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of 
Qniturp 


BY 


EDWIN  EMERSON,  JR. 

Member  of  the  American  Historical  Association,   New  York 

Historical  Society,   Franklin  Institute  of  Philadelphia, 

Honorary     Member    of     the     Royal    Philo- 

Historical  Society  of  Bavaria,  etc.,  etc. 


WITH   AN   INTRODUCTION   BY 
GEORG  GOTTFRIED  GERVINUS 


ILLUSTRATED    WITH    SIXTEEN    COLORED    PLATES   AND 

THIRTY-TWO    FULL-PAGE,   HALF-TONE    CUTS 

AND    TWO     MAPS 


IN  THREE  VOLUMES— VOLUME  THREE 


NEW  YORK 
P.  F.  COLLIER  AND  SON 

M  C  M  I  I 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

VOLUME  THREE 


FULL  PAGES  IN  COLOR 

ENTRY  OP  THE  ALLIES  INTO  PEKING.  From  a  Photograph Frontispiece 

GETTYSBURG.  Painted  by  James  "Walker 

SADOWA.  Painted  by  Anton  Von  "Werner 

Louis  NAPOLEON'S  LETTER  OF  SURRENDER  AT  SEDAN.  Painted  by 

Anton  Von  "Werner 

THE  DEFENCE  OF  CHAMPIGNY.  Painted  by  Edouard  Detaille 

ROUGH  RIDERS'  CHARGE  UP  SAN  JUAN  HILL.  Painted  by  Frederic 

Remington 

CRONJE'S  ARRIVAL  AT  ST.  HELENA.     Painted  by  H.  Reuterdahl 


FULL  PAGES  IN   BLACK   AND   WHITE 

ENGAGEMENT  OF  THE  MONITOR  AND'  MERRIMAC 

"SHERIDAN'S  RIDE" — CEDAR  CREEK,  VIRGINIA 

THE  FIRST  READING  OF  THE  EMANCIPATION  PROCLAMATION  BEFORE  THE 
CABINET.     Painted  by  F.  B.  Carpenter 

SINKING  OF  THE  ALABAMA.     Painted  by  J.  0.  Davidson 

BATTLE  OF  MOBILE  BAY — THE  HARTFORD  AND  TENNESSEE.     Painted  by 

Overend 

GENERAL  PRIM.     Painted  by  Henri  Reynault 

THE  OFFICIAL  CAPITULATION  OF  SEDAN.     Painted  by  Anton  Von  "Werner. 

OPENING  OF  THE  REICHSTAG.     Painted  by  Anton  Von  Werner 

BATTLE  OF  THE  YALU.     From  a  Photograph 

PASTEUR.     Painted  by  Leon  Bonnat 

BATTLE  OF  MANILA.     Drawn  by  H.  Reuterdahl 

BATTLE  OF  THE  TUGELA.     Drawn  by  Max  Klepper 

MEDICAL  CONFERENCE  IN  SESSION,  PARIS.     From  a  Photograph 

His  HOLINESS,  POPE  LEO  XIII.     Painted  by  Fran/.  Von  Leiibach 


1857 

(Continued) 

EARLY  in  the  year,  Archduke  Maximilian  had 
granted   a   general   amnesty  to  all   political 
offenders  in  northern  Italy.    Sharp  objections 
to  this  were  raised  at  Vienna.    The  growing  national 
spirit  of  the   Italians  gave  grounds  for  apprehen- 
sion.   Secretly  encouraged  by  Cavour,  the  Sardinian  Sardinia's 

•11  •  •   i  P  mi      relations 

press  assailed    Austria    with    great    freedom.     The  with 

c  Austria 

revolutionary  societies,  subsidized  by  the  Sardinian 
Government,  agitated  for  another  national  uprising. 
The  Austrian  Government,  informed  of  this  by  its 
spies,  lodged  a  formal  protest  with  the  Sardinian 
Government.  Cavour  ignored  the  protest.  The 
relations  between  the  two  countries  grew  strained. 
Presently  diplomatic  intercourse  between  Austria 
and  Sardinia  was  severed.  Cavour  first  made  over- 
tures to  England  for  armed  support,  but  his  efforts 
proved  unavailing.  Thereupon  he  ingratiated  him- 
self with  Louis  Napoleon  by  supporting  the  French 
contentions  throughout  the  diplomatic  controversies 
concerning  the  Danubian  principalities. 

Meanwhile,  in  Germany,  it  had  become  an  open 
secret  that  Kins;  Frederick  William  of  Prussia  was 

William, 

mentally  unsound.  Presently  his  brother,  Prince 
William,  the  hated  foe  of  Liberalism  in  Prussia, 

(1253) 


1254  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  June  1857 

was  appointed  Regent.  For  some  time  still  he 
retained  the  Ministry  of  Manteuffel  in  office,  but 
from  the  first  he  showed  himself  opposed  to  his 
brother's  semi-liberal  tendencies. 

Commodore  Perry's  second  visit  to  Japan  resulted 
in  serious  consequences  for  that  country.     The  Mi- 
Treaty  of   kado,  having  first  refused  to  accede  to  the  conclusion 

Kanagawa 

of  a  treaty  of  commerce  with  the  United  States  of 
America,  was  finally  persuaded  by  his  old  Minister, 
the  Taikio,  to  let  his  commissioners  sign  the  treaty 
at  Kanagawa.  Townsend  Harris,  on  behalf  of  the 
United  States,  signed  the  treaty  on  June  17.  The 
reasons  for  this  violation  of  Japanese  traditions 
were  thus  explained  in  an  official  circular  of  the 
Shogun: 

The  "The  Mikado  having  been  consulted  by  the  Sho- 

japansof  gun's  Government  about  the  making  of  treaties 
with  foreigners,  he  answered  that  the  conclusion  of 
that  matter  would  distress  him  very  much.  There- 
upon the  Shogun  requested  all  the  Daimios  to  send 
their  written  opinion  upon  the  subject.  Only  a 
short  time  was  required  to  gather  every  one's  opin- 
ion; but,  in  the  meantime,  some  Russian  and  Amer- 
ican men-of-war  came  here,  bringing  the  news  that 
in  a  short  time  English  and  French  men-of-war 
would  arrive  here;  that  these  two  nations  had  fought 
and  won  many  battles  in  China;  that  they  would 
'come  here  in  the  same  warlike  spirit,  and  it  would 
be  difficult  for  us  to  negotiate  with  them.  The 
American  Ambassador  offered  to  us,  that  if  we 
would  make  a  temporary  treaty  with  him,  as  soon 
as  we  should  have  signed  and  given  him  that  treaty 
he  would  act  as  mediator  between  us  and  the  French 
and  English,  and  could  save  us  from  all  difficulties." 


185?  Autumn  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1255 

After  the  ratification  of  the  treaty  of  Kanagawa, 
similar  treaties  were  concluded  with  Holland,  Rus- 
sia, Great  Britain  and  France.  The  Shogun's  ex- 
planations did  not  satisfy  the  Daimios.  A  popular 
remonstrance  to  the  Mikado  was  issued  in  Miako: 

"Great  changes  are  being  made  in  our  holy  coun- A  popular 
try  in  respect  to  foreigners.     However,  it  is  not  for  France 
us  ignorant  people  to  judge,  and  for  that  reason  we 
lately  wrote  twice  to  the  Mikado.     We  hoped  that 
he  would  consider  the  subject. 

"We  write  to  him  once  more.  Since  the  time  of 
Tensio  Dai  Jin  the  country  has  been  to  the  present 
time  sublime  and  flourishing;  but  friendship  with 
foreigners  will  be  a  stain  upon  it,  and  an  insult  to 
the  first  Mikado  (Zinmu).  It  will  be  an  everlasting 
disgrace  for  the  country  to  be  afraid  of  those  for- 
eigners, and  for  us  to  bear  patiently  their  arbitrary 
and  rough  manners;  and  the  time  will  come  when  we 
shall  be  subservient  to  them.  This  is  the  fault  of 
the  dynasty  of  the  Shogun.  If  foreigners  come  to 
our  country  they  will  loudly  proclaim  the  mutual 
benefits  that  trade  will  produce;  but  when  we  shall 
refuse  to  comply  with  all  their  wishes,  they  will 
threaten  us  with  their  artillery  and  warships.  The 
Shogun  thus  disturbs  peace." 

Late  in  the  year  an  imperial  edict  appeared,  which 
was  later  declared  to  be  a  forgery.  It  was  directed 
against  the  Shogun,  thus:  % 

"Your  duty  is  to  act  as  Shogun;   and  yet  you,  Repiy from 
who  have  been  appointed  as  Commander-in-Chief  toth 
quell  the  barbarians,  do  not  perform  your  duties. 
You  should  know  what  the  duties  of  your  office  are, 
and  yet  you  are  unable  to  punish  our  foreign  ene- 


1256  A   HISTORY   OF   THE  Dec.  1857 

mies.  Why  is  this?  It  is  because  the  business  of 
the  Shogun  office  does  not  go  straight.  On  this 
account  I  have  every  day  great  trouble,  and  there- 
fore I  command  you  to  come  from  Yeddo  to  Miako 
to  confer  with  me." 

convention     On  the  day  that  this  letter  reached  the  Shogun, 

of  the  •' 


]ate  in  December,  a  meeting  of  all  the  great  Daimios 
was  called  at  Yeddo.  They  met  on  the  night  of 
December  29,  in  the  throne  room  of  the  castle  of 
Yeddo.  Their  deliberations  did  not  end  until  two 
in  the  morning  of  the  following  day.  The  spirit  of 
the  meeting  was  such  that  it  was  plain  that  a  revo- 
lution was  impending. 

Tiie  In   China,  the   Taipings   at  Nanking  had  main- 

re'bemfn  tained  themselves  with  difficulty  against  two  impe- 
rial armies  until  the  beginning  of  1857.  Had  the 
government  concentrated  its  efforts  against  them  at 
this  time,  the  tottering  fabric  of  Tien  Wang's  author- 
ity would  have  been  speedily  overthrown;  but  in- 
stead of  that  the  rebels  were  permitted  to  consolidate 
and  augment  their  forces.  The  Manchu  authorities 
now  realized  that  it  was  vital  to  them  to  reassert 
themselves  without  delay. 

On  December  12,  Lord  Elgin  sent  to  Commis- 
sioner Yeh  at  Canton  a  note  apprising  him  of  his 
arrival  as  plenipotentiary  from  Queen  Victoria  to 
demand  prompt  fulfilment  of  Great  Britain's  de- 
mand. Commissioner  Yeh  made  a  long  reply,  the 
substance  of  which  was  that  injuries  had  been  com- 
Engiand  mitted  on  both  sides,  so  that  both  sides  had  best  pay 

ami  France 

China*  their  own  losses.  This  reply  failed  to  satisfy  the 
foreign  commissioners.  Orders  were  at  once  given 


1857  Dec.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1257 

to  attack  Canton.  By  the  middle  of  December 
Honan  was  occupied.  The  next  ten  days  were  spent 
in  bringing  up  troops  and  stores.  On  December  28, 
the  assault  was  undertaken.  The  attacking  force 
numbered  about  5,000  English,  1,000  French,  and 
750  Chinese  coolies.  Linsfor  was  captured  in  half 
an  hour.  This  success  was  offset  by  the  explosion 
of  a  magazine  in  the  fort.  On  the  following  day  the  canton 

assaulted 

city  itself  was  assaulted.  The  British  forced  the 
gates,  while  the  French  seized  the  fort  on  a  hill 
commanding  both  the  city  and  the  Chinese  camp 
in  the  northern  hills.  Within  two  hours  the  ap- 
proaches to  the  great  city  of  Canton  were  in  the 
hands  of  the  allies.  Their  total  losses  were  less  than 
a  hundred  and  fifty  men.  The  Chinese  fortifications 
were  blown  up.  Still  Commissioner  Yeh  did  not 
give  in.  From  his  yamen  he  ordered  the  execution 
of  all  Chinamen  who  had  entered  into  relations  with 
the  invaders. 


1258  A   HISTORY   OF   THE  1658 


1858 

ON  JANUARY  5,  three  detachments  of  Eng- 
lish  and  French    soldiery  were  sent   into 
Canton,   and  advanced  at  once  upon  the 
official  residences  of  Commissioners  Yeh  and  Gov- 
ernor  Pihkwei.     Pihkwei  was  taken,  but  Yeh  was 

occupy 

canton  not  found.  The  French  at  the  same  time  occupied 
the  abandoned  Tartar  city.  From  a  Chinese  scholar 
who  was  found  studying  in  the  library  undisturbed 
by  the  turmoil,  Captain  Key  (afterward  Admiral) 
learned  where  Yeh's  yamen  was.  The  imperial 
commissioner  was  captured  as  he  was  about  to  leave 
the  yamen.  Yeh  was  sent  to  Calcutta  a  prisoner  of 
war.  The  government  of  Canton  was  intrusted  to 
an  Anglo-French  commission. 

From  Canton  Lord  Elgin  and  Baron  Gros  ad- 
dressed their  demands  direct  to  Peking.  The  Chi- 
nese Minister  of  State  appointed  peace  commis- 

Peace  sioners,  but  Lord  Elgin  declined  to  see  them.  The 
Chinese  Minister  refused  to  appoint  others.  There- 
upon the  foreign  commissioners  announced  that  they 
would  proceed  up  the  Peiho  to  Tien-tsin.  To  the 
irritation  of  Lord  Elgin  the  fleet  was  slow  in  assem- 
bling in  the  Gulf  of  Pechili.  At  length,  on  May  19, 
the  allied  squadrons  proceeded  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Peiho,  and  summoned  the  Taku  forts  to  surrender. 


1858  Spring  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1259 

No  reply  having  been  vouchsafed,  fire  was  opened 
on  the  forts  on  the  following  day.  After  a  short- 
range  bombardment  lasting  more  than  an  hour  the 
Chinese  batteries  were  silenced.  Landing  forces  com- 
pleted the  capture  of  the  fort.  It  was  on  this  occa- 
sion that  Captain  Tatnall  of  the  American  navy, 
without  direct  orders  from  home,  joined  in  the  at- 
tack with  the  famous  remark:  "Blood  is  thicker  " 
than  water."  The  Chinese  general  committed  sui-  water" 
cide,  and  the  Chinese  lost  the  best  part  of  their  ar- 
tillery. The  allied  fleet  proceeded  up  the  river  to 
Tien-tsin,  where  the  plenipotentiaries  took  up  their 
quarters.  The  Chinese  Government  now  sent  three 
commissioners  to  confer.  One  of  them  was  Ke-Ying, 
who  had  served  in  the  same  capacity  during  the  pre- 
ceding troubles  with  England.  Unfortunately  for 
him,  some  of  his  letters,  in  which  he  showed  himself 
to  be  bitterly  anti-foreign,  had  been  found  in  Yeh's 
yamen  at  Canton.  This  ruined  Ke-Ying's  stand- 
ing with  the  foreign  commissioners,  and  he  was  re- 
called to  Peking,  where  he  was  summoned  before 

Ke-Ying's 

a  board  of  punishment  for  "stupidity  and  precipi-  misfortune 
tancy."  As  an  act  of  grace  he  was  permitted  to 
commit  suicide.  With  the  remaining  commissioners 
the  British  envoys  soon  adjusted  matters  to  their 
own  satisfaction.  It  was  agreed  that  opium  might 
be  imported  into  China  on  payment  of  fifty  dollars 
duty  per  chest.  In  defence  of  this  exaction,  Sir 
Henry  Pottinger  made  the  following  declaration  on 
behalf  of  England:  "I  take  this  opportunity  unhesi- 
tatingly to  declare  that  after  the  most  unbiased 


careful  observations,  I  have  become  convinced  that 


1260  A    HISTORY    OF   THE  Spring  1858 

during  my  stay  in  China  the  alleged  demoralizing 
and  debasing  evils  of  opium  have  been  and  are 
vastly  exaggerated.  I  have  neither  myself  seen  such 
vicious  consequences  as  are  frequently  ascribed,  nor 
have  I  been  able  to  obtain  authentic  proofs  or  infor- 
mation of  their  existence." 

On  one  point  the  Chinese  were  firm.  They  ob- 
jected to  the  admission  of  permanent  foreign  ambas- 
sadors at  Peking,  on  the  ground  that  their  residence 

Permanent 

unwelcome  m'Snt  be  attended  with  peril  to  the  envoys  as  well 
as  to  the  Chinese  Government.  This  argument  ap- 
peared the  more  plausible,  in  view  of  the  formidable 
Taiping  rebellion,  then  still  at  its  height.  After 
many  parleys,  Lord  Elgin  at  last  consented  to  waive 
this  demand  until  a  more  favorable  occasion,  but  he 
insisted  that  it  would  be  indispensable  for  a  British 
Minister  to  visit  Peking  during  the  following  year 
to  exchange  ratifications  of  the  treaty. 

The  Manchu  troops,  under  Tseng  Kwofan  and 
Chang  Kwoliang,  renewed  the  siege  of  Nanking. 
After  the  investment  had  continued  nearly  the  whole 
year,  Chung  "Wang  left  the  city  before  it  was  com- 
pletely surrounded.  He  collected  five  thousand  of 
his  Taiping  followers,  but  was  defeated  in  a  vigor- 
ous attempt  to  cut  his  way  through  a  large  imperial 
force.  At  length,  however,  he  succeeded  in  reach- 
ing Nanking  by  forced  marches. 

In  Japan,  during  spring,  a  Regent  had  been  ap- 
pointed to  take  the  place  of  the  Shogun.  He  was 
Ee  Kamono  Kami.  From  the  outset  he  declared 
for  the  new  order  of  things.  He  was  opposed  by 
Mito-ko,  the  leader  of  the  Daimios,  who  objected 


1858  summer  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1261 

to  the  foreigners.  To  quell  this  opposition  the  Re- 
gent ordered  the  arrest  of  Mito-ko  and  his  principal 
supporters  and  deprived  them  of  their  revenues.  As  upheaval 

in  Japan 

a  result  of  this  a  great  number  of  the  armed  retain- 
ers of  the  arrested  chieftains  took  to  the  road  as 
Ronins,  or  Floating  Men.  Later  in  the  year  it  was 
claimed  that  the  Shogun  had  died,  and  a  boy  was 
put  into  the  place  of  power.  Mito-ko  claimed  the 
place  for  his  own  son,  who  had  been  adopted  by  the 
third  son  of  the  ninth  Shogun.  Thereupon  a  num- 
ber of  Mito-ko's  foremost  retainers  were  arrested 
and  brought  to  Yeddo  for  trial.  The  judges  who 
refused  to  convict  them  were  degraded.  At  the 
same  time  the  Empress  intrigued  with  the  Regent 
to  marry  the  Emperor's  younger  sister  to  the  boy 
Shogun.  The  quarrel  between  the  Regent  and 
Mito-ko  became  more  serious.  Incidentally  it  hadMito.ko 
the  effect  of  opening  up  the  country  to  foreign  trade. 
Mito-ko  was  degraded  from  all  his  offices,  as  was  his 
natural  son,  the  Governor  of  Osaka.  Mito-ko's  son 
and  heir  was  commanded  to  keep  guard  on  his 
father.  His  chief  retainer  was  ordered  to  commit 
hari-kiri,  the  Japanese  form  of  suicide.  Some  of 
Mito-ko's  retainers  took  refuge  at  the  British  Lega- 
tion in  Tozenji.  Other  opponents  of  the  Regent 
were  treated  in  like  manner,  and  many  of  the  lesser 
chieftains  were  executed,  or  banished  to  outlying 
islands.  At  last,  Manabay,  the  former  Prime  Min- 
ister, who  was  cognizant  of  all  the  secrets  of  the  late 
coup  d'etat,  was  asked  to  withdraw.  Even  some  of  impending 

revolution 

the  imperial  household  came  under  the  ban. 
In  the   United  States  of  America,   the   State  of 


1262  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1868 

Illinois  was  this  year  the  arena  of  a  peculiar  con- 
test. Senator  Douglas  had  taken  so  prominent  a 
part  in  the  defeat  of  the  Lecompton  measure,  pro- 
viding a  special  constitution  for  Kansas,  that  many 
leading  Republicans  elsewhere  wanted  him  to  return 
to  the  Senate  by  a  unanimous  vote,  but  this  did  not 
find  favor  in  Illinois.  Abraham  Lincoln  presented 
himself  as  a  candidate  for  Douglas's  seat.  At 
American  Springfield,  June  17,  Lincoln  opened  his  canvass 

slavery 

issue         wita  tne  firm   declaration   that  the  Union  "cannot 


permanently  endure  half  slave  and  half  free."  Four 
months  afterward  Governor  Seward  at  Rochester, 
New  York,  on  October  25,  made  a  like  presentation 
of  what  was  to  come,  and  said:  "These  antagonistic 
systems  (free  and  slave  labor)  are  continually  com- 
ing into  close  contact.  It  is  an  irrepressible  conflict 
between  opposing  and  enduring  forces;  and  it  means 
that  the  United  States  must  and  will,  soon  or  late, 
become  either  an  entirely  slave-holding  or  entirely 
a  free-labor  nation."  Douglas  and  Lincoln  joined 
Lincoln-  issue,  and  an  'oratorical  contest  of  unequalled  inter- 

Douglas 

contest      est  was  fought  out  before  immense  audiences  up  to 
the  eve  of  the  State  election.     In  the  Legislature 
election,  Douglas  received  54  votes,  Lincoln  46. 
End  of  T^6  seven  years'  war  with  the  Seminoles  was  at 

warm°      last   brought  to  a  close.     It  had  cost  the  United 
States  $10,000,000  and  the  lives  of  1,466  men. 

The  Territorial  Legislature  of  Kansas  had  passed 
an  act  submitting  the  Lecompton  Constitution  to 
vote  on  June  4,  1858.  The  act  provided  that  "the 
rights  of  property  in  slaves  now  in  the  Territory 
shall  in  no  manner  be  interfered  with."  The  Mis- 


1868  Summer  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1263 

sourians  were  not  present  to  vote,  and  the  full  poll 
was — for  the  Lecompton  Constitution  with  slavery  Kansas"1 
128,  and  without  slavery  24;   against  the  Lecompton 
Constitution,  10,226.     Henceforth  Kansas  was  virtu- 
ally a  "free  State." 

In  June,  an  expedition  was  sent  against  the  Mor- 
mons.    General  Johnston  found  Salt  Lake  City  de-  Mormon 
serted,  and  the  Mormons  departed  South.     A  com-exped 
promise  was  at  length  entered  into,  and  peace  made 
by  Governor  Cummings. 

Two  steamers,  during  this  year,  began  to  lay  the 
Atlantic  cable  in  mid-ocean;  the  cable  parted  when 
five  miles  were  laid.  When  the  laying  of  the  cable 
was  completed,  on  August  5,  the  English  directors 
telegraphed  to  the  directors  in  America:  "Europe 
and  America  are  united  by  telegraph.  Glory  to  God 
in  the  Highest;  on  earth,  peace,  good- will  toward 
men."  Queen  Victoria  sent  a  message  to  President 
Buchanan  expressing  her  satisfaction  at  the  comple- 
tion of  the  work  so  likely  to  preserve  harmony  be- 
tween England  and  the  United  States.  The  message 
required  an  hour  for  its  transmission.  The  insula-  atiaiulc 
tion,  however,  proved  faulty,  and  on  September  4°a 
the  wire  ceased  to  work.  Another  company  had  to 
be  organized.  During  the. same  year  the  first  over- 
land mail  by  "pony  express"  arrived  from  San 
Francisco  at  St.  Louis  in  twenty-three  days  and 
four  hours.  The  new  State  of  Minnesota  was  ad- 
mitted. The  rights  of  the  Indians  had  been  surren- 
dered by  treaty  in  1851,  and  the  increase  in  popula- 
tion was  so  great  in  seven  years  as  to  entitle  the 
Territory  to  become  a  State. 


1264  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Autumn  1868 

Elisa  Rachel,  the  great  French  tragedienne,  died 
Rachei°     at  Toulon.     On  the  stage  of  Paris  she  shone  with- 
out a  rival  in  the  classic  masterpieces  of  Corneille, 
Racine  and  Voltaire.     In  1843,  her  reputation  may 
be  said  to  have  culminated  in  her  famous  appear- 
ance   as   "Phedre. "      In   "Adrienne    Lecouvreur" 
she  likewise  achieved  an  immense  success.     A  pro- 
fessional tour  through  England  and  America  in  1855 
Sara          broke  down  her  health.    Shortly  after  Rachel's  death 
Bemhardt  gara  Bemhardt  made  her  debut  in  Paris. 

Meanwhile  in  India  the  city  of  Gwalior  was  un- 
expectedly abandoned  to  the  rebels,  who  at  the  be- 
ginning of  June  had  18,000  men  under  arms  under 
Tantia  Topi,  with  all  the  artillery  of  Scindia.  Sir 
Hugh  Rose  again  went  to  the  front.  On  June  16, 
he  defeated  the  rebels  at  Morar,  and  on  the  18th, 
having  been  joined  by  a  column  under  Brigadier 
Smith,  he  stormed  and  captured  the  rebel  intrench- 
Napier's  ments-  With  6,000  men  and  thirty  field  pieces, 
Tantia  Topi  then  retreated,  but  two  days  afterward 
Brigadier  Robert  Napier,  who  became  Lord  Napier 
of  Magdala,  dashed  among  the  retreating  forces  with 
only  six  hundred  horsemen  and  six  field-guns,  put 
the  army  ofrSeveral  thousand  to  flight  and  recovered 
most  of  the  artillery.  This  action  was  regarded  as 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  exploits  in  the  whole  cam- 
paign. Tantia  Topi  evaded  pursuit  for  ten  months 
longer.  Making  his  way  to  the  Nerbuddar  River 
with  a  considerable  body  of  men,  he  still  clung  to 
the  hope  of  reaching  the  western  Dekhan,  and  there 
creating  a  new  Mahratta  empire  in  territory  which 
the  British  had  held  for  fifty  years.  He  was  driven 


1858  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1266 

back  by  the  Bombay  troops.     The  British  hunted 
him  all  over  India.    Late  in  December,  Lord  Clyde,  f^an 
who  had  been  Sir  Colin  Campbell,  was  able  to  an- 
nounce that  the  campaign  was  at  an  end. 

In  Mexico,  the  reactionary  party  returned  to 
power  with  the  new  provisional  government  of 
Zuloaga.  Most  of  the  liberal  measures  of  his  prede- 
cessors were  revoked.  The  laws  against  the  privi- 
leged orders  of  the  Church  and  of  the  army  were  an- 
nulled. The  greater  part  of  the  republic  'opposed 
this  change  of  system.  The  most  important  trad- 
ing towns  and  seaports  would  not  recognize  the 
authority  of  the  central  government.  Generals 
Miramon,  Osollo  and  others  were  sent  against  the 
rebels,  but  failed  to  pacify  the  country.  The 
lack  of  public  funds  led  to  such  doubtful  measures 
as  an  enforced  loan  and  high-handed  exactions  from 
foreign  commerce.  Formal  protests  against  this 
state  of  affairs  were  lodged  by  the  governments  of 
Great  Britain,  France  and  the  United  States,  but  re- 
mained unheeded  in  the  general  confusion  of  affairs, 

national 

In  the  province  of  Yucatan,  which  had  proclaimed  cations 
its  independence,  civil  war  raged.  Predatory  bands 
of  guerillas  terrorized  the  provinces  of  Puebla, 
Xalisco  and  Guanahuato,  and  even  penetrated  into 
the  suburbs  of  the  capital.  Robberies  and  military 
executions  became  every-day  affairs.  From  the 
island  of  St.  Thomas  the  exiled  Santa  Anna  issued 
a  proclamation  demanding  a  renewal  of  his  power. 
A  new  national  party  was  formed  at  Vera  Cruz 
under  the  leadership  of  Dr.  Beuito  Juarez,  an  edu- 
cated  Indian. 


1266  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1858 

No  sooner  had  the  reorganization  of  the~Danu- 
bian  principalities  been  settled  by  the  International 
Conference  which  met  early  in  the  year  than  the 
Louis  rea^  significance  of  Cavour's  stand  throughout  the 
controversy  became  apparent.  Louis  Napoleon  be- 
gan to  show  a  marked  sympathy  with  the  national 
cause  of  Italy.  The  French  Emperor's  interest  in 
Italian  affairs  was  genuine.  In  his  early  youth  he 
had  joined  the  society  of  Carbonari,  and  had  fought 
with  them  as  a  volunteer.  A  close  student  of  the 
great  Napoleon's  imperial  policy  and  of  French  re- 
publican aspirations,  he  believed  in  the  old  military 
doctrine  that  Savoy  should  belong  to  France  to  se- 
cure the  French  frontier  toward  the  south.  Savoy 
had  already  been  incorporated  with  France  from 
1792  to  1814,  so  that,  as  in  the  case  of  Alsace,  it  was 
a  popular  theory  in  France  that  the  people  of  the 
duchy  were  more  French  than  Italian.  Now  Louis 
Napoleon  and  Cavour  undertook  to  develop  their 
Italian  plans.  Two  incidents  about  this  time  gave 
an  immediate  stimulus  for  action.  One  Felice 
Orsini,  a  Roman  refugee,  with  other  conspirators, 
had  attempted  to  assassinate  the  French  Emperor 
with  an  infernal  machine.  As  the  Emperor  was 
driving  through  the  streets  of  Paris  three  shells  were 
exploded,  killing  two  persons  outright  and  wound- 
ing many.  Louis  Napoleon  escaped  unharmed. 
For  a  while  it  was  believed  that  the  relations  be- 
tween  the  French  Government  and  the  Sardinians 
would  become  strained;  but  Cavour  so  skilfully 
turned  the  situation  to  account  that  a  closer  under- 
standing resulted.  On  April  19,  Austria  sent  an 


1858  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  1267 

ultimatum  to  Sardinia  demanding  instant  cessation 
of  the  support  of  the  anti-Austrian  movement  in 
northern  Italy.  Cavour  lost  no  time  in  transmitting 
the  correspondence  to  the  French  envoy  in  Sardinia. 
Louis  Napoleon  invited  Cavour  to  meet  him  in  July  compactor 
at  Plombieres.  The  result  of  their  negotiations  was 
not  made  public,  nor  even  communicated  to  Louis 
Napoleon's  Ministers.  Although  he  revealed  cer- 
tain parts  of  the  arrangement  to  such  useful  men  as 
Mazzini  and  Garibaldi,  Cavour  divulged  the  whole 
plan  only  to  his  sovereign.  No  written  engagement 
was  drawn  up.  The  oral  agreement,  judging  from 
Cavour's  subsequent  admission,  was  that  if  Sardinia 
would  incite  Austria  to  hostilities  on  some  pretext 
that  would  admit  outside  intervention,  France  would 
interfere.  Austria  was  then  to  be  expelled  from 
Venetia  as  well  as  from  Lombardy.  Victor  Em- 
manuel was  to  become  king  of  Northern  Italy,  an- 
nexing thereto  the  Eoman  legations  and  the  prin- 
cipality of  Tuscany  with  adjacent  territory.  As  a 
reward  for  Louis  Napoleon's  aid,  Savoy,  and  pos- 
sibly Nice,  were  to  be  turned  over  to  France. 
Closer  relations  between  the  two  dynasties  were  to 
be  established  by  a  marriage  between  the  Emperor's 
cousin,  Prince  Jerome  Napoleon,  and  Victor  Em' 
manuel's  daughter,  Clotilde.  From  this  time  Ca- 
vour strained  every  nerve  to  bring  about  a  war 
before  Louis  Napoleon  might  draw  back.  To  ac-  Cavour., 
complish  these  ends  the  Italian  statesman  had  to 
play  a  dangerous  double  game.  Summoning  Gari- 
baldi, whose  revolutionary  aims  made  him  obnox- 
ious to  Louis  Napoleon,  Cavour  made  him  privy  to 


1268  A    HISTORY  OF   THE  1858 

his  warlike  plans.  Garibaldi  promised  to  take  the 
field  at  the  head  of  a  free  corps  of  his  own.  The 
participation  of  these  firebrands  in  the  coming  war 
Garibaldi's  ^d-  to  ^e  concealed  from  Louis  Napoleon.  On 
the  other  hand,  Garibaldi  was  kept  in  ignorance  of 
the  secret  clause  that  Nice,  his  own  birthplace,  was 
to  be  surrendered  to  the  French.  No  less  Machia- 
vellian were  Cavour's  labors  to  arouse  the  fighting 
spirit  of  his  sovereign's  Savoyards,  and  to  exact 
from  them  the  last  centesimo  for  the  coming  war, 
only  to  turn  their  own  country  over  to  a  foreign 
despot.  Odious,  too,  was  the  bargain  by  which  the 
young  daughter  of  his  sovereign  was  to  be  delivered 
over  to  so  hardened  a  roue  as  Prince  Jerome.  Well 
might  Cavour  exclaim,  like  Danton:  "Perish  my 
came,  perish  my  reputation,  if  only  Italy  arise." 


1859  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  1269 


C 


1859 

AVOUR'S  plan  was  to  incite  Austria  to  war 
in  midwinter,  so  that  her  troops  in  the  Alps 
might  have  to  bear  the  brunt  of  the  in- 


clement season.     Louis  Napoleon  approved  of  thisnipun-°n 

masks 

plan.  At  his  New  Year's  reception  to  the  foreign 
diplomats  he  addressed  the  Austrian  Ambassador  in 
words  suggestive  of  approaching  conflict.  It  re- 
called the  famous  scene  of  half  a  century  before 
when  Napoleon  Bonaparte  first  assailed  Prince  Met- 
ternich.  A  few  weeks  later  a  marriage  contract  was 
signed  between  Prince  Jerome  Napoleon  and  Prin- 
cess Clotilde  of  Savoy.  A  formal  treaty  of  offen- 
sive alliance  was  concluded  between  France  and 
Piedmont.  At  the  opening  of  the  Parliament  of 
Turin,  Victor  Emmanuel  declared  in  menacing 
words  that  he  could  no  longer  be  insensible  to  the 
cry  of  suffering  that  arose  from  the  Italians  of  north- 
ern Italy.  The  imminence  of  war  produced  a  vio-  French 
lent  counter-effect.  A  financial  panic  in  Pans  crisis 
created  havoc  among  Louis  Napoleon's  friends  at 
the  Bourse.  The  Emperor's  plans  for  industrial  and 
architectural  projects  in  Paris  and  the  provinces 
suffered  a  setback.  He  was  made  irresolute  and  lent 
a  willing  ear  to  England's  proffers  of  mediation. 
Lord  Cowley,  the  British  Ambassador  at  Paris, 


1270  A   HISTORY   OF   THE  Spring  1859 

went  to  Vienna  with  proposals  for  an  amicable  set- 
tlement in  Italian  affairs.  Louis  Napoleon  under- 
took to  withdraw  his  French  troops  from  Rome,  if 
Austria  would  abandon  its  protectorate  over  Modena 
and  Parma.  Cavour's  ardent  hopes  appeared  dashed 
to  the  ground.  Negotiations  at  Vienna  were  well 
under  way  when  Czar  Alexander,  encouraged  by  the 
French  Ambassador  at  St.  Petersburg,  proposed 
the  settlement  of  Italian  affairs  by  a  conference  of 
the  Powers.  To  this  Austria  agreed,  but  demanded 
as  a  preliminary  measure  that  Sardinia  should  dis- 
arm. Cavour  hastened  to  Paris  to  prevent  Louis 

Foreim      Napoleon  from  acquiescing  in  Austria's  demands. 

™fferedion  The  French  Emperor  was  made  to  feel  that  it  might 
not  be  safe  to  provoke  his  confidant  of  Plombi&res 
too  far.  King  Victor  Emmanuel  boldly  declined  to 
disarm  alone.  Great  Britain  at  this  crisis  proposed 
a  mutual  disarmament.  Louis  Napoleon  telegraphed 
to  Cavour  bidding  him  consent.  Cavour,  who  saw 
himself  at  the  culmination  of  all  his  intrigues,  was 
so  upset  when  this  telegram  came  that  his  secretary 
feared  that  he  would  commit  suicide.  In  bitterness 
of  heart  he  telegraphed  Sardinia's  consent.  Count 
Buol  von  Schauenstein  at  this  turn  of  affairs  played 
into  the  hands  of  his  opponents.  He  declined  the 
British  proposal  for  a  mutual  disarmament.  The 

misstep  Austrian  Cabinet  issued  another  ultimatum.  With- 
out qualification  and  under  threat  of  war  within 
three  days,  it  demanded  that  Sardinia  should  dis- 
arm at  once.  Cavour's  time  had  come.  He  had 
only  to  point  to  his  acceptance  of  England's  peace- 
ful proposal  to  throw  upon  Austria  the  odium  of 


1859  May  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1271 

flagrantly  breaking  the  peace  of  Europe.  Cavour's 
caustic  reply  was  taken  by  Austria  as  a  call  to  arms. 
On  April  29,  the  Austrian  troops  crossed  the  Ticino. 
A  French  declaration  of  war  promptly  followed. 

Francis  Giulay,  Count  of  Naros-Meneta,  was  made 
Commander-in-Chief  of  the  Austrian  army.  Thisitaiy 
soldier,  whose  services  in  the  past  had  been  largely 
confined  to  the  Ministry  of  War,  had  reached  his 
sixty-first  year.  His  military  administration  of  Lom- 
bardy  had  made  him  hated  throughout  Italy.  Under 
him  served  Generals  Benedek,  Zobel  and  Urban, 
three  able  commanders  who  had  distinguished  them- 
selves in  the  campaigns  of  1848-49.  Giulay's  man- 
agement of  the  early  campaign  in  Italy  afforded  a 
striking  illustration  of  his  incapacity.  For  several 
months  Austria  had  been  reinforcing  her  troops  in 
northern  Italy.  She  had  chosen  her  own  time  for 
making  war.  The  mountain  ranges  of  the  Alps 
stood  between  her  army  and  that  of  France.  The 
Italian  troops  gathered  in  Piedmont  were  despised 
by  the  Austrians.  It  seemed  inevitable  that  Turin 
must  fall  before  the  French  troops  could  take  the 
Austrians  from  the  rear.  With  Turin  as  a  strong 
military  centre,  the  Austrians  could  strike  with  ease 
in  any  direction.  Instead  of  marching  on  Turin,  or 
advancing  at  least  against  the  Italians  and  French 
in  turn,  Giulay  lingered  in  the  rich  region  of 
the  Po.  General  Zaldini,  a  soldier  of  the  Na- 
poleonic school,  threw  his  division  of  20,000  men 
along  the  banks  of  the  Dora  Baltea,  so  as  to  guard 
the  approaches  to  Turin  and  the  pass  of  Mont  Cenis. 
The  Italian  main  column,  under  command  of  Victor 


1272 


A    HISTORY   OF   THE 


May  1869 


Emmanuel,  was  posted  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Po, 
between  Valenza  and  Casale,  with  the  stronghold  of 
Alessandria  for  his  base.  "While  the  Austrians,  100,- 
000  strong,  lay  inactive,  French  detachments  crossed 
Mont  Cenis,  while  another  expedition,  under  the 
personal  command  of  Emperor  Napoleon,  Janded  at 
Genoa  on  May  12.  On  the  news  of  the  landing  of 

Napoleon    the  French  in  Genoa,  central  Italy  rose.     The  Aus- 

m.  at 

Genoa       trian  regents  and  petty  sovereigns  were  driven  from 

their  thrones.  Cavour's  commissioners  took  charge. 
With  the  Piedmontese  holding  their  positions  in 
the  front,  and  Garibaldi's  volunteers  already  skir- 
mishing at  Como,  the  French  marched  northward 
in  five  army  corps,  led  by  Canrobert,  MacMahon, 
D'Hilliers,  Niel  and  Prince  Napoleon.  They 
crossed  the  Po,  and  reached  Vercelli  before  the 
Austrians  Austrians  discovered  their  manoeuvres.  Then  Giu- 

outma-  .....  i          T»       i 

noeuvred  lay  withdrew  his  right  wing  over  the  Po  lest  he 
should  be  outflanked.  The  Italians  pressed  so  im- 
petuously that  they  exposed  Turin  to  attack.  Giu- 
lay  was  not  equal  to  the  emergency.  In  the  belief 
that  his  left  wing  was  about  to  be  attacked,  he  drew 
in  his  forces  on  Pavia  and  Piacenza.  The  allies 
effected  their  junction  without  hindrance.  When 
they  failed  to  cross  the  Po,  Giulay  ordered  a  recon- 
noissance  in  force.  Count  Stadion  with  12,000  foot, 
six  squadrons  of  cavalry  and  twenty  field  guns 
crossed  the  Po  on  May  20,  and  attacked  the  Italian 
position.  The  Hungarian  hussars  drove  back  the 
Piedmontese  lancers.  General  Sonnaz  called  for 
help  from  the  French  corps  of  Marshal  d'Hilliers. 
The  Austrians  had  already  captured  the  hamlet  of 


o"  aiuesn 


1859  May  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1273 

Genestrello  near  the  banks  of  the  Po,  when  a  rail- 
road train  brought  General  Forey  with  five  French 
battalions  and  two  guns.  The  French  tirailleurs 
drove  the  Austrians  out  of  Genestrello.  They  fell 
back  on  the  village  of  Montebello  on  the  Po,  and 
held  their  own  until  nightfall  in  the  churchyard. 
At  last  General  Forey  himself  led  the  charge  on  the  Montebell° 
church.  Stadion  ordered  a  general  retreat,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  throwing  his  troops  across  the  river  under 
cover  of  night.  The  moral  effect  of  this  first  victory 
was  great  throughout  Italy. 

On  the  following  day  Garibaldi  with  his  7,000  vol- 
unteers advanced  into  Lombardy  to  turn  the  Aus- 
trian right  flank.  A  flying  column  under  General 
Urban  sent  against  Garibaldi  found  him  intrenched 
at  Varese.  The  first  attack  of  the  Austrians  was 
repulsed.  During  the  night  Garibaldi  slipped  away. 
The  pursuing  Austrians  believed  he  had  taken 
refuge  in  Switzerland,  when  suddenly  he  appeared 
at  the  other  end  of  the  Austrian  line,  and  seized  all 
the  shipping  at  Como.  Steaming  up  and  down 
the  banks  of  the  lake,  Garibaldi  incited  the  country  ^ 
people  to  revolt.  The  Austrians  tried  to  drive  him 
out  of  Como,  but  found  his  position  too  strong  for 
such  an  attack.  Napoleon  III.  would  not  let  his 
troops  co-operate  with  Garibaldi's  irregular  follow- 
ers, but  that  leader  held  his  own  without  them,  and 
kept  Urban's  corps  from  the  French. 

Meanwhile  the  Piedmontese  had  crossed  the  Sesia 
and  defeated  the  Austrians  on  May  30,  at  Palestro. 
With  the  Austrians  occupied  here,  the  French 
crossed  further  north  and  advanced  eastward  on  the 


1274  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  May  1859 

Ticino.  To  stop  further  junction  of  the  allies 
the  Austrians  made  a  determined  attempt  to  recap- 
ture Palestro.  Zobel's  corps  nearly  succeeded  in 
crushing  the  Piedmontese  brigade  led  by  Victor 
Emmanuel.  Just  as  they  had  worked  around  to 
the  rear,  Canrobert's  vanguard  of  2,600  appeared 
on  the  scene.  The  Austrian  batteries  that  were  to 
Novara  cut  off  the  Italian  retreat  swung  around  on  the 
French.  To  reach  the  guns,  the  Zouaves  had  to 
cross  the  canal.  Their  first  platoons  were  mowed 
down  with  grape  and  canister.  The  others  got 
across,  and  storming  up  the  banks  of  the  canal, 
captured  the  batteries.  At  the  sight  of  his  allies, 
Victor  Emmanuel  ordered  a  last  charge.  Assailed 
from  two  sides,  the  Austrian  troops  tried  to  fall  back 
over  a  single  bridge  across  the  Brida.  Amid  inde- 
scribable confusion  the  Zouaves  captured  the  bridge. 
Nearly  a  thousand  Austrians  surrendered.  The 
remnants  of  Zobel's  column  fell  back  on  Robbio. 
Their  losses  aggregated  some  -4,000  men,  while  the 
allies  had  lost  2,400. 

During  the  heat  of  the  fight  the  French,  by  a 
rapid  march  on  the  left  flank,  moved  from  the  Po  to 
the  Sesia.  On  June  1,  the  French  Emperor  estab- 
lished his  headquarters  at  Novara.  In  a  series  of 
forced  marches  the  French  advanced  on  Milan.  By 
June  3,  MacMahon  had  already  crossed  the  Ticino 
and  captured  Turbigo.  Giulay's  army  lay  in  a  great 
semicircle  on  the  north  banks  of  the  Ticino,  with 
the  right  wing  guarding  the  approach  to  Milan  at 
Magenta  and  the  left  at  Abbia  Grassa.  The  Aus- 
trian line  was  so  far  extended  that  great  difficulties 


1859 June  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1275 

were  experienced  in  massing  the  troops  at  any  point. 
The  allied  troops,  controlling  the  railroad  lines  as 
they  did,  were  able  to  cover  the  ground  with  great 
rapidity.  At  the  village  of  Robechetto  a  regiment 
of  Algerian  Turcos  made  its  first  appearance  on  a 
European  battlefield.  Under  the  eyes  of  Emperor 
Napoleon,  the  French  vanguard  drove  the  Austrians 
out  of  Eobechetto.  Giulay  saw  that  he  had  been 
outflanked.  To  stop  the  allies'  advance  on  Milan, 

.    Austrians 

he  drew  in  his  troops  over  the  Ticino.  At  Mag 
and  Buffalora,  the  Austrian  commanders  received 
orders  to  break  down  the  bridges,  and  make  a  stand 
until  the  army  corps  stationed  at  Pavia  could  march 
to  their  assistance.  Some  idea  of  the  Austrian  trans- 
port service  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  half 
a  day  was  lost  in  bringing  up  the  powder  casks  with 
which  to  blow  up  the  bridges.  Before  the  bridges 
could  be  destroyed,  the  French  Emperor  with  his 
vanguard  arrived  at  the  bridge  of  Buffalora.  Fur- 
ther advance  there  was  postponed  until  a  pontoon 
bridge  at  San  Martino  should  be  strung  across  the 
Nebbiolo,  and  tidings  should  be  received  from  Mac- 
Mahon,  who  was  marching  on  two  roads  toward 
Magenta.  At  last  an  aide-de-camp  brought  the 
news  that  MacMahon  expected  to  reach  Magenta 
by  three  in  the  afternoon.  The  Algerian  troops 
under  General  Lefevre  were  ordered  to  storm  Buffa- 
lora. Reinforced  by  fresh  regiments,  the  Austrians 
held  their  ground  so  vigorously  that  the  situation 
of  the  French  vanguard  became  critical.  Counting 
on  MacMahon 's  support,  Napoleon  now  sent  his 
guards  to  seize  the  bridges  of  Magenta.  Three 


1276  A   HISTORY   OF   THE  June  1859 

times  in  succession  the  guards  succeeded  in  driving 
the  Austrians  back;  but  the  Austrians,  led  by  Gen- 
eral Reischach,  who  was  shot  through  the  leg,  re- 
turned to  the  attack,  and  all  but  annihilated  the 
guard.  It  was  long  after  three  o'clock,  yet  Mac- 
Mahon  did  not  appear.  The  Austrians  turned  the 
Magenta  ^renc^  Emperor's  right  flank,  and  it  appeared  as  if 
defeat  was  certain.  At  this  moment  came  the  thun- 
der of  MacMahon's  guns,  who  had  effected  his  junc- 
tion with  Niel  and  General  Canrobert.  The  important 
positions  of  Marcello  and  Buffalora  were  stormed  by 
the  French.  A  combined  assault  was  made  on  Ma- 
genta. In  the  face  of  desperate  odds,  the  Austrians 
held  their  ground  in  the  railroad  station  and  freight 
yard  at  Magenta.  At  length,  long  after  dark,  Mac- 
Mahon's troops  stormed  this  last  point,  and  drove 
the  Austrians  back  on  Carpenzoto  and  Robecco. 
Louis  Napoleon  raised  MacMahon  to  the  rank  of 
Marshal,  and  made  him  Duke  of  Magenta.  Em- 
press Eugenie  named  her  favorite  color  after  the 
battle,  and  that  peculiar  shade  of  red  became  the 
fashion  among  the  ladies  of  Paris.  Giulay  hoped  to 
renew  the  battle  on  the  morrow,  but  the  reinforce- 
ment of  the  French  position  by  the  Italians  and  the 
non-arrival  of  the  Austrian  reserves  from  Pavia  made 
another  contest  hopeless.  After  the  manner  of  his 
great  prototype,  Louis  Napoleon  minimized  his 
losses.  Only  5,000  casualties  were  conceded.  The 
Austrian  losses  were  12,000  men  and  281  officers. 
More  far-reaching  than  this  loss  in  men  was  the  loss 
of  military  prestige  and  the  strategic  consequences 
of  the  defeat.  It  was  impossible  for  the  Austrians 


1859  June  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1277 

to  defend  Milan.     They  retired  on  the  Adda.     On 
June  8,  Emperor  Napoleon  and  King  Victor  Em-  Suan' 
manuel  made  their  triumphal  entry  into  Milan. 
In  the  midst  of  these  new  disasters  to  Austria,  on  ~ 

Death  of 

June  11,  a  merciful  death  carried  off  the  most  con- Metternich 
spicuous  if  not  the  greatest  of  her  statesmen — Prince 
Metternich. 

Even  in  their  retreat  the  Austrian  soldiers  in  Italy 
were  harassed  by  the  victorious  allies.  Marshal 
d'Hilliers  attacked  Benedek's  column  in  the  rear 
at  Melignano,  and  drove  the  Austrians  out  of  the 
village  after  a  bloody  fight.  Benedek  hurried  on 
tp  Lodi.  On  June  15,  Garibaldi's  men  intercepted 
two  Austrian  battalions  at  Castelnebolo,  and  had  to 
be  driven  off  by  another  Austrian  detachment.  By 
this  time  Emperor  Francis  Joseph  had  arrived  at  the 
front.  To  the  delight  of  his  soldiers  he  relieved 
Giulay,  and  himself  took  the  supreme  command. 
All  central  Italy  had  arisen  against  the  Austrians, 
and  the  united  navies  of  France  and  Sardinia 
threatened  Venice.  Francis  Joseph  determined  to 
concentrate  his  troops  behind  the  Mincio,  with  the 
great  quadrilateral  fortresses  for  a  base.  The  Aus-  Joseph^ 

.    .  ,     ,    .  command 

trian  forces  were  divided  into  two  armies:  the  first, 
commanded  by  Count  Wimpffen,  lying  at  Mantua, 
while  the  second,  under  Count  Schlik,  stood  at  Cus- 
tozza.  The  French  headquarters  were  known  to  be 
on  the  banks  of  the  Chiese.  Francis  Joseph  gave 
orders  to  cross  the  Mincio  over  four  bridges,  and  to 
attack  the  French  position  on  June  25.  The  allies 
anticipated  the  movement.  At  two  o'clock  in  the 

morning  of  June  24,  they  advanced  in  force,   the 
XlXth  Century— Vol.  3— B 


1278  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  June  1859 

Piedmontese  corps  on  the  left,  those  of  Napoleon, 
MacMahon  and  D'Hilliers  in  the  centre,  with  Niel 
and  Canrobert's  corps  on  the  right.  At  five  in  the 
morning  their  vanguard  struck  the  advancing  Aus- 
trians. 

Soon  the  engagement  became  general.  The  Pied- 
montese struck  the  right  wing  of  the  Austrians  under 
Benedek.  In  the  centre,  Francis  Joseph,  with  two 
army  corps,  held  Cavraina,  Cassiano  and  Solferino. 
The  Austrian  left  wing  was  composed  of  three  corps, 
and  made  the  whole  line  of  battle  nearly  eight  miles 
long.  The  country  was  hilly,  intersected  by  streams 
and  ravines.  The  highest  point  was  a  square  church 
tower  at  Solferino  known  as  Spia  d'ltalia.  The  vil- 
lage of  Modelo  was  first  captured  by  the  French 
corps  under  General  Niel,  which  was  attacked  in 
turn  by  the  Austrian  cavalry.  The  fight  grew  so 
stubborn  that  two  army  corps  on  each  side  were 
drawn  into  the  struggle.  The  village  of  Robecco 
was  taken  and  retaken  a  number  of  times.  While 
the  battle  remained  indecisive  at  this  point,  Bene- 
dek's  corps  in  the  north  drove  the  Piedmonteae  from 
the  heights  of  San  Martino,  and  held  them  in  the 
face  of  repeated  assaults.  The  true  balance  of  the 
battle  lay  in  the  centre  at  Solferino.  Nine  times 
in  succession  Marshal  d'Hilliers  led  his  column  up 
the  slope  of  Solferino  under  the  eyes  of  both  Em- 
perors, only  to  be  driven  back  again  with  fearful 
loss.  The  Austrian  batteries  of  smooth-bore  cannon 
were  helpless  against  the  French  artillery.  Shortly 
after  noon  the  French  Emperor  in  person  led  his 
guards  to  the  storm,  shouting:  "Allons,  mes  vol- 


1859  June  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1279 

tigeurs,  culbutez-moi  tout  cela!"  The  guards  got 
nearly  to  the  crest  of  the  hill,  but  gave  way  under  a 
murderous  cross-fire  of  the  Tyrolese  sharpshooters. 
General  Forey  rallied  the  retreating  troops,  and  led 
them  back  to  the  charge,  only  to  be  driven  off  again. 
At  last  the  French  field  guns  galloped  up  behind 
the  charging  columns  of  the  infantry  and  supported 
the  attack  with  th^ir  quick  fire.  The  French  Zou- 
aves and  guards  got  over  the  trench  at  the  crest, 
and,  -after  a  wild  fight  in  the  streets  of  Solferino, 
remained  masters.  As  the  Austrians  were  forced 
back  into  Cavarina,  a  heavy  thunderstorm  burst 
over  the  field  of  battle.  At  last,  Emperor  Francis 
Joseph,  who  had  exposed  himself  regardless  of  peril 
throughout  the  battle,  ordered  a  general  retreat.  A 
final  dashing  charge  of  the  Hungarian  cavalry  safe- 
guarded the  wheeling  batteries  of  Austrian  artillery. 
During  the  night  the  Austrians  fell  back  across  the 
Mincio  to  seek  refuge  behind  the  walls  of  the  quad- 
rilateral fortresses.  Their  losses  were  some  25,000  Terrific 
men,  while  the  allies  admitted  a  loss  of  18,000.  Al-  °' 
together  more  than  300,000  men  with  500  cannon 
participated  in  the  battle. 

The  allies  crossed  the  Mincio  and  advanced  on  the 
famous  quadrilateral  of  fortresses.  Prince  Napoleon 
with  35,000  troops  joined  the  main  column.  The 
Piedmontese  invested  Peschiera.  Other  troops 
moved  on  Mantua  and  Verona.  On  the  Austrian 
side,  new  divisions  hastened  up  from  the  north  and 
east  to  the  support  of  the  still  unbroken  army. 
With  impressions  of  the  bloody  field  of  Solferino 
still  fresh,  however,  both  sides  shrank  from  another 


1280  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  July  1859 

encounter.  For  Austria  a  decisive  defeat  might 
have  serious  consequences  in  rebellious  Hungary. 
The  French  Emperor,  on  the  other  hand,  feared 
that  if  he  advanced  further  all  Germany  might  join 
Austria.  Garibaldi's  threatened  invasion  of  the  Ty- 
rol invited  German  interference.  A  war  upon  the 
Ehine  would  then  be  added  to  the  difficult  cam- 
paign before  the  Quadrilateral.  Louis  Napoleon 

sought  an  interview  with  Francis  Joseph  at  Villa- 
Truce  of 
viiiafranca  franca  on  July  9.     An   armistice  was   agreed  on. 

Two  days  later  the  two  sovereigns  met.  Francis 
Joseph  expressed  his  willingness  to  give  up  Lorn- 
bardy,  and  to  consent  to  the  establishment  of  an 
Italian  federation,  including  Venetia,  to  be  presided 
over  by  the  Pope.  He  insisted  on  retaining  Mantua, 
and  on  the  restoration  of  Modena  and  Tuscany  to 
their  deposed  sovereigns.  Cavour  protested  em- 
phatically against  the  arrangement.  Victor  Em- 
manuel, who  only  accepted  the  preliminaries  of 
Viiiafranca  with  reservations,  declined  to  enter 
any  Italian  league  of  which  a  province  governed 
by  Austria  should  form  a  part.  The  provisions 
of  Viiiafranca,  ratified  late  in  the  year  at  Zurich, 
Zurich  were  denounced  throughout  Italy.  Louis  Napoleon, 
hitherto  hailed  as  a  liberator,  was  reviled  as  a 
traitor  to  the  Italian  cause.  Cavour  resigned  his 
portfolio.  His  last  act  of  office  was  to  despatch 
ten  thousand  muskets  to  Farini  at  Modena.  Farini, 
instead  of  disbanding  his  forces  and  returning  to 
Turin,  as  bidden  by  Cavour's  successor,  Rattazzi, 
renounced  his  Piedmontese  citizenship  and  accepted 
the  dictatorship  of  Modena.  When  the  Duke  of 


1859  Autumn  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1281 

Modena  threatened  to  return  in  force  from  Austria, 
the  whole    population  was    mobilized,  -and   Parma 
joined  forces  with  Modena.     In  the  Komagna  the 
provisional  government  maintained  itself.    Tuscany,  Italians 
too,  declared  for  a  national  union  and.  made  common  dlssatli 
cause  with  her  neighbors. 

As  Cavour  put  it:  "Before  Villafranca  the  union 
of  Italy  was  a  possibility;  after  Villafranca  it  be- 
came a  necessity."  Mazzini  proposed  to  establish 
the  Italian  union  under  the  House  of  Savoy  by 
overthrowing  the  government  of  Venetia,  central 
Italy,  with  Naples  and  Sicily,  if  Victor  Emmanuel 
would  undertake  to  head  any  armed  resistance  to 
foreign  powers  that  might  arise  from  outside  inter- 
vention. Victor  Emmanuel  knew  that  his  forces 
were  insufficient  for  such  an  enterprise  and  declined 
to  countenance  the  project.  Mazzini  was  confirmed 
in  his  distrust  toward  the  House  of  Savoy.  He  per- 

r         Revolu- 

suaded  Garibaldi  to  join  him  in  his  efforts  to  estab- 
lish  a  national  Italian  Republic.  Garibaldi  under- 
took to  lead  an  expedition  into  the  Romagna.  At 
this  very  moment  the  French  Government  addressed 
a  solemn  warning  to  Victor  Emmanuel  against  the 
annexation  of  the  Romagna.  Garibaldi's  enterprise, 
if  successful,  was  bound  to  prove  fatal  to  the  aspira- 
tions of  the  House  of  Savoy.  In  this  crisis  Victor 
Emmanuel  himself  invited  Garibaldi  to  Turin,  and 
implored  him  to  postpone  a  project  which  would 
only  result  in  disaster  for  the  national  cause  of 
Italy.  Garibaldi  resigned  his  command,  and  with- 
drew with  expressions  of  cordiality  for  the  King, 
undisguised  contempt  for  his  advisers. 


1282  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  Autumn  1859 

The  discovery  of  a  secret  treaty  of  alliance  be- 
tween the  Papal  Government  and  Austria  at  last 
overcame  Louis  Napoleon's  reluctance  to  offend 
the  clerical  party  of  France.  He  resolved  to  meet 
the  national  demand  of  Italy  for  the  formation  of 
a  strong  northern  kingdom  under  Victor  Emman- 
uel, and  at  the  same  time  to  garner  in  his  promised 
harvests  by  annexing  Nice  and  Savoy  to  France. 
The  French  Emperor's  intentions  were  foreshadowed 
about  Christmas  time  by  the  publication  in  one  of 
"The Pope  the  official  organs  in  Paris  of  an  essay  entitled  "The 
congress"  Pope  and  the  Congress. ' '  This  essay  was  evidently 
"inspired,"  if  not  actually  dictated,  by  Louis  Napo- 
leon himself.  While  discussing  the  Emperor's  re- 
cent proposition  of  an  International  Congress  on  the 
affairs  of  Italy,  the  essay  propounded  the  doctrine  that 
the  Pope's  authority  would  be  materially  increased 
if  his  temporal  powers  were  reduced  to  the  narrowest 
limits.  The  lost  revenue  to  the  Holy  See,  it  was 
proposed,  might  be  made  up  by  a  yearly  annuity 
granted  to  the  Pope  by  the  Catholic  Powers  of  the 
world.  The  appearance  of  this  essay  created  a  sen- 
sation. Pope  Pius  IX.  protested  that  he  would  not 
join  in  the  proposed  Congress  unless  the  doctrine  to 
which  such  publicity  had  been  given  were  disavowed 
by  France.  Louis  Napoleon  replied  through  his 
Ambassador  at  Rome  that  the  Holy  Father  might 
do  much  worse  than  accept  such  proposed  annuities, 
and  that  he  might  as  well  give  up  all  claim  Nto  the 
Pope's  Bomagna,  since  this  province  was  lost  to  him  al- 

temporal 

threatened  rea<ty*     ^ne  P°Pe  retorted  that  he  could  not  cede 
what   Heaven   had    granted    in    perpetuity    to  the 


1859  Autumn  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1283 

Church,  and  called  upon  the  Powers  to  clear 
the  Romagna  of  Piedmontese  interlopers.  The  at- 
titude assumed  by  the  Pope  afforded  a  good  pretext 
for  Napoleon  to  abandon  the  plan  of  a  European 
Congress,  which  had  already  been  discountenanced 
by  the  governments  of  Great  Britain  and  Russia. 
.  Friedrich  Heinrich  Alexander  Baron  von  Hum- 
boldt,  the  great  traveller  and  naturalist,  died  on 
May  6,  in  his  ninetieth  year.  Humboldt's  scientific 

Alexander 

explorations  began  with   the   Nineteenth  Century,  yon 

y     Humboldt 

He  explored  the  Orinoco  River  and  the  upper  part 
of  the  Rio  Negro,  embracing  the  tract  between 
Quito  and  Lima,  and  then  the  region  between  the 
City  of  Mexico  and  the  Gulf,  as  well  as  the  island 
of  Cuba.  On  his  return,  in  1804,  Humboldt  brought 
with  him  an  immense  mass  of  fresh  knowledge  in 
geography,  climatology,  geology,  botany,  zoology, 
meteorology,  and  almost  every  other  branch  of  nat- 
ural science,  as  well  as  in  ethnology  and  political 
statistics. 

After  the  completion  of  his  great  work  on  this 
subject,  Von  Humboldt  was  invited  by  Czar  Nicholas 
to  lead  a  scientific  expedition  into  Siberia  and  Central 
Asia,  the  results  of  which  were  published  in  his 
"Central  Asia."  In  1845,  appeared  the  first  vol- 
ume of  Humboldt's  famous  "Cosmos,"  avast  and  "Cosmos" 
comprehensive  survey  of  natural  phenomena,  in 
which  Humboldt's  idea  of  the  unity  of  forces 
which  control  the  various  manifestations  of  nature 
found  expression.  Soon  after  the  completion  of 
this  great  work  the  aged  explorer  died. 

The  last  spasms  of  the  Indian  mutiny  spent  them- 


1284 


A    HISTORY    OF   THE 


Summer  1859 


End  of 

Indian 
mutiny 


selves  during  the  spring  of  this  year.  Tantia  Topi, 
the  lieutenant  of  Nana  Sahib,  held  out  obstinately  in 
the  field  after  several  reverses.  He  was  at  length 
completely  hemmed  in  by  the  British.  Deserted  by 
most  of  his  followers,  he  surrendered  in  April. 
He  was  put  on  trial  for  his  share  in  the  Cawnpore 
massacre,  and  was  hanged  like  a  common  criminal. 
The  captive  King  of  Delhi  was  brought  back  from 
South  Africa,  and  was  finally  confined  at  Bangoon 
in  British  Burma. 

England's  insistence  on  the  promised  exchange 
of  the  Chinese  peace  ratifications  within  the  sacred 
precincts  of  Peking  precipitated  another  Chinese 
war.  Frederick  Bruce,  who  had  been  secretary  to 
his  brother,  Lord  Elgin,  at  Hong  Kong,  was  ap- 
pointed Great  Britain's  envoy  for  the  exchange 
of  ratifications.  In  June,  Bruce  reached  Hong 
Kong,  and  proceeded  to  Shanghai,  where  he  was 
met  by  the  Imperial  Commissioners  Kwaliang  and 
Hwshana,  who  tried  to  dissuade  him  from  pushing 
through  to  Peking.  Bruce  pushed  on.  His  arrival 
from  cmna  at  the  mouth  of  the  Peiho  was  preceded  by  a  British 
squadron  under  Admiral  Hope.  The  Admiral  sent 
a  notification  to  the  Chinese  in  command  of  the  Taku 
forts  that  the  English  envoy  was  coming.  The  no- 
tification was  ill  received.  With  the  sanction  of 
Bruce,  Admiral  Hope  determined  to  make  a  demon- 
stration. On  June  25,  the  attack  on  the  Taku  forts 
began.  Three  English  gunboats  were  sunk,  and 
most  of  the  other  ships  were  badly  damaged.  An 
attempted  land  attack  fared  even  worse,  it  was  re- 
pulsed with  severe  loss  to  the  British.  More  than 


British 
demands 


1859  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1285 

300  marines  and  bluejackets  were  killed  and 
wounded.  The  British  fleet  had  to  withdraw  to?lkSu°of 
Hong  Kong  for  repairs,  while  Commissioner  Bruce 
returned  to  Shanghai.  The  anti-foreign  party  in 
China  triumphed.  Prince  San-Ko-Lin-Sin,  the 
Manchu  General  who  had  checked  the  advance 
of  the  Taiping  rebels,  became  master  of  the  situa- 
tion. Meanwhile  England  and  France  entered  into 
negotiations  for  further  hostile  demonstrations.  The 
negotiations  dragged  so  long  that  the  projected  joint 
expedition  had  to  be  postponed  until  the  following 
year.  An  American  treaty  with  China  had  been 
negotiated  on  June  13,  at  Tien-tsin. 

In  the  United  States,  the  vexed  question  of  the 
status  of  Kansas  at  length  reached  a  definite  settle- 
ment. In  January,  the  Territorial  Commission  of 
Kansas  had  ordered  a  popular  vote  on  calling  an- 
other Constitutional  Convention.  This  was  adopted 
in  March  by  a  popular  majority  of  3,881  votes. 
In  midsummer,  the  new  State  Convention  met 
Wyandotte.  It  framed  an  anti-slavery  Constitution, 
while  restricting  the  suffrage  to  white  male  persons. 

Daniel  Webster  had  scornfully  scouted  a  sugges- 
tion that  New  Mexico  might  be  given  to  slavery. 
Yet  the  suggestion  that- the  treaty  with  Mexico iJ 
might  "re-enact  the  laws  of  God"  had  scarcely 
died  out  of  the  public  ear,  when  that  Territory,  in 
1859,  proceeded  to  do  the  very  thing  which  Webster 
had  regarded  as  inconceivable. 

At-the  same  time  the  Territory  of  Oregon  was  ad- 
mitted as  a  State.  Gold  was  now  found  in  Oregon. 
Other  important  mineral  discoveries  were  made  at 


1286  A    HISTORY    OF   THE  Summer  1869 


Oil  dis- 
coveries 


the  same  time.  In  August,  oil  was  struck  at  Titus- 
ville,  Pennsylvania,  at  a  depth  of  seventy-one  feet. 
It  was  the  first  American  oil-well.  A  less  welcome 
discovery  was  that  of  the  destructive  potato  beetle. 
Appearing  in  swarms  in  Colorado,  the  insects  made 
their  way  eastward  through  Nebraska,  Iowa,  Illinois 
and  Ohio  to  the  Northeastern  States.  In  spite  of 
all  private  and  public  precautions,  the  spread  of  this 
insect  pest  could  not  be  prevented. 

At  the  instance  of  Louis  Napoleon,  who  vied 
with  his  great  uncle  in  his  appreciation  and  public 
recognition  of  scientific  achievements,  the  French 
Government  presented  Morse  with  an  award  of 
80,000  francs  for  introducing  the  telegraph. 

Adelina  Patti,  the  singer,  who  had  recently  made 
her  de*but  in  Santiago  de  Cuba,  appeared  for  the 
first  time  at  Castle  Garden  in  New  York  and  took 
Americans  by  storm. 

Rufus  Choate,  one  of  the  greatest  of  American 
lawyers,  died  on  July  13,  at  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia. 
Admitted  to  practice  in  1823,  he  immediately 
placed  himself  in  the  front  rank  of  the  profession 
and  became  the  leader  of  the  Massachusetts  bar. 
In  1841,  he  was  elected  by  his  State  to  fill  the  va- 
cancy left  by  Daniel  Webster.  His  speeches  on  the 
Oregon  question,  the  tariff,  the  annexation  of  Texas 
and  other  issues  gave  him  a  national  reputation  as 
choate  an  orator  and  statesman.  Upon  Webster's  re-elec- 
tion to  the  Senate  in  1845,  he  returned  to  the  prac- 
tice of  the  law,  in  which  he  was  busily  engaged'when 
he  died.  He  was  one  of  the  foremost  American  ad- 
vocates of  his  time. 


1859  Autumn  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1287 

Washington  Irving,  the  American  essayist  and 
romancer,  died,  at  the  age  of  seventy-six,  near ton^nring 
Tarrytown.  The  spirit  of  American  tales  of  folk-lore 
was  infused  by  Irving  in  his  whimsical  "History  of 
New  York,"  or  in  such  charming  stories  as  "Rip 
Van  Winkle"  and  "A  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow." 
With  Paulding  he  engaged  in  a  serial  publication 
entitled  "Salmagundi."  It  was  filled  with  clever 
satire  upon  the  foibles  of  the  day,  and  was  imme- 

His  works 

diately  successful.  Irving's  burlesque  "History  of 
New  York"  grew  out  of  this.  The  "Sketch  Book," 
was  a  collection  of  light  essays  on  European  travel. 
Other  works  were  "Bracebridge  Hall,"  written  in 
Paris,  and  the  "Tales  of  a  Traveller,"  written  in 
Dresden,  followed  by  a  "History  of  the  Life  and 
Voyages  of  Christopher  Columbus,"  published  in 
1838.  In  Spain,  Irving  also  collected  the  material 
for  his  "Conquest  of  Granada,"  "The  Alhambra," 
"Mohammed  and  his  Successors,"  and  the  "Legends 
of  the  Conquest  of  Spain."  His  last  and  most  elab- 
orate work  was  his  "Life  of  Washington,"  pub- 
lished in  five  volumes.  His  death  occurred  soon  after 
its  completion.  With  Cooper,  Poe  and  Emerson, 
Washington  Irving  succeeded  in  carrying  the  repu- 
tation of  American  letters  beyond  the  seas.  He  was 
the  first  of  the  long  line  of  literary  diplomats  chosen 
to  represent  their  country  abroad.  Thus  Thackeray 
happily  toasted  Irving  as  "The  first  Ambassador 
from  the  New  World  of  letters  sent  to  the  Old." 
Hinton  R.  Helper  had  written  a  book:  "The  Im- 

Helper's 

pending   Crisis   in   the   South— How   to  Meet  It."book 
Representative  Clark  of  Missouri  proposed  a  reso- 


1288  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  Autumn  1859 

lution  asserting  "that  no  member  of  the  House  who 
has  indorsed  and  recommended  it  is  fit  to  be  Speaker 
of  this  House."  The  book  had  been  recommended 
in  a  circular  signed  by  two-thirds  of  the  Republican 
members  of  the  preceding  Congress.  A  fierce  de- 
bate on  this  matter  went  on  for  several  days,  simul- 
taneously with  the  discussion  in  the  Senate  on  the 
John  Brown  affair. 

On  the  night  of  October  16,  John  Brown,  the  self- 
chosen  liberator  of  Southern  slaves,  entered  the  State 
of  Virginia  at  Harper'sTerry  with  a  party  of  twenty- 
one  armed  followers.  His  avowed  object  was  to  put 
an  end  to  slavery  by  inciting  an  insurrection  of 
slaves  in  Virginia.  Brown's  party  seized  the  United 
States  Arsenal  at  Harper's  Ferry,  and  kidnapped 
several  prominent  residents  to  be  held  as  hostages. 
Brown's  Not  a  negro  rose  at  their  summons.  By  the  follow- 

raid 

ing  morning  the  alarm  had  been  given  and  the 
militia  of  the  surrounding  counties  were  summoned 
to  arms.  Under  orders  from  Washington,  Colonel 
Robert  E.  Lee,  with  a  battalion  of  soldiers  marched 
on  Harper's  Ferry.  They  reached  there  on  the 
evening  of  the  same  day.  Meanwhile  Brown  with 
his  followers  and  hostages  had  barricaded  them- 
selves in  a  stone  fire-engine  house  of  the  arsenal 
yard.  They  kept  up  a  desultory  fire  on  the  militia- 
men that  streamed  into  the  town.  During  the  night 
Robert  E  tne  mariQes  surrounded  the  house.  At  daylight  of 
Lee's  part  ^Q  following  morning,  Colonel  Lee  sent  Lieutenant 
Stuart  to  demand  the  surrender  of  the  insurgents, 
to  be  held  subject  to  the  orders  of  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States.  Brown  refused  to 


1859  Autumn  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1289 

capitulate,  but  asked  for  an   opportunity  to  fight 
in  the  open. 

Finding  that  nothing  but  force  would  avail,  Col- 
onel Lee  gave  the  order  for  the  assault,  and  the 
soldiers  stormed  the  arsenal  yard,  broke  down 
the  doors  of  the  engine-house,  and  captured  the 
inmates.  The  party  had  lost  several  men  in  killed 
and  wounded.  John  Brown  himself  was  severely 
wounded.  The  incident  created  intense  excitement 
throughout  America.  Brown  at  first  was  turned 
over  to  the  District-Attorney  of  Washington,  to 
be  tried  in  the  United  States  Courts  for  his  seizure 
of  a  Federal  arsenal  and  armed  resistance  to  the 
government  troops.  The  State  authorities  of  Vir- 
ginia demanded  his  surrender  for  his  attempt  to 
incite  an  insurrection  of  the  slaves,  a  crime  against 
the  laws  of  Virginia.  The  demand  was  complied 
with,  and  Brown  with  his  followers  was  tried  in 
the  court  of  the  county  where  the  offence  was  com- 
mitted. He  was  defended  by  able  attorneys  from 
the  free  States,  who  volunteered  to  aid  him.  As  he 
frankly  confessed  that  his  object  had  been  to  incite 
insurrection  among  the  slaves,  "he  was  practically 
self-convicted.  With  six  of  his  companions  he  wasexecuti°° 
condemned  to  be  banged.  The  sentence  was  exe- 
cuted on  December  2,  at  Charlestown.  Brown's 
raid  and  his  miserable  fate  only  served  to  intensify 
the  hostility  between  the  men  of  the  Northern  and 
Southern  States.  The  manner  of  his  death  caused 
Brown  to  be  regarded  as  a  martyr  by  those  who 
sympathized  with  his  aspirations,  whereas,  in  the 
South,  the  raid  was  regarded  with  much  show  of 


1290  A   HISTORY    OF   THE  Winter  185 

reason  as  the  work  of,  a  deliberate  conspiracy 
of  certain  abolitionist  leaders  of  Boston. 

Thomas  Babington  Macaulay,  the  distinguished 
Death  of  historian»  poet,  orator  and  politician,  died,  on  De- 
Macauiay  cember  28,  at  his  residence  "Holly lodge,"  in  Ken- 
sington. Lord  Macaulay's  first  contribution  to  the 
"Edinburgh  Review"  was  the  brilliant  essay  on 
Milton,  which  at  once  fixed  public  attention  on  the 
young  writer.  His  subsequent  contributions  to  the 
great  Whig  review  were  of  the  same  high  order. 
In  1830,  he  entered  Parliament  as  a  member  for 
Calne,  and  soon  distinguished  himself  as  one  of  the 
ablest  debaters  on  the  Whig  side.  Lord  Grey  took 
him  into  his  Administration.  Failing  to  agree  with 
the  government  on  the  Negro  Emancipation  Ques- 
tion, he  tendered  his  resignation,  but  was  retained 
in  his  post.  Having  been  returned  to  Parliament  in 
1832,  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  Supreme 
Council  of  India,  and  resigned  his  seat  to  accept 
Essayist's  that  post.  The  tedium  of  the  long  voyage  to  India 

career  ,  . ,     ,   .'         . 

was  beguiled  by  the  composition  of  his  unique  essay 
on  Lord  Bacon.  Wiiile  in  India,  Macaulay  drew  up 
a  code  of  laws  for  the  Indian  Empire  which  failed 
of  acceptance,  and  also  accumulated  material  for 
his  splendid  essays  on  Olive  and  Hastings.  On  the 
death  of  his  father  he  returned  to  England  in  1838, 
and  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Edinburgh.  At 
the  same  time  he  was  made  Secretary  of  War. 
Shortly  after  he  left  that  post  in  1842,  he  brought 
out  his  famous  "Lays  of  Ancient  Eome. "  Next 
came  his  "History  of  England  from  the  Accession 
of  James  the  Second."  The  "History,"  unfinished 


1859  Winter  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1291 

as  it  is,  placed  its  author  by  the  side  of  Hume, 
Lingard,  and  other  leading  English  historians.  As^H?s*ory"S 
a  historical  essayist,  he  was  unequalled  during  the 
Nineteenth  Century.  Soon  after  the  publication  of 
the  early  parts  of  the  History  of  England,  Macaulay 
was  appointed  Professor  of  History  at  the  Koyal 
Academy,  and  was  presently  raised  to  the  peerage 
under  the  title  of  Lord  Macaulay  of  Kothley.  .  Be- 
fore he  enjoyed  an  opportunity  of  addressing  his 
fellow  members  in  the  House  of  Peers  he  died  of 
heart  disease.  His  body  was  buried  in  Westminster 
Abbey.  A  fifth  volume  of  Macaulay's  history, 
compiled  from  his  posthumuous  papers,  and  com- 
pleting the  work  to  the  death  of  William  III.,  was 
brought  out  by  Lady  Trevelyan.  The  same  year 
witnessed  the  death  of  Hallam,  another  eminent  jjl^J* 
English  historian.  But  Hallam  had  survived  for 
some  time  his  powerful  intellect,  while  that  of 
Macaulay  appeared  unimpaired  until  the  last  mo- 
ment of  his  brilliant  career. 

By  far  the  most  important  book  which  appeared 
during  the  year  was  Charles  Darwin's  "Origin  of 
Species  by  Means  of  Natural  Selection,  or  the  ^origin  of 
Preservation  of  Favored  Species  in  the  Struggle  P 
for  Life."  The  work,  received  with  violent  oppo- 
sition by  most  naturalists,  gave  scientists  a  new 
insight  into  the  processes  of  nature,  and  showed 
selective  influence.  Thus  Darwin  accounted  for  the 
preservation  of  variation  in  species.  The  "Origin  of 
Species"  effected  a  lasting  revolution  in  the  funda- 
mental beliefs  of  men,  and  must  be  reckoned  one 
of  the  greatest  works  produced  during  the  century. 


1292  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  Winter  1856 

In  Mexico,  General  Zoloaga,  insufficiently  sup- 
ported as  he  was  by  the  clerical  party,  found  he 
could  no  longer  maintain  himself,  and  resigned. 
His  successor  was  General  Miramon.  The  first 
measures  of  the  new  President  were  decrees  re- 
scinding the  illegal  forced  loans  of  his  predecessor, 
J^M^CO  and  promising  indemnities  to  the  injured  interests 
of  England  and  France.  Miramon  failed  to  obtain 
recognition  from  the  United  States.  After  the  re- 
call of  Minister  Forsyth,  the  American  Legation 
was  withdrawn  from  the  City  of  Mexico.  Forsyth's 
successor  went  to  Vera  Cruz,  where  he  entered  into 
negotiations  with  the  victorious  Juarez.  On  De- 
cember 14,  far-reaching  concessions  to  the  United. 
States  were  granted  by  Juarez.  Routes  of  trade 
were  opened  to  American  commerce  over  the  Isth- 
mus of  Tehuantepec,  over  the  Rio  Grande  from 
Mazatlan  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  from  Guaymas 

Juarez 

{^united1  *n*°  Arizona.  American  troops  were  to  be  permitted 
to  pursue  Indians  and  guerillas  across  the  border  of 
Mexico,  with  other  rights  of  intervention.  For  these 
concessions,  Juarez  obtained  a  financial  subsidy  of 
$8,000,000  from  the  United  States. 


18W  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1293 


1860 

AT  THE  opening   of   the   Corps   Legislatif  in 
France,    the    change    of    Louis   Napoleon's 
foreign   policy  was  indicated  by  the  resig- 
nation  of   Count  Valevski  as  Minister  of  Foreign 
Affairs.     He  was  succeeded  by  Thouvenel,  an  ad- 
vocate of  Italian  union.     Within  a  fortnight  Cavour  Italian 

affairs 

was  recalled  to  power  at  Turin.  The  time  had  come 
for  Cavour  to  fulfil  the  pledges  of  Plombieres. 
True,  the  Austrians  still  held  Venice;  but  Napo- 
leon's troops  lay  at  Milan,  and  their  presence  alone 
gave  him  the  upper  hand  in  his  dealings  with 
Cavour.  In  vain  did  the  Italian  statesman  try  to 
squirm  out  of  this  hateful  predicament  by  inviting 
England's  good  offices  toward  the  withdrawal  of 
French  and  Austrian  troops  from  Italy.  The  prop- 

Cavour's 

ositions  made  by  the  English  Foreign  Office  led  the 
Austrian  Cabinet  to  acknowledge  that  the  imperial 
troops  would  not  be  mobilized  in  behalf  of  the  de- 
posed sovereigns  of  Tuscany  and  Modena.  The 
French  Emperor  was  quick  to  construe  this  as  an 
admission  that  the  stipulations  of  Villafranca  were 
no  longer  enforced.  To  the  implied  annexation  of 
Parma,  Modena  and  the  Romagna  by  Victor  Em- 
manuel, he  stated  France  could  not  give  her  consent 
unless  her  military  frontier,  threatened  by  the  for- 
mation so  strong  a  State  on  her  borders,  were  recti- 


1294  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Spring  i860 

fied  by  the  acquisition  of  Nice  and  Savoy.  Cavour 
found  a  way  out  of  his  dilemma  by  resorting  to  the 
Napoleonic  expedient  of  a  so-called  plebiscite.  He 
gave  orders  that  a  popular  vote  on  these  questions 
should  at  once  be  taken  in  Savoy  and  Nice,  as  well 
as  in  the  States  of  Parma,  Modena,  Tuscany  and 
the  Romagna.  The  elections  came  off  early  in 
March.  The  desired  results  were  obtained.  The 
inhabitants  of  Nice  and  Savoy  by  an  apparently 
overwhelming  vote  declared  for  union  with  France. 
co^fu-ne  Those  of  the  other  north  Italian  States  declared  with 
equal  unanimity  their  desire  for  union  with  Pied- 
mont and  Sardinia.  Armed  with  this  popular  fiat, 
Cavour  checked  Louis  Napoleon's  plan  for  the 
recognition  of  a  separate  government  in  Tuscany. 
France  had  to  content  herself  with  the  easy  acquisi- 
tion of  Nice  and  Savoy.  The  annexation  of  these 
choicest  provinces  of  Italy  by  France  was  viewed 
with  keen  displeasure  by  the  other  Powers  of  Eu- 
rope. In  Italy  itself  a  storm  of  indignation  burst. 
For  Victor  Emmanuel  the  cession  of  Savoy  meant 
a  surrender  of  the  home  of  his  race.  For  Garibaldi 
it  meant  the  sale  of  his  own  birthplace.  In  the  first 
Parliament  of  United  Northern  Italy,  convoked  in 
First  April,  Cavour  had  to  face  the  storm.  Garibaldi, 
Parliament  unseated  as  a  Deputy  from  Nice,  publicly  quitted 
the  Parliament  with  words  of  bitter  scorn.  Cavour 
replied  to  the  imprecations  that  were  hurled  at  him 
with  a  masterly  speech,  justifying  his  policy  and 
exacting  for  it  the  ratification  of  the  Parliament. 
Garibaldi's  continued  reproaches  he  bore  in  silence. 
Not  until  he  was  on  the  point  of  death  did  Cavour 


1860  Spring  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1295 

make  answer  to  Garibaldi's  burning  words:  "The 
act  that  made  this  gulf  between  us  was  the  most 
painful  duty  of  my  life.  By  what  I  felt  myself  I 
could  judge  what  Garibaldi  must  have  felt.  If  he 
refused  to  forgive  me  I  cannot  reproach  him." 

Garibaldi  did  not  waste  time  in  vain  regrets. 
His  ardent  spirit  found  new  fields  to  conquer  in 
the  south.  King  Bomba  of  Sicily  had  died  a  few 
days  after  the  battle  of  Magenta.  After  Garibaldi's 
renunciation  of  the  projected  march  on  Rome  (dur- 
ing the  previous  year),  rumors  spread  to  Sicily  that 
lie  might  be  expected  there.  In  the  hope  of  hasten- 
ing his  expedition  an  ill-prepared  insurrection  was 
tried  at  Palermo  early  in  April.  Garibaldi  was  then 
gathering  his  famous  "Thousand"  at  Genoa.  The 
fiasco  of  Palermo  was  so  discouraging  that  it  was 
decided  to  postpone  the  project  of  invasion  as  hope- 
less  for  the  present.  Cavour  now  determined  to 
act.  Victor  Emmanuel  wrote  to  Francis  II.,  the 
new  King  of  the  Sicilies,  that  unless  he  changed 
his  anti-Italian  policy  the  Piedmontese  Government 
would  be  driven  to  side  against  him.  The  menace 
was  wasted.  Cavour  resolved  to  let  Garibaldi  and 
his  revolutionary  forces  loose  on  Naples.  Sicilian 
emissaries  declared  to  Garibaldi  that  unless  he 
came  immediately  all  Sicily  would  rise  without 
him.  On  the  night  of  May  5,  Garibaldi  with  his 
followers  seized  two  steamships  lying  at  Genoa  and 
put  to  sea.  The  seizure  was  a  fiction  encouraged 
by  the  Piedmontese  Government.  Cavour  required 
only  that  Garibaldi  should  not  directly  implicate  the 
government  of  Sardinia.  Ostensible  orders  were 


1296  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  May  I860 

issued  to  the  Sardinian  Admiral  Persano  to  seize 
Garibaldi's  ships  off  Cagliari  in  Sardinian  waters. 
Garibaldi  was  thoughtful  enough  to  avoid  the  Sar- 
dinian squadron,  and  having  shipped  arms  and  mu- 
nitions on  the  Tuscany  coast,  made  for  Marsala  in 
Sicily.  Under  the  guns  of  a  Neapolitan  war  steamer, 

Garibaldi's  on  May  11,  Garibaldi's  "Thousand"  landed  at  that 
place.  Arrayed  in  the  red  flannel  shirt  affected 
by  Garibaldi,  the  "Thousand"  marched  eastward 
through  Sicily,  gathering  adherents  all  along  the 
way.  After  the  third  day's  march,  at  Calatafimi 
they  encountered  Neapolitan  troops  and  put  them 
to  rout.  This  victory,  achieved  over  superior  num- 
bers, had  a  great  moral  effect.  Tidings  reached 
Garibaldi  that  Palermo  was  ready  to  rise  again. 
By  a  piece  of  strategy  Garibaldi  lured  the  Nea- 
politan garrison  of  Palermo  into  the  hills,  and  then 
by  forced  marches  threw  himself  into  Palermo.  On 
May  26,  his  followers  fought  their  way  into  the  city, 
and  were  joined  enthusiastically  by  the  inhabitants. 
For  three  days  the  gunners  in  the  citadel  and  the 
Neapolitan  warships  in  the  harbor  bombarded  the 
city.  Before  the  absent  garrison  had  returned  the 

Fan  of       commandant  of  the  citadel  signed  articles  of  truce 

Palermo 

on  board  the  "Hannibal."  The  city  was  surren- 
dered to  the  insurgents,  and  the  remainder  of  the 
garrison  withdrew  to  the  outside  forts.  The  Nea- 
politan Government  weakly  gave  up  Palermo  for 
lost,  and  shipped  the  troops  thence  to  Messina  and 
Naples.  Garibaldi  proclaimed  himself  dictator  of 
Sicily  in  the  name  of  Victor  Emmanuel  and  levied 
taxes.  Volunteers  from  all  parts  of  Italy  joined  his 


1860  Summer  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1297 

standard  in  great  numbers.  On  July  20,  Garibaldi's 
forces  defeated  the  Neapolitans  by  land  and  by  sea 
at  Milazzo  on  the  north  coast.  Cavour  now  re- 
voked his  affected  disapproval  of  the  Sicilian  revo- 
lution. While  the  Piedmontese  Ambassador  was 
still  at  Naples,  Depretis,  a  Piedmontese  pro-dictator, 
was  sent  to  Palermo  to  help  disentangle  Garibaldi  ^^rta 
from  the  mesh  of  the  civil  maladministration  intoG£ 
which  he  had  been  drawn.  After  the  evacuation  of 
Messina,  Cavour  cast  aside  all  restraint.  Admiral 
Persano  was  ordered  with  bis  ships  to  cover  Gari- 
baldi's passage  to  the  mainland,  and  proceeded  to 
Naples  to  take  charge  of  the  Neapolitan  fleet  in  the 
name  of  Victor  Emmanuel.  On  August  3,  Persano 
sailed  into  Naples,  and  called  upon  the  Neapolitan 
sailors  to  come  under  the  flag  of  united  Italy.  The 
Piedmontese  Ambassador  at  last  received  his  pass- 
port. Garibaldi  crossed  over  from  Sicily.  His 
march  to  Naples  was  a  triumphal  procession.  On 
September  6,  having  proclaimed  his  reluctance  toBourbons 
provoke  bloodshed,  King  Francis  and  his  Queen,  Naples 
accompanied  by  the  Ambassadors  of  Spain,  Prussia 
and  Austria,  sailed  out  of  Naples  on  a  packet  boat. 
Garibaldi  came  by  railroad  on  the  following  morn- 
ing, and  drove  openly  into  the  city  amid  tumultu- 
ous enthusiasm.  He  was  recognized  as  Dictator  by 
Persano  and  Villa  Marina.  His  first  act  was  to  de- 
clare the  Neapolitan  ships  of  war  as  a  part  of  King 
Victor  Emmanuel's  fleet  under  Admiral  Persano's 
flag.  The  flag  of  Savoy  was  raised  on  all  the  ships. 
Neapolitan  garrison,  nearly  8,000  strong,  was 
permitted  to  retire  to  Capua. 


1298  A    HISTORY  OF   THE  i860 


Death  of 


Adam  Gotlob  Oehlenschleger,  the  great  roman- 
tic poet  of  modern  Denmark,  died  this  year,  aged 
seventy-one.  He  it  was  who  brought  about  the 
modern  romantic  movement  in  Danish  letters,  and 
who  revived  the  mythology  of  ancient  Scandinavia. 
Oehlenschleger's  death  left  a  gap  in  Danish  let- 
ters. Among  those  worthy  to  be  accounted  his 
successors  was  Steen  Steensen  Blicker,  the  Jutland 
poet,  who  had  made  his  start  with  a  collection  of 
short  stories  published  in  1824.  A  less  prominent 
position  in  Danish  letters  was  held  by  Nicholai 
Frederick  Severin  Gruntwig.  He  may  be  said  to 
have  laid  the  cornerstone  of  the  first  Danish  Hoejs- 
kole.  Other  contemporaries  were  Bernhardt,  Severin 
Ingeman,  the  author  of  "Valdemar  the  Victorious" 
Danish  an^  "-Prince  Otto  of  Denmark,"  published  in  the 
forties.  Christian  Winter  wrote  his  pastoral  poems. 
Of  the  playwrights,  the  greatest  success  was  won  by 
Henrik  Hertz  with  his  drama  "Svend  Dyrings 
Hus, "  which  since  its  first  appearance,  in  1837, 
continued  to  hold  a  prominent  place  on  the  Danish 
stage.  Shortly  before  this  Hans  Christian  Andersen 
had  achieved  instant  popularity  by  his  charming 

Andersen 

collection  of  original  fairy  tales,  translations  of 
which  were  issued  in  almost  all  the  countries 
of  the  world.  About  the  same  time  Frederick  Pal- 
udan  Miller  wrote  his  great  satiric  epic  "Adam 
Homo." 

On  March  3,  the  Japanese  "Festival  of  Dolls,"  a 
great  levee  of  the  Shogun's  court,  was  held  at  Yeddo. 
As  customary,  all  the  great  Daimios  on  duty  ap- 
peared with  their  retinues.  Four  of  the  highest 


1860  March  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1299 

Diamios  did  not  appear,  having  been  degraded  by 
the  Regent.  They  were  Mito-ko,  Owarri,  Tosa  and 
Echizen.  The  Regent  came  in  all  the  plenitude 
of  his  powers,  as  the  real  ruler  of  Japan.  As  he 
set  out  in  his  palanquin  toward  the  Sakurada  Gate, 
surrounded  by  his  white-robed  retainers,  his  train 
was  suddenly  attacked  by  a  band  of  cut-throats. 
The  bearers  of  the  palanquin  were  engaged  in  fierce  Re^ent^- 
fight  with  the  swordsmen  and  had  to  put  down  their 
burden.  A  shot  into  the  palanquin  wounded  the 
Regent.  As  he  came  out  he  was  struck  down  by 
a  swordsman  and  his  head  was  cut  off.  During  the 
encounter  snow  was  falling,  and  the  event,  from  this 
circumstance,  has  received  the  Japanese  name  of 
"Crimson  Snow."  From  the  official  investigation 
of  the  affair  it  appeared  that  the  Regent's  men 
must  have  been  in  league  with  the  assassins. 
The  Regent's  head  was  raised  on  a  pole  in  the 
city  of  Mito  with  an  inscription,  "Let  us  take  and 
hoist  the  silken  standard  of  Japan  and  fight  the 
battles  of  the  Emperor."  When  the  government 
gave  orders  to  arrest  the  suspected  followers  of 
Mito-ko,  that  chieftain  replied  tauntingly:  "How 

T-.    .      .  Prince 

can  I,  a  poor  Daimio,  arrest  these  men,  when  you,  of  Mtto 

J        '  defiant 

the  Shogun,  are  unable  to  do  so  ?  If  you  wish  to 
seize  my  men,  send  your  officers  and  let  them  try  it." 
The  revolution  was  at  hand.  A  short  while  after 
the  Regent's  assassination  his  son-in-law  was  mur- 
dered while  in  bed,  and  his  head  was  sent  to  Mito. 
The  Shogun's  castle  at  Yeddo  was  barricaded.  The 
gates  of  the  city  were  closed  at  night  and  guarded 
in  daytime.  The  Imperial  Ministers  went  about 


1300  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  I860 

surrounded  by  large  escorts.    Mito-ko  travelled  over 

the  empire  in  disguise  to  study  the  feelings  of  the 

people.     Still  he  failed  to  come  forward  to  carry 

out  his  own  policy.     In  his  weakness  the  Emperor 

issued  an  order   that   the  higher  Daimios  were  to 

visit  Yeddo  only  once  in  seven  years.     This  order 

forei"  n       was  not  applied  to  those  of  the  Daimios  who  had  the 

agitation    ear  Qf  ^  Emperor  in  tne  interest  of  the  Shogun. 

The  agitation  against  foreigners  grew  in  force. 

In  China,  the  Tai pings  carried  on  a  remark- 
able campaign.  Chung  Wang  began  by  capturing 
Hangchow  on  March  19,  but  the  Tartar  portion  of 
the  city  held  out  until  it  was  relieved  by  Chang 
Kwaliang.  The  Taiping  leader  hastened  from 
Hangchow  to  Nanking,  the  forces  of  which  were 
Brilliant  relieved,  and  attacked  the  imperial  lines  on  May  3, 
campaf-n  causing  the  loss  of  5,000  men  and  the  raising  of 
the  siege.  He  committed,  however,  the  fatal  mis- 
take of  forbidding  his  lieutenant,  Chung  Wang,  to 
re-enter  the  city.  Chung  Wang  thereupon  deter 
mined  to  act  for  himself.  He  obtained  possession 
of  the  important  city  of  Soochow  on  the  Grand 
Canal,  and  not  far  distant  from  Shanghai.  In  the 
engagement  which  effected  this,  Chang  Kwaliang 
lost  his  life.  After  three  more  battles,  Chung  Wang 
reached  Loochow,  which  place  the  imperialists  has- 
Deathot  tily  abandoned.  At  this  critical  moment,  in  May, 

Chang 

the  Viceroy  of  Two  Kiaog  implored  the  aid  of  the 
English  and  French,  who  were  about  to  march  on 
Peking.     His  advice   was   prudent,   but  it  proved 
little     satisfactory     to     the     Emperor,    who    sum 
moned    him   to   Peking,    where   he   was  executed. 


1860  Autumn  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1301 

Chung  Wang,  not  satisfied  with  Soochow  alone, 
wished  to  gain  possession  of  Shanghai,  but  the 
Europeans  had  determined  to  defend  that  city,  and 
had  raised  funds  to  provide  a  contingent.  They 
made  an  attack  on  Sunkiang,  a  walled  town  twenty 
miles  distant,  which  they  gained.  They  then  ad- 
vanced to  Tsingpu,  and,  on  August  2,  were  re- 
pulsed with  heavy  loss.  Chung  Wang,  after  seven 
davs  of  bombardment,  appeared  and  surprised 

J  Shanghai 

their  force,  which  he  drove  away.  He  advancedattac^ed 
on  Shanghai,  from  which,  after  five  days'  fighting, 
he  was  compelled  to  retreat.  He  then  went,  in  re- 
sponse to  an  urgent  call,  to  assist  Tien  Wang  at 
Nanking,  and  thence  hastened  back  to  Loochow 
to  direct  active  operations.  He  held  his  own  against 
his  more  numerous  adversaries. 

Meanwhile  the  threatened  French-English  expe- 
dition against  China  had  got  under  way.  Pending 
its  arrival,  the  English  envoy,  Bruce,  at  Shanghai, 
presented  an  ultimatum,  with  thirty  days'  grace, 
demanding  an  immediate  apology,  the  payment  of 
an  indemnity  of  $12,000,000  to  both  England 
France,  and  a  ratification  at  Peking  of  the  treaty 
of  Tien-tsin.  On  behalf  of  China,  Minister  Pang 
Wanching  categorically  refused  all  these  requests. 
Nothing  remained  but  an  appeal  to  arms. 

From  India  an  additional  force  of  10,000  men, 
infantry,  cavalry  and  artillery,  was  sent  to  Hong 
Kong  under  Sir  Hope  Grant,  a  hero  of  the  Indian 
mutiny  and  first  war  with  China.  Admiral  Hope's 
squadron  was  strongly  reinforced.  The  French  Gov- 
ernment sent  a  force  of  7,500,  under  General  Mon- 
XlXth  Century— Vol.  3— C 


1302  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  i860 

tauban,  to  co-operate  with  the  English  forces  on  the 
Peiho.  As  soon  as  Sir  Hope  Grant  reached  Hong 
Kong,  in  March,  he  asked  for  reinforcements.  The 
Indian  Government  immediately  despatched  four 
native  regiments  under  Sir  John  Michael  and  Sir 

occupied  Robert  Napier.  Within  a  month  the  island  of  Chu- 
san  was  occupied  by  an  English  expedition  of  2,000 
without  opposition.  Owing  to  the  late  arrival  of 
the  French,  the  united  expedition  did  not  reach  the 
Gulf  of  Pechili  until  July.  More  time  was  wasted 
before  the  respective  commanders  decided  on  the 
united  plan  of  campaign.  Finally  it  was  determined 
to  begin  the  attack  in  the  rear  of  the  Taku  forts 
at  Pehtang.  The  place  was  taken  without  the  loss 
of  one  man.  An  intrenched  Chinese  camp  four  miles 
beyond  Pehtang  was  outflanked  by  two  divisions 
under  Sir  Robert  Napier  and  Colonel  Wolseley. 
The  result  of  this  engagement  was  the  capture  of 
•  the  intrenched  town  of  Sinho,  one  mile  north  of  the 

operations  Peiho,  and  about  seven  miles  in  the  rear  of  the  Taku 
forts.  The  town  of  Tangau  was  occupied  after  a 
brief  engagement.  The  Chinese  Governor  of  Pechili 
now  requested  a  cessation  of  hostilities,  but  his  pro- 
posals were  ignored.  It  was  decided  to  seize  the 
Taku  forts  before  entering  into  any  negotiation. 
On  August  21,  the  allied  forces  opened  fire  on  the 
forts,  and  made  a  simultaneous  attack  on  the  two 
sides.  The  French  advanced  on  the  southern  forts, 
while  the  British  attacked  at  the  northern  end.  The 
Chinese  fought  their  obsolete  guns  with  extraordi- 
nary courage.  When  their  principal  magazine  was 
blown  up  they  stood  to  their  position.  Out  of  a 


1860  Summer  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1303 

garrison  of  500  men,  it  was  computed  that  one  hun- 
dred escaped.  The  English  losses  were  more  than 
200  in  killed  and  wounded.  The  French  losses  were 
proportionate.  The  allies'  summons  to  surrender  Taku  forta 
was  scouted  by  the  Chinese.  Yet  the  Chinese  de- stormed 
fences  were  ludicrously  weak,  since  the  forts  were 
supposed  to  front  toward  the  sea.  On  the  following 
day  all  the  forts  were  rushed  by  the  French  and 
English  attacking  forces,  and  several  thousand  Chi- 
nese prisoners  were  taken.  The  spoil  included  more 
than  600  guns.  Admiral  Hope  with  his  fleet  now 
stood  into  the  bay,  and  anchored  under  the  walls  of 
the  captured  forts. 

The  way  to  Tien-tsin  was  open  now  by  land  and 
by  water.  The  British  gunboats  stood  up  the  river, 
while  the  land  forces  marched  straight  for  Tien-tsin  evacuated 
without  encountering  any  opposition.  All  the  Chi- 
nese troops  were  withdrawn  from  Tien-tsin  after  an 
announcement  by  the  Governor  that  Minister  Kwa- 
liang  was  on  his  way  to  the  city  to  negotiate  for 
peace.  The  Commissioners  of  the  allies  demanded, 
first,  an  apology  for  the  first  Chinese  attack  at  Peiho; 
secondly,  the  payment  of  an  indemnity,  including 
the  costs  of  the  war;  and,  thirdly,  the  ratification 
of  the  treaty  of  Tien-tsin  in  the  presence  of  the,T 

Vain  peace 

Chinese  Emperor  at  Peking.  To  all  of  these  de-overture8 
mands  Kwaliang  assented;  but  when  Lord  Elgin 
made  an  additional  demand  that  the  British  forces 
should  be  permitted  to  penetrate  to  the  town  of 
Tongchow,  only  twelve  miles  distant  from  Peking, 
the  Chinese  became  desperate  and  refused  to 
yield. 


1304  A   HISTORY  OF   THE  iseo 

With  reinforcements  from  Mongolia  and  Manchu- 
ria, Prince  San-Ko-Lin-Sin  threw  himself  in  front 

hostilities  of  Peking.  A  British  advance  force  of  1,500  men, 
under  Sir  Hope  Grant,  accompanied  by  Lord  Elgin, 
left  Tien-tsin  on  September  8,  and  marched  to 
Hosiwu,  half  way  to  the  capital.  There  they  were 
reinforced  by  a  French  division.  Prince  Tsai,  a 
nephew  of  the  Chinese  Emperor,  on  behalf  of  the 
Emperor,  made  new  overtures  for  peace,  but  he 
was  curtly  informed  that  no  negotiations  would  be 
entered  into  until  Tongchow  was  taken.  At  Chan- 
chia-Wan  the  allied  forces  came  upon  Prince  San- 
Ko-Lin-Sin's  army.  Now  the  commissioners  of  the 
allies  were  sent  ahead  with  an  escort  of  Sikh  cavalry 
to  propose  an  armistice.  Their  reception  by  the  Chi- 
nese general  appeared  to  them  "almost  offensive." 
Before  the  Commissioners  could  rejoin  their  forces, 
hostilities  had  been  started  by  a  French  officer,  who 

French      snot  a  coo^e  ^n  a  dispute  over  a  mule.    He  was  torn 

offensive  to  pieces  by  the  infuriated  Chinese.  General  Mon- 
tauban  ordered  his  French  forces  to  advance.  They 
were  supported  by  the  French  artillery.  This  galled 
the  Manchu  horsemen  so  much  that  they  charged  to 
the  very  mouths  of  the  guns,  overriding  one  battery. 
Probin's  Horse  came  to  the  rescue,  and,  in  the  sight 
of  both  armies,  drove  the  Chinese  cavalry  down  the 
slope.  This  overthrow  of  their  most  vaunted  fight- 
ing men  discouraged  the  Chinese  foot-soldiers,  and 

chan-chia-  they  gave  way.     The  British  Indian  troops  stormed 

'n  Chan-chia-Wan.     The  French  were    too   exhausted 

to  take  a  part  in  the  last  advance;  but  Sir  Hope 

Grant  with  some  of  his  fresh  regiments  passed  on 


1860  Sept.  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1305 

and  captured  a  large  Chinese  camp  and  several  guns 
one  mile  beyond  the  town. 

The  resistance  encountered  had  been  sufficient  to 
make  the  British  commander  hesitate  before  ad- 
vancing further.  Urgent  orders  were  sent  to  Sir 
Eobert  Napier,  garrisoning  Tien-tsin,  to  bring  as 
many  reserves  as  he  could  spare.  Two  days  inter- 
vened before  another  advance  was  made  by  the 
allies.  Meanwhile  Parkes  and  his  party  of  civil- 

•*  Capture 

ians   had  been  cut  off  and  captured.     The  Chinese^?^ 
collected  new  forces  for  the  defence  of  the  Palikao  Pa 
Bridge,  crossing  the  Peiho  west  of  Tongchow. 

With  British  and  French  reinforcements  the  allies 
resumed  hostilities  with  a  cavalry  charge  on  the 
Chinese  position.  The  French  stormed  the  bridge 
with  its  twenty-five  guns  by  a  dashing  bayonet 
charge.  It  was  there  that  General  Montauban  won 
his  subsequent  title  of  Comte  de  Palikao.  Mean-Paiikao 

bridge 


while  the  British  flanked  the  Chinese  position, 
Their  success  in  this  manoeuvre,  and  the  disper- 
sion of  the  Chinese  imperial  guards-  by  the  French 
infantry,  completed  the  discomfiture  of  the  Chinese. 
Peking  now  lay  almost  at  the  mercy  of  the  allies. 

At  this  juncture  Prince  Kung,  the  Chinese  Em- 
peror's brother,  arrived  at  the  front  and  requested 
a   temporary  suspension  of   hostilities.     On    behalf  Futile  ne- 
of  England,  Lord   Elgin   replied    that  there  could  g° 
be  no  negotiation  until  Parkes  and  his  fellow  cap- 
tives were  delivered  in  safety  at  the  British  head- 
quarters.   Prince  Kung  gave  assurances  that  Parkes 
and  Loch  were  in  safety  at  the  Kaou  Meaou  Temple 
in  Peking,  but  would  be  retained  as  hostages  pend- 


1306  A   HISTORY   OF   THE  Sept.  i860 

ing  the  conclusion  of  an  armistice.  Lord  Elgin  at 
once  requested  Sir  Hope  Grant  to  resume  his  march. 
During  the  parleys,  lasting  nearly  a  week,  more  re- 
serves had  been  brought  up  from  Tien-tsin  and  the 
Sikh  cavalry  had  reconnoitred  to  the  very  walls  of 
Peking.  On  their  report  that  the  walls  were  strong 
onpekin"  an(^  *n  SOO(^  condition,  it  was  decided  to  concentrate 
the  attack  on  the  Tartar  quarter  of  Peking.  In  exe- 
cution of  this  plan  the  allied  forces  marched  around 
the  great  city  to  the  northwest  corner  of  the  walls 
converging  on  the  Emperor's  summer  palace,  some 
four  miles  out  of  the  city.  Emperor  Hsien-Feng, 
on  the  approach  of  the  white  barbarians,  fled  from 
his  palace,  and  sought  shelter  at  Jehol,  the  hunting 
residence  of  the  Emperors  beyond  the  great  Chinese 
wall.  The  French  soldiers  were  the  first  to  break 
into  the  summer  palace,  and  got  the  first  pick  of 
the  loot.  They  were  interrupted  in  their  work 
of  spoliation  by  the  British,  and  the  two  bands  of 
soldiery  fell  to  quarrelling.  Some  of  the  choicest 
Chinese  art  treasures  were  ruthlessly  destroyed, 
summer  while  others  were  torn  asunder  and  carried  off  by 
looted  Christian  soldiers  ignorant  of  their  value.  By  an 
agreement  between  the  French  and  English  com- 
manders-in-chief,  it  was  finally  decided  to  divide 
the  rich  loot  of  the  summer  palace  in  equal  shares 
between  the  two  armies.  The  disgraceful  proceed- 
ings there  enacted,  more  than  anything  else,  con- 
firmed the  Chinese  impression  that  the  self-styled 
representatives  of  Western  civilization  and  Chris- 
tianity were  nothing  but  foreign  devils  and  barba- 
rians. The  flight  of  Emperor  Hsien-Feng  and  the 


1860  Oct.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1307 

Princes   of   the  imperial    house    seriously   affected 
the  prestige  of   the  Manchu  dynasty.      A  famous 
Chinese  satire,  written  by  one  of  the  officers  of  the 
imperial  escort,   exploited   the   humiliation   of   theFlightof 
ruler  of   the  Celestial  Empire.     The  poem   is  still Emper 
one  of  the  forbidden  works  of  China. 

After  the  capture  of  the  summer  palace,  and  the 
flight  of  the  Emperor,  Prince  Kung  yielded  to  Lord 
Elgin's  demands.  Parkes  and  his  fellow  prisoners 
were  released.  Under  the  threat  of  the  resumption 
of  hostilities,  the  northeastern  gate  of  Peking  was 
thrown  open  to  the  allies.  Later  the  Chinese  re- 
leased the  remaining  prisoners  of  war  who  hadEu ropean 
been  captured  at  Tongchow  nearly  a  month  before,  released 
Some  of  them  had  fared  badly.  One  of  them, 
Lieutenant  Anderson,  became  delirious  under  the 
torments  of  his  captors  and  died  on  the  ninth  day 
of  his  confinement.  De  Normann  and  a  British 
trooper  died  shortly  afterward  from  ill  treatment. 
What  fate  befell  Captain  Barbazon  and  his  French 
companion  I'Abbe'  de  Luc  was  never  learned,  but 
it  was  generally  believed  that  the  Chinese  put  them 
to  death  immediately  after  the  capture  of  the  Bridge 
of  Palikao.  In  retaliation  of  these  alleged  atroci- 
ties, the  British,  heedless  of  French  protests,  set 
fire  to  the  beautiful  summer  palace.  In  addition 
to  this  Lord  Elgin  exacted  a  special  indemnity  of  palace 

fired 

500,000  taels  as  compensation  for  the  families  of 
the  men  believed  to  have  been  murdered.  The 
palace  of  Prince  Tsai  in  Peking  was  appropriated 
as  a  temporary  official  residence  of  Lord  Elgin  and 
Baron  Gros.  The  Imperial  Hall  of  Ceremonies  was 


1308  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Autumn  i860 

selected  as  the  place  where  the  treaty  of  Tien-tsin 
should  be  ratified.  The  formal  act  of  ratification 
was  signed  on  October  24,  when  Lord  Elgin  and 
Baron  Gros,  accompanied  by  Sir  Hope  Grant 
and  General  Montauban,  trooped  into  the  Hall  of 
Ceremonies  with  one  hundred  officers  and  seven 
hundred  and  fifty  soldiers.  Prince  Kung,  in  the 
presence  of  the  Manchu  mandarins,  affixed  the  Em- 
peror's seal  to  the  treaty,  under  a  special  imperial 

Chinese        r  r  . 

terms10  edict,  forwarded  from  Jehol.  The  stipulations  of 
the  treaty  were  published  in  Peking.  This  done, 
Lord  Elgin  transferred  to  his  brother,  Frederick 
Bruce,  the  charge  of  British  interests  in  China  as 
Resident  Minister  at  Peking,  in  company  with  a 
newly  appointed  Ambassador  from  France.  The 
allied  troops  left  Peking  on  November  9,  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  expedition  returned  to  India 
and  Europe  just  before  the  cold  weather  set  in. 
In  the  absence  of  the  Emperor,  Prince  Kung  took 
charge  of  affairs  in  China. 

In  North  America,  after  the  failure  of  the  efforts 
to  make  Kansas  a  slave  State,  it  had  become  plain 
that  the  South  could  not  hope  to  keep  its  equality  of 
representation  in  the  Senate  without  reversing  what 

American  appeared  to  be  the  settled  popular  opinion  concern- 
ing the  status  of  the  Northern  Territories.  Reso- 
lutions to  this  general  effect  were  moved  by  Jeffer- 
son Davis  early  in  February,  1860,  and  were  passed 
by  the  Senate.  The  House,  however,  would  not 
pass  them. 

This  was  the  ultimatum  presented  to  the  Demo- 
cratic Party,  and,  in  fact,  to  the  North,  at  the 


1860  Spring  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  1309 

Democratic  National  Convention,  which  assembled, 
on  April  23,  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina.  The  contest 
spokesman  of  the  Cotton  States  at  that  convention  to  issue 
was  William  L.  Yancey  of  Alabama,  whose  impetu- 
ous oratory  had  given  him  a  place  among  the  ex- 
treme men  of  the  South,  comparable  to  Garrison 
and  Wendell  Phillips  among  the  extreme  anti- 
slavery  men  in  the  North.  An  anti-slavery  re- 
port was  adopted  by  a  small  majority  of  the  Con- 
vention. The  Alabama  delegation  withdrew,  and 
practically  all  the  delegates  from  the  Cotton  States 
followed.  The  convention  adjourned  to  meet  at 
Baltimore  on  June  18.  There,  Douglas  was  at  lastWarrins 

cpnven- 

nominated.  Meanwhile,  the  delegates  who  had  with- tlons 
drawn  from  the  convention  at  Charleston  met  again 
at  Eichmond,  whence  they  also  adjourned  to  Balti- 
more, and,  joined  there  by  other  seceders,  nominated 
John  C.  Breckinridge  of  Kentucky  for  President. 
Douglas  went  before  the  country  practically  on  the 
Dred  Scott  decision  for  a  platform.  Breckinridge 
stood  for  the  Southern  view  as  embodied  in  the 
majority  report  at  Charleston.  On  May  19,  a  third 
faction,  calling  itself  the  "Constitutional  Union 
Party,"  assembled  in  convention  at  Baltimore  and 
nominated  John  Bell  of  Tennessee  and  Edward 
Everett  of  Massachusetts,  declaring  that  they  would 
have  no  other  platform  than  "the  Constitution, 
the  Union  of  the  States,  and  the  enforcement  of 
the  laws." 

On  May  16,  the  Republican  Convention  had  met 
at  Chicago.  Of  the  slave  States,  only  Delaware, 
Maryland,  Virginia,  Kentucky  and  Missouri  were 


1310  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Spring  1800 

represented.  David  Wilmot  of  "Proviso"  fame  was 
temporary  president  and  Ashmun  of  Massachusetts 
permanent  chairman.  The  resolutions  declared  for 
stand  of  "The  maintenance  inviolate  of  the  right  of  each 
Republican  gtate  ^Q  or(jer  an(j  control  its  own  domestic  insti- 
tutions  according  to  its  own  judgment  exclusively," 
and  condemned  the  attempt  to  enforce  the  extreme 
pretensions  of  a  purely  local  interest  (meaning  the 
slave  interest),  through  the  intervention  of  Congress 
and  the  courts,  by  the  Democratic  Administration. 
They  derided  the  new  dogma  that  the  Constitution 
of  its  own  force  carried  slavery  into  the  Territories, 
and  denied  the  authority  of  Congress,  of  a  Territo- 
rial Legislature,  or  of  any  individual  to  give  leave 
of  existence  to  slavery  in  any  Territory  in  the 
United  States.  Seward  was  the  leading  candidate 
on  the  first  ballot.  Cameron,  Chase  and  Bates  also 
nominated  had  respectable  followings,  but  Abraham  Lincoln 

President 

of  Illinois  rapidly  forged  ahead,  and  on  the  third 
ballot  was  nominated  with  a  total  of  354  out  of 
466  votes.  Hannibal  Hamlin  of  Maine  was  nomi- 
nated for  Vice-President. 

A  memorable  political  contest  followed.  Stephen 
A.  Douglas  made  his  last  try  for  the  Presidency  with 
wonderful  vigor  and  spirit.  He  canvassed  the  whole 
country,  and  great  throngs  were  moved  by  his  ener- 
getic oratory.  Jefferson  Davis  and  other  Breckin- 

Fourfold  * 

dentlai  ridge  orators  had  the  courage  to  canvass  Northern 
States.  In  some  Northern  States  a  fusion  was  ef- 
fected among  the  opponents  of  the  Eepublican 
Party.  Before  election  day,  however,  it  was 
clear  to  shrewd  observers  that  the  new  party 


1860  Autumn  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1311 

would  carry   the   bulk  of    the   Northern   electoral 
vote. 

Meanwhile,  south  of  Mason  and  Dixon's  line 
the  interest  in  the  contest  was  even  more  intense 
than  at  the  North.  Douglas  had  a  good  following 
in  most  of  the  Southern  States,  but  a  great  majority 
of  the  ruling  class  at  the  South,  whether  they  had 
formerly  been  Democrats  or  Whigs,  were  now  dis- 
posed to  bring  the  long  sectional  controversy  to  an 
issue.  Therefore,  besides  the  debate  over  the  Presi-  following 
dential  election,  there  was  also  serious  discussion 
of  the  course  which  the  South  should  take  in  the 
event  of  Lincoln's  election.  South  Carolina  had 
been  ready  to  secede  from  the  Union  ten  years 
before,  and  there  had  been  considerable  minorities 
in  other  Southern  States  in  favor  of  secession  at 
that  time.  In  all  the  Cotton  States  that  party  was 
now  very  strong.  The  Alabama  Legislature,  early 
in  1860,  had  instructed  Governor  Moore  to  call  a 
Convention  in  case  a  "black  Eepublican"  should 
be  elected  President  in  November. 

None  of  the  four  candidates  obtained  a  majority  of 
the  popular  vote.  Lincoln  got  1,866,352,  Douglas  Lincoln 
1,375,157,  Breckinridge  845,763,  and  Bell  589,581. 
Fifteen  States  chose  Republican  electors  only,  and 
New  Jersey  four  Republican  electors  out  of  seven, 
and  so  Lincoln  got  a  majority  of  the  Electoral  Col- 
lege. Most  of  the  Southern  States  went  for  Breck- 
inridge, who  was  second  in  the  Electoral  College. 
Douglas's  support  was  hopelessly  scattered  through- 
out the  two  sections.  Bell  carried  but  three  States, 
Virginia,  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  The  great  ex- 


1312  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Winter  i860 

citement  which  swept  throughout  the  whole  country 
gradually  subsided  in  the  North,  while  in  the  South 
it  rose  to  fever  heat. 

The  South  Carolina  Legislature  at  once  made  pro- 
vision for  a  Constitutional  Convention,  and  similar 
action  was  taken  in  others  of  the  Cotton  States. 
Pieces8  Throughout  the  South  three  distinct  parties  con- 
tended on  the  secession  question.  One  party  ad- 
vocated immediate  secession  of  each  State  without 
waiting  for  any  other.  The  second  party  advocated 
co-operation  among  the  States,  to  the  end  that  if  one 
seceded  all  might  secede  together.  The  third  party 
opposed  secession  altogether.  For  the  time  being, 
the  immediate  Secessionists  had  their  way  in  the 
Cotton  States,  while  in  Virginia,  North  Carolina, 
Tennessee  and  other  States  the  Co-operationists  and 
south  Union,  men  were  in -the  ascendant.  The  South 
first0  Carolina  Convention  passed  its  ordinance  of  seces- 
sion on  December  20,  and  at  the  same  time  invited 
the  other  Southern  States  to  meet  in  Convention  at 
Montgomery,  Alabama,  early  next  year. 

As  it  became  clear  that  the  South  was  in  terrible 
earnest,  a  strong  feeling  for  compromise  developed 
in  the  North  and  in  the  border  States.     Influential 
newspapers  took  the  position  that  everything  pos- 
sible   should    be    done    to    conciliate    the    South. 
Abraham  Lincoln,  while  conceding  nothing  to  the 
Lincoln      theory  or  policy   of    secession,    took  occasion,    in     / 
atory        a  letter  to  Alexander  H.  Stephens  of  Georgia,  to 
make  it  plain  that  he  had  no  purpose  to  interfere 
with  slavery  in  any  State  where  it  already  existed. 
December  3,  Congress  convened  at  Washington. 


i860  Dec.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1313 

President  Buchanan,  in  his  last  annual  message, 
discussed  the  alarming  state  of  affairs,  but  offered 
no  solution  of  the  difficulty.  He  denied  the  right 
of  a  State  to  secede  from  the  Union,  but  could  not 
find  that  the  Constitution  gave  Congress  any  power 
to  "coerce  into  submission  a  State  which  is  attempt- 
ing to  withdraw  or  has  actually  withdrawn"  from 
the  Union.  "The  fact  is,"  he  said,  "that 


...  .     .  an's  dictum 

Union  rests  upon  public  opinion,  and  can  never 
be  cemented  by  the  blood  of  its  citizens  shed  in 
civil  war."  Attorney-General  Black  sustained  the 
President  in  this  view.  A  committee  of  thirty- 
three,  appointed  by  the  House,  declared  that  "any 
reasonable,  proper  and  Constitutional  remedies  and 
effectual  guarantees  of  their  political  rights  and  in- 
terests should  be  promptly  and  cheerfully  given" 
to  the  dissatisfied  States.  A  Senate  committee  of 
thirteen,  appointed,  December  18,  to  advise  com- 

Congress 

promise  measures  for  a  restoration  of  peace,  soon  undecided 
reported  that  it   was  "not  able  to  agree  upon  any 
general  plan  of  compromise." 

And  so,  while  Congress  debated,  and  Buchanan 
hesitated,  and  the  North  looked  on  helpless,  the 
people  of  the  lower  South  made  ready  to  employ 
that  remedy  for  their  grievances  which,  at  various 
times  and  in  various  dissatisfied  corners  of  the  preparing 

for  war 

Union,  had  been  suggested  or  threatened  but 
never  tried. 

While  the  United  States  drifted  into  what  ap- 
peared a  ruinous  war,  England  advanced  her  com- 
mercial prosperity  by  a  master-stroke.  With  Glad- 
stone acting  as  the  chief  finance  minister  of  the 


1314  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Jan.  I860 

country,  Richard  Cobden  was  engaged  as  a  plenipo- 
tentiary of  the  British  Government  in  negotiating  a 
commercial  treaty  with  France  based  on  free  trade. 
It  was  calculated  to  give  enormous  impulse  to  the 
trade  between  the  two  countries.  The  treaty  was 
signed  on  January  23,  and  was  soon  laid  before 
Parliament.  Gladstone  thus  explained  the  provi- 
sions of  the  treaty: 

Tree  trade     "France  engages  to  reduce  the  duty  on  English 

between  ,  i  -  -. 

Franceandcoal   and   coke,  on  bar  and  pig  iron  and  steel,  on 

England  '  .         ' 

tools  and  machinery;  on  yarns  a»d  goods  in  nax, 
hemp  and  jute,  as  well  as  all  the  staples  of  British 
manufacture,  whether  of  yarns,  flax,  hemp,  hair, 
wool,  silk,  or  cotton;  all  manufactures  of  skin, 
leather,  bark,  wood,  iron,  and  all  other  metals, 
glass,  stoneware,  earthenware,  or  porcelain.  Eng- 
land engages,  with  the  limited  power  of  exception 
which  we  propose  to  exercise  only  in  regard  to  two 
or  three  articles,  to  abolish  immediately  and  totally 
all  duties  upon  all  manufactured  goods.  There  will 
be  a  sweep,  summary,  entire  and  absolute,  of  what 
are  known  as  manufactured  goods.  Further,  Eng- 
land engages  to  reduce  by  one  half  her  'duties  on 
brandy  and  wine." 

Gladstone  closed  with  a  tribute  to  the  enlight- 
ened spirit  in  which  Emperor  Louis  Napoleon  and 
Richard  Cobden  had  accomplished  their  task.  The 
treaty  passed  Parliament,  with  the  sole  exception 
of  the  proposed  reduction  of  the  duty  on  paper, 
which  was  thrown  out  by  the  Lords, 
spectrum  Scientifically,  the  year  was  notable  for  the  work 

analysis 

of  Robert  Bunsen  and  Gustav  Kirchhoff,  two  Ger- 
man chemistSj  who  perfected  the  spectroscope,  and 


1860  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  1315 

in  whose  hands  the  possibilities  of  that  instrument 
were  demonstrated.  Bunsen  and  Kirchhoff  estab- 
lished the  science  of  spectrum  analysis,  and  showed 
that  infinitesimal  quantities  of  metals  could  be 
readily  detected  by  means  of  the  spectroscope  in 
an  incandescent  mass.  Their  researches  have  had 
an  incalculable  influence  on  stellar  chemistry. 

It  was  at  this  time  that  the  last  volume  of  Rus-RUSkin's 
kin's  "Modern  Painters"  was  published.  The  first  Painters" 
volume  of  this  brilliant  book  had  appeared  in  1843, 
the  outgrowth  of  an  early  pamphlet  written  by 
Buskin  in  defence  of  Turner,  which  excited  great 
attention  in  England  at  the  time.  As  was  said  in 
"Horse  Subsessivae,"  Thackeray's  organ:  "There  is 
one  man  among  us  who  has  done  more  to  breathe 
the  breath  of  life  into  the  literature  and  the  phi- 
losophy of  art,  who  has  encouraged  it  ten  thousand 
times  more  effectually  than  all  our  art  unions,  and 
that  is  the  author  of  'Modern  Painters.'  " 

In  Italy,  the  Neapolitan  troops,  emboldened  by 
a  success  at  Caiazzo,  had  assumed  the  offensive  in 

Italian 

October.     Garibaldi  drove  them   back  to  Cajazzo. affairs 
Meanwhile,   King  Victor   Emmanuel,   crossing   the 
Apennines,    marched    his    troops    to    the    rear    of 
the  Neapolitan  army.     The  Bourbon  commander 
avoided  both  by  moving  northward   toward  Gar- 
igliano.     On    October    26,    Garibaldi    met    Victor 
Emmanuel  at  Teano.     The  King  warmly  shook  the 
hand    of     the    revolutionary    leader,    who    looked  Garibaldi 
askance    at    his    opponents    in    the  King's    suite,  victor 

Emmanuel 

The  Garibaldian  volunteers  and  the  Piedmontese 
soldiers  held  aloof  from  each  other.  The  relations 


1316  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  i860 

between  the  two  headquarters  were  strained.  It 
was  determined  that  Garibaldi  with  his  followers 
should  attend  to  the  Neapolitan  garrison  at  Capua, 
while  Victor  Emmanuel's  army  pursued  the  Nea- 
politans in  the  open.  The  questions  at  issue  be- 
tween Cavour  and  Garibaldi  were  left  to  the  new 

North  and  Parliament  of  Southern  Italy.  By  an  overwhelm- 
ing majority,  toward  the  close  of  October,  the  dele- 
gates voted  for  the  immediate  union  of  Naples  and 
Sicily  with  Northern  Italy.  Capua  surrendered  in 
the  first  days  of  November,  and  Victor  Emmanuel 
made  his  entry  into  Naples.  It  was  the  crowning 
achievement  of  Garibaldi's  career.  That  popular 
leader  now  requested  of  the  King  the  Lieutenancy 
of  Southern  Italy,  with  supreme  military  powers 
for  the  space  of  a  year.  Victor  Emmanuel,  under 
the  influence  of  Cavour,  replied  very  simply:  "It 
is  impossible."  Declining  any  other  honor  or  re- 
ward, Garibaldi  returned  to  Caprera.  As  he  took 

Garibaldi  leave  of  his  volunteers,  he  said:  "The  next  time, 
we  march  on  Rome  and  on  Venice."  Apart  from 
this  great  goal,  all  that  remained  to  accomplish 
the  union  of  Italy  was  the  reduction  of  Gaeta  and 
the  citadel  of  Messina,  the  last  refuges  of  Bourbon 
rule  in  Southern  Italy. 

In  Mexico,  toward  the  close  of  the  year,  the 
liberal  forces,  supported  largely  by  the  natives, 
advanced  upon  the  capital.  President  Miramon 
sent  his  military  leaders,  Marquez,  Negrito  and 
others,  with  8,000  men  and  thirty  cannon,  against 
the  overwhelming  forces  of  Juarez.  In  the  battle 
of  San  Miguelito,  on  December  22,  Miramon's 


1860  Dec.  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1817 

forces  were  routed.  Ortaga,  the  victorious  general, 
summoned  Juarez  to  come  to  the  capital  without  l?vler-mon 

11-11  ••  T  thrown 

delay  to  restore  the  liberal  constitution.  Juarez 
went.  Miramon  fled  the  country.  Before  embark- 
ing he  helped  himself  to  the  funds  of  the  British 
Consulate  in  Mexico,  obtaining  some  600,000 
piastres. 

In  the  North  American  Kepublic,  during  the 
month  of  December,  two  Southern  members  of 
the  Cabinet  resigned.  They  were  Cobb  of  Georgia 
and  Floyd  of  Virginia,  by  whose  connivance,  it  was 
asserted,  Federal  arsenals  had  fallen  into  the  hands 

Secession 

of  the  Southerners.  Commissioners  representing  ^^a 
South  Carolina  appeared  at  Washington  as  the  en- 
voys of  a  separate  republic,  and  Governor  Pickens 
made  a  formal  request  that  Fort  Sumter,  in  Charles- 
ton Harbor,  be  delivered  to  the  authorities  of  the 
State.  After  some  hesitation,  Buchanan  refused  to 
receive  the  Commissioners,  and  let  them  know  that 
Fort  Sumter  would  not  be  abandoned.  It  was  then 
that  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  wrote  "Brother  Jooa-  farewell  to 

South 

than's  Lament,"  addressed  to  South  Carolina:  Carolina 

She  has  gone — she  has  left  us  in  passion  and  pride — 

Our  stormy-browed  sister,  so  long  at  our  side ! 
She  has  torn  her  own  star  from  our  firmament's  glow, 

And  turned  on  her  brother  the  face  of  a  foe !.  .  .  . 

W  hen  this  was  written,  Forts  Pinckney  and  Moul- 
trie  had  already  been  seized  by  the  South  Carolina 
troops.  On  December  31  possession  was  taken  of 
the  Federal  arsenal  at  Charleston,  the  flag  of  the 
United  States  was  hauled  down,  and  in  its  place 
was  hoisted  the  palmetto  flag  of  South  Carolina. 


1318  A   HISTORY   OF  THE  1861 


1 


1861 

N  SOUTHERN  ITALY  the  last  blows  for  na- 
tional union  were  struck  early  in  the  year. 
A  French  squadron  for  some  time  had  pre- 
vented the  Sardinian  fleet  from  bombarding  Gaeta. 
By  the  middle  of  January,  at  last,  the  French  Em- 
peror consented  to  withdraw  his  opposition.  Gaeta 
was  bombarded  by  land  and  by  sea.  After  a  resist- 
ance of  nearly  a  month  the  garrison  surrendered. 
The  young  Queen  and  King  of  Naples  were  con- 
veyed to  the  Papal  States  on  a  French  man-of-war. 
One  month  later  the  citadel  of  Messina,  after  a  stub- 
Italian  ^orn  defence  of  half  a  year,  capitulated.  The  union 
compifshed  of  Italy,  with  the  exception  of  Rome  and  Venice, 
was  now  complete.  By  his  steadfast  adherence  to 
the  national  cause,  Victor  Emmanuel  bad  secured 
the  Italian  throne  for  the  House  of  Savoy.  Shortly 
after  this  crowning  stroke  of  his  policy,  Cavour, 
the  greatest  statesman  of  modern  Italy,  passed 
away.  As  he  lay  on  his^-deathbed,  Cavour  ad- 
dressed to  the  priest  who  had  come  to  shrive  him 

Death  of 

Cavour  fo[s  \ag^  words,  which  summed  up  the  future  policy 
of  Italy  in  regard  to  Rome:  "A  free  Church  in  a 
free  State." 

The  greatest  event  of  the  year  was  the  emancipa- 
tion of  the  Russian  serfs,  as  announced  on  February 


1861  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1319 

19  iii  an  imperial  ukase  by  Czar  Alexander  II. 
The  serf  population  of  Russia  at  that  time  aggre-  fn 
gated  47,100,000  individuals,  divided  into  20,000, 000 
crown  peasants,  4,700,000  peasants  of  appanages, 
mines,  factories,  etc.,  21,000,000  belonging  to  pro- 
prietors, and  1,400,000  dvorovie,  or  domestic  ser- 
vants. The  peasants  of  the  crown  and  of  the  ap- 
panages were  practically  already  freemen,  subject 
to  the  payment  of  a  rent,  or  of  other  well-defined 
dues,  settled  by  the  State,  which  was  represented 
either  by  the  administration  of  the  domain  or  by 
the  department  of  the  appanages.  The  crown  peas- 
ants even  enjoyed  a  sort  of  local  self-government. 
The  fundamental  principles  of  the  great  Act  of 
Emancipation  were  these: 

The  peasants  up  to  that  time  attached  to  the  soil 
were  to  be  invested  with  all  the  rights  of  free  culti-"ian  serfs* 
vators.  The  peasants  should  obtain,  minus  the  dues 
fixed  by  law,  the  full  enjoyment  of  their  inclosure 
(dvor),  and  also  a  certain  quantity  of  arable  land, 
sufficient  to  guarantee  the  accomplishment  of  their 
obligations  toward  the  State.  This  "permanent  en- 
joyment" might  be  exchanged  for  an  "absolute 
ownership"  of  the  inclosure  and  the  lands,  subject 
to  a  right  to  buy  them  back.  The  lords  were  to 
concede  to  the  peasants  or  to  the  rural  communes 
the  land  actually  occupied  by  the  latter;  in  each 
district,  however,  a  maximum  and  a  minimum  were 
to  be  fixed.  On  the  whole  there  was  an  average  of 
three  dessiatines  and  a  half  for  each  male  peasant; 
but  it  varied  from  one  to  twelve  dessiatines,  that  is 
to  say,  the  peasants  in  general  received  less  in  the 
Black  Land,  and  more  in  the  less  productive  zones. 
The  government  was  to  organize  a  system  of  loans, 


1320  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  18«1 

which  would  permit  the  peasants  immediately  to 
liberate  themselves  from  their  lords,  while  remain- 
ing debtors  to  the  State.  The  dvorovie,  who  were 
not  attached  to  the  soil,  were  only  to  receive  their 
personal  liberty,  on  condition  of  serving  their  mas- 
ters for  two  years.  To  bring  the  great  work  of 
partition  into  seigniorial  lands  and  peasant  lands, 
to  a  happy  conclusion;  to  regulate  the  amount  of 
the  dues,  the  conditions  of  repurchase,  and  all 
the  questions  which  might  arise  from  the  execu- 
tion of  the  law,  the  temporary  magistracy  of  the 
mirovye  possre  dniki,  or  mediators  of  peace,  was 
instituted,  who  showed  themselves  for  the  most 
part  honest,  patient,  impartial,  equitable,  and  who 
deserve  a  great  part  of  the  honor  of  this  pacific 
settlement. 

The  peasants,  freed  from  the  seigniorial  authority, 
were  organized  into  communes;  or  rather  the  com- 
mune, the  7m>,  which  is  the  primordial  and  antique 
element  of  Slavo-Russian  society,  acquired  a  new 
force.  It  inherited  the  right  of  police  and  of  sur- 
veillance, held  by  the  lord  over  his  subjects. 

The  great  measure  of  emancipation,  as  Rambaud 
has  said  in  his  "History  of  Russia,"  was,  in  fact,  a 
settlement  of  accounts  as  to  the  ancient  community 
existing  between  masters  and  peasants.  It  imposed 
sacrifice  on  both  parties.  When  this  was  brought 
ueafnaarms  nome  to  tne  peasants  many  believed  they  had  been 
duped.  A  strange  ferment  arose  in  many  provinces; 
it  was  necessary  to  call  out  the  soldiery,  and  three 
times  the  troops  had  to  fire  on  the  people.  In  the 
government  of  Kazan,  10,000  men  rose  at  the  call 
of  the  peasant  Pe'trof,  who  announced  to  them  "the 
true  liberty. "  Hundreds  perished,  and  P6trof  was 
taken  and  shot. 


l86Uan.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1321 

For  Americans  the  year  1861  began  with  seces- 
sion accomplished  in  one  State,  imminent  in  other 
States,  and  civil  war  impending.  Neither  in  the 
North  nor  in  the  South  were  the  inevitable  conse-  American 
quences  clearly  foreseen.  In  certain  of  the  Cotton  dls'umon 
States,  acts  of  hostility  to  the  government  were 
committed  before  any  ordinance  of  secession  was 
adopted.  The  Governor  of  Alabama,  on  January  3, 
seized  the  arsenal  at  Mount  Vernon,  near  Mobile, 
and  the  Governor  of  Georgia  seized  Forts  Pulaski 
and  Jackson,  near  Savannah.  On  January  9,  the 
steamship  "Star  of  the  West,"  approaching  Fort 
Sumter  with  provisions  and  Federal  troops,  was 
fired  on  and  driven  to  retire.  Major  Anderson, 
in  command  at  Sumter,  was  called  on  to  sur- 
render, but  on  January  11  he  replied  with  a  firm 
refusal.  January  15,  Forts  Jackson  and  Philip,  "star of 

•  '  the  West" 

below  New  Orleans,  were  seized  by  the  State  au-firedon 
thorities,  and   so   also,  a   few   days   later,  was  the 
arsenal  at  Augusta.     Similar  action  was  taken  by 
State  authorities  in  Florida.     Ordinances  of  seces- 
sion were  adopted  by  State  conventions,  in  Missis- 
sippi on  January  9,  in  Florida  on  January  10,  in 
Alabama  on  January  11,   in  Georgia   on  January 
19,  in  Louisiana  on  January  26,  and  in  Texas  on 
February   1.      In   Texas   alone    was  the  ordinance 
submitted  to  the  people;  the  other  States  followed 
the  precedent  set  when  the  Constitution  was  ratified.  ofrseces-ces 
As  these  States  seceded,  their  Senators  and  repre-8" 
sentatives  formally  resigned  their  seats  in  the  Con- 
gress of  the  United  States.     Some  of  them  made 
speeches   stating   the   grounds    on    which    they   re- 


1322  A   HISTORY  OF   THE  Feb.  1861 

signed,  and  defending  the  action  of  their  several 

States.     On  January  21,  the  day  on  which  Jeffer- 

son  Davis  resigned  his  seat  in  the  Senate,  a  bill  ad- 

Kansas  a    mitfci°g  Kansas  as  a  free  State  under  the  Wyandotte 

state6"     Constitution  was  called  up  by  Senator  Seward  and 

Kansas  was  admitted  as  the  thirty-fourth  State. 

Delegates  representing  the  various  seceding  States 
met  at  Montgomery,  Alabama,  on  February  4,  as  a 
Constitutional  Convention,  and  proceeded  to  organ- 
ize a  provisional  government  for  the  Confederate 
States  of  America.  Five  days  later  the  Convention 
chose  Jefferson  Davis  of  Mississippi  Provisional 
President  and  Alexander  H.  Stephens  of  Georgia 
Provisional  V ice-President  of  the  new  Confederacy. 
Southern  Davis  was  inaugurated  February  18,  and  at  once 

provisional 

mentrn  named  the  members  of  his  Cabinet.  The  conven- 
tion then  drew  up  and  submitted  to  the  several 
States  a  Constitution,  modelled  after  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States,  but  with  such  changes 
as  made  the  new  instrument  what  the  extreme  State 
Eights  school  had  always  held  the  old  instrument 
to  be.  Tariffs  for  protection  were  expressly  de- 

confed-     clared  to  be  unconstitutional.    The  Convention  then 

erate  Con- 

stitution  constituted  itself  a  Provisional  Congress  for  the 
new  government,  and  as  such  passed  various  laws. 
Among  them  was  a  law  forbidding  the  importation 
of  slaves.  This,  it  was  presumed,  was  intended 
to  force  into  the  Confederacy  Virginia  and  other 
border  States,  which  would  be  deprived  of  the 
only  market  for  their  surplus  slaves.  Commission- 
ers  were  sent  to  Washington  to  arrange  all  ques- 
tions relating  to  property  and  debts,  and  to  secure 


1861  Spring  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  1323 

recognition  for  the  Confederacy,  while  another  com- 
mission was  sent  abroad  to  secure  recognition  from 
the  great  Powers  of  Europe. 

On  the  same  day  on  which  the  Convention  met 
at  Montgomery,  a  peace  conference,  representing 
thirteen  free  and  seven  border  States,  called  at  the 
request  of  the  Virginia  Legislature,  met  at  Wash- 
ington. Its  proceedings  were  soon  forgotten.  Bu- 
chanan, during  the  remainder  of  his  term  of  office, 
waited  inactive  and  helpless,  until  Lincoln  should 
come  and  take  his  place. 

The  calmly  firm  tone  of  Lincoln's  speeches  on  his 
way  to  Washington  characterized  his  inaugural  ad- 
dress. "I  declare,"  he  said,  "that  I  have  no  pur-  ESSlSi 
pose,  directly  or  indirectly,  to  interfere  with  slavery  ^ 
where  it  exists.  .  .  .  The  Union  of  these  States 
is  perpetual.  It  is  safe  to  assert  that  no  govern- 
ment probably  ever  had  a  provision  in  its  organic 
law  for  its  own  termination.  The  power  conveyed 
to  me  will  be  used  to  hold,  occupy  and  possess  the 
property  and  places  belonging  to  the  government, 
and  to  collect  the  duties  and  imposts."  He  closed 
with  a  noble  appeal  to  the  Southerners.  "In  your 
hands,  my  dissatisfied  fellow  countrymen,  and  not 
in  mine,  is  the  momentous  issue  of  civil  war.  We 
are  not  enemies,  but  friends!  We  must  not  be  ene- 
mies! Though  passion  may  have  strained,  it  must 
not  break  our  bonds  of  affection.  The  mystic 
chords  of  memory,  stretching  from  every  patriot 
home  and  grave  and  fireside,  will  yet  swell  the 
chords  of  the  Union  when  touched,  as  they  shall 
be  touched,  by  the  better  angels  of  our  nature." 


1324  A   HISTORY  OF   THE  Spring  1861 

The  next  day  Lincoln  announced  his  Cabinet 
i^wetlVy  William  H.  Seward  of  Mew  5Tork  was  Secretary  of 
State.  There  were  strong  men  in  the  Cabinet,  but 
their  antecedents  did  not  augur  harmony.  Seward, 
to  whom,  up  to  the  time  of  Lincoln's  nomination, 
and  perhaps  afterward,  many  had  looked  as  to  an 
intellectual  leader  in  the  new  party  movement, 
failed  for  some  time  to  understand  that  Lincoln's 

• 

nomination  was  something  more  than  a  political  ac- 
cident. 

The  two  questions  with  which  Lincoln  had  first 
to  deal  were  the  demand  of  the  Confederate  States 
for  recognition  through  their  Commissioners  and  the 
Reco°iii     relief  °f  Fort  Sumter.    On  the  first  question  he  took 
reused  to  at  once  a  decided  stand.     The  Commissioners  were 
eracy  "     informed  that  they  could  not  be  received  in  any 
other  capacity  than  as  private  citizens  of  the  Re- 
public.    Through  Justice  Campbell  of  the  Supreme 
Court  communication  between  them  and  the  Secre- 
tary of  State  was  maintained  for  several  days;  but 
they  soon  gave  up,  if  indeed  they  ever  really  enter- 
tained, the  idea  that  the  Confederacy  could  establish 
its  independence  by  peaceful  negotiations  alone. 

On  the  question  of  the  relief  of  Sumter,  Lincoln 
did  not  act  at  once.  He  felt  his  way  cautiously, 
and  the  result  of  his  caution  and  shrewdness  was 
to  throw  upon  the  Southerners  the  onus  of  begin- 
ning hostilities.  Arrangements  were  made  to  fur- 
nish the  fort  with  supplies,  but  the  President  said 
that  he  had  no  immediate  purpose  other  than  "the 
giving  of  bread  to  the  few  brave  and  hungry  men 
of  the  garrison."  On  April  11,  Governor  Pickens 


1861  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1325 

of  South  Carolina,  acting  under  instructions  from 
the  Confederate  President,  demanded  the  surrender 
of  the  fort.     Major  Anderson  again  declined,  and 
early  the  next  morning   the   bombardment  began.  Fall  of 
The  flag  was  shot  down,  Anderson  surrendered,  and  fumter 
the  garrison  marched  out  with  the  honors  of  war. 

The  news  of  the  fall  of  Fort  Sumter  came  to  the 
North  like  a  bugle  call  to  arms.  Eiots  occurred  in 
New  York,  Boston  and  elsewhere.  Richard  Henry 
Stoddard's  stirring  stanzas,  published  in  the  New 
York  "World"  immediately  after  the  fall  of  Sumter, 
struck  a  responsive  chord : 

Men  of  the  North  and  West, 

"Wake  in  your  might. 
Prepare,  as  the  rebels  have  done, 

For  the  fight! 

You  cannot  shrink  from  the  test; 
Risel     Men  of  the  North  and  West! 


Not  with  words ;  they  laugh  them  to  scorn, 

And  tears  they  despise; 
But  with  swords  in  your  hands,  and  death 

In  your  eyes  I 

Strike  homel     Leave  to  God  all  the  rest; 
Strike  I     Men  of  the  North  and  West! 

From  that  moment  the  spirit  of  the  North  began 
to  rise,  and  Lincoln  promptly  issued  a  proclamation 
calling  for  75,000  men  to  enter  army  service  for 
three  months,  and  summoning  Congress  to  meet  in 

Volunteers 

extraordinary  session  on  the  Fourth  of  July. 
declared  the  object  of  the  call  to  be  "to  repossess 
the  forts  and   places  and  property  of  the  United 
States  which  had  been  unlawfully  seized." 

The  country's  response  was  immediate  and  enthu- 
siastic.    Democrats  and  Republicans  vied  in  making 
XlXth  Century— Vol.  3-D 


1326  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  1861 

ready  for  the  conflict  now  at  last  clearly  inevitable. 
The  Confederate  Provisional  Congress  had  already 
taken  steps  to  organize  an  army,  and  in  every  home 
throughout  the  country  men  were  making  up  their 
minds  to  fight  either  for  the  Union  or  for  the  South. 
Southern  officers  in  the  regular  army  resigned  in 
large  numbers,  and  tendered  their  services  to  their 

Southern    several  States  or  to  the  Confederate  Government. 

leave  Fed-  To  Robert  B.  Lee,  Scott's  favorite,  was  unofficially 

era!  army 

offered  the  command  of  the  Union  army.  He  de- 
clined, gave  up  his  commission,  offered  his  sword 
to  his  native  State,  and  was  put  in  command  of  all 
the  Virginia  forces.  The  Governors  of  the  various 
States  exerted  themselves  with  the  utmost  energy 
to  help  their  respective  governments.  These  were 
afterward  styled  "War  Governors."  In  the  lower 
South,  the  enthusiasm  of  the  people  and  the  energy 
of  the  officials  were  not  less. 

Expressive  of  the  soul-stirring  upheaval  of  those 
times  was  Bret  Harte's  famous  "Reveille": 

Hark!  I  hear  the  tramp  of  thousands, 

Reveille"  An(*  °*  arme<*  men  ^e  ^um  > 

Lo!  a  nation's  hosts  have  gathered 
Bound  the  quick-alarming  drum 
Saying,  "Come, 
Freemen,  come! 
Ere  your  heritage  be  wasted, ' '  said  the  quick-alarming  drum. 

Answer  gave  they — hoping,  fearing, 

Some  in  faith,  and  doubting  some — 
Till  a  trumpet- voice,  proclaiming, 
Said,  "My  chosen  people,  cornel" 

Then  the  drum, 
'*ta—  Lo!  was  dumb; 

For  the  great  heart  of  the  nation,  throbbing,  answered, 
"Lord,  we  come!" 


HOI  Spring  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1327 

On  April  17,  the  Virginia  Convention,  which, 
only  a  few  weeks  before,  had  shown  a  great 
majority  against  secession,  adopted  an  ordinance 
and  submitted  it  to  popular  vote.  But  before  the 
popular  vote  was  taken  thf  State  was  thoroughly 
committed  to  the  Confederate  movement,  and  the 
Confederate  Congress  at  Montgomery  adjourned  to 
meet  at  Richmond,  the  capital  of  Virginia,  in  July.  Virginia 
However,  the  western  counties  of  Virginia  were 
against  secession.  They  were  organized  into  a  sep- 
arate State.  Arkansas  seceded  on  May  6.  The 
next  day  Tennessee  practically  joined  the  Confed- 
eracy, although  in  that  State  a  strong  Unionist 
minority  maintained  the  forms  of  State  Government 
throughout  the  war.  North  Carolina  passed  an  ordi- 
nance on  May  20.  In  Kentucky,  there  wa's  a  strong  g 
attempt  at  secession,  and  the  State  was  afterward 
represented  in  the  Confederate  Congress,  but  can- 
not properly  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  Confederate 
States.  In  Missouri,  the  situation  was  similar.  la 
Maryland  and  Delaware,  the  attempt  at  secession 
clearly  failed. 

Meanwhile,  the  permanent  Constitution  had  been 
ratified  by  the  several  Confederate  States,  regular 
elections  had  been  held,  and  Davis  and  Stephens 
had  entered  upon  the  offices  of  President  and 
Vice-President  respectively  for  the  term  of  six  First  en- 

counter  at 

years.     On  April  19,  the  anniversary  of  the  battle  Baltimore 
of   Lexington,    a   Massachusetts   regiment,    passing 
through  Baltimore  on  its  way  to  Washington,  was 
attacked   by  a  mob,  and   the  blood   thus  shed  is 
commonly  regarded  as  the  first   bloodshed  of  the 


1328  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1881 

great  War  of  the  Bebellion.  Harper's  Ferry  Ar- 
senal in  Virginia  was  seized  by  the  Confederates. 
Davis  invited  application  for  letters  of  marque  and 
reprisal  in  order  that  privateers  might  be  fitted  out 
to  prey  upon  the  commerce  of  the  United  States. 
President  Lincoln  proclaimed  a  blockade  of  the 
ports  of  the  seceding  States.  Early  in  May,  he 
issued  his  second  call  for  65,000  volunteers  for 
three  years,  and  the  regular  army  and  navy  were 

Powers         . 

declare  increased.  Foreign  governments  were  informed  that 
the  Union  would  be  maintained  by  the  force  of 
arms.  Great  Britain  and  other  Powers,  by  issuing 
proclamations  of  neutrality,  recognized  the  Confed- 
erates as  belligerents.  On  May  24,  the  Federal 
troops  advanced  from  Washington  and  occupied 
Arlington  Heights  and  Alexandria,  in  Virginia. 
In  organizing  an  army,  Davis's  military  training 
and  his  experience  as  Secretary  of  War  under 
the  old  government  gave  him  a  great  advantage. 
Thoroughly  familiar  with  the  personnel  of  the  old 
army,  he  at  once  called  to  high  places  of  command 

Superiority  * ' 

°f southern  Rooert  E.  Lee,  Beauregard,  Joseph  and  Albert  S. 
Johnston,  and  others  whose  -exceptional  abilities  he 
had  learned  to  appreciate.  These  men,  fitted  for 
command  by  their  ability  and  their  education,  were 
confronted  by  such  men  as  Benjamin  F.  Butler, 
N.  P.  Banks,  Dix,  Fremont  and  Patterson.  To 
Grant  and  Sherman  were  given  subordinate  com- 
mands in  the  West.  During  this  early  period  of 
the  war,  to  McClellan  alone  of  the  Union  com- 
manders who  afterward  won  high  distinction  was 
given  an  opportunity  to  show  his  ability  in  a  sep- 


iseuuiy  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1329 

arate  command.  Scott,  at  the  age  of  seventy-five, 
could  no  longer  be  expected  to  show  the  needful 
alertness  and  energy.  Yet  the  North  was  already 
clamoring  for  an  advance  on  the  South.  Soon  after 
Congress  assembled,  it  approved  the  President's 
call  for  140,000  men  and  four  million  dollars.  The 
earliest  engagement  was  fought  on  June  10,  at  Big 
Bethel,  near  Hampton,  in  Virginia,  where  General 
Peirce  with  some  3,500  Federals  was  badly  beaten 
by  Magruder  with  1,800  Confederates  fighting  be- 
hind breastworks.  Theodore  Winthrop,  the  New 
England  author,  fell  in  this  fight.  The  first  really 
important  move  against  the  Confederacy  was  made 
on  two  lines.  Patterson  moved  up  the  Shenandoah 
Valley,  which  was  defended  by  Joseph  B.  Johnston, 
and  Irwin  McDowell  advanced  to  Manassas  Junc- 
tion, where  he  was  confronted  by  General  G.  T. 
Beauregard.  It  was  essential  to  Scott's  plan  that 
Beauregard  and  Johnston  should  not  effect  a  junc- 
tion. General  Patterson  occupied  Bunker  on  July 
14,  with  22,000  men,  and  General  Johnston  was  nine 
miles  away  with  12,000.  General  McDowell,  on 
July  16,  began  his  advance  on  Manassas  Junction 
with  28,000  men  and  49  guns.  On  the  following 
day,  Patterson  retreated  to  Charleston,  West  Vir- 
ginia. General  Johnston  eluded  him  in  the  Shen- 
andoah Valley,  hastened  eastward  with  9,000  men, 
and  joined  Beauregard.  On  July  18,  McDowell  had 
reached  Bull  Run,  midway  between  Centerville  and 
Manassas  Junction,  where  important  railroads  met. 
On  the  line  of  the  stream  both  sides  prepared  for 
battle.  Bull  Run,  as  Sherman  afterward  declared, 


1330  A   HISTORY   OF    THE  July  1861 

was  "one  of  the  best  planned  battles  of  the  war,  and 

Buniiun*    one  of  the  worst  fought;  both  armies  were  fairly 

defeated,  and  whichever  stood  fast,  the  other  would 

have  to  run."    McDowell,  in  a  flank  attack,  crushed 

the   Confederate    left  and   carried   all   before   him, 

until,  mounting  the  crest  of  a  hill,   the  Federals, 

flushed  and  disordered,  encountered  the  brigade  of 

"stone-      Thomas  J.  Jackson.     "Look  at  Jackson's  brigade; 

wall" 

Jackson  it  stands  there  like  a  stone  wall,"  cried  General 
Bee,  who  was  trying  to  rally  his  own  troops. 
Jackson,  thus  christened  with  his  famous  nick- 
name, checked  the  Federal  advance.  An  assault 
by  Johnston  on  the  Union  right  and  rear  simulta- 
neously with  Beauregard's  rallying  charge  decided 
the  day.  McDowell's  soldiers  had  been  fighting  for 
three  hours.  The  Union  line  broke  in  a  panic;  only 
a  disorganized  mob  recrossed  the  Potomac. 

This  battle,  by  its  moral  effect,  strengthened  im- 
mensely the  Confederate  cause  at  home  and  abroad, 
but  it  did  much  also  for  the  Union  cause.  There 
was  no  more  talk  at  Washington  about  a  "ninety 
day  limit"  to  the  war.  On  July  25,  an  act  passed 
Congress  further  increasing  the  army.  George  B. 
McClellan,  who  had  won  victories  at  Eich  Moun- 
tain and  Garrick's  Ford  in  West  Virginia,  was 
called  to  Washington  after  the  Battle  of  Bull 
Run  to  reorganize  the  Army  of  the  Potomac. 
On  July  22,  a  General  Enlistment  act  went  into 

Enlistment  force,  calling  into  service  500,000  volunteers;  a 
loan  of  $250,000,000  was  authorized,  and  the  war 
tariff  went  into  effect.  On  the  other  side,  ovw- 
confide*ce  and  sluggishness  seem  to  have  prevailed. 


X 
1861  Summer  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1331 

Congress  confiscated  all  slaves  employed  by  the 
Confederates  for  military  purposes,  as  "contraband 
of  war,"  as  General  Butler  styled  it.  The  average 
imposts  on  dutiable  articles  were  raised  from  19  to 
36  per  cent,  and  on  total  importations  from  15  to  28 

War  tariff 

per  cent,  by  changes  in  the  Morrill  Bill;  and  a 
bill  was  passed  for  a  direct  tax  of  $20,000,000  on 
the  States.  On  August  6,  Congress  adjourned,  after 
having  appropriated  $207,000,000  for  the  army  and 
passed  seventy- two  acts  relating  to  the  war.  ' 

The  Confederate  Congress  was  in  session  from 
July  20  to  the  last  day  of  August.  All  citizens 
of  border  States  who  should  aid  the  Union  were 
declared  to  be  alien  enemies,  and  so  were  all  citi- 
zens of  the  Confederate  States  who  were  not  sus- 
taining the  Confederacy.  All  debts  and  property erate 
belonging  to  alien  enemies  were  confiscated. 

Lincoln  found  his  foreign  relations  very  unsatis- 
factory. England  and  France  were  in  the  main  ill- 
disposed  toward  the  North.  Despite  the  efforts  of 
Seward,  Southern  privateering  received  their  assent. 
In  October  news  came  that  a  combined  English, 
French  and  Spanish  fleet  was  fitting  against  Mexico 
for  the  purpose  of  collecting  defaulted  debts.  The 
Russian  Czar,  however,  declined  Napoleon's  invi-  ^ft' 
tation  to  join  the  league,  and  Denmark,  Sweden,  p00rwe?s 
Switzerland  and  Italy  remained  friendly  to  the 
United  States.  Seward  sent  abroad  discreet  men 
to  set  the  cause  of  the  Union  in  a  more  favor- 
able light.  Charles  Francis  Adams  was  appointed 
Minister  to  England,  and  served  the  Union,  cause 
there  with  exceptional  ability  and  firmness. 


Confed- 
erate 
measures 


1332  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1861 

Mason  and  Slidell,  accredited  by  the  Confederate 
siidenand  Government  to  the  Governments  of  Great  Britain 
and  France,  were  seized  on  board  the  English 
mail  steamship  "Trejit,"  by  Captain  Wilkes  of  the 
United  States  sloop  "San  Jacinto,"  outside  of 
Havana.  Great  Britain,  through  Lord  Lyons,  sent 
a  demand  that  the  captives  should  be  forthwith 
released.  It  was  refused.  Lord  Kussell  drafted  a 
peremptory  ultimatum,  but  Queen  Victoria,  on  the 
advice  of  the  Prince  Consort,  then  on  his  deathbed, 
overruled  her  Prime  Minister's  decision.  Seward, 
ultimately  announced  the  liberation  of  the  Com- 

Quarrel 

England     missioners.     Europe  accepted  this  act  as  the  strong- 
avoided      egt  proof  of  a  cooi  an(j  caim  direction  of  affairs. 

Recognition  of  Confederate  independence  was  post- 
poned. Every  foreign  Power  except  Great  Britain 
excluded  privateers  from  its  ports.  This  policy 
drew  England  into  a  quasi-partnership  with  the 
South,  for  which  subsequently  she  was  called  to 
account. 

At  one  time  Louis  Napoleon  expressed  himself 
French      ready  to  mediate  between  the  North  and  the  South 
defined11  to  the  end  that  the  Southern  States  might  peace- 
fully withdraw.     But  it  was  made  plain  to  him  on 
the  part  of  the  Federal  Government  that  no  media- 
tion was  desired. 

In  the  West,  events  were  less  decisive  than  in  the 
East.  It  was  important  for  the  Union  cause  to  con- 
trol the  basin  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi ;  and  for 
that  object  two  points  were  of  the  first  importance, 
St.  Louis  and  Cairo.  Lyon,  on  May  10,  compelled 
the  surrender  of  the  Confederate  camp  near  St. 


1861  Summer  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1333 

Louis.  He  steamed  up  to  Jefferson  City  three  days 
later  with  2,000  men,  and  the  State  officers  fled.  On 
July  22,  the  Missouri  Convention  set  up  a  provi- 
sional government  whose  capital  was  St.  Louis.  On 
July  3,  Fremont,  as  Major-General,  was  appointed 

by  Lincoln   to   the  Department  of   the  West,   but  disap- 
pointing 

proved  inefficient.  He  neglected  to  secure  the 
safety  of  Lyon,  who  was  one  hundred  miles  from 
his  railroad  base.  Lyon  was  killed  at  the  battle 
at  Nelson's  Creek  on  August  10.  Sterling  Price 
captured  Lexington  for  the  Confederacy  and  com- 
pelled Fort  Mulligan  to  surrender.  Fremont  took 
the  field  with  40,000  men.  Cameron  and  Stanton, 
who  had  come  out  to  investigate,  found  confusion  j^persede* 
everywhere.  Fremont  was  displaced  by  Halleck. 

In  Kentucky,  the  new  Legislature  was  for  the 
Union  in  sentiment.  The  Federal  troops  were  called  • 
upon  to  aid  in  expelling  Leonidas  Polk  from  Colum- 
bus. At  Bowling  Green,  there  was  a  Confederate 
army  under  A.  S.  Johnston,  and  Zollicoffer  held 
the  mountain  gaps  in  the  east.  General  Anderson 
of  Fort  Sumter  fame  was  in  Federal  command.  He 
invited  two  officers  who  had  served  at  Bull  Bun  to 
accompany  him,  W.  T.  Sherman  and  G.  H.  Thomas. 
Sherman  was  sent  to  St.  Louis,  and  Don  Carlos  Sherman 
Buell  succeeded  him.  At  the  same  time  there  ap- 
peared the  man  who  was  to  lead  the  Union  to  final 
victory,  Ulysses  S.  Grant,  a  former  army  officer 
who  had  distinguished  himself  in  the  Mexican  war, 
and  who  now  tendered  his  services  to  Governor  Grant 
Yates  of  Illinois.  Grant  was  made  colonel  of  a 
half  mutinous  volunteer  regiment.  Starting  with 


1334  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  1861 

his  men  on  foot,  he  marched  them  to  the  Missouri 
River,  and  fitted  them  for  active  service  on  the 
way.  Late  in  August  he  was  sent  to  Cairo,  and 
was  soon  made  Brigadier-General  of  Volunteers. 
Columbus  was  in  the  hands  of  Polk.  Grant  organ- 
ized an  expedition,  and,  steaming  up  the  Ohio  to 
its  junction  with  the  Tennessee,  occupied  Paducah. 
On  his  return,  anxious  to  "do  something,"  he  at- 
tacked the  Confederates  at  Belmont,  but  the  enemy 
was  too  strong,  and  with  great  difficulty  he  re- 
embarked  and  steamed  away. 
Mccieiian  McClellan  reached  Washington  on  July  26,  and 

in  com-  J 

mand  assumed  command  the  next  day.  On  November 
1,  he  succeeded  Scott  in  command  of  the  armies  of 
the  United  States,  and  at  once  began  to  display  hia 
unusual  talent  for  organization.  He  had  ordered  a 
demonstration  in  October,  with  the  purpose  of  forc- 
ing the  evacuation  of  Leesburg.  At  Ball's  Bluff  an 
engagement  occurred  in  which  Colonel  Baker,  Sen- 
Northern  ator  from  Oregon,  was  killed.  Things  were  very 
ttnaSon  serious,  but  McClellan  refused  to  move  and  began 
the  procrastinating  policy  which  marked  his  entire 
career. 

In  the  meantime,  important  naval  expeditions 
were  fitted  out.  Hatteras  and  Port  Royal  on  the 
Southern  coast  were  captured,  and  the  effectiveness 
of  the  blockade  was  constantly  increased.  New 
gunboats  were  rapidly  provided.  The  South  had 
neither  ships  nor  seamen,  and  her  ports  were  soon 
effort*  closed.  In  the  capture  of  Port  Royal,  which  made 
an  opening  into  the  heart  of  the  Carolina  cotton 
region,  fifty  vessels  were  engaged  under  Dupont. 


1861  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1335 

The  year  closed  with  the  Confederates  hopeful, 
England  inclined  to  favor  their  cause,  and  the  pres- 
tige of  Big  Bethel  and  Bull  Run  not  yet  destroyed  mteryen- 
by  any  Union  victory  of  comparable  effect.    But  the  China 
North  had  at  last  begun  to  realize  the  magnitude 
of  its  task,  and  to  bring  to  bear  those  enormous 
resources  which  the  Confederates  could  not  match. 

The  peace  between  China  and  the  foreign  Powers 
compelled  a  revision  of  the  position  at  Shanghai. 
Admiral  Hope  sailed  up  to  Nanking,  and  exacted 
a  pledge  from  the  Wangs  that  Shanghai  should  not 
be  attacked  for  twelve  months,  and  that  the  TaipingTaipings 

defiant 

force  should  remain  at  a  distance  of  thirty  miles. 
Ward  and  Burgevine  were  compelled  to  desist  from 
recruiting  Europeans,  and  were  taken  into  the  Em- 
peror's service  to  drill  Chinese  soldiers.  This  was 
the  origin  of  the  Ever-Victorious  army,  which  un- 
der Gordon  was  soon  to  achieve  great  and  lasting 

TTT  i  Death  of 

results.  Chung  Wang,  elated  by  the  capture  of  Prince 
Ningpo  and  Hangchow,  resolved  to  disregard  Tien 
Wang's  promise,  and  make  an  attack  on  Shanghai. 
He  issued  a  proclamation  in  which  he  said:  "The 
hour  of  the  Manchus  has  come.  We  must  take 
Shanghai  to  complete  our  dominions." 

Toward  the  close  of  the  year  the  death  of  Prince 
Albert,  the  consort  of  Queen  Victoria,  on  December 
16,  plunged  the  British  Empire  into  mourning.  In 
announcing  his  death  to  the  nation,  Victoria  con- 
fessed herself  "the  heartbroken  Queen  of  England." 


1336  A   HISTORY  OF  THE  l»z 


1862 

PUBLIC  affairs  in  Mexico  were  going  from  bad 
to  worse.     Juarez,  enlightened  ruler  that  he 
was,  was  despised  by  the  Hidalgos  on  ac- 
count of  his  Indian   blood,  by  the  higher  officials 

Affairs  in 

Mexico  on  account  of  his  uncompromising  honesty,  and  by 
the  priests  for  his  outspoken  hostility  to  clerical 
privileges.  He  was  made  to  suffer  for  the  sins  of 
his  predecessors  against  foreign  interests. 

The  Spanish  expedition,  under  General  Prim, 
was  the  first  to  land  in  Mexico.  Early  in  Jan- 
uary,  French  and  English  warships  likewise  ap- 
peared at  Vera  Cruz  and  landed  their  forces. 
Vice-Admiral  Jurien  de  la  Graviere  and  Bear- 
Admiral  _Sir  Charles  "Wilke  announced  their 
plenipotentiary  powers.  A  joint  note  was  ad- 
dressed to  President  Juarez,  demanding  redress 
and  indemnity  for  all  the  outrages  of  the  past. 

European  The  demands  of  the  French,  among  which  were 
er  those  of  the  notorious  banker  Jecker,  were  so  ex- 
cessive as  to  excite  the  protests  even  of  the  allies. 
On  February  19,  an  understanding  was  reached  at 
Soledad  between  General  Prim  and  Juarez's  Minister 
Doblado.  According  to  this  convention,  the  allies 
were  to  be  permitted  to  establish  themselves  in  the 
cities  of  Cordova,  Orizaba  and  Tehuacan.  One 


1862  Spring  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1337 

week  later  the  French  occupied  Tehuacan,  while 
the  Spaniards  took  up  their  quarters  in  Orizaba, 
and  the  English  in  Cordova.  Soon  afterward 
French  reinforcements  arrived  under  the  command 
of  Count  Lorencez.  Vice- Admiral  de  la  Gravie're 
now  revoked  his  signature  to  the  Convention  of 
Soledad,  and,  raising  the  claims  for  indemnities,  ^l^ion 
demanded  that  his  troops  should  be  permitted  to 
occupy  the  capital  to  insure  a  proper  reorganization 
of  the  affairs  of  Mexico. 

In  the  train  of  General  Lorencez  appeared  two 
public  men  of  Mexico  who  were  denounced  as 
traitors  to  the  cause  of  their  country.  One  was 
Almonte,  the  quondam  revolutionary  general,  while 
the  other  was  Father  Miranda,  one  of  the  most 
reactionary  of  Mexican  clericals.  The  attitude  as- 
sumed by  France  was  too  much  for  her  allies.  On 
April  9,  occurred  the  definite  breach  between  the' 

England 

respective  commanders   of  the  joint  expeditionary  *^? 
force.     England  and  Spain  withdrew  from  the  alli- 
ance and  recalled  their  forces. 

On  January  14,  the  Taipings  reached  the  vicin- 
ity of  Shanghai.  The  surrounding  country  was 
obscured  by  the  smoke  of  villages  which  they  had 
burned.  Thousands  of  fugitives  crowded  the  for- 
eign settlement  imploring  aid.  But  the  English 
garrison  of  two  native  regiments  and  some  artillery 
proved  sufficient  for  the  defence  of  the  place.  The 
rebels  were  repulsed  by  the  French  at  Woosung, 
the  port  at  the  mouth  of  the  river.  Sir  John 
Michael  arrived  with  a  few  English  troops,  which, 
with  two  regiments  disciplined  by  "Ward,  made  a 


1338  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Spring  1868 

force  of  a  thousand  men.  Ward  captured  Quanfee- 
lung  with  several  hundred  rebel  boats.  The  rebels 
continued  burning  and  pillaging.  The  English  and 
French  commanders  determined  to  attack  them. 
On  February  21,  a  joint  force  of  1,096  men,  with 
Admiral  Hope  in  general  charge,  stormed  the 
village  of  Kachiaou.  Although  driven  out,  the 
rebels  resumed  their  attacks.  Hope  was  reinforced 
by  1,150  men  with  seven  howitzers.  He  attacked 
Tseedong,  a  place  of  great  strength,  and  killed  700 
and  took  300  prisoners.  The  Ever-Victorious  army, 
for  this  decisive  victory,  was  brought  to  the  favor- 
able notice  of  Prince  Kung  and  the  Chinese  Govern- 
ment. An  Englishman  contracted  to  convey  9,000 
of  the  troops  who  had  stormed  Gangking  from  the 
Yangtse  to  Shanghai.  At  the  end  of  March,  Gen- 
eral Stoveley  arrived  with  English  reinforcements. 
A  plan  was  entered  upon  to  clear  the  country  of 
rebels  for  thirty  miles  around  Shanghai.  In  their 
first  efforts  the  English  were  defeated;  Admiral 
Hope  and  some  other  officers  were  wounded,  and 
seventy  men  were  killed  and  wounded.  The  fol- 
lowing two  days  the  rebels  were  defeated.  Kahding, 
Tsingpu,  Nanjoo  and  Cholin  were  then  attacked. 
Defeated  at  the  first  three  places,  the  rebels  made 
a  final  stand  at  Cholin  on  May-  20.  The  English 
carried  the  place  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet.  The 
troops  from  Gangking  to  the  number  of  six  thou- 
sand had  arrived.  Futai  Sieh,  who  was  to  be 
succeeded  by  Li  Hung  Chang,  resolved  to  employ 
tnem  at  once  iQ  a  Wa7  to  restore  his  sinking  for- 
tunes. He  advanced  to  Taitson  on  May  12,  and 


1862  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  1339 

two  days  afterward  Chung  Wang  came  with  ten 
thousand  chosen  troops  to  relieve  the  garrison. 
Of  7,000  men  under  Futai  Sieh,  5,000  fell  on 
the  field.  General  Stoveley  had  to  abandon  his 
intended  plan  and  retrace  his  steps  to  Shanghai. 

Chung  Wang  was  once  more  called  to  the  assist- 
ance of  Tien  Wang  at  Nanking.     Shortly  after  his 
departure,  Ward  was   killed  in  action  and  Burge- 
vine  succeeded  to  the  command.    Charges  were  made 
against  Burgevine.     The  English  commander  would 
not  interfere,  and  referred  the  matter  to  London. 
Burgevine  was  then  ordered  to  embark  his  force 
Shanghai  for  Nanking.     He  and  his  troops  refused  mutiny 
to  move  until  they  were  fully  paid. 

In  Japan,  the  agitation  against  the  foreigners  grew 
more  threatening.  The  foreign  Ministers,  who  up 
to  that  time  had  their  Legations  at  Yeddo,  retired 
to  Yokohama.  They  demanded  that  fortified  Lega- 
tion buildings  should  be  furnished  to  them  by 
Japanese  Government.  Ando,  the  Prime  Minister, 
gave  up  the  recreation  ground  of  the  city  for  that 
purpose.  A  Japanese  mob  burned  down  the  build- 
ings. An  attempt  was  made  to  assassinate  the  Prime 
Minister,  who  barely,  escaped  with  the  loss  of  an  ear. 
Mito-ko's  men  failing  to  win  the  Shogun  over  to 
their  side,  determined  to  embroil  the  government 
with  some  foreign  nation.  Shimazu,  the  father  of 
one  of  the  great  Daimios,  declared  that  he  would  cut 
down  any  foreigner  whom  he  might  chance  to  meet. 
At  Kanagawa,  a  party  of  Europeans  were  encoun- 
tered. They  were  set  upon,  and  an  English  mer- 
chant,  Richardson,  was  murdered.  The  British 


1340  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  1862 

Minister's  demands  for  redress  were  treated  with 
contempt.  At  the  same  time,  Choshiu,  a  Daimio, 
who  held  a  commission  as  guardian  of  the  straits 
of  Shimonoseki,  acting  according  to  the  letter  of  his 
instructions,  fired  upon  some  foreign  vessels  pass- 
ing through  the  straits.  In  consequence  of  this,  a 
nava?d*m-s^ua^roa  °^  English,  French  and  Dutch  warships 
castration  appeare(j  jn  fae  straits,  and  levied  a  heavy  indem- 
nity from  one  of  the  Choshiu's  relatives  whom  they 
took  for  the  Daimio.  The  Shogun  disavowed  the 
Choshiu's  proceedings.  To  satisfy  the  foreign  de- 
mands he  undertook  to  punish  Choshiu.  This  he 
found  to  be  next  to  impossible  since  the  soldiery 
as  well  as  the  Japanese  people  at  large  regarded 
Choshiu  as  a  patriot.  The  Shogun  at  last  was  com- 
pelled to  come  to  terms  with  the  Daimio.  It  was 
on  this  occasion  that  Choshiu  presented  his  famous 
memorial : 

prophetic  "The  closing  or  opening  of  Japan  was  a  matter  of 
memorial  greatest  moment  That  which  cannot  be  shut  again 
should  not  have  been  opened.  The  closing  of  Japan 
can  never  be  a  real  closing  until  the  country  has 
established  its  own  independence.  Since  unity  is 
force  and  strength,  and  discord  is  weakness,  it 
would  be  imprudent  to  go  to  war  against  power- 
ful and  brave  enemies  with  discord  among  them. 
I  think  the  only  way  to  bring  about  national  union 
is  by  a  solid  union  between  the  Shogun  and  Mikado, 
acting  together  as  one  man. 

"After  the  Emperor  is  firmly  established  on  his 
throne  the  dormant  soul  of  Japan  will  awaken. 
Then  we  will  be  united  in  power  and  independence. 
Once  our  independence  is  restored  we  must  reform 
our  military,  our  navy,  as  well  as  all  branches  of 


1862  April  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1341 

industry.  The  whole  nation  must  devote  life  and 
soul  to  the  benefit  of  our  State,  and  we  must  learn 
and  study  the  interior  arrangements  and  the  devel- 
opment of  arts  and  sciences  in  foreign  lands." 

Great  Britain,  unable  to  obtain  redress  for  the 
murder  of  Eichardson  from  the  Shogun,  undertook 
its  own  punitive  measures.  Satsuma,  after  the  Eng- 
lish warships  had  reduced  the  city  of  Kagoshima  Kagoshima 
nearly  to  ashes,  had  to  pay  a  heavy  indemnity. 
In  realization  of  their  own  weakness,  the  Japanese 
sought  to  acquire  knowledge  of  European  methods 
of  warfare  and  other  advancements. 

In  Mexico,   France   now  had  her  own  way.     A 
single-handed   war  with   Mexico    fitted    admirably 
into  the  military  aspirations  of  Napoleon  III.  and 
of  Empress   Eugenie's  clerical   supporters.      Amid 
wild  enthusiasm  in  France,  General  Lorencez  was 
ordered  to  march  on  the  City  of  Mexico.     On  April  t 
12,  President  Juarez  announced  that  on  the  day  the?r®j^ico 
French  troops  should  advance  all  the  region  occu- 
pied by  them  would  be  declared  under  military  law, 
while  all  those  who  gave  assistance  to  the  French 
forces  should  be  greeted  as  enemies  to  their  coun- 
try.    All  able-bodied  Mexicans  were  called  to  arms 
to  resist  the  threatened  invasion.     The  seriousness 
of   the   government's    intentions   were    soon    made 
manifest.    The  Mexican  general,  Kobles,  who,  with- 
out  authorization,    entered    into   negotiations   with^nerai 
the  French,  was  arrested,  court-martialled  and  shot. 8hot 
A  counter-proclamation  was  issued  by  the  French 
general.     It  closed  with  a  menacing  phrase:  "The 
flag  of  France  has  been  raised  on  Mexican  soil,  and 


1342  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  May  1862 

shall  not  be  hauled  down.  The  wise  men  will  wel- 
come it  as  a  friend.  Let  the  fools  dare  to  oppose 
it!"  The  French  drew  in  their  forces  to  Vera  Cruz, 
leaving  their  invalids  in  the  military  hospitals  at 
Orizaba,  in  accordance  with  the  Convention  of  Sole- 
dad.  Their  instant  removal  was  requested  by  the 
Mexican  general  Zaragoza,  otherwise  they  would 
be  treated  as  prisoners  of  war.  In  the  face  of  this 
threat,  General  Lorencez  determined  to  march  on 
Orizaba.  On  April  19,  under  a  burning  sun,  the 
inevitable  French  column  started  on  its  march.  The  war  with 
Mexico  had  begun.  A  few  days  after  this,  the  last 
remaining  Englishman  embarked  for  home  at  Vera 
Cruz,  while  the  Spaniards  drew  down  their  flag  at 
San  Juan  d'Ulloa  to  cross  over  to  Havana. 

The  first  skirmishes  between  the  French  and  the 
irregular  Mexican  horsemen  resulted  in  easy  victo- 
ries for  France.  General  Lorencez's  column  crossed 
the  rivers  Antigua  and  La  Plata,  and  ascended  the 
steep  slopes  of  the  Cumbres  Range.  Here  they 
suffered  severely  from  elusive  bands  of  guerillas. 
On  May  4,  the  French  army  appeared  before  Puebla 
de  los  Angelos.  General  Lorencez  ordered  the  as- 
sault of  the  city  on  the  following  day.  The  Zouaves 
began  the  attack  on  Guadeloupe.  For  three  hours 
they  were  subjected  to  a  severe  fire  from  the  terraces 
of  Guadeloupe,  but  at  last  succeeded  in -charging  up 
to  the  very  walls  of  that  stronghold.  Some  of  them 
scaled  the  ramparts,  and  hand-to-hand  fighting  had 
already  begun,  when  a  terrific  tropical  thunder- 


French 
,t 

scale  against  the  invaders.     Count  Lorencez  ordered 


Puebiaat    storm  burst  over  the  battlefield.     This  turned  the 


1862  Summer  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1843 

a  general  retreat.  The  losses  of  the  French  were 
140  men  and  30  officers.  The  Mexicans  lost  nearly 
400.  To  his  final  overtures  of  a  peaceful  occupation 
of  Puebla,  General  Ortaga  replied  with  three  preg- 
nant words:  "You  are  enemies." 

After  the  defeat  of  Puebla,  the  French  retreated 
to  Orizaba,  where  they  awaited  reinforcements.  The 
strength  of  Lorencez's  forces  about  this  time  was 
6,000  men.  To  safeguard  communications  with  Vera 
Cruz,  the  towns  of  Chiquihuite  and  Cordova  were 
occupied.  General  Almonte,  acting  in  conjunction 
with  the  French,  proclaimed  a  provisional  govern- 
ment at  Vera  Cruz  and  tried  to  levy  taxes.  He  was 
joined  by  General  Marquez  with  4,000  followers  of 
former  President  Miramon.  For  a  while  operations 
dragged  on.  A  Mexican  attack  led  by  General 
Ortaga  was  repulsed  by  the  French.  Yellow  fever 
and  the  hostile  attitude  of  the  natives  made  the 
situation  of  the  French  precarious.  At  last  the 
arrival  of  reinforcements  with  General  Forey  re- 
vived the  hopes  of  the  French.  Forey  was  put|^m^d 
in  command  of  all  the  forces.  Louis  Napoleon's 
policy  in  Mexico  was  expressed  in  his  letter  of 
instructions  to  General  Forey: 

"People  will  ask  you  why  we  sacrifice  men  and  Anti- 
money  to  establish  a  regular  government  in  Mexico,  declaration 
In  the  present  state  of  civilization  the  development 
of  America  can  no  longer  be  a  matter  of  indifference 
to  Europe.     America  takes  our  wares,   and  keeps 
alive  our  commerce.     It  is  to  our  interest  that  the 
Eepublic  of  the  United  States  of  North  America 
should  flourish  and  prosper,  but  it  is  not  at  all  to 
our  interest  that  they  should  come  in  possession  of 


1344  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Autumn  1863 

the  entire  Gulf  of  Mexico,  to  rule  from  there  the 
destinies  of  the  Antilles  and  South  America,  and 
control  the  products  of  the  New  World.  However, 
if  Mexico  maintains  its  independence  in  the  integrity 
of  its  territory,  if  a  strong  government  is  established 
there  by  the  aid  of  France,  then  we  may  restore  to 
the  Latin  races  across  the  seas  their  former  glory." 

Lincoln's  ^n  *ne  United  States  of  America  the  problems 
of  the  civil  war  were  too  exacting  for  President 
Lincoln  to  pay  much  attention  to  this  manifesto. 
In  the  City  of  Mexico,  on  the  other  hand,  a  liberal 
Congress  convened  by  Juarez  voted  a  unanimous 
resolution  declaring  that  "Mexico  would  never- 
more tolerate  the  least  interference  in  her  affairs, 
and  in  the  establishment  of  her  social  and  political 
organization."  Louis  Napoleon's  statement  that  he 
did  not  wage  war  against  Mexico,  but  against  Juarez 
and  his  faction,  was  offset  by  a  declaration  that 

Mexico]  . 

aroused  Mexico  did  not  wage  war  against  France,  but  against 
that  monarch,  who,  "seduced  by  ambition,  wished 
to  conquer  a  rich  land  and  rule  over  the  destinies 
of  another  continent." 

On  September  24,  the  Mexican  irregular  forces 
attacked  Tejeria  in  force,  an  important  post  be- 
tween Vera  Cruz  and  Orizaba;  but,  with  the  help 
of  Almonte's  native  troops,  the  French  repulsed 
the  attack.  At  the  same  time  the  Mexicans  lost 
one  of  the  ablest  of  their  generals  in  Zaragoza,  who 
succumbed  to  yellow  fever.  His  successor,  Gon- 
zalez Ortaga,  was  not  his  match.  Yellow  fever 

fever         now  wrought  such  havoc  in  the  French  army  that 

epidemic 

Forey  was  driven  to  move.     He  advanced  to  Cor- 


1868  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1345 

dova  and  Orizaba.  Both  cities  were  found  nearly 
deserted  by  the  inhabitants,  who  had  barricaded  the 
houses.  On  October  25,  General  Berthier,  with  an 
advance  column  of  6,000  men,  penetrated  to  Jelapa. 
A  bloody  defeat  was  inflicted  on  the  guenlleros, 
who  infested  the  town  of  Medelin  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Vera  Cruz.  The  seaport  of  Tampico  w 
seized  by  the  French  and  became  one  of  their  most 
important  bases  of  supplies.  Under  the  renegade, 
Marquez,  native  troops  occupied  Colchinda  in  the 
name  of  France,  while  General  Douay  captured  Te- 
huacan.  While  the  army  of  invasion  marched  on 
Puebla,  a  French  squadron  under  Rear-Admiral 
Bouet  destroyed  the  fortification  of  Acapulco. 

In  the  United  States,  Edwin  M.  Stanton  had  be- 
come Secretary  of  War.  At  the  same  time,  Gen- 
eral  Burnside,  with  12,800  men  and  the  fleet  under  of  war""7 
Goldsborough,  captured  Koanoke  Island,  New  Berne 
and  Port  Macon,  on  the  North  Carolina  coast.  The 
only  harbor  left  to  the  Confederacy  on  this  coast 
was  that  of  Wilmington. 

General  Curtis,  under  command  of  Halleck,  forced 
the  Confederates  across  the  Arkansas  line,  and  de- 
feated them  on  January  6  and  7  at  Pea  Eidge.  The 
local  militia  was  put  under  the  command  of  General 
Schofield.  Buell,  who  succeeded  Sherman  in  Ken-  Pine  Ridge 
tucky,  was  to  push  forward  and  retain  East  Tennes- 
see, but  he  informed  President  Lincoln  that  the  task 
was  impracticable  with  the  force  at  his  command. 
A.  S.  Johnston  had  massed  at  Bowling  Green  a 
Confederate  force  with  which  to  hold  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee.  In  order  to  divide  Johnston's  forces, 


1346  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Spring  1868 

McClellan  suggested  to  Halleck  a  feint  on  the  Ten- 
nessee, and  Halleck  ordered  Grant  to  make  a  recon- 
noissance  up  the  stream  with  gunboats.  Fort  Henry 
might  be  taken,  Columbus  turned,  and  Bowling 
Green  abandoned.  Thomas  advanced  against  Zol- 
licoffer  and  dislodged  him  from  Cumberland  Gap. 
On  February  2,  Grant  started  up  the  Tennessee  with 
15,000  men  on  transports,  Commodore  Foote  fol- 
lowing on  the  4th  with  seven  light-draft  gunboats. 
Fort  Henry  guarded  the  Tennessee,  and  Fort  Don- 
Fort  Henry  elson  the  Cumberland,  at  a  short  distance  overland 
from  each  other.  The  capture  of  the  first  proved 
easy.  "Fort  Henry  is  ours;  I  shall  take  and  de- 
stroy Fort  Donelson  on  the  8th  and  return,"  was 
Grant's  despatch.  The  navigation  of  the  Tennessee 
passed  into  Union  control.  Eesolved  to  fight  at 
Donelson  for  Nashville,  Johnston  divided  his  slen- 
der force  and  hastened  to  Nashville  with  14,000 
men.  Of  Buell's  army,  only  8,000  raw  recruits 
and  one  drilled  brigade  went  to  Grant's  assist- 
ance. Grant  reached  Donelson  with  27,000  men; 
the  enemy  numbered  21,000.  Foote  arrived  in  the 
evening  with  six  gunboats,  and  began  the  assault 
On  the  14th,  but  he  drew  off  damaged.  General 
Grant  repelled  a  desperate  sortie,  stormed  the  in- 
Grant  trenchments  in  his  front,  and  drove  the  Confederates 

storms 

back.  On  Sunday  the  16th  the  fort  was  taken  and 
its  whole  force  captured.  The  Confederate  generals, 
Floyd  and  Pillow,  however,  had  escaped  during  the 
previous  night  with  5,000  men,  as  did  N.  B.  Forrest, 
the  famous  Confederate  cavalry  leader.  General 
Buckner  surrendered  with  15,000  men  under  two 


1863  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1347 

generals,  and  20,000  stand  of  arms,  together  with  Buckner,s 
horses,  artillery  and  commissary  stores.  Grant surrender 
sprang  at  once  into  national  distinction. 

From  the  outset  of  the  war  the  disproportion  in 
the  naval  strength  of  both  sides  was  very  great. 
All  the  warships  of  the  United  States,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  vessels  scuttled  at  Norfolk,  re- 
mained in  the  hands  of  the  Northern  Government. 
In  all,  they  numbered  seventy-six  ships,  mount- 
ing seven  hundred  and  eighty-three  guns;  but  they 
were  all  built  of  wood,  and  no  less  than  thirty-two 
relied  upon  sails  alone  for  motive  power.  The  neg- 
lect of  the  navy  cost  the  Union  Government  dear.  ™®  UniOQ 
With  a  strong  squadron  of  steam  ironclads,  like 
those  that  were  used  in  the  Crimea  before  Kinburn, 
the  strong  seaports  of  Charleston,  Wilmington  and 
Mobile  might  have  been  reduced  from  the  start. 

On  the  Southern  side,  again,  the  situation  ap- 
peared all  but  hopeless.  The  only  chance  lay  in 
strengthening  the  shore  defences,  as  was  done,  and 
in  designing  vessels  of  extreme  power  and  great  pro- 
tection. Among  the  enemy's  ships  scuttled  at  Nor- 
folk was  the  "Merrimac."  She  was  raised  and  re- 
named the  "Virginia,"  but  the  old  name  still  clung 
to  her.  Over  her  uninjured  hull  new  upper  works 
were  constructed,  protected  by  rough  iron  armor  de-  America* 
signed  for  her  by  Commander  Brooke  on  the  model m 
of  Stevens'  old  ironclads.  With  unarmored  ends  of 
considerable  length,  her  freeboard  was  left  very  low 
fore  and  aft.  She  was  stripped  of  masts  and  rig- 
ging, a  daring  departure  from  the  accustomed  de- 
signs of  shipbuilders.  Owing  to  the  delay  in  ob- 


1348  A   HISTORY   OF   THE  Feb.  is«8 

taining  suitable  armor,  she  could  not  be  got  ready 
for  sea  until  March,  when  she  was  manned  with 
three  hundred  soldiers,  under  Captain  Buchanan 
and  Lieutenant  Jones,  both  seceders  from  the 
United  States  navy. 

In  the  meanwhile  the  Northern  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  had  likewise  come  to  realize  the  need  of 
armor- plated  ships.  An  advertisement  was  issued 
at  Washington  inviting  designs  for  ironclads. 
Ericsson,  the  great  Swedish  inventor,  at  once  came 
forward  with  a  design  for  an  invulnerable  ship.  So 
great  was  his  faith  in  it  that  he  agreed  to  build  it 
entirely  at  his  own  risk,  and  to  refund  all  money 
advanced  on  account  should  his  ship  prove  unsuc- 
cessful. Ericsson  furthermore  undertook  to  com- 
plete his  ship  in  the  unprecedentedly  short  time  of 
one  hundred  days.  Before  the  contract  was  even 
signed  the  keel  plate  for  the  vessel  had  been  rolled. 

The  design  of  Ericsson's  vessel,  which  was  named 
by  him  the  "Monitor,"  was  a  still  more  radical 
departure  from  accepted  ship  designs  than  the 
"Merrimac."  The  great  innovation  was  a  revolving 
gun  turret.  Already,  it  should  be  stated,  the  idea 
of  a  revolving  naval  turret  had  been  independently 
evolved  in  Denmark  and  England,  but  to  the  United 
States  belongs  the  credit  of  the  first  demonstration. 

On  the  last  day  of  January,  the  "Monitor"  was 
launched,  and  turned  over  to  the  government  in 
complete  shape  within  one  hundred  and  eighteen 
days  from  her  commencement,  a  truly  remarkable 
feat.  From  keel  to  turret  the  "Monitor"  was  the 
product  of  Ericsson's  brain.  She  was  crammed  with 


1862  March  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1349 

all  manner  of  inventions  originated  on  the  spur  of 
the  moment  —  no  less  than  forty  paten  table  contriv- 
ances. Admiral  Porter  was  one  of  the  few  who 
recognized  the  immense  value  of  the  "Monitor." 
"This  is  the  strongest  fighting  vessel  in  the  world," 
he  wrote,  "and  can  whip  anything  afloat."  The 
"Monitor"  did  not  get  away  to  sea  one  minute  too  uj^nitor,, 
soon;  in  truth,  she  was  one  or  two  days  too  late.  underway 

On  Saturday  morning,  March  8,  the  "Merrimac" 
steamed  out  of  Norfolk  into  Hampton  Roads  on  her 
trial  trip.  Her  officers  and  men  had  received  com- 
munion, for  they  knew  that  they  were  going  on  a 
desperate  errand.  Both  engines  and  steering  gear 
were  defective.  Not  one  of  her  guns  had  ever  been 


fired,  and  the  crew  were  untrained  landsmen.  As 
the  "Merrimac"  came  in  sight,  the  quartermaster 
of  the  United  States  ship  "Congress"  remarked  to 
the  officer  on  deck:  "I  believe  that  thing  is  coming 
down  at  last,  sir."  The  Northern  ships  beat  to 
quarters.  The  small  gunboat  "Zouave"  engaged 
the  "Merrimac,"  but  found  her  thirty-two  pounders 
ineffective.  The  "Merrimac"  took  no  notice  of  the 
"Zouave,"  but  steamed  slowly  past  the  United 
States  ships  "Cumberland"  and  "Congress,"  and  the 
shore  batteries.  The  Union  officers  were  stricken 
with  amazement  as  they  saw  their  shots  glance  off  ciad  in0"" 
the  "MerrimacV  armored  hull  like  so  many  peb- 
bles. For  fully  an  hour  their  fire  was  not  returned. 
Then  the  "Merrimac"  came  up  close,  and  protruded 
a  seven-inch  rifled  gun  at  close  range.  The  first 
shot  put  one  of  the  gun  crews  on  the  "Cumber- 

land" out  of  action.     At  a  range  of  200  yards  the 
XlXth  Century—  Vol.  3—  E 


1360  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  March  1862 

"Merrimac"  opened  fire  on  the  "Congress."  "Our 
clean  and  handsome  deck,"  reported  one  of  the  offi- 
cers on  the  "Congress,"  "was  in  an  instant  changed 
into  a  slaughter  pen,  with  locked  legs  and  arms, 
and  bleeding,  blackened  bodies  scattered  about  by 
the  shells,  while  brains  actually  dripped  from  the 
beams."  Leaving  the  "Congress"  on  his  starboard 
quarter,  Captain  Buchanan  now  headed  for  the 
„.  ,  "Cumberland,"  and  used  the  ram  for  the  first 

First  use 

of  ram  ^me  jn  mo(jern  history.  The  shock  sent  the 
"Cumberland"  leaning  over,  though  scarcely  felt 
on  board  the  "Merrimac."  The  ram  itself  broke  off. 
As  the  "Merrimac"  backed  out,  Buchanan  called  for 
the  "Cumberland's"  surrender.  It  was  then  that 
Lieutenant  Morris  answered:  "Never.  I'll  sink 
alongside."  With  the  red  flag  of  "No  surrender" 

"Mem-      flying  at  the  fore,  the  "Cumberland"  went  down, 

mac"  sinks     ' 

"Cumber-  her  crew  firing  upon  their  impregnable  adversary 
until  the  bitter  end.  This  heroism,  in  the  face  of 
disaster,  has  been  fittingly  sung  by  Longfellow: 

Ho!  brave  hearts  that  went  down  in  the  seas! 

Ye  are  at  peace  in  the  troubled  stream. 
Ho!  brave  land!  with  hearts  like  these, 
Thy  flag,  that  is  rent  in  twain, 
Shall  be  one  again, 
And  without  a  seam. 

The  "Congress,"  realizing  her  helplessness,  made 
off  for  shoal  water,  where  she  ran  aground.  The 
"Merrimac"  followed  her  up  within  a  hundred  and 
fifty  yards,  and,  taking  up  an  advantageous  position, 
raked  her  fore  and  aft  for  more  than  an  hour.  The 
doomed  ship  caught  fire  in  several  places.  As  the 
"Merrimac"  drew  near  to  board,  the  shore  bat- 


1862  March  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1351 

teries  redoubled  their  fire,  wounding  Buchanan  and 
his  officers.     On  this  the  "Merrimac"  drew  off,  and  "aggress* 
resumed  her  fire  on  the  burning  "Congress,"  whose a 
survivors    jumped   overboard   and    swam    for    the 
shore.      The    remaining    American    ships — "Min- 
nesota,"  "Roanoke"    and    "St.    Lawrence" — were 
saved  from  sudden  destruction  only  by  anchoring 
in  shoal   water,   where  the  "Merrimac"  could  not 
approach. 

That  very  night,  with  dramatic  promptness,  the 
"Monitor"  put  into  the  Roads.  She  had  taken  the 
sea  a  few  days  before,  commanded  by  Lieutenant 
Worden,  and  manned  by  a  crew  of  volunteers, 
she  was  regarded  in  the  light  of  a  forlorn  hope. 
She  was  stationed  near  the  helpless  "Minnesota." 

On  the  following  morning  the  "Merrimac"  came 
out  into  the  Roads  to  finish  her  work  of  destruction. 
There  she  beheld  her  njew  antagonist  lying  beside 
the  "Minnesota"  like  a  "tin  can  on  a  shingle." 
Lieutenant  Jones  commanded  the  "Merrimac"  in 
place  of  the  wounded  Buchanan.  He  realized  at 
once  that  the  new  outlandish  vessel  was  his  fore- 
most adversary.  The  day  was  sunny  and  bright, 
and  crowds  of  spectators  thronged  the  shores  to  be- 
hold the  great  duel.  After  exchanging  shots  with 
the  "Minnesota,"  the  "Merrimac"  closed  with  the 
"Monitor."  Both  vessels  pounded  each  other  in- 
effectually. The  "Monitor's"  cast-iron  balls  broke 
upon  the  armor  of  the  "Merrimac,"  while  the 
"  Merrimac V  shells  burst  to  no  purpose  over 
the  "Monitor's"  turret.  After  thus  exchanging 
fire  for  two  hours,  the  "Merrimac's"  gunners  quit 


1852  A   HISTORY  OF  THE  March  1862 

to  save  the  ammunition.     Manifestly  the  "Monitor" 
ironclad8*  had  an  immense  advantage  in  her  superior  speed 

duel  ,  .  11  • 

and  manoeuvring  power,  as  well  as  in  the  greater 
radius  afforded  by  the  revolving  turret.  Lieutenant 
Worden,  accordingly,  resolved  to  ram  his  enemy. 
He  missed  the  "Merrimac"  by  only  two  feet,  both 
ships  grazing.  The  "Merrimac"  retaliated  in  kind. 
Jones  ran  his  stem  right  over  the  "Monitor's"  deck, 
the  force  of  the  blow  knocking  down  most  of  his  men. 
Before  they  could  get  over  the  side  of  the  ship,  the 
"Monitor"  glided  away  from  under  the  "Merrimac." 
The  slow  speed  of  the  "Merrimac"  saved  the  "Mon- 
itor." It  was  fortunate  indeed  for  Worden  that  the 
" Merrimac"  had  lost  her  ram  on  the  previous  day. 
Later  the  "Monitor"  drifted  into  shoal  water,  and 
the  "Merrimac,"  unable  to  follow,  drew  off.  Thus 

A.  urSiWD. 

the  engagement  ended  as  a  drawn  battle.  Neither 
ship  had  been  seriously  injured,  nor  had  either  lost 
a  single  man.  The  "Monitor"  had  been  struck 
twenty-two  times  without  appreciable  injury.  The 
"Merrimac,"  as  a  result  of  her  two  days'  fighting, 
had  ninety-seven  indentations  in  her  armor.  Blood- 
less as  this  first  encounter  between  ironclads  was,  it 
proved  one  of  the  decisive  battles  of  the  Civil  War, 
securing  to  the  North  the  command  of  the  sea.  The 
demonstration  of  the  superior  merits  of  steam  power 
4  and  armor  protection  in  action  was  so  striking  that 
it  practically  sealed  the  doom  of  the  old  ships. 

A  full  month  elapsed  before  the  "Merrimac," 
having  refitted,  came  out  once  more  with  solid  shot 
to  engage  the  "Monitor."  The  Union  ships  hugged 
the  shore  and  ignored  the  challenge.  Both  the 


1862  Feb.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1353 

"Merrimac"  and  the  "Monitor"  came  to  an  inglo- 
rious end.  On  the  evacuation  of  Norfolk,  the 
Southerners,  finding  themselves  unable  to  bring 
their  ironclad  up  the  James  Eiver,  scuttled  the 
"Merrimac."  Shortly  afterward,  the  "Monitor" 
foundered  off  Cape  Hatteras,  in  a  storm. 

The  naval  front  changed  from  the  James  Kiver  to 
the  Mississippi.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  the 
lower  end  of  this  great  watercourse,  from  Cairo  to 
New  Orleans,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Confeder- 
ates. "The  Mississippi  is  the  backbone  of  the  re- 
bellion," said  Lincoln.  "It  is  the  key  of  the  whole 
situation." 

On  February  3,  Captain  David  Gr.  Farragut,  on 
the  "Hartford,"  sailed  from  Hampton  Roads  to  Ship 
Island,  between  New  Orleans  and  Mobile. 


at  New 

was  the  rendezvous  fora  considerable  Union  fleet  Orlean3 
under  command  of  David  D.  Porter,  and  here  the 
expedition  against  New  Orleans  was  prepared.  Far- 
ragut took  command.  By  an  irony  of  fate  the  man 
selected  to  deal  this  deadly  blow  to  the  South  was 
himself  a  Southerner.  "When  Farragut  was  urged 
by  his  kinsfolk  to  join  the  cause  of  secession,  he 
pointed  to  the  flag  on  his  ship,  saying:  "I  would 
see  every  man  of  you  damned  before  I  would  raise 
my  hand  against  that  flag."  Of  his  comrades  in 
arms  who  seceded  from  the  United  States  navy  he 
said:  "They  will  catch  the  devil  before  they  get 
through  with  the  business." 

Farragut  had  seventeen  men-of-war,  with  177  guns, 
and  Porter  a  flotilla  and  steamships.  In  their  rear 
was  Butler  with  6,000  men  on  transports.  The  ut- 


1354  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  APriU862 

most  haste  was  needful,  since  the  Confederates  were 
"ManaS     constructing  four  ironclads,  all  of  the  "Mernmac" 

sas" 

type.  They  were  neanng  completion.  A  pecul- 
iarly dangerous  vessel  on  the  Confederate  side  was 
the  little  ram  "Manassas."  She  was  a  tugboat  cut 
down  to  the  water  line,  with  upper  works  that  re- 
sembled the  shell  of  a  turtle,  protected  by  railroad 
iron  of  one  inch  thickness.  Besides  these  were  five 
gunboats  and  long  fire  ships  filled  with  pine  knots. 
A  still  more  important  Confederate  defence  was  a 
boom  across  the  Mississippi  just  below  the  forts.  It 
consisted  of  cypress  logs  forty-five  feet  in  length, 
linked  together  with  immense  chains,  and  held  in 
position  by  thirty  3,000-pound  anchors.  When  a 

A  formi- 
dable boom  freshet  carried  away  some  of  the  middle  part,  eight 

dismantled  schooners  were  anchored  in  the  gap, 
fastened  to  one  another  and  to  the  ends  of  the  boom. 
From  the  middle  of  April  an  incessant  bombard- 
ment lasting  ten  days  was  kept  up  against  the  Con- 
federate forts  from  schooners  anchored  behind  the 
shelter  of  trees  and  disguised  by  branches  fastened 
to  the  rigging.  The  total  effect  of  the  16,800  shells 
fired  from  these  mortar  boats  was  to  disable  ten 
shore  guns  out  of  a  hundred  and  twenty-six,  while 
but  eighteen  men  were  killed  or  wounded  on  the 
Confederate  side.  On  the  night  of  April  20,  sup- 
ported by  a  fiercer  bombardment,  Farragut  sent  two 
gunboats  up  stream  to  make  an  opening  in  the 
boom.  The  "Pinola,"  running  at  full  steam  under 
heavy  fire,  rammed  the  boom,  and  opened  a  wide 
passage.  Four  days  later,  the  morning  of  April 
24,  Farragut  ordered  the  advance.  The  rattle  of 


"1862  April  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1355 

the  cables  gave  the  alarm  to  the  Confederates.  They 
launched  fireboats  against  the  advancing  fleet.  The 
"Cayuga"  passed  the  boom  before  the  Confederates 
opened  fire,  and  came  under  the  guns  of  the  forts 
in  time  to  receive  the  first  shells.  As  ship  after  ship 

Farragut 

passed  the  boom,  the  little  "Manassas"  tried  to  ramrunsthe 

gantlet 

them.  Most  of  the  ships  of  the  first  division  es- 
caped. Among  those  who  served  in  the  battle  was 
George  Dewey,  then  a  lieutenant  in  the  United 
States  navy.  The  small  Confederate  tug  "Mosher" 
came  down  the  river  pushing  a  blazing  fire  raft. 
The  flames  lighted  up  the  waters,  and  made  the 
tug  an  easy  mark  for  the  Union  gunners.  Still 
Lieutenant  Sherman  and  his  Confederate  crew  of 
six  on  the  "Mosher"  pushed  right  on,  and  drove 
their  raft  against  the  "Hartford,"  Farragut's  flag- 
ship. All  the  men  on  the  little  "Mosher"  paid  for 
their  heroism  with  their  lives.  The  flames  of  the 
fire  raft  lighted  the  "Hartford's"  side  and  ran  up 
the  rigging.  In  her  efforts  to  avoid  the  fire  raft, 
the  "Hartford"  ran  aground  under  the  guns  of  Fort 
St.  Philip.  A  thrust  from  the  "Manassas,"  in- 
stead of  injuring  the  "Hartford,"  helped  her  to  get 
off  the  shoals.  The  "Brooklyn"  fared  even  worse. 
As  she  passed  the  boom  her  propeller  was  disabled.  The 
The  forts  covered  her  with  their  fire.  The  "  Manas- favedlp 
sas"  rammed  her  at  full  speed,  but  only  crushed  her 
timbers  amidships  into  a  coal  bunker.  Getting  away 
she  stood  by  the  "Hartford"  until  she  had  got  off 
the  shoals.  By  this  time  the  first  and  second  divi- 
sion of  Farragut's  squadron  had  run  the  gantlet. 
Colonel  Higgins,  the  Confederate  commander,  ex- 


1356  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  April  1869 

claimed:  "Better  go  to  cover,  boys;  our  cake  is 
all  dough."  The  old  navy  had  won. 

The  third  division,  consisting  of  the  minor  ships, 
fared  the  worst.  Three  ships  became  unmanageable 

southern  and  failed  to  pass  the  forts.  The  "Veruna"  was 
followed  in  the  dark  by  the  Southern  gunboat 
"Governor  Moore,"  which,  hoisting  Federal  lights, 
came  up  close  enough  to  ram.  While  backing  out 
the  gunboat  was  set  on  fire  and  disabled  by  the 
"Veruna's"  shells.  She  drifted  down  stream,  hav- 
ing lost  fifty-seven  killed  and  seventeen  wounded 
out  of  a  crew  of  ninety-three.  Next  the  "Stone- 
wall Jackson"  came  out  at  early  dawn,  and  twice 
rammed  the  "Veruna."  The  "Stonewall  Jackson" 
was  likewise  set  on  fire  and  had  to  be  abandoned, 

"Veruna"   DUt  the  "Veruna"  sunk.     Her  crew  was  rescued  by 

sunk  •' 

other  Federal  ships.  The  last  act  of  the  great  battle 
was  a  final  attempt  by  the  "Manassas"  to  ram  the 
"Pinola."  The  Federal  "Mississippi"  cut  in  and 

End  of       tried  to  run  the  "Manassas"  down.     The  little  ram 

nassas"      in  her  efforts  to  escape  ran  ashore  and  was  burned. 
That   same   morning    the   Confederate    forces    at 

surrender  Chalmette    surrendered.      Forts    Jackson    and    St. 

Cnaimette  Philip  still  held  out,  -  but,  cut  off  from  the  Con- 
federacy as  they  were,  their  fall  was  only  a  question 
of  time. 

On  the  morning  of  April  25,  Farragut  came 
around  the  bend  at  New  Orleans  and  silenced  the 
batteries,  which  were  near  the  site  of  Jackson's 
battleground  of  1815.  The  Confederate  general, 

New 

evacuated  ^ovell,  evacuated  the  city  with  3,000  men.  As 
the  fleet  drew  near,  piles  of  cotton,  coal  and  lum- 


1862  Spring  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1357 

ber  were  burning  on  the  levee.     Porter,   with  the 
aid  of  Butler,  took  possession  of  the  two  forts. 

On  May  16,  Butler  received  from  Farragut  full 
military  possession  of  the  city.  He  organized  a 
rigorous  system,  maintained  order,  kept  the  city 

Butler 

clean  and  averted  a  pestilence.  But  by  petty  tyran-  in  New 
nies  he  turned  against  his  government  the  entire 
better  class  of  the  citizens.  His  worst  offence  was 
Order  No.  15,  "that  when  any  female  shall  by  word 
or  gesture  or  movement  insult  or  show  contempt  for 
any  officer  or  soldier,  she  shall  be  held  and  re- 
garded as  a  woman  of  the  town  plying  her  trade." 
Davis  denounced  him  as  an  enemy  of  mankind.  On 
December  15,  he  was  relieved  of  his  command. 

In  the  West,  new  advances  followed  the  capture 
of  Fort  Donelson.  Columbus  was  evacuated,  and 
there  ensued  (April  1-7)  the  withdrawal  from  Island 
No.  10,  at  a  point  where  the  Mississippi  makes  two 
large  bends  among  impassable  swamps.  Pope  with 
20,000  men  compelled  its  surrender  to  Foote,  and 
6,000  prisoners  were  taken.  By  the  capture  of  Fort 
Donelson  the  way  was  open  for  a  march  into  the 
very  heart  of  the  Mississippi  region;  A  portion  of 
Grant's  army  had  occupied  Nashville  in  the  latter 
part  of  February.  General  Buell  arrived  at  the  same 
time.  Johnston  was  to  the  southeast,  while  Beau- 
regard  was  on  the  Mississippi.  In  March,  Johnston 
and  Beauregard  united  their  armies  near  Corinth, 
Mississippi.  Had  one  competent  and  active  gen- 
eral commanded  the  Union  forces,  the  Confederacy 
might  have  been  rent  in  twain,  and  the  war  short- 
ened fully  a  year.  But  a  quarrel,  which  resulted 


1358  A    HISTORY  OF   THE  July  I86a 

in  Grant  being   placed  under  arrest,   rendered  the 
Union  force  comparatively  inefficient. 

Commodore  Davis  took  possession  of  Memphis, 
Fail  of  a^er  a  fight  of  twenty  minutes,  and  destroyed 
Memphis  seven  out  Of  ejgat  Confederate  gunboats.  On  the 
first  day  of  July,  the  gunboat  flotilla  united  above 
Vicksburg  with  the  Federal  fleet  from  New  Orleans. 
On  resuming  command,  Grant  found  his  columns 
divided  between  Savannah  and  Pittsburg  Landing, 
which  were  ten  miles  apart.  Sherman,  who  had 
gone  to  the  front,  was  in  the  advance.  Johnston 
strengthened  himself  at  Corinth,  and  was  there 
joined  by  Beauregard.  Buell  was  ordered  to  join 
Grant  at  once  at  Savannah,  but  the  Confederates 
fell  upon  Grant  before  Buell  arrived.  On  Sunday, 
July  6,  Johnston's  line  of  battle  bore  down  on  the 
Union  camp.  Near  a  log  meeting-house  called 
Battle  of  Shiloh,  two  miles  south  of  Pittsburg  Landing,  the 

Shiloh 

bloodiest  battle  of  the  war  in  the  Mississippi  Valley 
was  fought — a  battle  which  in  desperation  was  sur- 
passed by  none.  Sherman  bore  the  brunt  of  the 
assault.  Johnston's  army,  with  Bragg,  Polk  and 
Hardee  in  important  commands,  was  not  quite 
40,000  strong.  The  .Union  force  was  probably 
somewhat  less.  Hearing  the  firing,  Grant  left  for 
Pittsburg  Landing  by  boat,  arrived  on  the  field, 
and  gave  such  orders  as  the  situation  suggested. 
The  Confederates  pushed  forward  with  wild  energy 
and  suffered  an  immense  loss.  The  Union  troops 
were  forced  back  upon  the  river,  a  mile  in  the  rear 
killed1011  °^  iheir  morning  position.  At  this  point  General 
Johnston  was  killed.  Beauregard,  who  was  ill,  took 


1862 July  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1359 

command,  and  the  advance  ceased.  Buell's  troops 
began  to  arrive  when  the  first  day's  battle  had 
ended,  and  Lew  Wallace  came  up  soon  after.  On 
Monday,  the  7th,  Grant  and  Buell,  now  in  superior 
force,  pushed  forward  on  the  left,  recovered  the  lost 
ground,  and  drove  the  Confederates  back  to  Corinth. 
Sherman's  conduct  during  the  battle  made  the  be- ^^ 
ginning  of  his  great  reputation.  Grant  maintained  victory*0 
an  imperturbable  silence  when  criticised  about  the 
first  day's  fight,  and  afterward  declared  that  even  on 
that  day  he  at  no  time  doubted  the  successful  out- 
come of  the  engagement.  He  retained  Lincoln's 
confidence.  "I  can't  spare  the  man;  he  fights," 
was  Lincoln's  reply  to  a  politician  of  prominence 
who  urged  that  Grant  should  be  removed. 

McClellan  began  his  second  advance  on  Eichmond 
in  the  beginning  of  April.  Full  four  weeks  passed 
before  he  took  Yorktown,  which  was  held  by  Gen- 
eral Magruder  with  only  11,000  men.  On  May  5, 
the  battle  of  Williamsburg  was  fought;  but  n 
until  May  15  was  Johnston  forced  to  abandon  his 
lines  near  Williamsburg  and  to  cross  the  Chicka- 
hominy.  He  then  took  up  a  position  only  three 
miles  from  Eichmond. 

In  the  meantime  the  situation  was  so  altered  by 
Jackson's  campaign  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley  that 
some  of  McClellan's  best  troops  had  to  be  re- 
called to  defend  the  capital.  Early  in  May,  Jack- 
son boldly  took  the  offensive,  and  on  the  8th,  the 
authorities  at  Eichmond  received  their  first  news  of 
his  movements  in  the  laconic  despatch,  "Providence 
blessed  our  arms  with  victory  at  McDowell  yester- 


1360  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  May  1862 

day."  Brushing  aside  Milroy  at  McDowell,  Jack- 
er°anteed"  son  made  ready  to  attack  General  Banks  at  Stras- 
burg,  and  by  swift  movements  surprised  and 
defeated  the  Federals  at  Fort  Eoyal.  This  was 
followed  by  a  blow  on  Banks'  flank  near  Newton. 
Banks  retreated  to  Winchester,  then  passed  on 
down  the  valley  and  crossed  the  Potomac.  Jack- 
son followed,  and  the  result  was  that  the  authorities 
at  Washington  feared  for  the  safety  of  the  capital. 
At  the  close  of  May,  McClellan  reported  that  he 
was  quietly  closing  in  on  the  enemy,  preparatory 
to  the  last  struggle.  On  the  contrary,  it  was  John- 
ston who  took  the  offensive  by  attacking  two  corps 
of  McClellan's  army  which  lay  on  the  south  bank  of 
Seven  the  Chickahominy.  This  was  the  Battle  of  Seven 

Pines 

Pines,  fought  on  the  last  day  of  May  and  the  first 
day  of  June.  The  losses  were  heavy  on  both  sides 
and  the  result  was  indecisive.  Johnston  was 
wounded,  and  in  consequence,  after  an  interval 
during  which  General  G.  W.  Smith  commanded, 
Eobert  E.  Lee,  the  most  famous  of  Confederate 

Lee  in 

command  generals,  took  command  of  the  Army  of  Northern 
Virginia.  McClellan  still  delayed,  and  Lee  and 
Jackson  arranged  between  them  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  pieces  of  strategy  in  the  history  of  the 
war.  By  a  series  of  wonderfully  swift  marches  and 
battles  Jackson  slipped  between  the  armies  of  Fre- 
mont and  Shields,  left  the  valley,  and  joined  Lee  in 
front  of  Eichmond,  just  in  time  to  strike  the  Federal 
right  in  the  first  of  the  "Seven  Days'  Battles." 
Lee,  knowing  his  man,  exposed  Richmond  to  an 
immediate  advance  by  McClellan,  but  McClellan 


1882  July  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1361 

.  ,          \ 

failed  to  take  advantage  of  the  opening.  The  first 
battle,  Mechanics  ville,  on  June  26,  was  indecisive, 
General  Fitz-John  Porter  making  a  splendid  resist- 
ance to  the  Confederate  attack.  At  Games'  Mill,  TheSeven 
the  next  day,  Porter  again  bore  the  brunt  of  the  Battles 
fighting.  The  result  of  the  two  battles  was  McClel- 
lan's  decision  to  transfer  his  base  from  the  Chicka- 
hominy  to  the  James.  On  the  29th,  the  battles  of 
Savage's  Station  and  White  Oak  Swamp,  which 
were  somewhat  in  the  nature  of  rearguard  engage- 
ments, were  fought.  The  fighting  was  renewed  on 
the  next  day.  While  McClellan's  movement  is  by 
many  regarded  as  a  retreat  rather  than  a  change 
of  base,  his  army  was  not  thrown  into  confusion. 
By  the  first  of  July  he  was  strongly  intrenched  at 
Malvern  Hill  on  the  James,  and  repulsed  with 
heavy  losses  Lee's  several  attempts  to  dislodge  him. 
However,  on  the  night  following,  McClellan  retired 
to  Harrison's  Landing,  and  for  the  time  made  no 
further  effort  to  reach  Eichmond.  Instead,  he  re- 
newed his  complaints  against  the  authorities  at 
Washington.  The  result  of  the  campaign  was  dis- 
tinctly encouraging  to  the  Confederates  and  discour- 
aging to  the  government  at  Washington. 

In  July,  Lincoln  called  for  300,000  more  volun- 
teers. General  John  Pope,  who  had  distinguished 
himself  in  the  West,  was  put  in  command  of  the 
Army  of  Virginia,  which  was  to  advance  across  the 
Rappahannock  somewhat  on  the  line  of  McDowell's 
movement  in  1861.  Various  portions  of  McClellan's 
command  were  withdrawn  by  water  from  the  Penin- 
sula, to  reinforce  Pope,  by  way  of  the  Potomac 


1362  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  July  1862, 

River  and  Acquia  Creek.     The  weakening  of  the 
Federal  army  at  Harrison's  Landing,   and  McClel- 
lan's   inaction,    enabled  Lee   to    despatch  Jackson 
cedar        against  Banks,   who  was  operating  in   advance  of 
Mountain    pOpe      Banks  advanced  to  Cedar  Mountain,  where 
Jackson  met  him.     In  the  battle  which  followed, 
the  Confederates   had    the   advantage    and    Banks 
withdrew.     Lee    soon    followed    Jackson,    and    in 
August  he  and  Pope  confronted  each  other  on  op- 
posite sides  of  the  Rappahannock.     Lee,   knowing 
that  Pope's  army  was  sure  to  grow  stronger  with 
every  delay,  daringly  took  the  offensive,  and  sent 
Jackson's  Stonewall  Jackson  on  a  remarkable  flank  movement 
strategy     tjiroug]1  Thoroughfare  Gap  to  Manassas  Junction  in 
Pope's  rear,  where  he  seized  Pope's  line  of  commu- 
nications.    In  this  movement,  as  in  many  other  im- 
portant movements  of  the  Army  of  Northern  Yir- 
ginia,  the  cavalry,  under  J.  E.  B.  Stuart,  played  an 

Stuart  s 

cavalry  important  part.  Pope  fell  back  rapidly  with  a  hope 
of  destroying  Jackson  before  Lee  or  Longstreet 
could  come  to  the  rescue.  Jackson,  however,  with- 
drew to  a  strong  position  near  the  Junction,  which 
he  was  able  to  hold  until  Longstreet  should  follow 
him  through  Thoroughfare  Gap.  At  sunset  on  Au- 
gust 28,  Longstreet's  advance  had  passed  the  Gap 
and  was  nearing  Jackson's  right.  There  was  fighting 
there  on  the  29th,  but  Jackson  held  his  own,  and  on 
the  30th  Lee's  whole  army  was  in  front  of  Pope. 
In  the  afternoon  of  the  30th,  Lee  took  the  offensive, 
threw  his  entire  force  against  the  Federals,  and 
drove  them  from  their  position.  Pope  retreated 
across  Bull  Run  and  prepared  himself  to  resist  an- 


1862  Sept.  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  1363 

other  attack.    The  next  day  another  action  occurred 

at   Chantilly   on   the    Federal   right.      Among   thechantuiy 

killed  on  the  Union  side  was  brave  Phil  Kearney. 

Pope  attributed  his  want  of  success  to  the  failure 
of  his  reinforcements  from  McClellan's  army  to 
march  at  the  sound  of  the  guns.  General  Fitz-John 
Porter  was  especially  blamed,  and  a  long  contro- 
versy was  the  result.  In  September,  McClellan  fecrlmi 
was  appointed  to  command  the  defences  of  Wash- 
ington, and  Pope  was  relieved  of  the  command  of 
the  Army  of  Virginia. 

Encouraged  by  these  victories,  Lee  resolved  to 
advance  still  further.  On  September  4,  he  crossed  Lee 
the  Potomac,  occupied  Fredericksburg,  Maryland, 
and  issued  a  proclamation  to  the  people  of  the  State 
inviting  them  to  join  the  Confederacy.  Meanwhile 
he  detached  Jackson  to  capture  Harper's  Ferry, 
which  was  occupied  by  a  strong  force  of  Federals 
under  Miles.  Jackson  did  this  with  great  skill, 
took  12,000  prisoners  and  many  guns,  and  then  hur- 
ried on  to  join  Lee,  who,  after  the  battle  of  South 
Mountain,  was  confronted  by  McClellan  at  Antie- 
tam  Creek.  On  September  17,  the  battle  of  An- 
tietam  was  fought.  McClellan,  with  80,000  men,  at- 
tacked Lee,  whose  force  was  not  more  than  40,000.  Antietam 
The  battle  was  stubborn  and  bloody.  Successive 
attacks  of  the  Federals  were  repulsed,  and  Lee  held 
his  position,  but  on  the  night  of  the  second  day  he 
withdrew  across  the  Potomac.  Both  sides  claimed 
a  victory.  McClellan  made  no  immediate  pursuit, 
but  by  November  he  had  crossed  the  Potomac  and 
camped  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Blue  Ridge. 


1364  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Autumn  1862 

Of  even  greater  importance  than  this  success 
was  the  famous  Emancipation  Proclamation  which 
Lincoln  issued  on  September  27,  after  the  retreat  of 

Emancipa-  -kee's  armj-  Sentiment  had  been  steadily  growing 
"  throughout  the  North  in  favor  of  making  the  war 
for  the  Union  a  war  against  slavery  also.  Early 
in  the  war  certain  Union  generals  had  taken  the 
authority  to  emancipate  slaves  in  the  regions  occu- 
pied by  their  armies.  These  acts  Lincoln  had  re- 
fused to  ratify,  but  on  March  3,  1862,  he  had  signed 
the  act  forbidding  the  return  of  slaves  escaping 
through  the  lines.  During  the  summer,  he  had  pre- 
pared his  Proclamation  and  waited  for  a  Union 
victory  to  give  him  a  good  opportunity  to  make  it 
public.  From  this  time  it  was  understood  that  if 
the  Union  arms  prevailed  slavery  would  be  ended. 
About  the  time  of  Lee's  advance  into  Maryland, 
the  Confederates  in  the  West  also  took  the  offen- 
sive. General  Braxton  Bragg,  now  in  command  of 
their  Western  army,  advanced  as  far  as  Frankfort 
in  Kentucky.  General  Eosecrans,  with  the  Federal 

Corinth  forces,  was  operating  in  Mississippi  and  won  an  ad- 
vantage at  the  battle  of  Corinth,  successfully  repuls* 

Perryviiie  ing  the  Confederate  .attack.  On  October  8,  Bragg 
and  Buell  met  at  Perryviiie.  Mainly  through  the 
stubborn  resistance  of  General  Phil  Sheridan  the 
attack  of  Bragg  was  repulsed.  During  the  night, 
Bragg  withdrew,  and,  in  October,  Rosecrans  suc- 
ceeded Buell.  Late  in  December,  he  moved  upon 

stone's      Bragg  at  Murfreesboro,   and  fought   the   battle  of 

Stone's  River,  after  which  Bragg  again  withdrew. 

But  in  Virginia  the  Union  forces  met  still  an- 


1862  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1365 

other  disaster  before  the  year's  campaigns  came  to 
an  end.      Notwithstanding  McClellan's  repulse   of 
Lee's  advance  at  Antietam,  the  authorities  at  Wash- 
ington were  dissatisfied  with  his  management  of  theBurt)side 
army.     On  November  5,  Lincoln  put  Burnside  in  M^cieUan3 
command  of  the  army.     Burnside  at  once  moved 
down  the  lower  Rappahannock  to  a  point  opposite 
Fredericksburg,  with  the  intention  to  get  between 
Lee's  army  and  Richmond.     Finally  he  decided  to 
cross  the  river  and  make  an  assault  on  Lee's  army. 
A  crossing  was  effected  on  the  night  of  December  Disaster 
12,  and  the  attack  was  delivered  the  next  day.    Lee,  ericksburg 
occupying  a  strong  position,  repulsed  Burnside  with 
immense  slaughter.     Hooker  succeeded  Burnside. 

In  the  management  of  the  civil  affairs  of  the  two 
governments,  the  Union  had  a  great  advantage. 
The  principal  banks  in  the  North  had  been  forced 
to  suspend  specie  payments  in  1861,  but  there  was 
no  such  widespread  suffering  from  the  war  as  there 
was  in  the  South.  The  public  debt  had  increased 
from  $64,000,000,  on  July  1,  1860,  to  $90, 000, 000 W 
in  1861,  and  to  more  than  $500,000,000  in  1862. 
While  McClellan  lay  inactive  in  the  Peninsula,  it 
was  estimated  that  the  debt  ^as  increasing  at  the 
rate  of  $2,000,000  a  day.  However,  Secretary  Chase 
managed  the  finances  with  great  ability,  and  the 
business  men  of  the  North  never  lost  confidence  in 
the  government.  The  Legal  Tender  Act,  providing 
for  the  issue  of  $500,000,000  in  six  per  cent  bonds  cnase-s 

i     **i  i- n  /\f\f\  s\/\n     •  *  •  financial 

and   $150,000,000    in    notes    bearing   no   interest — measures 
popularly  called  "Greenbacks" — was   of   question- 
able constitutionality,  but  it  served  the  purpose  of 


1366  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  1862 

the  government.  The  war  loans  had  an  indirect 
result  of  great  importance,  for  they  led  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  system  of  National  Banks,  just  as  the 
Lincoln's  war  tariffs  ^id  the  foundation  of  the  protective  sys- 
tern,  which  was  maintained  in  the  United  States 


weakened 

throughout  the  remainder  of  the  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury. Still,  the  opponents  of  President  Lincoln's 
Administration  made  gains  in  the  elections  toward 
the  close  of  the  year. 

Effect  of  ^ne  Civil  War  in  America  had  now  begun  to 
England  make  itself  deeply  felt  in  England.  In  the  first 
quarter  of  the  year  English  exports  to  the  United 
States  had  diminished  from  £21,667,000  to  £9,058,- 
000.  This  produced  a  great  derangement  of  mone- 
tary and  commercial  affairs,  with  enforced  idleness 
and  distress  of  large  masses  of  the  working  popula- 
tion. The  cotton  famine,  as  it  was  then  termed, 
deprived  some  two  millions  of  operatives  of  their 
usual  employment,  and  gradually  reduced  them  to 
destitution.  An  alarming  increase  of  paupers  ensued. 
Yet,  such  was  the  almost  magical  success  which 
English  na(*  attended  Gladstone's  financial  operations,  and 
the  free  trade  treaty  which  Cobden  had  negotiated 
with  France,  that,  notwithstanding  the  depression 

ift 

of  American  trade,  the  British  revenue  showed  an 
increase  of  no  less  than  £2,000,000.  While  trade 
with  the  United  States  was  reduced  French  trade 
increased  within  the  period  of  a  single  year  from 
£2,190,000  to  £6,910,000. 


1863  NINETEENTB   CENTURY  1367 


1863 

THE  first  day  of  this  year  is  forever  memorable 
to  Americans,  as  the  date  on  which  Lincoln's 
Emancipation  Proclamation  went  into  effect. 
The  Proclamation  itself  was  issued  as  an  act  of  war 
by  virtue  of  the  President's  powers  as  Commander- 
in-Chief  of  the  army  and  navy.     It  purported  to 

free  the  slaves  in  those  parts  of  the  Union  in  rebel-  emancipa- 
tion of 

lion  against  the  United  States,  and  therefore  did  not slaves 
apply  to  the  border  States  or  parts  of  States  which 
had  not  seceded.  Of  course,  it  could  have  no  prac- 
tical effect,  save  through  the  advance  of  the  Union 
armies,  but  its  moral  effect  was  tremendous.  Davis 
promptly  replied  by  declaring  that  persons  attempt- 
ing to  execute  Lincoln's  order  of  emancipation 
would  be  treated  as  criminals. 

On  the  day  following  Lincoln's  Proclamation  new 
troubles  arose  on  the  other  side  of  the  earth.  The 
native  troops  under  Burgevine,  in  China,  became 
openly  mutinous.  Burgevine  went  to  Shanghai  and 
had  an  interview  with  Takee.  He  used  personal  Burgevine 

dismissed 

violence  toward  the  Shanghai  merchants.     Li  Hung from  chm* 
Chang  hastened  to  inform  General  Stoveley  of  Bur- 
gevine's  gross  insubordination.    Burgevine  was  dis- 
missed  from  the  Chinese   service   on   January   6. 


1368  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1888 

Captain  Holland  was  placed  in  temporary  com- 
mand. General  Stoveley  had  proposed  to  the  home 
government  to  intrust  the  command  to  a  young  cap- 
tain of  engineers  named  Charles  Gordon.  Li  Hung 
Chang  sent  large  forces  to  attack  Taitsan,  but 
the  Taipings  defeated  them  about  the  middle  of 
February. 

This  was  the  condition  of  affairs,  when,  on  March 

24,   Maior  Gordon    took   command  of   the   "Ever- 
Chinese 
Gordon      Victorious"    army.     Taitsan  was   captured  after  a 

prolonged  and  desperate  defence  by  the  rebels, 
who  lost  frightfully.  On  May  4,  Gordon  appeared 
before  Quinsan.  There  a  mutiny  broke  out  among 
his  troops,  but  Gordon  prevailed  over  the  mutinous 
soldiers.  Quinsan  was  attacked.  After  slight  re- 
sistance, the  rebels  at  Chumze  yielded.  A  strong 

Quinsan  fort  was  taken,  which  covered  a  bridge  at  Ta  Edin. 
The  "Hyson"  continued  in  pursuit  to  within  a 
mile  of  Soochow.  During  the  night  the  garrison 
evacuated  the  place. 

On  July  27,  Major  Gordon  attacked  Kahpoo, 
south  of  Soochow  and  took  it.  Burgevine,  who 
hated  Li  Hung  Chang,  had  meanwhile  decided 
to  join  the  rebels.  In  an  interview  with  Gordon 
Burgevine  proposed  that  they  should  combine  their 
forces,  seize  Loochow,  and  thus  establish  an  inde- 
pendent government.  At  this  juncture  serious  news 
came  from  the  south.  A  large  rebel  force  moved 
up  the  Grand  Canal,  and  held  the  garrison  of  Wo- 
kong.  There  occurred  one  of  the  hardest  fought  bat- 

Battieof  fleg  of  the  war.  Chung  Wang  seized  the  opportuni- 
ty of  Gordon's  absence  to  attack  Chanzu.  At  first 


1863  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1369 

the  Taipings  carried  everything  before  them,  but  the 
imperialists  prevailed.  B  urge  vine  was  in  imminent 
peril,  and  only  Major  Gordon's  influence  saved  his 
life.  Chung  Wang  kept  open  communication  by  the 
Grand  Canal.  At  Wusieh,  and  at  Monding,  Chung 
Wang  concentrated  his  entire  force  for  the  defence 
of  the  Grand  Canal.  At  the  Low  Mun  breastworks 
Gordon  was  beaten  off  with  tremendous  loss. 
This  was  Major  Gordon's  first  defeat  after  thirteen 
victories.  '  Undismayed  by  his  reverse,  he  returned 
to  attack  the  Low  Mun.  The  capture  of  the  stock-  i^ochow 
ades  meant  the  fall  of  Soochow. 

Mow  Wang's   murder   by   the   other  Wangs  re- 
moved   the   only  leader   who    was  opposed   to   the 
surrender  of  Soochow.     Unable  to  obtain  his  sol- 
diers' pay  from  Li  Hung  Chang,  Gordon  resigned.  Gordon 
The  departure  of  Gordon's  force  left  Li  free  to  foi.resi°ns 
low  his  inclinations.     The  Wangs  were  invited  to  an 
entertainment  on  the  Futai's  boat.     Nine  headless  £i?"3f 

v   I Ktnj_  s 

bodies  were  afterward  found  not  far  distant  fromtr< 
the  Futai's  headquarters. 

In  North  America,  the  Unionists  were  especially 
anxious  to  reduce  Charleston,  as  one  of  the  worst 
hot  beds  of  the  secession.  A  naval  squadron  kept 
up  a  continuous  blockade  on  the  city.  Several 
monitors,  built  after  the  model  of  their  famous 
prototype,  joined  this  squadron.  The  Confederates  Biockadeof 

Charleston 

mined  the  approaches  to  the  harbor.  Two  small 
ironclads,  built  after  the  manner  of  the  "Merrimac," 
were  constructed.  They  were  the  "Palmetto  State" 
and  "The  Chicora."  On  the  last  day  of  January, 
in  the  mist  of  early  morning,  the  "Palmetto  State" 


1370  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Spring  1063 

ran  out  and  engaged  the  "Mercedia"  at  close 
sTatJv"0  range.  The  first  broadside  disabled  the  "Mer- 
cedia."  Swinging  around  with  her  ram,  the  "Pal- 
metto State"  challenged  the  "Mercedia":  "Sur- 
render, or  I  will  sink  you."  The  Federal  captain 
hauled  down  his  flag  and  sent  the  boat  off  to  give 
parole  for  his  crew.  Thereupon  the  "Palmetto 
State"  ran  off  to  engage  the  Federal  "Keystone 
State."  The  captain  of  the  "Mercedia,"  ignoring 
his  parole,  rehoisted  the  Stars  and  Stripes.  Mean- 
while the  "Keystone  State"  was  taken  between  the 
crossed  fire  of  the  "Palmetto  State"  and  "Chicora." 
Sinking,  she  was  towed  out  of  the  action  by  the 
"Housatonic."  The  Confederates  claimed  that  the 
blockading  squadron  had  been  driven  off.  They 
went  so  far  as  to  take  the  French  and  Spanish  con- 
suls out  of  the  harbor  in  a  steamer  to  establish  their 
point.  The  consuls  reported  that  they  could  see 
blockade  nota^ng  °f  toe  blockaders.  It  proved  a  matter  of 
broken  smaii  importance,  since  the  blockade  was  speedily 
re-established. 

Late  in  May,  a  combined  assault  was  made  upon 
Vicksburg  by  the  Union  army  and  navy.  The 
"Cincinnati"  was  sent  to  silence  the  Confederate 

Assault  on 

battery,  and  while  doing  so  came  under  the  fire  of 
a  powerful  masked  battery  on  a  bluff.  The  first 
Confederate  shot  entered  her  below  the  water  line, 
and  she  began  to  fill.  Drifting  down  stream,  shot 
after  shot  was  put  into  her.  With  the  colors  nailed 
to  the  flag  pole,  the  "Cincinnati"  went  down.  The 


Bat?°sunk  crew  k&(l  to  swim  for  life  under  Confederate  fire. 
Nineteen  were  killed  and  wounded,  fifteen  drowned. 


i 


1863  Spring  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1371 

Democratic  journals  began  a  crusade  against  Lin- 
coln. The  Chicago  "Times"  was  suppressed  for 
one  day  for  inciting  disloyalty.  Vallandigham 
made  a  speech  at  Mount  Vernon,  Ohio,  against 
"King  Lincoln,"  and  urged  the  people  to  hurl  the 
tyrant  from  the  throne.  Anti-War  Democrats  ex- 
pressed great  indignation  at  the  "overthrow  of  free 
institutions"  by  Lincoln.  In  May,  great  meetings 
were  held  in  New  York  and  Philadelphia  to  express 

Vallan- 

sympathy   with   Vallandigham,  who   had   been   ar-  aigham 
rested.     The  Democratic  State  Convention,  on  June 
11,  in  Ohio  nominated  Vallandigham  for  Governor. 

On  March  3,  President  Lincoln  had  approved  the 
act  enrolling  citizens  between  twenty  and  forty-five, 
and  the  calling  out  of  the  national  force  by  draft 
without  the  intervention  of  the  States.  In  June, 
under  a  draft  for  300,000  men,  only  50,000  were  General 
obtained  after  many  weeks.  The  drafting  of  sol-  tionscr 
diers  threw  New  York  into  the  hands  of  an  anti- 
draft  mob.  A  colored  orphan  asylum  was  fired,  and 
the  "Tribune"  office  dismantled.  Colonel  O'Brien, 
with  several  hundred  others,  was  murdered  by  the 
enraged  mob.  Similar  riots  occurred  elsewhere.  In 
reply  to  Governor  Seymour's  request  that  the  draft 
be  suspended,  President  Lincoln  proclaimed  that 
the  drafting  of  troops  would  have  to  continue. 
Many  New  Yorkers  were  drafted  to  the  colors. 

"Fighting"  Joe  Hooker  on  April  27th,  threw 
70,000  men  across  tTie  river,  at  points  twenty -five 
miles  above  and  ten  miles  below  Chancellorsville, 
with  a  view  to  taking  Lee's  entire  system  of  de- 
fences.  His  preliminary  movements  were  well  exe- 


1372  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  May  1863 

cuted.  For  the  moment  he  seemed  to  have  Lee  at  a 
disadvantage.  General  Sedgwick  was  in  command 
of  the  lower  division,  while  Hooker  himself  com- 
manded in  the  neighborhood  of  Chancellorsville. 
Lee  was  thus  placed  between  two  armies,  which 
together  far  outnumbered  his  own  force.  Once  more 

torevufe"  ^e  ^a^  recourse  to  a  daring  flank  movement  and 
called  on  Jackson  to  execute  it.  While  Lee,  keep- 
ing between  Hooker  and  Sedgwick,  prevented  the 
latter  from  advancing  to  his  superior  officer's  sup- 
port, Jackson  with  26,000  men  started  off  to  the  left 
on  a  movement  which  Hooker  mistook  for  a  retreat. 
Circling  the  Federal  army,  Jackson  came,  in  the 
late  afternoon  of  May  2,  upon  Howard's  division, 
which  formed  the  right,  and  really  considered  itself 

Jackson's  the  rear  of  Hooker's  army.  The  attack  was  a  com- 
plete surprise.  Howard  was  crushed,  and  Jackson 
had  got  very  close  to  Hooker's  headquarters  before 
he  was  stopped. 

The  brilliant  Confederate  movement,  successful  as 
it  was,  proved  costly.    Jackson  himself,  pressing  on 

Jackson  anead  of  his  line  of  battle,  was  accidentally  shot  by 
some  of  his  own  men  and  died  in  a  few  days.  The 
next  morning,  the  3d,  Stuart,  taking  command  of 
Jackson's  men,  renewed  the  attack,  while  Lee  struck 
Hooker  from  the  other  side.  The  result  was  another 
Confederate  victory.  Sedgwick  and  Hooker  failed 

Hooker  to  e^ect  their  junction,  and  both  retreated  across 
the  river.  It  was  again  apparent  that  Lee  was  more 
than  a  match  for  any  of  the  Federal  generals  who 
had  yet  opposed  him. 

Lee,  elated  by  Chancellorsville,   planned  a  new 


1863  June  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1373 

invasion  of  the  North.  With  80,000  men,  led  by 
Longstreet,  Hill  and  Ewell,  Lee  intended  to  "trans- 
fer the  scene  of  hostilities  north  of  the  Potomac. ' ' 
On  June  3,  he  started  from  Culpepper.  Hooker 
telegraphed  to  the  President  for  permission  to  ad- 
vance on  Eichmond.  "I  think  Lee's  army,  and  not 
Richmond,  is  your  true  objective  point,"  said  Lin- 
coln. "Fight  him  when  opportunity  offers.  If  he 

stays  where  he  is,  fret  him  and  fret  him."     Corn- 
Lee 
pelled  to  take  his  men  from  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  j 

Lee  sent  a  force  under  Ewell  and  captured  Winches- 
ter and  Martinsburg.  His  army  was  soon  crossing 
the  Potomac.  Hooker  now  swung  his  army  around 
to  confront  Lee  and  hold  his  own  base,  at  one  and 
the  same  time.  Near  Chambersburg,  on  June  27, 
the  Confederate  army  encamped  on  Northern  soil. 
Lee  pushed  forward,  threatening  Harrisburg,  and 
despatched  Ewell  eastward  toward  Carlisle  and 
York.  Hooker  advanced  parallel  with  the  enemy 
and  determined  to  strike  Lee  on  the  rear.  He 
asked  Hallcck  to  permit  him  to  abandon  Maryland 
Heights  and  use  its  garrison  elsewhere.  Halleck 
overruled  him,  and  Hooker  asked  to  be  relieved. 
The  President  accepted  his  resignation  without  de- 
lay,  and  assigned  General  George  Gordon  Meade  to  Hooker 
the  command. 

The  fifth  change  of  commanders  within  a  year 
was  made  on  the  eve  of  a  decisive  battle.  Meade 
was  a  man  of  resources.  Cool  and  thoughtful  in 
time  of  danger,  he  was  indisposed  to  retreat.  He 
moved  northward,  his  front  stretching  thirty  miles 
across  the  country.  During  the  last  day  of  June 

XTXth  Century— Vol,  3— F 


1374  A    HISTORY   OF   THE 

the  two  armies  approached  each  other,  Longstreet 

and  Hill  moving  east,  and  Meade  heading  toward 

them  at  right  angles.     Neither  Meade  nor  Lee  made 

A  mutual    ca°ice  °*  tne  position  in  which  they  at  last  stood 

advance    face  to  face<     JQ  ^e  battie  of  Gettysburg,  Meade 

had  approximately  94,000  men  and  300  guns,  and 
Lee  78,000  men  with  250  guns.  Meade  had  under 
him  .Reynolds,  Hancock,  Hayes,  Sickles,'  Sykes, 
Sedgwick,  Howard  and  Slocum.  Lee  had  Long- 
street,  Ewell  and  A.  P.  Hill,  as  general  command- 
ers, with  division  commanders  McLaws,  Pickett, 
Hood,  Early,  Johnston,  Eodes,  Anderson,  Heth, 
Pender,  Wilcox.  Stuart,  being  detached  on  a  cav- 
alry raid,  was  not  on  the  field,  and  this  was  a  great 
disadvantage  to  his  chief. 

Gettysburg  lies  in  a  pastoral  region.  A  valley 
lies  between  two  ranges  of  hills — Seminary  Ridge 
on  the  west,  and  on  the  southeast  Cemetery  Ridge. 
The  latter  begins  with  a  bold  and  rocky  bluff, 
embattle  Gulp's  Hill,  at  the  southern  end  of  which  towers 
a  commanding  rock  known  as  Round  Top,  crowned 
with  a  smaller  spire  called  Little  Round  Top.  Mid- 
way in  the  valley  is  a  lower  intermediate  ridge. 
Meade  had  on  July  1  adopted  a  defensive  line 
along  Pike  Creek.  Reynolds  occupied  the  village 
with  three  corps.  Buford  encountered  a  fragment 
of  the  Confederate  host  on  the  Chambersburg  road, 
and  informed  Reynolds,  who  ordered  the  rest  of  his 
command  to  hurry  up  from  the  distant  rear. 

.After  a  survey  from  the  Lutheran  Seminary, 
which  stood  near  Seminary  Ridge,  Reynolds  de- 
cided on  the  morning's  work.  Hill's  division  ap- 


1863  July  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1375 

peared  from  the  west.  While  Reynolds  held  it  in 
check  he  was  killed.  From  10A.M.  to  1  P.M.  theSf^olds 
first  corps,  with  Buford's  cavalry,  bore  the  brunt 
of  the  onset  and  forced  Hill  to  wait  for  Ewell.  The 
Confederates,  reinforced,  were  pressing  on  hotly, 
when  Howard  arrived  with  his  eleventh  corps  and 
assumed  command.  But  the  Union  line  was  too 
far  extended,  and  Ewell,  assaulting  it  in  front  and 
on  both  flanks,  pressed  it  into  and  through  the 
town.  Hancock  arrived  at  4  P.M.  His  presence 
gave  renewed  confidence  to  the  exhausted  men. 
He  and  Howard  arranged  a  new  line  on  Seminary  Howard 

J  hard 

Hill,  and  along  the  ridge  covering  Gettysburg  andPressed 
commanding  the  road  from  the  south.  Slocum  now 
reached  the  scene  with  Sickles'  dusty  veterans. 
Hancock  turned  the  command  over  to  Slocum  and 
galloped  back  to  urge  on  Meade.  Seeing  the  ad- 
vantage of  this  new  line  of  battle,  Meade  at  once 
relinquished  his  own  plan  and  moved  promptly  to 
tbe  rescue. 

All  night,  by  every  road,  the  Union  troops  came 
in  from  the  southeast  and  took  the  positions   as- 
signed them.     Meade  arrived  at  one  o'clock  on  the 
morning  of  the  2d,  worn  with  loss  of  sleep.     Lee, 
at  the  other  end  of  Gettysburg,  had  arrived  on  theArrival 
1st,  and  from  Seminary  Ridge  watched  the  direction  of 
which  Meade's  army  was  taking.     He  suggested  to 
Ewell  to  attack  if  he  deemed  it  practicable.     Hill 
spent  the  afternoon  waiting   to  be  reinforced  and 
missed  a  great  opportunity. 

The  fight  of  July  2. did  not  begin  until  far  in 
the  afternoon.     Meade  had  posted  three  corps  over 


1376  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  July  1863 

Cemetery  Bidge  under  Slocum,  Howard  and  Han- 
cock. Hancock  held  the  crest  with  the  second 
corps,  Sickles  with  the  third  corps  gave  support 
on  the  right,  while  the  fifth  corps  was  in  reserve. 
Sedgwick,  making  a  night  march,  came  in  sight 
after  the  battle  was  begun.  About  a  mile  distant, 
Lee's  army  swept  around  the  curve,  to  the  high 
ground  in  front  of  Bound  Top — Ewell  on  the  left, 
Hill  at  the  centre  and  Longstreet  on  the  right.  Lit- 

Gettys- 

bur&  tie  Bound  Top  was  the  key  to  the  Union  position. 
The  Confederates  lay  behind  thick  woods  till  four 
o'clock,  but  revealed  themselves  at  that  hour 
with  an  outflanking  line.  Upon  Sickles'  division 
was  made  the  first  furious  assault,  and  a  bloody 
conflict  raged  for  two  hours.  Sickles,  with  one  leg 
shot  away,  was  borne  from  the  field.  Beinforce- 
ments  sent  by  Meade  arrived  just  in  time,  and 
protected  the  withdrawal  to  safer  ground.  In  the 
meantime  came  a  hand-to-hand  fight  for  Little 
Bound  Top.  Hood  was  advancing  to  get  posses- 
sion, when  Warren,  chief  of  engineers,  pressed,  to 
the  scene  of  danger,  and  after  a  fierce  encounter 
drove  the  enemy  down  the  precipitous  slopes.  In 
the  conflict  which  ensued  the  Confederates  were 
forced  from  the  hill. 

The  firing  did  not  cease  until  ten  at  night.  Both 
armies  occupied  the  same  position  as  in  the  morn- 
ing. The  field  was  strewn  with  dead  and  wounded. 
The  line  of  captured  intrenchments  was  held  by 
Johnston  during  the  night.  By  nightfall  the  whole 
Union  line  from  Bound  Top  to  Cemetery  Bidge  was 
unbroken. 


1863  July  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1377 

Meade  renewed  the  attack.  After  several  hours' 
fighting,  Johnston  was  dislodged  from  the  right 
near  Gulp's  Hill.  Lee  employed  the  entire  fore- 
noon in  preparing  for  an  assault  on  the  Union 
lines.  The  post  of  honor  was  given  to  Pickett's 
division,  supported  by  Wilcox,  Pettigrew  and  Trim- 
ble of  Hill's  command.  The  midday  silence  was 
broken  by  one  hundred  and  thirty  cannon  on  the 
Confederate  ridge,  to  which  half  as  many  guns  re- 
plied. This  artillery  duel  lasted  from  twelve  to 
two.  Then  it  ceased.  A  dreadful  silence  fell. 
Pickett,  at  the  head  of  17,000  veterans,  moved 
wedge-like  among  the  green  fields  for  over  a  mile. 
When  halfway  across  the  valley,  they  bore  to  the 
left  toward  Hancock's  front.  The  Union  artillery 
opened  from  right  to  left  with  a  terribly  destructive 
fire,  but  Pickett's  assaulting  force  moved  steadily 
nearer  and  nearer  the  Union  lines  awaiting  them 
on  the  heights.  Pettigrew's  troops  were  attacked 
by  men  from  Hancock's  corps  with  such  fury  that 
their  order  was  broken,  and  they  mingled  with  the 

*  charge 

troops  of  Pickett.  An  advanced  point,  held  by 
Webb's  small  force,  behind  a  stone  fence,  was  car- 
ried. Webb  fell  back  among  his  guns,  and,  aided 
by  Union  regiments  that  came  to  his  relief,  his  men 
fought  like  wild  beasts.  More  than  two  thousand 
of  his  men  were  disabled  in  thirty  minutes.  The 
remnant  of  Pickett's  division  dashed  against  the 
Union  lines.  Armisted  crossed  the  first  line  and 
fell;  but  no  supporting  column  appeared.  The 
great  charge  failed. 

On  the  morning  of  the  5th  the  Confederates  re- 


1378  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  Summer  i«B 

treated,  and  Meade  moved  southward  to  intercept 
their  passage  of  the  Potomac.  Arrived  at  the  river, 
Lee,  finding  his  pontoons  practically  destroyed  and 
the  river  high,  intrenched.  Meade  called  a  council 
of  war,  which  decided  against  attacking  Lee,  and 
Meade  yielded.  On  the  14th,  Lee  was  safely  across 
the  Potomac. 

From  a  variety  of  causes  the  official  relations 
between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  had 
become  strained.  The  apparent  failure  of  the  En- 
glish people  to  sympathize  with  the  great  struggle 
against  slavery,  which  had  been  originally  inaugu- 
Angio-  rated  by  England,  and  the  manifest  reluctance  of 
the  British  Government  to  prevent  the  annoying 
activity  of  privateers  and  blockade  runners,  exas- 
perated the  Americans  of  the  North.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  injuries  to  commerce  resulting  from  the 
prolonged  war  were  a  serious  matter  for  England. 
Gladstone,  in  one  of  his  great  speeches  on  the 
Budget,  thus  laid  bare  the  situation: 

"The  value  of  British  goods  exported  to  the 
United  States  in  1859  was  £22,553,000;  in  1862 
it  had  fallen  to  £14,398,000,  and  thus  exhibited  a 
decrease  of  £8,154,000.  The  value  of  foreign  and 
colonial  goods  exported  to  the  United  States  from 
this  country  had  during  the  same  period  increased. 
In  1859  it  had  been  only  £1,864,000;  in  1862  it  had 
increased  to  £4,052,000.  The  augmentation  was  as 
much  as  £2,188,000,  but  nearly  the  whole  of  it 
was  represented  by  the  single  article  of  cotton-wool, 
which  amounted  in  value  to  no  less  than  £1,712,000. 
However,  deducting  the  increase  on  our  foreign  and 
colonial  goods  from  the  decrease  upon  our  own  ex- 


1863  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1379 

port  of  British  goods,  there  remains  an  aggregate 
diminution  in  our  export  trade  to  the  United  States 
of  about  £6,000,000." 

The  situation  would  have  been  still  more  seri-  English 
ous  for  England  but  for  the  beneficent  effects  of 
the  free- trade  treaty  with  France.  As  Gladstone 
pointed  out  in  the  same  speech,  the  amount  of 
British  goods  sent  to  France  had  nearly  doubled 
under  the  operation  of  Cobden's  treaty  of  com- 
merce. 

"The  figures  I  have  named,"  he  said,  "by  no 
means  set  forth  the  whole  extent  of  the  advan- 
tage which  the  trade  of  England  and  France  has 
derived  from  the  treaty,  for  an  augmentation  of 
exports  still  more  remarkable  took  place  in  for- 
eign and  colonial  produce;  and  I  need  hardly  re- 
mind the  committee  that  the  foreign  and  colonial 
produce  which  we  sent  to  France  is  something  which 
we  have  ourselves  obtained  elsewhere  in  exchange 
for  British  produce.  While  we  have  had  a  decrease 
in  the  total  trade  to  the  United  States  of  £6,618,000, 
that  decrease  has  a  good  deal  more  than  been  made 
up  by  the  increase  in  the  trade  to  France,  for  the 
augmentation  in  the  French  trade  was  £12,268,000." 

An  important  scientific  achievement  of  the  year 
was  Davaine  and  Pollender's  discovery  of  little  rod- 
like  bodies  in  the  blood  of  animals  affected  with 
anthrax.  Davaine  called  these  bodies  "bacteria" 
or  "little  rods."  The  name  was  immediately  added 
to  the  vocabulary  of  medical  science.  The  discovery 
was  of  the  utmost  importance,  for  it  led  afterward 
to  the  work  which  Pasteur  accomplished  in  the 
prevention  of  the  disease. 


1380  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Spring  1868 

In  Mexico,  the  campaign  had  become  beset  with 
difficulties  for  the  French.     Their  advance  on  Pue- 

\ 

bla  had  to  be  made  over  a  mountainous  region  inter- 
sected by  barrancas,  or  deep  ravines.  It  was  in  one 
of  these  that  the  Mexican  corps  of  General  Tapia 
was  almost  annihilated  by  two  battalions  of  Zouaves. 
By  the  middle  of  March,  the  French  arrived  before 
Puebla  de  los  Angelos.  Siege  was  laid  to  the  city. 
On  the  last  day  of  the  month,  the  French  stormed 
Fort  Hidalgo  with  the  quarter  of  San  Algier.  A 
Mexican  relieving  column  of  12,000  men  under  Gen- 
eral Comont'ort  was  beaten  off  by  General  Berthier. 
The  city  resisted  to  the  utmost,  and  the  siege  of 
Puebla  was  compared  by  the  French  with  the  famous 
sieges  of  Saragossa  during  the  Peninsular  War.  On 
both  sides  notable  exploits  were  achieved.  Thus,  a 
French  convoy  of  sixty-two  men  guarding  a  wagon 
train  were  overwhelmed  by  1,000  Mexican  horse- 
men. They  cut  their  way  through  to  a  hacienda, 
where  they  held  out  from  nine  in  the  morning  until 
late  in  the  afternoon.  Not  until  they  had  lost  most 
of  their  men  and  the  ranch  house  was  burning  over 
their  heads  did  they  surrender.  The  Mexicans  in 
Puebla  barricaded  themselves  in  every  church,  clois- 
ter, and  public  building,  and  dug  trenches  in  the 
streets.  Another  attempt  to  relieve  them  resulted 
in  another  disaster  for  Comonfort.  At  last  Ortaga 
offered  a  conditional  surrender  with  the  honors  of 
war.  This  proposal  was  refused.  Driven  to  des- 
peration, the  Mexicans  dismantled  their  guns,  blew 
UP  tne^r  magazines,  and  broke  or  buried  their  arms. 
Then  they  surrendered.  The  captives  numbered 


1883  Summer  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1381 

12,000  men,  among  them  1,000  officers  and  twenty- 
six  generals,  clad  mostly  in  rags. 

After  the  fall  of  Puebla,  the  backbone  of  Mex- 
ico's resistance  was  broken.  President  Juarez  and 
his  followers  withdrew  to  San  Luis  de  Potosi.  On 
June  5,  General  Bazaine,  with  the  French  troops, 
accompanied  by  Saligny,  Almonte  and  Marquez, 
made  his  triumphal  entry  into  the  City  of  Mexico. 
General  Forey  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  marshal. 

A  provisional  government  was  established  under 
the  triumvirate  of  Generals  Almonte  and  Salas,  and 
Archbishop  Labastida.  They  declared  for  a  mon-  Mexican 

provision- 

archy  under  a  European  ruler,  revived  the  institu-  ^Otvern" 
tion  of  nobility,  and  agreed  to  cede  the  province  of 
Sonora  to  France.  All  Mexican  newspapers  were 
suppressed,  and  the  property  of  those  who  had 
borne  arms  against  France  was  confiscated.  Those 
Mexicans  that  still  kept  up  their  warfare  against  the 
invaders  as  guerilleros  were  to  be  treated  as  out- 
laws. Many  were  shot.  This  and  other  cruelties 
committed  by  the  French  troops  so  aggravated  the 
situation  in  Mexico  that  Emperor  Napoleon  revoked 
the  decree  of  outlawry  and  appointed  Montholon  in 
the  place  of  his  hated  commissioner,  Saligny.  Mar- 
shal Forey  was  superseded  by  Bazaine. 

"The  Birth  of  Venus,"  considered  by  many  as 
the  masterpiece  of  Alexandre  Cabanel,  was  exhib- 
ited at  the  French  Salon  of  this  year.  Cabanel  was 
a  pupil  of  Picet,  standing  in  close  relation  to  the 

classic  school  of  David.     His  "Death  of  Francesca 

Cabanel 
da  Kimini"  and  the  "Paolo  Malatesta"  are  two  of 

his  famous  canvases  in  which  he  displayed  unusual 


1382  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Spring  1863 

energy  and  originality  of  conception.      Still  more 

celebrated  are  his  numerous  portraits  of  women  of 

the  nobility,  in  which  his  admirable  coloring  gives 

an  air  of  distinction  to  faces  almost  expressionless. 

In  North  America,  General  Grant,  on  the  Union 

side,  had  assumed  personal  command  in  January. 

There  were  four  army  corps,  commanded  by  Me- 

Grant's      demand,  Sherman,  Hurlbut  and  McPherson.    Grant 

advance  on 

vicksburg  felt  that  V  icksburg  could  be  turned  only  from  the 
south.  McClernand,  who  had  superseded  Sherman 
in  the  advance  on  Vicksburg,  captured  Arkansas 
Post,  January  11,  and  camped  above  Vicksburg. 
On  March  14,  Farragut  passed  Port  Hudson  with 
his  flagship,  the  "Hartford,"  and  an  ironclad.  A 
month  later  Porter's  fleet  ran  past  the  guns  of 
Vicksburg.  The  Confederates  made  a  gallant  stand 
at  Port  Gibson  on  May  1,  but  were  driven  back. 
Seizing  a  bridge  before  the  Confederates  could  burn 
it,  McPherson  commanded  the  road  to  Vicksburg. 
On  May  7,  Grant  advanced,  McPherson  holding 
the  right,  while  McClernand  and  Sherman,  with  the 
left  and  centre,  moved  abreast.  At  Raymond,  Clin- 
ton and  Jackson  the  Confederates  were  defeated. 
The  Confederates  massed  before  Vicksburg  in  for- 
midable array.  Grant  assaulted  Vicksburg's  de- 
fences and  secured  advanced  positions,  but  with 
terrible  loss;  and  on  May  22,  a  second  assault  with 
the  loss  of  3,000  men  convinced  him  that  a  siege  was 
necessary.  On  June  8,  he  announced  the  invest- 

siegeof     ment  of  Vicksburg  to  be  complete,  with  30,000  extra 

vicksborg 

troops  to  'repel  anything  from  the  rear. 

Meanwhile,  Johnston  to  the  eastward  was  trying 


1863Summar  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1383 

to  gather  a  force  to  raise  the  siege.  Goaded  to 
action  by  the  Richmond  authorities,  he  marched 
toward  the  Big  Black  and  planned  an  attack  for 
July  7,  which  turned  out  to  be  three  days  too  late. 
A  message  from  Pemberton  proposed  negotiating  a 
surrender.  Pemberton's  men  had  been  for  thirty- 
four  nights  in  the  trenches  on  reduced  rations. 

On  the  neighboring  hillside,  under  a  stunted  oak, 
the  two  commanders  met.  Pemberton  finally  had 
to  yield.  His  24,000  soldiers  marched  out  on 
the  4th,  stacked  arms  and  returned.  Logan's  divi- takenburg 
sion,  under  orders  from  Grant,  marched  into  Vieks- 
burg,  hoisted  the  Stars  and  Stripes,  and  took  pos- 
session. "Our  whole  army  present  witnessed  the 
scene  without  cheering,"  wrote  Grant.  The  sol- 
diery on  both  sides  now  fraternized  like  old  com- 
panions in  arms.  Grant  was  made  Major-General, 
while  Sherman  and  McPherson  became  Brigadiers. 

Less  than  a  week  later,  on  July  9,  Port  Hudson 
surrendered  to  General  Banks,  with  6,000  men,  51 
pieces  of  artillery  and  5,000  small  arms,  and  mili- 
tary stores.     The  entire  Mississippi  was  now  open.  Mlssissippi 
On   July    4,    the    Confederates    suffered    a    bloody opeD 
repulse  at  Helena,   Arkansas.     It  was  the  turning 
point  of  the  war. 

Rosecrans,  after  remaining  inactive  in  Murfrees- 
boro  for  six  months,  finally  moved  forward  in  June 
and  soon  forced  the  Confederates  out  of  Tullahoma, 
and  across  the  Tennessee  to  Chattanooga. 

Then  followed  the  Battle  of  Chickamauga,  the 
great  battle  of  the  West.  In  his  first  attempt  to 
crush  the  left  flank  and  gain  the  Chattanooga  road, 


1384  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  Autumn  1863 

Bragg  was  foiled.  The  battle  resumed  on  September 
20.  Longstreet  swung  forward  on  the  Confederate 
left,  supported  by  Hood  at  the  centre.  After  a 
vigorous  resistance,  the  Union  forces  gave  way. 
Rosecrans  returned  to  Chattanooga,  where  McCook 
and  Crittendon  soon  joined  him.  The  steadiness  of 
Chicka-  Thomas,  "The  Eock  of  Chickamauga,"  alone  pre- 
vented the  battle  from  becoming  another  Bull  Run. 
With  two-thirds  of  the  Union  army  he  fought  suc- 
cessfully all  day.  By  the  22d,  the  entire  Union 
army  was  safely  posted  for  a  defence  of  Chatta- 
nooga. Rosecrans  relinquished  the  spur  of  Look- 
out Mountain,  and  Bragg  seized  the  heights  and 
proceeded  to  invest  Chattanooga.  The  Union  army 
was  brought  close  to  starvation,  and  Rosecrans' 
despatches  were  full  of  gloomy  forebodings. 

As  a  result,  Rosecrans  was  relieved  and  Thomas 
took  his  place.  Grant  himself  reached  Chattanooga 
on  October  23,  and  his  first  work  was  to  relieve  the 
hunger  of  the  troops.  In  five  days  he  opened  a 
new  "Cracker  Line"  by  way  of  Lookout  Valley 
and  Bridgeport.  New  clothing,  with  ammunition, 
quickly  followed. 

On  November  23,  began  the  Battle  of  Chatta- 
nooga, a  most  spectacular  encounter  lasting  for 
three  days.  South  and  east  of  Chattanooga,  with 
the  Tennessee  in  their  rear,  lay  the  Union  troops, 
confronted  by  the  Confederates,  whose  lines  were 
plainly  visible.  Grant's  purpose  was  to  drive 
Bragg  from  the  heights.  In  two  hours,  the  hills 
were  carried,  and  Grant  held  the  position  a  mile  in 
front  of  his  army. 


1863  Nov.  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  1385 

With  8,000  men,  Sherman  crossed  the  Tennessee 
on  the  24th,  and  formed  his  troops  for  the  grand 
assault  on  Missionary  .Ridge.  In  the  afternoon,  he 
gained  the  foot,  and  later  the  crest  of  the  ridge, 
where  he  fortified  and  prepared  for  the  next  day's 
battle.  Meanwhile,  Hooker  moved  with  three  divi- 
sions to  capture  Lookout  Mountain.  By  noon  he 
had  gained  the  open  ground  on  the  north  slope. 
The  sound  of  his  cannon  and  musketry  could  be 
heard  below,  but  among  the  drifting  clouds  his 
troops  were  not  visible.  Grant  sent  a  brigade  to  above  the 

clouds 

sustain  him.  As  night  fell,  Lookout  Mountain  and 
the  north  end  of  Missionary  Eidge  were  ablaze  with 
camp-fires.  On  Wednesday,  Sherman  renewed  the 
attack  on  the  crest  of  the  Eidge.  Too  late,  Hooker 
gained  the  summit  of  the  south  end  of  Missionary 
Eidge  to  aid  Sherman.  The  latter's  condition  was 
seen  to  be  critical,  and  Grant  ordered  Thomas  to 
charge  at  once  on  the  front  of  the  Eidge  with  the 
divisions  of  Sheridan  and  Wood.  The  first  line  of 
rifle  pits  was  carried.  Without  waiting  for  further 
orders,  the  second  lin_e  was  taken.  Then  in  a  time 
surprisingly  short,  the  crest  of  Missionary  Eidge  was 
captured  by  the  Union  troops.  Grant  rode  up  amid 
the  tumultuous  shouts  of  the  men.  The  force  con- 
fronting Sherman  joined  in  the  flight.  Bragg  re- 
treated up  the  valley,  while  Sheridan  pushed  on, 
continuing  the  fight  beyond  the  eastern  slope  far 
into  the  night. 

Grant  now  turned  his  attention  to  the  relief  of 
Burnside.  Against  Burnside,  with  12,000  men, 
Bragg  had  sent  General  Longstreet  with  20,000. 


1386  A    HISTORY  OF   THE  1863 

Longstreet  invested  the  place.  Hearing  of  Grant's 
success  at  Chattanooga,  he  began  a  furious  artillery 
fire  on  the  29th,  and  sent  four  brigades  to  charge 
the  parapets,  losing  a  thousand  men  in  the  fierce 
assault.  Under  orders  from  Kichmond,  he  aban- 
doned the  siege,  and,  on  December  4,  made  good 
his  retreat.  Sherman  arrived  a  day  too  late. 

Thero  were  no  naval  victories  comparable  to  these 
great  Union  successes  on  land.  In  April,  Admiral 
Dupont,  with  a  large  fleet  of  ironclads,  had  at- 
tempted to  take  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  but 
the  Confederates  destroyed  five  of -his  seven  moni- 
tors and  sank  the  "Keokuk."  On  July  18,  Fort 
Sumter  was  practically  demolished,  but  the  attack 
on  Fort  Wagner  failed.  Early  in  September  Forts 
Wagner  and  Battery  Gregg  were  abandoned. 

Horace  Vernet,  the  great  historical  painter  of 
Death  of  France,  died  during  this  year.  At  the  time  of  his 

Horace 

vernet       death  he  had  outlived  the  glory  of  his  career.     One 
of  his  last  works  was  a  portrait  of  Napoleon  III. 

William  Makepeace  Thackeray,  the  great  English 
novelist,  died  on  Christmas  Eve.  Thackeray's  first 
publication  in  book  form  was  the  "Paris  Sketch 

Thackeray  Book, "  followed  by  the  "Irish  Sketch  Book." 
The  establishment  of  the  comic  weekly  "Punch" 
opened  to  Thackeray  a  new  and  congenial  field  of 
enterprise.  The  publication  of  his  great  novel, 
*' Vanity  Fair,"  in  1847,  established  his  reputation 
as  one  of  the  greatest  modern  novelists  of  England. 
Among  prose  writers,  Thackeray  takes  rank  as  the 
classical  humorist  and  satirist  of  the  Victorian  age. 
On  November  15,  King  Frederick  VII.,  the  last 


«63  Winter  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1387 

prince  of  Oldenburg,  died.  By  the  provisions  of 
the  London  Protocol  of  1852,  Prince  Christian  as- 
cended the  throne  as  Christian  IX.  His  first  official 
act  was  to  sign  a  constitution  on  November  18, 
which  tore  Schleswig  from  the  duchy  of  Holstein 
by  annexing  it  to  Denmark.  Two  days  before, 
Frederick  of  Augustenbufg,  who  was  regarded  as 
their  rightful  ruler  by  the  people  of  the  two 
duchies,  had  proclaimed  himself  duke  and  assumed 
the  title  of  Frederick  VIII.  His  action  was  timely. 
The  annexation  of  Schleswig  by  Denmark  and  the 
obnoxious  London  Protocol  had  inflamed  the  Ger- 
man Confederation  more  than  ever.  Liberals  and 
Conservatives  agreed  that  the  rights  of  Frederick  of 
Augustenburg  were  indisputable.  So  far  as  theannSes* 
Confederation  and  the  minor  German  States  were 
concerned,  the  Schleswig-Holstein  problem  was  sim- 
ple enough.  But  for  Prussia  and  for  Austria,  the 
rival  powers  who  had  both  signed  the  London  Pro- 
tocol, the  two  duchies  were  still  a  bone  of  conten- 
tion. The  Prussian  House  of  Eepresentatives  de- 
clared itself  largely  for  Augustenburg.  It  was  at 
this  time  that  Count  Bismarck  asserted  himself  as 
the  master  spirit  of  German  affairs.  In  defiance 
of  the  Assembly  he  came  to  an  understanding  with 
Austria.  It  was  the  Prussian- Austrian  alliance  that 
determined  the  course  of  subsequent  events.  On  De- 
cember 7,  the  German  Confederation,  assembled  at 
Frankfort,  took  the  decisive  step.  Twelve  thousand 
Saxon  and  Hanoverian  troops  under  General  Hake 
crossed  the  border  line  on  the  23d.  Before 
advance  the  Danish  army  retreated. 


1388  A   HISTORY   OF   THE  1864 


1864 

ON  JANUARY"  15,  the  Frankfort  Assembly 
sent  an  ultimatum  to  Christian  IX.,  com- 
manding him  to  repeal  the  constitution  of 
November  18,  1863,'  within  forty-eight  hours.     He 
German     refused.      Behind  the  famous  fortifications   of   the 

ultimatum 

%££n~  Dannewirk,  the  Danish  army  of  thirty  thousand, 
under  General  Meza,  was  gathered  ready  for  battle. 
Denmark,  after  the  manner  of  weak  nations,  had 
placed  her  reliance  not  so  much  upon  her  army  as 
upon  the  possibility  of  foreign  assistance,  upon  the 
hatred  between  Austria  and  Germany,  and  upon 
dissensions  among  the  minor  German  States.  Not- 
withstanding Lord  Palmerston's  promising  hints  at 
intervention,  foreign  assistance  was  not  forthcom- 
ing. Prussia  and  Austria,  thanks  to  the  diplomacy 
of  Bismarck,  were  allied  in  a  common  cause.  On 
February  1,  20,000  Austrian  and  25,000  Prussian 

Invasion  of 

troops  crossed  the  Eider  and  were  received  with 
open  arms  by  the  inhabitants  of  Schleswig.  With 
the  Prussians,  under  Prince  Friedrich  Karl,  form- 
ing the  right  wing,  and  the  Austrians,  under  "Von 
Gablenz,  the  left,  the  Commander-in-Chief  of  the 
allied  forces,  General  "Wrangel,  moved  forward. 
On  the  2d,  the  Prussians  engaged  the  Danes 
at  Missunde  on  the  Schlei;  and  on  the  3d,  the 


1864  Spring  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  1389 

Austrians  fought  their  first  battles  at  Overselk  and 
Jagel.  The  array  was  to  cross  the  Schlei  on  the  battles 
6th,  but  on  the  evening  of  the  5th  the  Danes  evac- 
uated the  Dannewirk.  The  allies  followed,  but  only 
the  Austrians  succeeded  in  overtaking  the  rear- 
guard of  the  retreating  army  at  Oversee.  Without 
further  losses,  the  Danes  reached  Du'ppel,  in  the 
southeastern  part  of  the  peninsula  of  Sundewitt. 
Here  a  notable  battle  was  fought.  After  a  six 
weeks'  siege  the  Prussians  and  Austrians,  on  April 
18,  captured  the  works  by  storm  after  a  short  and 
hotly  fought  battle,  in  which  the  Danes  lost  their  Duppei 

J  trenches 

commander,  Duplat,  together  with  5,000  men  killed, stormed 
wounded  and  captured,  and  118  guns.  The  other 
corps  invaded  Jutland,  fought  the  battles  of  Yeile 
and  Friedericia,  and  finally  took  possession  of 
Friedericia  after  its  evacuation  by  the  Danes  late 
in  April. 

During  the  progress  of  these  events  a  conference 
of  the  Powers  was  held  in  London,  at  which  the 
German  Confederation  was  represented  by  Von  Beust 
of  Saxony.  A  truce  was  declared  on  May  9.  The 
Danes  obstinately  refused  to  make  any  concession.  London 
Seizing  the  opportunity  thus  presented,  Prussia  and 
Austria  retracted  the  pledges  which  they  had  made 
in  the  London  Protocol,  and,  on  May  28,  in  con- 
junction with  Von  Beust,  demanded  the  complete 
separation  of  the  Duchies  from  Denmark  and  their 
consolidation  into  one  State  under  the  rule  of  Fred- 
erick of  Augustenburg.  Hostilities  began  again. 
The  Prussians,  under  General  von  Bittenfeld,  took 
Sonderburg,  on  June  29,  with  slight  loss — the  last 


1390  A   HISTORY   OF   THE  1864 

battle  fought.  The  Danes  left  the  island  after  hav- 
burg*1"  ing  lost  four  thousand  men,  of  whom  two  thousand 
were  taken  as  prisoners.  On  the  19th,  a  fleet  of 
Austrian  and  Prussian  ships'captured  the  Danish 
captain,  Hammer,  who  had  earned  an  evil  reputa- 
tion on  the  western  coast.  Another  truce  was  de- 
clared, and  finally,  on  October  30,  a  treaty  of  peace 
was  signed  at  Vienna,  by  the  terms  of  which  the 
King  of  Denmark  ceded  all  his  rights  to  Schleswig- 
H°^stein  and  Lauenburg  to  the  Emperor  of  Austria 
and  the  King  of  Prussia.  Neither  the  Duchies  nor 
the  Confederation  were  represented  at  the  signing 
of  the  treaty. 

In  China,  Major  Gordon,  after  two  months'  ab- 
stention from  the  war,  had  sunk  his  differences 
with  Li  Hung  Chang  and  returned  to  quell  the 
Taiping  rebellion.  February  18,  he  left  Quinsan 
with  his  men  and  took  the  field  anew.  Chung 
Wang's  force  retired  to  Changchow,  and  Chung 
returned  to  Nanking.  General  Ching  had  seized 
Pingmang,  and  obtained  another  entrance  to  the 
Taho  Lake.  Gordon  attacked  Changchow.  The 
stockades  were  carried;  a  great  many  rebels  were 
killed,  and  5,000  were  taken  prisoners.  The  strong- 
hold of  Lizang  surrendered.  Gordon  attempted  to 
capture  Kintang,  but  he  here  suffered  his  second 
defeat,  and  had  to  retreat  to  Lizang,  and  thence  to 
Wusieh.  Fushan  was  taken  and  soon  Changu  was 
surrounded  by  the  Taipings.  But  Chung  captured 
Kashingfoo,  and  Isung  Tong  had  recovered  Hang- 
chow.  Major  Gordon,  incapacitated  by  a  wound, 
directed  all  operations  from  his  boat.  The  Taipings 


1864  Summer  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1391 

returned  from  before  Chanzu,  but  offered  battle 
at  Waisso.  Gordon  failed  in  getting  his  gunboats 
up  the  creek,  his  infantry  was  out-manoeuvred  and 
routed.  Collecting  fresh  troops  after  a  week's  rest, 
Gordon  resumed  his  attack  on  Waisso  and  captured 
the  place.  The  rebel  army  was  practically  destroyed. 
The  capture  of  Changchow  followed  as  the  next 
success,  and  the  crowning  event  of  the  campaign. 
The  leader  was  taken  prisoner  and  executed.  This 
was  the  last  action  of  the  Ever- Victorious  army. 
After  Changchow,  Tayon  was  evacuated.  Nanking 
alone  remained  in  rebel  hands.  Tien  W  ang,  despair-  Death  of 

Tien  Wang 

ing  of  success,  committed  suicide.  Thus  died  the 
man  who  thirteen  years  before  had  erected  the  stand- 
ard of  revolt  in  Kwangsi.  On  J  uly  10,  the  imperi- 
alists had  run  a  gallery  under  the  walls  of  Nanking, 
and  charged  it  with  40,000  pounds  of  powder.  The 
explosion  destroyed  fifty  yards  of  the  walls,  and 
the  imperialists  poured  through  the  breach.  Later 
Chung  Wang  was  captured.  On  August  7,  this  wan<f shot 
hero  of  the  Taiping  movement  was  executed. 

In  America,  when  the  time  came  for  new  military 
operations  in  1864,  the  country  turned  to  Grant.  On 
the  first  of  March  he  was  made  a  Lieutenant-Gen- 
eral  and  called  to  Washington.  While  there  he  out- 
lined the  general  strategy  of  the  approaching  cam- 
paign. His  old  command  in  the  West  was  given  to 
Sherman,  Sherman's  to  McPherson,  and  McPher-  Processor 

American 

son's  to  Logan.     Command  of  the  Army  of  the  Poto- war 
mac  was  left  to  Meade.     Grant  himself  accompanied 
that  army,  leaving  to  Sherman  great  freedom  in  the 
conduct  of  operations  in  the  West. 


1392  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  Spring  1864 

As  to  Lee,  Grant  resolved  at  the  last  moment 
to  engage  him  in  front,  and  "pound  his  army  to 
pieces."  Sheridan  was  summoned  East  to  take 
charge  of  the  cavalry  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac. 
Grant's  own  army  was  reduced  to  three  corps,  under 
Hancock,  Warren  and  Sedgwick.  Burnside's  force 
of  20,000  was  blended  with  Meade's. 

Some  notable  naval  encounters  were  won  by  the 
Confederate  ironclad  "Albemarle"  in  Albemarle 

The  "Albe- 

Sound.  Immediately  upon  her  completion,  on  April 
19,  she  came  out  to  drive  away  the  Federal  ships, 
which  threatened  the  way  for  the  Southern  army 
before  Richmond.  In  midstream  the  Federal  gun- 
boats "Miami"  and  "Southfield"  were  lashed  to- 
gether so  as  to  catch  their  dangerous  opponent  be- 
tween them.  Captain  Cooke  of  the  "Albemarle," 
on  approaching  the  two  vessels,  steamed  out  of  the 
current,  and,  under  a  heavy  fire,  turned  at  right 
angles  and  charged  the  "Southfield"  at  full  speed 
amidships.  His  ram  plowed  ten  feet  into  the 
"Southfield's"  side.  At  once  the  "Southfield" 
began  to  sink,  and  carried  down  with  her  the  bow 
of  the  Confederate  ironclad.  The  whole  forward 
part  of  the  ship  was  carried  under  the  water.  Across 
the  sinking  "Southfield,"  the  "Miami"  fired  a  nine- 
inch  shell  into  the  "Albemarle."  It  struck  her 
armor  nearly  at  right  angles,  and  the  fragments  of 
the  shell,  flying  back,  killed  the  "Miami's"  com- 
mander. 

After  this  Federal  defeat  a  strong  flotilla  was  de- 
spatched to  Pamlico  Sound  to  watch  the  "Albe- 
marle." On  May  5,  the  "Albemarle"  came  out  and 


1864  Summer  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1393 

roughly  handled  the  "Mattabessete"  and  "Miami." 
The  Federal  ship  "Sassacus"  rammed  her,  but  failed 
to  sink  her.     Before  she  could  back  out,  the  "Albe- 
marle"  put  a  shot  through  the  boiler  of  the  "Sassa-  »Sassa. 
cus, ' '  disabling  thirteen  men.     An  attempt  to  board  disabled 
her  was  beaten  off.     In  the  midst  of  the  steam  and 
confusion,  the  "Sassacus, "  drifted  clear. 

After  this  second  defeat  it  was  determined  to  ac- 
complish the  destruction  of  the  dangerous  ironclad 
by  means  of  torpedo  launches.  Lieutenant  Gushing, 
who,  young  as  he  was,  had  already  distinguished 
himself  by  repeated  exploits,  volunteered  for  this 
dangerous  service.  In  his  first  attempt  he  ran 
aground  and  could  not  get  off  until  daylight.  On 
the  following  night  he  stood  into  the  harbor  with 
his  launch  with  the  intention  of  boarding  the  "Al- 
bemarle. "  As  he  rounded  the  shore  a  watch-dog 
gave  the  alarm.  The  Confederate  watch-fires  were 
fed  with  oil,  and  in  the  glare  Cushing's  boat  became  expk>ltte's 
a  target  for  sharpshooters.  He  ran  at  the  "Albe- 
marle,"  but  found  that  she  was  surrounded  by  large 
fenders.  Under  a  rattling  fire,  Gushing  backed  ouc 
about  a  hundred  yards  and  then  jumped  the  logs 
at  full  speed.  As  his  projecting  pole  struck  the 
"Albemarle's"  side,  he  pulled  the  torpedo  <  string. 
There  was  a  dull  roar,  a  column  of  water  arose,  and 

The  "Albe- 

the  "  Albemarle"  heeled  over.     One  of  her  hundred-  marie" 

suuk 

pounders,  crammed  with  canister,  was  fired  off  over 
Cushing's  head.  The  torpedo  boat  was  disabled. 
Her  crew  surrendered.  Gushing  jumped  overboard 
and  swam  down  stream.  All  day  long  he  hid  in  a 
swamp.  Next  night  he  found  a  boat  and  rejoined 


1394  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1864 

the  squadron.  Cashing  was  promoted  and  received 
the  thanks  of  Congress.  After  the  war  the  "Albe- 
marle"  was  raised  and  refitted  for  sea  service. 

The  worst  injury  done  to  the  Northern  cause 
was  the  destruction  of  commerce  on  the  sea.  This 
was  accomplished  by  Southern  vessels  of  two  types. 
The  first  type  included  small  coasting  privateers, 
such  as  the  "Jeff  Davis,"  "Winslow,"  "Retribu- 
tion" and  "Echo."  They  stole  out  of  Southern 

Southern 

privateers  seaports  at  night,  manned  by  sailors  of  great  dar- 
ing, and  preyed  upon  passing  Union  merchantmen. 
In  one  case  the  men  on  a  Northern  prize,  the 
schooner  "S.  J.  Waring,"  captured  by  the  "Jeff 
Davis,"  turned  on  the  prize  crew,  and  butchered 
them  while  they  were  asleep.  Without  accomplish- 
ing much,  these  vessels  served  to  make  all  coastwise 
trade  precarious  for  American  shippers. 

More  serious  were  the  depredations  of  privateering 
steam  cruisers.  First  in  turn  came  the  "Sumter, " 

"Sumter"  commanded  by  the  famous  captain,  Raphael  Semmes, 
who  had  won  distinction  in  the  Mexican  War.  After 
capturing  more  than  a  dozen  prizes  in  American 
waters,  the  "Surnter"  cruised  through  the  Spanish 
Main  and  put  into  Cadiz.  Ordered  out  of  Cadiz, 
the  "Sumter"  was  chased  into  Gibraltar,  where 
she  was  tightly  blockaded  by  the  Federal  cruis- 
ers "Tuscarora,"  "Chippewa"  and  "Kearsarge." 
Semmes  had  to  sell  his  ship  and  disband  the 
crew.  Under  an  English  flag  the  "Sumter"  be- 
came a  blockade  runner,  running  in  and  out 
of  Wilmington. 

The  two   most  dangerous  commerce  destroyers, 


1864  Summer  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1395 

the  "Alabama"  and  "Florida,"  were  built  and 
fitted  out  in  England.  When  the  "Florida,"  which 
was  designed  as  a  warship,  was  building,  the  atten- 
tion of  Earl  Russell  was  called  to  her.  It  was  pre-  The 
tended  that  the  ship,  which  was  then  named  " Oreto, " 
had  been  ordered  by  the  Italian  Government.  The 
Italian  Consul  at  Liverpool  disclaimed  all  knowl- 
edge of  her.  The  vessel  was  permitted  to  put  to 
sea  and  stood  across  to  the  British  port  of  Nassau, 
in  the  Bahamas,  the  headquarters  of  the  Southern 
blockade  runners.  There  she  openly  proceeded  to 
take  on  arms  and  munitions.  On  the  protest  of  the 
Federal  authorities,  a  perfunctory  inquiry  was  insti- 
tuted by  the  British.  The  "Florida"  was  released 

British 

and  proceeded  to  Green  Bay,  where  she  took  onconmv. 
two  seven-inch  and  four  six-inch  rifled  guns.  Under 
an  English  flag  she  ran  past  the  Northern  cruisers 
blockading  Mobile.  With  a  full  crew  the  "Florida" 
steamed  out  of  Mobile  and  led  the  pursuing  North- 
ern cruisers  an  all  day's  chase.  During  the  next 
few  days  the  "Florida"  captured  half-a-dozen  prizes, 
among  them  the  American  clipper  "Jacob  Bell," 
with  a  million  and  a  half  dollars'  worth  of  Chinese 
silk.  Whenever  it  was  necessary  the  "Florida" 
coaled  in  British  ports  of  the  West  Indies.  One 
of  her  prizes,  a  Baltimore  brig,  after  capture  was 
armed  with  a  howitzer  and  a  number  of  dummy 
guns,  and  went  on  a  privateering  cruise  of  her 
own  under  Lieutenant  Head.  This  officer  within  a 
few  weeks  made  more  than  a  score  of  prizes.  At 
last  he  slipped  into  Portland,  Maine,  and  seized 
Federal  excise  cutter  "Caleb  Gushing."  He  was 


1396  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Summer  1864 

pursued  by  two  steamers  and  three  tugs,  and 
was  finally  captured.  Meanwhile,  the  "Florida" 
had  scuttled  the  "United  States,"  a  mail  steamer, 
just  outside  of  New  York.  The  shippers  of  New 
York  were  in  a  panic.  To  avoid  capture,  the  "Flor- 
ida" ran  straight  across  the  Atlantic  to  Teneriffe, 
and  thence  back  to  South  America,  where  she  en- 
tered the  Brazilian  port  of  Bahia.  The  Federal 
sloop-of-war  "Wachusett"  was  lying  in  the  harbor. 
A  Brazilian  ship  was  anchored  between  the  two  hos- 
tile vessels.  Under  cover  of  darkness  the  "Wachu- 
sett" left  her  moorings,  and,  passing  the  Brazilian 
The  vessel,  rammed  the  "Florida."  Shot  and  shell  were 
captured  poured  into  the  Confederate  vessel  at  close  range, 
and  she  was  driven  to  surrender.  Captain  Collins 
of  the  "Wachusett"  towed  the  "Florida"  out  of 
the  harbor,  and  was  chased  beyond  neutral  waters 
by  Brazilian  men-of-war.  On  Brazil's  demand  for 
satisfaction  Collins  was  ordered  to  take  the  "Florida" 
back  to  Bahia  and  surrender  her.  Under  the  eyes  of 
his  admiral,  Collins  scuttled  the  ship  and  sank  her. 
A  poor  excuse  of  so  flagrant  a  breach  of  the  law 
of  nations  was  found  in  England's  persistent  viola- 
tion of  neutrality.  The  worst  instance  was  the  fa- 
mous case  of  the  "Alabama."  This  formidable 
cruiser,  under  the  designation  of  No.  290,  was 
built  for  the  Confederacy  in  Laird's  shipyard  at 
Birkenhead.  The  American  Consul  at  Birkenhead 
and  Minister  Adams  at  London  lodged  emphatic 
protests  against  this  procedure  with  the  British 
bama"  Government.  Still  the  "Alabama"  was  permitted 
to  put  out  of  Liverpool.  She  was  met  in  the 


J864  Summer  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1397 

Azores  by  an  English  steamer  bringing  Captain 
Raphael  Semmes,  ex-commander  of  the  "Suinter," 
and  a  crew  composed  largely  of  Englishmen,  among 
them  trained  gunners  of  the  royal  navy.  Having 
received  her  armament,  the  "Alabama"  hoisted  the 
Confederate  flag  and  started  on  her  privateering 
craise  in  the  waters  of  the  Azores.  Within  a  fort- 
night Semmes  captured  ten  Northern  whalers,  all 
of  which  he  either  scuttled  or  burned.  Standing 
over  to  the  Newfoundland  Banks,  he  captured  a 
dozen  or  so  of  outward-bound  corn  ships.  Off 
Hayti,  Semmes  captured  the  Northern  mail  steamer 
"Ariel."  A  bond  for  $216,000  was  exacted,  and 
£1,900  in  cash  were  taken  on  board  the  ship. 
Next,  Captain  Semmes  lured  the  weak  Federal 
cruiser  "Hatteras"  into  open  water,  and  sunk  her 
in  a,  sensational  encounter. 

After  this  the  "Alabama"  ran  up  and  down 
the  South  American  coast,  making  a  rich  haul  ofdepreda- 

tions 

twenty-four  prizes,  and  then  crossed  over  to  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  capturing  two  prizes  on 
the  way,  and  steamed  thence  to  the  East  Indies. 
After  a  long  cruise,  Semmes  put  into  the  French 
port  of  Cherbourg.  Captain  Semmes  could  boast 
that  he  had  driven  the  United  States  merchant 
flag  from  the  seas. 

In  European  waters,  off  Flushing,  lay  the  United 
States  sloop-of-war  "Kearsarge,"  commanded  by 
Captain  Winslow.  On  the  arrival  of  the  "Ala- 
bama" at  Cherbourg,  Minister  Bigelow  at  Paris 

The  "Rear- 

immediately  telegraphed  the  news  to  Winslow, 
The  "Kearsarge"  steamed  down  the  channel  and 

XlXth  Century— Vol.  3— G 


1398  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  June  1864 

appeared  off  Cherbourg.  The  sides  of  the  "Kear- 
sarge"  were  covered  with  chains.  On  Sunday,  June 
19,  the  "Alabama"  came  out,  attended  by  the 
French  ironclad  "Couronne,"  to  keep  the  bellig- 
erents beyond  the  three-mile  neutral  zone.  The 
owner  of  the  English  yacht  "Deerhound,"  with 
his  children,  came  out  after  the  "Alabama"  to 
Sensa-  enjoy  a  good  view  of  the  fight.  The  "Kear- 

tional 

sea  fight  sarge"  steamed  out  nearly  seven  miles.  Then  she 
turned  and  made  for  the  "Alabama."  Semmes 
opened  the  fight  with  a  hundred-pound  shot 
through  the  "Kearsarge's"  rigging,  and  fol- 
lowed it  up  with  a  broadside.  The  two  ves- 
sels, fighting  at  a  range  of  nine  hundred  yards, 
steamed  around  and  around  in  a  small  circle. 
Once  a  shot  carried  away  the  "Alabama's"  colors. 
The  men  on  the  "Kearsarge"  thought  she  had 
struck  and  cheered  tumultuously,  but  a  broadside 
from  the  "Alabama"  disabused  them.  The  "Ala- 
bama" was  already  sinking,  when  a  shot  from  her 
struck  the  halyards  of  the  "Kearsarge's"  second 
ensign,  stopped  at  the  mizzenmast  in  case  her  other 
"Ala-  flags  were  shot  away.  The  colors  floated  free  in 
sunk  apparent  victory.  Under  sail,  Semmes  now  tried  to 
make  for  neutral  waters,  but  the  "Kearsarge"  stood 
across  his  bow  and  raked  her.  The  "Alabama's" 
stern  settled  under  water,  and  Semmes  hoisted  a 
white  flag.  The  remaining  Confederate  sailors  took 
spars  and  swam  for  life.  Immediately  the  English 
yacht  "Deerhound"  approached,  and  picking  up 
Semmes  with  fourteen  of  his  officers  and  twenty- 
eight  men  from  the  water,  ran  for  the  English 


1864  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1399 

coast  with    all    speed,    unmindful    of    the  "Kear- 
sarge's"  signals  to  deliver  the  prisoners. 

Altogether,  the  Confederate  commerce  destroyers 
and  privateers  captured  261  vessels,  and  practically 
ruined  America's  maritime  commerce.  In  1864  an 
English  shipping  authority  stated  that  during  the 
previous  year  the  clearances  of  British  ships  had^jf61"^811 
increased  by  14,000,000  tons,  while  there  had  been ruined 
a  decrease  in  American  ships  engaged  in  trade  with 
England  amounting  to  47  per  cent.  After  the  war 
the  United  States  claimed  heavy  damages  from 
England  for  the  injuries  inflicted  by  the  British 
built  steamers  "Shenandoah,"  "Florida"  and  "Ala- 
bama." These  demands  were  referred  to  arbitra- 
tion. The  international  arbitrators  sitting  at  Ge- 
neva sentenced  Great  Britain  to  pay  an  indemnity 
of  £3,100,000.  The  indemnity  was  paid. 

In  the  turmoil  of  the  Civil  War  the  death  of 
Nathaniel  Hawthorne,  the  American  novelist,  on  „ 

Death  of 

May  19,  was  almost  unnoticed.  He  had  returned  toHawtborne 
the  United  States  shortly  before  the  outbreak  of  the 
Civil  War.  While  in  no  sense  a  rival  of  his  great 
contemporaries  in  modern  fiction,  Hawthorne  held 
a  unique  place  in  that  field.  James  Eussell  Lowell 
gave  exaggerated  expression  to  this  when  he  said 
that  "the  world  might  sooner  see  another  Shake- 
speare than  another  Hawthorne." 

Grant  resumed  his  campaign  with  120,000  men. 
The  Confederates  on  the  south  side  of  the  Eapidan 
under  Lee  numbered  about  60,000  men.  The  corps 

Grant 

were   under   Longstreet,    Ewell    and    Hill.      Otaer  campaign 
generals  were  Gordon,  Johnston,  Bodes,  Ramseur, 


1400  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  May  1864 

Heth,  Hampton  and  the  two  Lees.  Stuart  com- 
manded the  cavalry.  On  May  4,  the  Army  of  the 
.Potomac  crossed  the  Rapidan  at  midnight,  to  begin 
its  final  advance  on  Richmond.  On  May  5-7,  the 
first  trial  of  strength  between  Grant  and  Lee  oc- 
curred in  the  long  drawn  out  Battle  of  the  Wilder- 
ness. Grant  was  repulsed  in  frontal  attacks,  and 

Battle  of  a  succession  of  flank  movements  were  indecisive. 
Longstreet  was  wounded,  and  Wadsworth  and 
Hayes  of  Grant's  army  were  killed.  Grant  lost 
2,246  killed,  12,037  wounded  and  3,583  missing; 
the  Confederates  lost  2,000  killed,  6,000  wounded 
and  3,400  prisoners.  Grant  declined  to  attack  Lee 
again  in  his  intrenchments,  and  moved  by  the  left 
flank  toward  Spottsylvania  Court  House  to  inter- 
pose between  Lee  and  Richmond.  Lee,  however, 

Fearful  was  too  quick  for  him.  From  May  8  to  12,  fearful 
indecisive  battles  were  fought  at  Spottsylvania,  the 
Federals  losing  37,335  men  and  the  Confederates 
10,000.  The  "bloody  angle"  at  Spottsylvania  was 
perhaps  the  stubbornest  fight  of  the  war.  Grant 
telegraphed,  "I  propose  to  fight  it  out  on  this  line 
if  it  takes  all  summer."  It  took  longer.  May  19, 
he  resumed  his  flank  movement  and  reached  Guiney 
Station  on  the  21st.  On  May  9,  Sheridan,  who  had 

tactics"1'8  cut  loose,  moved  around  the  left  of  Lee's  army,  de- 
feated the  Confederate  cavalry  in  four  engagements, 
and  in  sixteen  days  passed  entirely  around  Lee's 
army,  thus  equalling  Stuart's  famous  "ride  around 
McClellan."  At  a  point  six  miles  from  Richmond, 

stuart0*  on  ^av  1^»  a  fierce  cavalry  engagement  was  fought, 
in  which  Stuart  was  killed,  and  Sheridan  advanced 


1864  Summer  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1401 

to  the  outer  defences  of  Richmond.  Sheridan  at 
last  joined  Butler,  who,  on  May  6,  had  taken  Ber- 
muda Hundred,  and  the  17th  left  to  rejoin  Grant 
at  Drewry's  Bluff. 

Grant  began  a  new  flank  movement  toward  Rich 
mond  on  the  20th.     He  reached  Cold  Harbor  near 
the   Chickahominy,   and   added   Butler's  forces  to 
his  own.      Face  to  face  again  with  Lee,  he  made 
a  bloody  effort  to  crush  Lee  in  his  intrenchments 

J  Cold 

but  failed.     After  that  Grant  became  more  careful,  Harbor 
and  gave  up  headlong  assaults  on  fortified  positions. 
Up  to  this  time  Lee  had  disabled  more  men  than  he 
commanded.     Grant  wrote  in  his  Memoirs,  "I  have 
always  regretted  that  last  assault  at  Cold  Harbor." 

June  4-24,  Sheridan  made  his  second  raid.  He 
aimed  to  threaten  Richmond  from  the  rear,  but 
Hunter  failed  to  meet  him  at  Gordonsville.  On 
June  5,  at  Piedmont,  Hunter  defeated  Jones  and 
advanced  up  the  Shenandoah  Valley.  Grant  con- 
tinued his  movement  by  the  left  flank  on  June 
7,  crossed  the  Chickahominy  on  the  13th,  and  the  Petersburg 
James  with  115,000  men  on  the  two  following  days. 
Vain  attacks  on  Petersburg  were  made  from  the 
15th  to  the  22d.  On  June  21  to  22  a  large  force 
was  sent  to  destroy  the  Weldon  Road,  but  was  de- 
feated by  A.  P.  Hill,  with  a  loss  of  604  killed,  2,494  Kant 
wounded  and  2,217  prisoners,  the  Confederate  loss 
being  only  500. 

With  17,000  men  General  Early,  on  July  1,  began 
a  campaign  against  Washington  via  the  Shenandoah 
Valley.  He  crossed  the  Potomac  into  Maryland  and 
entered  on  the  passage  of  South  Mountain.  Grant 


1402  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1864 

despatched   Eickett's   division   to  Baltimore.      An 
advance     action  with  General  Lew  Wallace  checked  the  Con- 
togton8      federate  advance,  giving  time  for  troops  to  reach 
Washington  and  Baltimore.     On  July  11,  Early  got 
within  sight  of  the  Capital,  but  recrossed  the  Po- 
tomac on  July  14  laden  with  plunder.     Wear  Win- 
chester   Early    turned    and    defeated    Crook,    and 
drove  the  federals  out  of  the  Shenandoah  Valley 
and  across  the  Potomac. 

Farragut  added  fresh  lustre  to  his  fame  at  Mobile. 
He  had  already  asked  for  ironclads  wherewith  to 
attack  the  forts  of  Mobile  Bay  and  the  new  Con- 
federate ironclad  "Tennessee."  His  request  was 
granted.  The  four  monitors  "Tecumseh,"  "Man- 
hattan," "Winnebago"  and  "Chickasaw"  joined 
his  squadron.  Besides  the  monitors  Farragut  now 
had  a  fleet  of  fourteen  wooden  ships.  He  lashed 
the  wooden  ships  together  in  pairs,  and  on  August 
6  gave  orders  to  run  the  narrow  passage  of  Fort 
Morgan.  As  at  New  Orleans,  he  raised  his  flag 
over  the  "Hartford."  Shortly  before  six  in  the 

Farragut 

Mobile  morning  the  long  Mne  steamed  into  Mobile.  Farra- 
gut climbed  up  into  the  shrouds  to  get  a  good  view. 
As  the  smoke  of  the  guns  arose  around  him,  he 
mounted  higher  and  higher,  until  a  man  was  sent 
up  after  him  to  lash  him  in  his  place  lest  he  fall. 
The  monitors  steamed  ahead  slowly,  and  the  other 
ships,  slowing  down,  dropped  back  from  the  rest 
of  the  squadron.  The  strong  current  carried  them 
across  the  channel,  and  the  long  line  of  ships 
curled  itself  up  directly  under  a  raking  fire  from 
Fort  Morgan.  Farragut  signalled  to  the  "Brook- 


1864  Aug.  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  1403 

lyn":  "Order  the  monitors  ahead,  and  go  on." 
From  the  signal  mast  of  the  "Brooklyn"  came  the 
answer:  "Torpedoes."  Then  it  was  that  Farragut 
swore  his  historic  oath:  "Damn  the  torpedoes. "  ^°t^istorio 
The  "Tecumseh,"  discerning  the  Confederate  iron- 
clad "Tennessee"  through  the  smoke,  dashed  at  her 
over  the  line  of  torpedoes.  There  was  a  muffled 
roar,  and  the  stern  of  the  "Tecumseh"  heeling 

The 

up.  she  lurched  over  and  went  to  the  bottom  with  "Tecum- 
seh" sunk 

ninety-three  of  her  men.  In  the  pilot-house  were 
her  commander,  Craven,  and  the  pilot.  One  only 
could  pass  through  the  narrow  manhole.  With  the 
water  rushing  in,  Craven  drew  back  and  said:  "After  „ 

Craven's 

you,  pilot."  The  pilot  escaped,  but  Craven  wentheroism 
down  with  his  ship.  Meanwhile,  the  flagship 
shot  forward  through  the  smoke,  and  clearing  the 
"Brooklyn,"  took  the  lead.  It  was  her  turn  to 
pass  over  the  torpedoes.  They  grated  against  the 
bottom  without  exploding.  The  other  ships  fol- 
lowed the  flagship.  As  soon  as  they  cleared  the 
line  of  torpedoes,  Buchanan  on  the  Confederate 
"Tennessee"  tried  to  ram  each  ship  in  turn.  He 
missed  several  times;  but  succeeded  in  putting  a 
seven-inch  shell  through  the  "Hartford."  Next 
he  was  rammed  himself  by  the  "Monongahela." 
The  bronze  beak  of  the  "Monongahela,"  hampered 
by  her  consort  "Rennebec,"  broke  off  without  pen- 
etrating the  "Tennessee."  Buchanan  now  engaged 
the  last  ship  of  the  Federal  squadron,  the  "Oneida," 
and  raked  her  fore  and  aft.  The  Federal  ironclad 
"Winnebago"  steamed  to  the  rescue  and  wedged 
herself  in  between  the  two  fighting  ships,  amid  a 


1404  A   HISTORY   OF   THE  Aug.  ISM 

roar  of  cheers  from  the  Federal  sailors.  Her  com- 
fxploit8'  mander,  Stevens,  who  stood  exposed  on  the  turret 
of  the  "Winnebago,"  lifted  his  cap  in  acknowledg- 
ment of  the  applause.  Then  he  fired  his  four  guns 
into  the  "Tennessee,"  which  retired  under  the  guns 
of  Fort  Morgan. 

The  Federal  ships  in  the  rear  of  the  enemy's 
works  now  turned  their  attention  to  the  Confeder- 
ate gunboats.  They  were  driven  up  the  bay.  The 
Federal  boat  "Metacomet"  chased  the  "Selma," 
and,  engaging  her  at  close  range,  fought  her  to  a 
Surrender  standstill.  At  last  the  commander  of  the  weaker 

of  the 

"Seima"  snip  hauled  down  his  flag  and  surrendered  to  his 
old  friend  Jouett  of  the  "Metacomet."  The  two 
officers  sat  down  to  breakfast  together  as  though 
no  difference  had  parted  them.  The  rest  of  Farra- 
gut's  fleet  had  come  to  anchor  above  Fort  Morgan. 
Shortly  before  nine  o'clock  Buchanan  came  out 
with  the  "Tennessee"  to  engage  the  whole  fleet 
with  his  single  ship.  The  first  to  get  at  the  "Ten- 
nessee" was  the  "Monongahela,"  which  rammed 
her  amidships  without  doing  her  any  harm.  Next 
the  "Lackawanna"  rammed  the  "Tennessee"  on  the 
port  quarter  with  like  ill  success.  She  was  set  on 

an'shdaring ^re  ^7  one  of  the  "Tennessee's"  shells  fired  at  close 
range.  The  two  hostile  flagships  now  headed  for 
each  other.  As  they  came  together  bow  on,  it  ap- 
peared that  both  must  sink  together;  but  at  the  last 
moment  Buchanan  swerved  aside  and  received  only 
a  glancing  blow.  The  "Lackawanna,"  trying  to  ram 
the  "Tennessee,"  struck  the  "Hartford"  and  drove 
in  her  timbers. 


1864  Aug.  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  1405 

The  monitor  "Manhattan"  came  up  astern  of  the 
"Tennessee,"  and  at  a  range  of  a  few  yards  fired 
six  of  her  15-inch  projectiles.  With  her  were  the 
"  Winnebago"  and  "Chickasaw,"  pounding  the  after 
end  of  the  "Tennessee."  Her  steering  tackle  had 
been  shot  away;  one  gun  was  disabled;  three 
of  the  port-shutters  were  jammed;  the  funnel 
had  broken  off  short  within  the  casemate.  Bu- 
chanan gave  orders  for  the  "Tennessee"  to  steer 
for  Fort  Morgan.  A  shot  carried  off  Buchanan's 
leg.  He  was  carried  down,  and  the  command  of 
the  ship  passed  to  Captain  Johnston.  For  twenty 
minutes  longer  the  "Tennessee"  faced  her  oppo- 
nents. She  could  not  fire  a  gun  nor  do  any  more 
harm.  Further  resistance  was  useless.  Johnston  ob-  surrender 
tained  Buchanan's  consent  to  a  surrender.  The  lessee"" 
"Tennessee's"  total  loss  in  men  was  two  killed 
and  nine  wounded.  On  the  Federal  side,  the  loss 
was  145  killed,  170  wounded  and  four  men,  who 
swam  ashore. 

Fort   Gaines   was  taken,    and   on    the   23d    Fort 
Morgan  yielded  to  a  bombardment.     The  port  of 
Mobile  was  henceforth  completely  closed  to  Con-Mobi]e 
federate   commerce,    but    the   city  itself    held  outholdsout 
until  the  following  April. 

On  August  7,  Sheridan  succeeded  Hunter  in  the 
command  of  the  Army  of  the  Shenandoah.  His 
force  comprised  the  sixth  corps,  Wright's,  the  nine- 
teenth, Emory's,  Crook's  army  of  western  Virginia, 
and  cavalry — in  all  22,000  infantry  and  8,000  horse. 
Grant  made,  on  August  14,  a  heavy  demonstration 
against  Eichmond.  Later,  Grant  again  threatened 


1406  A   HISTORY    OF   THE  Oct.  1864 

Eichmond  to  prevent  reinforcements  to  Early. 
Sheridan  on  his  return  movement  devastated  the 
Shenandoah  Valley — the  granary  of  Richmond — of 

Fisher's  *te  *OO(^  an(*  f°rage'  Early,  reinforced,  followed 
Sheridan  down  the  valley  on  October  7,  but  was 
defeated  at  Fisher's  Hill.  At  Cedar  Creek,  Octo- 
ber 19,  Early  surprised  and  routed  General  Wright 
in  the  absence  of  Sheridan,  who  was  twenty  miles 
away.  Sheridan,  hearing  the  guns,  made  his  fa- 
mous ride,  rallied  his  men,  and  crushingly  defeated 

Sheridan's  the   Confederates.     Sheridan's  ride,   celebrated  in 

i  American  annals,  has  been  commemorated  in  stir- 

ring verse  by  Thomas  Buchanan  Read. 

Two  notable  exploits  were  performed  by  Confed- 
erate submerged  ^oats.  The  first  of  these  had  been 
built  at  Mobile  and  brought  overland  to  Charleston. 
She  had  ballast  tank  and  lateral  fins  to  raise  or  sub- 
merge her,  but  had  the  fatal  defect  of  carrying  no 
reserve  of  air.  On  her  first  trial  she  drowned  eight 
men.  Five  times  in  succession  she  sank  drowning 
or  endangering  her  crew.  Having  been  recovered 
for  the  sixth  time,  officers  Carlson  and  Dickson 
of  the  Confederate  army  offered  to  take  her  out 

warfare"16  against  the  Federal  squadron.  They  succeeded  in 
exploding  a  torpedo  under  the  "Housatonic," 
which  sank  immediately.  All  on  board  the  sub- 
marine boat  were  drowrjed. 

On  October  5,  Lieutenant  Glassel,  with  a  crew  of 
Confederate  volunteers,  took  out  the  submarine  boat 
"Davis"  against  the  Federal  "Ironsides."  A  spar 
torpedo  projected  from  her  bow.  The  officers  on 
board  the  "Ironsides"  saw  the  top  of  the  sub- 


1864  Summer  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1407 

marine  boat's  hatchway  an  instant  before  the  tor- 
pedo exploded.  The  "Ironsides"  was  severely 
shaken  but  uninjured.  The  crew  of  the  sub- 
marine boat  jumped  overboard  at  the  moment  of 
contact.  They  took  the  disabled  "Davis"  back. 

TJie  great  campaign  in  the  West  began  in  May, 
when  Sherman  moved  southward  from  Chattanooga 
with  100,000  men  to  meet  Johnston,  who  had  68,000 
troops.  Sherman's  columns  were  led  by  Thomas, 

'  Campaign 

McPherson  and  Schofield,  and  Johnston's  by  Hood,  in  the  west 
Pike  and  Hardee.  "If  the  enemy  interrupt  our 
communications,"  said  Sherman,  "I  will  be  ab- 
solved from  all  obligations  to  subsist  on  our  own  re- 
sources." So  began  the  long  advance  upon  Atlanta. 
Johnston's  retreat  was  masterly.  He  left  tabula  rasa 
in  his  rear,  and  stubborn  fighting  occurred  at  Dai- 
ton,  Eoscoe,  Cassville,  Allatoona  and  Dallas.  On 
May  15,  Johnston  retired  toward  Dallas  and  burned 
the  bridges  behind  him,  and  four  days  later  crossed 


the   Etowah,   took  a  strong  position  at  Allatoona  advance 


Sheridan's 
advance 
to  Atlanta] 


Pass  and  advanced  toward  Dallas.  On  the  27th 
occurred  the  terrible  contest  on  the  heights  of 
Kenesaw,  in  which  Sherman  lost  1,370  killed,  6,500 
wounded  and  800  prisoners,  and  the  Confederates 
lost  4,600.  At  daylight,  on  July  3,  Sherman  occu- 
pied Kenesaw  Mountain.  Johnston  retired  to  a 
strong  position  on  the  Chattahoochie. 

Six  days  later  Johnston's  forces  were  concentrated 
behind  the  defences  at  Atlanta,  where  he  had  made 
elaborate  preparations  for  his  final  conflict.  Davis, 
however,  did  not  like  Johnston,  and  now  removed 
him  from  command.  "For  my  own  part,"  said 


1408  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Autumn  ISM 

Grant,  "1  think  Johnston's  tactics  were  right." 
On  the  17th  of  July,  Sherman  began  an  open 
movement  upon  the  city.  Hood  was  now  in  com- 
mand. Hood  was  driven  into  Atlanta  behind  his 
intrenchments  on  July  22.  The  battle  lasted  all 
day  and  covered  a  front  of  seven  miles.  McPher- 

M^hersonson  was  killed,  and  Howard,  "the  Havelock  of  the 
Civil  War,"  succeeded  him;  Slocum  succeeded 
Hooker,  and  Stanley  took  Howard's  place.  A 
reckless  attack  by  Hood,  on  the  21st,  was  re- 
pulsed by  Logan.  Sherman,  on  the  27th,  began 
a  movement  by  the  right  flank  against  Hood.  Dur- 
ing August  he  besieged  Atlanta.  He  sent  Kilpat- 
rick,  August  18-22,  with  5,000  cavalry  on  a  raid. 
Kilpatrick  destroyed  the  Macon  railroad  and  passed 
around  the  Confederate  lines  at  Atlanta.  Sloe  am 

Fail  of  entered  Atlanta  early  on  September  2.  Sherman 
and  Hood  entered  into  a  truce  for  ten  days,  for 
the  removal  of  non-combatants  from  Atlanta,  dur- 
ing which  446  families  of  2,035  persons  were  sent 
South  by  Sherman. 

Hood,  who  after  the  fall  of  Atlanta  received 
a  visit  from  Davis,  adopted  the  latter 's  plan  and 
invaded  middle  Tennessee.  Late  in  October  he 
was  joined  by  Beauregard,  who  in  the  summer  had 
saved  Petersburg  from  Grant.  Forrest  had  made  a 
bold  circuit  of  Sherman's  army,  destroying  the  rail- 
roads at  various  points.  Sherman  was  eager  to 
make  his  intended  raid.  "I  can  make  this  march 
and  make  Georgia  howl,"  he  telegraphed  Grant. 
In  the  middle  of  November  the  famous  march 
commenced.  While  marching,  the  soldiers  chanted 


1864  Autumn  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1409 

their  favorite  song,  "The  battle  cry  of  Freedom, "  Sherman,s 
the  tune  of   which  is   known  to  the  present  day 
in  America  as  "Marching  Through  Georgia." 

Thomas  had  been  sent  to  Nashville  to  watch 
Hood  and  Beauregard.  Sherman's  force  numbered 
ooly  60,000,  but  they  were  picked  men.  Howard 
and  Slocum  commanded  the  two  wings.  On  Decem- 
ber 10,  Sherman's  columns  faced  the  active  defences 
of  Savannah,  and  on  the  12th  they  reached  the 
sea. 

On  General  Thomas  at  Nashville  rested  one  of 
the  greatest  responsibilities  of  the  war.  He  had 
55,000  men,  and  Hood  and  Forrest  had  as  many. 
Hood  began  his  march  to  Nashville  on  November 
21,  and  after  several  fights  with  Schofield,  ^who  was 
in  his  way,  he  won  the  battle  of  Franklin  and 
(December  3-14)  practically  invested  Nashville.  On 
arriving  he  formed  his  line  of  battle,  but,  hoping 
for  reinforcements,  delayed  the  attack.  Meanwhile, 
Thomas  was  ready.  Grant,  alarmed  by  Thomas's 
delay,  sent  Logan  to  take  command  if  Thomas  had 
not  moved  by  a  given  date.  Grant  followed  in 
person,  but  was  met  by  the  news  that  Thomas  had 
fought  his  battle  on  the  15th  and  16th  and  con- 
quered. On  the  morning  of  the  15th,  Thomas  had 
thrown  forward  his  troops  and  worked  steadily 
ahead,  until,  late  in  the  day,  the  Confederates  were 
forced  back  into  a  new  position.  At  daybreak 
Thomas  gave  orders  that  his  troops  should  bear 
against  the  Confederate  left.  Hood  saw  his  men 
breaking  at  all  points,  and  at  last  "beheld  for  the 
first  time  a  Confederate  army  abandoning  the  field 


1410  A    HISTORY  OF   THE  1864 

in  confusion."    This  ended  the  Confederate  advance 
in  Tennessee. 

When    the   Presidential    campaign    opened,    the 

Lincoln      successes  of  the  year  made  sure  an  overwhelming 

re-eiected  _ftepUDijcan  victory.     For  Lincoln  and  Johnson  212 

electoral  votes  were  given,  and  only  21  for  McClel- 

lan.     Governor  Seymour's  defeat  in  New  York  was 

almost  equally   important.      "The   election,"    said 

Lincoln,  "has  demonstrated  that  a  people's  govern- 

ment can  sustain  a  national  election  in  the  midst  of 

a  great  war."     McClellan  resigned  his  commission 

Mcciei-      in  the  army  on  the  day  of  the  election,  and  Sheri- 

lan's  dis-  J 


comfiture  ^an  was  appointed  in  his  place.  Among  important 
Congressional  measures  was  that  submitting  a  con- 
stitutional amendment  prohibiting  slavery.  The 
establishment  of  the  "Freedmen's  Bureau"  was  a 
step  toward  the  negro's  comfort  in  his  new  role. 
In  a  message  sent  to  Congress,  on  December 
6,  Lincoln  said:  "Fondly  do  we  hope,  fervently 
do  we  pray,  that  this  scourge  of  war  may  speedily 
pass  away.  Yet  if  God  wills  that  it  continue  until 
all  the  wealth  piled  up  by  the  bondman  for  cen- 
turies of  unrequited  toil  shall  be  sunk,  and  until 
every  drop  of  blood  drawn  with  the  lash  shall  be 

Lincoln's 

tionlara"  repaid  with  another  drawn  with  the  sword,  it  must 
be  said  'the  judgments  of  the  Lord  are  true  and 
righteous  altogether.'  ' 

At  the  suggestion  of  the  French  commanders  in 
Mexico,  the  provisional  government  there  declared 

Mexican     for  an  empire,  and  offered  the  crown  to  Archduke 

affairs  ... 

Maximilian  of  Austria.     Long  before,  overtures  to 
that  effect  had  been  made  to  Maximilian  by  Louis 


1864  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  1411 

Napoleon.  Thus  the  French  Emperor  meant  to 
compensate  Austria  for  the  loss  of  her  Venetian 
provinces  and  hoped  to  cement  a  secret  alliance 
with  Austria  against  Prussia.  The  Archduke,  who 
was  then  in  his  thirty-second  year,  had  distin- 
guished himself  as  a  sailor,  but  had  afterward 
fallen  into  disfavor  for  his  too  liberal  administra- 
tion of  the  Austrian  dominions  in  Italy.  In  his 
retirement  at  Castle  Miramar,  on  the  Adriatic,  he 
was  reached  by  Napoleon's  emissaries,  and  was  won 
over  to  the  French  Emperor's  plans  largely  by 
the  enthusiasm  of  his  wife  Charlotte.  Still  he  hesi- 
tated, the  more  so  since  his  brother,  Emperor  Fran-  overtures 
cis  Joseph  of  Austria,  refused  to  give  his  consent 
the  plan  unless  Maximilian  would  formally  relin- 
quish his  rights  to  the  throne  of  Hapsburg.  To 
overcome  his  scruples,  Louis  Napoleon  invited 
Maximilian  and  his  wife  to  Paris,  where  they 
were  entertained  with  lavish  hospitality.  At  last 
the  Archduke  consented  to  accept  the  crown.  He 
hoped  to  offset  the  effect  of  this  upon  his  rights 
to  the  Austrian  succession  by  a  secret  document  in 
which  he  declared  his  relinquishment  of  these  rights 
to  have  been  obtained  by  coercion  at  Miramar.  He 
signed  an  agreement  with  Louis  Napoleon,  by  the 
terms  of  which  he  was  to  receive  the  support  of 
the  French  troops  in  Mexico  until  his  government 
could  be  definitely  organized,  after  which  5,000  men  Sp 
of  the  French  Foreign  Legion,  with  their  allied  con- 
tingents of  Austrians  and  Belgians,  were  to  remain 
in  the  country  for  six  years.  In  return  for  this 
Maximilian  agreed  to  pay  the  costs  of  the  French 


1412  A    HISTORY  OF   THE  Sprng  1864 

expedition  to  Mexico,  amounting  to  270,000,000 
francs,  in  annual  instalments  of  twenty-five  mil- 
lions, to  pay  to  each  remaining  soldier  1,000  francs 
per  year,  and  to  indemnify  those  French  subjects 
whose  interests  had  been  injured  in  Mexico.  A 
banker  was  found  for  him  in  London,  who  ad- 
vanced 201,500,000  francs  for  the  enterprise.  Of 
this  sum,  Maximilian  turned  over  64,000,000  to 
France  in  first  payment  of  his  debt,  and  12,000.000 

A  mort- 
gaged loan  for  tne  indemnities  of  the  French  subjects.     A  large 

part  of  the  remaining  sum  went  to  the  financiers  of 
Paris  and  London,  who  negotiated  the  loan. 

On  April  4,  the  United  States  Congress  at  Wash- 
ington passed  a  unanimous  resolution  against  rec- 
ognition of  a  monarchy  in  Mexico  by  the  North 
American  Republic.      The  attitude  of  the  United 
United       States  was  emphasized  on  May  3,  by  the  departure 
hostile       of   Minister  Corwin  from   the   City  of   Mexico  on 
the  approach  of  the  new  sovereign. 

On  May  28,  Maximilian  and  Charlotte  landed  at 
San  Juan  d'Ulloa.  Their  hostile  reception  by  the 
populace  was  the  first  disappointment.  After  the 
first  festivities  of  the  coronation  and  inauguration 
of  imperial  rule  at  the  City  of  Mexico,  Maximilian 
soon  found  himself  in  an  awkward  position.  His 
already  insufficient  supply  was  exhausted  by  the 
greedy  demands  of  Bazaine  and  the  court  satel- 
lites. The  French  troops,  which  had  dwindled  to 
26,000  men,  were  found  totally  inadequate  against 
the  increasing  depredations  of  Mexican  guerilleros. 
Maximilian  Austrian  and  Belgian  auxiliary  troops,  enlisted 
abroad  by  Count  Hohenstein  and  Colonel  Vander- 


1864  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1413 

smissen,  numbering  8,000  in  all,  proved  an  addi- 
tional source  of  difficulty  in  Mexico.  The  officers 
of  the  Austrian  contingent,  smarting  under  the  re- 
cent sting  of  Solferino  and  Magenta,  were  restive 
under  Marshal  Bazaine's  authority.  Eventually, 
Maximilian  put  them  beyond  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  French  commanders.  This  broke  up  anything 
like  uniform  action  in  military  measures. 

One  of  the  earliest  acts  of  Maximilian  was  to 
despatch  to  Washington  a  special  envoy,  Arroyo, 
to  obtain  recognition  from  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment. The  mission  proved  a  failure.  Sefior 
Arroyo  could  not  even  obtain  an  audience  with 
the  President,  or  with  Secretary  of  State  Seward. 
At  the  same  time  Juarez's  emissary,  Romero, 

*  ' 


refiled 

the  most  of  his  opportunities  at  Washington. 

Maximilian's  only  hope  of  financial  support  lay 
in  the  proposed  sequestration  of  Church  lands.  * 
He  did  not  dare  to  resort  to  this  measure  without 
obtaining  the  consent  of  the  Pope.  ITis  overtures 
were  doomed  to  bitter  disappointment.  Toward  the 
close  of  this  first  year  in  Mexico  the  Papal  Nuncio, 
Meglia,  arrived  with  a  personal  letter  from  the  Pope. 
Pio  Nono,  so  far  from  sanctioning  the  spoliation  of 
the  Church  lands,  expressed  his  dissatisfaction  with 
Maximilian's  concessions  to  the  Liberals  in  Mexico, 
and  put  forth  demands  for  the  restoration  of  the  and  the1 

clergy 

holy  orders,  the  absolute  transfer  of  public  educa- 
tion to  the  clergy,  and  the  exclusion  of  any  other. 
religion  but  that  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Mexico. 
The  non-fulfilment  of  these  plans  deprived  Maximil- 
ian of  the  powerful  support  of  the  clergy  in  Mexico. 


1414  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  1865 


1865 

ON  THE  first  day  of  January,  President 
Juarez  issued  from  Chihuahua  a  proc- 
lamation in  which  he  confessed  defeat, 
but  appealed  to  the  righteousness  of  the  national 
cause  in  Mexico.  At  this  time  the  greater  part 
of  the  country,  though  by  no  means  pacified,  had 
been  brought  under  the  imperial  rule.  In  the 
Diaz  south  alone,  General  Porfirio  Diaz  held  his  own 
at  Qajaca.  This  brilliant  general,  who  had  already 
distinguished  himself  in  the  Mexican  War  against 
the  United  States,  proved  too  much  for  General 
Courtois  d'Hurbal,  who  had  been  sent  against  him. 
Bazaine  had  to  take  command  of  the  French  forces 
in  the  south  in  person.  With  superior  numbers  he 
succeeded  in  taking  Oajaca,  and  General  Diaz  was 
•compelled  to  surrender.  He  was  taken  to  Puebla 
as  a  military  prisoner.  Within  a  few  months  he 
managed  to  make  his  escape,  and  again  took  the 
field  at  the  head  of  a  band  of  fourteen  man.  Other 
guerrilleros  rallied  to  their  standard,  and  soon  Diaz 
reappeared  before  Oajaca  at  the  head  of  an  army. 
Among  all  the  Mexican  leaders,  Diaz  bore  the  best 
reputation  for  military  chivalry  and  honor.  Thus 
it  came  that  the  French  commanders  were  apt  to 
turn  to  him  when  called  upon  by  circumstances  to 


1865  Feb.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1415 

trust  to  a  leader's  word,  or  to  his  humanity.  Yet 
Diaz,  with  all  his  comrades  in  arms,  was  denounced 
as  a  brigand.  Bazaine  sought  to  check  their  activ- 

,  ,    .     .  Martiallaw 

ity  by  proclaiming  martial  law.     To  constitute  an  m  Mexico 
imperial  administration,  Maximilian  had  to  resort 
to  force.     At  Mazatlan  and  elsewhere  it  was  made 
a  penal  offence  to  decline  an  office.     The  reluctant 
Mexicans  were  made  to  serve  against  their  will. 

The  early  spring  campaign  of  1865  brought  the 
final  scenes  of  the  North  American  Civil  War. 
Sherman  moved  northward  to  assist  Grant  in  the 
rear  of  the  Confederate  force,  and  made  a  remark- 
able march.  As  General  Cox  said,  "It  was  finding 
chaos  for  hundreds  of  miles. ' '  Charleston,  rendered  Charleston 
untenable,  surrendered  on  February  18  to  Dahlgren 
and  Gilmore,  and  was  placed  under  martial  law. 
On  January  19,  the  Confederate  Congress  displaced 
Davis  as  Commander-in-Chief  and  appointed  Lee,  president 
who  assumed  command  on  February  9.  At  Lee's  slighted 
request  Hood  was  relieved  of  the  command  of  his 
shattered  army.  Beauregard,  enfeebled  by  illness, 
was  superseded  by  General  J.  E.  Johnston,  in  the 
command  of  the  Confederate  force  in  North  Caro- 
lina. General  Lee,  on  the  2d  of  February,  pro- 

,  .  „,  ,  Peace 

posed    a    meeting    to   Grant    to   arrange    terms   of  overtures 
peace.     President  Lincoln  ordered  Grant  to  decline 
the  proposal. 

At  Bentonville,  North  Carolina,   Slocum's  divi- 
sion was,  on  March  19-21,  unexpectedly  attacked 
by  Johnston,  and  the  safety  of  the  entire  army 
in  peril;  but  the  Confederates,  after  six  desperate^    t 
assaults,  withdrew.    Bragg  was  sent  to  oppose  Scho- 

'LIBRARY 


1416 


A    HISTORY  OF   THE 


March  1865 


Forrest's 

cavalry 

dispersed 


field,  and  Johnston  himself  faced  Sherman.  Avoid- 
ing a  general  battle,  however,  Sherman  hurried  his 
march  and  reached  Goldsboro,  North  Carolina.  He 
there  found  Schofield,  who  had  repulsed  Bragg  on 
the  9th  of  March.  Here  Sherman  again  encountered 
Johnston,  who  had  been  sent  to  oppose  him  with 
80,000  men.  The  two  armies  rested  inactive. 

About  the  same  time,  a  cavalry  expedition  under 
General  J.  H.  Wilson  destroyed  the  important  ar- 
senal at  Selma,  Alabama,  and  dispersed  Forrest's 
command.  Stoneman  cut  off  Lee's  avenue  of  escape 
into  the  mountain  regions  of  Virginia,  North  Caro- 
lina, and  Tennessee.  On  March  22,  Stoneman  de- 
stroyed the  Confederate  depot  of  supplies  at  Lynch- 

confeder-  burg,  and  from  there  he  went,  on  April  9,  to  Gales- 
ate  sup- 
plies taken  burg,   North  Carolina,  which  he  captured  with  all 

its  magazines.  Grant  had  ordered  Canby,  Sheridan 
and  Thomas  to  lay  waste  the  railroads  and  military 
stores  of  the  Confederacy.  Canby  moved  from  New 
Orleans  against  Mobile.  Sheridan  was  ordered  to 
push  through  to  Lynchburg.  He  met  Early  be- 
tween Stan  ton  and  Charlotteville  on  March  6,  and 
captured  almost  his  entire  command.  With  over 
10,000  cavalry,  he  tore  up  miles  of  railroad  and 
destroyed  mills  and  factories. 

Grant  ordered  a  general  advance  to  the  left,  to 
prevent  the  escape  of  Lee.  In  his  well-fed  army  he 
had  111,000  foot  and  13,000  cavalry,  to  Lee's  half- 
starved  force  of  51,000  foot  and  6,000  cavalry.  Lee 
hoped  to  reach  Danville,  form  a  junction  with  John- 
ston, and  take  the  chance  of  beating  Sherman  with 
Grant  left  behind.  He  determined  on  a  night  as- 


Shertdan 

defeats 

Early 


Grant's 
advance 


3865  March  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1417 

sault  on  Grant's  right  at  Petersburg,  and  assigned 
half  of  his  active  army  for  that  purpose.  The  point 
chosen  was  near  Fort  Steadman,  and  the  attack  was 
to  be  at  night.  But  Grant  had  anticipated  such  an 
effort,  and  had  issued  orders  to  meet  and  counteract 
the  attempt.  The  action  was  begun  at  dawn  on 
March  25.  Fort  Steadman  and  three  Union  batter- 
ies were  taken  and  a  gap  was  made  in  the  Union 
lines.  Meade  sent  Parke  to  drive  the  enemy  back. 

Battle  of 

The  Confederates  were  forced  into  Fort  Steadman,  I*01* 

'  Steadman 

where  they  were  under  concentrated  Union  fire. 

On  the  24th,  Grant  had  issued  orders  for  the 
grand  attack  on  Lee.  Ord  was  moved  to  a  posi- 
tion on  the  left.  Weitzel  remained  at  Bermuda 
Hundred;  Parke  confronted  Petersburg,  and  Hum- 
phreys and  Warren  were  to  extend  their  lines  west- 
ward to  Five  Forks,  so  as  to  strike  the  South  Side 
and  Danville  railroads.  Sheridan  arrived  on  March 
25,  and  Sherman  on  the  following  day.  Grant  sent 
Sheridan  either  to  move  against  Five  Forks  in  Lee's 
rear,  or  to  cut  loose  from  the  Army  of  the  Potomac, 
get  below  Johnston,  and  co-operate  with  Sherman. 
On  the  30th,  Sheridan  found  the  Confederates  in  campaign 
full  force  at  Five  Forks,  and  was  forced  back  by 
Pickett.  Grant  resolved  to  reinforce  Sheridan  with 
infantry,  so  that  he  might  cut  loose  and  turn  Lee's 
right  flank.  Pickett  did  not  wait  to  be  caught  be- 
tween two  Union  columns  but  fell  back. 

The  Battle  of  Five  Forks,  on  April  1,  marked  the 
beginning  of  the  end.  Sheridan  at  daybreak  passed 
the  retreating  Confederates.  Leaving  Warren  to 
bring  up  his  fifth  corps,  he  repeated  the  tactics 


1418  A   HISTORY   OF   THE  April  1865 

of  his  Valley  campaign,  cut  off  his  antagonist  from 

Five  Forks  Lee,g  main   forc6)  by  4  p  M    ha(j  gained   the  Qonfed. 

erate  lines,  aided  by  Ayres',  Comfort's  and  Griffin's 
division,  and  sent  cavalry  under  Ouster,  Merritt  and 
others  eastward  to  hold  the  enemy  in  check.  At  a 
critical  moment  he  gathered  the  faltering  battalions 
together  and  swept  them  over  the  enemy's  breast- 
works. Pickett  was  routed,  and  6,000  prisoners  were 
taken,  with  guns  and  colors. 

At  dawn  of  April  2,  Grant  assaulted  Lee's  slender 
line  with  overwhelming  numbers.  Wright  pene- 
g  trated  the  Confederate  lines  and  the  main  works 
on  his  front,  but  lost  1,100  men  in  fifteen  minutes. 
He  was  followed  by  Ord,  and  the  two  joined  and 
closed  against  one  side  of  Petersburg's  outworks. 
Parke  carried  the  lines  at  his  front.  Gibbon  took 
two  strong  inclosed  works  on  the  south  side.  Gen- 
erals Parke,  Humphreys  and  Foster,  with  their  re- 
spective divisions,  captured  important  Confederate 
Death  of  works.  Lieutenant-General  A.  P.  Hill  was  killed. 

TTill 

General  Lee  notified  Davis  that  Petersburg  and 
Richmond  must  be  abandoned,  but  hopefully  dis- 
cussed plans  for  another  campaign.  At  nightfall 
he  drew  his  troops  from  before  Petersburg  and 
Richmond,  and  began  the  forced  march  by  which 
he  hoped  to  join  Johnston  and  renew  the  conflict. 
On  the  3d,  Petersburg  was  surrendered  to  Parke. 
Evacuated  Grant  ro(^e  into  ^e  c^7  an(^  saw  before  him  the 
troops  in  gray  retreating.  Divining  Lee's  inten- 
tions, he  despatched  a  message  to  Sheridan  to  push 
on  to  the  Danville  Road  and  intercept  Lee.  Meade 
was  directed  to  march  up  the  Appomattox  in  close 


1865  April  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1419 

pursuit.  Learning  that  Eichmond  was  evacuated, 
Grant  said:  "Eebel  armies  are  now  the  only  stra- 
tegic points  to  strike  at."  By  night  he  was  far 
south  of  Eichmond  and  west  of  Petersburg  in  search 
of  Lee.  The  chase  was  renewed  the  next  morning. 
Sheridan  had  brought  up  his  cavalry  to  Jetersville, 
eight  miles  south  of  where  Lee's  army  was  resting. 
Grant  sent  him  two  corps  and  with  Meade  joined 
him.  On  the  night  of  the  5th,  the  whole  pursuing 
force  was  south  and  west  of  Lee,  and  the  railroad 
to  Danville  was  barred  against  him.  He  now  started 
west  for  Lynchburg.  Eunning  fights  ensued  on  the 
6th,  and  Lee's  left  flank  was  .harassed  by  Union  cav- 
alry and  infantry.  Sheridan  captured  Ewell's  corps 
and  reported  that  "if  the  thing  was  pressed,"  LeeEweirs60 

corps 

must  surrender.  "Then  'press  the  thing'  by  all 
means!"  wrote  Lincoln. 

On  the  7th,  Grant  invited  surrender,  and  named 
as  his  only  indispensable  condition  that  the  men 
surrendered  should  not  take  up  arms  against  the 
Union  until  they  were  properly  exchanged.  In  the 
night  Lee  stole  away  with  the  second  and  sixth 
corps  after  him.  The  next  day  the  struggle  was^attox 
renewed  at  Appomattox  by  Sheridan,  who  captured 
Lee's  trains  and  supplies.  Ord  and  Griffin,  by  a 
march  of  thirty  miles,  had  reached  Sheridan  just 
as  Lee's  cavalry  was  making  an  effort  to  break 
through.  Ord  closed  all  approaches  on  the  south, 
as  did  Meade  on  the  north  and  east.  Lee  then 
asked  Grant  for  an  interview  to  negotiate  a  surren- 
der. At  2  o'clock,  on  Palm  Sunday,  Grant  and  Lee 
met  in  a  private  dwelling  at  the  edge  of  the  village. 


1420  A    HISTORY  OF   THE  April  1866 

Lee,  accompanied  only  by  his  secretary,  met  Grant, 
Sheridan  and  Ord  in  a  little  parlor.  Grant  stated 
the  terms  clearly,  in  the  form  of  a  letter  written 
on  the  spur  of  the  moment.  He  granted  immunity 
from  arrest  to  all  so  long  as  they  observed  their 
paroles  and  obeyed  the  laws.  He  added  that 
Confederate  officers  might  retain  their  side  arms. 
Lee  Lee  further  suggested  that  such  of  his  men  as 

surrenders 

owned  their  horses  might  take  them  home.  This 
was  granted.  The  surrender  included  28,231  men. 
Since  March  29,  19,132  men  had  surrendered,  mak- 
ing in  all  47,363. 

It  was  on  Sunday,  April  2,  while  at  church,  that 
Davis  received  the  telegram  from  Lee,  stating  that 
his  lines  had  been  broken  and  that  Richmond  must 
be  evacuated.  The  streets  soon  became  noisy  with 
crowds.  The  Cabinet  convened.  Commissary  stores 
were  opened  to  the  public.  Ordnance  supplies  were 
thrown  into  the  canal.  Banks  'opened  their  doors 
and  depositors  flocked  to  them  for  their  money  and 
valuables.  Under  Ewell  the  details  of  evacuation 
were  completed.  On  the  3d,  the  city  was  aroused 
before  daylight  by  a  series  of  explosions.  Unfin- 
ished  gunboats  were  blown  up  and  the  arsenal  was 
fired.  Every  Confederate  armory,  machine  shop, 
and  storehouse  was  burned.  The  fire  extended  to 
the  warehouses,  which  were  filled  with  cotton  and 
tobacco.  Early' s  rearguard  burned  three  great 
bridges  behind  them.  Lincoln  visited  the  city  on 
April  4  with  Admiral  Porter,  landing  from  a  barge 
near  Libby  Prison.  Guided  by  a  negro,  the  party 
walked  a  mile  to  the  Executive  Mansion  from  which 


1865 April  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1421 

Davis  two  days  before  had  fled.     The  war  was  prac- 
tically over. 

Congress  and  the  President  had  already  turned 
their  attention  to  the  problem  which  would  await 
the  country  when  peace  should  come.  On  the  last 
day  of  January  the  House  passed  a  Constitutional 
amendment  abolishing  slavery,  and  on  the  8th  of 
February  the  amendment  passed  the  Senate.  Dur- 
ing the  following  six  months  it  was  ratified  by 
most  of  the  Northern  States.  The  reconstruction 
of  the  Southern  States  had  been  considered  both 
by  the  Executive  and  Legislative  departments  ofRecon- 

J  *  struct  io 


the  government.     Lincoln  planned  to  organize  loyal  »>  southern 


action 
out 
States 

governments  at  once,  on  the  theory  that  none  of  the 
Southern  States  had  been  out  of  the  Union,  but  that 
the  machinery  of  their  several  governments  had 
been  seized  by  persons  in  rebellion  against  the 
United  States.  His  plan  had  been  inaugurated 
with  some  success  in  Tennessee  and  in  Louisiana. 

In  England,  Richard  Cobden,  the  great  English 
champion  of  free  trade,  died  on  April  3,  from  the 
result  of  overexposure  in  the  raw  spring  weather fo 
of  London.  Cobden's  life-long  friend,  John  Bright, 
was  asked  to  deliver  the  final  eulogy  on  the  dead 
statesman  in  the  House  of  Commons.  All  he  was 
able  to  say  was:  "After  a  close  friendship  of  many 
years,  I  never  knew  how  much  I  loved  him  until 
I  lost  him."  Then  John  Bright  buried  his  face  ia 
his  hands  and  wept. 

The  classic  investigations  of  the  blood  which 
were  made  by  Kuehne  culminated,  in  1865,  in  the 
announcement  that  the  red  corpuscles  are  composed 

XlXth  Century— Vol.  3— H 


1422  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  April  1865 

of  a  substance  which  has  a  marvellous  affinity  for 
oxygen  and  which  was  christened  "haemoglobin." 
Kuehne's  discovery  gave  a  new  impetus  to  the 
study  of  the  human  blood. 

Within  a  fortnight  of  Cobden's  death  came  a 
calamity  ever  memorable  in  American  annals.  On 
the  evening  of  April  14,  Good  Friday,  Abraham 
Lincoln  and  his  wife  visited  Ford's  Theatre  in 
Washington.  There  the  play,  "Our  American 
Cousin,"  was  to  be  given  in  celebration  of  the 
fall  of  Richmond.  Grant,  who  was  to  accompany 
Lincoln  the  President  and  Mrs.  Lincoln,  changed  his  mind 

assassiu- 

ated  and  left  the  city  by  an  afternoon  train.  Abraham 
Lincoln,  while  sitting  in  a  proscenium  box  with  his 
wife,  was  shot  down  from  behind  by  John  Wilkes 
Booth,  a  fanatical  son  of  the  famous  Junius  Brutus 
Booth.  After  committing  the  deed  the  assassin 
leaped  to  the  stage,  and,  rising  from  the  fall  which 
broke  his  leg,  shouted:  "Sic  semper  tyraniiis. " 
Hushing  through  the  wings  he  reached  his  horse 
tethered  at  the  stage  entrance  and  dashed  away. 
Laura  Keene,  the  prima  donna,  was  the  first  to 
bring  assistance  to  the  stricken  President.  An 
eye-witness  has  thus  described  the  scene: 

"There  sat  Miss  Keene  on  the  floor  in  her  cos- 
tume of  the  second  act,  her  face  covered  with  make- 
up, holding  the  President's  head  in  her  lap.  It  was 
a  strange  and  terrible  sight.  Mr.  Lincoln  lay  there 
silent,  motionless,  apparently  knowing  nothing  of 
what  had  happened.  A  litter  was  presently  brought 
in,  and  they  carried  him  to  a  house  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  street,  where,  during  the  night,  he  died." 


1865  April  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1423 

During  the  same  night  in  Washington  an  attempt 
was  made  to  assassinate  Mr.  Seward,  the  Secretary 
of  State.  Troopers  were  sent  to  run  clown  Booth. 
He  was  tracked  to  a  barn  and  was  shot  down  while 
resisting  the  soldiery.  Booth's  deed  was  execrated 
in  the  South  as  well  as  in  the  North.  The  universal 
sorrow  of  the  American  people  found  sympathy 
abroad.  Even  in  England,  where  Lincoln  had  ever 
been  vindictively  lampooned,  a  spirit  of  respect  and 
admiration  arose  for  him. 

Lincoln's  death  gave  the  inspiration  for  Walt 
Whitman's  most  famous  poem: 

0  Captain !  my  Captain !  our  fearful  trip  is  done,  Whitman's 

The  ship  has  weather'd  every  rack,  the  prize  we  sought  is  won,  poem  on 

The  port  is  near,  the  bells  I  hear,  the  people  all  exulting,  Lincoln 
While  follow  eyes  the  steady  keel,  the  vessel  grim  and  daring ; 

But,  0  heart!  heart!  heart  1 

Oh,  the  bleeding  drops  of  red, 
"Where  on  the  deck  my  Captain  lies, 

Fallen  cold  and  dead.  ... 

My  Captain  does  not  answer,  his  lips  are  pale  and  still; 
My  father  does  not  feel  my  arm,  he  has  no  pulse  nor  will; 
The  ship  is  anchored  safe  and  sound,  its  voyage  closed  and  done, 
From  fearful  trip  the  victor  ship  comes  in  with  object  won ; 

Exult,  0  shores,  and  ring,  0  bells  I 

But  I,  with  mournful  tread, 
Walk  the  deck  my  Captain  lies, 

Fallen  cold  and  dead. 

Andrew  Johnson,  who  succeeded  Lincoln,  was  not 
long  in  perceiving  that  a  new  and  vigorous  scheme  Johnson 

,  .  President 

of  reconstruction  was  looked  for  by  the  Senators 
who  had  deemed  Lincoln's  proposed  policy  too  con- 
ciliatory. Stanton's  draft  of  a  military  government 
was  laid  aside.  Pressure,  which  proved  to  be  irre- 
sistible, was  brought  to  bear  on  Johnson  to  induce 


1424  A    HISTORY    OF   THE  March  1865 

a  course  of  greater  severity  toward  the  South  and 
to  gain  guarantees  for  the  colored  race.  Happily 
Seward  recovered  from  the  assassin's  knife  and  was 
able  in  some  measure  to  modify  the  harsh  policy 
which  would  have  been  adopted. 

The  military  operations  of  the  great  war  drew  to  a 
close.  With  13,000  mounted  men  and  six  batteries, 
General  Wilson,  on  March  22-24,  had  made  a  raid 
to  assist  in  the  capture  of  Mobile.  General  Canby 
besieged  the  city  from  March  26  to  April  9.  With 
30,000  men,  under  Smith,  and  a  fleet,  under 
Thatcher,  Spanish  Fort,  protecting  the  city,  was 
siege  of  attacked.  On  the  28th,  the  Confederates  sank  the 
monitor  "Milwaukee,"  and  on  the  29th  the  monitor 
"Osage."  The  next  day,  General  Steele,  with  a 
division  of  Canby's  army,  arrived  before  Fort 
Blakely,  near  Mobile,  and  other  forces  soon  joined 
him.  Spanish  Fort  was  assaulted  by  Canby  on 
April  8,  and  part  of  the  intrenchments  were  carried, 
the  Confederates  escaping  at  night.  Fort  Blakely, 
the  other  fort  protecting  the  city,  was  taken  by  as- 
sault. On  April  11,  Forts  Huger  and  Tracy  were 
also  taken,  and  the  way  was  opened  for  the  posses- 
sion of  Mobile,  which  surrendered  on  the  12th  to 

Mobile 

go"me*rynt~  8,000  troops  under  Granger.  On  that  day  Mont- 
gomery was  surrendered  by  General  Adams,  who 
burned  90,000  bales  of  cotton  and  fled.  -April  14, 
four  Federal  vessels  in  Mobile  Bay  were  blown  up 
by  torpedoes.  Commodore  Farrand,  Confederate, 
surrendered  the  fleet  of  Mobile,  twelve  vessels,  to 
Commodore  Simpson.  April  16,  Wilson  captured 
Columbus,  Georgia.  One  hundred  and  fifteen  thou- 


1865  April  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  H25 

sand  bales  of  cotton  were  burned,  and  locomotives, 
cars,   paper   mills,    manufactories,   and   the   arsenal  ^renders 
destroyed.     Macon  was  surrendered  to  Wilson  on 
April  21.     Jeff  Thompson  surrendered  7,454  men  at 
Clark  Bluff,  Arkansas.     The  last  battle  of  the  warpaioPinto 
was  fought  at  Palo  Pinto,  Texas,  in  which  the  Fed- 
erals were  defeated  with  a  loss  of  seventy  men. 

Sherman  was  moving  forward.  On  April  14,  he 
received  from  Johnston,  under  a  flag  of  truce,  a  pro- 
posal to  suspend  hostilities  long  enough  for  the  civil 
authorities  to  arrange  a  peace.  Sherman  invited  a 
personal  conference,  and  offered  terms  so  lenient — 

Surrender 

even  more  so  than  those  offered  to  Lee  at  Appomat-  stf0n0hn~ 
tox — that  they  were  disapproved  at  Washington  and 
the  truce  terminated.     On  the  25th,  the  two  com- 
manders again  met,  and  agreed  on  terms  similar  to 
those  accepted  by  Grant  and  Lee. 

Gathering  stragglers  as  he  fled,  Jefferson  Davis 
proposed  to  renew  his  career  on  the  plains  of  Texas, 
but  on  May  26  the  last  armed  force  of  the  rebellion 
was  obliterated  by  the  surrender  of  General  E. 

Jefferson 

Kirby  Smith.  Davis,  with  his  family,  was  captured  Captu 
at  Irwinsville  by  General  Wilson's  cavalry,  and  was 
sent  to  Fortress  Monroe.  On  May  6,  he  was  in- 
dicted for  treason  by  a  grand  jury  in  the  Circuit 
Court  of  Virginia.  However,  Horace  Greeley  and 
others  signed  Davis's  bail  bond  at  Richmond,  where- 
upon he  was  released  from  prison.  One  week  later 
he  left  the  United  States  to  reside  in  Canada,  but  in 
November  returned  to  Richmond.  Subsequently  he 
returned  with  his  family  to  his  home  at  Beauvoir. 
Mississippi,  Where  he  lived  in  peace  for  many  years. 


1426  A    HISTORY    OF   THE  May  1865 

The  total  number  of  Federal  troops  engaged  in 
the  war,  as  reported  by  the  Adjutant-General's  office, 
was  2,772,448.  The  number  of  enlistments  was 
2,898,304.  By  reductions  to  a  three  years'  basis, 
the  number  was  1,556,678.  The  number  who  served 
in  the  Confederate  army  was  1,234,000.  The  losses 

statistics  i°  ^e  Union  army  of.  killed  and  wounded  were 
385,245,  while  it  is  estimated  that  94,000  were  killed 
in  the  Confederate  army.  The  expenses  of  the  Na- 
tional Government  and  the  several  States  amounted 
to  $6,165,237,000.  The  total  cost  of  the  war,  North 
and  South,  according  to  David  A.  Wells,  was 
$8,165,237,000. 

In  May,  the  war  debt  was  $2,808,549,437.     On 

finances  May  3,  the  last  war  loan  was  authorized.  Congress 
imposed  a  tax  on  all  due  notes  of  State  Banks  after 
July  1,  and  the  result  of  the  law  was  to  drive  the 
notes  of  State  Banks  out  of  circulation,  and  estab- 
lish more  firmly  the  National  Banks. 

The  close  of  the  Civil  War  in  North  America 
afforded  to  the  government  of  the  United  States  its 
first  opportunity  to  take  a  hand  in  the  affairs  of 
Mexico.  With  the  large  Union  army  still  at  its  dis- 

Foreign 

relations  posal,  the  American  Government  was  in  a  position 
to  enforce  its  demands.  At  the  time  that  foreign 
interference  in  the  affairs  of  Mexico  had  been  deter- 
mined upon  by  Great  Britain,  France  and  Spain, 
the  American  Government  had  already  declined  to 
become  a  party  to  the  agreement  and  expedition. 
Secretary  of  State  Seward  on  that  occasion  already 
stated  in  guarded  words  that  "the  United  States  will 
not  consent  that  any  foreign  government  should  ac- 


1865 Summer  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1427 

quire  territory  in  Mexico,  or  exercise  any  influence- 
to  interfere  with  the  free  choice  of  its  people."    This  Doct^me 
determination  was  reasserted  repeatedly  throughout re 
the  trying  years  of  the  Civil  War,  while  the  French 
Emperor  as  often  repeated  his  assurances,  given  in 
June,  1862,  after  the  rupture  with  the  allies,   that 
"the  French  troops  do  not  go  to  Mexico  to  interfere 
with  the  form  of  government,  nor  to  acquire  an  inch 
of  territory,  but  that  their  only  object  was  to  secure 
a  settlement  of  the  French  claims." 

After  the  surrender  of  General  Lee  many  officers 
and  men  of  General  Bank's  command  crossed  the 
Mexican  border,  and  took  part  in  the  attack  of 
General  Cortinas  at  Matamoras.  General  Slaughter 
of  the  Confederate  army  opened  negotiations  with  confeder- 
Marshal  Bazaine  for  a  transfer  of  25,000  Confederate  to  Mexico 
soldiers  to  Mexico.  Confederate  officers  came  flock- 
ing to  Mexico,  among  them  Generals  Kirby  Smith, 
Magruder,  Shelby,  Slaughter,  Walker,  Terrell  of 
Texas,  Governor  Price  of  Missouri,  Wilcox  of  Ten- 
nessee, Commodore  Maury  of  Virginia,  Governor 
Reynolds  of  Georgia,  Judge  Perkins  with  Pierre 
Soule  of  Louisiana,  and  General  Hindman  of  Ar- 
kansas. Governor  Price  received  authorization  to 
recruit  an  imperial  army  in  the  Confederacy.  Gov- 
ernor Harris  of  Tennessee,  with  Judge  Perkins, 
Generals  Magruder  and  Stone,  Commodore  Maury  Gwin's  cot 

•*  onizatioo 

and   Doctor  Gwin,   having   become   naturalized   asscbeme 
Mexicans,  became  the  prime  movers  of  a  coloniza- 
tion scheme  of  ambitious  proportions.      This  was 
all  that  was  needed  to  turn  the  scale  in  the  North 
against  Mexico.     A  colony  of  armed  Confederates, 


1428  A     HISTORY    OF     THE  Summer  1 865 

hostile  to  the  government  of  the  United  States,  and 
backed  by  France,  Austria  and  Belgium,  could  not 
be  tolerated  on  the  Mexican  border.  Another  at- 
tempt made  by  Maximilian  to  obtain  the  recognition 
of  the  United  States  in  July  resulted  in  signal  fail- 
ure. Recruiting  offices  on  behalf  of  the  Mexican 

Mexican     Republic   were    opened    in    New   York    and    other 

couraged  American  cities.  Reports  reached  Mexico  that 
Juarez  had  succeeded  in  raising  a  large  loan 
in  North  America.  Admiral  Cloue',  in  command 
of  the  French  Gulf  squadron,  complained  that 
United  States  war  vessels  afforded  protection  to 
the  Juarists.  The  United  States  lodged  an  em- 
phatic protest  against  Napoleon's  project  to  secure 
Maximilian's  debt  to  France  by  a  lien  on  the  mines 
of  Sonora.  Dr.  G win's  visit  to  Louis  Napoleon's 
court  in  Paris  about  this  time  did  not  improve 

Death  of  the  situation  between  France  and  America.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  recent  death  of  the  Due  de  Morny, 
one  of  the  moving  spirits  of  the  Mexican  enterprise 
in  Paris,  had  a  dampening  effect  on  the  waning 
cause  of  France  in  Mexico. 

None  the  less,  a  report  that  Juarez  with  his  forces 
had  been  driven  beyond  the  frontier  was  hailed 
by  Maximilian  as  the  end  of  the  Mexican  civil 
war.  On  October  3,  he  issued  his  notorious  decree, 

Bando  known  in  Mexican  history  as  the  Bando  negro.  In 
this  fatal  enactment  all  armed  Republicans  were 
proclaimed  as  outlaws.  When  taken  with  arms 
they  were  ordered  to  be  shot  within  twenty-four 
hours.  On  October  13,  the  Mexican  generals,  Or- 
taga  and  Salazar,  were  shot  under  this  decree, 


1865  Aug.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1429 

In  Schleswig-Holstein,  in  the  meantime,  the  agita- 
tion on  behalf  of  Frederick,  if  not  actually  furthered 
by  the  Austrian  commissioner,  had  at  least  been 
tolerated  by  him.  Prussia  forthwith  transferred  hei 
naval  base  from  Dantzig  to  Kiel.  The  Prussian 
Minister  of  War,  Von  Eoon,  bluntly  declared  that 
he  was  emphatically  opposed  to  giving  up  the  latter 
port.  Only  King  William  of  Prussia  was  still  in- 
clined to  peaceful  measures.  He  arranged  a  meet- 
Treaty  of 
ing  with  the  Austrian  Emperor  at  Gastein.  War Gastem 

was  for  the  moment  avoided  by  the  treaty  of  Gas- 
tein,  signed  on  August  16.  By  the  terms  of  the 
treaty,  Lauenburg  was  sold  to  Prussia  for  six  mil- 
lion marks;  Schleswig  was  placed  under  the  control 
of  Prussia,  and  Holstein  under  that  of  Austria. 
Kiel,  the  subsequent  naval  port  of  the  Confedera- 
tion, and  Eendsburg,  the  subsequent  fortress  of  the 
Confederation,  were  held  in  common. 

But  the  Gastein  treaty  was  merely  a  truce. 
Von  Manteuffel,  the  Prussian  Governor  of  Schles- 
wig, suppressed  any  popular  movement  which 
seemed  detrimental  to  the  interests  of  his  coun- 
try. He  even  threatened  Frederick  of  Augusten- 

Manteuffel 

burg  with  arrest  when  he  was  ceremoniously  re-  gnclllesw- 
ceived  at  Eckenforde.  In  Holstein,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  Austrian  Governor,  Von  Gablenz,  per- 
mitted the  Augustenburg  party  to  sow  the  seed  of 
discontent  broadcast.  He  had  no  desire  "to  rule 
like  a  Turkish  Pasha,"  he  said. 

Bismarck   saw   that   war    with   Austria   was   fast 

Bismarck's 

becoming  unavoidable.  An  opportunity  had  pre- 
seated  itself,  by  the  turn  affairs  had  taken  in 


1430  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  1865 

Holstein,  for  augmenting  the  power  of  Prussia. 
If  the  opposition  of  Austria  and  of  the  Bundestag 
prevented  him  from  seizing  the  chance,  he  would 
assuredly  suffer  a  defeat  incalculable  in  its  results. 
There  was  but  one  way  to  attain  his  purpose;  to 
wit,  the  conversion  of  t'He  Schleswig-Holstein  ques- 
tion from  one  of  merely  Prussian  importance  to 
one  of  national  concern.  What  Bismarck  meant 
to  acquire  for  Prussia  was  not  for  his  king  alone, 
but  for  the  entire  German  nation  as  well.  Thus  it 
was  that,  unbeknown  to  the  German  people,  the 
The  "Man  Schleswig-Holstein  problem  became  inextricably 
and  iron"  bound  up  with  the  task  of  securing  German 
national  unity.  In  paraphrase  of  Arndt's  song 
of  Napoleonic  days,  Bismarck  exclaimed  in  Par- 
liament: "The  great  questions  of  the  time  are 
solved  not  by  speech-making  and  the  resolutions 
of  majorities,  but  by  blood  and  iron." 

Constant  Troyon,  the  famous  French  landscape 
and  cattle  painter,  died  during  this  year.  After 
Troyon  Troyon's  death  a  number  of  his  canvases  were  ac- 
quired for  large  sums  by  the  museums  of  the  Luxem- 
bourg, Bordeaux,  Lyons  and  other  cities.  Thence- 
forward, until  the  close  of  the  century,  Troyon's 
remaining  canvases  steadily  grew  in  value.  In  his 
\  "Contemporary  French  Painters,"  Hamerton  wrote 
of  him:  "Troyon  had  a  more  poetical  mind  than 
any  other  artist  of  the  same  class,  and  the  poetry  of 
the  fields  has  never  been  more  feelingly  interpreted 
than  by  him." 

On  the    dissolution  of   the   English   Parliament, 
Gladstone  found    that    his    former    constituents   at 


18C5  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1431 

Oxford  had  turned  against  him.  He  hastened  to 
Lancashire  and  lost  no  time  in  presenting  him- 
self as  a  candidate  for  the  southern  division  of  that 
populous  county.  Gladstone's  Liberal  supporters  re- 
joiced in  his  rejection  at  Oxford  as  a  gain  to  their 
cause.  It  had  long  been  felt  that  the  pride  which 
Gladstone  took  in  representing  his  own  university 
acted  as  a  restraint  on  his  more  pronounced  liberal 
views.  After  a  hard  contest,  Gladstone  won  his 
election. 

Shortly  after  the  Parliamentary  elections,  Lord 
Palmerston,  the  Prime  Minister,  died  at  Brockett 
Hall,  in  Hertfordshire.  It  was  as  Foreign  Secre- 
tary  that  Palmerston,  familiarly  called  "Pam,"  ob-stoa 
tained  that  reputation  for  commissions  and  vigorous 
initiative  that  made  his  name  a  word  of  exulta- 
tion to  his  admirers.  On  the  fall  of  Lord  Derby's 
Ministry  in  1859,  Lord  Palmerston  returned  to  the 
helm  as  Prime  Minister,  and  maintained  himself  at 
the  head  of  affairs  until  his  death,  at  the  advanced 
age  of  eighty-one  years.  He  was  buried  at  West- 
minster Abbey.  Earl  Russell  succeeded  as  Prime 
Minister,  while  Gladstone  became  the  leader  of  the 
Ministry  in  the  Commons. 


1482 


A   HISTORY   OF   THE 


1866 


English 

financial 
panic 


Death  of 
Almquist 


A 


1866 

FINANCIAL  panic  of  serious  proportions 
was  started  in  England  by  the  failure  of  the 
old  joint  stock  company  of  Oberend,  Gur- 
ney  &  Co.  This  initial  failure  early  in  the  year  was 
followed  by  an  immediate  rise  in  the  Bank  of  Eng- 
land's rate  of  discount  from  the  high  rate  of  8  to  9 
per  cent.  Other  bankruptcies  came  in  quick  succes- 
sion. Several  great  railway  contractors  went  into 
liquidation,  followed  by  the  failures  of  the  Consoli- 
dated Discount  Company  and  the  Imperial  Mercan- 
tile Credit  Association.  On  the  night  of  this  disas- 
trous day  in  Lombard  Street,  Gladstone  announced 
in  the  House  of  Commons  that  the  government  had 
determined  once  more  to  suspend  the  Bank  Charter 
Act.  On  the  same  day  the  Bank  of  England  raised 
its  loans  by  more  than  £4,000,000.  These  prompt 
measures  saved  the  country  from  a  more  serious 
financial  crisis,  though  many  bank  failures  were 
still  announced. 

With  the  death  of  Karl  Almquist,  Sweden  lost  one 
of  her  most  brilliant  writers.  As  a  young  man,  Alm- 
quist acquired  notoriety  as  the  founder  of  a  so-called 
"Man's-Home  Association,"  a  colony  established  in 
the  forests  of  Varmland  for  the  purpose  of  returning 
to  primitive  life.  The  colony  proved  a  failure,  and 


1866 Spring  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1433 

Almquist  was  compelled  to  become  a  schoolmaster 
in  Stockholm.  It  was  then  that  he  published  tha 
writings  which  rapidly  made  him  famous.  In  1851, 
Almquist  fled  from  Sweden  charged  with  forgery 
and  murder.  He  landed  in  America,  assumed  a 
fictitious  name,  and  became  Lincoln's  private  secre- 
retary,  so  he  said.  In  1866,  he  was  again  compelled 
to  flee,  and  escaped  to  Bremen,  where  he  died. 

The  dissensions  between  the  Prussian  House  of 
Representatives  and  the  government;  the  feeling  in 
Schleswig-Holstein  and  in  the  other  German  States, 
where  both  government  and  people,  hardly  ever  in  situation 

inGermany 

harmony,  were  now  filled  with  distrust  of  Prussia ; 
the  hostility  of  Austria;  the  jealousy  of  the  other 
Powers — these  were  but  a  few  of  the  obstacles  en- 
countered by  Prussia  in  her  attempt  to  adjust  the 
affairs  of  Schleswig  and  Holstein.  But  one  alliance 
could  be  counted  upon  by  Bismarck  in  this  emer- 
gency. This  was  Italy,  which  longed  to  come  into 
possession  of  the  Venetian  provinces  held  by  Aus- 
tria. Bismarck's  first  attempt  to  win  Lamarmora, 
the  Italian  Prime  Minister,  with  a  promise  of  aid  in 
that  direction  failed  by  reason  of  the  distrust  engen- 

Bistnarck's 

dered  by  the  subsequent  Prussian- Austrian  under-  %$ffi£ 
standing  at  Gastein.     An  Italian  attempt  to  secure  marlKCra 
Venice  by  peaceful  overtures  was  rejected  by  the 
Austrian    Emperor.      Secretly,    an    offensive    and 
defensive    alliance   with    Italy  was    concluded   by 
Bismarck  on  April  8.     It  was  to  hold  only  for  the 
brief  space  of  three  months.     Venetia  was  to  fall  to 
Italy;  a  territory  of  like  value  to  Prussia;  no  sepa- 
rate peace  was  to  be  made  with  Austria.    The  treaty 


A    HISTORY  OF  THE  April  ISM 

was  to  expire  if  in  three  months  Prussia  failed  to 
declare  war.  Bismarck  made  the  best  use  of  his 
short  time.  On  April  9,  the  day  after  the  signing 
of  this  secret  agreement,  the  Prussian  Government 

r  rubblti  <— ' 

reform*  at  Frankfort  proposed  the  reform  of  the  German 
Confederation.  A  National  Convention,  composed 
of  members  to  be  directly  elected  by  the  people, 
was  to  decide  upon  the  adoption  of  a  constitution, 
based  upon  principles  unfolded  by  Bismarck  in  a 
circular  (May  27),  in  which  he  emphasized  the  neces- 
sity of  a  reform  of  this  nature  and  explained  that  it 
carried  with  it  the  solution  of  the  Schleswig-Hol- 
stein  problem  as  a  national  issue  and  not  as  a  piece 
of  monarchic  greed.  Bavaria  agreed  to  this  if  both 
Austria  and  Prussia,  as  the  two  leading  Powers, 
would  agree  not  to  attack  each  other.  To  this  Aus- 
tria gave  its  immediate  consent.  In  the  meanwhile, 

Austria 

alarmed  Napoleon  III.,  to  whom  Lamarmora  had  unfolded 
Bismarck's  stipulations,  communicated  with  the  Aus- 
trian Ambassador.  Austria  took  alarm  and  made 
a  tentative  offer  to  cede  the  Venetian  provinces  in 
a  peaceful  arrangement.  Italy  hesitated  to  break 
faith  with  Prussia.  Austria  forthwith  increased 
her  Venetian  armament.  Bismarck  seized  upon  this 
to  charge  Austria  with  insincerity  as  regarded  her 
promises  of  peace.  Preparations  for  war  were  hur- 
ried on  both  sides.  Austria  replied  on  June  1,  by 

t^!ifrar  suggesting  that  the  question  be  left  to  the  Bundes- 
tag, despite  the  fact  that  Prussia  had  already  ex- 
pressly denied  the  competency  of  that  body  to 
discuss  matters  of  national  importance.  Simulta- 
neously, in  obedience  to  the  command  of  his  gov- 


1866  June  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1435 

ernment,  Von  Gablenz,  summoned  the  Holstein 
estates  to  Itzehoe,  "to  hear  the  voice  of  the  land 
in  the  matter  of  its  destiny."  This  was  a  violation 
of  the  Gastein  treaty.  On  June  7,  a  Prussian  force,  Prussia 
under  Von  ManteufEel,  marched  into  Holstein.  The 
Austrians  retired  on  June  12,  accompanied  by  the 
Duke  of  Augustenburg.  Austria  lodged  a  protest; 
claimed  that  Von  Manteuifel's  invasion  of  Holstein 
was  a  breach  of  the  eleventh  article  of  the  Acts  of 
Confederation,  which  provided  that  members  of  the 
Confederation  could  not  levy  war  against  one  an- 
other ;  and  moved  that  the  forces  of  the  Confedera- 
tion, with  the  exception  of  the  Prussian  army,  be 
immediately  mobilized.  The  Austrian  motion  was 
carried  on  June  14,  by  an  irregular  vote.  Prus- 
sia thereupon  declared  the  Confederation  dissolved, 
and  submitted  the  draft  of  new  Articles  of  Confed- 
eration, in  which  it  was  boldly  declared  that  "the 
dominions  of  the  Confederation  shall  consist  of 
previous  States,  with  the  exception  of  the  imperial dli 
Austrian  and  the  royal  Netherland  territories." 

With  the  fateful  vote  of  June  14,  the  Bundestag 
expired.  The  entire  nation  was  now  divided  into 
two  great  camps.  To  the  standard  of  Austria 
flocked  the  Catholic  clericals,  who  had  ever  re- 
vered the  House  of  Hapsburg  as  their  protector; 
the  democrats,  who  detested  the  stern,  Spartan 
militarism  of  Prussia;  the  financiers,  who  dreaded 
a  depreciation  in  the  value  ot  Austrian  paper; 
the  South  German  "particularists"  or  "federalists," 
who  wished  to  preserve  the  old  forms  of  govern- 
ment and  feared  that  unity  was  synonymous  with 


1436  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  June  1866 

the  absorption  of  Germany  by  Prussia.  All  these 
inevitable  heterogeneous  elements  formed  with  Austria,  and 
the  dynasties  of  the  lesser  kingdoms,  a  solid  pha- 
lanx, strengthened  by  the  popular  support  of  the 
masses.  These  were  partly  impelled  by  an  instinc- 
tive antipathy,  against  Prussian  manners  and  curt 
speech,  partly  driven  by  fear  of  increased  burdens 
of  taxation  and  military  service. 

On  June  15,  Prussia  sent  peremptory  notes  to 
Hanover,  Saxony  and  Kurhesse,  demanding  the 
ultimatum8  recantation  of  the  votes  they  had  cast  in  the  Bun- 
destag, a  complete  neutrality  on  their  part,  and 
their  entry  into  the  reformed  Confederation.  If 
Prussia's  demands  were  granted,  their  sovereign 
rights  were  to  remain  unmolested;  if  refused,  force 
was  to  be  employed.  The  three  States  declined 
to  accept  the  conditions  offered.  Within  a  week 
Hanover,  Dresden  and  Cassel  were  occupied  by 
Prussian  troops.  Saxony  appealed  for  help  to 
the  Confederation,  and  Austria  and  Bavaria  were 
assigned  to  assist  her.  Prussia  immediately  stated 
that  such  an  act  of  assistance  would  be  regarded 
as  a  declaration  of  war.  Slowly  the  Bavarian  troops 
under  Prince  Charles  were  mustered  together,  and 


campaign 

far  from  them,  Prince  Alexander  pi  Hesse  had 
gathered  the  eighth  army  corps  of  the  Confedera- 
tion, composed  of  troops  from  Nassau,  Wurtem- 
burg,  Hesse,  Baden  and  the  Austrian  garrison  of 
Mainz.  A  junction  of  the  Hanoverian  and  Bavarian 
armies,  which  could  be  effected  only  by  very  rapid 
military  movements,  was  prevented  by  the  brilliant 
manoeuvres  of  the  Prussians.  On  June  27,  an 


1866  Jun«  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1437 

ill  led  army  of  22,000  Hanoverians  was  checked 
by  10,000  Prussians  under"  Major  General  von 
Fliess,  in  the  battle  of  Langensalza,  and  on  thes*izlen 
following  day  the  Hanoverians  were  so  hopelessly 
outflanked  that  they  surrendered.  They  were  pa- 
roled on  a  formal  pledge  not  to  resume  hostilities 
against  Prussia. 

Italy,  Prussia's  ally,  was  less  fortunate.  Victor 
Emmanuel  and  Larnarmora,  instead  of  invading  Dal- 
matia  or  massing  their  superior  numbers  for  a  sud- 
den blow  at  Austria,  scattered  their  forces.  As  a 
result,  on  June  24,  they  suffered  a  signal  defeat 
at  Custozza.  This  crippled  Italian  operations  forCustozza 
a  full  fortnight. 

Prussia,  meanwhile,  had  mustered  together  an 
army  of  326,000  men,  under  the  personal  command 
of  old  King  William.  The  head  of  his  general  staff 
was  Helmuth  von  Moltke,  then  sixty-six  years  old. 
The  Austrian  northern  army  of  240,000  men,  under 
General  Ludwig  von  Benedek,  was  stationed  at 
Olmu'tz.  The  Prussian  army  moved  forward  in 
three  divisions,  under  the  respective  commands 
of  the  Crown  Prince,  Prince  Frederick  Charles  and 
General  Herwarth  von  Bittenfeld.  They  marched 
into  Bohemia,  fighting  as  they  went.  The  Aus-  Eariy 
trians  were  repulsed  at  Huhnerwasser  by  the  Army  defeats 
of  the  Elbe;  at  Turnau,  Podol  and  Gitschin,  by 
the  first  army,  and  at  Trautenau,  Nachod,  Skalitz 
and  Schweinschadel  by  the  third  army.  Although 
Benedek  had  as  yet  fought  no  decisive  battle,  the 
Austrian  losses  were  heavy.  The  excellent  disci- 
pline of  the  Prussian  troops,  the  deadliness  of  the 


1438  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  July  1866 

needle  gun  and  of   the   breech-loading  field  guns, 
the  swift  accuracy  with  which  the  manoeuvres  were 
carried  to  a  successful  issue,  disheartened  Benedek. 
Benedek     ^u  ^U^J  *»  be  telegraphed  to  Francis  Joseph:    "I 
Dt  implore   your   majesty   to   conclude    peace   at   any 
price.     Disaster  for  army  unavoidable."     But  the 
Ministers  at  their  comfortable  desks  in  Vienna  were 
more  sanguine.     Two  telegrams  were  despatched  by 
the  Emperor:  one  to  Louis  Napoleon,  stating  that 
Austria  was  willing  to  cede  Venetia,  provided  the 
neutrality  of  Italy  were  guaranteed  by  France;  the 
other  to  Benedek,  thus  worded:  "To  conclude  peace 
Decisive     l3  impossible.     My  commands  are  to  begin  the  re- 
demanded  treat,   if   unavoidable,    in   the   most  careful   order. 
Has  there  been  any  battle?" 

Since  retreat  was  not  unavoidable,  Benedek  could 
not  but  take  this  as  a  command  to  fight.  He  pre- 
pared for  a  pitched  battle.  With  201,000  men  and 
500  guns,  he  moved  to  a  position  between  the  Bis- 
tritz  and  the  Elbe  on  both  sides  of  the  highway, 
which  extends  from  Gitschin,  through  Horitz  to 
Konigsgratz.  The  Austrian  position  was  strong, 
and  offered  every  opportunity  for  a  stubborn  de- 
fence. The  Bistritz,  with  its  swampy  banks,  cov- 
ered the  front,  and  the  Trotina  the  right  wing. 
By  reason  of  the  terrace-like  formation  of  the  land, 
the  Austrians  were  enabled  to  distribute  their  bat- 
teries in  tiers,  so  that  the  fire  of  a  great  number 
of  guns  could  be  concentrated  on  a  comparatively 
small  area  of  the  field  below.  The  Bistritz  is 
crossed  at  Sadowa  and  Nechanitz;  the  Trotina  at 
Ratschitz.  At  the  two  last-mentioned  places  the 


1866  July  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1439 

Austrian  wings  were  posted,  separated  by  scarcely 
more  than  two  miles.  Behind  them  were  the 
heights  of  Prim  and  Problus,  and  behind  Sadowa 
those  of  Chlum  and  Lipa. 

On  July  2,  King  William  arrived  at  Gitschin. 
The  three  Prussian  armies  were  closing  in  so  rap- 
idly that  Moltke  resolved  on  immediate  attack.  At 
dawn  next  morning  Prince  Frederick  Charles,  in 

command  of  the  army  of  the  centre,  advanced  with 

Sadowa 

three  corps  toward  Sadowa.  Until  ten  o'clock  both 
sides  kept  up  a  fierce  artillery  duel.  Then  the 
Austrians  yielded  slightly.  The  Prussian  infantry 
advanced  to  capture  the  Bistritz  passage  and  to 
storm  the  heights  of  Lipa-Chlum.  The  slow  fire 
of  the  Austrians  enabled  the  Prussians  to  gain 
ground  by  quick  rushes.  One  after  another  the 
villages  of  Mokrowaus,  Dohalicka,  Dohalitz  and 
Sadowa  fell  into  Prussian  hands  after  hot  encoun- 
ters. But  here  Prince  Frederick  Charles'  advance 
was  checked.  Noon  came,  and  the  battle  was  al- 
most stationary.  Of  the  Army  of  the  Elbe,  the 
Prussian  right  wing,  nothing  had  been  heard.  Gen- 
eral Bittenfeld  could  cross  the  Bistritz  only  by  a 
single  bridge  and  was  detained.  The  Crown  Prince 
was  still  miles  away.  Upon  his  timely  arrival  hung 
the  fate  of  the  Prussian  army.  It  was  at  this  stage 
of  the  battle  that  the  famous  incident  occurred, 
related  by  Bismarck  in  later  years. 

"Things  appeared  critical.    I  could  not  keep  from 

casting   furtive  glances   at   Moltke,   as  he   sat   his 

horse,  immovable  and  silent,  surveying  the  battle- 

ield    through   his    field-glasses.     At    last  I   could 


1440  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  July  1866 


confident  to  n*m>  °^ere(i  n'm  mj  cigar  case.  Moltke  care- 
fully looked  over  all  the  cigars,  and  then  selected 
the  best.  I  felt  relieved.  'If  he  can  still  bother 
about  picking  out  my  best  cigar,'  thought  I,  'the 
battle  cannot  be  lost.'  " 

Benedek  still  hoped  to  crush  the  Prussian  centre 
before  reinforcements  should  arrive.  Before  he 
could  accomplish  this,  he  was  himself  threatened 
on  the  one  side  by  the  Army  of  the  Elbe  and  on 
the  other  by  the  Crown  Prince,  who  had  come  up 
in  forced  marches.  Part  of  the  Austrian  force  was 
diverted  to  repel  the  Crown  Prince,  thus  leaving  a 
breach  at  the  key  of  the  Austrian  position.  Seiz- 
ing his  opportunity,  General  Hiller  von  Gartringen, 
with  his  division,  gallantly  stormed  the  heights  of 
Prussian  Chlum,  and  from  this  vantage-ground  the  Austrians 
were  unable  to  dislodge  him.  The  Prussian  Crown 
Prince  rode  up  to  general  headquarters  to  announce 
the  success  of  his  final  entry  into  battle.  King 
William  joyfully  embraced  his  son,  and  detaching 
his  own  iron  cross,  hung  it  around  his  son's  neck. 
The  Army  of  the  Elbe  in  the  meantime  had  captured 
Problus,  after  a  stubborn  resistance  by  the  Saxons. 
Lipa,  from  which  Benedek  had  conducted  the  bat- 
tle, was  stormed  by  the  second  division  of  the 
Prussian  guards.  Beuedek  gave  the  order  to  re- 
treat. He  had  lost  44,000  men,  of  whom  20,000 
were  taken  prisoners.  On  the  Prussian  side  the 
loss  was  9,000.  This  disparity  in  the  losses  in  it- 
showed  the  deadly  efficacy  of  the  needle  gun. 
After  the  battle  Moltke  said  to  the  King:  "Your 


SMBJuiy  NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

Majesty  has  won  not  only  the  battle,  but  the  whole 
campaign." 

Indeed,  with  the  victory  of  Konigsgratz,  or 
Sadowa  as  it  is  called  in  French  and  English, 
the  German  civil  war  was  virtually  ended.  It  had 
lasted  just  two  weeks.  It  took  seven  wee,ks  in  all 
to  finish  the  entire  campaign.  In  the  west,  the 
Bavarians  and  the  troops  of  the  Confederation 
were  outmanoeuvred  and  defeated  by  the  Army  of  south 

Germans 

the  Main,   in  a  quick  succession  of  engagements.  °JJ^%d 
On  July  16,  the  Prussians  entered  Frankfort. 

Brief  as  the  campaign  was,  it  abounded  in  bril- 
liant opportunities  for  some  of  the  battle  painters, 
who  followed  the  armies.  Most  noteworthy  among 
them  were  Camphausen,  Werner,  Menzel  and  Win- 
terhalter. 

Upon  receiving  news  of  the  catastrophe  of 
Konigsgratz,  Emperor  Francis  Joseph  immediately 
ceded  Venetia  to  Napoleon.  French  help  was  thus 
to  be  secured.  Before  Napoleon  could  interfere, 
the  Italians  made  haste  to  stake  their  issue  on  the 
sword.  The  result 'was  not  encouraging.  On  land 
they  lost  several  battles.  At  sea  their  fleet,  off  in  Italy1" 
Lissa,  suffered  one  of  the  most  crushing  naval 
defeats  of  modern  times. 

The  Italian  fleet  at  that  time  was  considered 
among  the  best  in  the  world.  Since  1860  Italy 
had  spent  300,000,000  francs  on  her  navy.  While 
the  vessels  were  such  as  any  nation  might  well  be 
proud  of,  their  personnel  was  poor.  Undisciplined 
recruits  manned  the  guns,  skilled  engineers  were 
lacking,  the  officers  were  ignorant  and  fatuous. 


I4dt2  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  July  1866 

Persano,  the  Admiral  in  command  of  this  fleet, 
Persano  iacked  almost  every  quality  which  a  naval  officer 
should  possess.  He  was  a  political  admiral,  who 
had  promoted  himself  to  this  highest  rank,  while 
he  held  office  as  Minister  of  Marine.  In  the  end- 
less stream  of  despatches  and  letters,  which  he 
poured  into  the  Italian  Ministry,  his  vacillation 
and  querulousness  were  apparent  in  every  sentence. 
"I  fear  we  shall  go  down,"  he  stated  on  the  22d  of 
May.  To  the  Minister  of  Marine,  he  wrote,  "The 
fleet  is  not  ready  for  war.  Help  me,  I  earnestly 
entreat  you."  At  last,  Depretis,  the  Minister  of 
Marine,  exasperated  by  these  ceaseless  demands 
and  procrastination,  sent  to  Persano  the  stinging 
command  "Do  something.  Fight  the  Austrians  or 
attack  Lissa.  Only  move!"  On  July  7,  came  the 
specific  order,  "Go  out  of  the  harbor  with  your 
fleet.  Leave  behind  any  of  the  ships  that  want 
guns.  Seek  out  the  enemy  and  attack  him.  Fight 
a  decisive  battle!"  The  Italian  fleet  steamed  into 
the  Adriatic,  and  indulged  in  squadron  evolutions 
and  silent  gun  exercise.  After  a  week's  fruitless 
cruise,  Persano  put  back  into  Ancona.  The  Italian 
people  were  wild  with  indignation.  The  King  him- 
self sent  a  peremptory  order  to  his  Admiral  to  go 
and  fight. 

Aroused  from  his  irresolution,  Persano  deter- 
mined to  attack  the  Austrian  fcrtifications  on  the 
island  of  Lissa.  Under  his  command  were  eleven 
ships:  four  frigates,  one  corvette,  five  despatch- 
boats,  three  gunboats,  a  hospital  ship  and  two 
transports.  In  response  to  his  urgent  appeals  the 


1866  July  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1442 

strong  ironclad  "Affondatore"  was  sent  to  re- 
inforce him.  On  the  18th  of  July,  he  attacked 
Lissa.  Without  maps  or  accurate  information  as  attacks 

Lissa 

he  was,  he  might  still  have  captured  the  island  had 
he  used  his  forces  with  discretion.  After  two  days' 
persistent  bombardment,  the  Italians  had  nothing 
to  show  but  one  of  their  best  ships  disabled,  16 
killed  with  114  wounded,  and  a  great  wastage 
of  ammunition.  The  "Eed'Italia"  alone  fired  1,300 
rounds. 

Tegethoff,  the  Austrian  Bear- Admiral  at  Fasana, 
on  the  news  of  the  Italian  attack,  telegraphed  to  the  ' 
commandant  of  Lissa:  "Hold  out  till  the  fleet  can 
come  to  you!"  Baron  Wilhelm  von  Tegethoff  was 
a  naval  officer  who  had  distinguished  himself  in 
the  sea-fight  against  the  Danes.  Now  he*  had  butTesethoff 
seven  poor  ironclads  and  an  old  frigate.  Of  his 
crews,  many  were  Venetians  of  doubtful  loyalty. 
Tegethoff's  last  concern  was  to  make  sure  that 
Venice  had  not  yet  been  ceded  to  Italy.  Having 
satisfied  this  scruple,  he  steered  for  Lissa. 

On  the  morning  of  July  20,  the  Austrian  fleet, 
steaming  in  wedge  form  with  the  ironclads  and 
flagship  "Ferdinand  Max"  in  the  lead,  was  sighted 
by  the  Italians.  Their  fleet  was  wofully  scattered. 
Hurriedly  nine  ships  were  gathered  to  meet  the 
enemy.  Tegethoff,  while  steaming  steadily  forward, 
kept  his  men  at  breakfast.  At  ten  in  the  morning, 
when  the  sea  had  moderated  somewhat,  Tegethoff 
hoisted  the  signals:  "Close  in— Full  speed — Iron- 
clads, charge  the  enemy  and  ram!" 

The   Italian   Admiral's   signals   were    either    not 


1444  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  July  186« 

understood  or  disobeyed.  His  commanders  e'ntered 
the  action  without  any  apparent  idea  of  what  they 
were  to  do.  Tegethoff,  on  the  other  hand,  had 
issued  careful  advance  instructions.  Concentrated 
broadsides  were  to  be  fired;  the  Italian  line  was 
to  be  broken  and  rammed;  the  ships  were  to  fight 
ofaLissa  at  cl°se  quarters.  Persano,  at  the  last  minute, 
changed  his  flag  from  one  vessel  to  another  with- 
out informing  his  commanders.  His  flagship  cruised 
up  and  down  the  line  of  battle,  giving  and  counter- 
manding orders.  The  Austrian  ships  steamed  back- 
ward and  forward  in  the  smoke  of  battle,  pouring 
in  shot  and  shell.  Their  broadsides  proved  to  be 
more  effective  than  their  ramming  manoeuvres.  Of 
the  ships  that  were  rammed,  only  the  "Re  d'ltalia" 
was  sunk  by  the  Austrian  flagship.  As  she  went 
down  her  colors  were  hoisted  as  in  defiance,  and 
the  dying  crew  cheered  "Venezia  e  nostra. "  The 
chief  gunner  fired  a  last  shot  with  the  water  up  to 
his  waist  crying,  "Just  one  more."  The  Italian 
captain  blew  out  his  brains.  Persano,  on  the 
"Affondatore,"  had  two  good  chances  to  ram 
the  Austrians,  but  flinched.  To  save  two  of  his 
weakest  ships,  the  Austrian  commodore,  Petz,  on 
the  "Kaiser  Max,"  ineffectually  rammed  the  "Re 
di  Portogallo. "  The  Austrian  was  terribly  mauled. 
The  total  loss  on  the  Italian  side  was  620  killed;  the 
wounded  numbered  161 ;  two  ironclads  were  lost,  and 
a  third  sank  a  few  days  after  the  fight.  Tegethoff 
lost  but  38  killed  and  138  wounded,  and  brought 
off  all  his  ships.  The  Italians  abandoned  Lissa, 
and  though  still  superior  in  ships,  drew  off.  Per- 


1866  July  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1445 

• 

sano,  later,  was  brought  to  trial  by  the  Italian 
Senate  on  the  charges  of  incapacity,  negligence, 
disobedience,  cowardice  and  treason.  He  was  con- 
victed of  the  first  two  counts,  and  in  punishment 
was  deprived  of  his  rank  and  pay.  Tegethoff  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  Vice- Admiral.  In  his 
honor  it  was  decreed  that  an  Austrian  ironclad 
should  always  bear  his  name.  The  fiasco  of  Italy's 
disastrous  campaign  was  made  more  than  good  by 
her  Prussian  ally. 

After  the  battle  of  Konigsgratz,  Benedek  had 
withdrawn  the  remnant  of  his  shattered  army  to 
Olmiitz,  in  order  to  proceed  by  way  of  Pressburg 
to  Vienna.  Archduke  Albrecht  and  his  troops  had 
been  called  from  the  south  to  take  his  place 
as  commander-in-chief.  The  Prussian  forces  were 
ready  to  advance  on  Vienna.  On  the  22d  they  en- 
gaged the  Austrians  at  Blumenau,  and  would  have 

End  of  war 

captured  Pressburg,  had  not  a  declaration  of  truce 
put  an  end  to  hostilities. 

On  the  26th,  a  preliminary  treaty  of  peace  was 
signed  at  Nikolsburg,  and  on  August  23  peace 
was  definitely  declared  at  Prague.  Napoleon's  at- 
tempts at  intervention  came  to  naught.  At  Berlin 
peace  negotiations  between  the  several  German 
States  and  Prussia  were  also  concluded.  In  Oc- 
tober peace  between  Austria  and  Italy  was  declared, 
Venetia  was  turned  over  by  Napoleon  to  Italy. 
Austria  paid  a  modest  war  indemnity  to  Prussia, 

Bismarck's 

withdrew    from    the    Confederation,    and    gave    upmodera- 

r  tion 

all  rights  to  Schleswig  and  Holstein.  From  the 
Southern  and  Central  German  States,  Prussia  ex- 

XlXth  Century— Vol.  3—1 


1446 


A    HISTORY   OF    THE 


Aug.  1866 


Annexa- 
tion of 
Hanover 


Secret 
Gsrtnan 

alliance 


acted  but  little.  Small  indemnities  were  demanded; 
insignificant  tracts  of  territory  were  taken  from  Ba- 
varia and  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Hesse.  All  the  Ger- 
man States  north  of  the  river  Main,  joined  Prussia 
in  forming  a  North  German  Confederation.  Han- 
over  was  annexed  to  Prussia.  Bavaria,  Baden, 
Wurtemburg  and  the  remnant  of  Hesse,  were  per- 
mitted to  form  leagues  of  their  own,  and  were  ad- 
mitted to  the  Zollverein.  The  ties  which  bound 
these  southern  States  to  Prussia  were  made  closer 
than  the  world  knew.  As  subsequently  revealed 
by  Bismarck,  all  the  German  States  entered  a  secret 
alliance,  whereby  the  smaller  States  pledged  them- 
selves to  place  their  troops  under  the  command  of 
the  King  of  Prussia  in  time  of  war. 

In  Japan,  the  long  struggle  between  the  Emper- 
ors and  the  Shoguns  had  reached  a  crisis.  lyay 
Mutchi,  the  Sliogun,  who  had  seized  the  reins 
of  power  in  1859,  died  childless.  The  way  became 
open  to  his  rival  Stotsbashi.  The  most  powerful 
of  the  Daimios  withheld  their  allegiance  to  another 
Kubosama  until  it  could  be  settled  who  was  the  real 
ruler  of  the  empire— the  Shogun  or  the  Mikado. 
The  new  Shogun,  Yoshi  Hisa,  attempted  to  as- 
ja  anese  sume  tne  powers  wielded  by  his  ancestors,  but  could 
not  overcome  the  armed  resistance  of  the  Daimios 
to  the  Mikado.  Civil  war  broke  out  in  Japan. 

In  North  America,  a  large  army  of  observation 
under  General  Sheridan  was  despatched  to  the  Eio 
Grande,  ready  to  cross  over  into  Mexico  at  a  mo- 
ment's notice.  The  American  Ambassador  in  Paris 
was  instructed  by  Seward  to  insist  on  the  with- 


civil  war 


1866  Summer  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1447 

drawal  of    the   French  forces   from   Mexico.      The 
French  Emperor  was  in  no  position  to  enter  into  Doctrine 

„    .  ,  reasserted 

a  distant  war  against  an  immediately  available  army 
of  nearly  a  million  men.  Thanks  to  the  tactful  'tone 
of  Minister  Bigelow's  representations,  it  was  made 
easy  for  the  French  Government  to  give  the  desired 
assurances.  The  Mexican  renegade,  Almonte,  in 
this  crisis  was  sent  to  France  to  induce  Napoleon 
to  continue  his  support.  His  mission  was  a  signal 
failure.  The  only  apparent  result  was  a  communi- 
cation from  Louis  Napoleon  to  Maximilian,  dated 
May  31,  in  which  the  French  Emperor  stated  the 
situation  with  brutal  frankness.  He  demanded  half 
of  the  revenue  receipts  of  the  ports  of  Tampico 
and  Vera  Cruz,  until  Maximilian's  debt  to  France 
should  be  paid,  and  announced  the  withdrawal 
of  the  French  army,  the  last  detachment  to  leave  ^j^^ 
by  November  1  of  the  next  year.  Marshal  Bazaine 
received  orders  to  advance  no  more  funds  to  Maxi- 
milian, and  to  incorporate  the  Belgian  auxiliaries 
with  the  French  troops.  This  meant  a  reduction  of 
one-half  of  the  pay  of  these  mercenaries.  Count 
Thum  resigned  his  command  and  returned  to 
Europe.  The  Belgium  corps  mutinied,  and  their 
ringleaders  had  to  be  discharged  from  the  army. 
The  whole  corps  was  disbanded.  Maximilian  was 
furious  and  threatened  to  abdicate  his  throne.  His 
wife,  Charlotte,  offered  to  go  abroad  to  save  his 
crown.  To  defray  the  expenses  of  her  mission, 
$30,000  was  taken  from  an  emergency  fund  held 
as  sacred  for  the  repairs  of  the  dikes  which  defend 
the  City  of  Mexico  from  inundation.  Charlotte  first 


1448  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1866 

went  to  France.  After  Louis  Napoleon  had  put  her 
off  and  evaded  her  for  a  long  time,  Charlotte  at  last 
obtained  her  historic  interview  with  him  and  Em- 
press Eugenie.  It  was  a  tragic  scene.  In  vain  did 
Empress  Charlotte  on  her  knees  implore  the  French 
Emperor's  succor.  When  he  refused  her  last  de- 
mand, the  granddaughter  of  Louis  Philippe  arose 
with  a  passionate  outburst:  "What  folly!  I  forgot 
that  in  my  veins  flows  the  blood  of  the  Bourbons, 
and  that  I  am  dealing  with  an  adventurer,  a  Bona- 
parte!" After  this  she  fainted  and  was  borne  from 
the  room.  Charlotte  went  to  Home  and  implored 
the  Pope's  consent  to  a  sequestration  of  the  Church 
lands  in  Mexico.  Pio  Nono  remained  obdurate. 
Under  the  stress  of  these  exciting  experiences, 
Charlotte  Charlotte  lost  her  mind.  She  was  not  permitted 

goes  insane 

to  return  to  Mexico.  Confined  at  Chateau  Bon- 
chant  near  Brussels,  she  did  not  even  realize 
the  tragic  import  of  the  events  that  followed  in 
Mexico. 

The  failure  of  the  Empress's  mission  abroad  dis- 
couraged another  project  for  obtaining  the  recogni- 
tion of  the  United  States.  Prince  and  Princess 
Salm-Salm,  who  were  to  be  sent  to  Washington, 
provided  with  a  corruption  fund  of  $2,000,000  in 
gold,  gave  up  the  attempt  as  hopeless.  President 
President  Johnson,  in  a  proclamation  of  August  18,  declared 

Johnson's 

stand        Maximilian's  blockade  of  Matamoras  null  and  void. 
On  the  occasion  of  his  first  reception  to  the  dip- 
lomatic court  on  October  11,  Marquis  de  Moustier, 
the    French    Minister   of   Foreign   Affairs,   assured 
Mr.  Bigelow   that   the   Emperor   would   recall   the 


1866  Summer  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1449 

army  shortly:  arrangements  had  already  been 
made  for  the  return  of  the  French  troops.  la 
vain  did  the  French  Emperor  plead  for  delay. 
Late  in  November,  Minister  Bigelow  at  Paris 
received  a  peremptory  note  from  Washington,  pl^mp-3 
Seward  officially  expressed  his  opinion  that  the 
traditional  friendship  of  America  with  France 
would  be  brought  into  "imminent  jeopardy,  un- 
less France  could  deem  it  consistent  with  her 
interests  of  honor  forthwith  to  desist  from  the 
prosecution  of  armed  intervention  in  Mexico." 

In  the  United  States  of  America  the  people  and 
government  found  themselves  face  to  face  with 
various  vexing  legacies  of  the  Civil  War.  It  was 
plain  that  the  victorious  Union  party  of  the  North 
could  not  consent  to  the  re-establishment  of  slavery, 
nor  would  it  pay  the  Confederate  debt.  A  bill,  as 
passed  by  Congress,  accorded  to  the  negroes  all  other 
rights  enjoyed  by  the  white  men,  and  empowered 
the  President  to  use  the  army  to  enforce  the  act. 
President  Johnson,  who  was  a  war  Democrat,  A 

'  Aftermath 

held  that  the  seceding  States  were  not  out  of  the^^a™" 
Union.  In  a  speech  delivered  from  the  porch  of 
the  Presidential  mansion,  he  declared  Congress  to 
be  in  rebellion  against  the  United  States.  When 
the  bill  came  up  for  his  signature,  he  vetoed  it  as 
contrary  to  the  Dred  Scott  decision.  Within  a  few 
days  the  veto  was  overriden  by  Congress.  Already 
the  House,  by  a  four-fifths  majority,  had  refused 
a  resolution  of  confidence  in  the  President.  The 

Andrew 

official  relations  between  the   Legislature   and 
Executive  became  acute.     The  points  at  issue  were 


1450  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Autumn  1866 

referred  to  a  popular  election  in  the  various  States. 
Meanwhile,  the  President's  attitude  embroiled  him 
with  the  members  of  his  Cabinet.  Attorney-General 
Speed,  Postmaster-General  Bennison,  and  Harlan, 
the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  retired.  The  popular 
election  went  against  the  President.  The  Repub- 
licans obtained  over  a  two-thirds  majority  in  both 
Houses  of  Congress.  The  plan  of  reconstruction 
adopted  by  them  was  that  the  freedmen  should 
vote  and  the  Confederate  leaders  should  not.  This 
imbittered  the  white  men  of  the  South  and  ren- 
dered Johnson  still  more  aggressive.  He  restored 
the  right  of  habeas  corpus  in  all  the  States  except 
Texas,  and  issued  a  proclamation  of  general  am- 
nesty. He  proclaimed  that  "the  insurrection  was 
suppressed  east  of  the  Mississippi  River  and  was 
henceforth  to  be  so  regarded."  Further  excitement 
was  occasioned  in  Congress  by  a  memorable  Parlia- 
mentary encounter  of  the  two  Republican  leaders, 
Elaine  and  Conkling,  whereby  they  became  political 
and  personal  enemies.  After  twelve  years  of  per- 
Cyrus  sistent  effort,  Cyrus  W.  Field  at  last  succeeded 
oclan8  in  laying  a  working  cable  between  America  and 

cable 

Europe.  The  task  was  accomplished  by  the  "Great 
Eastern,"  then  the  largest  steamship  afloat.  Asa 
cable  ship,  the  monster  vessel  finished  her  career, 
which  had  been  singularly  unsuccessful  since  the 
The  "Great time  tna^  sne  was  launched  on  the  Thames,  in  1858. 
Great  international  interest  was  likewise  excited  by 
the  famous  ocean  race  between  the  sailing  yachts 
"Henrietta"  and  "Vista,"  over  a  course  of  3,600 
miles.  The  "Henrietta"  arrived  first,  with  her  rival 


1866  Winter  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1451 

only  a  few  hours  behind  her.  The  winner's  time 
was  thirteen  days,  twenty-one  hours  and  fifty-five 
minutes.  America  lost  one  of  her  foremost  his- 
torians by  the  death  of  Jared  Sparks,  the  president 
of  Harvard  University.  William  Dean  Howells,  a 
young  author  of  Cincinnati,  made  his  first  appear- 
ance with  a  book  on  "Venetian  Life."  American 
dramatic  achievements  of  the  year  were  Joseph161 
Jefferson's  presentation  of  "Rip  Van  Winkle"  at 
the  Adelphi  in  London,  and  the  first  appearance 
of  Edwin  Booth,  of  the  illustrious  line  of  Booths, 
as  Richelieu  in  the  Winter  Garden  of  London. 


1462  A    HISTORY    OH'    THE  WJ7 


1867 

IN  JANUARY'  the  French  Emperor,  through 
Marshal  Bazaine,  informed  Emperor  Maxi- 
milian that  his  failure  to  pay  the  annual  sum 
of  25,000,000  francs  due  to  France,  under  their 
agreement,  released  the  French  Government  from 
all  obligations.  Bazaine  was  ordered  to  leave  Mex- 
ico with  his  army.  The  withdrawal  of  the  foreign 
forces  gave  a  new  impetus  to  the  national  war  in 
Mexico.  Juarez's  army  advanced  from  the  north 
and  captured  Matamoras  and  Tampico.  Desertions 
from  the  imperial  army  in  Mexico  became  so  fre- 
quent that  the  Mexicans  were  able  to  form  a  "For- 
eign  Legion"  with  the  deserters  of  various  nation - 
alities  who  enlisted  under  their  flag.  As  Sara  Y. 
Stevenson  has  recorded:  "To  us  in  Mexico  there 
was  no  concealing  the  fact  that  the  knell  of  the 
Mexican  empire  had  struck.  Maximilian  must 
fall.  How?  was  the  only  question." 

Louis  Napoleon's  emissaries  advised  Maximilian 
to  abdicate  the  crown  and  to  leave  the  country  with 
the  French.  Maximilian  was  dissuaded  from  this 
by  the  advice  of  his  friend  Eloin,  who  wrote  to  him 
from  Vienna  that  Francis  Joseph  was  on  the  point 
of  abdication,  and  that  a.  firm  stand  in  Mexico 
would  improve  Maximilian's  chances  for  the  throne 


1867  Spring  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1453 

of  Austria.    Accordingly,  Maximilian  declined  Mar- 
shal Bazaine's  last  invitation  to  join  him.     As  the^awaiof 
French  retired,  they  surrendered  the  points  held  by  forces 
them  directly  to  the  Mexicans. 

With  a  dwindling  army  of  9,000  men,  and  almost 
no  funds,  Maximilian  faced  the  advancing  armies 
of  the  patriots.  He  was  driven  back  to  Queretaro 
and  that  city  was  forthwith  besieged  by  the  .Republi- 
can troops  under  Escobedo.  General  Marquez,  who 
tried  to  bring  relief  from  the  City  of  Mexico,  was  in-Diaz, 
tercepted,  and  was  crushingly  defeated  by  Porfiriov" 
Diaz.  He  retired  to  the  capital,  which  was  promptly 
invested  by  Diaz's  troops.  In  Queretaro,  Maximilian 
and  his  followers  were  reduced  to  the  last  pinch. 
The  generals  proposed  to  cut  their  way  through, 
but  their  irresolute  Emperor  consented  to  enter  into 
negotiations  for  surrender.  Colonel  Lopez  was  sent 
to  Escobedo  to  enter  into  terms  of  capitulation. 
The  sequel  has  remained  a  matter  of  controversy. 

Escobedo  demanded  unconditional  surrender. 
Lopez,  according  to  some,  betrayed  Maximilian. 
According  to  his  own  statement,  he  was  empow- surrender 
ered  to  arrange  any  terms  of  surrender,  and,  un- 
able to  obtaia  anything  better,  agreed  to  give  up 
the  cloister  of  La  Cruz  on  the  following  day  after 
a  sham  encounter.  At  three  in  the  afternoon,  on 
May  15,  the  gates  of  the  cloister  were  opened 
to  the  Republicans,  and  Lopez  with  his  immediate 
followers  surrendered. 

Jose"  Rincon  Gallargo,  whose  command  was  al- 
ready in  the  possession  of  the  palace,  coming  upon 
Maximilian,  foresaw  the  terrible  complications  of 


1454  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  May  1887 

his  capture,   and  feigned  not  to  know  him:  "Let 

them  pass,  they  are  civilians,  1;   he  said  to  his  men, 

and  thus  gave  the  doomed  Emperor  his  last  chance. 

Maximilian  Maximilian  rallied  his  remaining  forces  for  a  last 

taken        stand.     He  was  taken  with  his  officers  on  the  Cerro 

de  las  Campanas,  after  a  destructive  fusillade  had 

made  surrender  inevitable. 

Maximilian  was  brought  up  for  trial,  on  June 
13,  before  a  military  court,  which  sat  on  the  stage 
of  a  public  theatre.  He  was  defended  by  Mexico's 
foremost  lawyers;  among  them  Riva-Palacio,  Mar- 
tinez de  la  Torre,  Eulalio  Ortega  and  Vasquez.  But 
they  could  not  change  the  verdict.  Under  the  terms 
of  his  own  bando  negro,  Maximilian  was  condemned 
to  death  as  an  outlaw  taken  in  arms.  In  vain  did 
the  governments  of  the  United  States,  of  England 
Futile  in-  and  of  Prussia  intercede  in  his  behalf.  In  vain 
did  the  handsome  Princess  Salm-Salm  employ  all 
a  woman's  arts  with  Juarez.  Maximilian  himself 
refused  to  beg  for  mercy.  His  end  was  made 
lighter  for  him  by  a  false  report  that  his  unfor- 
tunate wife  had  died.  On  June  19,  the  day  of  his 
execution,  he  wrote  to  President  Juarez: 


BENITO  JUAREZ:  About  to  die  for  having 
tried  whether  new  institutions  could  put  an  end  to 
the  bloody  war  which  has  for  so  many  years  dis- 
turbed this  unhappy  land,  I-  should  gladly  give 
my  life  if  the  sacrifice  could  contribute  to  the 
peace  and  prosperity  of  my  adopted  country." 

When  the  condemned  Emperor  was  taken  to  the 
Cerro  de  las  Campafias,  now  his  place  of  execu- 
tion, Maximilian  stopped,  and  turning  to  General 


1867  June  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1455 

Miramon  said:  "A  brave  soldier  should  be  honored 
even  in  his  last  hours.  Permit  me  to  give  you  the 
place  of  honor."  Miramon  and  Meiia  were  shot  first.  Maximilian 

shot 

Maximilian  died  exclaiming:  "Long  live  Mexico." 
After  a  few  months'  siege  the  City  of  Mexico 
capitulated  to  Porfirio  Diaz.  Marquez  fled  the 
country.  President  Juarez  made  his  triumphal 
entry.  Maximilian's  body  was  taken  home  by 
Admiral  Tegethoff,  on  the  Austrian  man-of-war 
"Novara,"  the  ship  on  which  Maximilian  in  his 
youth  had  sailed  around  the  globe. 

Since  the  days  of  the  French  Revolution,  no  such 
tragic  fate  had  befallen  any  of  the  reigning  families 
of  Europe.  The  catastrophe  of  Mexico  wrought  ir- 
reparable injury  to  Louis  Napoleon's  prestige.  The 
French  capitalists  and  investors  who  had  entered 
into  the  various  golden  speculations  floated  on  the  Far-reach. 

F      i         -nr  •  i  i      e       ing  after- 

inception   of  the  Mexican   enterprise   clamored    for  effects 

their  money.  The  clericals  and  the  army  wanted  to 
retrieve  their  fallen  fortune.  The  cause  of  impe- 
rialism suffered  a  setback  from  the  triumph  of  De- 
mocracy in  America,  and  its  Monroe  Doctrine.  The 
recent  rise  of  Prussia  filled  France  with  jealous  dis- 
may. Under  the  sting  of  these  considerations  Louis 
Napoleon  and  his  ambitious  wife  sought  eagerly  for 
some  new  field  wherein  to  retrieve  their  waning  for- 
tunes. It  was  at  this  juncture  that  pressure  began 
to  be  brought  on  Prussia  by  France,  though  the 
projected  international  exposition  at  Paris  for  the 
moment  rendered  war  undesirable. 

The  specific  form  which  this  pressure  assumed 
was  Louis  Napoleon's  determination  to  prevent,  if 


1456  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1867 

possible,  Germany's  retention  of  the  strong  fortress 
of  Luxemburg  in  Belgium,  on  the  northeastern  fron- 
tier of  France.  The  French  Government  now  de- 
L.UX-  clared  that  this  fortress,  in  possession  of  a  Prus- 
question  sian  garrison,  no  longer  served  as  a  mere  protec- 
tion for  Germany,  but,  in  view  of  Prussia's  recent 
aggrandizement,  must  be  a  menace  to  France,  Prus- 
sia, though  preparing  for  possible  war  with  France 
ever  since  Louis  Napoleon's  attempt  to  interfere 
with  the  readjustment  of  Germany  after  Sadowa, 
was  not  yet  ready  for  the  struggle.  Accordingly, 
Bismarck,  during  the  discussion  of  the  Luxemburg 

Bismarck 

wary  question  in  the  North  German  Bundestag,  coun- 
selled moderation,  declaring  that  they  "should  take 
the  just  susceptibilities  of  France  into  account." 
The  question  was  likewise  debated  with  some  heat 
in  the  French  Corps  Legislatif.  The  result  of  the 
mutual  reluctance  to  resort  to  war  was  that 
France,  Prussia,  Austria,  Russia,  England  and 
Holland  agreed  to  open  a  conference  in  London 
for  the  purpose  of  settling  the  question.  The  rep- 
resentatives of  the  Powers  sat  through  one  week  in 
May.  A  treaty  was  signed  in  which  it  was  agreed 
that  "the  Grandduchy  of  Luxemburg  shall  hence- 
forth be  a  neutral  State  under  the  sovereignty  of 
the  Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  as  Grandduke, 
that  the  Prussian  troops  shall  evacuate  Luxemburg 
embmUX  territory  and  that  the  city  of  Luxemburg  shall  ceaso 
conference  ^  be  ft  fortjfie(i  place. "  After  this  point  had  been 
satisfactorily  settled,  the  opening  of  the  great  in- 
ternational exposition  at  Paris  was  hailed  as  a 
harbinger  of  peace. 


1SK7  Spring  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1457 

Among  those  who  visited  Paris  during  the  sum- 
mer were  the  King  and  Queen,  of  Prussia,  Counts 
Bismarck  and  Moltke,  the  Sultan  of  Turkey  and 
the  Czar  of  Russia.  On  June  6,  as  the  Czar  wasparig 
driving  with  the  French  Emperor  in  the  Bois  deexposition 
Boulogne,  a  Pole,  named  Berezovski,  fired  two 
pistol  shots  at  the  Czar.  He  failed  to  hit  him. 
Arrested  on  the  spot,  he  was  speedily  brought 
to  trial  and  sentenced  to  transportation  for  life. 
Among  the  many  works  of  art  exhibited  at  the 
great  exposition  unusual  attention  was  excited  by 
the  landscapes  of  Theodore  Rousseau,  who  died 
during  this  same  year. 

About  the  same  time  the  Emperor  and  Empress 
of  Austria  went  to  Hungary  to  be  crowned  as  king 
and  queen  of  that  ancient  kingdom.  The  prospect 
of  the  restoration  of  Hungary's  Constitution  had 
caused  great  rejoicings  there,  and  a  Te  Deum  was 
sung  in  all  the  churches.  A  Magyar  Ministry  was 
formed,  of  which  Count  Andrassy  was  the  Premier. 
When  the  Austrian  Emperor  arrived  at  Pesth,  he 
signed  a  charter  in  the  presence  of  the  magnates 
and  deputies  of  Hungary.  On  June  8,  the  corona- 
tion was  celebrated  with  great  solemnity.  On  the 
same  day  Francis  Joseph  issued  an  Act  of  Grace, 
granting  amnesty  to  political  offenders,  restoring 
confiscated  estates,  and  other  like  conciliatory 
measures. 

In  the  British  House  of  Parliament  an  act  was 
passed,  late  in  March,  for  the  union  of  the  prov- 
inces of  Canada,  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick. 
It  provided  that  the  Queen  in  Council  might  de- 


1458  A    HISTORY    OF   THE  Spring  1867 

clare  by  proclamation,  within  six  months  of  the 
S°cauadae  passage  of  the  act,  that  those  provinces  should  form 
one  dominion  under  the  name  of  Canada.  Later  in 
the  year,  the  new  Canadian  Parliament  was  opened 
at  Ottawa,  the  capital  of  the  Confederation,  by 
Governor-General  Lord  Monck. 

In  Ireland  this  year,  the  Fenian  conspirators  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  producing  a  stronger  impression 
of  their  capacity  for  mischief  by  extending  their 
operations  to  England.  Within  a  few  days  after 
the  Ministers  had  announced  the  early  restoration 
of  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act  in  Ireland,  a  band  of 
conspirators,  led  by  some  former  Irish  officers  of 
the  American  army,  attempted  a  surprise  of  the 
arsenal  at  Chester.  Their  designs  were  frustrated. 
Soon  after  this  fiasco,  the  Fenian  leaders  tried  to 
Futile  foment  insurrection  in  different  parts  of  Ireland, 
but  failed  signally.  In  the  autumn,  they  at- 
tempted another  stroke  outside  of  Ireland.  A  con- 
certed attack  was  made  on  a  Manchester  prison  to 
rescue  certain  Fenian  convicts,  but  the  would-be 
rescuers  were  foiled.  Another  attempt  to  deliver 
some  of  the  convicts  from  prison  cost  many  in- 
nocent lives.  The  government  resorted  to  severe 
measures  of  retaliation. 

Michael  Faraday,  the  eminent  English  scientist, 
died  on  August  25,  in  his  seventy-third  year.  In 
1821,  while  assisting  Davy  at  the  Boy al  Institution, 
Faraday  Faraday  made  the  brilliant  discovery  of  the  con- 
vertible rotation  of  a  magnetic  pole  and  an  electric 
current,  which  was  the  prelude  to  his  wonderful 
series  of  experiments  in  electricity.  During  the 


1867 Summer  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1459 

following  years,  Faraday  established  the  identity 
of  the  forces  manifested  in  electric,  galvanic  and 
magnetic  phenomena  and  determined  their  correla- 
tion with  the  other  prime  forces  of  nature.  The 
highest  honors  were  conferred  on  him  by  the  scien- 
tific societies  of  England,  France,  Italy  and  Ger- 
many. In  1858,  Queen  Victoria  allotted  to  him  a 
residence  at  Hampton  Court,  between  which  and 
his  laboratory  at  the  Royal  Institution,  Faraday 
spent  the  last  years  of  his  Jife. 

In  the  United  States  of  America,  early  in  the 
year,  a  motion  had  been  made  in  the  House  to  im- 
peach President  Johnson.  Representative  Ashley  American 
of  Ohio  charged  the  President  with  "usurpation  of 
power  and  violation  of  law,"  by  corruptly  using 
the  appointing,  pardoning,  and  veto  power.  The 
charge  was  referred  to  the  Judiciary  Committee  by 
108  over  39  votes.  By  a  majority  of  five  to  four, 
this  body  decided  against  impeachment.  Thaddeus 
Stevens  now  introduced  a  reconstruction  bill  to  di- 
vide the  Southern  States  into  five  military  districts 
to  be  administered  by  army  officers.  In  amended 
form  the  bill  was  passed  by  both  Houses  of  Con- 
gress. The  President  vetoed  it  on  March  23.  The 
President's  veto  was  overridden  by  big  majorities  in 
both  Houses  of  Congress.  Under  this  act,  General 
Schofield  took  charge  of  a  military  district  at  Rich-  Millt 
mond,  General  Sickles  at  Columbia,  General  Pope  struoUon 
at  Montgomery,  General  Ord  at  Vicksburg,  and 
General  Sheridan  at  New  Orleans.  Bills  to  admit 
the  Territories  of  Colorado  and  Nebraska  as  States 
were  likewise  vetoed  by  the  President.  Over  John- 


1460  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1867 

son's  veto  Nebraska  was  admitted  and  proclaimed 
as  the  thirty-seventh  State. 

The  finances  of  the  Union  Pacific  Railway,  run- 
ning through  these  Territories,  became  one  of  the 
political  scandals  of  this  time.  It  was  charged 
in  Congress  that  the  stock  of  the  company  had 

Pacific  been  placed  "where  it  would  do  most  good."  The 
charge  involved  the  Vice-President  of  the  United 
States,  the  Republican  nominee  for  the  Vice-Presi- 
dency, the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  Speaker 
Elaine,  and  other  prominent  leaders  of  the  Repub- 
lican party. 

Meanwhile  a  treaty  had  been  approved  by  which 
the  Territory  of  Alaska  was  purchased  from  Russia 
for  the  sum  of  $7,200,000.  A  tract  of  land  covering 
590,777,290  square  miles  was  thus  acquired.  The 
formal  transfer  was  made  during  the  same  year,  and 

of  Alaska  American  forces  took  possession  of  Sitka  Island. 
A  similar  treaty  with  Denmark  for  the  acquisition 
of  the  islands  of  St.  John  and  St.  Croix  in  the  West 
Indies  for  a  sum  exceeding  that  paid  for  Alaska  was 
rejected. 

The  tension  between  the  American  Congress  and 
President  Johnson  became  wellnigh  intolerable. 
Bill  after  bill  was  passed  in  Congress,  vetoed  by 
the  President,  and  repassed  again  over  his  veto  to 
become  a  law.  The  President  sent  no  annual  mes- 
sage and  made  no  communication  to  Congress.  In 
the  Cabinet,  differences  of  opinion  between  the  Pres- 
ident and  Secretary  of  War,  Stanton,  concerning 
the  proposed  military  measures  of  reconstruction, 
led  at  last  to  open  rupture.  In  August,  the  Presi- 


1867  Autumn  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1461 

dent  called  upon  his  Secretary  of  War  to  resign  his 
office  "on  public  considerations  of  a  high  character." 

_^  •  T»        •    President 

Stanton  in  an  open  letter  refused  to  resign,     Presi-  Johnson's 

measures 

dent  Johnson  thereupon  suspended  Stanton,  and 
ordered  him  to  transmit  the  affairs  of  his  office  to 
General  Grant  ad  interim.  Stanton  yielded,  while 
protesting  that  he  denied  the  right  of  the  President 
under  the  Constitution  to  suspend  him  without  the 
advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  according  to  the 
provisions  of  the  recent  tenure  of  office  act.  With 
Stanton  out  of  the  way,  the  President  now  removed 
General  Sheridan  from  the  military  department  of 
Louisiana  and  General  Sickles  from  that  of  North 
Carolina.  In  the  course  of  the  autumn,  President 
Johnson  issued  a  proclamation  granting  an  amnesty 
to  all  persons  in  the  South  who  had  taken  part  in 
the  late  war,  with  the  exception  of  the  Confederate 
Government  officers  and  persons  convicted  and  in 
custody.  A  number  of  State  elections  were  held  late 
in  the  autumn,  and  resulted  in  a  marked  defeat  of 
sthe  radical  wing  of  the  Republican  party.  Presi- 
dent Johnson  was  highly  elated.  On  November  25, 

a  Congressional  Committee  recommended  by  a  ma- 
Attempt 

jority  of  five  to  four  that  "Andrew  Johnson,  Presi-  p°r^i'Sh 
dent  of  the  United  States,  be  impeached  for  high 
crime  and  misdemeanors. ' '  The  motion  for  impeach- 
ment was  brought  forward  in  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives on  December  7,  and  was  defeated  by  108 
over  57  votes. 

The  civil  war  in  Japan  reached  its  turning  point 
during  this  year.  The  new  Shogun,  finding  his  own 
support  insufficient,  abdicated  his  office  and  with- 


1462  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  Autumn  \9ffi 

drew.  Shortly  afterward  the  Mikado  died  in  his 
thirty-eighth  year,  leaving  a  young  boy  as  heir  to 
the  throne.  Satsurna  and  Choshiu  stood  by  the  boy 
End  of  Emperor.  The  wealthy  Daimios  of  the  north  still 
revolution  held  out-  At  last  the  abdication  and  submission  of 
Shogun  Yeshi  Hisa  practically  ended  the  civil  war. 
The  Shogun's  unqualified  submission  was  accepted 
by  the  Mikado.  A  general  amnesty  was  proclaimed 
for  those  who  had  fought  the  Shogun's  cause,  ex- 
cepting only  the  rebellious  Daimios  themselves. 
Further  resistance  on  the  part  of  the  Daimios  be- 
came hopeless. 

During  autumn  in  Italy  another  rising  in  the  Papal 
States  was  instigated  by  Garibaldi.  Bands  of  his 
followers  marched  upon  Rome.  Garibaldi  was  ar- 
rested  by  order  of  Victor  Emmanuel's  government 


threatens  0.  ,  ,,  .     .       , 

Rome  near  Sienna,  asjje  was  on  the  point  of  crossing  the 
Papal  frontier.  He  was  conveyed  to  the  fortress  of 
Alessandria  to  be  confined  there,  but  was  soon  per- 
mitted to  return  to  his  residence  on  the  island  of 
Caprera,  under  surveillance  of  Italian  ships  of  war. 
Several  armed  bands  of  his  followers  were  dispersed 
while  attempting  to  invade  the  Papal  territories. 
The  Pope  withdrew  all  his  troops  from  the  provinces 
with  the  exception  of  the  garrisons  of  Civita  Vec- 
chia  and  Viterbo,  and  concentrated  them  in  the  capi- 
tal. The  officers  in  the  French  auxiliary  force  threw 
conflicts  UP  tae^r  commissions,  and  the  greatest  alarm  pre- 
statesal  vailed  in  Rome.  By  the  end  of  September  and  early 
in  October,  swarms  of  Italian  volunteers  had  crossed 
the  frontier  in  different  places  and  established  them- 
selves on  Papal  territory.  Several  conflicts  oc- 


1867  winter  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1463 

curred.  The  command  of  the  raiders  was  bequeathed 
by  Garibaldi  to  his  son  Menotti.  On  October  13, 
the  Papal  troops  defeated  a  body  of  Garibaldians  at 
Monte  Librate,  but  the  invaders  soon  received  re- 
inforcements and  compelled  the  troops  to  retreat. 
Desultory  fighting  continued  until  Louis  Napoleon 
despatched  a  French  expedition  to  Rome  to  sup- 
press  the  invasion.  This  unwelcome  intervention 
on  the  part  of  France  caused  the  downfall  of  the 
Ratazzi  Ministry  in  Florence,  and  King  Victor  Em- 
manuel called  upon  General  Menabrea  to  form  a 
Cabinet.  In  the  meantime,  Garibaldi  had  slipped 
out  of  Caprera  and  reappeared  on  the  scene  of  con- 
flict. He  succeeded  in  capturing  Monte  Rotondo, 
where  he  established  his  headquarters.  On  October 
28,  however,  a  French  squadron  arrived  at  Civita 
Vecchia  and  landed  troops.  Two  days  later  the 
French  soldiers  entered  Rome  amid  sullen  silence 
on  the  part  of  the  inhabitants.  Garibaldi  was  once 
more  apprehended  and  placed  under  surveillance.  S 
The  revolution  was  now  declared  to  be  ended.  Gen- 
eral Menabrea  called  upon  France  to  withdraw  her 
troops.  Instead  of  that,  Napoleon  III.  proposed 
that  the  political  status  of  the  Holy  See  and  the 
kingdom  of  Italy  should  be  settled  by  an  interna- 
tional conference.  Most  of  the  European  Powers 
readily  accepted  the  French  Emperor's  proposal,  as 
did  the  Pope.  King  Victor  Emmanuel's  troops  re- 
ceived orders  to  evacuate  the  Papal  dominions. 


1464 


A   HISTORY   OF   THE 


1866 


1868 


odds 


THE  dissensions  between  the  United  States 
Congress  and  President  Johnson  reached  a 
turning  point  at  the  very  outset  of  the  year. 
The  House  of  Representatives,  on  January  24,  com- 
mended the  course  of  General  Sheridan  as  Military 
Governor  of  Louisiana,  and  censured  President 
Johnson  for  his  dismissal  of  that  officer.  Ten  days 
later  the  Senate  refused  to  sanction  the  President's 
American  removal  of  Secretary  Stanton  from  the  War  Office. 
His  successor,  General  Grant,  promptly  vacated  the 
office,  and  Mr.  Stanton  resumed  his  functions. 
After  a  few  weeks,  President  Johnson  once  more 
dismissed  Stanton,  and  appointed  General  Lorenzo 
Thomas  to  succeed  him.  The  Senate  then  declared 
the  appointment  of  Thomas  illegal.  Stanton  put 
Thomas  under  arrest.  He  was  released  on  bail. 
The  President  thereupon  nominated  Thomas  Ewing 
of  Ohio  as  Secretary  of  War.  On  March  5,  the  Sen- 
ate convened  a  court  of  impeachment,  with  Chase, 
the  Chief -Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court,  in  the  chair, 
and  the  President  was  summoned  to  appear.  Ben- 
jamin F.  Butler  opened  the  case  against  the  Presi- 
dent. Blaine,  in  his  "Twenty  Years  of  Congress," 
has  described  the  trial  "as  the  most  memorable  at- 


1868 Spring  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  I486 

tempt  made  by  any  English-speaking  people  to  de- 
pose a  sovereign  ruler  in  strict  accordance  with  the 
forms  of  law. ' ' 

President  Johnson  maintained  that  his  removal  of  p^^,. 
Stanton  could  not  be  construed  as  a  violation  of  the  fmpeached 
recent  tenure  of  office  act,  Stanton  not  having  been 
appointed  by  him,  but  by  his  predecessor,  Abraham 
Lincoln.  The  trial  lasted  until  the  middle  of  May. 
At  its  conclusion  thirty -five  Senators  voted  for  con- 
viction and  nineteen  for  acquittal.  Only  by  one 
vote  had  the  necessary  majority  of  two-thirds  of  the 
Senate  been  missed.  Thus  the  impeachment  fell  to 
the  ground.  The  weary  struggle  between  the  two 
branches  of  the  government  of  the  United  States 
was  resumed.  Congress  voted  to  readmit  to  the 
Union  the  seven  Southern  States — Arkansas,  Ala-  . 
bama,  Florida,  Georgia,  Louisiana,  with  North  and 
South  Carolina.  Amnesty  was  extended  to  a  thou- 
sand ex-Confederate  soldiers.  President  Johnson 
vetoed  the  measure.  Congress  overrode  this  last 
veto  by  a  majority  of  more  than  three  to  one  in  both 
Houses,  and  the  long  contest  over  reconstruction 
was  closed.  The  flagrant  misgovernment  of  the  re-  deadlock 
constructed  States  had  done  much  to  retard  the 
progress  of  reconciliation. 

The  affairs  of  government  now  ran  more  smoothly. 
Congress  organized  the  Territory  of  Wyoming  out 
of  parts  of  Dakota,  Utah  and  Idaho.  Preparations 
were  made  for  a  new  Presidential  election.  By  the 
.Republican  Convention  in  Chicago,  in  May,  General 
Grant  had  been  nominated  for  the  Presidency  on  the 
first  ballot  without  a  competitor.  General  Grant 


1466  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Autumn  1 868 

accepted  his  nomination  with  the  opening  words: 
"Let  us  have  peace." 

With  so  popular  a  candidate  in  the  field,  the 
result  could  be  but  a  foregone  conclusion.  Horatio 
Seymour,  the  former  Governor  of  New  York,  who 
was  nominated  by  the  Democrats  to  run  against 
Grant,  had  small  chance  of  success.  The  New  York 
faction  of  the  Democratic  party  by  this  time  had 
come  under  general  execration.  It  was  dominated 
by  the  powerful  political  association  of  Tammany 

Ha™nany  Hall.  This  in  turn  was  dominated  by  the  noto- 
rious Bill  Tweed,  a  chairmaker,  who  had  made 
his  connection  with  the  popular  Volunteer  '  Fire 
Department  a  stepping-stone  to  political  power. 
By  corrupt  practices  he  amassed  several  millions 
of  dollars  within  a  few  years.  To  make  Grant's 
election  more  sure,  the  Democratic  States  of  Vir- 
ginia, Mississippi  and  Texas  were  excluded  from 
participation  in  the  national  election  on  the  ground 
that  they  had  not  complied  with  the  laws  passed  by 
Congress.  Grant  was  elected  President  by  a  major- 
ity of  nearly  half  a  million  votes.  In  New  York, 
Tweed  held  back  the  election  returns  of  the  city 

trk:1f  :  until  by  manipulation  they  were  made  to  eliminate 
the  majority  given  against  his  party  in  the  State 
elections. 

In  Great  Britain,  this  year  was  remarkable  for  the 
election  of  a  new  Parliament  upon  a  widely  extended 
basis  of  representation.  It  was  the  first  trial  of  the 
new  system  of  Household  Suffrage.  The  first  fruit 
of  the  new  electoral  constitution  was  the  retirement 
of  Disraeli's  Cabinet,  and  the  accession  of  Gladstone 


1888  Spring  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1467 

as  Prime  Minister.     Charles  Keao,  son  of  Edmund 

Kean,  died  at  London.     Among  his  most  successful  Brfush°ne' 

TT        i  i    T-»  •    i         t     ,1  1         T-I  Premier 

parts  were  Hamlet  and  Richard  ill.     He  was  mar- 
ried to  the  accomplished  actress  Ellen  Tree. 

A  conspicuous  event  of  the  year  was  Great  Brit- 
ain's Abyssinian  expedition.  As  early  as  1861,  when 
Captain  Cameron  was  appointed  consul  at  Massowah, 
King  Theodorus  addressed  a  letter  to  Queen  Victo-  Theodoras 

,.,,.,.  ,  ,.  of  Abys- 

ria,  expressing  friendly  feelings  and  suggesting 


Abyssinian  embassy  to  England.  The  British  Gov- 
ernment ignored  this  letter.  Theodorus  took  re- 
venge by  imprisoning  all  Englishmen  he  could  lay 
hold  of.  A  British  expedition  was  sent  out  from 
India  under  General  Sir  Robert  Napier.  The  van 
pushed  on  to  Senalfe  on  the.  high  land  of  Abyssinia, 
and  on  January  3  of  this  year,  General  Napier  him-  Napier 
self  arrived  in  Annesley  Bay.  The  force  consisted  in  Africa 
of  some  12,000  soldiers,  mostly  native  infantry,  and 
15,000  followers.  The  army  marched  from  Senalfe 
to  Attegrath,  and  met  with  no  opposition.  The 
inhabitants  supplied  food  when  they  were  paid, 
and  some  chiefs  gave  assistance.  The  expedition 
reached  the  Bashilo  Pass  early  in  April.  Colonel 
Phayre,  after  he  had  crossed  the  Bashilo,  divided 
his  troops  and  sent  one  body,  under  Colonel  Mill-Capturecj 
ward,  up  the  Arogge  Pass.  With  a  larger  body  hepaSfse 
proceeded  over  precipitous  ground  to  the  right. 
At  the  top  of  the  Arogge  Pass  stood  the  Hill  of 
Fahla,  occupied  by  the  Negus'  warriors.  The  In- 
dian rifles  wrought  fearful  havoc  among  the  Abys- 
einians.  The  next  morning,  Mr.  Flab  and  Lieuten- 
ant Prideaux,  who  had  been  held  captives,  appeared 


1468  A    HISTORY     OF    THE  Summer  lg« 

in  the  British  camp  with  a  Hag  of  truce.     Sir  Robert 
Napier  insisted  that  the  prisoners  should  be  uncon- 
ditionally surrendered.     This  was  done.     On  April 
Fau  of       ^,  the  British  attacked  Magdala.     A  hot  fire  was 
afagdala     opened,  but  no  impression  was  made  on  the  gateway 
where  the  king  was  stationed  with  a  small   band. 
The  British  forced  their  way  over  the  plateau,  and 
cut  down  the  few  remaining  Abyssinians.      King 

Theodorus  shot  himself  with  a  pistol  before  the  sol- 
Death  of 

the  Negas  diers  could  reach  him.  Thirty  guns  were  captured 
and  the  palace  was  burned  to  the  ground.  The 
Negus'  widow  came  to  her  death  within  a  few 
weeks.  Theodorus'  infant  son,  Alamayon,  was 
taken  to  England. 

In  Japan,  the  utter  downfall  of  the  Tokungawa 
Shogunate,  which  for  more  than  two  and  a  half  cen- 
turies had  maintained  itself  in  power,  was  accom- 
plished by  a  combination  of  the  clans  of  Satsuma. 

End  cf 

Choshiu,  Tosa,  Btsizen  and  others.  An  edict  was 
issued  in  the  name  of  the  young  Mikado,  Mutsuhite, 
abolishing  the  office  of  Shogun.  All  followers  of 
the  Tokungawa  family  were  expelled  from  Yeddo. 
The  deposed  Shogun  now  retracted  his  resignation, 
and  at  the  head  of  a  large  force  undertook  to  re- 
enter  Kioto  to  reassert  his  former  authority.  After 
a  battle  which  lasted  three  days,  the  Shogun's  fol- 
lowers were  routed  by  the  imperial  troops.  The 
beaten  Keiki  took  refuge  in  his  castle,  and  an- 
nounced that  he  would  never  again  take  arms  against 
the  Emperor. 

In  Servia,  on  June  10,  Prince  Michael,  the  sover- 
eign, was  assassinated  at  Belgrade.  The  regicides, 


1868  Autumn  NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

Eado  Vanovich  and  his  two  sons,  were  seized,  and 

ten  others  were  arrested  as  implicated  in  a  conspiracy 

to  place  Prince  Karageorgewitch  upon  the  throne. 

A   provisional    government    was    established,    and  Mi]an 

Prince   Milan,   a   relative   of  Prince  Michael,    wasofSerTia 

elected  to  the  throne. 

November  13,  Gioacchino  Antonio  Rossini,  the  il- 
lustrious Italian  composer,  died  at  Paris.  Rossini's 
first  successful  opera  was  "Tancredi,"  brought  out 
during  the  carnival  of  Venice  at  the  Teatro  Fenice 
in  1813,  and  was  followed  within  a  few  months  by 
"L'ltaliana  in  Algeri."  Rossini's  "Barber  of  Se- 
ville" was  hissed  at  its  first  performance  in  Rome.  RogsiBi 
The  cool  reception  of  "Semiramide"  by  the  Vene- 
tians, in  1823,  induced  Rossini  to  go  to  London, 
where  he  conducted  a  series  of  grand  concerts.  A 
brief  season  in  Vienna  proved  even  more  successful 
than  that  at  London.  Beethoven  was  much  cha- 
grined to  find  how  completely  Rossini's  Italian  airs 
took  possession  of  the  Viennese.  Proceeding  to 
Paris,  Rossini  brought  out  his  masterpiece,  "Wil- 
liam Tell,"  on  August  3,  1829,  with  a  magnificent 
cast  at  the  Grand  Opera.  With  this  great  work 
Rossini  abruptly  closed  his  operatic  career.  Not 
even  the  sensational  revival  of  "William  Tell"  in 
1837,  with  Duprez  in  the  title  role,  shook  him  in 
this  resolution.  Thenceforward  he  wrote  only  re- 
ligious scores,  among  them  his  famous  "Stabat  Ma- 
ter" and  "La  Petite  Messe  Solennelle."  A  last 
earnest  of  his  powers  as  a  composer  was  given  by 
a  special  cantata  written  for  the  Paris  Exposition 
of  1867. 

XlXth  Century— Vol.  3— J 


1470  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1868 

In  France,  M.  Pierre  Antoine  Berryer,  the  glory 
of  the  Paris  bar,  died  at  AugehJle.  He  was  the 
oldest  and  ablest  advocate  in  practice.  After  the 
Berryer  ^^J  Eevolution,  Berryer  favored  popular  govern- 
ment, though  rightly  regarded  as  the  chief  of  the 
Legitimist  party  in  Paris.  At  the  trial  of  Louis 
Napoleon  for  his  attempt  upon  Boulogne  in  1840, 
Bsrryer  made  a  powerful  speech.  Later  he  opposed 
the  political  conduct  of  President  Louis  Napoleon 
and  spoke  against  him  in  1851.  He  was  among  those 
who  strove  to  impeach  Louis  Napoleon,  but  after  the 
coup  d'etat  he  took  little  part  in  political  affairs. 
Still  he  held  rank  as  the  foremost  orator  of  France 
since  the  days  of  Mirabeau. 

At  the  Salon  this  year  Leon  Gerome,  the  pupil 
of  Delaroche,  exhibited  the  historical  painting  "The 
Gerome  Seventh  of  December,  1818."  He  had  made  his 
debut  in  the  Salon  in  1847,  with  "A  Combat  of 
Cocks,"  now  in  the  Luxembourg.  His  greatest 
historic  work,  "The  Age  of  Augustus,"  was  in  the 
Salon  in  1855,  and  was  purchased  by  the  French 
Government.  In  America,  the  landscape  painter 
George  Inness  was  made  a  National  Academician 
this  year. 

Another  revolution  broke  out  in  Spain.  Queen 
Isabella  had  alienated  all  feelings  of  loyalty  by  her 
arbitrary  and  aggressive  rule.  In  April,  insurrec- 
tionary movements  commenced  in  Catalonia,  which 
was  declared  under  martial  law.  On  the  23d,  Mar- 
shal Narvaez,  the  President  of  the  Council,  died, 
and  a  new  Cabinet  was  formed  under  Gonzalez 
Bravo.  In  July,  several  of  the  leading  Spanish 


Painted  by  Henri  Reynault 


GENERAL  PRIM 


XlXth  Cent.,  Vol.  Three 


1868  Autumn  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  U71 

generals  were  arrested  and  banished  to  the  Canary 
Islands.  The  Queen  signed  a  decree  exiling  the 
Duke  and  Duchess  de  Montpensier.  In  September, 
the  revolution  broke  out  in  earnest.  General  Prim  s  ish 
left  England  and  soon  disembarked  at  Cadiz.  In  re™ltltion 
the  meantime  a  vessel  had  been  sent  by  the  revolu- 
tionary leaders  to  the  Canary  Islands  to  bring  back 
the  banished  generals.  They  arrived  at  Cadiz  a  few 
days  after  Prim.  Already  the  Spanish  fleet  at  that  Prim 
port,  under  the  command  of  Admiral  Topete,  and 
the  garrison  in  the  citadel  had  declared  for  the 
revolution.  Marshal  Serrano,  the  President  of  the 
Senate,  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  move- 
ment.  All  Andalusia  rose  against  the  government. 
The  Spanish  Ministry  resigned,  and  General  Concha 
was  appointed  by  the  Queen  President  of  the  Coun- 
cil. The  Marquis  de  Novaliches,  commanding  the 
royal  army,  marched  upon  Cordova.  At  Burgos 
the  hostile  forces  came  in  contact.  The  royal  troops 
fraternized  with  the  people.  Juntas  were  estab- 
lished in  the  different  towns,  which  one  after  an- 
other raised  the  standard  of  rebellion.  Before  the 
end  of  September,  the  Marquis  de  Novaliches  had 
reached  the  bridge  of  Alcolea  on  the  Guadalquivir 
near  Cordova.  Here  a  battle  was  fought  between 
the  royal  troops  and  the  insurgents,  who  were  led 
to  victory  by  Serrano.  It  was  the  last  serious  at- 
tempt to  quell  the  revolution.  Queen  Isabella  fled 
from  Spain  and  took  refuge  in  France. 

Marshal  Serrano  entered  Madrid  at  the  head  of 
the  revolutionary  troops  in  the  first  days  of  October. 
The  central  Junta  authorized  Serrano  to  exercise 


1472  A     HISTORY    OF    THE  Wiuter  1868 

supreme  power  in  conjunction  with  a  provisional 
ministry  until  a  Constituent  Assembly  should  meet. 
He  accepted.    Within  a  week,  Great  Britain,  France, 
Provisional  Prussia   and   Portugal    recognized   the    provisional 
m°evntrrec-   government.      General   Prim    was   appointed   Com- 
mander-in-Chief   of   the  Spanish  forces.     An  elec- 
toral  committee   was   formed  which  thus   outlined 
the  future  form  of  Spain's  government: 

"The  monarchical  form  is  imposed  upon  us  by 
the  exigencies  of  the  revolution  and  the  necessity 
of    consolidating   the    liberties   we   have   acquired. 
Monarchy  by  divine   right  is   forever   dead.     Our 
Sro-ramme  ^uture  monarchy,  in  deriving  its  origin  from  pop- 
ular  rights,    will    be   a   consecration   of   Universal 
Suffrage."     The   great  difficulty   was   who   was   to 
be  king.     In  December,  serious  conflicts  occurred 
at  Cadiz,  where  the  people  declared  for  a  Repub- 
lic, and  organized  a  militia,  who  styled  themselves 
Revolt       "Volunteers  of  Freedom."      They  refused  to  dis- 
in  Cadiz     arm^   &^^   after   a  contest   in   the   streets,   govern- 
ment troops  marched  upon  the  town  from  Madrid 
under  General  Caballero  de  Rodas.     The  govern- 
ment troops  took  peaceable  possession. 

This  year  was  remarkable  for  the  frequency  of 
atmospheric  phenomena  and  volcanic  convulsions. 
Early  in  January,  Mount  Vesuvius  in  Italy  with 
loud  detonations  began  to  send  forth  an  immense 
quantity  of  lava.  With  some  intermissions  the  vol- 
cano continued  to  vomit  a  fiery  stream  for  several 
convui-  months.  When  the  eruptions  ceased,  Mount  Etna 

sions 

for  a  brief  period  broke  out  in  a  grand  volcanic  dis- 
play.    Earthquake  shocks  were  felt  even  in  Britain. 


1868  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1473 

Earlier  in  the  year  a  terrific  cyclone  swept  over 
the  island  of  Mauritius  which  rendered  no  less 
than  50,000  persons  homeless.  On  March  27,  the 

• 

Hawaiian  Islands  were  violently  convulsed.  A 
tidal  wave  sixty  feet  in  height  swept  in  from  the 
sea  destroying  villages  and  drowning  the  people 
and  their  cattle.  The  great  volcano  Mauna  Loa™^3 
broke  out  in  dreadful  eruption,  ejecting  fire,  rocks, 
ashes  and  molten  lava.  In  August,  a  shock  of 
earthquake  was  felt  at  Gibraltar,  but  the  most 
dreadful  disturbances  were  in  Peru  and  Ecuador. 
On  August  13,  a  tremendous  earthquake  occurred 
there,  overthrowing  numerous  structures  and  de- 
stroying thousands  of  lives.  The  earth  rocked 
frightfully;  crags  fell  from  the  summits  of  the 
Andes;  immense  tidal  waves  rolled  in  upon  the^les 
land,  sweeping  whole  towns  from  their  foundations 
and  stranding  ships  of  war  and  merchant  vessels  far 
above  highwater  mark.  The  undulations  extended 
over  the  whole  Pacific,  breaking  in  huge  rollers  on 
the  shores  of  California,  the  Sandwich  Islands,  Japan 
and  New  Zealand.  On  October  21,  an  earthquake 
damaged  the  city  of  San  Francisco,  causing  con- 
siderable loss  of  life.  On  the  night  of  November 
14,  a  shower  of  meteors,  which  had  been  foretold, 
was  seen  at  many  points,  and  appeared  to  profes-  Meteoric 
sional  observers  to  emanate  from  the  constellation 
Leo.  Fully  5,000  meteors  were  observed  from  vari- 
ous astronomical  stations. 


1174;  A    HISTORY    OF   THE  i860 


1869 

THE  American  claims  against  England   grow- 
ing   out    of    the    Civil    War,    notably    the 
"Alabama"   claims,   were  at  last   adjusted. 
On  January  14,  a  convention  was  signed  at  London 
by  the  Earl   of  Clarendon,   Secretary  for  Foreign 
bama'        Affairs,  on  behalf  of  Great  Britain,  and  by  Reverdy 

claims  J  J 

Johnson,  the  American  Minister  at  the  Court  of  St. 
James,  on  behalf  of  the  United  States.  On  Feb- 
ruary 26,  Congress  passed  the  Fifteenth  Amend- 
ment to  the  American  Constitution,  which  pro- 
vided that  "the  right  to  vote  shall  not  be  denied 
or  abridged  in  any  State,  on  account  of  race,  color 
or  previous  condition  of  servitude."  The  new 
ASlnth  President  of  the  United  States,  Ulysses  S.  Grant, 
took  his  oath  of  office  on  March  4,  as  customary. 
Ex-President  Johnson  refused  to  sit  in  the  carriage 
with  Grant  at  his  inauguration,  nor  would  he  take 
any  part  in  the  proceedings.  General  surprise  and 
disappointment  followed  Grant's  nominations  for 
members  of  his  Cabinet.  They  were  Washburn, 
Secretary  of  State;  Stuart,  Treasury;  Schofield, 
aSStJJaJoio. W**i  Borey,  Navy;  Cox,  Interior;  Hoar,  Attorney- 
istration  Qengj.^  anc}  Cresswells,  Postmaster-General.  Stuart 
resigned  almost  immediately  by  reason  of  the  law 
forbidding  an  importer  holding  the  portfolio  of  the 
Treasury.  His  place  was  taken  by  Boutwell.  At 


1869  Spring  NINETEENTH    CENT  CRY  1475 

later  dates,  Hamilton  Fish  succeeded  Washburn, 
who  became  Minister  to  France,  and  Rawlins  suc- 
ceeded Schofield.  Congress  rejected  the  Johnson- 
Clarendon  treaty  respecting  the  Alabama  claims, 
and  the  matter  had  to  be  referred  to  international 
arbitration.  Motley,  the  historian,  was  appointed 
Minister  to  Great  Britain.  Further  changes  in  the 
Cabinet  seemed  to  betoken  want  of  decision  on  the 
part  of  the  President.  Borey  resigned  as  Secretary 
of  the  Navy,  and  Robison  was  appointed  in  his 
place.  Not  long  afterward  the  portfolio  of  War  cabinet 

changes 

changed  hands  for  the  third  time.  Some  embar- 
rassment for  the  new  Secretary  of  State  was  pro- 
vided by  a  resolution  of  sympathy  with  the  Cuban 
insurgents  on  the  part  of  the  Representatives.  Still 
the  independence  of  Cuba  was  not  recognized  by 
President  Grant.  Instead,  he  entered  into  negotia- 
tions for  a  peaceable  annexation  of  San  Domingo 
by  the  United  States,  and  for  a  long  lease  of  theg^JS0* 
bay  and  peninsula  of  Samana  as  a  naval  station. 

During  this  year  in  America  the  right  of  suffrage 
was  granted  to  women  in  the  Territories  of  Wyo- 
ming and  Utah.  Whittier  brought  out  his  "New 
England  Ballads,"  and  Parkman  his  "Discovery  of 
the  West."  The  most  popular  American  literary 
productions  of  the  year  were  Mark  Twain's  "Inno- 
cents Abroad"  ;  Bret  Harte's  poem  of  "The  Heathen  American 

letters 

Chinee,"  and  Aldrich's  "Bad  Boy,"  all  three  char 
acteristic  products  of  American  humor. 

An  event  of  far-reaching  industrial  and  financial 
importance  was  the  completion  of  the  Union  Pacific 
Railway,  on  May  10,  by  the  junction  at  Ogden  of 


1476  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  spring  1869 

the  Union  and  Central  Pacific  Railways.  Railway 
Famine  speculation  received  an  immense  impetus  at  New 
York,  where  Vanderbilt,  Gould  and  Fisk  dazzled 
the  Stock  Exchange  by  their  daring  hazards.  In 
September,  Gould  and  Fisk  joined  in  a  scheme 
to  "corner  the  gold  of  the  country."  In  the  spring 
of  the  year  the  price  of  gold  had  fallen  to  131,  by 
reason  of  the  government's  impending  resumption 
of  specie  payments.  A  clique  of  Wall  Street  specu- 
lators purchased  several  millions  at  that  price.  By 
liberal  subsidies  to  the  press  they  induced  several 
newspapers  to  prophesy  that  difficulties  with  Eng- 
land would  arise  from  the  Alabama  claims,  or  from 
gold fpecu-  the  recognition  of  the  Cuban  insurrection,  or  again 

lation  ,  „. 

that  war  was  imminent  between  Germany  and 
France.  Thus  they  pushed  up  the  price  of  gold 
to  135,  and  gathered  a  rich  harvest.  After  this 
the  value  of  gold  fell  to  its  former  standard  of 
131,  and  there  was  a  general  belief  that  it  would 
fall  still  further.  The  financial  policy  of  the  gov- 
ernment which  necessitated  the  payment  of  duties 
in  gold  again  sent  up  the  price  of  gold.  The  clique 
once  more  took  a  hand.  By  their  operations  the 
price  was  advanced  to  141  by  the  22d  of  Sep- 
tember, a  Wednesday.  There  it  hung  in  the  bal- 
ance. Then  came  two  days  of  feverish  excitement 
and  speculations  surpassing  anything  hitherto  known 
in  the  financial  annals  of  America.  Important  rail- 
road stocks  fell  by  a  score  of  points  within  an  hour. 
The  lesser  speculators  failed  or  settled  their  Ob- 
Failures  legations  on  the  best  terms  they  could.  It  was  a 
day  of  wild  excitement,  of  alternating  hopes  and 


1869  Autumn  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1477 

fears,  recalling  the  Civil  War.  The  day  closed 
with  gold  at  144.  On  the  morning  of  Friday — Friday" 
"Black  Friday"  as  it  came  to  be  called — every  pas- 
sage leading  to  the  Stock  Exchange  was  blocked 
by  a  dense  mass  of  humanity  laboring  under  the 
greatest  state  of  excitement.  At  the  opening  of 
the  Board  the  price  of  gold  was  150 — an  advance 
of  six  per  cent  on  that  of  the  highest  of  the  day 
before.  It  was  now  well  known  that  Jay  Gould  and 
his  associates  held  in  gold  and  contracts  for  delivery 
something  like  one  hundred  and  twenty  millions, 
while  all  the  current  gold  in  New  York  could  be 
scarcely  more  than  twenty  millions.  The  govern- 
ment alone  could  break  the  corner  by  the  sale  of 
gold  in  the  New  York  sub-treasury.  The  conduct 
of  the  Treasury  officials,  if  it  did  not  confirm  the 
boast  of  the  clique  that  members  of  the  govern" 
ment  were  in  league  with  them,  left  scant  hope  of 
relief  from  that  quarter.  The  price  of  gold  rose 
steadily.  In  the  midst  of  the  wildest  excitement, 
when  the  price  was  vibrating  at  the  highest  points, 
a  messenger  arrived  in  the  Gold  Room  with  the 
news  that  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  Boutwell  had 

'  .  American 

given  orders  to  sell  gold  on  behalf  of  the  govern -Govern- 
ment acts 

ment.  The  price  instantly  fell  to  135.  The  power 
of  the  clique  was  broken,  and  the  great  crisis  was 
at  an  end.  So  large  had  been  the  dealings  that  the 
Gold  Exchange  Bank,  which  acted  as  a  clearing 
house,  was  not  able  to  calculate  and  settle  the 
transactions  of  the  preceding  day  within  opening 
time.  For  twelve  hours  more,  uncertainty  pre- 
railed,  and  the  shadow  of  disaster  darkened  Wall 


1478  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Autumn  l*tt> 

Street.  The  calamity  of  the  financial  failures  of 
Wall  Street  had  now  made  itself  felt  in  the  com- 
mercial circles  of  New  York,  and  soon  spread 
through  the  whole  country.  Intense  indignation 
was  aroused  against  Gould,  Fisk  and  other  mem- 
bers of  the  gold  clique.  Persistent  efforts  were 

Granttus-  ma(^e  to  implicate  President  Grant  in  their  trans- 
actions, and  Congress  appointed  a  committee  to 
investigate  the  charges,  but  nothing  came  of  it 
Gould,  Fisk  and  their  associates  achieved  no 
less  notoriety  in  America  by  their  reckless  dealings 
culminating  in  the  so-called  Erie  War.  -  After 
seventeen  years  of  discouraging  efforts,  the  Albany 
and  Susquehanna  Railroad,  connecting  the  city  of 
Albany  with  the  Erie  Railroad  at  Binghamton,  had 
at  last  been  completed.  Early  in  August  the  treas- 
urer of  this  railroad  company  refused  to  transfer 
some  stock  to  the  Erie  party,  on  the  ground  that  it 
had  been  illegally  procured.  A  war  of  injunctions 
followed.  The  Erie  party  controlled  two  corrupt 
judges  in  New  York,  who  issued  writs  in  their 
favor.  The  threatening  assertions  of  conflicting 

\var"E'  3  rights  made  police  intervention  necessary.  Police 
officers  and  deputy  sheriffs  were  bribed  right  and 
left.  Rival  receivers  were  appointed  for  the  Al- 
bany Railroad.  In  New  York,  Fisk  and  his  asso- 
ciates in  the  Erie  Ring  avoided  service  of  legal  writs 
by  barricading  themselves  in  New  Jersey,  in  com- 
pany with  one  of  their  pliant  judges.  An  Erie 
train  waiting  at  a  station  was  seized.  Armed  men 
took  charge.  Another  train  filled  with  800  armed 
men  was  sent  against  them.  As  the  two  trains  met 


1869 Autumn  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1479 

both  engineers  leaped  for  life.  The  Erie  engine 
was  wrecked  and  the  train  thrown  off  the  track. 
The  militia  had  to  interfere.  The  courts,  after 
some  more  flagrant  attempts  at  intimidation  and 
Corruption,  decided  against  the  Erie  Railroad. 

By  way  of  compromise  between  the  American 
aspirations  toward  the  recognition  of  Cuban  inde-  g  . 
pendence,  and  the  objections  of  the  European  chan-  American 
celleries,  President  Grant  at  length  tendered  an 
offer  of  mediation  between  Spain  and  its  rebellious 
subjects  in  Cuba,  but  the  Spanish  Government  per- 
emptorily declined  the  offer.  Internal  dissensions 
in  Spain  made  it  imperative  for  the  new  govern- 
ment there  to  take  a  strong  stand  in  this  matter. 
Early  in  the  year  insurrection  had  broken  out  at 
Malaga  and  had  to  be  suppressed  by  severe  meas- 
ures. This  encouraged  the  Cuban  insurgents  in 
the  field.  Muntinous  manifestations  on  the  part 

Cuban  war 

of    the    Spanish    troops   in    Cuba    caused    General  continued 
I) nice    to    resign     his    supreme    command    in    the 
island.      General  Caballero  de  Kodas  was  sent  out 
from  Spain  to  replace  him.     Bourbon  conspiracies 
were  discovered   at   Pampeluna,    Burgos   and   Bar- 
celona.    The  government's  call  for  25,000  soldiers 
by    conscription    provoked    fresh    disturbances    at 
Xeres   de   la  Frontera  and   other    points    between  Revolts 
Cadiz  and  Seville.      The  barricades  of   the  insur- m 
gents  had  to  be  carried  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet. 
The  crown  of  Spain  was  now  offered  to  Dom  Fer- 
nando, the  ex-King  of  Portugal,  but  he  positively 
declined  it.     Other  overtures  were  made,  but  none 
met  with  favorable  response. 


1480  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Autumn  1869 

In  Great  Britain,  the  Parliamentary  session  of 
this  year  was  memorable  for  the  meeting  of  the 
first  House  of  Commons  elected  under  household 
suffrage,  and  the  first  great  step  taken  in  reversing 
the  long-standing  policy  of  England  toward  Ireland. 

stone's       These    two    events    were    closely    linked    together. 

measures  rpnat  ^  sjlolli(j  ^ave  been  jn  the  power  of  any  Min- 
ister to  effect  within  a  few  months  so  momentous 
a  change  as  the  passing  of  the  Irish  Church  Bill, 
which  rent  asunder  the  long-subsisting  connection 
between  the  Church  and  the  State  in  Ireland,  and 
to  unite  together  almost  as  one  man  the  diversified 
and  incongruous  elements  of  the  English,  Irish  and 
Scotch  Liberal  factions  in  the  prosecution  of  a  com- 
mon purpose,  was  a  feat  truly  remarkable. 

Alphonse   de  Lamartine,    the   French    poet  and 

Eamartfne  statesman,  died  on  the  last  day  of  February.  In 
1820  he  first  became  known  as  a  poet  by  his 
"Meditations  Poetiques."  The  "Nouvelles  Medi- 
tations Poetiques"  (1823)  and  the  "Harmonies  Po- 
etiques et  Religieuses' '  (1828)  established  his  poetic 
fame  and  obtained  for  him  admission  into  the 
French  Academy  in  1830.  After  the  July  revo- 
lution he  travelled  in  the  East,  and  on  his  return 
published  "Voyage  en  Orient,"  "Souvenirs,"  "Im- 
pressions, "  " Pensees  et  Paysages. ' '  During  his  ab- 
sence he  had  been  elected  a  member  of  the  Chamber 

Poet  and    °^  Deputies  and  thenceforth  his  career  was  that  of 

statesman   &    man   Q{    poliUcs    ag    well    ag    of    letters.       JQ    !&&, 

Lamartine  became  a  member  of  the  Provisional 
Government  as  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs.  But 
losing  popularity,  he  soon  withdrew  from  public 


1869  Autumn  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1481 

life.  His  verses  continued  to  excite  general  ad- 
miration. 

Charles    Augustine    Saint*-Beuve,    one    of    the 

x 

greatest  modern  French  critics,  died  in  October  Death  of 
at  the  age  of  sixty-five.  Sainte-Beuve's  contri-  leuve" 
butions  to  the  "Eev^ue  des  Deux  Mondes"  on 
French  authors  and  literature  formed  for  some 
period  a  chief  attraction  of  that  periodical.  In 
1837  he  delivered  some  lectures  on  the  school 
of  Fort  Eoyal  at  Lausanne,  which  laid  the  foun- 
dation of  his  elaborate  work  "Histoire  du  Port 
Eoyal,"  published  during  the  fifties.  While  en- 
gaged on  these  labors,  Sainte-Beuve  was  appointed 
curator  of  the  Mazarin  Library,  and  in  1845  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  French  Academy.  After 
the  Eevolution  of  1848,  Sainte-Beuve  contributed 
weekly  articles  of  criticism  to  the  "Eevue  des 
Deux  Mondes, "  to  the  "Constitutionel,"  and  after- 
ward to  the  "Moniteur"  ("Causeries  du  Lundi," 
15  volumes;  "Nouveaux  Lundis,"  13  volumes). 

George  Peabody,  the  American  philanthropist, 
died  on  November  4,  in  London.  Most  notable 
among  his  endowments  were  the  free  library  for 

George 

his  birthplace,  Danvers;  a  free  library  and  institute 
of  art  and  science  at  Baltimore;  and  a  model  dwell- 
ing-house for  the  London  poor.  In  1866  he  received 
the  freedom  of  the  City  of  London,  and  was  offered 
a  baronetcy  by  the  Queen,  which  he  declined. 

Julia  Grisi,  the  celebrated  prima  donna,  died  on 
November  28,  in  Berlin.  She  made  her  first  ap- 
pearance as  a  singer  at  Bologna  as  Emma  in  Eossi- 
ni's  "Celmira."  The  fame  of  her  voice  spread  over 


1482  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Autumn  1869 

Europe,  in  1832  Eossini  engaged  her  as  prima 
juiia  Grisi  ^onna  of  ^Q  Italian  opera  in  Paris.  There  she 
made  her  debut  in  t(Semiramide."  One  of  her 
warmest  admirers  was  Bellini,  who,  having  com- 
posed "Norma"  for  Pasta,  at  once  recognized  in 
La  Grisi  the  true  ideal  of  his  creation.  It  proved 
the  greatest  of  her  parts.  Some  ten  years  later  La 
Grisi  was  the  prima  donna  of  the  Koyal  Italian 
Opera  in  London.  At  the  same  time  Jenny  Lind 
was  at  the  height  of  her  popularity  in  England. 
After  a  series  of  so-called  farewell  performances 
at  London,  La  Grisi,  under  the  management  of  her 
second  husband,  Mario,  made  a  tour  in  the  United 
States  of  America.  Her  success  there  did  not  com- 
pare to  that  of  London  or  Paris,  but  she  held  her 
own  against  such  formidable  rivals  as  La  Persiani 
and  Sonntag.  Thenceforth  her  career  as  a  singer 
declined. 

In  Japan,  all  vestiges  of  the  great  rebellion  had 
ceased,  and  the  Mikado's  party  was  triumphant. 
The  great  step  from  feudalism  to  modern  civiliza- 
tion, for  which  Europeans  had  required  centuries, 
was  made  in  Japan  in  a  few  years.  After  the  over- 
throw of  the  Shogun  this  great  modern  revolution 

Regenera- 

was  accomP^SQe(i  without  bloodshed  by  the  volun- 
tary surrender  on  the  part  of  the  Daimios  of  their 
most  cherished  feudal  rights.  The  young  Mikado 
began  the  era  of  innovations  by  departing  from 
Kioto,  or  Miako,  which  had  been  the  seat  of  his 
ancestors  for  twenty-five  centuries,  and  by  the 
adoption  of  Yeddo,  thenceforth  called  Tokio,  for 
his  capital.  Four  of  the  greatest  Daimios  of  Japan 


1869  Winter  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  1483 

took  up  the  gauntlet.  They  addressed  a  memorial 
to  the  throne  offering  to  release  their  clansmen  and 
to  restore  their  fiefs  to  the  imperial  crown. 

In  Egypt,  the  great  Suez  Canal  was  opened  inThegue2 
December  with  oriental  pomp.     The  successful  exe- (i 
cution  of  this  enterprise  was  due  to  the  unwearied 
energy  and  determination  of  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps. 
The  gigantic  undertaking  proved  a  complete  success. 

On  December  18,  Louis  Moreau  Gottschalk.  the 

Death  of 

American  composer  and  pianist,  died  at  Rio  de Gottschalk 
Janeiro.  Born  at  New  Orleans  in  1829,  Gottschalk 
studied  music  in  Paris  under  Halle  and  Stamaty. 
At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  brought  out  his  early 
composition  "Le  Bananier. "  After  his  debut  as 
a  pianist  in  1845,  he  toured  through  France, 
Switzerland  and  Spain,  returning  at  last  to  the 
United  States.  Starting  from  his  birthplace,  New 
Orleans,  in  1853,  Gottschalk  played  concerts  of  his 
own  compositions  throughout  North  America,  Cen- 
tral America,  the  West  Indies  and  South  America. 
His  manager  was  Max  Strakosch,  later  celebrated 
as  impresario  of  Adelina  Patti.  During  the  years 
of  the  North  American  Civil  War,  Gottschalk  gave 

The 

concerts  in  almost  every  noteworthy  town  of  Span-  pianist's 

career 

ish  America.  He  died  worn  out  by  overexertion. 
Gottschalk's  Creole  temperament  gave  to  his  works 
their  peculiar  charm  of  melody  and  Spanish  warmth 
of  color.  Notable  among  them  were  his  "Night  in 
the  Tropics,"  "Cuban  Dances,"  "Montevideo,"  and 
"The  Graad  March  dedicated  to  the  Emperor  of 
Brazil." 


A    HISTORY    OJf    1'Hti  l«t) 


1870 

N  ROME,  the  Ecumenical  Council — convoked 
by  Pope  Pius  IX.  at  the  close  of  the  previous 
year — on  its  second  session  early  in  January 
put  forth  the  new  dogma  of  the  Pope's  infallibility 
in  matters  of  religion.  A  petition  was  presented  in 
which  the  undersigned  fathers  humbly  and  ear- 
nestly begged:  "The  Holy  Ecumenical  Council  of 
the  Vatican  to  define  clearly,  and  in  words  that 
cannot  be  mistaken,  that  the  authority  of  the  Ro- 
man Pontiff  is  supreme,  and  therefore  exempt  from 
error  when  in  matters  of  faith  and  morals  he  declares 
and  defines  what  is  to  be  believed  and  held,  and 
what  is  to  be  rejected  and  condemned  by  all  the 
faithful." 

About  this  time  Charles  de  Montalembert,  the 
exponent  of  the  new  Catholic  movement  in  France, 
died  at  Paris.  As  a  youth  he  formed  an  intimate 
acquaintance  with  Lamenais,  the  ardent  advocate 
of  an  alliance  between  Catholicism  and  Democracy. 
Together  they  founded  the  "Journal  L'Avenir." 
On  attaining  his  majority,  Count  Montalembert 
took  his  seat  as  a  Peer  of  France.  In  1836,  he 
published  his  first  important  work,  "The  Life  of 
St.  Elizabeth  of  Hungary."  In  1848,  he  declared 
himself  for  the  Republic,  and  took  his  seat  in  the 


I8TO  Spring  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1485 

National  Assembly  with  the  extreme  right.  After 
the  coup  d'etat  he  was  named  by  the  President  aterttal 
member  of  the  Consulting  Commission  preliminary 
to  the  Council  of  State,  and  was  elected  to  the  new 
legislative  Chambers.  In  1852,  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  French  Academy.  In  the  general 
elections  of  1857,  Montalembert,  who  was  looked 
upon  as  the  declared  adversary  of  the  Empire,  was 
defeated  in  his  own  department.  This  defeat  closed 
his  Parliamentary  career.  For  a  satirical  article  on 
the  Indian  debates  in  the  English  Parliament,  he 
was  prosecuted,  convicted  and  sentenced  to  six 
months'  imprisonment  and  a  fine  of  3,000  francs, 
for  "language  calculated  to  excite  hatred  against 
imperial  institutions." 

In  Great  Britain,  the  condition  of  Ireland  was 
once  more  the  topic  which,  to  the  exclusion  of  al-  Ireland 
most  all  other  questions  except  that  of  education, 
commanded  the  attention  of  English  statesmen. 
Two  days  after  a  new  Irish  land  bill  had  been 
submitted  in  February,  an  act  providing  for  the 
elementary  education  of  the  common  people  was 
introduced. 

Shortly  after  this,  trouble  arose  in  British  North  Canada 
America.  In  Canada,  the  troublous  Rebellion  of 
the  Red  River  gave  just  concern  to  the  British. 
Jn  the  previous  year  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company 
had  effected  an  arrangement  for  parting  with  all  their 
general  territorial  rights  in  Ruppert  Land  to  Canada 
for  the  sum  of  £300,000.  The  people  along  the  Red 
River  rose  in  insurrection  against  the  proposed 
transfer.  Louis  Riel,  a  young  man  of  French- 


I486  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1 870 

Canadian  descent,  was  proclaimed  "President  of 
rebellion  the  Republic  of  the  Northwest."  Attacks  were 
made  on  the  remaining  officers  of  the  Company  and 
on  other  Englishmen,  and  all  negotiations  failed. 
British  troops  were  despatched  northward  under 
the  command  of  Colonel  Wolseley.  When  the  ex- 
pedition reached  Fort  Gary,  Riel  took  refuge 
in  the  United  States.  British  supremacy  was  re- 
established by  force  of  arms,  and  the  province 
of  Manitoba  was  added  to  Canada. 

In  England,  Charles  Dickens,  the  great  novelist, 
Death  of     died  on  June  9,  after  a  sudden  illness,  at  Gad's  Hill 

Dickens 

Place  near  Rochester.  Dickens  began  his  literary 
career  as  a  reporter  on  the  staff  of  the  "True  Sun," 
from  which  he  went  over  to  the  London  "Morning 
Chronicle."  Charles  Dickens'  graphic  power  of 
describing  the  ordinary  scenes  of  common  life,  es- 
pecially in  their  ludicrous  aspect,  brought  him  an 
order  for  a  serial  story  in  monthly  parts.  He  wrote 
the  "Posthumous  Papers  of  the  Pickwick  Club." 
The  "Pickwick  Papers"  found  an  enormous  sale 
Dickens'  from  their  first  appearance.  Charles  Dickens'  pen 
henceforth  was  in  incessant  demand.  Dickens  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Guild  of  Literature,  and 
was  an  ardent  advocate  of  reforms  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  Literary  Fund.  He  was  also  the 
founder  of  "All  the  Year  Round,"  which  he  con- 
tinued to  conduct  to  the  last. 

Associated  with  Dickens  in  death,  as  well  as  in 
life,  was  Daniel  Maclise,  the  famous  Irish  painter, 

Maclise 

who  died  during  this  year.     Of  his  historical  paint- 
ings, most  famous  perhaps  are  "The  Death  of  Nel- 


1870  Summer  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  14:87 

SOD  at  Trafalgar"  and  "The  Meeting  of  Wellington 
and  Bliicher  at  Waterloo,"  now  in  the  Royal  Gal- 
lery of  the  House  of  Parliament. 

The  course  of  events  in  the  United  States  during 
this  year  was  encouraging.  The  measures  which 
chiefly  occupied  Congress  concerned  the  financial 
condition  of  the  country,  the  readmission  of  the 
Southern  States  to  the  Union,  maritime  interests, 
the  extension  of  the  suffrage  to  .former  slaves,  new 

American 

naturalization  laws,  as  well  as  the  foreign  relations  recon- 
struction 

of  the  country.  Following  the  readmission  of  Vir- 
ginia, the  States  of  Mississippi,  Texas  and  Georgia 
were  welcomed  back  in  turn.  On  March  30,  Presi- 
dent Grant  issued  a  proclamation  declaring  the  rati- 
fication of  the  Fifteenth  Amendment  to  the  Con- 
stitution, whereby  the  right  to  suffrage  in  every 
election,  municipal,  State  or  national,  was  accorded  . 
to  all  the  colored  citizens  of  the  United  States. 
The  white  voters  in  the  South  took  immediate 
steps  to  counteract  the  effects  of  this  measure. 
About  this  time,  in  China,  revolting  outrages 

Chinese 

were  committed  in  the  city  of  Tien-tsin,  when  theexcesses 
French  consulate,  the  Catholic  mission  and  the 
hospital  of  the  French  Sisters  of  Charity  were  at- 
tacked by  a  mob  of  Chinese  fanatics.  The  sisters 
were  massacred  in  an  atrocious  manner;  the  French 
Consul  was  killed,  with  a  number  of  Christian 
priests  and  white  merchants.  A  money  indem- 
nity of  500,000  taels  was  subsequently  paid  by 
the  Chinese  Government. 

Some  time  before  th^s  the  war  between  Paraguay 
and  Brazil  was  brought  to  a  close  by  the  defeat 


1483 


A    HISTORY   OF   THE 


Summer  1870 


Brazilian 
risinsr 


End  of 
Lopez 


Danish 
negotia- 
tions 
unproduc- 
tive 


and  death  of  General  Lopez  in  March.  Notwith- 
standing the  triple  alliance  which  had  been  brought 
to  bear  against  his  dictatorship  (the  Argentine  and 
Uruguay  Kepublics  had  made  common  cause  with 
Brazil),  Lopez  succeeded  in  throwing  his  forces  into 
the  mountains  of  the  northwest.  There  he  pre- 
vailed on  a  body  of  5,000  Indians  to  join  him. 
The  last  contest  was  fought  out  on  the  banks 
of  the  Aquidibaniqui  River.  Lopez's  forces  were 
routed  and  their  leader  was  killed,  preferring  death 
to  surrender.  The  war  had  lasted  just  five  years. 

Meanwhile,  the  insurrection  in  Cuba  against  the 
Spanish  Government  demanded  the  attention  of 
the  United  States.  Under  the  combined  pressure 
of  England  and  France,  President  Grant  opposed 
any  step  which  might  lead  to  the  recognition  of 
the  insurgents  as  belligerents.  American  annex- 
ation of  the  former  Spanish  island  of  San  Do- 
mingo, on  the  other  hand,  was  a  scheme  which 
President  Grant  had  very  much  at  heart.  Andrew 
D.  White  went  to  San  Domingo  and  reported  the 
willingness  of  the  inhabitants  to  have  their  island 
incorporated  in  the  United  States.  Still  President 
Grant  failed  to  obtain  the  sanction  of  Congress. 

The  vacant  throne  of  Spain  had  given  concern  to 
the  European  chancelleries  ever  since  the  expulsion 
of  Queen  Isabella  and  the  Spanish  Bourbon  dynasty 
in  the  autumn  of  1868.  At  the  opening  of  this  year, 
Marshal  Serrano,  the  Spanish  Regent,  and  Marshal 
Prim,  the  Commander-in-Chief  and  President  of  the 
Council,  were  still  looking  for  a  new  king.  Their 
last  candidate  had  been  Prince  Thomas  of  Savoy, 


1870  Spring  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1489 

Duke  of  Genoa,  then  still  a  schoolboy  -  at  Harrow 

in  England.     On  his  nephew's  behalf,  King  Victor  IXnsh 

succession 

Emmanuel  of  Italy  declined  the  dangerous  offer. 
This  refusal  resulted  in  a  Spanish  Cabinet  crisis. 
Admiral  Topete  returned  to  office  with  Eivero  and 
Montero  Eios,  but  Prim  remained  at  the  head  of 
affairs.  King  Fernando  of  Portugal  likewise  re- 
fused to  accept  the  Spanish  crown.  Early  in  May 
two  candidates  were  formally  named  before  the 
Cortes.  They  were  old  Marshal  Espartero  and 
the  Due  de  Montpensier.  A  determination  of  the 
Cortes  that  any  candidate,  to  be  successful,  would 
have  to  command  an  absolute  majority  in  the  As- 
sembly made  it  evident  that  neither  Montpensier 
nor  Espartero  could  prevail.  At  last  Prim  and  his  Prince 

Hohen- 

friends  hoped  that  a  suitable  candidate  had  been  Candidate 
found  in  Prince  Leopold  of  Hohenzollern-Sigmarin- 
gen,  whose  elder  brother  was  Prince  of  Eoumania. 
The  Sigmaringen  family,  notwithstanding  its-,  Ca- 
tholicism and  close  ties  of  blood  with  the  French 
families  of  Beauharnais  and  Murat,  was  distinctly 
Prussian  in  all  its  recent  traditions  and  affiliations. 
Prince  Charles  Antony,  the  chief  of  the  house,  had 
served  as  Prime  Minister  of  Prussia  and  had  helped 
to  elevate  Bismarck  to  his  present  position.  The 
candidature  of  a  Prince  of  Hohenzollern  to  the 
Spanish  throne  was  therefore  obnoxious  to  France. 
When  the  announcement  was  made,  on  July  3,  that 
Prince  Leopold  had  consented  to  accept  the  crown 
of  Spain  if  the  Cortes  confirmed  his  election,  a  France 

concerned 

storm  of  protest  broke  out  in  the  French  press. 
The  quasi-constitutional  drift  of  the  Second  Em- 


1490  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  IBM 

pire  in  Prance,  after  going  through  the  usual  form 
of  an  overwhelming  plebiscite,  had  been  inaugu- 
rated but  a  few  months  before.  Emile  Ollivier  had 
been  called  to  the  head  of  the  new  parliamentary 
government.  In  his  opening  speech  to  the  Cham- 
bers he  announced  that  "Peace  was  never  more 
assured  than  now."  With  the  Luxemburg  ques- 
tion out  of  the  way  nothing  remained  to  vex 
French  diplomacy  but  the  succession  to  the  Span- 
ish throne.  Just  before  this  question  came  up 
anew,  the  political  horizon  of  Europe  had  seemed 
so  clear  that  King  William  of  Prussia  set  off  to 
Prussia  off  ta^e  the  waters  at  Ems,  while  his  chief  advisers, 
Bismarck,  Von  Boon  and  Moltke,  retired  to  their 
country  seats  for  the  summer  vacation.  A  reorgan- 
ization and  rearmament  of  the  military  forces  of 
Prussia  were  under  way,  which  required  no  little 
time.  Of  the  secret  proposals  repeatedly  made  to 
Bismarck  by  the  French  ambassador,  Count  Bene- 
detti,  the  world  as  yet  knew  nothing.  It  was  not 
until  Bismarck  openly  declared  that  for  years  the 
French  Emperor  had  been  seeking  an  alliance  with 
Prussia,  demanding  as  his  price  either  Belgium  and 
Luxemburg,  or  the  Bavarian  Palatinate  and  the 
Rhine  provinces,  that  the  political  intrigue  which 
had  been  spun  became  known.  The  Mexican  affair 
had  proven  a  miserable  fiasco  for  Louis  Napoleon. 
The  opposition  was  gaining  ground.  Judicial  in- 
vestigations of  conspiracies  added  to  the  disquietude 
of  the  people.  A  poor  harvest  threatened  the  pros- 
perity of  the  country.  Napoleon  felt  that  he  could 
regain  his  popularity  only  by  a  victorious  war;  so 


1870  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1491 

the  French  military  forces  were  strengthened  by 
the  addition  of  reserves  and  national  guardsmen. 
The  arsenals  were  filled.  The  Chassepot  gun  was 
adopted  for  the  army.  A  new  weapon,  the  "mitrail- 
leuse," which  could  fire  twenty-five  bullets  at  once 
from  its  cannon-like  bore,  was  added  to  the  artillery. 
Germany  appeared  as  divided  as  ever.  Secret  agents 
and  newspaper  correspondents  had  much  to  report 
of  the  hatred  of  the  Bavarian  ultramontanes,  par- 
ticularists,  and  malcontents  of  every  stamp  for  Prus- 
sia and  her  all-devouring  plans.  Austria  had  not 
forgiven  Sadowa.  The  Czechs,  Poles  and  Magyars, 
who,  of  late,  had  acquired  influence  in  the  Austrian 
Empire,  all  sympathized  with  the  French.  Count 
von  Beust,  the  Austrian  Chancellor,  was  ready  to 
form  an  alliance  with  France.  At  the  Tuileries 
it  was  felt  that  the  blow,  if  struck  at  all,  must  be 
struck  quickly.  Euge'nie  and  her  clerical  friends 
were  outspoken  in  their  eagerness  for  a  war  that 
would  raise  France  by  humbling  Prussia.  Now  the 

.  influence 

French  Ambassador  at  Berlin  was  commissioned  to 
express  t3  Prussia  the  deep  pain  which  France  felt 
at  Leopold's  acceptance  of  the  proffered  crown  of 
Spain. 

Under  the  pressure  of  the  foreign  powers,  Spain 
was  induced  to  withdraw  the  offer  which  she  had  Leopold 
made,  and  Leopold  voluntarily  renounced  his  can-  Spanish 

crown 

didacy  through  his  father.  Ambassador  Benedetti, 
however,  was  commanded  to  obtain  from  King 
"William  a  declaration  that  the  candidacy  of  Leopold 
of  Hohenzollern  would  never  be  supported  again. 
At  Ems,  Benedetti  gained  an  audience  with  the 


14-92  A    HISTORY    OF   THE  July  1870 

King,  and  pressed  his  suit  hard,  bat  without  suc- 
?tew'ater  cess.  Twice  his  request  was  personally  refused  by 
William.  The  third  time,  on  July  13,  an  audience 
was  denied,  and  Benedetti  was  informed  by  an 
aide-de-camp  that  the  King  was  still  of  his 
former  opinion. 

Of  what  had  occurred  at  Ems,  Bismarck  knew 
nothing.  He  bad  invited  Boon  and  Moltke  to  dine 
with  him  on  the  13th.  In  their  presence  a  telegram 
from  Ems  reached  him  containing  King  William's 
version  of  recent  events  with  permission  to  publish 
the  matter.  Bismarck  made  use  of  the  royal  author- 
ization to  publish  the  contents  of  the  telegram,  and 
in  the  presence  of  Moltke  and  Eoon  edited  the  origi- 
nal despatch  until  it  assumed  the  following  form: 

"After  the  news  of  the  renunciation  of  the  he- 
Bismarck.s  reditary  Prince  of  Hohenzollern  had  been  officially 
version  communicated  to  the  imperial  government  of  France 
by  the  royal  government  of  Spain,  the  French  Am- 
bassador at  Ems  further  demanded  of  his  Majesty 
the  King,  that  he  would  authorize  him  to  telegraph 
to  Paris  that  his  Majesty  the  King  pledged  himself 
for  all  future  time  never  again  to  give  his  consent 
if  the  Hohenzollerns  should  renew  their  candidacy. 
His  Majesty  the  King  thereupon  decided  not  to  re- 
ceive the  French  Ambassador  again,  and  informed 
him  through  the  aide-de-camp  on  duty  that  his 
Majesty  had  nothing  further  to  communicate  to  the 
Ambassador." 

Bismarck  read  aloud  the  despatch  as  revised  by 
him.  "That  has  a  better  ring,"  remarked  Von 
Boon.  Moltke  added:  "First  it  seemed  like  a  par- 
]ey;  now  it  sounds  like  a  clarion-call  to  arms." 


1870  July  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1493 

Then  Bismarck  said:  "This  will  be  published 
abroad  m  Paris  before  midnight.  It  will  have 
the  effect  of  a  red  rag  on  the  Gallic  cock.  Fight 
we  must  if  we  do  not  wish  to  act  the  part  of  the 
vanquished  without  a  battle."  Smiting  his  chest JJJJj£t 
Moltke  exclaimed:  "If  I  but  live  to  lead  our  army 
in  such  a  war,  then  the  devil  may  come  afterward 
and  take  my  old  carcass."  The  Crown  Prince  of 
Prussia,  when  seen  at  the  Ministry  of  War  late  that 
night,  whispered  to  a  friend:  "Mobilization!" 

The  telegram  of  Bismarck  was  indeed  "a  call  to 
arms."  Germany  was  in  a  delirium  of  joy  when  the 
news  of  the  supposed  humiliation  of  Benedetti  was 
published.  Frenchmen  were  wild  with  rage  at  the 
affront  which  they  thought  had  been  offered  to  their 
Minister.  The  Opposition  protested  against  hostile 
action,  claiming  that  no  otfence  had  been  offered  to 
France.  But  Empress  Eugenie's  faction  clamored  for 
war.  Thiers  was  howled  down  when  he  rose  in  the  French 

reserves 

Chambers  and  demanded  the  production  of  the  dip- called out: 
lomatic  correspondence  which  had  passed  between 
France  and  Prussia.  In  a  fiery  speech  to  the  As- 
sembly, Ollivier  proclaimed  that  "we  have  called 
upon  our  reserves,  and,  with  your  consent,  we 
will  immediately  take  the  necessary  steps  to  safe- 
guard the  interests,  the  security,  and  the  honor  of 
Prance."  He  called  for  an  appropriation  of  five 
hundred  millions;  and  almost  unanimously  the  sum 
was  granted.  For  the  first  time  in  many  a  year 
the  press,  the  people,  and  the  Chambers  were  in 
harmony. 

In  Pans  mobs  were  fiercely  shouting  "  A  Berlin^  d 

XlXth  Century— Vol.  3— K 


1494  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  July  1870 

UTo  Berlin."  In  Germany  the  cry  was,  " Zum  Jtthein,  zum 
Berlin"  It/tein."  When  Ollivier  had  gathered  the  French  re- 
serves, the  order  was  given  to  mobilize  the  North 
German  Army  Corps.  The  national  song,  "Die 
Wacht  am  Rhein,"  swept  through  the  land  as  did 
the  "Marseillaise'1  in  France. 

On  July   19,    the  day    on    which   the    Reichstag 
of  the  North  German   Confederation   was   opened, 
France  declared   war.      It  was    to    be    a    struggle 
a  I'outrance  between   France  and   Germany  alone. 
France      Neither  side  was  supported  by  an  ally.     England, 
war  Italy  and  Russia  proclaimed  their  neutrality.     Von 

Beust,  the  Austrian  Chancellor,  Saxon  though  he 
was,  would  gladly  have  come  to  Louis  Napoleon's 
aid,  but  the  sympathy  for  Germany  felt  by  most 
Austrians  of  German  descent — "Teutonic  efferves- 
cence" he  called  it — prevented  him  Irom  carrying 
Procia-  out  his  intentions,  and  compelled  him,  "not  with- 

mations  of 

neutrality  out  regret,"  to  declare  Austria  neutral.  Although 
there  had  been  no  little  indecision  and  even  hos- 
tility in  South  Germany,  the  States  which  were  not 
already  members  of  the  North  German  Confedera- 
tion all  joined  the  Prussian  standard. 

On  July  28,  Louis  Napoleon,  with  the  Prince 
imperial,  left  Paris  for  the  front,  and  proceeded 
to  Metz,  where  forces  had  been  gathered  which 
were  designated  the  "Army  of  the  Rhine."  At 
Metz  were  150,000  men;  at  Strasburg  100,000;  at 
Chalons  50,000.  The  French  troops  were  so  distrib- 
uted that  the  Prussians  should  not  foresee  where 
the  principal  attack  would  be  made.  The  combined 
forces  were  to  cross  the  Rhine  at  Maxau,  compeJ  the 


ISTOJuly  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1495 

South  German  States  to  remain  neutral,  and  proceed 
to  the  Elbe,  where  friendly  assistance  was  expected 
from  Italy  and  Austria.  The  plan  was  good;  but  f>hfn o£ 
presupposed  the  gathering  of  300,000  men  on  the  °' 
banks  of  the  Rhine  before  the  Prussian  forces  could 
be  mobilized;  the  possibility  of  throwing  these  men 
across  the  river  and  entering  Southern  Germany 
without  stoppage;  the  ability  of  the  French  generals 
to  hold  their  own  until  they  could  be  joined  by  the 
Austrians  and  Italians.  It  was  likewise, presupposed 
that  the  French  fleet  would  land  80,000  men  on  the 
Baltic  coast,  who  were  to  join  40,000  Danes,  and 
thus  compel  Prussia  to  divide  her  forces.  No  step 
had  been  taken  to  cover  the  retreat  of  the  army  if 
it  met  with  reverses,  nor  were  the  French  officers 
provided  with  war  maps  of  their  own  country. 

Moltke's  scheme  was  less  complex.  A  year  be- 
fore war  had  been  declared  maps  of  the  probable 
theatre  of  war  had  been  drawn  up.  The  German 
forces  were  to  be  mobilized  in  the  Bavarian  Palat- 
inate and  "to  look  for  the  principal  force  of  the 
enemy  and  to  attack  it  wherever  found."  In  ten 
days  the  entire  North  German  army  was  raised  from 
a  peace-footing  of  300,000  to  a  war-footing  of  900,-Gerir;ans 

'    mobilize 

000.  With  equal  rapidity  the  South  German  troops 
were  mobilized.  Day  and  night  the  railroads  car- 
ried troops  to  the  frontier.  The  first  army  (right 
wing,  61,000  men)  came  by  way  of  Coblentz  under 
General  Steinmetz;  the  second  army  (centre,  206,000 
men)  by  way  of  Mainz  and  Bingen,  under  Prince 
Frederick  Charles;  the  third  army  (left  wing,  50,0-90 
men)  by  way  of  Mannheim  and  Maxau  under  Crown 


1496  A    HISTORY    OF   THE  July  1870 

Prince  Frederick  William.  Preparations  were  made 
to  protect  the  sea-coast.  Three  army  corps  and  160,- 
000  mobile  militia  (Landwehr)  were  left  in  Germany 
to  resist  a  possible  Austrian  invasion.  Long  before 
the  outbreak  of  war  the  secret  intelligences  of  the 
Prussian  War  Office  had  fixed  the  time  limit  of 

thefront*  Drench  mobilization  at  nineteen  days.  Moltke's 
plan  of  mobilization  accordingly  provided  for  eigh- 
teen days.  The  whole  German  army  was  mobilized 
strictly  within  that  time.  As  it  turned  out,  the 
French  War  Office  required  twenty-one  days  to 
put  its  army  on  a  war  footing.  The  strong  offen- 
sive movements  of  the  German  forces  during  the 
latter  part  of  this  operation  upset  all  the  French 
plans.  Thus  it  came  that  the  French  plan  of  cam- 
paign was  never  carried  out,  because  the  needful 
troops  could  not  be  mustered  quickly  enough,  and 
because  the  South  German  States  were  found  to  be 

French  on  the  side  of  Prussia.  The  French  commanders 
supsetnow  proceeded  to  arrange  their  forces  in  a  long 
line,  nearly  275  miles  long,  extending  from  Thion- 
ville  to  Belfort.  The  major  portion  of  this  army  of 
210,000  men  was  concentrated  in  the  area  bounded 
by  Thionville,  Metz,  and  Weissenburg;  but  even 
this  line  presented  a  front  of  175  miles.  In  so 
widely  extended  an  area  the  different  corps  found 
it  difficult  to  support  one  another.  The  French 
ironclads  had  too  deep  a  draught  to  accomplish 
anything  but  a  thorough  blockade  of  the  German 
coasts. 

On  August  2,  the  French  won  their  first  victory; 
at  least  so  it  was  heralded.     For  a  fortnight  a  few 


1870  Aus  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1497 

companies  of  Hohenzollern  Fusileers  and  a  few 
troops  of  a  regiment  of  Uhlans  had  been  stationed 
at  Saarbriicken  and  had  scoured  the  neighbor- 
ing country  in  many  a  reconnoitring  expedition.  Zeppeiin'3 
Count  von  Zeppelin,  subsequently  famous  for  hisex 
ambitious  aeronautical  projects,  took  a  prominent 
part  in  these  cavalry  raids.  Although  there  were 
not  more  than  1,500  men  all  told,  it  was  made  to 
appear '  to  the  French  that  the  number  was  far 
greater.  A  French  army  corps  under  Frossard 
advanced  toward  Saarbriicken.  The  little  detach- 
ment of  German  troops  retired  after  having  suf- 

First 

f  ered  some  loss.     It  was  the  first  blood  shed  in  the  encounter 
great  war. 

Under  the  command  of  General  Abel  Douay, 
a  division  of  French  troops  marched  to  the  Khen- 
ish  border  of  Bavaria  and  took  possession  of  the 
small  fortified  town  of  Weissenburg.  The  third 
German  army,  composed  of  Prussians  and  South 
Germans  under  the  Crown  Prince,  had  reached  the 
Lauter  and  had  started  on  its  southward  journey. 
On  August  4,  the  right  wing  of  this  German  force  Weissen. 
attacked  the  French  division,  which  was  distributed  burs 
partly  in  the  city,  partly  on  the  heights  of  the  Geis- 
berg.  Weissenburg  was  captured  after  a  hot  fight, 
and  the  French  troops  were  dislodged  from  the 
crest  of  the  Geisberg,  despite  their  fierce  resistance. 
Douay  was  killed,  and  1,000  of  his  men  were  taken 
prisoners.  Upon  receiving  news  of  the  defeat  of 
I)ouay,  Marshal  MacMahon  called  together  all  the 
troops  in  Alsace  and  took  up  a  strong  and  well- 
fortihed  position  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Sauer- 


1498  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Aug.  1870 

bach,  grouping  his  army  about  the  village  of  Frosch- 
weiler.  The  Crown  Prince  had  moved  forward  and 
taken  possession  of  the  high  ground  extending  from 
Worth  to  Gunstett.  On  the  6th  of  August,  the 
battle  of  Worth,  one  of  the  bloodiest  conflicts  of 
the  war,  was  fought.  The  French  began  the  en- 
gagement with  a  heavy  artillery  fire.  It  was  not 
until  the  Crown  Prince  appeared  on  the  heights 
to  the  east  of  Worth  that  the  battle  was  decided. 
The  French  position  at  Froschweiler  was  threat- 
ened; and  at  half- past  four  Marshal  MacMahon  was 
compelled  to  give  orders  to  retreat.  He  had  lost 
one-third  of  his  fighting  force.  The  Germans  cap- 
tured 9,000  prisoners,  a  great  number  of  guns,  two 
eagles,  and  other  war  booty.  Among  the  dead  on 
the  battlefield  were  6,000  Frenchmen  and  10,000 
Germans,  including  some  500  officers.  Two  French 
regiments  of  cuirassiers  under  Generals  Nansouty 
and  Michel  were  annihilated. 

On  the  evening  of  the  same  day  the  news  was 
brought  that  a  second  victory  had  been  won  by  the 
first  and  second  German  armies  at  Spicheren.  After 
the  engagement  of  the  4th  of  August,  General  Fros- 
sard  had  evacuated  Saarbrucken  and  moved  further 
south  to  the  plateau  of  Spicheren.  The  Prussian 
first  army  under  Generals  Zastrow  and  Kameke 
vainly  endeavored  to  storm  the  strong  French  posi- 
tion. Two  attacks  were  repelled.  But  reinforce- 
ments from  the  second  army  under  General  von 
Alvensleben,  who  had  heard  the  cannonade  and 
immediately  pressed  forward,  not  only  filled  the 
gaps  in  the  Prussian  ranks,  but  also  strengthened 


»,«Aug.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1499 

the    attack.      Frossard    yielded.      Nightfall    alone 
saved  his  army  from  utter  rout.      A  three  hours' 
march    away    were    40,000    French    soldiers    under 
Marshal   Bazaine.       To    save    Frossard,    of    whose  Bazaine 
sore    plight    he    must    have    been    aware,    Bazaine st! 
stirred   not   an   inch.      The   French   never   forgave 
him  for  this. 

The  Germans  were  now  in  control  of  the  Vosges 
passes  and  had  advanced  to  the  river  Moselle  after 
taking  the  small  fortress  of  Liitzelstein.  General 
Beyer  began  the  siege  of  Strasburg.  These  move- 
ments were  so  rapid,  so  overwhelming,  that  a  feel- 
ing of  dismay  seized  the  French  people.  In  theFallof 
Chambers  the  government  was  so  sharply  criticised  MinumV 
that  the  Ollivier-Gramont  Ministry  resigned.  Em- 
press Eugenie,  who  had  been  intrusted  with  the 
Regency  by  her  husband,  called  upon  the  aged 
General  Montauban,  the  hero  of  Palikao,  to  form 
a  new  Cabinet.  The  Montauban  Ministry  immedi- 
ately proceeded  to  increase  the  fighting  force  of  the 
country  by  forced  drafts  and  by  forming  a  National 
Guard.  The  supreme  command  of  all  the  French 
troops  was  given  to  Marshal  Bazaine — an  action 
which  was  regarded  as  a  veiled  degradation  of  the  The 

Emperor 

Emperor.  The  new  generalissimo  forthwith  added 8llgtteQ 
to  his  army  the  defeated  corps  of  Frossard  and  other 
available  troops.  With  the  remnants  of  the  Vosges 
army,  MacMahon  marched  southward  to  Chalons, 
where  fresh  troops  were  stationed.  With  Bazaine 
at  Metz  were  Napoleon  and  Generals  Canrobert, 
Bourbaki,  Ladmirault  and  Decaen.  MacMahon, 
whose  division  was  now  named  the  "Army  of 


1500  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  Aug.  iwo 

Paris,"    was    joined    at    Chalons     by    the    troops 
of  Failly,  Felix  Douay,  Ducrot  and  Lebrun. 

Meanwhile,  the  Prussian  armies  and  the  troops 
of  the  Northern  States  and  Hesse-Darmstadt,  com- 
manded by  King  William,  marched  into  Lorraine, 
occupied  Nancy,  and  overran  the  entire  open  coun- 
try. Although  Metz,  Thionville  and  a  few  smaller 
Germans  frontier  fortresses  were  held  by  the  French,  Lorraine 
Lorraine  was  practically  conquered.  Simultaneously  with 
the  entry  of  the  Crown  Prince  into  Nancy,  the  first 
army  under  General  Steinmetz  marched  from  Saar- 
brucken  to  Metz,  where  the  elite  of  the  French 
forces,  200,000  men  with  500  field-pieces  and  150 
mitrailleuses,  had  been  gathered.  Prince  Frederick 
Charles  moved  toward  Pont-a-Mousson.  In  order 
to  oppose  a  greater  force  to  the  Germans,  the 
French  generals  in  council  decided  on  the  difficult 
armies  manoeuvre  of  a  reconcentration  from  Metz  to  Ver- 

reconcen- 

trateci  ^un  j^  jo-n  fae  reinforced  troops  of  MacMahon  at 
Chalons.  Barely  enough  men  were  to  be  left  under 
the  command  of  Coffinieres  to  defend  the  fortress. 
To  prevent  the  union  of  the  two  French  armies 
was  the  purpose  of  the  great  battles  fought  in  the 
vicinity  of  Metz — a  purpose  attained  largely  by 
the  strategic  genius  of  Moltke  and  the  admirable 
organization  of  the  German  army.  Prince  Frederick 
Charles,  who  was  to  assist  in  blocking  the  roads 
leading  from  Metz  to  Verdun,  could  arrive  from 
Pont-a-Mousson  only  by  the  16th.  So  two  divi- 
sions of  Steinmetz's  army,  commanded  by  Generals 

strata68  ^on  ^er  Goltz  an^  Zastrow,  were  sent  against  the 
French,  and  in  conjunction  with  Manteuffel,  Kara- 


1870  Aug.  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1501 

ecke  and  other  leaders,  fought  the  battle  of  Colom- 
bey-Nouilly.  The  engagement  cost  the  Germans 
4,600  men;  but  Bazaine  lost  twenty-four  hours — an 
irreparable  loss  for  France.  On  the  following  day, 
the  15th,  Bazaine's  entire  force  began  to  withdraw 
from  Metz  to  Verdun,  partly  by  way  of  Eezonville, 
Vionville,  and  Mars-la-Tour,  partly  by  way  of  Don-  vionviiie 
court,  Jarny  and  Etain.  Moltke  decided  to  fight 
between  the  rivers  Moselle  and  Maas.  For  six 
hours  on  the  16th  of  August  the  third  German 
army  corps  commanded  by  Alvensleben,  a  division 
of  the  tenth  army  corps,  and  two  cavalry  divisions, 
held  the  French  army  in  check  until  the  rest  of  their 
second  army  and  the  corps  of  the  first  which  had 
been  left  to  guard  the  eastern  side  of  Metz  could 
arrive.  At  the  critical  moment,  toward  three 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  the  cavalry,  composed 
of  Cuirassiers  and  Uhlans,  were  hurled  against  theMars-ia- 

Tour 

enemy.  It  was  the  famous  cavalry  charge  of  Mars- 
la-Tour.  Frederick  Charles  arrived  at  four  o'clock 
and  assumed  the  general  command.  After  a  strug- 
gle of  twelve  hours,  in  which  15,000  men  were  lost 
on  the  German  side  and  16,000  on  the  French,  the 
southern  road  was  completely  closed  to  Bazaine, 
and  the  Germans  occupied  the  region  from  Mars- 
la-Tour  to  Gravelotte. 

Bazaine  could  now  reach  Verdun  only  by  way  of 
the  northern  road  from  Gravelotte  through  Doncourt 
and  Jarny.  After  the  battle  of  Mars-la-Tour,  which 
he  reported  as  a  French  victory,  Bazaine  drew  some- 
what nearer  to  Metz  to  replenish  his  supply  of  am- 
munition. On  a  ridge  of  hills  Bazaine  disposed 


1502  A    HISTORY  OF   THE  Aus.  ISTO 

his  180,000  men.  At  twelve  o'clock  on  August  18, 
the  battle  began  at  Verneville,  and  soon  the  French 
outposts  were  driven  in  by  the  Germans.  The  at- 

°n  tae  m^rL   ^ne   was   more  difficult.       For  four 


Gravelotte 

hours  both  sides  fought  without  any  decisive  result 
At  five  o'clock  the  Prussian  guards  attacked  St. 
Privat,  which  had  been  transformed  into  a  veritable 
fortress.  They  were  repelled  with  terrible  loss.  It 
was  not  until  the  Saxons  arrived  from  the  north 
that  St.  Privat  was  taken  and  the  retreat  of  Bazaine 
at  this  point  was  prevented.  The  French  right 
wing  had  been  outflanked.  Shortly  before,  the 
French  had  made  a  last  attempt  to  force  their  way 
past  Gravelotte  at  the  opposite  extremity  of  the 
fighting  line  to  gain  the  southern  road  to  Verdun. 
A  famous  exploit  of  the  day  was  the  charge  of 
a  German  brigade  of  cavalry  —  the  Uhlans  of  the 
Mark  and  the  Magdeburg  Cuirassiers  under  Colonel 
Schmettow  —  against  the  French  batteries  and  in- 
fantry. An  incident  of  the  charge  has  been  made 
immortal  by  Freiligrath's  poem  "The  Bugle  of 
Gravelotte": 

Death  and  perdition  yawned  in  front  — 

rath's5  Boom  of  cannon  and  musketry  rattle  — 

line8  "We  charged  up  the  hill,  we  bore  the  brunt, 

"We  overrode  them  in  battle. 

With  lances  down  and  with  swords  on  high. 

We  galloped  over  the  heather, 
Resolved  each  man  to  do  or  to  die, 

Cuirassiers  we  and  Uhlans,  together. 

Shot  through  the  breast  with  gaping  wound, 

Spurned  by  mad  galloping  feet, 
In  the  pride  of  youth  they  lay  on  the  ground— 

Now,  bugler,  blow  the  retreat. 


NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1503 

He  raised  the  bugle  and  blew  it  with  might— 

0  hark,  war's  blaring  token, 
That  led  us  into  the  glorious  fight— 

The  bugle's  voice  is  broken ! 

'Twas  a  tuneless  call  the  bugler  blew, 

A  cry  as  of  anguish  and  ailing ; 
A  random  shot  had  pierced  it  through — 

For  the  dead  the  bugle  was  wailing. 

And  then  came  night,  and  we  rode  away ; 

Around  the  camp  fires  lying, 
'Mid  the  stamp  of  hoofs  and  the  horses'  neigh, 

We  thought  of  the  dead  and  the  dying. 

The  result  of  the  battle  of  Gravelotte  was  briefly 
told  in  King  William's  telegram  to  his  queen: 
"The  French  army  in  strong  position  west  of'Metz 
attacked  to-day;  under  my  leadership  utterly  beaten 
in  a  nine  hours'  battle;  cut  off  from  Paris,  and 
thrown  back  toward  Metz."  The  northern,  as  well 
as  the  southern  road  to  Verdun,  was  now  closed  to  A  costly 

victory 

Bazaine.  The  loss  on  the  German  side  reached  a 
bloody  total  of  22,000.  Bazaine  left  12,000  of  his 
men  on  the  field  of  battle. 

The  Germans  closed  in  around  Metz.  Seven  corps, 
together  with  other  troops  which  had  been  called 
from  home,  began  a  siege^under  the  command  of 
Prince  Frederick  Charles.  The  remaining  three 
corps  and  four  divisions  of  cavalry  were  trans- 
formed into  a  fourth  army  commanded  by  Crown 
Prince  Albert  of  Saxony  and  called  the  "Army  of 
the  Maas. " 

From  time  to  time  during  the  month  of  August 
the  French  were  gratified  with  reports  of  slight  suc- 
cesses on  the  part  of  their  gunboats  in  the  Baltic. 
The  most  important  of  these  was  an  indecisive 


1504  A   HISTORY   OF   THE  Aug.  im 

naval  engagement  on  the  16th,  to  the  west  of  the 
It'leT11"  Isle  of  Riigen,  between  a  division  of  the  Prussian 
fleet,  composed  of  the  "Grille,"  and  the  gunboats 
"Drache,"  "Blitz,"  and  "Salamander,"  and  four 
French  ironclad  frigates,  a  corvette,  and  a  despatch- 
boat. 

On  August  17,  the  French  Emperor,  who  had 
arrived  at  Cha,lons  on  the  previous  day,  decided, 
after  a  council  of  war,  to  appoint  some  popular 
man,  preferably  Trochu,  as  Governor  of  Paris,  to 
return  to  the  Tuileries  under  the  protection  of  this 
popular  appointment,  and  again  to  take  the  reins 
of  government.  MacMahon,  who  was  stationed  at 
Chalons  with  150,000  men,  was  to  retreat  to  Paris. 
Count  Montauban  energetically  opposed  the  Emper- 
or's plan  of  the  17th,  averred  that  Paris  was  well 
MacMahon  able  to  defend  itself  without  the  assistance  of  Mac- 

to  relieve 

Metz  Mahon,  and  informed  the  Emperor  that  it  was  the 
imperative  duty  of  MacMahon  to  march  to  Metz. 
Montauban  won  his  point. 

The  news  of  the  evacuation  of  Chalons  and  of  the 
northward  march  of  MacMahon,  brought  in  by  the 
German  cavalry  on  the  24th,  caused  Moltke  to  mod- 
ify his  plan  of  operations.  The  order  to  proceed  to 
Paris,  given  to  the  Prussian  Crown  Prince,  who  had 
reached  Ligny  on  August  23,  was  countermanded. 
He  was  directed  to  move  northward,  so  that  the 
French  force  would  be  compelled  to  march  between 
the  third  and  fourth  German  armies.  On  the  29th, 
MacMahon  found,  as  foreseen  by  him,  that  he  could 
not  hope  to  pass  the  Germans  and  reach  Bazaine 
without  encountering  serious  resistance.  On  the 


1870  Aug.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1505 

30th,  near  Beaumont,  west  of  the  Maas,  a  part  of 
his  army  under  De  Failly.was  surprised  at  the  noon  Beaum 
meal  by  the  Saxons  and  Thuringians.  De  Failly  lost 
twenty  guns;  and  3,000  of  his  men  were  captured. 
The  remainder  of  his  badly  shattered  force  was 
ordered  to  join  the  main  army  at  Sedan.  Here 
MacMahon  intended  to  sest  for  a  day,  and  here 
Louis  Napoleon  arrived  on  the  30th.  Slowly 
the  Germans  began  to  draw  the  net  about  Mac- 
Mahon. To  the  east  (Montmedy)  his  course  was 
blocked  by  the  Crown  Prince  of  Saxony.  The  road 
to  the  west  was  closed  by  the  third  army.  Only  a 
single  line  of  retreat,  leading  to  the  Belgian  frontier, 
some  seven  miles  distant,  was  still  open  to  him;  and 
seven  German  army  corps  were  so  close  to  one  an- 
other that  a  single  day's  march  would  close  the 
iron  ring  which  was  forging  around  him.  As 
early  as  August  27,  the  Crown  Prince  of  Prus- 
sia took  Archibald  Forbes,  the  "London  News"  MacMahon 
correspondent,  aside  and  showed  him  on  the  mapc° 
where  the  French  would  be  irretrievably  cor- 
nered. The  point  he  named  was  the  little  fortress 
of  Sedan. 

The  most  graphic  description  of  the  events  of 
these  days  has  been  given  in  Zola's  "La  Debacle."  Debacle" 
The  novelist  there  centres  his  story  in  the  move- 
ments of  the  French  corps  of  General  Douay  from 
Mu^hlhaus  to  Sedan.  Famous  is  his  epic  descrip- 
tion of  the  pathetic  figure  of  Napoleon  III.  going 
to  his  doom  with  rouge  on  his  cheeks. 

The  fortress  of  Sedan  is  situated  in  a  small  plaia 
on  both  sides  of  the  Maas.     On  the  heights  around 


1506  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Sept.  1870 

it  lie  the  villages  oJ  Bazeilles,  La  Moncelle,  Daigny, 
Givonne,  Illy  and  St.  Menges.  Southeast  of  Sedan, 
at  Bazeilles,  the  Bavarians  began  the  battle  early  on 
the  morning  of  September  1.  They  were  joined  by 
the  Saxons  at  Daigny,  and  by  the  Prussian  guards 
at  Givonne.  At  seven  o'clock  Marshal  MacMahon 
was  wounded  OD  th«  heights  between  Bazeilles  and 
La  Moncelle.  His  place  as  commanding  general  was 
taken  first  by  Ducrot,  then  by  General  Wimpffen, 
who  had  returned  from  Africa  but  one  day  before. 
Wimpffen  knew  next  to  nothing  of  MacMahon's 
plans.  Between  ten  and  eleven  o'clock  the  villages 
Sedan  along  the  Givonne  were  occupied  by  the  Germans. 
During  the  struggle,  the  fifth  and  sixth  corps  of 
the  third  German  army  had  begun  the  attack  on 
the  French  left  wing  at  St.  Menges  and  Illy.  Gen- 
eral Douay,  who  was  here  in  command,  endeavored 
to  bring  together  a  great  number  of  guns  on  the 
plateau  of  Illy;  but  against  the  superior  artillery  of 
the  Germans  he  could  effect  but  little.  Between 
two  and  three  o'clock  he  hurled  against  the  ad- 
vancing Germans  a  formidable  body  of  cavalry 
composed  of  Cuirassiers,  African  Chasseurs,  Hus- 
sars— eleven  regiments  in  all.  Under  the  deadly 
fire  of  the  32d  and  95th  German  infantry  regi- 
ments, the  attacking  force  melted.  Shortly  after- 
ward the  road  to  the  Belgian  frontier  was  closed. 
Hemmed  in  on  all  sides,  exposed  to  a  concentrated 
fire,  the  French  troops  were  thrown  back  into 
Sedan.  The  battlefield  was  a  chaos  of  dead, 
wounded,  and  fleeing  men,  of  riderless  horses  and 
overturned  wagons,  and  guns. 


1870  Sept.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1507 

At  four  o'clock  the  city  was  at  the  mercy  of 
the  Bavarian  batteries.  Toward  sundown  there  was 
a  lull  in  the  bombardment  to  afford  an  opportu- 
nity for  negotiations.  When  the  French  made  no 
sign  of  surrender  the  firing  was  resumed.  In  the 
town  itself  shells  fell  thick  and  fast.  Behind 
the  German  guns  stood  240,000  men,  against  86,- 
000  Frenchmen.  The  French  generals  believed  that 
they  were  facing  more  than  300,000  men.  Napoleon 
had  nothing  more  to  lose.  He  gave  the  order  to 
hoist  the  white  flag.  By  General  Reille  he  sent 
a  brief  note  to  the  King  of  Prussia  stationed  on 
the  heights  of  Frenois.  "Since  I  could  not  die  in 
the  midst  of  my  troops,"  wrote  Louis  Napoleon, 
"nothing  is  left  to  me  but  to  surrender  my  sword 
to  your  Majesty."  During  the  night  of  September 
2,  Wimpffen  and  Moltke  drew  up  the  articles 
of  capitulation  at  Donchery.  "And  now,"  said 
Wimpffen  bitterly,  "my  name  will  go  down  for 
all  time  linked  with  a  humiliating  surrender."  Of 
the  French  army,  13,000  men  had  been  killed; 
30,000  had  been  taken  prisoners;  3,000  had  slipped 
across  the  Belgian  frontier,  and  10,000  made  good 
their  escape  to  Mezieres.  By  the  terms  of  capitula- 
tion, 83,000  men,  together  with  2,866  officers,  40  gen- 
erals, and  more  than  400  guns,  besides  those  of  the 
fortress,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Germans.  The 
most  dreadful  incident  of  the  day  was  the  burning 
of  the  village  of  Bazeilles  by  the  Bavarians.  Most 
of  the  inhabitants  were  burned  alive.  In  defence  of 
this  shocking  atrocity  it  was  claimed  by  the  Ger- 
mans that  the  villagers  had  fired  on  the  soldiers. 


1508  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Sept.  1870 

At  Donchery,  Napoleon   had  a  conference  with 
at* Don?DCe  Bismarck  in  the  garden  of  a  peasant.     Not  until 

chcrv 

the  articles  of  capitulation  had  been  signed  did 
Louis  Napoleon  recognize  in  the  man  of  blood 
and  iron  the  enemy  who  had  wrought  his  downfall. 
Then,  too,  he  learned  for  the  first  time  that  Prince 
Frederick  Charles'  army  had  not  stirred  from  Metz, 
so  that  Bazaine  and  his  men  were  a  sure  prey  of 
the  Germans.  A  convulsion  of  anguish  passed 
over  the  Emperor's  face.  Shattered  in  mind  and 
body,  the  unhappy  man  made  his  doleful  journey 
to  the  castle  of  Wilhelmshohe  at  Cassel,  assigned 
for  his  captivity. 

On  the  day  before  Sedan,  Bazaine  had  tried  to 

break   out  of   Metz.      After   a   twenty-four  hours' 

.,,    battle  around  Noisseville  he  was  turned   back  by 

Woisseville  * 

the  Germans.  At  the  headquarters  of  Prince  Fred- 
erick Charles  the  cannonading  at  Sedan  could  be 
distinctly  heard.  With  each  day  the  German  force 
increased  in  numbers;  with  each  day  Bazaine's 
position  grew  more  precarious. 

The  government  at  Paris  received  the  terrible 
news  of  the  catastrophe  of  Sedan  at  noon  on  Sep- 
tember 3.  The  Corps  Legislatif  had  been  called 
together.  The  state  of  affairs  could  no  longer  be 
concealed.  The  Opposition  now  gained  the  ascen- 
dant. Jules  Favre  made  a  motion  to  depose  Louis 
tf'anshears  Napoleon  and  his  dynasty.  On  the  morning  of  the 
4th  of  September,  the  people  read  the  manifesto 
issued  by  the  government,  in  which  the  capitula- 
tion of  the  French  army  to  "300,000  enemies"  was 
admitted.  Pandemonium  broke  out  in  Paris.  On 


.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1509 

the  following   day  a  maddened   mob   of   Parisians 
overpowered  the  few  guards  by  whom  the  Assem- 
bly was  protected,  and  forced  its  way  into  the  hall, 
whence  they  could  not  be  driven.     In  the  City  Hall 
a  government  of   national  defence   was   called   to- 
gether composed  of  the  Deputies  of  Paris.     General 
Trochu,    the    Commandant    of    Paris,    was   elected  |^per^s 
President.    Abandoned  by  everyone,  the  Empress flees 
fled  from  the  Tuileries,  luckily  reached  the  coast, 
and  escaped  to  England. 

The  lawyers,  demagogues  and  journalists  who 
had  now  taken  the  helm  proclaimed  themselves 
as  the  saviors  of  France.  "The  Republic  repelled 
the  invasion  of  1792;  the  Eepublic  is  proclaimed."  proclaimed 
Thiers  applied  to  the  several  European  courts  for 
assistance.  Kind,  but  empty"  words  alone  were  re- 
ceived. Disappointing  though  his  efforts  had  been, 
the  people  could  not  believe  that  Europe  would 
suffer  the  Germans  to  attack  Paris  without  raising 
a  helping  hand.  Victor  flugo  sang:  "To  save  Paris 
is  to  save  not  France  alone;  Paris  is  the  holy  city; 
whoever  attacks  Paris  attacks  all  mankind." 

In  a  circular  letter  Jules  Favre  informed  the  dip- 
lomatic agents  of  France  of  the  aims  of  the  new 
government.  Thus  ran  the  formula:  "We  will  not  German 

peace 

give  up  a  foot  of  earth,  or  a  single  stone  from  our  ^[ecied 
fortresses."  The  Germans,  on  the  other  hand,  were 
bent  on  a  territorial  indemnity.  The  return  of  Al- 
sace, the  province  wrested  from  Germany  at  a  time 
of  profound  peace,  was  the  obvious  demand.  Bis- 
marck was  willing  to  stop  short  at  Strasburg,  but 
Moltke  insisted  on  the  whole  of  tiie  strong  line 


1510  A    HISTORY    OF   THE  Sept.  18TO 

of  frontier  fortresses,  including  Lorraine  and  Bel- 
fort.  Bather  than  yield  to  this,  every  true-hearted 
Frenchman  preferred  to  resist  to  the  last,  ditch. 
The  Germans  resumed  their  march  on  Paris.  There, 
only  Trochu  was  clear-sighted  enough  to  denounce 
the  continuation  of  the  struggle  as  "heroic  mad- 
ness." 

On  the  15th  of  September  the  German  cavalry  ap- 
peared before  Paris.     Within  a  week  the  outer  line 

Paris 

invested  of  fortifications,  seven  and  one-half  miles  in  length, 
was  completely  surrounded  by  the  German  forces. 
In  the  city  were  100,000  regular  soldiers  and  about 
300,000  men  able  to  bear  arms.  It  was  the  French 
plan  to  detain  the  major  portion  of  the  German 
armies  before  Paris  and  Metz,  so  as  to  give  the 
provinces  an  opportunity  to  rise  en  masse  and 
drive  out  the  invaders.  During  one  of  the  early 
sorties  from  Paris  the  celebrated  painter  Vibert 
fell  wounded  at  Malmaison.  In  a  balloon  Gam- 

Ga^Eetta  Detta  escaped  from  Paris  and  descended  at  Tours. 
There  he  immediately  began  raising  the  army  of 
the  Loire. 

It  happened   unfortunately  for  the  French  that, 
while  the  Germans  were  marching  on  Paris,  an  in 

Treachery  cident  occurred  which  greatly  exasperated  the  feel- 
ings of  the  conquerors  against  the  conquered.  On 
the  9th  of  September  the  town  of  Laon  surrendered. 
As  the  last  men  of  the  Mobile  Guards  were  leaving, 
the  powder  magazine  was  blown  up.  Duke  William 
of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin  was  severely  injured,  and 
four  hundred  soldiers  were  killed  or  wounded. 
The  German  forces  were  divided  into  four  armies. 


1870 Sept.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1511 

The  first  of  these  besieged  .Paris;  the  second  Metz; 
the  third  proceeded  southward  to  the  Loire,  and  the 
fourth  camped  before  Strasburg.  The  city  was  ably 
defended  by  General  Dhrich.  The  garrison,  not  io-Sie&eof 
eluding  National  Guardsmen,  numbered  11,000.  On  strasburs 
August  18,  Werder  began  a  bombardment  so  terrific 
that  the  city's  dead  could  not  be  carried  out  to  the 
cemeteries.  Those  who  fell  were  interred  in  the 
Botanical  Gardens.  Within  the  town  the  destruc- 
tion of  property  was  appalling.  The  gallery  of 
paintings;  the  new  Protestant  Church,  with  its 
famous  organ  and  its  frescoes;  the  city  library 
with  its  priceless  manuscripts;  the  mansions  in  the 
better  part  of  the  city — all  were  struck  by  shells. 
Only  the  great  Gothic  cathedral  and  public  hospi- 
tals were  spared.  The  bombardment  failed  to  bring 
the  city  to  terms.  •  Werder  saw  that  it  was  useless  The city 
to  pour  in  shot  and  shell  indiscriminately,  and  de- 
termined to  bring  the  city  to  subjection  by  syste- 
matically capturing  each  line  of  defence  until  the 
innermost  fortifications  were  reached.  Day  after 
day  he  drew  his  lines  more  tightly  about  the  city 
walls.  One  after  another  the  outposts  were  all  cap- 
tured. Unable  to  hold  out  longer,  unwilling  to 
subject  the  people  to  the  horrors  which  would 
necessarily  follow  if  the  city  were  taken  by  storm,  strasburg 

TTI  n  i       /-^      i       -i      i  surrenders 

Uhrich  hoisted  the  white  flag  on  the  Cathedral  on 
September  27. 

Meanwhile,  the  organization  of  the  new  French 
levies  was  fast  progressing.     The  most  active  of  the 
men  who  were  charged  with  this  work  was  Le"on  £ctMty 
Gambetta.     His  first  task  was  to  divide  France  into 


1512  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Oct.  iwo 

four  military  districts,  with  centres  at  Lille,  Le 
Man,  Bourge,  and  Besangon.  General  Motterouge 
first  succeeded  in  getting  together  the  "Army 
of  the  Loire."  The  hastily  gathered  troops  were 
no  match  for  the  Bavarians  under  Von  der  Tann, 

o!i6ans  and  were  beaten  near  Orleans  on  October  9  and 
October  11.  They  retreated  toward  Bourge.  Wer- 
der's  army,  relieved  at  Strasburg,  moved  on  Bourge 
from  the  other  side.  With  the  occupation  of  Or- 
leans, the  German  generals  called  a  halt.  While 
Metz  still  held  out  it  was  not  safe  to  proceed 
too  hastily. 

A  great  sortie  attempted  by  Bazaine  on  the  7th 
of  October  had  proven  disastrous.  Sickness  broke 
out  among  the  besieged  troops,  and  the  horses  had 
to  be  sacrificed.  On  October  27,  Bazaine  capitu- 
lated. From  one  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  until 
dusk  the  French  troops  filed  out  of  the  gates  of 
Metz,  prisoners  of  war  to  the  number  of  173,000. 

capituia-  Among  them  were  three  marshals  of  France, 
seventy  generals,  and  over  4,000  officers.  With 
the  surrender  of  Metz,  Prince  Frederick  Charles 
received  53  eagles,  over  600  field -pieces,  about 
900  cannon  which  had  been  used  in  defending 
the  fortress,  and  300,000  infantry  muskets.  Never 
before  did  a  modern  army  capture  so  rich  a  prize. 
In  a  proclamation  Gambetta  accused  Marshal  Ba- 
zaine of  treason.  Bazaine's  defence  that  it  was  more 
important  for  his  army  to  save  France  from  its 
new  government  than  from  the  foreign  invader 
has  never  beea  forgiven  by  Frenchmen. 

With  the  aid  of  the  seven  German  army  corps 


1870  Nov.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1513 

which  had  so  long  besieged  Metz,  the  war  was 
brought  to  a  speedy  end.  On  October  30,  Thiers 
tried  to  arrange  an  armistice  and  failed.  During 
his  negotiations  the  government  was  attacked  onMobru(e 
October  31.  Trochu,  Arago,  Ferry,  Picard,  andatparis 
Favre  were  imprisoned  in  the  City  Hall  by  the 
leaders  of  the  mob,  and  were  released  only  late 
at  night  by  a  few  battalions  of  National  Guards. 
The  most  spirited  sea  fight  of  the  war  occurred 
about  this  time  off  Havana.  One  German  ship, 
the  "Augusta,"  had  succeeded  in  escaping  from 
the  Elbe  during  the  blockade  of  the  North  Sea 
coast,  and,  appearing  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  cap- 
tured three  French  vessels.  Pursued  into  Vigo, 
she  was  held  there  under  the  twenty-four  hour 
law.  Smarting  under  this  recent  provocation,  the 
captain  of  the  French  gunboat  "Bouvet"  at  Havana 
challenged  the  German  gunboat  "Meteor"  to  come 
out  of  the  harbor  and  fight  him.  He  steamed  out 
on  November  8,  and  exactly  twenty-four  hours  seaafight9 
later  the  German  followed.  In  plain  sight  of  the 
people  of  Havana,  gathered  on  the  heights  of 
the  Morro  and  at  the  Punta,  the  two  ships  fought 
each  other,  circling  around  and  around,  but  doing 
little  damage.  At  last  the  Frenchman  tried  to  ram. 
Charging  at  full  speed  his  blow  glanced  off.  The 
Germans  at  the  same  time  tried  to  board  the 
"Bouvet."  The  Frenchman  was  preparing  to  ram 
again  when  a  shot  from  the  "Meteor"  pierced 
her  boiler.  She  hoisted  sail  and  retired  with 
the  "Meteor"  in  pursuit.  The  Spanish  captain  of 
the  port,  who  had  come  out  to  prevent  any  infrac- 


1514  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  Dec.  1870 

tion  of  neutrality,  stopped  the  engagement  by  in- 
form.! ng  both  combatants  that  they  were  now  within 
the  three-mile  zone.  The  loss  of  the  "Bouvet"  was 
ten  men  killed  or  wounded,  that  of  the  "Meteor" 
two.  On  French  soil,  Admiral  Jaure*quiberry,  with 
a  corps  of  sailors  and  marine  infantry,  won  great 

na^to-     distinction.     Still  keen  disappointment  was  felt  in 
tual    France  over  the  negative  results  achieved  by  her 
formidable  navy. 

Two  German  corps  under  Von  Manteuffel  were 
despatched  to  Normandy  in  order  to  prevent  the 
relief  of  the  city  of  Paris  from  that  side.  Three 
corps  tender  Frederick  Charles  hastened  to  the  Loire 
to  help  Von  der  Tann,  who  had  been  compelled 

Couimiers  to  give  up  Orleans  on  November  9,  at  Coulmiers. 
It  was  the  only  noteworthy  success  achieved  by 
French  arms  during  the  entire  war.  The  army 
of  the  Loire  undertook  a  great  offensive  move- 
ment; but  on  the  28th  of  November  its  right 
wing  was  badly  beaten  at  Beaune  la  Kolande  by 

Beaune  la  the  left  wing  of  the  Prussians.    On  December  2,  the 

Rolando 

second  battle  of  Orleans  was  begun;  and  two  days 
later,  the  Germans  again  entered  the  city,  while  the 
French  retired  to  the  left  bank  of  the  Loire.  From 
November  28  to  December  5,  the  French  losses  had 
been  heavy.  No  less  than  25,000  prisoners  were 
taken  by  the  Germans. 

At  about  the  same  time  (November  30  to  Decem- 
ber 2)  the  Parisian  army  made  a  sortie  toward  the 
southeast,  hoping  to  break  through  the  German 
ten  ranks  and  to  reach  the  army  of  the  Loire.  Brie 
and  Champigny  were  the  scenes  of  hot  engage- 


1870  Dec.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1515 

ments.  Famous  in  French  annals  is  the  heroic 
defence  of  the  glass  works  at  Champigny,  which 
has  been  pictured  in  one  of  Detaille's  most  cele- 
brated canvases.  Yet  it  resulted  in  defeat  for 
the  French.  The  Parisian  army  was  compelled  to 
re-enter  the  capital,  to  the  mortification  of  General 
Duerot,  who  had  sworn  to  return  to  Paris  "either 
victorious  or  dead."  In  the  north,  Manteuffel  had 
been  as  successful  as  his  countrymen  before  Paris. 
At  Amiens,  on  November  27,  he  defeated  Faid- 
herbe.  To  the  long  list  of  fortresses  which  had 
capitulated  after  the  fall  of  Strasburg — Soissons,  Manteuffel 
Verdun,  Schlettstadt,  Neubreisach  and  Thionville — luandy 
there  were  now  added  La  Fere  and  the  citadel  of 
Amiens.  December  6,  Manteuffel  entered  Kouen, 
the  capital  city  of  Normandy.  German  Uhlans 
scoured  the  country  to  the  very  coast,  so  that  the 
French  fleet,  which  had  accomplished  next  to  noth- 
ing during  the  war,  was  compelled  to  blockade  the 
shores  of  its  own  country.  The  victories  won  in 
Normandy  between  November  27  and  December 
8,  completely  cut  off  communication  between  Paris  ^tr'off 
and  the  outer  world,  and  crushed  the  last  hope 
of  relief  for  Fracce. 

During  these  eventful  days  an  oft-deferred  ideal 
of  patriotic  Germans  was  brought  to  realization,  by 
the  combined  efforts  of  Bismarck  and  the  Crown 
Prince  of  Prussia.  Under  pressure  from  Bismarck, 
King  Louis  II.  of  Bavaria  sent  a  letter  to  the  Ger- 
man princes  and  the  Senates  of  the  free  cities,  in 

German 

which  he  proposed  that  the  King  of  Prussia  should 
thenceforth   exercise  his  erstwhile   prerogatives   of 


1516 


A   HISTORY   OF   THE 


Dec.  1870 


Death  of 
Dumas 


Dumas' 
novels 


President  of  the  Confederation,  as  German  Em- 
peror. On  December  18,  King  William  received 
a  deputation  from  the  North  German  Reichstag. 

In  the  turmoil  of  war,  on  December  5,  occurred 
the  death  of  Alexandre  Dumas,  the  elder,  one  of 
the  most  popular  and  prolific  of  French  writers. 
In  1829  his  first  drama,  "Henri  III.,"  was  produced 
at  the  Theatre  Frangais  and  attained  an  immedi- 
ate success.  The  Duke  of  Orleans  raised  him  to 
the  rank  of  Ducal  Librarian.  Dumas  now  brought 
out  in  rapid  succession  the  melodramas  "Charles 
VII.,"  "Richard  Darlington,"  "Antony,"  "The- 
rese,"  "Ang51e, "  and  other  plays  distinguished  for 
the  author's  recourse  to  extreme  effects.  Of  finer 
workmanship  were  his  comedies  "Mademoiselle 
de  Belle-Isle,"  "Le  Mariage  de  Louis  XV.," 
"Les  Demoiselles  de  Saint-Cyr."  Of  the  innumer- 
able serial  stories  with  which  Dumas  flooded  the 
literary  journals  of  Paris,  several  achieved  a  fame 
far  beyond  the  confines  of  the  press.  Most  lasting 
in  their  hold  on  novel  readers  were  the  romances 
"Isabeau  de  Baviere"  (1835),  "Les  Souvenirs 
d' Antony"  (1837),  "Gaule  et  France"  (1840),  "Les 
Trois  Mousquetaires"  (1844),  "Le  Comte  de  Monte 
Cristo"  (1845),  "Reine  Margot,"  "Joseph  Balsamo" 
and  "Le  Chevalier  de  Maison  Rouge"  (1846),  and 
"The  Queen's  Necklace"  (1849).  Dumas's  liter- 
ary  earnings  for  one  year  reached  a  sum  total 
of  nearly  a  million  francs.  Still  Dumas's  expendi- 
tures were  such  that  he  needed  more  money.  To 
satisfy  his  creditors  he  entered  into  an  agreement 
to  turn  out  five  serial  stories  at  once.  Unable  even 


1870  Autumn  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1517 

with  the  help  of  assistants  to  fulfil  this  promise, 
Dumas  was  sued  in  the  courts  for  breach  of  con- 
tract. By  the  time  of  Dumas's  death  his  remark- 
able vogue  as  a  writer  had  all  but  come  to  an  end. 
At  Kome,  some  time  after  the  official  announce- 
ment of  the  Dogma  of  Infallibility  had  been  made, 
the  French  garrison,  which  had  so  long  guarded  the 
Pope's  citadels,  was  withdrawn  under  the  stress  of 
the  war.  In  accordance  with  an  understanding  with 
Prussia,  King  Victor  Emmanuel's  troops,  under  evacuated 
General  Cadorna,  were  ordered  to  march  on  Kome. 
The  Pope  announced  that  "negotiations  for  surren- 
der shall  be  opened  so  soon  as  a  breach  shall  have 
been  made  in  the  walls  of  the  Sacred  City.  At  a 
moment  when  all  Europe  is  mourning  over  the  nu- 
merous victims  of  the  dreadful  war  now  waging  by 
two  great  nations,  never  let  it  be  said  that  the  vicar 
of  Jesus  Christ,  however  unjustly  assailed,  would 
give  his  consent  to  more  bloodshed."  Despite 
the  Pope's  orders  that  no  determined  resistance 
should  be  made,  a  cannonade  of  four  hours  was 
found  necessary  before  the  Italian  troops  could  en- 
ter the  city  by  a  breach.  The  losses  on  either  side 
were  insignificant.  On  September  20,  General  Kanz- 
ler,  the  Papal  commandant,  capitulated.  General  Jtatus°pe's 
Cadorna,  entering  Eome  at  the  head  of  his  forces, 
was  received  with  wild  demonstrations  of  Italian  en- 
thusiasm. In  a  formal  compact,  King  Victor  Em- 
manuel now  guaranteed  to  the  Pope  the  following 
sovereign  rights:  He  was  to  retain  his  guards  and  an 
income  of  3,256,000  francs.  He  was  to  keep  the 
Vatican,  the  Church  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  Cas- 

XlXth  Century— Vol.  3— L 


1518  A   HISTORY   OF   THE  Dec.  isro 

tel  Grandolfo,  and  their  dependencies,  exempt  alike 
from  national  taxation  as  from  common-law  jurisdic- 
tion. The  same  immunity  was  extended  to  any  tem- 
porary residence  of  the  Pope,  Conclave,  or  Papal 
Council.  The  Pope  was  free  to  establish  at  the  Vati- 
can a  post-office  and  telegraphic  bureau,  managed 
by  his  own  officials.  The  Papal  despatches  and 
couriers  were  to  be  conveyed  without  let  or  hin- 
drance like  those  of  foreign  governments.  Church 
councils  were  free  to  meet  at  any  time  or  place.  No 
oath  of  allegiance  to  the  King  was  required  of  the 
bishops.  The  royal  Placet  and  Exequatur  were 
abolished.  Church  seminaries  and  other  Catholic 
institutions  were  to  derive  their  authority  from  the 
Holy  See  at  Eome,  without  any  interference  from 
the  Italian  Ministry  of  Education.  After  these  ar- 
rangements had  been  made  by  the  royal  government, 
the  Italian  Parliament  sanctioned  the  proposed  trans- 
fer of  the  royal  residence  and  national  capital  from 
Florence  to  Eome  by  an  overwhelming  majority  of 
192  over  18  votes.  In  view  of  the  government  de- 
ficit of  24,000,000  lire,  a  credit  of  17,000,000  lire  was 
voted  by  the  Chambers. 

While  these  striking  changes  were  effected  in 
ftaly,  the  immediate  cause  of  the  Franco-Prussian 
war  had  been  adjusted  in  Spain.  Late  in  October, 
the  Spanish  crown  was  offered  to  Amadeus,  Duke 

Spain 

of  Aosta,  the  second  son  of  the  King  of  Italy,  and 
was  accepted  by  him.  On  December  28,  the  day 
that  King  Amadeus  I.  landed  at  Cartagena,  Marshal 
Death  of  Prim  was  assassinated  while  driving  to  the  Cortes 
in  the  Calle  de  Alcala  at  Madrid. 


1871  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1519 


1871 

THE   French   army   was   in   a   terrible    plight. 
Urged  on  by  Gambetta,  who  had  assumed 
all  the  power  of  a  dictator,   the  recruiting 
officers  pressed  into  service  men  whom  they  could 
not  arm,  whom  they  could  not  even  feed.     To  the 
horrors  of  starvation  were  added  the  terrors  of  one 
of  the  bitterest  winters  ever  known  in  this  part  of 

The 

France.      The  maior  portion  of  the  Army  of  the  French 

reserves 

Loire,  led  by  General  Chanzy,  who  had  taken  the 
place  of  Aurelles  de  Paladine,  fell  back  on  Paris; 
the  minor  portion,  under  Bourbaki,  who  had  been 
called  from  the  north,  marched  eastward.  Seventy 
thousand  Germans,  under  Prince  Frederick  Charles, 
as  they  marched  to  meet  Chanzy,  likewise  suffered 
severely.  The  battles  between  the  Loire  and  Sarthe, 
at  Azay  and  La  Chartre,  at  Barge*  and  Nogent  le 
Trou,  at  Lampron  and  La  Chapelle,  all  fought  be- 
tween January  6  and  January  10,  were  waged  over 
hills  and  roads  covered  with  snow  and  ice.  One 
bloody  field  after  another  was  defended  by  Chanzy 
with  a  courage  born  of  despair.  After  a  final  sharp  checked 
fight  before  Le  Mans,  on  January  12,  the  Germans 
captured  that  city.  Brave  Chanzy  retired  to  Laval, 
where  he  hoped  to  reorganize  the  remnants  of  his 
army.  His  northward  march  had  been  checked. 


1520  A    HISTORY    OF   THE  Jan.  1 871 

In  the  north,  the  Germans  had  also  been  success- 
ful. At  Bapaume,  on  January  3,  General  von 
Goben,  with  an  army  of  10,000  men,  held  40,000 

Defeats  of  Frenchmen,   under    Faidherbe,   in   check.      In   the 

e  uight,  Faidherbe  retired  to  his  fortifications.     On 

the  19th,  he  emerged  again,  only  to  suffer  his  last 

defeat  near  St.  Quentin.     General  von  Goben  took 

13,000  prisoners. 

On  this  same  day,  the  last  great  battle  was  fought 
before  Paris.  The  people  had  long  been  almost 
starving.  Fresh  meat  became  scarcer  and  scarcer. 
As  a  substitute  for  bread,  baked  flour  and  bran  were 

pii-htof  s°ld.  Toward  the  last,  rats,  bought  at  a  franc  apiece, 
dogs,  cats,  and  the  animals  in  the  Zoological  Gar- 
dens were  eaten  by  the  famished  Parisians.  Despite 
its  wretched  condition,  the  city  had  resisted  month 
after  month.  After  the  last  heavy  siege  guns  were 
mounted  by  the  Germans,  the  bombardment  of  St. 
Avron  was  immediately  begun.  Each  day  nearly 
200  shells  were  discharged  into  the  city  lying  on 
the  left  of  the  Seine.  Still,  as  late  as  January  6, 
Trochu  declared  that  "the  Governor  of  Paris  would 
never  capitulate." 

At  Versailles,  meanwhile,  in  the  famous  Hall 
of  Mirrors,  an  event  occurred,  on  January  18, 

German  which  changed  the  destiny  of  Germany.  On  that 
day  the  King  of  Prussia  proclaimed  to  a  brilliant 
gathering  of  German  princes  and  military  officers 
the  fusion  of  the  German  States  into  an  empire. 
On  the  following  day,  the  garrison  of  Paris  made  its 
last  great  sortie.  From  the  southwestern  side  of 
the  city,  100,000  men,  under  Trochu's  personal  direc 


isruan.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1521 

tion,  burst  forth  in  three  great  columns  and  attacked 
the  lines  of  the  Fifth  German  Army  Corps,  com- 
posed of  33,000  troops  from  Posen  and  Silesia.    The 
fight,  called  by  the  French  the  battle  of  Mont  Vale"-  gortie 
rien,  lasted  a  whole  day.     It  ended  with  another  re-  vaKn 
treat  into  the  city.     The  casualties  of  the  French 
were  disproportionately  heavy. 

Among  the  fallen  was  Alexandre  Georges  Henri 
Regnault,  the  well-known  artist.  None  of  Reg- 
nault's  comrades  saw  him  die,  but  the  next  day,  on  v 

the  field  of  Buzenval,  his  body  was  picked  up  by  an 
ambulance  driver.  Regnault,  who  was  but  twenty- 

J     Death  of 

eight  years  old  when  he  was  killed,  had  already  wonRc«nault 
the  Prix  de  Rome,  and  had  achieved  renown  by  his 
celebrated  pictures  "Judith  and  Holofernes, "  "Sa- 
lome," and  "An  Execution  under  the  Moors  at 
Granada,"  now  at  the  Luxembourg.  He  also  fur- 
nished twenty-seven  designs  for  the  illustration  of 
Wey's  "Rome."  Most  famous  of  all  his  pictures  is 
his  portrait  of  General  Prim,  painted  in  Spain  dur- 
ing the  revolutionary  war  of  1868,  and  subsequently 
acquired  by  the  Luxembourg  Gallery. 

No  one  in  Paris  now  cared  to  take  upon  himself 
the  responsibility  of  another  attack.  There  was 
barely  food  enough  to  last  until  February.  Having 
sworn  that  he  would  not  surrender,  Trochu  resigned  Trochu 

resigns 

his  command.  Yinoy  took  his  place.  Harassed  by 
the  German  cannon  without,  by  famine  and  disease 
within;  crippled  by  the  dissensions  among  the  peo- 
ple; without  any  prospect  of  relief  from  the  prov- 
inces— Parisians  saw  that  resistance  must  soon  end. 
By  an  irony  of  fate,  Jules  Favre,  the  man  who  had 


1522  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Jan.  1871 

voiced  the  formula  "not  a  foot  of  our  land,"  etc., 
received  the  commission  of  saving  Paris  from  utter 
ruin.  On  January  23,  he  proposed  terms  to  Bis- 
marck which  were  rejected.  Dnconditional  surren- 
der was  demanded.  In  a  second  conference,  on  the 
following  day,  Favre,  in  dejection  of  spirit,  came  to 
an  agreement  with  Bismarck.  Firing  on  both  sides 
was  to  cease  on  January  27,  at  midnight.  On  the 
morrow,  a  "Convention"  was  signed,  by  the  terms 
Paris  virtually  capitulated.  A  three  weeks' 


armistice  was  declared,  during  which  a  National  As- 
sembly at  Bordeaux  was  to  decide  whether  or  no  the 
war  should  be  continued.  The  forts  of  Paris,  with 
all  their  war  material,  were  surrendered.  The  450,- 
000  men,  comprising  the  army,  it  was  agreed,  were 
to  be  considered  prisoners  of  war,  but  were  not  to 
be  deported  to  Germany  ;  the  National  Guard  were 
allowed  to  keep  their  arms,  despite  the  warning 
words  of  Bismarck  to  the  Parisian  authorities;  and 
a  division  of  12,000  men  was  to  preserve  order  within 
the  city.  It  was  an  honorable  surrender.  For  132 
days  the  people  had  resisted  manfully.  When  they 
yielded  there  was  not  enough  food  left  for  another 
fortnight. 

Although  Paris  had  capitulated,  much  blood  was 
still  shed.  It  had  been  stipulated  in  the  Convention 
of  Paris  by  Bismarck  that  the  eastern  departments 
campaign  were  not  to  be  included  in  the  armistice,  so  that  the 
operations  then  in  progress  against  Belfort  could  be 
continued.  Favre  agreed  on  condition  that  Bour- 
baki's  force,  comprising  the  smaller  portion  of  the 
divided  army  of  the  Loire  and  additional  troops, 


WUan.  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1523 

some  150,000  men  in  all,  might  retain  full  freedom 
of  movement.  With  this  army,  Gambetta  hoped  to 
retrieve  some  of  the  French  losses.  Belfort,  which 
had  been  besieged  since  the  beginning  of  November, 
was  to  be  relieved;  Alsace  was  to  be  invaded;  the 
German  lines  of  retreat  were  to  be  cut  off.  In  a 
strong  position  on  the  Lisaine,  Werder,  with  his 
50,000  Germans,  awaited  Bourbaki's  attack.  In  a 
three  days'  battle  (January  15,  16,  17),  the  Germans 

J  Bourbaki 

held  off  the  enemy.     The  dead  bodies  of  German  checked 
soldiers  covered  the  frozen  stream.     Bourbaki  failed 
to  break  through  Werder's  lines.     On  the  18th,  he 
began  his  retreat. 

It  was  Bourbaki's  intention  to  fall  back  on  Lyons. 
But  it  was  too  late.  Manteuffel,  with  two  army 
corps  (led  respectively  by  Fransecky  and  Zastrow), 
rushed  to  Werder's  aid  by  way  of  Auxerre  and 
Avallon.  At  Dijon,  General  Kettler  was  left  be- 

J  Garibaldi's 

hind  with  two  regiments  to  watch  the  movements  of  volunteer» 
Garibaldi,  the  confederate  of  the  French  Republic, 
who  had  gathered  together  an  army  of  20,000  volun- 
teers. The  main  body  of  the  German  troops  wedged 
itself  between  Garibaldi  and  Bourbaki,  pressed  for- 
ward by  way  of  Gray  and  Pesme  to  Dole,  the  junc- 
tion of  three  railroads,  and  intercepted  the  provisions 
and  clothes  which  had  been  sent  to  the  starving, 
freezing  men  of  Bourbaki.  While  Garibaldi,  who 

Italians 

had   placed    his   volunteers   on   the    heights    about  outwitted 
Dijon,  fought  with  Kettler's  detachment,  under  the 
impression  that  he  was  opposed  by  the  entire  Ger- 
man army,  the  troops  under  Zastrow  and  Fransecky, 
in  a  series  of  admirable  forced  marches,  proceeded 


1524  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Feb.  i«ri 

to  cut  off  Bourbaki  from  Lyons  and  to  surround  him 
in  very  much  the  same  manner  as  MacMahon  had 
been  trapped  at  Sedan.  The  French  could  escape 
Bourbaki  only  ^.7  retiring  southward  over  the  Swiss  frontier. 
Bourbaki,  severely  censured  by  Gambetta,  attempted 
to  kill  himself.  His  place  was  taken  by  Clinchant. 
On  February  1,  the  French  were  attacked  at  Pon- 
tarlier  on  three  sides.  At  twelve  o'clock  the  town 
was  taken;  and  in  the  afternoon,  near  La  Cluse  in 

The  last 

the  Jura,  the  last  shot  of  the  war  was  fired.  The 
French  army  of  83,000  men  marched  into  the  neutral 
territory  of  Switzerland  and  were  disarmed. 

In  the  middle  of  February,  the  self-constituted 
National  Assembly  of  France  met-  at  Bordeaux, 
placed  Thiers  at  the  head  of  the  French  Republic, 
and,  on  February  17,  authorized  him  to  conclude 

Thiers  at  peace.  Thiers  surrounded  himself  with  a  Ministry 
in  which  were  included  Favre,  Simon,  Picard,  and 
other  members  of  the  former  government  of  national 
defence.  Time  for  negotiations  could  be  gained 
only  after  the  surrender  of  Belfort,  which  had  held 
out  bravely  for  four  months.  A  few  weeks  before, 
in  the  night  of  January  26-27,  Colonel  Denfert,  the 
commandant,  had  succeeded  in  repelling  an  attack 
and  in  taking  several  hundred  German  prisoners. 

surrender  With  the  defeat  of  Bourbaki,  however,  there  was  no 
further  hope  of  relief.  Belfort  was  therefore  ordered 
to  capitulate  by  Jules  Favre.  In  consideration  of 
its  gallant  defence,  the  garrison  of  12,000  men  was 
allowed  to  march  out  with  all  the  honors  of  war  on 
Fehjraary  16.  Negotiations  were  now  begun.  That 
territory  and  a  war  indemnity  would  be  demanded 


1871  Spring  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1525 

had  been  expected.  The  extent  of  the  territory  and 
the  amount  of  the  indemnity,  however,  were  deter- 
mined only  after  a  long,  hard  discussion  between 
Bismarck  and  the  Commission.  The  Prussian  Chan- 
cellor demanded  Alsace  and  German  Lorraine,  to- 
gether with  Metz  and  Diedenhofen  (Thionville),  and 
insisted  upon  the  German  troops  entering  Paris. 
Thiers  pleaded  in  vain  for  easier  terms.  He  suc- 
ceeded in  saving  only  Belfort.  It  was  finally  agreed 
that  Alsace  and  Lorraine  were  to  be  ceded,  and  that10"™118 

ceded 

France  was  to  pay  a  war  indemnity  of  five  milliards 
of  francs.  The  preliminary  treaty  of  peace  was 
signed  at  Versailles  on  February  26.  On  the  fol- 
lowing day  Thiers  tried  to  read  the  provisions  of 
the  treaty  to  the  silent  Assembly,  but  was  so  over- 
come by  grief  that  Barthe'lemy  St.  Hilaire  had  to 
take  the  document  from  his  hands  to  finish  the 
painful  recital.  Despite  the  frantic  efforts  of  the 
opposition,  headed  by  Victor  Hugo  and  Quinet, 
the  Assembly  accepted  the  terms  by  a  vote  of  546 
to  107  on  the  first  day  of  March. 

On  the  following  day  the  Germans  entered  Paris. 
They  did  not  insist  upon  the  occupation  of  the  city,  euter^p&ria 
but  marched  out  again  on  the  following  day ;  for  it 
had  been  agreed  in  the  treaty  that  no  German  sol- 
diers were  to  remain  in  the  city  after  the  preliminary 
treaty  had  been  ratified.     The  final  treaty  of  peace  Frankfort 
was  signed  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  May  10. 

An  important  consequence  of  the  Franco-Prussian 
war  was  that  Eussia,  supported  by  Bismarck,  re- 
pudiated the  clause  of  the  treaty  of  1856,  which 
forbade  her  keeping  a  fleet  in  the  Black  Sea.  A 


1526  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Spring  1871 

conference  of  the  great  powers  at  London,  while 
reamers  releasing  .Russia  from  that  engagement,  placed  on 
record,  as  an  essential  principle  of  the  law  of  na- 
tions, that  no  power  can  liberate  itself  from  the 
engagements  of  a  treaty,  nor  modify  its  stipulations, 
without  the  consent  of  the  contracting  parties. 

The  provisional  government  of  France,  after  terms 
of  peace  were  under  way,  determined  to  remove  the 
seat  of  the  .National  Assembly  from  Bordeaux  to 
Versailles.  This  excited  the  distrust  of  the  Paris 
populace.  "Why  not  Paris?"  was  the  cry.  The 
Parisians  believed  it  to  be  a  plan  to  establish  a  reac- 

VersaUles 

A&sembiy  tionary  monarchy.  The  Communists,  who  had  twice 
attempted  an  insurrection  since  the  siege  (October 
31,  1870,  and  January  22,  1871),  succeeded  in  their 
third  attempt  in  the  middle  of  March.  The  govern- 
ment troops  were  driven  out  of  Paris  and  the  Com- 
mune was  declared.  Then  came  the  second  siege  of 
Paris — this  time  by  a  French  army.  On  Sunday 
morning,  April  2,  the  Communists  outside  of  Paris 
were  worsted  by  the  government  troops.  After  one 
or  two  rallies  they  withdrew  into  Paris  by  the  Pont 
de  Neuilly  and  shut  the  gates.  The  prisoners  were 
shot  on  both  sides.  The  result  of  this  first  encoun- 

The  ter  was  to  intensify  the  hatred  with^  which  Thiers* 

e  government  was  regarded  by  the  Republican  fanat- 
ics. At  Thiers'  request,  Marshal  MacMahon  had 
consented  to  take  command  of  the  troops  for  the 
National  Assembly.  He  arrived  at  Versailles  and 
assumed  charge,  after  the  first  week  in  April. 
Though  compelled  to  maintain  a  semblance  of  ac- 
tivity and  to  keep  up  the  spirits  of  his  soldiers, 


1871  Spring  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1527 

MacMahon  was  resolved  to  undertake  no  decisive 
movement  till  he  had  amassed  the  one  hundred  and  MacMahon 
fifty  thousand  fighting  men  which  the  German  capita! 
authorities  had  now  consented  to  allow  to  Thiers' 
government.  The  former  prisoners  of  war  were  still 
pouring  into  France,  and  had  to  be  mustered  in  and 
organized  anew.  Several  minor  demonstrations  were 
made  in  the  second  half  of  April.  By  the  first 
week  in  May,  at  length,  128  batteries  had  been 
mounted  over  the  beleaguered  city.  Fire  was 
opened  on  the  Communists'  defences  on  the  Pont 
du  J  our.  Fort  Issy  was  taken,  with  109  guns ;  the 
insurgents  evacuating  it  under  cover  of  night.  Fort 
Vauves  was  set  on  fire,  and  had  also  to  be  evacuated 
for  a  time,  but  was  subsequently  re-entered  by  the 
forces  of  the  Commune,  to  be  held  by  them  until 
the  middle  of  May.  Then  it  was  recaptured  and 
garrisoned  by  MacMahon's  troops,  the  Communists  second 
making  their  escape  by  a  subterranean  passage.  By  Paris 
this  capture  the  southwestern  front  of  the  so-called 
enceinte  was  deprived  of  the  last  of  its  outlying  de- 
fences. The  siege  had  reached  its  last  stage.  To 
the  north  and  east  stood  the  grim  barrier  of  the  Ger- 
man forces,  ready  to  bar  any  attempt  at  egress  on 
the  part  of  the  pent-up  insurgents.  French  regular 
troops  lay  encamped  outside  in  the  Bois  de  Bou- 
logne. On  May  21,  it  was  discovered  that  the  gate 
of  St.  Cloud  had  been  left  almost  defenceless,  and 
MacMahon's  troops  rushed  in.  Simultaneously  the 
gate  of  Auteuil  was  stormed,  and  Marshal  Mac- 
Mahon, with  all  his  forces,  entered  Paris.  The  city 
had  to  be  taken  street  by  street.  The  Communists 


1528  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1871 

murdered  most  of  their  remaining  prisoners.  No 
sooner  had  Paris  been  conquered  than  the  victori- 
ous soldiers  slaughtered  their  late  foes  in  droves. 
Women  were  shot  as  well  as  men,  for  female  incen- 

Bioody  diaries,  known  as  p&troleuses,  had  helped  to  set  fire 
to  the  public  buildings  and  houses  of  the  rich.  The 
conflagration  lasted  several  days,  but  by  the  efforts 
of  the  soldiers  and  a  change  of  the  wind  it  was  at 
length  subdued.  The  greater  part  of  the  Tuileries, 
the  Library  of  the  Louvre,  and  a  portion  of  the 
Palais  Royal  had  been  consumed;  also  the  Hotel  de 
Ville,  the  Ministry  of  Finance,  the  Theatre  Lyrique 
and  Du  Chatelet,  a  great  part  of  the  Rue  Royale,  and 
many  other  buildings.  The  Luxembourg  was  par- 
tially blown  up,  and  the  Column  of  Venddme  was 
upset.  Paris  presented  a  ghastly  appearance.  Mu- 
tilated corpses  lay  heaped  together  amid  the  black- 
ened ruins.  It  was  estimated  that  10,000  insurgents 
had  been  killed  during  the  fighting  of  that  week. 
The  ravages  were  far  worse  than  those  suffered  from 
the  prolonged  German  bombardment.  Thus  ended 
the  two  months'  reign  of  the  Commune.  The  epi- 
sode has  been  immortalized  in  French  letters  by 

Terrible"    Victor  Hugo's  great  poem  "L'Anne'e  Terrible." 

The  thrilling  scenes  of  the  Franco-Prussian  war 
have  been  further  perpetuated  by  the  graphic  tales 
of  Guy  de  Maupassant,  and  by  the  historic  canvases 
of  such  battle  painters  as  Camphausen,  Menzel  and 
Werner  on  the  German  side,  and  of  Protais,  Detaille 
and  De  Neuville,  with  others,  in  France. 

After  the  fall  of  the  Commune,  the  National  As- 
sembly and  its  chosen  chief,  Louis  Adolph  Thiers, 


j67l  Summer  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1529 

were  left  the  only  constituted  power  in  France. 
(J  nauthorized  they  continued  to  rule  the  land  on  the 
basis  of  a  parliamentary  republic.  Toward  the  end 
of  June,  Thiers  negotiated  a  loan  of  two  and  a  half 
milliards  of  francs,  which  enabled  France  to  pay 
the  first  part  of  her  war  indemnity  to  Germany,  and 
thus  free  a  great  part  of  her  territory  from  foreign 
occupation.  On  the  last  day  of  August,  Thiers  wasThiergt 
elected  President  of  the  Republic  for  three  years,  Present 
the  National  Assembly  reserving  the  right  to  give 
the  country  a  new  constitution. 

During  these  troublous  times,  on  May  13,  oc- 
curred the  death  of  Daniel  Fran9ois  Esprit  Auber, 
the  French  operatic  composer.  His  first  successful 
work  was  the  opera  "La  Bergere  Chatelaine,"  pro-Peathor 
duced  in  1820.  Soon  after  this,  Auber  associated 
himself  with  Scribe  as  librettist.  Together  they 
brought  out  a  series  of  operas,  chief  among  which 
were  "Masaniello,  ou  la  Muette  de  Portici,"  pro- 
duced in  1828.  After  this  success  the  two  collabo- 
rators devoted  themselves  to  the  production  of  comic 
operas.  In  these,  Auber's  charming  melodies,  in- 
stinct with  the  national  airs  of  France,  together  with 
his  uniform  grace  and  piquancy  of  orchestration, 
won  a  high  place  for  him. 

Moritz  von  Schwind,  the  German  artist,  died  dur- 
ing this  year  at  Munich.  His  frescoes  were  executed 
m  that  city,  while  others  are  in  Leipzig  and  at  the  s^wind00 
National  Gallery  at  Berlin.  Schwind's  favorite  sub- 
jects were  taken  from  old  German  fairy  tales  and 
folk-lore,  and  were  invested  by  him  with  his  own 
genial  humor. 


1530  A     HISTORY    OF    THE  Autumn  1871 

Spain  this  year  lost  one  of  her  foremost  modern 
Zamacois  artjsts  -fry  the  death  of  Bdouard  Zamacois  at  the  age 
of  thirty-one.  This  artist,  after  studying  with  De- 
taille  and  Vibert  under  Meissonier,  made  his  debut 
in  Paris  at  the  Salon  of  1863.  During  the  follow- 
ing years  he  exhibited  his  famous  "Conscripts  in 
Spain,"  "The  Entrance  of  the  Toreadors,"  painted 
jointly  with  Vibert;  "The  First  Sword,"  "A  Buf- 
foon of  the  Sixteenth  Century,"  and  "The  Favorite 
of  the  King,"  now  in  America.  One  of  the  latest 
and  most  famous  of  Zamacois'  paintings  was  "The 
Education  of  a  Prince." 

The  transfer  of  the  Italian  capital  from  Florence 

Rome,       to  Rome  was  made  on  the  first  day  of  July,  and  on 

capital       the  following  day  King  Victor  Emmanuel  entered 

the  Eternal  City  to  take  up   his  residence  at  the 

Quirinal. 

In  Japan,  a  conference  of  the  Daimios  was  held  at 
Tokio  in  September  to  arrange  for  their  retirement 
to  private  life.  The  imperial  order  dissolving  all 
the  Daimiates  was  obeyed.  It  was  agreed  that  each 
ex-Daimio  as  well  as  the  lesser  chieftains  should 
receive  one-tenth  cf  the  income  which  they  had 
drawn  from  their  fiefs.  The  former  Daimios  were 
appointed  prefects,  but  not  for  life.  The  imperial 
End  of  feu  government  undertook  to  enroll  the  Samurai,  or 

dalism  in 

japan  fighting  retainers  of  the  Daimios,  in  the  imperial 
army,  or  to  recompense  them  with  money.  The  as- 
sumption of  this  burden  forced  the  Japanese  Gov- 
ernment to  contract  a  loan  of  $165,000,000.  Many 
of  the  Samurai  who  were  paid  off  squandered  their 
money,  and  as  a  result  much  poverty  and  want  were 


1871  Autumn  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1531 

experienced.  Another  revolutionary  change  accom- 
plished daring  the  same  year  in  Japan  was  the  re- 
moval of  the  ancient  disqualification  of  the  Pariah 
castes  of  Eta  Heiman. 

In  Brazil,  while  Dom  Pedro  II.  was  journeying 
in  Europe,  the  Brazilian  Chambers  passed  the  Act 
of  Emancipation  which  Emperor  Pedro  had  long 
been  anxious  to  carry  through.  On  September  28, 
it  was  decreed  that  slavery  should  be  abolished 

Emancipa* 

throughout  the  dominion  of  Brazil.     For  some  time  sj°"e°sfir 


ves  in 
Brazil 


many  of  the  slaves  were  still  held  in  bondage,  but 
facilities  for  emancipation  were  given,  and  all  slave 
children  born  after  the  day  on  which  the  law  passed 
were  to  be  unconditionally  free. 

On  October  8,  a  fire  broke  out  in  Chicago,  the  city 
whose  rapid  growth  and  prosperity  had  been  the 
marvel  of  America.  It  was  at  first  alleged  that  the 
cause  of  the  fire  was  the  overturn  of  a  kerosene  lamp 
in  a  cow-shed.  The  conflagration,  which  began  on 
a  Sunday  night,  raged  until  noontime  of  the  follow- 
ing Tuesday.  The  loss  of  life  from  this  disaster  was 
estimated  at  five  hundred  persons.  One  hundred 
thousand  were  rendered  homeless.  About  one-third 
of  the  city  was  destroyed,  and  the  burned  area  cov- 
ered a  space  of  2,600  acres,  involving  a  loss  of  more 
than  $70,000,000  in  real  property.  Aid  was  sent 
from  far  and  near. 

In  New  York,  great  excitement  resulted  from  the 
disclosures  of  political  and  financial  corruption  on 

the  part  of  Bill  Tweed  and  his  associates  as  pub- 
New  York 

lished   by  the   New    York  "Times."     Matthew 
O'Kourke  gave  the   incontestable   figures   showing 


1532  A    HISTORY    OF   THE  Winter  1871 

that  sums  amounting  to  $3,000,000  had  been  squan- 
dered for  county  printing  alone  during  the  last  three 
years.  The  new  county  court  house  instead  of  cost- 
ing $2,500,000,  as  estimated,  had  actually  cost  over 
$12,000,000,  the  bulk  of  which  was  stolen.  A  vigi- 
lance Committee  of  Seventy  citizens  was  formed  to 
crush  the  Tammany  Ring.  Tweed,  when  confronted 
with  the  facts,  insolently  asked:  "Well,  what  are 
you  going  to  do  about  it?" 

About  the  same  time  news  was  received  of  the 
success  of  another  famous  newspaper  enterprise. 
Henry  M.  Stanley  had  been  sent  to  Africa  by  the 
New  York  "Herald"  to  obtain  tidings  of  the  long- 
lost  missionary  David  Livingstone.  Stanley  reached 
finds  Liv-  Ungamvambe  in  West  Central  Africa,  November 

ingstone 

10,  thence  marched  into  Niji  and  found  Livingstone. 

In  Cuba,  the  Ten  Years'  War,  which  had  been 

begun  in  1868  by  Jose*  Marti  at  Bayamo  was  in  full 

sway,  and  helped  to  intensify  the  financial  embar- 

warin  rassments  of  Spain.  The  Cuban  insurgents  obtained 
the  support  of  sympathizers  on  the  American  main- 
land, and  were  thus  enabled  to  wage  war  more 
effectually  than  they  could  otherwise  have  done. 
Maximo  Gomez,  a  Santo  Domingan,  working  in  con- 

Gome2and  junction  with  Marti,  led  the  insurgent  forces.  The 
Spanish  authorities  resorted  to  ruthless  measures  of 
repression.  Hundreds  of  prisoners  were  shot,  while 
others  were  huddled  together  in  wretched  captivity, 
to  be  transported  to  the  Isle  of  Pines,  or  to  other 
prison  colonies  of  Spain. 


1872  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1533 


1872 

IN  FRANCE,  the  disasters  of  the  late  war  re- 
sulted in  endless  recriminations.  Thiers  carried 
out  his  negotiation  for  the  3,000,000  francs' 
liabilities  still  to  be  met  to  make  the  German  troops 
evacuate  French  territory.  In  the  spring,  the  occu- 
pation  was  limited  to  six  eastern  departments. 

Giuseppe  Mazzini,  the  Italian  patriot  and  repub- 
lican radical,  died  at  Pisa,  on  the  10th  of  March,  at 
the  age  of  sixty-seven.  To  Mazzini's  burning  enthu- 
siasm and  indomitable  perseverance,  as  much  asto 
Cavour  or  Garibaldi,  Italian  unity  owed  its  success- 
ful accomplishment.  A  master  not  only  of  Italian, 
but  of  French  and  English  literature,  Mazzini  fur- 
thermore distinguished  himself  as  a  scholarly  com 
mentator  on  Dante  and  as  a  philosophic  writer. 

Spain  offered  the  only  exception  to  this  year's 
tranquil  course.  Amadeus,  the  "intruder  King," 
as  his  dissatisfied  subjects  styled  him,  still  remained 
on  the  throne,  which  brought  him  little  but  chagrin. 
In  April,  the  Carlist  insurrection  broke  out.  All 
the  future  welfare  and  happiness  of  the  country  was 
represented  as  involved  in  the  success  of  the  legiti 
mate  heir  to  the  throne.  The  son  of  Carlos  VI.  was 
championed  by  the  Carhsts  as  King  of  Spam.  There  Revolution 

in  Spam 

was  but  one  other  claimant,  Alfonso,  son  of  Queen 
Isabella,  in  whose  favor  the  Due  de  Montpensier 


1534  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Spring  1872 

resigned  his  pretensions.  The  government  sup- 
pressed the  Carlist  Juntas  in  Madrid,  Valladolid, 
Burgos  and  other  cities.  Carlist  risings  were  fo- 
mented in  the  Basque  provinces,  in  Aragon,  Na- 
varre, and  in  Castile  and  Leon.  The  principal  leader 
of  the  rebel  forces  was  General  Diaz  de  Rada.  King 
Amadeus  despatched  Serrano  to  the  scene  of  action. 
With  20,000  men  he  established  headquarters,  on 
April  29,  at  Tudela.  He  took  the  road  to  Pampe- 
luna,  drove  the  insurgents  from  Estrella,  and  sent 
detachments  to  the  mountain  region  at  the  head  of 
the  Bidassoa.  Meanwhile,' De  Rada  retreated,  and 
on  May  2,  Don  Carlos  crossed  the  frontier  at  "Vera 
in  Navarre,  and  found  his  adherents  between  the 
Pyrenees  and  the  mountains  separating  Navarre 
from  Guipuzcoa.  On  the  same  day,  Rivera  arrived 
at  Echalar,  two  leagues  from  Vera.  Don  Carlos  left 
Don  Carlos  V era  for  Lesaca,  to  reach  Guipuzcoa,  but  Serrano 

defeated 

had  placed  a  column  in  his  way.  Thus  hemmed  in, 
Don  Carlos  wheeled  again  toward  Vera,  seeking  con- 
cealment in  the  mountains  of  Zulain.  On  May  4, 
the  two  forces  met.  General  Moriones,  with  an  ad- 
vanced division,  came  up  with  Don  Carlos  and  his 
6,000  followers  at  Oroquita,  in  the  valley  of  Basa- 
burua.  Moriones  had  2,000  men  and  a  mountain 
battery.  The  Carlists  finally  gave  way  with  a  loss 
of  750  prisoners.  The  Convention  of  Amorovieta, 
on  May  27,  led  the  government  to  believe  that 
tranquillity  was  to  ensue.  Yet  confusion  reigned 
throughout  the  year  in  Spain.  The  Carlists  in  the 

Spanish 

nortn» tae  Federalists  in  the  South,  were  everywhere 
exacting  contribution,  cutting  the  railways  and  tele- 


1872  spring  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1535 

graphs,  and  putting  a  stop  to  commercial  intercourse. 
The  prolonged  Cuban  rebellion  added  to  the  drain 
of  Spanish  finances. 

On  April  2,  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse,  the  inventor  of 
the  telegraph,  died  at  the  age  of  eighty-one.  Origi- 
nally an  artist  and  founder  of  the  New  York  Na- 
tional Academy  of  Design,  he  conceived  the  idea  of  j*^  °T 
a  telegraph.  In  1835  he  exhibited  his  invention, 
and  in  1837  patented  it.  In  1857,  he  received  from 
Emperor  Louis  Napoleon  a  gift  of  400,000  francs. 

In  the  midst  of  the  negotiations  with  England 
over  the  Alabama  Claims,  a  question  arose  to  whom 
the  island  of  San  Juan  in  the  Vancouver  Channel 
should  belong.  The  German  Emperor,  to  whom  the 
matter  was  referred  for  arbitration,  decided  in  favor 
of  the  United  States. 

In  November,  a  Presidential  election  was  held, 
and  General  Grant  was  re-elected  over  Horace 
Greeley  by  a  majority  of  725,000  votes.  The  anxi- 
eties and  exertions  of  the  Presidential  contest  ex- 
hausted Greeley  and  unbalanced  his  mind.  On  No- 
vember 29,  he  died  in  his  sixty-second  year.  HeDeathof 
was  the  founder  of  the  New  York  "Tribune." 
public  funeral  was  accorded  to  him,  and  his  death 
was  referred  to  in  the  opening  prayer  of  Congress 
in  December.  On  November  9,  a  conflagration  oc- 
curred in  Boston.  In  two  days  an  area  of  eighty 
acres  was  burned  over.  The  loss  was  estimated  at 
$70,000,000. 

Early  in  the  year,  the  reorganization  of  the  Japa- 
nese system  of  education  was  undertaken.  For  edu- 
cational purposes  the  empire  of  Japan  was  divided 


1536  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  1873 

into  eight  districts,  in  each  of  which  a  university 
was  to  be  established,  to  be  supplied  by  some  two 
hundred  secondary  schools  of  foreign  languages.  In 
the  Japanese  system  of  jurisprudence  great  progress 
was  also  made.  Law  schools  were  established,  and 

of  Japeau  in  criminial  practice  defendants  were  allowed  to  have 
the  assistance  of  counsel.  The  use  of  torture  was 
abolished,  and  the  list  of  capital  crimes  was  dimin- 
ished. A  thorough  revision  of  the  imperial  statutes 
and  Japanese  legal  processes  was  begun.  Foreigners 
were  still  permitted  to  bring  their  cases  into  their 
respective  consular  courts.  Religious  persecution 
was  discountenanced.  At  the  same  time,  Legations 
and  Consulates  were  established  abroad.  The  most 
rapid  progress  was  made  in  journalism.  Daily  and 
weekly  newspapers,  and  other  periodical  publica- 
tions, equipped  with  metal  type  and  modern  print- 
ing presses,  began  to  flood  the  country  with  infor- 
mation. The  first  railway  was  also  opened. 

In  Mexico,  President  Benito  Juarez  died,  on  July 
18.  From  his  triumph  at  Gueretaro  down  to  his 
death,  Juarez  had  to  deal  with  alternating  conspir- 
acy and  revolt.  Diaz's  rebellion  in  eastern  Mexico 
was  suppressed  just  before  the  death  of  Juarez.  He 

changes  in  had  appointed  a  new  Ministry  with  sanguine  hopes 
for  his  country.  Larda  de  Tejado  was  elected  Pres- 
ident to  succeed  Juarez.  The  pacification  of  the 
country  was  completed  before  the  close  of  the  year, 
Porfirio  Diaz  accepting  the  amnesty  proffered  him. 
In  Honduras,  a  civil  war  had  been  raging  between 
ex-President  Medina  and  the  Provisional  Govern- 
ment. On  July  26,  Medina  was  routed. 


1872  Autumn  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1537 

At  the  same  time,  a  revolution  broke  out  in  Peru. 
President  Balta  was  arrested,  martial  law  was  pro-  American 

.         , . .     .  .  upheaval* 

claimed  at  Lima,  and  Guiterrez,  the  Minister  of 
War,  declared  himself  supreme  chief  and  dictator  of 
the  republic.  Having  no  real  hold  upon  the  army, 
he  tried  to  buy  support  with  the  aid  of  "forced 
loans"  from  the  principal  banks  of  the  capital.  The 
people  of  Lima  rose  in  open  revolt.  The  forces  of 
Guiterrez  melted  away,  and  his  brother  was  killed 
in  a  street  fight.  Guiterrez  then  sent  a  party  of  his 
bravos  to  murder  Balta  in  his  prison,  and  shut  him- Guiterrez 

TIT-  •  1  'D    PCrU 

self  up  in  the  citadel.  Lima  rallied  at  once  to  the 
legitimate  government  under  the  V  ice-President. 
In  despair,  Guiterrez  attempted  to  escape,  but  was 
captured  and  killed  by  the  mob.  The  reins  of  power 
were  handed  over  to  Zevallos,  who  resigned  them, 
on  August  2,  to  Don  Manuel  Pardo,  the  Liberal  can- 
didate for  the  Presidency. 

The'ophile  Gautier,  the  French  writer  and  art 
critic,  died  on  October  23,  at  Paris.  In  1830,  Gau-  Death  oi 
tier  published  his  first  book  "Poesies,"  to  which  he 
subsequently  added  the  poem  of  "Albertus."  Gau- 
tier's  famous  novel,  "Mademoiselle  de  Maupin," 
appeared  in  1835,  followed  shortly  by  the  poem  "La 
ComeMie  de  la  Mort,"  one  of  his  most  original  pro- 
ductions. Gautier's  next  novel,  "Le  Capitaine  Fra- 
casse,"  attained  an  unusual  success.  Of  his  short 
stories,  the  most  famous,  perhaps,  are  his  "Une  Nuit 
de  Cleopatre"  and  "La  Morte  Amoureuse." 


1533  A   HISTORY    OF   THE  187JJ 


1873 

ON  THE  9th  of  January  the  news  was 
flashed  from  Chiselhurst  to  Versailles 
that  ex-Emperor  Napoleon  III.  was  dead. 
Prince  Charles  Louis  Napoleon  Bonaparte  was 
born  at  the  Tuileries,  April  20,  1808,  and  was  the 
second  son  of  Louis  Bonaparte,  King  of  Holland, 
by  his  Queen,  Hortense,  daughter  of  the  Empress 
Josephine,  and  her  first  husband,  Vicomte  de  Beau- 
harnais.  In  1831,  Prince  Louis  Napoleon  and  his 
only  brother  having  joined  the  Italian  Carbonari 
conspiring  against  the  Papal  Government,  took  part 
in  the  insurrection  of  Romagna.  After  the  death 
of  Napoleon  III.,  and  his  funeral  at  Chiselhurst,  to 
which  many  Bonapartists  had  come,  it  was  agreed 
that  the  Empress  and  Prince  Napoleon  should  un- 
dertake the  political  guardianship  of  the  Prince 
Imperial.  In  Italy  the  news  of  Emperor  Napo- 
leon's death  was  received  with  genuine  sorrow. 
Addresses  of  condolence  from  the  Italian  cities 
were  sent  to  the  Empress  Eugenie.  The  royal 
family  went  into  mourning.  Spoleto,  where  Na- 
poleon III.  first  fought  for  Italy,  voted  to  erect 
a  monument  to  him. 

Lord  Edward  George  Earle  Bulwer-Lytton  died 
on  January  18,  at  Torquay,  his  usual  winter  resi- 


1873  Jan.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1539 

dence.  He  made  his  literary  reputation  by  theBulwer 
novels  "Pelham"  and  the  "Disowned"  (1828) ; Lytton 
"Devereux"  (1829),  and  "Paul  Clifford"  (1830). 
These  were  followed  up  with  the  popular  ro- 
mances of  "Eugene  Aram,"  the  "Pilgrims  of  the 
Rhine,"  "The  Last  Days  of  Pompeii,"  "Rienzi," 
and  "Ernest  Maltravers,"  with  sequel  "Alice." 
In  connection  with  Macready's  management  at  Co- 
vent  Garden,  Bulwer-Lytton  produced  his  "Duchess 
de  la  Valliere,"  which  proved  a  failure;  but  this 
was  retrieved  by  the  instant  success  of  the  "Lady 
of  Lyons,"  "Richelieu,"  and  "Money."  When  he 
had  thus  shown  his  quick  adaptability  of  talent, 
he  returned  to  novel  writing  and  published  in 
steady  succession  "Night  and  Morning,"  "Zanoni," 
"The  Last  of  the  Barons,"  "Harold,"  "The  Cax- 
tons,"  "My  Novel,"  and  "What  will  he  do  with 
it?"  Bulwer-Lytton  entered  Parliament  for  St. 
Ives  in  1831,  and  supported  the  Reform  Bill  as 
a  Whig,  but  changed  his  opinions  and  latterly 
supported  the  Conservatives.  Under  Lord  Derby's 
Ministry  he  was  Colonial  Secretary,  and  in  1866 
he  entered  the  House  of  Lords  as  Baron  Lytton. 
In  France,  meamyhile,  the  Republican  govern- 
ment grew  stronger.  Thiers  had  urged  the  definite 
proclamation  of  the  Republic,  and  in  May  presented 
to  the  National  Assembly  a  bill  to  this  effect.  The 
Monarchists  foiled  him.  On  May  24,  Thiers  resigned  TiJieni 
as  President  of  the  Republic,  and  on  the  same  night 
Marshal  MacMahon  was  elected  to  the  Presidency. 
He  appointed  Ministers  who  were  willing  to  pave 
the  way  for  a  reinstatement  of  the  French  mon- 


1540  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Spring  187» 

archy.  Chief  among  these  was  the  Due  de  Brog- 
Fren"hho"  He.  The  monarchical  Deputies  in  November  con- 
firmed for  seven  years  MacMahon's  tenure  of  the 
Presidency.  The  indemnity  due  from  France  to 
Germany  as  the  consequence  of  the  war  had  been 
paid  on  the  5th  of  September.  The  evacuation 
of  Nancy  and  of  Belfort  had  been  effected  on  the 
1st  of  August,  that  of  Verdun,  the  last  fortress, 
on  September  16. 

Justus,  Baron  von  Liebig,  one  of  the  most  emi- 
Ef<*lg0f  neQt  °f  modern  chemists,  died  on  April  18,  at 
Munich.  He  first  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
chemical  world  in  1824,  by  reading  a  paper  before 
the  French  Academy  of  Sciences  on  fulminic  acid 
and  the  fulminates,  the  true  components  of  which 
were  until  then  unknown.  This  also  gained  him 
the  .favor  of  Humboldt,  and  through  the  latter's 
influence  he  was  appointed  Professor  of  Chemistry 
at  the  University  of  Giessen,  a  chair  which  he 
held  for  twenty-five  years.  Liebig  is  regarded  as 
the  founder  of  organic  chemistry,  owing  to  the 
many  discoveries  he  made  in  this  department.  He 
did  much  to  improve  the  methods  of  analysis. 
His  "Chemistry  of  Food"  brought  about  a  more 
rational  mode  of  cooking  and  use  of  food,  while 
agriculture  owes  much  to  his  application  of  chem- 
istry to  soils  and  manures. 

In  Africa,   Ashantee  warriors  to  the  number  of 
Ashantee    ^000    men    invaded  British  territory  in    Febru- 
ary,  making  straight  for  Cape  Coast   Castle,   but 
were  foiled.     In  October,  Sir  Garnet  Wolseley,  the 
new  British    administrator,   landed    on    the    Cape 


1873  Spring  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1541 

Coast.  After  a  hard  campaign,  which  lasted  foi 
some  months,  the  Ashantees  were  completely  con- 
quered. 

In  America,  on  the  4th  of  March,  General  Grant 
entered  on  his  second  term  of  office  as  President. 
Soon  another  Indian  war  disturbed  the  public  se- 
renity. General  Wheaton,  who  had  made  an  at-ModocWar 
tack  on  the  Modocs,  in  southern  Oregon  and  north- 
ern California,  had  been  utterly  defeated.  On  the 
13th  of  April  a  parley  was  held,  which  resulted  in 
the  shooting  of  General  Canby  and  the  massacre 
of  all  the  peace  envoys  excepting  one.  General 
Davis,  now  in  command,  gave  the  savages  no 
rest.  After  weeks  of  skirmishing  the  final  blow 
was  struck  on  the  20th  of  May.  Many  of  the 
Modocs  yielded.  Captain  Jack  with  the  others 
tried  to  escape.  The  troops  captured  the  refugees. 
Captain  Jack  was  tried  by  court-martial  at  Fort 
Klamath,  Oregon,  and  was  condemned  to  death. 

Hiram  Powers,  the  American  sculptor,  died  this 
year  at  Florence.  While  still  a  boy,  Powers  ac- 
quired  an  American  reputation  by  his  medallions 
and  busts  of  such  men  as  Andrew  Jackson,  Web- 
ster, Calhoun,  and  Clay.  After  a  short  residence 
in  the  city  of  Washington,  he  went  to  Italy  in 
1837  and  settled  in  Florence.  "The  Greek  Slave," 

^ 

upon  which  much  of  his  fame  rests,  was  finished 
in  the  early  forties.  Celebrated  among  the  famous 
persons  who  sat  for  Powers  were  President  Van 
Buren,  John  Quincy  Adams,  Chief-Justice  Mar- 
shall, George  Marshall,  George  Peabody,  Vander- 
bilt.  Winthrop,  Sparks,  Everett  and  the  Grand' 

XlXth  Century— Vol.  3— M 


1542  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  1873 

duchess  of  Tuscany.  Of  his  ideal  representations 
the  most  famous  are  his  "Eve,"  "Faith,  Hope  and 
Charity"  and  "II  Penseroso." 

Trial  of  ^n  ^ew  ^or^j  tne  exposures  of  the  corrupt  prac- 
*ingtices  of  Tweed  and  his  Tammany  henchmen  re- 
sulted in  a  sensational  criminal  trial  of  the  worst 
offenders.  Tweed  was  found  guilty  on  each  of 
fifty-seven  indictments,  fle  was  imprisoned,  but 
was  at  last  released.  Civil  suits  were  brought  to 
recover  $6,000,000,  and  he  was  sent  to  Ludlow 
Street  Jail  in  default  of  $3,000,000  bail.  Tweed 
escaped  frpm  jail  and  made  his  way  to  Cuba  and 
Spain.  He  was  there  arrested  and  extradited,  to  be 
again  lodged  in  jail  in  New  York. 

Holland  this  year  had  a  troublesome  and  expen- 

Atchinese  s[ve  war  against  the  Sultan  of  Atchin  in  Sumatra. 
The  cession  of  the  Gold  Coast  to  the  British  by  the 
Dutch,  was  balanced  by  Holland's  annexation  of 
the  Island  of  Sumatra.  The  Atchinese  repelled  the 
Dutch  landing  forces  with  such  loss,  that  the  in- 
vaders had  to  retire  and  wait  for  reinforcements 
before  renewing  the  war.  Another  expedition  was 
sent  out,  and  at  the  end  of  December,  General  Van 
Swilen,  the  Dutch  commander,  gained  an  important 
victory,  a  revolution  having  broken  out  in  Atchin. 

Death  of  Two  notable  deaths  occurred  in  Italy.  At  Milan, 
on  May  23,  died  Alessandro  Manzoni,  the  poet- 
patriot,  at  the  age  of  ninety.  A  few  days  later  Sig- 
nor  Terbano  Rattazzi,  the  distinguished  statesman 
and  ex-Minister,  died  in  his  sixty-fifth  year. 

SpMorocco  r^ne  Sultan  of  Morocco,  Sidi  Muley  Mohammed, 
died  in  September,  and  war  broke  out  between  his 


1873  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1543 

brother,  Muley  Abbas,  and  his  son,  who  both  claimed 
the  crown. 

Spain  lost  a  great  dramatist  by  the  death  of 
Breton  de  Las  Herreras.  He  was  one  of  the  most  LSLS 
prolific  writers,  producing  no  less  than  150  dramas,  Herreras 
besides  many  collections  of  lyrics,  patriotic  odes 
and  satires.  His  influence  is  manifest  in  the  works 
of  succeeding  Spanish  playwrights,  such  as  Saave- 
dra,  Gil  y  Zerata,  Hartzenbusch  and  Jose"  Zeriila. 
King  Amadeus,  convinced  that  tranquillity  could 
not  be  established  by  him  in  Spain,  renounced  abafcat^ 
the  crown  in  February.  At  Madrid,  on  February 
16,  the  Republic  was  officially  proclaimed.  The 
Carlists,  meanwhile,  had  profited  by  the  chaotic 
state  of  politics  in  Spain.  General  Moriones  had 
been  superseded  in  the  command  of  the  government  |Pp"£{|0 
troops  by  Gen.  Pazia,  who  in  turn  made  way  in 
March  for  General  Nouvilas.  The  troops  at  Barce- 
lona mutinied.  Toward  the  middle  of  March  the 
head  of  the  Figueras  Government  went  to  Barce- 
lona in  aid  of  the  Captain-General  of  the  eastern 
provinces.  Ripoll  and  Berja  were  captured  by  the 
Carlists.  On  June  1,  the  Constituent  Cortes  met. 
On  the  8th  a  Federal  Republic  was  proclaimed,  and 
Castelar  and  Figueras  resigned.  Revolt  broke  out  at 
Alcay.  At  Malaga  an  insurrection  resulted  in  ter-  CivU  wir 
rible  destruction  of  life  and  property.  At  Carta- 
gena complete  anarchy  ensued.  General  Campos 
was  despatched  with  a  land  force,  and  Admiral 
Lobo  with  a  naval  squadron.  Meantime  there  was 
another  ministerial  crisis.  The  Cortes  elected  Sefior 
Salmeron,  to  succeed  Pi  y  Margall. 


1544  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Autumn  1873 

Don  Carlos  re-entered  Spain  by  the  village  of 
Donu^rios  Zumarragardi,  which  was  the  stronghold  of  the 
Carlist  forces  of  Navarre  and  Guypuzzoa.  On 
the  2d  of  August  he  took  the  oath  of  fidelity 
to  the  Fueros  at  Guernica.  He  then  advanced 
with  Lizzaraza  and  his  troops  upon  Estrella,  which 
he  captured.  On  September  7,  Salmeron  resigned 
and  Senor  Emilio  Castelar  became  President  of 
the  republic.  A  fortnight  later  the  Cortes  con- 
ferred dictatorial  power  on  Castelar.  Admiral 
Lobo  failed  to  defeat  a  Cartagenian  squadron 
and  was  dismissed.  General  Campos  was  super- 
seded. Admiral  Chiccarro  and  General  Caballos 
then  conducted  the  operations  of  the  govern- 
ment by  sea  and  land  against  the  Cartagenians. 
But  Caballos  was  himself  superseded  by  General 
Govern-  Voninquez.  On  November  26,  the  admiral  bom- 
changes  barded  the  place  in  vain.  Meanwhile  General 
Moriones,  who  had  been  reinstated  in  September, 
fought  a  doubtful  battle  at  Maneru  on  the  6th 
of  October.  On  November  7,  he  was  defeated  at 
Monte  Jurra.  Neither  side  at  the  close  of  the  year 
of  wirss  had  obtained  decisive  results.  General  Moriones 
was  in  a  difficult  position  at  Castro-Urdiales,  and 
Bilbao  was  threatened  by  the  Carlist  troops. 

In  Cuba,  after  a  lull  in  hostilities,  owing  to  the 
proclamation  of  the  republic  in  Spain,  the  merci- 
less guerilla  war  was  resumed.  On  the  last  day  of 
The"Vir-  October  the  American  schooner  "Virginius,"  while 
conveying  men  and  arms  from  New  York  to  the 
insurgents  in  Cuba,  was  captured  by  the  Span- 
ish gunboat  "Tornado."  The  filibusters,  many  of 


1873  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1546 

whom  were  British  and  American,  were  tried  in 
Santiago  de  Cuba,  found  guilty  and  shot.  After 
much  correspondence,  the  "Virginius"  was  surren- 
dered to  the  American  Government,  but  on  her 
way  home  she  foundered.  Effectual  protest  against 
the  Spanish  Government's  proceedings  on  the  part 
of  the  United  States  was  made  all  but  impossible 
by  the  forbidding  attitude  of  the  European  Powers. 
Sir  Edwin  Landseer,  one  of  the  most  popular 
English  artists  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,  died 
during  this  year.  Born  in  1802,  the  son  of  John 
Landseer,  the  celebrated  engraver,  he  began  his  sir  Edwin 

Landseer 

artistic  career  at  a  very  early  age.  In  1826  he 
was  elected  associate  of  the  Academy  and  became 
a  full-fledged  Academician  in  1831.  His  famous 
portrait  of  "Sir  "Walter  Scott  and  his  Dogs"  was 
painted  about  this  time.  Soon  he  was  recognized 
as  the  foremost  artist  of  England.  Fourteen  of  his 
pictures  are  in  the  National  Gallery  in  London, 
among  them  the  famous  "Dialogue  at  Waterloo," 
while  sixteen  are  in  the  Sheepshanks'  Collection  at 
the  South  Kensington  Museum.  Of  his  work  as  a 
sculptor,  the  best  specimens  perhaps  are  the  lions 
at  the  base  of  the  Nelson  Monument  in  Trafalgar 
Square,  London. 

On  December  14,  Louis  Jean  Eodolphe  Agassiz, 
one  of  the  most  eminent  naturalists,  died  at  New 

Death  of 

York.     Born   in  Switzerland,  he  studied  medicine  Asassiz 
and  the  experimental   sciences  at  Zurich,  Heidel- 
berg and  Munich.     He  afterward  published  several 
works   on    natural    history,    and   a   work   entitled 
"Studies  of  Glaciers,"   which  gave  him  a  Euro- 


1546  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  1873 

pean  reputation.  Agassiz  left  Europe  for  America 
in  1846,  and  was  appointed  Professor  of  Zoology 
and  Geology  at  Harvard,  which  post  he  retained 
till  his  death.  He  explored  every  portion  of  the 
Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts,  the  Valley  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, and  the  great  plains  at  the -base  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  He  also  accompanied  an  exploring  ex- 
pedition to  Brazil  and  superintended  an  investiga- 
tion of  the  deep-sea  bottom  of  the  Gulf  Stream. 
John  Stuart  Mill,  the  great  English  exponent  of 
stuart  Mm  modern  utilitarianism  and  inductive  logic,  also  died 
in  this  year.  He  was  an  advocate  of  the  theory  of 
the  "happiness  of  the  majority,"  or  the  "greatest 
good  of  the  greatest  number,"  as  a  general  test 
of  morality.  Mill's  "Political  Economy"  achieved 
great  success.  He  took  a  decided  stand  for  the 
emancipation  of  woman. 


1S7«  NINETEENTH   CENTUSt  1647 


1874 

IN  SPAIN,  when  the  year  opened,  the  dictator, 
Castelar,  was  preparing  to  meet  the  factious 
Cortes  which  had  been  adjourned  since  Sep- 
tember, and  which  the  intrigues  of  President  Sal- 
meron  had  helped  to  dispose  against  him.  On  the 
2d  of  January  he  surrendered  the  dictatorship, 
Marshal  Serrano  became  the  chief  executive  of  the  Cs 
Republic.  By  a  decree  the  Cortes  was  dissolved. 
Madrid  remained  tranquil,  but  at  Saragossa,  Bar- 
celona and  Valencia  barricades  were  raised.  The 
struggle,  however,  was  of  short  duration.  Within 
ten  days  a  striking  military  success  gave  the 
new  government  credit.  Cartagena  surrendered  to 
General  Lopez  Dominguez.  Contreas  and  Galvay, 
with  the  members  of  the  Junta  and  2,000  convicts, 
managed  to  escape  on  board  the  "Muncia,"  and 
were  landed  in  Mess-el-Kebir  in  Algeria,  where 
they  became  prisoners  of  the  French  authorities. 
The  Carlist  war  blazed  on  and  became  more  for- 
midable. Early  in  January  the  headquarters  of 
General  Moriones  were  at  Laredo  and  those  of  Don 
Carlos  at  Somorrostro.  In  the  middle  of  Febru- 
ary General  Moriones  advanced  to  Somorrostro,  but 
stormy  weather  helped  to  prevent  the  squadron  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river  from  co-operation.  On  the 


1548  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Spring  1874 

21st,  Don  Carlos,  leaving  Durango,  began  to  shell  Bil- 
bombarded  bao.  Moriones  pushed  forward  against  the  enemy, 
but  the  Carlists  were  intrenched  upon  an  elevated 
plateau,  bristling  with  batteries,  and  twice  repulsed 
their  assailants.  The  loss  sustained  by  the  Repub- 
licans was  1800.  Moriones  resigned.  Marshal  Ser- 
rano left  Madrid  and  raised  the  .Republican  force 
in  the  north  to  30,000.  Admiral  Topete  was  de- 
spatched to  Santander  to  direct  the  operations  of 
the  navy.  Bilbao  still  held  out.  On  March  25-27 
another  attempt  was  made  to  break  the  enemy's 
Repubu-  ranks,  but  the  Carlists  remained  in  line.  Two  Re- 

cans 

repulsed  publican  generals,  .Rivera  and  Loma,  were  wounded. 
Later  Concha  opened  fire  along  his  entire  front. 
General  Echaque  advanced.  The  Carlists  reserved 
their  fire  until  the  column  was  within  two  hundred 
yards.  The  foremost  platoons  were  literally  mowed 
down.  When  Marshal  Concha  about  7  P.M.  rushed 

Marshal  forward  to  rally  his  men  he  was  shot  dead.  General 
Echaque,  on  whom  the  command  devolved,  evacu- 
ated all  the  positions  and  set  fire  to  the  villages. 
Republicans  lost  some  five  thousand  at  this 
battle,  fought  at  Pena  Mura. 

Then  came  the  recognition  of  the  de  facto  gov- 
ernment at  Madrid  by  the  German  Emperor.  The 
example  was  promptly  imitated  at  Paris  and  Lon- 
don and  subsequently  at  Vienna.  Russia  held 
back.  The  Czar  even  wrote  a  friendly  letter  to 
Don  Carlos.  The  Carlists  now  overran  the  north- 
eastern  provinces,  only  the  fortresses  holding  out 


overrun 

northern    against  them.     They  threatened  Bilbao  and  Pastu 
Galete,    and    cannonaded    Puycerda,    from   which, 


1874  Autumn  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1549 

however,  they  were  repulsed.  Soon  that  portion 
of  their  forces  occupying  Aragon  and  Valencia 
under  Don  Alfonso,  brother  of  the  Pretender, 
boldly  advanced  toward  Madrid,  making  straight 
for  Cuenca  in  Castile.  Cuenca  resisted  spiritedly. 
After  a  terrible  bombardment  the  city  capitulated. 
It  proved  of  no  practical  importance.  The  Republi- 
cans advanced  in  force  and  the  victors  had  speedily 
to  abandon  their  prize.  Not  only  that,  but  Briga- 
dier Lopez  Pintu  overtook  them  at  Salvacannete  on 
the  20th,  and  rescued  the  whole  Republican  divi- 
sion, which  had  been  taken  prisoners  at  Cuenca,  be- 
sides capturing  a  considerable  number  of  Carlists. 
In  Navarre  the  capture  of  Laguardia  by  the  Carlists 
under  Dorregaray  was  more  than  avenged  by  the 
defeat  of  Moriones,  inflicted  upon  them  at  Oteiza 
on  August  11.  Still  the  balance  of  success  in- 
clined to  the  Pretender's  cause.  Ultimately  the 
tide  of  success  again  turned  against  the  Carlists. 
Puycerda,  threatened  by  their  forces,  was  relieved 
by  Dominguez  and  his  troops  after  five  encounters. 
The  insurgents  received  a  yet  more  signal  defeat 
near  Pampeluna  on  September  25,  when  they  at- 
tacked Moriones.  In  November,  the  contest  had 
shifted  to  the  banks  of  the  Bidassoa.  Trun  was-rrun 

i  i         T        i     i        o  •     bombarded 

invested  by  the  Carlists  and  was  bombarded,  Six 
days  later  General  Lama  advanced  from  San  Sebas- 
tian, and,  after  some  resistance,  occupied  the  land 
from  Oyarzum  to  San  Marcial  to  the  south  of  Trun, 
and  opened  fire  on  the  Carlist  positions.  General 
Lareras  gave  effectual  assistance.  The  Carlists  re- 
tired to  Vera.  But  soon  they  reinvested  Trun,  and 


1550  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Autumn  1874 

the  victorious  army  of  Lama  and  Lareras  was  block- 
aded at  San  Sebastian.  Pampeluna,  too,  which  the 
march  of  Moriones  in  October  had  relieved,  was 
again  surrounded  by  the  rebel  forces.  On  receipt 
of  this  news  at  Madrid,  the  President  of  the  Re- 
public, Marshal  Serrano,  assumed  the  command  of 
the  "Army  of  the  North."  Serrano's  efforts  to 
stem  the  tide  proved  vain.  On  the  last  day  of  the 
year  it  was  announced  that  Campos  had  entered 
Alfonso  Valencia  with  two  brigades,  and  proclaimed  Al- 
grociaimed  fonso  k^g.  Soon  the  news  reached  the  Hotel  Basi- 
levsky  at  Paris,  where  Queen  Isabella  and  her  son 
were  residing,  that  the  Armies  of  the  North  and 
Centre  had  made  common  cause  with  Campos'  bat- 
talions, that  the  Madrid  garrison  had  proclaimed  the 
thrown  Prince,  King  of  Spain,  as  Alfonso  XII.,  and  that  a 
Regency  Ministry  had  been  constituted. 

In  America,  Millard  Fillmore  died  in  his  seventy- 
Deaths  of  » 

Frthnore  fourth  year  at  Buffalo.  He  was  elected  Vice-Presi- 
dent in  1848,  and  succeeded  to  the  Presidency  on 
Taylor's  death.  Three  days  later  occurred  the 

* 

death  of  Charles  Sumner,  the  well-known  Ameri- 
can statesman.  An  unflinching  champion  of  the 
anti-slavery  struggle  in  the  United  States,  Charles 
Sumner  was  at  one  period  among  the  most  hated 
Samuel  j.  public  men  in  America.  In  New  York,  Samuel 

Tilden 

J.  Tilden  was  elected  Governor,  in  recognition  of 
his  fearless  persecution  of  the  corrupt  members 
of  the  Tammany  and  Canal  "rings." 

"Wars  and  revolts  were  abundant  among  the 
South  American  States.  In  the  Argentine  Repub- 
lic a  rebellion  broke  out  •  unst  the  new  President, 


-5T4  Autumn  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1661 

Avellanada,  headed  by  General  Mitre,  who  had  for- 
merly held  the  supreme  post.  After  a  few  weeks 
the  rebellion  collapsed.  Mitre  fled  to  Uruguay,  and 
the  other  rebel  chiefs  retreated  to  the  interior. 

In  consequence  of  repeated  outrages  upon  Japa- 
nese shipping  by  the  savages  of  Formosa,  the  Mi- 
kado, in  the  spring  of  this  year,  despatched  Am- 
bassador Soyejima  to  Peking.  The  Chinese  Tsung- 
li  Yamen  disclaimed  responsibility  for  eastern  For- 
mosa. On  the  return  of  the  embassy,  a  Japanese 
expedition  of  1,300  men,  under  command  of  Saigo 

.     -  _.  Japanese 

Yorimichi,  occupied  the  eastern  end  of  Formosa,  occupy 

Formosa 

When  the  Japanese  soldiers  failed  to  withdraw,  the 
Chinese  Government  made  emphatic  protests.  For 
a  while  war  between  China  and  Japan  appeared  im- 
minent. Finally  another  Japanese  Embassy,  sent 
to  Peking  under  the  leadership  of  Okubo,  brought 
about  a  peaceful  arrangement.  The  Japanese  evac- 
uated Formosa  on  the  payment  of  an  indemnity  of 
$700,000  by  China. 

The  British  empire  was  enlarged  this  year  by  the  f  nksela^.- 
annexation  of  the  Fiji  Islands.     England  paid  thelslands 
King's  debts  of  £80,000,  and  pensioned  him. 

Fran9ois  Guizot,  the  French  statesman  and  histo- 
rian, died  at  the  age  of  eighty-seven,  in  Normandy. 
Guizot's  political  career  began  in  1815,  when  he  was 
made  Secretary  to  the  Minister  of  the  Interior.  On 
Napoleon's  return  he  gave  up  his  post,  but  after 
the  second  Restoration  again  took  office,  which  he 
held  until  the  murder  of  the  Due  de  Berri  in  1820, 
when  he  retired.  For  the  next  ten  years  he  was 
occupied  upon  the  historical  works  which  have 


1652 


A   HISTORY  OF   THE 


Autumn  1874 


Ledru 
Kollin 


made  his  literary  fame.  After  the  revolution  of 
July,  1830,  he  became  Provisional  Minister  of  In- 
struction and  afterward  Minister  of  the  Interior. 
He  kept  in  office  until  the  revolution  of  February, 
1848,  put  an  end  to  the  monarchy. 

Mtcheiet  By  the  death  of  Michelet,  France  lost  another 
noteworthy  historian.  He  was  the  author  of  a  very 
popular  "History  of  France,"  and  was  noted  for 
his  bold  Philippics  against  the  Jesuits.  Ledru- 
Kollin,  Guizot's  opponent  for  three  generations, 
also  passed  away. 

Germany  lost  one  of  her  foremost  artists  by  the 
death  of  Wilhelm  von  Kaulbach  at  Munich.  As 
an  illustrator  he  won  distinction  by  his  drawings 
for  Goethe's  "Reynard,  the  Fox,"  and  by  his  illus- 
trations for  the  Gospels  and  the  Shakespeare  gal- 
lery. Kaulbach 's  genius  as  a  decorative  painter  is 
best  exemplified  by  his  designs  for  the  stairway  of 
the  new  museum  in  Berlin,  on  which  he  worked 
for  many  years.  At  the  French  Salon,  Arnold 
Bocklin's  "Sea  Idyl,"  which  had  taken  the  medal 
at  Berlin,  was  exhibited.  The  picture  created  a 
great  stir,  and  the  critics  united  in  pronouncing 
Bocklin  "the  most  original  German  painter  of 
the  age." 

Toward  the  close  of  the  year,  Mariano  Fortuny, 
the  great  Spanish  "Virtuoso  of  Color,"  died  at 
Borne.  When  twenty  years  old  he  won  the_Prix 
de  Rome.  During  the  Spanish  war,  in  1859-60, 
he  accompanied  General  Prim  to  Morocco.  Most 
renowned  among  his  canvases  are  "The  Spanish 
Marriage"  and  the  "Choice  of  a  Model." 


Wilhelm 

von 

Eaulbacb 


Arnold 
Bocklin 


Portany 


I8!«  NINETEENTB   CENTUR*  1553 


1875 

AFTER  eleven  years  of  intermittent  labor,  the 
famous  Grand  Opera   House  of   Paris  was 
completed  under  the  supervision  of  its  ar- 
chitect, Charles  Gamier,  and  inaugurated  on  Jan- 
uary   5    by    President    MacMahon.      During    the 
Franco-Prussian  war  work  had  been  suspended,  and 
the  vast  structure  was  used  as  a  military  storehouse, 
hospital,   barracks,    observatory  and   prison.      The 
walls  and  ceilings  were  decorated  by  Baudry  with 
beautiful  designs. 

The  Delagoa  Bay  arbitration,  the  decision  upon 
which  had  been  committed  to  the  President  of  the 
French  Republic,  ended  this  year  in  favor  of  thegela?oa 

J  Bay  con- 

PortUgUese   Government.      The   British   claim    f0rtroversy 

this  bay  and  its  coast  was  based  on  the  settle- 
ment of  the  Dutch  on  the  English  River  in  1720, 
and  their  subsequent  cession  to  Great  Britain  of 
their  South  African  possessions.  The  Portuguese, 
however,  claimed  the  territory  after  the  discovery 
by  Vasco  da  Gama,  and  its  occupancy  since. 

On  the  12th  of  February  the  Emperor  of  China 
died,  under  suspicious  circumstances,  in  his  nine- 
teenth year.  The  Empress  Dowager  and  the  Em- 
press' mother  selected  the  only  son  of  the  seventh 
Prince  as  the  successor  to  the  throne. 

In  England,  Charles  Kingsley,  the  famous  clergy- 


Chinese 

succession 


1554  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1876 

man,  novelist  and  poet  died  at  Eversley.  In  1848 
Kinagsie°yf  he  published  his  poem,  "The  Saint's  Tragedy," 
which  was  followed  in  1849  by  the  novel  "Alton 
Locke."  In  1853  he  published  "Hypatia"  and 
in  1855  "Westward  Ho!"  both  brilliant  historical 
novels.  They  were  followed  by  "Two  Years  Ago," 
"Hereward,"  "The  Last  of  the  English,"  "Glau- 
cos"  and  the  "Water  Babies." 

Sir  Charles  Lyell,  the  apostle  of  uniformitarian- 
ism  in  geology,  died  at  a  ripe  age.  He  carried  to 
Lyeii  *  esits  logical  conclusion  Hutton's  doctrine  that  present 
geological  causes  are  like  those  to  which  the  past 
changes  of  the  globe  were  due.  Convinced  by  Dar- 
win, Lyell  adopted  the  transmutation  theory  of 
species,  and  thus  completed  his  doctrine. 

One  of  the  foremost  artists  of  the  Nineteenth 
Century  was  lost  to  France  by  the  death  of  Jean 
Krangois  Millet.  He  was  the  pupil  of  Delaroche  and 
formed  ties  of  friendship  with  Corot,  Theodore  Rous- 
seau,  Dupre  and  Diaz.  During  his  'prentice  years 


in  the  Latin  Quarter,  Millet  often  endured  cold  and 
hunger,  especially  after  his  pitiful  pension  expired. 
In  1853,  he  exhibited  at  the  Salon  his  "Eeapers," 
"Shepherd,"  and  "Sheepshearers,"  and  received  his 
first  medal.  In  1857,  he  exhibited  "The  Gleaners," 
a  picture  which  became  famous.  After  this  there 
was  much  discussion  over  each  one  of  Millet's 
successive  works.  Thus  his  "Woman  Grazing 
Her  Cow,"  "Peasants  Bearing  a  Calf  Born  in  the 
Field,"  and  the  "Knitting  Lesson,"  were  bitterly 
criticised  on  one  hand  and  passionately  praised  on 
the  other.  Most  renowned  of  Millet's  paintings 


1875  Feb.  NINETEENTH    JENTURY  1555 

is  "L' Angelas  du  Soir."     Another  of  his  world- 
famous  pictures  is  "The  Man  with  the  Hoe,"  sold i'^f1180" 
to  San  Francisco.    On  this  subject  Edwin  Markham, 
late  in  the  century,  wrote  his  celebrated  lines: 

Bowed  by  the  weight  of  centuries  he  leans  "The  Ma,c 

Upon  his  hoe  and  gazes  on  the  ground,  •  witb^tne 

The  emptiness  of  ages  in  his  face, 

And  on  his  back  th«  burden  of  the  world. 

Who  made  him  dead  to  rapture  and  despair, 

A  thing  that  grieves  not  and  that  never  hopes, 

Stolid  and  stunned,  a  brother  to  the  ox? 

Who  loosened  and  let  down  this  brutal  jaw? 

Whose  was  the  hand  that  slanted  back  this  brow? 

Whose  breath  blew  out  the  light  within  his  braiu? 

0  masters,  lords  and  rulers  in  all  lands, 

How  will  the  Future  reckon  with  this  Man? 

How  answer  his  brute  question  in  that  hour 

When  whirlwinds  of  rebellion  shake  the  world? 

How  will  it  be  with  kingdoms  and  with  kings — 

With  those  who  shaped  him  to  the  thing  he  is — 

When  this  dumb  Terror  shall  reply  to  God, 

After  the  silence  of  the  centuries? 

In  Spain,  as  soon  as  the  force  of  the  victory  of 
the  counter-revolution  was  felt  at  Madrid,  Loraa 
took  command  of  the  Army  of  the  North;  Que- 
sada  of  the  Centre,  and  Campos  became  Captain- 
General  of  Catalonia.  The  Duke  de  Serbo,  devoted 
to  the  cause  of  Isabella,  became  Civil  Governor  of 
Madrid.  Prince  Alfonso  entered  Madrid,  where  he  e,!tere0 
announced  the  re-establishment  of  the  monarchy.  M 
The  Carlist  insurgents  were  then  threatening  Pam- 
peluna.  They  had  25,000  men  and  the  govern- 
ment 45,000.  Laserna's  left  wing  under  Moriones 
relieved  Pampeluna  early  in  February,  and  the 
King  entered  the  city  on  the  6th.  The  Carlists 
won  a  victory  which  checked  the  progress  of  the 


1556  A    HISTORY    OF   THE  Autumn  1875 

Alfonsists.  The  war  went  on.  Its  narrow  area 
carusteof  became  narrower  as  the  fortunes  of  the  Carlists 
declined.  The  expectation  that  the  fall  of  Leo 
d'Orgal  would  prove  a  turning  point  in  the  war 
was  soon  borne  out. 

In  the  month  of  November  the  difficulty  of  the 

Cuban  war  Spanish  Government   was   increased   by  a  dispute 

with  the  United  States  over  the  rebellion  in  Cuba. 

A  note  was  delivered  at  Madrid  by  Gushing,  the 

American    Minister,    complaining    that   the   Cuban 

insurrection  was  daily  growing  more  insupportable 

to  the  people  of  the  United  States.     The  President 

American   suggested  that  he   did   not   desire  annexation,  but 

remon-  oa 

strance  tke  eievatiOn  of  Cuba  to  an  independent  colony. 
Expectations  of  war  were  rife.  Happily,  the  tone 
of  President  Grant's  remarks  in  his  message  on 
the  7th  of  December  allayed  the  prevalent  appre- 
hension. The  United  States  abstained  from  any 
measure  so  decisive  as  the  recognition  of  the  in- 
surgent Cuban  Government. 

To  the  discomfiture  of  European  chancelleries, 
the  announcement  was  made,  on  November  26,  that 
the  British  Government  had  bought  from  the  Khe- 
dive of  Egypt  for  £4,000,000  all  his  shares  in  the 
Suez  Canal,  about  nine-tenths  of  the  whole.  The 
main  ground  of  this  purchase  was  a  determination 
to  secure  for  English  shipping  free  passage  between 
the  Mediterranean  and  the  Indian  Ocean. 

Admiral  Enomoto  of  Japan  signed  a  conven- 
tion at  St.  Petersburg,  by  which  Kussia  received 
the  Island  of  Sagalien,  while  Japan  obtained  all 
the  Kurile  Islands. 


1878  NINETEENTH    VENTUHX  1567 


1876 

NEW  YEAR'S   DAY   was  ushered  in  with 
unusual  festivities  throughout  the  United 
American 

States.     It  began  the  "Centennial  Year, "  centennial 
or  hundredth  anniversary  since  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  and  a  general  amnesty  was  granted 
to  all  unpardoned  Confederates. 

In  Portugal,  on  January  16,  the  Chamber  of  Dep- 
uties voted  to  liberate  all  slaves  in  the  islands  of 
Cape  de  Verde  and  the  Azores.  This  liberal  meas- 
ure was  confirmed  by  the  Upper  House. 

In  Spain,  the  Carlist  war  drew  to  a  close.  Cap- 
tain-General Campos  planned  the  seizure  of  the 
Valley  of  the  Bassidoa,  so  as  to  cut  the  Carlists 
off  from  supplies  except  by  sea.  To  effect  this  he 
arranged  that  Generals  Quesada,  Moriones,  Loma 
and  Primo  da  Bivera,  should  operate  with  separate 

Campos' 

divisions  by  way  of  diversion.  General  Moriones  strategy 
captured  the  heights  of  Garabi-Maudi  above  Gueta- 
ria,  under  cover  of  a  feint  on  January  25.  Quesada 
advancing  from  Vittoria  pushed  the  Carlists  toward 
him  in  the  direction  of  Guipozoa,  and  took  Durango 
on  February  5.  Loma,  having  taken  Valmonade, 
occupied  Guernica  before  February  8.  The  three 
now  moved  upon  Guipozoa,  and  met  King  Al- 
fonso on  his  road  to  Vergera.  Meanwhile,  General 


1558  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Spring  187C 

Primo  da  Kivera,  after  capturing  the  heights  of 
Monte  Jurra  above  Estella  on  February  19,  took 
that  town  itself,  heretofore  the  headquarters  of  the 
Oarlists.  On  the  same  day,  Campos  defeated  the 
Carlists  above  Veras,  and  the  Carlists  withdrew  their 
LtoruLrios  ^ast  battalion.  Don  Carlos  himself  took  refuge  on 
French  territory  on  February  28,  and  surrendered  to 
the  Governor  of  Bayonne.  With  him  went  General 
Lizzarraga  and  five  battalions  of  troops.  The  re- 
mainder surrendered.  Thus  ended  the  civil  war 
which  had  devastated  Spain  for  so  many  years. 

The  Eastern  Question  this  year  took  an  alarming 
turn.     Herzegovina,  where  revolt  had  broken  out 

Rerolt  of 

Herze-       the   year  before,   had   long   been  one  of   the  most 

gOTina  J 

disturbed  parts  of  the  Ottoman  Empire.  The  re- 
bellion was  attended  by  the  usual  atrocities.  The 
Christians  complained  of  foul  outrages,  and  the 
Mohammedans  in  turn  accused  them  of  murdering 
Turkish  travellers.  After  several  months  the  Eu- 
ropean Cabinets  tried  to  make  peace  through  their 
agents.  This  attempt  wholly  failed.  The  insur- 
gents would  not  lay  down  arms  unless  the  Powers 
would  protect  them.  The  Servians  and  Montene- 
grins gave  the  rebels  secret  help.  The  result  of 
the  international  pour  parlers  was  the  famous  An- 

Andrassy 

note  drassy  note,  seemingly  acquiesced  in  by  the  Sultan. 
Shortly  afterward,  on  May  6,  the  French  and  Ger- 
man Consuls  were  killed  at  Salonica,  during  a  fa- 
natic outbreak  of  the  Mohammedans.  Other  events 
quickly  followed.  On  the  last  day  of  the  month  Sul- 
tan Abdul  Aziz  was  deposed  at  the  Yildiz  Kiosk, 
and  his  eldest  son  succeeded  him  as  Murad  V.  Not 


1876  Summer  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1559 

long  afterward,  the  ex-Sultan,  who  had  been  con- 
veyed across  the  Golden  Horn  to  Catragan,  was  mur-  murdered2 
dered  by  order  of  his  Ministers.  A  fortnight  later, 
as  the  Ministers  were  holding  their  meeting  in  the 
palace  of  Midhat  Pasha,  the  Minister  of  War  and 
one  of  his  colleagues  were  murdered  by  Circassian 
officers.  Meanwhile,  a  rebellion  had  broken  out 
in  Bulgaria.  This  happened  after  the  burning  of 
Christian  villages,  the  massacre  of  old  and  young, 
and  indescribable  horrors  at  Babak.  The  Servians 
likewise  were  preparing  for  war.  On  the  last  day  of 
June,  Servia  formally  proclaimed  that  she  intended 
to  join  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  to  secure  the  liber-  Balkan 
ation  of  the  Slavic  Christians  from  the  yoke  of  therevo?t 
Porte.  Simultaneously  the  warlike  Prince  of  Mon- 
tenegro took  up  the  same  cause.  On  July  2,  Prince 
Nikitia  set  out  with  his  army  from  the  capital,  Cet- 
tigne,  and  hostilities  commenced.  The  Servians, 
50,000  strong,  crossed  the  mountains  in  two  divi- 
sions, and  thus  carried  the  war  into  the  enemy's 
country.  But  soon  they  suffered  serious  defeat 
near  Belfina.  The  Turks  penetrated  by  way  of 
Granada  and  Kanderola  into  Servia.  On  August 
5,  the  Servians  were  driven  from  their  position  atTiie 

Servian 

Kujazevach,  while  on  the  following  day  a  Turkish  campaign 
column  under  Hassah  Pasha  occupied  the  defile 
of  Vraternitza  and  the  village  of  Galgan  on  the 
Timok.  After  this,  the  Turks  advanced  on  Tes- 
cieza  and  put  the  Servians  to  flight.  This  opened 
the  way  to  Alexinatz.  Prince  Milan  summoned  thepeaisto 

Powers 

foreign  Consuls  to  the  palace,   and  expressed    his 
willingness  to  accept  the  intervention  of  the  Powers. 


1560  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Autumn  1871 

On  September  1,  under  the  walls  of  Alexinatz,  the 
Servian  army  was  completely  defeated.  The  Porte 
declined  an  armistice  and  made  demands  which  the 
Powers  declared  to  be  inadmissible. 

At  this  critical  juncture  a  coup  d'£tat  at  Constan- 
tinople intervened.  Sultan  Murad  becoming  insane 
was  deposed  August  21,  and  his  brother,  Abdul 
Hamid  II.,  was  called  to  the  succession.  Finally, 
on  September  16,  the  Porte  agreed  to  a  suspension 
of  hostilities  until  the  25th.  England  now  proposed 
that  the  status  quo  should  be  maintained  in  Servia 
and  Montenegro;  administrative  reforms  looking 
to  self-government,  but  not  to  independence  of  the 
Porte,  shojild  be  established  in  Bjpsnia  and  Bui- 
- garia.  These  negotiations  were  hindered  by  the 

pendence 

proclamation  of  Prince  Milan  as  King  of  Servia 
at  Deligrad.  Prince  Milan  rejected  the  proposal  of 
Turkey  to  prolong  the  truce  until  October  2.  War 
broke  out  again.  Despite  the  help  of  Russian  vol- 
unteers, the  success  was  on  the  side  of  the  Turks, 
except  in  Montenegro.  A  struggle  from  October 
19  to  23,  ended  with  the  taking  of  Dugunis,  the 
greatest  success  of  the  campaign.  Russia  made  a 
demand  for  a  six  weeks'  armistice,  but  the  Porte 
asked  six  months.  Russia  would  not  agree  to  this, 
and  on  October  31,  General  Ignatieff  called  on  Tur- 
key  to  agree  to  the  shorter  armistice  within  forty- 
eight  hours.  On  the  day  the  ultimatum  was  pre- 
sented, Alexinatz  was  captured  by  the  Turks  and 
Deligrad  was  occupied  by  them  on  the  following 
day,  thus  opening  the  road  to  Belgrade.  Turkey 
declared  herself  ready  to  accept  an  armistice.  On 


1878  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1561 

the  conclusion  of  the  armistice,  England  proposed 

a  conference  of  the  Powers  at  Constantinople.     All 

the   recommendations   of    the   conference  were   re-  conference 

jected  by  Turkey.     Midhat  Pasha  was  now  Grand 

Vizier. 

In  Mexico  a  revolution  had  broken  out  in  con- 
sequence   of    the    attempted    re-election    of    Lerdo 
as  President.     Eventually  his  rival,  Porfirio  Diaz, 
gained  possession  of  the  country,  and,  on  Novem- 
ber 16,  defeated  the  government  troops  under  Ala-  Mexican 
torre  near  Humantia.     Puebla  fell  on  the  18th,  byrevolutiOD 
revolt  of  the  troops  in  favor  of  Diaz.     Lerdo  de 
Tepada,  with  one  regiment,  fled   from  the  capital 
on  the  21st,  and  with  his  escort  reached  Morelia, 
where  he  attempted  to  maintain  the  constitutional 
government.     On  the  23d,  Porfirio  Diaz  entered  the 
city  amid  unusual  rejoicings.     Vera  Cruz  declared  ofas™ 
adherence   to   Diaz,  and  on  the  30th   he  was  offi- 
cially   proclaimed    Provisional    President    of    the 
Republic. 

On  May  10,  the  Centennial  Exposition  was  in- 
augurated   at    Philadelphia    by    President    Grant.  rentennia 
The  ceremonies  were   opened   with  a  march  com- Expos 
posed  by  Richard  Wagner.      One  of   the  greatest 
features  of  the  Centennial  Exposition  was  the  ex- 
hibit of  the  telephone  by  Alexander  Graham  Bell. 
Born  at  Edinburgh  in  1847,  Bell  was  educated  there 
»nd  in  Germany,  and  settled  in  Canada  in  1870.     In 
1872,  became  to  the  United  States  and  introduced  telephone 
a  system  of  visible  speech  for  the  education  of  deaf 
mutes,  which  his  father,  a  distinguished  Edinburgh 
teacher  of  elocution,  had  invented.    He  became  pro- 


1562  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  im 

fessor  of  vocal  physiology  in  Boston,  where  he  con- 
structed his  telephone. 

Among  the  American  artists  whose  contributions 
to  the  great  exposition  brought  them  renown  were 
John  J.  Kogers  and  William  M.  Storey,  the  sculp' 
tors,  and  Elihu  Vedder,  the  well-known  illustrator. 

The  United  States  had  entered  into  a  treaty  with 
the  Sioux  Indians,  by  which  these  were  to  leave 
their  lands  in  the  Black  Hills  to  enter  into  a  new 

Campaign 

reservation.     Sitting  Bull,  the  chief  of  the  Sioux, 


refused  to  sign  it.  The  Indians,  led  by  him,  chose 
a  strong  position  in  the  Bad  Lands  in  southern 
Montana.  The  plan  of  the  United  States  troops 
was  to  converge  on  them  in  three  columns  —  Gen- 
eral Gibbon  from  the  west,  General  Crook  from 
the  south,  and  General  Terry  from  the  east.  In  the 
last-named  body  was  the  Seventh  Cavalry  under 
Custer.  In  advancing  from  the  south,  Crook  was 
impeded.  Terry  moved  up  the  Yellowstone  Valley. 
The  custer  Custer  with  five  troops  of  horse  was  ambushed. 

massacre 

Custer  and  all  his  men  were  slain.  Gibbon  and 
Terry  came  up  three  days  after  the  massacre.  In 
July,  General  Sheridan  was  put  in  command  of  the 
expedition  against  the  Sioux.  On  November  24, 
the  Sioux  were  severely  defeated  in  a  pass  in  the 
Big  Horn  Mountains.  This  ended  the  war  with 
the  Sioux  for  a  time. 

Alphonse  Esquiros,  the  French  writer  and  poli- 
tician, died  on  May  12.  His  first  work,  a  vol- 
ume of  poetry,  "Les  flirondelles,"  appeared  in 
1834.  This  was  followed  by  romances  and  a 
commentary  on  the  Life  of  Christ,  "L'Evangile 


1876  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1563 

da  Peuple,"  for  which  he  was  imprisoned.  He 
then  published  "Les  Chants  d'un  Prison nier, "  EsquSos0 
"Les  Vierges  Folles,"  "Les  Vierges  Sages,"  and 
"L'Histoire  des  Montagnards."  He  entered  the 
Assembly  in  1848,  and  on  being  proscribed,  at 
the  coup  d'etat,  took  refuge  in  England,  where 
his  sketches  of  English  life  and  manners  in  the 
"Revue  des  Deux  Mondes"  brought  him  celeb- 
rity. On  the  fall  of  the  Second  Empire  he  was  ap- 
pointed administrator  of  Bouches  du  Rhone,  where 
he  expelled  the  Jesuits  and  sequestered  their  prop- 
erty. The  outcry  against  these  arbitrary  measures 
obliged  Gambetta  to  remove  him,  but  for  a  fort- 
night Esquiros  bid  the  government  defiance.  His 
resignation  and  departure  were  the  signal  for  new 
disturbances. 

The    famous    novelist    Georges    Sand    (Madame 
Dudevant),    died    on    the    8th    of    June.     In    con- 

Death  of 

junction  with  Jules  Sandeau,  a  young  lawyer,  she 
wrote  "Rose  et  Blanche,"  which  was  published  in 
1831.  Her  next  book  was  "Indiana,"  which  had  a 
brilliant  success.  "Valantine,"  "Lelia,"  "Jacques 
Andri,"  "Leone  Leoni,"  "La  derniere  Aldini," 
"Lavania"  and  others  appeared  within  a  few  years. 
In  1854  she  published  "Histoire  de  ma  Vie,"  a 
psychological  autobiography.  Among  her  later 
novels  are  "La  Mare  au  Diable, "  "Fran9ois  le 
Champi,"  "La  Petite  Fadette,"  "Les  Maitres  Son- 
neurs,"  "L'Homme  de  Neige,"  "Pierre  Qui  Rolle," 
"Consuelo"  and  "The  Countess  of  Rudolstadt." 
Georges  Sand's  works  consist  of  some  sixty  nov- 
els, many  plays,  and  numerous  articles  in  literary 


1564  A   HISTORY   OF   THE  1876 

journals.  Much  has  been  written  concerning  her 
relations  with  Alfred  de  Musset  and  Frederic 
Chopin. 

Harriet         Harriet  Martineau,  the  celebrated  English  author, 
Martineau  died  on  June  27)  at  Ambleside  in  England.     She 

was  born  at  Norwich,  June  12,  1802,  of  Huguenot 
descent.  Her  first  work  ''Devotional  Exercises  for 
the  Young,"  appeared  in  1823.  Next  came  a  num- 
ber of  stories  written  to  convey  some  youthful  les- 
son. "Illustrations  of  Political  Economy, ' '  1831-34, 
in  nine  volumes,  was  followed  by  "Illustrations  of 
Taxation"  and  "Poor  Laws  and  Paupers."  After 
visiting  the  United  States,  in  1834,  she  published 
"Society  in  America"  and  a  "Retrospect  on  West- 
ern Travel."  In  1839-40  appeared  "Deerbrook" 
and  "The  Hour  and  the  Man,"  two  novels,  the 
first  of  which  acquired  wide  popularity.  In  1853 
she  published  "Comte's  Positive  Philosophy." 
Among  her  other  works  was  a  "History  of  Eng- 
land During  the  Thirty  Years'  Peace,"  "England 
and  Her  Soldiers,"  and  "Health,  Husbandry  and 
Handicraft."  A  candid  autobiography  was  found 
among  her  posthumous  manuscripts. 

At  Rome,   Giacomo  Antonelli  died   in   his  sev- 

Giacomo 

enty.second  year.  He  opposed  the  assumption  of 
the  Italian  crown  by  Victor  Emmanuel.  Virtually 
he  was  the  Prime  Minister  of  the  Pope. 

Denmark  lost  one  of  her  most  philosophic  poets 
in  Frederik  Paludan-Miiller.  His  profound  epic 
poem  "Adam  Homo"  marks  the  transition  of  Dan- 
ish poetry  to  its  modern  pessimistic  tendencies. 
Still  another  of  his  conceptions  of  life  is  to  be 


1876  Autumn  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1565 

found  in  his  drama  "Kalanus,"  in  which  Grecian 
culture  and  sensualism  are  contrasted  with  East 
Indian  asceticism. 

Meanwhile  the  Boers  continued  their  irregular 
warfare  with  the  Kaffir  tribes,  and  with  the  most  Boers  and 
disastrous  results.  In  a  battle  at  the  end  of  the 
year  the  army  of  the  Transvaal  was  totally  de- 
feated and  its  leader  killed.  The  Cape  Govern- 
ment was  appealed  to  in  the  interest  of  peace 
and  security. 

In  Cuba,  the  revolt  continued,  and  volunteers  and 
money  poured  into  the  island.  The  insurgents  were 
reported  to  be  10,000  strong.  Early  in  October  the 
government  succeeded  in  getting  the  Cuba  loan  of 
$3,000,000  on  the  security  of  the  customs  dues, 
and  late  in  the  year  General  Martinez  Campos, 
having  been  appointed  Commander-in-Chief,  ar- 
rived with  14,000  men  accompanied  by  a  fleet 
under  Don  Francisco  de  Selano. 


XlXth  Century— Vol.  3— 


1566  A   HISTORY   OF   THE  1877 


E 


1877 

ARLY  in  the  year  a  great  rebellion  broke  out 
in  Japan.     It  was  led  by  Saigo  Takamori, 
formerly   a  marshal   of  the  empire,   with  a 
large  following  of   Samurai    and   the  discontented 
peasants  of  Satsuma.     Two  departments  of  admin- 
istration were  abolished,  and  several  thousand  office- 
Final         holders  discharged,  many  of  whom  joined  the  great 
japan in     rebellion.     It  was  the   final   struggle   between   the 
forces  of  feudalism  and  modern  constitutional  gov- 
ernment.    After  a  brief  but  bloody  campaign  the 
rebels  were  routed.     Their  leader  Saigo,  at  his  own 
request,  was  beheaded  by  one  of  his  friends.     In 
End  or       the   ultimate   treatment   of    the   overthrown   rebels 

Saigo 

the  Mikado  showed  a  wise  spirit  of  leniency. 
Of  38,000  prisoners  attainted  for  treason,  almost 
all  were  pardoned.  About  one  thousand  of  the 
leading  men  were  confined  in  the  government  fort- 
resses, and  only  twenty  of  the  most  gravely  im- 
plicated men  were  shot.  The  contest  lasted  several 
months  and  cost  Japan  some  $50,000,000,  and  many 
thousands  of  lives.  To  redress  the  grievances  of  the 

Sweeping 

reforms      peasants  and  farmers,  the  government  made  haste  to 
reduce  the  national  land  tax  from  three  to  two  and 

• 

a  half  per  cent,  while  the  local  tax  was  cut  down 
to  one-fifth.  The  loss  to  the  treasury  from  this  was 


1877  Spring  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1567 

\ 
made  good  by  a  diminution  of  the  salaries  of  nearly 

all  the  government  officials. 

The  continued  disorders  in  the  Turkish  domin- 
ions gave  .Russia  an  opportunity  of  interfering  inT^rkey 
the  atiairs  of  the  Porte.     To  avert  war  between  Eus-  rliSrms 
sia  and   Turkey,    the   six   great   European   powers 
signed  a  protocol  at  London  asserting  the  necessity 
of  reforms  and  providing  for  disarmament  on  cer- 
tain conditions.     On  the  determination  of  the  Porte 
to  listen  to  no  such  proposals,  Russia  declared  war, 
on  April   24.      Already  Russia    had    concluded  a 
treaty   with   Roumania,  which  not  long  after  pro-  Balkan 
claimed  its  independence;    while  Servia  and  Mon-^^^ 
tenegro   eagerly  embraced    the    opportunity  to   se- 
cure their  independence. 

On  the  very  day  of  the  declaration  of  war  theRussia 
Russian  forces  crossed  the  frontier  into  Asia,  while  m 
in  Europe  they  passed  into  Roumania. 

The  Russians  had  a  great  advantage  in  possessing 
the  province  of  Transcaucasia  as  a  base  of  opera- 
tions. At  the  opening  of  the  campaign,  the  total 
strength  of  the  Russian  army  of  the  Caucasus  num- 
bered about  150,000  men  of  six  divisions,  com- 
manded by  the  Grandduke  Michael  Nicolayevich, 
assisted  by  divisional  commanders.  The  Turkish 
army,  under  Mukhtar  Pasha  on  the  frontier,  con- 
sisted of  80,000  regular  troops,  15,000  Circassians, 
4,000  Kurds,  and  25,000  militia — thus  making  a  total 
of  124,000  men.  Of  these  22,000  were  stationed  at 
Erzeroum,  the  headquarters  of  the  Turkish  army, 
28,000  at  Kars,  and  12,000  at  Ardahan. 

During  the  first  few  weeks  of  the  campaign,  the 


1568  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1877 

salient  events  were  a  battle  before  Kars,  April  29 
£a]2ialgn  and  30,  in  which  the  Russians  were  victorious, 
a  defeat  of  the  Eussians  at  Batoum  May  11,  the 
capture  of  Sukbrum  Kale,  a  Russian  military  post 
near  the  Turkish  frontier,  on  May  14,  and  the 
taking  of  Ardahan  by  the  Russians  on  the  17th. 

On  the   Danube  the  Russian  army  consisted  of 
nine  army  corps  and  a  total  of  310,000  men,  55,806 
horses  and  972  guns.      These  forces  were  supple- 
mented   by   the    Roumanian    army    under    Prince 
Charles  of  Hohenzollern,   72,000  strong,   of  whom 
about  17,000  were  regulars  and  properly  equipped. 
The  Turkish  army  on  the  south  side  of  the  Dan- 
ube numbered  about  247,000  men,  scattered  in  forti- 
fied towns  over  a  frontier  of  500  miles.     After  two 
Russians     weeks  of  preparation  and  delay,  the  Russians  ac- 

cross  the  »  ' 

Danube  complished  the  passage  of  the  Danube  between 
June  21  and  June  30.  The  crossing  was  effected 
at  four  different  points — Galatz,  Braila,  and  Hir- 
sova  into  the  Dobrudscha  and  from  Simnitza  to  Sis- 
tova.  By  the  morning  of  July  1,  60,000  Russians 
had  crossed  the  Danube. 

Abdul  Kerim,  the  Turkish  Commander-in-Chief 
on  the  Danube,  maintained  a  fatuous  inactivity. 
A  number  of  Russian  successes  quickly  followed 
the  passage  of  the  Danube.  On  July  7,  Tirnova 
was  captured,  and  on  July  16  Nicopolis  was  carried 

Tirnova  by  assault  after  severe  fighting.  Six  thousand  Turk- 
^sa  soldiers  with  guns  and  munitions  of  war  fell 
to  the  victors.  But  the  most  striking  achievement 
of  the  Russians  was  the  expedition  of  General 
Gourko,  who,  starting  from  Tirnova  on  July  12, 


1877  Summer  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1569 

led  a  flying  detachment  composed  of  all  arms  across 
the  Balkans  on  the  14th,  by  way  of  the  Hainkoi 
Pass,  into  Roumelia  as  far  as  Yeni-Sagra,  almost 
without  opposition. 

The  Russian  army  in  Asia,  after  driving  in  the 
Turkish  outposts,  captured  some  of  the  principal 
fortified  positions,  invested  Kars  and  seemed  likely 
to  reach  Erzeroum  without  any  serious  reverse. 
But  as  time  went  on  the  campaign  in  Armenia 
suddenly  collapsed.  In  August,  the  army  of  in- 
vasion met  with  a  series  of  defeats,  of  which  the 
battle  of  Kizil-Tipe  was  an  example.  In  Europe, 
too,  reverses  came  that  changed  for  a  time  the 
whole  aspect  of  the  campaign.  Plevna  and  the 
Shipka  Pass  became  names  of  ominous  import 
to  the  soldiers  of  the  Czar.  The  first  disastrous 
action  before  Plevna  took  place  on  July  20,  when 

i     .        ••          .    .     .  -,  I/-/")          Russians 

a  brigade  of  infantry,  under  the  command  of  Gen-  repulsed  at 
eral  Schildner-Schuldner,  fell  into  a  trap  and  was 
wellnigh  cut  to  pieces.  On  the  last  day  of  July, 
the  second  battle  of  Plevna  was  fought,  in  which 
the  Turkish  forces,  50,000  strong,  completely  de- 
feated the  Russians,  after  a  terrible  conflict,  with 
a  loss  of  8,000  killed  and  as  many  wounded.  South 
of  the  Balkans  the  forces  of  the  Czar  met  with  the 
same  ill- fortune.  Suleiman  Pasha,  having  defeated 
General  Gourko's  force  at  Eski-Sagra  on  August 
15,  and  driven  the  Russians  back  to  the  mountains,  Eski.Sa(,ra 
assailed  the  Russian  fortified  positions  in  the  Shipka 
Pass,  and  then  followed  a  series  of  sanguinary  con- 
flicts to  which  the  war  had  hitherto  furnished  no 
parallel.  The  Turks  claimed  a  victory  on  the  Lorn; 


1570  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  Sept.  1877 

was  foll°we(l  b    a  Russian  success  of  much 


Fall  of 

Loftcha     importance  —  the  capture   of  Loftcha  on  the  3d  of 

September. 

Abdul  Kerim  Pasha  was  recalled  from  the  comv 
mand  of  the  Turkish  forces  on  the  Danube,  and  that 
appointment  was  given  provisionally  to  Mehemet 
Ali  Pasha.  On  September  1,  Osman  Pasha  with 
25,000  men  made  a  determined  but  unsuccessful  at- 
tack against  the  Russian  left  centre,  which  held  a 
Fi  htin  strongly  fortified  position  around  the  villages  of 
Pelisat  and  £galince.  In  this  perfectly  useless 
sortie,  after  losing  3,000  men,  he  was  defeated  and 
driven  back  by  General  Zubov.  The  successful 
dash  at  lioftcha  was  followed  by  a  series  of  des- 
perate assaults  by  the  Russian  and  Roumanian 
forces  on  the  fortified  positions  of  Osman  Pasha 
at  Plevna.  The  conflict  began  September  11,  and 
day  after  day  the  slaughter  went  on  till  the  Russian 
losses  before  Plevna  amounted  to  more  than  12,000 
and  those  of  the  Roumanians  to  3,000  men.  In  the 
Shipka  Pass,  Suleiman  Pasha  lost  more  than 
12,000  soldiers. 

While  the   war  in  the  Bast  continued,   the  Re- 

public   of    France    passed    through   a   crisis.     An 

French      open  conflict  occurred  at.  the  funeral  of  the  corn- 

crisis  et      poser  JB'elicien  David.     As  a  member  of  the  Legion 

of  Honor  the  dead  man  was  entitled  to  a  military 

escort.     Learning  that  David   in  his  will   had  ex- 

pressed  a   desire    to    be    buried   without  religious 

ceremonies,    the   commanding  officer  marched    his 

troops   back   to   their   barracks.      The  government 

suffered  this  insubordination  to  go  unpunished.    As 


1877  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1571 

a  result  Dufaure's  Ministry  lost  the  respect  of  the 
country  and  soon  had  to  resign.  MacMahon  allowed 
Jules  Simon  to  form  a  new  Ministry  in  expectation 
that  he  would  compromise  the  Republican  majority  Simon,s 
by  ultra- radical  measures.  In  this  the  Monarchists  Ml 
were  disappointed.  MacMahon  resolved  to  get  rid  of 
Simon.  U  nable  to  do  this  by  Parliamentary  means, 
since  Simon  controlled  the  majority  in  the  Assem- 
bly, he  encouraged  the  Clericals  in  their  scheme  of 
a  monster  petition  to  the  government  against  the 
Pope's  further  "imprisonment."  In  the  Assem- 
bly, Simon  declared  from  the  tribune  "it  is  not  a 
fact  that  the  Pope  is  a  prisoner.  Statements  to 
this  effect  are,  if  not  altogether  false,  at  least 
grossly  exaggerated."  The  Pope,  in  Rome,  took 
the  earliest  opportunity  to  complain  publicly  that  |j™£ti011 
the  French  Minister- President  had  called  him01 
"a  liar."  This  created  a  great  uproar  in  France. 
Marshal  MacMahon  requested  Simon  to  resign.  All 
his  colleagues  in  the  Cabinet  resigned  with  him. 
In  the  face  of  the  Republican  majority  in  the 
House,  MacMahon  intrusted  the  Duke  de  Broglie 
with  the  formation  of  a  new  Monarchist  Ministry. 
When  the  Chambers  protested  against  this  breach 
of  constitutional  government  the  Senate,  at  the  re- 
quest of  MacMahon,  dissolved  the  Lower  House. 
A  turbulent  electoral  campaign  followed.  Mac-  Mahorrs 

measures 

Mahon  published  a  manifesto  in  which  he  de- 
clared that  the  government,  in  case  of  hostile 
elections,  would  not  yield.  Gambetta  replied  men- 
acingly that  France  would  compel  MacMahon  either 
to  submit  or  to  resign — "se  soumettre  ou  se  demettre." 


1572  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  1877 

For  these  words  Gambetta  was  condemned  to  three 
months'  imprisonment  and  a  fine  of  4,000  francs,  but 
the  government  did  not  dare  to  enforce  the  sentence. 
In  the  midst  of  the  election  occurred  the  death 
of  Louis  Adolphe  Thiers,  one  of  the  most  eminent 
Thiers°  figures  of  republican  France.  While  struggling  with 
poverty  at  Paris  young  Thiers  made  his  name  as  a 
political  writer.  He  took  part  with  Armand  Carrel 
and  Mignet  in  the  foundation  of  the  "Journal  Na- 
tional." In  its  columns  Thiers  was  the  strongest 
advocate  of  constitutional  liberty.  Under  the  gov- 
ernment of  Louis  Philippe,  Thiers  filled  several 
prominent  offices,  until  in  1840,  when  he  was  called 
to  the  head  of  the  Ministry.  After  he  was  super- 
seded by  Guizot  he  returned  to  his  historical  labors. 
After  the  coup  d'etat  of  December  2,  1851,  Thiers  was 
banished.  Amnestied  in  the  following  year,  he  re- 
turned to  France  to  remain  in  comparative  retire- 
ment till  1863.  During  the  convulsions  of  1870-71, 
Thiers  came  to  the  front  together  with  Gambetta  to 
save  France.  On  the  fall  of  Paris  he  was  returned 
to  the  National  Assembly,  and,  on  February  17, 
1871,  he  was  declared  chief  of  the  executive  power. 
The  Assembly  prolonged  Thiers's  tenure  of  office, 
and  changed  his  title  to  that  of  President.  W  hen 
the  Chambers  turned  against  him,  Thiers  accepted 
his  deposition  with  dignity,  and  once  more  went 
into  retirement.  Still  he  continued  to  be  regarded 
as  head  of  the  Constitutional  Conservatives.  As  a 
historian,  Thiers  won  renown  by  his  great  history 
of  the  French  Revolution,  and  his  history  of  the 
Consulate  and  the  Empire. 


»77  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1578 

At  this  year's  Salon  the  painter  Jean  Paul  Lau- 
rens  exhibited  his  famous  "Austrian  Staff  Officers La^Ss11 
around  the  Deathbed  of  Marceau."  Laurens  had 
previously  attracted  attention  with  his  first  picture 
exhibited  at  the  Salon  of  1863,  and  later  by  his 
"Death  of  the  Duke  d'Enghien,"  by  his  "Fran- 
cesco di  Borgia  before  the  dead  Isabella  of  Portu- 
gal,"  and  by  "The  Last  Moments  of  Maximilian." 

The  result  of  the  exciting  French  elections  was 
a  Republican  victory.  Of  the  new  deputies  320 
Republicans  were  returned  as  against  112  Bona- 
partists  and  98  Royalists.  A  second  dissolution  Defeat  ot 

French 

was  frustrated  by  the  opposition  of  the  thirteen  Govern- 
constitutional  Orleanists  who  held  the  balance  of 
power  in  the  Senate.  As  a  result  of  election  frauds 
ninety-three  members  of  the  government  faction  were 
unseated.  The  Broglie  Ministry  resigned.  Still  Mac- 
Mahon  would  not  yield,  but  formed  another  Min-  Mac- 

Mahpn 

istry  of  Monarchists  under  Roche  Bouet.  On  Jules  obstinate 
Ferry's  motion  the  Republican  majority  refused 
to  enter  into  relations  with  the  unparliamentary 
Cabinet.  Its  measures  for  the  levy  of  taxes  were 
ignored.  At  last  President  MacMahon  had  the  good 
sense  to  yield.  "/Se  soumettre"  was  preferred  to  "se 
demettre."  Dufaure  was  permitted  to  form  a  Repub- 
lican Cabinet,  the  majority  of  whom  were  Protes- 
tants. The  victory  was  Gambetta's.  At  once  a 

Triumph  of 

bill  was  introduced  granting  amnesty  for  all  recent  Gambetta 
political    offences.     Sweeping    changes    were    also 
made  in  the  administration.     Out  of  eighty -seven 
prefects    eighty-three    were    removed.      Then    the 
Chambers  adjourned  until  the  next  year. 


1574  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Spring  1877 

In  North  America,  early  in  the  year,  a  bitter 
pouScs311  political  contest  had  arisen  over  the  disputed  elec- 
tion of  Rutherford  Hayes.  In  January,  Congress 
concurred  in  a  vote  appointing  a  Commission  for 
counting  the  electoral  vote,  and  to  settle  all  ques- 
tions concerning  the  election  in  Florida,  Louisiana, 
South  Carolina  and  other  disputed  States.  Two 
bodies  in  South  Carolina  claimed  to  be  the  Legis- 
lature. One  gave  the  majority  to  Hayes,  the  other 
to  Tilden.  In  Florida  both  parties  claimed  the  vote 
for  President  by  a  small  majority.  Scores  of  influ- 
Hayes-  ential  politicians  from  the  North  hurried  to  these 

Tilden 

contest  States.  The  Republicans  had  the  Federal  troops 
to  back  them.  By  a  vote  of  eight  Republicans  to 
seven  Democrats  the  Electoral  Commission  declared 
for  Hayes.  This  result  was  attributed  to  William 
E.  Chandler's  political  strategy.  On  March  2,  Con- 
gress, in  joint  session,  confirmed  the  election  of 
Hayes  and  Wheeler,  giving  Hayes  the  majority 
of  one  vote  over  Tilden.  On  the  following  day 
the  House  repudiated  this  decision  and  declared 
that  Tilden  and  Hendricks  were  elected  by  196 
electoral  votes  —  a  vote  of  186  to  88,  66  not  voting. 


out"  The  country  was  brought  to  the  verge  of  civil  war. 
Hayes  was  privately  sworn  in  as  President  on 
March  4,  but  his  inauguration  was  deferred  until 
the  following  Monday.  Tilden  silenced  his  indig- 
nant followers  by  a  dignified  declaration  of  with- 
drawal. Hayes  began  his  administration  with  the 
set  purpose  of  restoring  peaceful  relations  between 
the  North  and  South.  The  Federal  troops  were 
withdrawn.  A  bitter  contest  for  the  governorship 


1877  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  1575 

in  South  Carolina  was  appeased  by  the  President's 
advising  one  of  the  claimants,  Chamberlain,  to  with- 
draw. Wade  Hampton  was  sworn  in  as  Governor, 
and  gave  general  satisfaction  by  his  administration. 
On  February  12,  Bell  exhibited  his  telephone  at 
Salem,  Massachusetts,  and  on  May  10  he  described  telephone 
his  invention  before  the  Boston  Academy.  The 
first  business  telephone  was  erected  between  Boston 
and  Somerville,  three  miles.  Elisha  Gray  filed  array's 

telephone 

caveat  for  his   telephone   three   hours  after   Bell's 
was  filed.     Thomas  A.  Edison  invented  his  phono- 

t  .  ,  Edison's 

graph.     Among  the  prominent  Americans  who  died  pnono- 
during  this  year   were  Motley,  the  historian,   and 
Cornelius  Yanderbilt,  the  millionnaire. 

The  Sioux  Indians  were  overtaken  and  again  de- 
feated by  General  Miles,  and  the  Sioux  war  ended. 
In  July,  another  Indian  war  broke  out  in  the 
northwest.  The  Nez  Pete's  of  Idaho  declined  to 
occupy  the  reservation  in  that  State  and  Oregon. 
Chief  Joseph  set  out  with  his  tribe  for  Canada,  war 
General  Merritt  declared  this  Indian  march  of  1,500 
miles  a  wonderful  exploit.  On  the  other  side  of  the 
mountains  the  Indians  were  confronted  by  Miles, 
but  crossed  the  Missouri.  Chief  Joseph  was  at  last 
defeated  by  Miles  in  the  Bear  Paw  Mountains  on 
October  4.  The  Nez  Pete's  submitted. 

On  August  28,  Brigham  Young,  the  president  of 
the  Mormon  Church,  died  at  a  ripe  age.  He  was 
one  of  the  twelve  founders  of  Nauvoo.  After  the 
murder  of  the  prophet,  Joseph  Smith,  and  the  flight 
of  the  Mormons  from  Nauvoo,  Young  became  their  Young™ 
leader  and  was  elected  president  on  their  settlement 


1576  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1877 

in  Utah.  Whan  Utah  was  made  a  Territory  he  was 
appointed  Governor  by  President  Polk.  Utah  flour- 
ished under  his  rule  and  he  long  withstood  success- 
fully the  efforts  of  the  United  States  Government 
to  establish  its  authority  there.  In  1852  he  an- 
nounced that  polygamy  had  been  commanded  in 
a  special  revelation  to  Joseph  Smith,  which  was 
generally  accepted  by  the  Mormons.  Brigham 
Young  set  the  example  by  taking  to  himself  a 
number  of  wives. 

A  great  railroad   strike  in  1877  caused   trouble 
Great        and  upheavals  in  North  America.     The  Baltimore 

American 


strike"1  an^  Ohio  Railroad  reduced  wages  by  ten  per  cent, 
and  a  strike  was  declared  in  July,  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  strikes  on  all  the  principal  railway  lines. 
Railway  traffic  was  at  a  standstill.  The  Brother- 
hood of  Engineers,  which  joined  in  the  strike,  had 
50,000  members,  and  several  million  dollars  at  its 
command.  Appeal  was  made  to  the  Federal  author- 
ities. At  Pittsburg,  on  July  21,  the  strikers  at- 
tacked the  soldiers.  Buildings  were  burned  with 
2,000  laden  freight  cars,  and  general  disorders  fol- 
lowed. At  length  the  Federal  troops  suppressed 
the  strike.  The  loss  was  $10,000,000.  The  strikers 
raised  a  riot  at  Reading,  and  thirteen  were  killed 
and  forty-three  wounded.  President  Hayes  issued 
proclamations  for  the  suppression  of  disorder  in 
West  Virginia,  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania.  An- 

Bioody  other  riot  in  Chicago,  July  26,  resulted  in  the 
killing  of  nineteen  persons.  Here  the  police  were 
assisted  by  United  States  cavalry  in  charging  the 
crowd.  A  reaction  set  in  about  the  27th,  when 


1877  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1677 

many  of  the  laborers  returned  to  work;  and  by 
the  30th  nearly  all  of  the  roads,  especially  east 
of  Buffalo,  were  in  operation  again. 

In  South  Africa,  after  desultory  fighting  with  the 
forces  of  the  bankrupted  South  African  republic, 
the  annexation  of  the  Transvaal  territory  could  be 
proclaimed.      An  administrator  with  an  executive  annexed*to 
council  and  legislative  assembly  for  the  new  col-  Ens|and 
ony  were  appointed  at  Cape  Town.     Under  pressure 
from  France  and  England,  the  Queen  of  Madagascar 
w&s  prevailed  upon  to  issue  a  proclamation,  on  June 
20,  for  the  total  abolition  of  slavery. 

On  March  24,  Walter  Bagehot,  the  eminent  Eng- 
lish economist  and  literary  critic,  died  at  his  birth-  Bagehot* 
place,  Langport  in  Somerset,  in  his  fifty-first  year. 
He  gamed  distinction  by  his  books  on  "The  Eng- 
lish Constitution,"  "Physics  and  Politics"  and 
"Lombard  Street." 

Johannes  Runeberg,  the  Finnish  poet  and  great- 
est writer  in  Swedish  literature,  died  at  the  age  of 
seventy-three.  His  first  verses  were  published  in 

Johannes 

1830.  and  were  well  received.  The  "Elk-Hunters," 
an  epic,  appeared  in  1832,  and  won  for  him  a  per- 
manent place  in  the  literature  of  his  language. 
"Hanna,"  a  love  story  in  hexameters,  was  pub- 
lished in  1836.  The  last  of  his  hexameter  narra- 
tives was  "Christmas  Eve."  With  "Nadeschda" 
the  poet  abandoned  the  idyllic  and  assumed  a  more 
tragic  tone.  The  tendency  thus  begun  was  contin- 
ued in  "Kung  Fjalar."  Runeberg's  greatest  work 
is  his  "Tales  of  Ensign  Stal,"  a  collection  of  poems 
dealing  with  the  scenes  of  the  war  which  ended  in 


1578  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  Autumn  1877 

the  annexation  of  Finland  to  Russia.  The  first  of 
these  poems,  "Our  Country,"  immediately  became 
the  national  song  of  Sweden  and  Finland. 

In  Germany,  Field- Marshal  Count  Von  Wrangel, 
one  of  the  early  reformers  of  the  Prussian  military 
system,  died  in  his  ninety-third  year.  He  saw  ser- 
vice in  all  of  Prussia's  campaigns  during  the  nine- 
teenth century,  having  entered  the  army  as  a  cadet 
before  1800. 

Later  in  the  year  the  death  of  Princess  Alice  of 

necrology  Hesse,  the  second  daughter  of  Queen  Victoria,  was 
lamented  as  a  general  loss.  This  gifted  princess, 
after  her  marriage  to  the  Grandduke  of  Hesse- 
Darmstadt,  won  international  renown  in  1870  by 
her  noble  services  for  the  relief  of  the  sick  and 
wounded  on  both  sides. 

"Anna  The  great  book  of  the  year  in  Eussia  was  Tolstoi's 

^arenina" 

novel,  "Anna  Kardnina, "  which  raised  its  author  to 
the  same  high  rank  among  modern  Eussian  writers 
as  that  held  by  Turgenyev  before  him. 

In  the  autumn,  Europe  was  startled  by  the  news 
of  a  great  and  decisive  Eussian  victory  over  the 
Turks.  On  October  14  and  15  the  Turks  lost  at  one 
blow  all  the  fruits  of  a  long  and  brilliant  series 
of  victories  in  Armenia.  On  the  14th,  General 
Lazarov  outflanked  the  right  of  the  Turkish  army 
Russian  under  Mukhtar  Pasha,  and  the  next  day  the  Grand- 
S1  Armenia  duke  Michael  attacked  the  centre  of  the  Turkish 
position  with  overwhelming  force,  while  General 
Lazarov  assaulted  the  rear.  By  9  P.M.  twenty-six 
battalions  with  seven  pashas  had  surrendered  with 
thirty-six  guns.  The  Turkish  stronghold  on  Mount 


1877  Autumn  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1579 

Acolias  was  taken  and  the  army  cut  in  two.  The 
right  wing  was  compelled  to  lay  down  its  arms, 
while  Mukhtar  Pasha  with  the  left  wing  retreated 
to  Kars.  The  spoil  was  great,  including  thousands 
of  tents  and  standards,  and  immense  quantities  of 
ammunition.  The  remnant  of  Mukhtar's  army,  re- 
inforced by  Ismail  Pasha's  troops,  took  up  a  strong  TurklsS* 
position  at  Kupn  Koi  before  Erzeroum,  from  which 
it  was  driven  in  wild  confusion  on  November  4,  the 
Turkish  commander  retreating  toward  Trebizonde. 
On  November  18,  the  famous  fortress  of  Kars  was 
taken  by  assault  after  a  desperate  conflict  which 
raged  for  twelve  hours.  The  Turks  lost  5,000  mKars 
casualties,  300  cannon  and  10,000  prisoners. 

In  Europe,  the  victory  of  Doling  Dubnik,  on  the 
24th  of  October,  was  dearly  bought  by  the  Russians, 
who  lost  in  that  action  2,500  men  and  100  officers. 
About  7,000  Turks  were  killed,  wounded  or  taken 
prisoners.     At  Telis  the  Russians  took  a  Turkish 
intrenched  position  with  4,000  or  5,000  men,  and  The  cam. 
by  the  capture  of  Provitz  and  Etropol,  November  Europe 
23  and  24,  they  forced  Mehemet  Ali  to  retreat  from 
Orkhanie  to  Kamarli,  where,  however,  the  Russians 
were  defeated  December  3. 

Plevna,  whicn  had  defied  the  Czar's  armies  for 
nearly  five  months,  exhausted  its  food  and  ammuni- 
tion early  m  December.  No  relief  came.  The  Bus- 
gians  were  still  under  its  walls  and  Osman  Pasha 
saw  no  alternative  but  unconditional  surrender  or 
cutting  his  way  through  the  hostile  army.  On  the 
9th  of  December,  having  resolved  to  break  the  Rus- 
sian lines,  he  issued  forth  from  Plevna  with  a  force 


1580  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  Dec.  1877 

of  32,000  men,  26,000  infantry  and  6,000  cavalry. 
At  daybreak  the  fighting  began.  The  Turks  stead- 
ily advanced  and  carried  the  first  Eussian  lines. 
osman  Again  they  advanced  and  carried  two  batteries  of 
comes  out  S1*  guns  each  in  the  second  line.  For  hours  the 
fight  raged  between  the  second  and  third  line  of 
the  Russians  in  favor  of  neither  side,  until  at  last 
the  Turkish  ammunition  ran  short,  and  that  hard- 
fought  day  was  decided  against  the  Turks.  The 
conditions  of  capitulation  were  quickly  settled. 
They  included  nothing  less  than  the  complete  sur- 
render of  the  town  and  its  intrenchments,  Osman 
Pasha,  his  army  and  its  arms,  10  pashas,  2,128  offi- 
cers and  97  guns.  Several  of  the  Eussian  armies 

Turks        of  invasion  had  been  placed  in  jeopardy  from  de- 
surrender 

ficient  numbers  and  incompetent  generals,  but  now, 
by  the  fall  of  Plevna,  100,000  men  were  set  at 
liberty  for  offensive  purposes. 

In  Armenia  the  regular  siege  of  Erzeroum  had 
begun  about  the  middle  of  December.     It  had  not 


Erzeroum  .      ,  __ 

yet  shared  the  fate  of  Kars,  but  this  was  owing  to 
the  severity  of  the  winter.  In  Europe,  the  Turkish 
troops  were  withdrawn  from  positions  they  could 
no  longer  hope  to  hold,  while  the  military  power 
of  Eussia  was  steadily  advanced.  By  Christmas 
Day  the  Eussian  losses  had  reached  a  total  of  80,436 
men.  The  losses  of  the  Turks  were  very  much 
greater:  80,000  of  their  soldiers  were  prisoners  in 
the  hands  of  the  Eussians.  Under  these  circum- 
stances the  Porte  addressed  a  circular  note  to  the 
European  Powers  imploring  mediation. 


IS*  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1581 


1878 

IT  BECAME  evident  at  the  outset  of  the  year 
that  Turkish  resistance  was  failing.  General 
Gourko,  after  a  sharp  contest  in  which  he  lost 
some  700  men,  carried  the  fortified  position  of  Tash- 
kersen,  in  the  valley  of  Sofra,  and  proceeded  to 
force  his  way  to  that  place  through  the  Etropol  Fan  of 
Balkans.  After  an  incredible  effort  the  whole  force 
gradually  crossed  and  Sofra  was  occupied  on  the 
6th  of  January.  Following  up  their  success  in 
the  Troyan  Pass,  the  Russians,  under  General 
Radebsky,  took  the  Shipka,  though  defended  by 
a  Turkish  army  of  forty-one  battalions,  ten  bat- 
teries of  artillery,  and  one  regiment  of  cavalry. 
Meanwhile  Generals  Mirsky  and  Skobelev  had  pene- 
trated the  Balkans  by  the  Troyan  Pass  and  occupied  skobeiev 
Kezanlik.  There  the  Turks  were  inclosed  between 
the  two  armies.  Terrified,  the  Sultan  instructed  the 
general  in  the  field  to  conclude  an  armistice.  Just 
as  the  Sultan's  envoys  set  out  for  the  Russian  camp, 
the  last  army  in  Roumelia  was  defeated,  and  its 
remnants  were  transported  by  sea  for  the  defence 
of  Constantinople,  while  Adrianople  was  yielded 
without  a  blow. 

The  time  had  now  come  when  the  interests  of 
Great  Britain  were  plainly  threatened.     Parliament 


1582  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Feb.  1878 

met  on  January  17,  having  been  summoned  before 
aroused1  the  usual  time,  since  "some  unexpected  occurrence 
may  render  it  incumbent  to  adopt  measures- of  pre- 
caution." When  the  news  arrived  that  the  .Russians 
were  threatening  Gallipoli  and  the  Dardanelles,  and 
had  advanced  within  thirty  miles  of  Constantinople, 
the  English  Liberals  withdrew  their  opposition  to 
the  vote  of  £6,000,000  demanded  by  government, 
and  the  British  fleet  was  ordered  to  enter  the  Sea 
of  Marmora. 

After  weeks  of  suspense  the  terms  for  an  armis- 
tice and  preliminaries  of  peace  had  been  agreed  on 
Adrianopie  at  Adrianopie.  They  comprised  the  establishment 
of  a  Principality  of  Bulgaria;  the  payment  of  a  war 
indemnity  or  a  territorial  compensation;  the  inde- 
pendence of  Koumania,  Servia  and  Montenegro, 
with  an  increase  of  territory  for  each  of  the  princi- 
palities; the  introduction  of  reforms  in  Bosnia  and 
Herzegovina;  an  ulterior  understanding  between  the 
Sultan  and  the  Czar  on  the  question  of  the  Straits, 
and,  lastly,  the  evacuation  of  the  Danube  fortresses 
by  the  Turks. 

On  February  20,  the  Eussians  occupied  Rustchuk, 
thus  obtaining  complete  control  of  the  passage  of 
the  Danube,  and  the  following  day  completed  the 
evacuation  of  Erzeroum,  which  had  begun  on  the 
17th.     In  spite  of  many  obstacles,  negotiations  pro- 
Treaty  of   gressed  and  the  Grandduke  Nicholas,  by  arrange- 
*fano      ment  with    the   Porte,    removed    his  headquarters 
from  Adrianopie  to  San  Stefano.     Eventually,  after 
innumerable  delays,  a  preliminary  treaty  between 
Kussia  and  Turkey  was  signed  at  San  Stefano  on 


1878  spring  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1583 

the  3d  day  of  March.  It  all  but  destroyed  the 
Sultan's  power,  and  placed  what  was  left  to  him 
at  the  mercy  of  Kussia. 

The  dissatisfaction  of  the  Powers  with  the  Treaty  Powera 
of  San  Stefano  was  outspoken.     General  Ignatiev, 1Dtervene 
who  was  despatched  on  a  mission  to  Vienna,  found 
the  Austrian  court  firm  in   the   position  that  Eu- 
ropean sanction  was   indispensable  for  the   treaty. 
Finally  in  July  an  International  Congress  met  at 
Berlin,  made  up  of  the  representatives  of  the  six 
great  Powers  and  Turkey.     In  the  Berlin  Treaty, 
which  was  signed  on  the  13th  of  July,  the  treaty  Treaty  of 

J  Berlin 

of  San  Stefano  was  modified.  The  results  were  the 
division  of  Bulgaria  into  two  parts,  Bulgaria  proper 
and  Eastern  Eoumelia,  the  cession  of  parts  of 
Armenia  to  Kussia  and  Persia,  the  independence 
of  Koumania,  Servia  and  Montenegro,  the  trans- 
fer of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  to  Austrian  ad- 
ministration, and  the  retrocession  of  Bessarabia  to 
Kussia.  According  to  this  Berlin  Treaty,  Greece 
was  also  to  have  an  accession  of  territory,  and,  by 
a  separate  arrangement  previously  made,  Turkey 
ceded  Cyprus  to  Great  Britain.  Ratifications  of  this 
treaty  were  exchanged  at  Berlin  on  the  3d  of  Au- 
gust. In  Russia,  general  indignation  was  expressed 
at  the  interference  of  the  outside  Powers. 

Victor  Emmanuel,   first  King  of  Italy,   died  on  Death  of 

Victor 

January  9  in  Rome.     As  ruler  of  Sardinia,  aided  Emmanuel 
by  his  celebrated  Minister,   Cavour,   he  regulated 
the  finances,  reorganized  the  army,  and  secularized 
the  Church  property,  for  which  he  was  excommu- 
nicated by  Pope  Pio  Nono.     He  took  part  in  the 


1684  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Sprinp  137$ 

Crimean  War,  and,  in  1859,  assisted  by  France,  re- 
newed the  contest  with  Austria,  taking  part  in  the 
battles  of  Magenta  and  Solf  erino.  On  March  17, 1861, 
he  assumed  the  title  of  King  of  Italy,  and  early 
in  1865  Florence  became  the  royal  residence.  On 
the  enforced  withdrawal  of  the  French  garrison 
from  Rome  in  1870,  the  city  annexed  itself  to  Italy, 
and  in  the  following  year  the  King  took  up  his 
residence  in  the  Quirinal.  His  son,  the  Prince  of 
Piedmont,  succeeded  him  as  King  Humbert  IV. 

One  month  later,  on  the  7th  of  February,  Pius  IX. 
(Pio  Nono)  died  at  the  Vatican.  Mastai  Ferretti  was 
born  at  Sinigaglia  near  Ancona,  on  May  13,  1792, 
the  son  of  a  noble  family.  Early  he  adopted  the 
clerical  profession  and  held  various  ecclesiastical 
offices  under  Leo  XII. ,  who  appointed  him  Arch- 
bishop of  Spoleto  in  1827,  and  to  the  see  of  Imola 
in  1832.  Here  he  acquired  much  popularity  by  his 
liberal  tendencies.  He  further  showed  his  benevo- 
lent nature  during  a  mission  to  Naples  at  the  time 
of  the  cholera  epidemic,  when  he  sold  his  plate, 

Ferretti's 

career  furniture  and  equipage  to  relieve  the  sufferers. 
Although  raised  to  the  cardinalate  in  1840,  he  re- 
sided in  his  diocese  until  his  election  to  the  pontifi- 
cate in  1846.  His  accession  was  signalized  by  the 
release  of  2,000  political  prisoners  and  reforms. 
When  Italy  rose  against  Austria,  Pio  Nono  took 
fright  at  the  threatened  fall  of  dynasties  and  drew 
back.  He  protested  that  as  Pontiff  he  could  not 
make  war  against  a  Christian  power.  Disaster, 
bloodshed  and  anarchy  followed,  and  he  had  to 
seek  safety  in  flight.  The  short-lived  Roman  Re- 


1878  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1585 

public  was  proclaimed.  After  the  capture  of  Rome 
by  the  French,  the  Pope  returned  but  left  the  direc- 
tion of  State  affairs  principally  in  the  hands  of  his 
Secretary  of  State,  Cardinal  Antonelli.  On  the 
death  of  that  distinguished  prelate,  Pio  Nono  again 
bestowed  his  whole  attention  to  the  Church.  He 
recalled  the  Jesuits,  canonized  saints,  countenanced 
miracles,  and  denned  new  dogmas.  The  new  dog- 
ma  of  the  immaculate  conception  of  the  Virgin  was 
settled  by  a  papal  decree  in  1854,  and  the  dogma  of  Dogma  ot 
papal  infallibility  was  established  by  the  Ecumeni-  [Iffau'ibiiit 
cal  Council  of  1870. 

By  this  time  only  the  Vatican  was  left  to  the 
Pope.  He  declined  all  honors,  and  year  after  year 
confined  himself  to  the  Vatican  and  its  gardens, 
declaring  that  he  was  under  restraint,  and  a  pris- 
oner in  his  own  palace. 

On  Pio  Nono's  death  the  Vatican  conclave  assem- 
bled at  once  to  elect  a  successor,  and  on  the  20th  Pecc| 
of  February,  Cardinal  Pecci,  the  favorite  of  the  re-  j>op¥d 
ligious  but  moderate  party,  was  proclaimed  as  Pope 
under  the  name  of  Leo  XIII.     His  installation  in 
the  Chair  of  St.  Peter  was  celebrated  on  the  3d  of 
March   in   the   Sistine   Chapel.      In   regard   to   the 
Koyal     House    and     Government    of    Italy,    Pope 
Leo   XIII.    maintained   the    same   attitude   as    his 
predecessor. 

Claude   Bernard,   the  most  distinguished  French  Claude 
physiologist   of    modern  times,   died  in  Paris.     In Bernard 
1849,  he  discovered  what  is  called  the  glycogenic 
function  of  the  liver,  and  proved  that  the  liver  cells 
have  the  power  of  converting  certain  substances  into 


1586  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1878 

a  starch-like  compound,  called  glycogen.  In  medi- 
cal annals  the  year  is  otherwise  memorable.  At  the 
Charcot  Salpetriere  in  Paris,  Dr.  Jean  Martin  Charcot  ex- 
pounded the  phenomena  of  hypnotism  and  showed 
that  mental  states  could  be  influenced  and  artificial 
somnambulism  induced  with  beneficial  results  in  cer- 
tain human  ills.  Charcot  was  soon  followed  in  these 
new  investigations  by  Dr.  Eudolph  Heidenhain  of 
Breslau. 

On  the  12th  of  June,  the  ex-King* of  Hanover, 
George  V. ,  Prince  Koyal  of  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land, Duke  of  Cumberland,  died  at  Paris.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  King 
Ernest  Augustus  of  Hanover,  in  1851,  but  was 
ousted  by  Prussia  in  1866.  His  reign  had  been 
unfortunate  throughout. 

On  the  same  day  in  New  York,  William  Cullen 
Bryant,  the  well-known  American  poet  and  iournal- 

William  J 

*st>  died.  He  was  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1794, 
and  at  the  age  of  ten  published  translations  from 
Latin  poets.  At  thirteen  he  wrote  "The  Embargo," 
a  satire  on  Thomas  Jefferson,  and  at  eighteen 
"Thanatopsis."  In  1815  he  was  admitted  to  the 
bar,  and  practiced  with  success  till  1825,  when  he 
established  the  New  .York  "Review."  In  1826  he 
joined  the  staff  of  the  New  York  "Evening  Post," 
of  which  he  was  long  chief  editor.  His  poems,  first 
collected  in  1832,  took  rank  as  the  best  America 
had  up  to  that  time  produced. 

In  Japan,  the  era  of  absolute  government  drew  to 
a  close.  On  July  27,  the  Mikado's  promise,  given 
at  Kioto  in  1868,  was  fulfilled  in  part  by  an  imperial 


1878  Autumn  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1587 

edict  convoking  provincial  assemblies  to  sit  once 
a  year  in  each  ken.  These  assemblies  were  em- 
powered to  dispose  of  questions  affecting  local 
taxation  and  provincial  government. 

The  autumn  season  of  this  year  in  London  was 
enlivened  by  a  sensational  libel  suit  brought  against 
John  Ruskin  by  the  American  painter  James  A.  M. 
"Whistler.  It  was  grounded  upon  the  following  pas- 
sage, which  appeared  in  Ruskin's  "Fors  Clavigera": 

"For  Mr.  Whistler's  own  sake,  no  less  than  forRnskinon 

„  „. .      ~  _  .      .  Whistler 

the  protection  of  the  purchaser,  Sir  Coutts  Lindsay 
ought  not  to  have  admitted  works  into  the  gallery  in 
which  the  ill- educated  conceit  of  the  artist  so  nearly 
approached  the  aspect  of  wilful  imposture.  I  have 
seen  and  heard  much  of  cockney  impudence  before 
now,  but  never  expected  to  hear  a  coxcomb  ask  200 
guineas  for  flinging  a  pot  of  paint  in  the  public's 
face." 

Ruskin's  attorneys  claimed  this  to  be  a  fair  and 
bona  fide  criticism  upon  a  painting  which  had  been 
exposed  to  public  view.  The  decision  of  the  court 
gave  to  Whistler  one  farthing  damages,  and  no  whistler's 

.  libel  suit 

costs.  To  the  Grosvenor  Gallery  of  this  year 
Whistler  had  sent  "Variations  in  Flesh  Color  and 
Green."  Before  this  he  had  exhibited  his  famous 
"Nocturnes"  and  his  portrait  of  Henry  Irving  as 
Philip  II.,  known  as  "An  Arrangement  in  Black." 
Whistler's  peculiar  fame  in  London  dated  from  an 
exhibition  of  his  works  in  1874. 

Throughout  the  year  the  American  people  were 
stirred  over  the  remonetizing  of  silver.  New  and 
cheaper  ways  of  getting  it  had  been  devised.  In 


1688  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Spring  isre 

this  year  the  production  of  gold  yielded  eighty 
Zircon-  tons,  while  that  of  silver  was  770  tons.  The  value 
of  silver  went  down  until  a  silver  dollar  was  worth 
only  ninety  cents  in  gold.  To  prevent  the  payment 
of  debts  in  silver,  Congress  had  "demonetized"  it, 
in  1873,  declaring  all  debts  payable  in  gold.  This 
was  the  so-called  "Crime  of  1873." 

On  February  21  the  American  Congress  passed 
the  Bland  silver  bill  with  two  amendments — one 
limiting  silver  coinage,  and  the  other  providing  for 
an  international  monetary  conference.  On  February 
28  the  President  vetoed  the  bill.  Congress  passed 

The  Bland 

bui  it  over  his  veto.     It  revived  coinage  of  the  standard 

silver  dollars  of  412J  grains  to  the  extent  of  not  less 
than  $2,000,000,  or  more  than  $4,000,000  a  month, 
all  seigniorage  to  accrue  to  the  Treasury.  These  dol- 
lars were  to  be  full  legal  tender  for  all  debts  public 
or  private.  For  the  first  time  in  seventeen  years 
gold  and  paper  dollars  had  equal  value. 

In  the  same  week  a  convention  at  Toledo  organ- 
ized the  National  Greenback  Party.  It  advocated 
the  unlimited  coinage  of  gold  and  silver,  the  sub- 
stitution of  greenbacks  for  national  banknotes, 
woman  suffrage,  and  the  advancement  of  working 
people. 

Later  the  Senate  voted  an  appropriation  to  pay 
the  fisheries  award.  It  was  to  be  paid  "if  the  gov- 
ernment of  her  Britannic  Majesty,  after  a  full  review 

Fisheries  °f  all  the  facts  and  circumstances  of  the  case,  shall 
conclude  and  declare  the  award  to  be  lawfully  and 
honorably  due. "  In  September,  Secretary  Everett 
communicated  to  the  British  Government  his  argu- 


1878  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1589 

ments  against  the  Halifax  award.  In  November 
the  award  was  paid  to  England  with  a  protest. 

General  Grant  made  a  tour  around  the  world, 
starting  in  May,  and  visiting  England  and  the  Con- 
tinent, Egypt,  India,  China  and  Japan,  returning  to 
San  Francisco  September  20,  1879.  He  received  Grant* 

tour 

flattering  attentions  everywhere — from  Queen  Vic- 
toria, the  Emperor  of  Russia,  and  the  great  men  of 
India,  China  and  Japan. 

During  this  year  in  America,  Longfellow  pub- 
lished his  "Keremos, "  Whittier  brought  out  "The 
Vision  of  Echard,"  while  Joaquin  Miller  wrote  his 
"Songs  of  Italy."  On  December  19,  Bayard  Tay- 
lor, the  poet,  died  at  the  American  Embassy  in 
Berlin.  He  was  born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1825. 
At  seventeen  he  was  a  printer's  apprentice  and 
contributed  verses  to  the  newspapers.  A  collection 
of  these  early  verses,  under  the  title  "Ximena, " 
was  published  in  1844,  after  which  he  went  to  j^^f* 
Europe  and  travelled  over  the  country  on  foot.  Tayl° 
On  his  return  he  published  "Views  Afoot."  Sub- 
sequently he  wrote  for  the  "Literary  World,"  and 
was  at  intervals  a  writer  for  the  New  York 
"Tribune."  In  other  fields  Bayard  Taylor  won 
distinction.  He  accompanied  Commodore  Greely 
on  his  important  mission  to  Japan.  In  1862  he 
was  Secretary  of  Legation  at  St.  Petersburg. 
In  1877  he  was  appointed  Minister  to  Germany,  in 
which  service  he  died.  Bayard  Taylor  earned  re- 
nown not  only  by  the  glow  and  splendor  of  his 
Oriental  poems,  but  also  by  his  admirable  metrical 
translation  of  Goethe's  "Faust." 

XlXth  Century— Vol.  3—0 


1590  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  1878 

The  death  of  George  Henry  Lewes,  essayist,  his- 
nln^°f  torian  and  philosopher,  occurred  a  few  days  before 
that  of  Taylor.  His  first  important  work  was  his 
"Biographical  History  of  Philosophy  from  Thales 
to  Comte,"  originally  published  in  1845,  and  subse- 
sequently  much  extended.  Later  he  was  literary 
editor  of  the  "Leader,"  during  that  time  publishing 
his  "Life  of  Robespierre"  (1850)  and  a  compendium 
of  "Comte's  Philosophy  of  the  Sciences"  (1853). 
His  "Life  of  Goethe,"  which  won  him  a  European 
reputation,  was  published  in  1855.  To  a  subsequent 
period  belong  his  "Sea-side  Studies"  (1858),  "Phys- 
iology  of  Common  Life"  (1860),  and  "Studies  in 
Animal  Life"  (1861),  besides  occasional  papers. 
In  1864  he  published  a  study  on  .Aristotle,  and  in 
1865  founded  the  "Fortnightly  Review."  The  chief 
work  of  his  life,  aiming  at  the  systematic  develop- 
ment of  his  philosophical  views,  is  entitled  "Prob- 
lems of  Life  and  Mind"  (1873-77).  Besides  the 
works  already  mentioned  he  wrote  several  dramas 
and  novels.  He  was  the  common-law  husband  of 
George  Eliot. 

The  third  British  invasion  of  Afghanistan,  in 
consequence  of  Shere  Ali  having  repulsed  a  Brit- 
ish envoy,  could  scarcely  be  styled  a  war.  Long 
before  this,  in  1872,  an  arrangement  had  been  en- 
tered into  between  Lord  Granville  and  Prince 
Gortschakov,  by  which  Afghanistan  was  declared 
to  be  "outside  the  sphere  within  which  Russia 
might  feel  called  upon  to  exercise  her  influence." 
The  Oxus  was  laid  down  as  the  boundary  of  the 
territories  of  the  Ameers  of  Bokhara  and  Afghan- 


HIS  HOLINESS,  POPE  LEO  XIII. 

XlXtk  Cent.,  Vot.  Three 


1878  Dec.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1591 

istan,  and  of  the  legitimate  influence  of  Russia  and 
Great  Britain.  But  this  did  not  prevent  Eussia  in 
1878— the  period  when  the  two  empires  were  diplo- 
matically at  odds — from  sending  the  fatal  Stoletov  Third 
Mission  to  Kabul.  The  Afghan  Ameer,  Shere  Ali, 
frightened  and  beset,  fled  from  his  capital,  and  Ya- 
koob  Khan — the  son  whom  he  had  imprisoned  in 
spite  of  British  remonstrance — reigned  in  his  stead 
at  Kabul.  The  war,  which  opened  in  November, 
progressed  without  apparent  difficulties.  On  the 
20th  of  December,  Jellalabad  was  entered  without 
opposition,  and  on  the  last  day  of  December,  de- 
spatches announced  that  the  advance  ol  the  British 
troops  continued  unopposed. 


1592  A   HISTORY   OF   THE  1879 


1879 

IN    JANUARY,    intelligence    reached    England 
that  Cetewayo,  the   King  of   the   Zulus,    had 
repudiated   Sir   Bartle   Frere's   demands,    that 
he    should  admit  a   British   resident  and  disperse 
his  army.      Lord   Chelmsford,    the  commander  of 
the  British   forces  in  South  Africa,   proceeded   to 
the   front  ready  to  invade  Zululand.     January  11 

Zulu  war 

was  the  limit  fixed  for  Cetewayo 's  submission. 
Early  in  February  the  English  troops  crossed  the 
frontier.  On  the  llth  a  British  detachment  near 
Isandhlwana  was  annihilated.  Part  of  a  column, 
commanded  by  Colonel  Gynn,  was  likewise  sur- 
Rorke's  prised  at  Rorke's  Drift  by  nearly  20,000  Zulus 

Drift 

and  was  overpowered.  The  first  battalion  of  the 
Twenty- fourth  Foot  was  almost  destroyed.  Five 
hundred  men  with  thirty  officers  were  killed.  A 
convoy  of  supplies— 102  wagons,  1,000  oxen,  2  guns, 
400  shot  and  shell,  1,000  rifles,  250,000  rounds  of 
ammunition — fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Zulus.  In 
July  came  the  news  of  Lord  Chelmsford 's  victory 
Olundl  at  Ulundi,  which  completely  crushed  the  power  of 
•  the  Zulus.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Zulu  war  the 
French  Prince  Imperial,  only  son  of- the  late  Napo- 
leon III.  and  ex-Empress  Eugenie,  obtained  per- 
mission to  join  the  English  army  at  the  front,  and 


1879  Summer  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1593 

was  attached  to  Lord  Chelmsford's  staff.  He  was 
detailed  on  a  reconnoitring  party  under  Captain 
Carey.  On  June  2,  they  were  surprised  by  Zulus 
while  resting  in  a  field  of  corn  near  a  deserted  Death  of 
kraal.  The  Prince,  unable  to  mount  his  spirited 
horse,  was  left  behind.  The  next  morning  the 
naked  body  of  the  Prince  was  found  with  fourteen 
assegai  wounds — all  in  front.  The  ground  around 
him  showed  that  he  had  sold  his  life  dearly.  He 
was  carried  back  to  camp  on  a  bier  of  lances,  to 
be  buried  beside  his  father  at  Chiselhurst. 

England  lost  one  of  her  best  known  artists  by 
the  death  of  Charles  Landseer.  A  pupil  of  his 
father,  the  celebrated  engraver,  he  entered  the 
Royal  Academy  in  1815,  in  his  sixteenth  year. 
Later  in  life  he  was  appointed  keeper  of  the 
Academy,  an  office  he  held  until  1873.  Four  of 
his  earlier  works  are  in  the  National  Gallery: 
"Clarissa  Harlowe  in  the  Sponging  House"  (1832); 
"The  Sack  of  Basing  House"  (1835);  "Blood- 
hounds  and  Pups"  (1838),  and  "The  Pillaging  of 
a  Jew's  House"  (1839).  Among  his  later  works 
some  of  the  best  known  are:  "Cromwell  at  the 
House  of  Sir  Walter  Stewart"  (1868);  "Surrender 
of  Arundel  Castle"  (1871),  and  "Anila  Concealing 
her  Correspondence,"  finished  shortly  before  his 
death. 

On  July  8,  James  Gordon  Bennett  sent  out  the 
"Jeannette, "  under  the  sanction  of  Congress,  on 
an  Arctic  exploring  trip,  under  Captain  De  Long 
of  the  navy.  A  few  survivors  reached  Siberia  and 
finally  the  United  States.  Lieutenant  Schwatka  of 


1594  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Aug.  1879 

the  navy  led  a  Franklin  search  expedition  over- 
land, and  discovered  remains  of  Franklin's  crew, 
and  brought  home  those  of  Lieutenant  Irving.  On 
September  29,  Major  Thornbury  and  seventeen  men 
were  killed  in  a  fight  with  Indians  at  Mill  Creek 

war  near  Eawlins.  The  Apache  Indians  retreated  be- 
fore General  Merritt  on  November  9,  and  then"  sud- 
denly turned  and  attacked  their  pursuers,  killing 
thirty- two  men. 

During  this  year,  Dr.  Hansen  found  that  leprosy 

.  Hansen  wag  cailse(j  j^  a  particular  bacillus.     He  found  that 

the   germs  were  exceedingly  difficult  to   cultivate 

artificially,   and  that  the   disease,    awful  as  it  is, 

is  not  highly  contagious. 

Louis  Vulliemin,  one  of  the  most  distinguished, 
French  historians  of  Switzerland,  died  at  Orbe  on 
the  10th  of  August.  His  patriotic  counsels  had 

Louis         guided  three  generations  of   his  countrymen.     He 

Vulliemin    * 

was  a  pupil  of  the  renowned  Pestalozzi.  In  col- 
laboration with  Charles  Mounard  he  first  brought 
out  a  "History  of  the  Swiss  Confederation"  in 
eleven  volumes.  He  was  a  great  friend  of  M. 
Thiers  for  over  forty  years.  "La  Heine  Bertue, " 
"Chillon,"  "Le  Doyen  Bridel"  and  "Souvenirs 
a  mes  Petits  Enfants"  are  prominent  among  his 
later  works. 

On  the  27th  of  August,  Sir  Eowland  Hill,  the 
great  English  postal  reformer  and  introducer  of 
penny  postage,  died  in  England  at  the  age  of 
sir  ROW-  eighty-four.  In  1837,  he  published  a  pamphlet 
recommending  a  low  and  uniform  rate  of  postage. 
The  scheme  was  approved  by  a  committee  of  the 


1879  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  1595 

Commons,  which  examined  it  in  1838.  Early  in 
1840  the  system  was  carried  into  effect,  and  was 
soon  followed  by  most  civilized  countries.  Hill 
received  an  appointment  by  the  government.  In 
1846  he  was  presented  with  a  public  testimonial 
of  £13,000.  In  1864  he  retired.  with  a  pension  of 
£2,000  and  a  grant  of  £20,000  voted  by  Parlia- 
ment. 
In  Egypt,  on  the  26th  of  June,  the  Khedive,  „ 

i=>J  r  '  Khedive 

Ismail  Pasha,  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son  Tewfik,  withdraws 
in  consequence  of  the  pressure  put  upon  him  by  the 
European  Powers.  On  the  30th  he  left  Alexandria 
on  his  yacht  "Mahroussa"  for  Naples,  taking  with 
him  his  harem  and  treasures.  A  new  Egyptian 
Ministry  was  constituted  under  Cherif  Pasha,  on 
July  3.  On  the  14th  of  August,  at  Cairo,  the 
Sultan's  Firman,  investing  Prince  Tewfik  with 
the  viceroyalty  of  Egypt,  was  presented. 

A  definite  treaty   of   peace  between  .Russia  and 
Turkey  had   been  signed  on  February  8,  at  Con- 


stantinople.    A  week  later  an  imperial   manifesto  Turkey™ 

ratified 

was  issued  at  St.  Petersburg,  announcing  the  rati- 
fication of  the  Russo-  Turkish  treaty  and  the  recall 
of  the  troops  from  the  occupied  provinces.  Before 
engaging  in  their  punitive  campaign  against  the 
Tekke  Turkomans  of  the  Steppe,  the  Russians  col- 
lected 3,000  camels.  The  Tekke  Turkomans  at- 
tacking at  Burma,  April  15,  defeated  the  Russian 
vanguard  of  2,000  men  and  captured  a  large  num- 
ber of  the  camels.  Pursuit  was  made  by  General 
Lomakin,  with  reinforcements  from  Karasnozodsk. 
The  Tekkes,  whose  march  was  impeded  by  the 


1596  A   HISTORY   OF   THE  1879 

captured  camels,  were  overtaken.  Instead  of  dis- 
persing the  camels  and  attacking  the  Russians  m 
loose  order  as  heretofore,  the  Tekkes  dismounted, 
occupied  a  position  half-way  up  the  hillside,  and 
making  the  camels  kneel  down  in  the  front,  fired 
from  behind  the  living  wall,  with  the  steadiness 
and  rapidity  of  European  troops.  The  encounter 
Russian  lasted  until  night.  Then  the  Tekkes  marched  east 

reverses 

carrying  their  booty  with  them,  and  the  Russians 
retraced  their  steps  to  the  west. 

In  Afghanistan,  after  feeble  resistance  at  Ali  Mas- 
did,  and  the  more  strenuous  defence  of  the  Peiwar 
Afghan      Heights,  the  regular  army  melted  away.     General 
Roberts  forbore  from  advancing  beyond  the  Shu- 
targardan.      The    Khibar   force    having    at   length 
reached  Jalala,  remained   there  expectant.     Mean- 
while the  Ameer,  stunned  by  his  reverses,  relapsed 
Death  of    ^°   &  S^oom7  torpor  and  died  on   February  21 
Sucre  Ali    Yakoob  Khan,   his  son,  succeeded  him  and  pres- 
ently made  overtures  for  peace.     Matters  remained 
unsettled  till,   on  May  8,   Yakoob  Khan  came  in 
person   to   the   British   camp   at   Gandamaka.     On 
the  26th  of  May  the  treaty  of  Gandamaka  between 

Treaty  of 

Ganda-  Great  Britain  and  Afghanistan  was  signed,  in  which 
an  extension  of  the  British  frontier,  the  control  by 
Britain  of  the  foreign  policy  of  Afghanistan,  and 
the  residence  of  a  British  envoy  in  Kabul  were  the 
chief  stipulations.  On  July  24,  Sir  Louis  P.  Ca- 
vagnari  arrived  at  Kabul  and  was  received  with 
marked  respect.  On  September  3,  Cavagnari  and 

Cavagnari 

atUKabrueid  members  °f  tne  mission '  were  treacherously  at- 
tacked, and  slain  by  the  Afghans.  Roberts  was 


1879  Autumn  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1597 

at  Simla  when  this  report  reached  him.  On  the 
morrow,  at  the  head  of  six  thousand  men,  he  started 
for  Ali  Kheyl.  Pushing  on  thence  to  Kabul,  he  Robert? 

advance 

encountered  the  Afghan  army,  10,000  strong,  in- 
trenched at  Charasia. 

To  General  Baker  fell  the  task  of  dislodging 
the  enemy  from  the  heights  above  the  C  harden 
Valley,  with  2,000  men,  while  a  second  column, 
under  Major  White  of  the  Ninety-second  High- 
landers, was  directed  to  take  the  Sang-i-Nawishta 
defile,  where  the  enemy  had  concentrated  all  his 
guns.  By  four  in  the  afternoon  the  ridges  were 
gained,  Major  White  joining  General  Baker  in  the  Battle 
rear  of  the  original  Afghan  position.  The  Afghans  of 
lost  300  killed  and  20  guns.  The  British  casual- 
ties were  78  killed  and  wounded.  Eoberts  marched 
early  on  the  following  -morning  through  the  Sang- 
i-Nawishta  defile  to  Beni  Hissar,  on  the  Kabul 
road.  On  October  8,  the  great  cantonment  of 
Sherpur  was  occupied  by  the  cavalry  brigade, 
under  Brigadier- General  Massy,  who  captured  73 
guns.  Some  troops  occupied  the  Bala  Hissar,  or 
citadel-palace  of  Kabul.  This  march  was  described 
by  Roberts  himself  as  a  more  difficult  task  than 
his  subsequent  famous  march  to  Kandahar.  Gen- 
eral Gough,  with  Colonel  Money,  defeated  the 
tribesmen  still  holding  the  Shutargardan  Pass,  British  at 
but,  on  the  approach  of  the  winter  season,  evac-  SherPur 
uated  the  pass  to  march  to  Sherpur.  There 
General  Roberts  prepared  to  spend  the  winter. 

Toward  the  close  of  the  previous  year  difficulties 
had   arisen   in  South  America  between  Chile  and 


1598  A   HISTORY    OF   THE  Spring  1879 

Bolivia.  Chile  laid  claim  to  a  part  of  the  nitrate 
w^nitrate  districts,  operated  by  Bolivians.  Bern  supported 
Bolivia.  Chile  declared  war  upon  both  States  on 
February  5.  Owing  to  the  long  coast  line  of  the 
belligerents,  the  war  was  bound  to  be  fought  out 
on  the  sea. 

Bolivia  had  no  fleet  whatever.  Peru  had  only 
six  serviceable  ships  besides  some  transports.  Four 
of  these  were  ironclads,  the  best  of  which,  the  tur- 
ret ship  "Huascar, "  had  figured  in  an  encounter 
with  English  ships  two  years  before.  The  Chilean 
fleet,  though  much  stronger  than  that  of  Peru,  had 
ships  of  inferior  speed,  had  no  dock  wherein  to 
clean  the  bottoms  of  her  ironclads,  nor,  indeed,  any 

Chile  at  .  -     .  11^1-1 

adisad-      fortified  naval  port.     As  a  result,  the  Chilean  mer- 

vantage 

chant  marine  was  forthwith  driven  off  the  sea.  The 
Chilean  Admiral,  Bebolledo,  blockaded  Iquique. 
In  May  he  learned  that  President  Prado  of  Peru 
was  sailing  south  from  Callao  to  Arica  with  a  strong 
expedition.  Bebolledo  at  once  went  to  intercept 
this  expedition,  leaving  his  two  slowest  and  weak- 
est ships,  the  V  Esmeralda, ' '  commanded  by  Arturo 
Prat,  and  "Covadonga"  at  Iquique.  President 
Prado,  having  slipped  by  the  Chileans  in  a  thick 
fog,  received  news  at  Arica  of  the  situation  at 
Iquique.  In  order  to  capture  or  destroy  the  two 
weak  Chilean  vessels  at  Iquique,  he  despatched 
thither  his  two  strongest  vessels,  the  "Huascar," 
commanded  by  Captain  Grau,  and  the  "Indepen- 
denzia,"  Captain  Moore.  The  four  ships  met  on 
May  21,  in  one  of  the  most  spirited  naval 
battles  recorded  in  modern  times.  Captain  £  rat 


5879  Summer  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1599 

was  killed  as  he  boarded  the  "Huascar, "  and  his 
ship,    the   "Esmeralda,"    was  sunk.     The   Chilean  fffl^ 
gunboat    "Covadonga, "    on    the   other   hand,    suc- 
ceeded in  destroying  the  more  powerful  Peruvian 
"Independenzia. " 

The  next  incident  of  the  war  was  a  sensational 
attempt  of  the  "Huascar"  to  sink  the  Chilean  ship 
"Magallanes, "  before  dawn  on  July  10,  in  Iquique 
Harbor.  Steaming  suddenly  into  the  harbor  with-  ' 
out  lights,  the  "Huascar"  three  times  tried  to  ram 
the  Chilean,  but  always  failed.  Throughout  the 
night  the  two  ships  kept  up  an  incessant  fire.  Just 
as  the  "Huascar"  was  struck  on  the  water  line  by 
a  115-pounder,  the  Chilean  ironclad  "Almirante 
Cochrane"  appeared  in  the  harbor  and  the  "Hu- 
ascar" made  off.  Her  captain  now  received  strict  »Heuascav» 
injunctions  to  risk  no* further  engagement.  He  con- 
fined himself  to  harrying  the  Chilean  coast  and  cap- 
turing defenceless  vessels,  among  others  the  Chilean 
transport  "Eimac, "  with  a  regiment  of  cavalry, 
many  munitions  of  war,  and  $500,000  of  specie. 

By  this  time  the  Chilean  Government,  exasper- 
ated   by   the   "Huascar's"    depredations,    sent    the 

The "Coch 

"Cochrane"  to  Valparaiso  to  be  thoroughly  over-ne1  re- 
hauled.  Her  bottom  was  cleaned  by  divers.  Cap- 
tain Laterre,  who  had  distinguished  himself  on 
the  "Magallanes, "  was  placed  in  command  of  her. 
When  she  emerged,  after  a  month  of  repairs,  her 
speed  was  eleven  knots — one  knot  faster  than  that 
of  the  "Huascar."  Admiral  Eiveros  of  the  Chilean 
fleet  now  went  in  search  of  the  "Huascar."  He 
encountered  the  Peruvian  monitor  "Maco  Capac," 


1600  A   HISTORY    OF   THE  Oct.  1879 

and  the  gunboat  "Pilcomayo, "  at  Arica,  but  was 
so  intent  upon  his  greater  prey  that  he  declined  to 
engage  them.  Dividing  his  strong  fleet  into  two 
squadrons,  one  of  which  was  to  steam  inshore  so 
as  to  drive  the  "Huascar"  into  the  path  of  the 
other  steaming  on  a  parallel  course,  Admiral  Ri- 
veros  proceeded  to  Angamos  Point.  Early  on  the 
morning  of  October  8  the  "Huascar"  was  sighted, 
together  with  the  "Union."  Her  commander, 

Pursuit 

«^tuh^car,,  Grau,  steamed  away  at  a  speed  of  ten  knots. 
Admiral  Eiveros,  outdistanced  as  he  was,  held 
steadily  on  with  the  "Blanco"  and  "Covadonga. " 
Next  morning  smoke  was  sighted  out  at  sea,  and 
Grau  tried  to  get  out  of  his  bad  position  be- 
tween the  two  Chilean  squadrons.  His  convoy, 
"  L' Union, "  succeeded  in  getting  away  to  the 
north,  hotly  pursued  by  Jhe  "Loa"  and  the 
"O'Higgins. "  By  nine  o'clock  Grau,  who  was 
not  aware  of  the  "Cochrane's"  refit,  was  ap- 
palled to  find  himself  outsteamed  by  that  ves- 
sel. The  "Cochrane"  and  "Blanco"  jointly  en- 
gaged the  "Huascar."  One  of  the  "Cochrane's" 
first  shots  entered  the  "Huascar's"  turret  and  put 

A.  fierce 

sea-flght  twelve  men  out  of  the  fight,  besides  jamming 
the  turret.  The  "Cochrane"  manoeuvred  astern 
of  the  ' '  Huascar, ' '  where  her  big  turret  guns  could 
not  reach  her,  and  poured  a  hot  rifle  fire  from  her 
high  fighting  tops  and  bridge  on  to  the  "Huas- 
car's" upper  deck.  A  nine- inch  shell  from  the 

End  of  Ad- "Cochrane"    struck  the   conning  tower   and   Grau 

xniral  Grau 

was  blown  to  pieces.  An  officer  at  the  steering 
wheel  just  below  the  Admiral  was  likewise  killed. 


ism)ct.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1601 

Another  shell  struck  the  roof  of  the  turret  and  dis- 
abled all  those  within  it.  While  the  "Huascar" 
was  temporarily  beyond  control,  the  "Cochrane" 
tried  to  ram  her,  but  missed  her  by  five  yards. 
As  she  passed  by  she  poured  her  broadside  into 
the  "Huascar"  at  a  range  of  a  few  yards.  The 
"Huascar's"  four-and-a-half  inch  armor  was  rid- 
dled. Eluding  the  "  Cochrane 's"  ram  a  second 
time,,  the  "Huascar"  now  tried  to  ram  the 
"Blanco,"  but  failed.  Commander  Aguirre,  upon 
whom  the  charge  of  the  ship  had  devolved,  wasoffl^ers 
killed  by  another  shot,  which  burst  inside  of  the 
turret.  The  two  Chilean  snips  were  now  manceu- 
vring  closer  and  tried  in  turn  to  ram.  It  was  then 
that  a  shot  from  the  "Blanco,"  passing  through  the 
"Huascar,"  struck  the  "Cochrane"  in  the  stern  and 
disabled  twelve  of  her  men.  Lieutenant  Garrozon, 
the  last  surviving  officer  on  the  "Huascar,"  finding 
that  he  could  scarcely  move  her,  resolved  to  scuttle 
the  ship.  Bather  than  go  to  the  bottom  some  of  the 
Peruvian  seamen  ran  forward  and  waved  towels  in 
token  of  surrender.  Both  the  "Cochrane"  and!!e™v'S? 

bui  rt;  LI  tier 

"Blanco"  sent  boats,  and,  boarding  the  "Huascar," 
found  the  engineer  engaged  in  opening  the  main 
injection  valve.  He  was  stopped  at  the  point  of 
a  pistol.  The  interior  of  the  ship  was  in  a  horri- 
ble condition.  Dead  and  dying  were  strewn  about 
and  the  decks  ran  with  blood.  It  was  found  that 
the  "Huascar"  had  been  hit  by  heavy  projectiles 
nearly  thirty  times.  Her  killed  and  wounded  num- 
bered 64.  Some  140  prisoners  were  taken,  85  of 
whom  were  English.  The  "Huascar,"  after  her 


1602  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  Autumn  18T9 

capture,  was  patched  up  and  taken  to  Valparaiso, 
where  she  was   repaired   and   refitted  with  a  new 
armament.     On  November  15  she  went  to  sea  un- 
"Huas-      (*er  tne  Chilean  flag.     A  little  later  she  succeeded 
irrepaVabfe  i°  capturing  the  Peruvian  gunboat  "  Pilcoma jo. " 
The  transfer  of  this  vessel  to  the  Chilean  fleet  de- 
stroyed Peru's  chances  upon  the  sea.     Henceforth 
Peru  and  Bolivia  fought  at  a  disadvantage. 

About  this  time  an  outbreak  occurred  in  the  Cen- 
tral American  State  of  Colombia.     The  insurgents, 
Revolt  in    who  called  themselves  Commonists,  gained  posses- 

Colombian       .  A  n    f-\  •*  f  mi 

sion  of  the  town  of  Bucara  Manga.  They  set  fire 
to  the  public  buildings  and  maintained  a  brief  reign 
of  terror.  Within  a  week  the  government  troops 
drove  them  from  their  positions  and  the  revolt  was 
ended.  Late  in  the  year,  as  the  result  of  the  naval 
disasters  inflicted  by  Chile,  insurrection  broke  out 
driven  in  Peru.  President  Prado  was  forced  to  resign 

from  Peru 

the  government  and  flee  the  country.     Pierola  was 
proclaimed  dictator. 

In  the  beginning  of  December  the  Emperor  of 
Eussia  had  another  narrow  escape.  He  was  return- 
ing from  Livadia  to  St.  Petersburg,  stopping  over 
at  Moscow.  By  accident  or  design  the  train  con- 
veying the  imperial  luggage  was  following  instead 
of  preceding  the  Czar's  train.  On  entering  the  out- 
skirts of  Moscow  a  mine  was  exploded  under  the 
second  train.  Most  of  the  cars  were  thrown  off 
Plot  to  the  track,  but  no  lives  were  lost.  It  was  found 
czar  that  the  mine  which  was  laid  in  a  carefully  built 
tunnel  under  the  railway  had  been  set  off  by  elec- 
tricity from  a  house  in  the  neighborhood. 


1679  Dec.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1603 

It  was  during  the  same  week,  some  two  months 
after  General  Roberts'  arrival  at  Kabul,  that  the 
Afghans  at  the  behest  of  their  most  fanatic  leaders 
rose  against  the  English  in  their  country.  OneAfghan 
hundred  thousand  men  took  to  arms.  Eoberts  {n^nS* 
tried  to  prevent  a  coalition  of  the  various  bodies 
of  tribesmen  by  sending  one  brigade  under  Mc- 
Pherson  westward,  and  another  under  Baker  to- 
ward Maidan.  This  left  the  British  military  post 
at  Sherpur  in  a  dangerously  weak  state.  On  De- 
cember 11,  McPherson's  cavalry  attempted  to  cut 
off  a  force  of  about  ten  thousand  Afghans.  The.. 

McPherson 

British  Lancers  were  repulsed  and  routed.  Rob-repulsed 
erts  now  hastened  up  with  his  Highlanders,  barely 
in  time  to  secure  McPherson's  line  pf  retreat. 
Baker's  brigade  was  hastily  summoned.  On  the 
following  morning  Colonel  Money,  with  a  part  of 
McPherson's  force,  tried  to  dislodge  the  Afghans  |au-i- 
from  the  crest  of  the  Takt-i-Shah.  All  day  long 
the  British  fought  without  making  material  gains. 
On  the  next  day  the  rest  of  McPherson's  brigade 
and  Baker's  column,  which  had  just  arrived,  threw 
themselves  into  the  fight.  The  Afghans,  dislodged 
from  one  position,  held  themselves  in  others.  Their 
reinforcements  were  on  the  Asmei  Heights.  Colonel 
Jenkins  of  the  Guides  succeeded  in  storming  these 
heights,  but  was  soon  after  dislodged  from  the 
crest,  losing  two  guns.  It  was  at  this  time  that 
Captain  Voustan  led  a  dashing  charge  of  twelve 
Punjab  horsemen  up  a  steep  conical  hill,  and  him- 
self killed  five  Afghans.  For  this  he  received  the 
Victoria  Cross.  General  Eoberts  was  compelled  to 


1604  A    HISTORY    OF   THE  Dec.  1879 

abandon  the  Asmei   Heights  and  the  Bala  Hissar. 

a^ul!?3  He  fell  back  on  his  defences  at  Sherpur.  The 
British  were  hard  beset  at  Sherpur.  On  December 
23,  the  anniversary  of  the  murder  of  Sir  William 
MacNaughton  at  this  place  in  1841,  the  Afghans 
attacked  in  force.  The  fighting  lasted  all  day,  the 
Afghans  bringing  scaling  ladders  to  enter  the  works 
only  to  be  repulsed  with  great  slaughter.  At  night- 
fall a  heavy  snowstorm  set  in  and  the  Afghans 
gave  up  their  assault.  The  British  casualties  were 
sixty-five  killed  and  wounded,  among  whom  was 
Brigadier-General  Hugh  Gough.  On  Christmas 

British       Eve,  British  reinforcements  arrived  under  General 
1    Charles  Gough  and  Colonel  Hudson,  and  the  Bala 
Hissar  was  reoccupied. 

With  the  death  of  James  Clerk- Maxwell,  the 
famous  Scottish  physicist,  a  thinker  was  lost  to 
England  who  contributed  much  to  the  advance- 
ment of  modern  science.  Maxwell's  greatest  work 
was  done  in  the  field  of  electricity.  When  but 
twenty -three  years  of  age  he  boldly  explained,  by 
means  of  the  motions  of  an  incompressible  fluid, 
some  of  the  less  complicated  phenomena  of  elec- 

cierk-        tricitv  and  magnetism,  and  showed  how  the  laws  of 

Maxwell  * 

attraction  of  magnets  and  currents  may  be  clearly 
conceived  without  making  any  assumption  as  to 
the  physical  nature  of  electricity.  Maxwell  labored 
to  confirm  the  connection,  surmised  by  Faraday, 
between  light,  electricity  and  magnetism  and  ar- 
rived at  the  conclusion  that  the  velocity  of  electro- 
motion  in  a  given  medium  must  be  identical  with 
the  velocity  of  light  in  the  same  medium. 


I860 


NINETEENTH   CENTDRt  1605 


1880 

TUB  alliance  between  Germany  and  Austria 
was  cemented  by  another  meeting  of  the 
Emperors  at  Gastein.  At  the  time  of  their 

i  • ,  •       i  •    i    e        ii  f  Conference 

meeting  some  political  material  for  the  increase  01 
armies  in  both  countries  was  made  out  of  the  fact 
that  the  fortifications  of  Cracow,  and  Przemyel  on 
the  Russian  frontier  had  been  strengthened. 

In  Russia,  another  attempt  was  made  to  assassi- 
nate the  Czar.  As  the  Czar  and  his  guests  were 
about  to  dine  at  the  "Winter  Palace  in  St.  Peters- 
burg, on  February  17,  the  dining'-room  was  blown 
up.  Ten  men  of  the  Finland  guard  were  killed, 
while  fifty-three  were  wounded.  After  this  affair  paf 
Count  Melikov  was  put  at  the  head  of  a  supreme 
executive  committee  with  extraordinary  powers. 
He  consented  to  relax  the  severe  restrictions  on 
the  students  of  the  universities  and  higher  techni- 
cal schools.  Count  Alexei  Tolstoi,  the  originator  of 
these  laws,  resigned.  Early  in  summer  the  Czarina  Russian 
died.  Two  months  later,  the  Emperor  married re 
again.  The  campaign  against  the  Turkomans  was 
resumed  about  the  same  time.  For  some  time  no 
appreciable  gains  were  made  on  either  side. 

Gustave   Flaubert,   the  most  refined  writer  and 
stylist  of   the   French  school  of   realism,   died  in 


1606  A    HISTORY    OF   THE  Spring  1880 

May  in  his  sixtieth  year.  Originally  an  ardent 
Flaubert  admirer  of  Victor  Hugo  and  Byron,  he  suddenly 
changed  from  his  extreme  romanticism  to  that  of 
realism.  The  result  of  this  change  was  his  famous 
work  "Madame  Bo  vary, "  the  forerunner  of  the  nat- 
uralistic productions  of  Goncourt  and  Zola.  The 
tovanr6  DO°k  came  out  as  a  serial,  and  parts  of  it  were 
suppressed  by  the  government.  The  sensational 
lawsuit  that  resulted  proved  the  making  of  Flau- 
bert, as  a  literary  celebrity.  Of  his  later  works, 
"L' Education  Sentimentale, "  "Histoire  d'un  Jeune 
Homme, "  and  the  three  stories  "Trois  Contes, " 
are  most  worthy  of  mention.  A  very  pessimistic 
and  satirical  novel,  "Bouvard  et  Pecuchet, "  was 
written  in  his  last  days  at  Croisset  near  Rouen,  but 
was  never  finished.  In  spite  of  his  realism,  Flaubert 
had  a  distinctly  romantic  nature.  He  classed  his 
novels  under  two  heads:  those  written  for  pleasure 
and  those  for  work.  Of  "Madame  Bo  vary, "  which 
belonged  to  the  latter  class,  he  said:  "When  I  wrote 
this  book  I  felt  like  a  man  playing  the  piano  with 
leaden  balls  attached  to  each  finger  joint"  Indus- 
try of  this  sort  Flaubert  had  in  plenty.  He  read 

**SaI- 

ammbo"     and    annotated    fifteen    hundred    books    before    he 
wrote  "Salammbo. " 

In  Afghanistan  the  situation  of  the  British  grew 
more  perilous.  Early  in  the  spring  General  Rob- 
erts at  Sherpur  despatched  a  force  under  General 
Ross  to  Shekabad.  On  April  25,  a  sharp  action 
was  fought  on  the  old  battlefield  of  Charasia.  A 

Afghan 

war  re-       British   force  under   Colonel   Jenkins   was   penned 

sumed  * 

in  and  had   to   be  reinforced  by  a  brigade  under 


1880  Summer  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1607 

McPherson.  Before  this  General  Bonell  Stewart 
had  left  Kandahar  with  a  strong  column  to  open 
communications  with  Kabul.  A  British  division 
under  Primrose  was  left  at  Kandahar.  On  April 
19,  Stewart's  column,  while  approaching  Ghuznee, 
encountered  the  Afghan  swordsmen  at  Ahmed 
Khel.  The  onslaught  of  the  Afghans  was  so  im-  f  h"1^01 
petuous  that  the  British  line  of  battle  was  thrown  K1 
back  some  two  hundred  -  yards  and  the  left  was 
enveloped  by  the  Afghan  horsemen.  The  British 
rearguard  coming  up  turned  the  scale  of  the  bat- 
tle. Altogether,  135  British  soldiers  were  put  out 
of  action.  General  Stewart  fought  another  engage- 
ment beyond  Ghuznee  on  April  23,  and  drove  off  the 
enemy  with  a  loss  of  400  men.  On  May  2,  he  ar- 
rived at  Sherpur.  Stewart's  march  from  Kandahar,  stewart»9 
though  not  so  conspicuous  for  results  as  Roberts'  sh^pur0 
famous  return  march,  was  a  brilliant  achievement. 
Late  in  June,  Ayub  Khan,  younger  brother  to 
Yakoob  Khan,  held  a  prisoner  by  the  British, 
set  out  from  Herat  with  6,000  men,  resolved  to 
seize  Kandahar.  General  Burrowes,  at  Kandahar, 
marched  out  with  a  British  brigade  and  joined 
forces  with  the  Afghan  governor.  Within  a  fort- 
night the  native  Afghan  troops  mutinied  and  de- 
serted to  Ayub  Khan.  On  July  27,  the  two  armies 
came  within  sight  at  Maiwand.  The  British,  in- 
stead of  resorting  to  their  usual  offensive  tactics, 
formed  in  compact  masses,  and  lying  down  re- 
ceived the  various  onslaughts  of  the  Afghans,  of  Mai- 

wand 

Once   or  twice   the   British    cavalry   attempted    to 
charge  but   lost  heavily   in   horses  under  the  hot 


1608  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Bummer  :880 

fire  of  the  Ghazi  sharpshooters.  After  several 
hours  of  such  fighting,  the  Afghans  Btormea  a 
part  of  the  British  position  and  captured  a  bat- 
tery of  horse  artillery.  The  native  troops  of  the 
British  centre  were  thrown  into  disorder  and  fell 
back  upon  the  British  soldiery.  In  the  words  of 
General  Burrowes,  the  British  line  *' commencing 
from  the  left,  rolled  up  like  a  wave  to  the  right. ' ' 
As  a  last  resort  a  cavalry  charge  was  ordered. 
Only  a  few  officers  and  men  responded.  A  rem- 
nant of  the  British  infantry  succeeded  in  joining 
the  guns  and  cavalry  in  the  rear  of  the  baggage 
tram.  Thence  the  flight  went  on  to  Kandahar, 
over  forty  miles  distant.  From  every  village 
and  hamlet  the  natives  fired  on  the  fleeing  sol- 

Kaudahar*  diers.  Fortunately  for  them  they  were  met  by 
a  British  relief  column  under  General  Brooke, 
which  cleared  the  way  back  to  Kandahar.  In 
the  disastrous  fight  at  Maiwand,  the  British  lost 
more  than  1,500  men.  Some  idea  of  the  desperate 
nature  of  the  encounter  can  be  gathered  from  the 
fact  that  whereas  but  fourteen  officers  and  forty-two 
white  soldiers  were  wounded,  the  number  of  the 
killed  was  twenty-six  officers  and  two  hundred 
and  ninety- seven  white  soldiers. 

As  soon   as  Ayub   Khan   and   his  Afghans  ap- 
peared before  Kandahar,  the  British  garrison  made 

Disastrous  a  sortie-     This,  too,  proved  disastrous.     Brigadier- 
General  Brooke  and  a  large  number  of  his  officers 
and  men  lost  their  lives  in  the  affair.     After  this 
the  British  remained  penned  up  in  Kandahar. 
It  was  on  July  29  that  the  report  of  the  disas- 


1880  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1609 

ters  before  Kandahar  reached  the  British  at  Kabul. 
Roberts  immediately  offered  to  lead  an  expedition 
to  Kandahar  to  relieve  the  garrison  there.  The 
offer  was  accepted  by  Sir  Donald  Stewart.  On 
August  9,  Roberts  set  out  on  his  famous  march 
from  Sherpur  with  18,500  men.  The  guns  had  to 
be  carried  on  mules.  The  expedition  marched  atj^^'0 
a  rate  of  more  than  sixteen  miles  a  day.  Instead Kandahar 
of  a  frontal  attack  on  the  Afghan  besiegers,  Rob- 
erts turned  their  position.  On  September  1,  the 
Highlanders  stormed  the  villages  of  Gundi  Mulla 
and  Pir  Painal.  The  Afghans  fled,  after  a  loss 
of  more  than  a  thousand  men.  The  march  to 
Kandahar  was  pronounced  by  British  military 
critics  as  one  of  the  most  remarkable  achieve- 
ments of  its  kind.  Stewart's  previous  march, 
Sherman's  march  to  the  sea,  and  Roberts'  subse- 
quent march  to  Pretoria,  are  the  nearest  approach 
to  it  in  modern  times.  Roberts  forthwith  became 
an  idol  of  the  British  army.  Much  to  Roberts' 

disgust    the    British    Government    gave    orders   to  evacuate 

Afghan- 
evacuate  Kandahar.     The  districts  of  Pishin,  Sibilstan 

and  Thai  Chotiali  were  annexed.  Yakoob  Khan 
was  kept  in  confinement.  Abdur  Rahman,  a  grand- 
son of  Dost  Mohammed,  was  recognized  as  Ameer. 
Afghanistan  proper  was  evacuated. 

The  King  of  Greece  opened  the  Bould  this  year 
with  a  warlike  speech  on  the  Turkish  boundary 
question.  Once  more  the  Powers  had  to  intercede. 
In  Armenia  the  situation  was  equally  threatening. 
Members  of  the  newly  formed  Kurdish  league  rav- 
aged the  country,  burning  villages  and  killing 


1610  A   HISTORY   OF   THE  1880 


'  OI 


many  inhabitants.  On  the  other  hand  the  Forte 
complained  that  Roumelia  and  Bulgaria  were 

troubles  _. 

stirred  up  by  .Russian  agitators.  As  a  result  of 
international  conferences  at  Berlin,  a  joint  demand 
for  compliance  with  the  provisions  of  the  Berlin 
Conference  was  made  on  the  Forte  in  July.  As 
Turkey  failed  to  come  to  terms,  the  Powers  made 
a  naval  demonstration  on  the  coast  of  Albania, 
where  the  Montenegrins  were  giving  trouble.  Dul- 

Bsukans  in  cigno  was  exacted  from  Turkey,  and  Montenegrin 
forces  occupied  that  place.  Servia  was  compelled 
to  extend  the  same  customs  privileges  to  Austria 
as  she  did  to  Great  Britain.  Eoumania  secured  the 
recognition  of  her  independence  by  accepting  the 
provisions  of  the  Berlin  purchasing  convention, 
whereby  her  railway  lines  were  joined  to  those 
of  the  other  Balkan  States. 

In  France  a  new  Eepublican  Ministry  had  been 
formed  under  Freycinet,  backed  largely  by  the 
powerful  influence  of  Gambetta.  This  Ministry 
took  action  against  the  powerful  Society  of  Jesus. 

French      Expelled  from  France,   the  Jesuits   sought  refuge 

expelled  in  Spain  and  Portugal.  A  bill  for  exclusively 
secular  instruction  in  the  public  schools  in  France 
was  passed  through  the  Chambers  by  the  govern- 
ment. Next  a  general  amnesty  was  extended  to 
the  Communists  of  1871.  Among  the  radical  Re- 
publicans who  now  returned  to  France  was  Roche- 

Henri        fort,    who  at  once   resumed    his    agitation   against 

Rschefort  . 

Gambetta.  A  Cabinet  crisis  resulted  in  another 
Ministry,  headed  by  Ferry.  The  janti-  clerical  meas- 
ures of  the  government  were  enforced  throughout 


)880  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1611 

France.  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps  raised  sufficient 
funds  wherewith  to  establish  his  company  for 
the  proposed  construction  of  an  inter-oceanic 
canal  through  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  Thispanama 
French  project  was  resented  by  the  American  p^ject 
people  as  a  violation  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine. 
In  a  message  to  Congress,  President  Hayes  de- 
manded that  any  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama  or  through  any  territory  of  Central  or 
South  America  would  have  to  be  subject  to  the 
control  of  the  United  States. 

On  June  2,  the  Republican  Convention  met  at 
Chicago.  Conkling,  with  306  delegates,  made  a  de- 
termined effort  to  renominate  President  Grant  for 
a  third  term  but  failed.  Grant's  rivals  were  Elaine 


. 

of  third 

and  Sherman.  The  opposition  finally  united  and  teim 
nominated  Garfield  and  Arthur.  A  Democratic 
convention  met  at  Cincinnati,  on  June  22,  and 
nominated  Hancock  and  English.  Each  candidate 
carried  sixteen  States,  which  gave  214  electoral 
votes  to  the  Republicans  and  155  to  the  Dem- 
ocrats. 

During   this  year   the    Apache    Indians,    under 
Victoria,   were  driven  into  Mexico.     The  chieftain 
was  killed  and  most  of  the  band  dispersed.     Later 
in  the  year,  some  fifteen  hundred  of  Sitting  Bull's  Difficulties 
Indians   returned   from   British    America   and  sur-         ° 


rendered  to  the  United  States  authorities. 

The  erection  of  the  Lick  Observatory  on  Mount 
Hamilton,  4,250  feet  above  the  Pacific  Ocean,  was 
begun.     General  Lew  Wallace  brought  out  his  Bib-  ,4Ben  Hurll 
lical  novel  "Ben  Hur.  "     Other  American  books  of 


1612  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Dec.  18» 

the  year  were  Mark  Twain's  "A  Tramp  Abroad" 
and  W.  D.  Howells's  "Undiscovered  Country." 
Late  in  the  year  Sara  Bernhardt  made  her  first 
appearance  in  America  at  Booth's  Theatre  in  New 
York.  A  careful  study  of  typhoid  fever  resulted 
in  Eberth's  discovery  of  the  typhus  germ. 

Toward   the    close    of   the   year,  the   readers   of 
George  Eliot's  novels  were  saddened  by  the  death 
Death  of    °^  *^s  most  eminent  of  English  woman  novelists. 
Eto^       Marian  Evans,   better  known  as  George  Eliot,  was 
born  in  1819,  in  Warwickshire.     As  a  girl  she  went 
to  London  and  became  associated  with  several  writ- 
ers for  the  "Westminster  Review,"   among   them 
John  Stuart  Mill,  Herbert  Spencer,  John  Chapman 
and  George  Henry  Lewes.     Her  first  serious  work 
was  a  translation  of  Strauss'a  "Life  of  Jesus,"  pub- 
lished in  1846,  followed  by  a  translation  of  Feuer- 
bach's  "Essence  of  Christianity. "     About  this  time 
the  manuscript  of  "Scenes  of  Clerical  Life,"   her 
first  imaginative  work,  was  submitted  anonymous- 
Evans'       ly  to  "Blackwood's  Magazine"   by  George  Henry 

career  J  J 

Lewes,  and  was  at  once  accepted  as  a  work  of  rare 
genius.  The  novel  "Adam  Bede, "  published  over 
the  signature  of  George  Eliot  in  1869,  made  that 
name  a  household  word  throughout  the  English- 
speaking  world.  The  book  was  generally  accepted 
as  the  work  of  a  man.  By  the  time  "The  Mill  on 
the  Floss"  appeared  in  1860,  the  author  was  known 
in  London  as  the  intimate  companion  and  literary 
associate  of  George  Henry  Lewes.  The  close  asso- 
ciation between  these  two  gifted  writers  terminated 
only  with  the  death  of  Lewes  in  1878.  George 


1880  Dec.  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1613 

Eliot's  succeeding  stories  were  "Silas  Marner," 
the  historical  novel  "Romola,"  "Felix  Holt"  and 
"Middlemarch. "  Less  successful  than  these  nov- 
els were  her  collections  of  verse,  such  as  "The 
Spanish  Gypsy"  and  the  "Legend  of  Jubal." 
George  Eliot's  last  novel,  "Daniel  Deronda, "  pub- 
lished in  1876,  was  generally  held  to  be  based  on 
the  character  of  Disraeli,  though  this  was  denied 
by  the  author.  In  May  she  was  married  to  J.  "W. 
Cross.  Within  a  few  months  after  this  marriage 
came  her  death.  George  Eliot's  rank  as  a  novelist 
is  sufficiently  indicated  by  the  fact  that  she  held 
her  own  with  such  eminent  contemporaries  as 
Dickens  and  Thackeray  in  England,  and  Georges 
Sand  and  Balzac  in  France.  All  of  her  books 
are  distinguished  by  the  seriousness  of  their  tone 
and  purpose. 

Qle  Bornemann  Bull,  the  famous  Norwegian  vio- 
linist, died  this  year  at  his  birthplace,  Bergen.  Born 
in  1810,  he  was  trained  as  a  violinist  in  his  father's 
orchestra.  His  first  great  success  was  achieved  in 
early  manhood  at  Bologna.  After  this  he  appeared 
in  concerts  at  Paris,  London  and  New  York,  and 
created  almost  as  great  a  sensation  as  Paganini.  In 
technical  proficiency  Ole  Bull  rivalled  some  of  the 
great  Italian  virtuoso's  effects,  while  he  surpassed 
him  in  depth  of  musical  feeling. 

The  Russian  campaign  against  the  Turkomans 
had  been  waged  with  varying  success.  The  Turko- 
mans repeatedly  cut  the  Russian  line  of  communica- 
tion. Early  in  December  a  detachment  of  Cossacks  Turkoman 

campaign 

surprised  and  captured  a  strong    position  of   the 

XlXth  Century— Vol.  3— P 


1614  A    HISTORY -OF   THE  Dec.  1880 

enemy  near  Geok  Tepe.  By  the  middle  of  De- 
cember, General  Skobelev  attempted  a  reconnois- 
sance  in  force,  only  to  suffer  a  signal  reverse.  On 
Christmas  Eve  the  Russians  recaptured  their  posi- 
tions at  Geok  Tepe. 

In  South  Africa,  the  British  annexation  of  the 
cillm  mde-  Transvaal    was    repudiated    by    the    Boers.      The 
pendence    yo}ksraa(j  was   reconvened,   and   on  December  16 
the  Republic  of  South  Africa  was  once  more  pro- 
claimed  at   Heidelburg.      The  first  shots   between 
the  Boers  and  British  were  exchanged  at  the  town 
Potchef-    of  Potchefstroom,  on  the  refusal  of  Mai  or  Clarke 

stroom 

to  allow  the  Boer  proclamation  to  be  printed. 
After  a  spirited  defence,  the  British  had  to  sur- 
render. A  letter  was  sent  to  Pretoria  to  Sir  Owen 
Lanyan,  calling  upon  him  to  transfer  the  govern- 
ment within  forty-eight  hours.  Sir  Owen's  reply 
to  the  Boer  demand  was  a  proclamation  offering 
pardon  to  those  rebels  who  would  submit  and  re- 
turn to  their  homes.  On  December  20  an  engage- 
ment was  fought  on  the  road  from  Heidelburg  to 
Pretoria.  The  British  officers  were  picked  off  dur- 
ing the  early  part  of  the  fight.  A  large  number 
of  the  men  were  shot  down  while  attempting  to 
charge.  Their  dying  colonel  ordered  a  surrender. 
Of  the  whole  British  force  eighty-six  were  buried 
on  the  field  and  twenty-six  died  afterward  of  their 
wounds.  The  Boer  casualties  were  one  killed  and 
five  wounded. 


«8i  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  1615 


1881 

THE   state   of   affairs   in   the   Transvaal   grew 
threatening  for  the  English.    On  January  3 
Joubert,  the  Boer  Commandant,  was  at  Cold 
Stream  on  the  borders  of  Natal  with  seven  hun- 
dred men.  -  Colonel  Winsloe  was  besieged  outside  war  m 

South 

Potchefstroom,  Sir  Owen  Lanyan  at  Pretoria,  and Africa 
Major  Montague  at  Starndeon.  The  Boers  had 
also  taken  possession  of  Utrecht  and  were  besieg- 
ing Lydenberg.  The  victories  gained  in  the  next 
month  by  the  Boers  culminated  in  the  defeat  of 
the  British  at  Majuba  Hill,  on  the  27ih  of  Feb- 
ruary. On  that  Saturday  night  some  six  hundred 
British  troops  under  Sir  George  Colby  intrenched 
themselves  at  the  top  of  Majuba  Hill,  overlooking  Majuba 
the  enemy's  position  at  Laing's  Nek.  The  Boers Hl 
were  not  aware  of  this  movement  until  the  British 
opened  fire  upon  them  at  5  A.M.  After  six  hours' 
firing,  in  which  everything  seemed  favorable  for 
the  British,  the  Boers,  four  hundred  in  number, 
stormed  Majuba  Hill.  General  Colby  was  killed, 
and  with  him  fell  two  officers  and  eighty-two  men. 
The  Boers  took  one  hundred  and  twenty-two  pris- 
oners. Unwilling  further  to  prosecute  the  war, 

7  Gladstone 

Prime  Minister  Gladstone  entered  into  a  treaty  of 
peace   by  which  the  Boers  gained   their  indepen- 


1616  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Spring  1881 

dence.  England  reserved  to  herself  the  right  to 
veto  all  foreign  treaties  that  might  be  entered  into 
by  the  South  African  Republic. 

During  this  period  England  lost  one  of  the  great- 
est of  her  modern  prose  writers  in  Thomas  Carlyle. 
His  career  as  an  author  may  be  said  to  have  begun 
with  the  issue  in  monthly  parts  of  his  life  of  Schil- 
ler in  the  "London  Magazine,"  in  1823.  In  1824 
he  published  a  translation  of  Legendre's  Geometry, 
with  his  own  essay  on  Proportion.  In  the  same 
year  appeared  his  translation  of  Goethe's  "Wil- 
helm  Meister's  Apprenticeship,"  followed  by  other 
translations  from  the  German.  The  publication  of 
"Sartor  Resartus,"  in  1833,  made  Carlyle  famous. 
His  next  work  of  importance  was  "The  French 
Revolution,"  which  appeared  in  1837.  It  would 
have  been  published  sooner,  but  for  the  famous 
loss  of  the  first  manuscript.  Carlyle  reproduced 
the  lost  first  volume  from  his  notes,  but  always 
declared  that  the  first  draft  was  the  best.  "Chart- 
ism," published  in  1839,  and  "Past  and  Present," 
in  1843,  were  small  works  in  which  Carlyle  poured 
unmeasured  scorn  on  certain  of  his  contemporaries. 
In  1845,  he  published  "Oliver  Cromwell's  Letters 
and  Speeches"  with  elucidations  of  his  own.  This 
work  served  to  turn  the  current  of  English  feel- 
ing in  favor  of  the  great  Protector.  The  longest 
and  most  laborious  of  all  Carlyle 's  works  was  the 
"History  of  Frederick  the  Great."  The  ten  vol- 
umes appeared  at  intervals  between  1858  and  1865, 
and  may  be  said  to  have  closed  his  literary  career. 

Carlyle' s  death  was  followed  by  that  of  Benjamin 


1881  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1617 

Disraeli,  Earl  of  Beaconsfield,  the  eminent  British 
statesman  and  novelist.  Of  Jewish  extraction,  he 
was  the  eldest  son  of  Isaac  D' Israeli,  author  of 
the  "Curiosities  of  Literature."  In  1826,  Ben- 
jamin Disraeli  published  his  first  novel,  "Vivian 
Grey,"  which  achieved  immediate  success.  His 
next  novel,  "Coningsby, "  was  followed  at  short 
intervals  by  "Contarini  Fleming,"  "Alroy,"  "Hen- 
rietta Temple,"  "Venetia"  and  "The  Revolution- 
ary Epic."  In  1837,  Disraeli  gained  an  entrance 
to  the  House  of  Commons  from  Maidstone.  His 
first  speech  was  received  with  ridicule,  but  Dis- 
raeli finished  it  with  a  passionate  declaration  that 
the  time  would  come  when  he  must  be  heard.  He 
became  a  leader  of  the  so-called  "Young  England" 
party.  Having  acquired  the  Manor  of  Hughendon 
in  Buckinghamshire,  Disraeli  was  re-elected  to  the 
Commons  in  1847,  and  retained  this  seat  until  he 
was  raised  to  the  peerage  nearly  thirty  years  later. 
He  first  served  as  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  un- 
der Lord  Derby.  He  was  out  of  office  from  1853 
to  1858,  when  he  was  reappointed.  In  1868  he 
became  Premier  on  the  resignation  of  Lord  Derby, 
but  his  tenure  of  office  was  short.  In  1874  he 
again  became  Prime  Minister  and  remained  in 
power  for  six  years.  It  was  during  this  time 
that  he  became  Earl  of  Beaconsfield.  As  such"1' 
he  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  conclusion  of 
the  famous  Balkan  treaty  at  Berlin  in  1878.  On 
his  return  from  Berlin  he  was  at  the  zenith  of 
popularity.  But  in  1380y  when  an  overwhelming 
Liberal  majority  was  returned,  Beaconsfield  re- 


1618  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Spring  1881 

signed  office,  though  he  still  retained  the  lead- 
ership of  his  party.  Within  a  few  months  of 
Disraeli's  death,  the  publication  of  a  last  novel 
called  "Endymion"  showed  still  the  vigor  of  his 
intellect. 

When  Feodor  Mikhailovitch  Dostoyevsky  died, 

Bostoy?f  Russia  lost  one  of  her  foremost  psychological  novel- 
ists. Dostoyevsky's  trenchant  pen  often  embroiled 
him  in  difficulties  with  the  government.  For  his 
participation  in  a  conspiracy,  in  1849,  he  was  ar- 
rested and  condemned  to  death.  His  sentence  hav- 
ing been  commuted  to  exile,  he  was  sent  to  Siberia, 
where  he  passed  the  bitterest  time  of  his  life,  and 
where  he  gathered  much  of  the  material  afterward 
used  in  his  powerful  stories.  On  the  accession  of 
Alexander  II.  he  was  pardoned.  Dostoyevsky's 
best  known  novels  are  "The  Poor  People,"  "The 
Degraded  and  Insulted,"  "Memoirs  from  the  House 
of  Death,"  also  published  as  "Buried  Alive"  (his 
Siberian  memoirs),  and  "Crime  and  Punishment." 
The  year  had  begun  in  Eussia  with  General  Sko- 
belev's  brilliant  successes  over  the  Tekke  Turko- 

Turko-       mans.      On    January    24,    after    a    siege    of    three 

man  war 

weeks,  the  Turkomans'  stronghold  of  Geok  Tepe 
was  taken  by  storm;  large  quantities  of  guns,  am- 
munition and  provisions  were  captured,  and  the 
Turkomans  fled  in  confusion,  leaving  their  dead 
on  the  field.  This  virtually  terminated  the  expe- 
dition. On  April  9,  Skobelev  received  the  submis- 
sion of  the  principal  Turkoman  leaders  at  Askabad. 
Thus  another  extensive  territory  in  Central  Asia 
was  brought  within  Russian  influence. 


1881  Spring  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1619 

In  March,  at  the  assembly  of  nobles,  it  was  de- 
cided to  petition  the  Czar  to  abolish  the  system 
of  banishing  political  offenders  without  trial.  Nine 
days  later,  as  the  Czar  was  driving  along  the  banks 
of  the  Catherine  Canal,  early  in  the  afternoon,  on 
March  13,  a  dynamite  bomb  thrown  by  one  Rousa- 
kov  burst  under  the  carriage,  wounding  a  Cossack 
and  other  persons  standing  near.  The  Czar 
stepped  out  of  his  carriage  unhurt  with  his 
brother,  the  Grandduke  Michael.  He  turned  to 
walk  home,  when  another  bomb  was  thrown. 
When  the  smoke  cleared  away  the  Czar  was  lying 
in  a  pool  of  blood,  while  the  assassin  with  other 
bystanders  lay  wounded.  The  Czar  was  con- 
veyed to  the  Winter  Palace,  where  he  died  two 
hours  later. 

Alexander  II.  will  ever  be  remembered  for  his 
emancipation  of  the  serfs,  which  gave  freedom  to 
22,000,000  human  beings.  In  February,  1864,  the 
Polish  serfs  were  similarly  liberated.  Alexander 
in  several  other  measures  evinced  a  desire  to  im- 
prove the  condition  of  his  people.  He  aimed  at 
the  subjugation  of  the  half-civilized  hordes  of  Alex- 
Central  Asia.  During  his  reign  the  limits  of 
Russian  Empire  became  coterminous  with  those  of 
China.  The  draft  of  a  liberal  constitution  was 
found  in  his  desk  after  his  assassination.  The 
question  of  granting  a  constitution  to  Russia,  dis- 
cussed between  the  new  Czar  and  his  advisers,  was 
soon  dismissed.  Nihilism  progressed  accordingly. 

Another  sensational  assassination  was  perpetrated 
this  year  in  the  United  States  of  America.  Presi- 


1620  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1881 

dent  Garfield,  after  four  months'  administration, 
Gaxfleidnt  was  shot  on  July  2,  by  Charles  Guiteau,  a  disap- 
nated  pointed  office-seeker,  as  the  President  and  Secretary 
of  State  Blaine  were  about  to  leave  Washington  for 
New  York.  For  two  months  Garfield  hovered  be- 
tween life  and  death,  until,  on  September  19,  he 
suddenly  expired.  He  was  the  second  President  of 
the  North  American  Republic  who  died  from  the 
bullet  of  an  assassin.  James  Abram  Garfield  began 
his  career  as  driver  for  a  canal  boat.  When  the 
Civil  War  broke  out,  Garfield,  who  had  become 
a  college  president  and  Senator,  was  appointed  to 
a  Colonelcy  and  was  soon  raised  to  the  rank  of 
Brigadier- General.  He  was  Rosecranz's  chief  of 
staff,  and  his  gallantry  was  conspicuous  at  Chicka- 
mauga.  While  in  the  field  he  was  elected  to  Con- 
gress, and  remained  in  that  body  seventeen  years, 
when  he  was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate. 
He  did  not  take  his  seat,  because  of  his  nomina- 
tion for  the  Presidency. 

When  Arthur  became  President,  Garfield's  Cabi- 
net Ministers  resigned,  but  Arthur  requested  them 
to  retain  their  places  until  Congress  should  meet. 
Arthur's  ^^  complied  except  Windom,  and  Judge  Folger 
of  New  York  took  his  place.  Later  Frelinghuysen 
became  Secretary  of  State  in  place  of  Blaine,  and 
Kirkwood  was  succeeded  by  Teller,  Hunt  by  W. 
E.  Chandler,  James  by  Howe  and  McVeagh  by 
Brewster.  Lincoln's  son  alone  served  under  both 
Garfield  and  Arthur. 

Strong   desire   was   still   evinced  by  the  United 
States  Government  to  terminate   the  war  between 


1881  Autumn  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1621 

Chile  and  Peru,  after  the  fall  of  Lima.     A  special 
envoy  was  sent  to  Chile  and  another  to  Peru  with dra^son ** 
suggestions  for  friendly  relations,  but  at  the  close 
of  the  year  the  situation  was  little  changed. 

In  October,  the  Mikado  of  Japan  announced  by 
a  proclamation  that  a  Parliament  would  be  estab- 
lished to  meet  in  1890.  The  provisional  Senate 
and  annual  assembly  of  Ken  prefects  was  ad- 
journed sine  die.  The  new  Japanese  Constitution 

Japanese 

consisted  of  sixty- six  articles,  with  266  exposition-  ^^ 
ary  clauses.  The  rights  of  sovereignty  and  execu- 
tive power,  according  to  the  organic  laws  of  the 
Empire,  were  vested  in  the  person  of  the  Mikado, 
who  was  declared  inviolable.  The  Mikado's  Min- 
isters were  accountable  to  him  alone.  Certain  ex- 
penditures of  the  realm,  specified  in  the  Constitu- 
tion, were  confirmed  to  the  imperial  government 
in  perpetuity.  A  Parliament  was  created  to  meet 
once  a  year,  to  be  opened,  prorogued,  closed  or 
dissolved  by  the  Emperor.  The  Upper  House  was 
composed  of  three  classes;  to  wit,  hereditary 
peers,  nominated  peers  and  elected  members,  the 
last  two  classes  never  to  exceed  the  number  of 
hereditary  members.  The  House  of  Kepresenta- 
tives  was  composed  of  300  members,  of  national 
taxpayers  to  the  amount  of  $15  annually,  each 
to  serve  four  years.  Trial  by  "jury,  freedom  from  Pariia- 

J  J.  mentary 

search,  of  religious  belief,  of  speech,  of  press  and  Provisioas 
of  public  meeting  within  the  limits  of  civic  ordi- 
nances, were  confirmed  to  the  Japanese  people  in 
a  bill  of  rights. 

Jose*  Echegaray,  one  of  Spain's  foremost  modern 


1622  A   HISTORY   OF    THE  1881 

dramatists,  brought  out  his  famous  play,  "El  Gran 

Echegaray  ttaleota  "  Before  this  success  Echegaray,  who  had 
begun  his  career  as  an  engineer,  had  shown  his 
dramatic  talents  with  "La  Esposa  del  Vengador, " 
"La  Ultima  JMoche,"  "En  el  Puno  de  la  Espada," 
and  "Locura  o  Santidad. " 
Dr.  Ogden  of  Aberdeen,  about  the  same  time, 

reaches9  published  an  account  of  experiments  which  he  had 
made  to  ascertain  the  causes  of  inflammation  and 
suppuration.  He  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that 
suppuration  was  caused  by  certain  bacteria.  The 
results  achieved  afterward  found  ample  verification. 
Another  death  to  be  recorded  in  this  year  is 
that  of  Maximilien  Littre,  the  philologist  and  phi- 
losopher to  whom  France  owes  her  great  "Diction- 
naire  de  la  Langue  Frangaise.  Littre*  was  a  man  of 

Efttr6  °f  vast  learning  and  one  of  the  finest  linguists  of  his 
time.  Besides  his  famous  dictionary  he  wrote 
"Histoire  de  la  Langue  Frangaise, "  "Etudes  sur 
les  Barbares  et  le  Moy en-age, "  "MeMecines  et 
Me'decins, "  "La  Science  au  point  de  vue  philo- 
sophique, "  and  "De  1'Etablissement  de  la  troiseme 
Re"publique. "  France  also  lost  Auguste  Blanc,  the 
great  conspirator  and  brother  of  the  eminent  econ- 
omist Louis  Blanc.  Auguste  Blanc  spent  thirty- 

Biam?te  seven  years  of  his  life  in  prison.  He  died  at  Paris. 
During  his  long  life  of  seventy-six  years,  he  took 
part  in  every  socialistic  and  revolutionary  move- 
ment in  France.  Even  at  the  last  his  extreme 
utterances  put  him  in  constant  jeopardy. 

The  Tunis   campaign   about  this  time  took  the 
world  by  surprise;  but  the  elements  of  the  storm 


"S 
1881  Summer  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1623 

had  been  for  years  gathering  along  the  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean.  For  the  last  sixty  years  the  policy 
of  France  had  been  to  assume  a  protectorate  over 
Tunis.  In  recent  years  rivalry  had  sprung  up  be-  Frenchwar 
tween  the  French  and  Italians.  Italy,  which  hadoaTunis 
some  fifteen  thousand  of  her  subjects  there,  had 
considerable  commercial  interests  at  stake,  while 
the  French  were  chiefly  influenced  by  political  con- 
siderations. Hostile  operations  against  Tunis  were 
undertaken  in  the  last  week  of  April  by  Generals 
Logerot,  Forgemol  and  Delebecque.  The  Island  of 
Taberka,  protected  by  an  old  Moorish  castle,  was 
bombarded  by  French  men-of-war  and  captured. 
On  the  27th,  Kep  was  taken,  and,  on  May  1,  Biserta 
was  occupied  and  made  a  base  of  operations,  13,000 
men  landing  under  Generals  Breart  and  Maurande. 
When  Beja  was  taken,  it  was  assumed  in  France 
that  the  war  was  over.  The  Bey  practically  ac- 

J     r  J  Arabre- 

cepted  the  protection  of  France,  and  the  French sentment 
expedition  was  recalled.  An  insurrection  forth- 
with broke  out  against  the  Bey.  He  was  accused 
of  selling  his  country.  In  the  south,  the  seaport 
of  Sfax  was  seized  by  the  Arabs  and  the  foreign 
residents  in  the  country  were  threatened.  France 
made  immediate  preparations  to  reconquer  Tunte. 
A  strong  squadron  of  twenty  men-of-war  under 
Vice- Admiral  Garnault  demonstrated  on  the  coast 
of  Tunis.  On  July  5,  the  bombardment  "of  Sfax 
was  begun  by  two  French  vessels.  During  the 
next  few  days  several  more  war  vessels  joined  in 
the  bombardment,  which  was  kept  up  until  the 
middle  of  July.  After  the  fortifications  were  "be- 


1624  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Whiter  1881 

lieved    to   have    been    sufficiently    reduced,    three 
oflfax*     thousand    men    were    landed   and    quickly   carried 
the   water  battery   and   gates  of   the   town.      The 
French  losses  were  insignificant. 

On  September  10,  General  Saussier  opened  the 
campaign  in  the  south  with  a  proclamation  to  the 
Arabs  giving  them  the  alternative  of  submission 
or  subjection.  On  October  27,  he  made  his  entry 
into  Keyrouan,  which  had  surrendered  a  few  days 
previously  to  General  Etielle.  Though  the  mili- 
tary ends  were  obtained,  there  yet  remained  the  ex- 
Campaign  ploration  of  the  southern  regions.  On  November  8, 

in  South- 
ern Tunis    General  Forgemol  advanced  upon  Gafra,  to  whose 

inhabitants  he  granted  a  truce,  while  General  Lo- 
gerot  turned  toward  Gabe"  only  to  find  that  the 
Arabs  had  broken  up  their  camps  and  were  flying 
in  confusion.  Hotly  pursued,  the  majority  sued 
for  peace,  abandoning  their  two  principal  chiefs. 
Finally  the  Bey's  army  was  disbanded  and  a  fresh 
native  force  under  General  Lambert  was  organized. 
Owing  to  the  display  of  overwhelming  forces,  which 
Btruck  terror  into  the  tribes,  the  Tunisian  campaign 
was  almost  bloodless. 


1983  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1625 


1882 

EGYPT   continued   to   excite   the   attention  of 
the  various  European  chancelleries.     It  re- 
mained   to    be    seen    whether    the    military 
revolt  of  the  previous  year  was  imbued  with  the 
strength    of    a    national    movement.      The    British 
and   French   Governments,  representing  the  Euro- 
pean Condominium  at  Cairo,  addressed  an  identi- 
cal note  to  the  Khedive,   in  which  they  expressed 
a   determination    "to   ward    off    by  united   'efforts 
all    causes    of    external    or    internal    complications  Egypt 

restive 

which  might  menace  the  regime  established  in 
Egypt."  At  the  same  time  an  outcry  against 
European  officials  was  raised  by  the  Egyptian 
press,  and  the  Khedive  was  driven  to  receive 
deputations  voicing  the  general  discontent  of  the 
country.  A  plot  to  murder  Arabi  Pasha,  the  War 
Minister,  was  barely  frustrated.  In  May  the  allied 
fleet  appeared  off  Alexandria.  The  feeling  against 
the  Europeans  .grew  stronger  day  by  day.  The onstration 
Egyptian  troops  began  throwing  up  batteries  and 
earthworks.  By  this  time  Arabi  Pasha  was  prac- 
tically sole  dictator.  On  June  11,  the  entire  popu- 
lation of  Alexandria  rose  against  the  Europeans. 
The  British,  Italian  and  Greek  Consuls  were 
attacked,  and  some  two  hundred  and  fifty  Eu- 


1626  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1882 

ropeans,  chiefly  Maltese  and  Greeks,  were  mur- 
dered. The  Admirals  avowed  their  inability  to 
quell  the  revolt.  In  the  meantime  the  works 
on  the  fortifications  of  Alexandria  were  pushed 
with  all  possible  speed.  Now  the  British  Admiral 
threatened  to  bombard  Alexandria,  if  work  were 

British  ul- 
timatum   not   immediately    stopped.      Three   days   later,    on 

July  10,  a  formal  ultimatum  was  despatched  to 
Arabi  Pasha,  demanding  the  surrender  of  the  forts 
into  British  hands.  No  satisfactory  reply  was  re- 
ceived by  nightfall,  and  the  European  inhabitants 
embarked  on  board  the  ships  provided  for  their 
reception.  The  twenty-four  hours'  grace  having 
expired,  Admiral  Sir  Beauchamp  Seymour  opened 
Bombard  ^re  on  ^e  ^orts  °^  Alexandria  with  the  entire 
Alexandria  fleet  of  ten  ironclads  and  five  gunboats  under  his 
command.  The  fire  was  returned  by  the  forts,  and 
the  bombardment  continued  all  day. 

In  general  the  gunnery  of  the  British  fleet  was 
very  indifferent.  After  the  bombardment  a  close 
inspection  of  the  forts  showed  them  to  be  far  from 
demolished.  Almost  all  the  guns  might  have  been 
fought  again.  Out  of  a  total  of  16,233  rounds  fired 
from  the  Nordenfeldts,  only  seven  found  their  mark. 
On  the  British  side  the  flagship  "Alexandra"  was 
hit  twenty-four  times.  The  "Inflexible"  was  the 
most  damaged  and  had  to  be  docked  for  repairs. 
The  British  losses  in  men  were  five  killed  and 
twenty -eight  wounded.  The  Egyptian  losses  were 
estimated  upward  of  three  hundred.  During  the 

Arabi 

Pasha        night  Alexandria  was  seen  to  be  in  flames,  and  in 

withdraws 

the  morning  the  forts  and  towers  were  found  almost 


1882 Sept.  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1627 

deserted.  The  convicts  had  been  set  free,  and  with 
the  Bedouins  were  pillaging  the  town  and  massa- 
cring all  the  Europeans  they  could  find.  Arabi 
had  retired  with  his  forces  and  thousands  of  refu- 
gees. Parties  of  marines  and  bluejackets  landed 
and  blew  up  some  of  the  guns  in  the  forts  and 
cleared  the  streets  of  looters.  The  British  Govern- 
ment was  now  hurrying  up  troops  with  which  it 
proposed  to  reconquer  Egypt  for  the  Khedive  from 
his  soldiers  with  whom  he  had,  up  to  the  time  of 
the  bombardment,  been  openly  associated.  Troops 
were  despatched  from  England  and  India.  Sir 
Archibald  Alison  was  the  first  officer  to  locate  the 
insurgent  forces.  Subsequently  skirmishes  and  en- 
gagements were  almost  of  daily  occurrence,  while 
Arabi  Pasha,  with  his  army  of  20,000  Egyptian 
troops,  was  fortifying  his  position  at  Tel-el-Kebir.  Tei-ei- 
The  British  commanders  awaited  reinforcements. 
The  last  of  these  arrived  during  the  first  half  of 
September.  September  13,  Sir  Grarnet  Wolseley, 
with  18,000  men  and  60  guns,  attacked  Arabi's 
position  and  carried  it  by  assault.  The  Egyptians 
were  routed  with  a  loss  of  2,000  and  1,200  prison- 
ers. Arabi  fled.  Pressing  rapidly  over  the  battle- 
field, the  British  made  straight  for  Zagazig,  which 
was  occupied  in  the  course  of  the  day.  On  the 
evening  of  the  14th  they  reached  Cairo  and  cap-  Arab. 
tured  Arabi  with  Toulba  Pasha.  The  Egyptian 
garrison  of  1,000  men  laid  down  their  arms.  On 
the  last  day  of  the  year,  Lord  Dufferin  forwarded 
the  first  instalment  of  his  scheme  for  the  so-called 
regeneration  of  Egypt.  He  also  laid  down  propos- 


1628  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1888 

als  for  the  absolute  neutralization  of  the  Suez 
Canal,  by  rendering  it  available  for  all  nations  at 
all  times  and  for  all  purposes,  provided  peace  was 
maintained  within  its  limits. 

In  summer,  the  smouldering  ill-feeling  between 
Korea  and  Japan,  which  dated  from  Korea's  refusal 
to  pay  further  tribute  to  Japan  in  1872,  had  burst 
into  flame.  A  Korean  mob  attacked  the  Japanese 
and  Chinese  Legations  at  Seoul.  Several  of  the  in- 

Chinese- 

friction86  mates  were  murdered  and  the  rest  forced  to  flee. 
Japan  despatched  an  expedition  to  Korea  to  exact 
reparation.  China  at  once  sent  an  expedition  of 
her  own  to  offset  that  of  Japan.  A  temporary  ac- 
commodation was  effected,  but  the  troops  of  both 
countries  remained  in  the  disputed  territory. 

This  year  is  memorable  for  the  death  of  Dr. 
The^'or  Schwann,  the  founder  of  the  cell  the- 

Deathof  Ory  in  physiology.  His  famous  study  of  cellular 
structures  was  published  in  1839,  under  the  title 
of  "Microscopical  Investigations,"  in  which  he  en- 
deavored to  unify  vegetable  and  animal  tissues. 
Schwann  is  otherwise  known  as  the  discoverer  of 
pepsin.  Another  event  of  interest  to  physicians 
was  Dr.  Robert  Koch's  discovery  of  the  bacillus 

Koch's  dis- 
coveries Of  tuberculosis,  and  his  means  of  treating  consump- 
tion by  inoculation.  Although  his  method  was  not 
successful  in  the  treatment  of  human  beings,  it 
proved  of  great  service  in  detecting  the  presence 
of  tuberculosis  in  cattle. 

Berthold  Auerbach,  one  of  Germany's  prominent 
novelists,  died  in  his  seventieth  year.  Necessity 
and  not  the  artist's  impulse  drove  him  to  letters. 


1882  April  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  1629 

His  reputation  as  a  writer  rests  on  the  "Black 
Forest  Stories,"  in  which  he  described  the  homely  Aue^ach 
simplicity  of  German  peasant  life.  Of  the  forty  or 
more  volumes  which  he  has  left  behind  him,  only 
the  "Villa  on  the  Rhine,"  "Waldfried,"  "After 
Thirty  Years,"  and  "Brigitta, "  won  lasting  success. 
England  meanwhile  had  suffered  the  loss  of  two 
great  leaders — one  in  the  field  of  art  and  the  other 
in  science.  Gabriel  Charles  Dante  Rossetti  died  in 
April.  Rossetti  early  showed  a  predilection  for  art, 
studied  in  the  Royal  Academy,  then  became  a  pupil 
of  Ford  Madox  Brown,  and  in  1848  joined  Hoi-  Dante 

J  Gabriel 

man  Hunt,  Thomas  Woolner,  Millais  and  others Rossetti 
in  founding  the  Pre-Raphaelite  Brotherhood.  In 
1849,  he  exhibited  his  painting  of  the  "Girlhood 
of  the  Virgin."  In  his  early  paintings  Rossetti 
used  brilliant  hues  which  made  his  work  glow 
with  green,  purple  and  gold,  and  tints  as  vivid  as 
those  of  fourteenth  century  illuminations.  After 
1860  he  produced  a  new  class  of  works,  such  as 
the  "Sibylla  Palmifera,"  "Monna,"  "Vanna,"  and 
the  magnificent  "Venus  Verticordia. "  Next  to  his 
masterpiece,  "Dante's  Dream,"  are  the  "Salutation Tt 
of  Beatrice, " .  "  The  Dying  Beatrice, "  "La  Pia, " 
and  ' '  Proserpine. ' '  Rossetti  was  no  less  successful 
as  a  poet.  His  chief  works  were  the  "House  of 
Life,"  "The  King's  Tragedy"  and  other  ballads, 
"Dante  at  Verona,"  and  the  "Blessed  Damozel," 
written  at  the  age  of  eighteen.  In  1861  he  pub- 
lished his  early  Italian  poets  translated  in  the 
original  metres.  His  famous  prose  story  of  "HandThepoat 
and  Soul"  was  written  in  1849.  In  the  "Ballads 


1630  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  April  1882 

and  Sonnets, ' '  1880,  the  mature  effects  of  his  pow- 
ers were  perhaps  more  fully  made  known.  Late  in 
life  Eossetti  destroyed  all  that  remained  of  his  un- 
published writings.  His  fame  as  an  artist  exceeds 
that  of  his  poetry,  but  he  must  still  be  regarded 
as  one  of  the  most  original  English  poets  of  the 
Nineteenth  Century. 

On  April  19  occurred  the  death  of  Charles  Eobert 
Death  of  Darwin,  tne  greatest  naturalist  of  the  century.  He 
Darmn  wag  e(jucated  at  the  Universities  of  Edinburgh  and 
Cambridge,  and  early  devoted  himself  to  natural 
history.  In  1831  he  was  appointed  naturalist  to 
the  surveying  voyage  of  the  "Beagle."  As  he 
expressed  it  in  later  years:  "The  voyage  of  the 
'Beagle'  was  by  far  the  most  important  event  in 
my  life,  and  determined  my  whole  career. ' '  After 
a  five  years1  circumnavigation  of  the  globe,  Darwin 
came  home  with  rich  stores  of  knowledge,  which  he 
soon  gave  to  the  public  in  various  works.  In  1839 
he  published  his  "Journal  of  Eesearches  during  a 
Voyage  around  the  World,"  which  was  followed 
by  a  series  of  geological  observations.  In  1859,  he 
ori^L  published  his  epoch-making  work,  "The  Origin  of 
Species."  Darwin's  subsequent  works  are  largely 
based  on  the  material  he  had  accumulated  for  the 
elaboration  of  his  great  theory  of  natural  selection. 
Most  prominent  of  these  are  the  "Descent  of  Man," 
1871;  "The  Expression  of  the  Emotions  in  Man 
and  Animals,"  1872;  "The  Power  of  Movement 
in  Plants,"  1880;  "The  Formation  of  Vegetable 
Mould,"  1881 — the  last  containing  a  vast  amount 
of  information  in  regard  to  the  common  earth- 


^82  March  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1631 

worm.  Late  in  life  Darwin  was  honored  by  the 
recognition  of  all  the  learned  societies  of  Europe. 
Darwin's  burial,  on  April  26,  was  in  the  broadest 
sense  a  national  funeral,  for  around  his  grave  stood 
an  assemblage  of  the  foremost  men  of  his  age,  such 
as  few  warriors  and  statesmen  have  ever  drawn 
together. 

In  the  United  States  of  America  the  trial  of 
Charles  Guiteau,  for  the  assassination  of  President 

Guiteau 

Garfield,  was  concluded  early  in  this  year  with  the  han=ed 
conviction  of  the  assassin.  Sentence  of  death  was 
pronounced  January  25;  five  months  later  Guiteau 
was  hanged.  In  March  some  of  the  conspirators 
in  the  notorious  Star  Eoute  frauds  were  brought 
to  trial.  Indictments  were  found  against  Brady,  frauds00 
Peck,  Miner  and  the  Dorsey  brothers,  who  had 
made  fraudulent  mail  bids.  The  jury  disagreed 
and  a  new  trial  had  to  be  held.  It  was  found 
that  296  contracts  had  been  obtained  with  worth- 
less bonds  for  $8,000,000.  A  defalcation  of  $5,000,- 
000  was  alleged  in  "expediting"  privileges.  James 
G.  Elaine,  the  American  Secretary  of  State,  was 
believed  to  be  implicated. 

On  March  23,  the  bodies  of  DeLong  and  others 
of  the  "Jeannette"  Polar  expedition  were  found  by 
Melville,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Lena  Kiver.  A 
part  of  the  Greely  expedition  under  Brainard  pen- 
etrated to  a  higher  latitude  than  had  ever  before 
been  reached. 

Henry  Wadsworth  Longfellow,  the  poet,  died  on^ 
March  24,  at  Cambridge,   Massachusetts.     In  1826 
he  accepted  the  professorship  of  modern  languages 


1632  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  1888 

at  Bowdoin,  being  allowed  three  years  to  prepare 
Eongfeiiow  for  the  post  by  study  and  travel.  His  impressions 
of  Europe  were  given  in  his  "  Outre- Mer."  In  1835 
he  succeeded  George  Ticknor  as  professor  of  mod- 
ern languages  and  literature  at  Harvard.  It  was 
during  this  period  that  the  works  on  which  his 
fame  chiefly  rests  were  undertaken.  In  their  chron- 
ological order  his  works  are  as  follows:  "Ballads 
and  Other  Poems,"  1841;  "Poems  on  Slavery," 
1842;  "The  Spanish  Student,"  1843;  "The  Waif: 
A  Collection  of  Poems,  with  Proem,"  1845;  "The 
Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe,"  1845;  "The  Belfry 
of  Bruges,"  etc.,  1846;  "The  Estray:  A  Collection 
of  Poems,"  1847;  "Evangeline,"  1847;  "Kavanagh: 
A  Tale,"  1849;  "The  Seaside  and  the  Fireside," 
1850,  and  "The  Golden  Legend,"  1851.  In  1854, 
Longfellow  resigned  his  chair  at  Harvard  Univer- 
sity. After  this  he  brought  out  the  best  known  of 
his  longer  poems:  "The  Song  of  Hiawatha,"  1855; 
followed  in  turn  by  "The  Courtship  of  Miles  Stan- 
dish,"  1858;  "Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn,"  1863; 
"Flower  de  Luce,"  1867;  "The  New  England 
Tragedies,"  1868;  Dante's  "Divine  Comedy:  A 
Translation,"  1867;  "The  Divine  Tragedy," 
1871;  "Christus:  A  Mystery,"  1872;  "Three 
Books  of  Song,"  1872;  "Aftermath,"  1874;  "The 
Masque  of  Pandora,"  1875;  "Poems  of  Places" 
(a  collection  in  thirty-one  volumes),  1876-1879; 
"Keramos,"  1878;  "Ultima  Thule,"  1880;  "In 
the  Harbor"  (posthumous),  1882;  "Michael  An- 
gelo"  (posthumous),  1883.  The  poet's  equable 
temper  and  gracious  manners  made  him  one 


1882  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1633 

of  the  most  delightful  men  of  his  generation. 
Among  his  firmest  friends  may  be  mentioned 
Agassiz,  Charles  Sumner,  Hawthorne,  President 
Felton,  Lowell,  Holmes,  Norton,  Luigi  Monti 
and  Thomas  W.  Parsons. 

Soon  after  Longfellow's  death,  his  friend  and 
colleague,  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson,  died  at  Con- ^f^ 
cord,  Massachusetts.  In  1829,  he  took  charge  ofEl 
a  Unitarian  Church  in  Boston,  but  resigned  in 
1832.  He  spent  the  greater  part  of  1833  in  Eu- 
rope, where  he  formed  a  lifelong  friendship  with 
Carlyle.  On  his  return  he  began  his  career  as  a 
lecturer  in  Concord,  which  he  followed  for  a  long 
series  of  years.  After  a  second  visit  to  England, 
Emerson  wrote  his  "English  Traits,"  in  some  re- 
spects one  of  the  most  interesting  of  his  works.  In 
1836  he  published  a  small  volume  called  "Nature," 
and  in  1840  he  became  one  of  the  original  editors 
of  the  "Dial,"  a  transcendental  magazine.  Two 
volumes  of  his  lectures  in  the  form  of  essays  were 
published  in  1841  and  in  1844,  «nd  two  years  later 
he  brought  out  his  first  poems.  In  the  same  year 
his  miscellaneous  addresses  were  published  in  Eng- 
land. Then  followed,  in  quick  succession,  "Repre- 
sentative Men,"  1850;  the  "Conduct  of  Life,"  1860; 
"May  Day,  and  other  Poems,"  1869;  with  "Society 
and  Solitude,"  in  1876;  "Parnassus,"  a  collection 
of  poems  and  letters  and  social  aims.  A  complete 
collection  of  Emerson's  works  was  published  in 
London  soon  after  his  death,  with  an  introduction 
by  John  Morley,  in  which  Emerson's  place  in  liter- 
ature has  been  strictly  defined. 


1634:  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Spring  1882 

A  revolution  broke  out  in  March  at  Cape  Hay- 
tien,  in  Hayti,  against  General  Solomon,  the  Presi- 
dent, which  was  joined  by  the  towns  of  Gonaives 

Revolution  and  Port-au-Prince.     Martial  law  was   proclaimed 
Haytl     and  the  President  marched  on  Cape  Haytien  with 
3,000  men.     By  the  end  of  April  the  insurrection 
was  over. 

The  prospect  of  peace  between  Chile  and  Peru, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  year  promised  early  reali- 
zation, but  in  summer  fighting  was  renewed.  In 
October  another  attempt  to  negotiate  peace  was 
made,  but  failed. 

Servia,  supported  by  Austria- Hungary,  was  pro- 
claimed a  kingdom,  with  the  consent  of  the  Powers, 
in  the  beginning  of  March.  Prince  Milan,  a  mem- 

8r£rrf?**8r  of  tne  family  of  Urilosch  Obrenovich,  which 
had  obtained  the  semi- independence  of  Servia,  in 
1816,  assumed  the  title  of  Milan  I. 

One  of  the  most  romantic  figures  of  the  century 
passed  away  with  the  death  of  Giuseppe  Garibaldi 
at  Caprera  in  June.  Born  at  Nice,  he  received  lit- 
tle education,  and  was  a  sailor  on  trading  vessels. 
In  1834  he  joined  the  "Young  Italy"  party,  and 
being  condemned  to  death  for  his  share  in  Maz- 
zini's  schemes,  escaped  to  Marseilles,  took  service 
in  the  fleet  of  the  Bey  of  Tunis,  and  finally  went 
to  South  America.  In  the  service  of  the  Republic 
of  Rio  Grande  against  the  Brazilians  he  became  a 
brilliant  leader,  and  with  his  famous  legion  he  sub- 
sequently gave  the  Montevideans  such  effective  aid 
against  Buenos  Ayres  as  to  earn  the  title  of  "Hero 
of  Montevideo."  In  1849,  he  returned  to  Italy, 


1882  Summer  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1635 

raised  volunteers,  and  harassed  the  Austrians  and 
.Bourbons  until  the  establishment  of  Italian  unity. 
After  this  great  end  had  been  accomplished,  Gari- 
baldi aided  the  French  Eepublican  Government 
against  the  Germans  in  1871,  and  with  20,000  vol- 
unteers harassed  the  border  territory.  At  the  end 
of  the  war  he  became  a  member  of  the  French  As- 
sembly, but  soon  resigned  and  returned  to  Italy. 
When  Eome  became  the  capital  of 'Italy,  in  Janu- 
ary, 1875,  Garibaldi  took  his  seat  in  the  Italian 
Parliament.  The  latter  part  of  his  life  was  spent 
at  Caprera. 

The  aggressive  actions  of  the  French  in  Madagas- 
car continued.  Their  contention  was  that  the  gov- 
ernment had  promulgated  a  law  prohibiting  natives 
from  selling  land  to  foreigners,  and  that  the  Hova 
flag  had  been  planted  at  Passandada  Bay,  over  French  de- 

•>  '  signs  on 

which  the  French  claimed  rights.  A  conference  j 
between  the  ambassadors  who  were  sent  to  Paris 
by  the  Queen  of  the  Hovas  and  the  French  negoti- 
ators was  held  on  October  18.  The  ambassadors 
refused  to  grant  the  French  demands  and  left  Paris 
in  November.  A  naval  division  was  soon  placed 
under  the  orders  of  Eear- Admiral  St.  Pierre,  who 
was  intrusted  with  the  enforcement  of  the  French 
claims  in  Madagascar. 

In  China  the  French  displayed  the  same  spirit. 
The  treaty  of  1874  gave  France  the  protectorate  of 
Annam.  The  failure  of  the  Emperor  of  that  coun- 
try fully  to  perform  his  share  of  the  contract,  and 
the  presence  of  Chinese  troops  in  Tonquin,  were 
considered  to  threaten  the  security  of  the  French 


1636  A   HISTORY   OF   THE  Spring  1881 

colony  of  Cochin-China.     On  April  25,  the  French 
forces  under  Colonel   Rivere  captured  Hanoi,   the 

"VST  jit*  in 

Tonqum  capital  of  Tonquin.  The  expedition  had  left  Sai- 
gon at  the  end  of  March,  sailed  up  the  river  and 
landed  on  French  territory  just  outside  of  the  town. 
The  Viceroy  and  Mandarins  withdrew  in  the  cita- 
del, nearly  four  miles  in  circumference,  and  de- 
fended by  8,000  Annamites.  Two  French  columns, 
commanded  by  Captain  de  Villers,  forced  their  way 
through  the  northern  gate.  After  capturing  Hanoi, 

Capture 

of  Hanoi  the  French  assumed  authority  over  the  whole  terri- 
tory, which  resulted  in  10,000  Chinese  troops  being 
sent  across  the  frontier.  Negotiations  were  still  in 
progress  between  Peking  and  Paris  at  the  close 
of  the  year. 

Louis  Blanc,  the  historian,   economist  and  poli- 
tician, died  at  Paris  late  in  the  year.     He  began 

Death  of 

Louts  his  public  career  as  a  journalist  in  Pans,  and  in 
1839  founded  the  "Eevue  du  Progres,"  in  which 
appeared  his  great  essay  on  "L1  Organisation  du 
Travail."  In  1841-44  appeared  his  "Histoire  de 
Dix  Ans:  1830-40."  Louis  Blanc's  share  in  the 
Paris  Revolution  of  1848  led  to  his  prosecution  for 
conspiracy,  but  he  escaped  to  England.  There  he 
wrote  his  famous  "Histoire  de  la  Revolution  Fran- 
gaise, "  which  was  published  in  twelve  volumes. 
Among  his  other  works  are  "Lettres  sur  1'Angle- 
terre,"  1865-67;  "Histoire  de  la  Revolution  de 
1848,"  "Questions  d'Aujour  d'huit  et  Demain, 
1873-74."  On  the  fall  of  the  Second  Empire  he 
returned  to  Paris,  and  became  a  member  of  the 
National  Assembly.  A  state  funeral  was  awarded 


1882  Dec.  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1637 

him.  On  this  occasion  public  demonstrations  of 
grief  on  the  part  of  the  workingmen  of  Paris 
showed  the  stronghold  he  retained  on  popular 
regard. 

A  few  minutes  before  midnight,  on  the  last  day 
of  the  year,  occurred  the  death  of  Le'on  Gambetta. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  striking  figures  of  France 
under  the  Republic,  and  showed  himself  capable  of 
inspiring  others  with  passionate  enthusiasm  for  "his 
country.  Born  in  1838  at  Cahors,  of  Genoese  ex-  Gambetta 
traction,  Gambetta  was  educated  for  the  Church, 
but  afterward  became  a  lawyer.  In  November, 
1868,  he  gained  the  leadership  of  the  Republican 
party  by  his  defence  of  Deleschuze,  a  noted  Re- 
publican. He  showed  himself  irreconcilable  against 
Louis  Napoleon  and  his  imperial  projects;  in  par- 
ticular against  the  policy  which  led  to  the  war  with 
Prussia.  All  the  power  of  personal  magnetism  was 
shown  during  the  latter  part  of  the  war,  when  he 
organized  a  fierce  but  vain  resistance  against  the 
invaders.  After  the  war  he  held  office  in  several 
short-lived  Ministries,  and  in  November,  1881,  ac- 
cepted the  Premiership.  The  sweeping  changes 
proposed  by  him  speedily  rallied  a  majority 
against  him,  and  after  six  months  he  resigned. 
On  the  death  of  the  great  leader,  Gambetta'a 
once  so  formidable  party  collapsed. 


XJXth  Century— Vol.  3— Q 


1638  A    HISTORY   OF   THE 


G 


1883 

AMBETTA'S  state  funeral  was  held  at  the 
Cemetery  of   Pere   la  Chaise.      A  proces- 
sion two  miles  in  length  marched  through 
Paris.     Later  Gambetta's  body  was  buried  at  Nice. 
The  friendly  offices  of  England  as  mediator  be- 
tween  France   and    Madagascar  were   declined   in 
January.     Soon  after  this  the  French  man-of-war 
"Flore, "  carrying  the  flag  of   Admiral  Pierre,  ar- 
rived off   Tamatave.      An   ultimatum,    demanding 
the  recognition  of  all  rights  claimed  by  the  French, 
was  forwarded  to  the  Prime  Minister  at  Antanana- 
Tamatave  r^vo*     ^n   June    10>    after    a    negative   reply,    the 
billed       French  fleet  of  six  vessels  opened  fire  on  the  forts. 
Soon  afterward  the  Hovas  withdrew,  and,  on  June 
14,   the   French    flag  was    hoisted.     The    territory 
around  Tamatave  was  put  under  French  military 
rule. 

During  several  months  the  Tonquin  question  was 
left  in  abeyance.  Despite  the  protests  of  the  Chi- 
nese, desultory  fighting  between  the  Black  Flags 
and  the  French  troops  was  resumed.  In  May, 
Commandant  Rivere  made  a  sortie  from  Hanoi 
piaster  with  but  one  hundred  and  fifty  men.  He  met 

of  Hanoi 

the  enemy  on  ground  covered  with  bamboo,  from 
which  the  Annamites  shot  down    Rivere   and  his 


1883  Feb.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1639 

troops.  After  this  disaster  three  ironclads  were 
despatched  from  Quiberon,  Brest  and  Corfu,  to  be 
followed  by  other  vessels.  Keinforcements  were 
sent  to  Tonquin  by  the  Governor  of  Cochin- 
China,  and  troops  were  also  despatched  from 
New  Caledonia. 

On    February   13,    Richard    Wagner,    the    most 
original  dramatic  composer  of  the  Nineteenth  Cen- Death  of 

Wagner 

tury,  died  at  Venice.  At  the  age  of  fourteen 
Wagner  wrote  a  tragedy,  but  showed  no  particu- 
lar taste  for  music.  After  his  matriculation  as  a 
student  of  philology  and  esthetics,  at  the  Univer- 
sity at  Leipzig,  he  took  a  six  months'  course  in 
composition,  and  wrote  some  early  works,  giving 
indications  of  his  later  individuality.  The  first 
public  performance  of  one  of  his  works  was  at  the 
Gewand  Haus  in  Leipzig  early  in  1833.  Removing 
to  Prague,  Wagner  wrote  his  first  opera  libretto. 
Called  to  the  Wiirzburg  Theatre  by  his  brother 
Albert,  he  became  chorus- master  and  composed  the 
romantic  opera  "The  Fairies,"  which  was  never 
performed  until  after  his  death.  After  several  dis- 
heartening experiences  in  Magdeburg  and  Riga, 
Wagner  set  out  for  France  in  1839.  He  spent 
four  weeks  in  the  company  of  Meyerbeer  at  Bou- 
logne, and  then  repaired  to  Paris,  but  was  unable 
to  get  a  hearing  there.  In  the  meanwhile  "Rienzi"  Earl  com_ 
had  been  accepted  by  the  Opera  at  Dresden.  The  P°sitions 
success  of  the  first  performance,  in  1842,  was  so 
great  that  the  management  was  induced  to  bring 
out  the  "Flying  Dutchman"  early  next  year.  The 
originality  of  this  opera  raised  a  storm  of  oppo- 


1640  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  1883 

sition,  which  raged  from  then  on  throughout  the 
civilized  world,  as  one  after  another  of  Wagner's 
new  works  appeared.  In  the  face  of  this  opposition 
Wagner  was  appointed  conductor  of  the  Dresden 
Opera,  and  there  brought  out  "Tannhauser."  The 
Dresden  critic,  Schladebach,  then  accepted  as  one 
crft!cser's  °^  *ke  f°remost  musical  critics  in  Germany,  pro- 
nounced this  work  to  be  "devoid  of  either  melody 
or  form.  '  '  This  criticism  was  re-echoed  throughout 
Germany,  so  that  when  Wagner  tried  to  bring  out 
"Lohengrin,"  in  1848,  the  Dresden  Opera  refused 
to  experiment  with  it.  In  exasperation,  Wagner 
openly  expressed  his  sympathy  with  the  revolution- 
ary tendencies  of  the  period.  On  the  suppression 
of  the  May  Revolution  of  1849  he  had  to  flee  from 
Dresden.  Liszt  provided  him  with  funds  and  a 
passport  to  France.  After  a  brief  stay  in  Paris 
Wagner  betook  himself  to  Zurich.  There  during 
the  next  few  years  he  wrote  his  remarkable  essays  : 
"Art  and  Revolution,"  1849;  "The  Art  of  the 
Future,"  "Art  and  Climate''  "The  Jews  in 


tionary 

essays  Music,  "  1850;  and  the  "Opera  and  Drama,"  as 
well  as  commentaries  upon  the  performances  of 
"Tannhauser"  and  the  "Fly  ing  Dutchman,"  1852. 
From  Zurich  he  'was  called  to  conduct  eight  con- 
certs of  the  London  Philharmonic  Society,  in  1855, 
after  which  he  went  once  more  to  Paris.  Napoleon 
m*  became  interested  in  him  and  ordered  "Tann- 
hauser" to  be  brought  out  at  the  Paris  Opera. 
This  was  done  in  1861,  amid  tumultuous  opposi- 
tion. Amnestied  by  the  King  of  Saxony,  Wagner 
returned  to  Dresden.  His  new  opera,  "Tristan  and 


1883  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1641 

Isolde,"  was  accepted  by  the  Vienna  Opera,  but 
after  fifty -three  rehearsals  it  was  given  up  as  im- 
practicable. "Lohengrin,"  on  the  other  hand,  "Lohen- 
achieved  a  notable  success  at  Vienna,  and  was 
hailed,  by  Liszt  and  his  followers,  as  one  of  the 
masterpieces  of  the  age.  The  turning-point  of 
Wagner's  career  came  in  1864,  when  young  King 
Louis  II.  of  Bavaria  invited  him  to  Munich  with 
promises  of  royal  aid  for  all  his  projects.  Von 
Billow  was  summoned  to  Munich  at  the  same  time 
to  produce  "Tristan  and  Isolde."  In  the  face  of 

•IT  r  "Tristan 

more  violent  opposition,  Wagner  withdrew  f rom  a°d  Isolde" 
Munich  to  Switzerland,  where,  with  the  continued 
aid  of  King  Louis,  he  finished  his  scores  for  "Die 
Meistersinger"  and  "The  Eing  of  the  Niebelungs." 
In  1870,  having  divorced  his  first  wife,  he  mar- 
ried Cosima,  the  daughter  of  Liszt,  after  her  divorce 
from  Hans  von  Billow.  In  the  meanwhile  the  King 
of  Bavaria  built  for  him  the  famous  opera  house  at 
Bayreuth.  The  expenses  were  defrayed  in  part  by 
special  Wagner  concerts  given  throughout  Germany. 
In  1876,  three  complete  performances  of  "The  Eing 
of  the  Niebelungs"  were  given  at  Bayreuth — Hans 
Eichter  conducting  and  Wilhelmj  leading  the  vio- 
lins. Emperor  William,  King  Louis  and  a  host  of  Niebeiung 
musical  notabilities  attended.  Though  a  grand  sue-  : 
cess,  the  undertaking  left  Wagner  plunged  in  debt. 
Another  concert  tour  in  London  did  not  suffice  to 
settle  this  debt,  nor  could  it  be  paid  until  Louis  set 
aside  for  Wagner  the  profits  derived  from  further 
performances  of  the  Niebeiung  Cycle  at  the  Eoyal 
Opera  House  in  Munich.  Wagner's  last  years  were 


1642  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  March  1888 

spent  in  literary  work,  and  in  the  completion  of  his 
"Parsifal"  jagt  Dramatic  composition,  "Parsifal."  Ill  health 
drove  him  to  Venice,  in  1882,  and  there  death 
overtook  him.  He  was  buried  in  the  garden  of 
his  villa,  Wahnfried,  at  Bayreuth. 

Wagner's  style  of  composition  marks  a  new  epoch 
in  the  history  of  music.  His  reforms  in  operatic 
composition  went  far  beyond  those  of  Gluck.  To 
quote  his  own  words:  "The  mistake  in  the  art 
form  in  the  opera  consists  in  this,  that  in  it,  the 
means  of  expression  (music)  was  made  the  end,  and 
the  end  to  be  expressed  (the  drama)  was  made  a 
means. ' '  Acting  on  this  theory,  Wagner  wrote  the 
Wagner's  words  for  all  of  his  operas,  arousing  no  less  hostil- 

genius 

ity  by  his  free  treatment  of  German  verse  forms 
than  he  did  by  his  innovations  in  music.  No 
other  composer  or  German  writer  has  called  forth 
such  floods  of  criticism,  not  only  in  Germany  but 
throughout  all  civilized  countries.  Sides  were 
taken  for  or  against  Wagner,  and  among  those 
that  figured  in  the  discussion  were  found  such 
widely  divergent  spirits  as  Liszt,  Schopenhauer, 
Baudelaire,  Gautier,  Saint- Saens,  Hans  von  Billow 
and  Nietzsche.  So  much  is  certain  that  in  novelty 
of  effect,  rhythmic  variety  and  thematic  treatment, 
Wagner's  music  stands  unexampled  in  the  history 
of  music  up  to  his  time. 

During  the  latter  part  of  March  an  insurrection 

broke  out  in  Hayti,  and  the  outskirts  of  the  town 

of  Miragoane  were  seized  by  the  rebels.     They  in 

lnHaluti0n  turn  were  attacked  by  the  government  troops,  but 

the  latter  were  defeated  with  a  loss  of  eighty-five 


:883  Spring  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1643 

killed  and  wounded.  The  place  was  subsequently 
bombarded,  but  again  the  regular  troops  were  re- 
pulsed with  the  loss  of  two  vessels  and  many  men. 
The  rebels  then  seized  Jacmel  and  held  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  western  coast. 

In  the  United  States,  during  this  interval,  popu- 
lar rejoicings  were  held  over  the  opening  of  the 
great  suspension  bridge  spanning  the  East  River 
between  New  York  and  Brooklyn.  The  opening 

0  Comple- 

was  attended  by  President  Arthur,  by  the  Governor  g^y™ 
of  the  State  of  New  York,  and  by  the  Mayors  of Bridge 
Brooklyn  and  New  York  City,  with  a  host  of  other 
functionaries.  The  cost  of  the  bridge  had  been 
$15,500,000.  Measuring  5,989  feet,  it  exceeded 
the  length  of  all  other  suspension  bridges  then 
in  existence.  When  the  bridge  was  thrown  open 
to  the  public,  such  crowds  attempted  to  cross  it 
that  a  number  of  persons  were  killed  in  the  crush. 
In  consequence  of  this,  radical  changes  were  made 
in  the  approaches  to  the  bridge.  Peter  Cooper,  the 
great  philanthropist,  died  in  New  York,  where  he 
had  served  as  Mayor.  His  fame  is  commemorated 
in  the  great  mechanic  institute  of  New  York  bear- 
ing his  name.  The  year  was  otherwise  notable  for 
the  successful  labor  strikes  of  American  telegraph 
operators  and  glass  blowers.  During  early  autumn 
nearly  100,000  strikers  were  out  of  work. 

The  construction  of  the  Panama  Canal  went  on 
so  steadily  this  year  that  De  Lesseps  and  others 
of  its  promoters  predicted  the  completion  of  the 
Canal  within  five  years.  Prior  to  this  the  engineers 
had  beep  chiefly  occupied  with  preliminary  labors. 


1644  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1883 

Now  more  than  10,000  laborers  were  engaged,  and 
this  number  was  soon  increased  to  15,000. 

Complete  anarchy  prevailed  in  Armenia.  The 
Turkish  authorities  lost  all  control  over  the  prov- 
ince. Trade  caravans  were  persistently  pillaged  and 
foreign  consuls  were  insulted.  The  tribe  of  Malis- 
son,  numbering  60,000,  made  a  raid  on  Scutari,  but 
were  repulsed  by  the  Turkish  troops.  In  Russia 
orAiex-1011  the  long-delayed  coronation  of  Emperor  Alexander 

ander  III. 

III.  was  celebrated  in  May  at  Moscow.  All  the 
sovereigns  and  governments  of  Europe  were  rep- 
resented at  this  magnificent  display,  which  lasted 
from  May  27  to  June  2.  The  event  called  forth 
manifestations  of  loyalty  from  all  parts  of  the  em- 
pire. In  liberal  circles  keen  disappointment  was 
felt  at  the  new  Czar's  silence  on  the  subject  of 
liberal  reforms.  On  the  day  after  the  coronation 
ceremonies,  riots  broke  out  at  St.  Petersburg. 
In  the  meantime  the  Comte  de  Chambord  (Henri 

Death  of  v 

Henri  v.  y^  ^ied,  on  August  24,  at  Frohsdorf.  As  the  son 
of  the  Due  de  Berri,  and  grandson  of  Charles  X., 
he  was  the  head  of  the  elder  branch  of  the  Bour- 
bons. After  the  accession  of  Louis  Philippe,  his 
life  was  spent  mostly  in  exile.  He  was  buried  with 
great  solemnity  in  the  Cathedral  of  Goetz,  next  to 
the  tombs  of  Charles  X.  and  the  Due  d'Angouleme. 
No  princes  of  the  House  of  Orleans  attended  his 
funeral,  owing  to  the  refusal  of  the  Comtesse  de 
Chambord  to  recognize  the  Comte  de  Paris  as  head 
of  the  reunited  Houses  of  Bourbon  and  Orleans. 

During  summer  the  excesses  of  the  revolutionists 
in  Hayti  had  reached  such  serious  proportions  that 


1883  Autumn  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1645 

a  French  squadron  was  despatched  to  West  Indian 
waters.  In  August  a  severe  battle  had  been  fought 
before  Jacmel,  with  the  rebels  claiming  the  victory. 
On  September  13,  an  attempt  was  made  to  assassi-  Ha^.. 
nate  the  President.  By  the  end  of  September  riots 
broke  out  at  Port-au-Prince.  The  rebellious  ne- 
groes attacked  the  foreign  warehouses  and  sacked 
the  town.  It  was  then  that  the  French  Consul 
asked  his  government  to  interfere.  At  this  junc- 
ture the  death-  of  Bazelais,  the  leader  of  the  rebels, 
was  hailed  as  opportune  by  the  supporters  of  the 
weak  government. 

Late  in  the  year  the  colossal  bronze  figure  of 
Germania,  erected  as  a  national  monument  on 
the  site  of  Arminius's  early  victory  over  the 
Komans,  near  Riidesheim,  was  unveiled  by  Em- 
peror William,  in  the  presence  of  eighty  thou- 
sand spectators.  The  monument,  rising  to  a  total 
height  of  eighty  feet,  had  cost  nearly  two  million 
marks,  part  of  which  was  raised  by  public  sub- 
scriptions. Immediately  after  the  ceremony,  it  was 
made  known  that  the  police  had  barely  prevented 
a  dynamite  plot  to  blow  up  Emperor  William  and 
his  companions,  as  they  were  about  to  unveil  the 
great  statue. 

On  December  6,  the  Parliament  Houses  of  Bel- 
gium at  Brussels  burned  down.  The  Parliamen- 
tary library,  with  all  the  archives,  was  destroyed 
in  the  flames. 

In    South   America,    the   war    of    Chile    against 

Entfof 

Peru   and    Bolivia,    which   had   been   waged   since chilean 

war 

1879,  was  brought  to  a  close.     It  was   essentially 


1646  A    HISTORY    OF   THE  Autumn  1883 

a  naval  war.  Though  Peru  and  Bolivia  had  armies 
of  88,000  men  in  the  field,  a  Chilean  expedition  of 
30,000,  with  the  aid  of  their  navy,  could  strike  at 
the  enemy's  detachments  and  destroy  them  in  de- 
tail. In  the  end  Peru  had  to  sue  for  peace.  The 
province  of  Tara  Paca  was  ceded  to  Chile.  The 
Department  of  Tacna  was  likewise  occupied  by 
Chile.  It  was  agreed  that,  al  the  expiration  of 
ten  years,  the  inhabitants  of  Tacna  could  decide 
by  vote  whether  they  would  remain  under  Chilean 
rule. 

Eussia  lost  one  of  her  leading  writers  by  the 
ivan  death  of  Ivan  Turge*nyev  on  September  3— or 
>yey  ^UgUSt  22,  according  to  the  Russian  calendar. 
Born  at  Orel,  in  1818,  Turgenyev  was  educated 
for  the  civil  service  and  received  an  appointment 
in  the  Ministry  of  the  Interior  in  1843.  Soon  after 
this  he  published  "The  Diary  of  the  Hunter,"  a 
book  in  which  he  first  revealed  his  high  talent  for 
vivid  descriptions  and  incisive  grasp  of  character. 
In  1846,  he  resigned  from  the  civil  service  and 
went  abroad.  After  his  return  in  1852,  Emperor 
Nicholas  decreed  his  banishment  to  Siberia  for 
sentiments  expressed  in  an  essay  on  Gogol,  but 
Turgenyev  was  permitted  to  leave  Russia  as  a  free 
man  to  live  abroad.  Much  of  his  time  was  spent 
in  Paris  and  at  Baden  Baden.  There  he  brought 
out  most  of  those  telling  stories  and  novels,  founded 
on  Russian  life,  which  placed  him  among  the  fore- 
most novelists  of  the  age. 

This  year  is  memorable  to  physicians  for  the  discov- 
ery of  the  diphtheria  bacillus  by  Klebs  and  Loeffler. 


1984  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1647 


1884 

AT  THE  opening  of  the  year,  Egypt  was  seri- 
ously affected  by  the  troubles  in  the  Sou- 
dan. There  the  tide  of  the  Mahdist  war 
had  risen  so  rapidly  that  it  threatened  not  only 
the  overthrow  of  the  Khedive's  rule,  but  also  to 
invade  Egypt  itself.  Early  in  January,  General 
Gordon  accepted  a  mission  from  the  King  of  the 
Belgians  to  proceed  to  the  Congo  Eiver.  The  ob- 
ject was  to  put  an  end  to  the  slave  trade  in  the 
district  of  Niam  Niam,  whence  the  Soudan  slave 
dealers  drew  their  chief  supplies.  On  January  18, 
having  been  reinstated  in  his  rank  in  the  British 

.-        ,  ,      ,    .  Gordon's 

army,  Gordon  was  despatched  instead  to  Egypt  for  mission 
service  in  the  Soudan.  In  February,  Baker  Pasha's 
column  of  3,500,  which  was  sent  forward  to  the  gar- 
risons in  the  Soudan,  was  routed  and  dispersed  in 
its  first  engagement  on  the  road  to  Sinket.  Gen- 
eral Graham,  with  4,000  Anglo- Egyptian  troops, 
defeated  Osman  Diarna  at  Trinkat.  Later  he  gained  Defeat  of 

Osman 

another  signal  victory  over  Osman  Digna,  capturing  Disna 
his  intrenched  camp  at  Tamas. 

In  June,  the  Mikado  issued  an  order  readjusting 
the  system  of  nobility.  In  the  newly  created  or- 
ders of  Princes,  Marquises,  Counts,  Viscounts  and 
Barons  were  the  names  of  several  Daimios  and 


1648  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1884 

former  Samurai,  who  had  distinguished  themselves 
during  recent  years.  Three  hundred  men  in  all 
were  ennobled  on  the  score  of  merit.  It  was  ex- 
pected that  out  of  these  newly  created  nobles 
would  be  constituted  the  Upper  House,  or  Cham- 
Korea  "  '  ber  of  Peers,  in  the  projected  Parliament.  In  De- 
cember, the  Japanese  Legation  in  Seoul  was  once 
more  attacked  by  Koreans,  aided  by  Chinese  sol- 
diers. The  Legationers  had  to  flee.  The  Japanese 
Government  obtained  reparation  for  the  outrage. 
Count  Ito  was  despatched  to  Peking  to  effect  a 
permanent  arrangement  in  regard  to  Korea. 

Provoked  by  the  leniency  of  China  toward  the 
Black  Flags  on  the  Tonquin  frontier,  France  began 
hostilities  against  China.  Without  a  previous  dec- 
laration of  war,  the  port  of  Kelung,  in  the  Island 
of  Formosa,  was  forcibly  seized  on  August  6.  Nine 
French  days  *ater  China  declared  war  on  France.  Before 
chma'th  this  declaration  a  French  squadron  under  Rear- 
Admiral  Courbe  ascended  the  River  Min,  as  far 
as  the  Chinese  naval  arsenal  at  Foochow.  In  the 
river  lay  a  poor  Chinese  squadron  of  war  junks, 
wooden  sloops,  transport  steamers,  one  modern 
composite  cruiser  and  seven  steam  launches  fitted 
with  spar  torpedoes.  The  French  had  three  mod- 
ern cruisers,  three  composite  gunboats,  besides  the 
wooden  flagship  and  the  armored  cruiser  "Tri- 
omphante, "  lying  at  the  mouth  of  the  Min. 
When  the  two  fleets  came  in  sight  of  one  an- 
other, it  was  believed  that  hostilities  would  be 
opened  at  once.  For  several  days,  however,  the 
French  remained  quiet.  An  American  squadron 


1884  Summer  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1649 

of  four  vessels  and  three  English  warships  like- 
wise lay  in  the  river.  The  Chinese  remained  close 
under  the  enemy's  guns,  and  flattered  themselves 
that  the  French  Admiral  was  not  serious  in  his 
intentions.  Shortly  before  two  in  the  afternoon  of 
August  23,  the  "Triomphante"  exchanged  signals 
with  the  French  flagship.  Six  minutes  later  the  gjjjgjj 
French  gunboat  "Lynx"  opened  fire.  The  French 
ships  sank  the  clumsy  Chinese  junks  one  by  one. 
Even  when  they  were  helpless  and  sinking,  the 
French  flagship  continued  to  ply  them  with  her 
machine  guns.  In  seven  minutes  from  the  first 
shot  this  so-called  engagement  was  virtually  over 
and  every  Chinese  ship  was  sunk  or  sinking.  The 
Chinese  losses  were  521  killed,  150  wounded  and 
several  hundred  missing.  Admiral  Courbe  reported 
his  losses  as  six  killed  and  twenty- seven  wounded. 
In  French  naval  annals  the  event  goes  by  the  name 
of  "La  Grande  Gloire  du  Foochow."  As  the  his- 
torian of  "Ironclads  in  Action"  curtly  remarks: 
"This  fight,  if  fight  we  can  call  it,  was  little  more 
than  slaughter,  necessary  no  doubt,  but  yet  deserv- 
ing no  extravagant  laudations.  It  may  be  placed 
in  the  same  class  with  the  bombardment  of  Alex- 
andria. "  In  October,  600  French  soldiers  having 
landed  at  Pamsuret  fell  into  an  ambush  and  were 
routed  by  General  Tse. 

France  lost  one  of  her  most  prominent  statesmen 
in   Eugene   Eouher.      He  was   the  most  powerful 
Minister   of   the    Second    French   Empire.      When 
Louis  Napoleon   became  President  of  France, 
made   Eouher  his   Prime   Minister,   with  the  title 


1650  A    HISTORY    OF   THE  1884 

of  Minister  of  Justice  and  Keeper  of  the  Seals. 
He  was  intrusted  with  the  drawing  up  of  the  Con- 
stitution, and  participated  in  the  coup  d'etat  of 
December  2,  1851,  which  put  France  at  the  mercy 
of  Napoleon.  After  this,  Kouher  was  made  Vice- 
President  of  the  -Council  of  State.  When  Ol- 
livier's  Ministry  was  formed,  on  January  2,  1870, 
Rouher  was  appointed  President  of  the  Senate.  It 
was  on  his  advice  to  Empress  Eugenie  that  the 
disastrous  campaign  against  Germany  was  under- 
taken. Eouher's  activity  after  1871  was  confined 
to  bolstering  up  the  cause  of  the  fallen  empire. 
By  the  death  of  the  Prince  Imperial,  Rouher's 
hopes  were  shattered.  His  health  failed  him  and 
he  died  in  dejection. 

England  about  the  same  time  lost  one  of  her 
most  eminent  novelists  by  the  death  of  Charles 
Reade.  He  made  his  first  reputation  by  the  novel 
Charles  "Peg  Woffington. "  Afterward  he  dramatized  it, 
in  conjunction  with  Tom  Taylor,  under  the  title 
of  "Masks  and  Faces."  This  was  followed  by 
"Christie  Johnston"  and  "Never  too  Late  to  Mend," 
in  which  he  attacked  the  English  prison  system,  in 
1857.  Reade 's  other  works  are:  "The  Course  of 
True  Love  never  does  run  Smooth,"  1857;  "Jack 
of  all  Trades,"  1858;  "Love  Me  Little,  Love  Me 
Long,"  1859;  "White  Lies,"  1860;  "The  Cloister 
and  the  Hearth,"  1861;  "Hard  Cash,"  1863;  "Grif- 
fith Gaunt,"  1866;  "Foul  Play,"  with  Dion  Bouci- 
cault,  1868;  "Put  Yourself  in  his  Place,"  1870; 
"A  Terrible  Temptation,"  1871;  "A  Simpleton," 
1873;  "The  Wandering  Heir,"  1875;  "A  Hero  and 


1884  Autumn  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  i651 

Martyr,"  1876;  and  "The  Woman  -  Hater, "  1877; 
besides  producing  the  following  dramas:  "Gold," 
1850;  "Two  Loves  and  a  Life,"  1854;  "The  King's 
Kivals,"  1854;  "Wandering  Heir,"  1875,  and  "The 
Scuttled  Ship,"  1877. 

Lieutenant  Greely  and  seven  survivors  of  his 
exploration  party  were  rescued  in  Lady  Frank-  Lufut!60* 

Grooly 

lin  Bay  in  the  Arctic  regions,  on  June  22,  by 
an  American  relief  expedition  under  Commander 
Schley.  Seventeen  of  their  comrades  had  per- 
ished. They  were  brought  home  in  July.  On 
August  22,  the  last  strip  of  the  Northern  Pacific 
Railroad  was  completed. 

On  October  29,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Burchard,  one  of 
a  delegation  of  clergymen,  who  called  on  Elaine, 
the  Republican  candidate  for  the  American  Presi- 
dency, used  the  words  "Rum,  Romanism  and  Re- 
bellion," while  referring  to  the  antecedents  of  the 
Democratic  party.  This  expression  is  said  to  have 
turned  New  York  over  to  the  Democrats  by  a  ma-  Cleveland1* 

first 

jority  of  1,047,  thus  defeating  Blaine.  On  Novem-el< 
ber  4,  the  twenty -fifth  Presidential  election  was 
held.  Grover  Cleveland,  the  Democratic  candi- 
date, received  4,874,986  votes;  Elaine,  4,851,981; 
St.  John,  150,626,  and  Butler,  133,825.  Cleve- 
land's plurality  was  23,005.  When  the  result  was 
announced  serious  negro  disturbances  broke  out  in 
the  South.  Napoleonville,  Louisiana,  and  Palacka, 
Florida,  were  set  on  fire,  the  negroes  refusing  to 
assist  in  extinguishing  the  flames.  On  December 
6,  thirty-six  years  after  the  first  stone  was  laid, 
the  great  obelisk  of  Washington  was  completed. 


1652  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Autumn  1884 

The  height  of  the  shaft  was  555  feet,  and  its 
weight  81,000  tons,  the  total  cost  of  the  monu- 
ment amounting  to  a  million  and  a  half  dollars. 
Among  the  noteworthy  books  published  in  America 
this  year  were  Mark  Twain's  "Huckleberry  Finn," 
Justin  Winsor's  "America,"  and  books  of  verse 
by  Sidney  Lanier  and  Joaquin  Miller.  Wendell 
Phillips,  the  great  anti- slavery  orator,  died  in  his 
seventy-third  year. 

The  declining  years  of  Ulysses  S.  Grant  were 
finlncili  burdened  by  the  financial  •  failure  of  the  firm  of 
Grant  &  Ward,  in  which  his  sons  were  interested. 
The  firm  owed  $16,000,000.  Grant  paid  a  share 
of  the  liabilities,  even  selling,  to  satisfy  the  de- 
mands of  the  creditors,  the  valuable  presents  he 
had  received  in  his  journey  around  the  world. 
Auguste  Bonheur,  the  landscape  painter  and 
brother  of  Kosa  Bonheur,  died  this  year  at  the 
age  of  sixty.  He  painted  several  pictures  of  ani- 
mal life,  which  were  generally  considered  inferior 
to  those  of  his  sister,  whereas  his  landscapes  were 

Auguste 

Bouheur  ^eid  to  be  distinctly  superior.  Among  his  best 
known  works  are  "The  Coasts  of  Brageac,"  now 
at  the  Museum  of  Amiens;  "The  Gorges  of 
Puy-Griou,"  which  was  purchased  by  the  French 
Government;  his  "Souvenirs  of  Auvergne"  and 
"Souvenirs  of  the  Pyrenees,"  attracted  a  great 
deal  of  attention  at  the  exposition  of  1867.  At 
the  Salon  of  1878  he  exhibited  his  "Valley  of  the 
Jordanne." 

Vienna  also  lost  a  great  artist  by  the  death  of 
Hans  Makart,  early  in  October.     Born  at  Salzburg, 


*84  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1668 

in  1840,  Makart  studied  under  Piloty  in  Munich, 
and  exhibited  his  first  famous  picture  "Roman  Makart 
Ruins, "  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1867.  His 
reputation  as  an  artist  dated  from  this  time.  At 
Vienna,  where  he  settled,  he  painted  his  first  his- 
torical picture,  ' '  Catherine  Cornaro, ' '  which  was  pur- 
chased by  the  Berlin  National  Gallery  for  50,000 
marks.  At  the  Centennial  Exposition  in  Philadel- 
phia he  took  a  gold  medal  and  again  at  the  Paris 
Exposition  of  1878,  where  he  first  exhibited  his 
"Entrance  of  Charles  V.  into  Antwerp."  Most 
typical  of  his  work,  however,  were  his  paintings 
of  allegorical  subjects,  such  as  "The  Seven  Capi- 
tal Sins,"  "The  Five  Senses,"  and  "The  Gifts  of 
Sea  and  Earth." 

A  scientific  achievement  of  the  year  was  Nico-  Nicoiaier 
laier's  discovery  of  the  lockjaw  bacillus.     A  bac- 
teriologist  who  also  worked  along  the    same    line 
was  the  Japanese   investigator   Kitasato,  to   whomKitasato 
belongs  the  credit  of  having  simultaneously  studied 
the  bacillus  tetani.      In  surgery,   an  important  ad- 
vance was  made   by  Dr.   Bennett  of  London,  who  Dr.Bennett 
showed  that  it  was  possible  to  locate  a  tumor  within 
the   brain   with   great    accuracy,    even   though  the 
disorder    was  not   apparent  on   the    exterior.     Dr.  Robert 

Koch 

Robert  Koch,  who,  two  years  before,  had  discov- 
ered the  bacillus  of  tuberculosis,  announced  the 
existence  of  a  bacillus  of  Asiatic  cholera. 


1654 


A   HISTORY    OF   THE 


1885 


1885 


End  of 
Gordon 


Gordon's 
career 


THE  beginning  of  1885  found  the  garrison 
of  Khartoum  reduced  to  the  last  straits 
by  famine,  desertion  and  treachery.  Gor- 
don believed  that  the  British  troops  were  pushing 
on  to  his  relief,  and  made  supreme  efforts  for  the 
defence.  On  January  26,  the  city  was  carried  by 
the  treachery  of  one  of  the  Pashas,  who  opened  the 
city  gates  to  the  Mahdi's  troops.  Gordon  was  taken 
captive.  When  Sir  C.  Wilson,  who  was  ascending 
the  Nile  to  relieve  Gordon,  arrived  he  found  the 
city  in  possession  of  the  enemy  and  retired.  On 
the  day  of  Wilson's  appearance  before  Khartoum, 
General  Gordon  was  put  to  death. 

Charles  George  Gordon,  or  "Chinese  Gordon,"  as 
he  was  called,  was  born  in  1833  at  Woolwich,  Eng- 
land. He  entered  the  Royal  Engineers  in  1852, 
and  served  in  the  Crimea  in  1854-56.  Gordon 
crushed  the  Taiping  Rebellion  in  China  by  means 
of  specially  trained  corps  of  Chinese.  On  his  return 
to  England  with  the  rank  of  colonel,  he  became 
chief  engineer  at  Gravesend,  where  his  military 
talent  and  philanthropy  were  conspicuous.  From 
1874  to  1879  he  was  Governor  of  the  Soudan  under 
the  .Khedive.  For  a  few  months  in  1882  he  held 
an  appointment  at  the  Cape.  He  had  just  accepted 


1885  Spring  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1655 

a  mission  to  the  Congo  from  the  King  of  the  Bel- 
gians when  he  was  sent  to  withdraw  the  garrisons 
shut  up  in  the  Soudan  by  the  Mahdi.  An  almost 
solitary  ride  across  the  desert  brought  him  to  Khar- 
toum. Within  a  few  weeks,  after  a  glimmer  of  suc- 
cess, he  found  himself  surrounded  by  enemies,  and 
shut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  world.  The  manner 
of  his  death  was  learned  only  when  Kitchener 
stormed  Khartoum  in  later  years.  He  was  sur- 
vived by  Slatin  Pasha,  the  Austrian,  and  Neufeldt. 
The  Egyptian  campaign  was  by  no  means  brought 
to  an  end.  On  January  10,  General  Earle's  column, 
advancing  by  way  of  the  Nile  from  Carbi  to  Berber, 
attacked  the  fortified  canal  position  at  Dalka  and 

The 

carried  it.     General  Earle  himself  fell  in  the  fight.  Soudan 

campaign 

In  March,  General  Sir  G.  Graham  moved  from  Sua- 
kim  toward  Hassham,  and  soon  met  the  Arabs  in 
force.  A  hot  engagement  took  place  on  the  20th, 
with  the  Arabs  as  aggressors.  The  troops  under 
General  Sir  John  McNeil  were  surprised,  and  the 
Arabs  effected  an  entry  into  the  zarida  or  earth- 
works established  by  the  Egyptian  troops  at  Sua- 
kim.  A  fierce  struggle  ensued  and  the  Arabs  were 
forced  to  retire.  The  losses  were  severe  on  both 
sides.  Two-thirds  of  the  camels  and  mules  were 
killed  and  maimed.  In  May,  Lord  Wolseley,  who 
had  been  recalled  from  the  Upper  Nile,  arrived  at 
Suakim  and  assumed  command.  On  July  30,  the 
garrison  of  Kassala,  unable  to  hold  out  longer,  made 
an  amicable  arrangement  with  the  hostile  tribes  and 
surrendered  the  town  after  a  heroic  resistance  of 
more  than  a  year.  Late  in  the  year  the  Arabs 


1666  A    HISTORY  OF   THE  Spring  1886 

on  the  Upper  Nile  attacked  the  English  garrisons 
at  Kossab  and  elsewhere.  Eeinforcements  were  or- 
dered from  England,  and  General  Stephenson  started 
for  Wady  Haifa. 

The  failure  of  the  Canadian  Government  to  secure 
to  the  Indians  and  half-breeds  of  the  Northwest 
f^ftcb"  their  ownership  of  the  lands  in  the  Saskatchewan 
rebellion  yaj}ey  ^a(j  aroused  resentment.  As  the  dissat- 
isfaction grew,  the  half-breeds,  known  as  Me"tis, 
turned  to  their  old  rebel  leader,  Eiel,  who  dwelt 
in  exile  in  Montana.  He  came  in  response  to  their 
call.  Eiel  made  common  cause  with  such  redoubt- 
able Indian  chieftains  as  Crowfoot  of  the  Blackfeet 
tribe,  Pound  Maker  of  the  Crees,  and  Big  Bear  of 
the  Ojibways.  A  report  that  Great  Britain  was 
on  the  verge  of  war  with  Russia  prompted  Eiel  to 
decisive  action.  On  March  18,  he  assumed  mas- 
tery at  Batoche  and  appointed  Gabriel  Dumont, 
a  famous  buffalo  hunter,  his  second  in  command. 
Dumont  forthwith  made  a  raid  on  the  Canadian 
Government  stores  at  Dutch  Lake.  A  detachment 
of  mounted  police  from  Carleton,  who  tried  to 
intercept  Dumont,  were  outstripped,  and  another 
stronger  detachment  was  beaten  off  with  serious 
loss.  The  grim  news  from  Dutch  Lake  aroused 
Canada  all  Canada.  Within  three  (lays  troops  were  de- 
spatched from  Quebec,  Montreal,  Toronto  and  On- 
tario. The  new  Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  then 
approaching  completion,  could  not  carry  them  fast 
enough  to  the  front.  Before  they  arrived,  the  re- 
bellion had  spread  up  the  entire  Saskatchewan  Val- 
ley. The  town  of  Battleford  was  threatened  by  the 


1885  Spring  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1657 

Crees.  A  chieftain  named  Travelling  Spirit  tricked 
the  white  settlers  of  Troy  Lake  into  disarming,  and  ^rrroy"6 
then  let  his  braves  butcher  them.  Francis  Dickens, 
a  son  of  the  great  novelist,  in  vain  tried  to  hold 
Fort  Pitt  against  the  assaults  of  Big  Bear's  men.  By 
this  time  the  soldiers  were  arriving  and  advanced 
in  three  columns.  Behind  strong  intrenchments  at 
Fish  Creek,  Kiel's  sharpshooters  under  Dumont  held 
back  the  soldiers  for  two  days.  Another  Canadian 
column  under  Colonel  Otter  made  matters  worse, 
by  an  unwarranted  attack  on  the  hitherto  peaceful 
Crees,  controlled  by  Pound  Maker.  Entering  the 
Cree  Reservation,  they  fell  into  an  ambush  at  Cut  cut  Knife 

J  Hill 

Knife  Hill,  and  had  to  retire  in  confusion.  One 
week  after  this  affair,  on  May  9,  was  fought  the 
famous  three  days'  battle  at  Batoche's  Ferry,  atBatoche's 

J '          Ferry 

which  Captain  Howard,  the  American  commander 
of  a  Gatling  gun  squad,  carried  off  the  honors. 
At  last  Batoche  was  stormed.  Dumont  escaped 
to  Montana,  but  Eiel  was  taken  and  his  followers 
dispersed.  The  rebellious  Indian  tribes  succumbed. 
Kiel  was  tried  for  treason  at  Regina  and  was  shot,  R:el  shofc 
together  with  eight  Indians  concerned  in  the  Troy 
Lake  massacre.  Riel's  execution  evoked  such  a 
storm  in  the  Canadian  Parliament  that  the  Mac- 
donald  Government  tottered  and  nearly  fell.  The 
just  grievances  of  the  half-breeds  and  Indians  at 
last  obtained  recognition. 

The  rebellion  hastened  the  completion  of  the 
great  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  across  the  conti- 
nent. The  railroad  had  been  laid  simultaneously 
from  the  St.  Lawrence  and  from  the  Pacific.  In 


1658  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Spring  1885 


Canadian 


November,  the  two  sections  were  brought  together 
Pacificaa  at  Craigellachie,  in  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Sir  Don- 
ald Smith  drove  the  last  spike,  thus  forming  a  con- 
tinuous railroad  line  of  more  than  three  thousand 
miles. 

The  Russian  movement  on  the  Afghan  frontier 
had  resulted  in  the  storming  of  Penjdeh,  on  March 
30.  On  that  occasion  the  Russians  under  General 
Komarov  attacked  the  Afghans,  and  drove  them 
from  their  position  with  a  loss  of  500  men,  all 

Afghan      their  ammunition    and   provisions,   and  two  stand- 
frontier 
dispute      ards.      The    Russian    Government   in   May   agreed 

to  the  English  proposals,  to  refer  the  points  in 
dispute  on  the  Afghan  frontier  to  arbitration. 

In  China,  the  fortunes  of  the  French  fluctuated 
throughout  the  first  half  of  the  year.     On  Febru- 
ary 13,  Langson,  one  of  the  two  principal  fortresses 
of  Tonquin,  was  occupied  by  the  French  General, 
TOD  uin     Bric're   de  Lisle,    who   had    previously   routed  the 
campaign   cninese  jn  a  hotly  contested  battle  near  the  town. 
On  the   night  of   February   14  to  15  occurred  the 
affair  of   Sheipoo.     Two  Chinese   war  vessels,   the 
cruiser     "Yu-Yen"     and     despatch     boat    "Chen 
Kiang, "  having  been  cut  off  by  the  French,  were 
attacked   by   torpedo   boats   under   cover  of   dark- 
ness.    One  was  blown  up,  while  the  other  was  sunk 
Affair  ot     by  shots  fired  wildly  from  her  own  consort  during 

Sheipoo          J 

the  confusion.  This  was  the  last  striking  event 
of  the  war  on  water.  The  French  troops  under 
General  Ndgrier,  who  had  advanced  against  the 
Chinese  forces  intrenched  at  Bangbo,  were  forced, 
on  March  24,  after  seven  hours  of  fighting,  to  retire 


1885  Spring  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  1659 

with  a  loss  of  200.  On  the  28th  they  suffered  an- 
other repulse  and  were  forced  to  evacuate  Langson.  SaTand* 
General  Ndgrien  was  severely  wounded,  and  1,200 
of  his  men  were  placed  hors  de  combat.  In  July 
the  Annamites  attacked  the  French  garrison  at 
Hue,  but  were  repulsed  by  General  de  Courcy 
with  great  loss.  The  French  finally  took  posses- 
sion of  the  citadel.  The  kingdom  of  Cambodia, 
which  had  been  a  protectorate  since  1863,  was  an- 

French  an- 
nexed to  Cochin-China.     The  port  of  Ofok,  at  thenexations 

entrance  to  the  Red  Sea,  was  annexed  to  the  French 
possessions,  and  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa  Porto- 
Novo  was  occupied. 

Nevertheless,  Ferry's  Ministry,  after  two  years 
of  office,  was  overthrown  by  a  vote  of  the  Cham- 
bers, condemning  the  government  policy  pursued 
in  China. 

Li  Hung  Chang  was  appointed  Chinese  Plenipo- 
tentiary to  negotiate  with  Count  Ito.  At  that  time 
China  had  a  much  stronger  position  in  Korea  than 
Japan,  but  this  advantage  was  lost  by  an  agree- 
ment which  tied  the  hands  of  China.  In  a  compact 
signed  at  Tien-tsin,  on  April  18,  China  acknowl- 
edged that  Japan's  right  to  control  was  equal  to 
her  own.  It  was  provided,  first,  that  both  the 
countries  should  recall  their  troops  from  Korea; 
secondly,  that  no  more  officers  should  be  sent  by 

J  Korean 

either  country  to  drill  Korean  soldiers;  and,  thirdly,  convention 
that  neither  country  should  send  forces  to  Korea  in 
the  future  without  previously  informing  the  other 
party  to  the  convention. 

Late  in  the  year,  the  Japanese  triple  government 


1660 


A    HISTORY   OF   THE 


Spring  1885 


Changes 
in  Japan 


Death  of 

Victor 

Hugo 


of  Ministers,  Privy  Council  and  Premiership  was 
superseded  by  a  modern  Cabinet  of  Ministers,  pre- 
sided over  by  a  Minister- President.  Ito  and  Inouye 
assumed  charge.  The  old  government  board  was 
reorganized  so  radically  that  many  thousand  office- 
holders were  discharged.  By  this  time  a  modern 
postal  department  had  been  established,  which  han- 
dled nearly  1,000,000  letters  and  packages  a  year. 
The  Japan  Mail  Shipping  Company  ran  a  large  fleet 
of  passenger  steamers  and  merchantmen.  Some 
250  miles  of  railroad  were  operated  by  native  engi- 
neers, while  300  more  miles  were  in  process  of  con- 
struction. Electric  lights  and  telephones  were  now 
used  in  the  large  cities,  and  four  submarine  cables 
established  telegraphic  connection  with  the  rest  of 
the  world. 

On  May  22,  Victor  Hugo  died  at  Paris.  This 
greatest  of  modern  French  authors  was  born  at 
Besangon,  in  1802,  the  son  of  a  French  general. 
His  first  novel,  "Han  d'Islande, "  appeared  in  1823, 
and  was  followed  by  "Bug  Jargal,"  in  1825.  In 
1828  a  complete  edition  of  his  "Odes  et  Ballades" 
appeared.  In  these  productions  Hugo's  anti-clas- 
sical tendencies  were  already  manifest.  The  ap- 
pearance of  his  drama,  "Cromwell,"  in  1827,  with 
its  celebrated  preface,  gave  the  watchword  to  the 
anti- classical  or  romantic  school.  A  prose  solilo- 
quy, entitled  "Le  Dernier  Jour  d'un  Condamn^," 
designed  as  a  protest  against  the  infliction  of  capi- 
tal punishment,  was  published  in  1829.  "Hernani" 
was  brought  on  the  stage  in  1830.  Other  dramas 
followed:  "Marion  Delorme,"  1829;  "Le  Eoi 


1885  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1661 

s' Amuse,"  1832;  "Lucrece  Borgia,"  1833;  "Marie 
Tudor,"  1833;  "Angelo,"  1835;  "Ruy  Bias, "  His  works 
1838;  "Les  Bourgraves,"  1843.  During  these 
years  Victor  Hugo  also  published  the  novel, 
"Ndtre  Dame  de  Paris,"  and  several  volumes 
of  poetry.  His  earlier  verse  had  a  melody  and 
grace  superior  perhaps  to  any  that  he  afterward 
wrote,  but  it  lacked  the  deep  sympathy  with 
human  life  which  is  characteristic  of  Hugo's  later 
poems.  During  the  same  period  he  also  wrote  his 
critical  essays  on  Mirabeau  and  Voltaire,  and  a 
number  of  articles  for  the  "Revue  de  Paris."  In  career 
1841,  after  having  been  twice  proposed  in  vain, 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  French  Academy. 
In  1845  he  was  made  a  peer  of  France  by  Louis 
Philippe.  The  Eevolution  of  1848  threw  Hugo 
into  the  political  struggle.  At  first  his  vote  was 
Conservative,  but  afterward  he  became  one  of  the 
chiefs  of  the  democratic  party.  After  the  coup 
d'etat,  December  2,  1851,  he  was  one  of  those  who 
kept  up  the  struggle  in  the  streets  against  Napo- 
leon to  the  last.  He  then  fled  to  Brussels,  where 
he  published  the  first  of  his  bitter  satires  on  the 
founder  of  the  Second  Empire,  "Napole'on  le  Petit." 
In  the  following  year,  1853,  came  the  second  and 
famous  volume  of  "Les  Chatiments, "  a  wonderful 
mixture  of  satirical  invective,  lyrical  passion  and 
pathos.  Victor  Hugo  then  went  to  live  in  Jersey, 
where  he  wrote  ' '  The  History  of  a  Crime, ' '  a  story 
of  the  coup  d'etat.  He  was  then  expelled  with 
other  French  exiles  by  the  English  Government,  Q 
in  1855,  and  finally  settled  in  Guernsey.  It  was 

XlXth  Century— Vol.  3— R 


1662  A    HISTORY  OF   THE  Dec.  1885 

in  the  comparative  solitude  of  the  Channel  Island 
that  he  wrote  most  of  the  great  works  of  his  later 
years.  In  1856,  he  published  "Les  Contempla- 
tions," and  in  1859  appeared  "La  Le'gende  des 
Siecles, "  a  work  far  more  striking  than  any  of 
its  predecessors  for  its  brilliancy  and  energy,  its 
literary  skill  and  its  powerful  conceptions.  In  1862 
appeared  his  great  social  romance,  "Les  Mise'ra- 
bles, "  which  was  issued  simultaneously  in  nine 
languages.  A  volume  of  poetry,  "Chansons  des 
Eues  et  des  Bois, "  intervened  before  the  appear- 
ance of  a  second  important  prose  work,  dealing 
with  metaphysical  and  social  problems,  "Les  Tra- 
vailleurs  de  la  Mer,"  1866.  "L'Homme  qui  Kit" 
appeared  in  1869.  In  1870.  after  the  fall  of  the 

Return 

to  France  Empire,  Victor  Hugo  returned  to  Paris,  where  he 
brought  out  "L'Anne*e  Terrible."  There  he  spent 
his  old  age  in  literary  labor.  In  1874  appeared  the 
great  historical  romance,  "Quatr3-Vingt-Treize, " 
which  was  issued  in  ten  languages.  Numerous 
other  works  followed.  On  February  27,  1881,  he 
celebrated  his  eightieth  birthday,  wfiich  could  be 
compared  only  to  that  of  Voltaire  in  1788.  Few 
monarchs  have  received  such  an  ovation  as  was 
accorded  to  this  poet  and  novelist.  His  funeral, 
on  June  1,  was  the  occasion  of  another  great  popu- 
lar demonstration.  The  procession  left  the  Arc  de 
Triomphe  at  9  A.M.,  and  at  7  P.M.  the  last  bat- 
tery of  artillery  still  drove  toward  the  Pantheon. 
The  last  conspicuous  event  of  the  year  in  France 
was  GreVy's  re-election,  on  December  28,  as  Presi- 
dent of  the  French  Republic. 


Painted  by  Leon  Bounat 


PASTEUR 


XlXth  Cent.,  Vol.  Three 


1885  July  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  1663 

In  America,  General  Ulysses  S.  Grant  died,  July 
23,  at  Mount  McGregor,  near  Saratoga.  He  was 
born  at  Point  Pleasant,  Ohio,  in  1822,  of  Scotch 
ancestry.  After  graduating  from  the  military  acad-  ^aib  of 
emy  at  West  Point,  he  served  during  the  Mexican  Grantal 
War,  taking  part  in  every  battle  except  Buena 
Vista.  In  1854  he  resigned  and  engaged  in  farm- 
ing near  St.  Louis.  On  the  declaration  of  war  in 
1861  he  was  chosen  captain  of  a  company  of  volun- 
teers, and  was  soon  promoted  to  a  colonelcy,  and 
rose  to  all  the  succeeding  steps  through  his  eminent 
services  throughout  the  Civil  War.  After  the  war, 
Congress,  in  recognition  of  his  services,  passed  an 
act  reviving  the  grade  of  "General  of  the  Army 
of  the  United  States,"  to  which  Grant  was  im- 
mediately appointed.  In  1868,  he  was  elected 
President,  and  was  re-elected  over  Horace  Greeley 
in  1872.  Grant  died  from  a  cancer  in  the  throat, 
the  result  of  excessive  smoking.  On  August  8, 
his  body  was  interred  in  New  York  City,  on  the 
bank  of  the  Hudson  River,  near  the  battlefield  of 
Harlem.  The  funeral  pageant  was  imposing  in  its 
grandeur.  A  military  procession  of  25,000  was 
headed  by  the  most  distinguished  generals  and  ad- 
mirals of  the  Federal  and  Confederate  armies.  ArT 

U«   -**1- 

service  was  also  held  for  General  Grant  at  West-  career8 
minster  Abbey  in  England.  A  magnificent  tomb 
has  since  been  erected  over  his  grave.  Simple, 
reticent,  earnest,  and  persevering  in  his  character, 
Grant  owed  his  military  success  not  so  much  to 
strategy  as  to  superior  numbers  and  resources,  hard 
fighting,  and  dogged  determination. 


1664  A   HISTORY  OF   THE 


Autumn  1885 


Grant's  comrade-in-arms,  General  George  B.  Me- 
Clellan,  died  on  October  25,  in  his  fifty-ninth  year. 
He  was  born  at  Philadelphia,  in  December,  1826. 
Death  of  Graduated  from  West  Point  in  1846,  he  joined  the 
Mcciefian  army  as  second  lieutenant  of  engineers,  to  take  an 
active  part  in  the  Mexican  War.  There  he  distin- 
guished himself  under  General  Scott.  On  his  re- 
turn to  America  from  the  Crimea,  where  he  studied 
campaigning,  he  resigned  his  commission  in  the 
army,  and  became  technical  director  of  the  Illinois 
Central  Eailway.  At  the  commencement  of  the 
Civil  War,  President  Lincoln  appointed  him  to 
the  rank  of  Major-General  in  the  regular  army. 
After  a  successful  campaign  in  western  Virginia, 
he  was  made  Commander-in-Chief,  and  reorganized 
the  shattered  army.  In  1864  he  was  the  Democratic 
candidate  for  the  Presidency,  and  was  defeated. 
In  1877  he  was  elected  Governor  of  New  Jersey. 
He  published  many  military  papers.  Of  McClellan 
it  may  be  said  that  he  was  not  big  enough  for  his 
opportunities.  President  Lincoln,  notwithstanding 
McClellan 's  overbearing  conduct,  which  gave  rise 
to  apprehensions  that  he  might  establish  a  military 
dictatorship,  gave  him  every  chance.  As  Lincoln 
put  it:  "I  will  gladly  hold  General  McClellan's 
bridle,  if  he  will  only  go  ahead  and  win."  Mc- 
Clellan, however,  failed  to  fulfil  these  expectations. 
First  jn  Germany,  Prince  Bismarck's  seventieth  birth- 

BismarcK  <f  ' 

festival  ^ay^  an(j  tke  fiftieth  anniversary  of  his  entrance 
into  public  life,  was  celebrated,  on  April  1,  with 
great  enthusiasm  throughout  the  German  Empire. 
The  Bismarck  of  this  period  lives  for  later  gener- 


1885  Summer  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1665 

ations  in  the  great  portraits  of  Franz  Lenbach. 
Long  before  he  undertook  these  portraits,  Lenbach 
had  taken  rank  as  the  foremost  portrait  painter 
of  Germany.  Born  in  the  Bavarian  highlands  asFranz 
the  son  of  a  carpenter,  Lenbach  began  his  artistic Lenbach 
career  in  Munich,  where  he  was  encouraged  by 
Piloty  and  Baron  von  Schack.  Piloty  sent  the  young 
painter  to  Rome  at  his  own  expense.  After  his 
return,  he  was  made  a  professor  at  Weimar,  where 
he  was  associated  with  Eeinhold  Begas  and  Bock- 
lin.  Having  resigned  his  chair,  Lenbach  went  to 
Spain,  where  he  schooled  himself  for  his  chosen 
profession  of  portrait  painting  by  copying  most  of 
the  canvases  of  Velasquez  and  of  Titian  in  the 
galleries  of  Madrid.  At  the  Paris  Exposition,  in 
1857,  he  obtained  a  medal  for  one  of  his  own  early 
portraits.  Returning  to  Munich,  he  became  the 
painter  of  princes  and  prelates,  and  the  fame  of 
his  portraits  ever  grew. 

On  June  17,  Field-Marshal  Baron  von  Manteuf- 
fel  died  at  seventy- six,  having  survived  the  three 
last  German  campaigns  in  Denmark,  Austria  and 
France. 

Germany,  at  the  instigation  of  Prince  Bismarck, 
pursued  a  vigorous  colonial  policy,  obtaining,  among 
other  lands,  a  long  strip  of  coast  in  West  Africa. 
Soon  Prince  Bismarck  had  a  conference  called  at 
Berlin  to  determine  the  question  of  the  new  Congo 
country,  which  England,  through  a  treaty  with  Por- 
tugal, seemed  about  to  acquire.  The  Congo  basin 
was  defined  by  the  conference  as  embracing  2, 000,  -  Colonia, 
000  square  miles  of  territory,  which  was  placed expansion 


1666  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1886 

under  the  control  of  an  International  Commission, 
and  made  free  to  the  trade  of  all  nations.  England 
was  allowed  to  control  the  Lower  Niger  and  France 
the  upper  portion  of  that  river.  Kussia  continued 
the  construction  of  her  military  railway  beyond  the 
Caspian,  and  in  the  early  part  of  the  year  her 
troops,  under  General  Alikanov,  seized  the  Merv 
Oasis,  thus  making  the  Kussian  arms  predominant 
in  Central  Asia. 

The  policy  pursued  in  Africa,  and  the  tardy  war 
measures  undertaken  against  Russia,  had  greatly 
discredited  the  Gladstone  Ministry,  and  after  Par- 
liament opened,  the  government  on  several  occa- 
sions narrowly  escaped  defeat.  The  Ministry  were 
also  at  odds  on  the  question  of  continuing  coercion 
laws  in  Ireland,  the  Crimes  Act  having  expired. 
It  was  ultimately  determined  to  retain  certain 
clauses  of  the  act.  At  this  juncture  the  question 
of  raising  a  tax  on  beer  was  introduced.  The  Irish 
Gladstone  Parfcy,  taking  advantage  of  the  situation  to  prevent 
8  the  continuance  of  the  Crimes  Act  clauses,  voted 
with  the  opposition,  and  the  government  was  de- 
feated by  a  vote  of  264  to  252.  Gladstone  promptly 
resigned,  and  Lord  Salisbury  formed  a  Ministry. 

The  political  history  of  eastern  Europe,  during 
the  latter  part  of  the  year,  turned  entirely  on  the 
Eastern  Roumelian  question,  and  the  war  between 
Servia  and  Bulgaria  which  followed  it.  The 
movement  for  a  union  between  Bulgaria  and 
Eastern  Roumelia,  fomented  by  the  Panslavist 
communities  in  Russia,  and  the  Russian  officers 
in  Bulgaria,  had  made  considerable  progress. 


1885  Autumn  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  1667 

While  the  revolution  was  secretly  preparing  in 
Eastern  Roumelia,  Bulgaria  remained  passive,  but 

i  1-1  •    •     Roumelia 

Prince  Alexander  meanwhile  was  persuaded  to  ioin  joins 

J         Bulgaria 

the  movement,  should  the  revolution  be  successful. 
The  date  for  the  outbreak  was  the  end  of  Septem- 
ber. But  by  the  16th  the  insurrection  was  in  prog- 
ress, and,  on  the  18th,  Prince  Alexander  received 
the  deputation  which  offered  him  the  title  of  ruler 
of  southern  Bulgaria.  On  the  20th,  he  entered 
Philippopolis,  accompanied  by  his  Prime  Minister 
and  the  officers  of  his  household.  While  the  agi- 
tation between  the  Powers  as  to  the  government 
of  Eastern  Roumelia  still  continued,  the  Czar,  on 
November  7,  ordered  Prince  Alexander's  name  to 
be  struck  off  the  rolls  of  the  Russian  army.  OnSer,via 

J  makes  war 

the  14th,  the  Servian  army  invaded  Bulgaria  with- 
out a  previous  declaration  of  war.  Each  side  ac- 
cused the  other  of  having  provoked  a  conflict. 
The  campaign  was  short  but  sanguinary.  On  both 
sides  the  rulers  assumed  the  chief  command,  and 
the  Servians  boldly  pushed  their  way  into  Bulgarian 
territory.  It  became  evident  that  Turkey  hoped 
that  the  Bulgarian  difficulty  would  be  settled  by 
the  capture  of  Sofia  by  the  Servians,  the  abdica- 
tion or  deposition  of  Prince  Alexander,  and  the 
submission  of  the  beaten  Bulgarians  to  the  Powers. 

Battle  of 

But  the  fortune  of  war  decided  otherwise.  On  No-  Slivnitza 
vember  17,  near  Slivnitza,  after  a  series  of  bloody 
encounters,  in  which  Alexander  was  conspicu- 
ous for  his  bravery,  the  Servian  army  was  driven 
back  toward  the  Dragoman  Pass.  Still  the  Prince 
was  little  confident  of  his  power  to  repel  the  in- 


1668  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  Autumn  1886 

vasion,  and  two  days  later  lie  tendered  his  submis- 
sion to  the  Sultan,  stating  that  he  had  completely 
evacuated  Eastern  Koumelian  territory.    Meanwhile, 
Bulgarians tne    Servian    forces  were    in    full  retreat,    and   on 
&£f£       the  26th,    Prince    Alexander   with   50,000   entered 
Servia,  driving  the  Servians  before  him.     On  No- 
vember  27,  he   occupied    Priot,    but  was   stopped 
by  a  declaration  made  in  the  name  of  the  Emperor 
of   Austria,    that   if   the   Bulgarians  went    further 
they  would  have  to  meet  Austrian  instead  of  Ser- 
vian troops.     An  appeal  was  made  to  the   Powers 
Austria      *°  sett^e  tne  question.     The  Commission  appointed 
war*81       completed  its  task  on  December  21,  when  it  signed 
a  protocol,  stipulating  that  there  should  be  mutual 
evacuation  on  the  25th  and  on  the  27th,  and  that 
an  armistice  should  continue  until  March  1. 

In  India,  war  was  once  more  declared  against  the 
King  of  Burma.  In  November,  the  British  troops 
Burmese  were  ordered  to  advance  upon  Mandalay.  General 
Prendergast,  having  captured  Pregan  on  the  Ira- 
waddy  on  the  22d,  advanced  rapidly  up  the  river, 
and  appeared  before  Myngan  on  the  25th,  where  the 
Burmese  were  in  force.  After  a  bombardment  by 
the  gunboats,  a  naval  brigade  landed  and  occupied 
the  town  without  resistance.  King  Thebaw  sued 
for  peace.  ^ 

George  George  Meredith,  the  English  novelist,  this  year 
published  his  famous  "Diana  of  the  Crossways. " 
Four  years  previously  he  had  published  ' '  The  Tragic 
Comedians,"  one  of  his  masterpieces,  founded  on  an 
episode  from  the  life  of  Lasalle.  His  first  book  of 
"Poems"  appeared  as  early  as  1851.  After  several 


1885  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1669 

prose  poems  he  published  "The  Ordeal  of  Kichard 
Feverel, "  which  won  him  great  popularity.  Of 
the  novels  dealing  with  ethical  problems,  "Evan 
Harrington,"  "Emilia  in  England,"  "Khoda  Flem- 
ing," "Vittoria, "  and  "The  Adventures  of  Harry 
Eichmond, "  are  deserving  of  mention. 

Jens  Peter  Jacobsen,  the  Danish  novelist,  died 
in  this  year.  Born  at  Aarhus,  in  1847,  he  brought 
out  his  first  novel  "Mogens, "  in  1872.  His  mas- 
terpieces were  "Marie  Grubbe, "  and  "Nils  Lyhne, " 
published  after  seven  years  of  incessant  application.- 
Shortly  before  his  death,  Jacobsen  succeeded  in 
finishing  an  excellent  translation  into  Danish  of 
"Origin  of  Species." 

Jacobsen 's  most  promising  literary  rival  was 
Holger  Drachmann.  Born  in  the  same  year  with  { 
Jacobsen,  he  was  a  far  more  prolific  writer,  and 
soon  took  rank  as  the  foremost  Danish  romancer 
of  the  sea.  His  verses,  like  his  stories,  are  full  of 
life  and  action,  resembling  in  this  respect  those 
of  his  British  contemporary,  Rudyard  Kipling. 


1670  A    HISTORY    OF   THE  IB* 


1886 

disturbed  condition  into  which  eastern 
Europe  was  thrown  by  the  Roumelian  revo- 
lution and  the  Servian- Bulgarian  war  con- 
tinued throughout  the  year.  On  March  1,  after 
much  tedious  negotiations,  a  treaty  of  peace  be- 
tween Servia  and  Bulgaria  was  signed.  Later  in 
the  year  Russia,  through  her  agents  in  Bulgaria, 
succeeded  in  accomplishing  her  end.  At  midnight, 
on  August  21,  a  party  of  officers  at  Sofia  forced 
Alexander  their  way  into  Prince  Alexander's  bedchamber  and 

of  Batten-  ' 

abducted  attempted  to  extort  from  him  his  abdication.  On 
his  refusal  he  was  carried  off  and  put  on  board 
a  steamer,  which  landed  him  at  Reni  on  Russian 
territory.  The  Provisional  Government  at  Sofia 
,  then  issued  a  proclamation  declaring  the  deposi- 
tion of  Prince  Alexander  a  political  necessity. 
His  friends  at  once  established  a  rival  govern- 
ment at  Tirnova.  The  militia  was  called  out, 
and,  supported  by  popular  feeling,  upset  the  Sofia 
government  and  arrested  the  principal  conspirators. 

Bulgarian  On  September  3,   Prince  Alexander  returned  and 

throne 

vacant  made  a  state  entry  into  Sofia,  but  a  few  days  after 
this,  under  the  cloud  of  the  Czar's  disapproval,  he 
renounced  the  throne.  He  left  Sofia  the  next  day. 
The  Great  Sobranje  then  offered  the  crown  to 


,886  Summer  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1671 

Prince  Waldemar  of  Denmark,  but  he  declined  it. 
The  Prince  of  Montenegro  was  next  put  forward 
semi-officially  by  Eussia,  but  was  rejected  by 
the  Bulgarian  Government.  Finally  the  delegates 
offered  the  crown  to  Prince  Ferdinand  of  Saxe- 
Coburg.  At  Sofia  a  great  meeting  had  been  held 
in  support  of  the  Bulgarian  Regency.  General 
Kaulbars,  the  Eussian  Commissioner,  attempted  to 
address  the  people,  but  their  menacing  demeanor 

Russian 

compelled  him  to  desist.  Another  incident  in 
Eastern  Eoumelia  was  the  seizure  of  Bourgas,  on 
the  Black  Sea,  on  November  4,  by  a  body  of  Mon- 
tenegrins under  the  leadership  of  the  Eussian  Cap- 
tain Nabokov.  The  town  was  speedily  recovered 
by  forces  despatched  by  the  Eegency  at  Tirnova. 
Finally,  on  the  19th,  Eussia  recalled  General  Kaul  • 
bars  from  Bulgaria.  He  left  Sofia  without  dem- 
onstration, and  was  followed  by  the  other  Eussian 
agents  and  consuls  throughout  the  country.  The 
protection  of  Eussian  subjects  in  Bulgaria  was 
committed  to  the  French  Consul- General. 

Friction  between  Eussia  and  England  was  obvi- 
ated in  a  measure  by  the  Anglo- Eussian  delimita- 
tion commission  concerning  the  boundary  of  Afghan- 
istan. A  British  expeditionary  force  under  General 
Gordon  in  Burma  met  with  resistance  when  attack- 
ing  Bosweh  at  Maphe,  but  dislodged  the  enemy. 
At  the  same  time,  Major  Haines  failed  to  dislodge 
1,500  Burmese  near  Tumensoo  and  had  to  retire. 
The  island  of  Socroto,  east  of  Cape  Guardafui  near 
the  line  of  the  route  commanding  the  Gulf  of  Aden, 
annexed  by  Great  Britain  in  the  autumn. 


1672  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1886 

European  customs  in  the  Far  East  were  gaining 
recognition.  On  October  18,  a  decree  was  issued  in 
Japan  making  European  dress  at  court  ceremonies 
obligatory.  In  Tonquin,  General  Courcy,  whose 
rule  had  been  disturbed  by  a  terrible  massacre  of 
native  Christians  and  by  the  spread  of  rebellion 
in  Annam,  was  recalled  by  the  French  Govern- 

pauiBert  ment.  Paul  Bert,  the  distinguished  Minister  of 
Public  Instruction  under  Gambetta,  was  appointed 
Eesident- General  to  accomplish  the  task  in  which 
the  military  men  had  failed.  At  the  beginning  of 
April  he  reached  Hanoi.  In  spite  of  the  strained 
relations  between  the  civil  and  military  authorities 
he  managed  to  put  French  rule  before  the  natives 
in  a  more  attractive  light.  Worn  out  by  work  and 
anxiety  he  died  after  a  brief  rule  of  six  months. 

About  this  time  in  Spain  a  posthumous  son  of 
King  Alfonso  was  born  at  Madrid.  The  infant 
was  proclaimed  as  King  Alfonso  XIII.  About  two 

o?  !paining  hundred  soldiers,  supported  by  a  few  civilians,  re- 
belled at  Madrid.  The  revolt  was  easily  quelled. 
At  the  marriage  of  the  Prince  Royal  of  Portugal, 
Don  Carlos,  with  the  eldest  daughter  of  the  Comte 
de  Paris,  Princesse  Amelie  d' Orleans,  M.  Billoc, 
representing  President  Grevy  of  France,  had  made 
use  of  these  words:  "Let  me  express  the  sym- 
pathy with  which  my  government  looks  upon  a 
union  which  will  establish  a  future  tie  between 
the  two  nations. ' '  After  stormy  debates  over  these 
impolitic  words  both  Chambers  voted  for  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  French  pretenders.  The  law  which 
was  applied  to  the  two  chiefs  of  the  Houses  of 


1886  Summer  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1673 

Bourbon  and   Bonaparte,    and    their   direct    heirs, 
was    forthwith    promulgated.      A  few    days    after 
the  departure  of  Prince  Napoleon,  Prince  Victor, 
Comte  de  Paris,  and  the   Due  d'  Orleans,  General  Expu)8ion 
Boulanger  struck  from  the  army  roll  the  names  of  £rmces°h 
all  the  princes  of  Bourbon  and  Bonaparte  families. 
The   Due   d'Aumale    remonstrated.     He,   too,   was 
expelled  from  France. 

The  colossal  Statue  of  Liberty  erected  in  New 
York  Harbor  by  the  French  sculptor  Bartholdi 
was  formally  dedicated  by  President  Cleveland  in 
June.  Major-General  Winfield  Scott  Hancock  died 
in  his  sixty-second  year.  He  served  in  the  Mexican 
War,  and  took  part  in  the  battles  of  San  Antonio, 
Cherubusco,  Contreras,  Molino  del  Key,  and  the 

Death  of 

capture  of  the  City  of  Mexico.  In  1861  he  wasHancock 
made  brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  and  was  from 
that  time  until  the  termination  of  the  war  connected 
with  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  He  held  the  post 
of  commander  of  the  Eastern  Division  of  the  United 
States  Army,  until  his  death. 

On  August  4,  Samuel  J.  Tilden,  ex-Governor  of 
New  York  State,  died  at  Greystone,  Yonkers,  aged 


seventy-two  years.  In  1873  he  came  into  promi- 
nence by  his  fearless  prosecution  of  the  Tweed 
King,  and  was  elected  Governor  of  New  York  in 
1874.  By  his  telling  exposures  of  the  corrupt 
practices  of  the  Canal  King  he  succeeded  in  sav- 
ing some  $8,000,000  of  the  public  funds.  In  1876 
Tilden  was  nominated  for  the  Presidency.  Accord- 
ing to  his  adherents,  he  was  elected,  but  was  cheated 
out  of  the  honor  by  a  corrupt  count  in  the  South. 


1674  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1886 

On  his  death  he  bequeathed  a  large  part  of  his 
private  fortune  to  New  York  City  for  the  erection 
of  a  public  library. 

Death  or  Chester  Alan  Arthur,  twenty-first  President  of 
£rthurent  the  United  States,  died  on  November  18  at  New 
York  City.  During  the  Civil  War  he  attained  the 
rank  of  general.  In  1880  he  was  elected  Vice- 
President,  and  on  the  assassination  of  Garfield 
became  President.  Soon  after  his  accession,  the 
leaders  of  the  Eepublican  Party  in  New  York 
claimed  that  he  had  violated  his  predecessor's 
promises,  and  broke  with  him.  They  were  not  sus- 
tained by  their  constituents. 

Late    in    the    summer   a   large    band   of   hostile 
Lawton      Apaches  under  Geronimo  surrendered  at  Skeleton 

runs  down          » 

Geronimo  QanyOn>  Here  Lawton,  later  distinguished  for  his 
gallantry  in  the  Spanish- American  and  Philippine 
wars,  came  into  prominence. 

At  the  age  of  sixty,  Joseph  Victor  von  Scheffel, 
the  German  poet  and  novelist,  died  at  Karlsruhe. 
After  studying  law  at  Heidelberg,  Munich  and 
Berlin,  Scheffel  received  a  judicial  appointment 

victor       at    Sesckinsren    and    later  at   Bruchsal.      In    these 

Scheffel 

early  days  (1852)  he  wrote  his  famous  romantic 
poem  "Der  Trompeter  von  Saeckingen. "  .Three 
years  after  the  appearance  of  the  ' '  Trompeter, ' '  he 
published  the  historical  novel  "Ekkehard, "  one  of 
the  most  popular  German  works  of  fiction.  Later 
publications  were  "Frau  Aventiure"  (a  collection 
of  lyrics),  "Juniperus, "  " Bergspalmen, "  "Wal- 
deinsamkeit, "  and  the  rollicking  student  songs 
which  bear  the  title  "Gaudeamus. " 


1886  Summer  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1675 

On  June  10,  it  was  officially  announced  that  King 
Louis  II.  of  Bavaria  was  insane  and  not  able  tofavlrui 
continue  his  reign.  His  uncle,  Prince  Luitpold, 
assumed  the  Regency  together  with  the  command 
of  the  Bavarian  army,  since  the  king's  brother, 
Prince  Otto,  suffered  likewise  from  incurable 
lunacy.  Some  Bavarian  physicians  had  the  hardi- 
hood to  deny  that  the  king  was  insane,  but  the 
question  was  set  at  rest  by  an  autopsy  after  the 
unfortunate  king's  suicide  in  the  Lake  of  Starnberg 
five  days  later.  Like  his  grandfather  and  name-  The  mad 

king's 

sake,  King  Louis  had  shown  himself  a  great  pa-suicide 
tron  of  the  arts,  especially  of  music  and  the  drama. 
Soon  after  1871,  when  he  was  prevailed  upon  to 
offer  the  imperial  crown  to  King  William  of  Prus- 
sia, he  began  to  withdraw  himself  from  public 
affairs.  Leaving  the  foreign  policy  of  his  king- 
dom to  be  directed  by  Bismarck,  and  its  home  af- 
fairs by  a  Liberal  Ministry,  he  devoted  himself  to 
the  gratification  of  his  musical  and  esthetic  taste. 
He  took  Richard  Wagner  under  his  protection,  en- 
abling that  eminent  composer  to  produce  his  chief  and'8  n* 
works  at  Munich  on  a  large  scale.  Later,  King 
Louis,  exasperated  by  the  hostile  attitude  of  the 
people  at  Munich,  built  a  great  opera-house  at 
Bayreuth  for  Wagner's  productions.  Although 
the  Bavarian  civil  list  was  ample,  King  juouis, 
by  his  mania  for  building  magnificent  palaces,  in- 
volved himself  in  financial  straits,  calling  for  the 
interference  of  his  Ministers  and  his  family.  The 
project  of  deposing  him  was  first  broached  in  1875, 
but  was  not  carried  into  effect  until  this  year. 


1676  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1888 

By  the  connivance  of  his  guards  he  was  removed 
from  his  castle,  Hohenschwangau,  to  confinement 
at  Schloss  Berg.  Three  days  after  his  arrival, 
on  the  15th,  the  King  and  his  special  physician, 
Dr.  von  Gutten,  were  found  drowned  in  the  waters 
of  the  lake  bordering  the  castle  garden.  The  Ba- 
varian peasantry  still  believe  that  their  unhappy 
King  succumbed  to  a  court  cabal. 

Six  weeks  after  this  Franz  Liszt  died  at  Bay- 
reuth.  Liszt,  whose  baptismal  name  was  Ferencz, 
was  born  at  Raiding  near  (Edenburg,  Hungary,  in 
1811.  His  musical  instruction,  under  the  tutelage 
of  his  father,  began  at  six.  After  appearing  in 
several  public  concerts  at  Vienna,  in  1821,  Liszt 

Death  of 

Liszt  went  to  Paris,  but  was  refused  admittance  to  the 
Conservatory  by  Cherubini,  who  objected  to  infant 
prodigies.  He  remained  at  Paris  and  soon  brought 
out  a  one-act  operetta,  "Don  Sancho,  ou  le  Chateau 
de  1' Amour. "  The  advent  of  Paganini  moved  him 
to  hitherto  unprecedented  feats  in  technique.  With 
the  Countess  d'Agoult,  who  wrote  under  the  name 
of  Daniel  Stern,  Liszt  retired  from  Paris  society 
to  Geneva,  in  1835.  Three  children  were  born  to 
them,  one  of  whom,  Cosima,  became  the  wife 
of  Eichard  Wagner.  During  this  period  Liszt 
appeared  in  public  but  once,  to  vanquish  his  rival 
on  the  piano,  Thalberg.  In  1839,  he  set  out  for 
a  triumphant  concert  tour  through  Europe,  and  for 
the  next  ten  years  the  world  rang  with  his  fame. 
In  1849,  he  was  called  to  the  Court  of  Weimar, 
where  his  commanding  position  enabled  him  to 
bring  out  the  despised  works  of  Wagner,  and  some 


1886  Summer  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1677 

of  the  more  extreme  creations  of  Schumann  and 
Berlioz.  At  Weimar  the  virtuoso  matured  into  career 
a  full-fledged  composer.  There  he  originated  the 
orchestral  conception  of  symphonic  poems.  Owing 
to  the  opposition  encountered  over  the  production 
of  Cornelius'  "Barber  of  Bagdad,"  Liszt  removed 
to  Rome,  where  Pope  Pio  Nono  made  him  an 
Abbe\  In  1807,  he  was  recalled  to  Weimar  to  con- 
duct the  Beethoven  festival.  Elected  director  of 
the  new  Hungarian  Academy  of  Music  at  Pesth, 
he  divided  the  last  ten  years  of  his  life  between 
Weimar,  Rome  and  Pesth,  followed  everywhere  by 
throngs  of  pupils  and  admirers.  He  died  in  the 
midst  of  one  of  the  Wagner  festivals  at  Bayreuth. 
The  complete  catalogue  of  Liszt's  original  composi- 
tions and  transcriptions  is  too  long  for  enumeration. 
To  the  literature  of  music  Liszt  contributed  three 
volumes  on  Chopin,  Franz,  and  Wagner,  as  well 
as  his  celebrated  work  on  "The  Gypsies  and  Their 
Music. ' ' 

Germany  next  lost  one  of  her  foremost  artists  by 
the  death  of  Karl  Theodor  von  Piloty.  Born  at 
Munich,  in  1826,  Piloty  studied  at  the  Academy 
there  under  his  father.  After  completing  his  stud- 
ies in  Paris  and  Brussels,  Piloty  was  commissioned  younger 
by  King  Maximilian  of  Bavaria  to  paint  a  number PUoty 
of  historical  subjects.  He  achieved  national  fame 
by  his  celebrated  canvas  of  "Seni  before  the  Dead 
Wallenstein. "  Equally  famous  are  his  "Discovery 
of  America,"  and  "Thusnelda  at  the  Triumph  of 
Germanicus. " 

With  the   death   of   the   historian    Leopold   von 


1678  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Autumn  1886 

Ranke  Germany  lost  another  of  her  most  distin- 
guished sons.  His  first  published  work  was  a  his- 
tory of  the  Eomance  and  Teutonic  nations  from 
L^U  1494  to  1535.  This  was  followed  by  "Princes  and 
von  Ranke  peOpies  of  Southern  Europe  in  the  Sixteenth  and 
Seventeenth  Centuries."  His  celebrated  "History 
of  the  Popes"  was  published  in  the  thirties.  His- 
tories of  Germany,  Prussia,  France,  and  England 
at  different  periods,  were  published  between  1839 
and  1868.  At  the  age  of  eighty-six,  Eanke  com- 
menced his  "History  of  the  World,"  of  which  he 
published  one  volume  each  year.  He  had  reached 
the  death  of  Charlemagne  when  his  labors  were 
interrupted  by  his  death. 

In  March,  a  Socialistic  manifestation  to  celebrate 
the  anniversary  of  the  Paris  Commune  was  made 
at  Liege.  The  united  forces  of  the  police  and  civic 
guard  were  necessary  to  restore  order.  Strikes  oc- 
curred in  the  densely  populated  mining  districts  of 
the  Valley  of  the  Meuse.  The  situation  at  length 
became  so  serious  that  regular  troops  were  re- 
European  quired  to  restore  order.  Amsterdam  likewise  was 
castrations  the  scene  of  disorders  in  March  and  July.  Mass 
meetings  of  laboring  men  called  for  less  working 
hours  and  for  the  imposition  of  an  income  tax,  to 
provide  the  poor  with  daily  bread.  The  military 
interfered  and  twenty-five  persons  were  shot  and 
ninety  wounded.  Serious  riots  of  the  unemployed 
occurred  late  in  the  year  in  England  and  Ireland. 


18W  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1679 


1887 

IN  THE  commencement  of  the  year  the  attention 
of  the  world  was  drawn  to  Abyssinia.     A  scien- 
tific mission  commanded   by  Count  Salinbein 
had  proposed  to  penetrate  into  the  interior  of  the 
country.      General  Ge'ne,   commanding  the  expedi- 
tionary   force,    had    assured    the    mission    that   no 
military   enterprise    on    the    part    of    the    Italians 
should  compromise  their  safety.     Only  a  few  days 
had   elapsed   after   this   promise   when  the   Italian 
troops  marched  out  of  the  fortifications  of  Masso-  The 

Italians  in 

wah  to  meet  Has  Alula,  commanding  on  behalf  of  Abyssinia 
King  John  of  Abyssinia.  Count  Salinbein -was  at 
once  made  prisoner  by  the  Abyssinians,  and  the 
evacuation  of  Masso  wah  was  N  demanded.  On  Jan- 
uary 25,  Has  Saati  made  an  attack  on  the  Italian 
lines,  but  after  three  hours'  fighting  was  repulsed. 
The  following  day,  three  companies  of  Italian 
troops,  despatched  to  revictual  the  garrison,  were 
ambushed  and  overwhelmed.  Twenty-three  officers 

Disaster  ol 

and  407  soldiers  were  killed,  and  all  the  guns  fellDons°la 
into   the    hands   of    the   Abyssinians.      An   Italian 
Cabinet  crisis  resulted. 

In  Great  Britain,  the  failure  of  Gladstone's  Home 
Rule  Bill  had  only  brought  Irish  affairs  into  greater 
prominence.  Charles  Parnell  came  forward  with 


1680  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Spring  188? 


a  bill  for  the  diminution  of  Irish  rents.  The  bill 
coeTck>nh  was  rejected  by  a  vote  of  297  to  202.  Arthur 
Balfour,  Prime  Minister  Salisbury's  nephew,  now 
introduced  a  new  coercion  bill.  Its  passage  through 
Parliament  was  secured  by  extraordinary  means. 
On  the  day  that  a  vote  was  to  be  taken  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  on  the  second  reading  of 
the  bill,  April  18,  the  London  "Times,"  under 
startling  headlines,  published  in  fac-simile  a  letter 
claimed  to  have  been  written  by  Parnell  at  the 
time  of  the  Phoenix  Park  murders.  The  letter  read 
thus: 

"15  |  5  |  82. 

Tbepigott  "DEAR  SIR — I  am  not  surprised  at  your  friend's 
anger,  but  he  and  you  should  know  that  to  de- 
nounce the  murders  was  the  only  course  open  to 
us.  To  do  that  promptly  was  plainly  our  best 
policy. 

"But  you  can  tell  him  and  all  others  concerned 
that  though  I  regret  the  accident  of  Lord  JF.  Caven- 
dish's death,  I  cannot  refuse  to  admit  that  Burke 
got  no  more  than  his  deserts. 

"CHARLES  S.  PARNELL." 

Parnell  promptly  denounced  this  letter  as  a  for- 
charges     gery.    Nevertheless  his  supposed  sympathy  with  the 

d.g'&inst 

Parneii  perpetrators  of  the  Phoenix  Park  murder  aroused 
all  Tories  against  him.  For  several  days  before 
the  publication  of  this  letter  the  "Times"  had 
published  a  series  of  articles  entitled  "Parnellism 
and  Crime."  The  rest  of  the  year  passed  before 
Parliament  agreed  to  take  up  Parnell's  case  as  de- 
manded by  him.  One  O'Donnell,  feeling  himself 
implicated,  sued  the  "Times"  for  libel,  but  the 


1887  Spring  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1681 

trial,    beyond  revamping  the  charges  against  Par- 
nell,  proved  a  fiasco. 

During  the  entire  year,  political  interest  centred 
in  the  Balkans.  The  throne  of  Bulgaria  remained 
vacant.  Nor  could  the  Powers  agree  on  a  prince 
who  would  be  likely  to  obtain  the  support  of  all 
parties.  Kussian  agents  fomented  dissatisfaction. 
Alarming  risings  occurred  at  Silistria  and  Rust- 
chuk  in  early  spring.  Though  they  were  easily 
put  down  by  the  government,  the  Regency  did  not 
possess  sufficient  confidence  among  the  masses  of 
the  population  to  afford  guarantees  for  the  preser-  Ferdinand 
vation  of  order.  Finally,  on  July  6,  Prince  Ferdi-  ££nedgto 
nand  of  Saxe-Coburg  was  unanimously  elected  byBulgaria 
the  Sobranje  to  be  Prince  of  Bulgaria.  Russia  re- 
fused her  sanction.  Prince  Ferdinand  accepted  the 
proffered  crown.  The  Sobranje  was  thereupon  dis- 
solved and  the  Ministry  resigned  early  in  August. 
Three  days  later  the  Russian  Charge  d' Affaires  at 
Constantinople  submitted  to  the  Porte  a  formal  pro- 
test against  the  assumption  of  the  Bulgarian  govern- 
ment by  Prince  Ferdinand.  Russia,  Germany  and 
France  withheld  their  recognition  of  the  Prince. 
By  the  end  of  the  year  the  attitude  of  Russia  had 
grown  so  menacing  that  war  seemed  almost  in- 
evitable. 

In  Russia,  another  attempt  on  the  life  of  the  Czar 
had  been  made  on  March  29.     Nihilist  trials  fol- 
lowed with  the  usual  sequel  of  the  banishment  of  Nihilist 
several   suspects  to  Siberia.     Serious  disturbances1" 
involving    the   arrest   of  a   few   hundred    students 
next    broke    out    at    the    University    of    Moscow. 


1682  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Spring  1887 

The  city  was  put  under  military  rule.  The  Uni- 
versities of  Moscow  and  Kasan,  as  well  as  those 
of  Odessa,  Kharkov  and  St.  Petersburg,  were 
closed. 

The  Comte  de  Paris,  in  England,  issued  a 
lengthy  manifesto  "to  the  representatives  of  the 
Monarchical  party  in  France,"  directing  his  fol- 
lowers in  the  Chambers  to  defend  Conservative 
interests  so  as  to  show  France  how  desirable  was 
the  re- establishment  of  monarchy.  A  dreadful  dis- 
cSmique  aster  occurred  in  May,  when  the  Ope"ra  Comique 
at  Paris  was  totally  destroyed  by  a  fire  which 
broke  out  during  the  first  act  of  the  performance 
of  "Mignon. "  The  actual  number  of  lives  lost  was 
never  satisfactorily  ascertained,  many  bodies  be- 
ing reduced  to  ashes.  Eighty  burned  bodies  were 
found  and  forty-five  persons  were  reported  miss- 
ing. M.  Carvalla,  director  of  the  ill-fated  Ope'ra 
Comique,  was  sentenced  in  December  to  three 
months'  imprisonment  and  a  fine  of  50,000  francs. 
President  GreVv  resigned  the  Presidency  of  the  French  Ee- 
rajlgns  public  and  quitted  the  Elysees  the  same  evening. 
Disturbances  occurred  in  various  parts  of  Paris  as 
soon  as  GreVy's  resignation  became  known. 

In  England,   the    fiftieth    anniversary   of  Queen 
Victoria's    reign    was    celebrated    throughout    the 
kingdom.     The  Queen  drove  in  state  from  Bucking- 
victoria's  ham  Palace  to  Westminster  Abbey,  where  a  Special 
jubilee      Jubilee  Service  was  held.     It  was  made  the  occa- 
sion of  an    impressive  display  of  British  colonial 
resources  and  loyalty. 
Jenny  Lirid,  the  famous  singer,  died  in  November 


1887  Autumn  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  1683 

at  her  ho'me  in  the  Malvern  Hills,  England.  She 
was  born  in  Stockholm,  October  6,  1820.  She  re- 
ceived part  of  her  musical  education  under  Garcia 
at  Paris;  achieved  her  first  success  in  Berlin,  1845; 
and  was  received  with  great  ovation  in  her  native 
city  of  Stockholm.  In  1847  she  appeared  at  Covent 
Garden,  London,  before  an  enthusiastic  audience, 
and  three  years  later  went  to  America.  Her  profits 
during  these  two  years  were  nearly  $3,000,000.  In 
1852  she  married  the  composer,  Otto  Goldschmidt, 
at  Boston.  The  same  year  she  returned  to  Europe,  ilnciy 
and,  after  an  extensive  tour,  settled  in  England. 
Her  triumphs  in  opera  and  concerts  were  eclipsed 
by  her  successes  in  oratorio.  In  Mendelssohn's 
"Elijah,"  and  in  Schumann's  "Paradise  and  the 
Peri,"  her  part  as  principal  soprano  were  the  most 
memorable  events  in  her  career.  Her  last  public 
appearance  was  at  Diisseldorf  in  1870,  when  she 
took  the  soprano  part  in  Otto  Goldschmidt 's  ora- 
torio "Euth. "  In  late  years  her  talents  were 
employed  as  professor  in  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Music,  and  as  trainer  of  women's  voices  in  the 
Bach  choir  conducted  by  her  husband. 

In  America,  the  death  of  Henry  Ward  Beecher, 
the  eminent  clergyman,  revived  a  scandal  that  had 
clouded  his  last  years.  Beecher  made  his  reputa- 

Henry 

tion  at  the  Plymouth  Congregational  Church  in 
Brooklyn.  This  pulpit  he  held  from  1847  to  1882, 
until  his  disbelief  in  eternal  punishment  ended  his 
formal  connection  with  the  Congregational  Church. 
From  1861  to  1863  Beecher  was  editor  of  the  "In- 
dependent,"  and  for  about  ten  years  after  1870  of 


1684  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Vfmter  1887 

the  "Christian  Union."  He  was  also  the  author 
of  many  works,  of  which  his  "Lectures  to  Young 
Men"  (1850),  "Life  Thoughts"  (1872-74),  and  the 
weekly  issues  of  his  sermons  commanded  wide  cir- 
culation. Few  American  preachers  have  appealed 
to  so  large  and  diverse  a  public.  Another  distin- 
guished ecclesiastic  died  this  month  (March  4)  at 
Home.  This  was  old  Father  Beckz  who  had  suc- 
ceeded in  obtaining  the  readmission  of  the  Jesuits 
into  Austrian  Venetia. 

In  Hawaii,  June  25,  a  peaceful  revolution  was 
effected.  The  whites,  indignant  at  the  corruption 
Revolution  °^  King  Kalakaua's  Ministry,  assembled  in  force 
and  proceeded  to  the  palace.  The  King  at  once 
consented  to  dismiss  his  Ministry  and  to  submit 
to  a  constitution,  by  which  his  own  power  became 
merely  nominal. 

On  November  11,  at  Chicago,  four  of  the  eight 

Slr£f?sts  anarchists  engaged  in  a  riot  in  the  Haymarket  were 

executed    execu^e(jj  two  were  sentenced  to  life  imprisonment, 

another  for  fifteen  years,  and  the  other  committed 

suicide. 

In  Brazil,  a  great  rising  of  slaves  occurred  on  the 
plantations  near  San  Palo  in  November.     Troops 

Brazilian 

revolt  were  called  out,  but  the  slaves  took  refuge  in  the 
forests  and  held  their  ground.  The  emancipation 
of  the  slaves  throughout  that\ast  empire  was  sen- 
sibly accelerated. 


NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1685 


Death  of 
:ror 


1888 

V- 

THIS  year  is  memorable  to  Germany  for  the 
death  of  two  of  her  heroes.     On  March  9, 
old    Emperor    William    I.    died   at    Berlin. 
He  was  born  March  22,  1797,  second  son  of  Fred- 
erick William  III. ,  and  grandnephew  of  Frederick  E™*? 

Willia 

the  Great  of  Prussia.  He  was  Kegent  from  Octo- 
ber, 1857,  until  the  death  of  his  brother,  in  1861, 
when  he  became  King  of  Prussia.  In  his  youth 
he  rendered  himself  very  unpopular  by  his  readi- 
ness to  quell  the  insurrection  of  1848  with  grape 
and  canister.  This  was  forgiven  in  1870,  when 
all  Germany  took  up  his  supposed  insult  by  the 
French  Ambassador  at  Ems.  In  1871,  he  was  pro- 
claimed German  Emperor,  in  the  presence  of  all 
the  sovereigns  of  Germany  in  the  Hall  of  Mirrors 
at  Versailles.  He  was  a  simple-minded  man  of 
soldierly  tastes.  Living  in  the  full  light  of  the 
Nineteenth  Century,  he  still  believed  in  the  divine 
right  of  kings.  He  had  the  good  judgment  to  sur- 
round himself  with  such  excellent  counsellors  as 
Bismarck  and  Moltke,  and  to  trust  their  wisdom. 
Though  not  a  great  man,  he  thus  came  to  be  a 
great  sovereign.  His  only  son  succeeded  him  on  Frederick 

J  the  Good 

the  throne  as  Emperor  Frederick  III.  The  policy 
he  intended  to  adopt  during  his  reign  was  explained 

in  a  letter  dated  March  12,  and  addressed  to  Prince 
XLXth  Century— Vol.  3— S 


1686  A    HISTORY    OF   THE  Spring  1888 

.Bismarck.  The  contents  of  this  letter  put  Bis- 
marck in  a  bad  humor.  By  the  leaders  of  the 
.Liberal  party,  it  was  held  to  foreshadow  a  more 
liberal  system  of  administration  than  that  which 
had  been  hitherto  pursued.  The  Emperor,  how- 
ever, had  little  opportunity  to  exercise  his  sover- 
eign rights  in  the  cause  of  freedom.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  serious  condition  of  his  health,  a 
decree  was  issued  on  March  21,  in  which  his  son, 
Crown  Prince  William,  was  intrusted  with  the  set- 
tlement of  government  matters.  Emperor  Frederick 
was  removed  to  the  Riviera,  and  an  English  throat 

Frederick  specialist  was  summoned.  All  efforts  to  save  his 
life  proved  vain.  After  a  reign  of  ainety-nine  days, 
Emperor  Frederick  died  on  June  15.  To  him,  as 
much  as  to  Bismarck,  belongs  the  credit  of  re- 
establishing the  German  Empire  under  Prussian 
hegemony. 

The  difference  in  spirit  between  Emperor  Freder- 
ick and  his  son  was  soon  clearly  shown.  Frederick 
opened  his  reign  with  an  address  to  his  people. 

William  IL  William  II.  began  his  with  an  order  to  the  Prussian 

"War 

Lord"  army.  When  William  opened  the  German  Reich- 
stag, on  June  25,  he  pledged  himself  to  continue 
the  policy  of  his  late  grandfather,  but  made  no 
allusion  to  that  of  his  father.  On  October  15, 
Hamburg,  the  oldest  free  city  of  the  Hanseatic 
League,  ceased  to  be  a  free  port  and  was  incor- 
porated in  the  "Zollverein. " 

England  this  year  lost  three  distinguished  men. 
On  February  3,  Sir  Henry  James  Sumner  Maine, 
the  English  jurist,  died  at  Cannes.  Educated  at 


1888  Spring  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1687 

Cambridge,  he  became  Kegius  Professor  of  Civil 
Law  at  that  University.  From  1862  to  1869  he  the1  jurist 
was  law  member  of  the  Supreme  Council  in  India. 
On  his  return  to  England  he  was  elected  Corpus 
Christi  Professor  of  Jurisprudence  at  Oxford,  and, 
in  1877,  was  master  of  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge. 
His  most  enduring  works  are  "Ancient  Law  in 
Connection  with  the  Early  History  of  Society  and 
Its  Relation  to  Modern  Ideas,"  and  the  "W  he  well 
Lectures  on  International  Law,"  delivered  at  the 
University  of  Cambridge,  in  1877.  Next  came  the 
death  of  Matthew  Arnold,  the  critic,  essayist  and 
poet.  He  was  born  at  Leleham,  in  1822.  In  1858  Matthew 
he  was  Professor  of  Literature  at  Oxford.  MostAl 
important  among  his  works  are  "A  Strayed  Rev- 
eller and  Other  Poems,"  1848;  "Empedocles  on 
Etna,"  1853;  "Merope,"  1858;  "Lectures  on  Trans- 
lating Homer,"  1861;  "Essays  on  Criticism,"  1865; 
"Study  of  Celtic  Literature,"  1867;  "Culture  and 
Anarchy,"  1869;  "St.  Paul  and  Protestantism," 
1870,  and  "Literature  and  Dogma,"  1873.  Lau- 
rence Oliphant,  who  had  tried  to  found  a  social- 
istic religious  community  in  Portland,  New  York, 
died  November  23  *at  Twickenham.  He  assisted 
Elgin,  Governor- General  of  Canada.  A  narrative  of 
Elgin's  voyage  to  China  and  Japan  was  the  most 
noted  of  his  works,  among  which  were  ' '  Sym-  oiiphant 
pneumata,"  and  "The  Hand  of  Gilead,"  peculiar 
for  mysticism  and  a  strong  tendency  toward  spirit- 
ualism. His  life  from  the  time  that  he  participated 
in  the  Italian  Revolution  of  1848,  until  his  service 
as  a  war  correspondent  in  1870,  was  most  eventful. 


1688  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1888 

William  Wilson  Corcoran,  the  American  finan- 
cier and  philanthropist,  died  in  February.  Having 
taken  over  most  of  the  United  States  bonds  at  the 
Death  of  time  °f  tne  Mexican  War,  Corcoran  found  himself 
Corcoran  witk  $12,000,000  of  the  United  States  six  per  cent 
loan  on  his  hands,  in  a  falling  market.  Hurrying 
to  England,  he  persuaded  English  bankers  to  sup- 
port the  loan,  and  thus  raised  its  value  above  par. 
This  negotiation  laid  the  foundation  of  Corcoran 's 
great  wealth.  His  charities  exceeded  $5,000,000. 
Most  notable  among  them  were  the  foundation  of 
the  Margaret  Louisa  Home  in  New  York  and  the 
magnificent  Corcoran  Art  Gallery  of  Washington. 
This  year  in  Egypt  was  tranquil  as  compared 
with  some  of  the  preceding  years.  On  Septem- 
ber 21,  Suakim  was  regularly  invested  by  the 
rebel  Dervishes,  2,000  strong,  who  dug  trenches, 
mounted  guns,  and  threw  shells  at  the  town.  Gen- 

Siegcof 

Suakim  era]  Grenfell  sent  to  England  for  reinforcements. 
Ten  days  later  the  British  and  Egyptian  troops, 
under  Grenfell  at  Suakim,  made  an  attack  on  the 
Arab  position,  which  was  carried  after  fierce  re- 
sistance. The  Arabs  lost  heavily.  The  casualties 
among  the  British  troops  were  nil.  At  the  same 
time  a  British  protectorate  was  proclaimed  over 
North  Borneo,  *  Birunei,  and  Sarawak,  comprising 
British  an-  2,000  miles  of  coast  and  70,000  square  miles  of 
nexations  territOry.  The  Suez  Canal  Convention  was  signed 
by  the  representatives  of  the  Powers  on  October  29. 
It  guaranteed  free  navigation  at  all  times.  In  Abys- 
sinia the  position  of  the  Italians  near  Alite,  in  April, 
was  relieved  by  the  retreat  of  the  Abyssinians. 


1888  Summer  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1689 

Two  distinguished  soldiers  of  France  died  within 
a  short  time  of  each  other  in  the  summer.  Both 
had  their  share  of  execration  as  well  as  of  honors. 
The  first  of  these  was  Marshal  Leboeuf ,  whose  name  Deaith  of 
is  indissolubly  associated  with  the  disasters  of  the^SoeS1 
Franco-German  war.  On  the  death  of  Marshal  Niel, 
in  August,  1869,  General  Leboeuf  became  Minister 
of  War.  When  the  war  of  1870  was  declared,  he 
expressed  unbounded  confidence  in  the  readiness  of 
the  army,  reporting,  "So  ready  are  we,  that  if  the 
war  lasted  two  years  we  should  not  even  have 
a  gaiter  button  to  finish. ' '  Leboeuf  was  appointed, 
or  rather  appointed  himself,  Major- General  of  the 
Army  of  the  Rhine,  but  had  to  resign  after  the 
defeats  at  Weissenburg  and  Worth  and  the  resig- 
nation of  the  Ollivier  Cabinet.  Despite  the  outcry 
against  the  disorganization  which  now  came  to  light, 
he  was  appointed  to  a  command  under  Bazaine,  and 
was  shut  up  with  him  in  Metz.  Later,  he  testified 
against  Bazaine. 

Marshal  Bazaine  himself  died,  in  exile,  within  a 
short  time  of  his  detractor.  Born  at  Versailles,  in 
1811,  he  went  through  the  Ecole  Poly  technique, 
entered  the  army  in  1831,  and  in  the  following 
year  served  in  Africa.  In  1837  he  accompanied 
the  Foreign  Legion  into  Spain,  and  after  two  vigor- 
ous campaigns  against  the  Carlists,  he  returned  to 
^Algeria,  in  1839,  with  the  rank  of  Captain.  During 
the  next  nine  years  Captain  Bazaine  saw  much  ac- 
tive service.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  war  in  the 
East,  in  1854,  he  was  chosen  to  command  the  bri- 
gade of  infantry  formed  out  of  the  Foreign  Legion. 


1690  A    HISTORY    OF   THE  Spring  1888 

In  the  Italian  campaign  he  distinguished  himself  at 
Marignano  and  Solferino.  In  the  Mexican  cam- 
paign he  was  put  in  chief  command  and  received 
the  rank  of  Marshal.  Even  then  he  was  charged 
with  having  betrayed  Maximilian.  Though  se- 
verely criticised  in  France,  he  was  made  a  Senator. 
During  the  Franco-  Prussian  War  he  gained  unen- 
viable notoriety  by  his  capitulation  of  Metz  with 
180,000  men,  3,000  guns,  and  40,000,000  francs  of 
treasure.  Grambetta  said,  "Such  a  crime  is  beyond 
the  chastisements  of  justice.  '  '  But  no  attempt  was 
made  to  mete  out  the  proper  punishment  to  Ba- 
zaine  until  1873,  when  he  was  court-  martialled  at 
Versailles,  the  Duke  of  Aumale  presiding,  and  was 

Bazaine's 

convicted  of  criminal  incapacity   and  treacherous 


designs  to  restore  the  Empire.  He  was  degraded 
and  sentenced  to  death,  but  having  had  his  sen- 
tence commuted,  was  permitted  to  escape  from  his 
prison.  The  last  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in 
poverty  at  Madrid. 

In  France  popular  dissatisfaction  with  the  Repub- 
lican institutions  became  more  marked.  While  the 
government  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Radicals, 
the  most  significant  electoral  successes  fell  to  the 
Monarchists.  In  April,  disturbances  arose  in  Paris 
from  an  anti-Boulanger  demonstration  made  by  the 
students  of  the  Latin  Quarter.  They  crossed  the 
/anger's  Seine  and  were  met  by  the  followers  of  Boulanger. 
The  conflict  had  to  be  stopped  by  the  police,  who  at 
length  restored  order  by  blocking  the  bridges  over 
the  Seine.  As  the  result  of  a  passage  of  words 
in  the  Chamber,  a  duel  was  fought  in  July,  be- 


joss  Autumn  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1691 

tween  Boulanger  and  Floquet,  in  which  both  were 
wounded.  An  expected  coup  d'etat  by  Boulanger 
was  the  talk  of  the  day.  Other  disturbances  oc- 
curred in  various  parts  of  France  during  August. 
The  funeral  of  the  Communist,  General  Emdes, 
who  had  fallen  dead  while  addressing  a  number 
of  Parisian  strikers,  occasioned  an  Anarchist  dem- 
onstration. At  Amiens  a  serious  riot,  arising  out 
of  the  strike  of  the  velvet  weavers,  was  checked 

French 

only  when  the  soldiers  charged  and  wounded  many Iabor  riots 
people.  The  weavers  of  Lille,  the  glass-blowers 
of  Lyons,  and  in  Paris  the  stone  masons  and  res- 
taurant waiters,  all  struck  for  higher  wages  and 
fewer  hours  of  work.  Not  until  the  17th  did 
the"  strike  of  the  Parisian  navvies  come  to  an 
end.  It  had  lasted  nearly  a  month,  and  the 
funds  of  the  labor  organization  were  exhausted. 

On  November  14,  the  Pasteur  Institution  in  Paris 
for  the  treatment  of  hydrophobia  was  opened  by  the 
French  President.  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps'  attempt 
to  issue  a  fresh  series  of  1,000,000  bonds  to  "finish 
the  Panama  Canal"  failed  to  attract  subscribers  for 
more  than  200,000  of  them.  The  proposal  was  con- 
sequently withdrawn,  and,  the  government  having 
appointed  a  committee  to  administer  the  affairs  canaima 
of  the  company,  De  Lesseps  resigned  his  director- 
ship. Great  anxiety  prevailed  as  to  the  attitude  of 
the  shareholders.  On  December  15,  the  bill  brought 
in  by  the  French  Ministers  to  suspend  for  three 
months  the  payment  for  which  the  company  was 
liable  was  rejected  by  a  large  majority. 

In  Brazil,  the  Chamber  of  Deputies   voted  the 


1692  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  March  1888 

immediate  and  unconditional  abolition  of  slavery 
in  May.  Cuba,  in  the  meantime,  had  relapsed  into 
its  disturbed  state.  In  the  earlier  months  brigan- 
dage had  so  increased  that  four  provinces  were  put 
under  military  law. 

A  revolution  which  had  broken  out  in  Hayti  in 
July  culminated  in  the  destruction  of  public  build- 
ings and  the  flight  of  President  Salomon.  With  his 
Ministers  he  took  refuge  on  the  foreign  ships  of  war 
at  Port-au-Prince.  Not  until  August  14  was  order 

!nHayti0n  restored.  On  September  29  there  was  another  out- 
break in  which  Ptelemaque  and  400  of  his  followers 
were  killed  while  attacking  the  Palais  National. 
In  December,  the  Haytien  Government,  on  a  per- 
emptory summons  of  American  war  vessels,  deliv- 
ered up  the  ship  "Haytien  Republic,"  an  American 
filibuster  detained  by  the  authorities.  The  United 
States  exacted  $2,000,000  as  indemnity. 

In  March,  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States 

biizza*da  was  visited  by  a  severe  snowstorm,  or  American 
blizzard.  The  weather,  which  had  been  warm,  sud- 
denly became  wintry,  snow  drove  through  the  air 
at  the  rate  of  sixty  miles  an  hour,  and  soon  it  was 
impossible  to  remain  out  of  doors.  Traffic  was  sus- 
pended, large  snowplows  were  abandoned,  and  the 
street  cars  were  left  standing  on  the  tracks.  For 
the  first  time  the  Stock  Exchange  stopped  business 
by  formal  resolution,  and  many  banks  were  closed. 
More  than  200  lives  were  lost,  including  twenty- 
four  in  the  streets  of  New  York.  In  Chesapeake 
Bay  alone  200  vessels  were  wrecked. 

Among  those  that  died  from  exposure  during  this 


1888  Spring  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1693 

storm  was  Roscoe  Conkling  of  New  York.  He  was 
a  political  leader  of  marked  ability.  His  speeches  conkting 
in  connection  with  reconstruction  gained  him  a 
reputation  as  an  orator.  After  Garfield  became 
President,  he  was  the  leader  of  the  so-called  Stal- 
wart faction  of  the  .Republican  party.  Falling  out 
with  the  President,  Senators  Conkling  and  Platt  re- 
signed their  seats,  but  failed  to  secure  re-election. 
Conkling  thereupon  devoted  himself  to  law  in  New 
York  until  his  death. 

Another  death  lamented  by  Americans  was  that 
of  Philip  H.  Sheridan.  Born  in  1831,  he  entered 
West  Point  in  1848.  In  March,  1861,  he  was  first 
lieutenant.  Toward  the  latter  part  of  the  Civil 
War  he  rose  rapidly  to  the  highest  grade.  On 
May  9,  1864,  he  led  the  Federal  cavalry  around 
Richmond  and  defeated  Stuart,  the  ablest  cavalry  Death  of 

J  Phil 

leader  on  the  Confederate  side.  He  was  in  Julysheridan 
put  in  command  of  20,000  men  in  the  Shenandoah 
Valley.  Sheridan  and  Early  came  together  in  a 
desperate  struggle.  October  19,  Early  surprised 
the  Union  troops  and  sent  them  flying  toward 
Winchester.  Sheridan  had  just  reached  Winchester 
from  a  hurried  trip  to  Washington.  Knowing  that 
the  battle  was  on  once  more,  and  he  twenty  miles 
away,  Sheridan  leaped  upon  his  horse  and  rode 
straight  to  the  field.  He  turned  the  retreating  sol- 
diers back  and  routed  the  Confederates.  This  was 
the  famous  "Sheridan  ride,"  dear  to  Union  tradi- 
tions. Later  Sheridan's  cavalry  took  a  signal  part 
in  bringing  about  Lee's  surrender  at  Appomattox. 
Sheridan's  activity  did  not  end  with  the  war.  He 


1694  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Autumn  1888 

visited  Europe,  and  was  present  at  the  great  battles 
of  the  Franco-German  conflict.  On  Sherman's  re- 
tirement, he  took  command  of  the  American  army, 
as  general-in-chief,  and  held  the  post  until  his  death. 
A  dynamite  plot  for  blowing  up  the  houses  of  two 
judges  and  a  police  officer,  the  Board  of  Trade 
Building,  Court  House,  and  several  newspaper  of- 
fices was  discovered  in  Chicago  in  July.  The  plot 
was  revealed  by  an  associate.  Toward  the  end  of 
the  year,  the  election  for  the  Presidency  in  the 
iferrteSn11  United  States  resulted  in  the  return  of  the  Kepub- 

elected  ' 

president  Hcan  candidate,  Benjamin  Harrison,  by  239  votes  of 
the  Electoral  College  over  162  for  Grover  Cleve- 
land. Just  before  the  election  the  Administration 
suggested  to  the  British  Government  the  recall 
of  Lord  Sackville-West,  the  English  Minister,  be- 
cause of  his  indiscreet  letter  recommending  a  ficti- 
tious correspondent  to  vote  the  Democratic  ticket  in 
the  interest  of  Great  Britain.  President  Cleveland 
refused  further  to  receive  Lord  Sackville-West. 
The  Minister  retired. 

In  medicine,  the  year  is  memorable  for  the  fact 
that  Dr.  Fitz  of  Boston  advocated  the  removal  of 
the  vermiform  appendix  in  certain  intestinal  dis- 
orders. His  suggestions  were  made  only  after  he 

Fitz's 

treatment  had  performed  several  hundred  post-mortem  opera- 

of  appen- 

tions.  American  surgeons  followed  his  advice;  and 
thenceforward  began  the  removal  of  an  organ  which 
had  hitherto  been  the  cause  of  much  human 
suffering. 


1889  NINETEENTH   CENTURY 


1889 

EARLY   in  the   year,   the  world  was   startled 
by  the  sudden  death  of  Archduke  Rudolph 
of  Hapsburg,  the  heir-apparent  to  the  throne 
of  Austria.    The  first  public  news  of  the  event  came 
in  a  despatch  published  in  the  official   gazette  of 
Vienna  on  January  31:  "His  Royal  and  Imperial 
Highness,  Crown  Prince  Archduke  Rudolph,  died 
yesterday  at  his  hunting  lodge  of  Mayerling,  near 
Baden,    from   the   rupture   of   an   aneurism   of  the  Austrian 

Crown 

heart."  Foreign  correspondents  made  a  rush  for1"1""106 
Mayerling.  Through  their  enterprise  it  was  soon 
learned  that  the  Archduke's  mistress,  Baroness  Marie 
Vetsera,  was  implicated  in  the  death  of  the  Arch- 
duke. Her  body  was  found  together  with  that  of 
the  Crown  Prince.  To  the  present  day  the  mystery 
surrounding  Rudolph's  death  has  not  been  quite 
cleared  up.  A  note  which  he  sent  to  his  friend 
the  Duke  of  Braganza  clearly  suggested  suicide. 
It  was  scrawled  on  a  scrap  of  paper  evidently  in 
a  great  hurry:  "Dear  Friend — I  must  die.  In  honor 
I  can  do  nothing  else.  Good- by,  the  blessing  of 
God  be  with  you.  Rudolph."  For  the  sake  of  ob- 
taining a  Christian  burial  for  the  dead  prince,  the 
House  of  Hapsburg  emphatically  repudiated  the 
theory  of  suicide.  Yet  a  special  dispensation  had 


1696  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Spring  3889 

to  be  obtained  from  His  Holiness  the  Pope.  The 
relatives  of  Baroness  Vetsera  were  not  equally 
fortunate.  From  the  condition  in  which  Prince 
Rudolph's  body  was  found,  it  appeared  on  the 
other  hand  that  he  had  been  beaten  to  death  be- 
fore he  was  shot.  Suspicion  was  aroused  against 
Baroness  Vetsera 's  cousin. 

On  February  11,  the  long-awaited  constitution  of 
Japan  was  at  last  proclaimed.  Mikado  Mutsuhite 

Japanese 

tk^titu  took  a  solemn  oath  to  maintain  the  government 
according  to  the  Constitution,  and  confirmed  Ku- 
roda  as  Minister  of  State,  while  Ito  remained 
President  of  the  Privy  Council.  On  this  occa- 
sion, for  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  Japan, 
the  Empress  rode  beside  the  Emperor  in  public. 

Arinort       A  blot  upon  the  record  of  the  day  was  the  assas- 

sassinated  sination  by  a  Shinto  fanatic  of  the  Minister  of 
Education,  Arinori  Mori. 

The  Samoan  difficulties  of  the  previous  year  took 
on  a  more  threatening  aspect.  Naval  squadrons  of 
Great  Britain,  Germany  and  the  United  States  were 
sent  to  Samoa.  On  March  15,  a  tremendous  hurri- 
cane swept  over  the  islands.  Fifteen  merchant 
vessels  and  six  men-of-war  were  caught  in  the 
Bay  of  Apia.  One  hundred  and  forty-two  officers 
and  men  lost  their  lives.  So  terrific  was  the  gale 
that  all  the  vessels  in  the  harbor  dragged  their 

<teastera  anchors  and  collided.  Most  of  them  were  finally 
wrecked  on  a  -coral  reef  jutting  out  from  the  bay. 
The  German  gunboat  "Eber"  was  flung  broadside 
on  the  reef  and  crashed  to  bits  like  an  eggshell. 
Of  her  crew  of  seventy-seven  only  five  escaped. 


1889  March  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1697 

The  German  flagship  "Adler"  turned  over  on  the 
reef  and  twenty  of  her  men  were  lost.  The  Ameri- 
can cruiser  "Nipsic, "  while  her  crew  tried  to  get 
an  eight- inch  gun  overboard  to  act  as  anchor,  was 
fouled  by  the  German  "Olga, "  and  was  beached, 
losing  seven  men.  The  "Olga,"  too,  was  beached, 
but  managed  to  get  off.  During  the  night  the  hur- 
ricane increased  in  violence.  Early  in  the  morning 
the  British  "Calliope"  began  to  drag  down  upon 
the  American  "Vandalia."  The  British  captain 
determined  to  put  out  to  sea.  Inch  by  inch  the 
"Calliope"  fought  her  way  into  the  teeth  of  the 
storm.  As  she  passed  the  ' '  Trenton, ' '  the  Ameri- 
can band  struck  up  "Rule  Britannia,"  and  the 
Yankee  sailors  lining  the  yards  cheered  the  Brit-  heroism 
ish  ship.  The  remaining  American  ships,  "Tren- 
ton" and  "Vandalia,"  could  not  escape.  The 
"Vandalia's"  commander  was  disabled  by  injuries 
sustained  during  the  hurricane.  The  men  of  the 
"Trenton"  were  sent  aloft  to  steady  the  ship  to  the 
wind.  This  expedient  brought  the  "Trenton"  clear 
of  the  reef.  But  she  was  none  the  less  blown  into 
shore.  The  "Vandalia,"  after  dragging  along  the 
edge  of  the  reef,  struck  about  one  hundred  yards 
from  the  shore  and  turned  over.  The  men,  stripped 
naked,  sought  safety  in  the  rigging.  The  officers 
remained  at  their  posts  on  the  quarter-deck.  A 
gun,  loosened  from  its  fastenings,  was  hurled  across 
the  deck,  tore  Captain  Schoonmaker  from  Lieuten- 
ant Carlin's  arms,  and  swept  him  overboard.  As 
night  fell,  the  men  on  the  "Trenton"  gave  a 
cheer  to  their  dying  comrades.  The  "Vandalia's" 


1698  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  March  1889 

sailors,  as  they  clung  to  their  spars,  cheered  the  flag- 
ship. The  band  on  the  "Trenton"  played  the 
"Star- Spangled  Banner."  Early  next  morning,  the 
gale,  for  an  instant,  swung  the  two  ships  together. 
Lieutenant  Carlin  of  th,e  "Vandalia"  drove  his  men 
out  on  the  yardarms  and  ordered  a  leap  for  life  to 
the  decks  of  the  "Trenton."  He  was  the  last  to 
leave  the  doomed  ship.  It  was  of  Carlin  that  Kip- 
ling wrote  in  his  American  Notes,  "Wallah.  He 
was  a  man!"  All  but  five  officers  and  thirty-nine 
men  of  the  "Vandalia"  were  saved.  The  tragedy 
at  Apia  brought  the  three  great  naval  Powers  to- 
gether in  one  common  sorrow.  The  long-standing 
controversy  was  promptly  brought  to  a  close.  A 
samoan  satisfactory  settlement  was  reached  at  the  Samoan 

Conference  . 

Conference  at  Berlin  in  June.  An  autonomous 
government  was  guaranteed  to  the  Samoan  Islands 
under  the  joint  control  of  the  three  Powers. 

At  Kalawao,  in  Hawaii,  Father  Damien  died, 
Death  of  on  April  10,  in  the  chief  leper  settlement  on  the 
island  of  Molokai.  Joseph  Damien  de  Veuster  was 
born  at  Ninde  near  Louvain,  Belgium,  January  3, 
1841.  He  studied  for  the  priesthood,  and  before 
he  completed  his  religious  education  offered  him- 
self for  mission  work  in  the  islands  of  the  South 
Pacific.  In  1873  he  reached  Molokai  in  order  to 
work  among  the  leper  colony.  No  man  before 
him  had  ever  attempted  to  do  anything  for  these 
wretched  outcasts.  In  1886  he  was  first  tainted 
with  the  horrible  disease,  but  he  refused  to  quit 
his  post,  and  in  spite  of  his  constant  suffering  he 
pursued  his  work  to  the  end.  Robert  Louis  Steven- 


1889  Spring  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1699 


son  has  recorded  his  labors  and  immortalized  his 
name.  Shortly  after  Father  Damien's  death  a  revo- 
lution broke  out  in  Hawaii.  The  palace  grounds  . 
and  the  Government  House  were  temporarily  seized 
by  the  insurgents.  The  government  troops  had 
little  trouble  in  suppressing  the  insurrection. 

In  France,  the  spring  of  this  year  was  pregnant 
with  unusual  political  excitement  and  intrigue.  Flight  of 
Acting  on  the  advice  of  his  friends,  General  Bou- 
langer,  the  former  War  Minister,  suddenly  left  the 
country  on  April  1.  From  Brussels  he  addressed 
a  manifesto  to  his  party,  stating  that  he  had  quitted 
France  to  avoid  arrest.  The  French  Chambers 
promptly  passed  a  bill  authorizing  the  Senate  to 
try  General  Boulanger  and  others  for  high  treason. 
A  few  months  later  the  French  Senate,  sitting  as 
a  High  Court  of  Justice,  found  General  Boulanger 
and  his  associates,  Count  Dillon  and  Rochefort, 
guilty  of  conspiracy  against  the  State  and  of  mis- 
appropriation of  public  money.  They  were  severally 
condemned  to  transportation  for  life  with  confine- 
ment in  a  fortified  place.  The  sentence  created  not 
a  little  stir  in  France.  Meanwhile  on  May  6,  in  com- 
memoration of  the  falling  of  the  Bastille,  the  Paris 
Exhibition  was  formally  opened  by  President  Car- 

not.      The  Continental  monarchies  abstained  from  Paris  Ex- 
position 

all    official    representation,    but    the    English    and 
American  Ambassadors  were  in  evidence. 

On  March  27,  John  Bright,  the  great  English 
orator  and  politician,  died.  Born  at  Greenbank, 
Lancashire,  in  1811,  he  first  became  known  as  a 
leading  spirit  with  Cobden  in  th,e  Anti-Corn  Law 


1700  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Spring  1889 

League.  In  1843,  he  was  sent  to  Parliament  by 
johnh°  Durham,  and  distinguished  himself  as  a  strenuous 
advocate  of  free  trade  and  reform.  In  1847,  he  sat 
for  the  first  time  for  Manchester,  but  in  1857  his 
opposition  to  the  war  with  China  made  him  so  un- 
popular in  the  constituency  that  he  lost  his  seat  by 
a  large  majority.  He  was,  however,  returned  for  Bir- 
mingham, and  continued  to  make  speeches  against 
the  policy  of  great  military  establishments  and  wars 
of  annexation.  In  1865,  he  took  a  leading  part  in 
the  movement  for  the  extension  of  the  franchise, 
and  strongly  advocated  the  necessity  of  reform  in 
Ireland.  In  the  Gladstone  Ministry,  formed  in  1868, 
he  was  President  of  the  Board  of  Trade  and  after- 
ward Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster.  After- 
ward in  1886,  he  joined  the  Liberals  who  opposed 
Gladstone's  schemes  for  Ireland,  and  contributed 
by  his  letters  and  influence  to  the  overthrow  of 
the  Ministry. 

In  April,  news  was  received  of  Henry  M.  Stan- 
ley's safety  in  Africa  up  to  September  4,  1888,  after 
his  return  from  a  stay  with  Emin  Pasha.     In  the 
Soudan,   in  July,   Colonel  Woodehouse  with   con- 
The          siderable    force    came    in   contact  with  a   Dervish 

Soudan 

campaign  hor(je  advancing  from  Matuka  near  Tiguin  on  the 
Nile,  south  of  Wady  Haifa.  Nearly  500  Dervishes 
were  killed  and  wounded  and  as  many  taken  pris- 
oners. On  August  3,  General  Grenfell,  command- 
ing the  British  and  Egyptian  troops  on  the  Nile, 
attacked  the  Dervish  troops  under  Wad-el-Njumi, 
and  after  seven  hours'  hard  fighting  drove  him  back 
into  the  desert,  killing  him,  his  principal  Emm  and 


1889  Summer  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1701 

500  fighting  men,  and  taking  upward  of  1,000  pris- 
oners. In  South  African  affairs,  the  Great  Seal  of 
the  United  Kingdom  was  affixed  on  October  30  to 
the  Charter  of  the  British  South  Africa  Company,  South 

A.fric3> 

assigning  to  it  trading  and  other  rights  over  a  terri-  company 
tory  of  vast  extent,  with  the  express  reservation  to 
the  Crown  to  take  over  at  any  time  the  works  and 
buildings  of  the  Company. 

The  novelist  Wilkie  Collins  died  on  September 
23.  This  popular  writer  was  born  in  1824.  At  the 
age  of  twenty-five  he  published  "Antonina,  orCollins 
the  Fall  of  Borne."  Two  years  later,  in  1852,  ap- 
peared "Basil"  and  "Mr.  Kay's  Cash  Box."  Then 
followed  a  series  of  stories:  "Hide  and  Seek" 
(1854),  "After  Dark,  and  other  Stories"  (1856), 
"The  Dead  Secret"  (1857),  "The  Queen  of  Hearts" 
(1859),  "The  Woman  in  White"  (1860),  "No 
Name"  (1862),  "My  Miscellanies"  (1863),  "Arman- 
dale"  (1866),  "The  Moonstone"  (1868),  "Man  and 
Wife"  (1870),  "Poor  Miss  Finch"  (1872),  "Miss,  or 
Mrs.?  and  Other  Stories"  (1873),  "The  New  Mag- 
dalen" (1873),  "The  Law  and  the  Lady"  (1875),  and 
"The  Two  Destinies"  (1876).  He  also  wrote  two 
plays  called  "The  Lighthouse,"  and  "The  Frozen 
Deep";  and  a  book  of  home  travel,  entitled,  "Eam- 
bles  beyond  Railways;  or,  Notes  on  Cornwall" 
(1851).  The  most  popular  of  all  these  works  per- 
haps was  the  story  of  "The  Woman  in  White." 

Within  a  few  months  after  Wilkie  Collins'  death, 
England  lost  one  of  her  foremost  poets.     Eobert 

Death  of 

Browning  died  on  the  second  day  of  December.  By 
the  time  of  his  death,  Browning's  works,  though 


1702  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Autumn  1889 

never  successful  from  a  financial  point  of  view,  had 
come  to  be  recognized  as  noteworthy  contributions  to 
English  literature.  The  salient  trait  of  Browning's 
poetry  is  that  of  rugged  hilarity.  Love  of  beauty, 
or  form  as  such,  was  second  to  his  whole-hearted 
humanity.  A  large  charity,  a  red-blooded  philoso- 
phy, a  sympathetic  psychology  and  religious  optim- 
ism are  the  tonic  qualities  of  his  poetry.  It  was  for 
this  that  he  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  peer  of  Ten- 
nyson in  English  poetry.  Browning  was  born  in 
1812  at  Camberwell  near  London.  He  studied  at 
the  London  University  and  then  travelled  abroad 
in  Italy.  His  first  published  work  was  "Pauline,"' 
a  narrative  in  verse,  followed  shortly  by  "Paracel- 

Browning's 

early         Sus, ' '  a  drama  after  the  manner  of  ' '  Faust. ' '    During 

poems 

the  next  few  years  he  published  the  dramas  "Straf- 
ford"  (1837),  "Sordello"  (1840),  and  "The  Blot  in 
the  'Scutcheon,"  as  well  as  a  collection  of  poems, 
"Bells  and  Pomegranates"  (1846).  During  the 
same  year  he  was  married  to  his  fellow  poet, 
Elizabeth  Barrett.  The  two  took  up  their  abode 
in  Florence.  Mrs.  Browning's  beautiful  "Sonnets 
from  the  Portuguese"  were  written  for  him.  Dur- 
ing the  days  following  their  marriage,  Browning's 
second  collection  of  poems,  "Men  and  Women," 
appeared  in  1855.  After  the  death  of  his  wife  in 
1861  the  poet  returned  to  England.  "Dramatis 
Personae, "  a  third  collection  of  poems  appeared  in 
1864.  Then  came  Browning's  most  ambitious  work, 
andetheiQg  "The  Ring  and  the  Book,"  comprising  a  series  of 
poetical  variations  on  the  theme  of  a  edieval 
murder  trial,  as  told  by  the  principal  acto  in  that 


1889  Autumn  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1703 

i 

drama.  This  proved  the  most  successful  of  Brown- 
ing's works.  It  was  followed  shortly  by  "Prince 
Hohenstiel-Schwangau,  Saviour  of  Society,"  a  psy- 
chological study  of  Napoleon  III.,  and  by  "Fifine 
at  the  Fair."  Next  year  (1873)  appeared  "Bed 
Cotton  Night- Cap  Country,  or  Turf  and  Towers." 
Among  his  last  publications  were  "La  Saisiaz," 
"Dramatic  Idyls,"  and  "Asolando."  In  the  mass 
of  Browning's  writings  the  poet's  lyric  gifts  are 
apparent.  Y"et  Browning  was  pre-eminently  a  dra- 
matic poet.  But  his  dramatic  expression  was  that 
of  retrospect  and  soliloquy,  rather  than  that  of  ac- 
tion. As  George  E.  Woodberry  wrote  in  his  essay 
"On  Browning's  Death":  "His  characters  do  not 
develop  before  the  eye;  he  does  not  catch  the  soul 
in  the  very  act;  he  does  not  present  life  so  much 
as  the  results  of  life.  .  .  .  He  has  in  fact  that  Browning's 

genins 

malady  of  thought  which  interferes  with  the  dra- 
matist's control  of  his  hand.  ...  In  other  words, 
he  is,  primarily,  a  moralist;  he  reasons  and  he  is 
fluent  in  words  and  fertile  in  thoughts,  and  so  he 
loses  the  object  itself,  becomes  indirect,  full  of  after- 
thought and  parenthesis,  and  impairs  the  dramatic 
effect."  This  explains  in  a  measure  why  Brown- 
ing's writings  have  been  characterized  as  obscure. 
Throughout  this  year  continued  the  investigation 
in  Parliament  of  the  London  "Times'  "  charges 
against  Parnell.  Sir  Charles  Russell  and  Herbert  S 
H.  Asquith  were  Parnell's  chief  counsel,  while  Sir 
Richard  Webster,  the  English  Attorney -General, 
appeared  as  counsel  for  the  "Times."  Richard 
Pigott,  the  person  who  sold  the  alleged  Parnell 


1704  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Summer  1889 

letters  to  the  "Times"  under  a  searching  cross- 
examination  by  Sir  Charles  Russell,  incriminated 
himself  as  a  forger  and  blackmailer.  Leaving  a 
written  confession  behind  him,  he  fled  the  country. 
The  London^"  Times"  apologized  for  the  publica- 
tion of  the  letters.  Pigott,  arrested  in  Spain,  com- 
mitted suicide. 

The  Island  of  Crete  was  again  the  scene  of  numer- 
ous disturbances,  which  broke  out  in  midsummer. 
On  July  22,  a  serious  rising  occurred  in  various 
parts  of  the  island.  The  Turkish  authorities  were 
expelled  from  Vamos  and  Cidoma  and  the  pub- 
lic archives  perished.  The  Turkish  Government 

upheaval  issued  orders  to  call  out  80,000  of  the  reserves. 
Chakir  Pasha,  the  newly  appointed  governor  of 
Crete  arrived  at  the  island,  informed  a  deputation 
of  Cretans  and  Turks  of  the  Sultan's  determination 
to  restore  order,  but  promised  to  inquire  into  legiti- 
mate grievances.  A  state  of  siege  was  proclaimed 
throughout  the  island.  Murder  and  plunder  were 
reported  on  both  sides,  and  several  Mussulman 
and  Christian  villages  were  fired.  Moussa  Bey,  the 
Kurd  leader,  was  sent  to  Constantinople  for  trial. 
During  this  year  the  new  epidemic  of  influenza 
commonly  called  "grippe"  prevailed  throughout 

influenza  Russia  and  Siberia.  In  some  towns  more  than 
fifty  per  cent  of  the  population  were  attacked. 
In  a  few  weeks  the  epidemic  spread  through  Eu- 
rope. Before  the  close  of  the  year  the  influenza 
reached  America  and  thousands  were  affected  by 
it  along  the  Atlantic  Coast. 

To   foil   the   ends   of   the   Panama   Canal   Com- 


1889  Spring  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1705 

party  the  United  States  Senate  and  Representa- 
tives  passed  •  a  resolution  in  secret  session,  declar- 
ing against  European  control  of  the  canal. 

On  March  4,  Harrison  and  Morton  were  inaugu- 
rated as  President  and  Vice-President  of  the  United 
States.  On  March  22,  Bering  Sea  was  closed  to 
all  nations,  and  the  President  issued  a  proclamation  glassed 
prohibiting  the  killing  of  fur  animals  within  Alaska 
without  a  special  permit  from  the  United  States. 
In  April,  a  part  of  the  Indian  lands  of  Oklahoma 
were  thrown  open  to  white  men.  Thousands  ofoufahoma 

boom 

settlers  rushed  into  the  new  lands.  On  the  last 
of  May  occurred  the  catastrophe  of  Johnstown. 
A  three-days'  rainfall  of  more  than  four  inches 
on  the  slopes  of  the  Alleghenies  caused  a  sudden 
overflow  of  the  Susquehanna  River  and  its  tribu- Johnstowa 
taries.  The  Connemaugh  Valley  on  the  western 
slope,  dotted  with  thriving  towns,  was  devastated 
for  forty  miles.  The  bursting  of  the  reservoir  at 
Johnstown  added  to  the.  deluge.  More  than  six 
thousand  persons  were  drowned.  Some  fifteen 
hundred  were  burned  to  death  where  the  smelting 
furnaces  at  Johnstown  set  fire  to  a  floating  mass  of 
driftwood  penned  up  by  the  stone  railway  bridge. 
In  other  parts  of  Virginia  and  Pennsylvania  the 
freshets  did  enormous  damage,  the  losses  aggregat- 
ing $40,000,000. 

In  his  December  message  to  Congress,  President 
Harrison  expressed  the  hope  that  the  Pan-American 
conference  would  pave  a  way  to  improved  inter- 
national relations  and  secure  peace  on  the  American 
continent.  The  rest  of  this  message  dealt  with  the 


1706  A    HISTORY    OF   THE  Dec.  1889 

surplus  in  American  finances  showing  an  excess  of 
$5,000,000  of  revenue  over  expenditure.  Congress 
was  urged  to  take  measures  to  reduce  the  revenues. 
The  wonderfully  improved  relations  between  the 
Northern  and  Southern  States  of  North  America 
were  made  clearly  manifest  on  the  death  of  Jefferson 
Jefferson  Davis,  the  President  of  the  seceding  States  during 
the  American  Civil  War.  Jefferson  Davis  was  born 
in  Mississippi  and  was  sent  to  the  United  States 
Military  Academy  at  West  Point.  On  his  commis- 
sion as  a  lieutenant  in  the  United  States  army, 
he  served  in  the  Black  Hawk  War.  Later  he  ren- 
dered gallant  service  as  the  colonel  of  a  Mississippi 
volunteer  regiment  in  Mexico.  He  was  Secretary 
of  War  under  Pierce.  Davis  rose  to  the  leader- 
ship of  the  Southern  elements  in  American  national 
politics.  From  1860  to  1861  he  was  a  leader  of  the 

Davis' 

beHum  Southern  party  in  the  American  Senate.  When 
the  Southern  Confederacy  was  formed,  after  seces- 
sion had  become  an  accomplished  fact,  Davis  was 
elected  President  of  the  new  Eepublic.  His  insight, 
executive  skill,  and  determination  were  the  life  and 
strength  of  the  military  and  civic  administration 
of  the  Confederacy.  In  his  inauguration  speech  he 
expressed  the  full  theory  of  secession  in  a  few  apt 

Leader  of   words:  "The  sovereign  States  here  represented  have 

the  Con- 
federacy   agree(i  to  form  a  Confederacy.     It  is  by  the  abuse 

of  language  that  their  act  has  been  denominated 
revolution.  They  formed  a  new  alliance,  but  in 
each  State  its  government  has  remained."  After 
Lee's  lines  were  broken  at  Appomattox,  and  the 
resulting  fall  of  Richmond  in  April,  1865,  Davis 


1839  Dec.  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  1707 

and  his  Cabinet  became  fugitives.  At  daybreak 
of  May  10,  a  remnant  of  the  Presidential  party 
camping  among  pine  woods  near  Irwinville,  in 
Southern  Georgia,  was  surprised  and  captured  by 
Union  cavalry  scouts.  Davis  was  apprehended 
while  trying  to  escape  disguised  in  his  wife's  long 
coat  and  shawl.  He  was  imprisoned  for  two  years  ^ligJ{J' 
at  Fortress  Monroe.  This  captivity  was  shared  by 
General  Joseph  Wheeler.  His  plans  for  the  escape 
of  his  former  leader  were  frustrated.  After  the  as- 
sassination of  Abraham  Lincoln  those  who  held  that 
Davis  was  implicated  in  it  clamored  to  have  him 
shot.  Better  counsels  prevailed.  Davis  to  be  sure 
was  indicted  for  treason,  but  in  May,  1867,  he  was 
released  on  bail,  Horace  Greeley  serving  as  one 
of  his  bondsmen.  The  case  never  came  to  trial. 
Under  President  Johnson's  general  amnesty  Jeffer- 
son Davis  received  a  final  immunity  from  prosecu- 
tion. He  lived  unmolested  at  his  home  in  Missis- 
sippi for  the  rest  of  his  life.  When  he  died  he  was  ck 
mourned  by  the  whole  South  as  the  foremost  leader ye 
of  their  lost  cause. 

This  year,  Bjornstjerne  Bjornson  brought  out 
his  famous  novel  "In  God's  Way,"  in  which  he 
depicted  the  struggle  between  religious  bigotry  and  Bjorn. 
liberalism.  Bjornson's  earlier  noVel  "Synnove  Sol- 
bakken"  established  his  fame  as  a  story  writer. 
"Mellem  Slagene"  was  his  first  printed  drama. 
Bjornson  also  wrote  poetry  which  was  essential- 
ly lyric,  characterized  by  an  idyllic  purity  that 
has  won  for  it  a  high  place  in  the  estimate  of  his 
country.  One  of  his  lyrics  has  become  the  national 


1708  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  Autumn  1889 

song  of  Norway.  Of  Bjornson's  dramatic  works, 
the  most  important  are  "Kong  Sverre,"  "Sigurd 
Slembe, ' '  and  ' '  Sigurd.  Jorsalf ar. ' '  Bjornson's  later 
stage  works  are  problem  plays.  Among  them  may 
be  mentioned  "The  Editor,"  "A  Bankruptcy," 
"The  King,"  "Leonarda,"  "A  Glove,"  "Geogra- 
phy and  Love, "  and  "Beyond  Strength."  -Besides 
"In  God's  Way,"  he  brought  out  the  novels 
"Magnhild,"  "Kaptejn,"  "Mansana,"  and  "Stov." 
During  the  last  two  decades  of  the  century  Bjorn- 
son  continued  to  be  the  recognized  spokesman  of 
Norwegian  republican  aspirations. 

Early  in  autumn  the  civil  war  in  Hayti,  which 
had  continued  for  more  than  twelve  months,  ended 
by  the  surrender  of  General  Le'gitime,  and  the  oc- 

?icptOTious  cupation  of  Port-au-Prince  by  General  Hippolyte. 
In  October,  General  Hippolyte  was  accordingly 
elected  President  of  the  Eepublic  of  Hayti. 

In  Brazil,  in  the  middle  of  November,  a  revolu- 
tionary movement,  of  which  the  first  open  manifes- 
tation was  the  attempted  assassination  of  the  Minis- 
ter of  Marine,  Baron  de  Ladario,  broke  out  at  Eio 
de  Janeiro.  A  provisional  government  under  Gen- 

Revoiutjon  erai  Deodoro  da  Fonseca  was  formed,  which  abol 

in  Brazil 

ished  the  Council  of  State  and  proclaimed  a  repub- 
lic. The  Emperor,  who  had  been  kept  a  prisoner 
in  his  palace,  was  banished  to  Europe.  The  Im- 
perial Ministry  had  arranged  with  Dom  Pedro  to 
abdicate  at  the  end  of  January,  1890,  in  favor 
of  his  daughter,  the  Countess  d'Eu,  but  a  feeling 
of  disloyalty  was  felt  among  the  people.  A  formal 
decree  was  issued  declaring  a  federal  republic,  the 


1869  Dec.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1709 

several  provinces  of  the  late  Empire  constituting 
States,  and  each  State  arranging  its  own  Constitu- 
tion  and  electing  its  deliberative  bodies  and  local 
governments.  A  counter  revolution  broke  out  on 
December  18,  in  Rio  de  Janeiro.  A  number  of 
soldiers,  sailors  and  civilians  took  part  in  it,  and 
troops  had  to  be  ordered  out  to  disperse  them. 
It  was  not  until  Christmas  time  that  the  disturb- 
ance was  quelled. 

At  the  close  of  the  year  Henry  M.  Stanley's  ex- 
pedition, having  effected  the  relief  of  Emm  Bey  in  e 
the  Equatorial  provinces  of  Egypt,  marched  out  of 
the  Soudan  by  way  of  Zanzibar.  Emin  had  re- 
mained at  Khartoum  since  the  death  of  Gordon. 
The  time  spent  in  Stanley's  expedition  was  three 
years,  and  the  results  accomplished  were  of  great 
value  to  the  science  of  geography.  Stanley  ended 
the  expedition  at  Cairo,  where  he  wrote  a  record  of 
his  journey,  published  simultaneously  in  England, 
America,  France  and  Germany,  under  the  title  "In  "in 

•  Darkest 

Darkest  Africa."     On  Stanley's  return  to  England  Africa" 
he  was  knighted,  and  scientific  honors  of  all  kinds 
were  showered  upon  him. 


XlXth  Century— Vol.  3— T 


1710  A   HISTORY  OF   THE  1890 


1890 

THE  German  Dowager  Empress  Augusta  died 
on  January  7,  at  the  Royal  Palace  at  Ber- 
lin.    After  her  husband's  succession  to  the 
throne  of  Prussia,  in  1861,  the  Queen  devoted  her 

Augusta 

time  and  energies  to  the  reorganization  of  guilds  of 
women  under  the  Red  Cross.  During  the  campaign 
of  1870-71  the  Red  Cross  Society  in  Germany  alone 
established  677  general  hospitals,  286  private  laza- 
rets, and  innumerable  stations  for  refreshments.  A 
total  of  25,000  men  and  women  were  enrolled,  for 
which  the  Empress  had  the  disposal  of  18,000,000 
thalers. 

Dr.  Dollinger,  the  celebrated  theologian  and 
johann  leader  of  the  Old  Catholic  Party,  died  on  Jan- 
-  uary  10,  in  his  ninety- first  year.  Johann  Ignaz 
Dollinger  entered  the  Church  in  1822,  and  soon 
after  published  the  "Doctrine  of  the  Eucharist 
during  the  First  Three  Centuries,"  a  work  which 
won  him  the  position  of  Lecturer  on  Church  History 
at  the  University  of  Munich.  In  later  years  he 
took  an  active  part  in  the  political  struggles  of 
the  University  in  the  Bavarian  Parliament,  and  as 
delegate  to  the  Diet  of  Frankfort  voted  for  the 
total  separation  of  Church  and  State.  At  the  Ecu- 
menical Council  of  1869-70,  Dr.  Dollinger  became 


1890  Feb.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1711 

famous  throughout  Europe  by  his  opposition  to  the 
doctrine  of  Papal  infallibility.  He  was  excommuni-  ger's1" 
cated  in  1871  by  the  Archbishop  of  Munich.  Anication 
few  months  later  he  was  elected  rector  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Munich,  and,  in  1873,  rector  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Science.  Among  his  numerous  works 
the  most  important  are  "Origins  of  Christianity," 
"A  Sketch  of  Luther,"  "Christianity  and  the 
Church,"  and  "Papal  Legends  of  the  Middle 
Ages."  During  the  last  years  of  his  life  he 
formed  a  warm  friendship  with  Gladstone. 

Most  notable  in  this  year's  events  for  Germany 
was  the  withdrawal  from  public  life  of  Prince  Bis- 
marck. In  January,  he  tendered  his  resignation  as  Bismarck 
Prussian  Prime  Minister  and  Chancellor  of  the  Ger- 
man Empire.  In  February,  the  old  Chancellor  re- 
scinded his  resignation,  but  within  a  month  he  and 
the  young  Emperor  were  once  more  at  odds.  On 
March  18,  Prince  Bismarck's  resignation  from  all  his 
public  posts  was  definitely  accepted.  On  his  re- 
tirement from  public  life  he  was  created  a  Fie)d 
Marshal  and  Duke  of  Lauenburg,  but  he  declined 
both  honors.  General  von  Caprivi  de  Caprera  de  German 

Chancellor 

Montecuculi  was  appointed  as  successor  to  Prince 
Bismarck.  A  few  days  later  Count  Herbert  Bis- 
marck's resignation  as  Foreign  Secretary  was  also 
accepted  by  the  German  Emperor. 

On  February  18,  the  great  Hungarian  statesman, 
Count  Julius  Andrassy,  died  at  Abazzia.  He  was 
born  at  Zemplin,  March  8,  1828.  He  took  part 
in  the  Revolution  of  1848,  and  was  condemned  to 
death,  but  escaped  and  went  into  exile.  When 


1712  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Spring  1890 

self-government  was  restored  to  Hungary,  in  1867, 
he  was  appointed  Premier,  and  became  Imperial 
Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs  in  1871.  He  retired 
from  public  life  in  1879. 

.Numerous   arrests   were    made   at  Paris   by   the 
end  of   April  in  anticipation  of  an  expected   So- 

hj,bo°rpean  cialist  demonstration.  Among  others,  the  Mar- 
quis  de  Mores,  a  French  Eoyalist  of  American 
cowboy  fame,  was  arrested  on  the  charge  of  incit- 
ing the  soldiers  to  revolt  and  of  furnishing  funds 
to  Socialist  organs.  In  May,  several  labor  riots  oc- 
curred. In  London  the  agitation  was  great.  More 
than  200,000  workmen  attended  a  mass  meeting  in 
Hyde  Park. 

In  Eussia,  Madame  Tchevrikova  had  written  a 
letter  to  the  Czar,  which  reflected  on  the  system 
of  government  by  which  the  common  people  were 
oppressed.  Shortly  after  she  was  arrested,  on 
March  8,  the  students  of  the  St.  Petersburg  Uni- 
versity and  the  Academy  of  Agriculture  demanded 
the  re- establishment  of  the  more  liberal  regulations 
of  1863.  Five  hundred  students  were  imprisoned. 
In  consequence  of  this  affair  the  University  and 
Technological  Institute  of  St.  Petersburg  were 
closed  on  April  1  by  the  police.  In  July,  impe-- 
rial  edicts  were  issued  throughout  Eussia  against 
"  the  Jews.  They  were  forbidden  to  hold  land,  were 

tu£fofU~  directed  to  reside  in  towns,  and  were  excluded 
from  certain  cities  where  hitherto  they  had  been 
unmolested. 

In  July,  the  first  great  national  election  to  the 
new  Parliament  in   Japan   and  the  provincial  aa- 


1890  Summer  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1713 

semblies  was  held.  Nearly  eighty-five  per  cent  of 
eligible  voters  availed  themselves  of  the  franchise,  elections' 
A  great  number  of  candidates  ran  for  election. 
When  the  results  were  announced,  it  was  fourfft 
that  almost  all  the  candidates  who  had  in  any  way 
received  government  employment  were  repudiated 
by  the  people.  From  the  very  start  the  govern- 
ment found  itself  confronted  by  a  powerful  op- 
position on  the  floor  of  the  new  Parliament.  Few 
of  the  old  party  leaders  were  chosen  as  standard  ^begun 
bearers  of  the  new  faction.  A  new  code  of  civil 
procedure  and  the  first  portion  of  a  new  civil  code 
of  laws  were  added  to  the  new  criminal  code  pro- 
mulgated in  the  early  eighties. 

Africa  was  repartitioned  among  the  European 
nations.  To  England  was  awarded  the  sultanate  Reparti. 
of  Zanzibar  and  an  extensive  strip  of  territory  1$ Africa 
the  north  of  the  German  West  African  possessions. 
France  was  placated  by  dominion  over  all  the  oases 
of  the  Sahara,  and  the  northwest  portion  of  the  Sou- 
dan, extending  from  her  possessions  on  the  west 
coast  as  far  as  Lake  Tschad.  In  return  for  German 
concessions  Heligoland  was  ceded  to  Germany.  A 
few  days  afterward  the  German  Emperor,  attended 
by  his  fleet,  assumed  sovereignty  over  the  island. 
Meanwhile,  in  Zanzibar,  the  Sultan  issued  a  decree 
by  which  slavery  was  practically  abolished,  and 
slave  trading  was  made  a  penal  offence.  Three 
months  later,  on  November  7,  the  British  protec- 
torate over  Zanzibar  was  formally  proclaimed,  and 
the  Union  Jack  was  hoisted,  together  with  the 
Sultan's  flag,  over  his  palace. 


1714  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1890 

At  home,  Englishmen  were  mourning  the  death 
cudhiaf  of  Cardinal  John  Henry  Newman.  That  distin- 
guished prelate  died  on  August  13.  Newman  was 
born  in  1801.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  at 
Oxford.  He  was  appointed  vice- principal  of  St. 
Alban's  Hall  under  Dr.  Whately  (afterward  Arch- 
bishop) and  became  Incumbent  for  St.  Mary's,  Ox- 
ford, and  Chaplain  of  Littlemore.  During  the 
early  thirties  he  took  part  with  Keble,  Pusey,  and 
"Oxford  Froude  in  originating  the  Oxford  movement.  He 
became  a  leader  of  the  propaganda  for  High  Church 
doctrines,  and  contributed  largely  to  the  celebrated 
' '  Tracts  for  the  Times. ' '  The  last  of  these,  on  the 
"Elasticity  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,"  was  cen- 
sured by  the  authorities  of  Oxford,  causing  New- 
man's  resignation  of  his  livings  in  1843.  Two 
years  later  he  joined  the  Church  of  Eome.  Or- 
dained a  priest  of  that  Church,  he  was  succes- 
sively head  of  the  Oratory  of  St.  Philip  Neri  at 
Birmingham,  rector  of  the  University  Chapel  at 
Dublin,  1854-58,  and  principal  of  the  Catholic 
school  at  Edgbaston.  In  1879,  he  was  created 
a  Cardinal.  Newman's  fame  rests  on  his  written 

"Apologia  111  i       • 

pro  vita     works,    notably    the       Apologia    pro    vita    sua, 
1864,  and  the  reply  to   Gladstone  on  the  Vatican 
decrees  in  1875.     Newman  will  long  be  remembered 
for  this  most  beautiful  of  his  religious  poems: 

Lead,  kindly  Light,  amid  the  encircling  gloom 
Lead  Thou  me  on ! 

kindly'  The  night  is  dark,  and  I  am  far  from  home; 

Light"  Lead  Thou  me  on ! 

Keep  Thou  my  feet;  I  do  not  ask  to  see 
The  distant  scene ;  one  step  enough  for  me. 


1890  Summer  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1715 

I  was  not  ever  thus,  nor  prayed  that  Thou 

Shouldst  lead  me  on ; 
I  loved  to  choose  and  see  my  path ;  but  now 

Lead  Thou  me  on ! 

I  loved  the  garish  day,  and,  spite  of  fears, 
Pride  ruled  my  will.     Remember  not  past  years! 

So  long  Thy  power  hath  blest  me,  sure  it  still 

Will  lead  me  on 
O'er  moor  and  fen,  o'er  crag  and  torrent,  till 

The  night  is  gone, 

And  with  the  morn  those  angel  faces  smile 
"Which  I  have  loved  long  since,  and  lost  awhile! 

On    October    20,    Sir    Eichard    Burton    died    at 
Trieste.     This  famous  explorer  was  born  in  1821.  sir  Richard 

Burton 

He  studied  Oriental  languages  and  in  1853  he  was 
enabled  to  visit  Mecca  and  Medina  disguised  as 
a  Mohammedan  pilgrim.  After  serving  in  the 
Crimean  war  he  made  a  journey  to  East  Africa 
with  Captain  Speke,  which  led  to  the  discovery 
of  the  great  lake  at  Tanganyika.  He  wrote  several 
books  of  travel,  a  magnificent  "History  of  the 
Sword, ' '  and  translated  the  dramas  of  Camoens  and 
"The  Thousand  and  One  Nights." 

During  summer  new  Turkish  outrages  had  been 
reported  from  Armenia.  A  search  for  arms  in  an 
Armenian  church  at  Erzeroum  was  followed  by 
riots.  In  July,  a  serious  fight  occurred  in  the 
Armenian  quarter  of  Constantinople.  A  crowd  of  Armenian 
Armenians  mobbed  the  Patriarch  at  Constantinople,  ances 
Turkish  troops  restored  order,  but  not  before  the 
Patriarch  had  suffered  serious  maltreatment.  This 
affair  was  followed  by  fresh  outrages  against  the 
Christian  population  of  Crete  on  the  part  of  the 
Turkish  troops  in  Sphakia.  Atrocities  were  also 


1716  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  18W 

committed  by  the  Kurds  against  the  Armenians  in 
the  Tiflis  district.  During  the  following  month 
half  of  Salonica  was  laid  in  ashes.  The  fire  left 
18,000  persons  homeless.  At  Mecca  the  pilgrims 
once  more  suffered  from  the  epidemic  of  cholera. 
Serious  political  disturbances  broke  out  in  Swit- 

sw7tzer-n  zerland-  They  began  in  the  Canton  of  Ticino,  in 
consequence  of  the  government's  refusal  to  submit 
to  the  people  the  question  of  a  revision  of  the  con- 
stitution. At  Bellinzona,  the  seat  of  the  govern- 
ment, revolution  broke  out  in  September.  Two 
members  of  the  government  were  seized,  one  of 
whom  was  shot.  A  provisional  government  was 
proclaimed,  to  which  the  chief  towns  of  the  can- 
ton rallied.  The  Federal  government  despatched 
1,500  soldiers  to  restore  order. 

The  five  republics  of  Central  America  resolved 
in  April  to  unite  under  one  President,  with  a  Cab- 

Amefican  inet  °^  nve  members  and  a  Diet  of  fifteen.  The 
new  State  came  into  official  existence  by  the  middle 
of  September.  In  July,  a  revolution  broke  out  in 
the  city  of  Buenos  Ayres.  The  government  troops 
were  repulsed  in  the  streets  of  the  city.  President 
Celman,  after  having  been  wounded,  took  refuge 
in  the  interior.  A  provisional  government  was  pro- 
claimed. Hostilities  continued  for  several  days  and 
more  than  1,000  persons  were  killed  and  wounded 
on  both  sides.  After  these  events  Dr.  Celman 's 
resignation  was  received  with  satisfaction  through- 

Revoiu-      out  Argentina.     In  November,  a  revolution  broke 

tionary 

move-        out  in  Honduras,  under  the  leadership  of  General 

meats 

Sanchez,   who  succeeded  in  capturing  the   citadel 


1890  Autumn  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1717 

and  the  arsenal  of  Tegnicagalpa.  He  was  besieged 
in  turn,  and  after  some  desperate  fighting  was  cap- 
tured and  shot. 

In  North  America,  early  in  the  year,  an  Extra- 
dition Treaty  with  Great  Britain  had  been  drawn 
up  by  the  representatives  of  the  two  Powers  at 
Washington.  It  was  unanimously  ratified  after  a 
few  amendments  by  the  United  States  Senate. 
Congress,  after  many  ballots,  determined  that  Chi- 
cago should  be  the  site  of  the  World's  Fair  in  1892 
in  honor  of  the  four  hundredth  Columbian  anni- 
versary. In  May,  the  House  of  Representatives 
passed  a  new  tariff  bill  maintaining  the  protective 
system  and  raising  rates  on  certain  articles.  After 
a  lengthy  conference  between  members  of  the  two 
Houses,  an  arrangement  was  arrived  at  concern- 
ing the  so-called  McKinley  tariff  measure.  Onsherman 
July  14,  the  Sherman  bill  was  approved.  It  pro-81 
vided  that  there  should  be  a  monthly  purchase  of 
4,500,000  ounces  of  silver,  with  certificates  to  be 
issued  as  a  full  legal  tender;  that  2,000,000  ounces 
should  be  coined  monthly  until  July  1,  1891;  after 
that  date  so  much  coin  as  should  be  necessary  to 
redeem  outstanding  certificates. 

The  death  of  Ericsson,  the  noted  naval  construc- 
tor, was  commemorated  by  the  Government  of  the 
United  States,  for  which  he  had  done  his  best 
work.  His  body  was  taken  back  to  Sweden  on  an 
American  man-of-war.  In  Utah,  in  October,  the 
Mormon  Elders,  after  a  conference  of  several  weeks, 

Mormons 

produced  a  new  declaration  wherein  they  abandoned 
the  system  of  polygamy.  On  November  2,  North 


1718  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Dec.  1890 

Dakota  was  admitted  as  the  thirty -ninth  State,  and 
American  South  Dakota  as  the  fortieth;  on  November  8, 
Montana  as  the  forty- first  State,  and  on  November 
11,  Washington  as  the  forty-second.  President 
Harrison  in  his  first  message  stated  that  the 
American  revenues  of  the  previous  year  exceeded 
the  expenses  by  over  $1,500,000,  and  that  for  the 
pending  year  they  would  be  $83,000,000  in  excess. 
He  favored  the  revision  of  the  tariff. 

The  gradual  evolution  of  the  bicycle,  from  high- 
wheeled  velocipedes  to ' ' safeties' '  and  "drop  frames, ' ' 
had  increased  the  number  of  bicyclists.  Now,  the 
application  of  pneumatic  rubber  tires  to  the  new 
safety  bicycle  gave  such  a  powerful  impetus  to  the 
new  sport  that  it  assumed  the  proportions  of  a  popu- 
lar craze.  The  manufacture  of  bicycles  and  of  their 
parts  increased  amazingly.  Women  began  to  ride. 

The  Sioux  and  Cheyenne  Indians,  in  all  1,500 
warriors,  gave  evidence  of  hostile  intentions  in  South 
Dakota.  For  several  weeks  ghost  dances  were  held. 
Early  in  December,  an  outbreak  occurred  at  Stand- 
ing Rock.  Federal  troops  had  to  be  summoned. 
By  the  end  of  December,  after  severe  fighting  near 
Porcupine  and  Pine  Ridge,  in  South  Dakota,  the 
hostile  Indians  under  Big  Foot  were  routed,  and 
seven  hundred  were  taken  prisoners. 

Heinrich   Schliemann,  the  German   archeologist, 
„  .   .  .     died   December  27,    at   Naples.     He  was   born   in 

Hemnch 

ESS"  Neu  Buckow,  January  6,  1822,  and  after  having 
made  a  fortune  in  commercial  pursuits,  he  trav- 
elled widely  and  commenced  a  series  of  archeolog- 
ical.  investigations  in  the  East.  In  1869,  he  pub- 


1890  Dec.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1719 

lished  at  Paris  his  "Ithaca,"  "The  Peloponnesus," 
"Troy,"  and  "Archeological  Researches,"  an  ac- 
count of  his  travels  in  these  regions.  This  was  fol-  schiie- 

rnann's 

lowed  in  1874  by  his  "Trojan  Antiquities,"  giving  works 
the  results  of  his  researches  and  excavations  on  the 
plateau  of  Hissarlik,  the  reputed  site  of  ancient 
Troy.  His  "Mycenae,"  a  narrative  of  researches 
and  discoveries  of  Mycenae  and  Tiryns,  was  pub- 
lished in  1877,  with  a  preface  by  Gladstone.  His 
"Troja,"  1883,  and  his  "Tiryns,"  1886,  are  in  a 
measure  supplementary  to  his  earlier  works  on 
Troy  and  Mycenae. 


1720  A   HISTORY   OF    THE  1891 


1891 

ARCHDUKE   Johann   Nepomuck   Salvator  of 
Austria  was  lost  at  sea  in  January.     After 
renouncing  his  title  and  completely  sever 
ing  his  connection  with  the  House  of  Hapsburg, 
Orth         Johann  Orth,  as  he  called  himself,  had  sailed  from 
Hamburg  to  Buenos  Ayres  in  1890.     He  set  out  for 
Valparaiso,  but  neither  he   nor  his  ship  was  ever 
heard  of  again.     He  was  a  man  of  unusual  intel- 
lectual powers,  and  had  made  a  reputation  as  the 
author  of  a  number  of  trenchant  military  treatises. 
In  Chile,  the  conflict  between  President  Balma- 
chiieans     ceda  and  Congress  ripened  into  a  revolution.     On 
Bahnacedathe  first  day  of  January,  the  opposition  members 
of    the   Senate   and   House    of    Deputies  met  and 
signed  an  act  declaring  the  President  unworthy  of 
his  office.     On  January  5,  the  navy  declared  itself 
in  favor  of  the  Legislature  and  against  the  Presi- 
dent.    The  President   denounced  this   as  treason, 
declared  himself  dictator,   and  proclaimed  martial 
law.     On  January  6,  six  ironclads  put  out  to  sea. 
The   squadron   seized  every  steamer  carrying  the 
Chilean  flag.     President  Balmaceda  was  left  with- 
out a  seagoing  warship  on  the  coast.  ^  The  revolu- 
tionists made   full  use   of   their  formidable  naval 
advantage.     The  smaller  garrisons   in   the  various 


1891  Spring  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1721 

nitrate  ports  were  compelled  to  surrender.  The 
foreign  consuls  at  Valparaiso  would  not  permit  a 
trade  blockade  of  that  port.  The  war  opened  with 
more  or  less  desultory  engagements.  On  the  morn-  Civil  war 
ing  of  January  16,  the  lands  forts  of  Valparaiso11101 
opened  fire  on  the  ironclad  "Blanco"  and  nearly 
sank  her.  Of  the  nitrate  ports,  Iquique  was  the 
first  to  be  attacked.  The  town  held  out  for  a  full 
month.  Eear- Admiral  Hotham  of  the  British  Pa- 
cific squadron  invited  the  rival  commanders  to 
a  conference  on  board  his  flagship,  and  got  them 
to  agree  to  an  armistice.  On  the  following  day, 
Colonel  Soto  evacuated  the  town  with  his  garri- 
son. The  richest  of  the  nitrate  ports  was  thus  lost 
to  Balmaceda.  During  the  night  of  April  23,  two 
Balmacedist  torpedo  gunboats  ran  into  the  harbor 
of  Oaldera  and  there  sank  the  rebel  ironclad  The 
"Blanco"  in  two  minutes.  This  was  the  first  oc-sunk 
casion  on  which  a  Whitehead  torpedo  was  success- 
fully employed  against  an  ironclad.  By  the  end  of 
August,  a  decisive  battle  was  fought  at  Placilla 
near  Santiago.  Balmaceda's  forces  were  completely 
routed  after  five  hours'  hard  fighting  with  a  loss  pia'cm^' 
of  1,500  men.  Santiago  de  Chile  capitulated  and 
the  triumph  of  the  Congressional  party  was  com- 
plete. Balmaceda,  who  had  taken  refuge  at  the 
Argentine  Legation  in  Santiago,  committed  sui- 
cide. The  news  was  received  with  manifest  relief 
throughout  Chile.  On  the  19th  of  November,  End  of 
Admiral  Jorge  Montt  was  chosen  President  of 
Chile,  and  on  Christmas  Day  he  was  installed  with 
great  ceremony.  In  the  Argentine  Eepublic,  out- 


1722  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  Dec.  1891 

breaks  occurred  throughout  the  entire  year,  caused 
by  political  dissension  and  aggravated  by  business 
depression. 

During  the  revolution  in  Chile  a  serious  conflict 

occurred  at  Valparaiso  in  October  between  United 

States  sailors  and  a  Chilean  mob.     In  reply  to  Mr. 

Elaine's  demand  for   indemnity  and   apology,   the 

The          Chilean   Government   stated    that  the    matter   was 

"Itata" 

incident  One  which  concerned  the  jurisdiction  and  author- 
ity of  Chile,  and  would  be  duly  investigated  in  her 
courts.  Previous  to  this  another  international  com- 
plication had  arisen  from  a  determined  attempt  of 
the  Chilean  warship  "Itata, "  to  evade  the  neutrality 
laws  of  the  United  States.  The  matter  was  finally 
adjusted  by  arbitration. 

In  Portugal,  a  republican  rising  at  Oporto  oc- 
cupied the  attention  of  the  government.  On  Janu- 
ary 31,  the  insurgents,  supported  by  some  of  Dom 
Pedro's  followers,  .who  had  returned  from  Bra- 
zil, laden  with  spoil,  attempted  to  get  possession 
of  the  barracks.  Foiled  in  their  attempt,  they 
seized  the  town  hall  and  proclaimed  a  republic. 
The  royal  palace  was  bombarded,  but  at  length 

oporto ln  *ke  royal  troops  attacked  the  rioters  and  drove 
them  back  with  heavy  loss.  One  hundred  lives 
were  lost  and  500  persons  taken  prisoners. 

On  December  4,  the  ex- Emperor  of  Brazil,  Dom 
Pedro  II.  De  Alcantara,  a  lineal  descendant  of  the 
three  most  ancient  royal  houses  of  Europe — Haps- 
burg,  Braganza  and  Bourbon — died  at  Paris.  He 
was  born  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  December  2,  1825,  and 
succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  abdication  of  his 


1891  Nov.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1723 

father,  Dom  Pedro  I.  In  1843,  lie  married  the  Prin- 
cess Theresa  Christina  Maria,  sister  of  Francis  I., 
King  of  Naples.  He  outlived  her  only  by  one  year. 
Brazil  prospered  greatly  under  his  rule,  for  he  did  Death  of 
much  to  develop  his  country's  resources  in  every  n?mP 
direction.  In  1871,  he  issued  an  imperial  decree 
for  the  gradual  abolition  of  slavery.  This  resulted 
in  total  emancipation  by  May,  1888.  The  same  re- 
form, more  suddenly  effected,  cost  North  America 
rivers  of  blood.  The  Emperor  and  his  consort  were 
alike  distinguished  for  their  intellectual  and  moral 
endowments  and  their  affectionate  interest  in  the 
welfare  of  their  subjects.  Dom  Pedro  was  a  liberal 
patron  of  letters,  art,  science,  industry,  and  com- 
merce. During  his  reign,  enterprises  of  social  and 
commercial  character  greatly  multiplied  and  public 
instruction  received  a  vigorous  impulse.  His  dep- 

r    His  liberal 

osition,  in  1889,  was  barren  of  good  consequences. rule 
The    news    of    Dom    Pedro's    death    caused   much 
sorrow    among    Brazilians,    who    realized    too    late 
the  excellence  of  their  former  Emperor. 

The  Kepublican  government  of  Brazil  went  to 
pieces  at  the  first  serious  encounter.  Late  this 
same  year,  when  the  Brazilian  Congress  passed, 
over  the  President's  veto,  a  law  providing  for 
the  impieachment  of  the  President,  that  body  was 
dissolved  by  the  President,  Marshal  Deodoro  da 
Fonseca.  He  declared  himself  dictator  and  pro- 
claimed martial  law  at  Rio.  On  November  23,  an  Revolution 

in  Brazil 

insurrection  broke  out  at  Rio  de  Janeiro.  The 
navy  took  the  popular  side.  Fonseca,  finding 
resistance  hopeless,  resigned,  and  General  Peixoto 


1724:  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Jan.  1891 

was  installed  in  his  place  without  further  blood- 
shed. 

in  North  America,  the  Bering  Sea  litigation, 
involving .  the  question  of  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
United  States  over  the  high  seas  at  a  distance 
of  fifty-nine  miles,  had  been  taken  to  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court  early  in  the  year,  to  be  de- 
cided in  a  "friendly  lawsuit."  This  was  done  on 
a  motion  to  annul  the  proceedings  of  the  District 

Bering 

iitf  ation  Court  at  Sitka.  Later,  on  the  reassembling  of  the 
Supreme  Court  at  Washington,  and  the  resumption 
of  the  "W.  P.  Say  ward"  case,  the  Attorney -General 
announced  that  an  agreement  had  been  reached  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  regard- 
ing the  terms  on  which  the  differences  respecting  the 
Bering  Sea  seal  fisheries  were  to  be  submitted  to  ar- 
bitration. General  Brooke  was  succeeded  at  the  Pine 
Ridge  Indian  Agency,  in  South  Dakota,  by  General 
Miles.  The  Ninth  Cavalry  arrived  there  just  in 
time  to  prevent  the  massacre  of  their  white  com- 
Miiesat  rades  by  the  Indians.  General  Miles  encircled  the 
Pine  Ridge  jn(jjans  wjth  troops  to  starve  them  into  submis- 
sion. Pine  Ridge  was  menaced  by  3,000  hostiles, 
but  after  three  days  of  negotiation,  on  January 
15,  the  Indians  surrendered. 

George  Bancroft,  the  great  historian  of  the  early 
period  of  the  American  people,  died  on  January  17. 
His  career  was  all  but  coeval  with  that  of  the  Nine- 
Death  of    teenth  Century.     Born  in  1800,  he  associated  in  his 

Bancroft 

youth  with  those  who  had  known  George  Washing- 
ton and  Frederick  the  Great.  After  graduating  at 
Harvard,  he  studied  at  Gottingen.  Returning  to 


1891  Feb.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1725 

America,  lie  became  a  tutor  at  Harvard  College. 
The  first  volume  of  his  great  American  history- 
appeared  in  1834,  and  was  at  once  recognized  as 
authoritative.  Having  entered  into  politics,  Ban- 
croft's distinguished  services  for  his  party  were 
recognized  by  his  appointment  as  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  under  President  Polk.  As  such  he  founded 
the  United  States  Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis. 
It  was  Bancroft  who,  while  temporarily  holding  the 
office  of  Secretary  of  War,  gave  to  General  Zachary 
Taylor  the  order  to  advance  to  the  Rio  Grande — a  ilerr?cesic 
step  which  precipitated  the  Mexican  War.  Toward 
the  close  of  1846  he  was  made  Minister  to  Great 
Britain.  During  -the  American  Civil  War,  Ban- 
croft was  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  of  those 
war  Democrats  who  rallied  to  the  support  of  Lin- 
coln. In  1866,  he  pronounced  his  great  eulogy  on 
Lincoln  before  both  Houses  of  Congress.  In  May, 
1867,  he  was  appointed  Minister  to  Prussia;  in  the 
following  year  he  was  accredited  to  the  North- 
German  Confederation;  and  in  1871  to  the  German 
Empire,  from  which  he  was  recalled  at  his  own 
request,  in  1874.  It  was  thus  his  lot  to  witness  the 
growth  of  Germany  and  her  development  into  the  Germany 
strongest  State  in  Europe.  Having  retired  from 
public  life,  Bancroft  devoted  his  last  years  to  a 
thorough  revision  of  his  great  colonial  history,  an 
imperishable  monument  which  has  placed  his  name 
among  those  of  the  great  historians  of  the  cen- 
tury. 

On  February  13,  Admiral  Porter  of  the  American 
navy  died  at  his  home.     David  Porter  was  born  in 


1726  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Feb.  1891 

Chester,  Pennsylvania,  in  1813.  When  fourteen 
David  °f  years  of  age  he  served  as  midshipman  in  the  Mexi- 
can navy.  At  sixteen  he  entered  the  United  States 
navy.  He  took  part  in  many  engagements  during 
the  Mexican  War.  As  Captain  in  the  Civil  War, 
he  was  present  at  the  capture  of  Fort  Henry.  He 
distinguished  himself  with  Farragut  at  New  Orleans 
and  Vicksburg,  where  he  rendered  invaluable  ser- 
vice to  Grant  with  his  ironclads.  Three  times  in 
succession  he  was  thanked  by  Congress  for  his 
patriotic  services.  After  the  close  of  the  war  he 
served  as  Vice- Admiral  until  1869,  and  as  super- 
intendent of  the  Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis.  On 
the  death  of  Farragut,  in  1870,  Porter  succeeded 
him  as  Admiral. 

Twenty- four  hours  after  David  Porter  died  came 
the  death  of  General  Sherman,  another  hero  of  the 
American  Civil  War.  William  Tecumseh  Sherman 
TSSeh  was  born  in  Mancaster,  Ohio,  February  8,  1820. 
He  graduated  from  West  Point  in  1840.  He  saw 
active  service  in  Florida,  but  was  transferred  to 
the  Pacific  Coast,  where  he  served  until  1850,  when 
he  retired  to  civil  life  until  1860.  He  commanded 
a  brigade  at  Bull  Kun,  took  the  Fifth  division 
after  the  capture  of  Donelson,  commanded  at  Shi- 
loh,  Vicksburg,  Chattanooga,  and  Atlanta,  and 
when  Grant  became  General-in-Chief,  succeeded 
him  as  Lieutenant-General  to  conduct  the  South- 
ern campaign.  It  was  then  that  he  made  his  fa- 
mous March  to  the  Sea.  General  Sherman's  name 
is  linked  with  those  of  the  foremost  soldiers  of 
the  American  Civil  War — Grant,  Lee,  Sheridan, 


1891  April  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1727 

Jackson,  Thomas,  Johnston,  and  Meade.     He  was 
buried  at  St.  Louis. 

Another  general  of  world-wide  renown  died  at 
Berlin  on  April  24  —  Field-  Marshal  von  Moltke.  Death  of 
He  was  born  at  Parshim  in  Mecklenburg,  Octo-  M 
ber  26,  1800.  Having  entered  the  Danish  army  in 
1819,  he  left  this  service  for  that  of  Prussia  in  1822, 
and  became  a  staff  officer  in  1832.  In  1835,  he  was 
called  to  Constantinople  to  reform  the  Turkish 
army,  and  saw  service  during  the  Syrian  cam- 
paign against  Mehemet  Ali,  in  1839.  He  returned 
to  Prussia  and  became  colonel  of  the  staff  in  1851, 
and  equerry  to  the  Crown  Prince  in  1855.  In  1858, 
as  provisional  director  of  the  general  staff,  he  acted 
in  unison  with  Von  Eoon  and  Bismarck,  in  the  vast 
plans  of  military  reorganization  soon  afterward  car- 
ried out.  The  plan  of  the  Danish  War  of  1864  is 
declared  to  have  emanated  from  him,  as  did  also 
that  of  the  swift  Austrian-  Prussian  campaign  of 
1866,  and  that  of  the  Franco-  Prussian  War 


Thinker" 

1870-71.  After  the  successes  of  that  great  war, 
he  was  appointed  Field-  Marshal  and  made  a  Count. 
He  retired  from  the  direction  of  the  Prussian  gen- 
eral staff  in  1888.  His  best  known  works  are 
"Letters  from  Turkey,  1835-39,"  a  critical  military 
work  on  the  "Russian-Turkish  Campaign  of  1828-29 
in  Europe  and  Turkey,"  and  his  contribuiions  to 
the  great  publications  of  the  German  general  staff. 
Moltke  was  a  taciturn  man  of  iron  constitution, 
capable  of  unintermittent  mental  work,  flis  plans 
were  well  weighed,  his  warfare  was  waged  boldly 
and  sternly  with  a  sole  view  to  success. 


1728  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Spring  1891 

By  the  death  of  Meissonier,  on  the  last  day  of 
January,  one  of  the  foremost  artists  of  the  century- 
was  lost  to  France.  Born  at  Lyons  in  1818,  Jean 

Death  of  I^0^8  Ernest  Meissonier  began  to  exhibit  his  first 
3r  miniature  paintings  of  genre  subjects  in  1836,  while 
he  was  still  a  pupil  of  Le'on  Cogniet.  From  the 
first  his  paintings  had  a  great  success.  After 
the  initial  success  of  his  "Little  Messenger"  and 
"La  Partie  des  Boules, "  Louis  Napoleon  purchased 
his  "Dream"  for  20, 000  francs.  Meissonier's  famous 
historical  paintings,  "Solferino"  and  "The  Emperor 
and  his  Staff,"  were  incorporated  in  the  Luxem- 
bourg Gallery.  The  "Cavalry  Charge"  (1867)  was 
purchased  by  Mr.  Probasco  of  Cincinnati  for  150,000 
francs,  while  his  picture  of  The  Battle  of  Fried- 
land,  called  "1807,"  now  in  the  Metropolitan  Mu- 
seum at  New  York,  was  purchased  by  the  American 
millionnaire,  Stewart,  for  more  than  300,000  francs. 
The  complete  list  of  Meissonier's  works  is  very 
long,  as  is  that  of  his  etchings  and  illustrations. 

The  American  Congress,  after  a  continuous  ses- 
sion of  more  than  twenty-four  hours,  March  4,  dur- 
ing which  bills  were  disposed  of  as  rapidly  as  their 

copyright   titles   could    be  read,    passed   the   Copyright   Bill, 

reform 

by  which  the  rights  of  foreign  authors  to  their 
works,  if  published  within  the  United  States,  were 
recognized  for  the  first  time.  According  to  the 
proclamation  issued  on  July  1,  Great  Britain, 
France,  Belgium  and  Switzerland  were  admitted 
to  the  benefits  of  the  new  American  Copyright 
Act. 
Eelations  were  strained  between  the  United  States 


1891  Spring  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1729 

and  Italy,  owing  to  the  brutal  massacre  of  a  number 
of  Italians  at  New  Orleans.     The  men  in  question 
were  charged  with  the  murder  of  Chief  of  Police 
Hennessy  of   New  Orleans.     They  were   acquitted 
by  a  jury.     A  mob  attacked  the  jail.     They  shot 
nine  of  the  Italians  and  hanged  two.     In  May,  the 
Grand  Jury  of  New  Orleans  returned  a  presentment  Qrilans 
indicting  six  Italians  for  alleged  bribery  of  the  jury  massacre 
which  tried  the  men  charged  with  the  murder  of 
Hennessy.     It  declared  furthermore  that  of  the  men 
lynched  in  prison  eight  at  least  were  American  citi- 
zens.    Baron  Fava's  representations  to  obtain  re- 
dress at  Washington  were  answered  by  a  statement 
from  Mr.  Elaine,  that  the  American  Federal  Gov- 
ernment had  no  power  to  interfere  with  the  local 
administration  of  justice  in  the  several  States  com-  Friction 
posing  the  Union.     In  exasperation,  Italy  recalled Wlth  Itajy 
her  Minister  and  ceased  all  diplomatic  intercourse 
with  the  United  States  of  America. 

The  first  execution  of  a  criminal  by  electricity 
was  performed  about  this  time  at  the  prison  of  Sing 
Sing  in  New  York.     It  was  certified  by  experts  and  cutioa" 
officials  that  death  from  a  powerful  electric  shock 
thus  administered  was  painless  and  instantaneous. 

On  August  12,  the  American  poet  Lowell  died 
at  Blmwood,  Massachusetts.  James  Kussell  Lowell 
was  born  in  Massachusetts,  and  was  graduated  at  Death  of 

Lowell 

Harvard  College  in  1838.  While  still  a  law  student 
he  began  his  career  as  a  poet  in  1841,  when  he  pub- 
lished ' '  A  Year's  Life. ' '  In  1844,  he  published  ' '  A 
Legend  of  Brittany, ' '  and  during  the  same  year  he 
was  married  to  Maria  White.  His  sonnets  to  Maria 


1730  A    HISTORY    OF   THE  1891 

White  were  the  precursors  of  his  noblest  lyric 
effusions.  "Conversations  on  the  Old  Poets"  and 
the  "Vision  of  Sir  Launfal"  appeared  in  the  follow- 
ing year.  Three  years  later  he  brought  out  a  new 
series  of  verses  and  also  published  his  "Fable  for 
Critics,"  one  of  the  wittiest  of  American  satires. 
During  the  Mexican  war  Lowell  wrote  his  "Biglow 
Papers, ' '  a  series  of  invective  poems  in  the  Yankee 
"The  dialect  directed  against  the  pro-slavery  party  and 
Papers"  tne  Southern  war  party.  The  success  of  the  "Big- 
low  Papers"  was  immediate.  During  the  American 
Civil  War,  Lowell  wrote  a  second  series,  less  amusing 
perhaps,  but  pitched  on  a  higher  plane  of  antipathy 
and  pathos.  With  them  appeared  Lowell's  excel- 
lent essay  on  the  Yankee  dialect.  The  poet  had 
been  previously  appointed  Professor  of  Modern 
Literature  at  Harvard  College,  succeeding  Long- 
fellow. While  thus  engaged  he  helped  to  found 
the  "Atlantic  Monthly."  Later  he  was  co- editor 
with  Charles  Eliot  Norton  of  the  "North  American 
Keview. "  After  the  Civil  War,  at  a  great  open- 
air  meeting  held  in  the  yard  of  Harvard  College, 
memora-  the  poet  recited  his  great  "Commemoration  Ode" 

UOD  Ode" 

in  honor  of  the  sons  of  Harvard  slain  in  the  Civil 
War.  Three  noble  odes  were  written  by  Lowell 
for  the  Centennial  celebrations  of  the  early  battles 
of  the  American  Revolution  and  the  Declaration  of 
Independence.  "Under  the  Willows"  and  "The 
Cathedral,"  two  poems  of  great  spiritual  beauty, 
appeared  in  1869.  Lowell's  essays  have  been  col- 
Loweir»  lected  in  four  volumes:  "The  Fireside  Travels" 

essays 

(1864),    "Among    My   Books"   (1870),    "A  Second 


1891  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  1731 

Series"  <1876),  "My  Study  Windows'"  (1871).  In 
1877,  Lowell  was  sent  as  American  Minister  to 
Spain,  and  in  1881  was  transferred  to  the  Court 
of  St.  James.  No  Minister  from  the  United  States 
ever  had  a  warmer  welcome  in  Great  Britain.  He 
was  esteemed  as  a  poet  rather  than  as  an  official 
Ambassador.  Specially  appreciated  was  his  poetic 
contribution  on  the  "Alabama"  affair — a  half  Embassy 
humorous,  dialogue  in  New  England  dialect  en- 
titled "Jonathan  to  John."  Lowell  remained  in 
England  until  1885.  His  addresses  and  after-dinner 
speeches  were  published  in  1887,  under  the  title 
"Democracy  and  other  Addresses."  In  1889  ap- 
peared Lowell's  last  volume  of  verse,  "Heartsease 
and  Eue."  It  contained  "Fitz- Adam's  Story"  and 
"The  Nest."  The  closing  years  of  the  poet's  life 
were  spent  at  his  home  in  Massachusetts  in  the 
company  of  his  daughter. 

Other  prominent  Americans  who  died  during  the 
year  were  Generals  J.  E.  Johnston  and  Lee  of  Civil 
War  fame,  Fanny  Davenport  and  Florence,  the 
actors,  and  William  Windom  the  financier. 

Robert   Edward   Lee,    the   foremost   hero  of   the 

General 

Confederacy,  was  born  in  Virginia,  in  1807,  the  son  ^|r 
of  "Light  Horse   Harry"    of  Revolutionary  fame. 
Graduating   from   West   Point,    in   1829,    Lee   first 
came   into   prominence   when   he  suppressed  John 
Brown's  raid  at  Harper's   Ferry.      He   saw  active 
service  as  chief  officer  of  engineers  in  the  Mexican 
War.     His  abilities  won  the  special  commendation 
of  General  Scott,  who  attributed  the  fall  of  VeraInMexico 
Cruz  to  Lee's  engineering  skill.     At  the  outbreak 


1732  A   HISTORY  OF   THE  18OT 

of  the  Civil  War  General  Scott  wanted  H,o  make 
Lee  chief  commander  of  the  Union  army,  but  on 
the  secession  of  Virginia,  Lee  resigned  his  commis- 
sion and  cast  his  lot  with  his  native  State.  Hie 
remarkable  abilities  were  not  recognized  at  first 
Defeated  at  Cheat  Mountain  with  insufficient  forces 
in  1861,  he  was  recalled  by  Jefferson  Davis.  In 
the  summer  of  1862,  when  Lee  supplanted  John- 

Campaign 

of  the        ston  as  commander  of  the  Army  of  Northern  Vir- 

Peniusula 

ginia,  the  great  captain  had  an  opportunity  at  last 
to  reveal  his  pre-eminent  military  talents.  For 
nearly  five  years  he  held  the  immeasurably  su- 
perior armies  of  the  North  at  bay,  and  repeatedly 
led  his  outnumbered  forces  to  victory.  Without 
him,  the  Confederacy  would  have  collapsed  much 
sooner  than  it  did;  whereas  the  Union  side,  had 

Lg^a         it  been  able  to  command  the  services  of  so  skilful 
itesy     a  strategist,  must  inevitably  have  put  a  quick  end 
to  the  so  long  protracted  struggle. 

During  this  year  an  additional  section  covering 
almost   800,000    acres    of  the   Indian   Territory  of 

Oklahoma  Oklahoma  was  thrown  open.  An  immediate  rush 
for  allotments  was  made  by  some  15,000  persons 
who  had  assembled  on  the  borders. 

The  Triple  Alliance  of  Germany,  Austria- Hungary 

Alliance  and  Italy  was  renewed,  and  thus  the  international 
politics  of  Europe  were  kept  in  the  same  channel. 
In  French  affairs  the  Bonaparte  family  met  at 
Moncalieri  formally  to  recognize  Prince  Victor  as 
their  head  shortly  after  the  death  of  his  father, 
Prince  Napoleon,  second  son  of  Frederika  of  Wur- 
temberg,  and  cousin  of  Napoleon  III.  He  figured 


1891  Sept.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1733 

in  Corsica,  the  Italian  campaign,  the  Crimean  War, 
Algiers,  and  the  Franco- Prussian  War,  and  in  in- 
numerable other  affairs  of  State  under  the  Empire. 
A  French  writer  has  called  him  the  most  brilliant 
failure  of  the  century. 

On  September  9,  Jules  GreVy  died  at  his  birth- 
place, Mont- sous- Vaudrey  in  the  Jura,  in  complete 
retirement  and  almost  forgotten  by  his  former  sup- 
porters. He  figured  prominently  under  the  Admin- 
istrations of  M.  Thiers  and  Marshal  MacMahon.  For 
seven  years  he  was  so  much  in  evidence  that,  on 
the  fall  of  MacMahon  in  1879,  he  found  himself 
without  effort  installed  as  President  of  the  French 
Kepublic.  Gr6Vy  clung  to  the  Presidency  after  it 
had  been  made  clear  to  him  that  no  party  was  pre- 
pared to  stand  by  him.  His  fall  in  1887  was  inevi- 
table. He  was  in  no  sense  a  great  man,  but  was 
honest  to  the  core.  The  funeral  of  General  Bou- 
langer  at  Brussels  shortly  afterward  gave  rise 
disorder.  Police  and  gensdarmes  had  difficulty  pro- sulclde 
tecting  the  cortege  on  its  route  to  the  cemetery. 
Boulanger's  suicide  in  September,  at  the  grave  of 
his  mistress,  Mile,  de  Bonnemaine,  was  a  finale 
which  was  almost  anticipated.  The  last  two  years 
spent  in  exile  in  London,  Jersey  and  Brussels  had 
been  in  her  company,  and  her  sudden  death  with 
the  collapse  of  his  so  nearly  achieved  ambitions 
brought  about  this  bitter  end.  Prior  to  his  po- 
litical career,  and  after  his  military  education  at 
St.  Cyr,  Boulanger  had  figured  honorably  in  the 
Franco- Prussian  War,  especially  in  the  siege  of 

Paris,  in   Tunis,  and  Cochin- China. 
XlXth  Century— Yol.  3— U 


1734  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Autumn  1881 

England,  on  March  31,  lost  one  of  her  leading 
statesmen  in  Lord  Granville,  who  died  at  the  age 
of  seventy-six.  He  succeeded  Palmerston  in  1851 
Death  of  as  -P°reign  Secretary.  In  1868  he  was  Colonial 
Granvuie .  gecretary  under  Gladstone,  and  on  the  death  of 
Clarendon,  in  1870,  succeeded  to  the  Secretaryship 
of  Foreign  Affairs,  which  he  held  until  1874. 
During  this  period  he  negotiated  the  Treaty 
of  1870  guaranteeing  the  neutrality  of  Belgium 
and  protested  against  the  Russian  repudiation  of 
the  Black  Sea  clause  of  the  Treaty  of  Paris.  On 
the  return  of  Gladstone  to  office  in  1880,  Lord 
Granville  again  became  Foreign  Secretary.  During 
the  short  Gladstone  Administration  of  1886  he  held 
office  as  Colonial  Secretary. 

The  "uncrowned  king"  of  Ireland,  Charles  Stew- 
art Parnell,  died  on  October  6  at  the  age  of  forty- 
five.  He  became  a  Member  of  Parliament  in  1875, 
organized  the  "active"  Home  Kule  party,  and  devel- 
Parneif1  oped  its  obstruction  tactics.  In  1880  he  was  returned 
for  the  City  of  Cork  and  was  chosen  as  leader  of 
the  actives  in  organizing  the  newly  formed  National 
League.  In  1886,  he  and  his  followers  supported 
the  Home  Rule  proposals  introduced  by  Gladstone. 
In  1887,  he  was  accused  by  the  London  "Times"  of 
complicity  with  the  crimes  and  outrages  committed 
by  the  extreme  section  of  the  Irish  Nationalist. 

End  of 

career''8  ^e  was  acquitted  by  Parliament  of  the  charges 
against  him.  In  1890,  a  sensational  divorce  suit 
ruined  his  political  prospects.  He  died  leaving 
the  work  to  which  he  had  devoted  his  life  and 
talents  unachieved. 


1891  Autumn  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1735 

On  September  8,  Herman  Ludwig  Ferdinand  von 
Helmholtz  died  at  the  age  of  seventy-three.  Helm-  Hefmhoitz 
holtz's  scientific  work  includes  the  early  investiga- 
tions which  led  to  his  theory  of  the  conservation  of 
energy,  conceived  independently  by  Eobert  Mayer. 
As  Professor  of  Physiology  and  Pathology  at 
Koenigsberg,  he  determined  the  rate  of  transmission 
of  nerve  impulses,  and  in  1851  invented  the  oph- 
thalmoscope, an  instrument  of  almost  incalculable 
value  to  oculists.  In  1862  appeared  his  famous 
work  "The  Doctrine  of  Tone  Sensations  as  a  Phys- 
iological Basis  of  the  Theory  of  Music,"  an  epoch- 
making  work  in  which  he  showed  the  true  nature 
of  sounds.  To  electricity  and  hydrodynamics  he 
made  noteworthy  contributions. 

Soon  after  this  came  the  death  of  Lord  Bulwer- 
Lytton,  the  son  of  the  novelist,  in  November.  This 
popular  writer  was  born  in  London,  1831,  and,  after  „ 

"Owen 

studying  some  years  at  Harrow  and  Bonn,  was  ap- Meredit^" 
pointed  diplomatic  attache",  in  1849,  to  the  Legation 
at  Washington.  On  his  return  after  two  years  he 
filled  diplomatic  posts  at  all  the  principal  Euro- 
pean capitals.  During  this  period  he  brought  him- 
self before  the  world  as  a  man  of  letters,  and,  under 
the  pseudonym  of  "Owen  Meredith,"  published 
"Clytemnestra,  and  other  Poems,"  1855;  "Lucille," 
1860;  "Tannhauser,"  1861;  "King  of  Amasis," 
1863,  and  "Fables  in  Song,"  1874.  In  1876,  he 
was  appointed  Viceroy  of  India  by  the  govern- 
ment of  Disraeli.  This  post  he  resigned  in  1880, 
and  was  created  an  earl.  Among  his  later  works 
the  most  important  is  "Glenaveril,"  a  poem  in  six 


1736  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Autumn  1891 

books  dealing  with  some  of  the  leading  politicians 
of  the  day. 

Meanwhile  the  persecution  of  the  Jews  in  Bus- 
Russian  s*a>  mitiated  in  the  previous  year,  began  to  .cause 
serious  disturbances  in  the  financial  arrangements 
of  the  State.  In  May,  the  Governor  of  Moscow 
suddenly  put  latent  penal  laws  into  action,  com- 
pelling thousands  of  Jews  to  leave  the  city  or 
suffer  imprisonment.  The  House  of  Rothschild 
withdrew  from  participation  in  the  new  Russian 
Conversion  Loan.  The  town  of  Starodoub,  in  the 
province  of  Tchnerzigov,  which  had  for  some  days 
been  the  centre  of  anti-  Jewish  agitation,  was,  on 
the  20th  of  October,  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the 
mob.  Jewish  shopkeepers  were  plundered,  fire  was 
set  to  stores  and  houses,  and  the  property  destroyed 
was  valued  at  4,000,000  rubles.  At  the  same  time 
the  failure  of  the  precautionary  measures  to  protect 
the  people  from  starvation  casued  a  famine.  In 
April,  Baron  Hirsch  notified  his  readiness  to  con- 
tribute the  sum  of  £3,000,000  toward  a  fund  for 
establishing  in  Syria  and  other  places  colonies 
for  the  Jews  expelled  from  Russia.  In  August  he 
despatched  orders  to  his  Argentine  agents  to  pur- 
chase land  in  that  country  to  the  value  of  £2,000,- 
000.  But  the  first  Hirsch  colony,  as  it  turned  out, 


was  established  at  Woodbine,  New  York,  in  Sep. 
tember.  The  farm  consisted  of  over  5,000  acres 
of  land,  and  comprised  workshops  for  various 
trades.  At  Vladorboch,  the  Czarewitch  in  May 

Trans-  * 

t^ie    ^rst    ra^    °*    *ke    Great    Trans-Siberian 


Railway  from  the  Ural  Mountains  to  the  Pacific. 


1891  Autumn  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1737 

During  the  early  part  of  the  year,  and  especially 
toward  summer,  the  influenza  epidemic  revived  to  a 
great  extent  in  various  cities  of  the  United  States. 
As  many  as  227  deaths  were  reported  in  the  course 
of  twenty-four  hours  in  New  York.  In  autumn,  a 
serious  outbreak  of  cholera  had  been  reported  from  cholera 

epidemic 

eastern  Syria  and  Persia;  the  deaths,  chiefly  among 
the  pilgrims,  ranging  from  2,000  to  2,500  a  day. 

In  China,  jealousy  and  hatred  of  the  foreigners 
developed  in  this  year  into  mob  violence.  It 
took  the  form  of  a  concerted  movement  against 
the  foreign  missionaries  living  in  the  valley  of 
the  Yang-tse-Kiang  Eiver.  A  series  of  massa- 
cres occurred  during  May,  September,  Novem- 
ber and  December.  The  southern  coast  of  Nipon 
was  convulsed  by  a  terrible  earthquake  late  in  Dike's  ia 
the  year,  chiefly  affecting  Nagoya,  Osaka  and 
Kobe,  a  seaport  of  Hogo,  largely  inhabited  by 
fishermen.  Seventy-five  thousand  houses  were 
overthrown,  numbers  of  public  buildings  com- 
pletely destroyed,  and  altogether  6,000  persona 
lost  their  lives,  while  thousands  were  injured. 


1738  A   HISTORY  OF   THE  1898 


1 


1892 

N  JANUARY,  President  Harrison  of  the  United 
States  sent  a  message  to  Congress  concerning 
the  assault  upon  American  seamen  at  Valpa- 

incident  raiso.  Chile  expressed  regret  for  the  Valparaiso 
outrage.  The  apology  was  'accepted.  France, 
Sweden  and  Italy  became  arbitrators  in  the  Be- 
ring Sea  dispute.  The  Chinese  Exclusion  Bill  was 
approved  by  the  American  Senate  on  May  12. 

The    epidemic    of    influenza,    commonly    called 
grippe,    still    swept    from    Constantinople    to    San 

epidemic  Francisco.  In  some  cities,  notably  Vienna  and 
Boston,  it  affected  nearly  one- fourth  of  the  pop- 
ulation. Anarchistic  demonstrations  broke  out  in 
France,  Italy  and  Spain.  During  March  and  April, 
dynamite  outrages  were  perpetrated  at  Paris,  Liege, 

outrages  Xeres,  and  at  Tarento,  in  Italy.  Hundreds  of  sus- 
pects were  arrested  and  several  men,  convicted  in 
the  courts,  were  sentenced  to  death.  Earthquakes 
and  volcanic  eruptions  occurred  in  southern  Europe 
and  Polynesia.  Throughout  June  great  alarm  was 
felt  in  Naples  and  southern  Italy  at  the  continued 

volcanic    activity  of  Mount  Vesuvius  and  of  Mount  Etna  in 

eruptions 

Sicily.     The  greatest  volcanic  eruption  of  the  year 

was  that  of  Mauna  Loa,  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 

The    death   of    Tewfik    Pasha,    the    Khedive   of 


1892  January  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1739 

Egypt,  occurred  early  in  January.  Charles  Louis 
M tiller,  the  famous  historical  painter,  died  at  Paris. 
A  pupil  of  Gros  and  Cogniet,  this  artist  made  a 
lasting  reputation  by  his  ambitious  picture  "TheDeathof 
Eoll  Call  of  the  Last  Victims  of  the  Reign  of  Ter-  Muller 
ror. "  This  immense  canvas,  which  contained  ac- 
knowledged portraits,  was  hailed  at  the  time  of  its 
acquisition  by  the  French  Government  as  the  fore- 
most historical  painting  of  its  time.  January  14 
occurred  the  death  of  the  Duke  of  Clarence  and 
Avondale,  heir-presumptive  to  the  throne  of  Great 
Britain.  On  the  same  evening,  Cardinal  Manning 
died  at  Westminster.  Taking  orders  at  Oxford,  he 
served  as  rector  of  Havingford  and  Graffham,  Sus- 
sex, 1834-40,  and  as  Archdeacon  of  Chichester,  Manning 
1840-51.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  Tractarian 
Movement  of  1833.  In  1851,  he  joined  the  Church 
of  Rome  and  was  ordained  a  priest.  On  the  death 
of  Cardinal  Wiseman,  he  succeeded  him  as  Arch- 
bishop of  Westminster,  1865,  and  ten  years  after- 
ward was  made  Cardinal.  Besides  sermons,  most 
notable  among  his  works  are  "The  Temporal  Power 
of  the  Pope,"  "The  True  Story  of  the  Vatican 
Council,"  and  "The  Four  Great  Evils  of  the  Day." 
In  March,  Walt  Whitman,  the  American  poet, 
died  at  Camden,  New  Jersey.  Born  of  humble 
origin,  in  1819,  Whitman  began  his  poetic  career  Wa)fc 
with  the  publication  of  the  weekly  journal,  "TheWbitman 
Long  Islander."  For  this  he  set  his  own  type. 
Later,  Whitman  travelled  through  the  Western 
States  and  edited  a  small  newspaper  in  New  Or- 
leans. Returning  to  New  York,  he  set  type  for 


1740  A    HISTORY  OF   THE  »P«ng  1892 


a  while  and  afterward  became  a  carpenter  and 
builder,  as  was  his  father.  In  1856  he  published 
"-Leaves  of  Grass,"  a  collection  of  poems  which 
attracted  immediate  attention  in  America  and  Eng- 
land. Emerson  declared  them  the  most  extraordi- 
nary piece  of  wit  and  wisdom  America  had  ever 
produced.  Whitman's  free  versification  and  his 
unashamed  utterances  of  the  verities  of  life  made 
him  an  object  of  ridicule  and  denunciation  through- 
out America.  .Like  Byron  and  Poe  he  was  best 
appreciated  outside  of  his  own  country.  Adolphe 
Kette  and  other  apostles  of  vers  libres  in  France 
acknowledged  the  vital  influence  of  his  work.  In 
England,  Swinburne  and  John  Addington  Symonds 
were  among  .the  first  to  recognize  the  originality 
of  Whitman's  verses.  A  new  edition  of  "Leaves  of 
Grass"  appeared  in  1860  with  the  addition  of  "En- 
fants  d'Adam."  During  the  American  Civil  War 
the  poet  devoted  himself  to  the  relief  of  sick  and 
wounded  soldiers  in  the  camp  hospitals.  Vivid  im- 

Warim- 

pressions  pressions  of  these  scenes  were  given  in  his  Drum 
Taps."  Later  Whitman  published  "Memoranda 
during  the  War."  The  poet's  efforts  in  behalf  of 
the  soldiers  were  rewarded  by  a  clerkship  in  the 
Federal  Attorney-General's  office.  After  a  brief 
tenure,  the  publication  of  certain  outspoken  verses 
so  offended  public  propriety,  that  the  Attorney- 
General,  yielding  to  popular  outcry,  withdrew  the 
poet's  pittance.  Whitman's  later  works  included 
the  prose  essays  "Democratic  Vistas,"  "Passage 
to  India"  (1870),  "After  All,  Not  to  Create  Only" 
(1871>  "As  Strong  as  a  Bird"  (1872),  "Specimen 


1892  Autumn  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1741 

Days"   (1883),    "November    Boughs"    (1885),   and 
"Sands  at  Seventy"  (1888).     His  last  poem  was  an 
"Ode  to  the  New  Republic  of  Brazil"  (1890).     By 
the  time  Whitman  died,  much  of  the  early  feeling  UThe  ^^ 
against   him  had  subsided,   and  he  was  venerated  ?£$> 
by  many  as  "the  good  gray  poet." 

America  soon  lost  another  poet  of  renown  by 
the  death  of  John  Greenleaf  Whittier.  He  died 
at  the  age  of  eighty-five,  the  most  popular  poet 
of  America  after  Longfellow.  Whittier  was  a 
Quaker,  born  in  Massachusetts.  He  was  brought  Death  of 

Whittier 

up  on  a  farm  where  his  poetic  faculty  was  awak- 
ened in  early  youth  by  hearing  a  Scotch  pedler 
sing  some  of  the  songs  of  Burns.  His  poem  "The 
Barefoot  Boy"  is  an  autobiographic  note.  While 
Whittier  was  engaged  in  farm  work,  at  the  age 
of  nineteen,  he  wrote  his  first  poems  for  the 
Newburyport  "Free  Press,"  published  by  William 
Lloyd  Garrison.  From  1833  he  devoted  himself  to 
the  cause  of  anti- slavery,  writing  on  the  subject  for 
more  than  thirty  years  in  verse  as  well  as  prose. 
He  shared  the  obloquy  of  all  the  early  abolition- Abolition 
ists.  He  was  pelted  with  stones  at  Concord,  New a( 
Hampshire,  and  at  Philadelphia,  where  he  edited 
the  "Freeman,"  his  office  was  burned  by  a  mob. 
The  list  of  Whittier's  published  works  is  long. 
It  includes  in  all  some  four  hundred  poems.  The 
most  noteworthy  of  his  publications  are:  "Anti- 
slavery  Poems,"  1838;  "Lays  of  My  Home,"  1843; 
"Margaret  Smith's  Journal,"  1849;  "Voices  of 
Freedom,"  1849;  "Songs  of  Labor,"  1850;  "Old 
Portraits,"  1850;  "The  Chapel  of  the  Hermits," 


1742  A    HISTORY  OF   THE  1892 

1853;  "Literary  Recreations,"  1854;  "The  Pano- 
^ohrksier's  rama,"  1856;  "Home  Ballads,"  1860;  "In  War 
Times,"  1863;  "Snow  Bound,"  1866;  "The  Tent 
on  the  Beach,"  1867;  "Among  the  Hills,"  1868; 
"Miriam,"  1870;  "The  Pennsylvania  Pilgrim," 
1872:  "Mabel  Martin,"  1874;  "Hazel  Blossoms," 
1875;  "The  Vision  of  Echard,"  1878;  "The  King's 
Missive,"  1881;  "The  Bay  of  Seven  Islands,"  1883; 
"Saint  Gregory's  Guest,"  1888,  and  a  little  volume 
of  verse  privately  printed  in  1890. 

Whittier's  purely  lyric  pieces  made  classic  the 
scenery  and  romances  of  his  native  New  England. 
Characteristic  of  his  landscape  verses  are  those  on 
the  Merrimac  River.  He  has  made  immortal  many 
of  the  traditions  of  American  colonial  days  and 
created  new  poetic  legends.  Famous  among  these 
is  the  poem  "Barbara  Frietchie. "  The  sharpest 
criticisms  of  Whittier  were  made  by  Southern 
writers.  By  them  his  "Voices  of  Freedom"  was 
characterized  with  some  measure  of  truth  as  mere 
' '  political  eloquence  in  rhyme. ' '  A  fine  tribute  to 
the  poet  is  Lowell's  sonnet  to  Whittier: 

New  England's  poet,  rich  in  love  as  years, 
Her  hills  and  valleys  "praise  thee,  her  swift  brooks 
Dance  in  thy  verse ;  to  her  grave  sylvan  nooks 
Thy  steps  allure  us,  which  the  wood-thrush  hears 
As  maids  their  lovers,  and  no  treason  fears ; 
Through  thee  Merrimacs  and  Agiohooks 
And  many  a  name  uncouth  win  gracious  looks, 
Sweetly  familiar  to  both  Englands'  ears; 
Peaceful  by  birthright  as  a  virgin  lake, 
The  lily's  anchorage,  which  no  eyes  behold 
Save  those  of  stars,  yet  for  thy  brother's  sake 
That  lay  in  bonds,  thou  blewest  a  blast  as  bold 
A.S  that  wherewith  the  heart  of  Roland  brake, 
Far  heard  across  the  New  World  and  the  Old. 


1892  Autumn  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1743 

Speaking  for  himself,  Whittier  could  truly  say: 

My  voice,  though  not  the  loudest,  has  been  heard 
"Wherever  freedom  raised  her  cry  of  pain. 

In  October,  Ernest  Renan,  the  great  French  free- 
thinker, died  at  Paris.  He  was  born  at  Trequier, 
in  Brittany,  in  1823.  Of  French  religious  writers 
during  the  Nineteenth  Century  he  was  the  mostf^^ 
erudite.  His  greatest  work  was  his  "Histoire  des 
Origines  du  Christianisme. "  For  this  searching 
study  and  the  conclusions  drawn  therefrom  he  was 
anathemized  by  the  Curia,  and  his  book  was  placed 
on  the  papal  index  of  expurged  writings.  Similar 
opposition  was  raised  to  his  "Jesus,"  a  life  of  the 
Saviour  written  in  the  spirit  of  modern  criticism. 
Among  the  host  of  his  scholarly  writings  Renan 
also  attempted  a  drama,  "L'Abesse  de  Jouarre, " 
but  it  failed  of  success. 

Four  days  later,  Lord  Tennyson,  the  Poet  Lau- 
reate of  England,  died  at  Allsworth,  near  Hazel- 
mere.  Alfred  Tennyson  was  born  in  1809,  the  son  Tennyson 
of  a  Lincolnshire  clergyman.  He  studied  for  orders 
at  Cambridge  and  published  his  first  verses  at  the 
age  of  eighteen  in  conjunction  with  his  brother. 
Two  years  later  he  brought  out  "Poems,  Chiefly 
Lyrical. ' '  These  early  works  excited  but  scant 
attention.  Not  until  1842,  when  Tennyson  came 
forth  with  a  collection  of  poems  in  two  volumes, 
was  he  recognized  as  one  of  the  coming  poets  of 
England.  In  1847,  he  achieved  his  first  great  suc- 
cess with  "The  Princess,"  a  medley  interspersed p 
with  some  of  the  most  beautiful  of  his  lyrics. 
The  death  of  Tennyson's  friend,  Arthur  Hallam, 


1744  A   HISTORY   OF   THE  1892 

in  1850,  inspired  him  to  the  long- sustained  poem, 
"In  Memoriam, "  opening  with  the  famous  lines: 

"In  Memo-  I  hold  it  truth,  with  him  who  sings 

To  one  clear  harp  in  diverse  tones, 
That  men  may  rise  on  stepping  stones 
Of  their  dead  selves  to  higher  things. 

It  was  after  the  appearance  of  this  poem  that 
Queen  Victoria  raised  Tennyson  to  the  rank  of 
Poet  Laureate.  He  justified  his  selection  by 
his  great  "Ode  on  the  Death  of  the  Duke  of 
Wellington,"  in  1852.  Three  years  later  ap- 
peared "Maud,"  and  next,  in  1858,  the  first  four 

theyKmg''  cantos  of  tne  "Idylls  of  the  King,"  the  great- 
est of  all  his  works.  The  success  of  his  idyllic 
treatment  of  the  legends  of  King  Arthur  and  his 
"Round  Table,"  was  almost  equalled  by  his  great 
narrative  poem,  "Enoch  Arden. "  This  work  won 

"Enoch  exceptional  renown  beyond  the  limits  of  England. 
Less  happy  were  Tennyson's  attempts  at  the  drama. 
"Queen  Mary"  and  "Harold"  were  unsuccessful 
dramatic  efforts.  The  last  of  his  published  works, 
"Demeter,"  appeared  in  1889.  It  closed  with  the 
beautiful  lines,  "Crossing  the  Bar,"  written  in 
omen  of  his  death: 

Sunset  and  evening  star, 

Last  verses  * 

And  one  clear  call  for  me! 

And  may  there  be  no  moaning  of  the  bar, 

When  I  put  out  to  sea. 

But  such  a  tide  as  moving  seems  asleep, 

Too  full  for  sound  and  foam, 

'When  that  which  drew  from  out  the  boundless  deep 

Turns  again  home. 

Twilight  and  evening  bell, 

And  after  that  the  dark! 

And  may  there  be  no  sadness  of  farewell, 

"When  I  embark. 


1892  Autumn  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1745 

For  though  from  out  our  bourne  of  Time  and  Place 

The  flood  may  bear  me  far, 

I  hope  to  see  my  Pilot  face  to  face 

When  I  have  crost  the  bar. 

Vassily  Verestchagin,  the  Eussian  historical 
painter,  this  year  visited  America,  and  there 
exhibited  his  collection  of  pictures.  Verestchagin 
was  a  pupil  of  Ge"rome  at  Paris.  After  leaving  gi$l 

pictures 

the  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts,  Verestchagin  joined 
the  Caucasian  expedition  under  General  Kauffman 
in  1867,  and  in  1869  travelled  to  Siberia.  In  1874 
he  went  to  India  with  the  Prince  of  Wales  and 
afterward  settled  in  Paris.  He  took  part  in  the 
Eussian- Turkish  campaign  in  1878-79,  and  was 
wounded  at  Plevna.  Among  his  pictures  painted 
during  this  war  the  best  known  perhaps  are  the 
two  canvases  "Before"  and  "After."  Almost  all 
of  his  war  pictures  as  well  as  his  East  Indian 
landscapes  were  unusually  striking,  and  covered  im- 
mense canvases.  Shortly  before  the  exhibition  of 
his  works  in  America,  Verestchagin  had  also  taken 
up  religious  subjects.  His  "Family  of  Jesus"  and 
"The  Eesurrection"  in  particular  caused  much  dis- 
cussion among  art  critics. 

The  year's  necrology  ended,  in  America,  with  the 
death  of  Jay  Gould,  the  great  American  financier.  Death  of 

Jay  Gould 

This  "King  of  Wall  Street,"  as  he  was  called,  was" 
said  to  have  begun  his  career  by  selling  a  novel 
rat-trap.  After  he  had  entered  into  speculations 
on  the  New  York  Stock  Exchange,  he  figured  in 
a  number  of  bold  transactions  culminating  in  the 
crisis  of  1873,  known  in  financial  circles  as  "Black 
Friday."  After  this  Gould  bore  an  unenviable 


1746  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Autumn  1893 

reputation  as  a  wrecker  of  railroad  properties.  He 
died  a  multi-millionnaire. 

Otherwise  it  was  a  year  of  rejoicing  in  North 
America.  The  diplomatic  differences  between  Italy 
and  the  United  States,  arising  out  of  the  brutal 
murder  of  Italian  subjects  in  New  Orleans,  were 
satisfactorily  settled.  Then  came  the  four  hun- 
coiumwan  dredth  anniversary  of  Columbus  's  discovery  of 

celebration 

America.  Public  celebrations  were  held  through- 
out the  United  States  as  well  as  in  Genoa  and 
Spain.  The  twenty  -seventh  Presidential  election 
was  held  November  8.  Cleveland  was  elected  by 
379,025  plurality,  the  largest  yet  received  by  any 
Presidential  candidate.  The  organization,  known  as 
the  Farmers'  Alliance,  had  grown  to  great  strength 
and  had  joined  issues  with  the  newly-formed  Peo- 
ple's Party  or  Populists.  Owing  partly  to  the  vast 
labor  strikes  of  this  year,  the  People's  Party,  which 


had  nominated  General  James  B.  Weaver  of  Colo- 
rado for  President,  drew  off  many  votes  from  Gen- 
eral Harrison,  the  Eepublican  nominee. 

Latin  America,  as  usual,  was  convulsed  by  revo- 
lutions. Martial  law  was  declared  in  the  Argentine 
Eepublic  early  in  spring.  The  leaders  of  the  oppo- 
sition party  were  arrested  on  charges  of  high  trea- 

American  son-     -^  P^ot  *°  mur(ier  the  President  was  laid  bare. 

upheavals  jn  yenezueia)  General  Crespo,  at  the  head  of  14,000 
insurgents,  attacked  the  government  forces  at  Los 
Teques.  In  October  he  inflicted  a  severe  defeat  on 
the  government  army.  Several  of  the  State  officials 
surrendered  themselves.  Three  days  later  the  city 
of  Caracas  capitulated.  Dr.  Villegas,  who  had  been 


1892  Dec.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1747 

performing  the  functions  of  President,  took  refuge 
on  a  French  man-of-war.  The  casualties  of  this 
short  civil  war  aggregated  several  thousand. 

Before  this,  sharp  measures  had  been  taken  by 
the  governments  of  Germany  and  Austria  to  pre- 
vent the  crossing  of  their  frontiers  by  hordes  of 
Kussian  Jews  immigrating  to  Baron  Hirsch's 
colonies  in  Argentina.  The  poorhouses  and  hos- 
pitals  .along  the  frontier  were  filled  with  destitute 
Jews  awaiting  embarkation.  On  June  20,  a  Rus- 
sian imperial  decree  was  promulgated  at  Astrakhan 
emancipating  the  Kalmucks  from  Asiatic  serfdom 
and  villeinage. 

In  the  course  of  this  same  year,  the  royal  families 
of  England  and  Prussia  agreed  on  a  final  settlement 

Restora- 

of  the  so-called  "Guelph  Fund."     The  private  for- *}{£<£ 
tune  of  the  Crown  of  Hanover,  amounting  to  some Fl 
fifteen  million  marks,  was  restored  by  Prussia  to 
the   Duke   of   Cumberland.      An   imperial   rescript 
to  this  effect  was  signed  by  the  German  Emperor 
upon  the  Duke  of  Cumberland's  renunciation  of  his 
rights  as  a  German  sovereign. 

In  medical  history,  the  year  is  marked  by  Canon 
and  Pfeiffer's  discovery  of  the  bacillus  of  influenza  influenza 

bacillus 

or  grippe — a  disease  which,  during  the  last  years  of 
the  Nineteenth  Century,  was  particularly  virulent 
in  Russia  and  in  the  northern  climates  of  Europe 
and  the  United  States.  In  the  month  of  December, 
Dr.  Richard  Owen,  anatomist  and  paleontologist, 
died  in  London.  Owen  is  remembered  in  medi- 
cine for  naming  the  minute  insect  which,  in  1833, 
James  Paget — a  medical  student,  who  afterward  be- 


1748  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Autumn  1892 

came  President  of  the  Eoyal  College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons — discovered  in  the  human  muscular 
tissues.  Trichina  Spiralis,  as  Owen  named  the  in- 
sect, was  later  carefully  investigated  by  Leuckart, 
Virchow  and  Zenker,  and  was  shown  to  enter  the 
human  system  through  the  ingestion  of  infected 
pork. 

The  King  of  Dahomey,  after  prolonged  troubles 
with  France,  was  at  last  brought  to  a  state  of  sub- 
jection. On  November  4,  Cana,  the  sacred  city  of 
annex  the  Dahomans,  was  captured  with  but  slight  loss 
to  the  French.  This  virtually  ended  the  campaign 
and  established  French  rule  in  Dahomey.  For  his 
conduct  during  this  period  Colonel  Dodds  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  general.  Siam,  too,  acceded 
to  the  demands  of  France.  At  Paris,  late  in  the 
year,  the  Procureur-General  of  the  French  Eepub- 
lic  took  legal  proceedings  against  the  promoters  of 
the  Panama  Canal  Company  for  breach  of  trust  and 
malversation  of  funds.  Warrants  of  arrest  were 
issued  against  all  concerned  in  the  Company  and 
those  implicated  in  the  Panama  lottery  loan.  Fer- 
dinand de  Lesseps,  the  aged  president  of  the  Com- 
pany, for  the  nonce  escaped  arrest 


French 

annex 

Dahomey 


J893  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1749 


E 


1893 

ARLY  in  the  year  a  revolution  broke  out  in 
the  Hawaiian  Islands.     Queen   Liliuokalani 

Coup  d'etet 

was  dethroned  in  January  by  the  American in  Hawaii 
element  in  the  population.  At  the  same  time,  Har- 
rison's Secretary  of  State,  Elaine,  died,  on  the  eve 
of  his  birthday.  James  G.  Elaine  was  born  January 
31,  1830,  at  Brownsville,  Pennsylvania,  and  began 
his  political  career  as  the  editor  of  the  Kennebec 
"Journal"  in  Maine.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  first 
Republican  National  Convention  in  1856.  In  1862 
he  was  elected  to  Congress,  where  he  served  con- 
tinuously until  1876.  Three  times  in  succession  he 
was  Speaker  of  the  House.  At  the  Republican  Con- 
vention in  1880,  when  Grant  was  proposed  for  a  third 
term,  Biaine  was  his  rival  candidate.  Neither  pre- 
vailed— Garfield  receiving  the  nomination  through 
Elaine's  assistance.  On  Garfieid's  inauguration  as 
President,  Biaine  was  appointed  Secretary  of  State. 
He  resigned  this  office  after  Garfieid's  assassination. 
In  1884,  Biaine  was  a  candidate  for  the  Presidency 
against  Grover  Cleveland.  The  contest  was  imbit- 
tered  for  Biaine  by  the  publication  of  certain  un- 
fortunate letters  which  impugned  his  honesty  in 
office.  Many  prominent  Republicans  went  over  to 
the  other  party.  They  were  denounced  by  their 


1750  A     HISTORY    OF    THR  Spring  1893 

former  comrades  as  "Mugwumps."  Elaine  was  sig- 
nally defeated.  In  1888,  when  Harrison  was  elected 
President,  Elaine  was  again  appointed  Secretary  of 
Blame's  State.  Shortly  before  the  Republican  Convention 
career  of  1892,  he  resigned  from  Harrison's  Cabinet  and 
once  more  became  a  candidate  for  the  Presidency. 
But  Harrison  was  renominated.  After  this  disap- 
pointment, Elaine's  health  sank  rapidly.  He  died  a 
few  months  afterward.  Elaine's  most  lasting  con- 
tribution to  the  history  of  his  country  was  a  book 
of  political  reminiscences,  "Twenty  Years  of  Con- 
gress. ' ' 

On  the  day  after  Elaine's  death,  the  American 
Minister  at  Honolulu,  Stevens,  proclaimed  a  pro- 
tectorate of  the  United  States  over  the  islands,  "for 
the  preservation  of  life  and  property. ' '  A  force  of 
United  States  marines  landed  at  the  request  of  the 

American 

flag  over    Provisional    Government,   and    the  American   flag 

Honolulu 

was  hoisted.  President  Harrison  presently  sent  a 
treaty  to  the  Senate  for  the  annexation  of  Hawaii. 
It  was  referred  to  the  Committee  on  Foreign  Rela- 
tions, and  though  approved  there,  failed  to  obtain 
the  necessary  two-thirds  majority.  In  the  mean- 
while, President  Harrison's  term  expired,  and 
Grover  Cleveland  was  inaugurated  in  his  place. 
Cleveland's  first  measure  was  to  withdraw  the 
Hawaiian  treaty.  The  temporary  protectorate  of 
the  United  States  over  Hawaii  ceased,  and  the 

American 

protecto-    American    flag    was    hauled    down    at    Honolulu. 

rate  with- 
drawn      James  H.  Blount  was  appointed  Envoy  Extraordi- 
nary to  Hawaii.     Secretary  of    State  Gresham,   in 
an  official  report  on  the  subject,  advocated  restora- 


1893  Spring  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1751 

tion  of  Queen  Liliuokalani's  throne.  This  meant 
the  abandonment  of  the  Provisional  Government. 
Cleveland's  change  of  policy  aroused  intense  oppo- 
sition in  America.  The  "Jingo"  newspapers  in 
particular  denounced  the  President  for  hauling 
down  the  Stars  and  Stripes  in  Hawaii,  and  an 
appreciable  faction  of  the  President's  own  party 
fell  away  from  his  leadership. 

The  deferred  quadri- centennial  of  the  discovery 
of  America  was  celebrated  in  New  York  on  the 
arrival  of  the  fac- similes  of  Columbus 's  three  cara- 
vels, sent  over  from  Spain.  On  April  27,  they 
were  escorted  through  New  York  Harbor  and  up 
the  Hudson  Eiver  by  the  warships  of  all  the  impor- 

World's 

tant  naval  Powers  of  the  world.  The  World's  Fair  F^ir 
was  opened  at  Chicago  on  May  1,  by  the  President 
of  the  United  States.  Eepresentatives  were  present 
from  all  the  civilized  nations  of  the  globe.  The 
general  architectural  effect  of  the  Exposition  build- 
ings, erected  in  plastered  staff,  surpassed  all  that 
had  been  seen  hitherto  at  international  exposi- 
tions. It  was  called  the  "White  City."  An  un- 
usual feature  was  the  Congress  of  Religions.  For 
the  first  time  in  the  world's  history  spokesmen  of 
various  creeds  and  denominations  met  in  amity. 
The  most  distinguished  visitors  to  the  World's  Fair 
were  the  Duke  of  Veragua,  an  indirect  descendant 
of  Christopher  Columbus,  and  Princess  Eulalie  of 
Spain.  The  splendors  of  their  reception  in  America 
were  recalled  at  the  close  of  the  century  as  the  last 
conspicuous  courtesies  exchanged  between  Spain  and 
the  New  World. 


1752  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Summer  1893 

The  long  disputed  points  between  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States  in  regard  to  the  Bering  Sea 
fisheries  were  settled  by  the  tribunal  which  sat  in 
Paris.  Arguments  on  both  sides  were  made  by  Sir 
Charles  Russell,  James  C.  Carter,  Frederic  R.  Cou- 
dert  and  Edward  J.  Phelps.  On  the  broad  ques- 
tions of  international  law  the  decision  was  in  favor 
Bering  Sea  of  Great  Britain,  while  the  practical  regulations  for 
settled  the  protection  of  the  fur  seal  were  found  to  be  in 
accordance  with  the  demands  of  the  United  States. 
In  November,  negotiations  were  opened  for  the  set- 
tlement of  the  claims  of  British  sealers  seized  by 
American  warships  before  the  modus  vivendi  of 
1891.  The  indemnity  claimed  by  Canada  was  not 
to  exceed  a  half  million  dollars.  A  close  season 
for  seals  was  to  be  maintained  for  three  months 
every  midsummer,  and  a  protected  zone  was  estab- 
lished for  sixty  miles  around  the  Pribylov  Islands. 
On  June  22,  while  the  British  squadron  was  prac- 
ticing evolutions  in  the  Mediterranean,  a  disastrous 
collision  occurred,  in  which  the  flagship  "Victoria" 

i  flG 

disaster'*"  was  sunk.  Admiral  Tryon,  who  was  on  board  the 
1 '  Victoria, ' '  exclaimed :  "  It  is  all  my  fault. ' '  With 
the  ship  sinking  beneath  them  the  crew  were  or- 
dered to  jump.  Ten  minutes  after  the  collision  the 
flagship  went  down.  Of  her  crew  of  659,  less  than 
one-half  were  picked  up  alive.  A  court-martial 
which  sat  at  Malta  found  that  Sir  George  Tryon, 
the  drowned  Vice- Admiral,  was  to  blame  for  the 
collision. 

Guy  de  Maupassant,  the  famous  French  novelist, 
died  on  July  7,-  at  Paris,  after  suffering  for  some 


1893  Aug.  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1753 

years  from  an  incurable  mental  disease.  Maupas- 
sant was  born  in  1850,  at  Chateau  Miro  Mesnil  mMaupas- 

sant 

Normandy.  He  had  the  rare  distinction  of  "hav- 
ing studied  to  write."  For  some  years  he  was  a 
pupil  of  Flaubert,  by  whose  advice  he  did  not  pub- 
lish any  of  his  earlier  essays.  De  Maupassant  soon 
was  foremost  in  France  as  leader  of  the  modern 
school  of  the  naturalists.  The  story  "Boule  de 
Suif"  first  won  him  renown.  "Soirees  de  Medan" 
(1880)  showed  his  intimate  literary  kinship  to  Zola's 
method,  as  did,  likewise,  "La  Maison  Tellier"  (1881), 
"Les  Sosurs  Rondoli"  (1884),  "Monsieur  Parent" 
(1885),  "Contes  du  Jour"  and  "Contes  et  Nouvelles" 
(1885),  and  the  great  novel  "Bel- Ami,"  which 
achieved  a  succes  de  scandale.  "Pierre  et  Jean" 
(1888)  showed  a  larger  plane  of  psychological  study 
and  breadth  of  feeling,  without  clouding  any  of  his 
characteristic  clearness.  Although  De  Maupassant 
remained  a  pessimist  to  the  last,  his  artistic  form  at 
this  time  reached  its  highest  development.  "Fort 
CommeLa  Mort"  and  "Notre  Coeur"  followed;  and, 
in  1891,  a  three- act  drama,  "Musotte, "  was  written 
in  collaboration  with  Normand.  "La  Paix  du  Me- 
nage, ' '  in  two  acts,  was  played  at  the  Comedie  Fran- 
gaise  in  1893,  about  the  time  that  De  Maupassant's 
mental  disorder  was  declared  to  be  incurable. 

On  August  7,  the  Fifty-third  Congress  opened  its 
extraordinary  session  on  the  call  of  the  President, 
for  the  purpose  of  repealing  the   Sherman   Silver 
Purchasing  Act.     The  debate  continued  for  three  American 
months.     William  J.  Bryan  spoke  against  the  re- debate 
peal.     The  Finance  Committee  of  the    Senate,   on 


1764  A    HISTORY    OF   THE  Autumn  1893 

August  18,  reported  a  bill  favoring  the  uncondi- 
tional repeal  of  the  Sherman  law.  All  amendments 
were  defeated  finally,  and  the  bill  was  passed.  On 
August  29,  the  Finance  Committee  of  the  Senate 
reported  the  House  repeal  bill  with  an  amend- 
ment, substituting  the  Voorhees  bill.  A  notable 
struggle  ensued.  On  October  11  and  12,  Senator 
Allen  held  the  floor  for  fifteen  hours,  and,  on  the 
13th,  the  Senate  held  a  continuous  session  of  thirty- 
nine  hours.  The  American  Treasury's  statement 
showed  that  the  gold  reserve  had  decreased  to 
$81,700,000.  On  October  30,  at  last,  the  Voorhees 
bill  was  substituted  for  the  Wilson  bill  and  was 
passed.  This  bill  declared  that  the  policy  of  the 
United  States  was  to  coin  both  gold  and  silver.  On 
November  1,  the  bill  as  amended  by  the  Senate 
passed  the  House.  The  President  immediately 
signed  the  bill.  The  Senate  compromise  entirely 
eliminated  the  bond  question.  All  greenbacks  and 
Sherman  Treasury  notes  under  ten  dollars  in  value  were  to 
be  retired,  and  silver  certificates  and  coined  silver 
dollars  were  to  take  their  place.  The  annual  pur- 
chase of  four  and  a  half  million  ounces  of  silver  was 
to  continue,  the  same  to  be  coined  from  time  to  time 
as  the  seigniorage  then  in  the  Treasury. 

In  the  last  days  of  August,  a  destructive  storm 
passed  over  Georgia  and  the  Carolinas.  In  Sa- 
vannah and  Charleston,  public  buildings,  harbor 

Destruc- 

cyciones  works,  and  entire  streets  were  swept  away.  More 
than  500  lives  were  lost,  while  20,000  persons  were 
rendered  homeless.  Property  to  the  value  of 
$10,000,000  was  destroyed. 


1893  Autumn  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1755 

Another  disastrous  cyclone,  followed  by  a  tidal 
wave  of  unusual  magnitude,  passed  over  the  Grulf 
of  Mexico  the  second  day  of  October.  The  coast  of 
Louisiana,  and  especially  Mobile  Bay,  was  the  cen- 
tre of  the  chief  disasters.  Upward  of  1,200  lives 
were  lost,  while  the  value  of  property  destroyed 
amounted  to  $5,000,000. 

In  France,  the  Court  of  Appeals  pronounced 
judgment  in  the  case  of  the  directors  of  the  Panama 
Company  accused  of  misappropriating  funds.  Fer- 
dinand and  Charles  de  Lesseps  were  condemned  to 
five  years  in  prison  and  to  pay  a  fine  of  3,000  francs 
each.  Eiffel,  Cottu  and  Fontaine  were  sentenced 
to  imprisonment  for  two  years  as  well  as  to  pay 

Panama 

heavy  fines.     The  sentence  passed  upon  Ferdinand  prosecu- 
tions 

de  Lesseps,  the  aged  promoter  of  the  Suez  Canal, 
was  not  carried  into  effect,  nor  was  the  old  man  in 
a  condition  to  realize  the  gravity  of  the  charges 
brought  against  him. 

Of  the  1,500,000,000  francs  which  investors  had 
been  persuaded  to  put  into  the  scheme  more  than 
half  had  been  stolen  or  used  in  bribing  public  men. 
The  scandal  shook  the  Eepublic  to  its  foundations. 
A  state  event  was  the  death  of  Marshal  MacMahon, 
Due  de  Magenta,  and  ex- President  of  France.  When 
he  was  entombed  at  the  Invalides,  representatives 
from  all  the  crowned  heads  of  Europe  attended. 
Even  the  German  Emperor  sent  a  wreath.  Maurice 
de  MacMahon  was  born  at  the  Chateau  de  Sully, 
near  Autun,  the  son  of  Count  MacMahon,  of 
rish  refugee  stock.  His  military  achievements  in 
Algeria  and  Italy,  and  the  determined  resistance 


1756  A   HISTORY   OF   THE  1898 

offered  by  him  during  the  Franco- Prussian  war, 
when  he  served  his  country  under  the  Empire  as 
well  as  under  the  Eepublic,  made  him  one  of  the 
foremost  soldiers  of  fin-de-sibcle  France.  French- 
men of  all  parties  esteemed  him  for  his  irreproach- 
able character. 

MacMahon's  death  was  followed  by  that  of 
Charles  Fra^ois  Gounod,  the  composer.  He  re- 
ceived a  state  funeral  at  the  Madeleine.  He  was 

Death  of 

Gounod  born  on  June  17,  1818,  in  Paris,  the  son  of  a  painter. 
After  leaving  the  Lyce'e  of  St.  Louis,  he  studied 
music  under  HaleVy,  Lesueur  and  Paer  at  the  Paris 
Conservatoire.  He  won  the  Prix  de  Borne  three 
times  in  succession  by  his  cantatas  "Marie  Stuart," 
"Rizzio, "  and  "Fernand. "  In  Rome,  Gounod's 
study  of  ritual  music,  particularly  of  Palestrina, 
gave  him  an  early  bent  for  religious  compositions. 
On  his  return  to  France  he  became  a  church  organ- 
ist. When  his  first  Requiem  and  Messe  Solennelle 
were  brought  out  in  Vienna  and  London,  the  com- 
poser was  styled  "Abbe'  Gounod."  He  was  com- 
missioned to  write  a  work  for  the  Grand  Opera. 
His  first  attempt  at  this,  "Sapho, "  was  a  failure. 
Equally  unsuccessful  were  his  scores  for  "Ulysse" 
(1852),  "La  Nonne  Sanglante"  (1854),  and  "Le 
Me'decin  Malgre  Lui' '  (1858).  The  next  year  Gou- 

"FauBt"  n°d  brought  out  his  opera  "Faust."  This  great 
opera,  the  libretto  of  which  was  based  on  Goethe's 
tragedy,  was  hailed  as  a  masterpiece.  "Philemon 
et  Baucis,"  an  idyllic  opera  composed  during  the 

"Romeo     next  year,  had  but  a  succbs  d'estime.     The  success 

And  Juhet"  * 

of  "Faust"  was  revived  with  "Romeo  and  Juliet" 


1893  Autumn  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1757 

in  the  season  of  1867.  During  the  Franco- Prussian 
war,  Gounod  went  to  England,  where  he  devoted 
himself  mainly  to  sacred  composition.  His  "Ee- 
demption"  and  "Mors  et  Vita,"  composed  at  Bir- 
mingham, have  become  standard  works. 

Within  less  than  a  month  another  great  composer 
was  lost  to  the  world  by  the  death  of  Tschaikovsky. 
Peter  Ilyitch  Tschaikovsky,  the  most  original  of 
Eussian  composers  during  the  Nineteenth  Century, 
was  born  on  Christmas  Day,  1840,  in  Yotkinsk.  In  kovsky 
early  manhood  he  studied  law  and  entered  the 
government  civil  service.  Soon  after  Eubinstein 
founded  the  St.  Petersburg  Conservatory,  in  1862, 
Tschaikovsky  became  instructor  of  harmony  there. 
His  compositions  were  full  of  the  strange  emo- 
tional changes  of  mood  characteristic  of  the 
Slavic  race — now  wild  and  fiery,  now  darkly  de- 
spondent, now  sweet  with  infinite  tenderness. 
Tschaikovsky 's  songs  in  particular  reproduce  the 
poignant  notes  of  Eussian  folk  music.  His  piano 
concertos  have  been  a  source  of  inspiration  to  later 
Slavic  composers.  In  1891,  Tschaikovsky  visited 
America  and  opened  the  new  Carnegie  Music  Hall 
with  his  newest  composition.  In  1893,  he  was  made 
a  Doctor  of  Music  by  the  University  of  Cambridge. 
He  died  at  St.  Petersburg,  on  November  6,  during 
the  same  year,  a  victim  of  the  cholera. 

Since  the  previous  year  the  ravages  of  the  cholera 
in  Eussia  had  continued.  The  first  serious  out- 
break of  the  year  occurred  at  Mecca,  Arabia,  in 
June,  among  the  Mohammedan  pilgrims  gathere 
there.  The  mortality  rose  from  400  to  1,000  a  day. 

XlXth  Century— Vol.  3— V 


1758  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Summer  1893 

The  returning  pilgrims  carried  the  disease  to  all  the 
Mohammedan  countries  of  the  world.  In  July,  the 
epidemic  travelled  up  the  Danube  Eiver  into  Hun- 
gary. Sporadic  cases  appeared  in  the"  south  of 
France  and  Italy.  As  late  as  September,  an  in- 
creased mortality  from  cholera  was  reported  from 
Sicily,  northern  Spain  and  Hamburg.  In  the  Kus- 
sian  provinces  the  pestilence  raged  until  late  in 
the  year. 

In  South  America,  turbulent  outbreaks  occurred 
in  the  provinces  of  Buenos  Ayres  and  Tucuman  of 

American  tne  Argentine  Eepublic  in  August  and  July.  The 
ls  struggle  was  carried  on  with  much  bloodshed.  By 
September,  the  government  had  to  call  out  all  the 
troops.  .Radical  leaders  were  apprehended,  and  in 
October  the  revolution  was  for  a  time  suppressed. 
In  Brazil,  there  was  a  partial  revival  of  the  revolu- 
tionary movement  in  July.  Considerable  damage 
was  caused  by  the  insurgents'  squadron  opening  fire 
on  Admiral  de  Mello.  The  government  troops  out- 
numbered the  men  of  De  Hello's  fleet  by  some 
4,000.  By  the  end  of  the  year  neither  party  was 
able  to  bring  the  conflict  to  a  definite  issue. 

Hostilities  were  again  resumed  in  South  Africa. 
In  August,  Lobengula  sent  a  message  to  Cape 
Town,  stating  that  he  refused  to  make  good  the 
damage  done  by  his  troops  to  the  European  settlers 
on  the  land  of  the  Chartered  Company.  In  Octo- 
ber, a  patrol  of  the  Bechuanaland  police  was  fired 
upon  by  the  Matabeles,  and  this  attack  was  regarded 

Matabeie    as  a  formal  notification  of  commencement  of  hostili- 
ties.    By  October  29,  two  columns  of  troops  of  the 


1893  Autumn  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1759 

British  South  Africa  Company  were  attacked  by 
a  Matabele  force,  estimated  at  5,000  men,  who  were 
driven  oft  with  great  loss.  Near  Buluwayo,  the 
chief  kraal  of  the  Matabeles,  7,000  strong  they 
again  attacked  the  South  African  Company's  forces, 
but  were  defeated  with  a  loss  of  1,000  men.  Bulu- 
wayo was  occupied  the  following  day  and  the  royal 
kraals  destroyed.  At  the  end  of  November,  Loben- 
gula  sent  in  proposals  to  Colonel  Goold-  Adams  for 
the  pursuing  force  to  be  withdrawn. 

At  Barcelona,  during  a  performance  of  "William 
Tell"  at  the  Teatro  Siceo,  two  bombs  were  thrown  Barcelona 

outrage 

from  the  upper  gallery  into  the  stalls.  One  ex- 
ploded and  killed  twenty-three  persons.  The  thea- 
tre was  wrecked,  and  in  the  panic  which  ensued 
more  lives  were  lost.  Many  suspects  were  arrested. 
In  America,  the  so-called  Cherokee  Strip,  cover- 
ing over  9,000  square  miles,  recently  ceded  by  the 
Indians,  was  opened  in  the  middle  of  December. 
One  hundred  thousand  people  rushed  to  secure  the  che 

Strip 

6,000,000  acres  of  land. 

Besides  James  G.  Blaine,  America  during  this 
year  lost  a  number  of  her  foremost  men  by  death. 
Among  ,  these  were  Generals  Benjamin  Butler  and 
Beauregard,  two  conspicuous  soldiers  of  the  Ameri- 
can Civil  War;  the  two  distinguished  actors  Edwin 
Booth  and  Murdoch  ;  Lamar,  the  jurist,  lately  on  the 
bench  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court;  Lucy 
Stone  Blackwell,  the  woman  -suffragist;  Leland 
Stanford,  the  philanthropist;  Phillips  Brooks,  the 
great  New  England  divine;  and  Francis  Parkman, 
the  historian. 


0 


1760  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  1894 


O 


1894 

N  JANUAKY  1,  Heinrich  Hertz  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Bonn  died  at  the  early  age  of 

Death  of        ^^ 

Hertz  thirty- seven.     Hertz  was  one  of  the  most 

brilliant  of  modern  physical  investigators,  chiefly 
of  electrical  phenomena.  By  experiment,  Hertz 
proved  that  the  waves  of  electricity  are  transversal, 
like  those  of  light.  He  ascertained  the  velocity  of 
electricity,  and  found  it  to  be  equal  to  that  of  light. 
What  had  hitherto  been  considered  a  current  of 
electricity,  Hertz  proved  to  be  only  a  movement  on 
the  surface  of  the  wire.  The  influence  of  this  new 
system  of  physics  upon  the  development  of  natural 
science  and  its  manifold  applications  to  practical 
life  can  hardly  be  overrated. 

In  the   afternoon   of  June  24,  Sadi  Carnot,  the 

sadi          President  of  France,  was  mortally  stabbed  during 

Carnot  as-  .....  ,...  i       T-»    i    • 

sassinated  his  visit  to  Lyons,  as  he  was  driving  irom  the  Palais 
de  Commerce  to  attend  a  gala  performance  at  the 
Grand  Theatre.  The  assassin  was  an  Italian  by 
the  name  of  Cesario  Santo.  At  Paris  and  Lyons, 
mob  demonstrations  were  made  against  the  Italians. 
The  President's  body  reached  Paris  on  the  26th, 
and  was  conveyed  to  the  Elysees.  On  the  next 

p|rie?ir"  ^ay  Casimir-Perier  was  elected  President  of  the 
French  Eepublic  by  the  Congress  of  the  Chambers 


1894  Autumn  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1761 

at  Versailles.  Later  President  Garnet's  assassin 
was  sentenced  to  death  at  Lyons.  From  May  to 
July  3,500  anarchists  were  arrested  in  Italy,  at 
Berlin  and  in  Marseilles  for  suspected  plots. 

About  the  same  time,  Captain  Dreyfus,  a  French 
officer,  after  a  protracted  trial  by  court-martial  with 
closed  doors,  was  found  guilty  of  having  procured, 

for  a  foreign  power,  documents  connected  with  the  Dreyfus- 

,  ...         condom- 

national   defence.       He  was   sentenced  to  military  nation 

degradation  and  perpetual  imprisonment  beyond 
the  seas.  Other  events  were  the  death  of  the 
Comte  de  Paris  at  Stowe  House  near  Buckingham 
on  the  8th  of  September,  and  the  death  of  Vicomte 
de  Lesseps. 

Vicomte  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps  was  born  Novem- 
ber 19,  1809,  the  son  of  a  French  diplomat.  HisDeathof 
early  manhood  was  spent  in  the  diplomatic  service.  De  Les£ 
In  1841,  he  conceived  the  idea  of  the  Suez  Canal 
from  reading  the  memoirs  of  Lep&re,  Bonaparte's 
chief  engineer  in  the  Egyptian  expedition.  A  suffi- 
cient number  of  French  capitalists  became  interested 
enough  to  commence  operations  in  1859.  The  Suez 
Canal  was  formally  opened  in  1869,  and  honors  were 
poured  on  De  Lesseps  upon  his  return  to  France. 
He  became  involved  in  the  Panama  Canal  project. 
The  original  estimate  of  cost  was  $120,000,000, 
Operations  were  begun  in  1881.  The  hardships  of 
the  tropical  climate  debilitated  the  laborers,  and 
in  December,  1888,  the  company  suspended  pay- 
ment. Now  the  sea  level  project  was  abandoned 
and  Eiffel  undertook  to  finish  the  canal  by  means 
of  eight  locks.  Reckless  financiering  brought  about 


1762  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Autumn  1894 

the  financial  crash  which  put  a  stop  to  all  work. 
In  1893  De  Lesseps  was  prosecuted  in  the  courts 
for  breach  of  trust  and  misuse  of  funds,  but  his 
sentence  was  never  executed.  De  Lesseps  died  on 
the  7th  of  December,  at  La  Chesnaye,  after  a  linger- 
ing illness. 

Accession       On  tne   1s*  of   November,   Czar  Alexander  III. 

ii.  '  died  at  Livadia,  in  the  Crimea.  After  Alexander's 
funeral  the  wedding  of  his  successor,  Nicholas  II., 
was  celebrated  at  St.  Petersburg.  Within  a  week 
after  the  Czar's  death  the  great  Eussian  composer 
Kubinstein  died. 

Anton  G-regorovitch  Rubinstein  was  born  at  Ye- 
chvotjnecz,  in  Bessarabia,  in  1830.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  Moscow,  where  he  studied  the  piano  under 
Yilloing.  When  the  boy  was  still  nine  years  old, 

Death  of    Villoing  took  him  to  Paris,  and  made  him  play  be- 

Rubinstein 

fore  Chopin,  Liszt  and  Meyerbeer.  On  Meyerbeer's 
recommendation  Rubinstein  was  sent  to  Berlin. 
Here  he  studied  composition  under  Dehn  and 
made  a  concert  tour  through  Hungary  with  the 
flute  player  Heindl.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  revo- 
lution in  1848  he  returned  to  Russia  and  settled  in 
St.  Petersburg.  Within  a  few  years  he  produced 
two  Russian  operas,  "Dimitri  Donskoi"  and  the 
"Siberian  Hunters."  He  founded  the  Imperial 
Conservatory  at  St.  Petersburg  and  remained  its 
director  until  1867.  Then  he  toured  once  more 
through  Europe  and  America,  winning  fame  as  a 
pianist  second  only  to  that  of  Liszt.  Rubinstein's 
fame  rests  chiefly  on  his  orchestral  and  piano  com- 
positions and  concertos. 


1894  Summet  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1763 

Paul  Bourget,  the  French  novelist,  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  Academy  this  year.  For  many  Bourget 
years  he  had  contributed  to  the  "Nouvelle  Revue," 
and  other  journals.  Of  his  novels  the  best  known 
are  "Mensonge,"  " L' Irreparable, "  "Cruelle  Enig- 
me,"  "On  Crime  d' Amour,"  "Le  Disciple,"  "Cos- 
mopolis, "  and  "La  Terre  Promise."  Bourget's 
works  were  first  made  familiar  to  English  readers 

Henry 

through   his   friend    and    brother    novelist,   Henry  Jamea 
J  ames. 

From  Samoa  came  the  sad  news  of  the  death 
of  Robert  Louis  Stevenson,  the  brilliant  Scotch 
writer.  He  had  gone  to  the  Samoan  Islands  to 
spend  the  rest  of  his  days  amid  the  primitive  con-  Loufsr 

Stevenson 

ditions  then  prevailing  at  Apia.  Among  his  later 
publications  were  "Kidnapped,"  "The  Master  of 
Ballantrae, "  and  a  volume  of  verse  entitled 
"Underwood." 

The  American  poet,  novelist,  essayist  and  phy- 
sician, Dr.  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  died  at  the  age 
of  seventy-five.     From  1847  to  1882,   Holmes  was 
Professor  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology  at  Harvard  wemfeii 
University.     While  Holmes  is  well  known  to  phy- 
sicians as  the  author  of  valuable  monographs,  the 
most  important  of  which  is  his  treatise  on  the  "Con- 
tagiousness of  Puerperal  Fever' '  (1843),  he  is  known 
chiefly  for  his  delightful  essays  and  graceful  verses. 
At  the  Congress  of  Hygiene  held  at  Budapesth, 
Dr.  Roux,  an  associate  of  Pasteur,  read  a  paper  in 
which  a  new  method  of  treating  lockjaw  and  diph-  £0"!^° 
theria  by  anti-toxin  was  first  brought  to  the  notice of  HygieD 
of  the  general  public.     The  serum  treatment,  as  this 


1764  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1894 


ROUX'B 
serum 
treatment 


new  method  was  called,  had  been  first  suggested  by 
serum        Behring  in  1892,  and  by  the  Japanese,  Kitasato;  but 
to  Dr.  Roux  belongs  the  credit  of  having  shown  how 
to  apply  it  for  cures. 

In  the  middle  of  June  the  great  Pullman  car  strike 
started  in  Chicago.     In  connection  with  this  move- 
Great        nient  40,000  railway  employe's  struck  in  the  West- 
stri1kean     em  States.     By  the  beginning  of  July  the  interven- 
tion of  the  United  States  troops  was  found  necessary 
to  protect  interstate  commerce  and  the  transmission 
of  the  mails.     Many  thousands  of  strikers  refused  to 
allow  the  trains  to  be  moved.     Most  of  the  remain- 
ing buildings  of  the  Chicago  World's  Fair  were  set 
on  fire  and  other  outrages  committed.     The  troops 
repeatedly   charged   the  mob.      At  one    time    the 
strikers  destroyed  all  the  station  yards  at  the  vari- 
ous railroads.     On  the  9th  of  July,  President  Cleve- 
land   issued   a  proclamation    practically   declaring 
Federal      martial  law  in  Chicago.     The  Federal  courts  pun- 
ference      ished    those    strikers    that   failed    to    obey  injunc- 
tions   for    contempt  of    court.     On    July    16,    the 
labor  strike  throughout  the  Union  was  practically 
brought  to  a  close,  and  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives thanked  the  President  for  his  energetic  action. 
Eugene  Debs  and    other  leaders  were  arraigned 
next  day  in  Chicago  for  their  contempt  of  court. 
Bail  was  fixed  at  $6,000  in  each  case,  and  when  this 
Sent™      was  DO*  fornisned,  tnev  were  committed  to  prison, 
injunction  jjence  arose  a  crv  against  "Government  by  Injunc- 
tion," which  later  became  a  political  issue. 

In  February,  the  House  of  Representatives  had 
passed  a  resolution  in  favor  of  the  recognition  of  the 


1894  Summer  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1765 

Provisional  Government  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands, 

and  their  ultimate  annexation  to  the  United  States  Re^'fh? 

recognized 

was  rejected.     An  American  naval  station  was  es- 
tablished at  Pearl  Harbor. 

The  New  York  Legislature,  in  accordance  with 
a  popular  vote  to  that  effect,  passed  a  bill,  uniting, 
under  one  common  government,  New  York,  Brook-  Greater 
lyn,  and  other  adjoining  towns,  covering  319  square  Nc 
miles  and  embracing  a  population  of  3,000,000. 

As  amended  by  the  Senate  after  many  weeks  of 
party  manoeuvring,  the  American  tariff  bill  was 
finally  adopted  by  the  House  of  Representatives  in 
August,  and  became  a  law  without  the  President 'stariff 
formal  approval  on  the  27th  of  the  month.  On  Sep- 
tember 28,  the  President  of  the  United  States  issued 
a  proclamation,  declaring  that  he  was  satisfied  that 
the  members  of  the  Mormon  Church  were  living  in 
obedience  to  the  laws,  and  granting  full  amnesty  and 
pardon  to  those  convicted  of  polygamy  and  deprived 
of  civil  rights. 

Earlier  in  the  year  the  imprisonment  by  the  Chief- 
Justice  of  Samoa  of  a  number  of  turbulent  natives 
caused  widespread  discontent  in  Samoa  and  the  Fighting 
neighboring  islands.  Hostilities  broke  out  between1" 
the  islanders  opposed  to  the  government  and  its  sup- 
porters, marked  by  savage  acts  of  cruelty,  especially 
in  Savaii  and  Aarra.  Again,  in  August,  a  British 
cruiser,  "Curacoa, "  and  a  German  sloop,  "Buz- 
zard," found  it  necessary  to  bombard  Luatoanu,  the 
stronghold  of  the  chiefs  who  had  risen  in  rebellion 
against  Malietoa,  the  recognized  king.  On  Septem- 
ber 10,  the  insurgent  chiefs  in  Samoa  surrendered 


1766  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1894 

their  arms  to  the  captain  of  H.M.S.  "Curacoa, "  and 
declared  their  submission  to  King  Malietoa, 
„   t   ,          All  the  republics  of  Central  America,  with  the 

Central 

Unjonican  exception  of  Costa  Rica,  concurred  in  a  protocol 
in  August,  by  which  they  were  united  in  a  Central 
American  Republic.  In  Rio  de  Janeiro  the  insur- 
gents came  in  conflict  with  the  United  States  war- 
ships protecting  the  merchant  shipping  of  their 
nationality  in  the  bay.  Admiral  da  Gama,  recog- 
nizing his  inferior  strength,  gave  in.  Early  in 
February,  the  blockade  of  the  harbor  of  Rio  de 
Janeiro  was  finally  abandoned  by  the  insurgents. 
A  plot  to  murder  President  Marshal  Peixoto  at  Rio 
was  brought  to  light.  Peixoto  ordered  several  of 
the  ringleaders  to  be  shot,  and  condemned  the 
others  to  imprisonment.  In  March,  the  insurgent 
admiral  Da  Gama,  commanding  the  ships  in  Rio 
Harbor,  made  a  conditional  surrender  to  Marshal 
Peixoto.  Admiral  de  Mello  took  refuge  in  Uruguay 
with  several  hundred  followers.  He  surrendered  to 
the  government  authorities.  This  brought  the  Bra- 
zilian rebellion  to  a  close. 

In  England  and  throughout  the  Orient,  serious 
concern  was  caused  by  the  outbreak  of  the  bubonic 
plague  at  Hong  Kong  in  June.  As  many  as  1,700 
deaths  were  reported.  Reports  were  received  the 

Bubonic 

plague  8ame  month  at  Port  Said  of  the  great  battle  of  Lake 
Nyassa,  in  which  the  slave-trading  chief  Mahanjua 
was  completely  defeated,  and  his  submission  to  Brit- 
ish terms  was  assured. 

End  of  ^n  South  Africa,  Lobengula,  the  Matabele  chief, 

Lobenguia  after  fae  desertion  of  nearly  all  his  followers,  was 


1894  Summer  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1767 

killed  near  the  Zambesi  Eiver.     Later  in  August, 
news  reached  Pretoria  that  the  Kaffirs  in  the  Zout 
pansberg  district  were  in  open  revolt.     An  agree- 
ment was  signed  at  the  Foreign  Office  in  London  in 
November  with  Cecil  Rhodes,  the  representative  of 
the  British   South   Africa   Company,  in  which  the 
Chartered  Company  undertook  the  administration  Rhodes 
of  the  territory  in  the   British  sphere  north  of  the 
Zambesi,  known  as  British  Central  Africa. 

In  the  Far  East,  events  were  coming  to  a  quick 
issue.  The  Japanese  Government,  which  on  the 
outbreak  of  disturbances  in  Korea  had  despatched 
an  expedition,  refused  to  withdraw  its  forces  simul- 
taneously with  China. 

On  July  23,  the  struggle  between  China  and  Japan 
began  with  the  Japanese  attack  upon  the  King  of 
Korea's  palace  at  Seoul.  A  few  days  previously,  Fighting 

„.,  .  ,.    .  .,.  in  Korea 

two  Chinese  expeditions,  sailing  under  the  British 
flag,  were  despatched  from  Taku.  The  landing  of 
the  Chinese  troops  in  Prince  Jerome  Gulf  was  cov- 
ered by  a  Chinese  squadron.  While  thus  engaged, 
the  Chinese  received  intelligence  of  the  fighting  at 
Seoul  from  a  British  cruiser.  Early  next  morning, 
a  Japanese  squadron  steaming  toward  Asan  hove 
in  sight.  As  the  two  squadrons  were  passing  each 
other  fighting  began.  The  Chinese  tried  to  get  out 
of  the  shallow  water,  and  a  running  fight  ensued. 
The  "Tsi  Yuen"  was  so  slow  in  clearing  for  action 
that  she  got  the  worst  of  it  from  the  start.  So  de-  pf^ot 
structive  was  the  Japanese  fire  that  not  a  man  was  aeuifme 
left  on  deck.  In  this  plight,  Captain  Fong  resorted 
to  a  cowardly  stratagem.  He  struck  his  flag  and  let 


1768  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Summer  18M 

the  "Yoshino"  come  close  to  him,  while  the  other 
Japanese  cruisers  made  after  the  "Kwang  Yi.  "  As 
the  "Yoshino"  approached,  the  Chinese  suddenly 
opened  fire  on  her  at  a  distance  of  two  hundred 
yards,  and  discharged  a  torpedo  at  her.  The 
"Yoshino"  was  disabled.  This  done,  the  "Tsi 
Yuen"  rushed  off  at  full  speed,  and  steaming  by 
the  Chinese  transport,  without  a  note  of  warning, 
got  away  to  Wei-hai-Wei.  The  Chinese  cruiser 
"Kwang  Yi"  fought  a  more  gallant  fight.  In  the 
end,  she  was  knocked  to  pieces  by  the  combined  fire 
of  the  "Naniwa"  and  "  Skitsushima,  "  and  her  cap- 
tain had  to  run  her  inshore  and  beach  her.  Only 
eighteen  of  her  crew  managed  to  escape.  Mean- 
while, the  hapless  Chinese  transport,  "Kowshing,  " 
steamed  into  the  gulf  unaware  of  the  situation.  The 
"Naniwa"  approached  with  her  guns  trained  on  the 
"Kowshing."  Captain  Galsworthy  and  Von  Han- 
neken,  commanding  the  transport  and  the  Chinese 
troops  on  board,  informed  the  Japanese  officers  that 
the  "Kowshing"  was  a  British  ship,  sailing  under 
the  British  flag,  and  had  left  port  in  peace.  After 
some  argument  they  were  ordered  to  follow  the 
'  '  Naniwa.  '  '  As  soon  as  the  boarding  party  left  the 
ship  the  Chinese  soldiers  mutinied.  The  Japanese 
boat  was  recalled,  and  the  situation  on  board  the 
"Kowshing"  was  explained. 

Within  an  hour  the  "Kowshing"  was  sunk.     The 

barbarism  Japanese    trained  their  guns  on  the  Chinese   life- 

boats, and  on  the  soldiers  swimming  in  the  water. 

Captain  Galsworthy  and  some  of  his  English  col- 

leagues were  rescued  by  the  "Naniwa."     Von  Han- 


1894  Autumn  NINETEENTH  CENTURY 

neken  swam  to  Shepaul.  On  July  29,  the  first 
regular  land  battle  was  fought  at  Cheng- Fuen  i 
Korea.  The  Japanese  land  forces  at  the  same  time 
attacked  Asan,  and  captured  it  with  heavy  loss  to 
its  Chinese  defenders.  captured 

As  soon  as  the  news  of  these  events  reached  Japan 
the  Mikado  made  a  formal  declaration  of  war.  A 
clear  statement  of  the  causes  of  this  war  was  given 
in  the  Japanese  declaration  of  war  published  at 
Tokio  in  the  form  of  an  imperial  rescript: 

"Korea  is  an  independent  country,  which  was  first  Tardy 

declara- 

induced  by  Japan  to  open  its  doors  to  foreign  inter- tion  of  war 

course,   and  to  take  its   place  among  the   nations 

of  the  world.     Yet  China  has  always  described  it 

as  her  tributary,  and  has  both  openly  and  secretly Casus  BeUi 

interfered  with  its  internal  affairs, ' '  etc. 

At  the  time  of  the  first  naval  action  a  fleet  of 
heavy  Chinese  ironclads  were  at  sea  under  Admiral 
Ting  Ju  Chang,  an  ex-cavalry  officer,  appointed  to 
the  command  of  the  northern  squadron.  Li  Hung 
Chang  issued  an  order  limiting  the  operations  of  the 
squadron  to  the  east  of  a  line  drawn  from  Wei-hai- 
Wei  to  the  mouth  of  the  Yalu.  The  Japanese  in 
some  way  got  wind  of  this  order  which  all  but  crip- 
pled the  Chinese  fleet.  For  some  time  the  Chinese 
lay  inactive  at  Wei-hai-Wai,  leaving  the  Japanese 
in  undisputed  possession  of  the  sea.  The  Japanese 
improved  the  interval  to  convey  as  large  a  force  as 
possible  to  Korea.  On  September  15,  the  Japanese 
attacked  the  Chinese  position  at  Ping- Yang,  da- 
fended  by  20,000  Chinese  soldiers.  After  a  long 
frontal  engagement  in  which  neither  side  gained 


1770  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Autumn  1894 

material  advantage,  the  Japanese  outflanked  their 
enemy,  and  the  Chinese  were  completely  routed. 
Only  one-fifth  of  their  army  could  be  rallied. 

The  defeat  of  the  Chinese  land  forces  at  Ping- 
Yang  forced  the  Chinese  to  make  use  of  their  navy. 
Admiral  Ting  wa's  ordered  to  convoy  five  transports 
with  5,000  Chinese.  On  September  14,  Ito,  with 
the  most  powerful  ironclads  of  his  two  first  squad- 
rons, steamed  toward  the  mouth  of  the  Yalu.  He 
did  not  expect  to  meet  the  Chinese  fleet,  and  had 
therefore  left  his  torpedo  boats  behind.  The  two 
fleets  sighted  each  other's  smoke  after  half-past 
Battle  of  nine  in  the  morning.  It  was  the  first  time  that 

the  Yalu 

two  large  fleets  of  modern  ironclads,  equipped  with 
high-power  heavy  guns,  torpedoes,  and  quick-firers 
were  to  try  issue.  The  Chinese  had  the  heavier 
ships  while  the  Japanese  had  the  swifter  cruisers. 
The  Chinese  were  benefited  by  the  professional  ad- 
vice of  a  number  of  Europeans.  The  chief  of  staff 
on  the  flagship  was  Yon  Hanneken,  aided  by  Messrs. 
Tyler,  Nichols  and  Albrecht.  On  the  "Chen  Yuen" 
were  Captain  McGiffin  and  Herr  Heckman ;  on  the 
"Tsi  Yuen"  Herr  Hoffman,  and  on  the  "Chih  Yuen" 
Mr.  Purvis.  The  Japanese  had  no  foreign  officers. 
Admiral  Ito's  orders  were  to  circle  around  the 
Chinese  flanks  and  crush  the  weak  ships  by  a  con- 
centrated fire.  To  deliver  their  attack  the  Japanese 
steamed  along  the  Chinese  front.  The  "Ting  Yuen" 
opened  fire  with  her  twelve-inch  guns  at  a  range  of 
6,000  yards.  The  concussion  was  so  great  that  those 
on  the  bridge  were  knocked  down  and  Admiral  Ting 
had  to  be  taken  below.  At  a  range  of  3, 000  yards 


1894  Autumn  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1771 

the  Japanese  opened  their  broadsides,  firing  three 
or  four  times  as  fast  as  the  Chinese  and  far  more 
accurately.  While  the  Japanese  main  squadron  sped 
by  the  Chinese  front  the  leading  ships  outstripped  bSSe6*8 
the  slower  Japanese  vessels.  As  a  result  the  Chi- 
nese were  taken  between  two  fires,  since  their  own 
indented  front  prevented  several  of  the  vessels  from 
bringing  their  guns  to  bear,  and  made  them  mask 
one  another's  fire.  The  brunt  of  the  Chinese  fire 
fell  on  the  slow  Japanese  vessels  at  the  end  of  their 
line,  the  ' '  Fusoo, "  "  Saikio, "  "  Akagi' '  and  " Hiyei. ' ' 
The  "Fusoo"  cleared  the  advancing  ironclads.  The 
"Saikio,"  while  drawing  further  away,  received  a 
very  heavy  fire,  and  was  saved  from  destruction 
or  capture  only  by  the  help  of  other  Japanese 
ships.  The  "Akagi"  lost  her  captain,  Sakamoto, 
and  three  succeeding  commanding  officers.  She 
engaged  the  big  Chinese  ironclad  "Lai  Yuen"  so 
fiercely  that  she  set  fire  to  the  "Lai  Yuen's"  deck. 
In  the  meanwhile  the  weak  "Hiyei"  was  driven  to 
the  desperate  expedient  of  disobeying  the  flagship's 
orders.  Steaming  in  at  full  speed,  the  "Hiyei"  got 
through  in  a  burning  condition,  with  19  killed  and 
37  wounded.  The  heaviest  loss  in  the  Japanese  fleet 
fell  on  the  flagship  ' '  Matsushima. ' '  She  lost  ninety 
officers  and  men  in  killed  and  wounded.  Admiral 
Ito  transferred  his  flag  to  the  "Hashidate."  The 
burning  "Matsushima"  had  to  steam  out  of  action. 
The  first  Chinese  ship  to  give  way  was  the  un- 
fortunate "Yang  "Wei,"  which  ran  out  of  the  thick 
of  the  fight  ablaze.  The  battleship  "Chin  Yuen" 
while  attempting  to  ram  the  "Yoshino"  was  smoth- 


1772  A    HISTORY    Of     THE  Autumn  1894 

ered  by  quick  firers.  At  3 :30  she  went  to  the  bot- 
tom. About  the  same  time  the  Japanese  flagship 
was  put  out  of  action.  Next,  the  Chinese  "Tsi 
Yuen,"  commanded  by  the  wretched  Fong,  fled 

Chinese  out  of  the  fight,  and,  coming  in  Collision  with  the 
burning  "Yang  Wei,"  sent  her  own  sister  ship  to 
the  bottom.  The  "Kwang  Kei"  also  retired,  while 
the  "Ching  Yuen"  and  "Lai  Yuen"  were  soon 
ablaze.  The  whole  Japanese  flying  squadron  con- 
centrated their  fire  on  the  "King  Yuen."  At  4:48 
the  Chinese  ship,  with  a  heavy  list,  was  seen  to  be 
afire.  Presently  with  a  fearful  explosion  she  went 
to  the  bottom.  This  left  only  the  "Chen  Yuen" 
and  the  "Ting  Yuen"  in  the  Chinese  line  of  battle. 
Both  of  them  were  repeatedly  on  fire.  While  the 
Japanese  flying  squadron  chased  the  other  Chinese 
ships,  the  main  squadron  wheeled  and  concentrated 
its  fire  upon  these  two  Chinese  ironclads.  They 
held  out  until  the  bitter  end.  At  nightfall  they 
collected  about  them  the  burning  "Lai  Yuen," 
"Ching  Yuen,"  "Ping  Yuen,"  two  gunboats  and 
two  torpedo  boats,  and  retired  toward  Wei-hai-Wei 
with  the  honors  of  war.  -Fong,  with  his  almost 
uninjured  runaway  ship,  had  arrived  there  hours 
before. 

On   their   return    to   Port   Arthur  the   Chinese 
claimed  the   victory.     They  asserted  that  at  least 

Japanese  three  of  tne  Japanese  ships  had  been  sunk.  They 
themselves  admitted  the  loss  of  five  ships  and  some 
620  men.  The  Japanese,  while  they  really  lost  no 
ship,  had  three  disabled,  and  lost  294  men.  This 
made  the  percentage  of  casualties  to  the  total  force 


1894  Autumn  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1773 

engaged  twenty-two  and  one-half  per  cent  on  the  part 
of  the  Chinese  and  eight  on  the  Japanese  side.  For 
a  while  it  seemed  as  if  this  most  important  of  naval 
engagements  since  Trafalgar  was  but  a  drawn  battle,  japanese 
but  the  subsequent  abandonment  of  the  sea  by  the 
Chinese  navy  revealed  the  magnitude  of  China's 
catastrophe.  Many  expert  opinions  have  been 
given  to  account  for  the  results  of  the  battle. 
Briefly  they  may  be  summarized  to  the  effect  that 
the  Japanese  were  victorious  by  reason  of  their  su- 
perior mobility,  concerted  action,  greater  rapidity 
of  firing,  and  better  gunnery. 

While  the  Chinese  fleet  withdrew  to  Port  Arthur, 
and  later  to  Wei-hai-Wei,  Admiral  Ito  with  his 
ships  was  kept  busy  convoying  troopships  to  the 
Chinese  mainland.  On  October  24,  a  Japanese  army 
disembarked  near  Port  Arthur,  and  the  attack  on  Arthur 
this  stronghold  was  begun.  The  situation  in  China 
became  serious.  The  foreign  officials  of  the  customs 
serving  in  Peking  and  most  of  the  European  families 
left  the  city  for  the  coast.  A  Japanese  advance  col- 
umn in  northern  Korea  drove  a  small  Chinese  force 
out  of  Wi-Ja,  and  occupied  the  north  bank  of  the 
Yalu  on  the  8th.  The  Japanese  by  this  time  were 
virtually  in  undisputed  possession  of  Korea,  and  the 
Mikado  despatched  his  Minister  of  the  Interior  from 

Korea 

Tokio  to  strengthen  the  hand  of  the   Minister  atoccuPied 
Seoul  in  reorganizing  the  country.     On  the  follow- 
ing day  a  revolt  against  the   Peking  government 
broke  out  near  Hankow  under  the   leadership  of 
the  Kulaoh  Wei  secret  society. 

A  proposal  to  mediate  between  China  and  Japan 


1774  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Autumn  1894 

was  made  by  Great  Britain  to  the  United  States, 
Kussia,  Germany  and  France,  but  failed  of  support. 
On  October  15,  informal  overtures  for  peace  were 
made  by  China,  but  were  rejected  summarily  by  the 
Japanese  Government.  The  Japanese  Parliament 
unanimously  passed  a  war  budget  of  a  hundred  and 
fifty  million  yen.  On  October  24,  the  Japanese, 
under  cover  of  darkness,  having  effected  a  lodgment 
on  the  north  bank  of  the  Yalu,  crossed  the  river  and 
routed  the  Chinese  forces.  On  the  following  day 

Battle  of  . 

Hushan  they  took  possession  of  the  stronghold  of  Kien-Lien- 
Tchong,  which  had  been  precipitately  evacuated  by 
the  Chinese,  and  won  the  battle  of  Hushan. 

Prince  Kung  invited  the  representatives  of  all  the 
foreign  Powers  to  the  Tsung-li  Yamen  on  Novem- 
ber 3,  and  avowed  the  impotence  of  China  to  with- 
stand the  Japanese  attack.  China  appealed  to  the 
Powers  to  intervene.  In  the  meanwhile,  the  Chinese 
strongholds  of  Kinchow  and  Talienwan  were  oc- 

Capture  of 

Kinchow  cupied  by  the  Japanese,  the  Chinese  troops  offering 
scarcely  any  resistance. 

On  November  20  and  21,  the  Japanese  army  and 
navy  made  a  combined  attack  on  Port  Arthur.  The 
land  forces  effected  a  lodgment  in  the  rear,  while 
the  Japanese  ships  shelled  the  forts  from  the  sea. 
Late  in  the  afternoon  of  the  second  day,  under  cover 
of  a  squall,  ten  Japanese  torpedo  boats,  supported 
by  two  fast  cruisers,  dashed  into  the  harbor.  With 
their  machine-guns  they  opened  on  the  unprotected 

Fan  of       Chinese    soldiery,    whose    works    faced    landward. 

Arthur  Thanks  to  this  audacious  attack,  executed  in  spite 
of  Chinese  mines  in  the  harbor  entrance,  Port  Ar- 


1894  Dec.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1775 

thur  within  a  half  hour  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
Japanese.  By  this  they  obtained  an  excellent  naval 
base,  with  docks  and  workshops  in  the  enemy's 
country.  On  the  24th,  the  Japanese  Government 
intimated  its  willingness  to  receive  peace  proposals 
from  China  through  the  United  States  Ministers  in 
Tokio  and  Peking.  Nevertheless  on  December  20,  Battle  of 

'  Kuugwasai 

an  obstinate  engagement  between  the  Chinese  and 
the  Japanese  was  fought  at  Kungwasai  on  the  road 
to  Mukden.  The  Japanese  forced  back  the  Chinese 
with  heavy  losses. 

At  the  close  of  the  year  the  Chinese  Government  Peace 

overtures 

appointed  peace  commissioners  to  treat  with  Japan. 
They  left  Tien-tsin  on  the  last  day  of  the  year. 


1776  A    HISTORY  OF   THE  1895 


1895 

independence  of  the  kingdom  of  Korea 
was  solemnly  proclaimed  at  Seoul  on  Janu- 
ary 7.  The  influence  of  all  foreign  power, 
in  particular  of  China,  Japan  and  Russia,  was  re- 
KaFphfug°f  stricted  to  diplomatic  representation.  During  the 
following  weeks  the  Japanese  achieved  a  series  of 
unbroken  victories  on  sea  and  land.  On  January 
10,  the  first  division  of  the  Japanese  army  under 
General  Nogi  attacked  Kaiphing.  After  hard  fight- 
ing the  Japanese  occupied  the  place,  having  brought 
their  guns  through  deep  snow.  The  Japanese  bom- 
barded Teng-chow  and  subsequently  silenced  the 

Bombard- 

.  fortress.  A  force  of  25,000  men  was  also  landed  at 
Yung-tcheng,  by  which  the  Chinese  arsenal  of  Wei- 
hai-Wei  was  isolated.  On  the  30th,  after  two  days' 
fighting,  all  the  land  forts  of  Wei-hai-Wei,  the 
second  most  important  Chinese  arsenal  in  the  north, 
were  captured  by  the  Japanese.  The  Chinese  loss 
was  estimated  at  about  2,000  men.  The  Japanese, 
having  completed  the  capture  by  February  1,  made 
themselves  masters  of  the  island  fortress  of  Len- 
Kung-Tan,  and  thus  closed  to  the  Chinese  fleet  all 
chance  of  escape.  In  the  meantime,  on  January  30, 
the  Chinese  peace  envoys  had  arrived  at  Kobe*. 


1895  Feb.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1 777 

They  were  greeted  by  the   populace   with  hostile 
demonstrations. 

Early  in  February,  the  Japanese  made  repeated 
efforts  to  dash  into  the  harbor  of  Wei-hai-Wei  to 
torpedo  the  remaining  Chinese  ironclads.  The  first 
three  attempts  cost  the  Japanese  dear. 
,  On  the  night  of  February  5,  the  Japanese  torpedo 
boat  flotilla  dashed  into  the  harbor,  and  got  in 
among  the  Chinese  fleet.  Seven  torpedoes  were  dis- 
charged at  close  range.  The  "Lai  Yuen"  was  hit 
and  capsized.  The  Chinese  crew  were  imprisoned 
alive  in  her  iron  hold,  and  were  heard  knocking  and 
shrieking  for  days  before  they  expired.  The  ' '  Ting  Chinese 
Yuen,"  though  hit,  saved  herself  from  immediate  torpedoed 
disaster  by  closing  her  water-tight  doors.  The 
"Wei  Yuen"  and  "Ching  Yuen"  were  likewise 
disabled.  This  reduced  the  Chinese  fleet  in  Wei- 
hai-Wei  to  four  vessels.  The  Japanese  had  lost 
two  torpedo  boats  and  twelve  men.  Then  followed 
several  days  of  hot,  long-range  bombardment.  On 
February  8,  twelve  Chinese  torpedo  boats  made  a 
desperate  attempt  to  escape  by  the  western  entrance. 
The  Japanese  cruisers  opened  upon  them  as  they 
came  out,  and,  chasing  them  along  the  coast  line, 
captured  or  sank  them  all.  On  the  same  day  a  Chi- 
nese land  magazine  was  blown  up,  and  the  island 
forts,  all  but  one,  were  stormed  by  the  Japanese. 
On  the  9th,  the  "Ching  Yuen"  was  sunk  in  the 
harbor  by  a  shell  from  one  of  the  ten-inch  guns 
among  the  captured  shore  batteries.  After  three 
more  days  of  incessant  bombardment,  Admiral  Ting 
bowed  his  head  to  fate.  He  tendered  to  Admiral 


1778  A    HISTORY    OF   THE 

Ito  the  surrender  of  the  remaining  Chinese  vessels 
in  Wei-hai-Wei  Harbor  and  of  the  Len-kung  forts, 
on  the  condition  that  the  lives  of  the  men  and  gar- 
rison should  be  spared.  Admiral  Ito,  in  recollec- 
tion of  his  schoolboy  friendship  with  Admiral  Ting, 
Admiral  offered  him  a  safe-conduct  to  Japan,  but  Ting  re- 
fused in  a  dignified  letter  of  farewell.  Having  de- 
spatched this  letter  he  committed  suicide.  Two  of 
his  fleet  captains  followed  their  admiral's  example. 
Captain  McGiffin  of  the  "Chen  Yuen"  was  released 
after  brief  captivity  and  returned  to  America.  As 
the  result  of  the  injuries  received  in  the  battle  of  the 
Yalu  he  became  mentally  unsound,  and  ultimately 
he,  too,  blew  his  brains  out.  On  March  4,  the  old 
city  of  Niuchang,  one  of  the  Chinese  treaty  ports, 
was  captured  after  a  heavy  bombardment  by  two 
divisions  of  the  Japanese  army  under  General 
Nodzu.  The  new  city  of  Ying-kow,  to  which  the 
Nhichang  Chinese  garrison  withdrew,  was  carried  only  after 
Ying-kow  eleven  hours  of  severe  street  fighting.  General 
Sung's  Chinese  army  was  scattered.  The  follow- 
ing day,  after  much  delay,  Li  Hung  Chang  left 
Peking  for  Japan  with  full  powers  to  negotiate 
terms  of  peace.  Another  brilliant  victory  was 
gained  by  the  Japanese  at  Denshodai  on  the  9th, 
in  which  7,000  Chinese  troops  with  thirty  guns  were 
Battle  of  defeated  after  two  hours  with  a  loss  of  1,400  killed 
Denshodai  and  wounaed.  Finally,  on  the  18th,  Prince  Ko- 
matsu,  the  Japanese  Commander-in-Chief,  was  or- 
dered to  proceed  to  China.  On  the  22d,  the  Japanese 
fleet  opened  an  attack  on  the  Pescadores  Islands, 
between  Formosa  and  the  mainland.  Two  days 


1895  Spring  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1779 

later,  Li  Hung  Chang,  when  returning  from  a  con- 
ference with  the  Japanese  Ministers,  was  fired  on  by  cLang^ 
a  Japanese  and  wounded  in  the  cheek.    The  Mikado  terms 
thereupon  ordered  the  Japanese  plenipotentiaries  to 
come  to  an  unconditional  armistice.     On  April  15, 
at    Shimonoseki,  the-  terms    of   peace   were  finally 
settled.     China  ceded  the  Liao-Tung  Peninsula,  For- 
mosa and  the  Pescadores  Islands,  agreed  to  pay  an  shfmono- 

seki 

indemnity  of  33,000,000  pounds  sterling,  and  made 
other  important  concessions  of  suzerainty  and  free- 
dom of  inland  trade.  The  Japanese  Government, 
however,  intimated  its  willingness  a  few  days  later, 
in  view  of  a  joint  protest  of  Russia,  France  and 
Germany  to  renounce  the  definite  annexation  of 
the  Liao-Tung  Peninsula,  including  Port  Arthur. 
Japan  had  to  content  herself  with  a  temporary  oc* 
cupation  of  Wei-hai-Wei,  and  the  annexation  of  the 
still  unsubdued  island  of  Formosa.  Instead  of 
withdrawing  as  commanded,  the  Chinese  Viceroy  of 
Formosa  proclaimed  the  island  an  independent  re-  against 

Formosa 

public.  Japan  immediately  prepared  an  expedition 
to  subdue  him. 

As  a  result  of  the  war  in  China  a  number  of  Eu- 
ropean and  American  missions  were  wrecked  by 
mobs.  In  August,  ten  BritisE.  subjects  belonging 
to  the  Missionary  Home  were  massacred  at  Wha-  wreck 

missions 

sang  near  Kucheng  in  the  province  of  Fokien. 
As  the  result  of  a  sharp  British  note  the  Viceroy 
of  Szuchnan  was  stripped  of  his  rank. 

A  new  treaty  between  France  and  China  conferred 
special  advantages  in  the  Southern  Chinese  prov- 
inces. In  France,  in  the  meanwhile,  public  opinion 


1780  A    HISTORY   OF    THE 


Autumn  1895 


was  deeply  stirred  by  Casimir-Perier's  resignation 
as  President  of   France   in   consequence   of   secret 

Casimir-  ,      .         ..,» 

Perier  revelations  in  connection  with  Capt.  Dreyfus's  con- 
demnation and  deportation  to  Cayenne.  On  the 
17th  of  January,  at  the  Congress  of  the  two  Cham- 
bers held  at  Versailles,  Fra^ois  Felix  Faure 
was  elected  President  of  the  French  Republic.  He 

Fture        received  438  votes  against  363  recorded  for  Brisson, 

President       ,         _     ..       , 

the  Radical  candidate. 

In  August,  the  French  invaded  Madagascar. 
The  fortified  town  of  Andebra  was  captured  by 
General  Duchesne.  Soon  the  French  troops  gained 
a  victory  over  the  Malagasy  at  Tsinainondry.  A 
French  flying  column  under  General  Duchesne, 
having  scaled  the  pass  over  the  Ambolimana 

Conquest 

°ascara  Mountains,  dispersed  the  Hovas.  On  September 
30th,  Tananarive,  the  Hova  capital  of  Madagascar, 
after  some  sharp  conflicts,  surrendered  to  General 
Duchesne.  The  French  troops  advancing  from 
Tamatave  succeeded  in  capturing  the  Hova  forts 
at  Farafatra. 

In  Abyssinia,  the  Italians  under  General  Bara- 
tieri,  after  some  severe  fighting  early  in  the  year, 
inflicted  a  defeat  on  Ras  Mangassia,  the  Abyssinian 
chief,  and  his  allies  the  Dervishes.  In  October, 
Baratieri  gained  another  important  victory  over 
the  rearguard  of  Ras  Mangassia' s  forces  near  Au- 
talo.  In  December,  however,  the  army  of  King 
Meneiek  Menelek  of  Abyssinia,  numbering  20,000  Shoans, 
Italians  made  a  sudden  advance  and  attacked  an  Italian 
detachment  of  about  2,200  men,  chiefly  native 
troops,  of  whom  only  300  escaped.  A  stormy  de- 


1895  Spring  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1781 

bate  followed  in  the  Italian  Chamber  of  Deputies. 
The  government  barely  obtained  a  vote  for  the 
prosecution  of  Italy's  African  campaign. 

In  Eussia,  the  new  Czar  at  the  outset  of  his 
reign  declared  that  he  intended  to  protect  the 
principles  of  autocracy  as  firmly  as  his  father. 
In  the  latter  part  of  February  the  students  tried  to 
petition  the  Czar.  They  came  into  conflict  with  the  Riots  in 

St.  Peteis- 

police.     Two  were  killed  and  one  professor  wound-  bure 
ed,  while  many  were  seriously  injured. 

This  year  Henryk  Sienkiewicz,  the  celebrated 
Polish  novelist,  published  his  "Quo  Yadis,"  which 
achieved  a-  great  success.  In  1872,  he  first  ap- 
peared before  the  public  with  his  humorous  novel 
"No  one  is  a  Prophet  in  his  own  Country."  In 
1876  he  visited  America,  and,  under  the  pseudonym  lien 
of  "Litwo, "  published  his  interesting  American 
letters  in  the  Warsaw  "Gazeta  Polska. "  A  series 
of  novels  followed  which  attracted  unusual  atten- 
tion by  their  realistic  conception  and  execution. 
Most  important  among  these  are  ' '  Hania, "  "  Skice 
Weglem,"  and  "Janko,  the  Musician."  In  1880, 
Sienkiewicz  first  entered  the  arena  of  the  historical 
novel  with  his  "Serfdom  of  the  Tartars."  "With 
Fire  and  Sword"  appeared  in  four  volumes  in  1884, 
and  established  his  fame.  By  this  time  nearly  all 
his  novels  had  been  translated  into  French,  German 
and  Eussian.  "The  Flood"  and  "Pan  Volodyjov- 
ski"  came  next,  followed  by  "Without  Dogma,"  in 
1890. 

On  the  16th  of  May  the  Eussian,  French,  and 
British  Ambassadors  at  Constantinople  at  last  pre- 

XTXth  Century— Vol.  3— W 


1782  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Autumn  1896 

sented  a  note  stating  the  reforms  necessary  in  Ar- 
menia. While  the  proposals  of  Armenian  reforms 
collective  were  accepted  in  principle,  the  Forte's  reply  was 
Turkey  regarded  as  tantamount  to  a  refusal  to  put  the 
reforms  in  force.  Under  increasing  pressure,  how- 
ever, the  Sultan  granted  an  amnesty  to  all  Ar- 
menian political  prisoners.  Notwithstanding  this, 
fresh  acts  of  violence  were  committed  in  Ar- 
menia in  August  by  the  forces  sent  by  the  Turk- 
ish authorities  to  collect  taxes  in  the  district  of 
Erzeroum.  An  affray  between  Armenians  and  a 
body  of  Mohammedans,  instigated  by  the  Ottoman 
.  officials,  took  place  at  Antioch  in  September.  Ten 
of  the  former  were  killed  after  a  prolonged  struggle 
in  the  Armenian  Church,  which  was  sacked.  A 
British  squadron  of  seventeen  ships  came  to  anchor 
at  the  entrance  to  the  Dardanelles.  The  Turkish 
forts  at  the  Dardanelles  were  put  into  a  state  of 
defence.  On  the  1st  of  October,  a  serious  collision 
between  the  Turkish  police  and  the  Armenians 
seeking  to  make  a  political  demonstration  occurred 
at  Constantinople  and  was  continued  on  the  follow- 
outrages  ing  day.  Some  eighty  persons  were  killed  and  200 
wounded,  including  the  major  of  the  Turkish  police. 
The  Grand  Vizier,  Said  Pasha,  was  dismissed  and 
Kiamil  Pasha  appointed  in  his  place.  Eijah  Pasha, 
the  Minister  of  the  Interior,  also  resigned.  The 
condition  of  affairs  of  Stamboul  and  other  quarters 
of  the  city  continued  to  be  alarming  for  days ;  the 
great  mass  of  Armenians  took  refuge  in  their 
churches  and  sanctuaries.  Those  who  remained 
outside  were  the  objects  of  murderous  attacks 


1895  Dec.  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1783 

from  the  Softas  and  Kurds.  The  Turkish  soldiers 
stood  by  inactive.  At  Trebizond  a  serious  con- 
flict occurred.  Four  hundred  Armenians  lost 
their  lives.  At  Constantinople,  the  soldiery 
surrounded  three  of  the  churches  in  which  the 
Armenians  had  taken  refuge  and  allowed  no  one 
to  enter  or  to  bring  them  food.  On  the  personal 
intervention  of  the  foreign  Ambassadors,  the  ref- 
ugees in  the  Armenian  churches  were  induced  to 
come  forth  and  give  up  their  arms.  The  total  num- 
ber of  killed  and  wounded  during  the  outbreak 
was  estimated  at  nearly  one  thousand.  Finally, 
by  the  middle  of  October,  the  Sultan  accepted  l^1^ 
the  Armenian  reform  measures  in  an  imperial 
irade. 

Late  in  the  year  he  issued  firmans  allowing  extra 
guardships  to  pass  the  Dardanelles.  On  Christmas 
Day,  nevertheless,  renewed  massacres  were  reported 
from  the  Lebanon,  where  12,000  Druses  were  stated 
to  have  been  killed.  At  Zeitun,  also,  the  Turks 
repressed  an  Armenian  rising  with  terrible  cruelty. 

To  suppress  the  Cuban  insurrection,  Campos 
was  despatched  to  the  West  Indies  with  discre-  Cuban  war 
tionary  power.  In  July,  a  column  of  Spanish 
troops  operating  in  the  province  of  Santiago  de 
Cuba  was  repulsed  by  the  insurgents,  and  General 
Santo  Celdar  was  killed.  A  train  full  of  soldiers 
was  blown  up  by  dynamite,  and  only  a  few  of  the 
troops  escaped.  The  Cuban  insurgent  delegates 
from  the  western  provinces  met  at  Najassa  the 
same  month,  and  proclaimed  a  constitution  for  a 
Cuban  Eepublic  on  a  Federal  basis  of  five  States, 


1784  A    HISTORY  OF   THE  1895 

and  elected  Marquess  Santa  Lucia  to  be  President. 
Mass  meetings  were  held  in  the  United  States  in 
favor  of  the  recognition  of  the  Cubans  as  bellig- 
erents. On  December  24,  General  Martinez  Campos, 
having  been  previously  outflanked  by  the  Cuban 
insurgents  under  Gomez,  forced  an  engagement 
near  Matanzas,  and  won. 

At  Honolulu,  an  attempt  was  made,  in  January, 
by  the  partisans  of  the  dethroned  Queen  of  Hawaii 

Royalists    to  overthrow  the  existing   Eepublican  government. 

Hawaii  After  two  days'  fighting,  in  which  a  member  of  the 
Legislature  was  killed,  the  natives  were  driven  into 
the  bush  and  dispersed.  On  the  18th,  ex- Queen 
Liliuokalani  was  arrested  on  a  charge  of  complicity 
with  the  rebels  then  under  trial.  She  formally 
abdicated  the  throne  on  the  24th,  and  proffered 
allegiance  to  the  Republican  government.  In  Feb- 
ruary, she  was  tried  for  her  connection  with  the 
attempted  rebellion,  convicted  of  misprision  of 
treason,  and  sentenced  to  five  years'  imprisonment 
and  a  fine  of  $5,000.  Three  of  the  insurgent  lead- 
ers were  sentenced  to  death,  and  twenty-five  others 
to  long  terms  of  imprisonment.  In  September, 
the  Queen  was  pardoned,  and  all  persons,  with  the 
exception  of  the  two  ringleaders,  the  brothers 
Ashford,  were  released. 

In  the  American  Senate  at  Washington  the  Silver 
party,  in  February,  finally  abandoned  the  attempt 
to  force  a  vote  on  the  Free  Silver  Coinage  Bill, 
which  was  withdrawn.  Richard  Olney  was  appointed 

Graham    Secretary   of    State    in    succession    to    Walter    Q. 
Gresham,   deceased.       Before    this  a  joint  resolu- 


1895  Dec.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1785 

tion  had  been  adopted  by  Congress  in  February 
to  the  effect  that  Great  Britain  and  Venezuela 
refer  their  disputes  of  boundaries  to  friendly 
arbitration.  No  attention  was  paid  to  this  resolu- 
tion by  the  British  Government.  In  July,  Mr. 
Olney  despatched  a  letter  to  Mr.  Bayard,  American 
Ambassador  at  the  Court  of  St.  James,  in  which 
he  discussed  the  situation  at  length.  He  reaffirmed 
the  Monroe  Doctrine  as  a  rule  of  procedure  for  the 
United  States.  In  answer  to  this  letter,  Lord  Salis- 
bury, who  had  succeeded  Lord  Rosebery  as  Prime 
Minister,  replied  that  the  Monroe  Doctrine  had 
never  been  recognized  as  a  principle  of  international 
law,  and  that  the  controversy  lay  purely  between 
Great  Britain  and  Venezuela.  On  December  17, 
President  Cleveland  addressed  a  message  to  Con-  {-jj®^ 
gress  on  the  subject.  In  adherence  to  the  Monroe  ilnaez 
Doctrine,  he  insisted  on  a  settlement  by  arbitration, 
and  claimed  for  the  United  States  the  right  to  de- 
termine the  boundaries  between  the  British  and 
Venezuelan  territories.  Congress  was  asked  to  vote 
the  necessary  expenses  for  an  inquiry.  The  Presi- 
dent's message  concluded  in  this  wise:  "When  such 
report  is  made  and  accepted  it  will  be  in  my 
opinion  *he  duty  of  the  United  States  to  resist 
by  every  means  in  its  power,  as  a  wilful  aggression 
upon  its  rights  and  interests,  the  appropriation  by 
Great  Britain  of  any  lands  or  the  exercise  of  govern- 
mental jurisdiction  over  any  territory  which  we  have 
determined  of  right  to  belong  to  Venezuela." 

The  message  was  received  by  Congress  with  wild- 
est enthusiasm,  and  $100,000  was  instantly  voted  to 


1786  A   HISTORY   OF   THE  Spring  IBM 

> 

defray  the  expenses  of  the  Commission.  The  Eng- 
war  flurry  i^  press  an(j  peOpie  almost  unanimously  advocated 
a  peaceful  adjustment  of  the  dispute.  Gladstone 
sent  a  memorable  message,  "All  that  is  needed 
Is  common- sense. "  Lord  Salisbury  readily  acceded 
to  the  popular  demand  that  the  question  be  referred 

England 

gives  in  •   to  arbitration. 

The  American  Commission,  finding  the  matter 
taken  out  of  their  hands,  disbanded. 

Prior  to  this  the  treaty  annexing  the  Congo 
State  to  Belgium  was  signed  at  Brussels.  In 

BergJum 

Annexes  June  the  North  Sea  Canal  from  Hamburg  to  Kiel 
was  opened  by  the  German  Emperor  with  a  naval 
review  of  several  visiting  squadrons  representing 
the  great  maritime  Powers. 

Indian  affairs  had  taken  a  serious  aspect  for  the 
British  Government  in  consequence  of  the  continued 
disturbances  in  Chitral.  On  the  northwestern  In- 
dian frontier  a  force  of  14,000  men  of  all  arms  was 
mobilized  under  the  command  of  Major-General  Sir 
Eobert  Low.  On  April  3,  two  of  the  brigades  of 
Sir  Eobert 's  force,  engaged  on  the  Bajaur  expedi- 

Indian 

Border  war  tion,  stormed  the  Malandrai  Pass,  and  after  five 
hours'  heavy  fighting  drove  back  the  natives. 
Three  weeks  later,  Chitral  Fort,  where  Mr.  Eobert- 
son  and  Captains  Campbell  and  Townsend  had  been 
closely  invested  by  the  Swatis,  was  relieved  after 
forty-three  days  by  Colonel  Kelley.  Sher  Afzul 

Capture  of  .          . 

Chitral  took  refuge  in  flight  on  learning  of  the  approach  of 
the  Khan  of  Dir.  On  April  25,  he  surrendered  with 
1,500  followers.  This  ended  the  war. 

The  Pamir  Delimitation  Commission  brought  its 


1895  Summer  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1787 

work  to  a  friendly  conclusion  in  September,   and 

fixed  the  line  of  demarcation  between  English  and  boundary 

fixed 

Eussian  interests  up  to  the  Chinese  frontier. 

In  October,  the  King  of   Ashantee   rejected  all 
British  interference,  preferring  to  take  the  chances 
of  war.     Sir  Francis  Scott  and  the  officers  and  troops  expedition 
forming  part  of  the  Ashantee  expedition  left  Liver- 
pool in  November. 

Late  in  June,  Professor  Thomas  Henry  Hux- 
ley, the  English  biologist,  died  at  the  age  of  seventy 
years.  In  1874,  Haeckel,  the  eminent  German  nat- 
uralist, ranked  Huxley  among  the  first  zoologists  of 

Death  of 

England.  His  lectures  on  biology  were  published  Huxley 
in  .1863,  under  the  title  "Evidences  as  to  Man's 
Place  in  Nature."  In  this  and  in  other  works 
he  advanced  the  principles  of  the  Darwinian  theory. 
Louis  Pasteur,  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  century's 
scientists,  died  at  Paris  and  received  a  state  funeral. 
Although  by  training  he  was  a  chemist,  his  most 
valuable  work  was  accomplished  in  bacteriology 
and  medicine.  In  1857,  he  startled  the  scientific 
world  -with  new  and  convincing  proofs  in  support 
of  the  vitalistic  theory  of  fermentation.  From 
this  he  passed  to  the  subject  of  putrefaction,  and 
showed  definitely  that  here  again  living  organisms 
were  responsible  for  the  changes  wrought  in  dead  LOUIS 
bodies  of  animals.  These  bacteriological  studies 
induced  Lister  of  Glasgow  to  seek  some  means  of 
killing  disease  germs.  In  1862,  he  completely 
shattered  the  old  theory  of  spontaneous  genera- 
tion. At  the  age  of  fifty-seven,  Pasteur  turned  his 
attention  to  the  study  of  infectious  diseases.  He 


1788  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Dec.  1895 

showed  that  anthrax  was  due  to  bacilli.  In  1874, 
he  had  accidentally  discovered  the  method  of 
offsetting  infection  by  inoculation.  He  now  ap- 
plied the  discovery  to  the  prevention  of  anthrax, 
and  submitted  his  theory  to  a  public  test.  Thus, 
the  great  bacteriologist  was  eventually  led,  after  a 
brilliant  series  of  investigations,  to  the  now  familiar 
treatment  of  rabies  by  inoculation. 

Late  in  the  year.  Professor  Roentgen  of  the  Uni- 

Roentgen  J 

discover  d  versity  of  Wuerzburg  startled  the  world  with  the 
announcement  that  he  had  discovered  a  new  light 
or  form  of  radiant  energy  which  had  the  power  of 
penetrating  certain  bodies,  by  means  of  which  he 
was  enabled  to  photograph  the  skeleton  of 'living 
animals.  At  first  received  with  incredulity,  the  dis- 
covery soon  took  its  place  in  science  and  proved  to 
be  of  immense  value  in  surgery. 

New  honors  were  conferred  on  Cecil  Rhodes,  who 
was  appointed  Privy  Councillor  to  the  Queen.  Mr. 
Rhodes'  motion  in  the  Cape  Parliament  for  the  an- 
nexation of  British  Bechuanaland  to  Cape  Colony 
was  agreed  to  without  a  division  and"  the  bill  was 
passed.  On  the  26th  of  December  the  Johannesburg 

British 

designs  on  "National    Union"   published  a  manifesto  on  self- 

Transvaal 

government  and  the  "Bill  of  Rights"  upon  which 
the  Outlanders  in  the  Transvaal  insisted.  On  pre- 
tence of  a  popular  appeal  from  the  English  inhabi- 
tants of  Johannesburg  for  immediate  intervention, 
Dr.  Jameson  at  the  close  of  the  year  suddenly  crossed 
the  frontier  at  Mafeking,  where  he  and  a  force  of 
volunteers  had  been  impatiently  waiting  for  the 
prearranged  message  of  encouragement. 


1896  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1789 


1896 


N  New  Year's  Day  came  the .  startling  news 
of  the  English   filibustering  raid  into  the 


\J  "    °  Jameson's 

Transvaal,  led  by  Dr.  Jameson,  the  fac- raid 
totum  of  Cecil  Ehodes.  With  a  force  of  700  volun- 
teers, among  whom  were  several  titled  British  officers, 
Jameson  was  well  under  way  across  the  veldt.  An 
urgent  official  message  of  recall  was  ignored  by  Jame- 
son. By  the  time  the  raiders  reached  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Kruegersdorp  on  the  way  to  Johannesburg, 
they  found  themselves  opposed  by  a  strongly-posted  Kruegers- 

dorp 

force  of  Boers  under  Commandant  Joubert.  The 
raiders  were  hopelessly  outmatched.  After  thirty- 
six  hours  of  continuous  rifle  fire,  the  British  troopers 
found  themselves  without  food  and  ammunition.  Dr. 
Jameson  was  compelled  to  raise  a  white  flag.  He 
surrendered  with  all  his  force  and  was  marched  off 
to  Pretoria. 

On  receipt  of  this  news   in   London,    Secretary 
Chamberlain  telegraphed  to  President  Krueger  dis- 
avowing the  raid,  and  bespeaking  the  President 'sjameson 
generosity  toward  his  prisoners  in  the  moment  ofdlsavowed 
victory.     At  the  same  time  Emperor  William  from 
Berlin  sent  a  message  to  President  Krueger  con- 
gratulating him  on  the  outcome.     This  telegram  cre- 
ated much  excitement  in  England.     It  was  taken  to 


1790  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Jan.  189* 

imply  German  recognition  of  the  Transvaal's  inde- 
wfifilmvj    pendence  of  British  suzerainty.    A  so-called  "flying 
squadron"   of  British  warships  made  an  imposing 
demonstration   in  the  English  Channel.     The  mis- 
understanding between  the  two  Powers  was  adjusted 
by  an  exchange  of  letters  between  Queen  Victoria 
and  her  grandson  on  the  German  imperial  throne. 
In   consequence   of  the   state   of   affairs    in  South 
^  Africa,  Cecil   Rhodes   resigned   his  premiership  of 

the  Cape  Ministry.  The  arrangements  for  an  up- 
rising in  connection  with  the  raid  were  shown  to  be 
inadequate.  Bitter  recriminations  ensued  between 

British 

released8  t^ie  resident  Outlanders  and  the  captured  raiders. 
On  the  part  of  the  Transvaal  authorities  there  was 
some  talk  of  shooting  the  British  filibusters,  but  in 
the  end  more  moderate  counsels  prevailed.  Presi- 
dent Krueger  agreed  to  surrender  Dr.  Jameson's 
fellow  prisoners.  The  most  prominent  plotters 
among  the  Outlanders  were  placed  under  arrest 
to  be  tried  on  charges  of  high  treason. 

In  London,  Cecil  Rhodes'  Chartered  Company 
for  British  South  Africa  fell  into  extreme  dis- 
repute. Labouchere  and  other  Radical  leaders 
charged  the  princes  of  the  royal  house  as  well 
as  Chamberlain  with  complicity  in  the  raid.  The 

Rhodes      Chartered  Company's  directors,   on  January  9,   re- 

cLSS&llCCl 

moved  Dr.  Jameson  from  his  office  as  the  Com- 
pany's administrator  of  Matabeleland.  On  the  same 
day  Krueger  issued  a  conciliatory  proclamation. 
Dr.  Jameson  was  escorted  across  the  border  and 
was  immediately  conducted  to  Durban,  whence  he 
sailed  for  England  on  the  troopship  ' '  Victoria. ' ' 


TB96Feb.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1791 

In  the  midst  of  this  South  African  commotion 
came  the  news  of  the  death  of  Prince  Henry  of  Ashaute» 
Battenberg.  He  had  volunteered  for  the  Ashantee 
campaign,  and  had  been  sent  to  Madeira  to  recruit. 
On  the  day  of  his  death,  January  20,  King  Prempeh 
of  Ashantee  submitted  to  Great  Britain's  terms. 
The  King  and  his  immediate  relatives  were  sent 
to  Cape  Coast  Castle.  Two  days  later,  Lieutenant 
Alston,  with  150  British  regulars  and  5,000  natives, 
attacked  the  great  slave-holding  chief,  Mwasi  Ka- 
gunga,  on  the  west  shore  of  Lake  Nyassa.  The 
natives,  numbering  nearly  20,000,  were  defeated  in 
three  encounters.  Their  stockades  and  settlements 
were  burned. 

In  February,  Cecil  Rhodes  arrived  in  London  just 
before  Jameson  and  his  fellow  prisoners.  "Doctor  Return  of 
Jim,"  as  he  was  affectionately  called,  received  an 
enthusiastic  reception.  After  formal  inquiries  be- 
fore a  magistrate  he  and  his  fellow  prisoners  were 
released  to  answer  charges  under  the  Foreign  En- 
listment Act.  While  this  trial  was  pending,  a  mo- 
tion was  made  in  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  Assembly 
to  cancel  the  charter  of  the  South  Africa  Company. 
This  proposition  was  rejected,  but  the  Afrikanders 
in  the  Assembly  were  strong  enough  to  exact  an 
official  inquiry  into  the  circumstances  of  the  raid. 
In  London,  Dr.  Jameson  with  fourteen  of  his  prin- 
cipal adherents  came  up  for  trial.  Nine  of  the  men 
were  discharged,  but  against  the  others  a  grand  jury 
returned  a  true  bill.  While  this  cause  cetibre  was 
on,  public  feeling  in  England  was  further  excited 
by  several  plays  representing  the  dramatic  incidents 


1792  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  Spring  low 

of  the  raid,  and" by  some  verses  of  Sir  Alfred  Aus- 
lustm's  tin,  the  new  Poet  Laureate.  The  trial  was  dragged 
out  to  considerable  length.  By  the  end  of  July, 
Dr.  Jameson  and  his  five  co-defendants  were  found 
guilty.  Their  chief  defence  was  a  written  appeal 
for  help  from  Messrs.  Francis  Ehodes,  Phillips, 
Hammond,  Farrar,  and  Leonard  on  behalf  of  the 
Johannesburgers.  Jameson  was  convicted.  The 
most  damaging  testimony  against  him  was  his 
open  defiance  of  the  Queen's  summons  to  re- 
turn. He  was  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for 
fifteen  months  without  hard  labor.  His  asso- 

Jameson 

imprisoned  ciateg)  Colonels  White  and  Grey,  and  Major  Cov- 
entry, received  sentences  of  five  months  at  light 
confinement.  They  were  removed  to  Wormwood 
Scrubs.  A  memorial,  signed  largely  by  Members 
of  Parliament,  was  immediately  presented  to  the 
Home  Secretary,  praying  that  the  prisoners  should 
be  treated  as  first-class  misdemeanants.  Within  a 
month  one  of  them,  Major  the  Honorable  Charles 
J.  Coventry,  was  released  on  the  plea  of  ill-health. 
None  served  out  his  full  term. 

In   the  House  of   Commons,   the  South  African 
debate  was  opened  by  Sir  William  Harcourt.     He 

taryiamen  brought  serious  charges  against  Cecil  Rhodes  and 
his  Chartered  Company.  A  highly  discreditable 
version  was  given  of  the  English  seizure  of  Mata- 
beleland,  and  the  killing  of  King  Lobengula,  fol- 
lowed by  the  disappointing  discovery  that  there  was 
no  gold  in  the  territory.  The  Chartered  Company 
was  charged  with  circulating  false  reports  of  the 
fabulous  mineral  wealth  of  Mashonaland,  which, 

v 


1886  Spring  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1793 

with  clever  stock  exchange  manipulations,  sent  the 
shares  up  to  £8  10s.  A  number  of  minor  stock 
jobbing  companies,  it  was  shown,  were  floated  on 
similar  flimsy  pretexts.  To  avert  the  inevitable 
crash,  the  seizure  of  the  paying  gold  mines  of  the 
Transvaal,  it  was  asserted,  was  attempted  as  a  last 
measure.  While  the  debate  was  at  its  height,  Sec- 
retary Chamberlain,  presiding  at  the  South  Africa  chamber- 

Iain's 

Company's  banquet,  emphatically  denied  all  charges  denials 
of  the  government's  alleged  complicity  in  the  raid. 
In  conclusion,  he  expressed  regret  that  "so  little 
progress  had  been  made  toward  a  reconciliation  of 
the  Dutch  and  English  races  in  South  Africa." 
As  if  in  answer  to  this,  the  State  Secretary  of  the 
Transvaal  Republic  addressed  two  telegrams  for 
transmission  to  the  British  Government  urging  the 
prosecution  of  Messrs.  Cecil  Rhodes,  A.  Beit,  and 
Rutherford  Harris  for  complicity  in  the  Jameson  raid, 
on  the  basis  of  their  cipher  correspondence  already 
made  public  in  Pretoria.  The  three  men  named  sent  Krueger's 

damaging 

in  their  resignations  as  directors  of  the  British  South  evidence 
Africa  Company.  In  the  Cape  Assembly  a  com- 
mittee of  inquiry  into  the  raid  presented  a  report 
charging  Cecil  Rhodes  and  his  two  abovenamed 
associates  with  being  active  promoters  of  the  enter- 
prise. After  a  heated  debate  a  motion  to  extend  an 
indefinite  leave  of  absence  to  Mr.  Rhodes  was  carried. 
In  Pretoria,  the  trial  of  the  seventy-two  mem- 
bers of  the  Johannesburg  Reform  Committee  drew 
to  a  close.  Messrs.  Rhodes,  Phillips,  and  Farrar 
pleaded  guilty  of  high  treason,  while  the  others 
conceded  that  they  had  committed  an  offence  against 


1794  A    HISTORY  OF   THE  Spring  1898 

the  republic,  but  without  hostile  intent.  Hammond, 
an  American,  with  several  of  his  fellow  conspira- 
tors, forfeited  his  bail.  All  the  prisoners,  with  the 
exception  of  the  four  leaders  who  had  been  con- 
demned to  death,  and  two  others  who  refused  to 

Outlander 

pleac*  i°r  clemency,   were  released  on  a  promised 


payment  of  their  fines.  On  June  11,  the  death  sen- 
tence of  the  four  leaders  was  commuted  to  a  fine 
of  £25,000  each,  or  fifteen  years'  banishment  in  de- 
fault. The  fines  were  paid.  Only  Colonel  Rhodes, 
who  declined  to  sign  a  pledge  not  to  engage  in 
further  plots  against  the  Transvaal,  was  banished. 
Piet  Joubert  was  elected  Vice-  President  of  the 
Transvaal. 

Meanwhile,  since  the  end  of  March  the  country 
around  Buluwayo  was  reported  to  be  in  a  state  of 
insurrection.  The  Matabeles  seized  strong  posi- 
tions on  the  Matoppo  Hills  and  drove  back  several 

Matabeles  par^es  of  British  border  police.  In  April,  a  large 
"impi"  of  Matabeles  gathered  around  Buluwayo, 
almost  completely  investing  it.  The  natives,  num- 
bering several  thousands,  attacked  a  detachment 
of  border  police  about  five  miles  from  Buluwayo. 
After  an  obstinate  struggle  the  Englishmen  were 
victorious.  Cecil  Ehodes  cleared  the  road  from 
Groels  of  rebellious  natives  and  penetrated  as  far 
as  Buluwayo.  In  August,  a  combined  force  of 

Rhodes  to  British  and  Colonial  troops  under  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  Plumer  stormed  the  Matabele  intrench- 
ments  on  the  Matoppo  Hills  and  drove  out  the 
natives.  After  this  the  most  powerful  Matabele 
chiefs  submitted  to  English  rule. 


1896  Spring  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1795 

During  the  same  period  the  troubles  of  the 
Italians  in  Abyssinia  became  acute.  Early  in 
the  year  the  Shoan  army  under  King  Menelek 
made  a  determined  attack  upon  the  Italians  at 
Makalea.  After  ten  hours  of  successive  fighting 
the  Italians  held  their  ground,  but  subsequently  fell 
back.  A  liberal  proposal  of  peace  made  by  Menelek 
was  declared  to  be  unacceptable  by  the  Italian  Gov-  ^defeat 
ernment.  On  March  1,  the  Italian  troops  under 
General  Baratieri,  in  a  battle  with  the  Abyssinians, 
found  themselves  outmatched,  and  were  forced  to 
retreat.  They  abandoned  their  guns,  ammunition 
and  provisions.  Two  generals  were  killed  and  an- 
other wounded.  The  total  loss  of  killed  and 
wounded  for  the  Italians  fell  little  short  of  5,000. 
Serious  disturbances  broke  out  in  Naples,  Milan, 
Parma,  Pavia,  and  other  Italian  towns.  The  rioters 
denounced  the  African  policy  of  the  Ministry  and 
demanded  the  withdrawal  of  Italian  troops.  TheFallof 
Ministry  of  Crispi,  in  the  face  of  these  demands,  cabmet 
resigned.  General  Baratieri  was  relieved  of  his 
functions  as  Governor  of  Trythrea.  The  Ministry 
was  reconstituted  under  Marquis  di  Rudini  and 
General  Ricotti.  They  declared  in  the  Chambers 
that  the  national  honor  of  Italy  required  the  prose- 
cution of  the  war  in  Abyssinia.  Four  days  later 

.      .  Peace 

negotiations  were  opened  by  the  Italian  authorities  overtures 
to  obtain  terms  of  peace  from  King  Menelek. 

By  reason  of  the  threatening  attitude  of  the  Der- 
vishes, made  bold  by  the  defeat  of  the  Italians, 
Egyptian  troops  were  ordered  to  march  to  Don- 
gola,  and  British  battalions  were  sent  to  Wady 


179.6  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1896 

Haifa.  Within  two  days  2,500  soldiers  left  Bal- 
liana  for  Assoua.  The  Italians  near  Kassala  drove 
back  a  large  force  of  Dervishes  while  attempting  to 
Dervishes  capture  the  pass  of  Taberete.  Again  the  Italian 
ao°mele  losses  were  distressingly  heavy.  In  April,  another 
pitched  battle  was  fought  at  Moyram.  The  Italians 
succeeded  in  breaking  through  the  Dervishes  to 
Kassala.  General  Kitchener  left  Cairo  for  the 
front.  By  the  middle  of  the  month  there  were 
sharp  encounters  near  Suakim  between  the  Egyp- 
tian troops  and  the  Dervishes  under  the  stand- 
ard of  Osman  Digna.  The  Egyptian  troops  under 
Kitchener,  having  marched  through  the  night  of 
June  6  from  Skashe,  attacked  the  Dervishes  on  the 
Feshet°f  break  of  day  at  Feshet.  The  Arabs  were  routed 
with  a  loss  of  900  killed  and  500  prisoners.  Sep- 
tember 23,  the  Anglo- Egyptian  relief  forces  reached 
Dongola.  The  Dervishes  scattered  in  the  Desert. 
The  power  of  the  Mahdi  seemed  broken,  and  the 
British  troops  in  the  Soudan  were  brought  back  to 
the  Egyptian  headquarters  at  Dongola.  In  autumn, 
peace  was  at  last  concluded  between  Italy  and  Abys- 
sinia. The  independence  of  Ethiopia  was  assured, 
and  a  new  boundary  line  was  agreed  on.  Menelek, 
who  now  styled  himself  Emperor  of  Abyssinia,  re- 
leased his  Italian  prisoners. 

In    other    lands  the    various    European   Powers 

continued  to  pursue  their  various   colonial   enter- 

M^ada^as-    prises.     On  June  18,  a  definite  treaty  was   signed 

fuiench       between   France    and    the   Queen    of    Madagascar, 

giving  the  French  Resident  complete  control  over 

Madagascar.     On  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa  further 


18%  Summer  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1797 

troubles  arose  after  the  sudden  death  of  Hamed 
Den  Said,  the  Sultan  of  Zanzibar.  Said  Chalid,  his 
nephew,  proclaimed  himself  Sultan.*  British  sailors 
were  immediately  landed  and  a  demand  was  made 
for  a  surrender."  On  the  refusal  of  Said  Chalid  the 
Sultan's  palace  was  laid  in  ashes  by  the  combined  bombard 

Zanzibar 

fire  of  three  British  gunboats.  Said  Chalid  took 
refuge  on  a  German  ship. 

In  India,  the  demarcation  of  the  northwestern 
frontier  was  at  last  concluded.  The  spheres  of  in- 
fluence for  Great  Britain,  Persia,  Afghanistan  and 
Russia  were  newly  determined.  In  Java,  the  Dutch 
troops,  after  an  exhausting  campaign  with  the  At- 
chinese,-  were  forced  to  abandon  their  advanced 
posts.  Their  settlements  were  burned  by  the  Atchi- 
nese.  In  July,  the  Dutch  won  a  brilliant  victory  at  Atchinese 
Lamrida.  The  chief  of  the  Atchinese,  Nja  Makin, 
was  killed,  and  his  followers  were  routed. 

Marshal  Campos,    who    had  been  despatched  to 
Cuba,  was  relieved  of  his  command  early  in  the  year 
on  account  of  the  hostility  displayed  by  the  Havana 
conservatives  toward  his  conciliatory  dealings  with 
the  rebels.     General  "Weyler  was  appointed  Captain- 
General  of  Cuba.     At  the  opening  of  the  Cortes  the  c^ba8  °f 
Ministry  declared  that  the  moment  was  inopportune 
for  the  introduction  of  reforms  of  government  in 
Cuba.     Soon   it  was  announced  that  a  conspiracy 
had  been  discovered  by  the  authorities  in  Manila 
for  the  purpose  of  separating  the  Philippine  Islands 
from  Spain.     A  month  later,  the  Governor- General  Filipinos 
of  the  Philippines  issued  a  decree  confiscating  the™ 
property  of  all  insurgents.     The  numbers  were  esti- 


1798  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Autumn  189« 

mated  at  more  than  one  hundred  thousand.  The 
enforcement  of  this  decree  was  followed  by  new  up- 
risings. Late  jn  the  year,  the  Spanish  troops  suf- 
fered a  defeat  at  the  hands  of  the  rebels  with  a  loss 
of  three  hundred. 

When  the  United  States  Congress  passed  a  con- 
in™eerven?  current  resolution  in  favor  of  according  bellig- 
resented  erent  rights  to  the  Cuban  revolutionists,  and  offered 
the  friendly  intervention  of  the  United  States  to  ob- 
tain the  independence  of  Cuba,  great  popular  excite- 
ment arose  in  Spain.  Anti- American  demonstra- 
tions occurred  in  Madrid,  Barcelona  and  elsewhere. 
The  Spaniards  who  held  consular  posts  in  the 
United  States  resigned  by  way  of  protest.  Prior 
to  this,  President  Cleveland  had  signed  a  proclama- 
t:Dn  admitting  Utah  as  a  State.  Existing  polyga- 
mous marriages  were  recognized,  but  polygamy  was 
prohibited  for  the  future. 

In  November,    the   American   Presidential   elec- 
tion  was  the    object    of  keen   interest  throughout 
the  world.    The  result,  it  was  feared,  might  affect 
the  value  of  American  money  in  foreign  countries, 
wniiam      William  J.  Bryan,  the  advocate  of  free  silver,  was 

McKmley  * 

elected  defeated  by  William  McKmley,  the  Republican  can- 
didate: the  electoral  vote  standing  274  to  175. 

Early  in  the  year  a  revolutionary  outbreak  oc- 
curred at  Seoul  in  Korea,  during  which  the  Prime 
Minister  and  several  high  officials  were  murdered. 

Revolution 

in  Korea  The  Korean  King  and  Crown  Prince  were  forced  to 
take  refuge  in  the  Russian  Legation.  On  the  plea 
of  renewed  anti-Christian  atrocities,  a  treaty  was 
finally  concluded  between  China  and  Russia  by 


J896  Summer  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1799 

which  the  Chinese  Government  conceded  a  railway  „. . 

*/     C-DinGSG 

across  Manchuria  to  connect  Port  Arthur  with  the  to*RuSians 
Trans-Siberian  Railway. 

Not  long  afterward,  an  overwhelming  tidal  wave 
swept  the  northeast  coast  of  Japan  on  June  15. 
More  than  30,000  persons  were  drowned.  On  the 
same  day,  Andree  ascended  in  a  balloon  and  drifted 
northward  from  Tromsoe  to  search  for  the  North 
Pole.  After  the  first  few  carrier  pigeons  released 

End  of 

by  him    all  trace    of  the    venturesome    expedition  Andree 
was  lost.     Only   one   of  his  buoys  was  long  after 
picked  up. 

Shortly  afterward,  Dr.  Nansen  arrived  at  Vardo 
from  Franz-Josef  Land,  having  abandoned  his  ship 
"Fram"  in  March,  1895.  Six  days  later  the  "Fram"  returns 
was  brought  into  a  Norwegian  port.  The  Shah  of 
Persia's  assassination  on  the  first  of  May,  when  en- 
tering the  mosque,  by  Mirza  Mahmed  Reza.  caused 
marked  disturbances  in  Persia  at  the  accession  of 
the  new  Shah. 

Other  memorable  events  of  the  year  were  the  great 
historic  festivities  held  at  Budapesth  in  honor  of  the 

Millennial  of  Hungary.     Maurice  Jokai,  the  Hun- 
Maurice 
garian  writer,  celebrated  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  J6kai 

his  literary  activity.  He  had  published  over  three 
hundred  volumes,  full  of  color  and  life.  Among 
his  bolder  and  riper  works  are  "A  Hungarian  Na- 
bob," "Zoltan  Karpathy,"  "The  Palmy  Days  of 
Transylvania,"  "The  New  Squire,"  "Black  Dia- 
monds," "There  is  no  Devil,"  and  "Twice  Two 
Are  Four."  As  a  member  of  the  Hungarian  Par- 
liament, Jokai  has  served  his  country  well.  His 


1800  A   HISTORY   OF   TEE  spring  1 896 

literary  powers  found  expression  not  only  in  his  in- 
numerable novels,  but  in  strong  political  speeches 
and  trenchant  newspaper  articles. 

Henrik  During  this  year,  Henrik  Ibsen  produced  his 
"John  Gabriel  Borkman,"  another  dramatic  study 
of  social  conditions.  With  the  appearance  of 
"Brand"  and  "Peer  Gynt"  began  his  period  of 
protest  against  modern  society.  In  the  "Doll's 
House, ' '  Ibsen  tried  to  show  that  marriage  is  a  fail- 
ure. Other  powerful  plays  were  "Ghosts,"  "Ros- 
mersholm,"  "The  Lady  of  the  Sea,"  "Hedda  Ga- 
bler,"  "The  Master  Builder,"  and  "The  Pillars  of 
Society." 

For  the  first  time  in  its  history,  the  British  Medi- 
cal Association  met  in  Canada.  The  meeting  was 
otherwise  memorable  for  the  presence  of  Lord  Lis- 
ter, the  father  of  antiseptic  surgery.  When  the 

Jose  h  president  characterized  him  as  "the  most  illustrious 
surgeon  of  our  generation, ' '  the  members  rose  from 
their  seats  and  cheered  Lister  again  and  again.  The 
honor  was  deserved.  By  his  discovery  of  antisepsis 
Lister,  in  1861,  had  proved  that  by  surgical  cleanli- 
ness operations  could  be  performed  with  safety. 

Frederick  Leighton,  the  famous  English  artist, 
died  before  this.  Born  at  Scarboro  in  1830,  he 
studied  in  Rome,  and  later  at  the  Royal  Academy 
at  Berlin  and  in  Paris.  In  1855,  he  exhibited  as  his 
first  picture  in  England  "Cimabue's  Madonna  Car- 
ried Through  the  Streets  of  Florence"  in  the  Royal 
Academy  in  London.  The  picture  attracted  imme- 
diate attention,  and  was  purchased  by  Queen  Vic- 
toria. Fourteen  years  afterward,  having  contributed 


1896  Summer  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1801 

noteworthy  pictures  to  almost  every  exhibition  of 
the  Royal  Academy,  Leighton  became  a  full-fledged 
Academician,  when  he  contributed  "Electra  at  the 
Tomb  of  Agamemnon,"  and  "St.  Jerome,"  his  di- 
ploma work.  Among  Leighton 's  essays  in  sculp- 
ture, the  most  successful  was  his  bronze  "Athlete 
Strangling  a  Python." 

John  Everett  Millais,  one  of  England's  foremost 
artists,  died  on  August  3.  He  began  painting  very 

John 

young.  One  of  his  earliest  works,  ' '  Pizarro  Seizing  ^Tu^ 
the  Men  of  Peru,"  was  exhibited  at  the  Royal 
Academy  in  1846,  and  in  the  following  year  a  gold 
medal  was  awarded  to  Millais's  historical  canvas, 
"The  Tribe  of  Benjamin  Seizing  the  Daughters 
of  Judah. "  Henceforth  every  exhibition  of  the 
Royal  Academy  contained  new  contributions  by 
Millais.  After  ten  years  of  ceaseless  activity  he 
was  made  a  full  Academician  in  1864,  when  he 
contributed  "The  Eve  of  St.  Agnes,"  and  "Charlie* 
Is  My  Darling."  Several  years  previously  Millais, 
together  with  Rossetti,  Holman  Hunt,  Madox  Brown 
and  a  few  others,  had  founded  "The  Brotherhood  of 
the  Pre-Raphaelites. "  While  thus  engaered  Millais  Pre- 

Raphael- 

formed  close  ties  of  friendship  with  John  Ruskin,  >sm 
the  famous  art  critic,  which  were  not  even  broken 
by  the  fact  that  Ruskin 's  wife  was  divorced  from 
him  in  order  to   be   married   to  Millais. 

By  the  death  of  William  Morris,  the  poet,  on 
October  3,  the  English  School  of  Modern  Romantic 
Art  and  Literature  lost  one  of  its  leaders.  In  1858 
he  published  "The  Defence  of  Gruenevere"  and  other 
poems.  Nearly  ten  years  later  followed  his  epic 


1802  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  1896 

poem,  "The  Life  and  Death  of  Jason,"  and  "The 
Earthly  Paradise. ' '  During  these  same  years  Mor- 
ris, together  with  Rossetti  and  Burne-Jones,  em- 
barked on  an  artistic  enterprise  for  the  design- 
ing and  manufacture  of  original  decorations  for 
house  interiors.  This  enterprise  proved  eminently 
successful,  and  had  a  lasting  effect  in  improving 
the  style  of  English  decorative  designs.  Besides 
this,  Morris  undertook  the  printing  and  binding  of 
high  class  books,  a  venture  which  likewise  proved 
a  complete  commercial  success.  Morris's  superbly 
printed  books  from  the  ' '  Kelmscott  Press, ' '  fetched 

Book-  higher  prices  than  any  other  books  issued  during 
the  closing  years  of  the  Nineteenth  Century.  His 
literary  productions,  during  these  same  years,  were 
4 'Love  is  Enough,"  1883;  "The  Boots  of  the  Moun- 
tains," 1890,  and  "The  Story  of  the  Glittering 
Plain,"  1891.  Besides  these  original  productions, 
Morris  translated  Homer's  "Odyssey,"  Virgil's 
"^Eneid, "  together  with  Icelandic  translations. 

Translator  Morris's  original  productions,  "The  Story  of  Sigurd 
the  Volsung  and  the  Fall  of  the  Niblungs,"  1876, 
and  the  "Tale  of  the  House  of  the  Volfings,"  1888, 
closely  resemble  his  Icelandic  translations.  As  a 
Socialistic  thinker,  Morris  first  gave  vent  to  his 
original  views  in  his  book,  "The  Day  is  Coming: 
A  Chant  for  a  Socialist,"  1884,  followed  four  years 

Socialist  ^ater  by  *^e  collected  lectures  "Signs  of  Change, " 
and  afterward  by  a  monograph  on  "Socialism,  Its 
Growth  and  Outcome,"  published  in  collaboration 
with  E.  B.  Box.  This  partial  list  of  Morris's  publi- 
cations on  such  widely  divergent  subjects  in  itself 


1896  Autumn  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1803 

sufficiently  reveals  the  wonderful  versatility  of  the 
man. 

The    coronation    of    the    Czar    and    Czarina     at 
Moscow    was    celebrated    with    great    pomp.      At  Coronatiaa 
their  very  close  the  festivities  were  marred  by  anj^'co^ 
awful  panic  and  stampede,  during  which  3,000  per- 
sons  were  crushed  to   death  or  seriously  injured. 
Shortly  after  this  a  flurry  of  political  excitement 
was   caused   in   October  throughout  Germany  and 
Austria   by   Prince  Bismarck's  piqued   revelations 
concerning  the  existence  of  a  secret  treaty  between  Bismarck's 
Germany  and  Russia.     It  had  been  concluded  intionscre 
1882,   just  after    the   Triple  Alliance  was   formed. 

During  the  last  days  of  August  another  massacre 
of  5,000  Armenians  was  perpetrated — this  time  at 
Constantinople.     Serious  riots  were   also   reported 
at   Pera    Galata.     The   Divan   was   endangered   byf°menian 
the  connivance  of  the  imperial  troops.     The  Powers  m' 
protested.     Seven  days  later  at  Eguin,  on  the  Eu- 
phrates, 2,500  Armenians  were  murdered  with  the 
connivance  of  the  Turkish  authorities. 

In  Crete  disturbances  arose  at  Canea.  The  Turk- 
ish soldiers  went  about  pillaging  and  killing  Chris- 
tians. Abdullah  Pasha  was  appointed  Civil  and 
Military  Governor  of  Crete,  with  the  object  of  re-  Troubles 
storing  tranquillity.  The  Porte  agreed  to  accept 
in  principle  the  suggestions  of  the  Ambassadors 
for  the  pacification  of  Crete,  including  general 
amnesty. 

The  Greek  Government,  during  the  summer, 
under  pressure  from  the  Great  Powers,  took  meas- 
ures to  prevent  armed  volunteers  from  embarking 


1804  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1896 

for  Crete,  or  from  invading  Macedonia.  At  the 
Macedonia  same  time  the  Mussulman  population  of  Crete,  re- 
senting the  efforts  of  their  rulers  to  maintain  peace 
at  any  price,  pillaged  the  houses  of  the  Christians. 
Before  long,  Ptakni,  chief  of  the  insurgents  in 
Macedonia,  arrived  on  the  Greek  frontier,  pursued 
by  the  Turks.  With  fifteen  companions  he  was 
arrested  by  Greek  soldiers  and  taken  to  Larissa. 
Finally  the  Sultan  acceded  to  the  demands  of  the 
Powers  for  the  settlement  of  the  Cretan  question. 
He  consented  to  a  local  government  under  a  Chris- 
tian governor,  who  was  removable  only  with  the 
consent  of  the  Powers.  At  Canea,  the  Cretan 
deputies  agreed  to  accept  the  autonomy  obtained 
from  the  Porte  by  the  intervention  of  the  Powers. 


1897  NINETEENTB  CENTURY  1805 


1897 

THE  year  opened  with  the  release  of  the  Ar- 
menian prisoners  by  the  Porte,  on  the  in- 
tervention of  the  Powers.  More  collisions 
between  the  Christians  and  Mussulmans  occurred 
at  Heraklion  and  other  places  in  Crete,  with  much  Turkey 
loss  of  life.  Canea  was  set  on  fire  at  several  places. 
Sailors  from  ships  of  the  various  Powers  in  the  har- 
bor eventually  succeeded  in  quenching  the  flames. 
The  Cretan  insurgents  having  proclaimed  union 
with  Greece  on  February  8,  orders  were  issued  for 
all  the  available  Greek  torpedo  vessels  to  be  com-  Greek 

,_',.'  n  expedition 

missioned.     Prince  George  sailed  from  the  Piraeus 
amid  the  greatest  enthusiasm. 

On  February  13,  Georgi  Pasha  Berovitch,  the 
Turkish  Governor  of  Crete,  took  refuge  on  board 
the  flagship  of  the  Eussian  Admiral,  lying  off 
Halepa,  and  subsequently  telegraphed  his  resigna- 
tion. In  consequence  of  this,  the  Greek  Consuls  at 
the  various  towns  of  Crete,  having  placed  their  fel- 
low citizens  under  British  protection,  hauled  down 
their  flag  and  left  the  island.  Two  days  later,  _, 

J  '  Powers 

Canea  was  occupied  by  marines  and  sailors  of  the 

allied  fleets.      On   the  21st,    the   foreign  warships 

fired  upon  the  Cretan  insurgents'  camp  near  Canea. 

In  the  House  of  Commons,  in  the  French  Cham- 

XlXth  Century—Vol.  3— X 


1806  A    HISTORY    OF   THE  March  189T 

'  ber,  and  in  the  German  Reichstag,  spirited  debates 
notletoive  ensued  concerning  this  action.  On  March  2,  a  collec- 
tive note  of  the  six  Powers — indicating  their  policy 
toward  Crete — was  presented  simultaneously  at  Con- 
stantinople and  Athens.  The  Sultan  declared  his 
readiness  to  adopt  the  recommendation  of  the  Pow- 
ers for  the  establishment  of  Cretan  autonomy. 
Greece  would  not  withdraw  her  forces  from  Crete 
and  called  out  the  reserves  of  1890. 

In  the  meantime,  the  palace  at  Canea  and  other 
buildings  were  burned  down  by  Mohammedan  incen- 
diaries. Fort  Stavros  was  captured  by  the  Cretan 
insurgents  t  with  its  Turkish  garrison  of  3,000  men. 
The  Turkish  Zaptiehs  at  Canea  demanded  arrears 
autonomy  °^  a  vear's  Pav>  mutinied  against  their  officers,  and 
shot  their  colonel.  Pickets  of  sailors  and  marines 
were  then  despatched  from  the  allied  fleet,  and 
after  a  slight  resistance  the  mutineers  surrendered. 
Eventually,  on  the  17th  of  March,  autonomy  was 
proclaimed  in  Crete.  This  was  followed  by  Moham- 
medan attacks  upon  the  Christians  at  Canea  and 
Ehetimos.  The  aged  Gladstone  bitterly  denounced 
the  pro-Turkish  policy  of  the  European  Powers. 
On  the  21st,  a  close  blockade  of  Crete  was  formally 
declared.  The  Cretan  insurgents,  having  driven 
the  Turkish  troops  out  of  the  Akrotiri  blockhouses 
and  occupied  them,  were  in  turn  shelled  out  by  the 
guns  of  the  fleet.  The  Crown  Prince  of  Greece 
left  Athens  for  the  frontier.  The  Porte  at  once 
cross  issued  a  circular  to  the  Ottoman  representatives 

frontier 

abroad   demanding  the  evacuation  of  Crete  by  the 
Greek  troops    and  protesting  against  the   appoint- 


1897  April  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1807 

ment  of  a  governor  of  Crete  by  the  Powers. 
On  the  following  day  several  bands  of  irregulars, 
under  the  direction  of  the  Ethnike  Hetairia, 
crossed  the  frontier,  invading  Turkish  territory. 
They  were  met  by  the  Turkish  troops  who  sur- 
rounded and  captured  several  of  the  invading 
detachments.  Turkish  gunners  at  Privisa  sank  a 
Greek  merchantman  in  the  Gulf  of  Arta.  Turkey  Turkey 
declared  war  on  April  17.  Fighting  began  in  the  war 
mountain  passes  of  Thessaly.  The  mobilization  of 
the  Turkish  army,  as  planned  by  Von  der  Golz, 
was  effected  in  four  weeks.  The  first  conspicuous 
skirmish  in  the  pass  of  Nezeros  was  to  the  advan- 
tage of  the  Greeks.  The  Turks  bore  themselves 
well  under  heavy  losses.  Under  Edhem  Pasha  the 
Turkish  main  column  advanced  from  Elassona  and 
succeeded  in  conveying  their  heavy  siege  guns  over 
the  mountains  along  a  new  military  road  prepared 
weeks  in  advance.  The  important  pass  of  Maluna^ce^ 
was  captured.  The  Greek  vanguard  forfeited  their 
best  positions.  Nearly  200,000  strong,  the  Turkish 
forces  poured  down  into  the  plain  of  Thessaly. 
Crown  Prince  Constantine's  retreat  from  Mati  had 
a  depressing  effect  on  the  Greeks,  and  was  taken  to 
indicate  a  lack  of  serious  warlike  purpose  on  the 
part  of  the  royal  house  of  Greece.  The  compara- 
tive inactivity  of  the  Greek  naval  squadrons  on  the 
coast  of  Epirus  and  Macedonia  confirmed  this  im- 
pression, for  they  contented  themselves  merely  with 
bombarding  several  Turkish  seaports,  where  depots 
of  provisions  and  arms  had  been  established.  I/large  overrun 
quantities  of  grain  were  destroyed.  In  Thessaly,  the 


1808  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  May  1897 

Greek  forces  were  ordered  to  fall  back  on  Larissa. 
The  town  was  evacuated  by  Prince  Constantine 
amid  a  panic  of  the  terror-stricken  Greek  country 
people.  On  receipt  of  this  news  at  Athens,  a  revo- 
lution nearly  broke  out.  The  gunsmiths'  shops  were 
plundered  and  wild  threats  were  made  against 
Deleyanis'  ^e  king  and  princes.  Deleyanis,  the  Prime  Min- 
ister responsible  for  the  war,  had  to  resign  in 
favor  of  Demetrios  Rhallis,  the  leader  of  the  Kadi- 
cals.  The  Greek  troops  under  Smolenskis,  contrary 
to  orders  from  headquarters,  made  a  determined 
stand  at  Velestino,  between  Larissa  and  Volo,  and 

Velestino 

not  only  succeeded  in  arresting  the  advance  of  the 
Turks,  but  threw  their  Circassian  cavalry  back  with 
severe  loss.  After  a  victorious  fight  of  three  days 
the  Greeks,  to  the  surprise  of  the  Turks,  evacuated 
the  position.  Smolenskis'  subsequent  retreat  to 
Almiros  near  Thermopylae  resulted  in  a  division 
of  the  Greek  forces.  The  army  of  Tnessaly  was  cut 
in  two.  On  May  3,  the  Rhallis  Ministry  decided 
to  continue  the  war  and  to  recall  Colonel  Vassos 
from  Crete,  appointing  him  to  command  on  the 
frontier  of  Epirus.  Smolenskis  was  appointed  to 
general  command.  The  functions  of  the  royal 
princes,  as  Rhallis  expressed  it  in  the  Boule,  were 


reduced  to  those  of  "statues."  On  May  6,  the 
Turks  attacked  the  Greeks  in  great  force,  so  that 
the  latter  were  forced  to  abandon  Pharsalos  and 
fall  back  on  Vomokos.  The  resulting  battle  was 
largely  an  artillery  engagement.  The  Greeks  were 
Vomokos  badly  beaten.  The  Foreign  Legion  only,  under  the 
Italian  leaders  Cipriani  and  Garibaldi's  son,  ac- 


1897  May  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1809 

quitted  themselves  with  credit.  Two  days  later  the 
Greek  forces  withdrew  from  Velestino  and  Volo,  ^TIs  for 
and  the  Turkish  troops  occupied  these  two  strong 
places  without  opposition  from  the  Greek  warships 
in  the  harbor.  Finally,  on  May  11,  Greece  be- 
sought the  intervention  of  the  great  Powers.  The 
embarkation  of  Greek  troops  serving  in  Crete 
commenced  at  once  at  Canea  under  the  supervision 
of  the  representatives  of  the  Powers.  On  the  14th, 
the  Greek  forces  again  invaded  the  Epirus,  to  defend 
the  population  from  the  fanaticism  of  the  Turks:  on 
the  heights  of  Gribovo  a  fierce  battle  was  fought, 

'  Gribovo 

in  which  the  advantage  remained  with  the  Greeks. 
The  following  day  the  Porte  notified  the  Powers 
of  the  terms  which  must  precede  an  armistice — an 
indemnity  by  Greece  of  250,000,000  francs  and  an- 
nexation of  Thessaly  to  Turkey.     The  Powers  ex- 
acted milder  terms.     The  last  detachment  of  Greek  Crete 
troops  left   Crete,   but  nothing  was  settled  as  yet abandoned 
concerning  its  future  government. 

For  a  month  there  was  peace  in  Crete.  After 
prolonged  discussion  the  Porte  finally  adopted 
in  principle  the  frontier  proposed  by  the  Powers. 
Toward  the  end  of  the  month,  Djevad  Pasha,  ex- 
Grand  Vizier  and  former  Vali  of  Crete,  arrived  at 
Canea  to  assume  command,  but  the  admirals  of  the 
allied  fleet  would  not  recognize  him. 

After  much  friction  the  diplomatic  struggle  at 
Constantinople  ended  in  the  practical  triumph  of 
the  German  policy,  which  gave  a  partial  control 
of  the  Greek  finances  to  a  commission  of  the  great 
Powers.  A  treaty  of  peace  between  Turkey  and 


1810  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  189? 

Greece  was  eventually  signed  at  Constantinople  on 

December  4,  and  formally  ratified  by  the  Sultan  and 

King  George  on  December  16.     Turkey  agreed  to 

Terms  of    evacuate  Thessaly,  with  the  exception  of  the  fron- 

pQ&ce        tier  ridges.      Greece  had  to  pay  an  indemnity  of 

92,000,000  drachmas  (or  francs)  in  gold.     Pending 

payment,  Thessaly  was  to  be  occupied  by  Turkish 

garrisons.     The  ravages  of  this  occupation  proved 

more  serious  to  Thessaly  than  those  of  the  war.     In 

order  to  float  a  loan  wherein  to  pay  the  indemnity 

to   Turkey,  Greece  had   to   mortgage  her  national 

Greece       revenues  to  the  foreign  Powers.     An  international 

bankrupt 

commission  henceforth  was  charged  with  the  super- 
vision and  control  of  Greek  finances. 

In  the  Transvaal,  the  High  Court  Bill  was  passed 
by  the  Volksraad,  notwithstanding  the  unanimous 
opinion  of  the  Rand  lawyers  that  it  endangered  the 
rights  and  liberties  of  the  people.  President  Krue- 
ger  presented  to  Chamberlain  a  bill  of  indemnity  to 
be  paid — first,  for  material  damage,  £677,938;  and, 
second,  for  moral  or  intellectual  damage,  £1,100,- 
000.  Krueger  again  took  occasion  to  deny  the  suze- 
rainty of  Great  Britain,  but  declared  his  intention 
strictly  to  observe  the  London  Convention.  The 
Volksraad  consented  to  repeal  the  Anti-Immigration 
conces-  Bill,  against  which  Mr.  Chamberlain  had  protested 

sions  in  the  .   , 

Transvaal  as  a  violation  of  the  convention  with  Great  Britain; 
and  the  government  of  the  Orange  Free  State  like- 
wise withdrew  a  similar  bill,  which  President  Steyn 
had  agreed  upon  with  President  Krueger. 

British  troops  under  General  Yeatman  Biggs  were 
assailed  in  Northern  India  while  marching  to  Ka- 


1897  Autumn  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1811 

rappa.     On  October  20,  after  a  three  hours'  fight,  Indian 
they  stormed  the  steep  ridge  of  Dhargai,  held  to  be  Border  wap 
impregnable  by  the  tribesmen.     The  Khaibar  Pass  Dhargai 
and  the  forts  Mesjid  and  Maude  were  abandoned  to 
the  British  without  a  stroke. 

In  America,  William  McKinley  was  inaugurated 

McKinley 

as  President.     Congress   met  in  special  session  to1*"58"1611* 
act  on  the  President's  message  urging  a  higher  pro- 
tective tariff.     The  Dingley  Tariff  was  passed  fouruingiey 
months  later.     In  June,  the  treaty  for  the  annexa- 
tion of  the  Sandwich  Islands  to  the  United  States 
was  signed  by  the  President.     The  Hawaiian  Senate  tion  o*3"" 

Hawaii 

ratified  the  treaty. 

In  July,  great  excitement  had  been  caused  by  the 
discovery  of  gold  in  the  Klondike.     Thousands  of 

Gold  found 

gold   seekers   from   all   over  the  world    emigrated in  Klondike 
thither.     It  was  at  this  time  that  the  Alaskan  boun- 
dary question  came  up,  the  Dominion  of  Canada 
claiming  a  part  of  the  Klondike  district. 

The  Venezuelan  arbitration  treaty  was  signed  at 
Washington,    February  2,   by  Senor  Andrade   andiannarb*~ 
Sir  Julian  Pauncefote,  and  the  final  ratifications  of  treaty 
the  Anglo- American -Venezuelan    boundary   treaty 
were  exchanged  at  Washington  on  June  14.     Brit- 
ish relations  with  Venezuela,  which  had  been  sus- 
pended for  several  years,  were  resumed. 

In  consequence  of  the  murder  of  two  German  mis- 
sionaries in  China,  the  German  admiral  on  the  China  Germans 

seize  Kiao- 

station,  on  November  14,  landed  600  men  at  Kiao-  chau 
Chau,  and  seized  the  telegraph  station  and  magazine. 
Deprived  of  their  ammunition,  the  Chinese  retired 
without   fighting.     Having  obtained  this  foothold, 


Canovas 
assas- 
sinated 


1812  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Antumnl89? 

the  German  Government  despatched  a  strong  fleet 
under  Prince  Henry  to  China,  and  further  exacted 
the  inlet  of  Sansah  as  a  coaling  station. 

Other  events  of  note  during  this  year  were  the 
opening  of  the  Brussels  International  Exhibition, 
on  May  10,  by  King  Leopold,  and  later  the  Diamond 

Diamond8   «Jukilee  °^  Queen  Victoria.    On  June  20,  the  Queen's 

jubilee  accession  day,  services  were  held  in  every  church 
of  the  United  Kingdom.  Along  the  entire  line  of 
the  subsequent  procession  houses  were  gorgeously 
decorated  and  illuminated  by  night.  .Regiments 
from  every  colony  matched  by  the  Prince  of  Wales 
in  a  review  at  Aldershot.  At  Spithead,  the  great- 
est naval  pageant  yet  witnessed  was  reviewed  by 
Queen  Victoria.  English  poets  wrote  laudatory 

Kipling's     verses  for  the  occasion.     The  best  of  all  was  Rud- 
"      yard  Kipling's  "Eecessional, "  published  after  the 
Queen's  Jubilee  was  over. 

A  sinister  closing  feature  of  the  year  was  the 
noticeable  increase  of  fanatical  assassinations.  Senor 
Canovas  del  Castillo,  the  Spanish  Prime  Minister, 

assas-  was  killed  by  an  Italian  anarchist  named  Golli. 
Afterward,  Senor  Idiarte  Borda,  President  of  the 
Eepublic  of  Uruguay,  was  assassinated  on  the  porch 
of  the  cathedral  at  Montevideo.  In  the  middle  of 
September  an  attempt  was  made  to  assassinate  Presi- 
dent Diaz  of  Mexico.  An  attempt  to  assassinate 
President  Moreas  of  Brazil  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  on 
November  5,  caused  serious  disturbances  in  Brazil. 
In  Rio,  the  printing  establishments  of  three  news- 
papers which  had  been  hostile  to  the  President  were 
sacked  by  mobs.  Brazil  was  placed  under  martial 


1897  Autumn  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1813 

law  for  thirty  days,   and  many  of  the   prominent  Appreheo, 
deputies  were  arrested  before  they  could  leave  the 
country. 

In  musical  annals  this  year  is  noted  for  the  death 
of  Johannes  Brahms.  He  began  as  a  brilliant  and 
versatile  pianist.  In  1853,  at  the  age  of  twenty,  he 
made  a  concert  tour  with  the  Hungarian  violinist,  g 
Eemenyi.  At  Gottingen  he  played  for  Joachim,  who 
sent  him  to  Schumann.  The  composer  was  so  im- 
pressed by  the  promise  of  the  youthful  musician 
that  he  welcomed  him  as  one  of  the  coming  com- 
posers. Liszt,  hearing  him  play  his  scherzo  in  E-flat 
minor,  mistakenly  hailed  him  as  an  apostle  of 
romanticism.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  Brahms  devel- 
oped into  an  idealistic  composer  of  the  purest  type. 
Under  the  able  leadership  of  Von  Buelow  his  or- 
chestral compositions  were  shown  to  be  in  line  with 
the  great  masterpieces  of  Beethoven.  As  a  song 
composer  he  proved  a  lineal  descendant  of  Schubert, 
Schumann  and  Franz.  Judged  by  his  works,  which 
exceed  130,  he  must  be  pronounced  as  the  greatest 
master  of  symphonic  music  during  the  latter  part  of 
the  Nineteenth  Century  after  Wagner. 

In  Germany,  the  principal  literary  event  of  the 
year  was  the  production  of  Gerhardt  Hauptman 
fairy-drama  "The  Sunken  Bell,"  one  of  the  most 
graceful  of  modern  German  plays.  Before  this  he 
brought  out  "Dawn,"  "Lonely  People,"  "The 
Weavers,"  "Hannele,"  and  "Florian  Geyer. " 

Alphonse  Daudet,  the  brilliant  French  novelist,  Alphonse 
died  on  December  16,  at  Paris.     From  Mmes,  Al- Daudet 
phonse   Daudet,   at  the  age    of    seventeen,  betook 


1814  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Dec.  18W 

himself  to  Paris,  there  to  follow  his  chosen  career 
of  letters.  After  the  fall  of  the  Second  Empire, 
Alphonse  Daudet  rose  to  the  highest  rank  among 
the  novelists  of  his  generation.  His  celebrated 
story,  "Fromont  Jeune  et  Risler  Aine, "  issued  in 
1874,  speedily  ran  through  sixty  editions,  and  in 
dramatized  form  proved  no  less  popular.  Then 
came  the  stories  of  "Jack,"  1876;  "Le  Nabob," 
1877-;  "Les  Rois  en  Exil,"  1879,  "Numa  Roume- 
stam,"  1881,  "L'Evangeliste,"  1882;  "Sapho,"  1884, 
the  brilliant  success  of  which  was  promptly  repeated 
on  the  stage;  and  "Tartarin  en  les  Alpes,"  pub- 
lished in  1886,  as  a  sequel  to  his.  "Tartarin  de  Ta- 
rascon. "  After  the  publication  of  "Trente  Ans 
&  Paris,"  Alphonse  Daudet  definitely  ended  his 
prospects  of  entering  the  French  Academy  by  the 
publication  of  his  brilliant  sardonic  novel  "L'lm- 
mortel."  His  last  work  was  "Soutien  de  Famille. " 

On  December  28,  the  first  production  of  Edmond 
Rostand  Rostand's  romantic  play,  "Cyrano  de  Bergerac, " 
lifted  the  author  to  the  highest  rank  among  French 
playwrights.  Previous  to  this,  Rostand  had  brought 
out  "Les  Romanesques"  at  the  Come'die  Fran9aise, 
and  later  "La  Princesse  Lointaine"  and  "La 
Samaratine,"  none  of  which  scored  so  striking  a 
success.  The  great  French  comedian  Coquelin,  to 
whom  this  play  was  dedicated,  from  the  start 
created  such  a  furor  by  his  masterful  impersonation 
of  "Cyrano"  that  the  popularity  of  the  play  was 
assured.  It  has  remained  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
productions  of  the  French  fin  de  sttcle  stage. 

The  long-festering  Cuban  troubles  did  not  claim 


1897  Dec.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1815 


serious  attention  this  year  until  late  in  autumn, 
when  the  town  of  Victoria  del  las  Tunas,  the 
exposed  city  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  island,  was 
attacked  by  the  insurgents  and  taken  after  severe 
fghting.  According  to  official  statistics  issued  by 
the  Spanish  Minister  of  War,  there  had  been  sent 
to  Cuba  between  November,  1895,  and  May,  1896, 
181,738  men,  6,261  officers  and  40  generals,  and  to 
the  Philippines  27,768  men,  881  officers  and  9  gen- 
erals. After  the  assassination  of  Canovas,  the  Sa- 
gasta  Ministry  was  shamed  into  rescinding  Weyler's 
inhuman  military  measures  in  Cuba.  General  Wey- 
ler  was  recalled  from  his  command  in  Cuba  by  the 
new  Spanish  Ministry,  and  Marshal  Ramon  Blanco 
superseded  him  with  full  powers  to  proclaim  the 
autonomy  of  the  island.  The  Spanish  Cortes  voted 
$600,000  for  the  starving  pacificos  of  Cuba. 

The   attitude    of    the    rebels   towai-d   Spain   was 
clearly    shown   in    December,    when    Colonel  Ruiz,  Death  of 

Ruiz 

General  Blanco's  aide-de-camp,  who  had  been  sent 
to  make  peace  proposals  to  the  Cuban  insurgents, 
on  the  basis  of  autonomy,  was  shot  by  order  of  the 
insurgent  chief  Myia  Rodriguez,  together  with  sev- 
eral insurgents  who  were  ready  to  treat  with  the 
Spanish  leader.  The  so-called  Cuban  Government 
of  the  revolutionists  was  of  an  itinerant  character. 
The  insurgents  were  still  active  in  the  eastern  prov- 
inces of  Santiago  and  Puerto  Principe.  By  means 
of  a  strong  line  of  military  posts  and  block- houses, 
known  as  the  Trocha,  the  Spaniards  were  able  to  The 

Trocha 

hold  the  rebels  in  check  round  and  about  Havana, 
Matanzas  and  Pinar  del  Rio. 


Ibl6  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  Dec.  1897 

A  portent  of  more  serious  troubles  for  Spain  could 
be  discerned,  late  in  December,  in  President  Me- 
Kinley's  final  message  to  Congress.  He  said: 

"The  most  important  problem  with  which  this 
government  is  now  called  upon  to  deal,  pertaining 
to  its  foreign  relations,  concerns  its  duty  toward 
menacing8  Spain  and  the  Cuban  insurrection.  .  .  According 
to  conservative  estimates  from  Spanish  sources,  the 
mortality  among  the  Cuban  reconcentrados  from 
starvation  and  the  diseases  thereto  incident  exceed 
one  half  of  their  total  number.  This  is  not  civilized 
warfare.  It  is  extermination.  The  only  peace  it 
can  beget  is  a  wilderness.  .  .  The  near  future  will 
demonstrate  whether  the  indispensable  condition  of 
a  righteous  peace,  just  alike  to  the  Cubans  and  to 
Spain,  as  well  as  equitable  to  our  interests,  is  likely 
to  be  attained.  If  not,  the  exigency  of  further  and 
other  action  by  the  United  States  will  remain  to  be 
taken.  When  that  time  comes  that  action  will  be 
determined  in  the  light  of  indisputable  right  and 
duty.  It  will  be  faced  without  misgiving  or  hesi- 
tancy in  the  light  of  the  obligation  this  government 
owes  to  itself — to  the  people  who  have  confided  to 
it  the  protection  of  their  interests  and  honor — and 
to  humanity. ' ' 


1898  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1817 


A 


1898 


T  THE  opening  of  this  year  the  insurrection 
in  Cuba  appeared  irrepressible.     To  protect 

A  •"•  "Maine 


f 

American  interests  the  battleship  "  Maine" 
was  sent  to  Havana.  Spain  immediately  notified 
the  United  States,  by  way  of  reply,  that  the  Span- 
ish cruiser  "Vizcaya"  would  pay  a  return  visit  to 
New  York. 

In  this  critical  state  of  public  opinion  two  events  Spanish 

Minister's 

occurred  that  served  to  heighten  the  tension.  A{?*nscre* 
Cuban  sympathizer  surreptitiously  gained  posses- 
sion of  a  letter  written  by  Don  Enrique  Dupuy 
de  Lome,  the  Spanish  Minister  in  Washington,  to 
Senor  Canalejas,  the  confidential  agent  of  Canovas. 
In  this  letter  President  McKinley  was  characterized 
as  a  "low  politician."  The  letter  was  published  in 
New  York.  Senor  De  Lome  conceded  its  authen- 
ticity, and  at  once  cabled  his  resignation.  Don 
Luis  Polo  y  Bernabe*  was  appointed  his  successor. 
Scarcely  a  week  had  elapsed,  when  the  news  ar- 
rived of  an  appalling  disaster  in  Havana.  On  Tues- 
day night,  February  15,  the  "Maine"  blew  up,  and 
266  of  her  officers  and  crew  were  killed.  At  the 
time  of  the  explosion,  the  "Maine"  was  moored  to 

Explosion 

a  buoy  selected  by  the  Spanish  authorities  in  Ha- 
vana.     Most  of  her  officers  were  on  shore  attending 


1818  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Feb.  1898 

a  reception.  Captain  Sigsbee,  her  commander,  was 
in  his  cabin,  having  just  finished  a  complete  in- 
spection of  the  ship.  The  captain's  official  report 
of  the  disaster  arrived  in  Washington  at  dead  of 
night,  and  was  communicated  to  the  President  in 
his  bed-chamber.  The  brief  despatch  ended  with 
an  appeal  to  the  American  people  "to  suspend 
judgment." 

The  explosion  of  the  "Maine"  sent  a  thrill  of 
horror  through  the  American  people.  It  was  their 
instinctive  belief  that  it  was  the  result  of  treacher- 
ous design.  The  Jingo  newspapers  lashed  popular 
feeling  to  fury.  The  arrival  of  the  "Vizcaya"  in 
Euiate  New  York,  at  this  juncture,  had  a  sinister  effect. 

insulted  in 

New  York  Her  captain,  Senor  Lulate,  met  with  an  insulting 
reception  by  the  Mayor  of  New  York.  He  lost 
no  time  in  weighing  anchor  to  proceed  to  Havana. 
The  Spanish  Government  sent  a  message  of  con- 
dolence for  the  "Maine"  tragedy.  No  objection 
was  raised  when  the  United  States  cruiser  "Mont- 
gomery" was  despatched  to  Havana.  On  the  other 
hand,  Spain,  through  her  representative  at  Washing- 
ton, intimated  that  it  would  be  gratifying  to  her  if 
no  more  food  supplies  were  sent  to  Cuba  in  Ameri- 
can war  vessels,  and  if  the  American  Consul- General 
should  be  recalled.  The  American  Secretary  of 
State  made  the  following  official  statement:  "The 

American 

Govern-      President  will   not   consider  the  recall  of  General 

merit 

truculent  j^  u  Spain  thereupon  withdrew  her  request.  In 
view  of  this  conciliatory  measure,  the  American 
Government  consented  to  forward  the  relief  sup- 
plies by  means  of  the  lighthouse  tender  "Fern." 


1898  Feb.  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  1819 

Orders  were  given,  "however,  for  the  North  Atlan- 
tic squadron  to  concentrate  off  the  Dry  Tortugas  pTepara- 
near  Key  West.  The  battleship  "Oregon, "  in  San 
Francisco,  was  summoned  eastward.  Secret  orders 
were  given  for  the  mobilization  of  the  regular  army. 
Congress  voted  $50,000,000  for  the  national  de- 
fence. 

The  President  appointed  a  Board  of  Inquiry  into 
the  "Maine"  disaster.  It  met  at  Key  West  and  Ha- 
vana and  continued  its  sessions  for  weeks.  Much  ex- 
pert testimony  was  taken  and  divers  were  employed. 
A  Spanish  Board  of  Inquiry  conducted  a  simulta- 

Inquiry 

neous  investigation.    The  American  Board  reported :  l^aine" 
"That  the  loss  of  the  'Maine'  was  not  in  any  respect dl! 
due  to  fault  or  negligence  on  the  part  of  any  of  the 
officers  or  members  of  her  crew ;  tha_t  the  ship  was 
destroyed   by  the  explosion  of  a  submarine  mine 
.  and  that  no  evidence  has  been  obtainable  fixing 

0  Conflicting 

the  responsibility  for  the  destruction  of  the  'Maine'  reP°rts 
upon  any  person  or  persons." 

Immediately  after  this,  the  Spanish  Board  an- 
nounced its  official  conclusion  that  the  ship  had 
been  destroyed  by  an  internal  explosion,  the  result 
of  negligence. 

President  McKinley  invoked  "deliberate  consid- 
eration." It  was  too  late  for  such  appeals.  The  ad- 
verse report  concerning  the  disaster  to  the  ' '  Maine' ' 
was  followed  by  immediate  clamors  for  war  on  the 
part  of  the  American  newspapers  and  the  Eepresen- 
tatives  in  Congress.  Enterprising  war  correspondents  Rising  war 
forgathered  at  Key  West  and  Tampa.  The  Ameri- 
can Government,  in  the  face  of  this  rising  war  feeling, 


1820  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  April  1898 

held  back  only  for  the  sake  of  completing  its  own 
arrangements,  and  to  give  American  residents  in 
Cuba  time  to  leave  the  island.  Consul-General  Lee 
left  Havana  on  April  10.  President  McKinley  sent 
another  Cuban  message  to  Congress,  to  which  body 
he  submitted  the  whole  matter.  An  impassioned 
debate  followed.  On  April  20,  both  Houses  of  Con- 
gress passed  joint  war  resolutions.  Spain  refused  to 
receive  the  American  ultimatum  calling  for  imme- 
diate evacuation  of  Cuba. 

The  actual  war  opened  on  Friday,  April  22,  with 
the  seizure  of  the  Spanish  steamer  "Buena  Ven- 
tura," captured  by  the  "Nashville,"  in  the  Strait 
of  Florida.  On  the  day  before,  the  President  had 
proclaimed  a  blockade  over  the  western  coast  of 
?egunities  Cuba.  Acting  Rear- Admiral  Sampson  was  ordered 
to  enforce  it  with  the  North  Atlantic  squadron. 
Havana  was  blockaded  and  great  suffering  ensued. 
Within  the  next  few  days  the  harbor  of  Key  West 
was  filled  with  prizes.  Many  of  them  were  sub- 
sequently released  in  view  of  the  President's  ex- 
press declaration  that  Spanish  merchantmen  sailing 
for  American  ports  before  the  declaration  of  war 
should  be  exempt  from  seizure. 

In  the  meanwhile  the  President  had  issued  a  call 
for  125,000  volunteers.  The  regular  army  was  hur- 
riedly concentrated  at  Chickamauga.  The  militia 

American  * 

mobuiza-    regiments   were    mobilized   and   ordered   to   camps 

at  Tampa,  and  other  points  on  the  southern  coast. 

The  most  picturesque  of  these  was  a  regiment  of 

irregular  cavalry  raised  among  the  wild  riders  and 

frontiersmen  of  the  western  prairies  and  Kocky  Moun- 


1898  April  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1821 

tains  by  Dr.  Leonard  Wood  and  Theodore  Eoosevelt, 
then  Assistant- Secretary  of  the  Navy. 

On  the  outbreak  of  war,  Great  Britain  declared 
neutrality  and  notified  Spain  that  she  would  regard  Neutraiity 
coal  as  contraband  of  war.  England's  proclamation  tions1™' 
of  neutrality  was  followed  by  the  other  Powers,  ex- 
cepting Germany.  By  the  terms  of  neutrality,  all 
belligerent  vessels  were  required  to  leave  neutral 
ports  within  forty-eight  hours.  This  made  it  im-_ 
possible  for  Spain  to  utilize  several  of  her  torpedo- 
boat  destroyers  then  building  in  English  shipyards. 
The  United  States  lost  the  unfinished  war  vessel 
"Albany"  and  the  newly-acquired  torpedo  boat 
"Somers, "  which  had  put  into  Falmouth  for 
repairs.  Commodore  George  Dewey,  commanding 
the  American  squadron  at  Hong  Kong,  was  or- 
dered to  leave  that  port.  Before  he  steamed  out  of 
the  harbor,  he  received  this  peremptory  message, 
from  Washington:  "Commence  operations  at  once, 

Dewey's 

particularly  against  Spanish  fleet.     You  must  cap-  orders 
ture  or  destroy  it."     He  headed  his  fleet  for  Mirs 
Bay  in  China. 

The  North  Atlantic  squadron  under  Samp- 
son continued  its  blockade  of  the  Cuban  coast.  On 
April  27,  Matanzas  was  bombarded  without  effect. 

Though  the  bombardment  of  the  shore  batteries 
of  Matanzas  was  the  first  important  action  of  thecuban 

blockade 

war,  the  honor  of  the  first  naval  engagement 
is  claimed  by  the  American  auxiliary  gunboat 
4 1  Eagle, ' '  formerly  the  yacht  ' '  Almy. ' '  There  were 
several  desultory  bombardments  at  Cardenas,  Ca- 
banas, and  other  points  along  the  Cuban  coast.  Two 


1822  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  May  1898 

notable  exploits  were  accomplished  by  individuals 
about  the  same  time.  Lieutenant  Andrew  S. 
Rowan  landed  near  Santiago  de  Cuba  and  penetrated 
to  General  Garcia 's  camp.  Lieutenant  Henry  C. 
Whitney,  in  conjunction  with  an  American  war 
correspondent,  landed  in  Porto  Rico  for  a  pre- 
liminary reconnoissance  of  military  posts  and  pos- 
sible landing  places. 

Then  came  the  greatest  achievement  of  the  war. 
On  Wednesday,   April  27,  Commodore  Dewey  left 
Mirs  Bay  with  his   squadron.      First  he   put  into 
Subig   Bay,   where   there  was  some  chance  of  en- 
countering  the   Spaniards,   and  then  proceeded  to 
Manila.     Under  cover  of  darkness  the  fleet  steamed 
by  the  outer  batteries.     None  of  their  shots  struck. 
It  was  just  five   o'clock   in  the   morning  when 
Dewey       Dewev's  fleet  steamed  into  the  Bay  of  Manila.     The 

enters  *  * 

Manila  Bay  Spanish  fleet  lay  to  starboard,  at  anchor,  5,000  yards 
away.  It  consisted  of  the  flagship  "Reina  Maria 
Cristina, "  a  steel  cruiser;  the  "Castilla, "  likewise 
a  steel  cruiser,  and  the  small  cruisers  "Velasco, " 
"Don  Antonio  de  Ulloa, "  "Don  Juan  de  Austria," 
"Isla  de  Cuba,"  "Isla  de  Luzon,"  and  the  gun- ves- 
sels "General  Lezo"  and  "El  Cano, "  with  the  de- 
spatch boat  "Marques  del  Duero. "  The  American 
fleet  numbered  nine  ships,  four  of  which  were  pro- 
tected cruisers.  The  total  number  of  Spanish  guns, 
not  including  those  of  the  shore  batteries,  was  113 
against  137  of  the  American  fleet. 

As  the  American  fleet  hove  in  sight,  the  "Reina 
Cristina,"  followed  by  the  larger  Spanish  vessels, 
at  once  slipped  cable  and  got  under  way.  The 


1898  May  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1823 

shore  batteries  of  New  Manila  opened  fire.  Oif 
Cavite  two  submarine  mines  exploded  just  ahead 
of  Dewey 's  flagship,  the  "Olympia. "  She  steamed 
through  their  wash.  When  the  forts  had  been 
passed  the  American  vessels  wheeled  southward  so 
as  to  engage  the  extended  Spanish  line  of  ships 
while  steaming  in  an  ellipse.  At  a  range  of  5,000 
yards,  Commodore  Dewey  turned  to  his  captain  and 
said:  "When  you  are  ready,  you  may  fire,  Grridley. " 
The  "Olympia"  opened.  Steaming  past  the  Spanish 
line,  broadside  after  broadside  was  fired  at  each  ship 
in  turn.  The  other  American  vessels  fired  as  each 
came  within  range.  At  shoal  water  the  "Olympia" 
turned,  changing  her  fire  to  the  stern  turrets  and 
the  aft- starboard  batteries.  Five  times  in  succes- Battle  of 

Manila 

sion  did  the  American  ships  thus  file  by  the  Span- 
iards, closing  in  at  each  turn  until  the  range  was  re- 
duced to  2,000  yards.  Admiral  Montojo's  ship  was 
soon  on  fire.  He  shifted  his  flag  to  the  "Isla  de 
Cuba, ' '  and  so  escaped  the  fate  of  the  captain  of  the 
"Cristina, "  who  shortly  afterward  was  killed  on 
the  bridge.  Flames  were  next  seen  to  rise  from  the 
"Castilla"  and  "Don  Antonio  de  Ulloa."  Several 
of  the  American  vessels  were  struck.  The  bridge 
gratings  where  Commodore  Dewey  stood  were 
smashed,  and  the  signal  halyards  of  the  "Olympia" 
were  shot  out  of  Flag-Lieutenant  Brumby's  iiands. 
The  "Reina  Cristina"  steamed  forward  in  an  attempt 
to  break  the  American  line.  She  was  smothered  by 
the  concentrated  fire  of  all  the  American  guns  avail- 
able. A  shot  from  the  "Olympia"  killed  sixty  of 
the  Spanish  crew,  including  the  executive  officer  and 


1824  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  May  1898 

captain,  and  practically  put  the  erstwhile  flagship 
out  of  action.  A  small  Spanish  vessel  that  ran  out 
to  torpedo  the  "Olympia"  was  sunk  within  five 
hundred  yards  of  the  American  flagship. 

After  two  hours'  fighting,  Commodore  Dewey 
temporarily  withdrew  his  fleet.  The  lull  in  the 
battle11  battle  was  improved  on  the  American  ships  by  serv- 
ing breakfast  to  the  smoke-  begrimed  seamen.  The 
Spaniards  misunderstood  the  significance  of  the 
American  manoeuvre.  Captain -General  Augustin 
sent  a  cable  despatch  to  Madrid  announcing  com- 
plete victory. 

At  eleven  o'clock  the  action  was  resumed.  The 
American  squadron  once  more  formed  in  single  file. 
The  "Baltimore"  poured  her  whole  broadside  into 
bS'wnup"  the  burning  Spanish  flagship.  The  "Cristina"  blew 
up.  The  remaining  Spanish  ships  were  engaged  each 
in  turn,  and  one  after  another  each  was  blown  up  or 
sunk.  The  "Don  Antonio  de  Ulloa"  was  the  last 
to  sink.  With  colors  nailed  to  the  mast  she  went 
down.  Admiral  Montojo,  in  the  midst  of  this  ruin, 
hauled  down  his  colors  from  the  "Isla  de  Cuba" 
and  had  himself  rowed,  ashore.  The  American  fleet 
now  turned  its  fire  upon  the  shore  batteries.  The 
little  "Petrel"  ran  further  into  the  harbor  and  sank 
the "Ducro,""Quiros,"  and  "Villages."  The  shore 

Cavit6 

surrenders  batteries  were  soon  silenced.     The  fort  of  Cavitd  ran 
up  the  white  flag. 

Montojo 's  losses  were  eleven  ships  and  381  men, 
or  19  per  cent  of  the  total  force.  The  casualties  on 
shore  were  175  men.  The  fortifications  of  Cavite 
were  razed,  and  those  of  Corregidor  Island  de- 


1898  May  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1825 

stroyed.  Not  a  man  was  lost  on  the  American 
fleet,  nor  was  any  ship  disabled.  It  is  this  dispar-  Onos!esy 
ity  in  the  casualties  that  makes  the  battle  of  Manila 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  naval  victories.  The 
Spanish  explanation  for  the  defeat  rests  on  the  dis- 
parity of  the  two  fleets  in  protection  and  arma- 
ments. 

Just  before  the  news  of  the  victory  of  Manila,  a 
report  reached  America  that  a  powerful  Spanish 
fleet  had  sailed  from  Cape  de  Verde,  in  the  Azores,  cervera 

sails  west* 

in  a  westward  direction.  Acting  Rear- Admiral ward 
Sampson  put  out  of  Key  West  with  his  squadron 
of  seven  ships  to  head  off  the  approaching  Spanish 
fleet.  At  the  same  time,  a  flying  squadron,  under 
Commodore  Schley,  was  held  ready  at  Hampton 
Roads  to  head  off  the  Spaniards  should  they 
appear  on  the  coast.  The  fastest  vessels  in  the  ' 
American  navy  cruised  back  and  forth  athwart 
the  probable  course  of  the  Spanish  fleet.  On  the 
Atlantic  coast,  a  host  of  government  cutters,  with 
converted  yachts  and  tugboats,  patrolled  the  entire 
seaboard.  New  York  Harbor  and  other  important 
seaports  were  put  into  a  state  of  defence. 

While  the  American  people  were  thus  thrown  into 
a  state  of  apprehension,  the  tension  of  feeling  was 
heightened  by  an  untoward  event  off  Cardenas.     A 
small  American  squadron,  consisting  of  the  gunboat 
"Wilmington,"  the  torpedo  boat  "Winslow, "  and^inslow» 
the  auxiliary  gunboat  "Hudson,"  were  attacked  in dlsable 
Cardenas  Bay  by  Spanish  gunboats  and  shore  bat- 
teries.    The  "Winslow"  was  disabled,  and  Ensign 
Worth   Bagley,   her  executive  officer,   was  killed. 


1826  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  May  1898 

The  same  day  Sampson's  squadron  reached  Porto 
mentor*"  Rico.  The  fortifications  and  harbor  of  San  Juan 
were  bombarded  without  effect.  On  the  day  of  the 
bombardment  at  San  Juan,  Captain  Cotton  of  the 
"Harvard"  reported  Cervera's  fleet  off  Martinique. 
On  the  receipt  of  Captain  Cotton's  despatch  the 
naval  war  board  at  Washington  sent  despatches  for 
Sampson  to  St.  "Thomas  in  the  Danish  West  Indies, 
and  to  Schley  at  Hampton  Roads,  to  proceed  at  once 
to  the  east  and  west  coasts  of  Cuba  to  intercept  the 
Spanish  fleet.  Cervera,  in  the  meanwhile,  sailed  on 
to  Curacoa  and  thence  to  Santiago  de  Cuba.  Ad- 

Cervera 

lantilUo    miral  Cervera's  arrival  at  Santiago,  it  is  charged 
Harbor      ^  gp^jgh  historians  of  the  war,  was  betrayed  to 
the  United  States  authorities  by  the  English  Ambas- 
sador in  Washington.     Commodore  Schley's  flying 
squadron  hove  in  sight  and  took  up  its  station  out- 
side of  the  harbor.     Schley  was  still  sceptical  con- 
cerning the  real  whereabout  of  the  Spanish  fleet. 
His  resulting   loose   tactics,    it   is   asserted,  caused 
him   to   be   superseded    by   Captain    Sampson,    his 
inferior  in  rank.     This  charge  became  a  matter  of 
intense  controversy  in  American  naval  circles.     At 
all  events,  Schley's  squadron,   shortly  after  its  ar- 
leetish      rival  off  Santiago  on  May  28,   was   reinforced  by 
blockaded  gampgon'g  wnoie  North  Atlantic  Squadron.     After 
this  the  Spanish  fleet  was  effectually  hemmed  in. 

The  invasion  of  Cuba  had  been  delayed  by  un- 
certainty regarding  the  movements  of  the  Spanish 
fleet.  In  the  meantime,  several  small  expeditions 
were  sent  out  to  supply  the  Cuban  soldiers  with 
food  and  ammunition.  When  a  full  army  corps 


1898  Autumn  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1827 

had  assembled  at  Tampa,   under  the  command  of 
General  Shafter,  it  was  decided  to  land  the  troops  t^™*0 
in  Cervera's  rear  at  Santiago.     Other  troops  were  out 
hurried    to    San    Francisco    to    reinforce    Dewey's 
squadron  at  Manila,  and  the  cruiser  "Charleston" 
sailed  forth  on  the  same  errand. 

Within  a  day  after  her  departure  great  rejoicings 
were  caused  throughout  America  by  the  safe  arrival 
of  the  battleship  " Oregon"  at  Jupiter  Inlet  in  Flor-  The 

"Oregon's" 

ida.     Her  run  around  the  continent,  covering  a  dis- run 
tance  of  14,133  miles  in  less  than  six  weeks,  was  an 
exhibition  of  American  shipbuilding  and  seaman- 
ship that  stood  out  with  unusual  lustre  among  the 
naval  achievements  of  this  war. 

Pending  the  arrival  of  a  large  landing  force  to 
take  the  city  in  the  rear,  Sampson  determined  to 
keep  the  Spaniards  tightly  pent.  This  led  to  one 
of  the  most  brilliant  and  daring  episodes  of  the  war 

Hobson 

— the  sinking  of  the  American  collier  ' '  Merrimac, ' '  U 
at  the  entrance  of  Santiago  Harbor,  by  Naval  Con- 
structor  Hobson.  The  collier  was  charged  with 
mines,  and,  after  a  first  abortive  attempt,  was  finally 
steered  into  the  mouth  of  the  harbor  by  Hobson 
and  a  chosen  crew  of  seven  volunteers  under  cover 
of  darkness.  The  ship  was  sunk,  but  Hobson  and 
his  men  were  picked  up  by  Admiral  Cervera  when 
daylight  came. 

The  sinking  of  the  "Merrimac"  proved  a  disap- 
pointment. Her  wreck  did  not  close  up  the  mouth 
of  the  harbor.  As  if  to  prove  this  to  the  Ameri- 
cans, the  Spaniards,  three  days  after  Hobson 's  cap- 
ture, sent  out  the  cruiser  "Eeina  Mercedes."  She 


A   HISTORY   OF   THE  18C8 

no*  &et  beyond  tne  mouth  of  the  harbor  before 
s!mked  5"  she  was  sunk  by  the  concentrated  fire  of  the  Ameri- 
can fleet. 

American  marines  were  ^aow  landed  at  Quanta- 

Land 

GuanTI- at  namo.  Aided  by  Cubans  they  skirmished  with  the 
Spaniards  for  several  days.  Meanwhile,  General 
IShafter's  expedition  sailed  from  Tampa.  It  con- 
sisted of  more  than  16,000  men. 

The  expedition  was   landed  with  the   assistance 

American  °^  tne  navJ  at  Daiquiri  near   Santiago,    on  June 

landed'  22.  The  Spanish  troops  made  no  resistance,  and 
on  the  next  morning  General  Lawton's  division 
marched  along  the  coast  to  Siboney.  General 
Young's  brigade  of  964  dismounted  troopers,  how- 
ever, passed  Lawton  on  the  night  of  the  23d-24th, 
and  was  therefore  in  advance  on  the  morning  of 
the  24th.  It  consisted  of  part  of  the  Tenth  United 
States  Cavalry  (colored)  and  two  squadrons  of  the 
Rough  Eiders.  On  the  road  to  Santiago,  about 
three  miles  from  Siboney,  was  a  strong,  natural 

LaLhGua-  position  called  Las  Guasimas,  from  the  trees  in 
that  locality.  Here  the  Spaniards  were  posted, 
3,000  strong,  and  Young's  men  struck  them  at 
this  point.  After  an  obstinate  resistance,  the  Span- 
iards were  driven  from  their  position  with  a  re- 
ported loss  of  nine  killed  and  twenty- seven  wounded. 
The  Americans  lost  one  officer  and  fifteen  men 
killed,  and  six  officers  and  forty -six  men  wounded. 
Among  the  killed  were  Captain  Capron  and  Hamil- 
ton Fish  of  the  Rough  Riders.  Edward  Marshall, 
the  war  correspondent,  was  severely  wounded. 
The  engagement  was  remarkable  in  one  respect 


1898  July  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1829 

The  men  who  composed  the  two  squadrons  of  the 

First  Volunteer  Cavalry  had  never  received  any  mTrks?3"11 

...  tnanship 

military  drill  in  target  practice,  nor  had  they  once 
fired  their  new  carbines.  Yet  their  shooting  was 
so  accurate  that  the  bullets  from  their  cross-fire 
and  that  of  the  negro  troopers,  who  came  to  their 
aid,  was  found  to  have  swept  over  the  crest  of  the 
hill  where  the  Spaniards  lay,  within  hand's-breadth 
of  the  ground.  In  brief  this  action,  like  all  other 
American  victories  of  the  war  with  Spain,  was  won 
by  straight  shooting. 

After  this  engagement,  the  time  up  to  June  30 
was  spent  in  bringing  up  the  American  troops  for 
the  advance  on  Santiago.  To  the  northeast  of  the 
city  was  the  village  of  Caney,  and  on  the  same 
side,  some  two  to  three  miles  from  it,  were  the 
San  Juan  hills  and  block- houses.  It  was  evident 
that  this  was  the  proper  approach  to  the  town. 

About  this  time  news  was  brought  that  the  Span- 
ish General,  Escario,  with  reinforcements,  was  ap-  Advance 
preaching  from  the  northwest.     Early  on  July  1, tiago 
Lawton  was  in  position,  Chaffee's  Brigade  on  the 
right,  Lawton's  on  the  left,  and  Miles'  in  the  cen- 
tre.     The  conflict  opened  at  6  o'clock  A.M.,   and 
soon  became  general.     The  naturally  strong  posi- 
tion of  the  enemy  was  rendered  doubly  so  by  stone 
block-houses  and  forts. 

The  troops  of  Wheeler's  and  Kent's  divisions, 
which  had  up  to  this  time  been  partially  concealed, 
were  ordered  to  deploy — Wheeler  to  the  right,  to- 
ward Lawton,  and  Kent  to  the  left  General  Shaf- 
ter  has  thus  described  the  fight: 

XlXth  Century— Yol.  3— T 


1830  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  July  1898 

"General  Kent  took  measures  to  hurry  forward 
san^an'  his  rear  brigade.     The  Tenth  and  Second  Infantry 

Hill 

were  ordered  to  follow  Wikoff  s  Brigade,  while  the 
Twenty-first  was  sent  on  the  right-hand  road  to  sup- 
port the  First  Brigade,  under  General  Hawkins,  who 
had  crossed  the  stream  and  formed  on  the  right  of 
the  division.  The  Second  and  Tenth  Infantry, 
Colonel  E.  P.  Pearson  commanding,  moved  for- 
ward in  good  order  on  the  left  of  the  division, 
passed  over  a  green  knoll,  and  drove  the  enemy 
back  toward  his  trenches.  During  this  formation 
the  Second  Brigade  suffered  severely.  Its  com- 
mander, Colonel  Wikoff,  was  killed.  The  command 
of  the  Brigade  then  devolved  upon  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  Worth,  Thirteenth  Infantry,  who  was  soon 
severely  wounded,  and  next  upon  Lieutenant-Colonel 
Liscum,  Twenty-fourth  Infantry,  who,  five  minutes 
later,  also  fell  under  the  terrible  fire  of  the  enemy, 
and  the  command  of  the  brigade  then  devolved 
upon  Lieutenant-Colonel  Ewers,  Ninth  Infantry. 

"After  completing  their  formation  under  a  de- 
structive fire,  and  advancing  a  short  distance,  both 
divisions  found  in  their  front  a  wide  bottom,  in 
which  had  been  placed  a  barbed-wire  entanglement, 
and  beyond  which  there  was  a  high  hill,  along  the 
crest  of  which  the  enemy  was  strongly  posted. 
Nothing  daunted,  these  gallant  men  pushed  on  to 
drive  the  enemy  from  his  chosen  position,  both  divi- 
sions losing  heavily.  In  this  assault  Colonel  Hamil. 
ton,  Lieutenants  Smith  and  Shipp  were  killed,  and 
Colonel  Carroll,  Lieutenants  Thayer  and  Myer,  all 
in  the  cavalry,  were  wounded. ' ' 


Painted  by  H.  Reuterdala 


CRONJE'S  ARRIVAL  AT  ST.  HELENA 


XlXth  Cent.,  Vol.  Three 


1898  July  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1831 

This  was  the  famous  charge  up  San  Juan  Hill. 
Though  the  firing  line  was  three  miles  wide,  the 
lion's  share  of  the  exploit  in  American  popular 
tradition  has  fallen  to  Theodore  Eoosevelt  and  his 
Eough  Eiders. 

During  the  afternoon  and  night  of  July  1  the 
American  lines  were  strengthened.  On  the  morn- 
ing of  July  2  and  3,  the  Spaniards  renewed  the 
fight  but  were  beaten  back.  The  losses  of  the 
three  days  on  the  American  side  were  22  officers 
and  208  men  killed,  81  officers  and  1,203  men 
wounded,  and  79  missing.  The  Spanish  losses  Ca  ture  Qf 
were  more  than  1,500  officers  and  men  killed Caney 
and  wounded,  including  the  Commander-in-Chief, 
Linares.  The  battalion  that  held  Caney  was  cut 
down  almost  to  a  man. 

After  the  final  repulse  of  the  Spaniards,  on  the 
morning  of  July  3,  General  Shafter  made  a  demand 
on  General  Toral  to  surrender.  One  hour  after  this 
summons,  Admiral  Cervera  and  his  fleet  sailed  out 
of  Santiago  Harbor.  It  was  a  bright  Sunday  morn- 
ing with  a  calm  sea.  The  American  vessels,  in  a 
wide  semicircle,  were  lying  on  their  customary 
blockading  stations.  The  American  flagship,  bear- 
ing Acting  Eear- Admiral  Sampson,  was  steaming 
down  the  coast  toward  Siboney  for  a  conference  Cervera 

steams  out 

with  General  Shafter.  The  call  to  Sunday  inspec- 
tion had  just  sounded  across  the  water  when  the 
first  Spanish  battleship  was  seen  emerging  from 
Santiago  Harbor.  On  the  yardarms  of  the  "Texas" 
and  "Oregon"  rose  the  signal  "Enemy's  ships  are 
escaping. ' '  General  quarters  sounded  on  every  ship. 


1882  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  July  1898 

Within  five  minutes  the  guns  of  the  nearest  Ameri- 
can vessels  opened  fire.  Commodore  Schley  on  his 
flagship  "Brooklyn,"  signalled  "Close  in!"  The 
Spanish  ships,  steaming  ten  knots  per  hour,  filed 
out  of  the  harbor  eight  hundred  yards  apart.  The 
"Infanta  Maria  Teresa,"  flying  Admiral  Cervera's 
flag,  led.  After  her  came  the  '  '  Vizcaya,  "  "  Cristobal 
Colon,"  and  "Almirante  Oquendo.  "  The  torpedo- 
boat  destroyers  "Pluton"  and  "Furor"  followed. 
The  "Texas,"  "Brooklyn,"  "Iowa"  and  "Oregon" 

% 

converged  toward  the  harbor  entrance.  "When  the 
"Brooklyn"  had  come  within  a  mile  of  the  "Maria 
Teresa,  '  '  she  was  exposed  to  the  concentrated  fire  of 
the  '  '  Teresa,  "  "  Vizcaya'  '  and  "  Colon.  '  '  She  ported 
her  helm,  and  turning  from  the  enemy  made  a  com- 
plete loop,  after  which  she  steered  a  course  parallel 
with  the  Spanish  vessels  and  engaged  them.  Through- 
out  this  manoeuvre  her  guns  kept  the  enemy  within 
range.  Commodore  Schiey's  unforeseen  move  came 
near  seriously  endangering  the  '  '  Texas.  '  '  After  the 
battle  it  was  made  the  subject  of  caustic  comment. 
By  Schley  and  his  supporters  it  has  always  been 
upheld  as  an  eminently  successful  manoeuvre,  neces- 
sitated by  the  situation  of  the  moment.  The  initial 
speed  of  the  Spanish  vessels  soon  enabled  them  to 
run  clear  of  the  blockading  squadron  at  large. 
fight  iphe  action  henceforth  was  a  running  fight,  with 
the  "Brooklyn,"  "Oregon"  and  "Texas"  leading 
the  chase. 

The  most  brilliant  exploit  of  the  battle  was  that 
of  Lieutenant-  Commander  Wainwright,  command- 
ing the  little  "Gloucester,"  formerly  the  yacht 


manoeuvre 


1898  July  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1833 

"Corsair.''  Wainwright,  who,  as  one  of  the  sur- 
vivors of  the  "Maine,"  had  the  post  of  honor  near 
the  harbor  entrance,  carried  nothing  but  light  rapid- 
fire  guns.  As  soon  as  the  two  torpedo-boat  de- 
stroyers appeared  at  the  mouth  of  the  harbor,  the 

Wain- 

"  Gloucester"  steamed  for  them  at  full  speed,  firms;  ^right's 

°  exploit 

all  the  time.  Though  she  came  under  the  fire  of 
the  shore  batteries,  she  closed  in  with  the  two 
destroyers  and  literally  smothered  them  with  her 
deadly  rapid  fire.  "Within  twenty  minutes  the 
"Furor"  and  "Pluton"  were  sunk,  with  two-thirds 
of  their  crew  killed.  The  "Maria  Teresa,"  set  on,., 

Maria 

fire  by  the   heavy  shells  of  the  American  battle-  Junksa" 
ships  and  the  "Brooklyn,"   ported  her  helm  and 
ran    inshore.      As    she    settled    and    sank,    "Wain- 
wright ran  up  with  the  "Gloucester"  and  rescued 
the   drowning    Spanish    sailors..     He   stood  at  the 
gangway   as  the   dripping   Spanish  Admiral   came 
over  the  side.      Taking  Cervera  by  the  hand,  he 
exclaimed:    "I  congratulate  you,  sir,  upon  having 
made  a  most  gallant  fight. ' '     The  brave  old  sailor  prisoner 
was  too  overcome  to  reply. 

An  hour  later  the  ' '  Vizcaya, ' '  running  westward 
under  the  combined  fire  of  the  ' '  Brooklyn, "  "  Ore- 
gon" and  "Texas,"  was  likewise  set  on  fire  and 
was  beached  at  Aserrades.  The  "Cristobal  Colon 
ran  ahead  until  nearly  one  o'clock.  By  that  time 
the  "Oregon,"  steaming  at  full  speed,  at  last  came 
up  so  as  to  bring  her  thirteen- inch  turret  guns  to 
bear.  One  shell  was  dropped  just  astern  of  the 
"Colon."  The  next  splashed  into  the  water  ahead 
of  her  bow.  Had  there  b«en  guns  in  the  gaping 


1834  A    HISTORY    OF   THE  July  1898 

holes  of  her  barbettes,  the  Spaniard  might  still  have 
jirrender  gjven  a  gOO(j  account  of  herself .  As  it  was,  though 
uninjured  by  the  American  shots.,  she  hauled  down 
her  colors.  After  the  surrender,  her  sea  valves  were 
treacherously  opened,  and  she  sank  forty-eight  miles 
west  of  Santiago.  Sampson's  flagship  "New  York, " 
which  had  arrived  by  that  time  after  her  long  stern 
chase  from  Aguadores,  pushed  the  sinking  "Colon" 
into  shoal  water.  Befc~e  the  "Colon"  was  run 
down,  the  "Almirante  Oquendo"  was  finished  off 
by  the  "Texas."  Burning  fiercely  from  stem  to 
stern,  she  hauled  down  her  colors  and  headed  in- 
shore. It  was  then  that  American  sailors  on  the 
"Texas"  broke  into  wild  hurrahs.  "Don't  cheer, 
men!"  said  Captain  Philips,  "the  poor  devils  are 
dying." 

Thus  ended  the  greatest  running  fight  on  water 
since  the  destruction  of  the  Armada.  The  Span- 

A  notable 

victory  iards  lost  six  ships,  600  men  killed  and  wounded, 
and  1,200  prisoners,  while  the  Americans  had  one 
man  killed  and  two  wounded.  The  worst  damage 
done  to  any  American  vessel  was  on  the  "Brook- 
lyn." This  high-standing  cruiser  was  struck  no 
less  than  thirty  times.  It  was  a  six- inch  shell  that 
carried  off  the  head  of  her  chief  gunner,  Ellis. 

After  the  battle,  Sampson,  who  had  reassumed 
command,  sent  a  despatch  to  Washington,  offering 
the  victory  to  the  American  people  as  a  "Fourth- 
of- July  present."  The  wording  of  the  despatch, 
which  made  no  mention  of  Schley,  was  sharply 
criticised  in  Congress. 

The  destruction  of  the  second  Spanish  fleet  prac- 


1898 July  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1835 

tically  ended  the  war.  For  some  time  parleys  for 
surrender  dragged  on  before  Santiago.  The  women 
and  children  were  permitted  to  leave  the  city,  where 
they  had  been  a  prey  to  the  ravages  of  famine  and 
fever.  On  July  17,  General  Toral,  who  had  suc- 

Surrender 

ceeded  Linares,  surrendered  the  city  and  province  of  san- 
of  Santiago  with  22,000  men.     The  Spanish  soldiers 
were  to  be  shipped  back  to  Spain.     After  this  the 
American  army  lay  idle.     Its  ranks  were  decimated 
by  malarial  fever.     This  led  to  the  famous  round 

robin  letter  initiated  by  Colonel  Roosevelt,  in  which  Roose- 
velt's 

the  various  commanding  officers  united  in  stating:  o^J1"? 
"This  army  must   be   moved  at  once  or  perish. " letter 
The  letter  had  its  desired  effect. 

Before  the  surrender  at  Santiago,    Admiral  Ca-  _ 

Camara's 

mara's  fleet,  sailing  for  the  Philippines  through  therecaiied 
Suez  Canal,  turned  back.  This  expedition  has 
never  been  satisfactorily  explained.  Camara's  fleet 
was  scarcely  of  sufficient  strength  to  cope  with 
Dewey  at  Manila.  Its  departure  left  the  Spanish 
coast  uncovered.  The  heavy  tolls  for  twice  travers- 
ing the  Suez  Canal  seriously  depleted  the  exhausted 
treasury  of  Spain.  While  this  fleet  was  returning 
from  its  fruitless  errand,  General  Miles,  with  3,500 
officers  and  men,  invaded  Porto  Rico.  A  slight 

T  ,    f^  ^     Conquest 

engagement  occurred  on  August  9  at  Coamo.     On  of  Porto 
the  eve  of  a  more  decisive  action,  on  August  12, 
news  arrived  of  the  suspension  of  hostilities. 

On  July  26,  M.  Cambon,  the  French  Ambassador 
in  Washington,  acting  in  behalf  of  Spain,  had  made 
the  first  overtures  for  peace.  On  August  9,  the 
American  conditions  were  formally  accepted  by 


1836  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  AUTISM 

Spain.  Three  days  later  a  peace  protocol  was 
proctocoi  signed.  It  provided  for  the  reiinquishment  of  Span- 
ish sovereignty  over  Cuba,  Porto  Rico  and  one  of 
the  Ladrones.  Manila  was  to  be  held  by  the  Ameri- 
can forces  pending  the  conclusion  of  a  definite  peace 
treaty. 

The  blockade  of  Cuba  was  raised  forthwith.     The 

Spanish  forces  in  Porto  Bico  prepared  to  withdraw. 

Owing  to  delay  in  the  transmission  of  the  news  of 

peace  the  land  campaign  in  the  Philippines  lasted 

campaign  thirty- six    hours    beyond    the    date    of    signature. 

American  forces,  to  the  number  of  12,000  men,  had 

been  landed  at  Cavite  by  the  close  of  July.     On  the 

way  to  Manila  the  "Charleston"  annexed  the  Island 

Annexa      of  Guam.      The  Spanish  governor  was  not  aware 

lion  of 

Guam  ^at  war  existed  between  the  United  States  and 
Spain.  The  solid  shots  of  the  "Charleston"  were 
taken  for  a  salute.  On  the  last  of  the  month,  the 
American  forces  at  Cavite  advanced  from  their 
base  and  threw  up  a  line  of  breastworks  in  front 
of  Manila.  The  Philippine  insurgents  made  way 
for  them.  A  hot  engagement  was  fought  under  a 
pouring  rainstorm.  On  Sunday  morning,  August 
7,  Dewey,  having  been  reinforced  by  the  captured 
"Callao,"  and  monitors  "Monterey"  and  "Monad- 
nock,"  summoned  Manila  under  threat  of  bombard- 
ment. After  long  parleys  arrangements  were  made 
to  save  Spanish  honor  by  a  sham  bombardment  and 
attack.  The  Americans  undertook  to  foil  any  at- 

Maniia       tempt  on  the  part  of  the   Filipinos  to  occupy  the 

capitulates 

city.     This  final  display  of  Spanish  fighting  spirit 
cost  the   Americans   twelve   dead  and    thirty-nine 


1898  Aug.  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1837 

wounded.  Immediately  after  the  surrender,  on 
August  16,  news  of  the  peace  protocol  reached 
General  Merritt. 

On  the  day  of  the  suspension  of  hostilities  the 
American  flag  was  also  raised  over  Honolulu  in  Hawaii 
the  Hawaiian  or  Sandwich  Islands.  The  acquisi- 
tion of  colonial  possessions  necessitated  an  imme- 
diate increase  of  the  regular  American  army.  With 
the  consent  of  Congress,  the  army  was  raised  to 
twice  its  original  number.  The  most  enthusiastic  American 

changes 

spokesman  for  this  departure  from  American  tra- 
dition was  Theodore  Roosevelt.  On  the  strength 
of  his  war  record  he  became  a  candidate  for  the 
governorship  of  his  native  State.  After  an  exciting 
political  campaign  he  was  triumphantly  elected. 

Throughout  the  Spanish- American  War  the  great 
Powers  of  Europe,  so  far  from  combining  in  behalf 
of  Spain,  were  scarcely  able  to  come  to  an  agree- 
ment in  regard  to  the  political  status  of  Crete.  The 
unsatisfactory  negotiations  on  this  subject  madeThe"Con- 
a  by- word  of  the  so-called  "concert  of  Europe. "  Europe" 
Late  in  the  year  the  representatives  of  the  four 
Powers  finally  notified  the  King  of  Greece  of  their 
selection  of  Prince  George  to  be  administrator  of 
Crete  for  three  years.  Shortly  before  Christmas, 
Prince  George  arrived  at  Souda  Bay  in  Crete, 
under  the  escort  of  the  foreign  flagships,  and  as-  Prince 

George  in 

sumed  charge.     The  Turkish  flag  remained   flying  Crete 
over  Canea. 

Prior  to  this,  more  serious  subjects  of  diplomatic 
contention  had  arisen  in  China.  The  Chinese  ces- 
sion of  Kiao-Chau  Bay  to  Germany  was  confirmed. 


1888  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  Spring  1898 

The  British  Minister  at  Peking  informed  the  Tsung- 
ofctona11  li  Yamen  that  Great  Britain  was  willing  to  guar- 
antee a  loan  of  £12,000,000  at  four  per  cent  to  pay 
China's  indemnity  to  Japan.  In  recognition  of  this 
service  China  agreed  to  open  all  the  inland  waters 
of  the  empire  to  foreign  navigation,  and  to  maintain 
an  Englishman  at  the  head  of  the  maritime  customs. 
Russia  followed  this  up  by  a  demand  for  the  cession 
of  Port  Arthur  and  Taiienwan.  In  the  event  of 

Exactions 

by  Russia  noncompliance  Russian  occupation  of  Manchuria 
was  threatened.  China  gave  in.  The  Russian  flag 
was  hoisted  over  Port  Arthur  and  Taiienwan. 
The  ships  of  other  nations  were  subjected  to  Rus- 
sian tariff  restrictions.  The  results  of  Japan's  war 
with  China  were  further  curtailed  by  the  cession 
of  Deer  Island,  commanding  the  entrance  to  the 
harbor  of  Fusan  in  Korea,  to  the  Russians.  Imme- 
diately after  the  withdrawal  of  the  Japanese  troops 
from  Wei-hai-Wei,  China  was  made  to  lease  that 
port  to  England  for  ninety-nine  years.  Within  a 


share 

month    another   Chinese    convention    was    signed, 

leasing    to     Great    Britain    for    ninety-nine    years 

some  two  hundred  square  miles  of  the    mainland 

opposite  Hong-  Kong  and  the  waters  of  Mirs  Bay 

and  of  Deep  Bay.     As  a  scapegoat  for  these  foreign 

concessions,  Viceroy  Li  Hung  Chang  was  dismissed 

d/s-?aced   *n    disgrace    from    the    councils    of    the    Tsung-li 

Yamen. 

On  May  19,  England  had  lost  the  most  eminent 

Death  of 

Gladstone  of  ner  statesmen  by  the  death  of  Gladstone.  The 
life  of  William  Ewart  Gladstone  is  so  integral  a  part 
of  his  country's  history  from  the  time  that  he  en- 


1898  Summer  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1839 

tered  Parliament  in  1835  until  his  last  public  ap- 
pearance in  his  eighty- eighth  year,  that  its  best 
expression  is  the  Victorian  Era. 

On  June  17  came  the  death  of  another  great  Eng- 
lishman, Sir  Edward  Burne-Jones.  This  artist,  who 
was  born  at  Birmingham  in  1833,  was  originally  Bume- 

Jones 

educated  for  the  Church.  After  his  graduation 
from  Oxford,  together  with  William  Morris  he 
took  up  art  in  London.  In  1856,  he  and  Kossetti 
became  leaders  of  pre-Raphaelite  art.  His  paint- 
ings, by  their  strangeness  of  conception  and  treat- 
ment, marked  a  departure  in  English  art.  Like 
those  of  his  friend  Eossetti,  they  dealt  with  classi- 
cal and  allegorical  subjects.  Yet  he  did  not  achieve 
renown  until  the  opening  of  the  Grosvenor  Gallery 
in  1877.  Noted  among  his  works  are  "The  Song 
of  Love,"  "The  Golden  Stairs,"  "Cupid  and 
Psyche,"  "Wine  of  Circe,"  "The  Six  Days  of 
Creation,"  "The  Four  Seasons,"  "Laus  Veneris, "  g£2£ 
and  "Love  Among  Ruins."  These  works  won  himpl' 
first  rank  among  English  imaginative  painters. 

To  the  House  of  Hapsburg  another  tragic  afflic- 
tion was  brought  by  the  assassination  of  Empress 
Elizabeth  of  Austria.     While  travelling  in  Switzer-  Assassina_ 
land  she  was  murdered,   on  September  10,  by  an  Empress 
anarchist  named  Lucheni.     A  Swiss  court  sentenced 
Lucheni  to  penal  servitude  for  life.     Within  a  few 
days  of  this,  on  September  20,  occurred  the  death 
of  Thomas  F.  Bayard,  the  former  Secretary  of  State 
at  Washington  and  subsequently  American  Minister  Thomasr< 
to  England.     Shortly  after  this,  Germany  lost  herBayard 
greatest  statesman  by  the  death  of  Prince  Bismarck. 


1840  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  Autumn  1898 

On  October  20,  the  old  chancellor  died  at  his  retreat 
of  Friedriohsruhe  in  his  eighty-third  year. 

Almost  simultaneously  with    the    war    between 
America  and  Spain,    England  was  fighting  a  war 

The  Nile  of  her  own  in  Africa.  A  powerful  Anglo- Egyptian 
force  was  collected  on  the  Nile.  On  April  8,  Kitch- 
ener stormed  Mahmoud's  intrenched  camp  on  the 
Atbara.  An  army  of  15,000  Dervishes  was  routed 

Atbara  after  obstinate  resistance.  They  lost  several  thou- 
sand in  slain  and  wounded.  Mahmoud  himself 
surrendered  with  three  thousand  of  his  followers. 
Kitchener  established  his  headquarters  at  Berber 
and  prepared  to  strike  at  the  Khalifa  in  Khartoum. 
There  the  Khalifa  had  gathered  more  than  50,000 
warriors.  Early  in  the  fall,  Kitchener  moved  up 
the  Nile  with  his  army  of  23,000  men,  most  of 
whom  were  native  troops.  By  the  1st  of  Septem- 
ber, the  British  forces  drew  up  under  the  walls  of 
Omdurman.  At  early  dawn  of  September  2,  the 
Khalifa  advanced  with  his  hordes  of  swordsmen 
in  order  of  battle.  At  a  range  of  a  thousand  yards 
the  British  opened  fire  on  the  fanatical  tribesmen. 
Again  and  again  the  Soudanese  chieftains  led  their 

Omdurman  tribesmen  to  the  assault  against  the  machine  guns 
and  incessant  magazine  fire  of  the  Egyptian  in- 
fantry. The  Dervishes  were  mowed  down  by  thou- 
sands. After  two  hours  of  this  unequal  fighting, 
the  British  columns  advanced  on  Omdurman.  Ac- 
cording to  Egyptian  versions,  native  auxiliary  regi- 
ments bore  the  brunt  of  the  fighting  that  followed. 
British  despatches  gave  the  credit  for  the  final  vic- 
tory to  a  cavalry  charge  by  the  21st  Lancers.  The 


1898  Autumn  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1841 

battle  ended  in  the  complete  overthrow  of  the 
Khalifa  and  his  army.  The  victory  of  Omdurman 
meant  the  end  of  the  depredations  of  the  Dervishes, 
and  the  re- conquest  for  civilization  of  the  whole  of 
the  Egyptian  Soudan.  In  addition  to  his  dignities 
as  Sirdar  of  Egypt,  Kitchener  was  raised  to  the 
peerage  and  was  appointed  Governor  of  the  Sou- 
dan. His  first  administrative  measure  was  the 
foundation  of  a  native  university  at  Khartoum. 
The  battle  of  Omdurman  was  followed  by  other 
English  victories  at  Karsala. 

About  the  same  time  a  French  expedition  under 
Major  Marchand  planted  the  French  flag  at  Fasho-  e£dea 
da,  and  thus  barred  the  British  passage  to  Uganda. 
Marchand 's    column    numbered   but   eight   French 
officers  and  105  Senegalese.     Eventually  the  French 
Government  yielded  its  point  and  Marchand 's  ex- 
pedition was  withdrawn.     Of  more  tragic  import  to  Loss  of 
Frenchmen  was  the  loss  of  the  French  liner  "Bour-gog"e" 
gogne"  with  600  passengers  and  crew. 

Public  opinion  in  France  by  this  time  had  be- 
come thoroughly  upset  over  the  charges  and 
countercharges  growing  out  of  Captain  Dreyfus' 
condemnation  as  an  alleged  traitor.  First  Major 
Esterhazy,  the  accuser  of  Dreyfus,  was  court- 
martialed  for  the  same  offence,  but  was  exon- 
erated by  a  military  acquittal.  Then  appeared 
the  famous  letter  of  accusation  written  by  Emile 
Zola.  The  letter  was  published  on  the  front  page  zoia's 
of  the  newspaper  "L'Aurore."  It  began  with  the 
words,  "I  accuse,"  and  was  written  throughout  in 
a  spirit  of  indignation  over  outraged  injustice  that 


1842  A    HISTORY    OF   THE  Autumn  1898 

has   made    this    letter    stand  as  a  masterpiece  of 
French  prose  invective. 

The  publication  of  Zola's  letter  was  followed  by 
a  hot  debate  in  the  Chambers  with  anti- Jewish  riots 
in  the  streets  of  Paris.  Zola's  house  had  to  be 

Zola's  trial  guarded  by  troops.  He  was  tried  and.  condemned 
to  the  maximum  penalty  of  one  year's  imprison- 
ment and  a  fine  of  three  thousand  francs.  Before 
the  sentence  could  be  executed  Zola  left  France. 
By  the  end  of  August,  Colonel  Henry,  then  chief 
of  the  Secret  Intelligence  Department  of  the  French 
War  Office,  was  brought  to  confess  that  he  had 
forged  the  most  incriminating  evidence  against 
Captain  Dreyfus.  Colonel  Henry  was  sent  to  the 
military  prison  of  Mont  Valerien,  and  committed 

Henry's     suicide.     As  a  result  of  the  dead  officer's  disclos- 

suicide 

ures  the  French  Court  of  Cassation  ordered  a  new 
trial  for  Captain  Dreyfus. 

France  lost  one  of  her  great  mural  painters  of  this 
century  by  the  death  of  Pierre  Puvis  de  Chavannes. 
Born  at  Lyons  in  1824,  this  artist  received  his  early 
training  in  Paris  as  a  pupil  of  Henri  SchefEer  and 
Couture.  He  made  mural  and  decorative  paintings 

Chavannes  his  specialty.  After  the  fall  of  the  Empire,  Puvis 
de  Chavannes  produced  a  number  of  noteworthy 
historical  and  Biblical  paintings.  No  less  famous 
are  his  mural  designs  that  adorn  the  Public  Library 
of  Boston  in  America. 

During  this  year  in  Denmark,  Dr.  Georg  M.  C. 
Brandes  published  his  famous  critical  work  on 

Geore        Shakespeare,    which   was   at  once    translated    into 

Brandes 

several  languages.     Brandes  had  previously  made 


1898  Winter  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1843 

a  name  for  himself  by  his  critical  works  on  "The 
Great  Tendencies  of  Nineteenth  Century  Litera- 
ture," "Danish  Poets,"  "Critical  Biographies  of 
Lassalle, "  and  his  "Essays  on  Lord  Beaconsfield 
and  Tegner. "  During  this  same  year  he  also 
brought  out  a  collection  of  his  earlier  poems. 

Among  the  dramatic  events  of  the  year  was 
the  attempted  suppression  of  Herman  Sudermann's 
"Johannes"  by  the  Berlin  police.  The  story  "Frau 
Sorge"  had  made  Sudermann  famous.  In  1889  he 
won  first  dramatic  honors  with  ' '  Ehre. ' '  In  1890  ap- 
peared "Sodom's  Ende,"  followed  by  "Heimath." 
The  collections  of  stories,  "Es  War"  and  "Im 
Zwielicht, "  achieved  no  less  striking  success. 
Late  in  the  year,  German  artists  and  art  lovers 

Arnold 

united  in  celebrating  the  seventieth  birthday  of  Ar- 
nold  Bockiin,  the  great  Swiss  colorist  and  painter 
of  ideal  landscapes.  Since  the  exhibition  of  his 
early  masterpiece,  "Pan  in  the  Reeds,"  at  Munich 
in  1859,  Bockiin  was  recognized  as  the  most  origi- 
nal of  German  painters.  No  less  striking  successes 
were  achieved  by  his  "Island  of  the  Dead"  and 
various  designs  of  centaurs  and  sea  monsters.  One 
of  his  latest  works  was  a  spirited  scene  from  "Or- 
lando Furioso. ' '  At  the  time  this  was  undertaken 
Bockiin 's  health  was  already  in  decline.  Some  of 
his  most  famous  canvases  were  collected  by  Baron 
von  Schack  at  Munich. 


1844  A   HISTORY   OF   THE  1899 


I 


1899 

AMERICA,  the  final  settlements  of  the  Span- 
ish war  were  drawing  to  a  close.  The  Spanish 
Cap  tain- General  of  Cuba  delivered  the  control 

Spaniards 

evacuate  of  the  former  crown  colony  to  General  Brooke, 
the  newly  appointed  American  military  governor. 
At  the  stroke  of  noon  on  the  first  day  of  January, 
the  United  States  flag  was  hoisted  on  all  the  public 
buildings  of  Cuba.  In  Havana  and  elsewhere  there 
were  great  popular  demonstrations  for  "Cuba 
Libre."  General  Fitzhugh  Lee,  the  former  Ameri- 
can Consul  in  Havana,  was  welcomed  as  a  popular 
deliverer  when  he  entered  the  city  at  the  head  of 
the  American  troops  to  assume  office  as  the  Gov- 
ernor of  Havana. 

In   the  Philippine  Islands,   on   the  other   hand, 

Filipinos     serious   indications   of   unrest  could   be   observed. 

restive 

The  Tagalogs,  under  the  leadership  of  Aguinaldo, 
objected  to  the  continued  military  occupation  of 
the  islands  on  the  part  of  the  United  States. 
Iloilo  and  other  towns  were  fortified  to  resist  oc- 
cupation. Aguinaldo  sent  a  special  commission  of 
Filipinos,  headed  by  Agoncillo,  to  lodge  a  formal 
protest  in  Washington.  The  commissioners  were 
no*  received  by  President  McKinley.  Agoncillo 
improved  his  stay  in  Washington  by  keeping 


1899  Feb.  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  1845 

Aguinaldo  informed  of  the  state  of  public  opinion 
in  America.  During  this  same  period  the  people 
throughout  the  country  were  greatly  stirred  up  over 
the  President's  investigation  into  alleged  abuses  in 
connection  with  the  Cuban  campaign.  The  report 
of  the  commission  appointed  to  investigate  these 
abuses  was  issued  at  Washington  in  February.  It 
exonerated  the  Secretary  of  War,  yet  the  evidence 
concerning  foul  fcod  furnished  to  the  soldiers  was 

American 

so  grave  that  Commissary-  General  Egan  was  su 


pended  from  his  military  command  and  sought  re- 
tirement in  Honolulu.  President  McKinley  quashed 
all  further  proceedings.  He  could  not  put  a  stop, 
however,  to  the  resentments  engendered  in  the  army 
as  a  result  of  these  charges.  General  Alger,  after 
an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  oust  General  Miles  from 
the  command  of  the  American  army,  resigned  his 
office.  He  was  succeeded  by  Elihu  H.  Root. 

The  Spanish  Cabinet,  about  the  same  time,  ad- 
vised the  Queen-Eegent  to  ratify  the  peace  treaty  Formal 
with  the  United  States,  after  first  dissolving  the  treaty 
Cortes.  This  was  done.  Spain,  in  this  treaty,  re- 
nounced all  right  of  sovereignty  over  Cuba,  and 
ceded  to  the  United  States  Porto  Rico,  the  Island 
of  Guam,  and  the  Philippine  Islands.  The  United 
States  agreed  to  pay  to  Spain  a  sum  of  $20,000,000 
under  the  guise  of  indemnity  for  Spain's  pending 
expenditures  for  public  purposes  in  the  Philippine 
Islands.  When  the  Spanish  Cortes  reconvened,  the 
Queen-Regent,  in  her  opening  address,  reviewed 
the  results  of  the  peace  treaty  and  announced  the 
cession  to  Germany  of  the  Ladrones  and  Caroline 


1846  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Feb.  1899 

Islands.  The  price  paid  by  Germany  was  25,000,- 
000  pesetas  ($4,375,000).  This  disposed  of  the  last 
relics  of  the  Spanish  colonial  empire.  Then  fol- 
lowed a  series  of  military  courts-martial  of  vari- 
ous officers  of  the  Spanish  army  and  navy  impli- 

Spanish  .  . 

war          cated  in  the  capitulations  of  Manila  and  Santiago 

scandals 

de  Cuba.  Admirals  Montojo  and  Cervera,  in  their 
defence,  laid  the  responsibility  for  their  crushing 
defeats  at  the  door  of  the  Spanish  Ministry  for 
Marine.  All  the  officers  were  acquitted.  The  Min- 
ister of  Marine,  D'Aunon,  had  to  resign. 

The  American  Senate  after  a  prolonged  debate  ap- 
proved the  peace  treaty.  The  document  was  forth- 
with signed  by  President  McKinley.  Immediately 
afterward  the  Senators  passed  a  resolution  that  the 
United  States  had  not  annexed  the  Philippines,  but 
would  protect  and  govern  the  people  until  such 
time  as  they  could  govern  themselves.  The  reso- 
lution was  too  vague  to  satisfy  Aguinaldo's  repre- 
sejitatives  in  Washington.  Moreover  it  lacked  the 
A  onciiio  concurrence  °f  "the  House  of  Eepresentatives  as  well 
discredited  ag  of  the  p^g^ent.  A  despatch  of  Agoncillo  to 

Aguinaldo  expressing  his  dissatisfaction  was  inter- 
cepted at  Hong  Kong.  Agoncillo  thereupon  left 
the  United  States  to  take  up  a  temporary  abode 
in  Canada. 

The  Tagalog  army,  which  had  been  restrained 
by  Aguinaldo  pending  the  ratification  of  the  peace 
treaty,  now  became  unmanageable.  The  establish- 
ment of  an  American  military  cordon  excluding 
all  armed  natives  from  Manila  gave  special  offence. 
On  the  night  of  February  10,  the  sentry  of  a  Ne- 


1899  March  NINETEENTH   CENTURY'  1847 

braska  regiment  fired  on   some   Filipinos  running 
the  cordon.     Firing  became  general.     On  the  mor- 
row,   the   Filipinos,   numbering   nearly   20,000,   at- 
tacked   the    American    positions    around    Manila,  p^.  inog 
They  were  beaten  off,  but  continued  the  fight  at  Americans 
intervals   during    the   night.      The    next    day   the 
Americans  advanced  all  along  the  line.     The  Fili- 
pinos were  defeated  with  a  loss  of  4,000  killed  and 
wounded  and  5,000  prisoners.     Serious  fighting  con-  defeat 
tinued  around  Manila,  the  American  troops  eventu- 
ally storming  the  strongly  defended  Filipino  posi- 
tion at  Caloocan,  the  key  to  Manila's  water  supply. 
Iloilo,  the  most  important  town  after  Manila,  was 
still  held  by  the  insurgents,  but  was  captured  pres- 
ently after  a   naval   bombardment.     On  February 
22,    an   attempt   was    made    to    burn    the    city   ofManila 
Manila  and  to  massacre  all  foreign  residents.     The set  on  fir 
greater  part  of  the  native  town  was  fired  and  the 
quarter  of  Toredo  was  destroyed.     Many  Filipinos 
were  shot  during  the  affair.    In  the  end,  the  Ameri- 
can  soldiers    succeeded   in   quenching   the   flames. 
Throughout  the   month   of   March,    the   American 
troops  under  General  Wheaton  inflicted  defeat  after  flve^fm^ 
defeat  upon  the  insurgent  army  retreating  into  the  pa 
interior.     It  was  at  this  time  that  Colonel  Funston 
of  the  Kansas  Volunteers  distinguished  himself  by 
swimming  a  river  under  fire.     After  much  hea-vy 
fighting,  the  Americans  advanced  on  Malolos,  the 
seat  of  the  insurgent  government.     Aguinaldo  re-  A?uj. 
treated  after  setting  fire  to  the  town.     The  seat  of  shifting 

capital 

the  government  was  transferred  to  San  Isidro.     In 
April,   General   Otis,   commanding   at  the  capital, 


1848  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Summer  1899 

recalled  General  Lawton's  expedition  to  Manila. 
The  towns  and  territory  captured  in  the  south 
were  abandoned.  General  MacArthur  at  Calumpit 
drove  the  insurgents  out  of  their  fortified  positions 
and  scattered  Aguinaldo's  forces  with  severe  loss. 
The  continued  defeats  of  the  Filipinos  resulted 
in  dissensions  among  their  leaders.  One  of  them, 
General  Luna,  sent  offers  to  the  American  gen- 
erals to  surrender  his  immediate  command  for  a 
End  of  money  consideration.  On  the  6th  of  June  he  was 
assassinated  in  front  of  Aguinaldo's  tent  at  Caba- 
natuan.  The  difficulties  now  met  by  the  United 
States  troops  were  such  that  General  Otis  requested 
reinforcements.  Already  the  newly  authorized 
strength  of  65,000  men  of  the  American  regular 
army  had  been  reached  and  Western  militia  regi- 
ments had  to  be  called  out.  In  the  meanwhile  the 
rainy  season  set  in  at  Manila.  The  last  military 
operations  on  the  part  of  the  American  troops  were 
brought  to  a  finish  in  midsummer.  In  August, 
after  a  long  period  of  inactivity,  the  American 
troops  under  General  McArthur  drove  in  a  large 
force  of  Filipinos  near  San  Fernando.  Near  An- 
geles an  insurgent  force  of  2,500  was  routed. 
Prior  to  this,  an  American  boat  crew  under  charge 
of  Naval  Lieutenant  Gilmore  was  surprised  in  the 
Baler  Eiver  on  April  19.  Several  of  the  men  were 
killed  on  the  spot.  Gilmore  and  the  other  survivors 
were  carried  off  into  captivity.  They  were  not  re- 
leased for  nearly  a  year,  after  having  suffered  great 
hardship  from  their  incessant  marches  through  the 
tropical  country. 


1899  Spring  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1849 

During  this  interval,  trouble  had  arisen  in  Samoa. 
Early  in  spring,  sudden  war  broke  out  between  the  slmoa 
rival  claimants  to  the  throne.  Malietoa,  who  had 
been  formally  recognized  by  Chief-Justice  Cham- 
bers, the  American  representative  of  the  joint  pro- 
tectorate over  Samoa,  took  refuge  on  a  British  war- 
ship. British  and  American  marines  were  landed 
and  fell  into  an  ambush.  The  native  settlements 
were  bombarded.  The  Germans  supported  the  pre- 
tender, Matafa,  and  succeeded  in  getting  his  claim 
recognized.  A  special  commission  of  three  dele-  national 

,        ,  .          settlement 

gates  from  England,  Germany  and  the  United 
States  eventually  rearranged  the  affairs  of  Samoa. 
Under  the  stimulus  of  this  affair,  the  German  Em- 
peror obtained  another  favorable  vote  for  his  lone;  increase 

0  of  German 

contemplated  increase  of  the  navy.     By  this  meas- navy 
ure  the  German  navy  was  nearly  doubled. 

In  France  some  disturbance  was  created  by  the 
sudden  death  of  Felix  Faure,  the  President  of  thegSJj}0' 
Eepublic.     The  Chambers  were  convened  at  Ver- 
sailles, and  by  their  first  ballot  elected  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  Senate,  Emile  Loubet,  to  be  President  French' 
of   France.     The   Royalists   and   extreme  Radicals 
took   this   very   ill    and   vented    their    feelings   in 
popular  demonstrations. 

In  May,  the  plenary  chamber  of  the  Court  of 
Cassation  assembled  to  hear  the  application  for 
a  revision  of  the  Dreyfus  case.  The  chief  point 
urged  in  the  application  was  that  the  so-called 
"bordereau,"  enumerating  the  documents  sup- 
posed to  have  been  sold,  were  written  by  Ester- 
hazy.  Major  Esterhazy  at  once  sent  a  communica- 


1850  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1899 

tion  to  the  London  "Times"  and  "Daily  Chronicle" 
in  which  he  avowed  that  he  had  written  the  bor- 
dereau by  order  of  Colonel  Sandherr  of  the  French 
Dreyfus'     General  Staff.     The  Court  of  Cassation  thereupon 
quashed*    unanimously   quashed  the   judgment  passed  upon 
Alfred   Dreyfus   in   1894   and   ordered    him   to  be 
tried  again  before  a  court-martial  at  Eennes.     En- 
couraged by  this,  Emile  Zola,  the  author,  returned 
from  his  exile  in  England. 

On  June  6,  Captain  Dreyfus  embarked  for  France, 
after  an  imprisonment  of  more  than  four  years  on 
Return  of  tne  ^e  ^u  Diable  off  Cayenne.  Captain  Dreyfus' 
arrival  in  France  caused  instant  disturbance. 
Under  a  show  of  great  secrecy  he  was  taken  to 
Eennes.  The  town  was  filled  with  troops.  The 
French  Chambers  adjourned  after  a  stormy  meet- 

The  trial 

at  Rennes  ing.  At  last,  on  the  seventh  day  of  August,  Cap- 
tain Dreyfus  made  his  first  public  appearance  since 
the  day  of  his  public  disgrace  as  a  traitor.  Ex- 
President  Casimir-Pe'rier  of  France  and  General 
Mercier,  the  former  French  Minister  of  War,  gave 
evidence  before  the  court-martial  in  justification 

torishot?  °^  tne  Dreyfus  proceedings.  Maitre  Labori,  Zola's 
quondam  attorney,  now  acting  as  leading  counsel 
for  Dreyfus,  during  the  same  week  was  shot  in  the 
back  while  on  his  way  to  court,  and  was  unable  to 
proceed  with  his  part  in  the  trial. 

The    situation   in    Paris    became    revolutionary. 

Derou-       Deroulede   with    several    members   of   the    Orlean 

attempt  ist  party  were  arrested  on  charges  of  conspiracy 
against  the  government.  Jules  Guerin,  the  presi- 
dent of  the  Anti-Semitic  League,  barricaded  him- 


1899  Summer  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1851 

self  with  a  dozen  confederates  in  the  offices  of  the 
league  and  defied  the  police  to  arrest  him.  He  was  ^"le™'* 
proclaimed  an  outlaw.  Serious  rioting  took  place 
in  the  Belleville  quarter.  Anarchists  wrecked  a 
church,  and  a  collision  with  the  police  led  to 
the  injury  of  about  three  hundred  persons.  At  Paris 
the  trial  in  Rennes,  Captain  Freystatter,  one  of  the 
judges  of  the  previous  court-martial  by  which  Cap- 
tain Dreyfus  had  been  found  guilty,  admitted  that 
a  document,  unknown  to  the  prisoner,  had  been 
shown  to  the  judges.  Before  the  end  of  the  trial, 
Maitre  Labori  reappeared  as  counsel,  having  par- 
tially recovered  from  the  effects  of  his  wound.  He 
received  an  enthusiastic  ovation.  Having  appealed 
in  vain  to  the  court  to  summon  Colonels  Von 
Schwartzkoppen  and  Panizzardi,  the  military  at- 
taches at  the  German  and  Italian  Embassies  in 
Paris,  Maitre  Labori  telegraphed  to  the  German 
Emperor  for  permission  to  have  Colonel  Schwartz- 
koppen attend  and  give  evidence.  The  French  convicted5" 
judges  would  not  permit  it.  Captain  Dreyfus  was 
reconvicted,  and  was  sentenced  to  ten  years'  im- 
prisonment, from  which  the  time  spent  at  the 
He  du  Diable  was  to  be  deducted.  The  verdict 
was  received  in  France  with  a  feeling  of  relief 
amounting  almost  to  satisfaction.  In  every  other 
country  of  the  world  it  was  condemned  as  a  trav- 
esty of  justice.  At  Hyde  Park,  in  London,  a  mass 
meeting  attended  by  50,000  persons  expressed  sym- 
pathy with  Captain  Dreyfus.  Eventually,  Presi- 
dent Loubet  used  his  executive  prerogative  and 
pardoned  Dreyfus.  Amnesty  was  extended  to  all 


1852  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  Summer  1899 

involved  in  the  affair.     Eugene  Gudrin  surrendered 
amnesty;    with   his    fourteen    fellow   members   of    the   Anti- 
Semitic   League.      Beleaguered   at  the   club,    they 
had  resisted  arrest  for  thirty-eight  days. 

While  the  "affaire  Dreyfus"  kept  France  in  a 
turmoil,  a  new  peace  conference,  called  together 
at  the  instigation  of  the  Czar  of  Eussia,  convened 
at  The  Hague.  One  hundred  delegates  attended. 
At  the  instance  of  Great  Britain,  the  delegates 
from  the  Boer  Republics  in  South  Africa  were  ex- 
cluded. Brazil  was  the  only  important  country 
plfcTcon  whi°h  sent  no  delegate.  Count  de  Staal,  the  Rus- 
ference  g-an  representative,  was  elected  president.  A  system 
for  revision  of  arbitral  judgments  was  advocated  by 
the  delegates  of  the  United  States.  It  was  adopted 
unanimously  as  an  amendment  to  the  original  Rus- 
sian proposal  to  make  treaties  of  arbitration  per- 
manent. At  the  final  sitting  various  conventions 
were  signed  by  the  representatives  of  all  the  Pow- 
ers or  referred  by  them  to  their  respective  govern- 
ments. As  an  outcome  of  the  labors  of  The  Hague 
Peace  Conference,  a  treaty  waa  concluded  in  Au- 

South 

American  omgt  between  Brazil,  Argentina  and  Chile,  whereby 

rt  °  J 


arbitration 

treaty       these  three  republic  agreed  to  refer  all  their  inter- 
national difficulties  to  arbitration. 

During  this  year,  attention  was  again  called  to 
China  by  events  of  apparent  trifling  importance 
which  later  proved  of  serious  consequence.  The 
American  Minister  at  Peking,  Major  Conger,  for- 
mally protested  against  the  proposed  extension 
of  the  French  concession  at  Shanghai.  He  urged 
an  international  agreement  for  the  enlargement  of 


1899  Summer  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1853 

» 
all  existing  foreign  settlements  in  China.     By  dint 

of  much  diplomatic  correspondence  between  Lon-  d°or"nin 
don  and  Washington,  a  tacit  agreement  was  reached 
by  England  and  the  United  States  to  maintain  the 
so-called  "open  door"  in  Chiaa  as  against  the  Con- 
tinental policy  of  foreign  spheres  of  influence.  The 
Tsung-li  Yamen,  at  the  instigation  of  Sir  Claude 
Macdonald,  the  British  Ambassador  in  Peking, 
agreed  to  open  a  new  treaty  port  at  Nanuning-fu 
near  the  Tonquin  frontier.  The  Italian  Minister  at 
Peking  presented  to  the  Tsung-li  Yamen  a  demand 
for  the  lease  of  Sammun  Bay  as  a  coaling  station 

Italian 

and  naval   base.      This   was   refused  at  the  time,  demands 
although   the  Italian  demands  were  supported  by 
Great  Britain.     Later,  however,   the  Chinese  Gov- 
ernment  consented  to    permit    the    occupation    of 
»this  point  by  Italy  as  a  purely  commercial  port. 

Serious  riots  occurred  within  the  boundaries  of 
the  Kau-Lung  extension  of  Hong  Kong.     British 
troops  were    soon    sent   to    Mirs    Bay   to   "restore 
order."     The   British   landing   party  was  attacked British 
and  the  tents  of  the  troops  were  burned.    A  counter  exPeditioQ 
attack  by  the  English  soldiers  soon  dispersed  the 
assailants,  who  were  found  to  be  soldiers  of  the  Chi- 
nese regular  army.     Yet  it  was  considered  safe  toMarines 
withdraw  the  marines  from  the  French  and  .Russian  Peking 
warships  which  had  been  landed  at  Peking  to  pro- 
tect their  respective  Legations. 

In  midsummer,  the  Tsung-li  Yamen  refused  to 
accede  to  the  British  demand  for  the  removal  of 
the  Kwei-chan  who  had  failed  to  punish  the  mur- 
derers of  a  British  missionary.  In  August,  an  im- 

XlXth  Century— Vol.  3— Z 


1854  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1899 

| 

perial  order  was  issued  at  St.  Petersburg  demand- 
ing that  Talienwan  be  declared  a  free  port  after 
the  completion  of  the  railway  connecting  it  with 
the  Trans-Siberian  line.  In  reference  to  the  owner- 
ship of  certain  lands  at  Hankau,  which  were  claimed 
by  British  merchants,  the  British  and  Russian  Am- 
bassadors in  China  agreed  to  refer  the  dispute  to 
arbitration.  Late  in  the  autumn,  the  Italian  Gov- 
ernment abandoned  its  concession  of  Sammun  Bay 
after  a  military  occupancy  of  only  three  months. 

Emperor  The  last  event  which  attracted  attention  to  China 
during  this  year  was  the  Chinese  Emperor's  re- 
fusal, in  October,  to  remove  the  obstructions  in  the 
Yang-tse  Kiang  River  which  had  been  laid  to  pre- 
vent navigation  by  foreigners.  As  a  result  of 
the  ever-  increasing  encroachment  of  the  Powers, 
bitter  anti-foreign  sentiments  were  engendered" 

fore?gifn '"  among  the  Chinese,    and  powerful  secret  societies 

feeling 

were  formed  to  resist  the  foreigners. 

While  the  people  of  China  were  thus  coming  in 
conflict  with  the  representatives  of  Western  civili- 
zation, another  distinct  gain  in  modern  civilization 
was  achieved  in  England  and  France.    In  the  spring 
of  this  year,  Signor  Marconi  sent  the  first  press  mes- 
sage across  the  English  Channel  to  France  by  his 
wireless'8  recently   invented   system   of  wireless    telegraphy. 
fraph   A  speed  rate   of  fifteen  words   a  minute  was  ac- 
quired on  that  occasion. 

About  the  same  time  Cecil  Rhodes,  the  great 
mining  magnate  of  South  Africa,  appeared  in  Ber- 
lin, and  had  an  interview  with  the  German  Emperor 
concerning  his  pet  project  of  the  construction  of 


18&9  Summer  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1865 

a  railway   to   run   from   the   Cape   of   Good   Hope 
to  Cairo.     Permission  was  granted  to  him  to 


ru,i  Iro&ct 

the  railroad  run  through  the  German  colonies  in 
East   Africa. 

Lord  Kitchener,-  in  the  Soudan,  by  this  time  had 
driven  the  last  rivet   in  the  new  bridge  over  the 
Atbara.      The   construction   of   this   bridge   in   sixAtbara 
weeks   was   one   of    the    greatest    bridge    building  bndge 
feats  of  the  century.     The  trade  road  into  Central 
Africa  by  that  route  was  declared  open  in  August. 
The   Egyptian    troops  under  Colonel  Wingate  at- 
tacked  Ahmed    Fedil's    Dervishes    at    Abu    Adil 
on    the    White    Nile     and    utterly    routed    them. 
The  Khalifa  and  several   of  his  Emirs  were  over- 


thrown  in  battle  and  the  Khalifa  was  killed. 

The  condition  of  affairs  in  South  Africa  through- 
out this  time  was  slowly  breeding  worse  discontent 
between  Great  Britain  and  the  South  African  Ke- 
publics.  A  petition  to  Queen  Victoria  detailed  the 
grievances  of  the  Outlanders  and  bore  the  signa- 
tures of  21,000  British  subjects  in  the  Transvaal. 
At  Johannesburg,  great  excitement  was  caused  by 
the  publication  of  a  despatch  by  Joseph  Chamber- 
lain, the  British  Colonial  Secretary,  declaring  t 
new  convention  concerning  the  dynamite  monopoly  smold 
in  the  Transvaal  a  breach  of  the  London  Conven- 
tion of  1887.  Six  Englishmen,  five  of  whom  had 
been  officers  in  the  British  army,  were  arrested  in 
the  Transvaal.  They  were  charged  with  seditiously 
recruiting  two  thousand  men  to  bear  arms  against 
the  Republic.  During  the  same  month,  President 
Krueger  and  Sir  Alfred  Milner,  the  British  High 


1856  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  Summer  1899 

Commissioner  to  South  Africa,  met  at  Bloemfon- 
Siifcon""  tein  on  the  invitation  of  President  Stejn  of  the 
Orange  Free  State.  No  basis  for  an  agreement  was 
reached  on  the  franchise  question.  President  Krue- 
ger's  suggestion  to  arbitrate  the  pending  differences 
was  not  accepted.  Mass  meetings  were  held  by  Out- 
landers  and  Boers  alike.  Another  attempt  at  media- 
tion was  made  by  President  Steyn  of  the  Free  State. 
He  was  joined  in  Pretoria  by  Hofmeyer  and  Fischer, 
SnS.  t^ie  lea(iers  of  the  Afrikander  Bond  in  Cape  Col- 
ony. In  accordance  with  their  suggestions,  Presi- 
dent Krueger  submitted  new  franchise  proposals 
to  the  Volksraad  involving  further .  concessions. 

In  England,  prolonged  debates  were  held  concern- 
ing these  matters  in  both  Houses  of  Parliament,  but 
no  division  was  taken  by  the  Liberal  opposition. 
The  demand  for  a  special  inquiry  into  the  Colo-- 
nial  Secretary's  dealings  with  Cecil  Rhodes  and 
chamber-  the  conspirators  against  the  Transvaal  was  foiled. 

Iain's 

letters       A   Belgian   newspaper    thereupon   published   some 
damaging  specimens  of  this  correspondence. 

At  the  instance  of  Great  Britain,  the  Portuguese 
authorities  at  Delagoa  Bay  prohibited  the  landing 
or  transshipment  of  munitions  of  war  consigned  to 
the  Transvaal  Government.  On  August  21,  the 
Transvaal  Government  transmitted  to  the  British 
agent  in  Pretoria  a  reply  to  Joseph  Chamberlain's 
proposal  for  a  joint  inquiry  into  the  workings  of 
the  proposed  franchise  law.  The  Volksraad,  after 
a  debate  of  six  days,  condemned  the  proposed 

Dynamite 

monopoly   dvnamite   monopoly.     At   the   same    time    British 

voted  down     •'  r      J 

reinforcements   embarked   for   South  Africa.     The 


1899 Sept.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1857 

situation  grew  daily  more  critical.  The  editor  of 
a  pro-British,  journal  in  Johannesburg  was  arrested 
on  a  charge  of  high  treason.  A  general  exodus  of 
Outlanders  followed.  The  most  prominent  banks 
and  brokerage  firms  in  Johannesburg  removed 
their  effects  to  Cape  Town,  in  the  Volksraad  a 
heated  debate  was  held  concerning  the  mobiliza- 
tion of  British  troops  on  the  border  of  Natal.  At 
its  height  the  reply  of  the  British  Government  to  , 

Further 

the  Transvaal  concessions  was  read  aloud.  It  con- 
sisted  of  further  demands  for  the  equality  of  Dutch 
and  English  in  the  Volksraad.  This  was  regarded 
as  an  ultimatum.  A  negative  reply  was  promptly 
forwarded.  President  Steyn  of  the  Orange  Free 
State  let  it  be  understood  that  the  Free  State  and 
the  Transvaal  would  stand  together  in  the  event 
of  war  with  Great  Britain.  The  leaders  of  the  Lib- 
eral party  in  England  issued  a  statement  disavowing 
responsibility  for  the  impending  war.  A  proclama- 
tion  signed  by  the  Queen  called  for  30,000  British for  war 
army  reserves.  Parliament  was  reconvened. 

The  Transvaal  Government,  on  October  10,  pre- 
sented to  the  British  agent  in  Pretoria  its  own  ulti- 
matum, requesting  the  instant  withdrawal  of  all 

Krueger's 

British  troops  on  the  borders  of  the  Transvaal ultimatuDD 
and  the  removal  from  South  Africa  of  all  re- 
inforcements sent  since  June  of  this  year.  The 
daring  of  such  a  demand  astounded  the  English 
people,  and  the  war  feeling  became  irrepressible. 
Canada,  New  South  Wales  and  other  Australian 
colonies  made  immediate  offers  of  contingent  forces 
which  were  refused.  When  the  time  allowed  by  the 


1868  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Oct.  1899 

Transvaal  for  the  withdrawal  of  British  troops  had 
make  war  expired,  on  October  11,  the  burghers  immediately 
assumed  the  offensive  and  overran  the  borders  of 
Natal.  President  Steyn  proclaimed  war  against 
Great  Britain.  The  Free  State  Boers  commenced 
hostilities  by  stopping  British  railway  trains  be- 
tween Harrisburg  and  Ladysmith.  One  of  the  first 
events  of  the  war  was  the  capture  of  a  British 
armored  train  at  Kraalpan,  about  fifty  miles  south 

Kraalpan 

of  Mafeking,   on  the  day  after  the   declaration  of 

war.     The  train  was  disabled  and  the  officer,  fifteen 

men,  and  two  rapid-fire  guns  were  taken.     Within 

two  days  the  Boers  invested  Mafeking  in  the  north, 

Mafeking    where    Lieutenant- Colonel     Baden-Powell    was    in 

beriey        command,  and   Kimberley  in  the   south.     General 

invested 

Sir  Kedvers  Buller  left  London  to  take  command 
of  the  British  forces  at  the  front. 

In  the  British  House  of  Parliament,  Wynd- 
ham,  the  Under- Secretary  of  War,  proposed  a  sup- 
plementary estimate  of  ten  million  pounds  and 
35,000  men  wherewith  to  put  "a  swift  end  to  the 
war. ' '  In  the  meanwhile  the  first  important  engage- 
Dundee  ment  had  been  fought  on  October  20  at  Dundee  in 
Natal.  The  Boers,  under  Lucas  Meyer,  tried  to  cut 
off  the  British  from  their  main  body  at  Ladysmith, 
but  failed  after  a  six  hours'  fight.  Another  sharp 
engagement  was  fought  at  Elandslaagte  on  the  next 
day.  The  British  claimed  the  victory,  but  contin- 
ued their  retreat  on  Ladysmith. 

On  the  third  day,  October  23,  General  Yule,  after 
Streat      severe  fighting,  abandoned  the  British  post  of  Dun- 
dee and  beat  a  precipitate  retreat,  leaving  all  his 


1899  Oct.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1859 

wounded  behind  him.  Among  them  was  General 
Symonds,  who  died  after  the  Boers  had  taken  pos-  symonds 
session.  By  October  26,  after  maintaining  a  run- 
ning fight  of  four  days  and  two  nights,  Yule 
reached  Ladysmith  with  his  exhausted  column, 
and  there  joined  forces  with  Sir  George  White. 

President  Krueger  formally  annexed  Bechuana- 
land  and  Griqualand,  while  President  Steyn  de- 
clared the  north  bank  of  the  Vaal  Eiver  as  annexed 
to  the  Orange  Free  State. 

On  October  30,  White  attempted  to  make  a  recon- 
noissance  in  force  from  Ladysmith.  Two  battalions 
of  the  Royal  Irish  Fusiliers  and  of  the  Gloucester-  white'g 
shire  Regiment  with  a  mountain  battery,  in  all  about 
one  thousand  men,  were  surrounded  by  the  Boers. 
After  a  severe  fight  lasting  nine  hours,  the  surviv- 
ors, numbering  840  men,  surrendered.  A  general 
attack  on  the  Boer  position  at  this  point  was  beaten 
off  with  great  loss  to  the  British.  Sir  George  was 
forced  to  withdraw  into  Ladysmith,  which  was  at 
once  invested  by  the  Boers.  Colenso  was  evacuated  Ladysmith 

invested 

by  the  British  on  November  3,  and  other  British 
garrisons  were  withdrawn  from  Stormberg  and 
other  threatened  points. 

The  defence  of  the  two  most  important  outlying 
posts,  Kimberley  and  Mafeking,  had  been  left  to 
two  exceptionally  competent  commanders,  Keke- 
wich  and  Baden- Powell.  In  his  measures  of  de- 
fence, General  Kekewich  had  to  reckon  with  Cecil  Poweu" 
Rhodes,  whose  presence  at  Kimberley  was  one  of 
the  chief  inducements  of  the  Boers'  offensive  opera- 
tions against  that  isolated  point.  Rhodes'  executive 


1860  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Nov.  1899 

ability  was  manifested  in  his  measures  of  organiza- 
Kimberiey  tion  and  administration.  Instances  of  this  were  his 
use  of  the  far  extended  diamond  diggings  for  defen- 
sive earthworks,  and  the  construction  of  an  impro- 
vised long-range  gun,  wherewith  to  keep  the  so- 
called  "Long  Toms"  of  the  Boers  at  bay.  In 
Rhodes'  estimation,  this  made  Kimberley  "as  safe 
as  Piccadilly. ' '  Otherwise  Rhodes  showed  himself 
so  headstrong  that  Kekewich  threatened  to  put  him 
under  military  arrest. 

In  the  meanwhile,  Lord  Methuen  was  collecting 
Methuen  to  forces  on   the   Orange  River,   some   seventy  miles 

the  relief 

from  Kimberley,  to  come  to  the  relief  of  that  place. 
General  Cronje,  investing  Mafeking  with  his  com- 
mando, received  urgent  orders  to  detach  his  most 
mobile  forces  and  take  them  southward.  He  lost 
no  time  in  doing  so.  Lord  Methuen's  last  recon- 
noissance  from  the  Orange  River  revealed  to  him 
but  six  or  seven  hundred  Boers  holding  the  ridges 
about  Belmont.  On  November  21,  Methuen's  col- 
umn moved  forward  and  came  to  camp,  on  the 
evening  of  the  following  day,  within  five  miles  of 
the  Boer  position,  west  of  Belmont  Station.  During 
the  night,  Methuen  advanced.  In  the  dark  several 
regiments  of  the  right  wing  lost  their  direction, 
so  that  by  daybreak  Methuen  found  himself  com- 
mitted to  a  frontal  attack  on  the  strong  hills,  or 
kopjes,  held  by  the  Boers.  The  British  guns  were 
slow  in  coming  up.  For  this  and  other  reasons  the 
battle  of  Belmont  reduced  itself  to  a  dogged  assault 
up  a  stony  ridge  by  largely  superior  infantry  forces 
against  strongly  intrenched  riflemen.  The  Boers 


1899  Nov.  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  1861 

fell  back  into   the   hills,   still   barring  the  way  to 
Kimberley. 

Two  days  later,  at  Graspan,  Lord  Methuen  made 
another  frontal  attack  on  the  Boer  line.  Again  the 
British  soldiers  fought  their  way  to  the  crest  of 
the  nearest  heights,  only  to  find  that  the  Boers 
had  once  more  eluded  them.  The  British  losses  Graspan 
at  Graspan  were  185  men,  of  whom  105  belonged 
to  the  naval  brigade. 

For  two  days  the  British  forces  rested.  At  four 
in  the  morning  of  November  28,  they  resumed  their 
advance  toward  Kimberley.  Methuen  had  been  led 
to  believe  that  the  Modder  Kiver  in  front  of  him 
was  not  held  in  force.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  Cronje 
had  come  up  with  his  flying  column  from  Mafeking, 
and  intrenched  himself  along  three  miles  of  the 
river-bed  in  a  well  concealed  position.  Methuen 
advanced  his  two  foremost  brigades  on  an  extended 
front  with  the  Guards  on  the  right.  About  eight 
in  the  morning  the  British,  descending  to  the  river- 
bed, were  suddenly  overwhelmed  by  a  deadly  rifle 
fire  at  close  range.  The  Scott's  Guard  Maxim  de- 


tachment  were  completely  wiped  out.  The  Guards, 
advancing  under  a  heavy  fire,  attempted  a  flanking 
manoeuvre,  but  found  themselves  stopped  by  the 
Biet  Kiver,  which,  contrary  to  Methuen's  intelli- 
gence, was  found  unfordable.  Colonel  Codrington 
with  a  score  of  men  managed  to  get  across,  but  lost 
half  of  his  party  in  returning  from  this  forlorn  hope. 
Within  a  thousand  yards  of  the  enemy  the  Guards 
threw  themselves  on  the  ground.  Thus  they  sus- 
tained an  all-day  rifle  fire  from  ten  in  the  morn- 


1862  A    HISTORY    OF  THE  Dec.  lb93 

ing  until  the  sun  went  down.  After  this  repulse, 
Methuen  sent  a  despatch  describing  it  as  "the 
hardest  and  most  trying  fight,  perhaps,  in  the  an- 
nals of  the  British  army."  This  description  was 
scarcely  warranted  by  his  casualty  list,  which  put 
the  British  losses  at  70  killed  and  413  wounded,  or 

despatches  but  seven  per  cent  of  the  troops  engaged.  Another 
of  Methuen's  despatches,  containing  the  enigmatic 
words:  "After  darkness,  dawn,"  excited  still  more 
adverse  comment  in  England. 

During  the  ten  or  twelve  days  that  the  British  lay 
in  check  at  the  Modder,  a  serious  demonstration 
was  made  in  their  rear  at  Enslin,  threatening  to 
cut  them  off  from  the  railroad  and  their  communi- 
cations. On  the  afternoon  of  Sunday,  December 
10,  accordingly,  offensive  operations  were  resumed 
^  against  the  Boer  lines  at  Magersfontein.  During 

Magers-  the  night,  General  Wauchope,  with  the  Highland 
Brigade,  was  pushed  forward  under  a  drenching 
rain  to  the  foot  of  the  kopjes  held  by  the  Boers. 
Floundering  in  the  mud  his  men  lost  their  way. 
The  officers  had  to  go  by  compass.  At  daybreak, 
before  the  advanced  detachments  had  deployed  for 
action,  a  hot  rifle  fire  was  suddenly  opened  on  them 
from  the  short  range  of  two  hundred  yards.  In  the 
confusion  contradictory  orders  were  given,  and  a 
bugler  blew  for  retreat.  General  Wauchope  was 
killed  while  trying  to  rally  his  men.  At  length  the 

Wauchope  demoralized  brigade  lay  down  and  kept  up  a  desul- 
tory fire.  The  Highland  Brigade  was  withdrawn 
from  its  perilous  position  after  fifteen  hours  of  ex- 
posure. On  the  morrow,  finding  the  Boers  still  in 


1899  Dec.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1868 

front  of  them,  the  British  withdrew.  Their  losses 
were  171  killed  and  691  wounded,  of  whom  four- 
fifths  belonged  to  the  Highland  Brigade.  After 
the  reverse  of  Magersfontein,  Methuen  gave  up  all 
further  attempts  to  advance.  The  relief  of  Kim- 

Methuen 

berley   was   checked    for  more   than   two   months.  gives  UP 
An   attempted   sortie   from   Kim  berley,    one   week 
after   Magersfontein,    was   likewise   repulsed.     The 
Boers  brought  up  a  hundred- pounder,  and  shelled 
the  town  at  long  range,  doing  great  damage. 

At  Ladysmith,  in  the  meanwhile,  the  situation 
had  become  trying  for  the  British.  On  the  first 
day  of  November  all  the  women  and  children 
were  sent  south.  Next  day  General  Joubert  com- 
pleted his  investment  of  the  town.  On  November 
9,  he  made  a  general  assault  upon  the  city,  but  was 
repulsed.  Late  in  November,  Sir  Redvers  Buller 
arrived,  and,  taking  charge  of  the  British  forces, 
ordered  a  general  advance  to  relieve  Ladysmith. 
Simultaneously,  Scott  Turner,  with  a  detachment 
of  the  besieged  troops,  attempted  a  sortie,  and  got 
as  far  as  the  enemy's  trenches,  but  he  was  killed 
with  twenty-two  of  his  followers,  and  his  men  were 
forced  to  fall  back.  The  garrison  of  Ladysmith,  on 
December  8,  attempted  another  sortie,  but  was  once  ^,'r^rous 
more  driven  back  to  the  city.  During  the  next  two 
days  General  Gatacre  attempted  a  night  surprise 
of  the  Boer  position  at  Stormberg,  but  failed.  He 
fared  as  did  White,  and  retired  with  a  loss  of  656 
men  taken  prisoners  and  two  guns,  besides  other  stormberg 
heavy  casualties. 

On  December  15,  Buller,  while  advancing  to  the 


1864  A    HISTORY    OF   THE  Dec.  1889 

relief  of  Ladysmith,  attempted  a  passage  of  the 
Tugela  at  Colenso.  His  guns,  under  Colonel  Long, 
pushing  too  far  ahead,  were  surprised  by  the  enemy, 
Buiier  an<^  a^  but  two  pieces  were  captured.  It  was  on 
this  occasion  that  Lieutenant  Koberts,  the  gen- 
eral's son,  was  killed.  Buller's  attack  on  the  left, 
under  Hart,  had  likewise  failed,  and  he  was  com- 
pelled by  the  loss  of  his  artillery  to  fall  back  to  his 
original  position.  His  losses  were  1,200,  all  told, 
and  16  guns. 

England  was  in  dismay.  In  South  Africa  as  well 
as  at  home  the  desire  grew  for  a  change  of  com- 
manders. On  December  16,  Lord  Koberts  of  Kan- 
dahar was  appointed  Commander-in-Chief  in  South 

Roberts 

and  Kttch-  Africa,  with  Lord  Kitchener  of  Khartoum  to  act  as 

ener  sum- 

moned  ^js  Qyef  of  Staff.  All  the  remaining  reserves  and 
the  militia  yeomanry  were  called  out,  and  new  volun- 
teer forces  were  encouraged  to  contribute  contin- 
gents. The  government's  former  refusal  of  Colonial 
aid  was  now  revoked.  Lord  Strathcona's  offer  to  raise 
a  regiment  of  Canadian  mounted  infantry  was  gladly 

volunteers  accepted.  Altogether  more  than  10,000  volunteers 
were  despatched  to  South  Africa  from  Canada, 
Australia  and  India.  Ten  thousand  more  from 
South  African  contingents  were  serving  at  the 
front.  From  England  itself  some  hundred  and 
fifty  thousand  officers  and  men  were  sent.  Alto- 
gether an  average  of  more  than  1,000  men  sailed 
daily  from  some  British  port  for  the  seat  of  war. 

Heavy       Nearly  200,000  horses  and  mules  were  required  tor 

British  J 

mentsrce  tne  PurP°ses  °f  war-  Owing  to  the  long  sea  voyage, 
and  an  epidemic  of  horse  sickness  prevailing  in 


1899  Dec.  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  1865 

South  Africa,  the  waste  in  horseflesh  at  the  front 
was  roughly  reckoned  at  5,000  a  month. 

Thus  ended  the  campaign  of  1899  in  South  Africa. 
So  far  the  Boers,  though  greatly  outmatched  in 
men,  guns  and  munitions  of  war,  had  prevailed 
over  the  British  at  almost  every  point.  It  was 
their  boast  that  they  had  not  lost  a  single  gun, 
wherever  equal  forces  met,  man  against  man.  Eng- 
lishmen at  home  were  in  a  stupor  of  amazement 
and  indignation.  It  was  brought  home  to  them 
with  ever- increasing  force  that  the  credit  of  the 
British  army  and  nation  was  at  stake.  On  the  Con-  LOSS  of 

*  British 

tinent  the  long  slumbering  hostility  to  England  Prestise 
was  shown  in  open  rejoicings.  The  members  of 
a  Spanish  club  at  Bilbao  sent  a  sarcastic  despatch 
to  Joseph  Chamberlain.  The  newspapers  of  Paris 
indulged  in  such  scurrilous  attacks  on  Queen  Vic- 
toria that  the  British  Ambassador  to  France  left 
the  country.  The  Ministers  of  various  Continental 
armies  made  haste  to  despatch  military  attache's  to 
the  headquarters  of  the  Boer  commandants  at  the 
front  to  profit  by  their  lessons  in  up-to-date  war- 
fare. The  German  Emperor  found  it  necessary  to 
issue  stringent  orders  prohibiting  German  officers 
in  active  service  from  obtaining  leaves  of  absence 
to  join  the  Boer  forces.  The  Czar  was  not  so  so- 
licitous. In  the  United  States  a  series  of  popular  g  th 
mass  meetings  declared  in  favor  of  the  Boers. Wltl 
Funds  were  collected  for  them  by  the  descendants 
of  the  Dutch  in  America.  Under  the  guise  of 
medical  expeditions  and  ambulance  outfits  various 
bodies  departed  for  service  in  South  Africa.  A 


1866  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Dec.  1899 

complete  Irish  corps  went  from  Chicago.  All  the 
Outlanders,  save  the  British  malcontents,  so  the 
Boers  claimed,  were  serving  on  their  side.  Thus 
they  had  an  independent  Irish  corps,  two  corps  of 
Hollanders,  a  Scandinavian  division,  and  a  picked 
body  of  Swiss  sharpshooters.  Officers  of  all  na- 
tionalities served  in  their  ranks.  Late  in  the  year 
the  Boer  envoys  in  Europe  were  received  with 

English-     honor  in  several  capitals  on  the  Continent.     Stung 

termined  by  these  reports,  public  feeling  in  England  was  so 
wrought  up  that  the  nation  as  such  was  determined 
to  stop  short  of  nothing  but  a  complete  British  con- 
quest of  South  Africa. 

The   American   outcry   of   British   aggression  in 

warippine  South  Africa  was  invalidated  in  large  measure 
by  similar  criticisms  of  the  American  campaign  in 
the  Philippine  Islands.  On  December  18,  General 
Lawton,  the  hero  of  many  campaigns,  was  shot  dead 

Lawtoa      while  directing  offensive  operations  against  the  Fill- 

killed  . 

pinos  near  Manila. 

By  the  death  of  Rosa  Bonheur,  France  lost  the 
foremost  woman  artist  of  the  Nineteenth  Century. 
In  1853  she  scored  a  great  success  with  her  famous 
canvas  "The  Horse  Fair,"  now  at  the  Metropolitan 
Museum  in  New  York.  At  the  Paris  Expositions  of 
1855  and  1867,  Rosa  Bonheur's  works,  together  with 
Bonheur  those  of  her  brother,  Auguste  Bonheur,  won  uni- 
versal admiration.  Among  Rosa  Bonheur's  most 
important  paintings,  after  the  "Horse  Fair,"  are 
numbered  "Plowing  in  the  Nivernais,"  now  at 
Luxembourg,  "Sheep  on  the  Seashore,"  "Hay- 
Making  in  Auvergne"  and  "Spanish  Muleteers." 


1899  Dec.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1867 

Long  before  attaining  these  successes  Eosa  Bon- 
heur  had  founded  her  famous  Free  School  of  De- 
sign for  Girls,  in  the  management  of  which  she  and 
her  sister,  Madame  Peyrol,  spent  much  of  their  time 
and  fortune. 

In  the  last  days  of  the  year,  German  physicians 
united    in   celebrating   the   fiftieth    anniversary   ofvirchow 

honored 

.Rudolf  Virchow's  tenure  of  office  as  a  Professor 
at  the  University  of  Berlin.  It  served  to  recall 
Virchow's  classic  demonstration  of  the  modern  cell 
theory  in  1859,  which  made  his  dictum,  "Omnis 
cellula  e  cellula, "  one  of  the  accepted  data  of 
physiology. 


1868  A   HISTORY  OF   TUB  1900 


1900 

WHILE   the  people  of  the   British  Empire 
were   in   a   state   of   feverish  excitement 
over  the  unexpected  turn  taken  by  the 
campaign    in    South   Africa,    the   year   opened    no 
Kentucky  less   turbulentlv    in   America.      A    bitter   election 

election 

contest  contest  in  Kentucky  had  brought  the  inhabitants 
of  that  State  to  sword's  point.  Both  parties 
claimed  to  have  won  in  the  last  State  election 
in  November.  The  Eepublican  Governor's  re- 
course to  military  measures  on  election  day  was 
denounced  by  the  Democrats  as  a  case  of  flagrant 
intimidation.  Lawless  mountaineers  bent  on  en- 
forcing their  rights,  came  to  Louisville,  the  capital, 
and  received  arms  from  the  State  Government.  On 
the  morning  of  January  30,  Senator  William  Goe- 
bel,  the  Democratic  Governor- elect,  while  entering 
the  Capitol  grounds,  was  struck  down  by  a  bullet 

Murder  of  ^re(^  fr°m  tne  window  of  the  adjoining  Executive 
building.  The  shot  proved  fatal.  The  Governor 
of  the  State  and  his  threatened  associates  besought 
the  protection  of  the  Federal  Government.  The 
State  militia  was  called  out,  but  the  soldiers,  like 
the  citizens,  split  in  two  factions.  Failing  to  ob- 
tain outside  aid,  Governor  Taylor  fled  from  the 
State.  He  was  promptly  indicted  for  murder.  As 


1900  Jan.  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1869 

might  have  been  foreseen,  the  assassination  of  Goe- 
bel  turned  public  feeling  against  the  faction  held 
responsible  for  this  crime.  Ketribution  was  visited 
on  the  Republican  party  in  Kentucky  by  its  ulti- 
mate loss  of  almost  all  the  points  gained  in  the 
preceding  election. 

England  lost  one  of  the  foremost  art  critics  of 
the  century  by  the  death  of  John  Kuskin.  An 
ardent  and  enthusiastic  admirer  of  Turner's  paint- 
ings, Buskin's  first  public  literary  efl'ort  was  a 
pamphlet  in  defence  of  that  artist,  which  wasKusfdn0* 
later  expanded  into  his  great  work  "Modern 
Painters."  During  the  irregular  appearance  of 
this  work,  which  stretched  over  more  than  fifteen 
years,  Euskin  published  "The  Seven  Lamps  of 
Architecture,"  "Stones  of  Venice,"  "Sesame  and 
Lilies,"  "The  Crown  of  Wild  Olive,"  and  "Clavi- 
gera, "  besides  a  series  of  articles  to  various  peri- 
odicals. 

At  the  time  of  Ruskin's  death,  Englishmen  were 
in  no  mood  for  discussing  such  fine  points  of  art 
and  of  criticism  as  were  linked  with  Ruskin's  fame. 
In  South  Africa,  anxiety  was  centred  on  the  threat- 
ened points  of  Ladysmith,  Kimberley  and  Mafe-  South 
king.  The  effective  British  force  shut  up  in  Lady- 
smith  numbered  13,500  men.  Several  thousand 
non-combatants  raised  the  number  of  the  besieged 
to  about  21,000  persons.  Since  the  British  reverse 
at  Colenso,  the  dead  weight  of  Ladysmith  hung 
like  a  millstone  around  the  neck  of  General  Bul- 
ler,  commanding  at  the  front.  Every  day  dis- 
quieting rumors  arrived  from  the  besieged  city. 


1870  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  Jan.  190C 

Picked  bodies  of  Boer  sharpshooters,  creeping  in 
a«fauit  stocking  feet,  scaled  the  British  defences  on  the 
night  of  January  6.  But  for  the  fact  that  the 
British  on  the  same  night  sent  out  an  expedition 
to  mount  a  naval  gun  on  an  outlying  eminence 
known  as  West  Wagon  Hill,  the  night  attack 
would  have  succeeded.  As  it  was,  the  alarm  was 
given  only  an  instant  before  the  Boers  were  upon 
the  garrison.  All  night  long  the  fight  raged  on 
the  ridges  of  Ladysmith.  In  the  morning  the  two 
firing  lines  were  but  thirty  yards  apart.  A  party 
of  stragglers  from  the  Imperial  Light  Horse,  des- 
perately clinging  to  a  knoll  from  which  they  could 
maintain  a  hot  fire  on  the  advancing  lines  of  the 
Boers,  finally  succeeded  in  saving  the  day  for  the 
British.  The  most  graphic  description  of  this  day's 
fighting  and  other  experiences  of  the  long  siege  of 
steevens  Ladysmith,  was  written  by  George  W.  Steevens, 
the  brilliant  English  war  correspondent.  On  Jan- 
uary 17,  Steevens  succumbed  to  enteric  fever.  On 
both  sides  more  men  succumbed  to  enteric  fever 
than  to  the  wounds  of  war.  At  one  time  Sir 
George  White  was  seriously  ill,  while  on  the  other 
side  the  inactivity  of  the  investing  Boers  was  ex- 
plained by  the  increasing  ill-health  of  their  com- 
mander-in-chief,  General  Joubert.  Another  abor- 
tive attempt  to  relieve  Ladysmith  was  made  by 
General  Buller.  On  January  9,  the  fifth  division 
of  the  British  army,  under  Sir  Charles  Warren, 
had  begun  its  advance  toward  Vaal  Krantz.  Near 
Acton  Holmes  was  the  famous  Potgieter's  drift 
crossing  the  Tugela,  and  the  lofty  eminence  of 


1900  Feb.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1871 

Spion  Kop.  On  the  evening  of  January  16,  War- 
ren, with  a  British  force  of  30,000  men,  crossed 
the  river  and  pushed  forward  to  within  three  miles 
of  Spion  Kop.  Owing  to  various  delays,  the  as- 
sault was  not  made  until  the  night  of  January  21. 
The  high  top  of  Spion  Kop  was  gained  with  sur- 
prising ease.  When  day  broke,  the  British,  hold-  Spion  Kop 
ing  the  ridges  and  bare  top  of  Spion  Kop,  found 
that  the  Boer  artillery  and  riflemen  had  the  accu- 
rate range  of  all  their  most  exposed  positions! 
From  the  neighboring  hills  the  British  were  sub- 
jected to  a  terrible  cross-fire.  They  heliographed 
frantically  for  reinforcements.  Though  help  was 
sent  immediately,  Spion  Kop  was  abandoned  after 
the  loss  of  General  Woodgate  and  several  of  his 
staff. 

On  the  withdrawal  of  the  British  troops  from 
Spion  Kop,  the  Boers  dashed  up  the  slope  and 
recaptured  their  old  position.  One  week  later,  on 
February  5,  the  British  troops,  under  the  immediate 
command  of  Sir  Redvers  Buller,  were  lured  into 
repeating  the  blunder  of  Spion  Kop.  The  emi- 
nence of  Vaal  Krantz,  three  or  four  miles  east 
of  Spion  Kop,  was  taken  by  storm.  After  Vaal 

Vaal 

Krantz  was  carried  and  occupied,  Buller  was  con-  Krantz 
strained  to  report:  "It  was  necessary  after  seizing 
Vaal  Krantz  to  intrench  it  ...  but  I  found,  after 
trying  for  two  days,  that  owing  to  the  nature  of  the 
ground  this  was  not  practicable.  It  was  also  ex- 
posed to  fire  from  heavy  guns,  which  fired  from 
positions  by  which  our  artillery  was  dominated." 
On  the  evening  of  February  7,  the  baffled  British 


1872  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Feb.  1900 

Buiier       forces  rccrossed  the   Tugela  and   retired  to  their 
repulsed     campS  at  Chieveley.     Their  total  losses  amounted 
to  more  than  3,000  men. 

Now  Generals  Eoberts  and  Kitchener  came  to 
the  front.  On  February  6,  the  two  left  Cape 
Town  and  joined  the  forces  that  had  been  col- 
lected for  them  on  the  Modder  River,  numbering 
more  than  44,000  men.  Generals  French  and  Hec- 
tor Macdonald  kept  the  Boers  at  that  point  occu- 
pied by  feints  with  their  advanced  forces.  Lord 
Methuen  was  instructed  to  hold  the  enemy  to  his 

Roberts  to 

the  front  trenches  in  front  with  his  old  lines.  Thus  it  was 
made  possible  to  turn  the  flank  of  General  Cronje's 
inferior  forces  by  a  strong  concerted  movement  of 
the  most  mobile  troops,  aggregating  nearly  45,000 
men.  At  three  in  the  morning  of  February  11,  the 
movement  began,  which  resulted  in  the  prompt 
withdrawal  of  Cronje's  forces — threatened  in  the 

eronje  rear — and  the  relief  of  Kimberley.  Thousands  of 
horses  were  sacrificed  in  the  wild  rush  of  cavalry. 
Fresh  mounts  took  the  place  of  the  fallen  horses. 
For  once  the  mobile  Boers  found  themselves 
matched  in  mobility.  Cronje  holding  Methuen's 
infantry  in  check  before  him,  could  not  throw 
out  his  mounted  detachments  fast  enough  to  in- 
tercept the  cavalry  rush  around  his  flank.  Four 
miles  from  Kimberley,  Cronje  arrived  just  too 
late  to  occupy  the  commanding  positions.  French 
brushed  the  inadequate  Boer  forces  aside  and  made 
a  dash  for  Kimberley.  Over  a  straight  stretch  of 

reiievedey  ^ve  m^es  tne  British  troopers  galloped  their  spent 
horses  into  the  beleaguered  city.  The  siege  was 


1900  Feb.  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1878 

raised,  and  Kimberley  forthwith  became  the  base 
of  operations  against  Cronje  and  the  Orange  Free 
State. 

Cronje  had  not  a  moment  to  lose.  As  soon  asCron.e,s 
French  had  slipped  by  him  he  gave  instant  orders race 
to  break  camp  and  start  for  Bloemfontein.  With 
his  cumbersome  wagon  trains,  he  raced  along  the 
banks  of  the  Modder  for  Koodoosrand  Drift,  forty 
miles  from  Magersfontein.  The  greater  part  of  the 
Boer  artillery  made  off  in  another  direction  and  got 
away.  Kitchener,  whom  Cronje  had  eluded  at  Klip 
Drift,  sent  word  to  French  to  head  off  the  Boer  re- 
treat. Kitchener's  skirmishers  harassed  the  Boers 
sufficiently  to  retard  their  flight.  French  spared 
neither  horses  nor  men  to  reach  the  Boers.  Start- 
ing from  Kimberley  before  daylight,  he  reached 
Koodoosrand  Drift  by  noon,  just  as  the  Boer 
wagon  train  was  descending  into  the  drift  from 
the  other  side.  A  British  shell  bursting  in  front  ££ec£ed 
of  the  Boers  at  12:15  told  Cronje  that  he  had  lost 
the  game.  Finding  himself  unable  to  dislodge  the 
British,  he  turned  his  column  and  laagered  four 
miles  away  above  Paardeberg  Drift.  Cronje  might 
still  have  escaped  had  he  abandoned  his  guns  and 
wagon  train  and  made  a  dash  across  the  river  at 
Wolveskraal.  The  presence  of  women  and  children 
in  the  Boer  laager  rooted  Cronje  to  the  spot.  Dis- 
posing their  wagons  in  defensive  positions,  the 
Boers,  numbering  altogether  between  4,500  and 
6,000  persons,  strongly  intrenched  themselves. 
During  the  night  and  the  following  day  the 
British  gathered  on  all  sides  in  overwhelming 


1874  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Feb.  1900 

numbers.  A  first  frontal  attack  on  their  part  was 
British  beaten  back  with  great  loss.  Later  in  the  day,  a 
British  flank  attack  made  the  Boers  draw  in  their 
furthermost  outposts.  The  British  losses  in  these 
two  attacks  aggregated  some  1,200  men.  On  Feb- 
ruary 19,  Lord  .Roberts  arrived  at  Paardeberg  with 
further  reinforcements  and  bombarded  the  Boer 
laager  with  half  a  hundred  guns  at  a  range  of 
2,000  yards.  The  sufferings  of  the  Boers  were 
fearful.  In  the  words  of  an  eye-witness: 

"Nothing  could  be  done,  but  crouch  in  the 
fhe^Boers  trencnes  an(l  wai*  until  dusk  prevented  further 
attack,  while  wagon  after  wagon  in  the  laager 
caught  fire  and  burned  away  into  a  heap  of  scrap- 
iron,  surrounded  by  wood  ashes.  The  desolation 
produced  was  fearful,  and  it  soon  became  impossi- 
ble to  make  any  reply.  So  enormous  a  proportion 
of  the  horses  were  lost  that  any  dash  for  freedom 
by  night  was  impossible.  The  condition  of  the 
laager  soon  became  so  foul  that  this  alone,  apart 
from  the  want  of  food,  compelled  early  surrender. 
The  horrible  stench  caused  a  serious  mutiny  in  the 
camp  and  a  general  clamor  for  surrender." 

For  several  days  Cronje  refused  to  surrender.     In 

the  early  hours  of  February  27,  the  anniversary  of 

diats?ata"  tne  f°rmer  Boer  victory  at  Majuba,  the  furthermost 

berg^de      Canadian  outpost,  supported  by  the  Gordons,  Shrop- 

shires   and   Engineers,    made   a   dash  on  the  Boer 

laager.      Under  a   terrific   fife    they   succeeded    in 

gaining  a  protected   position    within   eighty  yards 

of  the  Boer   trenches.      At  daylight,   Cronje   sent 

surrenders  out  a  ^a&  offering  unconditional  surrender.     A  few 

hours  later  he  rode  forth  and  gave  himself  up  to 


1900  March  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1875 

Lord  Eoberts.     Together  with  his  wife,   who  had 
accompanied  him  throughout  the  campaign,  Cronj 


,  .  ,      ,     .    St.  Helena 

was  sent  to  St.  Helena.  After  disposing  of  their 
prisoners  the  British  pushed  into  the  Orange  Free 
State  straight  for  Bloemfontein. 

On  the  same  day  General  Buller's  forces  made 
a  final  assault  on  Ladysmith.  A  successful  series 
of  attacks  on  the  hills  on  the  Boers'  left  —  Hussar 
Hill,  February  14th;  Cingolo,  on  the  16th;  Monte 
Cristo,  on  the  18th;  Hlangwana,  on  the  19th  —  had 
placed  Buller's  column,  with  its  heavy  artillery, 
on  the  flank  of  the  Boers.  On  February  20,  Co-  coienso 
lenso  was  reoccupied;  on  the  next  day  the  5th 
British  Division  crossed  the  Tugela  and  drove 
back  the  Boer  rearguard.  Finally,  on  February  pater's 
27,  Pieter's  Hill  was  carried  by  a  combined  attack. 
It  was  the  118th  day  of  the  investment  of  Lady- 
smith.  The  last  stand  of  the  Boers  cost  the  British 
1,396  men,  the  highest  casualty  list  of  the  war.  On 
the  following  day  the  Boers,  who  had  learned 
of  Cronje's  surrender  at  Paardeberg,  were  found 
to  have  retreated  from  their  positions,  taking  along 
their  guns,  including  the  much  coveted  "  Long  Ladysmlth 
Tom.  '  '  Next  day  Lord  Dundonald,  with  a  body-  re 
guard  of  Colonials,  rode  into  the  town,  cheered  by 
those  of  the  besiegers  who  were  not  too  weak  to 
cheer.  He  was  met  by  Sir  George  White  with  the 
words:  "Thank  God,  we  have  kept  the  flag  flying!" 

Soon   after   this   Commandant  Joubert   died,   on  Death  of 
March  27,  of  peritonitis.     To  Pietrus  Jacobus  Jou- 
bert, nicknamed  "Sliem  Piet,"  much  of  the  credit 
was  due  for  the  thorough  preparations  for  the  war 


1876  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  March  1900 

joubert's  on  *ne  Boer  side.  At  the  time  that  he  accompanied 
England  Krueger  to  England,  upon  a  former  mission  of  pro- 
test against  British  annexation  of  the  Transvaal,  he 
had  measured  the  enemy's  fighting  resources  suffi- 
ciently to  prepare  for  the  first  onslaught.  His  fa- 
mous victory  over  the  British  at  Majuba  Hill,  twenty 
years  earlier,  could  scarcely  compare  to  the  larger 
operations  and  strategy  demanded  at  the  close  of 
his  life. 

Eoberts'  march  on  Bloemfontein  met  with  no 
serious  opposition.  The  brunt  of  the  advance  fell 
on  Kelly-Kenny's  division,  which  fought  spiritedly 
Dryfontein  at  Dryfontein,  some  fifty  miles  from  Bloemfontein. 
In  this  last  desperate  stand  the  Boer  losses  were 
twice  as  heavy  as  those  of  their  assailants.  On 
March  13,  Lord  Koberts  entered  Bloemfontein  and 
the  Orange  Free  State  was  declared  a  crown  colony. 
It  was  a  costly  victory.  "The  wreck  of  the  British 
army, ' '  wrote  an  English  correspondent,  ' '  lies  scat- 
tered in  and  about  BloemfonteinT"  Enteric  fever 
raged  among  the  soldiers.  The  horses  died  by  thou- 
sands. The  cost  of  the  war  to  Great  Britain  up  to 
Bkllm-  tbat  time  was  conceded  at  nearly  £92,000,000,  or 
fontem  more  than  the  usual  expenditures  for  a  whole  year. 
For  seven  weeks  the  British  forces  at  Bloemfon- 
tein rested,  receiving  supplies  and  reinforcements. 
Columns  with  "peace  proclamations"  were  sent  out 
across  the  Free  State  to  Thaba  'Nchu  and  Lady- 
brand.  Colonel  Pilcher  occupied  Ladybrand,  but 
it  was  only  for  an  hour.  The  reviving  Boers, 
strengthened  by  commands  from  Natal,  turned 
and  were  joined  by  Olivier  coming  up  from  Storm- 


1900  March  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1877 

berg.  Pilcher  fled  warily  before  them,  and  fell 
back  on  Broadwood's  Brigade  near  Thaba  'Nchu. 
The  Boers  pressed  on.  Broadwood  was  compelled 
to  fall  back  on  the  Bloemfontein  waterworks.  He 
made  a  twenty-mile  march  at  night  and  encamped, 
early  in  the  morning  of  March  31,  at  Sanna's  Post,  Post 
thinking  that  pursuit  was  shaken  off  for  the  time. 
Morning  broke,  and  with  it  a  Boer  cannonade. 
Broadwood  sent  on  the  transports  and  the  guns, 
intending  to  cover  the  retreat  with  a'  rearguard 
action.  The  vanguard  and  guns  fled  from  the  shell 
fire  only  to  fall  into  an  ambush  cunningly  planned 
by  Christian  De  "Wet.  Seven  British  guns  were 
lost,  together  with  detachments  of  the  Tenth  Hus- 
sars and  the  Household  Cavalry.  Keinforcements 
from  the  Ninth  Division  came  too  late,  and  the 
Ninth  Division  retreated  suddenly — too  suddenly 
said  the  British  soldiers — on  Bloemfontein.  The 
full  force  of  the  Boer  rally  fell  upon  Gatacre 
coming  up  the  railway  line.  At  Dewetsdorp  he 
had  a  detached  post  of  three  companies  of  Irish 
Rifles.  Word  was  sent  to  them  to  fall  back.  Redder* 
They  retreated  accordingly;  but  at  Reddersburg 
they  were  brought  to  a  stand.  The  British  force 
had  taken  up  an  ill- chosen  position  and  was  com- 
pelled to  surrender  to  De  Wet.  The  British  column 
curled  back  on  Bloemfontein  and  upon  the  railway 
line,  and  the  Boers  swept  southward.  They  got  as 
far  as  Wepener,  which  the  English  advance  guard 
of  Brabant,  under  Dalgetty,  had  previously  occu- 
pied. The  siege  of  the  British  garrison  at  Wepener  w^°|r 

lasted  seventeen  days.     During  this  time  the  Boers 
XLKth  Century— Vol.  3— AA 


1878  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Spring  1900 

worked  their  will  in  the  southeastern  corner  of  the 
Free  State. 

By  April  30,  the  British  army  at  Bloemfontein 
had  increased  from  45,000  to  75,000  men.  Then  a 
strong  column  was  sent  out  to  relieve  the  gallant 
Baden- Powell  at  Maf eking.  Before  this,  Colonel 
Plumer,  moving  southward  from  .Rhodesia  with 
piumerin-  2,000  men,  had  moved  within  fourteen  miles  of 
Mafeking  on  March  16,  but  was  beaten  back  by 
the  Boers  under  the  command  of  Snyman.  Baden- 
Powell's  strategy  in  throwing  his  defence  lines 
far  out  kept  the  Boers  at  bay.  The  casualties  in 
the  town's  fighting  force,  consisting  of  some  1,500 
Colonials,  up  to  April  28,  had  reached  a  total  of 
300.  Another  relief  column  under  Colonel  Mahon 
was  equipped  and  sent  with  great  precautions  of 
secrecy  from  Barkly  West  on  the  4th  of  May.  It 
advanced  rapidly,  and  on  the  16th  joined  Plumer's 
column.  Four  days  before  this  Mafeking,  as  a 
Mafeking  finishing  stroke  to  its  prolonged  resistance,  had 
beaten  off  a  Boer  assault  under  Eloff,  capturing 
more  than  a  hundred  of  the  attacking  party.  One 
week  later  Mafeking  was  relieved.  General  Kob- 
erts'  army,  advancing  from  Bloemfontein,  crossed 
the  Vaal,  and  on  the  last  day  of  May  entered 
Johannesburg.  President  Krueger  and  his  fight- 
Pretoria  ing  force  left  Pretoria.  Five  days  later,  June  5, 
the  British  flag  was  hoisted  over  the  Presidency 
and  Volksraad  m  Pretoria. 

Thenceforth  the  war  in  South  Africa  assumed  the 
more  trying  if  less  spectacular  guise  of  a  guerilla 
campaign.  In  this  form  of  warfare  such  able  Boer 


1900  Spring  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1879 

^  x 

leaders  as  Botha,  De  Wet,  V^iljoens,  and  Delarey 
proved  more  than  a  match  for  their  English  antago- 
nists. While  they  held  the  field  against  overwhelm- 

.  ,  .     .  ,    „.  ,  Partisan 

ing  odds,  a  commission  of  Boer  delegates  invoked  warfare 
sympathy  and  possible  aid  abroad. 

Unfortunately  for  the  Boer  cause,  the  German 
Emperor,  under  the  exigencies  of  his  new  naval 
policy,  had  undergone  a  change  of  heart  since  the 
days  of  his  famous  message  of  sympathy  to  Krueger. 
The  French  people,  while  sympathizing  intensely 
with  the  Boers,  for  whose  cause  one  of  their  volun- 
teer officers,  Colonel  Villebois-Mareuil,  had  fallen, 
were  disinclined  to  let  any  question  of  international 
politics  interfere  with  the  success  of  the  great  Expo- 
sition, which  opened  on  April  15,  at  Paris. 

To  Frenchmen  it  seemed  peculiarly  appropriate 
that  the  last  year  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  should 
end  with  another  great  Exposition  at  Paris.  The  Exposition 
immediate  incentive  for  it  was  typically  French.  A 
project  for  an  exposition  at  the  turn  of  the  century 
had  been  formed  in  Berlin.  As  soon  as  this  was 
noised  abroad  Paris  went  wild  and  set  itself  to  work 
up  a  counter- exposition.  Soon  there  was  nothing 
left  of  the  German  project,  and  through  the  summer 
months  of  this  year  Paris  reaped  the  fruit  of  her 
spoil.  The  Exposition  was  opened  by  President 
Loubet  on  April  15,  with  circumstances  of  attendant 
splendor,  and  attracted  millions  of  people. 

In  America,  as  it  happened,  a  series  of  appalling 
disasters  made  the  year  memorable.     On  April  27, 
a  terrible  fire  destroyed  three-fifths  of  the  city  of  ottawa ^ 
Hull,  Quebec,  and  a  large  section  of  the  city  of  Ot- 


1880  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1900 

tawa,  the  capital  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  on  the 
opposite  bank  of  the  Ottawa  River.  It  was  the  most 
destructive  fire  in  the  history  of  Canada.  The  lead- 
ing industries  of  the  two  cities  of  Ottawa  and  Hull 
were  wiped  out.  A  few  days  after  the  Ottawa  catas- 
trophe, on  May  1,  a  violent  explosion  wrecked  two 
coa^  mines  at  Winter  Quarters  in  Utah.  Several 
hundred  miners  were  suffocated  by  the  poisonous 
gases  known  as  "afterdamp." 

On  the  same  day,  Hungary  lost  one  of  her  fore- 
most artists  by  the  death  of,  Mihaly  Munkacsy. 
This  artist  received  his  early  training  from  Knaus 
at  Munich.  In  the  early  seventies  he  acquired  a 
national  reputation  by  his  canvases:  "A  Magyar 
Village  Hero,"  "The  Night  Prowlers,"  and  "The 
Cornstalk."  At  the  French  Salon  of  1877,  he  ob- 
tained a  medal  for  his  "Story  of  the  Hunt,"  and 
won  new  honors  by  three  additional  pictures  at  the 
Paris  Exposition  of  1878.  One  of  his  most  famous 
paintings  was  that  depicting  the  last  hours  of  a  Hun- 
garian prisoner  condemned  to  death.  His  "Milton 
Dictating  Paradise  Lost' '  adorns  the  Lenox  Library 
in  New  York. 
Richard  In  America,  Eichard  Hovey,  the  poet,  died  in  his 

Hovey 

prime.  His  latest  poetic  works  were  "Taliesin," 
"The  Quest  of  Merlin,"  "The  Birth  of  Galahad," 
and  "The  Marriage  of  Guenevere. "  Hovey 's  charm- 
ing "Songs  From  Vagabondia"  were  written  in  col- 
laboration with  Bliss  Carmen. 

On  the  last  day  of  June,  one  of  the  greatest  ship- 
ping disasters  of  modern  times  occurred  in  New 
York  Harbor.  Fire  broke  out  on  one  of  the 


1900  Summer  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1881 

wharves   of  the   North   German   Lloyd   Steamship 
Company,  on  the  Jersey  side  of  the  Hudson  River,  burnelwpe 
and  set  fire  to  four  great  ocean  steamers.     Some  350 
persons  miserably  perished  by  fire  or  water,  while 
the  loss  in  property  aggregated  $10,000,000. 

Another  public  tragedy  was  the  assassination  of 
King  Humbert  of  Italy  on  July  30,  at  Monza.     The  ^^^°L 
king  was  shot  to  death   by   an    Italian   anarchist,  nated 
Gaetano  Bresci,   who  had  returned   to   Italy   from 
America.      Humbert's   dying  words  were:    "It  is 
nothing."     Bresci,  who  was  with  difficulty  rescued 
from  the  furious  populace,  exclaimed  as  they  led 
him  to  prison,  "I  aimed  not  at  Humbert,   but  at 
the  King." 

Humbert  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Victor  Eman- 
uel  III.  ,  who  was  cruising  in  the  Levant  at  the  time  Attempts 


of  his  father's  death.  Prior  to  this,  the  heir-appa-  of  wa 
rent  to  the  British  throne,  Prince  Albert  Edward, 
while  passing  through  Brussels,  was  fired  on  by  a 
Belgian  anarchist  named  Sipido.  Shortly  afterward 
the  Shah  of  Persia,  visiting  the  Paris  Exposition, 
was  fired  on  by  a  French  anarchist  named  Salson. 

In  West  Africa,  throughout  this  time,  a  British 
post  under  Sir  F.  Hodgson  was  isolated  in  Kumassi  siege  of 

Kumasei 

and  closely  invested  by  Ashantis.  By  the  middle 
of  April,  bluejackets  had  landed  at  Cape  Coast  Cas- 
tle to  co-operate  with  Hausas  and  volunteers  in  re- 
lieving him.  But  it  was  not  until  June  23  that  a 
small  force,  under  the  command  of  Major  Morris, 
broke  out  of  Kumassi,  and,  under  circumstances  of 
the  greatest  difficulty,  brought  Sir  F.  Hodgson  and 
the  larger  part  of  the  civilians  besieged  in  Kumassi 


1882  A    HISTORY    OF   THE  Summer  1900 

to  the  coast.     Meanwhile,  a  relief  force  was  formed. 

Ashanti  In  the  first  days  of  July,  while  Sir  J.  Willcocks, 
commanding  the  relief  column,  struggled  with  the 
difficulties  in  his  way,  he  learned  of  Sir  F.  Hodg- 
son's escape.  Kumassi  was  eventually  recaptured 
by  the  British. 

On  June  19,  Professor  Michael  L.  Pupin  of  Co- 
lumbia University,  in  New  York,  secured  a  patent 
on  the  ' '  Art  of  Keducing  Attenuation  of  Electrical 

uweation  Waves  and  Apparatus  Therefor. ' '  Professor  Pupin 
found  that  by  employing  non-uniform  conductors  it 
was  possible  to  transmit  speech  several  thousand 
miles.  For  this  successful  invention  Professor 
Pupin  received  the  sum  of  $200,000,  and  $7,500 
per  year  during  the  term  of  his  patent. 

In  the  Far  East,  two  convulsions  of  world-wide 
import  made  even  such  contributions  to  scientific 
and  industrial  progress  appear  almost  insignificant. 
In  East  India,  a  long-continued  drought  was  fol- 

Eastindian  lowed  by  one  of  the  worst  famines  in  history.     The 

famine  «* 

breadless  area  covered  350,000  square  miles,  or  one- 
third  of  all  India.  Since  the  opening  of  the  year 
the  mortality  in  this  region  aggregated  700,000  per- 
sons. Ninety-five  per  cent  of  all  the  cattle  and 
draft  animals  perished  for  want  of  fodder.  The 
number  of  starving  persons  dependent  for  their 
rations  on  the  totally  inadequate  measures  of  the 
British  Government  in  India  reached  the  appalling 
figure  of  10,000,000. 

Simultaneously  with  this  greatest  calamity  of  the 

horrors      Nineteenth  Century,  a  tragedy  even  more  thrilling 

in  its  horrors  was  enacted  in  China.     To  the  outside 


1900  Summer  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1883 

world,  the  first  intimation  of  the  serious  situation 
in  Peking  came  with  the  news  of  the  murder  of 
Sugiyama,  Chancellor  of  the  Japanese  Legation,  sugiyama 

&  J  and  Von 

by  Chinese  soldiers.  This  was  followed  by  theKetteler 
more  startling  murder  of  Baron  von  Ketteler, 
the  German  Minister,  while  proceeding,  on  June 
20,  to  attend  a  conference  at  the  Chinese  Tsung-li 
Yamen.  Then  for  the  first  time  the  civilized  world 
was  brought  to  realize  the  full  import  of  develop- 
ments in  China,  which  had  long  caused  concern  to 
the  Christian  missionaries  and  diplomatic  represen- 
tatives stationed  there.  "We  cannot  say  we  had 
no  warning,"  wrote  Sir  Robert  Hart,  the  British 
Inspector  of  Customs  in  China.  "In  fact,  if  there 
was  one  cry  to  which  our  ears  had  grown  so  accus-  unheeded 

warnings 

tomed  as  to  mind  it  less  than  our  own  heart  beats 
it  was  this  Chinese  cry  of  'Wolf.'  .  .  .  Already 
the  Shanghai  press  had  called  attention  to  the 
Boxer  movement  in  Shang-Tung,  its  genesis  and 
aspiration,  while  the  'Tien-tsin  Times'  was  laughed 
at,  in  the  spring  of  1900,  for  its  plain  account  of 
the  same  movement,  and  for  its  prophecy  of  the 
harm  therefrom,  as  the  society's  operations  crossed 
the  frontier  and  began  to  spread  in  Pechili."  Ac- 
cording to  Sir  Robert  Hart,  the  excesses  of  the 
patriotic  Boxer  Association,  started  by  foreign  ad- 
vice, were  due  in  part  to  the  inconsiderate  proceed- 
ings of  Christian  missionaries  in  China  as  well  as  to 
the  greedy  aggressions  of  the  foreign  Powers  in 
that  country. 

According  to  the  accepted  authority  among  Chris- 
tian missionaries,    the  Boxer  movement,   far  from 


1884  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  Summer  1900 

being  patriotic  in  its  origin,  must  be  traced  back  to 
"Boxers"  the  religious  rites  of  Fung-Shui,  the  Chinese  deities 
of  wind  and  water.  Prolonged  droughts  in  China, 
as  in  East  India,  called  for  special  ministrations  to 
these  deities.  The  Empress  Dowager  and  Emperor 
Kwang-Su,  with  all  their  court,  made  special  pil- 
grimages to  the  most  famous  shrines  of  China,  pray- 
ing for  rain.  In  their  prayers,  according  to  this 
same  authority,  they  never  failed  to  make  references 
to  the  engineering  outrages  committed  by  foreigners 
in  the  sacred  shrine  of  Miao- Fend- Shan,  forty  miles 
from  Peking.  On  May  7,  an  immense  procession  of 
pilgrims,  headed  by  Kuowang,  the  famous  popular 
leader  from  the  south,  climbed  up  the  sacred  moun- 
tain dedicated  to  Fung-Shui,  praying  for  rain.  For 
six  months  the  dry  spell  had  been  unbroken.  As 
Miracle  of  tne  pilgrims  descended  the  mountain  a  tremendous 
Shan"  €  '  "rainstorm  burst  over  them.  The  priests  made  it 
known  that  the  sacred  incense  and  piles  of  wood  on 
the  altars  had  been  lighted  from  heaven  by  light- 
ning. Then  came  a  sudden  fall  of  the  temperature, 
and  the  miraculous  rain  turned  to  snow.  This 
change  was  attributed  to  the  displeasure  of  the 
deity  at  the  presence  of  sceptical  Christian  converts 
among  the  pilgrims  on  the  sacred  mountain.  The 
infuriated  worshippers,  consisting  largely  of  Boxers, 
poured  down  the  mountain  side  shouting  the  popu- 
lar cry  of  "Mieh  Yang!" — down  with  the  foreign 
devil.  In  the  words  of  this  same  authority: 

"China  remained  for  several  days  speechless,  too 
awed  to  discuss  the  wondrous  event  so  confidently 
promised  and  obtained.  But  there  was  one  mind  in 


1900  Summer  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1885 

China  that  grasped  the  situation.  It  was  that  of  the 
Empress  Dowager.  .  .  The  same  evening,  while  the  Empresshe 
miraculous  snow  was  falling  over  the  city,  the  Grand  Dowager 
Council  and  the  Cabinet  were  convoked  at  the  palace. 
Prince  Tuan,  Prince  Ching,  with  other  rabid  anti- 
foreigners,  advised  the  Empress  to  take  steps  to  turn 
the  fury  of  the  Boxers  away  from  the  dynasty  and 
on  the  foreigners.  The  Empress  summoned  Wang, 
the  Governor  of  Peking,  and  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  Boxers,  to  the  palace.  Wang  informed  the  Em- 
press that  he  would  guarantee  the  loyalty  of  the 
society  to  the  throne  if  a  free  hand  should  be  given 
to  them  in  their  crusade  against  the  foreigners. ' ' 

On  one  point  the  missionaries  and  Sir  Robert 
Hart  were  in  agreement,  to  wit:  That  the  Em- 
press Dowager  threw  the  weight  of  her  influence 
with  the  leaders  of  the  secret  society  of  "I- ho 
Ch'uan,"  or  "Fist  of  Righteous  Harmony,"  des- 
ignated in  brief  as  Boxers.  Since  the  days  of 
the  Opium  War,  this  most  masterful  of  Chinese 
women,  who  began  her  career  as  a  slave  girl, 
was  the  real  ruler  of  China.  At  the  time  of  the 
English- French  expedition  into  China,  Tze-^Lsi  ad- 
vised  her  husband  to  yield.  The  councils  of  the 
anti-foreign  party  prevailed.  After  the  Emperor's 
flight  to  Jehol,  Tze-Hsi's  advice  was  better  appre- 
ciated. Still  the  Emperor  wavered.  He  wavered 
too  long  for  his  health.  Suddenly  it  was  announced 
that  Hsien-Fung  had  died  "of  a  bad  chill."  The 
Emperor's  funeral  had  scarcely  been  celebrated 
when  an  edict  appeared  in  Peking  in  the  name  of 
the  infant  Emperor,  ordering  the  later  Emperor's 
advisers  to  be  tried  for  high  treason.  At  the 


1886  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Summer  1900 

same  time  the  bulk  of  the  Chinese  army  moved 
on  Peking.  The  anti-foreign  party  collapsed.  Its 
powerful  leaders  were  mercifully  permitted  to 
strangle  themselves  in  prison.  Until  her  son  at- 
tained his  majority,  the  Empress  Dowager  ruled 
undisputed.  In  1875,  the  young  Emperor,  Tung- 
Chih,  having  reached  manhood,  gave  signs  of  re- 
senting the  continued  rule  of  his  mother  and  of  her 
favorite,  Prince  Kung.  He  went  so  far  as  to  issue 
an  edict  degrading  them,  "for  language  in  many 
respects  unbecoming."  The  edict  was  promptly 
revoked.  Tung-Chih's  life  was  opportunely  cut 
short,  and  the  Empress  Dowager  once  more  as- 
sumed supreme  control.  Kwang-Su,  her  infant 
nephew,  was  proclaimed  Emperor.  The  late  Em- 
peror's widow,  or  real  Dowager  Empress,  who  ob- 
jected to  this,  died  as  suddenly  as  her  husband. 
During  the  minority  of  Kwang-Su,  life  at  the  Chi- 
nese imperial  court  remained  comparatively  tran- 

Her  last 

coup  (T'etat  quil.  Unfortunately  for  Kwang-Su,  he  reached  his 
majority  at  a  momentous  crisis  of  Chinese  foreign 
affairs*  The  Japanese  War  had  just  been  fought 
and  lost,  and  the  European  Powers  were  demand- 
ing the  unwelcome  reward  of  their  interference  on 
behalf  of  China.  Sir  Robert  Hart  thus  records  the 
significant  change  in  China's  national  policy:  "After 
the  famous  coup  by  which  the  reforming  Emperor, 
Kwang-Su,  was  relegated  to  the  nothingness  of 
harem  life,  and  the  well-known  Empress  Dowager, 
who  had  ruled  the  empire  through  two  minorities, 
again  came  to  the  front,  the  attitude  of  Tung  Fuh 
Hsiang's  soldiers  disturbed  the  Legations,  accentu- 


1990  Summer  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1887 

ated  the  possible  insecurity  of  the  foreign  com- 
munity, and  brought  guards  to  Peking."  Among 
these  preliminary  disturbances  the  barbarous  mur- 
der of  the  English  missionary  Brooks,  together  Murderof 
with  the  destruction  of  several  native  Christian 
settlements,  gave  sufficient  cause  for  serious  con- 
cern. Still  the  apparent  solicitude  of  the  Chinese 
Government  to  quell  the  disturbances  put  the  for- 
eign representatives  at  Peking  off  their  guard. 
When  the  storm  broke,  the  families  of  the  vari- 
ous foreign  Legations  in  China  were  enjoying 
themselves  at  the  summer  houses  in  the  western 
hills,  twelve  miles  from  Peking.  Only  the  Roman 
Catholic  fathers,  foreseeing  the  coming  storm,  had 
fortified  some  of  their  most  exposed  missions.  Im- 
mediately after  the  famous  miracle  of  Miao-Fend- 
Shan,  the  dreaded  catastrophe  occurred.  Hordes  of 
Chinese  fanatics,  led  by  prominent  members  of  the 
' '  Fist  of  Eighteous  Harmony, ' '  and  of  the  cognate  fb/a 
"Great  Sword  Society,"  fell  upon  all  outlying  con- 
vert communities  in  the  province  of  Chi-li.  A 
Chinese  Catholic  congregation  was  burned  alive 
in  its  place  of  worship.  Christian  converts  were 
murdered  at  sight,  and  their  bodies  floated  down 
the  streams  and  rivers.  The  whole  region  between 
Pao-Ting-Fu  and  Peking,  a  distance  of  about  a  hun- 
dred miles,  was  in  a  blaze,  and  organized  bands  of 
Boxers,  encouraged  by  the  soldiery,  began  to  de- 
stroy the  railroads  and  telegraph  lines  to  the  very 
walls  of  Peking.  Still  the  foreigners  stationed  at 
Peking  deemed  themselves  secure.  A  series  of  ter- 
rible catastrophes  soon  dispelled  this  delusion. 


1888 


A   HISTORY   OF    THE 


June  1900 


Marines 
landed 


Boxers 

enter 

Peking 


"A  Wom- 
an's 
Diary" 


Early  in  June,  Christian  refugees  came  pouring 
into  Peking,  and  marines  arrived  from  the  foreign 
warships.  It  was  not  a  moment  too  soon.  On  the 
night  of  June  13,  thousands  of  armed  Boxers  made 
their  triumphant  entry  by  the  Ha-Taen  Gate,  and 
at  once  set  fire  to  a  missionary  chapel  north  of  it. 
Then  they  set  themselves  to  burn  down  the  Chinese 
Imperial  bank,  while  others  made  a  demonstration 
before  the  Austrian  Legation.  The  Austrians  fired 
at  them  from  their  windows.  The  infuriated  popu- 
lace, aided  by  imperial  soldiers,  surged  around  the 
foreign  settlement  of  Peking.  Catherine  Mullikin 
Lowry  made  this  entry  in  her  diary: 

4 '  Friday,  June  15.  Last  night  for  two  hours  awful 
sounds  of  raging  heathens  filled  the  air,  and  seemed 
to  surge  against  the  wall  in  the  Southern  City,  oppo- 
site our  place.  Some  estimated  there  were  50,000 
voices,  'Kill  the  foreign  devil!  Kill,  kill,  kill!' 
They  yelled  till  it  seemed  hell  was  let  loose.  .  .  . 
The  Germans  had  shot  seven  to  ten  Boxers  who 
were  drilling  across  the  moat  from  the  position  oc- 
cupied by  the  Germans  on  the  city  wall.  Possibly 
this  killing  had  something  to  do  with  the  demon- 
stration. ' ' 

Peking  was  cut  off  from  communication  with  the 
civilized  world.  The  last  telegram  received  was  a 
cipher  message  from  the  American  Secretary  of 
State  sent  to  Minister  Conger,  through  the  medi- 
ation of  Minister  Wu  at  Washington.  Meanwhile, 
more  warships  had  been  hurriedly  gathered  off 
Taku,  increasing  their  number  to  twenty-three, 

Tien-tsin 

•coupled    the  majority  of  which  were  British  and   Eussian. 
On  June  9,  troops  landed  and  set  to  work  repairing 


1900  June  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1889 

the  railroad  to  Tien-tsin.  That  city  was  occupied 
without  resistance  from  the  Chinese.  On  June  10, 
a  force  of  about  2,000  men  of  various  nationalities, 
under  the  command  of  the  British  Senior  Admiral, 
Sir  John  Seymour,  left  Tien-tsin  for  Peking.  Ar- 
riving about  forty  miles  from  the  capital,  it  was 
found  that  the  railroad  had  been  destroyed,  and 
that  further  progress  would  have  to  be  made  on 
foot  in  the  face  of  overwhelming  numbers  of  Box- 
ers and  Chinese  soldiery.  Adequate  supplies  and 
transport  facilities  had  not  been  provided  for  such  expeSJn 

checked 

a  contingency.  The  relief  column  was  checked  in 
its  progress,  and  for  some  time  nothing  more  was 
heard  of  it.  On  June  17,  the  commanders  of  the 
foreign  warships,  excepting  only  the  American, 
demanded  the  surrender  of  the  Taku  forts,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Pei-Ho  Eiver.  The  Chinese  com- 
mandant refused.  The  foreign  warships  thereupon 
opened  fire  on  the  forts,  and,  landing  men  in 
rear,  effected  their  capture.  The  American  man- 
of-war  "Monocacy,"  though  struck  repeatedly  by 
stray  shots  from  the  Chinese  forts,  took  no  part 
in  the  attack  The  Chinese  cruiser  "Haichi"  was 
at  Taku  at  the  time  of  the  attack.  Her  commander, 
in  the  face  of  the  overwhelming  odds  against  him, 
made  a  run  for  Chefoo.  On  the  way  he  encoun- 
tered the  American  battleship  "Oregon"  which 
had  been  ordered  to  Taku,  but  had  run  aground 
on  rocks.  In  recollection  of  the  neutral  attitude 
of  the  Americans  at  Taku,  the  Chinese  captain 
stood  by.  A  Russian  cruiser  likewise  came  along- 
side. The  Eussian  commander  informed  Captain 


1890 


A   HISTORY   OF    THE 


June  1900 


"Oregon" 
saves  the 
"Haichi" 


Ambas- 
sadors 
ordered 
away 


ler's  last 

effort 


Wilde  of  the  "Oregon,"  that,  in  view  of  the  state 
of  war  existing  between  Russia  and  China,  it  would 
be  his  duty  to  take  possession  of  the  Chinese  war- 
ship. On  the  plea  that  the  "Haichi"  had  Ameri- 
can refugees  aboard,  the  Stars  and  Stripes  were 
hoisted  at  her  fore,  and  she  was  thus  saved  from 
seizure. 

The  assault  on  the  Taku  forts  without  a  formal 
declaration  of  war  greatly  aggravated  the  situation 
of  the  foreigners  hemmed  in  at  Peking.  What 
followed  is  best  told  in  the  words  of  Sir  Robert 
Hart: 

"Up  to  the  19th  of  June  we  had  only  the  Boxers 
to  deal  with,  but  on  the  20th  we  were  surprised  by 
a  circular  note  from  the  Yamen  (Chinese  Foreign 
Office)  stating  that  the  foreign  naval  authorities  at 
Tien-tsin  were  about  to  seize  the  Taku  forts,  and 
ordering  Legationers  to  quit  Peking  within  twenty- 
four  hours.  The  Legationers  replied  and  represented 
to  the  Yamen  that  they  knew  nothing  of  the  Taku 
occurrence,  that  they  regretted  any  misunderstand- 
ing, and  that  they  could  not  possibly  quit,  or  make 
transport  arrangements,  on  such  short  notice.  A 
proposal  to  visit  the  Yamen  in  a  body  was  set 
aside,  but  on  the  morning  of  the  20th,  Baron  von 
Ketteler,  the  German  Minister,  attended  by  his 
interpreter,  Cordes,  set  off  for  the  Yamen  alone. 
His  colleagues  advised  him  not  to  go,  but  he  felt 
that,  having,  announced  his  visit,  he  must  pay  it. 
Ten  minutes  after  he  left  the  Legation  his  Chinese 
outriders  galloped  back  saying  that  he  had  been 
shot  when  going  up  the  Ha-ta-men  Street.  His 
interpreter,  badly  wounded,  managed  to  escape  to 
the  Methodist  mission,  and  was  thence  taken  back 
to  the  German  Legation. ' ' 


j&oo  June  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  1891 

It  was  then  that  Prince  Tuan  ordered  all  viceroys 
to  exterminate  the  foreigners.  Soon  the  bombard-  ^aa* 

•    IT  •  i  mi  /•  strikes 

ment  01  the  Legations  was  begun.  The  occupants  oi 
the  foreign  settlements,  numbering  4,500  persons, 
of  whom  the  great  majority  were  Chinese  converts, 
with  but  409  marines  to  guard  them,  prepared  for 
the  worst.  The  white  men  manned  the  walls  while 
the  women  molded  pewter  into  bullets  and  sewed 
sandbags.  From  a  junk  shop,  an  old  cannon  of  the 
English- French  expedition  in  1860  was  resurrected 
and  put  to  effectual  use.  Thenceforth  an  almost 
unintermittent  fire  was  kept  up  by  those  in  the 
foreign  settlement  and  their  Chinese  assailants. 

Meanwhile,  Boxers  and  soldiers  outside  of  Pe- 
king,  on  June  21,  made  a  determined  attack  on 
Tien-tsin.  A  relief  column  of  400  Kussians  and  130 
American  marines,  under  Major  Waller,  landing  Chinese 

J  &  attack 

from  the  ships,  met  with  some  obstinate  resistance,  Tieu-tsin 
and  had  to  be  reinforced  by  1,000  British  marines. 
"With  further  reinforcements  an  entrance  into  Tien- 
tsin, which  had  been  held  by  about  3,000  men, 
principally  Eussians,  was  effected  on  June  23.  It 
was  then  learned  that  Seymour's  men,  so  far  from 
relieving  Peking,  had  been  beaten  back,  and  lay 
intrenched  near  Tien-tsin.  A  second  relief  column 
of  2,000  men  went  to  their  relief.  A  Chinese  ar-  Seymour 

relieved 

senal  at  Hsi-Ku  was  blown  up  and  the  whole  force 
succeeded  in  making  their  way  back  to  Tien-tsin. 
The  news  of  this  fiasco  so  encouraged  the  Boxers 
within  Peking  that  matters  went  from  bad  to  worse. 
The  fusillade  kept  up  on  the  Legations  was  so  furi- 
ous that  Minister  Conger  recorded  that  he  had  never 


1892  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Aug.  1900 

heard  anything  to  equal  it  while  serving  in  the 
American  Civil  War.  Whole  districts  were  burned 
to  the  ground.  Among  other  public  buildings  the 
'  great  college  of  Hanlin  "with  its  priceless  treasures 
in  ancient  Chinese  books  was  consumed  by  the 
Library  flames.  An  irreparable  loss  was  that  of  the  great 
"Yung  Lo  Ta  Tien,"  and  the  "Ku  Chin  Tu  Shun," 
an  unprinted  encyclopedic  collection  of  Chinese 
classic  literature  in  22,000  volumes.  Not  since  the 
burning  of  the  great  Alexandrian  Library  in  the 
days  of  Caliph  Omar  has  scholarship  suffered  so 
grievous  a  loss.  Among  some  of  the  relics  that 
were  rescued  by  the  Legations  only  to  be  dumped 
into  Sir  Claude  McDonald's  fountain,  it  was  re- 
ported, were  authentic  records  establishing  the  oft- 
conjectured  discovery  of  America  by  Chinese  mari- 
ners long  before  Columbus.  Then  came  the  second 
relief  expedition  to  save  the  Legationers  at  Peking. 
Approximately  the  relieving  force  was  composed 
of  12,000  Japanese,  3,000  Eussians,  3,000  British, 
2,800  Americans  and  1,000  French.  The  British 

Allies 

wfpeking  column  so- called  consisted  largely  of  Indian  native 
troops,  Sikhs,  Rajputs,  Patans,  Bengalese  and 
Punjabese,  with  but  200  Welsh  Fusiliers  and  the 
British  bluejackets  from  the  ships  for  white  ac- 
companiment. The  Japanese,  under  the  able  com- 
mand of  General  Fukushima,  were  not  only  numeri- 
cally superior,  but  also  the  most  expeditious.  In 
the  first  engagement  at  Peitsang,  August  5,  the 
Japanese  bore  the  brunt  of  the  fighting.  On 

Peltsan0'  ^e  f°ll°wing  day  ^  was  tne  turn  °f  ^e  Ameri- 
cans. Colonel  Liscum,  commanding  the  Ninth 


1900  Aug.  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1898 

United  States  Infantry,  was  killed  at  the  head  of 

his  regiment.     The  quick  success  of  the  expedition  Efscum 

killed 

must  be  largely  ascribed  to  the  superior  handling 
of  the  Japanese  forces:  "While  the  other  forces 
were  merely  moving  from  day's  camp  to  day's 
camp,"  wrote  Frederick  Palmer,  the  American 
correspondent,  "the  Japanese  were  scouting  and 
keeping  contact  with  the  enemy.  ..." 

Tung- Chow  having  been  taken  without  serious 
opposition  it  was  decided  at  a  conference  of  the^P*^^. 
generals  to  move  close  up  to  Peking  on  the  night 
of  August  13,  and  to  make  a  general  attack  on  the 
city  at  daybreak.  As  usual,  every  nationality  rep- 
resented in  the  relief  column  claimed  to  have  been 
the  first  on  the  ramparts.  The  British  and  Ameri- 
cans entered  by  the  sluice  gate.  The  Japanese  had 
to  take  the  great  Eastern  Gate  of  the  Tartar  City  by 

_  Fall  of 

storm  and  were  the  last  to  enter.     The  great  end  for  Peking 
which  the  world  had  been  waiting  for  these  many 
weeks  was   accomplished.      The  Legationers  were 
safe.     They  owed  their  deliverance  to   their  own 
fortitude  and  endurance  as  much  as  to  the  efforts  *£;|^ 
of  those  who  came  to  relieve  them.     The  Japanese re 
marine  force  under  Colonel  Shiba  could  boast  of 
three  more  casualties  than  its  total  number,  several 
wounded  men  having  recovered  and  returned  to  the 
barricades,  only  to  be  hit  a  second  time.     Two  days 
*ater  a  detached  party  of  Christians  besieged  in  the 
great  Catholic  cathedral  of   Peking  were   relieved  cathedral 

saved 

as  the  Boxers  were  on  the  point  of  blowing  up  the 
building. 

After  the  relief  of  the  Legationers  it  was  discov- 


1894  A   HISTORY   OF   THE  Aug.  1900 

ered  that  the  Chinese  Court  and  highest  officials,  as 
in  the  days  of  1860,  had  fled  from  Peking.  With 
a  number  of  armed  Eunuchs,  the  Empress,  insuffi- 
ciently clad,  forced  her  way  out  of  the  city  through 
the  dense  throng  of  refugees.  All  parts  of  Peking, 

Christian  , 

looting,  excepting  only  the  sacred  precincts  of  the  Forbid- 
den City,"  fell  a  prey  to  the  soldiers'  propensities 
for  looting.  Even  the  old  Portuguese  astronomical 
instruments  on  the  great  wall  of  Peking  were  not 
spared.  Sir  Robert  Hart,  closing  his  report  of 
the  siege  of  Peking  a  few  days  after  his  release, 
already  felt  constrained  to  write:  "Now,  the  once 
crowded  Peking  is  a  desert,  and  the  first  few  days 
of  foreign  occupation  have  seen  much  that  need  not 
have  occurred  and  will  certainly  be  regretted." 

Street  fighting  in  Peking  continued  for  several 
days.  The  palaces  of  some  of  the  richest  Mandarins 
were  sacked.  A  great  number  of  upper  class  Chi- 
nese residents  committed  suicide.  Japanese  cavalry 

of'fhe  pursued  the  Empress  Dowager  and  her  flying  escort 
to  her  summer  palace  at  Wau  Shau  Shan,  but  with 
twenty  carts  and  a  few  hundred  horsemen  under 
General  Ma  she  eluded  them  and  fled  further  west. 
The  flight  of  the  Empress  had  been  undertaken 
by  the  advice  of  Prince  Tuan.  The  Emperor  was 
compelled  to  accompany  her.  During  their  flight 
an  edict  was  issued  with  the  Emperor's  signature, 
appointing  Viceroy  Li  Hung  Chang  at  Canton, 
peace  commissioner  to  treat  with  the  allies.  His 
good  offices  were  accepted  from  the  start  by  the 

Peace        President  of  the  United  States  and  by  the  Czar  of 

overtures  » 

Russia,  followed  in  turn  by  the  other  governments 


1900  Autumn  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1895 

concerned.  Emperor  William  of  Germany  was  the 
last  to  follow  suit. 

In  Germany,  as  was  to  be  expected,  the  murder 
of  Baron  von  Ketteler  had  raised  a  cry  for  ven- 
geance. In  the  Eeichstag  it  was  announced  that 
a  force  of  22,000  men  would  be  despatched  to 
China.  Count  von  Waldersee,  who  was  to  com- 
mand them,  was  created  a  field-marshal  by  the 
Emperor,  who  obtained  the  consent  of  the  other 
Powers  for  this  officer  to  assume  supreme  command 
in  China.  Marshal  Waldersee  started  at  once  for 
the  front.  After  a  brief  visit  to  the  new  King  of  Germans 

take  a 

Italy,  he  set  sail  with  his  staff  from  an  Italian  port.  hand 

In  Italy,  about  this  same  time,  great  enthusiasm 
was  created  by  the  announcement  of  the  safe  return 
of  the  Duke   of   Abruzzi   from  his  recent  expedi- 
tion to  find  the  North  Pole.     With  his  vessel,  the 
"Stella  Polaris,"    he  had  succeeded  in  drifting  to 
latitude  86°  33',  a  point  21.85  statute  miles'  nearer  SgJS£of 
to  the  North  Pole  than  that  reached  by  Nansen'spolans 
previous  highest  record  attained  in  1895. 

The  publication  of  Gabriele  d'Annunzio's  "Fuo-  D'An- 

nunzio 

co"  ("The  Flame  of  Life")  aroused  intense  discus- 
sion in  Italy.  The  story  was  taken  as  a  revelation 
of  the  author's  intimate  relations  with  Eleonora 

Eleonora 

Duse,  .the  most  gifted  of  Italian  actresses.     Since Duse 
the  publication  of  d'Annunzio's  "II  Trionfo  della 
Morte, ' '  no  novel  had  created  such  a  literary  sen- 
sation in  Italy.     As  a  stylist  it  raised  d'AnnunzioMatilde 
above  the  rank  of  such  eminent  Italian  contempo-  ^ 
raries  as  Matilde  Serao  and  Fogazzaro.  Fogazzaro 

At  the  same  time,  the  people  of  Italy  and  the 


1896  A    HISTORY   OF    THE  Autumn  1900 

musical  world  in  general  were  saddened  by  the 
Sfverdi  growing  illness  of  Giuseppe  Verdi.  Even  in  his 
decline  the  aged  composer  was  busily  engaged  on 
the  score  of  his  last  opera,  "  Cincinnatus, '  the  words 
for  which  were  written  by  Arrigo  Boito.  Just  as 
Gladstone  was  the  "grand  old  man"  of  England, 
so  Verdi  was  called  "il  grand  uomo  d'ltalia. " 
Verdi's  career  was  coeval  with  that  of  the  Victorian 
Age,  his  first  opera,  "Oberto, "  having  been  pro- 
duced in  1839.  From  that  time  the  prolific  com- 
poser brought  forth  opera  after  opera,  sometimes  as 
many  as  three  or  four  a  year.  His  failures  outnum- 
bered his  successes;  but  his  successes — "Kigoletto," 
"II  Trovatore,"  "La  Traviata,"  "Ai'da,"  "Otello" 
and  "Falstaff" — outweighed  all  his  failures.  The 
development  of  music  during  the  latter  half  of  the 
Nineteenth  Century  can  be  traced  in  the  changing 
style  of  these  kaleidoscopic  operas. 

Among  scientific  achievements  of  this  closing  year 
of  the  century  must  be  reckoned  the  successful  ex- 
navigation  periments  with  submarine  boats  conducted  simul- 
taneously in  America,  France  and  England.  No 
less  promising  were  the  results  obtained  in  Switzer- 
land by  the  novel  flying  machine  constructed  by 
Count  Zeppelin,  one  of  the  heroes  of  the  Franco- 
Prussian  war.  This  airship,  which  was  a  balloon 
and  flying  machine  combined,  had  the  most  ambi- 
tious dimensions  yet  attained  by  any  flying  machine 
during  the  Nineteenth  Century. 

During  the  first  week  of  September,  a  catas- 
trophe of  appalling  violence  overwhelmed  the  city 
of  Galveston  in  Texas.  A  hurricane,  followed  by 


1900  Sept.  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  1897 

a  disastrous  flood,  swept  over  Galveston  and  other 
low- lying  localities  of  Texas,  destroying  every  thing  dSaster*1 
in  its  course.  Ocean  steamers  were  stranded,  large 
areas  of  land  were  submerged,  and  almost  all  Gal- 
veston was  laid  in  ruins.  Some  six  thousand  dwell- 
ing houses  were  destroyed,  and  more  than  3,500 
persons  were  drowned,  while  thousands  throughout 
Texas  were  rendered  homeless.  Not  since  the  great 
Johnstown  flood  in  Pennsylvania  has  such  a  calam- 
ity overtaken  an  American  community.  Belief  for 
the  stricken  inhabitants  was  sent  from  near  and  far. 

Another  public  calamity,  less  sensational  in  its 
origin,  but  more  lasting  in  the  suffering  it  entailed,  gtrike 
was  the  great  labor  strike  of  the  anthracite  miners  miners 
in  Pennsylvania  which  was  declared  in  the  middle 
of  September.  In  support  of  the  claims  for  better 
wages  preferred  by  the  United  Mine  Workers  of 
America -some  88,000  miners  quit  work.  The  strike 
lasted  over  a  month.  It  was  ended  at  last  when  the 
directors  of  the  coal  companies  agreed  to  grant  an 
increase  of  ten  per  cent  in  the  wages  and  to  abolish 
their  system  of  a  sliding  scale  in  wages. 

About  this  time  several  eminent  men  of  the  last 
quarter  of  the    Nineteenth  Century  passed   away. 
In  Spain,    Marshal   Arsenio  Martinez  de   Campos,  Death  of 
once  Captain- General  of  Spain  and  Cuba,  died  on  Campos 
September  23,  at  Zarauz.     With  Jovellar,  he  issued 
the  pronunciamiento  of  Sagoote,  through  which  Al- 
fonso reached  the  throne.     Placed  in  full  command 
of  the  Spanish  forces  by  young  Alfonso,  he  ended 
the  civil  war  by  defeating  Don  Carlos  at  Pena  de  la 
Plata  in  1876.     Despatched  to  Cuba,  he  succeeded 


1898  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  Oct.  1900 

in  putting  a  stop  to  the  ten  years'  war  there  by  his 
liberal  concessions  to  the  insurgents.  Later  he  was 
once  more  sent  to  Cuba  to  cope  with  the  final  insur- 
rection in  that  island.  But  his  measures  were  held 
to  be  too  conciliatory,  and  he  was  recalled  in  1895, 
without  having  accomplished  his  task.  Campos 
never  recovered  from  this  disgrace. 

In  America,  John  Sherman,  the  former  Secretary 

John  of  State,  died  on  October  22.  President  McKinley 
announced  the  event  in  a  special  proclamation. 
John  Sherman  came  of  distinguished  American  an- 
cestry. His  brother,  William  Tecumseh,  was  one 
of  the  greatest  generals  of  the  American  Civil  War. 
His  most  fruitful  service  in  public  career  was  per- 
formed in  the  American  House  of  Eepresentatives 
on  the  eve  of  the  Civil  War,  and  in  the  Senate  from 
the  time  of  the  inauguration  of  Abraham  Lincoln  to 
the  accession  of  President  Hayes.  Latec  it  fell  to 
Sherman  to  provide  for  the  resumption  of  specie 
payments  and  the  ultimate  withdrawal  of  legal 
tender  notes  when  he  was  made  Secretary  of  the 

The  "Sher-  Treasury.     Sherman's  subsequent  stand  on  the  sil- 

man  Act"  * 

ver  question  Was  weak  and  vacillating.  In  1888,  he 
was  a  candidate  for  the  Presidency,  but  Harrison 
was  nominated.  When  William  McKinley  was 
elected  President  he  made  Sherman  his  Secretary 
of  State.  It  was  asserted  by  Sherman's  friends  that 
he  was  induced  to  enter  the  Cabinet  so  that  his  chair 
in  the  Senate  might  become,  vacant  for  the  Presi- 
dent's friend  and  political  manager,  Mark  Hanna. 
Sherman  soon  found  himself  out  of  sympathy  with 
his  colleagues  in  the  Cabinet.  He  opposed  the 


1900  Oct.  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1899 

President's  war  policy  in  regard  to  Cuba;  and  his 
functions  as  Secretary  of  State  were  practically  re-  ]^Lns°test 
duced  to  nil.     Finally  Sherman  was  prevailed  upon  Spain 
to  resign  the  Secretaryship.     He  did  so  on  the  day 
of  the  declaration   of  war  against   Spain.      Judge 
William  E.  Day,   hitherto  the  First  Assistant- Sec- 
retary, succeeded  him  in  office. 

By  the  death  of  Charles  Dudley  Warner  a  promi- 
nent figure  was  lost  to  American  letters.     Warner's  £haries 

Dudley 

first  successful  book,  ' '  My  Summer  in  a  Garden, ' '  Warner 
published  in  1870,  gave  him  a  high  place  among 
American  humorists.  Warner's  most  ambitious 
novel,  "The  Gilded  Age,"  published  late  in  his 
life,  failed  to  attain  the  popularity  of  his  earlier 
works. 

In  England,  Friedrich  Max  Mueller,  the  com- 
parative philologist,  died  on  October  28,  at  Oxford. 
The  son  of  Wilhelm  Mueller,  the  German  poet,  he 
received  a  careful  education  and  devoted  himself 
from  the  start  to  philological  studies.'  On  receiving  Mueller 
his  doctor's  degree  in  1843,  he  wrote  his  first  work, 
"The  Hitotadesa, "  a  collection  of  Sanskrit  fables. 
Baron  Bunsen,  the  Prussian  Minister  in  London, 
persuaded  him  to  settle  in  England.  He  delivered 
some  lectures  on  comparative  philology  at  Oxford, 
and  received  an  honorary  degree.  When  a  new 
professorship  for  comparative  philology  was  estab- 
lished at  Oxford  in  1868,  Mueller  was  installed  in 
the  chair.  His  subsequent  career  at  that  university 

\  "Chios 

was  rapid.      The  list  of  Mueller's   publications   is  from  a 

German 

long.     Many  of  his  essays  were  collected  in  " Chips  wi£rl?,- 
from  a  German  Workshop."      Some  of  his  other 


1900  A    HISTORY   OF   THE  Nov.  1900 

books  were  "Biographical  Essays,"  1884;  "The 
Science  of  Thought,"  1887;  "Biographies  of  Words 
and  the  Home  of  the  Aryans,"  1888;  "Natural  Re- 
ligion," 1889;  "Physical  Religion,"  1891;  "An- 
thropological Religion,"  1892;  "Theosophy;  or, 
Psychological  Religion,"  1893;  and  "Auld  Lang 
Syne, ' '  a  volume  of  reminiscences,  1898. 
Death  of  In  Paris,  the  veteran  inventor  of  the  gasolene 
automobile,  Lenoir,  passed  away.  His  death  was 
scarcely  noticed.  In  the  Latin  Quarter  of  Paris,  on 
the  30th  of  November,  one  ' '  Monmouth, ' '  the  bril- 
liant Oscar  Wilde  of  yore,  died  an  equally  obscure 
death.  Since  his  criminal  conviction  and  imprison- 

End  of 

°^i*e  ment  in  1894,  this  former  pet  of  British  aristocracy 
led  the  secluded  life  of  a  social  outcast.  Lord  Alfred 
Douglas,  who  was  implicated  with  him  in  his  trial, 
stood  by  his  friend  throughout  his  disgrace,  and  was 
with  him  when  he  died.  All  Oscar  Wilde's  former 
associates  shunned  him  during  the  closing  year.  His 
publishers  withdrew  his  books  from  their  shelves, 
and  stage  managers  cut  short  the  runs  of  his  plays. 
After  his  release  from  prison,  Wilde  brought  out 
the  anonymous  ' '  Ballad  of  Reading  Gaol, ' '  a  poem 
of  powerful  realism,  which  was  at  once  recognized 
as  his  work.  Shortly  before  his  death  he  was  re- 
ported to  have  become  converted  to  Catholicism. 

Shortly  before  this  another  once  shining  light 
went  out  in  obscurity.    Friedrich  Wilhelm  Nietzsche, 

Death  of    the  most  brilliant  German  philosopher  since  Scho- 

Nietzsche 

penhauer,  died  in  the  latter  part  of  August.  After 
Nietzsche's  death,  Georg  Brandes,  the  great  Danish 
critic,  said  of  his  lifelong  friend:  "During  the  last 

* 


MOO  Autumn  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  1901 

ten  years  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,  Nietzsche  has 
been  the  opposing  pole  to  Tolstoi.  His  morality  is 
aristocratic,  while  Tolstoi's  morality  is  popular;  it 

r    r  Brandes* 

is  individualistic,  while  Tolstoi's  is  evangelical;  itestimate 
demands  the  self-exaltation  of  the  individual,  while 
Tolstoi  holds  for  the  necessity  of  individual  self- 
sacrifice. "  Nietzsche's  greatest  book  is  his  "Thus 
Spoke  Zarathustra, ' '  one  of  the  strangest  works  that 
ever  came  from  the  pen  of  a  strange  man.  It  inspired 
Richard  Strauss  to  produce  one  of  his  weirdest  mu- 
sical compositions.  As  a  German  stylist,  Nietzsche 
takes  rank  with  Schopenhauer  and  Heine.  His  best 
form  of  expression  was  the  aphorism,  or  epigram. 
As  he  said  in  his  Zarathustra,  "It  is  my  ambition 
to  say  in  ten  sentences  what  others  say  in  a  book, 
or,  rather,  what  others  fail  to  say  in  a  book." 
Nietzsche's  peculiar  creation  as  a  philosopher  was 
his  "Over  Man,"  a  conception  reached  through  push- 
ing the  theory  of  individualism  to  its  utmost  limits. 
Nietzsche's  death,  owing  to  the  long  silence  imposed 
upon  him  by  his  latter-day  insanity,  was  all  but 
ignored  by  his  contemporaries.  The  attention  of 
the  world  was  still  fixed  on  China  and  the  Trans- 
vaal. 

In  South  Africa,  since  the  fall  of  Pretoria,  the 
situation  had  improved  but  slightly,  so  far  as  Brit- 
ish interests  were  concerned.  General  Christian 
Wet  gave  the  most  trouble.  For  several  months, 
having  started  with  a  small  force  from  the  Caledon 
Valley,  he  carried  on  successful  guerilla  operations 
with  constantly  augmenting  forces.  According  to 
British  despatches,  De  Wet  was  repeatedly  forced 

XlXth  Century— Vol.  3— BB 


1902 


A    HISTORY   OF    THE 


Autumn  190C 


Lindley 


into  positions  from  which  it  seemed  impossible  to 
escape.  Still,  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  the  generals 
whom  Lord  Eoberts  sent  against  him,  the  wily 
guerilla  leader  always  managed  to  slip  away  with- 
out appreciable  loss.  Three  days  after  his  suc- 
cess at  Sanna's  Post,  De  Wet  swooped  down  on 
Reddersburg,  a  hundred  miles  to  the  south,  and 
captured  three  companies  of  the  Irish  Rifles  and  two 
of  the  Second  Northumberland  Fusiliers.  In  less 
than  a  week,  De  Wet  with  his  fifteen  hundred  men, 
had  captured  twelve  hundred  British  soldiers.  Af- 
terward De  Wet  fell  upon  a  British  convoy  at  Lind- 
ley, east  of  Kroonstad,  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
Free  State,  and  after  three  days'  fighting  captured 
the  convoy  and  its  escort  of  five  hundred  Yeo- 
manry. 

Presently,  he  held  up  a  baggage  train  of  fifty- 
Heiibron  five  wagons  near  Heilbron  and  took  all  prisoners. 
He  hemmed  in  a  British  garrison  at  Agon  sola,  so 
threatened  Baden-Powell's  force  that  there  was  talk 
of  the  latter's  surrender,  and  finally  gave  the  slip 
to  Lords  Kitchener  and  Methuen,  north  of  Rusten- 
burg,  to  join  forces  with  the  Boer  general  Delarey. 
At  the  same  time,  General  Olivier,  with  a  Free  State 
commando,  inflicted  losses  on  the  British  at  Heil- 
bron, while  Commandant  Ben  Viljoen  brought  a 
strong  commando  close  up  to  Pretoria.  Some  alarm 
was  aroused  in  England  by  the  discovery  of  an  al- 
leged plot,  instigated  by  a  British  police  spy  named 
Gano,  to  abduct  Lord  Roberts  while  at  church  in 
Pretoria.  Lieutenant  Cordua,  a  former  officer  of 
the  Staats  Artillery,  who  was  implicated  by  Gano, 


Rusten- 
burg 


1900  Autumn  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1903 

was  shot.     Later  in  autumn,  an  unusually  reckless 
Boer  attack  on  Bruce- Hamilton  at  Winburg  resulted  °apu^ed 
in  the  capture  of  General  Olivier  and  his  three  sons. 
Another  defeat  inflicted  on  the  Boers  at  Machado-  j)jI0*chad0l> 
dorp  resulted  in  the  release  of  some  1,700  British 
prisoners  of  war,  while  the  Boers  were  once  more 
scattered  into  the  hills.     General  De  Wet,  eluding 
all  his  pursuers,  crossed  the  Vaal.    President  Krue- 
ger,  the  better  to  relieve  his  guerilla  leaders  from 
the  cumbersome  presence  of  his  quasi- government, 
obtained  a  promise  of  safe- conduct  from  the  Portu- 
guese   authorities,    and,    embarking   on   the   Dutch 
steamer  "Gelderland"  at  Lorenzo  Marquez,  sailed  Krueger 
for  Europe  to  solicit  sympathy  for  the  cause  of  his  Transvaal 
people. 

Unfortunately  for  his  cause,  the  remaining  prob- 
lems of  the  joint  operations  of  the  Powers  in  China 
were  sufficiently  momentous  to  render  international 
complications  on  any  other  score  doubly  undesira- 
ble. Since  the  joint  occupation  of  Peking  by  the 
international  relief  force,  in  August,  the  Powers  The 
had  striven  vainly  to  come  to  some  agreement  on 
what  was  to  be  done  with  China.  A  bewildering 
series  of  diplomatic  notes  had  been  issued  by  the 
various  chancelleries  of  Europe  *o  be  •  accepted,  or 
rejected  as  the  case  might  be.  While  the  Germans 
called  for  exemplary  punishment  of  the  perpetrators 
of  Baron  Ketteler's  murder,  and  the  French  and 
Italians  demanded  exorbitant  indemnities,  the  En- 
glish and  American  Governments  held  fast  to  their 
established  policy  of  "the  open  door"  in  China. 
Russia,  while  showing  herself  disposed  to  be  con- 


1904 


A    HISTORY   OF   THE 


Autumn  1900 


dilatory  at  Peking,  did  not  let  this  deter  her  troops 
from  avenging  the  recent  invasion  of  her  territory 
on  the  Amur,  by  overruning  Manchuria  as  far  as 
Moukden.  Before  this  was  accomplished  the  Rus- 
sians had  to  overcome  strong  opposition  at  Schacho, 
where  the  Chinese  with  thirty  battalions,  twenty 
field  guns  with  Krupps  and  Maxims,  held  the  rail- 
way embankment  and  surrounding  heights.  The 
battle  lasted  from  nine  in  the  morning  until  four 
in  the  afternoon,  and  twice  the  attacks  of  the  Chi- 
Battie  of  nese  cavalry  came  so  near  succeeding,  that  Russian 
reserves  and  reinforcements  had  to  be  called  up. 
Subsequently  the  whole  peninsula  was  overrun  by 
Russian  troops.  The  two  armies  of  the  north  ef- 
fected a  junction  with  the  one  advancing  north- 
w'ard  from  Port  Arthur.  Manchuria  became  a 
Russian  province. 

The  German  Emperor's  impulsive  policy  in 
China  brought  about  the  resignation  of  his  Chan- 
cellor, Prince  von  Hohenlohe.  With  the  retire- 
ment of  Prince  von  Hohenlohe,  one  of  the  most 
picturesque  figures  of  the  European  diplomatic 
world  disappeared  from  public  life.  While  serv- 
ing as  Prime  Minister  of  Bavaria,  his  spirited  op- 
position to  Bismarck's,  schemes  brought  him  to 
the  notice  of  that  statesman.  After  the  incorpora- 
tion of  Bavaria  into  the  German  Empire,  Hohen- 
lohe was  chosen  vice-president  of  the  first  Reichs- 
rath,  and  in  1874  was  sent  as  German  Ambassador 
to  Paris.  There  he  ransacked  the  archives  of  the 
embassy  and  forwarded  to  Berlin  the  documents 
which  helped  Bismarck  in  instituting  a  state  trial 


Von  Ho- 
henlohe 
resigns 


1900  Autumn  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1905 

against  Count  Arnim,  Hohenlohe's  predecessor  at 
Paris.  As  a  reward  Hohenlohe  was  appointed  Gov- 
ernor of  Alsace-Lorraine,  where  his  extreme  Ger- 
manizing measures  were  ultimately  disavowed  by 
Emperor  William.  On  the  accession  of  William 
II.  to  the  throne,  Hohenlohe  was  supported  by 
that  monarch,  and  was  finally  called  to  succeed  Pte  Pic- 

v  turesque 

Counts  Caprivi  and  Eulenburg,  as  Chancellor  ofcareer 
the  German  Empire  and  Prussian  Prime  Minister. 
After  the  death  of  his  first  wife,  the  famous  Prin- 
cess Seyn- Wittgenstein,  Hohenlohe  married  the  no 
less  famous  Marquise  de  Paiva,  whose  beauty  and 
adventures  were  the  talk  of  Paris  under  the  Second 
Empire.  Hohenlohe's  successor  in  office  was  Ber- 
nard von  Buelow,  a  son  of  the  former  Foreign 
Minister  of  Germany.  Count  von  Buelow  enthusi- 
astically supported  his  master's  policy  in  China. 

There  the  menacing  attitude  of  Count  von  Wai-  gount 

iVSilQGrSGO 

dersee,  who  instituted  a  series  of  so-called  punitive  m  china 
expeditions  into  the  interior,  brought  the  Chinese 
court  to  terms.     A  decree  was  issued  at  Ta-Tung- 
Fu,  the  refuge  of  the  Emperor  and  Empress,  order- 
ing the  degradation  of  four  Princes  of  the  Impe- 
rial dynasty   implicated   in   the   Boxer   movement. 
Prince  Tuan's  recent  appointment  as  Privy  Coun- 
cillor was  formally  disavowed,  as  was  the  decapi- 
tation of  Mandarin  Chang  Yen  Hoon,  the  former 
Chinese  Minister  to  the  Unite^l  States,  and  subse- 
quent member  of  the  Tsung-li  Yamen.     The  efforts 
for  peace  on  the  part  of  Li  Hung  Chang,  and  of  his  LI  Hung 
fellow  peace  commissioners,   Prince  Chmg,  General  efforts 
Yung  Lu,  Liu-Kun-Yi  and  Chang-Chih-Tung,  met 


1906  A   HISTORY    OF   THE  Autumn  1900 

with  better  success.  At  a  conference  of  the  foreign 
generals  at  Peking,  the  Russian  commander,  Gen- 
eral Linevitch,  and  General  Chaffee,  commanding 
Troops  the  American  troops,  announced  the  immediate 
Peking  withdrawal  of  the  bulk  of  their  forces  from  Pe- 
king. All  that  remained  for  the  foreign  represen- 
tatives at  Peking  was  to  reach  a  final  agreement  on 
pledges  of  peace  that  were  to  be  demanded  from 
China.  Late  in  the  year,  after  seemingly  endless 
negotiations  between  the  plenipotentiaries  and  their 
respective  chancelleries,  a  joint  note  in  the  form  of 
an  ultimatum  was  at  last  presented  to  Li  Hung 
Chang.  Summarized  briefly,  the  demands  of  the 
Powers  embraced  twelve  points: 

The  despatch  of  an  imperial  Prince  of  China  to 

Berlin  to  express  regrets  for  the  murder  of  Baron 

Demands    von  Ketteler  and  the  erection  of  a  monument  with 

of  the 

Powers  Chinese,  German  and  Latin  inscriptions  of  regret 
on  the  spot  where  he  was  slain. 

Punishment  of  guilty  leaders  to  be  designated  by 
the  Powers,  and  the  suspension  for  five  years  of 
civil  service  examinations  in  cities  where  foreigners 
were  massacred. 

Reparation  to  Japan  for  the  murder  of  Chancellor 
Sukiyama. 

Expiatory  monuments  in  foreign  cemeteries  that 
had  been  desecrated. 

Interdiction  of  importation  of  arms  into  China. 

Heavy  money  indemnities  to  governments  and  in- 
dividuals who  suffered  from  the  late  occurrences. 

Permanent  guards  at  the  Legations. 

The  destruction  of  the  forts  between  Peking  and 
the  sea. 

Military  occupation  of  points  to  be  designated. 


1900  Autumn  NINETEENTH   CENTURY  1907 

The  posting  of  a  proclamation  throughout  the 
Empire  for  two  years  enumerating  punishments  in- 
flicted upon  guilty  officials  and  threatening  death  to 
any  one  joining  an  anti-foreign  society;  Viceroys 
and  Governors  to  be  held  responsible  for  anti- 
foreign  outbreaks. 

Eevision  of  commercial  treaties. 

The  Chinese  Foreign  Office  to  be  reformed  to- 
gether with  diplomatic  ceremonials. 

Telegraphic  connection  having  been  re-established 
to  the  interior,  the  ultimatum  was  at  once  submitted 

Foreign 

to  Emperor  Kwang-Su  and  the  Empress  Dowager,  accepted 
Despite  the  Empress's  objections,  the  Emperor  sig- 
nified his  willingness  to  abide  by  it. 

Before  the  Chinese  negotiations  were  brought  to 
this  end,  new  general  elections  had  been  held  in 
England  and  in  America.  In  both  countries  the 
foreign  policy  of  the  government  involving  the  un- 
satisfactory wars  in  South  Africa  and  in  the  Philip- 
pine Islands  were  on  trial.  Joseph  Chamberlain's 
resolution  to  appeal  to  the  country,  before  the  Min- 
istry should  be  called  upon  to  do  so  by  an  adverse  English 

elections 

vote,  proved  well  taken.  The  Tories  were  trium- 
phantly returned  to  power  and  Salisbury's  Cabi- 
net continued  to  all  intents  and  purposes  in  statu 
quo. 

In  the  United  States  the  issues  raised  by  the  pro- 
tracted war  in  the  Philippine  Islands  were  more  than 
offset  by  the  popular  dread  of  financial  disturb- 
ances. These  were  inevitably  suggested  by  the  re- 
appearance as  a  Presidential  candidate  of  the  long 
time  spokesman  for  the  free  coinage  of  silver,  Wil- 


1908  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  December  1900 

liam  J.  Bryan.     With  the  help  of  Governor  Roose- 
velt  of   New  York,    whose   exploits    as    a   Rough 
president   Rider   had    made   him    immensely  popular   in   the 

McKinley 

re-elected  West,  William  McKinley  was  triumphantly  re- 
elected  as  President.  Theodore  Roosevelt  was 
elected  Vice- President. 

After  the  government's  victory  at  the  polls,  in 
England,  the  return  of  Lord  Roberts  from  South 
Africa  was  awaited  with  impatience.  A  magnifi- 

itoberts1     cen*  receptio11   was    prepared    for  him.      Uufortu- 

retum  nately  for  Lord  Roberts'  admirers,  the  tidings  of 
new  British  reverses  in  South  Africa  reached  Eng- 
land before  him. 

Christian  De  Wet,  who  by  this  time  had  gained 
a  reputation  as  the  most  resourceful  of  Boer  com- 
manders, won  even  the  enemy's  admiration  by  his 
daring  dash  through  General  Knox's  lines  near 
Thaba  'Nchu.  The  British  were  in  overwhelming 
numbers  and  felt  sure  of  their  prey.  The  only 
possible  escape  was  past  two  fortified  posts  with 
guns  covering  the  veldt  between.  In  open  order 

ghnstian  De  Wet's  3,500  Boers,  led  by  President  Steyn  and 
Commandant  Fourie,  charged  through  the  British 
line.  Only  twenty-five  Boers  and  a  15-pounder  gun 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British.  De  Wet  was 
once  more  at  large.  In  the  middle  of  December  the 
British  were  repulsed  at  Magaliesberg  within  twenty 

b"^  miles  of  Pretoria,  with  losses  as  serious  as  those  sus- 
tained by  Buller  and  Methuen  in  the  early  part  of 
the  campaign.  Four  companies  of  the  Northumber- 
land Fusiliers  were  captured.  The  casualties  com- 
prised five  officers  killed,  eighteen  officers  and  555 


1900  December  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1909 

men  missing.     On  the  Boer  side  a  son  of  the  late 
General  Joubert  was  killed. 

The  news  of  this  reverse  coming  on  the  anniver- 
sary of  the  defeat  of  Colenso,  served  to  dispel  illu- 
sions in  England  that  the  backbone  of  Boer  resis- 
tance had  been  broken.  Within  a  few  days  the 
Boers  surrounded  and  captured  120  of  Brabant' sZastron 
Horse  in  a  defile  near  Zastron.  More  losses  were 
inflicted  on  the  British  at  Scheeper's  Nek.  Then  lek66^'* 
came  tidings  that  De  Wet  had  invaded  Cape  Col- 
ony. All  the  districts  of  that  colony  near  the 
Orange  Free  State  were  reported  in  more  or  less 
open  revolt.  A  squadron  of  British  yeomanry  had  Colony 
come  to  grief.  Kimberley  once  more  was  isolated. 
On  the  last  day  of  the  year  Lord  Kitchener  reported 
from  Pretoria  that  the  British  post  of  Helvetia  had 
been  captured  by  Boers  with  a  total  loss  to  the  En- 
glish of  50  killed  or  wounded  and  200  taken  pris- 
oners. Under  the  gloom  of  this  bad  news  the 
triumphal  reception  of  the  returning  hero  was  in- 
definitely postponed.  Queen  Victoria  took  this 
seriously  to  heart.  Already  an  alarming  attack 
of  paralysis  in  the  middle  of  December  caused  Queen 

Victoria 

fears  to  be  entertained  concerning  the  declining  ^^8 
health  of  the  aged  Queen.  Nevertheless  Victoria, 
on  the  eve  of  Roberts'  arrival  in  England,  an- 
nounced her  decision  to  raise  him  to  an  earldom 
and  to  create  him  commander-in-chief  of  the  mili- 
tary forces  of  Great  Britain. 

In  America  toward  the  close  of  the  year,  Ignace 
Jan  Paderewski,  the  Polish  pianist  and  composer, 
repeated  his  triumphs  of  former  years.  Meanwhile 


1910  A    HISTORY    OF    THE  December  1900 

two  questions  of  international  concern  were  agi- 
tating the  legislators  of  the  United  States.  An  offer 
of  twelve  million  kroners  was  made  to  the  Danish 

Danish       Government    for  the   islands   of   St.    Thomas,    St. 

todfes  Croix,  and  St.  John  in  the  Antilles,  in  close  vicin- 
ity to  the  new  American  acquisition  of  Porto  Kico. 
Consideration  of  this  offer  went  over  to  the  succeed- 
ing century.  Of  far  more  momentous  concern  was 
the  proposed  Nicaragua  Canal  Treaty,  by  the  terms 
of  which  the  United  States  were  to  construct  an 
inter- oceanic  canal  through  the  great  lakes  of 
Nicaragua  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  The 

camuagua  treaty,  as  originally  agreed  between  the  American 
Secretary  of  State,  John  Hay,  and  Lord  Pauncefote, 
Ambassador  of  England,  was  an  elaboration  of  the 
famous  Clay  ton- Bulwer  treaty  of  1850.  When  the 
treaty  was  submitted  to  the  American  Senate,  ob- 
jections were  there  raised  to  the  manner  in  which 
the  pledges  of  the  former  treaty  had  been  disre- 
garded by  Great  Britain,  and  the  new  treaty,  ac- 
cordingly, underwent  sweeping  modifications.  Not 
until  the  close  of  the  year  was  the  new  text  of  the 
treaty  as  finally  framed  in  the  Senate  forwarded  to 
England.  Eegarded  as  inadmissible  by  Englishmen, 
the  proposed  treaty  was  allowed  to  lapse  by  Lord 
Salisbury. 

While  the  debate  on  the  Nicaragua  Canal  Treaty 

ton'cen8"  was  still  at  its  height,  the  city  of  Washington  cele- 
brated its  hundredth  anniversary  amid  impressive 
ceremonies.  It  was  intended  as  a  celebration  of 
the  close  of  a  century  of  unrivalled  progress,  rather 
than  as  a  mere  municipal  commemoration.  As  such 


1900  December  NINETEENTH    CENTURY  1911 

it  was  participated  in  by  the  President  of  the  United 
States  and  all  his  officers,  as  well  as  by  the  rep- 
resentatives of  all  accredited  Powers.  The  most 
notable  address  was  that  made  by  Senator  Hoar, 
the  dean  of  the  American  Senate.  In  a  historical 
review,  he  summarized  all  the  great  achievements 
of  the  century.  Dwelling  on  the  marvellous  develop- 
ments of  the  United  States  he  showed  how  the  sur- 
plus of  a  single  year  was  more  than  seven  times  as 
much  as  the  entire  receipts  of  the  government  in 
1800,  and  ten  times  as  much  as  its  entire  expenses 
in  that  year.  "To-day,"  said  Senator  Hoar,  ''theP^e^ot 
United  States  is  by  far  the  richest  country  in 
the  world.  Its  wealth  exceeds  that  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  which  is  the  next  in  rank,  by  about 
$22, 000, 000, 000.  In  1800,  our  population  was  5, 308,  - 
483;  now  it  is  76,304,799.  The  sixteen  States  have 
grown  to  forty- five,  and  our  territory  has  expanded 
from  909,050  square  miles  to  3,846,595  square 
miles.  At  the  opening  of  the  Revolutionary  War 
there  were  but  forty  newspapers.  To-day  we  have 
20,806.  The  men  who  wrought  this  great  work  are 
gone — most  of  them.  A  few  of  their  companions 
and  helpers  survive  to  behold  the  dawn  of  the  new 
century,  as  a  few  of  the  companions  of  Washington 
beheld  the  beginning  of  this  and  inaugurated  its  epitome 
great  accomplishment  on  the  principles  of  the  Revo- 
lution. Their  work  also  is  about  done.  They  seem 
to  survive  for  a  brief  period  only  that  the  new  cen- 
tury may  clasp  hands  with  the  old,  and  that  they 
may  bring  to  the  future  the  benediction  of  the 
past." 


1912  HISTORY  OF  NINETEENTH  CENTURY      December  1900 


L«O'S  twen-  reverse  in  spirit  was  the  famous  Latin  ode 

tury<xfe"   of   Pope   Leo  XIII.  ,    written   on    the  eve  of  the 
Twentieth  Century: 

Anno  Christ!  MDCCCO. 
Pridie  Kalendas  Tanvariaa 
Ab  lesv  Christo 
Inevntis  Saecvli 
Avspicia. 

Cultrix  bonarum  nobilis  artium 
Decedit  aetas  :  publica  commoda, 
Viresque  naturae  retectas, 

Quisquis  aget,  memoret  canendo. 

Saecli  occidentis  me  vehementius 
Admissa  tangunt  ;  haec  doleo  et  f  remo. 
Proi  quot,  retrorsum  conspicatus, 
Dedecorum  monumenta  cemo. 


In  the  year  of  Christ,  1900, 

On  the  day  before  January  1, 

From  Jesus  Christ  the  presages  of  the  Opening  Century. 

A  noble  age,  fosterer  of  good  arts,  is  dying.  Whoever  cares  may 
commemorate  in  song  the  public  conveniences  and  the  forces  of  na- 
ture that  have  been  brought  to  light. 

More  keenly  do  the  errors  committed  by  the  declining  century 
touch  me;  for  these  I  grieve  and  wax  wroth.  Oh,  shame,  how 
many  monuments  of  disgrace  do  I  perceive  in  looking  back. 


INDEX 


ABENDSBERG,  312 

Abolition  movement,  836 

Aboukir,  78 

Abyssinia,  war  with  England,  1467; 
with  Italy,  1795 

Adams,  John,  48 

Adams,  John  Quincy,  President,  721; 
death,  1043 

Addington,  78,  98,  112 

Adrianople,  first  surrender,  775 

Afghanistan,  second  British  invasion, 
942,  944;  third  British  invasion, 
1591;  evacuated,  1609 

African  colonization,  1713;  missions 
begun,  624 

A  gas  six,  1545 

Aguinaldo,  1847 

"Alabama"  sunk,  1390 

"Alabama  Claims"  settled,  1474 

Alamo,  defence  of,  870 

Alaska  bought  from  Russia,  1460 

A  lava,  Admiral,  131 

Albert,  Prince  Consort,  dies,  1335 

Alexander  I.  of  Russia,  80 

Alexander  III.  of  Russia,   1644 

Alexandria,  French  in,  79;  taken, 
(1807),  195;  bombarded,  1627 

Altieri,  91 

Algesiras,  86 

Algiers  opened  to  French,  95;  at- 
tacked, 777;  conquered  (1830),  785 

Alma,  battle  of,  1193 

Almquist,  1432 

Alsace-Lorraine  ceded,  1525 

American  Centennial,  1557;  embargo, 
224;  navy,  rise  of,  437;  naval  ex- 
ploits (1815),  550;  reconstruction, 
1487;  semi-centennial,  741;  silver 
controversy,  1587;  spoliations,  379; 
shipping,  rise  of,  117;  shipping 
injured  (1815),  599;  shipping  ruined 
(1865),  1399 

Amiens,  91-2 


Amsterdam  taken,  381 

Andrassy,  Count,  1711 

Anti-corn  law  league.  961 

Antonelli,  1564 

Apia  disaster,  1697 

Appomattox,  1419 

Arabi  Pasha  taken,  1627 

Arago,  1174 

Argentine  Republic  organized,  724 

Armenian  massacres,  1782 

Arndt,  160,  473 

Arnold,  Matthew,  1687 

Arthur,  Chester  A.,  1620,  1674 

Aspern,  328,  332 

Atbara,  1840 

Athens,  fall  of,  750 

Atlanta,  fall  of,  1408 

Auber's  death,  1529 

Augsburg,  a  free  city,  97 

Austerlitz,  138 

Austria  under  Francis  II.,  117;  cut 

off  from  Germany  (1809),  357 
Austrian  financial  crisis  (1810),  390; 

civil  war,  1087 


BACTERIA  discovered,  1379 

Badajos  assaulted,  416 

Bagration's  death,  431 

Baji  Rao,  97 

Balaklava,  1196 

Balkan  States  independent,  1567 

Balzac,  Honon*  de,  786,  1123 

Bancroft,  George,  1724 

Barbary  pirates  chastised,  102,  601 

Barclay  de  Tolly,  425 

Barosa,  394 

Barron,  219 

Bassein  treaty,  97 

Batavian  republic,  91 

Battenberg,     Alexander,     abdication, 

1670 

Bavaria,  a  kingdom,  143 
Baz'aine's  death,  1689 

(1913) 


1914 


INDEX 


Beauharnais,  Eugene,  146 
Becker's  Rhine  song,  917 
Beecher,  Henry  Ward,  1683 
Beethoven,  543,  748 
Beet  sugar  invented,  172 
Belgian  independence,  792 
Belgium  invaded  by  Dutch,  802 
Bell's  telephone,  1575 
Bennigsen,  136,  187,  199,  738 
Beranger,  1250 

Bering    Sea    arbitration,   1724,   1752 
Berlin    entered    by    Napoleon,    170; 

treaty,    1583 

Bernadotte,  128,  283,  974 
Bessieres,  341 
Bismarck,  1711 
Berryer's  death,  1470 
Bjoernson,  Bjoernsterne,  1707 
"Black  Friday,"  1477 
Black  Hawk  war,  810 
Blake,  William,  752 
Elaine,  James  G.,  1749 
Blanc,  Louis,  dies,  1036 
Bland  Bill  enacted,  1588 
Bloemfontein  taken,  1876 
Bliicher,  306,  492,  493,  494 
Bonheur,  Rosa,  1866 
Boer  "Trek,"  860 
Boers  lose  Orange  Colony  (1851),  1136 ; 

independence    (1880),    1614;    third 

war,    1858 

Bolivar,  372,  404,  405,  616,  796 
Bolivian-Peruvian  war,  1602 
"Bomba"  of  Naples,  1083 
Bonaparte,  Jerome,  107;  Bindino,  429 
Boulogne  camp,  112 
Bourbons  deposed  in  Italy,  143 ;  rule 

in  Spain,  541 ;  restoration  in  France, 

594 

Boxer  movement,  1884 
Brahms,  Johannes,  1813 
Brazil  independent,  689;  slaves  eman- 
cipated, 1531 
Bremen  free  city,  97 
Bright,  John,  1700 
Bright's  disease,  753 
British  embargo,  150;  commerce,  213; 

navy,  240;  in  India,  725 
Broke's  victory,  487 
Bronte,  Charlotte,  1208 
Brooklyn  Bridge  completed,  1643 
Brown,  John,  1288 
Browning,  Robert,  1701 
Brummell,  "Beau,"  919 
Brunswick's  raid,  327 ;  death,  68 


Bryant,  William  C.,  265,  622 
Buchanan,  American  President,   1213 
Buena  Vista,  1011 
Buenos  Ayres  taken  by  British,  156 
Bulgarian-Servian  war,   1666;  throne 

vacant,  1870 

Bull  Run,  first  battle,  1330 
Boulanger's  suicide,  1733 
Bulwer-Lytton,  1538 
Burgos,  battle  of,  280 
Burmese  war,  717;  second  war,  725 
Burne- Jones,  1839 
Burnside,  General,  1365 
Burr,  Aaron,  152,  181-85 
Byron,  Lord,  212,  592,  712,  713 


CABLE,  first  American,  953 

Cabul,  see  Kabul 

Cadoudal,  113 

Cadiz,  siege  of,  370,  436 

Calhoun,  death  of,  1122 

Calabria,  156 

Caldiero,  135 

Campo  Formio,  peace  of,  70 

Campos  in  Cuba,  1783 

Canadian  boundary  established,  936; 
first  rebellion,  839;  Pacific  Rail- 
way, 1658;  union,  913 

Canning,  213,  218,  274,  302,  351, 
687,  751 

Canova,  91,  145,  697 

Canovas  assassinated,  1812 

Canton,  captured  by  British,  931 ;  oc- 
cupied by  allies,  1258 

Cape  of  Good  Hope,  156 

Cape-to-Cairo  railroad,  1 855 

Capodistrias  assassinated,  804 

Capri vi  supersedes  Bismarck,  1711 

Carbonari,  657 

Carlyle,  Thomas,  1616 

Carnot,  Sadi,  68 

President,  assassinated,  1760 

Caroline,  Queen  of  England,  662 

Casimir-Perier,  President,  1769 

Castanas,  279 

Castlereagh,  419,  687 

Catalonia,  battle  of,  301 

Catholic  progress  in  Ireland,  77 ;  re- 
ligion in  Spain,  250;  emancipation, 
418,  772 

Cavendish,  364 

Cavour,  1267,  1318 

Cawnpore  mutiny,  1236 


INDEX 


1915 


Centennial,  American,  1557 

Central  America  independent,  702; 
union,  1716 

Cerro  Gordo,  J013 

Cervera,  1825,  1831 

Ceylon  annexed  by  British,  110 

Chamberlain,  Joseph  E.,  1793 

Chalmers,  1017 

Chancellorsville,  1372 

Charleston  blockaded,  1369 

Charles,  Austrian  Archduke,  135,  338 

Charles  X.,  king  of  France,  720,  789 

Charleston,  fall  of,  1415 

Charlotte  of  Mexico,  1448 

Chase's  financial  measures,  1365 

Chartism  collapses,  1053 

Chateaubriand,  91,  114,  1054 

Chattanooga,  1384 

Cherokees  removed,  896 ;  strip  opened, 
1759 

Cherubini,  955 

"Chesapeake"  affair,  215,  304 

Chicago  founded,  810;  fire,  1531 

Chickamauga,  1384 

Chile  liberated,  619;  civil  war,  1721 

Chinese  trade  suspended,  286 ;  troubles 
(1834),  854;  treaty  ports,  951;  at- 
tacked by  England  and  France, 
1256;  Chinese-Japanese  war,  1767; 
"Open  Door,"  1853;  succumbs  to 
Powers,  1907 

Chloroform  in  surgery,  1003 

Choate,  Rufus,  1286 

Church  in  France,  97 

Churubusco,  1029 

Ciudad  Rodrigo,  371,  415,  971 

Civil  War  casualties,  1426 

Clarkson,  995 

Clay,  Henry,  1161 

Clay  and  CaLhoun,  410 

Clay's  tariff,  612,  709 

Clerk-Maxwell,  1604 

Cleveland,  Grover,  first  election,  1651 ; 
re-elected,  1746;  Venezuelan  mes- 
sage, 1785 

Clive  at  Hyderabad,  108 

Coalitions  against  France,  126;  616, 
563 

Cobbett,  William,  859 

Cobden,  Richard,  316 

Cochran,  Admiral,  121 

Code  Napoleon,  59,  148,  540 

Coercion  of  neutrals,  214 

Coleridge's  death,  851 

Collingwood,  127,  131 


Collins,  Wilkie,  1701 
Commune  in  Paris,  1527 
Comte's  death,  1252 
Confederate  constitution,  1322 
Congo  annexed  by  Belgium,  1786 
Congress  of   Aix-la-Chapelle,  635;  of 

Laibach,   688 ;  of  Verona,  543,  699 
Conkling,  Roscoe,  1692 
Conservatives,  rise  of,  902 
Continental  blockade,  361 
Contreras,  .^028 

CopenhagenOombarded,  83,  222 
Corcoran,  William  W.,  1688 
Corea,  see  Korea 
Corn  law  agitation,  540,  933 ;  repealed, 

996 

Cornwallis,  121 
Coruna,  290 

Cracow  taken  by  Austria,  1000 
Creeks  subdued,  865 
Crete  secedes  from  Turkey,  1805 
Crimean  war,  1190;  scandals,  1201 
Cronje  surrenders,  1874 
Cuba  evacuated,  1836 
Cuesta's  defeat,  302 
Custer  massacre,  1562 
Cuvier,  821 

D 

DAHOMEY  annexed  by  France,  1748 

Dalton,  John,  972 

Dantzic  besieged,  194-98 

Darwin's  death,  1630 

Daudet,  Alphonse,  1813 

David,  734 

Davis,  Jefferson,  1425,  1706 

Davoust,  162,  168 

Davy,  Sir  Humphry,  773 

Decatur,  79,  104,  601 

Delhi  annexed,  109;  recaptured,  1238 

Denmark  restores  Elba,  85 ;  withdraws 

from  Russia,  81 

Derne  taken  by  Americans,  125 
Desaix,  66 

Dessalines  in  Hayti,  152 
De  Wet,  Christian,  1901 
Dewey  leaves  Hong  Kong,  1821 
Dickens'  death,  1486 
Disraeli,  Beaconsfield,  1160,  1617 
Djalnapoor  taken,  108 
Dollinger,  Ignace,  1710 
Donizetti,  1044 
D'Ouvnl,  157 
Dred  Scott  Decision,  1243 


1916 


INDEX 


Dreibund  (1851),  1134 
Dreyfus,  Alfred,  1841,  1851 
Duckworth  at  San  Domingo,  145 
Dumas,  Alexandre,  1516 
Duroc  in  Russia,  85 

E 

EAST  INDIAN  famine,  1882 

Eaton,  General,  117,  125 

Eckmuehl,  313 

"Edinburgh  Review,"  91 

Edison's  phonograph,  1575 

Egypt's  status  denned  (1840),  916 

Emancipation  of  American  negroes, 
1364;  of  British  slaves,  857;  of 
Russian  serfs,  179,  1319 

Embargo  in  America,  266;  in  Eng- 
land, 268 

Emerson,  Ralph  W.,  1633 

Enghien,  Due  de,  144 

England  and  France,  88,  98,  105 ;  and 
Russia,  126;  and  Spain,  120,  125; 
and  United  States,  177,  405 

English  blockade  of  United  States,  527 

England's  finances,  213,  381,  729 

English  letters,  revival,  625,  738 

"Enterprise"  beats  "Tripoli,"  102 

"Era  of  Good  Feeling,"  620 

Erfurt  taken,  171;  "Mad  Days,"  270 

Ericsson,  1348 

Erie  Canal,  708,  723;  war,  1478 

Espinoza,  279 

"Essex's"  exploits,  439 

Ether  in  surgery,  1002 

European  intervention  in  Greece,  750; 
readjustments  (1815),  552 

Everett  on  Cuba,  1177 

Eylau,  battle  of,  191 


FARADAY,  Michael,  1458 

Farragut  at  New  Orleans,  1356 

Fayal  affair,  534 

Faure,  Felix,  French  President,   1780 

Federalist,  119 

Ferdinand  of  Austria  flees,  1 089 

Ferdinand    VII.  of  Spain,   235,   243, 

524,   637,   656,   667,   703 
Fichte,  160 
Field,  Cyrus,  1450 
Finnish  war,  306 
Five  Forks,  1418  , 
Flaubert's  death,  1606 


Florida  ceded  to  United  States,  639; 
a  State,  985 

Forrest,  Edwin,  743 

Fort  Donelson,  1346;  Erie,  529;  Har- 
rison, 408;  Henry,  1346 

Fortuny,  1552 

Fourier's  death,  881 

"Forty  Niners,"  1095 

Fouche,  295 

Fox,  Foreign  Secretary  (1806),  144 

France  and  foster  republics,  77 ;  and 
Poland,  1 86 ;  and  Prussia,  268 ;  and 
Spain,  700;  and  Russia,  88,  193; 
and  Turkey,  95 ;  retains  old  limits, 
525 

Franco-Prussian  war,  1494 

French  before  Torres  Vedras,  389; 
before  Vienna,  317;  defeated  at 
Allyghur,  109;  enter  Rome,  246; 
cross  the  Rhine,  128;  enter  Spain, 
240 ;  hold  Spanish  forts,  349 ;  evac- 
uate Pomerania,  198;  gain  Rhine, 
97;  in  Hayti,  107;  in  Italy,  66; 
in  South  Germany,  126;  Institute, 
111;  invade  Saxony,  161;  invade 
Spain  (182H),  701;  letters,  606, 
625 ;  manufactures,  211 ;  Monarch- 
ical Constitution,  524;  re-enter 
Spain,  397;  Second  Republic,  1051; 
shipping  ruined,  145;  State  educa- 
tion 93;  State  religion,  92;  Third 
Republic,  1509;  victories  in  Spain, 
284,  369 

Francis  II.  loses  German  crown,  157 

Francis  Joseph's  accession,  1092 

Frankfurt  diet,  608;  parliament,  1008, 
1073 

Franklin,  Sir  John,  647,  988,  1015 

Fredericksburg,  1365 

Frederick  "the  Noble,"  1686 

Frederick  William  and  Napoleon, 
160 

Frederick  William  III.  's  death,  922 

Free  cities,  six,  97 

"Free  Trade  and  Sailors'  Rights," 
419 

Free  Trade,  England  and  Ireland, 
77 

Free  universities  crippled,  97 

Fresnel's  death,  734 

Friedland,  203 

Froebel,  740,  884,  1155 

Fry,  Elizabeth,  991 

Fugitive  slave  law,  1119 

Fulton,  Robert,  225,  228,  600 


INDEX 


1917 


o 


GAMBETTA,  1571,  1637 

Garfield,  James  A.,  1620 

Garabaldi  in  America,  1111;  in  1848, 
1066;  dictator  of  Sicily,  1296;  and 
Victor  Emmanuel,  1315;  sup- 
pressed, 1463;  death,  1634 

Garrison's  "Liberator,"  811 

Gautier,  Theophile,  786 

Gay-Lussac,  1126 

Geology,  The  new,  909 

"George  Eliot,"  1612 

George  III.  of  England,  78,  110,  393, 
661 

Germanic  confederation,  602-8 

German  constitution  of  1849,  1106; 
letters,  92,  160,  708;  war  of  libera- 
tion, 501 ;  Liberals  persecuted,  650 

Germany  disintegrated,  77 

Gerona,  siege  of,  348 

Gettysburg,  1377 

Ghent,  peace  of,  545,  557 

Gladstone's  Irish  measures,  1480; 
death,  1838 

Godoy,  Manuel,  234,  242 

Goethe  at  "Weimar,  76;  death,  822 

Golden  age  of  music,  696 

Gold  in  Australia,  973,  1136;  in  Cali- 
fornia, 1041 

Gordon  in  China,  1368,  1391;  mission 
to  Congo,  1647;  death,  1654 

Gottschalk,  1483 

Gould,  Jay,  1745 

Gounod  died,  1756 

Grant,  Ulysses  S.,  1391;  and  Santo 
Domingo,  1475;  re-elected  Presi- 
dent, 1535;  fails  of  third  term, 
1611;  world  tour,  1589;  death, 
1663 

Granville  succeeds  Pitt,  144 

Gray's  telephone,  1575 

"Great  Eastern,"  1450 

"Greater  New  York,"  1765 

Greece  devastated,  730;  independent, 
758;  great  loan  for,  743 

Grecian  intervention,  764 

Greek  war  for  independence,  685,  887 ; 
-Turkish  war  begun,  1807;  -Turk- 
ish war  ended,  1810 

Greely's  rescue  by  Schley,  1651 

Green  Bay  inquiry  in  England  (1817), 
624 

Grevy  re-elected  French  President, 
1662 


Grisi,  1481 

Grossi,  Tommaso,  1172 

Grouchy's  death,  1026 

Guadeloupe,  92;  Hidalgo  treaty,  1041 

Guiteau  hanged,  1031 

Guizot  on  Napoleon,  594;  dies,  1551 

Gustavus  IV.  of  Sweden,  126 

H 

HAGUE  peace  conference,  1852 

Hallow's  death,  1291 

Hamburg,  81,  84,  97 

Hamilton's  death,  118 

Hancock,  General,  dies,  1673 

Hanover  invaded  by  French,  105; 
offered  to  England,  157;  separates 
from  England,  886 

Haugwitz  and  Talleyrand,  137 

Hauptmann,  Gerhardt,  813 

Harrison,  William  H.,  408,  504,  935 

Hastings  in  India,  633;  death,  738 

Hauff,  747 

Havelock,  1237,  1241 

Hawaii  recognized,  916;  annexed, 
1811,  1837 

Hayes-Tilden  contest,  1574 

Haydn,  321 

Hayti,  107,  117 

"Hazard,"  485 

Heber,  Bishop,  738 

Hegel,  809 

Heine,  568,  766,  1220 

Herschel,  696 

Hirsch's  Jewish  colony,  1736 

Hofer- Andreas,  364 

Hohenlinden,  68 

Hohenlohe,  162 

Holkar  conquers  Sindia,  97 

Holland  expedition,  350 

Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell,  1763 

"Holy  Alliance,"  604;  Roman  Em- 
pire dissolved,  1 59 ;  See  at  Vatican, 
1518 

Hong  Kong  ceded  to  England,  929 

Hood,  Thomas,  989 

"Hornet,"  485 

Horseshoe  Bend,  537 

Hovey,  Richard,  1880 

Hugo,  Victor,  592,  1660 

Humboldt,  Alexander  von,  1283 

Wilhelm  von,  390;  resigns,  651 

Hungarian  troubles  (1836),  866;  civil 
war,  1072;  Constitution,  1055;  in- 
dependence, 1099 


1918 


INDEX 


Hungary  crushed,   1110;    reinstated, 

.     1457 

Huxley's  death,  1787 


IBSEN,  Henrik,  1800 

Immaculate  Conception  Dogma,   1585 

Income  tax,  British,  947 

India  against  England,   107;  -British 

border  warfare,  627 
Indian  mutiny,  1232;  mutiny  ended, 

1284 

Industrial  depression,  610 
"Infernal  Legion"  317 
Inkermann,  1198 
International  expositions,  1173 
Iowa  a  State,  1009 
Ireland  against  England,  107 
Irish  famine,  989;  union,  77 
Irving,  "Washington,  647,  1287 
Isabella  of  Spam,  965,  1471 
Italian    Carbonari,     657 ;    Revolution 

(1824),      669;     Revolution     (1848), 

1036;     war    (1859),     1271;     unity 

accomplished,   1318 
Italy  a  republic,  91 
Italy's  first  Parliament,  1293 
Iturbide,  Emperor  of  Mexico,  688 


JACKSON,  Andrew,  549,  638,  778,  986 

"Stonewall,"  1372 

Jacobins,  French,  72 

Jameson's  raid,  1790 

Japan  opened,  1175 ;  regenerated,  1482 

Japanese  Shoguns  deposed,  1468;  re- 
forms, 1566;  Constitution,  1621, 
1696;  Parliament,  1713;  -Chinese 
war,  1767;  peace  terms,  1779 

Jay's  treaty,  49 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  inauguration,"  73 ; 
Louisiana  purchase,  100;  internal 
policy,  178;  re-elected,  125;  war 
policy,  156,  178;  on  slave  trade, 
180;  and  Marshall,  183;  embargo, 
238;  expansion  policy,  264;  death, 
741 

Jellalabad  relieved,  944 

Jena,  battle  of,  162 

Jenner's  death,  707 

Jerome  Bonaparte,  145,  237 

Johnston  surrenders,  1425 

Johnson's  impeachment,  1467 


Johnstown  flood,  1705 

Joint  note  of  the  Powers  (March  25, 

1815),  563 

Josephine  dies,  (May,  1814),  522 
Joseph,    King    of    the   Sicilies,    145; 

crowned  in  Spain,  251 ;  left  Madrid, 

260 
"July  Revolution,"  788 

K 

KABUL,  first  capture,  907 

Kalish,  treaty  of,  490 

Kandahar,  march  to,  1609 

Kane's  Arctic  voyage,  1174 

Kansas  opened,  1185;  war,  1214,  1218 

Kant,  119 

Kars  captured,  1579 

Keith  in  Egypt,  61 

Kentucky  election  contest,  1868 

Key's  "American  flag,"  532 

Kil  warden,  106 

Kimberley  relieved,  1872 

Kleber  assassinated,  61 

Kleist,  suicide,  410 

Koenigsberg  occupied,  206 

Koenigsgraetz,  1439 

Koerner,  473,  490 

"Know-Nothings,"  1212 

Korean  convention,  1659 

Kossuth  hi  Vienna,  1058;  in  power, 

1088 

Koszta  episode,  1178 
Kotzebue  assassinated,  649 
Krueger's    ultimatum,    1857 ;     leaves 

Transvaal,  1903 
Kutusov,  429 


LADYSMITH  invested,  1859 
Lafayette's  Republicanism,  587 ;  visits 

America,  723;  death,  848 
"La  grande  armee,"  421 
Lake  at  Delhi,   109;   defeated  Ameer 

Khan,  125 
Champlain,  battle  of,  533;  Erie, 

British  at,  527 

"L'Allemagne, "  De  Stael,  111 
Lamartine,  1480 
Landseer,  Edwin,  1545 
Lannes  killed  at  Aspern,  330 
Laplace,  747 

Lasalle  killed  at  "Wagram,  341 
Lawrence,  Captain,  death  of,  486 


INDEX 


1919 


Lawrence,  Sir  Thomas,  784 

"Leander"  affair,  151 

Leclerc  in  Hayti,  95 

Lee,  Robert  E.,  1360,  1363,  1731; 
surrenders,  1420 

Legendre,  842 

Leigh  ton,  Sir  Frederick,  1800 

Leipzic,  battle  of,  498 

"Leopard"  and  "Chesapeake,"  217 

Leoprfrdi,  882 

Leopold  I. ,  King  of  Belgium,  801 

Lesseps,  Ferdinand  de,  1611,  1761 

Lewis,  George  Henry,  1590 

Lewis  and  Clark's  explorations,  155 

Liberia  founded,  684 

Liebig,  1540 

Lincoln-Douglas  contest,  1262;  Abra- 
ham, elected  President,  1311;  in- 
augural, 1323;  assassinated,  1422 

Lind,  Jenny,  1682 

Linois  in  India,  108 

Lisbon,  British  fleet  at,  156 

Lissa,  1445 

Lister,  Joseph,  1800 

Liszt,  Franz,  1676 

Little,  Captain,  50 

Livingston  and  Monroe,  100 

Livingstone  in  South  Africa,  935 

Lobau,  333 

Lobengula  killed,  1766 

Longfellow,  H.  W.,  1632 

Loubet,  French  President,  1849 

Louise,  Queen  of  Prussia,  207 

Louisiana  purchase,  100 

Louis  XVIII.,  589 

Louis  Bonaparte,  King  of  Holland, 
146;  resignation,  380 

Louis  II.  of  Bavaria,  1675 

Louis  Napoleon  exiled,  876;  escapes 
from  Ham,  998;  second  fiasco,  918; 
French  President,  1079;  coup  d'etat, 
1148;  Emperor,  1169;  surrenders, 
1507;  dies,  1538 

Louis  Philippe,  King,  790;  flight,  1052 

Lowell,  James  Russell,  1729 

Loyal  Legion,  95 

Lubeck,  free  city,  97 

Lucien  Bonaparte,  expatriated,  147 

Lucknow  besieged,  1233;  relieved, 
1240 

Lundy'a  Lane,  battle,  528 

Luneville,  peace  of,  77 

Luxemburg,  conference  (1 867),  1456 

Lycees,  French,  93 

Lyell  dies,  1554 


91 

MACDONALD,  Marshal,  343 

Mack,  at  Ulm,  128;  condemned,  185 

MacMahon,  French  President,  1540 

Madagascar  conquered,  1780;  an- 
nexed, 1796 

Madison  embarrassed,  152;  President, 
303 ;  dismisses  British  envoy,  355 ; 
turns  against  England,  406 ;  policy, 
420;  re-elected,  600;  dies,  878 

Magdeburg  taken  by  French,  171 

Magenta,  1276 

Mahmoud,  Sultan,  252 

Mahratta  war,  108;  rule  ended,  631 

"Maine"  blows  up,  1817 

Maine  vs  Missouri,  645 

Majuba  Hill,  1615 

Malaga  captured  by  French,  369 

Malakov  stormed,  1205 

Malibran,  873 

Manila,  battle  of,  1823;  capitulates, 
1836 

Manning,  Cardinal,  1739 

Marconi's  telegraph,  1854 

Marengo,  65 

Marie  Louise's  accouchement,  399; 
flight,  518;  death,  1026 

Maritime  League  dissolved,  85 

Marmont,  128 

Marryatt,  Captain,  1040 

Marshall,  Chief-Justice,  102;  and 
Jefferson,  182 

Martineau,  Harriet,  1564 

Martinique  falls  to  France,  92 

Mason  and  Slidell,  1322 

Massena  at  Genoa,  63 ;  Italian  cam- 
paign, 135;  invades  Portugal,  386; 
retreat,  395;  death,  626 

Maupassant,  Guy  de,  1752 

Maximilian  reaches  Mexico,  1412 

Mazzini,  804;  death,  1537 

McClellan,  1333,  1664 

McKinley  elected  President,  1798; 
re-elected  President,  1908 

Meade,  General,  1373 

Mehemet  Ali,  925 

Meissonier,  J.  L.  E.,  1728 

Melville's  impeachment,  155 

Mendelssohn,  Felix,  1021 

Menou  worsted  at  Aboukir,  78 

"Meredith,  Owen,"  1735 

Mesmer,  603 

Metternich's  repressive  measures,  636; 
fall,  1057;  path,  1277 


1920 


INDEX 


Mexico,  first  French  expedition,  899; 

war  with  United  States,   1003  ;  in- 

vaded by  French,  1342;  conquered 

by  French,  1381 

Mexico,  City  of,  surrenders,  1032 
Michelet,   1552 
Microscope,  784 

Milan,  fall  of,  1068;  recovered,  1277 
Military,  modern  reorganization,  122 
Mill,  James,  dies,  872 
-  J.  Stuart,  dies,  1546 
Millais'  death,  1861 
Millet,  Francois,  1554 
"Ministry  of  all  talents"  (1852),  1168 
Miranda,  filibuster,  152;  death,  614 
Mississippi  opened,  1381 
Missouri  admitted,  683;  Compromise, 

663  ;  Question  agitated,  641 
Mobile,  British  failure,  550 
Modder  River,  1861 
Molino  del  Key,  1030 
Mollendorf's  surrender,  169 
Moltke,  1437,  1727 
Money  in  Andalusia,  256 
"Monitor,"   1348 
Monroe,    James,    elected    President, 

664;    and    Livingston,    102;    Doc- 

trine foreshadowed,  264;  Doctrine, 

691;  dies,  811 
Monterey,  battle  of,  1007 
Moore,  Sir  John,  death,  291 
Moore,  Thomas,  1163 
Morea  evacuated,  761 
Moreau.^Austrian  campaign,  62  ;  ban- 

ished,   113;    against  France,   438; 

death,  491 
Mormons,   Book  of,   766;  go  to  Salt 

Lake,  897  ;  abandon  polygamy,  1717 
Morris,  William,  1801 
Morse's  telegraph,  971 
Mortier  invades  Hanover,  105 
Moscow  burned,  433 
Mueller,  Max,  1899 
Munich  modernized,  740 
Munkacsy,  1880 
Mural  in  Vienna,  136;  in  Spain,  241; 

in  Sicily,  390;   arrests  Pope,  335; 

shot,  596 

Musset,  Alfred  de,  1246 
Mustapha  IV.,  195;  deposed,  252 


NAPIER  in  Abyssinia,  1467 
Naples  quitted  by  Bourbons,  143  ;  held 
by  Massena,  145 


Napoleon,  first  Consul,  65;  crosses 
Alps,  63;  President  Italian  repub- 
lic, 91;  quarrel  with  England,  98; 
on  Louisiana,  100;  escapes  assassi- 
nation, 113,  356;  first  Emperor  of 
France,  120;  letter  to  George  III., 
123;  King  of  Italy,  124;  quarrel 
with  Austria,  126;  master  of  Eu- 
rope, 140;  at  Jena,  162;  at  Berlin, 
170;  at  Warsaw,  174;  and  Countess 
Valevska,  175;  stand  toward  United 
States,  176;  meets  Alexander,  206; 
Spanish  pronunciamiento,  248;  at 
Erfurt,  270;  and  Goethe,  271;  and 
Wieland,  272;  at  Madrid,  283;  re- 
turn from  Spain,  294;  wounded, 
316;  at  Vienna,  318;  crosses  Dan- 
ube, 327,337 ;  excommunicated,  335; 
deposes  Pope,  335;  at  Wagram, 
339 ;  at  Schoenbrunn,  357 ;  divorced, 
359 ;  meets  Marie  Louise,  362 ;  sec- 
ond marriage,  377 ;  invades  Hol- 
land, 380 ;  annexes  Hanseatic  cities, 
390 ;  and  Alexander  estranged,  391 ; 
annexes  Oldenburg,  392;  plans 
against  Russia,  402;  crosses  Nie- 
men,  421 ;  at  Moscow,  432 ;  twenty- 
ninth  bulletin,  448 ;  and  Metternich, 
481;  at  Dresden,  491;  loses  allies, 
501;  loses  Spain,  505;  "outlawed," 
516;  empire  ends,  521;  abdicates, 
522,  588;  at  Elba,  523,  555;  "Hun- 
dred Days,"  557;  flight  after  Wa- 
terloo, 584;  surrenders  himself,  590; 
sent  to  St.  Helena,  591 ;  death,  630; 
will,  681 ;  son  dies,  827  ;  sepulture, 
925 

Nashville  occupied,  1357 

Navarino,  755 

Negro  slavery  in  America,  722 

Nelson  at  Copenhagen,  81 ;  off  Bou- 
logne, 87  ;  off  Brest,  127  ;  at  Trafal- 
gar, 131;  death,  132 

Netherlands  invaded  by  French,  380 

Neutrality  in  Civil  War,  1328 

New  England  disaffected,  537 

Newman,  Cardinal,   1714 

New  Orleans,  battle  of,  549;  sea 
fight,  1356;  massacre,  1729 

New  United  States  bank,  611 

Ney  in  Switzerland,  95 ;  retreats 
across  Parsarge,  200;  executed, 
598 

Nicholas,  Czar  of  Russia  (1825),  733 

Nicopolis,  1568 


INDEX 


1921 


Nietzsche,  1900 

Nightingale,  Florence,  1200 

Nile  campaign,  1840 

Nineteenth  Century  progress,  9,  1911 

Nizam  of  Hyderabad,  108 

Northern  Maritime  League,  71,  81 

North  German  Bund,  1446 

North  Germany  conquered,  171 

Nullification  debate,  798 

Nuremberg,  free  city,  97 

O 

O'CoxNELL's  death,  1017 

Oil  discovered  in  America,  1286 

Oklahoma  thrown  open,  1732 

Omdurman,  1840 

Opium  war,  906 

Orange  Free  State  formed,  1188 

Orange  River  Colony  annexed  (1848), 

1038 

Oregon  boundary  settled,  986 
Oatrolenka,  193 
Otto,  King  of  Greece,  820 
Oudinot's  death,  1025 
Owen,  M.  D.,  1747 


PAGANINI,  920 

Palm,  execution  of,  159 

Palmerston,  1431 

Palo  Alto,  1004 

Panama  Canal  project,  1611,  1691 

Papal  dominions  spoliated,  318;  infal- 
libility dogma,  1585;  provinces  and 
Italy,  246 

Paper  tax  in  England,  90 

Paris  improved,  148;  besieged,  1515; 
capitulates,  1522;  evacuated,  520; 
Exposition,  1699,  1879 

Parma  held  by  French,  95 

Parnell  charges,  1681;  death,  1734 

Pasteur,  Louis,  1787 

Paul  of  Russia  assassinated,  79 

Peabody,  George,  1481 

Peace  between  France  and  United 
States,  70;  conference  as  Lune- 
ville,  77;  of  Florence,  78;  negoti- 
ations at  London,  88;  overtures  at 
Erfurt,  274 

Pecci  elected  Pope,  1 585 

Pedro  IV.  of  Brazil,  1708 

Peel,  Sir  Robert,  dies,  1116 

Pegu  annexed,  1136 

Peishwa  deposed,  632 

Peking,  Anglo-French  capture,  1306 


Peking  taken  by  allies,  1893 

Pensacola  seized,  536 

Pension  system  in  United  States,  641 

"People's  Charter"  in  England,  894 

Percival  assassinated,  418 

Perry  at  Lake  Erie,  502 

Commodore,  opens  Japan,  1175 

Persia,  peace  with  Russia,  768;  at 
war  with  England,  1229 

Peru,  independence  achieved,  689; 
succumbs  to  Chile,  1645 

Petersburg,  Va.,  battle  of,  1418 

"Philadelphia"  surrendered,  103 

Philippines  acquired,  1845 

Phillips,  Wendell,  837 

Pichegru,  113 

Pickett's  Gettysburg  charge,  1377 

Piedmont  to  France,  95 

Pierce  inaugurated  President,  1173 

Pigott's  forgery,  1680 

Pinckney,  49 

Pio  Nono  dies,  1584 

Pitt,  the  Younger,  112,  143 

Pius  VII.  and  Napoleon,  335 

Plebiscite,  first  French,  116 

Pleisse,  battle  of,  496 

Plevna  surrenders,  1580 

Poe's  "Raven,"  984;  death,  1095 

Polish  Revolution  (1830),  794;  aspira- 
tions crushed,  808 

Polk  President,  985 

Port  Arthur  taken,  1744 

Porto  Rico  overrun,  1835;  ceded, 
1836 

Portugal  invaded,  232;  favors  En- 
glish, 393 

Portuguese  revolt  (1827),  745 

Prague  Peace  Congress,  482 

"President"  and  "Little  Belt,"  406; 
and  "Blandina,"  438 

Pretoria  taken,  1878 

Priessnitz's  hydropathy,  665 

Probstheyda,  500 

Proscription  in  France,  695 

Prussia  "at  lowest  ebb,"  170;  de- 
spoiled at  Tilsit,  209;  breaks  with 
England,  237;  up  in  arms,  473 

Prussian  Parliament  ends,  1086;  -Ital- 
ian alliance,  1433;  -Austrian  war, 
1437 

Punjab  annexed,  1094 


QUATRE-BRAS,  571 
Quinine  discovered,  664 


1922 


INDEX 


R 

RABB  surrenders,  336 

line's  Arctic  explorations,  1002 

Railway  first  in  England,  726;  first 
American,  765 

Rajahs  surrender,  110 

Hanke,  Leopold  von,  1678 

Reaction  in  southern  Europe,  607 

Reade,  Charles,  1650 

Rees'  cyclopedia,  91 

Reform  Bill  in  England,  819 

Regensburg  diet,  96 

Reichstadt,  Duke  of,  827 

Renan,  Ernest,  1743 

Republican  Partyin  United  States,  1185 

Republicanism  in  South  America,  711 

Revival  of  letters,  695 

Rhine  made  free,  525 

Richelieu's  Ministry  falls,  682 

Richmond  evacuated,  1418 

Roberts'  march  to  Kandahar,  1597; 
march  to  Pretoria,  1878 

Roche's  ballad  on  Fayal,  536, 

Roentgen  rays,  1788 

Rogers,  Samuel,  1209 

Romantic  movement  in  France,  111 

Rome  entered  by  French,  1111 ;  evac- 

•:  uated  by  French,  1518;  capital  of 
Italy,  1530 

Ross,  Polar  explorations,  635 

Rossetti,  Dante  Gabriel,  1629 

Rossini,  1469 

Rostand,  Edraond,  1814 

Royalist  cause  in  France,  59;  exiles 
return,  92 

Rudolf  of  Austria's  death,  1695 

Runeberg,  358 

Ruskin,  John,  1869 

Russian  serfs  freed  on  Baltic,  179; 
serfs  emancipated,  1319;  seize  Fin- 
land, 246;  fleet  taken  by  English, 
261 ;  fleet  sold,  661 ;  finances,  361 ; 
retreat  to  Moscow,  432.;  offensive 
campaign,  435;  laws  codified,  736, 
746;  Jews  persecuted,  1712;  war 
with  Persia,  737;  war  with  Swe- 
den, 246;  war  with  Turkey,  391, 
402;  war  with  Turkey  (1828),  760, 
775;  war  with  Turkey,  1182;  -Turk- 
ish war,  1568 

Russians  cross  Danube,  1568 


SABOUGAL,  battle  of,  397 
Sadowa,  1439 


Saint-Hilaire,  982 

Salamanca,  418,  436,  437 

Salisbury  succeeds  Gladstone,  1666 

Sand,  Georges,  1563 

Sanhedrim,  Paris,  185 

"San  Juan  d'Ulloa"  captured,  1012 

Hill,  1829 

San  Martin,  617 

San  Stefano  treaty,  1582 

Santa  Anna,  702,  1008,  1033 

Santiago  blockade,  1826;  sea  fight, 
1831;  de  Cuba  surrenders,  1835 

Santo  Domingo  negroes  revolt,  94; 
hunted  down,  152 

Saragossa  falls  to  French,  92;  siege 
of,  257,  296,  300;  seized  by  En- 
glish, 344 

Sardinia  in  Crimea,  1203 

Saskatchewan  rebellion,  1656 

Scandinavian  war,  538 

Scharnhorst,  161,  477 

Schelling,  908 

Schill,  326 

Schiller,  141 

Schlegel,  Wilhelm,  777 

Schleswig-Holstein's  first  insurrec- 
tion, 1061;  ceded,  1390;  invaded, 
1435 

Schliemann,  1718 

Schopenhauer,  648 

Schubert,  Franz,  767 

Scientific  progress,  739 

Scinde  annexed,  959 

Scott,  General,  529,  1008 

Sir  Walter,  389,  825 

Sebastiani,   98 

Sebastopol  besieged,  1192 ;  taken,  1260 

Secession   of  Southern   States,    1312 

Sedan,   1506 

Selim  deposed,  195 

Seminole  war,  627,  828,  938 

Serfdom  abolished  in  Lithuania,  179; 
in  Prussia,  230;  in  Russia,  1319 

Seringapatam,  fall  of,  71 

Servia  declares  independence,  1560 

Servian-Bulgarian  war,  1666 

"Seven  Days'  Battle,"  1361 

Seven  Pines,  1360 

Seward's  Mexican  message,  1447 

Sewing  machine  invented,  783 

Shelley,  389,  693 

Sheridan  in  Parliament,  89,  366 

Sheridan's  Ride,   1406 

Sherman  Silver  Bill,  1717;  Act  re- 
pealed, 1754;  dies,  1898 


INDEX 


1923 


Sherman,  William  Tecumseh,  1726; 
march  to  sea,  1409 

Shield's  prophecy,  1120 

Shiloh,  1358 

Shimonoseki  treaty,  1779 

Sicily  and  England,  156 

Sierra  Busaca,  387 

Sikh  war  (first)  ends,  994 

Simplon  Pass,  96 

Sindia  conquered,  97 ;  annexed  by 
British,  968 

Slavery  issue  in  America,  764;  in 
"West  Indies,  94 

Slave  trade  suppressed,  939 

Smith,  Sydney,  990 

Smithsonian  Institute,  877 

Smolensk  captured,  416;  evacuated, 
426 

Softcha,  1570 

Solferino,  1278 

Son  tag,  1189 

Soult,  Marshal,  346,  395,  1144 

South  American  revolts,  373;  States 
independent,  689 ;  revolutionists, 
762 

South  Australia  settled,  869 

Southey,  "Curse  of  Kahama, "  389; 
ode  on  France,  512;  poet  laureate, 
389,  512,  527,  961 

Sovereignties  distributed  (1806),  147 

Sovereignty  of  Pope  denied,  125 

Spain  loses  Louisiana,  77;  incurs 
England's  hostility,  120;  war  with 
England,  121;  fleet  joined  French, 
121;  loses  Trinidad,  234;  despoiled 
by  England,  121;  war  of  the  Pen- 
insula, 239;  conquered  by  French, 
369;  and  South  America,  371 ;  five- 
fold regency,  369 ;  and  interven- 
tion, 690;  succession,  1489;  and 
Philippines,  1797;  and  Cuba,  1815 

Spanish- American  war,  1820 

Specie  payments  in  England,  611 

Spectrum  analysis,  1314 

Spicheren,  1503 

Spion  Kop,  1871 

Spoliation  of  Germany,  96 

Spontini,  1132 

"Squatter  sovereignty,"  1184 

Stael,  Madame  de,  110,  626 

Stanley  finds  Livingstone,  1532 

St.  Antoine  taken  by  English,  87 

Stan  ton,  E.  M.,  1345 

Star  Route  frauds,  1631 

Steam  navigation,   229 


Stein,  Prussian  Premier,  230;  ex- 
pelled, 269 

Stenography,  622 

Stephen  son,  George,  1040;  steam 
railway,  727 

Stethoscope,  652 

Stevenson,  Robert  L.,  1763 

Stralsund  siege,  198 

Strategy,  Napoleon's,  161 

Submarine  cable,  first,  1116 

Suez  Canal,  1688 

Sumner  assaulted,  1219 

Sumter  fired  on,  1325 

Sweden  loses  Stralsund,  231 ;  revolu- 
tion, 305 


TAIPING  rebellion  begins,  1118; 
threatens  Peking,  1177;  successes, 
1300 

Talavera,  345 

Talleyrand,  Napoleon's  secretary,  98; 
recalled  from  Russia,  115;  message 
to  Fox,  155;  disgraced,  295;  and 
Restoration,  524;  and  Metternich, 
544 

Tamatave  captured,  1638 

Taouk-Wang,  671 

Tariff  policy  in  United  States,  612 

Taylor,  Bayard,  1591 

Zachary,  1095,  1122 

Technical  French  schools,  93 

Tecumseh,  407,  504 

Tennyson,  Alfred,  738,  1743 

Texas  annexed  to  United  States,  984 

Thackeray,  W.  M,,  1386 

Thiers,  Prime  Minister,  848;  French 
President,  1529;  death,  1572 

Thorvaldsen,  976 

Tieck,  1171 

Tilden,  Samuel  J.,  1673 

Tilsit,  Peace  of,  208 

Tippecanoe,  409 

Tirnova,  1568 

Todleben,  1195 

Tonquin  war,  1649 

Torres  Vedras,  385 

Toussaint  L'Ouverture,  86,  94 

Trade,  American,  305 

Trafalgar,  131 

Transatlantic  cable,  1263 

Transvaal  settled,  946;  first  annexa- 
tion, 1577  ;  independent  (1 852),  1 157 ; 
reconquered  by  British,  1788 

"Triple   Alliance"    renewed,    1732 


1924 


INDEX 


Tripoli  opened  to  French,  95 

Truxtun,  49 

Tudela,  280 

Tunis  opened  to  French,  95 ;  attacked 
by  French,  1623 

Turner,  Joseph,  1142 

Troyon,  1430 

Turkey  and  France,  94;  safeguarded 
(1829),  775;  and  Greece,  676;  and 
Russia,  172;  massacre  of  Mame- 
lukes, 404 

Turkish  fleet  annihilated,  717 

Turkoman  war,  1618 

Tweed,  William,  1466;  imprisoned, 
1542 

Tyler,  John,  President,  936 

Tyrol  and  France,  356 

II 

"UNCLE  TOM'S  CABIN,"  1122 
Union  Pacific  scandal,  1460 
Union,  England  and  Ireland,  77 
United  British  Parliament,  78 
United  States  and  Flondas,  263 ;  and 
South     America,    375,    691,    710; 
bank    fails,     911;     only    republic, 
375;    withdraws   embargo,    304 
University  of  Berlin,  390 


VALLANDIGHAM,  1371 

Venice  recaptured  by  Austrians,  1112 

Vera  Cruz,  1012 

Vernet,  Horace,  1386 

VicKsburg  taken,   1383 

Victor  Emmanuel's  accession,  1103; 
death,  1583 

Victoria,  Alexandra,  born,  648 ;  acces- 
sion, 855;  betrothal,  911;  marriage, 
918;  decline,  1009;  diamond  jubi- 
lee, 1812 

Vienna  occupied  by  French,  136;  bom- 
barded, 318 

Villafranca,  Truce  of,  1280 

Villeneuve,  Admiral,  127;  fights  Nel- 
son, 135;  suicide,  410 

Vimeiro,  261 

"Virginius"  affair,  1544 

Vittoria,  Battle  of,  484 

Volta,  57 

W 

"  WACHT  AM  RHEIN,"  740 
Wagner,  Richard,  1639 
Wagram,  344 
Wallia  annexed,  95 


Warner,  Charles  Dudley,  1899 

Washington  taken  by  British,  531 

Waterloo,  574;  losses  of,  585 

Webster-  Ashburton  treaty,  962 

Webster,  Daniel,  1161 

Noah,  766 

Weimar,  75 

Weissenburg,  1502 

Wellesley,  Arthur  (Duke  of  Welling- 
ton),  at  Assaye,  108;  first  honors, 
109;  at  Dammergaun,  110;  defeats 
Ameer  Khan,  125;  selected  for 
Spain,  293;  joins  Cuesta,  345; 
holds  Portugal,  384;  at  Ciudad 
Rodrigo,  412;  at  Badajos,  415; 
enters  Madrid,  437 ;  at  Vittoria, 
484;  defeats  Soult,  601  -t  enters 
France,  504;  rewarded,  527;  Wa- 
terloo campaign,  567 ;  at  Waterloo, 
574;  Premier,  754;  Ministry  falls, 
799;  death,  1165 

Marquis,  Secretary  of  State,  366 

Western  Empire  schemes,  117 

Western  States,  growth,  620 

Western  Florida  joined  to  United 
States,  374 

West  Indies,  Dutch  lost,  67 

Wet,  Christian  De,  1901 

Whitman,  Walt,  1739 

Whittier,  John  Greenleaf,  1741 

Wilberforce,  839 

Wilderness,  battle,  1400 

Wilkinson  and  Burr,  184 

William  III.,  Frederick,  at  Tilsit,  207; 
his  appeal,  471 

William  I.,  death,  1685 

William  II.,  accession,  1686 

Wisconsin  admitted,  1043 

Wolfe's  ballad,  292 

Woodington  takes  Baroach,  109 

Wordsworth's  war  sonnets,  105 ;  odes, 
119;  death,  1113 

Workshops  in  France,  1076 

World's  Fair  at  Chicago,  1751 

Wurtemberg,  kingdom,  143 


YALU,  battle,  1771 
York,  General  von,  466 
Young,  Brigham,  1575 
Ypsilanti's  revolt,  672 


ZACH  at  Marengo,  65 
Zulu  war,  1592 


Emerson,  E. 

A  history  of  the  nineteenth 

century,  year  by  year. 


•  E53 
V.3