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FROM 



BAUDELAIRE 



TO 



BONJUARD 

THE BIRTH OF A NEW VISION 

THE HONFLEUR SCHOOL IMPRESSIONISM NEO-IMPRESSIONISM 
SYMBOLISM POST-IMPRESSIONISM 



TEXT BY MAURICE RAJfNAL 
INTRODUCTION BY HERBERT READ 

HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 
JEAN LEYMARIE 

TRANSLATED BY STUART GILBERT 

A L B E R T S K I R A 

GENEVA 



SECOND EDITION 
1949 (Sw&*#l**) by *&** Altort Skir*. Gatm. 



A., 



i tarty as 1030 we had in mind the publication of a series of works in which colour reproduction 
was to play a novel and a leading part. No longer treated merely as a source of pleasure for the 
ye, It would (as we planned to use It) also serve a wider purpose and implement the systematic 
study of the history of art 

But the years went by and, for reasons of a technical order, our project had to be postponed. 
The series of portfolios of our " Trtsors de la Peinture Franqiise " (begun, ft may be remembered, 
In 1034) was, seen from this angle, a laboratory experiment In view of an ulterior aim; that of exploiting 
all the possibilities offered by the most recent methods of colour reproduction, and of mastering a 
technique enabling us to turn them to best account Our objective was the production of books 
which were more than mere anthologies of pictures, and furnished information no less accurate than 
complete. For tt is clear that verbal description, however lucid and historically vaUd, cannot be 
enough; it must be Implemented by reproductions, and these should not be deprived of what is vKally 
essential to their expressive value: in other words, of their colour. 

After many years of preparation and research-work we now feel qualified to lay as ft were the 
foundation-stone of the vast edifice we propose to build, and it is under the auspices of Modern 
Painting that our collection* 4 Painting Colour -History "begins. It is intended tomeetthe wishes 
and requirements of all who, whether remotely or closely interested In art would wish to possess a 
book which is at once a mine of information, a thing of beauty, and a source-book indispensable to 
both amateurs and connoisseurs; a work containing ail essentials and so arranged as to facilitate 
the study of the great art movements, pointing out their landmarks, and showing the relations between 
these movements, their origins and their evolution. In short a work which by making the approach 
easy and agreeable will stimulate both the public taste for art and a wider, more enlightened 
understanding of Its masterpieces. 

In carrying out this programme we have taken Into account not merely the aesthetic value of 
the works reproduced but also their historical significance, their dates, and their Importance both 
as regards the trends they stand for and the movements to which they belong, and as tegart* the 



style and personal evolution of the individual artists. That each reproduction serves as a pointer , 
helping the mder to rtml to way 1^^ 

problems of the creative process. With this tn mind we have eecumd the collaboration of wrttars 
who have specialized tn the period covered fay each volums, and they have been tiwtttd, worWnQ In 
doti contact to upply an harmonious (but not arbttmiy) presentation of the historical, critical and 
technical ambience of the works reproduced/ white leaving readers free to form their own 
judgements, according to thMr predilections 

The tttte chosen for this first volume, M From Baudelaire to Bonnard," may perhaps cause 
surprise. Mead we say that this choice waa not due to the mere coincidence that the death 
of Baudelaire and the birth of Bonnard took place in the same year, 1867? The point we wish to 
emphasize is that Baudelaire, first critic of modem painting, who sponsored with his prophetic pen 
the moat daring aspirations of his contemporaries, inaugurated that fruitful collaboration between 
poets and painters which has meant so much to art Mallamt*, Apolllnalre, Max Jacob and Eluard 
In turn have kept this fine tradition alive, and thla is why we place our first volume under the aegia 
of a poet who waa not only a friend of painters but one who* wtth the prescience of genius, discerned 
the course that modem painting was to take. 

And now we invite the reader to prospect, pleasurabty we hope and easefully, this colourful 
pageant of art In the second half of the XlXth century. It may be well to point out here that we make 
no claim to have given afulMength study of the Impressionist movement ; what we have sought to 
convey is that Impressionism constituted an all-important stage in the advance towards Modem 
Painting whose entrance on the scene we place somewhere between Bonnard and Matisse. Our 
object is to show how, wtth Impressionism, the notion of freedom, a legacy from Romanticism, brea- 
thed new life Into traditional aesthetics, and how its " lyrical " technique led painting to that eman- 
cipation from the tyranny of the object, which; claimed in the half of the nineteenth century, was 
achieved at the beginning of the twentieth . . . 

It Is a pleasure to record our gratitude to those whose whole-hearted and indeed enthusiastic 
co-operatton has enabled us to bring our task to a successful conclusion. To Maurice Raynal, 
especially, we owe our thanks. In the making of this book he proved himself a wise adviser and a 
loyal friend, whose competence never failed us In the hour of need. We also tender our thanks to the 
Conservators of museums who so kindly facilitated our researches, and to whose expert aid our 
documentation owes so much, No lass warmly do we thank the eminent collectors who have allowed 
us access to the treasures of their private collections. 

Lastly, we would have all our collaborators know that we are gratefully conscious of their 
contribution to the making and success of the work now submitted to the public ; indeed this brief 
acknowledgement does far lass than justice to our gratitude. 

A. & 



INDEX tO .JUttffNUTONS 

Raad 



1868-1870 ............... . . . ---- ........... ---- . . i 

Tha Lagacy of Courbat ..... ..... ........... . ......... 2 

'"Contact* and Influanca* ......................... ...... 4 

Tht " Seltaa" Acadamy . .............................. 4 

GUyra'a studio ................................. . . . 4 

Tba Fonaat of Fontalnabiaau ............................. 4 

Tha Salnt-Slmaon School at Honfleur ....................... . 8 

Martat ................................... ..... fl 

1883 : U <MJ*UMM' Mir J'twt* ............................ 7 

Ptlntor* and erMec. Tha CaM Guarbolt. Zola ............... .... 

Diacovwy of Japanaaa eolourprinta .... ............... . ..... 9 

Tha anomaly of Daga* ......... ....................... 11 

Flguraa in the Opan ............................. .... 12 

U QranouHlara ................................... 14 

Irapeaaaloaitm. A naw way of aaalng tha world .................. 1C 

Baaohaa and Paraaola ................................ IS 

Dlacovary of London ......................... . ....... 19 

Baztto ........................................ 20 

1871-1880 ................................. . ---- 21 

Aroantauli. Impraaalonlst Thamaa .......................... 22 

Tha four aiamanta .................................. 2B 

Tha " Climate " of tha knpraaalonlat parlod ..................... 31 

ft> itt rt 4-i^i ~ O 

POntOt9 ^ ........... ....... .................. 94 

AUVift ...................... . ................. 98 

1881-1884 ...................................... 

Ranoir ....................... . ................ 41 

Ctoarme ..................................... . . 41 



1884-1881 



Souraf Theory of Art ........................... . , , . , 53 

Slgnac ... ............. ........... ............ SB 

Croat ....................................... . 6Q 

Gtugutn, Van Gogh, Pisaanro; DivialoniaU ................. .... 91 

Van Gogh .................................. .... 3 

Van Gogh and GauQuin .................... ...... . . . . . m 

Pont-Aven ................................... . , < 70 

Gauguin ....................................... 71 

18M-1100 ....................................... w 

Sytnooliam. Radon ........ ......... . ....... .......... 77 

Enaor ........................................ 80 

Utarary and arUatto Hfa in Partt from 1884 to 1900 .............. .... 82 

"What would Da0aa aayto tt?" ......................... . . 84 

Toulouaa-Uutrac ... ........................... .... 86 

Tha Mabla . ................................... . . 

Maurtoa Oanit, Oouaaai ............................ ... 99 

Vattotton ..................... .................. 94 



BtMtoQraphtaa, ExhJbHlons ........ ............. . . 113 

todtt of Wctuma faproduoad or manttonad ................ ..... 145 

^W|lW;:!iWl: tttttea ,.,. ..... ........................ I4p 



THE COLOURPLATES 



BAZILLE Jean FrScteric (1841-1870). The Artist's Studio, 1870. 31ft x 5CT. Louvre, Paris 20 

BONNARD Pierre (1867-1947). Woman's Head, c. 1892. 10ft x 7'. Private Collection, Winterthur 102 

BONNARD Pierre (1867-1947). The Terrasse Family, 1892. 12ft x 10ft'. Molyneux Collection, Paris . . . . 103 

BONNARD Pierre (1867-1947). The Circus, c. 1900. 21ft x 25ft'. Private Collection, Paris 104 

BONNARD Pierre (1867-1947). The Checkered Tablecloth (Madame Marthe Bonnard and her Dog 'Dingo 1 ), 

1910-1911, 32% x33ft". Hahnloser Collection, Wintherthur 105 

BONNARD Pierre (1867-1947). Nude with Lamp, 1912. 29ft x 29ft*. Hahnloser Collection, Winterthur ... 106 

BONNARD Pierre (1867-1947). At Sea : The Hahnloser Family, 1924-1925. 38ft x 40ft*. Hahnloser Collec- 
tion, Winterthur 107 

BONNARD Pierre (1867-1947). Fruit, 1920. 13% x 12ft'. Private Collection, Zurich 108 

BONNARD Pierre (1867-1947). Le Pot Provencal, 1930. 29ft x 24ft'. Hahnloser Collection, Winterthur . . 109 

BONNARD Pierre (1867-1947). The Yellow Shawl, 1933. 49ft x 37ft'. Private Collection, Paris 110 

BONNARD Pierre (1867-1947). Le Cannet, 1940-194V 22ft x 13ft v . Private Collection, Paris 111 

BONNARD Pierre (1867-1947). Fruit, 1946. The artist's last picture. 22ft x 13%'. Galerie Maeght Collec- 
tion, Paris 112 

CEZANNE Paul (1839-1906). The Hanged Man's House, 1873. 21% x 26'. Louvre, Paris 35 

CEZANNE Paul (1839-1906). Suburbs in the Spring, c, 1877. 19% x 23ft'. Hahnloser Collection, Winterthur 36 

CEZANNE Paul (1839-1906). L'Estaque : The Village and the Sea, 1878-1883. 20ft x 25ft'. Private Collec- 
tion, Switzerland 45 

CEZANNE Paul (1839-1906). The Twisted Tree, 1882-1885. 18 x 21%'. Private Collection, Arlesheim ... 46 

CZANNE Paul (1839-1906). Bathers, 1890-1894. 8% x 13'. Private Collection, Saint-Germain-en-Laye . . 47 

CEZANNE Paul (1839-1906). The Boy in a Red Waistcoat, 1890-1895 36ft x 28%". Private Collection, Zurich 48 

CEZANNE Paul (1839-1906). Still Life with a Plaster Cast c. 1895. 24% x 31%'. National Museum, Stockholm 49 

CZANNE Paul (1839-1906). Le Cabanon de Jourdan, 1906. Cezanne's last painting. 25ft x 31 3 / 4 ". Kunst- 

museum, Basel 50 

COURBET Gustave (1819-1877). Portrait of Baudelaire (detail), 1853. 24 x 20%'. Montpellier, Mus6e Fabre 3 

CROSS Henri Edmond (1856-1910). Venice, Ponte San-Trovaso. 24% x 31ft". Rijksmuseum Kroller- 

Muller, Otterlo 59 

DEGAS Germain Hilairo Edgar (1834-1917). The Orchestra at the Paris Opera, c. 1868. 22ft x 18ft'. Louvre, 

Paris 10 

DEGAS Germain Hilaire Edgar (1834-1917). Three Dancers (between 1875 and 1877). 10ft x 8ft'. Private 

Collection, Paris 32 

DEGAS Germain Hilaire Edgar (1834-1917). Nu accroupi de dos, c. 1890-1895. 7 x 5ft'. Louvre, Paris ... 84 

ENSOR James (1860-1949). The Garden of Love, 1891. 29ft x 39ft . Trussel Collection, Bern 80 

GAUGUIN Paul (1848-1903). The Vision after the Sermon : Jacob wrestling with the Angel, 1888. 28% x 36ft'. 

National Gallery of Scotland, Edinburgh 69 

GAUGUIN Paul (1848-1903). Paysage du Pouldu, 1890. 28% x 36ft'. Paul Fierens Collection, Brussels . . 71 

GAUGUIN Paul (1848-1903). Annah the Javanese, c. 1893. 46x32%'. Private Collection, Winterthur . ... 73 

GAUGUIN Paul (1848-1903). Les Paroles du Diable, 1892. 37 x 23ft'. Harriman Collection, New York ... 75 

JONGKIND Johann-Barthold (1819-1891). View of Rouen, Watercolour, 1864. 11%x18%'. Louvre, Paris . 5 

MANET Edouard (1832-1883). Le Dejeuner sur I'herbe, 1863. 84ft x 106ft'. Louvre, Paris 7 

MANET Edouard (1832-1883). Portrait of Zola, 1868. 43% x 31 ft'. Louvre, Paris 8 

MANET Edouard (1832-1883). Argenteuil, 1874. 58ft x 51ft'. Mus6e des Beaux-Arts, Tournai 27 

MONET Claude (1840-1926). Women in the Garden, 1867. 100ft x 81 3 / 4 '. Louvre, Paris 13 

MONET Claude (1840-1926). The Beach at Trouville, 1870. 15 x 18'. Tate Gallery, London 18 

MONET Claude (1840-1926). Argenteuil Bridge, 1874, Detail. Louvre, Paris 23 

MONET Claude (1840-1926). St. Lazare Station, 1876-1877. 20% x 28ft'. Collection Hon'ble Christopher 

McLaren, England 28 

MUNCH Edvard (1863-1944). Landscape by Night, 1900. 47ft x31ft'. Kunsthaus, Zurich 81 

PISSARRO Camille (1830-1903). Pontoise, the Gisors Road, 1868. 15 x 18*. Belvedere, Vienna 17 

PISSARRO Camille (1830-1903). The Hermitage at Pontoise, 1875. 21ft x 25ft'. Private Collection, Paris . 34 



VIII 



PISSARRO Camllle (1830-1903). Tfite de Paysanne, 1893. 25^x21^". Private Collection, Paris "60 

REDON Odilon (1840-1916). The Sphinx (after 1900). 23ft x 19%'. Hahnloser Collection, Winterthur .... 78 

REDON Odilon (1840-1916). The Cyclops (after 1900). 25ft x 20*. Rijksmuseum Krdller-Muller, Otterlo ... 79 

RENOIR Pierre Auguste (184M919). La Grenouillfcre, 1869. 26 x 32*. National Museum, Stockholm .... 14 

RENOIR Pierre Auguste (1841-1919). Le Moulin de la Galette (detail), 1876. 51 V 4 x 69*. Louvre, Paris ... 26 

RENOIR Pierre Auguste (1841-1919). Les Grands Boulevards, 1875. 19% x 24*. Private Collection, U.S.A. . 29 

RENOIR Pierre Auguste (184M919). Her First Outing, 1875-1878. 25ft x 19%*. Tate Gallery, London . . . 33 

RENOIR Pierre Auguste (1841-1919). Nude, 1880. 31% x 25 ft*. Mus6e Rodin, Paris 40 

RENOIR Pierre Auguste (1841-1919). In the Luxembourg Gardens, 1883. 25ft x 21%". Private Collection, 

Saint-Prex, Switzerland 43 

RENOIR Pierre Auguste (1841-1919). Landscape with Bathers, 1916. 15 x 19*. National Museum, Stockholm 44 

ROUSSEL Ker Xavier (1867-1944). Rural Scene, c, 1903. 6% x 6* 93 

SERUSIER Paul (1864-1927). Les Bretonnes, 1891. Private Collection, Paris 70 

SEURAT Georges Pierre (1859-1891). Study for La Baignade, 1883. 6% x 10ft*. Georges Renan Collection, 

Paris 53 

SEURAT Georges Pierre (1859-1891), Courbevoie Bridge, 1886-1887. 18 x 21%*. Courtauld Institute, London 54 

SEURAT Georges Pierre (1859-1891). A Sunday at Port-en-Bessin, 1888. 26 x 32ft*. Rijksmuseum Kroller- 

Muller, Otterlo 55 

SEURAT Georges Pierre (1859-1891). Study for the Circus, 1891. 21% x 18*. Louvre, Paris 56 

SEURAT Georges Pierre (1859-1891). Poseuse, Front View, 1887. 10ft x 6%*. Louvre, Paris 57 

SIGN AC Paul (1863-1935). Portrieux, 1888. 17% x 25ft*. Rijksmuseum Kroller-Muller, Otterlo 58 

SISLEY Alfred (1839-1899). View of Montmartre, 1869. 27ft x 46*. Mus6e, Grenoble 17 

SISLEY Alfred (1839-1899). Boats at Bougival Lock, 1873. 18 x 25ft*. Louvre, Paris 25 

SISLEY Alfred (1839-1899). Bougival Weir under Snow, 1876. Former A. Lindon Collection 30 

TOULOUSE-LAUTREC Henri de (1864-1901). Jane Avril dansant, c, 1892. 33ft x 17%. Louvre, Paris ... 85 

TOULOUSE-LAUTREC Henri de (1864-1901). La Goulue and Valentin-le-D6soss6, 1890. 24 x 19%. Hahn- 
loser Collection, Winterthur 86 

TOULOUSE-LAUTREC Henri de (1864-1901). Au Moulin-Rouge, 1892. 31ft x 23ft*. Private Collection.Paris 87 

TOULOUSE-LAUTREC Henri de (18&-1901). Femme rousse assise sur un divan, 1897. 16ft x 12ft*. Private 

Collection, Winterthur 89 

TOULOUSE-LAUTREC Henri de (1864-1901). L'Anglaise du " Star" du Havre. 16ft x 12ft*. Mus6e, Albi . 90 

UTAMARO. Sugatami Shichi nin Kesho (one of the " Seven Women seen in a Mirror 11 ), c. 1790. 10 x 11*. 

Former Mutiaux Collection 9 

VALLOTTON F6lix (1865-1925). The Street, 1895. 10% x 13%*. Paul Vallotton Collection, Lausanne ... 94 

VAN GOGH Vincent (1853-1890). InWrieur de Restaurant, Paris, Summer 1887. 17% x 21 y 4 *. Rijksmuseum 

Kroller-Muller, Otterlo 61 

VAN GOGH Vincent (1853-1890). T6te de Paysanne, 1885. 16*4 x 12ft*. Private Collection, Zurich .... 62 

VAN GOGH Vincent (1853-1890). Still Life : Drawing-Board with Onions, Aries, January 1889. 19% x 24ft*. 

Rijksmuseum Krbller-Muller, Otterlo 64 

VAN GOGH Vincent (1853-1890). On the Edge of the Alpines, St. Ftemy, May 1890. 20 x 28*. Rijksmuseum 

Kroller-Muller, Otterlo 65 

VAN GOGH Vincent (1853-1890). Portrait of Dr. Gachet, Auvers, June 1890. 26% x 22ft*. Louvre, Paris . 67 

VAN GOGH Vincent (1853-1890), La Berceuse (Mme Roulin), Aries, 1889. 35ft x 29ft*. Private Collection, 

Basel 68 

VUILLARD Edouard (1868-1940). La Toilette, c. 1898. 9% x 6ft*. Private Collection, Paris 95 

VUILLARD Edouard (1868-1940). Interior, 1898. 19% x 16ft*. Private Collection, Paris 97 

VUILLARD Edouard (1868-1940). Old Lady Examining her Needlework, 1893. 11ft x 10ft*. Private Collection, 

Paris 98 

VUILLARD Edouard (1868-1940). The Red Bedroom. 15V 4 x 12V 4 *. Private Collection, Zurich 99 

VUILLARD Edouard (1868-1940). Portrait of Cipa Godebski, c. 1897. 26ft x 20ft*. Private Collection, Paris 100 



// will be noticed that while most of these title* are translated into English, some remain in French. The principle followed is that titles 

which have no Quite satisfactory equivalent in English (e. g. PoseuseJ, ore universally accepted (e. g. le Dejeuner sur I'HerbeA or 

whose meaning is self-evident (e. g. Inf6rieur de Restaurant; ore left in French. 



THE MODERN EPOCH IN ART 

BY 

HERBERT READ 



D, 



"iscussing the origins of naturalism in the Middle Ages, Max Dvorak warned us against 
the folly of trying to fix a specific " beginning " to anything so underground as the first 
growth of an artistic style. The modern movement in art, which in general is a reversal of 
the movement discussed with such brilliance by Dvorak (in his Idealismus und Naturalismus 
in der gotischen Skulptur und Malerei), offers no exception to this rule. Its origins are extre- 
mely obscure, and, like roots, proceed from different levels and contradictory directions. 
One cannot exclude either the revolutionary romanticism of a Blake or the revolutionary 
classicism of a David ; Constable's scientific naturalism is certainly a factor, but so is the 
historical idealism of Delacroix (to Cezanne always " le grand Maitre "). The realism of 
Courbet and Manet ; the expressionism of Van Gogh and Munch ; the symbolism of Emile 
Bernard and Gauguin all these precede and in some degree predetermine the specifically 
modern movements of fauvism, cubism, constructivism and surrealism. Perhaps we should 
abandon our biological analogies and think rather of the complex " movement " of a chrono- 
meter ; for historical " time " seems to reduce, on analysis, to such an interlocking of gears 
and ratchets. It will be said that even the chronometer has a spring at the centre, but this 
is not necessarily true of the modern chronometer, which may be set and kept in motion by 
the simple alternation of night and day. 

There is, of course, the further explanation offered by the theory of dialectical mate- 
rialism. For night and day in our metaphor we may substitute rich and poor, bourgeoisie 
and proletariat, and in the circulation of Elites see a sufficient motive power for all the stylistic 
changes of art. This is not an argument that can be ignored, for art never exists in a vacuum, 
but is inextricably entangled in the life of society as a whole. If we discover that the modern 
artist is relatively isolated from society we must not be led to suppose that such isolation is 
a characteristic of art itself an island as such is only defined by reference to a neighbouring 
land-mass. 

Nevertheless, economic facts and social movements can only have an indirect relation 
to the stylistic evolution of art. In the period that concerns us here, there is one broad 
economic development of the utmost significance the gradual decline of private patronage 
consequent on the restrictions imposed on capitalist development. Private collectors still 
buy works of art in the open market to that extent there are still patrons, if only through 
the medium of the art-dealer. But they no longer command the artist like the monastery or 
the guild, the court or the castle. The position has been so reversed that the contemporary 
artist must form the taste and recruit the public (through the intermediary of the art critic, 
in himself a modern phenomenon) on whose patronage he will then depend. The modern 
artist is miserably dependent on the media of publicity. That is his deepest humiliation. 

There is another and a more limited sense in which the course of art is determined by 
economic factors. Scientific and industrial progress, particularly in the nineteenth century, 
threw out as by-products certain theories and inventions which had a direct impact on the 



XI 



technique and social significance of art. These have been too often discussed to need more 
than a passing reference. The formulation of a scientific theory of colour, which at first led to 
such aberrations as pointillism, has not had any permanent effect on artistic practice the artist 
has discovered by now that he must rely on his sensibility and not attempt to particularize 
from laws of aesthetic effect. But more significant and more permanent in its influence 
on the development of art has been the invention of photography and of photographic 
methods of reproduction. The economic consequences of such inventions are serious 
enough the public is provided with a cheap substitute for the plastic arts. It may not be 
aesthetically so satisfying, but it suffices for the low level of sensibility that seems to be a 
consequence of mass production and mass education. The effect on the artist has been 
even more profound, for it has relieved him of one of the social functions of art that of 
" visual aid. " It is true that certain subtleties of imaginative literature will still call for 
creative illustration ; but for instruction and clarification it is better to provide an Orbis 
sensualium pictus by means of the camera. What has been effected is a clear distinction 
between illustration and interpretation. This may not seem so significant at first, but implied 
in it is the distinction between image and symbol, which, as we shall see presently, is funda- 
mental to an understanding of the modern movement in art. 

What in general may be admitted 'in this connection is that economic and social 
trends determine and give their fluctuating shades to broad movements of thought and 
opinion in every epoch. The work of art cannot escape the ambience of such intangible 
effluences (the philosophies and theologies of the period). To the extent that a work of art 
is romantic or classical, realistic or symbolic, it will certainly be beyond the personal control 
of the artist. Even the structure of the work of art (the style of composition) may be a 
matter of taste or fashion determined by social contacts. But there comes a point in the 
evolution of art at which all these imponderable forces are but external pressures which 
result, not in a consequential " line of force, " but in a leap into creative originality of quite 
incalculable kind. The dialectical materialist may still claim that social factors have deter- 
mined that anamorphosis, but the quantum in art, as in physics, may be discontinuous. 
A brief examination of the concept of originality will perhaps make my meaning clear. 



It has often been observed that if we have regard only for that quality we call " sensibility " 
which would throughout history seem to be the essential element in art, then no progress what- 
soever is discernible between the cave drawings of the paleolithic period and the drawings of 
Raphael or Picasso. Sensibility is not the only value in art as successive civilizations 
develop their cultures they invariably dilute this basic sensibility with other values of a 
magical or logical nature they use sensibility in social contexts, and it is the variations of 
context that seem to explain whatever changes occur in the history of art. There is, of 
course, a degree beyond which the sensibility cannot be forced or prostituted the result 
is then the rigor mortis of academicism, or the moral rot of sentimentalism. The vitality 
of art would seem to depend on the maintenance of a delicate balance between sensibility 
and whatever intellectual or emotional accretions it derives from the social element in which 
it is embedded. 

The process is, it will be seen, a dialectical one, and it is certainly one in which tensions 
and contradictions inevitably develop. One way in which a tension may be relaxed takes 
the form of a decline of sensibility, and the tension must be restored if art is to survive. 
What precisely happens in such a crisis is in dispute. The alternative suggestions are : 
(i) the artist retraces the historical development of his art and resumes contact with the 
authentic tradition ; or (2) the artist resolves the crisis by a leap forward into a new and 
original state of sensibility he revolts against the existing conventions in order to create 
a new convention more in accordance with a contemporary consciousness. We may admit 
that in doing so he merely recovers, in all its actuality, the original basic quality of art 



XII 



aesthetic sensibility in all its purity and vitality. But the context is new, and it is the 
synthesis of an untrammeled sensibility with a new set of social conditions which constitutes, 
in the evolution of art, an act of originality. 

We must guard against interpreting " social conditions " in a sense narrowly economic 
or political. The artist's awareness of these conditions rarely assumes a politically conscious 
form, and certainly there is no correlation to be made between such consciousness in the 
artist and his degree of originality. Courbet, Pissarro, William Morris these are the poli- 
tically conscious artists and they have an important place in the history of modern art. 
But a more important place is taken by artists like Cezanne, Gauguin and Matisse, whose 
awareness of the social context of their work was never expressed in a political formula. 
It is only a primitive mind that can interpret the social context as Daumier's third-class 
railway carriage. The social context is the totality of our way of life and its impact on 
the artist may be through a philosophy or a science, or even through a pair of old boots 
(Van Gogh) or a heap of rubbish (Sch witters). 

From this point of view a renewed contact with tradition may have as much revolu- 
tionary significance as any originality in style or technique. The validity of a tradition 
depends on its retention of the element of sensibility. We agree to find this element in the 
paintings of Poussin ; therefore, said Cezanne, let us go back to Poussin and try to recover, 
in front of nature, the element that made Poussin a great artist. Cezanne implied, not 
that the modern artist should imitate Poussin 's style (which was personal to Poussin), but 
that a study of Poussin 's art might lead to the recovery of sensibility to the reanimation 
of his (Cezanne's) ability to " realize his sensations " in the presence of nature. " Nature " 
meanwhile had changed, because nature is but another word for the social context already 
mentioned. To renew one's sensibility towards one's environment that is the method of 
both the traditionalist and of the revolutionary. Nevertheless, there is still a degree of 
originality which is not necessarily covered by the phrase. 

The sense of " reality " is surely one of those conventions that change from age to 
age and are determined by the total way of life. Not only does the concept of reality differ 
as between a medieval philosopher like St. Thomas Aquinas and a modern philosopher like 
Bergson, but a similar difference also exists on the average level of apprehension (the differ- 
ence between animism and theism, between supernaturalism and materialism, and so on). 
The " reality " of a citizen of the Soviet Union is certainly different from the " reality " 
of a citizen of the United States. We have now reached such a stage of relativism in philo- 
sophy that it is possible to affirm that reality is in fact subjectivity, which means that the 
individual has no choice but to construct his own reality however arbitrary and even 
" absurd " that may seem. This is the position reached by the Existentialists, and to it 
corresponds a position in the world of art that requires a similar decision. The interpret- 
ation (or even the " imitation ") of reality was a valid function for the artist so long as it 
was agreed that a general and basic reality existed and was only waiting for revelation. 
Once this sense of security is removed (that is to say, is destroyed by scientific analysis) 
then philosophy and art are public auctions in which the most acceptable reality commands 
the highest price. 

This may be a passing phase in philosophy and the world may return to systems of 
faith and revelation in which art once more resumes its interpretative function. But Exis- 
tentialism is but the latest phase of a development of thought that reaches back to Kant 
and Schelling, and it is difficult (from a point of view inside the stream) to see any other 
direction which philosophy can take (it already carries along with it the contradictions of 
Christianity and atheism). It is in this mental climate that contemporary art has shown 
a tendency to usurp the positivist role of philosophy and to present its own self-sufficient 
" reality. " A certain type of modern artist claims to construct new realities (" ralit6s 
nouvelles "), and he will go so far as to assert that his construction is in no way determined 
even by such vague concepts as universal harmony or the collective unconscious, but is an 
act of creation in the almost divine sense of the word. Naturally such an artist has to use 



XIII 



elements of form and colour which are common to all the arts, and the world has not shown 
any inclination to recognize his work as art unless it possesses some of the sensuous qualities 
of the traditional work of art. 

The conclusion we are driven to is that originality can only be conceptual, thematic, 
structural never sensuous. There are new ways of thinking and doing we call them 
inventions ; there are new ways of stimulating the senses. But sensation itself can only 
be modified coarsened or refined. It has the physical limitations of our animal frame ; 
stretched on that frame the nerve breaks if forced beyond its expressive compass. 

At the same time we must recognize, with the Marxists, the historic nature of human 
consciousness ; and, with certain psychologists, the ambiguous nature of this evolutionary 
acquisition. In terms of art it gave us the symbol where hitherto there had been only the 
image. Man in his first unreflecting unity with nature needed only the image to project 
his sensations. Man as a self-conscious individual separated from the rest of creation needed 
a language of symbols to express his self-ness. The elaboration of that need gave rise not 
only to conceptual symbols like " God " but also to a myriad of plastic symbols, some of 
them constant and archetypal, others temporary and even personal. If we could reconstruct 
the stages in human evolution which led from the eidetic, vitalistic art of the Palaeolithic 
period to the symbolic, geometric art of the! Neolithic period, we should have a clear concep- 
tion of the rise of not only human self-consciousness, ethical conscience and the idea of a 
transcendental God, but also of the origins of that polarity in art which has caused a rhythmic 
alternation of styles throughout the history of art, and which now exists as an unresolved 
dialectical contradiction. It is the co-existence of the image and the symbol, as norms of 
art, which explains the apparent complexity and disunity of the modern movement. 



I he true understanding of art depends upon an appreciation of the nature and uses of symbol- 
ism. Symbolism is one of the two ways in which the human mind functions, the other 
being the direct experience of the external world (the " presentational immediacy " of sense 
perception). Since language itself is already symbolism, and the complicated forms of 
thought depend on a system of symbols such as we have in the science of algebra, it is natural 
to assume that there is something primitive and ineffective about the presentational imme- 
diacy of sense perceptions. This is far from being the case. It is much more difficult to 
be faithful to our direct experience of the external world than to " jump to conclusions " 
which are in effect symbolic references. The poet, said Gautier, is a man for whom the 
visible world exists ; he wished, by this definition, to exclude from art those secondary ela- 
borations of perception involved in the use of symbols. As the poet is condemned to use the 
symbolism of language, the ideal would seem to be quixotic. (Nevertheless poetry continues 
to reveal a fundamental strife between imagism and symbolism). 

The special position of the visual artist may be illustrated by a quotation from 
Whitehead's Symbolism: its Meaning and Effect (1928). "We look up and see a coloured 
shape in front of us and we say, there is a chair. But what we have seen is the mere coloured 
shape. Perhaps an artist might not have jumped to the notion of a chair. He might have 
stopped at the mere contemplation of a beautiful colour and a beautiful shape. But those of 
us who are not artists are very prone, especially if we are tired, to pass straight from the 
perception of the coloured shape to the enjoyment of the chair, in some way of use, or of 
emotion, or of thought. We can easily explain this passage by reference to a train of difficult 
logical inference, whereby, having regard to our previous experiences of various shapes 
and various colours, we draw the probable conclusion that we are in the presence of 
a chair. " 

This clearly illustrates the difference between a perspective experience (the immediate 
perception of an image) and the use of a symbol (the image plus its mental associations). 
Whitehead adds : " I am very sceptical as to the high-grade character of the mentality 



XIV 



required to get from the coloured shape to the chair. One reason for this scepticism is that 
my friend the artist, who kept himself to the contemplation of colour, shape and position, 
was a very- highly trained man, and had acquired this facility of ignoring the chair at the cost 
of great labour. " 

With this distinction in mind we can perhaps begin to understand what Cezanne 
meant by " realizing his sensations. " We can understand what Van Gogh meant when he 
said that " a painter as a man is too much absorbed by what his eyes see, and is not suffi- 
ciently master of the rest of his life. " (Letter 620). Van Gogh's letters are full of descrip- 
tions of his intense concentration on what a philosopher like Whitehead would call " presenta- 
tional immediacy. " For example : " I myself am quite absorbed by the immeasurable plain 
with cornfields against the hills, immense as a sea, delicate yellow, delicate soft green, delicate 
violet of a ploughed and weeded piece of soil, regularly chequered by the green of flowering 
potato-plants, everything under a sky with delicate blue, white, pink, violet tones. I am 
in a mood of nearly too great calmness, in the mood to paint this. " (Letter 650 written in 
Dutch). 

This " mood of nearly too great calmness " is the mood of direct experience, of ins- 
tinctual awareness in which the eidetic image is, as it were, preserved from the contamination 
of symbolism from the need for further reference to other elements in our experience. 
It has been claimed that the capacity for realizing and retaining the image in a state of 
perceptive vividness is the quality that distinguishes the artist from other men, but in fact 
it is the distinguishing quality of one type of artist the imagist. It was by his insistence on 
the strict purity of this perceptive experience that Cezanne restored to art some degree of 
primal rectitude. 

At the other extreme of artistic practice the artist abandons himself freely to a symbolic 
activity. Whitehead has said that " the human mind is functioning symbolically when some 
components of its experience elicit consciousness, beliefs, emotions, and usages, respecting 
other components of its experience. The former set of components are the ' symbols, ' and 
the latter set constitute the ' meaning ' of the symbols. " An artist of the symbolist type 
is creating a combination of forms and colours (or of sounds if he is a musician) which will 
convey a meaning, and in art this meaning always has an aesthetic or emotional tinge. Art 
of this kind may therefore be defined as " the symbolic transfer of emotion " and as White- 
head says, this definition is at the base of any theory of the aesthetics of art " For example, 
it gives the reason for the importance of a rigid suppression of irrelevant detail. For emotions 
inhibit each other, or intensify each other. Harmonious emotion means a complex of emo- 
tions mutually intensifying ; whereas the irrelevant details supply emotions which, because 
of their irrelevance, inhibit the main effect. Each little emotion directly arising out of some 
subordinate detail refuses to accept its status as a detached fact in our consciousness. It 
insists on its symbolic transfer to the unity of the main effect. " 

This definition of symbolism agrees closely with those definitions of " synthetisme " 
which were formulated by Emile Bernard in 1888 and which, through the medium of Gauguin, 
were to have revolutionary effect on the whole development of modern art. Bernard wrote : 

" Puisque 1'idee est la forme des choses recueillies par rimagination, il fallait peindre 
non plus devant la chose, mais en la reprenant dans rimagination, qui Tavait recueillie, qui 
en conservait 1'idee; ainsi 1'idee de la chose apportait la forme convenable au sujet du tableau 
ou plut6t i son ideal (somme des idees) la simplification que 1'essentiel des choses pergues 
et par consequent en rejette le detail. La mmoire ne retient pas tout, mais ce qui frappe 
1'esprit. Done formes et couleurs devenaient simples dans une egale unite. En peignant de 
memoire, j'avais Tavantage d'abolir Tinutile complication des formes et des tons. II restait 
un schema du spectacle regard^. Toutes les lignes revenaient 4 leur architecture geometrique, 
tous les tons aux couleurs types de la palette prismatique. Puisqu'il s'agissait de simplifier, 
il fallait retrouver Torigine de tout : dans le soleil, les sept couleurs dont se compose la lumi&re 
blanche (chaque couleur pure de la palette yr^pondant), dans la geometric, les formes typiques 
de toutes les formes objectives. " 



XV 



This distinction between painting " devant la chose " and " en la reprenant dans 
1'imagination " expresses neatly the two ways open to the artist, and the further insistence 
on " simplification " (Bernard) or " unity of the main effect " (Whitehead) points to that 
characteristic in symbolic art which can involve a progressive modification of the " schema " 
in the direction of abstraction. There is nothing in the paintings of Gauguin which would 
seem to imply or justify the abstractions of a Kandinsky or a Mondrian ; nevertheless, there 
is what Whitehead calls "a chain of derivations of symbol from symbol whereby finally the 
local relations, between the final symbol and the ultimate meaning, are entirely lost. " Thus 
these derivative symbols, obtained as it were by arbitrary association, are really the results 
of reflex action suppressing the intermediate portions of the chain. By such a chain of 
derivations we could conceivably establish an association between such apparently dis- 
connected symbols as Gauguin's Yellow Christ and Mondrian's Boogie-Woogie. Mondrian 
was found of describing his art as " a new realism, " but it is clear from his writings that he 
had invented a new symbolism. Mondrian insists that art is a parallel experience, not to be 
identified in any way with our experience of the external world ; but in Whitehead's words 
we would say that such parallelism is an illusion due to the suppression of intermediate links. 
The creation of a " new " reality is not within the scope of our human, time-conditioned 
faculties. f 



Let us now leave the realm of theory and try to trace what has actually happened in the 
evolution of art in the modern epoch. We shall not be able to leave ideas entirely out of 
account, because my main contention is that art has developed in stages that are parallel 
to the development of thought, and that both developments have intimate connections 
with social movements. Perhaps a few words will make clear to what extent the formal 
evolution of modern art has been " conditioned " by social and economic forces. 

I have already drawn attention to the relative isolation of the artist in modern society. 
The general effect of the industrial revolution on art has been a gradual exclusion of the 
artist from the basic economic processes of production. This development may be said 
to begin with the capitalist system itself ; that is to say, with the accumulation of individual 
wealth. The way in which, from the fifteenth century onwards, the " patron " gradually 
forces his own personality, even his own person, into the work of art has often been remarked. 
At first he is the pious donor, humbly kneeling in an obscure corner of the picture ; but he 
gradually grows in size and importance until, in a painting like Holbein's Virgin and Child 
with the Burgomaster Meyer and his family (1526), he is painted on the same scale as the holy 
figures. Man is as good as God as a theme for the artist. This humanism gave rise to the 
development of schools of portrait painting and historical painting which, for three centuries, 
constituted the main substance of the plastic arts. But such a development left the artist 
in a precarious position dependent, not on the social organism as such (his position during 
the Middle Ages), but on the patronage of a limited class within that organism. For most 
of this time he maintained vitalizing contacts with the general processes of production in 
our sense of the word he was still an industrial artist who might on occasion turn his hand 
to the design of metal work, furniture or tapestries. But by the time the industrial revolution 
was complete, the artist was cut off from even these subsidiary activities and had become 
parasitically dependent on his patron. 

In such a situation the artist might react in several ways. He might become syco- 
phantic, adopting the point of view of his patron, supporting the existing structure of society, 
supplying works of art designed to satisfy the tastes and flatter the vanity of his clients. 
Such, in general, is the bourgeois art of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. But such, 
also, is a situation that implies the progressive degradation of art. No longer drawing any 
inspiration or force from the organic wholeness of society, the art in such a situation becomes 



XVI 



anaemic and sophisticated, and, in any spiritual sense, purposeless. The basis of patronage 
may spread more widely, as it did throughout the nineteenth century, but the result will 
only be an art measured to the mean capacities of Vhomme moyen sensuel. Just as according 
to the Marxists, capitalism contains in itself the seeds of its own inevitable destruction, so 
(more certainly, even) such a relation between the artist and society involves inevitable 
decadence. 

The artist who resists such decadence may react in two distinct ways. If he is socially 
conscious, he may revolt against the social situation as such and become a revolutionary 
artist that is to say, an artist who consciously uses his art to reform the social situation. 
That type of artist is rare it implies a use of art in the service of preconceived ideas which 
the true artist cannot accept. Even Courbet, in a political sense probably the most revo- 
lutionary artist of the nineteenth century, held that " the art of painting can consist only 
in the representation of objects visible and tangible to the painter " and that " art is comple- 
tely individual, and that the talent of each artist is but the result of his own inspiration and 
his own study of past tradition " (Open letter to a group of prospective students, 1861). But 
the same social situation produces in the artist a state of mind in which he turns from what 
he regards as the false aesthetic values of the past to seek new aesthetic values more consonant 
with the developing social consciousness of his fellow-citizens. Constable was not politically 
minded, but when he wrote (Notes for his lectures at the Royal Institution, May 26, 1836) 
that art "is scientific as well as poetic ; that imagination never did, and never can, produce 
works that are to stand by a comparison with realities, " he was expressing a revolutionary 
sentiment, a revolt against the art of Boucher which in its turn had been the expression of 
another and very different social situation. This attitude is still more clearly expressed in 
a note of June 16, 1836 : 

I have endeavoured to draw a line between genuine art and mannerism, but even the greatest 
painters have never been wholly untainted by manner. Painting is a science, and should be pursued 
as an enquiry into the laws of nature. Why, then, may not landscape be considered as a branch of natural 
philosophy, of which pictures are but experiments ? 

On that " experimental " note the modern epoch is announced, and never from that moment 
until comparatively recently has the artist relented in his experimental attitude. Exactly 
seventy years later we find C6zanne writing in almost the same terms as Constable (letter 
of September 21, 1906) : 

Shall I ever reach the goal so eagerly sought and so long pursued ? I hope so, but as long as it 
has not been attained a vague feeling of discomfort persists which will not disappear until I shall have 
gained the harbour that is, until I shall have accomplished something more promising than what has 
gone before, thereby verifying my theories, which, in themselves, are easy to put forth. The only thing 
that is really difficult is to prove what one believes. So I am going on with my researches... 

(Trans. Gerstle MACK.) 

Research, experiment these words describe the efforts of all the great artists that 
fall within these seventy years Millet, Courbet, Manet, Degas, Monet, Pissarro, Renoir, 
Rodin, Whistler, Seurat, Van Gogh it is all a persistent attempt to correlate art and reality. 
It is the research, not of the absolute, but of the concrete, of the image, and behind it all 
is not only the divorce of the artist from the processes of production, but also the concurrent 
attempt to establish a philosophy of reality, a phenomenalism that owes nothing to divine 
revelation or universal truths, but brings to the analysis of human existence the same faculties 
that the artist brings to the analysis of nature. Constable, C6zanne, Picasso Hegel, Husserl, 
Heidegger ; these names represent parallel movements in the evolution of human experience. 

But this movement, in art, was not to remain unchallenged. To the image as repre- 
sentation is opposed, as we have seen, the symbol as interpretation, and there is no doubt 
that the " synth&isme " of Bernard and Gauguin was a conscious reaction against the 
scientific attitude in art. The theoretical basis of this reaction was given in the definition 



XVII 



of " synth6tisme " by Bernard already quoted, but what that theory involved in practice 
was first shown by Gauguin. We can best appreciate the antithetical nature of the contra- 
diction by considering what form and colour meant respectively for C6zanne and Gauguin. 

Both artists went through an Impressionist phase, and their divergence developed 
as they felt dissatisfaction with the results of their practice of the impressionist technique. 
Both artists, incidentally, found a meeting-place in Pissarro, who is the chief point de rcp&re 
for the whole revolution. What Cezanne learned from Pissarro was of fundamental import- 
ance for his subsequent development, but it did not affect the direction taken by that deve- 
lopment. C6zanne felt that the analytical methods of the Impressionists had led to a certain 
dissolution of reality ; they had, as it were, realized the vitality of objects, the vibrancy of 
light, the vividness of colour, at the cost of the essential nature of those objects their solidity 
indeed, their reality. The analysis of light and colour had led to a separation of colour 
and form, and this C6zanne felt to be a betrayal of the painter's function. Without sacrific- 
ing the real advances made by the Impressionists, he set himself the task of realizing and 
presenting the solid structure of objects. He arrived at a method which he called " modul- 
ation " (as distinct from the Impressionists' " modelling ") in which volume was represented 
by local colour changes. His own words must be quoted : 

For progress towards realization there is nothing but nature, and the eye becomes educated through 
contact with her. It becomes concentric through observation and work ; I mean that in an orange, an 
apple, a sphere, a head, there is a focal point, and this point is always nearest to our eye, no matter how 
it is affected by light, shade, sensations of colour. The edges of objects recede towards a centre located 

on our horizon. 

(Letter of 25 July, 1904. Trans. Gerstle MACK.) 

This rather obscure passage is illuminated by a letter of December 23 of the same year : 

This I declare to be indisputable I am very dogmatic : an optical sensation is produced in our 
visual organ which causes us to grade the planes represented by sensations of colour into full light, half- 
tones and quarter- tones (light does not exist for the painter). Necessarily, while we are proceeding from 
black to white, the first of these abstractions being a sort of point of departure for the eye as well as for 
the brain, we are floundering, we do not succeed in mastering ourselves, in ruling over ourselves. During 
this period we go to the great masterpieces the ages have handed down to us, and we find in them a solace 

and a support. 

(Trans. Gerstle MACK.) 

One further quotation, for it is essential for an understanding of the origins of modern art 
to be quite sure that we first understand what C6zanne was after : 

Now the idea to be insisted on is no matter what our temperament or power in the presence 
of nature to produce the image of what we see, forgetting everything that has been done before. Which, 
I believe, should enable the artist to express his entire personality, great or small. 

Now that I am old, almost seventy, the sensations of colour which produce light are a source of 
distraction, which do not permit me to cover my canvas or to define the delimitations of objects when 
the points of contact are so tenuous, fragile ; the result is that my image or picture is incomplete. Then 
again the planes are superimposed on one another, from which springs the Neo-impressionist system of 
outlining the contours with a black line, an error which should be opposed with all our strength. Now 
if we consult nature we shall find a way to solve this problem. 

(Trans. Gerstle MACK.) 

" I regret my advanced age, on account of my sensations of colour " such was the recurrent 
complaint of Cezanne in his last years. He felt a certain opposition between the surface 
sensuousness of objects and their real nature his eyes were, as it were, dazzled by the bril- 
liance of light and colour. Light and colour were not the same thing as lucidity. (" I am 
becoming more lucid in the presence of nature, but the realization of my sensations is always 
painful. I cannot reach the intensity which appears to my senses . . . ") (September 8, 1906). 
And then, in his final letter to Bernard, who significantly enough was the agent provocateur 
in this struggle for theoretical expression (significantly, because he played the same role for 



Gauguin), he says : " I am progressing towards the logical development of what we see and 
feel by studying nature ; a consideration of processes comes later, processes being for us no- 
thing but simple methods for making the public feel what we ourselves feel, and for making 
ourselves intelligible. " 

There were, therefore, in Cezanne's final phase, two stages in the production of a work 
of art : first, the realization of sensations, by which he meant a " logical " analysis of percepts, 
of what the eye actually sees ; second, processes by means of which this analysis could be 
presented to the public. 

Cezanne was an extremely intelligent but simple man, and his efforts to explain his 
intuitive processes are not very clear. What in his stumbling way he seems to have grasped 
is the principle of the " good Gestalt. " Without going too far into the theory of perception 
than would be justified in a general essay of this kind, it is difficult to give a convincing 
account of this term, but the underlying idea is that visual perception itself only makes sense, 
only becomes coherent, by virtue of an organizing faculty within the nervous system. We 
should not be able to cope with the multiplicity of impressions which the eye receives -were 
we not, at the same time, capable of organizing these impressions into a coherent pattern. 
In the words of a Gestalt psychologist : " Perception tends towards balance and symmetry - 
or differently expressed : balance and symmetry are perceptual characteristics of the visual 
world which will be realized whenever the external conditions allow it ; when they do not, 
unbalance, lack of symmetry, will be experienced as a characteristic of objects or the whole 
field, together with a felt urge towards better balance . . . the stimulations which under 
ordinary circumstances affect our eyes are perfectly haphazard from the point of view of the 
visual organizations to which they may give rise. The organism . . . does the best it can 
under the prevailing conditions, and these conditions will not, as a rule, allow it to do a very 
good job (good, from the point of view of aesthetic harmony). A work of art, on the other 
hand, is made with that very idea ; once completed it serves as a source of stimulation spel 
cifically selected for its aesthetic effect. " K. Koffka. " Problems in the Psychology of 
Art. " Art: a Bryn Mawr Symposium, 1940. 

Before Cezanne the principle of composition in painting was architectonic the picture- 
space was " organized " as an architect organizes his building, and inevitably questions of bal- 
ance and symmetry were taken into consideration. Cezanne's paintings are analysed and criti- 
cised as if they conformed to this principle, and such a method does indeed " work, " though it 
ignores the essential virtue in Cezanne's compositions. For architectonic composition is 
a priori ; it fits the objects of perception into a pre-conceived pattern, a system of perspective 
and elevation, which is not necessarily inherent in perception itself. A landscape by Claude 
or Turner is as artificial as a garden, and as much the result of intellectual preconceptions. 
But a landscape by Cezanne begins with no preconceptions nothing but the direct contact 
of eye and nature, and the " composition " is determined by what happens " in the eye " 
the automatic selection of a focal point, limitation of boundaries, subordination of details 
and colours to the law of the whole. The "whole" is the Gestalt, but the psychologists 
recognize that the process does not end there that there are " good " and less good Gestalts. 
"It is characteristic of a good gestalt not only that it produces a hierarchical unity of its 
parts, but also that this unity is of a particular kind. A good gestalt cannot be changed 
without changing its quality ... in a masterpiece of painting no line, no form, no colour, 
can anywhere be changed without detracting from the quality of the picture. " (Koffka, 
op. cit., 247-8). 

I think there is no doubt whatsoever that Cezanne was trying to realize the good 
gestalt. By intuitive processes he has hit upon a scientific truth which psychology sub- 
sequently discovered by experimental research. C6zanne, therefore, still remains within 
the characteristic development of nineteenth century art as much as Constable he is an 
artist who regards landscape painting as a branch of natural philosophy. But Cezanne's 
natural philosophy was not destined to be understood by many of his followers, and it was 



XIX 



largely on a misinterpretation of his purpose that cubism came into being (its subsequent 
development is another question). But before we discuss the influence of C6zanne let us 
return to the challenge to the scientific attitude in art made by Gauguin. 



LJne's first inclination is to treat Gauguin as an artist altogether inferior to Cezanne. We 
cannot doubt his integrity or his sincerity, and the sacrifices he made for his art were 
certainly as great as C6zanne's. The contrast between the two artists lies in the field of 
sensibility, of technical accomplishment. Certainly some hard things can be said about 
Gauguin' technique. He despised the whole business of what he called "counting the hairs 
on the donkey. " He had been an Impressionist and had sat at the feet of Pissarro ; but his 
reaction was violent. " The impressionists study colour exclusively, but without freedom, 
always shackled by the need of probability. For them the ideal landscape, created from 
many different entities, does not exist. They look and perceive harmoniously, but without 
aim. Their edifice rests upon no solid base and ignores the nature of the sensation perceived 
by means of colour. They heed only the eye and neglect the mysterious centres of thought, 
so falling into merely scientific reasoning. "-[-(Intimate Journals, trans. Van Wyck Brooks, 
p. 132-4). Form was not to be found in nature, but in the imagination. " It is well for young 
men to have a model, but let them draw the curtain over it while they arc painting. It is 
better to paint from memory, for thus your work will be your own ; your sensation, your 
intelligence, and your soul will triumph over the eye of the amateur. " (Ibid., p. 71, New 
York Edition, 1936). At every point Gauguin contradicts C6zanne, a fact understood better 
by Cezanne than by Gauguin. " He never understood me, " said Cezanne. " I have never 
desired and I shall never accept the absence of modelling or of gradation ; it's nonsense. 
Gauguin was not a painter, he only made Chinese images. " To which Gauguin would have 
replied (in words he wrote to Daniel de Monfreid) : " The great error is the Greek, however 
beautiful it may be ... Keep the Persians, the Cambodians, and a bit of the Egyptians 
always in mind. " (October 1897.) Or : " It is the eye of ignorance that assigns a fixed 
and unchangeable colpur to every object . . , Practice painting an object in conjunction 
with, or shadowed by that is to say, close to or half behind other objects of similar or 
different colours. In this way you will please by your variety and your truthfulness your 
own. Go from dark to light, from light to dark. The eye seeks to refresh itself through 
your work : give it food for enjoyment, not dejection . . . Let everything about you breathe 
the calm and peace of the soul. Also avoid motion in a pose. Each of your figures ought 
to be in a static position . . . Study the silhouette of every object ; distinctness of outline is 
the attribute of the hand that is not enfeebled by any hesitation of the will ... Do not finish 
your work too much ..." One could go on building up the contradictions, but they all 
amount to this : the laws of beauty do not reside in the verities of nature. The work of art is 
in some sense a suggestive symbol, stirring our emotions rather than stimulating our 
sensations. 

Between these two points of view, these two distinct conceptions of art, there can be 
no compromise. Most of the contradictions and varieties of modern art, spring from their 
antithetical opposition* No synthesis within the realm of art seems to be possible ; it is 
not obvious why it should be desirable. 



I he situation as it developed towards the end of the century was not, however, to remain 
a simple antithesis. If, for the sake of brevity, we describe the aim of C6zanne as the repre- 
sentation of the real, and that of Gauguin as the creation of beauty, there still remained 
another ideal of which Van Gogh became the leading exponent. Provisionally we might 
call it the expression of emotion, but the phrase needs a particular definition. The word 
express, however, inevitably recurs in all our attempts at definition, and Expressionism is the 



XX 



name which has been given to this tendency in modern art. " To express the love of two 
lovers by a marriage of two complementary colours, their mingling and their opposition, 
the mysterious vibrations of kindred tones. To express the thought of a brow by the radiance 
of a light tone against a sombre background. To express hope by some star, the eagerness 
of a soul by sunset radiance. Certainly there is nothing in that of stereoscopic realism, but 
is it not something that actually exists ? " these words of Van Gogh written at Aries in 
1888 show the beginnings of a divergence of aim which in the years to follow was to modify 
profoundly the evolution of modern art. 

Such a humanistic ideal in art was, of course, no new thing. It goes back to Rembrandt, 
if not farther, and in this tradition are such painters as Delacroix, Millet and Israels all 
favourites of Van Gogh. Even Courbet and Manet contribute to the tradition, though their 
main significance lies elsewhere. Another quotation from Van Gogh's letters will serve to 
define this tradition and separate it from contemporary trends like Impressionism : 

What a mistake Parisians make in not having a palate for crude things, for Monticellis, for clay. 
But there, one must not lose heart because Utopia is not coming true. It is only that what I learned in 
Paris is leaving me, and that I am returning to the ideas I had in the country before I knew the impres- 
sionists. And I should not be surprised if the impressionists soon find fault with my way of working, for 
it has been fertilised by the ideas of Delacroix rather than by theirs. Because, instead of trying to reproduce 
exactly what I have before my eyes, I use colour more arbitrarily so as to express myself forcibly. Well, let 
that be as far as theory goes, but I am going to give you an example of what I mean. 

I should like to paint the portrait of an artist friend, a man who dreams great dreams, who works 
as the nightingale sings, because it is his nature. He'll be a fair man. I want to put into the picture my 
appreciation, the love that I have for him. So I paint him as he is, as faithfully as I can, to begin with. 

But the picture is not finished yet. To finish it I am now going to be the arbitrary colourist. 
I exaggerate the fairness of the hair, I come even to orange tones, chromes and pale lemon yellow. 

Beyond the head, instead of painting the ordinary wall of the mean room, I paint infinity, a plain 
background of the richest intensest blue that I can contrive, and by this simple combination of the bright 
head against the rich blue background, I get a mysterious effect, like a star in the depths of an azure sky. 

In the portrait of the peasant again I worked in this way, but without wishing in this case to produce 
the mysterious brightness of a pale star in the infinite. Instead, I think of the man I have to paint, terrible 
in the furnace of the full harvest, the full south. Hence the stormy orange shades, vivid as red hot iron, 
and hence the luminous tones of old gold in the shadows. 

Oh, my dear boy... and the nice people will only see the exaggeration as caricature. 

(Letter 520). 

The whole theory of Expressionism, in its strength and weakness, is in this letter. Its 
strength lies in its humanism in the fact that art cannot be limited to the search for any 
absolute, whether of reality or beauty, but must ever return to the essential dignity of our 
common human qualities, our human nature. Its weakness lies in the imprecision of its 
terminology in words like mystery and infinity which, when it comes to the point of trans- 
lation into practice, into terms of form and colour, have no real meaning. There are no 
" infinite " shades of blue, and brightness is no mystery That, at least, would have been 
Cezanne's opinion. Gauguin would have been more in sympathy with this language, but 
he was not really interested in painting a postman, for example, " as I feel him, " but rather 
in using any suitable model for the creation of an independent aesthetic entity, a work of 
art which creates and contains its own emotional values and is not dependent on the evalu- 
ation of a human context. For Gauguin the work of art, as a symbol, must be detached 
from any particular occasion, just as a crucifix is detached from the Crucifixion. 

Van Gogh had no immediate following in France. It was in the far North, in 
Scandinavia and later in Germany that Expressionism had its widest expansion. Here the 
dominant figure is the Norwegian Edvard Munch. Munch was born ten years later than 
Van Gogh (in 1863) and he may to some extent have been inspired by the Dutchman. There 
is certainly a close affinity of aim, and even of style, between the two artists. But a country- 
man of Ibsen's had really no need of external inspiration, and though Munch modified his 
style after his visits to France, he may be said to have been born with the desire to express 



XXI 



himself forcibly. His scope, however, is not quite the same as Van Gogh's ; it is more objec- 
tive. It is true that he could write in his diary in 1889 words which are quite reminiscent 
of those we have quoted from Van Gogh's letter of the previous year : " No more painting 
of interiors with men reading and women knitting ! They must be living people who breathe, 
feel, suffer and love. I will paint a series of such pictures, in which people will have to 
recognize the holy element and bare their heads before it, as though in church. " (Quoted 
by J. P. Hodin, Edvard Munch, Stockholm Neuer Verlag 1948, p. 28.) But in Munch's 
subsequent paintings, as in the work of the expressionist school generally, there is an element 
of despair, leading to remorseless analysis and masochism, which was not characteristic of 
Van Gogh. This Kierkegaardian morbidity in Expressionism is a sufficient explanation 
of its failure to appeal more strongly to the Latin races. There is plenty of wonder in Expres- 
sionism, bjit little joy. 

Und ich wiederhole : naturfcrne Kunst ist 
publikumsfrcmdc Kunst. Muss es sein. 

Wilhelm WORRINGER. 
i 

It has not been my aim in this Introduction to mention every artist of importance, or even 
to produce one of those charts in which every movement has its appropriate graph. The 
truth is obscured by such rigid complexities. It is the broad effects that are significant for 
my present purpose, and these are complex enough. If I have succeeded, the reader will be 
conscious of a stream which runs fairly consistently through a tract of time measuring about 
a century, widening as it approaches the sea. But this stream is carrying down with it the 
sands and pebbles that have ineffectually opposed its progress. This silt accumulates as the 
river is about to attain its end, blocks the flow and creates a delta the one stream becomes 
many separate streams. But here the metaphor breaks down, for the separate streams do 
not make their way fanwise to the ultimate sea ; some turn inland again and are lost in the 
deserts of futurity. 

This diversion in modern art is due to the failure of the scientific attitude in art. It 
has not proved possible, or at any rate finally satisfying, to consider art as " a branch of 
natural philosophy, of which pictures are but experiments. " In art, 'Texactitude n'est 
pas la v6rit. " " We all know that art is not truth. Art is a lie that makes us realize 
truth, at least the truth that is given us to understand. " (Picasso). Art is a closed system, 
and it is " true " in the degree that its rhetoric convinces us, pleases us, comforts us. It 
has no spiritual mission ; it is accused of having no social function. 

The artists themselves have recognized their isolation. " Uns tragt kein Volk, " 
cried Klee the people are not with us. But it is useless to blame the artist for that isolation 
we might as well blame the weathercock for not turning in the wind. (It is true, there is 
a kind of weathercock that does not turn because its hinges are rusty the academic artist). 
The climate of the age (Zeitgeist, usw.) is the creation of a thousand forces, and perhaps the 
Marxists are right in giving priority, among these forces, to economic trends. But the 
failure of the Soviet Union, after more than thirty years of strenuous effort, to produce a 
new art on the basis of a new economy proves that the inspiration of the artist cannot be 
forced. We must wait, wait perhaps for a very long time, before any vital connection can be 
re-established between art and society. The modern work of art, as I have said, is a symbol. 
The symbol, by its nature, is only intelligible to the initiated (though it may still appeal 
mysteriously to the uninitiated, so long as they allow it to enter their unconscious). The 
people can only understand the image, and even this they distrust in its eidetic purity, for 
even their vision is conventional. It does not seem that the contradiction which exists 
between the aristocratic function of art and the democratic structure of modern society can 
ever be resolved. But both may wear the cloak of humanism, the one for shelter, the other 
for display. The sensitive artist knows that a bitter wind is blowing. 



HISTORY OF MODERN PAINTING 

BY 

MAURICE RAYNAL 

DOCUMENTATION 

HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL STUDIES 

BY 

JEAN LEYMARIE 



1858-1870 



1858 Eugene Boudin meets young Claude Monet at Le Havre; guides his early efforts. 

1859 Meeting of Monet and Pissarro at the Acadtmla Suits*. 

Courbet, Boudin and Baudelaire at " Mfcre Toutain's " Ferme Saint-Sim6on, at Honfleur, 
Baudelaire's review of the 1859 Salon, He speaks in praise of Boudin, " roi des ciels." 
Birth of Georges Seurat, Paris (December 2). 

1860 Large-scale private exhibition of Modern Painting (Delacroix, Corot, Courbet, Millet), 

1861 Edouard Manet's dbut at the Salon (Le Guitarrero): he meets Baudelaire, exhibits at the Galerie Martinet. 
Paul Cezanne's first stay in Paris. He meets Pissarro at the Acad6mie Suisse. 

Degas paints academic compositions : S6miramis (Louvre, Paris). 

1662 Manet paints his Musique aux Tuileries, (National Gallery, London), strikes up a friendship with Degas. 
Monet at Le Havre with Boudin and Johann Barthold Jongkind. Monet, Renoir, Sisley, Bazille meet at 
Glsyre's studio. 
Degas paints Horse Races at Longchamp, for the first time. 

1863 Salon dss Rsfusts. Violent attacks on Manet : Le Dejeuner sur I'herbe (Louvre, Paris). 
Death of Eugene Delacroix (August 13). Fantin-Latour pays him a tribute. 

Renoir, with Fantin-Latour, spends much time at the Louvre. 
Reorganization of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, 

1864 Pissarro exhibits at the Salon; describes himself as ' Corot's pupil, 1 Stays at Montfoucault 
Monet at Honfleur with Boudin, Jongkind; he invites Bazille to join them. 

Renoir, painting in the forest of Fontainebleau, meets Diaz and undergoes his influence for a while. 
Birth of Toulouse-Lautrec at Albi (November 24). 

1865 Proudhon's death. Posthumous publication of his Principe de i'Art. Zola visits Courbet. 
Manet exhibits Olympia, (Louvre, Paris), travels in Spain, meets Duret in Madrid, 
Monet with Bazille at Chailly (forest of Fontainebleau), with Courbet at Trouville. 
Renoir and Sisley at Marlotte (forest of Fontainebleau). 

1866 Meeting at the Caf6 Guerbols. Zola's articles in the newspaper " L'Ev6nement." 

Monet finds favour at the Salon (Camllle), meets Manet, works at Sainte-Adresse and Le Havre. 
Renoir shares Bazille's studio, at Marlotte paints his Cabaret de la M&re Anthony (Stockholm). 
Monet paints his Women in the Garden, Bazille his Family Gathering (Louvre, Paris). 
Cezanne, persistently rejected by the Salon, protests to the Director of Fine Arts. 
Pissarro breaks away from Corot, settles at Pontoise. 

1867 World's Fair. Manet and Courbet give one-man shows in special "pavilions." 
Extreme severity of the Salon Jury: all Impressionists, save Degas, banned. 
Renoir at Chantilly and Fontainebleau. Sisley at Honfleur. Monet at Sainte-Adresse. 
Deaths of Charles Baudelaire and Jean-Dominique Ingres. 

Birth of Pierre Bonnard, at Fontenay-aux-Roses (October 13). 

1868 Manet exhibits Portrait of Zola, stays at Boulogne; in England; meets Berthe Morisot. 
Monet in Paris with Renoir and Bazille; at Etretat, F6camp. Poverty: attempted suicide. 

Renoir's success at the Salon : Lise (Folkwang Museum, Essen); he paints Bazille's, Sisley's portraits. 

41 International Maritime Exhibition " at Le Havre (Boudin, Manet, Monet, Courbet). 

Degas begins to go to the theatre for his subjects : Mile Fiocre (Brooklyn Museum, New York). 

1869 Manet exhibits The Balcony (Louvre, Paris); again spends summer at Boulogne (seascapes). 
Renoir and Monet at Bougival. La Grenoulllfcre. Birth of the Impressionist technique. 
Pissaro moves with his family to Louveciennes. Cezanne paints The Black Clock. 

Birth of Henri Matisse at Le Cateau (Nord) (December 31). 

1870 Franco-Prussian War. Proclamation of the Third Republic. 
Death of Bazille in the Battle of Beaune-la-Rolande (November 28). 

Manet serves in the National Guard, Degas in the Infantry, Renoir in the Cuirassiers. 

Cdzanne at Aix, then at L'Estaque, near Marseilles. 

Monet, Sisley, Pissarro in England; discover Turner, Constable; meet Durand-Ruel, 



The Legacy of Courbet 



w, 



hile readily admitting the influence of Ingres, Delacroix, Constable and Corot on 
the course of Modern Painting, we have thought it best to place the name of Gustave Courbet 
in the forefront of this History, the reason being that, of all the masters of form and colour, 
Courbet is the one as to whose eminent priority all painters are in agreement. None, indeed, 
but sees in him a past -master in that excellence of craftsmanship which is the lodestar 
of every professional artist. The daring and the power, the delicacy ol execution 
and the sheer gorgeousness of his art opened up so many new vistas that even artists with 
radically different temperaments, such as Matisse and Picasso, join in regarding his work 
with that slightly envious deference which is accorded only to what is permanent in 
the metier. 

The first-named, and chief, of these qualities daring has played a determining part 
in the evolution of modern painting. Gourmet's zest for freedom it was second nature 
with him never to make concessions to the narrowly traditional acted as a vital ferment 
in the art of all who followed him. But he did not live to see Impressionism. He died 
in 1877 in Switzerland where he had been living in exile since 1873, the French police 
" wanting " him for his alleged participation in the dismantling of the Vendome Column. 
Perhaps, however, he foresaw Impressionism's coining when he forgathered with Boudin 
and Monet in 1859, usually at the Brasserie des Martyrs, where Baudelaire, Daudet, de 
Banville and Jules Vall&s also were often to be seen. It was his influence which led 
the young painters to that exaltation of the instinct (as above the intellect) which has 
determined the whole course of modern art. In any case by pointing to the absurdities 
of the then fashionable " Idealism, " Courbet forced painters to face up to the reality of 
human bodies, of earth and sky and flowing water, and his programme was far bolder and more 
drastic than the half-hearted ventures of such men as Constable and Bonington. Thus 
Impressionists and, after them, Expressionists were far readier to fall in with his injunctions, 
all the headier for being more thorough, for an ever closer analysis of the visible world. It 
was Courbet who led them on to scrutinize reality with the objectivity and clean-cut precision 
which are now among the chief concerns of the world we live in, and especially of painting. 
So much so that many of his successors called in science to help them in exploring the new 
field of forms and colour Courbet had opened up, though on empirical, "unscientific" lines. 
If Baudelaire, esthete though he was, and preferring Delacroix to Courbet, so much admired 
him, this was because he had been swept off his feet by the sheer driving force of Courbet's 
art ; this revelation of the creative power of instinct had overwhelmed, for once, his deference 
to the rational. 

Not that Courbet invariably rejected the dictates of the intellect. But Courbet's 
intellect was that of the countryman he came of a farming family and differed from 
Baudelaire's as does a plain man's simple faith from the faith of a theologian. Due, indeed, 
to his faith in painting was his regard for that perfect craftsmanship which in the last 
analysis lies at the base of art, the painter's " one thing needful. " But it was left to 
Modern Art to discover that no renewal of the art of painting can dispense with painstaking 
research-work into the mati&re, the physical stuff of painting. 

That is why, beyond all methods and consciously planned techniques, Courbet stands 
out as the harbinger of the mati&re of modern painting, as Victor Hugo was of that of words. 
And the habit of the morceau, the subject chosen in the living world around him, which he 
inaugurated (and to which the " liberties " taken by the Impressionists were to owe so much), 
freed art from the thrall of a tradition which looked to Courbet as effete as the social order 
it had sponsored. 




G. COURBET (1819-1877). PORTRAIT OF BAUDELAIRE (DETAIL), 1853. 24 x 2O/ 4 ". MONTPELLIER, MUS^E FABRE. 



BAUDELAIRE (18*1.1867), POET AND MASTER-CRITIC, FRIEND OF ALL GREAT ARTISTS FROM DELACROIX TO MANET, FORESAW AND 

DEFINED ALL MODERN SENSIBILITY. STARTING FROM " ROMANTIC AESTHETICS. WHAT, " HE ASKED, IS PURE ART ACCORDING 

TO OUR MODERN CONCEPTION? IT IS THE CREATION OF A SUGGESTIVE MAGIC CONTAINING AT ONCE THE OBJECT AND THE 

SUBJECT, THE WORLD OUTSIDE THE ARTIST AND THE ARTIST HIMSELF. " 



CONTACTS AND INFLUENCES 



It was under Courbet' s dynamic influence that the young innovators destined to go down to history 
as * Impressionists " broke with the past. Feeling ill at ease in the gloomy Parisian studios (in which they 
soon marked each other out amongst the nondescript crowd of academic-minded students, and accordingly 
joined forces), they migrated, once the weather had turned fair, first to the Forest of Fontainebleau,and then to 
the Channel coast, ivhere they could work in the open and rub shoulders with two precursors of the older 
generation, Boudin and Jongkind, who were ushering in a new kind of painting, flooded with limpid 
light. And Courbet in person presided at these stimidating gatherings of what came to be known as the 
Saint-Simeon pre-Impressionist School, at Honfleur. 



THE SUISSE " ACADEMY 

Thus named after its founder, a M. Suisse. A squalid room, located on the Quai des Orftvrcs near 
the Pont Saint-Michel, in which artists could work from the living model for a small sum, without tuition or 
examination, it provided a sort of free training for the cole des Beaux Arts. // was here that Pissarro, the 
oldest of the impressionist group, who had been frequenting this establishment since 1855, made Monet's acquain- 
tance in 1859 (before Monet left for his spell of military service in Algeria), and, in 1861, that of Cdzanne, 
who had just come to Paris from his hometown, Aix -en-Provence, and whom he promptly and powerfully 
influenced. 

GLEYRE'S STUDIO 

Here the master was authentically Swiss, a pillar of academicism and a severe teacher. In 1862 four 
young men, all under twenty-five and all destined to become famous, met here and struck up a friendship that 
was to endure: Monet hailing from Le Havre, Bazille from Montpellier, Renoir a Parisian, and Sisley an 
Englishman. On one occasion Gleyre asked young Renoir sarcastically if he painted " just to amuse himself. " 
Renoir replied that he had never dreamt of painting for any other reason. Rebellious by nature and realizing 
tlvat there was nothing to be learned here, the four artists left this studio after a year, and migrated in the spring 
of 1863 to the Forest of Fontainebleau, and next summer to Normandy. It is significant that Monet, boldest of the 
group and leader-to-be, was already recognized as their moving spirit, and actively promoted contacts between 
the Gleyre studio and the " Suisse " Academy on the one hand, and the Honfleur group on the other. 



THE FOREST OF FONTAINEBLEAU 

Brought into fashion by the Romantics, the Forest of Fontainebleau was now the favourite resort of inde- 
pendent landscape-painters of the Barbizon School (Rousseau, Diaz, Millet). It was in contact with them, and 
in this romantic setting of trees and crags, that the Impressionists tried their 'prentice hands at landscape. 
Their style was still naturalistic, combining the influences of Corot and of Courbet, both of whom knew this 
forest well. 

1863. Monet and Bazille take their holidays at Chailly, near Barbizon, on the outskirts of the forest. 

1864. At Monet's instigation the jour young rebels from Gleyre' s studio meet at Chailly, where Renoir now 
makes Diaz acquaintance. 

1865. Monet starts painting his Dejeuner sur 1'herbe fa sketch for which is in the Modern Art Museum, 
Moscow), for which Bazille poses. Courbet introduces them to Corot. Renoir is staying near by, 
with Sisley, at Marlotte. 

1866. Monet finishes his composition. Renoir paints his Cabaret de la M6re Anthony, now in the National 
Museum, Stockholm, while Sisley paints views of the village. 

1867. Still under the influence of Courbet, Renoir does figures in the open: his Lise (Folkwang Museum, 
Essen), which won approval in the next year's Salon, and his Portrait of Sisley and his Wife (Walraf 
Richartz Museum, Cologne). 

Pissarro did not actually work at Fontainebleau, but sometimes visited his friends there. Ctzanne 
last, it seems, to * discover " the forest, was to remain faithful to it the longest; every time he came to Paris, up 
to his last visit (in 1904), he never failed to make a trip to Fontainebleau. 



4 



THE SAINT-SIMEON SCHOOL AT HONFLEUR 

The Seine estuary, so popular at the beginning of the century with British watercolour painters and 
thereafter with the Romantics (Huet, Bonington, Delacroix), and finally with Corot, was, between 1860 
and 1870, the true cradle of Impressionism. It was in this environment of sea and limpid light that the new 
technique and the new way of seeing took their rise, under the influence of two precursors, Boudin and Jongkind. 
1858. Boudin (1824-1898) , a painter of sunlit, shimmering seascapes, dubbed by Baudelaire " Monarch of the 
Sky, " hailed from this part of France, Honfleur being his birthplace. There he met his young neigh- 
bour Monet, who hailed from Le Havre and had made something of a name locally with his caricatures. 
This meeting decided Monet's vocation. " It was as if a veil had been torn from my eyes, " Monet 
was to say in later years. * In a flash I saw what painting really meant. " 

7*59. C our bet, on a visit to Le Havre accompanied by Schanne, another painter, * discovers " Boudin, who 
takes him to Mire Toutain's famous inn at the Ferme Saint-SimSon. When out walking together 
they meet Baudelaire who, like C our bet, is greatly struck by Boudin' s painting, and praises it in his 
review of the 1859 Salon. 

1862. Jongkind (1819-1891), a Dutch painter, famed for his luminous, boldy executed sketches, returns to 
these parts (where he had previously stayed, in 1850). Monet makes his acquaintance, introduces 
him to Boudin and the three painters work together. 

1863. Jongkind spends the greater part of this year at Honfleur. 

1864. Bazille, Monet, Boudin join forces with Jongkind at Honfleur. " Boudin and Jongkind are here, " 
Monet announced to a friend. " We get on splendidly together and there's much to be learnt in 
such company. " 

1865. Monet is painting, in Courbet's company, at Trouville. 

1867. Monet is now at Sainte-Adresse (near Le Havre) ; Sislcy at Honfleur. 
i8jo. Monet returns to Trouville and Le Havre ; then crosses over to England. 



IN JONGKIND AND IN MOST LANDSCAPE-PAINTERS OF THE LARLY XIXTH CENTURY WE FIND A CONTRAST BETWEEN THEIR PAIN- 
TINGS WHICH ARE STUDIO-MADE, AND THF SKETCHES THEY MADE STRAIGHT FROM LIFE, ON THE SPOT, THESE LATTER BEING 
MUCH FREER, MORE PROGRESSIVE. AND THE ACHIEVEMENT OF IMPRESSIONISM WAS PRECISELY THIS, THAT IT RETAINED IN 
THE PICTURE THE VIVACITY AND FRESHNESS OF THE SKETCH, AND GENERALI/K1) IN PAINTING THE SPONTANEITY OF THE 
WATERCOLOUR. HIE GONCOURT BROTHERS NOTED HOW DECISIVE WAS JONGKIND'S INFLUENCE AND OBSERVED IN THEIR 
JOURNAL: ALL LANDSCAPES OF ANY VALUE TODAY STEM FROM THIS PAINTER, BORROW HIS SKIES, HIS ATMOSPHERE, HIS SCENES. 

J.-B. JONGKIND (1819-1891). VIEW OF ROUEN, WATERCOLOUR, 1864. II%xl8%". LOUVRE, PARIS. 




11 For a figure see that you have full light, full shade ; all 
the rest will come naturally; it often amounts to very little/ 1 



MANET 



member of a well-established family his father was a magistrate , Manet may have 
felt a little out of place in the Impressionist group, who made no secret of their revolutio- 
nary leanings. While frankly ambitious and no mean wit, he was always readily accessible 
and never " let down " a friend. He was not discouraged by the ill success that dogged 
him. Endowed with a well-balanced mind, he never set up to be a prophet or precursor. 
His life, which was simple, crystal-clear, is mirrored in his straightforward way of painting 
in full light with his subjects lit up from in front ; and in his habit of using those local 
colours which his Impressionist friends were soon to abolish utterly. 

As a young man respectful of tradition, Manet began by visiting the chief art museums 
of Europe. He developed a liking for the interplay of blacks and white, the arcana of light- 
and-shade, and those silver-fox grays which so well accorded with his personal refinement. 
Throughout his life he was held by the charm of these neutral hues, and his impressionist 
friends' quest of pure tones never lured him from them. 

* One of Daumier's lithographs shows us two artists painting the same subject, one 
behind the other, with the caption : " The man in front is copying nature, the man behind is 
copying the man in front. " Behind the obvious jest Daumicr may well have had in mind a 
not uncommon form of aesthetic practice, and we might say, without the least wish to disparage 
the artist, that in a way it sums up the dazzling art of Manet who had a taste for paradox- 
ical procedure. Thus he began by taking over subjects already treated, from Titian's day 
to Goya's; but he neither copies, nor imitates he remakes. For him and this was a sign 
of the times the subject was losing its importance. But all these past-inspired canvases 
bear the stamp of Manet's personal and unique genius. 

Soon he became very friendly with the Impressionists, though less enamoured of their 
programme. For one thing, he fought shy of their cult of painting in the open, which conflicted 
with his notions of studio-produced art. However, he deferred to the advice of Monet, who 
urged him to get rid of the black of which he was so fond. But as to drawing and composition 
he stood his ground ; he was determined to keep his black contour-lines, his broad tracts of 
white. His friendship with Baudelaire led him to share, though with extreme caution, in his 
friend's taste for the " Satanic," which certainly influenced his Berthe Morisot (1872), Olympia 
(1863) and Absinthe Drinker (1859), amongst other canvases. 

But this mild dalliance with the dark side of life was shortlived. His true personality 
found a new and brilliant outlet in his handling of perspective so severely condemned by 
Courbet who insisted that " a picture must not be a playing-card. " From now on Manet 
spreads his backgrounds with a thin coat of semi-transparent colour. When handling fore- 
grounds and objects in full light he makes a point of using the local tone. Here we have, 
in effect, a rendering of space purely in terms of the relations between tones. Hence his 
uniformly bright surfaces, and planes superimposed in a calculated clash of tonal " disso- 
nances. " Manet was perhaps the first artist to attempt to endow colour and colour alone 
with the power of setting form free from the shackles of the past with its over-emphasis on 
the strictly " plastic " by endeavouring to suppress the third dimension. 

Here we certainly see the influence of Japanese art for which Manet had such enthu- 
siasm that he included Japanese prints in some of his pictures. Debatable as always is the 
problem of " anticipation, " one thing is certain : Manet must be regarded as a precursor 
of the developments in the handling of colour and composition which Gauguin, then Matisse 
(with " Fauvism ") and, lastly, Abstract Art, were to press to their utmost limit. 



6 




E. MANET (1832-1883). LE DEJEUNER SUR 1/HERBE, 1863. 84 ft x 106 % ". LOUVRE, PARIS. 

THIS IS THE MOST FAMOUS OF THE THREE SCANDALOUS " PAINTINGS EXHIBITED BY MANET AT THE SALON DES REFUSES (THEN 
WITH THE BATH AS TITLE), THE EMPEROR HIMSELF DECLARING IT " IMMODEST. " YET IT IS ONLY A RESTATEMENT OF A CLASSICAL 
THEME DEAR TO GIORGIONE AND TITIAN. WHAT SHOCKED WAS ITS MODERN, DARINGLY LIFELIKE PRESENTATION, WITHOUT 
ANY MYTHOLOGICAL -JUSTIFICATION'*; ALSO ITS WHOLLY NOVEL TONAL CONTRASTS. A PRELIMINARY SKETCH IS IN THE 
COURTAULD COLLECTION (TAT1. GALLERY, LONDON). TWO YEARS LA1ER MONET PAINTED THE SAME SUBJECT ENTIRELY IN THE 
OPEN AIR (IN THE FOREST OF FONTA1NEBLEAU), AND TWO OTHER VERSIONS, BY CEZANNE, ARE EXTANT. 



1863 



Delacroix dies in the very house (in the Place de Furstenberg) in which, two years later, Monet and 
Bazille were to share a studio. Fantin-Latour paints a " Homage " to the dead Master, placing Baudelaire 
and Manet in the forefront Delacroix's intuitive discoveries in the field of colour had a compelling influence on 
the course of modern painting, and on the most diverse temperaments. Seurat, like Renoir, Matisse and 
Redon, admitted their debt to him. His direct influence on Impressionism and its aftermath was well brought 
out by Signac in the remarkable essay he published in 2899, From Engine Delacroix to Neo-Impressionism. 

Aside from the official Salon a Salon des Refuses was now instituted, as an exceptional measure, 
in which figured amongst others, Manet, Pissarro, Jongkind, Whistler and Cezanne. The breach between 
living art and the general public now became absolute. The same people who raved about CabaneVs luscious 
Venus (bought by the Emperor) in the Salon guffawed or waxed indignant when confronted by Manet's 
luminous masterpieces. Manet, who had given a one-man show, previous to the Salon, at the Martinet Gallery, 
came to be regarded, rather against his wishes, as the " ringleader " of the group of young enthusiasts at 
Gleyre's studio. Thus, too, he was regarded by Cizanne and his friend Zola, when they visited these memorable 
Salons. In 1866 Ctzanne and Zola were, as a result of the ruthless ostracism of the official Jury, to solicit 
the revival of the Salon des Refuses, but in vain. 




E. MANET (1832-1883). PORTRAIT OF ZOLA, l868. 



LOUVRE, PARIS. 



IT IS TO ZOLA (1840.19010 THAT WE OWE THE FAMOUS DEFINITION: A WORK OF ART IS AN ASPECT OF CREATION SEEN THROUGH 
TJHE MEDIUM OF A TEMPERAMENT. " HIS CAREER AS AN ART-CRITIC BEGAN ON APRIL 97, 1866, WITH A BRILLIANT VINDICATION 
OF MANET'S ART (IN THE NEWSPAPER UEV&HEMENT], AND ENDED LAMENTABLY ON MAY , 1896, WITH A REPUDIATION OF 

v -IMPRESSIONISM, PUBLISHED IN THE FIGARO. 



8 



v PAINTERS ANO, CRITICS. THE CAFEE GUERBOIS, ZOLA 

Though this tradition seems to be dying out, we must not overlook the important part that cafts used ^ 
to play in the exchange of views between artists and men of letters. In those days most aesthetic theories were 
born in cafts. Manet, cynosure of youth since the uproar caused by the Salon des Refuses, abandoned in 1866 
the fashionable Cafi de Bade and took to visiting the famous Caft Guerbois. Its most active period was 
1868-1869 when every Friday evening there gathered around Manet, Astruc, Zola, Duranty, Duret, Guillemet, 
Braquemond, Bazille, Degas, Constantin Guys, Stevens, Renoir, Nadar the photographer, and, when they 
were in Paris, Pissarro, Monet and Sisley. To begin with Duranty took the lead at these meetings ; then, 
from his first dramatic appearance, Emile Zola, who launched a strenuous press campaign on behalf of 
Manet and the young school though later he abjured them. One wonders if he ever understood his friends, 
and if he could really appreciate their painting; considering that he once said, " I have no use for that word 
' art ' ; what I want of you is Life." The result was that even well-meaning critics, misled by Zola's dogmatic 
naturalism, fad difficulty in understanding the originality and purely pictorial aspirations of Impressionism. 



UTAMARO. SUGATAM1 SHICHI NIN KESHO (ONE OF THE " SEVEN WOMEN 

SEEN IN A MIRROR"), c. 1790. 10 x n". FORMER MUTIAUX COLLECTION. 



DISCOVERY OF JAPANESE COLOURPRINTS 

Japanese art was a favourite subject of discussions at the Caft Guerbois, and none of the group failed 
to visit the Japanese section at the 1867 World's Fair. The discovery of Japanese prints counted for as much 
in the shaping of Impressionism as did negro sculpture in the shaping of Cubism. It was to Braquemond 
the engraver, a friend of Degas, 
that they owed their first contact 
(in 1856) with the art of Hokusai. 
Soon after, in 1862, Madame Soye, 
a lady who, with her husband, had 
lived in Japan, opened an oriental 
shop, "La Porte Chinoise," under 
the Rue de Rivoli arcades, and it 
promptly became a favoured resort 
of Degas, Manet, Mary Cassatt, 
Whistler, Renoir, and Monet, as 
well as Baudelaire and the Goncourt 
brothers. A II things Japanese came 
into fashion, and apart from the 
superficial * Japonisme " in the 
manner of Whistler and Tissot, 
serious enquiries were made into the 
underlying technical issues : the use 
of the decorative arabesque, pure, 
unmodelled colour, two-dimensional 
perspective and flat tones all of 
which played havoc with the tradi- 
tional way of viewing the world, and 
indeed changed the whole course of 
aesthetics from Manet up to abstract 
art. Cizanne was, it seems, the only 
artist uninfluenced by Japanese art; 
Degas, Monet and Manet were pro- 
foundly affected by it (note the copies 
of Japanese prints in the Portrait 
of Zola here reproduced), and, in 
the next generation, Gauguin, Van 
Gogh and Lautrec. In 1873 Theo- 
dore Duret returned, full of enthusi- 
asm, from a trip to Japan. * The 
Japanese, " he said M are the first, 
and the supreme Impresionists." 





E. DEGAS (1834-1917). THE ORCHESTRA AT THE PARIS OPERA, C. l868. 22 & X l8 J / 2 ". LOUVRE, PARIS. 

" THE AIR WE SEE IN THE GREAT MASTERS' PICTURES, " DEGAS SAID, IS LITERALLY UNBREATHABLE. " ANALYTIC-MINDED AND 
A SUPERB DRAUGHTSMAN, HE HAD NO INTEREST IN LANDSCAPE; HE APPLIED HIS KEEN VISION TO OBSERVING HUMAN BEHA- 
VIOUR AND THE MECHANISM OF BODIES; TO EXPLORING PROBLEMS OF COMPOSITION AND THE "EFFECTS" OF ARTIFI- 
CIAL LIGHT HIS FAVOURITE THEMES WERE THE THEATRE AND THE BALLET; THIS CANV\S SHOWS HIM AT A TURNING-POINT 
IN HIS CAREER. IN IT DEGAS DELIBERATELY FACED, AND SOLVED, A SERIES OF TECHNICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL PRO- 
BLEMS: HOW TO COMBINE A GROUP OF PROFESSIONAL PORTRAITS THOSE OF THE MUSICIANS IN THE ORCHESTRA PIT OF 
THE PARIS OPERA, WHILE BRINGING OUT EACH INDIVIDUALITY, AND STRESSING THAT OF HIS FRIEND DfcSIRfi DIHAU, THE 

BASSOONIST, WITHOUT IMPAIRING THE ENSEMBLE. 



10 



The anomaly of Degas 



'ourbet, and he alone, championed vigorously the supremacy of instinct, which could not 
fail to provoke reprisals from upholders of the " divine right " of the intellect. The strange 
career of Degas is an illustration of the consequences of this clash. 

N* 

In Degas we have a highly intelligent man who from early youth haunted the great 
art galleries and knew Italy by heart. Fastidious, sophisticated and mistrustful of the 
world at large, he was also cantankerous and disdainful. He spoke of himself as " a die-hard, 
incorrigible reactionary. " Nevertheless he struck out new lines; notably he deliberately 
broke up classical composition, lowered the horizon-line, and scored surfaces with horizontal 
strokes. He discovered a new kind of space unless this was a borrowing from Japan; yet 
this procedure fits in so well with his temperament that we may give him the benefit of the 
doubt. His inordinately keen eye, impartial as a camera lens, registered qualities and 
defects alike with merciless fidelity. Thus he recorded less the reality of the subject in 
itself than attitudes and poses " snapped " in hundredths of a second. One of the most 
baffling elements in his technique baffling because it seems so wantonly unimaginative was 
his device of sketching the model in attitudes approximating to each other; then tracing them 
and superimposing these tracings so as to obtain a synthesis ; in other words, a rdsumd errtbo* 
dying them all. But when he rode his hobby of " precision, " he set no limits to his analysis. 

Misogynist though he was, he bent his mind and his amazing powers of observation to 
finding out all the secrets of a woman's body. For him it was but a pretext for analysing 
movement, as true Impressionists analysed light. In this sense Degas might be regarded as 
an Impressionist of form ; for he was not particularly interested in nature or in colour. He 
loathed his friends' Impressionism, because it dissolved line, outlines and composition. To 
his mind, the essential should rank before the " accidental. " Intent on setting down the 
truth and nothing but the truth, he saw to it that the firmness of his line repressed all prompt- 
ings of his instinct, which, taking him unawared, might relax his self-control. During 
most of his career, colour was for him merely a filling-in for his superb drawing and added 
little of expressive value. Nevertheless some of his canvases suggest that he might have 
been a great colourist if at the cost of being taken for one of Manet's disciples. 

In the last analysis, Degas' reactionary tendencies derive from an excess of intelligence. 
He wanted to understand everything in a field of human activity in which it is best not to^ 
seek overmuch to understand. For intellectualism when pressed too far gets but a " dusty 
answer, " and may easily lapse into fatuity or worse. Aware of these perils of the soul, 
Degas struggled to extricate himself. That is why in the last years of his life, he tried to 
react against his intellectual self and allow a touch of instinct, that great liberator, to inter- 
vene. Always disliking oils he had had so many setbacks in this medium , he took to- 
pastel as a compromise. Then, exasperated by its limitations, he mixed oil with it, and 
counteracted the insipidity so frequently observed in pastel drawing by using tones ha&sh 
to the point of crudity and often clashing with each other. Likewise he corrected the rigidly 
analytical precision of his drawing by hatchings, lines slashed across the texture, that some- 
times achieve extremely powerful effects. There is an element of tragedy on the grand 
scale in the rageful frenzy of Degas' last phase. With his passion for exactness Degas did 
much to determine a new trend in painting by choosing the most commonplace objects as 
his models. The " subject " of the picture, whose importance Manet had already queried, 
had none at all for him. Thus, by his renewal of the stock-in-trade of the traditional ddcor 
he cuts an almost revolutionary figure, but revolutionary chiefly qua technician. 



11 



Figures in the open 

Victor Hugo wrote in one of the poems of Contemplations (1852), entitled La Fte chez 
Thfrtse, (in words deliciously impressionist, though anticipating Impressionism by two 
decades) : 

" ... Et sur leurs gorges blanches 

Les actrices sentaient errer 1'ombre des branches. " * 

Do not these lines bring to our minds Renoir's Moulin de la Galette, and Monet's Women 
in the Garden ? 

But, to begin with, the future Impressionists were still all for Realism. The hour 
of " pure painting " had not yet struck, and while they followed the old traditions regarding 
figures in the open air (to which the greatest painters of an earlier age, from Fouquet to 
Watteau, had deferred), and while they had before their eyes the examples of Delacroix' 
Marphise, of Corot's Petite Jeannette, of Courbet's Demoiselles au bord de la Seine, Manet, 
Cezanne, Monet, Bazille and Renoir kept no less faithfully to the artificial light of the studio, 
to the old rules of perspective, of local colour, and of light-and-shade. 

However, the figure is not incorporated in the landscape, it remains a silhouette. 
The air does not flow around it ; done in flat colours, the trees look like stage sets ; the costumes 
of elegant young women suggest a " still " of some charming ballet stuck upon backgrounds 
erected for the occasion, like those of photographers. We realize this when we look at 
Manet's Dtfeuner sur Vherbe or Cezanne's (1869); at Renoir's Diana (1866), or the brilliant 
pageantries of Bazille, such as The Terrace (1860), or Pissarro's Maid (1867), or Monet's 
Women in the Garden (1867), in all of which the " open air " is still studio-conditioned. 
In the last-named canvas it is noteworthy that we find no hint of Impressionism as 
yet. What we find is Manet's influence in the wide planes of the dresses, the strip of 
pathway, the patches of grass, and also in the bouquets, of which there had been "previews" 
in Olympia and Le Dejeuner sur Vherbe. In general, though we cannot but be impressed 
by the splendour of these works, they still lack something of that atmospheric unity 
which Impressionism was to achieve; they resemble sumptuous tapestries. Manet's influence 
is still preponderant. Indeed there is little incentive to display originality, in view of the 
hostility of official art, and of a Press and public that make no secret of their prejudices. 
These were indeed hard times for the young artists. In 1869 Monet attempted to kill 
himself. Not until after the shock administered by the war of 1870-1871 were temper- 
aments able to express themselves in relative freedom and bold innovations countenanced. 
And soon the conventional treatment of the figure in the open was to give place to a vigo- 
rous examination of light and its effects. 

It was about 1870-1871 that Impressionism began to give a new significance to the 
figure placed in .the light of day. The break with studio painting was made gradually with, 
for example, Pissarro's Jeanne in the Garden (1872), Manet's Game of Croquet (1873), Renoir's 
Moulin de la Galette (1876). 

From now on the figures in a landscape are not as it were posed for the photographer 
in a convergent glare of spotlights, but are themselves sources of radiant light. The 
landscape is no longer a background; figures and nature coalesce; and thus the proudly 
heralded " impressionist pantheism " at last comes into its own, in a symphonic richness 
of which even the loftiest traditional art had no inkling. 

1 "And the actresses feel shadows of the branches straying on their white bosoms. " 



12 




C. MONET (1840-1926). WOMEN IN THE GARDEN, 1867. lOOft X 8l s / 4 ". LOUVRE, PARIS. 



PAINTED ENTIRELY IN THE OPEN AIR, PROBABLY AT VILLE-D'AVRAY, THIS CANVAS WAS REJECTED BY THE 1867 SALON. IT 
WAS BOUGHT BY BAZILLE, WHO PAID FOR IT BY MONTHLY INSTALMENTS, SO AS TO HELP HIS FRIEND THROUGH A DIFFICULT 
PERIOD. THE CHARM AND ORIGINALITY OF THIS FINE WORK LIE IN ITS DECORATIVE BEAUTY, THE ELEGANCE OF THE WOMEN'S 
FORMS, THE FLUENT RHYTHM OF HIGHLIGHTS AND POOLS OF SHADOW, AND A GRACIOUS DELICACY ALL ITS OWN- HERE 
WE HAVE ALL THE POETRY OF SPRINGTIME IN A GARDEN. THERE IS A FORETASTE OF IMPRESSIONISM IN ITS CANDID 
TREATMENT OF THE OPEN AIR, BUT THE TECHNIQUE OF FLAT TONES COVERING LARGE UNIFORM SURFACES THOUGH LESS 

UNCOMPROMISINGLY APPLIED, STILL SHOWS MANET'S INFLUENCE, 



13 




A. RENOIR (1841-1919). LA GRENOUILLfeRE, 1869. 26x32". NATIONAL MUSEUM, STOCKHOLM. 

SEVERAL TIMES IN THE SUMMER OF 1869 MONET AND RENOIR PAINTED "LA GRENOUlLLfcRE, " AN IDEAL MOTIF, READY TO 
THEIR HAND, FOR 'HIE BEGINNINGS OF IMPRESSIONISM. ONE OF MONKTS VERSIONS IS IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM, NEW 
YORK, AND ANOTHER OF RENOIR'S VERSIONS IN THE OSCAR REINHART COLLECTION, WINTERTHUR. 



LA GRENOUILLERE 

Monet and Renoir spent the summer of 1869 together, at Bougival, working in friendly rivalry and 
with vast enthusiasm. One of the local attractions was the restaurant of "La Mtre Fournaise " at Croissy 
(which Renoir often revisited in later years), and they also frequented the celebrated bathing-place, 
La Grenouillire, then much in vogue. Maupassant has described it in several of his short stories ; notably 
in Paul's Wife. " At La Grenouilltre crowds of people were strolling under those giant trees which make of 
this corner of the island the world's most delightful park. " Monet and Renoir often painted the picturesque 
little islet , with its solitary tree, round which there was a constant stir of boats, a flutter of gaily coloured dresses, 
while sunbeams strewed the river with a haze of broken lights. Monet and Renoir never grew tired of feasting 
their eyes on this entrancing scene, and it was here that the methods, later to be incorporated ' officially ' in 
the doctrines of Impressionism the division of tones, the use of small patches of colour came to 
them spontaneously, without any conscious effort on their part. A new way of seeing had come into being, 
owing nothing to any theory, and all to the direct observation of nature, of the play of sunlight on the Seine. 
True, the unity of the impressionist style was not a fait accompli until round about 1873 ; yet we may well 
think that neither Monet nor Renoir ever surpassed the inspiration of this, their " first fine careless rapture. " 
After painting at least two versions each of La GrenouilUre and several other local scenes, the two artists parted 
company in October. Monet stayed at Etretat and Le Havre before returning with his wife and his young 
son to Saint-Michel, near Bougival, while Renoir joined forces with Bazille in Paris. 



14 



IMPRESSIONISM 

A NEW WAY OF SEEING THE WORLD 



w, 



e have ample evidence that revolutions in the field of art, as in other fields, are the 
result of slowly working processes, a sort of underground movement whose progress is 
glimpsed now and then in the light of flashes of inspiration or of deliberate provocativeness, 
when a spirit of contradiction goads artists to reprisal. 

Beginning in 1866, Monet had formed a habit of making a yearly stay on the Nor- 
mandy coast, where, in his fifteenth year, he had met Boudin, who made him acquainted with 
open-air painting. To this young man, enamoured as he was of movement, the methods of 
the Barbizon school seemed unduly static. Also it seemed to the young leader-to-be of the 
Impressionists that the lessons of Courbet's realistic, tempestuous art had had no real 
influence on the art of Daubigny, Troyon and Rousseau, or even on that of Boudin, his 
mentor. For them landscape was still merely a romantic decor. Corot, first to use the word 
" impression, " was aware of this. In the 1866 Salon Monet had been greatly struck by 
Jongkind's Sortie du Port de Honfleur, in which air and light seemed no longer static but 
freely moving; and this movement was destined to be the vital element in Impressionism. 
This way of seeing the world ruled all Jongkind's art. Variations of the light according to 
the hour, atmospheric changes, ripples on water and the broken gleams that play across its 
surface, the ever-changing clouds, dim recessions of sails across the sea, the gliding move- 
ments of skaters all these evoked the notion of the fleeting moment which must be grasped 
at all costs, an exquisitely fugitive sensation which eager youth, breaking from the trammels 
of the Schools, longed to express and glorify. Jongkind, moreover, painted in small separate 
touches, which somehow conjured up the idea of movement, or else by modulations 
which achieved an amazing luminosity. In his Beach at Saintc-Adresse (1867), Monet was 
already trying to discover the secret of that clear radiance which was subsequently 
to illumine his noblest achievements. But it was only by degrees that he made this light 
his own. At this stage his colour is laid on in broad, sweeping brushstrokes which accurately 
reflect light ; but it still lacks those nuclei of shimmering intensity which constellate his later 
works. Thus he has not yet created light ; only copied it. Nevertheless he has made great 
strides ; the brilliant intricacies of his master Boudin are far behind and have given place to 
a spacious ease of execution. But, he has not yet definitely broken with the Honfleur School. 

In 1869 Monet settled at Saint-Michel (near Bougival), and Renoir came to join 
him there. This is the " Grenouillere " period, when the two artists in friendly rivalry 
tried their hand at the same subject, a small bathing-place and restaurant on the Seine. 
Here both artists made the discovery of reflections, even distinguishing the " reflections of 
reflections " in running water. By reason of the eddies in the current these reflections take 
the form of minute, juxtaposed surfaces which when they clash together emit flashes of 
intensely vivid light. Similarly, in wind-ruffled leafage curious vibrations are set up, and 
these, too, studied by the keen eyes of our Impressionists-to-be, opened portals of discovery. 
We are now witnessing the preamble of Impressionist technique, with its tiny patches of 
colour, and breaking-up of tones. But the two young pioneers had not realized as yet the 
value of their discoveries; nor had they formed theories theories always come later. They 
were still feeling their way; and all such tentatives are more spontaneous than deliberate. 
This may be why their GrenouilUres have qualities which neither artist was ever to surpass. 

Yet, though we find the impressionist way of viewing the world taking form in Monet's 
art, it was accepted only with restrictions, due to differences of temperament, by other 



15 



members of the group. Thus, though Renoir, Pissarro and Sisley were much taken by this 
ingenious conception of light and movement, it seemed to them a little too abstract. Renoir 
Was far f rpra being a blind adorer of nature ; in fact he once declared that it was not looking at 
} riature that made the artist, but looking at the masterpieces in the museums. 

Pissarro demurred for different reasons. His love of nature was essentially the 
artist's; he loved nature for what he had learned of her from Courbet to begin with, then 
from Troyon and Daubigny ; from the whole Barbizon School and especially from his master, 
Corot. Thus at first he felt some qualms about this notion of brutally dissecting certain 
aspects of the visible world of which his masters had made so much ; for example that 
majestic order in diversity, which his still essentially classical outlook led him to admire in 
nature. Thus, deeply loving nature for herself, he felt some consternation when he saw 
Monet putting her, as it were, on the operating-table. Hence the adherence to the Corot 
tradition that we see in his View of Louveciennes. When Monet gives a name to a picture, 
even one of a well-known place, we feel that he attaches no importance to it. Whereas we 
feel, with Pissarro, that this is a spot of earth which he has singled out and loves; he names 
his picture 'Louveciennes' for example, with much the same feelings as has a townsman 
chocteing a name for his country cottage. And he gives as much loving care to his canvas as does 
the townsman to the upkeep of " his little place in the country. " He scrupulously respects 
the unity of the scene, plots everything out in advance, and encloses it within quite definite 
limits. The lines of streets, rivers, trees and houses are used as solidly constructive elements, 
countering any risk of fragility in the composition. And he takes these precautions at the 
very time when Monet's and Renoir's Grenouilteres are scattering light-heartedly upon their 
canvases those multicolored vibrancies which they have borrowed from the glints on water 
and flashes of refracted light, building up with these an image of nature that (we must 
admit) has something a trifle artificial, almost robot-like about it anyhow if we view it 
from the angle of the classical landscape. But Pissarro, in whom the principles of the Barbizon 
School, combining romantic spontaneity with strictly disciplined execution, were deeply 
ingrained, held, thanks to them, an admirable balance between his sensibility and his intellect. 

While Pissarro was still faithful to this sense of construction which indeed never 
left him Sisley, too, held off for yet a while from the impressionist adventure. He, too, 
loved nature and was set on keeping to his programme of being nature's servant and not 
using her for his own ends. Moreover, the restlessness and dazzle of impressionist art somehow 
offended both his natural delicacy and his very sensitive vision. Thus his Montmartre is the 
picture of a place where we feel he would have wished to live. This is why he, too, never 
broke with the Barbizon tradition. His feeling for the permanent was always at strife 
with the ephemeral, and, conscious of his temperamental instability and his unresolved 
conflicts, he preferred to throw in his lot with the constructivists. Also his natural discretion 
warned him off over-bright tones. Thus we find Corot 's silvery tonalities in his poplars and 
willows; indeed the art of the two masters is always pitched in the same key. 

Sisley was the least intransigent of the Impressionists precisely because, being endowed 
with an exceptionally delicate sensibility, he elected, on the promptings of a vaguely wistful 
romanticism, to keep to a manner which already in the days of Monet seemed a shade 
out of date. 



C. PISSARRO. THE GISORS ROAD. 

PAINTER OK THE COUNTRYSIDE AND RURAL LIFE, PISSARRO IS MORE REALISTIC THAN MONET AND RENOIR, MORE MINDFUL OF 

CONSTRUCTIVE VALUES. COTTAGES ON THE OUTSKIRTS OF A VILLAGE, THE RECESSION OF A COUNTRY ROAD (A HERITAGE 

FROM COROT), WITH THE NEW-DISCOVERED VIBRATION OF LIGHT AND SHADOWS, ARE HIS FAVOURITE THEME. 

A. SISLEY. VIEW OF MONTMARTRE. 

FOR THIS FINE VIEW OF MONTMARTRE SISLEY SET UP HIS EASEL ON THE PLAINE MONCEAU. THE FAMOUS HILL, SOON TO BE 

OVERRUN BY HOUSES, WAS STILL A COUNTRY VILLAGE WITH A FEW SURVIVING WINDMILLS. CEORGE MICHEL, DEAN OF THE 

PAINTERS OF "LA BUTTR," JONCKIND, COROT AND THEODORE ROUSSEAU, HAD AIJIEADY TURNED ITS PICTURESQUENESS TO 

ACCOUNT; NOW- Tf& IMPRESSIONISTS WERE TO ADOPT IT. AND MAKE IT ONE OF PAINTING'S "HIGH PLACES." 



16 




C. PISSARRO (1830-1903). PONTOISE, THE GISORS ROAD, l868. I5Xl8". BELVEDERE, VIENNA. 
A. SISLEY (1840-1899). VIEW OF MONTMARTRE, 1869. 2J l / 2 X 46". MUS&E, GRENOBLE. 




17 




C. MONET (1840-1926). THE BEACH AT TROUVILLE, 1870. 15X18". TATE GALLERY, LONDON. 

BEACHES AND PARASOLS 

We have seen Monet and Renoir at Bougival, in 1865, painting their Grenouillires, the first 
distinctively impressionist canvases. But Monet had not yet attained a wholly personal style, and in the summer 
of 1870, at Trouville and Le Havre, he still was painting (if for the last time) in the manner of Courbet and 
Manet. In September he went to England; the atmosphere of London, his discovery of Turner and Constable, 
followed by two successive trips to Holland, speeded up the evolution of his art. On his return from Holland 
in 1872, abandoning the Channel coast for the banks of the Seine, he settled at Argenteuil, where his friends 
came to join him. The Channel seaside resorts were a " creation " of the Second Empire, and especially the Due 
de Morny, who launched Deauville and Trouville. It was to Trouville that the Goncourts took the painters in their 
Manette Salomon (1866). These coastal resorts played an important part in the shaping of Impressionism, 
under the aegis of Boudin and Jongkind. They were also playgrounds reserved for the upper classes, and 
as such appealed to Manet, whose palette was always keyed to elegance. But, for very good reasons, the young 
painters preferred the less elegant and far cheaper joys of boating on the Seine and staying at the little riverside 
inns near Paris, which likewise came into vogue around 1870. 

This new-found delight in open-air life and sunlight led to the appearance, at the seaside, in gardens 
and on country walks, of that charming adjunct of feminine excursion, the parasol and the Impressionists 
were not slow to turn it to account. These many-hued, gracefully rounded forms, dappling faces with sudden 
gleams and shadows, admirably fell in with their programme. Amongst well-known masterpieces in which 
the parasol plays its charming part, we may cite Courbet's Woman with the Shawl, Degas' Women at the 
Races, Manet's Spring, Pissarro's and Sisley's Garden scenes, Renoir's and Monet's numerous pictures 
entitled Woman with a Parasol. 



18 



Discovery of London 

the very moment when their researches were beginning to take shape, the 1870-1871 
War broke on the Impressionists, and it had far-reaching effects on their work. Bazille 
volunteered for active service and was killed in the fighting at Beaune-M-Rolande (1870). 
Cfezanne took refuge at 1'Estaque, near Marseilles. Renoir was posted to the Xth Regiment 
of Light Cavalry at Bordeaux. Manet served as a Staff Officer in the National Guard. 
Meanwhile Monet, Pissarro and Sisley joined forces and migrated to London. There they 
met Daubigny, who proved a friend in need, and introduced them to Durand-Ruel. This 
famous picture-dealer, who had hitherto confined his patronage to the works of the romantic , 
painters, now took the new school under his wing, and gave them material aid. 

The peculiar quality of the London light fascinated the three painters, and had 
an influence on them which profoundly affected the subsequent course of Impressionism. 
A tenuous, faintly misted light, it was already doing what the young Impressionists 
were presently to do deliberately: " volatilizing " forms. Daily from the window of his 
bedroom, which overlooked the Thames, Monet watched a billowy pall of smoke and 
fog spreading across the sun. Outlines softened, buildings grew blurred, and this feeble 
light struggling to pierce the famous " pea-soup " fog of London conjured up an eerie 
sort of reality a wholly new experience for the eyes of young artists used to the 
clearer air of France. 

Also, they discovered Turner. Despite his obvious romanticism, he came as a vast 
surprise to Monet and Pissarro (Sisley knew him already). His lyrical emotion, his feeling 
for the prodigious, sometimes a little strained and aiming more at theatrical effect than at 
the realistic precision dear to Impressionism, revealed to them a new aspect of light. Never- 
theless, despite the progress made by Turner, they recognized in his work a survival of the 
classical types of lighting against which Watteau and Claude Lorrain had tried to contend. 
But it was the great English master's watercolours that most impressed the young artists. 
In them light is evoked with a sensitive immediacy; whereas Turner's oil paintings retain 
traces of studio-produced work. 

It would seem that Constable's art held their attention even more than Turner's. That 
radiant evocation of the sheen of windy mornings, of dew, of coolness and young flowers, gave 
them the assurance they so greatly needed of the legitimacy of their quest. What, like 
Sisley, Pissarro appreciated in Constable was, primarily no doubt, his rejection of the " noble 
features " of a landscape; but also his respect for the classical composition from which they 
could never break away. We may also be sure that Monet, Sisley and Pissarro saw that 
famous canvas to which Constable gave a title stating the time of day at which he painted it. 
What better precedent could they desire for their quest of sensations born of the fleeting 
Jiour ? And Monet certainly had this in mind when he added to his famous Sunrise the 
sub-title Impression. 

During his stay in London Pissarro resolved to give light that primacy which subse- 
quently Impressionism was " officially " to confer on it ; all his canvases, while still somewhat 
leaden-hued and dull, now definitely tended to grow lighter. 

Monet, on the other hand, found in Turner an endorsement of his leanings toward 
decoration. London's influence on him was even more decisive than that of Japanese art. 
As we watch the evolution of his work we find that, though often faithful to memories of his 
first teacher, Boudin, he also employs Turnerian methods using large tracts of flat colour; 
a practice in which he persisted longer than in that of the juxtaposition of tones. And, in 
his last works, it still was memories of Turner that led him to press his " poetry of light " 
to an extreme which, for all its extravagant intensity, does not lack grandeur. 



19 




J. F. BAZILLE (1841-1870). THE ARTIST'S STUDIO, 1870. 3! % x 50". LOUVRE, PARIS, 

IN HIS NEW STUDIO IN THE BATIGNOLLES DISTRICT, NEAR THE CAFfi GUERBOIS, BAZILLE, A WARM-HEARTED YOUNG MAN, KEPT 
OPEN HOUSE TO HIS FRIENDS. HERE WE MAY IDENTIFY EDMOND MAITRE AT THE PIANO, ZOLA LEANING ON THE BANISTER, 
RENOIR SKATED ON THE EDGE OF A TABLE, MANET WEARING A HAT AND, BEHIND HIM, MONET, BOTH OF THEM LOOKING AT 
THE CANVAS THAT BAZILLE, PALETTE IN HAND, IS SHOWING THEM. THE TALL FIGURE OF BAZILLE IS SAID TO HAVE BEEN 
SKETCHED IN BY MANET. APART FROM THE DOCUMENTARY INTEREST OF THIS PICTURE, ITS FRIENDLY ATMOSPHERE AND ITS 
HARMONY OF GREYS, PINKS AND BLACKS ARE PARTICULARLY EFFECTIVE, 



DA VI I I CT It was a visit to the collection of Alfred Bruyas, friend of Delacroix and 
Courbet, at Montpellier (his birthplace) that decided Bazille, who was 
intended for the medical profession, to become a painter. 

The memory of this affectionate, warm-hearted young man, of whom Renoir made 
so touching a portrait (1868), who helped his friend Monet through a period of extreme 
financial straits, and, having enlisted for active service as a volunteer, fell at the Battle of 
Beaune-la-Rolande on November 28, 1870, raises the question of what might have been the 
future course of a career so rich in promise. When he died, Impressionism had not yet 
come into its own and painting out-of-doors was, comparatively speaking, in its infancy. 
The most that was being done at this stage was to use a palette featuring light colours, which 
merely gave an illusion of sunlight and the open air. 

But in his Family Reunion (1866), an excellent portrait of Sisley, another of Renoir, 
of a boldness, at once novel and compelling, and The Artist's Studio (1870), which perhaps 
owes something to the influence of Degas in all these canvases Bazille made proof both of 
a fine feeling for construction and a subtle treatment of colour. What course would his art 
have taken, had he lived ? We have an impression that his natural trend was towards a 
broadness of treatment and a tectonic handling of volumes that might well have given his 
" Impressionism " that architectural quality in which Cezanne was destined to excel. 



20 



1871-1880 



1871 The Commune. Courbet President of Art 1 Commission. Birth of Rouault. 

Manet with his family near Bordeaux, Degas with his friends the Valpingons, Sisley in England. 
Monet visits Holland for the first tinfte, perhaps with Daubigny : Views of Zaandam. * 
Renoir in Paris, then near by, at Louveciennes and Bougival. Delacroix' influence. 
Pissarro returns to France In June and finds his studio looted. 

1872 Degas' trip to New Orleans. The Cotton Office (Pau Museum), 

Manet at Haarlem, admires Franz Hals. Durand-Ruel buys 40,000 francs' worth of pictures from him, 

Monet's second visit to Holland. On his return settles at Argenteuil. 

Pissarro at Pontoise, where Guillaumin and C6zanne join him. 

Renoir in Paris, rue Notre-Dame-des-Champs. Views of the Pont-Neuf and the Seine quays. 

1873 Degas returns, Studies of dancers. The Opera burnt down. 

Great success of Manet at the Salon, Le Bon Bock (Collection Carroll J. Tyson, Philadelphia). Summer at 

Berck-sur-Mer. 

Monet at Argenteuil, sets up studio in a boat, paints river-scenes, regattas. 

Cezanne at Auvers, with Dr Gachet. La Malson du Pendu (Louvre). 

Pissarro : Les Coteaux do I'Hermitage. Sisley at Louveciennes, Marly, Bougival. 

Renoir, helped by Durand-Ruel, settles into No. 35, Rue Saint- Georges, announces he has "arrived." 

1874 First Group Exhibition (April 15 -May 15) in Nadar's Galleries, Boulevard des Capucines. 
165 pictures, 30 artists. Manet stands out. Difficulties over Cezanne's participation. 
Manet and Renoir at Argenteuil, with Monet. Caillebotte, artist and connoisseur. 

Manet at Venice, Sisley in England, Pissarro at Montfoucault. 

1875 First Impressionist Sale, at the H6tel Drouot (March 24). Chocquet, the picture-lover. Death of Corot. 
Cezanne at Paris, Qua! d'Anjou. Portrait of Chocquet. Meets Pere Tanguy. 

Monet at Argenteuil, Pissarro at Pontoise, Sisley at Bougival, Marly, Saint-Germain. 

1876 Second Group Exlbition (April. 19 exhibitors), 11, rue Le Peletier. 

C6zanne stands out, retires to L'Estaque for the summer. Dispute with Monet. 

Duranty publishes La Nouvelle Peinture, the first study of Impressionism. 

Manet gives receptions in his studio. Portrait of JMallarm6, whose friend he has become. 

Renoir in Montmartre, Rue Cortot : La Balanpoire, Le Moulin de la Galette (Louvre). 

Pissarro at Pontoise; in summer at Montfoucault and at Malleraye (Mayenne). 

Monet in Paris : begins painting Saint-Lazare Station series. 

Gauguin exhibits at the Salon; in touch with Pissarro; collects impressionist works. 

1877 Third Group Exhibition (April. 18 exhibitors), 6, Rue Le Peletier. 

Riviere edits " I'lmpressionniste." Article by Renoir, M Decorative and Contemporary Art." 

Manet, Degas, George Moore at the Caf6 de la Nouvelle-Athdnes, Place Pigalle, Montmartre. 

C6zanne at Pontoise with Pissarro; then at Auvers and at Issy. 

Sisley at Sevres, Saint-Cloud, Saint-Mammes on the Loing Canal. 

Second Impressionist Sale at the Hdtel Drouot (May 28). Death of Courbet. 

1878 World's Fair. Duret publishes " Les Impressionnistes." Zola settles at M6dan. 
Pissarro at Pontoise, C6zanne at Aix and L'Estaque. Monet at Vetheuil, Sisley at Sevres. 
Seurat enters Ecole des Beaux-Arts; studies under Ingres' pupil, Lehmann. 

1879 Fourth Group Exhibition (April 10 -May 11. 15 exhibitors), at 28, Avenue de POpSra. 
Charpentier launches " La Vie Moderne, " with drawings by Renoir. Daumier's death. 

Renoir's success in the Salon. One-man show at " La Vie Moderne". Portrait of Madame Charpentier. 
Cezanne returns to Paris. Long stay at Meiun. Visits Zola frequently at Medan. 
Pissarro at Pontoise, where Gauguin joins him. Sisley at Veneux-Nadon. 
Odilon Redon publishes an album of lithographs entitled Dans !e Rdve. 

1880 Fifth Group Exhibition (April. 18 exhibitors, including Gauguin) at 10, Rue des Pyramides. 
Monet and Manet have one-man shows at " La Vie Moderne." 

Degas : Portrait of Duranty (Lewisohn Collection, New York); travels in Spain. Manet ill at Bellevue. 

Pissarro works at decoration; does etchings with Degas, Mary Cassatt. 

Sisley at Suresnes, Louveciennes, Moret. Deaths of Flaubert and Duranty. 

Renoir Lodges with " La M6re Fournaise " at Croissy. After much self-communing breaks with Impressionism. 

C6zanne back In Paris. Meets Huysmans. Spends summer with Zola at Mdan. 



21 



ARGENTEUIL 

IMPRESSIONIST THEMES 



A 



mongst the cities of the world whose names are permanently associated in our minds 
with certain great art periods, the little township of Argenteuil must not be denied a 
place ; for it was the cradle of an art movement of extreme importance : of Impressionism. 
As well as its ' place of origin, ' an exact date may be fixed as that when the new aesthetic 
theory touched highwater-mark in the way of truly creative achievement : the year 1874. 
It was then that the rendering of light and movement, the Impressionists' great discovery, 
was brought to a pitch of precision and a plenitude never to be surpassed though the 
painters, haunted as all creative spirits are by dreams of bettering their best, still pressed 
forward on the path of discovery, until indeed they were " in wandering mazes lost. " Thus 
it was when Monet, carried away by not unjustifiable pride, tried to carry his researches into 
the texture of light still further, and to achieve thte impossible in painting. And, in later days, 
since evidently genius and imagination alone could not suffice, the Neo-Impressionists called 
in science, and pressed the exact analysis of colour and light-rays to a point where they 
came up against that ne plus ultra which is the end of all art movements that have worked 
themselves out. But art goes on, though ' movements ' end. Their discoveries are not lost, 
but serve as starting-points for new discoveries. 

Argenteuil shows us that Impressionism is beginning to build up a new aesthetic theory, 
derived from technical data that were not, strictly speaking, new. But it pressed its realistic 
observation of nature to a point at which its very excesses, coupled with its scientific analyses 
of the matiere the material on which the artist works raised what was to be the central 
problem of modern art. Meanwhile, however, the new school stood by the doctrine of the 
imitation of nature. They noticed that the masters of the past had practised it, though 
with an eye to extra-pictorial considerations of many kinds. So had done the Romantics ; 
not only those for whom the ' story ' of the picture was everything, but also those who special- 
ized in landscape pure and simple, such men as Brascassat, Marilhat or Georges Michel (whose 
art, at bottom, always was far less instinctual than intellectual). So it was that Impressionism 
began by pressing literal realism to an extreme precision, surpassed only by photography 
the recent discovery of which had certainly caught the attention of the Impressionists at this 
stage. 

Thus they soon realized they must outdo mere nature-imitation. To use a term 
soon to come into fashion, and one which our contemporary artists were to adopt with 
still bolder ends in view, they tried to create a new reality. And theirs was no tradi- 
tional or slavish realism, but a very personal interpretation of nature on the lines of 
Zola's famous definition of art as " an aspect of creation seen through the medium of a 
temperament. " 

It was a new conception of Space and Time that lay at the origin of impressionist aes- 
thetics. Traditional art was based on a concept of permanence ; it aspired to the timeproof 
and unchanging. A gratuitous concept, indeed (to use a modern expression) a piece of 
wishful thinking, due to a very human longing to cling to the felicities of this present 
world, or the comforting assurance of a super- world of things eternal. But, nothing if not 
realistic, the Impressionists perceived the fragility of things, and it was this transient Here 
and Now they sought to picture. Naturally they were accused of embarking on " a wild-goose 
chase"; actually they were but endorsing the adage: "All things flow... You cannot 
cross the same river twice. " True, their intentions were in a sense contradictory (but is 



22 




C. MONET (1840-1926). ARGENTEUIL BRIDGE, 1874, DETAIL. LOUVRE, PARIS. 

MONET LIVED AT ARGENTEUIL, ON THE BANKS OF THE SEINE, FROM 1872 TO 1878, DURING THIS PERIOD HE PAINTED, USUALLY 
IN A BOAT FITTED UP AS A STUDIO, HIS MOST SPONTANEOUS MASTERPIECES AND WAS THE UNDISPUTED LEADER OF 
IMPRESSIONISM. CAILLEBOTTE, MONET, RENOIR, SISLEY CAME HERE AT VARIOUS TIMES AND WORKED UNDER HIS INFLUENCE. 



23 



not all art a game played with logic?) since they proposed to " fix " for all eternity the 
fugitive, the mournful glamour of the fleeting. In this respect it was only too easy for the 
pundits of classicism to tax the new esthetic with a lack of spirituality and an addiction to 
the merely sensuous. " The spirit forms, but the senses deform, it was pointed out, and you 
can build nothing lasting with the fugitive. And since form persists behind and beyond 
the colour that is subject to decay, the notion of " coloured sensations " which informed 
impressionist theory was preposterous. But the men who were raising these objections were, 
for obvious reasons, unable to foresee that the notion of " coloured sensations " would give 
rise one day to constructive themes and that Impressionism, itself " fugitive, " would come 
to mark but one stage more in art's long pilgrimage. 

Obviously this new aesthetic called for an appropriate technique. Since light was the 
source of all sensations, light must dominate the artist's palette. Each fleeting aspect of the 
world needed a technique capable of isolating its coloured moment, and it was thus the 
artist's task to analyse the vibrations of the air and of light, and to break them up into 
parts. In the movement of running water, the drift of clouds, the ripple of leafage, the keen 
eyes of the young Impressionists perceived a juxtaposition of pure colours, and a clash of 
pure tones, without the intervention of intermediate tonalities. These tones, each acting 
independently, led to new groupings, much as each individual contributes "to the aspect of 
the group he lives in. Thus, more even than the sight of everchanging nature, it was an 
organic compulsion to build up a coherent whole that led the Impressionists to the system 
of dividing up tones and sprinkling the canvas with disconnected spots, splitting up light 
prism-wise into the seven primary colours. Thus, too, they abolished " local tone, " which 
necessitates a respect for contours binding forms together within fixed, unchanging limits. 
Hence the presentation of the subject as an ensemble of vibrations generating waves of light, 
which affect the eye like the images on a cinema screen. The consequence was that form 
(or anyhow form in its traditionally accepted sense) became totally dispersed, volatilized, and 
it was against this annihilation of form that soon the post-impressionist reaction took arms. 

No doubt there was something slightly mechanical in this procedure ; in impressionist 
technique we often seem to hear as it were a click of turning cogs. And then we think appro- 
vingly of Delacroix's comment on a Ruysdael seascape that it was " the perfection of art 
because the art was so completely hidden. " But rare are the works, even great ones, of 
which we could say this ! Nor must we forget that we are now at the early, analytic phase 
of Impressionism and it is a habit of young enthusiasts to lay down the law. 

Essentially this method of juxtaposed touches of pure colour was not wholly new. In 
tracing the sources of Impressionism, art-historians have not failed to point out anticipations 
of its technique in the work of the old masters. Several of the Men of the Renaissance 
dallied with it. Nearer our times, it was used by Watteau and by Chardin, of whom a 
contemporary writer, Bachaumont, wrote, " He puts on his colours one after the other, hardly 
mixing them, the result being like a mosaic or embroidery in which a square stitch (point carrd) 
is enj$)loyed. " Goya, too, sometimes used a narrow, vibrant brushstroke. And Delacroix' 
transverse strokes showed his knowledge of the uses of complementary colour in bringing out 
a given hue. Constable, Bonington and Jongkind had contributed to the shaping of the new 
technique. And, finally, Corot on his deathbed had predicted the coming of Impressionism. 

Nevertheless these excellent precedents did not prevent critics and public alike from 
heaping derision on the new school, whose principles were formulated round about 1872. 
The war being over, the young artists met again in Paris, but soon retired to the suburbs ; 
notably to the banks of the Seine where regattas, country inns and sunlit foliage quickened 
their inspiration. Sisley stayed at Marly, Renoir at Croissy, and Monet at Argenteuil, where 
he was joined by Caillebotte and Manet and, later, by Renoir. During this period Manet 
painted his Rowers at Argenteuil (1874), Caillebotte his Boats at Argenteuil (1875), Renoir 
The Seine at Argenteuil (1873), Monet his Regatta at Argenteuil (1873). Thus this char- 
ming little town may well be regarded as the " Barbizon " of Impressionism. For better 
than all else, skies and flowing water bespeak the " fugitive. " 



24 



Never quite converted to the technique of divided tones, Manet kept to the small, 
slightly elongated strokes in which his amazing manual dexterity could operate to greater 
advantage than in the microscopic analysis involved in the use of tiny specks of colour. More- 
over, protagonist though he was of bright tones, he never liked painting in the open. Also 
he had little use for new-fangled theories and felt at home with not a few conventions of 
the older art. He went so far in the way of estrangement from his friends as to persist in 
canvasing the approval of the " official" Jury. Of course Manet was well-to-do (as, too, was 
Degas), and a rich man tends to fight shy of perilous adventures. Also he was more interested 
in figures than in scenery; thus he often put figures in his landscapes, procuring from them 
those effects of light and shade whose quest he always advocated. " All the rest, " he said, 
" comes naturally, and it often amounts to very little. " Renoir, too, was no fanatical 
admirer of nature; his view was that a man becomes a painter not by gazing at nature but by 
contemplating the masterpieces in museums. The " division of tones " as practised by him 
consisted in the use of small, fluttering, richly coloured dabs of pigment. Moreover, he was 
no servile follower of Monet's dynamic methods; his cult of light, in figures and landscapes 
alike, never took precedence of his sensuous delight in colour. Sisley restricted his palette to 
tones of blue, pink and golden-yellow expressive of his delicate sensibility. Thus Monet cuts 
the figure of the group-leader, strictly applying as he did, the principles implicit in his 
method, and painting in strong, luminous, resolute " touches. " For he never wavered in 
his life's endeavour to re-create light on canvas. 

Thus we see that the Impressionists (as was only to be expected) would not be bound 
by cut-and-dry rules. Nor need we be surprised if, after the Argenteuil phase, during which 
all were ready to make concessions in the common cause, each individual temperament 
struck out for itself. And we shall see that with Pissarro and C6zanne, at Pontoise and 
Auvers, a rift within the ranks of Impressionism began to show itself. 



A. SISLEY (1839-1899). BOATS AT BOUGIVAL LOCK, 1873. 18x25%". LOUVRE, PARIS. 




25 




A. RENOIR (1841-1919). LE MOULIN DE LA GALETTE (DETAIL), 1876. 51 % X 69". LOUVRE, PARIS. 

THIS FAMOUS WORK, IN WHICH THE RHYTHM OF THE LIGHT, WITH ITS EDDYING SHEEN, IS SUPERBLY WEDDED TO THE 
RHYTHM OF THE WALTZ, WAS PAINTED ENTIRELY IN THE OPEN, ON THE SPOT. GEORGES RIVlfcRE HAS DESCRIBED HOW EACH 
EVENING THE ARTIST'S FRIENDS HELPED HIM TO CARRY BACK HIS PARAPHERNALIA TO HIS NEAR-BY STUDIO, AND HAS GIVEN 
US THE NAMES OF THE PRINCIPAL FIGURES, CHOSEN FROM AMONGST THE ARTISTS FRIENDS AND WOMEN FREQUENTING 
THE MOULIN." IN THE CENTRAL SECTION, HERE REPRODUCED, WE SEE, LEANING ON A BENCH, ESTELLE, SISTER OF 
JEANNE THE MODEL FOR THE SWIM. A PRELIMINARY SKETCH AND A FIRST VERSION OF THIS PICTURE ARE EXTANT. 



26 




E. MANET (1832-1883). ARGENTEUIL, 1874. 5 8 ttX5I%". MUS^E DES BEAUX-ARTS, TOURNAI. 

DURING THE SUMMER OF 1874. MANET STAVED FIRST AT GENNEVILLIERS, THEN AT ARGENTEUIL WITH MONET, AND LIKE 
HIM MADE SEVERAL OPEN-AIR PICTURES OF REGATTAS AND BOATING ON THE RIVER. THIS, THE FIRST OF THE SERIES, 
AND ITS MASTERPIECE, WAS REJECTED BY THE 1873 SALON. THE COUPLE IN THE BOAT ARE MANET'S BROTHER-IN-LAW 
RUDOLPH LEENHOFF THE PAINTER, AND A MODEL FOUND ON THE SPOT. A FEW DAYS LATER MANET MADE ANOTHER 
TREATMENT OF THIS SUBJECT, BOATING AT ARGWTEU1L (METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF NEW YORK), IN WHICH WE SEE THE 
SAME FIGURES, WELL IN THE FOREGROUND STANDING OUT SHARPLY AGAINST THE BLUE WATER. 



27 




C. MONET (1840-1926). ST. LAZARE STATION, 1876-1877. 20 3 / 4 X28}4"- 
COLLECTION HON*BLE CHRISTOPHER MCLAREN, ENGLAND. 

AT THK THIRD GROUP EXHIBITION, IN APRIL 1877, MONET SHOWED NO LESS THAN SEVEN VIEWS OF SAINT LAZARE 
STATION SEEN FROM DtFl-'EREIVT ANGLES; THESE MADE UP THE FIRST AND THE MOST STRIKING OF HIS "SERIES." THAT 
NOVEL THEME, THE RAILWAY (DEEMED VULGAR, UNAESTHETIC AT THE TIME), WAS OFTEN TREATED BY THE IMPRESSIONISTS 
(BY PISSARRO IN 1871, MANET IN 1873, SISLEY IN 1878, MONET ON SEVERAL OCCASIONS). LESS FOR ITS MODERN AND "SOCIAL" 
IMPLICATIONS (STRESSED BY DURANTY) THAN FOR THE MARVELLOUS PICTORIAL EFFECTS WHICH IT AFFORDED AND WHICH 

SERVED MONET'S DYNAMIC LYRICISM SO WELL. 



THE FOUR ELEMENTS 



D, 



"uring the period when Impressionism was at its apogee, we find that the Still Life was 
temporarily and significantly out of favour. C6zanne alone, like the prudent country- 
man he was, kept some apples and fruit-bowls in reserve. The truth was that this theme 
lacked the dynamism which meant so much to the genuine Impressionists. A new convention 
was now directing painters 1 attention to the most fleeting aspects of the visible world. 

We have mentioned the theme of the figure in the open air. But the impressionist 
quest of light turned all four elements to account. 

Air is intrinsically the vehicle of light ; the location of the horizon-line is determined 
by the aerial texture, so to speak, that the artist's sensation necessitates. It is the sky 
that, of its very nature, regulates the distribution of the light. Sometimes, indeed, in Monet's 
seascapes, water and sky are mingled in an intricate interplay of reflections, whose impacts 
likewise become sources of vivid light. 

The water of seas and rivers is treated as a mirror multiplying the light-waves, and 
in the ceaseless movement of the water is found a supreme example of the dynamic juxtapo- 
sition of tones. 



28 



The clashes between the fires of locomotives, the smoke of trains or steamboats 
and the clouds overhead, which Monet, Pissarro and Sisley had witnessed on the Thames and 
Charing Cross bridge, as well as in Turner's pictures, served well the impressionist theme 
of the "fleeting moment. " Now that the railway train had replaced the diligence and the 
stagecoach, the countryside near the capital was being " discovered " by Parisians, with its 
possibilities for cheerful picnic-parties and all the pleasures of a rural Sunday afternoon 
en famille or with friends. Thus for many town-dwellers the flying trails of smoke of passing 
trains came to be a symbol of these brief escapades into the open and, by the same token, 
of the swift and evanescent. The painters were quick to grasp this and were delighted by 
the effects that were produced by the clashes already mentioned between the wisps of smoke 
and steam and the statelier movement of the clouds above. And their clouds were no longer 
the feather-bed clouds of classical paintings, or the black, ragged cloudwrack dear to the 
romantics. The impressionist artist neither asked of them that they should help to build 
up his composition, nor that they should increase the emotional tension of a scene. They 
played a part in the visual impression he was putting on to his canvas, and nothing more. 

Earth, least " impressionist " of the elements, stood for the solid and enduring. A 
mere strip of sand or some furrows were called on to support the crushing weight of a bound- 
less sky, the soaring bulk of trees, the structural mass of walls. These constituted the 
indispensable foregrounds. Snow, too, was used to play this basic part. (Surely the 
inventor of the dictum that " there is no white in nature, " left snow out of account). Not 
to mention the Dutch, who were specialists in snow, the Old Masters found good use for 



THE ANIMATION (THEN BEGINNING) OF THE BOULEVARDS, THE MOTLEY BUSTLE OF THE CROWD, VISTAS OF MINGLED 
TREES AND HOUSES, QUAYS, BRIDGES, CHANGING SKIES, THAT BLUE-GREY LIGHT WHICH HOVERS OVER PARIS ALL WERE 
MOTIFS "MADE 1 ' FOR THE IMPRESSIONIST PALETTE, AND SO IT WAS THAT THE MASTERPIECES OF RENOIR (LE POAT-AEC/F, 
1871), OF MONET (BOULEVARD DES CAPUCINES, 1873) , OF MANET (LA RUE MOSMER, 1878), OF PISSARRO (AVEtfUE DE L'OPSRA, 
1898) REVEALED THE HITHERTO UNNOTICED BEAUTIES OF THE PARISIAN SCENE. 

A. RENOIR (1841-1919). UES GRANDS BOULEVARDS, 1875. ig% X 24". PRIVATE COLLECTION, U. S. A. 




29 



white, always so useful for contrasted variations, in the wings of angels, in winding-sheets, in 
the tablecloths of their Last Suppers, or, more prosaically, on dining-room tables. The 
Impressionists did not fail to turn to account winter's white amenities for the free play of 
reflected light, and for telling contrasts between snow and black trees fretting a grey sky. 
Snow in fact supplied an ideal undertone for the boldest chromatic variations. But the snow- 
scape's lack of colour as a standby called for careful handling and a " style " which never 
failed such men as Sisley, Monet, Renoir and Pissarro, who delighted in the problems of the 
winter scene, even using smears of silver, lead or ashes to heighten their effects. 

In the urban scene the Impressionists found contrasts to their hearts' content, and 
the colour vibrations they excelled in rendering, admirably brought out the dynamism of the 
tonal patterns of city streets. Paris, above all, inspired Renoir, Pissarro and Monet to vivid 
renderings of the feverish life of a great modern city; and when they depict the hurrying 
crowds on the sidewalks, the busy traffic, and windswept trees along the boulevards, they 
evoke movement with an easy competence far more telling than the laboured compositions 
of the Futurists. 

Gardens were another theme much favoured by the Impressionists. Monet, Manet, 
Renoir, Sisley and Cezanne had gardens of their pwn at Vetheuil, Rueil, Argenteuil, Giverny, 
" Les Collettes, " and elsewhere, and some famous canvases bear these names. The painters 
kept up their gardens, or had them kept up, with loving care ; they were pretexts for brilliant 
bravura pieces or sketches including technical " notations " for future use, since obviously 
their exiguity did not lend itself to big compositions. The painters' gardens supplied material 
for highly elaborate analyses of colour, and, needless to say, the flower theme bulked large 
in their experiments. Flowers supplied the data of dazzling colour symphonies for which the 
artists' visual sensations provided an endless range of brilliant improvisations. Renoir said of 
one his coruscating bouquets, " Isn't it almost as colourful as one of Delacroix' battle-scenes? " 



THE MOTIF OF SNOW, ALREADY TREATED BY COURBET AND JONGKIND, STILL GAVE SCOPE FOR SUBTLE VARIATIONS. IN 

1865, AT HONFLEUR, MONET PAINTED SNOWSCAPES IN WHICH UNDER THE EXTERNAL REALISM WE ALREADY FEEL AN 

IMPRESSIONIST VIBRATION. IT WAS THAT DELICATELY PERCEPTIVE ARTIST SISLEY WHO MADE THE MOST OF THIS 

THEMli; THANKS TO THE SENSITIVE PRECISION OF HIS PALETTE, SNOW INSPIRED HIM TO THE SUBTLEST COLOUR EFFECTS. 

A. SISLEY (18401899). BOUGIVAL WEIR UNDER SNOW, 1876. FORMER A. UNDON COLLECTION. 




THE 'CLIMATE' OF THE IMPRESSIONIST PERIOD 

It was in or about the years 1870-1871 that the ideas behind Impressionism took more or less coherent 
and explicit form. On the political and social plane this was a momentous epoch, but the painters do not seem 
to have been seriously perturbed. As we have seen, the Impressionists were dispersed during the war, in 
France and abroad, and do not seem to have been much disturbed by it ; nor did the proclamation of the Third 
Republic affect them greatly. Such indeed was their normal financial plight that they had failed to notice some 
excellent reforms brought in under the Second Empire ; so slightly had these benefited them. Nor did they 
perceive thai, almost immediately after the defeat, France entered on a phase of quite unlooked-for prosperity. 
Even the picture-dealing business, too, made a forward stride, and the activities of the famous Durand-Ruel 
family of picture-dealers, especially in opening up new markets in Great Britain and the United States, gave 
an unexpected fillip to the investment value of works of art. 

A period of great inventions and discoveries now set in. Renan published his Future of Science. 
Bell invented the telephone, Edison the incandescent electric lamp, Pasteur began his series of epoch-making 
discoveries, and railways spread their iron tentacles across the whole of France. Under the auspices of science 
a new world was coming into being. Yet, though the Impressionists, too, were inaugurating a wholly new 
way of viewing the world and were as truly pioneers as the great scientists, these discoveries of science left them 
cold. None the less they could not help being affected by the prevailing ' climate ' and by the almost universal 
feeling that the world was on the brink of a new age, in which the secrets of nature were to be scientifically 
probed and exploited for the common good. Yet, though they formed a clan apart, they responded to that 
revolutionary atmosphere which, after the upheavals of 1789, 1830, 1848 and 1871, once more prevailed in 
France. For one thing, most of them were of humble origin and the middle class often made them painfully 
aware of this; as when they taxed the younger painters' work with vulgarity, and blamed them for preferring 
subjects unsuited for the 'noble' academic style, and for concentrating on rustic and lower-class life. Yet 
it was precisely because they refused to be bound by the static, cut-and-dry conventions imposed by the Academy 
conventions which the Academy, now as ever a loyal servant of officialdom and decorum, accepted as in duty 
bound, and indeed in which it rejoiced that the Impressionists instinctively accepted that notion of evolution 
whose laws had been established by such men as Darwin, Spencer and Lamarck. It was perhaps partly this 
awareness of evolution as an instinctual drive that led these highly gifted artists to resist constraints deriving 
from an outlook too purely intellectual and sophisticated. Nor must we forget that the natural desire for liberty, 
born with the Revolution, had been promoted by the increasing influence of Rousseau's doctrines, which spon- 
sored a scheme for living congenial to their social status in most cases that of the worker, employee or small 
farmer. Lives passed in contact with nature, not to mention the reasonable self-interest of those who have to 
earn laboriously their daily bread, had inspired them with a classical devotion to the soil, to Terra Mater, and 
likewise a sturdy independence, for which art offered a very favourable field. Thus we soon find the Impres- 
sionists desisting even from their short stays in the capital, moving out to the country and settling there. No 
such notion would ever have crossed the minds of the academic painters, tethered to Paris, as being the centre 
for the distribution of medals, for making a reputation and for cultivating people who might commission por- 
traits. This ' society ' clientele knew nothing of the French countryside except what it had seen in Bastien- 
Lepage's landscapes, which were exactly to its taste. Before making their new, direct approach to nature, 
the Impressionists duly studied it in the Landscapes of Corot, Courbet, Rousseau, Duprt, Boudin, Jongkind 
and the rest. And thus it was they lit on their great discovery. For now the young artists compared nature 
as portrayed by the Masters with the actual scene before them and were amazed at the discrepancy. What 
they discovered furnished that challenge to excel their predecessors that painters always stand in need of ; and 
they now brought to bear that ' analytical ' observation which, as we have seen, lies at the root of all impressionist 
technique. In short, discarding all conventions of the past, they looked at nature with new eyes. Like the 
first observers of the phenomena of electricity, steam-power, or some new element, the Impressionists, too, made 
far-reaching discoveries, though as yet they had no idea of their possibilities. In pursuing these investigations 
each man followed the line best suited to his temperament. Men like Monet sought to see exactly what it was that 
happened ; those like Ctzanne, why it happened thus. Thus analysis was the order of the day, Degas analys- 
ing movement, Monet light and Cezanne form. They studied life and nature with an application, some- 
times wildly enthusiastic, sometimes almost painfully intense. We can picture these young painters poring 
intently on the book of nature, like a schoolboy, bent over his exercise-book, puckering his brows or putting out 
his tongue in the effort to control his novice pen. Whereas the successful painter of the day merely applied 
himself to burnishing his hero's helmet, while dreaming of the gold medals awaiting him. 

Thus the impressionist period encouraged both the fervour of young sensibilities and the scientific 
precision dear to neophytes, and it was through the interaction of these that the new way of viewing the world 
came into being. Thus it always has been, and always will be when youthful aspirations join forces with 
freedom of expression and a gift for technical innovation. And despite the divergencies which subsequently 
led the Impressionists each to go his personal way, it is to these qualities shared in common that their contri- 
bution to art and the ' climate ' of their time owes its indubitable unity. 



31 




E. DEGAS (1834-1917). THREE DANCERS (BEETWEN 1875 AND 1877). 

PRIVATE COLLECTION, PARIS. 



32 




A. RENOIR (1841-1919). HER FIRST OUTING, 1875-1878. 25 H * 19 'i " T * T E GALLERY, LONDON. 



33 




C. PISSARRO (1830-1903). THE HERMITAGE AT PONTOISE, 1875. 21 ft X 25 Vi " PRIVATE COLLECTION, PARIS. 

FROM 187* TO 1883, PISSARRO LIVED AT PONTOISE, WHERE C&ZANNE AND GUILLAUMIN OFTEN VISITED HIM. IT WAS HERE HE 
PAINTED HIS MASTERPIECES, INSPIRED ALMOST ALWAYS BY THE HERMITAGE HILLSIDE, THE STABLE QUIETUDE OF THE OLD 
COTTAGES CONTRASTING WITH THE RIPPLES OF THE LEAFAGE FAINTLY STIRRING IN A SUMMER BREEZE, IN A PERFECT EQUILI- 
BRIUM OF LIGHT AND MASSES. 



On his return from London Pissarro went first to Louveciennes 
(1871), then settled at Pontoise (1872). It was a great change from 
the suburban scene of the Seine banks ; here were cultivated fields, woods and ploughlands a 
genuine, unspoilt countryside, and one which appealed especially to Pissarro. In technique 
we always find traces of his memories of Corot and Courbet. Pissarro, too, began by setting up 
his easel " no matter where. " Landscapes " arranged " by man, in other words, ready-made 
masterpieces only waiting for the painter's brush, do not interest him. With a tumbledown 
cottage, some hedgerows and a few more or less luxuriant trees, he composes pictures in 
which nature, analysed piecemeal, yields not a " naturalistic, " that is to say, theatrical 
truth, but one that is quick with emotion, vibrant with life. Pissarro was a born poet of the 
woods and fields, a painter afterwards. Throughout his work we see him poring on the book 
of nature with a zest that reveals itself in the extreme vivacity of his brushstrokes. In his case 
the constructive element is more a matter of deliberate planning than spontaneously arrived at ; 
he is rather like a novelist who, lacking the storyteller's craft, feels the need of a style. All his 
life he bethought himself of Corot's lessons, but he also turned to good account such tectonic 
methods as came to his notice, whether those of Cezanne or those of Seurat, both architects-born. 




P. CEZANNE (1839-1906). THE HANGED MAN'S HOUSE, 1873. 2I a / 4 x26". LOUVRE, PARIS. 

IN 1873, CEZANNE LEFT PONTOISE AND SETTLED AT AUVERS-SUR-OISE, A SMALL VILIAGE NOT FAR DISTANT, WHERE HE 
PAINTED THIS, HIS FIRST WORLD-FAMOUS MASTERPIECE. IT MARKS A TURNING-POINT IN HIS CAREER: THE ABANDONMENT, 
UNDER PISSARRO'S INFLUENCE, OF HIS FIRST LOWTONED, TENSELY EMOTIONAL FACTURE, AND THE BEGINNING OF HIS NEW 

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION IN TERMS OF COLOUR. 



Al JWpDC After the 1870 war Cezanne came back from Provence and joined 
Pissarro, whom he much admired, at Pontoise. Next, he settled down 
at Auvers. Pissarro's example, like Monet's, now encouraged him to enter into a com- 
munion with nature more intimate than that inspiring his romantic landscapes of round 
about 1860. He abandoned the passionate, not to say Baroque " vision " which had 
led to his Modern Olympia and Temptation of Saint Anthony. Under Manet's influence 
he had tried to curb his natural turbulence, and now, under the influence of impressionist 
theory, he imposed a new discipline on himself, while his art found a new objective, one 
which had never yet occurred to him the quest of luminous atmosphere. During this 
phase he gave up the rather slapdash technique of palette-knife painting, saw the ad van - 
tages of associating light hues, and tentatively employed juxtaposed " touches. " Later 
on he was to discard the new aesthetic theories; meanwhile, however, he spoke with 
modest satisfaction of his " small impressionist personality," and lets himself be carried 
away by the impetuous enthusiasms of his friends and the brief glamour of the "fleeting." 
But soon he was to retrieve his bearings when his native prudence urged him back to 
that solid framework of which his self-confessed " weakness " stood in need. 



35 



Dissensions and Disruption 



w, 



hen an art movement reaches a point where researches can be pressed no farther, 
and all that remains to the artists is to repeat themselves with sterile pertinacity, we know 
that its last hour has struck. Its members separate, and each pursues his chosen path. 
Some the leaders refuse to own defeat and frantically try to strike out in new directions, 
in a desperate attempt to keep the flag flying. Others make shift to live on their capital 
of acquired experience, thus giving a clear field to every kind of " mannerism." Lastly, 
there are those who try to refashion past discoveries, and this work of synthetic creation 
is usually the most rewarding, since it paves the way to new achievements. 

Thus it was with Impressionism. Classicism, Romanticism and Realism had known 
this fate, which neither Neo-Impressionism nor Fauvism, neither Cubism nor Surrealism was 
to escape. 

Manet had never whole-heartedly adopted the tenets of Impressionism. The 
juxtaposition of small patches of colour could not satisfy the sensibility of an artist always 
inclined to the use of those broad planes and latge tracts of colour which naturally appeal 
to a temperament averse from meticulous analysis and minute attention to detail. His 
manner was broad, swift and forthright ; he synthesized. To him much of the theorizing of 



PROBABLY PAINTED IN 1877, HIS LAST YEAR IN PARIS, THIS COMPOSITION, WITH ITS RESTLESS MOVEMENT OF LIGHT AND SHADE, 
REVEALS A LIGHT, VIBRANT TECHNIQUE STILL IMBUED WITH IMPRESSIONISM. 

P. C&ZANNE (1839-1906). SUBURBS IN THE SPRING, C. 1877. 19% x 23 V 2 ". 
HAHNLOSER COLLECTION, WINTERTHUR. 




36 



Impressionism was frankly tedious. His natural facility and virtuosity would have been 
inhibited by any sort of system. Though he never doubted the interest of the new discov- 
eries regarding light, and turned them to account in many admirable canvases, he took 
much less trouble over his light effects than did the true Impressionists with their elaborate 
manipulations of pigment. Moreover it is no secret that he was ambitious; J. E. Blanche, 
who knew him well, once said, " He always works with an eye on the official Salon." But 
though he turned his back on impressionist theory one reason being that his training on 
classical lines prevented him from breaking with the discipline of drawing and precise form 
he kept in touch with his friends and often visited the Nouvelle Ath&nes cafe. 

Renoir abandoned the countryside and came to Paris. He was soon to say that 
you learn to paint not by looking at nature but by looking at the masterpieces in the museums. 
He never loved nature for herself; at most she served him as a stimulus, or else he saw her 
as a superb example of life at its most exuberant, whose secrets it were well to learn, for 
other ends. The dispersal of the Impressionists took him to Italy in 1881 and his discovery 
of the great Renaissance masters helped to confirm his natural bent. His preference went 
to the human figure, and he was now by way of becoming " the poet of Parisian life/' 
Portraits, nudes, interiors were his favourite themes. He " re-interpreted " tradition, and 
his predilection for building, so to speak, in slabs of colour, while remaining an architect of 
forms, led him to shun all that savoured of the " dissolving view. " Thus gradually, in his 
work, the permanent ousted the fugitive. By a natural reaction he harked back to that 
period of his art which others have called Ingresque, but he himself called " harsh." Nor 
did the juxtaposition of tones appeal to him, and, during this phase, his break with Impres- 
sionism became apparent, notably in his practice of laying on colour in smooth surfaces, as 
opposed to the others' " flakiness, " as he called it. 

It is worth recording that he now had a period of extreme discouragement, due to 
his poverty, and in 1880 said in a letter to Durand-Ruel : " There are eighty thousand so-called 
art-lovers, who won't buy even an eyebrow, if the painter doesn't figure in the Salon." 

A naturally touchy, not to say cross-grained man, Cezanne was offended by the poor 
reception his work encountered at the impressionist exhibitions in 1874 and 1877, * n which 
he took part. Greatly embittered, he was now on friendly terms with Monet and Renoir 
only. In his novel L'QEuvre Zola took Cezanne as his model for the character of an unsuc- 
cessful artist, and the two men were within an ace of a duel. Henceforward C6zanne ceased 
exhibiting with his friends. In 1879 he retired to his birthplace, Aix-en-Provence ; thereafter 
rarely left it, and it was there he died (in 1906). 

But his flight from the North had other causes. Impressionism had disappointed 
him. The analytical excesses of this painting, all in little dabs of pigment, were incom- 
patible with the firm structure and design that his yearning for the permanent required. 
He wanted "to make Impressionism something solid and abiding, like the old masters." 
But, above all, C6zanne was a truly Mediterranean artist; the hazy, almost evanescent 
landscapes of north and central France could not satisfy his taste for solidity and clean-cut 
form; whereas Provence, with its crystal-clear atmosphere, its changeless skies and sharply 
defined contours, gratified his desire for perduring Space. Also, he had never relished the 
endless palaverings of the cafes, and Provence suited his taste for silence, solitude and 
self-reliance. Here, in the Aix countryside he could realize his dream of combining his 
realistic way of seeing nature with the idealism of his concepts. Little by little he gave it 
form, setting it up against those impressionist theories, which now, in his heart of hearts, 
he judged not so much revolutionary as sloppily undisciplined. 

Sisley settled down at Moret. He had to struggle to keep afloat and naturally lost 
heart. Thus he wrote to Duret : " The time is still far off when one will be able to dispense 
with the prestige that only ' official ' exhibitions can confer. So I am dutifully sending 
in a picture to the Salon." None the less Sisley, Monet and Pissarro were still convinced that 
the technical possibilities of the juxtaposition of tones were not yet played out, and tried to 
press Impressionism yet farther. But though various experiments were made, Impres- 



37 



sionism wore itself out in laboured self-repetition, and dwindled into a sterile mannerism. 
Monet, despite adversity, put up the stoutest resistance. In 1880 he wrote to Duret: 
" I learn that the pictures I sent to the Havre exhibition have annoyed the local connoisseurs, 
and indeed have been laughed out of court/' Moreover, differences of opinion in the group 
led Renoir, Sisley and Monet to refuse to join in the 1880 and 1881 exhibitions. Monet 
had a one-man show at the Vie Moderne. And, naturally enough, he too sought salvation 
in escape, migrating to Brittany (Belle-He), then visiting Italy (Bordighera) and even Norway. 
He was trying to forget the hostility of the public and the savage attacks on him in the 
Press, in which, to make things worse, some friends who had once seemed favourable to the 
new school, now took part. 

Their gradual estrangement from novelists and literary men in general was a severe 
blow to the Impressionists, who had come to count on their support. And the fact that these 
persons had shown such almost extravagant enthusiasm in the early days made their present 
hostility still more distressing and inexplicable. Thus Zola, turned " defeatist, " now 
abjured his former comrades, declaring that none of them had " effectively or decisively 
implemented the new theory of art. The man of genius has not emerged, the modern artist 
is a mere fumbler, he stammers without finding his words, " and so forth. His ground for 
this attack was his beloved " naturalism " (which he had naively thought the Impressionists 
were championing), and the fact that painters were turning their back more and more on 
the " subject " and the set theme. 

Huysmans had begun by writing : " All honour to our little band of Impressionists for 
having swept away all the old prejudices and made havoc of conventions ! " Now, however, 
he spoke of their " lack of talent and brutal clumsiness of execution. " Elsewhere he wrote 
that " their works seem to bear out Dr Charcot's remarks regarding the falsified perception 
of colours that he has noted in the cases of many victims of hysteria. " 

Novelists have, in fact, a habit of misunderstanding the purely aesthetic, " plastic " 
side of art. And in the present case it was only natural that they should feel no liking for 
an art so little disposed to pander to their literary preconceptions, and, because it tended 
less and less to hold a mirror up to nature, so obviously unsuitable for illustrating any literary 
" text " and, so to speak, pictoralizing ideas. 

To make things worse, the painters at this time were labouring under grave material 
difficulties. Their first sale at the H6tel Drouot auction rooms (in 1875) proved how slender 
were their prospects of making a living by their art. The sale took place in a veritable 
pandemonium. " People did not merely roar with laughter, " Gustave Geffroy tells us ; 
" they brandished sticks and umbrellas and would have slashed the pictures to pieces, had they 
had the chance ! " Canvases by Monet, Berthe Morisot and Sisley fetched prices ranging 
from fifty to a hundred and sixty francs, and ten of Renoir's went for less than a hundred 
francs a-piece. Monet actually attempted to commit suicide. Sheer fiasco was averted 
only by direct action on the part of Manet, who commissioned friends to bid for some of his 
pictures. 

Now, since the painters had " to sell to live, " it is not surprising that experiences 
like this, coupled with the venomous attacks on them in the Press and the hostility of the 
public, led to a split in their ranks, which was not wholly due to differences of temperament. 
When a catastrophe occurs, everyone takes to his heels carrying away the most precious of 
his belongings. All the Impressionists carried away with them on their dispersal was their 
individual personalities, the theories of the past surviving only as a memory. The one thing 
.they retained in common was that deep-rooted love of freedom which was now to lead them 
towards new avatars, untouched by outside influences, whether naturalistic or ideological, 
and to a determination to make good that " plastic autonomy " the claims of form and 
colour to reign unquestioned in their own right to which they had so brilliantly pointed 
the way. 



18 



1881-1884 



1881 Sixth Group Exhibition (April 2 -May 1. 13 exhibitors) at 35, Boulevard des Capucines. 
Monet settles at Poissy ; Sisley makes a stay in the Isle of Wight. Birth of Picasso. 

Cezanne comes to Paris (January-April) ; stays at Pontoise (May* October), where he meets Gauguin and 

Pissarro. 

Renoir visits Algeria in the spring ; leaves for Italy in the autumn, " to see the Raphaels. " 

1882 Seventh Group Exhibition (March. 8 exhibitors), organized by Durand-Ruel. 

Great Retrospective Courbet Exhibition at the Ecole Nationale des Beaux-Arts (May, 193 exhibits). 

Manet exhibits his Bar aux Folies-Berg&re (National Gallery, London). Seriously ill, spends summer at Rueil 

Monet at Varengeville and Pourville, both near Dieppe. Sisley sets up house at Morel, 

Cezanne at L'Estaque ; then in Paris (February-September). Accepted at the Salon. At Le Jas de Bouffan, 

near Aix. 

On his return from Italy Renoir visits C6zanne at L'Estaque. Visits Algeria for the second time. 

1883 One-man show at Durand-Ruel's : Boudin, Monet, Renoir, Pissarro, Sisley (February- June). 
Huysmans publishes L'Art Moderne. Exhibition of Japanese Prints at the Galerie Petit. 

Monet settles at Giverny, with Mme Hosched6. Stays at Etretat, Le Havre, in Provence (with Renoir). 

Pissarro at Osny near Pontoise and at Rouen, with Gauguin. Sisley settles at Saint-Mamm6s. 

Renoir in Guernsey (September), on the Riviera with Monet (December). Beginnings of his Ingresque period. 

Cezanne roams Provence with Monticelli. Gardanne. Visited by Renoir and Monet. 

Gauguin gives up stockbroking and decides henceforth to devote himself to painting. 

With his Portrait of Aman- Jean Seurat makes his d6but at the Salon ; paints La Baignade (late Gallery, London). 

Manet's death, (April 30). 

Manet's abrupt disappearance from the scene synchronized with : 

1. the emergence of a new generation (Gauguin, Seurat, Van Gogh) and 

2. the complete split, despite Durand-Ruel's efforts, of the Impressionist Group; it had been foreshadowed 
by their differences of opinions as early as 1860. Their geographical dispersal (with Pissarro at Eragny, Monet a 
Giverny, Sisley at Saint-Mammfcs, C6zanne at Aix, and Renoir sharing his time between travels and stays in 
Paris, before finally settling down, too, in Provence) was accompanied by like divergences in their art. Now, 
as Lionello Venturi puts it, " Monet leaned towards a symbolism of light and colour, Pissarro was attracted by 
Pointillism, Renoir set to acquiring the elements of academic form, C6zanne concentrated on problems of 
construction, and Sisley found his way out in ' mannerism 1 " (C6zanne, 1936, p. 29). While guided by their innate 
genius, Renoir and Cezanne reached, without faltering on the way, their plenitude in a steady ascent, which 
is illustrated by the colour-plates that follow , Monet, Sisley and Pissarro, having been more closely involved 
in Impressionism, and therefore feeling more at a loss as to their future course, passed through various phases, 
hesitant, mannerist or decorative, without being able to regain the equilibrium and spontaneity which had 
been theirs in the early days of the movement. 



Monet. At V6theuil (1878-1881). Scenes of the village; beginning of his " free " Series : The Breaking up of the let. 
At Poissy (1881-1883). In April, 1883, settled at Giverny, where he lived until the end of his life. Busied himself 
with his flower-beds, water-gardens, boat-shed. Took more and more to painting " Series, " which he exhibited 
at Durand-Ruel's, then at Bernheim's Gallery : in 1891 the Haystacks series, in 1892 the series of Poplars, in 
1895 of the facade of Rouen Cathedral, of views of London in 1904, and of Venice in 1912, of Waterlilies in 
1909. Died at Giverny on December 5, 1926. 

Pissarro. Settled at Eragny in 1884. Exhibited in the Salon des Independents, took up Seurat's Divisionism. After 1868 
reverted to the free impressionist technique, indulging in a new, often most happily inspired, lavishness of 
colour. Stayed in London in 1890, 1892, 1897; in Belgium in 1894; at Rouen in 1896; at Dieppe in 1900 and 1901: 
at Le Havre in 1903. His views of Paris, done like Monet's later works in " series, " are his last masterpieces ; 
Place du Th4Atre-Franpais (1898), Les Tullerles (1899), Pont-Neuf (1900), Qua! Malaquals (1903). Died in 
Paris on November 13, 1903. 

Sisley. Withdrew to Saint-Mammas, on the edge of Fontainebleau Forest, in 1883. The banks of the Loing were still 
his favourite subject, but the disturbing influence of Monet affected for the worse the native ease and delicacy 
of his responses. Travelled in Normandy in 1894, in Wales in 1897. Died alone and almost penniless on 
January 29, 1899 without having been able to obtain his French naturalisation, applied for in 1895, 



39 




AUGUSTE RENOIR (1841-1919). NUDE, l88o. 31 % x 25 ft ". MUSJ^RODIN, PARIS. 

LIKE RUBENS AND BOUCHER, RENOIR WAS A GREAT MASTER OF THE NUDE. THE SENSUOUS APPEAL OF THIS FIGURE 
ENCHANTED RODIN; ITS SLIM GRACE COMBINED WITH THE SHARPENED COLOUR SHOWS THAT THE ARTIST WAS MOVING 

FROM IMPRESSIONISM TOWARD THE MANNER OF INGRES. 



"The Earth, Paradise of the Gods, that's what I want to paint. " 



RENOIR 



hough there is no dispute as to the eminence of Renoir's genius, his work has had 
no influence at all on Modern Painting. It is regarded as something apart, unique, inimitable, 
the expression of a prodigious sensibility, defying all analysis. Also its highly personal, 
instinctual qualities do not fit in with any aesthetic theory of our times. While C6zanne's 
art had long-lasting repercussions, whose end is not for to-day nor to-morrow, Renoir's 
brought him no disciples. Yet, under its outward aspect of smiling, serenely voluptuous 
hedonism, the art of this great French painter concealed, like that of so many others, a 
secret unrest, an inner conflict almost a tragedy of divided purposes, which lasted from 
his beginnings (influenced quite normally by the old masters, Raphael and the Venetians, as 
well as by relatively modern masters such as Delacroix and Ingres) down to his last phase. 
In that last phase the rapturous exuberance of forms posed in full light gives place to an 
amazing starkness, all extraneous aspects of reality being pruned away; the artist has 
reached the stage when memories, refined by age, suffice, " all passion spent. " 

Throughout its course Renoir's work was governed by the promptings of an intensely 
vivid, almost animal sensibility. Nevertheless, unlike Courbet, he was no votary of 
instinct pure and simple; time and again he talked of his " research- work. " Splendidly 
aware of the outside world, and impressionable as he shows himself to be in the dazzling 
profusion of his colour, Renoir made no secret of his opinion that it is not by looking at 
nature that a man learns to paint but by looking at the masterpieces in museums. 
Thus we find in Renoir a constant struggle between his instinct and his intellect. 
This might have led him to a nicely tempered eclecticism like that of Chasseriau ; but his 
genius was on the alert, ever ready to interpose that " personal touch, " which gives short 
shrift to reasoning and discretion. However it well may be that, had Renoir been given 
a classical instead of a very rudimentary education, that phase of his art when he was 
studying it almost " intellectually, " and which he called his " harsh " period (1883), 
might have led to different results. Perhaps that scepticism, or caution, which comes of 
reasoning, would have prompted him to investigate for himself, like Ingres (whose fervent 
admirer he was for many years), the problems of style. But, for lack of an advanced educa- 
tion, he fell back on the examples of the Old Masters, and applied himself more to discovering 
the secrets of their power than to literally expressing his own optical sensations. " In 1883, " 
he said, " there was a sort of break in my work. " But what great artist has not experienced 
such " breaks " ? No artist escapes that inner conflict which he tries to camouflage as best 
he may by throwing off witty remarks, much as the traveller on a lonely road whistles to 
conceal his nervousness. And Renoir often made such remarks. He was well aware that 
equalling the Masters of the past was one thing; surpassing them, another. And Renoir 
saw that perhaps he might achieve that other thing by cultivating the personal freedom 
which bade him refrain from imitating the externals and rather make his own those vital 
qualities of their art which his own surging vitality, his sense of splendid plenitude, justified 
him in annexing. This was doubtless owing to an innate, unreasoned feeling for the essential 
stuff of painting, which was ever leading him on towards those masterpieces of his last phase. 
That his personality developed on such normal lines was due to the fact that he never deli- 
berately set out to innovate. In fact he vigorously repudiated any such intention. We have 
said that he never disdained the lessons of Tradition; quite otherwise, the great Flemish 
masters, no less than the Renaissance Italians, always wore his exemplars. But here we come 
on a rather paradoxical aspect of his development. Needless to say, he went to Italy and 
came back " bowled over " by what he saw there. He adored Rubens, but he had now 
discovered Raphael, who dazzled him no less. Here lies the origin of that " break " which 



41 



gave him so much anxious thought. Though his education was sketchy, Renoir was highly 
intelligent, and also extremely sensual. There was doubtless* much of Courbet in his make- 
up, but also a good deal of Degas. Thus he had an instinctive awareness of the advantages 
of balanced composition, and it led him to mistrust the shimmering vagueness of Impressionism. 
It was in observing traditional classicism that he discerned the stabilizing influences he 
needed. So now his problem was to strike a just measure between the teeming chaos of his 
sensual self and the disciplinary counsels of his intellect ; to find a common ground in which 
the two aspects of his temperament could combine, allowing neither to take the lead. 
By way of reflection and experiment, he became convinced that colour is but a raw 
material so to speak, not an end in itself; it is like the plaster or cement used in buildings 
whose lay-out an architect has planned. Thus he assigned colour a secondary role, that of 
contributing to the set-up of a structure ; but the working plan was his, the architect's pri- 
mary concern. With the result that his pictorial edifice was built to last; it was no more 
like those houses of mud and clay, run up in haste and at the weather's mercy, than it was 
like the frail, precarious structures of impressionist composition. Renoir visited Italy 
not as an academic tourist, but because an inner voice had told him he would find 
there a solution of his problem. He was quick to see that Raphael, like Ingres whom he 
admired for the same reasons, had a nature as profoundly sensual as his own, but expressed 
his sensuality by way of what were later to be called " distortions " their origin being an 
emotional and temperamental drive much like his own. His first step (of whose inadequacy 
he soon became aware) was to discipline his colour and tone down the seething brilliancy of 
his palette. This was his " harsh " period; but though his colour gives an impression of being 
somehow overlaid and hidden under a coating (almost like stucco), the composition still fell 
short of the solidity which he aimed at. For, in this phase, his intellect alone was in the 
saddle. And a hostile critic writing of the work of his 1883 " harsh " period observed : 
" These Rcnoirs are sour fruits that will never ripen." 

There was a grain of truth in this. And Renoir certainly realized that if he continued 
on this path he would end up in academicism. Very likely his memories of Gleyre and the 
dim exhibits of the official Salon emphasized the danger. 

Happily, Renoir had genius, and his genius lit on a solution of his quandary. He 
now assigned to colour the task of creating its own solidity ; he learned the uses of constructive 
deformations which, from now on, gave his compositions all the balance, weight and natural 
density that could be desired, without letting us have glimpses of an over-rigid underlying 
structure, like that of which we are sometimes reluctantly aware in the mechanical lay- 
out of such artists as Degas. 

But the fact that several times in the course of his career Renoir spoke of his " research- 
work " implies that this was not the only problem on his mind. Almost on his deathbed he 
declared, " I am just beginning to learn how to paint " which means that he was seeking 
for something unattained as yet. Was it technical perfection ? This seems unlikely. 
Though he spent much time in art museums and conned assiduously Cennini's Treatise on 
Painting, Renoir's knowledge of all a painter needs to know was innate. His Grande Bai- 
gncuse of 1880 is as well painted as his 1916 Baigneuses. Renoir may not be a modern 
painter in the current meaning of the word. He is, rather, one of the great masters of all 
time. If he joined in the Impressionists' cult of light, this was because he wished to place 
his expression of life in a setting as much " alive " as life itself ; for him light was to play a more 
vital part than that of an accessory of realism. In Renoir's art, colour is treated not as a lucky- 
bag oil handy flummeries for milliners (as Courbet put it, with Delacroix in mind), but a solid 
substance like flesh or earth, fitted to serve the building of the dream of the master-builder 
that he was. Hence, doubtless, the " weight " of his Nudes, so solidly planted in the light, 
which seems to encase them closely, indeed to shape them, as does the water round a float- 
ing swan. Hence, too perhaps, that often uniform " script " employed by Renoir, in 
which colour, reduced to a few tones, becomes for him solely a plastic substance to 
manipulate like that plastic substance whose shaping in his last phase, when paralysis 



42 




A. RENOIR (1841-1919). IN THE LUXEMBOURG GARDENS, 1883. 25 HX 21 ft". PRIVATE COLLECTION, SAINT-PREX, SWITZERLAND. 

THIS WAS PAINTED IN THE SAME YEAR AS THE FAMOUS THREE VERSIONS OF THE DAME\ A YEAR IN WHICH RENOIR HIMSELF 

NOTICED THERE WAS A BREAK " IN HIS WORK. HE HAD RENOUNCED IMPRESSIONISM, VISITED ITALY AM) BEEN CAPTIVATED 

BY RAPHAEL'S ART. HE NOW EXHIBITED IN THE SALON, MIXED IN " HIGH SOCIETY " AND INDULGED FOR A WHILE IN A SLIGHTLY 

SELF-CONSCIOUS ELEGANCE, WHICH, HOWEVER, THANKS TO HIS FINE INSTINCT, NEVER LAPSED INTO MANNERISM. 



43 




A. RENOIR (1841-1919). LANDSCAPE WITH BATHERS, igi6. 15 x 19". 
NATIONAL MUSEUM, STOCKHOLM. 

RENOIR'S "INGKESQUE" PERIOD WAS BUT A PASSING PHASE. THE POETIC FERVOUR OF HIS ART NOW DEEPENS AND INTEN- 
SIFIES. AROUND 1916 HE REVERTS FREQUENTLY TO THIS THEME OF BATHERS IN A LANDSCAPE (QTHER VERSIONS ARE 
IN THE BARNES FOUNDATION, MKR1ON), ENDOWING IT WITH A SPLENDOUR OF FORMS, LIMNED IN LIGHT, EQUALLED BV 

TITIAN ALONE. 

immobilized his hands, his eye alone could guide in making that mighty statue, his Venus 
Triumphant. 

What, then, was Renoir's aspiration? To elevate his realism to the nobility of classical 
art? Had he not said d propos of Raphael's Venus entreating Jupiter: " What arms ! It's 
lovely, but one thinks of a good housewife, about to go back to her kitchen ! " 

Herein lies, perhaps, Renoir's secret. Some days before his death he exclaimed: 
" What splendid men those Greeks were ! The earth, the Paradise of the Gods that's what 
I want to paint. " May we not deduce the goal of his " research- work " from this remark? 
If we study attentively the evolution ot his colouring, from the extreme smoothness of 1883 
down to the so-called " rubicundities " of his last manner, we feel in Renoir a steadily increa- 
sing need for freeing himself from all over-realistic associations. Thus the goal of his 
researches may well have been that grandiose, poetic art of his dreams, in which the divine 
and the human merged into each other, in an ecstasy of radiant joy whose intimations 
pervade his long life's work. This was the ideal which Renoir, perhaps naively, pursued 
and in whose service he stripped his art persistently of all that seemed extrinsic or impure, 
at the risk of losing all touch with reality in the service of an ambition transcending the 
utmost scope of the imagination. 




p. CEZANNE (1839-1906). L'KSTAQUE: THE VILLAGE AND THE SEA, 1878-1883. 20 y 2 x 25 y 4 ". 

PRIVATE COLLECTION, SWITZERLAND. 

CfiZANNE LIVED AT L'ESTAQUE, NEAR MARSEILLE, FOR MANY YEARS, AND NEVER WEARIED OF PAINTING IT UNDER ITS DIVERS 
ASPECTS (CHIEFLY IN 1878 AND 1883-1883). NOTEWORTHY HERE IS THE HIGHLY PERSONAL TREATMENT OF THK SUBJECT, IN SLAN- 
TING, PARALLEL, STILL SOMEWHAT IMPRESSIONIST BRUSHSTROKES, AND THE RHYTHMIC VALUE OF THK FACTORY CHIMNEYS. 



want to paint the world's virginity,,. " 



T. 



CEZANNE 



bus said C6zanne. Undoubtedly the desire to " make pictures " goes back to infancy. 
Not merely to the phase when the youngster tries his hand at drawing human figures, but 
to that earlier period of wholly " abstract " scrawls (like " doodling ") which precedes any 
conscious imitation of reality. Due primarily to a purely physical desire for movement, it 
comes also of an urge to " make, " to create something. And here we have an origin of 
Abstract Art which, when the time comes, we must not fail to consider. 

But, with literal awareness of reality the child begins to draw his " little men "; this 
is conscious art. And likewise it means that an element of make-believe is now involved. 
He takes to playing games, and says to his small friends, " You'll be this, and I'll be 
that. " According to the originality of their imaginations the extent to which instinct 
masters intellect or vice versa some children imitate reality, while others, a gifted few, 
transpose it into inventions of their own, which can be, as we all know, quite amazing. 



45 




P. CEZANNE (1839-1906). THE TWISTED TREE, 1882-1885. l8 X 21 % ". PRIVATE COLLECTION, ARLESHEIM. 

FOR PISSARRO A TREE REMAINS AN ISOLATED, SELF-SUFFICIENT MOTIF; WITH CfiZANNH IT IMPLEMENTS THE UNITY OF THK 
COMPOSITION. AND IS BUT A PRETEXT FOR RHYTHMICAL INFLEXIONS. 

When he lets his instinct speak, the artist is always something of a child living in a 
fairy-tale world. This is especially true of Cezanne. He conjured up a world in the likeness 
of his sensibility. " I have tried to find the geological substructure, " was how he put it. 
Far more a painter than a bucolic poet ( la Corot), he saw nature uniquely as the stuff of 
pictures. But the childish propensity to make-believe, coupled with his exceptional imagi- 
nation, led in this case to a systematization of his truth. Instead of assembling the pictorial 
data of nature in a literal portrayal which he does not feel, he uses them for the creation of 
a new-born aspect of his personal response, embodying the " geological substructure. " 

That Cezanne has influenced, and long will influence, painting, is due to the fact that 
his view of art, for all its novelty and boldness, is intensely human, and legitimately encou- 
rages artists to hark back to that state of childish grace for which all hanker more or less in 
their heart of hearts. Fortunately, thanks to the haunting dissatisfaction that never left 
him, Cezanne never achieved the aim of the artist in quest of a personal " manner " ; he never 
" found himself. " Nor indeed have we, nor our artists, " found " him. Cezanne's world 
was in constant gestation ; always he was looking for his world and his world was seeking him. 
If C6zanne has given us, " for to admire, " the picture of a world virgin he would have it be, 
this is due to the unifying force of an aesthetic system not purely intellectual, but warmly 
sensitive in its responses. For the first time painting is not a translation but has a language 
of its own (like mathematics) ; not the Esperanto of a traditional universal art, but with a 



46 



vocabulary unknown to grammarians and more like cries wrung from the heart. We ate 
reminded of Constable, that other pathfinder, who said that whenever he sat down, pencil 
or brush in hand, and gazed at a scene of nature, the first thing he did was to forget every 
picture he had seen. Though, C6zanne, in his early days, may not have thus forgotten 
previous painting, one thing is sure that when he literally fled from Paris and took refuge 
in his beloved Provence, he had realized that neither what he saw in art-museums, nor even 
the works of his contemporaries meant much to him. 

There are so many facets to Cezanne's art and such is its complexity that its com- 
mentators have formed very different views of it ; much as, when several artists paint the 
same subject, their pictures are usually quite different. But all agree in holding that amongst 
the many " fathers " ascribed to Modern Painting, Cezanne is the most authentic and the 
greatest. 

His enormous influence on the course of the painting of today (and doubtless of tomor- 
row) is due to the fact that he was at once an incomparable colourist, boldly architectural in 
his composition, and, by common consent, inventor of the most strikingly new rhythms. 

After his venture into Impressionism, he left the neighbourhood of Paris and went 
South to Aix-en-Provence (his birth-place), then to 1'Estaque. Here he had a wholly Latin 
atmosphere, congenial to the Southerner he was, and was no longer tempted by the faintly 
misted skies of the Ile-de-France to forgo his natural penchant for clean-cut form, and 
yield to the lure of a Nature before which, as Corot recommended, the artist should be 
humble, thus forfeiting the freedom of his brush. Turning his back resolutely on Impres- 
sionism (of which he retained little but a few aesthetic pointers), he set out methodically 
to ascertain in the scene before him Nature at her most candid, and denuded not how it was, 
but how it acted. And he applied the same method to the masterpieces in the museums, 

CfcZANNE HAS FULLY MASTERED HIS STYLE, AT LAST HE TRULY INTEGRATES HIS FIGURES IN THE LANDSCAPE (THE DREAM OF 
EVERY PAINTER) IN HIS LONG SEQUENCE OF BATHERS, " MEN AND WOMEN, IN WHICH THE HUMAN ELEMENTS FORM PART OF 

A VAST ARCHITECTURAL SCHEME. 

P. CEZANNE (1839-1906). BATHERS, 1890-1894. 8^x13". PRIVATE COLLECTION, SAINT-GERMAIN-EN-LAYE. 




47 




P. CfeZANNE (1839-1906). THE BOY IN A RED WAISTCOAT, 1890-1895. 36 ft X28%". PRIVATE COLLECTION, ZURICH, 

CfcZANNE DID FOUR SEPARATE PORTRAITS OF THIS YOUNG ITALIAN MODEL, DRESSED AS A PEASANT OF THE CAMPAGNA; THEY 
ARE RANKED AMONGST HIS MASTERPIECES. IT WAS WITH REFERENCE TO THIS ONE THAT GEFFROY WROTE IN 1895 THAT IT 
CAN BEAR COMPARISON WITH THE MOST BEAUTIFUL FIGURES IN ALL PAINTING. " NOTEWORTHY IS THE EXPRESSIVE DEFOR- 
MATION OF THE ARM. 



48 



which likewise he regarded as simple natural expressions, whose essential organic structure it 
was for him to detect. 

Instead of following in the logical prder one would expect, Cezanne's aesthetic and his 
technique are so closely bound up together that it is hard to decide which led to the other. 
This is, perhaps, due to a contradiction lying at the root of his work. A shy, devout, cir- 
cumspect countryman, he liked solitude and was instinctively drawn to the solid and endur- 
ing; in short, his outlook was conservative. Nevertheless he set out to build a private 
" universe " all by himself. Naturally he took a look at what others had built ; thus he 
approved of Rubens and Veronese. Still, after seeing them, he politely raised his hat and 
went his way; he had his own ideas on the subject. Cezanne was a self-taught builder who 
insisted on following his own bent meaning the use of new materials and avoidance of all 
standardization. So now we have our staunch conservative turning revolutionary ! Thus 
he constructed his universe on his own lines, out of the visual sensations he registered when 
viewing the world of nature less as a static landscape than as a living being. The new 
conception of reality called for wholly new methods which led his friend, Schuffenecker, 
jto say of him, " C6zanne has never made a picture or a work of art," but C6zanne himself 
to say, " I shall remain the primitive of the path I have opened up. " 

The construction of Cezanne's " world " called for new technical methods : 

i. Cezanne viewed nature solely through his own eyes, the literal realism of 
traditional painting meant little to him, and his so-called distortions (which led Huysmans 

THIS LITTLE STATUETTE, ASCRIBED TO PUGET, FIGURES IN TWO OTHER PAINTINGS BY CEZANNE, AS WELL AS IN SEVERAL 
DRAWINGS AND WATER-COLOURS. CfiZANNE WAS MUCH TAKEN BY ITS INNOCENT GRACE. 

P. CEZANNE (1839-1906). STILL LIFE WITH A PLASTER CAST, C. 1895. 24%X3I 3 /4". NATIONAL MUSEUM, STOCKHOLM. 




49 




P. CEZANNE (1839-1906). LE CABANON DE JOURDAN, 1906. CEZANNE'S LAST PAINTING. 
25% X 3I%". KUNSTMUSEUM, BASEL. 

ON OCTOBER 13, 1906, WHEN WORKING ON THIS HIS LAST MASTERPIECE, IN THE COUNTRY NEAR AIX, CEZANNE WAS CAUGHT IN 
A RAINSTORM, COLLAPSED AND WAS TAKEN HOME IN A CART, HE DIED ON OCTOBER aa. 

to say he must be suffering from eye-disease) are due to a scrutiny of nature far keener than 
the normal. 

2. His chief, most fruitful discovery was, to his mind, that of " modelling with 
colour," and " rendering form with the brush," instead of by the classical light-and-shade. 

3. His method of rendering form modelled in colour was first to mix up and lay on a 
thick impasto; then skilfully stripping his palette down to bare essentials, to put on light 
touches (calling to mind watercolour technique), disposed in small constructive masses like 
the stones in a building. One day when Cezanne and Pissarro were painting side by side, a 
peasant stopping to watch them said of Pissarro, " He prods ! " and of C6zanne, " He smacks ! " 

4. The constructional planes are allocated with an eye to associations of warm and 
cool tones, following the interplay of vertical and horizontal lines, so dear to Raphael. 
C6zanne also conjures up in his landscapes such geometrical figures as the cylinder, the cone, 
the sphere, which play a basic part in many forms of architecture. 

These observations may, it is hoped, suggest why a picture by C6zanne gives a sensa- 
tion of depth quite different from that given by classical perspective, which is based on 
receding lines and distance-marking objects. 



50 



1884-1891 



1884 A new association, Les Vlngt, is founded in Brussels by Octave Mans (January). 

Foundation of the Salon and Soci6t6 des Indtpendants : Seurat, Signac, Cross, Redon, Angrand, 

Dubois-Pillet, 

Seurat exhibits his Baignade & Asni&res (Tate Gallery, London). Divisionism. 

Foundation of La revue ind6pendande (edited by F6lix Fn6on). 

Manet Memorial Exhibition at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. Manet auction sale at the Hotel Drouot. 

Monet at Bordighera (January-March), Menton (April), Etretat (August). 

Renoir paints L*Apr&s-mfdi des Enfants at Wargemont. (Nationalgalerie, Berlin). 

Gauguin at Rouen (March-October); goes to Copenhagen (November). 

1885 Pissarro at Wargemont (July and November), at Essoyes (September, October). Les Grandes Balgneuses 
(C. S. Tyron Coll., Philadelphia), 

Seurat at Grandcamp. Gauguin returns (June); meets Degas at Dieppe (August). 
Van Gogh at Neunen. The Potato Eaters (May). Leaves for Antwerp (November). 
A new departure : the Montmartre cabarets. Aristide Bruant at Le Mirliton. 

1886 Eighth and Last Group Exhibition. (May 15-June 15. 17 exhibitors), Rue Laffitte. 
Renoir, Monet, Sisley stand out. Degas shows 10 pastels of nudes. 

Groat Impressionist Exhibition at New York organized by Durand-Ruel. 

Seurat at Honfleur. Exhibits La Grande Jatte (Art Institute, Chicago). 

F6n6on publishes Les Impressionnistes en 1886 ; and Zola, L'CEuvre. 

Monet at Haarlem, then at Belle-lie (September-November), where he moots Geoffroy. 

Gauguin's first stay at Pont-Aven in Brittany (June-November). 

Vincent van Gogh comes to Paris (March). Meets Lautrec, Pissarro, Degas, Gauguin, Seurat. 

Le Douanier Rousseau exhibits for the first time, at the Salon des Ind^pendants. 

Moras publishes his Manifesto; founds the Symboliste review with Gustave Kahn. 

1887 Antoine founds Le Th6Atre Libre. Exhibition of " Les Vmgt" at Brussels. 
Vincent van Gogh meets Emile Bernard. Landscapes at Asni&res. Pointillism. 
Gauguin in Martinique with Charles Laval (April-December). 
Toulouse-Lautrec paints his first scenes of Montmartre life. 

Juan Gris, Marc Chagall born. Death of Jules Laforgue. 

1888 Van Gogh leaves for Aries (February). Gauguin's eventful stay there (October-December). 
Gauguin has a one-man show at the Galerie Boussod et Valadon. 

Gauguin's second stay at Pont-Aven, Emile Bernard. Synthesism, Cloisonnism. 

Bonnard, Vuillard, Denis, Ranson, S6rusier meet at the Acad6mie Jullian. The Nabis. 

Seurat at Port-en-Bessin. Exhibits Les Poseuses (Barnes Foundation, Morion) and La Parade (Stephen 

C. Clark Collection, New York). 

Cezanne at Paris. Meets van Gogh and Gauguin. 

James Ensor paints his large-scale work : Entrance of Christ into Brussels. 

1889 World's Fair In Paris. The Palace of Machinery. The Eiffel Tower. 
Impressionist and Synthesis! Group Exhibition at the Caf6 Volponi. 
Two-man show by Rodin and Monet at Galerie Petit. 

Verlaine publishes Parall&lement; Bergson, Les Donn6es imm6diates de la Conscience. 

Lautrec's first appearance at the Salon des Ind6pendants : Au bal du Moulin de la Galette (Art Institute, 

Chicago). 

Gauguin at Pont-Aven, then at Le Pouldu (October). The Yellow Christ (Albright Art Gallery, Buffalo). 

Van Gogh, victim of intermittent attacks of insanity, enters the Saint-Remy Asylum (May 9). 

1890 Foundation of La Socittt Nationale des Beaux-Arts by Puvis de Chavannes, Rodin, Carrifcre. 
Foundation by Paul Fort of Le ThSAtre d'Art; by Vallette, of Le Mercure de France. 
Bonnard, Vuillard, Lugn6-Po at 28 Place Pigalle Lautrec at the Moulin-Rouge. 

Long stay by Gauguin at Le Pouldu with Seguin, Filiger, Meyer de Haan. Returns to Paris in December. 
Seurat at Gravelines. Exhibits Le Chahut (Rijksmuseum Kroller-Muller, Otterlo). 

1891 Retrospective Van Gogh Exhibition at Salon des Independents. 
Death of Seurat (March 26). Le Cirque (Louvre). 

Gauguin auction sale at the Hfltel Drouot (February 23). He leaves for Tahiti (April 4). 



51 



11 Painting is the art of hollowing a surface 



SEURAT 



A, 



is we have seen, the original creators of Impressionism had now drifted apart. Never- 
theless their influence made itself felt on a new generation that was to exploit their undoubted 
discoveries, either by carrying them further, or by reacting against them and using them as 
a springboard for various new tendencies, very different but always having that purely and 
exclusively pictorial quality, defined by Cezanne, and named in the jargon of French studios 
la peinture-peinture. Around 1884 new names emerge, destined to become world-famous: 
Seurat, Redon, Van Gogh, Gauguin. 

On June 30, 1884, was founded the Soti&i des Artistes Inddpendants. Amongst 
the four hundred artists figuring in this new organization were Cross, Dubois- Fillet, Luce, 
Angrand, Signac and Seurat. Their exhibition, housed in a temporary structure in the 
Cours des Tuileries, evoked fierce attacks in the Press and general hostility amongst the public, 
recalling the darkest days of early Impressionism. In 1886 there was an attempt to organize 
an " Eighth Exhibition of Impressionist Painting. " Requests by Signac and Seurat to take 
part in it met with a bad reception. Monet, Renoir, Caillebotte and Sisley withdrew. 
Eugfene Monet Edouard, his brother, had died in 1883 who was one of the organizers 
was also hostile to the admission of Signac and Seurat. Degas himself was non-committal; 
however, he insisted that the word " Impressionist " should be omitted from the poster. 
In the end Degas, Berthe Morisot, Guillaumin, Pissarro and, at the eleventh hour, Schuffe- 
necker, Odilon Redon, Signac, Gauguin and Seurat were allowed to take part. The last- 
named artist exhibited his Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte, which was 
fiercely attacked by some, hailed with enthusiasm by others. The writer F61ix Fen6on now 
became the spokesman of the new generation. In this same year he published a pamphlet, 
Les Impressionistes en 1886, in which he expounded the theories behind the movement, then 
known under the name of " Neo-Impressionism. " 

Seurat described painting as " the art of hollowing a surface. " He had in mind a new 
sort of Space appropriate to the light that he was trying to place on canvas in terms of its 
reactions to the subject of the picture. What he wanted was to " make a picture, " and 
(this, for the times, was a new venture) he aimed at a constructive lay-out. In this respect 
his classical turn of mind stood him in good stead. The constructive problem for Seurat 
was that of including three dimensions on a surface that had only two obviously without 
literally boring a hole in it. (With twentieth-century painters this idea of the "hole" 
in the canvas became a positive obsession). For getting this effect of " hollowness " Seurat 
had recourse to contrasts, the interplay of vertical and horizontal lines, of curves and 
arabesques. Hence his use of the linear patterns of banderoles and streamers, of parasols 
and whips, and likewise the diagonals of masts and sticks and chimneys, whose graphic rhythm 
determines zones of light, while variations of atmosphere provide a sort of flat perspective. 
Seurat's notorious lack of imagination involved him in much preliminary spadework, evidenced 
by the abundance of sketches he made for those all-too-few canvases which he produced 
during the brief ten years of his career. It is interesting to speculate how his art would have 
evolved had he not died at the age of thirty-two. In these sketches we find something 
more than an exploration, in pursuance of his theories, of the possibilities of rhythm; 
there is also sumptuous and superb brushwork, owing nothing to divisionist theory. " Point- 
illism, " never more than an intriguing experiment, seems to have been less a stimulus 
than an impediment to the free, spontaneous expression to which, had he lived longer, he 



52 




G.-P. SEURAT (1859-1891). STUDY FOR LA BAIGNADE, 1883. 6^X10%". GEORGES RENAN'S COtLTCTlQN, PARIS. 

ONE OF SEVERAL STUDIES PREPARATORY TO SEURAVS FIRST LARGE-SCALE COMPOSITION, M RAIGXADE, 1883-1884 (TATE GALLERY, 
LONDON). THESE RAPID SKETCHES FROM NATURE, STILL SHOWING TRACES OF IMPRESSIONISM, WERE BRUSHED HASTILY ON 

THE SMALL WOODEN PANELS IN HIS PAINTER'S BOX, 



would certainly have given rein. (Though we must recognize that in his case the " dot " is 
always constructive, never merely analytic). 

The importance of Seurat's work lies in his very personal application of the new 
methods he had thought up for the constructive lay-out of pictorial space. Cubism, as 
we shall see, drew freely on these discoveries and inventions and thus, if art-history regards 
Cubism as the most original way of seeing subsequent to Impressionism, it owes this to some 
extent to Seurat. In short Seurat might have said, like Cezanne: " I shall remain the 
primitive of the path I have opened up. " No other artist's achievement except perhaps 
that of Juan Gris who was to carry Seurat's discoveries a stage farther better bore out 
Keyserling's epigram: " In France they make revolutions in order to safeguard tradition." 



SEURAT'S THEORY OF ART 

The easy competence of Seurat's early sketches proves that he was richly endowed 
by nature. But young men like to be dogmatic, and indeed it is natural for them to wish 
to feel that they are backed by solid knowledge and to air it. Also in the eightecn-eighties 
Science was very much to the fore and its claims to regulate the future of the world were 
hotly debated. So we need not be surprised if the young painters of the period took to 
reading books which bore only indirectly on the practice of their art, and Seurat was attracted 
to such treatises as N. 0. Rood's The Scientific Theory of Colour, Charles Henry's Rapporteur 
esthttique permettant Vttude et la rectification esthttique de toutes formes, David Sutter's 



53 




G.-P. SEURAT (1859-1891). COUKUEVOIE BRIDGE, 1886-1887. l8X2I 3 /4". COURTAULD INSTITUTE, LONDON. 

WHILE STILL PAINTINP. THE BANKS OF THE SEINE IN 'HIE IMPRESSIONIST MANNER, SEURAT WAS NOW BEGINNING TO USE THAT 
HIGHLY PERSONAL POMtT/UJSTE TECHNIQUE, WHOSE CLIMAX, OF PERFECT BAI^NCE AND SHIMMERING INTENSITY, CAME IN 1887. 

Phenomena of Sight, Chevreul's Principles of Harmony and Contrast of Colours, and 
Charles Blanc's Grammaire des Arts et du Dessin. 

The Nco-Imprcssionists claimed Delacroix for their immediate precursor. Thus in 1880, 
speaking of Delacroix, Charles Blanc drew attention to his way of " slashing green lines upon 
pink torsos, which produce exactly the effect of what we now call the optical mixture. " But 
it is always rash to give the credit of a discovery to one artist alone, and many were the great 
Italians who had resorted to the technique that was now being " scientifically " re-invented. 

The outcome of Seurat's investigations was that, with a view to not merely representing 
light but to making the picture itself a vibrant source of light, he employed what is known 
as the rainbow palette of pure colours those of the spectrum which, though pjut on in 
separate dots, blended in the eye, when viewed from the correct distance; and he also codified 
another law of optics that of " simultaneous contrasts. " He summed up his theories as 
follows, in a letter to Maurice Beaubourg : 

AESTHETIC. Art is harmony. Harmony implies an analogy of contraries, and 
also an analogy of similarities of tone, hue and line, disposed in relation to their dominants 
and under the influence of light, in gay, calm or sad combinations. 

The contraries are: 

For a tone, a more luminous or pale tone as against a darker. 



54 



For the hue, the complementaries; as when a certain hue of red is opposed to its 
complementary colour (e. g. red-green; orange-blue; yellow- violet). 

For the line, lines forming a right angle. 

Gaiety of tone is given by the luminous dominant; of hue, by its warm dominant; 
of line, by lines ascending from the horizontal. 

Calm of tone is equality of dark and light; of hue, equality of warm and cool; of line, 
the horizontal line. 

Sadness of tone is given by the dark dominant; of hue, by the cold dominant; of 
line, by lines descending from the horizontal. 

TECHNIQUE. In view of the phenomenon of the duration of a light-impression on 
the retina, 

A synthesis necessarily ensues. The means of expression is the optical mixture of 
the tones and hues (local colour and that resulting from illumination, by the sun, by an 
oil-lamp, by gas and so forth); that is to say, of light elements and their reactions (shadows), 
according to the laws of contrast, gradation, and irradiation. 

The frame should be in a harmony opposed to that of the tone's, hues and lines of the 
picture. 

By common consent Seurat has been designated the originator of Nee-Impressionism. 
But the patent, so to speak, of his invention is more justly due to C6zanne, who had already 

PASSIONATELY FOND OF THE SEA. SEURAT VISITED THE COAST EACH YEAR: GRANDCAMP IN 1885, HONFLEUR IN 1886, PORT^EN- 

BESSIN IN 1888, LE CROTOY IN 1889, GRAVELINES IN i8o v IN 1888, THE YEAR IN WHICH HE COMPLETED HIS MASTERPIECES. 

LA PARADE AND LES POSRUSKS, HIS STYLE CRYSTALLIZED IN A CLASSICAL PERFECTION. 

G. P. SEURAT (1859-1891). A SUNDAY AT PORT-EN-BESSIN, l888. 
26 X 32 &". RIJKSMUSEUM KRflLLER-MULLER, OTTERLO. 




55 



said : " I want to make of Impressionism something solid and abiding, like the old masters. " 
And now with a view to consolidating the intuitive discoveries of Impressionism, Seurat set 
out to reconcile line with colour, the permanent with the fugitive. 

It was by a typically modern recourse to science not quite without precedent, 
however, when we recall the influence of the XlVth century mathematicians in Italy on linear 
perspective that Seurat set about putting Cezanne's dictum into effect. While at the 
Ecole des Beaux- Arts (where his early work bespoke a cult of Ingres and Holbein), this young 
devotee of draughtsmanship spent his spare time reading scientific treatises on colour. Natu- 
rally he was soon drawn to Impressionism, but for him the great problem was to harness 
science to the creative impulse. 

Meanwhile, in collaboration with Paul Signac, he devoted himself to scientific research- 
work, familiarizing himself first with Maxwell's experiments, then with Charles Henry's 
treatises, then with the analyses of light and colour made by the American scientist, 
N, O. Rood. Illustrative of Prof. Rood's methods is this curious equation (relating to the 
combination carmine-green) : 

50 C -f 50 G = 50 C + 24 G + 26 B (black). 



ONE OF THE STUDIES FOR THE CIRCUS, SEURATS LAST AND LARGEST 
COMPOSITION, LEFT UNFINISHED. (LOUVRE, PARIS). 

G. P. SEURAT (1859-1891). STUDY FOR THE CIRCUS, 1891. 
X l8". LOUVRE, PARIS. 



(The first element shows the mixture of pigments ; the second its effect in light-rays). 

These investigations from the scientific angle led Seurat, Signac and, with them, 
Pissarro and, later (in 1887), Van Gogh to formulate the problems of Impressionism and lay 
down the principles of the course it now must follow for its " consolidation. " In a letter to 
Durand-Ruel, Pissarro set out the programme of what was also called Divisionism. " We 
must substitute optical mixture for the mixture of pigments. Thus we can break up tones 
into their constituent elements ; since the optical mixture produces far intenser luminosities 

than those emitted by pigments mixed 
in the ordinary way. " 

Another " law " of Chevreul's, 
that of the " simultaneous contrast of 
colours, " led them to press their ana- 
lysis of colour phenomena still farther. 
Briefly, this " law " lays down that 
when two objects, of different colours, 
are placed side by side, neither keeps 
its own colour, but each acquires a hue 
resulting from the influence of the 
colour flanking it. 

</ On the strength of these theories 
Neo-Impressiomsm propounded a new 
method of seeing the world. But the fal- 
lacy inherent in this plan for transfor- 
ming glimpses of the fleeting into some- 
thing permanent and static led merely 
to productions that seemed frigid, even 
petrified. Indeed this venture of Seu- 
rat's might figure as a purely personal 
whimsy, leading nowhere, were it not 
that his work has qualities of true pic- 
torial, not merely scientific, value, and 
these, as we shall see, were to make 
their influence felt. 




56 




G.-P. SEURAT (1859-1891). POSEUSE, FRONT VIEW, 1887. IO >/ 4 X 6% ". LOUVRE. PARIS. 



57 



^ I O Nl A O 
O I vJ I N r\ v_y 



w ^ en Seurat, a student at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts and still 
loyal to the principles of classicism, was dutifully copying Ingres and 
Holbein, Signac was already acquainted with Monet, and the works (in his early manner) which 
he now was turning out were frankly impressionist. What the two young men had in 
common was an interest in the problems of colour. To Seurat, who had a scientific turn of 
mind, fell the strictly analytic work, which covered form as well as colour. Signac, the more 
impulsive of the two, whose chief interest lay in the practical possibilities of colour, sought 
above all a means of getting his sensations on to canvas with the maximum intensity. 
Included in the group which now took form were Angrand, Dubois-Pillet and Cross, as well 
as Signac and Seurat. They exchanged views at a cafe, needless to say ; and it was in 
the Cafe d'Orient that Signac expounded Impressionism to his friend. In return Seurat 
persuaded Signac to read ChevreuTs Contrast of Colours. Thus their respective tempera- 
ments Signac's all for colour-sensations, Seurat's all for architectural rhythm struck 
fire from each other. The rival claims of the permanent and the fleeting were threshed out 
(as they had been by Monet and Cezanne) and, as might have been foreseen, the durable won 
the day. Though the two artists joined forces in their research-work, Signac confined his 
to the investigation of the phenomena of colour, while Seurat concentrated on geometry, 

Signac employed the optical mixture 'exclusively, and in it he found a medium for 
new colour effects whose tones were never too " strong " for his liking. An accomplished 
writer, he took it upon himself to publicize the new theory ; he also published an enthusiastic 
appraisal of Jongkind's art. But he lacked the constructive ability which Seurat's better 
balanced mind had at its command, and his work misses those architectural qualities which 
go to " make a picture. " What is purest in his art comes out in those luminously simple 
watercolours in which he gave free rein to his emotion, untramelled by any scientific pre- 
conception. 



SIGNACTS EARLY PHASE SHOWS MONETS INFLUENCE. IN 1884, WITH SEURAT, HE FOUNDED THE SOCI&T& DES INDfcPENDANTS " 

'AND NOW TOOK UP DIVISIONISM, WHOSE THEORETICIAN AND MOST FAITHFUL EXPONENT HE REMAINED. THIS SEASGAJ'K OF 

1888 HAS STILL MUCH SPONTANEITY; THE MECHANIZATION * OF HIS STYLE CAME LATER. 

P. SIGNAC (1863-1935). PORTRIEUX, l888. 17 %X 25 ft". RIJKMUSEUM KR$LLER-MULLER, OTTERLO. 




58 




H. ED. CROSS (1856-1910). VENICE, PONTE SAN TROVASQ, 1873. 24 % X 31 
RIJKSMUSEUM KROLLER-MULLER, OTTERLO. 

THOUGH, LIKE SIGN AC, A DISCIPLE OF SEURAT, CROSS APPLIED POINTILLIST THEORIES LESS RIGIDLY, AND IN THIS RADIANT 
VIEW OF VENICE, IN WHICH WE HAVE ALREADY A FORETASTE OF FAUVISM, HE GIVES FREE REIN TO HIS EMOTION. 



CROSS 



Henri Edmond Cross's real name was Henri Delacroix. For obvious 
reasons he demurred at using so august a surname ; hence the change. 
Born at Douai in 1856, he died in 1910 in the South of France, which he had portrayed 
with such eloquent devotion. He began by painting in dark hues. But he soon joined forces 
with the Pointillists and showed no less enthusiasm for the magical effects of bright, 
untrammeled colour. 

The work of Cross deserves more interest than is generally accorded it. He was drawn 
to studying the problems of light and, indeed, as a good disciple of Impressionism, tried to 
press them to conclusions whose limits he did not foresee at first, the farthest he had in 
mind being, it seems, Monet's 'extremism 1 in his Views of the Thames. His first idea was 
to carry Pointillism a stage farther. But at bottom he had the classical temperament and 
was all for constructive lay-out. He was loyal, in short, to the great Italian tradition, and 
often fell back on scenes taken from mythology. Also the exigencies of Pointillism hampered 
the natural suppleness of his line, the lyrical flow of his arabesques. He gives the impression 
of being inclined to set up, as against the quest of pure light, research-work into the secrets 
of equally pure colour. For he shared Seurat's ambition to give colour alone the function 
of delimiting surfaces; without, however, forcing on it the geometrical patterns so dear to 
his friend. Thus he seems to have anticipated some of the ideas of Fauvism; indeed Matisse 
himself has made no secret of his interest in Cross's work. 



59 




C, PISSARRO (1830-1903). TftTE DE PAYSANNE, 1893. 25^X21 ft". PRIVATE COLLECTION, PARIS. 
AFriiR 1881 PISSARRO APPLIED HIMSELF TO FIGURE STUDIES. HIS TREATMENT NOW TENDED TOWARDS POINTILLISM. 




v. VAN GOGH (1853-1890). INTRIEUR DE RESTAURANT, PARIS, SUMMER 1887. i7%X2iJ4". 

RIJKSMUSEUM KRiiLLER-MULLER, OTTERLO. 

VAN GOGH MET SEURAT IN 1887 AND WAS FOR A WHILE UNDER THE SPELL OF POINTILUSM. "ITS A MARVELLOUS DISCOV- 
ERY, " HE WROTE TO HIS BROTHER. " BUT I ALREADY FORESEE THAT NEITHER THIS TECHNIQUE NOR ANY OTHER WILL 

BECOME A UNIVERSALLY ACCEPTED DOGMA. " 



GAUGUIN, VAN GOGH, PISSARRO 

DIVISIONISTS 

Oddly enough three artists whose careers do not suggest thai colour sensations were their exclusive, 
or even their chief interest, displayed much interest in Divisionism. First we have Gauguin who painted a 
Landscape at Pont-Aven in the technique of the point, or dot; then a Still Life in the same manner, which he 
laughingly called the " dot-and-carry-one "'style. 

When, in 1887, Van Gogh visited Seurat, he was much impressed by his big canvases. Indeed he 
showed considerable enthusiasm for the pointilliste technique, though this was probably not for its technical 
qualities, but because it might help him to step up the brilliancy of certain tones needed for the expression of 
those emotional experiences which bulked so large in his troubled life. 

Likewise Pissarro saw in the divisionist " system " only a set of new formulas and tested them, chiefly, 
it would seem, with an eye to their technical possibilities. With this in mind he painted a certain number 
of canvases. But not only did the severely scientific programme of the pointillistes conflict with that free expres- 
sion of his sensibilities which meant so much to this " poet of the earth, " but its formalism cramped the easy 
movement of his hand and that " colour inspiration " whose spontaneity he was determined to safeguard. 



61 




V. VAN GOGH (1853-1890). TETE DE PAYSANNE, 1855. 16^4X^2". PRIVATE COLLECTION, ZURICH. 



62 



" With red and green I have tried to depict those terrible things, 
men's passions. . ." . 



VAN GOGH 



A 



great change was coming over modern painting and with the beginning of the 
twentieth century there appeared two new movements, both of extreme importance : Fauvism 
and Expressionism. We may sum up the purport of this change by saying that impres- 
sionist sensation was beginning to be replaced by expressionist thought. 

The younger men seemed rather at a loss as to the use to make of the legacy of tech- 
nical devices Impressionism had bequeathed. The pioneers of Neo-Impressionism deliber- 
ately " went one better, " adding the system of the scientific division of tones to their 
" juxtaposition. " An obviously useful contribution to technique, this extended the resources 
of Impressionism, but did not open any new or very promising horizons. The truth was 
that painters were troubling less and less about nature, and tending towards a preciosity, 
a ' Byzantine ' cult of pure technique, bordering on mannerism. Thus sensation was in 
danger of being refined out of existence, and any frank expression of it was coming to seem 
almost a sign of negligence. 

A reaction was inevitable, and it took a drastically contradictory form. Sponsored 
by Cezanne and Renoir at its early stage, it set up their constructive and architectural concep- 
tions against the vaguenesses of Impressionism. Still, this meant little more than differences 
of degree. In later phase the differences were fundamental, differences of kind. 

Sensation being, so to speak, " played out, " the artists fell to thinking, and stich 
words as " idea " and " thought " began to replace " impression " and " sensation " in the 
vocabulary of aesthetics. Once again Courbet's influence was to make itself felt. It will 
be remembered that he was fond of talking about " thought, " even lamenting that he 
" could find no thought in Raphael. " He may have made this remark merely to startle, 
but one thing is certain that he called on painting to express ideas. Thus, when he painted 
The Stonebreakers, he was careful to point out the humanitarian notions that had led him to 
choose this subject. 

It was by considerations of this order as we see in the case of Van Gogh that 
painters were now led to switch their interest over from pure painting and technique to what 
was called ' character. ' Thus Van Gogh observed the sad conditions of the life of the poor, 
and portrayed these with sympathetic understanding, while Gauguin took a different line, 
aspiring by means of Symbolism, and by drawing freely on the primitive and archaic, to % 
impart a new significance to art. 

If, in Cezanne's words, Monet was " only an eye but what an eye ! " the Dutchman 
Van Gogh was only soul but what a soul ! That of an utterly honest man in quest of an 
Absolute which he found only in a self-given death. But before reaching this forlorn solution 
he struggled unremittingly to implement a superhuman dream. And, in the course of the 
struggle, he assigned to painting an end that was, perhaps, not wholly new, but which he 
stamped with the mark of his passionate, cruelly frustrated personality. 

Impressionism aimed solely at the expression of visual sensations; Van Gogh's art 
at the expression of emotional experience. He was fond of Rembrandt, Delacroix, Millet 
and Daumier. He was all nerves, susceptibility, exaltation, and for him quite trivial happen- 
ings had a vast, almost transcendental significance. For a while he worked as a missionary 
in a mining district, but without success. What he really sought in painting was a sort of self- 
analysis, but in this too he failed. He asked of art a therapeutic treatment of the smouldering 



63 




V. VAN GOGH (1853-1890). STILL LIFE I DRAWING-BOARD WITH ONIONS. 19% x 24 % ". 
ARLES, JANUARY, 1889. RIJKSMUSEUM KROLLER-MULLER, OTTERLO. 



THE DATE OF THIS STILL LIFE (WHOSE GRAPHIC ELEMENTS ADUMBRATE SOME ASPECTS OF PICASSO'S ART) CAN BE FIXED 
BY THAT OF THE MEDICAL YEAR-BOOK ON THE TABLE. IT WAS ONE OF THE FIRST WORKS PAINTED AFTER GAUGUIN'S 

EVENTFUL STAY AT ARLES. 



unrest that never left him; though it gave temporary alleviation, it could not avert the final, 
desperate catastrophe. 

Unstable, physically unfit, an erotomaniac, a heavy drinker, Van Gogh had all the 
ills that flesh is heir to. Hence his nerve-racking indecisions as to his true capacities and his 
vocation. Was he cut out to be a preacher, a painter, or something else or just nothing at 
all ? He never solved these problems to his satisfaction. Throughout his life he was the 
victim of a temperament at the mercy of every passing impulse, uncertain of its ends. Thus 
his career was one long, almost aimless pilgrimage. His consciousness of his infirmities 
drew him towards the moral and physical misfits of a social order to which he imagined he 
belonged. And his lack of self-confidence prevented him from finding within himself the 
will-power and energy needed to overcome his " inferiority complex." This perhaps is why 
he sought deliverance in observing the world around him. He, too, was not to paint " as a 
bird sings. " He haunted his fellow-countryman Mauve's studio and took counsel from the 
Great Masters in the same spirit as he took up theology courses; less to find arguments 
for a faith he lacked than to know the dogmas. Soon he had amassed considerable knowledge ; 
all but the knowledge of his genius, for never could he get rid of the idea of his own 
incompetence. In his salutary quest of perfection, his method of reshaping the world had 
always something primitive, almost brutal about it. His early work is jagged, harsh, over- 
wrought; he uses dark, heavy pigment, and violent oppositions of colours. Such were 
Van Gogh's first steps in art. 



64 



At this time he was still in Holland. On his father's death he resolved to travel, 
but, having no programme, merely drifted to the nearest city. ' This was Antwerp, where 
he found a quite new atmosphere, and one which led him to go back on many of his old ideas 
and question the merits of his " reformative " tendencies. For one thing, he discovered 
Rubens, who vastly amazed him. After a while he moved to Paris, where new discoveries 
awaited him: Impressionism, Pointillism, Japanese art. And suddenly his palette lightened. 
He took to using brilliantly pure tones, and painting nudes, sunflowers, japonaiseries and such 
pictures as his Fourteenth of July. In a letter he told his brother that he now was painting 
" in the impressionist style. " He was trying to give a new meaning to colour, using it as a 
derivative of his moods, tranquil or agitated as the case might be. And colour now became 
not merely a way of escape from his tormented self, but a sort of alcohol, in which he sought 
to find a counter-irritant. Certain physical effects of colour had been observed; that blue 
calms, red excites, and so on. Van Gogh was to press these discoveries to an extreme. 
Thus figures, landscapes and interiors, often the same ones, are treated by him quite differently 
according to his physical or mental state at the time of painting. He sees yellow, for instance, 
not as the product of some mathematical equation (the pointilliste view), but as signifying 
love or friendship. " How lovely yellow is ! " he once exclaimed, and, though all his life 
long he got nothing but rebuffs from women, yellow love's emblem to his mind was 
always his favourite colour. " With red and green I have tried to depict those terrible things, 



ONE OF THE LAST AND FINEST PICTURES VAN GOGH PAINTED AT ST-RfcMY BEFORE GOING TO AUVERS. THE " ALPINES ' 
SEE HERE SWEPT BY THE MISTRAL FORM PART OF A RANGE OF HILLS BETWEEN THE ARLES PLAIN AND ST-RfcMY. 

V. VAN GOGH (1853-1890). ON THE EDGE OF THE ALPINES. 2OX28". ST-R^MY, MAY, 1890. 

RIJKSMUSEUM KR5LLER-MULLER, OTTERLO. 



WE 




65 



men's passions, " was another of his remarks. After painting a cafe interior, he explained, 
" I have tried to convey that a cafe is a place where a man can ruin himself, go crazy, commit 
a crime. " Thus he was always seeking for strongly affective tones corresponding to his 
emotions, and in the search for " psychological colour " gave extreme attention to the mixing 
of his pigments in which, however, chance, of whose good offices Corot so often spoke, 
played often a considerable part. Thus Van Gogh's conception of painting was essentially 
a sort of colour symbolism, not without analogies which Christian symbolism, which not only 
imposed certain attitudes for the characters figuring in religious pictures, but also fixed the 
colour appropriate to each; thus blue for the Virgin, violet for martyrs, red for the devil 
and so forth. " Colour in itself expresses something, " Van Gogh said. Thus, to body forth 
his feelings, he did not depend on the subject only, but also on the colour and the form 
assumed by the colour in the expression of his intensely felt, though more or less repressed 
emotions. 

Around 1888 his health showed some improvement, but this was not to last. In Paris 
he met Seurat, Pissarro, Signac and Lautrec, and, as ill luck would have it, Gauguin. Doubt- 
less he learned much from Gauguin, but, besides his natural arrogance, Gauguin had all the 
vanity of the neophyte convinced he has a mission. He made poor Vincent's life unbearable, 
getting on his nerves to such an extent that one day at Aries, where they then were staying, 
Van Gogh flung a glass at his head and pursued him with a razor. (Gauguin, we may well 
surmise, had been " asking for it"). Worse still, Van Gogh cut off one of his own ears. In 
hospital, thanks to the devoted care of the staff, his mental health improved; but the shock 
had been terrible. And yet, in Aries, his troubled mind had found a relative equilibrium ; 
he had painted starry nights, glowing wheatfields, contented, happy faces (The Young 
Peasant, L'Arl&ienne, La Berceuse), and trees whose swirling movement somehow conjures 
up ideas of carefree joy and confidence that all is well with the world. 

Far from being the sort of neurotic artist who courts such mental crises as a stimulant 
for his art, Van Gogh dreaded them and always took, if we may put it so, a sane man's view 
of his insanity. But, despite his efforts, he had another breakdown, and now entered the 
Saint R6my Asylum in Provence. Here there was a lull, and now we see his favourite colour, 
yellow, reappearing triumphantly and more persistently than ever, though invaded here 
and there by black, green or grey patches that betray anxiety. For, under the surface, 
unrest persisted; in a fit of petulance he hurried back to Paris, and then went to Auvers, 
where Dr. Gachet (or whom he was to make a very fine portrait) looked after him affection- 
ately. But the end was near. At Auvers he painted his Mairie du 14 Juillet, in which, 
though the subject is the gay fourteenth-of-July festivities, he treats it in cold tones. He 
paints a few more dazzling wheatfields, but though his last canvas coruscates with flaming 
yellows, hovering above its rippling gold are some ominous patches, the black forms of crows. 
A few days later he shot himself with a revolver whose origin has never been traced. 

Van Gogh's last picture confirms the pertinacity of his desire to enlist colour in the 
service of his emotional experiences. It is in this respeqt that he ranks as a pioneer of Ex- 
pressionismless, in his case, the outcome of any technical programme or attitude to art 
than of a wish to express moods and feelings. And it is doubtless precisely because there 
was 'no set theory behind it that Van Gogh's conception of art's function had its lasting 
influence on the evolution of Modern Painting, an influence which bids fair to continue for 
some time to come. 

In any case it took unmistakable effect upon Fauvism. Van Gogh's assertion that 
" colour in itself expressed something " had opened new horizons, and the " Fauves, " who 
asked nothing better than that colour should be self-sufficient, found in the amazing efficacity 
of Van Gogh's palette a justification for their abandonment of nuances in favour of absolutely 
pure tones, and a means of conveying the new relationships between coloured planes arising 
from their conception of the two-dimensional canvas. 



66 



DR. GACHET, WHO WAS QUITE A ' CHARACTER * AND A FAMILIAR FIGURE AT THE CAFfi GUERBOIS, WAS ONE OF THE EARLIEST 
PATRONS AND FRIENDS OF THE IMPRESSIONISTS, WHO OFTEN CAME TO VISIT HIM AT AUVERS. ON LEAVING THE ST-RfcMY 
ASYLUM IN MAY, 1890, VAN GOGH CAME TO STAY WITH HIM AND PAINTED HIS PORTRAIT; ALSO THAT OF HIS DAUGHTER 
PLAYING THE PIANO. THE FIRST VERSION IS IN THE FRANKFURT MUSEUM; THIS SLIGHTLY DIFFERENT VERSION, WHICH 
HE GAVE DR. GACHF.T, HAS BEEN PRESENTED BY HIS CHILDREN TO THE LOUVRE. 



V. VAN GOGH (1853-1890). PORTRAIT OF DR. CACHET. 26 3 / 4 X 

LOUVRE, PARIS. 



AUVERS, JUNE, 1890. 




67 




V. VAN GOGH (1853-1890). LA BERCEUSE (Me ROUtlN). ARLES, 1889. 35 *< 29%". PRIVATE COttBCTION, BASEL. 



VAN GOGH PAINTED FIVE SUCCESSIVE VERSIONS OF "LA BERCEUSE". THE MODEL BEING MADAME ROULIN. WIFE OF HIS 
FRIEND THE LOCAL POSTMAN. WHOSE PORTRAIT ALSO HE PAINTED. 



68 




P. GAUGUIN (1848-1903). THE VISION AFTER THE SERMON, l888. 28% X 
NATIONAL GALLERY OF SCOTLAND, EDINBURGH. 



ONE OF THE FIRST PAINTINGS MADE BY GAUGUIN AT PONT-AVEN, ON HIS RETURN FROM MARTINIQUE, IN ACCORDANCE 

WITH THE NEW THEORIES OF "SYNTHESISM" AND "CLOISONNISM. " ALBERT AURIER PUBLISHED AN ENTHUSIASTIC DES- 

CRIPTION OK IT IN " LE MERCURE DE FRANCE, " FEBRUARY, 1891, USING IT TO ILLUSTRATE HIS FAMOUS DEFINITION OF THE 

WORK OF ART AS ' IDEOLOGICAL. SYMBOLIST, SYNTHETIC, SUBJECTIVE, DECORATIVE. " 



VAN GOGH AND GAUGUIN 



When Gauguin and Van Gogh met in Paris in theautomnof 1888 the two men were greatly struck with 
each other. In the course of February 1888 Van Gogh left rather hastily for Aries t while Gauguin went to 
Pont-Aven for the summer. It was now that he painted this wonderful " Vision after the Sermon: Jacob 
Wrestling with the Angel " in his new technique (to which he gave the names of Cloisonnism and Synthesism). 
He asked Van Gogh to come to Brittany, while Van Gogh urged him to move to Aries and to join him in foun- 
ding a " Studio of the South. " The little portraits adorning this correspondence are touching evidence of their 
liking for each other at this time. Finally Gauguin, always ready for new adventures, packed up and came 
to Aries on October 20. Somehow they succeeded in living together for two months, though their differences 
of temperament showed from the start, and the tension between them rose rapidly. On Christmas Day Van 
Gogh in a fit of madness cut off his own ear ; and Gauguin beat a hurried retreat to Paris. But even so 
there had been time enough for Van Gogh, vastly impressed by Gauguin's intellectual attainments, to modify 
his style. He painted L'Arl6sienne after a drawing by Gauguin, and under his influence began the sequence 
of five pictures known as La Berceuse which, while showing traces of the admiration both men had for 
Japanese prints, have the same decorative rhythm and symbolic harmony as The Vision. 



Pont-Aven 



rom 1886 to 1890 Pont-Aven, in Brittany, was the favourite resort of a group of artists, 
who in time came to be known as the Pont-Aven School. 

Gauguin went there in 1886, partly, as he said, for reasons of economy, but also 
because he hoped to find " in this unspoilt land of old-world customs " an atmosphere 
quite different from that of " our atrociously civilized communities. " Here he met his 
old friend Schuffenecker ; also Emile Bernard, to whom he gave a rather cool reception. 
Gauguin now seemed to be abandoning the analysis of colour, turning his back on 
Impressionism, and putting Pissarro, his erstwhile teacher, out of mind. A word that 
often cropped up in his conversation was " Synthesis. " His visit was brief on this 
occasion ; he soon returned to Paris. During his second stay in Pont-Aven, in 1888, his 
contacts with other artists were on a wider scale. Several new -isms now came to the fore ; 
alongside Symbolism there arose Synthesism and Cloisonnism. On this occasion the original 
trio Gauguin, Schuffenecker and Bernard was joined later in the year by Henri Moret, 
the Dutchman Verkade and Srusier. By Synthesism was meant " a concise simplification " 
of the forms expressing the Idea. 

But it was Cloisonnism that led to the most heated discussions. Its technique was 
simple enough that of binding forms in clean-cut contour-lines. Emile Bernard claimed 
paternity of the method, but there is no denying that this technique was not, strictly speaking, 
original ; it had precedents in Japanese prints, in stained-glass windows, and of course in 
cloisonn^ enarnel-work (in which the ' cloisons ' are left visible) ; not to mention the popular 
picture-sheets produced at Epinal from the eighteenth century on. This technique found 
favour with the Pont-Aven group, and S6rusier codified it. It was now that Gauguin painted 
his Yellow Christ and his magnificent Jacob wrestling with the Angel. Next year, finding 
Pont-Aven overcrowded, the group migrated to the near-by village of Le Pouldu, making 

Marie Henry's inn their headquarters. Here, 
Gauguin made the acquaintance of the Dutch 
painter Meyer de Haan. The inn parlour 
was decorated by Gauguin, Henri Moret, 
Maufra, Meyer de Haan and Srusier. 

There can be no doubt as to the co- 
herency of the theories of the Pont-Aven 
group. One of these was that the artist should 
" dare everything, " as Gauguin put it. 
Another, that the traditional views on art 
borrowed from Greece and Italy should be 
rejected, and a return made to archaic 
and hieratic forms, Assyrian or Breton as 
the case might be. Also that the artist 
should suggest impressions, conveying his 
" suggestion " by his arrangement of colours, 
light and shade, and thus produce the effect 
of music on the pictorial plane ; that outlines 
should be clean -cut, as in Japanese prints and 
stained-glass windows (as described above) ; 
that flat colour rimmed by contour-lines 
should suggest a new kind of depth, due to 
the relative intensity of tones. And all these 
devices were to be put to the service of that 
one thing most desirable : the Symbol. 



P. SERUSIER (1864-1927). LES BRETONNES, 1891. 
PRIVATE COLLECTION, PARIS. 




70 




P. GAUGUIN (1848-1903). PAYSAGE DU POULDU, 1890. 28% X 36 }4". PAUL FIERENS COLLECTION, BRUSSELS. 

FROM OCTOBER iBRQ TO NOVEMBER 1890, GAUGUIN STAYED WITH THIS FRIEND MEYER DE HAAN AT LE POULDU, A HAMLLT 
NEAR PONT-AVEN. IT WAS DURING THIS PROLIFIC PERIOD THAT HIS STYLE ATTAINED COMPLETE MATURITY. 



"When my clogs~strike this iron soil, I hear that dull, muffled 
yet mighty resonance which I seek for in my painting," 



GAUGUIN 



T, 



he ancestry of Paul Gauguin, who was born on June 7, 1848, in Paris, was, to say the 
least of it, peculiar; indeed on comic opera lines. There figured in it the stock characters 
of such entertainments: a King of Peru, a lady of letters, a jealous lover who shoots her 
and is sentenced to penal servitude, a wine-merchant from Bordeaux and the inevitable 
Spanish Colonel. 

Gauguin had an early taste of the Latin-American scene, being taken there at the 
age of three (he was, however, brought back to France some years later). When he was 
nine he ran away from home, with a tramp's wallet and staff for his sole equipment. In 
his sixteenth year he took to the sea, as an apprentice in the merchant service, and saw 
many remote corners of the world. On his return to France he married a Danish lady, 
by whom he had five children. He became a successful stockbroker, and did well on the 
Bourse, but threw up a good post, and lost all his money; then he was, successively, a 



71 



commercial traveller, a navvy employed on the Panama Canal (for he had a herculean frame), 
secretary to a company, a bill-sticker, and finally after some other avatars a painter. 

He had now found a vocation, unforeseen but fated to be permanent. Still it would 
not have been like Gauguin not to complicate his hew existence. On the usual pretext 
that of a craving for evasion, " to escape far, far away, where Nature is at her most 
exotic, " as Mallarme, the poet, put it he took sail for the South Sea Islands, on which 
his choice had fallen, presumably because it would be hard to find a place remoter from 
France. And after a series of misadventures due to his cantankerous disposition, after 
creating masterpieces for which almost none of his contemporaries had any use, he died 
miserably poor and broken in health, neglected and alone. 

Such was the picturesque life-story of this singular man. A versatile romancer, a 
dreamer of exotic dreams, a Bohemian born, with a loathing for every sort of control and 
an itch for travel, Gauguin had something in him of the knight-errant in quest of an earthly 
paradise. He held strong ideas of his own and was always ready to indulge in the most 
scatterbrain exploits; in short, he was an enfant terrible who indulged his natural "con- 
trariness " even on the aesthetic plane, but, above all, and though we cannot imagine how 
this came about, a painter of genius. 

In painting Gauguin found something he had hardly dared to hope for, a means of 
synthesizing (to use a word he greatly favoured at one period) the multitude of cross-purposes 
that had hitherto embarrassed him, and welding them together into an harmonious whole. 
His work, whether the scene be Brittany or the South Seas, is pervaded by colour rhythms 
whose tone and form alike are imbued with melancholy, deep but never desperate. His 
happily inspired, wholly unique palette is remarkable for its rich, pervasive harmonies; 
though the tones are brilliant, they are muted, recalling a legitimate analogy since Gauguin 
himself often associated painting with music the effect of muted trumpets in jazz bands. 

Gauguin became aware of his vocation when in 1871 he made the acquaintance of 
Schuffenecker, a business colleague, who devoted himself to painting in his leisure hours. It 
is noteworthy that Gauguin was not a born artist; he became an artist deliberately. At 
first he painted as an amateur, and perhaps he would never have gone farther, had he not 
met Pissarro in 1876. Until now Gauguin had, like all beginners, aimed at realism. He even 
exhibited in the 1876 Salon, securing admission easily enough. Then came the great slump 
of 1883. He* abandoned his financial career, in which he had done very well for himself, 
and told his friends, " Now at last I shall paint every day. " 

He now tried his hand at Impressionism, but soon found that the detailed analysis 
its juxtaposed touches of colour necessitated cramped his style. He blamed Impressionism 
for centering its research-work on the eye instead of on the secret places of the heart. 
Indeed he vigorously combated most of the theories of his impressionist friends; for he 
required broad surfaces to work on, without lingering over details, much as he needed 
complete personal freedom and opportunities of travel in far lands. It was perhaps this 
craving for the remote that made him so keenly interested in Japanese colourprints. Then 
a new idea waylaid him he was always having new ideas. Living was cheaper in Brittany, 
and he now was short of money; so he migrated (in 1886) to Pont-Aven. Here he met 
Schuffenecker again, and made Emile Bernard's acquaintance. They spent much time 
discussing art, and that burning topic of the day, the Symbolist Manifesto, which had just 
been published and declared that the whole duty of the artist was " to clothe the idea in 
a perceptible form. " Here was a theory after Gauguin's heart; it justified his replacing 
the prevailing semi-anecdotal art by the ideology that meant so much to him. Needless 
to say, he affected to disdain Symbolism, but he stood by its principles none the less. Thus 
in his South Seas compositions we see him trying " to clothe in a perceptible form " the 
ideas behind his Tahitian Eve and The Enigma Lurking in the Depths of her Eyes. Luckily 
Gauguin's " perceptible forms " were of greater value than his " ideas. " However misty, 
even muddled, were the latter, his methods of expressing them were admirably lucid and 
precise. Likewise he championed Synthesis, as a counterblast to impressionist analytics ; 



72 




P. GAUGUIN (1848-1903). ANNAH THE JAVANESE, 1893. 46x32%". PRIVATE COLLECTION, WINTERTHUR. 



73 



though this did not prevent him from ridiculing it when he saw fellow-artists making a fetish 
of its theories. His taste for Japanese art, for stained-glass windows, and even for the gaudy 
picture-sheets so popular in the last century all which seemed to fit in with his ideas of 
Synthesism led him on to what was known as Cloisonnism, which means binding surfaces 
with heavy contour-lines. It was during this phase that he painted that amazing Vision 
after the Sermon. By now his true personality was asserting itself. " There are noble lines, " 
he said, " and deceptive lines ; the straight line gives us infinity, the curve limits creation. " 
Japanese art had taught him much; he now wished to eliminate, to strip his canvas 
of all but essentials. Form was to be suggested by pure colour; this was now the 
" Synthesis " he aimed at, and he preconized it with all the zeal of the neophyte, though, 
as we have already said, his sense of humour came to the fore when he saw it mechanically 
exploited by disciples who failed to grasp it emotionally. This was Gauguin's most 
rewarding discovery, the key to his telling simplifications and the fine integrity of his 
close-knit forms. " Art is an abstraction. " He no longer gazes on nature with a view 
to interpreting it by means of an equivalent ; as he tells us, he " thinks " his picture 
first. (We are reminded of Raphael's In ipsius mente). Of his Christ in the Garden of 
Olives he once said: " It is imbued with an abstract sadness, and sadness is my forte. " 
Another of his remarks was : " What wonderful thoughts one can evoke by form and colour ! " 
For his obsession with " thought " never left him. It was his cult of the Idea that led him 
to give such titles to his canvases as : " When are you getting married ? " " Why are 
you angry ? " " The Spirit of the Dead keeps Vigil " and his famous " Whence come we ? 
What are we ? Whither go we ? " He had always had a weakness for the " legends " of 
those cheap picture-sheets of the " tuppence-coloured " variety which we have already 
mentioned; for the captions of illustrated newspapers, the inscriptions that punctuate 
the Stations of the Cross, ribbon stained-glass windows, and entwine Japanese prints. 
Fortunately this propensity for " ideas " did not interfere with his discoveries in the field 
of pure painting, whose great value lies precisely in the fact that they derive from the 
Unconscious to which, as it so happened, Odilon Redon was now proclaiming his 
indebtedness. Much has been made of his cult of the exotic, but this was due above all to 
his constant desire to be on the move, seeking he knew not what. The dreams he dreamt 
in Brittany became realities in the South Seas, indeed his Tahitian technique conformed 
to that fine remark he made in earlier days: " Whenever my clogs strike this iron soil of 
Brittany, I hear that dull, muffled yet mighty resonance which I seek for in my painting. " 

Packed with suggestion, his art constantly aspired towards a pictorial equivalent of 
emotional experience. The influence he was to have on the " Nabis " group, on Serusier 
(who was to act as spokesman of Gauguin's aesthetic theories), on Bonnard, Vuillard, 
Vallotton and Maurice Denis, was due to his feeling for the decorative which they pro- 
peeded to stylize and for the part that colour could be made to play, keyed up to its 
highest intensity. " How do you see this tree ? " he once asked a friend. " It's green, 
you say ? Well then put down green the richest green on your palette. " On the other 
hand Gauguin had much affection for Ingres and Delacroix, and indeed declared that there 
was nothing that drawing could not do. But " line is colour, " he explained, and added : 
" Beware of complementary colours; you'll never get a harmony out of them, only a clash 
of tones. " Two decades later Fauvism and Cubism took over his technique of using 
planes of flat colour set within dark outlines and his expressive contours but only after 
^purging his aesthetic theories of all ideological considerations. 

Gauguin's boldness served as an example. " I wished, " he wrote to his friend 
fle Monfreid, "to vindicate the artist's right to dare everything." For that "right " he 
personally paid dear. His strange, adventurous career came to a melancholy end in the 
Marquesas Islands, where he died on April 1903 his limbs covered with eczema, under 
somewhat mysterious conditions. Suspicions were aroused by an empty medicine-bottle 
found beside him. He had made many enemies, some of them influential, by his denun- 
ciations of civilization and its hypocrisies, which had caused him so much suffering. 



74 




P. GAUGUIN (1848-1903). LES PAROLES DU DIABLE, 1892. 37 x 23 ft ". HARRIMAN COLLECTION, NEW YORK. 

IN MAORI : PARAU NO TE VARUA MO. EVIDENTLY GAUGUIN HAD MUCH AFFECTION FOR THIS PICTURE ; AT HIS 1803 AUCTION 
SALE HE BOUGHT IT IN FOR FIVE HUNDRED FRANCS. SEVERAL SKETCHES AND STUDIES PRECEDED IT : HIS FIRST IDEA FOR THE 
PICTURE, A LEAD PENCIL DRAWING, IS IN THE LOUVRE ; THE FINAL PASTEL "WOMAN OF TAHITI " IN THE BASEL MUSEUM IS 

ALSO A STUDY FOR THIS PICTURE. 



75 



1891-1900 



1891 Van Gogh Retrospective Exhibition at the Salon des Independents. Death of Seurat. Gauguin leaves for 
Tahiti. 

Foundation of La Revue Blanche by the Natanson brothers. 
Steinlen in the Gil Bias illustrated magazine. 

Gatherings of symbolist poets at the Caf6 Voltaire. Aurier's Manifesto in the " Mercure de France. " 
Bonnard shows for the first time at the Independents. Lautrec's first poster for the Moulin-Rouge. 
The " Theatre d'Ombres " (shadow plays) at the Chat Nolr. First exhibition at le Bare de Bouttevilie's. 

1802 Joint exhibition by Renoir and Pissarro at Durand-Ruel's. 

Lautrec's first colour lithographs. Posters for the Divan Japonais and Les Ambassadeurs. 

Twice-yearly exhibitions at Le Bare de Bouttevilie's, until 1897. 

Seurat Retrospective Exhibition at La Revue Blanche. Salon de la Rose-Croix. 

Small monochrome paintings on cardboard by Bonnard, Vuillard, Vallotton. 

1893 Lugne-PoS founds his Theatre de I'QEuvre ; set and programmes by Vuillard and his friends. 
Lautrec exhibition, Boulevard Montmartre. Degas exhibits landscapes in pastel at Durand-Ruel's. 
Bonnard at 65, Rue de Douai. Lithographs. Illustrations for Claude Terrasse's Soltege. 
Opening of the Vollard Gallery. Matisse and Rouault in Gustave Moreau's studio. 

1894 Uproar regarding the Caillebotte bequest to the Luxembourg Museum. 

Vuillard's first murals. Publication of Le Rire and L'Ymagier (R. de Gourmont, Jarry). 
Gauguin's receptions in his studio in the Rue Vercingetorix. Portrait of Annah la Javanaise. 
Odilon Redon Exhibition at Durand-Ruel's. 

1895 Cezanne Exhibition at Vollard Gallery (November-December : over 100 canvases). 

First public motion-picture shows given by the Lumifere brothers in basement of the Grand Cafe. 

Lautrec visits London. Sets for La Goulue's booth at the Foire du Trdne. 

At the Salon, Tiffany shows stained-glass windows after designs by Vuillard, Lautrec, Bonnard, Serusier, 

Vallotton. 

Vollard publishes Quelques aspects de la Vie de Paris. Lithographs by Lautrec, Bonnard, Vallotton. 

Second Gauguin auction sale at the H&tel Drouot, Gauguin goes to Tahiti for the second time. 

1898 At Durand-Ruel's, Bonnard's first one-man show (49 paintings, posters, lithographs). 
Lautrec travels in Spain. Ubu-Roi performed at the Theatre de I'QEuvre. 
Th6dtre des Pantins. Matisse's first appearance at the Salon de la Nationale. 
Deaths of Verlaine and E. de Goncourt, Marcel Proust publishes Les Plaisirs et les Jours. 
Libre Esthetique. Exhibition at Brussels. 

1897 Lautrec visits London, Holland. Portrait of Berthe Bady (Albi Museum). 
Exhibitions of Impressionist Painters at London and Stockholm. 

La Revue Blanche publishes Gauguin's manuscript : Noa-Noa. 

In Tahiti Gauguin paints vast triptych : Whence come we? What are we? Whither go we? (Boston 

Museum). 

The Theatre Antolne in the Salle des Menus Plaisirs. Lole Fuller at the Folies-Bergfere. 

1898 Mellerio publishes La Lithographle originale en couleurs. 

Bonnard illustrates Peter Nansen's Marie ; Lautrec, Jules Renard's Histoires naturelles. 
The Art Theatre founded at Moscow ; the Sarah Bernhardt Theatre in Paris. 
Toulouse-Lautrec Exhibition in London. Death of Stephane Mallarme. 



C6zanne sells Le Jas de Bouffon and retires to Aix. Renoir " discovers " Cagnes. 

Nabis give Group Exhibition at Durand-Ruel's as a Homage to Odilon Redon. 

Second Cezanne Exhibition at Vollard's, Chocquet auction sale at the H6tel Drouot. 

Matisse, Derain, Jean Puy, Laprade meet at the Academie Carridre. 

Signac publishes his Study : " D'Eug6ne Delacroix au Neo-lmpressionnisme. " 

Special issue of the Belgian review " La Plume " devoted to the Belgian painter, James Ensor. Death of Sisley. 

1900 World's Fair. Exposition Centannale of French Art at the Champ-de-Mars, 
F6lix Feneon organizes Retrospective Seurat Exhibition at " La Revue Blanche. " 
Bonnard illustrates Parallfclement for Vollard (109 colour lithographs). 
Picasso's first stay in Paris. Meets Berthe Weil. 

1901 Death of Toulouse-Lautrec at the Chateau de Malrome (September 9). 



76 



Symbolism 
I 

VJean Mor&ts declared, in the " Manifesto" which he published in the Figaro (September 
18, 1886), that Symbolism was the only mode of expression " capable of logically 
conveying the contemporary tendencies of the creative spirit in art. " Here the word 
" creative " (as indeed the term " Symbolism ") was for the first time frankly used in its full 
modern application. Amongst the literary reviews, La Plume, Le Mercure de France and 
La PUiade championed the new theory. But it was Albert Aurier who for the first time, 
in 1891, with his article " Symbolism in Painting " (in the Mercure de France) pointed out its 
possible application to pictorial art and he acclaimed Gauguin leader of the Symbolist art 
movement. The aim of this school was " to clothe the idea in a form perceptible to the senses." 
Nature was to be observed " by way of the dream, " and all primitive, archaic and exotic 
forms of art into which symbolic allusions could be read, were to be turned to account. 
The work of art was to be " ideational, symbolical, synthetic, subjective, decorative." Paul 
S6rusier now became the painter-theoretician of the new school. In 1891 was opened the first 
exhibition of Impressionist and Symbolist Painters, at the Le Bare de Boutteville Gallery. 
In it figured amongst others the names of Anquetin, Bernard, Bonnard, Denis, Lep&re, 
Filiger, Ranson, Roussel, Schuffenecker, S&rusier, Toulouse-Lautrec, Vuillard, Cross, Luce, 
Gauguin, Willette, Signac, Zuloaga, and even that of Manet artists, in fact, of greatly 
differing tendencies. 



11 1 body forth imaginary beings built in terms of material 
logic." 



REDON 



R, 



^edon was born in 1840, at Bordeaux. Thus there was only a year's difference between 
him and Monet, Renoir, Cezanne and Sisley, but he never shared in the impressionist 
venture, even declaring that " painting is not mere representation of three-dimensional 
forms, but human beauty adorned with the prestige of thought. " Thus once more the 
word " thought " appears in painting. But Redon gives it a meaning very different 
from that which Courbet or Gauguin gave it ; for him it means the poetic afflatus. And 
it was with a long tradition, implicit in the work of Hieronymus Bosch, Archimboldo, 
Diirer, Hogarth, Goya, Blake, Fiissli and de Grand ville that Redon linked up his theories; 
a tradition that he set out to renew and amplify, and which half a century later Surrealism 
was to carry on. 

In the solitude of his provincial home, young Redon (like so many youngsters) 
discovered that, if you look long enough, you find quaint little forms and scenes in lace 
curtains, in wallpaper, on misted windows, in tangled clouds. We must picture a small 
boy, precocious and living in a dream-world of his own, having few of the traits of childhood, 
but already many of the mental kinks of grown-ups. For him the least object, like Blake's 
" grain of sand, " is a microcosm of a world whose secrets are his alone. Thus, when he 
grows to manhood, he gives a new significance to every pebble, every blade of grass. To 
our wondering eyes he discloses a strange cosmogony, but one of such precision that we are 
persuaded of its reality. All his life Redon was more in contact with poets than with painters ; 
he was a close friend of MallarmS, Valery and Francis Jammes. He wrote much, always 
with discernment. In his dream of clothing the idea with form, according to the symbolist 
prescription, and above all of opening magic casements by grace of the poet's vision, he 
tried as it were to psychoanalyse animal, vegetable and even mineral entities, so as to 



77 




O. REDON (1840-1916). THE SPHINX (AFTER IQOO). 
HAHNLOSER COLLECTION, WINTERTHUR. 

make them yield their secrets; and these he utilized for building up his private universe. 
He makes no secret of the source of his inspiration. " All is done by docile submission to the 
uprush of the Unconscious. " His sole concern was to discover that element of the magical 
or fabulous which lies at the heart of all things seen, their secret, creative essence, and to 
express it. Thus that miracle by which the little acorn becomes a mighty oak quickened his 
sense of childlike wonder. Indeed all life was like a fairy-tale to him, a fairy-tale whose truth 
he ever sought to demonstrate. Compact of imagination, his art stood to reality as does an 
oriental tale to a modern novel. When, in his sixtieth year, he called in colour to help him 
to express his vision, he endowed it with a special significance, lifting it above the plane 
of reality by glints of sharp, metallic tones, like electric sparks. When he paints a girl 
or a flower, the girl is almost a flower, the flower a girl. And the other living things he 
depicts, butterflies or queer, monstrous beings, have an oddly petrified look, as though held 



78 



in the mysterious silence of a glass globe through which we glimpse them; almost the eerie 
immobility of waxworks. " - 

When thought intrudes on painting there is always a danger that the latter will be 
given a literary turn, and tend towards the illustration. But, in the case of Redon, is it painting 
that " illustrates " the poetry or vice versa ? It would seem that his art owes all to imagi- 
nation, and " image " is implicit in that word " imagination. " In fact Redon's " thought " 
found in painting an appropriate medium, its native tongue. And the great artist makes this 
good not only by the exquisite precision and the vitality of his drawing, and its accom- 
plished style, but by the use of a palette, sometimes brilliant, sometimes all in subtle nuances, 
in which the sober dignity and the subdued sheen of the colours have the mysterious grandeur 
of medieval frescos. 



O. REDON (1840-1916). THE CYCLOPS (AFTER 1900). 25 Vi X 20 ". 
HJJKSMtlSEUM KROLLER-MULLER, OTTERLO. 




79 




J. ENSOR (1860-1949). THK GARDEN OF LOVE, l8gl. 29% x 39 % ". J)R TRUSSEL COLLECTION, BERN. 

HERE WE SEE ENSOK'S FANTASY IN PLAYFUL MOOD ; ITS OTHER, LESS CAREFREE ASPECT, IMPINGING ON EXPRESSIONISM, WILL 

BE CONSIDERED IN THE SECOND PART OF THIS WORK. 



"To the land of Mockbelieve and quivering unrest I set sail in my 
dream-ship beflagged with ink-scrawled flames, " 



ENSOR 



a rule Expressionists are gloomy people who rarely smile, and only with an effort. 
Ensor, however, is a genial Expressionist ; even of death he makes a jest. His art reminds 
us of those sumptuous Still Lifes painted by his Flemish forerunners, in which upon a table 
piled with good fare, one sees a skull (hence the name vanitas for a picture of this kind). 

For Ensor painting is not the handmaid of any Utopian vision. He uses it for 
gently scolding a world whose imperfections he discerns, but of which he never can quite 
despair. While Redon invents a private and peculiar wonderland, Ensor is always under 
the spell of his own childhood, which, fortunately perhaps, has for him no spurious 
" glamour. " No doubt it was peopled by the most attractive fairies, but there were also 
spiders, ogres, even macabre stuffed Chinese. In short the fairyland of which he has the 
freedom is highly realistic. And his robust health has seen him cheerfully through a 
life that was by no means " roses all the way, " up to the comfortable age of ninety. 



80 



Following another Flemish tradition, he tricks out his satires with a whimsy deriving, 
more from Hieronymus Bosch, from Huys and Breughel (in the Proverbs) than /from cari- 
caturists such as Hogarth, Rowlandson or Gilray. Naturally the idea of death often visits 
our near-centenarian, but he merely snaps his fingers at the visitant. He bedecks skeletons 
with masks, wings and gaudy finery ; makes them strike quaint, undignified attitudes. The 
truth is, he has no fear of death; rather, Death fears him and seems to overlook him, despite 
the picture of a skeleton he made entitled " Myself in 1960. " But he is not obsessed with 
death ; his art has also a happy, carefree side. Thus in his Garden of Love and his celebrated 
Entrance of Christ into Brussels, we see on all sides merry, smiling faces, fantastically radiant 
like the faces in some jovial old picture-book. He has also a curious reserve, leading him 
often to hide the features of his characters under inexpressive masks. These manikin-like 
entities, living a wholly fictitious life, tend to make his works seem a phantasmagoria of 
nacreous shells, phosphorescent fishes, and shining, puffed-out faces, in which his mischievous 
handling of colour has its fling, indulging a youthful exuberance of tonalities with a zest 
that carries all before it. 

But there is one theme by which Ensor is frankly overawed-forgetting Belgian 
Zwanze, and for once feeling no wish to smile and this is when he paints the sea. He 
was born within sight of the sea, and has lived beside it, never forsaking it even for a day 
in the ninety years of his life. It is indeed his vital element. Even when writing of it in 
prose, he uses a poet's pen. " Wondrous sea of Ostend, all in pearls and opals, Virgin sea 
that I love alas that the soiling, sacrilegious immundity of painting should dare to sully 
your divine lineaments and to besmear your garments woven of rainbow glints and siJken 
white! " In thus writing Ensor, the ironist, has for once laid irony aside. 

THIS WORK ILLUSTRATES MUNCH'S EARLY MANNER WHILE HE WAS STILL UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF FRENCH NEO-IMPRESSIONM&M 

AND SYMBOLYSM. HE FIGURES AGAIN IN OUR CHAPTER ON EXPRESSIONISM, TO WHICH SCHOOL HE ESSENTIALLY BELONGS. 

HE STUDIED OFF AND ON IN PARIS, ESPECIALLY BETWEEN 1869-1890 AND 1893-1897. LAUTREC, SEURAT, VAN GOGH AND GAUGUIN 

WERE THE PAINTERS HE MOST ADMIRED, AND HE WAS MUCH INTERESTED IN LITOGRAPHY AND WOOD ENGRAVING. 

ED. MUNCH (1863-1944). LANDSCAPE BY NIGHT, IQOO. 47 V 4 * 3* V4 " KUNSTHAUS, ZURICH. 




81 



LITERARY AND ARTISTIC LIFE IN PARIS 
FROM 1884 TO 1900 



// we wish to understand the art of Lautrec and that of the great painters during the last decades of 
the nineteenth century, we need to have some idea of the atmosphere of Paris at the time, the night life 
in Montmartre, the ever closer connection between literary and art movements, the great strides made in the 
technique of illustration, the increasing number of revues, cabarets, theatres and shows of every imaginable 
kind, the part played by colour lithographs, woodcuts, posters, illustrated books, the first appearance of the 
cinema in short the complete change in the dcor of Parisian life, and the new way of seeing the world that 
this involved. 



REVIEWS AND MAGAZINES 

A great many small reviews and periodicals made their appearance from 1885 onwards, and did much 
to disseminate the avant-garde theories of the day. Thus in 1886 there appeared successively La Pl&ade 
(March i), Le Decadent (April 10), and La Vogue (April n), the last-named edited by Leo d'Orfer 
(then from May 13, by Gustave Kahn, assisted by Pinion), published Rimbaud's Illuminations, Verlaine's 
Po&tes Maudits and Pinion's study of Seurat and the Neo- Impressionists. Other magazines launched in this 
year were Le Symboliste ( G. Kahn, Mortas, Paul Adam), the ' new series ' of the Revue Ind6pendante, 
which proclaimed as its ideal " the union of all the arts in a common effort to refashion modern life, " 
and G. Lccomte's La Cravache. In 1889 came Le Moderniste, sponsored by Albert Aurier, Gauguin's 
exponent and Symbolism's chief theoretician ; and t lastly, Lion Deschamps* La Plume, destined to remain 
until 1904 (as Ernest Raynaud put it) " the most faithful mirror of contemporary aesthetic life. " The last" 
named periodical organized at its office (in the Rue Bonaparte) a permanent exhibition of painters in sympathy 
with the aims of the review. The ' Salon des Cent ' published at modest prices colour posters, lithographs, 
reproductions of works in the museums, and devoted special issues not only to poets (Verlaine and Morias) 
but also to painters, amongst them Redon and Ensor. January i8go saw the first issue of the Mercure de 
France, whose programme was to give " a complete panorama of the new movement in literature and art. " 
In October, 1891, the famous Revue Blanche was launched by the Natanson brothers ; it brought together all 
whose names were coming to the fore in literature and art, and championed notably Lautrec and the ' Nabis. ' 
In 1894 came Arslne Alexandras Le Rire and Jarry's and Rimy de Gourmont's L'Ymagier which, with 
masterpieces of ancient imagerie, included Gauguin's woodcuts. All these reviews were illustrated by painters, 
organized exhibitions and devoted much of their space to art movements, while their premises were used for 
making contacts and the exchange of views on art. Turning to the dailies and weeklies, we must not overlook 
Le Gil Bias Illustr (with Steinlen's drawings) and the Figaro (with F wain's). 



THE THEATRES 

This period was remarkable for the number of ' art theatres ' that now sprang up, and not only were 
the best symbolist and foreign plays performed in them but, for the first time, young painters were regularly 
commissioned to design scenery, costumes and programmes. 

In 1887 Antoine's Th4tre Libre started its run of uncompromisingly realistic plays. In 1890 
Paul Fort founded the Th64tre d'Art, seconded by Mallarmt, Verlaine, Verhaeren and Maeterlinck, and Fort 
recruited Strusier and Gauguin as designers. A benefit performance for the latter was given on the eve of 
his sailing for Tahiti. In May, 1893, Lugni-Pot founded the Thtre de 1'Oeuvre, enthusiastically backed 
by his friends Vuillard, Maurice Denis and Ranson, who took an active part in the production and employed 
the new developments in colour lithography and painting in distemper for the sets and programmes. The 
Oeuvre opened with a production of Ibsen's Rosmersholm, with sets by Vuillard, who was, according to Lugn4- 
Pol, " the most interested in the stage and the best art[ adviser " of the group. The most memorable performance 
was that of Ubu Roi on December 10, 1896. Lugnl-Pol also employed foreign artists, Burne-Jones and 
Munch, the latter of whom designed the programme of Peer Gynt. Nor must we forget the Th&ttre des Pantins 
launched in 1897 with Bonnard's puppets, and the famous Thtre du Grand-Guignol. 



82 



THE CIRCUS, FAIRS, DANCE-HALLS 

From the days of Renoir's Clown Musician and Jeunes Filles du Cirque (1868), and Degas' Miss Lola 
(i8jg), scenes of circus life had never lost their appeal for painters. And Toulouse-Lautrec, Scurat, Bonnard 
and Forain as well as many minor artists continued to explore this rich field of visual adventure. 

Parisians had then the choice of four establishments of this order : the Hippodrome, the Cirque 
Mtdrano (which still exists), the Cirque Fernando (now the Cirque d'Hiver) and the Nouveau Cirque (no 
longer in existence), built in 1866 on the site of the Bal Valentino in the Faubourg Saint-Honort. The exploits 
of acrobats, lion-tamers, clowns and circus-riders, no less than the striking colour effects of a vast yellow arena 
ringed round by red-plush tiers of seats in the crude glare of gaslight (the lighting arrangements were still 
somewhat primitive) fascinated the painters, who found in the circus a host of promising subjects, and often 
struck up friendships with the performers. Before becoming mother of Utrillo and herself a great painter, 
Suzanne Valadon was a circus acrobat. Loie Fuller, Footit and Chocolat, and M. Loyal also inspired the 
artists to some celebrated works. 

The periodical Fairs at NeuiUy and le Tr6ne, with their merry-go-rounds and their booths two 
panels for the exterior of La Goulue's were painted by Lautrec likewise supplied artists with many exciting 
subjects. Nor must we forget the popular dance-halls, such as the Moulin-Rouge, Bullier, and the Moulin 
de la Colette, which contributed to give this period of Paris life its memorable gaiety and glamour. 

MONTMARTRE 

In the early days of Impressionism Montmartre was still almost a country village. From 1886 
onwards fat the time when Lautrec decided to live there and get its ' atmosphere ' on to canvas) it became more and 
more the centre of Paris night-life and, by the same token, the resort of artists, writers, and ' Bohemians ' in general. 
There was a spate of shows and entertainments on the famous Butte, and though its somewhat feverish jollity 
often seemed artificial, this was in keeping with the rhythm of the period. This was also the heyday of the 
Caft-Concert, the music-hall and the ' cabaret artistique ' ; two such cabarets, especially, made Parisian history, 
Rodolphe de Salis' Chat Noir (with its shadow-plays) and Aristide Bruant's Le Mirliton. 



SPORT 

Artists cast an observant eye on the beginnings of the craze for ' le Sport ' which meant athletic 
contests of att kinds, tennis, foot-races and especially bicycle-racing (round about 1885). The long-distance 
cycle-races, such as that from Paris to Brest (in which figured such champions as Terront and Cone), as well 
as track-racing (with Zimmermann, the American), furnished artists with striking themes, in which the bunched- 
up attitudes of the racing cyclists struck a new note. In January, 1885, the Galerie Petit ran an exhibition 
on the theme ' Sport in Art.' In 1895 Tristan Bernard, sporting editor of La Revue Blanche, spent most 
of his time at the Buffalo cycling track, where Lautrec often joined him. 

LITHOGRAPHY, POSTERS, ILLUSTRATED BOOKS 

Fin de Si&cle art is characterized by its decorative trend and its exploitation of techniques ' on the 
side. ' Thus etching, neglected by all the Impressionists except Pissarro, came into high favour after 1890, 
Gauguin and Munch revived the woodcut, and the lithograph especially became popular with artists and public. 
Print-shops opened everywhere in Paris, Munich and Vienna, the centenary of lithography was celebrated in 
1895, and specialist periodicals began to appear : in 1895 L'Estampe Originate ; L'Estampe Moderne and 
L'Estampe et 1'Affiche in 1897. The coming of colour lithography led to a new treatment of the illustrated 
book ; the first venture was that of Maurice Denis, who illustrated Gide's Voyage d'Urien in 1893, and the 
first real success, Bonnard's illustrated Paraltelement, appeared in 1900. These led the way to the triumph 
of poster art, perhaps the most significant form of expression of this period. It was, in fact, a symbol of the 
correlation between such diverse arts as book-illustration, the art of the theatre and that of the music-hall, to 
the new developments of which it drew constant attention. The first colour poster was Cheret's, for the Bal 
Valentino, in 1869; then came Bonnard's France-Champagne poster in 1889; then Lautrec' $ posters for the 
Moulin-Rouge, beginning in 1891. The historical importance of the poster is great not only because Lautrec 
put the best of his genius into it, but also because it formed the most direct link between art and life under all its 
aspects, completely changed the look of the streets, and effectively conditioned the visual responses of the public 
to the new trend of art. 



83 




E. DEGAS (1834-1917), NU ACCROUPI DE DOS, C. 1890-1895. 7x 

LOUVRE, PARIS. 



"What would Degas say to it?" 



A 



round 1895 the art of Toulouse-Lautrec was at its zenith ; and the " Nabis " 
group, which included Bonnard and Vuillard, was coming to the fore. All three were barely 
thirty ; Degas was sixty. His influence had all its old prestige. He cut the figure of a 
pundit, but the ideal pundit ; one who teaches nothing and suggests everything. He was 
still extolling themes drawn from everyday life and including quite ordinary objects. And 
he still insisted on the paramountcy of drawing in the exact analysis of form. As for colour, 
he had now come to recognize its merits, by dint of raising it to a pitch of unreality which 
was presently to lead Bonnard to the notion of " pure painting. " 

Thus his work, bespeaking a restless, ever vigilant intelligence, that inspired a healthy 
deference, not to say awe amongst his juniors, had a highly salutary effect on them. 

Indeed we can well believe that even the very greatest of his successors, including our 
contemporaries, have often asked themselves when trying to appraise a just completed 
work : " What would Degas say to it ? " 



84 



"Were I not a painter, I'd wish to be a doctor, a surgeon . . . 
I have aimed at rendering the true, not the ideal." 



TOULOUSE-LAUTREC 



L 



H. DE TOULOUSE-LAUTREC (1864-1901). JANE AVRIL DANSANT, 
C. 1892. 33 y z x 17 % ". LOUVRE, PARIS. 



ike Raphael, Toulouse-Lautrec died at the age of thirty-seven. His life had been 
embittered by physical infirmity, and his health shattered by heavy drinking. A few days 
before his death he was heard 
to murmur : " And life's a fine 
thing, they say 1 " 

In the wistful irony of 
this remark we have the key to 
all his work. His keen intellig- 
ence prompted him to laugh, if 
a little wryly, at an existence 
which, despite successes in the 
field of art, was full of sadness ; 
but intelligence is more an irri- 
tant than an anodyne. And 
his marvellous powers of obser- 
vation, his brilliant summings- 
up of forms and faces never 
failing in the smiling tolerance 
that comes of good breeding 
confess the disillusionment of a 
grand seigneur confronted by 
life's seamier aspects. 

Born in 1864 at Albi, 
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec came 
of an old and renowned family, 
that of the Counts of Toulouse. 
A delicate child this was due, 
perhaps, to the fact that he 
came of a very old stock wea- 
kened by inbreeding , he had 
two bad falls when he was four- 
teen, breaking first one thigh 
and then the other. This 
checked the natural growth of 
his limbs and gave him a gro- 
tesque, top-heavy stature, his 
legs remaining too short for his 
body. His whole career was 
influenced by this disablement ; 
he was deterred from indulging 
in the normal recreations of 
a country gentleman, riding, 
hunting, dancing and the like. 
His father lost interest in the 
boy, but happily his mother did 
her best to make life easy for 




85 




H. DE TOULOUSE-LAUTREC (1864-1901). LA GOULUE AND VALENTIN-LE-DSOSS#, 1890. 24 X 19% ". 

HAHNLOSER COLLECTION, W1NTERTHUR. 

LA GOULUE AND HER PARTNER, THE " RUBBER-LEGGED " VALENTIN, FAMOUS FLOOR DANCERS AT THE " MOULIN, " HAVE BEEN 
IMMORTALIZED BY LAUTREC IN A SERIES OF PAINTINGS. THIS COMES FROM ONE OF THE PANELS DECORATING LA GOULUE'S 

BOOTH AT THE " LE TRONE" FAIR IN 1893. 

him. Unable to play an active part, and condemned to being a looker-on throughout his 
adolescence, he used his eyes to good effect and sharpened his wits on what he saw. And 
with something of a child's delight in " making pictures " for his own delectation, he made 
sketches in which we already find a feeling for essentials, of a competence and intensity 
which he was never to surpass. 

The horses he could not ride, the animals he could not hunt, the birds whose airy 
freedom taunted the relative immobility to which he was condemned these furnished 
themes that whiled away the long hours he perforce spent seated in his chair. Thus his 
whole activity centered on what was for him, to begin with, only a pastime, something to 



86 



LA COULUE ENTERING THE MOULIN ROUGE BETWEEN HER SISTER AND A DANGER. IT WAS FOR THE MOULIN ROUGE 
THAT, IN 1891, LAUTREO MADE HIS FIRST JfOSTER, WHICH ATTRACTED MUCH ATTENTION. IN SEPTEMBER 1899 A CHANGE} OF 
MANAGEMENT WAS FOLLOWED BY A SPECTACULAR REOPENING, WITH ALL LAUTRBCTS FAVOURITE STAR -PERFORMERS. 
HE PAINTED EIGHT CONSECUTIVE PICTURES IN THE SETTING OF THE MOULIN ROUGE, OF WHICH THIS RANKS AS ONE OF 

HIS GREATEST WORKS 

H. DE TOULOUSE-LAUTREC (1864-1901). AU MOULIN-ROUGE, 1892. 31 ft X 23 ft ". PRIVATE COLLECTION, PARIS. 




87 



make him forget his troubles; indeed he,4rew without a thought of ' art, f like a man idfy 
tracing arabesques on a cate table. Struck by his talent, his parents had him take lessons 
from an artist friend of the family by the name of Princeteau, who specialized in hunting 
and racing scenes. Next, he entered the lcole des Be^ux-Arts and studied under Bonnat 
and Cormon. Needless to say, he soon gave up the Ecole, and took to haunting Montmartre, 
then the centre of all art activities in Paris. He was now aged twenty. Under the joint 
influences of Manet, Degas, Van Gogh and Japanese art, the mere amateur blossomed out 
into an artist taking his nUtier with high seriousness. But, still mindful of the numbing 
effect of the teaching of the Ecole, he would not let his spontaneity be trammelled by rules, 
and found even Degas, whom he greatly admired, too much of a theory-monger for his taste* 
Already he was thinking less of the picture to be painted than of the observation to express. 
Montmartre, in short, was merely a hunting-ground, and his interest in its quaint denizens 
was not that of a chronicler of mores ; it presented a diversity of oddities, just what he needed 
to whet his imagination. 

It was chiefly scenes of movement that attracted him : dancing, games, the circus. 
Above all he had a predilection for decoration which calls for large surfaces. Hence his 
early enthusiasm for the poster ; it provided ample space to work on and called for rapid 
execution. And in the field of poster art, his vital, freely flowing drawing has given us 
masterpieces of the genre. Thus he was led on to create those big decorative compositions 
in which his joy in space is seconded by the splendid freedom of his line. The large panels 
he made for La Goulue's booth are of this order and the soberness of the colour, the archi- 
tectural solidity of the composition, assimilate these works to frescos that " hold the wall 
together " with a wholly classical effectiveness. Here, too, he reveals his supreme gift of 
rendering movement, on whose expression his mind was always bent. 

But he was also one of the greatest French portrait-painters. His almost painful 
sensibility is that of a Van Gogh but a Van Gogh with a difference. He, too, is quick to 
mark the signs of moral and physical degradation on faces, but unlike Van Gogh he does not 
think of pitying or reforming these unfortunates. Rather, he exorcises his own grievances 
by painting them, without cruelty and with but a tinge of bitterness. Their features, 
given a twist as it were of laughter or distress by the jerky, incisive drawing, bespeak the 
painter's amazing powers of analysis ; these portraits have something of the quality of neat 
impromptus, flashes of mordant wit. But Toulouse-Lautrec never presses his comments 
to the point of caricature ; he is strictly accurate, if passionately accurate. For he no more 
claims to depict manners and morals then does a landscape-painter to teach horticulture. 
His portraits are summings-up and, in the same way as he simplifies line, he fines down the 
expression of emotion to essentials. 

He did not take pleasure in vice, he submitted to it, nor did he try to ' evangelize ' it 
in the dubious manner of a Rops for instance. He merely observed, and recorded what he 
saw. When he portrayed with harsh realism the woman of the street, this was not so much 
to stress her features or to make the portrait lifelike as to make it live. And if he chose 
prostitutes as models, this was because he had a romantic notion that their world was purer, 
more innocent, than that of blameless domesticity, which, for good reason, held little interest 
for him. But in his dealings with vice he always kept a well-bred distance. At bottom he 
laughed at it, even perhaps too promptly, for fear he should be moved to weep. 

To colour he usually gave an ornamental rdle, being careful to avoid any sort of stri- 
dency ; as indeed is proved by his painting on cardboard, an absorbent. He had no great 
liking for colours which called for meticulous handling, long stretches at the easel, or numerous 
sittings. He usually inserts the colour within the drawing, though on occasion he, too, 
" draws with the brush, " and equals Manet in a virtuosity he never troubled to exploit. 

What is inimitable in Toulouse-Lautrec is that knack of instantaneously registering 
movement manifest in those sketches in which he "captures " life and expression with a few 
decisive lines, thanks to that curious sleight of hand innate and peculiar to himself which 
elicited from his teacher, Bonnat, the incredible remark : " Your drawing's simply atrocious ! " 




H. DE TOULOUSE-LAUTREC (1864-1901). FEMME ROUSSE ASSISE SUR UN DIVAN, 1897. l6 % X 12 Vi ' 

PRIVATE COLLECTION, WINTERTHUR. 



IN 1897 LAUTREC PAINTED STUDIES OF WOMEN DRESSING, NUDES (WITH THIS SAME MODEL), GLIMPSES OF WOMEN'S INTIMATE 
LIFE, ALL CHARMINGLY SUB-ACID AND SOPHISTICATED. HE NOW ABANDONED POSTER ART WITH ITS FLAT PLANES AND ABRUPT 
TRANSITIONS, FOR THE SOFTER, SUPPLER TECHNIQUE OF LITHOGRAPHY, AND EFFECTS OF ALMOST POINTILLIST VIBRANCY. 
ABSORBED BY THE CARDBOARD, THE FORCEFUL BRUSHSTROKES LOOK LIKE LONG STREAKS OF PASTEL. 




H. DE TOULOUSE-LAUTREC (1864-1901). L*ANGLAISE DU " STAR " DU HAVRE. l6 % X 12 V, ". MUSAE, ALBI. 

ON LEAVING THE SANATORIUM (JULY, 1899) TO WHICH HE HAD BEEN TAKEN, LAUTREC WENT TO LE HAVRE WITH HIS FRIEND 
PAUL VIAUD. HE FREQUENTED THE ENGLISH CAFfi-CONCERTS ON THE QUAYS, WHICH WERE STAFFED BY ENGLISH GIRLS. 
LAUTREC BECAME SO ENTHUSIASTIC ABOUT THIS BARMAID AT THE STAR " THAT HE PROMPTLY SENT TO PARIS FOR HIS 

PAINTING GEAR AND MADE THIS SUPERB PORTRAIT OF HER. 



90 



w, 



ith a description of the " Nabis" movement, of the art of Bonnard and 
of that of Vuillard we conclude our survey of the beginnings of Modern 
Painting in the nineteenth century. 

Bonnard called himself an Impressionist ; he was perhaps the last of 
the Impressionists. But whereas the earlier Impressionists never boldly 
tackled the problem of the autonomy of colour, Bonnard considerably 
advanced its claims by the liberties he took with nature in general, with 
the human body and especially the individual object; liberties which were 
destined to take full effect only in the twentieth century. Bonnard's art may 
be regarded as a half-way house between Modern Painting in its initial phase 
(from Courbet's day to his) and our contemporary art inaugurated chiefly, it 
would seem, by Matisse. 

And now we usher in the long series of colour-plates illustrating the 
course of twentieth -century art with reproductions of its most characteristic 
works, 



THE NABIS 



lor all art movements a time inevitably comes when the members of the group part company, 
each following the lead of his own temperament. As a matter of fact the young men of the 
" Nabis " group showed an unusual cohesion, and its effects were exceptionally lasting. 

In the mid-nineties great confusion reigned in the world of painters. In a work 
entitled " The Idealist Movement in Art " (1896) Andr6 Mellerio sought to reconcile the 
various seemingly conflicting tendencies of the time and to show that, appearances notwith- 
standing, they pointed in the same direction. Thus he lumped together somewhat 
arbitrarily Seurat, Signac, Luce, Angrand, Lucien Pissarro, Van Rysselberghe, 
Schuffenecker, Lautrec, Ibels, Anquetin, Guillaumin, Maufra, Verkade, Maurice Denis, 
Emile Bernard, Filiger, SSrusier, Vuillard, Roussel, Vallotton, Ranson, Bonnard and others. 
Mellerio assigned the members of this impressive galaxy to five sub-groups : Nee-Impression- 
ists, Synthesists, Mystics, Neo-Traditionalists, and the portentously named " Chromo- 
luminarists. " The whole duty of the modern painter (according to Mellerio) was to let the 
Idea dictate the form and to achieve expression by means of signs. But if it was a matter 
of bodying forth impressions, could not this result quite well be secured by purely pictorial 
methods ? Which was what the " Nabis " hoped to do. 

This name " Nabis " taken from the Hebrew, and signifying prophets or illuminati 
was given them by Cazalis, the poet. Amongst the adherents to the newly formed group 
were S6rusier, Maurice Denis, Ranson, Vuillard, Roussel, Ibels, Bonnard, Piot, Verkade, 
Vallotton and Maillol. Maurice Denis organised group dinners at the Os & Moelle restaurant 
and though arguments ran fa^t and furious, high good humour reigned at these reunions. 
Another rallying centre was the Revue Blanche office. Thad6e Natanson, its editor, has left 
an account of these gatherings, in which he was struck by S6rusier's " excitability, " by 
Vallotton 's sharp tongue, and Roussel's "bold flights of fancy." Bonnard, he noticed, 
" loved to contradict everyone else, " while Vuillard displayed " a most acute intelligence. " 

Needless to say litterateurs swarmed at the Revue Blanche office, but the " Nabis " 
fought shy of literary incursions into painting. They had not forgotten the regrettable 
articles written by men like Zola, Huysmans, and so many others, proving, it seemed, that 
novelists, and even poets, were impervious to the lyrical appeal of painting pure and simple. 
Thus they listened with only half an ear to Maurice Denis when he expounded theories which 
he stated with much lucidity, but which led him into a tangle of contradictions whence he 
needed all his sleight of mind to extricate himself. They were interested only in the interplay 
of forms and colours, not in theories. 

In fact, for them the symbolist adventure was ancient history. Worse, it tended to 
restore the disciplines of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts under an insidious form. Bonnard was 
determined to safeguard that precious impulse towards freedom which was enlarging his 
vision of the world of things ; while Vuillard found in his own sensibility all he needed for 
giving his work constructive form. Even the names they gave their works were calculated 
to annoy their symbolist friends. Thus Bonnard was responsible for : " The Old Lady with 
her Hens, " " The Cup of Coffee, " " The Cat, " " The Wine Merchant's ; " and Vuillard for 
" The Jar of Gherkins, " " Still Life with Cabbages, " " Glass and Onions, " " The Wild 
Rabbit. " Obviously there was nothing here for " Ideists. " Meanwhile possibilities of 
painting on cardboard were explored ; the painters mixed turpentine with their pigment sfhd 
this, combined with the absorbent quality of the cardboard, gave wonderfully ' mat ' effects. 
Another device of theirs was to leave the cardboard bare in places ; and another to apply cool 
tones upon an undercoat of warm. In short the " Nabis " relied on technique alone for the 
interpretation of their impressions ; we have here a new Impressionism, at once wider in its 
implications and more ' intimate. ' It registered one step farther on the path towards the 
complete autonomy of the purely pictorial. 



92 



MAURICE DENIS 



f un d their spokesman in 
Maurice Denis (1870-1943), a very able writer 
to whom we are indebted for some enlightening disquisitions on art. Denis had a gift for 
putting into words the theories and aspirations of the new school. In one memorable and 
often quoted phrase he summed up the guiding principle of all contemporary art. " We 
must never forget that any painting before being a warhorse, a nude woman, an anecdote 
or whatnot is essentially a flat surface to be covered with colours arranged in a certain 
order. " This enjoinder was (and still is) vigorously attacked by champions of the type of 
art whose chief merit lies in the expression of character and which forbids painting to look 
elsewhere for its inspiration. Again, Maurice Denis wrote, after seeing one of Gauguin's 
works " Thus we learn that all art is a transposition, the impassioned counterpart of an expe- 
rienced sensation. " Denis always insisted on the absolute necessity for the organization 
of the picture, on the lines laid down by Seurat. In this respect his pronouncements have 
had much effect on the painting of today. As a painter, Denis began by conforming to the 
symbolist programme, in, for example, his Menuet de la Princesse Maleine and his young 
girls in flowing dresses, whose arabesques were adopted by what was called the" " Modern 
Style. " After a stay in Italy (to which we owe his delightful Souvenirs), won by the graces 
of Florence and Sienna, he bade painters follow in the footsteps of the Primitives, whose 
spontaneity, as he said, " smelt sweetly of life. " But he was against the academic concep- 
tion of Italian art. 

Under the influence of a Dominican, Pere Janvier, Denis gave his art a religious trend 
and in 1919 he founded, with Georges Desvalli&res, the " Studios of Sacred Art, " with a 
view to the revival of religous painting. 

Schooled in all the technical devices of the m6tier, his art was somewhat overlaid by 
his erudition, which handicapped him in exercising the spontaneity which none the less he 
warmly advocated. 



DO I l^^l I A schoolfellow of Vuillard at the Lyc6e Condorcet, and subse- 
r\LJLJOOC_L quently his brother-in-law, Ker Xavier Roussel practised, like 
all the ' Nabis, ' the small scattered strokes favoured by Monet and Renoir. The strict 
precision of the Japanese line 
did not attract him, nor was K.-X. ROUSSEL (1867-1944), RURAL SCENE, c. 1903. 6 % x 6 ". 

he interested in scenes of pri- 
vate life. 

What he liked was the 
open air, and the motifs 
drawn from mythology that 
he delighted in served him for 
polyphonic effects in which 
bold and subtle contrasts 
could be intermingled. No 
sedulous observer of nature, 
he took the greatest liber- 
ties with literal reality. He 
e&ployed the ' mat ' tones 
dear to the ' Nabis ' and 
favoured the use of card- 
board and tempera, since 
they gave him those fresco 
tints which so well accorded 
with his decorative instinct. 




93 



^ orn * n Switzerland, at Lausanne, Flix Vallotton went 
to Paris when he was twenty-five and studied at the 
Acad&nie Jullian. His early efforts were under stern control, his teacher being Jules Lefebvre 
who had made himself a great name with his Truth Arising from the Wett, an erstwhile glory 
of the Luxembourg Museum and now relegated, unwanted and unseen, to the attics. Young 
Vallotton, to begin with, was all for his master's uncompromising academicism. The change 
came in the early 'nineties when he met the ' Nabis ' and, burning his old idols, developed 
an enthusiasm for decoration, poster-art and lithography. 

The spontaneity of his work of this period surprises, when we recall the bleak precision 
of his later art. At this stage he painted seaside and street scenes and his ebullient technique 
found all it needed for its exercise in the most everyday objects hats, shoes, dogs and cats , 
which he depicted with much liveliness and wit. The dynamic effervescence of this relatively 
brief phase makes a curious contrast with the static compositions of his later manner. 

It was with his adoption of a new, highly personal aesthetic that Vallotton's true 
temperament emerged. Henceforth he painted nudes and portraits that aim above all at 
the expression of character, and always with a cruelly precise technique whose studied cold- 
ness, often carried to an excess that disconcerts us, suggests the presence of some repressed 
anxiety or fixed idea. Vallotton's drawing is now reduced to bare essentials, but he seems 
to practise this austerity less with a view to giving his line any specific quality than with 
a deliberate intent to discard every trace of the superfluous ; one suspects that this was a 
counterblast to the happy spontaneity of his friends Vuillard and Bonnard, which he lacked 
and envied. " The smooth perfection of the egg " delighted him, so he said. And his cult 
of the ' object ' became a veritable obsession ; in fact he seems to find in it a means of elim- 
inating, annihilating, his own personality with a cold and calculated vehemence. Thus his 
figures have a frozen immobility, a truth truer than life and oddly disquieting for the observer. 
We are reminded of the queer, haunted expression of the waxworks in the Mus6e Gr6vin or 
Madame Tussaud's ; or that of the holy figures, under domes of glass, in Jesuit churches. 

We find in Vallotton's later work what looks like a new objectivity. Indeed the 
Neue Sachlichkeit movement may well have been inspired by the intriguing, hermetic but 
highly suggestive art of F61ix Vallotton. 

F. VALLOTTON (1865-1925). THE STREET, 1895. 10 ft X 13% ". 
PAUL VALLOTTON COLLECTION, LAUSANNE. 




94 



"One begins a portrait without knowing the model; when one has 
finished It, one knows the model, but the portrait is no longer lifelike." 



VUILLARD 



VUILLARD'S WORKS OF 1897-1898 ARE AMONGST HIS GREATEST. TURNING AWAY FROM 
SYSTEMATIZED DISTORTIONS AND THE LURE OF MODERNISM, " HE NOW GIVES CAREFUL 
THOUGHT TO THE LAY-OUT, AND HIS COLOUR PATCHES ARE SOLIDLY BUILT INTO THE 

COMPOSITION. 



LLdouard VuiUard was born at Puiseaux (in the Sa6ne-et-Loire) on November n, 1868. 
He was educated first at the Ecole Rocroy, then at the Lyc6e Condorcet. Several of his 
school-friends were destined to become famous ; amongst them being two painters, Maurice 
Denis and X. K. Roussel, his brother-in-law to be. He lost his father in 1884, when he was 
only sixteen. His mother lavished on him a tender devotion, and as long as she lived he 
never left her side ; she was, in fact, the great love of his life. 

His youth was spent in the charmed circle of the home ; and it was this early atmosphere 
of happy intimacy that gave his life the wonderful serenity which none of his biographers has 
failed to note. " Your house is like your face, " a poet wrote, and when we look at photo- 
graphs or portraits of 
VuiUard, we glimpse a 
diffidence that is not due 
to any lack of courage, a 
discreetly questioning E ' VUILLARD ( l868 -*94o). LA TOILETTE, c. 1898. 9 Kx6*". 

, -./. PRIVATE COLLECTION, PARIS. 

regard, a little unsure 
perhaps, but smiling, 
untouched by any tragic 
sense of life. No artist's 
work better resembles its 
creator than does Vuil- 
lard's. He never tried 
to explore regions be- 
yond his ken, or to over- 
step his natural frontiers 
in quest of adventures 
which seemed to him un- 
called-for. That longing 
to " escape " which has 
haunted the lives of so 
many artists was never 
his. True to impulses 
which had never played 
him false, he always 
respected those of 
others; none showed a 
friendlier understanding 
than he of the experi- 
ments of the younger 
generation. 

Thanks to the rich 
intensity of his palette 
and the exquisite taste 
governing its choice, no 
less than to the structur- 
al solidity of his compo- 




95 



sition, Vuillard enjoyed a privilege rare indeed, and one which many of these who lacked these 
qualities may well have envied the privilege of having won the admiration of all the 
painters of his day, whatever their personal aesthetic viewpoints and whatever their individual 
merits. The reasons for this eminence are various, but chief amongst them is the classical 
and wholly admirable humility of a man of unquestioned genius towards an art which was 
never put to the service of personal ambition or self-display. 

In Vuillard's art was a unity, a singleness of purpose, hard to come by at a time when 
so many and such different art movements were tugging in opposite directions. Symbolism, 
for instance, whose influence on painting was so vacillating and short-lived, appealed for the 
most part to artists who found a remedy for the lacunae of their instinct in the strict application 
of ready-made aesthetic theories. But, though Vuillard's art has been assigned to this 
school, his sensibility ranged far beyond it. The same was true of Verlaine, with whom 
Vuillard had much affinity, despite differences of temperament too obvious to need mention. 
Then, again, Japanese art must have delighted Vuillard, with its simplicity, its novel lay-out, 
its cunning arabesques ; but it is no less certain that this art had nothing new to teach him. 
All its specific qualities and many others were already his, and the most he found in 
them was a confirmation of the similar intentions to which his instinct had already given rise. 
Verlaine's name has just been mentioned ; a line from his Chansons grises might be a summing 
up of Vuillard's art. 

" 0& I'indfais au precis sc joint. " 

A precise indecision 1 Whereas in Bonnard's more spectacular vision, indecision is 
allowed to exercise all its compelling yet so fragile charm, Vuillard, while remaining thoroughly 
impressionist, puts into practice quite instinctively Cezanne's famous injunction, to 
make Impressionism " something solid and abiding. " Despite certain similarities of tone, 
like those we find between the Picassos and the Braques of the analytic period of Cubism, 
due as much to the sureness of taste common to both artists as to the fact that both painted 
often on a highly absorbent substance, cardboard, there is an essential difference between 
the techniques no less than between the aesthetic viewpoints of Bonnard and of Vuillard. 

Vuillard had zealously espoused the teachings of the Pont-Aven School. Led on by 
his friends Denis and Roussel, he was launched into the fray, even joined in the dinners in 
the Passage Brady, and did posters, programmes and panels, painted either in oils, or oftener 
with the then fashionable distemper, on canvas or cardboard, for the " Oeuvre " theatre. 
Vuillard's " Intimism " found an outlet in the pursuit of simplification ; he stripped his work 
of all but essentials, using bold, highly expressive yet sober and invariably constructive lines. 
His feeling for precision, which was to make him the most accomplished of the " Nabis " 
group, was coming into evidence. The element of " indecision " in his work is indicated in 
the stylization of his tones. He uses a very thin pigment, the tones are firmly indicated but 
without emphasis ; they are essentially variations on neutral tints, and are painted " flat ; " 
on whites and browns especially, recalling monastic tonalities, the garb of Dominican or 
Benedictine friars. On the occasions when he indulges in bright hues he mutes these, as it 
were, giving them deep sonorities far more emotive than his friend's rather excessive use of the 
" pedal. " In fact his work brings to our mind a murmurous, spell-binding chamber music ; 
all the more compelling for its serene restraint. If ever there was an art for professionals, it 
is Vuillard's ; and few are the artists who have not been fascinated by it. 

Nevertheless it is inimitable. Like Renoir, Vuillard has had no disciples, doubtless 
because his art derives from no theory, but is the mirror of a highly gifted personality. In 
his highest achievements, lying as they do between the decorative fantasy of his early days 
and the naturalistic academicism of 1920, Vuillard found the perfect balance indeed in 
his qualities there are no defects. And the reason for this is that, in his tireless experiments 
with the basic stuff, the matiire of art, he steered a middle course between Bonnard's fluent 
exuberance, and the stiffness Degas often shows in the lay-out of his compositions. 



96 




E. VUILLARD (1868-1940). INTERIOR, 1898. IQ% X 16ft". PRIVATE COLLECTION, PARIS. 



THIS IS ONE OF VUILLARD'S MOST DISCUSSED WORKS ; NOTEWORTHY IS THE ALMOST TOTAL ABSENCE OF MODELLING. BUILT 
IN RECTANGULAR PLANES (THUS ANTICIPATING CUBISM). IT HAS THE CLASSICAL INTERPLAY OF VERTICALS AND HORIZONTALS. 
THE COLOUR HARMONY, IN WHICH EARTHY" TONES ARE LIGHTLY ACCENTED WITH PATCHES OF PINKS AND PEARL-GREYS, IS 

CHARACTERISTIC OF VUILLARD, 



97 




E. VUILLARD (1868-1940). OLD LADY EXAMINING HER NEEDLEWORK, 1893. II Yt X IO % ". 

PRIVATE COLLECTION, PARIS. 

ONE OF VUILLARD'S MASTERPIECES. THE SUBTI*ETY OF THE TONES AND THE REFINEMENT OF THE COMPOSITION RECALL A 

VERMEER, BUT A VERMEEK MORE SPONTANEOUS, MORE ALIVE. f 

Hard things have been said about his " lapses " during the period when he mixed 
in " society. " Equally unjustly he has been reproached with living in an ivory tower. It 
would be truer to say that Vuillard's art stood aside from the main stream because its place 
was outside Time. Indeed it is studied by contemporary artists much as they study a 
masterpiece of high antiquity in order to detect the secret of its permanence. In the long 
progress of art there are often breathing-spaces, and perhaps Vuillard stands for one of 
these. Indeed it well may be that Vuillard will have played in Modern Painting the part 
that a Corot played in Romanticism. 



98 




E. VCILLARD (1868-1940). THE RED BEDROOM. 15 Vt * 12 V 4 " PRIVATE COLLECTION, ZURICH. 



99 




E. VUILLARD (1868-1940). PORTRAIT OF CIPA GODEBSKI, C. 1897. 26^X20*4". PRIVATE COLLECTION, PARIS. 



100 



"At bottom I am an Impressionist" he said to Matrsse,,, 



BONNARD 



P 

I ierre Bonnard's art marks the starting-point of the epoch of Modern Painting properly so 

called. Or, if we wish to have a more precise date, we may synchronize its beginning with 
that famous aphorism of Maurice Denis, which so well summed up the aspirations of all art- 
movements from his day to ours. " Remember that a painting before being a warhorse, 
a naked woman, some anecdote or whatnot is essentially a flat surface covered with 
colours arranged in a certain order. " This was published on August 23, 1890, in the review 
Art et Critique and signed " Pierre Louis " (Denis* pseudonym). All Pierre Bonnard's work 
bears out this dictum but, in putting it into practice, he adapted it to the moods of a very 
personal sensibility, and, as we can see, allowed himself great latitude in the application of 
its last word, " order. " 

Pierre Bonnard was born on October 13, 1867 at Fontenay-aux-Roses. The charming 
name of this Parisian suburb, conjuring up as it does visions of flowers and colourful retreats, 
was apt for the birthplace of a great painter whose art is all in delicate nuances, fine shades 
of feeling. And, since we have touched on nomenclature, we may follow with the names of 
some of Bonnard's pictures, which give an excellent conspectus of the artist's favourite themes : 
The little Fauns, Daphnis and Chloe, The C abhor se, Paradise, At the Moulin Rouge, The 
Laundry Girl, The Doffed Chemise, The Three Graces, The Panorama, The Dining-Room, 
The Cock and Hen. In this little anthology, as it were, of his work we find a pleasing variety : 
almost sentimental tenderness and sensuality, ironic wit and innocence, a feeling for the 
intimate and a sensitive response to the sights of the world around him in short, an all- 
inclusive vision. 

As is well known, many of our great artists made heavy weather of their careers ; 
Bonnard's life, though it had its moments of sadness, was relatively plain sailing. He did 
well at school (in classics) and obtained his school certificate without difficulty ; on his father's 
advice he then studied for an administrative post in the Enregistrement. Having failed in 
the examination, he entered the office of a Deputy Attorney with a view to obtaining, later, 
a magisterial post. Then, one day, having extracted a drawing from one of the big office 
files (which served him more as a hiding-place for such things than as a source of instruction), 
he succeeded in selling it for a hundred francs. It was a study for a poster advertizing a 
brand of champagne. This was enough to make him promptly throw up his law studies, 
and he may well have echoed Gauguin's cry of liberation : " Now at last I shall paint every 
day ! " (1889). 

The work of the great exile of Tahiti has always influenced our youthful artists, and 
Bonnard was no exception. One of Gauguin's sayings, " There are only two kinds of artists 
the imitators and the revolutionaries " was an obvious enjoinder to young artists to choose 
freedom. His advice was, however, difficult to follow ; Gauguin himself had opened up so 
many and such various new paths whose names were not, like " Impressionism " foisted on 
them by ironical critics, but were chosen by the painters themselves, that (since youth is 
always eager to be in the avant-garde) the young artists were hard put to it to choose their 
way. There were Cloisonnism, Symbolism, Synthesism and Ideism to choose from or combine 
pending the advent of " Neo-Traditionalism " which was to unite under S6rusier's aegis 
Bonnard, Vuillard, Roussel, Ranson and Vallotton. Meanwhile, to be in the fashion, the 
group gave themselves a name, the " Nabis " ~ a Hebrew word meaning " prophets. " 



101 




Bonnard had already met 
Vuillard at the Acad&nie Jullian ; 
likewise Vallotton, Ibels, Ranson, and 
Srusierwho held the post of student- 
in-charge at Jullian's. S6rusier 
ruled his fellow students with a rod 
of iron ; he was much looked up to 
because he had known Gauguin inti- 
mately, and he propagated the 
Master's theories to good effect. He 
also discoursed on Plotinus, Pytha- 
goras, the " Gold Section, " the 
" Holy Proportion " and similar eso- 
teric topics, duly impressing his 
hearers, especially Maurice Denis, 
and perhaps young Bonnard, too. 
Needless to say, Bonnard entered 
the Ecole des Beaux-Arts ; but he 
stayed there a year only. After 
competing unsuccessfully for the Prix 
de Rome with his Triumph of Mordecai 
(which his masters persisted in regar- 
ding as a bad joke), he had no further 
use for the Academy. (This was in 
1888). Henceforth, possessing a tech- 
nique that he had no need tolearn, 
since, like all great artists, he had it 
in the blood, he set to shaping the 
course of his aesthetic on lines of 
his own choice. During his period 
of military service (1890-1891) he 
painted The Parade in which we find 
already a superb mastery of hiS 
medium, equal, perhaps, to that of 
the greatest works of his maturity. 
But, by way of Gauguin, it was Japanese art that most influenced Bonnard. After 
carefully studying Japanese colourprints, he tested for himself the efficacy of flat planes, 
modelling reduced to a minimum, composition in two dimensions, lines intersecting in such 
a way as to give the impression of a new kind of depth. The " Japanese Nabi " (as his friends 
came to call him) also experimented in the employment of drawing alone for condensing 
form in a somewhat decorative manner. He used flat tones and because he painted on 
cardboard his colours were low-keyed ; also he mixed a good deal of turpentine in his pigment. 
He was always trying to attain that "dull, muffled yet mighty resonance fl which Gauguin 
had sought and found. For the most part, however, in his early phase, Bonnard concentrated 
on drawing, poster-designing, and lithography ; on black-and-white and the arabesque. 
In any case his palette was very subdued, in accordance with the anti-impressionist trend 
of the time, which he, too, followed, and he made much use of blacks and greys. In short, 
pending the day when Bonnard was to let his natural impulses take charge, colour with him 
was kept very much in the background. For there is a sort of pedantry in youth ; fresh 
from the Schools, a young man often deliberately calls his temperament to heel. 

Around 1890 there began a lasting friendship between Bonnard, Vuillard, Denis, 
Roussel and Lugn6-Pog, founder-to-be of the famous Th&tre de TOeuvre. Most of them 
had been fellow-students at the Lyc6e Condorcet, In the following year the Natanson 



p. BONNARD (1867-1947). WOMAN'S HKAD, c. 1892. 

10 Vi x 7". PRIVATE COLLECTION, WINTERTHUR. 

IT WAS PROBABLY THIS EXQUISITELY HARMONIOUS COLOUR-SCHEME 
THAT LED MAURICE DENIS TO REMARK ON BONNARD'S " FELICITOUS 
* HANDLING OF DARK TONES AND GREYS." 



102 



BONNARD*ft SISTER, ANDRfiE, MARRIED CLAUDE TERRASSE, THE COMPOSER, AND THEY HAD SEVERAL CHILDREN OfoE fcP 
BONNARD*8 MASTERPIECES, THIS CANVAS BOLDLY DEVELOPS THE JAPANESE TECHNIQUE OF COMPOSITION BY PLANES. IT HAtf 
SOMETHING OF THE FRESCO AND OF THE DECORATIVE AMPLITUDE OF THE ARTIST^ NEXT PHASE. IT ALSO MARKS ANOTHER 
STEP TOWARDS THE LIBERATION OF PAINTING FROM REPRESENTATIONAL SERVICE WHICH CULMINATED IN THE XXTH CENTURY. 

P. BONNARD (1867-1947). THE TERRASSE FAMILY, 1892. 12 y 4 X 10 y 4 ". MOLYNEUX COLLECTION, PARIS. 




103 




P. BONNARD (1867-1947). THE CIRCUS, C. IQOO. 21 % x 25 Vi " PRIVATE COLLECTION, PARIS. 

CIRCUS LIFE FASCINATED MANY GREAT ARTISTS RENOIR, DEGAS, SEURAT, LAUTKKC AND, LATER, PICASSO ; BONNARD, WHO 
LIVED IN MONTMARTRE ROUND ABOUT 1900 WAS NO EXCEPTION. BUT WITH HIM THE CIRCUS IS NOT AN OCCASION FOR 
DRAUGHTSMANSHIP BUT FOR PAINTING IN ITS PUREST SENSE AND HIS "PATCHWORK" TECHNIQUE NOW BECOMES MORE 

LUMINOUS, WARMER, STILL MORE VIBRANT WITH LIFE. 

brothers launched the Revue Blanche, that famous periodical which did so much to promote 
the new movement in literature and art that took form in the 'nineties. It provided a forum 
for discussions of all that pertained to art, and in these S6rusier, Vallotton and Roussel made 
great names for themselves. 

Literature was brilliantly represented in the review by Henri de R6gnier, F61ix F6n&>n, 
Alfred Jarry, Tristan Bernard, Pierre Louys and other leading lights of the younger generation. 
This movement had a very distinctive unity of tone ; it was hostile to the noisy and bombastic, 
indeed to any over-emphasis (however sincere the feeling behind it), and it stood for a gentle 
tolerance, for nuances, for observation and invention tempered by the grace of wit and an 
amiability never lapsing into the mawkish. 

The truth was (and in fact he made no secret of it) that Bonnard was a natural 
Impressionist, and for this reason symbolist or "ideist " theories could never hold him long. 
He was quite unmoved by Albert Aurier's solemn announcement that art was " the represen- 
tative materialization of what is loftiest and divinest in the world in other words, the 
Idea. " All he asked of painting was for it to interpret the impressions given him by what he 
saw ; and all his life was one long, observant, fascinated contemplation of the infinite variety 
of things. Thus, once he had escaped from the literary atmosphere of the Revue Blanche, 



104 



he rid his palette of the constraints imposed by theories alien to his temperament, and gave 
free rein to that creative joy in light and colour which enabled him to transform the humblest 
domestic object into something rare and wonderful, aglow with rainbow hues. And now 
he had set his fancy free to roam, he indulged his sensations in, as it were, a round-the-world 
voyage, which, however, hd did not terminate like Gauguin in some South Sea island ; he 
brought them back to their starting-point that finely adjusted sensibility which he never 
allowed to founder on the reef of virtuosity, or a mannerism. Thus, guided by his natural 
impulses and his fine sensitivity he indulged happily in the boldest, most surprising 
dissonances, those " grace-notes " of which he alone had the secret, and those persistent 



WE FIND HERE A BOLDNESS OF COMPOSITION UNATTAINED BY DEGAS OR BY LAUTREC. THE OVAL OF THE TABLE PRESSES FOR- 
WARD FROM THE CANVAS WHOSE RECTANGLE SEEMS TO HAVE BEEN THRUST ASIDE. THE PRODIGIOUS VITALITY OF THIS COMPO- 
SITION LIES IN THE FACT THAT IT SEEMS LESS A PICTURE THAN THE RECORD OF A SUDDENLY GLIMPSED SCENE IN MOVEMENT. 

P. BONNARD (1867-1947). THE CHECKERED TABLECLOTH (MADAME MARTHE BONNARD AND HER DOG ' DINGO '), 
I9IO-I9II. 32% X 33 V* " HAHNLOSER COLLECTION, WINTERTHUR. 




105 




P. BONNARD (1867-1947). NUDE WITH LAMP, IQI2. 2Q ft X 29 K " HANHLOSER COLLECTION, WINTERTHUR. 

TOWARDS igia BONNARD'S ATTITUDE TOWARDS THE WOMAN'S BODY CHANGED ; INSTEAD OF REGARDING IT AS PLASTIC ELEMENT 
TO BE WORKED INTO THE ATMOSPHERE OF THE PICTURE, HE STUDIES IT FOR ITSELF, ANALYSES AND DRAWS IT CAREFULLY, 
MAKING HIS EXACTITUDE OF LINE CONTRIBUTE TO THE EXALTATION OF THE COLOUR. 



but how delightful ! " blunders " with which critics often reproached him. When he painted, 
the colours seemed to pour from his hand, like the many-hued ribbons from a conjuror's 
sleeve. And suddenly we see as it were a new Space emerging, created by the warmest, 
strongest colour-schemes, but an accommodating Space, providing scope for freest divagations. 
It is easy to see why Bonnard was not cut out for the career in a government office to which 
his father had destined him. He had no head for figures or formalities. Any sort of precision 
would have gone against the grain of one who loved to linger on the way to admire 
a passing cloud, the glimmer of a street-lamp, the quivering of a leaf or even a blade of grass, 
the flutter of a woman's dress. One pictures him gazing fixedly at the object, his eyes 
wide with fascinated wonder, until he forgets all about it, letting his thought drift on ; 
then, later, when he is standing in front of his canvas, the image floats up again into 



106 



his consciousness, by virtue of some law of the persistence of visual impressions. 
In rendering sensations Bonnard went farther than all the Impressionists, including 
C6zanne and Renoir. With Bonnard painting reached a pitch of abstraction never yet 
obtained in the quest of " pure painting. " He painted to use Monet's simile " as a 
bird sings, " but in his case it was like the nightingale which never quite recaptures its first 
refrain, and indulges in seeming-endless variations until its voice dies out amongst the trees. 
Thus it was with Bonnard's great mural compositions ; they do not always " hold the wall 
together " according to the rules of decorative art, but seem magically to extend it to infinity, 



TO STRIKE A BALANCE BETWEEN IMPULSE AND INTELLECT IS ALWAYS A CRUCIAL PROBLEM FOR THE PAINTER. HERE BONNARD 

BEGAN BY COMPOSING AND DRAWING ; THE COLOUR CAME AFTER AND WAS MADE TO TALLY WITH THE LAY-OUT. BUT BONNARD 

LETS THE SAIL DISCLOSE THE SKY'S IMMENSITY ; THE VAST DECORATIVE COMPOSITIONS IN WHICH* IE WAS TO GIVE HIS GENIUS 

FOR DELICATELY NUANCED BEAUTY, ITS FULL SCOPE, ARE NEAR AT HANI 

P. BONNARD (1867-1947). AT SEA I THE HAHNLOSER FAMILY, 1924-1925. 38 ft * 40 ft ". 
HAHNLOSER COLLECTION, WINTERTHUR. 




107 




P. BONNARD (1867-1947). FRUIT, IQ20. 



X 12 ft ". PRIVATE COLLECTION, ZURICH. 



HERE, SUCH IS THE BOLDNESS OF THE TONES THAT THEY ARE ALWAYS ON THE BRINK OF CLASHING, BUT SERENELY THE BAL- 

ANCED DRAWING AVERTS THIS DANGER. IT IS " DRAWN " IN THE SENSE BONNARD GAVE THE WORD WHEN HE SAID : " TO REPRE- 

SENT ON A FLAT SURFACE VOLUMES AND OBJECTS LOCATED IN SPACE, THIS IS THE PROBLEM OF DRAWING." 



like the skies in Tiepolo's cupolas. Bonnard used to say that his art lay midway between 
Intimism and Decoration. 

Defenders of Academicism have thought to belittle certain tendencies of modern art 
by saying it is merely decorative. They employ the word ' decoration ' in its invidious sense, 



108 



meaning what is added wantonly by way of ornament to catch and please the eye N in other 
words, something superfluous, adding no real significance to a work of art. Actually, however, 
great painters have never fought shy of using the word ' decoration ' ; nor have they ever 
wished to exclude decoration from their art, as something reprehensible. For Bonnard the 

P. BONNARD (1867-1947). LE POT PROVENCAL, IQ30. 2<) *& X 24 V 2 ". HAHNLOSER COLLECTION, WINTERTHUR. 




109 




P. BONNARD (1867-1947). THE YELLOW SHAWL, 1933. 49 % X 37 Vi ". PRIVATE COLLECTION, PARIS. 



110 



problem was not that of embellishing a wall, but that of organizing it pictorially as a surface to be 
covered, an architectural fact to be implemented. This, in fact, was the classical approach. 
When speaking of Intimism and Decoration, Bonnard was defining two forms of creative 
art : that of the easel-painter intent on expressing emotional experience, whose concentration 
within a restricted space intensifies its potency ; and that of the fresco-painter, whose vision 
calls for large surfaces over which the imagination can range without spatial restriction. 
Bonnard 's art inaugurated the period of Modern Painting. It contains intimations of 
Fauvism, in that it enables visual sensations to express themselves with a hitherto undreamed- 
of intensity. Perhaps Bonnard was the true creator of that romantic cult of pure colour, 
which, while provoking the inevitable reprisals from embattled classicism, led painting 
towards a fuller emancipation from the tyranny of the object. 

HERE WE SEE BONNARD'S ART IN ALL ITS FAR-FLUNG SPLENDOUR ; HIS COLOUR SEEMS TO SING IN UNISON WITH THE LANDSCAPE, 
AND IN RAPTUROUS FREEDOM, HE LAVISHES ON HIS CANVAS THE WEALTH OF A PALETTE INCOMPARABLY RICH AND LUMINOUS. 

P. BONNARD (1867-1947). LE CANNET, 1940-1941. 22 M X 13 % ". PRIVATE COLLECTION, PARIS. 




111 




P. BONNARD (1867-1947). FRUIT, 1946. THE ARTIST'S LAST PICTURE. 
. GALERIE MAEGHT COLLECTION, PARIS. 



112 



BIOGRAPHICAL AND BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES 
INDEX OF NAMES 



BIOGRAPHICAL AND BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SUMMARIES 



.. T he chronological biographies record the chief and, above all, the most significant events in the lives of 
the artists, giving frequent glimpses of the great painters' private lives, They are not only portraits of the artists, but also 
summaries of facts enabling the reader to appraise the men and their works from both the historical and the aesthetic point 

of view. 



Ku The bibli graphical not ^ve lists of the written matter available to the student desirous of prosecuting 
ner ws researches: the writings and correspondence of the artists themselves, the book* they illustrated, monographs and 
studies of their works, and, lastly, catalogues and lists of the chief exhibitions, with the date and locality of each 



BAZILLE, FRDRIC (1841-1870) 

1841 Born at Montpellier, December 6th; of a 
middle-class, protestant family. His father, 
a wine-grower on a large scale, became senator 
for the HeYault Department in 1879. His 
mother was Marguerite Vialars. The family 
was friendly with the famous connoisseur, 
Bruyas, who made him acquainted with 
modern painting, Courbet and Delacroix, at 
an early age. He took some drawing lessons 
from a modeller, Baussan. Began studying 
medecine at Montpellier ; was allowed by his 
parents to go to Paris to finish his studies, 
giving his spare time to painting. 

1862 Enters Gleyre's studio in November ; meets 
Monet, Renoir, Sisley. This meeting has a 
decisive effect on his career. He lived in close 
friendship with Renoir and Monet during his 
brief life as an artist, sharing his studio with 
one or the other, and for a while with both 
at once. Better off than his friends, he gives 
them material aid ; Monet, always in financial 
straits, is most persistent in his demands. 

1863 Easter holidays with Monet at Chailly-en-Biere, 
in Fontainebleau Forest. Sees much of 
Baudelaire's friend Commandant Lejosne. 

1864 Honfleur, with Monet, Boudin, Jorigkind. 

1865 Sits for two figures in Le Dejeuner sur I'Herbe, 
Monet's open-air composition, and himself 
paints his Lisiere de Foret and L* Ambulance Im- 
provise'e. From January 15, 1865, to February 
4, 1866, lives with Monet, 6 Rue de Fursten- 
berg, in the house in which Delacroix died. At 
MeYic he paints the portrait of his cousin 
The>ese des Hours, La Robe Rose (Louvre). 

1867 Lives with Renoir in the Rue Visconti. Buys 
Monet's Women in the Garden, for which he 
pays by monthly instalments. Spends summer 
at Aigues-Mortes. 

1868 Exhibits La Reunion de Famille at the Salon. 

1869 Takes studio in the Rue de la Condamine 
(Louvre. Plate, p. 20). Becomes an habitue* 
of the Caf6 Guerbois. Very friendly with 
E. Maitre, Stevens, and Fantin-Latour who 
includes him amongst Manet's admirers in his 
group portrait : The Artist's Studio (Louvre). 

1870 Exhibits two canvases at the Salon : Bathers 
and Flowers. Mobilised in a Zouave regiment, 
goes to Philippeville with his unit ; comes 
back to France and is killed in the battle of 
Beaune-la-Rolande (November 28). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

G. Poulain, Baxille et ses amis, Paris, 1932 
(partial catalogue) ; G. Charensol, L' Amour de 
UArt> January, 1927 ; G. Poulain, La Renais- 
sance, April, 1927 ; E. Scheyer, The Art 
Quarterly, 1942 ; M. Sarraute, Paris, 1948 
(thesis at the Ecole du Louvre). 



Exhibitions. 

Salon d'Automne 1910 (23 exhibits. Prefaced 
by L. Werth) ; Retrospective Exhibitions at 
Montpellier in 1927 and 1941 ; Association des 
Etudiants Protestants, Paris, 1935. 

BONNARD, PIERRE (1867-1947) 

1867 Born October 13 at Fontenay-aux-Roses near 
Paris. His father, head of an office in the 
War Ministry, hailed from the Dauphind 
province ; his mother, Elise Mertzdorff, was 
an Alsatian. 

1877-85 Had a classical education, at which he did well, 

at the Vannes Lyc6e and Louis-le-Grand. 
1885-88 Under pressure from his father, studies law. 

1888 Ecole des Beaux-Arts. Fails to obtain Prix 
de Rome. The work he submitted was " not 
serious enough. " Studied at the Acade*mie 
Jullian, where he met Denis, Vuillard, Ranson, 
Serusier. In October SeYusier comes back 
from Pont-Aven with Gauguin's " talisman. " 
Influence of Japanese prints and Chinese art. 

1889 A decisive year. Gauguin's art, on view at the 
Volpini exhibition, is a revelation. A group 
is formed : the " Nabis. " Bonnard makes a 
poster, France-Champagne, preceding Lautrec's 
posters (1891), which he sells for a hundred 
francs. Gives up his law studies, decides to be 
a painter. 

1890 Military Service at Bourgoin. The Parade 
(Private collection, Switzerland). His sister 
Andrei marries his friend Claude Terrasse, the 
composer. Shares a studio, 28, rue Pigalle, 
Montmartre, with Vuillard, Maurice Denis 
and Lugn6-Poe. 

1891 Exhibits 9 pictures at Salon des Indpendants, 
which are praised by G. Geffroy, the critic. 
The Natanson Brothers launch La Revue 
Blanche, in which he at once collaborates. 
The " Nabis " have their first exhibition in 
Le Bare de Boutteville's Gallery. 

1892 Again exhibits in Salon des Ind6pendants 
(March-April) and at Le Bare de Boutteville's 
(November). Small stylized black and grey 
panels, much admired by R. Marx and Aurier. 
TSte de Femme (Plate, p. 102), Corsage a 
carreaux (Ch. Terrasse Coll., Fontainebleau). 
At Pere Tanguy's shop studies Cezanne's 
canvases. Strikes up friendship with Odilon 
Redon. 

1893 Has a studio 63, rue de Douai. Colour- 
lithographs for La Revue Blanche and L'Escar- 
mouche. Lugne-Poe founds Le Theatre de 
1'Oeuvre ; Bonnard helps with the sets and 
costumes. Meets Vollard, who is now opening 
his gallery. 

1895 Vollard publishes Quelques aspects de la Vie 
de Paris, with 12 lithographs by Bonnard. 
Tiffany exhibits at the Salon a set of 



BAZILLE 
BONNARD 



115 



BONN ARD stainedglass windows, one of which, Maternity, 

is from a design by Bonnard. Bonnard some- 
times accompanies Lautrec in his nocturnal 
jaunts in Montmartre. 

1896 Bonnard's first exhibition, in Durand-Ruel's 
gallery, is discussed at length by G. Geflroy 
and T. Natanson. Collaborates with Terrasse 
at the Thtatre des Pantins. 

1897 Group exhibition at Vollard's. Lithographs 
shown at La Libre Esth&ique, Brussels. 

1898 Bonnard illustrates Marie, a novel by Peter 
Nansen ; his first illustrated book. In the 
spring begins the illustration of Verlaine's 
Paralttlcment, commissioned by Vollard ; the 
sketches are intermingled with the printed 
matter the first indication of a form the 
modern illustrated book was often to take. 

1899 Large-scale group exhibition at Durand-Ruel's 
as a ' homage ' to Odilon Redon. Bonnard 
enters into contact with Bernheim-Jeune 
gallery, and continues to frequent the Revue 
Blanche group. Very friendly with Felix 
F6n6on. ! 

1900 From 1890 to 1900 shares his time between 
Paris and the family home in Dauphin6. From 
1900 onwards alternates his stays between 
Paris and the neighbourhood ; rents a little 
country house at Montval ; often visits Denis 
at St. Germain-en-Laye and Roussel at 
l'Etang-la-Ville. 

IQOI Exhibits a large triptych at Salon des Ind6- 
pendants. 

1902 Vollard publishes Daphnis et Chlod with 
Bonnard's illustrations. 

1903 Exhibits at the first Salon d'Automne ; 
Bourgeois Afternoon. 

1904 Illustrates Jules Renard's Histoires Naturclles. 
One-man show at Bernheim's : intimate scenes, 
women dressing. 

1905 Two pictures at Salon des Indpendants, five 
at Salon d'Automne, admired by Andr6 Gidt\ 
Spends his summers at Villennes or Vernouillet, 
sometimes at Cottcville in Normandy. 

1907-10 Travels in Belgium, Holland, England, Italy, 
Spain, Tunisia. 

1912 Buys a small house at Vernonnet near Vernon : 
Ma Roulotte. From now on till 1938 he divides 
his time between the Seine Valley and the 
South (Grasse, St.-Tropez, Le Cannet). 
Declines Legion of Honour decoration. Has 
studio in Paris, 22, rue Tourlaque. His 
palette has grown brighter, as a result of the 
Provengal atmosphere. Large decorative 
panels. 

1913 Travels in Holland and, with Vuillard, in 
England. 

1914-18 Lives at St. Germain-en-Laye. 

1918 Spends the summer at Uriage. Has a studio 
in Paris, 56, rue Molitor. 

1923 Death of Claude Terrasse. 

1925 Buys a small house at Le Cannet, near Cannes. 
Watercolours. His Paris residence : 48, Bou- 
levard des Batignolles. 

1926 Goes to the United States. 
1930-32 Arcachon. Winters at Le Cannet. 

1930-38 Spends summer at Deauville and Trouville. 
Seascapes. 



1940 Deaths of Madame Bonnard and Vuillard. 
Bonnard retires permanently to his country 
home at Le Cannet (a brief stay in Paris, 
in 1945). His lyrical emotion rises to a last, 
vivid intensity. His final achievement is a 
decorative religious work : Saint Francois de 
Sales Visiting the Sick, an altar picture for 
the church at Assy in the Haute-Savoie. 

1947 Dies, January 23, at Le Cannet. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Writing by the Artist. 

Correspondence, Paris, 1944 ; Interviews and 
observations collected in L'Art et I'Affiche, 
1898 ; Verve, August, 1947 ; Arts de France, 
1947- 

Monographs and Appraisals. 

T. Natanson, Revue Blanche, 1896 ; 
L. Cousturicr, UArt dtcoratif, 1912 ; F. Fosca, 
Paris, 1919; G. Coquiot, Paris, 1922 ; L. Werth, 
Paris, 1923 ; C. Roger-Marx, Paris, 1924 
and 1931 ; C. Terrasse, Paris, 1927 (with 
catalogue of graphic work by J. Floury) ; 
A. Fontainas, Paris, 1928 ; G. Besson, Paris, 
1934; J. de Laprade, Paris, 1944; A. Lhotc, 
Paris, 1944; T. Natanson, Gischia, L. Werth, 
G. Diehl, Paris, 1945; P. Courthion, Lausanne, 
1945; J. Leymarie, L' Amour de I' Art, 1946; 
F. Jourdain, Geneva, 1946 ; G. Besson, Arts 
de France, 1946 ; G. Jedlicka, Zurich, 1947 ; 
J. Beer, Paris, 1947 ; J. Rewald, New York, 
1948 ; Special Number of Le Point, 1943 ; 
Formes et Couleurs, 1944 ; Verve, 1947. 

Illustrated books: 

Peter Nansen, Marie, Paris, 1898 (Ed. La 
Revue Blanche) ; Paul Verlaine, Paralltlement, 
Paris, 1900 (109 lith., 9 eng.), Vollard; Daph- 
nis et Chlot, Paris, 1902 (109 lith.), Vollard ; 
O. Mirbeau, La 628-^8, Fasquelle, Paris, 1908 ; 
A. Gide, Le Promtihte mal enchaint, N. R. F., 
Paris (30 drawings) ; C. Anet, Notes sur 
r Amour, Cr&s, Paris (14 woodcuts) ; O. Mirbeau, 
Dingo, Vollard, Paris, 1924 (55 etchings) ; 
Les Histoires du Petit Renaud, N. R. F., Paris, 
1926 (50 drawings in colour) ; A. Vollard, 
Sainte Monique, Vollard, Paris, 1930 ; C. Roger- 
Marx, Simili, Sans-Pareil, Paris, 1930 ; 
P. Bonnard, Correspondances, Verve, Paris, 
1944. 

Exhibitions : 

1896, Galerie Durand-Ruel, Paris (49 paintings, 
lithographs) ; Gal. Bernheim-Jeune, Paris, 
1904 ; 1909, February (36 paint.) ; 1910, 
March (34 paint.); 1911, May- June (21 paint.); 
1912, June- July ; 1913, May- June (21 paint.); 
1917, Oct.-Nov. (n paint.) ; 1924, April, Gal. 
Druet, Paris, Retrospective 1891-1922 ; 1924, 
June- July ; 1926, May- June (24 paint.) ; 1926, 
Nov.-Dec., Gal. Bernheim-Jeune, Paris (20 
paint.) ; 1928, April, De Haucke & Co., 
New York (40 paint. Introduced by C. Anet) ; 
1932, May 29 -July 3, Zurich, Kunsthalle, 
Bonnard- Vuillard ; 1934, March, Wildenstein 
Gallery, New York (44 paint.) ; 1941 and 
1943, Galerie P6trid6s, Paris ; 1942, March, 
Weyhe Gal., New York; 1946, June -July, 
Gal. Bemheim, Paris (34 paint.) ; 1946, Dec.- 
1947, Jan., Bignou Gal., New York (15 paint.); 
1947, Hommage du Salon d'Automne et du 
Salon des Indipendants ; 1947, May, Ny 



116 



Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen (69 items) ; 
1947, Oct. -Dec., Orangerie, Paris (197 items. 
Prefaced by C. Terrasse) ; 1948, Museum of 
Modern Art, New York (147 items) ; 1949, 
June- July, Kunsthaus, Zurich (250 items. 
Prefaced by J. Leymarie, Introduction by 
W. Wartmann). 



C&ZANNE, PAUL (1839-1906) 

1839 Born at Aix-en-Provencc, 23, rue de I'Op^ra, 
Jan. 19. The family hailed from a village 
named ' Cezanne ' (Cesena) on the Italian 
side of Mont Gen&vre, but was of French 
stock. His father Louis-Auguste Cfeanne, a 
hat-maker, married in 1844 one of his work- 
girls, Honorine Aubert, by whom he had 
already had two children, Paul and Marie 
(born on July 4, 1841) who was always ten- 
derly devoted to her brother. 

1844 Attended dameschool in the Rue des Epinaux, 
until 1849. 

1847 His father took over the Banque Barges then 
in liquidation and launched it as a new con- 
cern, the Banque Cezanne et Cabassol. Loca- 
ted at 24, Rue des Cordeliers, then 14, Rue 
Boulcgon, at Aix. 

1849 Day-boarder at the Ecole St. -Joseph. 

1852 Boarder at the College Bourbon (now LyceV 
Mignct) until 1856; dayboy from 1856 to 1858. 
Thorough classical education, backed by 
religious teaching. Amongst his schoolfriends 
were Baptistin Bailie and notably Emile Zola 
witli whom he remained very intimate until 
their quarrel in 1886. 

1856 Works under Gibert at the Aix School of 
Drawing. Second prize in 1858. Also studies 
music ; much enthusiasm for Wagner. Fond 
of country walks with Bailie and Zola. 

1859 Takes degree in Letters (classified ' moderately 
good '). Begins his correspondence with Zola 
who is now at the Lyc&s Louis-le-Grand, 
Paris. His wish is to go to Paris to study pain- 
ting, but his father insists on his entering the 
Law School at Aix. This year, C6zanne pire, 
whose bank is prospering, buys a country 
house near Aix, " Le Jas de Bouffan, " where 
young Cezanne spends the summer and 
instals a studio. 

1860 He tries to persuade his father to let him 
devote himself to painting, and his mother and 
sister Marie back him up in this. Besides 
Zola and Bailie, with whom he subsequently 
loses touch, his friends at this time are a 
sculptor Philippe Solari (his faithful friend 
until his death), who did his bust in 1904, Numa 
Coste who was to become a journalist, Empe- 
raire a painter, and Valabrgue an art-critic. 
Is now influenced by Loubon and the paintings 
in the Caravaggio manner in the Aix Museum. 

1861 April. His father yields at last and goes with 
him to Pa ris. He lodges Rue des Feuillantines, 
attends the Suisse Academy, where he meets 
Guillaumin and Pissarro, the latter of whom 
greatly influences him. Visits the Louvre 
and Salon. In September, after a setback at 
the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, has a fit of home- 
sickness, goes back to Aix and takes a post 
in his father's bank, though he still attends 



drawing classes in the evening. He now does 
murals at Le Jas de Bouffan : The Four 
Seasons, Interior (Museum of Modern Art, 
Moscow), inspired by illustrations in a fashion 
paper. 

1862 Nov.-i864, July. Second stay in Paris. Works 
at the Suisse Academy ; becomes very frien- 
dly with Pissarro, Guillaumin, Oiler, Guillemet, 
Bazille, Monet, Sisley, Renoir. With Zola 
visits the 1863 Salon des Refuse's. He still 
admires above all Delacroix and Courbet. 
Embarks on a series of intensely romantic 
works, executed in dark, dramatic, ' lurid ' (as 
he calls them) tones a manner which is to 
persist until 1872. 

1864 Again loses heart and returns to Aix. From 
1864 to 1870 shares his time between Paris and 
Aix. The pictures he sends in at the Salon 
are invariably rejected. At Aix from July 
1864, to beginning 1865. 

1865-67 Takes lodgings in the Rue de TEst in Paris, 
then at 22, Rue Beautreillis. Spends the end of 
the year and the beginning of '66 in Provence. 
In July, 1866, goes to Dennecourt with Bailie, 
Solari, Valabr&gue and Zola. Back at Aix 
from Aug., 1866 to Jan., 1867. Rejected at 
the 1866 Salon, protests to the Director of 
Fine Arts. Introduced to Manet who admires 
his Still Lifes. Does portraits of Valabrigue 
(Coll. Pellerin, Paris), Emperaire (Coll. Le- 
comte, Paris), and of The Artist's Father 
Reading L'Evinement (Coll. Lecomte, Paris), 
the newspaper which published Zola's first 
articles on Manet. 

1867-69 Long stays in the South. When at Paris 
constantly moving ; Rue de Chevreuse, Rue 
de Vaugirard, Rue Notre-Dame-des-Champs. 
Baroque compositions with erotic tendencies : 
The Rape (J. Maynard-Keyncs Collection, Lon- 
don), The Orgy (Coll. Lecomte, Paris), The 
Temptation of St. Anthony. 
During the war lies low at L'Estaque, near 
Marseilles, where he lives with Hortense 
Fiquet, a young model met in Paris. 

After the Commune returns to Paris and lives 
in the same house as Solari, 5, Rue de 
Chevreuse. 



BONXARD 
C*ZANNB 



1870 
1871 
1872 



Birth of his son Paul (Jan. 4). Now living 
in the Rue de Jussieu ; in the spring goes to 
St. Ouen-L'Aum6ne ; then visits Pissarro at 
Pontoise. 

1873 Settles down at Auvers-sur-Oise, near Dr. 
Cachet. Paints The Hanged Man's House 
(Louvre. Plate, p. 35) and several landscapes 
showing Pissarro's influence. Meets P&re 
Tanguy. 

1874 Takes part in the First Impressionist Exhibi- 
tion, thanks to Pissarro's good offices, and 
despite the opposition of the other exhibitors. 
His canvases, Paysage d Auvers, The Hanged 
Man's House, and A Modern Olympia (Coll. 
Dr. Gachct) were those most derided by the 
public. A short stay at Aix. 

1875 Now living at 120, Rue de Vaugirard ; later, 
Quai d'Anjou. Meets Chocquet. 

1876 Spends summer at L'Estaque. Refuses to 
join in the Second Group Exhibition. 

1877 Works at Pontoise, Auvers. Shows 17 can- 
vases at Third Group Exhibition (Still Lifes 
and Rueil landscapes), but the public is still 
hostile. 



117 



C&ZANNB 1878 Retires to 1'Estaque ; spends some months with 
his mother, now seriously ill. Trouble with his 
father about his way of living. Zola aids him 
financially. Cuts loose from Impressionism. 

1879 Again rejected at the Salon, despite Guillemet's 
intervention. From May, 1879 to February, 
1880, spends a quiet year with his family at 
Melun, often visiting Zola at Medan. 

1880 Living at 32, Rue de 1'Ouest, Paris, from Feb. 
1880 to May 1881. Makes Huysmans' acquain- 
tance. Spends summer with Zola at Medan. 

1881 With Pissarro at Pontoise, May to Oct. Short 
stay at Aix in November. 

1882 Renoir visits him at L'Estaque. Accepted at 
the Salon as ' Guillemet's pupil. ' In Paris 
February to September. Settles at Le Jas de 
Bouffan. 

1883 Works in neighbourhood of Aix and at 
L'Estaque. Then roams Provence with Monti- 
celli. In Dec. visited by Renoir and Monet. 

1884 A mysterious love-affair which ends unhappily. 
June and July stays with Renoir at jLa 
Roche-Guyon. Returns in August to the 
South, where he stays until 1888. Works 
chiefly at Gardannc, a small town perched on 
a hilltop near Aix. The ' classical ' element in 
his style is growing more and more pronounced. 

1886 Marries Hortense Piquet (April) ; breaks with 
Zola, who in his novel L'OSuvre modelled one 
of the characters, an unsuccessful painter, on 
C6zanne. On Oct. 23 his father dies, leaving 
him a comfortably large estate. 

1887 Exhibits with the ' XX ' Group at Brussels. 

1888 Stays in Paris. Country rambles in the Ile- 
de-France. 

1889 Entertains Renoir at Le Jas de Bouffan. 
Exhibits at the ' Dfcennale ' (World's Fair) 
thanks to Choquet's insistence. 

1891 A pleasure trip to Switzerland and in the 
Jura region. First attack of diabetes. 

1892 Stays at Fontainebleau. To this extremely 
fertile phase of his career belong the 5 versions 
of The Card-Players, the series of Baigneuses, 
and that of the Montagne Sainte-Victoire. 

1894 Spends autumn at Giverny in the home of 
Monet, who introduces him to Rodin, Clemen- 
ceau, Gustave Geifroy. 

1895 First exhibition at Ambroise Vollard's. His 
work is cold-shouldered by the public, but 
thought much of by artists and some connois- 
seurs. Portrait of Gustave Geffroy (Coll. 
Lecomte, Paris) and The Boy in a Red Waistcoat 
(Plate, p. 48). 

1896 In Paris Jan. to June, 1896. At Aix June, 
1896 to Sept., 1896. During this period he 
' takes a cure ' at Vichy and makes a short 
stay beside the Lake of Annecy. Makes the 
acquaintance of the young poet Joachim 
Gasquet who becomes his warm admirer. 

1897-98 Often works at Montbriant in the estate of 
his brother-in-law, Conil. Here he paints some 
fine views of the Valley of the Arc overhung by 
Montagne Sainte-Victoire ; he also paints at 
Le Thoionet in a room fitted out as a studio at 
the Ch&teau-Noir. He also rents a cabanon 
(shanty) at the Bibemus quarry, above the 
Aix barrage. 
Oct. 15 his mother dies. Visits Paris. 



1899 Sells Le Jas de Bouffan and settles in a small 
flat at 23, Rue Boulegon at Aix, with a devoted 
housekeeper, Mme Br6mond. Exhibits three 
canvases at the Indpendants. 

1900 Figures at the Centennial Exhibition ; his 
fame is steadily increasing, abroad as well as 
in France. The Nationalgalerie, Berlin, pur- 
chases one of his pictures. Maurice Denis 
paints his Hommage d Cizanne (Musee d'Art 
Moderne, Paris), showing Bonnard, Denis, 
Redon, Roussel, Serusier and Vuillard grouped 
round the Aix Master. 

1901 Exhibits at La Libre Esthitique, Brussels, and 
at the Ind6pendants. Buys some land on the 
Les Lauves road north of Aix and has a studio 
built on it. 

1902 The death of Zola, Sept. 29, despite their 
rupture, is a great blow to him. Mirbeau tries 
to secure his nomination to the Legion 
d'Honneur, but fails. 

1904 Stays some weeks at Paris and Fontainebleau. 
An entire room at the Salon d'Automne 
devoted to his work. This is his year of 
triumph. Young admirers come to Aix to 
pay their respects ; provincials such as Leo 
Larguier, Joachim Gasquet, Charles Camoin, 
and Parisians, Edmond Jaloux, Roussel, 
Maurice Denis, Emile Bernard. 

1905 He exhibits again at the Salon d'Automne and 
the Ind6pendants. Finishes the Grandes 
Baigneuses on which he had worked seven 
years. 

1906 On Oct. 15., caught in a rainstorm while 
painting in the open his Cabanon de Jourdan 
(Plate, p. 50), he collapsed on the roadside. 
A passing laundry cart picked him up, and he 
was taken home. He died on Oct. 22. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Correspondence. 

Letters, edited by J. Rewald, Paris, 1937 ; 
London, 1941. 

2. Catalogues. 

L. Venturi, Cizanne, son art, son auvre, Paris, 
1936, 2 Vol. Indispensable, 1634 Items (805 
paintings), 1619 illustrations. Preceded by an 
excellent critical study. Exhaustive biblio- 
graphy (561 items). New and enlarged edition 
in preparation. 

3. Reminiscences. 

A. Vollard, Paris, 1914 ; J. Gasquet, Paris, 
1921 ; E. Bernard, Paris, 1921 ; G. Rivtere, 
Paris, 1923 ; L. Larguier, Le Dimanche avec 
Paul Cfaanne, Paris, 1925 ; E. Jaloux, Sou- 
venirs, L' Amour de VArt, 1920 ; Souvenirs, 
C. Camoin & M. Laforgue, L' Amour de VArt, 
1921. 

4. Monographs and Appraisals. 

J. Meier-Graefe, Munich, 1910; J. Rivtere, 
Paris, 1910 ; E. Faure, Paris, 1910 ; G. Seve- 
rini, in VEsprit Nouveau, Nov., Dec., 1921 ; 
J. Meier-Graefe, Cizanne und sein Kreis, 
Munich, 1922 ; T. Klingsor, Paris, 1923 ; 
A. Salmon, Paris, 1923 ; R. Fry, Cizanne, 
A Study of his Development, New York, London, 
1927 ; E. d'Ors, Paris, 1930 ; G. Mack, Paul 
Ctzanne, New York, London, 1935 ; M. 
Raynal, Paris, 1936 ; J. Rewald, Cixanne et 
Zola, Paris, 1936; R. Huyghe, Paris, 1936; 
F. Novotny, Vienna, 1938 ; A. C. Barnes & 



118 



V. de Mazia, The Art of Ctzanne, New York, 
1939 ; G. Jedlicka, Zurich, 1939 ; J. Rewald, 
Cfaanne, sa vie, son auvre, son amittt pour 
Zola, Paris, 1939; L. Venturi, P. Ctzanne, 
Watercolours, London, 1943 ; R. M. Rilke, 
Lettres sur Cizanne, Paris, 1944 ; E. A. Jewell, 
New York, 1944 ; P. M. Auzas, Paris, 1945 ; 
E. Loran, Cezanne's Composition, Los Angeles, 
1946 ; B. Dorival, Paris, 1948 ; A. Lhote, 
Lausanne, 1949 ; Special numbers of V Amour 
de I' Art, 1920 and 1936 ; of La Renaissance and 
VArt Sacrt, 1936. 



5. Exhibitions. 



1895, Nov.-Dec., Gal. Vollard, Paris (100 
exh.) ; Salon d'Automne, 1904 (33 exh.), 
1905 (10), 1906 (10), 1907 (58) ; Gal. Bern- 
heim-Jeune, Paris, 1907, 17-29 June (79 water- 
col.), 1910, 10-22 Jan. (68 exh.), 1914, 6-17 
Jan. (30 oils), 1926, June (58 oils, 99 watercol.) ; 
1934, Nov. 10 -Dec. 10, Pennsylvania Museum 
of Art, Philadelphia ; 1936, Orangerie, Paris 
(184 Items. Cat. by C. Sterling, Pref. by 
P. Jamot) ; 1936, Aug. 30-Oct. 12, Kunsthalle 
Basel (173 Items) ; 1936, Nov.-Dec., Gal. 
Bignou, New York (30) ; 1937, Sept.-Oct., 
Museum of Art, San Francisco ; 1939, Cente- 
nary Exhibitions : P. Rosenberg, Paris, Feb. 
21 -Apr. i (35. Pref. by Tabarant) ; Rosenberg 
& Helft, London, Apr. ; Bcrnheim-Jeune, 
Paris, May 15- June 13 ; Wildenstein, London, 
June- July (46 oils, 30 watercol., 20 drawings) 
and New York ; Marie Harriman, London, 
Nov.-Dcc. ; Lyons Museum (42 oils, 17 
watercol., 15 drawings) ; 1940, Bignou Gal., 
London ; 1947, Gal. de France, Paris : L'ln- 
ftuence de Cfaanne, Preface by A. Lhote ; 
1947, Apr., Wildenstein Gal., New York 
(88 pictures loaned by U. S. A. Collections). 



COURBET, GUSTAVE (1819-1877) 

1819 Born June 10 at Ornans (Doubs) ; came of 
a family of big Comtois wine-growers. His 
father R6gis Courbet, stemming from a long 
line of landowners, was an idealist, something 
of a dreamer and inventor of an improved 
harrow and of a five-wheeled coach. His 
mother, Sylvie Oudot, came from the well- 
to-do middle-class ; a sensitive, tactful and 
reserved woman. Three younger sisters, 
Z61ie, a musician, who died young, Zo6 and 
Juliette. His grandfather, Jean-Antoine 
Oudot, a Republican and admirer of Voltaire, 
had a great influence on him. 

1831 Indifferent studies at the small seminary of 
Ornans. He is interested only in drawing and 
in country excursions, and strikes up a friend- 
ship with the Franc-Comtois poet Max Buchon. 
As a subject for a French essay, he was given, 
aptly enough, Bonald's dictum : " The artist 
is the interpreter of his own nature. " 

1837 His father wants to make an engineer of him, 
and sends him as a boarder to the College 
Royal at Besan^on. Neglects his studies but 
attends the drawing classes of Flajoulot, a 
painter in the ' David ' manner. His first 
pictures and the lithographs illustrating Max 
Buchon's poems date from this time. He 
prevails upon his father to send him to Paris, 
under the pretext of studying law. 



1842 Puts up at an hotel, then in December rents a 
studio in Rue de la Harpe. Works hard, 
receives advice from Hesse and Bonvin, visits 
the Louvre (the Rembrandt rooms and the 
Spanish Gallery). Makes copies, landscapes, 
genre-pictures (Loth and his Daughters), por- 
traits. Studies the nude at the ' Suisse ' 
Academy, spends some days at Fontainebleau 
and comes back with views of the forest. 

1844 Exhibits at the Salon his Courbet au chien noir 
(Petit-Palais, Paris) the only picture accepted 
out of the five he had sent in, and the first of 
these self-portraits in which his pictorial 
' narcissism ' works wonders. 

1845 Les Amants dans la campagne (Lyon Museum). 
He writes : " Within five years I must make 
my name in Paris. " 

1846 L'homme d la pipe (Montpellier Museum). 
Travels in Holland where he admires 
Rembrandt, then goes to England. 

1848 Settles down 32, rue d'Hautefeuille ; exhibits 
his Walpurgis Night (painted in 1840), praised 
by Champfleury. 

1849 L'apris-diner d Ornans obtains a second medal 
at the Salon ; this picture was bought for the 
Luxembourg, then sent to the Lille Museum. 
Drawn towards social realism by the revolu- 
tion, he paints the Stonebreakers (Dresden 
Pinacothek). Gatherings at his studio and at 
the Brasserie Andler ; grows intimate with 
Champfleury, Proudhon, Baudelaire, Banville, 
Murger, Schanne. 

1850 First success at the Salon with a contribution 
of eight pictures among which the Stone- 
breakers and Burial at Ornans (Louvre). 
Exhibitions at Besangon and Dijon. At 
Louveciennes, makes the acquaintance of 
Corot in Francis Wey's house. 

1851 Travels in Belgium and to Munich. 

1852 At the Salon exhibits the Demoiselles de Village 
(Metropolitan Museum, New York), a portrait 
of his three sisters in their native country- 
side ; it is bought by the Duke de Morny. 

1853 Les Lutteurs, La Fileuse endormie, Les Bai- 
gneurs, startle the Salon by their realism ; 
these last two pictures are bought by Bruyas, 
who becomes patron and protector of our 
painter. Courbet makes his friends' portraits. 
Proudhon et sa famille (Petit- Palais, Paris), 
Champfleury, Bruyas, Baudelaire (Montpellier 
Museum. Plate, p. 3). 

1854 Exhibits at Frankfurt-am-Mein. Stays at 
Montpellier as Bruyas' guest and paints for 
him La Rencontre ; back to Ornans, passing 
through Switzerland. Pays a visit to Max 
Buchon. His stay in the South has made his 
palette lighter and brighter. 

1855 Courbet sends 14 pictures to the World's Fair 
(n accepted) and in June has a one-man show 
of 41 pictures, the Pavilion du Rialisme, 
including the two famous compositions which 
were refused at the official Salon : The Burial 
and the Atelier (Louvre). These two exhi- 
bitions caused a stir and brought his art into 
notice. 

1856 Travels to Gand, back to Ornans through 
Germany. At the Salon, Les Demoiselles des 
bords de la Seine (Petit-Palais, Paris). 

1858-59 Stays in Germany where he paints hunting 
scenes : Le Cerf \orci (Montpellier), Combat de 



C&ZANKB 

COURBBT 



119 



CROSS 



ctrfs (Louvre), and one of his masterpieces : 
La Dame de Franc fort (Zurich Museum). 

1859 Back in Ornans, then in Paris, where he often 
goes to the Brasserie des Martyrs, and meets 
young Claude Monet. 

1860 A great success at the Salon. Travels to 
Honfleur where he ' discovers ' Boudin. Speaks 
at the Congress of Arts at Antwerp. Influences 
Belgian and German painting. In Dec. opens 
a School of Painting at the request of pupils 
of the Beaux-Arts, among whom is Fantin- 
Latour, and chooses a buD for their first model. 

1862 Stays in Saintonge with Castagnary, at 
Baudry's house. Finds Corot there and with 
him paints landscapes and flowers. 

1865 Season at Trouville. Paints 35 pictures among 
which the Belle Irlandaise (William Rockhill 
Nelson Gallery), and a series of seascapes. 
Monet and Whistler become his pupils. 

1866 At Deauville in Sept., at the Count dc 
Choiseul's. 

1867 Another one-man show at the Rond-Point de 
1'Alma, opposite Manet's (no pictures). Stajfs 
at Saint-Aubin-sur-Mer. 

1869 Etretat. Numerous seascapes among which 
La Vague (Louvre). Travels in Germany 
where he meets with great success. Returns 
to Ornans through Switzerland. Refuses the 
L6gion d'honneur. 

1871 The Commune. President of the Artists' 
Commission. Implicated in the affair of the 
dismantling of the Vend6me column. Arrested 
June 7, sentenced to six months' imprison- 
ment at Ste. P61agie, where he paints his 
admirable Still Lifes of flowers and fruit. 
His mother dies. 

1872 Undergoes an operation in Neuilly hospital, in 
January. Set free. Back to Ornans in May. 
Officially excluded from the Salon. 

1873 Exhibition in Vienna. Success brings him 
orders ; he asks his pupils, Pata, Morel, 
Ordinaire, to help him. Threatened by the 
re-opening of the Vend6me Column proceed- 
ings, escapes to Switzerland in July and 
settles down at La Tour-de-Peilz, near Vevey. 
His friends try to have him exonerated, but 
encounter the hostility of Meissonnier and the 
Institute. 

1877 In May, sentenced to pay 300,000 francs to 
the State. His estate is confiscated and sold. 
His health grows worse. Dies Dec. 30. Buried 
in La Tour-de-Peilz. 

1919 June 10. Centenary of his birth. His ashes 
are brought back to his native village, Ornans. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

The basic work is that of G. Riat, Gustave 
Courbet, peintre, Paris, 1906. The chief 
monographs and studies : Camille Lemonnier, 
Paris, 1878. Gros-Kost, Courbet, souvenirs 
intimes, Paris, 1880. B. Lazare, Courbet et 
son influence d V&rangcr, Paris, 1911. Casta- 
gnary, Fragments d'un livre sur Courbet, 
Gazette des Beaux- Arts, 1911-1912. Theodore 
Duret, Paris, 1918. Julius Meier-Graefe, 
Munich, 1921. A. Fontainas, Paris, 1921. 
G. de Chirico, Rome, 1925. Ch. L6ger, Paris, 
1929. P. Courthion, Paris, 1931. K. Berger, 
Courbet in his century, G. B. A. 1943. H. Naef, 



Bern, 1947. P. Courthion, Courbet racontt par 
lui-mSme et par ses amis, Geneva, 1948. R. 
Huyghe, G. Bazin, H. Adhemar, V Atelier de 
Courbet, Paris, n. d. 



Exhibitions. 



1855, Exh. and Sale of 41 pictures and 4 draw* 
ings, 7, Avenue Montaigne, Champs-Elysdcs 
(Preface by G. Courbet) ; 1867, Exh. at the 
Rond-Point du Pont de 1'Alma (no pictures, 
3 drawings, 2 sculp.) ; 1882 May, retrosp. exh. 
at the Ecole Nationale des Beaux- Arts (193 nos, 
Cat. and Pref. by Castagnary) ; Salon d'Au- 
tomne 1906-1909, March 22. -Apr. 9, Bern- 
heim-Jeune Gal. Paris, (32 pict.) ; Dec. 1917- 
Jan. 1918, Bernheim-Jeune Gal. Paris (Notice, 
Th. Duret) ; 1909 Apr. 7-May 18, Metropol. 
Museum, New York, Centenary Exhib. (40 
nos.) ; 1929 May- June, Palais des Beaux-Arts 
de la Ville de Paris (Pref. by Gronkowski, 
131 nos.) ; 1930 Sept. 28-Oct. 26, Wer- 
theim Gal. Berlin (Pref. Ch. L6ger) ; March 
*5 1935-March 30 1936, Kunsthaus, Zurich 
(131 nos) ; 1937, May 4-29 P. Rosenberg Gal. 
Paris (18 nos) ; 1938 May 3-2gth The Bal- 
timore Museum of Art (25 nos) ; 1938 May 
lo-june ii Rosenberg and Helft, London (19 
nos) ; 1948, Dec. Wildenstein Gal., New York 
(43 pict.) ; 1949, June, A. Daber Gal. Paris, 
Exh. for the I30th anniversary of his birth 
(18 pictures). 



CROSS, HENRI EDMOND (1856-1910) 

1856 Born at Douai, May 20. His mother was of 
English origin. 

1874 At Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Lille. 

1876 At Bonvin's studio, Paris. At Bonvin's sug- 
gestion adopts the English translation of his 
family name (Delacroix) as pseudonym. 

1881 Exhibits at Salon for the first time. Like his 
teacher's, his painting is dark, realistic. 
Gradually discovers Impressionism. 

1884 Exhibits at Salon des Independants his Coin 
dejardin d Monaco, and regularly exhibits there 
until 1891. Becomes intimate with Seurat 
and Signac, and takes up Point illism. 

1891 Suffering from chronic rheumatism, settles in 
the South, at Cabassou in the Estrel region. 
Pure colour, the light of Provence. 

1904 Travels in Italy ; Venice, Ponte San Trovaso 
(Plate, p. 59), then Tuscany and Umbria. 

1908 Another visit to Italy. Friendship with 
Maurice Denis. Combines classical structural 
layout with exuberant colour ; his art greatly 
influences the early phase of Matisse and 
Fauvism. Many watercolours. Mythological 
scenes. 

1910 Dies at St-Clair, near Le Lavandou. " To 
look at life, to have sensations and to set them 
in order that, I think, is enough for our 
joys, and for our torments, here below. " 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Writings by the Artist. 

Cross's notebooks were published by F. 
Fnon in Le Bulletin de la Vie Artistique, 



120 



Vols. I-VII, May-Oct, 1922. Hitherto un- 1860 
published fragments of correspondence are 
quoted by J. Rewald in his monograph on 
Seurat, Paris, 1948. 

Appraisals. 

L. Cousturier, Art et Decoration, 1907 ; 
VArtDtcoratif, 1913 ; E. Verhaereri, Sensations, 
Paris, 1927. 

Exhibitions. 

Gal. Durand-Ruel, Paris, 1899 ; Gal. Keller & 
Reiner, Berlin, 1901 ; Gal. Druet, Paris, March 
2i-April 8, 1904; Gal. Bernheim-Jeune, Paris, 
April, 1907 (Pref. by M. Denis); Oct. 17- 
Nov. 5, 1910; Feb. 24 -March 7, 1913; 1923; 
Gal. Druet, Paris, March 21 -April 8, 1926 
(Pref. by E. Verhaeren) ; Gal. Druet, Paris, 
1927 ; April 10-30, 1937 (119 Items. Pref. by 
M. Denis). 



1861 



1862 

1864 
1865 



DEGAS, EDGAR (1834-1917) 

1834 Born atT8, Rue St. Georges, Paris, July 19. 

Eldest of a wealthy and cultured family. 1865-70 
His father, Pierre Auguste, born in Italy, was 
a bank manager ; his mother, Celestine Musson, 
daughter of a Creole of New Orleans. 

1845 At school at the Lyc6e Louis-le-Grand ; struck 
up a friendship with Henri Rouart, his school- 
fellow. 

1847 Death of his mother. 

1852 Leaves school with a certificate of merit for 
drawing. Lives at 4, Rue Mondovi, converts 
one room into a studio ; it has a view on the 
Tuileries and Place de la Concorde. His father, 
an enthusiast for art and for Italian music, 
is a friend of the collectors, Lacazc and 
Marcille, of the Valpin^ons and Gregorio 
Soutzo ; the last-named teaches young Degas 
etching. 

1853 Begins studying law, but soon gives it up. 
Spends much time in the Cabinet des Estampes 
and the Louvre. His preferences are for 
Raphael, the Italian Primitives, Holbein and 
Clouet. 

1854 Goes to Naples. 

1855 On April 8 enters Ecole des Beaux-Arts, in 
Louis Lamotte's class ; under the influence of 
master Flandrin acquires the ' Ingres ' manner. 
Fellow classmates are Fantin-Latour, 
Delaunay, Bonnat. Visits Moiitpellier, 
Sete, Nlmes. He would like " to combine 
Mantegna's intelligence and tenderness with 
the gusto and opulence of colour of Veronese." 

1856-57 Visits Naples and Rome, where he meets his 
friends Delaunay and Bonnat, Bizet the 
composer, Gustave Moreau, Edmond About ; 
makes a long stay with his aunt Bellelli at 
Florence : The Old Italian Woman (Chester 
Beatty Coll., London), The Roman Beggar 
Woman (Coll. Durand-Ruel, Paris). Makes 1880 
many studies and copies in the museums ; 
an etching ' Degas in a Soft Hat. ' 1881 

1858 At Rome. Travels in Umbria. Stays again 

with his aunt in Florence, from Aug. '58 to 1884 
April '59, begins his Portrait, of the Bellelli 
Family, finished in Paris (Louvre). A big 1885 
composition which reveals his insight into 
character. 



1869 
1870 
1871 

1872 

1873 
1874 

1874-77 



On his return from Italy, under the influence 
of Ingres he is strongly drawn towards histori- 
cal painting and does a series of legendary 
and mythological scenes, for which he makes 
some admirable crayon studies. Young 
Spartans Exercising (Tate Gallery, London). 
Stays with the Valpinons at Le Mesnil- 
Hubert, a racing and horse-breeding centre, 
near the Le Pin stud-farm. 
Semiramis Founding a Town (Louvre). First 
studies and drawings of men on horseback. 
Becomes friendly with Duranty, champion of 
Realism, and with Manet. 
Gentleman-riders 9 Race: Before the Start 
(Louvre). 

First pastels. Portraits of Manet. 
Last historical composition : Les Malheurs de 
la Ville d'OrMans (Louvre). In this year paints 
The Lady with the Chrysanthemums (Metropo- 
litan Museum, New York) in which he inaugu- 
rates (under the influence of Japanese art, which 
Bracquemond had made known to Parisians 
in 1856) that " off-centre " layout which 
he is frequently to practise henceforward. 
Some fifty portraits, the most famous of which 
is his Ttte de jeune Femme (1867, Louvre), 
whose linear density and psychological insight 
are remarkable. " The great thing, " he 
writes, "is to make the head expressive of 
the modern feeling towards life ; one should 
make people's portraits in everyday, typical 
attitudes. Beauty should mean no more then 
a certain type of face. " His picture of the 
Orchestra of the Paris Opera (Louvre, and see 
Plate, p. 10), a characteristic tour de force, 
witnesses to his growing interest in the 
theatre and the ballet, which are now to be 
his favourite subjects. 

Travels in Italy. Seascapes at Boulogne, 
Trouville, St. Valery. 

Gunner in a Battery commanded by Henri 
Rouart. 

During the Commune stays with the 
Valpin^ons. Paints ballets-dancers. Begins 
being anxious about his sight. 
Meets Durand-Ruel. Works at the Opera. 
In the autumn goes with his brother to New 
Orleans, where he paints The Cotton Office (Pau 
Museum). 

March. Returns to Paris at 77, Rue Blanche ; 
December. Travels in Italy. 
E. de Goncourt visits him and admires his 
work. Takes an active part in organizing the 
First Impressionist Exhibition, at which he 
shows ten pictures. One, his Examen de Danse, 
is bought by Faure for 5000 francs. 
Takes part in the Second and Third Group 
Exhibitions. Dancing and racing subjects ; 
also realistic scenes : The Pedicure (Louvre), 
The Laundresses, L' Absinthe (Louvre), The 
Ambassadors (Lyon Museum). Frequents the 
Gate de la Nouvelle-Athenes. 

Travels in Spain. Etchings with Mary Cassatt 

and Pissarro. 

Exhibits his first work of sculpture at the 

Salon, a wax statuette of a Dancer. Pastels. 

At Le Mesnil-Hubert with the Valpin^ons. 

Also at Dieppe. 

In August visits Le Havre and Dieppe, where 

his interview with Gauguin takes place. His 

eyesight is giving him more and more trouble 



DBGA* 



121 



DKGAS 
DKNI8 



and during this period he gives up genre 
subjects and anecdotal realism, and aims 
exclusively at rendering plastic form and 
rhythms. He specializes in nudes and dancers, 
and his new manner shows a much simpli- 
fied execution broader, tenser, thick-textured, 
slashed with contrasting tones. He indulges 
now in technical experiments, mixing turpen- 
tine with his paint, using dtircmpe, and dried 
pastel, in successive layers. 

1886 In January at Naples. Exhibits a " series of 
nude women, bathing, washing, drying them- 
selves, dressing their hair or having it dressed 
for them. " 

1888 At Cauterets in August and September. 

1889 Travels with Boldini in Spain ; also in Morocco. 

1893 Exhibits a series of pastel landscapes at 
Durand-Ruel's. 

1896 In August at Le Mont Dore. 

1897 Goes to Montauban to see the Ingres collection 
there. 

1898 He stays with his friend Braqueval the painter, 
at Saint- Val&y-sur-Somme. Little is known 
of his last years. Unmarried, misanthropic, 
Degas lived a very secluded life, seeing only 
a few friends, such as Bartholom the sculptor, 
Daniel Halvy, and Henri Rouart in whose 
country house at La Queue-en-Brie he some- 
times stayed. From 1890 onwards he built 
up a remarkable collection of pictures, in 
which Ingres (20 pictures) and Delacroix 
(13 pictures) had pride of place. He was 
also one of the first to buy Gauguin's works. 
He had become almost completely blind, he 
had tried his hand at all the technical methods 
then known, but the years brought no peace 
to his restless spirit. As a last resort he took 
to employing charcoal, touched up with 
pastel, and to modelling wax figures. 

1912 His lifelong friend Rouart died in this year. 
In this year, too, the house in which he had 
lived for twenty years and to which he was 
much attached was pulled down. 

1917 He died in Paris on September 27. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Writings by the Artist. 

Lettres de Degas, publics et annoties par 
M. Gutrin, Paris, 1931 (new ed., 1945). 
P. A. Lemoisne, Les Garnets de Degas au 
Cabinet des Estampes ; Gazette des Beaux- 
Arts, ig2i. 

Catalogues. 

P. A. Lemoisne, Degas et son (Euvre. 4 Vol. 
Paris, 1946. Indispensable. L. Delteil, Le 
Peintre-Graveur Illustri, v. IX, Paris, 1919. 
J. Rewald, Degas, Works in Sculpture, 
New York, 1944. Degas, Scriptures Intdites, 
Geneva, 1949. 

Reminiscences. 

A. Michel, ' Degas et son Module, ' Mercure 
de France, Feb., 1919; W. Sickert, 'Degas,' 
Burlington Magazine, Nov., 1917 ; G. Moore, 
' Memories of Degas, ' Burlington Magazine, 
Jan.-Feb., 1918 ; A. Vollard, Paris, 1924 ; 
G. Jeanniot ' Souvenirs sur Degas, ' La Revue 
UniverseUe, Oct.-Nov., 1933 ; E. Rouart, 
' Degas, ' Le Point, Feb., 1937 ; G. Rivifcre, 
' M. Degas, ' Paris, 1935. 



Monographs and Appraisals. 

G. Geffroy, L'Art dans les deux Mondes, 
Dec. 20, 1890 ; M. Liebermann, Berlin, 1899 ; 
A. Lemoisne, Paris, 1912 ; P. Lafond, Paris, 
2 Vol., 1918-19 ; H. Hertz, Paris, 1920 ; 
J. Meier-Graefe, Munich, 1930 ; J. H. Riviere, 
Les Dessins de Degas, 1922-23 ; P. Jamot, 
Paris, 1924 ; J. B. Manson, London, 1927 ; 
Special number of L Amour del' Art, July, 1931 
(R. Huyghe & G. Bazin) ; Paul Val6ry, Degas, 
Danse, Dessin, Paris, 1938 ; D. Rouart, Degas 
d la Recherche de sa Technique, Paris, 1945 ; 
J. Leymarie, Les Degas du Louvre, Paris, 1948 ; 
J. Lassaigne, Paris, 1948 ; D. Rouart, Mono- 
types, Paris, 1948 ; W. Hauscnstein, Berne, 1948. 

Exhibitions. 

1893, Gal. Durand-Ruel (pastels) ; 1924, 
April 12-May 2, Gal. G. Petit (Cat. by 
M. GuSrin, Introd. by D. Hatevy) ; 1931, 
Orangerie, Paris ; ' Degas portraitiste et sculp- 
teur ' (Cat. C. Sterling ; pref. P. Jamot), 1931, 
Fogg Art Museum ; 1936, Pennsylvania 
Museum of Art, Philadelphia (Cat. H. P. 
Mcllhenny, Pref. P. J. Sacks, Introd. Miss 
A. Mongan); 1937, March-April, Orangerie, 
Paris (Pref. P. Jamot, Cat. J. Bouchot- 
Saupique & M. Delaroche-Vernet. 247 Items) ; 
1939, June, Gal. A. Weil, Paris, ' Degas 
peintre du Mouvement ' (Pref. C. Roger-Marx) ; 
1947, Feb. 5-March 9, Cleveland Museum of 
Art (86 Items). 



DENIS, MAURICE (1870-1943) 

1870 Born at Grandville, Nov. 25. His father was 
an employee on the Quest railway, his mother 
Hortense Adde, a milliner. Taken when three 
months old to St-Germain-en-Laye, where he 
lived for the rest of his life. A brilliant pupil 
first at the Pension Villon, then at the Lyc6e 
Condorcet. Taught drawing by a Brazilian 
artist, Balla. 

1888 Academic Jullian. Converted to the Pont- 
Aven theories of aesthetics by Serusier. 

1890 Exhibits a pastel, The Choir-boy, at the Salon ; 
publishes an article on art inArtet Critique. 

1891 Joins in the ' Nabis ' exhibition at Le Bare 
de Bouteville's gallery. Nicknamed " the 
Nabi of beautiful icons." 

1893 Helps in designing sets and costumes for 
Lugn6-Poe's TMAtre de I'CEuvre. 

1895 First journey to Italy ; he now reverts to 
the classical, humanist art-tradition. Tuscany 
and Umbria. 

1897 Second journey to Italy ; Andr6 Gide takes 
him to Rome. 

1903 Goes with S6rusier to the Beuron Monastery, by 
way of Strasburg, Nuremberg, Munich. 

1905 Travels in Spain with Mithouard. Avila. 

1906 ' Pilgrimage, ' with Roussel and Emile Ber- 
nard, to Aix, to pay respects to Cezanne. He 
has already painted his Hommage d Ctzanne 
(Mus6e d'Art Moderne, Paris). 

1908 Teaches, with Serusier, at the Academic 
Ranson. 

1907-08 Stays in Italy which speed up his tendencies 
towards ' Neo-Classicism. ' He now travels 
widely ; to Moscow (1909), Dominica (1913), 



122 



Switzerland (1914), Sienna (1921), Algeria and 
Tunisia (1921), the United States and Canada 
(1927), Rome (1928) , and in 1924 goes on pilgrim- 
age to the Holy Land, to Greece and Italy. 

1919 With Desvallteres founds the 'Studios of 
Sacred Art ' for the revival of religious 
painting. His work alternates between ' inti- 
mist ' easel-pictures and big decorative works, 
religious and other : the Chapelle Ste Croix at 
Le V6sinet (1899), Theatre des Champs- 
Elysees (1912), cupola of the Petit-Palais 
(1924-25), the Saint Louis Church at Vincennes 
(1927), the Lycee Claude Bernard (1938), the 
League of Nations building, Geneva (1939). 

1943 Dies in a motor-car accident, Nov. 3. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

An able writer and critic, Maurice Denis 
published a number of books and articles 
which attracted much attention : articles in 
Art et Critique, 1890 ; in L'Occident, 1907 and 
1908 ; Theories, Paris, 1913 ; Nouvelles Theories, 
Paris, 1921 ; Charmes et Lemons de I'ltalie, 
Paris, 1913 ; Histoire de VArt Religieux, Paris, 
1939 * Serusier t sa Vie, son (Euvre, Paris, 1942. 

Monographs and Appraisals. 

G. Geffroy, La Vie Artistique, 1891 ; P. Jamot, 
Gazette des Beaux- Arts, 1911 ; P. Alfassa, 
Mercure de France, 1912 ; J. L. Vaudoyer, 
Art et Decoration, 1913 ; L. Cousturier, Art 
Dtcoratif, 1913 ; M. Lafargue, L' Amour de 
VArt, 1924 ; F. Fosca, Paris, 1924 ; M. Brillant, 
Paris, 1929 ; VArt Sacre, Special No., Dec., 
1937 ; G. Barazetti, Paris, 1945 ; P. Jamot, 
Paris, 1946. 

Illustrated, Books. 

A. Gide, Le Voyage d'Urien (20 Lith. in colour), 
Paris, 1^93. Limitation de Je*sus-Christ 
(216 woodcuts), Vollard, Paris, 1903. Dante, 
Vita Nuova, Paris, 1907. P. Verlainc, Sagesse 
(72 colour woodcuts), Vollard, Paris, 1911. 
I Fioretti, Paris, 1913. P. Claudel, Sainte 
Therese, Paris, 1916. A de Vigny, Eloa, Paris, 
1917. F. Thompson, Poemes, Paris, 1942. 

Exhibitions. 

Gal. Druet, Paris, 1904, 1908, 1911, 1918, 1921, 
1927 ; 1924, Apr. n-May n, Retrospective 
Exhibition, Pavilion dc Marsan (150 Items. 
Pref. A. Perat6) ; 1941, May 23 -June 15, 
Gal. Louis Cam6, Paris ; 1945-46, Travelling 
Exhibition of the State Museums : ' Maurice 
Denis, his Masters, his Friends, his Pupils ' 
(Pref. by B. Dorival). 



GAUGUIN, PAUL (1848-1903) 

1848 Born June 7 ; his father, Clovis Gauguin, was a 
journalist from Orleans employed on Le 
National, his mother, Aline Chazal, daughter 
of Flora Tristan, a famous propagandist and 
Saint-Simonian doctrinaire, of Peruvian blood. 

1851 After the coup d'Etat the family sailed for 

Peru. His father died on the journey. Stayed 

four years at Lima. 
1855 Returned to Orleans. Schooling at the Petit 

S&ninaire. 
1865 Entered the merchant-service, as a navigating 

cadet (like Manet and Baudelaire). Sailed 



from Le Havre to Rio several times on the DBNIfl 
Luzitano. GAUGUZX 

1868 Served on the cruiser Jtrdme-Napolton. 

1871 On leave, April 23. Gives up the sea, and by 
the good offices of his guardian Gustave Arosa 
enters Berlin's stockbroking business in the 
Rue Laffitte, where he makes friends with a 
colleague, Emile Schuffenecker. Does very 
well in business. 

1873 Nov. 22, marries a Danish girl from a middle- 
class family, Mette Sophia Gad. Starts 
drawing. 

1874 Paints as an amateur. Builds up a collection 
of impressionist pictures (Manet, Cezanne, 
Pissarro, Renoir, Monet, Sisley). 

1876 Has a picture, Viroflay Landscape, accepted 
at the Salon. Meets Pissarro. 

1879 Stays with Pissarro at Pontoise during the 
holidays. 

1880 Leaves his residence in Rue des Tourneaux, 
and rents a studio, 8, Rue Carcel. Takes part 
in the Fifth Impressionist Exh. (7 paintings, 
i bust). 

1881 Sixth Impressionist Exh. Huysmans des- 
cribes his landscapes as " diluted Pissarro " 
but is loud in his praises of a nude study 
(now on loan at the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, 
Copenhagen). 

1882 Seventh Impressionist Exh. Huysmans finds 
he " shows no progress. " 

1883 Crucial year. Gauguin throws up his post at 
Berlin's. " Now I shall paint every day. " 
Works with Pissarro at Osny. 

1884 For economy's sake lives at Rouen from 
March to October. Early in November goes 
with his wife and children to Denmark. His 
exhibition there closed by order of the 
Academy. 

1885 Jan. 14, in a letter to Schuffenecker expounds 
his theories about art. Quarrels with his 
wife's family, and makes himself unpopular 
with the Danes. Fails to arrange for an 
exhibition and in June, leaving his wife, 
returns to Paris with his son Clovis. Extreme 
poverty. Works as a billsticker. Lives first 
in Impasse Fr6min; moves Oct. 13 to Rue Cail. 
Ill in hospital. 

1886 May 15- June 15. Eighth and Last Impres- 
sionist Exh. F6n6on says, " M. Gauguin's 
tones are very near each other ; hence the 
soft harmonies we find in his work. " 

First Stay at Pont-Aven (June-Nov. t i&86). Paris 

June. Gauguin boards out his son at Antony 
and for the first time goes to Brittany, staying 
at the Pension Gloanec, Pont-Aven (Finist&re). 
First contact with Emile Bernard in August ; 
neither has much to say to the other. In Nov. 
returns to Paris ; meets Van Gogh in Mont- 
martre. 

1887 Stays in Paris until April. According to Daniel 
de Montfreid, quoted by C. Chasse (Gauguin 
et le Groupe de Pont-Aven, Paris, 1921), 
" Gauguin's first stay in Brittany, previous to 
his journey to Martinique, was a period that 
left no noticeable mark on his art. " But 
from 1886 to 1891, between his two trips to 
Tahiti, Gauguin revisited yearly this primitive 
land which had cast its spell on him. " When 
my clogs strike this iron soil, " he said, " I hear 



123 



GAUGUIN the dull, muffled, mighty resonance I seek for 

in my painting. " 
Martinique (April-December, 1867) 

April 10. With Charles Laval Gauguin 
embarks at Saint Nazaire for Panama, then 
Martinique, whence they return in Decem- 
ber, prostrated by dysentery and fever. "I'm 
bringing back a dozen canvases, four with 
figures much superior to anything I did at 
Pont-Aven. " (Letters, p. 116. 1946). 

Paris Pont-Aven (December, iSSj-October, iSSS) 

1887 Dec. Back in France, Gauguin puts up with 
Schuffenecker, 29, rue Boulard. 

1888 Second stay at Pont-Aven, until October. 
Second and, this time, fruitful meeting with 
Bernard, in August. Beginnings of Cloison- 
nism and Synthesism. The Vision after the 
Sermon (National Gallery of Scotland, Edin- 
burgh. Plate, p. 69). First one-man show at 
Boussod & Valadon's, by the good offices of 
Theo van Gogh, Vincent's brother. 

Aries (October-December, 1888) 

Oct. 20. Gauguin goes to Aries with a view 
to founding with Van Gogh the " Studio of 
the South. " Funds are supplied to the two 
men by Theo ; they reciprocally influence each 
other. They visit the Montpellier Museum. 
Gauguin makes his Portrait of Vincent Painting 
Sunflowers (on loan at Municipal Museum, 
Amsterdam). But the two men were very 
different and got on each other's nerves, with 
tragic results. 

Dec. 23. In a fit of madness Vincent cuts of 
his own ear. Gauguin hurries back to Paris. 

Paris (End December, iSSS-April, 1889; 

On his return to Paris Gauguin again stays 
with Schuffenecker until he secures a studio 
(25, Avenue Montsouris). 

1889 World's Fair. Gauguin enthusiastic over 
Japanese art. Exhibition of the Impressio- 
nist and Synthesist Group at the Caf6 Volpini, 
Place du Champ-de-Mars. The public laugh 
it out of court, but the young ' Nabis ' 
S6rusier, Maurice Denis, Bonnard are 
much impressed. 

Pont-Aven Le Pouldu (April, i88g-November, i8go) 
Gauguin's third stay in Brittany, the longest 
and most decisive, broken by short stays in 
Paris at the beginning of 1890. 

April. Spends the summer at the Pension 
Gloanec, frequently exploring the surrounding 
country. 

October. Irritated by the tourists and colony 
of artists infesting Pont-Aven, Gauguin moves 
to a small inn owned by Marie Henry (known 
as Marie Poup6e) at Le Pouldu. Some of 
his cronies follow : Seguin, Filiger and, 
notably, the Dutchman Meyer de Haan. It 
is in the primitive setting of Le Pouldu, with 
its Breton ' Calvaries, ' that Gauguin's per- 
sonality takes definite form and he fully 
achieves his new ' vision, ' at once simplifying 
and synthetic. The Visitors' Book at the inn 
shows that he stayed there from Oct. 2 to 
Nov. 7, 1890. The Yellow Christ (Albright Art 
Gallery, Buffalo), Landscape at Le Pouldu 
(Paul Fierens, Brussels. Plate, p. 71). 
Paris (December, i&go- April, i8gi) 

1890 End December, returns to Paris. Homeless, 
he again stays with Schuffenecker, who is now 



living at No 12, Rue Durand-Claye ; then in 
an hotel in the Rue Delambre. 

1891 Associates with the symbolist writers who meet 
once a week at the Caf Voltaire. Etching of 
Mallarme\ Copies Manet's Olympia. Leads a 
poverty-stricken, Bohemian life in Montpar- 
nasse. Resolves to go to Tahiti. 

Feb. 23. First sale of 30 pictures at the Drouot 
auction-rooms (Catalogue prefaced by Mir- 
beau), to collect funds for his journey. 
March 23. Farewell banquet in his honour at 
the Caf6 Voltaire, presided over by Mallarme*. 
April 4. Sails for Tahiti. 

First stay in Tahiti (June, iSgi-July, 1893^ 

June 8, lands at Papeete. Disappointed by 
the European colony at the capital, he acquires 
a hut amongst the natives in the Mataeia 
region some 25 miles south of Papeete. 
la Or ana Maria (Lewisohn Coll., New York). 

1892 Works hard despite ill-health. Ta Afatete 
(Basel Museum). Parau no te Varua I no 
(Harriman Coll.). 

1893 But no money is coming in and, at the end of 
his tether, a sick man, Gauguin is compelled to 
return to Europe. Tries again to organize an 
exhibition at Copenhagen. 

Aug. 3. Arrives at Marseilles. 

Paris Rrittany (August, iSg^-February, 1895^ 

Goes to Orleans ; inheritance from his uncle 
Isidore. 

Rents a studio, 4, Rue Vercingetorix, where he 
lives with Annah la Javanaise, whose portrait 
he paints (Private Coll., Winterthur. Plate, 
P- 73)- Gives picturesque weekly parties at 
the studio. 

Nov. 4. Opening day of his exhibition at 
Durancl-Ruel's, organized at Degas' sugges- 
tion (Preface by C. Morice). No financial 
success, it has much influence on Bonnard, 
Vuillard and the other ' Nabis.' 

1894 Jan. Travels to Bruges (Memling), then to 
Copenhagen (last meeting with his wife). 
April-Dec. At Pont-Aven and Le Pouldu 
with Annah, who involves him in a brawl with 
drunken sailors in which he breaks his ankle. 
Dec. Returns to Paris. Annah has vanished, 
after looting his studio. 

1895 Disgusted with life in Paris, he decides to 
return to Tahiti. 

Febr. 18. Second auction-sale, catalogue 
prefaced by a letter from Strindberg. Sale a 
complete failure. 
March. Sails for Tahiti. 



Second stay in Tahiti (July, iSg^-Sept., 

July. Lands in Tahiti. Finds Papeete still 
more Europeanized and goes to the west 
coast, the Punaoia district, where he has a 
large and relatively palatial hut on native 
lines built for himself. 

1896 Oct. His health is breaking up and he suffers 
horribly from his sense of being alone, an 
outcast. " I am so utterly discouraged and 
demoralized that I cannot conceive of any- 
thing worse in store for me. " 

However, in November, he is feeling better. 
" I am recovering and, thanks to this, have 
got through a lot of work. " 

1897 Death of his daughter Aline. Stops writing 
to his wife. In hospital. A year of master- 
pieces : Nevermore (Courtauld Institute, 



124 



London), Te Rerioa (Id.), Les Trots Tahitiens 
(A. Maitland Coll., Edinburgh), Whence Come 
We? (Boston Museum). 

1898 Attempted suicide. Takes work in the local 
Public Works office. Le Chcval Blanc (Louvre). 

1899 In trouble with local authorities. Publishes 
satirical broadsheets: Les Guepes and Le 
Sourire. 

1900 April. " I am mustering all the energy that's 
left to me and, fond as I am of my house, I 
shall try to get rid of it and sell off everything 
with as little loss as possible. Then I shall 
move to one of the Marquesas, where living's 
cheap and easy. " 

Aug. "Am leaving for the Marquesas. At 
last 1 " (Letters to de Monfreid, pp. 310, 321). 

Dominica (Aug., igoi-A/ay, 1903;. 

1901 November. Long letter to de Monfreid in 
which he describes his new home, which he 
calls La Maison du Jouir and the conditions 
under which he works. " Here poetry springs 
from the soil, unsummoned, and all one needs 
to body it forth is to let one's mind go dreaming 
as one paints. " 

1902 March. " Though my health is bad as ever, 
I have started working steadily again ; you 
can't imagine the peacefulness of my life, all 
alone amongst the leafage ! " Conies Barbares 
(Folkwang Museum, Essen). 

Aug. His heart is giving him trouble and 
eczema has broken out on his limbs, causing 
him intense suffering. He knows that he is 
mortally ill, and his one idea is to return to 
France for treatment. His friend de Monfreid 
dissuades him. 

1903 March. Contentions with the Local Govern- 
ment, the Bishop, and the police (for cham- 
pioning the natives). Unjustly sentenced to 
three months' imprisonment and fine of 
1000 francs (March 31). Unable to appeal, 
lacking funds for the journey to Tahiti. 
April. Last letter to de Monfreid ends : 
" all these worries arc killing me. " 

May 8. About n a.m. death of Gauguin. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Writings and Correspondence. 

Noa-Noa, 1891-93 (Paris, 1924). Cahier pour 
Aline, 1893, manuscript. Les Guepes, Le 
Sourire, L'Inddpendant de Tahiti, 1899-1900 
newspapers with articles by G. Racontars d'un 
Rapin, 1902, manuscript. Avant ei Apris, 1902 
(Paris, 1923). Lettres d G. D. de Monfreid, 
preceded by f Hommage a Gauguin ' by V. 
Segalen, Paris, 1919 and 1930 (new od. 
printing). Lettres A A. Fontainas, Paris, 1921. 
Letters to A. Vollard and A. Fontainas, ed. by 
J. Rewald, San Francisco, 1943. Lettres d sa 
femme et A ses amis, publ. by M. Malingue, 
Paris, 1946. 

2. Catalogues. 

M. Gu6rin, L'CEuvrc Gravt de Paul Gauguin, 
Paris, 1927 (2 Vols.). General catalogue in 
preparation. Centenary Exh. at the Orangeric, 
Paris, July-Nov., 1949 ; descriptive notices, 
with bibl. and unpublished documents, by 
J. Leymarie, and Introd. by R. Huyghe. 

3. Monographs and Appraisals. 

J. de Rotonchamp : Paul Gauguin, Paris, 
1906 (new ed. 1925) ; basic. Sec also C. Morice, 
Paris, 1919, C. Chass6, Gauguin et le Groupe 
de Pont-Aven, Paris, 1921. J. Dorsenne, 



La Vie Sentimenhle de P. Gauguin, Paris, GAUGUIN 
1927. W.Barth, Basel, 1929. W.S.Maugham, 
The Moon and Sixpence (fictionalized biogr.), 
London and New York. A. Alexandre, 
P. Gauguin, sa Vie et le Sens de son (Euvre, 
Paris, 1930. R. Cogniat, La Vie ardente de 
P. Gauguin, Paris, 1936. Pola Gauguin, 
Paul Gauguin, mon Pire, Paris, 1938. J. Re- 
wald, Paris and London, 1938. E. Bernard, 
Souvenirs intdits sur Gauguin, Lorient, 1941. 
A. de Witt, Vita e Arte di Gauguin, Milan, 
1946. Malingue, Gauguin, le Peintre et son 
(Euvre, Paris, 1948. J. Taralon, Paris, 1949. 
Important review articles : O. Mirbeau, L'Echo 
de Paris, Feb. 16, 1891. G. A. Aurier, Le 
Mercure de France, March 1891. Revue 
Encyclopidique, April, 1892. E. Bernard, Mer- 
cure de F., June, 1895, Dec., 1903 ; Dec., 1908. 
A. Seguin, L'Occident, March, April, May, 

1903. V. Segalen, Mercure de F., June, 

1904. M. Denis, Mercure de F., Jan., 1904 ; 
Occident, May, 1910. G. de Chirico, Con- 
vegno, Milan, March, 1920. L, Venturi, 
L'Arte, March, 1934. C. Chasse, U Amour de 
VArt, Apr., 1938. A. M. B^rryer, Bull, des 
Musies d'Art et d'Histoire, Jan., 1944, Brussels. 
D. Sutton, Burlington Magazine, April, Nov., 
1949. Special number of Mercure de France, 
Oct. 1903 ; of L'Art et les Artistes, Nov., 1925 ; 
of Ver y Estimar, Buenos- Ayrcs, Nov., 1948. 
M. Raynal, Geneva, 1949. 



Exhibitions. 



1888, Gal. Boussod & Valadon, Paris ; 1893, 
Gal. Durand-Ruel, Paris (49 paintings, 2 Sculp. 
Pref. by C. Morice) ; 1903, Gal. Vollard, Paris ; 
1906, Salon d'Automne (227 Nos. Pref. by 
C. Morice) ; 1907 (March, April), Gal. Mitkke, 
Vienna ; 1910, Gal. Thannhauser, Dresden 
and Munich ; 1917, March 7-31, Gal. Nunes & 
Piquet, Paris (39 Nos. Pref. by L. Vauxcelles) ; 
1919, Oct. 10-30, Gal. Barbazanges, Paris ; 
1923, April if>-May n, Gal. Dru, Paris (68 
Nos. Pref. D. de Monfreid) ; 1926, Copenhagen, 
Oslo ; 1926, Dec., Assoc. Paris-Am&ique 
Latine, Paris (135 Nos. Coll. F. Durio) ; 
1928, Jan. -Feb., Luxembourg, Paris : Gauguin 
Sculpt, et Graveur (107 Nos.) ; 1928, July, Aug., 
Kunsthalle, Basel (254 Nos. Pref. and Cat. by 
W. Barth) ; 1928, Biennale, Venice, Retrospec- 
tive Exh. (42 Nos.) ; 1928, Gal. Thannhauser, 
Berlin (230 Nos. Pref. and Cat. by W. Barth) ; 
1931, May 26-June 14, Gal. de la P16iade, 
Paris : Exp. de Gauguin, (Euvre Gravi (Introd. 
and Cat. by Henri Pctiet) ; 1036, March, 
April, Wildenstein Gal., New York ; 1936, 
May 1-21, Fogg Art Museum, Cambridge, 
Massachussetts ; May, June, Mus. of Art, 
Baltimore (Pref. by H. Focillon) ; Sept. 
5-Oct. 4, Mus. of Art, San Francisco (139 Nos. 
Pref. and Cat. by G. L. Me Cann Morley) ; 
Nov., Gal. des Beaux-Arts, Paris (Pref. by 
H. Focillon, Cat. by R. Cogniat) ; 1942, May 
15-June 13, Gal. Marcel Guiot, Paris (Water- 
colours, monotypes, drawings. Pref. and Cat. 
by Marcel Gu&rin) ; 1946, April 3-May 4, 
Wildenstein Gal., New York (QI Nos. Pref. by 
S. Maugham) ; 1948, May, June, Retrospective 
Exh. for Centenary of Gauguin's birth, Ny 
Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen (120 Nos. 
Pref. and Cat. by Haavard Rostrup) ; 1949, 
July-Oct., Centenary Exh., Orangerie, Paris 
(117 Nos. Introd. by R. Huyghe, Cat. by 
J. Leymarie). 



JONGKIND 
MANET 



JONGKIND, JOHANN BARTHOLD (1819-1891) 

1819 Bom June 3rd. at Latrop, in the province of 
Over-Yssel, Holland, the eighth son of a 
clergyman, who had ten children. As a 
young man, lawyer's clerk. 

1836 His father dies. Attends lectures at the 
School of Drawing, The Hague. Becomes 
pupil of the landscape-painter, Schelfhout. 

1843 His teacher gets him a 'Royal Pension* of 
200 florins. Does water-colours from life. 

1845 Meets Isabey, then settles in Paris, Place 
Pigallc (1846). Visits the studio of Isabey; 
then those of Picot and Dupuis. Acquainted 
with Ciceri and A. de Dreux. 

1848 Travels in Holland. One of his pictures is 
accepted by the Salon (Part de Mer). Already 
leading a vagabond life. 

1850-52 Travels in Normandy, Brittany. At the Salon 
obtains a third medal. Drink, debauchery, 
continual poverty. 

1853 The Royal Pension is discontinued. He live$ 
in the Rue Breda. Acquainted with Stevens, 
Troyon, Courbet ; his pictures do not sell well, 
prices range from 7 to 200 francs. At the 
H6tel des Ventes, 117 watercolours bring in 
497 francs. 

1856-60 Returns to Holland ; badly received, he regrets 
leaving France ; goes back to Paris. Takes 
his evening meals with Courbet, and resumes 
his irregular life. Returns again to Rotterdam 
where he remains till 1860 ; his physical and 
moral condition worsens. Appeals to his 
Parisian friends, who organize a sale on his 
behalf : Bonvin, Braquemond, Corot, Chaplin, 
Diaz, Harpignies, C. Jacques, Isabey, Cals. 
The last-named brings him back to Paris. 

1860 Monet writes to Boudin : " The only good 
seascape-painter we have, Jongkind, is dead 
for art, he's raving mad ! " Jongkind meets 
M me Fesser, a compatriot, who devotes her 
life to saving him ; " An angel of devotion, " 
says E. de Goncourt, " though with her thick 
moustache she looks more like a vivandiire of 
the Old Guard. " 

1861 Lives for a while in the Rue de Chevreuse, then 
on the road again: Nevers, Le Havre, Honfleur, 
etc. 

1862 At Le Havre, with Boudin and Monet. 

1863 Exhibits at the Salon des Refuses. At Honfleur 
in 1864 and 1865. 

1865-70 Success comes, bringing orders for pictures. 
In spite of M m * Fesser's solicitude, his health 
remains very poor ; nevertheless he goes on 
travelling : Antwerp, Rotterdam, Dordrecht, 
Brussels, Chartres, Nantes. In 1870, arrested 
as a spy, then released. Returns to Paris 
during the Commune. 

1871-78 Connoisseurs flock to him. " People come, " 
he says, " from England, from America, even 
from Russia to buy my pictures. " 

1878 Settles down at La C6te Saint-Andr, near 
Grenoble, where he remains till his death, 
except for a journey to Provence in 1880 and 
short trips to Paris. 

1879-83 His health grows worse, he suffers from 
mental disorders, hemorrhage, dizziness. A 
sale made after the death of his patron 
Bascle brings in 193,950 francs. 



1884*90 Persecution mania. His physical state worse 
than ever. Refuses to take his friends' advice 
and " go slow. " Visit of Henri Rochefort 
First paralytic stroke. 

1891 He is taken to St. Rambert's Asylum, St. 
Egrfcve, near Grenoble. Dies suddenly on 
Feb. gth. M me Fesser, whose devoted care 
enabled him to reach his 72nd year, died on 
Nov. 23 of the same year. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Moreau-Nfliaton, Paris, 1918. P. Colin, Paris, 
1921. P. Signac, Paris, 1927. 

Exhibitions : 

1814, Fenoglio Gal. Grenoble : (107 Items. 
Pref. by A. Farcy) ; 1935, May 1-15, Paris, 
H6tel du Figaro ; 1936, Nov. 16-30, Paris, 
G. Stein Gal. (Pref. C. Roger-Marx) ; 1941, 
Oct.-Dec., Museum of Grenoble, soth Anni- 
versary Exhibition (271 oils and water- 
colours) ; 1942, May- June, J. Dubourg Gal. 
Paris ; 1948, July-Sept. Communal Museum, 
The Hague ; and 1949, Orangerie, Paris 
(227 Items. Pref. C.Roger-Marx). 

MANET, EDOUARD (1832-1883) 

1832 Jan. 23, born at 5, Rue Bonaparte (then Rue 
Rue des Petits- Augustins) , Paris. Middle-class 
family. His father, subsequently a Counsellor 
at the Court, was then Chief Administrative 
Officer at the Ministry of Justice. His mother, 
D6sir6e Fournier, was daughter of one of Na- 
poleon's diplomatic agents. 

1839 At Canon Poiloup's preparatory school in the 
Vaugirard district. 

1842 Boarder at the College Rollin. Schoolfellow 
of Antonin Proust, subsequently Minister of 
Fine Arts, with whom he took the special 
drawing course provided by the school. Also 
influenced by his uncle, Fournier, a connoisseur. 

1848 His parents against his taking up art as a 
profession. He decides to go to sea and be- 
comes a navigating cadet. Sails to Rio, Dec. 9, 
on the transport ' Le Havre et Guadeloupe. ' 

1849 June, back in Paris. Fails in the Naval School 
examination, in July. Lives at 6 Rue du Mont- 
Thabor ; takes piano lessons from Suzanne 
Leenhoff. 

1850 January. Talks his father over into letting him 
enter the studio of Couture (Rue de Laval), 
famous author of Les Remains de la Decadence 

(1847). 

1856 Easter. Leaves Couture who has said to him 
disdainfully : " You'll never be more than 
the Daumier of your time. " Rents a studio 
in Rue Lavoisier, with Count Albert de 
Balleroy. Meanwhile he has been widening 
his knowledge by travels in Holland, Germany, 
Austria and Italy (autumn, 1853), where he 
studies the masterpieces; and by making 
copies, in the Louvre and art-galleries, of 
Titian, Tintoret, Delacroix, Rembrandt, Filip- 
pino Lippi. 

1859 Studio, Rue de Douai. The Absinthe-drinker 
(Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen). Des- 
spite Delacroix* backing, rejected at the Salon. 
Introduced to Baudelaire by Commandant 
Lejosne. 



126 



1861 His first exhibits at the Salon, the Portrait of 
his Parents (Coll. Mme E. Rouart, Paris) 
and especially his Guitarrero (Coll. W. C. 
Osborn, New York), which secures for him a 
medal and is enthusiastically praised by Gau- 
tier, are a great success. In the same year, 
paints Concert in the Tuileries Gardens (Tate 
Gallery, London), an open-air scene of con- 
temporary life. Exhibition at Galerie Mar- 
tinet. 

1862 Studio, 81 Rue Guyot. La Chanteuse de Rues 
(Coll. Mrs Sears, Boston), the model being 
Victorine Meurent who until 1875 remained 
his favourite model. 

Aug. A troupe of Spanish dancers from Madrid 
is performing at the Hippodrome, and Manet 
makes several paintings of them, the most 
famous of which, Lola de Valence, was cele- 
brated by Baudelaire in a quatrain. Sept. 25, 
death of his father. 

1863 May 15, The Salon des Refuses creates an 
uproar. Le Dejeuner $ur I'Herbe (Louvre. 
Plate, p. 7). Has great influence on the young 
painters at the Acad&nie Suisse and in 
Gleyre's studio : the Impressionists-to-be. 
Oct. 6. Goes to Holland to regularize his 
marriage with Suzanne Leenhoff, with whom 
he has been living since 1852. 

1864 June 19. Sea-fight between the Kearsage and 
the Alabama off the Cherbourg coast. Manet 

. rushes to the scene and probably witnesses the 
actual engagement. Makes a large painting 
of it (J. J. Johnson Collection, Museum of Art, 
Philadelphia). Stays at Boulogne and Genne- 
villiers. Paints Peonies (Louvre) bought by 
Chocquet, Still Lifes of fish and fruit, exhi- 
bited at Martinet's and Nadart's galleries ; 
also Races at Longchamps (Art Institute, 
Chicago). Settles at 34, Boulevard des 
Batignolles. 

1865 Olympia, a realistic nude inspired by Goya, 
painted in 1863 (Louvre), causes another 
uproar at the Salon. Exasperated by the 
malignity of the art critics, Manet goes to 
Spain for a fortnight; 'discovers' Velasquez, 
meets Theodore Duret at Madrid. 

1866 Rejected at the Salon. Becomes the focus of 
admiration at the Caf Guerbois, Boulevard 
de Clichy ; meets Zola, Cezanne, Monet. Zola 
devotes laudatory articles to him in L'Evtne- 
tnent and La Revue du XIX* Siicle. 

1867 Does not exhibit at the World's Fair, but fixes 
up a one-man show of 50 canvases at the 
Place de 1'Alma, near that of Courbet. Settles 
at 49, Rue de Saint-Petersbourg. 

1868 Exhibits Portrait of Zola (Louvre. Plate, p. 8) 
at the Salon ; meets Berthe Morisot who sits 
for The Balcony (Louvre). 

1869 Eva Gonzales becomes his pupil and model. 
Summer at Boulogne. A week-end in London. 
Seascapes. Lithograph poster for Champ- 
fleury's Les Chats. 

1870 Duel with Duranty. Central figure in Fantin- 
Latour's picture, L l Atelier aux Batignolles 
(Louvre) ; grouped round him are Zola, 
Monet, Renoir, Bazille. Stays at Boulogne ; 
at St. Germain-en-Laye, with de Nittis. 
Lieutenant in the National Guard under Col. 
Meissonnier's command. 

1871 Feb. 12. Joins his family who have taken 
refuge at Oloron-Sainte-Marie in the Pyrenees. 



Feb. 20, at Bordeaux Port de Bordeaux MANET 
(Private Coll., Berlin). Returns to Paris by 
slow stages, along the coast : Arcachon 
(March i), Royan, Rochefort, Saint-Nazaire, 
Le Pouliguen (where he stays a month), Tours 
(May 10). Spends summer at Boulogne, with 
trips to Calais. 

1872 Exhibits at the Salon Le Combat du Kearsage 
et de I* Alabama. Critics favourable. Swing- 
round of public opinion. Durand-Ruel buys 
his pictures to the tune of 51,000 francs. 
Fixes up a handsome studio for himself at 
4, Rue de St. Petersbourg. Four Portraits 
of Berthe Morisot. August, goes to Holland ; 
much impressed by Hals. 

1873 Great success at the Salon with his portrait 
of Belot the engraver, Le Bon Bock (C. J. 
Tyson Coll., Philadelphia). Studies from the 
Beds Masques at the Paris Opera (March). 
Summer at Berck-sur-Mer : beach scenes, 
seascapes, watercolours. Sept., in Paris. Caf 
de la Nouvelle-Athenes. Sells 5 pictures to 
Faure the singer. Meets Nina de Callias. 
First pastel : M me Manet, in profile (Coll. 
Mme E. Rouart, Paris). 

1874 Only two of four pictures sent in accepted at 
the Salon. Mallarme, with whom he is 
friendly, protests. Manet refuses to take part 
in the First ' Impressionist ' Exhibition in 
Nadar's studios, despite pressure by Degas 
and Monet. 

Aug., stays at Gcnnevilliers, then at Argenteuil 
with Monet. Paints boating-scenes : Argenteuil 
(Tournai Museum. Plate, p. 27). 
Dec. 22 : Berthe Morisot marries his brother 
Eugene and ceases to sit for him. Publisher 
Poulet-Malassis hits on a ' device ' for his 
bookplate, Manet et Manebit. 

1875 Sept., visits Venice. Two Views of the Grand 
Canal. 

1876 Le Linge (Barnes Foundation, Merion), a large 
open-air composition, and The Artist in his 
Studio (portrait of Marcellin Desboutin) re- 
jected at the Salon. Invites the public to see 
them in his studio, April is~May I. Meets Mery 
Laurent at Fecamp in August. Portrait of 
Mallarmi (Louvre) ; of Nana (Kunsthalle, 
Hamburg). 

1877 Nana rejected at Salon, exhibited in premises 
of Giroux, antiquarian, Boulevard des Capu- 
cines. 

1878 Obliged to quit his flat and, worse still, his 
beloved studio. Before leaving paints 5 pic- 
tures of the Rue Mosnier. Settles temporarily 
(July i) into the greenhouse-studio, 70 rue 
d' Amsterdam, of a Swedish painter, Roser. 
Now begins painting ' naturalistic ' subjects 
inspired by brasseries and cafts-chantants 
La Serveuse de Bocks (Tate Gallery, Lon- 
don). 

1879 April i, settles into No. 77 Rue d'Amsterdam. 
First onset of illness that is to carry him off ; 
he undergoes treatment at Bellcvue. 

1880 April, one-man show at La Vie Moderne. Again 
under treatment (for 3 months) at Bellevue. 
Still Lifes, watercolours. Returns to Paris in 
October. His studio becomes a great meeting- 
place for literary men, society people, men- 
about-town, and ladies of the street (whom 



MANET he is coming to use more and more as his 

MONET models and of whom he does pastel portraits). 

1881 At the Salon, exhibits his Portrait of Henri 
Rochefort (Hamburg Museum) and the Portrait 
of Pertuiset, for which he is awarded a second- 
class medal. Series of pastels. Jeanne de 
Marsy sits for his Spring (Private Coll., 
New York), a charming evocation of the 
' Parisienne, ' and Mery Laurent for Autumn 
(Nancy Museum). Jul.-Oct. at Versailles. 
Antonin Proust, Minister of Fine Arts, has 
him awarded the Legion of Honour, Dec. 30. 

1882 Exhibits Bar aux Folies-Bcrg&re at the Salon 
(Tate GaDery, London). His illness is making 
rapid strides. At Rueil, where he spends the 
summer, he can hardly move ; paints Still 
Lifes of fruit and flowers. 

1883 Completely paralysed, confined to his bedroom, 
he paints only the flowers his friends send him. 
On March 25, Easter Eve, Mery Laurent sends 
him flowers ; he makes a sketch in pastels of 
her maid, Elisa, who brings them ; this is 
the last work of his life. 

From April 6 he has to stay in bed. On tha 
18 his left leg is amputated. His death 
takes place at 7 p. m., April 30 ; the funeral 
on May 3. "He was greater than we thought," 
said Degas as the mourners left the little 
cemetery at Passy where he is buried. On 
May 5 Eva Gonzales died. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Writings and Correspondence. 

E. Manet, Lettres de Jeunesse, Paris, 1929. 
J. Guiffrey, Lettres Illustrfos de Manet, Paris, 
1929 (Ed. in English, New York, 1944). 
A. Tabarant, Une Correspondance intdite d E. 
Manet : Lettres du Siige de Paris, Paris, 1935. 

2. Catalogues. 

T. Duret, Histoire d'E. Manet (with catalogue), 
Paris, 1902 (new ed., 1919). Morcau-Nelaton, 
Manet Graveur et Lithographe t Paris, 1906. 
A. Tabarant, Manet, Histoire catalographique, 
Paris, 1931. Jamot, Wildenstein, Bataille : 
Manet, 2 Vols., Paris, 1932. M. Gu&in, L'Oeuvre 
grav6 de Manet, Paris, 1944. A. Tabarant, 
Manet et ses Oeuvres, Paris, 1947. (An indispen- 
sable work catalogue and biography.) 

3. Monographs and Appraisals. 

E. Zola, Manet, Etude biographique et critique, 
Paris, 1867. E. Bazire, Paris, 1884. E. Wald- 
mann, Berlin, 1910. A. Proust, Souvenirs sur 
Manet, Paris, 1913. J. E. Blanche, Paris, 1924. 
Moreau-Nelaton, Manet raconU par lui-mme, 
2 Vols., Paris, 1926. P. Jamot, Studies of 
Manet, Gaz. des Bx-Arts, 1927. P. Colin, 
Paris, 1932. Spec, numbers of L'Am. de VArt 
and Art vivant, 1932. R. Rey, Paris, 1938. 
G. Jedlicka, Zurich, 1941. P. Courthion, 
Manet racontt par lui-meme et par ses amis, 
Geneva, 1945. M. Florisoone, Manet, Monaco, 
1947- 

4. Exhibitions. 

1861, 1863 March, 1865 Feb., Gal Martinet ; 
1867 May, one-man show in a pavilion, Place 
de 1'Alma, during World's Fair ; 1880 April 
10-30, one-man show in premises of La Vie 
Moderne organized by Charpentier the publi- 
sher (26 canvases) ; 1884 Jan. 5-28, Post- 
humous Exhibition at Ecole Nationale des 



Beaux- Arts, Paris (154 paint., 22 etchings, 
5 lith., 13 drawings. Pref. by Zola) ; 1905 Oct. 
i8-Nov. 25, Retrospective Exh., Salon d'Au- 
tomne (26 paint.) ; 1906 March, Gal, Durand- 
Ruel, Paris, Exh. of Manet's works in the 
Faure Collection (24 oils and watercolours) ; 
1928 Feb.-March, Gal. Matthiesen, Berlin ; 
1928, Gal. Beniheim, Paris, Exh. for ' Les Amis 
du Luxembourg ' ; 1930 April. Exh. water- 
colours, drawings, lithographs, Gal. Sagot, 
Paris ; 1932, Exposition du Centenaire, Oran- 
gerie, Paris (Pref. by Paul Val&y, Introd. 
by P. Jamot, Cat. by C. Sterling. 150 Exhibits). 



MONET, CLAUDE (1840-1926) 

1840 Born in Paris, November 14. Son of a grocer. 
Spent childhood and youth at Lc Havre. 

1856 Begins by drawing caricatures. Taken up by 
Boudin, who encourages him to turn to 
landscape. Admires Daubigny, a picture by 
whom his aunt has given him. 

1859 Comes to Paris in May. Troyon gives advice 
and encourages him to copy pictures at the 
Louvre. Frequents the Brasserie des Martyrs 
and the ' Suisse ' Academy, where he makes 
friends with Pissarro, alongside whom he 
sets up his easel. 

1860-61 Military service with the Chasseurs d'Afrique, 
in Algeria. ' Bought out ' by his family after 
two years' service. 

1862 Returns to Le Havre where he spends the 
summer in the company of Boudin and Jong- 
kind. In November enters Gleyre's studio in 
Paris ; meets Bazille, Renoir, Sisley. 

1863 Shares with Bazille a flat in Place de Fursten- 
berg, overlooking Delacroix' studio and they 
often watch him at work. Easter holidays at 
Chailly near Barbizon. 

1864 With Renoir, Bazille, Sisley in Fontainebleau 
Forest. At Honfleur with Boudin, Jongkind, 
Bazille. Offers three canvases to Bruyas, the 
collector (Montpellier), but he declines them. 

1865 Has success at the Salon with a seascape, 
praised by Mantz. Paints in Fontainebleau 
Forest a Dtfeuner sur I'Herbe ; then works with 
Courbet at Trouville. 

1866 Another success at the Salon with the portrait 
CamiUe (Kunsthalle, Bern), bought by Arsene 
Houssaye. Paris scenes: Saint- Germain 
I'Auxerrois (Nationalgalerie, Berlin). At Ville 
d'Avray during summer, at Sainte-Adresse 
and Le Havre later in year. Meets Manet, 
whose influence he undergoes along with that 
of Courbet. 

1867 His Women in the Garden (Louvre. Plate, p. 13) 
painted entirely in the open air, rejected at 
the Salon ; bought by Bazille. Goes to 
Sainte-Adresse, where his mistress Camille 
gives birth, in July, to his son Jean. Penniless. 
His pictures seized and sold in lots of 50, at 
30 francs a lot. 

1868 At Etretat and at Fecamp, where he attempts 
to commit suicide. 

1869 At Bougival with Renoir : scenes of the 
GrenouiUire bathing-place (Metropolitan 
Museum of Art, New York), the first tho- 
roughly impressionist pictures. Again at 
Etretat and Le Havre. 



128 



1870 Rejected at the Salon. In June marries 
Camille. Summer at Trouville (Plate, p. 18) 
and Le Havre, whence he embarks in Sept. for 
England. 

1871 Meets Pissarro again in London. Daubigny 
introduces him to picture-dealer Durand-Ruel 
and goes with him to Holland. Seeks without 
success to show at the Royal Academy. 

1872 Second trip to Holland. On his return settles 
in Argenteuil. 

ARGENTEUIL 1872-1878. 

1873 Sets up studio in a boat and paints his master- 
pieces, regattas and river-bank scenes. 

1874 Is acknowledged leader of Impressionism. 
Joined by Renoir, Sisley, Manet, Caillebotte, 
who work under his influence. At the first 
Group Exhibition shows 12 canvases, one 
of which, Impression : Sunrise (Coll. D. de 
Monchy, Paris), leads to the new painters' 
being called, mockingly, ' Impressionists. ' 

1876-77 Gare Saint-Lazare series (Plate, p. 28). 

VETHEUIL 1878-1881 

1878 Settles at Vetheuil, keeping a pied-d-terre in 
Paris. His second son, Michel, born in March. 
Financial straits. 

1879 Death of Camille. 

1880 One-man show at La Vie Moderne. Paints 
during this very hard winter his ' series ' The 
Breaking-up of the Ice, in which his style 
shows signs of systeinatization. For the last 
time exhibits at the Salon, and refuses to 
join in the Fifth Group Exhibition. Now 
begins a parting of the ways ; the Impres- 
sionist movement is falling apart. 

1881 March, at F6camp. 

POISSY 1881-1883 

Lives at Poissy near St-Germain-en-Laye from 
Oct. 1881 to May 1883, with Mme Hosched ; 
spends each summer at the seaside : Fecamp, 
Varengeville, Pourville, Dieppe. 

GIVERNY (1883-1926) 

1883 In April, settles at Giverny, near Vernon, 
where he is to live until the end of his life. 
When at last success brought prosperity, he 
bought the house (1891), laid out a flowergar- 
den, a water-lily pool, and built a boathouse. 
One-man show in March. Le Havre. Etretat. 
Goes with Renoir to the Riviera in December. 

1884 Bordighera, Jan. 18 to April 3 ; Menton, 
April 8-13. Lavish use of strong colour, 
akin to Fauvism. Etretat (Aug., Sept.). 

1885 Joins in ' Exposition Internationale ' at Petit 's 
Gallery. At Etretat (Oct.-Dec.). 

1886 Visits Haarlem. In Belle-Isle, Scpt.-Nov. 
Meets G. Geffroy. 

1888 Antibes, Jan.-Apr, Admired by Mallarm6. 
" This is, I think, your finest hour. " 

1889 At Fresselines, with Maurice Rollinat (March- 
May). Two-man show with Rodin at Petit's. 

1890 Beginning of his ' systematic ' series ; study of 
the effects of light on the same scene according 
to the hour, season, atmospheric conditions. 

1891 The Haystacks. Visits London in the autumn. 

1892 The Poplars. The Rouen Cathedral series 
(exhibited in 1895). 

1895 Visits Norway ; snowscapes, northern light 
effects. 



1904 Exhibits the series of London Views : Houses *OH*T 
of Parliament, Waterloo Bridge, Charing Cross, 
begun in 1899. His supreme effort, these show 
the influence of Turner. Meanwhile he still 
paints the Seine banks (Port-Villers, Giverny, 
Vetheuil) and Normandy sea-beaches (Pour- 
ville, Varengeville, Dieppe). 

1908 Venice. Here, as in London, he seeks to 
render luminous mists (series exhibited in 
1912). 

1909 Water lilies series, begun in 1898, resumed in 
1905. (Renderings of his water-garden at 
Giverny.) 

1922 Operated on for cataract, recovers his sight. 

1923 Gift to the Nation of a decorative ensemble 
with yet again the ' waterlilies ' motif, begun 
in 1915. This decorative work was installed 
after his death, in the manner enjoined by 
him, in the two oval rooms of the Mus6e de 
TOrangerie. 

1926 Died at Giverny, Dec. 6. For some time he 
had been living as a recluse, visited only by a 
few friends, the most eminent of whom was 
Clemenceau. His last years were darkened by 
bereavements (his second wife died in 1911, 
his son Jean in 1914), and by increasing doubts 
as to the value of his art and of an aesthetic 
theory which the younger generation so 
peremptorily rejected. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 
Writings by the Artist and Interviews. 

The voluminous correspondence with Durand- 
Ruel (411 letters from 1876 to 1926) has been 
published by L. Venturi : Les Archives de 
rimpressionnisme, Paris, 1939. For letters of 
his youth to Boudin, vide G. Cahen, Boudin, 
Paris, 1900 ; for those to Bazille, G. Poulain, 
Dazille et ses Amis, Paris, 1932. For letters to 
Manet, Tarabant, L'Art Vivant, May 4, 1928 ; 
to Chocquet, J. Joets, L Amour de VArt, 
Apr., 1935. Interviews : Thiebault-Sisson, 
Le Temps, Nov. 27, 1900 ; L. Vauxcelles, 
L'Art et les Artistes, Dec., 1905 ; Due de. Trevise, 
Revue d'Art Ancien et Moderne, Jan.-Feb., 
1937 ; M. Elder, Chez Claude Monet a Giverny, 
Paris, 1924. 

Monographs and Appraisals. 

0. Mirbcau, L'Art dans les Deux-Mondes, 
March 7, 1891 ; A. Alcxandre, Paris, 1921 ; 
G. Geffroy, Claude Monet, sa Vie, son Temps, son 
(Euvre, Paris, 1922 ; R. Regamey, La Formation 
de Claude Monet, Gazette des Beaux-Arts, 
Feb., 1927 ; L. Werth, Paris, 1928 ; G. Cle- 
menceau, Paris, 1928 ; M. de Fels, La Vie de 
Claude Monet, Paris, 1929 ; P. Francastel, 
Monet, Sisley, Pissarro, Paris, 1939 ; M. 
Malingue, Monaco, 1943. 

Exhibitions. 

1880, La Vie Moderne, Paris ; 1883, March, 
Gal. Durand-Ruel, Paris ; 1889, Exh. Rodin- 
Monet, Gal. Petit, Paris (Preface by O. Mir- 
beau) ; 1891, May, Gal. Durand-Ruel (Les 
Meules) ; 1892, Gal. Durand-Ruel (Les Peup- 
liers) ; 1895, Gal. Durand-Ruel (Rouen and 
Norway) ; 1898, June, Gal. Petit ; 1904, Gal. 
Durand-Ruel (London) ; 1909, Gal. Durand- 
Ruel (Waterlilies) ; 1912, Gal. Bernheim- 
Jeune (Venice) ; 1931, Orangerie, Paris (Introd. 
by P. Jamot. 128 items) ; 1936, April 2-30, 



129 



MONET Gal. P. Rosemberg, Paris (30 Items : Works 

PISSARRO 1891-1919) ; 1944, Orangerie, Paris ; 1945, 

April-May, Wildenstein Gallery, New York. 



PISSARRO, CAMILLE (1830-1903) 

1830 Born July 10 at Saint Thomas in the West 
Indies. Jewish parentage. 

1841-47 Educated in a school in Passy (Paris), whose 
headmaster, Savary, an art-lover, has him 
taught drawing from nature. 

1847-52 Back at Saint-Thomas, enters his father's 
business. 

1852 Runs away to Caracas (Venezuela) with the 
Danish painter Fritz Melbye (1826-1869). 
Returns to Saint-Thomas in 1854. 

1855 His father accepts his vocation and sends him 
to Paris, where he arrives in time to see the 
World's Fair and admires the works of Corot, 
whom he visits. Enters the studio of Anton 
Melbye (1818-1875), Fritz's brother. Lives ih 
the country near Montmorency, but goes on 
painting West Indian scenes in an oriental 
style, d la Decamps. 

1857 For a short time at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. 
Discovers the Ile-de-France countryside. 

1859 At the Academic Suisse ; meets Claude Monet. 
Exhibits a landscape at the Salon. 

1861 Rejected at the Salon. Meets Cezanne and 
Guillaumin. 

1863 Exhibits three pictures at the Salon des 
Refuses, noticed by Castagnary. Birth of his 
eldest son Lucien (February 20). 

1864 At Montfoucault, in the home of his painter 
friend Piette. La Varenne-Saint-Hilaire. 

1866 Settles at Pontoise. His Salon picture praised 
by Zola. 

1869 Louveciennes. Two pictures of the Seine bank 
at Bougival, with study of the play of light 
on water. 

1870 At Montfoucault, then in England. Marries 
Julie Vellay, by whom he already has two 
children (he is to have seven in all, the five 
sons being painters). ' Discovers ' Constable. 

1871 Rejoins Monet, makes acquaintance of Durand- 
Ruel who buys two of his pictures. In June 
returns to Louveciennes. His studio looted 
by the Germans ; " only some forty pictures 
left out of fifteen hundred. " 

1872 Returns to Pontoise (April) and there joined 
by Guillaumin, C6zanne, Vignon. 

1873 Paints his Portrait (Louvre) and his first great 
works on the Hermitage motif. Imparts to 
C&anne the aesthetic theories of Impres- 
sionism ; his own works, however, strongly 
rooted to the soil, are more constructive than 
those of Monet. 

1874 Takes part in the First Impressionist Exhibi- 
tion and is to be the only member of the group 
exhibiting at all the seven following. Matu- 
rity of his style. Some pastels. 

1875-76 Frequent stays at Montfoucault. Planned, 
strongly balanced, monumental, static compo- 
sitions, akin to those of C6zanne. 

1877 Again under Monet's influence. Light vibra- 
tions. The Red Roofs (Louvre). 



1880 Introduces figures in his landscapes* Deco- 
rative tendencies. Does etchings with Degas 
and Mary Cassatt. 

1883 One-man show at Durand-Ruel's. With 
Gauguin at Rouen. 

1884 Settles at Eragny, near Gisors. 

1885 Meets Signac and Seurat. Adopts their 
scientific theory of art. 

1886 Year of thorough-going Pointillism. Succeeds 
in having Seurat and Signac accepted at the 
eighth and last Impressionist Exhibition. 
Meets Van Gogh. 

1890 Desists from a technique which does not 
accord with his sensibility. Renews his stock 
of ' motifs ' by a visit to London. 

1891 Death of Seurat. Refuses to lead Neo- 
Imprcssionist movement and reverts to the 
free brushstrokes of his early phase. Spends 
his time between his Eragny and his Paris 
residences, 12, Rue de 1'Abreuvoir. Begins to 
find favour with picture-dealers. 

1892 Exhibits at Durand-Ruel's (50 oil paintings, 
20 gouaches). Financial success. Buys his 
house at Eragny. Spends summer in London ; 
paints Kew Gardens. 

1893 Begins his series of views of Paris viewed from 
above ; crowds, traffic, vistas of avenues, seen 
from the windows of various hotels. Paints 
his Rue Saint-Lazare, where he now is living. 

1894 Stays at Knocke (Belgium), where he meets 
Elisee Reclus whose anarchist theories he 
shares. 

1896 At Rouen (spring and autumn). 

1897 In London (May to July). 

1898 Views of the Theatre Franfais, Paris ; and of 
Rouen Cathedral. 

1899 Staying at 2-4, Rue de Rivoli. Scenes of the 
Tuileries Gardens and Le Carrousel. At 
Varengeville in the autumn. 

1900 At Bonneval near Dieppe. In Paris, 28, Place 
Dauphine : views of the Pont-Neuf. 

1901 Moret (April-May). Dieppe (August-Sep- 
tember). 

1902 Again at Dieppe (July-September). " I am 
working on the Quai de la Poissonncrie ; the 
range of colours is much like that at Rouen. " 

1903 In Paris ; first, Place Dauphine, then at 
H6tel Voltaire : Pont-Royal and Quai 
Malaquais. At Le Havre (July-September), 
where he paints the quays, harbour-scenes. 
In the intervals between his travels he goes 
on painting, at Eragny, the countryside, 
orchards in flower. Dies in Paris on Novem- 
ber 13. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Correspondence. 

C. Pissarro, Letters to his Son Lucien, edited by 
John Rewald, New York, 1943 (477 letters 
between 1883 and 1903). The Letters to 
Durand-Ruel (86) and 6. Maus (16) were 
published by L. Venturi in Les Archives de 
rimpressionnisme, Paris, 1939 ; those to 
O. Mirbeau by G. Lecomte & Ch. Kunstler in 
La Revue d'Art Ancien et Moderne, March, 1930. 

2. Catalogues. 

C. Pissarro, son art, son auvre, Paris, 1939. 
Indispensable. List compiled by L. R. Pissarro 



130 



the artist's son (1664 Items : 1632 111.) with 
an excellent appraisal by L. Venturi. A good 
bibliography. L. Delteil, Le Peintre-Graveur 
Illustrt, Vol. XVII, Paris, 1923 (195 Items). 

3. Monographs and Critical Studies. 

0. Mirbeau. L'Art dans les deux Mondes, 
Jan. 10, 1891. G. Lecomte, Pissarro, Paris, 
1922. A. Tabarant, Pissarro, Paris, 1924. 
C Kunstler, Pissarro, Paris, 1930. J. Rewald, 
Pissarro, his Work and Influence, Burlington 
Magazine, June, 1938. P. Francastel, Monet, 
Sisley, Pissarro, Paris, 1939. J, Rewald, 
C. Pissarro au Muste du Louvre, Paris, 1939. 

Exhibitions. 

Galerie Durand-Ruel, Paris : May, 1883 ; 
Feb., 1892 (50 pictures & 21 gouaches ; 
preface by G. Lecomte) ; March, 1893 ; March, 
1894 ; April 15-May 9, 1893 (recent work : pref. 
A. Alexandra) ; June, 1898 ; Jan., 1901 , 
April 7-30, 1904 (178 exhibits : pref. 
0. Mirbeau) ; May- June, 1907, Calorie E. Blot 
(pref. G. Lecomte) ; Salon d'Automne, 1911 
(etchings and lithographs : pref. T. Durct) ; 
1920, May, Leicester Gallery, London (pref. 
J. B. Manson) ; 1921, Durand-Ruel Gallery, 
Paris ; Feb.-March, 1930, Orangerie, Paris, 
celebrating centenary of his birth (pref. 
A. Tabarant) ; Nov.-Dcc., 1934, Bcrnheim 
Gallery, Paris, Pissarro and his Sons (pref. 
G. Kahn). 



REDON, ODILON (1840-1916) 

1840 Born at Bordeaux, April 20. His father, an 
explorer and ' squatter, ' had married a 
Creole lady (of French descent) of New Orleans, 
A delicate child, he was brought up in the 
country, in charge of a nurse, on the family 
estate at Peyrelabade. 

1847 First visit to Paris, where his aunt takes him 
to the museums. 

1855 Resolves to become a painter. Lessons from 
the watercolour painter Gobin. A meeting 
with Clavaud the botanist has a decisive 
influence ; Clavaud interests the boy in 
biology, makes known to him Delacroix 1 art 
and avant-garde literature : Baudelaire, Flau- 
bert, Poe. He is very fond of music ; also of 
country walks. 

1857 Studies architecture at Bordeaux. Sits for 
the entrance examination of the Ecole des 
Beaux-Arts in Paris, but fails. Returns to 
Bordeaux, and takes to sculpture. 

1858 At Paris, in Ger&me's studio. 

1863 At Bordeaux becomes intimate with the 
romantic etcher Bresdin who is to have much 
influence on him ; ' discovers ' Rembrandt ; 
first steps in etching. 

1867 His first contribution to the Salon, an etching 
named Landscape. 

1868 Art-critic of the newspaper La Gironde 
(May- July) ; articles on Fromentin, Courbet, 
Jongkind. 

1870 Though exempted from military service, 
enlists as a volunteer. After 1870 lives mostly 
in Paris, in the Montparnasse district* Grow- 
ing admiration for Delacroix,) whom he has 
already copied at the Bordeaux Museum. 



1877 
1879 

1880 
1881-82 

1884 
1883-89 



Makes acquaintance of Corot, Courbet, and 
Fantin-Latour ; works constantly with the 
last-named at the Louvre and learns from him 
lithography. Trip to Holland to see the 
Rembrandts. 

Summer at Barbizon. 

Publishes album of 10 lithographs, entitled 
(significantly) Dans te Reve. 

May i, marries Camiile Fargue, a Creole from 
the lie de Bourbon, who is to be for him, as he 
puts it, ' the lodestar of his life. ' 

First exhibitions at La Vie Moderne and the 
office of the newspaper Le Gaulois. His work 
noticed by Huysmans and Hennequin. 

Exhibits at the first Salon des Ind6pendants, 
and presides at the gatherings preliminary 
to founding the Sociitt des Indipendants. 

During this period in which his first son, 
Jean, dies, and his younger son, Ari, is born 
Redon does exclusively black-and-white litho- 
graphy. Still little appreciated in France, has 
a better reception in Belgium and Holland. 

Takes part in exh. of engraver-painters at 
Durand-Ruel's. Meets Mellerio, his biographer 
to-be. 

1891 Symbolist Banquet in honour of Jean Mor6as. 
Redon now frequents writers, amongst them 
Jammes, Gide, Valery, and especially Mallarme*, 
with whom he becomes very friendly. Frankly 
admits the ' literary ' tendency of his art. 
" Painting is human beauty, " he says, 
" with the prestige of thought superadded. " 

1899 Exhibition at Durand-Ruel's ; Hommage d 
Odilon Redon (Bernard, d'Espagnat, Cross, 
Signac, Luce, van Rysselberghe, Ibels, S6rusier, 
Andre, Vuillard, Vallotton, Denis.) Redon 
now leaves the Left Bank and settles in the 
Avenue de Wagram. Gradually gives up 
black-and-white (save for a short return to it 
in 1914) and goes back to painting, especially 
in pastel ; his colour has now an almost 
incredible intensity. Flowers, portraits of 
women and children, and religious subjects 
arc his favourite themes. 

1909 Buys a small house at Bievres. Lives a 
retired, studious and meditative life, propitious 
to the extreme originality of his visionary 
inspiration. " I have been led to this self- 
imposed isolation by the absolute impossibility 
of practising any other kind of art than that 
which I have always practised. " In winter 
stays at Cannes or the Abbaye de Fontfroide 
(near Montpellier) with his friend Fayet, the 
collector, whose library he decorates. 

1916 Dies, July 6, in Paris. Buried in the little 
graveyard at Bievres. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Writings by the Artist. 

Like Delacroix, and likewise a brilliant writer, 
Redon kept up a fascinating * Journal ' : 
A soi-mSme (1867-1915), Paris, 1922 (introd. 
by J. Morland). Also wrote articles (as a 
young man) in La Gironde (May- July, 1868) and 
the Preface to the Bresdin Retrospective Exh. 
at the 1908 Salon d'Automne. Some of his 
correspondence has been published : a Letter 
to E. Picard, I' Art Moderne, Brussels, Aug. 25, 
1894 ; Lettres d'Odilon Redon, Paris, 1923 ; 
Lettres d E. Bernard, Brussels, 1942. 



PISSARRO 

REDON 



RKDON 
RENOIR 



Monographs and Appraisals. 

E. Hennequin, Rev. Art et Lit. t March 4, 
1882 ; A. Salmon, Art Dtcor., Jan., 1913 ; 
A. Mellerio, Paris, 1913 (new ed., Paris 1923. 
Cat. of black-and-white work) ; J. Douin, 
Mercure de France, July, 1914 ; A. Mellerio, 
Gaz. des Beaux-Arts, Aug.-Sept., 1920 ; W. 
Pach, The Connoisseur, Oct., 1920 ; C Roger* 
Marx, Paris, 1925 ; C. Fegdal, Paris, 1929 ; M. 
and A. Leblond, Paris, 1941. 

Illustrated Books. 

G. Flaubert, La Tentation de Saint Antoine, 
Paris, 1935 (Les Amis de Redon) ; Paris, 1937, 
A. Vollard. 

Exhibitions. 

1881, La Vie Moderne: 1882, Le Gaulois 
(Drawings) ; 1894, March 29-April 14. Gal. 
Durand-Rucl, Paris (Pref. by Mellerio) ; 1898 
and 1900, Gal. Vollard, Paris ; March, 1903, 
Feb., 1906, Gal. Durand-Ruel ; 1904, Salon 
d'Automne, Paris ; 1908, Nov. 9-21, GalJ 
Druet, Paris ; 1919, June- July, Winterthur, 
Museum ; 1917, Gal. Bernheim-Jeune, Paris 

1920, May- June, Gal. Barbazanges, Paris 

1921, Gal. Giroux, Brussels ; 1926, March, 
Muse des Arts D6coratifs, Paris (Introd. by 
J. Morland) ; 1929, May 23-Junc 13, Gal. Dru 
(Pref. by C. Roger-Marx) ; 1931, Feb. i-March 2, 
Museum of Modern Art, New York, Exh. 
Lautrec-Redon. Several Redon exhibitions 
are planned for 1950 which, it is hoped, will 
reveal the eminence of an artist whose work 
is not yet sufficiently appreciated. 



RENOIR, AUGUSTE (1841-1919) 

1841 Feb. 25, birth of Auguste-Pierre Renoir. 
His father was a small tailor ; there was a 
family of seven children (two died young). 

1845 The Renoir family settles in Paris, in the 
Rue d'Argenteuil, a street in the Carrousel 
quarter. 

1849 Birth of Edmond, the youngest child. In the 
grammar-school, the music teacher, Charles 
Gounod, wants young Renoir to study music. 

1854 But his parents send him to a china factory in 
the Rue du Temple. This his first profession 
gives him a taste for decoration, for bright, 
translucent colours. Next, he paints fans, 
decorates blinds for Missions. Frequent visits 
to the Louvre, where he lingers in front of 
the old masters and Boucher's Diane. 

1857 His grandmother dies ; her portrait is his 
first known work. 

1862 Ecole des Beaux-Arts, in Gleyre's studio, 
where he meets Monet, Sisley, Bazille. 

1863 Stays at Chailly for Easter. Leaves Gleyre's 
atelier. Studies in the Louvre with Fantin- 
Latour. 

1864 Meets Diaz in the forest of Fontainebleau. 
In the Salon exhibits an academic composition, 
La Esmeralda (which he later destroys). 

1865 In the Salon exhibits a Portrait and Soirte 
d'&S. Visits Marlotte. 

1866 Stays with his friend Jules Lecceur, At 
Marlotte paints Le Cabaret de la Mire Anthony 



(Stockholm Museum), and reads with interest 
Zola's articles on the Salon. Refused admis- 
sion to the Salon in spite of Corot's and Dau- 
bigny's intervention on his behalf. 

1867 In the spring he paints views of Paris in 
Monet's company ; Courbet's influence is 
obvious in the composition he submits to the 
Salon : Diane Chasseresse ; it is rejected. 
Works in the forest of Fontainebleau, finds 
hospitality in Bazille's studio. 

1868 Lise (Essen Museum), painted in the previous 
summer, is accepted at the Salon and attracts 
attention of Thor6-Biirger and Castagnary. 
Decorates a ceiling in Prince Bibesco's resi- 
dence. Portraits of Bazille and Sisley. 

1869 Spends part of the summer in the house of 
Lise's parents, at Ville-d'Avray, then joins 
Monet at Bougival. Together they paint 
boating scenes, and many versions of the 
Grenouillere (Stockholm Museum. Plate, p.14) 
in a style already impressionist. In Oct. 
returns to Paris, to Bazille's studio. 

1870 Sends to the Salon the Baigneuse (Basel 
Museum) and Femme d'Alger (Coll. Chester 
Dale, New York). Praised by Arsdne Hous- 
saye. Enlisted at Bordeaux in loth Light 
Cavalry, he paints portraits of his captain, 
Darras, and of MmeDarras (Dresden Museum). 

1871 Returns to Paris during the Commune ; Rue 
du Dragon. Roams the suburbs : Louve- 
ciennes, Boupival, Celle-Saint-Cloud. Portrait 
de la Famille Henriot (Barnes Foundation, 
Merion). 

1872 His studio is in Rue Notre-Dame-des-Champs. 
Influenced by Delacroix. Is intimate with 
Duret and the Clapissons. Views of Paris : 
Le Quai Malaquais, Le Pont Neuf (Marshall 
Field Coll., New York). Numerous visits to 
Monet who has just settled at Argenteuil. 

1873 Durand-Ruel the dealer buys his pictures. 
He rents a large studio at 35, Rue St-Georges 
and declares he has " achieved success." 

1874 Takes part in the First Impressionist Exhibi- 
tion at Nadar's, Boulevard des Capucines 
(7 pict.). Stays at Argenteuil with Monet. 
Friendly with Caillebotte. His father dies at 
Louveciennes on Dec. 22. 

1875 Disastrous sale at the H6tel Drouot (March 
24th), with Monet, Sisley, Bcrthe Morisot. 
Meets Chocquet, the connoisseur, who be- 
comes his friend. 

1876 Second Impressionist Exhibition (15 canvases). 
Rents a studio in Montmartre, in the Rue 
Cortot. Floods figures and landscapes with 
brilliant light. During this memorable year 
paints the masterpieces of his impressionist 
period : La Balanfoire, Le Moulin de la 
Colette (Louvre. Plate, p. 26), La Femme nue 
(Moscow Museum). Is intimate with the 
Charpcntiers, the Daudet family and Jeanne 
Samary. Stays at Champrosay. 

1877 Third Impressionist Exhibition (21 canvases). 
Publishes (in the fourth number of L'lmpres- 
sionniste), on Apr. 28, a long article on " Con- 
temporary Decorative Art." 

1878 Stays at Pourville, near Dieppe. Paints his 
great composition : Madame Charpentier et 
ses Enfants (Metropolitan Museum, New 
York) which obtains considerable success at 
the 1879 Salon. 



132 



1879 From now on, Renoir deserts the Impressionists 
for the Salon, but without giving offence to 
his friends. In June, one-man show in the 
salons of La Vie Modcrne, a review founded by 
his friends the Charpentiers, to which he 
contributes sketches. Is intimate with Paul 
Birard who often invites him to Wargemont. 
Stays at Chatou and Berneval (Normandy). 

1880 Period of uncertainties. Gradually breaks 
away from the Impressionists and returns to 
classical methods of drawing. Stays at Berne- 
val, and at Croissy at M&re Fournaise's inn. 
His studio is in Rue de Norvins. 

1881 Travels in Algeria (March-April). New studio 
in the Rue Houdon. In July at Wargemont. 
In autumn, starts for Italy, " to see the 
Raphaels." Venice delights him, but in 
Florence and Rome he is only interested in 
the museums. Enthusiastic about the Pom- 
peii frescos. 

1882 At Palermo, Jan. 15 paints his Portrait de 
Wagner (Louvre). On his return passes 
through 1'Estaque and stays three weeks 
with Cezanne. Pneumonia. March-April, 
travels in Algeria, where his health is restored. 
Send in 25 pictures to the Seventh Impres- 
sionist Exhibition. 

1883 Reading Cennini's Traitt de peinture speeds up 
his technical evolution. One-man show in 
April at Durand-Ruel's (Preface by Duret). 
In Sept. travels to Guernsey. Suzanne 
Valadon sits for The Dance (Durand-Ruel 
Coll.). Dec. 10-26, travels with Monet from 
Marseilles to Genoa ; visits Cezanne at 
1'Estaque. 

1884 Plans a league of " Irr6gularistes." Paints in 
La Rochelle, remembering Corot. 

1885 Birth of Pierre Renoir, his eldest son. Pre- 
paratory studies for Grandes Baigneuses 
(Carroll J. Tyson Coll., Philadelphia) ; close 
study of line which marks the beginning of 
his " Ingresque " period. In July stays at 
Wargemont : in Nov. at Essoyes in the Aube, 
his wife's country ; Sept-Oct. at La Roche- 
Guyon where Cezanne joins him. 

1886 Refuses to join in the last Impressionist 
Exhibition, but contributes to the New York 
exhib. organized by Durand-Ruel; to the XX 
group exhibition in Brussels, and to the 
" Exposition Internationale " at Georges Petit's 
(May- July). In July at La Roche-Guyon ; 
from Aug. to Sept. at Saint-Briac. 

1887 Success of the Grandes Baigneuses at the next 
Internat. Exh. at Petit's. 

1888 Welcomed by Cezanne in Jan. at Le Jas de 
Bouffan ; stays at Martigues from February to 
March. 

With Cezanne again at Aix ; rents for several 
months the estate of Cezanne's brother-in-law, 
M. Conil, at Montbriand near Aix, whence 
Cezanne painted his views of the Vall6e de 
1'Arc. 

1890 Exhibits at the Salon for the last time. Lives 
at IT, Boulevard de Clichy. "Mother-of- 
pearl " period. 

1891 Travels to Tamaris, Feb., March, with Teodor 
de Wyzewa ; in April at Le Lavandou, then 
at Nlmes. Short stay at M6zy (Seine-et-Oise) 
at Berthe Morisot's ; travels in Spain. 

1893 Exhib. at Durand-Ruel's. First sale to the 
State. Another journey to Spain, with 



Gallimard. In August works in Brittany, at **NO*R 
Pornic ; in Sept. at Pont-Aven. Decorative 
panels for Durand-Ruel's flat. 

1893 Birth of Jean, his second son. Spends winter 
at Beaulieu, returns to Pont-Aven in Aug. 
There he engages a maid, Gabriclle, who 
becomes his favourite model. 

1894 Caillebotte dies (Feb. 21), leaving his collection 
to the State ; Renoir is his executor. 
Another transformation of his style, which 
is moving towards its superb maturity. 

1895 Goes to London, then to Holland. 

1896 His mother dies (Nov. 22). New exh. at 
Durand-Ruel's. His studio is now at " Chateau 
des Brouillards," Montmartre. 

1897 Stays again at Berneval. Buys a house at 
Essoyes, where he goes every summer. 

1899 Renoir is suffering from severe rheumatism and 
decides to move South. He now discovers 
Cagnes. On April isth he is back in Paris, at 
39, Rue de la Roche foucault. In Aug. he 
goes to Acqui for a ' cure. ' Exhibits 41 
pictures at Durand-Ruel's ; presents a canvas 
to his native town, Limoges. In Dec. on the 
Riviera at Grasse, Nice, Monte-Carlo. 

1900 Stays at Grasse till April. Goes to Saint- 
Lauren t-les-Bains to undergo treatment, pas- 
sing through Avignon and Aix. In Aug. stays 
at Louveciennes, where he learns that he has 
been made Chevalier de la Legion d'Honneur. 
Back at Grasse in Nov. 

1901 Birth of Claude, "Coco, "his third son, whom 
he paints in various poses. Interrupts his 
stay at Grasse with brief excursions to Le 
Trayas and Cannes. Redon visits him and 
finds him " suffering a great deal, but keeping 
the flag flying splendidly." Cure at Aix-les- 
Bains. Spends the summer at Essoyes ; back 
at Paris in Sept. 

1902 " Wonderful quarters " at Le Cannet, a 
suburb of Cannes. Albert Andr is with him, 

1903 In March, leaves Le Cannet for Cagnes ; lives 
in the Maison de la Poste, then rents " Los 
Collettes. " From now on, Renoir spends the 
winter in Cagnes and the summer at Essoyes, 
with short stays in Paris between trips. His 
rheumatism is getting worse. 

1904 ' Cure ' at Bourbonne-les-Bains in Sept. The 
' retrospective ' exhibition at the Salon d'Au- 
tomne (35 pictures) is a triumph. 

1905-09 His suffering increases. Besides rheumatism 
he suffers from stomach-troubles, henna, 
bronchitis. Walks with two sticks, gives up a 
journey to Italy. Maillol makes his bust at 
Essoyes ; connoisseurs, dealers and friends 
visit him. 

1910 Improved health enables him to go to Munich 
where he stays with Thurneyssen. Paints 
many portraits. Publishes a preface to 
Cennini's Treatise. 

1911 Buys a car for the journeys Cagnes-Paris- 
Essoyes. 

1912 His legs and arms are paralysed by a stroke 
(in January). Undergoes an operation in 
August ; the Legion of Honour " Officier's " 
cross is brought to him in bed. He now has 
his brush strapped to his hand, and goes on 
painting. 

1913 Exh, at Bernheim's (Preface by Mirbeau). 



133 



RENOIR 
ROUSSBL 



1914 The war. Pierre and Jean are at the front. 

1915 Pierre is wounded. Madame Renoir, already 
ill, rushes to see him at Gerardmer and comes 
back only to die, June 28. 

1916 Illness, bereavement, solitude cannot keep 
Renoir from painting, with ever-rising fervour. 
He has just discovered a new model, D6de, 
by whom he is dazzled, and who inspires him 
to some hundred pictures, certain of which 
may be deemed his greatest works the 
series of the Grandes Baigneuses (Stockholm 
Museum. Plate, p. 44). 

1919 In July at Essoyes. In Aug. asks to be taken 
to the Louvre. Goes through the galleries 
in his wheel-chair, venerable and venerated, 
" like the pope of painting. " Returns to 
Cagnes, where he dies Dec. 3. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Writings, Correspondence. 

Cennino Cennini : Le Livre d'Art with Renoir's 
prefatory letter, Paris, 1911. The letters 
written to Durand-Ruel (212) and to Octavd 
Maus (9) were published by L. Venturi in the 
Archives de I'lmpressionnisme, Paris, New 
York, 1939. Letters to Mme Charpentier and 
to Duret were pub. by Florisoone in I* Amour 
de VArt, Feb., 1938. Letters to Chocquet were 
pub. by J. Joets in V Amour de I' Art, April, 1935. 
Letters to A. Andr6 are to be found in the 
Bull, des Exp., Nov., Dec., 1932. Selections 
from letters to Bazille reproduced by G. Poulain 
in Bazille et ses amis, Paris, 1932 and some 
letters to Monet in G. Geffroy : Monet, sa vie. 
son (euvre, Vol. II, Paris, 1924. 

Catalogues. 

The bulk of Renoir's enormous output has 
not yet been catalogued (this task was begun 
by L. Venturi). The most valuable sources are 
A. Andr and M. Elder : V Atelier de Renoir, 
Paris, 1931 (716 reprod.). The Cat. of the 
Exhib. at Bernheim's (40 insets, notices by 
Forthuny ; important Pref. by Mirbeau). 
Cat. of the Gangnat Sale, Paris, June 1925 
(161 reprod., introd. by R. de Flers and 
E. Faure, Cat. of the Exhib. at the Orangerie, 
June, 1933, by C. Sterling (126 pict., 23 pastels, 
watercolours and drawings) with Pref. by 
P. Jamot, Cat. of the Exhib. at the Metropo- 
litan Museum, New York, May-Sept., 1937 
(139 pict. and five sculpt., all reproduced) 
with a Pref. by H. B. Wehle. For the engraved 
work, see L. Delteil : Le Peintre-Graveur 
Illustrt, Vol. XVII, For Sculpture, P. Hae- 
saerts : Renoir Sculpteur, Brussels 1947. 

Biography, Witness Accounts. 

T. Natanson : Renoir, Revue Blanche, June 15, 
1896. W. Pach : Interview with Renoir, 
Scribncr's Magazine, 1912. O. Mirbeau : 
Renoir, Paris, 1913. A. Vollard : Renoir, 
Paris, 1919 and 1920, G. Riviere : Renoir et ses 
amis, Paris, 1921. A. Andre* : Renoir, Paris, 
1919 and 1928. A. Alexandre : Renoir sans 
phrases, Les Arts, Paris, 1920. Th. Duret : 
Renoir, Paris, 1924. G. Besson : Auguste 
Renoir, Paris, 1929. M. Be>ard : Renoir a 
Wargemont, Souvenirs, Paris, 1938. 

Monographs and Appraisals. 

J. Meier-Graefe : Renoir, Munich, 1911, Leipzig, 
1929 (407 reprod.) ; fundamental work. 



L' Amour de I 9 Art, special number, Feb. 1921. 
P. Jamot, G. B. A., Nov.-Dec., 1923. G. Dut- 
huit : Renoir, Paris, 1923. F. Fosca : Renoir, 
Paris, 1923. VArt Vivant, special number, 
July, 1933. L. Venturi : VArte, 1933, pp. 458- 
489. A. Barnes and V. de Mazia : The Art of 
Renoir, Paris, 1944. M. Drucker, Renoir, 
Paris, 1944, new. ed. 1949 (Pref. by G. Bazin). 
J. Rewald : Renoir Drawings. New York, 1946. 
M. Raynald, Renoir, Geneva, 1949. 



Exhibitions. 



Exhib. : Durand-Ruel, Gal., Paris, April, 1883 
cat. and Preface by Th. Duret) ; May, 1892 
(n n, cat. and Pref. by A. Alexandre) ; 
May- June, 1896 (42 n) ; June, 1902 (40 n) ; 
June, 1912 (58 portraits) ; Jan., 1917 (18 n) ; 
Feb.-March, 1918 (28 n) ; Apr., 1919 (35 n). 
Exhib. at the Vie Moderne, June, 1879. 
Salon d'Automne, 1904, Renoir Room (35 n). 
Thannhauser Gal., Berlin, Jan.-Feb., 1913 
(41 pict.). Bernheim-Jeune Gal., Paris, March, 
1913 (42n), Pref. by O. Mirbeau. 
Retrosp. : Durand-Ruel Gal., Paris, Nov.-Dec., 
1920 (76 n) ; April, 1921 (31 watercolours, 
33 pastels, 78 drawings). Durand-Ruel Gal., 
New York, Feb., 1920 (41 n) ; Jan., 1924 
(23 n) ; March-April, 1939 (portraits). Salon 
d'Automne, 1920. 1921, Feb.-March, Nas- 
jionalgalleriet, Oslo (44 n). 1923, Feb., Druet 
Gal. Paris (85 n). 1927, Feb.-March, P. Ro- 
senberg Gal. 50 Renoir, choisis parmi les nus, 
les fleurs, les enfants. 1928, Oct.-Nov., A. 
Flechtheim Gal., Berlin (60 n). 1932, Nov., 
Braun Gal., Paris. 1933, Muse de 1'Orangerie, 
Paris, Exp. Renoir (149 n), cat. by Ch. Ster- 
ling, Pref. by P. Jamot. 1934, Jan.-Feb., 
P. Rosenberg Gal., Paris (53 n, from the last 
years). 1934, (Oct. 15-Nov. 10), Gal. des 
Beaux- Arts, Paris: L'&uvre gravt et sculptt de 
Renoir (Introd. by A. Vollard and R. Cogniat). 
1937, May-Sept., Metropolitan Museum, New 
York : Renoir, special Exh. of his paintings 
(139 pict. and 5 sculpt. American coll., introd. 
to the cat. by H. B. Wehle). 1938, June- July, 
Bernheim-Jeune Gal., Paris, Renoir portraitiste 
(47 n). 1941, Duveen Brothers Gal., New 
York : Renoir Centennial Exh. 1943, Feb.- 
March, Basel, Kunsthalle : 102 pict. and 
sanguines, drawings, watercol., bronze stat. 
1948, June, Lefevre Gal., London. 



ROUSSEL, KER XAVIER (1867-1944) 

1867 Born at Lorry-les-Metz, son of a doctor. 
Studies at the Lyc6e Condorcet, where he 
strikes up a lasting friendship with Vuillard, 
his schoolfellow, who leads him towards 
painting ; he marries Vuillard's sister, Mary, 
in 1893. 

1888 After studying at Diogene Maillard's studio, 
he enters the Acad&nie Jullian and becomes 
a member of the " Nabis " group, initiated, 
under S6rusier's guidance, into Gauguin's 
1 synthesism. * 

1891 Contributes, with his friends, to exhibitions 
at Le Bare de Boutteville's. Paints Still Lifes 
in dark colours and ' intimate' scenes, but 
also peasant studies and landscapes inspired 
by country life. 

1901 Shows for the first time at the Salon des 
Indlpendants. 



134 



1906 Pays a visit to Cezanne, accompanied by 
Maurice Denis, who brings him back to neo- 
traditionalism. From that date he delights 
in scenes from mythology, in oil, distemper, 
pastel, gouache ; and in big decorative compo- 
sitions. (Curtain of the Theatre des Champs- 
Elys6es, 1913.) 

1944 Dies at 1'Etang-la-Ville, where he had lived 
since 1905. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

T. Leclerc, Art et Decoration, 1921. F. Fosca, 
Am. de VArt, 1922. L. Cousturier, Paris, 1929. 
L. Werth, Paris, 1930. 

Exhibitions. 

Gal. Maratier, Paris; 1942, Jan. I5th-Feb. 5th, 
Gal. Carre, Paris (Mythological scenes); 1947, 
Gal. Charpentier, Paris (Retrospective. Notes 
by L. P. Fargue, F. Jourdain, C. Roger-Marx 
J. Salomon). 



S&RUSIER, PAUL (1863-1927) 



1863 Born at Paris. His father was manager of the 
Houbigant perfumery. He did very well at 
school (Ecole F6nelon and Lycee Fontanes). 
Bachelor of Letters and of Science. 

1888 Exhibits his Breton Weaver's Workroom at the 
Salon. Studcnt-in-charge at the Academic 
Jullian. After beginning with academic 
realism and sombre tones he now makes the 
acquaintance of Gauguin, at Pont-Aven and, 
on his advice, paints a ' Bois d* Amour, ' which 
he calls his ' talisman ' and proudly shows on 
his return to his fellow-students at Jullian's : 
Bonnard, Vuillard, Roussel, Denis and Ranson. 

1889 At his instance they form a group, the ' Nabis. ' 
Their meeting-place is a little restaurant in 
the Passage Brady ; their discussions turn 
chiefly on philosophy and religion. 

1889-90 Stays at Le Pouldu in Brittany with Gauguin, 
Filiger, Meyer dc Haan. 

1891 Gauguin leaves for Tahiti. SeYusier meets 
Verkade under whose influence he takes up 
theosophy. 

1892 At Pont-Aven with Verkade, Bollin, Rassetti 
(the ceramist) and Ranson ; then at Huelgoat. 

1893 Collaborates in the Theatre de 1'Oeuvrc now 
founded by Lugn6-Poe. Spends winter in 
Paris (studio, Rue de Hauteville) and the 
summer at Chateauneuf-du-Faou in Brittany. 

1895 Travels in Italy with Maurice Denis : Giotto, 
Siennese art, Fra Angelico. 

1897 After the collapse of a love-affair travels in 
Central Europe. Meets again Jean Verkade, 
now a monk at the Beuron Monastery. 

1899 Second stay at Beuron ; meets Pere Didier, 
founder of the School of Religious Art, based 
on the theory of the ' holy measures. ' 

1903 His mother dies. Another stay with Maurice 
Denis at Beuron. Buys a house at Chateau- 
neuf-du-Faou. 

1904 Travels in Italy with Maurice Denis : Rome, 
Monte Cassino ; interview with Pere Didier ; 
Naples and Pompeii. 

1907 Goes to Munich ; meets Verkade again. 



1906 With Denis teaches at the Academic Ranson 
(R. de la Fresnaye and Goerg amongst his 
pupils). Hieratic and mathematical painting. 

1912 Marries one of his pupils. Honeymoon at 
Florence. 

1914-27 Lives a retired life in Brittany; more and 
more interested in Celtic mediaeval tapestry. 
Decorates his house and Chateauneuf Church. 
Stays at Kermouster with Henry Joly ; at 
Perros-Guirec with Maurice Denis. 

1927 Dies of a stroke at Morlaix and is buried 
in Breton soil, his " true home, since he was 
spiritually born there. " 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

By Himself: A .B.C. dela Peinture, inspired by the 
aesthetics of Pere Didier, whose pamphlet 
Les Saintes Mesures he had translated in 1905. 
Paris, 1921 (republ. 1942). 

Monographs and Appraisals. 

M. Denis, L'Occident, Dec., 1908. J. Dupont, 
Art Sacrt, Jan., 1937. E. de Thubert, Art et 
Decoration, 1932. M. Denis, Sttrusier, sa vie, 
son auvre, Paris, 1943. 

Exhibitions. 

Galerie Druet, Paris : 1907, 1914, 1919 
Nov. 10-26 (Preface by M. & A. Leblond). 
Brussels, 1914. 1947 Retrospective, Musee 
Galliera, Paris (86 paintings). 



SEURAT, GEORGES (1859-1891) 

1859 Born Dec. 2, in Paris, Rue de Bondy. Son of a 
bailiff in La Villette. A small-bourgeois, 
bigoted family. Schooling until 16. An 
obedient, earnest, rather reserved lad. 

1875 At the Municipal School of Design near the 
church of St-Vincent-de-Paul, presided over by 
a sculptor, Justin Lequien, who had won a 
Prix de Rome. Became close friend of a fellow- 
student, Aman-Jean. 

1877 Haunts museums and libraries. Copies Hol- 
bein, Ingres, Poussin, Raphael. Much enthu- 
siasm for the writings of the Gon court brothers. 

1878 With Aman-Jean enters Ecole des Beaux- 
Arts, where their master is Henri Lehmann, 
who imparts to them the principles, now rather 
insipid, of Ingres. Studies Chevreul's treatise 
oti the Harmony and Contrast of Colours and 
Charles Blanc's Grammar of Painting and 
Drawing. 

1879 Nov. Leaves the studio he has been sharing 
with Aman-Jean in Rue de 1'Arbalete and 
does his term of military service at Brest in a 
line regiment. First contact with the sea. 
Does many sketches. 

1880 Nov. Returns to Paris. Lives at No. 19, Rue 
de Chabrol. 

1881-87 Devotes himself to drawing in well-defined 
masses of blacks and whites, with contrasts and 
shadings ; also to studying Delacroix' colour 
technique. He practises the ' optical mixture ' 
and the use of complementary colours. Often 
visits the Chapelle des Saints-Anges (Saint 
Sulpice), decorated by Delacroix. In 1882 
paints his first pictures with small separate 
touches and also large sweeping strokes that 
give the effect of broken gleams. 



ftOU*ft*t 

SiRUSIBR 

8BURAT 



135 



1883 His Portrait of A man- Jean (Stephen C. Clark 
Coll., New York), a Cont6 crayon life-size 
drawing, is accepted at the Salon and praised 
by Roger Marx, as being " an excellent study 
in chiaroscuro. " Seurat now paints his first 
big picture based on the ' contrast of colours, ' 
Une Baignade d Asniires (Tate Gallery, 
London) ; he uses the technique of the division 
of tones, but in a free manner, resembling that 
of Impressionism. For this picture he made a 
number of sketches from nature, jotted down 
on the little panels of his painter's box, which he 
called " croquetons " (Plate, p. 53) this me- 
thod he adopted for all his later compositions. 

1884 Rejected at the official Salon, La Baignade was 
shown at the first Salon des I nde* pendants 
(May 15- July i), along with contributions by 
Redon, Angrand, Dubois-Pillet, Cross and 
Signac. These artists now got to know 
each other and decided to found a SodiU des 
Artistes Indtpendants and have another exhibi- 
tion in December. The group meetings took 
place every Monday at Signac's studio and in 
the evening at the Gate d'Orient or the Caffc 
Marengo. Seurat was especially friendly with 
Angrand and Signac. 

1885 Prompted by Signac who had much fondness 
for all things maritime, he goes in the summer 
to the little seaport of Grandcamp, near Le 
Havre, and makes his first seascapes. Through 
Signac, too, he comes to know Pissarro, who 
now joins the ranks of the ' Divisionists.' Paints 
his Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La 
Grande Jatte (Art Institute, Chicago) a sort 
of ' manifesto ' of the new technique, for which 
he made elaborate preparations in no less than 
38 painted studies and 23 drawings. Many 
months went to its making, his mornings being 
spent on the Island itself, while in the after- 
noons he worked in his studio. 

1886 Thanks to Pissarro's insistence, Seurat and 
Signac appear at the 8th and Last Impressionist 
Exhibition (May 15- June 15). Monet, Renoir, 
Sisley, hostile, stand out. Degas insists on the 
omission of the word ' impressionist ' on the 
poster. Seurat sends in 6 landscapes, 3 
drawings and his Grande Jatte, which rouses 
a storm of protests. With the exception of 
Vcrhaeren and F61ix Fencon (who publishes an 
excellent critical appraisal of the picture in 
La Vogue, reprinted in his famous Les Impres- 
sionnistes en 1886), most artists and connois- 
seurs are disgusted with this picture. Seurat 
becomes very friendly with Fe*n6on, who 
persuades him to come to the gatherings of 
the Symbolists in the office of the Revue 
Inddpendante. He becomes the official ex- 
ponent of ' Neo-Impressionism. ' The Grande 
Jatte is shown this same year at the exhibition 
organized by Durand-Ruel in New York and 
at the Second Salon des Inddpendants. Seurat 
spends the summer at Honfleur (seascapes) and 
exhibits at Nantes with Pissarro, 

1887 Feb. Goes to Brussels for the opening of the 
' XX ' exhibition, to which Octave Maus has 
invited him. Has sent 6 Honfleur landscapes 
and the Grande Jatte which is the subject of 
heated discussion, Verhaeren strongly com- 
mending it in La Vie Moderne. Fe'ne'on 
publishes another article in L'Art Moderne, 
explaining in detail Seurat's theories and 
technique ; Seurat, recognized leader of the 
group, jealously safeguards his prerogatives. 



1888 Fourth Salon des Indtpendants. 8 drawings 
and 2 new compositions, his masterpieces : 
Parade de Cirque (S.C.Clark Collection, 
New York) and Les Poseuscs (Barnes Foun- 
dation, Merion). Pointillist technique, con- 
trasts of tones and colours, attempt to bring 
even the frame into harmony with the layout. 
Spends summer at Port-en-Bessin, a small 
seaport near Bayeux (Plate, p. 55). Reads 
scientific works on optics : N. O. Rood, David 
Sutter, C. Henry. 

Leaves Paris in the spring and goes to Le 
Crotoy a seaside resort in Picardy, where he 
paints nine seascapes which lead Angrand to 
remark : " He is the first to render the emotion 
the sea inspires on calm days. " Seurat stays 
in Paris every winter, working at a large-scale 
composition and goes every summer to the 
seacoast to paint from nature and to " wash 
his eyes clean of the days spent in the studio. " 
Exhibits with the ' XX ' at Brussels and the 
Inde*pendants in Paris, drawings and paintings 
made at Port-en-Bessin and Le Crotoy. 
Pissarro breaks with Pointillism. 

1890 Stays at Gravelines, exhibits at the Ind6- 
pendants, Le Chahut (Rijksmuseum Kroller- 
Mullcr, Otterlo), based on the contrast of 
lines (it was bought by Gustave Kahn), and 
Jeune Femme se poudrant (Courtauld Coll., 
National Gallery, London), in consequence of 
which such terms as ' static ' and ' lifeless ' 
come to be applied more and more to his 
work. Seurat made a complete mystery of 
his private life and it was only after his death 
that his friends discovered that the Jeune 
Femme of the picture was his mistress, Made- 
leine Knobloch. He had begun by painting 
his own face reflected in a mirror hanging on 
the wail the only self-portrait he ever made 
but, in consequence of a remark about this 
from one of his friends, who was quite una- 
ware of the liaison, he replaced it with a 
flower-pot. His studio this year is at No. 39, 
Passage de l f Elyse*e-des-Beaux-Arts. 

1891 Feb. Present at the famous ' Symbolist 
Banquet ' presided over by Mallarme, and 
attended by Gide, France, Renard, Barres, 
Gauguip, Mirbeau, Redon, de Rgnier. 
March. Helps with the installation of the 
Exposition des I nde* pendants, whose opening 
day is March 10. At it he shows 4 views of 
the Chenal de Gravelines and his last, un- 
finished work, Le Cirque (Louvre). A sore 
throat followed by an access of fever obliges 
him to take to his bed. He died in his mother's 
house, on the Boulevard de Magenta, on 
March 29. On April I, Pissarro wrote to his 
son : " I went to Seurat's funeral yesterday. 
I saw Signac there ; he was terribly cut up 
by the loss of his friend. I think you're right, 
Pointillism has had its day ; but I suspect that 
it will have effects of much importance on the 
future of art. Seurat obviously has made a 
definite contribution. " 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 
Writings and Correspondence. 

Hitherto unpublished notes on Delacroix, by 
Seurat, Bull, de la Vie Artistique, April, 1922. 
Extracts from Seurat's letters have been 
published by R. Rey : La Renaissance du 
Sentiment Classique, Paris, 1931 (letter to 



136 



Beaubourg, dated Aug. 20, 1890, gives a full 
expose* of his theories) . O. Maus : Trente A nntes 
de Lutte pour I' A rt t Brussels, 1926. J. Rewald, 
Seurat, New York, 1943, 1946 : Paris, 1947. 



Catalogue. 



Until his death in 1944, F. F6ne"on was working 
on a catalogue of Seurat 's works, a studio- 
inventory of which he had made with Luce 
and Signac. " The list included some 170 
small paint-box panels, 420 drawings, 6 sketch- 
books and some sixty canvases (figures, sea- 
scapes, landscapes), five of which were several 
square yards in size and might be reckoned 
as masterpieces. " (Entretiens Politiques et 
LiMraires, Vol. II, No. 13. Quoted by 
J, Rewald, Seurat, 1947, p. 158). 

Monographs. 

J. Christophc, Paris, 1890 ; A. Salmon, 
Brussels, 1921 ; L. Cousturier, Paris, 1921 ; 
A. Lhotc, Rome, 1922 and Paris, 1947 ; 
W. Pach, New York, 1923 ; Coquiot, Paris, 
1924 ; G. Kahn, Paris, 1926 (2 Vols. with 
reproductions) ; W. George, Paris, 1928 ; 
C. Roger-Marx, Paris, 1931; D.C. Rich, Chicago, 
*935 (" *- a Grande Jatte ") ; Rewald, New 
York, 1943 and Paris, 1947 (Indispensable ; 
based on Feneon's records) ; J. de Laprade, 
Monaco, 1945 ; D. Cooper, London, 1946 (" La 
Baignade ") ; H. Bertram, Copenhagen, 1946 ; 
G. Scligman, New York, 1947 (Illustrations). 

Articles in Magazines. 

F. Feneon, L'Art Moderne, Sept. 19, 1886 and 
15 March 1888 ; E. Verhaeren, La Vie Mo- 
derne, Feb. 26, 1887 ; P. Signac, Le Cri du 
du Peuple, Feb. 9, March 24, 1888 ; E. Ver- 
haeren, Sociiti Nouvelle, Apr., 1891 ; G. Kahn, 
L'Art Moderne, Apr. 5, 1891 ; J. Christophe, 
La Plume, Sept. i, 1891 ; T. Natanson, 
Revue Blanche, 1900 ; Bissierc, Esprit Nouveau, 
Oct. 15, 1920 ; A. Ozenfant, Cahiers d'Arl, 
Sept., 1928 ; J. Helion, Burlington Magazine, 
1936 ; P. Mabille, Minotaure, 1938 ; G. Dut- 
huit, Labyrinthc, Dec., 1948 ; L. Venturi, 
Gazette des Beaux- Arts, Sept., 1947 ; Rene 
Huyghe, Bull, dcs M. de France, Aug. 1947. 

Exhibitions. 

Retrospective at Salon des Inde*pendants in 
1892 and 1905 (44 pictures) ; La Revue 
Blanche, 1900 (organized by Feneon) ; Gal. 
Bcrnheim-Jeune, Paris, 1908-09 and 1920 ; 
J. Brummcr Gal., New York, 1924 ; Renais- 
sance Society of the University of Chicago, 
Feb., 1935 (24 pictures and drawings) ; Gal. 
P. Rosenberg, Paris (129), 1936, Feb. 3-29. 



SIGNAC, PAUL (1863-1935) 



1863 Born in Paris, Nov. n. His father kept a 
saddlery shop in the Rue Vivienne. The 
family lived in Montmartre (Ave Frochot). 

1880 His parents wish him to become an architect, 
but a visit to the Monet Exhibition in the 
premises of La Vie Moderne "settles his 
career. " He writes to Monet, who gives him 
advice, and Guillaumin, who has seen him 
painting on the Seine bank, also encourages 
him to persevere. 



1883 Attends Bin's ' Academic Libre. ' Great 
admiration for Huysmans and Jules Vall&s. 

1884 Shows his Pont d'Austertitz at the first Salon 
des Independants. Meets Cross and Seurat 
with whom he strikes up a friendship a 
decisive factor in his career. Gives up the 
impressionist palette and decides to paint 
solely with the colours of the spectrum, 
employing Seurat's scientific ' Pointillism. ' 
Has an exuberant, forthright temperament, 
revels in controversy and bold innovations. 
Every Monday his friends forgather in his 
studio and hold debate far into the night. 
He becomes the theoretician of the group. 
Lives near Seurat in Montmartre. 

1885 Shares studio in Rue de Steinkerque with 
Henri Riviere. Sub-editor of periodical Le 
Chat Noir. 

1886 First experience of the South, at Collioure. 

1888 Invited to show in Salon of the ' XX ' Group at 
Brussels. Became a member of it in 1891. 

1889 Visits Van Gogh at Aries. Friendly with 
C. Henry, the physicist. 

1892 As much a sailor as a painter ; always cruising 
off the coast, from Brittany to the Mediter- 
ranean. Sailed in no less than 32 yachts at 
one time or another. In summer 1892, sailing 
South, discovers Saint-Tropez, and instals a 
small house there, La Hune, to which he 
returns yearly. His technique changes, he 
gives up the ' point ' for a square mosaic- 
like spot and aims at violent colour harmonies. 
His watercolours (of which he paints many 
after 1900) remain wonderfully simple and 
spontaneous. 

1899 Publication of his technical treatise D'Eugine 
Delacroix au Ndo-Impressionnisme. Travels 
abroad : Holland 1896, 1898, 1906 ; Italy 1904, 
1905, 1907, 1908 ; Constantinople, 1907. 

1935 Dies in Paris. Had been President of the 
Salon des Independants since 1898. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 
Writings 

Series of articles in Le Cri du Peuple, March, 
1888 ; Art et Critique, Feb. 1890 ; Study of 
Jongkind, Paris, 1927 ; D'Eugtne Delacroix au 
Neo-impressionnisme, Paris, 1899 ; Preface to 
the Exhibition ' Seurat et ses Amis, ' Paris, 
1933-34 * ' Les Besoms individuels et la 
Pcinture, ' Encychptdie Franfaise, Vol. XVI, 
Ch. 2, Paris, 1935 ; Fragments du Journal de 
Signac, Arts de France, Jan. 1947 ; Extracts 
from unpublished Letters, published by 
J. Rewald, Seurat, Paris, 1948. 

Monographs and Appraisals. 

F. Feneon, Paris, 1890 ; L. Cousturier, Paris, 
1922 ; G. Besson, Paris, 1934 ; C. Roger-Marx, 
Paris, 1924 ; J. Guenne, L'Art Vivant, March, 
1925 ; J. de Laprade, L'Art Vivant, 1935 ; 
L. Deshairs, Art et Decoration, 1923 ; G. Besson, 
Arts de France, Jan., 1946. 



SISLEY, ALFRED (1839-1899) 

1839 Born in Paris, October 30, of English parentage. 
His father was a business man trading with 
South America. 



SIGNAC 
SISLBY 



137 



StStEY 

TOULOUSE- 
LAUTREC 



1857 Sent to London to learn English and to 
qualify for a commercial career. 

1862 On his return to Paris works at Gleyre's studio, 
where he meets Monet, Renoir, Bazille. 

1863 Signs a petition against a change being made 
in the statutes of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts 
lowering the age-limit for competing for the 
Prix de Rome from 30 to 25. 

1865 Paints in Renoir's company in Fontainebleau 
forest, at Marlotte. 

1866 Exhibits two landscapes at the Salon. L'AMc 
de Chdtaigniers a la CeUe-Saint-Cloud shows 
Courbet's and Daubigny's influences. In his 
group, At the Inn of Mire Anthony (Stockholm 
Museum), Renoir places Sisley in the 
foreground, reading L'Evtnement* 

1867 In July at Honfleur, where Bazille makes his 
portrait. Accepted at the Salon as " Corot's 
pupil. " 

1869 Often visits the CM Guerbois. View of 
Montmartre (Grenoble Museum. Plate, p. 17). 

1871 During the war and the Commune, in London, l 
where he is in contact with Durand-RueL 
His family is ruined. None the less he decides 
to devote himself wholly to painting 
hitherto he has painted only as an amateur 
and is prepared to face suffering, both mental 
and material, for his art's sake. 

1872-80 His best work is done in this period. He paints 
in the neighbourhood of Paris, at Marly, 
Louveciennes, Bougival, Sevres, Saint-Cloud, 
Meudon, following in the wake of Monet whom 
he often visits at Argenteuil ; but he never 
wavers in his allegiance to the Corot tradition. 
Devoting himself exclusively to landscape, he 
is the painter par excellence of the Ile-de-France. 
The most modest, least self-assured of the 
Impressionists, he is, in his happy moments, 
the purest and the most poetic. He is especially 
sucessful with snowscapes. He took part in 
the first three group exhibitions and in the 
auction sale of 1875 (price fetched by his 
canvases, from 50 to 70 francs each). Married, 
father of two children and wretchedly poor, 
seeks aid of Duret in 1878. Had only brief 
contracts with dealers Durand-Ruel and Petit. 

1881 Stays in the Isle of Wight. 

1882 Vcneux-Nadon. Settles at Moret in September 

1883 One-man show at Durand-Ruel's (June). 
Settles in the autumn at Les Sablons, near 
Moret, as usual on the outskirts of Fontaine- 
bleau forest, which he rarely leaves, and only 
for short trips (Normandy in 1894 and Wales 
in 1897). Endures poverty and loneliness, 
without the consolation of the renown which 
at last is coming to his friends. In his last 
canvases, all inspired by the town of Moret 
and the banks of the Loing, his painting 
becomes systematized, strained, lacking the 
spontaneous charm of his early work. 

1899 Dies Jan. 29 of cancer of the throat, without 
having succeeded in obtaining the French 
nationality for which he had applied four 
years earlier. Funeral attended by Monet, 
Renoir, Cazin, Ta vernier. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Correspondence. 

Sisley's ideals are expounded in a letter he 
wrote to Tavernier, published in L'Art 



Fran$ais, May, 1893, L^tM^W to Durand- 
Ruel and to 0. Maus (3) i^PFVenturi, Les 
Archives de /7m^sstoi**tiiip Paris, 1939. 
Hitherto unpublished letters In ,Form, Nov., 

1931. Letters to Duret in La Revue Blanche, 
March 15, 1899. 

Catalogues. 

No catalogue of the paintings extant. His few 
etchings have been listed by L. Delteil, 
Vol. XVII, Paris, 1923. 

Monographs and Appraisals 

No comprehensive monograph has so far been 
published (Ole Vinding has one in preparation). 
H. Heilmaier, Die Kunst fur Atte, 1930-31. 

F. Watson, Sisley's Struggle for Recognition, 
The Arts, Feb.-March, 1921. G. Geffroy, 
Paris, 1923. E. D. de Montcorin, Moret a 
travers VHistoire. Account of Sisley, Moret, 

1932. L. Venturi, Parnassus, Oct., 1939. 
C. Sisley, The Ancestry of Sisley, Burlington 
Mag., Sept., 1949, pp. 348-352. G. Jedlicka, 
Berne, 1949. 

Exhibitions. 

Gal. Durand-Ruel, Paris, June, 1883 ; Gal. 
Boussoud & Valadon, Paris, 1893 ; Gal. 

G. Petit, Paris, Feb. 1897 (with notes by 
Roger-Mil&s) ; Gal. Bernheim, Paris (14 pict.) 
Feb., 1899 ; Gal. Bernheim- Jeune, Paris, 1907, 
Dec. 2-4, ' L 'Atelier de Sisley ' (note by 
A. Tavernier) ; Gal. Durand-Ruel, Paris, 
Jan. 23-18 Feb., 1922 ; Gal. Braun, Paris, 
Jan. 3i-Feb. 18, 1933 ; Gal. Durand-Ruel, 
Paris, Jan. 23-Feb. 13, 1937 ; Gal. Durand- 
Ruel, New York (Centenary Exhibition), 1939. 



TOULOUSE-LAUTREC, HENRI DE 

(1864-1901) 

1864 Born November 24, at Albi. Son of Alphonse 
de Toulouse-Lautrec Monfa and Adfcle Tapi6 
de Celeyran . A direct descendant of the famous 
Counts of Toulouse, ennobled under Charle- 
magne. Precocious talent for drawing. 

1872 Comes to Paris with his family. Brilliant 
studies at Lyc6e Fontanes (Lyc6e Condorcet of 
to-day), completed by private tuition under 
the guidance of his mother, a highly cultured 
person, who played a great part in his life. 
A delicate lad. Treatment at Am61ie-les- 
Bains. A schoolfellow at the Lyc6e, Maurice 
Joyant, is his bosom friend ; later, his bio- 
grapher. 

1878-79 In two successive accidents, at Albi in 1878, 
and some months later during a ' cure ' at 
Bareges, he breaks both thighs. This infirmity 
prevents his leading the normal life of a 
country gentleman, and throws him back on 
painting. Seeing in art a possible compen- 
sation for his physical deformity, his parents 
encourage him. 

1880-81 His first teachers are Ren6 Princeteau, a 
painter of military and sporting scenes, then 
Lewis Brown and Bastien-Lepage. His first 
pictures, ArtiUeur sellant un Cheval (Albi 
Museum), Le MailrCoach d Nice (Petit- 
Palais, Paris) show his brilliant craftsmanship, 
his extraordinary virtuosity in drawing, and 
his taste for " modern " subjects. 



138 



1881-83 Despite his success, Lautrec decides to re- 
commence his art education from the begin- 
ning and after passing his baccalaur6at at 
Toulouse in 1881, he enters, in 1882, Bonnat's 
studio (Bonnat finds his drawing " atro- 
cious " 1) ; then, Cormon's studio. 

1884-85 Is influenced by Willette, Forain ; makes a 
parody of the Bois-Sacri (Puvis-de-Chavannes), 
discovers and admires the art of Manet, of 
Berthe Morisot and above all that of Degas, 
who liberates him from his academic preposses- 
sions and leads him towards naturalistic themes. 

1886-88 During one of his rare attendances at 
Cormon's studio he meets Van Gogh who has 
just come to Paris. He rents a studio at the 
corner of Rue Tourlaque and Rue Caulain- 
court, where he remains till 1897. Lives in the 
heart of Montmartre, whose nightly activities 
supply him with subjects till 1893. Frequents 
Le Mirliton, Bruant's famous " Cabaret artis- 
tique, " and Le Moulin de la Colette, where he 
becomes friendly with the floor dancers, 
Grille d'Egout, La Goulue, Jane Avril. 

1889 His first exhibition at the Ind6pendants. 

1891 Draws his first poster for the Moulin-Rouge, 
and at once proves himself a master of this 
form of art. The elliptical technique of the 
poster, with its clean-cut, flat planes, reacts 
on his painting. 

1893 On Joyant's initiative, exhibits with Charles 
Maurin at the Goupil Gallery. Invites Degas, 
who looks at the pictures in silence and, on 
leaving him, says : " Well, Lautrec, I can see 
you're one of our trade ! " 

1894 Arsene Alexandre launches Le Rire and 
invites the collaboration of Lautrec, who is 
already drawing for UEcho de Paris, L'Es- 
carmouche, and Le Figaro Illustrt. Visits 
Brussels. The Boulevards and Champs- 
Elyse*es become his new sector of observation. 

1895 Decorates the La GouluVs Booth (Louvre). 
Makes a mp to London where he meets 
Oscar WiPie, Beardsley, Arthur Symons, 
Conder. Discovers Whistler ; detests the 
Pre-Raphaelites ; admires, in the National 
Primitives : Giotto, Uccello, Picro della Fran- 
cesca. 

1897 Moves from Rue Tourlaque to a new studio 
in Avenue Frochot. Gives up poster painting 
and concentrates on colour lithography, which 
both calls for subtler treatment and gives him 
more scope. Frequent stays at Villeneuve-sur 
Yonne, with his friends the Natansons, 
founders of La Revue Blanche. Other sub- 
jects now appear in his works : brothels, the 
circus and sporting events, nudes, medical 
scenes, pictures of animals, interiors, numerous 
portraits. 

1898 Goes to London during his exhibition at the 
Goupil gallery. His health is seriously 
impaired by his insatiable appetite for night- 
life and heavy drinking. 

1899 Confined from February to May in the Saint- 
James clinic at Neuilly where attempts are 
made to break him of his disastrous habits. 
It is here that he paints his admirable series, 
Le Cirque. Released as a result of a press 
campaign launched by his friends, he breaks 
his stays in Paris with trips to Arcachon, 
Bordeaux, le Havre and Malrome. + 



1901 Starts drinking again and his health deterio- 
rates rapidly. A paralytic stroke immobilizes 
him at Taussat, where he is under treatment. 
Foreseeing the end, he asks to be taken to 
his mother, and he dies at the CMteau de 
Malrome* on Sept. 9th, aged 37, like Van 
Gogh, after a very different but no less 
feverishly agitated life. His mother collected 
all the works in his studio and presented them 
to the town of Albi ; they are housed in the 
Toulouse-Lautrec Museum, which was in- 
augurated on July 30, 1922, in the episcopal 
palace of La Berbie. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

The basic work (biography and catalogue) is 
that of Maurice Joyant : H. de Toulouse- 
Lautrec, 2 voLs,. Paris, 1921. See also : L. Del- 
teil, Le Peintre- Graveurs Illustrt (Vols. X and 
XI), Paris, 1920 ; and E. Julien : Catalogue of 
Albi Museum, Albi, 1939. 
The chief monographs are : H. Esswein : 
Moderne Illustrator en, H. de Toulouse-Lautrec, 
Munich, 1904 ; G. Coquiot, Paris, 1913 ; 
T. Duret, Paris, 1920 ; P. de Lapparent, Paris, 
1927 ; F. Fosca, Paris, 1928 ; G. Jedlicka, 
Berlin, 1929 ; P. MacOrlan, Toulouse-Lautrec 
peintre de la Lumiire Froide, Paris, 1934 ; 
Schaub-Koch : Psychanalyse d'un Peintre 
Moderne, Paris, 1935 ; G. de la Tourette, Paris, 
1939 ; E. Julien, Les Dessinsde Lautrec, Monaco, 
1942 ; W. Rotzler, Affiches de Lautrec, Paris, 
1946 ; H. Delaroche-Vernet Henraux, Paris, 
1948 : G. Schmidt, Basle, 1948. Among articles 
from reviews : Th. Natanson, La Revue Blanche, 
Feb. i6th, 1893 and Labyrinthe, June i, 1946; 
A. Salmon, I Art Vivant, Sept.. I5th, 1931 ; 
r Amour de VArt, Special N, April, 1931 ; 
H. Focillon, G. B. A., June, 1931 ; A. D'Eugny, 
V Amour deV Art, 1946, p. 188-195 ; L. Venturi, 
Les Arts Plastiques, Brussels, 1947, pp. 3-14. 

Illustrated Books: G. Geffrey, Album d'Yvette Guilbert, 
Paris, I'Estampe originate, 1894 (16 lith.) ; 
G. Clemenceau, Au pied du Sinai, Paris, 
Floury, 1898 (10 lith., 6 culs-de-lampe) ; 
J. Renard, Histoires Naturelles, Paris, Floury, 
1899 (22 lith.) ; E. de Goncourt, La Fille 
Elisa, Paris, Librairie de France, 1931 (16 
watercolours and facsimile drawings). 

Exhibitions : In his studio, Avenue Frochot, in 
1898 and 1900 ; at Boussod and Valadon's, 
Paris, 1893 ; Goupil Gallery, London, 1898 ; 
Retrospective in 1902 at the Indpendants 
(60 Items) and at La Libre Esthttique, Brussels 
(45 Items) ; at the Salon d'Automne, 1904 
(24 Items) ; 1902 (May 14-31) at the Durand- 
Rucl Gal., Paris (200 Items, Pref. by A. 
Alexandre) ; 1904, Dec., 1905, Jan., Mus6e 
National du Luxembourg, Paris, Lithographs 
(68 Items) ; 1908 (Oct. 12-24), Bernheim-Jeune 
Gal,, Paris (23 Items) ; 1909, Nov., Petit Gal., 
Paris (36 Items) ; 1910, Muse*e des Arts 
D6coratifs, Paris (97 Items) ; 1914 (Jan.-Feb.), 
P. Rosenberg Gal, Paris (46 Items) ; 1914 
June 1 5th- July nth), Manzi et Joyant Gal. 
(201 Items. Pref. by A. Alexandre) ; 1924 (Nov. 
lo-Dec. 10), Matthiesen Gal., Berlin (46 Items) ; 
1925, Wildenstein Gal,, Paris (14 pictures) ; 
1930 (Dec. 23- Jan. 18, 1931), Art. Institute, 
Chicago (Cat. D. C. Rich) ; 1931 (Apr.g- 
May 17). Musfo de 1'Orangerie, Paris (Pref. 
Tristan Bernard, 427 Items) ; 1937 (Nov. 15- 
Dec. n), Knoedler Gal., New York ; 1938 



TOULOUSE- 

LAUTREC 



139 



TOtTLOUSK- 
LAUTREC 

VALLOTTOM 
VAN GOGH 



(March) Knoedlcr Gal., Paris ; 1946 (Oct. 23- 
Nov. 23), Wildenstein Gal., New York (127 
Items) ; 1947 (July-Aug.), Municipal Museum, 
Amsterdam ; (Nov.), Palais des Beaux- Arts, 
Brussels (Pref. G. Dortu, 247 Items). 



VALLOTTON, FLIX (1865-1925) 

1865 Born, Dec. 28th in Lausanne (Switzerland), 
of a French Protestant family of the Jura, 
who came to live in Vallorbe when the Edict 
of Nantes was revoked. In Lausanne attends 
evening drawing-classes, and is passionately 
fond of reading and music. 

1882 Paris. He is 17. After a brief stay at the 
Academic Jullian, passes rapidly through the 
Ecole des Beaux- Arts (Jules Lefebvre's studio). 
Frequent visits to the Louvre, admires 
Courbet. 

1885 Exhibits in the Salon. Portrait deM. Vrsenbach. 
In the 1886 Salon, Portrait de Mme X. Copies 
Diirer, Vinci, A. de Messine. * 

1887 At the Salon, M. Jasinsky (Helsingfors 
Museum), a portrait of a Polish engraver, 
shocks public opinion. Some say : " Deliberate 
revolt against the School " ; others hail it 
as a masterpiece. Works with a picture- 
restorer. Also in 1887, Portrait de mes Parents 
(Lausanne Museum). 

1889 Travels to Vienna, Venice. Makes friends 
with Charles Cottet, and Charles Maurin, 
inventor of a new lithographic process, " le 
crachis " ; also numbers Toulouse-Lautrec 
amongst his friends. The milliner, Hlenc 
Chatenay. 

1890-1900 Specializes in black-and-white, for material 
reasons. Woodcuts. 

1890-95 Art critic to the Gazette de Lausanne. 

1891 Stops showing at the Salon after contribut- 
ing for 7 years. Exhibits for the first time at 
the Salon des Ind6pendants. From 1891 to 
1894, and from 1901 to 1909, collaborates in 
La Revue Blanche. Artists' and writers' 
portraits (T. Natanson, Mirbeau). 

1893 Exhibits his " Masks " at the Ind^pendants. 
In Oct, exhibits at Le Bare de Boutteville's 
with Roussel, Vuillard, Bonnard, Denis, 
Ranson, Ibels and S6rusier. 

1894 Second group exhibition in the Paris office of 
La Dtpeche de Toulouse. 

1899 With Thad6e Natanson at Cannes. In Paris, 
lives in the Rue de Milan. 

1900 June 3rd. Vallotton acquires French nationa- 
lity. Exhibits at Zurich. 

1902 A number of L'Assiette au Beurre (" Crimes 
et Ch&timents ") meets with great success. 

1903 Exhibits at Salon d'Automne ; lives in Paris, 
Rue des Belles-Feuilles. 

1904 Hbrard, the founder, casts four of Vallotton's 
statues : Femme qui marche, Femme a l'am~ 
phore, Femme a la chemise, Materniii. Aban- 
dons small-scale works for big compositions. 

1906-10 Period of Nudes : L'Entevement d'Europe, 
La Baigneuse au Rocher. 

1908 Breaks his sojourns at Honfleur with annual 
visits to Lausanne and to his friends and 
admirers, the Hahnlosers, at Winterthur. 



1913 Travels in Russia, Italy, Germany. 
1921-22 Stays at Cagnes. Landscapes. 

1925 Dies in Paris, on Dec. 28th (by an odd coinci- 
dence, he was born on the Dec. 28th). His 
last work, a picture of the Bois de Boulogne 
under snow. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 
Writings. 

Vallotton contributed to the Gazette de Lausanne, 
and wrote several books, amongst which his 
Journal, a play : L'homme fort, Paris, 1907, 
and an autobiographical novel : La Vie 
Meurtrilre, Lausanne, 1930 (Preface by 
A. Th6rive). 

Catalogue. 

Vallotton himself compiled his Livre de Raison, 
a descriptive list of 1379 pictures. 

Monographs and Appraisals. 

J, Meier-Graefe, Paris, Berlin, 1898. A. Thrive 
V Amour del' Art, 1921. Ch.Fegdal, Paris, 1931. 
L. Godcfroy, L'Oeuvre gravd de F. Vallotton, 
Paris, 1936 (basic work). 

Illustrated Books. 

Jules Renard, La Maitresse, Paris, 1896 
(26 drawings). R. de Gourmont, Le Livre 
des Masques, Mercuro de France, Paris, 1896 
(30 drawings). R. de Gourmont, Le DeuKieme 
Livre des Masques, Mercure de France, Paris, 
1898. 

Exhibitions. 

Gal. Druet, Paris, Jan. 10-29, 1910 (Preface 
by O. Mirbeau) ; 1912 Jan. 22-Feb. 3 ; 1914 
May 4-16 ; 1929 Apr. 22-May 3 ; 1927 Oct., 
Nov., Kunsthalle, Bern ; 1938, Aug. Sept., 
Kunstmuseum, Lucerne ; Nov., Dec., Kunst- 
haus, Zurich. 



VAN GOGH, VINCENT (1853-1890) 

1853 March 30, Birth of Vincent Willem Van Gogh 
at the parsonage of Groot-Zundert, a small 
village in Dutch Brabant, south of Breda, 
near the Belgian frontier. Eldest son of 
Pastor Theodorus, who came of an ancient, 
much respected Calvinist family, amongst 
whom we find clergymen, sailors, business 
men and patrons of art. Three of Vincent's 
uncles were art-dealers. His mother, Anna 
Cornelia Barbentus, was daughter of a Court 
bookbinder at The Hague. 

1857 May i. Birth of Theo, Vincent's favourite 
brother, who is to be his moral and material 
stand-by to the end of his days. 

1865-69 Studies at a Provily boarding-school, then at 
the neighbouring town of Zevenbergen. 

1869 July 30. Employed at the Goupil art-gallery 
at The Hague, then in Brussels. Reads much 
and visits museums. 

1872 Begins exchanging letters with Theo. 

1873 June 18. Transferred to the London branch 
while Theo enters the Brussels office. 

1874 June. Wants to marry the daughter of his 
landlady, Ursula Loyer, with whom he is 
wildly in love, but she rejects him. Bitter 
disappointment. Oct., in Paris ; Dec., returns 
to London. 



140 



1875 May. Transferred to headquarters in Paris. 
Quarrels with the Goupil staff and with 
customers. His obsession with the Bible 
begins. 

1876 March. Loses his post in Paris. Returns to 
England, and is a schoolmaster at Ramsgate, 
then at Isle worth. Dec., comes home to 
Etten for Christmas, 

1877 Jan. 2i-Apr. 30. Clerk in a bookshop at 
Dordrecht. But Vincent is more and more 
obsessed by his religious vocation. May 9, 
goes to Amsterdam to study for admission to 
the theological college. 

1878 July 22, fails to pass the examination, and 
abandons his studies. Home again. In 
August begins a three-months course at an 
evangelical training-college in Brussels. On 
Nov. 15 sent on a mission as lay-preacher to 
the miners in the Borinage. Lives in a 
hawker's house in Les PAturages, a townlet 
near Mons. Shows immense zeal, nurses the 
sick, sleeps on bare boards. 

1879 Jan. Temporary pastor at Wasmes, in the 
heart of the black country. July, relieved of 
his duties. Complete destitution, equally 
complete despair. Tramps the roads aim- 
lessly in August. Stops at Courrteres, intend- 
ing to visit Jules Breton, but dares not knock 
at his door. 

1880 July. During those anxious months, the 
darkest of his life, he glimpses his artistic 
vocation. Writes to his brother Theo the long, 
emotional letter in which he announces 
his decision. Lives with M. Dccrucq in the 
Rue du Pavilion, Cuesmes, near Mons. 

Dutch period (1880-1885). 

1880 Borinage (Cuesmes). Drawings of miners, 
copies from Millet. 

1880-81 Brussels (Oct. 1880- Apr. 1881). Lodges at 
a small hotel, 72, Bd du Midi. Meets and 
makes friends with the painter Ridder van 
Rappard (1858-1892). with whom he corres- 
ponds for five years. Private lessons in ana- 
tomy and perspective. First monetary aid 
from Theo, who is now working for Goupil 
in Paris. 

1881 Etten (Apr.-Dec.). With his parents. Conflicts 
with his father about his artistic career. 
Another ill-fated love-affair, with his cousin 
" K. " 

1882-83 The Hague (Dec. i88i-Scpt. 1883). 

1882 Jan. Picks up in the street a drunken and 
pregnant prostitute, Christine (whom he 
calls Sien), who serves him as model and 
companion for twenty months. Asks advice 
of his cousin the painter Mauve, who, sensing 
his genius, helps him in his work, gives him 
lodging, but with whom he quarrels almost at 
at once. He suffers from feeling that others 
see in him a nonentity, a feckless, unpleasant 
crank ; yet, he protests " there is in me 
harmony, calm and music. " In his first 
paintings the tones are sombre, the impasto 
very thick. Feb., in hospital. Meets Breitner, 
the painter. Given his first and only order : 
for 12 pen-and-ink sketches, views of the 
town. Takes walks to Scheveningen, Woor- 
burg, Leidschendau. Watercolours, litho- 
graphs ; studies of peasants, fishermen, sea- 
scapes, landscapes. 



1883 Drenihe (Sept., Nov.). Stays at Hoogeveen, 
in a land of moors and peat-bogs. Studies of 
heath-land, thatched cottages, hamlets, pea* 
sants at work. 
1883-85 Nuenen pec. i883-Nov. 1885). 

1883 Dec. Returns to his parents' house at Nuenen, 
where his father has been appointed pastor. 
Sets up his studio in the vicarage barn. 
Works hard, reads Dickens, Carlyle, Beecher- 
Stowe. 

1884 Aug. Short idyll with a local girl, Margot, 
who tries to commit suicide. 

1885 March 27. Sudden death of his father. 
Still Lifes, peasants, weavers, studies of heads. 
The Potato Eaters (April-May 1885) ; TSte 
de Paysanne (June 1885, Plate, p. 62) " You 
won't find any silvery tones in my present 
work ; only browns bitumen, sepia, and 
the like. " 

Antwerp period (Nov. i8S5~Feb. 1888;. 

1885 Nov. 23. Starts for Antwerp. Studio at 
194, Rue des Images. ' Discovers ' Rubens 
and Japanese prints. Enters the Academy 
and works under Sieber and Verlat, whose 
conformist outlook gets on his nerves. 

1885 End of Feb. Suddenly decides to start for 
Paris. 



VAN GOGH 



Paris period (Feb. i&66-Feb. 

1886 March. Theo welcomes him enthusiastically 
and puts him up, first in the Rue Laval (now 
Rue Victor-Mass6), then at 54, Rue Lepic. 
Enters Cormon's studio where he meets 
Toulouse-Lautrec. Frequents the Louvre but 
is also influenced by the Impressionists. 
Often visits Pre Tanguy's shop and the 
Cabaret du Tambourin. Meets Pissarro, Degas, 
Seurat, Signac and Gauguin. Adopts the 
pointillist technique for a time. 

1887 April. Makes friends with Emile Bernard. 
June, works with Bernard at Asni6res. His 
palette gradually grows brighter and his 
style is completely changing. More than 
22 pictures date from this Paris period : 
self-portraits, Still Lifes, views of Montmartre, 
studies of the outskirts of Paris, interiors. 
InUrieur de Restaurant (Summer, 1887. Plate, 
p. 61). 

1888 Feb. 21, leaves suddenly for Aries, on Lautrec's 
advice. " It's in the South that the studio 
of the future must set up. " 

Aries period (Feb. i888-May 1889;. 

1888 Feb. Puts up at the Restaurant Carrel, in 
Rue Cavalerie. March. Plans a colony of 
artists. Long exchange of letters with Theo. 
Death of Mauve. April. Spring landscapes : 
Les Vergers en Fleurs. May. Settles in a 
small house, 2, Rue Lamartine, " a yellow 
house with a tiny white studio. " June. Stays 
a week at Saintes-Maries de la Mer. Enrap- 
tured by this first sight of the Mediterranean. 
Barques sur la Plage. At Fontvieille pays a 
visit to his friend the Belgian painter Boch. 
July. Drawings of La Crau, near Mont- 
majour. August. Becomes very friendly 
with the household of the local postman, 
Roulin ; makes portraits of him. The Sun- 
flowers. Sept. Nightscapes. Le Cafd d Aries 
le Soir. Oct. 20. Arrival of Gauguin, who 
has a great influence on him. Three months 
of life in common, during which the tension 
grows between these two men of fiercely 



141 



VAN GOGH opposed natures. Nov., with Gauguin visits 

Montpellier to see the works bequeathed to the 
Museum by Bruyas, Dec. 23. The crisis. 
Van Gogh attempts to kill Gauguin, then cuts 
off his own ear. Gauguin hurries back to 
Paris. Theo arrives. Two weeks' confine- 
ment in hospital. 

1889 Jan. 7. Vincent returns to his house. Portrait 
of the Man with the Cut Ear. Still life with 
Onions (Plate, p. 64). La Berceuse (Plate, p. 68). 
Feb. Hallucinations. Hostility of the neigh- 
bours. The police are called in, and he is again 
put into confinement, until the end of March. 
March. Signac visits him. April 17. Theo's 
marriage. 200 pictures are painted during 
this period, the most important and copious 
of his career. 

Saint-Rtmy period (May, i88g-May t 1890). 

1889 May 9. At his own request, Vincent is 
admitted to the asylum at Saint-Rmy, a 
small town near Aries. Dr. Rey takes care 
of him. Has two rooms at his disposal. 
Comparative freedom. Long intervals ofj 
lucidity between spells of madness. 

1890 Jan. Birth of Theo's son : Vincent Willem. 
First article dealing with his work : Albert 
Aurier's enthusiastic appreciation, in the 
Mercure de France. 

March. One of Vincent's pictures, La Vigne 
Rouge is sold for 400 francs at the exhibition 
of " Les XX " in Brussels ; it is the only 
picture sold during his lifetime. 
May 16. Comes to Paris, visits Theo. 
150 pictures painted during this period of 
feverishly intensive productivity : amongst 
them Les Cypris, Les Moissons, The Hospital 
Yard self-portraits, portraits of the asylum 
staff. On the edge of the Alpines. May, 1890 
(Plate, p. 65). About thirty copies from Millet, 
Delacroix, Daumicr, Rembrandt, Dore. 

Auvers-sur-Oise Period (May-July, 1890,). 

1890 May 21. Arrives at Auvcrs. Becomes the 
patient and friend of Dr Gachet, whose 
portrait (Plate, p. 67) he paints. Puts up 
with ' Pere ' Ravoux, Place de la Mairie. 
July i. Spends some days in Paris: at Theo's 
meets Lautrec, Albert Auricr. Returns to 
Auvers and paints " three huge canvases, 
three far-flung wheatfields, under lowering 
skies " ; also, on July 14 La Mairie d* Auvers. 
July 27. In the evening, when in the open 
country, shoots himself. 

July 29. Dies, aged 37, with faithful Theo 
at his side. His last words were : "There'll 
never be an end to human misery. " 

1891 Jan. 25. Theo dies. The brothers lie side by 
side in the little cemetery of Auvers. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

I. Correspondence. 

His correspondence remains our main source 
of information on Van Gogh's life and work, 
and his letters are amongst the most moving 
ever penned. Brieven aan zijn breeder (letters 
to Theo), Complete Dutch ed. with Pref. by 
J. Van Gogh, Bonger, 3 vols. Amsterdam, 1914, 
2nd. ed. 1923-24 ; English ed. London, 1927 
and 1929 ; Selected Letters, A. Hamilton Barr, 
New York, 1935 ; French ed., selected by 
G. Philippart, Paris, 1937 and 1947. Lettres 
de Vincent van Gogh d Emile Bernard t Paris, 



1911. Brief e an E. Bernard und Paul Gauguin. 
Basle, 1921. Brieven van Vincent Van Gogh 
aan A. G. A. Ridder Van Rappard, 1881-1885, 
Amsterdam, 1937. Letters to Emile Bernard, 
edited, translated, with a foreword by Douglas 
Lord, London, 1938. H. Thannhauser : Van 
Gogh and John Russell, An Unpublished 
Correspondence, Burlington Magazine, Sept. 
1938. See also Les Lettres de Theo d Vincent, 
Amsterdam, 1932. A collection of the entire 
correspondence, with some hitherto unpublish- 
ed letters, is being compiled for publication 
by P. Cailler, Geneva. 

2. Catalogues. 

J. B. de la Faille : UCEuvre de Van Gogh. 
Catalogue raisonne. 4 vols., Paris and Brus- 
sels, 1928. W. Vanbeselaere : De Holland- 
sche periode in het werk van V. Van Gogh, 
Antwerp, Amsterdam, 1937. A. M. Ham- 
machcr : Rijkmuseum Kroller-Muller, Cata- 
logue van 264 werken van Vincent Van Gogh, 
Otterlo, 1949. 

3. Monographs and Appraisals. 

G. A. Aurier, Les Isolds : Van Gogh t Mercure 
de France, Jan., 1890 ; E. Bernard ; V. Van 
Gogh, Amsterdam, 1915 ; J. Meier-Graefe, 
Vincent, Munich, 1921 (transl. J. Holroyd 
Rcece, London, 1936) ; L. Pierard, La Vie 
tragi(/ue de Vincent Van Gogh, Paris, 1924 ; 
R. Fry : Van Gogh, Transformations, London, 
1926) ; J. B. de la Faille, Les faux Van Gogh, 
Paris and Brussels, 1930. M. Florisoonc : 
V. Van Gogh, Paris, 1937 ; Special numbers of 
r Amour de I' Art and Renaissance, 1937 ; 
W. Uebcrwasser : Le jar din de Daubigny, 
Basle, 1936 ; W. Uhde : Van Gogh, Vienna, 
J 93^> i J- de Breucken, V. Van Gogh, un 
Portrait, Liege, 1938, Brussels, 1945 ; R. 
Huyghe : Van Gogh (Dessins), Paris, 1938 ; 
W. Nigg : V. Van Gogh, Bern, 1942 ; Swedish 
Van Gogh Studies Konsthistorick Tidskrift 
XV, Stockholm, 1946 ; W. Muenstenberg, 
V. Van Gogh, Drawings, Pastels, London and 
Paris, 1947 ; Van Gogh racontl par lui-meme 
et par ses amis, Geneva, 1947 ; G. Schmidt : 
V. Van Gogh, Borne, 1947 '* A. M. Hammacher, 
V. Van Gogh, Amsterdam, 1948 ; C. Norden- 
falf, V. Van Gogh, Amsterdam, 1948 ;Mark 
Trabault, V. Van Gogh in zijn Antwerpsche 
Periode, Amsterdam, 1948 ; G. Duthuit, V. 
Van Gogh, Lausanne, 1949. 
For a complete bibliogr. see : C. M. Brooks : 
V. van Gogh. A Bibliography comprising a 
catalogue of the Literature published from 1890 
through 1940, New York, 1942. 

Exhibitions. 

1891 : Retrosp. at the Salon des Ind^pendants 
and at the Exh. of the ' XX ' group in Brussels ; 
1905 (July- Aug.), Municipal' Museum, Am- 
sterdam ; 1924 Kunsthalle, Basel (March, 
April) ; Kunsthaus, Zurich (July-Aug.) ; 1925, 
Marcel Bernheim Gallery, Paris ; 1928 (Dec.), 
1929 (Feb.), National Gallery, Berlin ; 1930 
(Sept. 6-Nov. 2), Vincent Van Gogh and his 
Contemporaries, Municipal Museum, Amster- 
dam ; 1937 (June-Oct.), Paris (Cat. by M. 
Florisoone) ; Oct. 1946- Jan 1947, Brussels, 
Mons (171 Nos. Cat. by E. Langui) ; 1947 (Jan.- 
March), Paris (Pref. by R. Huyghe, 172 Nos.) ; 
1947 (March- April), Geneva, Rath Museum, 
177 Nos) ; 1947 (July, Aug.), Boymans 
Museum, Rotterdam, drawings and water- 



142 



colours (115 Nos) ; 1947 (Oct.-Nov.), Kunst- 
halle, Basel; 1948 (Oct. -Dec.), Municipal 
Museum, The Hague (Pref. by J. de Gruyter) ; 
1948 (Nov. 3-Dec. 12), Cleveland Museum of 
Art (50 Nos) ; Oct. 21, 1949, Metropolitan 
Museum of Art, New York. 



VUILLARD, EDOUARD (1868-1940) 

1868 Born Nov. nth at Cuiseaux (Sa6ne et Loire). 
Son of a former officer and tax-collector, who 
dies in 1883. His father is 27 years older than 
his mother, Marie Michaud, who survives him 
for forty-five years, dying after devoting her 
whole life to her son Edouard. Edouard is the 
youngest of the family, which includes Marie 
(the eldest child) and Alexandre who becomes 
a pupil at the Ecole Polytechnique. 

1877 The family settles in Paris. Edouard begins 
his studies at the Marist School (Ecolc Rocroy). 

1883 Death of the artist's father. Edouard con- 
tinues his studies at the Lycce Fontancs 
(now Lyce*e Condorcet). He makes friends 
with K. X. Roussel, his future brother-in-law. 
The family lives in the Rue Daunou, where 
Mme Vuillard, to supplement her income, 
opens a corset factory. It is said that this 
special atmosphere of workgirls handling 
multi-coloured clothes and silks under arti- 
ficial light, influenced the artist's sensibility. 

1886 His devotion for Roussel makes him give up 
studying for the Ecole de St. Cyr, and turns 
his thoughts towards painting. Both friends 
work in various studios; first at Maillard's 
where they meet Cottet. Through Lugne-Poe, 
a former pupil of the Lyce and future director 
of the Theatre de I'CEuvre, they make the 
acquaintance of Maurice Denis. 

1888 Academic Jullian. Our young painters meet 
Bonnard, who, with Vuillard and Roussel, 
are working under Bougereau and Robert 
Flcury. 

1889 Serusier, student-in-charge at Jullian 's, and 
Denis prevail upon Ranson, Piot, Ibels, then 
Bonnard and finally Vuillard to form an 
association to be called the " Nabis. " At the 
Ecole des Beaux-Arts Vuillard works in 
Ger6me's studio, but leaves it before long. 
Paints La Femme endormie (1890). Opposed 
to academic art and also to Impressionism. 
Simplified forms, small patches of colour, 
broken tones. Painting on cardboard ; in- 
fluenced by Japanese art. 

1891 First exhibition in the offices of La Revue 
Blanche, which the Natanson brothers have 
just launched. Vuillard, Bonnard, Denis and 
Lugn-Poe, stage-manager of the Th6tre 
Libre, share a studio at 28, Rue Pigalle. 

1892 Exhibition at Le Bare de Boutteville's. 
Vuillard meets Verlaine and Mallarme'. Roger 
Marx the critic and Jos. Hessel the dealer are 
their first admirers and patrons. 

1893 K. X. Roussel marries Marie Vuillard. Foun- 
dation of the Theatre de L'CEuvre by Lugne*- 
Poe. According to him, it is Vuillard who is 
most interested in the theatre ; he is also the 
best general adviser, is good at finding titles 
and plays an active part in the rehearsal and 
staging of the first performed play : Ibsen's 
Rosmersholm. 



1894 First great decorative composition (in 9 
panels) : Jardin des Tuilcrics (Muse d'Art 
Moderne, Paris). 

1896-99 Decorative work for Dr Vaquez (Petit-Palais, 
Paris), for the novelist Claude Anet, for 
Princess Bibesco. Vuillard now lives in the 
Rue Truffaut. His art has reached its climax. 
Stays at the Natansons* in Villeneuve-sur- 
Yonne. 

1900 At Romanel, with Vallotton. Paints 
Vallotton's portrait. 

1900-10 Paysages de Paris. Simplification, bareness, 
gravity. Still paints on cardboard. 

1908 Moves to Rue dc Calais, facing Place Vinti- 
mille. Leaves this house only in 1927, when 
he finds a new home in Square Vintimille. 
Teaches for a while in Ranson 's Academy, 
with Roussel and Denis. 

1903-14 Summer holidays in Brittany and Normandy 
with the Hessels and their friends; at Vasouy, 
Anfreville, Criquebceuf, Loctudy, Le Pou- 
liguen. 

1913 Goes to London and, with Bonnard, to Holland. 

1914 Vuillard is mobilized for a time as a signaller 
in the Army Reserve. 

1917-24 Stays at Clos Cezanne, Vaucresson. 

1918 Vuillard's soth birthday falls on Armistice 
day, Nov. nth, and his friends celebrate both 
together. Returns to realism and tradition. 

1924-40 Stays at Chateau des Clays (Seine et Oise), 
1930 Travels in Spain with Prince Bibesco. 

1930-37 Many commissions, society portraits : La 
Parisienne, 1930, Mme L. Marchand, 1931, 
Mme de Noailles, 1932, Comtesse de Polignac, 
1932, Simone Berriau, 1934, Mme Henraux, 
1937, Elvire Popesco, 1937, Dr Viau, 1937. 

Decorates the Palais de Chaillot. Elected 
member of the Institute. 



VAN GOGH 



VUILLARD 



1938 
1939 

1940 Dies in La Baule on June 21. 



Decorates the Palace of the League of Nations, 
Geneva. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

T. Leclerc, Art el decoration, 1920. F. Fosca, 
I' Amour de I' Art, 1920. R. Coolus, Art vivant, 
1938. A. Lhote, N. R. F., March, 1941. 
B. Dorival, Revue des Beaux- Arts de France, 
1942. J. Salomon, Paris, 1945. C. Roger- 
Marx, Vuillard et son Temps, Paris, 1945. 
A. Chastel, Paris, 1946. Vuillard's unpubli- 
shed notebooks will be opened in 1980 only. 



Exhibitions. 



Bcrnheim-Jcune, Paris (exh. every year from 
1907 to 1913, except 1910) ; 1906, Dec., Gal. 
P. Rosemberg, Paris, Bonnard and Vuillard 
Exh.; 1932 (May 29- July 3rd), Kunsthaus, 
Zurich, Bonnard and Vuillard Exh. ; 1938 
(Jan., Feb.), Gal. Bernheim-Jeunc, Works 
from 1890-1910 ; 1938 (May-July), Retrosp. 
in Musde des Arts Dcoratifs, Paris (315 Nos.), 
organized with the artist's help ; 1946, Brussels, 
Palais des Beaux-Arts (67 Nos. Pref. by 
C. Roger-Marx) ; 1948, Gal. Charpentier, Paris 
(165 Nos. Pref. C. Roger-Marx and J. Salo- 
mon) ; 1948, June, Wildenstein Gal., London 
(66 Nos. Pref. C. Roger-Marx) ; 1949 (March 
26-May i), Kunsthalle, Basle (260 Nos.). 



143 



SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 



/. General 

A. Fontainas, Hist, de la Peint. Franfaise au XIX* S., 
Paris, 1906 (new ed. 1922). W. H. Wright, Modern 
Painting, New York, 1915. E. Faure, Hist, de I* Art, 
Vol. IV, L'Art Moderne, Paris, 1921. R. Fry, Transfor- 
mations, London, 1926. F, J. Mather, Modern Painting, 
New York, 1927. H. Focillon, La Peint. aux XIX* et 
XX 9 S., Paris, 1928. W. Pach, Masters of Modern Art, 
New York, 1929. R. Rey, La Peint. Fran$aise d la Fin 
du XIX* S., Paris, 1931, J. Klein, Modern Masters, 
New York, 1938. R. Huyghe, Les Contemporains, Paris, 
1939 and 1949. R. H. WUenski, Modern French Painters, 
New York, 1940 (new ed. 1947). B. Dorival, Les Etapes 
de la Peinture Fran$aise Contemporaine, Paris, 1945. 
L. Venturi, Peintres Modernes, Vol. II (printing). 

//. Pre-Impressionism and the Honfleur School 

G. J. Aubry, Boudin, Paris, 1922. G. Poulain, 
Pr-Impressionnisme, Formes, Nov. 1931. 'Les origines 1 
de rimpressionnisme, ' Special Number, Beaux-Arts, 
Brussels, June-Sept., 1935. 1934, July 12 - Sept. 9, 
Exh., Mus6e Municipal, Honfleur, Honfleur et ses Peintres, 
with notes by Lavedan and Joubin. 1937, May, Gal. des 
Beaux-Arts, Paris, La Naissance de rimpressionnisme 
(Exh. with pref. by A. Joubin ; cat. by R. Cogniat). 

///. Impressionism 

1. Sources and documents : Duranty, La NouveUe 
Peinture, Paris, 1876 (new ed. M. Gudrin, Paris, 1945). 
T. Duret, Les Peintres Impressionnistes, Paris, 1878. 
J. K. Huysmans, L'Art Moderne, Paris, 1883. G. Moore, 
Confessions of a Young Man, London, 1888, Reminis- 
cences of Impressionist Painters, Dublin, 1906. J. E. 
Blanche, Propos de Peintres, Paris, 1919. A. Vollard, 
Souvenirs d'un Marchand de Tableaux, Paris, 1937. 
J. Rewald, Ctzanne, sa vie, son oeuvre, son amitie pour 
Zola, Paris, 1939. A. S. Hartrick, A Painter's Pilgri- 
mage through Fifty Years, Cambridge, 1939. L. Venturi, 
Les Archives de rimpressionnisme, Paris, New York, 1939. 
C Pissarro, Letters to his Son Luden, New York, 1943. 

2. Historical Studies : G. Lecomte, L'Art Impres- 
sionniste, Paris, 1892. G. Geffroy, Histoire de I'lmpres- 
sionnisme, Paris, 1894. C. Mauclair, The French Impres- 
sionists, London, 1903. T. Duret, Histoire des Peintres 
Impressionnistes , Paris, 1906 (new ed. 1939). C. L. Rag- 
ghianti, Impressionismo, Turin, 1944. J. Rewald, 
The History of Impressionism, New York, 1946 (Ital. 
ed. 1949). G. Bazin, LEpoque Impressionnistc, Paris, 
I947- 

3. Critical Studies : J. Meier-Graefe, Manet und sein 
Kreis, Berlin, 1902 ; EntwicMungsgeschichte der modernen 
Kunst, 3. Vol., Stuttgart, 1904 ; Impressionisten, 
Munich, 1907. V. Pica, Gl'Impressionisti Francesi, 
Bergamo, 1908. W. Weisbach, Impressionismus, 2 Vol., 
Berlin, 1910-11. L. Venturi, in VArte, March, 1935. 
P. Francastel, L'Impressionnisme, Paris, 1937. W. Uhde, 
Les Impressionnistes, Vienna, 1937. R. Huyghe, in 
Promtthte, Feb. 1939. L. Venturi, in The Journal of 
Aesthetics, 1941. E. Scheyer, in The Art Quarterly, VI, 
2, 1943. V Amour de I' Art, Spec. No., 1947 (G. Bazin, 
J. Leymarie, M. Florisoone). 

Exhibitions: Eight Group Exhibitions (1874, 1876, 
1877, ^879, 1880, 1881. 1882, 1886). 1886, April-May, 
Exhibition organized at New York by Durand-Ruel 
with the American Art Association. 1904, Feb.-March, 



La Libre Esth&ique, Brussels (Pref. by 0. Mirbeau). 
1905, Grafton Galleries, London. 1908; Kunsthaus, 
Zurich. 1922, July, Brussels, Les Mattres de I'lmpres- 
sionnisme et leur Temps. 1924, Gal. A. Flechtheim, 
Berlin and Frankfurt. 1929, Feb., Lucerne. 1934, 
Museum of Art, Toledo. 1935, Palais des Beaux-Arts, 
Brussels. 1935-1936, Museum of Art, Baltimore. 1936, 
Museum of Fine Arts, Washington. 1936, Albany 
Institute of History and Art. 1947, Mus6e du Jeu de 
Paume, Paris. 1948, Biennale, Venice. 1949, Kunst- 
halle, Basel. 



IV. Neo-Impressionism 

F. F6non, Les Impressionnistes en 1886, Paris, 1886. 
P. Signac, D'Eugine Delacroix au N Rimpressionnisme, 
Paris, 1899. G. Coquiot, Les Indtpendants, Paris, 1921. 
E. Verhaeren, Sensations, Paris, 1927. P. Signac, 
Le NSo-Impressionnisme, Documents, Gaz. des Beaux- 
Arts, 1934. J. Rewald, Seurat, New York, 1946, Paris, 
1948. J. Rewald, F. F6n6on, Gaz. B. A., 1947-48. 

Exhibitions: Gal. Braun, Paris, 1932, Le Nto- 
Impressionnisme (Pref. 0. Maus) ; Dec. 1933-Jan. 1934, 
Gal. des Beaux- Arts, Paris, Seurat et ses Amis (Intro, 
by Signac ; Cat. R. Cogniat) ; Same exh. Wildenstein 
Gal., London, Jan.-Feb., 1937. Dec. 1936- Jan. 1937, 
Mus6e Boymans, Rotterdam, De Divisionisten. Dec. 
1942- Jan. 1943, Gal. de France, Paris, Les Nto-Impres- 
sionnistes. 



V. Gauguin and the Pont- A ven Group 

G. A. Aurier, (Euvres Posthumes, Paris, 1893. E. Ber- 
nard, Notes sur VEcole dite de Pont- A ven, Mercure de 
France, Dec., 1903. C. L. Hind, The Post- Impressionists, 
London, 1911. C. Chass, Gauguin et le Groupe de 
Pont-Aven, Paris, 1921. E. Bernard, Souvenirs Intdits 
sur I' Artiste P. Gauguin et ses Compagnons, Lorient, 
1941. 



Exhibitions : 1889, Impressionist and Synthesist 
Group Exhibition at the Caf6 Volpini, Paris. Feb.- 
March, 1934, Gal. des Beaux- Arts, Paris : Gauguin, ses 
Amis, VEcole de Pont-Aven et I'Acadtmie Jullian (Pref. 
by M. Denis, Notes by R. Cogniat). 

VI. Symbolism and the Nabis 

A, Aurier, ' Le Symbolisme en Peinture, ' Mercure de 
France, 1891. A, Mellerio, Le Mouvement Idialiste en 
Peinture, Paris, 1896. R. Barr6, Le Symbolisme, Paris, 
1911. M. Denis, Theories, Paris, 1913. A. Segard, 
Les Ddcorateurs, Paris, 1913. M. Denis, L'Epoque du 
Symbolisme, G. B. A., 1934. H. Hahnloser-Buhler, 
F. Vallotton et ses Amis, Paris, 1936. A. Armstrong 
Wallis, The Symbolist Painters of 1890, Marsyas, 1941. 
J. R. Gold water, ' Symbolist Art and Theater, ' Mag. of 
Art, 1946. C. Roger-Marx, Vuillard et son temps, Paris, 
1945. C. Chass6, Le Mouvement Symboliste, Paris, 1948. 

Exhibitions: Exp. des Peintres Impressionistes et 
Symbolistes, Le Bare de Boutteville, 1891-1897. Other 
group exhibitions at Vollard's (1897-98) ; at Bernheim- 
Jeune's 1900 and 1907 ; others in the premises of La 
Revue Blanche and La Plume ; in 1899 ' Hommage a 
Odilon Redon ' at Durand-Ruel's. 1917, Exh. of 
Nabis at Kunsthaus, Zurich ; 1936, Paris, Exp. Peintres 
de la Revue Blanche organized by Bolette Natanson ; 
Cinquanienaire du Symbolisme at Biblioth&que Nationale, 
Dec., 1949, Orangerie, Paris : Carritre et le Symbolism*. 



144 



PICTURES MENTIONED IN THE TEXT 



This list enables the reader to trace at once all references to these, for purposes of comparison or documentation. 



BAZILLE, FREDERIC. 

Ambulance improvise* (L'), 115; Artist's studio (The), 115, 20 
(Plate, p. 20); Bathers, 115; Dejeuner sur 1'herbe (Le), 115; 
Family Gathering, i, 12, 115; Flowers, 115; Lisiere de For6t, 
115; Portrait of Sisley, 20; Robe rose (La), 115. 

BONNARD, PIERRE. 

At Sea: The Hahnloser Family (Plate, p. 107); Bourgeois 
Afternoon, 116; Cabhorse (The), 101; Cannot (Le), (Hate, 
p. in); Cat (The), 92; Checkered Tablecloth (The), (Plate, 
p. 105); Circus (The), (Plate, p. 104); Cock and Hen (The), 101; 
Corsage Carreaux, 115; Cup of Coffee (The), 92; Daphnis and 
Chloe, 1 01 ; Dining- Room (The), 101 ; Doffed Chemise (The), 101 ; 
Fruit, (Plate, p. 108, 112); Little Fauns (The), 101; Moulin 
Rouge (At the), 101 ; Nude with Lamp, (Plate, p. 106) ; Old Lady 
with her Hens (The), 92; Panorama (The), 101; Parade (The), 
102; Paradise, 101; Pot Proven9al (Le), (Plate, p. 109); Saint- 
Franfois de Sales Visiting the Sick, 116; Terrasse Family (The), 
(Plate, p. 103); Three Graces (The), xoi; Triumph of Mordecai, 
102; Wine Merchant's (The), 92; Woman's Head, (Plate, p. 102), 
115; Yellow Shawl (The), (Plate, p. no). 

CAILLEBOTTE. 
Boats at Argenteuil, 24. 

CfiZANNE, PAUL. 

Bathers (Plate, p. 47), 118; Boy in a red waistcoat (The), 
(Plate, p. 48), 118; Cabanon de Jourdan (Le), (Plate, p. 50), 118; 
Card-Players (The), 118; Dejeuner sur 1'herbe (Le), 12; Estaque 
(L f ) : the village and the sea, (Plate, p. 45) ; Four Seasons (The), 
117; Hanged Man's House (The), 21, (Plate, p. 35), 117; Inte- 
rior, 117; Modern Olympia, 35, 117; Montagne Sainte-Victoire, 
118; Orgy (The), 117; Paysage a Auvers, 117; Portraits: Empe- 
raire, 117; Artist's father reading l'Eve*nement (The), 117; 
TfUHtave Gefiroy, 118; Vaiabregue, 117; Rape (The), 117; 
Still Life with a Plaster Cast, (Plate, p. 49) ; Suburbs in the 
Spring (Plate, p. 36); Temptation of Saiut Anthony, 35, 117; 
Twisted Tree (The), (Plate, p. 46). 

COROT. CAMILLK. 

Petite Jcannette (La), 12. 

COURBET. GUSTAVE. 

A man t s dans la Campagne (Les), 119; Apres-dtner a Ornans 
(L'), 119; Atelier, 119; Baigncurs {Les), 119; Belle Irlandaiso, 
120; Burial (The), 119; Cerf Force* (Le), 119; Combat de Cerfs, 
119; Dame de Francfort (La), 120; Demoiselles au bord de la 
Seine (Les), 119; Demoiselles de Village (Les), 119; Fileuse 
endormie (La), 119; Homme a la pipe (L'), 119; Loth and his 
daughters, 119; Lutteura (Les), 119; Portraits: Charles Baud- 
elaire (Plate, p. 3), 119; Bruyas, 119; Proudhon et sa fatnille, 
nq; Champfleury, 119; Courbet au chien noir, 119; Stonebrea- 
kers (The), 63, 119; Walpurgis night, 119; Vague (La), 120; 
Woman with the Shawl, 18. 

CROSS, HENRI-EDMOND. 

Coin de Jar din a Monaco, 120; Venice, Ponte-San-Trovaso 
(plate, p. 59). 

DAUBIGNY. 

Zaandam (Views of), 21. 

DEGAS, EDGAR. 

Ambassadors (The), 121; Cotton Office (The), 21. 121; 
Examen de Danse, 121; Fiocre (M ll ), i; Gentleman-Rider's 
Race: Before the Start, 121; Horse Races at Longchamp, 
i; Laundresses (The), 121; Lady with Chrysanthemuns (The), 
121, Lola (Miss), 83; Malheurs de la ville d'Orllans (Les), 
121; Old Italian Woman (The), 121; Orchestra at the Paris 
Opera (The), (plate, p. 10), 121; Pedicure (The), 121; Portrait 
of the Bellelli Family, 121 ; Duranty, 21 ; Roman Beggar Woman 
(The), 121; Semiramis, i, 121; Tte de Jeune Femme, 121; 
Three Dancers (plate, p. 32); Women at the Races, 18; Young 
Spartans Exercising, 121. 

DENIS, MAURICB. 

Choir-boy (The), p. 122; Horn mage & Cezanne, p. 122; Menuet 
de la I'rincesse Maleine, 93. 

GAUGUIN, PAUL. 

Annah the Javanese (plate, p. 73), 76, 124; Cheval Blanc 
(Le), 125; Christ in the Garden of Olives, 74; Contes barbares, 
125; la Gratia Maria, 124; Landscape at Pont-Aven, 61 ; Never- 



more, 124; Paroles du Diablo (Les), or Parau no te Varua Ino 
(plate, p. 75), 124; Portrait of Vincent painting Sunflowers, 
124; Spirit of the Dead keeps Vigil (The). 74; Still Life in the 
" dot- and -carry -one " style, 61 ; Ta Matete, 124; Te Rerioa, 125; 
Trois Tahitiens (Les), 125; Vision after the Sermon or Jacob 
wrestling with the Angel (plate, p. 69), 70, 74, 124; When 
are you getting married ? 74; Whence come we ? 74, 76, 125; 
Why are you angry ? 74; Yellow Christ (The), 70, 124. 

JONGKIND, JOHANN BARTHOLD. 

Port de mer, 126; Rouen (View of), (Plate, p. 5). 

MANET, EDOUARO. 

Absinthe Drinker, 6, 126; Argenteuil, (plate, p. 27) 127; Atelier 
aux Batignolles (L'), 127; Autumn, 128; Balcony (The), i, 127; 
Bar aux Folies-Bergere, 39,128; Bon Bock (Le), 21, 127; Chan- 
teuse des Rues, 127; D6jeuner sur 1'Herbe (Le), i, (Plate, p. 7), 
12, 127; Game of Croquet. 12; Grand Canal (Views of the), 127; 
Guitarroro (Le), i, 127; Linge (Lc), 127; Musique aux Tuileries, 
r, 127; Olympia, i, 6, 12, 127; Peonies, 127; Port de Bordeaux, 
127; Portraits: Stephane Mallarme, 21, 127; Mme Manet, 127; 
Borthe Morisot, 127; Pertuiset, 128; Hochefort, 128; Entile 
Zola, i, (Plate, p. 8), 127; Races at Longchamp, 127; Rowers at 
Argenteuil, 24; Kue Mosnicr (La), ,29, 127; Serveuse de Bocks 
(La), 127; Spring, 18, 128. 

MONET, CLAUDE. 

Argenteuil Bridge (Plate, p. 23) ; Boulevard des Capucines, 29 ; 
Breaking of the Ice (The), 39, 129; Charing Cross, 129; Dejeuner 
sur 1'Herbe (Le), 4, 128; Grenouillere, 18; Grenouillere (La), i, 
128; Haystacks (The), 39, 129; Impression: Sunrise, 129; Lon- 
don (Views of), 39; Poplars, 39, 129; Regatta at Argenteuil, 24; 
Rouen Cathedrals, 39, 129; Saint-Germain 1'Auxerrois, 128; 
Saint-Lazare Station, 21, (Plate, p, 28), 129; Sunrise, 19; 
Venice, 39, 129; Waterloo Bridge, 129; Women in the Garden, i, 
12, (Plate, p. 13), 128; Woman with a Parasol, 18. 

PISSARRO, CAMILLB. 

Carrousel (Le), 130; Coteaux de 1'Hrrmitage. 21 ; Gisors Road 
(The), 16, (Plate, p. 17); Hermitage at Pontoise (The), (Plate, 
p. 34); Jeanne in the Garden, 12; Louveciennes (Views of), 16; 
Maid, 12; Opdra (Avenue de 1'), 29; Pont-Neuf, 39, 130; Pont- 
Royal, 130; Portrait, 130; Quai Malaquais, 39, 130; Red Roofs 
(The), 130; Rouen Cathedral, 130; St. Lazare (Rue), 130; Tte 
de Paysanne, (Plate, p. 60); ThdAtre-Francais (Place du), 39, 
130; Tuileries (Les), 39, 130. 

REDON, ODILON. 

Cyclop (The), (Plate, p. 79); Dans lo ReVe, 131 ; Landscape, 
131; Sphinx (The), (Plate, p. 78). 

RENOIR, AUGUSTK. 

Apr6s-midi des Enf ants a Wargemont (L') ,51; Baigneuse, 
132; Balangoire (La), 132; Cabaret de la Mere Anthony, i, 4, 
132; Clown Musician, 83; Dance (The), 43, 133; Diana, 12, 
132; Esmeralda (La), 132; Femmes d'Alger, 132; Femme nue 
(La), 132; First Outing (The) (plate, p. 33); Grandes Baigneuses 
(Les), 51, 133; Grands Boulevards (Les) (plate, p. 29); Gre- 
nouillcre (La), i (plate, p. 14), 132; Landscape with Bathers, 42 
(plate, p. 44); Luxembourg Gardens (In the) (plate, p. 43); 
Nude (plate, p. 40); Pont-Neuf (View of the), 21, 29, 132; 
Portraits: Madame Charpentier, 21, 132; Wagner, 133; Lise, 
i, 4, 132; Bazille, i, 132; Sisley, i, 132; Captain Darras, 132; 
Madame Darras, 132; Famillc Henriot, 132; Sisley and his 
wife. 4; Quai Malaquais (Le), 132; Seine at Argenteuil (The), 
24; Soire'c d'Ete", 132. 

ROUSSEL, KER-XAVIER. 
Rural Scene (plate, p. 93). 

SfiRUSIER, PAUL. 

Bretonnes (Les) (plate, p. 70); Breton Weaver's Workroom, 
135- 

SEURAT, GEORGES. 

Chahut (Le), 136; Chenal de Gravelines (Le), 136; Grande 
Jatte (La), 51, 136; Jeune Femme se poudrant, 136; Parade 
de Cirque, 136; Portrait: Aman Jean, 136; Poseuses (Les), 136; 
Poseuse, front view (plate, p. 57) ; Study for la Baignade (plate, 
P- 53). 39. J 3; Study for the Circus (plate, p. 56). 

SIGNAC, PAUL. 
Pont d'Austcrlitz, 137; Portrieux (plate, p. 58). 



145 



SlSLfiY, ALFRED. 

AlWe des Chataigners k la Cello-Sal nt-Cloud, 138; Boats at 
Bougival Lock (plate, p. 25); Bougival Weier under Snow 
(plate, p. 30); Montmartre (View of), 16 (plate, p. 17), 138. 

TOULOUSE-LAUTREC HENRI DE. 

Anglaise du " Star " (plate 90) ; Artillour sellant un cheval, 
138; Femme rousse assise (plate 89); Goulue Booth (La), 139; 
Goulue (La) and Valentin-le-D4soss (plate, p, 86); Jane Avril 
dansant (plate, p. 85); Mail Coach a Nice (Le), 138; Moulin- 
Rouge (Au) (plate, p. 87). 

VALLOTTON, FELIX. 

Baigneuse au rocher, 140; Enlvement d' Europe, 140; Por- 
traits: Mr. Ursenbach, 140; Mr. Jasinsky, 140; Portrait de mes 
Parents, 140; Street (The) (plate, p. 94). 

VAN GOGH, VINCENT. 

Artesienne (L'), 66; Barques sur la Plage, 141; Berceuse (La) 
Mme Roulm, 66 (plate, p. 68) 142; Gate a Aries (Le), 141; 



Cypres (Les), p. 142; Edge of the Alpine (On the) (plate, p. 65), 
142; Fourteenth of July, 65; Hospital Yard (The), 142; Int$- 
rieur de Restaurant (plate, p. 61), 141; Maine d'Auvers (or du 
14 Juillet), 66, 142; Moissons (Les), p. 142; Potato Eaters 
(The), 51, 141; Portraits: Man with the Cut Ear (Of the), 142; 
Dr. Cachet (plate, p. 67) 142; Still Life: Drawing-Board with 
Onions (plate, p. 64), 142; Sunflowers (The), 141; Tete de 
Paysanne (plate, p. 62), 141 ; Vergers en Flours (Les), 141 ; Vigne 
Rouge (La), 142. 

VUILLARD, EDOUARD. 

Femme endormie (La), 143; Glass and Onions, 92; Interior 
(plate, p. 97); Jardin des Tuileries (Le), 143; Jar of Gherkins 
(The), 92; Old Lady examining her Needlework (plate, p. 98); 
Paysages de Pans, 143; Portraits: LaParisienne, 143; Madame 
L. March at id, 143; Madame de Noailles, 143; Comtesse de 
Polignac, 143; Simone Bcrriau, 143; Cipa Godebski, 100; Mme 
Henraux, 143 ; Elviro Popesco, 143 ; Dr Viau, 143 ; Red Bedroom 
(plate, p. 99) ; Toilette (La), (plate, p. 95) ; Wild Rabbit (The), 92. 



WRITERS AND CRITICS 



Instead of giving a mere list of names in alphabetical order, followed by page references, we have sought to facilitate 

research-work by inserting after the name of each writer that of the artist on whom he has written. Thus the reader needs only 

turn to the bibliography of the artist in whom he is interested, to elicit all the information he may require. 



ADHBMAR J. Courbet. 

ALEX ANDRE Arsene. Gauguin - Monet - 

Renoir. 

ALFASSA P. Denis. 
ANDRE Albert. Renoir. 
ARTAUD Antonin. Van Gogh. 
^AURIBR G.-A. Gauguin - Van Gogh. 
AUZAS P. Cezanne. 

BARAZBTTI G. Denis. 

BARNES A. C. Cezanne - Renoir. 

BARR A. Van Gogh. 

BARRB R. Symbolism. 

BARTH W. Gauguin. 

BATAILLE. Manet. 

BAZIN Germain. Courbet - Renoir. 

BAZIRE . Manet. 

BBRARD M. Renoir. 

BERGER K. Courbet. 

BERNARD Emile. Cezanne - Gauguin * 

Van Gogh. 

BERNARD Tristan. Toulouse-Lautrec. 
BERRYER A.-M. Gauguin. 
BERTRAM H. Seurat. 
BBSSON Georges. Renoir - Signac. 
BISSIERE. Seurat. 
BLANCHE Jacques-Einile. Manet. 
BOUCHOT-SAUPIQUB J. Denis. 
BREUCKSN J. de. Van Gogh. 
BRILLANT M. Denis. 
BROOKS C. M. Jr. Van Gogh. 

Me. CANN MORLEY G. L. Gauguin. 

CAMOIN Charles. Cezanne. 

CASTAGNARY. Courbet. 

CHARENSOL G. Bazille. 

CHASTRL Andrt. Vuillard. 

CHASSB Charles. Gauguin. 

CHIRICO Giorgio, de. Courbet - Gauguin. 

CHRIBTOPHE S. Seurat. 

COGNIAT Raymond. Gauguin. 

COLIN P. Jongkind, 

COOL us Remain. Vuillard. 

COOPER Douglas. Seurat. 

COQUIOT Gustave. Sourat - Toulouse- 
Lautrec. 

COURTHION Pierre. Courbet - Manet. 

COUSTURIKR L. Denis * Roussel - Seru- 
sier - Signac. 

DELTBIL Le"o. Pissarro - Renoir - Sisley 
- Toulouse-Lautrec. 

DBLAROCHE-VERNET. H. Toulouse-Lau- 
trec. 

DENIS Maurice. Gauguin - Se*rusier. 

DESHAIRS Le*on. Signac. 

DORIVAL Bernard. Cezanne - Vuillard. 



DORSBNNE Jean. Gauguin. 

DORTU G. Toulouse-Lautrec. 

DOUIN S. Redon. 

DRUCKER Michel. Renoir. 

DUPONT S. Serusier. 

DURET Theodore. Courbet - Manet - 

Renoir - Toulouse-Lautrec. 
DUTHUIT Georges. Renoir - Seurat - Van 

Gogh. 

ELDER M. Manet - Renoir. 
ELION S. Seurat. 
ESSWEIN M. Toulouse-Lautrec. 
EUGNY A. d 1 . Toulouse-Lautrec. 

"-FAILLE J. B. de la. Van Gogh. 

KARGUE L6on-Paul, Roussel. 

FAURE Elie. Cezanne - Renoir. 

FEGDAL. Redon - Vallotton. 

FKLS M. de. Manet. 

FENEON F61ix. Seurat - Signac. 

FLERS R. de. Renoir. 

FLORISOONE Michel. Manet - Renoir - 
Van Gogh. 

FOCILLON Henri. Toulouse-Lautrec. 

FONTAINAS Andre*. Courbet - Cross. 

FORTHUNY Pascal. Renoir. 

FOSCA Francois. Courbet - Denis - Re- 
noir - Roussel - Toulouse-Lautrec - 
Vuillard. 

FRANCASTEL Pierre. Monet - Pissarro - 

Sisiey. 
- FRY Roger. Cezanne - Van Gogh. 

GASQUET Joachim. C6zanne. 
GAUGUIN Pola. Gauguin. 
GEFFROY Gustave. Degas - Dem's - Mo- 
net - Sisley. 

GEORGES Waldemar. Seurat. 
GISCHIA Lon. Bonnard. 
GODEFROY L. Vallotton. 
~ GRAPPE Georges. Van Gogh. 

GROST-KOST. Courbet. 
_GRUYTBR S. de. Van Gogh. 
GUENNE Jacques. Signac. 
GUBRIN M. Manet. 
GUIFFREY Jean. Manet. 

HAESERTS P. Renoir. 
HAHNLOSER-BUHLER. Vallotton. 
-HAMILTON A. Van Gogh. 
~ -HAM MAC HER A. M. Van Gogh. 
HAUSENSTHIN Willy. Degas. 
HAUTECCEUR Louis. Gauguin. 
HEILMAIER H. Sisley. 
HELION J. Seurat. 
HENNBQUIN E. Redon. 



HERTZ Henri. Degas. 
-HUYGHE Rene\ Cezanne - Courbet 
Seurat - Sisley - Van Gogh. 

JALOUX Edmond. C6zanne. 

JAMOT Paul. Denis - Manet - Renoir. 

JKANNINOT G. Degas. 

JKULICKA Gotthard. Ce*zanne - Manet* 

Sisley - Toulouse-Lautrec. 
JEWELL E. A. Cezanne. 
JOETS Jules. Monet. 
JOURDAIN Francis. Roussel. 
JOYANT Maurice. Toulouse-Lautrec. 
JULIEN E. Toulouse-Lautrec. 

KAHN Gustave. Seurat. 
KLINGSOR Tristan. Cdzanne. 
KUNSTLER Charles. Pissarro. 

LAFARGUE M. Denis. 

LAFOND P. Degas. 

LAFORGUE M. Cezanne. 

LAPPARENT P. de. Toulouse-Lautrec. 

LAPRADE J . de la. Sourat - Signac. 

LARGUIER Le*o. Cezanne. 

LASSAIGNE Jacques. Toulouse-Lautrec. 

LAZAR B. Courbet. 

LEBLOND Marius Ary. Redon - Seru- 
sier. 

LECLERC T. Roussel. 

LECOMTE Georges. Pissarro. 

LKCLERC. Vuillard. 

LEGER Charles. Courbet. 

LRMOISNE P.- A. Degas. 

LEMONNIER Camille. Courbet. 

LEYMARIE Jean. Bonnard - Degas - Gau- 
guin. 

LHOTE Andre". Cezanne - Seurat - Vuil- 
lard. 

LlEBBRMANN M. Degas. 

LORAN E. Cezanne. 



MABILLE Pierre. Seurat. 

MAC ORLAN Pierre. Toulouse-Lautrec. 

MACK G. Cezanne - Toulouse-Lautrec. 

MALINGUE Maurice. Gauguin - Monet. 

MANSON J.-B. Degas. 

MAUGHAM S. W. Gauguin. 

MAUS Octave. Seurat. 

MAZIA V. de. Ce*zanne Renoir. 

MBIBR-GRAEFB Julius. Cezanne - Cour- 
bet - Renoir - Vallotton - Van Gogh - 
Degas 

MBLLERIO Andre 1 . Redon. 

MERCANTON Jacques. Vuillard. 



146 



MICHEL Andre*. Degaa. 

MILES Roger. Sisley. 

MIRBEAU Octave. Gauguin - Monet 

Pissarro - Renoir - V allot ton. 
MONFREID D. de Jongkind. 
MONTCORIN E.-D. de. Sisley. 
MOORE Georges. Degas. 
MORBAU-NBLATON . Jongkind - 

Manet. 

MORICE Charles. Gauguin. 
"MUENSTENBERG M. Van Gogh. 



NAKF H. Courbet. 

NATANSON Thade'e. Renoir - Seurat - 

Toulouse-Lautrec. 
NiGO W. Van Gogh. 

^NORDBNFALK, Vail Gogh. 

NOVOTNY F. Cezanne. 



ORS Eugcnio d 1 . Cezanne. 
OZENFANT Am&tee. Seurat. 



PACH Walter. Redon - Renoir - Serusier. 
PERATii Andre*. Degas. 
-PmuppART G. Van Gogh. 
PETIBT H. Gauguin. 
PICARD E. Redon - Van Gogh. 
PIBRARD L. Van Gogh. 
PISSARRO L. R. Pissarro. 
POULAIN Gaston. Bazille - Monet - 

Renoir. 

PROUST Antonin. Manet 
Puv M. Gauguin. 



RAYNAL Maurice. Clzanne - Renoir - 

Gauguin. 

RBGAMBY R. Monet. 
REWALD John. Cezanne Gauguin - 

Pissarro - Renoir - Seurat - Signac. 
REY Robert. Manet - Seurat. 
RIAT G. Courbet. 
RICH D. C. Seurat. 
RILKB Rainer Maria. Clzanne. 
RIVIERE Jacques. Cezanne. 
RIVIERE Georges, Cezanne - Renoir. 
ROGBR-MARX Cl. Redon - Roussel 

Seurat - Signac - Vuillard - Degas. 
ROSTRUP Haavard. Gauguin. 
ROTONCHAMP J. de. Gauguin. 
ROTZLER W. Toulouse-Lautrec. 
ROUART Denis. Degas. 



SACKS P. J. Degas. 

SALMON Andre*. Ce*zanne - Redon. 

Seurat - Toulouse-Lautrec. 
SALOMON Jacques. Rousscl - Vuillard. 
SARRAUTK M. Bazille. 
SCHAUB KOCH. Toulouse-Lautrec. 
SCHBYER E. Bazille. 
SCHMIDT Gcorg. Toulouse-Lautrec 

Van Gogh. 

SBGALKN V, Gauguin. 
SKGUIN Armand. Gauguin. 
SELIGMAN G. Seurat. 
SKVERINI Gino. Cezanne. 
SICKBRT W. Degas. 
SIGNAC Paul. Jongkind - Seurat. 
STERLING Charles. Renoir - Manet. 
SUTTON Denis. Gauguin. 



TAB AR ANT A. Manet - Monet - Pissarro. 
TARALON J. Gauguin. 
TAVERNIBR A. Sisley. 
TBRRASSB Charles. Bonnard. 
* THANNHAUSBR H. Van Gogh. 
THERIVE Andre*. Vallotton. 
THIBBAULT-SISSON Jacques. Monet. 
THUBKRT K. de. Serusier. 
TOURETTE Gille de la. Toulouse-I,autrec. 
TRABAULT Mark. Van Gogh. 
TREVISE, due de. Monet. 

-UEBERWASSER W. Van Gogh. 
UHDE Wilhelm. Van Gogh. 

VALBRY Paul. Degas - Manet. 

VANHKSELAERK W. Van Gogh. 

VAN GOGH Th6o. Van Gogh. 

VAN GOGH BONGBR. Van Gogh. 

VAUDOYER Jean-Louis. Denis. 

VAUXCELLES L. Monet. 

VENTURI LIONBLLO. Cdzanne - Gauguin - 

Monet - Pissarro - Renoir - Sisley - 

Toulouse-Lautrec. 
VERHAEREN Emilc. Seurat. 
VOLLARD Ambroisc. Cdzanne - Renoir. 

WALDMANN Emile. Manet. 
WARTMANN W. Bonnard. 
WATSON F. Sisley. 
WEHLK H, B. Renoir. 
WERTH Ltfon. Monet - Roussel. 
WH.DENSTKIN (Gorges. Manet. 
WITT, A. de. Gauguin. 

ZOLA E. Manet. 



GENERAL INDEX 



Our Index has been arranged in the simplest possible way, so as to enable all references to be traced with the maximum of 
rapidity. This lists the names of places and persons, the chief events and most significant dates cited in the text. 



ABOUT Edmond 121. 

Abstract Art 6,45. 

Academic CARRI&RE 76. 

Academic JULLIAN 51, 94, 102, 115, 

122, 134, 135, 140, 143. 
Academic SUISSE i, 4, 117, 119, 127, 

128, 130. 
ADAM Paul 82. 
Aix-les-Bains 133. 
Aix-en-Provence i, 4, 21, 37, 3<), 47, 

50, 76, 117, 118, 12^, 133. 
Albi i, 85, 138. 

ALBKIGHT Art Gallery, Buffalo 51, 124. 
ALEXANDER Arsdnc 82, 139. 
Algeria 4, 39, 123, 128, 133. 
AMAN-JEAN 135, 136. 
ANGRAND 51, 52, 58, 92, 1 36, 
ANQUETIN 77, 92. 
ANTOINB Anrlr6 51, 82. 
Antwerp 51, 65, 126, 141. 
ARCHIMBOLDO 77. 
Argenteuil 18, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 30, 

127,129,132,138. 
Arlos XXI, 51. f>4, 00, 69, 124, 137, 141, 

142. 

tArt ct Critique* 101, 122. 
Art Institute, Chicago 51, 127, 130. 
Art moderne, L' 39, 136. 
Asnieres 51, 141. 
t Assiette au beurre (L') 140. 
Assy (Haute-Savoie) iiO. 
A STRUG Zacharie 9. 
AURIBR Albert 69, 76, 77, 82, 104, 115, 

125, 142. 
Auvers-sur-Oise 21, 25, 35, 0,5, 67, 117, 

142. 

BACHAUMONT 24. 
BAILLE Baptistin 117. 
BANVILLE Theodore de 2, 119. 
Barbizon School 4, 15, 16, 24, 131- 
LB BARC L>E BQUTTEVILLB 70, 77, 115, 
122, 134. MO. J 43- 



BARNES Foundation, Merion, U.S.A., 44, 

51, 127, 132, 130. 
Baroque 35. 
BARRKS Maurice 136. 
BAUDELAIRE Charles i, 2, 3, 5, 0, 7, 9, 

115, Ji9, 123, 126, 127, 131. 
BAZJLLE Jean-Fre'de'ric i, 4, 5, 7, 9, **, 

13, 14. JQ, 20, 115, 117, 127, 128, 132, 

138. 

BBARDSLBY Aubry 139. 
BEATTY Chester Collection, London 121. 
BBAiinouKci Maurice 54. 
Beaune-la-Kolande i, J9, 20, 115. 
Belgium 31.1, 116, IIQ, 131, 
Belle-He 38, 5f. 
Belle vuo 21, 127. 
Belve'dcVo, Vienna 17. 
Berck-sur-Mcr 21, 127. 
BKKtisoN Henri xin, 51. 
BERNARD Lmile xi, xv, xvii, xvin, 51, 70, 

7*. 77, 92, 118, 122, 123, 124, 131, 141. 
BERNARD Tristan 83, 104. 
Berne val 133. 

BBRNHBIM Gallery 3<>, iiG, 133. 
BERNHRIM-JKUNK Gallery u f >. 132. 
BIBKSCO Prince et Pnncessc 1.^2, 143. 
BIN, Academic librc 137. 
BIZET Georges 121. 
BLAKE William xi, 77. 
BLANC Charles 54, 135. 
BLANCHE J.-K. 37. 
BOLLIN 135. 
BONINGTON 2, 5, '24. 
BONNARD Pierre i, 51, 74, 70, 77, 82, 

83, 84, 91, 92, 94, 90, 101, io! f 103, 

104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, no, in, 

112, 115, no, 118, 124, 135, 140, 143. 

BONNAT 88, 121, 13Q. 

Bonneval 130, 

BONVIN Studio 119, 120, 126. 

Bordeaux 19, 21, 77, 127, 131, 132, 139. 

Bordighera 38, 51, 129. 

Borinage 141. 



BOSCH Hicronymus 77, 81. 
BOUCHER Francois xvn, 4, 132. 
BOUDIN Eugene i, 2, 4, 5. 15, 18. 19, 

31, 39, 115, 120, I2h, 128. 
Bougival J, 14, 15, 18, 21. 25, 128, 130, 

132, 138. 

BOUGUKKKAU 143, 

Boulogne i, 121, 127. 

BRAQUK Georges 96. 

BKACQUEMOND F^lix Q, 121, 120. 

Brasserie dcs Martyrs 2, 120, 128. 

BREITNKR 141. 

BHRSDIN Rodolphe 131. 

BRITTANY 38, 51, (><>, 70, 72, 74, 123, 

124, 126, 133-135, 137. M3- 
BRUEGHEL 81. 

Brooklyn Museum, NVw York i. 
BRUANT Aristiclr 51, 83, 139. 
Brussels 51. 76, 120. 133. 141. 
BRUYAS Alfred 20, 115. 119, 128, 142. 
BUCHON Max 119. 
Buffalo, Volodrome 83. 
BULLIF.R Bal 83. 
BURNE-JONES Sir Kdward 82. 

CABANEL 7. 

Caf<T- de Bade 9. 

Cafe" Guerbois i, 9. 20, 07, 11^, 127, 

138- 

Caf<5 Marengo 130. 
Caf6 de la Nouvelle-Athenes 21, 37, 121, 

127. 

Caf6 d'Ohent 58, 136. 
Caf d V olpini 51, 115, 124. 
Catt Voltaire 70, 124. 
Cagnes 76, 133, 134, 140. 
CAILT.EBOTTR 21, 23, 24, 52, 76, 129, 132, 

133- 

CALS i2f>. 

CAMOIN Charles 118. 
Cannet, Le in, lib, 133. 
CARLYLE 141. 
CARRIERE Eug6nc 51. 



147 



CASSATT Mary 9, , 121, 130. 

CAZALIS 93. 

CAZIN 138. 

CBNNINI Cennino 42, 133, 134. 

Centennial Exhibition 1 1 8. 

CAZANNK Paul xi, xin, xv, xvn, xvin, 

XIX, XX, XXI, I, 4, 7, 9* 1*. 19, 20, 21, 

25, 8. 3<>. 3* 34. 35. 30, 46, 47. 4^. 
49. 50, 5. 5. 53. 55, 5^. 58. 63, 76, 77. 
96, 107, 115, 117, 1x8. 123, 127, 130, 

133. *35- 

CHAGALL Marc 51. 
Chailly I, 4, 115, 128, 132. 
CHAMPFLBURY Jules 119, 127. 
Champrosay (Seine-et-Oise) 132. 
Chantilly i. 
CHAPLIN Charles 126. 
CHARCOT, D* 38. 
CHARDIN Jean-Baptiste 24, 
Charing Cross Bridge 29, 129. 
CHARPENTIER, M mt 21, 132, 133. 
CHASSKRIAU Theodore 41. 
Chateau de Malrom6 76, 139. 
Chat Noir 76, 83, 137. 
Chatou 133. 
CHBRBT 83. 

CHBVREUL 34, 56, 58, 135. 
CHOCOLAT (Clown) 83. 
CHOCQUET 21, 76, 117, 118, 127, 132. 
Cirque Fernando 83. 
Cirque d'Hiver 83. 
Cirque Medrano 83. 
CLARK Stephen C. Collection, New York 

5L 136. 
CLAUDE xix. 
CLAVAUD 131. 

Cloisonnism 51, 69, 70, 74, 101, 124. 
CLOUET Francois 121. 
Collioure 137. 
Commune La 21, 117, 120, 121, 126, 

132, 138- 

CONDER Charles 139. 
CONDORCET Lycee 93, 95, 102, 122, 134, 

138. 143. 

CONSTABLE John xi, xvn, xix, i, 2, 18, 
19, 24, 47. 13- 

Constructivism xi. 

Copenhagen 51. 

CORMON Fernand, Studio 88, 139, 141. 

COROT Caraille i, 2, 4, 5, 12, 15, 16, 21, 
22, 24, 31, 34, 46, 47, 66, 98, 119. 120, 
126, 130, 131. 132, 133, 138. 

CORRE 83. 

COSTS Numa 117. 

COTTBT Charles 140, 143. 

COURBET Gustavo xi, XIH, xvn, xxi, i, 2, 
3, 4, 5. 6, ii, 12, 15, 16, 18, 20, 21, 30, 
3*. 34. 39. 4*. 42, 63, 77, 91, 115, 117, 

119, 126, 127, 128, 131, 138, 140. 
COURT AULD Institute, London 7, 54, 

124, 136. 
COUTURE 1 26. 
Cravache (La) 82. 
Croi&sy 14, 21, 24, 133. 
CROSS Henri-Edmond 51, 52, 58, 59, 77, 

120, 131, 136, 137. 

Cubism xi. 9, 36, 53, 74, 96, 97- 
Cuiseaux (SaAne-et- Loire) 143. 

DALE Chester Collection, New York 132. 

DANIEL-HOPS 88. 

DARWIN 31. 

DAUBIONY Charles-Francois 15, 16, 19, 

21, 128, 129, 132, 138. 
DAUDKT Alphonse 2, 132. 
DAUMIBR Honorl xin, 6, 21, 63, 126, 

142. 

DAVID Louis xi. 
Deauville 18, 116, 120. 
Decadent (Le) 82. 
DECAMPS Alexandre 130. 
Decoration 108, ill. 
DEDEB 134. 
DEGAS Edgar xvn, i, g, 10, 11, 18, 20, 

21, 25, 31, 32, 42, 51, 52, 76, 83, 84, 88, 

96, 104, 103, 121, 124, 128, 130, 136, 

139, 141- 

DELACROIX Eugene xi, xxi, i, 2, 3, 5, 
7, 12. 20, 21, 24, 30, 41, 42, 54, 63, 74, 
76, 115, 117, 122, 126, 128, 131, 132, 

135. 142- 
DELAUNAY Robert 121. 



DENIS Maurice 47, 51, 74, 77, 8a, 83, 
92. 93. 95, 96, 101, 102, 115, 116, 118, 
120, 121, 122, 124, 125, 131, 135, 140, 

M3. 

DERAIN Andr6 76. 
DHSBOUTIN Marcellin 127. 
DBSCHAMPS LEON 82. 
DESVALLIERES Georges 93, 123. 
DIAZ de la Pefia, Narcisae, i, 4, 126, 132. 
DICKENS Charles 141. 
Dieppe 39, 51, 121, 129, 130, 132. 
DIHAU Desir6 10. 
Divisionism 39, 51, 56, 58, 61. 
DOR^ Gustavo 142. 
Douai 59, 120. 

DUBOIS-PlLLBT 51, 52, 58, 136. 

DUPRA 31. 

DURAND-RUEL i, 19, 2i, 37, 39, 5*. 7 6 . 

Il6, 121, 122, 124, 127, 129, 130, 131, 
132. 133. 130, 138. 

DURANTY Edmond 9, 21, 28, 121, 127. 
DURBR Albert 77, 140. 
DVORAK Max xi. 



Ecole des Beaux-Arts i, 4, 21, 39. 5** 

56, 58, 88, 92, 102, 113, 117, 121, 130, 

131, 132, 135. 138. 140. 143- 
Ecole des Beaux- Arts de Lille 120. 
Ecole ROCROY 95. 
EDISON 31. ' 

EMPERAIRE Achille 117. 
England i, 5, 18, 21, 116, 119, 129, 130, 

141. 

ENSOR James 51, 76, 80. 
Epinal 70. 
Eragny 39, 130, 
ESPAGNAT Georges d' 131. 
Essoyes 51, 133. 134. 
Estampe (L f ) 83. 
Estampe moderne (L') 83. 
Estampe originate (L') 83. 
Estaque, L' i, 19, 21, 39, 45, 47, 117, 

118, 133. 

Etretat i, 14, 39, 51, 120, 128, 129. 
Evgnement (L*) i, 8, 127, 138. 
Existentialism xin,. 
Exposition internationale Georges Petit 

129, 133. 

Expressionism xx. xxi, 63, 66, 80, 81. 
Expressionists 2, 80. 



FANTIN-LATOUR Theodore J, 7. 115, 

120, 121, 127, 131, 132. 
Fauvism xi, 6, 36, 59, 63, 66. 74, in, 

1 20. 129. 
FA YET 131. 

Fecamp i, 127. 128, 129. 
FENEON Felix 51, 52, 76, 82, 104. 116, 

123. 136. 

FESSBR, M 126. 
FIBRBNS Paul Collection, Brussels 71, 

124. 

Figaro 8. 77, 82. 139. 
FILIGER 51, 77, 92, 124, 135. 
FIQUBT Hortense 117, 118. 
FLAJOULOT 119. 
FLANDRIN Hippolyte 121. 
FLAUBERT Gustave 21, 131. 
FLEURY Robert 143. 
Florence 93, 121, 133. 
Foire du Trone 76, 83, 86. 
Foiies-Bergere 39. 

Folkwang Museum Essen i. 4, 125, 132. 
Fontainebleau x, 4, 118, 119. 
Fontenay-aux-Roses i, 101, 115. 
FOOTIT (CLOWN) 83. 
FORAIN Jean- Louis 82. 83, 139. 
Forest of Fontainebleau i, 4, 7, 39, 115* 

128, 132, 138. 
FORT Paul 51, 82. 
FOUQUBT Jean 12. 
FOURNAISE 14, 21, 133. 
FRA ANGELICO 135. 
FRANCE Anatole 136. 
France-Champagne 83, 115. 
Frankfurt Museum 67, 
FROMBNTIN Eugene 131. 
FULLER Lole 83. 
FOSSLI, 77. 
Futurists 30. 



GABRIBLLE 133. 

GACHBT, (Docteur) 21, 66, 67, 117, 142. 

Galerie BOUBSOD et VALADON 51, 124. 

Galerie MARTINET i, 7, 127. 

Galerie PETIT 39, 51, 83. 

GALLIMARD 133. 

Gardanne 39, 118. 

GAUGUIN Paul xi, xm, xv, xvi, xvn, 



63, 64, 66, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 7. 77. 

81, 82, 83, 93, 101, 102, 105, 115, 121, 

122, 123, 130, 134, 135, 136, 141. *4 2 ' 
GAUTIBR Theophile xiv, 127. 
GBFFROY Gustave 38, 48, 51, 115, 116, 

1 1 8, 129. 

Gennevilliers 27, 127. 
Germany xxi. 
GER6MB, Studio 143. 
GIBBRT (cours de dessin) 117. 
GIDB Andrl 83, 116, 122, 131, 136. 
GIORGIONB 7. 
GIOTTO 135, 139. 
GILRAY 81. 

Giverny 30, 39, 118, 129. 
GLBYRE'S Studio i, 4, 7, 42, "5, * 2 7 

128, 132, 138. 

GLOANEC Marie- Jeanne 123, 124. 
GODBBSKI Cipa 100. 
GOERG 135. 
Gold Section 102. 
GONCOURT Brothers 5, 9, 18, 76, 121, 

6, 135. 

GONZALBS Eva 127, 128. 
GOULUE, LA 76, 83, 86, 87, 88, 139. 
GOUNOD Charles 132. 
GOUPIL Gallery 130, 140, 141. 
GOURMONT Remy de 76, 82. 
GOYA Francisco de 6, 24, 77, 127. 
Grand Cate 76. 
GRAN DC AMP 51, 55, 136. 
GRANDVILLE 77, 122. 
Grasse 116. 133. 
Gravelines 51, 55. T 3 6 - 
Greece 70, 123. 

Grenouillere, La i, 14, 15. **. 128, 132. 
GRIS Juan 51. 53. 
GRONKOWSKI C. 120. 
Groot Zundert 140. 
Guernsey 39, 133- 
GUILLAUMIN Armand 21, 34, 52, 02, 117* 

130. 137- 

GUILLEMET Antoine 9, 117, 118. 
GUYS Constantin 9. 



Haarlem 21, 51, 129. 

HAHNLOSER Collection, Winterthur, 

36, 78, 86, 105. 106, 107, 109, 140. 
HA LEVY Daniel 122. 
HALS Frans 21, 127. 
HARPIGNIKS Henri 126. 
HARRIMAN Collection, New York 75, 124. 
Havre, Le i, 4, 5, M. ' 8 . 3^, 39. 9, 

121, 123, 126, 128, 129, 130, 136, 139. 
HEGEL xvn. 
HEIDEGGER xvn. 
HENRY Charles 53. 5^. 13. *37- 
HENRY Marie 70, 124. 
HBSSBL Jos. 143. 
Hippodrome 83, 127. 
HODIN J.-P. xxii. 
HOGARTH William 77, 81. 
HOKUSAI 9. 

HOLBEIN Hans xvi, 56, 58, 121. 135. 
Holland 18, 21, 65, 76, 116, 119, 126, 

129, 131, 133, 137. 143- 
Holy Proportion 102. 
HONFLEUR i, 4, 5. 15. 3. 5*. 55. "5. 

120, 126, 128, 136, 138, 140. 
HOSCHEDE, M m 39, 127. 129- 
H6tel DROUOT 21, 51, 76, 124, 132. 
HOUSSAYE Arsene 128, 132. 
HUBT Paul 5. 
HUGO Victor 2, 12. 
HUSSERL xvn. 
HUYS Pierre 81. 
HUYSMANS Joris-Karl 21, 38, 39, 49, 

92, 118, 123, 131, 137- 



IBBLS A. 92, 102, 131, 140, 143. 
IBSEN Henrik xxi, 82, 143. 
Ile-de-France 47, 130, 138. 



148 



Impressionism xxi, a, 5, 7, 8, 9, n, 12, 
14, 15, 18, 19, 20, 21. 22, 23, 24, 25, 
28, 31, 36, 37, 39, 40, 42, 43, 47. 5*, 
53* 5, 39, 63, 65, 70, 83, 92, 96, 101, 
zx8, 120, 129, 130, 136, 143. 

INGRES Jean-Auguste-Dominique z, 2, 
21, 40, 41, 42, 56, 74, 121, 122, 135. 

ISABEY Eugene 126. 

ISRAELS xxi. 

Issy 21. 

International Maritime Exhibition x. 

Intimism 96, 108, in, 123. 

Italian Art 93- 

Italy 37, 38, 39, 42, 43. 7, 93. "&, 122, 
123, 133, *37, MO- 



Charles 126. 
JALOUX Edmond 118. 
JAMMES Francis 77, 131. 
JANVIER, Pdre 93, 
Japanese Art 9, 19, 65, 70 ,72, 74, 88, 

93,96. 102, 115, 121, 141, 143. 
Japonism 9. 

JARRY Alfred 76, 82, 104. 
Jas de Bouffan 39, 76, u?> n8. I 33- 
JOHNSON J. J. Collection, Philadelphia 

127. 
JONGKIND Johann-Barthold i, 4. 5, 7, 

15, 10, 18, 24, 30, 31, 58, 115, 126. 128, 



KAHN Gustave 51, 82, 136. 
KANDINSKY W. xvi. 
KANT Emmanuel xm. 
KEYSERLING Hermann de 53. 
KLEK Paul xxn. 
KOFFKA XLX. 
Kunsthalle, Berne 128. 
Kunsthaus, Zurich 81, 120. 
Kunstmuseum, Basel 50, 75, 124, 132. 
KROLLRR-MCLLER, Rijksmuseum, Ottcrlo 
5i, 55, 58, 59- 61, 64, 65, 79, 136. 



La Baule 143. 

LACAZR 121. 

LAFORGUB Jules 51. 

LA FRESNAYE Roger de 135. 

LAMARCK 31. 

MC.LAREN Hon'ble Christopher Collec- 
tion, England 28. 

LARGUIER Lo 118. 

La Roche-Guyon (Oise) 118, 133. 

La Rochelle 133. 

Latrop (Hollande) 126. 

Lausanne 94, 140, 

LAVAL Charles 51, 124. 

Le Cateau i. 

LEBLOND Marius and Ary 132, 135. 

LECCBUR Jules 132. 

LBCOMTE G. Collection 82, 117, 118. 

LEENHOFF Rudolf and Suzanne 27,126, 
127. 

LEFEBVRE Jules 94, 140. 

LKHMANN Henri 21, 135. 

LEJOSNE Commandant 115, 126. 

LEPAGE Bastien 31, 138. 

LEPERE Augusta 77. 

L'Etang-la-Ville 116, 135, 

LKWISOHN Collections, New York 21, 
124. 

Libre Esth6tique, Brussels 76, 116, 118. 

Limoges 133. 

LINDON A. Collection 30. 

LIPPI Filippino 126. 

LIRE 132. 

Loing Canal, 21, 39, 138. 

London 18, 19, 34, 39, 76, 127, 129, 130, 
133, 138, 139, 140, 143. 

LORRAIN Claude Gelta, dit le 19. 

Lorry-les-Metz 134. 

Loubon 117. 

Louis Pierre 101. 

LOUVECIENNES I, l6, 21, 34, HQ, 1 3, 

132, 133, 138. 

Louvre, Paris i, 5, 7, 8, 10. 13, 20, 21, 
23, 25, 26, 35, 51, 56, 57, 67, 75, 84, 
85, 115, 117, 119, 121. 126, 127, 128, 
130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 136, 139* I4 
141. 

Lours Pierre 104. 



LOYAL, Monsieur 83. 

LUCE Maximilien 52, 77, 92, 13*- 

LuGNE-Poit A.-M. 51, 76, 82, 102. 115, 

122. 135, M3- 
LUMIERE BrothctH 76. 

MACK Gerstle xvn, xvm. 

Madrid i. 

MAETERLINCK Maurice 82. 

MAILLOL Aristide 92, 133, 

MAITRE Edmond 20, 115. 

MALLARME Stlphane 21, 72, 76, 77, 82, 

124, 127, 129. 131, 136, 143. 
Malleraye 21. 
MANET Edouard xi, XVH, xxi, i, 3, 6, 7, 

8, 9, 12, 13, l8, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 

27, 28, 29, 30. 35, 3 6 3, 39. 5*. 77, 88, 

115, 117, 120, 121, J23, 126, 127, 128. 
129, 139- 

MANET Eugfcne 52. 

MANTEGNA Andr6 121. 

MANTZ Paul 128. 

Marlotte i, 4, 132, 138. 

Marly 21, 24, 138. 

Marocco 122. 

Marquesas Islands 74, 125. 

MARSHALL Field Collection, New York 

132 

Marseilles i. 19, 45, 124. 
Martigues (Bouches-du-Rh6ne) 133. 
Martinique 51, 69, 123, 124. 
MARX Roger 115, 136, 143. 
Mataeia 124. 
MATISSE Henri xm, i, 2, 6, 7, 59, 76, 91, 

101, 1 20, 

MAUFRA 70, 92. 
MAUPASSANT Guy de 14. 
MAURIN Charles 139, 140. 
MAUVE Studio 64, 141. 
MAXWELL James 56. 
Median 21, 118. 
MEISSONNIER Ernest 120, 127. 
MELBYE Anton Studio 130. 
MELBYE Fritz 130. 
Melun 21, ii 8. 
Menton 51, 129. 
Murcure de France 51, 69, 76, 77, 82, 

142. 

Mere TOUTAIN i, 5. 
MERY-LAURENT 127, 128. 
MRSSINE Antonello de 140. 
Meudon 138. 
Metropolitan Museum New York 14, 27, 

119, i2i, 128, 132. 

MEYER de HAAN 51, 70, 71, 124, 135. 
MICHEL Georges 16. 
MILLET Jean- Francois xvn, xxi, i , 4, 63, 

141, H2. 

t Mirliton* (Le) 51, 83, 139. 

Moderniste (Le) 82. 

Modern Style 93. 

MOLYNEUX Collection, Paris 103. 

MONCHY D. DK, Collection 129. 

MONDRIAN Piet xvi. 

MONET Claude xvn, i, 2, 4, 5, 6, 9, 
12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 
24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 3, 3 1 * 35, 37, 3 8 > 39, 
5i, 52, 58, 59, 63, 77, 93. 107, '15, 
117, 118, 120, 123, 126. 127, 128, 130, 

132, 13^, 137, *3 8 ' 
Montfoucault i, 21, 130. 
MONFREID Daniel de r xx, 74, 123, 125. 
MONTICELLI Adolphe xxi, 39, 118. 
Montmartre 16, 21, 51, 82, 83, 88, 104, 

ub, 139, 141. 
Montpellier 4. 20, 11.5, 121, 128, 131, 

142. 

MOORS George 21. 
MOREAS Jean 51, 77, 82, 131. 
MOREAU Gustave 76. 121. 
Moret 21, 37, 39. 13. 13*. 
MORBT Henry 70. 
MORISOT Berthe i, 6, 38, 52, 127, 132, 

133, 139. 
Morlaix 135. 

MORNY Count of 18, 119. 

MORRIS William xi. 

Moulin de la Galette 83, 139, 

Moulin- Rouge 51. 76, 83, 86, 87, 130. 

MUNCH Edvard xi, xxi, xxn, 81, 82, 83. 

Munich 83, 119, 122, 133. 135. 

MURGER Henri 119. 



Municipal Museum, Amsterdam 124. 
Museum of Modern Art, Moscow, 4, 117, 

132. 
Muse> d'Art Moderne, Paris 118, 122, 

143- 

Museum Albi, 90, 138. 
Muse'e des Beaux-Arts, Tournai 27, 127, 
Museum, Bordeaux 131. 
Museum, Boston 76, 125. 
Museum, Dresden 132. 
Muse'e Fabre, Montpellier 3, 119, 124. 
Museum, Grenoble 17, 138. 
Musce Grtvin 94. 
Museum, Hambourg 127, 128. 
Museum, Helsingsfors 140. 
Museum, Lausanne 140 
Museum, Lille 119. 
Musde du Luxembourg 76, 94, ) 19. 
Museum, Lyon 119, 121. 
Museum, Nancy 128. 
Musee de 1'Orangerie, Paris 129. 
Museum, Pau 21, 121. 
Muse Kodin, Paris 40. 
Mystics 92. 

Nabis, Les 51, 74, 76, 82, 84, 91, 92, 93, 

101, 115, 122, 124, 134, 135, 143- 
NADAR, 9, 21, 127, 132. 
NANSEN Peter 116. 
Nantes 136. 
Naples 121, 122, 
NATANSON 70, 82, 92, 102, 115, 116, 139, 

140, M3- 

Nationalgalerie, Berlin 51, 118, 128. 
National Gallery, London i, 39. 
National Gallery of Scotland. Edinburgh 

69, 124, 
National Museum, Stockholm 4, 14, 44, 

49, 132. 134- 
Neo- Impressionism 7, 36, 52, 55, 56, 

63, 81, 136. 

Neo-Impressionists xvui, 54, 82, 92, 130. 
Neo-Traditionalists 92. 
Neue Sachlichkeit 94. 
Neuilly 83. 
Nuenen 51. 
New Orleans 21, 121. 
Normandy 4, 15. 39, 116, 126, 129, 138, 

143 

Norway 38, 129. 
Nouveau-Cirque 83. 
Nouvelle Peinture (La) 21. 
NY CARLSBERG Glyptotek, Copenhagen 

123, 126. 

OLLER Francesco 117. 

Ope>a 10, 21, 121. 

ORFBR Le*o d' 82. 

Ornans (Jura) 119, 120. 

Os a mobile (L') 92. 

OSBORN W. Ch. Collection, Now York 127. 

Osny 39, 123. 

Ostend 81. 

Palermo 133. 
Panama Canal 72. 
Papeete 124. 
PASTEUR 31. 
Pavilion du rdalisme 119. 
Petit-Palais, Paris 119, 138, 143. 
PICASSO Pablo xn, xvn, xxn, 2, 39, 64, 
76, 96, 104. 

PlERRO DELLA FRANCESCA 139. 

Pinacothek Dresden nq. 

PIOT J. 92, 143. 

PISSARRO Camille xni, xvn, xvni, xx, 

i, 4, 7, 9, 12, 16, 17. 18, 19, 21, 25, 

28, 29, 30, 34, 35, 37. 39. 4<>, 5<>, 5*. 

52. 60, 61, 66, 70, 72, 76. 83, 117, 118, 

121, 123, 128, 129, 130, 136, 141. 
Pl&ade, La 77, 82. 
PLOTINUS 102. 
Plume* (La) 76, 77, 82. 
POE Edgar 131. 
Pointillism xn, 39, 51, 52, 59, 60, 61, 

65, 120, 130, 136, 137. 
Poissy 39, 129. 
Pont-Aven 51, 61, 69, 70. 71, 72, 96, 

Ji5, 122, 123, 124, 133, 135. 
Pontoise i, 17, 21, 25, 34, 35, 39, "7. 

118, 123, 130. 



149 



Pornic 133. 

Port-en-Besin 51, 53, 136. 

Portricux 58. 

Pouldu, Le 51, 70, 124, 135. 

POULKT-MALASSIS 127. 

POUP^E Marie 124. 

Pourville 39. 129, 132. 

POUSSIN Nicolas xin, 135. 

Pre-impressionist School 4. 

Preraphaelites, I^es 139. 

Primitives 93. i- 

PRINCETEAU Ren6 88, 138. 

Prix de Rome 102, 115, 135, 138. 

PROUDHON 119. 

PROUST Antonin 126, 128. 

PROUST Marcel 76, 96. 

Provence 35, 37, 39, 47, 66, 117, 120, 

126. 

PUGET Pierre 49. 
Puiseaux 95. 

Puvis DE CHAVANNES Pierre 51, 139. 
PUY Jean 76. 
PYTHAGORAS 102. 



RANSON 51, 77, 82, 92, 101. 102, 115, 

122, 135, 140, 143. 

RAPHAEL xn, 39, 41, 42, 43, 44, 50. 63, 

74, 85, i2i. 133, 135. 
RAYNAUD Ernest 82. 
RECLUS Eli8c*e 130. 
REDON Odilon 7, 21, 51, 52, 74, 76, 77, 

78, 79, 80, 82, 115, 116, 118, 131, 136. 
REGNIER Henri de 104, 136. 
REINHART Oscar Collection, Winter- 

thur, 14. 

REMBRANDT xxi, 63, 119, 126, 131, 142. 
Renaissance 24, 37, 41. 
RKNAN Ernest 31. 
KENAN'S Georges Collection, Paris 53. 
RBNARD Jules 116,136. 
RENOIR Auguste xvn, i, 4, 7, 9, 12, 14, 16, 

18, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 29, 30, 37, 

38, 30. 40, 4'. 42. 43. 44. 51. 52. 63, 76. 

77. 83, 93. 96, 104, 107, 115, 117, 118, 

123, 127, 128, 129, 132. 133. 134. 136, 
138. 

Revolution 3 1 . 

t Revue Blanche (La) 76, 82, 83, 92, 

104, 115, 116, 139, 140. 143. 
Revue Ind^pendante (I-a) 5 1 , 82, 1 36. 
RIMBAUD Arthur 82. 
Rire {Le) 76, 82, 139. 
ROCHEFORT Henri 126, 128. 
RODIN Auguste xvn, 40, 51, 119, 129. 
Romanticism 36, 98. 
Rome 121, 122, 123, 133, 135. 
ROOD N. O. 53, 56, 136. 
ROSER 127. 

ROUART Henri 121, 122. 
ROUART Ernest M m * Collection 127. 
ROUAULT Georges 21, 76. 
Rouen 39, 51, 123, 130, 
ROULIN 68, 141. 
ROUSSEAU Jean- Jacques 31. 
ROUSSEAU The*odore 4, 15, 16, 31. 
ROUSSEAU, Douanier 51. 
ROUSSEL Ker-Xavier 77, 92, 93, 95, 96, 

101, 102, 104, 116, 118, 122, 134, 135, 

MO, 143- 

ROWLANDSON 8l. 

RUBENS 40, 41, 49, 65, 141. 
Rueil (Seine et Oise) 30, 39, 117, 128. 
RUYSDABL Jacob- Isaac 24. 
RYSSELBERGHE The*o VAN 92, 131. 



Sacred Art, Studios of 93, 123. 
Sainte-Adresse i, 5, 15, 128. 
Saint-Cloud 21, 138. 
Saint-Germain -en- Lay e 21, 116, 122, 

127, 129. 

Saint-I*azare Station 28. 
Saint-Mammas 21, 39. 
Saint-Michel 14, 15. 
Sainte-Pe'lagie 1 20. 
Saint-Rdmy 51, 65, 66, 67, 142. 
Saint-Simeon I, 4, 5. 
Saint Thomas des Antilles 130. 
Saint-Thomas Aquinas xin. 
Saint-Tropez 116, 137. 
Saint- Vale* ry-sur-Somme 121, 122. 



SAUS Rodolphe 83. 

Salon 37, 42, 43. 

Salon 1844 119. 

1848 126. 

1849 119. 

1850 119, 126. 

1852 119. 

1853 119. 

1855 119. 

1856 119. 

1859 i, 5 126. 

1860 120. 

1 86 i 130. 

1864 117, 132. 

1865 127, 128. 

1866 , 128, 130, 138. 

1867 , 13. 128, 131, 132, 138. 

1868 i, 115, 127. 

1872 127. 

1873 21, 127. 

1874 127. 

1875 27. 

1876 21, 72, 123, 127. 

1877 127. 

1879 21, 118, 132, 133. 

1880 129. 

1881 121. 

1882 39. 128. 

1883 39. 136. 

1884 51, 136. 

1885 140. I 

1886 15. 

1887 140. 

1888 136. 

1890 122, 133. 

1891 140. 
1895 76, 115. 

Salon d'Automne 1903 116, 140. 
1905 116, 1 18. 

1904 1 1 8, 133. 
Salon des Cent 82. 

Salon des I nde* pendants 1884 39, 51, 
120, 131, 136, 137. 

1888 136. 

1889 136, 139. 

1890 130. 

1891 51,76, 115, 136, 140. 

1892 115. 

1893 14. 
1899 118. 

IQOI 116, 118, 134. 

1905 116, 1 18. 
1935 137. 

Salon de la Nationale 76. 

Salon des Refuse's 1863 i, 7, 9, 126, 127, 

130. 

Salon des Rose-Croix 76. 
Salon des XX (vingt) , Bruxelles 51, 118. 

133. 136, 137. 14*- 
SAMARY Jeanne, 132. 
SCHANNK 5, 119 

SCHELLING Xlll. 

ScmjFFKNF.cKF.R Kmile 49, 52, 70, 72, 

77, 92, 123, 124. 
SCHWITTRRS Kurt xiii. 
SEARS Mrs. Collection, Boston 127. 
Second Empire 18,31. 
SEGUIN 51, 124. 
Seine. La 14, 15, 18, 23, 24, 34. 
SERUSIER Paul 51, 70, 74, 76, 77, 82, 

92, 101, 102, 104, 115, 118, 122, 124, 

131. 134. U5. MO, 143. 
SEURAT Georges- Pierre xvn, i, 7, 21, 34, 

39, 5*. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56, 57. 5. 59, 61, 

66, 76, 81, 82, 83, 92, 93, 104, 120, 130, 

135. X36, 137* HI- 

Sevres 21, 138. 

Sienna 93, 123. 

SIGNAC Paul 7, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59, 66, 
76, 77, 92, 120, 130, 131, 136, 137, 141, 
142. 

SISLEY Alfred i, 4, 5, 9, 16, 17, 18,19, 
20, 21, 23. 24, 25, 28, 29, 30, 37, 
38. 39. 5*. 5*. 76. 77. 115. "7, 123, 
128, 129, 132, 136, 137, 138. 

Socie"t des Indpendants 51, 52, 58, 

131. 136. 

Socie*t Nationale des Beaux-Arts 51. 
SOLARI Philippe 117. 
South Sea Islands 72, 74, 105. 
Soviet Union xiii, xxii. 
SOYE M m 9. 



Spain i, 21, 76, 116, 121, 133. 

SPENCER 31. 

STBINLEN Theophile- Alexandra 76, 82. 

STEVENS Alfred 115, 126. 

STRINDBERG 124. 

Suresnes 2 x . 

Surrealism xx, 36, 77. 

SUTTBR David 53, 136. 

Symbolism xiv, xv, xvi, 63, 70, 72, 

77, 81, 82, 96, 101, 136. 
Symboliste (Le) 82. 
SYMONS Arthur 139. 
Synthesism xv, xvn, xvin. 51, 69, 70, 

74, 92, 101, 124, 134. 
Synthesists 92. 124. 
Switzerland 2, 94, 120, 140. 



Tahiti 51, 76, 82, xoi, 123, 124, 125, 135. 

Tamaris 133. 

TANGUY, Pere 21, 115, 117, 141. 

TAPiA DE CELEYRAN AdMc 138. 

Tate Gallery, London 7, 18, 33, 39, 5* 

53, i2i, 127, 128, 136. 
TERRASSK Claude 76, 103, 115, 116. 
TKRRONT 83. 
Thames 19, 29, 59. 
Th6atrc d'Art 51, 82. 
Theatre du Grand-Guignol 82. 
Theatre Libre 51, 82, 143. 
Theatre d 'Ombres 76. 
Theatre de 1'CEuvre 76, 82, 96, 102, 115, 

122, 135, 143. 

Theatre des PantinK 76, 82, 116. 
Theatre de SARAH BERNHART 76. 
THOR-BURGEK 132. 
THURNEYSSEN Collection, Munich 133. 
TIEPOLO Giovanni -Baptista 108. 
TIFFANY 76, 115. 

TINTORET Jacopo Robusti, dit le 126. 
TISSOT James <j. 
TITIAN 6, 7, 44, 126. 
TOULOUSE-LAUTREC Henri de i, 9, 5 l 

66, 76, 77, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 89, 

90, 92, 105, 115, 116, 138, 139, 140, 141, 

142. 

Tour-de Peilz (Suisse) 120. 
Trouvilh* 5, 18, 116, 120, 121, 128, 

129. 

TROYON Constant 15, 16, 126, 128. 
TRUSSKL Collection, Bern 80. 
TURNER William xix, i, 18, 19, 29, 129. 
TUSSAIJD, M m " 94. 
TYSON Carrol J. Collection, Philadelphia 

21, 51, 127, 133. 



UCCRLLO Paolo 130. 
United States xin, 31, 116. 
UTKILLO Maurice 83. 



VALABREGUE Anthony 117, 

VALADON Su/anne 83, 133. 

VALENTINO (Bal) 83. 

VALL&S Jules 2, 137. 

VALLETTE Alfred 51. 

VALLOTTON l r e*lix 74, 76, 92, 94, 101, 

102, 104, 131, 140, 143. 
VALLOTTON Paul, Collection, Lausanne 

94- 

VALPINCXJN 21, 121. 

VAN GOGH Vincent xi. xiii, xv, xvn, 
xx, xxi, xxii, 9, 39, 51, 52, 56, 61, 
62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67/68/69, 76, 81, 
88, 123, 130, 137, 140, 141, 142, 143. 

VAN GOGH Th6o 124, 140, 141, 142. 

VAN WYCK BROOKS xx. 

Varengeville 39. 129, 130. 

VELASQUEZ Diego 127. 

Vend6me Column 2, 120. 

Veneux-Nadon 21, 138. 

Venice 21, 59, 120, 127, 129, 133, 
140. 

VERHAEREN Emile 82, 137. 

VERKADE 70, 92, 135. 

VERLAINE Paul 51, 76, 82, 96, 116, 143, 

VERMEER Jean 98. 

Vernon 116, 129. 

VERONESE Paul Caliari, dit le 49, 121. 



150 



V4thuil ax, 30, 39, 129. WAGNER Richard 117, 133. World's Fair, 1867 i, 9, 127. 

VXAUD Paul 90. Wales 3 9, 138- j8 W **9> r 3- 

tVieModernet(La) 21, 3*. **7, 129, WALRAF RICHARTZ Museum, Cologne 1878 21 

Hi i 1*6 irr 4- I88Q 5 ' ' 4 * 

vu n ; 7; WARGBMOKT 31.133. 1900 76. 

Vienna 83, 120, 140. WATTEAU Antoine 12,19,24^ WORRJNGER Wilhelm xxn. 

VIGNON Victor 130. WEJL Berthe ?6 WVZEWA T^odor de 133. 

Vme-d'Avray 13, 128, 132. WKV Francis 119. 

VINCI Leonard dc 140. WHISTLER James xvn, 7, 9* 120, f Ymagier, t I/ 76,82. 
Vogue (La) 82, 136. 139. 

VOLLARD Gallery 76, 115, n6, 119. WHITEHEAD xiv, xv. Zaandam 21. 

VXJILLARD Edouard 51, 74. 7*>. 77* 82, Wight. Isle of 39, 138- /IMMERMANN 83. 

84, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, WILDE Oscar 139. ZoLA Emile i. 7, 8, 9. 20, 21, 37, 38, 

loo, 102, 115, 116. 118, 124, 131, 134, WILLETTE 77, 139. 5^ <** 11 7, Il8 > J 3. '3^. 

135, 140, 143. Winterthur 140. ZULOAGA 77. 



PRINTED IN SWITZERLAND 



THIS, THE FIRST VOLUME OF THE COLLECTION, 

PAINTING o COLOUR HISTORY 

WAS PRINTED BY L'lMPRIMERIE CENTRALE, LAUSANNE. 

FINISHED THE TWENTIETH DAY OF DECEMBER 

NINETEEN HUNDRED AND FORTY-NINE. 



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