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HISTORY
OF
MORAVIAN
MISSIONS
BY
J. E. HUTTON. MA
AUTHOR OF
History of the Moravian Church ;
Fire and Snow ; Life of John Cennick ;
The Downfall of Satan.
Moravian Publication Office,
32. Fetter Lane, London, E.G. 4.
TO
A. E. H.
BV
H8
CONTENTS.
+
Book I. The Eighteenth Century ^^*^^
Pioneers, 1700-1800 3
Book II. The Builders, 1800-1914 ... 207
Book III. The Modern Advance, 1848-1914 321
Book IV. Methods, Measures and Ideals 463
Epilogue : By Bishop Arthur Ward . . 503
Appendix 515
Errata 581
Index 583
LIST OF MAPS.
1. North American Indian Mission - facing p. 80.
2. Eastern Hemisphere ; shewing Moravian fields
or efforts in Europe, Africa, AustraHa,
Palestine, Persia, India, Ceylon, Nicobar
Islands, and Western Tibet - facing p. 160.
Inset : detailed map of South Africa.
Nj^' 3. West Indies and Central America - facing p. 208.
4. Western Hemisphere ; shewing stations in
Greenland, Labrador, Alaska, California,
Surinam, Demerara - - - facing p. 321.
5. North Queensland facing p. 416.
6. Tanganyika Territory, Nyassa - facing p. 440.
7. Tanganyika Territory, Unyamwezi
facing p. 456.
The maps are printed on the following principle : —
Existing settlements or mission-stations, red.
Former mission fields or stations, blue.
Missions temporarily abandoned, green.
All other places, black.
PREFACE.
— -f —
For assistance in the task of writing this History —
a task undertaken at the request of the British
Province of the Moravian Church — I am much
indebted to several friends, and to each of these I
herewith tender my thanks. Bishop Arthur Ward
revised the proofs, made many useful suggestions,
and supplied me with invaluable information.
Bishop H. R. Mumford read the MS., and suggested
needful emendations ; and two other members of the
Provincial Mission Board, the Rev. J. N. Libbey, M.A.,
and the Rev. H. J. Wilson, B.A., drew my attention
to certain points of detail. Dr. Heber, who is now
at Leh, read the chapter on Western Tibet. The
Rev. Lorenzo Taylor, formerly a missionary in
Nicaragua, read the chapter on that field. The
Rev. T. L. Clemens, who has recently retired from
Tobago, read some of the sections on the West
Indies. Dr. S. K. Hutton read the first draft of the
chapters on Labrador. Mr. E. Hutton, B.A., helped
me to prepare the maps. Mr. F. T. Mann, B.A.,
corrected the proofs. The Rev. J. Connor, B.D.,
corrected the proofs and prepared the Index. The
Rev. C. J. Klesel helped me to obtain valuable
historical material.
As these pages pass through the press, many
British Moravians are shewing a renewed interest
in Moravian Missions ; and, if this volume deepens
that interest, one purpose for which it has been
written will have been accomplished.
Dublin, December, 1922,
BOOK I.
THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY PIONEERS.
CHAPTER PAGE
1. The Dreamer, 1700-31 3
2. The Voice in the Night, 1731-2 . . 15
3. The Danish West Indies, 1736-82 . . 24
4. The British West Indies, 1754-1800 , 50
5. Greenland, 1733-74 57
6. The North American Indians, 1734-1808 78
7. The South American Indians, 1735-1808 117
8. The BushNegroes OF Surinam, 1765-1813 121
9. South Africa : The Hottentots, 1786-44 126
10. Labrador, 1752-1804 131
11. The Jews, 1738-42 146
12. The Flying Scouts, 1734-1822. . . .155
13. zinzendorf as missionary leader,
1731-60 167
14. The Count's Successors, 1760-1800. . 187
A
HISTORY OF MORAVIAN MISSIONS.
Chapter I.
THE DREAMER, 1700—1781.
Among the historic buildings in England, few are
of greater interest to Moravians than that thrice
famous house at Kettering where, on October 2nd,
1792, William Carey, one of the founders of the
Baptist Missionary Society, flung down on the
parlour table some numbers of a missionary magazine
entitled Periodical Accounts, and, addressing twelve
other Baptist ministers, exclaimed : " See what
these Moravians have done " ; and my first duty
in this book will be to shew how much Carey meant
by that oft-quoted remark. What, then, when Carey
spoke, had the Moravian missionaries done ? How
long had they been engaged at their task ? What
Gospel had they preached ? What methods had
they employed ? Which countries had they visited ?
And how much success had they achieved ? Let
us haste at once to the fountain-head, and follow the
romantic story of the eighteenth century pioneers.
For the origin of Moravian Missions we must turn
both to a man and to a well-known religious move-
ment. The man was Count Zinzendorf, the renewer
of the Moravian Church, and described by a modem
writer as the " F^yierj2f^Iodern_Missions."t The
reUgious movement is generalTy knowri~as"Pietism ;
and the key to this chapter will be found in the
fact that while Zinzendorf founded Moravian MissionF,
fMiM Brain, MiBaionaiy Review of the World, 1900, p. 329.
(5)
4 A History of Moravian Missions.
while he gave the first missionaries their instructions,
and while he managed the whole enterprise down
to his closing days, yet, on the other hand, he was
brought up in Pietist missionary circles, studied
Pietist ideals, learned from Pietist teachers, and
both adopted and adapted Pietist methods of work.
In Count Zinzendorf we find the leader ; in the
Pietist Movement his environment ; and in certain
Moravians his first recruits.
1704-10 The story opens in his childhood. For about six
years Nicholas Louis, Count Zinzendorf, who was born
at Dresden on Ascension Day, May 26th, 1700, resided
in his grandmother's castle in the little village of
Gross -Hennersdorf in Saxony ; and though that castle
is now a partial ruin, the visitor is still shewn the
window from which the boy threw letters addressed
to Christ. There, in his grandmother's beautiful
home, the child, trained by Pietist teachers, learned
not only to love the Lord Christ, but even to worship
Him as God ; there, on more than one occasion, he
met the great Pietist leader, Philip Spener ; and there,
at what we should call a drawing-room meeting, he
first heard the glorious news which made him a
missionary zealot. At a meeting held some years later
in Fetter Lane, London (August 31st, 1753), Zinzendorf
told the story himself to a congregation of English
Moravians, and the curious feature of his narrative
is that, while he remembered the day and the hour,
he was not quite sure of the year. " I know," he
said, " the day, the hour, the spot in Hennersdorf.
It was in the Great Room ; the year was 1708 or
1709 ; I heard items read out of the paper about
the East Indies, before regular reports were issued ;
and there and then the first missionary impulse
arose in my soul." We have come to the fountain-
head of Moravian Missions.
According to Count Zinzendorf himself, whose
The Dreamer. 5
evidence on this point is unimpeachable, his interest
in Foreign Missions was first aroused by the story
of certain exploits in the East Indies ; and now we
must ask to what precisely he referred. There
cannot be the least doubt about the answer. Among
the more enlightened Protestants in Germany —
those, that is, who had studied the works of Baron
von Weltz, the missionary — the most enthusiastic
were the Pietists ; the founder of the move-
ment, Philip Spener, was a frequent visitor at
Gross-Hennersdorf Castle ; and the work to which
Count Zinzendorf referred was a certain Danish
mission in the East Indies manned by Spener's
colleague, August Hermann Francke. In those
days Francke was undoubtedly the greatest
missionary leader in the world ; and no one exercised
a deeper influence over Zinzendorf 's mind. By this
time Francke had already accomphshed wonders.
By reading Leibnitz's missionary treatise, Novissima
Linica, Francke became convinced that o ne of the
chief dutigs^of jhe Church was to preach the Gospel
to the heathen ; soon afterwarSs^^flTOl) he himself
wrote a treatise containing an elaborate scheme for
a Unive rsal Mission College ; and then, seizing the
first chance that came, he supplied the three men —
Bartholomew Ziegenbalg, Henry Pliitschau, and
Griindler — sent out to the East Indies by Dr. Liitken,
founder of the Danish College of Missions.
For our purpose this Mission — begun at Tranquebar
in 1706 — is of fundamental importance. At the very
time when Count Zinzendorf was living at Gross-
Hennersdorf Castle, these three men were sowing
the seed on the Coromandel coast ; by the aid of the
EngUsh East India Company, letters, forwarded
free of charge, arrived at Gross-Hennersdorf Castle,
describing the progress of the work ;? those letters
were read aloud in the young Count's presence ;
6 A HiSTOEY OF Moravian Missions.
and thereby he first learned to take an intelligent
interest in Foreign Missions. He was soon to hear
far more from another source. He was soon to grasp
the hands of the men themselves. We come to the
second stage in his development.
1710 At the age of ten Count Zinzendorf was sent to
Francke's school at Halle ; that very year, as it
happened, Francke published the first number of his
little missionary magazine entitled, " History of
the Evangelical Missions in the East for the Conver-
sion of the Heathen."! During the whole of his six
years at Halle (1710-16), Zinzendorf lived in a
missionary atmosphere. His own account reads like
an exaggeration. For the first two or three years of
his stay at Halle, Zinzendorf, so far as I can discover,
was still dependent for his knowledge of missions
on written reports ; he had not yet seen any
missionaries ; and yet he writes as though he had
seen many, " In Francke's house," he says, " I
had chances every day to hear edifying reports about
the spread of the Kingdom of God, to speak with
witnesses from foreign lands, to make the acquaintance
of missionaries, and to see martyrs and prisoners ;
and all this strengthened my zeal for the cause of
Christ." Let us now see how far this statement
is true. With every allowance for exaggeration, it
does at least contain a kernel of fact. In a letter
to his Aunt Burgsdorf, dated November 14th, 1713,
Zinzendorf distinctly mentions that for some time
Henry Pliitschau, one of the missionaries from
Tranquebar, had been staying at Francke's house ;
Pliitschau, he says, had brought with him a convert
named Timothy ; and the Count was so interested
in Timothy that he actually asked his mother to
send the young man a present. But the next event
fThia is goiK^nilly regarded fts the first MisBioiiary Magazine ever
published. It continued in various forms till 1880.
The Dreamer. 7
was of far greater importance. During the greater
part of 1715 all the three leading missionaries from
Tranquebar, i.e., Ziegenbalg, Pliitschaii, and
Griindler, were home on furlough at Halle ; every
day these three men dined at Francke's house ;
and the Count, being a noble, enjoyed the same
privilege. At the dinner table Zinzendorf sat
between Francke and his wife ; and opposite to
him sat the three missionaries.
And now we come to the Count's first missionary 1715
act. Among his schoolboy friends at Halle the chief
was Count Frederick de Watteville ; Watteville,
like Zinzendorf, sat at Francke's dining-table, and
heard the three men from the East discourse ; and one
day the two boys, strolling beside the red palings
outside the school, formed a solemn covenant. In
his " Natural Reflections," Zinzendorf himself
describes the covenant as follows : — " We resolved,"
he says, "to do all in our power for the conversion
of the heathen, especially for those for whom no one
else cared, and by means of men whom God, we
believed, would provide." In those words we find
the key to our story. The two boys had formed a
threefold resolution. First, they resolved to further
Missions ; secondly, they would give their attention
to despised and neglected races ; and thirdly, if
they could not go themselves, they would trust in
God to find recruits. For the third resolution they
have been severely blamed ; and Ritschl, in
his History of Pietism, says that Zinzendorf
refused to become a missionary himself because he
considered a missionary's work beneath the dignity
of a lord. To that accusation, however, there are
three answers. First, in 1716 Zinzendorf and
Watteville both vowed to go to India themselves ;
secondly, Zinzendorf's guardian intervened, and
compelled him, whatever his wishes, to study law
8 A History of Moravian Missions.
at Wittenberg ; and, thirdly, Zinzendorf afterwards
said to Cardinal Noailles in Paris : "If God had
chosen me for the office, I should be willing to run
the risk of going abroad." The chief point to notice,
however, is the origin of the covenant. On that
point Zinzendorf's evidence is decisive. According
to his own explicit statement, made at Fetter Lane,
London, Watteville and he were influenced, not by
reading books or hearing reports, but solely and
entirely by the conversation of the three missionaries
from Tranquebar. " We did not," he says, " come
to our resolution by reading the Bible ; nor by reading
descriptions of journeys ; nor even by reading reports
that came to the Society through the English post.
The men who moulded our conduct were these three
apostles, Pliitschau, Ziegenbalg, and Griindler. For
nearly a year we dined with them daily ; we even
talked to them ; and they gave us an idea of the work
which we could never have obtained from mere
reading." Nor was even this the full extent of the
missionaries' influence. For us English readers the
interesting point to notice is that, in 1710, two of those
missionaries, Ziegenbalg and Pliitschau, were enrolled
as corresponding members of the S.P.C.K. Each
of these two missionaries came to London, and
attended meetings of the Society ; each, on his
return to Halle, gave an account of his experiences ;
and, taking this English Society as a model,
Zinzendorf, just before he left school, designed,
though he did not yet actually establish, what was
afterwards known as his " Order of the Mustard
Seed."
Thus, at the early age of fifteen, Zinzendorf,
inspired by the conversation of the three missionaries
from Tranquebar, had not only begun to dream
dreams, but had formed more or less definite plans
for the conversion of the heathen. During the next
The Drbamsr. 9
six years, however, he was unable to take any definite
steps. At that time the prevailing opinion in
Germany was that any attempt to convert the
heathen was waste of time. His friend, Francke,
was commonly regarded as a fanatic ; most of
the Lutheran clergy had little evangelical zeal ;
and one famous preacher, Ursinus, who seems to
have been a popular type, express ed the opinion
that the heathen did not poss ess immnrtitl snnls.
^^ It is^u ^elesg," >^^ «i»id. " ^^^^ tfi-p-nivvfrt savagi^
who have nothing human about them except the
shape ojjtheir bodies. Such are the Greenlanders,
the Lapps, tEe Samoyedes and the cannibals."
Another eminent preacher, Neumeister, declared
that Foreign Missions were unnecessary ; and closed
his sermon on Ascension Day, 1722, with the lines : —
In former times 'twas rightly said.
Go forth to every land ;
But now, where God hath cast your lot,
There shall you ever stand.
In the Lutheran Church, therefore, Zinzendorf found
but little support.
His first recruits came from another source. As
soon as Zinzendorf had completed the education 1722
designed by his guardian — first at Wittenberg
University and then by means of the usual grand
tour — he took office, for the time being, as Aulic
Councillor at Dresden ; then (1722) he married
his cousin, Erdmuth Dorothea, bought from his
grandmother the estate of Berthelsdorf, ten miles
from the Bohemian frontier, installed his friend,
John Andrew Rothe, as pastor, and devoted his
leisure to the task of establishing a " Church within
the Church " in the village ; and, almost immediately
/ after the purchase, he was informed by his steward
I that some persecuted Protestants from Moravia,
10 A History of Moravian Missions.
led by Christian David, a carpenter, desired to
settle on his estate. Without a thought of
the future, Zinzendorf gave his consent. He had
never heard of these Moravians before. For a
hundred years the brave descendants of the old
Bohemian Brethren had held the faith of their
fathers in the Kineland of Moravia. They had
i buried their Bibles in their gardens, had held their
meetings at midnight in garrets and stables, had
preserved their records in dovecots and in the thatched
roofs of their cottages, and had feasted on the glorious
promises of the Book of Revelation ; and now, when
persecution broke out afresh, they bade farewell
to their ancient homes, left their goods and chattels
behind them, and built on Zinzendorf's estate the
far-famed settlement of Herrnhut. In these men,
though he knew it not, Zinzendorf was soon to find
his first missionaries to the heathen. From
Senftleben came Christian David, one of the first
missionaries to Greenland ; from Sehlen, the Neissers,
some of whom preached to the Indians ; from
Zauchtenthal the Nitschmanns and David Zeisberger,
the great apostle to the Indians ; from Kunewalde,
George Schmidt, the first missionary to South
Africa, and Frederick Bohnisch, another Greenland
pioneer ; and from Mankendorf, Matthew Stach,
the founder of the Greenland Mission. It is simply
amazing how events turned out. At the time not
one of these men had the least idea of becoming a
foreign missionary. For that task, however, no men
could be better fitted. Each had the blood of
martyrs in his veins ; each had learned to suffer for
his faith. Some had been chilled to the neck in
wells ; some had been yoked with oxen to the
plough ; some had lain in dungeons swarming with
vermin. For the sake of Christ they had left all
behind them ; for the sake of Christ they were
The Dreamer. 11
soon to march beneath the banner of the Cross.
Meanwhile, another force was at work. In addition
to providing a home for the emigrants from Moravia,
Zinzendorf gave a welcome to other persecuted
Protestants from various parts of Germany ; among
these were a few Schwenkfelders, Evangelicals from
Swabia, and Pietists from the immediate neighbour-
hood ; and some of these last, in due time, became
Moravian missionaries. From Miinchroth, in
Wiirtemberg, e.g., came Leonard Dober, the first
missionary in St. Thomas ; from Pommerschwitz,
in Upper Silesia, Dober's great successor, Frederick
Martin ; from Wernigerode, Louis Dahne, after-
wards a missionary in Surinam ; from a village
near Lobschutz, in Upper Silesia, John Beck, a
well-known leader in Greenland ; and from Grabow,
in Brandenburg, Solomon Schumann, the Apostle
to the Arawacks. Thus did two streams meet
at Herrnhut to form the broad river of Moravian
Missions ; and therefore, in Zinzendorf's missionary
army, we find two distinct elements. One part
consisted of descendants of the old Moravian Church ;
the other consisted chiefly of Pietists ; and the two
formed a powerful combination. The Moravians
were stern and laid the chief stress on ethics ; the"
Pietists were more evangelical and sentimental ;
and some time elapsed before the two elements
could be thoroughly fused.
It was here that Zinzendorf shewed his organizing
genius. For two or three years there existed at
Herrnhut a considerable amount of ill-feehng between
the Moravians and the Lutherans ; and Zinzendorf,
acting as mediator, not only changed the duel
into a duet, but organized the whole community
into an efficient fighting force. His process of training
lasted four years ; and during those four years he 1727-31
employed four methods. First, to teach the settlers
12 A History of Moravian Missions.
obedience, he persuaded them to sign their names
to a number of Statutes, known as the Brotherly
Agreement (July 4th, 1727) ; secondly, to teach
them Christian charity, he invited them to a Holy
Communion in Berthelsdorf Parish Church, and there
t;he Brethren were all so filled with the Spirit that
that day (August 13th, 1727) was justly regarded as
the spiritual birthday of the renewed Moravian
Church ; thirdly, he deepened their spiritual
experience by means of Bands, Classes, Hourly
Intercessions, Singing Meetings, and the Daily
Watchword ; and fourthly, and above all, he not
only sent some of the settlers on reconnoitring
expeditions to England, Denmark, Sweden, Hungary,
Moravia, and the Baltic Provinces, but also, in con-
nexion with these expeditions, established a monthly
Missionary Prayer Day. Meanwhile, his missionary
schemes took definite form. In 1727 he wrote to
the Danish Court and offered to send Moravian
Missionaries to Greenland ; in 1728, on the first
Prayer Day, February 10th, he propounded plans
for preaching the Gospel in the West Indies, Green-
land, Turkey, and Lapland ; and next day, February
11th, led by one Leonard Dober, twenty-six young
men made a League and Covenant to respond to the
first clear sound of the bugle call. In those twenty-
six men we find the vanguard of the great Moravian
missionary army. During the next four years they
1728-32 endeavoured to prepare themselves for the mighty
task. Each evening, after a hard day's work in the
open air, they met in a common room and studied
medicine, geography, and__languages ; sometimes
Zinzendorf himself gave them lectures on Church
history ; and standing on the Pisgah heights of hope,
they declared that they desired to be ready when the
blessed time should come. At the monthly Prayer
Day, Zinzendorf was at his best. Sometimes he
The Dreamer. IS
read out a piece of news in vivid dramatic style;
sometimes he read a letter from a travelling brother ;
sometimes he introduced a i-isitor from Denmark or
Lapland ; and sometimes, on the spur of the moment,
he even composed and sang a missionary hymn.
For the history of modern Protestant Missions,
the importance of these events can hardly be over-
estimated. In one sense Zinzendorf's work may be
called unique. By means of the foregoing methods
he changed a band of refugees into a missionary
army ; and history, says Dr. Bemhard Becker,
supplies no similar example. The change at Herrnhut
was wonderful. In bidding farewell to their ancient
homes, the emigrants had merely sought a city of
refuge, and their marching song contained the lines : —
Himself will lead me to a spot
Where, all my cares and griefs forgot,
I shall enjoy sweet rest.
But now the Count had given them a new ideal.
In the past they had longed for peace and quiet ;
now they were eager to face
Strange scenes, strange men, untold, untried
success ;
Pain, hardships, famine, cold, and nakedness.
Behind them lay the Moravian dales and the cleft
defiles of the Saxon Switzerland ; before them, dreary
frozen shores and palmy islands set in summer seas.
The Count had found his men, and the men had
found their caUing.
Let us pause to glance at the chain of cause and
effect. It is a curious fact that Moravian Missions
can be traced to the example of the Jesuits. On
his visit to Rome, the philosopher Leibnitz met some
Jesuit missionaries who had worked at Pekin.
Inspired by their zeal, he wrote his missionary
treatise Novissima Linica ; this treatise opened
14 A History of Moravian Missions.
Francke's eyes ; Francke inspired the " three men
to the East " ; the three men stirred the zeal of the
Count ; and the Count trained the refugees at
Herrnhut.
Note. — Was, then, the zeal of the first Moravian missionaries
due entirely, humanly speaking, to the influence of Zinzendorf ?
One other influence has, of course, been suggested. In his
" History of the Moravian Church during the Eighteenth and
Nineteenth Centuries," Bishop J. T. Hamilton points out (p. 50)
that Bishop John Amos Comenius, in his "Judicium duplex
de regula fidei " (published 1644), declared that it was the duty
of the Church to evangelize the heathen, and Comenius, he
says, was also thinking of a mission to the Mahometans, and
had planned the translation of the Scriptures into Turkish.
Had Comenius, then, any influence over the settlers at
Herrnhut ? I fear not. For anything I know to the
contrary, some of those settlers may conceivably have read
his book. No proof to that effect, however, has as yet been
discovered ; and, if the settlers had not read the book, it
cannot have influenced their conduct.
Chapter II.
THE VOICE IN THE NIGHT, 1781—1782.
As soon as the fighting force was ready, the
marching order rang out. The next scene of the
story is in Denmark. For some years Count 1731
Zinzendorf, who had a Httle royal blood in his veins,
and claimed connexion with the Danish Royal
Family, had lived on terms of friendship with
Christian, the Danish Crown Prince. In 1730 this
young man succeeded to the throne as Christian VI.,
and next year the Count was invited to be present
at the Coronation at Copenhagen. The invitation
caused him great perplexity. For some indefinable
reason, he was afraid to go ; yet, on the other hand,
he hoped that if he presented himself at Court he
might receive some official appointment which would
aid him in his missionary plans ; and, not being able
to settle the question himself, he summoned a meeting
of the Brethren, and put the matter to the vote.
The number present at the meeting was fifty-seven.
For the journey thirty-eight votes were cast ; against
it four ; and the other Brethren declined to give
an opinion. The Count consulted the Lot ; the
Lot said " Yes " ; and, taking four Bretliren with
him, the Count set off for Copenhagen. " I have,'*
he wrote in his diary, " a clear con^dction that
God has a secret purpose in this journey which will
come to light in His own time." In a few days his April 25th
premonitions were justified. At Copenhagen he
met Count Laurwig, Master of the Horse. This man
had in his service a negro-slave from St. Thomas,
named Anthony Ulrich ; and Anthony soon poured
into Zinzendorf's ears a heart-rending tale about
the slaves. He spoke of his own brother and sister,
(13)
IC A History of Moravian Missions.
Abraham and Anna, and of their keen desire to hear
the Gospel.
" If only some missionaries would come," he said,
" they would certainly be heartily welcomed. Many
an evening have I sat on the shore and sighed my
soul towards Christian Europe." To Zinzendorf
this was a genuine message from God. Without
the slightest hesitation, he arranged with Count
Laurwig that Anthony might, a few weeks later,
pay a visit to Herrnhut ; then, on his own return to
Herrnhut, he summoned the Brethren to a meeting,
and repeated Anthony's tale (July 23rd) ; and that
address stirred the soul of the first Moravian
missionary to the heathen.
Again the effect was swift. That night another
missionary star began to shine. As young Leonard
Dober lay tossing on his couch his soul was sore
distressed ; and thinking about the benighted
slaves of whom the Count had just spoken, he heard,
he was sure, a stern Voice bid him rise and preach
deliverance to the captives. " Thou art the
chosen man for St. Thomas," it said. But whence
the Voice came he could not surely say. On the one
hand, it might be his own excited fancy ; on the other,
it might be the Voice of God. Again and again
he heard the haunting words. With his mind
still torn in twain he fell asleep. jIn the morning
he consulted his Text Book ; and opening it at
July 24th random, he read the message, " It is not a vain thing
for you, because it is your life, and through this
thing ye shall prolong your days. Deut. xxxii., 47."
As these words, however, were not the text for the
day, he could hardly take them as God's answer to
his question ; and he was, moreover, perfectly sure
that if God had chosen him for the foreign field He
would speak in still clearer tones. He determined
to consult with his friend, Tobias Leupold. The
The Voice in thz Night. 17
day faded, the evening fell, and the two young
men, as their custom was, strolled together among
the brushwood that fringed the City on the Hill.
And then Leonard Dober laid bare his heart, and
learned to his amazement that all that day Tobias
had been in the same perplexing pass. Each had
heard the same solemn Voice in the night : each had
fought the same doubts : each had feared to speak
his mind, and had wondered what the other would
say ; and now they looked into each other's eyes,
knelt together in the gloaming, and, joining their
trembling voices in prayer, asked to be guided
aright. Sacred and glorious was the moment. As
they rose from their knees they felt assured that the
answer would soon be given.
Within half-an-hour it came. As soon as they had
finished their conversation, they joined the rest
of the Single Brethren : and the whole company,
striking up a hymn, marched two-and-two past
Zinzendorf's house. The Count was standing at the
door, with his friend Melchior Schafer, the Pastor
of GorUtz, by his side ; and just as the two young
men drew near, he stepped forward and said : " Sir,
among these young men there are missionaries to
St. Thomas, Greenland, Lapland, and other
countries."
At these words the hearts of Dober and Leupold
bounded with secret joy. Next day (July 25th)
they met again, and drafted the following letter.f
It was the first offer for service in Moravian Missions.
Private.
To His Highness the Count.
My Deah Count,
I know that I may speak quite plainly to
tThe German original, withered and yellow, lie* to-day in the
Hermhat Archivea.
18 A History of Moravian Missions.
you, and that you will not take it amiss if I tell
you about an incident that occurred just after you
told us about your journey. On that very evening
it came home to Brother Leonard Dober that he
must go to the slaves. (We did not meet, however,
till yesterday evening.) " If only you are fit for
the work," said he to himself, " you and Leupold
must go." With this thought in his mind he fell
asleep. No other Brother's name occurred to him.
In the morning he woke up with the same idea.
" You must now see," he said, " whether this is
only fancy." With this intent he opened his
Text Book, and read the text for August 8rd
(Deut. XXXII., 47). He then resolved that he
would consult with me, and that if I had the
same idea he would consider the matter settled.
In this way he would lay the case before God,
and notice what occurred. In the evening we
met and went together into the brushwood. He
said he had something private to say to me, told
me the whole story, and added that the matter
had been on his mind all day. In reply, I said
that the same thought had several times occurred
to me, that the affair concerned us both, that I, too,
as I was walking home, had resolved that if the
Brethren called us both I could say nothing against
it, and that I had thought of no colleague but him
and no people but the slaves. It was this that
impressed us so much : we had both had the
same thought. No doubt to some all this will
sound egotistical ; but when we remember how
our friendship began, what obstacles lay in the way,
and how, if we had followed our natural feelings,
we should never have come together at all, we
feel that our action is justified, and can only be
thankful for the favour God has shown us. Last
night we had another encouraging experience,
The Voice in the Nicht. 19
I heard the words about Greenlanders and Lap-
landers, and resolved to write to you. I had no
further chance of seeing Dober last night. To-day
I saw him again and asked his opinion. He said he
thought of suggesting himself that I should write
to you. Dear Brother, please keep the matter
private, think it over, and let us know your
opinion. May the Lord lead us in the right path,
rough though that path may be.
I remain, for ever.
Your obedient fellow-member,
TOBLVS LEUPOLD.
July 25th, 1781.
As soon as this modest proposal was ready,
Leonard Dober shpped it into Zinzendorf's hands.
The Coimt was charmed, discussed the project with
them, and then, without revealing their name*,
read the letter to the congregation.
Four days later, July 29th, Anthony Ulrich arrived
at Herrnhut. He had come at Zinzendorf's request,
p'pr the first time in the history of the Christian
Church a negro slave from the West Indies stood up
to address a congregation of orthodox Lutheran
Protestants ; and the chief burden of his message
was that no one could possibly preach to the slaves
unless he first became a slave himself. They had
to work all day, he said, on the plantations ; they
had to slink off to their huts when the curfew sounded ;
they were not allowed to go out after sunset ; and,
therefore, no one could preach the Gospel to them
unless he worked with them among the sugar canes.
His speech made Dober and Leupold keener than
ever. If they could only win one soul thereby,
they wer« ready, they declared, to sell themselves
ao A History of Moravian Missions.
as slaves. f For a year the issue remained in
doubt. With all their evangelistic zeal, the
Brethren had common-sense. Some said that the
offer was reckless and premature ; some dubbed
it " the pretty imagination of young officious minds " ;
and some even called it a bid for fame. For these
doubts and fears the Brethren had their own reasons.
They had heard of Egede's dismal failure in Green-
land. As Egede, they said, was not only a scholar
but a faithful preacher, it did not seem likely that,
while he hadi ^failed, two ignorant mechanics
would succeed. To these arguments, however,
the Count had a convincing reply. He had
studied Egede's methods ; he could see why Egede
had failed ; he believed that if the Brethren tried
a new method they would succeed ; and in a letter
to a friend in England he explained what that
method was, and thereby made his first contribution
to the Science of Foreign Missions. In that letter*
we find the germ of all his later ideas. " You are
not," he wrote, " to aim at the conversion of whole
nations : you must simply look for seekers after
the truth who, like the Ethiopian eunuch, seem ready
to welcome the Gospel. Second, you must go
straight to the point and tell them about the life
and death of Christ. Third, you must not stand
•fl must here correct a very widespread error. In an
article in the Hibbtrt Journal (January, 1920), entitled
" Is Christ Alive To day ? " (p. 368), Miss Constance Maynard
says that some of the Moravian missionaries " voluntarily
sold themselves as slaves to work with a gang in the cruel
cotton plantations." This is not correct. No missionary
ever became a slave. The truth is that, so far from being
slaves, some of the missionaries, both in Surinam and in the
West Indies, were compelled, much against their will, to
become slave ownen. They could find no other way of
earning a living.
*Dated Hermhut, April 12th, 1732 ; addressed, probably, to
a member of the S.P.Q. For the letter in full, see BQdingsche
Sammlungen, Vol, III., p. 189.
The Voice in the Night. 21
aloof from the heathen, but humble yourself, mix
with them, treat them as Brethren, and pray with
them and for them." To Dober himself he talked
in a similar strain. He encouraged him from the
outset, defended him against his critics, took him
with liim on a trip to Thuringia, and gave him
detailed instructions about his work. " What is it,"
he asked, " that the heathen know already ? They
know that there is a God (Rom. i., 19, 20) ; and,
therefore, the man who tells them of God is simply
wasting his time. ^Qliat2sj.tJth^t,they^do not know ?
They do not know that Christ came into the world
to save sinners ; and, tjierefor e^ the missionary
paust al ways be gin with the Gospel Message. And
how is it that missiohaHes have laired"rn~the past ?
They have failed because, instead of preaching
Christ, they have given lectures on theology."
The effect on Dober was encouraging. In spite of
the objections of his critics, he felt that he was called
to a mighty task, and, therefore, he wrote another
letter and re-stated his resolve (June 16th, 1732). June 16th,
His plea was beautifully simple : " I know the grace of 1732
Christ myself, and I know that in St. Thomas there
are slaves who cannot believe because they have not
heard. If another Brother will go with me, I am
ready to become a slave myself." The appeal went
home, the Brethren yielded, and the matter
appeared to be settled. But now, strange to say,
the Count himself still doubted. For the second
time he submitted a Foreign Mission issue to the
Lot. " Are you willing," he said to Dober, " to
consult the Saviour by means of the Lot ? "
" For myself," replied Dober, " I am already sure
enough, but I will do so for the sake of the Brethren."
A meeting was held (July 16th) ; a box of Scripture July 16th
passages was brought into the room ; and Dober drew
a slip bearing the words : " Let the lad go, for the
a A History of Moravian Missions.
Lord is with him."| Thus was the final verdict
given ; and Dober made ready for his journey.
But once again the Lot had to shape his plans. It
decided, not only that Dober might go, but that his
friend Leupold must stay at home. He chose
another companion, David Nitschmann. As we
look at the faces of those two pioneers, we see how
two distinct movements had clasped hands at
Herrnhut. The first, Dober, was a Lutheran from
Wiirtemberg ; the second, Nitschmann, was a
Moravian from Zauchtenthal ; and thus the two
elements of which the Renewed Moravian Church
was composed joined hands to begin the work of
Foreign Missions. Let us not despise them
as ignorant mechanics. Leonard Dober was only a
potter ; David Nitschmann was only a carpenter ;
and yet there were not two men in the world more
fitted for their task. Each had a clear conception
of the Gospel ; each possessed the gift of ready
speech ; and each knew exactly what Gospel to
preach. At an evening meeting (August 18th) the
Brethren assembled to wish the two men God-speed ;
the feeling at Herrnhut was intense ; and before the
Brethren parted that night they sang about a
hundred hymns. Among others they must have
sung the following lines, written by Zinzendorf a
few weeks before : —
" We will count our lives a treasure.
While reserved for His use,
But at His command, with pleasure
Wealth and life for Jesus lose."
AugZlst, The birthday of Moravian Missions now arrived.
1732 At three o'clock in the morning (Thursday, August
21st, 1732) the two men stood waiting in front
of Zinzendorf's house. The Count had spent some
fNot a text ; there ia no ■uch text in the Bible.
The Voice in the Night. 88
hours that night in prayer and conversation with
Dober. His carriage was waiting at the door ; the
grey of morning glimmered ; and silence lay upon
Hermhut. Not a Brother or Sister was up to see
these heroes set off. The Count took the reins and
drove them as far as Bautzen. They ahghted
outside the sleeping town, knelt down on the quiet
roadside and joined the Count in prayer. The
Coimt laid his hands on Dober's head and blessed
him. His last instructions were of a general nature.
"Do all in the spi rit of Jesus Christ," f he said. He
gave them a ducat apiece. The~two heralds rose
from their knees, bade the Count good-bye, and
stepped out for Copenhagen.*
■fin most histories of Moravian Missions it is stated that theie
were Zinzendorf's only instmctions. The foregoing narrative
shows that this is not true.
*The connexion of the Moravian Chnrch with Denmark had
another interesting result. Many of the early Moravian
missionaries were Dane s. The most Important were :—
(1) Labrador: Jens ilavein Drachart, Jensen, and Dr. Brasen ;
(2) Greenland : John Sorenden ; (3) Tranquebar : Brodersen ;
(4) Danish West Indies Heller, MattMesen, Wied; (5) BritiBh^
Waat Indies; Bentien, D aVih^, Arinlj^h Note, also, m the
nineteenth centnry, Rasmns Schmm^, in Surinam, and
Jean Paul Jiirgensen on the Moskito Coast. Nor do even these
facts complete the tale. As these pages are passing through
the press, eight Danish missionaries are on their way to
resume the work in Unyamwezi.
Chapter III.
THE DANISH WEST INDIES, 1736—1782.
1. The First Two Pioneers, 1782-4.
As the two pioneers set out on their journey
they looked more Hke pedlars than preachers. They
carried bundles on their backs ; they wore brown
cut-away coats and quaint three-cornered hats ; and
they had between them about thirty shillings in
their pockets. With swinging strides they marched
along. The pace was thirty or forty miles a day.
From time to time they paid passing calls at the
houses of Christian friends.
" Back ! Back to Herrnhut," said the friends,
" there is danger and death ahead."
But the Brethren had put their hands to the
plough, and did not stay to argue. They were
marching as volunteers of the Lutheran Church ;
they had Luther's mettle in their blood ; and now,
like Luther at the Diet of Worms, they answered ;
" We can no other : the will of the Lord must be done."
From one friend only did they hear a word of cheer.
At Wernigerode they called on the Countess of
StoUberg. She gave them a pleasant surprise. She
asked Dober how he felt when he left his father
and mother, brought him a Halle box of texts, and
asked him to draw one out. He drew the words
from the forty-fifth Psalm : " Hearken, O Daughter,
and consider and incline thine ear : forget also thine
own people and thy father's house." The Countess
was delighted. Once more the Voice of God was
urging them onward. " Go then," she said, " and
even if they kill you for the Saviour's sake, He is
worth it all."
Sept. 15th They arrived a few days later at Copenhagen,
(14)
The Danish West Indies. 25
made their way to the Palace, presented their letters
of introduction, and boldly announced their purpose.
Their arrival created a sensation. Never, since the
days of Hamlet, had such a brace of fools been seen
in Denmark ; by friend and foe alike they were
laughed to scorn ; and when they said that they
were willing to work as slaves, they were told that
they must be moonstruck. In vain they applied
for a passage to the Directors of the Danish West
Indian Company. The Directors flatly refused.
" It is no use taking artisans to St. Thomas," they
said ; " there is nothing for artisans to do, and the
two men would never be able to earn their living."
Still worse, their old friend, Anthony Ulrich, now
turned traitor. As soon as he saw which way the
wind was blowing, he changed his tune, denied aU
that he had said about his brother Abraham and his
sister Anna, declared that neither they nor any other
slaves had the least desire to hear the Gospel, and
joined with all the fine lords and ladies in denouncing
the Brethren as fools.
Von Pless, the King's Chamberlain, raised a very
serious difficulty. As the Brethren were not to be
paid for preaching, von Pless could not understand
how they would come by a living. They were not
ordained ; they could not be recognised as clergy-
men ; and they had no Society behind them to
supply the funds.
" How do you intend to earn your living ? "
" As slaves among the slaves."
" But that is impossible," retorted Von Pless.
" It will not be allowed. N o whi te man eygr works
asji slave."
" Very well," replied Nitschmann, " I am a
carpenter and will ply my trade."
" But what will the potter do ? "
" I," said Nitschmann, " shall do work enough to
26 A History of Moravian Missions.
keep both. Besides," he added, " he will be able
to help me a little."
At these words the Chamberlain was overcome
with amazement. Such fine resolution he had never
met before.
" Ha ! Ha ! That is something like," he exclaimed.
" At this rate you will stand your ground the wide
world over."
They began by standing their ground at Copen-
hagen. For some days the prospect looked so black
that the Brethren lost their courage ; their resolution
was " sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought " ;
and Dober suggested that Nitschmann should return
to Herrnhut. But the clouds of doubt soon lifted.
The carpenter remained firm. At some point in the
proceedings a friend suggested that they should
enlist in the Danish Army. They rejected the
suggestion with contempt. At another point they
felt so deserted by man that once again they turned
for guidance to the Text Book ; and there they
read the cheering message: "Hath He said, and shall
He not do it ? or hath He spoken, and shall He
not make it good ? " With these words to inspire
them, they kept the flag still flying. Steadily,
surely, slowly the tide turned in their favour. At
the end of two months the two men in brown coats
had changed the tone of the whole Court of
Copenhagen. Never in the history of Denmark
had such a moral revolution been known. They
had changed the Sadducees into zealots, had won the
esteem of all, and had now, not only the Royal
Family, but the whole Court on their side. The
Queen herself expressed her good wishes. The
Princess Amelia invited them to Court, and gave
them a Dutch Bible and some money. Von Pless
offered Nitschmann ten guineas more ; Nitschmann
refused ; and Von Pless forced the guineas into hig
The Danish West Indies. ^
pocket. Dr. Grothausen, the King's physician,
gave them a spring lancet, and showed them how to
open a vein. The Court spoke openly in their
favour. The Royal Cupbearer, Martins, found them
a Dutch ship on the point of sailing for St. Thomas.
Some humbler friends suppUed them with carpenter's
tools. They had now more money than they needed
to pay their passage. At the last moment Anthony
Ulrich changed his tune again, and gave them a
letter addressed to his , brother and sister ; and
finally a member of the Privy Council spurred them
on with the words : " Go in the name of the Lord.
Our Saviour chose fishermen to preach the Gospel,
and He Himself was a carpenter and a carpenter's
son." Thus Dober and Nitschmann held the
fort, and the Moravian battle of Copenhagen
was won.
And so, with Royalty beaming upon them, the
two pioneers set sail (October 8th). The voyage
lasted over two months. The weather was stormy,
the crew were heathen, and the captain called
himself an atheist. As they "crossed the line"!
the Brethren received the usual novice's ducking.
The sailors roared with drunken laughter. Amid
their trials the Brethren kept on smiHng. As the
language of daily life in St. Thomas was Dutch,
it was to their advantage, after all, to sail in a Dutch
ship. They studied their Dutch Bibles, preached
to the crew, and won their good-will by helping
to work the ship. David Nitschmann even touched
the heart of the captain. The ship's carpenter
spoiled the captain's wardrobe ; David Nitschmann
repaired it ; and the godless old salt was so dehghted
that when they landed in St. Thomas he urged
tA ship does not usually ' cross the line " on the way from
Denmark to the West Indiet. But the ship may poenbly
have been blown out of her coarse.
28 A History of Moravian Missions.
the planters to give Nitschmann a job. Some-
times the sailors amused the Brethren by spinning
yams about the horrible diseases that attacked white
men in the West Indies. The Brethren were not
dismayed. As the captain knew no better argument,
he repeated the time-honoured insult that preachers
preached only for money. Instead of replying,
the Brethren did good works, talked to the cook
about his soul, and watched by the bunk
of an ailing sailor. " On the whole," wrote
Nitschmann, " the people were very kind, but
we sorrowed for their blindness. Not one on
the ship knows the Lord, and we long for Christian
fellowship."
At last, on Saturday, Il ecember 13th, 1732, the
ship cast anchor in St. Thomas harbour. The
mid-day sun was blazing ^verIiea3T"'tEe Brethren
stood on the deck of the little ship, and there before
them lay the " First Love of Moravian Missions."
The scene was a panorama of beauty. Along the
winding beach the sand was gleaming like crystals
of silver ; the rocks were as yellow as gold ; the
cactuses and fronded palms adorned the vales ; the
scarlet roofs of the town of Tappus flashed in the
noonday sun ; and the billowy hills, in living green,
stood out limned clear against the dome of blue.
To the Brethren, however, these beauties brought
no delight. Not once, either in letter or diary,
did they mention the charms of nature. For the
first time since they left Herrnhut they were feeling
sad at heart. The text for the day sounded almost
Hke a mockery. " The Lord of Hosts," they read,
" mustereth the host of the battle." At present
the host consisted of two tired men. " We suffered,"
they wrote, " all the pangs of childbirth." Let us
not condemn them for their gloomy fears. As these
Brethren gazed upon the scene of their labours,
Tke Danish West Indus. 29
they knew full well that their first duty was to
earn an honest living. They had spent most of their
money on the voyage, and, for anj-thing they knew
to the contrary, they would not be able to find
emplo\Tnent. At three o'clock in the afternoon
they landed, enquired for a planter named Lorenzen,
and gave him a letter of introduction which they
had brought from an old friend, Henry Daniel,
in Copenhagen. On the following day, they attended
pubUc service. The service was held in a room in the
fort ; the day was the Third Sunday in Advent,
and the Brethren noted that in the Proper Lesson
there came the words : "To the poor the Gospel is
preached." At the close of Di\'ine service, a negro
stepped forward and said that Lorenzen wished
to see them. He welcomed them warmly, offered
them a half-built house as a home, said that they
might finish the building, and promised to find them
further employm,ent. With their minds at ease
they sought out Abraham and Anna, and read
them their brother Anthony's letter. It contained
the words : " And this is life eternal, that they might
know Thee, the true God, and Jesus Christ Whom
Thou hast sent." From that text the Brethren
preached their first sermon to the slaves. It is
marvellous how they made themselves understood.
The official language of St. Thomas was Danish ;
the language of the planters in daily hfe was Dutch ;
thg^ language of the negroes was Creole ; and the
Brethren stammered in a jargon of Dutch and
German. For all that they made it clear that
Chjist had died for blacks as well as whites. The
poor slaves clapped their haiids for joy. "They felt
the truth," said Dober, "rather than understood
it." The first seed was sown ; the great work of
Moravian Missions had begUA ; and thus for the
first time in history the negro slaves,. of. the. West
80 A HiSToaY OF Moeatian Missions.
Indies heard from the lips of simple men : —
" A Voice from Heaven that bade the outcast rise
From shame on earth to glory in the skies. "f
The fight for the faith began. The Brethren
soon found themselves in a moral hell. For sixty
years St. Thomas had been the scene, not only of a
brutal reign of terror, but of scandalous and shame-
ful immorality. In theory the island was now a
Danish colony ; in fact, it was under the rule of the
Danish West Indian Company. Above the castle
fluttered the Danish flag, and beneath its folds the
planters did that which was right in their own eyes.
At the head of affairs was a Governor. As this man,
however, was elected by the planters, he had little
more real authority than a dummy figure. If he
pleased them, they ignored him ; and if he displeased
them, they dismissed him. The island was divided
into ten plantations : the chief products were indigo,
millet, tobacco, sugar, and sweet potatoes ; the
number of whites was about three hundred and the
number of slaves three thousand ; and the chief
concern of the three hundred whites was to keep
the three thousand slaves in order. We can easily
imagine how the feat was performed. In creed the
planters were Christians. Some were pious
Huguenots, banished from France ; some belonged
to the Lutheran State Chiu-ch ; and some, probably
the great majority, were members of the Dutch
Reformed Church. But in conduct most of
the planters were hypocrites. As long as they
did no work on the Sabbath, they imagined that
they were the chosen people of God ; and one
Governor, Jorgen Iversen, had laid down the law
that all planters must attend Divine worship on
Sundays, and that every employer who allowed his
t James Montgomery. The " West Indies."
The Danish West Indies. SI
slaves to work on the Sabbath must pay a fine of
thirty pounds of tobacco. At this point the
Christianity of the planters ceased. Let it not be
said that they treated their slaves as cattle. No
sensible farmer treats his cows as badly. At first
sight the slaves looked happy enough. They were
commonly divided into three classes. Pure Negroes
from the Gold Coast were called Bussals ; pure
^pgrnp/t^ born in St. Thomas were called Xiefiles ;
and Negroes with a drop of white blood in their
veins were generally called Mulattoes. For all
^^ctjcal pur^ses, however, the three classes were
pD_-the-^s§me level. They had much the same
external appearance, and they lived the same kind
of life. They had stalwart figures ; they had
smiling faces ; they loved a joke ; and they laughed
and chattered at their work. Each family man
had his own httle wooden hut, his own backyard,
his own fowls, his own home-fed pig, his o^n little
plot of yams and maize. As their j£ages„were. low,
th^y'-~«QiiM _never p ut money in the bank ; but
as they had little chance of spending, they hardly
ever became paupers. In the teeming sea they
found congers, crabs, anchovies, mullets and other
fish ; ip- . t he. .fores ts Jhey. gathered oranges, bananas
and_sw«etsops. They had not, except in the busy
season, to work as hard and long as a British plough-
man ; they had a half-holiday on Saturday and a
whole holiday on Sunday ; and thus, m many,
^^^ays,-- they were better off| than thousands of
working-men in England to-day.
Beneath the smiling faces, however, beat many
an aching heart. In body the Negroes were
plump ; in soul they were starved to death.
In the Arctic regions it is commonly said that
the - -£»ly way to keep the sledge-dogs from
snapping is to thrash them until the^Jave no
L
82 A History of Moravian Missions.
more spirit Ig ft. The plante rs pursued the same
poC cvin St. ThomasT" lliey "regarded the slaves
as a pack of dangerous animals. As long as the
blacks had a spark of fire in their blood, there was
always the danger that they would rise in rebellion :
and, therefore, said the planters, they must be cowed,
crushed,-_ajid^hammered into the shape of ignorant
cowards. In order" SfSt'fo^ destroy tKeir national
instincts, the planters forbade them to hold their
dances to the beat of the gumbah. As soon as the
curfew drum had sounded, all slaves had to hie to their
huts. No meetings outside the plantations were
permitted. For the first offence against these laws,
thfi— CJilj^it _was floggedj Jot the second, his ears
were-xaifc^ off ; for the third, he was hanged on a
gallo■v^[S .and his head was spitted on a pole. If a
slave tried to run away, he was branded and
hanged ; if he stole an orange or yam, he was
branded and hanged ; if he raised his stick to smite
a white man, he was branded and hanged. For
smaller crimes there were smaller punishments, the
loss of an ear or leg, a brand in the forehead, or a
few hundred lashes. The planters were expert
floggers. The whip used was called the "tschikefell"
(cow-hide). It was made of hard twisted cow-hide
leather, and was studded with iron points. The
criminal was either lashed to a post or stretched face
downwards on the ground ; the flogger took his
stand at striking distance ; and then, with the aid
of the iron points, he flicked chips of flesh out of the
quivering, writhing body. At each stroke the
victim, obedient to instructions, sang out " Thank
you, Massa"; and when the operation was over,
his gashes were rubbed in salt water. Secondly, the
pl&iiters_Jixade_,inxQads_jon family Jife. Sometimes
they sold the husband without the wife, sometimes
the wife without the husband. No negro could be
The Danish West Indies, 3S
legally married ; no private contract was binding ;
and the only system allowed by law was a system of
free love which led to the most appalling immorality.
For t hat im morality the negroes were Uttle to blame.
It was pracTicalh'forced upon them by the planters.
As the planters were not very moral themselves,
they quite approved of the practice ; and although
they spoke of the blacks as beasts, they often treated
the women as concubines.
Above al l,_^e planters had done th dr best to rob
the ne groes o^ rehfi rionT They told them that thrist
had died for white men only, and that all blacks^
wgyp fTPA ted by the devi l. They forbade them to
hold religious serN-ices, or even to keep a fetish ;
ATu^ thfi only ^'^^^gi'-^ZLlJl^Jl'^C^j^/'^ ^°^' possessed was
a_vagu£ja£lief . ijD_a_distant _Gpd and a terror of eviF
sgmts Jiaunting every stone and tree . " Oh ! God,"
ran the negroes' morning prayer, " I know Thee
not, but Thou knowest me ! I need Thy help !
Oh ! God, help us I We know not whether
we shall live till to-morrow ! We are in Thy
hand."
The work of the Brethren began in a modest way.
At first they had a fairly pleasant time. As long
as Nitschmann remained on the scene, they found
it easy to make ends meet. A planter, Carstens,
gave them regular work, and before long they
were able to build a house on his estate. As pubhc
meetings were not allowed, they could only deal
with the negroes one by one. Instead, therefore,
of addressing crowds, they earned their living by
day as carpenters, and visited the huts of the negroes
after sunset. With the slaves their first experiences
were disappointing. The poor wretches gave tlie_
Gospel a minted reception. By observing the conduct
of the planters, who often went to Church on
Sunday and committed adultery on Monday, the
84 A History of Moravian Missions.
negroes concluded that religion had nothing to do
with morals ; and, therefore, while they welcomed
the hope of Heaven, they rejected the Sermon on the
Mount with disgust. David Nitschmann gives us
a striking example. In his diary he says that on
his way to St. Thomas he had a wonderful dream.
He dreamt that he and Dober had landed, that they
met a blacksmith named Alexander, and that
Alexander welcomed them and rejoiced to hear the
Gospel. The dream came true. Alexander was a
promising pupil. He visited the Brethren nearly
every night ; he confessed the sad state of his heart ;
he asked to be taught to sing and pray ; and he
probed the Brethren with interesting questions about
the Christian Creed. Amid the lessons the Brethren
discovered that Alexander was both a drunkard and
an adulterer. They told him that unless he mended
his ways he could never pass through the Gates into
the City. At first, Alexander was astonished ;
then he looked puzzled ; then he grew careless ;
and then he went away in a rage.
But Dober's hardest trials were still to come. At
the time when he and Nitschmann set out from
Herrnhut, it was distinctly understood among the
Brethren that Nitschmann was going, not to preach,
but simply to spy out the land, and bring back
a report to Herrnhut. He was already a middle-
aged man ; he had left a wife and children behind ;
and now (April 17th, 1733), having done his
appointed duty, he set sail for Herrnhut.
For fifteen months Dober toiled alone in St.
Thomas. He nearly died of starvation. For a
carpenter there had been work in abundance ;
for a potter there was scarcely any. He found
himself in the ranks of the unemployed ; his pig-
mill broke ; the earth was not suitable for making
clay ; and the planters, chuckling over his mis-
The Danish West Indies. 35
fortune, said, " Perhaps a glazier will be coming
next."!
He appealed to the negroes and offered to work
for them. " No," they replied, " that is against
the law." He tried to earn a little money by
fishing. The fish — so he reported — refused to
bite. At this crisis, Gardehn, the Governor,
came to his aid. He was a pious man, with a
glimmering sense of duty. He often prayed hours
together in his chamber, prepared devoutly for the
Sacrament, and held family worship with his slaves ;
and now, thinking highly of Dober's character, he
offered him the post of house-steward.
" I offer you this situation," he said, " simply
in recognition of your godly character. Let me warn
you to keep true to your God, to walk faithfully in
His sight, and especially to avoid the sins so
prevalent in this island."
With meekness Dober promised obedience, and
with joy he entered on his duties. The only
condition he laid down was that he should have
certain fixed hours for visiting the slaves. For
the first and only time in his life he lived in comfort.
He had a new suit of clothes ; he sat at the
Governor's table ; he was waited on by a butler ;
his duties were light and his pay was good ; and
as long as he kept the house in order he was allowed
to visit the slaves as much as he pleased.
But this change did the holy cause more harm than
good. As long as Dober lived in the Governor's
house, the slaves regarded him with suspicion. He
felt uneasy himself. He had been brought up as a
working-man, and was not at home in genteel society ;
he was bored by the task of learning "to be high " ;
tThe point of the joke was that glass windows were not then
used in St. Thomas, A glazier, therefore, would find nothing
to do.
■
36 A History of Moravian Missions.
he had not as much time for visiting as he wished ;
and the whole situation was against his previous
conceptions. " I felt ashamed," he says, " that I
had not been able to carry out my original design
of becoming a slave." He hated the style of life ;
he felt like a bird in a cage ; and he said that he
would never have taken the post unless God had
shown him the way. He was able soon, however,
to burst his bars.
For some years the slaves in the neighbouring
island of St. John had behaved so quietly that the
planters had neglected their usual precautions.
In the fort in Coral Bay there was only a garrison
of ten. The negroes seized their chance. They
formed a plot to murder all the whites, stormed
the garrison, hacked the ten soldiers to pieces,
razed houses all over the island, fired the plantations,
murdered whites, and marched in triumphal pro-
cession with a planter's head on a pole. For six
months they revelled in blood and fire. At length
a French ship arrived from Martinique. The negroes
were at bay. They held a meeting, and discussed
what they should do. They had two courses before
them. To live was to fall once more into the hands
of planters ; to die was to fall into the hands of
demons. The negroes preferred the demons. With
one consent three hundred rebels committed
suicide. It is not quite certain how they per-
formed the feat. According to one tradition, they
shot themselves ; according to another, they jumped
down a precipice, and the scene is still pointed
out to visitors. In either case the moral was the
same. Never before had Dober realised how
bitterly the slaves hated their masters. The news
of the suicide angered the slaves in St. Thomas,
and Dober saw that for their sakes he must take a
definite stand. Amid the excitement his own health
The Danish West Indies. 87
broke down. His converts watched by his bedside,
and Dober was so touched by their devotion that he
resolved henceforth to Hve in their midst. He
handed in his resignation to tlie Governor. The good
man was staggered. " I don't understand you," he
said, "there must be something else on your mind."
But Dober held to his point. For the sake of the
slaves he incurred the Governor's displeasure, returned
to Tappus, and earned his living, first as a night-
watchman, and then as a plantation overseer. He
had now, in the eyes of polite society, disgraced him-
self. Of the so-called Christian prosperous planters,
only three — Lorenzen, Carstens, and his employer,
Beverhout — had a spark of sympathy with his
efforts. His situation was pitiful. In order to please
the slaves once more, he had to resign the post
of overseer. But the slaves did not respond by
obeying his precepts. He had made a little im-
pression on Abraham and Anna ; he had two more
converts, Gerard and Henry, and the rest continued
their wicked life as before.
At length, on June 11th, 1734, he heard to his joy
that a vessel had arrived from Copenhagen. As soon
as he had finished his daily work he sent a messenger
dowTi to the harbour to ask if any letters had arrived
from Hermhut. The messenger loitered. The dark-
ness fell ; the slaves had gone to their huts ; and
Dober, who had set out to meet the man, sat down
on the lonely roadside beside a watch-fire. Never
before had he felt so sad at heart. For fifteen months
he had heard no word from home. The frogs were
croaking along the silver beach ; around him, through
the flickering firelight, shimmered the purple haze ;
and Dober pondered, lone and lorn, on the grand
old days at Hermhut. From the quay the murmur
of voices broke on his ear. With a thrill of mingled
hope and fear, he waited. The sound drew nearer.
88 A History of Moravian Missions.
What tones were these that broke the evening
calm ? Instead of the lilting song of a slave, he
heard the homely burr of the fatherland, and instead
of the returning messenger, he saw his old friend,
Tobias Leupold. Once more the two friends had
met at eventide. With joy they rushed into each
other's arms, and hour after hour they sat that
night in eager conversation. Strange news had
Leupold brought. He had come, he said, with a
gallant band to begin new work in St. Croix. The
missionary career of Dober was over. At Herrnhut
he had been elected by Lot to the post of Chief
Elder ; he would now be the general manager of the
foreign work ; and, therefore, by the command of
God, he must leave St. Thomas for Herrnhut. With
a breaking heart, he parted once more from Leupold.
Thus, having sown the first Gospel seed in St.
Thomas, did Leonard Dober make way for a greater
man.
2. Frederick Martin, 1736 — 1750.
The next man was the real founder of the work
in the Danish West Indies. As the silvery mist
stole gently down on the Roman Catholic village of
Ponmierschwitz, in Upper Silesia, a young man,
named Frederick Martin, who had been imprisoned
for his faith, broke through his guards and fled to
Herrnhut. A few weeks later he was appointed to
succeed Leonard Dober in St. Thomas ; and so
successful were his efforts that Zinzendorf called
him " The Apostle to the Negroes." During his
fourteen years' activity he pursued five methods,
(a) His first task was, not to preach the Gospel,
but to earn his own living. The situation in the
West Indies was remarkable. For over one hundred
^ ;\ years no missionary in the West Indies received
\^ J from the Moravian Church one penny of salary for
The Danish West Indies. 89
his services ; ^ach man, during all that period,
h ad fir st to .e_arn his own living ; and Martin solved
the problem in a manner which many of his successors
had to follow. As soon as a convenient opportunity-
arose, Martin, without waiting for instructions from
Herrnhut, and using money advanced for the purpose
by the friendly planter Carstens, b ough t a small
plantafeioR— about . four miles from Tappus. In due
tinie. -the— Herj-nhut authorities sent the money,
and__t]iu&-±h£ Moravian Church became the owner,
not^onl^of a plot of land, but also of the slaves who
^'orked upon it. For that conduct the Church was
not in the least to be blamed. In those days no other
course was possible. According to the law of the land,
the slaves on any estate were simply an integral
part of the property ; and no one could possibly
buy the land unless at the same time he also bought
the slaves. For four reasons Martin held that he had
set a good precedent : (1) He had land on which
he could build a Church. On this estate, in fact,
the first Church for public worship was built. At
first the estate w^as called " The Brethren's Planta-
tion " ; then Martin named it " The Brethren's
Toot-oo," because, like the toot-oo shell blown by
the planters, it summoned the negroes to work ;
then Zinzendorf named it Posaunenberg (Trombone
Hill) ;t and finally it received its present name,
" New Herrnhut." (2) He had not to toil all day in
the sweat of his brow, and could devote his main
energies to spiritual work. (3) His converts were
close at hand, and that fact made pastoral over-
sight much easier. (4) By his own personaL.
conduct he could shew the other planters that a
slave owner need not be a brute. In reply, however,
to these arguments, it may be asked why, after buying
the estate, Martin did not set the slaves at liberty.
flaaiah xvm., 3. — "And when He bloweth a trumpet, hear ye."
40 A History of Moravian Missions.
In reply to that question three answers may be given :
(1) On the slavery question Martin was a child of
his age. There is no proof, so far as I know, that
he regarded slavery itself as wicked. (2) Had Martin
released all his converts, the Danish Government
would probably have expelled him. For the time
being, at least, he had to take the law as he found it.
(3) At Copenhagen the Princess Sophia asked David
Nitschmann a natural question :
" Would not the slaves be more easily converted,"
she said, " if all who confessed Christ were at once
set at liberty ? "
" No," replied Nitschmann, " that would be the
way to make hypocrites." And with that opinion
Martin seems to have agreed.
(b) His_secon^ jneUiod was systematic discipline.
In order to teach his converts the real ethical meaning
of the Christian religion, he not only formed them
into " Bands " for Bible study and prayer, but
even taught them to pay into a poor-box and buy
their own candles for the evening meetings. Thus
they learned both to help each other and to support
the Church. Some of his converts, of course, came
from other estates, and these were always in-
structed to be diligent, honest, and obedient.
(c) Hjs third method was education. At his own
home" he even kept a small boarding-seiiool ; there,
for the first time, negro children were taught" to
rcad_ and write ; and Martin's example, as far as
possible, was followed by most of his successors.
(d) His fourth method was the personal intervfew.
For some months Martin devoted all his spare time
to the task of making the personal acquaintance of
every negro on the island. With a friendly smile
upon his face he shook hands with them all. By
this means he gained their confidence ; the negroes
felt that he was interested in their welfare ; and
The Danish West Indies. 41
the consequence was that, though he could hardly
be called an eloquent speaker, the negroes attended
his evening ser^dces in crowds.
(e) His last method was ecclesiastical organization.
As soon as he received official authority, i.e., as
soon as he was ordained, Martin began, not only to 1737
baptize his converts, but also to conduct the Holy
Communion, celebrate marriages at Church, and
appoint " helpers " and other church officials ; and
thereby he formed the nucleus of a free independent
Church in St. Thomas.
Meanwhile, however, his enemies rallied their
forces. As soon as Martin^Hoegan to baptize hrs~~
converts, the planters realised that, from their
point of view, he was a dangerous character ; and
led bv a certain Pastor Borm, of the Dutch Reformed
Church, they now made a systematic attempt to
destroy the mission. For about two years, there- 1737^9
fore, Martin was subjected to various forms of attack.
The first blow in public was struck by Pastor Borm.
With the full approval of the Dutch Reformed
Council, John Borm handed in to the Governor a
document accusing Martin of two serious offences.
His first offence was of a singular nature. According
to Borm, Martin's ordination had not yet been
confirmed by the King of Denmark. Martin, there-
fore, he said, was still a layman. He had no right
to baptize at all ; his Holy Communion was a farce ;
and those couples whom he had married were living
in adultery. Still worse, contended Borm, Martin
was grossly ignorant of theology, and was ^ite
unfit_ to_give religioiis, instruction. For the sake
of peace the Governor suggested that Martin should
cease baptizing until the required confirmation from
Denmark arrived; and then, when Martin flatly
refused, the Governor evaded the question by paying
a visit to St. Croix. The next blow exhibited
42 A History of Moravian Missions.
strategic skill. At this early period in the history
of the renewed Moravian Church, many Moravians,
like the Quakers, conscientiously objected to taking
an oath ; of those Moravians Frederick Martin
was one, and now he and his colleague, Freundlich,
were summoned to give evidence in a case of theft.
The result can be imagined. For their refusal to
give evidence, Martin and Freundlich were first
fined £4 10s. ; then, as they refused to pay, this
sum was increased to £20 ; and finally, Martin,
Freundlich and Freundlich's wife were all three
imprisoned in the castle. The next blow was still
more deadly. As soon as Martin was safely in jail,
the Governor, the Sheriff, John Borm, and the rest
of the Dutch Reformed Council, formed themselves
into an examining board ; and now Martin and seven
of his converts were summoned before this Board
as heretics. The whole future of the mission was
now at stake. In order to confuse the minds of the
negroes, and compel them to give absurd answers,
John Borm, the official examiner, submitted a series
of conundrums. " Is God," he demanded, " a
man ? Does he live in Guinea ? Has Martin ever
baptized in his own name ? Has he ever mixed
blood with water ? Has he ever told you that his
teaching is superior to the Lutheran or Reformed ?
Has he told you that after death the blacks will
rule over the whites ? Has hgjever made you jgay
hiin_ot.w;ork for him in returnfor his instructions ?
Has he everHS^^fiytliing in the Communioh'besides
bread and wine ? "
And now the cruel planters adopted still more
diabolical tactics. At one time they informed the con-
verts that Martin was an evil spirit, able to fly across
the sea by night and back again in the early morning ;
and frequently they also warned them that all black
converts would blaze in hell like touchwood. Some-
The Danish West Indies. 48
times thev burned the negroes' school-hoolcs^jand
buffetedj;h£m.irLtliaface.with the blazing papers ; and
sometimes they even poured boiling sealing-wax over
the bodies of his female converts. In spite, however,
of these intimidations, most of the converts still
remained loyal. Each evening they visited the castle
and heard Martin preach through the bars of his cell ;
his assistant, Mingo, maintained the Sunday services ;
and at night the negroes sang so lustily that the
planters could not sleep.
The deliverance was sudden and s^N^ft. At the 1739
very time when Pastor Borm was endeavouring to
destroy the mission, certain critics in Saxony were
remarking that, while Zinzendorf sent out others
to die in foreign climes, he had not the courage
to risk his own life ; and partly because he wished to
repel this charge, and partly because he was anxious
about Martin, he now set sail for St. Thomas. His
companions were Valentine Lohans, Mrs. Lohans,
and George Weber. As the ship sailed into St.
Thomas harbour (January 29th, 1739), the Count,
catching sight of the castle, was smitten by a sudden
misgiving.
" What if I should find no one there ? " he asked.
" What if the missionaries are all dead ? "
" Then we are there," replied George Weber,
" Gens aeterna, these Moravians,"! exclaimed
the Count.
His arrival in St. Thomas caused a sensation.
" I burst into the castle," he ^\Tote to his wife,
" like thunder." At his request, the prisoners
were released, and the Governor promised, not only
that Martin might practise all ecclesiastical rites.
tThis famous remark must not be misunderstood. The Count
was thinking, not of members of the Moravian Church in
general, but of those who had emigrated from Moravia,
such as Matthew Stach, George Schmidt," "aETd — Dirul
Nitschmann. - .
44 A History of Moravian Missions.
but that he should be persecuted no more. For
three weeks the Count was busy as an organizer.
He began by dividing the island into four districts.
At New Herrnhut he stationed Martin as Superin-
tendent ; at the Perl he stationed Weber ; at
Muskito Bay, Valentine Lohans ; and at Tappus, a
native helper. The chief converts, also, were given
positions of trust. He appointed Peter Chief Elder
of the Brethren, and Magdalene Chief Elder of the
Sisters, and others were appointed as helpers, advisers
and distributors of alms. The system of " Hourly
Prayer " was introduced ; each plantation on the
estate was to have its spiritual overseer ; and the
converts were to form themselves into " Bands."
On Sunday, February 15th, he addressed the converts
at a mass meeting, and laid before them his ideals
of Christian conduct. " I have," he said, " five
points to impress upon you. First, think constantly
about Jesus Christ ; let Him be as present to your
minds as though you saw Him on the Cross. Second,
deal honestly with Martin and his colleagues, and
never pretend to be holier than you are. Third,
if you are expelled for misconduct, ask for grace to
repent. Fourth, be true to your husbands and wives,
and obedient to your masters and bombas. The
Lord has made all ranks — kings, masters, servants
and slaves. God punished the first negroes by
making them slaves,f and your conversion will
make you free, not from the control of your masters.
fGenesis IX., 20 — 25. — From this speech it is quite clear that
Zinzendorf had no sympathy vith slave emancipation. In
common with other theologians, he held that the negroes were
descended from the Canaanitcs. The whole argument,
roughly speaking, ran as follows : — Ham insulted his father,
Noah. For this sin. Ham's descendants, the Canaanites,
were condemned to slavery. The Negroes were descended
from the Canaanites. Therefore, slavery is a Divine
institution. Zinzendorf even th ou g ht it wropg to teach
negroHslavea to read and write.
IThe Danish West Indies. 45
but simply from your wdcked habits and thoughts,
and all that makes you dissatisfied ^\-ith your lot.
Fifthly, think kindly of all the negroes who have not
yet heard the Gospel."
The last round in the combat now began. As
soon as Zinzendorf was safely out of the way, the
planters made one more attempt to ^\Teck the
mission. Pastor Borm, in a letter to a friend at
Amsterdam, declared that the negroes taught by
Martin still knew nothing of God ; one planter,
in another letter, asserted that they worshipped
Zinzendorf ; and only a week after Zinzendorf had
left St. Thomas, six ruffians, armed with daggers
and pistols, attacked the house where Martin and
his colleagues were conducting an evening service,
burst open the door, and threatened to make a
speedy end of the negroes. The leader of the gang
was drunk, and foamed at the mouth. For a few
moments there was a serious danger that
both the missionaries and the negroes would
be murdered. " Hew them," roared the frenzied
leader, " shoot them, stab them, strike them
d«ad."
The scene in the room became one of wild confusion.
With perfect coolness, Martin, Weber and Mrs.
Weber faced the six raging invaders ; the negroes
escaped through a back window ; and now the
leader informed Martin that if he did not bring
back the negroes he would stab him to the heart.
Martin stood firm ; the gang felt baffled ; and,
cursing loudly, the whole six departed. The final
issue, however, was decided, not in St. Thomas, but
in Denmark. On his return journey to Herrnhut,
Zinzendorf called at Copenhagen. There he inter-
viewed the King, and the King, in response to his
request, confirmed Martin's ordination, instructed Mar. 13th
Pastor Borm to leave the Brethren in peace, issued 1739
46 A History of Moravian Missions.
an edict granting the Brethren full religious liberty,
and declared that all who molested them again would
be severely punished.
3. The Extending Cause, 1740-82.
As the triumphant Count re-crossed the Atlantic,
bright dreams of coming glory cheered his soul ; and
soon after his arrival at Herrnhut, he sent out two
men, Albin Feder, a learned theologian, and Gottlieb
1740 Israel, a lame tailor, to assist Frederick Martin in
St. Thomas. On the voyage out the two men had
an amazing adventure. First, they sailed in a
Danish ship to St. Eustace ; there, the vessel having
reached her destination, they changed into an
English barque bound by way of St. Thomas for
Jamaica ; and then (January 17th, 1740), near
the rocky islet of Skrop, so fierce a gale arose
that the captain thought it best to cast anchor
and trust to the strength of his cables to weather
the storm. His policy, however, proved a mis-
take. Owing to a sudden change in the wind,
the stern of the ship was broken to pieces against a
rock. The captain cocked his pistol ; the long-
boat was manned ; the captain and his men pulled for
the shore, and Feder, Israel, and a few negro hands
were left on the sinking ship. For missionaries and
for negroes alike there was now only one chance of
safety. In his narrative, Israel says that he
himself, Feder and three negroes managed some-
how to drop from the bowsprit on to a half-sunken
reef extending to the shore. For some minutes
all five clung to their perilous perch ; then Feder,
who tried to advance, was swept off his feet and
drowned ; and, while the raffle smote him on
the face, and the lightning flashed, Israel called
out to his colleague: "Go hence in peace,
beloved brother," and sang, with a cheerful voice,
I
The Danish West Indies. 47
Count Zinzendorf's famous " Single Brethren's
Song " :—
Where are ye, ye sons of the spirit of grace,
Who the Cross of your Lord love to share ?
Your path in the future what vision can trace,
At home or in regions afar ?
Ye breakers of walls, why shrink from the view ?
The rocks, the wild forest-brakes and the caves,
The isles of the heathen, the high-rolling waves,
These, these are the places for you.
For several hours Israel still clung to the rock ; then
the captain flung a rope from the shore, and finally,
a few weeks later (February 18th), Israel, half naked
and half dead, appeared at Trombone Hill in St.
Thomas. Let us see why his arrival was important.
For the explanation we must return to Herrnhut.
As Zinzendorf ^\as burning some waste paper, he 1734
noticed one sheet flutter unburnt to the ground.
Picking it up, he read the words : —
" O ! Let us in Thy nail-prints see
Our pardon and election free,"
and taking these words as a special message from
God, he founded his so-called " Blood and Wounds
Theology." During the next thirty or forty years
that theology played a prominent part in Moravian
Missions. The first man to preach it abroad was
Gottlieb Israel ; and the first result of his preaching
was that, just as John Weslej-, by preaching judgment
and the need of conversion, led the EvangeUcal
Revival in England, so Israel, by preaching the
Suffering Christ, led the EvangeUcal Revival in St.
Thomas. Between St. Thomas and England, how-
ever, there was one important difference. In St.
Thomas far more attention was paid to the individual.
On Sunday mornings all the converts had their Bible
lesson ; on Wednesday they had Band Meetings ;
48 A History of Moravian Missions.
once a month they came to Holy Communion ; and
nearly every evening there were special meetings,
lasting about fifteen minutes, for the hourly inter-
cessors, for the children, and for others needing
special instruction.
Meanwhile, strange things had happened in St.
1734 Croix. At the special request of Von Pless, who
owned six plantations on the island, Zinzendorf
sent over eighteen Brethren. The idea was that,
by working the estates, the Brethren might win
money for the holy cause ; and, fired by this noble
ideal, they dug ditches, cleared the tangle, burnt
the tall grass, and planted lettuces, parsley, cabbages,
maize, yams, and cassava. The result was tragic.
St. Croix, in those days, swarmed with mosquitoes,
and fever was in the air. First, out of the eighteen,
ten, including Tobias Leupold, died ; then (1735)
eleven more Brethren arrived, and seven more died
of fever ; then nine, reduced by illness, had to return
to Herrnhut ; and thus, out of twenty-nine Brethren,
only three were left.
On Zinzendorf these disasters had a strange effect.
Instead of being cast down or dismayed, he composed
a noble hymn in the Brethren's honour ;f other
Brethren followed without a tremor ; and after three
more had died — including Gottlieb Israel — the first
station, Friedensthal (1755), was founded.
1741 Meanwhile, in St. John, the work had progressed
more smoothly. For a few months the only preacher
to the slaves was an overseer, Jens Rasmus ; then
Martin himself arrived, and earning his living by making
spoons, actually bought the estate where the first
station — Bethany (1754) — was afterwards founded.
Thus, at a terrible cost of life, did the Brethren
fTen in the earth were sown as seed,
Lost to man's expectation ;
Yet oil their graves our faith doth read,
*' Seed of the Negro Nation."
The Danish West Indies. 49
establish the Mission in the Danish West Indies.
In St. Thomas alone, during the first fifty years,
one hundred and sixty missionaries died. With
the death of Martin (1750) the pioneer period
closed. Zinzendorf called him " The Faithful
Witness," and his grave, on the Princess Estate in
St. Croix, still keeps his memory green.
For thirty years after Martin's death the cause
steadily advanced. In 1754 the three islands were
placed under the direct rule of the Government ;
in 1774 the King of Denmark issued a special edict
in the Brethren's favour ; and Governors and planters
alike were now quite friendly. Thus encouraged,
the Brethren founded new stations. In St. Thomas
they founded Niesky (1771) ; in St. Croix, Friedens-
berg (1771) ; and in St. John, Emmaus (1782).
For twenty-two years the chief leader was Martin 1762-84
Mack. Under his efficient rule " native helpers "
were appointed, and many of these were men of the
highest character. The most distinguished was a
slave named Cornelius. By his industry as a stone-
mason he succeeded in purchasing his own freedom.
He could preach with ease in Creole, Dutch, German,
English and Danish, and both by his conduct and by
his sermons he shewed that, when the right methods
were employed, a West Indian native could rise to
a high intellectual and moral level.
Chapter IV.
THE BRITISH WEST INDIES, 1754—1800.
As this chapter brings us under the British flag,
we naturally liope to find ourselves in a more sym-
pathetic Christian atmosphere. This hope is not
altogether disappointed ; and the chief point for us
to bear in mind is that while most of the British
planters were both godless and cruel,*)" each island
also contained a few high-souled Christians. By
Inost of the British planters the first Moravian
Missionaries were despised, and sometimes opposed ;
by a few distinguished exceptions they were warmly
supported ; and most of the Governors and higher
officials were in favour of the Mission. In Jamaica
the first invitation came from two pious planters ;
in Antigua the Governor encouraged the work ;
in Barbados the Brethren were aided by a clergy-
man, by a doctor, and by a Quaker planter ; and
in St. Kitts and in Tobago a pious planter, in each
case, gave the first invitation. For the credit of
the British race the names of these noble men
should be remembered. The two pious Jamaica
planters were William Foster and John Foster
Barham ; the name of the Barbados Quaker was
Jackman ; the pious planter in St. Kitts was
Gardiner ; and the equally pious planter in Tobago
was Hamilton. During the eighteenth century,
therefore, the Moravian missionaries in the British
West Indies occupied a curious position. With the
possible exception of Antigua, each island seems to
fThis must be candidly admitted. In hia diary, George
Caries, one of the first missionaries in Jamaica, says
that nearly every night he could hear the shrieks of negroes
who were being flogged ; and children only six years old were
forced to work in the fields.
50
The British West Indies. 51
have possessed a few planters deeply interested
in Christian work among the slaves. By these
pious planters the first Moravian missionaries were
encouraged-; on the estates of these planters they
built their first stations ; and, in some cases, they
were presented with land, became small plantation
owners themselves, and preached, therefore, in the
first instance, to their own slaves. Let us now see
how this system worked : —
(1) Jamaica, 1754. — For two or three years before 1754
this Mission commenced, the most famous Moravian
in England was that popular preacher, John Cennick.
One day two wealthy planters, William Foster and
John Foster Barham, resident in England, but
owning estates in Jamaica, having heard John
Cennick preach, asked him to take spiritual charge of
their slaves in Jamaica. In reply to this invitation,
John Cennick, who w^as then in Ireland, declared
that he could not leave his present work ; the
two planters, nothing daunted, appealed to the.
Moravian Elders ; and next year (1754) the
first three missionaries — George Caries, Thomas
Shallcross, and Gottlieb Haberecht — arrived in,
Jamaica. Let us note carefully the precise
arrangement. Among the estates belonging to the
two planters, one was named New Carmel. Near
it they had four other estates, Elim, Lancaster,
Two-Mile Wood and the Bogue ; and the strange
arrangement now made was that while the first
estate, New Carmel, was actually presented to the
Brethren, they were allowed to preach on all five
estates. The result was curious. For over sixty
years New Carmel, a low, unhealthy and depressing
spot, situated near the mouth of the Black River,
remained not only the headquarters of the work,
but the only Moravian Mission Station. There
the Brethren earned their living by working the
52 A History of Moravian Missions.
plantation ; there they bred cattle ; there they
employed a gang of slaves to look after both
the plantation and the cattle ; there, just like other
planters, they had to administer discipline and
punish malingerers ; and there, finally, they built a
preaching-hall, and preached on Sundays to the very
men whom they employed as labourers during the
week. For the following reasons, however, the
Brethren's first efforts in Jamaica can only be
described as a failure : — (a) In spite of the influence
of George Caries, for whom the negroes conceived a
strong affection, most of the missionaries, though
respected, were not loved. How could the negroes
love a man who, after preaching the Gospel on
Sunday, punished them for laziness on Monday ?
(6) By earning their own living the missionaries lost
caste. According to the Jamaica planters, a clergy-
man ought at least to be a gentleman ; some of the
missionaries, they observed, even did their own
washing, and that fact was sufficient in itself to
expose them to contempt, (c) The more time the
Brethren devoted to business, the less time they
had for spiritual work, (d) Another cause was the
Brethren's system of discipline. For some years
the leader in Jamaica was Christian Henry Ranch,
originally sent by Zinzendorf as Inspector. Among
the Red Indians Ranch had been a success (see
Chap. 6, section 2) ; in Jamaica he nearly ruined
the mission. By nature he was a stern martinet ;
and so many rules did he lay down that both the
missionaries and the negroes lost heart. First,
he offended George Caries, who retired in disgust ;
then, taking the reins himself, he laid down the
absurd rule that no convert might be baptized
unless he had attained a high standard in
Christian doctrine ; and the negroes felt that they
were living under a system of tyranny, {e) The
The British West Indies. 58
last cause of failure was ill-health. In order to
purify the bad drinking water, some of the
missionaries, following the false ideas of the time,
resorted to rum; thereby, in their innocence, they
undermined their constitutions, and this was one
reason why the death-rate was so high.
2. Antigua, J-_756. — The case of Antigua offers a 1756
striking contrast. During the first fourteen years the
cause in Antigua seemed hopeless. Samuel Isles,
the first missionary, founded only one station, St.
JoHn's, and baptized only fourteen converts; and
judging by his own vivid reports, the chief reason
seems to have been, not that his colleagues pursued
wrong methods, but that the Antigua slaves were
abnormally depraved. Day after day, he tells us,
they indulged in drunken orgies ; day after day
they stabbed and poisoned each other ; and once a
week, on ^londay morning, the planters had culprits
to hang. And then came a sudden dramatic change.
For twenty-two years (1769-91) the work in Antigua
was under the efficient management of Peter Braun,
known to the negroes as " Massa Brown." During
this man's ministry two more flourishing stations,
Bailey Hill (1774) and Gracehill (1782) were founded,
and the total number of converts rose to over seven
thousand. His success may be attributed to two
causes. The first was financial. According to his
own explicit statement, Braun and his colleagues had
still to earn their own living ;t on the other hand,
they received parcels from their Moravian friends
in North America ; and the consequence of this
arrangement was that, while the missionaries in
fin 1770, e.g., Braun writes as follows: — "For three months we
have had no work, and consequently no means of earning
anything." From this sentence I draw two conclusions :
(1) That the missionaries in Antigua did not own a plantation.
Men who OMr-ned a plantation woiJd not be thrown out of work.
(2) That the missionaries had to e&m their living in some way.
54 A History of Moravian Missions.
Jamaica were too pre-occupied with business, those
in Antigua had more time for religious work. The
other cause was Braun's personal character. Accord-
ing to one of his successors, Bennett Harvey, Braun
acquired his influence over the negroes, not merely
by his eloquence as a preacher, but by his wonderful
tact and good nature. He visited them, says Harvey,
in their huts, chatted with them in the fields, and
ate with them out of their calabashes. Let us not,
however, judge Braun merely by numbers. By his
gracious personal influence, Braun raised the Antigua
negroes to a high level of moral character ; in his
letters he himself boldly extolled their virtues ;
and one planter, speaking of a convert, said : " I
would not part with him for £500." The result was
greater than Braun himself contemplated. The fame
/ of his work reached London. At the very time when
Braun was at the height of his success, Christian,
/\Z^--^Ignatius La Trobe, English Secretary for Moravian
^ \ "Missions, drew up an important memorial and
presented it to a Committee of the Privy Council.
In that memorial he described Moravian methods of
work in the West Indies. Antigua seems to have
been specially mentioned, and so impressed was the
Privy Council by what it heard that when the
question of emancipation was officially mooted, the
Antigua missionaries were asked to state what
policy they would recommend. Nor was this the
whole of Braun's influence. Among his chief friends
in England was Rowland Hill. Braun corresponded
with Hill, and stimulated his interest in foreign
missions, and thereby, indirectly, contributed to
the formation of the L.M.S.
1765 (3) Barbados, 1765. — For fifteen years the work
in Barbados was one dreary series of disasters. The
chief cause seems to have been fever, due either to
the climate or to bad water, and so rapidly did the
The British West Indies. 55
missionaries die — Andrew Rittmansberger (1765),
John Fozzard (1766), Benjamin Brookshaw (1772),
John Bennett (1772), Herr (1773) and Angerman
(1775) — that, while the local clergy were friendly,
and Jackman, a Quaker, allowed the Brethren to_
preach on his estate near Bridgetown, no consistent^
progress could be made. Nor was death in the ranks
the only trouble. In 1780 came the " Great
Hurricane." In consequence of this disaster the whole
island was demoralised ; planters and slaves alike
lost their faith in the goodness of God ; and so strong
was the anti-Christian feehng that the Brethren
founded only one station — Sharon (1795).
4. St. Kitts, 1777. — At the special request of 1777
a pious planter named Gardiner, who was so
enthusiastic that he came to London and inter-
viewed two leading Moravians there, the Church
sent two missionaries, John Gottwalt and James
Birkby. Gardiner gave them a house at Basseterre ;
there the first Moravian Church was built (1795),
and so energetically did the missionaries work —
especially Gottwalt's successor, Schneller — that by
the year 1800 the number of converts had risen to
2,000.
5. Tobago, 1790.f — For this mission a planter, 1790
Hamilton, was responsible. The first missionary
was John ^lontgomery, father of James Montgomery,
the poet, and one station. Signal Hill, was founded.
During Montgomery's stay, however, Tobago was
in the hands of the French (1790-99). French
soldiers introduced French revolutionary notions,
and so many street riots occurred that Montgomery
had to retire.
fTobago is said to be Robinson Crusoe's island, and his cave -«.,
is shown to visitors. (Robinson, History of Christian
Missions, p. 398.)
56 A History of Moravian Missions.
6. Summary. — By the close, therefore, of the
eighteenth century the Moravians had made but a
modest beginning in the British West Indies. In
Jamaica they had only one station, New Carmel ;
in Antigua, three, St. John's, Gracehill, and Gracebay ;
in Barbados, one, Sharon ; in St. Kitts, one, Basse-
terre ; in Tobago, one. Signal Hill. For this com-
paratively slow progress the chief reason was that
all the missionaries had still to earn their own living ;
sometimes they were far worse off than the slaves ;
and one year, the Antigua missionaries, being out
of work, had nothing to eat but a little bread sent
by friends in New York. In Jamaica the Brethren
owned a plantation ; on the other islands they were
artisans or tradesmen ;f and though they received
some financial assistance from the three Home
Provinces, they could never give all their time to
religious work.
■fLet one example suffice : John Bennett was a tailor.
Chapter V.
GREENLAND, 1733—1774.
The situation in Greenland was critical. As
Zinzendorf was on his visit to the Royal Court
at Copenhagen, he saw two little Eskimo boys, who
had been baptized by the missionary, Hans Egede ;
and as the story of Anthony Ulrich fired the zeal of
Leonard Dober, so the story of Hans Egede fired
the zeal of Matthew Stach. The story of Hans Egede
was heart-rending. For ten years (1721-31) he had
ploughed on a rock. In order to come into close
touch with the Eskimos, he had taken his wife and
family with him, built a house on a Uttle island at
the mouth of the Balls River, prepared an Eskimo
catechism and grammar, and, aided by his son,
painted pictures of the Creation, the Fall, the
Crucifixion, the Healing Miracles, the Resurrection,
and the Judgment Day ; and yet, in spite of all
his efforts, he did not gain one single genuine convert.
The only story the Eskimos liked was the story of the
Healing Miracles, and from that story they drew
their own conclusions.
" If you are the priest of such a mighty God,"
they said, " you must perform similar miracles for
us." For a few months Egede tried to oblige them ;
one or two patients, for whom he prayed, recovered ;
and then, when he could not guarantee success, the
people denounced him as an impostor. At the back
of their minds the fundamental idea was that unless
Egede could satisfy their physical needs he was
no true prophet of God. " If you wish us to believe
in you," they said, " you must give us the kind of
weather we want, send us plenty of seals and fish,
and heal our diseases." During nearly the whole
{57J
58 A History of Moravian Missions.
of his ministry Egede was treated, not with respect,
but with scorn. One day the people would listen
with mock respect, and ask to be baptized ; the next
day they would burst out laughing in his face.
Sometimes a gang of angekoks {i.e., sorcerers) would
beat drums during the singing ; sometimes plots were
formed to take his life ; and sometimes the people
would send him off on a false scent by concocting
a story of a shipwreck. On the whole, therefore,
Egede, to the Eskimos, was chiefly a source of amuse-
ment ; and, no matter what arguments he used, they
could always invent some smart retort. In vain he
warned them against hell-fire ; they replied that the
heat would be a pleasant change from the cold of
Greenland. In vain he contended that their angekoks
had never seen the familiar spirits with whom they
professed to deal. " Well," they answered, " where
have you seen your God ? " In vain he depicted
the Judgment Day, when the heavens would be
rolled up like a scroll. " No," they retorted, " our
angekoks have been in the sky, and report that it
is still in good repair." In vain he tried to teach
the children to read and write. What was the
use, they asked, of mumbling "ABC" in a class-
room, or bending over a desk and spluttering ink with
a feather ? Would that mode of education enable
them to catch more seals ? In order to please a few
of the parents, who professed to believe his message,
Egede baptized their children. But, speakly broadly,
the adults seemed hopeless ; Egede himself was
half convinced that they had drifted beyond hope of
redemption ; and sometimes, in his despair, he
threatened that, if they did not pay more attention,
the King of Denmark would send some soldiers.
At length the King himself. Christian V., took
drastic measures. In 1728 he sent some ships,
well stocked with ammunition ; the colony of
f-^u^Ju^jti
t^
Greenland. 59
Godhaab was founded ; and a trade in blubber was
opened. But this experiment did more harm than
good. Most of the settlers had free fights with the
natives ; the blubber trade did not pay ; and the
next King, Christian VI., informed Egede that if he
was foolish enough to stay in Greenland he must do
so on his oym responsibility. In the past he had
been supported by the Danish College of Missions ;
now that support would be withdrawn. At this
crisis, Zinzendorf appeared at Copenhagen ; a few
weeks later he told the whole story at Herrnhut;
and Matthew Stach, a young emigrant from Moravia,
resolved that where Egede had failed he would
endeavour to succeed. For some weeks he nursed
his hopes in secret ; then he heard Dober's famous
letter read at a public meeting, and soon after-
wards he unburdened his soul to his young friend,
Frederick Bohnisch. " I feel exactly," said
Matthew, " hke those two men who wrote the
letter ; but my desire is to go to the heathen in
Greenland."
" You have taken the words out of my mouth,"
replied Bohnisch, " that is exactly how I feel
myself."
The result was what might be expected. For the
long period of eighteen months these two enthu-
siastic young men had to contend at Herrnhut with
all manner of criticism and opposition. Finally,
however, the Elders surrendered, and, Bohnisch
being by this time otherwise occupied, the
following three were chosen. The leader of the
expedition was Christian David, the carpenter ;
the two others were Matthew Stach and his cousin.
Christian Stach ; and on January 19th, 1733, these
three men set out on foot for Copenhagen. Let
us note precisely in what capacity they went. In
spite of the King of Denmark's warning, Egede was
^ )
60 A History of Moravian Missions.
still in Greenland ; and these three men went out,
not as missionaries of the Moravian Church, but as
lay-assistants to Egede.
1733 At Copenhagen, however, they heard strange news.
At the very time when they appeared at the Palace,
King Christian VI. had just resolved to send out
one more ship to Greenland ; this ship would bring
back to Denmark the last batch of soldiers ; and the
three Brethren were, therefore, informed that if
they went to Greenland, both Egede and they would
be entirely without government protection. Von
Pless, the Chamberlain, mentioned other difficulties.
" How do you intend to live ? " he asked.
I " By the labour of our hands and God's blessing,"
/ said Chi'istian David. " We do not intend to be a
burden to anybody. We shall build a house and till
a piece of land."
" But," said Von Pless, " there is no timber in the
country fit for building."
" In that case," replied Christian David, " we
shall dig a hole in the ground and live there."
" Nonsense," exclaimed Von Pless, " you shall
never be left in the lurch like that. Take wood
with you and build a house. Here's fifty dollars
for the purpose."
Once more the result at Copenhagen was glorious.
In spite of their lack of University education.
Christian David and his colleagues soon convinced
Von Pless that they did at least know enough theology
to preach the Gospel to the Eskimos, and before
many weeks the whole court was in favour of the
new enterprise. The King himself gave Christian
David a letter of introduction to Egede, and said
that if all the settlers at Herrnhut desired to go to
Greenland he would pay all their expenses ; the
President of the College of Missions wished them
God-speed ; and so many presents in money did
Greenland. CI
the Brethren receive that they were able to stock
the ship, not only with stones, wood, and other
building materials, but also with household furniture,
and a goodly supply of pro\4sions. On April 10th,
! 1733, the Cariias set sail ; on May 20th she cast
anchor at Godhaab ; and the three Brethren, stepping
ashore, handed Egede their letter of introduction,
and named the place New Herrnhut. The Danish
veteran welcomed them warmly, and promised to
teach them Eskimo. During the first few weeks the
three new missionaries were employed, partly in
trying, with Egede's help, to learn the language,
and partly in studying the character of the people ;
and in less than a month they made the painful
discovery that Hans Egede in his reports had not
exaggerated in the least. One Eskimo stole the
Brethren's manuscript ; others either refused to
speak or merely came to borrow fish-hooks and
knives ; and others said " The sooner you fools
go home the better."
The Brethren soon discovered the cause of the
trouble. On the land, with his greasy hands, the
Eskimo looked repulsive, and his filthy hut reeked
with the smell of stale fish ; on the sea he was a
brilliant expert ; and the reason was that in
the sea he found what he valued most. With
his sable sea dress around him, and his white
buttons gleaming in the sun, he took his seat
in his trim kayak and his heart throbbed with
the joy of adventure. His skill with his paddle
was amazing. He could turn his kayak upside down
and hang head-downwards in the water ; he could
right himself by a jerk and a twist with his paddle ;
he could spin in a whirlpool, poise on the crest of a
wave, steer, tack, and shoot beneath the rocks, and
smile defiance to the gales. With his left hand
he plied his paddle ; vnth. his right he hurled his
62 A History of Moravian Missions.
harpoon ; and the man who invented Eskimo
harpoons exhibited signs of genius. The shaft was
six feet long. At one end of this shaft there was a
detachable head, made of bone, barbed and pointed
with iron ; fastened to this head there was a long
string ; this string ran through a hook in the shaft
and lay coiled in the kayak, and at the other end
of the string there was a bladder. The hunter hurled
the harpoon ; the head pierced the seal, and detached
itself from the shaft ; the seal, stung with pain,
darted downwards ; the bladder, now thrown by
the hunter, indicated its whereabouts ; and the
huntsman, when it came up to breathe, dispatched
it with his lances. Sometimes the man was too
slow with his bladder, and then the kayak capsized ;
sometimes the string became entangled with the
paddle or coiled itself round his neck ; and some-
times the seal dragged the kayak with it almost to
the bottom of the sea. At such crises the Eskimo
was at his best. Sooner or later the seal returned
to the surface ; the Eskimo dispatched it with his
lances ; and then, after refreshing himself by
sucking the blood from its neck, he towed it ashore,
and told his friends the story of his doughty deed.
To the Greenlanders the seal was the one thing need-
ful. From seals they obtained their daily food ;
from the skins of seals they made their clothes ;
from the fat, oil for their lamps; from the entrails,
windows and curtains ; from the sinews, cobbler's
thread ; from the bones, harpoons and buttons ;
from the blood, a savoury soup. Without seals
they could not live. For seals they prayed, for
seals they toiled, for seals they constantly risked
their lives. According to the Greenlanders, there-
fore, every man's character was judged entirely
by his skill as a seal-catcher. If he excelled, he could
have a wife for the asking ; if he failed, all the women
Greenland. 68
despised him. At all social gatherings the chief
topic of discussion was how to manage kayaks and
capture seals ; at the public concerts the singers
sang of seals ; and the dying veteran thought of
heaven as a place where seals were boiled alive in
the kettle.
In spite, however, of this one-sided interest in
things material, the Grcenlanders were not entirely
depraved ; and, like many other heathen, they
I considered themselves the finest nation in the world.
Others they called Kablunat, i.e., barbarians ; them-
selves they called Innuit, i.e., the men. Nor was this
self-complacency entirely unjustified. They rarely
quarrelled ; they never swore ; they hardly ever
committed murder ; and, as they knew but little
of brewing, they did not often get drunk. In
Greenland disputes were generally settled, not by
means of the fist, but by means of the tongue. Each
of the disputants sang a comic song at the other's
expense ; the contest took place in public ; and the
one who could make the most insulting remarks
was acclaimed by the audience as the victor. Most
of the men were faithful to their wives ; and the
old people, when too feeble to work, were supported
by their sons.
In religion, speaking broadly, they do not seem to
have taken much interest. According to the most
thoughtful Eskimos, there must be a Creator ; in
favour of this beUef they used what is generally
called the cosmological argument ; and their mode of
stating the case was similar to Archdeacon Paley's
famous argument about the watch. " I have often,'*
said an Eskimo to the Brethren, " thought as follows :
A kayak does not come into existence of itself. It
has to be made by men's hands with great care and
skill, and a man who does not understand the job
will spoil it. Now, the smallest bird is much more
64 A History of Moravian Missions.
cunningly made than the best kayak, and no one can
make a bird. Again, a man is much cleverer and
wiser than any of the animals. Who made
him ? He comes from his parents. But where did
the first men come from ? Some say they came
out of the earth. If so, how is it that men do not
still come out of the earth ? " By some of the
Eskimos this argument was pushed a little further.
As the world was full of good things, the Creator
must be benevolent ; as there was also pain, however,
there must be wicked spirits ; and as all men dreaded
the future, there was probably something after
death. On the other hand, said the Eskimos, no
one had ever seen the great Creator ; no one, except
the priests or angekoks, knew very much about Him ;
and these angekoks were useful people, not because
they were profound theologians or high-class moral
teachers, but because, being in touch with a spirit
named Torngak, they possessed certain miraculous
powers. In theory, the Eskimo believed in the
Creator ; in fact, he trusted entirely to the angekoks ;
and these angekoks were highly esteemed. They
could climb to heaven on a string and interview the
" Fat Sages " there. They could see, in a tub of
water, a reflection of what was happening to a lost
relative ; they could fetch new healthy souls for the
sick, breathe new vigour into the languid, enchant
arrows, and expel diseases ; and above all, when
seals were scarce, they knew where to find them.
At the bottom of the sea, they said, there lived a
wicked she-dragon, who held the seals in bondage ;
and the angekok, accompanied by his familiar
spirit, travelled through the " Kingdom of Souls,"
crossed a yawning chasm, bearded the old she-dragon
in her den, stripped her of her amulets, and thereby
released the seals which she had held in bondage.
Forthwith the seals rose to the surface ; by methods
Greenland. 65
best known to liimself the angekok really had dis-
covered their lairs ; and now, appearing in a state
of breathless exhaustion, he was hailed as the
saviour of his country.
2. Five Remarkable Events, 1733-8.
For five years the early missionaries in Green-
land, Uke Hans Egede himself, preached to the
Eskimos in vain. During those lean years, however,
they had certain instructive experiences, and each
experience taught the Brethren valuable lessons
for the future.
(a) The Quarrel with Egede. For this disaster 1733
we must lay the blame partly on Christian David,
and partly on certain heresy-hunters at Copenhagen.
At the very time when Christian Da\4d was earning
the goodwill of the King and his friends, these people
started a rumour that the Brethren were not quite
sound in the faith ; then they wTote letters to that
effect to Egede ; these letters were conveyed to him
by the Caritas ; and Egede, therefore, at the very
^^ outset, regarded his new assistants with suspicion.
^K^ In the letters the Brethren were described as
^K^ " Pietists " ; that word filled Egede with alarm,
^B and straightway he asked the Brethren to state their
^K views on Justification by Faith. On that great
^K doctrine, he said, the Church of Christ was built.
^B The burden of reply fell on Christian David, and
^B ^Christian David now committed a blunder. For
' Eis services in leading emigrants from Moravia he
had long been highly honoured at Herrnhut ;
■ Zinzendorf even called him the " Moravian Moses " ;
and now, being somewhat puffed up with a sense of
his own importance, he sat do\^^l to his desk, wrote
a long elaborate treatise, and explained fully therein,
to Egede's unspeakable horror, that while faith
might be an excellent thing it was worse than
66 A History of Moravian Missions.
^ useless without stern moral discipline. The
two men belonged, in fact, to two different schools
of thought. Egede was an Evangelical Protestant.
Christian David was rather an ethical teacher,
Egede laid the main stress on St. Paul's Epistles ;
Christian David laid it on the Sermon on the Mount ;
and, between such men, reconciliation seemed im-
possible.f In vain Egede offered terms of peace.
For the sake of the cause at stake, he was willing
to overlook what he honestly considered defects in
the Brethren's theology ; and in a beautiful letter
he declared that he was willing to accept the Brethren
as his colleagues. " In spite of the fact," he said,
*' that you have not studied theology, you are none
the less competent to reveal the mystery of Christ
to the insane Greenlanders, i.e., as soon as you have
mastered the language. I will help you to the best
of my power. I rejoice that Christ is preached here ;
I accept eagerly your proffered help ; and as long as you
adhere to Divine truth, as I feel sure you will,
I recognise you as my brothers and colleagues
in the work of the Lord." With this answer,
however, Christian David was not satisfied. To
him there was something offensive in the suggestion
that, while the Brethren were not good theologians,
they were at least fitted to preach to lunatics. Down
he sat to his desk again, and wrote another hot
letter ; and then a strange event occurred which
immediately ended the dispute.
1733''4 (6) The Small-Pox Epidemic. Among the passengers
on the Caritas there was a little Eskimo boy named
Charles ; this boy now died of small-pox ; and during
the next nine months the epidemic spread with
■fFor his conduct on this occasion, Christian David was afterwards
severely rebuked by Ziazondorf. " What do yon mean,"
said the Count, in a letter dated August, 1735, " by setting
up one system against another T I never make systems
myae]i"—Briider-Bote, 1891, p. 190.
I
Greenland. 67
great rapidity all along the West Coast of Greenland.
The number of deaths was estimated at two thousand.
The suffering was terrible. For some reason the
pustules did not burst ; most of the patients suffered
severely both from thirst and pain ; and, driven to
the verge of madness, they stabbed themselves with
harpoons, hurled themselves down precipices into
the sea, and died cursing both God and the
missionaries. Hans Egede, said an old woman,
had taken Charles to Copenhagen ; Hans Egede
had had him brought back to Greenland ; Hans
Egede and his colleagues were, therefore, the cause
of all the trouble. The old woman's statement was
false. Charles had been taken to Copenhagen by
traders, and the missionaries w^ere not in the least
responsible. On all the missionaries this calamity
had the same glorious effect. As soon as the voice
of suffering reached their ears, they forgot their
theological disputes ; both Egede and the Brethren
turned their houses into hospitals ; and side by side
they trudged across the pink snow, visiting hundreds
of patients in their huts, burning the dead under
mounds of stones and grass, and speaking of the Risen
Christ to the dying. Thus did Egede and the Brethren
learn that, though they differed from each other in
theology, they could join hands in Christian work.
For three more years they laboured together in
perfect harmony ; then, completely worn out, Egede
retired from the scene (July 29th, 1736) and was
made President of the Danish College of Missions ;
and his last request to the Brethren was that they
would pardon his faults. Meanwhile, however,
neither he nor the Brethren had seen one gleam of
hope. As soon as the great epidemic was over, the
few survivors, who had fled in terror, returned to
Godhaab ; and yet, even among them, there was not
one sign of gratitude. As long as the conversation
68 A History of Moeavian Missions.
turned upon seals, the Eskimos listened with pleasure ;
but as soon as religious topics were started they
grew drowsy, or set up a shout and ran away. "If
you will not give us any more stock-fish," they said,
" we will not listen to what you have to say."
1735 (c) The Historic Covenant. On this incident the
whole future of the Greenland Mission depended.
. Once more the situation was critical. At the close
S fi^" of their -first year in Greenland, Christian David
and Christian Stach .retired ; soon afterwards their
places were taken by Frederick Bohnisch and John
Beck ; and then, feeling that without perseverance
the Greenland Mission would perish, the three
missionaries on the spot — Matthew Stach, Frederick
Bohnisch, and John Beck — signed their names to
what is known as the " Covenant of the Three
Brethren " (March 6th, 1735).
1. We will never forget that we came hither
resting upon God our Saviour, in whom all
the nations of the earth shall be blessed, not
on the principle of sight, but of faith.
2. The redemption wrought out for us by Christ,
through His own blood, shall be our chief
doctrine, which we will confirm by our words
and actions, as God shall give us ability, and
by this we will endeavour to bring the heathen
to the obedience of faith.
3. We will prosecute the study of the language
with assiduity, patience and hope.
4. We will each acknowledge and value the
spirit and graces conferred upon the other,
in honour prefer one another, and be subject
to each other in the Lord.
5. We will steadfastly maintain brotherly
discipline, admonition and correction, accord-
ing to the rule of Christ, and will withdraw
Greenland. 69
from anyone who swerves from the purity
of the Gospel, until he shall humble himself
before God and his Brethren.
6. We will do our outward labour in the name
of the Lord, and if anyone is remiss we will
remind him of his duty.
7. Yet will we not be over anxious for externals,
but cast our care upon Him who feeds the
sparrows and clothes the flowers of the field.
Thus did three Moravian lajanen resolve that,
whether they received provisions from Europe or
not, they would remain at their posts ; to that
covenant each of the three held fast ; and thereby
they established the mission on a sohd basis.
(d) Matthew Stack's Journey. For the purpose of 1737
coming into closer touch with the people, Matthew
Stach, in 1737, visited several islands south of New
Herrnhut. In his pocket he had passages of Scripture
translated by Egede ; and, making himself at home
among the people, he slept in their filthy huts, ate
their greasy blubber, and was so beloved that they
asked him to join in their lascivious dances. But
as soon as he spoke of things Divine they roared with
laughter.
" Come out," they said, one rainy day, " and
pray to your God for fine weather."
" There is no need for that," said Matthew, " you
must spread your tent-skins on your rocks. You
should rather pray for mercy on your souls."
'' But we don't want mercy on our souls," they
answered ; " your people may have diseased souls,
ours are all right,"
With his shp of paper in his hand, Matthew
delivered his message. " Set your affection on things
above," he read out from Colossians, " not on things
of the earth."
70 A History of Moravian Missions.
" Why so ? " inquired one Eskimo. In vain
Matthew informed the inquirer that he had an
immortal soul, and that if he did not repent he
would burn in everlasting fire.
" If the Son of God," replied the Eskimo, " is
such a terrible being, I don't want to go to Heaven
to Him."
" Would you like to go to hell-fire ? "
" No ; I shall not go there either. I shall stay
here on the earth."
No matter what method Matthew tried, the
people slammed the door in his face. If he read the
Scriptures, they mimicked him ; if he taught, they
sneered ; if he prayed, they beat their drums ;
if he sang, they howled ; if he spoke of God, they
giggled ; and if he told them the Gospel story, they
replied with stories about their angekoks. With a
weary heart Matthew returned to New Herrnhut.
There his colleagues still laboured in vain ; some-
times they were even beaten and stoned ; and,
feeling that the Greenlanders were almost hopeless,
Frederick Bohnisch wrote the pathetic lines : —
Here toils a little group of men,
Endowed with scanty powers ;
I And day by day, in blank despair,
[ They count the dreary hours.
1738 (e) The Conversion of Kayarnak, June 2nd, 1788.
For some weeks John Beck had been busy preparing
a translation of the Gospels. One summer evening
he was working alone ; on the table lay his Biblef
and manuscript ; and looking up, he saw some
Eskimos standing at his tent door. Among the
number was a young man named Kayarnak.
" What is that book all about ? " said one of the group.
fTliis Bible is now in tlit- Moravian Mission Library, at 32, Fetter
Lane, E.G.
I
Greenland. 71
John Beck read out a few verses, and then began
to expound.
" Do you know," he asked, " that you all possess
immortal souk ? "
" Yes," they replied.
" Do you know where they will go to after death ? "
" Up to the sky " said some. " Deep down
below " said others.
" Do you know who made the heavens and the
earth and every visible thing ? "
" No, we don't," replied the Eskimos, " but it
must have been some great and wealthy lord."
For some moments John Beck, just like Egede
before him, continued to expound dogmatic theology.
Then a sudden inspiration seized him, and, picking
up the last page of his manuscript, he began to
read from his translation of the Gospels. He had
come to St. Matthew's account of the Agony in
Gethsemane.
" And He took with Him Peter and the two sons
of Zebedee, and began to be sorrowful and very
heavy. And He fell on His face and prayed,
saying. Father, if it be possible, let this cup pass
from me."
At these words, Kayarnak, with a sudden cry,
sprang forward to the table ; his eyes shone like
stars, and his voice trembled with emotion.
" What is that ? " he asked. " Tell me that again ;
for I, too, would be saved."
At last the ice had melted. For several hours
that golden evening John Beck, with tears of joy
running down his cheeks, was employed in telling
the little company all the details of the Passion
History ; before the sun set he was joined by Stach
and Bohnisch ; and some of the Eskimos were so
impressed that they asked to be taught to pray.
On Kayarnak himself the effect was wonderful.
72 A History of Moravian Missions.
By the Brethren's dogmatic theology he had been
entirely unaffected; by the ^^story of Gethsemane
and Calvary he was thrilled and transformed ;
and next year (March ^30th, 1739) he was publicly
baptized as the first-fruit of the Greenland Mission.
His conversion roused the enemy to fresh energy.
For some months, said Matthew Stach, it seemed as
though the Devil himself had been let loose in
Greenland. At Disko an aspiring young man tried to
carry off Anna Stach by force ; at Kanjek the people
drank till they were torpid ; at another place a
youth tied his mother in a sack and buried her
alive on a desolate island ; and, finally, certain
desperadoes stabbed Kayarnak's brother-in-law and
hurled his body over a cliff. Kayarnak himself was
now in danger, and fled for safety to the south. There
his friends asked him to join in a sun-dance. " No,"
he replied, " I have now another joy, for another
sun, Jesus, has risen in my heart." With him as a
convert the Brethren were more than satisfied ;
he conducted prayer meetings, reasoned with the
crass, and helped the Brethren in their translation
work ; and, being the first Eskimo Christian known
to history, he has gained a niche in the temple of
fame.
3. The Turn of the Tide (1740).
{a) The Change of Method. At the very time
when the Brethren in Greenland were in the deepest
despair, Count Zinzendorf was beginning to
preach his so-called " Blood and Wounds Theology" ;
Andrew Grassman, who came to inspect, now
brought this theology to Greenland ; and the
1740 Brethren altered their mode of preaching to the
Eskimos, not, as we might have imagined, because
they were impressed by the case of Kayarnak, but
because they were convinced by Grassman's argu-
Greenland. 78
ments. With the visit of Grassman, therefore, a
new era opened in the Greenland Mission. In the
past the Brethren had preached abstract theological
doctrine ; henceforth they adopted the picturesque
narrative method. In the past they had discoursed
about the Fall of Man and the Plan of Salvation ;
henceforward they gave the people the Passion
History in detail ; and the Eskimos themselves soon
noticed the difference. At the story of Adam and
Eve they had merely wondered ; at the story of the
Crown of Thorns they wept ; and sometimes, at the
baptismal service, their tears dripped into the font.
" What strange event is this ? " they said to the
Brethren. " Your present discourse affects us
differently from what you were always telhng us
about God and our first parents. Of course, we used
to say that we beheved it ; but we were quite tired
of hearing it. ' What signifies all this to us ? ' we
thought. But now you teU us a really interesting
story." But the story of the Cross proved more
than interesting. Formerly, the Eskimos had been
self-complacent ; now, gazing at the crucified
Redeemer, they confessed their sins, repented, and
asked to be baptized ; and, noting this remarkable
change, John Beck, in a letter to Zinzendorf, said :
" Henceforth, we shall preach nothing but the love
of the slaughtered Lamb."
{b) Organization. As soon as the Eskimos began
to repent of their sins, Andrew Grassman perceived
that the time had come to estabhsh a branch of the
Christian Church in Greenland. First he took
Matthew Stach with him to Marienborn on the Dec. 12th,
Wetterau and had him ordained a Presbyter ; then 1741
Matthew was officially appointed " Teacher of the
Greenlanders," and received from the King of
Denmark a rescript authorising, not only him, but
also ail other Moravian ministers, to baptize, marry.
74 A History of Moravian Missions.
and conduct the Holy Communion ; and then,
Mar. 16th, soon after Matthew's return to Greenland, the
1742 , Brethren organized New Herrnhut as a Moravian
I settlement. For this policy their chief reason was
I that if they could persuade the natives to live all
together in one village they would have more
efficient control over their moral conduct. The
natives gladly responded ; New Herrnhut became
a flourishing settlement ; and the Brethren, following
Zinzendorf's example at Herrnhut, formed their
converts into bands and classes, taught the children
by means of a Catechism, and once a month, on
" Congregation Day," gave their people full accounts
of missionary work in other lands. In due time,
other improvements were introduced. At the special
1747 request of the people themselves a Church for public
worship was built and opened ; then followed a
" Single Brethren's House " and a " Single Sisters*
House " ; and regular services were now held every
day. At six each morning there was a meeting for
the baptized ; at eight a short service for the whole
village ; at nine the children learned their Catechism
and then went to the day-school ; and in the evening
there was a service with sermon.
At the same time the Brethren organized the social,
/ industrial and civic life of the people. Among
« Matthew Stach's assistants the most remarkable was
John Sorensen, and the story of Sorensen's call to
Greenland is a classic. One day, in 1746, he met
Zinzendorf in a garden at Herrnhaag in the Wetterau.
" Would you like to serve the Saviour in Green-
land ? " asked the Count.
" Here am I, send me," replied the young man.
He had never thought of Greenland before.
" But the matter is pressing," said Zinzendorf,
" someone is needed at once."
" All right," said Sorensen, " where is the difficulty ?
Greenland. 75
If you will get me a new pair of boots, I will start
to-day. My old ones are quite worn out, and I
have not another pair."
The boots were bought ; the man set off ; and a
few weeks later he arrived at New Herrnhut. His
arrival led to a new movement. During the next
forty-seven years he acted, not only as mason,
carpenter, blacksmith, and grocer, but also as
general manager of the labour department ; and,
under his supervision, other useful measures were
enforced. Old age pensions were introduced*; a
system of State Insurance was devised ; widows
and orphans were placed under the care of heads of
families ; and the Brethren even passed a law that
all retailers of scandalous gossip should be excluded
from the meetings of the baptized.f
For these services to righteousness and religion
all the Brethren were popular ; New Herrnhut soon
became overcrowded ; and so successful was the
settlement system considered that two new settle-
ments, further south, were founded, and called
Lichtenfels (1758) and Lichtenau (1774). The first of
these names means Rock of Light, i.e., Rocky District
enlightened by the Gospel ; the second means
Meadow of Light, i.e.. Meadow enhghtened by the
Gospel ; and thus, by building these three settle-
ments, the Brethren laid the foundations of the Green-
land Mission. For this peculiar method of work
the Brethren have often been both praised and
blamed, and the method, let us frankly admit, had
both advantages and disadvantages. On the one
hand, the Eskimos learned to be good Christian
citizens ; on the other hand, they also learned to be
too much dependent on the missionaries ; and the
tWith the life at New Herrnhut Zinzendorf was delighted. He
said that the place deserved its name, and that was the
highest praise that he could give.
76 A History of Moravian Missions.
consequence was that in later years they became
spoiled children.
Meanwhile, one more of Matthew [Stach's
many adventures must be recorded. In 1747,
taking five Eskimos with him, he set off for a grand
tour. First, he visited Herrnhut in Saxony, where
two of the Eskimos died ; then he walked with the
three survivors to Zeist in Holland ; and then,
sailing on the Moravian Ship, the Irene, to London,
he made his way to Leicester House, and presented
his converts to George 11. , the Prince and Princess \
of Wales, and other members of the Royal Family. \
His visit had some historical importance. By means j
of this visit Matthew interested the Royal Family \
in work among Eskimos ; and that interest, a few *
years later, was of some service in Labrador. The|
chief speaker on this occasion was the Princess.
" Are all Greenlanders dressed like that ? ",. she
began.
" Yes," said Matthew, " except that some wear
reindeer skin instead of seal skin."
" How many people live in your neighbourhood ? "
" About a thousand."
" How do they live ? "
" By catching fish and seals. Some shoot rein-
deer."
" Come closer," said the Princess to Mrs. Stach.
" What do you do in Greenland ? "
" I look after the women," was the answer.
" Speak to them of the Saviour, and keep a school
for the girls."
" How do the people amuse themselves ? "
" The heathen dance and play games with balls ;
but the converts leave off these things of their own
accord and amuse themselves by singing."
" What sort of songs do they sing ? "
" For the most part Lutheran hymns, which we
Greenland. 77
have translated into Eskimo. You can hear the
women singing when they gather berries."
For twenty-four years after this mterview
Matthew Stach laboured patiently in Greenland. He
retired in 1771 and spent his last years at Bethabara
in North Carolina ; and though he never claimed to
, be a great man, Trapp Ellis, the Moravian poet,
' was surely justified in saying that
" The name of Matthew Stach must aye endure,
Emblazoned with the saintly and the pure."
Chapter VI.
THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS, 1734—1808.
1. Georgia ; the Cherokees, 1734 — 1740.
As the fiery Count was returning to Herrnhut
from an interview with the Theological Faculty at
Tubingen, he heard, to his indignation, that the King
of Saxony had issued an insulting edict, wherein
His Majesty declared that the Moravians might
remain at Herrnhut only as long as they behaved
themselves quietly. The Count rose to the
occasion. In order to find a home for the
Moravians, he sent his young and learned
friend, Augustus Gottlieb Spangenberg, to London
to open negotiations there with the trustees for
Georgia, and the trustees not only granted five
hundred acres of land at Savannah, but even guaran-
teed religious liberty, and promised that, in time of
war, the Brethren should not be compelled to bear
arms. As these conditions pleased the Count, he now
dispatched the first Moravian colonists, and for their
guidance he wrote a treatise entitled " Instructions
for the Colony in Georgia.'^ In this treatise, however,
the Count made no reference to the Indians. For the
present he merely said that the Brethren were not to
dispute with others ; that, when asked questions, they
must tell the simple truth ; that they must keep to
themselves ; and that, as soon as possible, he would
send them an ordained minister. At the head of the
party was Spangenberg. They landed in Georgia,
went to Savannah (April 17th, 1735), and began to
till the soil.
But now the Count took an important step
which prepared the way for a mission to the
Red Indians. As the Moravians in Georgia would
(78)
The North American Indians. 79
require their own ministers, he applied to Bishop
Daniel Ernest Jablonsky for consecration as a
Bishop, and when Jablonsky politely refused, he
asked him to consecrate David Nitschmann. The
Bishop consented ; the ceremony was duly per-
formed (March 13th, 1735), and thus David Nitsch-
mann became the first Bishop of the Renewed
Moravian Church. He was not, however, to officiate
lat home, but was rather what we should call a
) Colonial Bishop, and generally signed himself
"D. Nitschmann, Bishop of Foreign Parts"; and
Jablonsky himself distinctly asserted in the ordination
certificate that thereby he authorised Nitschmann to
officiate in Greenland, in America, in the West
Indies, and in any other colonies which the
Brethen might visit. Thus did Zinzendorf make
it clear that although he had no desire to restore
the Moravian Church in Germany, he intended
to place the foreign missions on a firm
ecclesiastical basis. In Germany the Brethren might
be suppressed by law ; in Georgia, under the British
flag, they would march freely ahead in a grand
evangelistic campaign ; and blazing with zeal for
this ideal, he dispatched the second batch of colonists.
The expedition was of momentous importance. It
opened a new campaign in America, and led to the
Evangelical Revival in England.
At the head of the party was Bishop Nitschmann Nov. Ist
himself ; among his comrades were Martin Mack 1735
and the Zeisbergers from Zauchtenthal in Moravia.
They sailed from Gravesend on the Simmonds, and
on board that historic vessel was John Wesley,
going out in the ser\'ice of the S.P.G. to preach the
Gospel to the Indians. The more John Wesley
studied the conduct of the Brethren, the more con-~
vinced he became that they were the finest Christians
he had ever known. They were, he recorded in his
80 A History of Moravian Missions.
journal, the gentlest, bravest folk he had ever met.
They helped without pay in the working of the ship ;
they could take a blow without losing their tempers ;
and when the ship was tossed in the storm they
were braver than the sailors themselves. One Sun-
day the gale was terrific ; the sea poured in between
the decks ; the main sail was torn in tatters ; the
English passengers screamed with terror; the
Brethren calmly sang a hymn.
" Were you not afraid ? " said John Wesley.
" I thank God, no," replied the Brother.
" But were not your women and children afraid ? "
" No, our women and children are not afraid to
die."
Little did that Brother know what? dangers lay
ahead. John Wesley was deeply impressed. With
all his piety he still lacked something that these
Brethren possessed. Never had he seen such glorious
confidence in God. " How is it thou hast no faith ? "
he asked himself. With all his zeal he still feared
death; and these men, with songs of joy on; their
lips, smiled at the raging storm.
As soon as this famous party had settled in Georgia,
Bishop Nitschmann, true to his commission, ordained
Anthony Seifferth ; a little later he ordained Spangen-
berg ; and thus occurred the Brst Protestant ordina-
tions on American soil. At the first ordination
Wesley himself was present, and so deeply was he
moved by the scene that he felt himself back" in
the days of the Apostles, and half thought that
Paul the Tentmaker, or Peter the Fisherman, was
presiding at the ceremony.
The work among the Indians now began in earnest.
At the head of affairs was Spangenberg. He kept
the accounts, managed the farms, planned the
buildings, acted as medical adviser, and even
gave the Sisters lessons in cookery. For the
The North .American Indians. 81
benefit of the Indian children Hving in the neigh-
bourhood, he built a school on an island in the
River Savannah ; and the Cherokees brought their
chief, Toms Tschatchi, to hear " the great word."
But this work among the Cherokees in Georgia died
an early death. At the very time when success seemed
imminent, the well-known war between England and
Spain broke out (1739) ; and the Brethren, being
summoned to join the British forces, abandoned
the colony and marched in a body to Pennsylvania.
2. The Mohicans, 1740—1741.
(a). The Base of Operations. — The great
Spangenberg was now in his element. As long
as this man remained at the head of affairs,
the Brethren managed their work in a masterly
manner. They bought some land beside the Lehigh
River ; they stood leg deep in the snow and felled
the trees ; they built a fine town and called it
Bethlehem; and they made that town a " house of
bread " for all the preachers in North America.
The grand principle now adopted by Spangenberg
was sub-di\'ision of labour. In Bethlehem lay the
commissariat department ; in the Indian villages
stood the fighting line. He began by appealing
to the virtue of self-sacrifice. In order to cut down
the expenses of living, he asked his workers to
surrender the comforts of family Ufe. At Bethlehem
stood two large houses. In one Uved all the Single
Brethren ; in the other the famiUes, all the husbands
in one part, all the wives in another, and all the
children, under guardians, in the third. At Nazareth,
only ten miles away, the Single Sisters drove their
spinning wheels. For the sake of the holy cause of
the Gospel the Brethren toiled with brain and hand.
They built their own houses ; they made their own
clothes and boots ; they tilled the soil, bred cattle,
82 A History of Moravian Missions.
grew vegetables, and kept hens ; they sawed their
own wood, spun their own yarn, wove their own
cloth, and baked their own bread ; and then, selling
at the regular market price what they did not
need for their own consumption, they spent the
profits in the support of preachers, teachers, and
missionaries to the Indians. For a motto the
Brethren took the words : "In commune oramus, in
commune laboramus, in commune patimur, in
commune gaudemus," i.e., together we pray,
together we labour, together we suffer, together we
rejoice. The motive, however, was not social, but
religious. " As Paul," said Spangenberg, " worked
with his own hands, so as to be able to preach the
Gospel without pay, so we, according to our ability,
will do the same ; and thus even a child of four
will be able, by plucking wool, to serve the Gospel."
For this cause the ploughman delved the soil, the
joiner sawed, the blacksmith swung his hammer,
and the young men, with songs on their lips, felled
trees in the forest ; for this cause the fond mothers,
with tears of joy in their eyes, handed over their
children to the care of the guardians, and thus,
with fingers free to work, made shoes, cut patterns,
ground powder for the chemist's shop, sliced turnips,
knitted socks, and copied invoices and letters. As
the fireman stoked he felt as important " as if he were
guarding the Ark of the Covenant " ; and in all
the labour the missionary impulse rang like a clarion
call. The plan was a brilliant success. For many
years the colony of Bethlehem-Nazareth, called by
Spangenberg the " Economy," remained the centre,
not only of the. Mission in North America, but also
of the Mission in the West Indies.
But Spangenberg was more than a clever organizer.
In addition to finding the money for the men, he
found the men for the work. He appointed a
The North American Indians, 88
** College of Overseers " ; he founded a Mission
College and trained the students ; and he called his
college the School of Prophets, his men the Pilgrim
Band, and the whole place the Saviour's Armoury.
No man had a cooler head for figures ; no man had
a keener zeal for missions ; and no man attempted
a more stupendous task. And that task was the
conversion of all the Red Indian tribes in North
America.
{b). The Field of Labaur.— With joy the
Brethren beheld the spreading field. In those
days Red Indians swarmed on every hand. In
Dutchess County, New York, resided the Mohicans ;
in the Wyoming Valley, the Shawanese Indians ;
in New York, Pennsylvania, and the district south
of Lake Ontario, the Iroquois ; and in north-west
Pennsylvania and Ohio, the Delawares.
At first sight these Indians were an attractive
people. They had dark brown skins, black hair and
eyes, high cheek-bones, and beautiful snow-white
teeth. They could run like deer, scent like blood-
hounds, shoot like Boers, speak like Demosthenes,
and lie like Ananias. In manners they were
generally polite ; in morals pure ; in battle furious ;
in revenge implacable. They were fond of dress ;
painted their faces vermilion ; and rejoiced in red
collars, red girdles, red-and-blue stockings, corals
and feathers. They were fond of tobacco, of rum,
of dancing, and of dice. They slept in wigwams ;
lived by huntmg and fishing ; and were fond of
flitting from one v-illage to another.
I In matters of health they showed much common
sense. As they lived a good deal in the open air,
they sometimes reached a good old age, and the
only diseases prevalent among them were pleurisy,
cohc, rheumatism, diarrhoea, ague and common
84 A History of Moravian Missions.
bath. No Indian village was without one. It was
a wooden oven, heated with red-hot stones. Three
times the patient sweated ; three times he cooled
himself in the river ; and then, the cure complete,
he smoked his pipe in peace. As this remedy, how-
ever, was not infallible, the Indians had often to
resort to other devices. For burns and chilblains
they used a decoction of beech-leaves ; for boils
a poultice of Indian flour ; for rheumatism a mixture
of drugs ; for head-ache and tooth-ache, white
walnut bark ; for snake-bites, the leaf of the rattle-
snake root ; for ague, the shrubly elder ; for stomach
disorders, the red berries of the winter-green ; for
consumption, the liver-wort ; for fevers, the roots
of the Virginian Poke, applied to the hands and feet ;
for emetic purposes, bloodwort and ipecacuanha;
and, finally, for small-pox and many other com-
plaints, petroleum oil. In spite, however, of these
remedies, the Indians were not a long-lived people.
They refused, says Zinzendorf, to wear either trousers
or hats ; the exposure brought on headaches, boils,
and rheumatics, and, therefore, they often grew old
at forty and died in the early fifties. As their herbs,
of course, did not always act, they had to summon
the medicine-man. The physician gave an interesting
performance. In return for a fee, paid in advance,
he declared that he had received his powers
direct from God in a dream, and that the
disease was caused by a spirit, who must be driven
out into the desert ; and then, after prescribing his
medicines, he rattled his wolves' teeth, breathed on
the patient, squirted juice over his body, scattered
hot ashes in the air, made grimaces, roared, howled,
crawled into an oven, had the patient brought to
the door, and saluted him with horrible grins.
For the needs of the soul the Indians made little
provision. They had no temples, no priests, no
The North American Indians. 85
religious books, and no regular forms of public
worship. And yet they had certain clear religious
beliefs. They believed that God, the Great Spirit,
was the author of all good ; that the devil was the
cause of all evil ; that the soul of every Indian was
immortal ; that the Milky Way was the road to
Heaven ; that Heaven was on one side of the blue,
and hell close by on the other ; that the good would
go to happy hunting-fields, and that, finally, the
sinners in hell would have to watch the enjo}Tnents
of the saints. On the way of salvation opinions
differed. According to some, the road to Heaven
was virtue ; according to others, every man
must purge himself by vomiting ; and according
to others, he must have the wickedness driven out
of him by sticks. Above all, the Indians believed in
evil spirits. As these spirits swarmed like mosquitoes,
the poor Indians had to take measures of self-defence.
For this purpose they used images named manittoes.
Every Indian had his manitto ; the nature of his
manitto was revealed to him in a dream ; and the
dreamer made his image accordingly, and hung it
round his neck.
(c.) Fenimore Cooper's Hero. — As soon as 1740
Spangenberg had enough money in hand, he wrote to
the Brethren in Europe asking for volunteers ; Christian
Henry Ranch responded, and arrived at New York ;
and then, making his way to Shekomeko, he found
himself in the midst of the Mohicans.
He had come to a den of iniquity. Of aU the Red
Indians of North America the Mohicans were the most
degraded. In time of war they were generally
fighting the Mohawks ; in times of peace they were
much addicted to rum, and, therefore, they did not
give Rauch a welcome. At first they merely regarded
him as a fool ; and then, a little later, they threatened
to kill him. The leader in vice at Shekomeko was
86 A History of Moravian Missions.
Tschoop.t He was renowned, even among the
Mohicans, as a drunkard ; he looked, it was said,
more like a bear than a man ; and the first time he
heard Ranch preach he was so tipsy that he
remembered only one word of the sermon. The
word he remembered was " blood." He thought
about it, dreamed about it, wondered what it could
mean.
" What a strange man is this," he thought, " he
looks so friendly and yet he talks about blood."
" Why do you talk about blood," said Tschoop,
" with such joy in your heart ? "
"It is the blood of your Creator," said Ranch,
" who came to die for you and cleanse you from vour
sin."
" But how can blood cleanse from sin ? "
" If you love Him, the blood will work upon you."
" But I am so given to drink."
" If you get the blood into your heart," said
Ranch, " desire for drink will go."
In a few weeks Tschoop became a Christian,
and five years later, at a conference in Bethlehem,
he told the story of his conversion.
"Brethren," he said, "I have been a heathen,
and have grown old among the heathen. Therefore,
I know how heathen think. Once a preacher came
and began to explain to us that there was a God.
We answered : ' Dost thou think us so ignorant as
not to know that ? Go back to the place from
which thou camest ! ' Then, again, another preacher
came and began to teach us and to say : ' You
must not steal, nor lie, nor get drunk.' W^e
answered : ' Thou fool, dost thou think we don't
know that ? Learn first thyself, and then teach
the people to whom thou belongest to leave off these
■fTsfihoop is said to be the original of Chingachgook in Fenimore
Cooper's " The La«t of the Mohicans."
The North American Indians. 87
things ; for who steals, or lies, or who is more drunken
than thine own people?'"
As Tschoop was not more explicit, we are not
quite sure what preachers he meant. They were
certainly Englishmen ; they were probably Anglican
clergymen ; and the most reasonable conjecture
is that they had been sent to Shekomeko, either by
the " Society for the Advancement of Civilisation
and Christianity," or by the " New England Society."
But Ranch, having sat at the feet of the Count,
came with a different tale.
" He came into my tent," said Tschoop, "sat down
beside me, and spoke nearly as follows : ' I come to
you in the name of the Lord of Heaven and Earth.
He sends to let you know that He will make you happy
and deliver you from the misery in which you lie at
present. To this end He became a man, gave His
life a ransom for man, and shed His Blood for him.'
When he had finished his discourse he lay
down upon a board, fatigued by the journey, and
fell into a sound sleep. ' What kind of man is this ? '
thought I. ' There he lies and sleeps. I might
kill him and throw him out into the wood, and who
would regard it ? But this gives him no concern.'
I could not forget his words. They constantly
recurred to my mind. Even when I was asleep I
dreamed of the blood which Christ shed for us. I
found this to be something different from what
I had ever heard, and I interpreted Christian Henry's
words to the other Indians. Thus, through the
grace of God, an awakening took place among us.
I say, therefore, Brethren, preach Christ our Saviour,
His sufferings and death, if you wish your words to
gain entrance among the heathen."
For many years this tale continued to be told in
Mora\ian circles as an illustration of the right
way to preach the Gospel : the great Spangenberg
88 A History of Moravian Missions.
himself referred to Rauch as a model, and a hundred
years later a British poet enshrined the moral in verse.
Glad Tidings.
We asked an Indian Brother, a warrior of old.
How first among his people the Glad Tidings had
been told ?
How first the Morning Star arose on their long
heathen night,
Till souls who sat in darkness were rejoicing in
the light ?
And he answered: "Many a summer f has come
and gone since then ;
Yet well I can remember — I can see it all again.
A teacher came among us, from the country of your
birth,
And told us of the Uving God, Who made the
heaven and earth ;
But we asked if he had been a fool, or thought
that we were so,
For who among our sons did not the one Great
Spirit know ?
So he left us, and another told us much of sin
and shame.
And how for sinners was prepared a lake of
quenchless flame ;
But we bade him teach these things at home,
among the pale-faced men,
And if they learned the lesson right, we, too,
would listen then.
At last another stranger came, of calm and gentle
mien,
And eyes whose light seemed borrowed from yon
blue the clouds between ;
fA poetic licence ; it was only five years. Tschoop was converted
in 1740, and told his story in 1746.
The North American Indians. 89
Still in my dreams I hear his voice, his smile I
still can see,
Though many a summer he has sleptf beneath
the elder tree.
He told us of a Mighty One, the Lord of Earth
and Sky,
Who left His glory in the heavens, for men to
bleed and die ;
Who loved poor Indian sinners still, and longed to
gain their love,
And be their Saviour here and in His Father's
house above.
And when his tale was ended, " My friends," he
gently said,
" I am weary with my journey, and would fain lay
down my head."
So beside our spears and arrows he laid him down
to rest,
And slept as sweetly as the babe upon its mother's
breast.
Then we looked upon each other, and I whispered,
" This is new.
Yes, we have heard glad tidings, and the sleeper
knows Him true ;
He knows he has a Friend above, or would he
slumber here,
With men of war around him, and their war-whoop
in his ear ?
So we told him on the morrow that he need not
journey on,
But stay and tell us further of that living, dying One ;
And thus we heard of Jesus first, and felt the
wondrous power
Which makes His people willing in His own
accepted hour."
fAnother poetic licence. Rauch lived another eighteen years,
and died at Old Carmel in Jamaica (1763). See Chapter IV.
90 A History of Moravian Missions.
The conversion of Tschoop created a great
sensation. As Tschoop had the courage to defy his
mother-in-law, who abused him for becoming a
Christian, he was soon regarded as a hero ; and
so inspiring was his example that Shekomeko
became the scene of a revival. The wildest
Indians became the most model converts ; the
most drunken sots became the most staunch
abstainers ; four other Brethren came to the aid
of Rauch, and Shekomeko became such a model
village that Conrad Weisser, the official agent for the
Province of Pennsylvania, after visiting Shekomeko
in person, declared that the Indian converts reminded
him of the Primitive Christians.
3. The Count's Adventures, 1741 — 1743.
At this point Count Zinzendorf arrived on the
scene. As Pennsylvania was then the home of many
quarrelling sects, he imagined that it was the very
place to introduce his ideals of church unity ; and
then, after a vain attempt to form the sects into one
grand " Congregation of the Spirit," he turned his
attention to the Indian Mission, and undertook three
journeys of exploration. His ideas about the
Indians were rather peculiar. For reasons at which
most scholars will probably smile, Count Zinzendorf
firmly believed — exactly like William Penn, the
Quaker — that the Red Indians of North America
were the Lost Ten Tribes of Israel. Had they not,
he contended, the pale yellow skin described in the
Book of Deuteronomy ? Did they not, as God had
predicted, suffer from jaundice ?■!• Had they not,
also, very small families ? * Did they not call their
tDeut. xxxm,, 22. "The Lord shall smite thee with mildew."
The Hebrew word means " yellow," and the translation i:i
Luther's version is Gelbsucht, i.e.. Jaundice.
*Deut. xxvri., 62. " And ye shall be left few in number."
The North American Indians. 91
enemies Assaroni, i.e., of course, Assyrians ? Did
they not use some Hebrew words, such as "achsa"
and "anas"; practise certain well-known Jewish
customs, and, like the Jews of old, hand
on their family feuds from one generation to
another ?
On his first journey (July, 1742) he visited the
Iroquois. As the Iroquois were then a very powerful
tribe — consisting of six nations, i.e., the Mohawks,
Oneidas, Onondagas, Senecas, Tuscaroras, and
Cayugas — Count Zinzendorf was fully convinced that
if he could arrange definite terms with them he
would be laying a solid basis for future missionary
work, and, therefore, accompanied by Peter Bohler,
Frederick Martin, and his own daughter Benigna,
he now set off across the Blue Mountains and met
the six Iroquois Kings at the little village of Tulpe-
hocken.t For two reasons Tulpehocken may be
regarded as a place of great importance. In the
first place, Zinzendorf wrote there his beautiful
" Evening Prayer " : —
Jesus, in that calm light,
Dost Thou not watch to-night ?
Moves no one in yon sky
Before the face so bright
Of Christ the Lamb on high ?
Ah yes, ye Cherubim,
And ye, ye Seraphim,
Ye all keep watch 'fore Him.
Exalted angels, pray.
Draw nigh to me and say
How I can fill my place,
Be on my guard alway,
tin Berki County, Pennsylvania.
92 A History of Moravian Missions.
That so, by God's own grace,
Each thought and deed of mine
Shall be of Christ's design,
Inspired by love Divine.
Thy Prayers did never cease !
For when for Thee no peace
Was found in house or field.
And work without release
No time for prayer did yield,
Still, while the red sun shone,
Or while calm night came on.
Thou didst keep watch alone.
Now I my soul commend
To Thee, Redeemer, Friend,
That, cleansed and sanctified,
I may unto the end
Still at my post abide.
For only through Thy blood
Can I have courage good
To do that which I would.
In the second place, Tulpehocken is important
because there Zinzendorf concluded a treaty with
the Iroquois. In response to his request that
Moravian Missionaries might preach undisturbed
to the Six Nations, he was handed by the six Kings
a fathom of one hundred and eighty-six white beads.
As white was regarded as a symbol of peace and good-
will, the fathom was in reality a " Safe Conduct,"
and Zinzendorf handed it over to Spangenberg to
be used in all future negotiations.
On his second journey (August, 1742) he visited
Shekomeko, conversed with Tschoop, the convert,
appointed an elder, an exhorter, and a sexton, formed
the other converts into a Helpers' Conference, and
The North American Indians. 93
thus organized the first Moravian Indian congrega-
tion in North America.
On his third journey (September, 1742) he had a
double purpose. In order to strengthen the
good feehng between the Mora^-ian Church and
the Iroquois, he first visited Shikeliimey, King
of the Oneidas, at Shamokin, and gained the
King's friendship by presenting him with a shirt;
and then, hearing that the Shawanese knew
nothing of the Christian rehgion, he paid a
visit to them in the Wyoming Valley. But the
Shawanese did not give him a cordial welcome.
Instead of receiving him as a prophet of God, they
regarded him as a thief, and informed him that he
had come, not, as he pretended, to preach the Gospel,
but to rob them of their silver mines. The Count
was bitterly disappointed.. He had no fewer than
three escapes from sudden death. On the first
occasion, as he sat in his tent, two puff-adders
crawled over his legs and buried themselves in his
papers ; on the second, wliile fording a river, he fell
backwards from his horse and was nearly drowned ;
and on the third, the Shawanese formed a plot to
scalp him. For ten days he Hved entirely on boiled
beans ; then, after consultmg the Lot, he decided
that a Mission to the Shawanese would be hopeless,
and thus he returned to Bethlehem a sadder and
wiser man. We must not regard his journeys as mere
adventures. He had now arrived at certain definite
conclusions. At the close of his \dsit to Pennsylvania,
he called a meeting of the Brethren, and laid down a
plan of campaign for the future. His friend Spangen-
berg was to act as General Manager ; Bethlehem
was still to be the head-quarters of the Mission ;
and while the work at Shekomeko must be continued,
a systematic attempt must be made to preach the
Gospel to the Iroquois.
94 A History of Moravian Missions.
4. The Mission to the Iroquois,
1743—1765.
For twenty-two years after Zinzendorf's departure,
the Brethren, with Bethlehem as their headquarters,
made a systematic attempt to convert the Six Nations
or Iroquois. In this work the chief leader was
David Zeisberger, known as the Apostle to the
Indians, and the strange and tragic feature of the
story is, that while the Brethren, in this campaign,
took every reasonable precaution, they found them-
selves faced by a series of obstacles which baffled
the wit of man to overcome. Each move was
carefully and skilfully planned ; each move promised
brilliant success ; and each move, in the most
marvellous fashion, led to dire disaster.
(1) The first disaster occurred at Shekomeko.
For certain obvious financial reasons, the whisky
merchants of the State of New York decided that,
as Shekomeko was a teetotal village, the sooner the
mission could be destroyed the better ; and,
therefore, to this end, they now accused the
Brethren of being Papists in disguise, and also
of being in league with the French. The case came
up before the New York Assembly, and the New
York Assembly swiftly responded. First, they
enacted an edict (1742) that " all vagrant preachers,
Moravians, and disguised Papists " should be for-
bidden to preach to the Indians unless they first
took the oaths of allegiance and abjuration ; then
they enacted that all Moravians should forthwith
leave the Province; and then three officials arrived
at Shekomeko and promptly expelled the Brethren.
By means, therefore, of this astute device, the first
Moravian Mission to the Indians was almost com-
pletely destroyed. For the present the Brethren
had to act on the defensive. In order to find a new
The North American Indians. 95
home for their converts they built a settlement on 1745
the Mahony, named Gnadenhiitten ; thither the
Indian converts gathered, not only from Shekomeko,
but also from Pachgatgoch, Wechquadnach, and
Meniolagomeka ; and during the next ten years
Gnadenhiitten was a happy harbour of refuge.
(2) The next trouble arose from a foolish 1745
Mayor. In strict accordance with Zinzendorf's
instructions, the Brethren began their great Mission to
the Iroquois by sending two messengers, Zeisberger
and Post, to negotiate with the King of the Mohawks
at Canajoharie. There the King gave the messengers
a courteous welcome, and even promised to teach
Zeisberger the Mohawk language ; and then, just
when the two envoys imagined that they had
achieved a triumph, the Mayor of Albany, hearing
that they were French spies, had them both arrested
and sent to New York. Once more, as in Frederick
Martin's case, the whole trouble was connected with
the oath. In reply to several questions submitted
by Governor Clinton, both Zeisberger and Post
declared that they were loyal subjects of George III. ;
nevertheless, they both refused to take the oath of
allegiance, and, therefore, while they were set at
liberty, they were warned to appear no more at
Canajoharie. For this reason, therefore, the Brethren
abandoned Zinzendorf's proposed Mission to the
Mohawks.
(3) The next trouble was of a different nature. 1746-9
In those days the chief Indian village in Pennsylvania
was Shamokin, now known as Sunbury. For three
years (1746-9) Zeisberger and Martin Mack made
Shamokin their headquarters ; the former, aided by
King Shikellimey, prepared an Iroquois dictionary;
and then the Brethren had to abandon their cause,
not because they were hindered by Government
officials, but because the Indians were so drunken
y
96 A History of Moravian Missions.
and. so addicted to brawling that orderly Christian
life became impossible.
(4) The next trouble arose from the Seven Years'
War. Let us here, however, notice a point of
fundamental importance. For the explanation we
must turn to London. At the special request of
Zinzendorf, who had heard of the Brethren's legal
troubles, the British Government passed an Act
: of Parliament (1749, 22nd Geo. II., cap. 30) whereby
^ the Moravian Church acquired a new legal status,
\ not only in Great Britain and Ireland, but also in
1 all the Colonies. The whole situation of the Brethren
1^ was now altered. In the past the law had been an
obstacle ; now the law became their best friend.
In the past they had been required to take the
oath and to bear arms ; now, by the new Act,"f
they were relieved from each of those obligations.
In the past they had been forbidden to preach in
the State of New York ; now, by the new Act, the
road was open, and therefore, seizing their oppor-
tunity, the Brethren resolved to build a station at
the Iroquois capital, Onondaga. For strategic pur-
poses Onondaga was a place of the highest import-
ance. There, a few miles south of Lake Ontario,
the Six Nations made their headquarters. There,
in a statelv wooden palace, resided the mighty
Ganassatico, King of the Onondagas ; there he was
supposed to reign, not only over his own tribe, but over
all the Six Nations ; there the other five kings did
him obeisance ; there assembled the Iroquois Grand
Council ; and there, at last, the Brethren decided to
found a Mission Station. The first task, however, was
to obtain permission from the Grand Council. For
this purpose two Brethren — David Zeisberger and
Bishop Cammerhof — now set off from Bethlehem to
tFor a full description of this Act. see " History of the Moravian
Church," p. 343.
The North American Indians. 97
Onondaga (1750). The journey was divided into 1750
three stages. For ten days they went by canoe up
the Susquehannah, speeding through the wooded
hills of the Alleghanies, by graceful flowers of the
tulip-tree, round beetling bluffs, through roaring
surges, and past groups of mottled rattlesnakes
basking in the sun ; then, after leaving the river
at Tiaga, they pushed on foot through a dark
forest swarming with mosquitoes ; and, then,
skirting the Eastern shore of Lake Cayuga, they rode
on horseback to Onondaga. The solemn and critical
proceedings now began. At the very time when the
Brethren arrived, the Grand Council was in full
session ; the two envoys were summoned at once
to attend ; and Cammerhof, aided by his colleague as
interpreter, rose to state his mission.
He did not come altogether as a stranger. On
April 15th, 1748, he had been adopted a member of
the Six Nations. His Indian name was Gallichuro,
i.e., '* good message." His colleague Zeisberger,
known as Ganousserachi, i.e., " on the pumpkin," had
been made a member of the Turtle Tribe by King
Shikellimey, and Cammerhof, therefore, in his address,
spoke not as an European, but as an " Indian."
" Brothers," he said, " Gallichuro and Ganous-
serachi have come to visit you. They have been
sent by their Brothers to give you a message. But
first they will rest a few days from the fatigues of
their long journey, and then they will meet you
and tell you why they have come." The Council
House rang with applause ; Cammerhof passed round
the pipe of peace, and the next meeting was fixed for
Midsummer Day.
At this point, however, there occurred an un-
expected delay. During the next few weeks most of
the Iroquois Council were so drunk that any further
deliberations were impossible. Instead, however,
98 A History of Moravian Missions.
of giving way to despair, the two Brethren seized
their opportunity to pay a visit to the Senecas,
who Hved on the other side of Lake Cayuga. But
here the situation was even worse. In the first
village which the Brethren visited all the men were
drunk ; in the second both men and women were
drunk, and Zeisberger had to use his fists to keep
the women at a distance. Nor was even this the
climax of evil. For some nights Cammerhof,
smitten with fever, lay at the point of death ;
Zeisberger, seizing a kettle, went to fetch some
water, and the Indians knocked the kettle out of
his hands. With sad hearts the two envoys returned
to Onondaga. By this time all the members of the
Council were sober ; the required permission to
preach the Gospel was granted, and thus, at last,
the Mission to the Iroquois began in earnest. Once
more, however, the Brethren took the most elaborate
precautions. In order to make perfectly certain
that he had the full authority of the Moravian
Church behind him, Zeisberger paid a visit to
Herrnhut (1751) ; there he was appointed by Zinzendorf
" Perpetual Missionary to the Indians," and thus,
when he settled down at Onondaga, he had the
satisfactory feeling that he would be among the
Indians for life. For three years (1752-5) he was quite
successful. In spite of his teetotal habits, he gained
the love and confidence of the people. As long as
they were sober he lived in the town, and when they
were drunk he retired to a hut in the forest. The
Grand Council assembled in his town house ; the
State papers were kept in his study ; the Sachems
instructed him in the mysteries of wampum. With
the aid of Frey and other assistants he built a small
Church ; a small Christian congregation was formed ;
and Onondaga, so Zeisberger hoped, would soon
become the Jerusalem of the Six Nations.
The North American Indians. 99
And then, at one fell blow, his work was shattered.
At the very time when the cause at Onondaga was
most promising, there broke out the great war
(1755-63) between England and France; most of the
Indians in Pennsylvania, incited thereto by French
priests, who told them that Christ had been bom
at Paris, and that he had been crucified by English-
men, espoused the cause of France with fury, shot
down English labourers at the plough, split open
farmers' heads by the kitchen fire, and even scalped
women and children ; and therefore, in their dire
distress, Spangenberg and his colleagues at Bethlehem
summoned Zeisberger to their assistance. No man
understood the Indians better ; no man would be
better able to keep the few Indians loyal to the
British flag. For this simple reason, therefore,
Zeisberger bade farewell to Onondaga.
But even he could not charm the French Indians. Nov. 24th,
As a company of sixteen Bretliren and Sisters, one 1755
dark November evening, were sitting together round
the fire in the Pilgrim House at Gnadenhutten on
the Mahony — listening to the moaning wind and
speaking about the coming joys of Christmas —
some of the dogs in the yard began to bark ; Joachim
Senseman, the overseer, feeling anxious, struck a
light, left the house, and went to see whether the
church-door was shut ; and then, soon after he had
left, the Brethren heard other footsteps in the
yard. Without suspecting any danger, Martin
Nitschmann opened the door. There, with faces
painted red and rifles raised, stood a dozen Shawanese
French Indians. The war-whoop rang ; the rifles
flashed ; and Martin Nitschmann fell dead. The
firing continued.' The room was filled with smoke ;
five more fell dead, and the rest rushed for the
garret. As Mrs. Martin Nitschmann tried to ascend,
something caused her to stumble, and falling back-
100 A History of Moravian Missions.
wards, she was taken prisoner. With the single
exception of George Partsch, who managed to escape
by a window, the rest now, after barricading the door
with bedsteads, lay huddled in the garret. In
vain the Indians tried to break down the defence.
For a few moments there was a mysterious silence ;
then faint wisps of smoke stole from the room below
into the garret, and in less than five minutes the
whole building was in flames. With the joy of
demons, the Indians placed a sentinel at the house
door ; and then, retiring a little distance, stood
beholding the tragedy. There, in the garret, lay
four men, three women, and a child, and the screams
of the little child rang out above the roar of the
flames.
" You have deceived our brethren," shouted the
Indians, " let us now see whether your Saviour
will help you."
The question had a strange answer. For a few
moments the sentinel left his post ; Joseph Sturgis
jumped from the window and fled, and Mrs. Partsch,
who followed his example, escaped to a neighbouring
hill. There, unperceived by the Indians, she stood
and watched the last scene of the tragedy. As the
sentinel had not yet returned, George Fabricius now
jumped from the window, but, as he made his way
to the woods, the Indians saw him, rushed upon him
in a body, scalped him down to the eyes, and left
him rolling in his own blood. By this time only five
were left in the garret, and Mrs. Partsch, from her
post on the hill, could not only see but hear. As
the flames lapped round her, Mrs. Senseman sat on
the edge of her bedstead, and, calm to the bitter
end, she testified her faith in her Redeemer.
" It is well, dear Saviour," she said, " it is well.
This is no more than I expected." With these
triumphant words on her lips, Mrs. Senseman
The North American Indians. 101
breathed her last. All five in the garret were burnt
to ashes, and a few minutes later the building crashed
to the ground. The last hours of Gnadenhiitten
had now arrived. In order to complete their work,
the Indians set fire to the other buildings ;
all the converts who could do so fled in terror to
Bethlehem ; and there the redoubtable Spangenberg
took measures to meet the situation.
On him the news of the tragedy produced a
wonderful effect. At an early hour the following
morning he called a meeting of the congregation, told
the story of the massacre, and then, acting as a loyal
British citizen, prepared to put Bethlehem in a state
of defence. For this purpose he siu-rounded the town
with barricades, erected block-houses, appointed
sentinels, ordered in guns and ammunition from
New York, and even provided the women with
paving-stones to hurl on the heads of besiegers.
The result was splendid. By means of Spangenberg's
energy, Bethlehem became a strong City of Refuge ;
the Indian converts lived in a building known as
the " Indian House ; " and acting on Spangenberg's
advice, Benjamin Franklin actually built a fort,
named Fort Allen, on the ruined site of Gnadenhiitten.
And that was the strange state of the Mission till
the close of the Seven Years' War (1763).
But even the famous Peace of Paris did not bring
perfect peace to Pennsylvania. In spite of the
fact that their Allies, the French, had been com- 1763*5
pletely defeated, many Indians in Pennsylvania still
cherished ideals of independence. For another two
years, therefore, the Brethren lived in the midst
of bloodshed. As the leading rebel was an
Indian Chief named Pontiac, the war is generally
known as the Pontiac War ; and once again the
Moravian converts were in serious danger. At the
time when the Pontiac War broke out, some of the
102 A History of Moravian Missions.
converts were living at the little village of Nain,
not far from Bethlehem, and now the Brethren had
to take measures to prevent these converts from
being massacred. With this intent, they appealed
once more to the Governor ; a British officer duly
arrived at Nain; and during the war the converts
were sheltered, first at Philadelphia, and then on
Province Island, on the Delaware River. Thus,
then, did the Mission to the Iroquois die an untimely
death. Let us not make any mistake about the
cause. At every stage the Brethren's failure was
due, not to their own incompetence, but to cir-
cumstances over which they had no control. Why
did the Brethren abandon Shekomeko ? Because
they were driven out by whisky-sellers. Why did
they abandon the Mission to the Mohawks ? Because
the Mayor of Albany expelled them. Why did they
abandon Onondaga ? Because, when the Seven
Years' War broke out, Zeisberger was needed at
Bethlehem. Why did they abandon Gnadenhiitten ?
Because the station was destroyed by French
Indians. Why did they abandon Nain ? Because,
when the Pontiac War broke out, the converts there
were in danger of being massacred. Why, in a word,
was the Mission to the Iroquois a failure ? Because
Pennsylvania was the seat of almost incessant war.
At the close of twenty-two years of labour, there
were only one hundred and seventy converts.
5. The Mission to the Delawares,
1765—1778.
As soon as peace was firmly established, the
Brethren concentrated their energies on a great
Mission to the Delawares. In this Mission they
endeavoured, not merely to preach to a few, but to
convert a whole nation, and during the next twenty-
three years, i.e., from the close of the Pontiac War
The North American Indians. 103
down to the outbreak of the War of Independence,
Zeisberger showed his abilities, not merely as a
preacher, but as a builder and organizer. We
have come to the brightest part of his career. At the
very outset of this new era of peace, the Brethren at
Bethlehem realised fully that a golden opportunity had
arrived, and Zeisberger and his colleagues received
elaborate official instructions. The Indian languages
were to be carefully studied ; native assistants were
to be trained ; the Indians were to be taught to
read and write ; the most important parts of the
Bible were to be translated into Delaware ; and all
the converts were to be taught the duties of Christian
citizenship. Let us now see how David Zeisberger
carried out these instructions. His method was an
adaptation of the Moravian settlement system : —
(1) The first settlement was for the benefit of the 17$5
Iroquois converts already gained. For this purpose
the Brethren selected a village named Machi-
wishilusing, on the east side of the Susquehannah.
There (1765) Zeisberger built a settlement and named
it Friedenshiitten (" Tents of Peace ") ; and there
he endeavoured to organize what we should call a
model v-illage. His settlement took the form of one
long street. In the middle stood the Church on one
side and the missionaries' house on the other. The
converts lived in twenty-nine houses and thirteen
wigwams ; behind each house lay a garden ; behind
the gardens there were corn-fields, and the settle-
ment was surrounded by a paUsade. The new settle-
ment soon acquired a great reputation. Instead of
merely hunting and fishing, the Indians now devoted
their energies to agriculture and commerce ; by
means of their steady industry they increased the
value of the property ; and both the Assembly of
Pennsylvania and a few generous bankers encouraged
them by sending small donations. For the first
104 A History of Moravian Missions.
time, therefore, the Indians were learning to be
good farmers and traders. Some tilled their small
holdings; others sold butter, sugar, corn, and pork;
and others made canoes. The harder they worked,
the happier they seemed to be ; and all day long,
says Zeisberger himself, they could be heard singing
for joy. For the children, of course, there was a
small day-school, and a band of women, armed with
brooms, kept the long street clean. At Church, the
Indians were much impressed by Zeisberger's preach-
ing. " It often happens while I preach," he said,
" that they tremble with emotion and shake with
fear, until consciousness is nearly gone and they
seem to be on the point of fainting." For two years
Friedenshiitten was the centre of a great revival ;
one hundred and eighty-six converts were added ;
and so successful was the experiment that the
Brethren now decided to apply the same methods to
the Delawares.
1767 (2) At the special request of the Delawares them-
selves, Zeisberger now took up his abode at
Goshgoschunk, on the Alleghany ; the members
of the Town Council were summoned, and once again,
as at Onondaga, Zeisberger solemnly announced
his purpose. We have come to the scene of Shussele's
picture, " The Power of the Gospel." But the
picture does not give a correct impression. In the
picture the scene is a forest glade ; in reality, the
incident occurred in the Council Chamber. In
another sense, too, the picture is misleading. The
scene must not be regarded as typical. On that
occasion Zeisberger was acting, not exactly as a
preacher, but rather as an envoy stating his purpose ;
and the issue of the whole Mission depended on what
sort of impression he could make. At Goshgoschunk
the Indians were specially wicked, and Zeisberger
had been warned that they would not scruple to
The North American Indians. 105
kill him. He had never been in such danger before.
In the centre burned the watch-fire. Around it
squatted the Indians on the floor, the men on one
side and the women on the other ; and among
the men were warriors who had played their part
twelve years before in the massacre at Gnadenhiitten.
The speaker rose ; all eyes were fixed upon him ;
and in the dim and ruddy light those eyes had an
evil gleam.
" My friends," began Zeisberger, " I have come
to bring you great words and glad tidings, words
from our God, tidings of your Redeemer and of our
Redeemer. We have told these things at Friedens-
hiitten. They have received them ; they are
happy ; they thank the Saviour that he has brought
them from darkness into light; and we bring the
peace of God to you."
The speaker paused. The silence was breathless.
For anji:hing Zeisberger knew to the contrary, a
tomahawk might, at any moment, cleave his skuU
in twain. There he stood, with a smile on his face,
reading the minds of his audience. In the eyes of
some he saw the lust of blood ; in those of others
the tears of repentance. " Never before," he said
afterwards, " did I see so clearly painted in the faces
of the Indians both the darkness of hell and the
world-subduing power of the Gospel." On this
occasion Zeisberger excelled himself. By this time
he had fully mastered all the subtleties of the
Delaware language ; all the Indians admired oratorical
grace ; and Zeisberger, by his eloquence, carried the
meeting by storm. " It is true," the red-skins
shouted, " that is the way to happiness."
But Zeisberger's hardest fight was still to come.
For two years he made a systematic endeavour 1768-70
to establish at Goshgoschunk a settlement similar
to that at Friedenshiitten. The local Delaware
106 A History of Moravian Missions.
Council sanctioned the Mission, the Sunday services
were crowded, and Zeisberger, with the consent of
the Council, issued a regulation that no spirits should
be sold in the village. His success, however, was
only superficial. According to his own statement,
he was now in the very stronghold of Satan. There,
at Goshgoschunk, he said, Satan himself was wor-
shipped ; there he had, so Zeisberger firmly believed,
endowed the sorcerers with supernatural powers ;
and those sorcerers appeared to be able, not only
to kill without knife or poison, but even to spread
epidemics, sail through the air at night, put the
inhabitants to sleep, and then rob them of their
property. Nor was this the worst of the case. In
addition to terrifying the people, the sorcerers now
maligned the missionaries, and attributed every
disaster to their presence. In order to strengthen
their own infernal powers they gorged on pork ;
then mysterious messages passed around ; and the
burden of all the messages was that as the missionaries
caused disease, they should forthwith be put to death.
Finally, the sorcerers introduced casks of rum ;
some of the converts themselves began to drink ;
and Zeisberger, in despair, resolved to abandon
Goshgoschunk and seek some other place more free
from temptation.
1770 (3) The third station was on the borders of
Ohio. In response to the invitation of a Delaware
chieftain named Glikkikan, Zeisberger took some land
on the Beaver River, and there he built another settle-
ment, and named it Friedenstadt.
1772 (4) The fourth station was in Ohio itself, and here
Zeisberger achieved his most brilliant success. The
scene was Gekelemukpechunck, the Delaware capital,
situated on the Tuscarawas River. There Zeisberger
was royally welcomed by Nctawetwes himself. King
of the Delawares ; there, in the Delaware Coimcil
The North American Indians. 107
House, he preached the first Protestant sermon in
Ohio ; there he was granted by the Grand Council
a tract of land eighty miles square; and there, on
the left bank of the Tuscarawas, he built his beautiful
garden city named Schonbrunn, or Beautiful Spring.
The site was a fertile valley. At the time when
Zeisberger first arrived on the scene, the sides of the
valley were studded with oaks, sycamores, maples,
cedars, walnut and chestnut trees, laurels and wild
flowers ; and now, after a few months, chiefly as
the result of Indian labour, they M'ere not only
covered with potatoes, parsnips, and beans, but also
with strawberries, gooseberries, raspberries and other
garden fruits. The method of government was
partly ecclesiastical and partly democratic. At the
head of affairs there was a Governing Board,
consisting, not only of the missionaries, but
also of the native assistants ; and all affairs of special
importance were submitted to a pubhc meeting of
the citizens. Nor was even this the climax. At one
of these public meetings the following stringent
regulations were passed : —
1. We will know only the one true God.
2. We will rest on the Lord's Day, and attend
pubhc service.
3. We will honour father and mother, and take
care of them in old age.
4. No one shall live at Schonbrunn without the
permission of the missionaries and their
assistants.
5. We will have nothing to do with thieves,
murderers, whoremongers, adulterers, or
cowards.
6. We will not take part in dances, sacrifices,
heathenish festivals, or games.
7. We will use no witchcraft when hunting.
108 A History of Moravian Missions.
8. We will renounce and abhor all lies, tricks, and
deceits of Satan.
9. We will obey our teachers and helpers.
10. We will not scold, nor beat one another, nor
tell lies.
11. Whoever injures the property of his neighbour
shall make restitution.
12. No man shall have more than one wife, and
no woman more than one husband.
13. No intoxicating liquor shall be admitted.
14. No one shall contract debts with traders
without permission of the elders,
15. Whoever goes hunting, or a journey, shall
inform the minister and stewards.
16. Young people shall not marry without the
consent of the minister and their parents.
17. Each person must help freely in building
fences or doing any other work for the
public good.
18. Each must also provide corn to entertain
strangers, and sugar for the Church
Lovefeasts.
For many years Schonbrunn was regarded as a
model ; and other small towns, on similar lines, were
built at Gnadenhiitten, on the Tuscarawas (1772),
Lichtenau, "Meadow of Light" (1776), on the
Muskingum, and Salem (1780), higher up the
Tuscarawas. British citizens came to view and
admire ; and Colonel Morgan, an Indian Agent,
declared that the Indians in Zeisberger's settlements
were now not only thoroughly civilised, but even
set an example for whites to follow. Meanwhile,
however, Zeisberger himself laid the main stress on
the Gospel. Of all the services, the most impressive
was that held in the cemetery on Easter Sunday
The North American Indians. 109
morning. As the sun rose above the Blue Mountains
and the mists dissolved, Zeisberger read out the
Moravian Confession of Faith; a trained choir led
the responses ; and the Easter hjTnn, sung in the
Delaware language, aroused the woodland birds.
For all these services to civilisation and religion,
Zeisberger never consented to receive one penny of
pay. In the morning, with gun on his shoulder, he
went to the woods for his dinner ; in the afternoon
he inspected the farms and workshops ; in the
evening he pursued his linguistic studies.
He had still another ambition to achieve. The
more closely he studied the Indian character, the
more con\inced he became that the Indians, as a
whole, would never rise to great moral heights unless
they were entirely removed from the evil influence
of whites ; and, therefore, he now conceived the
design of forming the whole of Ohio into a Christian
Indian State. In this design he was supported, not
only by Netawetwes, King of the Delawares, but also
by a certain White Eyes, a famous chief and coun-
cillor. Netawetwes was now a pathetic figure.
He was, it is said, one hundred and twenty years
old ; he desired before he died to see the Delawares
a Christian nation ; and, having heard that there
were various churches, each of which, so he was told,
claimed to be the true Church, he actually proposed
to sail to England, interview George III. at St.
James's Palace, and thereby solve the problem for
himself. " Let us accept the word of God," he said
to the chief of the Wolf Tribe, " and then leave it to
our children as a last Will and Testament." The
case of White Eyes was still more striking. At a
meeting of the Grand Council he proposed a definite
State religion. " I want my people," he said " to
embrace the religion which is taught by the white
teachers. We shall never be happy until we arc
110 A History of Moravian Missions.
Christians." The schemes of Zeisberger now took
definite form. Ohio was to be an Indian State,
and the State Church would be the Moravian Church.
But such a design could not be carried out without
the sanction of the British Government. With the
approval, therefore, of Netawetwes, Zeisberger now
suggested that White Eyes should go to England
and arrange a definite treaty. Let the Delawares,
he said, have their territory clearly defined ; let their
land, by Act of Parliament, be secured to them for
ever ; let there be a legally recognised State Church ;
and let there also be an understanding that no blood
should be shed on Delaware soil. Thus alone could
the Delaware nation play its true part in the world.
For some years Zeisberger really believed that this
ideal would be realised ; and, in a sermon on the
text, " The glory of the Lord is risen upon thee,"
he a iinounced that the day of salvation was close at
hand. He was now at the brightest part of his
career ; he had won the allegiance of the whole
Delaware nation ; and now, in imagination, he saw
the Christian Indian State of Ohio. For what really
happened, however, he was not prepared.
6. Paradise Lost, 1777—1808.
The cause was the American War of Independence.
As soon as the tide of war reached Ohio, Zeisberger
added the following clause to his list of Rules
and Regulations, " We will not go to war,
and will not buy anything of warriors taken
in war ; " and not knowing or caring much about
the points at issue, both he and his colleagues
endeavoured to preserve an attitude of strict
neutrality. " If the Delawares go to war," he said,
" we are lost." To that policy Zeisberger held firm.
Each side appealed to him for aid ; each side urged
him to raise a Delaware Army ; and each side
The North American Indians. Ill
received a stem refusal. Let two examples illustrate
the point. The first appeal came from the British
side. At an early period of the war a Wyandot
Indian brought Zeisberger a letter, written, he
declared, by the British Governor, urging Zeisberger
to arm his converts, place himself at their head as
general, drive the rebels out of Ohio, and bring their
scalps to Detroit. Zeisberger threw the letter into
the fire. Next year (1778) there came an appeal
from the American side. In September the American
General, Mcintosh, appealed to the Delaware Council
for captains and warriors, and Zeisberger, alarmed
for his converts' safety, asked the Moravian Board
at Bethlehem to appeal to Congress and have an Act
passed forbidding American officers to enlist Christian
Indians in military service. For this policy he had
one simple reason. He desired to shield the converts
from temptation. As long as he had them under
his personal care, he could trust them to keep un-
spotted from the world ; in the army they would
learn to pillage, to drink and to gamble, and thus his
hopes of a Christian State would be destroyed for
ever. The result may be imagined. The more he
endeavoured to be neutral, the more he exposed him-
self to unjust suspicion. Each side had appealed to
him in vain ; each side, therefore, regarded him as
a secret ally of the other ; and each side, treating
him as an enemy, attacked his settlements with
;Steel and fire.
For the first disaster some readers may consider
Zeisberger to blame. In the year 1781 a band of 1781
Indians, in the British Service, made a sudden attack
on Lichtenau ; Zeisberger, in his alarm, appealed to
the American general, Mcintosh, for protection, and
the British authorities, hearing of this appeal, very
naturally concluded that Zeisberger was on the
American side. At last, they firmly believed, he had
112 A History of Moravian Missions.
shown his hand. He himself, they said, was clearly
a rebel ; in his settlements he was hatching treason ;
and, therefore, for the sake of the Empire, those
settlements must be destroyed. The chosen man
was Captain Elliott. His conduct was characteristi-
cally British. In the interests of his country he
was thorough ; in the interests of humanity he was
considerate. The chief scene of his activities was
Gnadenhiitten. There Zeisberger and his colleagues
had recently assembled most of their converts, and
there, in due course, Captain Elliott, with about
three hundred Indians, made his appearance. He
had now a stern duty to do, and, so far as I can
discover, he did it like a gentleman. First, he
informed the Christian Indians that they would
have to decamp ; then, to be on the safe side, he
set fire to the premises ; then he made a thorough
search for arms and ammunition ; and then, seizing
Zeisberger and his three colleagues — Heckewelder,
Senseman, and Mack — and also a number of Indian
converts, he carried off the whole party across the
Black Swamp to Detroit. To Zeisberger this was
the saddest of all his journeys. Behind him
Gnadenhiitten was in ashes ; Schonbrunn and Salem
had passed into the hands of hostile Indians ;
and his dream of a Christian Indian nation had now
become a mockery. At Detroit, however, he received
a pleasant surprise. The chief officer, Major Peyster,
was a just man. In spite of the fact that he had
sent Captain Elliott, he had no ill-will towards the
missionaries and no desire to destroy their work ;
and now, after giving them a fair trial, he not only
pronounced them " Not Guilty," but also supplied
them with clothing from the public stores, consulted
with the commander at Quebec with regard
to their future abode, and finally issued a passport
authorising Zeisberger, Senseman, Mack, and
The North American Indians. 113
Heckewelder, to found a new station at Sandusky.-
But now (1782) occurred a still more terrible 1782
tragedy. As the refugees at Sandusky were
in some danger of starvation, about one hundred
and fifty Indian converts set off to reap some
com at Gnadenhiitten ; and, just when they
had completed their labours, an American Colonel,
David WilHamson, arrived, with a few troops,
upon the scene. For reasons which have never
been fully explained, but which, to him, must have
seemed satisfactory, Colonel Wilhamson was con-
vinced that all those converts were British spies, and
after dividing them into two lots, placing the men in
one bam and the women and children in another,
he asked his own men to say whether he should
send them to Pittsburg or have them executed on
the spot. With a few exceptions, the soldiers voted
for death.
" Let's burn them alive," said some.
" No ! No," said others, " let's shoot them and
scalp them."
" No," said a third party, " brain them like oxen."
By a large majority the last suggestion was carried.
At an early hour the following morning (March 8th,
1782), the soldiers flung open the barn-doors, and
asked the prisoners if they were prepared to die.
" We have committed our souls to God," was the
answer, " and trust to Him to give us the needful
courage."
The Blood-Bath of Gnadenhutten now began. For
the second time the soldiers divided the prey. In
one slaughter-house they placed the men ; in anather
the w^omen and children ; and the men had the
honour of being the first victims. The first blow
was struck by a private from Pennsylvania. With
a cooper's mallet in his right hand he seized an
aged convert by the hair, struck one fatal blow, and
114 A History of Moravian Missions.
removed the scalp with a knife ; and then, warming
to his work, he shattered fourteen Indian skulls
and spilled the brains on the floor. " My arm is
tired," he said to a mate ; " it is your turn now,
but I think I have done pretty well."
His mates continued his work. For several hours
the mallets rose and fell ; the floor of the house was
now littered with corpses, and only one youth,
who was merely stunned, managed to make his
escape. As soon as the soldiers had finished with
the men, they turned to the women and children.
One small boy, however, made his escape, and
joining the youth already mentioned, in the forest,
was able to tell the story at Sandusky. According
to evidence collected later, the total number slain
that day was ninety ; among these was Glikkikan,
Zeisberger's friend ; and the list included six native
assistants, twenty-four women, and twenty-two little
children. As soon as the soldiers had finished their
work, they set fire to the barns, and then, with
scalps hung round their hips, hurried off to seek
more victims at Schonbrunn. For many years the
bones of the martyrs lay exposed to sun and rain ;
then pious hands gave them decent burial, and now
the scene of the massacre is marked by a plain
monument in stone.
The death-tick was tapping at the wall of the
Indian Mission. At last — but only for a brief
period — Zeisberger gave way to despair. His prime
had been a garden of roses ; his old age was a crown
of thorns. He had now only one consolation left.
As soon as the War of American Independence was
over, both the British and American Governments,
anxious to atone for sins of the past, made him huge
grants of land, and. thus assisted, he founded new
settlements at New Gnadenhiitten on the Huron (1782),
Pilgerruh (1786), New Salem (1787) on the Huron,
The North American Indians. 115
New Fairfield in Canada West (1792), and Goshen
(1798), seven miles north-west of Gnadenhiitten. In
one important respect, however, these settlements were
entirely different from the old ones in the Tuscarawas
Valley. Formerly his settlements had been inhabited
by Indians only ; now white traders swarmed on every
hand ; and as the old rules could no longer be
enforced, many of Zeisberger's converts took to drink.
For this reason three of his new settlements — New
Gnadenhiitten, Pilgerruh, and New Salem — had to
be abandoned, and now only two stations — New
Fairfield and Goshen — remained. And yet Zeisbcrger
did not abandon hope. In spite of the fact that
Ohio was now being thickly populated by whites,
he still cherished his old ideal of a Christian Indian
State, and beUe^^ng that Christian literature would be
required, he prepared the following useful volumes : —
(1) A Delaware and English Spelling Book, with
an appendix containing the Lord's Prayer,
the Ten Commandments, some Scripture
passages, and a Liturgy.
(2) A Delaware Hymn Book, with the Easter,
Baptismal, and Burial Litanies.
(3) Sermons to Children, translated from
Spangenberg.
(4) Spangenberg's " Bodily Care of Children."
(5) Samuel Lieberkiihn's " Harmony of the Four
Gospels."
(6) A grammatical treatise on the Delaware
conjugations.
(7) A lexicon, in seven volumes, of the German
and Onondaga languages.
(8) A Delaware Grammar.
(9) An Onondaga Grammar.
(10) A German-Delaware Lexicon.
116 A History or Moravian Missions.
The first five of these volumes were printed and
pubUshed ; the manuscript of the rest has been
preserved, partly in the library of Harvard University,
and partly in that of the Philadelphia Philosophical
Society, and some day they may prove of service to
students of Indian history.
The last scene in Zeisberger's life was one of pathos
' and beauty. For the " brown Brethren " he had
lived, and now, among the " brown Brethren," he
laid him down to die. As the old man lay on his
Nov. 17th, death-bed at Goshen (November 17th, 1808^, free
1808 from pain, fully conscious, and yet too weak to
speak, the church-bell was tolled. His converts,
in response to the signal, quietly entered the room,
and seeing that the end was near, and using the
very words that he had taught them, they sang
of Jesus, the Prince of Peace, and of the Church
Triumphant.
Chapter VII.
THE SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS,
1785—1808.
As the Moravians had a great many friends in
Holland — where, in fact, they had built a settle-
menF'named Heerendyke, designed by Christian
David himself, and intended to be a second head-
quarters for the Missions — and as, moreover, all the
Dutch Colonies, especially Surinam and Demerara,
were in need of good workmen, Count Zinzendorf now
conceived the project of founding a Mission in
South America, first among the negro slaves, and
secondly among the Indians who roamed the woods
and savannahs. With this design, therefore, he
sent his friend Spangenberg to Amsterdam ; there ^-^34
Spangenberg stated the case to the Dutch Trading
Company; and as the Company promised religious
liberty, and also immunity from the oath and from
bearing arms, the Count soon (1735) sent out a band of
men. For two disagreeable reasons, however, the first
part of his design was frustrated. First, the planters
in Demerara denounced the Brethren as spies ;
secondly, the clergy in Paramaribo accused them of
immorality; and the consequence was that, leaving
the Mission to the Negroes, the Brethren pushed their
way south through a hundred miles of jungle and
swamp, built a station named Pilgerhut (1740), on
the Wironje River, and thereby opened the Mission
to the Arawack Indians. |
For twelve years (1748-60) this Mission was under
the management of Solomon Schumann, called by
Zinzendorf the " Apostle to the Arawacks," and in
three ways this man was regarded as a model. First,
tKobinson Cnuoe's man, Friday, was an Arawack Indian.
117
118 A History of Moravian Missions.
he bravely doffed his coat, chopped down trees, dug
his own garden, and thereby taught the Indians the
vahie of work ; secondly, he was a splendid linguist,
and not only translated into Arawack St. John's Gospel,
St. John's Epistles, and the Passion History, but also
prepared an Arawack Dictionary and Grammar ;
and thirdly, being a disciple of Zinzendorf, he intro-
duced to the Arawack Indians Zinzendorf's " Blood
and Wounds Theology," and, like Israel in St. Thomas
and the Brethren in Greenland, laid all the stress in
his preaching, not on any scheme of dogmatic theology,
but on the details of the Passion History. For this
policy Schumann could give good reasons. According
to the evidence of all the missionaries, the Arawack
Indians lived in a state of constant terror. In
theory they believed in a Divine Creator, named
Kururuman ; in reality, they feared Jaachi, the devil,
who sent diseases ; and Schumann conscientiously
believed that the only way to destroy this terror was
to paint a vivid picture of the Suffering Christ.
For this purpose he had in his room a large picture
of Christ on the Cross. That Christ, he told his
visitors, had come from heaven to destroy the works
of the devil, and all those who trusted in Him need
not fear death any more. Let one example illustrate
Schumann's methods. On one occasion he was
visited by a chief from the Orinoco ; the scene of
the interview was Schumann's study ; and Schumann,
after sketching the life of Christ, pointed to the large
picture on the wall.
" Look there," he said, " that is your Creator,
who shed His Blood that you might be saved."
" Have you ever seen Him ? " asked the chief.
" Yes," said Schumann, " I prayed to Him, and
in spirit He showed me His wounds."
" Will you ever see Him again ? "
" Yes, with these very eyes of mine."
The South American Indians. 119
" When ? "
" When I go to Him."
" ^^^len win you go to Him ? "
" When He calls me to Himself from the earth."
" Will you not die then ? "
" Xo one who believes his Redeemer dies."
For a while this poUcy seemed to succeed. As
long as Schumann himself remained on the spot,
his ovm noble example seemed sufficient, and no
special ethical teaching appeared to be required ;
in due time two more stations were founded, Sharon
on the Saramakka (1755) and Ephraim on the
Corentyne (1757) ; and many of the converts wrote
beautiful letters to Herrnhut declaring how deeply
they loved the Redeemer, and how they longed to
see His face, fall down at His feet, and kiss His
wounds. At the third station Dahne, the
missionary, had his well-known adventure with the
serpent. "As I was going to bed one evening,"
he says, " a fairly large snake dropped on me from
a lath on the roof, coiled itself two or three times
round my neck and head, and began to squeeze
harder and harder. I was sure my end had come.
In order that my Brethren might not suspect that I
had been killed by Indians, I seized some chalk and
wTote on the table : 'A serpent has killed me.'f At
this moment, however, I thought of Christ's promise :
' They shall take up serpents ' (Mark xvi., 18). I
seized the beast, threw it from me, and fell asleep
in my hammock."
For three tragic reasons, however, this Mission
to the Arawack Indians came to an untimely end : —
(1) First, in 1765, the negro slaves of Surinam
organized a great rebellion ; to them all Christians
tit has often been stated that Dahne was bitten by the serpent.
In his own narrative, however, there is no mention of a bite,
and the reptile, to judge from its conduct, was probably a boa-
constrictor.
120 A History of Moravian Missions.
were alike ; and, therefore, besides destroying
plantations, they burned to the ground the two chief
Moravian stations, Pilgerhut and Sharon.
. (2) Secondly, many of the Missionaries died of
fever, and this had a bad effect upon the converts.
In their sermons the missionaries had said that
Christians would never die ; now they themselves
were dying rapidly ; and the Arawacks, therefore,
concluded that the Christian religion was a fable.
The whole case was frankly put by a sorcerer :
" If you will tell us," he argued, " how to go to heaven
without dying, I will listen to you. In what way are
your people better off than I am ? Schumann died ;
his colleagues died ; what, then, are you doing here ? "
(3) Guido Burkhardt, the Moravian historian,
says that the Brethren failed in this Mission
because, while they preached about the Cross, they
did not also preach the Sermon on the Mount. No
attempt was made to cultivate character ; no steps
were taken to train native helpers ; and thus, when
trials came, the converts, like the shallow men in
the parable, had not the strength of character to
stand the strain. In vain the Brethren founded a
fourth station ; in vain they named it " Hope " ;
in vain they taught industrial arts and introduced
a system of discipline. The remedy came too late.
By this time the Arawack Indians had learned to
speak of the Gospel with open contempt ; certain
youths set fire to the premises, and the Brethren,
after consulting the Lot, abandoned the Mission in
despair (1808).
Chapter VIII.
THE BUSH NEGROES OF SURINAM,
1765—1813.
With the Bush Negroes of Surinam the Brethren
had more success. As soon as the Negro Rebelhon
was over (1765) — a Rebelhon whereby the Bush
Negroes attained complete political independence —
all white men in Surinam perceived that something
must be done to teach them good morals. Without
the Gospel, it was held, they would be a constant
danger to the State, and guided by these utilitarian
motives, Cromlin, Governor of Surinam, besought
the Brethren to undertake a Mission. The situation
was now entirely changed. In the past, Governor
and planters alike had treated the Brethren with
scorn ; now, smitten with terror, they turned to the
Brethren for support. The Bush Negroes were now
a powerful political force. For reasons which seem
to have been connected with the geography of the
country, they proceeded to organize themselves into
four great tribes or kingdoms. On the Cottica,
the Maroni, the Tapanahone, and the Coermatibo
Uved the Aukas ; on the Surinam, the Saramakkers ;
on the Saramakka, the Matuaris ; and on the
Coppename, the Kaffemakas. Each of these four
tribes or kingdoms held command of a river ; each
was ruled by a King or Grandman, fond of fame and
power ; and each, therefore, might at any moment
swoop down to the sea coast and even lay siege to
Paramaribo.
But the chief source of danger was the native
religion. According to the Bush Negroes, all things
in this sad world were managed, not by Grandado,
the Creator, who lived in heaven and cared not for
(121
122 A History of Mobavian Missions.
his children, but by two wicked spirits, Bambo,
the God of the Woods, and Boembe, the God of the
Waters, and each of these two spirits commanded
a vast host of demons. Demons dwelt in the boa-
constrictor ; demons appeared in the form of
eremite ants ; demons made the cayman terrible ;
demons haunted the crooked Krumm-holz tree.
The result was inevitable. In order to hold these
demons at bay, the Bush Negroes had to organize
means of defence, and, speaking broadly, they relied
on four methods : —
(1) For some reason the Brethren could never
fathom, the Bush Negroes had implicit faith in a
white clay, named pimba-dotte. With pimba-dotte
they daubed their pots ; with pimba-dotte they
painted their huts ; with pimba-dotte they smeared
the sick ; and with pimba-dotte they coated their
medicine bottles.
(2) Secondly, they relied on fetishes and
obeahs. These were found in various forms, such
as a common pearl, a snail's shell, and a tiger's tooth ;
and articles of this nature were hung on the dogs
to make them swift, on the trees to make them
fruitful, and on the children to shield them from
danger.
(3) Thirdly, they believed in a guardian angel,
named the Kandoo. This angel was generally a
spade or besom, and, being hung before the house,
was said to keep burglars away.
(4) Finally, and above all, the Bush Negroes
believed in Sorcerers. In those days these Sorcerers
were known by four different names. Because they
dealt in wissi, or poison, they were called W^issimen ;
because they ruled the Wintis, or demons, they were
Wintimen ; because they enchanted the Obeahs,
they were Obeahmen ; and because they could
foresee the future, they were Loekomen. In each
The Bush Negroes of Surinam. 123
of these four departments the Sorcerer exercised his
influence. By means of his intimate knowledge of
poisons he not only committed murders himself,
but also enabled others to WTcak revenge ; by means
of his acquaintance with Wintis — obtained during
a hypnotic trance — he became the only spiritual
guide ; by means of his powers as an Obeahman he
was able to manufacture gods, sold those gods in
thousands at fabulous prices, and thus became a
financial magnate ; and by means of his knowledge
of the future, he, like prophets in many other
countries, controlled the policy of the State. Nor
was even this the worst of the case. According
to the Sorcerers, many diseases were caused — not,
of course, by natural causes, and not even by
malicious demons — but by some personal human
enemy. That enemy might be a white planter, or
even a group of planters, and thus there was the very
serious danger that, if the Sorcerers thought they
could gain thereby, they might incite the Bush
Negroes to renewed acts of war. For this simple
reason, therefore, both the Governor and the planters
were now in favour of the Mission. As long as the
Sorcerers wielded such terrible powers, another
war might break out at any moment. Only the
Gospel could undermine their influence ; only the
Gospel could make the Bush Negroes civilised.
At the request, therefore, of the Dutch Government, 1765
the Brethren now commenced a Mission to the
Saramakkers on the Surinam River. During the first
eleven years (1765-76) the chief leader was Rudolph
Stoll, still spoken of, it is said, as " Brother Rudolf " ;
"the first station, Quama (1769), was on the Senthea
Creek ; and Stoll acquired great influence over the
people, not because he was a powerful preacher, but
because, by a little tact, he gained the favour of their
king, Arabi. The first interview occurred in StoU's
124 A History of Moravian Missions.
private room, and the story throws some hght on
the heathen mind. There, on the wall — just like
Schumann — Stoll had a picture of the Crucifixion.
" What is that bright thing on the wall ? " asked
the young king, Arabi.
" That is a picture," replied Stoll, " of the Great
God, the Creator of Heaven and Earth. He became
a man, suffered and died for your sins and mine.
If you give Him your heart, and ask Him for
forgiveness. He will make you happy for ever."
" But I am a good man," said Arabi, " I never did
a wrong thing in my life."
Stoll adroitly changed the subject. In his hand
Arabi held a stick, adorned with parrots' feathers,
and Stoll now asked him to explain what it was.
" That is my god-stick," replied Arabi. He had
brought it with him as a mascot.
For a few moments Stoll fingered the stick , then
he handed it back to Arabi and informed him that
by trusting in the stick he was serving the devil ;
and Arabi, on his return home, threw his god-stick
into the kitchen fire. He was tr3ang a bold experi-
ment. " If you are a God," he said, '* that fire will
not hurt you ; but if it does, I have done with you
for ever."
The result was Arabi's conversion. For the long
period of fifty years (1771-1821) King Arabi warmly
supported the Mission ; with his assistance Stoll
translated the four Gospels into Negro-English ;
the King himself became known as a preacher,
and one of his best sermons has been preserved.
Two more stations, Bambey (1774) and New Bambey
(1779), were founded a little further up the river.
With the death of Stoll (1777), however, great
troubles began. During the next thirty-six years this
Mission to the Bush Negroes was one dismal series
of disasters. And the cause of those disasters was
The Bush Negroes or Surinam. 125
disease. In those days Surinam resembled Sierra
Leone, the Bush Negroes called it " The Dead
Country," and smitten down by three diseases —
malaria, dandy-fever, and dysentery — fifteen
missionaries found an early death. Most of the
others had to retire broken down ; only three could I
stand the climate at all ; and, therefore, for the (
time being, the Mission to the Bush Negroes was ^
abandoned (1813).
Chapter IX.
SOUTH AFRICA: THE HOTTENTOTS,
1736—1744.
For the origin of this Mission we must give the
credit to the Halle Missionary, Ziegenbalg. As this
man was on his way home from Malabar, he called
at Cape Town ; there he heard sad talcs about the
Hottentots, and appealed, on their behalf, to two
pastors in Holland ; and these men, in their turn,
forwarded the appeal to Herrnhut. The man
selected to go to South Africa was George Schmidt.
For six years this young Protestant hero had lain
in a gloomy dungeon in Moravia, with chains on his
wrists, fetters on his feet, and the flesh peeling off
in flakes from his ankle-bones. Thereby, like many
of his colleagues, he had learned to endure hard-
ships, and now, after spending a year at Amsterdam,
Mar. 13th, chiefly for the purpose of learning Dutch, he set sail
1737 for South Africa. At that time the managing board
of the Dutch East India Company was generally
known as the Chamber of Seventeen ; this Chamber
gave Schmidt a letter of introduction to the Governor
of Cape Town, and therein they urged the Governor
to give Schmidt every assistance in his power. For
the first few weeks, therefore, George Schmidt had
some reason to be hopeful. The Governor welcomed
him warmly ; the Council of Policy passed a resolu-
tion to support him ; and the Dutch clergy, on the
whole, seemed in favour of the Mission. On his
July 9th, first evening in Cape Town, however, Schmidt
1737 heard the other side of the story. He was sitting in
the public room of an inn, and there he heard some
local farmers discussing the situation.
126)
South Africa : The Hottentots. 127
" I hear," said one, " that a parson has come here
to convert the Hottentots."
" A parson ? " quoth another. " The j'oung man is
no parson at all. What good can he ever do to the
Hottentots ? They are stupid ; they have no
money ; and this man actually proposes to bear his
own expenses. The poor fool must have lost his
head."
" And what, sir, do you think ? " said the waiter
to Schmidt.
"I," answered Schmidt, " am the very man."
George Schmidt soon found himself in strange
surroundings. Is it true, or is it not true, that before
George Schmidt arrived no attempt had been made to
convert the Hottentots ? It is not. For eighty-
four years South Africa had been ruled by a Council
of Policy, appointed by the Dutch East India
Company. That Company, be it remembered, was
not merely a commercial Company, but also a religious
Society, and one rule in its charter provided that
ministers and schoolmasters should be appointed,
not only for the benefit of the colonists, but also for
the non-Christian native population. To that ideal
some of the colonists held true. Van Riebeck, the
first Governor, opened a school for slaves ; some of
the clergy preached to the Hottentots and baptized
their converts, and the general understanding seems
to have been that if a Hottentot became a Christian
he should have the same civic rights as the Dutch
themselves. But this was only one side of the
story. In so-called Christian South Africa there
was a great difference between theory and fact.
In theory the Dutch farmers were members of the
Dutch Reformed Church ; in fact there was only one
clergyman to every 24,000 farmers ; and the con-
sequence was that most of those farmers were
Christians only in name. In theory the Boers were
128 A History of Moravian Missions.
pledged to instruct the Hottentots in the Christian
rehgion ; in fact many of them were bigoted
Calvinists, called the Hottentots children of the
devil, black ware, and black cattle, ruined them
with brandy, sold them as slaves, and sometimes
boasted over their cups how many Hottentots they
had shot. The situation, in fact, was partly good
and partly bad. By a few pious Dutch farmers the
Hottentots were well treated ; by many others they
were badly treated ; and most of them, when Schmidt
arrived, were still absolute heathen.
Of the origin of the Hottentots little is known.
According to some scholars they came originally
from the North of Africa ; once, it is said, they had
been a powerful race, but now, through slavery, drink
and small-pox, they had degenerated both in body
and in soul. The main facts, as noted by Schmidt,
were as follows : —
(a) Social Life. They lived in villages known as
kraals, consisting of wooden huts shaped like bee-
hives ; tanned leather, carved ivory, baked their
own pots and pans, made needles of birds' bones
and ropes of rushes and entrails, fed chiefly on flesh,
milk, roots and fruits, and not knowing the use
of salt, suffered much from indigestion. Marriage
was regarded as a sacred contract, adultery was
punished with death, and both old people and
delicate children were often exposed to wild beasts.
(6) Politics. At the head of each tribe was a
Ranger, this office descending from father to son ;
and over each village a " Head-man," whose business
it was to lead all his people in battle, preside at public
debates, administer justice, and knock convicted
prisoners on the head.
(e) Religion. First, they believed in a good God
named Toiqua, who, however, lived above the
South Africa : The Hottentots. 129
moon, and did not trouble himself with human
affairs ; secondly, in Gauna, the devil, the author
of all evil ; thirdly, in a friendly God, Heitsielib,
who consulted with the powers of darkness ; fourthly,
in the moon herself, who sent both rain and fine
weather ; fifthly, in a green flying beetle, sometimes
called the Hottentots' God ; and sixthly, in the
power of witch-doctors. Further, the Hottentots
spoke of the spirits of the dead, and had, therefore,
some belief in immortality.
For six years George Schmidt made his head- 1737-43
quarters in a valley known then as Bavianskloof,
i.e., Glen of Baboons, situated in the Sweet Milk
Valley, about one hundred miles east of Cape Town.
There he planted a hardy pear tree, famed in
Moravian lore ; there he built a house and dug a
garden ; there he taught the natives to dig and
plant ; there, every afternoon, he taught the boys
and girls to read and write ; and there, each evening,
he gathered the natives around him, read them
Zinzendorf's Berlin Discourses, and gave them
systematic theological lectures on St. Paul's Epistle
to the Romans.
For a long time nothing very wonderful occurred.
Each evening, after dark, Schmidt brought his diary
up to date ; that diary has been preserved, and the
Herrnhut Brethren called it " Spice." His diary,
however, contains no strange adventures. It is
simply the quiet record of a humble worker. Some-
times he lay awake at night tormented with tooth-
ache ; sometimes he felt lonely and wrote to Herrnhut
for assistants ; and one night he recorded the sad
and, to him, surprising fact that when he expounded
St. Paul's theology, the Hottentots did not pay much
t attention. At last, however, he saw some fruit
of his labours. Among those who attended his
evening classes, the most intelligent was Willem ;
180 A History of Moravian Missions.
Schmidt now baptized Willem in the Steenbrans
River (March 31st, 1742) ; and soon afterwards
he had four more converts. Thus did George
Schmidt estabhsh the first native congregation on
South African soil.
But now we come to the strange part of the story.
As soon as Schmidt began to baptize his converts,
the Dutch clergy — holding that, in religious matters,
South Africa belonged exclusively to the Dutch
State Church — declared that Schmidt had robbed
them of their monopoly ; Schmidt, however, refused
to cease baptizing ; and the clergy, appealing to
the Classis in Amsterdam, now accused him of three
offences. First, they said, he had been ordained,
not by imposition of hands, but through an ordination
certificate sent by Zinzendorf (true) ; secondly,
being a Herrnhuter, he was a heretic (admitted after-
wards by the clergy to be false) ; and thirdly, he had
baptized his converts, not in the presence of witnesses,
but in lonely places (true in the case of Willem).
For two years Schmidt toiled on at Bavianskloof ;
Mar.4thj the Classis, however, condemned his baptisms as
1744 illegal ; and, broken-hearted, Schmidt had to leave
South Africa. Forty-one years later (August 2nd,
1785), Schmidt died at Niesky, in Silesia. Around
his last moments a legend gathered. As Schmidt
belonged to a band of intercessors, and died just
about the time when it was his turn to pray, his
friends said that he passed to his rest with a prayer
for South Africa on his lips ; and no story could
have been more true to his noble character.
Chapter X.
LABRADOR, 1752—1804.
1. The GovERNirENT Grant.
As soon as the coast of Labrador became an
integral part of the British Empire — i.e., by the Peace
of Paris, 1763 — the British Government had to con-
sider how to manage the Eskimos. Sir Hugh
PalHsser, a pious man, was appointed Governor of
Newfoundland, and the interesting feature of the
story is that just when Sir Hugh was seeking for men,
there was living far away, at Herrnhut, a man whose
chief desire in life was to preach the Gospel to the
Eskimos. He was a Dane ; his name was Jens
Haven ; and, as he was little in stature, he came to
be known as "Little Jens." His desire may be easily
explained. For many years the Moravians in
London had taken a very deep interest in Labrador ;
in 1752 they sent John Erhardt on an exploring
expedition, and the news that Erhardt had been
murdered by Eskimos filled Jens Haven with zeal. For
six years, however. Count Zinzendorf kept him waiting.
" If you wish to preach in Labrador," he said,
*' you must first go to Greenland and learn the
language. The Lord will clear the way for you."
Jens Haven obeyed. During the next four years he 1758'62
assisted Stach in Greenland ; then, like Dober, he
heard a strange voice in the night ; then, obedient
to the heavenly vision, he returned to Herrnhut
and explained his designs, and finally, he came over
to London, consulted a Moravian named James
Hutton, and was soon introduced by Hutton to Sir
Hugh Pallisser him^self.
Sir Hugh soon seized his opportunity. In flat
defiance of popular opinion, he held that, while the
(m)
132 A History of Moravian Missions.
Eskimos had committed many murders, the blame
rested, not on them alone, but largely, if not entirely,
on the traders ; all the Eskimos needed, he said,
was someone to teach them better ; and, therefore,
he now not only took Jens Haven with him, but even
issued a proclamation in his favour. Jens Haven
went out in a double capacity. First, as an agent of
the Government, he was to make the Eskimos loyal
citizens ; secondly, as a Moravian missionary, he
would preach the Gospel ; and Sir Hugh Pallisser
made the situation clear. " As Mr. Haven has formed
the laudable plan, not only of uniting the people
with the English nation, but of instructing them in
the Christian religion, I require, by virtue of the
power delegated to me, that all men whomsoever
it may concern lend him all the assistance in their
power."
With this two-fold purpose, therefore, Jens Haven
began his campaign. The first interview took place
Sept. 4th, in Quirpoint Harbour. As the Eskimos had often
1764 been swindled by certain traders, Jens Haven's
first task was to win their confidence, and, standing
on the deck of a fishing smack, he called to some
Eskimos paddling their kayaks : " Come over to me,"
he said, in Eskimo, " I have something to say. I
am your friend."
The nearest Eskimo beamed with joy. " Our
friend is come," he cried to his mates.
Jens Haven ran down to his cabin, donned his
Eskimo dress, had himself rowed to the beach,
and there met a group of Eskimos. With his Eskimo
dress and his squat little figure, he looked like an
Eskimo himself, and the Eskimos themselves were
quite deceived. " You must be a countryman of
ours," they said.
" I am your countryman and your friend," he
answered, and all the Eskimos beamed with pleasure.
Labrador. 188
For two days Jens Haven — first on an islanoand then
on the harbour beach — fraternised with these blood-
thirsty savages, and taking out his " Letter of
Safe Conduct," he made the solemn and formal
announcement that Labrador was now a British
Colony ; that George III., King of Great Britain
and Ireland, had authorised him, Jens Haven, to
preach the Gospel, and that if they would promise
to be good, and not commit any more murders,
he would come again next year and tell them
about the Creator who died for their sins. By
his tact Haven broke down all suspicion. The
chief angekok kissed him, others beat a drum
and shouted, " Our friend has come," and the
Eskimo women nearly squeezed him to death.
Sir Hugh PalHsser was dehghted. Jens Haven
told his story in London, and the English
Moravians now decided to establish a Mission in
Labrador.
For this purpose, therefore, next year (1765) the 1765
Brethren sent out four missionaries. Sir Thomas
Adams, a British sea captain, conveyed them on a
man-of-war. One of the four missionaries, Drachart,
had served already in Greenland. The man-of-war
cast anchor at Chateau Bay, and there, in the
presence not only of Sir Thomas, but also of Sir
Hugh Pallisser, Drachart informed the Eskimos
that they must be loyal subjects of George HI.
For about two months the vessel skirted the coast,
and all four missionaries chatted with the people.
One night Haven and Drachart slept in an angekok's
tent, and the Eskimos were more friendly than
ever. " You are not Europeans," they said, " you
do not come with guns."
Next year (1766) a fresh force came on the field 1766
of action. For twenty-five years, unknown to the
general pubhc, there had existed in Fetter Lane,
134 A History of Moravian Missions.
London, a small Missionary Society, founded on
March 8th, 1741, and called the " Society for the
Furtherance of the Gospel, "f The chief member
was James Hutton, the friend both of John Wesley
and of Dr. Johnson, and now the members of this
Society made a great and important change in
their policy. In the past they had taken an interest
, in Moravian Missions in general, and had sent no
fewer than fifty men to various mission fields ;
now they gave all their attention to Labrador, and
forthwith they applied to the Board of Trade for a
grant of one hundred thousand acres. For three
years James Hutton bombarded Government officials
in vain ; then, at last (May 3rd, 1769), a grant of
144,000 acres was made, and Lord Hillsborough,
Secretary for the American Colonies, not only
expressed .his good wishes, but declared that, in his
opinion, the Brethren were the only truly public
spirited people in England. With the conscious-
ness, therefore, that they had Government support,
the Society for the Furtherance of the Gospel now
undertook the Labrador Mission. In order to raise
the necessary funds, some Brethren formed the
" Labrador Company," and bought a little sloop,
the Jersey Packet, and the temporary business
1770-97 arrangement was that while the Society would pay
the missionaries' travelling expenses, the Company
would trade with the natives and hand over to the
Society all profits over four per cent.
1770 The next task, of course, was to select the site. For
this purpose Jens Haven, Drachart, Stephen Jensen,
and eight other Brethren now set sail on the Jersey
tOn September 17th, 1921, the S.F.G. was incorporated as the
" Trust Society for the Furtherance of the Gospel " (Registered
Office, Moravian Church House, 32, Fetter Lane, London),
and on October 16th, 1921, it was made the Trustee and Ivepre-
Bentative of Moravian Foreign Missions in all matters of money
and property in the United Kingdom.
Labrador. 135
Packet ; the vessel cast anchor at Kingspoint, in
Eskimo Bay, i.e., about half-way up the coast,
and there Drachart, acting both in the name of the
Government and in the name of the S.F.G., negotiated
with the natives for the transfer of property.
Drachart shewed wonderful tact. Instead of seizing
the land by force, he decided to obtain it by purchase,
and thus the Eskimos were made to feel that they
were being fairly treated. With a large sheet of
paper in his hand, he went from tent to tent, taking
down the names of the men, asking them to add their
mark, and informing them that when the sale was
effected the site would be defined by boundary
stones. With this proposal the Eskimos were
delighted. " Pay up ! Pay up I " they cried in
glee, " if you pay you can have as much land as ever
you like."
"But that is not enough," said Drachart, "how do
we know that when we settle do\N'n you will not
kill us and steal our boats ? "
" No ! No ! " they protested, " we will never
steal and murder any more. We and you are
Brethren."
** Very good," admitted Drachart, " but from
whom shall we buy the land ? You have no
landlords. I propose to give each of you a useful
article ; your names on that sheet will witness that
you agree ; and in years to come your children will
read this list."
For the future history of Labrador this conversation
was of decisive importance. By the authority of the
British Government, and also with the consent of the
Eskimos, the S.F.G. became the owner of a tract of
land, and one advantage of the arrangement was
that any other traders who ventured near could
be prevented from interfering. On the other hand
the missionaries had been instructed by the Govern-
186 A History or Moravian Missions.
ment not to interfere with the fishing rights of men
trading on the coast.
On August 6th, 1770, two boundary stones were
erected. On one was inscribed G.R. III., 1770, on the
other U.F., 1770. The paper in Drachart's
possession was duly signed, the Eskimos had been
duly paid in full, and the preparations for the
Mission were now complete.
2. The Three Stations, 1771—1782.
As soon, then, as the way was clear, the Mission
began in earnest. A large party of fourteen — eleven
men and three women — was appointed, and the
Brethren made a systematic attempt to settle down
among the people. For every detail of the work the
most elaborate preparations were made. The leader
was Christopher Brasen, a doctor ; the preachers
were Haven and Drachart ; seven artisans —
John Schneider, Joseph Neisser, Stephen Jensen,
William Turner, Christian Lister, Theobald Freeh,
and James Rhodes — were to act as handymen,
and three ladies — the wives of Brasen, Schneider,
and Haven — would cook and sew for the whole
company. By this combination of talent the
Brethren hoped to meet every possible need. The
doctor would attend to the sick and bind up
wounds ; the two preachers would sow the Gospel
seed ; the artisans would build houses, manage
stores, till gardens, and trade with the natives ;
and the ladies, in their moments of leisure, would
visit the Eskimos in their huts and win the confidence
of the mothers and girls. Thus, it was hoped,
civilisation and religion would, from the outset,
go hand in hand.
1771 With this two-fold purpose, therefore, the famous
"Fourteen" set sail (May 8th, 1771). The ship
was the second Moravian ship, the Amity. On
Labrador. 137
August 10th they landed in Eskimo Bay. First the
artisans erected a palisade ; then they built
a large house ; there all the fourteen lived together ;
and thus Nain, the first station in Labrador, was
established. For many years it remained the head-
quarters of the work.
Once more, then, as in Greenland, the Brethren
adopted their favourite settlement policy, and
thereby they hoped to accomplish at least four
purposes. By opening trade with the Eskimos
they hoped to keep other traders at a distance ;
secondly, by means of the trade, they hoped to make
the Mission self-supporting ; thirdly, by setting
a good example they hoped to teach the Eskimos
industrious habits ; and, fourthly, they even ventured
to hope that, when Labrador became truly civilised,
there would be a substantial improvement in the
British fishing industry. Nor was even this the whole
of the scheme. In order to manage the work with
any efficiency, the Moravians, from the very outset,
always had their own ship. Each year, in the early
summer, i.e., when the ice had brok^, the
Moravian ship brought tea, coffee, tinjied^^meats.
and other needful groceries ; and then in the
autumn, she returned to London with seal-skins,
fox-skins, cod-liver oil and other Labrador products;
and thus the Brethren would pay their own way,
keep in touch with the homeland, and welcome
fresh recruits from time to time. To all the
missionaries in Labrador the annual visit of the ship
was the red-letter day of the year. During the
winter months they were entirely cut off from the
civilised world. By means of the ship alone could
they receive building material and food ; by means
of the ship alone could they receive and send letters ;
and by means of the ship alone could they hear the
latest political or religious news.
138 A History of Moravian Missions.
For some years, to all appearances, this system
worked very well. In strict accordance with their
promises, the Eskimos abode by their agreement.
With the trade arrangements they were perfectly
satisfied. Each year they brought to the
station seal-skins, fox-skins, and walrus tusks,
and received in return such useful articles as kettles,
lances, harpoons, and arrows. In the summer they
pitched their tents near Nain, and lived on the
friendliest terms with the missionaries ; and, before
long, large numbers of them learned to make useful
articles for themselves. And yet, on the whole,
the results were disappointing. In appearance,
the Eskimos had become civilised ; murders
and thefts were now almost unknown ; and
the consequence was that Lieutenant Curtis,
who was sent by the Government to make
official inquiries, was able to present a most satis-
factory report. " Instead of meeting a herd of
brutal savages," he wrote (1773), " you see them
practising the duties of society; you behold gentle-
ness and civility, where a little while ago there was
nothing seen but ferocity and distrust. It is not
alone by precept that they are humanised and
improved. They see the harmony which exists
among the teachers, and the benefits arising from
brotherly friendship and mutual obligations are
too striking not to be observed by them. They
learn also to be industrious. They learn that every
convenience that we enjoy above them is the pro-
duction of industry. They now begin to taste
contentment, and a hitherto unknown happiness is
to be discovered among them." But this was
not all that Lieutenant Curtis noticed. With the
keen eye of a naval officer, he observed that while
the Eskimos changed their habits, they had not the
least desire to change their religion. " They
Labrador. 189
perceive," he remarked, " that the advantages
which may accrue to them from a behef in the Gospel
are not so immediate nor so strikingly apparent."
For nearly thirty years, therefore, the Brethren
worked in Labrador with hardly any spiritual success.
By the aid of the Government they obtained two
more tracts of land, and built two more stations —
Okak (1778) and Hopedale (1782). But here
again they had the same sad experience, and
all along the coast they now observed that while
the Eskimos became industrious they still refused,
with a few exceptions, to accept the Gospel message.
In 1800 the number of converts was only one
hundred and two ; of these only a few could be
trusted, and one of the missionaries. Christian
Burckhardt, denounced the Eskimos as hypocrites. In
civilisation the Eskimos had advanced, in religion
they were as heathen as ever, and the Brethren
wondered what the reason could be. " We are
working," they wrote, " in a kind of twilight."
3. TUGLAVINA, 1771-93.
At last the Brethren solved the mystery. For
some thirty or forty years the uncrowned King of
Labrador was a certain high priest, or angekok,
named Tuglavina. At the time when the Brethren
arrived he already, unknown to them, held supreme
authority, and being both wicked and astute, he
contrived, while posing as their friend, to institute a
secret reign of terror. His influence over the
Eskimos was enormous. According to the popular
opinion, he was in constant intercourse with
Torngak ; by Torngak he was informed which men
were fit to live and which to die ; and, using his
influence, he had already caused many mysterious
deaths. Because he was an angekok he was almost
worshipped ; because he was a mighty hunter he
140 A History of Moravian Missions.
was admired ; and because he was a murderer he
was feared. As long as this cruel monster held sway,
most of the people feared to change their religion.
He began by practising a fraud upon the Brethren.
At the very time when James Hutton was conduct-
ing his final negotiations with the Government, Sir
Hugh Pallisser brought to England a bright young
Eskimo woman named Mikak, and after her return
to Labrador she became the observed of all observers.
There she sat in a fine new tent provided by Sir
Hugh Pallisser himself, showing the white dress,
trimmed with lace and decked with golden stars,
presented to her by the Dowager Princess of Wales ;
there she narrated how she had driven through the
streets of London and feasted on salmon at Lindsay
House with certain Moravian Brethren ; and, airing
her English, she smiled on her friends, and said :
" How do you do ? " The more Tuglavina saw
of this proud beauty, the more intensely he desired
to marry her. With her at his side he would be
more powerful than ever. For this cause, therefore,
he pretended to be the Brethen's friend ; the Brethren
agreed to the marriage, and Tuglavina bore off his
bride in triumph. As soon, however, as he had
secured his prize, Tuglavina appeared in his true
colours. For twenty years, with obvious motives,
he plotted against the Brethren. By upholding
the old religion he was upholding his own authority ;
that authority he was resolved to retain,
and, therefore, aided by the other angekoks, he
urged the people to remain true to the old Eskimo
religion. His task was easy. At the time when the
Brethren arrived all pious Eskimos still sincerely
believed, not only that Torngak, the national god,
controlled the winds and the waves, but also that
the angekoks alone were able to gain his favour.
They alone could address him in prayer, and obtain
Labrador. 141
from him the kind of weather required ; they alone
could learn from him where the seals abounded ; they
alone could enable the hunter to track the fox to
his lair ; they alone could predict with certainty
when the ice would break. To the Eskimos Torngak
was still the best friend they had. With the aid of
powerful Torngak they could keep body and soul
together ; he had sent them seals in days gone
by, and, therefore, there was no reason why they
should change him for another god. As long as
they could obtain food for their bodies, most of
them cared very little about their souls, and the god
who sent the largest seals was the god that they
preferred.
On one occasion Jens Haven was brought
face to face with the issue. The scene was an
Eskimo hut. On an island, outside in the bay,
there lay a dead whale ; the time was night ; the
hut was full of Eskimos, and the question under
discussion was whether, during the night, the ice
would break. If the ice held, the whale could be
secured, if not, it would probably be washed away.
In order to answer that question, a man now lay
down on his back, with a bow fastened to his left
leg. On the movement of that bow the whole issue
depended. If it moved one way the ice would break ;
if the other the ice would hold. With awe the
trembling Eskimos watched, and suddenly, the bow
began to twitch. " WTiat makes it move ? " they
asked. "Is it Torngak, or is it Jesus ? " There,
said the Eskimos, lay the crucial test ; the god who
could move the bow was the god for them, and
Tuglavina still held sway in the land because he
could perform that sort of miracle.
Nor was this the whole secret of his influence. In
addition to working miracles, he pandered to the
people's love of strong drink. Still worse, Tuglavina
142 A History of Moravian Missions.
corrupted the people's morals. For a few years there
existed in Chateau Bay a small colony, or settlement,
established by some enterprising English traders ;
thither the cunning Tuglavina conducted excursion
parties, and there the foolish Eskimos learned to
smoke tobacco and drink rum. The more the
Eskimos saw of the traders the more they despised
the Brethren. In the Mission stations there was law
and order ; in the colony there was fun and licence.
" You must be economical with your food," said
the missionaries.
" In the south," replied the trippers, " we have as
much to eat as we like."
" You must keep outside the palings," said the
missionaries.
"In the south," retorted the trippers, "there are
no palings."
" You must avoid strong drink," said the
missionaries.
" In the south," said the trippers, " we can get
rum. Ha ! Ha ! the warming rum. Rum is good
for the native."
By means, therefore, of these annual excursions,
Tuglavina led his countrymen into the grossest
iniquities. On one convert, a certain Peter, the very
first-fruit of the Mission, Tuglavina's influence was
disastrous. For a few years Peter set a noble
example; then, enticed by Tuglavina, he visited
Chateau Bay ; then he committed bigamy by
marrying a woman and her daughter, and finally,
his behaviour became so scandalous that Bishop
Spangenberg, who was then at Herrnhut, rebuked
him in a pastoral letter. On Peter the letter had not
the least effect. " I love Brother Joseph," he
remarked, "and I know he is telling the truth; but
I need these women for myself and I shan't do
without them." With most of the converts it was
Labrador. 143
just the same. Each man who visited the colony
returned a rake ; most of the converts now refused
to be called by their baptismal names ; and the poor
Brethren were on the verge of despair.
Still worse, Tuglavina instituted a reign of terror.
In order to add to his own dignity, he bought a
British officer's hat, laced coat and sword, and
strutting about in these regimentals, he boasted of
the enemies he had slain. On one of his trips to
Chateau Bay he took five converts with him. One of
these, named Moses, he shot himself, two others he had
secretly murdered, the fourth died, he reported,
of blood-poisoning, and only one, a woman
named Deborah, returned to the Mission station.
Nor was Tuglavina in the least ashamed.
"Where is Moses ?" asked the bewildered Brethren.
" He is lost," replied Tuglavina.
" But where is he gone ? over the sea ? '*
" Not he," smiled Tuglavina, " I killed him."
'♦ Killed him I Why did you do that ? "
" Because he was a good-for-nothing."
By these three methods, therefore — by posing as
an angekok, by inciting to drink and immorality,
and by a series of murders — Tuglavina bade defiance
to the Brethren. But even he was not beyond
redemption. For some reason which has never been
fully explained — perhaps because when his muscles
grew flabby he was no longer feared and respected,
and perhaps because all his wives deserted him and
left him time for solitary reflection — Tuglavina, in
his old age, became a gentler and a wiser man, and 1793
repenting sincerely of all his abominations, he not
only became a Christian, noted for his humiUty,
but even rendered service as a lay preacher.
4. The Revival, 1799—1804.
The result was even better than the Brethren 1799-1804
144 A History of Moravian Missions.
hoped. For about ten years after Tuglavina's
conversion, the Brethren noticed a slow and steady
improvement in the general conduct of the people ;
other angekoks followed Tuglavina's example; and
finally, in 1804, there spread along the whole coast
a revival which the Brethren themselves described
as a Pentecost. Let us look at two or three typical
cases.
The first case was that of an angekok named
Kapick. For some years this notorious impostor
was one of Tuglavina's most powerful agents ; on
several occasions he had declared that if the people
did not commit certain sins, Torngak himself would
strike them dead; and now, one memorable night
(November 12th, 1799) he beheld a celestial
phenomenon which filled him with terror. The
story must not be dismissed as a mere legend. Accord-
ing to the Brethren themselves, there really was some-
thing strange in the sky, and the same phenomenon
was observed in Greenland. For several hours
it seemed to them as though the stars were falling ;
these stars were red-gold in colour, and appeared,
so the Brethren said, to be about eighteen inches
in diameter ; and Kapick, who, in the services at
Hopedale, had heard the Brethren read the words,
" And the stars shall fall from heaven," drew the very
natural conclusion that the Second Coming was close
at hand.f Forthwith, therefore, Kapick became a
Christian ; forthwith he ran from hut to hut, preach-
ing the Gospel with fervour; and the Brethren,
taking the tide at the flood, distributed among the
people copies, in the Eskimo tongue, of the Passion
History.
The next case was that of a sinful woman. At the
•f Was this phenomenon merely the Aurora Borealis ? No. In
Labrador the Aurora Borealis is a fairly common sight ; and
this appearance in 1799 was something quite unuaual.
Labrador. 145
close of a service in Hopedale, this -woman, to the
missionary's surprise, made the amazing declaration
that she was the " wickedest " person in the country.
In the past, like most Eskimos, she had been re-
markably self-complacent ; now, feeling unfit for
human society, she lay down to sleep among the
dogs, and the missionary rightly regarded her case
as a sign that a new spirit was at work.
The next case was that of a man named Siksigak.
His conduct was certainly remarkable. First, being
tired of his wife, he took her back to her mother ;
then, being rebuked by his own mother, he fled in
terror to the Mission-house, and, falling down at
the missionary's feet, exclaimed : " I'm a sinner.
I am lost. I am going to hell." Then, acting on
the missionary's suggestion, he restored his injured
wife to favour, became a model husband, and
preached the Gospel with singular power both at
Hopedale and at Nain.
Meanwhile, the Brethren had made a remarkable
discovery. In addition to Tugla\4na, another
Satanic force had, during all the thirty years, been
at work ; that force, to state the truth bluntly,
was sodomy in its worst forms ; and, as the people
now abandoned this vice, the great revival became
the means of a genuine moral revolution. In
the past the people had been not only murderers
and robbers, but fornicators, adulterers, and
sodomites ; now they were learning to be both
honest and pure, and thus they acquired new
vigour of body and new moral ideals. For this
reason the Great Revival was a movement of the
highest value. It saved the Eskimos of Labrador
from destruction.
Chapter XI.
THE MISSION TO THE JEWS,
1738—1742.
As Zinzendorf pondered on the great missionary
problem, he gradually came to the conclusion that
while the Church of Christ was justified in sending the
Gospel to the heathen, her first duty was to preach
to the Jews, and speaking at a meeting in London
(March 7th, 1743) soon after his return from North
America, where, as he sincerely believed, he had
discovered the Lost Ten Tribes, he solemnly declared
that until the Jews were converted, until Christ
Himself appeared to them and showed them His
wounds, and until, like St. Thomas, they fell at
His feet and adored Him as God, not a single heathen
nation would accept the Christian religion. In
this idea we find the key to Zinzendorf's missionary
policy. In a few years, he said, Christ would appear
to the Jews ; that appearance would bring about
their conversion, and then the Jews themselves would
become the most powerful preachers of the Gospel.
With their aid the Christian religion would triumph ;
without it, it could appeal only to a few. "Let us
then," he insisted, "concentrate our attention on
the Jews ; let us now prepare their minds for the
coming of Christ ; and meanwhile, till that miracle
occurs, let us possess our souls in patience."
His ideas had not been hastily formed. During
the previous twenty-four years he had kept in close
touch with Jews. In 1719, e.g., he inserted
a clause about the Jews in the rules of his " Order
of the Mustard Seed " ; in 1720, while at his
aunt's house at Castell, he made the acquaint-
ance of a Jewish girl who was being prepared
(146)
The Mission to the Jews. 147
for baptism, and not only acted as sponsor, but
composed a hj-mn for the occasion ; in 1721, while at
Dresden, he appealed to the Jews of that city
through the pages of his magazine, " The Dresden
Socrates " ; in 1730, he preached to Jews at
Berleborg in the Wetterau ; in 1731, he preached
to Jews at Hermhut, and even arranged that
all who cared to stay should receive suitable
employment ; and further, in 1736, after he
had been banished from Saxony, and made
his headquarters in the Wetterau, he repeatedly
visited the Jews who lived around Ronneburg Castle,
ate black bread at their tables, invited the children
to tea in his o\\'n house, had the poorest children
taught and fed, and told them all, young and old,
the story of the Redeemer. At last, it is said, he 1736
had an experience which made him more enthu-
siastic than ever. According to the author of that
delightful book, " Zinzendorf in the Wetterau " —
a romance based on fact — Zinzendorf, one bright
June evening, met a certain Rabbi Abraham ; and,
after the two had shaken hands, the Count made an
endeavoiu" to gain his confidence. " Gray hairs,"
he said, " are a c^o^^'n of glory. I can see from your
face and the look in your eyes that you have had
much experience both of heart and of life. In the
name of the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob let
us be friends." On the Rabbi these simple words
had a strange effect. For the first time in his long
life he had been addressed kindly by a Christian ;
henceforth he and the Count were friends, and a few
days later the Rabbi unburdened his soul.
As the two ascended a wooded hill — one morning,
a little before sunrise — the old man wept and wrung
his hands, and there, before them, stood a Church,
with a golden cross on the spire.
" My heart," said the Rabbi, " is longing for the
148 A History of Moravian Missions.
dawn. I am sick, yet know not what ails me. I
am looking for something, yet I know not what
I seek. I am like one who is chased, yet I see no
enemy, except the one within me, my old evil heart."
Never had Zinzendorf been more profoundly im-
pressed. The more he listened to the old man, the
more convinced he became that once again he had
found a Candace-Soul ; and speaking with the tongue
of a poet, he told the story of Calvary. And
meanwhile the sun had risen, and the cross was
bathed in light. To Zinzendorf the sight was pro-
vidential. There, on the Church spire, shone the
sign of God's love.
" See there, Abraham," said the Count, " a sign
from heaven for you. The God of your fathers has
placed the Cross before you, and now the rising
sun from on high has tinged it with heavenly glory."
"So be it," replied the Rabbi, " blessed be the
Lord who has had mercy on me."
In spite, however, of this experience, the Count
1735^39 acted with caution. During the next three years he
continued to study the problem, and the question
that troubled him was how, and in what form, should
the Gospel he preached. Step by step, he arrived at
the solution. At a Synod held at Marienborn (1736),
he had already informed the Brethren that he was
1738 studying the problem ; then, just as an experiment,
he allowed Leonard Dober to preach in the Jewish
quarter at Amsterdam ; then he published an
elaborate treatise, declaring that no Jew could be
saved unless he believed both in the Deity and in the
Atonement of Christ ; then, in a volume entitled
" Random Gleanings," he made a fervent appeal to
the Christian public (1739) ; and then, after meeting a
Jew on his way home from St. Thomas, he decided
to begin the work in earnest. On two funda-
mental points he had now arrived at a definite
The Mission to the Jews. 149
decision. The first was the nature of the message,
and that message was " Jesus is God." The second
was the divinely appointed preacher, and that
preacher was a learned theologian, Samuel
Lieberkiihn.
For a very strange reason, however, Zinzendorf s
scheme miscarried. Between him and Lieberkiihn
there was a fundamental difference. For some years
before he received his appointment to Amsterdam,
Samuel Lieberkiihn, like the Count himself, had often
come into close contact with Jews, and one result
of his experience was that, while he had the deepest
respect for Zinzendorf, he had formed his own
ideas about the best method of preaching the Gospel.
The difference between the men may be briefly
stated. According to Zinzendorf, the preacher
should begin with definite dogma, and lay all the
stress on the Deity of Christ; according to Lieberkiihn
this dogma, being rather offensive to the Jews, should
at first be kept in the background, and the preacher,
therefore, should begin, not by stating that Jesus
was God, but by showing that He could save from
sin. According to the Count, theology should come
first and experience second ; according to Lieberkiihn,
experience first and theology second ; and the
question has often been discussed which of the two
was in the right. Let us now see how Lieberkuhn
applied his methods.
For two years Lieberkiihn lived in the Jewish 1739>41
quarter at Amsterdam. At that time the Jews on
the continent were divided into two classes,
Rabbinites, i.e., those who accepted the Talmud, and
Karaites, those who rejected it, and as the Amsterdam
Jews were Rabbinites, Lieberkiihn soon perceived
that he would have to act with caution. As long as
they accepted the Talmud, there was little chance
that they would give him a hearing. In the Old
150 A History of Moravian Missions.
Testament, they said, God had clearly expounded the
way of salvation ; in the Talmud the Rabbis had
explained how that way of salvation should be
interpreted ; and one part of the Rabbis' teaching
was that all Christians were sinners, that Christ
Himself was a criminal, and that even the use of His
name polluted the lips. At the very outset,
therefore, Lieberkiihn found himself in an
atmosphere of bitter hostility and suspicion. Some
of the Jews thought that he was a Jew ; others that
he was a colporteur from Callenberg's Institutum
Judaicum ; and others that he would libel them
in a book. "What is this evil dog doing here?"
they said. " He has come to learn all about us."
But Lieberkiihn soon gained their confidence. In order
to shew that he was their genuine friend, he attended
the Synagogue every morning and evening, took
lessons in Jewish law with a Rabbi, joined one
of their benefit societies and subscribed to their
charitable funds, and even abstained from eating
food which they accounted unclean. He was soon a
welcome guest in every home. The Jews nicknamed
him " Rabbi Shmuel," and, a hundred years later,
stories of his goodness were still repeated. His
methods of work were as follows : —
(1) He avoided dogmatic theology. He never
preached that Jesus was the Creator ; never asserted,
unless challenged, that Jesus was God ; and never
even referred to the Holy Trinity. The more a man
preached such dogmas, he said, the more he would
be involved in barren discussions. " There is nothing
more offensive to the Jews," he declared, "than the
doctrine that Christ is God. They cannot reconcile
it with their principle, Jehovah is our God, and
Jehovah alone." Let the Jews, he insisted, first
be convinced of sin ; let them turn to Christ for
redemption ; and then, when they found that He
The Mission to the Jews. 151
could save, they would worship Him as God.
(2) He did not appeal to Old Testament prophecy.
For this policy Lieberkiihn gave a very good reason.
In the days of the Apostles, he said, all Jews
recognised that certain prophecies were Messianic ;
since then, however, the Rabbis had given those
prophecies another meaning, and, as the Rabbis
were implicitly believed, argument on those lines
would be useless.
(3) He laid a great deal of stress on the self-
consciousness of Jesus, and thereby employed the
method afterwards elaborated by Canon Liddon.f
Jesus, said Lieberkiihn, regarded Himself as the
Messiah, and that fact must be taken into considera-
tion. Did not the High Priest say to Jesus : " I
adjure thee by the living God that thou tell us
whether thou be the Christ, the Son of God, the Son
of the Blessed " ? And did not Jesus answer dis-
tinctly, " I am " ? For making that claim, said
Lieberkiihn, Jesus was condemned to death, and
the fact that He was willing to suffer proved at
least that He was sincere.
(4) He laid great stress on the Resurrection.
*' If Jesus," he argued, " had been an evil doer, God
would never have raised Him from the dead."
" What difference does that make?" said a Jew.
" What does it matter to us whether He rose from the
dead or not?"
"It matters everything," said another; "if the
Resurrection is true, the whole Gospel must be true."
By means, therefore, of purely historical arguments
Lieberkiihn endeavoured to prove that God had
raised Jesus from the dead. Jesus, he said, had really
been seen, not merely, as some Jews held, by two
hysterical women, but by the eleven Apostles and
t " Th» Dirinity of our Lord." L«ctur* IV.
152 A History of Moravian Missions.
by five hundred Jews. The same argument has often
been used in our days. It is used by A. B. Bruce in
his "Apologetics," and by many other theologians.
(5) Finally, like Dr. Dale in his " Living Christ
and the Four Gospels," Lieberkiihn laid great stress
on what he called the " Inward Witness." " We
Brethren," he said, " are certain that Jesus lives,
because we experience His saving power."
Thus, by purely scientific methods — by appealing to
undoubted facts — did Lieberkiihn deal with the Jews
at Amsterdam ; most of his hearers loved him fondly,
and some were half-convinced by his arguments ;
and, personally, I incline to the opinion that if he had
been allowed to continue his work, his efforts would
probably have been crowned with success.
At this point, however, a great disaster occurred.
As Lieberkiihn still refused to preach the Deity of
Christ, an absurd rumour spread in Moravian circles
that he was a Unitarian, and Zinzendorf, who
inclined to the same opinion, rebuked Lieberkiihn
for his methods of work. He even objected to
Lieberkiihn's statement that God had raised Jesus
from the dead.
" Nonsense," said the fiery Count, using the
English word. " He died and rose of His own free
will. He said distinctly, ' I have power to take it
again,' and when the Apostles said that God raised
Him up, they were mere Unitarians themselves."
Filled, then, with these suspicions, the Count
recalled Lieberkiihn from Amsterdam, and the Mission
to the Jews turned out a failure — not because, as Dr.
Dalman suggests, Zinzendorf offended the Jews
by insisting on the Deity of Christ, but rather because,
when he had a good man, he had not the wisdom
to give him a fair chance. By dismissing Lieberkiihn
from office, Zinzendorf gave the Mission to the Jews
The Mission to the Jews. 158
its death-blow. For the next few years he merely
played with the project. First, he sent to Amsterdam
a theologian after his own heart, Otto William Hasse
(1741-3), who, being delicate, speedily died ; then
he asked a young man and woman, David Kirchhof
and Esther Griinbeck, to marry and settle down at
Amsterdam ; then, soon after the wedding, he
changed his mind, and after his return from America
(1743) he issued a solemn proclamation to all Jews
that in a very few years Christ Himself would appear
in the flesh, shew the Jews His wounds, and thereby,
in a miraculous manner, bring about their con-
version. " Hear, O ! Israel," he announced, '* the
voice of the God of Jacob. He will in these days
reveal Himself to you. He will shew you the power
and majesty of the great Messiah ! He has already
taken the work in hand. The time is not far off. I
kiss you in spirit ; I wait with you for the coming of
your Redeemer."f
His plan of campaign was now entirely altered.
As long as Christ delayed His expected appearance,
so long, said the Count, would further preaching to
the Jews be useless ; and, therefore, the Brethren's
duty was, not to preach, but to pray and wait for
the appearance of Christ. " The time for the Jews,"
he declared, " has not yet come."
His colleagues took him at his word. Instead of
preaching the Gospel to the Jews, the Moravian
Church, since then, has simply been content to
wait and pray. In the Sunday Liturgy there is
the prayer, " Have mercy on Thy ancient covenant
people, the Jews ; deliver them from their blind-
ness." In 1889 the General Synod recommended
prayer for the Jews on, or near, the Day of Atone-
ment, and recently the British Moravian Prayer
Union has adopted the petition, " Bless the first-
t "I^iwillige Nachle«e," VoL III., pp. 62 — 69.
154 A History of Moravian Missions.
fruits of Israel, until the fulness of the Gentiles
be come in, and so all Israel shall be saved."
Thus, by his autocratic conduct, did Zinzendorf
destroy Lieberkiihn's life work. For three good
reasons, however, Lieberkiihn's memory should be
held in high honour : — (1) His work among the Jews
was not an absolute failure. In a volume entitled
" At Home and Abroad,"f there is an instructive
story told by a modern convert, Rabbi Joseph.
He is speaking about his grandfather, and says, " There
came in those days some famous preacher from Zeist,
who preached in one of the churches to convert
our Brethren to Christianity, as you do. The
preacher was considered by many people a converted
Israelite, and was therefore called ' Rabbi Shmuel.'
He exercised a magic power over all who listened to
him, and hundreds of Jews flocked to hear him,
and amongst them my grandfather, who, from being
the greatest enemy to Christianity, became, to the
great consternation of the whole congregation of the
Israelites, its greatest defender." (2) Secondly, j
1769 Lieberkiihn, anticipating Tischendorf, published an
excellent " Harmony of the Gospels." This book
was often translated, and proved of great service
in the Mission Field, and the last part, containing
the " Passion History," is still used in every branch
of the Moravian Church. (3) Thirdly, Lieberkiihn,
as a theologian, was in advance of his times. In
order to prove that Jesus was the Messiah he appealed
to the double evidence of history and experience,
and most theologians will admit that his methods
were thoroughly sound.
fA description of the English and Continental Missions of the
London Society for promoting Christianity amongst the Jews,
1900, p. 89.
Chapter XII.
THE FLYING SCOUTS, 1734—1822.
As long as the Lord delayed His coming to the
Jews, Count Zinzendorf adhered to his conviction
that no heathen nation, as such, could or would
accept the Christian religion. The time for the
heathen, he said, had not yet arrived, and therefore,
instead of strengthening the causes already estab-
lished — such as those in the West Indies, Greenland,
and North America — he spent large sums of money
in sending messengers in all directions in search of
what he called Candace-Souls. His policy, though
strange, was perfectly clear. Each nation, he
declared, possessed a few chosen spirits in search
of the truth ; such men he called Candace-Souls,
and the chief business of the Church of Christ was
to find them and gratify their aspirations.
(1) Lapland. He began by sending three men, 1734
Andrew Grassman, Daniel Schneider, and John
Nitschmann, to Lapland. The three men embarked
at Stockholm and sailed up the east coast of Sweden
as far as Uleaborg. At this place Andrew Grassman
met a few Lapps ; these men took him across the
snow to Kreusano, and there the parish priest
informed him that his parish was at least three
hundred miles square. Further ahead, said the
priest, there lived real heathen ; these heathen
Andrew Grassman ^dsited, and found, to his surprise,
that they had no vices except those which they
had learned from so-called Christians. In 1739
the Count sent out another expedition. His agents
were Behr and Ostergren. For two years these
men lived in a little market towTi about two hundred
miles north of Tomea ; there they discovered a
U55)
156 A History of Moravian Missions.
wooden church, where the minister preached about
once a year ; and further, they were correctly
informed that Lapland, at least in theory, was
divided into parishes. From these facts Zinzendorf
drew his own conclusions. Lapland, he said, was
already provided for, and no Moravian missionaries
would be needed.
1736 (2) The Samoyedes. On this expedition
Zinzendorf 's agents — Andrew Grassman, John
Schneider, and Mieksch — made a very serious
mistake. Instead of dealing openly with the Russian
Government, they, when taking out their passports,
described themselves as mechanics. At St.
Petersburg they were caught preaching, and thus
the little fraud was discovered, and the Empress of
Russia, Catherine XL, who was duly informed,
not only sent them back to Herrnhut, but warned
them that, if they repeated the offence, she would
have them burned alive. Thus did three Moravian
missionaries learn that deceit, even in a holy cause,
is both a crime and a blunder.
1736 (3) Guinea, on the West Coast of Africa. The
two agents were Christian Protten and Henry Huckoff.
As Protten had been born in Guinea, and could speak
the native language, the Count naturally hoped for
some success. Nevertheless, the expedition was a
failure. Protten tried, but tried in vain, to open a
school at Elmina ; Huckoff died, and Protten,
fearing to remain alone, returned forthwith to
Europe. At the special request, however, of the
Guinea Company, the Brethren, soon after Zinzen-
dorf's death, attempted to renew the enterprise.
In 1768-9 nine Moravian missionaries landed in
Guinea ; all nine speedily died on the spot ; and the
Brethren, for obvious reasons, abandoned the
project.
The Flying Scouts. 157
(4) Ceylon. The two agents were Dr. EUer 1739
and David Nitschmann III. At Colombo they made
the rather painful discovery that a certain libellous
" Pastoral Letter," published a few years earlier in
Amsterdam, in which the Brethren were described
as heretics, had been greedily devoured by the
Dutch Clergy, and now these clergy even asserted
that the Brethren were atheists. To stay in Colombo,
therefore, was impossible. At the Governor's sug-
gestion, they retreated inland, settled down in a
village named Magorugampell, and began to preach
to the natives. Once more a simple blunder wrecked
the cause. Instead of remaining at his post in the
country. Dr. EUer came to Colombo to visit some
Christian friends ; he did not realise, of course, that
what might be permitted in Europe was a serious
crime in Ceylon. The Dutch clergy accused him
of sheep-stealing ; the Governor sent for both of
the Brethren and told them to return to the natives ;
and the Brethren, feeling grossly insulted, returned
forthwith to Herrnhut.
(5) Algiers. In order to prepare the way for 1739
this enterprise. Count Zinzendorf wTote to Para\'icini,
the Dutch Consul, explaining that his only purpose
was to lead the slaves to Christ and teach them
good conduct. With this letter Paravicini appears
to have been satisfied. The chosen apostle was
Abraham Richter. For about six months he did
most excellent work, preaching in public on Fridays,
visiting the slaves in their bagnios and attending to
the sick free of charge. At this point, however,
Algiers was visited by a pestilence ; the number of 1740
deaths soon rose to 30,000 ; and among the victims
was Abraham Richter himself.
(6) Constantinople. In this enterprise Zinzendorf 1740
had a special purpose. As the first two missionaries
158 A History of Moravian Missions.
to Bohemia and Moravia, Cyril and Methodius, had
come from the Greek Church in Constantinople,
and as, therefore, there existed a certain affinity
between the Greek Church and the Moravian Church,
Count Zinzendorf naturally hoped that, if he could
enlist the sympathy of the local Patriarch, the door
might be opened for mission-work in the East.
Never did Zinzendorf show more practical skill.
First, he selected as his agent a good Greek scholar,
Arvid Gradin ; then he prepared an address to the
Patriarch, sketching the history of the Moravian
Church, and asking the Patriarch to intercede with
the Holy Synod of the Greek Church in Russia ;
and then he had the address translated into Greek
by Arvid Gradin himself. With this document in
his possession Arvid Gradin went to Constantinople,
and in due time was introduced to the Patriarch.
The interview closed as such interviews often do.
In his manner the Patriarch was friendly, and Gradin
reclined by his side on a couch, drank coffee, and sniffed
a bowl of surat-smoke. With all his suave polite-
ness, however, the Patriarch, like most ecclesiastics,
was cautious, and, after due deliberation, he explained
that for two reasons definite action was impossible.
First, he was afraid of offending the Roman Catholics,
and secondly, he was equally afraid of offending the
Russian Government. With this disappointing
answer Gradin returned home.
1740 (7) Wallachia. At that time Wallachia, now
the southern portion of Roumania, was a small
autonomous State. As Brethren had settled here in
former times, the Count conjectured, with some
plausibility, that, just as in Bohemia and Moravia,
there might still be left a " hidden seed," and his
two agents, Andrew Jaschke and Zechariah Hirschel,
were so warmly welcomed by the Hospodar, that
Zinzendorf hoped, before very long, to send a larger
The Flying Scouts. 159
force. But the next Hospodar was hostile, and the
project had to.be abandoned.
(8) The Calmucks. According to Zinzendorf 1742-8
himself, the chief object of this expedition was, not
to preach the Gospel, but rather to discover what
special sins the heathen Calmucks committed. His
first three agents — Conrad Lange, Zechariah Hirschel,
and Michael Kund — had a most remarkable experi-
ence. At St. Petersburg they were accused of being
spies ; the Government, after pronouncing them
innocent, kept them in prison five years ; and the
Brethren, who, like St. Paul at Rome, were allowed
to receive visitors, enjoyed the experience so much
that they called their cell a " Hall of Grace."
But the next expedition was far more encouraging. 1764
In response to a special invitation from the Empress
Catherine II., who promised complete religious
liberty, and said that she would be delighted if all
her heathen subjects became Christians, the Brethren,
in 1764, sent out a large colony, and built, on the River
Volga, a flourishing little settlement named Sarepta ;
there they discovered a mineral spring and stationed
a resident physician ; and so famous did Sarepta
become that gouty grandees came from Berlin and
Moscow. For many years Sarepta was the centre
of Moravian work among the Calmucks. In theory,
those Calmucks were Buddhists, and held that there
was not much difference between their religion and
Christianity ; in fact, like the people of Western
Tibet, they were lama-ridden, worshipped thousands
of Buchan, i.e., departed spirits, turned Prayer-mills,
and believed in the transmigration of souls ; and so
firmly did they hold their behefs that the Brethren
baptized only one convert. For this reason, in 1800,
the Calmuck Mission was abandoned.
At the special request, however, of the British and 1815-'22
Foreign Bible Society, which had a Branch at St.
160 A Htstory of Moravian Missions.
Petersburg, where the local Secretary, Isaac Schmidt,
happened to be a Moravian, the Brethren made an
attempt to renew the Mission. The Czar,
Alexander I., supported the scheme ; two Brethren
settled down near Sarepta, and a small congregation
of twenty-three was formed. For seven years there
was uninterrupted success ; then the Russian
Government ordered the Brethren to hand their
converts over to the Greek Church, and the Brethren,
being compelled to obey, retired from the scene.
1743-7 (9) Livonia. In order to prepare for this
Mission, Zinzendorf sent Arvid Gradin to St. Peters-
burg, with a letter to the Holy Synod. The great
scholar had a dismal experience. For no very
special reason the Government kept him three years
in prison, and then, as he had committed no crime,
allowed him to return to Germany ; and, mean-
while, his letter to the Synod had not even been
answered.
1747 (10) Persia. For this enterprise Zinzendorf gave
a charming reason. As the Kurds were descended
from the " Wise Men from the East " — so, at least,
an Armenian Bishop informed him — the Count
held that they had a special claim on the attention
of the Church; and hearing that medical work was
needed in Persia, and also that the Kurds were seeking
a new religion, he now sent out two qualified medical
men, Hocker and Riiffer. The two doctors had a
series of strange adventures. At Aleppo, after attend-
ing the English Church, they slept in a billiard-room,
and sang evening hymns on the house-roof. At
Bagdad they were entertained by Carmelite priests.
At a lonely spot beyond Bagdad they were attacked
and robbed by highwaymen. But at Ispahan, the
Persian capital, they met with marvellous kindness.
The British Consul supplied them with money ; the
The Flying Scouts. 161
Jesuits, the Dominicans and the Carmelites brought
them clothing ; and the British Ambassador tried to
obtain them compensation for their losses. For one
simple reason, however, the two Doctors never dis-
covered the Kurds. The country was in a state of
civil war, and the road to Kirman, where the
Kurds lived, was blocked. Soon afterwards Riiffer
died in Egypt.
(11) Abyssinia. Once more the Count was in 1752
search of Candace -Souls. As the Coptic Church was
said to be fairly pure, Zinzendorf had a vague idea
that a good medical man would be sufficient. His
agent was Dr. Hocker. For about a year Dr. Hocker
resided in Cairo, studying Arabic, and then, having
mastered the language, he called on the Patriarch,
presented his credentials, and asked the Patriarch to
sanction his Mission to the Copts. But the Patriarch,
though very polite, made no definite promise. In-
stead of giving Hocker the letter which he required,
he composed a solemn non-committal epistle, and
Hocker, seeing how the land lay, sought, like Gradin,
for assistance at Constantinople. For one moment
there was a gleam of hope. With the aid of the
British Ambassador, Hocker obtained from the
Grand Vizier a letter of introduction to the Prime
Minister of Abyssinia. With this letter he now re-
turned to Cairo ; there, to his dismay, he learned that,
as the King of Abyssinia had just died, his letter was
waste paper; and feeling that further efforts were
useless he returned to Herrnhut. In spite, however,
of this failure. Count Zinzendorf next year sent out
another expedition. His agents now were Dr. Hocker, 1756
George Pilder, and Henry Cossart. At Cairo, Pilder
and Cossart dined with the Bishop of Libya, and then,
for some unknown reason, Cossart returned to
Herrnhut. The other two Brethren had an interest-
ing adventure. As they sailed along the eastern
162 A History of Moravian Missions.
shore of the Red Sea, on their way from Suez to
Jedda, a seaport due west of Mecca, the ship
foundered in a storm. For nineteen days Hocker
and Pilder Hved on the barren island of Hassan,
off the coast of Arabia. At Jedda, Dr. Hocker
received an invitation to pay a professional visit
to the Prime Minister of Abyssinia, who, he was told,
suffered from boils on the face. For three cogent
reasons, however, Dr. Hocker declined the invitation.
He had lost his medicine-chest ; his friend Pilder was
ill ; and the Lot, when consulted, answered " No."
And thus, when success was possible, the Brethren
returned home.
1768 For the third time, however, after Zinzendorfs
death. Dr. Hocker visited Egypt, lodging this time
with a French chemist at Cairo. His chief colleagues
were John Danke, a cabinet-maker, John Antes, a
watch-maker, Dr. Roller, another physician, Weiniger,
a tailor, and Herrmann, a carpenter ; and the curious
feature of the story is that all the seven Brethren
passed as Englishmen. Dr. Hocker was known as the
English doctor ; John Danke, who was born in
Hanover, boldly described himself as an English
subject, t and John Antes was really an English-
man, born in North America. From the com-
mercial point of view this was a great advantage.
The mere fact that the Brethren were English was
taken as a proof that they were good workmen.
"The English," said a Turk, "are an honest people ;
their yea is yea, and their nay, nay ; but you Copts
are false, and while your words are sweet your hearts
are bitter." For this simple reason, therefore, the
Brethren at Cairo prospered greatly in business.
Dr. Hocker was often summoned to attend high
officials ; John Danke was asked to make gun-
•)■ Danke was perfectly honest. Hanover was then regarded as an
English Colony,
The Flying Scouts. 168
carriages ; and judging by one of Herrmann's letters,
the Brethren Hved in comfort. The French bakers,
he reported, made dehcious wheat bread ; meat,
poultry, butter, honey, milk, and fruit abounded ;
and sometimes the Brethren drank, not only Nile-
water, but a little wine.
On the other hand, the Brethren at Cairo were
often exposed to great danger. During the whole
of this period there was no stable government
in Egypt. The chief officials were certain Turkish
Beys ; murders and highway robberies were common ;
and the main object of the officials was to line
their own pockets. The most terrible experience
was that of John Antes. For the crime of refusing
to hand over money to a highwayman, he was
haled before a Bey, accused of being a thief, taken
to a castle, laid face downwards on the carpet,
bound round the ankles by means of a chain and a
stick, and bastinadoed so severely that the whip,
which was made of horse-skin, felt like a red-hot iron.
The scene was a torch-lighted room, several
spectators were present, and John Antes gave
himself up for lost. In his own narrative Antes
says that the appointed number of blows in such
cases was generally 2,000 ; that after 600 blows the
ears began to bleed, and that victims frequently
died of exhaustion.
" Gold ! gold ! " whispered an officer. " Give the
Bey gold, and you will be free."
" I have no gold," said Antes.
" But what have you got at home ? " demanded
the Bey.
" Nothing but a musket," said Antes.
" Hit the dog again," roared the Bey.
At last, however, an officer intervened ; Antes was
seated on a donkey and taken home ; and, after
three years, the swelling on his feet disappeared.
164 A History of Moravian Missions.
Meanwhile, the Brethren's work in Egypt was of
an unusual nature. f Instead of trying to extend the
Moravian Church, or turn Copts into Moravians, the
Brethren themselves attended the Coptic Churches,
called on Coptic priests, chatted in a friendly manner
on religious topics, and endeavoured to do good,
not by public preaching, but by shewing the people
that man is saved, not by good works or ceremonies,
but by a living faith in the crucified Christ. For a
few years the Brethren were very popular. Dr.
Hocker exerted a wide influence by translating
Zinzendorf's Berlin Discourses into Arabic ; Danke
hired a room at Behnesse, a town further up the
Nile, and there interviewed ardent seekers after truth ;
and some Coptic priests declared that such charming
men as the Brethren they had never met before.
Among the Brethren's chief supporters were Ibrahim,
a Coptic priest of high rank, and Michael Baschera,
a Turkish official ; Danke even lodged for some
days in the house of a friendly Turk ; and though,
in one sense, the Brethren gained no converts, they
do seem to have exercised a certain evangelical
influence in the Coptic Church as a whole. With
1783 such results they had to rest content. At length
however, fierce opposition arose, and the Brethren
were denounced as intruders ; and, not wishing to
create trouble, they retired from the scene.
1768 (12) The Tartars. In 1768, two Brethren,
Gralisch and Gruhl, crossed the Caucasus, visited
the Tartars at Inleesha, and inquired whether
among them there still survived any members of the
" Hidden Seed." The answer was in the negative.
All the Tartars were Mahometans, and Mahometans
they intended to remain.
1768ol803 (13) The Coromandel Coast. For the long
■j-For details 3ee J, W. Davey'a articles.. Per. Aces. 1904.
The Flying Scouts. 165
period of thirty-six years the Brethren, with the full
approval of the Danish Government, conducted a
wonderful " Garden " at Tranquebar ; there no
fewer than forty missionaries died in the service ;
and the Brethren finally abandoned the cause, not
because they lost heart, but because they were not
allowed by the local clergy to preach to the heathen
in the neighbourhood.
(14) The Nicobar Islands. The chief worker 1768-87
here was John Gotfried Hansel (1779-87). For
the special delectation of William Wilberforce, this
man, in his old age, wrote a delightful book, entitled
" Letters on the Nicobar Islands," and therein
he explained fully why the Brethren had to abandon
the cause. First, they were often on the verge of
starvation, and had nothing better to eat than
swallows' nests ; secondly, they suffered from diseases
of the liver ; thirdly, they died in large numbers —
twenty-four in a few years — from fever ; and fourthly,
they never succeeded in learning the native language.
(15) Bengal. For the following reasons this 1777-1803
Mission also ended in complete failure : — (1) because
the missionaries had to earn their own living, and
had, therefore, little time for preaching ; (2) because
the other Christians belonged either to the Greek
Church or to the Church of Rome, and, for ob\aous
reasons, opposed the Brethren ; (3) because, on
account of the caste system, they had little chance
of coming into close touch with the natives.
For the policy described in this chapter, Zinzendorf
was sometimes severely criticised, and some of his
enemies pointed out that, in these apparently vain
enterprises, he had sacrificed, not only large sums of
money, but also many valuable lives. But to all
such criticism he gave the same answer. He did
not estimate success by numbers. " If a missionary
166 A History of Moravian Missions.
travels a thousand miles," he said, " and gains only
one convert on the journey, his efforts have not been
in vain."
The Death Rate.
In the eighteenth century the death rate among
the Moravian missionaries was very high, and all
honour should be given to the men who were so
ready to fill the gaps. The most striking examples
of this high death rate are : —
(1) St. Thomas, 160 deaths in 50 years (1732-82).
(2) St. Croix, 22 deaths in 2 years (1733-5).
(3) Surinam, 50 missionaries died within a year
after their arrival.
(4) Tranquebar and Nicobar Islands, 46 deaths
in 37 years.
Nor was this high death rate confined entirely to
the eighteenth century. In the British West Indies,
in 1835, there were 10 deaths in one year ; and in
Surinam, in 1851-2, 14 missionaries died in 10 months.
Chapter XIII.
ZIXZEXDORF AS MISSIONARY LEADER,
1731—1760.
As long as the Count had a breath in his body,
his zeal for Foreign Missions burned with a pure and
steady flame. At the time when he was banished
from Saxony (1736) he announced that the chief
duty of the Moravian Church was to proclaim the
Saviour to the world ; on another occasion he said
" The earth is the Lord's ; all souls are His, I am
debtor to all '* ; and holding firmly to this sublime
ideal, he acted, during twenty-eight years (1732-60),
not only as the general manager, but also as the
teacher, as the politician, and as the poet of the whole
movement.
1. The General Manager.
The position occupied by Zinzendorf was remark-
able. In order to understand the situation, we must
remember that, during the whole of this period, the
Renewed Moravian Church had no fixed con-
stitution ; no constitution was formed, m fact,
till four years after his death ; and the natural and
inevitable consequence was that, while Zinzendorf
summoned his colleagues to Synods and Conferences,
at which Foreign Mission problems were discussed,
yet, by the mere force of his genius, he exercised such
a commanding influence that his designs were nearly
always accepted. On this point the leading Moravian
historians are agreed. Dr. J. T. Miiller says that,
after a Synod at Hirschberg (1743), his position
in the Church was dictatorial;! Guido Burkhardt
calls him an absolute monarch;* E. W. Croger says
fArticIe on Zinzendorf in " Hauck'a Real-Encyclopsedie," p. 694.
* •' Zinzendorf und die Brfldergemeine," p. 127.
(167)
168 A History of Moravian Missions.
that at the Synods Zinzendorf s influence was
overwhelming ;t and Gerhard Reichel, in his " Life
of Spangenberg," says that not even the Lot was able
to deprive Zinzendorf's sovranty of its absolute per-
sonal character.* With these views I agree. By
nature Zinzendorf was an autocrat, and, as long as he
held sway, constitutional government was impossible.
For two years, it is true, there existed a governing
body called the General Conference, appointed by
a Synod held in London (September, 1741) ; two
years later, however, Zinzendorf himself, on his
own authority, dissolved this Conference, just as
Oliver Cromwell dissolved the Long Parliament ;
and henceforward his rule was almost entirely un-
disputed. At the Synods he himself generally
presided. By him, and him alone, they were
generally summoned ; by him most of the speaking
was done ; and the clear impression produced
by the minutes is that though Zinzendorf, in some
cases, allowed his colleagues to vote, he may be truly
compared, not to the Speaker of the House of
Commons, but rather to a general instructing his
officers. J
Let us now see how he exercised his authority.
His first move was of fundamental importance. At
f'Geschichte der Emeuertcn Briidcrkirche," Part I., p. 311.
♦"August Gottlieb Spangenberg," 1906, p. 207.
JFor a slightly different view of Zinzendorf's authority see
Moravian Almanac (1909) Appendix, p. 118. The writer,
Rev. J. N. Libbey, M. A., sayi : " Like everything else in the
early years of the Renewed Church, the Synod is dominated by
the perBonality of Zinzendorf. When he was present he always
presided. It was he who called his fellow-workera together to
a Synod like a commander calling a Council of War. Ho took
a large part in the discussions, trying to avoid taking re-
solutions by vote, and seeking to reach unanimity in his
summing up. Hence the records of Synods sometimes read
almost like Homilies of Zinzendorf on Church Principles and
Practice, and perhaps, in giving prominence to his weighty
utterances, scarcely do justice to the share in the discussion
taken by others,"
ZiNZENDORF AS MISSIONARY LeADER. 169
an early period Zinzendorf realised that, in colonies
belonging to other countries, no missionary would be
recognised by the Government unless he was
ordained. For this purpose, therefore, on March
13th, 1735, he had his friend David Nitschmann, the
carpenter, consecrated a Bishop by Bishop Daniel
Ernest Jablonsky. In the certificate Nitschmann
was described as " Bishop of the Foreign Con-
gregations," and his chief function was to ordain
foreign missionaries. During the next few years,
therefore, most of the leading missionaries — such
as Frederick Martin, George Schmidt, Matthew
Stach, and David Zeisberger — were ordained;
being ordained they could baptize and conduct
the Holy Communion; and thus, in the most
important fields, the work was placed on a
firm ecclesiastical basis. But this change in
the status of the men must not mislead us.
The mere fact that a man was ordained did
not mean that he was any the less under
Zinzendorf's authority.
In 1737 he himself was consecrated a Bishop ;
in 1743 he was appointed " Fully Authorized
Servant;" and acting in this double capacity,
he gathered round him a body of chosen
disciples — called first the Pilgrim Band, and later the
Disciples' House — employed them as confidential
clerks, and, through them, managed the whole enter-
prise. With the aid of these clerks he kept in
personal touch with all the missionaries. According
to his own estimate, he spent about £28 a year in
foreign correspondence ; he had often, he said, one
hundred and fifty letters in his desk awaiting an
immediate answer ; and his own letters had the force
of commands. On several important occasions,
also, he appointed and sent out men to pay official
visitations. In 1786, for example, he sent Spangen-
170 A History of Moravian Missions.
berg to St. Thomas ; in 1739 he visited St. Thomas
himself ; and then, in due course, he sent Andrew
Grassman to Greenland (1740), David Nitschmann
to St. Thomas (1742), Christian Henry Rauch to
the West Indies (1745), John de Watteville to North
xlmerica (1749), the West Indies (1749), and Green-
land (1752), Seidel to the West Indies (1753), Rauch
to the West Indies (1755), Seidel to Rerbice and
Surinam (1755), and finally Seidel again to the West
Indies (1759). To this absolute authority on his
part, Zinzendorf allowed only one exception. For
eighteen years (1744-62) Spangenberg and his
colleagues at Rethlehem had the oversight, not only
of North America, but also of the West Indies, Rerbice
and Surinam. Rut even here the Count was the
ultimate authority. He himself had appointed
both Spangenberg and his colleagues ; on one
occasion he even sent Watteville to supervise
Spangenberg ; and thus, even in North America,
he was the dominating force. During Zinzendorf's
lifetime, therefore, there was no such thing
in the Moravian Church as constitutional govern-
ment.
Nor was this the full measure of the Count's
authority. In addition to appointing the inspectors,
he also appointed the missionaries, and no candidate
could be accepted without his permission. On
such occasions the scene at Herrnhut was both
impressive and inspiring. At the president's table
sat the Count as examiner ; on his left hand sat the
Rrethren and on his right the Sisters, wearing their
snow-white caps ; and there, in the presence of
many witnesses, the candidate for missionary service
made his confession of faith. In his right hand
the Count held a sheet of questions ; to these
questions the candidate read his replies ; and one
case — that of Dr. Regnier, a medical missionary in
I
I
ZiNZENDORF AS MISSIONARY LEADER. 171
Surinam— may serve as a typical example : —
1. What are your religious beliefs ?
A. I build my hopes of salvation on the risen
Christ.
2. What makes you think you are called to this
work ?
A. I have long felt an inward call to preach the
Gospel to others.
3. Where do you desire to go ?
A. When the elders mentioned Surinam I felt
that that was the very place designed for
me by Christ.
4. What do you intend to do there ?
A. I will do my best to earn my living and bring
sinners to Christ.
5. How do you intend to get there ?
A. I shall simply trust to Christ to shew me the
way.
6. How long do you intend to stay there ?
A. I shall stay there either till I die or till the
elders call me to another field.
7. How do you propose to treat your wife ?
A. I will love her with all my heart ; but I shall
not allow my love for her to interfere with
my work.
8. How will you treat the Brethren already
there ?
A. I will cherish them as though they were my
own children.
9. How will you treat the congregation you are
leaving ?
A. I will honour and obey Herrnhut as my
spiritual mother.
10. How will you behave if you have to wait a
long time before you go ?
A. If I have to wait for a ship, I shall simply
regard the delay as the will of the Lord.
172 A History of Moravian Missions.
In his choice of men Zinzendorf was very broad-
minded. As long as the man possessed a noble
soul, and gave evidence that he was sound in the
faith, Zinzendorf did not care very much whether
he was learned or ignorant. For some special
tasks, of course, he selected scholars such as
Arvid Gradin, Solomon Schumann, and Drs. Hocker,
Eller, and Regnier ; most, however, of the missionaries
were artisans ; and once, after hearing of the death
of the learned teacher, Albin Feder, the Count
said : "It looks as though God did not want
any more scholars." In one sense, however, all
his men were alike. Each was a free-will agent ;
each was willing to earn his own living, and serve
the cause without pay ; and each was ready, even
at the risk of his life, to render Zinzendorf implicit
obedience. The Church did not even provide for the
whole of the travelling expenses. For many years
the rule was that while the Church would pay the
expenses as far as the nearest seaport, the missionary
worked his passage on the ship. Most of the early
missionaries did the first part of the journey on foot ;
frequently they slept in the open air, and some
hired themselves out as boatmen and worked their
passage down the Rhine.
Let us now examine the causes of this grand
spirit. The first was the Brethren's belief in the
Lot ; the second was their belief in the Moravian
Text Book ; and each belief w^as simply a form of
their belief in God. For the first belief Zinzendorf
was chiefly responsible. On no theological doctrine
did he express more decided opinions. To doubt
his own judgment was possible ; to doubt the Lot
was impossible ; and whether his theory was true or
false, it was at least logical. Zinzendorf firmly
believed in answers to prayer. By consulting the
Lot, he said, he was simply asking God for guidance ;
ZiNZENDOEF AS MISSIONARY LkADKR. 178
such prayers God had promised to answer ; and
acting on this simple principle, the Count carried
his Lot-apparatus, a little green book, in his waist-
coat pocket. " To me," he wrote to his friend
Spangenberg, " the Lot and the Will of God are
one and the same thing. I would rather trust an
innocent piece of paper than my own excited feelings."
At every serious crisis, therefore, Zinzendorf turned
to the Lot for guidance. His theory was perfectly
consistent. Christ, he said, was the only true Head of
the Church ; Christ had His own missionary "plan";
and Christ revealed that " plan " to His servants
by means of the Lot. Christ, said the Count, by
this means, was giving him and his colleagues in-
fallible guidance. Christ had sent him to Copen-
hagen ; Christ ordered him to visit St. Thomas ;
Christ forbade him to visit St. Croix ; Christ selected
Leonard Dober as the first Moravian missionary ;
Christ sanctioned the consecration of David Nitsch-
mann as a Bishop. With this faith Zinzendorf
inspired his soldiers. " You must never," he wrote
to Matthew Stach, " take a single step without con-
sulting the Lot." On the men themselves the effect
was wonderful. With this simple faith in their
hearts they could face any fate.
For the other cause, the Moravian Text Book,
Zinzendorf was equally responsible. In 1727 he
adopted the practice of giving the refugees a
daily watchword from the Bible ; in 1731, for the
first time, an annual volume of such watch-
words was published, and just as the missionaries
believed in the Lot, so they also believed that
in the Text Book Christ was giving to each
of them a special message for the day. Let three
examples illustrate the point. On December 13th,
1732, Dober and Nitschmann landed in St. Thomas,
and the text was " The Lord mustereth the host of
174 A History of Moravian Missions.
battle" ; on April 10th, 1733, the Caritas sailed for
Greenland, and the text was " Faith is the substance
of things hoped for, the evidence of things not
seen " ; and on the day when he reached the Sweet-
Milk Valley, George Schmidt acted on the text,
" Enlarge the place of thy tents."
2. The Teacher.
But Zinzendorf was far more than a manager.
He was also a systematic teacher of method. For
some years before the Moravian Missions began,
Zinzendorf had made a close study of the chief
missionary methods employed both by Francke's
three men in Tranquebar, and by Egede in Greenland ;
with some of those methods he disagreed; and writing
on April 12th, 1732, to an English missionary —
probably a member of the S.P.G. — he made the first
written statement of his opinions. In three ways, said
Zinzendorf, previous missionaries had blundered,
and the Englishman was now given good advice.
" First," he said, " you must never try to lord it
over the heathen, but rather humble yourself among
them, and earn their esteem through the power of
the spirit. I have been informed by a missionary's
wife that the missionaries would not associate with
the heathen, but regarded them as mere slaves. Our
Lord never talked like that. Secondly, you must
say nothing about the Creation and the Fall, but
come at once to your point, and preach the Crucified
Christ. Thirdly, you are not to aim at the con-
version of whole nations to your particular form of
Christianity. You must simply look out for seekers
after the truth, who, like the Ethiopian eunuch,
seem ready to welcome the Gospel. I am quite
disgusted when I hear that the heathen are made
into mere sectarians, that particular Churches are
held up for their admiration, and that they are
ZiNZENDORF AS MISSIONARY LeADER. 175
actually asked to say to which Church they belong."
In that letter we find the key to all Zinzendorf's
missionary principles. Leonard Dober received
similar instructions, and then, for the benefit of other
Moravian missionaries, the Count issued the follow-
ing missionary manuals : —
(1) Instructions for George Schmidt, 1736.
(2) Instructions for Missionaries to the East,
1736.
(3) Letter to the Brethren in Greenland, 1738.
(4) Instructions to all Missionaries, 1738.
(5) Homily for Apostles to the Heathen, 1739.
(6) Plan of a Catechism for the Heathen, 1740.
(7) The Right Way to Convert the Heathen,
1740.
(8) Instructions to Lange concerning his journey
to China, 1741.
(9) Instructions for the Missionaries in Greenland,
1745.
(10) Instructions to the Missionary among the
Christian Slaves in Algiers, 1746.
(11) Instructions for the Brethren in Surinam,
1748.
(12) Instructions for Grabenstein, Zander, and
Dahne in Surinam, 1756.
(13) Instructions to Stahlmann, 1758.
(14) Homily for all Missionaries to Tranquebar,
1759.
Let us now see how, in these pamphlets, Zinzendorf
worked out his three main points, and then we shall
understand his importance as a missionary pioneer.
(1) Personal Conduct. For his views on this topic
the Count had a special reason. At that time there
was a comforting delusion in certain cultured con-
tinental circles that, the heathen being like innocent
children, the more they were left to themselves
176 A History of Moravian Missions.
the better, and knowing how false this doctrine
was — knowing, i.e., that the Eskimos were scoffers,
that the Indians drank, that the Negroes were
immoral, and that the Bush Negroes poisoned
each other — Zinzendorf informed his men that
nothing but the force of personal example could
raise such wretches from the mire. By nature,
he said, all heathen are weak. Bad example would
ruin them ; only good example could save them.
" Let them once taste European vices," he said,
" and they will rush headlong to perdition." For
this reason he set before the missionaries certain
high moral ideals : — (a) The first duty of every
missionary was to earn his own living. By earning
his own living he could not only save the Church
funds, but also teach the natives the dignity of
labour ; on the other hand, he must not seek large
profits, but be content with the bare necessaries of
life ; and having provided himself with food and
clothing, he must devote the rest of his time to the
heathen. On this point he wrote a blunt letter to
George Schmidt. " If you take a penny more than
you need," he said, " I will dismiss you from the
service." No missionary might demand any luxuries,
and no missionary might accept any presents. f
(b) Secondly, the Brethren must be obedient, not
only to their ecclesiastical superiors, but to the
secular government. The Count had here a two-
fold problem to solve. On the one hand he tried to
win the goodwill of the various governments under
which the Brethren lived ; on the other hand, having
done this, he taught his men to be law-abiding
citizens. In the first of these efforts he was fairly
successful. In the Danish West Indies, he had the
Brethren's work recognised by Frederick VI., King
t Thia rule was not always observed. Frederick Martin, when
in sore straits, accepted presents from his friend Carstens.
ZiNZENDORF AS MISSIONARY LEADER. 177
of Denmark ; in Greenland, by Frederick V. ; in
Surinam, by the Dutch India Company ; and in
South Africa, for a time, by the Chamber of Seven-
teen. But his greatest success was achieved in the
British Colonies. On May 12th, 1749, an Act of
Parliament was passed conferring on the Brethren
certain privileges in all British Dominions. The
Moravian Church was officially recognised as an
ancient Protestant Episcopal Church, and hence-
forth all Moravians were exempted, both from taking
the oath and from bearing arms.f On the Brethren
themselves the Count always enjoined loyalty.
" You are not," he said, " to work against the police,
or regard the government with suspicion. Do not,"
he added, " interfere between employer and employed ;
do not play any part in party poUtics, but teach
the heathen, by your example, to fear God and
honour the King." (c) Again, said the Count, the
missionaries must be careful in their treatment of
the heathen. " The right way with savages," he
said in his " Natural Reflections," " is this : you must
set them such a dazzling example that they cannot
help asking who made these delightful characters."
"Let the people," he said, in another pamphlet, " see
what sort of men you are ; let them hear you pray
and sing ; and then they will be forced to ask, ' Who
makes such men as these ? ' " George Schmidt
received the same kind of advice. " You must
labour with your hands," said the Count, " until
you have won the love of the people." By such
methods, more than by preaching, would the heathen
be conformed to the image of Christ, (d) Above
all, said the Count, the Brethren must be content
to suffer, to die and to be forgotten. No missionary
fThis privilege has not recently been claimed. In the Great War
the English Moravians enlisted from the outset, and several
gained the M.C. and other distinctions.
178 A History of Moravian Missions.
must ever seek the praise of man, and still less must
he desire to become immortalised in print. To that
rule the Count himself held firm. He was not a good
story-teller himself, f and he did not encourage the
gift in others. As long as Zinzendorf trod this earth
not a single missionary biography was published ; the
only records that saw the light were a few extracts
from diaries, and most of these were not printed,
but copied out by Zinzendorf's clerks, to be read at
missionary meetings. Thus did Zinzendorf, in his
"Instructions," demand self-denial to the uttermost.
Nor was even this the highest ideal that Zinzendorf
placed before his warriors. No matter what trials
they encountered, he would not allow them to be
down-hearted. In one of his speeches he com-
plained that some of the early missionaries suffered
from what he called the " English Malady," i.e.,
melancholia ; and such men, in his opinion, were not
fit for the service.*
2. Theology. In theology Zinzendorf introduced,
not exactly a change of doctrine, but rather a change
in order or method. Previous missionaries had failed,
he said, not because they taught erroneous doctrine,
but because they began at the wrong end. First
they spoke of God, then they narrated the Fall,
and then they preached Christ. Count Zinzendorf
reversed the process. Others began with God
and ended with Christ ; he began with Christ
and ended with God. " What is it," he said
to Leonard Dober, " that the heathen know already ?
They know that there is a God (Rom. i., 19, 20),
and, therefore, the man who tells them of God is
simply wasting his time. What is it that they do not
know ? They do not know that Jesus Christ came
into the world to save sinners, and, therefore, the
fHe knew it. " I have no gift for narrative."— Speech in London, 1743.
*Por the " E.iglish Malady " see Bosivell's Johnson, Anno 1728.
ZiNZENDORF AS MISSIONARY LEADER. 179
missionary must always begin with the Gospel
message. How is it that missionaries have failed
in the past ? They have failed because, instead of
preaching Christ, they have given lectures on
theology." In one of his official pamphlets he
repeated this point. " You must never be deceived
by the notion," he said, " that before you tell them
of Christ you must first tell them of God. The idea
is false. They know already that there is a God.
They do not, however, know Christ ; they do not
know that He alone can save them ; and that,
therefore, is what they must be told." At the same
time Zinzendorf always insisted that, while the
missionaries must preach Christ first, they must
also make it clear to the heathen that Christ and
God were two different names for the same person. In
theory he was opposed to dogma, and condemned the
old dogmatic methods ; in fact, like most reformers,
he was a dogmatist himself; and, believing that the
Augsburg Confession was inspired, he insisted that
the Brethren must preach Christ, not merely as
Redeemer, but also as God manifest in the flesh and
Creator of all things. " You must tell the heathen,"
he said, " that Jesus Christ is truly God, begotten
of the Father in eternity." For the use of all
missionaries he prepared a " Catechism for the
Heathen," and in this catechism he expounded the
main principles of his own theology. The most
important questions were as follows : —
Q. Who made men and women ?
A. The Lord God.
Q. What do you call Him ?
A. Jesus Christ.
Q. Do those words mean anything ?
A. Yes.
180 A History of Moravian Missions.
Q. What, then ?
A. Jesus means Redeemer and Christ means
King.
Q. How did He obtain these names ?
A. That is a special story.
In the next section the candidate was informed how
man had been ruined by the Fall ; how God, in
order to save him, became a man, was crucified,
rose and ascended ; and how all converts must be
baptized in the name of the Father, the Son, and the
Holy Ghost. Thus was the candidate led by degrees
to the doctrine of the Holy Trinity.
Q. Who are these three ?
A. The first is the Father of the Lord Jesus.
Q. But who is He ?
A. I cannot possibly tell you. He is so high that
I cannot attain to Him.
Q. But how shall I learn to know Him ?
A. The Lord Jesus will teach you Himself when
His Father becomes your Father.
Q. Who is the Holy Ghost ?
A. He is God's Helper. He is also master of
the baptized, and teaches them to pray.
Q. Why must I be baptized with water ?
A. The blood of Jesus Christ, shed for you, is
invisibly there and cleanses your heart
from sin and guilt.
But now we come to a still more important point.
In 1734 Zinzendorf made his already mentioned
great theological discovery. One day, so he tells
us, he was burning some waste paper ; one slip con-
tained the words : " Oh ! Let us in Thy nail-prints
see our pardon and election free " ; and taking those
ZiNZENDORF AS MISSIONARY LEADER. 181
words as a heavenly message, he discovered that
God could be known to man only through the
Suffering Christ. During the next twenty-six years
Zinzendorf laid stress on what he called his " Blood
and Wounds Theology " ; and this theology was
now preached by the missionaries. In the past
they had preached abstract doctrine ; henceforward
their sermons were in the form of a narrative. In the
past they had expounded theology ; henceforward
they told the story of the Scourging, the Crown of
Thorns, the Nail-prints, and the Wounded Side ;
and the records of such men as John Beck, Gottlieb
Israel, Rauch, Schumann, and Stoll, prove that this
picturesque mode of preaching appealed with con-
vincing force to the heathen mind. By means of
the old method only few converts were gained ;
by means of the second many thousands.
3. The Politician.
Let me now endeavour to expound the Count's
missionary policy. His main purpose was both
unique and original. At the time when he sent
Leonard Dober to St. Thomas the three chief
missionary agencies in the world were the Anglican
S.P.G. (Society for the Propagation of the Gospel
in Foreign Parts, founded 1700), the Danish
College of Missions, and the Dutch East India
Company ; each of these bodies had done genuine
missionary work, and the difference between them
and Zinzendorf was that, while they endeavoured
to establish State churches, Zinzendorf was entirely
free from any such motive. For what purpose,
e.g., did the S.P.G. exist ? Chiefly, though not
exclusively, to minister to the spiritual needs of
English settlers in English colonies. For what
purpose was the Danish College of Missions founded ?
To establish a branch of the Danish State Church in
182 A History of Moravian Missions.
the Danish colonies. For what purpose, besides
business, was the Dutch East India Company formed ?
To estabHsh the '* true Reformed Religion," i.e.,
the Dutch State Church, in Dutch possessions. In
the case of these three Societies, State Church and
Colonial interests were uppermost ; in the case of
Count Zinzendorf no such motives existed, and the
strange feature of the story is that, though he him-
self was a Moravian Bishop, though he had the
Sacraments administered according to the Moravian
ritual, and though, in several Mission Fields, he
encouraged the formation of Herrnhut institutions —
such as Choirs, Love-feasts, Bands, and Hourly
Intercessions — yet, at the same time, he had not the
least desire to extend the Moravian Church. Other
missionaries toiled conscientiously for their re-
spective native lands and for their respective State
Churches ; Zinzendorf toiled for the glory of God
alone ; and in his instructions to the missionaries
he made that point abundantly clear. " You must
not," he said emphatically, " try to establish native
churches ; you must not enrol your converts as
members of the Moravian Church ; you must be
content to enrol them as Christians." With one
exception, all the missionaries followed Zinzendorf's
instructions ; that one exception was David
Zeisberger, who tried to found a Delaware National
Church ; and even he did not formulate his scheme
fully till some years after Zinzendorf's death. In
this policy we find the explanation of a singular
fact. How was it, we ask, that at Zinzendorf's
death the total number of enrolled converts was
only about one thousand ? Because, while the
missionaries were anxious to win souls, they were not
anxious to enrol them as Church members. The
most striking case was that of Frederick Martin.
In the year 1736 he had gained seven hundred
I
I
ZiNZENDORF AS MISSIONARY LEADER. 188
converts, and of these only thirty were baptized.
For this self-denying policy Zinzendorf gave two
reasons. First, he had no faith in the independent
existence of the Moravian Church ; that Church,
he once declared, would soon be both dead and
forgotten ; and then the converts would be enrolled
as Anglicans, Presb\i:erians, or Lutherans.
Secondly, Zinzendorf laid great stress on what he
called his J^ First _Fruits_ldeaJ' In his views about
the heathen he was a Calvinist. As long as the
Jews remained unconverted, Zinzendorf con-
scientiously believed that the only heathen who
would accept the Gospel were a few Candace- Souls
specially chosen by God. The time to convert
whole nations had not yet come ; only a few " first
fruits " might be expected ; and so fond was the
Count of this idea that he had it immortalised in
paint. The picture was painted by his friend Haidt,
and may still be seen at Herrnhut.f Below the
picture there is the text, " These were redeemed
from among men, being the first fruits." — Rev.
XIV., 4. There, arrayed in native costume, and
holding palms in their hands, we see twenty-two
Mora\-ian " First Fruits " before the Lamb on
His throne, and nothing throws a clearer light on
ZinzendorTs missionary policy.*
4. The Poet.
Finally, and above all, Zinzendorf was the poet of
the movement. He was at his best when he donned
his singing robes. At the monthly missionary
meeting he often opened the proceedings by singing
a solo, and some of the best h\Tnns were WTitten
by himself. His " Warrior Songs " were trumpet
calls to action. For his fiery zeal he could give a
tAt Zeist, in Holland, there is a r, production of this pictxire.
♦for the names of ths " First Fruits " aee Appendix.
184 A History of Moravian Missions.
special reason. The more closely Zinzendorf studied
the Scriptures, the more the conviction deepened
within his soul that, before the eighteenth century
closed, Christ would appear in bodily form to the
Jews ; and then, he declared, the Jews would learn,
like St. Thomas, to say " My Lord and my God."
By these Jews the glorious Gospel would then be
preached to all mankind, and filled with this con-
viction, he said : —
The work is Thine, Lord Jesus Christ,
The glory and the shame ;
The hour hath struck when all the world
Shall know Thy saving name.
For this reason Zinzendorf's poetry was exceptionally
optimistic in character. He did not, of course,
ignore the fact that his soldiers had many dangers
to face, and that some of them had perished un-
timely.
Ambassadors of Christ,
Know ye the way ye go ?
It leads into the jaws of death.
Is strewn with thorns and woe.
But to him these disasters were simply pledges
of speedy victory. The more swiftly his soldiers
fell in the ranks, the more swiftly should others fill
the gap. No coward was fit to carry the Captain's
banner. " If your finger trembles on the trigger,"
he said, " you will never learn to shoot straight ;
if you fear to stand in the fighting line, you will
never rest in the tents." In a speech at Herrnhut,
on January 19th, 1758, he used a curious com-
parison. f As the cab-horses in London wore
blinkers, so the missionary, he said, must be blind
to dangers ; and the same thought — though not the
same simile — is found in many of his hymns. In
•fSee " Zeitischrift fiir Brudergeschichte," 1912, Vol. II., p. 136.
ZiNZENDORF AS MISSIONARY LEADER. 185
" Go, ye comrades " he urged to self-surrender ;
in " Sloth no beauty " he declared that the grandest
sight in the world was the Christian warrior covered
with dust ; and in " Prince of Thy People " he
foretold the almost immediate triumph of the Gospel.
The very names he gave the Brethren stirred the
blood. In order to fire their zeal, he used a great
variety of military metaphors. "Christ," he said,
" is the conquering Prince, with a voice like the blast
of a trumpet, and His royal chariot rolls behind ;
His preachers, His warriors, His noble prisoners of
war are ' Comrades of the Noble Order of IMockery ' ;
and His Blood is their guide and their staff." On
land or sea, said the Count, the missionaries were
equally under the protection of Christ. For ten
years (1748-58) the Moravian Church possessed its
own missionary vessel, the Irene, a snow,! built at
New York, and commanded by an American, Nicholas
Garrison ; this vessel frequently crossed the Atlantic,
and also carried missionaries to Greenland and
Surinam; and speaking of her exploits, Zinzendorf
said that, as Christ Himself filled her sails, no harm
would come to her from rocks, icebergs, and storms.
His prophecy seems to have been literally fulfilled.
As long as the Irene was in Moravian hands, none of
the forces of nature damaged her ; in 1758, however,
she was captured by a French privateer, and a few
weeks later she foundered. But the Brethren,
said the Count, were more than the soldiers of Christ.
They were His comrades ; they had, like Him, to
wear a crown of thorns ; they shared both His shame
and His glory ; and, in all their trials, their consolation
must be that, while, on earth, no wreath of fame
would girdle their sunburnt brows, they could see
fA snow is a small three-masted vessel. For a full description see
EncyclopcEdia Britannica. Scott mentions a snow in Red-
gauntlet (Chap. xiv).
186 A History of Moravian Missions.
in imagination the pearly gates of the Holy City,
the Lamb on the Throne, and the glories of the
Paradise of God. With such songs upon their lips,
the early Moravian missionaries feared no foe.
" If you go to Labrador," said someone to Drachart,
" the Eskimos will kill you." " If they kill me,"
he answered, " they will kill me."
The same spirit animated all the missionaries.
With songs of praise Bishop Nitschmann and his
comrades amazed John Wesley on the Simmonds ;
with songs the converts in St. Thomas escorted
Martin to his cell ; with a song Gottlieb Israel,
clinging to the rock at Tortola, bade defiance to
the winds and waves ; with a song Matthew Stach
confronted the men who had come to slay him ;
and with songs the captive Christian Indians met their
fate at Gnadenhiitten, on the Tuscarawas River.
May 9th, As the poet lay on his deathbed at Berthelsdorf,
1760 his last thoughts were of the Missions. He had sent
out no fewer than 226 missionaries, and the results
of their labours far exceeded his expectations.!
" I only asked," he said, " for first fruits among the
heathen, and thousands have been granted me.
What a grand caravan there must be now before the
throne of the Lamb."
fOn the work accomplished by the Brethren, Dr. Gustav Wameck,
author of the Vr'ell-known " History of Protestant Missions,"
epoke as follows : " By 1760 the Moravian Church had done
more for the heathen than all the other Protestant Churches put
together." Address at Hermhut, June 7th, 1900. See the
official report of the Centenary Celebrations.
Chapter XIV.
THE COUNT'S SUCCESSORS, 1760—1800.
As soon as the Brethren had recovered from the
shock occasioned by Zinzendorf's death, the chief
question they had to consider was how far they
should still follow his lead, and how far they should
strike out new paths for themselves. To that
question they gave a two-fold answer. There was
some resemblance between Zinzendorf and Brutus.
In his principles and ideals Zinzendorf, like Brutus,
was almost perfect ; in his methods he was often
mistaken ; and therefore, while his successors adhered
to his main principles, they abandoned many of his
methods and replaced them by what they considered
better methods of their own.
1. Zinzendorf's Principles.
(a) Doctrine. According to Zinzendorf the chief
duty of a preacher to the heathen was not to expound
any system of dogmatic theology, but to tell the story
of the Cross ; to that principle his successors adhered ;
and taking as a motto St. Paul's words, " I deter-
mined to know nothing among you but Jesus Christ
and Him crucified," they declared, officially, at a
General Synod, that henceforth, as in the past, I7g4
the doctrine of the merits of the life and sufferings
of Jesus should be the main substance of their
message. For thirty years after Zinzendorf's death,
the chief leader in the Church was Bishop Spangen-
berg ; this man, in 1780, issued an official account
of the Brethren's methods ; and, speaking in the
name of the Church, he said : " We always preach
the same Christ that died for us on the Cross." In
their mode of preaching, therefore, the Brethren
(187)
188 A History of Moravian Missions.
made no change. For this pohey they gave an
excellent reason. By means of this method Gottlieb
Israel had created a revival in St. Thomas ; by means
of this method Schumann had won the hearts of the
Arawack Indians ; by means of this method both
Tschoop and Kayarnak had been converted. Such
tales had now become Moravian classics ; similar
stories were told by the converts in letters read at the
monthly missionary meetings, and, judging by those
letters, the Brethren concluded that on this funda-
mental point Zinzendorf was in the right.
(b) Self-denial. For many years after Zinzendorf 's
death, all the missionaries still worked without a
salary, and, speaking broadly, the general principle
was that while the Church paid the missionaries'
travelling expenses, and sometimes sent them parcels
of food and clothing, they had still to earn their own
living, either by mental or by manual labour. The
form of labour varied according to the district. In
Jamaica some of the missionaries worked plantations ;
in St. Thomas they opened a large boot factory ;
in North America they shot and fished ; in Green-
land they had kitchen-gardens, cows and fishing-
boats ; in Surinam they cultivated corn-fields and
orchards, and conducted a tailoring business at
Paramaribo ; in Labrador they traded with the
Eskimos ; in Tranquebar they planted a wonderful
"Garden"; and in Bengal they acted as doctors and
interpreters. The system had often led to great
privations. In 1737 Frederick Martin found both
his purse and his larder empty ; in 1735 the Green-
land missionaries had to live on mussels and sea-
weed, and suffered, in consequence, from scurvy ;
and in 1758, all the missionaries in the Danish West
Indies, being unable, on account of the Seven Years'
War, to obtain supplies from North America, had
to pass a resolution to eat no bread. But the
The Count's Successors. 189
missionaries were not entirely neglected. At the
monthly missionary meetings collections for Foreign
Missions were made. But the amomit thus raised
was very small. In 1758, e.g., the Central Fund was
only £300, and the sum sent out to the missionaries
was only £200. For the purpose of supplying them
with food and clothing three auxiliary societies were
founded. The first was the Dutch " Brethren's
Society for the Spread of the Gospel among the
Heathen," founded in 1738, and renewed in 1795 ;
the second, the English S.F.G., founded May 8th
(N.S.), 1741 ; and the third, the American " Society
of the United Brethren for Propagating the Gospel
among the Heathen," founded in 1745, and renewed
in 1788. The first sent out parcels to Surinam ;
the second to Labrador ; and the third both to
Zeisberger and his colleagues and to the West Indies.
But even with the aid of these Societies expenses
could not be entirely covered. f At one important
General Synod (1775), a new Central Mission Fund
was established ; fourteen years later the debt on
the work was £12,000, and by 1800 this debt had
vanished.
Let us now see how much each missionary cost the
Church Fimds. In the year 1800 the number of
missionaries, counting wives, was 161 ; the cost that
year to the Central Fund was £3,000 ; and thus.
■fFor evidence on this point see : — (1) A. G. Spangenberg's "Account
of Moravian Missions," 1782 ; (2) C. I. La Trobe's Preface to
Vol. I. of "Periodical Accounts," p. 7, and Introduction, p. 15 ;
(3) Peter Braun's Letter in " Retrospect of the Mission in
Antigua," p. 8. Both Spangenberg and La Trobe state that
no missionary received a salary ; and Braun's letter shows
clearly that if the missionary was out of work he was on the
verge of starvation. " We have nothing to eat except a
little bread made of the flour sent us by our American Brethren
and Sisters, for three months we have had no work, and
consequently no means of earning anything. My dear wife
has been so reduced by illness and sufiering that she is little
but skin and bone."
190 A History of Moravian Missions.
the expense on each missionary was only £18 12s.
(c) Choice of Men. For two reasons the Moravian
Church still insisted that, while scholarly men were
not excluded, most of the missionaries must be
drawn from the artisan and labouring classes ; first,
because such men were best able to endure a rough
life ; and secondly, because, in the Church's opinion,
higher education was not required. On each of these
points C. I. La Trobe, the English Mission Secretary,
was most emphatic. Students, he said, did not,
as a rule, make as good missionaries as mechanics ;
and in the sphere of education the missionary needed
only four great qualities. First, he must have a good '
knowledge of the Scriptures ; second, a good under- '
standing ; third, a friendly disposition ; and fourth, \
a heart filled with love to God.f But this system i
had one great disadvantage. With a few exceptions —
such as Zeisberger and Kleinschmidt — the eighteenth
century Moravian missionaries did very little trans-
lation work. For systematic Scripture translation
no proper provision could be made.
{d) The Lot. On this matter, too, the Brethren
were faithful to Zinzendorf. At the General Synods
no vote was valid unless confirmed by the Lot.
By the Lot men were appointed ; by the Lot new
work was planned ; and by permission of the Lot
alone were missionaries allowed to marry. Let a
few examples show how the Lot was used. By
Lot the Managing Board decided to continue
the Mission in Tranquebar ; by Lot it closed the
station at Hoop, in Surinam ; by Lot Kohlmeister
was called to Labrador ; by Lot, in South Africa,
candidates were admitted to Baptism and the Lord's
Supper. In due time, however, there was made
tSee his " Concise Account," " Periodical Accounts," Vol. II.,
Appendix, p. 3.
The Count's Successors. 191
one great exception. At the General Synod in 1789,
the Brethren decided that the Lot should no longer
be used in business matters.
{e) Attitude to Government. According to Zin-
zendorf, every missionary, -wheresoever his lot was
cast, must love and honour the King of the country ;
that spirit animated his successors ; and one result
of this pohcy was that, wheresoever the missionaries
went, they had the sjonpathy of the Government.
Washington praised their work among the Red
Indians ; Sir Hugh Pallisser aided them in Labrador ;
Governors supported their work in the Danish West
Indies ; Paramaribo officials begged them to preach
to the slaves ; Danish officials, in Greenland, called
the Moravian converts the cream of the country ;
and the Earl of Caledon, in South Africa, asked the
Moravian Church to build a station near Cape Town.
In these five ways, therefore, Zinzendorf 's successors
followed his lead.
2. Changes of Method.
(a) Government. Under Zinzendorf the system
was an absolute monarchy ; under his successors
it was more democratic. The three most important
steps were as follows : —
(a) General Synod, 1764.
At this Synod two important measures were
passed : —
(1) That henceforth the General Synod, con-
sisting partly of ministers and missionaries,
and partly of elected deputies, should be
the supreme authority both in home and
in foreign matters. (Thereby, the Moravian
Church adopted an unique position. In
the Moravian Church, Foreign Missions
were the work of the Church as such ;
192 A History of Moravian Missions.
in other Protestant Churches they were
committed to special societies.)
(2) Foreign Missions were to be managed by
a Board called the "Missions Deputation";
and this Board was, of course, appointed
by the General Synod.
(b) General Synod, 1769.
All Moravian Church matters were to be managed by
one Board, called the Unity's Elders' Conference.!
This Board was divided into three departments, and
one department managed the Foreign Missions.
(c) General Synod, 1789.
The U.E.C., as such, was to manage Foreign
Missions, and the Mission Department was to be a sub-
office. Thus Foreign Missions, more than ever, became
the direct concern of the whole Church. This arrange-
ment lasted a hundred years. General Synod repre-
sented the Church ; by that Synod the U.E.C. was
appointed, and by that U.E.C. the Foreign Missions
were managed. In every department of the work
the authority of the U.E.C. was supreme. U.E.C.
appointed Spangenberg to prepare a " Missionary's
Guide " ; U.E.C. appointed men to their posts ;
U.E.C. sent official inspectors. Thus did the Brethren
replace the rule of one man by the rule of the whole
Moravian Church. Formerly, the missionaries had
obeyed Zinzendorf ; now they obeyed the U.E.C,
and in obeying the U.E.C. they obeyed the whole
Church.
(b) The First Fruits Idea. The next change was
still more important. For two or three years before
Zinzendorf's death, John de Watteville and other
leaders had been expressing dissatisfaction with
Zinzendorf's First Fruits Idea ; Watteville even
fHenceforth referred to as U.E.C.
The Count's Successors. 198
expressed the hope that for every convert gained
there might soon be a thousand ; and now the whole
Moravian Church, by a SjTiodal resolution (1764),
declared that henceforth it would endeavour, not
merely to seek for Candace-Souls, but to preach the
Gospel to all, strengthen the fields already established,
and organize these fields as integral parts of the
Church. For this purpose the " Conference " system
was now, as far as possible, applied to the mission-
fields. Each field now became a province ; each
province now had its " Helpers' Conference " ; and
each Helpers' Conference had its president. At the
close of the century the provinces were as follows : —
(1) Danish West Indies, (2) Jamaica, (3) Antigua,
(4) Barbados, (5) St. Kitts, (6) South Africa,
(7) North America, (8) Surinam, (9) Labrador,
(10) Greenland. Thus did the Mora\'ian Church reject
Zinzendorf's First Fruits Idea; thus did she also
reject his theory that the time for the heathen
had not yet come ; thus, taking Matthew xiii., 47,
as a motto, did she become in the fullest sense a true
Missionary Church.
(c) Missionary Literature. Finally, in opposi-
tion to Zinzendorf's views, the Moravian Church
now authorised the publication of missionary
literature. The system adopted by Zinzendorf was
peculiar. During his lifetime no mission histories,
no magazines, no systematic accounts were published.
At Hermhut there was a body of clerks, who
copied out the diaries and letters sent home by the
missionaries ; each congregation received a copy ;
and the general understanding was that each con-
gregation heard the same reports on the same day.
Once a month there was a missionary meeting,
called " Congregation Day." At that meeting the
diaries and letters were read, and sometimes the
reading process lasted several hours. With this
194 A History of Moravian Missions.
mode of instruction, however, Zinzendorf s successors
were not content. He had made known the facts
to Moravians only ; they would make them known
to the general public ; and, therefore, they now
authorised the following publications : —
1. Books.
(a) " History of Greenland," f David Cranz, 1765
(German and English).
(b) " History of the Moravian Church," Part II.,
including sketches of all the Mission-fields,
David Cranz, 1771. (German and English.)
(c) " Succinct View of the Missions," Benjamin
La Trobe, 1771. (English.)
(d) " History of the Mission in St. Thomas,
St. Croix, and St. Jan," G. A. Oldendorp,
1777. (German.)
(e) " Account of the Brethren's Work among
the Heathen," A. G. Spangenberg, 1782.
(German and English.)
(f) " History of the Mission to the North
American Indians," G. H. Loskiel, 1789.
(German and English.)
(g) " History of the Moravian Church, 1769 —
1801," J. R. Hegner. Mostly a record of
missionary work (German only).
2. Magazines.
(a) " Reports from Moravian Congregations,"*
issued for general circulation, but not
printed till 1819 (German).
(b) " Periodical Accounts relating to the Missions
of the Church of the United Brethren
established among the Heathen," 1790.
tThis book was highly praised by Dr. Johnson : " The man who
could not relish the first part was no philosopher, and he
who could not enjoy the second was no Christian."
*" Naohrichten au« der Briidergemeine."
The Count's Successors. 195
First Editor, Christian Ignatius La Trobe ;
published by the Society for the Further-
ance of the Gospel, and printed at 10,
Nevill's Court, Fetter Lane. The first
Missionary Magazine in the English
language,
(c) " Reports of the Evangelical Brethren's
Missions to the Heathen," 1798 ; Dutch.
Published by the above-mentioned {see
p. 189) Dutch Auxiliary Society.
It is doubtful how far this change was beneficial.
Formerly the Church members had heard reports direct
from the missionaries ; now they read the story in
cold print ; and one result of the change was that,
while missionary information was more widely
diffused, there was no longer the same personal touch.
8. The Moravian Church and the
Slave Trade.
(a) C. I. La Trohe's Policy. Among the Christian
ministers in England, no one hated slavery more
than C. I. La Trobe, the Moravian Mission Secretary
in England, and the Editor of " Periodical Accounts."
In his " Letters to my Children,"! C. I. La Trobe
says that when he was a boy at Fulneck School,
he read Captain William Snelgrave's " A New
Account of Guinea and the Slave Trade " ; that
book filled his young soul with horror ; and later
he was the personal friend, not only of William
Wilberforce, but of Dr. Porteous, Bishop of London,
and of Lady Middleton. Why, then, did C. I. La
Trobe not support Wilberforce in public ? W^hy
tin this book La Trobe mentions a fact noticed by very few
historians. Who was the first person to suggest that the
question of the abolition of the slave trade be brought before
the House of Commons ? Wio first inspired Wilberforce to
take up the cause ? Not Clarkson, as most historians assert,
but Lady Middleton, wife of Sir Charles lliddleton, Comptroller
of the Navy, See Letter IL, pp. 21-22.
196 A History of Moravian Missions.
did he, in private, call the slave trade a monster and
yet make no public attempt to kill it ? Why did he
not espouse the cause in " Periodical Accounts " ?
Because he feared that, if he did so, the slave-traders
would attack the Moravian missionaries and destroy
the Mission. For this reason, therefore, La Trobe
adopted a very cautious policy. Privately, and as a
personal friend, he supported Wilberforce, and
supplied him with useful information. On the other
hand, as an official, La Trobe maintained a dead
silence. No hint of his opinions appeared in
" Periodical Accounts," and not till 1815 did he
make them generally known.
(b) The Moravian Method. According to C. I.
La Trobe, the Moravian missionaries in the West
Indies never interfered between masters and slaves.
Bishop Spangenberg makes a similar stateipent, and
in his " Account of the Brethren's Work," he says —
without, unfortunately, giving the date and place —
that on one occasion the West Indian missionaries
passed the following resolutions : —
(1) We will consider it as our duty that our
missionaries among the heathen are not to
interfere with the commerce between them
and the merchants, which ought never to
be disturbed by us or by any fault of ours.
Nay, we will faithfully inculcate to the
heathen who belong to us that they must
in their dealings avoid all fraud and deceit
(which are otherwise so peculiar to the
heathen), and that they shall approve them-
selves honest and upright in all respects.
(2) We will never omit diligently to set before the
slaves the doctrines which the Apostles
preached to servants. Servants in those
days were almost universally slaves. We
The Count's Successors. 197
will put them in mind that it is not by
chance, but of God, that one man is a master
and another a slave, and that, therefore,
they ought to acquiesce in the ways of God ;
nay, that their service, if done with all
faithfulness for the sake of Jesus, is looked
upon as though they were serving the
Lord Jesus Christ.
(3) We will frequently remind the heathen of
what Paul saith : "Let every soul be
subject to the higher powers ; for there is
no power but of God ; the powers that be
are ordained of God."
By teaching these principles the Brethren made
the slaves fit for freedom, and that was their real
contribution to the cause.
(c) The Result. In reply to a question addressed 1787
to him by a Conunittee of the Privy Council, C. I.
La Trobe described the good work done by the
missionaries among the slaves. Among La Trobe's
chief friends was William Wilberforce ; to Wilberforce
he showed his report ; and one of Wilberforce's
arguments in Parliament was that, by their excellent
work, the Moravians had made many slaves fit for
freedom. Thus, in their own quiet way, did the
Moravian missionaries aid the cause. By their
work among the slaves they gave Wilberforce his
strongest argument.
4. Influence Over Other Missionary
Societies.
For sixty years (1782-92) the Moravian Church
had been the only real Protestant Missionary Church
in the World ; now, towards the close of the century,
there arose other Protestant Missionary Societies,
and the interesting point to notice is that, in the
I'
198 A History of Moravian Missions.
formation of some of these Societies, the Moravian
Church, either directly or indirectly, played a
prominent part.
The first Protestants influenced by the Brethren
were the Methodists. In their case, however, their
influence, as far as Foreign Missions were concerned,
was only indirect. As John Wesley met several
Moravian missionaries — e.g., David Nitschmann on the
Simmonds, Spangenberg in Georgia, and Bohler in
England — he must have admired their zeal for the
conversion of the heathen. Further, he must have
heard much about Foreign Missions at Herrnhut,
and in his famous " The World is my Parish,"
he echoed Zinzendorf's words : " We must
proclaim the Saviour to the world." His Gospel
zeal led in time to Foreign Missions. Peter
Bohler influenced John Wesley ; John W^esley
influenced Dr. Coke ; Dr. Coke preached in the West
Indies ; and before the close of the century Wesleyan
missionaries were preaching to the slaves at Kingston
in Jamaica.
On the Baptists the influence of the Brethren was
more direct. For some years before he preached
his sermon at Nottingham, William Carey, the
leader of the famous Serampore Three, had been
famiUar with the Brethren's work. He read their
magazine, " Periodical Accounts " ; he referred
expressly to their work in his pamphlet, " Enquiry
into the Obligations of Christians to use Means for
the Conversion of the Heathen " ; and, finally, in
the famous scene referred to in the opening chapter
of this book, he appealed, in so many words, to their
1792 example. " See what these Moravians have done,"
he said. " Can we not follow their example, and, in
obedience to our Heavenly Master, go out into the
world and preach the Gospel to the heathen ? " His
words meant more than most readers generally
The Count's Successobs. 199
suppose. He was referring, when he said Moravians,
not only to Germans, but to Englishmen. According
to one modern writer of mission history,t William
Carey, the founder, with other ministers, of the
Baptist Missionary Society, was the " first Enghsh-
man who was a Foreign Missionan*." The statement
is incorrect. For several years before Carey was
heard of, a large number of British Moravians had
been toiling in the foreign field, and Carey, in
" Periodical Accounts," had seen some of their names
in print. In Antigua had worked Samuel Isles,
Joseph Newby, and Samuel Watson ; in Jamaica,
George Caries, David Taylor, Samuel Church, Samuel
Russell, Thomas Shallcross, John Brown, Joseph
Powell, John Metcalf, Joseph Jackson, John Fred
John, Edward Roberts, Sam Fred Church, and
Christian Lister ; in St. Kitts and St. Croix, James
Birkby ; in Barbados, Benjamin Brookshaw and
John Fozzard ; in Tobago, John Montgomery, the
father of James Montgomery, the well-known hymn-
writer and poet ; in Labrador, William Turner,
Samuel Towle, James Branagan, James Rhodes, and
Christian Lister ; and in North America, Wilham
Edwards. From these facts we are justified in
concluding that William Carey was inspired by
the example, not only of German Moravians,
but also of Moravians with British blood in their
veins.
His companion, Marshman, was also indebted
to the Brethren.
" Thank you, Moravians," he said, " you
have done me good. If I am ever a missionary
worth a straw, I shall, under our Saviour, owe it
to you."
Again, the Moravians had something to do with
the foimdation of the London Missionary Society.
tG«orge Smith, "Short History o£ Chriatian Mifsione," p. 160.
200 A History of Moravian Missions.
Among the founders of the Society one of the most
influential was Rowland Hill. He had read much
about Moravian Missions, corresponded with Peter
Braun of Antigua, and owed his zeal, very largely,
to Braun's example. The other founders also came
under Moravian influence. They all dipped into the
pages of " Periodical Accounts " ; they brought
copies of that magazine to their meetings ; and, in
their speeches, they enforced their arguments by
referring to what the Moravians had done. But the
influence of the Moravians did not end here. The
Society was founded, the leaders consulted, and not
knowing how to do their work, they addressed to
Christian Ignatius La Trobe the following practical
questions : —
1. How do you obtain your missionaries ?
2. What is the true calling of a missionary ?
3. Do you demand scientific and theological
learning ?
4. Do you consider previous instruction in
Divine things an essential ?
5. How do you employ your missionaries from
the time when they are first called to the
time when they set out ?
6. Have you found by experience that the
cleverest and best educated men make the
best missionaries ?
7. What do you do when you establish a
missionary station ? Do you send men
with their wives, or single people, or both ?
8. What have you found the most effective
way of accomplishing the conversion of
the heathen ?
9. Can you tell us the easiest way of learning
a language ?
The Count's Successors. 201
10. How much does your missionary ship cost
you ?
To these questions La Trobe repUed in detail,
the founders thanked him for his courtesy, and the
first apostles of the L.M.S. went out with Moravian
wisdom in their heads and Moravian instructions in
their pockets.!
And so, at the close of the eighteenth century,
the Brethren found themselves in a new position.
For sixty years they had toiled almost alone.
Henceforward, they had friends on every hand.
In Germany, the members of the " Society
for Christian Fellowship " were contributing funds
for Moravian Missions and laying the foundations
of the Basel Missionary Society ; in England arose
the Chur<?h Missionary Society, the London
Missionary Society, and the Baptist Missionary
Society ; in Scotland, Presbyterians had founded
the Scottish Missionary Society, the Glasgow
Missionary Society, and the Northern Missionary
Society ; and thus, at the dawn of what Dr. A. T.
Pierson calls the " Modern Mission Century," the
Brethren took their place as a regiment in that great
Protestant Army which had now undertaken, like
Zinzendorf years before, to proclaim the Saviour to
the World. '
What, then, had the Moravians done when William
Carey issued his great challenge at Kettering ?
They had sent out more than 300 missionaries ; they
had estabUshed stations in the West Indies, in North
America, in Surinam, in Greenland, and in Labrador ;
they had attempted to convert the Jews ; they had
sent expeditions to Lapland, Russia, Guinea, South
Africa, Ceylon, Algiers, Constantinople, Wallachia,
fin his " History of the L.M.S.," the Rev. C. SilTcster Home
makes no reference to these fact*.
202 A History of Moravian Missions.
the Calmucks, Livonia, Persia, Egypt, Abyssinia, the
Tartars, the Coromandel Coast, the Nicobar Islands,
and Bengal ; and now they had under their charge
14,976 baptized converts. At the General Synod
in 1789, the official returns were as follows : —
Danish West Indies, 6,690 ; British West Indies,
6,820 ; South America, 312 ; North America, 200 ;
Greenland, 891 ; Labrador, 63 ; total, 14,976.
BOOK II.
THE BUILDERS.
CHAPTER PAGE
1. Jamaica ; or West Indies ; Western
Province, 1805-1914 207
2. The West Indies ; Eastern Province,
1800-1914 230
8. Greenland, 1800-1900 236
4. The North American Indians,
1808-1901 246
5. Surinam, 1800-1914 250
6. South Africa, West ; or the
Hottentots, 1792-1914 .... 266
7. South Africa, East ; or the Kaffirs,
1828-1914 288
8. Labrador, 1804-1914 300
»s)
I
Chapter I.
JAMAICA.
1. John Lang, 1805—1818.
As Jamaica has often been described as the
" Fairest Jewel in the British Crown,"' and as it is
quite as civihsed as England, some readers may
fondly imagine that, except in the pioneer days,
our missionaries had few trials to endure. It is,
therefore, all the more needful to remember that,
while they did not liY£_among savages, they had,
during the nineteenth century, a long succession
_ 9f foes to overcome. Each leader had a hard problem
to solve ; each, though in a quiet way, helped to
uplift the people ; and each, though he did not covet_
the honour, might be described as a Hero, ^
The first leader of note was John Lang. At the
time when he arrived on the scene, there was only
one Moravian Church in Jamaica ; that Church was
situated at Old Carmel, and the scene that greeted
John Lang's eyes was enough to break his heart.
On three sides of the building lay a black swamp.
Among reeds and bushes alligators lifted their snouts ;
behind the building lay a churchyard surrounded
by a brick wall, with broken bottles at the top ; the
Black River close at hand reeked with deadly germs ;
and gnats and mosquitoes buzzed in the sultry air.
For thirteen years John Lang held the fort in this
death-trap. As Moravian missionaries still received
no_ salaries, John Lang's first task was to earn
his own li\ing. For this purpose, like his pre-
decessors, he not only kept a small plantation worked
by slaves, but also dealt in cattle and logwood,
and acted as wajn^'arden for the Government ; and
thus he earned sufficient, not only for himself, but
287)
208 A History of Moravian Missions.
also for his two colleagues, Joseph Jackson and John
Ellis, at the little out-preaching places of Two-Mile-
Wood and Mesopotamia.
For three or four years John Lang laboured in
vain. " Oh ! Jamaica, Jamaica ! " he writes in his
diary (1809), " dead as a flint, yea, hard as adamant
to all that comes of or from God ! " The cause of
his despair was two-fold. Both the planters and their
slaves seemed hopeless. For most of the planters
he could not say a good word, and other observers
confirmed his testimony. In our own House of
Lords one planter boldly declared that, so far as he
knew, not a single planter in Jamaica was true to his
marriage vows ; Lady Nugent, the Governor's
wife, was shocked by the planters' immorality, and
described their disgusting habits in her " Jamaica
in 1801 "; and Archibald Monteith, a Moravian
Negro lay preacher, speaking about the planters
as he knew them, declared that, while many of them
were good-hearted and treated their slaves with kind-
ness, the idea that adultery was wicked was not even
entertained. Among the slaves moral conditions were
even worse. _Most of them believed iiL Obeahism,
only a very few could read or write, and the Biblfiwas
generally known as the "White Man's Book." On
some of the estates, it is true, large numbers of
slaves had been baptized. But, so far as our evidence
goes, the baptism was a sham. No religious
instruction was given, the slaves regarded the
rite as a form of magic, and sometimes, it is said,
the service was followed by a dance.
The first spiritual impulse came from the United
States. For some months an American evangelist,
named George Lewis, created quite a sensation in
Jamaica. His services were attended by thousands,
and often lasted till the small hours of the morning.
The slaves had what they called "The Convince," and
The West Indies — Western Province. 209
asked, like the Philippian jailer, what they must do to
be saved. Some resorted to fasting ; some had -wonder-
ful dreams ; and one convert, Robert Peart, brought
the revixal to Old Carmel. And the ^tury he told
John Lang was characteristic. To him, as to many
others in the island, there had been granted a vision.
In that vision, said Robert Peart, he had seen a
stranger ; three times the stranger approached and
kissed him ; and that stranger was no other than the
Lord Christ Himself. For some weeks John Lang
knew not what to make of this reWval ; then he had
an interview with Cieorge Lewis ; and, being con-
vinced that the man was genuine, he took the tide
at the flood. It is strange how events turned out.
As soon as the church at Old Carmel began to be
crowded, John Lang was regarded as a dangerous
character. By certain planters he was now accused
of teaching sedition ; some of his converts were
summoned before the magistrates, and the nature of
his work may be judged by the answers given in
Court : —
" What sort of instruction do you receive ? "
*' We are taught to beheve in God and Jesus
Christ."
'• Well ! What more ? "
" We must not tell hes."
" What more ? "
" We must not steal from ^lassa."
" What more ? "
" We must not run away and rob Massa of his
work."
" What more ? "
" We must not pretend to be sick when we are not."
'' What more ? "
" We must not have two wives, for by-and-by
they will get jealous and hurt one another, and
Massa's work will fall back."
210 A History of Moravian Missions.
" What more ? "
" We must pray for buckra and everybody."
The examination was of fundamental importance.
The more closely John Lang's work was examined,
the more obvious it became that, so far from being
a dangerous teacher, he was teaching the slaves to
be obedient ; all his colleagues acted on the same
principle ; and now, encouraged by many white
friends, the Brethren founded new stations at
Windsor (1813), Irwin Hill (1815), and New Eden
(1820). At the height of his glory John Lang passed
1818 away. By the negroes he was beloved, and was
called " Parson Lang " ; his name is held in honour
to the present day; and only a few years ago (1908) —
at the little village of Newton, near Old Carmel —
certain admirers erected the " John Lang Memorial
Church." ^j^,___^
2. John ELLisfl824-M.
With John Ellis we enter on a new epoch. For
ten years this level-headed Yorkshireman was the
chief leader of the Mission in Jamaica. During
that period three great events occurred, and those
events laid the foundation of the prosperity of the
cause.
(1) The first was the foundation of Fairfield on
1824 the May Day Hills (1824). For this move the
Brethren had a special reason. Among the slaves
who attended the church at Old Carmel, large
numbers came down from the May Day Hills ; these
slaves were of a higher type than those v/lio lived
in the valley ; and the Brethren very soon perceived
that if they would have true success they must follow
what they called "the mountain people." In all
probability, the cause of the difference in character
was climatic. In the valley, the slaves were inclined
to be lazy ; on the hills they were alert and energetic.
The West Indies — Western Province. 211
For the missionaries, too, the change was beneficial.
In the past they had hved by a fever-swamp ; hence-
forward they breathed pure mountain air. For
beauty and health aUke Fairfield was almost un-
equalled in the island. In sunmier the temperature
never rose above 80 deg. Fahrenheit ; in winter
fires were rarely needed ; and all the year round, in
the morning and evening, the air was sweet and cool.
Nor was this the only beneficial change. At the very .
time when Fairfield was made the headquarters,
the Moravian Mission Board began to pay the
missionaries a small salary. In the past, they had
^een compelled to work plantations ; henceforward^
Tike the Anglican clergy, they could give ail their
tlnie to spiritual work ; and, therefore, for the
Tirst time they were now treated with more respect
by the planters. At Old Carnicl the Brethren
had been despised ; at Fairfield they were highly
honoured ; and many of the planters now assisted
the cause. At Fairfield itself one planter preached
under a fig-tree, and another gave all the timber
for the new church. At New Carmel, Hutchinson
Scott not only gave the land, but also erected a
temporary church, made a road, and entertained the
missionaries at his own house. At New Eden,
Edmund Green gave twenty-six acres. At New
Bethlehem, James Miller gave the land ; at Beaufort
and Salem, the planters were at least friendly; and
finally, at Lititz, the Hon. D. Snaife not only gave
the land, but added a donation of £100. The situation,
therefore, is fairly clear. With Fairfield as their
headquarters, and with the aid of friendly planters,
the Bretliren, under Ellis's leadership, had now a
firm and permanent footing in the Parish of
Manchester.
(2) Secondly, John Ellis was a great Sunday-School
pioneer. At the time when he arrived in Jamaica,
212 A History of Moravian Missions.
the great problem of n^gro^e^ducatiou^ had.-llQt, even
1826-'34 been eoiisidered ; neither Church nor State had hfted
a finger ; and, so far as I have been able to discover,
the only person in Jamaica who had tried to teach
negro children to read and write was a certain Mrs.
Cooper, of the Cruse, an estate not far from Fair-
field. John Ellis, however, tried to solve the whole
problem. It is well to note the exact order of events.
First^n^_18263^ John Ellis, with the permission of the
local planters, opened a small Sunday School at
Fairfield, and his'^wire became the first Sunday
School teacher ; then his friend, Mrs. Hutchinson
Scott, wrote to the London Association in aid of
Moravian Missions^ .urging that something definite
be done for negro education ; then, in response to that
Tetter, the London Association formed the " N egro
School Fuiid^'l; then some English ladies founded
The " Ladies' Negro Education Spcietj^ " ; then this
Ladies' Society opened a branch in Jamaica, and the
Secretary of the Jamaica Branch was Mrs. Cooper,
of tlie Cruse ; and thus we have the interesting fact
that, while a Moravian missionary opened the first
Sunday School, the first people in Jamaic a to propose
an education fund ^\■e^c two planters' wives. The
new movement rapidly spread. B\ the year 183-4
every Moravian Church had^itsSiuiday School. Some
of the teachers were whites ; others juvenile slaves,
trained by the Brethren ; and others veterans who had
trained themselves. For regular service each teacher
received, at first, a small fee of £3 10s. a year ; and
the scholars were encouraged by a system of rewards.
Each child who arrived in^ time, i.e.i_at 9 juai.,
received a ticEet ; this ticket had money yaluej
and oncea quarterT^accordlng to the num ber of his
tickets^ the child received a book-prize^
(3) With Sunday Schools, however, neither Ellis
nor his colleagues were content. The first man to
The West Indies — Western Province. 213
open a day school was John Scholefield ; the place July, 1827
was Mt. Airy, near New Carmel; and_by the year
1834 each station also possessed its day_school.
Meanwhile, during this pefiodT^reat events had
been taking place in Jamaica, and by those events
the real value of the Brethren's work was tested.
The situation may be briefly explained. At the very
time when John Ellis took charge of the work at
Fairfield, Fowell Buxton, in the House of Commons,
carried his momentous resolution : " That the state
of slavery is repugnant to the principles of the
British constitution and of the Christian religion."
Soon after a law was passed forbidding the flogging
of slaves in the open air, and the consequence was
that Emancipation became the grand topic of dis-
cussion. For eight years Jamaica was in a ferment, 1823-31
and in due course the excitement led to violence.
On the one hand certain planters, at a mass meeting,
passed a solemn resolution that if emancipation
were granted they would simply defy the British
Government ; on the other hand certain slaves,
chiefly in the Parish of St. James, heard that
emancipation had been granted already, and that
all the slaves would be free on Christmas Day ; and,
therefore, when Christmas Day arrived, and no
further news had been heard, they broke into open
rebellion and fired a hundred plantations. For some
weeks the greatest excitement prevailed. The red 1831
glare in the sky could be seen at Fairfield, fifty miles
away. Some of the planters galloped in terror to
the coast ; others formed a small defensive army ;
the chief rebels were speedily caught and hanged ;
and red-coats were stationed at the church doors.
At this crisis the Moravian converts shewed how well
they had been taught. Instead of encouraging hopes
of emancipation — which, they said, might or might
not be granted sooner or later — all the missionaries
214 A History of Moravian Missions.
had consistently urged their converts to be loyal and
obedient. *'Do not listen," they would say, "to
foolish stories," and now they had their legitimate
reward. At Fairfield there was not one sign of
disorder ; at New Eden the converts promised that,
much as freedom might be desired, they would use
no illegal means to obtain it ; at Fulneck, New Carmel,
and Mesopotamia, not one convert struck work ;
and finally, those who struck work in other places
were easily persuaded to resume work. But the
finest spirit was shewn in the Parish of St. James.
Among the converts at Irwin Hill were five Native
Helpers ; all five were employed on neighbouring
estates ; and now, when the rebellion burst out,
all five, as James Light, the missionary, declared,
" did their duty to their earthly masters." At
Williamsfield, Robert Hall defended his master's
house so stoutly that the rebels put a price on his
head. At Irwin, William Hall stored water in
buckets, and thereby prevented the fire. At Wor-
cester, William Dickson saved his master's property,
and received a suitable reward for so doing. At
Tyrall, the Native Helper appointed a patrol, and
thereby preserved the property intact ; and finally,
at a small estate, named Fairfield, the Helper per-
suaded all the slaves to be loyal. Let us not attribute
this conduct to fear or policy. With all the force at
his command, James Light, at Irwin Hill, had
endeavoured to promote good feeling between planters
and slaves ; both sides had profited by his discourses,
and the slaves under his care were loyal, not because
they had a servile spirit, but because they had learned
to honour their masters.
But now the Brethren had an unpleasant sur-
prise. In spite of their efforts on behalf of
law and order, ma,ny of the Moravian missionaries
were accused of disloyalty. For some months
The West Indies— Western Province. 215
there w ^g an q^^g"^^ — mm our that t hey were^
secret preachers of sedition. One missionary,
Henrj^ Pfeiffer, was seized at New Eden, carried to
Mandeville, imprisoned in the organ loft of the Jan., 1832
Parish Church, and tried on the charge of preaching
a seditious sermon ; and though Pfeiffer was, of
course, acquitted, there was still a great deal of
suspicion against the Brethren. In order to probe
the matter to the bottom, the House of Assembly
appointed a Committee of Inquir\\ The result
was curious. With perfect truth the Committee
reported that once in eight weeks the Moravian
Missionary held a private meeting with his converts,
commonly kno\\'n as a " speaking " ; at these
" speakings," suggested the Committee, the recent
rebellion had probably been hatched ; and acting on
this naive suggestion, the House of Assembly issued
a declaration that the teaching and preaching,
not only of Moravians, but also of " Wesleyans and
Methodi-^ts," had, to say the least, a seditious
ten dency.
But tlie ill-feeling_ against- the Moravians did not
last very long.._ In reply to the Committee of Inquiry,
tlie Brethren issued a " Remonstrance," wherein April,
they explained fully, not only how their converts 1832
had been taught, but how they had behaved during
the rebellion ; and this simple statement was so
convincing that, so far from being suspected, ,the__
.Brethren were now praised for their loyalty. The
Bishop of Jamaica, Lipscombe, spoke in their praise ;
the new Governor, Earl Mulgrave, promised to
protect them, visited Fairfield, and allowed his wife
to become the Patroness of the Female Refuge
School ; and testimonials in the Brethren's favour,
signed by magistrates, clerks, and other government
officials, were printed in tjie Jamaica Courani and the
Kingston Chronicle.^
216 A History of Moravian Missions.
At length, by means of two Acts of Parliament, the
long desired emancipation was granted. By the
first Act (August 1st, 1834), the slaves, before becom-
ing free, had first to serve a short term of apprentice-
ship ; by the second (August 1st, 1838), the
apprenticeship system was abolished, and emancipa-
tion granted outright ; and thus two different days,
August 1st, 1834, and August 1st, 1888, came after-
wards to be known as EmancipatiQn Day.
On each occasion thanksgiving services were held,
and on the second, the more important, the scene
at Fairfield was one long remembered. At 4 a.m. the
church-bell began to chime ; during the morning
the converts arrived, arrayed in dazzling white ;
and so great was the congregation that the officials
had to divide it into two sections. Inside the Church,
the preacher was Ellis's successor, Jacob Zorn ;
outside, under a fig-tree, his native assistant, Price ;
and each preached from the words : "If the Son,
therefore, shall make you free, ye shall be free
indeed." In the Church itself the excitement was
uproarious ; and three times the delighted people
interrupted the preacher.
" You must give the glory to God," said Zorn.
" Yes, Massa ! " the people answered. " We do
thank the Lord for it. Bless the Lord ! "
At the close of the service all the converts sang
the following prayer : —
Jesus, the great Deliverer,
Our sluggish wills provoke ;
Thy better freedom to desire,
Freedom from Satan's yoke.
But Zorn, being a practical man, desired something
more than praise and thanksgiving. Freedom, in
his opinion, liad its dangers ; some, he feared, might
use it to take to drink ; and, therefore, before the
The West Indies — Western Pbovince. 217
proceedings closed, he founded his first Temperance
Society. The day was over ; the old order had
passed ; and new problems now awaited the Brethren.
3. Jacob Zorx, 1834-43.
As soon as the Jamaica negroes obtained their
freedom, many people in the island feared that they
would make a bad use of the gift. At first sight the
prospect was alarming. Among the hills there still
lived fierce Maroons ; in the woods young lads ran
naked and hved on raw potatoes ; in the to^Mis
there was a rum-shop at every corner. From these
facts pessimists drew their o^\ti conclusions. *' Most
of the negroes,^ thcv sai d, "will work no more, the__
common peace will be broken, wives will be kicked
to^ death ~and children neglected, and drink will
destroy its thousands."
With these dismal forebodings, however, the
Brethren entirely disagreed ; to Jacob Zorn, the
new leader, emancipation was simply a great oppor-
tunity ; and rehing on the uphfting power of the
Gospel, he, like ElHs, his predecessor, attempted
three methods of reform : —
(1) First, being a lo5'al Moravian, he endeavoured
to estabhsh as many new stations as possible. In
1834 the Brethren founded Beaufort ; in 1838 Xew
Hope and Bethany ; in 1839, Lititz ; and in 1840
Bethabara. At most of these places Zom himself
acted as land-sur\-eyor ; he had also a fascinating
manner, and " obtained subscriptions from the
Governor ; and thus he strengthened the Moravian
Church, nor~oiiIy in numbers and influence, but
aTso In prestige.
(2J Secondly, like John Ellis, Zorn ]aid great
s tress on education. But Zorn was not content with 1835
Elhs's Methods. ElUs had merely endeavoured to
estabhsh Day Schools ; Zom hoped to estabhsh
218 A History of Mob avian Missions.
Bogxding Schools ; and his reason for this poHcy
was that, so far as he could see, the children would
never make much progress unless they were separated
from their parents. On this point lie wrote an
important letter to his supporters in England
(August 18th, 1835). " Let us," he pleaded, " establish
in Jamaica a number of Industrial Boarding Schools ;
let those schools be staffed by competent teachers
from England ; and let the children in those schools,
by means of their own industry, earn sufficient for
their own maintenance."
His schenae ha4 spme prospect of success. In
the year 1835 — i,^, immediately after the first
Emancipation Act — the British Government in-
augurated its system of Annual Parliamentary
Grants for purposes of Negro Education. The
first grant for Jamaica was £20,000 ; the Moravian
share of this sum was £1,500, and one condition
laid down by the Government was that for every
£l provided by the State the Church concerned should
raise 10s, To those terms the Moravian Church
agreed. The Moravian Mission Board promised
the needed £750 ; the Society for the Furtherance of
the Gospel opened a Negro School Building Fund ;
and with the £2,250 now in hand the Brethren soon
erected thirteen schools. In two important respects,
however, Zorn was disappointed. First, so far as
I can discover, these schools did not become Industrial
Schools ; secondly, they were not Boarding Schools,
but Day Schools ; and though, in the reports I read of
children who brought five days' rations with them,
and who, therefore, might be called weekly boarders,
Zorn's boarding school idea was not fully realised.
Most of the pupils still lived with their parents ; those
parents, in many cases, were still half heathen ;
and this fact partly accounts for the trpjiiblesjifififtcdjed
in the next section.
The West Indies — Western Protince. 219
With this state of things, however, Zom was
dissatisfied. **At all costs." he contended, "negro
boys must be^wifFidrawn from their parents and
taught industrious habits." For this purpose, there-
fore, he now opened at Fairfield his " Manual Labour
and Training School." Here the boys were 1840
genuine boarders ; here they learned to wash their
J2][IIL_^'^f!^. f'nmb fhpir nwn hair, maVp thcir own
beds, an d sweep the rooms ; and here they t illed
the school garden, and thereby, to s ome extent,
paid their own board. For many years t ^is sphnnl^
though small, rendered efficie nt service ; some of
tTie pupils became good day-sc hool tea chers, while
others, after a short course at the Mico Institution,
Kingston, became local preachers ; and the real tragedy
of the situation was that, on account of the lack
of money, similar scho ols could not be opened fit the
other stations^
(3) His last scheme was even more ambitious.
At the very time when he opened his training school,
the Basel Missionary Society was seeking for colonists
for Central Africa ; one of their agents, Reis, came
to Jamaica ; and the result of his ^'isit was that
five Mora\'ian families sailed for Africa. Nor was
even this the best. Among Zorn's pupils in the
training school, five offered for missionary ser\'ice ;
these five, he fondly hoped, would soon become a
thousand, and thus, he said, Africa would be
evangelized by native preachers from Jamaica.
With these bright dreams to cheer his soul, Jacob
Zom passed to his reward. His life, like that of
most pioneers, was partly a success, and partly a
failure. In his attempt to establish good day-
schools he succeeded ; in his attempt to establish
Industrial Boarding Schools he failed ; and the value
of his strenuous life must be estimated, not so much by
what he accomplished, but by the ideals he cherished.
220 A History of Moravian Missions.
4. John Henry Buchner, 1843 — 1857.
The next leader had still harder problems to solve.
As the sun was setting one February evening, a
vessel neared the mouth of the Black River ; on the
deck stood young John Henry Buchner, gazing with
delight on the distant heights of Fairfield ; and before
he had been very long in Jamaica, John Henry
Buchner discovered that, in spite of the numerous
schools opened with the aid of the Government,
most of the people were still the victims of super-
stition, ignorance and vice. Against each of these
foes of progress Buchner fought a long fight.
(1) The first was a curious form of superstition.
Within a few weeks of his arrival, Buchner lay ill
of yellow fever at Irwin Hill ; strange sounds floated
in through his bedroom window ; and when he
asked the meaning thereof, he was told that the
Myalmen were performing. The situation was
alarming. For some reason, which no one could quite
understand, the negroes in the Parish of St. James
had long been known as far more excitable than
those in other parts of the island. There the recent
rebellion had been hatched ; there the estates had
been burned to the ground ; and there, soon
after Buchner's arrival, both the Obeahmen and
the Myalmen drove the people frantic. Let us
first look at the Obeahman or Obeah. He was
really the priest of a very old heathen religion.
According to the popular belief, each Obeah, like
a Surinam sorcerer, possessed the power of causing
diseases ; for the sum of three or four shillings he
would undertake to slay an enemy ; and now the
whole Parish of St. James lay imder a reign of terror.
His usual method, it is said, was to come to the
enemy's house by night and leave a parcel at the door.
In the morning the housewife discovered the parcel ;
The West Indies — Western Province. 221
in the parcel lay a few feathers, or a little grave-
mould ; and then, within a few weeks, some one in
the household died. Let us not regard this trouble
as a light one. In spite of the fact that they were
mipostors, the Obeahs had a real hold on the people.
Fear, said Buchner, was the real cause of death ;
fear paralysed both body and mind; fear even
caused some to commit suicide. For many years
this fear of the Obeahs increased the death-rate in
Jamaica ; even Morayiao, Church members "were
sometinies deceived ; and once, as late as 1888, the
Brethren, in the little village of Xewton, discovered a
terror-stricken victim.
The other evil, MyaUsm, was of a different nature.
Accordmg to their own account, the Myalmen had
been specially raised up by God to deal with
Obeahism ; and, just as the Obeahs claimed to be
possessed by the devil, so the Myalmen claimed to
be filled with the Holy Ghost. In outward form,
therefore, the Myalmen, after a fashion, claimed to
be Christians ; in reality they were the Church's most
dangerous enemies ; and claiming to have received
Di\ine revelations, they asserted that they, and they
alone, could overcome, not only the cruel Obeahs, but
every conceivable form of moral evil. It is not quite
certain whether they were rogues or fanatics. Accord-
ing to Buchner many of them were sincere ; Buclmer
was an excellent judge of character ; and his opinion
must be treated with respect. For some months,
in order to attract attention, they behaved more
hke buffoons than inspired prophets, wearing a
special costume, squatting in the hollows of trees,
singing songs about Father Abraham, Christ, and the
Holy Spirit, and flying along the country roads like
a swimmer doing the breast-stroke ; and then,
after some of them had been arrested for brawling
in Church, and also for committing assault and
222 A History of Moravian Missions.
battery, the public gradually made the painful
discovery that while these prophets claimed Divine
revelation they were really both workers and teachers
of iniquity. No one, said the Myalmen, can be truly
religious unless he is immoral ; and no man truly
happy without a harem. x\t their evening services,
which were held under a cotton tree, they generally
opened with a hymn ; then the rum bottle passed
round ; and then, like men bewitched by Comus,
they indulged in '* midnight shout and revelry, tipsy
dance and jollity."
For a dozen years this poisonous teaching — the
teaching that true Christianity encourages sin-
wrought incredible damage in Jamaica. No teaching
could be more ruinous to body and to soul ; some
of the Moravian converts themselves were affected ;
and the missionaries, Buchner declared, had ever to
be on the watch.
(2) For these evilSiin Buf'-hner's ojoimoiT^bp pnly
remedy was more education. In opposition to the
Brethren, the Myalmen always denounced Biblical
study. " Let us not rely," they said, " on books ;
let us rely directly on the Holy Ghost ; and thereby
we shall see how misguided the missionaries arc."
The r€al cau^e ojLthejimible, thereJore,_was ignorance ;
ignorance led, not only to sin, but also to lazi ness ;
and laziness was causing economic ruin. In spite
of Zorn's heroic efforts, most of the children wcr_e
still uneducated. In the Moravian settlements he
had succeeded ; in the country districts he had
failed ; and Buchner endeavoured to remedy the
defect by establishing " Country Schools." The scene
in the country districts was appalling. The fields
once teeming with sugar-canes were now overgrown
with bushes ; the gates were broken, the stores
empty, and the living-houses dismantled ; and
the tenants, instead of tilling the soil, basked and
The West Indies — Western Province. 223
smoked tobacco in the sun. At first sight the
situation seemed hopeless. For the children in the
country districts the State, so far, had done nothing.
Once more, however, Mrs. Hutchinson Scott came
to the rescue. At her request the money was
provided ' by the London Association in Aid of
Moravian Missions ; the Moravian Church in Jamaica
found the headmasters ; and the converts, by free
labour, erected the buildings. By means of these
Country Schools, therefore, Buchner and his colleagues
fought with ignorance and sloth. In 1850^ there
were fifteen sch ools, with 573 scholars ; in 1865. forty
oM^T^^^wifh 9,««fi Rf^hffl^^ I n these s chools nearly
air^he headmasters were natives. §ome of them
came from the T'rammg School ar Fairfield ; others
were simply trustworthy church members ; and
most of them were selected for their piety, rather
than for their learning. The chie f subject taught in_
the schools was the Bible ; reading, ^^ritillg and_
arithmetic were, of course, i ncluded ; and taking
the Scriptures as his tQ^-book, th e headmaster
taught the childr en to be clean, to be polite, to be
good, and to be happy. TKe daily morning scene is
worth describing. At 9 a.m. the laughing children —
some naked, and some in Osnaburg shirts — streamed
to the schoolyard from the woods ; and each child
brought his dinner with him, either in a calabash
or in a tin can. In the school-yard they now formed
into line. As soon as the morning hymn had been
sung, the children entered the school, set the tin
cans in a row along the school wall, took their places
and faced the teacher ; and the teacher, beaming
upon them, said : " Dear children, I want you all
to love the Saviour." But the scene in the
school was not always inspiring. For many
Xt^-Xs _there was a great shortage of slates, books
and ink-pots ; and the master^s salary Avas only_
224 A History of Moravian Missions.
£10 a year. On the other hand there was cause for
encouragement. In many cases the children them-
selves had helped ui-the buildmg of the school x
and this fact fostered a proper pride and a certain
sense of school honour. In the playground all
was energy and joy, and, far happier there than in
their own homes, the children ate their yams and
salt-fish, spun their windmills, cracked their whips,
and stood on their heads.
(3) In another sense, also, Buchner was a good
successor to Zorn. In spite of the fact that the
Moravians were still few in number, he believed that
they alone could save Jamaica from destruction.
They alone, he contended, ^xercised the necess^ary
discipline ; ..tliey almxfv in_any real sense, combined
religion and ethics ; they, above all, had t aught
the people to teach themselves. In oilier words,
they alone had the right to establish, not only a
Native Ministry, but a fully organized Native Churchy
With that ideal before them, therefore, the Brethren
now took three important steps : —
1841 (a) They opened a Normal School at Fairfield,
with a theological department.
1850 (b) They enacted that at each station there
should be a "Council," possessing certain
governmental powers.
1854 (c) They arranged that suitable Church members
should be employed as Scripture Readers
and Assistant Preachers.
5, The Great Revival, 1858—1860.
The more closely we study the history of the
^loravians in Jamaica the more we are compelled
to recognise that the most important, pait nf their
work, was the educational. By teaching the children
the Bible they developed a high moral ideal ^ by
means of their industrial schools tluy encouraged
The West Indies — Western Province. 225
initi ative : and now, soon after his departure from
Jamaica, Buchner heard that his work among the
young was producing remarkable results. The first
move was made at Fairfield. According to
Sonderman, head of the Training School, the first
" convert " was one of the students ; then a few 1858
others formed a club for Bible reading; then all
the students, of their own accord, not only formed
a Juvenile Missionary Association, but even wrote
a letter to the children in the Sunday School urging
them to join ; and the importance of the whole
movement lay in the fact that for the first time
young Jamaica Moravians were showing pubUc
spirit. In the past such work had been left to whites ;
henceforward natives must take a lead. In other
congregations the same feature was noticed. At
New Carmel the young men, without a hint from
the missionarv', organized their own prayer meeting ;
at Woodlands young women rebuked sinners on the
high-road ; and at Fulneck, under the influence of
Goodwin North — a young man from Heckmondwikt ,
in Yorkshire — the children became the leaders in a
revival. By the young the Great Revival was
started ; by the young, chiefly, it was maintained
throughout. Let us try to understand its real
nature. For some months this memorable revlTal,
which soon affected old and young alike, was dis-
figured by what the critic may call excesses ; and
yet, on the other hand, we must remember that
those excesses were no worse than those which
occurred in England during the Evangelical Revival.
In outward form there was sometimes a slight
difference ; in reaUty the main features were the
same ; and nearly every incident that happened
in Jamaica might be paralleled by something similar
in England. In most cases, just as in England, the
chief symptom v.as some bodily convulsion. At
226 A History of Moravian Missions.
Fulneck the convicted sinners screamed, gnashed,
tore their clothes, tried to throw themselves down
from the gallery, and even, in some mysterious
cases, were struck deaf and dumb. At Clifton a
woman refused food, smashed the wattled walls of
her hut, and raged so furiously that her neighbours
had to hold her with ropes. At Nahoe a young
woman snapped like a dog, flung chains and pots at
her neighbours' heads, and, screaming " The devil !
the devil ! " jumped out of the window. At Fair-
field men, convulsed with agony, rolled in the open
air under the fig-tree. At New Hope men had
twitchings in the face and lay speechless for a fort-
night. At Lititz the very children writhed on the
floor. In some cases, however, the mind was more
affected than the body. Some lay unconscious
for several days ; others had remarkable visions
and saw signs in the clouds; and others, convinced
that the Judgment Day had come, declared that
they saw Christ in the sky and the souls of the
damned in hell.
We must not regard all this as mere excitement.
For nearly all these physical manifestations there
was a genuine spiritual cause ; that cause, in most
cases, was not so much a fear of hell, but rather a
profound sense of sin ; and when the missionaries
inquired into the matter they discovered that many
of the most respected Church members, probably
misled by Myalmen, had, while outwardly pious,
been guilty of secret sin. In some cases good Church
members had pleaded poverty, while all the time they
had been saving money ; in other cases the sins con-
fessed were still more serious ; and now men had
physical convulsions simply because their consciences
gave them no peace. For this reason, therefore, the
Great Revival must be described as thoroughly
genuine, and many of the converts proved their
The West Indies — Western Province. 227
sincerity by making sacrifices. At Ipswich a con-
verted fiddler smashed his fiddle and tambourines ;
most of the converts now became teetotallers ;
and the young women burned their fine dresses
and scattered their rings and bracelets on the Church
floor. " We earned these things by sin," they said,
*' and we cannot bear the sight of them." Nor
were decency and morality the only results of the
Revival. For some months there was a great demand
for Bibles and Hymn-books ; " The Pilgrim's
Progress " became a popular book ; defaulters paid
their Church dues ; and many contributed to the
Bible Society and to Foreign Missions.
6. Two Modern Problems.
The first is the great problem of the Native
Ministry. During the next forty or fifty years the
Moravians were engaged, not so much in Church
extension, but rather in consolidation ; only seven
new stations — Mizpah (1866), Dober (1882), Broad-
leaf (1885), Carisbrook (1885), Patrick Town (1891),
Kingston (1898), and Moravia (1894) — were founded ;
and this slowness in advance was due, not to any
decline in zeal, but to the lack of men and means.
For the shortage of men the only and obvious remedy
was the formation of a Native Ministry. But the
experience of the Moravians was not encouraging.
In 1876 they opened at Fairfield a Theological
College ; in 1888 that institution was closed ;
and the reason given for this last reactionary
measure was that while some of the candidates
had been ordained, and became acceptable
preachers, they had not yet, in the judgment of the
other missionaries, attained that stability of character
required in the minister of a congregation.
The other problem may be called the Housing
Problem. For the long period of twenty-five years, 1870-95
228 A History of Moravian Missions.
one prominent Moravian Missionary, a Swiss, named
Heinrich Walder, made a systematic endeavour to
solve this problem ; thereby he became the negroes'
best friend ; and at the close of his career the people
expressed their gratitude in a testimonial. The
situation may be briefly explained. In Jamaica
the housing problem was closely connected with
the system of land tenure. At the time when
Walder commenced his labours the negroes in the
country districts were divided into three classes.
At the top of the scale, very few in number, were
freeholders, living in roomy houses ; next came
tenants, in small cottages, and liable to be turned
out by their landlords ; and last, the plantation
labourers, packed into miserable shanties, and earning
perhaps, in the busy season, about Is. 6d. a day.
But this division was moral as well as economic.
According to the size of the house he occupied
the moral character of the tenant varied. The
freeholders had a high sense of self-respect ; the
cottagers were moderately good ; and the labourers
were apt to be degraded. The conclusion was
obvious. The more freeholders there were in
Jamaica the higher the people would rise in moral
character. For this reason, therefore, Walder both
induced and helped many of the converts to become
freeholders. His name became a household word
in Jamaica ; other missionaries followed his example ;
and one declared, a few years ago, that in the free-
holder lay the hope of the future. |
By these various methods, therefore, the Moravians
endeavoured to make Jamaica a land of hope and
glory. In his English in the West Indies, J. A. Froude,
the historian, who, in 1887, paid a short visit to the
island, asserted that the Moravians had more
•fFor a brief sketoh of Waldor's life, see "Moravian M salons,"
1903, pp. :}0-8.
The West Indies^ — Western Province. 229
influence over the natives than eith er Chu rchmen
"or Xoncoriformists ; they, he decl ared, r eally
did the most good ;t and, if that statement
may be accepted as correct, the explanation
vdW be found in the fact that, while the Moravians
ha\c preached the same Gospel as their colleagues, they
have always exercised a stricter discipline, demanded
and enforced a high ethical standard, paid closer
attention to the individual, studied the people's
social requirements, and laid great stress on education.
t" The English in the West Indies." pp. 232-3 ■ " Of the Morariant
I heard on all sides the warmest praise. They, above all
the religious bodies in the island, are admitted to hare a
practical power for good over the limited number of peopl«
which belong to them. But the Moravians are but a few.
They do not rush to make converts in the highways and
hedges." See also p. 260, where Froude describes an interest-
ing interview between himself and a Moravian misaionary-
Araong other things. Froude remarks that while the miB«ioaanr
was not in the leaat enthusiastic about his " poor black
sheep " (the phrase is Froude's), he beid that the Jamaica
labourers were no worse than the English, and that, if they
were paid better wages, they would probably be much mora
industrious.
Chapter II.
THE WEST INDIES— EASTERN PROVINCE,
1800—1914.
As all the islands in the West Indies are in-
habited by the same race, negroes — exhibiting,
though with small variations, the same general
national characteristics — we are practically justified
in assuming that in each island the Moraviaa,
missionaries had the same problems to solve ; in
each island they opened day schools, trained
evangelists, and founded temperance and Bible-
reading Societies ; and, therefore* &l\ wc need to do_
in this chapter is to take each island of the Lesser_
Antilles in turn and note any distinguishing features
of interest. In the broad sense, each island was
simply Jamaica repeated ; in another sense, each
had its own distinguishing feature.
1. St. Thomas. In this island the distinguishing
feature was a curious change in the population,
brought about by the Danish Act of Emancipation
(1846). Before emancipation most of the slaves
lived on the country plantations ; after it they
swarmed to Tappus and turned the little village
into the town of St. Thomas. Before emancipation
the most important congregations were New Herrnhut
and Niesky ; after it the most important has been
St. Thomas ; and thus the Moravians now minister,
not only to men in country districts, but also to
citizens in a busy city. One fact to the credit of
the Brethren should be emphasised. In 1840, six
years before emancipation, the Danish Government
passed an Act that all Moravian slaves should be_
free ; and thereby the Government showed how
highly Moravian work was valued.
(230)
The West Indies — Eastern Province. 281
2. St. John. In this island emancipation caused
a still more radical change. Instead of seeking
employment in the towns, most of the liberated slaves
fled from the island altogether ; those who remained,
aboiit^hlne hundred, settled down on the sea coast ;
and the missionary who ministers to their needs
is such an all-round man that the people call him the
"Father of St. John." With his medicine chest
attached to his girdle, he visits every cottage, holds
services at Emmaus and Bethany, and is personally
known to every negro on the island.
8. St. Croix. In this island emancipation had
the very opposite effect. Instead^ of deserting the
old plantations, the negroes- -inad£_^Ood bargains^
with their past owners, and agreed to work for_
wages ; the plantations flourished more than ever.i.
and the population rose to 20,000. For this reason,
therefore, St. Croix became the most prosperous
island in the Danish West Indies ; each of the
three Moravian stations — Friedensfeld, Friedensthal,
and Friedensberg — became a centre of Christian
activity ; and the Church members drove in fine
style to Church, and gave a tenth of their income to
Church Funds. The chief danger in St. Croix was
drink. For many years rum was only threepence
a bottle ; many of the baser sort succumbed ; and
wife-beating and gambling became very common.
4. St. Kitts. St. Kitts is the island of disasters.
In 1836 there was a terrible earthquake ; in 1880 there
was a flood ; in the next decade there was great
poverty, caused by the fall in the price of sugar ;
and in 1896 there were so many riots that the
Government had to call out the mihtary. Never-
theless, the Moravian Missi on ^prospered ; three new
^atjons— Bethesda (1821)," Bethel (1882), Estridge
(1845) — were founded ; Friendly Societies and
232 A History of Moravian Missions.
Missionary Unions flourished ; and most of the
members, in spite of poverty, proved steady and
loyal.
5. Antigua. Antigua became the pride o f ;t^e
Moravian Church. For many years after the death
of " Massa Brown," Antigua was commonly regarded,
from the moral and spiritual point of view, as the
finest island in the British West Indies ; at the
special request of the Government, the Brethren
Biiilt T^ewReld (1817), followed five years later by
Cedar Hall ; and so high was the character attained
by the 15,000 negroes under the Brethren's care,
that when tlie First Emancipation Act was passed,
the Government inserted a special clause declaring
that, while in all the other islands the slaves must
first serve a period of apprenticeship, in Antigua
they should receive their full liberty at once. Never
did the Moravian Church receive a higlier com-
pliment ; and never was the confidence of the
Government more fully justified. But the greatest
glories of Antigua were still to come. During the
next twenty years three more stations were founded,
Lebanon (1838), Gracefield (1840), and Greenbay
(1849). In 1855, by founding a Female Teachers'
Seminary, the Brethren supplied female teachers
for the day schools ; in 1856, J. Buckley became the
first ordained native minister ; in 1890 the Governor
of Antigua was so impressed by the Brethren's work
that he asked them to open a mission in Dominica;
and in 1900 the Mission Board opened a Theological^
College at Buxton Grove. In Jamaica the attempt
to establish a native ministry had failed ; in Antigua^
it was much more successful. For this high moral
standard in Antigua much of the credit must be
ffiven to a Yorkshireman, l^ishop Westerby
(^(1838-80). For many years he was ~tlie most im-
portant man in the island. He introduced organs
The West Indies — Eastern Province. 238
into every Moravian Church ; viTote a treatise on
hurricanes ; compiled the Communion Liturgy used
in the West Indies ; was Chairman of the Antigua
Board of Education, of the Poor Law Board, and of
the Board of Guardians ; and, altogether, did so
much to upUft the people that, on his retirement,
they asked the Governor to give him a pension. At
his funeral Anglican Clergymen helped to carry the
coffin, and afterwards the people erected a memorial
fountain to his memory, f
6. Barbados. The distinguishing [feature of
Barbadosrjwill be found in the character of the
people. For some reason — possibly the presence
of an Irish element — both the whites and the negroes
of Barbados are said to be far more lively and
talkative than those in the other islands ; and many
Barbadians pride themselves on their intellectual
superiority. But this feature was not always
an advantage. As the Moravians took no
part in the great negro rebellion in 1816, most
of the planters now befriended the Mission ; thus
encouraged, the Brethren founded new stations
at Mt. Tabor (1826), Bridgetown (1886), and Chfton
Hill (1841) ; and yet, on the whole, the missionaries
found the people hard to reach. In disposition
the people were genial and smart ; in reliability
of character they were often disappointing. For
this reason, therefore, progress in Barbados was
slow. The island also suffered from several disasters.
In 1819 and 1831 there were terrible hurricanes ;
in 1854 the cholera carried off one-seventh of the
population ; and two destructive fires occurred in
Bridgetown.
7. Tobago. On this small island the Moravian
missionary has long been the next most important
tFor a aketoli of Westerbv, see " Moravian Missions," August, 190S.
284 A History of Moravian Missions.
man to the Governor. At the request of a pious
planter, Montgomery was founded (1827) ; two
more stations, Moriah (1848) and Bethesda (1878),
followed ; and Sir Hugh Clifford, after visiting the
island, declared that of all the religious bodies the
Moravians achieved the most satisfactory results. f
By his patient labours, he said, T. L. Clemens taught
the young people self-respect.
8. Trinidad. For some years Trinidad had been
the most prosperous island in the West Indies.
1890 Port of Spain was now a great business centre ;
one hundred and twenty million barrels of cocoa
were exported ; and recently seven hundred
Moravians had found work on the island, partly
on the docks and partly on country estates ; and
now some Moravian natives at St. Madeleine asked to
have a minister. For fifteen years (1890-1905)
the chief worker in Trinidad was Marc Richard,
a Swiss ; stations were founded at Rosehill (near
Port of Spain), Chaguanas, Manantial, Belmont,
Manzanilla, L'Anse Noir, and Matelot ; and both
Richard and his successors discovered that in no
island was Moravian work more needed. In Port
of Spain many of the business men were morally
corrupt, and the missionary's only staunch friends
were a few Free Church Ministers. In Manantial,
heathen Chinese conducted a rum-shop ; in some
of the villages there were many Mahometans ;
and many of the natives were still addicted to old
African vices and superstitions. With the aid,
however, of his native converts, Marc Richard
soon accomplished wonders ; Native Helpers, Native
Catechists, Native Committee Men, and Native
Teachers rendered faithful assistance ; and A. B.
Hutton, Richard's successor, found his people ready
fSee Blackwood's Magazine, " Time and Tobago," September,
1905, pp. 321-2.
The West Indies — Eastern Province. 285
to work, fond of good music, and interested in
Biblical instruction.
9. San Domingo. — For the benefit of Mora\'ian 1907
converts who had gone to San Domingo in search of
work, a native minister, J. A. D. Bloice, was appointed
(1907) ; San Pedro became the headquarters ; and
the number of members soon exceeded one thousand.
Chapter III.
GREENLAND, 1800—1900.
For one hundred years the Moravians in Greenland
plodded on so quietly with their work that, although
they wrote many letters home, they had rarely any-
thing very exciting to tell. Sometimes the weather
was severe, and sometimes mild ; sometimes the
Greenlanders caught plenty of seals, and some-
times they were nearly starving ; sometimes they
increased and multiplied, and sometimes they were
slaughtered by an epidemic ; sometimes the Brethren
had safe voyages, and sometimes they were wrecked
and nearly drowned ; and thus the same tale of ups
and downs was told from year to year. As the
Brethren's field of labour was limited, they had not
much chance of extension. For some years they
remained contented with the three old eighteenth
century stations, New Herrnhut, Lichtenfels, and
Lichtenau ; then, at intervals, they founded
Frederiksdal in the south (1824), Umanak to the
north (1861), and Igdlorpait (1864) near Lichtenau ;
and thus, eventually, the Brethren commanded the
whole region from Godhaab to Cape Farewell. In
accordance with the law laid down by Government,
the Greenlanders lived, not only in the Brethren's
settlements, but at many fishing places along the
coast ; and, therefore, in connexion with each
station there were several out-preaching places. The
Brethren's parish was about 300 miles long ; and
about 4,000 people were under their charge.
At the request of certain friends in Dundee,
Matthew Warnow (1857) visited Cumberland Inlet,
but reported that work up there was out of the
question ; and later, with a similar result, John
(236)
Greenland. 287
Brodbeck (1881) visited the East Coast of Greenland.
We note some points of interest.
1. If a prize were offered for producing veterans,
Greenland would be an easy winner. The Founder
of the Mission, Matthew Stach, served thirty-eight
years (1733-71) ; his colleague, Frederick Bohnisch,
twenty-nine years (1733-63); John Sorensen, forty-
seven years (1746-93) ; John Gorke, forty-three
years (1782-1825) ; John Grilhch, forty-eight years
(1786-1884) ; Fhegel, forty-one years "(1775-1816) ;
and J. Miiller, forty-one years (1818-54). But the
most distinguished veterans of all were the Becks.
The first, John Beck, was in Greenland forty-two
years (1736-1777), his son, John Jacob, fifty-two
years (1770-1822), and altogether there were Becks
in the service for more than one hundred and fifty
years. The self-denial of the Brethren was
stupendous. In spite of improvements in naviga-
tion, the voyage to Greenland was always dangerous,
and four missionaries — Christian Heinze, John R.
Walder, John F. Kranich, and Sophia Konigseer —
perished at sea. The stations were lonely and far
removed from each other; and thus, far away from
books, from doctors, and from modem scientific
inventions, the Brethren toiled ^^ithout a murmur,
among a dirty and stupid people. In summer they
tilled their gardens, mended houses, and explored the
coast ; in winter, they kept many meetings for young
and old ; and thus, as Cowper said : —
Fired with a zeal peculiar they defy
The rage and rigour of a polar sky,
And plant successfully sweet Sharon's Rose
On icy plains and in eternal snows.
2. Again, several Brethren did literary work.
At the time when Kayarnak was converted, John
Beck had begun translating the Gospels. John
288 A History of Moravian Missions.
Kleinschmidt, the elder, continued his work, and
finished the whole New Testament ; and in 1828
this translation was published by the British and
Foreign Bible Society. At various times other
Brethren produced a Manual of Christian Doctrine,
a Hymn Book, a Harmony of the Gospels, translations
from the German " Nachrichten," and a Reader's
Primer. But, perhaps, the best Greenland scholar
was Samuel Kleinschmidt. He prepared a Greenland
Grammar and Dictionary, wrote, in Eskimo, a
Universal History, a Geography, and a History of
Missions, and aided by the Danish chaplain,
Jaergenson, translated most of the Old Testament.
3. In order to reach the outlying districts, the
Brethren, of course, had largely to rely on natives.
For some years, both at New Herrnhut (1850-84),
and at Lichtenau (1860-84), they made a systematic
attempt to train Native Helpers. But the students
never made any striking progress. The course
lasted six years. Two hours a day the student
gave to his books ; the rest of the day he was
hunting or fishing ; and at the end of his training
he received a rifle. He had, of course, though
licensed to preach, to earn his own living with his
hands. If he merely preached he received no salary
at all ; if he taught in the Day School, he received
six rix-dollars a year. The success of the system
was partial. In spite of all the Brethren's efforts, not
a single student was found fit for ordination. Some
caused scandal by committing sins of the flesh ;
and only two, Louis at New Herrnhut, and Stephen
at Lichtenfels, could be left, even for a short time,
in charge of a station. The most famous Native
Helper was Stephen. For two years he was left in
charge of Lichtenfels (1892-4) ; and there he was
both a stern teacher and a kind friend. With the
zeal of a temperance orator, he rebuked the people
Greenland. 289
for drinking too much coffee ; and when the
influenza came, he hobbled on his gouty toes
from hut to hut, nursing the patients, cooking
their meals, and reading the Bible to them. But
Stephen died in his early prime, and the Brethren
never looked upon his like again. As long as the
Greenlanders had to work so hard there was no
chance of forming a Native Ministry. They had
not the intellectual ability ; they had not the time ;
and they had not the character; and, therefore,
finally, the Brethren abandoned the attempt.
4. Another stern fight was the fight with
poverty. In this work the Brethren were aided
by the Danish Government. In order to encourage
the people to be thrifty, the Government even
offered prizes to all who had saved up for the winter.
For keeping his kayak the man received a shilling ;
for kayak and gun, a little more ; for kayak, gun,
and provisions, a little more still. But, in spite of these
lessons, the people were as thriftless as ever. Instead
of saving up for the winter, they either devoured the
fish they had caught, or sold it for coffee and tobacco,
and then, when the winter storms began, the regular
question in the Mission House was, " I wonder
how our people vdM fare to-day.'*
As they asked the question there would come a knock
at the door, and there stood a woe-begone family man.
" Well, what is it ? " said the missionary.
" We have nothing in the house to eat. Can you
let us have some dried herrings ? "
" But surely," said the missionary, " you have some
laid up for the winter."
" No, not a single fish."
" But that is very careless of you."
" If you loved me," whined the hungry beggar,
" you would never talk hke that. Ah ! you don't
practise what you preach."
240 A History of Moravian Missions.
At such crises the missionary shewed both good
temper and sense. For every herring now provided
he arranged that the beggar should do so much work
the following spring, and the agreement was duly
entered into a book. But the Greenlanders hated
these rules. According to them, Europe was a land
of gold, and the missionary a millionaire ; and the
man they loved most was not the man who taught
them self-help, but the man who gave them most
to eat. If the missionary promised to give out
bread, he could always have a full Church. At best
the Greenlanders were only grown-up children. At
the Centenary celebrations, for example, each man
received a knife, each boy a fish-hook, and each
woman and girl some needles and pins ; and home they
trudged that night with beaming faces. The more
they received the more pleased they were ; and the
more they were asked to give the more they rebelled.
For school materials — slates, pencils and books —
the fee was one penny a session, and the mothers
thought this price exorbitant. Above all, the people
objected when told that they should help to support
the Mission ; and even at the close of the nineteenth
century they thought, with very few exceptions,
that they should be paid for coming to Church.
" Ah ! " said the mothers, " the old missionaries
were the best. Instead of asking for subscriptions,
they had something to give us."
5. In education the Greenlanders were equally slow.
As the boys had to go hunting in summer, the
schools were open in winter only. As the storm raged
outside, the boys and girls huddled round the cosy
stove ; and anon, the boys, glancing out of the
window, watched some young man trying to paddle
his kayak.
At the stations the teacher was generally one of
the missionaries ; at the out-stations one of the
GR££NLAND. 24 1
Native Helpers. But neither missionaries nor helpers
forced the process. As long as the Greenland climate
remained so severe, the chief duty of a boy was to
manage a kayak, and the chief duty of a girl was to
help her mother ; and neither boys nor girls were
set hard tasks. They sang a hymn, read aloud from
a primer ; studied Bible pictures, and coveted the
Jews' red and blue dresses ; and %\Tote on slates with
pencils wrapped in bright paper. As these pencils were
given out the greatest excitement prevailed ; and
while the pupil who obtained the bright one rejoiced,
the one who obtained the dullest wept. Sometimes the
boys learned a little arithmetic, and the girls sewing
and knitting. The arithmetic had always a practical
purpose : " If a man can eat six dried herrings a
day," said the missionary, " how many herrings
should he save up to last the six winter months ? " ;
and sometimes, it is said, a bright boy solved the
problem. With such small results the missionaries
had to be content. As soon as a boy could manage
a kayak he was given one by the Government ;
his school-days then ended, and off he paddled
after seals ; and even if he attended a night-school,
he was too sleepy to Usten,
" We must not expect too much knowledge,"
said a missionary; "if they know their Bibles and
Christian doctrine, let us be content." At the
close of the century there were 24 schools, with
891 pupils.
6. In physical health the Greenlanders
deteriorated. According to one missionary, this
change was chiefly due to the fact that while in
former years they lived on seals, in later years they
lived on herrings ; and, therefore, they had now-
less fat, less exercise, and less courage. In olden
days every man could manage a kayak ; in modern
times only one in ten. In olden days they dressed
242 A History of Mokavian Missions.
in seal-skill, but now in European cloth ; in olden
days they drank chiefly water, but now strong
coffee ; and having less power to resist disease,
they fell before fearful epidemics. At the same time
the Greenlandcrs had less skill on the sea ; each year
large numbers were drowned ; and, according to
Samuel Kleinschmidt, at least half the able-bodied
men died sudden accidental deaths. For these
reasons, therefore, the Greenlanders were dying out.
In 1857 there were 1,965 converts ; in 1899, only
870.
7. In morals, however, the Greenlanders decidedly
improved. As no alcoholic drinks were allowed
in the country, they could not possibly be topers ;
and although they are said to have drunk coffee
to excess, they never became confirmed drunkards.
Sometimes they smoked too much and were prone
to be lazy. " If I only have tobacco," said one
pleasure lover, " I am content, and need no con-
version." At the close of the century, adultery
was still fairly common, robbery an occasional
scandal, and murder almost unknown ; and although
the poor folk were still conceited, and materialistic
in their desires, they had learned to be kind to each
other, to feed the hungry, and to bear trouble with
Christian patience.
8. At last the Brethren were faced by a serious
problem. For over one hundred and sixty years
the Brethren had toiled in this dreary " land of
desolation " ; and as the whole west coast of
Greenland was now nominally Christian, some
Moravians held that the time had come to retire
from Greenland and hand the converts over
to the Danish Church. In order, if possible, to come
to a wise decision, the Mission Board first sent
Otto Padel to Copenhagen to negotiate both with
Greenland. 243
the Danish (Government and the Danish Church,
and then, having gathered information in abundance,
they submitted the issue to the General Synod.
The debate v.as thorough. On the one side was
sentiment; on the other common sense; and the
resohition passed was that " The work in Greenland 1899
be transferred to the Danish State Church.'* For
this decision the following reasons were given : —
(1) The work was begun as an aid to the Danish
Church, and that aid was no longer needed.
(2) The Brethren, who worked among pure
Natives, had failed to estabhsh a Native
Ministry ; the Danes, who had worked
i mong half-breeds, had succeeded, and
these men could perform the long journeys
far more quickly than the Brethren.
(3) The Mission was costly, and the Brethren
needed the monc}- for new work.
(I) The converts might safely be left to Danish
Chaplains, now devoted to the work.
(5) Til • Danish Government welcomed the change.
:\t present, they said, there was a slight
discord between the Moravian and Danish
con\erts, and the idea was that all should
belong to one Church.
Next year the resolution took effect. In Green- 1900
land the news excited mingled feelings. At some
of the stations a few base wretches rejoiced, thinking
that under the Danish Church they would have more
liberty to sin. But most of the people were sorry
and wept sore. At Umanak the scene was heart-
breaking. As the Brethren's boat pushed off from
the shore, the people, standing at the water's edge,
tried to strike up a chorale; but, alas ! their voices
were choked in sobs and the trombones gave no
244 A History of Moravian Missions.
sound. At Igdlorpait the people believed that they
themselves were to blame.
" It's a judgment on us for our disobedienee,"
said Helper F. Carolus.
" It's worse than that," said Maurice. " It's
the end of the world."
The most striking farewell service was at Lichtenau.
As the Church would hold only 400 the service had
to be held in the open air ; eight hundred Green-
landers sat on the grass, and this was the largest
gathering ever known in Greenland. The missionary,
Bohlmann, took a photograph of the scene. Among
those present was the new Danish Minister, Baele.
The old order was changing; the new was about to
begin ; and after Reigel, the President, had preached
the farewell sermon, young Baele, in thrilling tones,
informed the crowd that, although there was a change
of management, he would preach the same Christ,
the same faith, and the same Father in Heaven.
At the close of the service there was a United Com-
munion, and then the Helpers, in a hymn composed
by one of themselves, sang farewell to their parting,
and welcome to their coming, friends.
At last, when all farewell services were over, the
Moravian missionaries, with wives and children,
Sept. Uth were gathered in the starlit harbour of Julienhaab.
As the Brethren put off in boats to board the Nordlyset,
the Greenlanders standing on the shore cried out,
" Tread your path in peace." For a week, on
account of bad weather, the Nordlyset rode at anchor,
and on Sunday, the Greenlanders, ascending a hill,
played chorales on their trombones.
Sept. 18th Ori Tuesday the wind blew fair ; the anchor was
weighed ; and slowly the Nordlyset began to move.
Around the great ship was a fleet of Greenland boats ;
in one sat the faithful band ; and once again across
the waters came the grand solemn soiuid of the
Greenland.
246
trombones. As the music swelled the whole crew
paused to listen, and the eyes of the Moravian
Brethren filled with tears. Along the coast the ship
crept slowly southward. A few days later Cape
Farewell was passed, and the story of Mora^ian
Missions in Greenland had closed.
CHArTER IV.
THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS,
1808—1901.
As David Zeisbergcr lay on his death-bed at
Goshen, the sad thought oppressed his heroic soul
that, after more than sixty years of toil, only three
Christian Indian stations remained; and now on these
three stations — Goshen in Ohio, Fairfield on the
Thames in Canada, and Springplace in Georgia —
his successors concentrated their attention. At each
place they endeavoured to save a dyir><7 race ; v.\
each place they encountered insuperable difficulties ;
and at each place, thei-efore, they fought a losing
battle.
1. Goshen. In this case the enemy was drink.
Formerly there had existed a law, passed at
Zeisberger's request, that no whisky should be sold
to the Indians in Ohio ; just before his death, how-
ever, that law was repealed, and so many of the
converts took to drink that in 1823 the station was
closed. Only a few sober Indians remained, and
these few were now transferred to Fairfield in Canada.
1813 2. Fairfield.— During the war between England
and America this station was destroyed ; soon after-
wards, it was rebuilt and called " New Fairfield " ;
and the Brethren's success at this new station was
largely due to the efficient help rendered
by the British Government. Nowhere had the
Delaware Indians a better opportunity to prosper.
New Fairfield became a model settlement ; a famous
sorcerer, Onin, was couAcrted ; and the Indians,
for the time being, becan^.e good Christian citizens.
No white trader was allowed to encroach on the
premises. Each fanii'y had at least about forty
(2ir,)
The North American Indians. 247
acres of good land ; each family also received an
annual government grant of £2 10s. ; and, if the
farmer was both industrious and thrifty, he could
become a freeholder. For these privileges the
Indians had to pay no taxes. In the eyes of the law
the Indians were minors, and could not, therefore,
be arrested for debt. On the other hand, they were
considered morally responsible ; for any offences
against the law they, like other criminals, might be
punished ; and the missionary, acting as Government
Commissioner, saw that the laws were enforced.
At the special request of the converts, the British
Government once more forbade the sale of spirits
to Indians (1836) ; and further, at the Brethren's
request, the annual government grant was made,
not as formerly, in money, but in agricultural
implements. Thus were the Indians at New Fairfield
shielded from temptation. For a while these
measures proved successfid. Most of the Indians
were now total abstainers ; some of them became
prosperous farmers ; and the missionary could often
hear them singmg hymns in the cornfields.
Meanwhile, however, beneath the surface, a deadly
force was at work. In the eighteenth century
Spangenberg had complained that the Indian,
by nature, was as fickle as an April day ; now
his successors had the same experience ; and
the sad fact has to be recorded that, during
the latter half of the nineteenth century, the
Indians at New Fairfield steadily degenerated in
character. According to one Moravian minister,
there was a fundamental difference between the
Negro and the Indian. The former was like a child
with a hopeful future ; the latter was like an old
man with a softening brain. In all probability, the
cause of the trouble was drink ; drink had ruined the
Delawares for generations ; drink had enfeebled
248 A History of Moravian Missions.
both the mind and the body ; and now, it appears,
the sins of the father were being visited upon the
children. At all events, whatever the cause, the
Indians became both ungrateful and disobedient.
1837 Some emigrated, and founded Westfield, in Kansas ;
some, though members of a Temperance Society,
drank in secret ; some denounced the missionary
as a tyrant, and claimed that the land they rented
was their own ; and some, disgusted with the
Moravians' stern system of discipline, deserted to
the Methodists. In vain one missionary, Adolphus
Hartmann, opened an Orphan Home ; the children's
relatives compelled him to close it. The last straw
was sectarian controversy. By the close of the
nineteenth century three churches — Anglican,
Methodist, and Moravian — competed with each
other at New Fairfield ; the Indians, always
fond of discussion, now made invidious
comparisons ; and the Brethren ended the
dispute by handing over their converts to the
Methodists.
8. Georgia. For the absolute failure of the
Mission in Georgia the chief blame rests on the
Georgia Government. For a few years the Mission
flourished ; both at Springplace and at Oochgelmy
boarding-schools for Indian boys were opened ;
and then, in 1831, the Government, without the
slightest provocation, not only expelled the Moravian
missionaries from Springplace, but also robbed the
Cherokees of their land, instituted a State lottery,
and handed over the land to fortunate winners.
For a dozen years the Cherokees wandered from
State to State, seeking rest and finding none ;
and then, at last, they found a new home (1848)
in Indian territory. There the Brethren endeavoured
to revive the cause ; and two new stations. New
Springplace and Woodmount, were founded (1878).
L
The North American Indians. 249
For the following reasons, however, this last enter-
prise ended in failure : —
(a) The System of Land Tenure. The American
system of land tenure was far inferior to the British.
In Canada the land was leased direct to individuals
or families ; in Indian Territory it was leased to whole
tribes ; and the individual, being only a sub-tenant,
had no real security of tenure. At any moment,
some rival, by offering a higher rent, or by means
of some backstairs influence, might dispossess him
of his property. For this reason the Cherokee farmer
could take little interest in his farm ; frequently
he sublet it to a white ; and thus, while in theory he
was a farmer, in reality he became an idle vagabond.
(6) The Cherokee Language. Among the Cherokees
Zeisberger's books were useless. No one had written
a Cherokee Dictionary or Grammar ; the Cherokee
language was exceptionally difficult ; and no
missionary could learn it unless he began in his child-
hood. On Sundays, therefore, the scene at Church was
chaotic. The missionary spoke in English ; a Cherokee
interpreted ; and often the interpreter was drunk.
(c) Tobacco and Whisky. With a few exceptions
the Cherokees smoked to excess ; even at Church both
men and women sat chewing tobacco ; and the women
were sometimes lighting their pipes as the minister
entered. The drink evil was stUl more deadly. In
theory, as at New Fairfield, the sale of spirits to Indians
was forbidden ; in fact, the Indians drank in secret.
For all these reasons, therefore, the Brethren
found it impossible to gather a settled congregation.
In 1895 both stations were taken over by the
Bethlehem Home Missionary Society ; thereby they
became incorporated with the North American
Province of the Moravian Church ; and a few faithful
Cherokees still attended the services.
Chapter V.
SURINAM, 1800—1914.
During the last forty or fifty years the Dutch Colony
of Surinam has been by far tlie strongest province
in the whole Moravian Mission Field ; more than half
the Christians in the country belong to the Moravian
Church ; and so efficiently has the work been
organized, and so deep has been the missionaries'
influence over the lives of the natives, that
Paramaribo, the capital, might be described as the
most Christian city in the world. In the year 1909
a religious census of Surinam was taken ; and,
not counting the unknown numbers of heathen,
who still swarm in the southern woods and jimgles,
the official result was as follows : — Moravians,
27,159 ; Roman Catholics, 5,529 ; Dutch Reformed
Church, 505 ; Anglicans, SSi ; Lutherans, 3,022 :
Hindus, 12,467 ; Jews, 1,094 ; Mahometans, 8,418.
Let us now examine : — (1) The Old Mission, or
Paramaribo and its environs. (2) The new Mission,
or the Bush Negroes. (3) The Coolies and other
New-comers. (4) The New Order.
1. The Old Mission, or Paramaribo and
Its Environs.
(a) Business. The first point to notice is
geographical. For over one hundred and fifty years —
I cannot say exactly how lono— the Moravian Church
has held possession, at the south end of Paramaribo,
of a goodly little tract of land known as the
" Moravian Compound " ; the business part of this
compound is called the Winkel ; and there, in 1765,
a Moravian firm, known still as J. Kersten & Co.,
established, for the benefit of the Mission, such a
flourishing business concern that, until quite recently,
(23n)
Surinam. 251
trade and religion went hand in hand. For taking
that step the Church must not be called -woildiy.
In the eighteenth century no Mora\'ian missionary
received any salary for his services. In every case
his first duty was to earn his living. For many
years, therefore, the rule existed that every Surinam
missionary must serve his time in the Winkel ; there
he toiled the greater part of the day, keeping bocks
and serving customers ; and then, when that little
flower, the "Fo Joeroe," closed her petals — i.e., at
about 4 p.m. — he closed the shop, sipped liis coffee,
set out to \'isit his flock, and conducted week-night
meetings. In due time this business ministered to
nearly all the physical and mental needs, not only
of the missionaries, but also of their converts. For
some years the only articles sold were such simple
household commodities as linen, wool, buck-skin,
hats, combs, brushes, slates, pencils, and mouse-
traps ; then, in due course, the Brethren opened
a bakehouse, a carpenter's shop, a smithy, a dairy,
and a plant for manufacturing such articles as
ploughs, locks, clocks, pumps, and p>etroleum cookers ;
and finally, through their printing press, the Brethren
published Bible Stories, New Testaments, H\Tnn
Books, Text Books, Catechisms, Law Books,
Magazines, and School Books in thousands. Thus did
the ^loravian missionaries, by means of their industry,
solve the financial problem, find employment for
many of their converts, improve the economical
status of the colony, and raise the natives to a
high state of intellectual efficiency. In connexion
with this business firm, country branches were
established ; by means of these country branches
building material was supplied for purposes of Church
extension ; and so successful was the whole system
that, till the year 1876, the Surinam Mission was
financially independent.
252 A History of Moravian Missions.
(6) Supervision. But now comes the most
wonderful part of the story. In spite of their
strenuous business engagements, the Moravian
missionaries in Paramaribo managed to keep in
personal touch with all the members of their flock.
In the city parishes they had 8,000 members ; others
dwelt in the suburbs of Rust en Vrede (1882), Combe
(1884), and Wanica (1886) ; and preaching-places
were also opened on very many plantations.
And yejt all the 14,000 members were personally
known to the missionaries. The mode of supervision
was remarkable. In the attic above the central
church in Paramaribo, which held about 2,000, there
was an office called the " Great Room " or " Bigi-
KamiraJ" ; in that office one missionary, acting as
General Registrar, kept a number of differently-
coloured roll-books ; in those roll-books all the
names of all the communicants, all the adherents,
and all the children were entered ; and the simple
and ingenious system was that each Moravian in
Paramaribo also possessed a ticket corresponding in
colour to that of the roll-book in which his name was
entered. In the orange book, e.g., were the names of
new-comers ; in the dark green the men from A to J ;
and in the grass-green, the women from A to D.
By means of this ticket system, the missionaries
supervised all their members. Each Comnmnicant
showed his ticket before he came to Communion ;
each candidate showed his ticket at the Baptism
Class ; each schoolboy showed his ticket at the school
door ; and the only meetings for which no tickets
were required were those set apart for public
worship. In spite, however, of this system of
discipline — or rather, perhaps, on account of it — the
Moravian missionaries in Paramaribo were popular.
On Sundays all four churches were generally crowded ;
on special occasions, such as Easter and Christmas,
Surinam. 258
one half of the congregation Ustened through the
open windows ; and sometimes, at the annual
Mission Festivals, the proceedings lasted tluree hours.
(c) Social Work. We come here to a curious
feature of the negro character. By nature the
Surinam Negro was a clubman rather than a domestic
man. Paramaribo is a city of clubs. In his club
the Negro was perfectly happy ; in his o^ti home
he was ill at ease; and the Brethren, recognismg
the fact, and desiring to keep him from the pubUc-
house, estabhshed a large number of Christian
clubs. For the poor there was a " Poor's Society,"
founded in 1847 by some Negro women ; for all
concerned a Sick Club, possessing its own small
Hospital ; for the employees of Kersten & Co.,
an Insurance Society ; for the youths and maidens,
Young Men's and Young Women's Christian
Associations; for those so disposed, Prayer
Unions and Singing Clubs ; and, for the boys, a
Reading Society, known as " Timothy." By means
of these organizations the Brethren fought the
dram-shop, the gambling-den, and the picture-house ;
most of the clubs raised money for charitable and
religious purposes ; and thus, in Paramaribo, the
club became almost as important as the Church.
(d) Self-Help. In two ways the Brethren
endeavoured to teach the people to help them-
selves. First, the firm of Kersten & Co. had a
special building scheme whereby each employee
might become a freeholder. In principle this
scheme was similar to the Wyndham Act in Ireland.
The firm bought the house for the employee ; the
employee paid off the price in instalments ; and
thus, in time, he had his house free of rent. Secondly,
with the aid of the Government, the Brethren
looked after orphans ; one missionary.- was known
254 A History of Mokavian Missions.
as the Orphan's Missionary, and his business was
to see that each orph.an had a good foster-parent.
For looking after the ehild the foster-parent received
8s. 6d. a week ; part of tliis sum was supplied by
the Government ; and the missionary systematically
visited the house.
(e) Education. On this topic there was some
difference of opinion between the Government and
the missionaries. The question in dispute was the
language question. For reasons of a patriotic nature
the Government insisted that no school should receive
State-aid unless the teachers used and taught the
Dutcli language; with this condition the missionaries,
wlio spoke Negro-English, could not at first
( oiriply ; and the consequence was that though the
Brethren imported, at very great expense, a few
headmasters from Holland, they could never make
their schools a success like those in the West Indies.
(/) Visitation. In order to keep in close touch
with the people the Paramaribo missionaries laid
great stress on house-to-house visitation. Each
evening, for two or three hours, they threaded the
sandy streets, and heard strange talcs in little back
rooms. In one, they met a crowd of young patriots
puffing at their cigarettes and shouting " Surinam
for the Surinamers;" in another a Cliinaman was
lighting his opium pipe at a lamp ; in another lay
a leper thanking God for His mercies, or a sinful
woman dying of consumption, and asking the Lord
to forgive her ; in another an aged saint reading her
illustrated book of Bible stories.
(g) The Bethesda Leper Home. For the benefit
of all the lepers in Surinam, some of whom had
caused great offence by begging in the streets of
Paramaribo, the Government (1897) built a small
\ illagc at Great CluitiUon ; one part of this
Surinam. 255
village, named Bethcsda, was placed mider the
care of the Moravians, who p^o^^ded, not only the
chaplain, but also a staff of nurses ; and so great was
the enthusiasm roused by this charitable institution
that when Henry Weiss, the chaplaLn, went on a
collecting tour, he found himself famous. In
New York (1903) he was presented to President
Roosevelt ; at Buffalo certam benevolent ladies
issued a half-yearly magazine entitled, " Among
the Lepers in Surinam " ; and later, in Holland, he
interviewed Queen Wilhelmina, and received from
Iier a harmonium for the hospital, a gold medal for
one of the nurses, and a bust of herself for the Roman
Cathohc patients. The institution was soon well
known in the land. Some of the patients became good
Christians, and sent gifts to the Leper Home in
Jerusalem ; most of them learned to make boots
or till the garden ; and in 1917 the good news was
announced that, after trying the so-called "Delord
Remedy," one leper had been completely cured.
By means, therefore, of all the foregoing methods, the
Moravian Church gradually increased in favour, not
only with the Go\ crnment, but also with the planters.
Formerly the planters had hated and despised
the Brethren ; now, towards the close of the century,
they rendered financial assistance. In the year
1833 only six plantations in the country were avail-
able for missionary work ; in the year 1836 the
number had increased to one hundred and thirty ;
and, thus encouraged, the Brethren founded, in the
immediate neighbourhood of the city, new stations
at Charlottenburg (1835), Salem (1840), Beekhuizen
(1843), Rust en Werk (1844), Leliendal (1848),
Catharina Sophia (1855), Heerendyke (1856), Bersaba
(1858), Waterloo (1859), Clevia (1859), Domburg
(1891), Nickerie (1894), Potribo (1896), and Groot
Chatillon (1898).
356 A History of Moravian Missions.
2. The New Mission, or The Bush Negroes.
1840 At the special request of the Dutch Government,
the Brethren revived their work among the Bush
Negroes. These Negroes lived near four rivers,
the Surinam, the Saramakka, the Koppename,
and the Cotica ; and on the banks of each river the
Brethren erected stations.
(a) On the Surinam lived the Saramakkers. In
this region the climate was specially deadly. The
first missionary, Rasmus Schmidt lasted only five
years (1840-5) ; the first station, Gingce, had to be
closed ; and, though other stations were afterwards
built — Gansee (1847), Koffykamp (1854), Bergendal
(1869), and Aurora (1891) — the missionaries could
only pay flying visits, and had to leave the work to
Native Helpers. To that rule there was one|^^heroic
1848''53 exception. For five years a missionary's widow,
Mrs. Hartmann, lived all alone among these people,
sleeping in a native hut, travelling from village
to village, and teaching both old and young people
Bible history ; and so gracious was the influence
she exerted that the Saramakkers became noted
for good character.
(6) On the Saramakka lived the Matuaris. For
thirty-seven years the chief preacher was a native
evangelist, John King (1862-99) ; this man became
famous in the land, partly for his dreams and visions,
and partly for his insight into character ; and the
missionaries themselves declared that he was
inspired. With his assistance the Brethren founded
two stations, Maripastoon (1862) and Kwattahede
(1881) ; he himself visited many villages, and
persuaded hundreds to hand over their idols ; and
his own converts elected him their Grandman.
(c) On the Koppename lived the Koffimakas.
By tearing a heathen banner to shreds, one missionary
Surinam. 257
managed to convert the chief; the people speedily
followed the chief's example ; and two stations —
Copenkrisi (1889) and Kaimanston (1896) were
founded.
(d) On the Cotica lived the Aukas. Among these
people the Brethren had little success. The chief,
Ossessi, adopted a curious attitude. For some
reasons best known to himself, he declared that while
he would worship the one true God, and teach his
people good morals, yet he would not have the
Christian religion ; with him, of course, all the
Wintimen agreed ; and therefore, though the Brethren
founded two stations — Wanhatti (1892) and Albina
(1894) — they had to be content, for the most part,
with occasional evangelistic visits.
With regard to the Bush Negro Mission as a whole,
one general remark must here be made. In
Paramaribo and its \icinity most of the Negroes
are Christians ; along the four rivers most of them
are still heathen ; and one reason for their obstinacy
is that they are still, for pohtical reasons, suspicious
of whites.
3. The New-Comers.
During the last thirty years the Moravian Church
has also endeavoured to preach the Gospel to the
vast crowd of Coolies, Chinese, and Javanese imported
by the Dutch Government.
(a) The Coolies. In 1870 Great Britain and
Holland made a treaty, one clause in which was
that Coohes from India, on certain conditions,
might be shipped to Surinam ; and so well were the
first immigrants treated by the Dutch Government,
that the number speedily rose to 20,000. In religion
these Coolies were mostly Hindus ; but their Hinduism
was of a peculiar type. In spite of their professed
faith in Hinduism they really believed in many gods,
258 A History of Moravian Missions.
the great god, Ram, being specially popular; most
of these gods were represented by images ; and some
Coolies are said to have asserted that hovering
round them in the air there were thirty million
gods and fifty million goddesses. For twenty years,
not knowing Hindustani, the Moravians could do little
for these people. The first good opening came in a
curious way. In 1894 a Coolie Christian, Samuel
Balgobin, offered his services as evangelist, and
was accepted ; in 1895 came a second, Nicholas
Faden ; in 1897 came a third, Abraham Lincoln ;
and so encouraging were these men's reports, that
finally, in 1905, two ordained Moravian missionaries
were appointed. Each of these missionaries under-
stood Hindustani ; in 1909 a Church for Coolies was
built in Paramaribo ; and some attempt was made to
teach Coolie children. For at least four reasons,
however, Moravian work among the Coolies has not
been a great success : — (1) The Coolie Brahmins are
fiercely opposed to the Mission, and inform their
flock that the greatest crime a Coolie can commit is to
become a Christian. (2) The Coolies are reserved
and suspicious, and do not give the missionaries
their confidence. (3) In spite of their high wages,
the Coolies are not quite contented with their position
in the colony, and, like many artisans, are more
interested in politics than in religion. (4) Many
Coolies conscientiously believe that. Ram and Jesus
being two different names for the same person,
Hinduism and Christianity are simply two^different
forms of the same religion.
(6) The Chinese. With the Chinese labourers the
missionaries were more successful. In two ways the
Chinese differed from the Coolies. On the one hand,
they were more addicted to gambling ; on the other
hand they were more serious and thoughtful ; and
those who did accept the Christian religion — especially
Surinam. 259
certain business men in the city — became most useful
members of Church Committees.
(c) The Javanese. With the Javanese, who were
mostly Mahometans, the great difficulty seems to
have been that, being entirely satisfied with them-
selves, they saw no need for instruction. In the
beginning, they said, God made the first men out
of baked clay. The first set were burnt and became
Negroes ; the second were half-baked and became
whites ; and the third, who were done to a turn,
were the Javanese. The first preacher to these
people was a Dutchman, Bielke. In order to render 1909
himself thoroughly efficient, Bielke not only studied
with a retired Java missionary, but also spent a short
time in Java; then he settled down at Leliendal on
the Commewijne River ; and making good use of his
tricycle, he visited the Javanese labourers on the
surrounding plantations.
But he did not form a high opinion of their
character. Most of the men were gamblers and
opium smokers ; theft was remarkably common ;
and the people, with a few exceptions, refused to
listen to his preaching.
4. The New Order, 1900 — 1914.
And now came the great transformation. As long as 1900
the missionaries did so much for the people — raising
money in the Kersten factory, preaching the Gospel,
managing clubs, teaching in day-schools, nursing
lepers, providing for orphans, and visiting the pesti-
lential Bush Negro stations — there was always the
very serious danger that the people could never learn
to help themselves ; this danger was fully discussed at
a General Synod (1899) ; and, next year, acting on
certain Synodal resolutions, the missionaries in
Surinam — so far as the " Old Mission "f was con-
fThe term " Old Miasion," refers to Paramaribo «aid its enviroiu.
260 A History of Moravian Missions.
cerned — made several important changes in the whole
system of management. In the past the leading
principle had been centralisation ; henceforward
it was local self-government. In the past the
missionaries had been kind-hearted autocrats ; hence-
forth, to some extent, the people were to learn to
rule themselves. In the past the missionaries had
not only done nearly all the work, but raised nearly
all the money ; henceforward the people shared
both in the work and in the financial burden.
{a) The first step was to separate business and
preaching. In the past all missionaries had been
compelled to serve their time with Kersten & Co. ;
in 1900 this practice ceased ; and henceforward the
business was managed, not by a conference of
missionaries, but by a special business committee.
On the natives this change had a great effect.
Formerly, by serving in the shop, the missionary had
earned his own living ; now, of course, he required
a ministerial salary ; and thus the people were taught
to realise that, if they would have efficient ministers,
they must contribute something towards their
support.
(b) The next step was the abolition of common
house-keeping. In the past the Paramaribo
missionaries had all breakfasted, dined and supped in
one room ; henceforward each, having his own private
salary, managed entirely his own domestic affairs ;
and Bishop VouUaire, the head of the Mission,
regarded this change as highly important. In the
past all the Paramaribo missionaries had met in
daily conference ; now each was more exclusively
concerned with his own congregation ; and thus
another step was taken towards local congregational
self-management.
(c) In 1899, for the first time, a native was fully
Surinam. 261
ordained ; soon after a Theological College was
founded ; and by the year 1912 Surinam had eight
native ministers.
(d) The " Great Room " above the Central Church
was abohshed. Paramaribo was now di\'ided into
districts ; each district elected its own committee
and kept its own register books ; and each committee
now undertook certain definite financial obligations.
(e) The last move was still more radical. In
1910 the General Mission Conference was abohshed ; a
new body, called the Church Conference, was formed ;
and the difference between these two bodies was that,
while the former consisted of missionaries only, the
latter included, not only ex-officio members, t.c,
missionaries, the Principal of the Theological
College, and School Inspectors, but also native
delegates elected by the congregations. Thus did
the native Christians of Surinam take the first steps
towards the formation of a Native Church.
Additional Note.
THE SURINAM MARRIAGE PROBLEM,
1880—1893.
For thirteen years Surinam was the scene of a
keen, painful, and even dangerous controversy on
the question whether, in matters matrimonial, the
converts should be expected and compelled to
conform, in spite of difficulties, to the normal
Christian ideal, or whether they should be permitted
to retain certain national marriage customs ; both
among the missionaries and the converts the greatest
excitement prevailed ; and the interesting feature
of the story is that two prominent missionaries —
H. B. Heyde and J. Haller — acting from the best
motives, espoused the Negro cause. For this conduct
262 A History of Moravian Missions.
each of these missionaries paid a severe penalty.
Heyde was dismissed from the service, and set up
in business as a printer ; and Haller, broken down
by the strain, died in the prime of hfe. To the
careful student of Foreign Mission history, the story
has great value. It shows with what difficult and
complex problems the foreign missionary has some-
times to deal. For this reason, therefore, I here
give the main facts.
1. The Cause of the Trouble.
The true, original cause of the trouble was the
institution of slavery. For the long period of one
1737-1863 hundred and twenty-six years nearly all the Moravian
converts in Surinam were slaves ; by the law of the
land in Surinam slaves were not allowed to marry ;
and, therefore, even Christian couples had, of
necessity, to make their own arrangements. Among
these Christian Negroes two customs existed. One
was a spoken contract, called the Verbond, made by
the contracting parties in the presence of the
missionary. For all practical purposes this
Verbond was as good as a legal marriage. In
the eyes of the law it was not a marriage ; in the
judgment of the missionaries it was ; and all couples
thus united were admitted without question to the
Holy Communion. The other custom was merely
a private contract ; and this also was recognised by
the missionaries. The Verbond was binding for
life ; the other contract might be dissolved by
mutual consent or because husbands and wives
were sold to different masters. As long, however, as
such couples remained faithful to each other, they
also were admitted to the Holy Communion.
But now arose a great change in the situation.
In 1849 all slaves owned by the Moravian Church
obtained their hberty ; in 1863 slavery in Surinam
Surinam. 268
was abolished entirely ; and henceforth, being free
citizens of the colony, the Negroes had as much right
to marry as the whites. Why, then, it may be asked,
were Christian Negroes not fo^th^^^th compelled to
abandon their old customs and marry according to
the laws of the land ? But the answer was not so
simple as might be expected ; and much could
easily be said on both sides. To that question, in
fact, three different answers were given. Let us
note carefully the attitude adopted by each of the
three contending parties.
2. Three Different Attitudes.
(1) The Attitude of the Moravian Mission Board.
Without the slightest hesitation, the Moravian
Mission Board held that the law of the land must
be enforced. If a Negro, they said, desires to marry
legally, he can now do so ; no excuse, either for the
Verbond or for the private contract, exists any
longer ; and all couples who refuse to obey must be
expelled from the Church. With this ruling the
Surinam missionaries agreed ; and during the years
1863-1879, no fewer than 5,000 refractory Church
members were excommunicated.
(2) The Negroes' Attitude. For the following
strong reasons, the Negroes, many of whom were
excellent Christians, were conscientiously opposed
to legal marriage : —
{a) The marriage-fee, one guinea, was more than
most of them could afford.
(6) Most of the white couples in Surinam were
still not legally married ; nevertheless, they
were freely admitted to the Holy Com-
munion both in the Protestant and in the
CathoUc Churches ; and, if this was right
for whites, it must also be equally right for
Negroes.
264 A History of Moravian Missions.
(c) Among the whites, so far as the Negroes could
observe, legal marriage did not, as a rule,
conduce to domestic happiness ; the happiest
couples were the unmarried couples, and
that, they honestly testified, was equally
true among the Negroes. "As soon as a
man gets married," they said, " the devil
enters his house."
With these arguments Bernard Heyde agreed.
At a public meeting in Paramaribo (August 7th, 1879)
Heyde contended that no missionary had any right
to exclude a Negro from the Holy Communion
for refusing to be legally married. In vain the
Mission Board ordered him to recant ; and in vain
his Surinam colleagues forbade him to agitate in
public. Heyde regarded himself as inspired; for his
obstinacy he was duly dismissed ; and the Negroes,
in their anger, nearly tore the other missionaries to
pieces.
(3) The Missionaries^ Later Attitude. For the
sake of peace, most of the Moravian missionaries,
during the next period (1880-93) favoured some kind
of compromise ; so keen was the situation that two
members of the Mission Board — Eugene Reichel and
Th. van. Calker — visited Surinam ; and finally,
after much heart-searching, the Mission Board agreed
to the following concessions : —
(a) Unmarried couples might be baptized.
(6) Unmarried couples, while not admitted to
the Holy Communion, need not have their
names struck off the Church lists.
(c) If one of the contracting parties was willing
to obey the law, but was prevented from
so doing by the opposition of his or her
partner, that one should be admitted to the
Communion. With this attempt at com-
I
Surinam.
265
promise, however, John Haller disagreed ;
he himself refused to suspend defaulters ; and
the Mission Board at last agreed that even
unmarried couples might attend the Com-
munion. Nevertheless, said the Mission
Board, the Surinam missionaries must
rectify matters some day.
3. Final Solution.
At the request of the Mission Board, the Govern-
ment reduced the marriage-fee ; now the Negroes
had no longer their chief excuse ; and henceforth
legal marriage was enforced in all cases.
1893
Chapter VI.
SOUTH AFRICA, WEST: or THE HOTTENTOTS,
1792—1914.
1. The Three Musicians, 1792—1806.
As long as South Africa remained in the hands
of the Dutch, with their rigid Calvinistic notions, and
their theory that only State Churches had any
right to exist, there seemed little chance that George
Schmidt would have a successor ; and yet it was
really a famous Dutch preacher who changed the
whole situation. His name was Hesperous Ritzman
Van Lier. For about three years this man
was the chief topic of conversation in Cape
Town. In defiance of orthodox popular opinion,
according to which the Boers were God's chosen
people, while the Hottentots were predestined
to damnation, Van Lier boldly maintained that
the Gospel should be preached to every creature.
In the year 1789 he preached a sensational missionary
sermon ; and one result of the sermon was that Mrs.
Smith, in Cape Town itself, opened a Sunday School
for slaves. But this was not the end of the preacher's
influence. At the very time when Van Lier was
at the height of his glory, Bishop John Frederick
Reichel, who was on his way home from Tranquebar,
called at Cape Town. And now, taking the tide at
the flood, Bishop Reichel discussed the problem
with Van Lier, addressed well-wishers at drawing-
room meetings in Cape Town, and then, on his return
1789 to Herrnhut, proposed at a General Synod that,
if possible, the Mission to South Africa should be
resumed. The authorities appealed to the Chamber
of Seventeen. Meanwhile, in Holland, the change
of opinion was almost as great as in Cape Town.
(266)
South Africa West : or the Hottentots. 267
In former years the Moravians in Holland had been
regarded as heretics ; now large numbers of Dutch
Christians had read Spangenberg's "Idea Fidei
Fratrum " ; and the consequence was that, on
certain conditions, the Seventeen gave their per-
mission. First, they said, they must know the names
of the men ; secondly, these men must not preach
where other churches existed already ; and thirdly,
they must not be replaced without the Chamber's
permission. To these conditions the Moravian
authorities agreed ; three musical Brethren were
selected ; and in due course the three arrived at
Cape Town. The eldest, Henry Marsveld, was a
singer ; the second, Daniel Schwinn, played the
flute ; and the third, John Kiihnel, played the
violin.
The situation in South Africa was still uncertain. 1792
At the time when the three musicians arrived on the
scene there was still much difference of opinion on
the question of Christian work among the Hottentots.
In official circles the feeling was friendly ; among
the Boers themselves it was mostly hostile ; and
thus, at the outset, the Brethren met both with
favour and with opposition. For the first two or
three years they were almost entirely dependent
on the goodwill of a certain Major Teunessen, the
commandant in the Sweet Milk Valley. As this
man had been taught by George Schmidt, he had
a certain amount of sympathy with missionary work ;
and now, from natural motives of gratitude, he acted
as the Brethren's guide and patron. With the special
permission of Rhenius, the Governor, Teunessen
drove the Brethren to the Valley ; there, during the
Christmas season, he entertained them royally in his
own house ; and then, on December 24th, he drove
them to the historic Glen of Baboons. For three
hours the Brethren examined the sacred scene.
268 A History of Moravian Missions.
There, in full vigour, stood George Schmidt's pear-
tree, heavily laden with fruit ; there, too, a Hottentot
informed them, stood part of his house ; and dotted
around, lay the ruins of cottages built by him and
his converts. But the strangest Hnk with the past
was still to come. At Sergeant's River, two miles
further on, there still lived, said the Hottentots, an old
woman named Helena, who had been baptized by
Schmidt; she was now over eighty years old, and
nearly blind ; and yet, they said, she could still
remember the hour when Schmidt arrived. The
Major drove the three Brethren to the spot. As
soon as they arrived on the scene, the Hottentots
gathered round and did obeisance ; old Helena,
too weak to walk alone, was led out of her hut ;
and, seated on the ground in the open air, she
answered the Brethren's questions.
"Is it true," asked Mars veld, " that George
Schmidt baptized you ? "
" Yes, masters, it is true."
" And what name did he give you ? "
" Helena."
" And do you remember anything George Schmidt
taught you ? "
For some moments Helena tasked her memory
in vain, then Mars veld, to give a hint, mentioned
the name of Jesus, and old Helena smiled and
answered: "Jesus! Jesus! Oh, yes! I remember
that."
" And we are George Schmidt's Brethren," said
Marsveld, " and have come like him to tell you how
to be saved."
At this, Helena, folding her hands, exclaimed :
" Thank God ! thank God ! " For a few
moments she sat pondering, and then she informed
the Brethren that in her hut she had a book
which George Schmidt had given her. Forthwith a
South Africa West : or the Hottentots. 269
Hottentot ran to her hut, and returned with a
sheepskin parcel. Inside the sheepskin lay a leather
bag ; inside the leathei* bag a Dutch New Testament ;
and that New Testament, carefully preserved in a box
made of wood from the pear-tree, is now shewn to the
visitor at Genadendal. On the Brethren the whole
scene made a profound impression. In reply to
further questions, Helena explained that, while
unable to read herself, she still loved to hear the
Bible read to her. The reader was a Hottentot
young woman ; this young woman now appeared
and read the second chapter of St. Matthew ; and
the three Brethren, touched to the quick, resolved
to revive the cause at Bavianskloof.
As soon, then, as the usual Christmas and New 1793
Year's festi^^ties were over, the three musicians,
aided by friendly Hottentots, began to build the
far-famed settlement of Genadendal. f On January
4th, 1793, they laid the foundations of the first
Mission House in South Africa. In order to encourage
the Hottentots, they promised that, as soon as the
house was ready, a day-school would be opened ;
and the Hottentots, fired by this prospect, worked
without any pay. For eight weeks Bavianskloof
was the home of enthusiastic industry. The
Hottentots doffed their caroches and toiled in the sun ;
the women sat smoking strong tobacco and watching
their husbands ; and the babies, sitting huck-a-
back, grinned over their mothers' shoulders. As
soon as the first house was ready, the Brethren
proceeded to turn the Glen into a garden. The
Hottentots, zealous as ever, guided the plough ;
the women carried off refuse in their caroches ;
and the Brethren, after clearing the brushwood,
planted vegetables. Meanwhile, however, the usual
foes were at work. In the dead of night baboons
tPronounced Gnadendal, the a as in father.
270 A History of Moravian Missions.
purloined the pears; caterpillars, beetles and moles
destroyed both cabbages and fruit ; and one
night a furious gale removed the roof of their house.
But the greatest trouble was the lack of milk and
butter. For some reason which I am unable to
define, all the cows in that district refused to be
milked until their calves had been weaned, and the
Brethren solved the problem by importing a herd
of goats. The next trouble sprang from Cape Town.
For several years the Brethren were constantly
afflicted by gangs of sightseers. In those days there
were no country hotels ; the law of hospitality was
binding ; and the Brethren had to entertain visitors
far better off than themselves. Each visitor, of
course, expected his cake and wine ; each, if he
stayed the night, occupied the best bedroom ; and
most of them returned to Cape Town without sub-
scribing to the funds.
In spite, however, of these afflictions, the cause
soon made good progress. As soon as the first
house was ready, the promised day-school was opened ;
and the Brethren discovered, to their delight, that
all the Hottentots were eager to learn. Some came
from kraals a hundred and fifty miles distant ; the
school-room, i.e., the Brethren's parlour, held 200
scholars ; and young and old alike could be seen
conning their books in the cornfields. In vain the
Boers warned these seekers after truth that the
Brethren had a chest of bamboo-canes. " Never
mind," retorted the students. " As long as we can
get the learning we do not mind the stick." Still
better, there was soon a marked improvement in
morals. Some of the Hottentots were lazy,
drunken, and immoral ; now, in their desire for
learning, they submitted to discipline ; and the
punishment which they dreaded most was expulsion
from the day-school. The most striking case was
South Africa West : or the Hottentots. 271
that of a married man. For the sin of hitting his
wife on the head he was exposed before the whole
school.
" Why did you beat your wife ? " said the school-
master.
" Because she would not mend my trousers,'*
he answered.
The schoolmaster seized the man's book ; the
man was expelled from the school ; and the
Hottentots learned that a scholar must be good,
not only in the school-room, but also in his own
home. With the children, in fact, the Brethren
were rather too strict. If a boy or girl was accused
of any serious sin, the Brethren generally arranged
a public trial, at which the other scholars were
encouraged to give e^^dence ; and then, if the
verdict was " Guilty," the culprit was handed to
his parents to be flogged. It is obvious that this
system was a mistake. Boys and girls were taught
to spy on each other ; the innocent gloated over
the trials of the guilty ; and some of the children
became, in consequence, insufferable prigs. Let
us not, however, be too hard on the Brethren. As
soon as they discovered their mistake they modified
their methods.
Meanwhile, the spiritual side of the work had not
been neglected. For some years the Brethren were
not allowed to build a Church. In the rainy season
the services were held in the parlour ; in fine weather,
under George Schmidt's pear-tree. From the out-
set the Brethren laid great stress on music. Marsveld,
the Dutchman, acted as precentor ; the two others
played their respective instruments ; the children
had music lessons twice a week ; and the Hottentots
learned the Gospel message, not merely by hstening
to the sermons, but also, and chiefly, by singing
the high-class Moravian chorales. By employing this
272 A History of Moravian Missions.
method, therefore, the Brethren appealed, not to the
reasoning faculties, but rather to the emotions ; most
of their preaching, also, was of the "Blood and Wounds
Theology " type ; and yet the ethical results were
most encouraging. The more the Brethren described
the sufferings of Christ, the more the people seemed
convinced of sin ; one sinner, the Brethren reported,
endeavoured to ease his conscience by taking
medicine ; and the people often confessed their
transgressions, not only to God, but to the Brethren.
On July 19th, 1793, the first convert was baptized.
The candidate was a young married woman, and
strange was the story she had to tell. Her husband,
she said, had often dreamed that three men would
come to South Africa to resume George Schmidt's
labours ; she herself was a daughter of Kybodo,
one of George Schmidt's converts ; and thus, in her,
the Brethren had another link with the past.
At this point, however, fresh troubles arose.
The first was due to the great European War.
On February 1st, 1793, the French Republic
declared war against both England and Holland ;
1793-4 in April an order was issued in Cape Town that all
able-bodied Hottentots must enlist in the Dutch
Army ; and so many Hottentots now left Bavians-
kloof that not enough were left to till the soil. For
some months the missionaries were on short commons ;
many Hottentot women and children actually died
of starvation ; and friends at Cape Town had to
send provisions. Next year, 1794, Holland having
been conquered by France, England and Holland
were at war ; the English fleet was now in Table
Bay ; and once again the Hottentots were summoned
to fight for their native land.
We have next the famous " Story of the Bell."
As the Brethren wished to teach the Hottentots
punctuality, they used a large bell to summon them
\
South Africa West : or the Hottentots. 278
to work; and Kiilmel, in his diary, says that a Dutch
clergyman named Borcherd, residing at Stellenbosch,
interviewed certain Government officials at Cape
Town, complained that the bell distm-bed his
slumbers, and demanded, with success, that the bell
be rung no more. For some weeks, so we are told,
the story of the bell created a sensation in Cape
Town, and pictures of the offending bell were sold in
the stationers' shops. But now comes a question hard
to answer. In his History of Christian Missions in
South Africa, Dr. du Plessis dismisses the whole
story as fiction. As Stellenbosch is fifty miles from
Bavianskloof, Borcherd, he says, could not hear the
bell, and no clergyman in his senses could make such
an absurd complaint ; and, further, we must also
admit that the evidence for the story will not stand
much criticism. Kiihnel heard the story from
Baas Teunessen ; Baas Teunessen, so he said, had
heard it in Cape Town ; and Kiihnel recorded it as a
fact without making further inquiries. How, then,
it may be asked, could such a story arise at all ?
In all probability Borcherd did make a complaint
of some kind. At the time there was a rule in South
Africa that only State Churches had the right to
have bells. Borcherd heard that, against this law,
the Brethren had a bell at Bavianskloof, and what
he probably said was that the mere thought of such
an enormity was sufficient to disturb his slumbers.
At any rate, the bell was silent till Soutii Africa came
under British rule.
The next trouble was due to Major Teunessen.
His motive was probably jealousy. For some thirty
or forty years he had exercised a great influence over
the Hottentots ; by many he was called the
*' Hottentots' God " ; and now, when he found
that the Brethren were exerting a stUl greater
influence, he became their bitterest enemy, and sided
274 A History of Moravian Missions.
with certain unscrupulous Boer farmers. The
farmers' case may have had some justice in it. In
former years, so they declared, Hottentots had
worked on their farms ; now they had deserted the
farms and settled at Bavianskloof ; and as a result
of this, they contended, the farming industry
suffered. On the surface, this argument was per-
fectly sound ; Major Teunessen went to Cape Town
and complained that Bavianskloof was over-
crowded ; and then, returning accompanied by three
officials, he announced that, in accordance with a
new Government order, no Hottentot might live at
Bavianskloof unless he could show a certificate
proving that the farmer for whom he had previously
worked had allowed him to come. For some months
this attack on the Mission succeeded ; most of the
farmers, as Teunessen knew, could neither read nor
write ; and his argument, therefore, about the
certificate was unblushing trickery. But once again
the Government acted nobly. In response to the
Brethren's request, a special inspector came to
Bavianskloof; this inspector now discovered that,
so far from being over-crowded, Bavianskloof
possessed only twelve head of cattle, only one hundred
goats, only two sheep, and only one horse ; and
acting on the inspector's report, the Government
rescinded its order.
1800 The last trouble was due to a famous rebel. At
the very time when the English fleet was bombarding
Cape Town, there was formed in South Africa the
so-called National Party, the chief object of
which was to throw off the yoke of Holland and
establish a South African Independent Republic ;
and now, led by an Italian named Pisani, they actually
issued a manifesto declaring that one of their most
important designs was the absolute destruction of
Bavianskloof. Pisani appears to have been a half-
South Africa West : or the Hottentots. 275
mad fanatic. " I belong myself," said he, " to the
devil ; sooner or later I shall be damned in any
case ; and meanwhile I will do my best to prevent
the Hottentots going to heaven." The chief terms
of the manifesto were as follows : —
(1) We will not permit any Moravians to live here
and teach the Hottentots.
(2) All Hottentots born on farms must live on
those farms, and live without wages till
they are twenty-five years old.
(3) All other Hottentots must live among the
farmers.
(4) All Hottentots and Bushmen must remain
slaves for life.
(5) If the Moravians want to preach, they may go
to the Bushmen.
For the Brethren there was now only one course
open ; Pisani issued a definite order that they must
leave Bavianskloof in three days ; and the Brethren,
driving off to Cape Town, left the station in charge
of old Helena.
But the day of deliverance was nearer than the 1801
Brethren thought. Once more the Governor,
Schuysken, proved himself a true statesman. In
the past he had tried to be just to the Brethren,
and now he openly acted as their champion. First,
he provided the Brethren with a safe-conduct, and
authorised them to return to Bavianskloof ;
secondly, knowing that Moravian Hottentots were
ser\ang in the Dutch Army at Cape Town, he ordered
Teunessen to send provisions to Bavianskloof ;
and finally, a month later, when Cape Town
surrendered and South Africa became a British
Colony (September 16th, 1801), he recommended
276 A History of Moravian Missions.
Bavianskloof to the care of the new Governor,
General Craig.f
2. The Rule of Great Britain, 1806 — 1914.
As soon as South Africa passed into British hands,
the Moravian cause at Genadendal entered on a new
epoch of great prosperity ; the British rule began
with fair play to all religious denominations ; and
so deep was the interest taken by many of the
Governors, not only in the material, but also in the
moral and religious, welfare of the Hottentots,
that one enthusiastic Moravian missionary, John
Henry Schmitt — noted for his fight with a panther —
declared that his confidence in the Government
was complete. His praise was more than
justified. Lord Macartney provided the timber
of which the first Church at Genadendal was built,
and had the Moravian property clearly defined by
law. Sir John Craddock paid several visits to
Genadendal, interviewed the converts in their huts,
granted land for the extension of the settlement,
subscribed towards the building of a school-house,
and even sent the Brethren a sermon, printed at his
own request, on the importance of religious education.
Lord Caledon granted the land for a new station
at Gruenekloof, near Cape Town ; Sir Tony Cole
(1880) visited the Leper Hospital at Hemel-en-Aarde,
and examined every detail of the work ; Sir George
Grey,* who also visited Genadendal, informed the
Brethren that if they would open schools in Kaffraria
the Government would cover the expense ; and Sir
tin 1802, by the Treaty of AmienB, South Africa was restored to
Holland; but in 1806 was finally annexed by Great Britain.
♦Sir George Grey is noted for his interest in Missions. He was
afterwards Governor of New Zealand, and asked the Brethren
to undertake work among the Papus in Victoria. For his
interest in the natives of Samoa, sec R. L. Stevenson's
" Vailima Memories," p. 18.
South Afbica West : or the Hottentots. 277
George Napier (1840) was so delighted with the
settlement that he actually raised a fund for a
Mission among the Fingoos. Let us now see
how the Brethren, aided and encouraged by the
Government, endeavoured to uplift the Hottentots.
The Grant System. For eighty-two years lg27''1909
Genadendal was managed on the so-called " Grant
System " ; this system was also adopted at some
other stations ; and the leading principle of the
system was that while the Government granted
the land free of rent, and for the benefit of the
natives, the Brethren, in return for the privilege,
undertook the entire management — govern-
mental, industrial, educational, and religious —
of the growing town. At each of these " Grant
Stations," therefore, the missionaries had to perform
a great variety of duties. They were employers of
labour ; they were magistrates ; they were sanitary
inspectors and medical officers ; they were school-
inspectors ; and thereby they saved the Government
many thousands of pounds. In England work of this
sort was done by Government officials ; in South
Africa it was done, without any extra salary, by the
Moravian missionaries ; and the Government,
recognising fully the high value of their work, were
naturally only too anxious to make new grants of
land. By observing how the system worked at
Genadendal, we shall appreciate its importance.
(1) By nature most of the Hottentots were lazy ;
by the Brethren they were now taught to work ;
and so industrious did they become that in a few
years they made the settlement the second largest
town in South Africa. The business part of the town
was called the " Werft." At the head of each
department was a missionary ; each section, t.c,
the grocery stores, the flower garden, the smithy.
278 A History of Moravian Missions.
the allotments, and the pastureland, was under
immediate Moravian control ; and thus guided, the
Hottentots became energetic and skilful artisans.
In the smithy they made the best knives in the
colony ; both their tobacco and their snuff were
renowned at Cape Town for their delicate flavour ;
missionaries and Hottentots alike now wore home-
made leather trousers ; and once, when a period
of bad trade threatened the station with starvation,
the missionaries speedily averted the danger by
planting 7,000 castor-oil trees and setting up a machine
to extract the oil. The little town became a model
of decency and order. Each family man now lived,
not as of old, in a bee-hive hut, but in a brick
cottage, behind which he had about an acre of
land, let out in usufruct ; and here, like an
English allotment-holder, he grew his own fruit and
vegetables, and kept his own pig and hens. By the
middle of the century Genadendal had become a
famous industrial centre. Genadendal ploughs, in-
vented by a missionary, took first prize at Cape Town ;
Genadendal snuff-boxes were made from the historic
pear-tree ; Genadendal goods, of various kinds,
were shown at the Great Exhibition in London (1851) ;
and Genadendal castor-oil won a gold medal. Nor
were such facts the best part of the story. Good
articles suggested good workmen ; good workmen
were the chief need of the colony ; and the con-
sequence was that the Genadendal Hottentots often
found employment outside the station. The
labourers earned good wages on the railway ; the
girls made good servants at Cape Town, sometimes
in the homes of high officials, and became noted for
their integrity of character ; and the young men,
who enlisted in the army and fought in the Kaffir
Wars, were praised for their loyalty and bravery.
Thus did Genadendal become famous ; the natives
South Africa West : or the Hottentots. 279
called the place " God's Home " ; and \isitors from
Cape Town were entranced by its beauty. In the
spring and early summer the station shone at its
fairest. On the neighbouring hill red flowers were
massed in thousands ; peaches, oranges and tomatoes
gleamed in the gardens ; the brook, on its way to
the Sonderend, sparkled in the sunshine ; and
Pringle, the South African poet, expressed the
popular admiration in the lines : —
In distant Europe oft I've longed
To see this Vale of Grace ; to hst the sound
Of bubbling brooks and morning twitters round
The apostle Schmidt's old consecrated tree ;
To hear the hvnins of solemn melody
Rising from the sequestered burial ground, "f
To see the heathen taught, the lost sheep found,
The blind restored, the long-oppressed set free.
All this I've \\-itnessed now, and pleasantly
Its memory shall in my heart remain.
(2) Secondly, the Brethren acted as magistrates.
As the land was Moravian grant-land, the missionaries
had full authority to say who might and who might
not live there. No Hottentot, therefore, could
live at Genadendal without the Brethren's per-
mission ; and that permission was not given except
on stringent conditions. Each applicant had to
show a certificate proving that he was not some
farmer's labourer ; he had to work whether he wished
to or not ; and, above all, he had to sign a document
known as the " Genadendal Regulations." And
those " Regulations " were most rigidly enforced.
No public-houses and no gambling halls were per-
mitted ; no wines or spirits were sold in the shops ;
no tramps solicited alms ; and no boys played pitch
fPriiigle is probably referring here to the early morning Eaater
Sunday service.
280 A History of Moravian Missions.
and toss in the streets. At one time certain hostile
Boers circulated the absurd report that the Brethren
were traitors in disguise, and that their converts
possessed fire-arms, and might, therefore, at any
moment, rise in rebellion against the Government.
The very opposite, of course, was the case. " No
Hottentot," ran the rule, " is to keep fire-arms in
his house at night. He must dehver them up to
us every evening. If he goes with arms into the
country, he must have a certificate from us ; other-
wise, every farmer has a right to take them from
him." By enforcing' these " Regulations," there-
fore, the Brethren preserved due law and order ;
and all the converts were instructed to be loyal to
the Government.
(8) Still further, according to their limited ability,
the Brethren tried to act as medical advisers. As the
nearest doctor lived twenty miles away, and medical
missionaries, strictly speaking, did not yet exist,
the Brethren could only make the best of a bad case.
In order to provide, as far as possible, for the medical
needs of the people, they opened a chemist's shop,
which was managed by a missionary ; and this
missionary, though not a qualified practitioner,
could, at least, deal with snake-bites, administer
rhubarb and salts, check the rather frequent " bilious
fever " by means of an emetic, and admonish the
people to eat salt, wear suitable clothing, and wash
their hands before meals. He had also, it appears,
learned how to vaccinate ; and no conscientious
objectors existed.
(4) Above all the Brethren laid stress on general
and religious education. In this work the chief
leader was Bishop Hans Peter Hallbeck. He founded
1838 an excellent Training School for teachers (1838) ; this
institution provided native teachers for the day-
South Africa West : or the Hottentots. 281
schools ; and the people reached such a high
intellectual level, that the printing press was able to
issue two monthly magazines. With the spiritual
results most of the missionaries at Genadendal
expressed themselves delighted. Some of the people
acted as sidesmen and sextons ; the Church music
was of a very high order, and the Hottentots sang
correctly tunes which, said Christian Ignatius La
Trobe, a gifted ]Mora\-ian composer, were often
considered too difficult for the average English
congregation ; and all the Church members, especially
after emancipation came into force, contributed
generously to the Church funds and supplied free
labour when required.
8. Some Missionary Problems,
As the work at Genadendal was such a brilliant
success, several Government officials in\'ited the
Brethren to found new stations ; and in response to
these invitations they established Mamre (1808),
Enon (1818), Elim (1824), Clarkson (1889), Wittewater
(1859), Goedverwacht (1859), Berea (1865), Witklei-
bosch (1883), Pella (1893), Twistwyk (1895). But
these stations were not all of the same kind. Four
of the stations — EHm, Wittewater, Goedverwacht,
and Pella — were Moravian freehold property ; four
others — Enon, Mamre, Clarkson, and Berea —
were, like Genadendal, " Grant Stations " ;
and the two remaining, Witkleibosch and Twistwj-k,
were only preaching places. On the whole the " Grant
Stations " gave the missionaries the most trouble.
Let us see precisely how this came to pass. For
of every trouble faced by the Moravians in South
Africa we shall find the same fundamental cause ;
that cause was the grooving native self-consciousness ;
and the self-consciousness, in its turn, was due to
other subsidiary causes.
282 A History of Moravian Missions.
(a) The first cause was the Act of Emancipation
(1888). As soon as slavery was abolished in South
Africa, many Hottentots, tired of working for a
master, rushed in search of better conditions to the
Moravian Stations ; the Boers now accused the
Brethren of enticing the Hottentots ; and the
Government came to the rescue of the Mission by
forming a " Commission of Inquiry " (1849). At
every station each Hottentot had to answer the follow-
ing official questions : —
(1) Are you compelled to buy your goods in the
Moravian shop ?
(2) Are you compelled to work here at a lower
wage than you can get elsewhere ?
(8) Are you urged to industry ?
(4) Are you obliged to leave your employment
in order to attend Church festivals ?
(5) Do the missionaries interfere with the price
for which you work for the farmers ?
To each of these questions the answers were satis-
factory ; the charges against the missionaries broke
down ; and Hottentots flocked to the stations in
greater numbers than ever. But this inrush brought
its own dangers with it. In many cases these new-
comers were not pure-bred Hottentots, but half-
breeds, some of whom were of a lower moral
type than the Hottentots ; and many of those who
held Government certificates as teachers had to be
dismissed for insubordination.
(6) The next trouble arose directly from the
" Grant System." Let us note here the precise
difference between a " Freehold Station " and a
" Grant Station." In the former, i.e., on its own
property, the Moravian Church had undisputed
authority ; in the latter, the property ultimately
really belonged to the Government, and the Brethren,
South Africa West : or the Hottentots. 283
who had it merely on trust, and acted as Government
officials, were bound down, as much as the natives,
by Government regulations ; and the natives, being
aware of this latter fact — knowing, t.e., that the land
did not belong to the missionaries — began to suspect
that, somehow or other, they were being defrauded
of their just rights. If the land, they argued, did
not belong to the missionaries, to whom then must
it belong ? Surely it must belong to the natives.
Such thoughts fostered a restive spirit. Some of
the natives sometimes complained to the Govern-
ment ; at one station they even instituted a law-suit ;
and though the Brethren won the case, all the
missionaries felt that such painful disputes must not
be repeated. For all such troubles the only
conceivable remedy was some form of local
self-government. At the close of the Boer War
the hopes of the natives rose higher than ever. With
those hopes both the Moravian missionaries and their
friends, the Rhenish missionaries, had a certain
amount of sympathy. As long as the Hottentots
remained loyal to the crown, there was no reason,
they contended, why they should not learn to rule
themselves. Each society, the Moravian and the
Rhenish, now appealed to the Government. The
Government yielded ; " Mission Land Act " was
passed (1909), dealing with the Grant System ;
and henceforward a station might be managed, not
by missionaries acting as Government officials,
but by a Board of six, four of whom were
elected by the people, and two appointed by the
Government. As, however, the application of
the Act was optional, no sudden dramatic
change occurred : Some of the stations tried
to apply the Act ; others seemed to prefer the
old conditions.
(c) The third cause of trouble sprang from non-
284 A History of Moravian Missions.
Moravian sources. In 1892, some native converts,
led by a certain Malone, left the Wesleyan Methodist
Church and formed the " Ethiopian Church " ;
then they affiliated themselves with the African
Methodist Episcopal Church of North America ;
and then, led by a colonial Bishop, Turner, they
announced the far-reaching principle that South
Africa could never be saved from ruin unless it
possessed a Native Church served by native ministers.
Bishop Turner's conceptions, to some extent, in-
fluenced the Moravian converts ; the " Native
Church" ideal steadily grew; and thereby problems
were raised which still await solution.
{d) The last trouble was of a different nature.
In spite of the Brethren's repeated requests, the
Government refused to deal satisfactorily with the
liquor traffic. At one time a useful law was passed
that no intoxicating liquor should be sold within
ten miles of Genadendal ; but this rule was not applied
to the other stations ; and the general situation
was that while strong drink could not be obtained in
the station itself, it could be obtained in the immediate
neighbourhood. In South Africa drink is specially
dangerous. Drink leads to immorality ; immorality
leads to consumption ; and consumption, if un-
checked, threatens to annihilate the people.
4. The Work among the Lepers, 1818-68.
For fifty years the Moravians, at the special
request of the Government, did useful work among
the South African lepers. The first centre was
Hemel-en-Aarde, a few miles south of Genadendal,
and six miles from the sea coast. Once more there
was cordial co-operation between the Government
and the Moravian Church. The Government built
both the hospital and the Church, and provided the
salary ; Dr. Honey, an English practitioner, visited
South Africa West : or the Hottentots. 285
twice a week ; and Peter Leitner, the Moravian
chaplain, acted as general manager. Each week he
had to see to it that twenty-four sheep were killed ;
each day, aided by his English wife, he saw each
patient properly fed and washed ; and, following
Dr. Honey's instructions, he enabled those who could
walk the six miles to have their daily sea-bath.
His experience as a preacher of the Gospel was
mingled. On the one hand he complained that
many of the patients were fond of dancing, stole
milk and butter, and smuggled in spirits ; on the
other hand, he baptized ninety-five converts ; and
when he died of a stroke at Church, the lamentation
was great. For the physical troubles of the lepers
neither Leitner nor the Doctor had been able to do
much ; no case of cure was recorded ; and, after
twenty-three years' work, nearly four hundred lepers'
bodies lay in the little churchyard.
But the Government had not yet abandoned hope.
In order to segregate the lepers still more,
they now removed the Hospital to Robben Island, 1846
where the missionary had to look after, not only lepers
of various races — English, Italian, German, Danish,
Swedish, and Hungarian — but also fifty or sixty
lunatics ; and as these latter were allowed to roam
the island, both he and his wife and children were
often in serious danger of being murdered. But
Robben Island, as a health resort, was no more
successful than Hemel-en-Aarde. In spite of the
systematic sea-bathing the death-rate was still high ;
one year the missionary conducted seventy-two
funerals ; and sometimes several bodies, sewn in
blankets, had to be placed in one grave. Nor
were the spiritual results much more encouraging.
For all the inhabitants on the island, i.e., all the
lepers and the least violent lunatics, regular pubUc
Sunday worship was held ; various week-night
286 A History of Moravian Missions.
meetings were also held ; the singing, led by a
seraphine, seemed to give pleasure ; and yet, so far
as concerned repentance, most of the patients
seemed hopeless. Both drink and immorality claimed
their victims ; many died with curses on their lips ;
and one missionary, Kiister, observed, to his dismay,
that the more wicked a man was the greater was the
attendance at his funeral. For five years John
1861*^ Taylor, from Yorkshire, acted both as preacher
and as schoolmaster ; but, though he gained the
people's affection, he could make little improvement
in their character. At length the Government
intervened once more ; the work was handed over
to the Church of England ; and the Moravians,
who had learned to take a deep interest in lepers,
transferred their attention to similar work in
Jerusalem.
5. Cape Town and Port Elizabeth, 1894 — 1914.
Once more the cause of the problem was political.
As soon as emancipation came into full force, many
Hottentots — not only from the Moravian stations,
but also from the neighbouring Boer farms — ^rushed
to Cape Town and Port Elizabeth in search of good
employment and high wages ; by the year 1890
there were at least 2,000 Hottentots in Cape Town ;
and when the missionary followed his wandering
sheep, he found, not altogether to his surprise, that
in most cases they had succumbed to the temptations
of town life. As Edmund Burke found it easy to be
good in the village, but hard in the city of Dublin,
so the Hottentots found it easy at Genadendal, but
hard at Cape Town. In the stations they had been
under supervision ; in the towns they were free ; and
misusing their liberty, they took to evil ways. In the
stations, brandy could not be bought ; in the towns it
was cheap ; and the consequence needs no description.
I
South x\frica West : or the Hottentots. 287
In the stations or on the farms they had earned
modest wages ; in the towns they earned high wages,
either in the docks or in the gas-works ; and the
pubUcan reaped the benefit of the improvement.
In the stations they lived with fellow-Christians ;
in the towns some of their fellow-workmen were
Mahometans ; and these Mahometans hated the
Christian rehgion, and were often addicted to sorcery,
gambling, and other evil ways. Never, therefore,
did the Brethren in South Africa face a more difficult
problem. In Cape Town they founded Mora%-ian Hill
(1894) ; in Port Elizabeth, Moravian Hope (1898) ; and
some missionaries held the opinion that this work in
the two cities was the most important Moravian work
in the colony. For some years the chief difficulty
lay in the fact that the converts in these cities
were so scattered. In Cape Town " Coloureds " were
found in no fewer than thirty-eight different streets ;
in Port Elizabeth Kaffirs dwelt in "Locations,"
compared by one Brother to the criminal dens
described in " Ohver T^^^st " ; and thus, close
pastoral superxision was almost an impossibility.
At length, however, an excellent remedy was found.
Each town was divided into districts ; over each
district a Native Helper was appointed ; and thus,
in the very hotbeds of vice. Christian Hottentots,
clothed with a new sense of responsibility, learned to
save their fellow-countrymen from physical and
moral ruin.
Chapter VII.
SOUTH AFRICA, EAST : OR THE KAFFIRS,
1828—1914.
For the sake of clearness I begin this chapter by
explaining that, in order to understand the story,
we must distinguish clearly between three districts
or fields of labour, described here as Cape
Colony, Tembuland, and Hlubiland ; and, in each
district, certain names, either of persons or of places,
stand out with prominence. In Cape Colony the
story centres round the strange and dramatic history
of the first station, Shiloh, on the Klipplaat River ;
in Tembuland the chief name to remember is that of
Elias, a splendid Kaffir evangelist ; and in Hlubiland
we shall hear of the exploits, partly of Henry Meyer,
the missionary, and partly of his assistant, the
chieftain, Zibi. Let us also note the geographical
direction. Among the Kaffirs Moravian work was
a steady advance north-east. First, in 1828, the
Brethren began in Cape Colony; then, in 1863, they
entered Tembuland ; and then, in 1870, they pushed
still further north-east into Hlubiland. In Cape
Colony the chief stations were Shiloh (1828), Goshen
(1850), and Engotini (1859) ; in Tembuland, Baziya
(1863), Tabase (1873), and Entazana (1873) ; and in
Hlubiland, Entumasi (1870), Elukolweni (1875),
Tinana (1876), Bethesda (1877), Ezincuka (1887),
Mvenyane (1893), and Nxotschane (1905). With
these main facts before us, we may note certain
details. Each section will throw some light on
certain features in the Kaffir character.
1. Cape Colony, 1828—1914.
For the origin of Moravian work among the Kaffirs,
laa
South Africa East : or the Kaffirs. 289
the chief credit must be given to a Kaffir young
woman. The story opens at Genadendal. Among 1816
the few Kaffirs residing at Genadendal, the most
intelHgent was Wilhelmina Stomp jes, a nurse in a
missionary's family ; this young woman frequently
prayed for her heathen fellow-countrymen ; and
hearing one day that a famous English Moravian,
Christian Ignatius La Trobe — Editor of " Periodical
Accounts " — had come to Genadendal on an official
visit, she called to see him, and, seated on a low stool,
pleaded her cause ^vith true eloquence.
" Oh sir ! " she said, " I have often feared that the
Brethren would leave off praying for my people.
But see ! I have found a text which revived my
hopes : ' I will bring the blind by a way that they
know not.' — Psalm xlii., 16." For twelve years
Wilhelmina waited in vain ; then Bowana, a Kaffir
chief, being fiercely attacked by his neighbours,
asked Lord Charles Somerset, the Governor, to protect
him ; and Lord Charles, in his reply, suggested, not
only to Bowana, but also to the missionaries at
Genadendal, that the best way to protect Bowana
was to send him the Gospel. Forthwith the Brethren
took the hint ; two missionaries called on Bowana
(1827) ; and the chief, clad in a leopard's skin,
appeared delighted to see them. In return for medals
and coffee, he presented the Brethren with an ox ;
the missionaries held a short service in the open air ;
and next year, with Bowana's approval, the Mission 1828
to the KaffiLrs began.
The first station, Shiloh, had a strange and event-
ful history. In accordance partly with the Governor's
instructions, and partly with their own experiences
at Genadendal, the Brethren made Shiloh a " Grant
Station." For this purpose the Government granted
land, which, in turn, was let out in allotments
to the natives ; and the first missionaries, settling
290 A History of Moravian Missions.
down in the district, enclosed a pen for the cattle,
built not only a house for themselves, but huts for
the natives, constructed an aqueduct, opened a
smithy and a carpenter's shop, and began to teach
the wild Kaffirs how to be good artisans, good farmers,
and good market-gardeners. In order to form a
Christian nucleus a few Hottentots were transferred
from Enon ; Wilhelmina was made head-mistress
of the day school ; and village rules, like those at
Genadendal, were read out and explained. For a
few months life at Shiloh ran smoothly ; one of the
missionaries, Bonatz the younger, charmed the
natives by making a water-wheel ; and the Brethren
hoped that, in a few years, Shiloh would become a
Christian village. And yet the very opposite occurred.
During the next twenty years Shiloh was often the
scene of crime and terror.
(a) The first trouble was caused by wicked
Bowana. In spite of all the Brethren's entreaties,
Bowana refused to become a Christian. " No !
No ! " he said, " it is a serious matter. What
shall I do with my seven wives ? " On one occasion
he consulted with Wilhelmina.
" Look here," he said, " if you will give me a cow,
I'll give up one of my wives."
" But you have no right to seven wives," she
answered, " it is against the law of God."
" Nonsense ! " retorted Bowana, " if God forbids
that, he might as well forbid us to eat."
At the height of his wicked career Bowana was
secretly murdered. For some reason his son, Mapasa,
suspected the Brethren of the crime, and, followed
by fifty blood-thirsty warriors, he advanced on the
Mission-house. There, however, at the front door,
Wilhelmina defied him : " Begone, you murderous
coward," she said ; and Mapasa and his warriors
retreated.
South Afkica East: or the Kaffirs. 291
(b) The War of the Axe. The origin of this war 1846
was as follows. For the crime of stealing an axe
a Kaffir was seized by British soldiers and chained
to a Hottentot ; some of his friends tried to rescue
him by chopping off the Hottentot's arms ; and, as
the Hottentot died of his wounds, these friends
were held guilty of murder. Among the Kaffirs
there was now great indignation ; Mapasa, in revenge,
raised a local rebellion against the Government ;
and Major Hogg, the British Commander, bivouacked
at Shiloh. To the missionaries this was a great
affliction. Some of the officers held a ball in the
Church ; some of the soldiers corrupted the natives'
morals ; and, as dysentery broke out, all the Moravian
sisters were busy as nurses. In one sense, however,
this episode aided the Mission. As soon as peace
was fully restored, Sir Harry Smith, the Governor,
came to Shiloh ; there, speaking in the Church,
he begged the Kaffirs to be loyal to the missionaries ;
and further, he even promised the missionaries that,
if they would build ten more stations, he would
provide the land required. " I would rather have
Mission stations," he said, " than military outposts.
The missionaries prevent war, and thus save the
Government millions of pounds."
(c) Umlangeni's War. On this occasion there was 1850
a natural, but very unfortunate, misunderstanding.
First Umlangeni, who thought himself inspired, raised
a grand Kaffir rebellion against the Government ;
then the Tambookies in Shiloh, disregarding the
Brethren's instructions, joined Umlangeni's colours,
leaving only Hottentots in the A-illage ; and Major
Tylden, the British Officer, imagining that these
Hottentots were rebels, brought up his heavy guns
and laid siege to Shiloh. The scene was now remark-
able. On a hill outside the village stood the loyal
missionaries ; in the Church were the terrified
292 A History of Moravian Missions.
Hottentots, firing bullets from the windows ; and
soon the whole of Shiloh was in flames. But, once
more, sweet came out of the bitter. As soon as this
little village siege was over, Major Tylden discovered
his mistake ; ample apologies followed ; and Shiloh
was rebuilt at Government expense. The re-building
cost £3,000.
1856 (d) Umlakasa's Prophecy. In order to raise
another Kaffir rebellion, Umlakasa, a Kaffir fanatic,
announced that if the Kaffirs would kill their old
people and cattle, and live entirely on rice and
sugar, various glorious miracles would occur. First,
he said, the Russians would come and drive out the
British ; then many Kaffir ancestors would rise from
the dead ; and then a new breed of cattle would
arise, and corn would spring up like mushrooms.
Thus, under Kaffir rule. South Africa would become
an earthly paradise. The result was inevitable.
Inspired by these ideals, the foolish Kaffirs slew
their bullocks in thousands. For some months
the district round Shiloh now swarmed with half-
starved beggars, many of whom came to Shiloh
for work ; and one youth, going out of his mind,
committed so many excesses that the missionaries
had to lock him up in the smithy.
1890 {e) The Property Quarrel. We come here to one
of the troubles arising out of the " Grant System."
In spite of the Brethren's efforts to make things clear,
some of the Hottentots at Shiloh imagined that they
were being cheated. By right, they said, all the
land for which they paid rent really belonged to them ;
some, led by a certain Stoffels, broke out into rebellion,
and encouraged by a solicitor, they refused to pay
either rent or Church dues. To the missionaries only
one course was now open. For the sake of law and
order they were compelled to go to law ; the verdict,
South Africa East : or the Kaffirs. 293
of course, was in their favour ; and Stoffels and his
associates were expelled. With such mere legal
%dctories, however, the Brethren were far from
satisfied. To live on such terms with their people
was impossible. At any moment such cases might
be repeated ; Goshen, in fact, witnessed a similar
dispute ; and the missionaries now began to feel
that the " Grant System " was a mistake. Nor
was this " Grant System " the only cause of trouble
at Shiloh. By encouraging the natives to settle
at Shiloh, the Brethren certainly did shield
them from temptation ; on the other hand, this
system did not produce strong characters ; and from
the ranks of such people native evangelists could not
be expected. At last, however, in 1903, there was a
slight improvement ; a few Kaffirs were thought
fit to preach ; and some of these now did good service
in Queenstown, Cathcart, King Williamstown, East
London, and Johannesburg.
2. Tembuland, 1863 — 1914.
(a) The Origin. Once more the chief credit must
be given to Wilhelmina Stompjes. Sir George Grey,
the Governor, paid a visit to Shiloh ; there he had a
long interview with Wilhelmina ; and there and then
she begged him to use his influence and have
stations built in Tembuland. At his special request,
therefore, the Brethren entered what was then an
independent country.
{h) The Enemies. For nearly twenty years the
missionaries in Tembuland made rather slow
progress ; three stations, however — Baziya (1863),
Tabase (1873), and Entazana (1873) — were founded;
and this slow progress was due to three deep-seated
prejudices in the Kaffir character : — (1) At the time
when the Mission began, Tembuland was practi-
294 A History of Moravian Missions.
cally independent ; not till after the Basuto War
(1880) did it really come under British rule ; and
the missionaries, who always supported the Govern-
ment, were regarded by the Kaffir chiefs as enemies
of Kaffir national aspirations. (2) The second
cause was the Kaffirs' fondness for beer. In order
to come into close touch with the people, Samuel
Baudert — after the Basuto War — roamed nearly
the whole country on horseback ; most of the Kaffirs
seemed delighted to see him, listened to his sermons
in the open air, and then, lighting their pipes, dis-
cussed the sermon ; and yet, though they shewed some
interest in theology, they refused to abandon their
drinking-bouts. " No time for a sermon," they
would say sometimes, " it's beer night." Baudert
called intoxication a sin ; the Kaffirs called it a
respectable national amusement. (3) But the
deadliest enemy in Tembuland was the rite of cir-
cumcision. Among the Kaffirs this rite was insepar-
ably associated with certain licentious customs ;
and yet, at the same time, it was so bound up with
the national life that no Kaffir could neglect it without
losing his status as a citizen. According to an old
Kaffir tradition, no uncircumcised Kaffir could either
marry, inherit property, or vote in the tribal councils.
For this reason, therefore, the Tembuland Kaffir
found himself on the horns of a dilemma. If he
became a Christian, he lost his rights as a citizen ;
and, if he permitted his son to be circumcised, he
could not be baptized.
(c) The Remedy. For some years the most im-
portant and influential person in Tembuland was
not Baudert, the missionary, but his native Kaffir
assistant, Elias ; this man proved himself a genuine
hero, and preached with great effect to his own
tribe, the Ornatti, on the Xentu River ; and one
chief cause of his commanding influence was that,
South Africa East : or the Kaffirs. 295
at the risk of losing his popularity, he took a very
firm stand against national vices and superstitions.
Let one memorable example suffice. At one
time EUas's father was taken ill; and the local June, 1895
sorceress who attended the case, laid down the
law that, if Ehas wished his father to recover, he
must now, in accordance with an old custom, slay
an ox, sprinkle the roof, hearth and lintels with blood,
eat a little ox-flesh himself, and hang up juicy morsels
about the kraal. For Elias this was a terrible test.
He had now to choose between Christ and the
sorceress. If he obeyed the sorceress, he would be
untrue to his Di\'ine Master; but if he disobeyed,
and his father died, his brothers would accuse him
of murder. Elias decided for Christ. For ten days
he was in a state of agony, crying repeatedl}^ " Oh I
Christ, tliis is Thy concern ; I can see no way out
of the difficulty" ; and then, when his father recovered,
all the relatives felt that, by his faith and courage,
Elias had won a glorious victory. The story of Elias is
most illuminating. It shows that a Kaffir could not
become a Christian without making great sacrifices.
On the day when he was baptized, the Kaffir took a
firm stand, not only against drink and the abomina-
tions connected with circumcision, but also against
the powerful witch-doctors ; EUas's fine example
inspired many others ; and thus, at last, in Tembu-
land, the cause of the Gospel began to flourish.
During the next few years the Kaffirs came to
Baziya in crowds ; and when they were asked the
reason, they said : " Our hearts give us no peace.
The word of Elias compels us."
3. Hlubiland, 1869 — 1914.
For the rapid spread of the Gospel in Hlubiland
three special reasons may be given. The first was
the amazing energy of the pioneer missionary, Henry
696 A History of Moravian Missions.
Meyer (1869-76), the second was the influence of the
Kaffir chief, Zibi, and the third was the courageous
attitude adopted both by the native evangeUsts and
by many Kaffir women.
(a) Henry Meyer, 1869-76. The Mission had
an interesting origin. For some years there had lived
in Hlubiland, at a place called Ezincuka, i.e.,
*' among the wolves," a powerful and ambitious
Kaffir chief named Zibi, who, having been baptized
by a Wesleyan missionary, regarded himself as
a Christian ; and being, like Bowana in British
Kaffraria, attacked by numerous enemies, he con-
ceived the sound idea that if the Moravians intro-
duced Christianity, he himself, somehow or other,
would be enabled to live in safety. With regard to
his original motives, there can be little doubt. In
spite of his professed Christianitj'', he was still the
possessor of four wives. His real purpose was
political rather than religious. At this time he
occupied land guaranteed him by the British
Government ; Moravian missionaries, reasoned Zibi,
always supported the Government ; and further,
he entertained the hope that those missionaries
would distribute plenty of tobacco and pay hand-
somely for such household goods as they required.
With these utilitarian motives, therefore, Zibi asked
the Moravian Church to establish a Mission in
Hlubiland. The result was entirely different from
what he expected. For six years the Mission in
Hlubiland was under the management of Henry
Meyer, who was both a great worker and a plain
speaker ; and during those six years he produced
a permanent change in Zibi's character. The physical
energy of Henry Meyer was remarkable. First, in
1869, he set off from Shiloh, explored the Drakens
Berge, arrived on Zibi's territory, and, not finding
Zibi at home, surveyed the land from a lonely cave
South Africa East : or the Kaffirs. 297
in the hills ; next year, 1870, he set off again, cut
a road through the hills, called " Meyer's Pass,"
built, mostly by his own labour, the first station,
Entumasi, and seeing that Zibi attended the services,
rebuked him for ha\ing four wives ; and finally,
in 1875, after establishing a strong congregation at
Entumasi, he advanced into territory owned by
Zibi's enemy, Ludidi, and founded the station
Elukolweni (1875). The result was remarkable.
At the close of this period both Zibi and his enemy
Ludidi had become earnest Christians ; Meyer had
taught two old enemies to live at peace with each
other ; and now, being broken down in health,
he had to retire from the scene. Ten days
before his death he still imagined himself in Zibi's
country.
" Give me my stick," he said. " I must cross the
hill and preach in Ludidi's kraal."
But the stick felt heavy in his hand.
" No ! No ! " he cried. " The hill is too high.
To-morrow, or the day after. Oh, Zibi ! Be faithful
to your high calling, "f
(b) The Influence of Zibi. For thirty-four years ISTS-ISIO
after Meyer's retirement, Zibi, now a genuine
Christian, might be called the leading figure in Hlubi-
land ; one of his relations, John Nakin, was ordained a
Moravian minister, and placed in charge of a station ;
and he himself, at his old home, Ezincuka, held the
office of Church Elder.* In personal appearance
he was majestic ; he was tall, broad, and considered
tFor a short sketch of Henry Meyer see " Periodical Accounts,"
June, 1888. BLis importance lies largely in his influence over
Kaffir chiefs. By his influence over Zibi, Meyer, indirectly,
transformed the character of Zibi's people, and many other
chiefs followed Zibi's example.
♦But what, the reader may ask, did Zibi do with his four wives ?
He kept one, and not only gave the others handsome pensions
for life, but ako provided them with homes.
298 A History of Moravian Missions.
handsome ; and on Sundays he always wore a black
coat and trousers, rode up to Church on horseback,
marched solemnly up the aisle with his knobby
stick in his hand, and sat on a bench, below the
pulpit, facing the congregation. He was now both
a British patriot and a good Christian. The change
in his moral character was fundamental. During
the Kaffir War in 1881, Zibi warmly supported the
Government ; and, in the Boer War (1901), two of
his sons fought on the British side. Formerly his chief
desire was to obtain good things from the missionary ;
now his chief desire was to aid the Church ; and,
therefore, while he himself became a generous sub-
scriber, he often urged others to follow his example.
On special occasions, such as Harvest Festivals, Zibi
was brilliant. In Kaffraria the Church member
has his own special mode of subscribing. Instead
of merely laying his gift on a plate, he comes forward
to the table, and states, not only how much he is
giving, but why he cannot give more. With some
of the excuses offered Zibi had little patience. At
Ezincuka, for example, he laid £5 on the table ;
others had the audacity to bring silver ; and Zibi,
rising in his wrath, announced that nothing less than
half-a-sovereign would be accepted. At Tinana he
made a similar speech.
" What do you mean," he roared to the givers of
silver, " by clattering your miserable buttons on the
plate ? Is that Kaffir custom ? At such times the
Kaffir gives of his best. Our best is our bullocks,
and I give two of my fattest."
Above all, Zibi took a firm stand on moral
matters. He was now a great supporter of
education, and of Christian ideals, and frequently
he expressed a desire that the Government would
prohibit the sale of strong drink in his district.
At the close of a baptismal service he would
South Africa East : or the Kaffirs. 299
follow the parents into the vestry, and kissing
the child, urge them to train it in the fear of the
Lord ; in his oym district he urged all parents to
send their children to the Brethren's Day School ;
and, kno^ving the moral dangers connected ■v^'ith
circumcision, he drew up an anti-circumcision pledge,
and persuaded thirty young men to sign it.
(c) The Kaffir Evangelists and Women. For patient
heroism, however, the palm must be given both to
the Evangelists and to those Christian Kaffir women
who, in defiance of heathen husbands, asked to be bap-
tized. At Mvenyane (1901) a college for training native
preachers was opened ; in a few years no fewer than
seventy native evangelists were at work, and these
evangelists created such a healthy public opinion
on moral matters, that many women were encouraged
to do Hkewise. In spite of the influence of Zibi
and other chiefs, many of the heathen Kaffirs still
regarded their wives as mere chattels ; over these
wives they claimed undisputed authority ; and any
woman who disobeyed either her husband or her
father, ran the risk of brutal treatment. It was
here that the Kaffir women showed their courage. In
defiance of heathen husbands and fathers, they sent
their children to the day schools, attended the Church,
and prayed for fine weather, not to the sorcerer, but
to the Christian's God. One typical case may be
recorded. For financial reasons a heathen Kaffir
wished his daughter to play the harlot ; and, when
she refused, he began to flog her.
*' Will vou give in now ? " he asked.
" Never ! "
The father continued the flogging, the girl re-
mained undaunted, and in despair, the father
exclaimed : " Your God is stronger than I."
Chapter VIII.
LABRADOR, 1804—1914.
1. The Stations.
In studying the history of the Moravian Mission
to the Eskimos of Labrador, the outstanding fact
to remember is that, as the native population has
always been small — never reaching more than 1,500 —
progress in the arithmetical sense has been practi-
cally impossible. For many years the Brethren
confined their efforts to the three stations founded
in the eighteenth century, i.e., Nain, Hopedale, and
Okak ; then, by founding five more stations —
Hebron (1828), Zoar (1864), Ramah (1871), Makkovik
(1896), and Killinek (1905) — they obtained command
of the whole coast from Makkovik to Cape Chidley ;
and this chapter, therefore, will take the form, not of
a chronological narrative, but rather of a brief
description of various methods of work. With
regard to the stations, only two more facts need be
mentioned. In 1889 Zoar was closed because it
was too isolated ; in 1908 Ramah was closed for the
same reason ; and thus, reading from north to south,
the stations in 1914 were Killinek, Hebron, Okak,
Nain, Hopedale, and Makkovik.
2. The Ships.
For over one hundred and forty years the Moravian
Church, by means of its own ship, has maintained a
regular connexion with Labrador ; Admiral Gambierf
once declared that the record of these Moravian
■fNoted for liis gallantry on June Ist, 1794. His ship, the Defence,
was one of the first to pierce the French line. He was after-
wards President of the C.M.S. He was also a great friend
of C. I. La Trobe, and took a deep interest in Moravian
Missions
(300)
Labrador. 801
ships was unique ; and the interesting feature of the
story is that while the total number of voyages is
over three hundred, while reefs, cross-currents, ice-
bergs, hurricanes, fogs, and tickles have been a
constant source of danger, and while some of the
ships had strange adventures, no serious accident
has occurred. Each year the voyage to and fro
has been made ; each year valuable goods are landed
on the Labrador coast ; and in business circles
these achievements are considered so remarkable
that the Mora%'ian ship is insured at Lloyds' on
specially favourable terms. The complete hst of
Moravian ships, with their chief adventures, is as
follows : —
{a) The Jersey Packet (1770). On her sailed
Haven, Drachart, and Jensen to choose the
first site.
(b) The Amity (1771-6). On her second voyage
out she called at Ne^vfoundland, and did
not reach Labrador till October.
(c) The Good Intent (1777-9). In 1778 she was
captured by a French privateer ; then she
was re-captured by a British cruiser ; and
then Louis XVL, . King of France, and
Benjamin Franklin, American Ambassador
in France, both issued passports declaring
that the Moravian ship should be un-
molested. In the King's passport there
was a strange condition ; he seems to have
had his suspicions about Moravians ; and
his passport was valid for one year only.
(d) The Amity (1780-6). The former Amity
restored to favour ; she had no special
adventures.
(e) The Harmony (1787-1802). One moonlight
night she was nearly captured by a French
802 A History of Mobavian Missions.
privateer. With this exception her peace
was unbroken.
{j") The Resolution (1808-8). This vessel was twice
attacked by a French privateer, and each
time she escaped in a storm.
(^) The Hector (1809). No special adventures.
(h) The Jemima (1810-1817). In 1811 her sails
were frozen and could not be unfurled ;
in 1816 she was surrounded by icebergs,
and remained a prisoner for fifty-nine
days; and in 1817, within one hour, she
was struck by icebergs several times.
(i) Harmony II. (1818-31). No special adventures.
(j) Harmony III. (1882-1860). No special
adventures.
(Ar) Harmony IV. (1860-1896). No special
adventures. This was the first Harmony
with the figure-head of an angel blowing
a trumpet.
(l) Harmony V. (1901 to present day). For four
years — 1896-1900 — the Moravians, having
no ship of their own, simply chartered a
vessel ; the next ship. Harmony V. was the
first to possess steam auxiliary pow^er ;
and the chief advantage of the steam is that,
not being quite so much at the mercy of the
weather, Harmony V. can visit the Labrador
coast twice a year. Each year she leaves
London early in the summer, visits the
stations from July to September, and
returns to St. John's ; and then, sailing
for the second time she lands codfish at
St. John's, Newfoundland, and returns to
London about Christmas.
It is interesting to note the change of route. For
many years the Moravian ship skirted the east coast
Labrador. 303
of Scotland ; the people on the Orkneys would wave
their handkerchiefs as she left Stromness ; and
often, on the return voyage, some missionaries would
call at Edinburgh, hold a serv'ice on the deck
of the ship, and thereby stir up the zeal of Scotch
friends of Mora\-ian Missions. Amongst these the
most noted was Dr. Chalmers. He took a special
interest in Labrador, and hoped that the Brethren
would settle in Ungava Bay. During the last few
years, however, the ship has first passed through the
English Channel ; Scotch friends see the little vessel
no more ; and the interest of the Scotch in the
Moravian Missions has weakened. The last point to
mention is the annual Thanksgiving Meeting. In
London this is generally held in January ; in
Labrador it is held in June ; and there, at every
station, the great event is the annual coming of the
ship. On the safe arrival of the ship the v/hole
prosperity of the Mission depends. Both to the
missionaries and to the Eskimos the Harmony is the
" Ship of Life."t The village watchman takes his
stand on a hill. As soon as he sees the ship in the
distance, he lights his beacon ; some paddler, knowing
the signal, fires his gun ; and a hundred voices in the
village shout: "The big steamer!" The harbour
fills with boats, rifles fire a salute, flags adoni the
house roofs, and the Red Ensign is run up the pole
and flies above the Mission-house. There, around
the headland, the steamer comes, her rigging showing
clear against the sky. As the long-awaited ship
draws nearer and nearer, and Captain Jackson, once
again, is seen standing on the bridge, all the villagers
who have not taken to the boats assemble, deeply
moved, on the shelving beach ; and then, when at
last the anchor drops, the clear air rings with the
jMajor He»keth Prichard's ©xpreasion. See Daily Mail, February
17th, 1922.
304 A History of Moravian Missions.
Hymn of Praise : — " Now thank we all our God."
8. The Trade.
For three reasons, during all these years, the
S.F.G. maintained a regular trade with the Eskimos.
1. For the Sake of the Missionaries. No
missionary could live on blubber, oil, and fish. At
each station there was a so-called " store " ; on that
store he relied for his daily food ; and that food was
brought each year from England by the ship.
Instead of receiving an annual salary in cash, each
missionary, until quite recently, received £90 credit
at the store ; and all the actual cash he saw was
£10 pocket money. For the sake, therefore, of the
missionaries and their families, the Moravian ship
took out each year : —
(a) Coal.
{h) Tinned meat, tinned fruit, tea, coffee, sugar,
bacon, potatoes, and vegetables.
(c) A few household medicines.
{d) Books and magazines.
{e) Letters from home.
For over a century the annual visit of the ship was
the missionaries' only connexion with the homeland ;
but recently, in the summer months, a mail has run
from St. John's.
(2) For Financial Reasons. By trading with the
Eskimos, the S.F.G., for many years, covered nearly
all the expenses of the Mission ; the chief articles
bought from the Eskimos, and then sold in London,
were seal-oil, cod-liver oil, seal-skin, fox-skin, and
carved ivory ; and these articles realized such an
excellent price that the Labrador Mission, for over a
century, needed no support from general Mission
Funds. Meanwhile, however, the S.F.G. pursued a
rather singular policy. Instead of acting like Joseph in
Labrador. 805
Egypt during the seven fat years — instead, i.e., of
creating a Reserve Fund — they generously made
annual grants to other Mora\'ian causes ; no proper
provision for the future was made ; and, therefore,
when prices fell, owing to altered conditions, the
S.F.G. found themselves in financial straits. The fall in
prices was remarkable. In 1854 seal oil was £54 a ton;
in 1904 it was only £14; and in 1908 the S.F.G.
confessed that their trade with Labrador no longer
paid. Nor was this the end of the S.F.G.'s troubles.
At the very time when their receipts were diminish-
ing, their expenses were increasing. In 1905 a new
station was built at Killinek ; in 1903-4 a hospital
was built at Okak ; and in 1906 a new law was passed
that henceforth each missionary should receive his
full salary in cash. Each of these steps increased the
expense of the Mission. In 1900 the cost was £3,774 ;
in 1904 it was £5,465 ; and, therefore, a new arrange-
ment had to be made that, while the S.F.G. supplied
the ships and still traded with the natives, all the
other expenses of the Mission fell on the INIission
Board. Thus did an unforeseen alteration in
trade conditions affect the finances, not only of the
Labrador Mission, but of Moravian Missions as a
whole.
3. For the Sake of the Eskimos. By means of the
trade the Eskimos received immense advantages ;
and, therefore, whether it paid or not, it had still
to be maintained.
(a) In return for his skins, oils, and ivory articles,
the Eskimo received English-made forks,
knives, guns, powder, and other shooting
and fishing requisites.
(b) By trading with the S.F.G. the Eskimo was
saved the necessity of dealing with other
traders. Some of these would probably
806 A History of Moravian Missions.
have cheated him, and others would have
paid him in rum.
(c) In Labrador there are sometimes bad fishing
seasons. In 1836-7, e.g., the Eskimos had
to eat their tent-skins ; in 1855-6 many
perished of hunger ; and at such times,
the Moravian " Store " is the people's
last resort. On one occasion the missionaries
at Okak distributed 70,000 dried fish.
(d) By dealing at the " Store " the Eskimo
learned to be thrifty ; his debts were
entered, not only in the store ledger, but also
in his own pocket-book ; and the business
understanding was that, sooner or later,
he must pay in full. But this demand
was not always strictly enforced ; a bad
season was always a good excuse ; and one
year the S.F.G. wrote off £2,500.
(e) Further, by means of the " Store " the
Eskimo provided for Christmas. As soon
as the autumn hunting season was over,
all the Eskimos returned to the stations ;
during the next few weeks the Store was
crowded ; and every day the store-keeper
dealt with keen and eager hagglers. There
they stood with their seal-skins, their fox-
skins, their seal-oil, their cod-liver oil,
and their ivory dolls and canoes ; in
return they demanded petroleum, meal,
peas, soap, aprons, nails, rice, tea, treacle,
biscuits, salt-meat, guns, powder, shot,
accordions, sewing machines, tobacco,
spoons, forks, ribbons, carpets, lanterns,
wax candles ; and the store-keeper had now
to enter on a profound mathematical cal-
culation. For every article in his shop,
Labrador. 807
and also for every article sold by the
Eskimos, there was a definite money value,
fixed by the S.F.G. ; no actual cash, how-
ever, changed hands ; and the store-keeper,
after consulting his hst, had to offer so
much petroleimi for a fox-skin, and so
much rice or treacle for a gallon of oil.
His worst customers were the women.
No woman ever knew at first what she
wanted. First, she handled nearly every-
thing in the shop; then she criticised
the bargains made by the men ; then she
returned home to consult a friend ; and then,
back in the shop once more, she repeated
the performance.
(/) Above all, by means of the ship, the Eskimo
children were made happy ; the Harmony
ahvays contained hundreds of presents ;
and these presents were packed in four
different boxes. In box one there was
baby clothing, to be given to the mother
on the day her child was baptized ; in box
two, school prizes, i.e., books, toys and
mittens ; in box three, Christmas presents,
i.e., scrap-books, dolls, beads, etc. ; and in
box fom% some gifts for the native helpers.
For all the widows and orphans, too, some
special provision was made. Thus did the
Harmony supply the needs — physical, in-
tellectual and moral — of all classes in
Labrador.
For two simple reasons, however, this trade with
the Eskimos caused the S.F.G. much anxiety. The
\ first was connected ■v^ith the system of management.
^In 1752, when Erhardt sailed, Zinzendorf had laid
down the general principle that no man, at the same
808 A History of Moravian Missions.
time, should be both a trader and a missionary.
If he traded, he must not preach the Gospel ; if he
preached the Gospel, he must not trade ; and the
Brethren afterwards made the painful discovery
that whether they followed or rejected his advice
they had special difficulties to face. If a layman
took charge, the trade was mismanaged ; and if a
missionary took charge, the Eskimos ceased to love
him. Each system had its defects ; and, therefore,
the Brethren changed from one to the other. First
(1771-1861) the missionaries had full control ; then
(1861-1876) the trade was placed under a General
Manager, with a layman at the head of each store ;
then (1876-1898) the missionaries resumed control ;
then (1898-1906) a layman was appointed as General
Manager, while a missionary managed each store ;
and finally, 1906, the law was laid down that trade
and mission should be kept strictly apart. For the
former the S.F.G. was responsible ; for the latter
the Mission Board ; and that is the system still in
force.
The other cause of trouble was the Brethren's
kindness. For some years there existed in the
minds of the natives a remarkable delusion, spread
first by certain schooner-men, that while the S.F.G.
claimed to be a trading concern, it was, in reality,
a charity ; each article on the Harmony, therefore,
belonged by right to the natives ; no missionary
had any right to charge any price whatsoever ; and
all those who sold goods at the stores were mere
robbers and swindlers. At last the danger became
so serious that the Mission Secretary (1888)
was sent on a visitation ; and yet, though
he explained the facts of the case, there was still
so much suspicion left that, next year, at Hebron,
the people even blockaded the school-house and
held the missionaries prisoners. By slow degrees
I
Labrador. 809
the truth prevailed ; the missionaries regained the
people's confidence ; and the people excused their
evil conduct by saying that if they had been more
efficiently taught they would not have sinned so
deeply. " If you had prayed for us properly,"
said Nathan, the ringleader, " all these troubles
would have been spared you ! "
4. The Hospital, 1904—1914.
For some reason best known to the medical pro-
fession, the Eskimos are so constituted that, while
they still live on wholesome food, spend most of their
time in the open air, and generally develop a power-
ful muscular system, yet they have no power to
resist disease ; in their case all the infectious diseases,
such as influenza and measles, are nearly always
fatal ; and the only way to preserve the race from
destruction is to shield it from infection.
But that was precisely what was found impossible.
During the whole of the nineteenth century Labrador
was repeatedly visited by British, French, and
American traders ; these men introduced influenza,
erysipelas, measles, pneumonia and syphilis ; and,
finally, in 1894, after certain Eskimos had visited the
Chicago Exhibition, there broke out, at Nain, a terrible
epidemic of typhus. Nor was infection the only
cause of trouble. Some of the traders paid in
whisky and rum ; others sold European food and
clothing ; and those who succumbed to these
temptations became still less able to resist disease.
Formerly, the mothers had nursed their children ;
now, fed on condensed milk, the children perished
untimely. Formerly, Labrador resembled Dartmoor ;
now Labrador had become a death-trap ; and
little had been done to remedy the evil. Dr. Grenfell,
of the Deep Sea Mission, paid occasional visits ;
Louis Kaestner administered simple remedies ; and
310 A History of Moravian Missions.
Hettasch, who had studied at Livingstone College,
performed minor operations. In spite of all this
excellent work, the situation in Labrador was
desperate. Epidemics were now more common than
ever ; sanitation was unknown ; and the population
had dwindled to 1,200.
During the winter of 1903-4, therefore, the Brethren
built a small hospital at Okak ; Dr. and Mrs. S. K.
Hutton were placed in charge; and during their
eight years in Labrador, Dr. Hutton not only
gained the confidence of the people, to whom he
was known as " Our Samuel," but also succeeded
in introducing several necessary reforms. His work
was partly medical and partly hygienic. During
the first seven months he paid over a thousand
visits and dealt with 137 patients at the
hospital. The amount of disease was enormous.
At Okak there was a bad form of influenza ; at
Hebron typhus ; at Nain and Hopedale pneumonia.
In due time Dr. Hutton saw every man and woman
on the coast. In the winter he generally used a
dog-sledge ; in the summer, after 1908, he used a
motor-boat, the Northern Star ; and visiting the
people in their huts, he obtained such a knowledge
of Eskimo life that his book, " Among the Eskimos
of Labrador," written after he was compelled to retire,
may be described as a classic.^
But Dr. Hutton was no mere medical practitioner ;
his main purpose was to enlighten the people ;
and, therefore, while he urged the men to build
larger houses of wood and turf, he also carefully
instructed the women to keep them clean, not to
•j-On the value of Dr. Hutton'a work, Dr. W. G. Grenfell wrote as
follows : "Dr. Hutton has re.ally done wonders, and a well-known
Boston surgeon, who is with me for the summer, was very
much surprised to know what serious operations the doctor
liad und-'itakon sinjile-handed and yet successfully." —
"Periodical Accounts," March, 1908, p. 12.
Labrador. 311
hide refuse under the bed, and always to remember
to scald their feeding-bottles. His main policy
was based on scientific principles. Let the
Eskimo, he said, remain an Eskimo ; let him
eat his Eskimo food, wear his Eskimo dress,
and hunt and fish like his forefathers ; and,
above all, let no Eskimo be tempted to attend
Exhibitions, such as those held at Chicago, Berlin and
Paris. As a result of this latter practice, he said,
many an Eskimo had already suffered incalculable
damage. Some had become immoral ; immorality
caused syphilis ; and syphilis, if unchecked, might
soon exterminate the nation. In all these schemes of
reform Dr. Hutton was warmly supported by Sir
William MacGregor, the Governor of Newfoundland ;
some of the Eskimos acted on the doctor's advice,
and before he left he was able to report a slight
decUne in the death-rate.
5. The Settlers, 1851—1914.
For the special benefit of English settlers living on
the strip of coast south of Hopedale, and at the
request of one Smith, a Hudson's Bay Company
official, the Brethren, in 1851, began holding services
at Rigolette ; then, for a brief period, James O'Hara
acted as authorised missionary to the settlers ; and
finally, in 1895, at the special request of James
Wilson, a Hudson's Bay Company factor, they
founded a proper station named Makkovik. In spite
of the fact that the settlers were English, this work
was genuine missionary work. Most of the settlers
could neither read nor write ; many, of course, had
married Eskimo women ; and both the pure English
and the half-breeds were morally inferior to the
Eskimos. At Hopedale, the Brethren opened a
boarding-school, where a few settlers' children were
educated ; and English services were held in the Church
312 A History of Moravian Missions.
for visiting schooner-men. But this work was not
an unmixed blessing. In return for the Brethren's
favours, some of the schooner-men became good
Christians ; others, however, taught the Eskimos to
gamble ; and the local Church Elders, in 1903, had to
pass special laws to check the evil.
6. The Fruit.
Among the English visitors to Labrador, the most
distinguished was the late Major Hesketh Prichard,
F.R.G.S., author of " Through Trackless Labrador "
and of "The Adventures of Don Q"; and, giving
vent to his enthusiasm in the columns of Chambers^
Journal,'\ Major Prichard asserted that the coast
of Labrador was, on the whole, the most God-fearing
coast he had ever visited. This result, he said, had
been produced, partly by the Moravian Church
and partly by the Deep Sea Mission ; and
the purpose of this short section is simply to
show in what sense and to what extent, as
far as the Eskimos are concerned, Mr. Prichard's
statement is justified. Let us not regard the Eskimo
as a dull person. By nature he is still argumentative,
proud, choleric, affectionate, sensual, humorous ;
charming varieties of character exist as much as
in Shakespeare's plays ; and those Eskimos who
have travelled abroad — even those who have seen
Chicago and Paris — maintain that lonely Labrador
is the finest country , in the world. Christianity
has not made them Europeans. Christianity has
made them Christian Eskimos.
(1) First, then, the Eskimos honour God and
keep Sunday holy. With the exception of a
few heathen at Killinek, the Eskimos of Labrador
are now genuine Christians ; most of them would
fSeventh Series, Vol. I., August fith and 12th, 1911. "Heroes
of the Labrador,"
Labrador. 313
probably pass an examination in the four Gospels ;
and many, by hearing the Bible read at week-night
meetings, have acquired a knowledge of its contents
which would put some di\anity students to shame.
In the summer the Eskimos are away hunting ; in the
winter they reside at the stations ; and the Church,
on a winter Sunday morning, is always crowded.
At nine a.m. there is the Church Litany ; at ten a
public service, with sermon ; in the afternoon a
missionary address ; and in the evening a singing
meeting. Most of the Eskimos are attentive listeners ;
only occasionally someone sleeps during the sermon ;
and some even take notes and discuss the subject.
In musical matters they maintain a high standard.
Formerly, in their heathen days, they could merely
howl. Now they revel in Moravian Chorales. Both
old and young sing correctly in parts ; Nain and
Okak possess fine brass bands ; and some have
mastered the violin and 'cello. At most of the
ser\'ices an Eskimo plays the harmonium ; bhnd
Jeremiah, of Okak, rendered classical selections ;
and Nathaniel, a schoolmaster at Nain, composed an
anthem. Nor is music confined to religious worship.
On his journeys Dr. Hutton often heard singing in
the huts. Patients sang in the hospital ; drivers
sang on their sledges ; fishermen sang in their
boats ; and villagers sped the parting guest with
" God be with you till we meet again."
(2) Again, the Eskimos have learned the art of
self-government. For practical purposes, Labrador
may be described as a Christian Theocracy. As the
Jews revered the law of Moses, so the Eskimos
revere the Bible ; and taking the Bible as their
Statute Book, they assume that whatever is there
forbidden is wicked. Each congregation elects a
Committee of Elders ; these Elders keep law and order
in the village ; and magistrates and policemen are
314 A History of Moravian Missions.
not required. No murders or thefts are now com-
mitted ; quarrels are settled, not in a law court, but
by the missionary or Elders ; and the missionaries
can retire to rest without locking their doors.
(3) Again, the Eskimos are now all total abstainers.
For this fact we must give the credit, partly to the
Government for forbidding the sale of liquor, partly
to the missionaries who inspired the Government,
and partly to the Eskimo Elders at Okak. In 1907
certain Eskimos made some home-brewed beer ;
the Eskimo Elders heard about the enormity ; and
so irresistible was their influence that all the kegs
were broken open and all the liquor poured out on
the snow.
(4) Again, the Eskimos have learned to take some
interest in literature, science, and general know-
ledge. At the day schools the children learn not
only reading, writing and arithmetic, but also a
little geography and book-keeping. Bible lessons
are systematically given ; other popular classics
are " The Pilgrim's Progress," " Christy's Old
Organ," and " Jessica's First Prayer " ; and Bishop
Martin, the Superintendent of the Mission, produces
an Annual Register entitled " Aglait Illunainortut,"
i.e., " Intelligence for Everyone," and containing a
brief account of the main political events of
the day.
(5) Again, the Eskimos, though civilised and
Christian, are still genuine Eskimos. In spite of the
pernicious influence of certain traders, the Eskimos
eat the same kind of food and wear the same kind
of dress, as their forefathers. Still, as of old, they
ply the kayak, drive the sledge-dogs, lance the seal,
and trap the fox ; still, as of old, the patient women,
so that their husbands may have good boots, chew
shoe-leather all day ; and still, as of old, the
Labrador. 815
fearless boys slide down the snow-clad hills, and punt
on the broken ice.
(6) Above all, the Eskimos of Labrador have learned
to understand the deep meaning of Christmas. Dr.
S. K. Hutton once said that a Labrador Christmas
is a good remedy for pessimism. Some years ago he
described such a Christmas in the Pall Mall Magazine;
and the best way to understand the Eskimos is to
use our imaginations a little and spend a Christmas
in their company. The scene opens about a week
before Christmas. The huntsmen are home from
the hills; the bandsmen are practising carols; the
boys are dragging logs across the snow ; and the
women, inside their houses, are scrubbing the
floor, dusting the harmonium, and polishing the
pictures on the wall.
On December 23rd the final preparations are made.
In the store the husband drives his bargain. For
himself he obtains some tobacco, notepaper and
envelopes ; for his wife and girls some aprons and
ribbons ; for his boys mouth-organs, hammers
and saws ; for his table, tea, molasses, rice, peas and
biscuits ; for his Christmas tree some toys and
lanterns. Meanwhile, his wife has been busy in the
hut. On the shelf stand her cups, glasses and orna-
ments ; the floor is strewn with red sand ; and in one
corner stands the " Bethlehem."
On Christmas Eve, at four o'clock, the whole village
meets in the Church for the Christmas Lovefcast.
Along the walls shine rows of lighted candles. The
prevailing colour is white. The walls are white as
snow ; the people wear white siila-paks ; and the
missionaries wear white seal-skin coats. In the
front are the children ; at the back the parents ;
and in the middle, the infirm and aged, seated on
reindeer skins. The opening h\Tnn is sung ; the
story of the birth of Christ is read ; and the choir
316 A History of Moravian Missions.
and orchestra render a Christmas anthem. At the
close of the service a church official enters bearing
candles placed in turnips ; these candles the children
place on their biscuits ; and all now wend their way
home rejoicing. In the evening the adults visit
each other ; Christmas trees are criticised and
admired ; and the chief topic of discussion is who
has constructed the most beautiful " Bethlehem."
On Christmas Day every hour is fully occupied.
In the morning there is public worship ; in the
afternoon the missionaries visit the people ; and in
the evening the people return the compliment.
At last the day closes, and quiet reigns in the village.
For the first time the missionary and his wife can
think a little about their own affairs, and wistfully
their minds turn to children far away at school in
the Homeland. But to the Eskimos Christmas
brings joy unalloyed. The Eskimos have their own
name for Christmas Day. They call it simply
" His Birthday " ; and everybody knows whose
birthday is meant. " On this day many years ago,"
they say, " Jesus the Mighty became as poor as an
Eskimo."t
fAn exploded legend. In hia recent volume, "A Labrador Doctor"
(Hodder & Stoughton), p. 90, Dr. W. T. Grenfell repeats as a fact
the old legend that " as the Eskimos had never seen a lamb or
a sheep, either alive or in a picture, the Moravians, in order
to offer them an intelligible and appealing simile, had most
wisely substituted the kolik, or white seal, for the phrase
' the Lamb of God.' " Dr. Grenfell is quite mistaken. There
is not one word of truth in the story. The Moravian
missionaries solved tlie problem by showing a picture of
a lamb ; and the Eskimo expression used — " Gudeb
Saugarsunga " — means " God, His Lamb." See " Periodical
Accounts," December, 1893, p. 221. The Eskimo word for
sheep is saugak ; for lamb, saugarsik ; and for seal, puije.
See Friedrich Erdmann's Eskimo Dictionary.
BOOK III.
THE MODERN ADVANCE, 1848—1914.
CHAPTER PAGB
1. Nicaragua, 1849-1914 321
2. Victoria, 1849-1905 346
3. Western Tibet, 1853-1914 357
4. The Leper Home at Jerusalem,
1867-1914 374
5. Demerara, 1878-1914 388
6. Alaska, 1885-1914 394
7. CALiroRNiA, 1889-1914 408
8. North Qlteexsland, 1891-1914 . . . 416
9. East Central Africa : Nyassa,
1891-1914 437
10. East Central Africa : Unyamwezi,
1898-1914 452
IsTBODUOTOBY NoTr. — For the special canaes leading to the
Modem Advance, see Book TV., Chapter II., p. 476.
319)
Chapter I.
NICARAGUA, 1849—1914.
1. The Bluefields Experiment, 1849 — 1855.
Let us first understand the political situation. For
nearly two hundred years before the first
Mora\'ian missionaries arrived, the little independent
kingdom of Moskito — ruled by a King or Chief
residing at Bluefields, inhabited chiefly by Moskito
Indians, and bounded on the north by the Wanks
River, on the west by the Gold Field Hills, on the south
by the San Juan, and on the east by the Caribbean
Sea — had managed to maintain its independence,
not because it possessed a powerful army, but
because it was under the special protection of Great
Britain. By treaty, in 1655, Moskito became a
British Protectorate ; by another treaty, in 1720,
some kind of alliance was formed between the King
of Moskito and the Governor of Jamaica ; and then,
to prove that she was as good as her word. Great
Britain, in 1730, established three small military
settlements at Cape Gracias-a-Dios, Bluefields,
and the mouth of the Black River. At length
Great Britain considered it necessary to take still
stronger measures. In the year 1836 Nicaragua
captured Greytown, a Moskito town a few miles south
of Bluefields ; five years later Colonel MacDonaldi
Governor of British Honduras, re-captured Gre\i;own
and restored it to Moskito ; and when Nicaragua
protested, Great Britain pohtely, but firmly, informed
her that she would maintain the integrity of Moskito,
not only against Nicaragua, but against any other
power that had the audacity to attack her. The
result was natural. The more Great Britain did for
Moskito, the more popular were Britons in the country,
(321)
322 A History of Moravian Missions.
and Queen Victoria was called by the people the
" Mother of the Indians." At Bluefields, the capital,
resided the British Consul ; Moskito Kings were often
crowned in the presence of British officials at Belize,
in British Honduras ; and now one King, Robert
Charles Frederick (1824-1842), showed his gratitude
in a very strange manner. For some reason which
has never been fully explained, this King seems to
have been under the impression that Great Britain
was a teetotal country ; he himself, though fond of
the bottle, desired to see his subjects total abstainers ;
and, thinking that if a few Britons would settle in
Moskito, they would teach his people the dangers of
mischla, he granted a small parcel of ground to two
British officers, Henry Willock and Arthur Alexander.
1841 His conduct was much discussed. Some said that
he was mad ; others that he was drunk ; and others
that he shewed the wisdom of Solomon. The two
officers were in a quandary. In order not to offend
the King, they accepted his gift ; but, having no capital
to work it, they determined to sell it. The result was
unexpected. First they tried, but in vain, to find
purchasers in England ; then they offered it to two
German noblemen, Charles of Prussia and the Prince
of Schonberg-Waldenburg ; and the latter, who had
long been a friend of Moravian Missions, suggested
to the Moravian Mission Board that the time had come
for a Mission to the Moskito Indians. In response
to this suggestion, the Mission Board asked two
Jamaica missionaries, Andrew Reinke and Henry
Pfeiffer, to make preliminary inquiries. Once more
British officials played an important part in the
transactions. Lord Palmerston, the Prime Minister,
gave the two missionaries a letter of introduction.
1847 At Bluefields (April 18th, 1847) they had a most
encouraging reception. Patrick Walker, the British
Consul, promised to support the Mission ; Fawcett, an
Nicaragua. 828
Anglican clergjTnan, found them a lodging ; and the
King of Moskito, George Frederick (1842-1865),
offered land for a Church, and begged that a Mission
might be estabhshed forthwith. Next year (1848)
there met at Hermhut a General Moravian SjTiod ;
by that Synod a Mission to Moskito was authorised ;
and early in 1849 (March 14th) Pfeiffer, accompanied
by two colleagues, arrived once more at Bluefields.
The campaign began with a mistake in policy.
For three or four years Henry Pfeiffer showed, 1849
that while he had been a good pastor in Jamaica,
he was not an ideal missionary pioneer ; and acting
as though he were still in a Christian country, where
people were in the habit of attending Church, he
devoted his main attention to the Royal Family,
confined his efforts to Bluefields, used the Court-
house for Sunday services, and arranged, for the
benefit of the citizens, an elaborate series of meetings.
On Sundays there were at least three ser\'ices —
public worship, an inquirers' meeting, and a homily ;
on Monday evening a prayer meeting ; on Tuesday
an address ; on Friday a Bible exposition ; and
on Saturday a singing meeting. For this policy
Pfeiffer could give a good reason. He was acting
like some of the earliest preachers in England ; his
main hopes seem to have rested on the Royal Family ;
and to judge from his reports, he appears to have
thought that if he could convert the Royal Family
the rest of the people would soon follow their example.
Among Pfeiffer's best supporters was Christie, the
British Consul, and, acting on Christie's ad\'ice,
Pfeiffer gave the King two hours' daily instruction, and
took in his three sisters as boarders. At first his policy
seemed justified. For some months the King him-
self not only attended the services, but even joined
a Sunday School class ; one of his sisters acted as
monitor ; and Pfeiffer, therefore, fondly hoped that
824 A History of Moravian Missions.
in a few months the Royal Family would adopt
the Christian religion.
For the following reasons, however, Pfeiffer
had little success : —
(a) The King was a weak and disappointing
character. For a few weeks he would be
both pious and sober ; then he would turn
to the bottle again ; and his people,
observing his conduct, drew their own con-
clusions. " I notice," said an Indian to
Pfeiffer, " that those who attend your
Church are no better than those who stay
at home."
{b) By conducting the services in English, which,
at first, of course, he was compelled to do,
Pfeiffer gave the people the impression that
he was preaching about a foreign God. " The
English," said the Indians, " have a book
which speaks of God, and, therefore, they
know more of God than we do. God loves
the English only ; He takes no notice of
the Indians."
(c) At Bluefields most of the inhabitants were
either Negroes or Creoles ; these Negroes
and Creoles despised the Indians ; and the
Indians refused to attend a Church where,
in all probability, they would be insulted.
For this simple reason, therefore, Pfeiffer
had little influence over the Indians. His
first convert, Mary Waters, was a negress ;
and the only Indian whom he baptized
was the Princess Matilda (June 6th, 1855).
{d) By his Christian ideals of conduct Pfeiffer
disgusted the Indians. At Christmas, each
year, they amused themselves by dancing
and drinking ; Pfeiffer even saw them lying
Nicaragua. 825
drunk in the street ; and the more he
rebuked them, the more they hated him.
(e) By distributing medicines to the sick, Pfeiffer
aroused the hostility of the soukias, or
medicine men. Let one example suffice. At
one time, when measles broke out, a
mother brought her child to Pfeiffer for
treatment. As the mother took his advice,
the child began to recover ; then a soukia
arrived on the scene and washed the
patient in some native concoction ; and
then, when the child died, the soukia
denounced Pfeiffer as a murderer.
(/) By his overbearing conduct Pfeiffer offended
his two colleagues ; the Mission Board,
hearing about the trouble, sent one of their
members to investigate ; and, finally, the
Board decided that Pfeiffer had better
retire.
Let us not, however, criticise Pfeiffer too severely.
In due time he discovered his own mistake. Four
times he himself visited English Bank and the Pearl
Lagoon ; there he not only preached to the Indians,
but, taking the King with him, chose a site for a
church ; and finally, he himself suggested that, if
the missionaries expected any success, they must
no longer remain at Bluefields, but advance steadily
northwards along the coast.
Meanwhile, a most important political event had 1850
occurred. At the time when Pfeiffer arrived at Blue-
fields, Moskito was still a British Protectorate ;
U'^w, by the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850) Great
Britain abandoned her role of protector ; and
henceforward, though still independent, Moskito had
to fight her own battles. In the past the King of
Moskito, supported by British prestige, had a certain
326 A History of Moravian Missions.
amount of authority ; now he was Httle more than
a figure-head. In the past he had ruled over a more
or less united kingdom ; now he was the titular
monarch of several independent tribes ; and the
Brethren very soon discovered that no such thing
as a real government existed. Each tribe managed
its own affairs ; each tribe, if it obeyed any one,
obeyed its own chief ; and each tribe was still
untouched by the Gospel. Along the coast lived
the Moskito Indians, who, having Negro blood
in their veins, excelled their neighbours both in
physical and in intellectual vigour ; among the
western hills, the Sumus ; on the island of Ramah
Key, the Ramahs ; and, dotted about in small
groups, the Conkras, Woolwas, Towkas, Tongulas,
Payas, and Caribs.
Let us now take a brief glance at these people.
At the time when the first Brethren arrived, all the
Indians in Moskito were as heathen, as benighted,
as wretched, and as superstitious as the Bush Negroes
of Surinam.
In matters industrial, the people were still very
primitive. As the land was remarkably fertile, most
of the men were lazy ; day after day they lounged in
hammocks, smoking, gossiping, telling stories, and
exclaiming " All lies, but lovely all the same " ; and
while they were splendid swimmers, paddlers, riders,
fish-hunters, and marksmen, they had no idea of the
meaning of agriculture. Polygamy was still the usual
practice. Among the Moskitos each wife had a
separate home, among the Sumus they all lived
under one roof ; and the curious feature in every
household was that, while the husband lived with
his mother-in-law, he addressed her, not directly,
face to face, but by making remarks to the children
or chickens. For this custom, said the Sumu Indians,
there was a religious reason. In the beginning two
Nicaragua. 827
Gods — Ulnibapot, the sun, and Udo, the moon —
created the heaven and the earth. Each of these
gods married a woman ; each had a mother-in-law ;
and each, finding that mother-in-law a nuisance,
punished her, at stated seasons, by going into echpse.
Mothers-in-law were a trouble even in heaven ;
mothers-in-law caused echpses ; and no self-respecting
man could address such contemptible creatures.
In the Indian religion the chief feature was the
worship of evil spirits. Above all other gods, some
said, there was one Supreme Spirit, Won Aisa, i.e.y
" Our Father " ; this Supreme Spirit, however,
did not interfere in human affairs ; and the real
actors in everyday life were Waiwin Tara, the
land spirit ; Liwa Tara, the water spirit ; Prakahu,
the air spirit ; and a vast host of evil spirits, or Ulassa.
Each of these was man's malignant enemy.
Waiwin caused the drought ; Liwa upset the canoes
and drove away fish ; Prakahu raised the hurricanes ;
and the Ulassa caused diseases. Against these dread-
ful Ulassa only the soukias, or sorcerers, had any
power. Among the Moskitos, the soukia used two
methods. The first was the whisthng cure. With
his hammock slung up near the patient's bed, he
first whistled a luring air ; then he groaned, sighed
and stormed; and then, rushing forward with his
hand over a calabash, he shouted triumphantly,
" I've got him," and explained that he had just
caught the evil spirit. For this feat he charged
a fee varying from 10s. to £4 ; and, money not being
much used, the fee was paid in kind. The other
cure was the water-cure. By blowing at a trough
of water through a bamboo pipe, the soukia endowed
it with medicinal powers ; and, if the patient bathed
therein, he was almost certain to receive some
benefit. Among the Sumus, the soukia used three
cotton dolls. The first was Asampalka, the evil
S^8 A History of Moravian Missions.
spirit, the second, Asampalka's councillor, and the
third, Asampalka's jailer. Each of these two last
dolls was sprinkled with blood ; each, being now
appeased, came to the patient's rescue ; and the
jailer, acting on the councillor's advice, seized
on Asampalka and carried him off. In cases of
failure, the soukia had always the same answer.
Some human enemy had caused the death, and that
enemy must forthwith be slain. Thus did the
soukias, as in Surinam, create a reign of terror.
Amid these terrors the Indians derived
some consolation from their belief in immortality ;
and for that belief they gave a beautiful
reason. Each man, after death, they said, had a
long and dangerous journey before him. For this
reason his clothes and weapons were generally buried
with him ; above his grave was a little wooden
house, well-stocked with food ; and the women
chanted the death- wail, " Alas ! I'll never see your
face again, "f But that sentence referred to this
world only. According to a widespread Indian
legend, there lived, many years ago, a certain man
who, being haunted by the ghost of his wife, deter-
mined to seek her in the next world ; and so, leaving
his body to hang on a tree, he crossed a broad lagoon
on the back of a frog, escaped the cruel teeth of some
raging dogs, and, passing safely between two trees
which crushed all murderers to death, reached the
bright green fields of the heavenly land. There he
saw splendid horses roaming among the trees ;
there he also saw the goddess Japtimisire, Queen
of the Spiritual World. Among those seated on her
lap was his wife. Japtimisire, however, told him
=F==l:
-3:1-
^^^^
I'll ne'er see thy face a - gain
Nicaragua. 329
that he had come too soon, and being rowed back
by spirits in a barrel, he re-crossed the lagoon, re-
entered his body, and recounted his adventures.
2. The First Advance, 1855—1880.
For the next twenty-five years the Brethren,
while keeping Bluefields as their headquarters, made
a systematic attempt to push northwards along the
coast ; thereby they came into close touch with the
Indians, and one of their most delightful discoveries
was that while the Indians were by nature crafty,
vindictive, superstitious and fond of mischla, yet,
on the other hand, they had a sense of gratitude,
responded quickly to kindness, and could even be
touched to finer spiritual issues.
The first station was at Pearl Lagoon, and received 1855
the name Magdala. The first missionary here was
Jean Paul Jiirgensen, a Dane. With his wife,
twelve shilUngs in his pocket, and a piece of salt-beef,
he, on June 12th, 1855, arrived on the scene ; three
days later there broke out an epidemic of cholera ;
and Jiirgensen rendered such splendid medical ser\'ice,
boldly \'isiting all the patients and serving out
useful drugs, that in less than a month the people
adored him, attended his services in crowds, and
even began conducting family prayers. The station
soon became a hive of acti^'ity. There, assisted by
Peter Blair, an eflBcient Negro assistant, Grunewald
prepared the first Moskito Dictionary ; there, one
memorable Christmas morning, the people roused
the missionary at 4 a.m. and compelled him to rise
from his bed and conduct a service ; and there,
under Augustus Martin, the converts learned to
teach in the Sunday School, visit the sick, settle
disputes, and guide the missionary on his journeys
to the little outlying stations at Klukiunlaya,
Reitapura, Brown Bank, and Canon Bank. With the
830 A History of Moravian Missions.
conduct of the Magdala Christians, Martin was
positively charmed. In 1875 there was a terrible
hurricane, whereby the station was destroyed.
Forthwith, by free-will labour, the converts re-built
the Church ; those who had food shared at once with
the destitute ; and one night, Mrs. Garth, a convert,
knocking at the missionary's door, offered him a
share of her cassava.
" But why," asked Martin, " have you brought it
by night ? "
" Because if I had brought it in the day-time
the others would have thought I was rich. But the
truth is my harvest is destroyed ; only a little is
left ; and some of that little is for you.'*
I860 The second station was named Ephrata. At this
place Augustus Martin not only preached the Gospel,
but also acted as magistrate, kept a provision
" store," and collected money for the Government ;
and thereby he discovered how the Indians tested
the truth of a religion. The Indian test was entirely
practical. Good religions, they said, produced good
characters ; bad religions produced bad characters ;
and as the Christians at Ephrata were honest, the
Christian rehgion must be true. For this reason,
among others, Ephrata soon became a busy centre ;
three more stations, Bethany (1864), Kukulaya (1871)
and Karata (1875), were founded; and out-preaching
places were also established at Layasiksa, Tapunlaya,
Bawa Baer, Wounta, and Walpasiksa. Nor was
this the whole of the Brethren's activities. For
five years (1869-74) the missionaries made great use
of a small schooner, the Messenger of Peace, pre-
sented by certain young people in the American
Province ; Blair and Kandler visited fifty places
along the coast; and these journeys were only
abandoned because, in 1874, the schooner was
wrecked.
Nicaragua. 331
3. The Happy Island, 1858—1878.
Meanwhile a wonderful series of events had
occurred. For the long period of twenty years
Jean Paul Jurgensen devoted all his energies to the
Indians on the island of Ramah Key ; and during
those years he turned a hell of iniquity into a paradise
of joy. At first the people seemed hopeless. The
men drank rum and lounged in hammocks, while the
women did all the hard work ; the boys ran naked ;
and the baby girls were often murdered. For the first
few days after his arrival Jurgensen made his abode
in an Indian hut. Pigs grunted under the floor ;
vermin attacked him in his bed ; and the people,
regarding him as an enemy, not only refused to sell
him fish and fruit, but sneered when he began to
build his house.
" What I " said one huge idler, '* you working ? "
"Yes," replied Jurgensen, "for this purpose
God has given us hands ; and these hands of mine
shall teach you a wholesome lesson."
Let us now see how Jiirgensen kept his promise.
He adopted three methods of work.
(a) Trade Regulations. For some years the Ramah
Key Indians had been in the habit of selling their
pork at Bluefields, where, having spent their money
in drink, they ran up bills at the grocers' shops ;
and now, with the consent of the Indians them-
selves, Jurgensen interviewed the Bluefields trades-
men and persuaded them to pay for their pork in
goods. In eight years he freed the island from debt.
Meanwhile, he himself opened a shop in the island ;
there, in return for fish and pork, he supphed the
people's needs ; and further, ha\ing discovered oil
on the island, he taught the natives how to extract
it, sold it at Greytown, and paid them the value in
goods. His success was marrellous. In 1857 the
882 A History of Moravian Missions.
Ramah Key Indians were steadily being ruined
by drink and debt ; by 1877 they were sober and
prosperous ; and all the natives now saw that
Jiirgensen was their best friend.
(6) Law and Order. In spite of the fact that,
technically speaking, Ramah Key belonged to the
kingdom of Moskito, Jiirgensen, with the King's
permission, made the island independent ; and,
having won the goodwill of the people, he made such
laws as he thought fit. No Indians from the coast
might live on the island; no soukias were allowed
to practise ; no intoxicating liquor was made ;
no boat might put to sea on Sundays ; no one might
leave the island without his permission ; and
no one might visit the island without a satisfactory
reason. With the last regulation the people were
charmed. " Ah ! papa Johnson," they said, " we
are happy now. We are no longer beaten by the
Moskito men."
(c) Education. As Mr. and Mrs. Jiirgensen had
no children, they were able to devote much time to the
children of the island. The language in Ramah
Key was English. Jiirgensen taught the children in
his own house. Mrs. Jiirgenson visited the huts, and
taught the mothers how to keep them tidy and how
to take care of their babies ; and thus this dutiful
couple acted as father and mother to the whole
island. Among the rising generation, Jiirgensen
discovered many beautiful characters ; and some
of these, in their love for Christ, resembled St,
Bernard. With tears in his eyes, the old man, after
his retirement to Denmark, would tell how James
died, exclaiming, " Look, Jesus is there ; " how
Benjamin heard a strange voice saying, " Turn to
God and you will live another year ; " and how
Antoinette, awaking from a trance, spoke like a
Nicaragua. 883
messenger from heaven. Above all, Jiirgensen loved
to tell the story of Tabitha. "No one," he said,
"excelled her in beauty of character. Her speech
was like a heavenly song, and her face as the face
of an angel."
At length, one memorable Easter Sunday, hearing
that Tabitha was ill, he called to see her.
" Well, Tabitha," he asked, " what have you to
say to me ? "
" Papa," she answered, " I am going home. I am
glad that soon I shall see my Sa%aour and live with
Him for ever."
But Jiirgensen did not encourage morbid thoughts.
" My child," he said, " are you not afraid to die ? "
" No," she replied, " look at the beautiful white
robe my Sa\'iour has given me."
" I cannot see it. What is it like ? "
"It is washed in the blood He shed on Calvary."
In spite of Jiirgensen's medical efforts, Tabitha
grew steadily worse. Around her couch the people
stood weeping ; Tabitha begged them not to weep,
assuring them that she was happy ; and then, after
begging their forgiveness and bidding them all
good-bye, she asked Mr. and Mrs. Jiirgensen to
come a little closer.
" I thank you both," she said, " for all your kind-
ness."
Let one more picture linger in the memory. For
some years after Jiirgensen's retirement, his successor
made a practice of giving the Ramah Key Indians
an annual day excursion to the coast ; and the
scene, as they rowed home in the evening, recalls
a line in Shakespeare. t As the sun descended beyond
the Teluca mountains, making a path of trembling
gold on the sea, the boat was nearing the converts'
•f'The setting Bun, with music at the cloee.**
884 A History of Moravian Missions.
island home ; and the Indians, led by their teacher,
sang : —
" Abide with me, fast falls the eventide."
4. The Great Revival, 1881 — 1896.
1881-96 For fifteen years the Moskito Coast was the scene of
the most wonderful revival in the history of Moravian
Missions ; and all the missionaries thankfully
recognised that the movement, for which they had
made no special preparations, was due to the influence
of the Holy Ghost. The first spark took fire at
Magdala. As Mary Downs, a Creole girl, was dressing
a corpse for burial she was suddenly so deeply
convicted of sin that her whole body seemed
paralyzed ; and then, after lying three days
both stiff and unconscious, she awoke, repented,
refused food, and finally, by the aid of Peter Blair,
resumed her meals and became a happy Christian.
And then, in the Church, about six months later,
one Sunday afternoon, a strange incident occurred.
As the closing hjinn was being sung, a strange thrill
seized the people, and some men began to pray aloud.
" I shall never forget that scene," said Missionary
Piper. For some moments the excitement was
intense. Some fell on their knees or raised their
hands; some cried out "Have mercy!" and others
" Praise God ! " ; and then all fell on their knees
and prayed aloud. For the sake of order, Piper gave
out a hymn. At length an old Indian urged all to
follow Christ ; and the people, after singing and
prayer, went quietly home.
In a few hours the whole of Magdala was stirred.
For some days there was singing and praying in
every house; and once a crowd knocked up Peter
Blair at midnight.
" Come to the Church," they said, " and hold a
Nicaragua. 885
prayer meeting. The people are there, and are
waiting for the Second Coming."
But Peter Blair did not encourage midnight
ravings. " Tell the people," he said, " that I'm
always ready for the Second Coming. The Lord
will accept me even if He finds me in bed. And
I can't get up just now."
A still greater marvel followed. At the very time
when Mary Downs was converted at Magdala, a
similar movement began at Bluefields ; then Martin
reported what he had seen at Magdala ; and, one
Sunday, in the Bluefields Church, another strange
scene was witnessed. Instead of sitting quietly
in their seats, the young women, just before the
service, took off their black belts, and when Martin
arrived they were undoing their boots.
" What is the meaning of this ? " said Martin.
" We removed our belts," they said, " because
we wished to be all in white, as a symbol of holiness ;
and now we are taking off our boots because we are
on holy ground."
At Martin's command the belts were re-buckled,
and the service proceeded as usual. As he strolled
by his house a few hours later, an excited messenger
ran up, and Martin, going out to the town, found a
house filled with inquirers. On Monday every
house in Bluefields was stirred ; all classes, white,
brown, black, were equally affected ; the movement
ran like fire along the coast ; and Martin, though
he did not like the simile, compared it to an epidemic.
For some weeks the converts, like those in Jamaica,
were subject to horrible convulsions ; some sweated,
trembled, groaned, refused all food, and drummed
their heels on the floor ; and not till they had found
forgiveness did they recover their senses. Sometimes
the victim lay unconscious for hours or days ; and
ont woman was even attacked at her wedding.
886 A History of Moravian Missions.
and falling backwards, wriggled out of the Church.
In some houses the seekers had visions and dreams ;
in others divine revelations ; and in one a man was
said to have spoken with tongues.
Amid scenes like these the Brethren preserved their
calm. In spite of the excesses, they believed that the
revival was real ; and, doing their best to discourage
folly, they referred their seekers to the plain teaching
of Scripture. For this reason, among others, the
revival did untold good ; and all along the coast the
Brethren noted fruits of the Spirit. For the first
time in the history of Central America thousands of
Indians confessed that they were sinners, and from
that confession many virtues sprang. At Magdala
all the publicans but one closed their saloons. At
Dakura an old woman smashed all the rum barrels,
and not a man in the village dared to stop her. At
Karata even the soukias repented, confessed that
they had been impostors, and either burned or
buried their implements, and at Sandy Bay the people
complained that the sermons were too short. At
some places the people turned sick at the smell of
drink ; at others, while the elders clamoured for the
Bible, the children roamed the streets singing hymns ;
and far away in the woodland villages, where the
sound of the Gospel had never been heard, the poor
penitents climbed the trees, lay all night on the
branches, and started early in the morning for the
nearest mission station.
The effect of the movement was immense. For
fifteen years the Brethren — sometimes by boat and
sometimes on horseback — were seeking sinners from
Bluefields to Cape Gracias-a-Dios ; and, taking the
Gospel tide at the flood, they founded stations at
Quamwatla and Yulu (1884), Sharon and Twappi
(1886), Dakura (1893), Wasla and Sandy Bay
(1896). At some places their experiences were of
Nicaragua. 837
marvellous interest. At Quamwatla {i.e.. Turkey-
cock House) they were among the Sumu Indians ;
and here they heard the strange story of Samuel Hall.
For two months (October to December, 1871) this
young man, an independent worker from Bristol, took
the usual steps towards the founding of a station, and
when he died his widow gave £1,000 to the Mission on
condition that Quamwatla was made a Moravian
station. As several natives died soon afterwards,
the surv'ivors, thinking the village possessed, deserted
it, and when Sieborger arrived on the scene (1878)
he found nothing but graves. Above each grave
was a wooden kennel, containing guns and arms
for the departed ; and, covered with bushwood, there
was a marble tombstone in memory of Samuel Hall.
At last the revival touched the Quamwatla people,
living beside a lake in the forest ; and the conduct
of the trembling sinners was quite original. In
solemn council, they passed two strange resolutions ;
first, that they would have one grand final carouse,
and then that they would become total abstainers
and visit Ephrata. The carouse was held, the visit
to Ephrata was paid, the natives returned to their
village, and there the Brethren erected the " Church
beside a Grave."
He had gone as a Son of Truth,
And with diligent hand and free
He scattered the grain in the far-off land
Beside the Mexican Sea.
But hard was the soil ; no fruit appeared
To gladden his prayerful search,
He died and his body was laid to rest
In a grave without a Church.
And there they have built a Church,
'Tis a Church beside a grave ;
S38 A History of Moravian Missions.
And they live by the faith of the Son of God,
Who died from sin to save.
What then ! Quamwatla's simple lay
Is true the wide world o'er —
By the empty grave of the Risen Lord
The Church stands evermore.f
At YultL the people continued for years to be subject
to physical convulsions. The people seized called
themselves " Spirit people," and believing themselves
to be inspired, rejected the missionary's authority.
As their morals, however, were rather low, the
missionary felt it his duty to oppose them ; and
he even laid down the rule that all people seized
with trembling at Church must leave the building.
The "Spirit people" were enraged. At one service
a woman refused to go, and Reichel had to turn her
out.
*' Who gave you the right," she asked, "to act
against the Holy Ghost ? I don't care if you expel
me. We that are seized know that we have the
Spirit." And a fortnight later she repented.
At Dakura the converts' conduct was simply
amazing. As this village lay in Nicaragua, the
Brethren for over a dozen years were unable to found
a station, and the converts, determined to hear the
Gospel, would pay periodic visits to the nearest
station, stay there three or four weeks, hear as many
sermons as possible, and then, returning to Dakura,
hold services both for themselves and for their
friends. For this loyalty they received their due
1893 reward, and the station at Dakura was soon fully
organized.
During this revival period the missionaries were the
most popular men on the coast. As soon as a
fBy Bishop Ellis. For the wliole poem, see " Periodical Accounts,"
December, 1888.
Nicaragua. 839
missionary was seen approaching, the villagers
crowded round him.
"Parson, Parson!" they cried. "Make prayers!
We have got the revival, but now you must give us
God's Word to teach us aright."
Sometimes the preacher was merely passing
through the village.
" Ah, no ! " he would say. " I cannot stay, I am
on my way to so-and-so."
" Make prayers ! " the people cried. " See, the
Church is ready, just one sermon."
Sometimes, on the other hand, the preacher could
stay a few days. At this news the people went \vild
with joy, and, led by their chief, prepared to give God's
messenger a royal welcome. The fattest bullock
was killed ; the boys ran off to the woods to milk
the cows ; the women, busy as Martha, prepared
cassava, and the supper coffee was made so strong
that all that night, in the chief's best bedroom,
the preacher, wide awake as a watchman, waited for
the dawn to break.
The coping-stone was placed by Benjamin Romig,
a member of the Mission Board. For two months
he was busy visiting all the stations. At his sug- 1890
gestion the Brethren opened a Higher School at Blue-
fields, and all along the coast they paid more attention
to education. But Romig's scheme had soon a curious
history.
5. The Rule of Nicaragua, 1894 till
Present Day.
And now occurred the greatest political change 1894
in the history of Moskito. Formerly, the kingdom
of Moskito had been more or less independent ; now,
on February 9th, 1894, President Zelaya sent
Nicaraguan soldiers to capture Biuefields ; and
henceforth the so-called Moskito Reserve — known
I
840 A History of Moravian Missions.
now as the Province of Zelaya — was part of the Roman
CathoUc RepubHc of Nicaragua. At the very outset
the soldiers made matters clear. The Moskito flag
was torn down and fired from a cannon ; the flag
of Nicaragua flew in its place ; and Robert Clarence,
the King of Moskito, fled in terror to Jamaica. To
the Brethren this great change was of the utmost
importance. In the past they had enjoyed religious
liberty ; now they were under a Roman Catholic
Government ; and some of them very naturally
feared that the Government would interfere with their
work. At this crisis they shewed both wisdom and
courage. On the one hand they resolved that they
would be loyal citizens of the Republic ; on the other
hand, if permitted, they would still preach the Gospel ;
and so persistently did they maintain this attitude
that while, for some years, they had to endure per-
secution, they succeeded, at last, in obtaining full
religious liberty. Let us now note the chief features
of the struggle.
1894 («) The first attack was made by unauthorised
officials. In theory, the Nicaraguan Republic stood
for religious liberty ; the first Governor, General
Galizas, was quite friendly to the Mission ; and
at the outset he informed the Brethren that, if they
would abstain from politics, he would not interfere
with their labours. His officials, however, worked
against the Brethren in secret. At Bluefields they
informed the children that going to school was
useless, and along the coast they informed the
Indians that now, under the new rule, they would
have a glorious time. " You may go back to all
your old customs," they said ; " you may work on
Sundays, and have as many wives as you like."
But the Indian converts were not so easily deceived.
" We have just come out of the darkness," they
said, " and now these officials want to push us back."
Nicaragua. 841
(b) The next blow was financial. Formerly, taxes 1895
in Moskito had been light ; now they were so heavy
that trade was almost ruined ; and many of
the Moravian converts suffered severely. The
Nicaraguan mode of taxation was peculiar. All
imports were taxed by weight ; the weight was
always made to include the packing ; and the
consequence of this arrangement was that when
the missionaries received parcels from abroad they
had to pay enormous taxes out of all reasonable
proportion to the value of an article. Let me here
give one astounding example. Inside one box was
an apron, weighing half a pound ; in estimating
the value of the parcel, the Government
included the box, which weighed several lbs. ;
and the tax on the packet was actually
£5 12s. For some years, therefore, many goods
in Moskito were at famine prices. On one
box of Christmas goods, valued in England at £l,
the missionary had to pay £20 ; a sponge cost
£4 10s.; and butter rose to 10s. a lb.; and thus
many of the Indian converts — even though they
earned good wages — were now on the verge of
starvation.
(c) The next move, though well meant, endangered 18£6
the Brethren's system of education. But the President
of the Nicaraguan Republic must not be regarded
as a bigot. For anything I know to the contrary, he
was quite conscientious in his motives ; in any case,
he sent two priests to inspect the Brethren's schools ;
and these priests not only opened rival schools, but
actually accused the Brethren of neglecting the
Indian children. " Just send your children to us,"
they said to the parents. " We will teach them to
read and write in less than a year." And some of the
other inspectors were equally cunning. At one station
they informed the children that all money paid as
342 A History of Moravian Missions.
school-fees was sent by the missionaries to England ;
at another the inspector urged the parents to demand
a Spanish teacher ; and at a third he accused the
missionary of smuggling tobacco. In spite, however,
of these slanders, the Moravian day-schools were
well attended. In the so-called Government schools
many of the teachers were immoral ; in the Brethren's
schools they were good Christians ; and most of the
parents had now learned to distinguish between
good and evil.
1900 (d) The next Government measure nearly ruined
the Mission. Formerly, the Brethren had taught both
in English and in Moskito, and some of their pupils
had learned to read English literature ; now the
Government passed a new law that only Spanish
might be used ;t and Dr. Luna, the Chief Inspector,
read out a proclamation at Bluefields (June 9th,
1900) that any teacher breaking the law would be
fined not less than £5. With this new official demand
the Moravian missionaries simply could not comply.
For the time being, therefore, nearly all the Moravian
day-schools had to be closed ; Government day-
schools took their place ; and so severe was the blow
inflicted on the Mission that in 1909 a General Synod
decreed that, unless conditions improved, the Mission
in Nicaragua must be gradually abandoned.
(e) Meanwhile, other disasters fell on the Mission.
In 1908 the Brethren's coasting schooner, the Meta,
was wrecked, and most of Bluefields was destroyed
by fire ; and in 1906 and 1908 such furious
hurricanes blew that nearly every station lay in
ruins. And yet the Brethren continued to make
some progress. During these eventful years two
fTliis measure must not be construed as a deliberate attack on
the Mission. For natural patriotic reasons the Government
desired that all children in Nicaragua should speak the same
language.
Nicaragua. 343
missionaries especially rendered magnificent service.
The first was G. Grunewald. He was distinguished
as a translator. He issued an improved edition of
the Moskito Hymn Book, wrote a Moskito Catechism,
saw through the press " One Hundred Old Testament
Stories and Fifty Psalms," and, finally, issued the
New Testament in Moskito. With these books in
their hands the Brethren, though excluded from the
day-schools, could now teach in the Sunday Schools ;
and thus, to some extent at least, they foiled Inspector
Luna. The other distinguished missionary was
Grossmann. In 1905 he explored the Wanks River ;
two years later a new station. Sang Sangta, was
founded, and thus many more heathen Indians were
reached.
" Why did you choose Sang Sangta ? " said a friend
to Grossmann.
" Because it was the wickedest place on the river."
(/) At last the sun of freedom burst through the
clouds. In 1910, General Estrada, the leader of the 1910
Liberal Party in Nicaragua, openly revolted against
the Government. His attempt was a brilliant
success. The old President, Zelaya, was deposed ;
General Estrada took his place ; and the new
Government issued a declaration that, while the
Church of Rome was still the State Church, all
Protestants should enjoy liberty of conscience. The
law about the use of Spanish in schools was repealed ;
once more the Moravian day-schools flourished ;
and some of the missionaries, by rendering medical
sersdce, made a favourable impression even on the
Spaniards of Nicaragua.
During the last few years a great change has taken
place in one of the people's ideas. Formerly the
Indians believed that no one could become a Christian
unless he was both married and over thirty years
of age ; but now this delusion has vanished, and
844 A History of Moravian Missions.
boys and girls of suitable age frequently come forward
for Confirmation.
Political History or Moskito.
In the history of Moskito there are five note-
worthy landmarks.
1. Moskito a British Protectorate (1655-1850).
In 1630 some English Puritans founded a small
colony on the coast, and in 1655 Great Britain
undertook the protectorate of Moskito. f During
the whole of this period Great Britain maintained
the independence of Moskito, and the following
events are also worthy of notice : —
(a) 1720. Treaty of Alliance between the King
of Moskito and the Governor of Jamaica.
(b) 1730. Three small British military outposts
established at Cape Gracias-a-Dios, Blue-
fields, and the mouth of the Black River.
(c) 1763. Peace of Paris. Great Britain orders
her men to leave Moskito, but still con-
tinues her protectorate.
(d) 1821. Nicaragua declares herself an In-
dependent Republic.
(e) 1836. Nicaragua captures Greytown ; five
years later (1841) Colonel MacDonald,
Governor of British Honduras, re-captures
Greytown and restores the town to
Moskito ; and, when Nicaragua protests.
Great Britain informs her that she will
defend the independence of Moskito
against all assailants. The situation is,
therefore, I hope, perfectly clear. In
1849, when the first Moravian missionaries
arrived, Moskito was an independent
fFor a full account of the Puritan Colony, see BUicktvood's
Magazine, No. 1G5.
Nicaragua. 845
kingdom under the special protection
of Great Britain.
2. Clayion-Buliver Treaty between Great Britain
and the U.S.A. (April 19th, 1850). Great Britain
abandons her position as protector of Moskito.
Moskito is still independent, but henceforward will
have to fight her ovm. battles.
3. Dallas-Clarendon Treaty between Great Britain
and U.S.A. (1856). Moskito becomes a protectorate
of Nicaragua.
4. Treaty of Managua, 1860, between Great Britain
and Nicaragua. Moskito placed definitely under the
sovereignty of Nicaragua, the Moskito boundaries
being defined as follows : — South, the Ramah River ;
west, meridian 84'15 : north, the Huesco River ;
east, the Caribbean Sea. Nevertheless, Moskito
still retained a certain measure of independence.
She still had her own king, still made her own laws,
still preserved her old customs. Practically, Moskito
was now a colony belonging to Nicaragua.
5. Conquest of Moskito, 1894. Nicaragua con-
quers Moskito by force. Thereby Moskito loses her
independence entirely, and becomes a province,
known as Zelaya, of the Roman Catholic Republic
of Nicaragua.
Chapter II.
VICTORIA, 1849—1905.
1. The Lake Boga Disaster, 1849-56.
As Anthony Trollope was travelling in Southern
Australia, he seized his opportunity to pay a visit
to a little Moravian Mission Station named Ebenezer
and situated near Lake Wimmera, in Victoria ;
and, seeing that the Papus were doomed to extinction,
he came to the conclusion — stated clearly in his
book, " Australia and New Zealand " — that, while
the Moravians were doing excellent work, " the
game," to use his own expression, " was not worth
the candle." With this pessimistic opinion, how-
ever, other competent authorities disagreed. At
least three important British officials — Major Irwin,
Commandant of Western Australia, Sir George Grey,
Lt. -Governor of South Australia, and his successor,
Major Hutt — had urged the Moravians to undertake
a Mission. The problem was fully discussed at a
General Synod (1848), and next year the first two
missionaries, Spieseke and Tager, arrived at
1849 Melbourne. The Supt. of Port Philip, Joseph La
Trobe, gave them a cordial welcome ; the Bishop of
Melbourne, Perry, pleaded their cause; the Church
of England Messenger called on Churchmen both to
pray and to subscribe ; and, settling down on the
1851 banks of Lake Boga, after several exploratory
journeys, the two Brethren made their first
acquaintance with the Papus. Let us take a
brief glance at the chief characteristics of these
people.
According to some ethnologists, the Papus of
Australia were descended from a mixture of Malays
(346)
ViCTOEIA. 347
and Negroes. In build, though short, they were
generally thin and lanky; most of them had flat,
consumptive chests ; and, as they were much
addicted to immorality, many of them also inherited
syphilis. For cleanliness they had no taste whatever ;
instead of washing they rubbed themselves with
fat ; and the fat and the dirt were a hunting ground
for vermin. To these causes of death, however,
we must add another. In no country was child
murder more common. If twins were bom, only
one was allowed to hve ; many of the baby girls were
strangled at birth ; and in some cases the boys also
were murdered. For this custom the Papu mothers
gave an intelligible reason. " If the boy hves,"
they said, "he is sure to catch some painful disease,
and therefore, to save him a life of pain, I had better
kill him at once." With this merciful design, there-
fore, she choked him with sand, and buried him about
an inch deep.
In practical matters the Papus showed consider-
able skill. At the time when the Brethren arrived
on the scene, the Papus earned their li\'ing, not by
tilling the soil, but by hunting ; for this purpose they
used spears made of fish-bone ; and, being fairly
agile in body, they could swarm up trees, manage
horses, and hurl the boomerang with such unerring
accuracy that, as we all know, some of them were
brought to London to give exhibitions of their skill
at the Crystal Palace. In domestic matters their
chief weakness was their failure to make any provision
for the future. If food abounded they gorged ;
plenty alternated with famine ; and their chief
delight was to bask in the sun and smoke strong
tobacco.
With regard to their spiritual nature, opinions
differed. Ernest Renan declared that they had no
souls ; some of the colonists, it is said, regarded them as
848 A History of Moravian Missions.
mere monkeys ; and yet the Brethren soon discovered
that, in their own rough way, they beheved both in
God and in immortaHty. The Creator, the Father
of all, was called Pei-e-Wei ; man's foe, the devil, was
called Majalia ; and Pei-e-Wei, though slow to act,
sided with his children against Majalia. But both
about God and about the devil they held the crudest
ideas. God they regarded as a gigantic old man,
who slept with his head upon his arm and would one
day wake up and eat the world ; and the devil was
a hideous monster, with a red body. With Pei-e-Wei,
however, the chief difficulty was that, though he was
by nature kind-hearted, he was also rather addicted
to fits of temper. At such times he refused to give
any assistance, and the Papus appeased his wrath
by performing their famous dance, the Corroborree.
The dance took place by moonlight. The performers
daubed their bodies with white clay, streaked their
faces red, stuck feathers in their hair, strung the
tails of rats and mice on their ears and carried
spears, boomerangs, and clappers. The men capered
about and rattled their clappers ; the women droned
a lament ; and the dance concluded with an orgy.
With Majalia the Papus lived in constant conflict.
He dwelt, they said, in a dismal cave, appeared
in the form of a serpent, and sowed the seeds
of disease. For the cure of disease the Papus
relied chiefly on the aid of sorcerers. With their
thick lips the sorcerers sucked out the poison ;
then, of course, they denounced some man as the
cause ; and thus, like the sorcerers of Surinam,
they incited to revenge and murder. And yet,
with all their aches and pains, the Papus were not
entirely miserable. At the close of this life of woe,
they said, each man, saint or sinner, would be happy
for ever ; Nuranduri, the king of spirits, would lead
him to a home of joy ; and there, restored to the
Victoria. 349
vigour of youth, he would have as many wives as
he had had here on earth.f
For five years the two Brethren plodded quietly
on at Lake Boga, and though they did not make any
actual converts, they soon gained the goodwill of the
people. Prince Albert, a local chieftain, came and
asked the Brethren for brandy, and blushed when he
was offered water instead. The men paraded in duck
trousers, and admired themselves in the glass ; the
women strutted in red skirts sent from Melbourne ;
and all, men and women alike, were willing, in return
for payment, to help in the building of the station.
But in spiritual matters the Papus showed no interest.
In vain the Brethren rebuked them for their vices.
"Wait a little," repHed the Papus, "we will hear you
at a more convenient season." In vain the Brethren
told the story of the Cross. " Let us have some
tobacco," replied the Papus, " otherwise you had
better depart."
But now a tragic incident occurred. For
certain vile purposes of their own, a number
of gold-diggers in the immediate neighbour- 1856
hood — fearing that if the Papus became Christians
the women would no longer sell their souls for an
ounce of tobacco — now made a deliberate attempt to
destroy the Mission. First they pilfered the
Brethren's garden and stole their horses ; then they
informed the Papus that the Brethren fully intended
to poison them, boil them in a pot as big as a beer-
house, and serve them up for dinner; and then,
to add insult to injury, a farmer broke down the
Bretliren's fence and cut a road through their garden. ,
In vain Tager went to Melbourne, and appealed for
justice. Instead of granting his request forthwith,
the authorities very properly informed him that he
fFor further information, see R. Brough Smith. " The Aborigines
of Victoria."
350 A History of Moravian Missions.
must bring his case before the Law Courts ;
to Tager, however, this seemed a needless
formahty ; and, feehng that he had been
unjustly treated, he not only abandoned the
Mission, but persuaded his colleagues to follow
his example. Let us not, however, pass a harsh
judgment on Tager. For some months he had
suffered severely from jaundice ; to such men
even the snow looks yellow ; and Tager may be
excused on the ground that, being ill, he took a
more gloomy view of the case than the evidence
justified.
2. Ebenezer, 1858—1903.
The next station was a splendid example of
inter-denominational co-operation. For the first
time in the history of Victoria, Anglicans,
Presbyterians and Moravians, supported warmly
by the Government, made a systematic attempt
to Christianize the Papus. Sir Henry Barkley,
the Governor, gave the land, and promised
compensation for the losses sustained at Lake
Boga ; the Bishop of Melbourne, Perry, espoused
the cause ; the church, built largely by Papu
1860 labour, was opened and dedicated by Canon
Chase; and the news that a Papu, Nathaniel
Pepper, had actually been converted and
baptized, created such a sensation at Melbourne
that the missionary, F. A. Hagenauer, had
to tell the story at a mass meeting. The
proceedings were fully reported in the Melbourne
papers. Sir Henry Barkley presided ; the
Bishop and the Dean of Melbourne sat by
his side ; the Bishop once more extolled the
Brethren's work ; and Canon Chase gave
detailed information about the character of
young Pepper. The result was a great increase in
Victoria. 351
public interest. For some years the work at
Ebenezer was a common topic of conversation in
evangelical circles at Melbourne ; and members of
various shades of rehgious opinion supported the
growing cause in various ways. The children of St.
James's, Canon Chase's Church, sent a beautiful
Bible ; the students of the Presb\i:erian College sent
windows ; the citizens of Horsham formed a
" Missionary Union " ; a sheep farmer, Scott, gave
12,000 shingles ; and finally, at the special request
of three sympathetic magistrates, the Victoria
Pariiament formed a " Central Board " to guard the
rights of the natives.
Meanwhile, at Ebenezer itself, the moral and
spiritual results were marvellous. For twenty-six
years the chief missionary here was Spieseke ; this
man was not addicted to exaggeration ; and his
sober testimony was that most of the converts at
Ebenezer attained a very high level of Christian
character. Instead of merely hunting and fishing,
they were now mostly employed as sheep farmers.
Nathaniel Pepper became a fine local preacher ;
two Papus, Old Charley and his wife, managed a
local Orphanage ; the children in the day-school
passed through the same curriculum as the English
children at Melbourne ; and family prayers were
conducted at every house. With regard, further, to
the people's honesty, let one veracious anecdote
suffice. Among the visitors to Ebenezer was a certain
Gottheb Meissel, and Mrs. Spieseke instructed him
to leave his boots outside the house, to be
cleaned.
'' But will they not be stolen ? " asked
Meissel.
" Xo," replied the missionary's wife, " who is
there to steal them ? We have been here seven years,
and nothing has been stolen except a piece of soap.
852 A History or Moravian Missions.
And even that was brought back when we com-
plained. "f
With all their skill and zeal, however, the Brethren
fought against one foe in vain. In spite of good food
and an open-air life the people still suffered terribly
from consumption. For every birth in the village
there were five deaths ; all day long the sound of
coughing was heard ; and in 1903 the station was
closed, not because the people were morally hopeless,
but because they had nearly all died.
3. Ramahyuck, 1863—1905.
The third station, Ramahyuck,* i.e., "Our Home,"
was a still more brilliant success. Once more the
Government took a prominent part ; once more
there was interdenominational co-operation. At the
special instigation of Queen Victoria herself — who,
in a letter, begged the Governor to shield the Papus
from violence, educate them, and give them the
Gospel — the Victoria Government now created six
Reserve Stations, where only Papus and their
guardians might live. Two of these stations were
Ebenezer and Ramahyuck, situated near Lake
Wellington, and, acting in response to many letters
from zealous friends in Melbourne, the Moravian
Mission Board placed the new venture under the
charge of F. A. Hagenauer. For the long period of
1863-1907 forty-four years this man was one of the best-known
characters in Victoria ; at Melbourne he was famed
for his humorous lectures ; and the charming feature
about his character was that, while he had three
different masters to serve, he seems to have served
•fFor lack of space I cannot tell here the touching and romantic story
of the orphan boy, Willie Wimmera. He was taken charge of
by Canon Chase, came to England and died at Reading.
Hjs grave may be seen in Reading Churchyard, and a few
copies of " The Life of Willie Wimmera" are still obtainable.
*ilamali is a Hebrew word meaning " hill," or sometimes "home" ;
and Yuck is a Papu word meaning " our."
ViCTOEIA. S53
them all equally well. First, he was a Government
official, and held the position of Secretary to the
Aboriginal Board and Protector of the Aborigines ;
secondly, his salary was paid by the Presbyterians ;
and thirdly, he was a Moravian Minister, and had to
account for his conduct to the Mission Board. His
policy may be very briefly described. He was partly
a social reformer arid partly a preacher. In his first
capacity he attended to such matters as trade,
education, health and the care of the poor ; in his
second he preached the Gospel as the power of
salvation.
His first task was to find the Papus a home, and
provide them with healthy employment. For this
purpose he built a village, consisting of sixteen neat
little houses. Each man had now his own home ;
each man also owned two or three cows ; and each
man, who had the physical strength, either bred
sheep or cultivated a small allotment. For a few-
years the Government supplied the station with
tea, sugar, flour, and clothing, and then the Papus
became so prosperous that this dole was no longer
required. In one year they made a net profit of
£112 on hops alone. Ramahyuck potatoes were the
biggest in AustraUa; and Ramahyuck arrowroot
took prizes at Vienna and IMelbourne. At the same
time we must not imagine that the Papus became
ideal workmen. According to one inspector, Heilitz,
they were never in danger of over-exerting themselves,
and maintained what he called the " Government
stroke." Nevertheless, they had now some ambition,
and learned the value of thrift. Some provided
for old age by lodging money in the bank ; some
bought harmoniums ; and some provided their \N4ves
with sewing machines.
Still better, the Papus at Ramahjoick made
marvellous intellectual progress. One woman, Mrs.
2A
S54 A History of Moravian Missions.
Daniel Cameron, acquired a good literary style,
wrote articles on the Mission for some of the
Australian papers, and even dared to criticise
Macaulay's Essays. We come here to a point of
stupendous interest. For three years in succession
the children at the Ramahyuck day-school — which
was organized on Government lines and examined
annually by Government Inspectors — gained the
highest marks in the colony ; in no year did the pupils
fail to pass the Government standard ; and so
impressed was Mr. Benjamin Kidd by these facts
that, in his " Social Evolution," he used them to
prove his thesis that intellectually, though not
morally, the savage nations are equal to the civilised. "f
With due respect to Mr. Kidd, however, I am not
convinced of the soundness of his argument. The
English teachers, in the day-schools, taught in return
for a salary ; the Ramahyuck teachers were inspired
by love, and put more heart into their work ; and
the wonderful progress made by the Papu children
may have been due, not to their great intellectual
ability, but rather to the exceptional zeal of their
teachers.* To some extent, however, Mr. Kidd was
right. At Ramahyuck the missionaries proved that,
given a fair opportunity, the Papus were not quite as
stupid as the colonists had previously imagined.
Still better, the Papus at Ramahyuck learned^to
help each other. In spite of Hagenauer's sanitary
reforms, there was still a great deal of chronic illness ;
only twelve men out of eighty could do a good day's
hard work ; and these twelve helped to support the
t" Social Evolution," p. 295. The Papu children obtained 100
per cent, marks.
*3ee, however, A. Conaii Doyle's " Wanderings of a Spirituslist,"
p. 1(30. He says that Dr. Creed, of the New South Wales Parlia-
ment, spoke very highly of the brains of the black fellows.
In the schools they still do as well as the whites, and " train into
excellent telegraph operators and other employnienta needing
quick intelligence,"
Victoria. 855
other sixty-eight. Some maintained a local
"Children's Home"; others sent gifts to the Moskito
Coast, and to the Leper Home in Jerusalem ; and
all, to the best of their abiUty, contributed to the
New Mission in North Queensland.
Above all, the Papus became Christians in the
highest sense of the term. Instead of fighting,
they lived at peace with each other ; instead of
dancing, they sang hjTnns ; and instead of gambling
at cards, they played at marbles. For several years
there was not a single case of adultery ; the average
standard of morality was higher than at Melbourne ;
and the people themselves laid down the law that no
one guilty of such misconduct should be allowed to
live in the village. The whole village became, in
time, a Christian family. At seven a.m. all the
inhabitants assembled in the Church for morning
prayers, and each householder, at sunset, conducted
prayers in his own home. And yet Ramahyuck,
like Ebenezer, had finally to be abandoned. In
1905 only six families were left ; these few were
handed over to the Anglicans at Lake Tyers ; and
two years later, at " Our Home," Hagenauer passed 1907
to his reward.
For the sake of completeness I must here add that,
at the request of the Presbyterians in Melbourne,
three Moravian missionaries, Walder,f Meissel, and
Kramer, attempted to establish a Mission at Lake 1866^
Kopperamanna in South Australia ; and the interesting
feature of the story is that while, for lack of funds,
the work was abandoned, and while the missionaries
gained no converts, they did make a few discoveries
about the customs and beliefs of the people. In this
region the devil was called Kitchi. He appeared
in the form of a bird, bit his victims, and thereby
caused diseases. In most cases of death, however,
t Afterwards a prominent missionary in Jamaica, see p. 228,
856 A History of Moravian Missions.
the first business of the relatives was to discover
the murderer. The elders sat in a circle ; a beetle
was placed in the middle ; and the direction in which
the beetle walked was the direction in which the
murderer lived. Meissel once saw a woman bury
her new-born child, and asked her why she did that.
" It is too much trouble," she said, " to carry a baby
about." He also heard that the people ate their
dead friends, and when he asked them why they
did that, they answered : "If you don't eat your
friends, you'll soon forget them." The people,
however, believed in immortality, and made a dis-
tinction between the good and the wicked. The
good went down to heaven ; the wicked went up
to hell. Heaven, therefore, was under the earth
and hell up in the sky.
Chapter III.
WESTERN TIBET, 1853—1914.
1. The First Inquiries.
As Dr. Gutzlaff, the famous missionary, was on his 18S0
way home from China, he called at Herrnhut, inter-
viewed the Moravian Mission Board, and suggested
that ]\Iora\'ian missionaries be sent to that part of
Mongolia which was imder Chinese rule ; and acting
on Dr. Gutzlaff' s suggestions, the Board selected two
young men — Augustus William Heyde and Edward
Pagell — to make preliminary inquiries. As the
Russian Government refused a pass through Siberia, 1853
the two young men set sail for Calcutta, were rowed
up the Ganges, and made their way to Kotghur;
and there they were warmly welcomed by Prochnow,
of the Church Missionary Society, and gazed with
delight on the River Sutlej, gleaming like a silver
ribbon far down in the valley. For some months
they stayed with Prochnow, studying Mongolian ;
and then, having mastered the language, they
endeavoured to push northwards through Chinese
Tibet.
But now they made a painftd discovery. At 1855
Rampoor they interviewed a Rajah, and saw two
Fakirs, sprinkled with ashes, smoking long cheroots
under a fig tree ; at Sultanpur, they gave out medicine
to the poor, and made a good impression on
the people, and then, arriving at the town of Leh,
the capital of Ladak, they received the
information that the road to Tibet was infested
vdih robbers. But the robbers were not the
most effective barrier. The real obstacle was the
Chinese Government. Each time the Brethren
approached the border, Chinese officials blocked the
(557)
858 A History of Moravian Missions.
Vi'ay ; all the Brethren's arguments fell on deaf ears ;
and the net result of this expedition was that the
Brethren resolved to establish a Mission, not in
Chinese Tibet, but in what is known to us as Western
Tibet.
The history of this little Mission is pathetic.
For reasons soon to be explained, the Brethren
found themselves compelled to confine their main
efforts to three small stations. In Lahoul they
founded Kyelang (1857), situated on the high road
from Tri-lok-nath, a Buddhist shrine, to Lhasa.
In Bashahr they founded Poo (1865), close to the
Chinese border. In Ladak, they established their
cause at Leh (1885), a busy city ; and though two
other stations were afterwards founded — Kalatse
(1899) near Leh, and Chini (1900) near Poo — these
two stations were little more than experimental out-
preaching places. Each of the three main stations
was skilfully chosen ; each was in a fairly populous
district ; each was served by efficient and zealous
missionaries ; and yet, in each case, the progress
was so slow that, driven almost to despair, some
English Moravians found it needful to establish
(1895) a special Tibetan Prayer Union. The whole
story raises a fascinating problem. Let us first notice
the Brethren's methods of work.
2. The Seven Lamps.
As Ruskin speaks of seven lamps of architecture,
so the scientific historian may speak of seven methods
of missionary work, and each of these seven methods
was employed by the Moravians in Western Tibet.
In theory the people of Western Tibet were mostly
Buddhists ; the authorised teachers of Buddhism
were the Lamas ; and now, to overcome the Lamas'
influence, the Brethren brought the Seven Lamps
Western Tibet. 859
of Gospel Truth and trusted that in due time the
light would dispel the darkness.
1. Agricultural Science. At the special request
of the Government, which not only offered land
but granted money for irrigation purposes, the
Brethren opened a Model Farm at their first
station, Kyelang. Here they introduced rye and
potatoes, bred sheep, and taught the natives how to
grow greens and fruits, and thereby they achieved two
useful objects. On the one hand they provided for
their own converts. For more than thirty years
all their converts came from the poorest classes.
The situation in Western Tibet was terrible. In
theory there was religious liberty; in fact, no one
could become a Christian without finding himself
in financial difficulties. His landlord turned him
out without due notice ; his father cut him off with
less than a shilling ; and his wife deserted him for
another mate. The case of Stobgyes at Kalatse
was typical.
" I will teach you the Christian religion,*' said he
to his wife.
" Never," she retorted. " You must sign a paper
handing over your house and land to me."
By becoming a Christian, therefore, Stobgyes
lost the bulk of his property. For such heroes
some provision must be made. At Kyelang some
of the converts were employed on the farm as
labourers and cowherds. At Poo, the second station,
they were taught spinning and weaving ; others had
positions as postmen, printers, and day-school
teachers; and, even as late as 1895, all the converts
except two were dependent for their livelihood on
the Mission. By means of their industrial system
the Brethren made it possible for a man to be a
Christian without actually dying of starvation.
The other object was that of proving the Lamas
360 A History of Moravian MissioKrs.
impostors. In the past the Lamas had taught that
no tree would ever bear fruit unless they read certain
charms to keep off evil spirits ; for this perform-
ance they generally charged a high fee ; and the
Brethren's prosperous farm at Kyelang proved
that the Lamas' claims were false.
1857-67 2. Literature. In 1857 there arrived at Kyelang
the most distinguished linguist in the whole history
of the Moravian Church ; this was Henry Augustus
Jaschke ; and Jaschke's chief task was to translate
the whole Bible into Tibetan. His linguistic powers
were enormous. At the time when he arrived in
Western Tibet, he had already mastered Latin,
Greek, Polish, Danish, Swedish and Hungarian ;
he had, also, it is said, a working knowledge of
Czech, Arabic, Sanskrit, and Persian ; and now, after
spending a year in the quiet little village of Stok,
in Ladak — where, he tells us, he existed on barley,
chang, and one egg a day, laid systematically by an
obliging hen — he settled down at Kyelang and
made the little village a home of learning. There,
day after day, he sat, translating useful books into
popular Tibetan. The Brethren had their own
lithographic press, and one Nathaniel, a converted
Lama from Lhasa, rendered efficient assistance.
1859 First appeared Barths' Bible Stories, a Harmony
of the Gospels, a Liturgy, a Hymn Book, a Catechism,
a Geography, a Book of Fables, a Church History,
and various school readers, tracts, and pamphlets ;
then (1865) " A Short Practical Grammar of the
Tibetan Language " ; then (1866) " A Romanized
Phonetic Tibetan and English Dictionary " ; and
then (1867) a " Conversation Book in Tibetan, Urdu,
and Hindu," and " An Introduction to the Hindu
and Urdu Languages."
1867 At this point, broken down in health, Jaschke had
to retire from the scene of action. During the nex-
b
Western Tibet. 861
thirteen years, however, tortured though he was by-
headaches, he plodded quietly on in his own home.
First (1871), he published a huge English-Tibetan
Dictionary ; then came his elaborate treatise on the
various Tibetan dialects ; and finally, during the
last few years of his life, he translated into Tibetan
all the New Testament except Hebrews. On the
value of his labours two great scholars passed judg-
ment. Dr. Miiller, of Vienna, called him a shining
light ; Dr. Max Miiller, of Oxford, declared that in
due time his work would have important results ;
and the real truth of the matter is that Jaschke's
work in Tibetan may, without exaggeration, be
compared to that of Liddell and Scott in Greek, or
Lewis and Short in Latin.
His successors did their best to continue his work.
F. A. Redslob translated Hebrews and Revelation ;
Heyde, who was fifty years at Kyelang, wrote a
Tibetan Arithmetic, and a " View of the World,"
translated Beck's " Manual of Doctrine," and, at the
request of the Government, re\'ised Jaschke's
Dictionary ; others published the Pentateuch, the
Psalms, and various Hymn Books. Finally, A. H.
Francke founded and edited a Tibetan Monthly
Magazine, entitled "The Ladak News." By means 1904
of this last step Francke was introducing a new idea.
For the first time in the history of Western Tibet
non-Christian Tibetans realised that printed matter
might be read, not for the purpose of acquiring merit,
but because it contained interesting information.
The Magazine was di^•ided into three parts. In
Part I. there was political information, mostly about
Tibet ; in Part II., an old Tibetan Story ; and in
Part III. a short sermon ; and Francke himself
expressed the hope that if the people read his
Magazine in order to gain instruction, they might
some day read the Bible for the same purpose.
862 A History of Moravian Missions.
3. Colporteur Work. In order to bring their
publications to the homes of the people, several
Brethren — Heyde, Pagell, Redslob, and Schnabel —
spent each summer travelling ; all the six provinces
in Western Tibet — Ladak, Kunawar, Spitti,
Bashahr, Nubra, and Zanskar — became familiar
ground; and though the Brethren could never feel
sure that any of the books they distributed would be
read, they had at least a fine opportunity of study-
ing the inner life of the people. Let two examples
illustrate the point.
The time is evening, and the missionary has pitched
his tent in some remote highland hamlet; the
moon rises above the snow- crowned peaks ; the
villagers light their camp fires, and the missionary,
standing before his tent, sings his evening hymn of
praise. The villagers cluster round him, the
missionary preaches a sermon, and the eyes of his
listeners shine with hope.
" We have listened well to-night," they say,
" now he will hand round the baksheesh."
Again, on another occasion, Heyde gave some books
to an invalid, and the man shed tears of gratitude.
" I shall put these with my other books," he said,
*' and offer burnt sacrifices to them."
But this colporteur work was not altogether
in vain. By rendering some homely service
the missionaries always endeavoured to win the
affections of the people. In one village they
would distribute medicines ; in another they repaired
watches ; and some of the pilgrims valued the books,
and carried them as far as Lhasa; and in some
cases, they even read and remembered Bible stories.
1861 4. Education. As soon as Jaschke had the
needful schoolbooks ready, the Brethren, aided by
the Government, which granted £50 per annum,
opened a small day-school at Kyelang. A Hindoo
Western Tibet. 363
teacher was appointed to teach Urdu ; the
missionaries taught the usual subjects in Tibetan; the
missionaries' wives taught knitting ; and young
Tibetans, m return for a small salary, taught in the
surrounding villages. But the whole scheme, at an
early period, met with an unexpected obstacle.
At that time the most powerful noble in the
neighbourhood was a certain Tari Chand, and Tari
Chand was a two-faced scoundrel. In his con-
versations ^^•ith the Brethren he professed himself a
friend ; in reality, he was their bitter enemy ;
and fearing that the more educated the people became
the more likely they would be to resist his t}Tanny,
he persuaded the local Lamas to poison the minds
of the parents. The Lamas rose to the occasion ;
the parents intimidated the children ; and, therefore,
the attendance was always small. Nor were the few
who attended very satisfactory. In the winter the
bo} s were unruly ; in the summer they were
frequently herding sheep ; and the girls often stole
their knitting material, and made up the weight
by inserting stones in the balls of wool.
The first real success was achieved at Leh. For 1898
some reason the people here began at last to be
ashamed of their ignorance ; the local Governor
issued an order that one child in every family must
attend the Moravian School ; and though the order
cannot have been fully obeyed, the average attend-
ance rose to sixty.
5. Medical Work. The story of the medical work
is both tragic and romantic. The first leader of much
importance was Edward Pagell. For eighteen years
this man, who, though not fully qualified, had much
more medical knowledge than the Lamas, rendered
excellent service at Poo, vaccinating, extracting
teeth, curing sore eyes, and compounding a popular
ointment made of minium and camphor ; and so
864 A History of Moravian Missions.
much was he beloved that the common people called
him the Poo Father. His end caused terrible sorrow.
On January 3rd, 1883, Pagell fell dead in his surgery ;
six days later (January 9th) Mrs. Pagell died ; and,
with her last breath, she urged the three Christians
in the village to hold true to the faith.
The next leader was a fully-qualified man. In
1886 Dr. Carl Marx was appointed Medical Missionary
at Leh ; here a small hospital was opened, the
building itself being provided by the Government ;
and Dr. Marx made it his business to attend, not only
to the physical, but also to the spiritual, needs of the
patients. The building was far from being an ideal
hospital. For some reason the doors would not shut,
nearly all the windows were broken, and the patients,
who brought their own bedding, slept on the floor.
Dr. Marx's career, however, was soon cut short ;
on May 29th, 1891, he died of typhus ; and during
the next seven years the hospital was in non-
Moravian hands.
The next leader, Dr. Ernest Shawe, was the son of
a Moravian minister in the north of Ireland. He
also (1907) died in the prime of life, and six years
passed before a successor. Dr. Heber, could be
found.
6. Zenana Work. This also, like the hospital
work, began at Leh (1890). In order to come into
closer contact with the women, Mrs. Weber, Miss
Kant, Mrs. Ribbach, and others, began a series
of systematic house-to-house visitations ; thereby
they discovered how miserable the women were ;
and all these women were only too glad to have an
opportunity of complaining about the cruelty of their
husbands. The scene in most houses was both
pathetic and humorous. As soon as the first
formalities were duly completed, the visiting lady
took her seat on a carpet ; tea appeared ; and the
Western Tibet. 865
hostess generally asked her visitor how much her hat
cost, how often she washed her face, what sort of
soap she used for her hands, and whether she dressed
her hair ^\^.th a sponge or a flannel. The chief
purpose of the visits was, of course, religious. Bible
pictures were brought to please the children ; simple
stories out of the Gospels were read ; and sometimes
the more intelhgent women would show each other
the pictures. According to Mrs. Ribbach, the women
most easy to reach were the Mahometans. These
women fasted on certain occasions, and the reason
they gave for doing so was that otherwise God would
hit them with a stick. Mrs. Ribbach described
the whole situation in a sentence. "It is clear,"
she said, " that these women have never been taught
to use their brains."
7. Gospel Preaching. For many years the regular
Sunday services held at the three stations were
both dull and poorly attended ; the Tibetans,
though fond of some kinds of music,! could not sing
the Mora\'ian Chorales, and during the service
they would giggle, and spit on the floor. In due
time, however, there was a slight improvement ;
at Poo and Leh Lantern Ser%-ices proved attractive,
and finally, by attending week-night Prayer Meetings,
the people began to realise what prayer really means.
In spite, however, of these seven methods, no
striking numerical success was achieved. In 1885
the number of converts was only six ; in 1895 only
thirty ; in 1903, only sixty-three; and some of the
earlier converts were most disappointing. The first,
■fFor specimens of Tibetan music, written down and har-
monised by the Rev. A. H. Francke, see " A Summer Ride
Through Western Tibet" (pp. 150-7), by Miss Jane Ellen
Dimcan. {Collins' Clear Type Press.) The Tibetans are far
more musical than the first missionaries supposed ; and so
Tigorous was the singing in the Moravian Church at Leh, that
summer risitor* sometimes came to listen,
366 A History of Moravian Missions.
Nicodemus, is said to have committed suicide ;
another, Nathaniel, deserted ; and a third, Martha,
broke the Seventh Commandment.
In the last ten years, however, i.e., soon after
the estabhshment of the Tibetan Prayer Union,
some of the converts, such as Stobgyes, made great
sacrifices for their religion, and two, Chompel and
Paulu, could even be employed as evangelists. But
why, it may be asked, was progress so slow ?
3. The Explanation.
At the time when Heyde and Pagell arrived on the
scene, no one had the least suspicion how strong and
how well organized the opposition to the work would
be. During the next fifty years, however, many
interesting facts were discovered about the moral
and spiritual life of the people ; and these facts are
almost sufficient to explain the Brethren's failure.
The key to the problem will be found in the word
"Lamas." In theory, the popular religion was
Buddhism; in reality, it was Lamaism;f and these
Lamas, by using three powerful methods, had so
destroyed the people's higher instincts, that one
missionary, Redslob, described their work as Satanic.
1. Ceremonialism. First, instead of appealing
to the conscience, the Lamas laid the main stress on
certain outward forms, and by means of these out-
ward forms they impressed the minds of the simple-
minded. They wore long red or yellow robes ; they
shaved their crowns ; they used rosaries ; they
lived in cloisters ; they read books aloud in public ;
and thus, chiefly in their own interests, they created
the impression that they alone, being in possession
of supernatural powers, were competent to deal with
the devils with which the country was supposed to
fOn Lamaism see Percival Landon's " Lhasa," pp. 253-273.
{T. Fisher Unwin, 1906).
Western Tibet. 367
swarm. Among the Lamas the most powerful
were the Kushogs. A Kushog, they said, was a
noble soul who, while ready for Nin-ana, had returned
to earth to help his brethren, and these Kushogs
possessed extraordinary miraculous powers. They
controlled the avalanches and glaciers ; they sold
amulets to prevent diseases, they could even cause the
barren to bear. But all the Lamas claimed super-
natural powers. According to the Lamas all diseases,
all disasters, all floods, famines and droughts were
caused by invisible de\'ils ; one famous book, they
said, was entitled " The Victory over One Hundred
and Four Devils " ; and only the Lamas understood
how to outwit the devils.
In cases of illness they employed various methods.
Sometimes they made huge images of animals,
charmed the devils into the images, and threw the
images into the fire ; sometimes they gave the patient
pills ; sometimes they WTote out prescriptions and
told the people to swallow the paper ; and some-
times, in return for a fee, they said many long prayers.
In cases, however, of drought or bad harvest, they
employed a still more sensational method. At the
special request of the head of the house, a number of
Lamas seated themselves, in solemn array, on his
drawing-room carpet ; there, for several hours in
succession, with brief intervals for refreshment, they
read books aloud, beat drums and clanged cymbals ;
and then the head Lama, supported by two
trumpeters, stood before a blazing brazier placed
in the family altar, hurled books and images into the
fire, and announced that, as the devils were now
departing, the boys of the house might catch them
in sacks, while the adults attacked them with sabres
and rifles. But even yet the work was not complete.
In case any devils still survived on the premises,
another fire was now lighted in the open-air ; into this
368 A History or Moravian Missions.
fire images of Buddha were thrown ; and finally,
the head Lama announced that all the devils were
now either routed or roasted. Thus had the Lamas,
from time immemorial, held the peasants of Western
Tibet in terror. For all their services, medical and
spiritual, they charged handsome fees ; many of
them, while posing as pious, were both besotted and
immoral ; and, at the houses of the rich, they showed
their appreciation of good victuals."}"
2. The Doctrine of Merit. In addition, however,
to driving out devils, the Lamas laid great stress on
the doctrine of merit ; this doctrine lay at the root
of the people's character ; and the interesting feature
in the doctrine is that, while in appearance it had a
certain ethical basis, and might almost be called the
doctrine of salvation by works, yet in reality, when
closely examined, it gave such a perverted view of
life that no person, holding it sincerely, could by
any possibility accept the Christian religion.
Let us see precisely how this was the case.
According to the Lamas there were four ways of
gaining merit ; and each, while looking excellent,
was morally corrupt.
The first method was to keep the Ten Command-
ments, and the Ten Commandments in Western
Tibet were as follows : —
(1) Thou shalt not kill any living thing.*
■fThe reader must not be deceived by the description of the Lama
in Rudyard Kipling's Kim. Rudyard Kipling's picture is true
to life, but his hero was an exceptional character.
*Why not ? Because any living thing might contain the soul of
a human being. If a man, e.g., trod on a beetle he might
be killing his great-grandfather. For breaches of the First
Commandment the usual punishment was — so, at least, the
Lamas taught — that the murderer, in his next existence,
took the form of the animal he had killed. If a man, e.g.,
killed an ibex, he would be bom as an ibex. And this rule
even applied to animals. If a wolf killed a sheep, the wolf,
after death, would be re-bom as a sheep.
Western Tibet. 869
(2) Thou shalt not take what is not given to
thee.
(3) Thou shalt not commit adultery.
(4) Thou shalt not speak evil of another.
(5) Thou shalt not talk nonsense.
(6) Thou shalt not slander.
(7) Thou shalt not covet.
(8) Thou shalt not plan injury.
(9) Thou shalt not he.
(10) Thou shalt not hold heretical views.
But here the doctrine of merit spoiled the picture.
According to the Lamas these Commandments
were good, not because they taught any high moral
principle, but simply because, by keeping them, the
devotee might lay up so much merit ; neither the
Lamas nor the people valued character for its own
sake ; and, therefore, there was a constant tendency
to keep the Commandments in the letter and break
them in spirit. Let one example suffice. In theory,
no Tibetan would kill an animal ; in practice,
he managed to evade the precept. On one occasion
Pagell, at Poo, witnessed a ciu-ious performance.
First, the \'illain, seizing a goat, plugged its mouth
and nose ; then he sat on it till it was dead ; and then
he informed the missionary that the animal had died
a natural death. Such scenes were of common
occurrence. As long as the Tibetan shed no blood,
he considered that he had not taken life ; and if
the animal died of suffocation, that was the animal's
fault.
The second method of acquiring merit was reading
books. But the word " reading " in Western Tibet
had not quite the same meaning as in England. In
England to read, as a rule, is to understand ; in
Western Tibet it is merely pronouncing the words ;
in England people read books either for instruction or
for amusement ; in Western Tibet the Lamas read,
370 A History of Moravian Missions.
not to improve their own minds, but simply to
acquire so much merit ; and, therefore, their great
object was to read as many books as possible in the
shortest possible time. For this purpose the books
in the Lamasary libraries were specially adapted.
Instead of being bound in volumes like ours, they
consisted of loose pages, about ten-and-a-half feet
long, and one foot wide, which, lying flat, were
enclosed in two boards, like music in a portfolio ;
and thus the Lamas could split the book into
parts and, each taking so many pages, read in
chorus. The more Lamas joined, the faster the
reading ; and the faster the reading, the greater
quantity of merit. Sometimes five hundred Lamas,
by joining forces, would read a whole library in two
days. They sat in rows, read at express speed,
and rocked their bodies to and fro.
With regard to the nature of these books, our
information is imperfect. According to the Lamas,
they were mostly translations from the Sanskrit,
were written by holy men of old, and, like the Bible,
contained not merely the story of the Creation and
the Fall, but also the plan of salvation.
But what the plan of salvation was the Lamas
never explained. Some of the books were written
in dead languages ; others contained merely legends
and incantations ; and the less the book could be
understood, the more highly it was valued.
" If the book is clear," said the Lamas, "it is
shallow ; if it is unintelligible, it is deep."
" Your religion," said a Lama to Heyde, " cannot
be of much use ; anybody can understand it."
Among the laity similar views were held. The rich
engaged the Lamas to read in their libraries ; the
poor listened to Lamas reading in public ; and
neither rich nor poor endeavoured to understand
a word. Why, then, asked the Tibetans, did the
Western' Tibet. 371
missionary read the Bible at Church ? Simply to
acquire merit for himself.
The third method of acquiring merit was prayer.
But this word, " Prayer," must not mislead us.
In Christian countries prayer means communion
with God ; in Western Tibet it is merely word-
repetition. For centuries the most popular prayer
there had been the famous " Om Mani Padme hung,"j
i.e., "A jewel in the Lotus, oh." This prayer was
commonly regarded as a charm against all forms of
trouble, and though hardly anyone seems to have
known its origin or its meaning, the general idea
was that the more frequently it was repeated the
more merit accrued to the population. In some of
the Lamaseries the Brethren found huge cylinders,
lined inside with gold paper. On the gold paper
the aforesaid prayer was printed millions of times ;
the machine was turned by a crank ; and one
missionary, Becker Shawe, expressed the opinion that
if steam were introduced into Tibet the Lamas would
use it to drive their prayer-wheels. But the
laity were almost as fervent as the Lamas. Each
house possessed its private prayer- wheel ; the larger
the wheel the more prayers it contained ; and the more
rapidly it spun the more merit the family acquired.
Nor was this enough for the Tibetans. On the
banks of the river stood prayer-wheels turned by
water ; on the roofs of the houses prayer-wheels were
turned by the wind ; some of the kitchens had prayer-
wheels turned by hot air ; and the same prayer was
inscribed on rocks and trees, on little stones adorning
the walls, and on flags and banners. The house-
wife spun her wheel in the kitchen ; the labourer
spun his wheel in the fields ; and the merchant,
iThe last syllable is generally printed " hum." Dr. Hebsr,
however, who has lived for some years at Leh, informs me that
" hung " gives (he usual pronunciation.
372 A History of Moeatian Missions.
riding home from Lhasa, spun his wheel on the
mountain bridle-path.
" I hope," said Dr. Marx to a patient in the Leh
Hospital, " that you understand what I said about
prayer."
" Yes," said the patient, " you mean that I must
never forget my ' Om Mani Padme hung.' "
The fourth method of acquiring merit was suffering.
According to the Lamas, all suffering was closely
connected with sin ; suffering, they said, was simply
the method whereby atonement for sin was made ;
by suffering, and suffering alone, could the soul be
purified ; and this process must be continued until
the purification was complete. As, however, one
short life on this earth was not in most cases sufficient
for this great purpose, the sinner must be born
again, sometimes in the form of a beast or insect;
and only thus could sinful men be made fit for Nirvana.
Let us now see how this doctrine of merit affected
the progress of the Mission. The point needs to
be stated with great precision. As the Tibetans
worked, read, prayed, and suffered simply to acquire
merit, they very naturally argued that all other
men, all the world over, acted from the same selfish
motive ; no other motive was to them conceivable ;
no such thing as pure unselfishness existed ; and on
this principle they judged the conduct of the
missionaries. Why did the missionaries come to
Western Tibet ? To gain merit for themselves.
Why did they teach the children and distribute
medicines to the poor ? To gain merit for themselves.
Why did the doctor rise from his couch, trudge ten
miles through the snow, and attend a suffering
peasant free of charge ? To gain merit for himself.
And why did Christ, the Son of God, laj^ His glory by,
take upon Him the form of a servant, and suffer on
Calvary ? To gain merit for Himself.
Western Tibet. 878
3. Financial Tyranny. The most terrible part
of the story still remains. " The Lamas," says Miss
Jane Ellen Duncan, "are the money-lenders of the
country," and all the missionaries give the same testi-
mony. At critical times when money is scarce and
hard to obtain, the Lamas charge very high rates of
interest, and, if the debtor cannot pay at the stipulated
time, he is told that in his next existence he will
take the form of some loathsome beast. Thus the
rule of the Lamas in Tibet is really a rule of terror.
Many of the peasants are in debt to the Lamas. " This
debt business," said Schreve, a Moravian missionary,
" is the hardest part of our work among Christians,"
and, judging by that remark, I have sometimes feared
that, so long as this cruel system exists, the Moravian
missionaries in Western Tibet may continue to plough
upon a rock.
Chapter IV.
THE LEPER HOME AT JERUSALEM,
1867—1914.
1865 As the Baron and Baroness Keffenbrink-Ascheraden
were on a visit to Jerusalem they saw, behind a garden
wall, a group of Arabian begging lepers, and the
Baroness, being touched by their distress, appealed
forthwith to Dr. Gopat, Bishop of Jerusalem, and
promised that, if he and his friends would build a
Leper Home, she would be responsible for the
expense. Dr. Gopat formed a local Committee ;
Dr. Chaplin, an English practitioner, promised to be
house-physician ; and a few months later, at the
Baroness's expense, a small hospital was erected
outside the Jaffa Gate. With this, however, the
Baroness was not content. In order that the new
hospital might be under efficient Christian manage-
ment, she now appealed to the Moravian Mission
Board, and suggested that the Moravian Church
should provide a House-Father. The Moravian
Mission Board agreed ; F. Tappe and his wife were
summoned from Labrador ; and on Ascension Day,
1867 (May 21st), the first Leper Home in the history
of Palestine was opened.
1867 The next task was to make provision for the future
maintenance of the Home. The Baroness now
turned her attention to England. For some years
a well-known English Moravian Bishop, James
La Trobe, had taken a special interest in lepers ;
among other things he had written a pamphlet
entitled " Work Among the Lepers," describing the
Moravian work at Hemel-en-Aarde and Robben
Island ; and the Baroness, having been presented
(374)
The Leper Home at Jerusalem. 375
with a copy by a school-girl, now wrote to Bishop
La Trobe and asked him to use his influence on behalf
of the new hospital. In response to her request,
the Bishop had her letter printed in the
" Messenger," the montlily magazine of the Mo^a^^an
Church in England ; local collectors were soon
appointed in most of the English congregations ;
and Bishop La Trobe, at the Baroness's request,
acted as English Secretar\\ Thus, at the outset,
English ]Mora\ians learned to take an interest in the
Leper Home. During the first few years the annual
cost was only about £250, and two-thirds of this sum
came from England, and later, when the annual
cost was £1,000, half the sum came from England.
In due course the American Province also became a
regular contributor ; the Swiss Moravians, though
few in number, gave according to their abihty ;
and the general arrangement was that while
Moravians all over the world were expected to aid
the cause financially, the continental ]Moravians
supplied the house-parents and the nurses. For
thirteen years the Baroness herself, aided by the
Jerusalem Committee, acted as General Manager ;
then, at her special request, the Moravian Church
took formal charge (1881), and henceforward the 1881
Leper Home, like the Foreign Missions and the
work in Bohemia, was the joint responsibility of all
three Pro\-inces. At the General SjTiod in 1889
some further regulations were made. In future the
General SvTiod was to be the final authority. In the 1889
intervals between Synods there was to be a Central
Administrative Board of three, elected by the General
Synod ; the old Jerusalem Local Committee still
rendered assistance ; and the Enghsh, American
and Swiss Secretaries were corresponding members
of the Administrative Board. From the opening day
till 1908 the Home was under three different house-
876 A History of Moravian Missions.
fathers. The first, F. Tappe, served sixteen years
(1867-1883), i.e., till his health broke down ; the
second, Fritz Miiller, served eight years (1883-
1891) ; and the third, Karl Schubert, served seven-
teen years (1891-1908), and died suddenly of heart
disease in the Home. The case of Schubert was
exceptionally pathetic. For six months before his
end he suffered from a very painful disease. In
order that he might do his duties, lie had to be carried
about in a chair ; so swollen were his arms and hands
that he could not play his zither ; and yet he refused
to return home for treatment except on the under-
standing that, after a year's furlough, he should be
allowed to resume his work. Some weeks before
his death he had a strange dream. He had died,
and was in the Heavenly Jerusalem. There, to his
joy, he was informed that he might be the door-
keeper at the Jaffa Gate ; there, in his room
beside the gate, he found his zither, changed to
pure gold, and the instrument, at the touch
of his fingers, rendered music sweeter than any
on earth.
For their self-denying labours, neither the
house-parents nor their assistants received
much earthly reward. The house-parents had
their board and £50 a year ; the nurses their
board and 5s. a week ; and the local
physician, who came twice a week, an annual
honorarium of £30.
On Schubert's death an important change took
1908 place. The office of house-father was abolished,
the Home was placed under a matron, and an
evangelist was appointed. At first the lepers did not
approve of the change. In the past, they said, they
had been under a man, now they were under a mere
woman, and a little natural grumbling was the result.
Nevertheless, the change was justified ; the matron,
The Leper Home at Jerusalem. 877
Miss Elizabeth Muller,t soon gained the affection
of her patients ; and the sufferers often showed their
gratitude, both to her and to the nurses, by bringing
flowers.
Meanwhile, the Home had slowly but surely been
increasing in popularity. In the years 1868-70 the
average number of patients was only thirteen ; in
1870-87 eighteen; in 1888-98 between twenty and
thirty ; and in 1898-1914 between forty and fifty.
During all this period most of the patients were
Mahometans ; no religious test, of course, was
imposed ; and the Christians came from various
denominations. In 1912, e.g., thirty-eight of the
patients were Mahometans, only seven were
Christians, and those Christians comprised three
members of the Greek Church, one Protestant and
three Roman Catholics.
Meanwhile, also, a change had taken place in the
building. For twenty years the Baroness's hospital
rendered excellent service ; both the English and the
Swiss Mora%*ians enlarged it by adding a room ;
and thus the ideal was upheld that each patient should
have at least 1,200 cubic feet of fresh air.
At length, however, in 1887, a new and larger 1887
Leper Home was built. The site chosen was the
north side of the valley of Rephaim. As Rephaim
was then a mere desert, some of the people in the
neighbourhood thought that Fritz Miiller was insane.
But Miiller was really building on good soil. There
King Da^-id, in days of old, had heard the wind
in the mulberry trees ; there, if trees had once grown,
trees might grow again ; and acting on this sound
principle, Miiller had many large stones removed
and laid out a garden and fields. As the Leper Home
is on the side of a hill, it can easUy be seen from a long
•fA sister of Dr. J. T. Muller, the archivist at Hermhut, and author
of aeveral valuable works on Moravian Church history.
378 A History of Moravian Missions.
distance. It stands about a mile south-west of the
city. Above the front door is engraved the name
" Jesus Hilfe," i.e., "Jesus' Help"; the front of the
house faces south ; below the front door there is a
fine flight of steps ; and from the garden gate to the
steps there is a path about fifty yards long. The
Home is two stories high, and is built in Eastern
style. In the middle there is an open court, cool
and shady ; around this court runs a gallery, or
balcony, on pillars ; and from the court and the
balcony respectively branch off the lower and upper
stories. The Home accommodates about fifty
patients. In course of time various improvements
were added. In 1900 a large cistern was built; later,
a disinfecting machine and an isolation room for
extreme cases were provided ; and, aided largely
by the patients, the house-parents made the garden
beautiful. Fritz Miiller planted fig trees and mul-
berry trees ; the front of the house was made
bright with clematis and roses ; and the Lepers
themselves planted a grove and called it " Paradise."
Let us now see how, in this Leper Home, the Moravian
Church has attempted three tasks.
1. The Relief of Suffering. According to Dr.
Einsler, of Jerusalem — Dr. Chaplin's successor as
house-physician — modern leprosy in Palestine differs
in two respects from that described in the Bible.
Formerly, the skin turned white as snow ; now,
though it grows numb, and rots, it retains its natural
colour. Formerly, some cases were cured ; Dr.
Einsler found all cases incurable. The modern
disease takes two distinct forms. In most cases it
attacks the bones, and causes the limbs to fall off ;
in other cases it attacks the nervous system ; and
the latter kind has been found the more difficult to
treat. But in all cases it is repulsive to behold, and
causes severe pain. By the Jews it is called the
The Leper Home at Jerusalem. 379
Scourge of God, and by the Greeks the Son of Death,
and Fritz Miiller, in one of his reports, described it
as the most frightful disease on earth. The patients
themselves gave similar testimony. Soon after the
new Home was opened, Salich, in the name of all
the patients, wTote a beautiful letter of thanksgi\'ing ;
and yet he felt justified in saying how terribly he
and his fellow-patients suffered. " God the Highest,"
he wrote, " has visited us with this painful disease.
The burden which He has thus laid upon us is great
and heavy, and at times scarcely to be borne. Some-
times we toss about upon our beds \vith inexpressible
aches and pains, such as human understanding can
scarcely comprehend." In that description there
was no exaggeration. At nearly every stage the
disease is painful, and the last stages are the worst.
The first symptom is merely a slight itch or stinging
sensation. But as soon as that symptom appears
the victim knows that he is doomed. And now the
disease makes irresistible progress. First, beneath
the skin, hard lumps develop, then the bone itself
is exposed and attacked ; and, sooner or later, the
whole limb is destroyed. In some cases there is
hemorrhage, and the patient dies of exhaustion ;
in others the mouth and throat are attacked, and the
patient struggles in vain for breath ; and some of the
death-bed scenes the house-parents witnessed may
truly be described as appalling.
In vain Dr. Einsler sought for a remedy. At
various times rumours reached Jerusalem that
some curative medicine had been discovered ;
Dr. Einsler always gave such remedies a trial ;
and three deserve special mention. The first was
an Indian remedy, Cholmogran Oil ; the second
a popular anodyne, Gurguin Oil; and the third,
Nastine, a scrum invented by Dr. Deycke, of
Bombay. Dr. Einsler had some faith in the first,
880 A History of Moravian Missions.
and found that it acted as a tonic ; the second
alleviated pain a little ; but the only observable
effect of the third was a diminution in the patient's
vitality. In cases where the pain caused insomnia,
Dr. Einsler often used sleeping draughts. For the
rest, fresh air and good nursing helped to make life
endurable. Each morning the patient's wounds were
dressed with carbolic acid, and those who were not
quite bedridden had regular baths. The daily
food was both nutritious and appetising. At break-
fast, taken in bed, the usual fare was bread, tea,
and sometimes olives soaked in salt water ; at
dinner, meat, vegetables, rice, and sometimes soup;
and at supper, which the patients were allowed to
prepare themselves, bread, soup, eggs, fruit, and
dainties sent in by friends.
But the house-parents did not rely entirely on
physical treatment. In order to prevent the lepers
from moping, and acting on the principle that
congenial labour physics pain, the house-parents
laid down the rule that every leper medically fit
should do at least four hours' work a day. But the
lepers did not work for the mere sake of working ;
the work itself had always some obvious value ;
and thus the lepers were made to feel that they were
rendering useful service. For the men there was
generally work in abundance. They tended the
cattle in the fields, cleared the garden of stones, tilled
the soil, and helped, when the need arose, to build
the new cistern. For the women equally useful
work was found. Some scrubbed the stone floors ;
some did coarse sewing ; some sat in the open air
grinding corn ; and some, too weak for such
tasks, spun wool in the easy Arabian style. Some-
times the house-father offered rewards for some
special work, and occasionally the lepers were in-
formed that until a certain task was finished, some
The Leper Home at Jerusalem. 381
expected treat could not be given. For all, too, some
homely amusement was found, and every patient
was encouraged to have a hobby. Some kept fowls,
sold eggs, and thereby earned a little pocket-money ;
some grew flowers ; and some even learned to make
musical instruments. Nor were intellectual interests
lacking. In spite of their pain, most of the lepers
seemed to enjoy the cool and quiet evening hour ;
and while some merely smoked and mused, others
read the Bible, the Koran, and other books in the
Home, plied the nurses ^^•ith questions, and, like
their Arab forefathers, told tales till darkness fell.
At the time of the Russo-Japanese War, they were
all keenly interested in politics, and, aided by a map
provided by Schubert, they followed the move-
ments of the armies. At other times there were other
forms of amusement. In the 'w-inter there would be
snowball fights ; in the summer races and open-air
games ; and recently many of the lepers have found
great pleasure in flying kites. Most of them also
loved both poetry and dancing, and the dramatic
instinct was strongly developed. The most popular
form of amusement was the fantasia, i.e., a dance
with a definite meaning. Each movement in such a
dance was supposed, just like a word or picture, to
express some idea, and one fantasia was even described
as a " fantasia unto the Lord." Sometimes, to make
the meaning quite clear, dance and song were com-
bined. At the wedding, e.g., of Dr. Dalman, a member
of the Local Committee, the lepers gave a grand
marriage fantasia, and the following Arabic love-
song was sung : —
I sec thy cheeks, oh maiden,
I see thy eyes.
Why should the voice of weeping in
Thy father's home arise ?
882 A History of Moravian Missions.
Or why should I complain that thou
Thy friends hast left behind ?
I see thy cheeks and arching brows ;
And thus I speak my mind :
Of thousands thou the chosen art ;
No fairer can I find.
Thus, by means of work and play, did the lepers
endeavour to forget their troubles.
But the chief and best remedy used was Christian
sympathy. As soon as the sufferer entered the Home,
he found himself in a new world. In Palestine
lepers are generally known as " the poor," and the
term " poor " is a term of contempt. On the high-
ways the leper was a vagabond ; in the Home he
was a brother. Outside he was regarded as a criminal,
visited by a just God for his sins ; inside he was a
child whom the Father loved. At Christmas the
Home was made a Palace of Delight. For all the
lepers there were presents from Christian friends
in other lands. The Christmas Tree was adorned ;
Christmas carols were sung ; the story of the Birth at
Bethlehem was read ; and, though no attempt was
made to interfere with the distinctive creeds of
the inmates, all the lepers were given to understand
that the real giver of the presents was the Friend of
Sinners. Another much-prized treat was the annual
excursion. In order to stimulate wholesome industry,
the house-father would sometimes announce, a few
weeks before the great day, that only the well-behaved
would be allowed to go, and then it was interesting
to notice how the laziest dug in the garden, how the
sulky beamed and smiled, and how even the most
bigoted Mahometans would attend morning prayers.
The direction of the annual excursion varied. Some-
times there was a drive in waggons to Hebron ;
sometimes the Jordan Valley was explored, and the
The Leper Home at Jerusalem. 383
patients strolled by the Dead Sea ; and sometimes,
in later years, they have even taken train to Joppa,
and gazed on the blue waters of the 3Iediterranean.
2. The Destruction of Leprosy. At the time when
the Home was opened the total number of lepers in
Palestine was estimated as only three hundred,
and the Brethren, therefore, entertained the hope
that if they could persuade all these lepers to enter
the Home, they might be able, in a few years, to
stamp out the disease. But now arose a question
about the right method. Is the disease hereditary,
or not ? On the answer to that question the
Moravian Church had to base its policy ; and the
difficulty was that opinions differed. At a Leper
Congress held in Berlin (1907) the pronouncement
was made that, while leprosy is contagious, it is
certainly not hereditary, and therefore, while it was
necessary that lepers should be isolated, and live all
together in one home, there was no reason why, in
that home, marriage should not be permitted. With
this opinion, however. Dr. Einsler, the Jerusalem
physician, disagreed ; the Moravian authorities felt
bound to act on his advice ; and, therefore, in the
Leper Home, marriage was not permitted. By two
methods, therefore, the Moravians hoped to exter-
minate leprosy in Palestine. First, they would gather
all lepers into the Home, and secondly, they would
prevent the disease being handed on to the next
generation. Why, then, it may be asked, has this
noble ambition not been realised ? For three
reasons : First, because there has ne%'er been enough
money to build a large enough Home ; secondly,
because many lepers in Palestine still prefer their
liberty ; and thirdly, because some of the lepers
themselves unintentionally thwarted the Brethren's
efforts. The conduct of the Turkish Government was
deplorable. Instead of encoui"aging the Moravians in
884 A History of Moravian Missions.
their efforts, the Turkish officials at Jerusalem opened
a rival lieper Shelter at Siloah. There the lepers slept
in filthy cells swarming with vermin ; no doctor,
no nurses, and no medicine were provided ; and the
one superior attraction in the Shelter was that there
the lepers were allowed to marry and propagate their
species. In the Turkish Leper Home children were
born ; in the Moravian Home the sexes were
separated ; and the consequence was that of the two
institutions, the Turkish Shelter was preferred
by many. In vain the Moravian nurses visited
Siloah, and urged the patients to enter the
Moravian Home. Most of the patients returned the
same answer : " We should all come to you," they
said, " if you did not separate us." Thus did the
Turkish Government baffie the efforts of the Moravian
Church to exterminate leprosy in Palestine.
3. The Gospel Message. We come here to a
question frequently asked. Is the Leper Home
merely a hospital, or is it also a religious institution ?
Do the nurses merely alleviate suffering, or do they
also try to win souls for Christ ? Do they try
to change Mahometans into Christians ? The
question cannot be answered in one sentence. The
position was dif!icult and delicate. At the outset
Bishop Gopat declared that, while the staff would
always do their best to relieve suffering, their chief
purpose was to lead the patients " to the Good
Physician," and yet, while the house-parents and the
nurses really did make that their ambition, they
were unable to employ the usual missionary methods.
To preach Christ to a Mahometan was to insult
him, and to insult him was to drive him from tlic
Home. For forty-five years, therefore (1867-1912)
the Home was managed on the principle that, while
regular services were held, none but professing
Christians were bound to attend : no Mahometan
The Leper Home at Jerusalem. 885
was ever told that his religion was false or imperfect ;
and all the members of the staff preached Christ, not
by direct appeals, but by acting in a Christian spirit.
In all matters connected with worship, the fullest
liberty of conscience was permitted. The Mahometans
read the Koran and kept their fasts ; the
Greek Christians were allowed the services of a Greek
Priest ; and the other Christians attended services
conducted by an Arab evangelist. The Mahometan
patients were often a source of great trouble.
Some of them were extremely bigoted, denounced
the Christian religion as false and wicked, called all
Christians dogs, made other biting remarks about the
Christian lepers, and showed, by their sulky demeanour,
that while they were glad to be relieved of pain, they
resented the idea of receiving favours from Christians.
With a few exceptions, the Mahometan patients
refused to attend morning prayers ; many of them
grumbled about the house rules ; and one year they
petitioned the Mayor of Jerusalem to issue a decree
that Mahometan and Christian lepers should not
be compelled to live under the same roof.
But the chief difficulty with the Mahometans
was their low moral standard. In spite of the fact
that they received ever\i:hing for nothing, they
seemed to imagine that nearly everything in the
Home belonged by right to them, and no nurse, in
their opinion, had any right to refuse a request.
Gratitude was rarely expressed, and even when it
was, the expression was not always sincere. If a
request was granted, they said, " God be your
friend " ; but if it was refused, they answered, " God
curse you dead." At Christmas they compared
presents, and accused the donors of favouritism ;
sometimes petty thefts were discovered ; and once
Schubert had to intervene to prevent certain poultry
farmers from creating a monopoly in eggs. Still worse.
8&Q A History of Mokavian Missions.
the Mahometan patients had no faith in the
Christian law of forgiveness. Among the Mahometans
revenge is a sacred duty ; the man who forgives
his enemy is a coward ; and this behef was
shared by some of the Christians. In 1903 Schubert
had an enhghtening experience. For some years an
Arab Hving near the Home had proved a trouble-
some neighbour ; now, having fallen on bad times,
he came to Schubert for help ; and all the patients
were anxious to know how he would treat the case.
" Do not help that man," they begged; "now is
your chance for revenge."
"Love your enemies," answered Schubert; "do
good to them that hate you."
" But that is not to be taken literally," they said.
" If you help that man there will be further trouble,
and he will think you are afraid of him."
The man was helped ; a good impression was made ;
and one honest Mahometan said : " You Christians
are better than we are." At the same time we must
not imagine that all the Mahometans were hopeless.
By their superior moral tone, the Christian lepers
exercised a great influence over the other patients,
and sometimes Christians and Mahometans could
be seen, in the friendliest spirit, comparing the Bible
and the Koran. At Christmas, 1906, all the
Mahometans attended the services, caught a little
of the Christmas spirit, and thanked Schubert and
the nurses for their kindness. Nor was their gratitude
confined to words. Some helped the nurses in their
work and brought flowers to beautify their rooms ;
some contributed to a common poor-box, and some
even sent a subscription to a Jerusalem Orphanage.
At last, however, in 1912, an important change was
made. At the suggestion of the local Jerusalem
Committee, Kasis Farhud Kurban, an Arab, was
appointed evangelist to the Home ; and the curious
The Leper Home at Jerusalem. 887
arrangement was that, while he preached once a
week in the Home, he did not always preach in the
same way. His method varied on alternate Sundays.
One Siinday he preached the Gospel ; on the other
he preached truths common to both Mahometans
and Christians ; and now the new rule was made that
at the second kind of service attendance was binding
on all. At the first kind of service, only Christians
were compelled to attend ; at the second, all had to
attend ; and thus the Mahometans had to be present
at least once a fortnight. For a brief period this
new rule aroused fierce opposition. In vain the
Mahometans were informed that the preacher
would not say a word against their prophet ; all the
Mahometans except one revolted, saying that,
rather than listen to the preacher, they would leave
the Home, and during the next few weeks a few
carried out their threat. As Farhud Kurban, how-
ever, showed great tact, the opposition gradually
died down ; and his latest encouraging report was
that all the lepers were pleased to see him.
Let me close with a word of praise for the nurses.
In spite of their depressing duties, they have always
been cheerful, and Sister Bertha, after a furlough,
made a characteristic remark : " There is nothing
more delightful," she said, " than to be back in the
Leper Home."
Chapter V.
DEMERARA, 1878—1914.
For the origin of the Mission in Demerara we
must turn to the once famous philanthropist, Quintin
Hogg. I At that time Quintin Hogg was well-known
both in England and in Demerara. In London he
was famous because he had recently founded the
Polytechnic Institute ; in evangelical circles
he was known because he was a great supporter
of D. L. Moody ; and in Demerara, which he
frequently visited, he was well-known, partly
because he owned many sugar plantations, partly
because, on those plantations, he had introduced
many improvements in the manufacture of sugar,
and partly because he always showed a deep interest
in the moral and spiritual welfare of his employees.
Quintin Hogg was a very broad-minded man ; his
theology has been called the " theology of love " ;
and, holding that an imperfect religion was better
than no religion at all, he even helped to build
mosques for Mahometans. His connexion with
Moravian Missions sprang partly from his business
activities. For some years he was the senior partner
in the firm of Hogg, Curtis, Campbell & Co. ; this
firm owned sugar estates at Graham's Hall and Reliance
in Demerara ; and now Quintin Hogg informed the
Moravian Mission Board that, if the Moravian Church
would supply chaplains for those two estates, he
would cover all expenses for five years. His reason
for appealing to the Moravians was natural. Among
the workmen on his estates, several were Moravian
Negroes, who had recently come from Barbados ;
fOn Quintin Hogg, see " Quintin Hogg : a Biography." By his
daughter, Ethel M. Hogg. (Archibald Conalabled; Co., 1906.)
(388)
Demerara. 889
and Hogg, who had visited Barbados, was
probably acquainted with the Moravian work
in that island. The Moravian Mission Board
accepted his offer ; two Negro chaplains, Henry
Moore and Alexander Pilgrim, were appointed ;
and on the two estates he had named — Graham's
Hall (1878), near the coast, and Rehance (1882) —
regular services were held. For a little over five
years Quintin Hogg covered the expenses ; then, in
1885, he withdrew his Reliance subscription, and the
w^ork there had to be closed ; and finally, when the
sea encroached on his land and the sugar industry
became less prosperous, he informed the Brethren
that all he could spare was a Church and a few acres
of land. For this reason the Graham's Hall station
was removed a few miles further inland ; the new
Church and land were accepted as a parting gift ; and
henceforward the expense of the Mission fell almost
entirely on Moravian shoulders. Thus did a work
begun as a chaplaincy become a true missionary
effort, and finally, Demerara (1908) was officially
recognised as a separate missionary province.
In one sense the work in Demerara is unique.
Of all the Moravian Mission Fields, Demerara alone,
from first to last, has been worked entirely by native
ministers, and the experiment has proved a striking
success. For twenty-eight years the leader was 1878-96
Henry Moore, a Barbados Negro, and no missionary
ever rendered more faithful service. At first the
prospect seemed hopeless. As Hogg's workmen had
been brought over from Barbados, they were all
supposed, in theory, to be Christians, and some of
them had come from Moravian stations. In reality,
however, they had all become slaves of vice. For
religion and morals they now cared absolutely
nothing. No marriage laws were recognised, and
most of their hard-earned money was spent on cards,
890 A History of Moravian Missions.
horse-racing, and drink. For some years several
overseers opposed the work. " I would rather give
five dollars for a rum-shop," said one, " than one
shilling to help to build a church." Nevertheless,
Moore soon saw a striking change. In addition to the
Church at Graham's Hall, he also, at the members'
1882 request, took charge of a Congregational Church
named Beterverwachting (Tabernacle) ; and in due
time Beterverwachting became a Moravian Station.
The great feature of Moore's work was his thorough
moral teaching. For this reason the people called him
Moses, and a stern and unbending Moses he was.
The more he studied the lives of the people, the more
clearly he perceived that, while they loved the House
of God, they also loved certain pleasant sins, and
Moore had continually to show them that those sins
were really forbidden in the Bible. With the same
purpose, he also persuaded them to read the Bible
every day ; founded a lending library ; and dis-
tributed "Good News," "The Gospel Trumpet,"
" The Band of Hope Review," and the " Moravian
Missionary Reporter." In five years he saw a great
transformation. The godless became true wor-
shippers ; his members were all abstainers, and the
men who used to bet on horses now dropped their
spare money into the collection box. Once a year
Moore sent off an official report, and splendid reading
some of those reports were. In his judgment the
essential point was, not the mere number of members,
but the change in those members' lives, and on that
change he generally laid the stress. " No one," he
would say, "has committed a murder ; no one has been
drunk and disorderly ; no drink has been used at
the marriage feasts ; and no one has had to be brought
before magistrates." His success, of course, was not
perfect. With all his skill, he found it hard to con-
vince his people that telling lies was wicked, and still
Cemerara. ^9l
PfOTse, they were slow to leaxn that wife-beating was
not a Christian amusement. The great positive
virtue of the people was their liberality. As soon as
Hogg withdrew his subscription, the demands on
their purses were heavy, and yet, though the sugar
trade was bad, they bore three-fourths of the
expenses. Thus did Moore lead the Demerara Negroes
from the Egypt of sin to the Promised Land of godly
living.
His successor, John Dingwall (1897), was equally 1897-1914
efficient. In consequence of his noble character,
John Dingwall was soon an honoured figure
in the Colony, and having received a good education
in the Moravian Training School at Fairfield,
Jamaica, he was able to comport himself both as
a Christian and a gentleman. At first he, too,
found the people in a sad condition. The more the
sugar industry decUned, the more the workmen were
tempted to seek higher wages in the towns, and in
these towns they might relapse into vicious habits.
For the sake of those who had flocked to Georgetown,
he built both a Church and a Secondary School
(1902-1904) at Queenstown,t and with the special
goodwill of the Anglican Bishop, he commenced a
Mission to the Coolies at Ogle's Industry, Cumming's
Lodge, and Turkeyen. His assistants, Francis and
Grant, were both Negroes ; his evangelist to the
Hindoos, Buccus, was an East Indian ; and thus the
whole work was in native hands. For that very
reason, perhaps, the work was officially honoured.
At the annual meeting of the Bible Society in
Georgetown, the Moravian Choir was asked to lead
the singing ; the Mayor of Georgetowai presided at
the opening of the Brethren's " Comenius School '* ;
and the Governor himself contributed to Moravian
Church Funds.
tQueenstown is a suburb of GcorgPtown.
092 A iftiSTORY OF Moravian Missions.
But the chief feature of the work in Demerara was
the church activity of the members. Demerara may
be called the field of many societies. For their
desire to learn, for their willingness to work, and for
their liberality, the native Christians of Demerara
are unexcelled in the Moravian Church. Among the
religious societies mentioned by Dingwall, we find a
Women's Mite Missionary Society, a Men's
" Macedonian Band," a Men's Brotherhood for Bible
Study, a " Lyceum," two or three Christian
Endeavour Societies, and a Women's Working
Society ; Girl Guides, Penny Banks, Friendly and
Burial Societies, were also formed ; and all these
societies helped to raise the intellectual and moral
tone of the people. At the " Brotherhood " some of
the young men learned to write sermons; at the
meetings of the Missionary Societies such magazines
as " Moravian Missions," " China's Millions," and
" Regions Beyond " were carefully studied ; and most
of the societies also contributed generously to Church
Funds. Why then, it may be asked, has the work
in Demerara not been still more successful ? How
is it that in 1914 there were still only three con-
gregations, Graham's Hall, Queenstown, and
Beterverwachting; only three day-schools and thirteen
Sunday Schools ; only five hundred and seventy-
nine communicants ; and only two thousand four
hundred and forty-one Sunday scholars ? The
answer will be largely found in the economic state of
the colony.
At the time when the Mission began, Demerara
was studded with sugar plantations ; since then
many of these have been closed ; and though the
Government made repeated attempts, no alternative
industry could be found. In the country districts
there was little irrigation, and this defect made
farming a poor business. At the time, however,
Demerara. 8d8
when the Great War broke out, optimists had begun
to predict better things. Rice-growing had increased ;
the Government had a scheme for a Bank Loan,
so that farmers might become freeholders ; rumour
said that in the south both gold and diamonds
had been discovered ; and Sir Walter Egerton, the
Governor, after a tour to the southern border, hinted
that a railway in the hinterland might be con-
structed. Such prospects gave the missionaries new
hope. There, in the south of the colony, their con-
verts might at last be able to earn good wages ; there
new Churches might be built ; and the Gospel
standard might even be carried across the border
to Brazil.
Chapter VI.
ALASKA, 1885—1914.
1. An Urgent Appeal.
For the origin of the Mission in Alaska we turn
to a pathetic letter addressed to the Moravian
authorities at Bethlehem in Pennsylvania, and
written by Dr. Sheldon Jackson, Secretary of the
Board of Missions of the Presbyterian Church. f
In 1867 the United States bought Alaska from
Russia for £1,400,000 ; a few years later the
Presbyterians began a Mission to the Alaskan Indians,
near Suka, in Eastern Alaska ; and now Dr. Sheldon
Jackson, after appealing to other Churches in vain,
suggested that the Moravian Church should commence
a Mission to the Eskimos. At that time, he said,
the total population of Alaska was about 34,000 ;
two-thirds of the inhabitants were Eskimos, living
mostly on the coast ; and though the Greek Church
had established a Mission on the islands, most of the
Eskimos were still absolute heathen. " If you
refuse," he said, " those heathen must go down to
ruin in the dark."
The American Moravians acted promptly. At the
annual meeting of their S.P.G. (August 23rd, 1883),
Dr. Sheldon Jackson's letter was read ; five theo-
logical students volunteered for service ; and next
year (1884), two men, William Weinland and
Adolphus Hartmann, set sail from San Francisco,
interviewed a Greek priest on the island of Oonalaska,
1884 crossed the Behring Sea in a ship belonging to the
Alaska Commercial Company, and pushing up the
jHe was afterwards United States General Agent of Education
in Alaska. He was also author of a book, " Alaska and
Missions on the North Pacific Coast."
(394)
Alaska. S95
Kuskokwim River, discovered, some seventy miles
from the mouth, an important trading station. On
that day, June 20th, 1884, the Old Testament text
in the Text Book was : " God said unto Jacob,
arise, go up to Bethel and dwell there, and make
there an altar unto God that appeared to thee " ;
such an encoiuraging message could not be ignored ;
and, therefore, the two explorers decided, not only
that here they would build the first station, but also
that its name should be " Bethel."
There, in fact, a year later, the first station was 1885
founded ; there the first tlu-ee missionaries, William
Weinland, an American, John Kilbuck, a Delaware,
and John Torgersen, a Norwegian carpenter, arrived
in the Bethel Star^ and there they made their first
acquaintance with the Eskimos. At the very out-
set, however, a disaster occurred. On August 10th,
1885, John Torgersen fell overboard and was
drowned ; a few weeks later his dead body was
found ; and Weinland and Kilbuck, who knew little
of carpentry, settled do^\^l to the task of building a
house.
Let us here take a brief glance at the Eskimos.
At the time when this Mission was projected there
appears to have been a widespread unpression that
those Eskimos in Alaska who had not yet been
corrupted by contact with civiUsation were far
superior, both physically and intellectually, to the
Eskimos of Greenland and Labrador ; and such
Eskimos, it was said, were so peaceable, sober,
industrious, and virtuous, that one writer called
them the Quakers of Alaska. But the missionaries
did not find this description justified. In several
respects the Eskimos of Alaska were far inferior to
those of Labrador. The difference was largely due
to climatic causes. In Labrador the Eskimos fed
on seals and walruses, and thereby acquired great
896 A History of Moravian Missions.
physical vigour ; in Alaska the chief diet was fish,
game, rabbits, and home-bred fowls ; and this
lighter diet caused a change for the worse both in
the body and in the disposition. The Labrador
Eskimo was active and bold ; the Alaskan Eskimo
was both more sluggish and more timid. In Labrador
the Eskimos lived near the sea, and grew accustomed
to facing the winter storms ; in Alaska they lived
on the river banks, and did not need to hunt except
in the summer. But the chief differences were
found in social and family life. In Labrador each
family occupied its own wood-hut or tent ; in Alaska
several families lived together in a large underground
house known as a burra-burra ; and there the people
adopted a system of common housekeeping which
made decency impossible. For both filth and
immorality the burra-burra was hard to rival. In
the middle was the common-room, with a smoke-
hole at the top ; around this room were smaller
rooms, each occupied by a family ; and the barrier
between these rooms was so low that privacy was
impossible. The atmosphere in the burra-burra
was foul ; no windows existed, and, therefore, no
sunlight could enter ; and the consequence of those
insanitary conditions was that, though the Alaskan
climate is bracing, many of the people were con-
sumptive and two-thirds of the children died in
infancy. But the moral atmosphere was even worse
than the physical. At the age of ten nearly every
girl was compelled by her father's orders to become
a prostitute ; later, when they thought she might
marry, her parents would sell her by auction to the
highest bidder ; and most of the women — so, at
least, Mrs. John Kilbuck reported — appear to have
had ten or twelve husbands before settling down to
domestic life.
Nor were the Alaskan Eskimos himianitarians. In
I
Alaska. 897
spite of a certain geniality of disposition, most of them
seem to have taken pleasure in cruelty. Little
compassion for the sick was shewn, and surplus
children and old people were often killed. The
first missionaries heard some horrible stories. At
Bethel an infuriated husband, suspecting his wife of
witchcraft, clubbed her to death and burned her body
in oil. At another place a woman took a boy to the
water's edge, fastened him down with a stake, and
left him to die ; at another, a man chopped a witch
to pieces ; and one man, being plagued with a lunatic
aunt, froze her to death.
Above all, so far as the missionaries could discover,
the Alaskan Eskimos seem to have lost most of their
old religious beliefs. Both in Labrador and in
Greenland the Eskimos seem to have believed in the
existence of a Supreme Spirit ; no such spirit, however,
was known in Alaska ; and most of the people held
the opinion that, even if such a God could be proved
to exist. He did not take any interest in poor people.
" There cannot be a God," said one man, " who
cares for us, for I never received anything from
Him." According to one modem writer,| some of
the Eskimos near Behring Straits related how a
spirit named Selu made the first man out of clay,
and others, like the Eskimos of Greenland, had
preserved traditions of the Great Flood. But the
Eskimos never prayed to God in trouble. In some
of the houses the missionaries found carved wooden
figures and masks, and those idols, said the people,
not only cured diseases, but gave fish and seals.
At heart, therefore, the Eskimos were really idolaters.*
Still worse, they were held in bondage by the
fE. W. Nelson, "The Eskimos About Behring Strait," quoted
by Sir J. G. Frazer in his " Folk Lore in the Old Testament,"
Vol. I., p. 327.
♦See J. Hinz's Report, "Periodical Accounts," December, 1909,
p. 463.
898 A History of Moravian Missions.
" shamans," or witch-doctors. According to these
" shamans," who claimed to be able to float in the
air and to possess other supernatural powers, all
diseases were caused by evil spirits ; with these
spirits only the " shamans " could cope ; and, in
order to add to their own power, they encouraged
various superstitions. If there was an eclipse of the
sun, there would be a famine ; if there was an eclipse
of the moon, there would be an epidemic ; and
if a man jumped over a sledge or even ventured
to have his hair cut, he would die a sudden death.
Nor were these e^41s compensated for by any firm
belief in immortality. For four or five days after
death, said the Eskimos, the soul hovered near its
old home ; what became of it afterwards no one knew ;
and thus the people may truly be said to have lived
without God and without hope.
2. The Story of Bethel, 1885—1914.
1885 At this time much interest was aroused in Moravian
circles by the fact that John Kilbuck, one of the
missionaries, was descended from a Delaware King,
Gelelemend, a prominent Christian in the days of
Zeisberger. For some years Kilbuck was Superin-
tendent of the Alaska Mission ; by him and William
Weinland the work at Bethel was begun ; and
both men exhibited heroic qualities. For two years
they both suffered intensely. The first task was to
protect themselves against the cold. In spite of their
imperfect knowledge of house-building, they managed
somehow to build a rough log-house. For that
climate, however, a log-house was almost useless.
The thermometer often fell eighty degrees below
freezing point ; the days were short and cheerless ;
and the winds cut like a razor. Inside the log-house
there was neither beauty nor comfort. The carpet
rotted with damp ; the mattresses were mouldy ;
Alaska. 899
and frost half-an-inch thick gathered on the window
panes. For a long time Kilbuck suffered much from
snow-blindness ; his wife, half frozen, was nearly a
cripple ; and Weinland, breaking down altogether,
had to leave for a warmer clime. We shall meet
him again, however, in another field.
For a whole winter after Weinland had gone, John
Kilbuck and his wife were alone in Bethel ; and once,
when Kilbuck was away on a journey, his wife, with an
ailing child to look after, waited patiently at Bethel
for no fewer than seventy-three days (December
3rd, 1888— February 14th, 1889). In Moravian
circles those seventy-three days became famous,
and Mrs. Kilbuck was honoured as a heroine.
(a) Gospel Preaching. For a few months Kilbuck,
aided by a trader, could only talk by signs ; then,
having good linguistic gifts, he mastered the
language ; and by Christmas, 1887, he was able to
speak in public. With Christmas festivities he made
his first great appeal. For the first time there was
quite a crowd at Bethel. The story of Bethlehem
was told ; the children sang " Softly the Night " and
other carols ; the curtains were drawn, and the
Christmas tree revealed ; and presents were given
out to young and old. From that moment Kilbuck
began to note progress. The people seemed delighted
to hear of Christ ; next year, the Passion Week
services were well attended ; and on Good Friday,
1888, the first heart was touched. The incident
reminded Kilbuck of the story of Kayarnak. Once
more, as in Greenland, the first deep impression
was produced by the Passion History. " Thank
you," said an old man, after hearing the story of
Calvary, " we too want a share of the blood of Jesus
to take away our sins."
At Bethlehem, in Pennsylvania, the news of this
speech was described as electric ; in September some
400 A History of Moravian Missions.
Eskimos became communicants ; and in two years
the number had risen to over a hundred.
Meanwhile, John Kilbuck had visited the sur-
rounding villages. As Greek priests had worked
in the neighbourhood already, the people, in some
cases, knew a little about Christianity, and most of
them seemed anxious to learn more. In every village
he received a warm welcome. As his sledge swung
in, the people came out to greet him. The men
nodded their heads ; the boys stood smiling ; and
the women kept in the background. The dogs were
unharnessed ; the sledge unloaded ; the kettle was
boiled in a burra-burra, and the service was held in a
public hall, known as the kashige. As Kilbuck crossed
the kashige threshold, the old village fathers rose
to greet him. " Shamai ? How do ? " they cried in
chorus. In those kashiges Kilbuck first preached the
Gospel. At the close of the service the women retired
to their homes, and the men stayed behind to discuss
the sermon.
But these villages were not all of the same kind.
In the river-side villages north of Bethel the people
soon mended their ways. In those to the south they
clung to their sins, and in those on the tundra the
men defiantly beat drums ; and Kilbuck, therefore,
paid special attention to the villages north of Bethel.
In each of these villages he was soon able to appoint
native assistants. They came to Bethel for in-
struction, repeated their lesson in the villages, and
illustrated their remarks with pictures. In order
to let the natives know when it was Sunday, they used
a little wooden tablet with holes. Along the edge of
the tablet were six holes, marking the week-days ;
in the middle was a hole for Sunday ; the Helper
marked the process of time with a peg ; and when his
peg reached the middle hole, he knew that Sunday had
come. At an early period one Helper, Hooker, had
Alaska. 401
a most terrible experience. For some reason —
possibly previous sins — he suddenly became a lunatic ;
and his relatives actually stripped him naked, and
threw him to the hungry dogs. In spite, however, of
this disaster the Gospel made progress. At one village
the chief sorcerer. Little Whetstone, was converted ;
at another the people offered to build their own
Church ; and in 1894 Kilbuck reported that in the
whole district between Bethel and Ogavik not one
single heathen festival had been held. For some
time, however, many of the heathen refused to give
up their immoral habits.
" It never marred our happiness before," they
said, " so why should we give it up ? "
'' But why do you do such dreadful things ? "
"It is our custom."
At length, however, better customs prevailed ;
the Helpers set a splendid example ; and Bethel was
surrounded by sixteen preaching places.
{b) Education : the School at Bethel. For this 1887
purpose the Government provided £60 per annum ;
but on the other hand they laid down the condition
that each year the school must be open at least tM'o
hundred days. As the morals in the children's homes
were so bad, a mere day-school would have been
useless, and, therefore, nearly all the children were
boarders. Xo stranger boarding-school existed in
North America. The staff consisted of the missionary,
his wife, and a lady teacher ; the building was a small
log-house ; and the pupils were the dirtiest children
on God's earth. Inside the house the general im-
pression was a mixtiu-e of water and oil. The pupils
came in with wet feet ; the lamps had an oilj' smell ;
the trout, cooking at the kitchen fire, dribbled oil
on the floor ; and all day long coats, caps, and boots
hung before the fire to dry. In that school, however,
lay the brightest hopes for the future. For thoee boys
402 A History of Moravian Missions.
no better education could have been provided. From
the first, great attention was paid to practical details.
The first lesson was cleanliness. For the first time
in history Alaskan boys had their hair cut ; every
newcomer had a bath and a new suit ; and the
girls, to their mothers' great astonishment, explored
the mysteries of the wash-tub. For the first time,
also, the boys learned to take theu' share in house-
hold management. At an early hour one rose and
lighted the fires ; two others washed the dishes and
scrubbed the rooms ; another trimmed the lamps ;
and others split wood for the fire. The daily pro-
gramme was varied. In the morning the usual
elementary subjects were taught ; in the afternoon
the boys learned carpentry, and the girls domestic
economy. As the boys generally spent the summer
in hunting, the school could be held only in the
winter months, and with the girls the great difficulty
was that early in their teens they were generally
Bold in marriage.
" It is too bad," said little Janie, " that I can't come
to school any more. I should like to come, but I
have been given to a man."
As the Government rendered more and more help,
the staff was steadily increased ; the most modern
American school-books, such as Baker's " Action
Primer," were used ; and the children not only read
interesting books, such as " Around the World "
and " Eskimo Stories," but revelled in the old jingle
of " Mother Goose." For many years this boarding-
school at Bethel was the only school in Alaska ;
then, at the request of the Government, an Industrial
School was opened ; and here, while the girls made
skin boots and shoes, the boys learned fishing,
gardening, net-making, and the use of machinery.
(c) Medical Work. In this department the
Brethren accomplished little. For six years (1897-
Il
Alaska. 408
1903) Dr. J. H. Romig acted both as medical
missionary and as Superintendent of the Mission ;
then, however, he retired, and as no successor was
found, the Brethren could only use simple remedies
and teach the people to be clean.
(d) The Introduction of Reindeer. At Dr. Sheldon 1901
Jackson's suggestion, the Alaskan Board of Education
introduced herds of reindeer. For several reasons,
he said, reindeer would be beneficial to the Eskimos.
Both the flesh and the milk were nutritious and
digestible ; from the skm both clothes and leather
could be made ; and the Eskimos, by acting as
shepherds, would find congenial occupation. At the
special request of the Government, the Brethren
established a reindeer station at Bethel. The Govern-
ment lent the reindeer for five years ; the missionary
supplied the apprentices and enforced the Govern-
ment's regulations ; and the Mission, in return for
its services, received so many reindeer in payment.
But the chief benefit came to the Eskimos. If the
shepherd fulfilled all the conditions, he might become
an owner of reindeer, use his profits to buy a house,
and thereby become a respectable citizen.
But this was not the best result of the Mission. At
the close of 1913 Bethel was a prosperous Christian
village. Among the members several were Native
Helpers ; these men studied theology seven hours a
day ; and by them the Gospel was preached at Akiak,
Akiatshuak, Tuluksak, Ogavik, Quingillingok, and
other villages in the neighbourhood. Thus did Bethel
become true to its name.
3. The Story of Carmel, 1887—1906.
The story of Carmel is a tragedy. For the failure
of the Mission at this station — situated further
east, near the mouth of the Nushagak — the
responsibility must be laid, partly on the opposition
404 A History of Moravian Missions.
of the Greek Church, and partly on the evil example
of certain Chinese and Japanese workmen employed
at the neighbouring salmon canneries. The conduct
of the local priest was disgraceful. In order to
undermine the Brethren's influence, he enticed the
children from the boarding-school, informed the
Eskimos that the Brethren were servants of the
devil, and not only took to drink himself, but even
encouraged the people to follow his example. The
influence of the Chinese was even worse. Among
other things, they taught the Eskimos to brew a fiery
liquor, and giving way to this temptation, the
people rapidly drank themselves to death.
4. The Story of Quinhagak, 1903 — 1914.
At this station, which lies further down the
Kuskokwim, the chief feature to notice is that, while
the missionaries did not neglect to preach the Gospel,
they also made a systematic attempt to raise the
natives in other ways.
(a) The chief missionary here was Schochert.
For some months he used his muscles far more than
his tongue. His chief purpose was to abolish dirt.
First, with the aid of the natives, he drained the land,
erected a curing-house, and built a manse and a
Church ; then he made a wooden path through the
village ; and then he erected a row of houses, with
a wooden path leading to each front door. Thus
did the pjskimos learn to avoid bringing mud into
their houses.
(b) Secondly, Schochert taught the people to be
diligent in business. In accordance with Govern-
ment instructions, he arranged that, in the day-school,
two hours daily should be devoted to industrial
subjects. The boys leauned to make skates, kites,
handkerchiefs, and children's toys ; the girls made
dresses and Christmas " cookies " ; and the young
Alaska. 405
women were taught to prepare rice, fish, beans, and
oatmeal. By degrees, therefore, Quinhagak became
a hive of industry ; and nearly all the adults became
skilled workers. Some, like their kinsmen at Bethel,
tended the reindeer ; others dried fish, raised emperor
geese and made furs ; others, especially the women,
made grass-baskets ; and as the missionary put these
goods on the market, the natives, with the profits
thus gained, could buy goods at a general village
store.
(c) Health. In addition to treating simple cases,
the missionaries also taught the people how to take
care of their health. The men learned how to
treat cuts and bruises ; the women brought their
babies to the school for a bath and a change of under-
wear ; and the children not only learned how to
make cheese-cloth bandages, but also had regular
lessons in the laws of health. For this latter purpose
two books on hygiene, " The Primer of Sanitation "
and " The Human Body and Health," were used ;
each child had a separate drinking cup, and was
told the reason ; and the head-mistress visited
the homes and explained the importance of scalding
pots and pans. The change in the people's ideas
was remarkable. Formerly they had dreaded evil
spirits ; now they waged war on bacteria ; and the
missionaries gave them to understand that in this
warfare there was a prospect of victory. " The
children," said the head-mistress, " seem much
interested in the study of their bodies and the cause
and prevention of disease. They realise well what
a terrible foe they have in tuberculosis."
(d) Morals. In order to overcome certain
dangerous amusements — such as the heathen
" festivals " — the missionaries arranged that, as far
as possible, every evening, at least in the winter.
406 A History of Moravian Missions.
should be well occupied. First, there was evening
prayer in the schoolroom for all ; then there were
classes for singing and knitting ; and the people
were taught that such occupations were far better
than plays and masquerades. No white traders
were allowed in the village ; no drink was sold ;
and no man who played cards could become a Native
Helper.
(e) Religious Instruction. Let us not imagine
that the converts were ignorant. At the confirmation
classes the candidates learned the Ten Command-
ments, the Lord's Prayer, the Apostles' Creed, the
words of institution for the Holy Communion, and
several hymns and passages of scripture. But one
of the chief objects of the missionaries was to make
religious worship attractive. At the morning service
they sang duets and trios, and at the evening service
they used a gramophone. In all their work the
missionaries received much aid from the Native
Helpers. Some of those Helpers became efficient
preachers, and knew how to speak plainly to the
people about their sins. In two senses Quinhagak
became a light to the district. For the benefit of
mariners, the Brethren put a light in the belfry.
But the brightest light was the piety of the Helpers.
5. The Action of the Government.
For some years before the Great War broke out,
the U.S.A. Government, acting on Viscount Bryce's
principle that one of the chief duties of rulers is to
protect natives against unscrupulous traders,
had taken steps to protect the Eskimos against the
evil influence of gold-seekers ; and this action on the
part of the Government affected some of the Brethren's
methods of work. At Bethel the Government
stationed both an inspector and a physician ; then
it took over the Brethren's boarding-school ; next
Alaska. 407
it opened day-schools in the neighbourhood ; and
finally, in 1913, it announced that it intended to take
over education entirely. Thus did the Brethren in
Alaska lose, to some extent, their control over the
young people ; and the action of the Government
caused many questions to be asked : Had the
Gk)vernment really acted wisely ? Would the moral
influence in the Government Schools be as high as in
the Moravian Schools ? And would the Moravians
themselves be able to supply teachers for the Govern-
ment schools ? Such questions only the future
could answer.
Chapter VII.
CALIFORNIA, OR THE RAMONA MISSION,
1889—1914.
The first impulse was given by a lady novelist.
For some years literary circles in the United States
had been reading with pleasure the poetry of a lady
who signed herself " H.H." ; in 1873 she increased her
reputation by publishing " Bits of Travel " ; in 1881
she wrote a good novel, " A Century of Dishonour " ;
and now, in her still finer novel, "Ramona"! (1884) —
written after a visit to California — this lady, known
now as Mrs. Helen Hunt Jackson, gave such a vivid
description of certain crimes committed by whites
against Californian Red Indians that widespread
public interest was aroused. Mrs. Jackson's novel
was based on first-hand evidence. In order to make
quite sure of her facts she stayed at a little hotel in
St. Jacinto ; there she interviewed many Indians
and made copious notes ; and the landlady after-
wards shewed to visitors the stool on which the
novelist had sat. The state of things described in
Ramona was atrocious. In open defiance of Cali-
fornian law, white traders, said Mrs. Jackson, had
often encroached on Indian territory, stolen Indian
property, and then, when the Indians attempted
vengeance, had them condemned by corrupt judges ;
and so keen was the indignation aroused that several
societies on behalf of the Indians were immediately
formed. Among these societies one was called
" The Women's National Indians' Association " ;
t" Ramona " has recently been re-published by Sampson Low,
Marston & Co. In the " Cambridge History of American
Literature " it is described as " passionately pleading the cause
of the Indians of California." See Vol. III., p. 8G. On its
literary merits, see p. 89.
(408)
California, or the Ramona Mission. 409
this society now appealed to the Moravian Church ;
and the precise offer made was that, if the Moravians
would supply a missionary, the Association would
build a house and church and cover all expenses for
at least a year. In response to this suggestion,
William Weinland was appointed ; taking his wife
and children with him, he settled down at Potrero,
an Indian village twenty-five miles east of Los
Angeles ; and there and then the first Moravian
Mission Station in California was built. 1890
As the Indians were then in a very degraded state —
so degraded that an English visitor called them a
" sorry lot " — Weinland very soon discovered that
he had undertaken a hard task. At the very
outset, however, he had a pleasant surprise. At
that time the most important Indian in the village
was a certain Captain John Morongo ; this man met
Weinland at the Railway Station at Banning ; and
forthwith Morongo informed Weinland that if the
missionary desired to purchase land, he would secure
the goodwill of his people. " We all want you at
Potrero," he said. " If you will settle here, I will get
the consent of the tribe. You will, I fear, find us
old folk a hard nut to crack ; but perhaps you'll
be able to make something of the young ones."
With the consent of the Indians, therefore, Weinland
bought five acres ; the Women's National Indians'
Association provided the promised money for the
school and church ; and a year later the whole
station became Moravian property. Potrero is 2,000
feet above sea-level, and is on the southern slope
of ^It. Graybok. The site is between two mountain
ranges. On the north side stretch the St. Bernardino
Hills ; on the south the St. Jacinto Hills ; and the
district to the east is called the Colorado desert.
In due time two more stations were founded, Martinez
(1896) a little to the north-west of Dry Salt Lake,
410 A History of Moravian Missions.
and Rincon (1902) some miles further south ; and
La Jollaf and Pechanga, between these last two,
were preaching places. In the numerical sense this
Mission might be called disappointing. At the close
of twenty-three years of labour the total number of
communicant members was only 104 ; the number
of Sunday scholars was only 180 ; and the average
attendance at the four places of worship was only 41.
But the real value of this Mission cannot be judged by
statistics. In addition to their work as preachers of
the Gospel, William Weinland and his colleagues
have had several difficult problems to solve ; they
have acted, not merely as preachers, but as resolute
social reformers ; and the value of their work must be
judged, not merely by the number of converts they
have gained, but by their success in improving the
conditions of Indian life. Let us now study the five
great problems with which these missionaries have had
to deal.
1. The Land Problem. This problem was really
due to the unsatisfactory American system of land
tenure. According to that system the Indians
lived on so many Indian Reservations. In each case
the land was granted by the Government, not to an
individual, but to a tribe ; this tribe, in turn, sublet
allotments to farmers ; and each farmer, in theory,
was entitled to so many acres. If he was married, he
was entitled to twenty ; if he was single, he had only
ten ; and the under-lying principle was that, in either
case, the Indian, having security of property, would
cease to be an idle vagabond and become an
industrious farmer. As long as he paid his rent, it
was said, he could not be legally dispossessed. First,
the Government guaranteed land to the tribe ; then
the tribe guaranteed land to the farmer ; and thus, in
fPronounced " La Hoya."
California, or the Ramona Mission. 411
theory, the system was ideal. But Weinland very
soon made some strange discoveries. At the time
of his arrival the land laws of California were still
in such a state of confusion, that Weinland could not
feel sure that the Moravian Church owned its own
property,"!" and eighteen so-called Indian Reservations
had not yet been confirmed by Congress. But the
chief cause of trouble was the Reservation system
itself. The mode of land tenure in California was
similar to that in Indian Territory, and it led to
exactly the same results. As long as the farmer
rented his land from a tribe, he had no security of
tenure ; the Indians themselves saw where the fault
lay, and were constantly holding meetings on the
land question ; and most of the Indians, so far from
being good farmers, roamed the land like tramps,
ate like dogs from stone plates, drank to excess and
allowed their children to run about half naked in
winter and stark naked in summer. " The Reserva-
tion System," said Weinland, " must go. If the
Indian is to make a good farmer, he must not be under
the control of the tribe ; he must have a Government
trust-deed ; and, if he proves himself worthy, he
must be allowed to become a freeholder." For
twenty-three years (1890-1913) Weinland agitated
in vain ; and in 1913 he said, " There is no positive
guarantee that an Indian, after improving a piece of
land, will ever own it." At last he saw a faint gleam
of hope. In November, 1913, he was summoned to
fThe process of making the Moravian property secure took twenty-
seven years to accomplish. The chief steps were as follows : —
(a) Law passed (1887) that, with the consent of the
Secretary of the Interior, a missionary society may
occupy 100 acres.
(6) The Attorney General declares (1890) that no society
may occupy land without the consent of the Indians.
(c) Martinez (1903) declared an Indian Reservation.
(d) A missionary society may hold land in fee simple (1909).
(e.) The Moravian Church granted full patent rights in her
property (1914).
412 A History of Moravian Missions.
appear before the Indian Committee of Congress at
Los Angeles, there he was cross-examined for an
hour ; and next month a Bill was introduced whereby
land might be " pro-rated " to individual Indians.
But once more Weinland was doomed to disappoint-
ment ; all kinds of official delays occurred ; and Wein-
land's last report was that no practical steps had yet
been taken. f
But Weinland was not content with mere agitation.
With the aid of borrowed money, he and his colleagues
let fruit-farms to the Indians, both at Potrero and
Martinez. In each case the Indians promptly repaid
the loan ; Indian fruit-farming became a flourishing
business ; and thus Weinland proved that, given his
chance, the Indian can become both industrious and
thrifty.
Thirdly, at the request of the missionaries, the
Government sank several artesian wells. In 1890
Martinez was a desert ; in 1914 it was producing
alfalfa and melons ; and the Indians now lived in
better cottages and enjoyed better health.
2. The Drink Problem. This problem was
closely connected with the land problem. As long
as the Indians had no securitj'^ of tenure, they were
naturally tempted to neglect their farms and earn
good wages by working for the whites ; and although
by law no licensed victualler was allowed to sell
drink to Indians, so much whisky was smuggled in
that the law was often a dead letter. The so-called
annual " Indian Fair " was also a source of trouble.
As this institution was sanctioned by the Government,
the Indians argued that it must be respectable ;
and yet it was really the occasion of much horse-
racing, gambling, and all-night dancing. In order
to overcome these evils Weinland gave a series of
fSee " Periodical Accounts," September, 1915.
California, or the Ramoxa Mission. 413
lectures on temperance, shewed the evils of drink by
means of a lantern, and persuaded many of the
hardest drinkers to take the pledge. In 1891 he had
often to stop drunken brawls in the village ; in
1895 he reported that no more drunkards were left
at Potrero ; and in 1913 nearly all his people there
were abstainers.
3. The School Problem. The case of California
is almost unique. In California the education of
Indian children is entirely in the hands of the Govern-
ment. On the Indian Reservations the Government
opened day-schools ; for older children there were
also Government boarding-schools at Banning and
Riverside ; and the consequence of tliis arrange-
ment has been that, while the missionaries can teach
the children on Sundays, they have little influence
over them during the week. For ten months each
year the older children are all away at boarding-
schools. In the reports from California, therefore,
no day-schools are mentioned, and the only educa-
tional privilege granted the Brethren was that
Weinland was allowed to visit the boarding-schools
and give the Moravian pupils Bible instruction.
4. The Medical Problem. The most common
disease among the Indians was tuberculosis. In
order to teach the people good habits, the Govern-
ment appointed matrons ; but the real difficulty
in the matter was that the Indians, being regarded
as " wards " of the Government, could not be
admitted to the public hospitals. Why, then, it
might be asked, did not the Moravian Church build
a hospital ? Because there was no money for the
purpose.
5. The Religious Problem. According to three
missionaries in California — William Weinland, David
Woosley, and C. Delbo — the chief opposition to
414 A History of Moravian Missions.
Moravian work has sprung from the Church of Rome.
For some years the Church of Rome had neglected the
Indians ; now they renewed their activities ; and,
not content with legitimate methods — not content,
i.e., to build chapels, to preach, and to visit — they
resorted to other methods unworthy of Christians : —
(a) First, they employed falsehood and violence.
At the very outset of the Moravian cam-
paign the local Catholic priest informed the
Indians that the Bible used by Protestants
was written by Martin Luther, that Luther
had committed suicide, and that all
who attended the Moravian Church would
go to purgatory. One Roman Catholic
Indian shot at Weinland ; other Indians,
incited by a priest, stole into Captain
Morongo's house, and smeared his meat
and potatoes with strychnine ; and when
a Moravian convert died of pneumonia a
priest said that all who attended the
Moravian Church would suffer the same fate.
{h) The second method was the use of Govern-
ment officials. At one time, e.g., Superin-
tendent Sullivan, instigated by Catholics,
actually asked the Indian Office to expel
Weinland from Cahfornia (1912) ; and,
when his request was refused, he suggested
that the Moravians at Potrero should be
allowed to own only the land covered by
the Mission buildings.
In California, therefore, the success of the Moravian
work depends largely on the personal character of
the local government official. If he is a fair-minded
man, the missionaries can pursue their work in peace ;
if he is a religious bigot, difficulties are placed in
their way ; and the Roman Catholics constantly
California, or the Ramona Mission. 415
endeavour to have as many Roman Catholic officials
appointed as possible. Thus, e.g., in 1912, the
missionaries could make little progress. At Rincon
the sub-agent Avas a Roman Catholic ; at La Jolla
the Government day-school teacher was a Roman
Catholic ; and such officials took care to inform the
Indians that if they attended the Moravian Church
they had less chance of obtaining certain privileges
from the Government. To be a Roman Catholic
was to be favoured by officials ; to be a Protestant
was to be insulted. Above all, declared Weinland,
the priests pandered to the popular love of sinful
pleasure. Weinland would not allow his converts to
attend the Indian " fiestas " or festivals ; the priests
encouraged these festivals and claimed to give them
a religious flavour ; and Weinland conscientiously
believed that the priests gained more converts
than he did — not because they w^ere more efficient
or devoted, but because they placed before the people
a lower moral ideal.
" Is it warm in California ? " said a friend to
Weinland.
" No," said Weinland, " it is hot."
And those words were true of more than the
climate.
Chapter VIII.
NORTH QUEENSLAND, 1891—1914.
1. The Strange Approach.
Once more we have a fine example of co-operation
between two Churches. For some years the
Presbyterians of Victoria impressed by
Hagenauer's work at Ramahyuck, had been taking
an increasing interest in Foreign Missions ; in 1887
Hagenauer himself visited the north-east coast of
Queensland ; soon afterwards, at Sydney, he
addressed the Synod of the United Presbyterian
Church of Australia ; and finally, in 1890, A. Hardie,
the Moderator, writing to the Moravian Mission
Board, promised that if the Moravians would find the
men the Presbyterians would find the bulk of the
money. To this arrangement the Mission Board
agreed ; two men, James Ward and Nicholas Hey,
were appointed ; and landing at Melbourne, July,
1890, the two pioneers were greeted by old Hagenauer
on the quay.
1890 But now the two pioneers had a painful surprise.
For six months they were engaged in dealing with
various forms of opposition. In spite of Hagenauer's
success at Ramahyuck, there still existed among the
laity a feeling that the Papus were hopeless. Accord-
ing to popular rumour they were cannibals ; recently
some of them had eaten two white men ; and
Hagenauer himself had boldly stated that, on
the whole, the Papus of North Queensland
were even more degraded than those of Victoria.
In the towns they slouched in rags and tatters,
begging, drinking, and smoking ; in their own homes
they practised communism, not only in matters
of property, but also in marriage matters ; and fights
(416)
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NORTH QUEENSLAND
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XoRTH Queensland. 417
between Papus and whites had long been a common
occurrence. For these sanguinary fights, however,
certain white traders were really responsible. With
revolvers in their hands, traders had often pillaged
Papu camps ; in revenge the Papus had used their
spears ; and thus the Papus had obtained a reputa-
tion worse than they deserved. The result was
deplorable. At nearly every town they visited
Ward and Hey had a mixed reception. At Mel-
bo\irne, it is true. Canon Chase encouraged them,
and gave them a first-class pass on the railway ;
but on their journey northwards, they met with
many discouragements. At Sydney only the
children showed much interest, and at Brisbane, in
North Queensland, they made the painful discovery
that, while the Premier, Sir Samuel Griffith, gave
them a kindly welcome, most of the regular church-
goers regarded them as milksops. At that time the
prevailing opinion in North Queensland was that if
a minister came from the old country, he was almost
certain to be a worthless character. If he was
English, he was a fool ; if he was Irish, he was a
freak ; and one minister, speaking to Ward, stated
the case quite bluntly : " I tell you what it is, Mr.
Ward," he said, " people in Queensland have so
often been taken in with ministers from the old
country, it's no wonder they are somewhat dis-
trustful of newcomers of whom they know nothing.
If you prove yourself a decent sort of fellow, you will
gain support. If not, you won't. That's all." The
Hon. Horace Tozer, Home Secretary for Public W^orks,
gave Ward some more plain speech. He informed
him that while the Queensland Government would,
for a brief period, provide the natives with food,
none of that food must be consumed by the
missionaries ; and Ward, wondering why such a
warning was needed, had the wisdom to hold his
2B
418 A History of Moravian Missions.
peace. The amount of pessimism in Queensland
was enormous. The nearer the Brethren approached
their destination, the more critical and scornful
everybody seemed. At Townsville a candid host
informed them that he had prepared to receive a
couple of fossils ; at Cooktown another, equally
candid, said that he had expected idiots ; and
others warned them that the enterprise was hope-
less. " You are fools," they said, " you don't
know these blacks ; they are treacherous and
malicious ; they are cannibals, and will probably
kill and eat you ; and, even if they don't, you
needn't imagine that you'll make them Christians.
The fact is, they are not fit to live, and ought to be
killed off."
Meanwhile, however, there M'as a bright side
to the picture. Amid these warnings and fore-
bodings, the Hon. John Douglas, Governor
Resident, A. Hardie, and S. Robinson had dis-
covered a site for the first Mission Station, named
Mapoon, near the mouth of the Batavia River ;
soon afterwards Ward, Mrs. Ward, and Hey arrived
at Thursday Island ; and there, in his own home,
the Hon. John Douglas expounded his plan of
campaign. For the voyage to Mapoon, he said, he
had two vessels ready. In the first, the Albatross,
Ward and Hey, guarded by troopers, would sail ;
in the second, the Dickie, four carpenters would
bring the building materials ; and, Mrs. Ward being
somewhat ill, the arrangement was that while Hey
stayed at Mapoon to build the house. Ward, after
inspecting the site, should return to Thursday
Island to fetch his wife. In vain both Ward and
Hey protested against the presence of troopers.
The Governor was adamant ; the Brethren yielded
the point ; and many friends applauded their
decision. " You can never trust these rascals,"
North Queensland. 419
they said. " You had better look out. If needful,
shoot them. Above all, never let a black get behind
you."
The foregoing arrangements were soon carried into Nov. 26th,
effect. As soon as the Albatross reached her destina- 1890
tion, the Captain, Brethren, and troopers stepped
ashore ; on the beach stood a great crowd of Papus ;
and the Captain, addressing a man named Bos'n,
who had kept his two front upper teeth, opened
negotiations.
*' Where do you belong ? " said the Captain.
" Me belong here," said Bos'n.
" But why have you kept your front teeth ? "
" He no like it," said another Papu, " and dat no
use."
To James Ward this last speech was a star of hope.
If a Papu could think for himself, he might be
induced to listen to the Gospel. For two and a half
hours the visitors inspected the site ; three days
later Ward, on the Albatross, returned to Thursday
Island ; and now with the Captain and the four
carpenters, Nicholas Hey was left among the wild
Papus. For three weeks he was busy as architect
and builder ; and, during those three weeks, he won
the hearts of the natives. With his strong right
arm, he felled the trees ; with his own hands he
cooked his own meals ; and, boldly leaving his
rifle behind, he visited the native camp. On the
natives his conduct acted like magic. For the first
time in their experience they beheld a white
man without a weapon in his hand ; kind words,
instead of curses, now delighted their ears ; and Hey,
to their amazement, dressed a boy's wounded foot,
clad an orphan in trousers, and gave presents to the
children. Forthwith the Papus showed signs of
gratitude. Each morning they gathered round him
to hear him read the Texts ; some, with officious
420 A History of Moravian Missions.
zeal, picked insects off his skin ; and others, in
return for meal and tobacco, helped him to build
the Mission-house.
Meanwhile, his personal sufferings were intense.
For ten days he lived on nothing but damper.^
For ten nights he had not a second of sleep, and one
day he made the dreadful discovery that his drinking-
water came from the bathing-pool. At night his
mind was torn between faith and fear. On the bed
beside him in the hut lay Ford, the policeman ;
between the two men lay two loaded rifles ; and Hey,
peering through a crevice, could see the natives
dancing round their camp-fire. Among those natives
were some who had eaten whites, and Hey wondered
how soon his own turn would come.
At the end of three weeks, however. Hey had the
Mission-house nearly ready ; on December 20th,
Mr. and Mrs. Ward arrived on the scene ; and Mrs.
Ward, writing to a friend in England, recorded her
first impressions of the natives. " I wish," she
said, " you could see the people as I saw them on
the day of my arrival. There were about eighty
women and girls sitting in a semi-circle ; most of them
quite without clothing ; others with a piece of
calico tied round their loins. Such a spectacle !
Many of them full of sores, one old woman blind, one
with cancer. My dear old friend, I cannot tell you
how miserable I felt. I would have given anything to
be in Europe again. I felt I had no love for these
people, and I could never work among them."
2. The First Year. 1891. ^1
1891 ^^^ about a year after their arrival at Mapoon, *
Ward and Hey were employed, partly in tilling the
IThis was his own fault, it might be aaid. He refused to open
the boxes. Why ? Because, I presume he was over-scrupulous,
and did not wish to use food designed partly for his colleagues.
This, however, is only my conjecture.
North Queensland. 421
soil, partly in stud}'ing the people, and partly in
teaching law and order ; and thereby they took
the first steps towards turning a native camp into a
Christian village.
(a) At first the agricultural prospects were not
encouraging. For two and a half miles between river
and sea there ran a flat sandy beach. At the north
end was Cullen Point ; at the south end there
was a screen of mangroves ; to the west lay a few-
sandy ridges ; and the whole place seemed more
suited for a golf-course than for a Mission-station.
For their own special needs, however, the Brethren
had been granted two acres of land ; and these two
acres they soon turned into a garden. They enclosed
the land with a paling ; they built a bridge over the
water-course ; they laid out garden-beds, bordered
by paths ; they planted bananas, potatoes, shrubs,
limes, and cocoa-nut trees ; they opened a dairy-
farm ; and they even tried, with varying success,
to grow cabbages and pumpkins beneath the raised
floor of the Mission-house. In all this work the
natives were asked to assist, and the Brethren
soon arranged a daily programme. At seven the
missionaries breakfasted in the Mission-house ; then
a loud bell was rung ; and every morning Ward or
Hey conducted family prayers in the open air.
For the next two and a half hours, i.e., 7.80 a.m. to
10 a.m., the men, under Hey as foreman, were
engaged in useful labour ; \Vard taught boys on the
verandah steps ; and Mrs. Ward taught the girls to
sew, and cooked both for the Brethren and for the
workmen. At ten the men had dinner ; in the after-
noon they resumed their labours ; and at half-past five,
after tea, they were paid and returned to the camp.
If ever men were kindly treated, it was surely those
Papu labourers at Mapoon. They worked five hours
a day ; they received not only their pay, but two good
422 A History of Moravian Missions.
meals ; they all enjoyed a quiet smoke after dinner ;
and they had their evenings to themselves. In
spite, however, of the Brethren's kindness, most of
the men were both ungrateful and deceitful. The
milkman watered the milk ; the labourers grumbled,
and asked for three meals a day ; and all, young and
old alike, were constantly cheating each other.
Sometimes the Brethren distributed fish, and then
the amount of cheating was enormous. With an
innocent smile upon his face, a native snatched up
a fish with his foot and hid it behind his back ;
another deftly buried his fish in the sand ; and a
third sat on his fish and asked for more. In addition
to these troubles, the Brethren suffered much from
tropical pests. On one occasion a snake devoured
ten chickens ; ticks attacked the cows ; dingoes
ravaged the hen-roost ; and the bull perished un-
timely. At this last disaster James Ward humbly
contrasted himself with the prophet Habakkuk.
" Though there shall be no herd in the stalls," said the
prophet (Hab. iii., 17, 18), " yet I will rejoice in the
Lord." To such heights Ward did not claim to rise.
" I could not," he confessed, " joy on that occasion."
(b) In medical matters the Brethren could do
very little. They used a few simple remedies, dressed
wounds, tried to teach common-sense, and studied
some of the native superstitions. One evening
James Ward watched the people dealing with a man
who had fallen from a tree. The man's mother tied
a rope round his body and worked the loose end to
and fro in her mouth.
" What is she doing that for ? " asked Ward.
" She is sucking the blood out of his body," said
the man's relatives, *' in a few minutes it will run
along the rope."
" Impossible," retorted Ward, " no blood can come
unless you make a wound."
North Queensland. 428
" You are wrong," said the man's brother. " Just
you watch. She will soon spit blood."
"Yes," said Ward, "but that will be her ovm.
blood." The result can be imagined. Next morning
the triumphant natives showed Ward a pool of
blood on the ground ; the patient, however, showed no
signs of improvement ; and the experts explained the
failure by saying that his spirit was roaming the woods.
(c) Laiv and Order. Let one example suffice.
For sheer mystery and complication James Ward
had never read anything to compare with a curious
incident which occurred at Mapoon ; the characters
in the story were six in number ; and these six — four
men, Cook, Pumpkin, Dungeon, and Charlie Manners,
and two women. Cook's sister and Pumpkin's
sister — behaved in a manner which, while it threw
some light on native customs, drove Ward to
the verge of distraction. First, without Ward's
knowledge. Dungeon married Miss Pumpkin ;
then, also without Ward's knowledge. Manners
married ISIiss Cook ; then Mrs. Dungeon fell in love
with Cook ; and then Dungeon, in a fit of jealousy,
stabbed Cook in the back. The situation soon led to
strange complications. One morning, on the verandah
steps, James Ward beheld a marvellous scene.
There, before him, stood the wounded Cook ; there
stood Mrs. Dungeon, clinging to her new lover ;
there also stood Dungeon, trying to pull his wife off ;
and there, behind, stood a crowd of Papus appealing
to Ward to settle the dispute. To Ward, of course,
the case seemed simple enough. For anything he
knew to the contrary Mrs. Dungeon was still single ;
Cook and she seemed devoted to each other ; and
acting on this assumption, he ordered Dungeon
to let the two go in peace. ^. ^^ ^
" Are you willing," said he to Pumpkin, " to give
your sister to Cook ? "
ft
424 A History of Moravian Missions.
" Yes," said Pumpkin.
" Will the law allow you to give your sister to
Cook ? "
" Yes," said Pumpkin.
At this interesting point, however, just when
Ward thought the matter was amicably settled,
two other men stepped forward and shouted, " Cook
pay ! Cook pay ! " dragged Pumpkin over to Cook's
sister, and then brought both Pumpkin and the
girl to Ward. For the first time Ward was genuinely
puzzled.
" What has this fresh girl to do with the business ? "
he asked.
" She Cook's sister." they shouted. " Cook pay
Pumpkin, for sister belong to him."
For a moment Ward imagined he had found the
solution. P^ach of the lovers, Cook and Pumpkin,
had a sister ; each wanted a wife ; and the obvious
idea Avas that if Cook would give his sister to
Pumpkin, Pumpkin in return would give his sister
to Cook. At this point, however. Ward made a
baffling discovery ; each of the girls, he found, was
married already ; and, therefore, he now declared
that neither girl could marry her new lover. Each
must remain true to her husband, and there the
matter must end.
" How can the girls be sold ? " he asked, " they
both belong already to some one else."
" But that doesn't matter," retorted the Papus.
" Well," said Ward, " me no savvy your law.
Me glad when you savvy Jesus Christ, then you no
do such things."
The dispute had a strange conclusion. According
to Papu law a man could sell his sister in marriage
even if she was married already, and that was how
this problem was solved. Each of the husbands
had to part from his wife ; each new lover married
North Queensland. 425
the other's sister ; and each couple, to escape
reprisals, went off on a long honeymoon.
{d) Tlie First Gospel Lessons. As teachers of
children need to know child psychology, so preachers
to the heathen need to know heathen psychology ;
and, acting on this scientific principle, both Ward
and Hey adapted their methods to the ideas of the
natives. According to the Papus of North Queens-
land, the chief seat of intelligence was the ear.
Clever men they called ear-good ; stupid men they
called ear-bad, and, therefore, to the ear the
missionaries made their first appeal. Instead of
teaching systematic doctrine, they took certain
simple sentences, such as, " Jesus loves me " ; re-
peated each sentence hundreds of times ; and,
using Sankey's " Sacred Songs and Solos," sang
the most popular hymns again and again.
The second way to the soul, said the natives, was
the eye. By means of pictures, therefore, the
missionaries taught the Papus the story of Christ. In
one book they had pictures of the Crucified and
Risen Christ ; in another there was a good heart
and a bad heart ; and the natives were told that
Christ had come to take the bad heart away and
put the good one in its place. For some months
the Brethren had little idea how far this teaching
was understood. Did the natives know what was
meant by the terms "good" and "bad"? Both
the good and the bad, they said, vanished, after
death, among the bushes ; and one common idea seems
to have been that while the men were immortal
and had their souls carried away by angels disguised
as blackbirds, the women, being inferior creatures,
lived and died like dogs. But what the natives
meant by " good " and " bad " was not yet quite
clear. On the lives of the people generally the
Gospel had, as yet, but little effect. Night after
426 A History of Moravian Missions.
night the camp was still a cock-pit ; night after night
Ward and Hey rushed among the flying spears ;
and Mrs. Ward, alone in the Mission-house, trembled
for the result. No one, she said, would wilfully
hurt the missionaries ; the real danger was death
by accident ; and that danger was hardly ever
absent. In the schoolroom itself, however, shone
faint gleams of hope. Good scholars earned a few
rewards ; on Sundays, after the Church was opened,
the people listened quietly ; and one boy delighted
the Brethren by calhng Mrs. Ward " Mother."
At the close, therefore, of 1891, the missionaries
had made some definite progress. They had taught
some of the men to be industrious ; they had won the
esteem of all by tending the sick ; they had learned
the natives' ideas on marriage ; and, in a few cases,
they had taught the young to think about Christ.
8. The Fight with the Traders, 1893-4.
For many years the west coast of North Queensland
had been the scene of a flourishing pearl industry ;
on the pearl-luggers many Papus were employed ;
and the controversy between the Brethren and the
traders arose, not because the Brethren objected
to the trade, which came later under Government
supervision, but because many of the captains, by
their wicked personal example, ruined the morals
of the natives. On the economic side the trade
conditions were excellent. No Papu was enlisted
against his will. Each recruit had his name
enrolled in the Government books on Thursday
Island ; on the luggers the food was good, and the
pay 10s. a month ; no Papu could be enlisted for
more than six months at a time ; and in many cases
he returned to the camp arrayed in a new suit
of clothes. On the moral side, however, conditions
were bad. According to the evidence of James Ward,
North Queensland. 427
who was incapable of telling a falsehood, most of the
captains of the pearl-luggers were men of low moral
character. With a few exceptions, they openly-
scoffed at rehgion ; some kept drinking saloons and
gambling dens ; and some, on their regular visits
to Mapoon, seduced the women and encouraged them
to sell their bodies for tobacco. The result
was disgraceful. At the time when Ward and Hey
arrived, Mapoon had already become a Sodom
of iniquity. Each time captains called for recruits,
scenes of debauchery were witnessed. To Ward and
Hey only one course was left open. For the sake of
the people's morals, they endeavoured, as far as
possible, to find them better employment in the
village ; some of the captains regarded this as an
act of open hostility ; and forthwith they resolved
on vengeance. On the Jardine and Ducie Rivers
certain Papus had recently committed murder ;
in each case, said certain captains. Ward and Hey
had inspired the crime ; and those captains even
appeared at Thursday Island and gave official in-
formation to that effect. The story soon appeared in
some of the papers. For some party political reason
the Editor of the Torres Straits Pilot was opposed to
the Hon. John Douglas ; now he openly criticised
him for supporting the Mission ; and, further, he
even made the outrageous assertion that Ward and
Hey were personally responsible, not only for the
recent murders, but for all the murders committed
by Papus during the lat»t two years. For some
weeks Ward and Hey were in bad odour. Instead
of teaching the Papus to be law abiding, they, it was
said in some papers, had incited them to rebellion ;
and some of the clergy, believing this absurd
tale, denounced the innocent Brethren from their
pulpits. But Ward and Hey soon proved their
innocence. At Hey's request, the Hon, John
428 A History of Moravian Missions.
Douglas held an official inquiry ; the captains'
accusations were proved to be false ; and the Editor
of the Torres Straits Pilot made atonement for his
transgressions by describing the Brethren as model
missionaries.
Jan. 19th, But the Brethren soon gained far more than a
1894 formal victory. At the very time when the general
public were discussing the conduct and character of
the missionaries, the Kanahooka, a small steamer,
foundered in the Gulf of Carpentaria. Among the
survivors were two English officers, Priestley and
Bradley. I With the aid of some Papus from Mapoon,
Priestley and one of his friends made their way to the
Mission Station. There the missionaries dressed
their wounds and gave them high tea ; the station
boat Avas sent to fetch the other survivors ; and
Bradley, filled with gratitude, exclaimed, "This is the
happiest day of my life. Come, boys, let us have a
word of prayer." During the next few weeks, Priestley
and Bradley, wherever they went, sang the Brethren's
praises ; public opinion turned in their favour ;
and now, taking the tide at the flood, James Ward
set off on a tour to collect money for a second station.
At Brisbane he interviewed the Mission Committee ;
at Melbourne he addressed the Ormond College
Missionary Society ; and at Adelaide he addressed
the first meeting of the South Australian Women's
Missionary Association. His mode of appealing for
money was frank and abrupt. " If you love me,"
he said, " down with the money." By this time he
had become a popular man ; everywhere the people
received him with favour ; and, hoping that soon a
new station would be built, he returned to Mapoon.
For the projected second station there was now
more pressing need than ever. At Mapoon affairs
fFor details of the survivors' adventures, see Bishop Arthur
Ward's " Miracle of Mapoon."
North Queensland. 429
had come to a crisis. Sea captains constantly came
to the camp ; Papu men sold their wives for
tobacco ; and both Ward and Hey perceived that,
unless the nati^ cs could be removed from temptation,
all attempts to uplift them would be useless. In
spite of his apparent failure to gain converts,
James Ward was still optimistic ; somehow, he
declared, all things would work together for good ;
and sitting down at his harmonium, he drew comfort
from the lines : —
Oh ! Rest in the Lord and wait. Brother,
Though clouds obscure thy way ;
All things for good are working together,
Oh ! Rest and wait and pray.
4. The Valley of Death.
(December 15th, 1894— January 3rd, 1895.)
As James Ward was returning to Mapoon from a
voyage up the Batavia River — undertaken for the
purpose of finding a suitable site for the new station —
he was so overcome by fatigue and thirst that,
forgetting his usual caution, he ventured to drink
some water from a brook ; nine days later, i.e.,
on Christmas Eve, he showed symptoms of fever,
and on Christmas Day he was so ill that Hey
suggested that the usual Christmas festivities should
be postponed. But to this course James Ward
objected.
" I cannot bear to see the children disappointed,"
he said, " and it may be a long while before I am
better."
Once more, therefore, as in previous years, the
little church was adorned with red and blue lights ;
once more the Christmas Tree was loaded ; once more
the Papus received their Christmas presents. For
another week James Ward lay very quiet ; Hey said
480 A History of Moravian Missions.
that he looked Hke one transfigured ; and though
one day he asked for his cheque-book, and said that
he must pay all outstanding accounts, yet, at other
times, he seemed to hope that he had still a great
work to do on earth. At prayers, each evening,
he chose the hymn himself. One evening, remember-
ing the season, he selected " Who is He in yonder
stall ? " ; a little later he asked for " Art thou
weary ? " ; and then, still later, he asked for " Peace,
perfect peace." One day, so he told the others, he
had heard the angels in heaven sing. " Weep not
for me," he said to his wife, " it hurts me. If I am
taken, the Lord will be your husband."
On New Year's Eve James Ward was in a high
fever ; Mrs. Ward had broken down and could no
longer be with her husband ; and Hey, sitting by
his dying friend's bedside, and realizing, to some
extent, how intensely he suffered in body and
soul, tried to soothe him with words of comfort.
With a cry of agony, James Ward rose from his bed.
" My God ! my God ! " he cried, " I'm in hell."
For several hours that dreadful night, James Ward
wrestled with God in prayer ; in the morning he
seemed calmer, and Hey read him a short passage
out of the "Life of David Livingstone"; and Ward
himself, with due reverence, described his terrible
experience as his Gethsemane. " And yet," he
added, " it was nothing compared with what Christ
suffered for me."
The last hours of James Ward were now at hand.
On New Year's Day he lay unconscious ; on the
following evening he asked permission to say good-
bye to the Papus ; and, addressing the women, he
preached a beautiful sermon on the Good Shepherd.
" Do you remember that picture in the Church,"
he said, " of the Good Shepherd carrying a lamb in
His arms ? That is how I feel now. I am tired and
I
North Queensland. 481
weak as a child. I have asked the Good Shepherd
to take me, and now He will lift me in His arms and
carry me home."
In spite, however, of his trust in God, James
Ward had still a great load on his mind. With God's
dealing with him he was more than satisfied ; with
his o^Ti work for God he was profoundly dis-
satisfied ; and now he bitterly reproached himself
because he had not lived in the Papu camp. " I
ought not," he said, " to have lived in the
Mission-house at all. I ought to have lived
in the camp among the Papus." For that
sin of neglect, he said, he must now make full
atonement.
" Let me go," he cried, "once more to the
camp."
With those words James Ward rose from his bed ;
Hey, assisted by six Papus, could scarcely hold him
down ; and the struggle lasted till the morning Jan. 3rd,
dawned. As soon as Ward was quiet again, Hey 1335
dismissed the Papus ; Mrs. Hey and Mrs. Ward now
entered the room ; and Ward, after greeting his wife
with a smile and saying a bright " Good morning,"
noticed that the Papus had disappeared. To him
the natives had always been children, and children
they were to the end.
"The piccaninnies are gone," he said, "I must
follow."
Thus, thinking of his spiritual children, James
Ward passed away.
For six months the work at Mapoon remained
at a standstill. Both Mrs. Ward and the Heys were
now dangerously ill ; all three had to leave for a
needed rest ; and what the future might have
in store Hey was unable to say. " But, one thing,"
he bravely remarked, " is clear ; whether we live or
die we are in God's hands."
432 A History of Moravian Missions.
5. The Resurrection, 1895 — 1914.
As soon as Mr. and Mrs. Hey had completely
June, recovered their health, they returned to Mapoon ; three
1895 months later Mrs. Ward also arrived ; and so delighted
were the Papus to see her, that, donning their best
clothes, they waded out to the ship, greeted her joyfully
as " Mother," and carried her ashore in a chair. I
Let us now make a careful study of Hey's missionary
methods. He was one of the greatest missionaries
of modern times. First we note his relations with the
Government ; secondly, his social and religious work
at Mapoon ; and thirdly, his attempt to extend the
Mission.
1. In order to protect the natives from tempta-
tion, Hey now made the bold and wise suggestion that
the district between Mapoon and Duyfhen Point
should be marked off as a Native Reserve. To this
suggestion the Government agreed ; Hey himself
had certain official powers ; and two years later,
aided by Sir Horace Tozer, the Premier, he succeeded
in having a law passed whereby the enlistment of
natives on the pearl-luggers was prohibited. By
means of these two strokes Hey became master of the
situation. No one but missionaries and Papus might
now live on the Reserve ; and no sea-captains could
any longer corrupt the morals of the natives. At the
same time the Government also took measures to
make sure that Hey did his work properly. For this
purpose Dr. Roth, the new " Protector of the
Aborigines" for North Queensland, visited the station
once a year ; and, speaking in the name of the
Government, he promised that he would befriend the
Mission on condition that each year he saw some
improvement in the premises. The new arrangement
■fMrs. Hey and Mrs. Ward are Histors ; daughters of an Irish
farmer at Derryamish, in Co. Antrim.
I
North Queensland. 488
became a brilliant success. From the very
outset, Hey had the Bible taught in the day-school ;
year after year Dr. Roth could send in a good report ;
and Hey now felt that, in all his labours, he had the
full support of the Government.
(2) As soon as he had sufficient money in hand,
Hey, assisted by the Papus, built a beautiful " Ward ISSB"?
Memorial Church"; that Church became the centre,
not only of the religious, but also of the social, life
of the village ; and Hey, acting both as magistrate
and preacher, issued a number of rules and regula-
tions. For some offences the people had to pay a
small fine ; for others he made them chop wood ;
and for serious crimes, such as theft on the luggers,
they had to report themselves at Thursday Island, t
His mode of attacking bad customs showed great
common sense. " It is useless," he said, " abolishing
a bad custom, unless you put a good one in its place."
In order, for example, to abolish the custom of
leaving dead bodies out to dry, Hey conducted a
funeral service himself ; little girls, carrv-ing flags,
took part in the procession ; and all the rest were so
anxious to share the honour that henceforward they
buried their dead in a more sanitary manner. By a
stroke of genius he also abolished polygamy. One
Sunday, Jimmy, a married convert, announced that
he would take a second wife. At the Sunday morning
service, Jimmy himself was present ; Hey, instead
of preaching a sermon, informed the people of the
scandal, and asked them to pray the devil out of
Mapoon ; and so earnest were the prayers that Jimmy
remained a faithful husband.
Again, Hey v.as a great organizer of labour. In
spite of the people's communistic theories, he soon
taught them the value of private property ; and yet
fThe enlistment of natives on the luggera wa« not abolished till
1910.
2F
434 A History of Moravian Missions.
he did not make the mistake of condemning their
ideas altogether. His system may be described as
a compromise. He began with the pearl industry.
Each native employed on a lugger received, as before,
a fixed sum per month. But now Hey introduced
a remarkable change. Formerly, the native received
his whole wage direct ; now one half was paid to
the station, and was spent in providing goods for a
General Store ; and the native, having helped to
provide that store, was entitled to the free use of the
goods. By means of this system, therefore, he was
partly a communist and partly an owner of private
property. The same principle was applied to the
village industries. Each native helped to build the
houses ; each native helped to sweep the roads ;
and each native, therefore, had the free use of certain
articles belonging to the village as such. With the
station circular saw he sawed his wood ; from the
station carpenter's shop he borrowed his tools ; in
the station windmill he ground his corn ; and from
the station grocery store he obtained good food.
And yet he was not a communist pure and simple.
Each native had his own house and garden ; each
native, also, had his own furniture ; and that house,
garden, and furniture he had to keep in good order.
The whole system taught the Papu two cardinal
virtues. On the one hand he learned the value of
co-operation for the common good ; on the other
hand he had a sense of personal responsibility ;
and thus he became an admirable Christian citizen.
Again, in governmental matters. Hey adopted a
compromise. His system may be called a limited
monarchy. For ten years, 1895-1905, there was an
understanding at Mapoon that while Hey himself
was obeyed without question, the adults belonged
to a village council, which, though it could not
make laws, could at least make suggestions
North Queensland. 485
and discuss any questions of public interest ;
and then, at the close of this period, Hey, at
the people's request, allowed them to choose
their own leader. But even then he insisted on
stem conditions. At a public meeting held to discuss
the people's suggestion, Hey laid down the law that
no one was fit to rule at Mapoon unless he possessed
the moral qualities required by St. Paul in a Bishop.
The Papus agreed ; the man described in I. Timothy
III., 2, 3, was discovered ; and henceforward the
Papus possessed their own elected ruler.
But the best part of the story still remains. Accord-
ing to Nicholas Hey himself the real " kernel of
Mapoon " was the day-school ; that school, for many
years, was under the efficient management of Mrs.
Ward ; and all Hey's most promising converts passed
through ^Irs. Ward's hands. In order to have the
children under perfect control, Mrs. Ward housed them
in three small boarding-houses ; she herself gave
Bible-lessons and taught the usual elementary sub-
jects ; and finally, at the request of the Government,
she took charge of a number of orphans.
3. In due time Hey saw the Mission extend.
Two more Moravian missionaries. Brown and Richtcr,
arrived ; two new stations, Weipa (1898) on the
Embley River, and Aurukun (1904), on the Archer
River, were founded ; and the Native Reserve was
now becoming a civihsed Christian country. Near
Mapoon the men w^ere small-holders and some held
office in the Church ; at Aurukun there was a Boys'
Brigade ; the children astounded the inspectors by
their progress ; and so famous did the Mission become
that, year by year, important officials — Governors,
Bishops, Lords and Presbyterian Divines — came to
behold the miracle. Among these visitors the most
distinguished were Lord Lamington, Sir Wm.
McGregor, the Governor, Canon Garland, the Chief
436 A History of Moravian Missions.
Protector, Appel, the Home Secretary, Parry Okedcn,
the Government photographer, and the Editor of
the Torres Straits Pilot; and once, in 1911, there
was even a lady reporter from the Daily MaiL
For three reasons the work in North Queensland
possesses special interest : — Because, as was men-
tioned in the report of the Edinburgh World
Missionary Conference, it is a most encouraging
example of co-operation between two churches ;
because it shows that, when the right methods are
used, the lowest races are not beyond redemption ;
and because it shows that, in the Moravian Church,
the old missionary spirit is still alive. At Mapoon
itself the visitor may still behold memorials of James
Ward. He will worship in a new and larger " Ward
Memorial Church " ; he will see Ward's grave,
marked by a cross ; he will sail in the J. G. Ward
along the coast ; and children, taught by Mrs. Ward,
will sing him a hymn of welcomcf
t For the changes made since this chapter was ■written, see Epilogue.
Chapter IX.
EAST CENTRAL AFRICA: NYASSA,
1891—1914.
1. Mack ay's Request.
Among the great missionary leaders of the nine-
teenth century, no one admired Moravian Missions
more than Mackay of Uganda ; in 1888 he requested
the Moravian Church to undertake a Mission in what
was then known as German East Africa ; and soon
after this request was received, the Moravian Mission
Board also heard, to its surprise and delight, that
Daniel Krakau, a pious bachelor, had left the
Moravian Church no less than £40,000. This
legacy has since been known as the Krakau Trust ;
and the money was to be devoted to two distinct
purposes. One half of the annual interest was for
redeeming slaves ; the other was for Moravian
missionary work in general ; and next year, 1889, at
a General Synod, the Moravian Church decided to
apply the second half of the legacy to entirely new
work in German East Africa.!
Let us first try to form a clear idea of the precise
field of labour selected. At the time when Mackay's
request was received that part of East Central Africa
now known as Tanganyika Territory, was already
German Territory ; one part of the colony, i.e.,
the part lying just north of Lake Nyassa, was called
tWe must here guard against a natural mistake. In his " Twenty
Years of Pioneer Missions in Nyassaland," Bishop J. T.
Hamilton says that the second half of the Krakau Trust wa«
left "for founding and carrying on a Mission in German East
Africa." But this ia not correct. In the will no special field
i* mentioned.
(43r)
488 A History of Moravian Missions.
" German Nyassaland ";f and this was the part now
selected for the new Mission. But the sphere of the
mission had to be even more precisely defined. At
this time the Berlin Missionary Society was already
at work in German East Africa ; with that Society
the Moravian Church did not desire to compete ;
and, therefore, to prevent friction or over-lapping,
the following terms were arranged : —
1. The two Societies, working side by side, will
found stations north of Lake Nyassa.
2. For the present the boundary-line between the
two shall be, roughly speaking, longitude 34.
To the East shall be the Berlin Society, to
the West the Moravians.
3. The two Societies, though independent, will
try to help each other.*
In 1891 the campaign began. For twenty-three
years the chief leader and superintendent of the
work in German Nyassaland was Theodore Meyer,
son of Henry Meyer, the pioneer in Hlubiland ;
one of his colleagues was a Swiss, Theophilus Richard ;
and these two, pushing north from Lake Nyassa,
discovered, at the foot of Mt. Rungwe, a spur of the
Livingstone Hills, a splendid site for the first station.
The date was August 21st. The two men had never
beheld a more gorgeous scene. On the north-west
rose Mt. Rungwe ; on the west lay a dense forest ; on
the south-east lay the teeming dales of Kondeland ;
and gazing southwards towards Lake Nyassa, across flat
fTo distinguish it from " Nyassaland " proper, a British Protectorate
just west of Lake Nyassa, Sir Harry H. Johnston called the
district north of the lake " German Nyassaland." See his
" Colonisation of Africa," p. 249.
*In 1911 a similar friendly arrangement was made between the
Moravian Church and the Roman Catholic Mission conducted
by the White Fathers. By this arrangement the Moravian
Church agreed not to penetrate into certain districts lying
further north-west and south of Lake Rungwe.
East Central Africa : Nyassa. 439
lowland country, the two men could hear the tinkle
of cattle bells and see the smoke rising from hundreds
of native huts. For reasons of health, Rungwe
seemed an ideal site for a Mission-station. The land
was high, the water pure, and the air clear and
bracing. At the very outset, however, a distressing
disaster occurred. One of Meyer's colleagues, George
Martin, who had stayed near the lake, died of fever ;
there, by the shores of the great lake, his broken-
hearted comrades laid him to rest ; and then, aided
by willing natives, they built the first houses at
Rungwe.
They had come to an interesting people. Accord-
ing to the most recent authorities, all the natives
of Nyassa were Bantus ; by descent, therefore, they
might be called one nation, and yet, like the Red
Indians of North America, they were divided into
several independent tribes. Each tribe was ruled by
its own chief ; each chief claimed a certain district
as his own ; and in each district certain distinguishing
peculiarities, either in character, or in customs, or in
language, were discovered. For the purpose of this
narrative the five following districts must be noticed :
(1) Kondeland, between Mt. Rungwe and Lake
Nyassa; a flat and fruitful country, teeming
with cattle.
(2) Bundali, south-west of Mt. Rungwe, and due
west of Kondeland. Here the land lies
high, and the people are distinguished for
their industry.
(3) Nyika, due west of Mt. Rungwe, and north-
west of Bundali. In this region polygamy
was a specially strong force.
(4) Usafwa, north-west of Mt. Rungwe ; noted
for its fierce chief, Merere, who, along with
his bloodthirsty people, was speedily dis-
possessed by the Government.
440 A History of Moravian Missions.
(5) Mawanda, still further north, and north-
west of Mt. Rungwe.
In each of these five districts the missionaries built
stations, employed native evangelists, and opened
day-schools ; and the area covered by their labours
was about seven hundred square miles.
In spite, however, of this division into tribes, all
the inhabitants of Nyassa possessed certain character-
istics in common.
(a) Appearance. According to Henry Drummond,
who describes the people in his " Tropical Africa,"
they were the same colour as a good cigar ; even the
old men were said to be handsome ; and the first
Moravian missionaries observed that, though the
people knew not the use of soap and water, they
kept their bodies remarkably clean by means of
butter or oil. They tilled the soil and bred cattle ;
lived on bananas and milk ; smoked the pipe of
peace in the evening cool ; and greeted each other
in the morning with the words : "I hope you slept
well last night."
(h) Politics. At the head of each tribe was a
powerful chief ; at the head of each village was a
captain ; and the captains acted as Privy Council,
with power to elect and depose the chief. Each
captain also acted as a local magistrate, and offenders
against the laws were tried by him. In cases when
the evidence was doubtful, trial by ordeal was
common. For this purpose a cup of Muafi was used.
Taken neat, Muafi is a deadly poison ; mixed with
water, it is an emetic. The litigants faced each other ;
each, at a given signal, began to drink ; and the
one who vomited first had won the case.
(c) Marriage Customs. Among these people
women had a high market value ; most of them
rendered good service by working hard in the fields ;
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East Central Africa : Nyassa. 441
and the usual business arrangement was that, after
a young man had made his ehoice, he bought his
bride from the girl's father. Among the poor the
usual price was a cow ; in higher circles it was so many
cows and goats ; and thus the more cows a man
possessed the more wives he could buy. The farmer,
therefore, was a dealer in women and cows. In
order to obtain more cows, he sold his daughters ;
with his new stock of cows he bought more wives ;
and with his next batch of daughters he bought
more cows. In these arrangements the chief flaw
was that the daughter was often married when only
a child. The custom led to much trouble. The
wife found that she did not love her husband and
left him ; the deserted husband demanded his cattle
back ; and the quarrel between the two families
sometimes lasted for generations. And yet the
average husband was no mere brute. For his first
wife he had deep respect, and called her the " Great
Woman"; all his wives and daughters were kindly
treated ; and delicate children received special
attention. " It is God who sent the child," the
parents would say. And thus, despite the marriage-
market, there was a certain amount of domestic
happiness.
(d) National Character. Let us not regard these
people as brutal savages. With all their faults,
they did possess the milk of human kindness ; and
the first missionaries were much impressed by the
fact. " It is beautiful," they said, " to note their
generosity and hospitality. If a man has anything
to eat in his house, he will never refuse a beggar ;
if you give a boy a banana he shares it with others ;
and if you pay a workman in salt, he gives so many
pinches away that often he has little left for himself."
(e) Religion. For practical purposes the people's
442 A History of Moravian Missions.
religion may be called a mixture of religion and
superstition. On the one hand they believed in
a Supreme Creator, called in some districts Intambe,
and in others Kiara ; on the other hand they also
believed in Mbosi, the devil ; and the chief point
to notice is that, while they had little to do with
God, they were in constant touch with the devil.
In theory, their conception of God was sublime.
Above all the forces of nature, they said, there
reigned an Invisible Spirit, who could not be repre-
sented by images ; this great Spirit was perfectly
good, caused the grass to grow and the fruit to ripen,
and had shown His special favour to whites, not
only by giving them clothes, but by endowing them
with superior wisdom ; and sometimes, in the
droughty season, or when there was an epidemic,
the chief led his people to a glade and begged the
Creator to send a good harvest or stay the cruel plague.
In spite, however, of this belief, the real religion of
the people was a religion of terror. God, they said,
though kind and powerful, did not really act much
in this world ; Mbosi was both malicious and busy ;
and, hating all mankind with a deadly hatred, he
stole their property, sent diseases, blasted their
crops, and endowed his servants with satanic powers.
Mbosi ruled over thousands of spirits ; these spirits
or devils dwelt in men ; and such men, by infernal
means, could kill their neighbours. The usual result
followed. With such devil-possessed men only the
sorcerers could deal. At death the sorcerers gener-
ally dissected the body ; thereby, they claimed, they
could discover the murderer ; and that murderer,
they said, must now be put to death by the relatives.
Amid these constant terrors, however, there was
one consolation. For all men, good and bad, said
the people, there was a life after death ; in the better
land goodness would ultimately triumph ; and
East Central Africa : Nyassa. 443
while the wicked would have to serve the devil,
the righteous, seated on chairs, would drink beer in
abundance, bask in the heat of the day, and talk at
night with God Himself.
2. The Mother Church at Rungwe.
As Rungwe not only possessed a beautiful climate,
but also occupied a good central position, the Brethren
decided to make it their headquarters. There,
assisted by the natives, they built a village ; there
they often met each other in conference ; and there
they obtained their first knowledge of the strange
manners of the natives.
(a) The Wonderful Welcome. The first experience 1891-2
was encouraging. Instead of regarding the Brethren
as intruders, the natives, at the very outset, welcomed
them as messengers of God ; some of the people
credited them with miraculous powers, and said that
their trousers had been sent do-WTi from heaven ;
and the Brethren, in a few months, discovered the
reason. For over thirty years, said the people, men
like the missionaries had been expected ; God Him-
self had predicted that preachers would come ; and
that prediction had taken the form of a strange light
in the sky. For two months, said the people, the
sky had been a vast sea of fire ; on the shores they
could see their ancesters walking in glory ; and
Murkkikandi, a holy prophet, had expounded the
heavenly vision. " My children," he said, " that is
a sign from God. Some day, when I am gone,
good men will come here and tell you of the heavenly
land. Among us things are not right. Our chiefs
deceive us ; our villages are wicked ; and these men,
whom none of us have seen, will tell us of the Lord
in heaven." At a later period a priest added further
details. In reality, he declared, the preachers would
be men raised from the dead ; and yet they would
414 A History of Moravian Missions,
appear in the form of white men from the south.
" They will cross Lake Nyassa in wooden boats,"
he said ; " they will have white hands and feet ;
they will be dressed in white ; and they will also
bring you presents of cotton, brass, and wine." Let
us not dismiss this story as a mere legend. It shows
that in the minds of some there was a desire
for a higher life. At the very first public service —
held at Christmas, 1892 — the missionaries made a
profound impression. First they told the story
of Christmas and sang a few Christmas carols ;
then Meyer gave each person a portion of salt ; and
the happy people exclaimed : " Ah ! the white man
is not like Merere."
(b) The Story of Merere.^ The next episode
enhanced the Brethren's reputation. At the time
when they arrived in Nyassa there lived at Utengule,
in Usafwa, a few miles north-west of Rungwe, a
wicked and powerful chief named Merere ; this
man, said the natives, had 10,000 breech-loaders,
and claiming to rule over Kondeland, he raided the
country, burnt the villages, stole property, and
kidnapping young women and girls, sold them as
1895 slaves to the Arabs. For the sake of their flock,
therefore, Meyer and Richard, guided by a native,
went to Utengule, and there they saw the blood-
thirsty chief, sitting on another man's legs, sur-
rounded by his councillors, and wearing a bright
shawl over his shoulders and many pearls on his
arms. For two hours Merere stormed and blustered,
contending that he had a right to Kondeland ;
then Meyer politely suggested that if he caused any
further trouble he might receive some unpleasant
treatment from the Government ; and Merere, seeing
that he had met his match, promised to invade
tAccent on first syllable.
East Central Africa : Nyassa. 445
Kondeland no more. The final result of these negotia-
tions was curious. With the fear of stern treatment
before his eyes, Merere faithfully kept his promise ;
his son and successor, however, Merere the Younger,
repeated some of his father's offences, and forbade
the Brethren to preach in his territory ; and the
Government, finding him intractable, expelled both
him and some of his subjects, and handed over the
district to gentler folk. Thus did the Brethren
deliver Kondeland from a reign of terror.
(c) The School for Slaves. The next experience 1894-5
was both useful and disappointing. At the special
request of a Government official, the Brethren took
charge of a number of nati^•cs, rescued by that official
from an Arab sla\'e dealer. The group consisted
chiefly of women and children. For the one man in
the company the Brethren foimd employment as a
gardener ; for the women, who were mostly widows,
both husbands and houses ; for the children, who
were mostly orphans, suitable guardians ; and then,
to prevent any possible misunderstanding, Meyer
; read out the rules of the village. No one must ever
use any indecent language ; no one must steal, or
lie, or work on Sunday ; and all nmst attend
morning and evening prayers. The result was
amazing. For a year the scheme worked well, and
Rungwe became a model farm colony. The women
helped in building operations ; the boys dug in the
gardens, attended the day-school, confessed their sins
to each other, and, saying their prayers every night,
asked the Lord to make them pure and holy ; and
the girls, gathering loyally round Mrs. Meyer, learned
from lier how to sew, gathered posies for her on the
hillside, called her affectionately ** Donna," came
each evening to say " Good-night," and listened
demurely and devoutly to the Brethren's musical
t clock. And then came the heart-breaking revelation.
446 A History of Moravian Missions.
In appearance, these liberated slaves were saints ;
in reality, most of them were hypocrites. First the
gardener ran away, taking not only his own wife,
but two other women with him ; then the Brethren
discovered that the boys were addicted to secret
October, vices ; and, soon after this discovery, nearly all the
1895 women and children decamped. The incident taught
the Brethren a valuable lesson. They saw how
cunning the heathen can sometimes be, how easily
whites may be deceived, and how deeply national
vices are seated.
(d) The First Convert. But the next experience,
while equally useful, filled them with fresh hope.
Among the inhabitants at Rungwe was a lame woman,
named Fiabarema ; this woman often declared that,
if she were taken ill, she would not employ witch-
craft, but trust entirely to Christ to heal her ;
1897 and one Sunday (February 5th), after the sermon,
she walked up to the desk and made a speech.
" I rise to say," she said, " that I am God's property.
I belong to Jesus ; God is my Father ; and now I
have done for ever with pride, lies, theft, and medicine
swallowing."
For a native this was a very bold speech ; her
example was soon followed by others, and all these
early converts took the same moral stand. Each
saw, fully and clearly, that certain national customs
were wicked ; each promised to abandon those
customs and take Christ as his teacher and model ;
and each, in any case of doubt, asked the missionary
for advice. " You tell us what to do," they would
say, " and we will do it. If we do wrong you must
punish us."
1903 (e) The Trainhig Colleges. The next experience
was the most encouraging of all. In the lives of the
first converts at Rungwe one of the most hopeful
East Central Africa : Nyassa. 447
features was the changed attitude towards education.
At first the people had despised education, and refused
to send their children to school unless they were
paid for so doing ; now there was a deep desire for
instruction; and the converts were constantly
asking the missionaries questions. One asked why
God did not kill the devil ; another wondered whether
his illness was due to some secret sin ; and many,
being interested in the Second Coming, desired to
know what, when Jesus came, would happen to those
still on earth. But the topic that interested them
most was ethics. As soon as these people became
Christians, they developed a hunger for education ;
and education was valued by them, not because it
gratified their curiosity, but because it enabled them
to live good lives in the sight of God. " Let us learn
to read," they said, " and then we shall all discover
how to become like Jesus." For all classes of the com-
munity, therefore — candidates for baptism, candi-
dates for communion, and communicant members —
regular courses of instruction were now arranged ;
and all communicants now sent their children to the
day-school. The result was even better than the
missionaries expected. In 1903 they opened a
Training College for Evangelists, in 1910 they opened
a Normal School for Teachers ; and thus Rungwe
became the centre of widespread evangelistic and
educational activity.
3. The Spreading Cause.
For twenty years the Brethren were engaged,
not merely in building a model Christian village at
Rungwe, but in attempting to christianize the whole
surrounding neighbourhood ; in this work they
employed twenty missionaries, fifty-tliree native
helpers, thirty-seven native evangelists, and twenty-
seven volunteer assistants ; and in each of the five
448 A History of Moravian Missions.
districts mentioned strong stations, surrounded by
many preaching places, were founded.
In Kondeland, besides Rungwe, they founded
Rutenganiot (1894), Ipiana (1894), Mueia (1907),
and Kyimbila (1912) ; in Bundah, Isoko (1900) ;
in Nyika, Mbozi (1900) ; in Usafwa, Utengulet
(1895) ; and in Mawanda, Ileya (1906). In addition,
however, to these head stations, the Brethren had
also thirty-five out-stations and one thousand and
eighty-one preaching places. The number of con-
verts rose to 1,955 ; the number of schools was 144 ;
and the number of scholars attending them, 4,949.
But mere numbers give a poor idea of the real value
of the work. Let us note some points of deeper
human interest.
(a) Trade and Industry. At nearly all the head
stations the missionaries made a systematic
endeavour to teach the men to be good citizens ;
and, in some cases, they introduced entirely new
forms of industry. At Rungwe there was a car-
penters' shop and wood-working establishment ;
there sixteen large saws could be seen working at
once ; and the natives learned to manufacture beams,
joists, boards, doors, cupboards and chairs, and
other articles of domestic furniture. At Utengule
there was a large boot factory. At Kyimbila there
was a rubber plantation. Some of the missionaries
introduced Muscat donkeys, said to be able, unlike
horses, to resist the attacks of the tsetse fly ; others
planted rice in the lowlands and potatoes in the hilly
districts ; others introduced sheep and a new and
hardier breed of cattle ; others cultivated coffee and
tea ; and others, with varying success, introduced
strawberries, gooseberries, plums, peaches, apricots,
oranges, lemons, grapes, and other fruits previously
fAccent on second syllable.
East Central Africa : Nyassa. 440
unknown to the natives. On the natives all this
had a great effect. Formerly they had lived from
hand to mouth ; now they were learning to
be thrifty. Formerly the men had left most
of the work to the women ; now they discovered
that hard work makes a man happy. Formerly
the natives had few implements ; now they
became experts in the use of hoes, knives, and
axes. At the head stations the Church as such
generally owned a large tract of land ; this land
was let in allotments to the natives ; and the
natives preferred to live near a station, partly
because they could prosper under good employers,
and partly because they felt sure that their children
would be well educated.
(b) Some Deeper Problems. At every place where
the missionaries began new work, they made new
discoveries about the manners and beliefs of the
people ; the variety in those customs and beliefs
was bewildering ; and gradually the missionaries
came to see that no Church can understand the
natives unless it makes systematic use of intelligent
native assistants. Nor was this idea a novelty.
It existed in the days of Zinzendorf. In the diary
of the " Disciples' House " it is recorded that
Zinzendorf desired to send Negro preachers from the
West Indies to Surinam, and in one of his addresses
he even suggested that West Indian Negro preachers
might evangelize Africa. But now, in Nyassa,
something on these lines had become a necessity.
Only the native, said the missionaries, can really
understand the native ; only the native knows the
reason hang behind a custom ; and only the native,
therefore, can say whether a particular custom is
or is not consistent with the principles of the
Christian religion. Let a few examples illustrate
the point. At Rutenganio the people were
2G
450 A History of Moravian Missions.
stupid and dull, thought the missionary a wizard,
and refused to attend the Church unless they were
paid. At Ipiana they were grossly immoral,
talked and spat in Church, and yet informed the
missionaries that they were sinless. At Utengule
they trembled under the rule of a mighty sorcerer.
At Isoko the people believed in a charm, an onion
fixed on a stick, supposed to heal diseases and
frighten burglars ; and at Mbozi the native assistants
informed the missionary that, in their opinion, the
chief source of moral evil was polygamy. But evils
Uke these were not the real difficulty. Among
the natives some ^'customs, such as polygamy and
witchcraft, were clearly wicked and harmful ; other
customs, however, such'^ as the heathen mode of
burying the dead, might, though not wicked in
themselves, have certain wicked associations ; and,
not knowing whether to forbid such customs or not,
the missionaries decided at last to take the natives
into their confidence. For this practical purpose,
therefore, they now summoned a Native Conference
(October, 1913). At this Conference, thirty-six
delegates, elected by the communicant members,
attended ; thereby the first step was taken towards
the formation of a more or less self-governing Native
Church ; and the questions discussed by the delegates
were such as these : May a Christian allow his young
child to be promised in marriage ? May a Christian
eat food that has been sacrificed to idols ? What
is a Christian to do if so many women have been
left him by will ? On all such questions as these the
delegates had useful suggestions to make ; and the
idea of a Native Church seemed now within the
bounds of possibility. At this interesting point,
however, the Great War broke out ; soon afterwards
Nyassa became the scene of military operations ;
and the Mission, with all its bright possibilities.
East Central Africa : Nyassa. 451
was transferred, for the time being, to the United
Free Church of Scotland.
Additional Note.
WORK AMONG THE LEPERS.
At Rungwe, Ipiana, Rutenganio, and Isoko, the
Colonial Government opened Leper Homes, and in
these homes the missionaries ministered to about 2,000
patients. From the spiritual point of view, however,
the work was disappointing. In most cases, said the
missionaries, suffering did not seem to teach patience.
It rather hardened and debased the character.
At Rutenganio, e.g., the lepers gave way to a dull
fatalism. " If I die, I die," said one. " God hates
me ; God is killing me ; what can I do ? "
I
Chapter X.
EAST CENTRAL AFRICA: UNYAMWEZI,
1898—1914.
1. The Plan of Campaign.
Once more, as in the case of Nyassa, the invitation
came from English missionary sources. For eighteen
years the London Missionary Society (1879-97) had
held an isolated outpost named Urambo, situated
due south of Lake Victoria Nyanza ; the whole
district was known as Unyamwezi, and lay north of
Nyassa ; and there, although no converts had been
gained, some good preliminary work had been
accomplished. First came a medical missionary.
Dr. Southon, who, however, early in his career, was
accidentally shot ; then followed Thomas F. Shaw,
who laboured thirteen years ; and during these years
Shaw and his colleagues made Urambo, in one sense,
a good centre for further missionary enterprise.
They built a number of houses and a school ; they
translated St. Mark's Gospel into the Unyamwezi
dialect ; they published a small hymn-book ; they
healed the sick ; and, though their preaching resulted in
no conversions, they gathered a congregation of about
four hundred natives, who came to the church, sang
hymns, and listened, it is said, to part of the sermon.
For two strategic reasons, however, the L.M.S.
now asked the Moravian Church to take over Urambo.
In the first place Urambo was a long distance from
their other stations situated in British East Africa ;
in the second place it was not far from the Moravian
stations in Nyassa, especially the more northerly
ones in Nyika and Usafwa ; and the general idea
appears to have been that if the Moravians occupied
(452)
East Central Afeica : Unyamwezi. 458
Unyamwezi, they might soon have one strong
mission-field covering nearly the whole region between
Lake Victoria Nyanza and Lake Nyassa. In spite,
therefore, of limited means, the Mora\aan Church
accepted the L.M.S.'s suggestion ; the mission-
station at Urambo was bought ; and on January
2nd, 1898, the first two Mora\-ian missionaries,
accompanied by their wives, drew near the village.
The scene was one of pomp and circumstance.
At that time the chief man in Urambo was a powerful 1898
chief named Kabagomato ; this chief had a pleasant
manner, knew how to use a knife and fork, and
enjoyed his cigar after dinner ; and now, arrayed
in his finest robes, and followed by his subjects, he
set out from the \'illage to meet the new comers.
The two missionaries rode on Muscat donkeys ;
behind them came their respective wives, clad in
white and borne in hammocks by natives ; and behind
the two ladies came porters with luggage. To the
natives that luggage was the chief attraction. As
soon as the two processions met, the ceremony of
introduction was performed. At the conunand of
Kabagomato, the natives, waving reeds and flags,
executed a war-dance ; the women and girls crowded
round the two hammocks ; and all clamoured for the
honour of shaking hands. In appearance, therefore,
the chief and his people rejoiced to see the Brethren ;
in reaUty, they were most interested in the packing
cases ; and the secret thought in their minds was that,
if they were kind to the Brethren, they would soon
receive something good to eat. The real character
of the chief was soon revealed. At first he fawned on
the Brethren, and gave them a calf ; then he was
heard to utter mysterious threats ; and, as he had
already committed several murders, the Government
intervened and put him in prison.
Meanwhile, the Brethren had begun the campaign.
454 A History of Moravian Missions.
For ten years the work in Unyamwezi was under the
management of Rudolph Stern ; this man adopted
the plan of pushing the cause steadily southward,
to join the older work in Nyassa ; and thus, under his
leadership, a row of stations, from north to south,
was founded. First, in 1901, the Brethren founded
Kitunda ; then, a little to the south of Urambo,
Sikonge (1902) ; then, still further south, Ipole
(1903) ; then, still further south, Kipembabwe
(1904). At this point, however, a slight change
was made in the plan of campaign. For the
purpose, apparently, of strengthening the line, the
next station, Usoke (1907), was founded, not as we
might have expected, still further south, but
between Urambo and Sikonge. But this move had
also another object. At that time the chief town in
Unyamwezi was Tabora, a little to the south-east of
Urambo ; there the Mahometans were exception-
ally strong ; and thus, by having four stations fairly
close together — Urambo, Usake, Sikonge, and
Ipole — the Brethren hoped to hold their own
against Mahometan influence. By means of this
plan, therefore, the Moravians in Unyamwezi designed
to accomplish two great purposes. First, they hoped
to establish a connexion between Unyamwezi in the
north of the colony and Nyassa in the south; and
secondly, they hoped to form a strong barrier against
the powerful Mahometan movement at Tabora.
At all these stations the same kind of work —
preaching, teaching, and healing the sick — was done.
In 1910 Stern completed his translation of the New
Testament ; other books of a useful nature — Bible
Stories, a Catechism, a School Primer, and a book of
instructions for native evangelists — were issued ;
and on the average about a dozen missionaries were
employed. And yet, on the whole, the results were
disappointing. In 1906 the number of converts was
East Central Africa : Unyamwezi. 455
only fifteen ; in 1910 it was only one hundred ; and
in 1913 it was only two hundred and forty-seven.
Such figures raise an interesting question : How
was it that in Unyamwezi progress was so much
slower than in Nyassa ?
2. The Cause of the Trouble.
For the slow progress of the work in Unyamwezi,
only one reason, in Stem's opinion, could be given ;
that reason was to be found, not in the superstitions
of the people, but in what he called their " devilish
deceit and indifference " ; and the impression pro-
duced on his mind was that all the while the
missionaries were fighting against an unseen foe. In
Nyassa the opposition was mostly open ; in Unyamwezi
it was secret and cunning ; and, therefore, to under-
stand the situation, we must now look more closely
at the character of the people.
(a) Religion. For us the interesting point to
notice is that in some of their religious beliefs these
Unyamwezi people resembled the IsraeUtes. Like
the Israelites they beUeved in one Supreme Creator
and Sustainer of life ; like the IsraeUtes, they said that
man, originally immortal, lost his immortahty through
the sin of a woman ; and further, like the Israelites,
they had their own story of the Tower of Babel.
The story of the loss of immortality was remarkable.
In the beginning, said the people, Sheda Mahinda,
the Creator, after creating the world and all the
animals, created two women ; each of these women
he married and loved ; and, when the one he loved the
more dearly died, he was inconsolable, buried her
body in a hut, watched by her graveside, watered
the grave daily, and forbade his surviving wife
to enter the hut. In due time Sheda Mahinda's
fidelity received a strange reward. There, on his
dead wife's grave, sprang up and bloomed the Tree of
450 A History of Moravian Missions.
Life, and that tree was a sign that the men whom
he created were immortal. At this point, however,
his surviving wife intervened. In the hut, apparently,
it was cold ; one day Sheda Mahinda went to fetch
some firewood ; and his wife, seizing her opportun-
ity, entered the hut, seized an axe, and chopped the
Tree of Life to pieces. Thus did an inquisitive woman
rob man of his immortality. The other story,
however, bore a still closer resemblance to the
scripture narrative. At first, said the Unyamwezi
people, all men lived in one town and spoke one
language ; then certain ambitious schemers, desiring
to obtain water from the sky, built a high tower ;
and lo ! just at the last moment, just when the
builders were laying the last stones, just when they
had nearly reached the sky, a terrible hurricane began
to blow. The tower fell, all the builders were killed,
and the rest of the people, fleeing in terror, were
scattered far and wide. Thus did man's impious
ambition lead, as in the Bible narrative, to the con-
fusion of tongues. "I" In spite, however, of the first
woman's sin, men, though not immortal on earth,
might be so in the next world. " We all hope,"
said a native to one of the missionaries, " to go to a
beautiful place, where there is no work to do and
plenty to eat." In these religious beliefs, it is clear,
there was nothing (except, perhaps,. the gross con-
ception of heaven) exceptionally degrading.
(b) Superstitions. Nor were these any worse than
those of other heathen. In common with many
other Bantu tribes, the Wanyamwezi beheved in
sorcerers and rain makers, wore amulets to keep
off diseases, and offered sacrifices to departed spirits.
For the last purpose beer was generally used ; only
fFor a similar story, told by the natives of Mkulwe, another
district in German East Africa, see Sir J. G. Frazer's " Folk-
Lore in the Old Testament," Vol. I., p. 377.
e«arye miip i Son. tU
East Central Africa : Unyamwezi. 457
a little was offered to the departed ; and the sacrificial
feast was made an excuse for a drunken orgy.
(c) Materialism. According both to Stern and
his colleague, Medier, the chief obstacle to the
spread of the Gospel was not the people's super-
stitions, but their materialistic conceptions of life.
At Urambo, for example, most of the people were
farmers, most of whom made money by selling their
produce at Tabora, and now they deliberately told
the missionary that, as long as they prospered in
business, they saw no reason to change their religion.
" If the Gospel brings more money," they said,
" we will have it ; if not, we can do without it."
The case of Kaswika, a chief, was fairly typical.
One day, in the church, the missionaries prayed for
rain ; next day rain fell ; and forthwith Kaswika
became a regular worshipper. Nor was this
materiaUsm confined to the love of money ; both
drink and sensuality were common ; and most of the
people's conversation was on degrading topics. But
what was the secret, malevolent force behind this
materiaUsm ? To that question the missionaries
could, as yet, give no answer.
3. The New Move, 1910-14.
At last affairs in Unyamwezi came to what may 1910
almost be called a crisis. At the very time when the
patient Brethren were just beginning to see some signs
of improvement, the Government began to construct
a railway to connect Dar-es-Salam on the coast,
with Ujiji on the western frontier ; all men working on
the railway were offered good wages ; and, forthwith,
most of the men at the stations found employment
on the line. Such men were now exposed to two
perils. On the one hand they were in danger of becom-
ing fonder of money than ever ; on the other, they
were brought into still closer touch with Mahometans;
458 A History of Moravian Missions.
and the Brethren, reaUsing the issues at stake,
now took three important measures. First,
they sent a missionary to Tabora, to preach there to
the Mahometans ; then they opened a Training
School for native teachers at Sikonge (October,
1918) ; and, thirdly, working in co-operation both
with the Berlin Missionary Society and the C.M.S.,
they began — chiefly by providing teachers — to
minister to the spiritual needs of all men, both
Mahometans and heathen, employed on the railway
line. And this was the hopeful situation when the
Great War began.
BOOK IV.
METHODS, MEASURES, AND IDEALS.
CHAPTER PAGE
1. The System of Government . . . 468
2. The Work of the Synods, 1760—1909. 473
8. The Synod of 1914 ; or, Moravian
Missionary Ideals 495
(461)
Chapter I.
THE SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT.
1. The General Synod.
In what way does the Moravian Church differ
from other Evangelical Churches ? In her attitude
towards Foreign Missions. For one hundred and
ninety years — ever since Leonard Dober set out for
St. Thomas — the fundamental and distinguishing
feature of the Moravian Church has been that
Foreign Missions are the work, not of some society
within the Church, such as the C.M.S. and the
L.M.S., but of the Moravian Church as such ; at one
Sjmod (1857) this principle was explicitly and
officially asserted ;t and one consequence of this
principle is that all Foreign Mission matters have
been, and still are, under the authority and control,
not of any Missionary Society, but of a General
Synod representing, and appointed by, the whole
Moravian Church. Let us then note how the General
Synod was constituted, and how it dealt with Foreign
Missions. Its members may be di^^ded into three
classes. First, there were so many ex-officio members,
i.e., all the members of the Mission Board, two
from the Continental Provincial Board, one from the
British, one from each of the American Pro\Tnces,
two from the West Indies, two bishops from each
of the four Home Provinces, and the Mission
Secretary in England ; secondly, twenty-seven
delegates from the Home Provinces, i.e., nine from
t Synodal Results, 1857, pp. 120-1. — " There never will be
a Unity of the Brethren without a Mission to the Heathen,
or a Mission of the Brethren which is not the afFair of the
whole Church as such. The Missions do not belong to them-
selves, nor yet to a Society, nor even to a portion of the
Brethren's Church, but to the whole Brethren's Unity."
(463)
464 A History of Moravian Missions.
the Continental, nine from the British, seven from
the American (North), and two from the American
(South) ; and thirdly, six missionaries, fom* sum-
moned by the Mission Board, and two elected by the
West Indian Provinces. In the constitution of the
General Synod one remarkable feature needs explana-
tion. In spite of the fact that the Synod dealt with
Missions, the number of missionaries present was
extremely small. For nearly a century after
Zinzendorf's death, i.e., till 1857, the only missionaries
attending a General Synod were such as the U.E.C. had
summoned. In 1818 no missionaries were present ;
in 1825 three attended as advisory members ; in
1836 three as voting members ; ? in 1848 two as
advisory members ; and in 1857 three as voting
members. Again, take the General Synod of 1899.
In that year the number of voting members was
fifty-four ; only six were missionaries ; and these
six were entitled to vote, not because they had been
elected, but because the U.E.C. had summoned them
after receiving confidential votes. Such facts raise
an interesting question: How was it that at these
General Synods nine-tenths of the members were
either ex-officio members, or elected representatives
of the Home Provinces ? Why were not more
missionaries summoned ? Why were the Mission
Provinces not more adequately represented ? For
this apparent injustice, however, the following cogent
reasons might be given : —
(1) The General Synod legislated on matters
concerning the whole Church, such as
doctrine and forms of worship ; and with
such questions the Mission Provinces were
not yet competent to deal.
(2) The Home Provinces contributed money,
not only for their own expenses, but also
for the Mission Provinces. But the Mission
The System of Government. 465
Provinces contributed only towcirds their
own support. Therefore, the Home Pro-
vinces were entitled to far more voting
power.
(3) The Home Provinces supplied and educated
most of the missionaries.
(4) With a few exceptions, the native converts
were not yet sufficiently advanced to under-
take legislative functions.
(5) To summon many missionaries would have
involved enormous expense.
(6) The few missionaries who did attend were
generally men of exceptional wisdom and
experience ; and such information as they
imparted was sufficient to enable the Synod
to arrive at sound decisions.
By the Synod, therefore, all laws concerning Foreign
Missions were passed ; to the Synod the Mission
Board presented its report ; and by the Synod the
Mission Board was elected.
At the General Synods such questions as these
were discussed and settled : —
(a) Shall a request to undertake new work be
accepted or dechned ?
In 1848, e.g., the General Synod decided to under-
take new work in Nicaragua and Victoria ; and in
1889 it sanctioned the proposed Missions in Nyassa
and North Queensland. During inter-synodal periods,
however, the Governing Board could authorise new
enterprises. Thus, e.g., the U.E.C., without waiting
for a General Synod, undertook new work in Western
Tibet, Demerara, and Alaska.
{b) Shall any field be abandoned or handed over
to another Church ?
In 1899, e.g., the transfer of Greenland was authorised
by the Synod, and in 1909 the question was discussed
2H
466 A History of Moravian Missions.
whether CaUfornia and Unyamwezi should be handed
over to other Societies.
(c) How much money from General Funds may
be allocated to any particular Province ?
The most striking example is that of the West Indies.
In 1899 the Synod devised the slid ing scale described^
in the next chapterjj
(d) To what extent, and on what conditionsi
shall a Mission Province be self-governing ?
_Once more the best example is the West Indies. In
tEe next chapter it will be explained how the two.
West Indian Provinces were granted a measure o£.
independence.
(e) For what purpose may a legacy, which is
not ear-marked, be most suitably used ?
In 1889, e.g., the Synod decided to use part of the
Krakau Trust to begin new work in German East
Africa.
(/) How and where shall candidates for mission
service be educated ? What qualities must
the candidates possess ? What doctrines
shall the missionaries preach ? What
methods of pastoral work shall they adopt ?
What provision shall be made for
missionaries' pensions, widows, and the
education of missionaries' children ?
Thus did the General Synods deal, not only with
general principles and methods, but with almost
every conceivable detail.
2. The Mission Board.
At the General Synod in 1899 a resolution was
passed that, during an inter-synodal period, the
Foreign Missions should be managed by the Mission
Board, elected by the General Synod, and con-
The System oi Government. 467
sisting of five members, i.e., one from each of the
three Home Provinces, and two from the mission
fields ; and this Synod not only described the
functions of the Board in general, but also defined
them with elaborate detail.
(1) General Functions : —
(a) To administer the Foreign Missions in their
entirety.
(b) To represent the Missions outside the Church,
i.e., in legal processes and in negotiating
with other Churches.
(c) To manage all property used for Mission
purposes.
(d) To provide both men and means for the
work.
(2) Special Functions. — For the reader's convenience
these may be classified thus : —
Administrative.
For the whole work the Mission Board was held
responsible ; over the whole work, therefore, it
must reign ; and to this end it was both authorised
and instructed : —
(a) To act as a Court of Appeal in all disputes.
By two authorities only could its decisions
be over-ruled, i.e., by a General Synod,
or by the Governing Board of the whole
Moravian Church.
(6) To appoint a President and a Warden in
every Mission Province, except the two
West Indian Provinces.
(c) To veto, if need be, any resolution passed
by a Mission Province Conference.
{d) To sanction, or the reverse, the election
of its own Governing Board by any
Mission Pro\'ince Conference.
468 A History of Moravian Missions.
(e) To sanction, or forbid, any action
contemplated by any such Provincial
Mission Board.
(/) To sanction, or forbid, the proposed estab-
lishment of a new station.
(g) To keep in touch with all Moravian
Auxiliary Missionary Societies, such as
the S.F.G. in England, and the S.P.G.
in North America.
(h) To examine, either orally or through the
post, all candidates for mission service ;
and make sure that each candidate
possessed the requisite physical, mental,
and spiritual qualities.
(i) To sanction all ordinations. Without the
permission of the Mission Board no
Bishop could ordain any candidate.
(j) To call all missionaries to their posts,
grant, or refuse, requests for furlough,
and decide whether, on grounds of old-
age or ill-health, any missionary was
entitled to retire on pension.
(k) To see that each missionary visited the sick,
undertook the cure of souls, and, generally,
performed his duties, not only as
preacher, but as pastor.
{I) To decide how far the rules on' Church
Discipline could be applied in any parti-
cular Mission Province. In some Mission
Provinces these rules could be enforced
much more strictly than in others, and
the Mission Board was supposed to under-
stand the varying local circumstances.
(m) To encourage, among the converts, such
means of edification as family-prayers,
prayer-meetings, Bible-study, and young
The System of Government. 469
men's and young women's Christian
Associations,
(n) To regulate the amount of instruction
imparted to baptismal candidates. The
amount varied in different mission fields.
In Surinam, e.g., the standard would
be high ; in North Queensland it would
be much lower ; and the Mission Board
would vary the standard according to
the intellectual status of the natives.
Financial.
(a) To act as the legal owner and representative
of the central business establishment at
Herrnhut.
(6) With the aid of a Finance Committee,
appointed by the General Synod, to super-
vise the working of that establishment.
(c) To manage, directly or indirectly, all com-
mercial firms or businesses existing on
behalf of the Missions, and to appoint
the leading officials therein. One example
will suffice. The Mission Board appointed
the manager of the firm of Kersten & Co.
in Surinam.
(d) With the aid of the Finance Committee,
to prepare and publish an annual budget,
i.e., a clear statement of the expected
income and expenditure for the forth-
coming year.
{e) To see that all the converts paid their
church-dues, and to allocate those dues
as follows : — 90 per cent, for general
Mission funds, and 10 per cent, for the
province^^in which the money was raised.
(/) To regulate the salaries of missionaries and
470 A History of Moravian Missions.
their pensions, according to varying needs
and circumstances.
Literary and Educational.
(a) To manage the Mission PubUcation Office
at Herrnhut.
(b) To supervise the monthly Missionary
Magazine, Missions- Blatt.
(c) To supervise the labours of any brother
appointed as historian or pamphleteer.
{d) To arrange for the publication of missionary
literature in the British and American
Provinces.
(e) To appoint good speakers to preach and
lecture, on behalf of Moravian Missions,
in England and North America, not only
to Moravians, but also to the general
,-f Christian public.
I^(/) To supervise, and, if possible, improve the
J instruction given at the Mission College.
j^K^ig) To arrange, where possible, for the estab-
lishment of Training Colleges for native
teachers and preachers.
(jy (h) To see that all missionaries took an interest
in elementary education.
Thus did the Mission Board, like the General
Synod, deal, not only with broad methods of work,
but with almost every conceivable detail.
3. The Mission Provinces.
With the exception of the two West Indian
Provinces, which were entitled, after 1899, to elect
Synods, the general rule was that each Province
had its own Conference, consisting of all missionaries
who had been two years in the service, and this
Conference could not only make laws, subject
The System of GovERNirExr. 471
to the approval of the Mission Board, but
also, subject to the same approval, elect its own
Governing Board, known as the Helpers' Conference.
In each Province the President and Warden were
appointed by the Mission Board. In theory the
Mission Board could veto any resolution passed by
a Conference ; in practice, this power was probably
not much exercised ; and, after 1899, the general
tendency was to give the Provincial Conferences as
much liberty as possible. As the minutes of all
conferential proceedings had to be sent to the Mission
Board, nothing, in any case, could take place without
its knowledge.
4. The Congregations.
By the nature of the case there was, and could be,
no absolutely uniform system. Let us here note
merely the arrangements made in the most thoroughly
organized congregations.
(a) First, there was a measure of self-government.
Each congregation was authorised to elect
two bodies ; one, which we may call a
Committee, to look after temporalities ;
and the other, called the Board of Helpers,
to care for the sick and watch over the
spiritual life of the members. No member,
e.g., could be excluded without the sanction
of the Board of Helpers.
{b) Secondly, there was a system of Church
discipline. This took three forms : —
(1) Admonition or reproof.
(2) Temporary exclusion from the Lord's
Supper.
(3) Temporary suspension of other rights,
such as the right to vote at Church
Meetings. In cases of persistent and
472 A History of Moeavian Missions.
flagrant sin, the member's name might
be struck off the register.
(c) Thirdly, in most congregations, the members
were divided into five classes : —
(1) New people, i.e., candidates for
admission.
(2) Candidates for baptism, i.e., those
attending a Baptismal instruction
class.
(3) Baptized children under 16 years of
age, i.e., children still awaiting Con-
firmation.
(4) Baptized adults, i.e., all over 16 who
have been baptized but not con-
firmed.
(5) Communicant members, i.e., those who
have been both baptized and con-
firmed.
(d) Fourthly, great stress was laid on the
" Speaking " ; this was a private interview
between the missionary and the com-
municant member, or, in the case of female
converts, between the convert and the
missionary's wife ; and without that inter-
view no member might attend the Holy
Communion.
Chapter II.
THE WORK OF THE SYNODS,
1760—1909.
In order to understand the nature of the work
accomplished by the General Synods, we must divide
the narrative into two periods. The first is the
period 1760-1848 ; the second is the period 1848-1909.
The key-word of the first period is " Consolidation,"
the key-word of the second is " Advance." For
eighty-eight years (1760-1848) after the death ol-
Zinzendorf, the Moravian Church, in its foreign
mission work, was engaged almost exclusively in
consolidating, organizing, and developing the work
in the West Indies, Greenland, North America,
Surinam, Labrador, and South Africa ; then, during
the second period, the Church undertook new tasks
in Nicaragua, Western Tibet, Victoria, the Jerusalem
Leper Home, Demerara, Alaska, California, Nyassa,
North Queensland and Unyamwezi ; and the funda-
mental difference between these two periods is that
while, during the first period, the problems discussed
at the General Synods were comparatively simple,
diuing the second they became increasingly difficult
and complex. During the first period the General
Synod was, on the whole, a conservative body, and
made few changes in method ; during the second it
had new problems to solve, and instituted several
reforms. Let us now glance briefly at the chief
resolutions affecting Foreign Missions passed at the
General Synods.
Period 1. Consolidation, 1760-1848.
The first task was to frame a constitution. During
Zinzendorf 's Ufetime no fixed constitution existed ;
(473)
474 A History of Moravian Missions.
now a constitution was a necessity ; and the first
three Synods after his death are known as
" Constitutional Synods."
1764 1. The First Constitutional Synod, 1764. The
three resolutions affecting Foreign Missions were
as follows : —
(a) The General Synod is the supreme legislative
body. Thereby the principle was officially
recognised that Foreign Missions are the
work, not of some missionary society
within the Moravian Church, but of the
Moravian Church as a whole.
{h) General Synod appoints a supreme Inter-
Sj'^nodal Governing Board, known as the
Directory,
(c) One part of this Board, known as the Mission
Department, manages the Foreign Missions.
1769 (2) The Second Constitutional Synod, 1769. The
supreme governing Board is now called the Unity's
Elders' Conference, and is generally referred to as
the U.E.C. This U.E.C. now manages the Foreign
Missions, and the Mission Department is simply a
business committee acting under the U.E.C.'s
authority.
1775 (3) Third Constitutional Synod, 1775. At this
Synod an important resolution was passed
that the U.E.C. should keep in touch with the
mission fields by means of official visitations. Such
visitations had, it is true, been occasionally made
already. Henceforward, however, they were far
more frequent.f
1782 (4) General Synod, 1782. At this Synod a resolu-
tion was passed that the U.E.C. should arrange for
and authorise the publication of an official book of
instructions for all missionaries. This was a change of
fFor list of visitations see Appendix, p. 525.
The Work of the Synods. 475
importance. Formerly the missionaries had received
their instructions almost exclusively from Zin-
zendorf ; now they received them from the Moravian
Church. The task was entrusted to Bishop
Spangenberg. In 1784 his " Instructions for Brethren
and Sisters working among the Heathen " appeared ;
English and Dutch translations were published ;
and this book — which, of course, was more than once
revised — remained the Missionaries' Manual till 1889.
(5) General Synod, 1789. At this Synod the 1789
Mission Department was made an integral part of
the U.E.C., and henceforth the U.E.C., during
inter-synodal periods, exercised supreme authority.
At this Synod, also, three important progressive
measures were passed :
{a) That the Mission in South Africa be resumed.
ih) That a new Mission be established in Tobago.
(c) That the S.F.G. be authorised to publish
Quarterly Reportsf of the mission work.
This was the origin of " Periodical Accounts."
On the other hand the Synod was compelled to
decline an invitation from William Wilberforce to
establish a Mission in New Holland.
(6) General Synod, 1818. During the Napoleonic 1818
Wars information about mission work had been hard
to obtain ; this lack of information had caused a
decline in missionary zeal ; and this Synod remedied
the evil by authorising the publication of regular
reports. These reports appeared six times a year.
This was the first step on the Continent towards the
publication of a missionary magazine.
(7) General Synod, 1836. At this Synod two 1836
resolutions of fundamental importance were passed :
(a) That a Monthly Missionary Magazine be
established for the Continental Province.
tCompare Book L, Chapter XIV., p. 194.
476 A History of Moravian Missions.
The Magazine was entitled Missions- Blatt.
(b) That the compulsory use of the Lot in the
marriage of missionaries be abolished. This
was the first step towards the complete
abolition of the Lot. By degrees it fell
into disuse, and by 1889 it had ceased
altogether.
(8) Summary Statement. During this period,
therefore, while the work was confined to the old
fields, the General Synods, while making no drastic
changes, had, at least, introduced some improve-
ments. They had : —
(o) Organized a system of government.
(b) Arranged for official visitations.
(c) Provided the missionaries with official
instructions.
(d) Authorised the publication of two Missionary
Magazines.
(e) Begun the abolition of the Lot.
For other needful reforms, however, the time had not
yet arrived. No attempt had yet been made to
render the old fields self-supporting and self-
governing ; no improvements had been made in the
mode of training the missionaries ; and no financial
system had been organized.
Period 2. The Modern Advance, 1848-1909.
1848 (1) The Modern Advance Synod, 1848. With
this Synod we enter on a new epoch, and the causes
of the great change should be carefully noted. The
first cause, and the most important, was the general
state of things in Europe. The great year of many
revolutions had come. For some months before this
General Synod assembled nearly every great city
in Europe had been the scene of soul-stirring events,
one politician spoke of this " proud epoch of
The Work of the Synods. 477
the world's history, "f and ardent reformers
anticipated the fulfilment of Shelley's prophecy : —
The world's great age begins anew,
The golden years return,
The earth doth like a snake renew
Her winter weeds outworn ;
Heaven smiles, and faiths and empires gleam
Like wrecks of a dissolving dream.
At Paris the people had risen in revolt, over-
thrown the French Monarchy, and re-estabUshed
the French Republic. At Palermo, in Sicily,
a similar revolution had taken place. At Venice
and in some Italian cities there had been fierce
fighting in the streets. At Vienna a huge mob
had stormed the Royal Palace; at Prague, m Bohemia,
the Czechs were fighting for Bohemian national
independence ; at Dublin Irish patriots were clamour-
ing for a republic ; and at BerUn, Stuttgart, and
many other German cities great mass meetings had
been held, fiery and seditious speeches delivered,
and revolutionary doctrines propounded. On the
Brethren such events made a profound impression.
The more they reflected on these stupendous pro-
ceedings, the more convinced they became that a
new epoch had arrived in the history of humanity.
At any moment, they felt, Christ Himself might now
appear as Judge and call His servants to account ;
and, not wishing to be ashamed before Him at His
coming, they were now con^'inced that, ceasing to
confine their efforts to the old fields, they must carry
the Gospel to heathen still dwelling in darkness.
Nor was the general state of humanity the only
impulse to new action. During the last few years there
had been observed, both in the Home Pro\dnces and in
tFor a sketch of theee events see " Cambridge Modem History,"
Vol. XI., Chapters H. to VH.
478 A History of Moravian Missions.
the mission fields, a great increase in evangelistic zeal.
In the Continental Province, a great religious revival
had begun at the Paedagogium at Niesky (1841) ;
in Great Britain new societies on behalf of Moravian
Missions had been founded, the "Yorkshire Society for
the Spread of the Gospel," the "Edinburgh Associa-
tion," and the "Glasgow Auxiliary Society" ; and in
the American Province the Moravian S.P.G. had
showed renewed activity in its mission to the Indians.
But the most hopeful feature of all was the zeal of the
missionaries themselves. Never had gaps caused
by death been so rapidly filled. In 1836 the number
of missionaries was 218 ; in 1848, it was 288 ; and
some of these new recruits were engaged in new
enterprises. In the British West Indies, day-schools
were being opened ; in Surinam the Mission to the
Bush Negroes had been revived ; and in South
Africa a new work had been begun among the Kaffirs. f
On the financial side also the situation was bright.
Of the seven fields now in existence three were
entirely independent of central funds. Surinam was
supported entirely by Kersten & Co. ; Labrador by
the S.F.G. ; and South Africa by several business
concerns. Such facts suggested new possibilities.
At this Synod the question was now asked for the
first time whether the old fields could not be made
so independent that henceforth both men and money
could be applied to entirely new enterprises ; and,
stimulated by this ideal, the Synod passed the
following resolutions : —
(a) That a systematic attempt be made to render
the work in the British West Indies entirely
independent. In these islands, i.e., the
people were both to raise their own ministry
and cover their own expenses.
tSee Book II., pp. 288-09.
The Work of the Synods. 479
(6) That the question be considered whether
Greenland and the Danish West Indies
could not also be made independent.
(c) That fresh attempts be made to institute a
Native Ministry, so that the converts would
no longer require the services of European
missionaries.
{d) That the chief object of these reforms should
be to release men and money for new work.
(e) That, to stimulate interest in the Home
P^o^'inces, annual summer festivals be held.
(/) That, in response to pressing invitations, new
Missions be estabhshed on the Moskito
Coast and in Victoria.
Thus did the revolutionary movement in Europe
inspire the Moravian Church with new ideals, and
thus did this important Sjiiod initiate the Modern
Advance.
(2) The Constitutional Synod, 1857. The next 1857
step was to encourage self-government. At
this Synod, therefore, two measures were passed
whereby the missionaries themselves should play
a more decided part in the discussion and manage-
ment of mission concerns. In the past, missionaries
had taken little part in General Sjiiods, and even
at this SjTiod, only three, specially summoned by
the U.E.C., were present. But now the following
definite arrangements were made : —
(a) That, in each Missionary Province, the
missionaries, meeting in regular conference,
shall, if possible, prepare resolutions to
be submitted to a General Synod.
{h) That the number of missionaries summoned
to a General Synod shall in future be not
fewer than five. Before summoning these
480 A History of Moravian Missions.
five, the U.E.C. shall first obtain the
confidential votes of the missionaries.!
1869 (3) The Mission-College Synod, 1869. The next
task was to make the missionaries more efficient.
For one hundred and thirty-seven years (1732-1869),
i.e., ever since Zinzendorf gave a few lectures to the
first recruits at Herrnhut, the Moravian Church had
acted on the principle that if a candidate for foreign
service was taught by the Holy Spirit, had peace
with God through Christ, followed after holiness,
and had the requisite mental endowments, no
special training was required. No Mission College,
therefore, existed ; and though a few of the
missionaries, having been trained for home service,
or having taught in boarding-schools, were men of
good education, the greater number still came from
the artisan classes, passed through elementary day-
schools, and acquired their theological knowledge
either in a Brethren's House or in a Sunday School.
In vain a few radicals had tried to introduce a
reform. In 1825 the General Synod decided that a
Mission College would be useless ; in 1836 that such
an institution would probably do more harm than
good ; in_J.848 that the old methods of education
were the best ; and in 1857 that, if any candidate
required further instruction, he might obtain all he
needed, either by taking lessons from his minister,
or by spending a year as teacher or lay-preacher
in England. For this opposition to higher education
the Brethren gave an explicit reason. At the
1836 Synod the question was fully discussed ; schemes
for more education were considered ; and the Synod
rejected those schemes on the ground that, with the
\ 'tAt the next Synod (1869) this rule was slightly modified. The
\ number summoned must not be fewer than four, and not more
* than six. The fields represented were South Africa, Surinam,
Jamaica, Antigua, Greenland, Labrador.
The Work of niK Synods. 481
exce ption of men already highly educated, the less
education a man had the more loyal, more obedient^
and mor e self-sacrificin g he would be . High-class
e ducation migh t be good ; half education was
dan}a;erous ; and , the first being impossible, the second
must be rejected. " Would it not be a pity," the
Synod declared, " if, through a half-education,
men, otherwise useful, lost their simplicity of mind
an d willingness to serve wi thout reward ? " Mean-
while, however, circumstances had altered in some
of the mission fields. In the older fields, t_he_ native
conyerts_ffei:e,jciQK_Jietti^_£diLcated,_and the more _
educated the natives were, the more education, said
the rcforniers, was required in the missionaries. At
Fairfield, in Jamaica, Jacob Zorn had opened a
Teachers' Training School ; at Genadendal, in South
Africa, Hottentots were obtaining government teach-
ing certificates ; and, so persistently did the reformers
insist on such facts as these, that, early in 1869, the
U.E.C., without waiting for a General Synod, opened
a Mission College at Niesky, in Silesia. Thus did the
Church introduce a new principle in the training of
missionaries ; and the action of the U.E.C. was
warmly endorsed by the S\Tiod. In 1885 a handsome
building was erected ; the course of training was to
l ast l hre£- years ; and the curriculum included Bible ^
study. History of Missions, Homiletics, English
language, Music, Gardening, Carpentry, and a little
Medicine. In 1892 a Preparatory Mission School
was opened at Konigsfeld, in Baden (transferred in
1900 to Ebersdorf) ; in 1903 a Mission College was
opened at Bristol for British students ; and, both
on the continent and in England, a few candidates
became fully qualified medical practitioners.
(4) The Self-Support Synod, 1879. The next lg79
task was to make the old fields self-supporting.
In one sense three fields, as we have seen, were self-
482 A History of Moravian Missions.
supporting already, i.e., they needed no financial
assistance from central funds. With the aid of the
S.F.G. Labrador was self-supporting ; with the aid
of business concerns, both Surinam and South
Africa could cover their own expenses ; and now
the great question was whether the West Indies and
Greenland could not be placed in the same position.
Of these two, the West Indies, seemed th e mo re hope-
ful. Already, certain important steps had been
taken. In 1847 the work in Jamaica was placed under
a General Conference, consisting of five missionaries ;
in 1850 the U.E.C. decided that each congregation
might elect a Congregation Council ; in 1869 each
Council was empowered to elect a Committee
authorised, like the Committees in the Home Pro-
vinces, to look after temporalities ; and in 1878 a
Theological College was opened at Fairfield in
Jamaica. Thus, it was hoped, the West Indian
congregations might not only pay their own expenses,
but also raise their own Native Ministry. With
this two-fold purpose, the General Synod resolved : —
That the West Indian Field be divided into
two Provinces ; the Western consisting of
Jamaica alone, the Eastern of the other
islands.
(b) That each Province be under a Governing
Board, appointed by the U.E.C.
\ y(c) And that each year the grant to the West
^j^ Indies be gradually reduced. In 1880
^' the grant was to be £3,000 ; each year the
amount would be reduced by £800 ; and
by 1890 it would be nil
Thus, in eleven years, each West Indian Province
would become financially independent. But this
scheme was only partially successful. As the
Theological College at Fairfield had to be closed —
The Work of the Synods. 48S
partly, it seems, beeause the students did not prove
satisfactory — the Brethren in the West Indies were
not yet able to establish a Native Ministry, and
about the same time there arose such a serious
crisis in the sugar industry that many of the West
Indian converts were reduced to great poverty.
In 1890, therefore, a new sliding-scale had to be
adopted. For 1890 the grant would be £900 ; each
j-ear it would be reduced by £90 ; and thus, by 1900,
the two West Indian Provinces would be self-
supporting. But once again bad trade conditions
rendered the scheme ineffectual. In 1900 the grant
to the West Indies was still £1,000; and in 1914
it had risen to £1,700. Nevertheless, the West
Indian Provinces were almost independent. In
Jamaica the sum now raised was £9,000 ; in the
Western Province it was £8,000 ; and thus the West
Indian Provinces covered nine-tenths of their
expenses. Meanwhile, there had also been an in-
crease in the number of native ministers. At the
close of 1913 there were nine native ministers in
Jamaica, and thirteen in the Eastern Province.
(5) The Missionary Literature Synod, 1889. The 1889
next task was to enlighten the Mora^^an public. At
this Synod an important resolution was passed that
some Moravian Brother should be appointed to write
a systematic "History of Moravian Missions"; and
that, while engaged in this great task, he should, in
the meantime, bring out books and pamphlets dealing
with the various mission fields. For this purpose the
man selected was H. G. Schneider, ^o some extent
Schneider succeeded. On the one hand he failed to
produce a systematic history ; on the other hand
he became a popular pamphleteer ; and, making
his headquarters at Herrnhut, where he could con-
verse with retired missionaries and thereby obtain
good local colour, he produced a series of sketch«« of
484 A History of Moravian Missions.
the highest value to future historians. In every
field Schneider seemed quite at home. He wrote the
history of the Missions in Tibet, Victoria, Moskito,
Alaska, and North Queensland; he told the early
story of Genadendal ; he described in detail both
Paramaribo and Leh in Kashmir ; he painted a
brilliant picture of a Christmas in Labrador ; he
unravelled the story of the Bush Negroes ; and
further, in a series of short biographies, he im-
mortalised such men as Jens Haven, of Labrador,
Frederick Martin, Hans Peter Hallbeck, in South
Africa, and the Kaffir Evangelists, Stephen Prins and
Elias. The example of Schneider was followed by
other writers. During the next twenty years several
series of missionary pamphlets appeared. Schneider's
chief series was known as "The Good Message";
another series, edited by Guido Burkhardt, was
called " Missionary Studies " ; a third, edited
by H. Kluge, was called " Little Tracts " ; a
fourth was " In Distant Heathen Lands " ; and a
fifth " To all the World." At the same time, it
must be candidly admitted that little work of this
kind was done either in England or in North America.
Bishop Arthur Ward, in his " Miracle of Mapoon,"
narrated the history of the North Queensland Mission ;
the Rev. J. W. Davey, in the " Fall of Torngak "
and " Through Flood and Storm," dealt respectively
with Labrador and the North American Indians ;
and three of H. G. Schneider's works, " Tibet,"
" Stephen Prins," and " Hanzina Hinz " were trans-
lated into English. But these exceptions simply proved
the rule, and the lack of English popular missionary
literature may have accounted, to some extent, for
the shortage of candidates.
1899 (6) The Finance Synod, 1899. The next task was
to meet increasing financial liabilities. By the close
of the nineteenth century, the financial situation
The Work of the Synods. 485
had become critical, and the chief cause of the crisis
was the rapid extension of the work. But other
causes had also operated. Let us note : —
(a) The chief sources of income.
(b) The increasing outlay.
(c) The remedy proposed.
(a) The Sources of Income. Originally the
missionaries worked for their living ; only their
travelling expenses were paid by the Church ; and
in Zinzendorf's days not even Church collections
were permitted. For many years after Zinzendorf's
death the Brethren relied for most of their income on
various business firms. In London there was the
S.F.G. ; in Surinam the firm of Kersten & Co. ;
and in South Africa there were not only the grocery,
book-binding, and printing firm at Genadendal, but
also a sheep farm at Elim, a factory at Mamre, and a
corn-mill at Shiloh. For some years each of these
undertakings brought large profits ; then, for various
reasons, chiefly political upheavals and changes in
prices, they fell on bad times, and the expenses of the
newer fields fell almost entirely on General Funds.
The other sources of income were various. Some of
the money came from collections and donations in
the Home Provinces ; some, of course, from legacies ;
and some from various Auxiliary Societies. Of these
Societies at least ten were inside the Moravian Church.
In England we find : —
(1) The S.F.G.. 1741.
(2) The Juvenile Missionary Association, founded
at Ockbrook Boys' School, by Jackson Shawe,
the headmaster, 1868.
(3) The Mite Association, 1883.
In North America : —
(4) The S.P.G., 1745.
4S0 A History of Moratian Mission!.
(5) The North Carolina S.P.G., 1823.
(6) The Alaska Help Society, 1886.
In Holland : —
(7) The Zeist Missionary Society, 1738.
In Denmark : —
(8) The North-Schleswig Union, for the Danisli
West Indies, 1843.
In Germany and Switzerland : —
(9) The Half-Penny Union, 1877.
In Jamaica : —
(10) The Moravian Missionary Society, 1900.
There were also societies outside the Moravian Church.
In Holland there was the Hague " Society for Further-
ance of Christian Knowledge Among Negro Slaves "
(1828), supported largely by Dutch planters ; in
England there were Ladies' Associations at London,
Bath, Bristol, and Leominster ; and in Scotland
there were not only the Edinburgh Association and
the Glasgow Auxiliary (1828), but several smaller
local societies in close connection with Presbyterian
Churches.
The most wonderful society, however, is still to
be mentioned. As the Moravian Church had suffered
much on the continent through the ravages of
Napoleon, some London gentlemen established the
1817 " London Association in aid of Moravian Missions."..
The leader and the first Secretary was the Rev.
John Bull, an Anglican clergyman ; the Treasurer
for many years was William Leach ; and the first
headquarters were John Bull's residence, 16,
Southampton Place, Euston Square. According to
the printed rules of the society, any person who
subscribed one guinea per year, or collected sixpence
a week, could become a member ; no denominational
test was imposed ; and among the earlier members
The Work of the Synods. 487
we find, not only several Anglican Bishops, but Non-
conformists like Rowland Hill, philanthropists like
WiUiam Wiiberforce, and society ladies like the
Duchess of Beaufort, Lady Walpole, Mrs. Noel,
and Mrs. Gladstone. The Committee soon set to
work. They published annual reports of Moravian
Missions ; they established branches all over the
country ; and they pleaded the cause, not only in
Anglican Churches, but also among Presbyterians,
Independents, Baptists, Methodists, and the Countess
of Huntingdon's Connection. From the first,
however, the Anglicans took the lead. The President
was generally a prominent Churchman ; the list of
Vice-presidents included the Primate and several
Bishops and Deans ; the Secretary was an Anglican
clergyman ; and the annual sermon was preached in
a London Church. Among the annual preachers the
most noted were Legh Richmond, Dean Freemantle,
H. C. G. Moule (late Bishop of Durham), J. C. Ryle
(late Bishop of Liverpool), and Prebendary
Webb-Peploe. For this Anglican sympathy two
special reasons may be given. In the first
place, some members of the C.M.S. had consulted
the Moravian Mission Secretary, C. I. La Trobe,
on certain missionary problems, and were grateful
for the information received ; and, secondly,
some Anglican missionaries had visited Gruenekloof
in South Africa, and had there formed a high
opinion of the value of Moravian work. The
Association raised large sums of money. In 1818
the sum was £667 2s. 7d. During the first fifty
years the average income was about £5,000 ; in 1868
it rose to £11,000 ; from 1890 onward it was over
£7,000; from 1895 it was over £10,000; and in
1902, the record year, the total was £19,000. Thus
did Englishmen help a Church to which they them-
selves did not belong.
488 A History of Moravian Missions.
I (b) The Increasing Outlay. In 1800 the annual
' expense was only £3,000 ; in 1834 it was about
£10,000 ; in 1848 it was £80,000 ; and in 1898 it
was £83,000. On several occasions the Church had
passed through a crisis. In 1750 the Missions were
nearly bankrupt, and Zinzendorf's wealthy friends
had to come to the rescue ; in 1789 the debt was'
£6,000; in 1818 it was nearly £7,000; in 1876 it
was £6,000, and in 1897 it was £12,000. For
Moravians these were large sums. Each time a
deficiency occurred some special effort had to be
/\ made ; no one knew when a deficiency might occur ;
land in 1882 Eugene Reichel declared that the
i j Moravian Church was living from hand to mouth.
' For another reason, too, the situation was critical.
The more rapidly the foreign field extended, the more
obvious it became that the Moravian Church was
growing " top-heavy."t In Germany, England, and
America the progress was slow ; in the foreign field
it was fairly rapid. In the Home Provinces the
number of members was only about 30,000 ; in the
foreign field it had risen to 90,000 ; and the obvious
conclusion was that, unless the converts themselves
gave more, the Home Church would soon have a
greater burden than it could bear. During the
last half-century, the Home Church had increased
by only a quarter ; abroad the membership had
doubled, and the expense had increased four-fold.
At this rate breaking-point seemed not far off.
Nor was even this the worst. In another and
deeper sense the situation was critical. The more
the foreign work developed, the more it became known
to the Christian public ; the more it was known, the
more highly it was valued ; and the more it was
valued the more frequently the Brethren were asked
to take up fresh work. At every Synod the Mission
fAt the General SjTiod in 1909 thii word was frequently used.
The Work of the Synods. 489
Board reported that so many invitations had been
received, and at every Synod they had to confess
that chiefly for lack of money most of those invitations
had been decUned. On the surface the record was
bright ; in reaUty it was heart-breaking. During
the last fifty years the Brethren had accepted no
fewer than ten invitations. At the request of Prince
Waldenberg they had gone to Moskito ; of Dr.
Gutzlaff to Western Tibet ; of Governor Hutt to
Victoria ; of the Presbyterians to North Queensland ;
of Dr. Sheldon Jackson to Alaska ; of certain
American women to California ; of Quintin Hogg to
Demcrara ; of Mackay of Uganda, to Nyassa ; of the
L.M.S. to Unyamwezi ; and of the Baroness Ascheraden
to Jerusalem. For every invitation accepted, how-
ever, at least two had been refused. To us English
readers it is interesting to notice that most of the
invitations came from England. In 1868 the
Brethren were invited to Montserrat by a certain
Sturges ; in 1869 to Algiers, by Pastor Demole ;
in 1870 to Chinese Mongolia, by Pastor Edkins ; in
1871 to Circassia, by Dr. Wrightson, and to China,
by the Bishop of Victoria ; in 1872 to Queensland,
by Pastor Hausmann, to the Andaman Islands, by
Captain Laughton, and to Porto Rico by a local
planter ; in 1873 to San Domingo, by some one not
named ; in 1874 to Kashgar and Yarkand, by General
Lake ; in 1874 or 1875 to Brazil, by the Manager of
the London Brazilian Bank ; in 1876 to the Argentine,
by a Mrs. or Miss Perrcns, and to the Congo by Robert
Arthington, of Leeds ; in 1877 to Antigua, to take
charge of the Mico CharityTHby^tKe Secretary of the
_same ; Tn" i878~to Ecuador^ by a German trader ;
in 1880 to the Argentine, by Mrs. Von Oppelt ; in
1886 to Honduras, by the English Aborigines Pro-
tection Society, and to Cumberland Inlet, by
certain Scotch friends in Dundee : in 1889 to the
490 A History ov Moravian Missions.
Nicobar Islands, by Charlotte Tucker (A.L.O.E.);
in 1890 to Honduras, by Mrs. Pcmell, and to North
Alaska, by the United States Government ; in 1891
to British Columbia, by J. T. Morton, the tea
merchant, and to Dominica, by the Governor of
Antigua ; in 1892 to Hayti, by the President of the
Hayti Republic; in 1893 to North China, by the
Secretary of the American Board of Commissioners
of Foreign Missions in Boston; in 1895 to Peru, by a
resident named Lamp ; in 1898 to Florida, by a
certain Turner, to the Argentine, by W. Barnett, and
to Japan, by a Japanese clergyman ; in 1899 to
Malabar, by Gelson Gregson ; in 1900 to Fox Channel,
West of Baffin's Land, by C. J. Peck, of the C.M.S. ;
in 1901 to St. Eustace, by the Governor ; in 1902 to
Venezuela, by J. W. Crichton ; in 1905 to
Johannesburg, first by the London Medical Mission,
to work among the Chinese, and then by the
South African General Missionary Conference, to
minister to Kaffirs, to Central Africa, near Lake
Tanganyika, by the French Missionary, Louis Jalla,
and to the Isle of Saghalin, by Dr. Dalton ; in 1906 to
the South of Lake Victoria Nyanza, by the C.M.S. ;
and in 1907 to Kurdistan and Mesopotamia, by
Marie Anholm, a Swedish writer.
At the close of the century, therefore, the record
was sad. In the last fifty years the Brethren had
received no fewer that thirty-five invitations ; and
twenty-five of the number had been declined. And
in nearly every case the reason was lack of money.
Meanwhile, another financial embarrassment had
occurred. For some years the Brethren had been
generously treated by the great English tea merchant,
J. T. Morton, and then, in his will, he left the Brethren
about £250,000. In the eyes of the public this was a
great boon. In reality it added fresh burdens.
As the money was doled out only in instalments,
Thb Work of the Synods. 491
to be spent in founding and maintaining new stations,
tli£_Ch.urch, by accepting the gift, simply increased
her liabilities.
(c) The Proposed Remedy. The situation, there-
fore, seemed almost desperate. In the past the
Moravian C hurch had lived from hand to mouth;
now more businesslike methods were demanded ;
and the Synod passed the following resolutions : —
(1) That a Finance Committee be appointed to
assist the Mission Board.
(2) That an annual Budget be issued, so that the
Church might know beforehand what, if
any, deficiencies might be expected.
(3) That capable business-men be appointed to
manage the business concerns in the mission
fields.
(4) That the Morton money be used, not to open
new fields, but only to build new stations.
(5) And that the annual contribution to the .,
West Indies be limited to a definite amount.
The new pohcy had little success. At bottom the
real question was, not merely whether the income
could be increased, but whether it could increase
more rapidly than the expenditure ; and during the
next ten years the expenditure was greater then
ever. The result was a constant struggle. In every
annual statement but one, the Mission Board had
to report a deficiency. In 1902 the deficiency
was over £8,000 ; in 1907 it was £12,000 ; and in
1908 it was £20,000. Can an}i:hing be done, it
was asked, to cause such deficiencies to cease ? The
next Synod suggested an answer.
(7) The Native Church Synod, 1909. The last 1909
task was the hardest of all. At a General Mission
\ \
492 A History of Moravian Missions.
Conference in East Central Africa (1901), attended by
representatives of six missionary societies — the
Scotch Church, the Livingstonian Mission, the L.M.S.,
the Zambezi Industrial, the First Berlin, and the
Moravian Church — great stress had been laid on the
idea that Africa must be evangelized by Africans ;
with this conception some Moravians sympathized ;
and thus the idea of Native Provinces now began to
take definite form. Let us not, however, regard
this conception as entirely new. For sixty-one
years (1848-1909) the Moravian Church had cherished
similar ideals. As soon as the Brethren entered on
the Modern Advance, they conceived the idea of
Native Provinces. In 1848 the General Synod
declared that, if possible, each Province should have
its Native Ministry ; in 1857 that more Native
Assistants should be trained ; in 1869 that all con-
gregations should be " self-sustaining and served by
their own native labourers " ; and in 1879 that the
failure of previous efforts should not cause discourage-
ment. But the most important step in this direction
had been taken by the 1899 Synod. At this Synod a
resolution was passed that each of the two West
Indian Provinces should be placed, constitutionally,
in the same position as the Home Provinces. Each,
i.e., should have its own Provincial Synod, consisting
partly of ex-officio members and partly of delegates
elected by the congregation councils ; each should
have its own Governing Board ; and each Board
should be empowered to send two delegates to a
General Synod. In one sense only were the West
Indian Provinces not quite as independent as the
Home Provinces. As the West Indian Provinces
still received financial aid from the Mission Board,
the Board still reserved the right to veto their
decisions. Thus did the 1899 Synod nearly, though
not quite, establish two Native Provinces in the West
The Work of the Synods. 498
Indies ; and the hope was expressed that similar
arrangements might soon be made in Surinam and
South Africa.
In what sense, then, and to what extent, was the
Native Church idea, now propounded by the Mission
Board, a new one ? What precisely, at this Synod,
was meant by the phrase " Native Church " ?
Did the advocates of this ideal mean that, at some
time, South Africa and Surinam should, like the two
West Indian Provinces, be self-governing Provinces
belonging to the Moravian Church, using Moravian
forms of worship, and sending delegates to a General
Synod ? No. By the term Native Church they |
meant an entirely independent National Church.
Such a Church would be self-propagating, self-
supporting, and self-governing ; such a Church
would provide its own ministry, raise its own funds,
make its own laws, and determine its own forms
of worship ; such a Church, in a word, would be
entirely independent ; and over such a Church neither
the Moravian nor any other denomination would have
the least authority.
During the next five years, however, the Native
Church idea was merely a dream. In the West
Indies it was sternly rejected. In South Africa,
Surinam, and East Central Africa only certain pre-
liminary steps were taken ; conferences, attended by
the native del^ates, met to discuss the question ;
and thus, when the Great War began, the problem
was still unsolved.
Summary Statement.
Such, then, was the work accomplished by these
seven General Sjiiods. They had
(1) Conceived the idea of self -supporting pro- 1848
vinces, so that men and money might be
released for new work
494 A History of Moravian Missions.
1857 (2) Authorised the missionaries to meet in con-
ference, prepare resolutions for a General
Synod, and send voting members.
1869 (8) Established a Mission College.
1879 (4) Endeavoured to make the West Indies self-
supporting.
1889 (5) Arranged for the publication of popular
literature.
1899 (6) Introduced the idea of financial budgets.
1909 (7) Made plans for the formation of Native
Churches.
Chapter III.
THE SYNOD OF 1914; OR, MORAVIAN
MISSIONARY IDEALS.
At the General SjTiod in 1909 a resolution was
passed that, as the Foreign Missions were in a critical
state — so critical that retrenchments were ordered —
the next General Synod should meet, not after the
usual ten years' interval, but in the Summer of 1914 ;
this resolution was carried into effect, and the
interesting feature of this last Sjmod was that,
while the Brethren dealt with some practical problems,
they also seized their opportunity to re-assert
their undying faith in certain old Moravian Christian
ideals. Never did a General Svnod meet at a more
fateful epoch in world history. The time was one of
calm before the storm. The opening ser\dce was
held on May 13th ; on June 13th the members
parted ; and only fifteen days later, Sunday, June
28th, the Archduke Ferdinand was murdered. Let
us now glance briefly at the latest Moravian
Missionary manifesto.
(1) The Evangelistic Ideal. For twenty-five years
the English member of the Mission Board had been
Bishop Benjamin La Trobe, formerly known to
English Moravians as Editor of " Periodical
Accounts " ; at this Synod he gave the opening
address, and taking as his text the words which had
thrilled Leonard Dober in the golden days : " // is
not a zain thing for you, because it is your life "
(Deut. XXXII., 47), Bishop La Trobe made bold to
assert that, in spite of increasing deficiencies, not a
single mission field need be abandoned. In the past,
he declared, God had ever come to the Brethren's
(499)
496 A History of Moravian Missions.
aid ; let the Brethren, therefore, advance and trust ;
and following the Bishop's lead, the members of the
Synod sang the old pre-reformation hymn : —
The Lord is never far away,
But, through all grief distressing.
An ever present help and stay,
Our peace, and joy, and blessing ;
As with a mother's tender hand,
He leads His own, His chosen band ;
To God all praise and glory, f
But now came the great question. Was this
optimistic faith quite justified ? Could the Church
still dare to advance, trusting in the Lord God to
provide the means ? At first sight stern fact seemed
to teach the very opposite. According to the explicit
statement of the Mission Board, the years 1907-12
were the most critical years in the whole history
of Moravian Missions. During these five years the
total deficiencies had actually risen to £61,633.
In 1907 the deficiency was £12,000 ; in 1908, £15,100 ;
in 1909, £10,850 ; in 1910, £10,248 ; in 1911, £6,207 ;
in 1912, £6,248 ; and in 1913, £4,173. Nor was this
long list of deficiencies the most serious feature of
the case. In vain, during the last five years, had
the Mission Board, acting according to the instructions
of the 1909 Synod, pursued a policy of retrenchment.
In vain had they redviccd the staff of missionaries in
the West Indies, Nicaragua, South Africa, Labrador,
East Central Africa, and Tibet ; the more the Mission
Board endeavoured to retrench, the more expenses
seemed to increase ; and now the Mission Board
announced that by the close of 1914 there would
probably be another deficiency of over £10,000.
What lesson, however, it was asked, was really taught
by the foregoing figures ? Was it really a lesson of
fFor the whole hymn see Moravian Hymn Book, No. 530.
The Synod of 1914. 497
despair ? Did the deficiencies necessitate still further
retrenchment ? On the contrary. Each time a
serious deficiency had occurred, God had touched the
hearts of generous men ; and, during the five most
critical years, the £61,000 required had been sub-
scribed. Nor was tliis the only cause of encourage-
ment. Had not certain Moravians recently formed
the " Unyamwezi League " to save Unyamwezi
from being handed over to the Herrmansburg
Missionary Society ? Had not others just formed
a " League of Help " ? And did not others, while
Synod was sitting, form the " Young People's
Missionary League " ? In the Mission Pro^ inces, also,
there were signs of renewed activity. In Nyassa
steps had been taken towards the formation of a
Native Church ; in Unyamwezi new work had just
been begun among the Mahometans ; in Labrador
the Eskimos had begun to subscribe more liberally
to Church funds ; in Nicaragua the Government had
just granted full religious liberty ; in Alaska the
missionaries had just built a new station, Akiak ;
in California WilMam Weinland was expecting the
speedy solution of the land problem ; and in Tibet
a member of the C.M.S had just written to inform the
Mission Board that if the Moravians did not advance
their reputation as a Missionary Church was at stake.
Inside the Moravian Church, therefore, there were
now renewed hberality and enthusiasm ; Foreign
Missions were once more recognised as the work of the
whole Church; and, thus encouraged, the General
Synod decided that, as in the days of Zinzendorf,
the Moravian Church was still called to proclaim the
Saviour to the world.
(2) The International Ideal. Among the features
of European historj^ during the nineteenth century
the most significant was what historians call the
" Rise of Nationalities " ; this growth in national
2K
498 A History of Moravian Missions.
feeling led to rivalry ; and knowing how this, in
turn, might lead to war, the Moravians now laid
special stress on the international character of their
Church. In the political world the ideal seemed to
be international competition ; in the Christian it
should be international co-operation ; and this
international co-operation had always been a marked
feature of the Moravian Church. Let us note pre-
cisely how this ideal was carried out in practice.
(a) First, the Moravian missionaries had long
worked, and were still working, under
various Governments ; most of the mission
stations were in colonies ; and in every
colony the missionaries, co-operating with
the Government, had taught the people to
be loyal to the country to which that colony
belonged. On this point the standard tale
was that of Bishop Spangenberg in St.
Thomas. " Have you seen my castle ? "
said the Governor to the Bishop, pointing
to the Brethren's plantation. " There it
is. There is the cause of our safety on
this island. If that plantation were not
there, I dare not sleep a night outside the
fort." Nor was St. Thomas an exceptional
case. According to Zinzendorf himself, one
of the chief duties of a missionary was to
teach the converts to be loyal to the Govern-
ment ; and that duty had alwaj^s been
faithfully performed. In Pennsylvania,
Bishop Spangenberg, acting as a British
citizen, had loyally defended Bethlehem
against the attacks of French Indians.
In Labrador the Red Ensign flew above the
Mission House, and the Eskimos sent a
loyal address to King Edward VII. In
Jamaica the Moravian converts defended
The Synod of 1914. 499
their masters' property against the rebels.
In the Danish West Indies se^ eral Governors
had extolled the converts' loyalty. In
Surinam the missionaries had even taught
the fierce Bush Negroes to be loyal. In
South Africa Moiavian Hottentots had
fought under British generals against Kaffir
rebels ; and later, during the Boer War, Kaffir
converts — among them two of Zibi's sons —
had enlisted in the British Army. In Victoria,
Hagenauer was made an official Government
Inspector, and had taught the Papus to
sing the National Anthem and shout "Three
cheers for Queen Victoria." In North
Queensland, Nicholas Hey was appointed
manager of the Nati\'e Reserve. In Moskito,
Mora^'ian Missionaries had acted as collectors
of taxes ; in Alaska they helped the Govern-
ment to take the census and foster the rein-
deer industry ; and in Tibet, at the Govern-
ment's request, they taught the people
farming. For all such services as these the
missionaries had often been highly praised.
Sir William MacGregor had praised them
both in Labrador and in North Queensland,
Sir George Grey in South Africa, Sir Horace
Tozer in North Queensland, George Washmg-
ton in North America, and Danish officials
in Greenland. On the other hand various
governments had also aided the missionaries.
In South Africa and Labrador the British
Government had granted tracts of land,
and in the British ^Vcst Indies it had aided
day-schools. The Dutch Government liad
given free passages, and aided the Leper
work in Surinam ; the Danish had aided
schools in the West Indies, and encouiaged
500 A History of Moravian Missions.
industry in Greenland ; and the U.S.A.
had introduced reindeer in Alaska.
(b) Secondly, the missionaries themselves had
come, and still came, from different
nationalities. At the time when this Synod
assembled men differing from each other in
blood were working loyally side by side in
several mission fields, and in the past nine
different nations had produced distinguished
missionaries. Frederick Martin was a
Silesian ; James Ward, English ; Marc
Richard, Swiss ; Hans Peter Hallbcck, a
Swede ; Henry Marsveld, a Dutchman ;
Jens Haven, a Dane ; William Weinland,
an American ; John Kilbuck, a Red Indian ;
John Dingwall, a Negro. In 1900 an
estimate was made that the total number of
missionaries sent out by the Moravian
Church since 1732 was 1,473 ; and the full
list includes, besides men from ^'arious parts
of Germany, twenty-eight Irishmen, one
Scot, one Frenchman, twenty-nine Russians,
ten Norwegians, forty-t)^^o Czechs, one
Hungarian, two Maltese, and one Austrian.
Thus, not counting native assistants,
Moravian missionaries came from eighteen
different nations.
(c) Thirdly, these missionaries preached to many
different nations. In spite of its smallness,
the Moravian Church had long been one
of the most cosmopolitan. At a children's
Christmas service at Zeist, in Holland, six
men sang six solos in six different languages,
and at a service at Herrnhaag, in the
j Wetterau, John Cennick, in 174C, had heard
a hymn sung in twenty-two languages ; and
The Synod of 1914. 501
the number of languages now spoken in the
Church is said to be thirty-two. From such
facts as these one sound conclusion could
be drawn. In the Moravian Church
different nations had learned to co-operate
with each other for the sake of the Kingdom
of God ; that was the true international
ideal ; and the Brethren now passed a
resolution that they, according to their
ability, would do their utmost to maintain
international peace and goodwill.
(3) The Church Co-operotion Ideal. At the World
Missionary Conference held in Edinburgh in 1910,
to which the IMoravian Church sent several delegates,
great stress had been laid on the need for more
co-operation between different churches in the foreign
field ; soon afterwards Bishop E. R. Hass6,f a pro-
minent English Moravian, read a paper on this topic
before the Eastern Counties Clerical Association ;
and the same topic was also discussed at a General
Missionary Conference in South Africa. With this
ideal the Moravians had always been in full sympathy.
At the outset Zinzendorf had warned the Brethren
that they must never quarrel with other Churches ;
and in every mission field the missionaries
endeavoured to conform to those instructions. As the
Brethren had no distinctive creed, they had generally
been able to live on good terms with Anglicans,
Methodists, Lutherans, and other Protestants ; and
even when they opposed the Greek and Roman
Churches, they did so, not so much on dogmatic
grounds, but because the priests of those Churches
sometimes set a lower moral standard before the
people. Already, also, a few examples of inter-
fAathor of " The Moravians," " Life of Count Zinzendorf," and
article on the Moravians in Hastings' " Encyclopeedia of
Religion and Ethics."
502 A History of Moravian Missions.
denominational co-opcration had occurred. In
Australia, as we have seen, the Brethren had co-
operated with the Presbyterians ; in St. Thomas they
joined with Anglicans, Wesley ans, Lutherans, and the
Danish and Dutch Reformed Churches, in founding a
Temperance League ; in Surinam they joined with
Lutherans and the Dutch Reformed Church in work
among the Lepers ; in South Africa they trained
candidates at Genadendal for service in other
churches ; and in Unyamwezi they combined, first
with the Berlin Society in the translation of the New
Testament and the publication of a Hymn Book,
then with several other societies in the publication
of a Magazine, " Coast and Inland," and then both
with the C.M.S. and the Berlin Mission in the estab-
lishment of a college for native evangelists. With
such examples as these, however, the Brethren were
not content ; and now they passed a resolution that,
both in the Home Provinces and in the mission
fields, all opportunities for Church fellowship, for
common work, and for firmer alliance and unity,
should receive sympathetic consideration.
Thus did the Brethren, at their General Synod —
only seven weeks before the Great War began — re-
assert their faith in three inspiring missionary ideals,
and one of the problems set by the conflict was how
far, and by what methods, those ideals could be
realised.
EPILOGUE.
By Bishop Arthur Ward,
British Member of the Mission Board.
The General S\Tiod of the Church that met at
Herrnhut in 191-4 had scarcely ended when the
Crown Prince of Austria was murdered at Serajevo,
and rumours of war began. The delegates had not
all reached home when the Great War broke out,
which was to change not only the map of the world,
but its outlook, and consequently the views of
Governments regarding Foreign Missions.
It was well for Moravian Missions that the con-
stitution of the Church was elastic, and that a certain
degree of self-government had been introduced into
almost all the Provinces, for central control
ceased immediately. The Governing Boards of the
Church in those countries which formed the Home
Base had to consider how each individually could
best ensure the continuance of the work, for concerted
action was out of the question. America at first
was neutral, but when she took up arms, correspond-
ence between her and the enemy countries ceased
absolutely. Britain, after a vain attempt to avert the
attack on Belgium, declared war on the invader, but
correspondence with enemy countries was permitted
through neutral countries, provided the letters were
sent unsealed and did not deal with finance. The
Continental Province was a house divided against
itself, for, while Germany was at war with Britain
and America, and Czecho-Slovakia was dragged in
on her side as a part of the Austrian Empire, Russia,
dncluding Poland and the Baltic States, was against
(505)
504 A History of Moravian Missions.
her, and the rest of the countries included in the
Province were neutral. The Central Mission Board
could only ask the Provincial Mission Boards to act
for it in all cases in which it could not act for
itself, and wait patiently to see how God would
guide the ark through the storm.
The first problems that had to be faced were
administrative and financial. The former were
simplified by subsequent events. The American
member of the Board, having completed a visitation
in Nicaragua, went home to the States and gave his
support to the Committee of the Society for the
Propagation of the Gospel. f The British member,
having gone through all the formalities connected
with the constitution of the newly-elected Board in
1914, returned home, and, after the death of his
predecessor, acted in consultation with the British
Provincial Mission Board.
The partition of the foreign fields among the
Home Provinces followed inevitable lines. Alaska
and California had been managed by America for a
long time, so that the war made no change in their
case. Now Nicaragua naturally passed under her
care. Germany retained the administration of
Surinam. East Africa was completely isolated, and
the Home Church received no word of it. Jerusalem,
cut off from Britain by the entry of Turkey into the
war, was maintained by Germany, until the conquest
of Palestine threw it into the British sphere. The
West Indies, already possessing Governing Boards
and Synods, quietly assumed the final prerogative
of autonomy. All the rest of the mission fields
were dependent on London, being in British
colonies.
The new financial administration had also had the
fThe American Moravian Missionary Society, organized 1745,
incorporated 1788.
Epilogue. 605
way paved for it by custom. The agencies in
England and America simply continued to disburse
as before the money entrusted to them. The only
difference was that each accounted to its own
Provincial Mission Board and its auditors instead
of to the Central Board. They suffered, however,
from the disadvantage that almost all the Mission
endowments were invested in Germany, so
that the interest was not available for any field
except Surinam, and, when the collapse of the German
exchange turned the value of the mark into less than
a farthing, was useless even for that field. But in
all these perplexities one could not but admire the
steadfastness and fortitude of the Church and its
missionaries, and attach new value to the fact that its
litany contains the prayer to be saved from " need-
less perplexity."
Such a frame of mind was especially needed in
facing the problem how to man the field, if the average
losses through death and infirmity occurred ; for the
colleges were empty, and those who should have
gone out year by year to fill the gaps were scattered
over the battle-line that stretched from the
Orkneys to Mesopotamia, while some of the men
in the mission field were interned or repatriated.
In the providence of God the losses through death,
age, and infirmity were small in those years. Few
took furlough. Some cheerfully did the work of two
men, as well as they could, lest the cause of Christ
should suffer loss.
In North Queensland the work of a generation
came to its logical conclusion. A heathen camp
had become a Christian village. Two other stations
had sprung from it, which, though they had not
developed in the same way, were as lights in a dark
night. Its social system had been moulded in such a
way as to retain all that was best, while introducing,
506 A History of Moravian Missions.
gradually and wisely, such changes as are necessary
when men pass from the life of the roaming savage to
the ordered home of the Christian citizen. It had
an out-station, where the experiment of settling picked
men as small farmers was crowned with success. At
last, however, when the pioneers who had created all
this were worn out, the next step had to be decided.
Mrs. Ward retired in 1918, and her place was taken
for a year by her niece. The special task of the last
year was the building of a hospital with two wards —
for men and women. There was not quite time to
erect the matron's room, but the timber was pre-
pared. The matron was Maud, a half-caste, who had
been educated at the station and had become a
gifted helper. In October, 1919, the Heys left
Mapoon, and this field ceased to be a Foreign Mission
of the Moravian Church, and became a Home Mission
of the Presbyterian Church of Australia, which had
been from the first the financial partner in the
enterprise. It is seldom that a man is able
to look back upon such a definite creation, as
the result of his life's work, as that which Hey
resigned into the hands of his successor. His
name will live together with the names of those
great missionaries, who not only served their
generation according to the will of God, but
also established or maintained the reputation
of the Moravian Church as the possessor of this
grace, to preach unto Gentiles the unsearchable
riches of Christ.
The Mission in Tibet was hard hit by
the war, for remote as the stations are, and
inaccessible at times, yet, lying on three of
the roads from India to Central Asia, they
were not negligible at such a time, even
in so vast an Empire. The British Government
removed all German missionarie* from the Tibeta»
Epilogue. 507
stations and repatriated them.f Those who were
left did their best ; but when the war was over, and
furloughs became due, and overdue, it was clear that
unless a native ministry could be founded, it would
scarcely be possible to maintain the field. The train-
ing of natives for the ministry had often been talked
of, and at one time an attempt had been made to
establish a training-school, but it had been abandoned.
Just when the need was greatest, two men, recom-
mended by the missionaries, and accepted by the
native church, who had gathered experience as
teachers and evangelists, were ordained in 1920, the
first-fruits of the Tibetan ministry. One of them,
a man of considerable ability and with a notable
history, was placed in full charge of Kyelang, with a
native committee to advise him. The withdrawal of
the C.M.S. and Salvation Army workers from the Kulu
and Sutlej Valleys has left men in Kyelang and
Poo more isolated than ever. In the Indus Valley
the C.M.S. Mission in Srinagar, though it is 200 miles
away from our nearest station, and on the other side
of the mountain passes, gives a certain support,
and does much to relieve the feeling of loneliness.
The Leper Home in Jerusalem, being a pure work
of mercy, was able to continue its work unhindered,
whatever power held the country. The partition
of the Ottoman dominions east of the Mediterranean
among Arabs, French, and English, has created
frontiers where none used to exist, and makes inter-
communication more difficult ; but even apart from
this the signs all point to the possibility that the
segregation of so many lepers in the home for nearly
two generations has decreased the number in the
land. For several years fewer have been heard of,
tWlien it was found that men who were repatriated wer» mad« qs«
of in one way or another in connexiom with the war, th«
British GoT«mnieHt began to intern.
508 A History of Moraa^ian Missions.
and the numbers, both in our Home and in the
Shelter at Siloah, have diminished. This, also, is
something that was to be expected. The cure of
one patient leads to the hope that in time medicine
may come successfully to the aid of common sense.
Meanwhile, both the patients and those who tend
them live in hope.
In East Africa the war surged backwards and for-
wards for four years, and men of many races passed
through it. When peace came, all our missionaries
in Unyamwezi except two had been repatriated,
though some of them were Danes ; those in Nyassa had
been interned. The United Free Church of Scot-
land kindly undertook the care of Nyassa until
Moravian missionaries can man the field again.
When permission was given to recommence work
in Unyamwezi, only Gaarde, a Dane, was left. Delay
in settling the terms of the mandate, and arranging the
boundary between Congo and Tanganyika, delayed
the sending of reinforcements, and as time passed,
financial perplexities grew, until prudence seemed to
forbid what duty seemed to demand. Considering
the determined opposition of Mahometanism, and
the passive resistance and incessant temptations of
heathenism, the faithfulness of so many of the
Christian converts, mere babes in Christ, is matter
for thankfulness mingled with wonder. The medical
missionary and the nurse will be much needed in
this land for many years.
Thanks to the high prices of all South African
products, Kaffraria paid its way but for one re-
mittance, and the Western Province required no
help. Both had sufficient constitutional authority
to manage their own affairs, as long as these followed
the usual routine. Trouble began when the legis-
lation of the South African Government, consisting
of a sweeping law of confiscation and a series of
Epilogue. 509
proclamations, some of which were mutually con-
tradictory, brought about an unprecedented situation.
Happily, the Government finally interpreted its
legislation in such a way as to give to the Church in
South Africa, free of cost, a body of trustees
appointed by itself. A revision of the constitution
of the Western Province having become necessary,
this was drawn up so as to give greater self-
government and prepare the way for the complete
autonomy which must come with the creation of a
Native Church, whether it chooses to remain a part
of the i\Iother Church, or to go its own way. When
the re-organization was completed, those Provinces
reverted to the supervision of the German part of the
Supreme Board, since the family interests of most of
the missionaries centred there.
The Moravian Church in the West Indies is divided
into two parts : Jamaica standing by itself, and the
rest of the Islands being grouped together. As the
white missionaries have become fewer, work has
become more strenuous for those who remain. Nor
is it always easy to arrange things for the best in
islands that belong to three different states,t and all
such diflficulties were naturally increased when
political and financial obstacles were added to
those already created by distance, Obeah, and
the other familiar foes found by the missionary
in tropical lands. When the world was clamouring
for foodstuffs, especially sugar, emigration to sugar-
growing islands, such as Cuba and San Domingo,
became abnormal. The Church followed up
its children in San Domingo, but had not
the men and means to go over to Cuba. But from
these islands considerable sums of money were sent
jOn March 31st, 1917, the three Danish Islands— St. Thomas,
St Croix, and St. John — were transferred to the United
States of North America. — J.E.H.
SIO A History of Moratian Missions.
home to the wives and families left behind, and
everywhere there arose a complete change in the
conditions of life, similar to those experienced
in European countries, where increase of wages and
cost of living produced a medley of profusion and
poverty, which confused the minds of those
accustomed to the old landmarks of society. In
spite of all this, the loyal co-operation of all, together
with the divine blessing resting upon all honest effort,
resulted in progress, and in a spirit of harmony that
rose superior to racial agitation, and showed itself
in the Synods of both Provinces. It is not easy to
interest the friends of Foreign Missions in a field that
has become Christian, and now requires the same
sort of organization and teaching as the Church at
home, but of all the tasks the Moravians have to do
abroad, this is perhaps the most important, though
the least showy, to build up a strong, self-
sustaining and self-propagating Church in the West
Indies.
Close to them, practically identical with them in
life and aim, lies the little Province of Demerara.
A cheery, progressive Church is being built up there,
whose development in the last 25 years has been
pleasant to watch, and altogether notable, since it
is the only field which is managed entirely by a
native ministry and laity.
Surinam, or Dutch Guiana, which adjoins it on the
east, has become the most comprehensive enterprise of
the Moravian Church, because by far the larger part
of the population is under her care. Here is the
Old Mission among the black people of the towns,
with all the equipment and organizations of an
institutional church. Side by side with it is the
Plantation Mission, with the Bush Mission beyond
that in the forest vOlages along the great rivers.
There is a Coolie Mission among the British Indians,
Epilogue. 511
and a Mission to the Javans, who have been brought
over in large numbers of late years. There is a Leper
Colony. There is a Children's Home. A large
business establishment, which sprang out of the
first endeavours of the early missionaries to earn their
own living, not only helps to support the Mission, but
also assists various philanthropic undertakings. Four
languages are necessary for the carrying on of the
work. There are numerous schools, and a college for
the training of teachers and native ministers. It
was inevitable that such a compUcated organism
should suffer many things when the highways of the
world were blocked by war, and its being in neutral
territory could not save it. Among the miracles of
Providence can be reckoned this, that the work of this
Mission was carried on unhindered through the last
eight years, when men in some cases could not have
been replaced if they had been taken away.
There were times when Nicaragua caused those in
authority the gravest anxiety ; but, when American
influence became dominant in the country, the fact
that the Mission was under American control removed
some of the most acute difficulties. As seems to be
the case so often among the Indians, the time of trial
was a time of religious revival. Year by year the
number of baptisms of heathens and of confirma-
tions increased. The movement culminated- in the
baptism of 129 souls at Sang Sangta in 1921.
The door stands wide open in Nicaragua and
Honduras ; the harvest is plenteous, but the labourers
are few.
The Indian Mission in California has added a small
infirmary to its other ministrations to the remnant
of the red race. Its watchword is " Disinterested
Service."
Alaska has been out of the hurly-burly, and has
learnt the first lessons in self-help. For this purpose
512 A History of Moravian Missions.
its Eskimos had to learn how to elect a committee, and
were taught a lesson that Europeans picked up by
experience long ago, that unanimity is seldom possible,
and that, when it is unattainable, a majority suffices
for sensible folk. This also is a fruit of the Spirit.
Labrador, remote as it seems, suffered with the
rest of the world. The price of its products, especially
oil and furs, rose enormously, and this seeming
prosperity fed the desire for luxury there, as elsewhere.
Then came three disasters in successive years. The in-
fluenza epidemic (1919), which swept round the world,
reached Okak and Hebron, When it passed, Okak
was almost without inhabitant, and the population
of Hebron had been reduced to seventy. The
tragedy was also an economic blow, since so many
hunters and fishers had been carried off in a land that
depends on them for those necessaries of life, which are
imported yearly in exchange for their furs and fish
and oil. The next year (1920) the ice formed round
the coast unusually early, and the Harmony was not
able to reach even Hopedale and Nain on her last
trip, so that all the next winter there was a lack of
many things she should have landed, and the Mission
was once more impoverished by her failure to carry
to St. John's and London the cargoes awaiting her.
In 1921, when the founding of the Mission 150 years
ago had just been celebrated, Nain, the oldest station,
was destroyed by fire in 3| hours, and such losses were
sustained that the Church's mission policy all over the
world was affected by them. It was even doubtful
for a time whether the Harmony could be equipped for
another voyage, or would have to be sold. But with-
out her the northern part of the coast at least would
have to abandoned. The generous response to the
appeal for help made it possible to venture to send the
Harmony out once more in 1922, though it was still
a venture of faith, for less than half the actual losses
Epilogue. 518
were covered by what was subscribed, and the Board
had to trust to daily manna to supply the needs of
those committed to its care.
Courage, simplicity, unselfishness, loyalty to Christ,
and promptness for service are the characteristics of
the great missionary, and of all communities that
seek to mould themselves by his example. These
have been the marks of Moravian Missions, wherever
they have been true to type. For nearly two hundred
j'ears, in spite of human weakness and blindness, the
missionaries have maintained this standard on the
whole, humbly seeking to be faithful in that which
is least, shunning the spectacular, and influencing
the ideals of the Church at home. He who reads the
record, and reflects on all the influences that have
streamed out into the world from so humble a
source, will say : —
This is the Lord's doing ;
It is man-ellous in our eves.
2L
APPENDIX.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
1. GENERAL HISTORIES.
Adolt ScHrLZB : Abrisz einer Geachichte der Brudeitnission (1901). An
indispensable text-book ; contains an almost exhaustive
bibliography.
J. T. Hamilton : A History of Moravian Missions in the Eighteenth
and Nineteenth Centuries (1901). The story told briefly in
periods.
E. A. Skitit : Les Missions Moraves (1890). A good sketch up to 1890.
A. ScHULTZB : Die M issionsf elder der Erneuerten BrUder-Kirche (1890).
An American book ; good popular sketch.
JoHK Beck Holmes : Historical Sketches of the Missions of the United
Brethren (1827).
F. L. K6LBIKO : tibersicht der Missions-Oeschichie der Evangdischen
Briider-Kirche in ihrem ersten Jahrhundert (1832).
David Cra5Z : History of the Renewed Moraman Church (1771).
(English Translation.)
J. G. HsaysB : Fortseizung von David Cranxens Brilder-Historie
(1791-1816). Useful.
A. C. Thompson : Moravian Missions: Twelve Lectures (1882).
EuoBN Reiohel : Eilckblick auf unsere 150 jdhrige Missi<ms-Arb*it
(1882). Of exceptional value.
Th. C. Bechlxb : Vor hundert Jahren und Heut (1900). Contains
useful statistics.
2. PERIODICALS.
1. Periodical Aumints relating to the Missions of the Church of the
United Brethren. A quarterly magazine, founded 1790. In
thirty-six botmd volumes, from 1790 to 1894. Contains :
(a) Extracts from missionaries' diaries and letters.
(6) Many autobiographies.
(c) Editors* prefaces.
{d) Statistical and financial tables.
2. Missions- Blatt aus der BrUdergemeirie (founded 1837). Monthly
Magazine. In bound volumes, to 1906. Fuller than Periodical
Accounts.
S. Moravian Missions (founded 1903). Illustrated popular monthly.
(SIS)
516 A History of Moravian Missions.
4. AUgetneine Missions- Zeitschijt (1874). Edited by Gustav
Wameck. Contains several important articles on Moravian work.
6. Dtr Brilder-Bote (1862).
6. Nachrichten aus der Brilder-Oemeine (1819-1894).
7. Aut Nord und Sild (1900). Juvenile.
8. Kampf und Sieg (1906).
9. Journal de VUniU des Freres (1835).
10. The Little Missionary (American). (1871).
11. Dtr Missions- Freund (American). (1889).
12. Travel and Exploration (see July, 1910).
18. Jewish Intelligencer (see 1857).
3. THE VARIOUS FIELDS.
1. The West Indies.
C. G. A. Oldendoep : Geschichte der Mission der Evangelischen Briider
auf den Caraibischen Inseln St. Thomas, St. Croix, vnd St. Jan
(1777).
A. VON Dewitz : In Ddnisch-West-Indien (1899).
H. G. Schneider : Friedrich Martin (1901).
J. H. BuoHNER : The Moravians in Jamaica (1859).
Hark and Westphal : The Breaking of the Dawn (1904).
2. Greenland.
David Cranz : History of Greenland (1770)
F. L. K^LBino : Qrdnlavd (1832).
GuiDO BimKHARDX : Gronlaud (1897). (In Missioas-Stuuden).
Jesse Page : Amid Greenland Snows,
H. G. Schneider: Uansina Hinz (1897). (English Edition). (1901).
R. Gysin : Oronldndische Bilder (1899). (Kleine Traktate Series.)
J. Brodbhok : Nach Osten (1882).
3. Labrador.
F. L. KOlbing : Labrador (1832).
J. W. Davey : The Fall of Torngak ; or The Moravian Mission on
the Coast of Labrador (1905).
H. G. ScHNKiDER : Eine Weihnachts-Feier in Labrador (1901).
H. G. Schneider : Prinz Pamiok und sein Vater (1900).
H. G. Schneider : Der Schlimme Salomo (1900).
H. Kluge : Christfest in Hebron. (A Tract.)
H. Kluqe : Drei Kurze Geschichten. (A Tract.)
A. VON Dewitz i An der Kiiste Labradors (1899).
Th. C. Beohlbr : Typhus- Epidemic in Nain (1901).
5. K. HuTTON : Among the Eskimos of Labrador (1912). By far th«
fullest account of Eskimo life.
S. K. HniTON I By Eskimo Dog Sled and Kayak (1919).
H. G. SoHNEiDKR : Die Ermordung Erhardtt.
Appendix.
517
4. NoBTH Amkaican Indians.
O. H. LosKiKL : Hialoty of the Miisions of the United Brethren among
the Indians of Xorth America (1794. English Edition).
Edmund db Sohweinitz : The Life and Time* of David Zeiebergtr
(1871).
H. RdMEB : Die Indianer und ihr Freund David Zeisberger (1800).
RiCB : David Zeisberger and his Brown Brethren (1897).
5. Surinam.
Paramaribo {\9Q\).
Die Buschneger Surinames (1893).
Sopal, ein Indischer Kvli in Suriname (1898).
Ein Junger, ein Alter (1891).
Zweimal gehenkt (1896).
H. Kluok : Besuch auf Oroot Chatillon.
Th. C. Bechleb : Dienende Liebe (1901).
K. F. Lkddebhose : Die Mission unter den Aratvakken (1847).
F. Stahelin : Die Mission der BrUdergemeine in Suriname und Berbice.
K. F. Leddbbhose : Die Mission unter den freien Butchnegern in
Suriname (1876).
6. SoxTTH Africa.
Onadenthal (Part I. 1892). (Too Anti-Bo«r in
H. G. SCHNEIDEB
H. G. SOHNEIDEB
H. G. Schneider
H. G. Schneider
H. G. SCHNBIDER
H
G. SOHNEIDBR:
tendency.)
H. G. Schneider :
H. G. Schneider :
H. G. Schneider :
H. G. Schneider :
H. G. Schneider :
H. G. Schneider :
GuiDO Burkhardt
Ein Missionar als Feld-Prediger (1893).
H. P. Hallbeck im Kaplande.
Am Xentu (1900).
Moravian Hill, ein Ootteswerk im Kaplande (1887).
Auf der Flucht.
Stephen Prins. (English Edition.)
: Siid-Afrika. (In ^Vlissions-Stunden.)
Charles Buchner : Acht Monate in Siid-Afrika (1894).
K. F. Ledderhose : Das Bilchlein von den Hottentoten und ihrem
ersten Aposiel 0. Schmidt (1849).
Th. Reichelt : Geschichte der Missions-Station Silo (1878).
J. du Plessis : History of Christian Missions in South Africa (I9\l).
Dudley Kidd : The Essential Kaffir (1904).
C. L La Trobe : Journal of a Visit to South Africa (1815-16). A
Jambs La Tbobb : Self-Devotedness in the Service of Christ ; or The jk
Leper Hospital in South Africa (1865).
E. VAN Calker : Die Grantstationen in Siid-Afrika.
7. The Moskito Coast.
H. G. Schneider : Moskito (1899).
H. G. Schneider : Die Erweckung auf der Moakito^Kiiste (1888).
H. G. ScHNBiDBR : Kaisa !
518 A History of Moravian Missions.
H. G. SoHNBiDEB : Ramah Key (1896).
H. G. Schneider : Quamwatla.
A. ScHULZB : Moskito. (In Missions-Stunden.)
8. Victoria.
H. G. SoHNBiDER ; Brilder- Mission in Auttralien (1882).
Anokymous : Willie Wimmera.
9. North Queensland.
Arthur Ward : The Miracle of Mapoon (1908).
H. G. Schneider : Mapoon (1898).
F. H. L. Paton : Olimpses of Mapoon, etc.
10. The Himalayas.
H.G.Schneider: Ein Missionsbild aus dem Weatlichen Himalaya {1S80).
Arthur Ward : Working and Waiting for Tibet. (A translation, with
additions, of Schneider's work.)
G. T. Reichklt : Die Himalaya Mission (1896).
S. RiBBAOH : An den Grenzen Tibets.
Schbevb : Einer sdet, der andere erntet.
A. H. Franckk : History of Western Tibet (1907).
11. Nyassa and Unyamwezl
J, T. Hamilton : Twenty Years of Pioneer Missions in Nyassa Land
(1912)
G. Burkhardt : Deutsch-Ostafrika, Nyassa-Oebitt. (In Miuiona
Stunden.)
H. Kluge : Am Fusz des Rungwe-Berges.
12. Alaska.
J. T. Hamilton : The Beginnings of the Moravian Mission in
Alaska (1890).
H. G. Schneider : Alaska. (In Missioni-Stunden.)
13. California.
E. DB SoHWEiNiTZ Brunner : A History of the Moravian Mission
to the Indians of Southern California.
14. Work among Lepers.
E. A. Sbneti 76 Annies parmi lea Lipreux (1894).
15. The Jews.
GusTAV Dalman : Oraf Zinzendorf und die Juden (1889).
A. SoHULZE : Samuel Lieberkuhna Leben und Wirken (1894).
(The two above works are issued in one volume, und«r
the general title, Zinzendorf und Lieberkiikn.)
Bbckbr-Shawb I 8. Lieberkiihns Missions- Methode und ihre Oegnsr
(1888).
Appendix. 619
16. East Indus.
Ikssl : Letters on the Nicobar Islands (1812).
17. Egypt.
Th. C. Bkchlbb : Die Arbeit der BrUdergemeine unter den Kopten in
Aegypten. (In AUe Welt Series, No. 8.)
4. OFFICIAL REPORTS.
1. Reports of Mission Board to the Oeneral Synod.
2. Oeneral Synodal Results.
3. Proceedings of the Society for Propagating the Oospd among the
Heathen. (Of Special value for Alaska and California.)
4. Annual and Qtuirterly Reports of the London Association in Aid
of Moravian Missions.
fi. Annual Reports of the Leper Home at Jerusalem,
6. OTHER SOURCES.
1. BUdingsche Samndungen : A printed collection, in three volumet,
of eighteenth century diaries, letters, essays and official docu-
ments ; of supreme value for the early history.
2 Zinzendobf's : Freivoillige-Nachlese. Includes seTeral original
sources of value.
3. H.Roy: Zimendorfs Anweisungen fur die Missions- Arbeit (1S93).
STATISTICS.
1. SoHB Points or Intibsst.
1. During the years 1732-40, the Moravians sent out 68 missionaricB-
2. In 1800 the number of Moravian missionaries serving, not counting
wives, was 90 ; in aU other Protestant Churches combined it
was only about 30.
3. In 1850 the number of Moravian missionaries was 130 ; the number
of other Protestant missionaries 1,500.
4. In 1900 the number of Moravian missionaries was 186 ; the number
of other Protestant missionaries 6,300. In 1800, therefore, the
Moravians excelled others at the rate of three to one ; in 1900
they had only one in thirty-five.
6. On the other hand, in proportion to the size of the Home Provinces,
the number of Moravian missionaries is exceptionally large. At
the close of 1910 the numbers were as follows : — Communicants,
28,710; Ordained Missionaries, 150; Unordained, 52; i.e.,
520
A History of Moravian Missions.
a proportion of one in 144. If the miseionaries' wives are added
(176) the total number of missionaries is 378 ; i.e., a proportion
of one in 75.
2, State op thb Mission at Zinzendoef's Death, 1760.
At the close of the year 1760, i.e., after only twenty-eight year*'
work, the Moravian Church had sent out no fewer than 226 missionaries,
and the general situation in the foreign field was as follows :—
Stations.
Missionaries.
Baptized.
Communicants.
Greenland
2
9
621
200
Indians
2
4
600(?)
(?)
Jamaica
2
7
80
(?)
St. Thomas
St. Croix
2
1
} "
1,600 i
700
(?)
Antigua
1
2
6
(?)
Surinam
Total
3
16
250
13
49
3,057
Over 900
3. State op the Mission rsr 1792, when the Baptist
MissiONAEY Society was Founded.
Fields.
Missionaries.
Baptized.
St. Thomas
2,483
St. Croix
29 ]
3,669
St. Jan
838
Antigua
11
6,038
St. Kitts
6
147
Jamaica
6
SIS
Barbados
4
20
Surinam, etc
18
300
Greenland
15
891
Labrador
25
63
Canada
6
148 (?)
South Africa
3
(?)
Tranquebar
15
(?)
138
About 14,910
State o? thb Mission in 1848, i.e.. Whin thx
Modern Advance Beoan.
ProTincea
te
hment.
kal
Island
lony.
under
iveral
menti.
and
Q*'! .s^a
-:e
National
Stations.
Estal
in ea
or
Nambers.
Danish West Indies.
1
,
St. Thomas.
New Hermhut
1732
)
-»
■
•Town of St, Thomas ..
1843
[2,298
j
! Niesky
1753
)
1
St. Croix.
!
1 Friedensthal
1764
[ 6,316
:, I 9,413
1
Friedensberg
1771
Friedensfeld
1804
I
St. Jan.
Bethany
1754
1 1,799
!
Fmmaus
1782
1
English West Indies.
Antigua.
St. John's
1756
1
j Gracehill
j 1774
I
' Gracebaj'
1797
1
Newfield
j 1817
- 9,737
Cedar- Hall
1822
1 *Lebanon
1838
♦Gracefield
1840
St. Kitts
Basseterre
1777
Bethesda
1820
Bethel
1832
- 4,193
*Estridge
1846
Babbados.
Sharon
1767
Mount Tabor
1826
,
63,719
Bridgetown
1836
3,702
NegroM.
*aifton Hill
1841
-32,164
Jamaica.
. Fairfield
1823
New Eden
1812
■
Irwin Hill
1816
New Carmel
1827
1
New Fulneck
1830
1
1
New Bethlehem
1833
t
Beaufort
1834
■ 12,997 i
Bethany
1835
*New Hope
1838
*Nazareth
1838
♦Lititz
1839
♦Bethabara
1840 1
,
TOBAQO.
1
Montgomery
1827
{ 1.626 1
*Moriah
1842
.
South America.
Surinam.
Paramaribo, Town ...
1776
V
„ Plantations
Charlottenburg
1835
♦Ruflt-en-Werk
1845
■ 12,152
12,152
♦Salem
1840
♦Bambey
1841
(»1)
522 A History of Moravian Missions.
State of the Mission in 1848 — continued.
Provinces
and
Stations.
North America.
Delawaees.
New Fairfield . . .
*Westfield
Cherokees.
New Spring Place
*Canaan
Labrador.
Nain
Okak
Hopedale
Hebron
Greenland.
New Hermhut
Lichtenfels
Liohtenau
Frederiksdal ...
South Africa.
Genadendal
Groenekloof ...
Enon
Elim
Leper Hospital
[ Hottentots .
iTambookies .
( Hottentots
Shiloh
"ti •*< j3
♦Clarkson
JFingoos
Totals
1792
1838
1801
1843
1771
1776
1782
1830
1733
1758
1774
1824
1792
1808
1818
1824
1823
1828
1839
« '"' .2
450
1,186
I 1,976
8,741
460
1,185
1,976
6,741
64,071
National
Numbers.
460
Indians.
1,185
Esquimaux
1,976
Greenlanders
6,206
Hottentota
536
Tambookiea
and
Fingoofl
64,071
♦The stations to which an asterisk is affixed have been
established since the SjTiod of 1836.
Of the above gross amount of Converts, and of Heathen receiving
instruction from missionaries of the Brethren's Church, there are : —
Subjects of the British Crown
Crown of Denmark
Holland
Residing in the United States, etc. Indians
Negroes
32,154
Indians
216
Hottentots, etc.
6,741
Esquimaux . . .
1,185
40,296
Negroes
9,413
Greenlanders . . .
1,976
11,389
12,162
Negroes
Indians
234
Total
64,071
Appendix.
528
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524
A History of Moravian Missions.
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cDM«o©eoeoTt*©'*fO'*rtioeoeooOpHN©®'<j<co
s
1. Labrador
2. Alaska
3. N'th Amer. Indians (California)
4. Jamaica
5. W.Indies-St. Thomas & St. Jan
6. St. Croix
7. St. Kitts
8. Antigua
9. Barbados
10. Tobago
11. Trinidad
12. St. Domingo
13. Nicaragua
14. Demerara
15. Surinam (Old Mission)
16. Surinam (New Mission)
17. South Africa (West)
18. South Africa (East)
19. Ea*!t Central Africa (Nyassa)
20. E. Cent. Africa (Unyamwezi)
21. West Himalaya
22. Australia (N. Queensland) ...
Appendix.
OFFICIAL VISITATIONS.
525
West Ikdies.
1736
Spangenberg.
1827
Christian HiiSeU.
1739
Zinzeudorf.
1840-41 J. Chr. Breutel.
1742
D. Nitschmann.
1847
J. G. Herrmann and
1745
C. H. Rauch.
W. Mallaiieu.
1749
Job. V. Watteville.
1858-59 L. Th. Reichel.
1753
N. Seidel.
1862-63 C. A. Cunow and
1755
C. H. Raueh.
T. L. Badham.
1775
Martin Mack.
1876-77 W. F. Bechler.
1779
Martin Mack.
1887
B. Romig.
1783 84 J. Lorez.
1890-91 B. Romig.
1797
J. R. Verbeek.
1907-8 J. T. Hamilton.
1823-24 J. H. L. Stobwasser.
Gbeei.
LAND.
1740
Andrew Grassmann
1770
M. Sternberg.
1752
J. V. Watteville.
Labb
1859
ADOB.
G. Reichel.
1773
P. E. lAytitz.
1888
B. La Trobe.
1861
L. T. Reichel.
1902
H. 0. Essex.
1876
L. T. Reichel.
1909
H. 0. Essex.
North i
America
1742.
Zinzendorf.
1872
E. A. V. Schweinitz and
1748
J. V. Watteville.
R. V. Schweinitz.
1771
C. Gregor and J. Lorez.
1879
E. Leibert.
1780
A. Gmbe.
1880
C. L. Rights and
1807
C. V. Forestier.
E. A. V. Schweinitz.
1853
J. C. Jacobson and
1881
E. A. V. Schweinitz.
G. F. Seidel.
1883
E. A. V. Schweinitz.
1854
J. G. Herrmann.
1886
A. Schukze and
1858
G. F. Bahnson.
E. A. V. Schweinitz.
1866
F. Hagen.
1895
C. Buchner and
1868
S. WoUe.
Sub
niAM.
B. Romig.
1755
N. Seidel.
1S70
F. W. Klihn.
1762-63 H. Andresen.
i;96-97 0. Padel.
1790-91 S. Liebisch.
1901
C. Buchner.
1835
P. F. Ciirie.
1908
J. Hettasch.
526 A History of Moravian Missions.
Demebaba.
1891 B. Romig. | 1896 O. Padel.
Califobnia and Alaska.
1906 J. T. Hamilton.
California.
1899 M. Leibert. I 1908 P. de Schweinitz.
Alaska.
1891 H. T. Bachmann.
Canada.
1899 J. T. Hamilton.
South Africa.
1815-16 C. I. La Trobe.
1853-54 J. C. Breutel
1865 F. W. Kiihn.
1874 W, F. Beohler.
1882-83 F. W. Ktihn.
1892-93 C. Buchner.
1911 H. Kluge.
East Africa.
1905-6 P. 0. Hennig.
West Himalaya.
1901 B. La Trobe.
Teanqttbbab.
1786. L. F. Reiohel.
Nicaragua.
1855 H. WuUschlagel. | 1890 B. Romig.
DICTIONARIES, GRAMMARS, TRANSLATIONS
AND WORKS IN NATIVE LANGUAGES.
1. West Indies.
1. Harmony of the Gospels and Several Hymns, translated into Creole.
2. New Testament, in Creole.
2. Qbesnland.
Matthew Staoh : Eskimo Grammar and Dictionary.
Tht New Testament. Translation begun by John Beok, finished
by J. C. Kleinsohmidt (aided by two Native Helpers), and
published (1823) by British and Foreign Bible Society.
Appendix. 527
Samuel Kleixschmidt : An Eskimo Grammar, Dictionary,
General History, History of Missions, Geography, and ino«t of
Old Testament.
Other Missionaries : Manual of Christian Doctrine, Hymn Book,
Harmony of the Gospels, A Header's Primer, and Translationi
from the German NachricJUen.
3. Labrador.
1. Various Missionaries : The Passion History, Harmony of tht
Gospels, Manual of Doctrine, Hymn Book, Extracta from
Spangen berg's Idea Fidei Fratrum, and New Testament. With
the exception of the New Testament, which was published by
the British and Foreign Bible Society, these works were issued
by the S.RG.
2. A. Erdmakk : Old Testament (published 1871), Catechism and
Eskimo Dictionary (1864).
3. Th. Bourquin : Eskimo Grammar (1890).
4. F. Elsner : Outline of Christian Doctrine, Book of Prayers.
0. A. Martin : Various School Books, Isaiah, a new translation ;
Biblical Questions and Answers.
6. ScHMiTT : Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress (condensed translation,
1901).
7. Walter Peerett i Jessica's First Prayer and Christie's Old
Organ (1905).
8. Squire Townley : Fru Church Caiechiam,
9. Magazine : Aglait lUMnainortui (Everybody's Magazine). Issued
annually since 1902.
10. Miscellaneous Tracts, Sermons, Collection of Hymns, and Con-
firmation Manuals.
4. North American Indians.
Datid Zsisbsrosr : A Delaware Indian and English Spelling Book,
with Appendix containing the Lord's Prayer, Ten Command-
ments, Scripture Passages and Litany (1776) ; Collection of
Hymns for the use of Christian Indians (1803). Spangenberg's
Sermons to Children (in Delaware, 1803) ; Spangenberg's
Bodily Care of Childrsn (1803) ; Lieberkuhn's Harmony
of the Gospels ; Grammatical Treatise on the Delaware Conjugations
(printed 1821) ; German and Delaware Lexicon (MS. only) ;
Delaware Grammar (MS. only) ; Onondaga Grammar (MS. only) ;
Oerman- Delaware Lexicon (MS. only) ; Sermons in Delaware
(MS. only) ; Delawart Litany (MS. only) ; Delau>are Biblical
Narratives (MS. only) ; Dtlaware and Maqua Vocabulary (MS.
only).
528 A History of Moravian Missions.
5. Sprikam.
1. Solomon Sohumakn : Arawak Orammar and Lexicon.
2. Various (in Negro -English) : Outline of Jesus' Teaching ; Paction
History ; Negro- English Dictionary ; Spangenberg's Idea Fidei
Fratrum ; New Testament (published 1830 by British and
Foreign Bible Society) ; Hymn Book ; Text Book (Annual) ;
Luther's Catechism; Book on Church Festivals; The Caliv Church
History; Singing Book; A. B.C. Book; Tracts; Moravian
Law Book ; Whitsun Day and Ascension Litany ; Liturgy vo
Pinatem ; Pinawicki,
Note. — In compliance with instructions issued by the
Dutch Government, the other Moravian publications are
issued in Dutch, and therefore, though useful for their purpose,
they cannot be placed in this list.
6. The Moskito Coast.
1. Q. Grttnewald : Earth's Bible Stories, Oospels and Acts of the
Apostles.
2. H. ZioCK : English- Moskito and Moskito- English Dictionary.
A. H. K. Bbrckbnhagen : A Moskito Grammar and Dictionary
(1894) ; Moskito Beading Book (1899) ; A Hundred Stories from
the Old Testament (1905) ; English-Moskiio-Spanish Phrases
(1905) ; Moskito- English-Spaniah Dictionary (1906).
7. Alaska.
Vauot7S : Hymns in the Eskimo Language.
8. South Africa, West : The Hottentots.
As the services were generally held in Dutch, no translations
i into Hottentot seem to have been made, and no Hottentot
Dictionary or Grammar was published.
9. South Africa, East : The Kaffir.
A. BoNATZ : Kaffir Grammar, Passion History, and Church Litany.
Various : Kaffi,r Hymn Book ; Catechism for Baptismal Candidates ;
Catechism for Communion Candidates ; Biblical History ; Rules
and Regulations; Tonic Sol-fa Singing Book (1899-1908).
W. BouRQUiN : On Kaffir Adverbs, etc. (1912).
10. Western Tibet.
1. H. A. Jaschke : Harmony of the Oospels ; Litany ; Hymn Book ;
Catechism ; Geography ; Church History ; Tibetan Orammar
(1866) ; Romanized Tibetan and English Dictionary (1866) ;
Conversation Book in Tibetan, Urdu, and Hindi (1867) ; Intro-
duotion to the Hindi and Urdu Languages (1867); Ewjli^h-
Appendix. 529
Tibetan Dictionary (1871) ; Treati$t on Tibetan Dialects ; New
Testament {except Hebrews and Bevelatton), (1880).
2. A. W. Heyde : Tibetan Arithmetic ; View of the World ; Beck's
Manual o/ Doctrine.
3. F. A. Redslob : Hebrews and Revelation.
4. A. H. Fbascke : Studies in Bunan, Tinan, Manchat and Ladaki ;
St. Mark in Bunan (aided by Zodpa) ; St. Mark in Ladaki ;
St. Mark in Manchat (aided by Zodpa) ; Ladakskyi agbar
(Quarterly paper) 1904-
6. J. Bar SKI! : St. Mark in Kanauri ; Studies in Kanauri.
6. Vabious : New Testament ; Parts of Old Testament ; Hymn Books,
School Books, Catechisms.
11. Nyassa.
1. MoBAViAj^s AND Beblis Socikty : Hymn Book in Konde DidUet
(1905).
2. 0. GEMrsEus : Konde Primer (1910).
3. J. BACHjiAKy: Nyika Primer; New Testament (1913); Stories
from Old Testament (1913).
4. Vabious: Translations of 13 Psalms; Matthew, Mark, Luke,
Revelation (parts); Passion History, Old Testament Extracts,
Hymns, Litanies, Catechisms, Primers, and Collection of Nativs
Words.
12. USYAMWEZl.
1. RcDOLPH Stbkk: Hymns in Kinyamwezi ; Kinyamwezi Orammari
Fifty Stories from the Kingdom of God ; New Testament.
2. E. Dahl: Kinyamwezi Primer; Kinyamwezi Sounds aitd Accents;
Kinyamwezi Dictionary.
3. M. H. L5BSEB : Stories from the New Testament . Catechism.
4. Various : Psalms ; Bible Stories ; Manual of Doctrine ; Native
Stories ; Hymn Book.
13. Calmucks.
Isaac ScmoDT : The Gospels, published by the British wid Foreign
Bible Society (1815).
THE FIRST FRUITS.
(Original Painting at Hermhut ; copy at Zeist, Holland.)
GuLo OF ScBAMACHiB : A Persian. Died at Hermhaag in the
Wetterau.
Thomas Mamuche : From Riga. Died at Hermhaag.
Saktkl KAYAKyAK: The first Greenlander. See p. 71 (June
2nd, 1738).
iU
580 A History of Moravian Missions.
4. Sam : An. Anakunka from Boston, in New England ; found by
Zinzendorf in St. Eustace, and sent to St. Thomas ; buried at
New Herrnhut.
5. Geiby Zedmann : An Armenian girl from Schamaski.
6. Thomas : The first convert from the Hurons.
7. Gratia : A Negro little girl. Died at Herrnhaag.
8. Rachel : A Mulatto from St. John.
9. Anna Maria : The baby in arms. Daughter of Freundlich,
Frederick Martin's colleague.
10. Catherina : A giiwy girl. Died at Herrnhaag.
11. Oly Carmel : A Negro boy brought by Leonard Dober from
St. Thomas ; baptized at Herrnhut, and died there a year later.
12. JtrpiTER : A Negro from New York. Brought by David Nitschmann
to Herrnhut.
13. Anna Maria : Died at Herrnhaag.
14. Michael : Baby in arms. Bom in Silesia ; died at Marienbom.
16. Hannah : A Negro widow. Died at Herrnhut.
16. Andrew : The first convert, i.e., in St. Thomas.
17. John = Tsohoop : Rauch's famous Mohican convert. See p. 86.
18. John the Negro: Became a teacher at Marienbom.
19. Francesco of Florida : Drowned in a river in Surinam.
20. Pocco : Baby in arms : Bom in Berbice, and died at Marienbom.
21. Kybodo : Hottentot, baptized by George Schmidt.
22. Ruth : A Mohican from Shekomeko.
ERRATA.
TEXT.
t pp. 5 and 13; for 'Linica' read
' Sinica.'
pp. 36, 48f, 231, 509 ; for ' St. John '
read ' St. Jan.'
p. 58 ; for ' speakly ' read ' speaking.'
p. 58 ; for ' Christian V.' read
' Frederick IV.'
p. 69, last line ; for ' of ' read ' on.'
p. 73, line 32 ; for ' on ' read ' in."
p. 84, line 12; for 'shrubly' read
' shrubby.'
p. 121 ; for ' KafFemakas ' read
' Koffimakas.'
p. 144 ; for ' Kapick ' read ' Kapik.'
p. 147 ; for ' Berleborg ' read
' Berleburg.'
p. 176; for 'Frederick VI.' read
' Christian VI.'
p. 228 ; ' English in the West Indies,'
Second Edition, 1888.
p. 236 ; for ' Wamow ' read
• Warmow.'
p. 244 ; for ' Baele ' read ' Balle.'
p. 248 ; for ' territory ' read
' Territory.'
p. 248, line 26; for 'Oochgelmy'
read ' Oochgelogy.'
p. 264 ; for ' Great ' read ' Groot.'
pp. 266, 257 ; for ' Cotica ' read
' Cottica.'
pp. 267, 258 ; delete ' In spite of
their — represented by images.'
pp. 276, 487 ; for ' Gnienekloof " read
' Groenekloof.'
p. 276, Note ; for ' He was after-
wards ' read ' He had been
Lt. Grovemor of South Australia,
and Grovemor of New Zealand.'
p. 281, line 25 ; for ' were Moravian '
read ' were or became Moravian.'
p. 283 ; before ' Mission Land Act '
insert ' the.'
pp. 288, 293 ; for ' Entazana ' reatl
' Entwanazana.'
p. 294, line 27 ; read ' found himself.'
p. 303 ; for ' Jane ' read ' July or
August.'
p. 332, line 24 ; read ' Jiirgensen.'
p. 346, line 18; for 'arrived at* read
' set out for.'
p. 352 ; ' Ramahyuck ' = Our Ramskh =
Ramah, our Home,
pp. 357, 489; for ' Gutzlafi ' read
' Gutzlafi.'
p. 357 ; for ' Rampoor ' read
' Rampur.'
p. 368, line 13 ; for ' Chinese ' read
' Tibetan.'
p. 360 ; for ' Earths' ' read ' Earth's.'
p. 360, last line ; for ' nex ' read
' next.'
p. 361, line 7 ; after ' Hebrews ' add
' and Revelation.'
p. 365, Note ; after ' see ' insert
' " Ladakhi Songs " quoted in '
p. 386, Note; for 'PerciTar read
' Perceval.'
p. 371, line 27; for 'river' read
' rivers.'
pp. 374, 384; for ' Gopat ' read
' Gobat.'
p. 379 ; for ' Cholmograu ' read
' C'haulmoogra.'
p. 384, line 16 ; for ' Turkish Govern-
ment ' read ' lepers.'
Note. — In opening the shelter at
Siloah the Turks meant no
harm to our Leper Home,
p. 416, line 12 ; insert after ' men '
' for a mission in Queensland.'
pp. 416, 419, 420; for '1890' read
'1891.'
p. 426, line 12 ; for ' 1891 ' read
' 1892.'
p. 432, line 5 ; for * ship ' read ' boat.'
p. 443 ; for ' ancesters ' read
' ancestors.'
p. 446, line 18; for ' 5th ' read ' 7th.'
p. 454, line 20 ; for ' Usake ' read
' Usoke.'
p. 457, line 4 ; for ' Medier ' read
' Meier.'
p. 483, line 17 ; for ' Western ' read
' Eastern.'
(531)
582
A History of Moeavian Missions.
484 ; for ' Hanzina ' read
' Hansina.'
487 ; for ' Freemantle ' read
' Fremantle.'
489 ; for ' Waldenberg ' read
' Waldenburg.'
490 ; for ' Pemell ' read ' Pennell.'
491, line 25; for 'then' read
' than.'
492 , read ' Livingstonia.'
492, line 30 ; for ' two delegates '
read ' one delegate.'
492, line 31 ; after ' Synod ' add
'each Province also sending an
elected delegate.'
495, line 18, for 'twenty-five'
read ' eighteen.'
496, line 3 ; for ' pre-reformation '
read ' seventeenth century.'
500, line 8 ; for ' several ' read
' most.'
626, line 16 ; ' Grassmann,' else-
where spelt * Grassman' ; better
' Grasmann.'
INDEX.
Read ' Pennell.'
Read ' Rampur.'
Read ' Saghalin.
Read 'Schnabel.'"
Read ' St. Jan ' for ' St. John.'
Read ' Tiibingen.'
Read ' Waldenburg.'
Rea/d ' Warmow.'
Read ' Witkleibosch.'
INDEX.
The names of ships and printed works are in italics,
i = and following page. ff = and following two pages.
Aborigines of Victoria, The, Brongh
Smith's, 349.
Abraham, Rabbi, 147f.
Abyssinia, 161, 202.
Account of Moravian Missions,
Spangenberg's, 189, 194, 196.
Acts of Parliament, 96, 177, 216, 218,
232, 282f.
Adams, Sir Thomas, 133.
Adelaide, 428.
Adolph, 23.
Africa, Central, 219, 490.
Africa, East Central, 437-458, 492f,
496, 504, 508.
Africa, South, 10, 126-130, 190f,
193, 201, 266-299, 473, 478,
480ff, 484f, 487, 492f, 496, 499,
601f. 608f.
Aglait Illunainortut, 314.
Airy, Mt., Jamaica, 213.
Akiak, Alaska, 403, 497.
Akiatshuak, Alaska, 403.
Alaska, 394-407, 465, 473, 484, 489f,
497, 499f, 504, 511.
Alaska Commercial Company, 394.
Alaska Help Society, 486.
Albany, 95. 102.
Albatross, The, 418f.
Albert, Prince, 349.
Albina, Surinam, 257.
Aleppo, 160.
Alexander, 34.
Alexander, Arthur, 322.
Alexander I., Czar of Russia, 160.
Algiers, 157, 175, 201, 489.
Alleghanies, The, 97.
Alleghany, The, 104.
Allen, Fort, 101.
Amelia, Princess, 26.
America, North, 78-116, 170, 188,
193, 199, 201f, 246-249, 401,
470, 473, 484f, 499.
America, South, 117 120, 202.
American Province, 375, 394, 463f,
488, 804, 511.
Amity, The, 136, 301.
Airumg the Eskimos of Labrador, Dr.
Button's, 310.
Among the Lepers in Svrinam, 255.
Amsterdam, 45. 117, 126, 130, 148f,
152f, 157.
Andaman Islands, 489.
Angegoks, 58, 64f, 70, 133, 139f, 143«.
Angerman, 55.
Anglicans, 350, 355, 391, 486f, 601t
Anholm, Marie, 490.
Antes, John, 162f.
Antigua, 50, 53f, 66, 193, 199f, 232f,
480, 489f.
Antoinette of Nicaragua, 332.
Apologetics, A. B. Bruce's. 152.
Appel, Home Secretary, 436.
Arabi, 123f.
Arabia, 162.
Arabs, The, 381, 385, 444f, 507.
Arawack Indians, Surinam, 11,
117-120, 188.
Archer River, 435.
Argentine, 489f.
Arthington, Robert, 489.
At Home and Abroad, 154.
Augsburg Confession, 179.
August Gottlieb Spangenberg, 168.
Auka Negroes, 121, 257.
Aurora, Surinam, 256.
Aurukim, North Queensland, 435.
Australia, 346, 363, 355, 416, 602,
506.
Australia and New Zealana, Trollope's,
346.
Austria, 600, 603.
Balle, 244.
Baffin's Land, 490.
Bagdad, 160.
Bailey Hill, Antigua, 63.
Balgobin, Samuel, 258.
Balls River, 57.
Baltic Provinces, 12, 603.
Bamb«y, Surinam, 124.
(533)
584
A History of Moravian Missions.
Banning, California, 409, 413.
Bantus, The, 439, 456.
Baptist Missionary Society, 3, 199,
201.
Baptists, 487.
Barbados, 50, 54, 56, 193, 199, 233,
388f.
Barham, John Foster, 50f.
Barkley, Sir Henry, 350.
Bamett, W., 490.
Baschera, Michael, 164.
Basel Missionary Society, 201, 219.
Bashahr, 358, 362.
Basseterre, St. Kitts, 55f.
Basuto War, 294.
Batavia River, 418, 429.
Bath, 486.
Baudert, Samuel, 294.
Bautzen, Saxony, 23.
Bavianskloof (Glen of Baboons), Cape
Colony, ]29f, 267, 269, 272-276.
Bawa Baer, Nicaraeua, 330.
Baziya, Tembuland'^ 288, 293, 295.
Beaufort, Duchess of, 487.
Beaufort, Jamaica, 211, 217.
Beaver River, 106.
Beck, Jacob, 237.
Beck, John, 11, 68, 70f, 73, 181, 237.
Beckei, Bernhard, 13.
Beekhuizen, Surinam, 255.
Behnesse, 164.
Behr, 155.
Behring Sea, 394, 397.
Belgium, 503.
Belize, British Honduras, 322.
Belmont, Trinidad, 234.
Bengal, 165, 188, 202.
Benigna, 91.
Benjamin of Nicaragua, 332.
Bennett, John, 55f.
Bentien, 23.
Berbice, 170.
Berea, South Africa, 281.
Bergendal, Surinam, 256.
Berleburg, 147.
Berlin, 159, 311, 383. 477.
Berlin Discourses, Zinzendorf's, 129,
164.
Berlin Missionary Society, 438, 458,
602.
Bersaba, Surmam, 265.
Bertha, Sister, 387.
Berthelsdorf, Saxony, 9, 12.
Beterverwachting, Demerara, 390,
392.
Bethabara, Jamaica, 217.
Bethabara, North Carolina, 77.
Bethany, Jamaica, 217.
Bethany, Nicaragua, 330.
Bethany, St. Jan, 48, 231.
Bethel, Alaska, 395, 397-403, 405f.
Bethel, St. Kitts, 231.
Bethel Star, The, 395.
Bethesda, Hlubiland, 288.
Bethesda, St. Kitts, 231.
Bethesda, Surinam, 254f.
Bethesda, Tobago, 234.
Bethlehem Home Missionary Society,
249.
Bethlehem, Pa., 81f, 86, 93, 96, 99,
lOlff, 111, 170, 394, 399, 498.
Beverhout, 37.
Bible, John Beck's, 70.
Bielke, 259.
Birkby, James, 199.
Black River, Jamaica, 51, 207, 220.
Black River, Nicaragua, 321, 344.
Black Swamp, 112.
Blackwood'a Magazine, 234, 344.
Blair, Peter, 329f , 334f.
Bloice, J. A. D., 235.
Blood and Wounds Theologj',
Zinzendorf's, 72, 118, 181, 272.
Blood-bath of Gnadenhiitten, 113.
Blue Mountains. 91, 109.
Bluefields, Nicaragua, 321-325, 329,
331, 335f, 339f, 342, 344.
Bodily Care of Children, Spangen-
berg's, 115.
Boer War, 298, 499.
Boers, The, 266f, 270, 274, 280, 282f.
Boga, Lake, 346, 349f.
Bogue, The, 51.
Bohemia, 158, 375, 477.
Bohler, Peter, 91, 198.
Bohlmann, 244.
Bohnisch, Frederick, 10, 59, 68, 70f,
237.
Bombay, 379.
Bonatz, 290.
Borcherd, 273.
Borm, Pastor, 41ff, 46.
Bo 8 n, 419.
Boston, 490.
BoswelVs Johnson, 178.
Bowana, Kaffir Chief, 289f, 296.
Bradley, 428.
Brain, Miss, 3.
Branagan, James, 199.
Brasen, Dr. Christopher, 23, 136.
Braun, Peter, 53f, 189, 200, 232.
Brazil, 393, 489.
Brethren's Society for the Spread of
the Gospel, 189.
Index.
535
Bridgetown, Barbadoe, 55, 233.
Brisbane, 417, 428.
Bristol, 481, 486.
British and Foreign Bible Society,
159, 227, 238, 391.
British Columbia, 490.
British East Africa, 452.
British Honduras, 321f, 344, 4891,
511.
British Province, 463f.
Broadleaf, Jamaica, 227.
Brodbeck, John, 237.
Brodersen, 23.
Brookshaw, Benjamin, 55, 199.
Brotherly Agreement, The, 12.
Brown, Edwin, 435.
Brown, John, 199.
Brown Bank, Nicaragua, 329.
Bruce, A. B., 152.
Bruder-Bote, 66.
Bryce, Viscount, 406.
Buccus, 391.
Buchner, John Henry, 220-225.
Buckley, John, 232.
Buddhists, 159, 358, 36a
Biidingsche Sammlungen, 20.
Buffalo, 255.
Bull, Rev. John, 486.
Bundali, 439, 448.
Burckhardt, Christian, 139.
Burkhardt, Guido, 120, 167, 484.
Burgsdorf, Aunt of Zinzendorf, 6.
Bush Negroes, 121-125, 176, 250,
256f, 326, 478, 484, 499, 510.
Bussals, 31.
Buxton, Fowell, 213.
Buxton Grove, Antigua, 232.
Cairo, 161ff.
Calcutta, 357.
Caledon, Lord, 191, 276.
California, 408-415, 466, 473, 489,
497, 504, 511.
Callenberg, 150.
Calmucks, The, 159, 202.
Cambridge History of American
Literature, 408.
Cambridge Modern History, 477.
Cameron, Mrs. Daniel, 354.
Cammerhof, Bishop, 96ff.
Canajoharie, 95.
Candace Souls, 148, 156, 161, 183,
193.
Canon Bank, Nicaragua, 329.
Cape Chidley, 300.
Cape Colony, 288-293.
Cape Farewell, 236, 245.
Cape Gracias-a-Dios, 321, 336, 344.
Cape Town, 126, 129, 191, 266f,
270, 272-276, 278f, 286f.
Carey, William, 3, 198f, 201.
Caribbean Sea, 321, 345.
Caribs, The, 326.
Caries, George, 50ff, 199.
Carisbrook, Jamaica, 227.
Caritas, The, 61, 65f, 174.
Carmel, Alaska, 403.
Carmelites, 160f.
Carolus, F., Native Helper, 244.
Carpentaria, Gulf of, 428.
Carstens, 33, 37, 39, 176.
Castell, 146.
Catechism for the Heathen, Zin-
zendorTe, 179.
Catharina Sophia, Surinam, 255.
Cathcart, South Africa, 293.
Catherine II., Empress of Russia,
156, 159.
Caucasus, The, 164.
Cayuga, Lake, 97f.
Cayugas, The, 91.
Cedar Hall, Antigua, 232.
Cennick, John, 51, 500.
Ceylon, 157, 201.
Chaguanas, Trinidad, 234.
Chalmers, Dr., 303.
Chamber of Seventeen, 126. 177, 266f.
Chambers' Journal, 312.
Chaplin, Dr., 374, 378.
Charles, Eskimo Boy, 66f.
Charles of Prussia, 322.
Charlottenburg, Surinam, 265.
Chase, Canon, 350ff, 417.
Chateau Bav, Labrador, 142f.
Cherokees, The, 78-81, 248f.
Chicago, 31 If.
China, 175, 357, 489f.
Chinese, The, 257f, 404, 490.
Chini, Western Tibet, 358.
Chompel, 366.
Christian VI., King of Denmark, 15,
41, 45, 59f, 73. 176.
Christian VII., King of Denmark, 49.
Christie, British Consul, 323.
Christy's Old Organ, 314.
Church, Samuel, 199.
Church, S. F., 199.
C.M.S., 201, 300, 357, 458, 463
487, 490, 497, 502, 507.
Church of England Messenger, 346.
Circassia, 489.
Clarkson, 195.
Clarkson, South Africa, 281.
586
A History of Moravian Missions.
Classis, The, 130.
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, 325, 345.
Clemens, T. L., 234.
Clevia, Surinam, 255.
Clifford, Sir Hugh, 234.
Clifton, Jamaica, 226.
Clifton Hill, Barbados, 233.
Clinton, Governor, 95.
Coast and Inland, 602.
Coermatibo River, 121
Coke, Dr., 198.
Cole, Sir Tony, 276.
Colombo, 157.
Colonisation oj Africa, Sir H. H.
Johnston's, 438.
Colorado Desert, 409.
Comb6, Surinam, 252.
Comenius, John Amos, 14, 391.
Commewijne River, 259.
Conference System, 193.
Congo, 489, 508.
Conkras, The, 326.
Constantinople, 157f, 161, 201.
Continental Province, 463f, 503f.
Cook, 423f.
Cooktown, Australia, 417.
Coolies, The, 250, 257f, 391, 510.
Cooper, Fenimore, 85f.
Cooper, Mrs., 212.
Copenhagen, 16, 23f, 26f, 29, 37, 40,
45, 57, 59f, 65, 67, 173, 242.
Copenkrisi, Surinam, 267.
Coppename River, 121, 258.
Copts, The, 161f, 164.
Coral Bay, 36.
Corentyne River, 119.
Cornelius, Native Helper, 49.
Coromandel Coast, 6, 164, 202.
Cossart, Henry, 161.
Cottica River, 121, 256f.
Council of Policy, 126f.
Countess of Huntingdon's Connection,
487.
Covenant of the Three Brethren, 68.
Cowper, William, 237.
Craddock, Sir John, 276.
Craig, General, 276.
Cranz, David, 194.
Creed, Dr., 354.
Creoles, 31, 324, 334.
Crichton, J. W., 490.
CrSger, E. W., 167.
Cromlin, Governor, 121.
Cruse, The, Jamaica, 212.
Cuba, 509.
Cullen Point, 421.
Cumberland Inlet, 236, 489.
Cummings Lodge, 391.
Curtis, Lieutenant, 138.
Cyril, 158.
Czecho -Slovakia, 503.
Czechs, The, 477, 600.
D&hne, Louis Christopher, 11, 119,
175.
Daily Mail, 303, 436.
Dakura, Nicaragua, 336, 338.
Dale, R. W., 152.
Dallas-Clarendon Treaty, 345.
Dalman, Dr., 152, 381.
Dalton, Dr., 490.
Daniel, Henry, 29.
Danish College of Missions, 5, 59f,
67, 181.
Danish Missionaries, 131, 242ff, 329,
508.
Danish State Church, 243.
Danke, John Henry, 162, 164.
Dar es-Salam, 457.
Davey, J. W., 164, 484.
David, Christian, 10, 69f, 65f, 68, 117.
Dead Sea, 383.
Deborah of Labrador, 143.
Deep Sea Mission, 309, 312.
Dehm, 23.
Delaware River, 102.
Dela wares, 83, 102-111, 115, 182,
246f, 396, 398.
Delbo, C, 413.
Demerara, 117, 388-393, 465, 473,
489, 510.
Demole, Pastor, 489.
Denmark, 12f, 15, 23f, 26, 41, 48,
332, 486.
Derryarnish, 432.
Detroit, 11 If.
Deycke, Dr., 379.
Dickie, The, 418.
Dickson, William, 214.
Dingwall, John, 391f, 500.
Disko, Greenland, 72.
Divinity of Our Lord, The, Liddon's,
151.
Dobor, Jamaica, 227.
Dober, Leonard, llf, 16-19, 21-24.
26f, 29, 34-38, 57, 59, 131, 148,
173, 176, 178, 181, 463, 495.
Domburg, Surinam, 265.
Dominica, 490.
Dominicans, 161.
Douglas, Hon. John, 418, 427f.
Downs, Mary, 334f.
Doyl«, Arthur Conan, 364.
Index.
587
Drachart, Lawrence, 23, 133-136,
186, 301.
Drakensberge, 296.
Dresden, 4, 9, 147.
Dresden Socrates, The, 147.
Drummond, Henry, 440.
Dry Salt Lake, 409.
Dublin, 477.
Ducie River, 427.
Duncan, Jane Ellen, 365, 373.
Dundee, 236, 489.
Dungeon, 423.
Dutch Auxiliary Society, 189, 195.
Dutch East India Company, 126f,
177, 181.
Dutch Reformed Church, 30, 41, 127,
157, 182, 250, 502.
Dutch Trading Company, 117.
Dutchess County, 83.
Duyfhen Point,* 432.
East India Company, 5.
East Indies, 4f.
East London, South Africa, 293.
Eastern Counties Clerical Association,
501.
Ebenezer, Australia, 346, 350ff, 355.
Economy, at Bethlehem, 82.
Ecuador, 489.
Edinburgh, 303, 436, 501.
Edinburgh Association, 478, 486.
Edkins, Pastor, 489.
Edward VII., 498.
Edwards, William, 199.
Egede, Hans, 20, 57-61, 65ff, 69,
71, 174.
Egerton, Sir Walter, 393.
Egypt, 162ff, 202.
Einsler, Dr., 378ff, 383.
Elias, 288, 294f, 484.
Elim, Cape Colony, 281, 486.
Ehm, Jamaica, 51.
EUer, Dr., 157, 172.
Elliott, Captain, 112.
Ellis, Bishop F., 338.
Ellis, John, 208, 210-213, 216f.
Ellis, Trapp, 77.
Elmina, 156.
Elukolweni, HlubUand, 288, 297.
Emancipation, 213, 216f, 230f, 281.
Embley River, 435.
Emmaus, St. John, 49, 231.
Encydopoedia Britannica, 185.
England, 12, 20, 109f, 198, 218, 225,
272, 304, 342, 374f, 388, 420,
463, 470, 480f, 484ff, 488f, 504,
507.
English Aborigines Protection Society,
489.
English Bank, Nicaragua, 325, 329.
English in the West Indies, Froude's,
228f.
English Malady, The, 178.
Engotini, Cape Colony, 288.
Enon, Cape Colony, 281, 290.
Enquiry into the Obligations of
Christians, Carey's, 198.
Entwanazana, Tembuland, 288, 293.
Entumasi, Hlubiland, 288, 297.
Ephraim, Surinam, 119.
Ephrata, Nicaragiia, 330, 337.
Erdmann, Friedrich, 316.
Erdmuth Dorothea, 9.
Erhardt, John Christian, 131, 307.
Eskimo Dictionary. Erdmann's, 316.
Eskimos, 57f, 60-65, 131-145, 176,
186, 188, 300-316, 394-407, 497f,
512.
Eskimos about Behring Strait, The,
Nelson's, 397.
F^trada, General, 343.
Estridge, St. Kitts, 231.
Ethiopian Church, 284.
Evening Prayer, ZiniendorTs, 91.
Ezincuka, Hlubiland, 288, 296ff.
Fabricius, Greorge, 100.
Faden, Nicholas, 258.
Fairfield, Canada, 246.
Fairfield, Jamaica, 210-216, 219f,
223-226, 391, 481f.
Fan of Tomgak, Davey's, 484.
Fawcett, 322.
Feder, Albin, 46, 172.
Ferdinand, Archduke, 495, 503.
Fiabarema, 446.
Finances, 176, 189, 304f, 469, 478,
484-491.
Fingoos, The, 277.
First Berlin Mission, 492.
First Fruits Idea, 183, 192f.
Fliegel, 237.
Florida, 490.
Folk Lore in the Old Testament,
Frazer's, 397, 456.
Ford, 420.
Fort Allen, 101.
Foster, William, 50f.
Fox Channel, 490.
Fozzard, Jolm, 55, 199.
France, 500, 507.
Francis of Demerara, 391.
Francke, A. H., 361, 365.
538
A History of Moravian Missions.
Francke, August Hermann, 5ff. 9,
14, 174.
Franklin, Benjamin, 101, 301.
Frazer, Sir J. G., 397, 456.
Freeh. Theobald, 136.
Frederick IV., 58.
Frederick V., King of Denmark, 177.
Frederiksdal, Greenland, 236.
Fremantle, Dean, 487.
Freiwillige Nachlese, 153.
Freuudlich, 42.
Frey, 98.
Fnedensberg, St. Croix, 49, 231.
Friedensfeld, St. Croix, 231.
Friedenshiitten, North America, 103ff.
Friedenstadt, North America, 106.
Friedensthal, St. Croix, 48, 231.
Froude, James Anthony, 228f.
Fulneck, Jamaica, 214, 225f.
Fuhieck School, 195.
Gaarde, 508.
Galizas, General, 340.
Gambier, Admiral, 300.
Ganassatico, King, 96.
Ganges River, 357.
Gansee, Surinam, 256.
Gardelin, Governor, 35.
Gardiner, 50, 55.
Garland, Canon, 435.
Garrison, Captain, 185.
Garth, Mrs., 330.
Gekelemukpechunck, Ohio, 106.
Gelelemend, 398.
Genadendal, South Africa, 269, 276-
279, 281, 284, 286, 289f, 478, 481.
484f, 502.
George II., 76.
George III., 109, 133, 136.
George Frederick, King of Moskito,
323.
Georgetown, Demerara, 391.
Georgia, 78-81, 198, 246, 248.
Gerard, 37.
German East Africa, 437f, 456, 466.
German Nyassaland, 438.
Germany, 486, 488, 500, 503ff.
Oeschichte der Erneuerten BrUder-
kirche, 168.
Gingee, Surinam, 266.
Gladstone, Mrs., 487.
Olad Tidings, 88.
Glasgow Auxiliary Society, 478, 486.
Glasgow Missionary Society, 201.
Glikkikan, 106, 114.
Gnadenhtltten, on the Mahony, 95,
99, 101 f, 105, 186.
Gnadenhiitten, Ohio, 108, 112f, 115.
Gobat, Bishop, 374, 384.
Godhaab, Greenland, 59, 61, 67, 236.
Goedverwacht, South Africa, 281.
Oood Intent, The, 301.
Good Message, The, 484.
Gorke, John, 237.
Gorlitz, 17.
Goshen, Cape Colony, 288, 293.
Goshen, Ohio, 115f, 246.
Goshgoschunck, Ohio, 104ff.
Gottwalt, 55.
Grabenstein, 176.
Grabow, Brandenburg, 11.
Gracebay, Antigua, 56.
Gracefield, Antigua, 232.
Gracehill, Antigua, 53, 56.
Gradin, Arvid, 158, 160f, 172.
Graham's Hall, Demerara, 388ff,
392.
Gralisch, 164.
Grant of Demerara, 391.
Grant System, The, 277, 281f, 289,
292f.
Grassman, Andrew, 72f, 155f, 170.
Great Britam, 257, 321f, 325, 344f,
478, 503f.
Great War, The, 177, 393, 406, 450,
458, 493, 502f.
Greek Church, 158, 160, 166, 377,
385, 394. 400, 404, 501.
Green, Edmund, 211.
Greenbay, Antigua, 232.
Greenland, lOff, 17, 20, 23, 67-77,
79, 118, 131, 134, 137, 144, 170,
174f, 177, 185, 188, 191, 193,
201f, 236-245, 397, 399, 465,
473, 479f, 482, 499f.
Greenlanders, 9, 19, 236-245 (see also
Eskimos).
Gregson, Gelson, 490.
Grenfell, Dr. W. T., 309f, 316.
Grey, Sir George, 276, 293, 346, 499.
Greytown, Nicaragua, 321, 330, 344.
Griffith, Sir Samuel, 417.
Grillich, John, 237.
Groenekloof, South Africa, 276, 487.
Groot Chatillon, Surinam, 264f.
Gross-Hennersdorf, Saxony, 4f.
Grossmann, 343.
Grothausen, Dr., 27.
Gruhl, 164.
GrOnbeck, Esther, 153.
Grundler, 6, 7f.
Grunewald, G., 329, 343.
Guinea, 166, 201.
Qiitzlaff, Dr., 367, 489.
Index.
589
Haberecht, Gottlieb, 51.
Hagenauer, Frederick Augustus, 350,
352, 354f, 416, 499.
Haidt, 183.
Half -penny Union, 486.
HaU, Robert, 214.
Hall, Samuel, 337.
Hall, Wmiam, 214.
Hallbeck, Hans Peter, 280, 484, 500.
Halle, 6ff, 24, 126.
Haller, John, 261f, 265.
Hamilton, 50, 55.
Hamilton, Bishop J. T., 14, 437.
Hanover, 162.
H&nsel, John Gotfried, 165.
Hansina Hinz, Schneider's, 484.
Hardie, A., 416, 418.
Harmony, The, 301ff, 307f, 512.
Harmony of the Gospels, Lieberkuhn's,
115, 154.
Hartmann, Adolphus, 248, 394.
Hartmann, Mrs., 256.
Harvard Uruversity, 116.
Harvey, Bennett, 54.
Hassan, 162.
Hasse, Bishop E. R., 501.
Hass^, Otto William, 153.
Hauck^a Real- Encyclopcedie, 167.
Hausmann. Pastor, 489.
Haven, Jens, 23, 131-134, 136, 141,
301, 484, 500.
Hayti, 490.
Heber, Dr., 364, 371.
Hebron, Labrador, 300, 308, 310, 512.
Hebron, Palestine, 382.
Heckewelder, John, 112f.
Heckmondwike, 225.
Hedor, The, 302.
Heerendyke, Holland, 117.
Heerendvke, Surinam, 255.
Hegner, J. R., 194.
Heilitz, Inspector, 353.
Heinze, Christian, 237.
Helena, 268f, 275.
Heller, 23.
Helpers' Conference, 471.
Hemel-en-Aarde, 276, 284f, 374.
Henry, 37.
Herr, 55.
Herrmann, 162f.
Hermhaag, 74, 500.
Hermhut, Saxony, lOf, 13f, 16, 19f,
22ff, 26, 28, 34, 37ff, 45-48, 59f,
65, 76, 78, 98, 119, 126, 129,
131, 142, 147, lo6f, 161, I70f,
I83f, 186, 193, 198, 266, 323,
357, 470, 480, 483, 503.
Hettasch, Paul, 310.
Hey, Nicholas, 416-421, 425ff, 429
435, 499, 506.
Hey, Mrs., 431f, 506.
Heyde, Augustus William, 357, 361f,
366, 370.
Heyde, H. B., 261f, 264.
Hibbert Journal, 20.
Hill, Rowland, 54, 200, 487.
Hillsborough, Lord, 134.
Hindoos, The. 362, 391.
Hinz, John, 397.
Hirschberg, Sjoiod at, 167.
Hirschel, Zechariah, 168f.
History of Christian Missions, Robin-
son's, 55.
History of Christian Missions in
South Africa, du Plessis', 273.
History of Evangelical Missions in the
East, Francke's, 6.
History of Greenland, Cranz's, 194.
History of Pietism, Ritschl's, 7.
History of Protestant Missions,
Wameck's, 186.
History of the L.M.S., Home's, 201.
History of the Mission in St. Thomas,
St. Croix, and St. Jan, Olden-
dorp's, 194.
History of the Mission to the North
American Indians, Loskiel's, 194.
History of the Moravian Church,
Cranz's, 194.
History of the Moravian Church,
Hegner's, 194.
Hlubiland, South Africa, 288, 295-299,
438.
Hocker, Christian Frederick William,
160ff, 164, 172.
Hogg, Ethel M., 388.
Hogg, Major, 291.
Hogg, Quintin, 388f, 391, 489.
Holland, 117, 126, 254f, 257, 266f,
272, 274, 276, 486, 500.
Honey, Dr., 284f.
Hooker, Native Helper, 400.
Hoop (or Hope), Surinam, 120, 190.
Hopedale, Labrador, 139, 144f, 300,
310f, 512.
Home, Rev, C. Silvester, 201.
Horsham, Australia, 351.
Hottentots, The, 126-130, 266-287,
291f, 481, 499.
Huckoff, Henry, 156.
Hudson's Bay Company, 311.
Huesco River, 345.
Huguenots, 30.
Hungary, 12, 600.
540
A History of Moravian Missions.
Huron, 114.
Hutt, Major, 346, 489.
Button, A. B., 234.
Hutton, Dr. S. K., 310f, 313, 315.
Hutton, Mrs., 310.
Hutton, James, 131, 134, 140.
Ibrahim, 164.
Idea Fidei Fratrum, Spangenberg's,
267.
Igdlorpait, Greenland, 236, 244.
Ileya, Nyassa, 448.
Immortality, Heathen ideas of, 85,
129, 328, 348, 356, 398, 425, 442,
455f.
In Distant Heathen Lands, 484.
Independents, 487.
Indian Territory, U.S.A., 248f, 408,
411.
Indians, Moskito, 321-345.
Indians, North American, 10, 52,
78-116, 170, 176, 186, 191, 246-
249, 408-41.5, 484, 498.
Indians, South American, 117-120,
510f.
Indus Valley, 507.
Inleesha, 164.
Inatitutum Judaicum, Callenberg's,
160.
Instructions for Brethren and Sisters,
Spangenberg's, 476.
Instructions to Missionaries, Zin-
zendorf's, 78, 175, 178, 182.
Ipiana, Nyassa, 448, 450f.
Ipole, Unyamwezi, 454.
Ipswich, Jamaica, 227.
Ireland, 500.
Irene, The, 76, 185.
Iroquois, The, 83, 91-103.
Irwin, Major, 346.
Irwin Hill, Jamaica, 210, 214, 220.
Ifeles, Samuel, 53, 199.
Isoko, Nyassa, 448, 450f.
Ispahan, 160,
Israel, Gottlieb, 46ff, 118, 181, 186,
188.
Iversen, Jorgen, Governor, 30.
J. G. Ward, The, 436.
Jablonsky, Daniel Ernest, 79, 169.
Jackman, 50, 65.
Jackson, Captain, 303.
Jackson, Dr. Sheldon, 394, 403, 489.
Jackson, Helen Hunt, 408.
Jackson, Joseph, 199, 208.
Jaergenson, 238.
Jalla, Louis, 490.
Jamaica, 46, 50ff, 66, 89, 188, 193,
198f, 207 230, 232, 321ff, 335,
340, 344, 355, 480-483, 486,
498, 509.
Jamaica Courant, 215,
Jamaica in 1801, Lady Nugent's, 208.
James of Nicaragua, 332.
Janie of Alaska, 402.
Japan, 490,
Japanese, The, 404.
Jardine River, 427.
Jaschke, Andrew, 158,
Jaschke, Henry Augustus, 360ff,
Javanese, The, 257, 259, 510.
Jedda, 162.
Jemima, The, 302,
Jensen, Stephen, 23, 134, 136, 301.
Jeremiah of Okak, 313,
Jersey Packet, The, 134, 301.
Jerusalem (Leper Home), 255, 286,
355, 374-387, 473, 489, 504,
507,
Jessica's First Prayer, 314,
Jesuits, 13, 161,
Jews, The, 146-155, 183f, 201, 250.
Jimmy of Mapoon, 433.
Johannesburg, South Africa, 293, jj
490. '
John, John F., 199.
Johnson, Dr., 134, 194.
Johnston, Sir Harry H., 438.
Joppa, 383.
Jordan Valley, 382. ,
Joseph, Rabbi, 154, .|
Julienhaab, 244. i
Jtirgensen, Jean Paul, 23, 329, 33 Iff,
Juigensen, Mrs., 332f.
Juvenile Missionary Association, 226,
485,
Kabagomato, Chief, 453.
Kaestner, Louis, 309,
Kaffir Wais, 278, 298, 499.
Kaffirs, 288-299, 478, 484, 490,
499.
Kaffraria, 276, 298, 608.
Kaimanston, Surinam, 257.
Kalatse, Western Tibet, 388f.
Kanahooka, The, 428,
Kandler, 330.
Kanjek, Greenland, 72.
Kansas, 248,
Kant, Lydia, 364.
Kapik, 144,
Karaites, 149,
Karata, Nicaragua, 330, 336.
Kashgar, 489.
Index.
541
Kaskan, 362.
EaBwika, Chief, 457.
Kayamak, 70ff, 188, 237, 399.
Keffenbrink-Ascheraden, Baroness,
374f, 489.
Kersten & Co., 250, 253, 269f, 469,
478, 485.
Kettering, 3, 201.
Kidd, Benjamin, 354.
Kilbuck, John Henry, 395, 398-401,
500.
Kilbuck, Mrs., 396, 399.
Killinek, Labrador, 300, 305, 312.
Kim, Kipling's. 368.
King, John, 256.
Kingspoint, Eskimo Bay, 135.
Kingston, Jamaica, 198, 219, 227.
Kingston Chronicle, 215.
King Williamstown, South Africa,
293.
Kipembabwe, Unyamwezi, 464.
r Kipling, Rudyard, 368.
Kirchhof, David, 163.
Kirman, 161.
Kitunda, Unyamwezi, 454.
Kleinschmidt, John, 190, 238.
Kleinschmidt, Samuel, 238, 242.
Klipplaat River, 288.
Kluge, H., 484.
Klukumlaya, Nicaragua, 329.
KofEimaka Negroes, 121, 256.
^ Koffykamp, Surinam, 256.
Kohlmeister, 190.
; Kondeland, 438f, 444f, 448.
Kfinigsberg, Baden, 481.
Konigseer, Sophia, 237.
Kopperamanna, Lake, 355.
Krakau, Daniel, 437, 486.
Kramer, 355.
Kranich, John F., 237.
ELreusano, 155.
Kfthnel, John Christian, 267, 273.
Kukulaya, Nicaragua, 330.
Kulu VaUey, 507.
Kunawar, 362.
t Kund, Michael, 159.
Kunewalde, Moravia, 10.
Kurban, Kasis Farhud, 386f.
^ Kurdistan, 490.
Kurds, The, 160f.
Kuskokwim River, 395, 404.
Kuster, 286,
Kwattahede, Surinam, 266.
■ Kybodo, 272.
Kvelang, Western Tibet, 368-362,
607.
KyimbilA, Nyassa, 448.
Labrador, 23, 76, 131-145, 186,
188-191, 193, 199, 201f, 300-316,
374, 395ff, 473, 478, 480, 482,
484, 496-499, 512.
Labrador Doctor, A, Grenfell's, 316.
Ladak, 357f. 360, 362.
Ladak News, The, 361.
Ladies' Associations, 486.
Ladies' Negro Education Society, 212.
Lahoul, 358.
La Jolla, California, 410, 416.
Lake, General, 489.
Lamas, 358ff, 363, 366-373.
Lamington, Lord, 435.
Lamp, 490.
Lancaster, Jamaica, 61.
Landon, Perceval, 366.
Lang, John, 207-210.
Lange, Conrad, 159-175.
L'Anse Noir, Trinidad, 234.
Lapland, 12f, 17, 155f, 201.
Laplanders, 9, 19, 155.
Last of the Mohicans, The, Cooper's,
86.
La Trobe, Benjamin, 194.
La Trobe, Bishop Benjamin, 308,
495.
La Trobe, Bishop James, 374f.
La Trobe, Christian Ignatius, 64,
189f, 195ff, 200f, 281, 289, 300,
487.
La Trobe, Joseph, 346.
Laugh ton, Captain, 489.
Laurwig, Count, 15f.
Layasiksa, Nicaragua, 330.
Leach, William, 486.
League of Help, 497.
Lebanon, Antigua, 232.
Lieeds 489
Leh, 'western Tibet, 367f, 363ff,
371f, 484.
Lehigh River, 81.
Leibnitz, 5, 13.
Leitner, Peter, 286.
Leliendal, Surinam, 255, 259.
Leominster, 486.
Lepers, 2o4f, 276, 284ff, 374-387,
451, 499, 502, 608, 510.
Letters on the Nicobar Islands,
Hansel's, 165.
Letters to my Children, La Trobe's, 195.
Leupold, Tobias, 16f, 19, 22, 38, 48.
Lewis, George, 208t
Lhasa, 358, 362, 372.
Lhasa, Landon's, 366.
Libbey, J. N., 168.
libya, 161.
542
A History of Moravian Missions.
Liohtenau, Greenland, 75, 236, 238,
244.
Lichtenau, Ohio, 108, HI.
Lichtenfels, Greenland, 75, 236, 238.
Liddon, Canon, 151,
Lieberkuhn, Samuel, 115, 149-162,
154.
Lier, Hesperus Ritzman van, 266.
Life of David Livingstone, 430.
Life of Willie Wimmera, 352.
Light, James, 214.
Lincoln, Abraham, 268.
Lindsay House, Chelsea, 140.
Lipscombe, Bishop, 215.
Lisier, Christian, 136, 199.
Lititz, Jamaica, 211, 217, 226,
Little Tracts, Kluge's, 484,
Little Whetstone, 401.
Living Christ and the Four GoapeU,
Dale's, 152.
Livingstone College, 310.
Livingstone Hills, 438.
Livingstonia Mission, 492.
Livonia, 160, 202.
Lebschutz, Upper Silesia, 11.
LShans, Valentine, 43f.
Lohans, Mrs., 43.
London, 4, 8, 55, 76, 78, 96, 131,
133f, 137, 140, 146, 168, 178,
302ff, 347, 388, 485!, 504, 512.
London Association in Aid of
Moravian Missions, 212, 223, 486f.
London Medical Mission, 490.
London Missionary Society, 54, 199ff,
452f, 463, 489, 492.
London Society for promoting
Christianity amongst the Jews,
154.
Lorenzen, 29, 37*
Los Angeles, 409, 412.
Loskiel, George Henry, 194.
Lot, Use of, 15, 21, 38, 93, 120, 162,
168, 172f, 190f, 476.
Louis, Native Helper, 238.
Louis XVI., King of Prance, 301.
Ludidi, 297.
Luna, Dr., 342f.
Lutherans, 9, 11, 19, 22, 24, 30,
183, 250, 501f,
Liitken, Dr., 5.
Macartney, Lord, 276.
MacDonald, Colonel, 321, 344.
MacGregor, Sir William, 311, 499.
MachiwishUusing, Pa., 103.
Mack, John Martin, 49, 79, 95, 112.
Mftckay of Uganda, 437, 489.
Magazines, Missionary, ld4f, 390,
392, 475f, 502.
Magdala, Nicaragua, 329f, 334ff.
Magdalene of St. Thomas, 44.
Magorugampcll, Ceylon, 157.
Mahometans, 14, 164, 234, 250, 259,
287, 365, 377, 382, 384-388,
454, 457f, 497, 508.
Mahony, River, 95, 99.
Makkovik, Labrador, 300, 311.
Malabar, 126, 490.
Malays, 346.
Malone, 284.
Malta, 500.
Mamre, Cape Colony, 281, 485,
Managua, Treaty of, 345.
Manantial, Trinidad, 234.
Manchester, Parish of, Jamaica, 211.
Mandeville, Jamaica, 215.
Manittoes, 85.
Mankendorf, Moravia, 10,
Manners, Charlie, 423.
Manual of Doctrine, Beck's, 361.
ManzaniUa, Trinidad, 234.
Mapasa, 290f.
Mapoon, North Queensland, 418,
420f, 423, 427ff, 431-436, 506.
Marienbom, 73, 148.
Maripastoon, Surinam, 256.
Maroni River, 121.
Maroons, 217.
Marriage Customs, 261-265, 326, 424,
440f.
Marshman, 199.
Marsveld, Henry, 267f, 271, 600.
Martha of Tibet, 366.
Martin, Augustus, 329f, 335.
Martin, Bishop, 314.
Martin, Frederick, 11, 38-46, 48f, 91,
95, 169, 176, 182, 186, 188, 484,
500.
Martin, George, 439.
Martinez, California, 409, 41 If.
Martinique, 36.
Martins, 27.
Marx, Dr. Carl, 364, 372.
Matelot, Trinidad, 234.
Matilda, Princess, 324.
Matthiesen, 23.
Matuari Negroes, 256.
Maud of Mapoon, 506.
Maurice, Native Helper, 244.
Mawanda, 440, 448.
May Day Hills, Jamaica, 210.
Maynard, Constance, 20.
Mbozi, Nyassa, 448, 450.
Mcintosh, General, HI,
X
Index.
548
Mecca, 162.
Medical Missions, 363f, 402f, 452.
Meier, 457.
Meissel, Gottlieb, 351, 355f.
Melbourne, 346, 349-353, 356, 416f,
428.
Meniolagomeka, 95.
Merere, 439, 444f.
Mesopotamia, 490, 505.
Mesopotamia, Jamaica, 208, 214.
Messenger of Peace, The, 330.
Messenger, Moravian, 376.
Mela, The, 342.
Metcalf, John, 199.
Methodists, 487, 601.
Methodius, 158.
Meyer, Henry, 288, 296f, 438.
Meyer, Theodore, 438f, 444.
Meyer, Mrs., 445.
Meyer's Pass, 297.
Mico Institution, 219, 489.
Middleton, Ladv, 195.
Middleton, Sir Charles, 195.
Mieksch, 166.
Mikak, 140.
Miller, James, 211.
Mingo, 43.
Miracle of Mapoon, Ward's, 428, 484.
Mission Board, 211, 218, 232, 242,
263ff, 308, 322, 325, 339, 362f,
357, 374, 388f, 416, 437, 463,
465-471, 491f, 495, 497, 604f.
Mission College, 470, 480f, 494.
Missionary Studies, Burkhardt's, 484.
Missions-Blatt, 470, 476.
Mite Association, 485.
Mizpah, Jamaica, 227.
Mkulwe, 456.
Mohawks, 85, 91, 95, 102.
Mohicans, 81-90.
Mongolia, 357, 489.
Monteith, Archibald, 208.
Montgomery, James, 30, 55. 199.
Montgomery, John, 55, 199.
Montgomery, Tobago, 234.
Montserrat, 489.
Moody, D. L., 388.
Moore, Henrv, 389ff.
Moravia, 9-12, 43, 59, 65, 79, 126, 158,
Moravia, Jamaica, 227.
Moravian Hill, South Africa, 287.
Moravian Hope, South Africa, 287.
Moravian Missionary Society,
Jamaica, 486.
Moravian Missions, 228, 233, 392.
Morgan, Colonel, 108.
Moriah, Tobago, 234.
Morongo, Captain John, 409, 414.
Morton, John Thomas, 490f.
Mt. Graybok, 409.
Mt. Tabor, Barbados, 233.
Moscow, 159.
Moses of Labrador, 143.
Moskito Coast, 23, 321ff, 326f, 332,
334, 339ff, 344f, 355, 479, 484,
489. 499.
Moule, H. C. G., 487.
Mueia, Nyassa, 448.
Mulattoes, 31.
Mulgrave, Earl, 215.
Muller, Dr., of Vienna. 361.
Muller, Dr. J. T., 167, 377.
Muller, Dr. Max, 361.
Mailer, Elizabeth, 377.
Mailer, Fritz, 376-379.
Muller, J., 237.
Munchroth, Wurtemberg, 11.
Murkkikandi, 443.
Muskingum, 108.
Muskito Bay, St. Thomas, 44.
Mvenyane, Hlubiland, 288, 299.
Myalism, 220ff, 226.
Nachrichien aiu der BrUdergemeine,
194.
Nahoe, Jamaica, 226.
Nain, Labrador, 137f, 146, 300, 309f
313, 512.
Nain, Pa., 102.
Nakin, John, 297.
Napier, Sir George, 277.
Napoleonic Wars, 272, 476, 486.
Nathan, 309.
Nathaniel of Nain, 313.
Nattaniel of Tibet, 366.
Native Church Idea, 224, 261, 284
450, 491-494, 497, 509.
Native Helpers and Evangelists, 44,
214, 216, 234, 238, 241, 244,
256, 287, 293, 299, 307, 400f,
403, 406, 447, 449, 454, 492.
Native Ministers, 224, 227, 232, 235,
239, 243, 261, 297, 389, 479,
482f, 492.
Natural Reflections, Zinzendorfs, 7,
177.
Nazareth, Pa., 81f.
Negro School Fund, 212.
Neisser, Joseph, 10, 136, 142,
Nelson, E. W., 397.
Netawetwes, 106, 109f.
Neumeister, 9.
New Account of Guinea and the Slave
Trade, Snelgrave's, 195,
544
A History of Moravian Missions.
New England Society, 87.
New Bambey, Surinam, 124.
New Bethlehem, Jamaica, 211.
New Carmel, Jamaica, 51, 56, 211,
213f, 225.
New Eden, Jamaica, 2101, 214f.
New Fairfield, Canada, 115, 246-249.
New Gnadenhiitten, North America,
114f.
New Hermhut, Greenland, 61, 69f,
74f, 236, 238.
New Herrnhut, St. Thomas, 39, 44,
230.
New HoUand, 475.
New Hope, Jamaica, 217, 226.
New Salem, North America, 114f.
New Springplace, Georgia, 248.
New York, 56, 83, 85, 94ff, 101, 185,
255.
New Zealand, 276, 346.
Newby, Joseph, 199.
Newfield, Antigua, 232.
Newfoundland, 131, 301, 311.
Newton, Jamaica, 210, 221.
Nicaragua, 321-345, 465, 473, 496f,
604, 511.
Nicaragua, Lake, 321.
Nickerie, Surinam, 266.
Nicobar Islands, 165f, 202, 490.
Nicodemus of Tibet, 366.
Niesky, St. Thomas, 49, 230.
Niesky, Silesia, 130, 478, 481.
Nile, River, 164.
Nitschmann, David, 22, 26-28, 33f,
40, 43, 79f, 157, 169f, 173, 186,
198.
Nitschmann, John, 166.
Nitschmann, Martin, 99.
Nitschmann, Mrs., 99.
Nitschmanns, The, 10.
Noailles, Cardinal, 8.
Noel, Lady, 487.
Nmdlyset, The, 244.
North, Goodwin, 225.
Northern Missionary Society, 201.
Northern Star, The, 310.
North-Schleswig Union, 486.
Norway, 500.
Nottingham, 198.
Noviasima Sinica, Leibnitz's, 6, 13.
Nubra, 362.
Nugent, Lady, 208.
Nushagak River, 403.
Nxotchane, Hlubiland, 288.
Nyassa, 437-452, 454f. 465, 473, 489,
497, 508.
Nyassa, Lake, 437ff, 444, 453.
Nyika, 439, 448, 462.
Obeahiam, 122f, 208, 220, 609.
Ockbrook School, 485.
Ogavik, Alaska, 401, 403.
Ogle's Industry, Demerara, 391.
O'Hara, James, 311.
Ohio, 83, 106f, 109ff, 115, 246.
Okak, Labrador, 139, 300, 305f, 310,
313f, 512.
Okeden, Pariv, 436.
Old Carmel, Jamaica, 89, 207, 209ff.
Old Charley of Victoria, 351.
Oldendorp, G. A., 194.
Oneidas, 91, 93.
Onin, 246.
Onondaga, Pa., 96-99, 102, 104.
Onondagas, 91, 115.
Ontario, Lake, 83, 96.
Oochgelogy, Georgia, 248.
Oonalaska, 394.
Oppelt, Mrs. Von, 489.
Older of the Mustard Seed, 8, 146.
Orkneys, The, 303, 505.
Orinoco, River, 118.
Ormond College, Missionary Society,
428.
Omatti, The, 294.
Ossessi, Chief, 257.
Ostergren, 156.
Oxford, 361.
Pachgatgoch, 95.
Padel, Otto, 242.
PageU, Edward, 367, 362ff, 366, 369.
Pagell, Mrs., 364.
Palermo, Sicily, 477.
PaUisser, Sir Hugh, 131ff, 140, 191.
Pall Mall Magazine, 316.
Palmerston, Lord, 322.
Papus, 276, 346-355, 416f, 419, 421,
423-435 499.
Paramaribo,' 117, 121, 188, 191, 250,
252ff, 257-261, 264, 484.
Paravicini, Consul, 157.
Paris, 31 If, 477.
Partsch, George, 100.
Partsch, Mrs., 100.
Pastoral Letter, 142.
Patrick Town, Jamaica, 227.
Paulu, 366.
Payas, The, 326.
Peace of Paris, 101, 344.
Pearl Lagoon, Nicaragua, 325.
Peart, Robert, 209.
Pechanga, California, 410.
Index.
545
Peck, C. J., 490.
Pella, South Africa, 281.
Pemell, Mrs., 490.
Penn, William, 90.
Pennsylvania, 81, 83, 90, 93, 95,
lOlff, 113, 498.
Pepper, Nathaniel, 350f.
Periodical Accounts, 3, 189f, 194ff,
198ff, 289, 297, 310, 316, 338,
397, 412, 475, 495.
Perl, St. Thomas, 44.
Perrens, Mrs. or Miss, 489.
Perry, Bishop of Melbourne, 346, 350.
Persia, 160, 202.
Peter of Labrador, 142.
Peter of St. Thomas, 44.
Peru, 490.
Peyster, Major, 112.
Pfeififer, Henry GottUeb, 215, 322-325.
Philadelphia, 102.
Philadelphia Philosophical Society,
116.
Pierson, Dr. A. T., 201.
Pietism, 3, 4, 11, 65.
Pilder, George, 161f.
Pilgerhut, 117.
Pilgemih, 114f, 120.
Pilgrim, Alexander, 389.
Pilgrim's Progress, The, Banyan's,
227, 314.
Piper, 334.
Pisani, 274f.
Pless, Count von, 25f, 48, 60.
Plessis, Dr. du, 273.
Plutschau, Henry, 5-8.
Poland, 503.
Pommerschwitz, Upper Silesia, 11,
38.
Pontiac War, lOlf.
Poo, Western Tibet, 358f, 363ff, 369.
Port Elizabeth, South Africa, 286f.
Port of Spain, Trinidad, 234.
Porteous, Bishop of London, 195.
Porto Rico, 489.
Posaunenberg, St. Thomas, 39, 47.
Post, 95.
Potrero, CaUfomia, 409, 412ff.
Potribo, Surinam, 255.
Powell, Joseph, 199.
Prague, 477.
Presbyterians, 350f, 353, 355, 394,
416, 435, 486f, 489, 502, 506.
Price, 216.
Prichard, Major Heaketh, 303, 312.
Priestley, 428.
Prince and Princess of Wales, 76.
Pringle, 279.
2N
Prins, Stephen, 484.
Prochnow, 357.
Protten, Christian Jacob, 156.
Province Island, 102.
Pumpkin, 423f.
Quama, Surinam, 123.
Quamwatla, Nicaragua, 336ff.
Quebec, 112.
Queensland, North, 355, 416-436, 465,
469, 473, 484, 489, 499, 505.
Queenstown, Demerara, 391f.
Queenstown, South Africa, 293.
Quingillingok, Alaska, 403.
Quinhagak, Alaska, 404ff.
Quintin Hogg : a Biography, Ethel
M. Hogg's, 388.
Quirpoint Harbour, 132.
Rabbinites, 149.
Ramah, Labrador, 300.
Ramah Indians, 326, 331ff.
Ramah Key, 326, 331f.
Ramah River, 345.
Ramahyuck, Victoria, 352-355, 416.
Ramona, Jackson's, 408.
Rampoor, 357.
Rasmus, Jens, 48.
Rauch, Christian Henry, 52, 85-90,
170, 181.
Reading, 352.
Red Sea, 162.
Rcdgauntttt, Scott's, 185.
Redslob, Frederick Adolphus, 361f,
366.
Regnier, Dr., 170, 172.
R^ichel, Leonard, 338.
Reichel, Bishop John Frederick, 266.
Reichel, Eugene, 264, 488.
Reichel, Gerhard, 168.
Reigel, 244.
Reinke, Andrew, 322.
Reis, 219.
Reitapura, Nicaragua, 329.
Reliance, Demerara, 388f.
Renan, Ernest, 347.
Rephaim, 377.
Reports oj the Brethren's Missions,
195.
Resolution, The, 302.
Retrospect of the Mission in Antigua,
189.
Rhenish Missionaries, 283.
Rhenius, Governor, 267.
Rhine, The, 172.
Rhodes, James, 136, 199.
Ribbach, Mrs., 364fi
546
A History of Moravian Missions.
Richard, Marc, 234, 500.
Richard, Theophilus, 438, 444.
Richmond, Legh, 487.
Richter, 435.
Richter, Abraham, 157.
Riebeck, Governor van, 127.
Rigolette, 311.
Rincon, California, 410, 415.
Ritschl, Albrecht, 7.
Rittmansberger, Andrew, 65.
Riverside, California, 413.
Robben Island, South Africa, 285f,
374.
Robert Charles Frederick, King of
Moskito, 322.
Robert Clarence, King of Moskito,
340.
Roberts, Edward, 199.
Robinson, 55.
Robinson, S., 418.
Robinson Crusoe, Defoe's, 55, 117,
Roller, Dr., 162.
Roman Catholics, 158, 165, 250,
255, 340, 343, 345, 377, 414f,
432, 438, 501.
Romig, Benjamin, 339.
Romig, Dr. J. H., 403.
Ronneburg Castle, 147.
Roonjon, Surinam, 252.
Roosevelt, President, 255.
Rosehill, Tiinidad, 234.
Roth, Dr., 432f.
Rothe, John Andrew, 9.
Roumania, 158.
RiifEer, Dr., 160f.
Rungwe, Nyassa, 438ff, 443-448, 451.
Russell, Samuel, 199.
Russia, 156, 158, 201, 292, 357, 394,
500, 503.
Rust-en-Vrede, Surinam, 252.
Rust-en-Wcrk, Surinam, 255.
Rutenganio, Nyassa, 448f, 451.
Ryle, Bishop J. C, 487.
Sachalin, 490.
Sachems, 98.
Sacred Songs and Solos, Sankey's,
425.
Salem, Jamaica, 211.
Salem, Ohio, 108, 112.
Salem, Surinam, 255.
Salich of Jerusalem, 379.
Salvation Army, 507.
Samoa, 276.
Samoyedos, 9, 156.
San Domingo, 235, 489, 609.
San Francisco, 394.
San Pedro, 235.
Sandusky, 113f.
Sandy Bay, Nicaragua, 336.
Sang Sangta, Nicaragua, 343, 611.
Sankey, 425.
Saramakka River, 119, 121, 256,
Saramakker Negroes, 121, 123, 256.
Sarepta, 159f.
Savannah, 78.
Savannah River, 81.
Saxony, 167.
Schafcr, Melchior, 17,
Schmidt, George, 10, 43, 126-130,
169, 174-177, 266ff, 271f, 279.
Schmidt, Isaac, 160.
Schmidt, Rasmus, 23, 256.
Schmitt, John Henry, 276.
Schneider, Daniel, 155.
Schneider, H. G., 483f.
Schneider, John, 136, 156.
Schneller, 55.
Schochert, 404.
Scholefield, John, 213.
Schonberg-Waldenburg, Prince of,
322.
Schonbrunn, Ohio, 107f, 112, 114.
Schreve, 373.
Schubert, Karl, 376, 381, 385f.
Schumann, Theophilus Solomon, 11,
117-120, 124, 172, 181, 188.
Schuysken, Governor, 275.
Schwabel, 362.
Schwenkf elders, 11.
Schwinn, Daniel, 267.
Scotland, 303, 486, 500.
Scott, 351.
Scott, Hutchinson, 211.
Scott, Mrs. Hutchinson, 212, 223.
Scottish Missionary Society, 201.
Sehlen, Moravia, 10.
Seidel, Nathaniel, 170.
Seiilerth, Anthony, 80.
Self -Support Synod, 481.
Senecas, 91.
Senftleben, Moravia, 10.
Senseman, Joachim, 99, 112.
Senscman, Mrs., 100.
Senthea Creek, 123.
Serajevo, 503.
Serampore, 198.
Sergeant's River, 268.
Seven Years' War, 99, lOlf, 188.
Shallcross, Thomas, 51, 199,
Shamans, 398.
Shamokin, Pa., 93, 95, 99, 101.
Sharon, Barbados, 55f.
Sharon, Nicaragua, 336
Index.
547
Sharon, Surinam, 119f.
Shaw, Thomas F., 452.
Shawanese Indians, 83, 93, 99.
Shawe, Becker, 371.
Shawe, Dr. Ernest, 3fr4.
Shawe, Jackson, 485.
Sheda Mahinda, 455.
Shekomeko, New York, 85, 87, 90,
92-95, 102.
Shelley, 477.
Shikellimey, 93, 95, 97.
Shiloh, Cape Colony, 288-293, 296,
485.
Short History of Christian Missions,
Smith's, 199.
Shussele's Picture, 104.
Siberia, 357.
Sieborger, 337.
Signal Hill, Tobago, 55f.
Sikonge, Unyamwezi, 454, 458.
Siksigak, 145.
Siloah, 384, 508.
Simmonds, The, 79, 186, 198.
Single Brethren's Song, Zinzendorf s,
47.
Skrop, 46.
Slavery, Abolition of, 216.
Slavery, Moravian attitude towards,
195-197.
Smith, 311.
Smith, George, 199.
Smith, Mrs., 266.
Smith, R. Brough, 349.
Smith, Sir Harr^^ 291.
Snaife, Hon. D., 211.
Snelgrave, Captain William, 195.
Social Evolution, Kidd's, 354.
Society for Qiristian Fellowship,
201.
Society for the Advancement of
Civilisation and Christianity, 87.
S.F.C.K., 486.
S.F.G., 134f, 189, 195, 218, 304-308,
468, 475, 478, 482, 485.
S.P.C.K., 8.
S.P.G. (American Moravian), 189,
394, 468, 478, 485, 504.
S.P.G. (Anglican), 20, 79, 174, 181.
S.P.G. (North Carolina), 486.
Somerset, Lord Charles, 289.
Sonderend, The, 279.
Sonderman, 225.
Sophia, Princess, 40.
Sorcerers, 58, 106, 122f, 220, 246,
295, 299, 348, 401, 450 (see
also Angegoks).
Sorensen, John, 23, 74, 237.
Soukias, 325, 327f, 332, 336.
South Australian Women's Missionary
Association, 428.
Southon, Dr., 452.
Spangenberg, Augustus Gottlieb, 78,
80ff, 85. 87. 92f. 99, 101, 115,
117, 142, 169f, 173, 187, 189,
192, 194, 196, 198, 247, 267,
475, 498.
Sx)ener, Philip, 4f.
Spieseke, William, 346, 351.
Spieseke, Mrs., 351.
Spitti, 362.
Springplace, Georgia, 246, 248.
Srinagar, 507.
St. Bemadino Hills, 409.
St. Croix, 38, 41, 48f, 166, 173, 199,
231, 509.
St. Eustace, 46, 490.
St. Jacinto, 408.
St. Jacinto HUls, 409.
St. James, Parish of, Jamaica, 213f,
220.
St. John, 36, 48f, 231, 509.
St. John's, Antigua, 53, 56.
St. John's, Newfoundland, 302, 304,
512.
St. Kitts, 50, 55f, 193, 199, 231.
St. Madeleine, Trinidad, 234.
St. Petersburg, 156, 159f.
St. Thomas, 11, 15ff, 21. 25, 27-32,
34ff, 38, 41, 43, 45ff, 49, 118,
148, 166, 170, 173, 181, 186,
188, 230, 463, 498, 502, 509.
Stach, Anna, 72, 76.
Stach, Christian, 59, 68.
Stach, Matthew, 10, 43, 57, 59, 68-74,
76f, 131, 169, 173, 186, 237.
Stahlmann, George, 175.
Steenbrans River, 130.
Stellenbosch, 273.
Stephen, Native Helper, 238f.
Stephen Prins, Schneider's, 484.
Stem, Rudolph, 454f, 457.
Stevenson, R. L., 276.
Stobgyea, 359, 366.
Stockholm, 155.
Stoffels, 292f.
Stok, Western Tibet, 360.
StoU, Rudolph, 123f, 181.
Stollberg, Count«ss of, 24.
Stompjes, Wilhehnina, 289f, 293.
Stromness, 303.
Sturges, 489.
Sturgis, Joseph, 100.
Stuttgart, 477.
548
A History of Moravian Missions.
Succinct View of the Missions, La
Trobe's, 194.
Suez, 162.
Suka, Alaska, 394.
Sullivan, Superintendent, 414.
Sultanpur, 357.
Summer Bide through Western Tibet,
A, Duncan's, 365.
Sumu Indians, 326f, 337.
Sunbury, 95.
Surinam, 11, 20, 23, 117, 119, 121-125,
166, 170f, 175, 177, 185, 188ff,
193, 201, 250-265, 326, 328, 348,
449, 469, 473, 478, 480, 482,
485, 493, 499, 502, 504f, 510.
Surinam River, 121, 123, 256.
Susquehannah River, 97, 103.
Sutlej River, 357, 507.
Swabia, 11.
Sweden, 12, 155.
Sweet Milk Valley, 129, 174, 267.
Swiss Moravians, 375, 377, 438.
Switzerland, 486.
Sydney, 416f.
Synodal Results (1857), 463.
Synods, General, 153, 187, 189-193,
202, 243, 259, 266, 323, 342, 346,
375, 437, 463-467, 469f, 473-503.
Tabase, Tembuland, 288, 293.
Tabitha of Nicaragua, 333.
Table Bay, South Africa, 272.
Tabora, Unyamwezi, 454, 457f.
Tager, Andrew F. C, 346, 349f.
Talmud, The, 149f.
Tambooldes, 291.
Tanganyika Territory, 437, 490, 508.
Tapanahone River, 121.
Tappe, Frederick, 374, 376.
Tappus, 28, 37, 39, 44, 230.
Tapunlaya, Nicaragua, 330.
Tan Chand, 363.
Tartars, The, 164, 202.
Taylor, David, 199.
Taylor, John, 286.
Teluca Mountains, 333.
Tembuland, South Africa, 288, 293ff.
Teunessen, Major, 267, 273ff.
Text-Book, 16, 18, 172f, 251, 395,
419.
Thames, The, Canada, 246.
Through Flood and Storm, Davey's,
484.
Thuringia, 21.
Thursday Island, 418f, 426f, 433.
Tiaga, 97.
Tibet, Chinese, 357f.
Tibet, Western, 159, 357-373, 465,
473, 484, 489, 496f, 499, 506.
Timothy, 6.
Tinana, Hlubiland, 288, 298.
Tischendorf, 154.
To all the World, 484.
Tobago, 50, 55f, 199, 233, 475.
Toms Tschatchi, 81.
Tongulas, The, 326.
Torgersen, John, 395.
Tornea, 155.
Torngak, 64, 139ff, 144.
Torres Straits Pilot, 427f, 436.
Tortola, 186.
Towkas, The, 326.
Towle, Samuel, 199.
Townsville, Australia, 418.
Tozer, Hon. Hoiace, 417, 432, 499.
Training Colleges, 83, 232, 261, 299,
446f, 470, 482.
Training Schools, 223, 225, 280,
391, 447, 458, 481.
Tranquebar, 5-8, 23, 165f, 174f, 188,
190, 266.
Tri-lok-nath, 358.
Trinidad, 234.
Trollope, Anthony, 346.
Trombone Hill (see Posaunenberg).
Tropical Africa, Drummond's, 440.
Tschoop, 86ff, 90, 92, 188.
Tubingen, 78.
Tucker, Chariotte, 490.
Tuglavina, 139-145.
Tulpehocken, Pa., 91f.
Tuluksak, Alaska, 403.
Turkey, 12, 383f, 504, 507.
Turkeyen, Demerara, 391.
Turner, 490.
Turner, Bishop, 284.
Turner, William, 136, 199.
Turtle Tribe, 97.
Tuscarawas River, 106ff, 186.
Tuscarawas Valley, 115.
Tuscaroras, 91.
Twappi, Nicaragua, 336.
Twistwyk, South Africa, 281.
Two-Mile Wood, Jamaica, 51, 208.
Twenty Years of Pioneer Missions in
Nyassaland, Hamilton's, 437.
Tyers, Lake, 355.
Tylden, Major, 291f.
Tyrall, Jamaica, 214.
Ujiji, 457.
Ulassa, or Evil Spirits, 327.
Uleaborg, 155.
Ulrich, Abraham, 16, 25, 29, 37.
Index.
549
Ulrich, Anna, 16, 25, 29, 37.
Ulrich, Antony, 15f, 19, 25, 27f, 67.
Umanak, Greenland, 236, 243.
Umlakasa's Prophecy, 292.
Umlangeni's War, 291.
Ungava Bay, 303.
United Free Oiurch of Scotland, 451,
508.
United States, 208, 345, 394, 406,
408, 490, 500, 503f.
Unity's Elders' Conference, 192, 464f,
474f, 479-482.
Unyamwezi, 452-458, 466, 473, 489,
497, 502, 508.
Urambo, 452ff, 457.
Ursinus, 9.
Usafwa, 439, 444, 448, 452.
Usoke, Unyamwezi, 454.
Utengule, Nyassa, 444, 448, 450.
Vailima Memories, Stevenson's, 276.
Van Calker, Th., 264.
Venezuela, 490.
Venice, 477.
Victoria, 276, 346-356, 416, 465, 473,
479, 484, 489, 499.
Victoria Nyanza, Lake, 452f, 490.
Victoria, Queen, 322, 352, 499.
Vienna, 353, 361, 477.
Visitations, Official, 169, 264, 308,
474, 504.
Volga River, 159.
Voullaire, Bishop, 260.
Waldenberg, Prince, 489.
Walder, Heinrich, 228, 355.
Walder, John R., 237.
Walker, Patrick, 322.
Wallachia, 158, 201.
Walpasiksa. Nicaragua, 330.
Walpole, Lady, 487.
Wanderings of a Spirittuilist, Doyle's,
354.
Wanhatti, Surinam, 257.
Wanica, Surinam, 252.
Wanks River, 321, 343.
War of Independence, American,
103, 110, 114, 246.
Warof the Axe, 291.
Ward, Bishop Arthur, 420, 428, 484.
Ward, James, 416-431, 436, 500.
Ward, Mrs., 418, 420f, 426, 430ff,
435f, 506.
Wameck, Dr. Gustav, 186.
Wamow, Matthew, 236.
Washington, George, 191, 499.
Wasla, Nicaragua, 336.
Waterloo, Surinam, 265.
Waters, Mary, 324.
Watson, Samuel, 199.
Watteville, Frederick de, 7f.
Watteville, John de, 170, 192.
Webb-Peploe, Prebendary, 487.
Weber, Mrs., 364.
Weber, George, 43ff.
Wechquadnach, 95.
Weiniger, 162.
Weinland, William, 394f, 398f, 409-
415, 497, 500.
Weipa, North Queensland, 435.
Weiss, Henry, 255.
Weisser, Conrad, 90.
Wellington, Lake, 352.
Weltz, Baron von, 5.
Wemigerode, 11, 24.
Wesley, John, 47, 79f, 134, 186, 198.
Wesley ans, 502.
West Indian Company, Danish, 25,
30.
West Indies, Danish, 12, 19f, 23-49,
170, 176, 188f, 191, 193, 196,
201f, 230-235, 449, 463f, 466f,
470, 473, 479, 482f, 486, 491-
494, 496, 499, 504, 509f.
West Indies, British, 23, 50-56, 166,
170, 189, 196, 198, 201f, 230-
235, 463f , 466f , 470, 473. 478, 482f ,
491-494, 496, 499, 504, 509f.
West Indies, Montgomery's, 30.
Westerby, George Wall, 232f.
Westfield, Kansas, 248.
Wetterau, The, 73f, 147, 500.
Whit« Eyes, 109f.
Wied, 23.
WUberforce, William, 165, 196ff,
475, 487.
Wilhehnina, Queen, 255.
Willem, 129f.
Williamsfield, Jamaica, 214. ,
Williamson, Colonel, 113.
Willock, Henry, 322.
Wilson, James, 311.
Wimmera, Lake, 346.
Wimmera, Willie, 352.
Windsor, Jamaica, 210.
Winkel, The, 250f.
Wintimen, 122, 257.
Wironje River, 117.
WitkUebosch, South Africa, 281.
Wittenberg, 8f.
Wittewater, South Africa, 281.
Wolf Tribe, 109.
Women's National Indians' Associa-
ti<Hi,408i
550
A History of Moravian Missions.
Woodlands, Jamaica, 225.
Woodmount, U.S.A., 248.
Woolwas, The, 326.
Woosley, David, 413.
Worcester, Jamaica, 214.
Work among the Lepers, La Trobe's,
374.
World Missionary Conference, 436,
501.
Wounta, Nicaragua, 330.
Wrightson, Dr., 489.
Wyandots, 111.
Wyoming Valley, Pa., 83, 193.
Xentu River, South Africa, 294.
Yarkand, 489.
Yorkshire Society, 478.
Young People's Missionary League,
497.
Yulu, Nicaragua, 336, 338.
Zambesi Industrial Mission, 492.
Zander, 175.
Zauchtenthal, Moravia, 10, 22, 79.
Zeisberger, David, 10, 79, 94-99,
102-112, 114ff, 169, 182, 189f,
246, 249, 398.
Zeist, Holland, 76, 154, 183, 600.
Zeist Missionary Society, 486.
Zeitschrift fiir Briidergeschichte, 184.
Zelaya, Nicaragua, 340, 345.
Zelaya, President, 339, 343.
Zenana Work, 364.
Zibi, 288, 296-299, 499.
Ziegenbalg, Bartholomew, 5, 7f, 126.
Zinzendorf, Nicholas Louis, Count of,
3-17, 19-23, 38f, 43-49, 52, 57,
59, 65f, 72-75, 78f, 84, 90-96,
98, 117f, 129ff, 146-149, 152-162,
164f, 167-188, 190-194, 198, 201,
307, 449, 464, 473, 475, 480.
485, 488, 497f, 501.
Zinzendorf in the Wetterau, 147.
Zinzendorf und Die Briidergemeine,
167.
Zoar, Labrador, 300.
Zom, Jacob, 216-219, 222, 481.
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