these Itihasa-Puranas
themselves. On the other hand, in the Sarpa-vidya (' ser-
pent-knowledge ') and the Devajana-vidya (' genealogies of

1 84 SANSKRIT LITER A TURE.

the gods ') — to which, in the passage in question, the dis-
tribution into parvans, that is to say, existence in a distinct
form, is expressly assigned — we have in all probability to
recognise mythological accounts, which from their nature
might very well be regarded as precursors of the epic.
We have likewise already specified as forerunners of the
epic poetry, those myths and legends which are found in-
terspersed throughout the Brahmanas, here and there, too,
in rhythmic form,* or which lived on elsewhere in the
tradition regarding the origin of the songs of the Rile.
Indeed, a few short prose legends of this sort have been
actually preserved here and there in the epic itself. The
Gathas also — stanzas in the Brahmanas, extolling indivi-
dual deeds of prowess — have already been cited in the like
connection : they were sung to the accompaniment of the
lute, and were composed in honour either of the prince of
the day or of the pious kings of old (see /. St., L 187).
As regards the extant epic — the Mahd-Bhdrata — specially,
we have already pointed out the mention in the Taittirfya-
Aranyaka, of Vyasa Paras'arya 199 and VaisSampayana,200
who are given in the poem itself as its original authors ;
and we have also remarked (p. 143) that the family of the

* As, for instance, the story of cial relation to the transmission of

Hari.4chandra in the second part of the Yujur-Veda. By 1'anini, it is

the Aitareya-Brdhmana. true (iv. 3. 104), he is simply cited

199 Vydsa Pdrdsarya is likewise generally as a Vedic teacher, but the
mentioned in the vansa of the Sdrna- Mahdbhdshya, commenting on this
vidhdua-Brdhraana, as the disciple of passage, describes him as the teacher
Vishvaksena, and preceptor of Jai- of Katha and Kaldpin. In the Gal-
mini ; see /. St., iv. 377. — The Ma- cutta Scholium, again, we find fur-
hdbhdshya. again, not only contains ther particulars (from what source?
frequent allusions to the legend of cf.Tardndtha on Siddh.Kaum., 1.590),
the Malui- Bliarata, and even metri- according to which (see /. St., xiii.
cr-.l quotations that connect them- 440) nine Vedic schools, and among
pelves with it, but it also contains them two belonging to the Sduia-
the name of Suka Vaiydsaki ; and Veda, trace their origin to him. In
from this it is clear that there was the Rig-Griliya he is evidently re-
then already extant a poetical ver- garded (see above, pp. 157, 58), after
sion of the Mahd-Bhdrata story ; see the manner of the Vislinu-Purdna,
/. St., xiii. 357- Among the prior ns the special representative of the
births of Buddha is one (No. 436 Yajur-Veda ; and so he appears in
in Westergaard's Cataloyus, p. 40), the Anukr. of the Atreyi school, at
bearing the name Kanha-Dipdyana, the head of its list of teachers, spe-
i.e., Krishna-Dvaipdyana ! ciaily as tlie preceptor of Ydska

-w Vaisampdyana appears else- P;iiugi.
where frequently, but always in ape-

THE MAHA-BHARATA. 185

Paras"aras is represented with especial frequency in the
vansas of the White Yajus.* We also find repeated allu-
sions in the Brahmanas to a Naimishiya sacrifice, and, on
the authority of the Maha-Bharata itself, it was at such a
sacrifice that the second recitation of the epic took place in
presence of a Sauriaka. But, as has likewise been remarked
above [pp. 34, 45], these two sacrifices must be kept distinct,
and indeed there is no mention in the Brahmanas of a Sau-
naka as participating in the former. Nay, several such sacri-
fices may have taken place in the Naimisha forest [see p. 34] ;
or it is possible even that the statement as to the recitation
in question may have no more foundation than the desire
to give a peculiar consecration to the work. For it is
utterly absurd to suppose that Vyasa Paras"arya and Vai-
sampayana— teachers mentioned for the first time in the
Taittiriya-Aranyaka — could have been anterior to the sac-
rifice referred to in the Brahmanas. The mention of the
" Bharata " and of the " Maha-Bharata " itself in the
Grihya-Sutras of Asvalayana [and Sankhayana] we have
characterised [p. 58] as an interpolation or else an indica-
tion that these Sutras are of very late date. In Panini
the word "Maha- Bharata" does indeed occur; not, how-
ever, as denoting the epic of this name, but as an appel-
lative to designate any individual of special distinction
among the Bharatas, like Maha-Jabala,-Hailihila (see /. St.,
ii. 73). Still, we do find names mentioned in Panini which
belong specially to the story of the Maha-Bharata — namely,
Yudhishthira, Hastinapura, Vasudeva, Arjuna,-f- Andhaka-
Vrishnayas, Drona (?) ; so that the legend must in any case
have been current in his day, possibly even in a poetical
shape ; however surprising it may be that the name
Pandu I is never mentioned by him. The earliest direct

* This renders Lassen's reference Mahd-Bhdrata and in the works rest-

(T. AK.,\. 629) of the name PaYa- ing upon it. Yet the Buddhists

Barya to the astronomer or chrono- mention a mountain tribe of Pandi-

lojier Parasara, highly questionable, vas, as alike the foes of the Stfkyaa

f A worshipper of Vasudeva, or (I.e., the Kosalas) and of the in-

of, Arjuna, is styled ' Vasudevaka,' habitants of U'jayini; see Schief-

'Arjunaka.' Or is Arjuna here still ner, Leben des £dkyamuni, pp. 4,40

a name of Indra ? [From the con- (in the latter passage they appear to

text he is to be understood as a be connected with Taksha4il;i?), and,

Kshatriya ; see on this, /. St., xiii. further, Lassen, /. AK., ii. 100, ff. ;

349, ff. ; Ind. Antiq. iv. 246.] Foucaux, Rgya Cher Rol Pa, pp,

+ This name only occurs in the 228, 229 (25, 26).

1 86 SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

evidence of the existence of an epic, with the contents of
the Maha-Bharata, comes to us from the rhetor Dion
Chrysostom, who nourished in the second half of the first
century A.D. ; and it appears fairly probable that the infor-
mation in question was then quite new, and was derived
from mariners who had penetrated as far as the extreme
south of India, as I have pointed out in the Indischc
Studien, ii. 161-165.* Since Megasthenes says nothing of
this epic, it is not an improbable hypothesis that its origin
is to be placed in the interval between his time and that
of Clnysostom; for what ignorant-}- sailors took note of
would hardly have escaped his observation ; more espe-
cially if what he narrates of Herakles and his daughter
Pandaia has reference really to Krishna and his sister, the
wife of Arjuna, if, that is to say, the Pandu legend was
already actually current in his time. With respect to this
latter legend, which forms the subject of the Maha-Bharata,
we have already remarked, that although there occur, in
the Yajus especially, various names and particulars having
an intimate connection with it, yet on the other hand
these are presented to us in essentially different relations.
Thus the Kuru-Panchalas in particular, whose internecine
feud is deemed by Lassen to be the leading and central
feature of the Maha-Bharata, appear in the Yajus on the
most friendly and peaceful footing: Arjuna again, the
chief hero of ,the Pandus, is still, in the Vajasaneyi-Sam-
aita and the Satapatha-Brahmana, a name of Indra : J and
lastly, Janamejaya Parikshita, who in the Maha-Bharata
*s the great-grandson of Arjuna, appears, in the last part
of the Satapatha-Brahmana, to be still fresh in the me-
.nory of the people, with the rise and downfall of himself
and his house. I have also already expressed the con-
jecture that it is perhaps in the deeds and downfall of this
Janamejaya that we have to look for the original plot

* It is not, however, necessary to ( J In the thirteenth book of the

suppose, as I did, I. c., that they Satapatha - Brdhrnana, Indra also

brought this intelligence from the bears the name Dharma, which in

south of India itself : they might the Malui-Bhdrata is especially as-

have picked it up at some other part sociated with Yudhishthira him-

of their voyage. self, though only in the forma

f That they were so appears from dkarma-rdja, dharma-putra, &c.
their statement as to the Great Bear,
I.e.

THE MAHA-BHARATA. 187

of the story of the Maha-Bharata ; * and, on the other
hand, that, as in the epics of other nations, and notably
in the Persian Epos, so too in the Maha-Bharata, the
myths relating to the gods became linked with the popu-
lar legend. But so completely have the two been inter-
woven that the unravelling of the respective elements
must ever remain an impossibility. One thing, however,
is clearly discernible in the Maha-Bharata, that it has as
its basis a war waged on the soil of Hindustan between
Aryan tribes, and therefore belonging probably to a time
when their settlement in India, and the subjugation and
brahmanisation of the native inhabitants, had already been
accomplished. But what it was that gave rise to the con-
flict— whether disputes as to territory, or it may be reli-
gious dissensions — cannot now be determined. — Of the
Maha-Bharata in its extant form, only about one-fourth
(some 20,000 slokas or so) relates to this conflict and the
myths that have been associated witli it;201 while the
elements composing the remaining three-fourths do not
belong to it at all, and have only the loosest possible con-
nection therewith, as well as with each other. These later
additions are of two kinds. Some are of an epic character,
and are due to the endeavour to unite here, as in a single
focus, all the ancient legends it was possible to muster, —
and amongst them, as a matter of fact, are not a few that
are tolerably antique even in respect of form. Others are
of purely didactic import, and have been inserted with
the view of imparting to the military caste, for which the
work was mainly intended, all possible instruction as to
its duties, arid especially as to the reverence due to the
priesthood. Even at the portion which is recognisable as
the original basis — that relating to the war — many genera-
tions must have laboured before the text attained to an
approximately settled shape. It is noteworthy that it is
precisely in this part that repeated allusion is made to the
Yavanas, Sakas, Pahlavas,201* and other peoples ; and that

* Which of cmirse stands in glar- to the work (i. 8l) the express inti-

ing contradiction to the statement mation is still preserved that it

that the Mahit-Bhilrata was recited previously consisted of SSoo slokas

in his presence. only.

-101 And even of this, two-thirds S01a In connection with the word

will have to be sifted out as not Pahlara, Th. Noldeke, in a com-

oriciual. since in the introduction iiiuuication. dated 3d November

1 83

SANSKRIT LITERA TURK.

these, moreover, appear as taking an actual part in the
conflict — a circumstance which necessarily presupposes
that at the time when these passages were written, colli-
sions with the Greeks, &c., had already happened.202 But
as to the period when the final redaction of the entire
work in its present shape took place, no approach even to
a direct conjecture is in the meantime possible; 203 but at
any rate, it must have been some centuries after the com-
mencement of our era.* An interesting discovery has

1875, mentions a point which, if
confirmed, will prove of the highest
importance for determining the date
of composition of the Mahd-Bharata
and of the RdinaVana (see my Essay
on it, pp. 22, 25), as well as of Manu
(see x. 44). According to this, there
exists considerable doubt whether
the word Pahlav, which is the basis
of Paldava, and which Olshausen
(v. sup., p. 4, note) regards as having
arisen out of the name of the Par-
thavas, Parthians, can have origi-
nated earlier than the first century
A.D. This weakening of th to h is
not found, in the case of the word
Mithra, for example, before the
commencement of our era (in the
MIIPO on the coins of the Indo-
Scythians, Lassen, /. AK., ii. 837,
and in Meherdates in Tacitus). As
the name of a people, the word
Pahlav became early foreign to the
Persians, learned reminiscences ex-
cepted : in the Pahlavi texts them-
selves, for instance, it does not
occur. The period when it passed
over to the Indians, therefore, would
have to be fixed for about the 2d—
4th century A.D. ; and we should
have to understand by it, not directly
the Persians, who are called Para-
fiikas, rather, but specially the Arsa-
cidan Parthians.

403 Of especial interest in this con-
nection is the statement in ii. 578,
579, where the Yavana prince Blia-
iradatta (Apollodotus (?), according
to von Gutschmid's conjecture ; reg.
after B.C. 160) appears as sove-
reign of Maru (Marwar) and Naraka,
on ruling. Varuna like, the west,

and as the old friend of Yudhi-
shthira's father ; see /. St., v. 152. —
In the name of the Yavana prince
Kaserumant, we appear to have a
reflex of the title of the Roman
Caesars ; see Ind. Skiz., pp. 88, 91 ;
cf. L. Peer on the Kexari-ndma-
simftrdmah of the Avaddna-Sataka
in the Stances de I'Acad. des Inscr.
(1871), up. 47, 56, 60.

•2o3 \Vitu regard to the existence,
so early as the time of the Mahdbhd-
shya, of a poetical version of the
Mahd-BhaYata legend, see /. St.,
xiii. 356 ff. "Still this does not
in the smallest degree prove the
existence of the work in a form
at all resembling the shape in which
we now have it ; and as the final
result, we do not advance materially
beyond the passage in Dion Chry-
sostotn (7. St., ii. 161 ff.), relating
to the * Indian Homer.' For the
statements of the Greek writer
themselves evidently date from an
earlier time ; and although not
necessarily derived, as Lassen sup-
poses,from Megasthenes himself,yet
they at any rate take us back to a
period pretty nearly coincident with
that of the Bhdshya."

* We have a most significant
illustration of the gradual growth of
the Malui-BhaVata in an episode
commented upon by Samkara, which
by the time of Nilakantha (i.e., in
the course of 6 or 7 centuries) had
become expanded by a whole chapter
of 47 ttokas ; see my Catul. of the
Sanskrit MSS. in the Berlin Lib.t
P. 1 08.

THE MAHA-BHARATA.

recently been made in the island of Bali, near Java, of the
Kavi translation of several parvans of the Maha-Bharata.
•which in extent appear to vary considerably from their
Indian form.204 A special comparison of the two would
not be without importance for the criticism of the Maha-
Bharata. For the rest, in consequence of the utter medley
it presents of passages of widely different dates, the Work,
in general, is only to be used with extreme caution. It
has been published at Calcutta,205 together with the Hari-
vansa, a poem which passes as a supplement to it.* —
Respecting the Jaimini-Bhdrata, which is ascribed, not to
Vyasa and Vaisampayana, but to Jaimini, we have as yet
no very precise information : the one book of it with
which I am acquainted is wholly different from the cor-
responding book of the ordinary Maha-Bharata.-f-

204 See the observations, following
R. Friederick's account, in /. St., ii.

136 *

205 1834-39 in four vols.; recently
also at Bombay (1863) with the
commentary of Kilakantha. Hip-
polyte Fauche's incomplete French
translation (1863-72, ten vols.) can
only pass for a translation in a very
qualified sense ; see as to this 7. Str.,
ii. 410 ff. Individual portions of
the \\ork have been frequently
handled : e.g., Pavie has translated
nine pieces (Paris, 1844) andFoucaux
eleven (Paris, 1862). Bopp, it is
well known, early made the finest
episodes accessible, beginning with
the Nala (London, 1819), whereby
lie at the same time laid the founda-
tion of Sanskrit philology in Europe.
For the criticism of the Maha-
Bhdrata, the ground was broken
and important results achieved by
Lassen in his Indische Altcrthums-
kunde (vol. i. 1847). For the con-
tents of the work, see Monier Wil-
liams's Indian Epic Poetry (1863),
and Indian Wisdom (1875).

* In Albiruni's time, the nth
century, it passed as a leading autho-
rity; see Journ. Asiat. , Aug. 1844,
p. 130. [Subandhu, author of the
Vdsavadattd, had it before him, in

the 7th century ; see 7. Sir., i. 380.
A French translation by A. Langlow
appeared in 1834.]

t See my Cotal. of the Sanskrit
MSS. in the£erl. Lib., pp. in-ii8 :
according to Wilson (Mack. Coll., ii.
I), this book would appear to be the
only one in existence ; see also
Weigla in Z. D. M. G., ii. 278.
[This book, the Asvamedliikam jarra,
was printed at Bombay in 1863; ac-
cording to its concluding statements
as they appear in this tdition,
Jaimini's work eml raced the entire
epos; but up to the present, apart
from this 1 3th book, nothing further
is known of it ; see as to this my
p;iper in the Monatsbericlite derJBerl.
Acad., 1869, p. IO ff. A Kandrese
transition of this book is assigned
to the beginning of the I3th century
(ibid., pp. 13, 35) ; quite recently,
however, by Kittel, in his Preface
to Nagavarma's Prosody, pp. vi.
Ixxi., it has been relegated to the
middle of the i8th (!) century.
The peculiar colouring of the Krishna
sect, which pervades the whole book,
is noteworthy ; Christian legendary
matter and other Western influences
are unmistakably present; Monatsb.,
1. c., p. 37 ff. A good part of the con-
tents has been communicated by

IQO SA NSKRfT LtTERA TURE.

Side by side with the Itihasa we find the Purdna men-
tioned in the Brahmanas, as the designation of those
cosmogonic inquiries which occur there so frequently, and
which relate to the ' agra' or 'beginning' of things.
When in course of time distinct works bearing this name
arose, the signification of the term was extended ; and these
works came to comprehend also the history of the created
world, and of the families of its gods and heroes, as well
as the doctrine of its various dissolutions and renovations
in accordance with the theory of the mundane periods
(yugas). As a rule, five such topics are given as forming
their subject (see Lassen, /. AK., i. 479), whence the epi-
thet Pancha-lalcsliana, which is cited in Amara's lexicon
as a synonym of Purana. These works have perished, and
those that have come down to us in their stead under the
name of Puranas are the productions of a later time, and
belong all of them to the last thousand years or so. They
are written (cf. Lassen, /. c.) in^the interests of, and for the
purpose of recommending, the Siva and Vishnu sects ; and
not one of them corresponds exactly, a few correspond
slightly, and others do not correspond at all, with the de-
scription of the ancient Puranas preserved to us in the
Scholiasts of Amara, and also here and there in the works
themselves. " For the old narratives, which are in part
abridged, in part omitted altogether, have been substituted
theological and philosophical doctrines, ritual and ascetic
precepts, and especially legends recommending a particular
divinity or certain shrines" (Lassen, /. AK., i. 481). Yet
they have unquestionably preserved much of the matter
of these older works ; and accordingly it is not uncommon
to meet with lengthy passages, similarly worded, in several
of them at the same time. Generally speaking, as regards
the traditions of primitive times, they closely follow the
Mahd-Bharata as their authority; but they likewise ad-
vert, though uniformly in a prophetic tone, to the historic

Tal boys Wheeler in his History of the title Bdla-£hdrata, — in 44 »ar-

India, vol. i. (1867), where, too, gas of 6550 anushtubh verses, —

there is a general sketch of the and which appeared in the Benarea

contents of the Malid- BhaVata it- Pandit (1869 ff.), edited by Vechana

self ; see /. Sir., ii. 392. — It remains lldmasdstrin. This work belongs

further to mention the re-cast of probably to the nth century, sea

the Mahd-Bhdrata by the Jaina Z. D. M. G., xxvii. 170.
Amarachandra, which is extant under

PURANAS— RAMA YANA. 191

lines of kings. Here, however, they come into the most
violent conflict, not only with each other, but with chro-
nology in general, so that their historical value in this
respect is extremely small. Their number is considerable,
amounting to eighteen, and is doubled if we reckon the
so-called Upapurdnas, in which the epic character has
been thrust still more into the background, while the ritual
element has come quite to the front. Up to this time only
one single Purana, the Bhagavata-Purana, has been pub-
lished— the greater part of it at least — edited [and trans-
lated] by Burnouf : but of the others we have excellent
notices in Wilson's translation of the Vishnu- Purana.246

As the second group of Epic Poetry we designated the
Kdvyas, which are ascribed to certain definite poets (kavis) ;
whereas the Itihasas and Puranas are attributed to a my-
thical personage, Vyasa, who is simply Aiavicevii (Redac-
tion) personified.* At the head of these poems stands the
Rdmdyana of Valmiki, whose name we found cited among
the teachers of the Taittiriya-Prati^akhya.-}- In respect of
language, this work is closely related to the war-portion of
the Maha-Bharata, although in individual cases, where the
poet displays his full elegance, it bears plainly enough on
its surface, in rhyme and metre, the traces of a later date. In

208 As also in the separate analy- appearing in the same series (begun

sesof various Puranas, now collected 1870; caps. 1-214 thus far). An

in vol. i. of Wilson's Essays on San- impression of the Kalki- Purana, ap-

stcrit Literature (ed. Host, 1864). peared at Calcutta in 1873; and

Above all, we have hereto mention, lithographed editions of the Liiiga-

further, the minute accounts given Purana (1858) and of portions of the

of the Puranas by Anfrecht in his Padma, Skanda, Garuda, Brahma-

Catal. Cod. Sansc. Bibl. Bodl., pp. vaivarta, and other Purdnas have ap-

7-87. The Vishnu- Purana has been peared at Bombay ; see /. Str., ii.

recently published at Bombay, with 245 ff., 301 ff.

the commentary of Ratnagarbha- * The words kavi, in the sense of

bhatta (1867) ; Wilson's translation 'singer, poet,' and kdvya, in that of

of it has been repnblishud, edited by ' song, poem,' are repeatedly used in

Fitzedward Hall in five vols. (1864- the Veda, but without any technical

1870), with material additions and application ; see Vdjas. Samh. Spec.,

corrections. There are now also ii. 187 \trayi vai vidyd kdvyarn

several editions of the BhdgaHatd.- chhandas, ^at., viii. 5. 2. 4].
Purdna ; amongst them, one with f Whether by this name we have

the comm. of Sridharasva'min (Bom- to understand the same person is of

bay, 1860). The Mdrkande,i/a-Pu- course not certain, but considering

rdnn has been edited in the Bibl. the singularity of the name, it is at

Indicaliy K. M. Banerjea (1855- least not improbable.
1802) ; and the Agni-Purdna is now

192 SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

regard to contents, on the contrary, the difference between
it and this portion of the Maha-Bharata is an important
one. In the latter human interest everywhere preponder-
ates, and a number of well-defined personages are intro-
duced, to whom the possibility of historical existence
cannot be denied, and who were only at a later stage asso-
ciated with the myths about the gods. But in the Rama-
yana we find ourselves from the very outset in the region
of allegory ; and we only move upon historical ground in
so far as the allegory is applied to an historical fact,
namely, to the spread of Aryan civilisation towards the
south, more especially to Ceylon. The characters are not
real historic figures, but merely personifications of certain
occurrences and situations. Sita, in the first place, whose
abduction by a giant demon, and subsequent recovery by
her husband Rama, constitute the plot of the entire poem,
is but the field-furrow, to which we find divine honours
paid in the songs of the Rik, and still more in the Grihya
ritual. She accordingly represents Aryan husbandry,
which has to be protected by Rama — whom I regard as
originally identical with Balarama "halabhrit," "the
plough-bearer," though the two were afterwards separated
— against the attacks of the predatory aborigines. These
latter appear as demons and giants ; whereas those natives
who were well disposed towards the Aryan civilisation are
represented as monkeys, — a comparison which was doubt-
less not exactly intended to be flattering, and which rests
on the striking ugliness of the Indian aborigines as com-
pared with the Aryan race. Now this allegorical form of
t he Ramayana certainly indicates, a priori, that this poem
is later than the war-part of the Maha-Bharata; and we
might fairly assume, further, that the historical events
upon which the two works are respectively based stand to
each other in a similar relation. For the colonisation of
Southern India could hardly begin until the settlement of
Hindustan by the Aryans had been completed, and the feuds
that arose there had been fought out. It is not, however,
altogether necessary to suppose the latter ; and the warfare
at least which forms the basis of the Maha-Bharata might
have been waged concurrently with expeditions of other
Aryan tribes to the south. Whether it was really the Ko-
salas, as whose chief Rama appears in the Ramayana, who

THE RAM AY AN A. 193

effected the colonisation of the south,* as stated in the
poem ; or whether the poet merely was a Ko^ala, who
claimed this honour for his people and royal house, is a
point upon which it is not yet possible to form a judg-
ment. He actually represents Sita as the daughter of
Janaka, king of the Videhas, a tribe contiguous to the
KosSalas, and renowned for his piety. The scanty know-
ledge of South India displayed in the Bamayana has been
urged as proving its antiquity ; since in the Maha-Bharata
this region appears as far more advanced in civilisa-
tion, and as enjoying ample direct communication with
the rest of India. But in this circumstance I can only see
evidence of one of two things : either that the poet did not
possess the best geographical knowledge ; whereas many
generations have worked at the Maha-Bharata, and made
it their aim to magnify the importance of the conflict
by grouping round it as many elements as possible : or
else — and this is the point I would particularly empha-
sise— that the poet rightly apprehended and performed the
task he had set himself, and so did not mix up later con-
ditions, although familiar to him, with the earlier state of
things. The whole plan of the Ramayana favours the
assumption that we have here to do with the work, the
poetical creation, of one man. Considering the extent
of the work, which now numbers some 24,000 slokas, this
is saying a great deal ; and before epic poetry could have
attained to such a degree of perfection, it must already
have passed through many phases of development.-]- Still,

* It was by them also — byBhagira- compass. The term Chanardta still

tha, namely — that, according to the remains unintelligible to me ; see

Rdmayana, the mouths of the Gan- /. St., i. 153. (For the rest, as

ges were discovered. Properly, they stated by the Calcutta scholiast,

were the Eastern rather than the this rule, vi. 2. 103, is not interpreted

Southern foreposts of the Aryans. in the Bhdshya of Patamjali ; it

•f- Of these phases we have pro- may possibly therefore not be Pd-

bably traces in the granthah Sisu- nini's at all, but posterior to the time

Icrandlyah [to this Goldstiicker in of Patamjali.) — The word grantha

his Pdnini, p. 28, takes exception, may have reference either to the

doubtless correctly ; see /. St., v. outward fastening (like the German

27], Yamasabhiyah, Indrajanatnyah, Heft, Band] or to the inner compo-

mentioned by Pdnini, iv. 3. 88 ; and sition : which of the two we have

in the Akhydnas and Chdnardtas, to sitppose remains still undecided,

which, according to Pdnini, vi. 2. 103, but I am inclined to pronounce for

are to be variously designated ac- the former. [See above pp. 15, 99,

cording to the different points of the 165.]

1 94 SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

it is by no means implied that the poem was of these
dimensions from the first : here, too, many parts are cer-
tainly later additions ; for example, all those portions in
which Kama is represented as an incarnation of Vishnu,
all the episodes in the first book, the whole of the seventh
book, &c. The poem was originally handed down orally,
and was not fixed in writing until afterwards, precisely
like the Maha-Bharata. But here we encounter the further
peculiar circumstance — which has not yet been shown to
apply, in the same way at all events, to the latter work —
namely, that the text has come down to us in several
distinct recensions, which, while they agree for the most
part as to contents, yet either follow a different arrange-
ment, or else vary throughout, and often materially, in the
expression. This is hardly to be explained save on the
theory that this fixing of the text in writing took place
independently in different localities. We possess a com-
plete edition of the text by G. Gorresio, containing the
so-called Bengali recension, and also two earlier editions
which break off with the second book, the one published
at Serampore by Carey and Marshman, the other at Bonn
by A. W. von Schlegel. The manuscripts of the Berlin
library contain, it would seem, a fourth recension.*

* See my Catalogue of these MSS., in its earliest shape in Buddhist
p. 119. [Two complete editions of legends, underwent in the hands of
the text, with llama's Commentary, Vdhniki, rest upon an acquaintance
have since appeared in India, the with the conceptions of the Trojan
one at Calcutta in 1859-60, the cycle of legend ; and I have like-
other at Bombay in 1859; respecting wise endeavoured to determine more
the latter, see my notice in /. Str. , accurately the position of the work
ii. 235-245. Gorresio's edition was in literary history. The conclusion
completed by the appearance in 1867 there arrived at is, that the date
of the text, and in 1870 of the trans- of its composition is to be placed
lation, of the Uttara-lcdnda. Hip- towards the commencement of the
polyte Fauche's French translation Christian era, and at all events in
follows Gorresio's text, whereas an epoch when the operation of
Griffith's metrical English version Greek influence upon India had
(Benares, 1870-74, in 5 vols. ) fol- already set in. This elicited a re-
lows the Bombay edition. In my joinder from Kashinath Trimbak
Ees;iy, Ucbcr das Rdmiiyanam, 1870 Telang (1873), entitled, Was the
(an English translation of which* ap- Pdmdyana, copied from Homer; as
peared in the Indian Antiquary for to which see Ind. Ant., ii. 209, /.
1872, also separately at Bombay in St., xiii. 336, 480. The same writer
1873), I have attempted to show afterwards, in the Ind. Ant., iii.
that the modifications which the 124, 267, pointed out a half Hloka
story of Kama, as known to us which occurs in the Yud.dha-lcdnda,

THE ARTIFICIAL EPIC. 195

Between the Ramayana and the remaining Kavyas there
exists a gap similar to that between the Maha-Bharata
and the extant Puranas. Towards filling up this blank
we might perhaps employ the titles of the Kavyas found in
the Kavi language in the island of Bali,207 most of which
certainly come from Sanskrit originals. In any case, the
emigration of Hindus to Java, whence they subsequently
passed over to Bali, must have taken place at a time when
the Kavya literature was particularly nourishing ; other-
wise we could not well explain the peculiar use they have
made of the terms Jcavi and kdvya. Of the surviving
Kavyas, the most independent in character, and on that
account ranking next to the Bamayana — passably pure,
too, in respect of form — are two works * bearing the name
of Kalidasa, namely, the Eagliu-vau$a and the Kumdra-
sambliava (both extant in Kavi also). The other Kavyas,
on the contrary, uniformly follow, as regards their subject,
the Maha-Bharata or the Ptarnayana; and they are also
plainly enough distinguished from the two just mentioned
by their language and form of exposition. This latter
abandons more and more the epic domain and passes into
the erotic, lyrical, or didactic-descriptive field ; while the
language is more and more overlaid with turgid bombast,

and also twice in Patamjali's Mabd- ' They have been edited by

bhdshya. But the verse contains a Stenzler, text with translation [and

mere general reflection (eti jivantam repeatedly in India since, with or

dnando naram varsJiafatdd api), and without the commentary of Malli-

need not therefore have been de- ruttba. To the seven books of the

rived from the Rdnidyana. In it- Kumara-sarnbhava, which were the

self, consequently, it proves nothing only ones previously known, ten

as to the priority of the poem to others have recently been added ;

Patarnjali, and this all the less, as it on the critical questions connected

is expressly cited by Vttlmiki himself with these, see, e.g., Z. D. M. G.,

merely as a quotation. On this and xxvii. 174-182 (1873). From the

some other kindred points see my astrological data contained in both

letter in the Ind. Ant., iv. 247 ff. works, H. Jacobi has shown, in the

(1875).] Monatsber. der Birl. Acad., 1873, P«

207 See Friederich, I. c., I. St., ii. 556, that the date of their com-

1396". The numerous traces which position cannot be placed earlier

are contained in Patamjali's Maha"- than about the middle of the 4th

bhdshya of epic or narrative poems century A. D. The Raghu-vansa was

then actually extant, and which ap- most probably composed in honour

pear in that work as direct quota- of a Bhoja prince ; see my Essay on

tions therefrom, take us back to a the P.dm. Trip.* Up., p. 279, /. Str.,

far earlier time ; see 7. St., xiii. i. 312].
463 ff.

SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

until at length, in its latest phases, this artificial epic re-
solves itself into a wretched jingle of words. A pretended
elegance of form, and the performance of difficult tricks
and feats of expression, constitute the main aim of the
poet ; while the subject has become a purely subordinate
consideration, and merely serves as the material which
enables him to display his expertness in manipulating tho
language.208

Next to the epic, as the second phase in the develop-
ment of Sanskrit poetry, cornes the Drama, The name
for it is A"dtaka, and the player is styled Nata, literally
' dancer.' Etymology thus points us to the fact that the
drama has developed out of dancing, which was probably
accompanied, at first, with music and song only, but in
course of time also with pantomimic representations, pro-
cessions, and dialogue. We find dancing repeatedly men-
tioned in the songs of the Rik (e.g., in i. 10. i, 92. 4, &c.),
but with special frequency in the Atharva-Samhita and
the Yajus,* though everywhere still under the root-form

208 Six of these artificial epics
are specially entitled Mahdkdvyas.
These are, in addition to the Jtaghu-
vansa and Kumara - sambhava : —

(1) the Bhatti-lcdvi/a, in 22 saryas,
composed in Valabhi under king
Sri-l)harasena (xxii. 35), in the 6th
or 7th cent, therefore ; it deals with
the story of Rdtna, and is written
with a special reference to grammar :

(2) the Mdyha-kdvya or Sisapdla-
badha of Mdgha, the son of Dattaka,
in 22 sargas (Suprabhadeva, grand-
father of the poet, is described as
the minister of a king Sri-Dhartna-
nahha), and (3) the Kirdtdrjrtniya
of Bhiiravi,in 18 sargas, — both prior
to Hahiyudha (end of the loth
cent.), see 7. St., viii. 193, 105,
196 : (4) the Naishad/dya of Sri-
Harsha, in 22 sargas, of the 1 2th
cent, (see Biihler in the Journal
Jlombay Br. JR. A. S., x. 35). The
RdijJtavapdndai'lya, of Kaviraja,
in any case later than the loth
cent, (see /. Sir., i. 371), enjoys a
his^h esteem ; it handles, in the
self-same words, at once the ftory
of the llitmayana and that of the

Maha'-Bha'rata, and, like the Nal<*
daya, in 4 sargas, which is even
ascribed to K^liddsa (edited so long
ago as 1830 by Ferd. Benary), is
one of the most characteristically
artificial pieces of this class of
poetry. All these works have been
frequently published in India, and
to them are to be added many
other similar productions. — The
Prdkrit poem Setu-bandha or Rd-
vann-badha, which relates to the
story of Kama, and is reputed to
be by Kalidasa, also merits special
mention here. Of this Paul Gold-
schmidt has already published two
chapters (Gottingen, 1873) '•> andSieg-
fried Goldschmidt is engaged on an
edition of the entire text.

* Withvariouskindsof musical ac-
companiment, according to the Vaj.
Samh. xxx., where we meet with
quite a number of musicians and
dancers, as well as with the name
Sailiisha itself, which, at a later
time, at all events, belongs specially
to actors; see 7. Sir., i. 76, 83.
According to the scholium on Kitty.,
xxii. 4. 3, by those " vrdtyayanasya

THE DRAMA. 197

nrit. The prakritized form nat occurs for the first time
in Panini, who, besides, informs us of the existence of dis-
tinct Nata-sutras,* or manuals for the use of natas, one of
which was attributed to Silalin, and another to Kri^asVa,
their adherents being styled Sailalinas and Kris"asvinas
respectively. The former of these names finds an ana-
logue, at least, in the patronymic Sailali, which occurs in
the thirteenth kdnda of the Satapatha-Brahmana ; and it
may also, perhaps, be connected with the words Saihisha
and Ku6ilava, both of which denote ' actor ' (?).-(- The
latter name, on the contrary, is a very surprising one in
this connection, being otherwise only known to us as the
name of one of the old heroes who belong in common to
the Hindus and the Parsis.J Beyond this allusion we
have no vestige of either of these works. Panini further
cites § the word ndtyam in the sense of ' natdndm dharma
dmndyo vd.' In both cases, we have probably to under-
stand by the term the art of dancing, and not dramatic
art. — It has been uniformly held hitherto that the Indian
drama arose, after the manner of our modern drama in the
Middle Ages, out of religious solemnities and spectacles
(so-called 'mysteries'), and also that dancing originally
subserved religious purposes. But in support of this latter
assumption, I have not met with one single instance in
the Srauta- or Grihya-Sutras with which I am acquainted
(though of the latter, I confess, 1 have only a very super-

ye sampddayeynh," as tbe text has corrupt, loose morals of those so
it, we have to understand specially designated;; and the same must
teachers of dancing, music, and apply to Sildla, if this be a cog-
singing. " In the man who dances nate word. The derivation from
and sings, women take delight," Kus'a and Lava, the two sons of
Sat., iii. 2. 4. 6. Raina, at the beginning of the

* The two rules in question, iv. Rdmayana, has manifestly been in-

3. IIO, III, according to the Cal- vented in order to escape the odium

cutta scholiast, are not explained in of the name ' ku-&lava,'
the Bhashya of Patamjali ; possibly, J Ought we here to understand

therefore, they may not be Panini's the name literally, as, perhaps, a

at all, but posterior _to the time of kind of mocking epithet to express

Patamjali. [The Sailalino natdh poverty, with at the same time,

are mentioned in theBhdshya to iv. possibly, a direct ironical reference

2. 66; in the Anupada-sutra, the to the renowned Krisa^va of old ??
£ai/dlinah are cited as a ritual § iv. 3. 129 : this rule, also, is not

school ; see /. St., xiii. 429.] explained in the Bhdshya; perhaps

+ These terms are probably de- therefore it is not Piinini's, but

rived from sila, and refer to the later than Patamjali.

198

SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

ficial knowledge).209 The religions significance of dancing
is thus, for the older period at least, still questionable ;
and since it is from dancing that the drama has evidently
sprung, the original connection of the latter with religious
solemnities and spectacles becomes doubtful also. Besides,
there is the fact that it is precisely the most ancient dramas
that draw their subjects from civil life ; while the most
modern, on the contrary, almost exclusively serve religious
purposes. Thus the contrary, rather, would seem to be
the case, namely, that the employment of dancing * and
of the drama at religious solemnities was only the growth of
a later age.210 This does not imply, however, that dancing
was excluded from those great- sacrificial festivals which
were now and then celebrated by princes ; but only that
it did not itself constitute part of the sacred rite or reli-
gious ceremony, and could only, and did only, find a place in
the intervals. The name applied to the stage-manager in
the dramas themselves, ' Siitra-dhara,' is referred, and no

209 Even now I am acquainted
with but little from these sources
bearing on this point. Amongst
other things, at the pitrimedha we
find dancing, music, and song,
which represent ; the three forms
of silpa or art (Siifikh. Br. 29. 5),
prescribed for the whole day,
Kitty., 21. 3. ii. But a Sndtaka
might not participate in any such
performance, either actively or
passively, Pdr. ii. 7. On the day
preceding the departure of a bride,
four or eight married women (un-
widowed) performed a dance in her
house, Sdnkh. Gri. i. II.

0 It is known in the Megha-duta,
v. 3=5, 36.

aio Through the unexpected light
shed by the Mahdbhdshya of Patam-
jali on the then flourishing condi-
tion of theatrical representation,
this question has recently taken a
form very favourable to the view of
which Lassen is the principal ex-
ponent, and which regards the
drama as having originated in re-
ligious spectacles resembling our
mysteries. The particulars there
given regarding the performance of

a Kansavadha and Valibandha by so-
called £aubhikas — (comp. perhaps the
saubhikas in HdraVali, 15 1> though
these are explained as indrajdlikas,
'jugglers,' of. sob/ia, sobhanagaraka,
I. St., iii. 153) — lead us directly to
this conclusion ; see 7. St., xiii. 354,
487 ff. " But between the dramatic
representations known in the Bha"-
shya, which bear more or less the
character of religious festival-plays,
and the earliest real dramas that
have actually come down to us, we
must of course suppose a very con-
siderable interval of time, during
which the drama gradually rose to
the degree of perfection exhibited
in these extant pieces ; and here I
am still disposed to assign a certain
influence to the witnessing of Greek
plays. The Indian drama, after
having acquitted itself brilliantly in
the most varied fields — notably too
as a drama of civil life — finally re-
verted in its closing phases to essen-
tially the same class of subjects with
which it had started — to representa-
tions from the story of the gods."—
Ibid., pp. 491, 492.

THE DRAMA.

199

doubt rightly, to the original sense of ' (measuring) line-
holder,' 'carpenter;'* since it appears to have been one of
the duties of the architect at these sacrificial celebrations,
over arid above the erection of the buildings for the recep-
tion of those taking part in the sacrifice, likewise to con-
duct the various arrangements that were to serve for their
amusement. (See Lassen, /. AK., ii. 503.) Whether the
natas and nartaJcas mentioned on such occasions are to be
understood as dancers or actors, is at least doubtful; but
in the absence of any distinct indication that the latter are
intended, I hold in the meantime to the etymological sig-
nification of the word ; and it is only where the two appear
together (e.g., in Bamay. i. 12. 7 Gorr.) that nata has cer-
tainly to be taken in the sense of ' actor.' Buddhist legend
seems, indeed, in one instance — in the story of the life of
Maudgalyayana and Upatishya, two disciples of Buddha —
to refer to the representation of dramas in the presence of
these individuals.-}- But here a question at once arises as
to the age of the work in which this reference occurs ; this
is the main point to be settled before we can base any
conclusion upon it. Lassen, it is true, says that " in the
oldest Buddhistic writings the witnessing of plays is spoken
of as something usual ; " but the sole authority he adduces
is the passage from the Dulva indicated in the note. The
Dulva, however, that is, the Vinaya-Pitaka, cannot, as is
well known, be classed amongst the " oldest Buddhistic
writings ; " it contains pieces of widely different dates, in
part, too, of extremely questionable antiquity. In the
Lalita-Vistara, apropos of the testing of Buddha in the

* And therefore has probably their mutual addresses after the

nothing to do with the Nata-sutras shows are over." By 'spectacle'

mentioned above ? For another ap- must we here necessarily understand

plication of the word by the Bud- ' dramatic spectacle, drama ' ? ?

dhists, see Lassen, /. AK., ii. 81. [Precisely the same thing applies to

Of a marionette theatre, at all the word vistika, which properly

events, we must not think, though only signifies 'merrymaking' in the

the Javanese puppet-shows might Suttas of the Southern Buddhists,

tempt us to do so. where the witnessing of such ex-

•j- Csoma Korosi, who gives an hibitions (vMka-dassana) is men-
account of this in As. Reg. xx. 50, tioned among the reproaches direct-
uses these phrases : " They meet on ed by Bhagavant against the worldly
the occasion of a festival at Raja- ways of the Brahmans ; see Bur-
griha : . . . their behaviour during nouf, Lotus de la Bonne Loi, p. 465 ;
the several exhibitions of tpcciaclet — 1. St., iii. 152-154.]

2»3 SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

various arts and sciences (Foucaux, p. 1 50), ndtya must,
undoubtedly, be taken in the sense of ' mimetic art ' — and
so Foucaux translates it; but this does not suppose the
existence of distinct dramas. The date, moreover, of this
particular work is by no means to be regarded as settled ;
and, in any case, for the time of Buddha himself, this
examination-legend carries no weight whatever.

With respect, now, to the surviving dramas, it has
hitherto been usual to follow what is supposed to be the
tradition, and to assign the most ancient of them, the
Mrichhakati and Kalidasa's pieces, to the first century B.C.;
while the pieces next following — those of Bhavabhiiti —
belong to a time so late as the eighth century A.D. Be-
tween Kalidasa and Bhavabhiiti there would thus be a
gap of some eight or nine centuries — a period from which,
according to this view, not one single work of this class has
come down to us. Now this is in itself in the highest
degree improbable ; and were it so, then surely at the very
least there ought to be discernible in the dramas of the
younger epoch a very different spirit, a very different man-
ner of treatment, from that exhibited in their predecessors
of an age eight or nine hundred years earlier.* But this
is by no means the case ; and thus we are compelled at
once to reject this pretended tradition, and to refer those
soi-disant older pieces to pretty much the same period as
those of Bhavabhiiti. Moreover, when we come to examine
the matter more closely, we find that, so far as Kalidasa
is concerned, Indian tradition does not really furnish any
ground whatever for the view hitherto accepted : we only
find that the tradition has been radically misused. The
tradition is to the effect that Kalidasa lived at the court
of Vikranuiditya, and it is contained in a memorial verse
which says that Dhanvantari, Kshapanaka, Amarasinha,
Saiiku, Vetalabhatta, Ghatakarpara, Kalidasa, Varahami-
hira, and Vararuchi f were the 'nine gems' of Vikrama's

* I have here copied Holtzmann's krama-charitra (Journ. Asiat. Mai,

words, referring to Amara, in his 1844, p. 356). [This recension —

excellent little treatise, Ucber den ascribed to Vararuchi — of the SiA-

i/ricchischen Urspruny dcs indiscJun hasana-dvdtrinsikd is actually ex-

Thierkreiscs, Karlsruhe, 1841, p. 26. tant ; see Aufrecht, Cat. of Sansk.

f This is obviously the Vriracha M SS. Libr. Trin. Coll. Camb., p. II,

who is mentioned by the Hindustani and Westerc;anrd, Catal. Codd. Or.

chronicler as the author of the Vi- Bibl. llc<j. Haunicnsis, p. 100.]

DATE OF KALIDASA.

20 r

court. Now it is upon this one verse — a mere waif and
stray, that has come, like Schiller's ' Madchen aus der
Fremde,' from nobody knows where,* and which is, in any
case, of the most questionable authority — that the assump-
tion rests that Kalidasa nourished in the year 56 B.C.!
For people were not satisfied with hastily accepting as
genuine coin the tradition here presented — and this not-
withstanding the fact that they at the same time impugned
to some extent the trustworthiness of the verse embody-
ing it -f — they at once rushed to the conclusion that the
Vikrama here named must be the Vikramaditya, whose era,
still current in our own day, commences with the year 56
B.C. But then, we know of a good many different Vikramas
and Vikramadityas : J and, besides, a tradition which is
found in some modern works,§ and which ought surely, in
the first instance, to have been shown to be baseless before
any such conclusion was adopted, states expressly (whether
correctly or not is a question by itself) that king Bhoja,
the ruler of Malava, who dwelt at Dhara and Ujjayini, was
the Vikrama at whose court the ' nine gems ' flourished ;
and, according to an inscription,!] this king Bhoja lived

* It is alleged to be taken from
the Vikrama- charitra ; but Rotb, in
his analysis of this work in the Journ.
Asiat., Octob. 1845, p. 278 ff., says
nothing of it. [And in fact it occurs
neither there nor in any of the other
recensions of the Sinha'sana-dva'trin-
sikd to which I have access. It is,
however, found embodied both in
the Jyotirvid-dbharana, of about the
sixteenth century (22. 10, see Z. D.
M. G., xxii. 723, 1868), and in a
Singhalese MS. of the so-called
Navaratna (with Singhalese com-
mentary) cited in Westergaard's
Catal. Codd. Or. Bill. Rcy. Ifaun.,
p. 14 (1846).]

+ Partly on erroneous grounds.
It was asserted, namely, that the
word Ghatakarpara in the verse was
only the name of a work, not of a
person : this, however, is not the
case, as several poems, besides, are
found ascribed to him.

+ ' Sun of might ' is quite a
general title, and not a name.

§ See, for instance, also Haeber-

lin's Sanskrit Anthology, pp. 483,
484.

II See Lassen, Zeitsch. filr die
Kunde des Morg., vii. 294 ff. ; Cole-
brooke, ii. 462. According to Rein-
aud in the Journ. Asiat., Sept. 1844,
p. 250, Bhoja is mentioned some
years earlier by Albiruni, who wrote
in A.D. 1031, as his contemporary ;
and Otbi alludes to him earlier still,
in A.D. 1018, as then reigning; see
Reinaud, Mem. sur I'fndc, p. 261.
According to a later Hindustani
chronicler, he lived 542 years after
Vikramitditya (see Journ. Asiat.
Mai, 1844, p. 354), which would
make the date of the latter about
A.D. 476. Upon what this very pre-
cise statement rests is unfortunately
uncertain ; the Vikrama-charitra
does not fix in this definite way the
iuierval of time between Bhoja and
Vikrama. Roth, at all events, in
his analysis of the work (Journ.
Asiat., Sept. 1854, p. 281) merely
nays, "ii'en des annecs apres (la mort
dc Vilramdditya) Jihoja paniiit an

2C2

SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

about 1040-1090 A.D. On the other hand, there exists no
positive ground whatever for the opinion that the Vikraraa
of the verse is tlie Vikramaditya whose era begins in B.C.
56. Nay, the case is stronger still ; for up to the present
time we have absolutely no authentic evidence * to show
whether the era of Vikramaditya dates from the year of
his birth, from some achievement, or from the year of his
death, or whether, in fine, it may not have been simply
introduced by him for astronomical reasons ! -f- "To assign
him to the first year of his era might be quite as great a
mistake as we should commit in placing Pope Gregory
XIII. in the year one of the Gregorian Calendar, or even
Julius Caesar in the first year of the Julian period to which
his name has been given, i.e., in the year 47 1 3 B.C." (Holtz-
mann, op. cit.,p. 19).

souverain poitvoir." [The text has
simply: "bahuni vars/idni gatdni."
Nor does any definite statement of
the kind occur in any of the various
other recensions of the Sinhdsana-
dvdtrinsikd, although a considerable
interval is here regularly assumed
to have elapsed between the rule of
Vikrama at Avanti and that of Bhoja
at Dhdrd.] — To suppose two Bhojas,
as Reiuaud does, I. c., and M6m. sur
i'lnde, pp. 113, 114, is altogether
arbitrary. We might determine the
uncertain date of Vikramdditya by
the certain date of Bhoja, but we
cannot reverse the process. The date
3044. of Yudhishthira's era is, J. As.,
1. c., p. 357, assigned to the acces-
sion of Vikramdditya ; but it does
not appear whether this is the actual
tradition of the Hindustani chroni-
cler, or merely an addition on the
part of the translator. Even in the
former case, it would still only prove
that the chronicler, or the tradition
he followed, mixed up the common
assertion as to the date of Vikrama
with the special statement above
referred to. [To the statements
of the Hindustani chronicler, Mir
Cher i AH Afsos, no great impor-
tance, probably, need be attached.
They rest substantially on the recen-
sion attributed to Vararuchi of the

Sinhasana-dvdtrinsikd, which, how-
ever, in the MS. before me (Trin.
Coll., Camb.), yields no definite
chronological data. — After all,
the assumption of several Bhojas
has since turned out to be fully
warranted ; see, e.g. , Rdjendraldla
Mitra in Journ. A. S. Beng. 1863,
p. 91 ff., and my I. Str., i. 312.]

* See Colebrooke, ii. 475 ; Lassen,
/. AK., ii. 49, 50, 398; Reinaud,
Mem. sur I'lnde, pp. 68 ff , 79 ff. ;
Bertrand in the Journ. Asiat., Mai,

1844, P- 357-

+ We first meet with it in the
astronomer Vardha-Mihira in the
fifth or sixth century, though even
this is not altogether certain, and, as
in the case of Brahmagupta in the
seventh century, it might possibly
be the era of Sdlivdhana (beg. A.D.
78). Lassen does, in fact, suppose
the latter (I. AK., i. 508), but see
Colebrooke, ii. 475. — Albiruni gives
particulars (v. Reinaud, Journ. Asiat.,
Sept. 1844, pp. 282-284) &a to the
origin of the &aka era ; but regard-
ing the basis of the Sarjivat era of
Vikrama he does not enlarge. [Even
yet these two questions, which are
of such capital importance for Indian
chronology, are in an altogether
unsatisfactory state. According to
Kern, Introd. to his edition of tho

DRAMAS OF KALI DAS A. 203

The dramas of Kalidjisa — that one of the 'nine gems' with
whom we are here more immediately concerned — furnish
in their contents nothing that directly enables us to
determine their date. Still, the mention of the Greek
female slaves in attendance upon the king points at least
to a time not especially early ; while the form in which
the popular dialects appear, and which, as compared with
that of the inscriptions of Piyadasi, is extraordinarily
degraded, not unfrequently coinciding with the present
form of these vernaculars, brings us down to a period at
any rate several centuries after Christ. But whether the
tradition is right in placing Kalidasa at the court of Bhoja
in the middle of the eleventh century appears to me very
questionable ; for this reason in particular, that it assigns
to the same court other poets also, whose works, compared
with those of Kalidasa, are so bad, that they absolutely
must belong to a later stage than his — for example,
Damodara Mi&a, author of the Hanuman-nataka. More-
over, Kalidasa has allotted to him such a large number of
works, in part too of wholly diverse character, that we
cannot but admit the existence of several authors of this
name ; and, in point of fact, it is a name that has continued
in constant use down to the present time. Nay, one even
of the three dramas that are ascribed to Kalidasa would
seem, from its style, to belong to a different author from

Brihat-Samhita of Vardha-Mihira, taken the same view, J. R. A. S., vii.

5 ff. (1866), the use of the so-called 382 (1875). According to Eggeling

Samvat era is not demonstrable for (Triibner's Amer. and Or. Lit. Rec.,

early times at all, while astronomers special number, 1875, p. 38), one of

only begin to employ it after the the inscriptions found in Sir Walter

year IOOO or so. According to Elliot's copies of grants dates as

Westergaard, Om de indiske Kejser- far back as the year Saka 169 (A.D.

house (1867), p. 164, the grant of 247). Buruell, however, declares it

Dantidurga, dated £aka 675, Samvat to be a forgery of the tenth century.

8ll (A.D. 754), is the earliest certain Fergusson, too, On. the Satxt, Sam-

instance of its occurrence; see also vat, and Gupta Eras, pp. 11-16, is

Lurnell, Elem. of South. Ind. Pal., p. of opinion that the so-called samvat

55. Others, on the contrary, have era goes no farther back than the

no hesitation in at once referring, tenth century. For the present,

wherever possible, every Samvat- or therefore, unfortunately, where

Samvatsare-d&ted inscription to the there is nothing else to guide us, it

Samvat era. Thus, e.g. , Cunning- must generally remain an open ques-

ham in his Archceol. Survey of India, tion which era we have to do with

iii- 3T> 39. directly assigns an in- in a particular inscription, and what

Kcription dated Samv. 5 to the year date consequently the inscription

S.c; 52 : Dowson, too, has recently bears.]

204

SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

the other two.211 And this view is further favoured by
the circumstance, that in the introduction to this play
Dhavaka, Saumilla, and Kaviputra are named as the
poet's predecessors ; Dhavaka being the name ,of a poet
who nourished contemporaneously with king Sri-Harsha
of Kashmir, that is, according to Wilson, towards the
beginning of the twelfth century A.D.212 There may, it is

211 In the introduction to my
translation of this drama, the Md-
lavikdgnimitra, I have specially ex-
amined not only the question of its
genuineness, but also that of the
date of Kaliddsa. The result ar-
rived at is, in the first place, that
this drama also really belongs to
him. — and in this view Shaukar
Pandit, in his edition of the play
(Bombay, 1869), concurs. As to
the second point, internal evidence,
partly derived from the language,
partly connected with the phase of
civilisation presented to us, leads
me to assign the composition of
Kttliddsa's three dramas to a period
from the second to the fourth cen-
tury of our era, the period of the
Gupta princes, Chandragupta, &c.,
"whose reigns correspond best to
the legendary tradition of the glory
of Vikrama, and may perhaps b^
gathered up in it in one single focus."
Lassen has expressed himself to
essentially the same effect (/. AK.,
ii. 457, 1158-1160) ; see also /. St.,
ii. 148, 415-417. Kern, however,
with special reference to t.he tradi-
tion which regards Kdlidasa and
Vardha-Mihira as contemporaries,
has, in his preface to Vardha's
Brihat-Samhita", p. 2O, declared
himself in favour of referring the
' nine gems ' to the first half of the
sixth century A.U. Lastly, on the
ground of the astrological data in
the KumaVa-sambhava and llaghu-
van£a, Jacobi comes to the con-
clusion (Monatsber. dcr Btrl. A cad.,
1873, p. 556) that the author of
these two poems cannot have lived
before about A.D. 350 ; but here, of
course, the preliminary question
remains whether he is to be identi-

fied with the dramatist. Shankar
Pandit, in Triibner's Am. and Or.
Lit. Rec., 1875, special No., p. 35,
assumes this, and fixes Kalidasa'.s
date as at all events prior to the
middle of the eighth century. For
a definite chronological detail which
is perhaps furnished by the Megha-
duta, see note 219 below. By
the Southern Buddhists Kdliddsa
is placed in the sixth century ;
Knighton, Hist, of Ceylon, 105 j
Z. D. M. <?., xxii. 730. With modern
astronomers, the idea of a triad of
authors of this name is so fixed,
that they even employ the term
KtHiddsa to denote the number 3 ;
see Z. D. M. G., xxii. 713.

212 The date of Sri-Harsha, of
whom DhaVaka is stated in the
Ka'vya-prakdsu to have been the
protege" — Kashmir is not here in
question — has since been fixed by
Hall (Introd. to the Vdsavadattd)
for the seventh century, rather.
Hall, moreover, questions the exis-
tence of Dhavaka altogether (p. 17),
and is of opinion that he "never
enjoyed any more substantial
existence than that of a varkws
reading." — This conjecture of Hall's
as to the name of the author of the
RatnaVuli, in which Biihler also
concurred, has since been brilliantly
verified. According to Biihler's letter
from Srinagara (publ. in I. St., xiv.
402 ff.), all the Kashmir MSS. of
the Kiivya-prakdsa rend, in the pas-
sage in question, Bdna, not Dh&-
vaka, the latter name being alto-
gether unknown to the Pandits
there : " As Mammafa was a native
of Kashmir, this reading is un-
doubtedly the correct one." — Comp.
note 218 below.

MRICHHAKA TI—LA TER DRAMA S. 205

true, Lave been more Dhavakas than one ; another MS.,
moreover, reads Bhasaka ; 213 and besides, these introduc-
tions are possibly, in part, later additions. In the case of
the Mrichhakati at least, this would appear to be cer-
tain, as the poet's own death is there intimated.* This
last-mentioned drama, the Mrichhakati — whose author,
Sudraka, is, according to Wilson, placed by tradition prior
to Vikramaditya 2U (i.e., the same Vikrama at whose
court the ' nine gems ' nourished ?) — cannot in any case
have been written before the second century A.D. For it
makes use of the word ndnaka as the name of a coin ; f
and this term, according to Wilson (Ariana Antigua, p.
364), is borrowed from the coins of Kanerki, a king who,
by the evidence of these coins, is proved to have reigned
until about the year 40 A.D. (Lassen, /. AK., ii. 4 1 3). But
a date long subsequent to this will have to be assigned to
to the Mrichhakati, since the vernacular dialects it intro-
duces appear in a most barbarous condition. Besides, we
meet with the very same nourishing state of Buddhism
which is here revealed in one of the dramas of Bhava-
bhuti, a poet whose date is fixed with tolerable certainty
for the eighth century A.D. The Eamayana and the war-
part of the Maha-Bharata must, to judge from the use

213 The passage exhibits a great whom Chdnakya is to destroy. To
numberofvariousreadings; seeHaag, Vikramdditya, on the other hand,
Zur TextesJcritik u. ErkULrurtg von is assigned the date Kali 4000, i.e.,
Kdliddsa'sMdlaviMgnimitra(iSj2), A.D. 899 (!) ; see the text in Isva-
pp. 7, 8. Hall, 1. c., prefers the rachandra Vidydsdgara's Marriage
readings Bhdsaka, Rdmila, and Sau- of Hindoo Widows, p. 63 (Calc.
mila ; Haag, on the contrary, Bhdsa, 1 856), and in my Essay on the
Saumilla, Kaviputra. In Edna's ltdmdyaiia, p. 43.

Harsha - charita, Introd., v. 15, f According to the Vi^va-kosha,

Bhdsa is lauded on account of his quoted by Mahidhara to Vdj. Samh.

dramas : indeed, his name is even 25. 9, it is a synonym of ri'ipa

put before that of Kdliddsa. (= rupee?). Ydjnavalkya (see

* Unless Sudraka-rdja, the re- Stenzler, Introd., p. xi.) and Vrid-

puted author, simply was the patron dha-Gautama (see Dattaka Mimdnsd,

of the poet ? It is quite a common p. 34) are also acquainted with

thing in India for the actual author ndnalca in the sense of 'coin.'

to substitute the name of his patron [Both Lassen, 7. AK., ii. 575> an(l

for his own. Miiller, A. S. L., p. 331, dispute

214 In a prophetic chapter of the the conclusions drawn from the
Skanda-Purdna, for instance, he is occurrence of the word ndnaka, but
placed in the year Kali 3290 (i.e., I cannot be persuaded of the cogency
A.D. 180), but at the same time only of their objections.]

twenty years before the Naudas

206 SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

made of their heroes in the Mrichhakati, already have
been favourite reading at the time when it was composed ;
while, on the other hand, from the absence of allusion
to the chief figures of the present Puranas, we may
perhaps infer with Wilson that these works were not yet
in existence. This latter inference, however, is in so far
doubtful as the legends dealt with in these younger
Puranas were probably, to a large extent, already contained
in the older works of the same name.* The two remain-
ing dramas of Bhavabhuti, and the whole herd of the later
dramatic literature, relate to the heroic tradition of the
Iidmayana and Maha-Bharata, or else to the history of
Krishna ; and the later the pieces are, the more do they
resemble the so-called 'mysteries' of the Middle Ages.
The comedies, which, together with a few other pieces,
move in the sphere of civil life, form of course an excep-
tion to this. A peculiar class of dramas are the philo-
sophical ones, in which abstractions and systems appear as
the dramatis personcc. One very special peculiarity of the
Hindu drama is that women, and persons of inferior rank,
station, or caste, are introduced as speaking, not in Sanskrit,
but in the popular dialects. This feature is of great
importance 216 for the criticism of the individual pieces ;
the conclusions resulting from it have already been ad-
verted to in the course of the discussion.

* Besides, the slaying of Sumbha certainly to a later stage. Ought

and Nisumbba by Devi, which forms the Sudraka who is mentioned in

the subject of the Devi-Mdhdtmya, this work, p. 118, ed. Wilson, to be

v.-x., in the Mdrk;ind.-Purdna, is identified, perhaps, with the reputed

referred to in the Mrichhakati, p. author of the Mrichhakati?

1 05. 22 (ed. Stenzler). — Whether, t'6/cZ. 215 For example, from the rela-

104.18, Karataka is to be referred tion in which the Prdkrit of the

to the jackal of this name in the several existing recensions of the

Paiichatantra is uncertain. — At Sakuntald stands to the rules of

page 126.9 Stenzler reads yallakka, the Prdkrit grammarian Vararuchi,

but Wilson (Hindu Theatre, i. 134) Pischel has drawn special arguments

reads mallctka, and considers it not in support of the view advocated by

impossible that by it we have to him in conjunction with Stenzler,

understand the Arabic mdlik! — In that of these recensions the Bengdli

regard to the state of manners de- one is the most ancient; see Kuhn'a

picted, the Mrichhakati is closely Bcitruge zur vergl. Sprachforsch.,

related to the Dasa - kumdra, al- viii. 129 ff. (1874), and my observa-

though the latter work, written in tions on the subject in /. St., xiv.

the eleventh century [rather in the 35 ff.
eixth, Bee below, p. 213], belongs

POSSIBLE GREEK INFLUENCE ON DRAMA. 207

From the foregoing exposition it appears that the drama
meets us in an already finished form, and with its best pro-
ductions. In almost all the prologues, too, the several
works are represented as new, in contradistinction to the
pieces of former poets ; but of these pieces, that is, of the
early beginnings of dramatic poetry, not the smallest rem-
nant has been preserved.216 Consequently the conjecture
that it may possibly have been the representation of Greek
dramas at the courts of the Grecian kings in Bactria, in
the Panjab, and in Gujarat (for so far did Greek supremacy
for a time extend), which awakened the Hindu faculty of
imitation, and so gave birth to the Indian drama, does not
in the meantime admit of direct verification. But its his-
torical possibility, at any rate, is undeniable,217 especially as
the older dramas nearly all belong to the west of India.
No internal connection, however, with the Greek drama
exists.218 The fact, again, that no dramas are found either

216 See Cowell iu I. St., v. 475 ;
and as to the Kansa-vadha aud "Vali-
bandba, the note on p. 198 above.

217 Cf. the Introduction to my
translation of the Mdlavikd, p. xlvii.,
and the remarks on Yavanikd in Z.
D. M. G., xiv. 269 ; also 1, St., xiii.
492.

-18 The leading work on the In-
dian dramas is still Wilson's Select
Specimens of the Theatre of the Hin-
dus, 1835% l8yi3. The number of
dramas that have been published in
India is already very considerable,
and is constantly being increased.
Foremost amongst themstill remain:
— the Mrichhakatikd of Sudraka, the
three dramas of Kdliddsa (tfakuntald,
Urvasi, &nd Mdlavikd), Bhavabhuti's
three (Mdlati-mddhava, Mahd-vira-
charitra, and Uttara-rdma-charitra);
— the Ratn&vali of King Sri-Harsha-
deva, composed, according to Wil-
son's view, in the twelfth century,
and that not by the king himself,
but by the poet Dhdvaka, who lived
at his court, but according to Hall,
by the poet Bana in the beginning of
the seventh century ; see Hall, In-
troduction to the Vdsavadattd, p.
15 ff. (cf. note 212 above), /. Str., i.

356), Lit. Cent. EL, 1872, p. 614;—
the Ndgdnanda, a Buddhistic sen-
sational piece ascribed to the same
royal author, but considered by
Cowell to belong to Dhdvaka (see,
however, my notice of Boyd's trans-
lation in Lit. C. £., 1872, p. 615); —
the Veni-samhdra of Bhatta-ndrd-
yana, a piece pervaded by the colour-
ing of the Krishna sect, written,
according to Grill, who edited it in
1871, in the sixth, and in any case
earlier than the tenth century (see
Lit. C. £., 1872, p. 612) ; — the
Viddha-sdlabha&jikd of Kdja-Sekha-
ra, probably prior to the tenth
century (see /. Str., i. 313) ; — the
Mudrd-rdksliasa of Visdkhadatta, a
piece of political intrigue, of about
the twelfth century ; and lastly, the
Prdbodha-chandrodaya, of Krishna-
misra, which dates, according to
Goldstiicker, from the end of the
same century. — Two of Kdliddsa's
dramas, the Sakuntald and Urvasi,
are each extant in several recensions,
evidently in consequence of their
having enjoyed a very special popu-
larity. Since the appearance of
Pischel's pamphlet, I)e Kdliddsae
Sakuntali Recensionibus (Breslau,

208 SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

in the literature of the Hindus, who emigrated to the
island of Java about the year 500 A.D. (and thence subse-
quently to Bali), or among the Tibetan translations, is per-
haps to be explained, in the former case, by the circumstance
that the emigration took place from the east coast of India,*
where dramatic literature may not as yet have been spe-
cially cultivated (?). But in the case of the Tibetans the
fact is more surprising, as the Meghaduta of Kalidasa and
other similar works are found among their translations.

The Lyrical branch of Sanskrit poetry divides itself,
according to its subject, into the Keligious and the Erotic
Lyric. With respect to the former, we have already seen,
when treating of the Atharva-Samhita, that the hymns of
this collection are no. longer the expression of direct reli-
gious emotion, but are rather to be looked upon as the
utterance of superstitious terror and uneasy apprehension,
and that in part they bear the direct character of magic
spells and incantations. This same character is found
faithfully preserved in the later religious lyrics, throughout
the Epic, the Puranas, and the Upanishads, wherever
prayers of the sort occur ; and it has finally, within the
last few centuries, found its classical expression in the
Tantra literature. It is in particular by the heaping up of
titles under which the several deities are invoked that
their favour is thought to be won; and the 'thousand-
name-prayers ' form quite a special class by themselves.
To this category belong also the prayers in amulet-form,
to which a prodigious virtue is ascribed, and which enjoy
the very highest repute even in the. present day. Besides
these, we also meet with prayers, to Siva •}• especially, which

1870), in which he contends, with this Kavi literature, moreover, we

great confidence, for the greater au- have actually extant, in the Smara-

thenticity of the so-called Bengdli dahana, a subsequent version of the

recension, the questions connected KutnaYa-sambhava, and in the Su-

herewith have entered upon a new mana-santaka (?) a similar version

stage. See a full discussion of this of the Raghu-vanJa, i.e., works which,

topic in /. St., xiv. 161 ff. To in their originals at least, bear the

Pischel we are also indebted for our name of Kiliddsa ; see/. St., iv. 133.

knowledge of the Dekhan recension 141.] Do the well-known Javanese

of the Urvasi : it appeared in the puppet-shows owe their origin to the

Monatsber. der Berl. Acad., 1875, pp. Indian drama ?

609-670. t Whose worship appears, in the

* Yet the later emigrants might main, to have exercised the most fav.

have taken some with them! [lu ourable influence upon his follow era,

LYRICAL POETRY.

209

for religious fervour and childlike trust will bear compari-
son with the best hymns of the Christian Church, though,
it must be admitted, their number is very small.

The Erotic Lyric commences, for us, with certain of the
poems attributed to Kalidasa. One of these, the Megha-
duta, belongs^ at all events to a period 219 when the temple
worship of Siva Mahakala at Ujjayini was in its prime,
as was still the case at the time of the first Muhammadan
conquerors. Together with other matter of a like sort, it
has been admitted, and under Kalidasa's name, into the
Tibetan Tandjur,* from which, however, no chronological
deduction can be drawn, as the date of the final completion
of this compilation is unknown. The subject of the Megha-
duta is a message which an exile sends by a cloud to his
distant love, together with the description of the route the
cloud-rnessenger is to take — a form of exposition which has
been imitated in a considerable number of similar poems.
A peculiar class is composed of the sentences of Bhartrihari,

whereas it is the worship of Krishna
that has chiefly countenanced and
furthered the moral degradation of
the Hindus.

219 A very definite chronological
detail would be furnished by v. 14,
provided Mallindtha'sassertiou is war-
ranted, to the effect that this verse
is to be taken in a double sense, i.e.,
as referring at the same time to
Diiindga, a violent opponent of Kd-
lidasa. For in that case we should
in all probability have to understand
by Dinnaga the well-known Bud-
dhist disputant of this name, who
lived somewhere about the sixth cen-
tury ; see my discussion of this point
in Z. D. M. G., xxii. 726 ff.

* Considering the scarcity of the
Asiatic Researches, I here give
Csoma Koi o'si's account of the Tan-
djur, contained in vol. xx., 1836, in
some detail. " The Bstau-Htryur is
a compilation in Tibetan of all sorts
of literary works " (in all some 3900),
"written mostly by ancient Indian
Pandits and some learned Tibetans
in the first centuries after the intro-
duction of Buddhism into Tibet,
commencing with the seventh cen-
tury of our era. The whole makes

225 volumes. It is divided into the
Rgyud and the Mdo (Tantra and
Sutra classes, in Sanskrit). The
Rgyud, mostly on tantrika rituals
and ceremonies, makes 87 volumes.
The Mdo, on science and literature,
occupies 136 volumes. One separate
volume contains (58) hymns or
praises on several deities or saints,
and one volume is the index for the
whole.— The Rgyud contains 2640
treatises of different sizes : they treat
in general of the rituals and cere-
monies of the mystical doctrine of
the Buddhists, inten-persed with
many instructions, hymns, prayers,
and incantations. — The Mdo treats
iu general of science and literature
in the following order : theology,
philosophy" (these two alone make
94 volumes), "logic or dialectic,
philology or grammar, rhetoric,
poesy, prosody, synonymies, astro-
nomy, astrology, medicine and ethics,
some hints to the mechanical arts
and histories." See further, in par-
ticular, Anton Schiefner's paper,
Ueber die logischen und grammati-
schen Werlce im Tandjur, in the Bul-
letin of the St. Petersburg Academy
(read 3d September 1847).
0

210 SANSKRIT LITERA TURE.

Amaru, &c., which merely portray isolated situations, with-
out any connection as a whole. A favourite topic is the
story of the loves of Krishna and the shepherdesses, the
playmates of his youth. It has already been remarked that
the later Kavyas are to be ranked with the erotic poems
rather than with the epic. In general, this love-poetry is of
the most unbridled and extravagantly sensual description;
yet examples of deep and truly romantic tenderness of feel-
ing are not wanting. It is remarkable that, in regard to
some of these poems, we encounter the same phenomenon
as in the case of the Song of Solomon : a mystical interpre-
tation is put upon them, and in one instance at least, the
Gita-Govinda of Jayacleva,219a such a mystical reference
appears really to have been intended by the poet, however
incompatible this may at first sight seem with the particu-
larly wanton exuberance of fancy which is here displaved.
Of the Ethico-Didactic Poetry — the so-called Niti-Sds-
tras — but little has survived in a complete form (some
pieces also in the Tibetan Tandjur), no doubt because the
great epic, the Maha-Bharata, in consequence of the char-
acter of universality which was gradually stamped upon
it, is itself to be regarded as such a Niti-Sastra. Still,
relics enough of the aphoristic ethical poetry have been
preserved to enable us to judge that it was a very favourite
form, and achieved very excellent results.220 Closely allied

218a Ace. to Biihler (letter Sep. Muir'.s Religious and Moral Senti-

1875), Jayadeva, who does not ap- mcnts from Sanskrit Writers (1875).

]>ear in the Saras v.-kantiuibh., flon- Kegarding an anthology which, both

ri.-ihed under king Lakshmanasena of in extent and antiquity, surpasses

Gauda, of whom there is extant an that of Sitriigadhara, viz., the Sad'

inscription of the year Ill6, and ukti - hirndmrita of Sridharadasa,

whose era, still current in Mithild, compiled Sake 1127 (A.D. 1205), and

begins, ace. to Ind. Ant. iv. 300, in comprising quotations from 446

A.D. 1170. poets, see the latest number of Raj.

—" See rjohtlingk's critical edition Ldla Mitra's Notices, iii. 134-149.

of these aphorisms, Indischc Spriichc, The statement at the close of the

3 vols., 1863-65 (with 5419 vv.), 2d work respecting the era of king

edition, 1870-73 (with 7613 vv.), Lakshmanasena, in whose service the

and Aufrecht's analysis, in the Z. poet's father was, is both in itself

I). M. G., xxvii. i ff. (1873), of the obscure, and does not well harmonise

&irnr/ad/tara-Padd/iati, of the four- with our other information on the

teenth century, — an anthology of point. On account of the numerous

about 6000 vv. culled from 264 dif- examples it quotes we may also here

ferent authors and works. Compare mention the Sarasvati-kanlhdbJiara-

al.so Job.. Klatt, DC Trccmtis Clidna- na, a treatise on poetics attributed

1-tjfic Sentcntiis (1873), and Dr. John to king Bhoia-deva, and therefore

< BEAST-FABLE?

211

to it is the literature of the ' Beast-Fable,' which has a very
special interest for us, as it forms a substantial link of
connection with the West. We have already pointed
out that the oldest animal-fables known to us at pre-
sent occur in the Chhandogyopanishad. Nor are these
at all limited there to the representation of the gods as
assuming the forms of animals, and in this shape associat-
ing with men, of which we have even earlier illustrations,*
but animals are themselves introduced as the speakers and
actors. In Panini's time, complete cycles of fables may
possibly have already existed, but this is by no means
certain as yet.t The oldest fables, out of India, are
those of Babrius, for some of which at least the Indian
original may be pointed out.221 But the most ancient book

belonging probably to the eleventh
century ; see on it Aufrecht, Cata-
log us, pp. 208, 209. — To this class
also belongs, though its contents are
almost entirely erotic, the Prdkrit
anthology of H&la, consisting pro-
perly of only 700 verses (whence its
name Sapta-sataka), which, how-
ever, by successive recensions have
grown to 1 100-1200. It was the pro-
totype of the Sapta-sati of Govardha-
na, a work of about the twelfth cen-
tury, which in its turn seems to have
served as the model for the Satta-
sni of the Hindi poet Bihdri Lai ; see
my Essay on the Sapta-s^itaka of
Hala (1870), pp. 9, 12, and Z. D. M.
(f., xxviii. 345 ff. (1874), and also
Garrez in the Journ. Asiat., August
1872, p. 197 if.

* For instance, the story of Maim
and the fish, Indra's metamorphosis
into the birds markata and Tcapinja-
la, his appearance in the form of a
ram, &c. In the Rik the sun is fre-
quently compared to a vulture or
falcon hovering in the air.

+ The words cited in support of
this are not Ptmini's own, but his
scholiast's (see p. 225). [But, at
all events, they occur directly in
the Mahdbhashya ; see /. St., xiii.
486.]

• m In my paper, Uebei' den Zu-
lammenliang indischer Faleln niit

griechischen (I. St., iii. 327 ff.), as
the result of special investigations
bearing upon A. Wagoner's Essay
on the subject (1853), I arrived at
exactly the opposite conclusion ; for
in nearly every instance where a
Greek fable was compared with the
corresponding Indian one, the marks
of originality appeared to me to be-
long to the former. In all proba-
bility the Buddhists were here the
special medium of communication,
since it is upon their popular form
of literary exposition that the Indian
fable and fairy-tale literature is spe-
cially based. Otto Keller, it is true,
in his tract, Utber die Geschichte der
griech. Fabd (1862), maintains, in
opposition to my view, the Indian
origin of the fables common to India
and Greece, and suggests an ancient
Assyrian channel of communication.
His main argument for their Indian
origin is derived from the circum-
stance that the relation existing in
Greek fable between the fox and
the lion has no real bnsis in the na-
ture of the two animals, whereas
the jackal does, as a matter of
fact, stand to the lion in the rela-
tion portrayed in Indian fable. But
are jackals, then, only found in Inr
dia, and not also in countries inha-
bited by Semitic peoples ? And is
not the Greek animal-fable precisely

212

SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

of fables extant is the Pancha-tantm. The original text
of this work has, it is true, undergone great alteration and
expansion, and cannot now be restored with certainty ;
but its existence in the sixth century A.D. is an ascertained
fact, as it was then, by command of the celebrated Sas-
sanian king Nushirvan (reg. 531—579), translated into
Pahlavf. From this translation, as is well known, sub-
sequent versions into almost all the languages of Asia
Minor and Europe have been derived.222 The recension
of the extant text seems to have taken place in the
Dekhan ; 223 while the epitome of it known as the Hito-
padesa was probably drawn up at Palibothra, on the
Ganges. The form of the Hindu collections of fables is
a peculiar one, and is therefore everywhere easily recog-
nisable, the leading incident which is narrated invariably
forming a framework within which stories of the most
diverse description are set.* — Allied to the fables are the

a Semitic growth ? That the Indians
should turn the fox of the Greek
fable back again into the jackal
necessarily followed from the very
nature of the case. The actual state
of things, namely, that the jackal
prowls about after the lion, had in-
deed early attracted their attention ;
see, e.g., Rik, x. 28. 4 ; but there is
no evidence at all that in the older
period the knowledge was turned to
the use to which it is put in the fable,
the only characteristics mentioned
of the jackal being its howling, its
devouring of carrion, and its enmity
to the dog. (In Satap., xii. 5. 2. 5,
the jackal is, it is true, associated
with the word vidagdha, and this is
certainly noteworthy ; but here the
term simply signifies 'burnt' or
' putrid.') Keller's views as to the
high antiquity of the Indian authors
he cites are unfounded.

222 See on this Benfey's transla-
tion (1859) of the Pahcha-tantra,
which follows Kosegarten's edition
of the text (1848). Here there is a
full exposition of the whole subject
of the later diffusion of the mate-
rials of Indian fable throughout the
West. Kielhorn and Biihler have
published a new edition of the text

in the Bombay Sanskrit Series (1868
ff.).

223 From Benfey's researches, it
appears that, in this recension, the
original text, which presumably
rested on a Buddhistic basis, under-
went very important changes, so
that, curiously enough, a German
translation made in the last quarter
of the fifteenth century from a
Latin rendering, which in its turn
was based upon a Hebrew version,
represents the ancient text more
faithfully than its existing Sanskrit
form does. Of this, for the rest, two
or more other recensions are extant ;
see /. Str., ii. 1 66. For the I4th
chap, of the Kalila wa Dimna, no
Indian original had been known to
exist ; but quite recently a Tibetan
translation of this original has been
discovered by Anton Schiefner ; see
his Bharatae Responsa, St. Peters-
burg, 1875. On a newly discovered
ancient Syriac translation of the
groundwork of the Pancha-tantra,
made, it is supposed, either from the
Pahlavi or from the Sanskrit itself,
see Benfey in the Augsburger Ally.
Zeit. for July 12, 1871.

* Precisely the same thing takes
place in the Mahd-Bhdrata also.

FAIRY TALES, ETC.— HISTORY, GEOGRAPHY. 213

Fairy Tales and Eomances,224 in which the luxuriant
fancy of the Hindus has in the most wonderful degree put
forth all its peculiar grace and charm. These too share
with the fables the characteristic form of setting just re-
ferred to, and thereby, as well as by numerous points of
detail, they are sufficiently marked out as the original
source of most of the Arabian, Persian, and Western fairy
tales and stories ; although, in the meantime, very few
of the corresponding Indian texts themselves can be
pointed out.

As regards the last branch of Indian poetry, namely,
Geography and History, it is characteristic enough that the
latter can only fittingly be considered as a branch of poetry ;
and that not merely on account of its form — for the poetic
form belongs to science also — but on account of its subject-
matter as well, and the method in which this is handled.
We might perhaps have introduced it as a division of the
epic poetry ; but it is preferable to keep the two distinct,
since the works of the class now in question studiously
avoid all matter of a purely mythical description. We
have already remarked that the old Puranas contained
historical portions, which, in the existing Puranas, are con-
fined to the mere nomenclature of dynasties and kings ;
and that here they clash violently, not only with one
another, but with chronology generally. We meet with
the same discrepancies in all works of the class we are
now considering, and especially in its leading representa-
tive, Kalhana's Rdja-taramgini, or history of Kashmir,
which belongs to the twelfth century A.D. Here, it is

224 Here, before all, is to be Kashmir, pub. in 7. St. , xiv. 4028".)

mentioned Somadeva's Kathd-sant- he lived under king Ananta (1028-

sdyara, of the twelfth century, edited 1080), and wrote 1020-1040). — The

by Herm. Brockhaus (1839-66). Of Dasa-kumdra-charita of Dandin, be-

the Vrihat-katlid of Guniidhya, be- longing to about the sixth century,

longing to about the sixth century — was edited by Wilson in 1846, and by

a work which is supposed to have Buhlerin 1873: Subandhu's Vdtava-

been written in the PaUdchi bhdshd, dattd (seventh century ?) was edited

aiid which is the basis of the work by Hall, with an excellent critical in-

of Somadeva, — a recast by Kshe- troduction, in 1859 (Bihl. Ind.) :

mamkara has recently been dis- Edna's Kddambari, of about the

covered by Burnell arid Biihler, see same date, appeared at Calcutta in

Ind. Antiq., i. 302 ff. (Kshemam- 1850. For an account of these last

kara is also called Kshemendra; three works see my 7. Sir., i. 308-

arcording to Biihler (letter from 386.

214

SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

true, we have to do with something more than mere bald
data ; but then, as a set-off to this, we have also to do
with a poet, one who is more poet than historian, and who,
for the rest, appeals to a host of predecessors. It is only
where the authors of these works treat of contemporary
subjects that their statements possess a decided value;
though, of course, precisely with respect to these, their judg-
ment is in the highest degree biassed. But exceptions like-
wise appear to exist, and in particular, in some princely
houses, family records, kept by the domestic priests, appear
to have been preserved, which, in the main,* seem to be
passably trustworthy.225 — As for Geography, we repeatedly

* Only the family pedigree must
not enter into the question, for these
genealogical tables go back almost
regularly to the heroic families of
the epic.

225 Certain statements in the astro-
logical treatise Gdrgl Samhitd, cap.
Yuga Parana, in which the relations
of the YavanP.s with India are
touched upon (see Kern, Pref. to
Brihat-Samhitd, p. 33 ff.), appear to
have a real historical significance.
Bana's Jfarsha charita, too, seems
to be a work embodying some good
information ; see Hall, Pref. to the
Vasava-datta, p. 12 ff. (1859). And
the same remark applies to the
Vikramdilka-charita by Bilhana of
Kashmir, in 18 S'tryas, composed
about A.D. 1085, just edited with
a very valuable introduction by
i!iihler. This work supplies most
important and authentic informa-
tion, not only regarding the poet's
native country, and the chief cities
of India visited by him in the course
of prolonged travels, but also as to
the history of the Ciuxlukya dynasty,
whose then representative, Tribhu-
vana-malla, the work is intended to
exalt. In Biiuler's opinion, we may
hope for some further accession to
our historical knowledge from the
still existing libraries of the Jainas.
and, I might add, from their special
literature also, which is peculiarly
rich in legendary works (chnritrn I .
The Satrumjaya-mdhatmya, of Dha-

nesvara, in 14 sargas, composed in
Valabhi, under king Sildditya, at
the end of the sixth century, yields,
it is true, but scant historical ma-
terial, and consists for the most part
merely of popular tales and legends ;
see my paper on it (1858), p. 12 tf.
(Biihler, 1. c., p. 18, places this work
as late as the thirteenth century ;
similarly, Lassen, 7. AK., iv. 761,
but see my Essay on the Bhagavati,
i. 369.) Still, a great variety
of information has been preserved
by the Jamas, - which deserves
attention ; for example, respecting
the ancient kings Vikrauadrka and
Salivahana, though, to be sure,
they, too, have become almost wholly
mythical figures. The Vira-charitra
of Atlanta, lately analysed by H.
Jacobi in 7. <S2.,xiv. 97 ff., describes
the feuds between the descendants
of these two kings; introducing a
third legendary personage, Sudraka,
who, aided by the Mdlava king, the
son of Vikramdrka, succeds in oust-
ing the son of Silivdhana from Pra-
tishthdna. It is written in a fresh
and graphic style, but, to all ap-
pearance, it has only a very slight
really historical nucleus ; indeed, it
expressly claims to be an imitation
of the Kdmdyana ! The Sinhdsana-
di'dtrinsika, too, a work extant in
several recensions, of which one,
the Vikrama-cliaritra (see above,
p. 200), is attributed to Vararuchi,
is almost solely, as the Vetdla-pan*

INSCRIPTIONS AND GRANTS. 215

find, in the various Furanas, jejune enumerations of moun-
tains, rivers, peoples, and the like.226 But modern works,
also, upon this subject are quoted: these, however, are
known only by name. — A leading source, besides, for
history and geography, is supplied by the exceedingly
numerous inscriptions and grants,* which, indeed, being
often of very considerable extent, might almost pass as a
special branch of the literature. They are usually drawn
up in prose, though mostly with an admixture' of verse.
Of coins the number is comparatively small; yet they
have furnished surprisingly rich information regarding a
period previously quite unknown in its details, the period
of the Grecian kintfs of Bactria.227

From this general view of Sanskrit poetry, we now
turn to the second division of Sanskrit literature, to the
works of Science and Art.

chavinsatl is exclusively, made up of
matter of the fairy-tale description.
The stories in the Hhoja-prabandha
of king Bhoja and his court of
poets, are mere fanciful inventions.
— Buhler, in his letter from Kash-
mir (/. St., xiv. 404, 405), states that
he has now also discovered the
Nila-mata which was used by Kal-
hana, as also the Taramginis of
Kehemendra and HelaVdja ; for the
Itaja-taramgini itself there is thus
the prospect of important correc-
tions.

226 Of special interest, in this re-
gard, are the sections styled Ktirma-
vibhdga in the astrological texts ;
see Kern, Pref. to Brih. Samh., p.
32, aud in /. St., x. 209 ff. Cun-
ningham's otherwise most merito-
rious work, Ancient Geography of
India, (1871), has unfortunately
taken no account of these.

* On metal plates, first meu-

tioned in Ya'jnavalkya's law-book
and in the Pancha-tantra : in Manu'a
Code they are not yet known. [See
the special accounts given of these
inBurnell'B Mem. ofS. Lid. Palceog.,
p. 63 ff.]

227 Wilson 'sAriana Antigua (1841)
and Lassen's Jndische Alterthums-
kunde (1847-61) still form the chief
ruine of information and basis of
research in the field of Indian his-
tory. In the department of Nu-
mismatics and Inscriptions, Burgess,
Burnell, Cunningham, Dowson, Eg-
geling, Fergusson, Edw. Thomas,
Vaux, Bhandarkar, and Rajendra
Ldla Mitra have of late done emi-
nent service. In connection with
the so-called cave-inscriptions, the
names of Blidu Daji, Bird, Steven-
son, E. W. and A. A. West, Wes-
tergaard, and J. Wilson, amongst
others, may be mentioned.

216 SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

We give the precedence to the Science of Language,228
and take Grammar first.

We have already had frequent occasion to allude to the
early beginnings and gradual development of grammatical
science. It grew up in connection with the study and
recitation of the Vedic texts ; and those works which were
specially devoted to it, protected by the sacredness of their
subject, have, in part, survived. But, on the other hand,
we have no records of the earlier stages of that gram-
matical study which was directed to and embraced the
entire range of the language ;* and we pass at once into
the magnificent edifice which bears the name of Panini as
its architect, and which justly commands the wonder and
admiration of every one who enters.f Panini's grammar
is distinguished above all similar works of other countries,
partly by its thoroughly exhaustive investigation of the
roots of the language, and the formation of words ; partly
by its sharp precision of expression, which indicates with
an enigmatical succinctness whether forms come under the
same or different rules. This is rendered possible by the
employment of an algebraic terminology of arbitrary con-
trivance, the several parts of which stand to each other in
the closest harmony, and which, by the very fact of its
sufficing for all the phenomena which the language pre-
sents, bespeaks at once the marvellous ingenuity of its
inventor, and his profound penetration of the entire ma-
terial of the language. It is not, indeed, to be assumed
that Panini was altogether the inventor of this method ;
for, in the first place, he directly presupposes, for example,
a collection of primary affixes ( Un-ddi) ; and, in the second
place, for various grammatical elements there occur in his
work two sets of technical terms, the one of which is
peculiar to himself, while the other, as testified by his

228 The general assertion in the * Only in Ydska's Nirukti are

Mahiibhdshya toi. I. I f. 44* (cMian- beginnings of the kiud preserved;

dovat sutrdni bhavanti) which as- yet here etymology and the investi-

cribes Vedic usage to Sutras in gation of roots and of the formation

general, is explained by Kaiyata in of words are still in a very crude

the sense that, not the vaiscshika- stage.

sntrdni, for example, but only the + E.g., of Pere Pons so long ago

i-ydkarana-sutrdni are here meant, as 1743, in the Lettres Edijiantes, 26.

frince these latter belong to the Veda 224 (Paris).
as ailga; see /. St., xiii. 453.

PANINI'S GRAMMAR. 217

commentators, is taken from the Eastern grammarians.*
But at any rate, it seems to have been he who generalised
the method, and extended it to the entire stock of the
language. Of those of his predecessors whom he men-
tions directly by name, and whose names recur in part in
Yaska's Nirukti, the PratiiSakhya- Sutras, or the Aranyakas,
some may possibly have worked before him in this field ;
in particular, Sakatayana perhaps, whose grammar is sup-
posed (Wilson, Mack. Coll., i. 160) to be still in existence,
although nothing definite is known about it.229

The question now arises, When did Panini live ? Bb'ht-
lingk, to whom we owe an excellent edition of the gram-
mar, has attempted to fix his date for the middle of the
fourth century B.C., but the attempt seems to be a failure.
Of the reasons adduced, only one has any approach to
plausibility, which is to the effect that in the Katha-sarit-
sagara, a collection of popular tales belonging to the
twelfth century, Panini is stated to have been the disciple
of one Varsha, who lived at Pataliputra in the reign of
Nanda, the father of Chandragupta (^avBpoKviTTo<i). But
not only is the authority of such a work extremely ques-
tionable in reference to a period fifteen centuries earlier ;
the assertion is, besides, directly contradicted, both as to
time and place, by a statement of the Buddhist Hiuan
Thsang, who travelled through India in the first half of
the seventh century. For Hiuan Thsang, as reported by
Eeinaud (Htm. sur I'fnde, p. 88), speaks of a double exist-
ence of Panini, the earlier one belonging to mythical times,
while the second is put by him 500 years after Buddha's

* See Bohtlingk in the Introduc- himself a Jaina, in his introduction

tion to his Panini, p. xii., and in describes Sdkatayana also as such —

his tract, Ucbcr den Accent im San- namely, as ' mahd-Sramana-samghd-

skrit, p. 64. dhipati ; ' see also I. St., xiii. 396,

229 In Benfey's Orient und Occi- 397. In Burnell's opinion, Vansa-

dent, ii. 691-706 (1863), and iii. 181, Brdhm., p. xli., many of ^akattf-

182 (1864), 0. Biihler has given an yana's rules are, on the contrary,

account of a commentary (chintd- based upon Panini, or even on the

mani-rritti) on the SabdunuMsana of Vdrttikas, nay, even on the further

Sakatityana, according to which (p. interpretations in the Mahdbhdshya.

703) Pixnini's work would appear to Might not these contradictions be

be simply "an improved, completed, explained by supposing that the ex-

nnd in part remodelled edition " isting form of the work combines

of that of Sdkatifyana. The author both old and new constituents?
of this commentary, Yakshavarman,

2T8

SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

death, i.e., loo years later than the reign of king Kanishka,
who lived, as he says, 400 years after Buddha.* As Kani-
shka is proved by coins to have reigned down to A.D. 40
(Lassen, /. AK., ii. 413), Panini, according to this, would
have to be placed not earlier than A.D. 140. A statement so
precise, obtained by Hiuan Thsang on the spot, can hardly
be a mere invention ; while no significance need be attached
to the earlier mythical existence, nor to the circumstance
that he makes Panini a Buddhist.230 As Phonini's birth-
place he mentions Pholotoulo, some six miles north-west of
the Indus, and this agrees with the name ' ^alaturiya,' the
formation of which is explained by Panini, and which in
later writings is an epithet applied to the grammarian
himself ; ' Salatura,' the basis of the name, being phone-
tically identical t with the Chinese ' Pholotoulo.' That
Panini belonged to precisely this north-western district of

* The text of Hiuan Thsang is
unfortunately not yet accessible : it
seems to be much more important
than the description of Fa Hian's
travels, and to enter considerably
more into detail. [This blank has
since been filled up by Stan. Julien's
translation of the biography and
memoirs of Hiuan Thsang (1857 ff.,
3 vols. ). From this it now appears
that the above statement, communi-
cated from the text by Reinaud, is
not quite exact. Tiie real existence
of Panini is not there placed 500
years after Buddha at all : all that
is said is, that at that date there
ptill existed in his birthplace a
B'atue erected in his honour (see
Slyuki, \. 127) ; whereas he himself
passed as belonging ' dans une haute
antiqnitd.']

rather, that with regard to Pdnini's
date there is no direct statement at
all: a legend merely is communi-
cated of a Buddhist missionary who
had taken part in the council under
king Kanishka, and who came from
it to Pdnini's birthplace. Here he
intimated to a Brahman, whom he
found chastising his son during a
lesson in grammar, that the youth
was Pdnini himself, who, for his

heretical tendencies in his former
birth, had not yet attained emanci-
pation, and had now been born again
as his son ; see 7. St., v. 4.

+ The commentators make Sd'd-
tura the residence of Pdnini's an-
cestors, and this is, in fact, the sense
in which Paniiii's rule is to be taken.
But the Chinese traveller, who ob-
tained his information on the spot,
is assuredly a better authority, especi-
ally as it has to be remirked that
the rule in question (iv. 3. 94), ac-
cording to the Calcutta scholiasts, is
not explained in the Bhdshya, and
may possibly, therefore, not be Pdni-
ni's at all, but posterior to, the time
of Patarnjali. [The name Sdldturiya
does not, in fact, occur in the Bhdshya;
but, on the other hand, Pdnini is there
styled Dilksliiputra, and the family
of the Udkshis belonged to the Vd-
hikas in the North- West ; see /. St.,
xiii. 395, 367. The name ^dlanki
also, which is bestowed on him in
later writings, and which actually
occurs in the Bhdshya, though it
does not clearly appear that he is
meant by it, leads us to the Vdhikas;
see 7. St., xiii. 395, 375, 429. Hiuan
Thsansr expressly describes Pdnint
as belonging to the Gandhdraa
(Fdvoapoi).]

DA TE OF PAN IN I. 2 1 9

India, rather than to the east, results pretty plainly from
the geographical data contained in his work;* still he
refers often enough to the eastern parts of India as well,
and, though born in the former district, he may perhaps
have settled subsequently in the latter. Of the two re-
maining arguments by means of which Bohtlingk seeks to
determine Panini's date, the one, based on the posteriority
of Amara-siiiha, " who himself lived towards the middle
of the first century B.C.," falls to the ground when the
utter nullity of this latter assumption is exposed. The
other is drawn from the Kaja-taramgim, a rather doubtful
source, belonging to the same period as the Katha-sarit-
sagara, and rests, moreover, upon a confusion of the
Northern and Southern Buddhist eras, consequently upon
a very insecure foundation. In that work it is related
that the Mahabhashya, or great commentary on Panini,
which is ascribed to Patamjali, was, by the command of
king Abhimanyu, introduced into his dominions by
Chandra, who had himself composed a grammar. Now
the Northern Buddhists agree in stating that Kanishka,
the immediate predecessor of Abhirnanyu, lived 400 years
after Buddha's death. If, therefore, with the Southern
Buddhists, we place this event in the year B.C. 544, then,
of course, the date to be assigned to Kanishka would be
B.C. 144, and to Abhimanyu B.C. 120, or thereabouts.^
But upon the evidence of coins, which are at all events
a sure authority^ Kanishka (Kanerki) reigned until A.D.
40 (Lassen, /. AK., ii. 413); and Abhimanyu himself
therefore must have reigned 160 years later than the
date derived from the previous supposition — according to
Lassen (/. c.). till A.D. 65. Consequently, even admitting
Bohtlingk's further reasoning, we should still have to fix
Panini's date, not for B.C. 350 or thereabouts, as his result
gives, but 1 60 years later at any rate. But in view of

* The circumstance that the only 21 (1872), also I. St., xiii. 302,

two works containing legends con- 366.]

cerning him and the commentary f As Bohtlingk, op. cit., p. xvii.,

upon his grammar — theKathd-sarit- xviii., supposes; see also lleinaud,

sstgara and the liaja-tararngini — Mem. sur I'Inde, p. 79.

were both written in Kashmir, also J Of these Bohtlingk could not

tells in favour of this view. [On avail himself, as they only came to

the geographical data in Pdnini, our knowledge some years after hig

gue Bhandarkar in Ind. Antiq., i., edition of Tdnini appeared.

220

SANSKRIT LITER A TURE.

Hiuan Thsang's assertion, no credit whatever need at pre-
sent be attached to the statement in the Eaja-taramgini.
If Panini did not really flourish until 100 years after
Kanishka, i.e., A.D. I4O,231 it is self-evident that the com-
mentary upon his work cannot have been in existence,
and still less have been introduced into Kashmir, under
Abhimanyu, Kanishka's immediate successor ! — But, apart
altogether from the foregoing considerations, we have, in
Panini's work itself, a very weighty argument which goes
to show that the date to be assigned to him can by no
means be so early as Bohtlingk supposes (about B.C. 350).
For in it Panini once mentions the Yavanas, i.e., 'Iaoi/e<?,
Greeks,* and explains the formation of the word yavandni

231 But no such inference is de-
ducible from Hiuan Thsang's ac-
count, now that we are in possession
of its exact tenor (see note 230
above) : the statement of the Raja-
taramgini is thus in no way im-
pugned by it.

* Lassen (/. AK., i. 729) asserts
that the most ancient meaning
of the word yavana was probably
' Arabia,' because incense, which
caine from Arabia, was termed yd-
vana; but this assertion is distinctly
erroneous. So far as we know at
present, this latter term first occurs
in the Amara-koslia, and there along
with turuskka, which can scarcely be
a very ancient word. It may con-
sequently cither date from the time
of the commercial intercourse of the
Indians with Arabia shortly before
Muhammad, or even with the Mu-
hammadan Arabs ; or else — like
yavaneshta, 'tin' [Hemach., 1041,
according to Bohtlingk-Rieu, ' lead,'
not 'tin ']. and yavana-priya, 'pep-
per,' the chief articles of traffic with
the Greeks of Alexandria — it may
possibly have been named, not from
the Arabs, but from the Greeks, who
brought incense as well as tin arid
pepper from India (Lassen, 7. AK.,
286 n.) ! Wherever we find the
Yavanas mentioned in the epic, or
other similar ancient writings, only
tl'e Greeks can be meant. [The
almost constant association of them

with the Kambojas, Sakas, &c., is
conclusive as to this ; see /. Sir., ii.
321 ; 7. St., xiii. 371. The name
Yavana was then in course of time
transferred to the political successors
of the Greeks in the empire of
Western India, that is, to the Indo-
Scythians themselves, to the Per-
sians (Pa"rasikas, whose women, for
example, are termed Yavanis by
Kalidasa in Raghuv., iv. 6l), and,
lastly, to the Arabs or Moslems ; see
7. St., xiii. 308. Recently,. it is true,
Rajendra La"la Mitra, in the Journ.
As. Soc. Beng., 1874, p. 246 ff., has
pronounced against the view that
the Greeks were originally meant by
the Yavanas ; but his arguments are
in great part of a very curious kind.
Cf. further on this point my letter
in the Ind. Antiq., iv. 244 ff. (1875),
where, in particular, I point out that
the name Yavana first became popu-
larised in India through Alexander,
i.e., through his Persian interpreters,
although it may possibly have been
known previously through the me-
dium of the Indian auxiliaries who
served in the army of Darius.] — There
is a remarkable legend in the Pu-
rdnas and the twelfth book of the
Maha1 - Bhdrata, of the fight of
Krishna .with Kdla- Yavana, 'the
Black Yavana,' so called, it would
appear, in contradistinction to the
(White) Yavanas? Ought we here
to understand African or dark Seui-

DATE OF PANINI-* YAVANANI.'

221

— to which, according to the Vdrttika, the Avord lipi,
' writing/ must be supplied, and which therefore signifies
'the writing of the Yavanas.'232 — In the Pancha-tantra,
Panini is said to have been killed by a lion ; but, inde-
pendently of the question whether the particular verse
containing this allusion belongs to the original text or not,
no chronological inference can be drawn from it.233

itic races that had come into colli-
sion with the Indians ? At the
time of the Da&i-kumara, the name
Kdla-Yavana (as well as Yavana
itself) does, in point of fact, ex-
pressly designate a seafaring people
— supposed by Wilson to be the
Arabs. In the legend in the Pu-
rdnas and the Mahd-Bhdrata, on the
contrary, no reference to the sea
is traceable ; and Wilson therefore
(Vishnu-Pur., 565, 566) refers it to
the Greeks, that is, those of Bactria.
This view is perhaps confirmed by
the circumstance that this Kdla-
Yavana is associated with a Gdrgya ;
since it is to Garga, at least, who
uniformly appears as one of the
earliest Indian astronomers, that a
verse is ascribed, in which the Ya-
vanas (here unquestionably the
Greeks) are highly extolled. Pos-
sibly this is the very reason why
Gdrgya is here associated with Kdla-
Yavana.

232 For the different explanations
that have been attempted of this
word, see 7. St., v. 5-8, 17 ff. ;
Burnell, Elem. of S. Ind. Pal., p. 7,
93 : the latter regards it as "not
unlikely that lipi has been introduced
into Indian from the Persian dipi."
Benfey also, in his Geschichte der
Sprachwissenschnft, p. 48 (1869),
understands by Yavandni 'Greek
writing ; ' but he places the comple-
tion of Pdnini's work as early as B.C.
320. In that case, he thinks, Pdnini
"had already had theopportunity dur-
ing six years of becoming acquainted
with Greek writing in his own im-
mediate neighbourhood without in-
terruption, Alexander having, as is
well known, established satrapies in
India itself and in the parts adjoin-

ing"— in the vicinity of the Indus,
namely, near which Pdnini's birth-
place was. But to me it is very
doubtful indeed that a space so short
as six years should have sufficed to
give rise to the employment by the
Indians of a special term and affix
to denote Greek writing — (which
surely in the first years after Alex-
ander's invasion can hardly have
attracted their attention in so very
prominent a way!) — so that the mere
expression ' the Greek ' directly
signified ' the writing of the Greeks,"
and Pdnini found himself obliged to
explain the formation of the term in
a special rule. " The expression
could only have become so very
familiar through prolonged and fre-
quent use — a thing conceivable and
natural in Pdnini's native district,
in those provinces of North- Western
India which were so long occupied
by the Greeks. But this of course
presupposes that a lengthened period
had intervened since the time of
Alexander."—/. St., iv. 89 (1857).

233 Since the above was written
the question of Panini's date haa
been frequently discussed. Max
Miiller first of all urged, and rightly,
the real import of Hiuan Thsang'a
account, as opposed to my argument.
Apart from this,however,I still firmly
adhere to the reasoning in the text ;
see /. St., iv. 87, v. 2 ff. To the
vague external testimony M'e need
hardly attach much importance.
Pdnini's vocabulary itself (cf. ya-
vandnl) can alone yield us certain
information. And it was upon this
path that Goldstiicker proceeded in
his Pdnini, his place in Sanskrit
Literature (September 1861) — a
work distinguished in an eminent

222

SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

Pcinini's work has continued to be the basis of gramma-
tical research and the standard of usage in the language
down even to the present time. Owing to its frequent
obscurity it was early commented upon, and — a circum-
stance to which there is no parallel elsewhere in the lite-
rature— some of these earliest interpretations have come
down to us. At their head stand the Paribhdshds, or
explanations of single rules, by unknown authors ; next
come the Vdrttikas (from vritti, ' explanation ') of Katya-
yana ; * and after these the Mahdbhdshya of Patamjali.
With regard to the date of Katyayana, the statement of
Hiuan Thsang, to the effect that 300 years after Buddha's
death, i.e.,m B.C. 240^ " le docteur Kid to yan na" lived at
Tamasavaiia in the Panjab, is by Bohtlingk referred to
this Katyayana ; but when we remember that the -same
traveller assigns to Panini's second existence a date so late
as 500 years after Buddha, such a reference of course
becomes highly precarious. Besides, the statement is in

decree by truly profound investiga-
tion of this aspect of. the question us
well as of the literature immediately
bearing upon it. The conclusion he
arrives at is that Pdnini is older
than Buddha, than the I'rdtisdkhyas,
than all the Vedic texts we possess,
excepting the three Samhitds of the
Rik, Sdman, and Black Yajus —
older than any individual author in
whatever field, with the single ex-
ception of Ydska (p. 243). In May
1 86 1, before the separate publication
of this work, which had previously
(Nov. 1860) appeared as the preface
to Goldstucker's photo-lithographed
edition of the j\Iitnava-Kal pa-Sutra,
I endeavoured — and, as I believe,
.successfully — in a detailed rejoinder
in /. St., v. 1-176, to rebut these
various deductions, point by point.
For the post- Buddhistic date of
lYinini, compare in particular the
evidence adduced, pp. 136-142,
which is excellently supplemented
by Biihler's paper on Sdkatdyana
(1863, see note 229 above). To the
mention of the 'Yavandni' has to
be added a peculiar circumstance
which Burnell has recently noticed

(Elem. S. Ind. Pal, p. 96) : The
denoting of numbers by the letters
of the alphabet in their order (i = 2),
to which Goldstiicker (Pdnini, p. 53)
first drew attention, and which, ac-
cording to the Bhdshya, is peculiar
to Pdnini, occurs in his work only,
and is "precisely similar to the
Greek and Semitic notation of
numerals by letters of the alphabet."
If, further, the Greek accounts of
the confederation of the 'QtySpdicai
and Ma\\o£ be correct ; if, that is to
say, their alliance first took place
through fear of Alexander, whereas
they had up till then lived in con-
stant enmity, then in all probability
Apisali, and a fortiori Pdnini also,
would have to be set down as subse-
quent to Alexander ; see /. St., xiii.

375 n.

* Who there mentions several of
tbese Paribbdshds.

+ That is, if we adopt the chrono-
logy of the Southern Buddhists ; but,
rather, only B.C. 60, since Kanisbka,
whose date, as we saw, is fixed by
co.ins for A.D. 40, is by Hiuan Thsang
placed 400 years after Buddha's
death.

EARLY. COMMENTARIES ON PANINI, 223

itself an extremely indefinite one, the "docteur" in ques-
tion not being described as a grammarian at all, but simply
as a descendant of the Katya family.234 Even admitting,
however, that the reference really is to him, it would still
be in conflict with the tradition — in itself, it is true, of no
particular authority — of the Katha-sarit-sagara, which not
only represents Katyayaua as the contemporary of Panini,
but identifies him with Yararuchi, a minister of King
N"anda, the father of Chandragupta (SavSpoKVTrTos), ac-
cording to which, of course, he must have flourished about
B.C. 350. As regards the age of the Mahabhashya,235 we
have seen that the assertion of the Ecaja-taramgini as to
its introduction into Kashmir in the reign of Abhimanyu,
the successor of Kanishka, i.e., between A.D. 40 and 65, is,
for the reasons above assigned, in the meantime discre-
dited.236 For the present, therefore, we are without infor-
mation as to the date of those interpretations, just as we
are regarding the date of Panini himself. But when once
they are themselves in our hands, it will certainly be pos-
sible to gather from their contents, by means of the great
number of words they contain, a tolerably clear image of
the time when they originated,237 in the same way as we

234 It is this only that has weight; to understand Patarnjali himself;
whereas no importance whatever is and the same applies to the name
to be attached, as we have already Conikiiputra ; see on this I. St.,v.
seen (note 230), to the second exist- 155, xiii. 316, 323, 403.

ence of Panini. On the various *36 By no means ; see note 231.

Katyas, Katyayanas, at the time of 237 On the basis of the lithographed

the Bhdshya itself, for instance, see edition of the Mahdbhdshya, pub-

/. St., xiii. 399. Jished at Benares in 1872 by Raja-

235 The name Patamjali (we should nlmasdstrin and Btila&tatrin, with
expect Pat0.) is certainly somehow Kaiyata's commentary (of about the
connected witli that of the Patam- seventh century (?), see /. St., v.
chala Kdpya of the land of the Ma- 167), I have attempted in /. ft., xiii.
dras, who appears in^ the Yajnaval- 293-502, to sketch such an outline.
kiya-knnda of the Satap. Br. It The first section of the work, with
occurs again (see below, p. 237) as Kaiyafa, and Nage.4a's gloss, belong-
the name of the author of the Yoga- ing to the eighteenth century, was
Sutras. Patainjali appears as name published so long ago as 1856 by
of one of the prior births of Buddha Ballantyne. A photo-lithographed
(No. 242, in Westergaard's Cata- issue of the entire Bhashya, pre-
logus, p. 39). IntliePmvarddhydya, pared under Goldstiicker's supervi-
§ 9 (Yajuh-Paris.), the Patamjalis sion, at the expense of the Indian
are classed as belonging to the family Government, has recently appeared
of Vi.svdmitra. — According to later in London, in 3 vols. (vol. i., the
accounts, by Gonardiya, who is cited Bhashya ; vol. ii., Bhiishya with
four times in the Bhashya, we have Kaiyata's Coinm. ; vol. iiL, Ndgoji-

224

SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

can even now attempt, although only in broad outline, a
picture of the time of Panini.* "With regard to the
latter, the condition of the text, in a critical point of view,"
forms a main difficulty. A few of the Sutras found in it are
already notoriously acknowledged not to be Panini's ; and
there is the further peculiar circumstance, that, according
to the scholiasts of the Calcutta edition, fully a third of
the entire Sutras are not interpreted in the Mahabhashya
at all.f The question then arises whether this is merely

bhatta's Schol. on Kaiyata). Gold-
sttick'er, in his Panini, p. 228 ff.,
mainly upon the ground of the state-
ment in the Bhashya " arunad Ya-
vanah Sdketam," which he connects
with an expedition of Menander
(B.C. 144-120) against Ayodhysi,
fixed the date of the composition of
the work for the period of this ex-
pedition, or specially for B.C. 140-
1 2O. The objections urged by me
(/. St., v. 151) against this assump-
tion were, in the first place, mate-
rially weakened by a remark of
Kern's in his Preface to the Brih.
Sanih. of Varalia-Mihira, p. 37, ac-
cording to which the statement in
the same passage of the Bhashya
"arunad Yavano Mddhyamikdn" is
not necessarily to be referred to the
Buddhistic school of this name, first
founded by Ndgdrjuna, but may
possibly have reference to a tribe
called Mitdhyamika, mentioned else-
where. In the next place, Bhandar-
kar, in the Ind. Antiq., i. 299 ff,
ii. 59 ff., attempted to prove that
Patamjali wrote the particular sec-
tion where he speaks in the above
terms of Menander (who is assumed,
on Goldstiicker's authority, to be
meant by 'Yavana') between A.D.
144 and 142, seeing that he there at
the same time speaks of sacrifices as
ttill being performed for Pushpa-
mitra (A.D. 178-142). In my reply
in /. St., xiii. 305 ff., I emphasised
these points : first, that the iden-
tity of the Yavana and Menander is
by no means made out ; next, that
it does not at all necessarily follow
from the passage in question that

Patamjali and Pushyamitra (this ia
the correct form) were contempora-
ries ; and, lastly, that Patamjali may
possibly have found these examples
already current, in which case they
cannot be used to prove anything
with regard to him, but only with
regard to his predecessors — it may
be, even Panini himself. And al-
though I am now disposed, in pre-
sence of Bhandarkar's further objec-
tions, to admit the historical bearing
of the statement referring to Push-
yamitra(but see Bohtlingk's opposite
view in Z. D. M. G., xxix. 183 ff.),
still, with respect to all the examples
here in question, I must lay special
stress on the possibility, just men-
tioned, that they may belong to the
class of mdrdhdbhishikta illustrations
(ibid., p. 315). We must for the
present rest satisfied, therefore (p.
319), with placing the date of the
composition of the Bhashya between
B.C. 140 and A.D. 60, — a result which,
considering the wretched state of the
chronology of Indian literature gene-
rally, is, despite its iudefiuiteness,
of no mean importance.

* See I. St., i. 141-157. [The
beginning here made came to a stand-
still for want of the Mahabhashya.]

•f" In the case of some of these, it
is remarked that they are not ex-
plained here, or else not separately.
Acquaintance with the Mahibhashya
itself will alone yield us satisfactory
information on this point. [From
Aufrecht's accounts in his Catal.
Codd. Sansk. Bibl. Bodl., it appeared
that of Panini's 3983 rules only 1720
are directly discussed ; and Gold-

GANAPATHA, ETC. 225

because these particular Sutras are clear and intelligible of
themselves, or whether we may not also here and there
have to suppose cases where the Sutras did not yet form
part of the text at the time when this commentary was
composed. The so-called gatias, or lists of words which
follow one and the same rule, and of which, uniformly,
only the initial word is cited in the text itself, are for the
present wholly without critical authenticity, and carry no
weight, therefore, in reference to Panini's time. Some such
lists must, of course, have been drawn up by Panini ; but
whether those now extant are the same is very problema-
tical : indeed, to some extent it is simply impossible that
they can be so. Nay, such of them even as chance to be
specified singly in the Mahabhashya can, strictly speaking,
prove nothing save for the time of this work itself.* Here,
too, another word of caution is necessary, — one which
ought, indeed, to be superfluous, but unfortunately is not,
as experience shows, — namely, that care must be taken
•not to attribute to words and examples occurring in the
scholia, composed so recently as fifty years ago, of the
Calcutta edition of Panini, any validity in reference to the
time of Panini himself. No doubt such examples are
usually derived from the Mahabhashya; but so long as
this is not actually proved to be the case, we are not at
liberty at once to assume it ; and besides, even when it is
clear that they are actually borrowed from the Maha-
bhashya, they are good only for the time of this work
itself, but not for that of Piiniiii.288

stiicker then showed that the Bhd- Bhsishya has itself a special name

shya is not so much a commentary for these, such examples being

on Pdnini as rather a defence of him styled miirdhdbkishikta ; see 7. St.,

against the unjust attacks of Kdtya- xiii. 315. Unfortunately, however,

yana, the author of the vdrttikas ; we have not the slightest clue (7. Sir.,

see 7. St., xiii. 297 ff.]. ii. 167) to enable us to decide, in

* See 7. St., 1.142, 143, 151. [xiii. individual instances, whether an ex-

298, 302, 329]. ample belongs to this class of miirdli.

•J38 This is not quite strictly to the or not. — On the other hand — as re-
purpose. Max Muller was the first to suits not only from the data in the
point out that Pitnini's Sutras were Itttja-taramgini, but also, in parti-
evidently from the beginning ac- cular, from the statements at the
coinpanied by a definite interpreta- closeof the second book of Hari's Va-
tion, whether oral or written, and kyapadiya, which were first cited by
that a considerable proportion of the Goldstucker, and have lately been
examples in the Bhashya must have published in a corrected form by
come from this source ; nay, the Kielhorn in the Ind. Antiq., iii. 285-

226

SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

In addition to Panini's system, there grew up in course
of time several other grammatical systems, having their

o «/ o

own peculiar terminology ; and grammatical literature in
general attained to a most remarkably rich and extensive
development.239 The Tibetan Tandjur likewise embraces

287 — the Bhdshya has undergone
manifold vicissitudes of fortune, has
been more than once vichhinna, and
arranged afresh, so that the possi-
bility of considerable changes, addi-
tions, and interpolations cannot be
denied. Strictly speaking, there-
fore, in each individual case it re-
mains, d, priori, uncertain whether
the example is to be credited to
Pataipjali himself, or to these sub-
sequent remodellings of the text
(or, reversely, to Patamjali's pre-
decessors, or even to Pdnini himself);
see I. St., xiii. 320, 329 ; Ind. Antiq.,
iv. 247. Kielhorn, it is true, in
Ind. Antiq., iv. 1 08, has protested
very strongly against the view " that
at soms time or other the text of
the Mahdbhashya had been lost,
that it had to be reconstructed,1'
&c. He will only "perhaps allow
a break so far as regards its tradi-
tional interpretation," while we are
for the time being bound "to re-
gard the text of the Mahdbhdshya
as given by our MSS. to be the
8 une as it existed about 2000 years
:igo." Let us, then, await the ar-
guments he has to offer in support
of this ; for his protest alone will
hardly suffice in the face of tlie
statements on the subject that are
still preserved in the tradition it-
self. On three separate occasions,
the epithets vlpldrita, b/iraskta,
vichhinna are employed of the
work. And there is the further
circumstance that, according to
Bnrnell's testimony (Pref. to Vaiisa-
Brdk, p. xxii. n.), the South Indian
MSS. of the text appear to vary
materially : see also Burnell's Elcm.
S. Ind. Pal. , pp. 7, 32.

539 r^e Vdkyapadiya of Hari, the
editing of which has now been
undertaken by Kielhorn, connects
itself specially with the Jl.did-

bhdshya. — The Kdsikd of Vdtnaua,
a direct commentary on Pdnini, is
at present being edited by Bdla-
Hitstriu in the Benares Pandit. Ac-
cording to him, it was composed in
the thirteenth century, as Qold-
stxickerhad already hinted ; whereas
the date previously assigned to it,
in accordance with Bohtlingk's view,
was towards the eighth century ;
see /. St., v. 67 ; Cappeller's Introd.
to Vdmana's K 'dvydlamkdravritti ',
pp. vii., viii. — To Aufrecht we owe
an edition (lionn, 1859) of Uj-
jvaladatta's Commentary (of the
thirteenth century or so) on the
Unddi-Sutras, which are perhaps
(see /. Str., ii. 322) to be ascribed
to Sdkatdyana ; and Jul. Eggeling is
engaged on an edition of the Gana-
ratna-mahodadhi of Vardhamdna.
— Of Bhattoji-Dikshita's Sidd/idnta-
kaumudi (seventeenth century) we
have now anew and good edition by
Tardndtha Vdchaspati (Calc., 1864-
1865). — A highly meritorious work
is the edition, with English version,
&c. , of Varadardja's Laghu-kaumudi
by J. 11. Ballantyne (originally pub-
lished at Mirzapore, 1849). — Sdnta-
nnva's Phit-Siitras were edited by
Kielhoru in 1866 ; and to him we
also owe an excellent edition of
Ndgoji-bhatta's Paribhdshendu - 6e-
Ichara, a work of the last century
(Bombay, 1868-74). — Of gramma-
tical systems which proceed on their
own lines, departing from Pdnini,
we have Vopadeva's Muydha-bodha,
of the thirteenth century, in nn edi-
tion, amongst others, by Bohtlingk
(St. Petersburg, 1847): the Sdrasvata
of Anubhuti - svarupdcharya ap-
peared at Bombay in 1861 in a
lithographed edition; the Kdtantrn
<>f Sarvavarman, with Durgasinha's
Commentary, is being edited by
Eggeling in the Bill. Indica (ia

LEXICOGRAPHY.

227

a tolerable number of grammatical writings, and these for
the most part works that have been lost in India itself.240
As regards Lexicography — the second branch of the
science of language — we have already pointed out its first
beginnings in the Nighantus, collections of synonyms, &c.,
for the elucidation of the Vedic texts. But these were of
a practical character, and wholly confined to the Veda:
the need of collections towards a dictionary of Sanskrit,
being, on the contrary, more a scientific one, was naturally
only awakened at a much later time. Here, too, the earliest
attempts in this direction have perished, and the work of
Ainara-sinha, the oldest of the kind that has come down
to us, appeals expressly in the introduction to other
Tantras, from which it was itself compiled. Its com-
mentators also expressly mention by name as such Tantras
the Trikanda, the Utpalini, and the works of Kabhasa,
Ivatyayana, Vyadi,* and Vararuchi, the two latter as
authorities fcr the crender of words.

1874 it Lad reached to iv. 4. 50).
The system of this grammar is of
peculiar interest on this account,
that a special connection appears to
exist between it and the 1'ali gram-
mar of Kachchdyana, particularly in
regard to the terminology employed.
According to Buhler's letter from
Kashmir (pnb. in /. St., xiv. 402 ff.),
the Kdtantra is the special grammar
of the Kasmiras, and was there
frequently commented upon in the
I2th-l6th centuries. Of older
grammatical texts, he has further
discovered the Parib/tds/ids of Vyddi
and Chandra, as also the Vurna-
^utras and Sliad-bhashd-chandrikd
of the latter; likewise an Avyaya-
rritti and Dhdtu-taramyini by
Kshira (Jayapida's preceptor), and a
very beautiful bhtirja-'M.S. of the
Kasikd. In one of these MSS. this
L-ist-named work is ascribed to
Vdmana and Jaydditya (Jaydpida?),
whereby the earlier view as to its
date again gains credit. — Fora list
of "Sanscrit-Grammars," &c., see
Colebrooke's Misc. Las., ii. 38 ff.,
ed. Cowell. — It remains still to
mention here Cowell 's edition of
the Prdkfittt-jraldia of Vararuchi

(1854, 1868) ; further, an edition
recently (1873) published at Bom-
bay of Hemachandra's (according to
Bhdu Ddji, A.D. 1088-1172, see
Journ. Bombay Br. R. A. S., ix. 224)
Prdkrit Grammar, which forms tho
eighth book of his great treatise on
Sanskrit grammar, the Sabddnu-
sdsana ; and lastly, Pischel's valu-
able dissertation De Grammaticis
Pracriticis (1874), which supple-
ments the accounts in Lassen's In-
sfitut. Linguce Pracriticce (Bonn,
1837) with very important material.

24U See Schiefner's paper on the
logical and grammatical writings in
tlie Tandjur, p. 25, from tlieHulletin
dc la Classe hist. pJtil. de VAcad.
Imp. des Sc. dc St. Pctersboury, iv.,
Nos. 18, 19 (1847), from which it
appeai-s that the Chandra- Vydlca-
rana-Sutra, the Kaldpa-Stitra, and
the Sarasrati-Vydkarana-Siitra, in
particubir, are represented there.

* A Vyadi is cited iu the Rik-
Prdtisdkhya [and in Goldstiicker's
Pdnini he plays a very special part.
The Samgraha, several times men-
tioned iu the Bliashya, and there
assigned to Ddks/idyana, is by Nd-
gesa — who describes it as a work in

228 SANSKRIT LITER A TURE.

The question now is to determine the age of Amara-
sinha — a question which, in the first instance, exactly
coincides with the one already discussed as to the date of
Kalidasa, for, like the latter, Amara is specified by tradi-
tion among the 'nine gems' of the court of Vikrama —
that Vikrama whom Indian tradition identifies with king
Bhoja (A.D. 1050), but to whom European criticism has
assigned the date B.C. 56, because — an era bearing this name
commences with that year. The utter groundlessness of
this last assumption has been already exposed in the
case. of Kalidasa, though we do not here, any more than
tli ere, enter the lists in defence of the Indian tradition.
This tradition is distinctly contradicted, in particular, by
a temple-inscription discovered at Buddhagaya, which is
dated 1005 of the era of Vikramaditya (i.e., A.D. 949),
and in which Amara -deva is mentioned as one of
the 'nine jewels' of Vikrama's court, and as builder
of the temple in question. This inscription had been
turned to special account by European criticism in sup-
port of its View ; but Holtzmann's researches (pp. cit.,
pp. 26-32) have made it not improbable that it was put
there in the same age in which Amara-sinha's dictionary
was written, seeing that both give expression to precisely
the same form of belief, a combination, namely, of Bud-
dhism witli Vishnuism — a form of faith which cannot
possibly have continued very long in vogue, resting as it
does on a union of directly opposite systems. At all
events, inscription and dictionary cannot lie so much as
1000 years apart, — that is a sheer impossibility. Unfor-
tunately this inscription is not known to us in the original,
and has only survived in the English translation made by
Ch. Wilkins in 1785 (a time when he can hardly have
been very proficient in Sanskrit !) : the text itself is lost,

100,000 6lokas — attributed to a generations" prior to the latter.

Vyddi, meaning in all likelihood the And on this he grounds a specific

same Vyddi who is elsewhere men- "historical argument" for the de-

tioned in the Bhdshya. Now upon termination of Pdnini's date ; for if

the strength of this, Goldstiicker Vyddi, Panini's descendant collat-

sets up a direct relation of kin- erally, is cited in the Rik-Pr., then

ship hetweet) Pdnini, who is desig- of course this work must be later

nated Ddkshiputra in the Bhdshya, than Pdnini ; see against all this 1.

and this (Vyddi) Ddkshdyana ; only St., v. 41, 127-133, xiii. 401],
the former must be "at lease two

DATE OF AMARASINHA. 229

with the stone on which it was incised. That the dic-
tionary belongs, in any case, to a period considerably later
than the first century B.C. — the date commonly assigned
to it — is sufficiently indicated by data furnished by the
work itself. For, in the first place, it enumerates the
signs of the zodiac, which were unquestionably borrowed,
by the Hindus from the Greeks ; and, according to Le-
tronne's investigations, the completion of the zodiac did
not take place among the Greeks themselves before the first
century A.D. ; so that, of course, it cannot have become
known to the Hindus till one or several centuries later.
Again, in the Amara-kosha, the lunar mansions are enu-
merated in their new order, the fixing of which was due
to the fresh life infused into Indian astronomy under
Greek iniluence, the exact date being uncertain, but hardly
earlier than A.D. 400. Lastly, the word dindra occurs
here,* which, as pointed out by Prinsep, is simply the
Latin denarius (see Lassen, /. AK., ii. 261, 348). The UFO
of the term tantra in the sense of ' text-book ' may perhaps
also be cited in this connection, as it belongs only to a
definite period, which is probably the fifth or sixth cen-
tury, the Hindus who emigrated to Java having taken the
word with them in this sense.241 — All this, of course, yields
us no direct date. If it be correct, as stated by Keinaud
(Mdm. sur I'Inde, p. 114), that there existed a Chinese
translation of the work, "redigee au vie siecle," this
would give us something tolerably definite to go by. But
Stan. Julien does not, it would seem, in the passage cited
by Reinaud as his authority, express himseJf in quite such
definite terms ; as he merely speaks of the " traduction
chinoise de 1'Amarakocha, qui parait avoir ete publiee
. . . ":-f- nor are the positive grounds he adduces in sup-
port of this view directly before us, so that we might test

* It also occurs in the Pancha- 5, cited by Colebrooke, Misc. Ess.,

tantra, in a legend of Buddhistic i. 3I41 (3392) ; Gildemeister in

origin. — I may here also remark in Z. D. M. G. , xxviii. 697.

passing, that the word dramma, i.e., t The meaning of paraftre, liow-

8pa.xfj.ri, is employed in the twelfth ever, is doubtful ; it can signify

century by Blulskara, as well as in in- either 'seem' or 'be clear' (ac-

Bcriptions [cf. Z. D. M. G., vi. 420]. cording to all evidence), — in tlie

241 Of special interest also is tlie latter sense like the Latin apparere,

Arabico-Persian word pilu for ele- and the English 'appear,' being in.

phant ; cf. Kumdrila on Jaini., i. 3. dt-ed derived from apparcscav.

230 SANSKRIT LITERA TURE.

them. Of the Tibetan translation of the work in the
Tandjur no particulars are known. How great the difficulty
is of arriving at any sort of decision in this matter is
shown by the example of one of the most celebrated of
living Indianists, H. H. Wilson. For while, in the pre-
face to the first edition of his Sanskrit Dictionary (1819),
he rather inclined to the view that Amara-sinha flourished
in the fifth century A.D., an4 while again, in the second
edition of the work (1832), under the word ' Vararuchi,'
he expressly transfers the 'nine gems' to the court of
Bhoja (A.D. 1050), — in the preface (p. vi.) to his transla-
tion of the Vishrm-Purana (1840), on the contrary, he
makes Amara-sinha live " in the century prior to Chris-
tianity ! " — But, independently of all that has hitherto
been advanced, the mere circumstance that the other
dictionaries we possess, besides the Amara-kosha, all
belong to the eleventh, twelfth, and following centuries,
constrains us to come to a conclusion similar to that
which was forced upon us in regard to the drama —
namely, that as the Amara-kosha is in no way specifically
distinguished in character from these other productions,
so it cannot be separated from them by a very wide inter-
val of time. (Holtzmann, p. 26.)242

Besides the dictionaries, we have also to mention a class
of lexical works quite peculiar to the Hindus — namely,
the lists of roots styled Dhdtu-pdrdyanas or Dhdtu-
pdllias : * though these belong rather to the province of
grammar. They are written partly in prose and partly in
slokas. The latter is the form adopted in all the dic-
tionaries, and it supplies, of course, a strong guarantee of
the integrity of the text, the interlacing of the different
verses rendering interpolation well-nigh impossible.f

242 Since the above was written, and by Aufrecht (London, 1861) of
nothing new has appeared on this Halayudha's Abhidhdna-ratna-mdld,
question. To the editions of the belonging to about the end of the
Amara-kosha then already pub- eleventh century. A Piili redaction
lighed, t hose, namely, of Colebrooke of the Arnara-kosha by Moggallilna
(1808) and of Loiseleur Deslong- belongs to the close of the twelfth
champs (Paris, 1839, 1845), various century ; see /. Str., ii. 330.
new ones have since been added in * For the literature of these, see
India. Of other vocabularies we AVestergaard's preface to his ex-
may mention the editions, by Boht- cellent Radices Linyuce Sanscrita
lingk and Rien (1847) of Henia- (lionn, 1841).
Chandra's Abhidluina- chinbimani, f See Holtzmann, op. cit., p. 17.

METRIC, POETICS, RHETORIC. 237

Lastly, as a third phase of the science of language, we
have to consider Metric, Poetics, and Rhetoric.

With the "beginnings of Prosody we have already become
acquainted in connection with the Veda (see p. 23). The
treatise ascribed to Pingala even appears as an appendage
to the Veda itself, however little claim it has to such a
position, specifying as it does the most highly elaborated
metres, such as were only used in later times (see p. 60).
The tradition which identifies Piugala witli Patamjali, the
author of the Mahabhiishya and the Yoga-Sastra, must
answer for itself ; for us there exists no cogent reason for
accepting it.243 The other existing treatises on metre are
likewise all modern : they superseded the more ancient
works ; and the same is the case, in an equal degree, with
the writings on poetics and rhetoric. Of the Alamkdra-
Sdstra of Bharata, which is often cited as the leading
authority on these subjects, only the few quoted passages
would seem to have survived, although, according to one
commentary,* the work was itself but an extract from the
Agni-Purana. A. W. von Schlegel in his Eeflexions sur
I Etude des Langues Asiat., p. 1 1 1, speaks of a manuscript,
preserved in Paris, of the Sdhitya-darpana, another leading
work on this subject, as dated sake 949, i.e., A.D. 1027 ; and
this, if correct, would naturally be of the highest import-
ance for the age of the works therein quoted. But a priori
I am firmly persuaded that this statement rests on a mis-
take or misunderstanding;244 for the oldest manuscripts
with which I have had any opportunity of becoming ac-
quainted are, as already mentioned (p. 182}, not so much

243 Cf. on this 7. St., viii. 158 ff. the banks of the Brahmaputra ; see
* See my Catal. o/theSansk. MSS. Jagan-mohana-sarman in the pre-

in the Bcrl. Lib., p. 227. [Respect- face to his edition of the drama

ing the Ndtya- Sdstra of Bharata Chanda-Kausika, p. 2. It has al-

fuller information was first supplied ready been edited several times in

by Hall in his edition of the Daia- India, amongst others by Roer in

rtipa (1865), at the close of which the £ibl. Indica (1851, vol. x.).

he has given the text of four chap- Ballantyne's translation, ibid., is un-

ters of the work (18-20, 34); see fortunately not yet entirely printed,

also W. Heymann's account of it in and reaches only to Rule 575 ; for

the Gottinger Gel. Anzcigen, 1874, p. the close of the work, however, from

86 ff.] Rule 631, we have a translation by

244 The Stthitya-darpana was only Pramami D;tsa Mitra, which appeared
composed towards the middle of the in the Pandit, i>Tos. 4-28.
fifteenth century in E. Bengal, on

232 SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

as 500 years old, and it will be difficult to find any cf a
yet greater age. — For the rest, in the field of rhetoric and
poetics, the Hindu mind, so fertile in nice distinctions, has
had free scope, and has put forth all its power, not seldom
in an extremely subtle and ingenious fashion.245

We now come to the consideration of Philosophy, as the
second branch of the scientific Sanskrit literature.

I rank it here after the science of language, not because
I regard it as of later origin, but because the existing
text-books of the philosophical systems seem to me to be
posterior to the text-book of grammar, the Sutra of Panini,
since they appear, to some extent, to presuppose the exist-
ence of Upanishads, writings which, in their extant form,
manifestly belong to a very late period, comparatively
speaking.

The beginnings of philosophical speculation go back,
as we have already more than once seen (see espe-
cially pp. 26, 27), to a very remote age. Even in the
Samhita of the Rik, although only in its later portions,
we find hymns that bespeak a high degree of reflection.
Here, too, as with all other peoples, it was especially the
question as to the origin of the world that more imme-

245 Dandin's Kdvyudarsa, of the example, adopted the Vaidarbha-riti;

sixth century, and Dhanamjaya's see Buhler, Vikramdiika-char., i. 9.

Da,?a-rtf,pa,ot the middle of the tenth — Vdmana's Kdvydlnmkdra-vritti haa

century, have been published in the lately been edited byCappeller(Jena,

Jiibl. Indica, the former edited by 1875), and belongs, he thinks, to the

Premachandra TarkavaVisa (1863), twSlfth century. Mammata's^dtrc/o-

the latter by Hall (1865). From prakdfa, several times published in

these we learn, amongst oilier things, India, belongs, in Biihler's opinion,

the very important fact that in to the same date, since Mammata,

Dandiu's day two definite, provin- according to Hall (Introd. to Vdsava.,

cially distinguished, varieties of p. 55), was the maternal uncle of

style (rlti) were already recognised, the author of the Naishadhiya ; see

namely, the Gauda style and the Biihler in Journ. Bomb. Br. It. A. S.,

Vaidarbha style, to which in course x. 37, my /. Kir., i. 356, and my Essay

of time four others, the P<ifi,chd/i, on Hdla's Sapta-s"ataka, p. II. Cf.

Ldti, Avantikd. and Mugadhi. were here also Aufrecht's account of the

added ; cf. my Essay on the Uamd- Sarasvati - kanthdbharana (note 220

yana, p. 76, and /. St., xiv. 65 ff. above). — A rich accession to the

liana passes for the special repre- Alamkdra literature also will result

tentative of the Pancliiila style; see from Biihler's journey to Kashmir :

Aufrecht in Z. D. M. G., xxvii. 93; the works range from the ninth to

whereas the Kdsuiira Billiana, for the thirteenth century.

PHILOSOPHY. 233

diately gave rise to philosophical contemplation. The
mystery of existence, of being, and of life forces itself
directly upon the soul, and along with this comes the
question, how the riddle is to be solved, and what is its
cause. The idea that most readily presents itself, and
which is therefore, in fact, everywhere recognisable as the
earliest one, is that of an eternal matter, a chaotic mass,
into which order and system are gradually introduced,
whether — and here we have two distinct views, each of
which has its intrinsic warrant, and which must therefore
have been early opposed to each other — by virtue of an
indwelling capacity of development, or by impulse from
without, whereby of course an object or Being existing
outside of this chaotic mass is eo ipso postulated. This
point reached, the idea is then a very natural one to
regard this Being, whence the impulse proceeds, as higher
and more exalted than the primary chaotic matter itself ;
and, as speculation advances, this primary matter continues
to sink to a more and more subordinate position, till at
length its very existence appears as dependent upon the
will of this Being, and so the idea of a creation arises.
The steps of this gradation may actually be followed with
tolerable distinctness in the Vedic texts. In the more
ancient portions the notion everywhere still is that the
worlds were but ' fixed,' ' arranged ' (stabhita, skdbMta *), by
the aid of the metres (it is thus that the harmony of the
universe is explained) ; only at a later stage is the idea
developed of their sarjana, 'emission' or creation. As
time goes on, the creative Being is conceived as more
and more transcendental and supernatural, so that as a
means of communication between him and the real uni-
verse intermediate grades of beings, demiurges, are required,
by classifying and systematising whom speculation strives

* It is interesting that the Ger- of the word grown up independently

man word scliaffen is derived from with both peoples ? Perhaps the

this root stabh, skabh, 'establish;' 'yawning gulf' of chaos, 'gaha-

originally therefore it had not the narn gambldram,' ' ginunga gap,1

sense in which it is now used. The might also be instanced as a similar

idea of the ' establishment,' ' ar- primitive notion ? [The connection

rangement ' of the worlds may pos- here supposed between schaffen and

Kibly therefore date from the epoch s'abh, skabh, ffKriwrfiv, is very ques-

when Teutons and Indians still tionable ; the word seems rather to

dwelt together : or has the same use belong to schaben, scaberc,

234 SANSKRIT LITER A TURE.

to introduce order, but naturally only with the result of
producing greater confusion. We have thus three dis-
tinct views -as to the origin of the world — that of its
' development,' that of its ' arrangement,' and that of its
' creation.' The two former agree in so far as the theory
of development requires an ' arranger ' also ; they are,
however, sufficiently distinguished by the circumstance
that in the former this Power is regarded as the first pro-
duction of the capacity of development residing in primary
matter; in the latter, on the contrary, as an independent
Being existing outside of it. The theory of a creation
starts generally with a desire on the part of the Creator to
be no longer alone, the expression of which desire is imme-
diately followed by the emanation itself. Either it is a
female being that first proceeds from the Creator, in con-
nection with whom, by a process of begetting,* he then
accomplishes the further work of creation ; or it is the
breath of life that first of all emanates, and in its turn
produces all the rest ; or again, the mere expression of the
desire itself involves creation, vdck or speech here appear-
ing as its immediate source ; or the process is conceived in
a variety of other ways. The notion that the world is but
Illusion only belongs to the latest phase of this emanation
theory. — It is impossible at present to attempt even an
approximate sketch of the gradual growth of these three
different theories into complete philosophical systems;
the Brahmanas and Upanishads must first be thoroughly
studied. Nor until this has been done will it be possible
to decide the question whether for the beginnings of Greek
philosophy any connection with Hindu speculation can be
established — with reference to the five elements in par-
ticular^ a point which for the present is doubtful.J I
have already stated generally (p. 29) the reasons which
lead me to assign a comparatively late date to the existing
text-books (Sutras) of the Hindu philosophical systems.240

* By incest therefore: the story vi. i8ff. [Cf. my review of Schlii-

in Megasthenes of the incest of the ter's book, Aristotelcs' Metaphysik

Indian Herakles with his daughter cine Tochterder Sdnkhyalehre in Lit.

refers to this. Cent. El., 1874, p. 294.]

t And the doctrine of metempsy- 246 Cf. Co well's note to Colebrooke's

cliosis! Misc. Ess., i. 354. "The Stitras aa

£ See Max Mullerin Z. D. M. G., we have them cannot be the original

PHILOSOPHY: THE SAMKHYA SYSTEM. 235

Unfortunately we are not yet in possession of the treatises
themselves ; * and for what follows I have had to depend
mainly upon Colebrooke's Essays en the subject.247

The most ancient philosophical system appears to he the
Sdmkhya theory, which sets up a primordial matter as the
basis of the universe, out of which the latter is by succes-
sive stages evolved. The \vord tidmkhya itself occurs first
in the later Upanishads ; t while in the earlier Upanishads
and Brahmanas the doctrines afterwards belonging to the
Scamkhya system still appear in incongruous combination
with doctrines of opposite tendency, and are cited along
with these under the equivalent designations of Mimdnsd
(V man, speculation), Adesa (doctrine), Upanisliad (sit-
ting), &c. I am especially induced to regard the Samkhya
as the oldest of the existing systems by the names of those
who are mentioned as its leading representatives : Kapila,
Pancha^ikha, and Asuri.^ The last of these names occurs
very frequently in the Satapatha-Brahmana as that of an
important authority for sacrificial ritual and the like, and
also in the lists of teachers contained in that work (namely,

form of the doctrines of the several
schools. They are rather a recapi-
tulation of a series of preceding de-
velopments which had gone on in
the works of successive teachers."

* Only two of them have thus far ap-
peared in India ; but of the edition of
the Veddnta-Sutra with Samkara's
commentary I have not yet been able
to see a copy ; only the edition of the
Nydya-Sutra is known to me. The
whole of these texts are at present
being edited in India by Dr. Bal-
lantyne, with English translation.
[These editions, entitled Aphorisms
of the Sdnkhya, Vcddnla, Yoga, &c.,
extend to all the six systems, each
sillra being regularly followed by
translation and commentary ; but
unfortunately only a few numbers of
each have appeared.]

247 In the new edition of Cole-
brooke's Kssays (1873), these are
accompanied with excellent notes by
Professor Cowell. Since the above
was written, much new material has
beenadded by thelaboursof Itoer, Bal-
lantye, Hall, CoweH, Mviller, Gough,

K. M. Banerjea, Earth. St. Hilaire.
In the Bibl. Indica and the Benares
Pundit many highly important edi-
tions of texts have appeared, and we
are now in possession of the Sutras
of all the six systems, together with
their leading commentaries, three
of them in translation also. See
also in particular the San'a-dar&ana-
samgraha of Mddhava in the, Bibl.
Ind. (1853-58), edited by Isvara-
chandra Vidydsiigara, and Hall's
Bibliographical Index to the Ind.
Phil. Syst. (1859).

t Of the Taittiriya and Atharvan,
as also in the fourteenth book of the
Nirukti, and in the Bhagavad-gitd.
As regards its sense, the term ia
rather obscure and not very signi-
ficant ; can its use have been in any
way influenced and determined by
its association with the doctrine of
Kdkya ? or has it reference purely
and solely to the twenty-five prin-
ciples? [The latter is really the
case; see I. St., ix. 17 ff. Kapilas
tuttva-saml-hydtd, Bhdg. Pur., iii.
25. I.]

236 SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

as disciple of Yajnavalkya, and as only one or a few gene-
rations prior to Yaska). Kapila, again, can hardly be
unconnected with the Kapya Patamchala whom we find
mentioned in the Yajnavalkiya-kanda of the Vrihad-
Aranyaka as a zealous representative of the Brahmanical
learning. Kapila, too — what is not recorded of any other
of these reputed authors of Sutras — was himself afterwards
elevated to divine rank ; and in this quality we meet with
him, for example, in the Sveta^vataropanishad.* But it is
above all the close connection of his tenets with Buddhism248
— the legends of which, moreover, uniformly speak both
of him and of Panchas'ikha as long anterior to Buddha—-
which proves conclusively that the system bearing his name
is to be regarded as the oldest.249 The question as to the
possible date of Kapila is thus closely linked with that of
the origin of Buddhism generally, a point to which we
shall revert in the sequel, in connection with our survey
of the Buddhistic literature. Two other leading doctors
of the Samkhya school as such appear towards the sixth
century of our era, Kvara-Krishna and Gaudapada: the
former (according to Colebrooke, i. 103) is expressly stated

* In the invocations of the Pitris explanation of this, when he says

which (seeabove, pp. 55, 56) form part that the existing Su.tras of Kapila

of the ordinary ceremonial, Kapila, are "of later date, posterior, not

Asuri, PanchaSikha (and with them anterior, to Buddha." On the sub-

a Vodha or Bodha), uniformly oc- ject itself, see specially /. St., iii.

cupy a very honourable place in later 132, 133.

times ; whereas notice is more rarely 249 In the sicred texts of the

taken of the remaining authors of Jainas also, not only is the Satthi-

philosophical Sutras, &c. This too tanta (Shaskti-tantra, explained by

proves that the former are more the comm. as Kdpila-Sdstra) speci-

aucient than the latter. fied along with the four Vedas

2n8 This relates, according to Wil- and their Aniras, but in another

son, to the community of the funda- passage the name Kavila appears

mental propositions of both in regard along with it, the only other Brah-

to "the eternity of matter, the prin- manical system here mentioned be-

ciplesof things, and the final extinc- inirthe Baisesiya (Vaiseshika). (The

lion" (Wilson, Works, ii. 346, ed. order in which they are given is

Host.). In opposition to this, it is Baisesiya, Buddha -sdsana, Kdvila,

true, Max Miillerexpressly denies any LoL'ityata, Satthi-tanta.) So also in

special connection whatever between a similar enumeration in the Lalita-

Kapila's system, as embodied in the vistara, after Ssimkhya Yoga, only

Sutras, and Buddhist, metaphysics Vaiseshika is further specified. See

(Chips from a German Workshop, i. my paper on the Bhagavati of the

226, 1870) ; yet he himself inime- Jainas, ii. 246-248.
d lately afterwards gives the correct

PHILOSOPHY: THE YOGA SYSTEM. 237

to be the author of the existing Samkhya- Sutra, while the
latter embodied its doctrine in several Upanishads.250

Connected with the Samkhya school, as a further deve-
lopment of it, is the Yoga system of Patamjali,251 whose
name describes him as in all probability a descendant of
the Kapya Patamchala of the Vrihad-Aranyaka. Along
with him (or prior to him) Yajnavalkya, the leading
authority of the Satapatha-Brahmana, is also regarded as a
main originator of the Yoga doctrine, but this only in later
writings.* Whether Patamjali is to be identified with the

250 The Sutras of Kapila, the so-
called Sdmkhya-pravackana , are now
published, with the commentary of
Vijndna-bhikshu in the Bibl. 2nd.,
edited by Hall (1854-56) ; a trans-
lation by Ballantyne also appeared
in the same series, 1862-65. In
his preface to the S. Prav., as well
as in the preface some years biter
to his edition of Vijndna-bhikshu's
Sdmkhya-sdra, Hall gives a special
account, with which, however, he is
himsel i by no means satisfied (see his
note to Wilson's Vishnu-Pur., iii. 301),
of Kapila and the leading works ex-
tant, of the Samkhya system. He re-
gards the Sdmkhya-pravachana as a
very late production, which may here
and there even "be suspected of occa-
sional obligation to the Kdrikas of
J.4varakrishna " (Ssiinkhya-sara, Pre-
face, p. 12). Of course this does not
affect either the antiquity of Kapila
himself or his "alleged connection
with the Samkhya" (p. 20). Cowell,
too (Colebrooke, Misc. Ess., i. 354,
note), regards the Samkhya school
itself " as one of the earliest," while
the Sutras, on the contrary, are of
late origin, inasmuch as they not
only "refer distinctly to Veddnta
texts," but also "expressly mention
the Vaileshika in i. 25, v. 85 ; for
the Nyaya, cf. v. 27, 86, and for
the Yoga, i. 90." Besides the Vai-
s"eshikas (i. 25), only Panchas'ikha
(v. 32, vi. 68) and Sanandandcharya
(vi. 69) are actually mentioned by
name. An interesting detail is the
opposing of the names Srughna and

(i. 28) as an illustration
of separate localiiy (similarly in the
Mahdbha'shya, see /. St., xiii. 378).

251 The Yoga - Sutra ascribed to
Patamjali (likewise called Sdmkhya-
pravachana - Stitra), with extracts
trum Bhoja's commentary upon it,
was edited, text with translation, to
the extent of one-half, by Ballantyne
in his Aphorisms; the second half
appeared in the Pandit, Nos. 28-68,
edited by Govinda-deya-sastrin. —
An Aryd-panchd&lti by Seslia (whom
the eiiitor identifies with Patamjali),
in which the relation of pralcriti and
purushaia elucidated in a Vaishnava
sense, was edited by Balasdstrin in
No. 56 of the Pandit ; there existg
also a Saiva adaptation of it by Abhi-
navauupta ; seu Z. D. M. G., xxvii.
167. According to Biihler's letter
(7. St., xiv. 402 ff.), Abhinavagupta
is supposed to have died in A.D. 982 ;
but Biihler has not himself verified
the date, which is stated to occur in
the hymn written by Abhinava on
his deathbed.

* Particularly in the twelfth book
of the Mahd-Bharata, where, with
Janaka, he is virtually described as
a Buddhist teacher, the chief out-
ward badge of these teachers being
precisely the Icdshdya - dhdranam
maundyam (M.-Bh., xii. 11898, 566).
It appears, at all events, from the
Yajnavalkiya-kdnda that both gave
a powerful impulse to the practice
of religious mendicancy : in the
Atharvopanishads, too, this is clearly
shown (see p. 163). [In the Yajuii-

238 SANSKRIT LITERA TURE.

author of the Mahabhashya remains for the present a ques-
tion. The word yoga in the sense of ' union with the
Supreme Being/ ' absorption therein by virtue of medita-
tion,' first occurs in the later Upanishads, especially in the
tenth book of the Taittiriya-Aranyaka and in the Kathako-
panishad, where this very doctrine is itself enunciated.252
As there presented, it seems to rest substantially upon a
dualism, that is, upon the ' arrangement ' theory of the
universe ; in this sense, however, that in the Kathakopani-
shad at least, purusha, primeval soul, is conceived as exist-
ing prior to avyakta, primordial matter, from the union of
which two principles the mahdn dtmd, or spirit of life,
is evolved. For the rest, its special connection with the
Samkhya system is still, in its details, somewhat obscure,
however well attested it is externally by the constant
juxtaposition of ' Samkhya- Yoga,' generally as a com-
pound. Both systems appear, in particular, to have coun-
tenanced a confounding of their purusha, isvara with the
chief divinities of the popular religion, Eudra and Krishna,
as may be gathered from the Sveta£vataropanishad,252a the
Bhagavad-gita, and many passages in the twelfth book of
the Maha-Bharata.* One very peculiar side of the Yoga

valkya-Stnriti, iii. HO, Y. describes of view of literary chronology no

himself ostensibly as the author of forcible objection can be brought

the Aranyaka as well as of the Yoga- against this ; some of the points,

Silstra.] too, which he urges are not without

282 It is in these and similar Upa- importance ; but on the whole he

iiishads, as also in Manu's Dharina- has greatly over-estimated the scope

Sitstra (cf. Joliiintgen's Essay on the of his argument : the question is

Law-Book of Manu, 1863), that we still subjudice.

have to look for the earliest germs * More particularly with regard

and records of the atheistic Sdmkhya to the Bhdgavata, Panchardtra, and

and the deistic Yoga systems. Pdsupata doctrines. [A Sutra of

252a In my paper on the Svetdsva- the Pdnchardtra school, that, namely,

taropanishad 1 had to leave the point of Sandilya (ijd. by Ballantyne in the

undetermined whether, for the Bill, Jndica, 1861), is apparently

period to which this work belongs, mentioned by Sainkara, Veddnta-S.

and specially as regards the mono- Bh. ii. 2. 45- ^ rests, seemingly,

theistic Yoga system it embodies, an upon the Bhagavad-gita', and lays

acquaintance with the corresponding special stress upon faitli in the Su-

doctrines of Christianity is to be preme Being (6/(a/rf«Vi*yare); seeon it,

assumed or not ; see I. St., i. 423. Co well's note in Colebrooke's Misc.

Lorinser, on the other hand, in his Ess. ,1.438. On the development of the

translation of the Bhagavad-gita doctrine of b/iakti, Wilson surmises

(Breslau, 1869). unreservedly as- Christian conceptions to have had

eumes such an acquaintance in the some influence ; see my paper on the

case of this poem. From the point Ham. Tdp. Up., pp. 277, 360. Tha

PHILOSOPHY: THE TWO MIMANSAS. 239

doctrine — and one which was more and more exclusively
developed as time went on — is the Yoga practice; that is,
the outward means, such as penances, mortifications, and
the like, whereby this absorption into the supreme God-
head is sought to be attained. In the epic poems, but
especially in the Atharvopanishads, we encounter it in full
force : Panini, too, teaches the formation of the term yogin.

The most flourishing epoch of the Samkhya-Yoga be-
longs most probably to the first centuries of our era, the
influence it exercised upon the development of Gnosticism
in Asia Minor being unmistakable ; while further, both
through this channel and afterwards directly also, it had
an important influence upon the growth of the Sufi philo-
sophy.* Albiriini translated Patarnjali's work into Arabic
at the beginning of the eleventh century, and also, it would
appear, the Samkhya-Sutra,f though the information we
have as to the contents of these works does not harmonise
with the Sanskrit originals.

The doctrines of the two Mimdhsds appear to have been
reduced to their present systematic shape at a later period
than those of the Samkhya;253 and, as indicated by their
respective names, in the case of the l^rva-Mimdnsd earlier
than in the case of the Uttara-Mimdnsd. The essential
purpose of both Mimansas is to bring the doctrines enun-
ciated in the Brahmanas or sacred revelation into harmony
and accord with each other. Precepts relating to practice
form the subject of the Purva-Mimansa, which is hence also
styled Karm a - Mimdiisd ; while doctrines regarding the
essence of the creative principle and its relation to the

Ndrada-Pnfichanitra (edited in Bibl. very questionable. Besides, as we
Ind. by K. M. Bauerjea, 1861-65) i8 shall presently see, in both the
uritual,notaphilosophical,Vaishnava Mitndnsd-Sutras teachers are repeat-
text-book.] edly cited who are known to us from

* See [Lassen, /. AK., iii. 379 ff.] the Vedic Sutra literature ; while

Gildemeister, Script. Arab, de rib. nothing of the kind occurs in either

Ind., p. H2ff. of the Ssimkhya-pravachana-Sutras.

t Reinaud in the Journ. Asia/., This does not of course touch the

1844, pp. 121-124 ; H. M. Elliot, point of the higher antiquity of the

Ilibl. Index to the Hist, of Muham- doctrines in question ; for the names

medan India, i. TOO. Kapila, Patamjali, and Yitjnavalkya

253 jfow that the antiquity of the distinctly carry us back to a far

extant form of the Saipkhya-Sutras, earlier time than do the namea

according to Hall, has become so Jaimini and B&lnrdyuna — namely,

exceedingly doubtful, the view above into the closing phases of the Rnih«

expressed ;ilao becomes in its turn ci.-ina literature itself.

24O

SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

universe form the subject of the Uttara-Mimansa, which
is hence also designated Brahma - Mimd nsd, Sdriraka-
Mimdhsd (' doctrine of embodied spirit'), or also Veddnta
(' end of the Veda '). The term ' Mimansa ' originally de-
notes merely speculation in general ; it occurs frequently
in this sense in the Brahmanas, and only became a technical
expression later,254 as is probably the case also with ' Ve-
danta,' a word first occurring in the later Upanishads, in
the tenth book of the Taittiriya-Aranyaka, the Kathako-
panishad, Mundakopanishad, &c.

The Karma - Mimdnsd - Sutra is ascribed to Jaimini,
who is mentioned in the Puranas as the revealer of the
Samaveda, though we search in vain in Vedic literature
for any hint of his name.* Still, of the teachers who

254 In the Malidbhdshya, mimdn-
saka, according to Kaiyata, is to he
taken in the sense of mlmdnsdm,
adhite ; and as the term also occurs
therein contradistinction to aukthika,
it might, in point of fact, refer to the
subject of the Purva-Mf mans;i. Still
the proper word here for one speci-
ally devoted to such studies would
rather seem to be ydjnikaj see /.
St., xiii. 455, 466.

* With the exception of two
probably interpolated passages in
the Grihya-Sutras of the Rik (see
pp. 56-58). — Nor is there anything
bearing on it in the Ganapa$ha of
Panini — of which, indeed, for the
present, only a negative use can be
made, and even this only with pro-
per caution. But as the word is ir-
regularly formed (from Jeman we
.should expect Jaimani), this circum-
stance may here, perhaps, carry some
weight. [Apparently it is not found
in the Mahibhdshya either ; see /.
•S'£., xiii. 455. On the other hand, the
name Jaimini occurs in the concluding
vaii^a of the Rama-vidhdna-Bruhm.
(v. 7. St. , iv. 377), and here the bearer
of it is described as the disciple of
Vyasa Panlsarya, and preceptor of a
Paushpindya, which answers exactly
to the statement in the Vishnu- Pur.,
iii. 6. I, 4, where he appears as the
teacher of Paushpimji (cf. also lla-

ghuv., 18. 32, 33). The special re-
lation of Jaimini to the Sdma-Veda
appears also from the statements in
the Rig-Grihyas (see note 49 above),
which agree with Vishnu-Pur., iii.
4. 8, 9. Indeed, the Charana-vyuha
specifies a Jaiminiya recension of
the Sdman ; and this recension ap-
pears to be still in existence (see
note 60 above). In( the Pravara
section of the Asval.-Srauta-S., xii.
IO, the Jaiminis are classed as be-
longing to the Bhrigns. — All this,
however, does not afford us any
direct clue to the date of our Jai-
mini above, whose work, besides,
is properly more related to the
Yajnr- than to the Sdma-Veda.
According to the Paiichatantra, the
' MimdYiMitkrit' Jaimini was killed
by an elephant — a statement which,
considering the antiquity of this
work, is always of some value ; al-
though, on the other hand, unfortun-
ately, in consecp-ience of the many
changes its texc has undergone, we
huve no guarantee that this parti-
cular notice formed part of the orig-
inal text which found its way to
Persia in the sixth century (cf. /. St.,
viii. 159). — There is also an astro-
logical (Jiitaka) treatise which goes
by the name of Jai mini-Sutra ; see
C'atal. of Skr. MS3. N. W. Pro.
(1874), PP- 508, 510, 514, 532-1

PHILOSOPHY: KARMA-MIMANSA. 241

are cited in this Sutra — Atreya, Badari, Badarayana,
Labukayana (?),255 Ait^ayana — the names of the first and
second, at all events, may .be pointed out in the Taittiriya-
Pratisakhya and the Srauta-Sutra of Katyayana respec-
tively ; while we meet with the family of the Aita3ayanas
in the Kaushitaki-Brahmana.* Badarayana is the name
of the author of the Brahma-Mimansa- Sutra ; but it
by no means follows from the mention of him here that
his Sutra is older than the Sutra of Jaimini ; for not only
may the name, as a patronymic, have designated other
persons besides, but in the Sutra of the Brahma-Mimansa
the case is exactly reversed, and Jaimini in his turn is
mentioned there. All that results from this, as well as
from the fact of each Sutra frequently citing its own
reputed author, is rather that these Sutras were not really
composed by these teachers themselves, but only by their
respective schools. t The name Badarayana is not to be
found " in Panini," as has recently been erroneously as-
serted,:}: but only in the gana-pdtha to Panini, not a very
sure authority for the present. — As leading expounders of
the Jaimini-Sutra we have mention of Sahara- svamin,256
and, after him, of Kumarila-bhatta;2568 the latter is said
to have flourished prior to Samkara.§

255 In the passage in question (vi. 256 This commentary of Sabara-
7. 37) onght we not to read Lama- svftmin, which is even cited by
kayana? This is the name of a Samkara (Veddnta-Stitra-bh., iii. 3.
teacher who is several times men- 53), with the text of Jaimini itself,
tioned in the Sdma-Stitras ; see /. is at present still in course of publi-
St., iv. 384, 373. — The apparent cation in the Bibl. Ind., ed. by Ma-
mention of Buddha in i. 2. 33 (bud- hes'achandra Nyayaratna (begun in
d/ia-fdstrdt) is only apparent: here 1863 ; the last part, 1871, brings it
the word 'buddha' has nothing down to ix. I. 5). — Marlhava's Jai-
whatever to do with the name miniyn-nyaya-mala-vistara, edited by
'Buddha.' — To the above names Goldsiiicker (1865 ff. ), is also still
must, however, be added Karslmii- unfinished; see my 1. Str., ii. 376 ff.
jini (iv. 3. 17, vi. 7. 35) and Kaiuu- 2S6a Who appears also to have
kayana (xi. I. 51); the former of borne the odd name of Tutdta or even
these is found also in Katyayana and Tutatita. At all events, Tautatika,
in the Vedanta - Sutra, the latter or Tautdtita, is interpreted by the
only in the gana 'Nada.' scholiast of the Prabodha-chandro-

* xxx. 5, where they are charac- daya, 20. 9, ed. Brockhaus, to mean

terised as the scum of the Bhrigu Kumdrila ; and the same explana-

line, "pdpishthd Blirigundm. " tion is given by Aufrecht in his

•f- See Colebrooke, i. 102, 103, 328, Catalogvs, p. 247, in the case of the

and above p. 49. Tautdtitas mentioned in Mddhava's

J By Max Miiller in his otherwise Sarva-darsana-snmgraha.

most valuable contributions to our § See Colebrooke, i. 298 : yet the

knowledge of Indian philosophy in t-olerably modern title bliatta awak-

the Z. 1). M, G., vi. 9. ens some doubt as to th s : it may

243 SANSKRIT LITERA TURK.

The Brahma-Sutra* belongs, as we have just seen, to
Badarayana. The notion that creation is but Illusion, and
that the transcendental Brahman is alone the Heal, but
throning in absolute infinitude without any personal exist-
ence, is the fundamental doctrine of this system. The
attempt is here made to demonstrate that this doctrine
is the end and aim of the Veda itself, by bringing all Vedic
passages into harmony with this monotheistic pantheism,
and by refuting the various views of the Samkhya, or
atheistic, the Yoga, or theistic, and the Nyaya, or deistic
schools, &c. The notice thus taken of the other systems
would of itself seem to prove the posteriority of the Brahma-
Sutra; still, it is for the present uncertain whether its
polemic is in fact directed against these systems in the
form in which we now have them, or merely perhaps
against the original tenets out of which these systems
have sprung. The teachers' names, at least, which are
mentioned in the Brahma-Sutra recur to a large extent in
the Srauta- Sutras ; for example, A^marathya in AsValaya-
na ; f Badari, Karshnajini and Kas'akritsni in Katyayana
[see above, p. 139], and, lastly, Atreya in the Taittiriya-
PratiSakhya. The name Audulomi belongs exclusively
to the Brahma-Sutra.257 The mention of Jaimini and of
Badarayana himself has been already touched upon. —
Windischmann in his excellent " S*amkara " (Bonn, 1832)

not have belonged to him originally example of the new Kalpas, in con-

perhaps? [According to Cowell, tradistinction to the earlier ones,

note to Colebrooke's Misc. tJSss., i. and so is regarded as of the same

323, there actually occur in Siiinkara ;ige with Paniui. If, as is likely,

"allusions to Kutmirila-bhatta, if the scholiast took this illustration

no direct mention of him ; " the from the Mahsibhiishya [but this is

title bhatta belongs quite specially not the case ;. v. /. St., xiii. 455],

to him: "he is emphatically de- then this statement is important,

signed byhis title Bhatta." For the I may mention in passing that Asmn-

rest, this title belongs likewise to rathya occurs in the gana ' Garga ; '

Bhatta-Bhaskara-Misra and Bhattot- Andulomi in the gana 'Bdhu ; ' Krish-

pala, and therefore is not by any ndjina in the ganas ' Tika' and ' Upa-

means 'tolerably modern.'] ka;' in the latter also Kasakritsna.

* This name itself occurs in the The Gana-pdtha, however, is a most

Bhagavad-gitd, xiii. 4, but here it uncertain authority, and for Panint's

may be taken as an appellative rather time without weight,

than as a proper name. 257 It is found in the Mahitbhdshya

f We r have already seen (p. 53) also, on Pjtnini, iv. I. 85, 7^ > see

that the Asmarathah Kalpah is in- 7. St., xiii. 415.
•tanced by Piinini's scholiast as an

PHILOSOPHY: BRAHMA-M1MANSA.

243

has attempted directly to fix the age of the Brahma-Sutra.
For Badarayana bears also the additional title of Vyasa,
whence, too, the Brahma-Sutra is expressly styled Vyasa-
Sutra. Now, in the Samkara-vijaya — a biography of the
celebrated Vedanta commentator $amkara, reputed to bo
by one of his disciples — we find it stated (see Windisch-
inann, p. 85 ; Colebrooke, i. 104) that Vyasa was the name
of the father of Suka, one of whose disciples was Gauda-
pada, the teacher of Govindanatha, who again was the
preceptor 4of Samkara;258 so that the date of this Vyasa
might be conjecturally set down as from two to three
centuries prior to Samkara, that is, between 400 and 500
A.D. But the point must remain for the present undeter-
mined,* since it is open to question whether this Vyasa
ought really to be identified with Vyasa Badarayana,
though this appears to me at least very probable.259

-6S See now in Aufrecht's Cata-
loyus, p. 255b, the passage in ques-
tion from Mddhava's (!) Samkara-
vijaya, v. 5 (rather v. 105, according
to the ed. of the work published at
Bombay in 1864 with Dhanapati-
suri's commentary), and ibid., p.
227b, the same statements from
another work. The Samkara-vijaya
of Anandagiri, on the contrary,
Aufrecht, p. 247 ff. (now also in the
liibl. Jnd., edited by Jayandrdyann,
1864-1868), contains notliing ot'
this. t

* Samkara, on Brahma-Sutra, iii.
3. 32, mentions that Apdntaratamas
lived as Krishna-Dvaipdyana at the
time of the transition from the Kali
to the Dvdpnra yuga ; and from the
fact of his not at the same time ex-
pressly stating that this was Vya-a
Bddaidynna, author of the Brahma-
Sutra, Windischmann concludes,
and justly, that in oainkara's eyes
the two personages were distinct.
In the Mabd-Bhdrata, on the con-
trary, xii. 12158 ff., Suka is expressly
given as the son of Krishna Dvai-
pdynna (Vydsa Pdrdsarya). }!ut the
episode in question is certainly one
of the very latest insertions, as is
clear from the allusion to the Chi-

nas and Hunas, the Chinese and
Huns. •

259 In the meantime, the name
Badardyana is only known to occur,
besides, in the closing van$a of tha
Sama-Vidhdna-Br. ; see /. S>., iv.
377 ; and here the bearer of it ap-
peal's as the disciple of Pdrdsary;ly;v-
na, four steps later than Vyasa Pdrd-
sarya, and three later than Jaimini,
but, on the other hand, as the
teacher (!) of Tdndin and Sdtydyanin.
Besides being mentioned in Jaimini,
he is also cited in the Sdndilya-Stitra.
In Vardha-Mihira and Bhattotpala
an astronomer of this name is re-
ferred to ; and he, in his turn, ac-
cording to Aufrecht (Cataloyus, p.
329"-), alludes, in a passage quoted
from him by Utpala, to the 'Yavana-
vriddhds,' and, according to Kern,
Pief. to Brih. Sarnh., p. 51, "ex-
hibits many Greek words." — The
text of the Brahma-Stitra, with
Sainkara's commentary, has now
been published in the Bibl. Ind.,
edited by lioer and (from part 3)
1-idma Ndrdyana Vidydratna (1854-
1863} : of the translation of both by
K. M. Banerjea, as of that in Ballan-
tyne's Aphorisms, only one part hasi
appeared (1870).

244 SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

In respect of their reduction to systematic shape, the
logical Sutras of Kanada and Gotama appear to rank
last. But this by no means indicates that these logical
inquiries are themselves of later origin — on the contrary,
the other Sutras almost uniformly begin with such — but
merely that the formal development of logic into two philo-
sophical schools took place comparatively late. Neither
of the schools restricts itself to logic alone; each em-
braces, rather, a complete philosophical system, built up,
however, upon a purely dialectical method. But as yet
little has been done to elucidate the points of difference
between the two in this regard.260 The origin of the world
is in botli derived from atoms, which combine by the will
of an arranging Power.261 — Whether the name of the
Tlpd/j-vai, who are described by Strabo as contentious
dialecticians, is to be traced to the word pramdna, 'proof/
as Lassen supposes, is doubtful. The word tarka, ' doubt,'
again, in the Kathakopanishad, ought rather, from the
context, to be referred to the Samkhya doctrines, and
should not be taken in the sense, which at a later period
is its usual one, of ' logic.' In Manu too (see Lassen, /.
AK., i. 835), according to the traditional interpretation,
tarkin still denotes ' one versed in the Mimansa logic.' 262
Yet Manu is also acquainted with logic as a distinct

-60 In tliis respect, Roer in parti- edited, in the Bill. Tnd., the Nydya-
culiir has done excellent service : in darsana of Gotama with the com«
the copious notes to his translation mentary of Vitr.sydyaiia (Pakshila-
of the Vaiseshika - Sutra he has sv;£miii). The earlier edition (1828)
throughout special regard to this was accompanied with the corn-
very point (in Z. D. M. G.. vols. mentary of Yisvansitha. The first
xxi. xxii. 1867, 1868). Before four books have been translated by
him, Miiller, with some of Ballan- Ballantyne in his Aphorisms.
tyne's writings as a basis, had al- 261 WH find the atomic theory es-
ready taken the fame line (in vols. pecially developed among the Jainas,
vi. and vii. of the same Journal, and that in a materialistic form,
1852, 1853). The text of the yet so, that the atomic matter and
Vais'eshika- Sutras, with the com- the vital principle are conceived
mentary, called UpaskaYa, of Sam- to be in eternal intimate connec-
kara-misra, appeared in liibl. 2nd. in tion ; see my Essay on the Bhaga-
1860, 1861, edited, with a gloss of vati of the Jainas, ii. 168, 176, 190,
liis own, by Jaya NaVayana Tarka- 236. We have a mythological ap-
panchfinana. In the Pandit (Nos. plication of it in the ai-sumption of
32-69) there is a complete transla- a praja"pati Marichi ; see I. St., ix. 9.
tion of both text and commentary 262 In PaYask., ii. 6 ("vidhir
by A. E. Cough. — Jaya NaYdyana vidhcyas tarkas cha vrdah"), tarka
Las also since then (1864-65) is equivalent to artkavdda, mlmdnsd.

PHILOSOPHY: NYAYA—VAISESH1KA. 245

science, as well as with the three leading methods of proof
which it teaches, though not under the names that were
afterwards usual. According to the most recent investiga-
tions on the subject,* " the terms naiydyika and Jcevala-
naiydyika (Pan., ii. i. 49) would point to the Nyaya system
as antecedent to Panini:" these words, however, do not
occur in the text of Panini at all (which has merely the
word kevala /), but only in his scholiast.f — Kanada's
system bears the name Vaiseshika- Sutra, because its ad-
herents assert that visesha, ' particularity,' is predicable of
atoms ; the system of Gotarna, on the other hand, is styled
Nydya-Sutra, KCLT G^O-^YJV. Which of the two is the older
is still uncertain. The circumstance that the doctrines of
the Vaiseshikas are frequently the subject of refutation
in the Vedanta-Siitra, — whereas Gotama's teaching is no-
where noticed, either in the text or in the commentaries
upon it, as stated by Golebrooke (i. 352), — tells a priori
in favour of the higher antiquity of the former;263
but whether the author of the Vedanta had these ' doc-
trines of Kanada ' before him in their systematised form,
as has recently been assumed J is a point still requiring
investigation.264 — For the rest, these two systems are at

* By Max. Miiller, 1. c., p. 9. as we know at present, is first men-

t This is one of the cases of tioned by Mddhava. Their patro-

\vhich I have already spoken (p. nymics, Kstsyapa and Gautama (this

225). form is preferable to Gotama) date,

-6i In the Sstmkb.ya-Su.tra they it is true, from a very early time,

are even expressly mentioned by but, beyond this, theytell us nothing,

name (see p. 237) ; also in the sacred Of interest, certainly, although

texts of the Jainas (v. note 249). — without decisive weight, is the iden-

The circumstance that the Gotama- tification — occurring in a late com-

Sutra dues not, like the other five mentator (Anantayajvan) on the

philosophical text-books, begin with Pitrimedha-Sutra of Gautama, be-

the customary Sdtra-formula, 'at/id longing to the Sdma- Veda — of thia

'tah,' may perhaps also be regarded latter Gautama with Akshap.ida ;

as a sign of later composition. see Burnell's Catalogue, p. 57. —

£ M. Miiller, I. c., p. 9 : " Whereas From Cowell's preface to his edition

Kandda's doctrines are there fre- of the Kusumdnjali (1864) it ap-

quently discussed." pears that the commentary of Pa-

264 In neither of the Sutras are there kshila-svjimin, whom he directly
references to older teachers whose identifies with Viltsydyana, was coin-
names might supply some chro- posed prior to Diiiiiitga, that is to
nological guidance. As regards the say (see note 219 above), somewhere
names of their authors themselves, about the beginning of the sixth
Kanddaor Kanablmj (Ivanabhaksha) century. Uddyotakara, who is men-
is mentioned by" Varaha-Mihira and tioned by Subandhu in the seventh
bamkara, while Akshapsida, so far century, wrote against Difiudga, aud

246 SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

present, and have been for a long time past, those most in
favour in India ; and it would also appear that among the
philosophical writings contained in the Tibetan Tandjur,
logical works are the most numerously represented.

Besides these six systems, all of which \von for them-
selves a general currency, and which on the whole are
regarded as orthodox — however slight is the title of the
Samkhya theory, for instance, to be so esteemed — we have
frequent mention of certain heterodox views, as those of
the Charvakas, Laukayatikas,265 Barhaspatyas. Of this
last-mentioned school there must also have existed a com-
plete system, the Barhaspatya-Sutra ; but of all this
nothing has survived save occasional quotations, intro-
duced with a view to their refutation, in the commentaries
of the orthodox systems.

"We now come to the third branch of the scientific lite-
rature, Astronomy, with its auxiliary sciences.* We have
already seen (pp. 112, 113) that astronomy was cultivated
to a considerable extent even in Vedic times; and we
found it expressly specified by Strabo (see pp. 29, 30) as a
favourite pursuit of the Brahmans. It was at the same
time remarked, however, that this astronomy was still in a
very elementary stage, the observations of the heavens
being still wholly confined to a few fixed stars, more espe-
cially to the twenty-seven or twenty-eight lunar asterisms,
and to the various phases of the moon itself.268 The cir-
cumstance that the Vedic year is a solar year of 360 days,

so did Vachaspati -misra in the A Bhdguri appears among the

tenth, and Udayana, the author of teachers cited in the Brihad-devatd.

the Kusumdnjali, in the twelfth The Lokayatas are also repudiated

century ; see also Cowell's note to "by the Buddhists, Northern as well

Colebrooke's Misc. Ess., i. 282. Gail- as Southern ; v. Burnouf, Lotus de

gesa's Nydya-chintdinani, the most la bonne Loi, pp. 409, 470. The

important work of the later Nydya Jainas, too, rank their system only

literature, is also placed in the with loii/a- (laukika) knowledge;

twelfth century ; see Z. D. M. G., see above, note 249. — On the ChaV-

xxvii. 168. Auliikya, given by yiikas, see the introduction of the

Mftdhava as a name for the tenets Sarva-darsana-samgraha.

of Kanstila, rests on a play upon * See /. St., ii. 236-287.

the word kdndda, ' crow • enter ' — 266 The cosmical or astronomical

ulnlca. data met with in the Brdhmanas are

265 In the Mahdbhdshya there is all of an extremely childish and naive

mention of a " vnrnikd Jtfuiyuri description; see /. St., ix. 35^^-
lokd/jctlasya ; " see I. St., xiii. 343.

ASTRONOMY: THE LUNAR ASTERISMS. 247

and not a lunar year, does indeed presuppose a tolerably
accurate observation and computation of the sun's course ;
but, agreeably to what has just been stated, we can hardly
imagine that this computation proceeded upon the pheno-
mena of the nocturnal heavens, and we must rather assume
it to have been based upon the phenomena of the length
or shortness of the day, &c. To the elaboration of a quin-
quennial cycle with an intercalary month a pretty early
date must be assigned, since the latter is mentioned in the
Eik-Samhita. The idea of the four mundane ages, on the
contrary — although its origin, from observation of the
moon's phases, may possibly be of extreme antiquity267 —
can only have attained to its complete development to-
wards the close of the Vedic period : Megasthenes, as we
know, found the Yuga system flourishing in full perfection.
That the Hindu division of the moon's path into twenty-
seven (or twenty -eight) lunar mansions is of Chinese origin,
as asserted by Biot (Journal des Savants, 1 840, 1 84 5 ; see
Lassen, /. AK., i. 742 ff.), can hardly be admitted.268
Notwithstanding the accounts of Chinese writers, the
contrary might equally well be the case, and the system
might possibly have been introduced into China through
the medium of Buddhism, especially as Buddhist writings
adhere to the ancient order of the asterisms — commencing
with Krittikd — precisely as we find it among the Chinese.269

267 Roth disputes tliis origin in his Courtee Observations siir qvelques

Y.S-S&Y, Die Lehrevon denvierWeltal- Points de V llistoire de I' Astronomic

tern (1860, Tubingen). (1863) ; and, Listly, Whitney in the

2li8 On the questions dealt with second vol. of his Oriental and Lin-

in what follows, a special discussion guistic Studies (1874). To the views

was raised between J. B. Biot, my- expressed above I still essentially

self, and Whitney, in wliich A. Se- adhere ; Whitney, too, inclines to-

dillot, Steinschneider, E. Burgess, wards them. In favour of Chaldaea

and Max Miiller also took part. Cf. having been the mother- country

the Journal da Savants for 1859, and of the system, one circumstance,

Biot's posthumous Etudes sur I' As- amongst others, tells with especial

tronomie Indieitwe et Chinoise (1862); force, viz., that from China, India,and

my t«o papers, Die Vedischen Nach- Babylon we have precisely the same

ridden von den Nakshntra (1860, accounts of the length of the longest

1862), as also 7. Str.. ii. 172, 173 ; day ; whilst the statements, e.g.f in

/. St., ix. 424 ff. (1865), x. 213 ff. the Bundehesch, on this head, exhi-

(1866) ; Whitney in Joum. Am. Or. bit a total divergence : see Windisch-

Soc., vols. vi. and viii. (1860, 1864, uiann (ZoroastriscJie Studien, p. 105).

1865); Burgess, ibid.; Steiuschnei- 269 This assertion of Biot's has not

der in Z. I). M. G., xviii. (1863) ; been confirmed; the Chinese list

Miiller in Pref. to vol. iv. of his edi- commences with Chitrd (i.e., the

tion cf the Ilik (1862); S&lillot, autumnal equinox), orUttardshidhaa

24? SANSKRIT LITER A TURE.

To me, however, the most probable view is that these lunar
mansions are of Chaldaean origin, and that from the Chal-
daeans they passed to the Hindus as well as to the Chinese.
For the /rtSlD of the Book of Kings, and the nil-ID of the
Book of Job,270 which the Biblical commentators errone-
ously refer to the zodiac, are just the Arabic JjU*, ' man-
sions ; ' and here even Biot will hardly suppose a Chinese
origin. The Indians may either have brought the know-
ledge of these lunar mansions with them into India, or else
have obtained it at a later time through the commercial
relations of the Phoenicians with the Panjab. At all events,
they were known to the Indians from a very early period,
and as communication with China is altogether inconceiv-
able at a time when the Hindus were perhaps not even
acquainted with the mouths of the Ganges, Chinese influ-
ence is here quite out of the question. The names of some
of these asterisms occur even in the Rik-Samhita (and that
under peculiar forms) ; for example, the Aghds, i.e., Maghds,
and the Ar/unj/au, i.e., Phalgunyau — a name also applied
to them iu the $atapatha-Brahmana — in the nuptial hymn,
mandala x. 85. 13 ; further, Tishya in mandala v. 54. 13,
which, however, is referred by Sayana to the sun (see also
x. 64. 8). The earliest complete enumeration of them, with
their respective regents, is found in the Taittiriya-Sam-

(the winter solstice), both of which nomy in Chaldaea, Wassiljew com-
rather correspond to an arrangement pares with Zoroaster, but in which
in which Revati passes as the sign of I am inclined rather to look for
the vernal equinox ; seemyfirst Kssay the Kraushtuki whose acquaint-
on the Nakshatras, p. 300. — Cf. here ance we make in the Atharva-Paris'.
also the account of the twenty-eight (see Lit. C. Bl., 1869, p. 1497) —
lunar asterisms, contained in a letter who arranged the constellations in
from Wassiljew to Schiefner (see the the order quoted in the Dictionary
latter's German translation of the in question, that is, beginning with
Preface to Wassiljew's Russian ren- Krittikd. Afterwards there came
dering of Ttlrandtha's history of Bud- another Rishi, Kdla (Time!), who
dhism, pp. 30-32, 1869), and cornmu- set up a new theory in regard to the
nicated, according to the commentary motion of the constellations, and so
on the Buddhistic Lexicon Mahit- in course of time Chitni came to be
vyutpatti, from the book Sannip.ita named as the first asterism. To all
(Chinese Ta-tsi-king). According appearance, this actually proves the
to this account, it was the astrono- late, and Buddhistic, origin of the
mer Kharoshtha (ass's-lip) — a name Chinese Kio-list ; see Nakshatras, i.
which, as well as that of Xarustr, 306.

who, as Armenian authorities state, 27° On this point see specially /.

originated the soienoe of astro- St. , z. 217.

ASTRONOMY: THE PLANETS. 24$

liila; a second, which exhibits considerable variation in
the names, betokening a later date, occurs in the Atharva-
Samhita and the Taittiriya-Brahmana ; the majority of the
names are also given in Panini. This latter list contains
for the most part the names employed by the later astro-
nomers ; and it is precisely these later ones that are enu-
merated in the so-called Jyotisha or Vedic Calendar (along
with the zodiacal signs too!). To this latter treatise an
importance has hitherto been attributed to which its con-
tents do not entitle it. Should my conjecture be confirmed
that the Lagadha, Lagata, whose system it embodies, is
identical with the Lat who is mentioned by Albiriini as
the author of the ancient Siirya-Siddhanta [see, however,
p. 258 n.], then it would fall in the fourth or fifth century
of our era ; and even this might almost seem too high an
antiquity for this somewhat insignificant tract, which has
only had a certain significance attached to it on account
of its being ranked with the Veda.*

A decided advance in astronomical science was made
through the discovery of the planets. The earliest men-
tion of these occurs, perhaps, in the Taittiriya-Aranyaka,
though this is still uncertain ; 271 beyond this, they are not
noticed in any other work of the Vedic period.272 Manu's

* This is why it adheres to the old on the Jyotisha, p. IO, I. St., ix. 363,
order of the lunar asterisms, as is 442, x. 239, 240. — The two Rik pas-
done even at the present day in writ- sages which are thought by A If.
ings that bear upon the Veda. [Ac- Ludwijr, in his recently published
cording to the special examination of Nachrichten des Rig- und At/iarva-
the various points here involved, in Veda iiber Geographic, &c., des alien
the introduction to my Essay on the Jndiens, to contain an allusion to the
Jyotisha (1862), a somewhat earlier planets (i. 105. IO, x. 55. 3), can
term is possible ; assuming, of course, hardly have t any such reference,
as I there do, that those verses which Neither the Satyayanaka, cited by
betoken Greek influence do not Sayana to i. 105. IO, nor Sayana
really belong to the text as it origi- hiinself,hasanythoughtoftheplanets
nally stood. The author appears li^re (see /. St., ix. 363 n.). For the
occasionally also under the name ' divichard grahdh' of Ath. S., 19. 9.
Lagaddchdrya ; see above, p. 6l, 7, the Ath. Parisishtas offer other
not*'.] parallels, showing that here too the

271 The passages referred to are, in planets are not to be thought of,
fact, to be understood in a totally especially as immediately afterwards,
different sense ; see/. St., ix. 363, x. in v. 10, the ' grahdi ckdndramasdh
271. . . dditydh . . rdhund' are enume-

272 The Maitrayani-Up. forms the rated, where, distinctly, the allusion
single exception, but that only in its is only to eclipses. This particular
last two books, described as khila ; section of the Ath. S. (19. 7) is,
see above, notes 103, 104. On the moreover, quite a late production ;
subject itself, see further my Essay see /. St., iv. 433 n.

2 so SANSKRIT LITER A TURE.

law-book is unacquainted with them ; Yajnavalkya's Code,
however — and this is significant as to the difference in
age of these two works — inculcates their worship ; in the
dramas of Kalidasa. in the Mrichhakati and the Maha-
Bharata, as well as the Ramayana, they are repeatedly
referred to.* Their names are peculiar, and of purely
Indian origin ; three of them are thereby designated as
sons' respectively of the Sun (Saturn), of the Earth (Mars),
and of the Moon (Mercury) ; and the remaining two as
representatives of the two oldest families of Rishis, — Aii-
giras (Jupiter) and Bhrigu (Venus). The last two names
are probably connected with the fact that it was the adhe-
rents of the Atharva-Veda — which was likewise specially
associated with the Rishis Aiigiras and Bhrigu — who at this
time took the lead in the cultivation of astronomy and
astrology.f Besides these names others are also common ;
Mars, for example, is termed ' the Red ;' Venus, ' the White'
or 'Beaming;' Saturn, 'the Slow-travelling;' this last
being the only one of the names that testifies to any real
astronomical observation. To these seven planets (sun
and moon being included) the Indians added two others,
Rahu and Ketu, the ' head ' and ' tail ' respectively of the
monster who is conceived to be the cause of the solar
and lunar eclipses. The name of the former, Rahu, first
occurs in the Chhandogyopanishad,273 though here it can
hardly be taken in the sense of ' planet ; ' the latter, on the
contrary, is first mentioned in Yajnavalkya. But this num-
ber nine is not the original number, — if indeed it be to the
planets that the passage of the Taittiriya-Aranyaka, above
instanced, refers — as only seven (sapta surydh} are there
mentioned. The term for planet, gratia, ' the seizer,' is
evidently of astrological origin ; indeed, astrology was the
focus in which astronomical inquiries generally converged,
and from which they drew light and animation after the
practical exigencies of worship had been once for all satis-
fied. Whether the Hindus discovered the planets inde-

* In Pdn., iv. 2. 26, tulcra might nify 'an astrologer;' see Das"a-
be referred to the planet Sukra, but kuniiira, ed. Wilson, p. 162. II.
it is preferable to take it in the sense 273 Cf. also Ildhula as the name of
of Soma-juice. Buddha's son, who, however, also

f Whence Bhdrgava came to sig- appears as Lsighula ; see /. St.t iii.

130, M9-

ASTRONOMY: GREEK INFLUENCE. 251

pendently, or whether the knowledge came to them from
without, cannot as yet be determined ; but the systematic
peculiarity of the nomenclature points in the meantime to
the former view.274

It was, however, Greek influence that first infused a real
life into Indian astronomy. This occupies a much more
important position in relation to it than has hitherto been
supposed; and the fact that this is so, eo ipso implies
that Greek influence affected other branches of the litera-
ture as well, even though we may be unable at present
directly to trace it elsewhere.275 Here it is necessary to
insert a few particulars as to the relations of the Greeks
with the Indians.

The invasion of the Pan jab by Alexander was followed
by the establishment of the Greek monarchies of Bactria,
whose sway, in the period of their prime, extended, al-
though only for a brief season, over the Panjab as far
as Gujarat.276 Concurrently therewith, the first Seleu-
cidse, as well as the Ptolemies, frequently maintained
direct relations, by means of ambassadors, with the court
of Pataliputra ; * and thus it comes that in the inscriptions

274 Still it Lias to be remarked that to whom the name \vas afterwards
in the Atharva-Parisishtas, which, transferred ; see I. St., xiii. 306,
with the Jyotisha, represent the 307 ; also note 2O2 above.

oldest remains of Indian astrology, * Thus Megasthenes was sent by

the sphere of influence of the planets Seleucus to Chandragupta (d. B.C.

appears in special connection with 291); Deimachus, again, by An-

their Greek names ; see /. St., viii. tiochus, and Dionysius, and most

413, x. 319. probably Basilis also, by Ptolemy II.

275 Cf. my paper, IndiscJie Beitr&ge to ' Afjurpoxdri]*, Amitraghdta, son
zur Geschichte der Ausspraclie des of Chandragupta. [Antiochus con-
GriechiscJienmtheMonatsbcrickleder eluded an alliance with 2uif>aya-
Berl. Acad., 1871, p. 613, translated ffrjvas, Subhagasena (?). Seleucns
in Ind. Antiq., ii. 143 ff., 1873. even gave Chandragupta his daugh-

276 According to Goldstiicker, the ter to wife; Lassen, /. AK., ii.
statement in the Mahdbhashya as to 208 ; Talboys Wheeler, History of
a then recent siege of Sdketa (Oude) India (1874), p. 177. In the retinue
by a Yavana prince has reference to of this Greek princess there of
Menander ; while the accounts in course came to Piitaliputra Greek
the Yuga-Purana of the GaVgi Sam- damsels as her waiting-maids, and
hitd even speak of an expedition of these must have found particular
the Yavanas as far as Piitaliputra. favour in the eyes of the Indians,
But then the question arises, whether especially of their princes. For not
by the Yavanas it is really the only are irapOtvoi evetSeij irpbs iroX-
Greeks who are meant (see /. Sir., \a.Ktav mentioned as an article of
ii. 348), or possibly merely their traffic for India, but in Indian in-
Indo-Scythian or other successors, scriptions also we find Yavana girls

25 2 SANSKRIT LITERA TURE.

of Piyadasi we find mention of the names of Antigonus,
Magas, Antiochus, Ptolemy, perhaps even of Alexander
himself (cf. p. 179), ostensibly as vassals of the king,
which is of course mere empty boasting. As the result
of these embassies, the commercial intercourse between
Alexandria and the west coast of India became particu-
larly brisk ; and the city of Ujjayini, 'Ofyvtj, rose in con-
sequence to a high pitch of prosperity. Philostratus, in
his life of Apollonius of Tyana — a work written in the
second century A.D., and based mainly on the accounts of
Damis, a disciple of Apollonius, who accompanied the
latter in his travels through India about the year 50 A.D. —
mentions the high esteem in which Greek literature was
held by the Brahmans, and that it was studied by almost
all persons of the higher ranks. (Reinaud, Mem. sur I'lnde,
•pp. 85, 87.) This is not very high authority, it is true
[cf. Lassen, /. AK., iii. 358 ff.j ; the statement may be an
exaggeration, but still it accords with the data which we
have now to adduce, and which can only be explained
upon the supposition of a very lively intellectual inter-
change. For the Indian astronomers regularly speak of
the Yavanas as their teachers : but whether this also ap-
plies to Pardsara, who is reputed to be the oldest Indian
astronomer, is still uncertain. To judge from the quota-
tions, he computes by the lunar mansions, and would
seem, accordingly, to stand upon an independent footing.
But of Garga,* who passes for the next oldest astronomer,

specified as tribute ; while in Indian * The name of Pardsara, as wejl

literature, and especially in Kali- as that of Garga, belongs only to

ditsa, we are informed that Indian the last stage of Vedic literature, to

princes were waited upon by Ya- the Aranyakaa and the Sutras : in

vauis ; Lassen, I. AK., ii. 551. 957, the earlier works neither of the two

1159, and my Preface to the Mala- names is mentioned. The family

vika, p. xlvii. The metier of these of the Parasaraa is represented with

damsels being devoted to Eros, it particular frequency in the later

is not a very far-fetched conjecture members of the vansas of the Sata-

that it may have been owing to patha-Bnihinana : a Garga and a

their influence that the Hindu god Parasara are alsn named in the

of Love, like the Greek Eros, bears Anukramani as Rishis of several

ii dolphin (ma&ara) on his banner, hymns of the Rik, and another

and, like him, is the son of the Pardsara appears in Pdnini as author

goddess of Beauty ; see Z. D. M. G., of the Bhikshu-Siitra; see pp. 143,

xiv. 269. (For makara = dolphin, 185. [The Gargas must have played

see Jotim. Bomb. Br. R. A. S., v. a very important part at the time of

33, 34; /. Str., ii. 169); and cf. the Maha"bh,ishya, in the eyes of the

further /. St., is.. 380.] author at all events; for on almost

ASTRONOMY: GREEK INFLUENCE.

253

an oft-quoted verse has come down to us, in which he
extols the Yavanas on account of their astronomical
knowledge. The epic tradition, again, gives as the earliest
astronomer the A sura Maya, and asserts that to him the
sun-god himself imparted the knowledge of the stars. I
have already elsewhere (/. St., ii. 243) expressed the con-
jecture that this 'Asura Maya' is identical with the
' Ptolemaios' of the Greeks ; since this latter name, as we
see from the inscriptions of Piyadasi, became in Indian
' Turamaya,' out of which the name 'Asura Maya' might
very easily grow ; and since, by the later tradition (that
of the Jnana-bhaskara, for instance) this Maya is dis-
tinctly assigned to Eomaka-pura* in the West. Lastly,
of the five Siddhantas named as the earliest astronomi-
cal systems, one — the Romaka-Siddhanta — is denoted, by
its very name, as of Greek origin ; while a second — the
Paulisa-Siddhanta — is expressly stated by Albirunif to
have been composed by Paulus al Yunani, and is accord-
ingly, perhaps, to be regarded as a translation of the
of Paulus Alexandrinus.277 The astronomers

every occasion when it is a question
of a patronymic or other similar
affix, their name is introduced
among those given as examples ;
see /. St., xiii. 410 ff. In the
Atharva-Parisishtas, also, we find
Garga, GaYgya, Yriddha-Garga cited:
these latter Gargas are manifestly
very closely related to the above-
mentioned Garga the astronomer.
See further Kern, Pref. to Varalia-
Mihira's Brih. Sumh., p. 31 ff. ; /.
Str., ii. 347.]

* See my CatdL. of the Sansk.
MSS. in the fieri. Lib., p. 288. In
reference to the name Romaka, I
may make an observation in passing.
Whereas, in Mahd - Bharata xii.
10308, the Raumyas are said to
have been created from the roma-
kupas ('hair-pores') of Virabhadra,
at the destruction of Daksha's sac-
rifice, at the time of Rdmayana i.
55. 3, their name must have been
still unknown, since other tribes
are there represented, on a like
occasion, as springing from the
roma-kiipas. Had the author been

.acquainted with the name, he would
scarcely have failed to make a
similar use of it to that found in the
Mah:i-Bharata. [Cf. my Essay on
the liainayana, p. 23 ff.]

t Albiruni resided a considerable
time in India, in the following of
Mahmud of Ghasna, and acquired
there a very accurate knowledge of
Sanskrit and of Indian literature, of
which he has left us a very valuable
account, written A.D. 1031. Ex-
tracts from this highly important
work were communicated byReinaud
in the Journ. Asiat. for 1844, and
in his Mem. sur I'Inde in 1849 [also
by Woepcke, ibid., 1863] : the text,
promised so -long ago as 1843, and
iiiost eagerly looked for ever since,
has, unfortunately, not as yet ap-
peared. [Ed. Sachau, of Vienna, is
at present engaged in editing it; and,
from his energy, we may now at
length expect that this grievous
want will be speedily supplied.]

877 Such a direct connection of
the Pulisa - Siddhanta with the
Eiffaywyi?) is attended with difficulty,

254 SANSKRIT LITER A TURE.

and astronomical works just instanced — Garga, Maya, the
llomaka-Siddhanta, and the Paulisa-Siddhanta — are, it
is true, known to us only through isolated quotations ;
and it might still be open to doubt, perhaps, whether
in their case the presence of Greek influence can really
be established; although the assertion, for instance, that
Pulisa, in opposition to Aryabhata,278 began the day at
midnight, is of itself pretty conclusive as to his Western
origin. But all doubt disappears when we look at the
great mass of Greek words employed in his writings by
Varaha-Mihira, to whom Indian astronomers assigned, in
Albiruni's day, as they still do in our own,* the date 504
A.D. — employed, too, in a way which clearly indicates that
they had long been in current use. Nay, one of his works
— the Hora-Sastra — even bears a Greek title (from wprj} •
and in it he not only gives the entire list of the Greek
names of the zodiacal signs and planets,t but he also
directly employs several of the Litter — namely, Ara,
Asplmjit, and Kona — side by side with the Indian names,
and just as frequently as he does these. The signs of the

from the fact that the quotations work (Ganita-pdda, v. i). This

from Pulisa do not accord with it, was pointed out by Bhau Ddji in

being rather of an astronomical than J. R. A. S., i. 392 (1864).
an astrological description. That * See Colebrooke, 11.461 (415 ed.

the Wuraywy-fi, however, was itself Cowell).

known to theHindus, in some form or •(• These are the following : Kriyi

other, finds support in the circum- /cpt<5s, Tdvuri ravpos, Jituma oioupos,

stance that it alone contains nearly K ultra KoXovpos (?), Leya \twv, Pd-

the whole of the technical terms thonairapdevo's, Juka fvy6i>, Kaurpya

adopted by Indian astronomy from ffKopirios. Tankshika TO^OTTJS, Akokera

the Greek ; see Kern's Preface to aiyoKepus, Hridroga vSpoxoos, Ittha

his edition of Vanilia - Mihira's ixOvs ', further, JJeli "HXtos, IIim.no,

Erihat-Samh., p. 49. — Considerable 'E/a/tt??*, Ara "Ap^s, Kona Kpbvos,

interest attaches to the argument J i/au Zei/y, Asphujit ' A^pooirrj.

put forward by H. Jacobi in his These names were made known so

tract, De Astrolorjice Indices fiord Ling ago as 1827 by C. M. Whish,

Appellate Oriyinibus (Bonn, 1872), in the first part of the Transactions

to the effect that the system of the of the Literary Society of Madras,

twelve mansions occurs first in Fir- and have since been frequently pub-

micus Mater n us (A.D. 336-354), and Hshed ; see in particular Lassen, iu

that consequently the Indian Uord- Zeitsch. f. d. Kunde dcs Morg.t iv.

texts, in which these are of such 306, 318 (1842) ; lately again in my

fundamental significance, can only Catal. of the Sansk. MSS. in the

have been composed at a still later Berl. Lib., p. 238. — Iford and ken-

date. dra had long previously been iden-

278 This, and not Aryabhntta, is tified by Pere Pons with ftpy and

the proper spelling of his name, as titvrpov ; see Lcttres Edif., 26. 236,

is shown by the metre in his own 237, Paris, 1743.

ASTRONOMY; GREEK TECHNICAL TERMS, ETC. 255

zodiac, on the contrary, he usually designates by their
Sanskrit names, which are translated from the Greek.
He has in constant use, too, the following technical terms,
all of which are found employed in the same sense in
the Eiaaywyr) of Paulus Alexandrinus, viz.,* drikdna =.
Sefcavos, liptd = \e7TTrj, anaphd — dva<f>ij, sunaphd =
<rwcuf>ij, durudhard — Sopvfopia, kemadruma (for krema-
duma) = ^p^/iaricr/io?,279 vesi — 0a<rt9, kendra = /cevrpov,
dpoklima =. a7r6/c?Ujua, panaphard — e7rava<j>opd, trikona
— rpfywvos, -hibuka = inrcrycutv, jdmitra — Bidfj,eTpov,
dyutam = SVTOV, meshurana = fjLeaovpdvrjfjLa.

Although most of these names denote astrological re-
lations, still, on the other hand, in the division of the
heavens into zodiacal signs, decani, and degrees, they com-
prise all that the Hindus lacked, and that was necessary
to enable them to cultivate astronomy in a scientific spirit.
And accordingly we find that they turned these Greek
aids to good account ; rectifying, in the first place, the
order of their lunar asterisms, which was no longer in ac-
cordance with reality, so that the two which came last in
the old order occupy the two first places in the new ; and
even, it would seem, in some points independently ad-
vancing astronomical science further than the Greeks
themselves did. Their fame spread in turn to the West ;
and the Andubarius (or, probably, Ardubarius), whom the
Chronicon Paschale t places in primeval times as the
earliest Indian astronomer, is doubtless none other than
Aryabhata, the rival of PuliSa, who is likewise extolled
by the Arabs under the name Arjabahr. For, during the
eighth and ninth centuries, the Arabs were in astronomy
the disciples of the Hindus, from whom they borrowed
the lunar mansions in their new order, and whose Sid-
dhantas (Sindhends) they frequently worked up and
translated, — in part under the supervision of Indian astro-
nomers themselves, whom the Khalifs of Bagdad, &c.,
invited to their courts. The same thing took place also

* See 7. St., ii. 254. nally dates from the time of Con-
279 Rather = KevoSpofWs, accord- stantius (330) ; it underwent, how-
ing to Jacobi, I. c. To this list be- aver, a fresh recension under Hera-
longs, further, the word hanja — clius (610-641), and the name
bpl'fw ; Kern, /. c., p. 29. Andubarins may have beeii intro-
t The Chronicon Paschale notni- duced then.

256

SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

in regard to Algebra and Arithmetic in particular, in both
of which, it appears, the Hindus attained, quite indepen-
dently,280 to a high degree of proficiency.281 It is to them
also that we owe the ingenious invention of the numerical
symbols,* which in like manner passed from them to the

380 But cf. Colebrooke in his
famous paper On the Alg<-bra of the
Hindus (1817) in Misc. Ass., ii. 446,
401 ed. Cowell. Woepcke, indeed
(Mem. sur la propagation des Chiffres
Indiens, Paris, 1863, pp. 75-91), is
of opinion that the account in the
Lalita - Vistara of the problem
solved by Buddha on the occasion
of his marriage-examination, rela-
tive to the number of atoms in the
length of a yojana, is the basis
of the ' Arenarius ' of Archimedes
(B c. 287-212). But the age of the
Lalita - Vistara is by no means so
well ascertained that the reverse
might not equally well be the case;
see 1. St., viii. 325, 326 ; Reinaud,
Mem. sur I'Indc., p. 303.

281 ^hf, oldest known trace of
these occurs, curiously, in Pingala's
Treatise on Prosody, in the last chap-
ter of which (presumably a later addi-
tion), the permutations of longs and
shorts possible in a metre with a
fixed number of syllables are set
forth in an enigmatical form ; see
/. St., viii. 425 ff., 324-326.— On
geometry the Sulva-Sutras, apper-
taining to the Srauta ritual, furnish
highly remarkable information ; see
Thibaut's Address to the Aryan
Section of the London International
Congress of Orientalists, in the
special number of Trubner's Ameri-
can and Orien'al Literary Record,
1874, pp. 27, 28, according to which
these Sutras even contain attempts
at squaring the circle.

* The Indian figures from 1-9
are abbreviated forms of the initial
letters of the numerals themselves
[cf. the similar notation of the
musical tones] : the zero, too, has
arisen out of the first letter of the
word suiiya, ' empty ' [it occurs even
in Piiigala, I. c. It is the decimal

place- value of th-se figures which
gives them their special significance.
Woepcke, in his above-quoted Mem.
sur la jiropng. des Chiffri-s Indieni
(Journ. Asiat., 1863), is of opinion
that even prior to ttieir adoption by
the Arabs they had been obtained
from India by the Neo-Py thagoreans
of Alexandria, and that the so-
called Gobar figures are traceable to
them. But against this it has to be
remarked that the figures in ques-
tion are only one of the latest stages
of Indian numerical notation, and
that a great many other notations
preceded them. According to Ed-
ward Thomas, in the Journ. Asiat.
for the same year (1863), the earliest
instances of the use of these figvuvs
belong to the middle of the seventh
century ; whereas the employment
of the older numerical symbols is
demonstrable from the -fourth cen-
tury downwards. See also /. St., viii.
165, 256. The character of the
Valabhi Plates seems to be that
\vh >se letters most closely approach
the forms of the figures. Burnell
has quite recently, in his Elem. S.
Ind. Pal., p. 46 ff., questioned alto-
gether the connection of the figures
with the first letters of the nume-
rals ; and he supposes them, or
rather the older ' Cave Numerals,'
from which he directly derives
them, to have been introduced from
Alexandria, " together with Greek
Astrology." In this I cannot in the
meantime agree with him ; see my
remarks in the Jenaer Lit. Z., 1875,
No. 24, p. 419. Amongst other
things, I there call special attention
to the circumstance that Hermann
Hankel, in his excellent work (pos-
thumous, unfortunately), Zur Ge-
schichte dcr Mathematik (1874), p.
329 ff. , declares Woepcke's opinion

ASTRONOMY: ARYABHATA.

257

Arabs, and from these again to European scholars.282 By
these latter, who were the disciples of the Arabs, frequent
allusion is made to the Indians, and uniformly in terms of
high esteem ; and one Sanskrit word even — uchcha, signi-
fying the apex of a planet's orbit — has passed, though in
a form somewhat difficult to recognise (aux, genit. augis),
into the Latin translations of Arabian astronomers 283 (see
Eeinaud, p. 325).

As regards the age and order of sequence of the vari-
ous Indian astronomers, of whom works or fragments of
works still survive, we do not even here escape from the
uncertainty which everywhere throughout Indian literature
attends questions of the kind. At their head stands the
Aryabhata already mentioned, of whose writings we possess
at present only a few sorry scraps, though possibly fuller
fragments may yet in course of time be recovered.284 He
appears to have been a contemporary of Puli^a; and, in
any case, he was indebted to Greek influence, since he
reckons by the zodiacal signs. According to Albiruni, he

tc the effect that the Neo-Pytha-
goreans were acquainted with the
new figures having place-value, and
with the zero, to be erroneous, and
the. entire passage in Boethius on
which this opinion is grounded to
be an interpolation of the tenth or
eleventh century].

282 See also Woepcke, Sur V Intro-
duction de V Arithmitique Indienne
en Occident (Rome, 1859).

283 As also, according to Reinaud's
ingenious conjecture (p. 373 ff. ), the
name of Ujjayiui itself — through a
misreading, namely, of the Arabic

j '.\ as Arin, Arim, whereby the

' meridian of Ujjayini ' became the
'coupole d'Arin.'

284 The researches of Whitney in
Jour. Am. Or. Soc., vi. 560 ff. (1860),
and of Bhdu Ddji in /. £. A. S., i.
392 ff. (1865), have brought us full
light upon this point. From these
it appears that of Aryabhata there
are still extant the Da&agiti-Sutra
and the Arydshtafata, both of which
have been already edited by Kern
(1874) under the title Aryabkatiya,

together with the commentary of
Paramddisvara ; cf. A. Earth in the
Revue Critique, 1875, pp. 241-253.
According to his own account therein
given, Aryabhata was born A.D. 476,
lived in Eastern India at Kusuma-
pura (Palibothra), and composed this
work at the early age of twenty-three.
In ithe teaches, amongst other things,
a quite peculiar numerical notation
by means of letters. — The larger work
extant under the title Arya • $id-
dhdnta in eighteen adhydyas is evi-
dently a subsequent production ; see
Hall in Journ. Am. Or. Soc., vi.
556 (1860), and Aufrecht, Calalogus,
pp. 325, 326 : Beutley thinks it was
not composed until A.D. 1322, and
Bhdu Ddji, I. c., pp. 393, 394, be-
lieves Bentley "was here for once
correct." — Wilson, Mack. Cott., i.
119, and Lassen, /. AK., ii. 1136,
speak also of a commentary by Arya-
bhata on the Surya-Siddhdnta : this
is doubtless to be ascribed to Laghu-
Aryabhata (Bhdu Ddji, p. 405). Sea
also Kern, Pref. to Brih. Sarah., p.
59 ff-

2 ;8 SANSKRIT LITER A TURE,

was a native of Kusumapura, i.e., Pataliputra, and belonged
consequently to the east of India. Together with him,
the authors of the following five Siddhantas are looked
upon as ancient astronomers — namely, the unknown*
author of the Brahma- Siddhdnta or Paitdmaha-Siddhdnta ;
next, the author of the Saura- Siddhdnta, who is called
Lat by Albiruni, and may possibly be identical with the
Lagata, Lagadha mentioned as author of the Yedaiiga
treatise* Jyotisha, as well as with Ladha, a writer occasion-
ally quoted by Brahmagupta ;t further, Pulis'a, author of
the Paulisa- Siddhdnta ; and lastly, Srishena and Vishnu-
chandra, to whom the Romaka-Siddhdnta and the Vasishtha-
Siddhdnta — works said to be based upon Aryabhata's
system 285 — are respectively attributed. Of these five Sid-
dhantas, not one seems to have survived. There exist
works, it is true, bearing the names Brahma-Siddhanta,
Vasishtha-Siddhanta, Siirya-Siddhanta and Romaka-Sid-
dhanta ; but that these are not the ancient works so en-
titled appears from the fact that the quotations from the
latter, preserved to us by the scholiasts, are not contained
in them.286 In point of fact, three distinct Vasishtha-Sid-
dhantas, and, similarly, three distinct Brahma-Siddhantas,

* Albiruni names Brahmagupta th e present only the Surya-Siddhiinta

as the author of this Brahma-Sid- has been published, with Railgand-

rlhdnta; but this is erroneous. Per- tha's commentary, in the Bibl. Ind.

haps Reinaud has misunderstood the (18:54-59), ed. by Fitzedward Hall

passage (p. 332). and Bapu Deva Sdstrin ; also a trans-

+ Lddha may very well have arisen lation by the latter, ibid. (1860,

out of Lagadha; [the form Ldta, 1861). Simultaneously there ap-

however, see Kern, Pref. to Brih. peared in the Journ. Am. Or. Soc.,

S;imh., p. 53, points rather to AapiK-rj]. vol. vi., a translation, nominally by

-^3 As also upon Ldta, Vasishtha, Eb. Burgess, with an excellent and

and Vijayanandin, according to very thorough commentary by W.

Bhdu Daji, I. c., p. 408. In the D. Whitney, who has recently (see

latter's opinion the Romaka-Sid- Oriental and Linguistic Studies, ii.

dhanta is to be assigned to £ake 427 360) assumed " the entire responsi-

(A. D. 505), and was "composed iu bility for that publication in all its

accordance with the work <>f some parts.1' In his view, p. 326, the

Ri )tiian or Greek author." Bhattot- Sdrya-Siddhdnta is "one of the

pala likewise mentions, amongst most ancient and original of the

others, a Yavanesvara Sphujidhvaja works which present the modern

(or Asph°), a name in which Bhau astronomical science of the Hindus ;"

Daji looks for a Speusippus, but but how far the existing text "is

Kern (Pref. to Brih. Samh., p. 48) identical in substance and extent

for an Aphrodisius. with that of the original Stirya-Sid-

28(5 See on this point Kern, Pref. dhtlnta" is for the present doubtful,

to Brih. Samh., pp. 43-50. Up to Cf. Kern, I. c., pp. 44-46.

ASTRONOMY: VARAHA-MIHIRA. 259

are cited. One of these last, which expressly purports to
be a recast* of an earlier work, has for its author Brahma-
gupta, whose date, according to Albiruni, is the year A.D.
664, which corresponds pretty closely with the date assigned
to him by the modern astronomers of Ujjayini, A.D. 62S.287
To him also belongs, according to Albinini,t a work named
Aliargana, corrupted by the Arabs into ArJcand. This
Arkand, the Sindhends (i.e., the five Siddhantas), and the
system of Arjabahr (Aryathata) were the works which,
as already remarked, were principally studied and in part
translated by the Arabs in the eighth and ninth centuries.
— On the other hand, the Arabs do not mention Varaha-
Mihira, although lie was prior to Brahmagupta, as the
latter repeatedly alludes to him, and although he gathered
up the teaching of these five Siddhantas in a work which
is hence styled by the commentators Panchasiddhdntikd,
but which he himself calls by the name Karana. This work
seems to have perished,288 and only the astrological works
of Varaha-Mihira have come down to us — namely, the
Samhitd J and the ITord-Sdstra. The latter, however, is

* Albiruni gives a notice of the Bxihler's letter of 1st April 1875.

contents of this recast : it and the See now Biihler's special report on

Paulisa-Siddhanta were the only two the PanchasiddLiiiitikii in Ind.Antiq.,

of these Siddha'ntas he was able to iv. 316.

procure. J In a double edition, as Brihat-

287 This latter date is based on Samhitd and as Samdsa-Samhitd. Of
his own words in the BrdhmaSphuta- the former Albiruni gives us some
Siddhdnta, 24. 7, 8, which, as there extracts ; see also my Catal. of the
stated, he composed 550 years after Sanslc. MSS. in the Bcrl. Lib., pp.
the Saka-nripdla (°fidnta?\ at the 238-254. [For an excellent edition
age of thirty. He here calls him- of the Bribat-Sarnhitd (Bibl. Jnd.,
self the^son of Jishnu, and he lived 1864-65), we are indebted to Kern,
mider Sri- Vydghramukha of the who is also publishing a translation
Sri-Chiipa dynasty ; Blulu Ddji, I. c., of it (chaps, i.-lxxxiv. thus far) in the
p. 410. Prithudakasvaiuin, his Journ. Ji. A. S., iv.-vi. (1870-74).
scholiast, describes him, curiously, There also exists an excellent com-
as Bhilla-M;ilavak£icbaYya ; see Z. mentary on it by Bhattotpala, drawn
D. M. G., xxv. 659 ; I. St., xiii. 316. up Sake 888 (A.D. 966), and distin-
Chaps. xii. (ganita, arithmetic) and guished by its exceedingly copious
xxviii. (kuttaka, algebra) of his quotations of parallel passages from
work have, it is well known, been Var^ha-Mihira's predecessors. In
translated by Colebrooke (1817). the Brihaj-Jdtaka, 26. 5>. the latter

f Reinaud, Mem . sur I'Jnde, p. calls himself the son of Adityaddsa,

322. and an Avantika or native of Avauti,

288 "Yesterday I heard of a ee- i.e., Ujjayini.]
condMS. of the Panchasiddhiintikii."

2f5o

SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

incomplete, only one-third of it being extant.* He men-
tions a great number of predecessors, whose names are in
part only known to us through him ; for instance, Maya
and the Yavanas (frequently), Para^ara, Manittha,289 Sak-
tipurva, Vishnugupta,'}' Devasvamin, Siddhasena, Vajra,
Jiva^arman, Satya,290 &c. Of Aryabhata no direct mention
is made, possibly for the reason that he did nothing for
astrology : in the Karana he would naturally be men-
tioned.291 While Aryabhata still computes by the era of
Yudhishthira, Varaha-Mihira employs the £aka-kdla,
Saka-bhtipa-kdla, or Sakendra-kdla, the era of the Saka
king, which is referred by his scholiast to Vikrama's era.292
Brahmagupta, on the contrary, reckons by the £aka-nri-
pdnta — which, according to him, took place in the year
3 1 79 of the Kali age — that is to say, by the era of £aliva-
hana. — The tradition as to the date of Varaha-Mihira has
already been given : as the statements of the astronomers
of to-day correspond with those current in Albininf s time,
we may reasonably take them as trustworthy, and accord-

* Namely, the Jdtaka portion
(that relating to nativities) alone ;
and this in a double arrangement,
as Laghu-Jdtaka and as Brihaj-
Jdtaka : the former was translated
by Albirtini into Arabic. [The text
of the first two chaps, was published
by me, with translation, in 1. St., ii.
277 : the remainder was edited by
Jiicobi in his degree dissertation
(1872). It was also published at
Bombay in 1867 with Bhattotpala's
commentary ; similarly, the Brihaj-
Jataka at Benares and Bombay ;
Kern's Pref., p. 26. The text of
the first three chaps, of the Ydtrd
appeared, with translation, in I. St.,
x. 161 ff. The third part of the
Hora-Sdstra, the Vivdha-patala, is
still inedited.]

289 This name I conjecture to re-
present Manetho, author of the
Apotelesmata, and in this Kern
agrees with me (Pref. to Brih. Samh.,

P- 52)-

t This is also a name of Chdna-
kya ; Dasakum. 183.5, ed. Wilson.
[For a complete list and examination

of the names of teachers quoted in
the Brihat-Samhita', among whom
are Bddarayana and Kanabhuj, see
Kern's Preface, p. 29 ff.]

290 Kern, Preface, p. 51, remarks
that, according to Utpala, he was
also called Bhadatta ; but Aufrecht
in his Catalogus, p. 329', has Bha-
danta. In the Jyotirvid-dbharana,
Satya stands at the head of the
sages at Vikrama's court ; see Z. D.
M. 0., xxii. 722, xxiv. 400.

291 And as a matter of fact we find
in Bhattotpala a quotation from thia
work in which he is mentioned ; see
Kern, /. R. A. S., xx. 383 (1863);
Bliilu Ditji, I. c., 406. In another
such quotation Vaniha-Mihira refers
to the year 427 of the Saka-kftla,
and also to the Romaka-Siddhdnta
and Paulisa ; Bhdu Ddji, p. 407.

292 This statement of Colebrooke's,
ii. 475 (428 ed. Cowell), cf. also
Lassen, /. A K., ii. 50, is unfounded.
According to Kern, Preface, p. 6
ff., both in Vardha-Mihira and Ut-
pala, only the so-called era of 5-ialiva"'
hana is meant.

ASTRONOMY: BHASKARA. 261

ing to these he flourished in A.D. 5<D4.293 Now this is at
variance, on the one hand, with the tradition which re-
gards him as one of the ' nine gems ' of Vikrama's court,
and which identifies the latter with king Bhoja,294 who
reigned about A.D. 1050 j295 and, on the other hand, also
with the assertion of the astronomer Satananda, who, in
the introduction to his Bhasvati-karana, seemingly ac-
knowledges himself to be the disciple of Mihira, and at
the same time states that he composed this work Sake
1 02 1 ( = A.I). 1099). This passage, however, is obscure,
and may perhaps refer merely to the instruction drawn
by the author from Mihira's writings;* otherwise we
should have to admit the existence of a second Varaha-
Mihira, who flourished in the middle of the eleventh cen-
tury, that is, contemporaneously with Albiruni. Strange
in that case that the latter should not have mentioned him !
After Varaha-Mihira and Brahmagupta various other
astronomers distinguished themselves. Of these, the most
eminent is Bhaskara, to the question of whose age, how-
ever, a peculiar difficulty attaches. According to his own
account, he was born Sake 1036 (A.D. 1 1 14), and completed
the Siddhanta-s'iromani £ake 1072 (A.D. 1150), and the
Karana-kutuhala Sake 1 105 (A.D. 1 183) ; and with this the
modern astronomers agree, who assign to him the date
£ake 1072 (A.D. iiso).296 But Albiruni, who wrote in A.D.

283 Kern, Preface, p. 3, thinks Lib., p. 234) — seems to speak of

this is perhaps his birth year : the himself as living fiakeqij (A.D. 995).

year of his death being given by How is this contradiction to be ex-

Am araja, a scholiast on Brahmagupta, plained? See Colebrooke, ii. 390

as Sake 509 (A.D. 587). [341 ed. Cowell. The passage in

294 This identification fails of question probably does not refer to
course. If Vardha - Mihira really the author's lifetime ; unfortunately
was one of the ' nine gems ' of Vi- it is so uncertain that I do not under-
krama's court, then this particular stand its real meaning. As, how-
Vikrama must simply have reigned ever, there is mention immediately
in the sixth century. But the pre- before of Kali 42OO=:A.D. 1099, ex-
liminary question is whether he was actly as in Colebrooke, this date is
one of these 'gems.' See the state- pretty well established. — The allu-
rnents of the Jyotirvid-dbharana, sion to Mihira might possibly, as
I. c. indicated by the scholiast Balabhadra,

295 See, e.g., Aufrecht, Catalogut, not refer to Vara~ha-Mihira at all,
p. 327b, 328*. but merely to mihira, the sun !]

* Moreover, Satdnanda, at the 298 This also agrees with an in-

close of his work — in a fragment of scription dated Sake 1128, and re-

it in the Chambers collection (see lating to a grandson of Bhilskara,

my Caial. of tke Sansk. MSS. Berl. whose SiddMnta-^iromani is here

262

SANSKRIT LITERA TURE.

1031 (that is, 83 years before Bhaskara's birth !), not merely
mentions him, but places his work — here called Karana-
sara — 132 years earlier, namely, in A.D. 899; so that there
is a discrepancy of 284 years between the two accounts.
I confess my inability to solve the riddle ; so close is the
coincidence as to the personage, that the JLlj of Albi-
riini is expressly described, like the real Bhaskara, as the
son of Mahadeva.* But notwithstanding this, we have
scarcely any alternative save to separate Albi'runi's Bash-
kar, son of Mahdeb, and author of the Karana-sdra, from
Uhdskara, son of Mahddeva, and author of the Karana-
kutuhala!ZQ7 — more especially as, in addition to the dis-
crepancy of date, there is this peculiar circumstance, that
whereas Albiriinf usually represents the Indian bh by ~b-h

also mentioned in terms of high
honour ; see Bhdu Ddji, I. c., pp. 41 1,
416. Again, in a passage from the
Siddhdnta-siromani, which is cited
by Mddhava in the Kdla-nirnaya,
nnd which treats of the years having
tliree intercalary months, the year
of this description which fell Saka-
kdle 974 (A.D. 1052) is placed in the
past; the year 1 1 15, on the con-
trary (and also 1256, 1378), in the
future. — Bhaskara's Lildvati (arith-
metic) and Vija-ganita (algebra)
have, it is well known, been trans-
lated by Colebrooke (1817) ; the
former also by Taylor (1816), the
latter by Stracbey (1818). The
Ganitddyaya has been translated by
Roer in the Journ. As. S. Bengal, ix.
153 ft'. (Lassen, I. AK., iv. 849) ; of
the Golddhydya there is a translation
by Lancelot Wilkinson in the Bibl.
Jnd. (1861-62). To Wilkinson we
also owe an edition of the text of
the Golddhvdya and Ganitddhydya
(1842). The Lllitvati and Vija-
g.inifci appeared in 1832, 1834, like-
wise at Calcutta. Bdpii Deva Sds-
trin has also issued a complete edi-
tion (?) of the Siddhdnta-s'iromani
(Benares, 1866). Cf. also Herni.
Brockhaus, Ucber die Alycbra dcs
Bhaskara, Leipzig, 1852, vol. iv. of
the Bcrlchte dcr Kon. Sachs. Gcs. dcr
Wisscnsch., pp. 1-45.

* Reinaud, it is true, reads Mahd-
datta with i" j instead of L * ; but

in Sanskrit this is an impossible
form of name, as it gives no sense.
[At the close of the Golddliyjlya, xiii.
6 1, as well as of the Karana-kutu.-
hala, Bhitskara calls his father, not
Mahddeva, but MahesVara (which of
course is in substance identical) ;
and he is likewise so styled by Bhas-
kara's scholiast Lakshmidhara ; see
my Catal. of the Berl. Sansk. MSS.,
pp. 235, 237.]

21)7 This is really the only possible
way out of the dilemma. Either,
therefore, we have to think of that
elder Bhdskara "who was at( the
head of the commentators of Arya-
bhata, and is repeatedly cited by
Prithudakasvdmin, who was himself
anterior to the author of the ^iro-
inani," Colebrooke, ii. 470 (423 ed.
Cowell) ; or else under Reinaud's

jLL> (PP- 33S» 337) there lurks not
a Bhstskara at all, but perhaps a
Pushkara. It is certainly strange,
however, that he should be styled

<_^_«j^ <(j and author of a Ka-
rana-sdra. Can it be that we have
here to do with an interpolation in
Albiruni ?

ASTRONOMY; LATER PERIOD. 263

(e.g., b-kuj = bhtirja, ~balb-liadr — balabhadra), and for the
most part faithfully preserves the length of the vowels,
neither of these is here done in the case of Bashkar, where,
moreover, the s is changed into sli.

Bhaskara is the last star of Indian astronomy and
arithmetic. After his day no further progress was made,
and the astronomical science of the Hindus became once
more wholly centred in astrology, out of which it had
originally sprung. In this last period, under the influence
of their Moslem rulers, the Hindus, in their turn, became
the disciples of the Arabs, whose masters they had formerly
been.* The same Alkindi who, in the ninth century, had
written largely upon Indian astronomy and arithmetic
(see Colebrooke, ii. 513; Reinaud, p. 23) now in turn
became an authority in the eyes of the Hindus, who
studied and translated his writings and those of his suc-
cessors. This results indisputably from the numerous
Arabic technical expressions which now appear side by
side with the Greek terms dating from the earlier period.
These latter, it is true, still retain their old position,
and it is only for new ideas that new words are intro-
duced, particularly in connection with the doctrine of the
constellations, which had been developed by the Arabs to
a high degree of perfection. Much about the same time,
though in some cases perhaps rather earlier, these Arabic
works were also translated into another language, namely,
into Latin, for the benefit of the European astrologers of
the Middle Ages ; and thus it comes that in their writings
a number of the very same Arabic technical terms may be
pointed out which occur in Indian works. Such termini
technici of Indian astrology at this period are the follow-

ing :t mukdriiid Uu d conjunction, mukdvild

opposition, taravi £^/ ^ quartile aspect, tasdi

* Thence is even taken the name translations, as no Arabic texts on

for astrology itself in this period, — astrology have been printed, and the

namely, tdjika, tdjika-idstra, which lexicons ar« very meagre in this

is to be traced to the Persian L f ;\J respect. [Cf. now Otto Loth's men-

. , *-*J torious paper, Al-Kmdi a/s Astrolog

— Arabic. jn ^he Atoryenlandische Forschungen,

f See /. St., 11. 263 ff. Most of ,3^ 263-309, published iu

these Arabic terms I know in the honour of Fleischer's jubilee.]
meantime only from mediaeval Latin

264 SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

* sextile aspect, taMi t^uJJu £\ trine aspect; further,
hadda j^ f radio, mufallaha «kdU^, ikkavdla J^Sl jpcr-

io, induvdra, ,Ujl deterioratio, ittkisdla and mutha&la

^ *
and J.*2JU conjunctio, {sarapha and miOsartpha

c 1 0,

( — ijjtf] and ^J^^ disjunctio, nakta (for nakla) j^ trans-
latio, yamayd j^->. congregatio, manati, «Ju) prohibitio,
kamw&la J-o receptio, gairilcamvula J^Jj i£ inreceptio,

sahama ^.., sors, inthihd and munthahd £\£j\ and

i * ^ *••*

terminus, and several others that cannot yet be cer-

tainly identified.

The doctrine of Omens and Portents was, with the
Indians, intimately linked with astrology from the earliest
times. Its origin may likewise be traced back to the
ancient Vedic, nay, probably to some extent even to the
primitive Indo- Germanic period. It is found embodied,
in particular, in the literature of the Atharva-Veda, as
also in the Grihya-Sutras of the other Vedas.298 A pro-
minent place is also accorded to it in the Samhitas of
Varaha-Mihira, Narada, &c. ; and it has, besides, produced
an independent literature of its own. The same fate has
been shared in all respects by another branch of supersti-
tion — the arts, namely, of magic and conjuration. As the
religious development of the Hindus progressed, these found
a more and more fruitful soil, so that they now, in fact, reign
almost supreme. On these subjects, too, general treatises
exist, as well as tracts on single topics belonging to them.
Many of their notions have long been naturalised in the
West, through the medium of the Indian fables and fairy
tales which were so popular in the Middle Ages — those, for
instance, of the purse (of Fortunatus), the league-boots, the
magic mirror, the magic ointment, the invisible cap, &C.299

98 Cf. my paper, Zwei Vedische cap, for instance, are probably to bo

Tcxte iiber Omina vnd Portenta traced to old mythological supersti-

(1859), containing the Adbhuta- tious notions of the primitive Indo-

Brdhmana and adhy, xiii. of the Germanic time. In the Sanaa-

Kaiiisika-Siitra. Vidhdna-Brdhmana(cf. Burnell.Pref.,

i!*8 Some of these, the invisible p. xxv.), we have the purse of Fortu-

MEDICAL SCIENCE: CHARAKA, SUSRUTA, ETC. 265

We have now to notice Medicine, as the fourth branch of
the scientific literature.

The beginnings of the healing art in Vedic times have
been already glanced at (pp. 29, 30). Here, again, it is
the Atharva-Veda that occupies a special position in rela-
tion to it, and in whose literature its oldest fragments are
found — fragments, however, of a rather sorry description,
and limited mostly to spells and incantations.300 The
Indians themselves consider medicine as an Upaveda,
whence they expressly entitle it Ayur- Veda, — by which
term they do not understand any special work, as has been
supposed. They derive it, as they do the Veda itself,
immediately from the gods: as the oldest of human
writers upon it they mention, first, Atreya, then Agnives"a,
then Charaka,301 then Dhanvantari, and, lastly, his disciple

natus, p. 94; see Lit. C. Bl., 1874,
pp. 423, 424. — Magic, further, stands
in a special relation to the sectarian
Tantra texts, as well as to the Yoga
doctrine. A work of some extent
on this subject bears the name of
Ndgcirjuna, a name of high renown
among the Buddhists ; see my Catal.
of the Berl. Sansk. MSS., p. 270.

300 See Virgil Grohmann's paper,
Medicinisches aus demAtharva- Veda
mit besonderem Bfzug auf den Tak-
man in /. St., ix. 381 ff. (1865).
— Sarpa-vidyd t (serpent-science) is
mentioned in Satap. Br. xiii., as a
separate Veda, with sections enti-
tled parvan ; may it not have treated
of medical matters also ? At all
events, in the AsVal. Sr., Visha-
vidyd (science of poisons) is directly
coupled with it. As to the con-
tents of the Vayo - vidyd (bird-
science), mentioned in the same
passage of the Sat. Br., it is difficult
to form a conjecture. These Vidyd-
texts are referred to elsewhere also
in the Sat. Br. (in xi. xiv.), and
appear there, like the Va'idyaka in
the Mahd,bhj(shya, as ranking beside
the Veda. A Vdrttika to Piin. iv.
2. 60, teaches a special affix to de-
note the study of texts, the names
of which end in -vidyd or -lakshana ;
and we might almost suppose that

Panini himself was acquainted with
texts of this description. From
what Patamjali states, besides birds
and serpents, cattle and horses also
formed the subject of such works.
All the special data of this sort in
the Mahdbhashya point to practical
observations from the life ; and out
of these, in course of time, a litera-
ture of natural history could have
been developed; see 7. St., xiii.
459-461. The lakshana sections in
the Atharva-Parisishtas are either
of a ceremonial or astrological-me-
teorological purport ; while, on the
other hand, the astrological Samhit£t
of Vardha-Mihira, for instance, con-
tains much that may have been
directly derived from the old vidydi
and lalcshanas.

301 In the Charaka-Samhitd itself
Bharadvaja (Punarvasu) Kapishthala
heads the list as the disciple of Indra.
Of his six disciples — Agnivesa, Bhe-
la, Jatukarna, Parasara, Hsirita,
Kshdrapani — Agnivesa first com-
posed his tantra, then the others
theirs severally,, which they there-
upon recited to Atreya. To him the
narration of the text is expressly
referred ; for after the opening words
of each adhydya (' athdto . . . vyd-
khydsydmah') there uniformly fol-
lows the phrase, " iti ha smdha bha~

266 SANSKRIT LITERA TURE.

Sus'ruta. THe first three names belong specially to the
two divisions of the Yajus, but only to the period of the
Sutras and the school-development of this Veda.302 The
medical works bearing these titles can in no case there-
fore be of older date than this. How much later they
ought to be placed is a point for the determination of
which we have at present only the limit of the eighth
century A.D., at the close of which, according to Ibn Beithar
and Albininf (Reinaud, p. 316), the work of Charaka, and,
according to Ibn Abi Us'aibiah, the work of Sus'ruta also,
were translated into Arabic. That Indian medicine had
in Panini's time already attained a certain degree of culti-
vation appears from the names of various diseases specified
by him (iii. 3. 108, v. 2. 129, &c.), though nothing definite
results from this. In the gana ' Kartakaujapa ' (to Panini,
vi. 2. 37) we find the ' SausSrutaparthavas ' instanced
among the last members ; but it is uncertain what we
have to understand by this expression. The ganas, more-
over, prove nothing in regard to Panini's time ; and besides,
it is quite possible that this particular Sutra may not be
Panini's at all, but posterior to Patamjali, in whose Maha-
bhashya, according to the statement of the Calcutta scho-
liast, it is not interpreted.303 Dhanvantari is named in
Manu's law-book and in the epic, but as the mythical
physician of the gods, not as a human personage.304 In
the Panchatantra two physicians, sYilihotra and Vatsya-

gavdn Atreyah. " Quite as uniformly, vii.), Krisa, Samkrityayana,

however, it is stated in a closing yana, Krishn&treya.

verse at the end of each adkydya 3U3 ' Sausruta ' occurs in the Bha"-

that the work is a tantra composed shya ; is, however, expressly derived

by Agniv-esa and rearranged (prati- from snsrut, not from Susruta.

samskrUa) by Charaka. Consequently neither this name nor

^°2 The same thing applies sub- the Kutapa-Sausruta mentioned in

stantially to the names mentioned another passage has anything to do

in Charaka (see last note) — Bliarad- with the Susruta of medical writers ;

vaja, Agnivesa (Hut.ls'aves'a !), Ja- see I. St., xiii. 462, 407. For the

tukarna, Par&sara, Hiirita. And time of the author of the Vdrttikas

amongst the names of the sages who we have the fact of the three hum-

there appear as the associates of ours, vdta, pitta, tteshman, being

Bliaradvaja, we find, besides those already ranked together, 1. c., p. 462.

nf the old Rishis, special mention, S04 As such he appears in the verse

amongst others, of Asvalayana, B;t- so often mentioned already, which

dardj ann, Kdtydyana, Baijavdpi, &c. specifies him as one of the 'nine

As medical authorities are further gems' at Vikrama's court, together

cited, amongst others (see the St. with Kstlidsisa and Vardha-Mihira ;

Petersburg Diet. Supplement, vol. see Jyotirvid-dbharana, I. c.

MEDICAL SCIENCE .- AGE OF EXTANT WORKS. 267

yana,* whose names are still cited even in our own day, are
repeatedly mentioned : 305 but although this work was
translated into Pahlavi in the sixth century, it does not
at all follow that everything now contained in it formed
part of it then, unless we actually find it in this transla-
tion (that is, in the versions derived from it).t I am not
aware of any other references to medical teachers or works;
I may only add, that the chapter of the Amarakosha (ii. 6)
on the human body and its diseases certainly presupposes
an advanced cultivation of medical science.

An approximate determination of the dates of the. ex-
isting works305* will only be possible when these have
been subjected to a critical examination both in respect of
their contents and language.! But we may even now dis-

* This form of name points us
to the time of the production of the
Sutras, , to Vdtsya. [It is found in
Taitb. Ar., i. 7. 2, as patronymic of
it Paiichaparna.]

305 Salihotra's specialty is here
veterinary medicine (his name itself
signifies 'horse'); that of Va'tsya'-
yana the ars amandi. Of the for-
mer's work there are in London two
different recensions ; see Dietz,
Analectn Medica, p. 153 (No. 63) and
p. 156 (No. 70). According to Sir
H. JI. Elliot's BiU. Index to the Hist,
of Muh. Jnd., p. 263, a work of the
kind by this author was translated
into Arabic in A.D. 1361. The
Kama-Sutra, also, of Vdtsya'yana,
which by Madhusudana Sarasvati in
the Prastha"na - bheda is expressly
classed with Ayur-Veda, is still ex-
tant. This work, which, judging
from the account of its contents given
by Aufrecht in his Catalogus, p. 215
ff., is of an extremely interesting
character, appeals, in majorem glori-
am,to most imposing ancientauthori-
ties — namely, Auddjllaki, Svetaketu,
Bitbhravya Pilhcliiila, Gonardiya (i.e.,
Patarnjali, author of the Maluibha"-
shya ?'), Gonikdputra, &c. It is also
cited by Subandhu, and Samkara
himself is said to have written a
commentary on it ; see Aufrecht,
Catalogus, p. 256*.

+ This was rightly insisted upon
by Bentloy in opposition to Cole-
brooke, who had adduced, as an
argument to prove the age of Va-
rdha-Mihira, the circumstance that
he is mentioned in the Panchatantra
(this is the same passage which is
also referred to in the Vikramar
Charitra ; see Roth, Journ. Asiat.,
Oct. 1845, p. 304.) [Kern, it is true,
in his Pref. to the Brih. Samhitd,
pp. 19,20, pronounces very decidedly
against this objection of Bentley's,
but wrongly,, as it seems to me; for,
according to Benfey's researches,
the present text of the Panchatantra
is a very late production ; cf. pp.
221, 240, above.]

30Ba According to Tumour, Malid*
vansa, p. 254, note, the medical
work there named in the text, by the
Singhalese king Buddhada"sa (A.D.
339), entitled Sjirattha-Samgaha, is
still in existence (in Sanskrit too) in
Ceylon, and is used by the native
medical practitioners ; see on this
Davids in the Transactions of the
Phitol. Society, 1875, pp. 76, 78.

{ The Tibetan Tandjur, according
to the accounts given of it, contains
a considerable number of medical
writings, a circumstance not with-
out importance for their chronology,
Thus, Csoma Korosi in the Journ.
As. Soc. Beng., January 1825, gives

.268

SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

miss, as belonging to the realm of dreams, the naive views
that have quite recently been advanced as to the age, for
example, of the work bearing Su^ruta's name.* In language
and style, it and the works resembling it with which I
am acquainted manifestly exhibit a certain affinity to the
writings of Varaha-Mihira.306 "If then" — here I make
use of Stenzler'sf words — "internal grounds should render
it probable that the system of medicine expounded in
Suiruta has borrowed largely from the Greeks, there would
be nothing at all surprising in such a circumstance so far
as chronology is affected by it."307 But in the mean-
time, no such internal grounds whatever appear to exist :
on the contrary, there is much that seems to tell against
the idea of any such Greek influence. In the first place,
the Yavanas are never referred to as authorities; and
amongst the individuals enumerated in the introduction
as contemporaries of Su6ruta,j there is not one whose name
has a foreign sound.§ Again, the cultivation of medicine

the contents of a Tibetan work on
medicine, which is put into the
mouth of Sdkyamuni, and, to all
appearance, is a translation of Su-
sVuta or some similar work.

* To wit, by Vullers and Hessler ;
by the former in an essay on Indian
medicine in the periodical Janus,
edited by Henschel ; by the latter in
the preface to his so-called transla-
tion of Susruta [1844-50].

308 The Charaka - Samhitd has
rather higher pretensions to anti-
quity ; its prose here and there re-
minds us of the style of the Srauta-
Sutras.

f From his examination of Vul-
lers's view in the following number
of Janus, ii. 453. I may remark here
that Wilson's words, also quoted by
Wise in the Preface to his System of
Hindu Medicine (Calc. 1845), p.
xvii., have been utterly misunder-
stood by Vullers. Wilson fixes " as
the most modern limit of our con-
jecture " the ninth or tenth century,
i.e., A.D., but Vullers takes it to lie
B.C. ! ! [Cf. now Wilson's Works,
iii. 273, ed. Rost.]

3u7 This is evidently Roth's opinion

also (see Z. D. M. G., xxvi. 441,
1872). Here, after expressing a
wish that Indian medicine might be
thoroughly dealt with by competent
scholars, he adds the remark, that
"only a comparison of the prin-
ciples of Indian with those of Greek
medicine can enable us to judge of
the origin, age, and value of the
former ; " and then further on (p.
448), apropos of Charaka's injunc-
tions as to the duties of the physi-
cian to his patient, he cites some
remarkably coincident expressions
from the oath of the Asklepiads.

J Hessler, indeed, does not per-
ceive that they are proper names,
but translates the words straight off.

§ With the single exception per-
haps of Paushkalilvata, a name
which at least seems to point to the
North-West, to IIewce\au>m. [We
are further pointed to the North-
West of India (cf. the Kez/ti/S/fftfoXoi)
by the name of Bharadvaja Kapi-
slitliala in the Charaka-Samhiti,
which, moreover, assigns to the neigh-
bourhood of the Himavant (pdrtvc
Ifimavatah subhe) that gathering
of sages, out of which came the

MEDICAL TEXTS: NUMBER AND VALUE. 269

is by Susruta himself, as well as by other writers, expressly
assigned to the city of Ka6i (Benares) — in the period, to
be sure, of the mythical king Divodasa Dhanvantari,* an
incarnation of Dhanvantari, the physician of the gods.
And lastly, the weights and measures to be used by the
physician are expressly enjoined to be either those em-
ployed in Magadha or those current in Kalinga ; whence we
may fairly presume that it was in these eastern provinces,
which never came into close contact with the Greeks, that
medicine received its special cultivation.

Moreover, considerable critical doubts arise as to the
authenticity of the existing texts, since in the case of some
of them we find several recensions cited. Thus Atri, whose
work appears to have altogether perished, is also cited as
laghv-Atri, brihad-Atii ; Atreya, similarly, as brihad-AtTeya,
vriddha - Atreya, ma dhyama - Atreya, kanishtha-Atreja;
Sus'ruta, also as vriddha-SuiTnta, ; Vagbhata, also as vriddha-
Vagbhata ; Harita, also as vriddha-TLarita. ; Bhoja, also as
vriddha-Rhoja — a state of things to which we have an exact
parallel in the case of the astronomical Siddhantas (see pp.
258, 259, and Colebrooke ii. 391, 392), and also of the legal
literature. The number of medical works and authors is
extraordinarily large. The former are either systems
embracing the whole domain of the science, or highly
special investigations of single topics, or, lastly, vast com-
pilations prepared in modern times under the patronage of
kings and princes. The sum of knowledge embodied in
their contents appears really to be most respectable. Many
of the statements on dietetics and on the origin and diag-
nosis of diseases bespeak a very keen observation. In
surgery, too, the Indians seem to have attained a special

instruction of Bharadvaja by Indra. expressly termed Vdhika-bhishaj.

Again, Agnivesa is himself, ibid., i. We have already met with his name

13 comm., described as Chdndrabha'- (p. 153 above) amongst the teachers

gin, and so, probably (cf. gana ' ba- of the Atharva-Pari.4ishtas.]

hvddi' to Pdnini, iv. I. 45) associ- * Susruta is himself said, in the

ated with the Chandrabha'ga', one of introduction, to have been a disciple

the great rivers of the Panjdb. And of his. This assertion may, how-

lastly, there is also mentioned, ibid., ever, rest simply on a confusion of

i. 12, iv. 6, an ancient physician, this Dhanvantari with the Dhan-

Kdnkciyana, probably the Kankah or vantari who is given as one of the

Katka of the Arabs (see Reinaud, ' nine gems ' of Vikrama's court.
M6m. sur I'Inde, p. 314 ff.), who is

270 SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

proficiency,308 and in this department European surgeons
might perhaps even at the present day still learn some-
thing from them, as indeed they have already borrowed
from them the operation of rhinoplasty. The information,
again, regarding the medicinal properties of minerals (especi-
ally precious stones and metals), of plants, and animal sub-
stances, and the chemical analysis and decomposition of
these, covers certainly much that is valuable. Indeed, the
branch of Materia Medica generally appears to be handled
with great predilection, and this makes up to us in some
measure at least for the absence of investigations in the
field of natural science.309 On the diseases, &c., of horses
and elephants also there exist very special monographs.
For the rest, during the last few centuries medical science
has suffered great detriment from the increasing prevalence
of the notion, in itself a very ancient one, that diseases are
but the result of transgressions and sins committed, and
from the consequent very general substitution of fastings,
alms, arid gifts to the Brahmans, for real remedies. — An
excellent general sketch of Indian medical science is given
in Dr. Wise's work, Commentary on the Hindu System of
Medicine, which appeared at Calcutta in i845.310

The influence, which has been already glanced at, of
Hindu medicine upon the Arabs in the first centuries of
the Hijra was one of the very highest significance ; and
the Khalifs of Bagdad caused a considerable number of
works upon the subject to be translated.* Now, as Ara-

308 See now as to this Wilson, the editor, it makes but slow pro-
Works, iii. 380 ff., ed. Rost. gress. (Part 2, 1871, breaks off at

309 Cf. the remarks in note 300 on adhy. 5.) It furnished the occasion
the vidyds and the vaidyaka. for Roth's already mentioned mono_-

310 New ed. 1860 (London). Cf. graph on Charaka, in which he corn-
also two, unfortunately short, papers municates a few sections of the
by Wilson On the Medical and Sur- work, iii. 8 (' How to become a doc-
(jical Science of the Hindus, in vol. i. tor') and i. 29 ('The Bungler') in
of his Essays on Sanskrit Literature, translation. From the Bhela-Sam-
collected by Dr. Rost (1864, Works, hita" (see note 301 above), Burnell,
vol. iii.). Up to the present only in his Elem. of S. Ind. Pal., p. 94,
Susruta has been published, by quotes a verse in a way (namely, as
Madhusiidana Gupta (Calc. 1835-36, 31.4) which clearly indicates that
new ed. 1868) and by Jivdnanda he had access to an entire work of
Vidj-dsagara (1873). An edition of this name.

Charaka has been begun by Ganird- * See Gildemeister, Script. Arab.

<1hara Kaviraja (Calc. 1868-69), de rebus Indicia, pp. 94-97. [Flxigel,

but unfortunately, being weighted following the Fihrist al-ultim in Z.

with a very prolix commentary by D. M. G., xi. 148 ff., 325 ff. (1857).]

ART OF WAR— MUSIC. 271

tian medicine constituted the chief authority and guiding
principle of European physicians down to the seventeenth
century, it directly follows — just as in the case of astro-
nomy— that the Indians must have been held in high
esteem by these latter ; and indeed Charaka is repeatedly
mentioned in the Latin translations of Avicenna (Ibn Sina),
Ehazes (Al Kasi), and Serapion (Ibn Serabi).*

Besides Ayur-veda, medicine, the Hindus specify three
other so-called Upavedas — Dhanur-veda, Gdndharva-vcda,
and Artha-sdstra, i.e., the Art of War, Music, and the For-
mative Arts or Technical Arts generally ; and, like Ayur-
veda, these terms designate the respective branches of
literature at large, not particular works.

As teacher of the art of war, VisVamitra is mentioned,
and the contents of his work are fully indicated ; 311 the
name Bharadvaja also occurs.312 But of this branch of
literature hardly any direct monuments seem to have been
preserved.t Still, the Mti-Sastras and the Epic comprise
many sections bearing quite specially upon the science of
war ; 313 and the Agni-Purana, in particular, is distinguished
by its very copious treatment of the subject.314

Music was from the very earliest times a favourite pur-
suit of the Hindus, as we may gather from the numerous
allusions to musical instruments in the Vedic literature ;
but its reduction to a methodical system is, of course, of
later date. Possibly the Nata-Sutras mentioned in Panini
(see above, p. 197) may have contained something of the

* See Eoyle On the Antiquity of Rdjendra Ldla Mitra in the Bill.
Hindu Medicine, 1838. Ind. (1849-61), with extracts, which,
311 By Madhusddana Sarasvati in however, only reach as far as the
the Prasthdna-bheda, 1. St., i. IO, ninth chap., from the commentary
21. entitled ' Upddhydya - nirapekshd ;'
313 Where Bharadvdja can appear in style and matter it reminds us of
in such a position, I am not at pre- the Brihat-Sainhitd of Vardha-Mi-
seut aware ; perhaps we ought to hira. A work of like title and sub-
read Bhdradvaja, i.e., Drona ? ject was taken to Java by the Hin-
•f With the exception of some dtis who emigrated thither, see /.
works on the rearing of horses and St., iii. 145 ; but whether this emi-
elephants, which may perhaps be gration actually took place so early
classed here, although they more as the fourth century, as Rdj. L.
properly belong to medicine. M. supposes, is still very question-
si3 The Kdmandakiya Niti-6dstra able.

in nineteen chaps., to which this espe- 3U See Wilson ' On the A rt oj

cially applies, has been published by War' (Works, iv. 290 ff.).

272

SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

kind, since music was specially associated with dancing.
The earliest mention of the names of the seven notes of the
musical scale occurs, so far as we know at present, in the
so-called Vedangas — in the Chhandas 315 and the Siksha ; 3ia
and they are further mentioned in one of the Atharvo-
panishads (the Garbha), which is, at least, not altogether
modern. As author of the Gandharva-veda,* i.e., of a
treatise on music, Bharata is named, and, besides him, also
Isvara, Pavana, Kalinatha,317 Narada ; 318 but of these the
only existing remains appear to be the fragments cited in

315 See on this /. St., viii. 259-272.
The designation of the seven notes
by the initial letters of their names
is also found here, in one recension
of the text at least, ibid., p. 256.
According to Von Bohlen, Das alte
Indien, ii. 195 (1830), and Benfey,
Indien, p. 299 (in Ersch and Gruber's
Encyclopcudie, vol. xvii., 1840), this
notation passed from the Hindus to
the Persians, and from these again
to the Arabs, and was introduced
into European music by Quido d'
Arezzo at the beginning of the ele-
venth century. Corresponding to
the Indian sa ri ga ma pa dha ni we
have in Persian, along with the de-
signation of the notes by the first
seven letters of the alphabet (A — G),
the scale da re mi fa sa la be ; see
Hichardson and Johnson's Pers.
Diet. s. v. Durr i mufassal. — Does the
word gamma, ' gamut,' Fr. gamme,
which has been in use since the time
of Guido d'Arezzo to express the
musical scale, itself come from the
equivalent Sanskrit term grama
(Prdkr. gdma), and so exhibit a direct
trace of the Indian origin of the
seven notes? See Ludvvig Geiger's
precisely opposite conjecture in his
Ursprungder Spracke, i. 458 (1868).
The usual explanation of the word
is, of course, that it is derived from
the r (gamma) which designates the
first of the twenty - one notes of
Guide's scale, and which was
" known and in common, if not uni-
versal, use for more than a cen-
tury before his time ; " see Ambros,

Geschichte der Musik, ii. 151 (1864).
" There being already a G and a g in
the upper octaves, it was necessary
to employ the equivalent Greek lotter
for the corresponding lowest note."
The necessity for this ia not, how-
ever, so very apparent ; but, rather,
in the selection of this term, and
again in its direct employment in the
sense of ' musical scale ' a remini-
scence of the Indian word may ori-
ginally have had some influence,
though Guido himself need not have
been cognisant of it.

316 AIICJ ^13 no£ merely in the
Sikshd attributed to Pdniui, but in
the whole of the tracts belonging to
this category ; see my Essay on the
Pratijnd- Sutra, pp. 107-109; Haug,
Accent, p. 59.

* This title is derived from the
Gandharvas or celestial musicians.

317 This name is also written Kalli-
ndtha (Kapila in Lassen, I. AK.,
iv. 832, is probably a mistake), by
Sir W. Jones, On the Musical Modes
of the Hindus in As. Res., iii. 329,
and by Aufrecht, Catalogus, p. 2IO*.
Biihler, however, Catal. of MSS.
from Guj., iv. 274, has the spelling
given in the text. But, at any rate,
instead of Pavana, we must read
' Hanumant, son of Pavana.' For
Bharata, see above, p. 231.

318 See the data from the N£-
rada-siksha" in Haug, Ueberdes Wescn
des Ved. Accents, p. 58. The 'gan-
dharva Narada* is probably origi-
nally only Cloud personified ; see
/. St., i. 204, 483, ix. 2.

PAINTING AND SCULPTURE.

273

the scholia of the dramatic literature. Some of these
writings were translated into Persian, and, perhaps even
earlier, into Arabic. There are also various modern
works on music. The whole subject, however, has been
but little investigated.319

As regards the third Upaveda, Artha-$dstra, the Hindus,
as is well known, have achieved great distinction in the
technical arts, but less in the so-called formative arts.
The literature of the subject is but very scantily repre-
sented, and is for the most part modern.

Painting, in the first place, appears in a very rudiment-
ary stage. Portrait-painting, for which perspective is not
required, seems to have succeeded best, as it is frequently
alluded to in the dramas.319* In Sculpture, on the con-
trary, no mean skill is discernible.320 Among the reliefs
carved upon stone are many of great beauty, especially
those depicting scenes from Buddha's life, Buddha being
uniformly represented in purely human shape, free from
mythological disfigurement. — There exist various books of

319 Besides Sir W. Jones, I. c., see
also Patterson in vol. ix. of the As.
Jtes., Lassen, 7. AK., iv. 832, and
more particularly the special notices
in Aufrecht's Catalogus, pp. 199-202.
Sarngadeva, author of the Sangi-
taratnsikara, cites as authorities
Abhinavagupta, Kirtidhara, Kohala,
Somesvara ; he there treats not only
of music, especially singing, but also
of dancing, gesticulation, &c.

3i9a Qn modern painting, see my
Essay, Ucber Krishna's Gebiirtsfest,
p. 341 ff. — It is noteworthy that the
accounts of ' the manner of origin
of the production of likenesses*
at the close of TaYandtha's hist.
of Buddhism (Schiefner, p. 278
ff. ) expressly point to the time
of Asoka and Niigarjuna as the
most flourishing epoch of the Ya-
ksha and Ndga artists. In an ad-
dress recently delivered to the St.
Petersburg Academy (see the Bul-
letin of 25th Nov. 1875), Schiefner
communicated from the Kdgyur
some ' Anecdotes of Indian Artists,'

in which, among other things, special
reference is made to the Yavanas as
excellent painters and craftsmen.
On pictorial representations of the
fight between Kansa and Krishna,
see the data in the Mahdbhdshya, /.
St., xiii. 354, 489 ; and on likenesses
of the gods for sale in Panini's time,
Goldstiicker's Pdnini, p. 228 ff. ; /.
St., v. 148, xiii. 331.

320 Through the recent researches
of Fergusson, Cunningham, and Leit-
ner the question has been raised
whether Greek influence was not
here also an important factor. Highly
remarkable in this regard are, for
example, the parallels between an
ini.ige of the sun-god in his car on a
column at Buddhagayd and a well-
known figure of Phoebus Apollo, ns
shown in Plate xxvii. of Cunning-
ham's Arckceological Survey of India,
vol. iii. 97 (1873). The same type
is also exhibited on a coin of the
Bactrian king Plato, lately described
by \V. S. W. Vaux in the Numitm,
Chronicle, xv. 1-5 (1875).

274

SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

instructions and treatises on the subject : 321 according to
the accounts given of them, they deal for the most part
with single topics, the construction of images of the gods,
for example ; but along with these are others on geometry
and design in general.

A far higher degree of development was attained by
Architecture, of which some most admirable monuments
still remain : it received its chief cultivation at the hands of
the Buddhists, as these required monasteries, topes (sttipas),
and temples for their cult. It is not, indeed, improbable
that our Western steeples owe their origin to an imita-
tion of the Buddhist topes. But, on the other hand, in the
most ancient Hindu edifices the presence of Greek influ-
ence 321a is unmistakable.322 (See Benfey, Indien, pp. 300-
305.) Architecture, accordingly, was often systematically

321 E.g., also in Vaniha-Mihira's
Brihat - Sarp.hita', one chapter of
which, on the construction of statues
of the gods, is communicated from
Albiruni by Reinaud in his Mem.
sur I'lnde, p. 419 ff. See also /. St.,
xiii. 344-346.

32Ia In the fifth vol., which has
just appeared, of his Archaeological
Purvey of India, p, 185 ff., Cunning-
ham distinguishes an Indo-Persian
style, the prevalence of which he
assigns to the period of the Persian
supremacy over the valley of the
Indus(5oo-33o), and three Indo-Gre-
cian styles, of which the Ionic pre-
vailed in Takshila, the Corinthian in
GandhaYa, and the Doric in Kash-
mir. Rajendra LtilaMitra, it is true,
in vol. i. of his splendid work, The
Antiquities of Orissa (1875), holds
out patriotically against the idea of
any Greek influence whatever on the
development of Indian architecture,
&c. (At p. 25, by the way, my con-
jecture as to the connection between
the Asura Maya, Turamaya, and
Ptolemaios, see above, p. 253, /. St.,
ii. 234, is stated in a sadly distorted
form.) Looking at his plates, how-
ever, we have a distinct suggestion
of Greek art, for example, in the two

fountain-nymphs in Plate xvi., No.
46 ; while the Bayadere in Plate
xviii., No. 59, from the temple of
BhuvanesVara, middle of seventh
century (p. 31), seems to be resting
her right hand on a dolphin, beside
which a Cupid (?) is crouching, and
might therefore very well be an imi-
tation of some representation of
Venus. (Cf. Rdj. L: if., p. 59.)

322 This does not mean that the
Indians were not acquainted with
stone-building prior to the time of
Alexander — an opinion which is
confuted by Cunningham, I. c., iii.
98. The painful minuteness, indeed,
with which the erection of brick-
altars is described in the Vedic sac-
rificial ritual (cf . the J-iulva-Sutras)
might lead us to suppose that such
structures were still at that time
rare. But, on the one hand, this
would take us back to a much earlier
time than we are here speaking of ;
and, on the other, this scrupulous
minuteness of description may
simply be due to the circumstance
that a specifically sacred structure
is here in question, in connection
with which, therefore, every single
detail was of direct consequence.

ARCHITECTURE— TECHNICAL ARTS.

275

treated of,323 and we find a considerable number of such
works cited, some of which, as is customary in India, pur-
port to proceed from the gods themselves, as from Vi^vakar-
man,324 Sanatkumara, &c. In the Samhita of Varaha-Mihira,
too, there is a tolerably long chapter devoted to architec-
ture, though mainly in an astrological connection.

The skill of the Indians in the production of delicate
woven fabrics, in the mixing of colours, the working of
metals and precious stones, the preparation of essences,325
and in all manner of technical arts, has from early times
enjoyed a world-wide celebrity : and for these subjects also
we have the names of various treatises and monographs.
Mention is likewise made of writings on cookery and every
kind of requirement of domestic life, as dress, ornaments,
the table; on games of every description, dice,* for ex-

323 See Lassen, /. AK., iv. 877.
Rdm RaVs Essay on the Architecture
of the Hindus (1834) is specially
based on the Mdnasdra in fifty-eight
adhydyas, presumably composed in
S. India (p. 9). Ma"yamata (Maya's
system, on which see Raj. L. M.,
Notices, ii. 306), Kdsyapa, Vaikha'-
nasa, and the SakalddhikaYa ascribed
to Agastya, were only secondarily
consulted. The portion of the Agni-
Pura'na published in the Bibl. 2nd.
treats, int. al., of the building of
houses, temples, &c. The Ratha-
Siitraand the Vdstu-Vidya are given
by Saiikha (Schol. on Kdty., i. I.
1 1) as the special rules for the ratha-
kdra. The word Sutra-dhdra, 'mea-
suring-line holder,' ' builder,' signi-
fies at the same time ' stage-man-
ager ; ' and here perhaps we have to
think of the temporary erections
that were required for the actors,
spectators, &c., during the perform-
ance of dramas at the more import-
ant festivals. In this latter accept-
ation, indeed, the word might also
possibly refer to the Nata-$w<ras,
the observance of which had to be
provided for by the Sutra-dhdra 1
See above, pp. 198, 199.

324 On a Visva-karma-praka'sa and
a Vilvakarmiya-Silpa, see Edjendra
Lala Mitra, Notices of Sansk.

ii. 17, 142.

328 The art of perfumery appears
to have been already taught in a
special Sutra at the time of the
Bhdshya ; cf. the observations in /.
St., xiii. 462, on chdndanagandhika,
V&a. iv. 2. 65 ; perhaps the Sdmastam
('ndma sdstram,' Kaiyata) Bhdshya
to Pdn. iv. 2. 104, belongs to this
class also.

* In /. St., i. 10, 1 have translated,
doubtless incorrectly, the expression
chatuhshashti-kald-sdslra, (cited in
the Prastha"na-bheda as part of the
Artha-siistra) by 'treatise on chess,'
referring the 64 ka/.ds to the 64
squares of the chess-board ; whereas,
according to As. Res. i. 341 (Schlegel,
Reflex, sur I'Etudedes Langues Asiat.,
p. 112), it signifies 'treatise on the
64 arts'? In the Ihtsakumara.
however (p. 140, ed. Wilson), the
chatuhshashti-lcaldgama is expressly
distinguished from the Artha-sdstra.
— See an enumeration of the 64
Tcalds, from the Siva-tantra in Rddhd-
ka"ntadeva's &abda-lcalpa-druma, e.
v. [On the game of Chatur-ailga
see now my papers in the Monats-
ber. der Berl. Acad., 1872, pp. 60
ff., 502 S. ; 1873, p. 705 ff. ; 1874,
p. 21 ff. ; and also Dr. Ant. van der
Linde's beautiful work, Geschichte
dct Schachspiels (1874, 2 vols.).

276 SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

ample ; nay, even on the art of stealing — an art which,
in fact, was reduced to a regular and complete system [cf.
Wilson, Dasakum., p. 69, on Karmsuta, and Hindu Theatre,
i. 63]. A few of these writings have also been admitted
into the Tibetan Tandjur.

From Poetry, Science, and Art, we now pass to Law,
Custom, and Eeligious Worship, which are all three com-
prehended in the term 'Dharma,' and whose literature is
presented to us in the Dkarma-tidstras or Smriti-$dstras.
The connection of these works with the Grihya-Sutras
of Vedic literature has already been adverted to in the
introduction (see pp. 19, 20), where, too, the conjecture
is expressed that the consignment of the principles of
law to writing may perhaps have been called forth by
the growth of Buddhism, with the view of rigidly and
securely fixing the system of caste distinctions- rejected by
the new faith, and of shielding the Brahmanical polity gene-
rally from innovation or decay. In the most ancient of
these works, accordingly — the Law-Book of Manu — we en-
counter this Brahmanical constitution in its full perfection.
The Brahman has now completely attained the goal from
which, in the Brahmanas, he is not very far distant, and
stands as the born representative of Deity itself; while,
upon the other hand, the condition of the $udra is one
of the utmost wretchedness and hardship. The circum-
stance that the Vaidehas and the Lichhavis (as Lassen, no
doubt rightly, conjectures for Nichhivis) are here num-
bered among the impure castes, is — as regards the
former — certainly a sign that this work is long pos-
terior to the Satapatlia-Bnihmana, where the Vaidehas
appear as the leading representatives of Brahmanism. The
position allotted to this tribe, as well as to the Lichhavis,
may, perhaps, further be connected with the fact that, ac-
cording to Buddhist legends, the Vaidehas, and especially

DHARMA -SASTRAS : CODE OF MANU. 277

this Liclihavi family of them, exercised a material influ-
ence upon the growth of Buddhism. The posteriority of
Manu to the whole body of Vedic literature appears,
besides, from many other special indications ; as, for in-
stance, from the repeated mention of the several divisions
of this literature ; from the connection which subsists with
some passages in the Upanishads ; from the completion of
the Yuga system and the triad of deities; as well as,
generally, from the minute and nicely elaborated distribu-
tion and regulation of the whole of life, which are here
presented to us.

I have likewise already remarked, that for judicial pro-
cedure proper, for the forms of justice, the connecting link
is wanting between the Dharma-Sastra of Manu and Vedic
literature. That this code, however, is not to be regarded
as the earliest work of its kind, is apparent from the very
nature of the case, since the degree of perfection of the
judicial procedure it describes justifies the assumption
that this topic had been frequently handled before.* The
same conclusion seems, moreover, to follow from the fact
of occasional direct reference being made to the views of
predecessors, from the word ' Dharma-Sastra ' itself being
familiar, f as also from the circumstance that Patamjali,
in his Mahabhashya on Panini, is acquainted with works
bearing the name of Dh anna-Sutras.326 Whether remains
of these connecting links may yet be recovered, is, for the
present at least, doubtful.J For the domestic relations
of the Hindus, on the contrary — for education, marriage,
household economy, &c. — it is manifestly in the Grihya-
Siitras that we must look for the sources of the Dharma-
Sastras; and this, as I have also had frequent occasion

* See Stenzler in I. St., i. 244 flf. with the precepts of Manu. So

•f Yet neither circumstance is also, for example, a verse in Ydska's

strictly conclusive, as, considering Nirukti, iii. 4, concerning the dis-

the peculiar composition of the ability of women to inherit, which,

work, the several passages in ques- besides, directly appeals to ' Manuh

tion might perhaps be later addi- Svdyambhuvah.' This is the first

tions. time that the latter is mentioned

3-6 See now on this /. St., xiii. as a lawgiver. ,[See also Sitflkh.

458,459. Grih., ii. 16; Apast., ii. 16. I,

£ Allusions to judicial cases are of ed. Biihler. On Vedic phases of

very rare occurrence within the criminal law, see Burnell, Pref. to

range of Vedic literature; but where .S;ima-vidh;{na-Hr., p. xv. ; Lit. C.

they do occur, they mostly agree />/., 1874, p. 423.]

278 SANSKRIT LITERA TURE.

to observe (pp. 58, 84, 102, 143), is the explanation of the
circumstance that most of the names current as authors of
Grihya-Sutras are at the same time given as authors of
Dharma-Sastras.* The distinction, as a commentator f re-
marks, is simply this, that the Grihya-Sutras confine
themselves to the points^ of difference of the various schools,
whereas the Dharma-Sastras embody the precepts and
obligations common to all.827

* In the case of Manu, too, there
would seem to have existed a
Mdnava Grihya-Sutra as its basis (?),
and the reference to the great an-
cestor Manu would thus appear to
be only a subsequent one (?). [This
surmise of mine, expressed with
diffidence here, above at pp. 19, IO2,
and in /. St., i. 69, has since been
generally accepted, and will, it is
hoped, find full confirmation in the
text of the Ma"n. Grihyas., which has
meanwhile actually come to light.
1 have already pointed out one in-
stance of agreement in language with
the Yajus texts, in the word abhini-
mrukta; see /. Str., ii. 209, 210.]

t As'drka on the Karma-pradipa
of Kd'yilyana.

327 la his Hist, of Anc. Sansk.
Lit. (1859), Max Miiller gave some
jiccount of the Dharma-Sutra of
Apastamba, which is extant under
the title Sa'maya'cha'rika- Sutra. He
also characterised three of the Dhar-
ma-Sdstras printed at Calcutta (the
Gautama, Vishnu, and Vasishtha)
as being bliarma-Sutras of a similar
kind ; expressing himself generally
to the effect (p. 134) that all the
metrical Dharma-Siistras we possess
are but "more modern texts of
earlier Sutra-works or Kula-dbarmas
belonging originally to certain Vedic
Charanas." (The only authority
cited by him is Stenzler in I. St., i.
232, who, however, in his turn, re-
fers to my own earlier account, ibid.
PP- 57. 69, 143). Johiintgen, in
his tract, Ueber das Gcsctzbuch dis
Manu (1863), adopted precisely the
same view (see, e.g., p. 1 13). Biihler,
finally, in the Introduction to the

Digest of Hindu Law, edited by
him, jointly with R. West (vol. i.,
1867), furnished us for the first time
with more specific information as
to these Dhunm-Sutras, which
connect themselves with, and in
part directly belong to, the Vedic
.Sutra stage. In the appendix to
this work he likewise communicated
various sections on the law of in-
heritance from the four Dharma-
Stitras above mentioned, and that of
Baudhdyana. He also published
separately,, in 1868, the entire
Stitra of Apastamba, with extracts
from Haradatta's commentary and
an index of words (1871). This
Sutra, in point of fact, forms (see
above, notes 108 and 109) two
pratnas of the Ap. Srauta-Sutra ;
and a similar remark applies to the
Siitra of Baudhdyana. According
to Btihler's exposition, to the five
Sutras just named have to be added
the small texts of this class, consist-
ing of prose and verse intermingled,
which are ascribed to Usanas, Ka-
s"yapa, and Budha; and, perhaps, also
the Smritis of Hdrita and Sankha.
All the other existing Smritis, on
the contrary, bear a more modern
character, and are either (i) metri-
cal redactions of ancient Dharma-
Sutras, or fragments of sucli redac-
tions (to these belong our Manu and
Yajnavalkya, as well as the Smritis
of Ndrada, Par,isara, Brihaspati,
Samvarta), — or (2) secondary redac-
tions of metrical Dharma-Sastras, —
or (3) metrical versionsof theGpbya-
Siuras, — or lastly, (4) forgeries of the
Hindu sects. — The material in vol. i.
of Biihler and West's work has been

DHARMA-SASTRAS: CODE OF MANU. 279

As regards the existing text of Manu, it cannot, ap-
parently, have been extant in its present shape even at
the period to which the later portions of the Maha-
Bharata belong. For although Manu is often cited in the
epic in literal accordance with the text as we now have it,
on the other hand, passages of Manu are just as often
quoted there which, while they appear in our text, yet do
so with considerable variations. Again, passages are there
ascribed to Manu which are nowhere found in our collec-
tion, and even passages composed in a totally different
metre. And, lastly, passages also occur frequently in the
Maha-Bharata which are not attributed to Manu at all,
but which may nevertheless be read verbatim in our text.*
Though we may doubtless here assign a large share of the
blame to the writers making the quotations (we know from
the commentaries how often mistakes have crept in through
the habit of citing from memory), still, the fact that our
text attained its present shape only after having been,
perhaps repeatedly, recast, is patent from the numerous
inconsistencies, additions, and repetitions it contains. In
support of this conclusion, we have, further, not only the
fabulous tradition to the effect that the text of Manu con-
sisted originally of 100,000 ilokas, and was abridged, first
to 12,000, and eventually to 4000 £lokas\ — a tradition
which at least clearly displays a reminiscence of various
remodellings of the text — but also the decisive fact that
in the legal commentaries, in addition to Manu, a Vriddha-
Manu and a .#n7ta?i-Manu are directly quoted^ and must
therefore have been still extant at the time of these com-
mentaries. But although we cannot determine, even ap-
proximately, the date when our text of Manu received its
present shape,328 there is little doubt that its contents,

utilised critically, in its legal bear- t Our present text contains only

ing, by Aurel Mayr, in his work, Das 2684 Slokas.

indiscJie Erbrecht (Vienna, 1873) ; £ See Stenzler, 1. c., p. 235.

see on it Lit. C. £1., 1874, p. 3-8 Jolmntgen (pp. 86, 95) assumes

340 fl'. ag the latest limit for its composition

* See Holtzmann, Ueber den the year B.C. 350, and as the earliest

gricclischen Ursprung des indischen limit the fifth century. But this

Thierkrcises, p. 14. [As to Manu's ' rests in great part upon his further

position in Vardha-Mihira, see Kern, assumption (p. 77) that the Brdh-

Pref. to Brih. Samh., pp. 42, 43, manas, Upanishads, &c., known

and on a Pali edition of Manu, to us are all of later date — an

Kost in I. St., 5. 315 ff.] assumption which is rendered in

zSo SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

compared with those of the other Dharrna-Sastras, are, on
the whole, the most ancient, and that, consequently, it has
been rightly placed by general tradition * at the head of
this class of literature. The number of these other
Dharma-Sastras is considerable, amounting to fifty-six,
and is raised to a much higher figure — namely, eighty —
if we reckon the several redactions of the individual works
that have so far come to our knowledge, and which are
designated by the epithets laghu, madhyama, briJiat,
vriddha.3^ When once the various texts are before us,
their relative age will admit of being determined without
great difficulty. It will be possible,t in particular, to
characterise them according to the preponderance, or the
entire absence, of one or other of the three constituent
elements which make up the substance of Indian law, that
is to say, according as they chiefly treat of domestic and
civil duties, of the administration of justice, or of the regu-
lations as to purification and penance. In Manu these
three constituents are pretty much mixed up, but upon
the whole they are discussed with equal fulness. The
code of Yajnavalkya is divided into three books, accord-
ing to the three topics, each book being of about the same
extent. The other works of the class vary.

With regard to the code of Yajnavalkya, just men-
tioned— the only one of these works which, with Manu, is
as yet generally accessible — its posteriority to Manu fol-
lows plainly enough, not only from this methodical distri-
bution of its contents, but also from the circumstance J that

the highest degree doubtful by the these, however, we have still to add,
remarks he himself makes, in agree- for example, from his Catalogue of
merit with Muller and myself, upon MSS. from Gujardt, vol. iii., tho
the probable orisr'm of the work Smritis of Kokila, Gobhila, Suryd-
from a Grihya-Sutra of the Mdnava rima, laghu- and vrifMAa-Pardsara,
school of the Black Yajus, as well lay/at- Brihaspati, lagku • Saunaka ;
as upon the various redactions it while to the collective titles pur-
has undergone, and the relation of posely omitted by him from his
the work itself and the various list — Chaturvinsati, Shattrinsat (ex-
schools of the Yajus to Buddhism tracts from 24 and 36 Smritis), and
(pp. 112, 113); see /. Str., ii. 278, Saptarshi — we have probably to add,
279. from the same source, the Shndas'iti

* Which those Hindus who emi- and Shannavati ? Tiie Anma-Smriti

grated to Java also took with them, is also specified in the Catal. Sana.

329 Biihler, 1. c., p. 13 ff., enu- MSS.,N.W. Prov., 1874, p. 122.
merates 78 Smritis and 36 different + See Stenzler, 1. c., p. 236.
redactions of individual Smritis, — * See Stenzler in the Pref. to his

iu all, a total of 114 such texts. To edition of Yajnavalkya, pp. ix.-xi.

DHARMA-SASTRAS : CODE OF VAJNA V ALKY A. 281

it teaches the worship of Ganes'a and the planets, the execu-
tion, upon metal plates, of deeds relating to grants of land,
and the organisation of monasteries — all subjects which
do not occur in Manu ; while polemical references to the
Buddhists, which in Manu are at least doubtful,330 are here
unmistakable.331 In the subjects, too, which are common
to both, we note in Yajnavalkya an advance towards
greater precision and stringency; and in individual in-
stances, where the two present a substantial divergence,
Yajnavalkya' s standpoint is distinctly the later one. The
earliest limit we can fix for this work is somewhere about
the second century A.D., seeing that the word ndnaka
occurs in it to denote ' coin,' and this term, according to
Wilson's conjecture, is taken from the coins of Kanerki,
who reigned until A.D. 40.* Its latest limit, on the other
hand, may be fixed about the sixth or seventh century, as,
according to Wilson, passages from it are found in in-
scriptions of the tenth century in various parts of India,
and the work itself must therefore date considerably
earlier. Its second book reappears literally in the Agni-
Purana; whether adopted into the latter, or borrowed
from it, cannot as yet be determined. Of this work also
two recensions are distinguished, the one as brihad-
Yajnavalkya, the other as #rwMAa-Yajnavalkya (see also
Colebrooke, i. 103). As to its relation to the remaining

330 jf by the pravrajitds in viii. De Astrologice Indices Ory/inibus, p.
363, Buddhist brahmachdrinis be 14, the statement in Ydjnavalkyn,
really meant, as asserted by Kuiluka, i. 80, that coitus must take place
then this particular precept — which ' susthe indau,' rests upon an ac-
puts the violation of their persons quaintance with the Greek astro-
on the same footing with violence logical doctrine of the ' twelve
done to "other public women," and houses' (and, in fact, this is the
punishes the offence with a small sense in which the Mitdkshara' under-
fine only — is to be taken not merely, stands the passage) ; so that, in his
as Talboys Wheeler takes it (Hist, of opinion, Yajnavalkya cannot be
India, ii. 583), as a bitter sarcasm, placed earlier than the fourth cen-
but also as evidence that the work tury of our era. This interpreta-
was composed at a time when the tiou, however, is not absolutely
Buddhist nuns had already really forced upon us, as sustha might
deteriorated ; cf. the remarks in a equally well refer to one of the
similar instance in regard to Panini, lunar phases or mansions which
/. St., v. 141. from an early period were re-

331 Cf. Johantgen, pp. 112, 113. garded as auspicious for procreation
* See above, p. 205: the same ap- and birth; see Lit, C. BL, 1873.

plies also to the Vriddha-Gautama p. 787.]
LiW-book. [According to Jacobi,

282 SANSKRIT LITERA TURE.

codes, Stenzler, from the preface to whose edition the
foregoing information is taken, is of opinion that it is an-
tecedent to all of them,332 and that, therefore, it marks the
next stage after Manu.*

But in addition to the Dharma-^astras, which form the
basis and chief part of the literature dealing with Law,
Custom, and Worship, we have also to rank the great bulk
of the epic poetry — the Maha-Bharata, as well as the
Ramayana — as belonging to this. branch of literature, since
in these works, as I remarked when discussing them, the
didactic element far outweighs the epic. The Maha-Bharata
chiefly embraces instruction as to the duties of kings and of
the military class, instruction which is given elsewhere also,
namely, in the Niti-Sastras and (apparently) in the Dhanur-
Veda ; but besides this, manifold other topics of the Hindu
law are there discussed and expounded. The Puranas, on
the contrary, chiefly contain regulations as to the worship
of the gods by means of prayers, vows, fastings, votive
offerings, gifts, pious foundations, pilgrimages, festivals,
conformably to the shape which this worship successively
assumed ; and in this they are extensively supported by
the Upapuranas and the Tantras.

"Within the last few centuries there has further grown
up a modern system of jurisprudence, or scientific legal
literature, which compares and weighs, one against another,
the different views of the authors of the Dharma-Sastras.
In particular, extensive compilations have been prepared,
in great measure by the authority and under the auspices
of various kings and princes, with a view to meet the prac-

33-2 ;\[ul]er has, it is true, claimed Biihler's opinion (p. xxvii.), Manu

(see above, note 327) for the Dhanna- and Ysljnavalkya, although only

Sdstras of Vishnu, Gautama, and "versifications of older Sutras, "may

Vasishtha the character of Dharma- yet very well be of higher antiquity

Sutras; and Biihler (pp. xxi.-xxv.) "than some of the Sutra works

expressly adds to the list the similar which have come down to our

texts attributed to Usanas, Ka&yapa, times."

and Budha, and also, though with * This, to be sure, is at variance

a reservation, those of Hdrita and with i. 4^5, where twenty different

Sankha (Vasi.shtha belongs pro- Dharma -Sdstra authors are enu-

bably to the Drdhya'yana school of merated (amongst them Ydjnaval-

t.lie Sitma-Veda, see pp. 79, 85 kya himself) : these two verses are

— the Veda with which Gautama perhaps a later addition (?).
ia likewise associated). Still, iu

LATER LEGAL LITERATURE. 283

tical want of a sufficient legal code.333 The English them-
selves, also, have had a digest of this sort compiled, from
which, as is well known, the commencement of Sanskrit
studies dates. These compilations were mostly drawn up
in the Dekhan, which from the eleventh century was the
refuge and centre of literary activity generally. In Hin-
dustan it had been substantially arrested by the inroads
and ravages of the Muhammadans ; * and it is only within
the last three centuries that it has again returned thither,
especially to Ka£f (Benares) and Bengal. Some of the
Mogul emperors, notably the great Akbar and his two suc-
cessors, Jehangir and Shah Jehanf — who together reigned
1556-1656 — were great patrons of Hindu literature.

This brings us to the close of our general survey of
Sanskrit literature ; but we have still to speak of a very
peculiar branch of it, whose existence only became known
some twenty or thirty years ago, namely, the Buddhistic
Sanskrit works. To this end, it is necessary, in the first
place, to premise some account of the origin of Buddhism
itself.334

333 See Colebrooke's account of verse from another Dharma-&tstra :

these in his two prefaces to the '' Vindhyasya dakshine bhdge yatra

Digest of Hindu Law (1798) and the Goddvari sthitd \ tatra vedds cha ya-

Two Treatises on the Hindu Law of jnds cha bhavishyanti kalau yuge."\\

Inheritance (1810), now in Cowell's "In the Kali age the Vedas and

edition of the Misc. Ess., i. 461 ff. : sacrifices will have their home to

also Biihler's Introduction, 1. c., p. the south of the Vindhya, in the

iii. ff. region where flows the Godilvari."

* This finds expression, e.g., in Similar expressions occur in the

the following tiokaof Vystsa : "Sam- Law-book of Atri and in the Jagan-

prdpte tu kalau kale Vindf/yddrer rnohana.

uttare sthitdh \ brdhmand yajnara- f As well as the latter's son, Ddra

hitd jyotih- tdstra-pardnmukhdh.''\\ Shakoh.

"In the Kali age, the Brahmans 334 Cf. C. F. Koppen's excellent

dwelling north of the Vindhya are work. Die Religion dee Buddha

deprived of tbe sacrifice and averse (1857, 1859, 2 vols.).
from Jyotih-sdstra :" and in this

284 BUDDHISTIC SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

Of the original signification of the word luddha, ' awak-
ened ' (sc. from error), ' enlightened,' as a complimentary
title given to sages in general,* I have already more than
once spoken (pp. 27, 167). I have also already remarked
that the Buddhist doctrine was originally of purely philo-
sophical tenor, identical with the system afterwards de-
nominated the Samkhya, and that it only gradually grew
up into a religion in consequence of one of its representa-
tives having turned with it to the people.f Buddhist
tradition has itself preserved in individual traits a remini-
scence of this origin of Buddha's doctrine, and of its poste-
riority to and dependence upon the Samkhya philosophy.335
Thus it describes Buddha as born at Kapila-vastu, ' the
abode of Kapila/ and uniformly assigns to Kapila, the
reputed founder of the Samkhya system, a far earlier date.
Again, it gives Maya-devi as the mother of Buddha, and
here we have an unmistakable reference to the Maya of
the Samkhya.335a Further, it makes r Buddha, in his prior
birth among the gods, bear the name Svetaketu 336 — a name
which, in the Satapatha-Brahmana, is borne by one of the
contemporaries of Kapya Patamchala, with whom Kapila
ought probably to be connected. And, lastly, it distinctly
ranks Panchasikha, one of the main propagators of Kapila's
doctrine, as a demigod or Gandharva. Of the names be-
longing to the teachers mentioned in Buddhist legend as
contemporaries of Buddha, several also occur in Vedic

* The name bJiayavant, which is there might perhaps actually be here

also applied to Buddha in particular, an early complimentary allusion to

is likewise a general title of honour, Buddha ! A "Parihshir (I)bhikshur

still preserved among the Brahinans Atreyah " is named shortly after,

to designate Rishis of every kind, 335a M.iysi, however, belongs not

and is bestowed very specially on to the Samkhy;i, but specially to

Vishnu or Krishna ; while in the the Vedanta doctrine,

contracted form, bkavant, it actually 336 Can the legend in the Mabii-

supplies the place of the pronoun of BhaYata, xii. 2056, have any connec-

the second person [/. St., ii. 231, tion herewith — to the effect that

xiii. 351, 352]. Svetaketu was disowned by his fa-

t See 7. £'<., i. 435, 436, and above, ther Uddiilaka because of his being

pp. " mitliya viprdn upacharan " ? — The

:i:)5 In the list of ancient gnges at name Svetaketu further occurs

the beginning of the Charaku-Sam- among the prior births of Buddha,

hitd, wefind mention, amongst others, Xo. 370 in Westergaard's Cataloyus,

of a " Gautamali Samkhyah " — an p. 40; but amongst these 539

expression which the modern editor jdtakas pretty nearly everything ap-

interprets, " Bauddhavisesha-Gau- pears to be mentioned !
tuma-vyrlvrittaye ! " But iu truth

ORIGIN OF BUDDHISM. 285

literature, but only in its third or Sutra stage, e.g., Katyu-
yana, Katyayaniputra, Kaundinya, Agnives"ya, Maitraya-
niputra, Vatsfputra,* Paushkarasadi ; but no names of
teachers belonging to the Brahmana period are found in
these legends.337 This is all the more significant, as Bud-
dhism originated in the same region and district to which
we have to allot the Satapatha-Brahmana, for instance —
the country, namely, of the Kosalas and Videhas, among
the Sakyas and Lichhavis. The Sakyas are the family of
which Buddha himself came : according to the legend,t
they had immigrated from the west, from Potala, a city
on the Indus. Whether this tradition be well founded or
not, I am, at all events, disposed to connect them with the
Sakayanins who are referred to in the tenth book of the
Satapatha-Brahmana, and also with the Sakayanyas of the
Maitrayana-Upanishad, which latter work propounds pre-
cisely the Buddhistic doctrine of the vanity of the world,
&c. (see above, pp. 97, I37).338 Among the Kosala- Videhas
this doctrine, and in connection with it the practice of
subsistence upon alms as Pravrajaka or Bhikshu, had been
thoroughly disseminated by Yajnavalkya and their king
Janaka ; and a fruitful soil had thereby been prepared for
Buddhism (see pp. 137, 147, 237). The doctrines promul-
gated by Yajnavalkya in the Yrihad-Aranyaka are in fact
completely Buddhistic, as also are those of the later Athar-
vopanishads belonging to the Yoga system. Nay, it
would even seem as if Buddhist legend itself assigned Bud-

* To these names in -putra, which Ariana Antiq., p. 212 : "The truth

are peculiar to Buddhist legend and of the legend may be questioned,

the vansa of the Satapatha-Brjih- but it not improbably intimates

mann, belongs also, in the former, some connection with the Sakas or

the name Sariputra, Sa"rika"putra. Indo-Scythians, who were masters

337 Unless Buddha's preceptor of Pattalene subsequent to the Greek

Ardda may have something to do princes of Bactria." The legend

with the Ardlhi Saujdta of the Ait. may possibly have been invented in

Br.,vii. 22(?). The special conclusion the time of Kanerki, one of these

to be based upon these name-syn- Saka kings, with a view to flatter

chronisms is that the advent of Bud- him for the zeal he displayed on

dha is to be set down as contempor- behalf of Buddhism,
aneous with the latest offsets of the 338 So, too, Johantgen, Ueber das

Brdhmana literature, i.e., with the Oesetzbuch des Manu, p. 112, refers

A*ranyakas and older Sutras ; /. St., the traces of Buddhistic notions

iii. I58ff. exhibited in that work specially t<>

t See Csoma Korosi, Journ. As. the school of the Mauavas, from

Soc. Bemj., Aug. 1833 ; Wilson, which it sprang.

286 B UDDHISTIC SANSKRIT LITER A TURE.

dha to a period exactly coincident with that of Janaka, and
consequently of Yajnavalkya also ; for it specifies a king
AjataSatru as a contemporary of Buddha, and a prince
of this name appears in the Vrihad-Aranyaka and the
Kaushitaki-Upauishad as the contemporary and rival of
Janaka.339 The other particulars given in Buddhist legend
as to the princes of that epoch have, it is true, nothing ana-
logous to them in the works just mentioned ; the Ajatas"atru
of the Buddhists, moreover, is styled prince of Magadha,
whereas he of the Vrihad-Aranyaka and the Kaushitaki-
Upanishad appears as the sovereign of the Kas*is. (The
name Ajatas"atru occurs elsewhere also, e.g., as a title
of Yudhishthira.) Still, there is the further circumstance
that, in the fifth kdnda of the Satapatha-Brahmana, Bhad-
rasena, the son of Ajatasatru, is cursed by Aruni, the
contemporary of Janaka and Yajnavalkya (see /. St., i.
213); and, as the Buddhists likewise cite a Bhadrasena —
at least, as the sixth successor of Ajatasatru — we might
almost be tempted to suppose that the curse in question
may have been called forth by the heterodox anti-
brahmanical opinions of this Bhadrasena. Nothing more
precise can at present be made out ; and it is possible that
the two Ajatalatrus and the two Bhadrasenas may simply
be namesakes, and nothing more — as may be the case also
with the Brahmadatta of the Vrihad-Aranyaka and the
two kings of the same name of Buddhist legend. — It is, at
any rate, significant enough that in these legends the name
of the Kuru-Panchalas no longer occurs, either as a com-
pound or separately ; 34° whilst the Pandavas are placed in
Buddha's time, and appear as a wild mountain tribe, living
by marauding and plunder.* Buddha's teaching was
mainly fosteivd in the district of Magadha, which, as an
extreme border province, was perhaps never completely

339 Highly noteworthy also is the mentioned by the Southern Bud-
peculiar agreement between Bud- dhists; see/. £f.,iii. 160, 161.
dhist legends and those of the * The allusion to the five P&ndus
Vrihad-Aranyaka in regard to the in the introduction of the Lalita-
six teachers whom Ajdtas'atru and Vistara (Foucaux, p. 26) is probably,
Janaka had before they were in- with the whole passage in which
Btructed by Buddha and Ydjiiavalkya it occurs, an interpolation, being
respectively; see /. St., iii. 156, totally irreconcilable with the other
1 57. references to the Pdndavas contained

340 The Kurus are repeatedly in the work.

TRADITION AS TO BUDDHA'S AGE. 287

bralimanised ; so that the native inhabitants always re-
tained a kind of influence, and now gladly seized the
opportunity to rid themselves of the brahmanical hier-
archy and the system of caste. The hostile allusions to
these Magadhas in the Atharva-Samhita (see p. 147 — and
in the thirtieth book of the Vajasaneyi-Samhita ? pp. in,
112) might indeed possibly refer to their anti-brahmanical
tendencies in times antecedent to Buddhism : the similar
allusions in the Sama- Sutras, on the contrary (see p. 79),341
are only to be explained as referring to the actual flourish-
ing of Buddhism in Magadha.*

With reference to the tradition as to Buddha's age, the
various Buddhist eras which commence with the date of
his death exhibit the widest divergence from each other.
Amongst the Northern Buddhists fourteen different ac-
counts are found, ranging from B.C. 2422 to B.C. 546; the
eras of the Southern Buddhists, on the contrary, mostly
agree with each other, and all of them start from B.C. 544
or 543. This latter chronology has been recently adopted
as the correct one, on the ground that it accords best with
historical conditions, although even it displays a dis-
crepancy of sixty-six years as regards the historically
authenticated date of Chandragupta. But the Northern
Buddhists, the Tibetans as well as the Chinese — inde-
pendently altogether of their era, which may be of later
origin than this particular tradition t — agree in placing
the reign of king Kanishka, Kanerki, under whom
the third (or fourth) Buddhist council was held, 400
years after Buddha's death ; and on the evidence of coins,
this Kanishka reigned down to A.D. 40 (see Lassen, I. AK.,
ii. 412, 413), which would bring down the date of Buddha's
death to about the year B.C. 370. Similarly, the Tibetans
place Nagarjuna — who, according to the Kaja-taramgini,
was contemporaneous with Kanishka — 400 years after
the death of Buddha ; whereas the Southern Buddhists
make him live 500 years after that event. Nothing like

341 And on another occasion, in to the Buddhistic names of the

the Baudhdyaua- Stitra also; see mountains about Rdjagriha, the

note 126. capital of Magadha, found in Maha".

* For other points of contact in BhaVata, ii. 799.

the later Vedic literature, see pp. f Which is met with so early as

129, 138 [98, 99, 151]. Lassen has the seventh century A.D., in Hiuan

dnuvn attention, ill /. AK., ii. 79, Thsang.

288 BUDDHISTIC SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

positive certainty, therefore, is for the present attain-
able.342 A priori, however, it seems probable that the
council which was held in the reign of king Kanerki, and
from which the existing shape of the sacred scriptures of
the Northern Buddhists nominally dates, really took place
400, and not so much as 570, years after Buddha's death.
It seems probable also that the Northern Buddhists, -who
alone possess these Scriptures complete, preserved more
authentic information regarding the circumstances of the
time of their redaction — and consequently also regarding
the date of Nagarjuna — than did the Southern Buddhists,
to whom this redaction is unknown, and whose scriptures
exist only in a more ancient form which is alleged to
have been brought to Ceylon so early as B.C. 245, and
to have been there committed to writing about the year
B.C. 80 (Lassen, /. AK., ii. 435). — Of these various eras,
the only one the actual employment of which at an early
period can at present be proved is the Ceylonese, which,
like the other Southern eras, begins in B.C. 544. Here
the period indicated is the close of the fourth century
A.D. ; since the Dipavansa, a history of Ceylon in Pali
verse, which was written at that date, appears to make use
of this era, whereby naturally it becomes invested with a
certain authority.

If, now, we strip the accounts of Buddha's personality
of all supernatural accretion, we find that he was a king's
son, who, penetrated by the nothingness of earthly things,
forsook his kindred in order thenceforth to live on alms,
and devote himself in the first place to contemplation,
and thereafter to the instruction of his fellow-men. His
doctrine was,* that " men's lots in this life are conditioned
and regulated by the actions of a previous existence, that
no evil deed remains without punishment, and no good deed
without reward. From this fate, which dominates the in-
dividual within the circle of transmigration, he can only

342 Nor have the subsequent dis- any definite result; cf. my/. Str.,

(Missions of this topic by Max Mtiller ii. 216 ; Lit. C. J31., 1874, p. 719.
(1859), Hist. A. S. L., p. 264 ff., by * Though it is nowhere set forth

Westerpaard (1860), Ueber Buddha's in so succinct a form: it results, how-

Todesjahr (Breslau, 1862), and by ever, as the sura and substance of

Kern, Over deJaartdling dcr Zuidt-l. the various legends.
Jhiddhistcn (1874), so far yielded

BUDDHA 'S DOCTRINE. 289

escape * by directing his will towards the one thought of
liberation from this circle, by remaining true to this aim,
and striving with steadfast zeal after meritorious action
only; whereby finally, having cast aside all passions,
which are regarded as the strongest fetters in this prison-
house of existence, he attains the desired goal of complete
emancipation from re-birth." This teaching contains, in
itself, absolutely nothing new ; on the contrary, it is en-
tirely identical with the corresponding Brahmanical doc-
trine ; only the fashion in which Buddha proclaimed and
disseminated it was something altogether novel and un-
wonted. For while the Brahmans taught solely in their
hermitages, and received pupils of their own caste only, he
wandered about the country with his disciples, preach-
ing his doctrine to the whole people,f and — although still
recognising the existing caste-system, and explaining its
origin, as the Brahmans themselves did, by the dogma of.
rewards and punishments for prior actions — receiving as
adherents men of every caste without distinction. To
these he assigned rank in the community according to
their age and understanding, thus abolishing within the
community itself the social distinctions that birth en-
tailed, and opening up to all men the prospect of eman-
cipation from the trammels of their birth. This of itself
sufficiently explains the enormous success that attended
his doctrine : the oppressed all turned to him as their
redeemer.^ If by this alone he struck at the root of
the Brahmanical hierarchy, he did so not less by declar-

* See Schmidt, Dsanglun der minority. My idea is that the strict

Weise und der Thor, Pref., p. morality required by Buddhism of

xxxiii. ff. its adherents became in the long run

t See Lassen, I. A K., ii. 440, irksome to the people ; the original

441 ; Burnouf, Introd. d, VHistoire cult, too, was probably too simple.

du Buddhisme Indien, pp. 152- The Brahmans knew how to turn

212. both circumstances to the best ad-

£ Under these circumstance?, it vantage. Krishna- worship, as they

is indeed surprising that it should organised it, offered far more satis-

have been possible to dislodge Bud- faction to the sensual tastes of the

dhism from India. The great num- people ; while the various cults of

bers and influence of the Brahman the ^aktis, or female deities, most

caste do not alone completely ac- likely all date from a time shortly

count for the fact ; for, in proper- preceding the expulsion of the Bud-

tion to the whole people, the Brah- dhists from India,
tuans were after all only a very small

290 BUDDHISTIC SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

ing sacrificial worship — the performance of which was
the exclusive privilege of the Brahmans — to be utterly
unavailing and worthless, and a virtuous disposition and
virtuous conduct, on the contrary, to be the only real
means of attaining final deliverance. He did so, further,
by the fact that, wholly penetrated by the truth of his
opinions, he claimed to be in possession of the highest
enlightenment, and so by implication rejected the validity
of the Veda as the supreme source of knowledge. These
two doctrines also were in no way new ; till then, how-
ever, they had been the possession of a few anchorites ;
never before had they been freely and publicly proclaimed
to all.

Immediately after Buddha's death there was held, ac-
cording to the tradition, a council of his disciples in
Magadha, at which the Buddhist sacred scriptures were
compiled. These consist of three divisions (Pitakas),
the first of which— the Sutras* — comprises utterances
and discourses of Buddha himself, conversations with his
hearers ; while the Vinaya embraces rules of discipline, and
the Abhidharma, dogmatic and philosophical discussions.
A hundred years later, according to the tradition of the
Southern, but a hundred and ten according to that of the
Northern Buddhists, a second council took place at Patali-
putra for the purpose of doing away with errors of dis-
cipline which had crept in. With regard to the third
council, the accounts of the Northern and Southern Bud-
dhists are at issue. (Lassen, /. AK., ii. 232.) According
to the former, it was held in the seventeenth year of the
reign of Asuka, a year which we have to identify with B.C.
246 — which, however, is utterly at variance with the
equally traditional assertion that it took place 218 years
after Buddha's death, i.e., in B.C. 326. At this council the
precepts of the law were restored to their ancient purity,
and it was at the same time resolved to send forth mission-
aries to propagate the doctrines of Buddha, The Northern
Buddhists, on the contrary, place the third council 400
years after Buddha's death, in the reign of Kanishka, one

* This name alone might suggest the Si'itra, not in the Brdhmana,
tli;it Buddha himself flourished in period.

REDACTION OF THE BUDDHISTIC SCRIPTURES. 291

of the Turushka (Saka) kings of Kashmir, who, as we have
seen, is established, on numismatic evidence, to have reigned
until A.D. 40. The sacred scriptures of the Northern Bud-
dhists, which are alleged to have been fixed at this council,
are still extant, not merely in the Sanskrit originals them-
selves, which have recently been recovered in Nepal,* but
also in a complete Tibetan translation, bearing the name
Kdgyur, and consisting of one hundred volumes ; t as well
as, partially at least, in Chinese, Mongolian, Kalmuck, and
other translations. The scriptures of the Southern Bud-
dhists, on the contrary, are not extant in Sanskrit at all.
With reference to them, it is alleged that one year after
their arrangement at the third council, that of A£oka (i.e.,
in the year B.C. 245), they were brought by Mahendra, the
apostle of Ceylon, to that island, and by him translated

* By the British Resident there,
B. H. Hodgson, who presented MSS.
of them to the Asiatic Societies of
Calcutta, London, and Paris. The
Paris collection was further enriched
in 1837 with copies which the Soctite
Asiatique caused to be made through
Hodgson's agency. This led Bur-
nouf to write his great work, Intro-
duction d VHistoire du Huddhisme
Indien, Paris, 1844 [followed in the
end of 1852 hy his not less important
production, the translation of the
Lotus de la Bonne Loi ; see /. St., iii.
135 ff., 1864. The British Museum
and the University Library in Cam-
bridge are now also in possession of
similar MSS. A catalogue, com-
piled by Cowell and Eggeling, of
the Hodgson collection of Buddhist
Sanskrit MSS. in the possession of
the Royal Asiatic Society has just
appeared.]

f Regarding the compass and con-
tents of this Tibetan translation, our
first (and hitherto almost our sole)
information was supplied by a Hun-
garian traveller, Csoma Korosi, the
Anquetil du Perron of this century,
a man of rare vigour and energy, who
resided for a very long time in Tibet,
and who by his Tibetan grammar
and dictionary has conquered this

language for European science. Two
pretty extensive works from the
Kdgyur have already been edited
and translated : the Dsanglun in St.
Petersburg by Schmidt, and the
llgya C'her Rol Pa (Lalita-Vistara)
in Paris by Foucaux. [Since then
L. Feer, especially, has rendered
valuable service in this field by his
Tcxtes tires du, Kandjour (1864-71, 1 1
parts) ; also Schiefner, e.g., by his
editions of the Vimala-pramottara-
ratnamdld (1858) — the Sanskrit text
of which was subsequently edited by
Foucaux (cf. also J.Str., i. 210 ff.) —
and of the Bharatce Responsa (1875).
Schiefner has further just issued a
translation from the Kdgyur of a
group of Buddhist tales, under the
title, Mahdlcdtydyana und Konig
Tsckanda Pradjota. The ninth of
these stories contains (see p. vii. 26
ff.) what is now probably the oldest
version of the so-called 'Philoso-
pher's Ride,' which here, as in the
Piifichatantra (iv. 6), is related of
the king himself; whereas in an
Arabian tale of the ninth century,
communicated in the appendix (p.
66) and in our own mediaeval version,
it is told of the king's wise coun-
sellor.

BUDDHISTIC SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

into the native Singhalese.343 Not until some 165 years
later (i.e., in B.C. 80) were they consigned to writing in
that language, having been propagated in the interval by
oral transmission only.344 After a further period of 500
years (namely, between A.D. 410 and 432) they were at
length rendered into the sacred Pali tongue (cf. Lassen,
/. AK., ii. 43 5 X in which they are now extant, and from
which in turn translations into several of the languages of
Farther India were subsequently made.* As to the relation
of these scriptures of the Southern Buddhists to those of
their Northern co-religionists, little is at present known
beyond the fact that both present in common the general
division into three parts (Sutra, Vinaya, Abhidharma).
In extent they can hardly compare with the latter,345 nor
even, according to the foregoing exposition,t in authen-
ticity.346 Unfortunately but little information has as yet

343 It was not the Pali text itself,
but only the oral commentary (attha-
kathd) belonging to it, which was
translated into Singhalese. (See the
following notes.) So at least it is
stated in the tradition in the Mahd-
vansa. For the rest, it is extremely
doubtful how much of the present
Tipitaka may have actually been in
existence then. For if we compare
the statements contained in tl»e
Khabra missive — addressed by king
Piyadasi to the synod of Magadha,
which was then engaged in the ac-
commodation of schisms that had
sprung up — relative to the sacred
texts (dhamma-paHyfiydni) as they
then stood, a mighty difference be-
comes apparent ! See Burnonf,
Lotus, p. 724 ff. ; 7. St., iii. 172 ff.

344 See Mah;ivan*a, chap, xxxiii.
p. 207 ; Tumour, Preface, p. xxix. ;
Muir, Orif/. Sansk. Texts, ii. 69, 70
(572) ; /. St., v. 26.

* That is to say, translated back
again (?); for this sacred language must
be the same that Mahendra brought
with him ? [Not the texts them-
selves, only their interpretation (at-
thakathd) was now rendered back
ngain into Pali, namely, by Buddha-
ghosha, who came from Magadha, and
resided a number of years in Ceylon.]

346 The extent of the Pali Tipi$aka
is also very considerable ; see the
accounts in Hardy's Eastern Mona-
chism, pp. 167-170. On the ear-
liest mention of the name Tipitaka
in a Sanskrit inscription of Buddha-
ghosha at Kanheri (in the Journ.
Bombay Er. R. A. 5., v. 14), see /.
St., v. 26.

t If indeed the case be as here
represented ! I can in the mean-
while only report. [Unfortunately,
I had trusted to Lassen's account,
in the passage cited in the text,
instead of referring to Tumour him-
self (pp. xxix. xxx.) ; the true state
of the case (see the preceding notes)
I have set forth in 7. St., iii. 254.]

S4C rpne question which of the two
redactions, that of the Northern or
that of the Southern Buddhists, is
the more original has been warmly
debated by Tumour and Hodgson.
(The latter's articles on the subject
are now collected in a convenient
form in his Essays on Languages,
Lit. and Rel. of Nepal and TV)ct,
1874.) Burnouf, also, has discussed
the question in his Lotus de la Bonne
Loi, p. 862 ff., and has decided, in
principle no doubt rijrhtly, that both
possess an equal title. Compare
here 7. St., iii. 176 ff., where certain

SCRIPTURES OF SOUTHERN BUDDHISTS. 293

been imparted regarding their contents, &c.* Southern
Buddhism, however, supplies us with copious and pos-
sibly trustworthy accounts of the first centuries of its
existence, as well as of the growth of the Buddhist faith
generally, a Pali historical literature having grown up in
Ceylon at a comparatively early period,340* one of the most
important works of which — the Mahavansa of Mahanama,
composed towards A.D. 480 — has already been published,
both in the original text and in an English version.

doubts are urged by me against some
of his assumptions, as also specially
with regard to Buddhaghosha's
highly significant part in the shap-
ing of the IMli Tipitaka. Kern has
recently, in his Essay Over de Jaar-
telling der zuidelijke J3uddhisten,gone
far beyond those objections of mine ;
but, as it seems to me, he goes fur-
ther than the case requires ; see Lit.
C. Bl., 1874, p. 719. At any rate,
even fully acknowledging the part
belonging to Buddhagliosha, it ap-
pears to me now that the claim of
the Pdli Tipitaka to superior origi-
nality is, after all, far stronger th;in
that of the Sanskrit texts of the
Northern Buddhists, from which, as
from the sacred writings of the Jai-
nas, it is distinguished, greatly to its
advantage, by its comparative sim-
plicity and brevity. Cf. also S. Beal's
very pertinent observations in the
Ind. Antiq., iv. 90.

* The most authentic information
as yet is to be found in the Intro-
duction to G. Tumour's edition of
the MahaVansa (1835, Ceylon) and
in the scattered essays of this scholar;
also, though only in very general
outline, in Westergaard's Catalogue
of the Copenhagen Indian MSS.
(1846, Havniae), which comprise a
tolerable number of these Pali works,
purchased by the celebrated llask
in Ceylon. Clough's writings, too,
contain much that bears upon this
subject : also Spiegel's Anecdola
Palica. Exceedingly copious infor-
mation regarding Southern Bud-
dhism is contained in a work that
has just reached me, by R. Spence

Hardy, Eastern Monachism, an Ac-
count of the Origin, Laws,<kc., of the
Order of Mendicants founded by Go'
tama Buddha, London, 1850, 444 pp.
The author was twenty years a Wes-
leyan missionary in Ceylon, and ap-
pears to have employed this time to
excellent purpose. [This was fol-
lowed in 1853 by his Manual of
Buddhism, also a very valuable work.
— The study of Pali and its litera-
ture has recently taken a great spring,
particularly through the labours of
V. Fausbb'll (Dhammapada, 1855 ;
Five Jdtakas, 1861 ; Dasarathajd-
taka, 1871 ; Ten Jdtakas, 1872 ; The
Jdtaka, together with its Commentary,
Pt. i., 1875), James de Alwis (Intro-
duction to Kaclichdy ana's Grammar,
1863 ; Attanayaluvansaj 1866), P.
Grimblot (ExtraUs du Paritta, 1870),
L. Peer (Daharasutta and others of
these Pali-suttas in his Textes tires
du Kandjour, 1869 ff.), Joh. Mi-
nayeff (Pdtimokkhasutta and Vutto-
ddya, 1869; Grammaire Palie, 1874,
Russian edition 1872), E. Kuhn
( Kachchdyanappalcarance Specimen,
1869, 1871 ; BeitrdgezurPdli-Gram-
matik, 1875), E. Senart (Grammaire
de Kachchdyana, 1871), R. Childers
(Khuddakapdt/ia, 1869; Dictionary
of the Pali Language, 1872-75), M.
Cooma"ra Svdmy (Suttanipdta, 1874);
to which may be added the gram-
matical writings of W. Storck (1858,
1862) and Fr. Miiller (1867-69).

34611 Northern Buddhism has like-
wise found its historians. The
Tibetan Tdrana'tha (see note 350)
cites as his precursors Bhatagha^i,
Indradatta, Kshemendrabhadra.

294 B UDDHISTIC SA NSKRIT LITER A TURE.

With respect now to the scriptures of the Northern
Buddhists, the Sanskrit originals, namely — for it is these
alone that concern us here — we must, in the first place,
keep in view that, even according to the tradition, their
existing text belongs only to the first century of our yra;
so that, even although there should be works among them
dating from the two earlier councils, yet these were in
any case subjected to revision at the third. In the next
place, it is a priori improbable — nor is it indeed directly
alleged — that the whole of the existing works owed their
origin to this third council, and amongst them there must
certainly be many belonging to a later period. And lastly,
we must not even assume that all the works translated in
the Tibetan Kagyur were already in existence at the time
when translations into Tibetan began to be made (in the
seventh century) ; for the Kagyur was not completed all
at once, but was only definitively fixed after a prolonged
and gradual growth.* From these considerations alone,
it is abundantly plain how cautious we ought to be in
making use of these works. But there is still more to be
borne in mind. Eor even supposing the origin of the most
ancient of them really to date from the first and second
councils,347 still, to assume that they were recorded in
writing so early as this is not only prima facie question-
able, but is, besides, distinctly opposed to analogy, since we
are expressly informed that, with the Southern" Buddhists,
the consignment to writing only took place in the year
B.C. So, long subsequent to both councils. The main pur-
pose of the third council under Kanishka may possibly
just have been to draw up written records; had such
records been already in existence, Buddhism could hardly
have been split up thus early into eighteen different sects,
as wo are told was the case in Kanishka's time, only 400
years after Buddha's death. Why, during all the eighteen
centuries that have since elapsed no such amount of schism
has sprung up, evidently because a written basis was then
secured. Lastly, one important point which must not be

* According to Csoma K6i6*i, the Bh.ibra missive as to the d1iamma,~

Tibetan translations date from the paliydydni as they then stood render

seventh to the thirteenth centuries, such a supposition extremely doubt-

j>rincipally from the ninth. fill here, just as in the case of the

347 The data contained in the 1'ali Tiptyaka (.see note 343).

LANGUAGE OF BUDDHISTIC SCRIPTURES. 295

lo.st sight of in estimating the authenticity of the existing
Buddhist scriptures is the circumstance that the sources
from which they were drawn were in a different language.
True, we cannot make out with absolute certainty in what
language Buddha taught and preached ; but as it was to
the people he addressed himself, it is in the highest degree
probable that he spoke in the vernacular idiom. Again,
it was in Magadha * that the first council of his disciples
assembled, and it was doubtless conducted in the dialect
of this country, which indeed passes as the sacred language
of Buddhism. The same remark applies to the second
council, as well as to the one which, according to the
Southern Buddhists, is the third, both of which were like-
wise held in Magadha. f Mahendra, who converted Cey-
lon in the year following this third council, took with him
to that island the Magadhi language, afterwards called
Pali : J this, too, is the dialect in which the inscriptions of
this period, which at least bespeak Buddhistic influence,
are composed.348 At the last council, on the contrary,
which falls some 300 years later, and at which the existing
scriptures of the Northern Buddhists are alleged to have

* In the old capital (Rajagriha). down to us officially under the name

•f- In the new capital (Pataliputra). of Msigadhi, and which presents

J That Piili could have been de- special features of resemblance to

veloped in Ceylon from an imported that dialect, rather, which is em-

S.mskrit is altogether inconceivable, ployed in the insciiptions of Girnar.

348 'jiue edicts of Piyadasi present The question has therefore been raised

themselves to us in three distinct whether Pdli is really entitled to the

dialects. One of these, that of name Magadhi, which in the Pdli

Dhauli, exhibits a number of the literature is applied to it, or whether

peculiarities which distinctively be- it may not have received this title

long to the Ardhama'gadhi of the merely from motives of ecclesiastical

Jainas, and the dialect designated policy, having reference to the sig-

Magadhi by the Prdkrit grammar!- uificance of the land of Magadha in

ans. It is in it that the Bhabra mis- the history of Buddhism. Wester-

sive addressed to the third council gaardevensurmises( Uebcrdenaltesten

is composed — a circumstance which Zeitraum der indischen Geschichte, p.

conclusively proves that it was then 87 n., 1862) that Pali is identical

the official language of Buddhism, with the dialect of Ujjayini, the

and, in point of fact, Magadhi (since mother-tongue of Maheudra, who

Dhauli belongs geographically to was born there ; and Ernst Kuhn

this district) ; see 7. /Stf.,iii. 180. and (Beitr&ge zur Pdli-Grammatik, p. 7,

my Essay on the Bhagavati of the 1875) adopts this opinion. But

Jainas, i. 396. But then, on the Pischel (Jenaer Lit. Zeit., 1875, p.

other hand, this dialect displays a 316) and Childers (Pali Diet., Pre-

particularly marked divergence from face, p. vii) pronounce against it.
Pali, the language which has come

B UDDHISTIC SANSKRIT LITER A TURE :

been compiled, the language employed for this purpose
was not Magadhf, but Sanskrit, although not the purest.
The reason of this lies simply in the locality. For this
concluding council was not held in Magadha, nor even in
Hindustan at all, whose rulers were not then favourably
disposed towards Buddhism, but in Kashmir, a district
which — partly no doubt in consequence of its being peopled
exclusively by Aryan tribes,* but partly also (see pp. 26,
45, 178) because, like the North- West of India generally,
it has to be regarded as a chief seat of the cultivation of
Indian grammar — had preserved its language purer than
those Aryans had been able to do who had emigrated to
India, and there mingled with the native inhabitants.
Those priests,f therefore, who here undertook the compila-
tion and recording in writing of the sacred scriptures were,
if not accomplished grammarians, yet in all probability
sufficiently conversant with grammar to be able to write
passable Sanskrit.^

Agreeably to what has just been set forth,349 it is in the
highest degree risky to regard, as has hitherto been done,

* The Greeks aud Scythians were
both too scanty in numbers, and too
short a time in close contact with
the natives, to exercise any influence
in the way of modifying the lan-
guage.

f And it was evidently priests,
educated men therefore, who formed
the third council. In the first two,
laymen may have taken part, but
the Buddhistic hierarchy had had
time to develop sufficiently in the
interval.

J Burnouf thinks differently, Hist,
du Buddh., pp. 105, 106, as also
Lassen, /. AK. , ii. 9, 491-493 [hut
pee 7. St., iii. 139, 179 ft'.].

349 Beside the two branches of
Buddhistic literature discussed in
the foregoing pages — the Pali texts
of the Southern and the Sanskrit
texts of the Northern Buddhists —
there stands a third group, occupy-
ing, from its original constitution,
.1 kind of intermediate place between
the other two — namely, the Ardha-
magadhi texts of the Jainas. The
sect of the Jainas is in all probability

to be regarded us one of the schis-
matic sects that branched off from
Buddhism in the first centuries of
its existence. The legendary nar-
ratives of the personal activity of
its founder, Mahdvira, not only re-
fer it exclusively to the same dis-
trict which Buddhism also recognises
as its holy land, but they, moreover,
display so close an affinity to the
accounts of Buddha's ministry that
we cannot but recognise in the two
groups of narratives merely varying
forms of common reminiscences.
Another indication that the Jaina
sect arose in this way out of Bud-
dhism— although by some it has even
been regarded as of pre-Buddhistic
origin — is afforded by the circum-
stance, amongst others, that its sacred
texts are styled, not Sutras, but
ATiyas, and consequently, in contra-
distinction to the oldest Buddhist
texts, which date from the Vedic
Sutra period, belong rather to the
Anqa stage, that is to say, to the
period when the Afigas or VedaTigas,
works posterior to the Vedic Sutras,

DOUBTFUL AUTHORITY FOR BUDDHA'S AGE. 297

the data yielded by a Buddhistic literature fashioned in
this way as valid for the epoch of Buddha himself, which
is removed from the last council by an interval of four,
or, if we accept the Southern chronology, of nearly six,
centuries. Oral traditions, committed to writing in a
different language, after such a series of years, and more-
over only extant in a mass of writings that lie several
centuries apart, and of which the oldest portions have still
to be critically sifted out, can only be used with extreme
caution ; and a pri ori the data they furnish serve, not
so much to characterise the epoch about which they tell,
as rather the epoch, in particular, in which they received
their present shape. But however doubtful, according to

were produced. But there is a
further circumstance which is quite
conclusive as to this point — namely,
that the language in which these
texts are composed, and which, ac-
cording to the scholiasts, is Ardha-
raagadhi, exhibits a more de-
veloped and considerahly later
phase than the language of the
Pali texts, to which, in its turn,
the Ptili scholia expressly apply
the designation Magadhi. (At the
same time, there are also dia-
lectic differences between the two.)
See my paper on the Bbagavati
of the Jainas, pp. 441, 373, 396
ff. , 416. To the eleven principal
Angas have to be added a large
number of other writings, styled
Updiiga, Mula-Stltra, Kalpa- Sutra,
&c. An enumeration of the entire
set, showing a total of fifty works,
consisting of about 600,000 slokas,
may be seen in Rajendra Ldla
Mitra's Notices of Sanskrit MSS.,
iii. 67 ff., 1874. Of these texts —
our knowledge of the Jainas is
otherwise derived from Brahmanic
sources only — all that has hitherto
been published is a fragment of
the fifth Afiga or Bhagavati-Sutra,
dating perhaps from the first cen-
turies of our era, edited by myself
(1866-67). In /• St., x. 254 ff.
(1867), I have also given an account
of the Siirya-prajnapti, or seventh
Updfiga - Sutra, a commentary on

which is said to have been composed
by Bhadrabaliusviimin, author of
the Kalpa-Stitra, a work seemingly
written in the seventh century.
Lastly, there is a translation by
Stevenson (1848) of this Kalpa-
Sutra itself, which stands thirtieth
in the list of the sacred texts. Cf.
also S. J. Warren, Over tie godsdunst-
ige en wijsgeeriye Begrippen der
Jainas, 1875. Thanks to G. Biihler's
friendly exertions, the Royal Library
in Berlin has lately acquired posses-
sion of nearly all these fifty sacred
texts, with or without commen-
taries, and in good old MSS., so
that we may hope soon to be
better informed regarding them. —
But the Jainas have also a great sig-
nificance in connection with Sanskrit
literature, more especially for gram-
mar and lexicography, as well as on
account of the historical and legend-
ary matter which they have preserved
(see above, p. 214, and cf. my
paper on the Satrumjaya Ma'hdtmya,
1858). One of their most honoured
names is thnt of Hemachandra, who
flourished in the time of the Gur-
jara prince KumaYapdla (1088-1172).
Under the title Yoga-Sastra he com-
posed a compendium of the Jaiua
doctrines in twelve praMsas, the
first four of which, treating of their
ethics, have recently been edited
and translated by Ernst "Windisch
(Z. D. M. G., xxviii., 185 ff , 1874).

298 BUDDHISTIC SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

this view, are the validity and authority of these writings
in reference to the subjects which they have hitherto been
taken to illustrate, they are nevertheless important, on
the other hand, for the history of the inner development
of Buddhism itself ; though even here, of course, their trust-
worthiness is altogether relative. For the many marvel-
lous stories they recount both of Buddha himself and of
his disciples and other adherents, as well as the extravagant
mythology gradually developed in them, produce upon the
whole the impression of a wild and formless chaos of fan-
tastic inventions.

Our chief object must now, of course, be to establish a
relative chronology and order of sequence amongst these
various writings — a task which Burnouf, whose researches
are our sole authority on the subject,* also set himself,
and which he has executed with great judgment and
tolerable conclusiveness. And, first, of the Sutras, or
accounts of Buddha himself. Burnouf divides these into
two classes : the simple Stitras, and the so-called Mahd-
vaipulya- or Mahdydna- Sutras, which he declares to be
the more modern of the two in point of language, form,
and doctrine. As far as the latter point is concerned, he
is no doubt right. For, in the first place, in the Maha-
vaipulya-Sutras Buddha appears almost exclusively sur-
rounded by gods and Boclhisattvas (beings peculiar to the
Buddhistic mythology) ; whereas in the simple Sutras it
is human beings who mostly form his following, witli
whom gods are only now and then associated. And, in
the second place, the simple Sutras do not exhibit any
trace of those doctrines which are not common Buddhistic
property, but belong to the Northern Buddhists only, as,
for example, the worship of Amitabha, Manjus'ri, Avaloki-
tesvara, Adibuddha,f and the Dhyanibuddhas ; and further,
do not contain any trace of mystic spells and magic
formulas, all of which are found, and in abundance, in the

* I cannot refrain from express- ttire death is an irreparable loss to

ing here, in a few words at least, learning, as well as to all who knew

my sincere and profound sorrow him, and, which is the same thing,

that now, as these sheets, which I revered and loved him.

would so gladly have submitted to f The word is found in a totally

his judgment, are passing through different sense in those portions of

the press, Eugene Burnonf has been the Mdndukyopaiiishad which are

taken from among us. His prema- due to G.uid ipdda.

SUTRA-P1TAKA.

299

Mahavaipuly a- Sutras only. But whether the circumstance
that the language of the lengthy poetical pieces, which
are inserted with special frequency in these last, appears
in a much more degenerated form — to wit, a medley of
Sanskrit, Prakrit, and Pali — than is the case with the
prose portions, is to be taken as a proof of the posteriority
of the Mahavaipuly a- Sutras, does not seem to be quite so
certain as yet. Do these poetical portions, then, really
agree so completely, in form and substance, with the
prose text in respect to the several points just instanced,
that they may be regarded as merely an amplification or
recapitulation of it ? Or are they not rather distinguished
from it precisely in these points, so that we might regard
them as fragments of older traditions handed down in
verse, exactly like the analogous pieces which occur so
often in the Brahmanas ? * In the latter case we should
have to regard them as proof, rather, that the Buddhist
legends, &c., were not originally composed in Sanskrit,
but in vernacular dialects. From the account of the

* We must be content witli simply
putting- the question, as we are still
unfortunately without the Sanskrit
text of even a single one of these
Sutras ; the sole exception being an
insignificant fragment from the
Laiita-vistara, one of the Mabdvai-
pulya-Sutras, communicated by Fou-
caux at the end of his edition of the
Tibetan translation of this work.
[The entire text of the Laiita-
vistara, in twenty-seven chapters,
has since appeared in the Bibl. Ind.,
edited by Kajendra Lala Mitra
(1853 ff.); the translation breaks
off at chapter iii. Foucaux pub-
lished the fourth chapter of the
Sad-dharma-pundarlka in 1852, and
Leon Feer an Avad&na, named
Pratihdrya, in 1867. Lastly, the
Jtdranda-vyuha, a terribly inflated
Mahaydua-Siitra, in honour of Ava-
lokitesvara, has been edited by
SatyavrataSaniiisrami (Calc., 1873).
A translation of the Laiita-vistara,
begun by S. Lefmann in 1874,
embraces, so far, the first five
chapters, and is accompanied with

very copious notes. — The conjecture
expressed above as to the poetical
portions had previously been ad-
vanced— although when I wrote I
was not aware of the fact — in the
Journ, As. Soc. Heng., 1851, p. 283,
see I. St., iii. 140. It was subse-
quently worked out in greater
detail by Kajendra L. Mitra, in a
special essay on the dialect of these
Ga'tha's, likewise in Journ. As. Soc.
Beng. (1854, No. 6). Here the date
of their composition is even carried
back to the period immediately suc-
ceeding Buddha's death, see Muir,
Oriff. S. Texts, ii.2 115 ff. Kern,
Over de Jaartelling, p. 108 ff., does
not see in these Gdtha'sany peculiar
dialect, but merely later versions of
stanzas originally composed in pure
Prakrit. Lastly, Edward Miiller, in
his tract, Der Dialekt der Gdthd des
Laiita-vistara (Weimar, 1874) per-
ceives in them the work of poets
who were not quite at home in
Sanskrit, and who extended to it
the laxness of their own verna-
cular.

300 BUDDHISTIC SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

Chinese traveller, Fa Hian, who made a pilgrimage from
China to India and back in A.D. 399-414, it would ap-
pear that the Mahavaipuly a- Sutras were then already
pretty widely diffused, since he mentions several of the
doctrines peculiar to them as extensively studied.350

Of the simple Sutras, it is at least possible, in the ab-
sence of evidence, that such as are concerned solely with
Buddha's personality may be more ancient than those
relating also to persons who lived some hundreds of years
later; but beyond this we cannot at present determine
anything. Their contents are of a somewhat multifarious
description, and for the several divisions we also find spe-
cial technical designations.* They contain either simple
legends, styled Ityukta and Vydkarana (corresponding to

350 rp[le accounts of Fa Hian are
far surpassed in moment by those
of Hiuan Thsang, who travelled
over India in the years 629-645 A.D.
Of special importance also are the
Chinese translations of Buddhistic
works, \vhirh afe nearly all based
\i pon the texts of the Northern
Buddhists, and some of which pro-
fess to be very ancient. Of four
such translations of the Lalita-
vistara, the first is said to have
been made at a date so early as
A.D. 70-76, the second in A.D. 308,
and the third in 652 ; see on this
I. St., iii. 140, viii. 326. Similarly,
the Sad-dhartna-pundarika is said to
have been thrice translated ; first
in A.D. 280, next in A.D. 397-402,
and again in A.D. 601-605. Beal, in
t\ie Indian Aiitiq.,\v.C)O, 9 1, mentions
not only a translation of the Brah-
niajdla- Sutra of the year A.D. 420,
but also a whole set of fifty Sutras
(amongst them, e.g., the Sdmajdtaka)
"translated at different dates, from
A.D. 70 to 600, and by various
scholars, all of them from Sanskrit
or Pilli," — all, therefore, from the
Indian original, — whereas the trans-
lations of later times were mostly
derived through the medium of the
Tibetan. For the criticism of the
respective texts, fuller particulars
of these, iu part so ancient, transla-

tions, would of course be of great
importance. Of one of these works,
a version of the A bhinishkramana-
Sutra, a complete translation haa
recently been published by Beal,
under the title, The Jtomantic Le-
yend of Sdkya Buddha, 1875. The
special points of relation here found
to Christian legends are very striking.
The question which party was the
borrower Beal properly leaves un-
determined, yet in all likelihood we
have here simply a- similar case to
that of the appropriation of Christian
legends by the worshippers of Krish-
na.— Highly important for the his-
tory of Northern Buddhism is
W. Wassiljew's work, drawn from
Tibeto-Chinese sources, Der Bud-
c/hismvs, 1860, as also TaVandtha's
History of Buddhism in India, a
work composed so late as 1 608, but
resting upon older, and in part
Sanskrit, authorities : rendered into
Russian by Wassiljew, — Tibetan
text, with German version, by
Schiefner, 1869; cf. also Lassen,
/. AK., ii. 6, note.

* According to Spiegel, in his re-
view, of which I have frequently
availed myself here, of Burnouf's
work, in the Jahrb. fur wiss, Kritik,
1845, p. 547, most of these names
are also found among the Southern
Buddhists.

SUTRA-PITAKA. 301

the Itihasa-Puranas in the Brahmanas) ; or legends in the
form of parables, styled Avaddna, in which we find many
elements of the later animal- fables;351 or further, tales of
presages and wonders, Adbhuta-dharma ; or again, single
stanzas or songs of several stanzas (Geya and G-dthd} serv-
ing to corroborate previous statements ; or lastly, special
instruction in, and discussion of, definite topics, denomi-
nated Upadesa and Niddna. All these reappear in a
similar wav, onlv in a much more antique guise and under

*/ ' »/ T. O /

different names,* in the Brahmanas and Aranyakas, as
well as in the prose legends interspersed here and there
throughout the Maha-Bharata, which in style also (though
not in language) offer the greatest resemblance to these
Buddhistic Sutras. Quite peculiar to these latter,f how-
ever, are the passages called Jdtakas, which treat of the
prior births of Buddha and the Bodhisattvas.

Now those data in the Sutras which have hitherto been
taken as valid for Buddha's time, but which we can only
consider as valid, primarily, for the time when the Sutras
were composed, are chiefly of a kind bearing upon the his-
tory of the Indian religion. For just as Buddha recog-
nised the existence of caste, so, too, he naturally recognised
the then existing Hindu Pantheon.! But it must not by
any means be imagined that in Buddha's time this Pan-
theon had attained to that phase of development which
we here find in the Sutras, assuming that we follow the

351 j<Yom the Chinese translation legends stand distinctly related to

Stan. Julien has published quite a corresponding Brnhmanic popular

collection of such stories, for the tales and legends, which they have

most part very short (Leg Avaddnas, t-imply transformed [<>r conversely,

Contes et Apologues Indiens, 1859). into which they have themselves

The high importance of these, as been transformed] to suit the object

well as of the Buddhistic Jataka and in view.

other stories generally, in the lite- + Lassen's assertion (7. AK., ii.

rature of the fable and fairy-tale, is 453) that " Buddha recognised no

shown in full relief by Benfey in the gods" refers only to the circum-

introduction to his translation of the stance that they too are regarded by

Panchatantra. him as subjected to the eternal sue-

* Only Gdthd and Upadesa (Adesa cession of existence ; their existence

at least) occur also in the Brah- itself he in no way denied, for in the

rnanas. doctrines put into h'S mouth there

t Although connecting links are is constant reference to them. [He

found here and there in the Mauri- abolished their significance, how-

Bhdrata also, especiallyin the twelfth ever, as he did that of caste.]
book. Indeed, many of the Buddhist

302 BUDDHISTIC SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

Southern chronology and place Buddha in the sixth cen-
tury B.C., that is, doubtless, in the period of the Brahmanas,
— works in which a totally different Pantheon prevails.
But if, on the other hand, he did not teach until the fourth
century B.C., as must be the case if the assertion of the
Tibetans and Chinese be correct, to the effect that the
third council took place under Kanishka (who lived A.D.
40), four hundred years after Buddha's death — and this
view is favoured by the circumstance that of the names of
teachers who are mentioned as contemporaries of Buddha,
such as reappear in the Brahmanical writings all belong
to the literature of the Vedic Sutras, not to that of the
Brahmanas — there would at least be a greater possibility,
a priori, that the Pantheon found in the Buddhistic Sutras,
together with similar data, might have some validity
for the time of Buddha, which on this supposition would
be much nearer to them. The details of the subject are
briefly these. The Yakshas, Garudas, Kinnaras,352 so often
mentioned in these Sutras, are still quite unknown in
the Brahmanas : the name Danava, too, occurs but sel-
dom (once as an epithet of Vritra, a second time as an epi-
thet of Sushna), and never in the plural to designate
the Asuras generally ; 353 nor are the gods ever styled
Suras there.354 The names of the Nagas and .Mahoragas
are never mentioned,* although serpent-worship itself
(sarpa-vidyd} is repeatedly referred to ; f the Kumbhan-

352 \Vhere the Kinnaras and their mention of the term in Nir., iii. 8,

wives appear as 'heavenly choris- is patently an interpolation, as it is

tors,' as, e.g., in the Meghaduta, Ra- quite foreign to the Vedic texts,
glmvansa, and Mahd-Bharata, I COD- * "In the sense of elephant the

j-cture the word to be a popular word nuga occurs once in the Vrihad-

etymological adaptation from the Arany.aka. Mitdhy., i. I. 24'' (Er-

Greek Kivvpd, although the latter is rata, first German ed.). [Also in the

properly only used of mournful, Ait. Br., viii. 22; whereas in the

plaintive tones : kimnara itself is Sat. Br., xi. 2. 7. 12, maluindga is

formed after the model of kim- better interpreted, with Sdyana, as

punish a. 'serpent.' The antiquity of this

393 This is a mistake : the Danus, latter meaning is favoured by ety-

Danavas, appear even in the Rik ; rnology. cf. Kngl. snake ; see Kuhn's

nay, the former in the Avesta as Zcitsrhrift, ix. 233, 234.]
well; see Af>dn Yesht,§J$; Far-card. f In the Atharva- Samhitii, in

F., § 37i 38 (here as earthly foes?) particular, many prayers are ad-

364 Sura is a bastard formation dressed to the Harpas ; in the ^at.

from asura, resting on a misunder- lir. they are once identified with the

e'anding of the word, which was lolcas : can the term have originally

wrongly analysed into a-sura. The denoted ' the stars' and o'.her spirits

SUTRA-PITAKA.

303

das,* too, are absent. This lack of allusion in the Brahmanas
to any of these genii might be explained by supposing them
to have been principally the divinities of the inferior classes
of the people, to which classes Buddha specially addressed
himself, and to whose conceptions and range of ideas he
was therefore obliged to have particular regard. In this
there may be a great deal of truth, but the remaining cycle
of deities, also, which appears in the Buddhistic Sutras,
is completely that belonging to the epic poetry. In the
Brahmanas, on the contrary, the name of Kuvera, for in-
stance, is only mentioned once t (and that in the Brahmana
of the White Yajus) ; 355 S*iva and Samkara only occur along
with other appellative epithets of Pudra, and are never
employed alone as proper names to denote him ; the name
of Narayana, again, is of extremely rare occurrence, whilst
Sakra,356 Vasava,357 Hari, Upendra, Janardana, Bitiimaha,
are totally unknown. We thus perceive that the Buddhistic
Sutras, in all of which these names are prevalent, repre-
sent ^precisely the same stage as the Epic literature.! The

of the air? [Serpent-worship has
unquestionably mythological, sym-
bolical relations ; but, on the other
hand, it has also a thoroughly real-
istic background.] The Maitrayani-
Tlpanishad does, indeed, mention
the Suras, Yakshas, and Uragas ; but
iliis Upanishad belongs (see p. 98)
altogether to the later period. It is
allied to these Buddhistic Sutras in
contents, and probably also in age.

* A kind of dwarfs with ' testicles
as large as jars' (?). In the later
Brahmanical writings they are
styled Kushmdndas, Ktishmdndas
('gourd'?); see also Mahidhara
on Vuj. Siimh., xx. 14. [Cf. the
Kumbka-mushkas in Ath., viii. 6. 15,
xi. 9. 17, and perhaps also the sisna-
devas in Rik, vii. 21. 5, x. 99. 3;
Uothon Nir.,p. 47.],

f The Taittiriya-Anmyaka, which
contains several of these names, can-
not exactly be ranked with the Bnih-
m:ma literature.

^5 Also in the parallel passages in
the Rik Sutras, and once besides in
the Ath. S. (viii. 10. 28).

850 As an appellative epithet of

Indra, Sakra occurs in the Rik even,
but it is there employed of other
gods as well.

357 As an epithet of Indra (but
not as a name for him) Vtisava oc-
curs once in Ath. S., vi. 82. i. In
the Nirukti also, xii. 41, it appears
in direct connection with him, but at
the same time also with Agni ; indeed,
it is with Agni and not with Indra
that the Vasus are chiefly associated
in theBrdhmanas ; see /. St., v. 240,
241.

J The Mdra so frequently mention-
ed would almost appear to be a purely
Buddhistic invention ; in Brahma-
nical writings I have nowhere met
with him. [MinayefTs conjecture,
in the introduction to his Grammaire
Pdlic, trad, par Stan. Guyard, p. viii.,
that the name Miira is directly re-
lated to Mairya, an epithet of Ahri-
man in the Avesta, and in such a
way that both "remontcnt d une
cpoqve antirieurc a la separation des
Jranicnsct des IJindous," is rendered
extremely doubtful by the mere
circumstance that nothing of tho
sort occurs anywhere in the Vcdc

304 BUDDHISTIC SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

non-mention of Krishna 358 proves nothing to the contrary,
the worship of Krishna .as a divinity being of altogether
uncertain date : 359 besides, it is still a question whether we
have not really to understand him by the Asura Krishna
who is repeatedly referred to in these Sutras (see p. 148).
— Although — to notice other points besides the Pantheon
— the lunar asterisms in the Sutras begin with Krittikd,
that is to say, still retain their old order, we cannot
adduce this as proof that a comparatively high antiquity
ought to be assigned to these writings, for the new order
of the asterisms probably only dates from the fourth or
fifth century A.D. ; all that results from this is, that the
particular passages are earlier than this last-mentioned
date. As an indication, on the contrary, of a date not
specially ancient, we must certainly regard the mention of
the planets, as also the occurrence of the word dindra
(from denarius), which Burnouf (p. 424, n.) has twice met
with in the older Sutras (see Lassen, /. AK., ii. 348).

As regards the second division of the Buddhist scrip-
tures, the Vinaya-Pitaka, or precepts concerning discipline
and worship, these are almost entirely wanting in the
Paris collection, doubtless because they are looked upon
as peculiarly holy, and are therefore kept as secret as pos-
sible by the priests, being indeed specially intended for

(Gopatha-Br., i. 28, see note 166, is that of Krishna" (7. St., iii. 161), is

only an apparent exception, due unfortunately not before us in the

probably to Buddhistic influence), original text : might not the passage

If, therefore, a direct connection simply mean, " Your hair is yet

really exists between Mara and Aiira black?" The fact of Krishna

Mainyu, it can only have come about appearing in the Abhidha'nappadi-

in historic times; and for this there pikit as a name of Vishnu proves, of

is nowhere any analogy. course, just as little for the ancient

348 Whether the Southern Bud- texts as the patronymics Kanhi,

dhists are acquainted with Krishna Kunhdyana in the sehol. on Kachck,

is not yet clear. Buddha's prior v. 2. 4 (Senart, pp. 185, 186), which

birth as Knnha has, according to the have necessarily to be referred to the

text published in Fausboll's edition, epicor divine personality of Krishna,
p. 194, nothing to do with Krishna ; 358 On the significance of the data

the Jiltaka as Mahilkanha (No. 461 contained in the Mahabhashya on

in Westergaard's Catal., p. 41), can this point, see /. St., xiii. 349 : for

hardly have any reference to him the earliest occurrence of Krishna in

either ; but, what of the Jdtaka as an inscription, see Bayley in Journ.

Kesava? (No. 341 in Westenraard's As. Soc. Beng., 1854, p. 51 ff., with

Catal., p. 40). The expression in which cf. /. Str., ii. 8l, and my

Hardy, East. Mon., p. 41, " You Essay Ueber Krishna's tieburtsfest,

are yet a youth, your hair is like p. 318.

VINA YA-PITAKA.

305

the clergy. — Like the Buddhist mythology, the Buddhist
hierarchy was a thing of gradual growth. Buddha, as we
have seen, received all without distinction as disciples, and
when ere long, in consequence of the great numbers, and
of the practice of living constantly together, except in the
winter season, some kind of distribution of rank was re-
quired, it was upon the principle of age * or merit f that
this took place. As the Buddhist faith spread more and
more, it became necessary to distinguish between those
who devoted themselves entirely to the priestly calling,
the bhikshus^ monks, and Wiikshunis, nuns, on the one

* The aged were called sthavira,
a word not unfrequeritly added to
a proper name in the Brahmanical
Sutras to distinguish a particular
person from younger namesakes :
points of connection herewith are to
be found in the Brdhmanas also.
[Regarding the winter season, see
Childers, Pdli Diet., s. v. vasso.]

f The venerable were styled arh-
ant (&px<i>v), also a title bestowed
upon teachers in the Brdhmanas.

£ When Pilnini speaks of Bhikshu-
Sutras, and gives as their authors Pd-
rdsarya :md Karmanda, teaching (iv.
3. no, in) that their respective ad-
herents are to be styled Pdrds'arinas
and Karmandinas, and (iv. 2. 80)
that the Sutra of the former is called
Pdrdsariya, the allusion must be to
Brahmanical mendicants, since these
names are not mentioned in Bud-
dhistic writings. By Wilson, too, in
the second edition of his Dictionary,
karmandin is given as ' beggar, reli-
gious mendicant, member of the
fourth order.' [According to the St.
Petersburg Dictionary, from Amara,
ii. 7. 41, and Hemachandra, 809.]
But the circumstance must not be
overlooked that, according to the
Calcutta scholiasts, neither of these
two rules of Pdnini is explained in
the Mahdbhdshya, and that possibly,
therefore, they may not be Pdnini's
at all, but posterior to the time of Pa-
tamjali. [The ' Pdrds"arino bhiksha-
vah,' at least, are really mentioned
in the Bhilshya to iv. 2. 66 ; see /.
St., xiii. 340.] — That mendicant

monks must, as a matter of fact,
have been particularly numerous in
Pdnini's time is apparent from the
many rules he gives for the forma-
tion of words in this connection, e.g.,
bhikshdchara, iii. 2. 17; bhikshdkn,
iii. 2. 155 ; bhikfhu, iii. 2. 168 ;
bhaiksha Irom bhikshd in the sense of
bhiks/tdndm sam&has, 'i v. 2 . 38. Com -
pare, in particular, also ii. i. 70, where
the formation of the nnine for femala
mendicants (h-amand, and, in the
gana, pravrdjitd) is treated of, which
can only refer to Buddhistic female
mendicants. [This last rule, which
gives the epithet 'virgin ' as a special
(not as an indispensable) quality
of the faamand, taken in connec-
tion with iv. i. 127, can hardly
be said to throw a very favourable
light on the 'virginity' of the class
generally; cf. Manu, viii. 363,11010
330 above. The words san-dnnina,
v. 2. 9, and kaukkutika, iv. 4. 6,
likewise exhibit a very distinct Bud-
dhistic colouring ; on this see 7. St.,
v. 140 ff. On Buddhistic mendi-
cants at the time of the Bhdshya,
see the data collected in 7. St., xiii.
340 ff.] — The entire institution ot
the fourth order rests essentially on
the Sdmkhya doctrine, and its ex-
tension was certainly due to a large
extent to Buddhism. The red or red-
dish-yellow garment (kashdyavasana)
and the tonsure (maundya) are the
principal badges of the Buddhist
bhikshus ; see above, pp. 78, 237.
On a commentary, extant in India,
on a Bhikshu-Sutra, see /. St., i. 470.
U

306 BUDDHISTIC SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

hand, and the Buddhist laity on the other, updsakas and
updsikds* Within the priesthood itself, again, nume-
rous shades of distinction in course of time grew up,
until at length the existing hierarchy arose, a hierarchy
which differs very essentially from the Brahmanical
one, inasmuch as admission to the priestly order is
still, as in Buddha's time, allowed to members of the
lowest castes on the same conditions as to any one else.
Among the laity the Indian castes still continue to exist
wherever they existed in the past ; it is only the Brahman
caste, or priesthood by birth, that has been abolished, and
in its place a clergy by choice of vocation substituted.
The Buddhist cult, too, which now is second to none in
the world for solemnity, dignity, pomp, and specialities,
was originally exceedingly simple, consisting mainly in
the adoration of the image of Buddha and of his relics.
Of the latter point we are first informed by Clemens Alex-
andrinus. Afterwards the same honour was paid to the
relics of his most eminent disciples also, and likewise to
princes who had deserved specially well of Buddhism.
The story of the ashes of Menander, related by Plutarch
(see Wilson, Ariana, p. 283), is doubtless to be understood
in this sense.f Now this relic-worship, the building of
steeples — traceable, perhaps, to the topes (stupas) which

* Or specially buddhopdsaka, bud- bha, who is uniformly placed in the

dhopdsikd, as we find it several times western country Sukhavati, may be

in the Mrichhakati. identical with Amyntas, whose name

f For I regard Menander, who on appears as Amita on his coins ; in

his coins is called Minanda, as iden- the name Basili, too (in Schmidt's

tical with Milinda, king of Sdsrala Dsanglun, p. 331), he discovers the

(Sdkala), respecting whom see Tur- word /SacriXefo. [But Schiefner calls

nour in the Journ. As. Soc. Beng., my attention to the circumstance,

v. 530 fif. ; Buruoiif, I. c., p. 621 ; that as far back as 1852, in his

and Catal. MSS. Or. Bill, llaun., Erffdnzungen und Berichtiywigen zu

p. 50. (From an article by Spiegel in Schmidt's Ausgabe des Dsanglun, p.

the Kider Allyemeine Monatsschrift, 56, to p. 256, 1. 3 of the Tibetan

July 1852, p. 561, which has just text, lie withdrew the identification

reached me while correcting these of Basili with /SocriXftfs : his connec-

hheets, I sec that Benfey has already tion, too, of Amita with Amyntas,

identified Menander with Milinda which had been questioned by Kop-

[see the Berlin Jahrbucher fur wis- pen, ii. 28, note 4, he now regards

sensch. Krilik, 1842. p. 87b].) — Schief- as doubtful.] The legend of the

ner in his notice, Ueber Indra's Western origin of the S&kyas I have

Donnerkeil, p. 4 of the separate im- already characterised (p. 285) as per-

pression, 1848, has expressed the haps invented as a compliment to

conjecture that the Buddha Amitd- Kanishka.

ABHIDHARMA-P1TAKA. 307

owe their origin to this relic-worship — the system of mona-
chism, the use of bells and rosaries,* and many other
details, offer such numerous features of resemblance to
Christian ritual, that the question whether Christianity
may not perhaps have been here the borrowing party is
by no means to be summarily negatived, particularly as
it is known that Buddhist missionaries penetrated at an
early period, possibly even in the two centuries preceding
our era, into Western countries as far as Asia Minor. This
is still, however, an entirely open question, and requires
investigation.360

The third division of the Buddhist sacred scriptures, the
Abhidharma-Pitaka, contains philosophical, and especially
metaphysical, discussions. It is hardly to be imagined
that Buddha himself was not clearly cognisant of the
philosophical basis of his teaching, and that he simply
adopted this latter from his predecessors, so that the
courage and energy pertaining to its public promulgation t
constituted his sole merit. But it seems just as certain
that he was not concerned to propagate a philosophical
system, and that his aim was purely a practical one, to

* Afterwards adopted by the fectcd the growth of Buddhist ritual

Brdhmans also. [The very name and worship, as they did that of the

rosary has possibly arisen from aeon- Buddhist legends, by any means to

fusion of the two Indian words japa- be dismissed out of hand. Indeed,

mala and japdmdld ; see my paper, quite apart from the oft-ventilated

Ueber Krishna s Geburtsfest, pp. 340, question as to the significance of

341; Koppen, Die Religion des Bud- such influences in the further de-

dka, ii. 319; and also my letter in velopment of Krishna-worship, there

the Indian Antiq.. iv. 250.] are legends connected with the Siva

360 See Ind. Skiz., p. 64 (1857), cult also, as to which it is not at all

and the data from the Abbe' Hue's a far-fetched hypothesis that they

Travels in Tibet in Koppen, i. 561, have reference to scattered Christian

ii. 116. According to tlie interest- missionaries; see /. St., i. 421, ii.

ing discovery made by Laboulaye 398; Z. D. M. G., xxvii. 166 (v.

(see Miiller, Chips, iv. 185) and F. 263). — That Western influence has

Liebrecht with regard to Barlaam played a part in Tibet, finds support

and Josaphat, one of the saints of in aletterof Schiefner's,accordingto

the Catholic Church stands at length which, in a work of Dsaja Pandita,

revealed as Bodhisattva himself — a Galen is mentioned as the physician

discovery to which Reinaud's ingeni- of the Persians, and is said to have

ous identification of Yuasaf, Yudasf, been consulted by the first Tibetan

with Budsatf (Mem. stir I'lndc, p. 91) king, along with a celebrated Indian

might alone have led ; cee Z. D. M. and a celebrated Chinese physician.
G., xxiv. 480. — But neither is the + In this courage the circumstance

contrary supposition, namely, that that he belonged by birth to the

Christian influences may have af- military caste finds expression.

3o8 BUDDHISTIC SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

awaken virtuous actions and dispositions. This is in
accord with the circumstance, that, whereas the Buddhists
allege of the Siitra-Pitaka and the Vinaya-Pitaka that they
were delivered by Buddha himself, in the case of the
Abhidharma-Pitaka, on the contrary, they start with the
admission that it is the production of his disciples. Ac-
cording to Burnouf, the doctrines of the Abhidharma are
in reality only a further development or continuation of
the views here and there propounded in the Sutras ; in-
deed, the writings in question often merely add single
words to the thoughts expressed in the Sutras : " but in
any case there exists an interval of several centuries be-
tween the two, and that difference which distinguishes a
doctrine still in its earliest beginnings from a philosophy
which has arrived at its furthest development." * In the
Brah ma -Sutra of Budarayana doctrines are repeatedly
combated which, on £amkara's testimony, belong to two
distinct schools of Buddhist philosophy, and consequently
both of these, and perhaps also the other two schools
which are ranked with them, belong to a period preceding
the composition of this Brahma-Sutra. — The doctrines
themselves cannot be recognised with perfect distinctness,
and their affinity, although undeniable, to the doctrines of
the Samkhya system is still enveloped in some obscurity.3151
On this point, however, so much is clear, that, although
Buddha himself may actually have been in full harmony
with the doctrines of Kapila, as they then existed,f yet his
adherents developed these in their own fashion; in the

* Whether now, after these words of individual existence was certainly

of Burnouf's, loc. cit., p. 522, Las- the goal to which Buddha aspired ;

nen's view (/. AK., ii. 458) is ten- hardly, however, the resolving of this

fcble — to the effect that "although, existence into nothing, but only its

in the collection bearing the name return to the same state of avidyd, or

of Abhidharma, there are writings of unconsciousness which belonged to

various dates, yet they must all be primeval matter before it attained

assigned to the period preceding the to development at all," Lit. C.

third council" (this third council in Bt., 1857, p. 770 (/. Str., ii. 132).

B.C. 275 being here expressly dis- Childers thinks differently, Pdli

tinguished from the fourth under Diet., *. v. nin-dna.

Kanishka) — appears to me in the + Were he really to be identified

very highest degree doubtful. with theSdkdyanyaoftheMaitrayaijS

aul Cf, for this 7. St., iii. 132; Upanishad (see p. 97), we should havo

Max Duneker, Geschichte dcr Arier, in this work tolerably direct evidenca

p. 234 ff. (1867) ; Koppen, i. 2l4ff. — to the above effect.
"" The extinction, the ' blowing out '

ABHIDHARMA-PITAKA. 309

came way as the followers of Kapila also pursued their
own path, and so eventually that system arose which is
now extant under the name Samkhya, and which differs
essentially from the Buddhist philosophy.* To the four
schools into which, as we have just seen, this philosophy
was split up at a comparatively early period, four others
were afterwards added — or perhaps these superseded the
former — but neither have the doctrines of these later
schools been as yet set forth with anything like sufficient
certainty.362 The question, too, whether Buddhistic con-
ceptions may not perhaps have exercised a direct influence
on the development of Gnostic doctrines,t particularly
those of Basilides, Valentinian, and Bardesanes, as well as
of Manes, must for the present be regarded as wholly un-
determined ;363 it is most intimately bound up with the
question as to the amount of influence to be ascribed to
Indian philosophy generally in the shaping of these doc-
trines. The main channel of communication in the case
of the latter was through Alexandria; the Buddhist mis-
sionaries, on the contrary, probably mostly came from the
Panjab through Persia.

Besides the three Pitakas, the Sanskrit manuscripts
that have been procured from Nepal contain other works
also, consisting, in part, of a large number of commen-
taries on and elucidations of the Pitakas, in part, of a

* Whether vv. 9-11 of the Iso- special work on Tibetan and Chinese

panishad are to lie taken, with the Buddhism. See on this point Lit.

commentator, as specially referring C. EL, 1875, p. 550.

10 the Buddhists, as I assume in t See F. Neve, L'Antiquiti Cftri-

I. St., i. 298, 299, appears to me tienne en Orient, p. 90, Louvain,

doubtful now: the polemic nny 18^2.

simply be directed asrainst the Sdm- ™3 Cf. now Lassen, 7. AK., iii.

khya tenets in general. 387-416 ; my Ind. Slciz., p. 64 ;

362 Our information regarding Kenan, Hist, des Lang. Sem., 2(1 ed.,
them is derived exclusively from 1858, pp. 274, 275. • That their in-
Hodgton'a Essays (now collected, see fluence upon the growth of the doc-
note 345). Their names, Svdbha'- trines of Manes in particular was a
vika, Aisvarika, Kdrmika, Ydtnika, most important one is shown, for
are so far unsupported by any other example, by this circumstance alone,
literary evidence. Only for the that the formula of abjuration for
names Sautra'ntika, Vaibhashika, those who renounced these doctrines
Mitdhyamika, Yogdchdra, is such expressly specifies Bo5Sa and the
testimony found. Tdrandtha, for SKUS-ICH/OJ (seemingly a separation of
example, is acquainted with these 'Buddha Sdkyamuni ' into two) —
latter only, and they are also the Lassen, iii. 415. — Cf. also Beal, J.
only ones known to Wassiljew in his R. A. S., ii. 424 (1866).

ito BUDDHISTIC SANSKRIT LITERATURE.

most peculiar class of writings, the so-called Tantras, which
are looked upon as especially sacred, and which stand pre-
cisely upon a level with the Brahmanical works of the
same name. Their contents are made up of invocations of
various Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, as also of their Saktis,
or female energies, with a motley admixture of Sivaitic
deities; to which are added longer or shorter prayers
addressed to these beings, and directions how to draw the
mystic diagrams and magic circles that secure their favour
and protection.36*

364 Cf. Emil Schlagintweit'a Bud- poetry; as to which Ree Klatt in
dhism in Tibet (1863, with a folio the preface to his edition of tho
atlas of twenty plates). — Recently sentences of Ckdnakya, taken there-
there have also come from Nepdl from (1873).
Snnskrit MSS. containing works of

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES.

P. 9, 36 ff. (and 64, 29 ff.)- Burnell, in his preface to the
Arsheya-Br. (Mangalore, 1876), p. xvi. if., and Aufrecht,
Hymnen des Rigveda (Bonn, 1877), Pref. pp. xvi., xvii.,
dispute the superior antiquity of the readings of the Sama-
Samhita, as compared with those of the Rik-Samhita.

P. 25, note 17, and p. 67, note K. On the Sikshas see
Kielhorn's paper in the Ind. Antiq., v. 141 ff., 193 ff., and
my comments thereon, ibid., p. 253.

P. 32, note 21. On the Vashkalas somewhat more light
has now been cast. In the first place, from a comparison
of the kdrikd quoted in my Catal. of the Berlin Sansk.
MSS., p. 314, ' fedkaldndm samdni va ity richd 'ntyd
"hutir bhavet \ Bdshkaldndm tu tachhamyor ity richd 'ntyd-
liutir bhavet,' it results that the citation in the forty-eighth
Atharva-pari^ishta (see /. St., iv. 431) of the samyuvdka
as the concluding verse of the Rik-Samhita has reference,
to the Vashkala-recension of the latter. Next, it becomes
evident that this recension stood in a special relation to
the Sankhayana texts, since in the Saiikh. Grih., 4. 5. 9,
the same verse is cited as the concluding one of the Sam-
hita, and this expressly as the view of Kaushitaki. In
addition to this we have the fact that the pratika of the
whole section to which this verse belongs, and which
forms the last khila — samfndna — in the vulgate recension
of the Rik-Samhita, is found cited in the Sankhay.-Srauta-
Siitra, 3. 6. 4, but is wanting in the parallel passage, A3val.,
2, n. And, lastly, we shall probably also have to allot to
the Vashkalas the eleven hymns — ten Afoindm and one
Aindrdvarunam stiktam — which, as Eud. Meyer has re-
cently pointed out (Rigvidhana, Praef., p. xxiv.), are cited

3H SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES.

in the Brihaddevata, 3. 24, between Rik-Samh., i. 73 and
74. For, according to Meyer, their pratikas prove to \>e
identical with those given by the scholiast on $ankh. Sr.,
9. 20. 14, for the ' trisatam suparnam' there mentioned in
die text, which again is specified under this name in the
Safikh. Br. itself (18. 4) as part of the Asvina-s*astra.
Probably; too, the other portions of text, which, as stated
by Meyer (I. c., p. xxv. ff.), appear in the Brihaddevata
as well as in the Rigvidhana, as belonging to the Rik-
Samhita, whereas they are found neither in the vulgate —
the Sakala-Samhita — itself, nor in its khila portions, will
have to be assigned to the Vashkalas. In point of fact,
the samjndna khila also, to which (see above) the con-
cluding verse of the Vashkala-Samhita belongs, is men-
tioned in both texts (Meyer, p. xxii.). An exact comparison
of the Rik-verses cited in the Sankhayana texts will pro-
bably throw full light upon this point. — In Blihler's letter
from Kashmir (published in /. St., xiv. 402 ff.) the in-
teresting information was given that he had there dis-
covered an excellent ?;M,r/a-MS., some five to six hundred
years old, of the Rik-Samhita in the S*akala recension.
This MS. is accentuated, whereas the Kashmir Vedio
MSS. are not wont to be so, but the accent is denoted in a
totally different manner from that customary in India, the
uddtta alone being marked by a perpendicular line, pre-
cisely as, according to Haug, is usual in one of the two
schools of the Maitrayani Samhita, and as we ourselves
do; cf. my remarks in the Jenaer Lit. Zeit., 1875, p. 315.
On this MS. see now the detailed report of Biihler's journey
in the Journal Bomb. Br. 11. A.S., 1877, extra No., pp. 35,36.

Pp. 35, 36, note §. See also Myriantheus, Die Asvins
(Munich, 1876), and James Darmesteter, Ormazd et Ahri-
man (Paris, 1877).

P. 41, note 29. See Alfred Hillebrandt, Varuna und
Mitra, cin Beitrag zur Excgese des Veda (Breslau, 1877).

P. 43, note 32. Max Miiller's issue of the text alone of
the Rik has now appeared in a second edition (London,
1877). Samhitd-pdtha and pada-pdtha are here printed
on opposite pages. Respecting the latter it has to be
remarked that, as in Miiller's previous editions, so again
in this one the so-called galitas are in no way marked,
the text which a particular passage shows the first time

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. 315

it occurs being uniformly simply repeated, without any
reference to what is done in the MSS. themselves in these
cases. This is all the more surprising as, after I had
pointed out this defect, in my review of the last volume of
his large edition in the Lit. Cent. Matt, i/th April 1875,
Miiller himself, in an article which appeared in the same
periodical a year and a half later (i6th December 1876)
fully recognised the critical importance of the galitas. —
Aufrecht's edition has also been reprinted (Bonn, 1877):
the preface (comp. desideratum at note 28) contains a
variety of critical remarks. — Complete translations of the
Rik-Samhita, by Alfred Ludwig (Prag, 1876) and Hermann
Grassmann (Leipzig, 1876-77) have appeared. — Very meri-
torious, also, is the edition of the Rik-Samhita which is
appearing in monthly numbers at Bombay, under the title
' Vedarthayatna,' with English and Mahrathi translation,
as well as with Mahrathi commentary : the latest No.
brings it down to i. 100. The name of the excellent
editor, Shankar Pandit, is an open secret. — Lastly, there
remains to be mentioned M. Hang's Vedische Rathselfragen
und Rdthselspruche (Rik, i. 164, 1876).

P. 48, note 33b. Rajendra 7Lala Mitra's edition, in the
Bill. Indica, of the Aitareya-Aranyaka with Say ana's com-
mentary, has now been completed. A MS. acquired by
Blihler in Kashmir shows a number of variations ; see his
Report of Journey, 1. c., p. 34.

P. 50, 6 (cf. p. 285). Panchalachanda appears in a Pali
Sutta among the mahdsendpatis of the Yakkhas ; for the
conclusions to be drawn from this see Jenaer Lit. Zeit.,
7th April 1877, p%22i.

P. 56, 8. The Sankh. Grih. (4. 10. 3) inserts between
VisVamitra and Vamadeva, the two representatives of the
third arid fourth mandalas, the name of Jamadagni, to
whom in the Anukramani to the Sakala-Samhita only the
last three verses of the third mandala (iii. 62, 16-18) are
in this place ascribed, — but in addition to these, also
five entire hymns and four separate verses in the last three
mandalas. Have we here also to do with a divergence of
the Vashkala school? (In Sankh. Grih., 4. 5. 8, however,
there is no trace of this variation from the vulgate; rather,
the verse iii. 62. 18 appears there as the concluding verse
of the third mandala)

316 SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES.

P. 58, note 50. The Saiikh. Grihya has been published,
with translation and notes, by Herm. Oldenberg; see
/. St., xv. i— 166. There exists also another recension of it,
which is designated as Kaushitaka-Grihya, but which,
according to Oldenberg, is rather to be understood as
Sambavya-Grihya. Its text is ' nowise identical ' with
the Saiikh. Grih., ' but it has borrowed from the latter by
far the greatest part both of its matter and form.' The
last two books of the $ankh. Grih. are not used in it, and
a great deal is lacking besides.

P. 6 1, note *. On the Jyotisha a very meritorious work
has just appeared by G. Thibaut.

P. 62, 6, 26 ff. On the Brihaddevata and Rigvidhana see
K. Meyer's edition of the latter work (Berlin, 1877).

P. 65, 28. The forty-eighth Atharva-parislshta, see /.
St., iv. 432, gives indeed the same beginning, but a different
concluding verse to the Sama-Samhita, namely, the last
verse but one of the first part of the vulgate ; accordingly,
it did not reckon the second part as belonging to the Sam-
hita at all, while for the first part also it presents the
discrepancy stated.

P. 65, note 60. The Aranya-Samhita, with Say ana's
commentary, has been edited by Satyavrata Samasramin,
and that in a double form, namely, separately (Calcutta,
1873), and also in the second part of his large edition of
the Sama-Samhitu, p. 244 ff.

P. 66, note 61. This edition of the Sama-Samhita, in
the Bill. Indica, has now reached, in its fifth volume, as
far as 2. 8. 2. 5.

Pp- 73' 74- The Talavakara- or Jaiminiya-Brahmana,
to which the Kenopan. belongs, has been recovered by
Burnell (letter of iQth April). Also a Samaveda-Pra-
ti^akhya.

Pp. 74, 75, notes 71, 72. The Arsheya-Brahmana and
Samhitopanishad-Brahmana have also been edited by Bur-
noil (Mangalore, 1876, 1877); the former with a lengthy
introduction containing an inquiry into the Ganas, the
secondary origin of the Samhita from these, the chanting
of the sdmans, &c. On this compare A. Earth's detailed
notice in the Revue Critique, 2ist July 1877, pp. 17-27.
The A\rsheya-Brahmana has, further, just been issued a
second time by Burnell, namely, in the text of the Jai-

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. 317

miniya school, which he had meanwhile recovered (Man-
galore, 1878).

Pp. 99-101. According to the catalogue (1876) of M.
Haug's collection of MSS., there are now in the Eoyal
Library at Municli, with which this collection was incor-
porated in the spring of 1877, not only two MSS. of the
Maitrayani Samhita, but also several more or less com-
plete, but, unfortunately, in great part modern, copies of
Apastamba, Manava, Bharadvaja, Baudhayana, Vaikha-
nasa, Hiranyakesin. — The description ^(in notes 108, 109)
of the Dharma-Sutras as part of the Srauta- Sutras is not
quite correct ; rather both are portions, possessing an equal
title, of a collective Sutra-whole, to which in each case
there also belonged a Grihya- and a Sulva-Sutra, and which
we might perhaps designate by the name of Kalpa-Siitra.
— [The North-Western origin of the Katha school (cf.
Kddaia, I. St., xiii. 439) is also, in a certain measure,
attested by the fact that, according to Biihler's letter from
Kashmir (dated September 1875, published in /. St., xiv.
402 ff.) on the results of his search for MSS. in that pro-
vince, this school is still in the present day the prevailing
one in Kashmir. The Brahmans there call themselves, it
is true, chaturvedi, but they follow the rules of the Ka-
thaka-Grihya-Sutra of Laugakshi. Besides portions of all
the Vedas, the Bhattas learn by heart the Paddhati of
Devapala, the commentary and prayoya to the Kathaka-
Grihya. ' Of these Grihyas I have acquired several MSS.,
among them an old one on Ihtirja. ,To the Kathaka-Sutra
are attached a Pravaradbyaya, an Arsha, the Charayaniya
Siksha, and several other Parisishtas.' — Additional note in
second German edition] According to Buhler, Z. D. M. G.,
xxii. 327, the Dharma-Sutra of the Kathaka school is iden-
tical with the Vishnu-Smriti. On this, and on the Ka-
thaka school in Kashmir generally, see now Buhler, Eeport
of Journey, /. c., pp. 20, 36, 37.

P. 103, note 11(5. The Taitt. Pratisakhya has also been
edited in the Bill. Indica by Ptdjendra Lala Mitra (1872).

Pp. 117,118. The forty-eighth Atharva-Paris'ishta spe-
cifies a recension of the Vaj. Samh., which begins with
i.i, but which ends with 23. 32 ! See /. St., iv. 432.

P. 114. for the formula Ambe ambike 'mbdlike,
which differs in all three Yajus texts, Panini (vi. 7. 118)

3i8 SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES.

has a fourtli reading ; on this and the other points of con-
nection between Panini and the vocabulary of the Yaju3
texts, see /. St., iv. 432.

P. 138, 23. According to Mahavansa, p. 9. 12, 15, the
name of Buddha's wife was Bhadda- or Subhadda-Kach-
chana !

P. 139, note 147. Satap., 3. i, 1-2. 2, is translated in
Bruno Lindner's dissertation, Ueber die Dikslid- (Leipzig,
1878); other portions inDelbriiclt'sAltind. Wortfolge (iSfS).

P. 142, note 155. The Paraskara has been edited by
Stenzler (1876).

P. 150, note 165. In the forty-eighth Atharva-Pari-
sishta, the commencement of the Atharva-Samhita is given
just as in the published recension, but it ends there with
Book xvi. ; see /. St., iv. 432.

P. 151, note ie6. With the doshapali compare the pdp~
man dsura in the Nrisinhop. ; see /. St., ix. 149, 150.

P. 153 ff. Of. Paul Eegnaud, Materiaux pour servir d
I'Histoire de la Philosopliie de I'lnde, 1 876, and my review
of this work in the Jenaer Lit. Zeit. of 9th February 1 878.

P. 182, note 198. The dates of the Nepalese MSS. appa-
rently reach back as far as A.D. 883 ! See Dan. Wright,
History of Nepal, 1877, Jenaer Lit. Zeit., 1877, p. 412.

Pp. 187, 1 88, note 201a. On Olshausen's explanation of
the word Pahlav — the bo sis of the Indian Pahlava — from
Parthava, ' Parthians,' see now also Th. Noldeke in Z. D.
M. 6r., xxxi. 557 ff.

P. 189, note 204. According to Kern, Over de oud-
Javaansche Vertaling van't Mahdbhdrata (Amsterdam, 1 877),
p. 7 ff., the Kavi translation of the Adi-parvan, from which
lie there communicates the text of the Paushyacharita,
dates from the beginning of the eleventh century.

P. 1 89, note 205. For the criticism of the Maha-Bharata,
Holtzmann's researches (Indische Sagen, Preface, Stuttgart,
1854) are also of great importance.

P. 191, note 20G. The Index to Hall's edition of Wilson's
translation of the Vishnu-Parana (vol. v. part ii.) appeared
in 1877. The edition of the Agni-Punina in the Bibl. Ind.
has now reached adhy. 294.

P. 195, I5. The identity of the author of the Raghu-
vnrisa and Kamara-sambhava with the dramatist Kalidasa
is contended for by Shankar Pandit in the Transactions

SUPPLEMENTAR V NO TES. 3 1 9

of' the London Congress of Orientalists (London, 1876), p.
227 ff.

P. 196, note 20S. Bharavi and Kalidasa are mentioned
together in an inscription of Pulakesi II., 'in the Saka
year 507 (A.D. 585-6) ;' at that date, therefore, they must
have been already famous. See Bhau Daji in Journ.
Bomb. Br. E. A. S., ix. 315, and J. F. Fleet in Ind. Antiq.,
v. 68. — On the Kashmir poets Chandraka and Mentha, of
about the fifth (?) century, Ratnakara of the ninth, Kshe-
mendra and Bilhana of the eleventh, Somadeva, Maiikha,
Kalhana, &c., of the twelfth century, see Biihler, Report
of Journey, /. c., p. 42 ff.

P. 199, note f. For the text of these Suttas see now
Grimblot, Sept suttas Palis (Paris, 1 876), p. 89 ; ' nachcliam
gitain vdditam pekkham akkhdnam . . iti vd iti evarupd
visukadassand ' (exhibitions, p. 65, spectacles, pp. 179,
215). From this it appears that the word here properly
in question is not so much the general term visuka as
rather, specially, pekkka (prekshya), ' exhibition,' ' spec-
tacle/ translated by 'theatricals,' pp. 65, 179, 'representa-
tions dramatiques,' p. 215; comp. prekslianaka as the name
of a species of drama in Bharata (Hall, Das"ariipa, p. 6),
and drisya in the Sahitya-darpana as the name of dramatic
poetry in general.

Pp. 200, 12, 205, 20. According to Hall, Vasavad., In-
trod., p. 27, Bhavabhuti would have to be placed earlier
than Subandhu, and if so, of course, a fortiori, earlier than
Bana : the latter, however, does not allude to him in the
classic passage in the introduction to the Harsha-charita,
where he enumerates his predecessors (Hall, ibid., pp. 13,
14). See also Ind. Streifen, i. 355.

P. 201, note ||. According to Lassen, /. AK., iii. 855,
1163, Bhoja died in 1053. An inscription of his in the
Ind. Antiq., 1877, p. 54, is dated in the year 1022.

P. 203, note. According to Biihler, Ind. Antiq., v. 1 12
(April, 1 876), a grant of King Jayabhata is ' older than
the year 445 A.D., and dated in the Vikrama era.'

P. 204, note 211. In Z. D. M. G., xxx. 302, Jacob! cites
from the Urva£i a (chronometrical) datum betokening
Greek influence.

P. 207, note 21S. Of new publications, &c., of Indian
dramas have to be mentioned : Bhandarkar's edition of the

320 SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES.

Malati-madhava (Bombay, 1876), Cappeller's edition of the
Eatnavali (1877, in the second edition of Bohtlingk's
Sanskrit-Chrestomatkie), the Bengali recension of the Sa-
kuntala, edited by Pischel (see Cappeller in the Jenaer
Lit. Zeit., 1877, p. 1 2 1), the two latter dramas translated
by Ludw. Fritze ; lastly, Eegnaud's translation of the
Mrichhakatika (Paris, 1876). — On^ the question as to the
various recensions of Kalidasa's Sakuntala — discussed in
/. St., xiv. 161 ff. — see also Biihler's Eeport of Journey,
1. c., p. Ixxxv. ff., where the first act of the Kashmir recen-
sion of this drama is printed.

P. 210, note 22°. To this place also belongs Srivara's
Subhashitavali of the fifteenth century, containing quota-
tions from more than 350 poets; see Biihler, Eeport of
Journey, 1. c., p. 61 ff. ; further, the Subhashita-ratnakara
by Krishna Shastri Bhatavadekar (Bombay, 1872). — Here,
too, have to be mentioned the four papers Zur Kritik und
Erldarung verschiedener indischer Werlce, published by 0.
Bohtlingk in vols. vii. and viii. of the Melanges Asiatigues
of the St. Petersburg Academy (1875-76).

P. 212, note 222. Comp. Benfey's Introduction to Bick-
ell's edition and translation of the ' Kalilag und Damnag'
(Leipzig, 1876). It now appears doubtful whether the
ancient Pahlavi version really rested upon one individual
work as its basis, or whether it is not rather to be re-
garded as an epitome of several independent texts ; see iny
notice of the above work in Lit. C. Bl., 1876, No. 31,
Biihler, Eeport of Journey, p. 47 ; Prym in the Jenaer Lit.
Zcit., 1878, Art. 1 1 8.

P. 213, note 224. Eead 'recast by Kshemendra.' It is
only to Kshemendra that the statements from Biihler's
letter, given in the next sentence, refer. Biihler now
places him in the second and third quarter of the eleventh
century, Eeport of Journey, /. c., p. 45 ff.

P. 213. On the Eaja-taramgini see now Biihler, Eeport
of Journey, pp. 52-60, Ixvi.-lxxxii. (where an amended
translation of I. 1-107 ^s given ) ; and on the Nila-mata, of
about the sixth or seventh century, ibid., p. 38 ff., Iv. ff.

P. 214, note 225. 'The Harsha-charita appeared at Cal-
cutta in 1 876, edited by Jivananda. — On the Sinhasana-
dvatrinsika see now my paper in /. St., xv. 185 ff.

P. 215, note -1. In the interpretation of Indian inscrip-

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. 321

tions, Biihler and Fleet also, in particular, have of late done
very active service (especially in Ind. Antiq., vols. v., vi.).

P. 221, note 233. Goldstiicker's ' facsimile' (comp. note
196, p. 100) edition of the Manavakalp. is not ' photo-litho-
graphed/ but lithographed from a tracing.

P. 226, note 238. Kielhorn has come forward with great
vigour in defence of the Mahabhashya, first, in a lengthy
article in the Ind. Antiq., v. 241 (August 1876), next in
his Essay, Kdtydyana and Patamjali (Bombay, December
1876), which deals specially with the analysis of the work
into its component parts ; and, lastly, in his edition of the
work itself, which exhibits the text critically sifted, in
direct reference thereto (the first number, Bombay, 1878,
gives the navdhnikam). Cf., further, two articles by Bhan-
darkar, On the Relation of Kdtydyana to Pdnini and of
Patamjali to Kdtydyana in Ind. Antiq., v. 345 ff. (December
1876), and on G-oldstucker's Theory about Pdnini 's Technical
Terms (reprint of an earlier review of G.'s Pdnini), ibid.,
vi. 107 ff. To this place also belongs an article on the
Mahabhashya, which was sent off by me to Bombay on gt\\
October 1876, but which only appeared in the Ind. Antiq.,
vi. 301 if., in October 1877.

P. 226, note s39. On the antiquity of the Ka^ika see
now Biihler's Report of Journey, p. 72. The issue of the
work in the Pandit is perhaps by this time completed. It
is to be hoped that it will appear in a separate edition. —
Biihler's information regarding Vyadi, the Mahabhashya,
Katantra, &c., is given in detail in his Eeport of Journey.
— On Burnell's essay, On tJie Aindra School of Sanskrit
Grammarians (1875), which contains rich materials, see
my critique in the Jenaer Lit. Zeit., March 1876, p. 202 ff.
— Of Hemachandra's Prakrit-Grammar Pischel has given
us a new edition (Halle, 1877, text and good index of
words).

P. 229, note f. This note, according to Barth, Revue
Critique, 3d June 1 876, is to be cancelled, as paraitre can
only have the sense of ' seem ' (scheinen).

P. 231, note m. On Ksheniendra's Loka-prakasa see
Biihler, Report of Journey, p. 75.

P. 231, 29. See note above to p. 182.

P. 231, note 244. The translation of the Sanity a-darpan a
in the Bill. Indica ig now finished. — For the rich informa-

322 SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES.

tion supplied by Biihler regarding the Alamkara literature
in Kashmir, see his Report of Journey, p. 64 ff. Accord-
ing to this, the Alamkara-s'astra of Bhatta Udbhata dates
from the time of Jayapida (779-8 1 3), whose sabhdpati the
author was. Vamana, too, in Biihler's opinion, belongs to
the same period. Anandavardhana and Ratnakara belong
to the ninth century, Mukula to the tenth, Abhinavagupta
to the beginning, Rudrata to the end, of the eleventh, while
Ruyyaka flourished at the commencement, and Jayaratha
at the close, of the twelfth century ; Mammata is to be
placed still later.

P. 235, note 247. Of the Sarva-dar^ana-samgraha there
is now a translation, by Co well and Gough, in the Pandit,
1875 ft

P. 237, note 25°. The Samkhya-tattva-pradipa has been
translated by Govmdadevas"astrin in the Pandit, Nos. 98 ff.

P. 237, note K\ Abhinavagupta was still living in
A.D. 1015 ; Btihler, Report of Journey, p. 80. — The Saiva-
sastra in Kashmir, ibid., pp. 77—82, is divided into two
groups, of which the one connects itself with the Spanda-
sastra of Yasugupta (854), the other with the Praty-
abhijna-s'astra of Somananda (ab. 900) and Utpala (ab. 930).
It is of the latter — which appears to rest upon Samkara —
that Abhinavagupta is the leading representative.

P. 241, note 256. The last number of this edition of £aba-
rasvamin brings it down to 10. 2. 73 ; the edition of the
Jaimim'ya-nyaya-mala-vistara has just been completed by
Cowell. The Jaimini-sutra is being published in the
Bombay monthly periodical, ' Shaddarsaua-chintanika,'
begun in January 1877 — text and commentary with a
double translation, in linglish and Mahrathi.

P. 243, note 259. Vachaspatimi^ra's Bhamati, a gloss on
Samkara's commentary on the Vedanta-sutra, is in course
of publication in the Bibl. Ind. edited by Bala^astrin, —
commenced in 1876. — In the Pandit for 1876, p. 113, in
the Preface to his edition of Srinivasadasa's Yatindramata-
dipika, Ramamisrasastrin cites a passage from Ramanuja's
Brahmasutra-bhashya, in which the latter mentions the
i/iayamrf-Bodhayana as his predecessor therein, and as
separated from him by several generations otpurvdeJubryas.
As such purvdclidryas Ramamisra gives the names of
Dramida, Guhadeva, and Brahmanandi, at the same time

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. 323

designating them by the epithets maharshi and suprdchi-
natama. By Srinivasadasa himself (p. 115) the teachers
are mentioned in the following order : Vyasa, Bodhayana,
Guhadeva, Bharuchi, Brahmanandi, Dravidacharya, Sri-
Parankusanatha, Yamunamuni, Yatisvara. — Here is also
to be mentioned the edition in the Pandit, by Vechana-
rama^astrin, of two commentaries on the Vedanta-siitra,
viz., the Saiva-bhashya of Srikantha Sivacharya (see Z. D.
M. G., xxvii. 1 66), and the Vedanta-kaustubha-prabha of
Kesava Kasrnirabhatta. — Further, in the second edition of
his Sanskrit-Chrestomathie (1877) Bohtlingk has given a
new translation of the Vedanta-sara ; and the Vidvan-
manoranjini of Piamatirtha, a commentary thereon, has
been published, text with translation, in the Pandit by
Gough and Govindadeva^astrin. In the same journal has
also appeared the Advaita-makaranda of Lakshmidhara.

P. 245, note 264. A translation, by Kes'avas'astrin, of the
Nyaya-darsana and of Vatsyayana's commentary thereon,
has begun to appear in the Pandit (new series, vol. ii.).
The fourth book of Ganger's Nyaya-chintamani, with the
commentary of Ruchidatta, has also been edited, ibid.
(Nos. 66-93) ky Balasastrin.

P. 247, note 268. Of importance are the names, com-
municated to me from Albirum by Ed. Sachau, of the
mendzil in Soghd and Khvarizm, the list of which begins
with thurayyd, i.e., with krittikd, and that under the name
parvi; by this is evidently meant parviz, i.e., the name
which stands third in the Bundehesh, whence it neces-
sarily follows that the list of names in the latter is the
modern one, commencing with dsvini ; see Jenaer Lit. Zeit.,
1877 (7th April), p. 221. Some of the names here cited
by Albiruni are distinctly Indian, as frshtbdth, i.e., pro-
shthapdda, the ancient form of name, consequently, (not
bhadrapadd). Here, too, presumably, as in the case of
China, the Buddhists were the channel of communication.

Pp. 250, 251, note 274. The proposition laid down by
H. Jacobi in Z. D. M. G., xxx. 306, that no Indian
writings, which enumerate the planets in the order — Sun,
Moon, Mars, &c. — can have been composed earlier than
the third century A.D., has application to Yajnavalkya, as
well as to the Atharva-parisishtas, which in point of fact
already observe this order; see /. St., x. 317.

324 SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES.

P. 253, note *. The absence of mention of the Komakas
in the Ramayana may perhaps also rest upon geographical
grounds, namely, on the probable origin of the poem in
the east of India, in the land of the Kos*alas, whereas the
'war-part' of the Maha-Bharata was in all likelihood
composed in Central, if not in Western India.

P. 256, note 281. Cf. Thibaut's paper « On the 3ulva-
sutras' in the Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, 1875 (minutely dis-
cussed by Mor. Cantor in the hist. lit. div. of the Zeitsch.
fur Math, und Physik, vol. xxii.), and his edition of the
Sulva-sutra of Baudhayana with the commentary of Dva-
rakanathayajvan (text with translation) in the Pandit,
May, 1875-77.

P. 256, note *. The explanation of the Indian figures
from the initial letters of the numerals has recently been
rudely shaken, see Biihler in Ind. Ant., vi. 48, — through
the deciphering, namely, of the ancient ' Nagarf numerals '
by Pandit Bhagvanlal Indraji, ibid., p. 42 ff. These, it
appears, turn out to be other letters, yet the derivation of
the later figures from them- can hardly be called in ques-
tion. What principle underlies these ancient numerals is,
for the rest, still obscure : the zero has not yet a place
among them; there are letter-symbols for 4-10 (1-3
being merely represented by strokes) for the tens up to
90, and for the hundreds up to 1000. Comp. pp. 222,
note 233, and 257, note 284.

P. 260, note *. The remainder of the Yatra has now
been edited by Kern in /. St., xiv. and xv.

P. 266 ff. In complete opposition to the former dreams
about the high antiquity of Indian medicine, Haas has
recently, in Z. D. M. G., xxx. 617 ff. and xxxi. 647 ff,
characterised even the most ancient of the Indian medical
texts as quite modern productions, to be traced to Arabian
sources. In the accounts given by the Arabs themselves
of the high repute in which Indian medicine stood with
them, and of the translation of works of the kind, which
are specified by name, from Sanskrit into Arabic, he recog-
nises hardly any value. As regards the latter point, how-
ever, there exists absolutely no ground for throwing doubt
upon statements of so definite a character made by the
old Arab chroniclers; while, with respect to the former
point, the language of Susruta, Charaka, &c., is distinctly

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. 325

opposed to the assignment to them of so late a date. At
the same time, every real proof of the presence of Greek
(or even Arabian) conceptions in the works in question,
will have to be thankfully received. But the early
existence of medical knowledge in India would in no way
be prejudiced thereby, as its beginnings are well attested
by evidence from the Vedic period, especially from the
Atharvaveda.

P. 270, note 31°. Charaka, as Biihler informs me, has
now also been printed at Bombay, edited, by Dr. Anna
Mureshvar Kunte, Grant Medical College.

P. 271, note 313. The Kavi translation of the Kaman-
daki-niti probably belongs, at the earliest, to about the
same date as the translation of the Maha-Bharata ; see
remark above to note 204. — Progress has been made with
the printing of Nirapeksha's commentary in the Bibl.
Jndica.

P. 273, note 319. On modern Indian music, see now the
numerous writings of Sourindro Mohun Tagore, Calcutta,
1875 ff., of. Jenaer Lit. Zeit., 1877, p. 487. — It is possible
that the investigation of the gdnas of the Sama-veda, in case
these are still in actual use and could be observed, might
yield some practical result for the ancient lauldlca music
also.

P. 274, note 821a. For such representations of Venus,
supported on the tail of a dolphin, or with a dolphin and
Cupid behind her, see J. J. Bernouilli, Aphrodite (Leipzig,
1873), pp. 245, 370, 405. See also numerous representa-
tions of the kind in the Musee de Sculpture par le Gomte
F. de Clarac (Paris, 1836-37), vol. iv., pi. 593, 607, 610,
612, 615, 620, 622, 626-628, 634.

P. 278, note 327. Biihler has also published a transla-
tion of Apastamba : it is now being reprinted in the series
of ' Sacred Books of the East ' which is appearing under
Max Miiller's direction. — Gautama has been edited by
Stenzler (London, 1876), and is also comprised in Jiva-
nanda's large collection { Dharmashastrasamgraha ' (Cal-
cutta, 1876), which, all inaccuracies notwithstanding, is
yet a very meritorious publication, on account of the
abundance of material it contains. It embraces 27 large
and small Smriti-texts, namely, 3 Atris, 2 Vishnus, 2
Haritas, Yajnavalkya, 2 Usanas', Augiras, Yama, Apa-

326 SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES.

stamba, Samvarta, Katyayana, Brihaspati, 2 Para^aras,
2 Vyasas, Sankha, Likhita, Daksha, 2 Gautamas, and
2 Vasishthas. — Narada's Smriti has been translated by
Jolly (London, 1 876) ; see also his papers, Ueber die recht-
liche Stellung der Frauen bei den Indern (Munich, 1 876),
and Ueber das indische Schuldrecht (Munich, 1 877).

P. 280, note 329. The Arun a- Smriti, Biihler informs me,
is quite a late production, probably a section of a Purana.

P. 28 1 . As Yaj navalkya enumerates the planets in their
Greek order (i. 295) the earliest date we can assign to this
work is the third century A.D. (see remark above to p. 251,
note 274, following Jacobi).

P. 284, 5. See remark on Panchalachanda above, note
to p. 50.

P. 288. E. Senart, in his ingenious work, La Le'gendt
du Bouddha (Paris, 1875), traces the various legends that
are narrated of Buddha (and in part, identically, of Krishna
also) to ancient solar myths which were only subsequently
applied to Buddha ; comp. my detailed notice and partial
rejoinder in the Jenaer Lit. Zeit., 1 876 (29th April), p. 282 ff.

P. 291, note •}•. Schiefner's 'Indische Erzahlungen,'
from the Kagyur, in vols. vii. and viii. of the Melanges
Asiatiques of the St. Petersburg Academy, embrace alreacty
forty-seven such legends.

P. 292, note M5. Whether the Buddhaghosha of this in-
scription is, as Stevenson assumes (p. 13), to be identified
with the well-known B. must still appear very doubtful,
as the princes mentioned in the rest of these inscriptions
belong to a far older period ; see Bhandarkar in the
Transactions of the London Congress of Orientalists (1876),
p. 306 ff.

P. 293, note *. Sept suttas Pdlis, tire's du Dighanikdya,
from the papers of Paul Grimblot, were published by his
widow in 1876 (Paris), text with translation. — The
second part of Fausboll's edition of the Jataka appeared
in 1877. — The Mahaparinibbana-sutta was edited in 1874
by Childers in the Journal E. A. S., vols. vii. and viii. : a
separate impression of it has just appeared. The same
journal also contains an edition of the Patimokkha by
Dickson. An edition of the whole Vinaya-pitaka by
Herm. Oldenberg is in the press.

P. 297, note st&f A collected edition of the sacred Angas

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. 327

of the Jainas was published last year (1877) at Calcutta
by Dhanapatisinhaji : the text is accompanied with the
commentary of Abhayadeva and a SMs/id-explanation by
Bhagvan Vijaya.

P. 300, note S5°. On this compare also S. Beal, Tlie
Buddhist Tripitaka as it is known in China and Japan
(Devonport, 1876).

P. 303, note J. On possible points of connection between
the Avesta and Buddhism see Jenaer Lit. Zeit., 1877, p.
221.

P. 305, note |. In Gautama the word ~bhikshu appears
expressly as the name of the third of the four dsramas ;
in place of it Manu has yati.

BERLIN, z^th May 1878,

SANSKRIT INDEX.

Akshapdda, 8£. 245.
akshara, 'syllable,' 15. 16.

— pbilos., 161.
Agastya, 53. 275 (archit.).
Agni, 31. 40. 63. 159. 178. 303.

— chayana, 120. (274).

— Purdna, 191. 231. 271. 275. 281.
3i8.

— rahasya, 1 1 8. 1 20.
Agnivesii, 265. 266. 269 (tned.).
AgnUvdmin, 79.

ayra, 190.

aghds, 248.

Anfja, 25. 216 (s. Veddiiga). 296.

297- 326, S2? (Jain.).
Angas, 147.
Angir, 158.
Aflgiras, 31. 53. 153. 158. 160. 162.

164. 250. 325 (Smriti).

— (Jupiter) 250.
Angirasas, 124. 148 ff.
Ajdta^atru, 51. 127. 138. 286 (his

six teachers).

— comm., 82.
atikrushta, III.
atthakathd, 292.

Atri, 31. 38. 53. 102. 103. 140 Ved.

— 102. 283. 325 (jur.).

— 269 med.

— daughter of, 38. 140.

— brihad0, 269 (med.).

— laghu", 269 (med.).
Atharvan, 151 (as prajdpati). 153

(bfihatpati and bka<javant). 158.
164.

— ( = Ath. Veda], 78.
Atharva-ParUishtas, 249. 251. 253.

265.

— the forty-eighth Ath. Par., 313.
316. 317. 318.

Atharva-ParisisJita, Greek order of
the planets in the Ath. Paris ishfas,

323-

— Paippale, 158. 169.

— Prdttidkhya, 146. 151.

— Veda, 8. 22. 29. 145 ff. 249. 265.

— 6ik/tare, 164.

— sikhd, 164. 167.
Atharvasiras, 154. 1 66. 169. 170.
Atharva-Samhitd, n. 208. 318.
Atharvdngirasas, II. 72. 93. 12 1.

127. 149. 150 (orasa sing.)
Atkai-vdnas, 113. 124. 148. 149.
Atharvopanishads, 28. 153 ff. 239.
athd 'tah, 245. 265.
Adbhutadharma, 301 (Buddh.).
Adbhuta-Brdhmana, 69. 152.
advaita, 171.
A dvaita-makaranda, 323.
adhidevatam, 121.
adhiyajnam, 121.
adhyayana, 8.
adhydtmam, 121.
Adhydtmardmdyana, 1 68.
adltydya, 14. 31. 32. 107. 117.
adhydyddln, 66.
ad/ivaryu, 14. 80. 149.
adhvaryus (pi.), 8. 80. 86. 87. 121.
Ananta, 141 (comm.).
Anantadeva, IOI
Anantayajvan, 85. 245.
anapM, 255 (Greek).
Anukramanis, 24. 32. 33. 6l. 64. 65.

74. 83. 85. 87. 88. 90. 103. 104.

107. 143. 144. 145. 152.
Anufiada-Siitra, So. Si. 84. 88. 95.
Anubrdhmana, 12. 82.
amtbrdhmanin, 82.
Anubhtitiprakasa, 97.
Anubhutiavarupsicha'rya, 226.

330

SANSKRIT INDEX.

amdamba, 68.

anuvdka, 31. 33. 88. 94. 107. 109.
124- H5-

— "kdnukramani, 32. 6l.
anuvydkhydna, 122. 127.
anusdsana, 121. 122. 127.
anustotra, 84.
anuchdna, 78.
Andhaka-Vrishnayas, 185.
Andhomatf, 106.
anvadhydya, 57. 176.
anvdkhyana, 122.
Apdntaratamas, 243.
Apsaras, 125.
Abhayadeva, 327.
Abhichdra-Kalpa, 153.
Abhidharma (Buddh.). 290. 292.

307 ff.
Abhidhdna-chintdmani, 230.

— ratnamdld, 230.
Abhinavagupta, 237. 273. 322.
abhinimru/cta, 278.
Abhinishkramana-Stitra, 300.
Abhimanyu, 219. 220. 223.
abhiyajna-gdthds, 45.
Abhira, 3.

abhyanukta, 122.

Amarakosha, 220. 229 ff. 267.

Amarachandra, 190.

Amaradeva, 228.

Amarasinha, 200. 219. 227 ff.

Amaru. 210.

Amita, 306.

Amitdbha, 298. 306.

Ainitraghdlta, 251.

Amritanddopanishad, 154- 165. I71-

Amritavindtipanishad, 99. 154. 165.

Amba", 114. 134. 317.

Ambikd, 39. 114. 134. 317.

Amba'lika, 39. 114. 134.317.

ayana, 66.

ayogti, in.

Ayodhyit, 89. 178. 224.

Aruna, 133. °nas, 93.

— Smriti, 280. 326.
Aruni, 93 (and plur.)
Arkalinas, 33.

arjuna, Ai-juna (and Indra), 37. 50.

114. 115. 134. 135. 136. 137. 185.

1 86.

arjunyau, 248.
Artha&dstra, 271.273. 275.
ardha, 73 (inhabited place).
ardhamdgadht, 295. 296. 297.
nrhant, 78. 138. 305.
Alamkdrasdstra, 231. 322.

Avaddna, 299. 301 (Buddb.).
Avalokite6vara, 298. 299.
avyakta, 238.
Avyayavritli, 227.
asftipatha, 119.
Asoka, 179. 273. 290. 291.
A4vagbosha, 161. 162.
A^vapati, 71. 120.
asvamedha, 54. 114. 126.

— okdnda, 118.
A^vala, 53. 129.
Asbjldha, 133.

ashtaka, 31. 32. 42. 43. 89.

ashtddhydyi, 118.

asura, 302 (sura formed from).

— language of the A.'s, 180.

— Krishna, 148. 304.

— Maya, 253, 274.
ahargana, 258.
alii, 36.

ahina, 66. 76. 79. 80. 139.
Ahobalasuri, 101.
dkdsa, 128.
dkoketa, 254.
dkhydna, 122. 193.

— vidas, 45.
^(/amasdstra, 161.
Aguive^ya, 102. 285.
Agnive^yfiyana, 49. 53- IO2.
dyneyam parva, 66.
Angirasa, 71. 148. 153.
Angirasakalpa, 153.
dchdrya, 73. 77. 8l. 121.
Atndra, 68. 125.

dnava, 171.

diman, 97. 156. 161 ff.

— (malidn), 238.
Atniaprabodhopanwhad, 166. 167.

169.

Atmdnanda, 42.
^tmopanishad, 158. 162.
Atreya, 87-89. 91. 92. 93. IO2. 103.

Taitt., 153. Ath., 241. 242. (phil.).

265. 269. (med.).

— kanishtha", 269. (med.).

— briliad", 269. (med.).

— madhyama0, 269. (med.).

— vriddha", 269. (med.).

— (bhikshu), 284.
Atharvana, 128. 149.

— Grihya, 152.
Atbarvanikas, 82. 149.

A tharvanlyarudropanithad, 1 54. 1 70k
dditya, 131.
dditydni, 131.
Adityaddsa, 259.

SANSKRIT INDEX.

33'

Adibuddha, 298.

ddesa, 73. 121. 149. 235. 301.

Ananda-giri, 51. 243.

— jn£na, 51.

— tirtha, 42. 51.

— vana, 1 68.

— vardhana, 322.
Anandavatti, 94. 154. 156. 157.
Anarttiya, 55.

./^.ndhras, 94.

Apastamba, 88, 89 ff. 100. IOI. IO2.

317. 325-

— Dharmasfitra, 101. IO2. 106. 278.

. 325-

Apisali, 222.
dpoklima, 255 (Greek).
Aptavajrasiichi, 161.
^bhiprat^rina, 136.
Amara'ja, 261.
<Jtyana, names in, 53. 120.
AyahstMna, 130.
Ayurveda, 265. 267. 271.
«ra, 254 (Greek).
Aranyaka, 8. 28. 29. 48. 92.

— kdnda, 118.

— jyotisha, 153.

— samhitd, 65.
Aranyagdna, 64. 65.
Aranya-lSamhitd, 316.
Ardda, Araihi, 285.
Aruna, 93.

Aruni, 51. 69. 71. 123. 130. 132.

133. 157. 286.

Arunikopanishad, 163. 164.
4-runins, 93.
Aruneya, 133. 157.
drchika, 63. 65. 66.
4-rjunaka, 185.
Aryas, 3. 79. 178.
Aryabhata, 6l. 254. 255. 257 ff.
Arydbhatiya, 6l. 257.
Aryasiddhdnta, 257.
Arydpanchdsiti, 237.
Arydshtasata, 257.
Arsha, 85.

Arshikopanisfiad, 162.
Arsheya-Kalpa, 75. 77.
Arsheya-Bralimana, 74. 313. 316.

4-vantika, 259.
4-vantika", riti, 232.
4s^rka, 84. 278.

.Asmarathah, Tcalpah, 46. 53. 242.
Asmarathya, 53. 242.
dsrama, omopanwhad, 164.
— (bhilcshu), 327.

A^vatardsvi, 133.

Asvalayana, 32. 34. 49. 52 ff. 59. 62.
80. 85. ioi. 106. 169. 266.

— Kausalya, 159.

— Parisishta, 62.

— Urd/imana, 49.
A&vina-sastra, 314.
dsvinl series, 323.
A.surayana, 128. 140.

Asuri, 128. 131. 133. 137. 235. 236.
dskanda, 113.
dsphujit, 254 (Greek).
Asphuji(d)dhvaja (?), 258.
ikkavtila, 264 (Arabic).
ithimikd, 89.
Itard, 48.
Itihdsas, 24. 72. 93. 122. 124. 127.

159. 190. 191.

Itihdsapurdna, 121. 183. 301.
ittha, 254 (Greek).
itthisdla, 264 (Arabic).
ityukta, 300.
inthihd, 264 (Arabic).
induvdra, 264 (Arab.)
ludra, 32.40. 52. 63. 123. 127. 176

(gramm.). 186. 21 1. 265 (med.).

303.

— and Arjuna, 37. 50. 115. 136.
185. 186.

Indrajananlya, 193.

ludradatta, 293.

Indradyumna, 133.

Iiidraprastha, 178.

Indrota, 34. 125.

IraVati, 178.

it, 108.

Isdna, 45. no.

Isopanishad, 116. 155. 309.

i&vara, 238.

Isvara, 272 mus.

I^varakrishna, 236. 237.

isardpha, 264 (Arabic).

uktapratyuktam, 122.

uktha, 67. 81.

vlcthdrtha, 83.

Ukha, 91.

Ugrasena, 125. 135.

itchcha, 257.

Ujjayini, 185. 2OI. 209. 252. 257

259. 295.

Ujjvaladatta, 226.
vnddi, 2 1 6. 226.
Uttaratdpinl, 169.
Uttaramimdnsd, 239 ff.
Ultarardmacharita, 207.
Uttaravalli, 157.

332

SANSKRIT INDEX.

vttard, uttardrchika, 63. 65.

uttardshddhds, 247.

Utpala, 243. 260. 322.

Utpalini, 227.

Udayana, 246.

•uddtta, 314.

udichyas, 132. 178.

udgdtar, 14. 67. 149.

Udddlaka, 69. 71. 123. 130. 131.

157. 284.

Uddyotakara, 245.
Udbhata, 322.
Upagrantha-S&tra, 83. 84.
Upatishya, 199.
vpadefa, 301 (Buddh.).
upadhd, 144.
Upanishads, 28. 29. 42. 48. 73. 74.

121. 127. 153 ff. 235. 277.

— number of, 154. 155.

— (Up. Brdhmana), 34. 74.
Upapurdnas, 171. 191. 282.
Upalekha, 40. 59.
Upaveda, 265. 271. 273.
upavydkhydna, 122.
upaskdra, 244.

upastha, 114.
updkhydna, 73, 122.
Updngas, 297 (Jain.).
upddhydya, 82.

— nirapekshd, 271.
updsaka, "sikd, 306.
Upendra, 303.
nbkayam antarena, 49.
Uma", 74. 156.
t/rajro, 98. 303.

Urva^i, 134. 207 (drama). 208.

iiltika, 246.

Uvatta, 42.

Usanns (Kdvya), 36. 153.

— 278. 282. 325 (jur.).
TjMuura, 45.
Ushasti, 71.

ushtra, 3.

Data, 34. 42. 59. 1 1 6.

flvata, 144.

L'hagdna, Ohyagdna, 64.

ftik-Samhitd, 9. 10. II. 14. 31 ff.

— and Sdma-S., readings of, 313.

— concluding verse of, in the forty-
eighth At/i. Par., 313.

— Kashmir MS., 314.

— galitas in, 314, 315.
Rigvidhdna, 62. 74. (33). 313. 314.

316.

Ri'jveda, 8. 33 (rigvedayuptaye). 45.
121. 123. 127.

richas, 8. 9. 14. 31. 33. 63. 64. 65.

74- 75-

— number of, 121. 153.
Rishi, 8 (= Veda). 122. 145.

— Brdhmana, 64.

— mukhdni, 66.
Rishy-Anukramani, 88.
Ekachurni, 42. 91.
ekapddikd, 117.
ekavachana, 124.
ekahansa, 129.

<?fotAa, 66. 76. 79. 80. 139.
eie, 134. 140.
Aikshvika, 125.
Aitareya, 48. 49. 56. 70. 85.

— Brdhmana, 16. 44 ff. 72.

— °yaka, 34. 62.

— "ydranyaka, 32. 48 ff. 75. 315.

— °yins, 49. 81. 85.

— °opanishad, 48. 155.
Aitisdyana, 53. 241 (Aita°).
Aindra (School), 321.
aindram parva, 66.
aisvarika, 309.

om, 158. 160. 161. 163. 164.

orimikd, 89.

aukthika, 83. 240.

Aukhiyas, 88.

Audulomi, 242.

Audanya, 134.

audichya, 34.

Audumbardyana, 53.

Audd«llaki, 157 (VedJ. 267 (erot.).

Audbhdri, 88.

Aupatasviui, 134.

Aupamanyava, 75.

Aupave^i, 133.

Aupa^ivi, 143.

Aupoditeya, 133.

Auldky;i, 246.

Aushtnikshi, 75.

Kansavadha, 198. 207.

Kachchdnd (Buddha's wife), 318.

Kachchdyana, 227. 293.

Katha, 89. 92. 184 ; plur. 88. 89.

317-

— Kaldpas, 89.

— vdtti, 157.

— sdkhd, 89.

— frutyupanishad,, 163. 164,

— Sutra, 99. 100.
Kanabhaksha, Kanabhuj, 245.

260.

Kandda, 244. 245. 246.
kandikd, 59. 89. 107. 117. 118-120.
kanva, 140 (deaf).

SANSKRIT INDEX.

333

Kanra, 3. 31. 52. 106. 105 (plur.).

140.

— Smriti-Sdstra, 143.
Kanha, 304.

Kanhi, Kanhdyana, 304.
Katas, 138.
Katkdsaritsdgara, 213. 217. 219.

223.

Kadni, 134.
Kanishka, Kanerki, 205. 218. 219.

22O. 222. 223. 28l. 285. 287. 288.

290. 294. 302. 306. 308.
kanishtha, 269 ( treya).
kanydkumdri, 157.
Kapardigiri, 179.
Kapardisvdtnin, 42. lot.
kapinjala, 211.
Kapila, 96. 137. 162. 235 ff. 272.

284. 308.

Kapilavastu, 33. 137. 284.
Kapishthala, 265. 268 (med.).

— Kathas, 88.
Kapishthala-Samhitd, 88.
Kabandha, 149.
Kabandhin, 159.
Kambojas, 178. 22O.
kamvtila, 264 Arab.
karat oka, 206.

knrana, 259 (astr.).

— kuttihala, 261. 262.

— sdra, 262.
Karavindasviimin, 101.
kardli, 159.

Karka, 141.
Karndtakas, 94.
Karnisuta, 276.
Karmanda, °dinas, 305.
Karmapradipa, 84. 85. 278.
Karmamlmdnsd, 239 ff.
Karmargha, 153.
Icalds (the sixty -four), 275.
Kaldpa-Sutra, 227 (gram in.).
Kaldpin, 184.
kali, 113. 283 yuna.

— era, 205. 260. 261.
Kaliiiga, 269.
Kalindtha, 272.
kaliyuga, 243.
Kalki-Purdna, 191.

Kalpa, 1 6. 46. 53. 75. 93. 153 (Ath.).
176. 242.

— kdra, 144.

— Sutras, 16. 34. 75. loo. lO2(Ved.).
^297 (Jain.) 317.

Kalpdnupada, 84.
Kalhana, 213. 215. 319.

Kavasba, I2O.

Kavi, 153 (Usanas). 191. 195.

Kaviputra, 204. 205.

Kavirdja, 196.

kasyapa, 140 (having black teeth).

Kasyapa, 53. 140.

— 278. 282 jur.
kashdya, 78. 306.
Kaserumant, 188.
Kahola, 129. 133.

Ka'nka'yana, 153 (Ath.). 266. 269

(med.)
Kdthaka, 41. 81. 85. 88. 89 ff. 103.

317.

— Grihya, ibi. 317.
Kdthakopanishad, 93. 1 56, 238. 240.
kdndda, 246.

kdnda, 59. 89.91. 92. 117 ff. 145.

Kdndamayana, 53.

Kdnva, 103. 106. 113 ff. 142. 143.
144 (gramm.).

Kdnvaka, 105.

Kdnviputra, 105.

Kdnvydyana, 105.

Kdtantra, 226. 227. 321.

Kdtiya-Grikya, 142.

Kdtiya-Sutra, 91. 99. 100. 142.

Kdtya, 138. 223.

Kdtyayana, 53. 61. 80. 83. 84. 107.
138 ff. (Ved.)222. 321. (gramru.),
227 lex. 266 ined. 285 (Buddh.).

— Smriti-Sdstra of, 143. 326.

— Kabandhin, 159.
Kdtydyani, 127. 138; = Durgd,

138- 157.

— putra, 71. 138. 285.
Kddmnibari, 213.
KdpUa-Sdstra, 236.

Kdpya, 126. 137. 223. 236. 237. 284.
Kdmandakiya, (Niti-Sdstra), 271.

,325-

Adma-S&tra, 267.
Kamukdyana, 241.
Kdmpila, 114. 115 ; °lya, 115. 138.
Kdmboja, 7£.
Kdrandavyuha, 299.
Kdrttakaujapa, 266.
Kdrttikeya, 103 (comm.).
kdrmika, 309.

Kdrshniljini, 140. 241. 242.
Kala, 248.
Kdlanirnaya, 262.
Kdlabavins, 14. 81. 83. 96.
Kdlayavana, 220. 221.
Kdldgnirudropaniihud, 171.
Kdldpa, 89. 96.

334

SANSKRIT INDEX.

Kaliddsa, 195. 196. 2Ooff. 209. 228.
250. 252. 266. 318 f.

— three Kalidasas, 204.
Mil, 159.

Kdvasheya, 120. 131.
Kdvila, 236.

kdvyas, 183. 191. 195. 2IO.
Kavya 36 (U.4anas). 153.
Kdvyaprakdsa, 204. 232.
Kdvyddarsa, 232.
Kdvydlarjikdravritti, 226. 232.
Kiisakritsna, 42. 91. 140. 242.
Kas'akfitsni, 139. 140. 242.
Kasis, 125. 286.

Kdsikd, 1 06. 130. 226, 227. 321.
KM, 269. 283.
Kasmiras, 227.
Kasyapa, 143 (gramm.). 245 (pliil.).

275 (archit.).
kdshdyadltdrana, 237.
kitava, III.
kimnara, 302.
Kirdtdrjuniya, 196.
Kikatas, 79.
Kirtidhara, 273.
kuttaka, 259.
Kiitliumi, 84.
Kundina, 91.

— (town), 168.
Kutapa-Sausruta, 266.
kuntdpastikta, 146.
Kunti, 90.

Kubhd, 3.
Kumdrapdla, 297.
Kumdrasambhava, 195. 196. 208.

318.

KumaVilabhatta, 68. 74. 241. 242.
KumaVilasviimin, loo.
Kumbhamushkas, 303.
Kumbbandas, 302. 303.
Kurus, 114. 123. 135. 136. 137.

138 (and Katas). 286.
Kurukshetra, 68. 136.
Kuru-Panchdlaa, 10. 34. 39. 45.

68. 90. 114. 129. 132. 135. 1 86.

286.

kuladharma, 278.
kullra, 254.
Kulluka, 281.
Kuvera, 124. 303.
Kusa and Lava, 197-
kunlava, 197.
Kiislimftndas, 303.
Knsumapura. 257. 258.
K usumdiijali, 245. 246.
icurmavibhdya, 215.

Kushmfindas, 303.

krit, 144'.

krita, 113 (yuga).

krittikd, 2. 148. 247. 248. 304. 323,

— series, date of, 2.
Krityachintdmani, 80.
Krisa, 266 med.
Kri^dsva, "^vinas, 197.
krishna, (black), 304.

Krishna Devakiputra, 71. 104. 148.
169. 186. 238. 284. 304.

— and Kalayavana, 22O. 221.

— and the Panda vas, 136.

— and the shepherdesses, 2IO.

— worship of, 71. 189. 209. 238.
289. 300. 304. 307. 326.

— Angirasa, 71. 148.

— Dvaipayana, 184. 243.

— Asura Krishna, 148. 304.

— Krishna Hdrita, 50.
Krishnajit, 54. 58.
Krishnatnisra, 207.
Krishnaj'ina, 242.
Krishndtreya, 266 med.
Kekayas, I2O. 132.
ketu, 250.

Kenopani'shad, 73, 74. 75- I5^ ^«

171. 316.
kemadruma, 255.
kevala, 245.

— naiydyika, 245.
Kesava Ka^rnirabhatta, 323.
Kesin (Asura), 148. -
Kesi-siidana, "ban, 148.
'Kesari' samgrdmah, 188.
kesava, 304.

Kaikeya, 120.

Kaiyata, 56. 83. 93. 95. 223. 224,

Kaivalyopanishad, 155. 163. 169 f.

Kokila, 280.

kona, 254.

Kosala, 160. 185. 192. 193. 324.

Kosala, 33. 68. 137. 285.

- Videhas, 34. 39. 132. 134. 135.

,285.

Kohala, 273.
Kankusta, 134.
kaukkutika, 305.
Kaundinya, 102. 285.
Kautsa, 77. 140.
Kants.iyana, 97.
Kauthumas, 47. 65. 76. 83. 84. 89.

96. 1 06.

Kaudreyas, 140.
Kaumslrila, 241.
Kauravya, 39. 123. 135. 136.

SANSKRIT INDEX.

335

Kaurupaflchdla, 123.
kaurpya, 254 (Greek).
Kaulopanishad, 171.
Kausalya (Asvalayana), 159.
KauiSdmbeya, 123.
KauSika, 149. 152. 153 (Ath.).

— (Conim.), 42. 91.
Kaushitaka, 56.
Kaushitaka, 46. 8 1.

— °kdrai}yaka, 50. 54.
Kaushitaki, "kill, 46. 68. 82. 133.

134- 313.

— Brdhmann, 26. 44 ff. 71.

— Upanishad, 50. 73. 127. 155.
286.

Kausbitakeya, 129.

Kausalya, 125. 159 (s).

Kausurubindi, 123.

Kauhala, 75.

kramapdjka, 34. 49. 60.

kriya, 254 (Greek).

Krivi, Kraivya, 125.

Krauncha, 93.

Kraushtuki, 6l metr. 153. 248

Ath. '
kllba, ill.
kshatrapati, 68.
Kshapanaka, 2OO.
Kshdrapdni, 265 ined.
Ksbirasvdtiiin, 79. 227.
Kshudras, 84.
Kshurikopanishad, 165.
Kshetnarnkara, 213.
Kshetuendra, 213. 215. 319. 320.

321.

Kshemendrabhadra, 293.
Kshairakalanibhi, 77-
Jfshaudra, 84.
Kbandika, 88.
Kbadirasviimin, 79-
Kbaroshtba, 248.
Khddiiyana, 53, "iiins 14. 8l.
Khdndikiyas, 87. 88.
Khddiragrihya, 84.
khila, 92.' 97. 107. 130. 144. 249.

313 f-

— kdnda, 127. 128. 130. 131.
khuddakapdt/ta, 293.
Gafiga", 51. 1 68. 193. 248.
Gangddbara, 142.
Gangesa, 246. 323.

ganas, 225. 266 gramm.
ganaka, 113.

Ganapatipurvatdpinl, 170.
Ganapatyupanishad, 154. 170.
yanapd(ha, 138. 225. 240. 241. 242.

Gayaratnamahodadhi, 226.
ganita, 159.
ganitddhydija, 262.
Ganes"a, 281.

— tdpini, 1 70.
Gadddbara, 142.

Gandharva, 272 (Ndrada). 284 (Pafl-
chasikha).

— possessed by a, 126.
Gandhdra, 70. 132. 2iX, "ris, 147.
Garuda, 171. 302 (plur.).

— Purdrta, 191.
Garudopanis/iad, 171.

Garga, 153 Ath. 221. 252 ff. (astr.).

— plur. 252. 253.

— Vriddhagarga, 153. 253.
Garbhopanishad, 160. 167. 272.
galitas, 314. 315.

gallakka, 206.
gahanam gambhiram, 233.
Gdngydyani, 51.
Gdyapatyapurvatdpaniya, 170.
gdthds, 24. 33. 45. 72. 73. 93. 121.

122. 124. 125. 127. 132. 184.

— 299. 301 Buddh.
Gdnae, 63. 64. 81. 316. 325.
Gdndharvaveda, 271. 272.
gdyatrisampanna, 140.
Gdrgi Vdchaknavf, 56. 129.

— Saifihitd, 214. 251.

Gdrgya, 56 (Grihya). 63 (Sdmuv ).
75 (Masaka). 143 (gramm.). 153
(Ath.).

— and Kdlayavana, 221.

— Bdldki, 51.
Gitagovinda, 210.

— (time of composition), 210.
Gunddbya, 213.

Gupta (dynasty), 204.
Gurudevasvdmiu, 101.
Gurjara, 297.
Gubadeva, 42. 323.
guhya ddeta, 73.
guJiyam ndma, 115.
Gtidhdrtharatnaindld, 42.
Gritsamada, 31.
grihastha, 28. 164.
Grihya-Sutras, 15. 17. 19. 2O. 69.
84. 101. 152. 153. 264. 276. 278.
geya, 301 Buddb.
Geyagdna, 66.
yairikamvula, 264 Arab.
Gairiksbita, 41.

Gonikdputra, 223 gr. 267 (erot.).
Gotama, 244 ff. (log. ).

— Sutra, 245.

336

SANSKRIT INDEX.

Goddvari, 283.

Gonardiya, 223 gr. 267 (erot.).

Gopatha- Brdhmana, 106. 150. 151.

152. 304.
Gopavanas, 140.
Gopdlatdpantyopanishad, 169.
gopi, 169.

Gopichandanopanishad, 169.
Gobhila, 80. 82. 83. 84.

— Smriti, 280.
golddhydya, 262.
Govardhaua, 211.
Govinda, comm., 55. 62.

— teacher of Samkara, 161. 243.

— svdmin, roi comm.
GaueU (style), 232.
Gaudapdda, 161. 167. 236. 243.

298.
Gautama, 77 (two G.'s).

— 84. 143 (jur.).

— 153. 162 (Ath.).

— 245(phil.).

— 162 (Risbi).

— D/iarma (-Siitra), 85. 278. 281.
282. 325. 326. 327.

— (Pitrimedha-Stilra), 84. 245.
Gautamah Sdmkhyah, 284.
Gautamas, 137.

grantha, 15. 99. 165. 193.

— (niddnasamjnaka), 8l.
graha, 67 (Soma- vessel).

— eclipse, 249.

— planet, 98. 249. 250.

— (bdlagraha), 98.
grama, 64. 77.
(Jrdmageyagdna, 64. 65.
Ghatakarpara, 200. 201.
Ghora Afigirasa, 71.
Chatuhshashtikaldsdstra, 275 (°ld~

gama).

chaturanga, game of, 275.
Chatur - ad/iydyikd, 151 ("ddhyd-

yikd).

Chaturvinsatismriti, 280.
Chandra, 219. 227.
Chandraka, 319.
Chandragupta, 4. 204. 217. 223.

251. 287.

— (Gupta dynasty), 204.
Chandrabhdgd, 269.
Chandra-Vydkarana, 227.
Champa", 178.

charaka, 87.

Charaka, 265. 266. 268. 270. 284.

324. 325 mecl.
Charaka-8'dkhd, 89.

Charakas, 87. 88. 164.
CharakachaVya, 87. 113.
Charakddhvaryiis, 87. 133. 134.
Charan.a-vy&ha, 95. 142. 153 (Ath.).
°charitra, 214.
Chdkra, 123.
Chdkrdyana, 71.
Chanakya, 205. 210. 260. 310.
chdnddla, 129.
Chdnardtas, 193.
chdndanagandlnka, 275.
Chdndrabhdgin, 269.
6ri-Chdpa, 259.

Chdrdyaniya, 88. 103. 317 (tfikshd).
Chdrvdkas, 246.
Chdlukya, 214.
Chitra, 51.

Chitraratha, 68 (Bdblikam).
chitrd, 247. 248 (series).
Chintdmanivritti, 217.
Chinas, 243.
Chuda, 130.
Chiilikopanishad, 165.
chela, 138.
Chelaka, 138.
Chaikitdneya, 138.
Chaikitdyana, 138.
Chaitrarathi, 68.
Cbailaki, 133.
Chyavana, 134.
Cbhagalin, 96. 99.
chhandas (Vedic text), 8. 14. 57.
60. 103. 176. '

— (Sdma-Sainhitd), 63.

— metr., 25. 60. 145. 272.
Chhandasikd, 63.
Cbhandogas, 8. 66. 8l. 86. 121.
chhandobhdshd, 103.
chhandovat, 216.

Cbhagaleya, 96. 102. 155, °yins,

96.

Cbhdgeyas, 96.
Ckhdndogya-Brdlimana, 69.
Cfihdndor/yopanishad, JO ff. 155-
Jaganmohana, 283.
Jatdjmtala, 60.
Jatukarna, 265 med.
Janaka, 33. 53. 68. 76. 123. 124.

127. 129. 132. 135. 193. 237. 285.

286 (his six teachers).
janaka (prajdpatt), 76.

— saptardtra, 76.
Janamejaya, 34. 123. 125. 131. 134.

135. 136. 1 86.
Jandrdana, 303.
japamdld, 307.

SANSKRIT INDEX.

337

Jamadagni, 162, 315.

Jayatirtha, 42.

Jayadeva, 2IO (date of).

Jayabhata, 319.

Jayaratba, 322.

Jayara'ma, 143.

Jaydditya, Jaydpida, 227. 322.

Jardsaindha, 98.

Jalada, 150.

Jdtaka, astr. , 240. 260.

Jdtakas, Buddh., 284. 293. 301. 326.

jdtakarman, 19. IO2. 142.

jdti, 161.

Jdttikarnya, 138. 139. 140. 143.

Jdnaki, 130.

Jdbala, 71. 130. 132. 134. 163. 185.

Jdbdli, 143 (Smriti).

Jdbdlopaniskad, 163. 164. 1 68.

jdmitra, 255 (Greek).

jituma, 254 (Greek).

Jishnu, 259.

jiva, 162.

Jivagosvdmin, 160.

Jivala, 133.

Jiva&irman, 260.

juka, 254 (Greek).

jeman, 240.

Jainas, 214. 217. 236. 244. 293.

295 ff.
Jaiaiini, 56-58 (Qrihyd). 65 (Sd-

mav.). 184. 189. 239 ff. (phil.).

— Bhdrata, 57. 189.

— Sutra, 240 (astr.). 322.
Jaiminiya, 65. 240. 316. 317.

— nydyamdidvistara, 241. 322.
Jaivali, 71.
Jndnabhdskara, 253.
Jndnayajna, 91. 94.
Jyotirvid-dbharana, 201. 260. 261.

266.
Jyotisha, 25. 30. 60. 61. 153 (Aran-

yaka°). 249. 258. 316.
jyau, 254 (Greek).
Taksbau, 133.
TakshaSiliC, 185.
Tanddlakshana-Stiira, 83. 84.
tad and team, 162.
Tadevopanishad, 108. 155.
taddhita, 144.
tantra ceremonial, 167. 208. 209.

265. 282. 310.
•— gramm., 227. 229.

— ' text-book, ' 229 (term taken to
Java). 265. 266.

taravl, 263 (Arabic).
tarka, 158. 244.

tarkin, 244.

Talavakdra-Brdhmana, 316.
TalavakaVas, 74.
taill, tasdl, 263. 264 (Arabic).
Tdjika (-S'dstra), 263 (Arabic).
Tdndam (purdnam), 76.
Tdndin, 61 (gr.), 243.
Tdndins, 70.
Tandy a, 66 ff. 74. 133.
tdpasa, 129. 138.
"tdpanlya, °tdpini, 167 ff.
Tdrakopanitshad, 163. 164. 168.
TaYandtha, 248. 293. 300. 309.
Ta'lavrintaniva'sin, 101.
tdvuri, 254 (Greek).
tin, 144.

tittiri, 87 (partridge).
Tittiri, 41. 87. 88. 90. 91.
Tipitaka, 292. 293. 294.
Tiriipdira, 3.
tishya, 248.
tikshnadanshtra, 167.
Tuta"ta, °tita, 241.
Tura, 120. 131 (Kdvasheya).
Turamaya, 253. 274.
turushka, Turusbka, 22O. 291.
tulyakdla, 12. 129.
Tejovindupanishad, 165. 171-
Taittiriya, 81. 87, °yakas 102. 162
Cyake). 317 (Prdt.).

— Samhitd, 88 ff. 108. 248.

— °ydranyaka, 92-94. 238. 240.

249- 3°3-

— °yopanishad, 93. 94.
taukshika, 254 (Greek).
Tautdtika, °tita, 241.
Taulvali, 53.

trayi vidyd, 8. 45. 121. 191.
Trasadasyu, 68.
Trikdnda, 227.
trikona, 255 (Greek).
Tripitaka, 292.
tripundravidhi, 171.
Tripuropanishad, 171.
Tripuryupaniskad, 161. 162-
Tribhdxhyaratna, 103.
Tribhuvanamalla, 214.
TriMlafika, 62.
/retti, 113. 159.
Traitana, 36.
Iwm and tad, 162.
Daksha, 326 (Snm<i).
Dandin, 213. 232.
Dattaka, 196.
Dadhyanch, 128. 149.
Dantidurga, 203.

338

SANSKRIT INDEX.

dampati, 38.
Darsanopanlshad, 171.
dnrsaptirnamdsau, 101.
Dcdakumdra, °charita, 206. 213. 250.

276.

dasat, 63. 124. 149.
Daiatayi, 83 (comm.).
dafatayi, plur. dasatayyas, 32.

82.

Da^apurushaip-ra'jya, 123.
Dadariipa, 231, 232.
Dasarathajdtaka, 293.
Daharasutta, 293.
Da'ksha'yana, 227. 228.
Dakshi, Ddkshiputra, 218. 228.
Ddnava, Ddnu, 302.
Dalbhya, 85 (PariMshta). 143 (gr.).
ddsaka, 36.
Dilsa4arraan, 55-
dir/vijayas, 141.
Difina'ga, 209. 245.
Divodisa, 269.
dindra, 229. 304 (cZenaraw).
Dlpavansa, 288.
Duhshanta, 125.
durudkard, 255 (Greek).
Durga, 33. 41. 42. 63.
Durgasinha, 226.
Durgd, 138, 159.
dushkrita, 87.
Dushtaritu, 123.
drikdna, 255 (Greek).
drisya, 319.
TJrishadvati, 67. 102.
Dera, Devaydjuika, Sri Deva, 141.

142.

Devaki, 71.

Devakiputra, 71. 148. 166. 169.
devajanavidas, 121.
devajanavidyd, 124. 183.
Devatddhydya, 74. 75-
Devatrdta, 54.
Devadatta, 160.
Devapdla, 317.
Devartljayajvan, 41. 42.
Devasvitmin, 260 (astr.).
Devdpi, 39.

Devyupanishad, 154. 170. 171.
°de^'tya, 79.
Daivata, 85.
Daivdpa, 125.
doshapati, 151. 318.
dyuta, 255 (Greek).
Dyaushpitar, 35.

Dramida, Dravidilcbilrya, 322. 323.
dramma, 229 (Greek).

draha, 79.
Drdvidas, 94.

Drdhydyana, 53. 79. 84. 282,
Drona, 185. 271.
dvdpara, 113. 151. 243.
Dva'raka'na'thayajvan, 324.
Dvivedagaflga, 72. 104. 139.
Dvaipdyana, a. Kj-isbna.
Dhanaipjaya, 232.
Dhanapatietiri, 243.
Dhanurveda, 271, 282.
DhanesSvara, 214.
Dhanvantari, 200. 265. 266. 269.
Dhanvin, 80.
Dhammapada, 293.
dhammapaliydydni, 292. 294,
Dharma, 1 76. 276 ff.

— S'dstras, 159. 276-283.

— S'dstra-samgratia, 325. 326.

— Stitras, 19. 85. 101. 277 £F.

317.

dharmas, 101.
Dharma, °putra, "raja, 1 86.
dharmdchdrya, 56.
D/tdtu-taramgini, 227.
Dhdtu-pdtha, -pdrdyana, 230.
Dhdnaipjayya, 76. 77. 82.
DhaYa", 201. 202.
Dhdvaka, 204. 205. 207.
Dhumrdyana, 141.
Dhtirtasviimin, 79. 101.
Dhritai;lsb|ra (Vaicbitravirya), 39.

90. 114.

— king of the Ka"3is, 125.
Dhydnavindiipanishad, 165.
Dbydnibuddbas, 298.
dhruvasya prachalanam, 98.
nakta (nakld), 264, Arab.
naks/iatras, 2. 90.
NaksJiatra-Kalpa, 153.
naks/tatradarsa, 112.
Nagnajit, 132. 134.
Nacbiketas, 157.

nata, 196. 197. 199.

— Siitras, 197. 199. 271. 275.
Nsinda, 205. 117. 223.
Nandikesvara-Upapurdya, 171.
Namin, 68.

Naraka, 188.
nartaka, 199.
Nala, 132. 189.
Nalodaya, 196.
Navaratna, 201.
Navahasta, 101.
Ndka, 123.
Ndgas (ndya), 273. 302.

SANSKRIT INDEX.

339

Ndgdnanda, 207.

Na"garjuna, 224. 265. 287. 288 (date

of).

Nagesa, 223. 227.
Na'gojibhatta, 223. 224. 226.
Ndtakas, 196.
ndtya, 197. 200.

— S'dstra, 231.
ndnaka, 205. 281.
Nddavindtipanishad, 165.
Narada, 72 (Ved.). 153 (Ath. Par.).

264 (astr.). 272 (etym. aud runs.).

— panchardtra, 239.

— S'iks/td, 61. 272.

— (-Smriti), 278. 326.
NaYasinha, 167, "mantra 167. 168.
Ndra'yana, 94. 123 (purusha). 160.

1 66. 167. 303.

Narayana, 54 (eomm., several N.'s).

58 (do.). 141. 158 ff. (Upan.).
Ndrdyaniyopanishad, 93. 157. 166.

167. 169. 171.

Ndrdyanopaniskad, 166. 170.
ndrasansis, 93. 121. 122. 127.
nigama, 8.

Nigama-Parisishta, 25. 142. 153.
Nigkanfus, 25. 41. 153 (Atk.).

227.

nitya, 167.
Nichhivis, 276.

niddna, 81 (Ved.). 301 (Bnddb.).
Niddna-Siitra, 24. 62. 77. 8l. 82.
Nimi, 68.
Nirapeksha, 325.
Nirdlamhopanishad, 162.
Nirukta, °kti, 25. 26. 41. 42. 44.

59. 62. 88. 160. 167. 216. 217.

23.5;
iSirriti, 152.

nirbhuja, 49.

nirvdnam, 161 (67 \ma). 308

(Buddh.).
Nisumbha, 206.
Nishadhas, 132.
NishaVlas, 77.

Niti-S'dstras, 210. 271. 282.
Nilakantha, 188. 189.
Nilainata, 320.
Nilarudropanishad, 171.
Nfisinha, 167. 168.

— tdpaniyopanishad, 167. 1 68.
Nrisinha, IOI cotinu., 168.
Negas, Naigeyas, 65. 85.
Naigeya-SMra, 84.
Naighantukas, 25. 85.
Naidauas, 8 1.

Naimi&ya, 70.

Naitiiiaha, "shiya, 34. 45. 54. 59.

68. 185.
naiydyika, 245.
Nairuktas, 26. 85.
Naishadhiya, 196. 232.
Naishidha, 132.
Nydya, 159. 237. 242. 245. 246.

— chintdmani, 246. 323.

— darsana, 244. 323.

— Sdtra, 85. 235. 245.
Pakshilasvdmin, 244. 245.
Panchatantra, 206. 212. 215. 221.

229. 240. 266. 267. 291. 301.
panchadasarcha, 122.
Panchaparna, 267.
panchamdsrama, 164.
panchalakshana, 190.
Panchaviida-Brdhmana, 66 ff.
Panchavidhi-Sutra, 83. 84.
Panchavidkeya, 83. 84.
Panchasikha, 235. 236. 237. 284.
Panchasiddhdntikd, 259.
Panchdlas, 10. 90. 114. 115. 125.

135- 136.

Pancha'lachanda, 50. 315. 326.
panchdlapadavritti, 34.
Panchdia Babhravya, 10. 34. (erot.

PaQch").
panchikd, 44.
patala, 59. 82. 84.
Patanichala, 126. 137. 223. 236.

237. 284.
Patarpjali, 87. 219 ff. 231. 277. 321

(gr.).

— 137. 223. 231. 237 ff. (phil.).
°patha, 117.

padakdra, 91.

padapdtha, 23. 33. 43. 49. 60.

63-

padavritti, 34.
PaddtMtis, 55. 59. 85. 102. 141.

142. 143. 145. 317.
Padma- Parana, 191.
Padmayoni, 153.
panaphard, 255 (Greek).
Para, 68. 125.
Paramahansa, "hansopanishad, 163.

164.

Pararnddi^rara, 257.
fiaramesvara, 162.
Para^ara, 44. 143. 185. 252. 260

(astr.). 265. 266 (tned.).

— (-Smriti), 278. 280 (laghu and
vriddha). 326.,

Pariksbit, 136.

340

SANSKRIT INDEX.

Partita, 293 (Buddh.).
paribhdshds, IOI. 140. 144. 222.

227.

Pariblidihendutekhara, 226.
parivrdjaka, 112. 147. 164.
PariMshtas, 60. 62. 69. 75. 84. 85.

101. 107. 142. 146. 149. 150.

IS'- 153- 317.

Parisesha, 1 19 (Satap. Br.).
Parthavas, 4. 188. 318.
panian, 66 (Sd»ta#.). 124 (Athar-

van, &c.). 146. 149. 183. 184.
Parfu, 3 (.4).
"paliydydni, 292. 294.
Pavana, 272.
Pas'upatisarman, 54.
Pahlavas, 187. 1 88. 318.
Pdiichardtra, 238.
Pdnchavidhya, 83.
Panchdla, 267.
pdnchdli, 34 (gr.). 232 (rlti).
Pancbzilya, 138.
Pdnchi, 133.
Pataliputra, 217. 237. 251. 258.

290. 295.

Pdtimokkhasutta, 293. 326.
pdtha, 22. 49. 103.
Panini, 3. 8. 12. 15. 26. 41. 57. 59.

61. 77. 82. 87. 216-222. 232. 239.

241. 242. 245. 249. 266. 281.

318. 321.

— posterior to Buddha, 222. 305.

— posterior to Alexander, 221.

222.

Pdninlyd S'ikshd, 6l. 272.
Pandavas, Pandus, 39. 98. 114. 115.

126. 135. '136. 137. 185. 186.

286.

pdnditya, 129. 161.
pdthona, 254 (Greek).
pddas, 161 (the four).
pdpman dsura, 318.
PaVa,4avya, 3.
Piirasikas, 188. 220.
I'araskara, 66. 142. 143. 318.
ParslsaYinas, 143. 305.
Pdrddarlya, 305.
Piira&arya, 143. 305 (Bhikshu-Sti-

tra).

— (Vydsa), 93. 184. 185. 240. 243.
1 'ard.4aryayana, 243.
Parikshi, 284.
IMrikshitas, "tiyas, 34. 125. 126. 135.

136. 1 86.
P;irikshita, 136.
Pali, 288. 292. 293. 295.

Pii.su pata, 238.
Pittgala, 46. 60. 231. 256.
pitaka, 290. 304. 309.
pindapitriyajna, 19. 55.
Pindopanishad, 171.
pitdmaha, 303.
pitritarpana, 55.
Pitribh6ti, 141.
pitrimedha, 108. 198.

— Sutra, 84. 245.
pitta, 266.

PippaUda, 153. 159. 160. 164.
Piyadasi, edicts of, 6. 76. 178. 203.

252. 253. 292. 295.
pilu, 229 (Persian).
pun&liali, °lu, in. 112.
"putra, 71. 131. 285.
Punarvasu, 265.
Purdnas (Ved.), 24. 72. 93. 12 1.

122. 124. 127. 159. 190.

— 190. 191. 195. 206. 207, 213.
215. 282.

purdnam Tdndam, 76.
purdnaprokta, 12. 129.
Purukutsa, 68. 125.
purusha, 162 (the three p.' e, phiL).
237. 238.

— Ndrdyana, 123. 124.

— medha, 54. 87. 90. 108. III.

— stikta, 65. 108. 155.
purushottama, 168.
Purdravas, 134.
purohita, 150.

Pulis"a, 253. 254. 255. 257. 258.

Pushkara (?), 262.

Pushpa-Stitra, 82. 84.

Pushyamitra, 224.

putd (filthy) vdch, 180.

Pdrna, 98.

Piirvamimdnsd, 239 ff.

Prith6dakasvdmin, 259. 262.

prishtha, 67.

pekkha, 319.

Paingalopanishad, 171.

Paingi, Paiflgin, Paingya, 14. 41.

46. 56. 81. 90. 130. 134. 184.
Paingya, the, 46.
Paitdmahasiddhdnta, 258.
"paippale, 158. 169.
Paippalttda, 146. 150. 152. 160.
Paila, 56. 57. 58.
Paisdchabhdshya, 91.
paUdchi bhdshd, 213.
Potala, 285.
Paulisasiddhdnta, 253. 254. 258.

259. 260.

SANSKRIT INDEX.

341

paulkasa, 129.
PaushkarasacU, 102. 285.
VaushkalaVata, 268.
Paushpindya, 'pinji, 240.
Paushyacharita, 318.
prakriti, 177. 237.
prachalanam, 98.
Prajapati, 76. 97. 137. 151. 244.
prajnapti, s. S&rya0, 297.
Pranavopanishad, 154. 165.
Praiijnd-Parisishta, 102. 106. 115.

119.

Pratithi, 56.
pratibudd/ia, 129. 138.
Pratisbtha"na, 214.-
Pratifidra-Stitra, 83.
PratHidrya, 299 (Buddh.).
pratrinna, 49.
Pratyabhijndfdstra, 322.
prapdthaka, 63. 64. 65. 66. 76. 79.

80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 89. 97. 117.

MS- IS1-

Prabodhachandrodaya, 207. 241.
Pramagamda, 79.
pramdna, 28. 244.
prayogas, 102.
pravachana, 12. 83. 85. 131.
2>ravarakhanda, 101. 240.
pravarddhydya, 142. 317 (Kdth.).
pravargya, 108. 119. 139.
Pravdhana, 71.
pravrdjaka, 285.
pravrdjitd, 281. 305.
pravrdjin, 129.
Pra&intara'ga, 141.
prasna, 89. 100. IOI. IO2.
Prasnopanishad, 58. 1588".
Prasthdnabheda, 267. 271. 275.
prdkrita, 177.

— prakdsa, 227.
Prdchyas, 34. 132. 178.
Prdcbya-Kathas, 88.

— Pdnchdlishu, 34.
Prdndynihotropanishad, 154. 162.
PraVipiya, 123.
Prdtibodhiputra, 112.
Prdtisdkhya - Siitras, 23. 26. 59

(Rigv.). S^(Sdmav.). 102 (Taitt.).

143 (Voja*.). 151 (^<A.).
Prdtitheyi, 56.
prdmdnas, 28.
prdyaschitta, 84. 118. 139.
prckslianaka, 319.
Proti, 123.

Praudha-Srdhmana, 74.
Plakshayana, 53.

phalguna, 115. 134. 136.

phdlgunyas, 248.

Phit-Stitras, 226.

Phulla-Sutra, 83.

balsesiya, 236.

°bad/ia, "radha. 196. 198,

bandhu, 12. 124.

Babhru, 56.

Barku, 133.

Balabhadra, 261. 263 (schol.).

Balardina, 192.

bahuvachana, 124.

Bahvrichas, 8. 66. 86. 89. 121. 122.

Bahvricha-Pari&ishta, 62.

Jiahvricha-Brdhmana, IOO.

Edna, 99. 204. 2O$! 207. 213. 214.

232. 319.
B£dar£yana, 53. 140. 2396". (phil.).

266 (med.).

— (astr.), 260.

— <Sto$ra, 163.

B^dari, 139-140. 241. 242.
Babhravya, IO. 34 (Ved.). 267

(erot.).

fldrhaddaivata, 72.
Bdrhaspatya, "Siitra, 246.
Bitlakfishna, 91.
bdlakhilyas (s. vdZa°), 97.
Bdla-Bhdrata, 190.
Bdlaki, 51.
JBdverujdtaka, 3.
Bashkala, 313.
Bilhikabhishaj, 269.
BsChikas, 33. 96. 132. 178. 218.
B^hlika, 68.
Bilbana, 214. 232. 319.
Bukka, 42.
Budila, 133. 134.
buddha (awakened, enlightened),

27. 167. 241. 284.

— isdstra, 241.

Buddha, 3. 56. 98. IO2. 138. 184.
199. 200. 217 ff. 236. 241. 256.
273. 283 ff.

— date of Buddha's death, ".17-
22O. 287-288. 302.

— posterior (?), or prior, to Panini,
3. 222. 305.

— lived iu the Siitra period, 290.
301 f.

— wife of, 318.

— and Krisbna, 326.
Buddhagaya", 228. 273.
Buddbaghosha, 292. 293. 326.
Buddhadiisa, 267.
Buddhasdsana, 236.

342

SANSKRIT INDEX.

buddhnpdsaka, "sikd, 305.
•\/budh, 27.

— with prati, 129.
Budha, 278. 282 (jar.).
Brihaj-jdtaka, 259. 260.

— jdbdla, 163.
Brihat-Kathd, 213.

— Samhitd, 203. 204. 259 ff. 271.
274.

Hrihad-Atri, 269.

— Atreya, 269.

— Aranyaka, 70. 71. 72. 73.
100. 119. 127 ff. 139. 155. 285.
286.

— uttaratdpini, 169.

— devatd, 24. 33. 41. 62. 8l. 88.
314. 316.

— Ydjnavalkya, 281.
Brihadratha, 97. 98.
Irihant, 280.
Brihan-ndrdyanopanishad, 156. 157-

166.

— Manu, 279.
Brihaspati, 153 (Atharvan).

— Smriti, 278. 280 (laghu). 326.
Baijavdpi, 266 (med.)., a. Vaija-

vdpa,

Bodha, 236.
Bodhdyana, 322. 323.
Bodliisattvas, 298. 301. 307. 310.
Bauddhas, 108. 158.
Baudhdyana, 100. 101. IO2. 112.

114. 317. 324.

— Dharma, 101. 102. 278.
Brahmagupta, 61. 202. 258 ff.
brahma-chdrin, 28. 112. 123. 164.

— jdlasiitra, 300.
lirahmanya, 166.
Brahmadatta, king, 138. 286 (three).

— 55 (comm.).
brahman, etymology of, II.

— neut., prayer, formula, II. 149.

- Divine Power, 6. 127. 161.
171. 242.

— masc., Supreme God, 6. 97. 151.
158. 161. 166. 167. 170, together
with Vishnu and Rudra, 97. 161,
with Vishnu and Siva, 167. 180.

chief priest, 123. 149.

Brahma-pura, 169.

— bandhu, 78. 79. 112. 141.

— mlmdntd, 240. 241 ff.

— vid, 161.

— vidyopanishad, 164.

— vindtipanishad, 99. 158. 165.

— ve,da. 149. 150.

BrcJimavaivarta-Purdna, 191.

— Siddhdnta, 258.

— Stitra, 70. 96. 242 ff. 308. 322.

— hatyd, 1 25. 1 26.

Brahma'nandi, 322. 323.

Brahmopanishad, 160 ff.

brdhma Sphutasiddhdnta, 259.

brdhmana, neut. (appellative : ' ex-
planation,' 'section of a text'),
76. 93. 117. 124. 152.

work, 8. 11-15. 76. 159. 176.

239. 240.

— masc., in. 161 (nature of a Br.),
176 (two languages), 1 80 (na
mlecJihet), 276.

— svara, 176.
bhaJcti, 238.
Hhagadatta, 188.
JHiagavatl-Stitra, 297.
Bhagavadgitd, 169. 235. 238. 242,
bhayavant, 121. 153 (Atharvan),

1 60 (Angiras), 169 (mahddevah,

284 (Buddha, &c.).
Bhagiratha, 193.
Bliataghati, 293.
Bhatta, 42. 90. 91. 241 ; s. Bhds-

karamisra.

Bhntta-ndrdyaria, 207.
Blidtti-kdvya, 196.
Bhattoji Dikshita, 89. 226.
Bhattotpala, 242. 243. 258. 259 ff.
Bhadatta, Bhadanta, 260.
Bhadrabdhusvdmin, 297.
Bhadrasena, 286.
Bharata, son of Duhshanta, 125.

— plur. 114. 125.

— 231 (rhet.). 272 (mus.).
BharatasvfCmin, 42. 65. 79.
Bharadvaja, 31. 162. 163 (Upan.).

— (Kapishthala), 265. 268 (med.).
Bhartriyajna, 141.
Bhartrihari, 209. 2IO.

Bhallu, 95.

Bhava, 178.

bhavant, 121. 284.

Bhavabhuti, 159. 2OO. 205. 2o5.

207. 319.

Bhavasvdmin, 42. 79. 91. lol.
Bhasmajdbdla, 163.
Bhdgavata, 238.

— Purdna, 191.
Bhdgavitti, 130.
Bhdguri, 62. 246.
Bhflndiiayana, 77.
llhdmatt, 322.
Bhdrata, 56. 176. 185.

SANSKRIT INDEX.

343

BhaVadvajn, 100-102 (Taltt.). 139.

140. 158 (Ath. ). 271 (Drona '!).
Bkdradvdjtya-Stitra, 100. 317.
Bhdravi, 196. 319.
Bharuchi, 323.
Bhdrunddni sdmdni, 170.
Bhdrgava, 150. 153. 159 (Vaidar-

bhi).

bhdrgava, 250 (astrologer).
Bhdllavins, 14. 62. 8l. 95. 134.
Ehdllaveya, 95. 126. 134.
Bltdllavyupanishad, 95. 154. 164.
bhdshd, 57. 103. 144. 176. 177. 180.
Bhdshika-Stitra, 68. 95.
bhdshika-svara, 176.
Bhdshya, 56. 57. 144. 176.
Bhasa, Bhdsaka, 205.
Bbdskara, 229. 261 ff.

— mi^ra, 42. 90. 91. 94. IOI. 103.
171.

Bhdsvatikarana, 261.

bhikshd, 123. 305.

bhikshdka, 305.

bhikshdchara, ocharya, 129. 305.

bhikshu, "kshuni, 284. 285. 305. 306.

327-

— SUtra, 143. 252. 305. 306.
Bhilla, 259.

Bhimasena, 125. 135.
Bhishina, 39.
bh&tagana, 98.
bhurja, 227. 263. 314. 317.
Bhrign, 53. 153. 241.

— plur., 148. 240. 241.

— valli, 94. 154. 156. 157.
Bhela, 265. 270 (rued.).
bhaiksha, 305.
bhaishajyas, 152.
bhogandtha, 42.

Bhoja, 195. 202 (more than one).

— king of Dhard, 2OI. 2O2. 203.
215. 228. 230. 261. 319.

— 269 med.

— vfiddJuP, 269 (med.).
Bhojadeva (reputed author of the

Sarasvatikanthdbharana), 2IO.
Jlhqjaprabandha, 215.
bhrashta, 226.
makara, dolphin, 252.
makha, 127.
Magadha, 79, 98. 112. 147. 269

(weights). 286. 287. 290. 292.

295. 296.

— vdsin, 112.
Magas, 148.
ilaghasvdmin, 80.

mayhds, 248.

Maukha, 319.

Mafiju^ri, 298.

mani, 140.

Manikarnik^, 1 68.

mandala, 31. 32. 34. 43. 64. 82.

Manddka, 49.

Matsya, 95.

Mathur;!, 169.

Madras, 126. 137. 223.

Madragara, 75.

madhu, 128.

Madhu-kdnda, 15. 127 flf. 138.

— Brdhmana, 128.
Madhuka, 130.
Madhustidana, 166.

— Sarasvati, 267. 271.
Madhyatdpini, 167. 169.
Madhyade^a, 102. 106. 115. 133.
madhyama, 269 (Atri). 280.

— Tcdnda, 118. 119.
madhyamikd, 89.
Madhyavalli, 157.
manafi, 264 Arabic.
Manittha, 260 (also with n).
Manu, 134. 211 (and the fish). 277

(svdyambhuva).

— Code of, 20. 73. 102. 143. 183.
188. 238. 244. 249. 266. 276 fi'.

— Sutra, 99.

mantra, 8 (— Veda). 176.

— raja, 167. 168.
Mammata, 204. 232. 322.
(asura) Maya, 253. 254. 260. 275.
Marichi, 244.

Maru, 1 88.
Manits, 40. 43.
markata, 21 1.
Malayade&i, 55.
mallaka, 206.
Mallindtba, 195. 209.
Masaka, 75. 76. 83. 84.
Mahilkaiiha, 304.
Mahdkdla, 209.

Mahdkausldtaki- Brdli mana, 47.
mahdjdbdla, 163. 185 (Mahdj.).
Mahddeva, 45. 123. 169.
Mahddeva, 100. lot 141 (com in.).

262 (astr.).
mahdn dtmd, 238.

— devah, no. 123.
mahdndga, 302.
Malidndma, 293.
Mahdndrdyaqopanishad, T^4.
JWahdparinibbdna, 326.
Mahd-Erdlimaga, 74. 138.

344

SANSKRIT INDEX.

Mahd-Bkdrata, 4. 24. 34. 37. 39.
45- 56. 57-72. 98. 114. 135. 136.

176.184-190. 205.206. 2IO. 243.

250. 279. 282. 301. 318.324. 325.
MaJidbhdshya, 219-226. 231. 238.

321.

Mahdmeru, 93.
Mahdydna-Siitrai, 98. 299.
mahdrdja, 138.
Mahdvansa, 292. 293.
Mahdvdkyamuktdvali, 155.
mahdvlshnu, 167.
Mahdvira, 296 (Jain.).
Mahdviracharitra, 207.
Mabdvrishas, 70. 147.
Mahdvaipvlya-SHtras, 298 ff.
Mahdvyutpatti, 248 (Buddh.).
mahdsdla, 161.
mahddramana, 217.
Mahidasa, 48. 70.
mahishl, 1 14.

Mahidhara, 104. 107 ff., 116. 141.
Mahendra, 291. 292. 295.
Mahe^vara, 262 (astr.).
Mahopanishad, 154. 166.
Mahoragas, 302.
Mdgadha, 79.

— desiya, 79. 112. 141.
mdgadha, ill. 112. 138. 147. 287.
mdgadhi, 232 (riti).

— language, 295. 296. 297.
Mdgha-kdvya, 196.
MdncUvya, 61.
Mandukdyana, 53.
Mdnduki-S'ilcshd, 49. 6l.
Mdndukeya, 49. 56. 112.
Mdndukyopanishad, 161. 164. 167.

168. 298.
Mdtridatta, IOI.
Mdtrimodaka, 144.
mdird, 160 (om}. 161.
Mdthava, 134.
Mddravati, 126.
Mddri, 126.
Madhava, 41. 42. 47. 116. 235. 241.

243. 245. 246. 262.

— deva, 42.
Mddhavas, 95. 166.
Mddhuki, 133. 134.
mddhuri, 91.

mddhyamdina, southern, 106.
Madhyamdinas, 10. II. 1058". 134.

139. 144-

Mddhyaipdindyana, 105.
Mddhyan^dini, 106.
Mddhyamika, 309.

Mddhyamikas, 224.
Mdnava, 134 (Sarydta).
Mdnava, Mdnavas, 91. 102. 280. 285.
Mdnava-Grihya, 20. 102. 278. 317.
Mdnava-Dharmaddstra, 20. 277 ff.
Mdnasdra, 275.
Mdnutantavyau, 134.
Mdya-mata, 275.
mdyd, 284.
Mdyddevi, 284.
Mdia, 151. 303. 304.
Mdrkandeya-Purdna, 191. 206.
Mdlati-mddhava, 207. 320.
Mdlava, 201. 214.
Mdlavakdchdrya,' 259.
Mdla/vikd, M dlavikdgnimitra, 204.

207.

mdldmantra, 167.
Mdhaki, 153.
Mdhitthi, 134.
Mdhisheya, 103.
Mitdkshard, 107. 281.
Minanda, 306.
Milinda, 306.
Mihira, 261.
mimdnsaka, 102. 240.
Mimdnsd, 121. 159. 235. 239 ff.
mimdnsd-krit, 240.
— Stitra, 140. 239.
mukdrind, 263 (Arabic).
mukdvild, 263 (Arabic).
Mnkula, 322.

mukta, 167. 34 (and amukta).
Muktikopanishad, 155.
Mugdhabodha, 226.
Munjas6iHi, 55.
Mutibhas, 134.
Mudimbha, 134.

Mundakopanishad, 58. 1 58 ff. 240.
Mundopanishad, 164.
muthasila, 264 (Arabic).
Mudrdrdkshasa, 207.
muni, 129.

munthahd, 264 (Arabic).
muhurta, 151.
Mujavants, 147.
mtirdhabkishikta, 224. 225.
Mfila-S'&tra, 297 (Jain.).
musarfpha, 26', (Arabic).
Mrichhakati, 200, 205, 206. 207.

250. 3°5- 320.
mrityumrityu, 167.
Mriiyulanghanopanisliad (?), 170.
Mrityuldiigala, "Idngiila, 170.
Meghadtita, 198. 204. 208. 209.

302.

SANSKRIT INDEX.

345

Mentl.a, 319.

Medhdtithi, 52.

Meru, 93.

meshurana, 255 (Greek).

Maitra, 91. 97.

Maitra-Sutra, 99.

Maitrdyaniputra, 71. 98. 285.

Maitrdyaniyas, 88. 91. 99. 102.

Maitrdyani-Samhitd, 314. 317.

Maitrdyanopaniskad, 52. 96 ff. 155.

165. 285.

Maitreya, 97. 98. 99.
Maitreyi, 56. 99.

— Ydjnavalkya's wife, 127.
Mainaga, 93.

moksha, 161.
Moggalldna, 230.
maundya, 237. 306.
Mauda, 150.
Maudgalya, 123.
Maudgalydyana, 199.
mauna, 129.
^mlec/th, 1 80.
Yakshas, 98. 273. 302. 303.
Yakshavartnan, 217.
Yajuh-Samhitd, 9. 10.
Yajurveda, 8. 45. 85 S. 1 2 1. 123.
127. 164. 184.

— °ddmndye, 144.
yajus, 8. 9 s. iukla.
yajus-veraea, number of the, 121.
yajndvakirna, 68.
yajnopavita, 161.

j/a<t, 327 (dsrama),
Yatlndramatadipikd, 322.
Yatisvara, 323.
Yama, 36.

— Smriti, 325.
Yamasabhiya, 193.
yamayd, 264 (Arabic).
Yamuna", 68.

Yavana, 178. 187. 188. 214. 220 ff.
251. 252. 253. 260 (astr.). 268.

— priya, 220.

— vriddhds, 243.
yavandni, 220 tf.
yavanikd, 207.
Yavani, 22O. 252.
Yavane^vara, 258.
yavaneshta, 220.
Yasoga(l), Yasogopi, 141.
Ya^omitra, in.
Yaskdh, 41.

ydjushi, 163.

Ydjnavalkiya-Jcdnda, 127. 129 ff.
137- 138.

Ydjnavalkdni brdhmandni, 95. 129.

130.
Ya"jnavalkya, 33. 104. 120. 123.

124. 126. 127. 128. 129. 130. 131.

132. 138. 143. 144. 163. 168. 236.

237 ff. 285.

— 's Code, 107. 122. 143. 205. 215.
250. 278. 280 ff. 323. 325. 326.

ydjnika, 240.

Ydjnikadeva, 141.

Ydjuikl-Upanishad, 93. 94.

ydtuvidas, 121.

ydtnika, 309.

ydtrd, 260 (astr.). 324.

Yddvas, 3.

Ydmunamuni, 323.

Ydvana, 220.

Ydska, 25. 26. 32. 33. 39. 41. 42.

44. 46. 57. 59. 61. 62. 81. 82. 85.

88. 90. 91. 128. 140. 142. 176.

184. 216. 217. 236. 277.
yugas (the four), 70. 113. 151. 159.

190. 243. 247. 277.

— quinquennial, 113. 247.
Yuga-Purdna, 214. 251.
Yudhishthir'a, 185. 186. 188. 286.

— '» era, 2O2. 260.

Yoga, 96. 137. 156. 158. 1 60. 162.
163. 165. 166. 235. 236 ff. 265.
285.

— s. Sdmkhyayoga.

— tattva, 165.

— S'dstra, 297 (Jain.).

— tikhd, 165.

— Sutra, 223. 237.
YogdcbaVa, 309.
yogin, 161. 239.
yaudha, 78.
rakta, 78.

Rayhuvan&a, 195. 196. 208. 302,

3l8.

Rangandtha, 258.
ratnas (the nine), 200. 228. 261.
llatnsikara, 319. 322.
Ratha- Sutra, 275.
Kabhasa, 227.
Jtatndvali, 204. 320.
Rahasya, 119 (S'atap. Er.).
Rdjagj-iha, 199. 287. 295.
Rdjataramgini, 213. 215. 219. 22Qi

223. 225. 287. 320.
rdjaputra, 95.
rdjasuya, 54.
Ititjastainbiiyana, I2O.
Rdja^ekhara, 207.
Rdndyana, 53.

346

SANSKRIT INDEX.

R&idyaniputra, 71. 77. 79.
Rana'yaniyas, 65. 79. 84.
Rzita, 6l.
Rdma, 135. 168. 192.

— as incarn. of Vishnu, 194.

— Aupatasvini, 134.
Ra"makrishna, 85. 143.
Ramackandra, 59.
Rdmatdpaniyopanishad, 1 68.
Ramatirtha, 323.
Rdmdnuja, 168. 322.
Ramduanda, 168.

Rdmdyana, 4, 37. 89. 98. 135. 1 88.

191 ff. 205. 206. 214. 250. 324.
Rdmila, 205.

RaVana (conim.). 42. 66.
Rdvanabadka, 196.
Rdhu, 73. 249. 250.
R&hula, 250.

ritis (varieties of style), 232.
Ruchidatta, 323.
Rudra, 6. 40. 97. no. 123. 159.

170. 171. 238. 303.

— by the side of Brahman aud
Vishnu, 97. 161.

— jdbdla, 163.
Rudrata, 322.
Rudradatta, IOI.
Rudraskanda, 80. 84.
Rudrdkshajdbdla, 163.
Rudropani&had, 154. 170.
riipa (coin), 205.
Ruyyaka, 322.
Renudikshita, 142.
revati, 248.

Revd, 123.
Romaka, 253. 324.

— pura, 253.

— siddhdnta, 253. 254. 258. 260.
romakiipa, 253.

Rautnyas, 253.
Ranhindyana, 120.
clakshana-, 265.
Lakshmanasena, 2IO.

— era of, 210.

Lakshmidhara, 262 (astr.). 323.
Lagaddchdrya, 6 1. 249.
Lagata, °dha, 6l. 249. 258.
Ifif/hu, 280.

— Atri, 269 (med.).

— Arynbhata, 257.

— Kaumudi, 226.

— Jdt'ika, 78. 260.

— Jdbdla, 163.

— Pardsara, 280 (jur.).

— Brihaspati, 280 (jur.).

— gaunalca, 280 (jur.).
Lamkd, 78.

Lalita- Vistara, 199. 236. 256. 286.

291. 299. 300.
Ldghula, 250.
Ldta, 76. 258.
Latika, 76.
Ldti (riti), 232.

Ldtydyana, 53. 68. 76-79. 84. 105.
La"dhach£rya, 61. 258.
La'buka'yana, 53. 241.
Latnak^yana, 53. 77. 241.

— "uins, 14. 99.
Likhita, 326 (Smriti).
Linga-Purdna, 191.
Lichhavis, 276. 277. 285.
lipi, 221.

liptd, 255 (Greek).

Lildvatl, 262 (astr.).

leya, 254 (Greek).

loiya (laulcika), 246.

Lokaprakdsa, 321.

Lokdyatas, 246.

Logdyata, 236.

lohita, 78.

Laukakshas, 96.

Laukdyatikas, 246.

Laugdkshi, 99. 102. 103. 139. 317.

— Stitra, 99.
Valsesiya, 236.

vansa, 41. 71. I2O. 127. 128. 129 ££
184.

— nartin, 113.

— JBrdhmana, 42. 74. 75. 79. 84.
Vajra, 260.

vajrandkha, 167.

Vajrastichyupanishad, 162,

Vadavsi, 56.

Vatsa, 3.

Vada (?), 148.

vnditar, 180.

Vayovidyd, 265.

Varadatta, 55.

Varadardja, 76. 83 (Ved.). 226 (gr.).

Vararuchi, 200. 202. 230 (Vikraraa);

83 (Phulla-Siitra), 103 (Taitt.

Prdt.}, 206. 227 (Prdkrita-pra-

kdsa), 223 (vdrtt.), 227. 230 (lex.).
Vardhamihira, 78. 160. 2OO. 2O2.

203. 204. 243. 254. 259 ff. 268.

275- 279-
Varuna, 35. 188.
varga, 31.
rarna, 1 8. 1 6 1.

— Siitras, 227.
yiid, 246.

SANSKRIT INDEX.

347

Vardbamdna, 226.

Varsha, 217.

Valabbi, 196. 214. 256.

Valibandha, 198. 207.

"valli, 93. 157.

Valhika, 123. 134.

Valhikas, 147.

Ya3a (-U£inaras\ 45.

Vasisbtha, 31. 37. 53. 79. 123. 162.

— siddhdnta, 258.

— Smriti, 326.
Vasugupta, 322.
Vasus, 303.

vdkovdkya, 121. 122. 127.
Vdkyapadiya, 225. 226.
Vdgbbnta, 269 lined.).

— vriddha0, 269.
vdch, 74. 176. 234.

— (jy&tA), 1 80.
Vachaknavi, 56. 129.
Vdchaspatirnisra, 246. 322.
vdja, 104.

vdjapeya, 54.
Vdjasravasa, 157.
fdjasani, 104.

Vdjasaneya, 104. 128. 130. 131.
Vdjasaneyaka, loo. 105. 144.
Vdjasaneyi-Samhitd, 317 (conclu-
sion in tbe forty-eightb At/i, Par).
Vajasaneyius, 81. 105.
vdjin, 104.

Vanche^vara (?), IOI.
vdta, 266.
Ydtsiputra, 71. 138. 285.

— °triyas, 138.
Vdtsya, 139. 140. 267.
Vatsydyana, 244. 245 (phil.), 266.

267 (erot.), 323.

— Pancbaparna, 267.
Yddbuna (?), ico.
rdnaprastka, 28. 164.
Vamakaksbdyana, 120.
Vdmadeva, 31. 315.

Ydmana, 84 (Sdmav.}, 226. 227

(gr.), 232 (rhet.), 322.
Vdmaratbyas, 140.
Vdrdnasi, 162. 163.
vdrdhamantra, 168.
Vdrunyupanishad, 94.
Vdrkali, 33. 123.
Vdrkalinas, 33.
vdrttikas, 222. 22^.
Ydrsbaganya, 77.
Vdrsbna, 133.
Vdrsbnya, 133.
Vdrsbydyani, 53.

vdlalcfiilya-stilctas, 31, 32.
Vdleyas, 140.

Ydlmiki, 102 (Taitt.). 191. 194.
Vdshkala, 14. 32. 52. 56. 62. 313 f.

— Sruti, 52.

Vdshkalopanishad, 52. 15$-
Vdsava, 303.
Vdsavadattd, 213. 214.
Vdsishtha, 123.
Vdsisbtlias, 123.

Vdsiii/it/ta- Sdtra, 79. 278. 282

(Dharma).
Vdsudeva, 51. 137. 166. 168. 169.

185.

Vdsudeva, 143 (corum.).
vdsudevaka, 185.
Vdstuvidyd, 275.
rdhika, s. bdh°.
Vikrnraa, zoo. 2OI. 2O2. 204. 205.

228. 260. 261. 266. 269.

— era of, 2OI ff. 260. 319.

— c/taritra, 200. 201. 214. 267.
Vikramdnkacharila, 214.
Yikramdditya, 200. 201. 2O2. 205.

228.

Vikramdrka, 214.
Vicbitravirya, 39.
vichhinna, 226.
vijaya, 140. 141.
Vijayanagara, 42.
Vijayanandin, 258.
vijita, 141.
Vijndnabbiksbu, 237.

Vitdna-Kalpa, 153.
°vid, 121.
vidagdlia, 33. 212.
Vidagdba, 33. 129.

Vidut(l), 148.
Videgba, 134.

Videha (s. Kosala-Videhas), 10. 33,
53. 68. 123. 129. 137. 193. 285.

Viddhasdldbhanjikd, 207.

Viclyd, 121. 122. 127. 265. 270.

— (trayi), 8. 45. 121. 191.
Vidydnagara, 42.
Vidydranya, 42. 54. 97. 170.

Vidvanmanoranjini, 323.

vidhi (Sdma°), 74. 83 (five vidhis}.

— (Ved.), 244.

vidhdna, 33, a. Rig°, Sdma°.

vidheya, 244.

Fmaj/a(Buddh.), 199. 290. 292. 304,

308. 326.

Vindyaka, 47 (comm.), 62 (do.).
Viudhya, 51. 99. 283.
vipldvita, 226.

348

SANSKRIT INDEX.

Vimalaprabiottaramdld, 291.
Vivasvant, 144.
Vivdhapatafa, 260.
vi£, visas, 1 8. 38.

— pati, 38.
VL&khadatta, 207.
Viwila, 48.
•vijegha, 245.

Vi/5vakarman, 275 ("rmiyasilpa).

ViJvakarmaprakdsa, 275.

Vi&vakosha, 205.

Vii?vandtha, 244 (phil.).

Vi&avada, 148.

Vi4vamitra, 31. 37. 38. 53. 315.

162 (Upan.). 271 (Dhanurveda).
Vi4ve3vara, 169 (comm.).
Vishavidyd, 265.
Vishnu, 6. 42. 97. 126. 127. 156.

165. 166. 167. 168. 171. 190. 194.

284.

— with Iludra and Brahman, 97.
161.

— with Siva and Brahman, 167.
1 80.

— Code of, 170. 278. 282. 317. 325.
Vishnugupta, 260.
Vishnuchaudra, 258.
Vishnuputra, 59.
Vishnu-Purdna, 58. 142. 191. 230.

3i8.

VishnuyafSas, 82.
Vishvaksena, 184.
vijaganita, 262.

Viracharitra, 214.
Virabhadra, 253.
visilka, 199. 319.

^uttodaya, 293.
vr^.tti, °kdra, 91. 222.
Vritra, 302.
i-riddha, 280.

— A treya, 269 (med.).
--Garga, 153. 253.

-— Gautama, 205. 281 (jur.).

— dyumna, 136.

— Pardtara, 280 (jur.).

— Blioja,, 269 (med.).

— Manu, 279.

— Ydjnavalkya, 281.

- Vdgbhata, 269 (med.).

— Susruta, 269 (med. ).
— Hdrita, 269 (med.).

•crihant, s. bri/iant.
Vrisbni, 185.

Venisamhtira, 207.
Vet.il abb atta, 200.

VcUilapanchavinsati, 214. 215.

Veda, 8. 23. 58. 144. 176. 244
(triple).

— tdkJtd, 93.

Veddngas, 25. 60. 145. 159. 258. 272.
veddtharva, 149.
Veddnta, 48. 51. 158. 161. 162. 240.

245-

— kaustubJiaprdbhd, 323.

— sdra, 323.

— Stitra, 51. 158. 159. 235. 241.
245. 322 f.

Veddrthayatna, 315.

Veyagdna (!), 64.

vesi, 255 (Greek).

vaikrita, 177.

Vaikbdnasa, IOO. 275. 317.

Vaichitravirya, 90.

Vaijavdpa, "pdyana, 142.

Vaitdna-Stitra, 152.

vaidarbha (rlti), 232.

Vaidarbhi, 159 (Bb^rgava).

Vaideha, 276.

Vaidyaka, 265. 270.

Vaibhashika, 309.

vaiydkaranas, 26.

Vaiydghrapadiputra, 106.

Vaiy^ghrapadya, 106.

Vaiyasaki, 184.

Vai&unpayana, 34. 41. 56. 57. 58.

87. 89. 93. 135. 184.
Vaiseshika, Vaisesbikas, 236. 237.

245- .

Vaiseshika- Stitra, 216. 244. 245.
Vai6ravana, 124.
Vaishnava (Makha), 127.
Vodha, 236.
Vopadeva, 226.
Vydkarana, 2$ (Anga). 83.

— stitrdni, 2 1 6.

— Buddb., 300.
vydkri, 176.
vydkhydna, 122. 127.
Vysighrapdd, 106.
Vydghramukha, 259.
Vyddi, Vydli, 227. 228. 321.
vydvahdriki, 176.

Vyasa, P^rdsarya, 93. 184. 185.
240. 243.

— Bildardyana, 243.

— father of Suka, 243.

— author of the ftatarudriya ( !),
in.

— 62 (teacher of Shadguru^ishya).
- (Smriti), 283. 326. '

— Siitra, 243.
Vraja, 169.

SANSKRIT INDEX.

349

vrdttnas, 78. 147.

vrdtya, 68. 78. no. 1 12. 141. 146.
147. 1 80.

— gana, 196.

— stoma, 67. 78. 80.

Saka, 187. 220. 260. 285. 291.

— era, 202. 203. 260 (°ka"la, "bbti-
pakilla, Sakendrakala). 261. 262.

— nripdnta, 259. 260.
^akuntald, 125.

— (drama), 206. 207. 320.
Sakti, 171. 289. 310.
Saktipurva, 260 (astr.).
sakra, 303.

samkara, 303 (epithet of Rudra).

Samkara, 42. 48. 51. 56. 58. 70. 72.
73-74-94.96. "6. 119,127- 131-
139- J57- !59- l6° ff- 1 88. 241.
242. 243. 267 (erot.). 308.

— misra, 244.

— vijaya, 243.

Sauikara"nanda, 52. 163. 164. 170.
Sanku, 20O.

Saflkha, 58. 275. 278. 282 (Dharma).

326 (Smriti).
iatapaiha, 117. 119.
tfatapatha-Brdhmana, 116 ff. 276.

284. 318.
Satarudriya, 108. III. 155. 169.

170.

Sata'nanda, 261.
Sata"nika, 125.

8'atrumjaya Mdhdtmya, 214. 297.
sani, 98.
Samtanu, 39.
Sabarasvdmin, 241. 322.
Sabala, 35.

S'abddnusdsana, 217. 227.
Sambuputra, 71.
samyuvdka, 313.
J^ary^ta, 134.
Sarva, 178.
Sarvavartnan, 226,
Salitura, 2 1 8.

iastra, canon, 14. 32. 67. 121.
Sa"katftyana, 53. 143. 151. 152. 217.

222. 226.
Siikapfini, 85.
Siikala, 32. 33. 62. 313. 314. 315.

— (Sagala), 306.

Sfikalya, 10. 32. 33. 34. 50 (two Sa"«
kalyas). 56. 143 fcramm.). 163.

— Vidagdba, 33. 129.
ffdkalyopanishad, 163. 167.
Sa'ka'yanins, 33. 96. 1 20. 133. 137.

285.

Sa"kdyanya, 97. 98. 133. 137. 285. 308.

fdkta, 171.

Siikya, 33. 133. 137. 185. 235. 285.

306.

tdkyabhikshu, 78.

Sakyamuni, 56. 98. 137. 268. 309.
STdkhd, 10. 91. 158. 162. 181.
Sdnkhdyana, 32. 52 ff., 80. 313. 314.

— Grihya, 176. 313. 315. 316.

— Parisithta, 62.

— JBrdhmana, 44-47.

— tfitra, 44.

— Aranyaka, 50. 132.
S;itya"yana, 53, 95. 102. 128.

— "naka 100.249.

— °ni, °nins, 14, 77. 81. 83. 95.
, 96. 120. 243.

Sandilya, 71. 76. 77. 78. 80. 82.
120. 131. 132.

— 143 (Smriti).

— Sutra, 238. 243.

— °lydyana, 53. 76. I2O.
fdtapathikas, 85.
Sdrntanava, 226.
S'dnti-Kalpa, 153.
S'dmbavyagrihya, 316.
Hdmbuvis, 14. 8l.
sdmbhava, 171.
SaYiputra, 285.
S'drlraka-Mtmdnsd, 240.
SaVfigadeva, 273.
Sirflgadhara(-/3ocW7ta<i), 2IO.
Sdlainkiyana, 53. 75.
Sa'lanika'yanaj&, 96.
S^larpkityanins, 14. 77. 96
SaMarnki, 96. 218.
Sdl^turiya, 218.
Sdlivdhaua, 202. 214. 260.
Sa"lihotra, 266. 267.

tfikshd, 25. 60. 61. 145.272. 313. 317.

— valli, 93. 94. 155.
ffiras (Uiianishad), 170.
SiWditya, 214.
Silalin, 197.

filpa, 198.

Siva, worship of, 4. 45. IIO. III.
156. 157. 165. 169. 190. 208. 209.

303. 307.

— developed out of Agni (and
Rudra), 159.

— beside Brahman and Vishnu,
167. 1 80.

tfivatantra, 275.
Sivayogin, 62.

Kivasarjikalpopanishad, Io8. 155.
S'isttkrandiya, 193.

350

SANSKRIT INDEX.

tfisupdlabadha, 196.
sisna, 114.
stinadcvas, 303.

ysu, 178.

Suka, son of Vydsa, 184. 243.
sukra (Venus?), 98. 250.

— yajiinshi, 104.
sukmya, 104. 107. 144.

— kdnda, 104.

titkldni yajuntslii, 104. 131. 144.

Sungas, 33.

suddha, 167.

Sunakas, 33. 34.

Sunahsepa, 47. 48. 55.

Surnbha, 206.

tfulva-Stitra, 101. 256. 274. 317.

324-

tyshna, 302.

Sudra, 18. 77. III. 112. 276.
£Sudras, 147.

Sudraka, 205. 206. 207. 214.
ftinya (zero), 256.
Sulapani, 1 66.

Sesha, 101 (comm.). 237 (phil.).
Saitydyana, 53-
Sailali, 134. 197.
Sailalinas, 197.
sailusha, III. 196. 197.
8'aivabhdsfiya, 323. *
S'aivagdstra, 322.
Saisiris, 33.
Sai&riya, 32. 33.
Saufigayani, 75.
Sauchivfikshi, 77. 82.
Saunaka (Rigv.), 24. 32-34. 49. 54.

56. 59. 62. 85. 143.

— (Atli.), 150. 151.158. 161. 162.
165.

— (Malid-Shdratd), 185.

— Indrota, 34. 125.

— Svaiddyana, 34.

— Grihya, 55 (Rigv.).

— vartita, 158. 162 (Atlt.).

— layhu0, 280 (Srnriti).
Saunakiyas, 158. 162.
Saunaklyd, 151.
tfaunukopanishad (?), 164. 165.
taubhikas, 198 ; s. saubhikas.
Saubhreyas, 140.
Saulvdyana, 53.
Sydpainas, 180.

syena, 78.

\/sram, 27.

sramana, 27. 129. 138.

yramand, 305.

Sri Anauta, 141.

J-Srikantha Sivdchdrya, 323.
Sri Chipa, 259.
Sridatt;i, 141.
Sridharaddsa, 210.
Sridharasena, 196.
Srinivasa, 42.
Srinivasadaaa, 322. 323.
Sri Dharman^bha, 196.
Sripati, 54. 58.
Sripar&nkusana'tha, 323.
Srlmaddattopantehad, 164.
Srivara, 320.
Sri Vy^hraraukha, 259.
Srishena, 258.
^ri Harsha, king, 204. 207.

— 196 (Naishadhac/iar.),
Sri Hala, 145.

?,/6ru, 15.

Srutasena, 125. 135.

tfruti, 15. 17. 68. 81. 96. 149 (plur.).

159. 164.
ireshtha, 126.

Srauta-Stitras, 16. 17. 19. 52.
sleshman, 266.
iloka, 24. 69. 70. 72. 73. 74. 83.

87. 97. 99. 103. 121. 122. 123.

125. 127.
Svikuas, 132.
Svetaketu, 51. 71. 123. 132. 133.

137. 267 (erot.). 284.
Sveta^vatara, 96. 99.

— °ropanishad, 96 155. 156. 161.
165. 1 69. .236. 238. "

Shatchakropanis/iad, 168.
Shattrinsat (Smriti), 280.
Shadasiti (Smriti), 280.
Shadguru^ishya, 33. 6l. 62. 83.
Shaddar3anach,ii)tanikd, 322.
Shadb/tdshdchandrikd, 227.
Shadvinga-Brdlimai),a, 69. 70.
Shannavati (Smriti), 280.
Shashtitantra, 236.
shashtipatha, 117. 119.
sam = samvat (but of what era?),

141. 202. 203.
samvat era, 182. 202. 203.
Samvarta (Smriti), 278. 326.
Samvartasrutyupanighad, 154. 164.
samskdra, 102 (the sixteen «.).

— (gramm.), 144.

— ganapati, 143.
samskritabhdgftd, 177.
s'lmsthd, 66. 67.

Samhitd (Ved.), 8. 9. 10. 14. 22-24.
60.

— (ptiL), 75-

SANSKRIT INDEX.

Samf'itd(a.sir.}, 259. 264. 265. 275.

— Kalpa, 153.

— '/>dtha,_43. 49.

— "topanis/tad, 34 (Brdhmana). 74.
75 (Sdmav.). 93. 155 (Taiit.). 316
(Sdmav. ).

Sakalddhikdra, 275 (arch.).
samkhydtar, 235.
Samyitarattidkura, 273.
tamgraha, 119 (S'atapatha - Brdh-

mana). 227 (grarnrn.).
samjndna, 313. 314.
Sat(hitanta, 236.
8rt«ra, 66. 76. 79. 80. 139.
gattrd i/ana, 101.
Satya, 260 astr.
Satyakiima, 71. 130. 132. 134.
Satyavdba, 158.
Satydshddha, 100. IOI. IO2.
Sadanira", 134.
Saduktikarndmrita, 210.
Saddliarmapundarika, 299. 300.
Sanatkuma'ra, 72. 164; — 275 (ar-

chit.).

SanandandcbaYya, 237.
samdhi, 23.

samnipdta, 248 (Buddh.).
Samnydsopanishad, 164.
Saptarshi (Smriti), 280.
Saptatataka, Saptasati, 83. 211.

232.

sapto stirydh, 250 (249).
fiamdnam d, 131.
Samdsa-Samhitd, 259.
simpraddya,, 152.
samrdj, 123.
Sarasvati, 74 (Vdch).

— vydkarana, 227.

Sarasvati, 4. 38. 44 (Indus). 53.
67. 80. IO2. 1 2O. 134. 141.

— kanthdbharana, 210. 232.
sarga, 190. 196. 214.
tarjana, 233.

sarpa, 302.

sarpavidas, 121.

Sarpavidyd, 124. 183. 265. 302.

Sarvadarsanusamgraha, 235. 241.

322.

garvamedha, 54.
Sarvdnukramani, 6l.
sarvdnnina, 305.
SarvopanishatsdropanisJtad, 1 62.
Salvas, 1 20. 132. 1 80.
sahama, 264 (Arabic).
Sagala, 306.
Sdketa, 224. 251.

Sdmkritydyana, 266 (med.).
Sdmkiiya, 96. 97. 108.

158. 160. 165-167.235-239.242.

244. 246. 284. ff. 306. 308. 309.

— tattva-pradipa, 322.

— prarachana, 237.

— pravachana- Sutra, 237. 239.

— Ij/tikshu, 78.

— yo^ra, 1 60. 1 66. 238. 239.

— sdm, 237.

— .S'tUra, 237. 239. 245.
Siiipkhyah (Gautama^), 284.
Sdrpkbydyana, 47.
Sdipjiviputra, 131.

Sdti, 75.

Sdtyayajna, °jni, 133.

Sdtidjita, 125.

Sdpya, 68.

Sdmajdtaka, 300 (Buddb.).

Sdmatantra, 83.

sdman, 8. 9. 64. 66. 121.

— number of the sdman s, 121.
Sdmaydchdrika-Siilra, 19. 278.
Sdmalakshana, 83.

Sdmavidhi, "vid/idna, 72. 74. 277.
Sdmaveda, 45. 63 ff. 121. 316. 325
(Gdnas of).

— Prdtiidkhya, 316.
Sdma-Samhitd, 9. IO. 32. 63 ff. 313

(readings). 316.
Sdmastam, 275.
Siiyakdyana, 96. I2O.
Sdyakdyanins, 96.
Sayana, 32. 41. 42. 43. 46. 47. 48.

52. 65. 66. 68. 69. 72. 74. 91. 92.

94. 101. 139. 150.
Sdratthasamgaha, 267 (med.).
Sirauieya, 35.
f-'drasvata, 226 (gramm.).
Sdrasvata pdtha, 103.
Siivayasa, 133.
Sdhityadarpana, 231. 321.
Sinftdsanadvdtrinsikd, 200-202. 214.

320.

Siddbasena, 260 (astr.).
Siddhdnta, 253. 255. 258 ff. 269

(astr.).

— kaumudi, 89. 226.

— biromani, 261. 262.
Sitd, 135/192. 193.
Snkanyd, 134.
Sukbavati, 306.
tiultanipdta, 293.
sutyd, 66. 67.
Sudiiiiian, 68.
Sudyumna, 125.

352

SANSKRIT INDEX.

nunaphd, 255 (Greek).

Sundaritdpaniyopanishad, 171.

suparna, 314.

Suparnddhydya, iji.

Suparnf, 134.

Suprabhadeva, 196.

Subandhu, 189. 213.245. 267. 319.

Subhagasena, 251.

Subhadrd, 114. 115. 134.

Subhdshitaratndkara, 320.

Sub/idghitdvalt, 320.

Sumanasantaka (?), 208.

Suinantu, 56. 57. 58. 149.

sura, 98. 302. 303.

Surdshtra, 76.

Sulabha, 56.

Sulabhd, 56.

Susravas, 36.

susrut, 266.

SusYuta, 266 ff. 324.

— vriddha, 269.
stikta, 31. 32. 124. 149.
siita, in.

Sutras, 8. 15 (etyvno].;chhandovat);
29- S^. 57- 216. 285. 290.

— 127. 128 (passages in the Brdh-
manas).

— 290. 292. 296. 298 ff. (Buddh.).

— 128. 161 («. = Brahman).
siitrad/idra, 198. 275.
Surya, 62 (coinra.).

Surya, 40 (god).

— prajnapti, 297 (Jain.).

— fiiddhdnta, 6l. 249. 257. 258.

— °opanishad, 154. 170.
(sapta) surydh, 250 (249).
S&rydruna (Smriti), 280.
Srinjayas, 123. 132.
Setiibandha, 196.
Saitava, 61.

Saindhavas, °vaVanas, 147.
sobha, "nagaraka, 198.
Soma, 6. 63 (god).

— (sacrifice), 66. 107.
Somadeva, 213. 319.
Somdnanda, 322.
Some^vara, 273 (mus.).
Saujdta, 285.

Sauti, 34.
Sautrjintika, 309.
sautrdmanl, 107. 108. IlS. 139.
taubhikas, 198 ; s. taubhikas.
Saumdpau, 134.
Saumilla, 204. 205.
Saurasiddhdnta, 258.
taulabhdni BrdhmanAni, 56. 95.

SaiiMravasa, 105.
Sau^rutapi^-thavds, 266.
Skanda, 72.

— Purdna, 191. 205.
Skandasv.iinin, 41. 42. 79*
Skandopanishad, 171.
\/skabh,. itabh, 233.
sttipa, 274. 307.

stotra, 67.
stoma. 67. 8 1.
staubhika, 63.
st/iavira, 77. 102. 305.
sthdnaka, 89.
Spanda&dstra, 322.
Sphujidhvaja (?), 258.
Sphuta-Siddhdnta, 259.
Smaradahana, 208.
<Snulria-<S''!i<ras, 17. 19. 34 (»S"ai/n.).

101.
Smriti, 17. 19. 20. 8 1.

— iS'iisfrew, 20. 84. 143. 276.
Srughna, 237.
Svaraparibhdshd, 83.
svddhydya, 8. 93. 144.
svdbhdvika, 309.

"svdmin, 79.
Svdyambhuva, 277.
Svaiddyana, 34.
Hansanddopanishad, 165.
Hansopanishad, 164. 165.
hndda, 264 Arabic.
Hanumant, 272.
Hanumanndtaka, 203.
Haradatta, 89. 278.
Kari, 1 66 (Vishnu). 303 (Indra).
Hari, 225. 226 gramm.
harija, 255 (Greek).
Harivansa, 34. 189.
Harischandra, 184.
Harisvdmin, 72. 79. 139.
Hariharamisra, 142.
Sri Harsha (king), 204. 207.

— 196 (Naishadhachar.).

— charita, 205. 214. 319 f.
Sri Hala, 145.
fialab/trit, 192.

Haldyudha, 60 (metr.). 196. 230

(lex.).
kasa, 112.
hastighata, 117.
Hdridravika, 88.
Hiirita (Krishna), 50.

— 269 med.

— vriddha0, 269 (med.).

— (Dharma), 278. 282. 325.
Hdla, 83. 211. 232.

INDEX OF MATTERS.

353

Hilleyas, 140.
Hdstinapura, 185.
Hitopadda, 212.
hibuka, 255 (Greek).
Himavant, 51. 268.
himna, 254 (Greek).
Hiranyakesi, 100-102. 317.
— idklitya-Brdfimana, 92.
Hiranyandbha, 160.
Huta"savesa, 266.
Hunas, 243.
hridroga, 254 (Greek).
hetthd, 89.
hdayas, helavas, I So.

Hemachandra, 227. 321 (gr.). 230

(lex.). 297 (Jain.).
Heldra'ja, 215.
heli, 254 (Greek).
Haimavati, 74. 156.
Hairanyandbha, 125.
Hailih'ila, 185.
hotar, 14. 53. 67. 80. 86. 89. 109.

129. 149.

hard, 254 (Greek).
— S'dstra, 254. 259. 260.
hautraka, IOI,
Hrasva, 1 12.

INDEX OF MATTERS, ETC.

Alyoicepus, 254.

Ahriman (and Mdra), 303. 304.
Akbar, 283.

Albiruni, 60. 189. 201. 239. 249.

253. 254. 257-262. 266. 274. 323.

Alexander, 4. 6. 27. 28. 30. 179.

221. 222. 251.

Alexandria, 256. 309.
Alexandrinus (Paulus), 253.
Algebra, 256. 259.
Alkindi, 263.
'A/UT/>OX<£T?;S, 251.
Amulet-prayers, 208.
Amyntas, 306.
Ava<f>ri, 255.
Andubarius, 255-
Animal fables, 70. an ff., 301.
Antigonua, 179. 252.
Autiochus, 179. 252.
Aphrodisius (?), 258.
' A<f>podiTi), 254.
Aw6K\L/ji.a, 255.
Apollodotus, 1 88.
Apolloniua of Tyana, 252.
Apotelesmata, 289.
Arabs : Arabian astronomy, 255-
257. 263. 264.

— Arabic astronomical terms, 263-
264.

• — commercial intercourse of the
Indians with Arabia, 220.

— Arabian figures, 256.

Arabs : medicine, 266. 270, 271.

— music, 273.

— philosophy, 239.
Archimedes, 256.
Arenarius, 256.
"A/Jijy, 254.

Arim, Arin, coupole d', 257-
Aristoteles, 234.
Arithmetic, 256. 259.
Arjabahr, 255. 259.
Arkand, 259.
Arrian, 4. 106. 136.
Arsacidan Parthians, 1 88.
Ars amandi, 267.
Asklepiads, oath of the, 268.
' AffTpovofila. of the Indians, 30.
Atoms, 244.
Aux, augis, 257.

Avesta, 6. 36. 148 (Indian names of
its parts), 302.

— and Buddhism, 327.
Avicenna, 271.
Babrius, 211.
Babylon, 2. 247.
Bactria, 207 ; s. Valhika.
Bagdad, 255. 270.

Bali, island of, 189. 195. 208.
Bardesanes, 309.
Barlaam, 307.
Bashkar, 262. 263.
BctcriXetfs, Basili, 306.
Basilides, 309.

354

INDEX OF MATTERS.

Basilis, 251.

Beast-fable, 21 1 ff. 301.

Bells, 307.

Bengali recensions, 194. 206. 208.

Bhabra missive, 292. 294, 295.

BihanLa"!, 211.

Blessed, world of the, 50. (73).

B665a, 309.

Boethius, 257.

~Rpa.Xfj.ave3, 28. 30.

Buddhism, Buddhists, 3. 4. 20. 22.

27. 78. 79. 99. in. 138. 151. 165.

205. 229. 236. 247. 276. 277. 280.

283 ff.

Buddhist nuns, 281.
Bundehesh, 247. 323.
Caesar, 188.
Castes, 10. 18. 78. 79. no. III. 161.

178. 287. 289. 290. 301. 306.
Ceylon, 192. 288. 291. 293. 295.

— medicine in, 267.
Chaldseans, astronomy, 248 (Xa-

rustr).
Chaos, 233.
Chess, 275.
Chinese lunar asterisms, 247. 248

(Kio-list).

— statements on the date of Ka-
nishka, 287.

— translations, 229 (Amara). 291.
300. 301 (Buddh.).

. — travellers, s. Fa Hian, Hiuan

Thsang.

XpT^arnTyaiy (! /cey65po/u.oj), 255.
Christian influences, 71. 189. 238.

300. 307.

— ritual, influence of Buddhist ri-
tual and worship on (and vice
versa), 307.

— sects, Indian influence on, 239.

3°9-

Chrouicon Paschale, 255.
Clemens Alexandrinus, 306.
Coin, 205 (ndnaka), 229 (dina"ra).
Coins, Indian, 215. 2l8. 219.
Commentaries, text secured by

means of, 181.

Comparative mythology, 35, 36.
Constantius, 255.
Creation, 233, 234.
Creed-formulas, 166.
Curtius, 136.
Cycles, quinquennial and sexennial,

113. 247.
Damis, 252.
Dancing, 196 ff.

DaVa Shakoh, 283.

Day, beginning of the, at midnight,

254.
Decimal place-value of the figures,

256.

Deeds of gift, v. Grants.
Degrees of the heavens, 255-
Deimachus, 251.
Ae*cai>6s, 255-
Dekhan, 4. 6. 192. 283.
Dekhan recension (of the Urva&),

208.

Arjfj.-fjTi]p, 35.
Demiurges, 233.
Denarius, 229. 304,
Dhauli, 179. 295.
Diagrams, mystic, 310.
Dialects, 6. 175 ff. 295. 296. 299.
Aidfjierpov, 25$-
Al5v/J.os, 254.
Diespiter, 35.

Dion Chrysostom, 186. 188.
Dionysius, 251.
Ai6i>v<ros, 6.
Districts, division of Vedic schools

according to, 65. 94. 132. 133.
of other text-recensions, 195.

206-208.

— Varieties of style distinguished
by names of, 232.

Dolphin, emblem of the God of

Love, 252. 274. 325 (Cupid and

Venus).

Aopv<j>opia, 255.
Apa.xfJ.-n, 229.
Dravidian words, 3.
Dsanglun, 289. 291. 306.
Dulva, 199.
Darr i mufassal, 272.
Avrbv, 255.
Egypt, commercial relations be-

tween India and, 3.
Ela-aywy/i, 253-255.
Elements, the five, 334.
Embryo, 160.
'ETTCwo^opd, 255-
Eras. Indian, 2O2. 203. 2IO. 260.
Fa Hian, 218. 300.
Farther India, geographical names

in, 178.
Fere'dun, 36.

Festival-plays, religious, 197. 198.
Figures, 256. 324.

— expressed by words, 60. 140.
Firdusi, 37.

Firmicus Maternus, 254.

INDEX OF MATTERS.

335

Fortunatus, purse of, 264-265.
Fox, in Fable, 211, 212.
Gamma, gamme, 272 (mus.).
Ganges, 4. 38.

— mouths of the, 193. 248.
Galen, 307.

Geometry, 256.

Ginunga gap, 233.

Girnar, 179. 295.

Gnosticism, 239. 309.

Gobar figures, 256.

Gods, images, statues of, 273. 274.

— language of the, 176.

— triad of : Agni, Indra, and Su-
rya, 40. 63 (A., I., and Soma) ; —
Brahman, Rudra, and Vishnu,
97. 161. 167 (Siva), l8o(3iva), 277.

Grants, 203. 215. 281.

Greek female slaves, 203. 251, 252.

— monarchies of Bactria, 1 88. 207.
215. 221. 251. 285.

— words, 254, 255.

Greeks : Greek Architecture, 274
(three styles in India).

— Astronomy, 153. 243. 249. 251
ff.

— Commerce with India, 252.

— Drama, 207.

— Fables, 211.

— God of Love, 252. 274 (?).

— Influence upon India generally,
251 ff.

— Medicine, 268. 324. 325.

— Philosophy, 220. 221. 234.

— Sculpture, 273.

— Writing, 221.
Guido d'Arezzo, 272.
Gujarat, 139. 179. 207. 251.
Gymnosophists, 27.
"HXtos, 254.

'Rpa.K\rjs, 6. 136. 1 86. 234.

Heraclius, 255.

Heretics, 98.

'Ep^s, 254.

Homer, Indian, 186. 188.

— Homeric cycle of legend, 194.
"Qprj, 254.

'Oplfrv, 255.

Hindustan, 4. 6. ro. 18. 38. 39. 70.

187. 192. 283. 296.
Hiuan Thsang, 217 ff., 287. 300.
Humours, the three, 266.
HusVavanh, 36.
'T8pox6os, 254.
'TX6/3to:, 28. 48.
v, 255.

Ibn Abi Usaibiah, 266.

Ibn Baithar, 266.

'IxOvs, 254.

Immigration of the Aryas into Hin-

dusta"n, 38. 39.
Indo-Scythians, 220. 285.
Indus, 10. 37. 38. 218. 285.
Inheritance, law of, 278, 279.
Initial letters of names employed

to denote numbers, 256 ; to mark

the seven musical notes, 272.
Inscriptions, 183. 215. 228.
Intercalary month, 247. 262 (three
* in the year !).
Invisible cap, 264.
Jackal and lion in Fable, 211,

212.
Java, island of, 189. 195. 208. 229.

171. 280.
Jehkn, 283.
Jeha"ngir, 283,
Jemshid, 36.
Josaphat, 307.
Kabul, 3. 179.
Kafu (kapi), 3.
Kdgyur, 291. 294. 326.
Kc£0aia, 317.
Kaikavus, 36.
Kai Khosru, 36.
Kalilag and Damnag, 320.
Kalila wa Dimna, 212.
Kalmuck translations, 291.
Kajt/ftcrfloXot, 88. 268.
Kambojas, 178.
Kanfitcrris, 178.
KanaYese translation, 189.
Kanerki, s. Kanishka.
Kanheri, 292.
Kankah, 269.

Kapur di Giri, 179 ; s. Kapardigiri.
Kashmir, 204. 213. 215. 220. 223.

227. 232. 291. 296.
Kava Us*, 36.
Kavi languages, origin of name,

195-

— translations, 318 (date of). 325.
Keeping secret of doctrines, 49.
Kei>6Spo/j.os, 255-
Ktvrpov, 254. 255.
K^TTOS, 3.
Ktpfiepos, 35.
Kivvpd, 302.
Kio-list, 248.
K6\oi/po5, 254.
Koi^y, 3.
Kpcds, 254.

INDEX OF MATTERS.

Kp6i»oj, 254.
ha.pi.Ki], 76. 258.
Ldt, 249. 258.
League-boots, 264.
A^&w, 254.
A«mJ, 255.

Lion and jackal (fox), 211, 212.
Longest day, length of the, 247.
Love, God of, 252. 274.
Lunar mansions, 2. 30. 90. 92. 148.
229. 246-249. 252. 255. 281.

3°4-

— phases, 281.
MaSiavSivol, IO. 106.
Magas, 179. 252.
Magic, art of, 264, 265.
Magic mirror, 264.

— ointment, 264.
Mahmud of Ghasna, 253.
Mairya (and MaYa?), 303.
MoXXoi, 222.

Manes, 309.

Manes, sacrifice to the, 55- 93- 100.

108. 1 1 8.
Manetho, 260.

Mansions, twelve, 254. 281 (aetr.).
Manuscripts, late date of, 181. 182

(oldest).
M dca-aya, 75.

Mazzaloth, Mazzaroth, 248.
Medicine in Ceylon, 267 ; in India,

324. 325-

Megastheues, 4. 6. IO. 2O. 27. 48.
70. 88. 106. 136. 137. 186. 234.
251.

Meherdates, 1 88.

Menander, 224. 251. 306.

Mendzil, 323 (in Soghd).

Mendicancy, religious, 237.

Meffovpdvrifj.a, 255.

Metempsychosis, 234.

Metrical form of literature, 182,

183.
Missionaries, Buddhist, 290. 307.

309..

— Christian, 307.
Mvrj/J.ri, &irb fjLi>r/iJ.-r)S, 2O.
Monachism, system of, 307.
Monasteries, 274. 281.
Mongolian translations, 291.
Mundane ages (four), 247 ; P. Yuga.
Music, modern Indian, 325.
Musical scale, 272.

Mysteries, 197. 198.
Mythology, Comparative, 35. 36.
Names, chronology from, 29. 53.

71. 120. 239. 284. 285 (s. also

Afiga, Kavi, Tantra, Sutra).
Nearchus, 15.

Neo-Pythagoreans, 256, 257.
Nepal, 291. 309, 310.
Nepdlese MSS., date of, 318.
Nerengs, 56.
North of India, purity of language

in the, 26. 45. 296.
Notes, the seven musical, 160. 272.
Numbers, denoting of, by the

letters of the alphabet in their

order, 222.
Numerical notation by means of

letters, 257. 324.

— Symbols, 256.
Nushirvdn, 212.
Omens, 69. 152. 264.
Ophir, 3.

Oral tradition, 12 ff , 22. 48.

Ordeal, 73.

Orissa, 179. 274.

Otbi, 201.

0{/pav6s, 35.

'Ofyvtf, 252 (s. Arin).

'O^vdpaKat, 222.

Pahlav, 1 88.

Pahlavi, translation of Panchatantra

into, 212. 267.
Pali redaction of the Amarakosha,

230.

— of Manu's Code,' 279.
HavSala, 136. 137. 186.

Panjdb, 2. 3. 4. 88. 207. 248. 251.

309.

Pantheism, 242.
IlapOfros, 254.
Parthians, 4. 1 88. 318.
Parvi, parviz, 323.
Pattalene, 285.
Paulus Alexandrinus, 253. 255.

— al Yundni, 253.

Peacocks, exportation of, to Bdveru,

2, 3-

Periplus, 4. 6.
Permutations, 256.
Persa-Aryans, 6. 133. 148, 178.
Persians, 3. 4. 1 88 5—273 (tnus.).

274 (arch.).
Persian Epos, 36. 37. 187.

— translation of the Upanishads,

155-

- Veda, 36. 148.
Personal deity, 165, 1 66.
HevKfXa&rts, 268.
4>dc7ir, 255.

INDEX OF MATTERS.

'Philosopher's Ride,' 291.

Philostratus, 252.

Phoebus Apollo, 273 (type of).

Phoenicians, their commercial rela-
tions with India, 2, 3. 248.

Pholotoulo, 2 1 8.

Phonini, 218.

Planets, 98. 153. 249-251. 254,
255. 281. 304.

— Greek order of the, 3 1 9. 323. 326.
Plato (Bactrian king), 273.
Pliny, 136.

Plutarch, 306.
Polar star, 98.

Popular dialects, 6. 175-180.
IIpd/Avai, 28. 244.

Prose-writing arrested in its deve-
lopment, 183.

Ptolemaios, 253. 274 (astr.).
Ptolemy, 179. 251. 252 (two).

— 130 (geogr.).
Quinquennial cycle, 113. 247.
Quotations, text as given in, 182.

279.

Relic-worship, 306. 307.
Rgya Cher Rol Pa, 185. 291.
Rhazes, 271.
Rock-inscriptions, 179.
Rosary, 307.
2av5/)6/cu7TTos, 217. 223.
2ap/j,dvai, 28.
Scale, musical, 272.
Schools, great number of Vedic,

142.

Seleucus, 4.
Semitic origin of Indian writing,

'5-

• of the Beast-fable, 211, 212.

Serapion, 271.

Seven musical notes, 160. 272.

Sindhend, 255. 259.

Singhalese translations, 292.

2Ko/>7r£os, 254.

^KvOiav6s, 309.

Snake, 302.

Solar year, 246, 247.

Solomon's time, trade with India

in, 3-

2(i}<f>a.ya<rfivas, 251.
Speusippus (?), 258.
Squaring of the circle, 256.
Steeples, 274. 306.
Stone-building, 274.

Strabo, 6. 27. 28. 30. 244. 246.
Style, varieties of, distinguished by

names of provinces, 232.
Succession of existence, 289. 301.
Sufi philosophy, 239.
Swa<^ 255.
Sun's two journeys, stellar limits of

the, 98.

Surgery, 269. 270.

Tandjur, 209. 210. 226. 230. 246.

267. 276. .
TaDpos, 254.

Teachers, many, quoted, 50. 77-
Texts, uncertainty of the, 181, 182.

224, 225.

Thousand-uame-prayers, 208.
Tibetans, translations of the, 208.

212. 291. 294. 300; s. Dsanglun,

Kagyur, Rgya Cher Rol Pa,

Tandjur.
Tiridates, 3, 4.
To£67Tjs, 254.

Transcribers, mistakes of, 181.
Translations, s. Arabs, Chinese,

Kalmuck, Kandrese, Kavi, Mon-

golian, Pahlavi, Pdli, Persian,

Singhalese.

Transmigration of souls, 73. 288.
Tplyuvos, 255.

Trojan cycle of legend, 194.
Tukhilm, peacocks, 3.
Valentinian, 309.
Venus with dolphin (and Cupid),

325-

Vernaculars, 175-180. 203.
Veterinary medicine, 267.
Weights, 1 60. 269.
Writing, 10. 13. 15; — of the Ya-

vanas, 221.

— consignment to, 22. 144. 181.
292. 296.

Written language, 178 ff.

Yeshts, 56. 302.

Yima, 36.

Yuasaf, Yudasf, Budsatf, 307.

Zero, 256.

Zetfs, 35.

— planet, 254.

Zodiacal signs, 98, 229. 249. 254.

255- 257-
Zohak, 36.
Zvybv, 254.

358

INDEX OF AUTHORS.

INDEX OF AUTHOES.

Ambros, 272.

Anandacbandra, 58. 68. 79.
Anquetil du Perron, 52. 96. 154,

ISS- 162.
Aufrecht, 16. 32. 43. 59. 80. 84.

112. 150. 191. 200. 210. 211. 224.

226. 230. 232. 243. 257. 260.
261. 267. 272. 313. 315.

Bdlasastrin, 223. 226. 237. 322,

323.

Ballantyne, 223. 226. 235. 237. 244.
Banerjea, 191. 235. 238. 243.
Bapti Deva ^astrin, 258. 262.
Barth, 257. 316. 321.
Barthelemy St. Hilaire, 235.
Bayley, 304.

Beal, 293. 300. 309. 327.
Benary, F., 196.
Benfey, 15. 22. 43. 44. 64. 66. 117.

157. 212. 221. 267. 272. 274.

301. 306. 320.
Bentley, 257. 267.
Bergaigne, 44.
Bernoulli!, 325.
Bertrand, 202.
Bbagv£nMl Indraji, 324.
Bhagvan Vijaya, 327.
Bhandarkar, 60. 150. 215. 219. 224.

319. 32 r- 326.

Bhau Daji, 215. 227. 254-262. 319.
Bibliotbeca Indica, s. Ballantyne,

Banerjea, Cowell, Hall, Rajendra

L. M., Roer, &c.
Bickell, 320.
Biot, 247, 248.
Bird, 215.
Bobtlingk, 22. 106. 210. 217-220.

222. 226. 230. 320. 323.
Von Bohlen, 272.
Bollensen, 44.
Bopp, 178. 189.
Boyd, 207.
Bre"al, 4. 36.
Brockbaus, 213. 262.
Browning, 84.
Biibler, 50. 54. 92. 97. 101. 152.

155. 164. 170. 182. 196. 204. 210.

212, 213. 214, 215. 217. 222.

227. 232. 237. 259. 272. 277,

278. 280. 282, 283. 297. 314.

315. 317. 319-322. 324-326.

Burgess, Eb., 247. 258 ; — Jas., 215.

Burnell, 3. 13. 15. 20. 22. 42. 6l.
65. 69. 74. 83. 90. 91. 94. 101.
IO2. 103. 150. 155. 163, 164. 170,
171. 178. 203. 213. 215. 217. 221,

222. 226. 245. 256. 270. 313. 316.

321.

Burnouf, 8l. ill. 162. 179. 191.

199. 246. 289. 291, 292. 296. 298.

300. 306. 308.
Cantor, 324.

Cappeller, 226. 232. 320.
Carey, 194.

Chandr&kanta Tarkalarnkara, 84.
Cbilders, 178. 293.295. 305.308.326.
Clarac, Comte de, 325.
Clough, 293.
Colebrooke, 42. 43. 6l. 97. 148.

151. 154, 157, 158. 163. 201.

202. 227. 229. 230. 234. 235.

236. 238. 241,242. 243. 245.256.

259-263. 267. 269. 281. 283.
CoomaYa Svdmy, 293.
Cowell, 42. 43. 50. 52. 91. 97. 98.

99. 207. 227. 234. 235. 237, 238.

242. 256. 283. 291. 322.
Cox, 36.
Csoma Korosi, 199. 209. 267. 285.

291. 294.

Cunningham, 178.203.215.273,274,
D'Alwis, 293.
Darmesteter, J., 314.
Davids, 267.
De Gubernatis, 36.
Delbriick, 31. 44. 318.
Gerard de Rialle, 3.
Dbanapati Sinbaji, 327.
Dickson, 326.
Dietz, 267.
Donner, 19. 44.
Dowson, 141. 203. 215.
Diimicben, 3.
Duncker, 308.
D'Eckstein, 97.
Eggelinjr, 203. 215. 226. 291.
Elliot, H. M., 239. 267.
Elliot, W., 154, 155.
Faucbe, 189. 194.
Fausboll, 293. 304. 326.
Feer, 1 88. 291. 293. 299.
Fergusson, 203. 215. 273.
Fleet, 319. 321.
Fliigel, 270.

INDEX OF AUTHORS.

359

Foucaux, 185. 189. 200. 286. 291. 299.

Friederich, 189. 195.

Fritze, 320.

Ganga"dhara Kaviraja, 270.

Garrez, 21 1.

Geiger, L., 272.

Geldner, 44.

Gildemeister, 161. 229. 239. 270.

Giriprasa'davarman, 116.

Goldschmidt, Paul, 196.

GoldscLmidt, Siegfried, 65. 196.

Goldstiicker, 12. 15. 22. 87. 100.

130. 144. 193. 207. 221, 222.

223. 224, 225. 227. 241. 251.

273. 321.
Gorresio, 194.
Gough, 235. 244. 322. 323.
Govindadeva&istrin, 237. 322. 323.
Grassmann, 44. 315.
Griffith, 194.
Grill, 207.

Grimblot, 293. 319. 326.
Grohmann, 265.
Grube, 171.
Von Gutschurid, 188.
Haag, 205.

Haas, 19. 58. 84. 142. 152. 324.
Haeberlin, 201.
Hall, 106. 191. 204. 207. 213. 214.

231. 232. 235. 237. 257. 258. 318.

3I9-

Haukel, 256.

Harachandra Vidydbhushana, 151.
Hardy, 292, 293. 304.
Haug, 22. 25. 32. 47. 60. 61. 91.

93. loo. 150. 152. 153. 155. 162.

314, 3IS- 317.
Hessler, 268.
Heymann, 231.
Hillebrandt, 44. 314.
Hodgson, 291. 292. 309.
Holtzmann, 200. 228. 230. 279. 318.
Hue, 307.
jfsvarachandra Vidysfodgara, 205.

235-
Jacobi, 195. 204. 214. 254. 255.

260. 281. 319. 323. 326.
Jaganmohanas'annan, 231.
JayanaYayana, 243, 244.
JivdnandaVidyasagara, 270.320.325.
Johantgen, 102. 238. 278, 279. 281.

285.

Jolly, 326.
Jones, Sir W., 272.
Julien, Stan., 218. 301.
Kaegi, 44.

Kashinath Trimbak Telang, 194.
Keller, 0., 211, 212.
Kennedy, Vans, 170.
Kern, 6l. 179. 2O2. 204. 215. 224.
243. 257-261. 267. 279. 288. 293.

299- 3l8- 324-
Ke6avasdstriu, 323.
Kielhorn, 25. 61. 68. 95. 101. 155.

170. 212. 225, 226. 313. 321.
Kittel, 189.
Klatt, 210. 310.
Knighton, 204.
Ko'ppen, 283. 306. 307. 308.
Kosegarten, 212.
Krishnashastri, 320.
Kuhn,' Ad., 25. 32. 35, 36. 62.
Kuhn, E., 293. 295.
Kunte, 325 (Mureshvar).
Laboulaye, 307.
Langlois, 43. 189.
Lassen, 4. 28. 75. 176. 179. 185.

188. 189. 190. 198. 199. 201.

202. 204. 205. 214, 218-220. 227.

229. 239. 244. 247. 251, 252. 254.

257. 260. 273. 275, 276. 287-290.

292. 296. 301. 308. 309. 319.
Lefmann, 299.
Leitner, 273.
Letronne, 229.
Liebrechfc, 307.
Linde, Van der, 275.
Lindner, 318.

Loiseleur Deslongchamps, 230.
Lorinser, 238.
Loth, 0., 263.
Ludwig, A., 44. 249. 315.
Madhusudana Gupta, 270.
Mahes'achandraNya'yaratna, 91. 241.
Marshman, 194.
Mayr, 279.

Meyer, Rud., 313, 314. 316.
Minayeff, 3. 293. 303.
Miiller, E., 299.
Miiller, Fr., 293.
Miiller, M., 15. 16. 19. 22. 31. 32.

35. 36. 42. 43. 48. 49. 55. 58. 59.

61. 63. 69. 93. 101. 106. 1 1 6.

142. 151. 155. 176. 180. 205.

221. 225. 234-236. 241. 244,

245. 247. 278. 282. 288. 307.

314, 315. 325.
Muir, 41. 44. 210. 292. 299.
Myriantheus, 314.
Neve, 309.
Noldeke, 187. 318.
Oldenberg, 316. 326.

INDEX OF AUTHORS.

Olshausen, 4. 188. 318.

Patterson, 273.

Pavie, 189.

Pertsch, 40, 60.

St. Petersburg Dictionary, 16. 104.
108. 112. 141. 266. 305.

Pischel, 206-208. 227. 295. 320. 321.

Poley, 50. 139.

Pons, Pere, 216. 254.

Prama<M Da"sa Mitra, 231.

Premachandra Tarkava"gi.4a, 232.

Prinsep, 179. 229.

Prym, 320.

Ra'dha'ka'nta Deva, 275.

Ra'ja'ra'ma&istrin, 223.

Riljendra La"la Mitra, 48. 6l. 65.
73- 84- 94- H2. 151- 155- 158- 162-
164. 166, 167. 169-171, 182.202.

210. 215. 220. 271. 274. 275. 297.
299.3I5- 317.

Rdmaiuaya Tarkaratna, 158. 168.

Ra'mamis'ra&lstrin, 322.

Ra'mana'ra'yana, 58. 91. 243.

Ra"m Ra"z, 275.

Rask, 293.

Regnaud, 318. 320.

Regnier, 34. 59.

Reinaud, 61. 148. 201. 202. 217.

219. 229. 239. 252, 253. 256-

259. 262, 263. 266. 269. 274. 307.
Renan, 309.
Rieu, 230.
Roer, 43. 48. 51. 54. 73. 74. 91.

94. 96. 116. 139. 154. 157. 160.

161. 231. 235. 244. 262.
Rosen, 43.

[lost, 66. 182. 191.236.268.270.279.
Roth, 8. 22. 23. 25. 33. 36. 38. 42

43. 44. 48. 63. 70. 80. 102. 112.
146. 147. ISO. 152. 178. 201.

247. 267, 268. 270. 303.

Royle, 271.

Sachau, 253. 323.

Satyavrata Samilsrami, 66. 299. 316.

Schiefner, 56. 185. 209. 212. 227.

248. 291. 300. 306. 307. 326.
Sclilagintweit, E., 310.
Schlegel, A. W. von, 194. 231. 275.
Schliiter, 234.

Schmidt, 289. 291. 306.
Schonborn, 48.
Schwanbeck, 20.
Sedillot, 247.

Senart, 293. 304. 326.

Shankar Pandit, 204. 315. 318.

Souriudra Mohan Tagore, 325.

Speijer, 19. 102. 142.

Spiegel, 293. 300. 306.

Steinschneider, 247.

Stenzler, 34. 55. 58. 142: 195. 206.

268. 277-280. 318. 325.
Stevenson, 43. 65. 215. 297. 326.
Storck, 293.
Strachey, 262.
Streiter, 55.
Ta'ra'na'tha T arkava*chaspati, 89. 184.

226.

Taylor, J., 262.
Taylor, W., 155. 162. 164, 165.

167. 169-171.

Thibaut, 60. 256. 316. 324.
Thomas, 215. 256.
Tumour, 267. 292, 293. 306.
Vaux, 215. 273.
Vechanara'mas'a'strin, 190. 323.
Vinson, 3.

Vis>ana"tha6&3trin, 60.
Vullers, 268.
Wagener, A., 211.
Warren, 297.
Wassiljew, 248. 300. 309.
Weigle, 189.
West, A. A., 215.
West, R., 278.
West, E. W., 215.
Westergaard, 22. 184. 2OI. 203.

215. 223. 230. 284. 288. 293.

295- 304.

Wheeler, T., 190. 251. 281.
Whish, 254.
Whitney, 2. 23. 64. 103. 150. 152.

247. 257, 258.
Wilkins, 228.
Wilkinson, 262.
Williams, 189.
Wilson, H. II., 43. 148. 179. 189.

191. 204-207. 213. 215. 221.

230. 236, 237. 250. 268. 270,

271. 281. 285. 305. 306. 318.
Wilson, J., 215.
\Vindisch, 297.
Windischmann, 73. 243.
Wise, 270.

Woepcke, 253. 256, 257.
Wright, Dan., 318.
Zimuier, 44.

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Japanese poetry in an English form. But he has evidently laboured con amore, and
his efforts are successful to a degree." — London and China Exprem.

Post 8vo, pp. xii. — 164, cloth, price ios. 6d.

THE HISTORY OF ESARHADDON (Son of Sennacherib),
KING OF ASSYRIA, B.C. 681-668.

Translated from the Cuneiform Inscriptions upon Cylinders and Tablets in
the British Museum Collection; together with a Grammatical Analysis
of each "Word, Explanations of the Ideographs by Extracts from the
Bi-Lingual Syllabaries, and List of Eponyms, &c.

Br ERNEST A. BUDGE, B.A., M.R.A.S.,
Assyrian Exhibitioner, Christ's College, Cambridge.

" Students of scriptural archseology will also appreciate the ' History of Esar-
haddon.' " — Times.

"There is much to attract the scholar in this volume. It does not pretend to
popularise studies which are yet in their infancy. Its primary object is to translate,
but it does not assume to be more than tentative, and it offers both to the professed
Assyriologist and to the ordinary non-Assyriological Semitic scholar the means of
controlling its results." — Academy.

"Mr. Budge's book is, of course, mainly addressed to Assyrian scholars and
students. They are not, it is to be feared, a very numerous class. But the more
thanks are due to him on that account for the way in which he has acquitted himself
in his laborious task." — Tablet.

Post 8vo, pp. 448, cloth, price 2is.

THE MESNEVI
(Usually known as THE MESNEVIYI SHERIF, or HOLY MESNEVI)

OF
MEVLANA (OUR LORD) JELALU 'D-DIN MUHAMMED ER-RUMI.

Book the First.
Together with some Account of the Life and Acts of the Author,

of his Ancestors, and of his Descendants.
Illustrated by a Selection of Characteristic Anecdotes, as Collected

by their Historian,
MEVLANA SHEMSU-'D-DIN AHMED, EL EFLAKI, EL 'Asm.

Translated, and the Poetry Versified, in English,
BY JAMES W. REDHOUSE, M.R.A. S., &c.

" A complete treasury of occult Oriental lore." — Saturday Review.

"This book will be a very valuable help to the reader ignorant of Persia, who is
desirous of obtaining an insight into a very important department of the literature
extant in that language." — Tablet.

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Post 8vo, pp. xvi.— 280, cloth, price 6s.

EASTERN PROVERBS AND EMBLEMS
ILLUSTRATING OLD TRUTHS.

BY REV. J. LONG,
Member of the Bengal Asiatic Society, F.R.G.S.

" We regard the book as valuable, and wish for it a wide circulation and attentive
reading. " — Jtecord.

" Altogether, it is quite a feast of good things." — Globe.
" It is full of interesting matter." — Antiquary.

Post 8vo, pp. viii. — 270, cloth, price 73. 6d.

INDIAN POETRY;

Containing a New Edition of the "Indian Song of Songs," from the Sanscrit
of the "Gita Govinda" of Jayadeva ; Two Books from "The Iliad of
India" (Mahabharata), "Proverbial Wisdom" from the Shlokas of the
Hitopadesa, and other Oriental Poems.
BY EDWIN ARNOLD, C.S.I., Author of "The Light of Asia."

" In this new volume of Messrs. Triibner's Oriental Series, Mr. Edwin Arnold does
good service by illustrating, through the medium of his musical English melodies,
the power of Indian poetry to stir European emotions. The ' Indian Song of Songs '
is not unknown to scholars. Mr. Arnold will have introduced it among popular
English poems. Nothing could be more graceful and delicate than the shades by
which Krishna is portrayed in the gradual process of being weaned by the love of

' Beautiful Radha, jasmine-bosomed Radha,'

'from the allurements of the forest nymphs, in whom the five senses are typified." —
TiiMt.

" No other English poet lias ever thrown his genius and his art so thoroughly into
the work of translating Eastern ideas as Mr. Arnold has done in his splendid para-
phrases of language contained in these mighty epics."— Daily Telegraph.

" The poem abounds with imagery of Eastern luxuriousness and sensuousnt ss ; the
air seems laden with the spicy odours of the tropics, and the verse has a richness and
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" The translator, while producing a very enjoyable poem, has adhered with toler-
able fidelity to the original text."— Overland Mad.

" We certainly wish Mr. Arnold success in his attempt ' to popularise Indian
classics,' that being, as his preface tells us, the goal towards which he bends hi*
efforts." — Allen's Indian Mail.

Post 8vo, pp. xvi. — 296, cloth, price xos. 6d.

THE MIND OF MENCIUS ;

Ou, POLITICAL ECONOMY FOUNDED UPON MORAL
PHILOSOPHY.

A SYSTEMATIC DIGEST OF THE DOCTRINES OF THE CHINESE PHILOSOPHER
• MENCIUS.

Translated from the Original Text and Classified, with
Comments and Explanations,

By the REV. ERNST FABER, Rhenish Mission Society.

Translated from the German, with Additional Notes,
HytheREV. A. B. HUTCHINSON, C. M.S., Church Mission, Hong Kong.

" Mr. Faber is already well known in the field of Chinese studies by Ids digest of
the doctrines of Confucius. The value of this work will be perceived when it is
remembered that at no time since relations commenced between China and the
West has the former been so powerful — we had almost said aggressive — as now.
For those who will give it careful study, Mr. Faber's work is one of the most
valuable of the excellent series to which it belongs." — Nature.

A 2

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Post 8vo, pp. 336, cloth, price i6s.

THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA.

BY A. EARTH.

Second Edition.

Translated from the French with the authority and assistance of the Author.

The nuthor has. at the request of the publishers, considerably enlarged
the work for the translator, and has :idded the literature of the subject to
date ; tiie translation m:iy, therefore, be looked upon as an equivalent of a
new and improved edition of the original.

" Is not only a valuable manual of the religious of India, which marks a distinct
step iu the treatment of the subject, but also a useful work of reference." — Academy.

"This volume is a reproduction, with corrections and additions, of an article
contributed by the learned author two years a-jo to the ' Encyclopedic des Sciences
Religieuses.' It attracted much notice when it first appeared, and is generally
admitted to present the best summary extant of the vast subject witii which it
deals."— Tablet.

"This is not only on the whole the best but the only manual of the religions of
India, apart from Buddhism, which we have in English. The present work . . .
shows not only great knowledge of the facts and power of clear exposition, but also
great insight into the inner history and the deeper meaning of the great religion,
for it is in reality only one, which it proposes to describe."— Modern Review.

" The merit of the work has been emphatically recognised by the most .-.uthoritative
Orientalists, both in this country and on the continent of Europe. But probably
there are few Indianists (if we may use the word) who would not derive a good deal
of information from it, and especially from the extensive bibliography provided in
the notes."— Duld in Review.

" Sucli a sketch M. Earth has drawn with a master-hand." — Critic (New York).

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HINDU PHILOSOPHY.

THE SANKHYA KARIKA OF IS'WARA KRISHNA.

An Exposition of the System of Kapihi, with an Appendix on the
Nyaya and Vais'eshika Systems.

BY JOHN DAVIES, M.A. (Cantab.), M.R.A.S.

The system of Kapila contains nearly nil that India has produced in the
department of pure philosophy.

"The uon Orientalist . . . finds in Mr. Davics a patient and learned guide who
leads him into the intricacies of the philosophy of India, and supplies him with a clue,
that he may not be lost in them. In the preface he states that the system of
Kapila is the -earliest attempt on record to give an answer, from reason, alone,
to the mysterious questions which arise in every thoughtful mind about the origin of
the world, the nature and relations ot man and his future destiny,' and in his learned
and able notes he exhibits ' the connection of the Sankhya system with the philo-
sophy of Spinoza,' and ' the connection of the system of Kapila with that of Schopen-
hauer and Von Hartitiann.'" — Foreign Church Chronicle.

" Mr. Davies's volume on Hindu Philosophy is an undoubted gain to all students
of the development of thought. The system of Kapila, which is here given in a trans-
lation from the Sankhya Kiirika. is the only contribution of India to pure philosophy.
. . . Presents many points of deep interest to the student of comparative philo-
sophy, and without Mr. Davies's lucid interpretation it would be difficult to appre-
ciate these points in any adequate manner." — Saturday Review.

" We welcome Mr. Davies's book as a valuable addition to our philosophical
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Third Edition. Post 8vo, pp. x. — 130, clotb, price 6s.

A MANUAL OF HINDU PANTHEISM. VEDANTASARA,

Translated, with copious Annotations,

BY MAJOR G. A. JACOB,
Bombay Staff Corps ; Inspector of Army Schools.

The design of this little work is to provide for missionaries, and for
others who. like them, have little leisure for original research, an accurate
summary of the doctrines of the Vedanta.

" The modest title of Major Jacob's work conveys but an inadequate idea of the
vast amount of re-earuh embodied in his notes to the text of the Vedantasara. So
copious, indeed, are these, and so much colluter.il matter do they bring to bear on
the subject, that tiie diligent student will rise from their perusal with a fairly
adequate view of Hindu philosophy generally. His work ... is one of the best ol
its kind that we have seen." — Calcutta Review.

Post 8vo, pp. xii. — 154, cloth, price 78. 6d.

TSUNI— I I GO AM :

THE SUPREME BEING OF THE KHOI-KHOI.
BY THEOPHILUS HAHN, Ph.D.

Custodian of the Grey Collection, Cape Town ; Corresponding Member

of the Geogr. Society, Dresden ; Corresponding Member of the

Anthropological Society, Vienna, &c., &c.

•'The first instalment of Dr. Hahn's labours will be of interest, not at the Cape
only, but in every University of Europe. It is, in fact, a most valuable contribution
to the comparative study of religion and mythology. Accounts of their religion and
mythology were scattered about in various books ; these have been carefully col-
lected by" Dr. Hahn and printed in liis second chapter, enriched and improved by
what he has been able to collect himself." — Prof. Max Miiller in the Nineteenth
Century.

" It is full of good things."— St. James's Gazette.

In Four Volumes. Post 8vo, Vol. I., pp. xii.— 392, cloth, price I2s. 6d.,

Vol. II., pp. vi.— 408, cloth, price ias. 6d., Vol. III., pp. viii.— 414,

cloth, price 123. 6d., Vol. IV., pp. viii.— 340, cloth, price xos. 6d.

A COMPREHENSIVE COMMENTARY TO THE QURAN,

TO WHICH IS PREFIXED SALE'S PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE, WITH
ADDITIONAL NOTES AND EMENDATIONS.

Together with a Complete Index to the Text, Preliminary
Discourse, and Notes.

By Rev. E. M. WHERRY, M.A., Lodiana.

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pretations, and for this purpose Mr. Wherry's additions will prove useful."— Saturday
Review.

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Second Edition. Post 8vo, pp. vi.— 208, cloth, price 8s. 6d.

THE BHAGAVAD-GITA.

Translated, with Introduction and Notes.
Br JOHN DAVIES, M.A. (Cantab.)

" Let us add that his translation of the Bhagavad GH& is, as we judge, the best
that has as yet appeared in English, and that his Philological Notes are of quite
peculiar value." — Dublin Review.

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THE QUATRAINS OF OMAR KHAYYAM.

Translated by E. H. WHINFIELD, M.A.,
Barrister-at-Law, late H.M. Bengal Civil Service.

Post 8vo, pp. xxxii. — 336, cloth, price IDS. 6d.

THE QUATRAINS OF OMAR KHAYYAM.

The Persian Text, with an English Verse Translation.
By E. H. WHINFIELD, late of the Bengal Civil Service.

" Mr. Whinfield has executed a difficult task with considerable success, and his
version contains much that will be new to those who only know Mr. Fitzgerald's
delightful selection. " — Academy.

"The most prominent features in the Quatrains are their profound agnosticism,
combined with a fatalism based more on philosophic than religious grounds, their
Epicureanism and the spirit of universal tolerance and charity which animates them."
— Calcutta Review.

Post 8vo, pp. xxiv. — 268, cloth, price gs.

THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE UPANISHADS AND
ANCIENT INDIAN METAPHYSICS.

As exhibited in a series of Articles contributed to the Calcutta Review.

}Jy ARCHIBALD EDWARD GOUGH, M.A., Lincoln College, Oxford ;
Principal of the Calcutta Madrasa.

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thus far appeared in ' Triibner's Oriental Series.' . . . We cannot doubt that for all
who may take it up the work must be one ot profound interest."— Saturday Review.

In Two Volumes. Vol. I., post 8vo, pp. xxiv. — 230, cloth, price 73. 6d.

A COMPARATIVE HISTORY OF THE EGYPTIAN AND
MESOPOTAMIAN RELIGIONS.

By Du. C. P. TIELE.

Vol. I. — HISTORY OF THE EGYPTIAN RELIGION.

Translated from the Dutch with the Assistance of the Author.

By JAMES BALLINGAL.

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YUSUF AND ZULAIKHA.

A POEM BY JAMI.

Translated from the Persian into English Verse.
BY RALPH T. H. GRIFFITH.

' " Mr. Griffith, who has done already good service as translator into verse from the
Sanskrit, has done further good work in this translation from the Persian, and he
has evidently shown not a little skill in his rendering the quaint and very oriental
style of his author into our more prosaic, less figurative, language. . . . The work,
besides its intrinsic merits, is of importance as being one of the most popular and
famous poems of Persia, and that which is read in all the independent native schools
of India where Persian is taught." — Scotsman.

Post 8vo, pp. viii. — 266, cloth, price 93.

LINGUISTIC ESSAYS.

BY CARL ABEL.

" An entirely novel method of dealing with philosophical questions and impart a
real human interest to the otherwise dry technicalities of the science." — Standard.

" Ur. Abel is an opponent from whom it is pleasant to differ, for he writes with
enthusiasm and temper, and his mastery over the English language fits him to be a
champion of unpopular doctrines." — Atherueum.

Post 8vo, pp. ix. — 281, cloth, price zos. 6d.
THE SARV A - BARS AN A - SAMGRAHA ;

OR, REVIEW OF THE DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF HINDU
PHILOSOPHY.

BY MADHAVA ACHARYA.

Translated by E. B. COWELL, M. A., Professor of Sanskrit in the University
of Cambridge, and A. E. GOUGH, M.A., Professor of Philosophy

in the Presidency College, Calcutta.

This work is an interesting specimen of Hindu critical ability. The
author successively passes in review the sixteen philosophical systems
current in the fourteenth century in the South of India ; and he gives what
appears to him to be their most important tenets.

" The translation is trustworthy throughout. A protracted sojourn in India,
where there is a living tradition, has familiarised the translators with Indian
thought. ' '—A th enceum.

Post 8vo, pp. Ixv. — 368, cloth, price 143.

TIBETAN TALES DERIVED FROM INDIAN SOURCES.

Translated from the Tibetan of the KAH-GYUR.

BY F. ANTON VON SCHIEFNER.

Done into English from the German, with an Introduction,
BY W. R. S. RALSTON, M.A.

"Mr. Ralston, whose name is so familiar to all lovers of Russian folk-lore, has
supplied some interesting Western analogies and parallels, drawn, for the most part,
from Slavonic sources, to the Eastern folk-tales, culled from the Kahgyur, one of the
divisions of the Tibetan sacred books."— Academy.

" The translation . . . could scarcely have fallen into better hands. An Introduc-
tion . . . gives the leading facts in the lives of those scholars who have given their
attention to gaining a knowledge of the Tibetan literature and language."— Calcutta
Seview.

" Ought to interest all who care for the East, for amusing stories, or for comparative
folk-lore."— Poll Mall Gazette.

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Post 8vo, pp. xvi. — 224, cloth, price 93.

UDANAVARGA.

A COLLECTION OF VERSES FROM THE BUDDHIST CANON.

Compiled by DHARMATRATA.
BEING THE NORTHERN BUDDHIST VERSION OF DHAMMAPADA.

Translated from the Tibetan of Bkah-hgyur, with Notes, and
Extracts from the Commentary of Pradjnavarman,

By W. WOODVILLE ROCKHILL.

" Mr. Rockh ill's present work is the first from which assistance will be gained
for a more accurate understanding of the Pali text ; it is, in fact, as yet the only
term of comparison available to us. The ' Udanavarga,' the Thibetan version, was
originally discovered by the late M. Schiefner, who published the Tibetan text, and
had intended adding a translation, an intention frustrated by his death, but which
has been carried out by Mr. Rockhill. . . . Mr. Rockhill may be congratulated for
having well accomplished a difficult task." — Saturday Review.

In Two Volumes, post 8vo, pp. xxiv. — 566, cloth, accompanied by a
Language Map, price i8s.

A SKETCH OF THE MODERN LANGUAGES OF AFRICA.

BY ROBERT NEEDHAM CUST,
Barrister-at-Law, and late of Her Majesty's Indian Civil Service.

" Any one at all interested in African languages cannot do better than get Mr.
Gust's book. It is encyclopaedic in its scope, and the reader gets a start clear away
in any particular language, and is left free to add to the initial sum of knowledge
there collected." — Ratal Mtrcury.

"Mr. Gust has contrived to produce a work of value to linguistic students." —
Nature.

Fifth Edition. Post 8vo, pp. xv.-25o, cloth, price 73. 6d.

OUTLINES OF THE HISTORY OF RELIGION TO THE

SPREAD OF THE UNIVERSAL RELIGIONS.

BY C. P. TIELE,

Doctor of Theology, Professor of the History of Religions in the
University of Leyden.

Translated from the Dutch by J. ESTLIN CARPENTER, M.A.

" Few books of its size contain the result of so much wide thinking, able and labo-
rious study, or enable the reader to gain a better bird's-eye view of the latest results
of investigations into the religious history of nations. As Professor Tiele modestly
says, ' In this little book are outlines— pencil sketches. I might say— nothing more.'
But there are some men whose sketches from a thumb-nail are of far more worth
than an enormous canvas covered with the crude painting of others, and it is easy to
see that these pages, full of information, these sentences, cut and perhaps also dry,
short and clear, condense the fruits of long and thorough research." — Scotsman.

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Post 8vo, pp. xii.— 312, with Maps and Plan, cloth, price 148.

A HISTORY OF BURMA.

Including Burma Proper, Pegu, Taungu, Tenasserim, and Arakan. From
the Earliest Time to the End of the First War with British India.

BY LIEUT. -GEN. SIR ARTHUR P. PHAYRE, G.C.M.G., K. C.S.I., andC.B.,

Membre Correspondant de la Societe Academique Indo-Chinoise

de France.

"Sir Arthur Phayre's contribution to Triibner's Oriental Series supplies a recog-
nised want, and its appearance has been looked forward to for many years

General Phayre deserves great credit for the patience and industry which has resulted
in this Histoi-y of Burma." — Saturday Review.

Third Edition. Post 8vo, pp. 276, cloth, price ja. 6d.

RELIGION IN CHINA.

By JOSEPH EDKINS, D.D., PEKING.

Containing a Brief Account of the Three Religions of the Chinese, with
Observations on the Prospects of Christian Conversion amongst that
People.

" Dr. Edkins has been most careful in noting the varied and often complex phases

of opinion, so as to give an account of considerable value of the subject." — Scotsman.

" As a missionary, it has been part of Dr. Edkius' duty to study the existing

religions in China, and his long residence in the country has enabled him to acquire

an intimate knowledge of them as they at present exist." — Saturday Review.

" Dr. Edkins' valuable work, of which this is a second and revised edition, has,
from the time that it was published, been the standard authority upon the subject
of which it treats." — Nonconformist.

" Dr. Edkins . . . may now be fairly regarded as among the first authorities on
Chinese religion and language."— British Quarterly Kevitw.

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THE LIFE OF THE BUDDHA AND THE EARLY
HISTORY OF HIS ORDER.

Derived from Tibetan Works in the Bkah-hgyur and Bstan-hgyur.
Followed by notices on the Early History of Tibet and Khoten.

Translated by W. W. ROCKHILL, Second Secretary U.S. Legation in China.

"The volume bears testimony to the diligence and fulness with which the author
has consulted and tested the ancient documents bearing upon his remarkable sub-
ject."— Times.

" Will be appreciated by those who devote themselves to those Buddhist studies
which have of late years taken in these Western regions so remarkable a develop-
ment. Its matter possesses a special interest as being derived from ancient Tibetan
works, some portions of which, here analysed and translated, have not yet attracted
the attention of scholars. The volume is rich in ancient stories bearing upon the
world's renovation and the origin of castes, as recorded in these venerable autho-
rities."— Daily Nevis.

Third Edition. Post 8vo, pp. viii.-464, cloth, price i6s.

THE SANKHYA APHORISMS OF KAPILA,

With Illustrative Extracts from the Commentaries.

Translated by J. R. BALL ANT YNE, LL.D., late Principal of the Benares

College.

Edited by FITZEDWARD HALL.

The work displays a vast expenditure of labour and scholarship, for which
students of Hindoo philosophy have every reason to be grateful to Dr. Hall and the
publishers." — Calcutta Review.

T RUBBER'S ORIENTAL SERIES.

In Two Volumes, post 8vo, pp. cviii.-242, and viii.-37o, cloth, price 243.
Dedicated by permission to H.R.H. the Prince of "Wales.

BUDDHIST EECORDS OF THE WESTERN WORLD,

Translated from the Chinese of Hiuen Tsiang (A.D. 629).
BY SAMUEL BEAL, B.A.,

(Trin. Coll., Camb.) ; R.N. (Retired Chaplain and N.I.) ; Professor of Chinese,
University College, London ; Rector of "Wark, Northumberland, &c.

An eminent Indian authority writes respecting this work : — " Nothing
more can be done in elucidating the History of India until Mr. Beal's trans-
lation of the 'Si-yu-ki' appears."

" It is a strange freak of historical preservation that the best account of the con-
dition of India at that ancient period has come down to us in the books of travel
written by the Chinese pilgrims, of whom Hwen Thsang is the best known." — Times.

Post 8vo, pp. xlviii.-398, cloth, price 123.
THE ORDINANCES OF MANU.

Translated from the Sanskrit, with an Introduction.
By the late A. C. BURNELL, Ph.D., C.I.E.

Completed and Edited by E. W. HOPKINS, Ph.D.,
of Columbia College, N.Y.

" This work is full of interest ; while for the student of sociology and the science
of religion it is full of importance. It is a great boon to get so notable a work in so
accessible a form, admirably edited, and competently translated." — Scotsman.

' ' Few men were more competent th;in Burnell to give us a really good translation
of this well-known law book, first rendered into English by Sir William Jones.
Burnell was not only an independent Sanskrit scholar, but an experienced lawyer,
and he joined to these two important qualifications the rare faculty of being able to
express his thoughts in clear and trenchant English. . . . We ought to feel very
grateful to Dr. Hopkins for having given us all that could be published of the trans-
lation left by Burnell.''— F. MAX MI'LLER in the Academy.

Post 8vo, pp. xii.-234, cloth, price 93.

THE LIFE AND WORKS OF ALEXANDER
CSOMA DE KOROS,

Between 1819 and 1842. "With a Short Notice of all his Published and Un-
published/Works and Essays. From Original and for most part Unpub-
lished Documents.

By THEODORE DUKA, M.D., F.R.C.S. (Eng.), Surgeon-Major
H.M.'s Bengal Medical Service, Retired, &c.

"Not too soon have Messrs. Triibner added to their valuable Oriental Series a
history of the life and works of one of the most gifted and devoted of Oriental
students, Alexander Csoma de Koros. It is forty-three years since his death, and
though an account of his career was demanded soon after his decease, it has only
now appeared in the important memoir of his compatriot, Dr. Duka." — Bookseller.

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In Two Volumes, post 8vo, pp. xii.-3i8 and vi.-3i2, cloth, price 2is.

MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO
INDO-CHINA.

Reprinted from "Dalrymple's Oriental Repertory," "Asiatic Researches,"
and the "Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal."

CONTENTS OF VOL. I.

I.— Some Accounts of Quedab. By Michael Topping.

II. — Report made to the Chief and Council of Balambangan, by Lieut. James
Barton, of liis several Surveys.

III.— Substance of a Letter to the Court of Directors from Mr. John Jesse, date
July 20, 1775, at Borneo Proper.

IV. — Formation of the Establishment of Poolo Peenang.
V. — The Gold of Limong. By John Macdonald.

VI.— On Three Natural Productions of Sumatra. By John Macdonald.
VII.— On the Traces of the Hindu Language and Literature extant amongst the
Malays. By William Marsden.

VIII. — Some Account of the Elastic Gum Vine of Prince- Wales Island. By James
Howison.

IX.— A Botanical Description of Urceola Elastica, or Caoutchouc Vine of Sumatra
and Pulo-Piuang. By William Roxburgh, M.D.

X.— An Account of the Inhabitants of the Poggy, or Nassau Islands, lying off
Sumatra. By John Crisp.

XI. — Remarks on the Species of Pepper which are found on Prince-Wales Island.
By William Hunter, M.D.

XII. — On the Languages and Literature of the Indo-Chinese Nations. By J.
Ley den, M.D.

XIII. — Some Account of an Orang-Outaug of remarkable height found on the Island
of Sumatra. By Clarke Abel, M.D.

XIV.— Observations on the Geological Appearances and General Features of Por-
tions of the Malayan Peninsula. By Captain James Low.

XV.— Short Sketch of the Geology of Pulo-Pinang and the Neighbouring Islands.
By T. Ware.

XVI.— Climate of Singapore.
XVII. —Inscription on the Jetty at Singapore.
XVIII. — Extract of a Letter from Colonel J. Low.
XIX.— Inscription at Singapore.

XX.— An Account of Several Inscriptions found in Province Wellesley. By Lieut. -
Col. James Low.

XXI. — Note on the Inscriptions from Singapore and Province Wellesley. By J. W.
Laidlay.

XXII. On an Inscription from Keddah. By Lieut.-Col. Low.

XXIII.— A Notice of the Alphabets of the Philippine Islands.
XXIV. — Succinct Review of the Observations of the Tides in the Indian Archipelago.
XXV.— Report on the Tin of the Province of Mergui. By Capt. G. B. Tremeuheere.
XXVI.— Report on the Manganese of Mergui Province. By Capt. G. B. Tremenheere.

XXVII. Paragraphs to be added to Capt. G. B. Tremenheere's Report.

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XXX. Report of a Visit to the Pakchan River, and of some Tin Localities in the

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XXXII. Report, &c. , from Capt. G. B. Tremenheere on the Price of Mergui Tin Ore.

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XXXIV.— Further Remarks. By E. Blyth.

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XL. — Note, by Major-General G. B. Tremenheere.

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Index of Vernacular Terms.

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THE SATAKAS OF BHARTRIHARI.

Translated from the Sanskrit

By the REV. B. HALE WORTHAM, M.R.A.S.,

Rector of Eggesford, North Devon.

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The Sanscrit-Pali word Niti is equivalent to "conduct" in its abstract,
and "guide" in its concrete signification. As applied to books, it is a
general term for a treatise which includes maxims, pithy sayings, and
didactic stories, intended as a guide to such mutters of every-day life as
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MASNAVI I MA' NAVI:

THE SPIRITUAL COUPLETS OF MAULANA JALALU-'D-DIN
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MANAVA-DHARMA-CASTRA:
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ORIGINAL SANSKRIT TEXT, WITH CRITICAL NOTES.
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Professor of Sanskrit in the University of Wurzburg ; late Tagore Professor
of Law in the University of Calcutta.

The date assigned by Sir William Jones to this Code — the well-known
Great Law Book of the Hindus — is 1250-500 B.C., although the rules and
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THE LIFE OF HIUEN TSIANG.

BY THE SHAMANS HWUI LI AND YEN-TSUNG.
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BY SAMUEL BEAL, B.A.
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Author of " Buddhist Records of the Western World," " The Romantic
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ORIGINAL SANSKRIT TEXTS

On the Origin and History of tlie People of India : Their Religion and
Institutions.

Collected, Translated, and Illustrated.
BY J. MUIR, C.I.E., D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D.

Vol. I. MYTHICAL AND LEGENDARY ACCOUNTS OF THE ORIGIN OF CASTE,
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