A_History_Of_Pali_Literature

A HISTORY OF
PALI LITERATURE

BY

BIMALA CHUEN LAW, Ph.D., M.A., B.L.,

Sir Asutosh Mookerjee Gold Medalist, Griffith Prizeman, Caloutta University;

Advocate, High Court, Caloutta ; Author, Some Ktatriya Tribes of Ancient India,

Ancient Mid-Indian Ksatriya Tribes, The Life and Work of Buddhagfiosa,

Geography of Early Buddhism, Heaven and Hell in Buddhist

Perspective^ A Study of the MaJi&vastt, Women in Buddhist

Literature, Historical Gleanings, The Buddhist

Conception of Spirits, TJie Law of Gift in

British India, etc., etc.,
Editor, Buddhistic Studies,

With a Foreword by
WILHELM GEIGER, Ph.D.,

Professor of Indo-Iranian Languages,
Miinchen University, Germany,

IN TWO VOLUMES

I.

KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & Co., Ltd.,

38, Great Russell Street,

London, W.C. 1.

1033

Thesis approved by the University of Calcutta for the,
Griffith Memorial Prize in Letters for 1931.

FOREWORD

There can be no doubt that a new and ample treatment of
the Pali literature is a great scientific want felt by all the
scholars who are working in that field. Many problems con-
nected with the subject are still unsolved. Not even the
question of the origin and home of what we call Pali language
and of its linguistic character is definitively settled, and the
chronological order of a single book is very often uncertain.
Professor Winternitz in his great work on Indian literature has
described also the Pali literature in ah admirable manner.
But the scope of his work did not allow him, of course, to enter
into all the details and to discuss the many divergences of
opinion. Malalasekera in his recent publication has confined
himself to the Pali books composed in Ceylon. Hence the whole
canonical literature was to be left aside. I was very much
pleased, therefore, when I heard that Dr. Bimala Churn Law
had intended to publish a comprehensive work on Pali literature.
We all know his former publications on Buddhist topics and
their intrinsic value, and I repeatedly congratulated him on
the happy choice of his themes and on the clever manner in
which he had accomplished his task. I was even more pleased
when I had the opportunity to peruse a good deal of the manus-
cript of the present work. It will prove to be extremely useful
to all the Pali scholars by the sober and impartial judgment
of the author and by the clear and exhaustive exposition of
the various problems. Above all I wish to point at the important
discussion of the relative chronology of the canonical texts,
which means a considerable progress beyond what Rhys Davids
has said on the subject, and at the ample and very clear
summaries of the Tipitaka books which will be welcome to
those who are unable to read them in the original language but
wish to become acquainted with their general plan and contents.
I frankly say that I found all I could read extremely suggestive
and I am convinced that I shall learn much from the book
even where my opinion may perhaps differ from that of the
author.

16-2-32. WILH. GEIGBE.

PREFACE

* Scholars intere^ed in Buddhism have no doubt felt a great
want of an exhaustive treatment of Pali literature. I have,
therefore, attempted for the first^time to supply the need of a
detailed and systematic history of Pali literature in two volumes.
Drs. M. H. Bode and G. P. Malalasekera have published their
respective monographs on the Pali literature of Burma and of
Ceylon. Drs. (reiger and Winternitz have also given us a brief
survey of Pali literature in their respective works, " Pah' Literatur
und sprache " and '' Geschichte der Indischen Literatur die
Buddhistische literatur und die Jleiligfin texte der Jainas
(1920) ". But my treatment of the subject is entirely different
from those of my predecessors. The first volume deals with
the chronology and general history of the Pali Pitakas. In the
Introduction to this volume I have briefly discussed the origin
of t Pali and the importance of the study of Pali as one of the
Indian languages. A systematic and critical treatment of the
puzzling problem of the chronology of the Pali canon follows
next, throwing a new light on this intricate and difficult subject.
1 have tried to discuss at some length the date and com-
position of each and every book included in the Pali canon.
This volume contains a critical exposition of the Vinaya Pitaka.
An elaborate treatment of the Sutta Pitaka consisting of the
five nikayas, the Digha, Majjhima, Samyutta, Ahguttara, and
KJmddaka has received the attention it deserves. I have also
taken cart; to point out the peculiarities of the style and language
in which each suttanta has been written. Under each suttanta
and under each nikaya the ancient and modern literature hitherto
published has been noticed. In the section on the Abhidhamma
Pitaka, I have noted the significance and importance of the
Abhidhamrna treatises not without paying attention fco the
style and language of the Abhidhamma texts. The Pali counter-
parts of the Abhidhamma books of the Sarvastivada School
have been dealt with in the last chapter of the first volume.
I have everywhere considered it worth while to mention the
available printed editions, manuscripts, and different recensions
of each sutta noting the points of textual variations wherever
possible. An attempt has been made to collect the parallel
passages by way of comparison from other literatures wherever
found.

The second volume which treats of post-canonical Pali litera-
ture is devoted to the study of extra canonical works pre-
supposed by the Pali commentaries, th Pali chronicles, the
Pali manuals, the Pali literary pieces, the Pah* grammars 3
loxicpgraphies, and works on rhetoric. In the concluding chapter

vi Preface

I have tried to give a general survey of the whole book and
traced the development of Pali poetry. I have given two
appendices dealing with the Historical and Geographical re-
ferences in the Pali Pitakas and the PSli tracts in the inscriptions,
which, I believe, will be found useful. I have appended an index
at the end for the convenience of readers. 1 have not fourd
it necessary to deal with some of the unimportant books
about which nothing much can be known, e.g., the Sarasamgaha
(containing many points concerning Buddhism), the KamandakI
(a book on polity), the Akkharasammohacheda (word book),
the Sotabbamalini (containing edifying tales), the Takkabhasa
(a book on logic), Amatakaravannana, Sucittalankara, Lanka-
katha, Munigunalankara, Sarasamgaha, Rajadhirajavilasini,
Dhammasattapakarana, Dabbaguna (pharmacology), Sarattha-
samgaha, Sulacaraka, Sadhucaritodaya, Kosalabimbavannana,
Sahassavatthupakarana; Lokappadipakasara, etc.

The task which I have performed is, no doubt, beset with
difficulties but I shall consider my labour amply rewarded if
this treatise is found useful by scholars interested in Buddhist
literature, history, and religion.

I am grateful to Mrs. Rhys Davids and Dr. B. M. Barua
for their valuable suggestions for the improvement of this
work. Dr. W. Geiger has really laid me under a deep debt of
gratitude by writing a foreword.

I have to offer my sincere thanks to Dr. D. R. Bhandarkar,
M.A., Ph.D., and Mr. Syama Prasad Mookerjee, M.A., B.L.,
Barrister-at-Law, who have evinced a keen interest in the
publication of this work.

43, Kailas Bose Street, BIMALA CHURN LAW.

Calcutta, the 22nd May, 1933.

CONTENTS

PAGE

FOREWORD iii

PREFACE v

INTRODUCTION ix

*

CHAPTER I

CHRONOLOGY OF THE PALI CANON . . 1

CHAPTER II

CANONICAL PALI LITERATURE

SECTION I VINAYA PITAKA ... 43

SECTION II SUTTA PITAKA . . . . 79

A. DlGHA NIKAYA .... ^0

B. MAJJHIMA NIKAYA . . .115

C. SAMYUTTA NIKAYA . . . 157

D. ANGUTTARA NIKAYA . . . 180

E. KHUDDAKA NIKAYA . . . 193

SECTION III ABHIDHAMMA PITAKA . 303

CHAPTER III

PALI COUNTERPARTS OF THE SEVEN ABHIDHAMMA

TREATISES OF THE SARVASTIVADA SCHOOL . 336

INTRODUCTION

9 * I. The Orwin and home of Pali. The term
Palibhasa 1 or Pali language is a comparatively
modern coinage. Whether* the credit of this mis-
leading coinage is due to the European Orientalists
or to the latter-day Buddhist theras of Ceylon,
Burma, and Siam, is still a matter of dispute. It is
certain, however, that even up to the 6th or 7th
century A.D., the term Pali does not appear to
have gained currency as a nomenclature for any kind
of language. Even if we look into the Culavamsa
forming a later supplement to the Mahavariisa we
find that the term Pali is used in it clearly in the
sense of original Buddhist texts, the texts of the
canon, as distinguished from the commentaries :

' Palimattam idhanitam, natthi atthakatha
idha' only the Pali has been brought over here
from Ceylon but not the commentaries. In the
commentaries themselves there are several passages^
in which the term Pali has been employed precisely
in the sense of the original authoritative text of the
canon. In the Visuddhimagga, for instance, we
have at p. 107 * Idam sabbakarena neva Paliyam, na
atthakathayam agatam, kevalam acariyamatanu-

1 'Pah Pa rakkhane li; Pati, rakkhatiti, Paji Paliti ekacce.
Tanti, Buddhavacanam, Panti, Pali. (Bhagavata vuccamanassa
atthassa voharassa ca dlpanato saddoyeva Pali namati gan(hi-
padesu vuttan 'ti AbhidhammaMhakathaya likhitaip);
Pali saddo Palidhamme-talakapaliyampi ca
Dissate pantiyam ceva-iti neyyam vijanata.

Ayarh hi Palisaddo, Paliya attham upaparikkhanti 'ti adisu
pariyattidhammasahkhate Palidhamme dissati ; ' Mahato talakassa
paji ti adisu talakapaliyam Paliya nisidimsuti adisu patipatiya
pisldimsuti attho, imasmim panatthe dhatuya kiccam natthi,
patipatiko hi pantivacako Palisaddo; pariyattidhammavacake
palisadde, attham pati, rakkhatiti paliti ca, antodakam rakkha-
natthena mahato talakassa thira mahatl pali viva ti pali^ti ca,
pakatthanam ukkatthanam slladiatthanam badhanato sabhavaiii-
ruttibhavato Buddhadlhi bhasitatta ca, palfatthanam vacanappa-
bandhanam all ti paliti ca nibbacanani veditabbani.' (Abhi-
dhammappadipika suci. )

x Introduction

sarena vuttam, tasma na sarato paccetabbam,'
and also at page 450 of this work we read ' Imani
tava paliyam : atthakathayam pana : annani pi-
rupani aharitva '. A similar distinction between the
Pali and the atthakatha on the f one hand a$d
between the atthakatha and the acariyamata on
the other is brought out by Buddhaghosa also in
his Puggala-Panfiatti commentary in the use of
such expressions as (1) Palimuttakena pana attha-
kathanayena, p. 171 ; (2) atthakathamuttakena
pana acariyanayena, p. 173 l . As a matter of
fact, the earliest issue of the term Pali can be traced
in the commentaries ^f Buddhaghosa and not in
any earlier Buddhist writings. It is again in the
commentaries that the term Pali came to be* re-
garded as a synonym for Buddhavacana, Tri-
pitaka, tanti, and pariyatti. The transition frdm
Pali the text to Pali the language came about
sooner or later by a natural process. Although the
conscious attempt on the part of the commentators
was to keep the term Pali dissociated from its
Hrfguistic implication, they felt constrained to com-
mit themselves to such an expression as tantibhasa
in order to distinguish the language of the Pali
or the text of the canon from Sihalabhasa or the
Sinhalese language. The language of the Pali itself
was characterised by them as Magadhinirutti or
the Magadhi idiom. In tantibhasa they attained
a coinage approaching Palibhasa or Pali language.
And the other term Magadhi or Magadhinirutti
was held out by them as a word of praise, claiming
thereby as they actually did, that the Magadhi
idiom of the Pali texts was the mulabhaa or the
primary speech of all men. 2

1 For other references see the P.T.S. Pali-English Dictionary,
Sub voce Pali.

2 Yinayavinicchaya-tika : ' Sakalajanasadharanaya mula-
bhasaya ' (Quoted in Buddhadatta's Manuals, p. xiv, Kaccayana*s
Pali Grammar, 'Sa M%adhimulabhasa naraya adikappika'). Visu-
dhimagga, pp. 441-442, Sabhavaninittiya Magadhikaya sabbasat-
tanam mulabhasaya.

Introduction xi

If it can thus be established that the use of
the term Pali is not earlier than the writings of
Buddhaghosa, and further that when it first came
into use, it denoted texts of the canon and was
kept dissociated from all linguistic implications,
one must at once repudiate all modern attempts
at the characterisation of the language of the
canon by means of the sound similarity of Pali
with Palli (a village) as idle ingenuity. To con-
template Pali as the typical Buddha vacana or the
text of the canon is chiefly to deal with the set
formulations of Buddha's doctrine and discipline,
the Buddha's mode of expression or presentation or
exposition, apart from the question of language.

The story of Magadhinirutti is a pure invention
of the theras of Ceylon, if not exactly that of
Buddhaghosa. It is very curious indeed how this
myth had originated and gradually gained ground
to mislead even the modern scientific investigators.
One will look in vain through all the canonical
texts and other earlier writings of the Buddhists
for any hint to imagine that Magadhi was the
dialect used by the Buddha as a sole medium at
expression and that he had used no other dialect
as the medium of instruction. It is no doubt
claimed in some of the canonical texts that the
Buddha was the boasted religious reformer of
Magadha, Anga-Magadha constituting the Maga-
dhan kingdom under the suzerainty of Bimbisara.
But is it a sufficient reason to maintain that the
Magadhika form of speech was the language of the
Buddha and that of the Buddhist canon ? We are
aware that much has been made of the Vinaya
passage enjoining that the bhikkhus should pro-
mulgate the teachings of the Buddha through
'the medium of sakdnirutti instead of translating
them into chandasa. The Vinaya passage reads :

" Na bhikkhave Buddha vacanam chandaso aro-
petabbam. Yo aropeyya, apatti dukkatassa. Anu-
janami bhikkhave sakaya niruttiya Buddha vacanam
pariyapunitum " (Cullavagga, V. 33. I, p. 139).

xii Introduction

Buddhaghosa interprets the term chandasa in
the sense of the Sanskrit language which served
as a diction of the Vedas (Vedam viya sakkata-
bhasaya vacanamaggam) and the other term sakani-
rutti is explained by him as signifying that form of
the Magadhaka dialect which was used by the
Buddha himself (ettha ,,sakaniruttinama samma-
sambuddhena vuttappakaro Magadhako voharo-
Samantapasadika, Cullavagga commentary, Sinha-
lese edition, p. 306).

Thus it is clear from Buddhaghosa's comment
that he has taken the term chandasa indiscri-
minately as a synonym*, for the Sanskrit language
and the term sakanirutti as a synonym for the
Magadhi dialect used as a medium of instruction
(vacanamagga) by the Buddha. But we arc aware
that the term sanskritabhdsd is of later origin, wo
mean later than the time of the Buddha and Panini.
In Panini's Astadhydyi, bhdsd (that is, Sanskrit lan-
guage) is divided into Vedic (vaidika) and current
(laukika) and by the term chandasa, Panini meant
the Vedic language as distinguished from the current
form of Sanskrit. It is precisely in this sense that the
term chandasa was used, if it was used at all by the
Buddha in the 6th century B.C. With the Buddha
chandasa or Vedic language was the prototype of
languages that had become archaic and obsolete,
dead as distinguished from living speech. It is
beyond our comprehension how Buddhaghosa went
so far as to suggest that by the term sakanirutti,
the Buddha meant his own medium of instruction
and nothing but Magadhaka or the Magadhi dialect.
Nothing would have been more distant from the
intention of a rational thinker like the Buddha than
to commit himself to such an opinion which is irra-
tional, erroneous, and dogmatic. He could not
have done so without doing violence to his position
as a fcammaditthika and vibhajjavadin. To give
out that the Magadhi is the only correct form of
speech for the promulgation of his teachings and
*every other dialect would be the incorrect form i^ a

Introduction xiii

micchaditthi or erroneous opinion which the Buddha
would ever fight shy of. Buddhaghosa has misled
us all. To rightly interpret the injunction of the
Buddha, we should first of all look into the context.
The circumstances that led the Buddha to lay down
tBe injunction ^re stated as follows :

tena kho pana samayena yamelutekula nama
bhikkhu dve bhatika honti brahmanajatlka kalyana-
vaca kalyanavakkarana. Te yena bhagava ten 'upa-
samkamimsu, upasamkamitva bhagavantam abhi-
vadetva ekamantam nisidimsu, ekamantam nisinna

'

kho te bhikkhu bhagavantam etad avocum : etarahi
bhante bhikkhu nananama nanugotta nanajacca
nanakula pabbajita, te sakaya * niruttiya buddha-
va<3anam dusenti. Handa mayam bhante buddha-
vacanam chandaso aropemati. Vigarahi buddho
bliagava. Kathan hi nama tumhe moghapurisa
evam vakkhatha : handa mayam bhante buddha-
vacanam chandaso aropemati ". . . . This passage
may be translated into English thus At that time
the two brothers who were bhikkhus of the yame-
lutekula were of brahmin origin and spoke and talk-
ed of good only. They approached the Buddha
where he was and having approached the Blessed
One saluted him and sat on one side. Those bhik-
khus who were seated on one side spoke to the
Blessed One thus, " Venerable sir, these bhikkhus
who embraced pabbaja, possess different names
and are of different lineages, births, and families.
They are polluting the Buddha's words by preach-
ing them in their own local dialects. And now
Venerable sir, we shall render the Buddha's words
into chandaso. " But the Buddha rebuked the
bhikkhus thus, " How you foolish persons speak
thus : And now Venerable sir we shall render the
Buddha's words into chandaso (one who knows the
Vedas) ". [Oldenberg, The Vinaya Pitakam,
Vol. II, p. 139.] ',

This goes to show that the Buddhist Frater-,,
nity of the time was composed of "persons of diverse
names, of diverse cultural groups, of diverse races,

xvi Introduction

designations ? Here, O Bhikkhus, it so happens
that in some locality a thing is known by the name
of Pati, in some by the name of Patta, in some by
the name of Vittha, in some by the name of Sarava,
in some by the name of Dharopa, in some by the
name of Pona, and in some by tho- name of Pi&iia.
Now the people of different localities pay too much
attention and lay too much stress on the different
names of the same word and boastfully say regard-
ing their own form for the word : " This is the
only correct form, and the others are incorrect."
Thus a man, O Bhikkhus, pays too much attention
to the local forms, and lays too much stress on the
local designations.*. H6w, O Bhikkhus, a man does
not pay too much attention to the local forms, and
does not lay too much stress on the local designa-
tions ? Here, O Bhikkhus, it so happens that a
thing is known by different designations in different
localities, in some by the name of Pati, in some
by the name of Patta, in some by the name of
Vittha, in some by the name of Sarava, in some by
the name of Dharopa, in some by the name of Pona,
>,nd in some by the name of Pisila. Now a man of
a particular locality, when he is in other localities
where different names of the same thing are in
vogue, knowing that in different localities different
names of the same thing are used conventionally
by the gentlemen, uses different names in different
localities without any attachment to his own local
form. Thus a man does not pay too much atten-
tion to the local forms, and does not lay too much
stress on the local designations. Accordingly, it is
stated that the local forms should not merit too
much attention and the local designations should
not be stressed too much.

That which we are now taught to call the Pali
language is a distinct Indian vehicle of expression
standardised in the Theravada recension of the
Buddhist canon and its commentaries and other
auxiliary works which are current in Ceylon, Burma,
and Siam. The history of Buddhism bears a clear

Introduction xvii

testimony to the fact that none of the other sects
adopted or adhered to this particular vehicle of
expression. The Theravadins or no-changers among
the followers of the Buddha sighed in vain over the
departure made by each new sect (Dlpavamsa,
Oldenberg, Ch*Q>. V, Verses 42-44, 48-50) from that
which was considered by hem to be the standard
language, or the standard corpus of authentic texts
or the standard mode of interpretation and in this
respect it is the bhikkhus of the Vajjian origin who
led the way. 1

" Mahasamgftika bhikkhu vilomaratikamsu sasanam,
bhinditva mulasamgaham annam akamsu samgahatp
annattha samgahitam suttaxn annattha akarimsu te,
attham dhamman ca bhindirasu ye nikayesu pancasu.
pariyayadesitan capi atho nippariyayadesitam
mtatthan c'eva neyyattham ajanitvana bhikkhavo
afinam sandhaya bhanitam annattham thapayimsu te,
byanjanacchayaya te bhikkhu bahu attham vinasayuxp.
chaddetva ekadesan ca suttam vinayafi ca gambhiram
patirupam suttavinaj^am tan ca afmam karimsu te.
parivaram atthuddharam abhidhammappakaranaip
patisambhidan ca niddesam ekadesan ca jatakam
ettakam nissajjetvana annani akarimsu te.
namam lingara parikkharam akappakaranani ca
pakatibhavam vijahetva tan ca annam akamsu te "

(Oldenberg, Dipavarasa, Verses 32-38, p. 36).

The above stanzas may be thus translated:

The bhikkhus of the Great Council made a compilation of the
doctrine quite opposite to the true faith. They destroyed the
original redaction of the dhamma and made a new redaction of the
same. The sutta which has been placed in one place originally
was placed by them in another place. They altered the meaning
(attha) and the faith (dhamma) in the five nikayas. They not
knowing what had been taught in long expositions nor without
exposition, neither the natural meaning nor the suppressed meaning,
gave a different meaning to that which had been said in connection
with an altogether different thing. They altered a great deal of
meaning under the shadow of letter. They discarded some portions
of the sutta and of the profound vinaya and compiled different
1 sutta and vinaya which had only the appearance of the genuine
ones. They rejected the Parivara, that which enables one to arrive
at the meaning, the Abhidhammapakarana, the Patisambhida,
the Niddesa and some portions of the Jataka and composed new
ones. They did away with the original rules regarding nouns/
genders, composition and the embellishments of style and made
new ones.

xviii Introduction

According to Max Walleser, Pali is contracted
from Patali or Padali and the assumption is that it
was a language of Pataliputra. Dr. E. J. Thomas
says that Dr. Walleser has not produced any evi-
dence to show that Pali is ever used in the cpm-
mentaries to indicate a language. What we want
is at least a single example to show that the com-
mentator was contrasting the Pali language with
some other (E. J. Thomas' note on Dr. Walleser
on the meaning of Pali, Indian Historical Quarterly,
December, 1928 Miscellany).

According to R. C. Childers, the internal evi-
dence confirms that Pali was a vernacular of the
people. The chaiige which Pali has undergone
relatively to Sanskrit is almost wholly confined to
vocabulary ; its alphabet is deficient in vowels, the
dual is lost, some verbal roots are unrepresented
while many vowel forms have disappeared. But
the gain in other direction due to the latitude of
phonetic change and the incorporation of new
nouns and verbal forms is not inconsiderable. There
is~no foreign element in Pali with the exception of
( d> very few imported Dravidian nouns. It is on the
whole in the same inflexional stage as Sanskrit
and everything in its vocabulary, grammar and
syntax can be explained from the sister tongue
(Childers' Pali Dictionary, pp. xv-xvi). In the
opinion of James Alwis, 1 Sanskrit was no longer the
vernacular speech of the people when Buddhism
arose. Pali was one of the dialects in current use
in India. It was the language of Magadha. Many
Pali theological terms have cognate expression in
the brahmanic literature but the significations
assigned to them are different in the two languages.
Pali was retained more than two centuries after-
wards till Asoka's time. The difference between,,
the dialects of the inscriptions and that of the
Pali ,text denotes that the former as a spoken
language underwent changes while the latter became

1 Vide the Buddhist Scriptures and their language.

Introduction xix

fixed in Ceylon as the sacred language of the scrip-
tures. Mr. Alwis says that Magadhl is undoubtedly
the correct and original name for Pali. It is clear,
therefore, that he agrees with the view of Childers.
H further poiitf s out that at the time of Gautama
there were 16 dialects prevalent in India. Pre-
ference was given to MagadhI. The Buddhist
scriptures of the Hmayanists were written in that
dialect. The existence of 35 works on Pali grammar
in Ceylon shows the great attention paid to the
language. The high antiquity of Pali, its refine-
ment, its verbal and grammatical simplicity, its
relationship with the oldest* language of the brah-
mins, proves it to be a dialect of high antiquity.
The? decline of Pali in Asia was co-existent with the
decline of the religion taught through its medium.
]>. Oldenberg rejects the mission of Mahinda as
unhistorical and points out that the introduction
of Pali into Ceylon was due to the influence of the
people of KaliAga, He says that the home of the
Pali language must be looked for more to the south
than to the north of the Vindhya mountains (wiS<j
Vinaya Pitaka, Intro., pp. i, foil., and p. liv). Sir
George Grierson agrees with Windisch 1 in holding
that literary Pali is Magadhl. Wintemitz supports
this view. According to him, Pali is a language
of literature which has been exclusively employed
by the Buddhists and has sprung like every literary
language more or less from an admixture of several
dialects. Such a literary tongue is ultimately de-
rived from one definite dialect. And this the
MagadhI can very well be so that the tradition
which makes Pali and Magadhl synonymous is
not to be accepted literally but at the same time
it rests on an historical basis. The literary language,
'Pali, developed gradually and was probably fixed

when it was reduced to writing in Ceylon under

1 ttber den sprachlichen charakter des Pali in actes du xiv
Congres International des Orientalistes, pt. I, pp. 252 foil, and 277
foil

xx Introduction

Vattagamam (Views of Winternitz quoted by
Mr. Nariman in his book " Literary History of
Sanskrit Buddhism", pp. 213-214). Literary Pali
was then spoken and was used as a medium of
literary instruction in the University of Taxila.
It was the language of the educated Buddhists
and in a polished form would naturally be used
by them for literary purposes (Bhandarkar Comme-
moration Volume, 1917 The Home of Liter-
ary Pali). Otto Franke points out that literary
Pali cannot have had its home in the Eastern part
of Northern Indi^. There are points of similarity
and dissimilarity between literary Pali and the
language of the Kharosthi documents of the North -
Western India ; literary Pali has many points of
difference as compared with the language of the
inscriptions of the Deccan, and the language of the
inscriptions of the western Madhyadesa shows most
points of agreement with literary Pali though
there are points of dissimilarity (Pali und Sanskrit,
Ch. X, p. 138). According to Edward Miiller
(.Pali Language, p. ix), in early times it was the
north-west of Ceylon which was the seat of culture
pointing to influence from Southern India and not
to Aryan immigration from the Ganges valley.
Westergaard * and Kuhn 2 connect Pali with the
dialect of Ujjain, relying not merely on the con-
nection with the Girnar dialect of Asokan inscrip-
tions but also on the view that this was the mother
tongue of Mahinda. W. Geiger regards Pali as
a keine based on Ardhamagadhl. 3 Dr. H. Liiders

1 t5"ber den altesten zeitraum der Indisehen Gesehichte, p. 87.

2 Beitrage Ziir Pali Grammatik, p. 9.

8 Prof. P. V. Bapat in his paper on the relation between Pali
and Ardhamagadhl published in the Indian Historical Quarterly,
March, 1928, has adequately shown that from the evidences of
phonology, grammar, the relation of Ardhamagadhl vocabulary
with thai of Sanskrit, Pali and Mahratti and the works of Katyayana
<dnd Patanjali, it is not safe to come to the conclusion that Pali
is a literary language based on Ardhamagadhl. Vide also " A
Comparative Study of a few Jain Ardhamagadhl Texts with the
Texts of the Buddhist Pali Canon " by Prof. P. V. Bapat in the

Introduction xxi

(Bruchstucke buddhistischer Dramen, pp. 40 ff.)
suggests that the oldest Buddhist scriptures were
composed in old Ardhamagadhi and that in part
at least the existing Pali canon represents a transla-
tion from the old Ardhamagadhi. Dr. Sten Konow
says that the Vindhya tract is the home of Pali.
He finds similarity in P|li and PaisacI Prakrit
which seems to have been spoken in the country
to the north of Vindhya. Sylvain Levi (Journal
Asiatique, Ser. XX, 495 ff.) holds that we must
recognise in Pali traces of a dialect in which sound
changes had proceeded further than what is found
in Pali. The Jains and Byddhi^ts used first one
of the dialects of Magadha in* which consonant
degradation had been in progress ; when finally they
came to reduce their scriptures to permanent
form, the Jains carried out a systematic reduction
of intervocalic consonant to the Ya-sruti, while
Buddhism acted in the opposite sense under the
influence of Western elements which gained control
over the church. Dr. Keith is right in pointing
out that the argument of Levi rests on a number
of peculiarities in Pali and Buddhist Sanskrit ifl
which he holds we must see traces of the forms of
words employed in the older version of the canon
and supported by the analogous forms in inscrip-
tions. Thus the Bhabru Edict contains the form
' Laghulovade ' instead of ' Rahulovada ', ' Adhi-
gicya ' instead of ' Adhikritya ', but the softening
of ' k ' is rare in Pali and the retention of ' cy '
is alien to Pali. Besides he mentions ' Anadhape-
dika ' instead of * Anathapindika ', * Maghadeviya
Jataka ' instead of * Makhadeva Jataka ', * avayesi '
instead of ' avadesi ' and so forth. According to
Rhys Davids, Pali was a literary dialect based on
the spoken language of Kosala (Buddhist India,
pp. 153-4). Rhys Davids further says that there
existed a standard Kosalan speech in the 7tt and

v .4

Sir Ashutosh Mukerji Memorial Volume published by Prof. J. N.
Samaddar, pt. II, pp. 91-105.

xxii Introduction

6th centuries B.C., which was the speech of the
Buddha and the Pali scriptures were in the main
composed within a century after the Buddha's
death in this Kosalan country. The Asokan inscrip-
tions prove the existence of a standard language
which is a younger form of the standard Kosalan.
Dr. Keith ably points qut that there is no reason
whatever to accept the view that the language
of Asoka's Magadhan empire was Kosalan or to
accept the suggestion that Kosala became a part
of Magadha by the peaceful succession of the
Magadhan ruler to the Kosalan throne with the
result that the language of Kosala prevailed over
the language of Magadha. Rhys Davids ignores
the conclusive evidence of the Bhabru inscription
which shows that Asoka did not follow a Pali
canon even if he knew a canon and if he adapted
his own language to give titles of canonical texts,
we cannot doubt that his contemporaries would
also hand down the text adapted in language to the
speech of the day in accordance with the prob-
able intention of the Master himself. Dr. Keith
further criticises Rhys Davids by saying that the
facts revealed a different aspect. The Buddha
preached in dialect which we cannot define because
we have no authentic information, it may have
been standard Kosalan or Magadhan dialect but
we "have no knowledge to decide or to describe
their characteristics. The Asokan official or
standard speech cannot be styled Magadhi but
Ardhamagadhi. But this Ardhamagadhi or other
Magadhan dialect is not reproduced in Pali. The
basis of Pali is some western dialect and in its
literary form as shown in the Pali canon, we have
a decidedly artificial composite product doubtless
largely affected by Sanskrit and substantially re-
moved from a true vernacular. But it must be
notedc as against Rhys Davids that the forms of
JPali are not historically the oldest of those known
to us. Even in the case of the Girnar dialect
of the Asokan inscriptions, it is impossible

Introduction xxiii

establish the priority of Pali in view of such pheno-
mena as the retention of long vowels before double
consonants and traces of the retention of ' r ' in
certain consonantal combinations as well as the
use of ' st ' where Pali assimilates ; moreover that
dialect appear,^ to have maintained a distinction
for sometime between tjie palatal and lingual
sibilants. There is, therefore, nothing whatever
in the linguistic facts to throw doubt about the
date above suggested. (Pali, the Language of the
Southern Buddhists, published in the Indian
Historical Quarterly, September, 1925.) Mrs. Rhys
Davids points out that Pali js not* the name of any
localizable tongue. Pali means* 'row'. She says
thai we have it in the name of the famous courtesan
convert Ambapall (Mango-orchard-er lit. mango-
rQwer) whose birth tradition suggested her name and
she also quotes the Visudhimagga to show that the
teeth are said to be in a paH (dantapali). She
further says that it is almost in juxtaposition to
this term that we read, " Give him the Pali of the
32 bodily parts to learn ", in other words, gi^e
him either a written leaf of that list of parts of
merely the repeated " row " of terms. She is
much against the theory that Pali is only another
name for Magadhese, i.e., the Prakrit spoken in
Asoka's day at Patna. According to her, it is
truer to say that in Pali, here and there, we find
forms of Magadhi and Ardhamagadhi peeping out,
than that Pali has its base in them and them only.
When India was bookless and laboriously punching
letters on little metalplates, she was cutting shapes in
stones she was carving. For these two operations she
appears to have had but the one word ' fikh ', * lekh %
to scratch or incise. We began our writing relatively
> earlier; we had the two words. With the growing
need, and the new material for setting down not
mere lists, donations, contracts in writing, but also
the expanded masses of her mantras, there came to-
pass the new and impressive phenomenon of seeing
that which had been a time-series in air, become

xxiv Introduction

a " row " of things in space. And for a long time
it remained customary to allude to the two series in
juxtaposition : the " row " as not the ' talk on the
meaning ' (atthakatha). Still later, when more were
learning to read the row, the word ' reading ' (patha)
was substituted for the word *r6w', e.g., ""tie
reading is also thus ", alluding to variant readings,
" ayam pi patho ". But not at first ; and so in
Pali, in default of an alternative term for graphic
presentation, we have emphasis thrown not on to
the handicraft, as in lekhana, likhi, but on to
the thing produced by handicraft, the visible,
finished act. PaK is just " Text " and there is no
reason to believe fliat it was ever more than that.
(Sakya or Buddhist Origins by Mrs. Rhys Davids,
App. I, pp. 429-30.) Prof. Turner says that accord-
ing to some the meaning of Pali has been extended
to cover all the cognate Middle Indian dialects
found in the inscriptions and other documents.
Pali, in its earliest texts, is a language of mixed
dialectical forms, some common to both north-
western and eastern dialects ; others peculiarly
eastern. These may be due to the influence of an
original -recension in an eastern dialect or to the
general influence of the eastern vernaculars on the
other Indo- Aryan languages, especially during the
predominance of the Mauryan empire with its
eastern capital. Its main characteristics are those
of a western dialect. Tradition has it that the
Buddhist Scriptures were brought to Ceylon by
Asoka's son, Mahinda, who had spent his child-
hood in Ujjem. In Ceylon the study and the use
of Pali which died out in India, was prosecuted by
the Buddhists and carried thence to Burma and
Siam, where it still remains to some extent the
language of literature or at least of religion. (Pali
Language and Literature, The Encyclopaedia Bri-
tannitfa, 14th Edition, Vol. XVII, 145-146.) Taking
Jnto consideration the fact that the Buddha and
Mahayira were natives of the East, some presume
that in their discourses they must have used ^ the

Introduction xxv

eastern or Pracya dialect. It is difficult to say what
is that, because we have contemporary records of
the earlier speech. Thus we find various theories
regarding the original home of the Pali language.
It te difficult to come to a definite conclusion about
it/ All attempt^ to ascertain the dialect which the
Buddha made the medium ,of his instructions have
proved futile. We think that Pali is based on a
western form of the Indian Prakritic dialects parti-
cularly the form which tallied with the dialect of
the Girnar version of Asoka's Rock Edicts and
to some extent with the Saurasen! prakrit as known
to the grammarians. On examining the Pali cano-
nical texts it will be clear that" the tendency of
Pali* is to steer clear of Magadhism. The instances
of Magadhism cited from the Pali texts, e.g., " sukhe-
dujkkhe jivasattame ", " akata akata vidha " (Digha
Nikaya, Vol. I, p. 56), " N'atthi attakare n'atthi
parakare, n'atthi purisa-kare ", (Digha, Vol. I,
p. 53) do not affect the character of Pali as these
occur where the doctrines of other contemporary
teachers, e.g., Pakudha Kaccayana and MakkhaM
GosJlla have been quoted and discussed. It is"
important to observe that these forms do not occur
in those places where the doctrines of Pakudha
Kaccayana and Makkhali Gosala have been restated
in their own language, i.e., in Pali. The exceptional
forms, e.g., Isigili for Isigiri (Majjhima Nikaya,
Vol. Ill, pt. i, p. 68) do not lend support to the
argument in favour of the influence of Magadhism
in Pali, Isigili being explained as a Magadhi spelling
retained for a very special reason (vide B. M. Barua's
Old Brahml Inscriptions in the Udayagiri and
Khandagiri Caves, p. 165). In order to arrive at a
definite conclusion regarding the origin of the Pali
language, it will be necessary to leave aside not
only the instances of Magadhism noted above but
also some of the Prakrit and Vedic survivals in the
gathas, e.g., vaddha for vrddha, netave for netum^.
pahatave for pahatum, these forms being altoge-
ther ^absent in the Pali prose portions.

xxvi Introduction

2. Importance of the Study of Pali. The study
of Pali is essential for the reconstruction of the
history of Ancient India. Pali literature is vast
and rich in materials which render an invaluable
aid to the systematic study of ancient Indian
history. There are many Pali Mboks buried *in
manuscripts which are not easily procurable. The
Pali commentaries furnish us with a great store-
house of valuable information regarding the literary,
linguistic, social, economic, political, architectural,
and religious history of Ancient India. The psycho-
ethical analysis of dhammas, the classification of
various types of consciousness, mental processes,
causal relations arid the like form a highly special
contribution in Pali to Indian wisdom. The Acti-
vities of one of the great religious reformers of
India, namely Gotama Buddha, can be w^ll
understood by a careful study of some of the books
of the Pali Pitakas. To a student of the ancient

history of India, the study of Pali is as important
as that of Sanskrit and the Prakrits and in a sense
more important as furnishing reliable data of
Chronology. That Pali has not been so well studied
in the east as in the west is evident from the publica-
tions of the western scholars in this line. In the
west, Trenckner, Clough, Spiegel, Westergaard,
Childers, James Alwis, Fausboll, Anderson, Tur-
nour, Bendall, Pischel, Minayeff, Edmund Hardy,
Oldenberg, Kern, Bigandet, Richard Morris, H. C.
Norman, T. W. Rhys Davids, C. A. F. Rhys Davids,
Keith, Geiger, Walleser, Windisch, E. J. Carpenter,
Robert Chalmers, La Vallee Poussin, Rouse, Warren,
E. J. Thomas, Sir George Grierson, Otto Schrader,
Arnold Taylor, Winternitz, Warren, Lesny, Sten
Konow, Mabel Bode, Landsberg, Jacobi, Lanman,
Burlingame, Grimm, Jackson, Moore, Steinthal,
Strong, Stede, Helmer Smith, Sir Charles Eliot,
LeonJFeer, Otto Franke, Frankfurter, James Woods,
Woodward, J. Przyluski, and others have rendered
immense services to the cause of Pali study by way
of editing and translating many original Pali texts

Introduction xxvii

and publishing many valuable books on Buddhism.
We are indeed grateful to T. W. Rhys Davids and
C. A. F. Rhys Davids who have done really im-
mense good to the world by publishing their learned
researches in tfye field of Pali. No scholars have
done so much work as they have done. The Pali
Text Society of London under the able guidance of
Rhys Davids is bound to be remembered by scholars
interested in Buddhism and Buddhist history from
generation to generation. In the school of Oriental
studies, London Institution, Pali is taught as one
of the subjects prescribed for study. In the east,
the study of Pali is greatly ^progressing now.
Scholars like Takakusu, Anesaki, Sujuki, Nagai,
Wa^anabe, Buddhadatta, Haraprasad Shastri, Dhar-
mananda Kosambi, B. M. Barua, the late Satish
Cltandra Vidyabhusana, the late Sarat Chandra
Das, C.I.E., the late Rev. Suriyagoda Sumangala,
Bapat, the late Harmath De, Rev. Anagarika Dham-
mapala, Shwe Zan Aung, Ledi Sadaw, Gooneratna,
Jayatilaka, Narada, W. A. DeSilva, Tailang, Zoysa,
P. Maung Tin, Malalasekera, Siddhartha, the latfe
thavira Punnananda and a band of new enthusiasts

materially helped and are helping the study of Pali.
Our grateful thanks are due to His Majesty the King
of Siain for removing a loiigfelt want by the publi-
cation of the whole of the Pali Tripitaka, a precious
work on Buddhism. We agree with Lord Chalmers
who speaks of this edition in the following words :
" In Pali scholarship the edition (the King of
Siam's Edition of the Pali Tripitaka) will always
remain a great landmark on the path of progress
and an enduring monument alike in Europe and in
Siam to the Buddhist King who conceived and
executed so excellent an undertaking " (J.R.A.S.,
1898). Further bounties of His Majesty's family
and kinsmen have found a permanent expression
in the publication and free distribution of a oroyal
edition of fully indexed commentaries of Buddha-
ghosa and Dhammapala, the Milinda Panha and the
Jatajsas. The noble example of the royal family

xxviii Introduction

of Siam has been followed in Ceylon by the publi-
cation and free distribution of the Pali com-
mentaries by a fund commemorating the name of
the late lamented Dr. Hewavitarane, brother of the
late Rev. Anagarika Dhammapala. ^

Ceylon, Burma, Siam, Chittagong, Japan, Korea,
Tibet, China, and Mongolia are the countries largely
inhabited by the Buddhists. The majority of the
residents of Ceylon, Burma, Siam, and Chittagong
study Pali. Besides, there are other places in India
where Pali is studied. Pali is one of the verna-
culars prescribed for study in many Indian Univer-
sities, r

It is gratifying to note that our Alma Mater,
the University of Calcutta, under the guidance of
its ablest Vice-Chancellor, the late Sir Asutosh
Mookerjee, Kt., C.S.I., M.A., D.L., SaraswatI, Shas-
travachaspati, Sambuddhagamacakkavatti, greatly
furthered the study of Pali language and literature
and it was he who encouraged students whole-
heartedly to learn one of the great Oriental languages,
amely Pali, in which the literature of Buddhism
"has been written. His encouragement was a source
of inspiration to the author and to all other students
in all branches of study, and his death is a great
loss not only to our Alma Mater but also to the
whole of India.

CHAPTER I

t HRONOLQGY OF THE PALI CANON

Rhys Davids in his Buddhist India (p. 188)
has given a chronological talble of Buddhist litera-
ture from the time of the Buddha to the time of
Asoka which is as follows :

1. The simple statements of Buddhist doc-
trine now found, in identical words, in paragraphs
or verses recurring in all the .books.

2. Episodes found, in identical words, in
two*r more of the existing books.

3. The Silas, the Parayana, the Octades, the
Patimokkha.

4. The Digha, Majjhima, Ahguttara, and Sam-
yutta Nikayas.

5. The Sutta Nipata, the Thera- and Therl-
Gathas, the Udanas, and the Khuddakapatha.

6. The Sutta vibhanga and the Khandhakas.

7. The Jatakas and the Dhammapadas.

8. The Niddesa, the Itivuttakas, and the
Patisambhida.

9. The Peta- and Vimana-Vatthus, the Apa-
danas, the Cariya Pitaka, and the Buddha Vamsa.

10. The Abhidhamma books ; the last of
which is the Kathavatthu and the earliest probably
the Puggalapannatti.

This chronological table of early Buddhist
literature is too catechetical, too cut and dried and
too general to be accepted in spite of its suggestive-
ness as a sure guide to determination of the chrono-
logy of the Pali Canonical texts. The Octades
snid the Patimokkha are mentioned by Rhys Davids
as literary compilations representing the third stage
in the order of the chronology. The Pali title
corresponding to his Octades is Atthakavagga,
the Book of Eights. The Book of Eights, as we
have it in the Mahaniddesa or in the fourth book

2 A History of Pali Literature

of the Sutta Nipata, is composed of 16 poetical dis-
courses, only four of which share the common
title of Atthaka, namely Guhatthaka, Dutthatthaka, .

' t/ 7 74

Suddhatthaka, and Paramatthaka and consist each

'

of eight stanzas. That is to say, the four only
out of the sixteen poems fulfil the definition of an
Atthaka or octad, wb-ile none of the remaining
poems consists as it ought to, of eight stanzas.
The present Atthaka vagga composed of 16 poems
may be safely placed anterior to both the Maha-
niddesa and Sutta Nipata. But before cataloguing
it as a compilation prior to the four nikayas and
the Vinaya texts, ( it is -necessary to ascertain whether
the Atthakavagga presupposed by the four nikayas
was a book of four poems bearing each the*' title
of Atthaka and consisting each of eight stanzas or it
was even in its original form an anthology of* 16
poems. Similarly in placing the Patimokkha in
the same category with the Silas and Parayanas,
it would be important to enquire whether the
Patimokkha as a bare code of monastic rules was
'then in existence or not, and even if it were then in
existence, whether it contained in its original form
227 rules or less than this number. There are
clear passages in the Anguttara Nikaya to indicate
that the earlier code was composed of one and
half hundred rules or little more (Sadhikam diyad-
dhasikkhapadasatam, A.N., Vol. 1, p. 232). As
Buddhaghosa explains the Pali expression, " Sadhi-
kam diyaddhasikkhapadasatam ", it means just 150
rules. According to a more reasonable interpreta-
tion the number implied in the expression must be
taken to be more than 150 and less than 200. If the
earlier code presupposed by the Anguttara passages
was composed of rules near about 150 and even
not 200, it may be pertinent to ask if the Pati-
mokkha, as we now have it, was the very code
tha*u had existed prior to the Anguttara Nikaya.
Our doubt as to the antiquity of the Patimokkha
as a bare code of rules is intensified by the tradi-
tion recorded by Buddhaghosa in the introduc-

Chronology of the Pali Canon 3

tion to his Sumangalavilasini (pt. I, p. 17), that
the two codes of the Patimokkha were to be counted
among the books that were not rehearsed in the
First Buddhist Council.

The putting of the first four nikayas under
head No. 4 with the implication that these were
anterior to the Sutta Nipata^and the remaining books
of the Pali Canon are no less open to dispute. With
regard to the Digha Nikaya it has been directly
pointed out by Buddhaghosa that the concluding
verses of the Mahaparinibbana Suttanta relating
to the redistribution of the Buddha's bodily re-
mains were originally composed Jby the rehearsers
of the Third Buddhist Council and added later
on %j the Buddhist teachers of Ceylon. A material
objection to putting the Digha and the Anguttara
Nikayas in the same category is that in the Digha
Nikaya the story of Mahagovinda (Digha, II,
pp. 220 foil.) has assumed the earlier forms of Jata-
kas characterised by the concluding identification
of the Buddha, the narrator of the story, with its
hero, while in the Anguttara Nikaya the story i
a simple chronicle of seven purohitas without the
identification. The four nikayas are interspersed
with a number of legendary materials of the life
of the Buddha which appear at once to be inven-
tions of a later age when the Buddha came to be
regarded and worshipped as a superhuman per-
sonality (read The Life of Gotama the Buddha
by E. H. Brewster). Our case is that without
discriminating the different strata of literary accre-
tions it will be dangerous to relegate all the four
nikayas to the early stage of the Pali Canon.

The Sutta Nipata figures prominently in the
fifth order of the chronology suggested by Rhys
Davids. Without disputing that there are numerous
instances of archaism in the individual suttas or
stanzas composing this anthology, we have Suffi-
cient reasons to doubt that the anthology as a
whole was at all anterior to the Niddesa which
heads the list of the Pali Canonical texts representing

4 A History of Pali Literature

the eighth order. By the Niddesa we are to
understand two separate exegetical works counted
among the books of the Khuddaka Nikaya (1)
the Mahaniddesa being a philological commentary
on the poems of the Atthakavag^a (forming <the
fourth book of the Sutta Nipata, and (2) the Cullanid-
desa being a similar commentary on the poems
of the Parayanavagga (forming the fifth or last
book of the Sutta Nipata). The two questions l
calling for an answer in this connection are (1) was
the Mahaniddesa composed, being intended as
a commentary on the Atthakavagga, the fourth
book of the Sutta Nipata or on the Atthakavagga,
then known to the Buddhist community as a dis-
tinct anthology ? and (2) was the Cullanid&esa
composed, being intended as a commentary on the
Parayanavagga, the fifth book of the Sutta Nipata
or on the Parayanavagga, then known to the
Buddhist community as a distinct collection of
poems ? With regard to the second question it
may be pointed out that the poems of the Parayana
group, as these are found in the Sutta Nipata, are
prologued by 56 Vatthugathas, while the Cullanid-
desa is found without these introductory stanzas.
The inference as to the exclusion is based upon the
fact that in the body of the Cullaniddesa, there is
nowhere any gloss on any of the introductory
stanzas. We notice, moreover, that the glosses
of the Cullaniddesa are not confined to the 16
poems of the Parayanavagga, the scheme of the
Canonical commentary including an additional
sutta, namely the Khaggavisana, which now forms
the second sutta of the first book of the Sutta
Nipata. From the place assigned to this particular
sutta in the Cullaniddesa, it is evident that when
the Cullaniddesa was composed, it passed as a de- v

1 Vide B. M. Barua's Atthakavagga and Parayanavagga as
two independent Buddhist anthologies Proceedings and Transac-
tions of the Fourth Oriental Conference, Allahabad, 1928, pp. 211-
219.

Chronology of the Pali Canon 5

tached sutta, not belonging to any particular group,
such as the Uragavagga. The stray nature of the
Khaggavisana Sutta may be taken as conclusive
also from its mixed Sanskrit version in the Maha-
vs^stu (Senart\ Edition, Vol. I, pp. 357-359), in
which, too, it is not relegated to any group. If
any legitimate hypothesist is to be made keeping
the above facts in view it should be that the scheme
of anthology in the Cullaniddesa rather shows the
anthology of the Sutta Nipata yet in the making
than presupposing it as a fait accompli.

Even with regard to the first question con-
cerning the chronological order o the Mahaniddesa
and Sutta Nipata, a similar hypothesis may be
enffertained without much fear of contradiction.
The Mahaniddesa, according to its internal evidence,
is*an exegetical treatise which was modelled on an
earlier exegesis attempted by Mahakaccana on one
of the suttas of the Atthakavagga, namely, the
Magandiya Sutta (Cullaniddesa, pp. 197 ff.). The
modern exegesis of Mahakaccana forming the corner-
stone of the Mahaniddesa can be traced as a separate
sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya, Vol. Ill, p. 9 where
the sutta commented on by Mahakaccana is ex-
pressly counted as a sutta of the Atthakavagga
(Atthakavaggike Magandiya panhe). Once it is
admitted that the Atthaka group of poems had
existed as a distinct anthology even before the
first redaction of the Samyutta Nikaya and Maha-
kaccana' s model exegesis on one of its suttas and,
moreover, that the Mahaniddesa as an exegetical
work was entirely based upon that earlier model,
it is far safer to think that the Mahaniddesa pre-
supposes the Atthakavagga itself as a distinct
collection of poems rather than as the Atthakavagga
' of the Sutta Nipata. Though the scheme of antho-
logy in the Mahaniddesa includes only the poems
of the Attha group, there is a collateral evidfence^
to prove that in an earlier stage of Pali Canonical
literature two stray poems were associated with
those of the Atthaka group just in the same way

6 A History of Pali Literature

that the stray poem, Khaggavisana sutta, has been
associated in the Cullaniddesa with the poems of
the Parayana group. The Divyavadana, for in-
stance, mentions that Purna an associate of sthavira
Mahakatyayana, recited the Munig&tha and Saiia-
gatha 1 along with the poems of Arthavagga (Pali
Atthakavagga) with the* implication that the Muni-
gatha (corresponding to Pali Munisutta) and Saila-
gatha (corresponding to Pali Selasutta), included
respectively in the Uragasutta, the first book, and
in the Mahavagga, the third book of the Sutta Ni-
pata, were associated with the poems of the Atthaka
group. To put forward another argument the
Nalaka Sutta in the third book of the Sutta Nipata
is prologued by 20 Vatthugathas or introductory
stanzas which are absent from its mixed Sanskrit
version in the Mahavastu (Vol. Ill, pp. 386 foil.,
Nalakaprasna). Judged by the theme and metre
of the Vatthugathas, they stand quite apart from
the sutta proper. The sutta proper is a moral
discourse of the Buddha which is quite on a par
with several suttas in the Sutta Nipata and other
texts, while in the Vatthugathas, we come to hit
all of a sudden on a highly poetical composition
serving as a historical model to the Buddhacarita
of Aswaghosa. 2 The Moneya Sute (Moneyya Sutta)
is one of the seven tracts recommended by King
Asoka in his Bhabru Edict for the constant study
of the Buddhists. This sutta has been rightly
identified by Prof. D. Kosambi (Indian Antiquary,
1912, Vol. XLI, pp. 37-40) with the Nalaka Sutta
in the Sutta Nipata which, as pointed out above,
has a counterpart in the Mahavastu (Mahavastu,
Senart's Edition, Vol. II, pp. 30-43 and Vol. Ill,
pp. 382 S.) where it does not bear any specific
title. Judged by its theme, Moneyya Sutta is more

J.

r Cowell and Neil, p. 35.

2 Vide Barua's Old Brahmi Inscriptions in the Udayagiri and
Khandagiri Caves, p. 173, f.n.

" Drstva ca tarn raj asu tarn striyasta

jajvalyamanam vapusa $riya ca ". Buddhacarita, III, 23.

Chronology of the Pali Canon 1

an appropriate title than Nalaka. The importance
of its naming as Nalaka arises only when the Vat-
thugathas or the introductory stanzas are prefixed
to the sutta without any logical connection between
the* two. Considered in the light of Asoka's title
Moneya Sute and the counterpart in the Maha-
vastu as well as of the cle^r anticipation of Aswa-
ghosa's Buddhacarita in the Vatthugathas, it ap-
pears that the christening of the Moneyyasutta
as Nalaka and the edition of the introductory
stanzas took place sometime after Asoka's reign
and not before. Some stanzas of the Padhana
Sutta have been quoted in the Kathavatthu which,
according to Buddhist tradition, was a compilation
of lisokan time. The stanzas are quoted without
any mention of the sutta or of the text on which
thse have been drawn. The Pali version of the
sutta is to be found only in the Sutta Nipata,
Book III. The inference that can legitimately
be drawn from the quotation is that the Padhana
Sutta has existed in some form prior to the com-
pilation of the Kathavatthu, leaving the question
of the Sutta Nipata altogether open.

The Khuddakapatha figures as the last book
in the fifth order, it being supposed to be earlier
than the Suttavibhanga, the Khandhakas, the
Jatakas, the Dhammapadas, the Peta, and Vimaiia-
vatthus as well as the Kathavatthu. Buddha-
ghosa in the introduction to his Sumangalavilasini,
informs us that the Dighabhaiiaka list of the Pali
Canonical texts precluded these four books, namely,
the Buddhavamsa, the Cariyapitaka, the Apadana,
and the Khuddakapatha, while the Majjhimabha-
naka list included the first three of them. The
preclusion may be explained either as due to sec-
tarian difference of opinion or due to the fact that
when the Dighabhaiiaka list was drawn up, these
four texts were non-existent. If a comparison
be made between the Khuddakapatha and the
Khandhakas, it will be noticed that the first short
lesson (saranattayam) of the Khuddakapatha was

8 A History of Pali Literature

nothing but a ritualistic elaboration of an earlier
refuge-formula that can be traced in a passage
of the Khandhakas. The second lesson may be
regarded as made up of an extract from another
passage occurring in the Khandhabas. The same
observation holds true also of the fourth lesson, tlie
Kumarapanham. The gpurces being not mentioned,
it is indecisive whether the Khuddakapatha has
drawn upon the Khandhakas or on some isolated
passages. But if judging by the nature of differ-
ences in the common passages we are to pro-
nounce our opinion on the relative chronology of
the two texts, the priority must be accorded rather
to the KhandhaKas than to the Khuddakapatha.
The Tirokuddasutta of the Khuddakapatha isX;he
first and most important sutta of the Petavatthu.
Certain quotations in the Kathavatthu cleasly
testify to the currency in the 3rd century B.C. of
most of the verses composing this sutta. Here
again we are to grope in the dark whether the
quotations were from the Tirokndda as an isolated
sutta or from a sutta in the Petavatthu or in the
Khuddakapatha. If any inference may be drawn
from the high prominence that it enjoys in the
Petavatthu, our opinion will be rather in favour of
priority of the Petavatthu.

Now coming to the Kathavatthu, we have
already mentioned that it contains certain signi-
ficant quotations from two suttas, the Tirokudda
and the Nidhikanda, both of which are embodied
in the Khuddakapatha, but there is nothing to
show that when the Kathavatthu was compiled
with these quotations, the Khuddakapatha itself
was then in actual existence, it being quite prob-
able that the quotations were made from the two
isolated suttas, we mean when these suttas had-
not come to be included in the Khuddakapatha.

/The Abhidhamma treatises figure as latest

'compilations in the chronological table of Rhys

Davids. Of the seven Abhidhamma books, the

Kathavatthu is traditionally known as a com-

Chronology of the Pali Canon 9

pilation of A6okan age. The credibility of the
tradition can be proved by a very peculiar dialectical
style of composition developed in this all-important
book of Buddhist Controversies and the traces of
which can als^be found to linger in some of the
inscriptions of Asoka, namely, the Kalsi, Shaha-
bazgarhi and Manserah visions of the 9th Rock
Edict (vide B. M. Barua's Old Brahmi Inscriptions,
p. 284). Another and more convincing piece of
evidence may be brought forward to prove the
credibility of the tradition. Prior to the despatch
of missionaries by Asoka, Buddhism as a religious
movement was confined, mpre or less, within the
territorial limits of what is known in Buddhist
literature as the Middle Country (Majjhimadesa)
and the Buddhist tradition in Pali is very definite on
this point. The Saiici stupas which go back to
the date of Asoka enshrine the relics of the mis-
sionaries who were sent out to the Himalayan
tracts as also of the " good man " Mogaliputa,
aptly identified by Dr. Geiger with Moggaliputta
Tissa, the traditional author of the Kathavatthu.
Curiously enough, the Kathavatthu contains the
account of a controversy (I, 3) in which it has been
emphatically pointed out that up till the time
of this particular controversy, the Buddhist mode
of holy life remained confined to the places within
the middle country and had not gained ground in
any of the outlying tracts (paccantimesu jana-
padesu), the representatives of Buddhism whether
the monks or the laity having had no access to
those regions (B. M. Barua, Old Brahmi Inscriptions,
p. 284). The account clearly brings out one im-
portant historical fact, namely, that so far as the
outlying tracts were concerned, there were un-
deniably at that time other modes of Indian holy
life. It is interesting to find that the 13th Rock
Edict of Asoka is in close agreement with* the
Kathavatthu regarding this point. For in thii-
important edict issued in about the 13th or 14th
regnal year of King Asoka, His Sacred and Gracious

10 A History of Pali Literature

Majesty the King definitely says that there was
at the time no other tract within his empire save
and except the Yona region where the different
sects of Indian recluses, the Samanas and Brah-
manas were not to be found or where^-he inhabitants
had not adhered to the tenets of one or other of
those sects. (Vide Inscriptions of Asoka by Bhan-
darkar and Majumdar, pp. 49-50 " Nathi cha
she janapade yata nathi ime nikaya anamta yenesha
bamhmane cha shamane cha nathi cha kuva pi
janapadashi (ya) ta nathi manushanam ekatalashi
pi pashadashi no iiama pashade ".) Squaring up
the twofold evidence, *it is easy to come to the
conclusion that he compilation of the Katha-
vatthu could not be remote from the reign of Aso&a.
In the Kathavatthu, there are quotations
the sources of which can now be traced in some ef
the passages in the Vmayapitaka, the Digha Nikaya,
the Majjhima Nikaya, the Samyutta Nikaya, the
Anguttara Nikaya, and some of the books of the
Khuddaka Nikaya. A few of the quotations can
be traced in the Dhammasangani and the Vibhanga
among the Abhidhamma books. As the passages
are quoted in the Kathavatthu without any mention
of the sources, rather as well known and authorita-
tive words of the Buddha, it cannot be definitely
maintained that the quotations were cited from
the canonical texts in which the individual passages
are traceable. There were suttas in some definite
collections but until other definite evidences arc
forthcoming, it will be risky to identify them with
the nikayas and the Vinaya texts as they are
known to us. Even with regard to this point our
position remains materially the same if we take
our stand on the evidence of the Inscriptions of
Asoka, particularly on that of the Bhabru Edict.
The Bhabru Edict clearly points back to a well-
known collection of Buddha's words, the words
Vhich came to be believed as at once final and
authoritative (e kemchi bhamte Bhagavata Budhena
bhasite save se subhasite). But here again we

Chronology of the Pali Canon 11

are helpless as to by what name this collection was
then designated and what were its divisions ?
If such be the state of things, it will be difficult
to regard all the Abhidhamma books in the lump
as. the latest productions among the books of the
Pali pitakas.

As for the chronology of the Pali Canonical
texts, the safer course will be to fix first of all the
upper and lower limits and then to ascertain how
the time may be apportioned between them in con-
ceiving their chronological order. As regards the
upper limit certain it is that we cannot think of
any text on Buddhism before he enlightenment
of the Buddha. Whatever be the actual date
of \he individual texts, it is certainly posterior
even to the subsequent incident of the first public
statement or promulgation of the fundamental
truths of the new religion. The upper limit may
be shifted on even to the demise of the Buddha,
the first formal collection of the teachings of the
Buddha having taken place, according to the
unanimity of the Buddhist tradition, after that
memorable event. Looked at from this point of
view, the period covered by the career of 45 years
of the Buddha's active missionary work may be
regarded just as the formative period which saw the
fashioning of the early materials of the Buddhist
Canon. With regard to the lower limit we need
not bring it so far down as the time of the Pali
scholiasts, Buddhadatta, Buddhaghosa, and Dham-
mapala, that is to say, to the 5th century A.D.
Going by the tradition, the Buddhist Canon became
finally closed when it was committed to writing
during the reign of King Vattagarnani of Ceylon
(Circa 29-17 B.C.). 1 The truth of this tradition can
be substantiated by the clear internal evidence
of the text of the Milinda Panha which was a com-
pilation of about the first century A.D. As i^
well known, in several passages, the author of the

1 Dlpavamsa (Oldenberg), p. 103, Mahuvamsa (Geiger), p. 277.

12 A History of Pali Literature

Milinda Panha has referred to the Pali books or to
some chapters of them by name and the number
of books mentioned by name is sufficiently large
to exhaust almost the traditional list. Further,
it is evident from references in this/bext that w4\en
it was compiled the division of the canon into three
pitakas and five nikayas was well established. 1
The Dhammasangani, the Vibhanga, the Dhatu-
katha and the rest were precisely the seven books
which composed the Abhidhamrnapitaka and the
Digha, Majjhima, Samyutta, Ekuttara (Anguttara),
and Khuddaka were the five nikayas which com-
posed the Suttapitaka. The Sinhalese commen-
taries, the Maha-atthakatha, the Mahapaccariya,
the Maha-kurundiya, the Aiidhaka and the ^est
presupposed by the commentaries of Buddhadatta,
Buddhaghosa, and Dhammapala point to the saflie
fact, namely, that the canon became finally closed
sometime before the beginning of the Christian
era. Thus we can safely fix the last quarter of the
1st century B.C., as the lower limit.

The interval of time between these two limits
covers not less than four centuries during which
there had been convened as many as six orthodox
councils, three in India and three in Ceylon, the
first during the reign of King Ajatasattu, the second
in the reign of King Kalasoka (Kakavarni of the
Puranas), the third in the reign of Asoka, the
fourth in the reign of King Devanam Piyatissa of
Ceylon, the fifth in the reign of King Dutthagamani
and the sixth or the last in the reign of King Vat-
tagamani. The Pali accounts of these councils
make it clear that the purpose of each of them
was the recital and settling of the canonical texts.
If these councils can be regarded as certain defi-
nite landmarks in the process of the development
of Pali Canonical literature, we can say that during
the^first four centuries after the Buddha's demise,

1 Milinda Paftha (Trenckner ed.), pp. 13, 190, 348, 21, 18
(tipitaka), 341 and 22 (Nikaya).

Chronology of the Pali Canon 13

Pali literature underwent as many as six successive
redactions. Going by the dates assigned to these
councils, we may divide the interval into such shorter
periods of Pali literary history as shown below:

.' First Pe^od (483-383 B.C.)

Second Period (383-265 B.C.)

Third Period (265-230 B.C.)

Fourth Period (230-80 B.C.)

Fifth Period (80-20 B.C.)

Keeping these periods in view, we can easily
dispose of some of the Pali books. We may take,
for instance, the Parivarap^ha which is the last
treatise to be included in the Vinayapitaka. This
treatise, as clearly stated in the colophon (nigamana)
was written in Ceylon by Dipa, evidently a learned
Buddhist scholar of Ceylon as a help to his pupils
to the study of the contents of the Vinaya. 1 As
such the Parivarapatha was composed as a digest
of the subject-matter of Vinaya or Buddhist disci-
pline. We say that this treatise was composed
in Ceylon because there are references within the
text itself that it had been written after the Vinaya-
pitaka was promulgated by Thera Mahinda and a
number of his disciples and by their disciples in
Ceylon. The succession of his disciples from the
time of Thera Mahinda as set forth in the Pari-
varapatha (pp. 2-3) may suffice to show that the
date of its composition could not be much earlier
than the reign of Vattagamani. Even we may go
so far as to suggest that the Parivarapatha was the
Vinaya treatise which was canonised at the council
held during the reign of Vattagamani. For it is
clearly stated in the colophon that the author
caused the treatise to be written (likhapesi),

1 Parivarapatha, Ed. Oldenborg, p. 220.

" Pubbacariyarnaggaii ca pucchitva ' va tahim tahiih Dl-
panamo mahapanilo sutadharo vicakkhano imam vittharasaiTikhe-
parh sajjharnaggena majjhimo ointayitvti Hkhaposi sissakanam 1
sukhavaham Pari varan ti yam vuttaih sabbam vatthum salak-
khanarh atthaih atthomi saddhumme dhammam dhammena
pafinatto. "

14 A History of Pali Literature

a mode of preserving the scriptures which would
be inconceivable before the reign of Vattagamani.
The reference to the island of Tambapanni or Ceylon
is not only in the verses which one might set aside
as interpolation but in the prose portions wbich
form the integral parts of the text.

Now if we fix our Attention 011 the traditional
verses embodied in the Parivarapatha (pp. 2-3,
edited by Oldenberg) we have to infer therefrom
that the five nikayas, the seven treatises of the
Abhidhammapitaka and all the older texts of the
Vinayapitaka were made known to the people of
Ceylon by the wise M^hinda who arrived in Ceylon
from Jambudipa '(India) after the Third Buddhist
Council had been over. 1 *

The Mahavagga and the Cullavagga are two
among the earlier and important texts of the Vinaya-
pitaka. Twenty-two Khandhakas or stock frag-
ments are distributed into the two texts, ten into
the Mahavagga and the remaining 12 into the
Cullavagga. These fragments constituting the se-
parate divisions are arranged in a chronological
order, and they are intended to present a con-
nected account of the ecclesiastical history of the
Buddhists from the time of the enlightenment of
the Buddha down to that of the Second Buddhist
Council which was convened, according to the
Cullavagga account, a century after the demise
of the Buddha (Vassasataparinibbute Bhagavati).
The growth of the two texts may be sought to be
accounted for by these two hypotheses ; (1) that the
Khandhakas were being added as they came into
existence from time to time, or (2) that they were
arranged all at the same time according to a set
plan. Whatever be the actual merit of these

1 Parivarapatha, pp. 2-3.

JwUpali Dasako c'eva Sonako Siggavo tatha Moggaliputtena

'^ancama ete Jambusirivhaye tato Mahindo Ittiyo Uttiyo Sambalo

tatha Bhaddanamo ca pandito ete naga mahapanna Jambudipa

idhagata, Vinayaih te vaeayimsu pit-akarh Tambapanniya nikaye

pafica vacesum satta c'eva pakarane. "

Chronology of the Pali Canon 15

hypotheses, none of them prevents us from main-
taining that the series of the Khandhakas was
closed with the inclusion of the account of the
Second Buddhist Council and that nothing material
was added afi\r that, nothing, we mean to say,
except the Uddanas or mnemonics in doggerel
verses appended to each of , the Khandhakas. Had
the compilation of the Khandhakas remained open
after the Second Buddhist Council, it would have
included an account of the later councils, particular-
ly of one held during the reign of Asoka. This
line of argument is sufficiently strong to establish
that the date of compilation of the twenty-two
Khandhakas as we find them embodied in the
Mahavagga and Cullavagga was anterior to the
reign of Asoka, as well as that its history is pri-
marily associated with the tradition of the Second
Buddhist Council. Assuming then that the closing
of the collection of the Khandhakas in the shape
of the Mahavagga and the Cullavagga could not
be removed from the 1st century of the Buddha
era, we may briefly examine what inferences can
be drawn from the Cullavagga accounts of the
first and second Buddhist councils regarding the
development of the canonical texts. First with
regard to the earlier Vinaya texts, the Cullavagga
account of the Second Buddhist Council (Chap. 12)
has referred to the following authorities by name,
namely,

(1) Savatthiya Suttavibhanga

(2) Rajagahe

(3) Savatthiya

(4) Savatthiya sutta

(5) Kosambiya

(6) Savatthiya

(7) Rajagahe

(8) Rajagahe uposathasamyutte

(9) Campeyyake Vinaya Vatthusmin

The Suttavibhanga passages referred to in the
Cullavagga account have been found out by Prof.

99
99
99

16 A History of Pali Literature

Oldenberg in the Suttavibhanga and what is more,
the identified passages have satisfied the context
supplied (Savatthiya, Rajagahe, Kosambiya).
Keeping this fact in view, can it be doubted that the
Suttavibhanga of the Vinayapital3i was current
as an authoritative text on Vinaya when the Culla-
vagga account referring to its passages was written ?
Now with regard to the remaining two references,
namely, Rajagahe, Uposathasamyutte and Cam-
peyyake Vinayavatthusmin traced respectively in
the Mahavagga (II, 8, 3) and Mahavagga (IX,
3, 5), it is curious that the first reference is to a
Samyutta passage, and the second to a Vinaya-
vatthu. Although the Samyutta passage has found
its place in the Mahavagga, so long as the fact
remains that the reference is to a passage in the
Sutta Collection, our inference must be that tfte
Mahavagga in its extant form was not yet in exis-
tence. The second reference is important as point-
ing back to the existence of certain Vmayavatthus
serving as materials for a compilation like the
Mahavagga.

Turning at last to the Cullavagga account of
the First Buddhist Council, it will be a mistake to
suppose that the account as we have it in the
Cullavagga is as old as the time of the council
itself. The account must have been posterior to
the time when the scriptural authorities of the
Buddhist community comprised (1) Ubhato Vinaya
the disciplinary code of the bliikkhus, the disci-
plinary code of the bhikkhums, and (2) Panca-
nikaya the five nikayas, Digha, Majjhima and
the rest. Some of the Burmese manuscripts read
Ubhato Vibhanga in lieu of Ubhato Vinaya. 1 That
may be a mistake. But the contents mentioned
in the Cullavagga account are undoubtedly the
contents of the two Vibhangas, the Bhikkhu and the

1 It may be observed that in giving an account of the First
Buddhist Council, Buddhaghosa makes mention of Ubhato Vibhanga
signifying thereby the whole text of the Suttavibhafufa completed
in 64 bhunavaras (Surnangalavilasinl, pi. I, p. 13).

Chronology of the Pali Canon 17

Bhikkhum. The list of the Sikkhapadas codified
as bare rules in the two Patimokkhas is important
as showing that the author of the Cullavagga

'account kept hi his mind nothing but the Sutta-
vibhanga with \its two divisions : the Bhikkhu-
VibTmriga and the Bhikkhuni-Vibhanga. Further,
when this account was written, the five nikayas were
well known. But the contents mentioned are found
to be only those of the first two suttas of the Digha
Nikaya, Vol. I, we mean the Brahmajala and the
Samannaphala Suttantas. In the absence of the
remaining details and of the names of the separate
texts it is impossible to say that the Digha Nikaya
as presupposed was completed in all the three
volumes as we now get or the five nikayas as pre-
supposed contained all the 14 suttanta texts as
we*iow have them. One thing, however, is certain
that there is yet no reference to the Abhidhamira
treatises. For the reference to the Abhidhamma-
pitaka we have to look into tiie uddanagathas in

.which there is mention of the three pitakas (Pitakam
tim). But nothing should be built upon it with
regard to the development of canonical texts in
so early period as this on the strength of these
uddanagathas which are apparently later additions.
The line of investigation hitherto followed
has compelled us to conclude that the Suttavi-
bhanga with its two great divisions, e.g. the Bhikkhu
and the Bhikkhum Vibharigas, were extant as
authoritative texts on the questions of Vinaya
previous to the compilation of the Mahavagga
and the Cullavagga. The historical references that
may be traced in the Suttavibhanga appertain all
to earlier times and cannot, therefore, justify us
in assigning the text to a period far removed from
the demise of the Buddha. But we have still
to enquire whether or not the Suttavibhanga can
be regarded as the first and the earliest landmr '
of the Vinaya tracts. It may be sound to pre-
mise that the first landmark of the Vinayapitaka
is not the first landmark of the Vinaya tracts.

2

18 A History of Pali Literature

The point at issue really is whether or not the text
of the Suttavibhanga forming the first landmark
of the Vinayapitaka presupposes certain earlier
literary developments and if so, where can this
be traced. This is to ask serious^ what was the
earlier and more probable denotation of the term
iuJbhato vinaya 9 the two-fold Vinaya. If we decline
to interpret it in the sense of two-fold Vibhahga,
we must be raising this important issue just to
remove an anomaly arising from the two-fold
signification of the Pancanikaya divisions of the
Pali Canon. Buddhaghosa, the great Pali scholiast,
says that in their narrower signification the five
nikayas denoted the five divisions of the texts of
the Suttapitaka, and that in their wider significa-
tion the five nikayas included also the texts of
the remaining two pitakas, namely, the Vinaya
and the Abhidhamma, the Vinaya and Abhidhamma
treatises being supposed to be included in the
Khuddaka Nikaya (Sumangalavilasini, pt. 1, p. 23,
cf. Atthasalim, p. 26 ; Katamo Khuddakanikayo ?
Sakalam Vinayapitakam Abhidhammapitakam
Khuddakapatha-dayo ca pubbe-nidassita-panca-
dasa-bheda (pubbe dassita-cuddasappabheda iti
pathantaram), thapetva cattaro nikaye avasesa-
buddhavacanam). Buddhaghosa also informs us
that the Anumana-sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya
was known to the ancients as bhikkhuvinaya and the
Singalovada-sutta of the Digha Nikaya was venerat-
ed as gihivinaya. 1 If such terms as bhikkhuvinaya
and gihivinaya had been current among the
Buddhists of olden times, it is pertinent to enquire
whether the expression " the two-fold Vinaya "
was originally used to denote the bhikkhuvinaya
and bhikkhunivinaya or the bhikkhuvinaya and gihi-
vinaya.

If we examine the contents of the Anguttara
or the Ekuttara Nikaya, we need not be surprised

1 A note on the Bhabra Edict, J.R.A.S., October, 1916, pp. 805-
810.

Chronology of the Pali Canon 19

to find that Anguttara Nikaya abounds in the Vinaya
passages. In each nipata of this nikaya we come
across passages relating to the two-fold Vinaya,
namely, the iBhikkhu and the Gihi. Looked at
from this poi^t of view, the Anguttara Nikaya
m&y justly be regarded as a sutta store-house of
distinct Vinaya tracts. In this very nikaya we hit
upon a Vinaya tract (A.N., I, pp. 98-100) which sets
forth a rough sketch (matika) not of any particular
Vinaya treatise but of the whole of the Vinaya-
pitaka. The list of Vinaya topics furnished in this
particular tract cannot be construed as a table of
contents of any particular, text of the Vinaya-
pitaka. Similar Vinaya tracts arS scattered also in
the- suttas of other nikayas. The consideration
of all these facts cannot but lead one to surmise
that the treatises of the Vinayapitaka point to a
sutta background in the Vinaya materials trace-
able in the nikayas particularly in the Anguttara.
The sutta background of the Vinaya texts is clearly
hinted at in the concluding words of the Patimokkha.
" So much of the words of the Blessed One handed
down in the suttas, embraced in the suttas, comes
into recitation every half month " (Vinaya texts,
S.B.E., Vol. I, p. 69).

As for the date of the composition of the
two Patimokkha codes, one for the bhikkhus
(monks) and the other for the bhikkhums (nuns),
it is important to bear in mind that according to
an ancient Buddhist tradition cited by Buddha-
ghosa, the Patimokkha codes as they are handed
down to us are two among the Vinaya texts which
were not rehearsed in the First Buddhist Council
(Sumangalavilasim, pt. I, p. 17). It may be readily
granted that the codification of the Patimokkha
rules in the extant shape was not accomplished
immediately after the demise of the Buddha. It is
one thing to say this and it is quite another thai^the
rules themselves in a classified form had not beSft
in existence from the earliest times. The Culla-
vagga account of the First Buddhist Council throws

20 A History of Pali Literature

some clear light on the process of codification. It
is said that the utterance of the dying Buddha
authorising his followers to do away with the
minor rules of conduct (khudd^hukhuddakani
sikkhapadani) if they so desired, /ormed a bone
of contention among the bhikkhus who took part
in the proceedings of the First Buddhist Council
(see Milinda Panha, pp. 142-144). They were
unable to decide which were precisely the minor
rules they were authorised to dispense with. Some
suggested all but the four Parajika rules ; some, all
but the four Parajika and 13 Samghadisesa rules;
some, all but the four farajika, 13 Samghadisesa and
two Aniyata rules ; some, all but the four Parajikas,
13 Samghadisesas, two Aniyatas and 30 Nissaggiyas ;
some, all but the four Parajika, 13 Samghadisesa,
two Aniyata, 30 Nissaggiya and 92 Pacittiya rutes;
and some, all but four Parajika, 13 Samghadisesa,
two Aniyata, 30 Nissaggiya, 92 Pacittiya and four
Patidesaniya rules. l The suggestion stopped with the
four Patidesaniya rules and did not proceed beyond
them, leaving us in the dark as to what the bhikkhus
meant by "all but all these" (counted by names).
The Patimokkha code in its final form included two
hundred and twenty-seven rules, that is to say,
the seven adhikaranasamathas and seventy-five Se-
khiya rules in addition to those mentioned hi the

1 Ekacce thera evain ahamsu : cattari parajikani tfiapetva ava-
sesani khuddanukhuddakani sikkhapadaniti. Ekacce thera evain
ahamsu : cattari parajikaiii thapotva torasa saihghadisese thapetva
avasesani khuddanukhuddakani sikkhapadaniti. Ekacce thera
evam ahamsu : cattari parajikaiii $hapotva terasa saihghadiseKe
thapetva dvo aniyate ^hapotva avasesani khuddanukhuddakani
sikkhapadaniti. Ekacce thera evarn ahamsu : cattari parajikaiii
thapetva terasa samghadise.se thapetva dve aniyate thapetva timsa
nisaaggiye pacittiye ^hapetva avasesani khuddanukhuddakani sikkha-
padaniti Ekacce thera evam aharhsu : cattari parajikani thapetva
terasa samghadisese thapetva dve aniyate tha[3etva timsa nissoggiye
pacittiye ^hap^tva dvenavutirh pacittiye thapetva avasewani
khuddanukhuddakani sikkhapadaniti. Ekacce thera evam ahaihsu :
vattari parajikani thapetva terasa sarhghadiseso thapetva dve
aniyate thapetva tiihsa nissaggiye pacittiye ^Irapetva dvenavutirh
pacittiye th. cattari pat-idesaniye th. avasesani khuddanukhuddakani
sikkhapadaniti (Cullavagga, Chap. XI, pp. 287-288).

Chronology of the Pali Canon 21

Cullavagga account. Omitting the 75 Sekhiya rules
the total of the Patimokkha precepts of conduct
would come mp to 152. If the theras of the First
Buddhist Couqpil had in their view a Patimokkha
code in which the 75 Sekhiya rules had no place,
the total of precepts in the Code recognised by them
was 152. Now we have to enquire if there is any
definite literary evidence to prove that in an earlier
stage of codification, the total of the Patimokkha
precepts was fixed at 152. Happily the evidence
is not far to seek. The Anguttara Nikaya, as we
have seen above, contains two passages to indicate
that the earlier Patimokkha code contained one
and half hundred rules or little more (Sadhikam
diyaddhasikkhapadasatam). *

The earlier Patimokkha code with its total
of*152 rules may be shown to have been earlier than
the Suttavibhanga on the ground that the Suttavi-
bhanga scheme makes room for the 75 Sekhiya rules,
thereby recognising the Patimokkha total to be
227 which was possible only in the second or final
stage of codification of the Patimokkha rules.

In dealing with the chronology of the seven
treatises of the Abhidhammapitaka, we can only
maintain that the order in which these treatises
are enumerated can be interpreted as the order
of the chronology. Any attempt at establishing
such an interpretation would be vitiated by the
fact that the order of enumeration is not in all
cases the same. The order in which these are
mentioned in the Milinda Panha (p. 12) and which
has since become classical is as follows :

1. Dhamniasangani (Dhammasamgaha as
Buddhaghosa calls it vide Sumangala-
vilasini, p. 17), 2. Vibhanga,
3. Dhatukatha, 4. Puggalapannatti,
5. Kathavatthu, 6. Yamaka, ^nd
7. Patthana.

1 Gf. Milinda Pafiha which refers to the same total of the Pati-
mokkha rules in the expression " Diyaddhusu sikkhapada-satesu ".

22 A History of Pali Literature

A somewhat different order is evident from
a gatha occurring in Buddhaghosa's Sumangala-
vilasini, pt. I, p. 15. " Dhammasa$igani-Vibhan-
gaii ca Kathavatthun ca Puggalam Dlptu- Yamaka
Patthanam Abhidhammo ti vuccati."

It will be noticed that in the gatha order
the Kathavatthu stands third instead of fifth and
the Dhatukatha stands fifth instead of third. 1
We have already noted that according to general
interpretation of the five nikaya divisions of the
Pali Canon, the Abhidhamma treatises come under
the Khuddaka Nikaya. This is apparently an ano-
maly which camfot be removed save by a liberal
interpretation making it signify a suttanta b^ck-
ground of the Abhidhammapitaka. Thus an en-
quiry into the suttanta background becomes t a
desideratum and we may lay down a general canon
of chronology in these terms. The closer the con-
nection with the sutta materials, the earlier is the
date of composition. Among the seven Abhi-
dhamma treatises, the Puggalapafinatti and the
Vibhanga stand out prominently as the two texts
which bear a clear evidence of emergence from a
sutta background. The Puggala classifications in
the Digha, Samyutta, and Anguttara Nikayas are
seen to constitute at once the sutta background
and the stereotyped Vibhangas or Niddesas, mostly
contained in the Majjhima Nikaya, may be taken
to represent the sutta background of the Vibhanga.
The exact position of the Puggalapanfiatti in rela-
tion to the suttanta collections may be brought
home in the light of the following observations of
Dr. Morris : "As to the materials made use of by
the compiler of the Puggalapafinatti, we can speak
somewhat more positively. We have found nearly
the whole of the third, fourth, and fifth sections of
our text (tayo puggala, cattaro puggala, panca
puggala) in the corresponding sections (tika nipata,
catukka nipata, etc.) of the Anguttara Nikaya,

1 This may, however, be explained simply as due to metre causa.

Chronology of the Pali Canon 23

including the long passage entitled Yodhdjivupamd
puggald.

I need hardly say anything of the other sections,
as they are Viere repetitions ; the cha puggala
goes partly over the same ground as the Ekakam.
Nos. 28 and 29 of the attha puggala have already
been noticed as occurring in the Sangiti-sutta, while
the nava puggala is a repetition of I, 28-36, and
dasa puggala refers to I, 37-46 of our text.

For the sake of comparison it may be stated
that IV, No. 15 (Matika) is to be found in the
Anguttara Nikaya, duka nipata, XII, II ; and IV,
Nos. 1, 2, 3 occur in the Samyujta Nikaya, while
IV, 29 is to be found in the Sangiti-sutta.

Nos. 23, 24, and 25, pt. 1, of the Puggalapannatti
seem to be curiously out of place, as we naturally
esfpect them to be amongst the tayo puggala.
The Sangiti-sutta names them under the tisso
panfia.

Nos. 42-46, pt. 1, are mentioned without ex-
planation in the Sangiti-sutta as the panca and-
gdmino. The only terms in pt. 1 that I have not
come across are Nos. 1-8, 10-14, 19, 20, 37, 38,
and 39.

The designations in pt. II, Nos. 21, 22, 23,
24, and 26 are in the Anguttara Nikaya, duka nipata,
XI, 2, 4, and 5 ; 11-12. As to the remainder of the
dve puggala, the terms themselves are to be found
under a slightly different form in the Sangiti-sutta
and Anguttara Nikaya" (Puggalapannatti, P.T.S.,
Introduction, pp. x-xi).

We have just one remark to add, namely,
that compared with the suttanta materials utilised
in it, the Puggalapannatti is the least original
treatise of the Abhidhammapitaka and its inclusion
in the Abhidhammapitaka would have been
utterly unjustifiable but for the Pannatti classifica-
tions in the matika, No. 1. Whatever the ac&*aj
date of its compilation in respect of subject-matter
and treatment, it deserves to be considered as
the earliest of the Abhidhamma books.

24 A History of Pali Literature

In the opinion of Mrs. Rhys Davids, the Vi-
bhanga is " anticipated " by the Dhammasangani,
although " it is by no means covered by the latter
work, either In method or in matte? " (Vibbanga,
P.T.S., Preface, XIV). In other wofds, the presQnt
book (the Vibhanga) seems by Buddhists to have
ranked second in the seven of its pitakas not acci-
dentally, but as a sequel to the Dhammasangani
requiring in those who came to the study of it,
a familiarity with the categories and formulas of
the latter work that is, with the first book of the
Abhidhamma" (Ibid., XIII). Thus whether the
Vibhanga is anticipated by the Dhammasangani
or the latter is anticipated by the former is the
point at issue.

Examining most of the chapters of the Vibhanga
we find that each of them has a Abhidhamma
superstructure (Abhidhammabhajaniya) built upon
and kept distinct from a suttanta exegesis (Sut-
tantabhajaniya), the counterpart of which is to be
found in the first four nikayas and mostly in the
Majjhima, as it will appear from the following
table : Saccavibhanga (Suttantabhajaniya) = Sacca-
vibhanga Sutta (Majjhima, Vol. Ill, No. 141);
Satipatthanavibhanga (Suttantabhajaniya) = Sati-
pattharia Sutta (M.N., L, No. 10) ; Dhatuvibhariga
(Suttantabhajaniya) = Dhatu vibhanga Sutta of the
Majjhima, Vol. Ill, No. 140. It is evident from
the juxtaposition of the suttanta and the Abhi-
dhamma exegesis in its different chapters that the
Vibhanga marks that stage of the development of
the Abhidhammapitaka when the Abhidhamma
or Transcendental method of exegesis had not yet
gained an independent foothold; when, in other
words, it remained combined with the suttanta or
earlier method. The predilection is as yet for
attempting the exegesis of the formulations in the
$jas. An independent treatment of pure topics
of Psychological ethics, such as we find in the
Dhammasangani, is far beyond the scheme of the
Vibhanga. In the progressive working out of exe-

tion of meanings of terms comes seCOttQ W UK
uddesa or mdtikd. Now, if we compare the treat-
ment of the HMipakkhandha in the Vibhanga (12-14)
with that in me Dhammasarigani (pp. 124 foil.),
we cannot but observe that all that the Vibhanga
has to present is merely the tiddem or mdtikd of the
Rupakkhandha section of the Dhammasangani.
The Niddesa of the rupamatika is to be found in
no other Abhidhamma books than the Dhamma-
sangani. Mrs. Rhys Davids admits (in a way
arguing in our favour) that " the contents of the
Vibhanga are by no means covered Jby the Dhamma-
sangani ". The Vibhanga has, for instance, a sec-
tion entitled Paccayakaravibhanga, an exegesis on
the casual relations. The paccayas 1 fall outside
th< scope of the Dhammasangani and they form the
subject-matter of the great Abhidhamma treatise,
the Patthana or the Mahapatthana, though com-
pared with the Patthana, the Vibhanga treatment
of the subject is crude and vague, which is to say
earlier. Considered in this light, the Vibhanga
seems to stand out as a common presupposition of
both the Dhammasangani and the Patthana. It is
much easier to proceed from the contents of the
Vibhanga to the two highly systematic treatises of
the Dhammasangani and the Patthana than to
proceed from the latter to the former. The Dhatu-
katha being nothing but a supplement to the text
of the Dhammasangani may be briefly disposed of
as an Abhidhamma treatise dependent on and
necessarily later than the Dhammasangani.

1 Paccaya means a condition, cause, support, requisite stay,
means, causal antecedent, mode of relation, etc. Here it refers
to the twenty-four modes of relations (paccayas) between things
which are so many patthanas. v fhey are enumerated in the
Paccayavibhangavara of the "JfikapaUhana, pt. 1. The en'teig,
pa^hana is devoted first to an enquiry into these twenty-four
ways in which x is paccaya to y, secondly into illustrating how
in things material or mental each kind of paccaya and groups of
paccayas originate.

26 A History of Pali Literature

It is not only with regard to the Dhamma-
sangani (with its supplement, the Dhatukatha)
and the Patthana that the Vibhanga represents the
immediate background ; it appears o^ually to have
been the background of the Yams&a. It is easy
to account for the dialectical method of the study
of the Abhidhamma matters adopted in the Panha-
pucchakas appended to the different chapters of
the Vibhanga. All these considerations lead us
to conclude that, strictly speaking, the Vibhanga,
making " an extended application of (the) organum
or vehicle for the cultivation of the moral intellect "
is the first and earliest of the Abhidhamma books.

1. Puggalapafinatti

( (a) Dhammasangani-

TT-UU 3 Dhatukatha

2. Vibhanga . . ^ (fc) Yamaka

f (c) Patthana

\ \ /

3. Kathavatthu

Although one can conceive in this manner
the chronological succession of the five Abhidhamma
books (leaving out the Puggalapafinatti which is
rather a suttanta text and the Kathavatthu which
forms a class by itself), it is difficult to determine
the actual dates of their composition. One thing is
certain that all the seven books of the Abhidhamma-
pitaka were well known and very carefully read
especially in the Himalayan monastery when the
MUinda Paiiha was composed in about the 1st
century A.D. There is no reason for doubt that
the Pali Canon when committed to writing during
the reign of King Vattagamani in Ceylon, it
included all these books in it. We have shown that
when the uddanagathas of the Cullavagga (Chapter
II) of the Vinayapitaka were added, the three
pitakas of the Pali Canon had already come into
jpjcistence. The question, however, is how far the
date of the books of the Abhidhammapitaka can
be pushed back. Here the only anchor sheet is
the Kathavatthu, the third or the fifth Abhidhamma

Chronology of the Pali Canon 27

book which, according to tradition, was a compila-
tion of the Asokan age. We have already adduced

fc certain proof s% in support of this tradition and
have sought toVhow that when certain controversies
which find a place in the Kathavatthu took place,
Buddhism as a religion had not overstepped the
territorial limits of the Middle Country. But
according to Buddhaghosa's commentary, the Katha-
vatthu contains discussions of doctrines held by
some of the Buddhist schools, e.g. the Hemavata,
the Uttarapathaka, the Vajiriya, the Vetullaka,
the Andhaka, the Pubbaseliya, and the Aparaseliya,
which could not be possible* if tjae Kathavatthu
had been closed in the time of Asoka. If it was a
growing compilation, we have necessarily to sup-
pose that although it commenced in Asokan time,
it Vas not brought to a close till the rise of the
later Buddhist schools mentioned above.

Turning at last to the Suttapitaka comprising
the five nikayas, we can definitely say that it had

'reached its final shape before the composition of
the Milinda Panha in which authoritative passages
are quoted from the texts of this pitaka, in certain
instances by mention of the name of the sources.
We can go further and maintain that the Sutta-
pitaka was closed along with the entire Pali Canon
and when the canon was finally rehearsed in Ceylon
and committed to writing during the reign of King
Vattagamani. The tradition says that previous
to the reign of Vattagamani the texts were handed
down by an oral tradition (mukJiapdthavasena)
from teacher to teacher (dcariya'parampardyd), the
process of transmission being compared to the
carrying of earth in baskets from head to head.
Buddhaghosa says (Sumahgalavilasim, pt. I, pp. 12
foil.) that immediately after the demise of the
Buddha and after the session of the First Buddhist
Council, the task of transmitting and preserving
each of the five nikayas was entrusted to an
individual thera and his followers, which ultimately
gave rise to some schools of bhdnakas or chanters.

28 A History of Pali Literature

The existence of the distinct schools of reciters of
the five nikayas is clearly proved (as shown by
Dr. B. M. Barua 1 ) by the Milinda/- Paiiha where ,
we have mention of the Jataldtbhanaka (the
repeaters of the Jatakas) in addition to the Digha-
bhanaka, the Majjhimabhanaka, the Sarhyutta-
bhanaka, the Anguttarabhanaka and the Khuddaka-
bhanaka. 2 The terms * paficanekayika ' (one well
versed in the five nikayas) and bhanaka as well,
occur as distinctive epithets of some of the Buddhist
donors in the Sanci and Barhut inscriptions which
may be dated in the lump in the middle of the
second century JB.C. The inference from the evi-
dence of these inscriptions has already been drawn
by Prof. Rhys Davids to the effect that before the
use of Pancariekayika (one who knows the five
nikayas by heart), Suttantika (a man who kn6ws
a suttaiita by heart), Suttantakim (a feminine
form of Suttantika) and Petaki (one who knows the
pitaka by heart) as distinctive epithets, the pitaka
and five nikaya divisions of the Pali Canon must
have been well known and well established. We
say "of the Pali Canon" because substitution of
nikaya for the term c agama ' is peculiar to the
Pali tradition. The term " Paficanikaya " occurs
as we saw also in the Vinaya Cullavagga (Chapter II)
which we have assigned to a period which imme-
diately preceded the Asokan age. But even pre-
suming that the five nikaya divisions of the growing
Buddhist Canon were current in the third century
B.C., it does not necessarily follow from it that all
the books or suttas or individual passages corn-
prising the five nikayas were composed at that
time. All that we can say " that the first four
nikayas were, to all intents and purposes, then
complete, while the Khuddaka Nikaya series
remained still open ".

We have pointed out that this account in the

1 Barhut Inscriptions, pp. 9-10.

2 Milinda Pafiha, pp. 341 foil.

Chronology of the Pali Canon 29

Vinaya Cullavagga clearly alludes to the Dlgha as
the first of the five nikayas as well as that the
first two suttas were the Brahma jala and Saman-
naphala, whilems to the number and succession of
the remaining suttas, we are kept completely in
the* dark. Straining the information supplied in
the Vinaya Cullavagga we can proceed so far, no
doubt, that the first volume of the Dlgha Nikaya
was mainly in the view of its compilers. Com-
paring the suttas comprised in the remaining two
volumes and marking the differences in theme
and tone, it seems that these two volumes were
later additions. The second .volume contains two
suttas, namely, the Mahapadhaiia and Maha-
govinda which have been mentioned in the Cullanid-
desa (p. 80) as two among the notable illustrations
of jthe suttanta Jatakas, the Jatakas as found in
the earliest forms in Pali literature. We have
already drawn attention to the earlier chronicles of
the seven purohitas in the Aiiguttara Nikaya where
.it is far from being a manipulation in a Jataka
form. The casting of this chronicle in a Jataka
mould as we find it in the Mahagovinda Suttanta
could not have taken place in the lifetime of the
Buddha. The second volume contains also the
Payasi Suttanta, 1 which, as shown by the pre-
vious scholars, brings the story of Payasi to the
death of Payasi and his after-life in a gloomy

1 The belief in a life $ if lev death, in Heaven and Hell, conse-
quent upon the commission of good or evil deeds was current
long before the advent of the Buddha. This belief was, however,
assailed by Ajita Kosakainball, one of the six heretical teachers
who wore rivals of the Buddha. According to Ajita Kesakambal!
there is neither fruit nor ie.sult of good or evil deeds, and fools
and wise alike, on the dissolution of the body, are cut off, anni-
hilated, after death they are not. The further development of the
teaching of Ajita Kosakambali can be traced in the views of Payasi,
the chieftain of Setavya in Kosala, who came to the Ueld, according
to Buddhist evidence immediately after the Mahaparinibba?v*
of the Buddha, it is Payasi (Jain Paesi) who discussed the practical
issues and supplied the logical arguments of Ajita's philosophy
(atheism). Digha Nikaya, Vol. 1, p. 55 ; 1 leaven and Hell
Appendix by B. M. Barua, p. iii.

30 A History of Pali Literature

heaven. This suttanta contains several anecdotes
forming the historical basis of some of the Jataka
stories. In the face of all these facts we cannot
but agree with Prof. Rhys Davids /who places the'
date of this suttanta at least half'a century after
the demise of the Buddha. The third volume
of the Digha includes in it the Atanatiya Suttanta
which is otherwise described as a rakkhd or saving
chant manipulated apparently on a certain passage
in the then known Mahabharata. l The develop-
ment of these elements, the Jataka stories and the
Parittas, could not have taken place when Buddhism
remained in it| pristine purity. These are later
accretions or interpretations, the works of fable and
fiction, we mean of imaginative poetry that crept,
according to a warning given in certain passages
of the Anguttara Nikaya, under influence from
outside. But there is no reason for surprise that
such developments had already taken place as
early as the fourth century B.C., for the passages
that strike the note of alarm are precisely one of.
those seven important tracts recommended by
Asoka in his Bhabru Edict under the caption
' Anagatabhayani '. The growth of these foreign
elements must have caused some sort of confusion
otherwise it would not have been necessary to
discuss in a sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya the
reasonable way of keeping genuine the utterances
of the Buddha distinct from others that crept in
under the outside influence and were characterised
by poetical fancies and embellishments (kavikata)
(Samyutta Nikaya, pt. II, p. 267). We may,
then, be justified in assigning the whole of the
Digha Nikaya to a pre-Asokan age, there being
no trace of any historical event or development
which might have happened after King Asoka.
The only exception that one has to make is in the
j^se of the concluding verses of the Mahapari-
nibbana Suttanta which were interpolated, according

1 Advalayana Grihya Sutra, III, 4, 4,

Chronology of the Pali Canon 31

to Buddhaghosa, in Ceylon by the teachers of that
island. Like the first volume of the Digha Nikaya,
the whole of the Majjhima Nikaya strikes us as the
most authoritative and original among the collec-
tions of the Buddha's teachings. There is no
allusion to any political event to justify us in rele-
gating the date of its compilation to a time far
removed from the demise of the Buddha. If it
be argued that the story of Makhadeva, as we find
it embodied in the Makhadeva Sutta of this nikaya,
has already assumed the form of a Jataka, of a
suttanta Jataka, mentioned in the Cullaniddesa,
it cannot follow from it that the nikaya is for that
very reason a much later compilation. For the
Makhadeva story is one of those few earliest Jatakas
presupposed by the Pali Canonical collection of 500
Jatakas. The literary developments as may be
traced in the suttas of the Majjhima Nikaya are
not of such a kind as to require more than a century
after the demise of the Buddha.

Now concerning the Samyutta which is a
collection of kindred sayings and the third of the
five nikayas, we may point out that it has been
quoted by name in the Milinda Panha, as also in
the Petakopadesa under the simple title of Sam-
yuttaka, and that as such this nikaya had existed
as an authoritative book of the Pali Canon previous
to the composition of both the Milinda Panha and
the Petakopadesa. We can go so far as to maintain
that the Sariiyutta Nikaya had reached its final
shape previous to the occurrence of Pancane-
kayika as a personal epithet in some of the Barhut
and Sanci inscriptions, nay, even before the closing
of the Vinaya Cullavagga where we meet with the
expression " Pancanikaya ". In dealing with the
account of the Second Buddhist Council in the
Vinaya Cullavagga (Ch. XIII), we have noted that
a canonical authority has been alluded to as Rai$-
gahe uposatha Samyutte " at Rajagaha in the
Uposatha-Samyutta ". The translators of the
Vinaya texts (pt. Ill, p. 410) observe that the term

32 A History of Pali Literature

" Samyutta must here be used for Khandhaka ",
the passage referred to being the Vinaya Mahir
vagga (II, 8, 3, the Uposatha Khapdhaka). But
looking into the Mahavagga passage we find that
it does not fully tally with the allusion, as $he
passage has nothing to do with Rajagaha. In the
absence of Rajagaha giving a true clue to the
tracing of the intended passage, it is difficult to
premise that the passage which the compilers of
the Cullavagga account kept in view was the
Khandhaka passage in the Vinaya Mahavagga.
Although we have so far failed to trace this pas-
sage also in the^amyutta Nikaya, the presumption
ought to be that the intended passage was included
in a Samyutta collection which was then known
to the compilers of the Cullavagga. The suttas
in the Samyutta Nikaya do not refer to any political
incident justifying one to place the date of its com-
pilation far beyond the demise of the Buddha. As
contrasted with the Ekuttara or Ariguttara Nikaya
the Samyutta appears to be the result of an
attempt to put together relevant passages throwing
light 011 the topics of deeper doctrinal importance
while the former appears to be numerical groupings
of relevant passages throwing light on the topics
relating to the conduct of the monks and house-
holders. Considered in this light, these two nikayas
must be regarded as fruits of a critical study of
suttas in some previous collections.

Now coming to deal with the Ekuttara or
Anguttara Nikaya, we have sought to show that its
main bearing is on the two-fold Vinaya, the Gaha-
pati Vinaya and the Bhikkhu Vinaya. This nikaya
contains a section (Mundarajavagga in the Paficaka
Nipata) commemorating the name of King Munda
who reigned, as si i own by Rhys Davids, in Raja-
gaha about half a century after the demise of the
Buddha. The nikaya containing a clear reference
to Mundaraja cannot be regarded as a compilation
made within the fifty years from the Buddha's
demise. There is, however, no other historical

Chronology of the Pali Canon 33

reference to carry the date of its compilation
beyond the first century from the Mahaparinibbana
oi the Buddha* The date proposed for the Angut-
'tara Nikaya WL^ not, we think, appear unreasonable
if it be admitted that the suttas of this nikaya
form the real historical background of the con-
tents of the Vinaya texts.

We have at last to discuss the chronology
of the fifteen books of the Khuddaka Nikaya, which
are generally mentioned in the following order :

1. Khuddakapatha, 9. Therigatha,

2. Dhammapada, 10. Jataka,

3. Udana, 11. NiddSsa (Culla and

4. Itivuttaka, Maha),

5. Sutta Nipata, 12. Patisambhidamagga,
6.^ Vimanavatthu, 13. Apadana,

7. Petavatthu, 14. Buddhavamsa,

8. Theragatha, 15. Cariyapitaka.

This mode of enumeration of the fifteen books
*of the Khuddaka Nikaya (pannarasabheda Khud-
dakanikaya) can be traced back to the days of
Buddhaghosa (Sumangalavilasini, pt. I, p. 17).
It is obvious that in this list the Cullaniddesa and
the Mahaniddesa are counted as one book ; while
counting them as two books, the total number
becomes sixteen. There is no justification for
regarding the order of enumeration as being the
order of chronology. In connection with the
Khuddaka Nikaya, Buddhaghosa mentions the
following fact of great historical importance. He
says that the Dighabhanakas classified the books
of the Khuddaka Nikaya under the Abhidhamma-
pitaka enumerating them in the following order :

1. Jataka, 7. Udana,

2. Mahaniddesa, 8. Itivuttaka,

3. Cullaniddesa, 9. Vimanavatthu,

4. Patisambhidamagga, 10. Petavatthu,

5. Sutta Nipata, 11. Therigatha,

6. Dhammapada,

3

34 A History of Pali Literature

and leaving out of consideration the four books,
namely, the Cariyapitaka, the Apadana, the Bud-
dhavamsa and the Khuddakapatha,/' Buddhaghosa<
informs us that the Majjhimabhanapa list contained
the names of 15 books, counting the Cariyapitaka,
the Apadana and the Buddhavamsa as the three
books in addition to those recognised by the Digha
bhanakas (Sumangalavilasim, pt. I, p. 15). It is
important to note that the Majjhimabhanaka list
has taken no cognisance of the Khuddakapatha
mentioned as the first book in Buddhaghosa's own
list. It is not difficult to surmise that when the
Dlghabhanaka Jist was drawn up, the Khuddaka
Nikaya comprised just 12 books and when the
Majjhima Nikaya list was made, it came to com-
prise altogether 15 books, the Mahaniddesa and the
Cullaniddesa having been counted as two bctoks
instead of as one. It is also easy to understand
that from that time onward the traditional total
of the books of the Khuddaka Nikaya became known
as fifteen, and so strong was this tradition that to'
harmonise with it the sixteen books had to be some-
how counted as fifteen, the Mahaniddesa and the
Cullaniddesa being treated as a single book. From
this we may proceed to show that the Khuddaka-
patha appearing as the first book of the Khuddaka
Nikaya in Buddhaghosa's list is really the last
book taken into the Khuddaka Nikaya sometime
after the Majjhimabhanaka list recognising fifteen
books in all had been closed. We need not be
surprised if the Khuddakapatha was a compilation
made in Ceylon and was given a place among the
books of the Khuddaka Nikaya either immediately
before the commitment of the Pali Canon to writing
during the reign of King Vattagamani or even
after that, although before the time of Buddha-
ghosa. The commentaries of Buddhaghosa are our
oldest authorities that mention the Khuddakapatha
as a canonical book. It does not find mention in
the Milinda Paiiha nor in any other work, canonical
or ex-canonical, which was extant before the time

Chronology of the Pali Canon 35

of Buddhaghosa. The text is made up of nine
lessons or short reading all culled from certain
earlier canonical sources, the arrangement of these
lessons being qpch as to make it serve as a very
useful handbook for the beginners and for the
clergy ministering to the needs of the laity. The
consideration of two points may suffice to bear out
our contention : the first point is that the first
lesson called the Saranattaya presents a developed
mode of refuge formula of the Buddhists which is
not to be found precisely in this form anywhere
in other portions of the Pali Canon. As for the
second point we may note that jJie third lesson
called the Dvattimsakara (the thirty-two parts
of the body) enumerates matthake matthalungam
which is not to be found in the list furnished in the
Mahasatipatthana Suttanta of the Digha Nikaya,
the Satipatthana Sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya,
and numerous other discourses.

We have seen that the Buddhavamsa, the
Cariyapitaka, and the Apadana are the three books
which found recognition in the list of the Majjhima-
bhanakas and were taken no notice of in the
Dighabhanaka list. Apart from other arguments,
one has to presume that these three books were
compiled and received into the canon after the
list was once known to have been complete with
twelve books. These three books, so far as the
subject-matters go, are interconnected, the Buddha-
vamsa enumerating the doctrine of pranidhdna
as an essential condition of the Bodhisatta life, the
Cariyapitaka enumerating the doctrine of cariyd
or practices of a Bodhisatta and the Apadana, the
doctrine of adhikara or competence for the attain-
ment of higher life. These three books presuppose
a legend of 24 previous Buddhas which is far in
excess of the legend of six Buddhas contained in
other portions of the canon. The Buddhavamsa
and the Cariyapitaka present a systematic form of
the Bodhisatta idea that was shaping itself through
the earlier Jatakas and the Apadana furnishing

36 A History of Pali Literature

the previous birth-stories of the theras and the theris
cannot but be regarded as a later supplement to
the Thera-Theri-gatha. f

Besides the Thera-Theri-gathi^ the Vimana-
vatthu or the book of stories of heaven is just
another canonical work which is presupposed by
the Apadana. It is important to note that the
Vimanavatthu contains one story, namely, the
story of Serissaka, the incident of which, according
to the story itself, took place a hundred years,
calculated by human computation, from the death
of the chieftain Payasi.

" MaiTussakam vassasatam atitam
Yadagge kayamhi idhupappanno."

(Vimanavatthu, P.T.S., p. 81.)

The Payasi Suttanta of the Digha Nil&ya
clearly shows that the death of Payasi could not
have been taken place until a few years after the
Buddha's demise. Thus going by the consideration
of this point, we are compelled to assign the date of
its composition to an age ahead of a century and
a half from the demise of the Buddha. So the
canonisation of this book could not have taken
place earlier than the time of the Third Buddhist
Council, we mean the time of King Asoka. Our
suggestion for the date of the Vimanavatthu will
be significant as we consider the contents of the
Petavatthu, the book of stories of hell. We have
noticed above that in all the three lists of the books
of the Khuddaka Nikaya, the name of the Peta-
vatthu stands after that of the Vimanavatthu.
From the occurrence of certain common stories a
suggestion has already been made that it was
somehow an offshoot of the Vimanavatthu. Now
in one of the stories (Petavatthu, IV. 3, I) 1 , we
have allusions to the Moriya (Maurya) king, who

1 " Raja Pihgalako nama Suratthanam adhipati ahu Moriya-
naro upatthanam gantva Surattlram punar agama."

Chronology of the Pali Canon 37

is identified in the commentary with King A^oka. 1
If this construction of the word Moriya is correct, it
leaves no romn for doubt that the Petavatthu,
as we now have it, was a post-Moriyan or post-
A6okan compilation. Again in the Mahavamsa
the* Petavatthu is also mentioned by name. Mahinda
in his second discourse to the women of Devanam-
piyatissa's household, preached the Petavatthu,
the Vimanavatthu and the Sacca-Samyutta, and
the women attained to the first stage of sanctifica-
tion. 2

The Cullaniddesa is a canonical commentary on
the Khaggavisana Sutta and yie Parayana group of
sixteen poems, all of which inicT place in the
anthology called the Sutta Nipata. We have sought
to show that the Cullaniddesa indicates a stage of
development of the Pali Canon when the Khagga-
visana Sutta hangs on the Parayanavagga as an
isolated poem, without yet being included in a
distinct group such as the Uragavagga of the Sutta
.Nipata. Though from this line of argument it
follows that the Cullaniddesa is earlier than the
Sutta Nipata, it cannot at the same time be denied
that it is posterior not only to such suttanta Jatakas
as the Mahapadaniya, Mahagovinda, Mahasudas-
saniya and the Maghadeva Suttanta contained in
the Digha and Majjhima Nikayas but also to a
collection of 500 Jatakas (Pancajatakasatani)
(Cullaniddesa, p. 80). As such the Cullaniddesa
cannot be dated much earlier than the reign of
Asoka.

The Mahaniddesa, too, is a canonical com-
mentary on the Atthaka group of sixteen poems
forming the fourth book of the Sutta Nipata. As
shown before, the exegeses attempted in this book
were all modelled on an earlier exegesis of Maha-

1 ** Moriyanan'ti Moriyarajunam Dhammasokam samdhaya
vadati "Petavatthu, P.T.*S., p. 98.

2 " Petavatthum Vimanam ca saccasamyuttam eva ca desesi
thero, ta itthl Pathamam phalam ajjhagum " Mahavamsa, p. 108
(P.T.S).

38 A History of Pali Literature

kaccana in the Samyutta Nikaya. If this canoni-
cal commentary came into existence when the
Atthakavagga was yet current as an isolated group,
the date of its composition cannot /Jut be anterior
to that of the Sutta Nipata. A crear idea of the
date of this work can be formed from its list* of
places visited by the Indian sea-going merchants.
The Mahaniddesa list clearly points to a time when
the Indian merchants carried on a sea-borne trade
with such distant places as Java in the east and
Paramayona in the west and it alludes as well to a
sea route from Tamali to Java via Tambapanni
or Ceylon which was % followed in the fifth century
A.D., by the Chinese pilgrim, Fa-Hien. We can
expect to come across such a list only in the Milinda
Panha which may be dated in the first and second
centuries A.D. Such a wide expansion of Ind^'s
maritime trade as indicated in the Mahaniddesa
list would seem impossible if the book was a com-
position much earlier than the second century
B.C.

Now turning to the Sutta Nipata we have been
inclined to place it later than the two books of the
Niddesa on the ground that when it was compiled,
the Atthakavagga and the Parayanavagga came
to represent two distinct books of a comprehensive
anthology and the Khaggavisana Sutta ceased to
be a stray poem hanging for its existence on the
Parayana group. But our main reason for dating
it posterior to the Cullaniddesa is that the Para-
yanavagga in the Sutta Nipata is prefaced by a
prologue which is absent from the Cullaniddesa
scheme. Similarly the Nalaka Sutta perhaps known
originally as Moneyya Sutta as evidenced by the
titles suggested in A^oka's Bhabru Edict as a pro-
logue clearly anticipating the poetical style of
Avaghoa's Buddhacarita. In spite of the fact
that the suttas embodied in it were gleaned from
earlier collections, the Sutta Nipata scheme of
anthology does not seem to have been carried into
effect before the second century B.C.

Chronology of the Pali Canon 39

With regard to the Jatakas as a book of the
Khuddaka Nikaya, we have just seen above that
the Cullaniddesa points to a canonical collection
of 500 Jatakasi That five hundred was the original
total of the Jatakas is proved on the one hand by
the 500 Jataka representations witnessed by Fa-
Hien round the Abhayagiri monastery of Ceylon
and on the other hand by the mechanical multi-
plication of the stories in order to raise the total
from 500 to 550 from the days of Buddhaghosa.
The Milinda Panha alludes to the existence of the
repeaters of the Jatakas apart from the repeaters of
the five nikayas. We are unable to decide whether
the Milinda reference is to tne caffbnical books of
the Jatakas or to a commentary collection which
was then in existence. The numerous illustrations
of the Jatakas on the ancient Buddhist railings,
such as those at Barhut and Bodhgaya, unmistak-
ably presuppose the existence of the legendary
stories of the Buddha's life, past and present. But
the canonical collection of 500 Jatakas referred to
in the Cullaniddesa appear to be earlier than the
scriptural basis of the Buddhist sculptures, and
whatever the actual date of composition might be,
it was certainly later than that of the suttanta
Jatakas scattered throughout the first four nikayas.
We may say indeed that the canonical collection
took a definite shape near about the early Maurya
period.

The Thera-Theri-gatha are two companion
anthologies of the stanzas that are supposed to have
been uttered by the theras and therls surrounding
the Buddha during the lifetime of the Master, or
at least shortly after his death (Theragatha,
Oldenberg's preface, xi).

" The separate uddanas or indices which occur
regularly at the end of each nipata and at the end
also of the whole work, and give the names and
numbers of the theras (and the therls) and the
number of verses in each chapter and in the whole
work respectively, seem to be based on a recension

40 A History of Pali Literature

or condition of the text different from that which
now lies before us " (Ibid., p. xiv). In the opinion
of Dhammapala, the commentator, the Theragatha
anthology had reached the final shafpe not earlier
than the time of Asoka. He pointis out that the
Thera Tekicchakari whose gathas are embodied 'in
the Theragatha lived under King Bimbisara, the
father of Dhammasoka. He further adds that the
verses uttered by this thera were received into the
canon by the fathers who assembled in the Third
Buddhist Council. Dhammapala attributes some
of the gathas to Vltasoka, the younger brother of
Dhammasoka and certain other verses to Tissa-
kumara, the yofthgest brother of King Asoka. If we
can at all depend for chronology on the information
supplied by Dhammapala, the anthologies of Thera-
Theri-gatha must be taken as compilations that
had received their final shape at the Third Buddhist
Council and not before.

The Pali Dhammapada is undoubtedly the
earliest of the six copies of the anthologies of the
Dhammapada class. The earliest mention of the
Pali Dhammapada by name is to be found in the
Milinda Panha which is a composition of the first
or second century A.D. From the mere fact that
there were certain quotations in the Kathavatthu
and Mahaniddesa of stanzas now traceable in the
Dhammapada, no definite conclusion can be drawn
as to the actual date of its composition. The
Dhammapada hardly includes any stanzas that
might be supposed to have been drawn upon the
canonical collection of Jatakas. But as shown by
the editors of the Prakrit Dhammapada * there are
a few gathas which were evidently manipulated
on the basis of the gathas in the Jatakas. Similarly
it cannot be maintained that the Dhammapada
contains any stanzas that were directly derived
from the Sutta Nipata, for the suttas which might

1 Dr. Barua and Mr. Mitra, Prakrit Dhammapada, published
by the University of Calcutta.

Chronology of the Pali Canon 41

be singled out as the source of some of the gathas
of the Dhammapada are to be found also in such
earlier collections as the Dlgha or the Majjhima or
the Samyutta\or the Anguttara. The Thera and
Then gathas are the two anthologies of the Khud-
daka Nikaya which appear to have been presupposed
by the Dhammapada. As regards external evi-
dence, there is only one tradition, namely, that a
powerful discourse based on the Appamadavagga
of the Dhammapada served to attract the attention
of King Asoka to Buddhism, clearly pointing to
the existence of the Dhammapada as a distinct
anthology as early as the third century B.C.

The Itivuttaka, the Udana, and the Pati-
sambhidamagga are the remaining three books
of the Khuddaka Nikaya of which the date of com-
.0mtion must depend upon mere conjecture till
accidentally we obtain any reliable date. The
Itivuttaka is a book of quotations of sayings of
the Buddha alleged as genuine, making no reference
to any canonical work or to any historical event
ascertaining its date, though it seems that it was
the result of an after-thought, of a critical study of
the authentic teachings of the Buddha in a certain
light and for a specific purpose. The Udana is a
curious medley of legends and historical records,
presented in a particular setting with a view to
emphasising some pronounced opinions of the
Buddha on certain controversial topics. The Pati-
sambhidamagga presents a systematic exposition
of certain important topics of Buddhism, and
as such it deserves to be classed rather with the
books of the Abhidhammapitaka than with those
of the sutta. It is quite possible that before the
development of the extant Abhidhammapitaka, it
passed as one of the Abhidhamma treatises. Con-
cerning these three books the utmost that we
can say is that they are mentioned even in the
list of the Dighabhanakas, being counted there as
three among the twelve books of the Khuddaka
Nikaya, and that if the tradition about this list is

42 A History of Pali Literature

at all credible, these three books must have
existed when the list was drawn up, say, in the
second century B.C. f

The results arrived at concerning the chrono-
logy of the Pali Canonical literature are presented
in the subjoined table :

1. The simple statements of Buddhist doc-
trine now found in identical works in paragraphs
or verses recurring in all the books.

2. Episodes found in identical works in two
or more of the existing books.

3. The Silas, the Parayana group of sixteen
poems without iJie prologue, the Atthaka group of
four or sixteen poems, the Sikkhapadas.

4. Digha, Vol. I, the Majjhima, the Samyutta,
the Ahguttara, and earlier Patimokkha code of 152
rules.

5. The Digha, Vols. II and III, the Thera-
Theri-gatha, the collection of 500 Jatakas, Suttavi-
bhanga, Patisambhidamagga, Puggalapannatti and
the Vibhahga.

6. The Mahavagga and the Cullavagga, the
Patimokkha code completing 227 rules, the Vimana-
vatthu and Petavatthu, the Dhammapada and the
Kathavatthu.

7. The Cullaniddesa, the Mahaniddesa, the
Udana, the Itivuttaka, the Sutta Nipata, the Dhatu-
katha, the Yamaka, and the Patthana.

8. The Buddhavariisa, the Cariyapitaka, and
the Apadana.

9. The Parivarapatha.
10. The Khuddakapatha.

"

CHAPTER II

CANONICAL PALI LITERATURE

SECTION I. THE VINAYA PITAKA

The Pali Canonical literature consists of the-
three pitakas or Tripitakas or Tfpitakas. The
word Pitaka means a basket containing manuscripts.
According to Mahamahopadhaya Dr. Haraprasad
Shastri, it is an oval shaped cane basket with a
pyramidal lid, the whole covered* with leather
(Buddhistic Studies edited by Dr. B. C. Law,
p. 846). The secondary meaning of Pitaka is
traditional handing on ". Mrs. Rhys Davids in

recently published book, ' Sakya or Buddhist
origins' (Appendix I, p. 431) says that in this
secondary meaning it was no far cry to accept the
word for that which by the time the third or the
Abhidhamma Pitaka was finished, considerably
later than the date of the Patna Congress, was
an accomplished fact. The Tripitaka consists of
the three pitakas, the Vinaya, the Sutta and the
Abhidhamma.

The Vinaya Pitaka 1 really means a basket
containing manuscripts of Vinaya or the rules of

1 Read the Vinaya Texts. S.B.E., Vols. XIII, XVII, and XX
Translations from the Pali Vinaya Pi^akam by Rhys Davids and
Oldenberg. There is a book called Vinaya Sarhgaha which is a
summary of the Vinaya Pitaka divided into various sections giving
concise explanations of Vinaya rules. Read in this connection a
Pali work on Vinaya known as the Vinayalankaratika especially
adapted for the observance of the rules of the priesthood by the
Buddhist monks compiled by Tipitakalankara Thera of Burma
at the request of the King of Burma named Sirisudhammaraja
of the sixteenth century A.D.

Louis Finot . . Fragments du Vinaya Sanskrit (Journal Asia-

tique, Paris, 1911).
R. O. Franke . . Die Gathas des Vinayapitaka und ihre Paral-

lellon (Wiener Zeitschrift fur die kunde des

morgenlandes, Wien, 1910).

44 A History of Pali Literature

discipline. It contains rules and regulations for the
management of the Buddhist Samgha, and for the
conduct of the daily life of monks and^nuns. Rules
for reception into the Order, for the periodical
confession of sins, for life during the rainy season,
for housing, clothing, medicinal remedies, and legal
procedure in case of schism, are also included in it.

Sukumar Dutt . . Early Buddhist Monachism, 600 B.C.-100 B.C.

(Trabner's Oriental Series, 1924). In this
book the author treats of the following
topics :

(a) The Laws of the Vinaya Pi^aka and their
^ interpretation.

(6) The primitive Paribrajakas. A theory
of their origin.

(c) The Samgha and the Patimokkha :

Development of the latter. The author
has done some justice to the Pacittiva
rules.

(d) The Patimokkha as a ritual.

(e) The growth of the Buddhist Ccenobium.

In this chapter the author discusses

about the uposatha catudissa samgha,

vassa, avasas, etc.
(/) The International polity of a Buddhist

Samgha i.e. the sarhgha-kammas are

treated of in it.
(</) Communal life at an avasa.

All these chapters make up the chief contents of the Vinaya
Pitaka. The book is interesting and may be useful in studying
the Vinaya rules. Vide also the Vinayapi^akam and Early
Buddhist Monasticism in its Growth and Development by Sukumar
Dutt (Journal of the Department of Letters, Vol. X, 1923. Cal.
Univ.). The Vinayagulhatthadipanl is an explanation of difficult
passages in the Vinaya Pi^aka (Mabel Bode, The Pali Literature
of Burma, p. 18).

Jan Jaworski la section des Remedes dans la Vinaya des
Mahigasaka et dans le Vinaya Pali. J. Przyluski Fables in the
Vinaya Pit-aka of the Sarvastivada School, I.H.Q., Vol. V, March
1929.

M. Nagai's paper on * Buddhist Vinaya Discipline or Buddhist
Commandments ' (published in the Buddhistic Studies, edited by
Dr. B. C. Law, pp. 365-382) is an admirable contribution. In this
paper Nagai has discussed the following points : (a) the position
of the Vinaya Pi$aka in the Buddhist Texts, (6) fundamentals of
the Vinaya Pi^aka, (c) varieties of the Vinaya Pifaka, (d) four
Parajika, (e) thirteen Sangha-va6esas, (/) thirty nihsargikapata-
yantikas, (g) ninety Patayantikas, (h) one hundred 6aiksa, (i)
meat and garlic, (/) motive underlying inhibitions, (k) command-
ments to Bodhisattva, and (I) five and ten commandments.

Canonical Pali Literature 45-

These rules are supposed to have been laid down
by the Buddha himself as occasion necessitated
their promuigation. Stories have also found a
place in it, some of them give us fragments of the
Buddha legend while others throw a flood of light
on the daily life of ancient India. These stories
are illustrative of the occasion when the Buddha
was constrained to have recourse to folklore with
a view to teach morality to his pupils. The greater
portion of the Vinaya Pitaka appears to be dry and
the technicalities therein have rendered the work
an unpleasant reading in spite of the narrative
of events in the life of Buddha The Vinaya
Pitaka is, in one word, an account of the Buddhist
Church or Order (Samgha).

The Vinaya, as known in Burma, is the monas-
code handed down by the Theravadin sect in
Ceylon. The influence of Ceylon on Burma has
been paramount in questions of monastic discipline
and the code drawn up by the ancient Sinhalese
theras has been carefully preserved by the Burmese
fraternity in the letter and the spirit ever since its
arrival in Burma in the llth century. A great
deal of the Vinaya literature, mostly explanatory
and sometimes controversial, has grown up round
the code from the time of the early commentators
to the present day. The important works by
Sinhalese authors on Vinaya formed the base of
Burmese studies (Mabel Bode, Pali Literature of
Burma, p. 5).

The Vinaya Pitaka consists of the following
books : (1) Suttavibhanga, (2) Khaiidhakas, (3)
Parivara, and (4) Patimokkha.

The first is subdivided into (a) Parajika, and
(6) Pacittiya. The second comprises (i) Maha-
vagga, and (ii) Cullavagga.

1. The Suttavibhanga means the explanations
or expositions of the suttas. The word * Sutta '
corresponds to the Sanskrit * Sutra ' and literally
means * thread '. " It is applied to a kind of book,
the contents of which are, as it were, a thread, giving

46 A History of Pali Literature

the gist or substance of more than is expressed in
them in words. This sort of book was the latest
development in Vedic literature ju/t before and
after the rise of Buddhism " (Rhys Davids,
American Lectures, Buddhism, its history $nd
literature, pp. 53-54). The Buddhists used this
word to mean a discourse, or a chapter. In the
language of Rhys Davids, a savant of hallowed
memory, the Suttavibhanga " tells us firstly how
and when and why the particular rule in question
<came to be laid down. This historical introduction
always closes with the words of the rule in full.
Then follows a* very ^ancient word for word com-
mentary so old that it was already about B.C. 400
(the probably approximate date of the Suttavi-
bhanga) considered so sacred that it was included
in the canon. And the old commentary is succeed^.,-
where necessary, by further explanations and dis-
oussioiis of doubtful points. These are sometimes
of very great historical value. The discussions,
for instance (in the rules as to murder and theft),
of what constitutes murder, and what constitutes
theft, anticipate in a very remarkable degree the
kind of fine-drawn distinctions found in modern
law books. The passages when made accessible,
in translation, to Western scholars, must be of the
greatest interest to students of the history of law,
.as they are quite the oldest documents of that
particular kind in the world."

The Suttavibhanga lays down and explains all
the rules which are contained in the Patimokkha.
It is divided into two books : (a) Parajika (Chinese
Po-lo-i), and (b) Pacittiya (Po-yeh-to) after the two
main heads into which offences are divided, viz.
{i) Parajikas the punishment for which was expulsion
from the Order, and (ii) Pacittiyas for which some
-expiation was laid down. Both the Parajika l and
the Pacittiya 2 deal with two hundred and twenty-

1 This section consists of four rules only according to the Chinese.

2 It includes 90 rules but the Pali book gives 92 rules.

Canonical Pali Literature 47

seven rules for the guidance of the bhikkhus in
determining the offences and the disputes of the
bhikkhus an<^ formulating punishment. The two
hundred and twenty-seven rules are divided into
eight sections, viz. Parajika dhamma (rules con-
cefning those acts which bring about defeat) 1 ,
Sanghadisesa 2 (Chinese Seng-kia-po-sha) dhamma
(rules which require formal meetings of the Order),
Aniyata dhamma (rules regarding undetermined
matters), Nissaggiya pacittiya dhamma (Pacittiya
rules involving forfeiture), Pacittiya dhamma (rules
requiring repentance), Patidesaniya dhamma (rules
regarding matters which ought to be confessed),
Sekhiya dhamma 3 (Chinese Chung-hioh, rules of
etiquette), and Adhikarana-Samatha dhamma (rules
regarding the settlement of cases) which form what
is known as the Patimokkha code of the Vinaya

I tf(MpM4P^ */

Pitaka. We hold with Rhys Davids and Olden-
berg that the Patimokkha* seems to have owed
its existence to the ancient Indian custom of hold-
,ing sacred two periods in each month, the times
of the Full Moon (Vinaya Texts, I, S.B.E., p. x).

1 Defeat in a bhikkhu's endeavour to achieve the end for which
he entered the Order in order to reach the supreme goal of Arahat-
hip.

2 It includes 13 rules requiring a distinct confession before an
assembly of not less than five Brethren and the infliction of penance
according to their decision.

8 Sekhiya dhamma means dhammas to be studied by way of
personal discipline consisting of 100 rules but the Pali list gives
only 75 rules.

4 Read (i) Minayeff's Edition of the Pratimoksa sutra, St.
Petersburg, Akad, 1869.

(ii) The Pali Text with a translation and Notes by J. F.
Dickson M.A., (J.R.A.S., New Series, 1876).

(iii) A valuable translation of the Patimokkha from Pali
was published in 1839 by Rev. D. J. Gogerly in the Ceylon Friend,
Vol. Ill, and was republished in 1862, together with a translation
from Chinese by Rev. S. Beal (J.R.A.S., Second Series, Vol. XIX),
and

(iv) Pandit Vidhusekhar Shastrf s Devanagari Ed. with a
Bengali translation of the Bhikkhu and Bhikkhuni Patimokkha
published in 1323 B.S. may bo consulted. Notes wherever
necessary are given therein.

48 A History of Pali Literature

The Brothers and Sisters used to convene
meetings * twice in each month (on the fourteenth
or fifteenth day) to confess to the ( ; assembly the
sins and faults which they had committed. The
object of the confession was to take upon them-
selves the punishment which, they believed, would
atone for their sin. " The completion of the
recitation is, therefore, the evidence that all who
have taken part in it are pure in respect of the
specified offences. And this is the origin of that
second name, the Patimokkha, which means the
Acquittal, or Deliverance or Discharge."

The Patrniokkha, 2 was composed to be used at
such penitential assemblies. It contains a list of

1 The second book of the Mahavagga contains proceedings of
these gatherings. -*r

2 So-sor-thar-pa or a code of Buddhist monastic laws : Being
the Tibetan version of Pratimoksa of the Mula Sarvastivada School.
Edited and translated by Mahamahopadhyaya Dr. Satis Chandra
Vidyabhusana, M.A., Ph.D., F.A.S.B. The Tibetan text with an
English translation corresponds to Po-lo-ti-mo-oa in Chinese or
Patimokkha in Pali which signifies literally " disburdenment of
each individual's sins " but includes in fact a complete code of
monastic laws. A short summary of the So-sor-thar-pa is contained
in the Mahavyutpatti. The So-sor-thar-pa is well received in
Tibet. In every respectable monastery it is recited with reverence
by the senior Lama on the full -moon and new -moon days. It
contains a set of rules to be observed by monks. This book con-
tains 258 rules while the Pali Patimokkha, 227 rules. The Pali
Patimokkha passed through the three Buddhist councils was
reduced to writing in Ceylon in the reign of Va^t^tg&niani (10476
B.C.). Dr. Vidyabhusana has given a table to show the correspon-
dence between the rules of the Tibetan So-sor-thar-pa and those
of the Pali Patimokkha. The Tibetan Patimokkha contains four
rules regarding defeat, 13 rules regarding suspension from monk-
hood, two rules regarding undetermined matters, 30 rules regard-
ing sins which involve forfeiture, 90 rules regarding sins which
require expiation, four rules regarding matter to be confessed,
seven rules for the settlement of disputes, etc.

An interesting article on Patimokkha by T. W. Rhys Davids
is published in Hasting's Ency. of Religion and Ethics, Vol. IX,
pp. 675-677. Cf. also E. Burnouf, Introduction a i'hist du Boud-
dhisme indien, Paris, 1844.

Vide Kern's Manual of Indian Buddhism, pp. 85-88.

There is a glossary on this work called Patimokkhagan^lu
which interprets the laws of the Buddhist priesthood.

Read comparative arrangement of two translations of the
Buddhist ritual for the priesthood known as the Pratimoksha

Canonical Pali Literature 49

offences which require confession and expiation.
The Patimokkha consists of the following sections :
(I) Pucchavisoajjanam interrogatories relating to
the requisites for forming a chapter, (II) Nidanam
introductory portion, (III) Parajika four deadly
sins; 1 (IV) Samghadisesa the thirteen faults involv-
ing temporary separation from the priesthood,

(V) Aniyata dhamma two undetermined offences,

(VI) Nissaggiya pacittiya dhamma the thirty faults
requiring confession and absolution and involving
forfeiture of the article in reference to which the
offence has been committed, (VII) Pacittiya
dhamma 92 faiilts requiring eqnfession and absolu-
tion, (VIII) Patidesaniya dhamma four offences
requiring confession, (IX) Sekhiya dhamma 72
rules of conduct, (X) Adhikaranasamatha dhamma
seven rules for settling cases. A brief summary of
tliese chapters is given below. The Patimokkha is
rather a register of sins containing 227 articles. The
number of the Patimokkha rules varies in different
cpuntries : in Tibet they amount to 253 and in
China 250. These articles were read out in the
meetings referred to above and the assembled
Brothers and Sisters were asked to confess the
offences referred to if committed by them. The
various offences have been grouped under two main
heads one for the Brothers and the other for the
Sisters. The former is called Bhikkhupatimokkha *
while the latter is named Bhikkhumpatimokkha.
In each of these two parts, the offences have been
divided into different classes in an unsatisfactory
manner.

In the introduction (nidana) to the Patimokkha
we read that on the fifteenth day of the half month,
the members of the Samgha assembled after per-
forming the Uposatha ceremony, should recite the
Patimokkha which contains various rules of conduct

or Patimokkham by S. Beal from the Chinese and D. J. Gogerly
from the Pali (J.R.A.S., 1802).

1 Vide M. Nagai Cornparaison du Bhikkhu-patimokkha en
chinois et en pali.

4

50 A History of Pali Literature

of the Bhikkhus of the Order. The procedure is
that each and every set of rules is recited before the
Bhikkhus ; and immediately after he recitation,
each and every one of them is thrice asked if he is*
guilty of any of these rules. If any Bhikkhu is
guilty he should confess his fault before 'the
assembly. If he has not incurred any such fault,
he should remain silent, and his silence will give
hint to the presiding Bhikkhu that he is pure.

PARAJIKA DHAMMA

First of all, the four rules, concerning those
acts which bring ab6ut defeat should be recited in
a meeting of the Samgha. The four rules, in short,
relate to four conditions of defeat in the effort to
accomplish the object for which a Bhikkhu has
entered the Order. If a Bhikkhu acquires -&^
carnal knowledge of any one, down even to an
animal, or takes a thing which is not given him,
or deprives or helps to deprive a human being of
his life or utters praises of death and self -destruction,
or utters a fruitless falsehood with respect to his
knowledge and insight, that Bhikkhu falls in defeat,
and he is no longer in communion.

SAMGHADISESA DHAMMA

Next, the thirteen matters, which in their
earlier as well as in their later stages, require formal
meetings of the Order, are recited. If a Bhikkhu
emits semen by design, or comes into contact with
a woman in touch, words or thought, or acts as a
go-between between a man and a woman, he vio-
lates a Samghadisesa rule. If a Bhikkhu builds
for himself or for others as well without the approval
of the fellow Bhikkhus a hut or residence on a
dangerous site not having any open space around it
and exceeding the due measurements, he violates
a Samghadisesa rule. If a Bhikkhu in harshness,
malice or anger harasses another Bhikkhu by a
groundless or unimportant charge of having com-

Canonical Pali Literature 51

mitted a Parajika offence, he commits a Samghadi-
sesa offence. If a Bhikkhu or Bhikkhus causes
or cause or ev v f n helps or help to cause a division
in a community even after repeated warnings
and requests to the contrary, that Bhikkhu or
those Bhikkhus trangresses or trangress a Samghadi-
sesa rule. If a Bhikkhu refuses to listen to what
is spoken to him, or himself speaks to others
according to the Dhamma, and insists on such
conduct even after repeated requests, that Bhikkhu
commits a Samghadisesa offence. If a Bhikkhu
leads a life hurtful and of bad effect to the faith,
and he insists on it even after, warnings, he too is
guilty of transgressing a Samghadisesa rule. If
any Bhikkhu is guilty of transgressing any of these
rules, he should be on probation for as many days
as he has knowingly concealed his sin. Next,

* c^**v o %/ '

for six further days, he should undergo the Manatta
discipline 1 and after that he should be reinstated
in a congregation of at least twenty Bhikkhus.

+

ANIYATA DHAMMA 2

The two rules regarding undetermined matters
are next recited. If a Bhikkhu takes a seat with a
woman in secret suitable for sexual intercourse,
and if a trustworthy woman seeing it charges him
under one or other of the three rules the Parajika,
the Samghadisesa, or the Pacittiya that Bhikkhu,
if he acknowledges his offence, should be dealt with
accordingly. Even if his seat be such as con-

1 Vide Cullavagga, II, 6-8. This is the name of some sort of
penance or punishment attached to the commission of a Samghadi-
sesa offence, manattam deti or samadiyati means to undergo
penance. Manatta may be either apafacchanna, that is, penance
for an offence which has been confessed or paticchanna, that is,
penance for an offence which lias been concealed ; in the latter
case it is combined with parivasa (Childers* Pali Dictionary, p. 235
and P.T.S. Dictionary, p. 152).

2 Aniyato literally means uncertain, doubtful. Aniyata dham-
ma means " undetermined offences " because it depends upon
circumstances whether they are to be treated as Parajika, Samghadi-
sesa, or Pacittiya (vide Childers' Pali Dictionary, p. 35).

52 A History of Pali Literature

venient for addressing wicked and alluring words,
and if he is charged under the Samghadisesa or
Pacittiya rules, he should be dealfr with accord-
ingly, in case he acknowledges his offence. f

NISSAGGIYA PACITTIYA DHAMMA

The thirty Pacittiya Rules involving forfeiture
are next recited. If a Bhikkhu keeps a robe even
beyond the time limit of ten days after the settle-
ment of the robes and the performance of the
Kathina ceremony by the Bhikkhu, or, if he, in
similar circumstances, be without his three robes,
even for a single night, unless with the permission
of the other Bhikkhus, in each case he commits
a Pacittiya offence involving forfeiture. When the
robes have been settled and the Kathina ceremony
performed by the Bhikkhu, if then a set of insuffi-
cient robes is offered to him, he may keep it till
the end of a month in course of which he may
hope to be supplied with the deficiency. But
if he keeps it beyond one month, he commits a
Pacittiya offence requiring forfeiture. If a Bhikkhu
accepts a robe except in exchange, or has it washed
or dyed or beaten by a Bhikkhum not related to
him, he commits a similar offence. If a Bhikkhu
asks a householder or his wife, not related to him,
for a robe, except at the right season, he commits
a similar offence. If his asking is granted, he
should accept only the just required portion of inner
and outer robes ; if he takes more, he commits a
similar offence. If a Bhikkhu desirous of a fine
robe, makes suggestions to the party or parties
concerned for a particular kind of robe according to
his wish, he commits a similar offence. If any
agent of a Bhikkhu accepts robe-fund (i.e., money)
from any lay-devotee to provide his chief (i.e.,
the Bhikkhu) with robes, then the Bhikkhu con-
cerned may remind his agent, up to the sixth time,
that he is in need of a set of robes. If he does not
get his robes even then, he should not make any

Canonical Pali Literature 5

further request ; if he does, he commits a Pacittiya
offence involving forfeiture.

t If a BhikShu possesses a rug or mat made of
silk * or made of pure black wool of goat's hair,
he commits a Pacittiya offence involving forfeiture.
If a Bhikkhu makes a new rug without taking two
parts of pure black wool, the third of white, and the
fourth of tawny and if he makes another new rug
within a period of six years unless with the per-
mission of the Bhikkhus, in each case, he commits
a Pacittiya offence involving forfeiture. If a
Bhikkhu makes a new seat-rug without taking two
parts of pure black wool, the 'third ef white, and
the fourth of tawny and if he makes another new
rug within a period of six years unless with the
permission of the Bhikkhus, in each case, he com-
mits a Pacittiya offence involving forfeiture. If a
Bhikkhu makes a new seat-rug without taking the
breadth of the accepted span from all round the old
one, if he accepts and then carries himself or with
the help of a porter some goat's wool beyond a
distance of three leagues, if he gets goat's wool
washed, dyed or combed out by a Bhikkhum not
related to him, if he receives, directly or indirectly
gold or silver or engages himself in any one of the
various transactions in which silver is used or in
any one of the various kinds of buying and selling
then in each case, he commits a Pacittiya offence
involving forfeiture.

If a Bhikkhu keeps a spare bowl beyond the
limit of ten days, or gets another bowl in exchange
for an old one broken in less than five places or
stores up medicine ghee, butter, oil, honey, and
molasses beyond the limit of seven days, he
commits in each case, a Pacittiya offence involving
forfeiture. If a Bhikkhu provides himself with
materials for robes for the rainy season when more
than a month of the hot days has yet to run, or

1 Kosiyainissakam santhatam. The correct spelling is santata
meaning a rug or mat.

54 A History of Pali Literature

makes and wears them when more than half a
month of the summer has yet to r^n, he commits
a similar offence. If a Bhikkhu takes back a sefc
of robes given by him to another Bhikkhu or him-
self asks for yarn and has it woven by weavers into
cloth for a set of robes, he is guilty of the same
offence. If a Bhikkhu gives suggestion to a weaver
to whom a lay-devotee has given orders for a set
of robes to be woven for that particular Bhikkhu,
then in that case also he commits a Pacittiya offence
involving forfeiture for his having given directions
to the weaver even before the offer was made.
If a Bhikkhil keeps a robe that has fallen to his
lot as a special gift, ten days before the full-moon
night in the month of Kartic beyond the time
when the robes are settled, he commits a similar
offence with similar results. If a Bhikkhu separ&ESs
himself from any one of his three robes beyond
the sixth night except by permission from the
Bhikkhus, or causes to be diverted to himself any
benefit already dedicated to the Samgha, in eacn
case he commits a Pacittiya offence involving for-
feiture.

PACITTIYA DHAMMA I

If a Bhikkhu tells a deliberate lie or uses
abusive language or speaks ill of another Bhikkhu
or causes one not received into the higher grade
of the Order to recite the Dhamma, clause by
clause or lies down to sleep for more than three
nights in the same place with one not received into
the higher grade of the Order, or lies down in the
same place with a woman or preaches the Dhamma
in more than five or six words to a woman without
a man arrived at years of discretion, or tells one
not received into the higher grade of the Order
that he or any other Bhikkhu has extraordinary
spiritual gifts, or that any other Bhikkhu has fallen

1 Pacittiya means expiatory. There are 92 Pacittiya Dhamma
or priestly offences requiring confession and absolution.

Canonical Pali Literature 55

into any grave offence or digs the ground or has
it dug, then that Bhikkhu commits, in each of these
cases, a Pacittiya offence.

If a Bhikkhu exhorts the Bhikkhunls without

being deputed thereto or even when deputed does
so after sun-set or goes to the dwelling place of the
Bhikkhunls to exhort them there except on the
right occasion or exhorts them for the sake of gain
or gives a robe to a Bhikkhuni who is not related
to him except in exchange or makes up a robe or
has it made up for a Bhikkhuni who is not related
to him or travels by appointment, along a high
road in company with a Bhikkhuni except on the
right occasion or in similar circumstances goes
on board the same boat except for the purpose of
crossing over to the other side or knowingly eats
food procured by the intervention of a Bhikkhuni
or takes seat in a secret place with a Bhikkhuni
then, in each of these cases, that Bhikkhu commits a
Pacittiya offence.

If a Bhikkhu (who is not sick) takes more than
one meal at a public rest house or goes in a body
to receive a meal except on the right occasion or
takes food in turn except on the right occasion or
accepts more than two or three bowls full of sweet-
meats and cakes when invited to a house to take
as much as he likes, or partakes of food that has
not been left over, even after he has once finished
his meal or after he has finished his meal again
eats food offered by a Bhikkhu desirous of deli-
berately stirring up longing in him or takes food
at the wrong time or eats food that has been put
by or takes when he is not sick, ghee, butter, oil,
honey, molasses, flesh, fish, milk, and curd or places,
as food, within the door of his mouth, anything
not given to him, save only water and a tooth-
cleaner, then in each of these cases, he commits
a Pacittiya offence.

If a Bhikkhu gives with his own hand food to
an Acelaka, or a Paribbajaka, or a Paribbajika ;
or takes in company a Bhikkhu for a meal to the

56 A History of Pali Literature

neighbouring village or town, but abruptly sends
him away and gets rid of him in order to gain a
purpose of his own or forces his way* into a house
where a meal is going on, or takes a seat in secret
with a woman in a concealed place then in each of
these cases, he commits a Pacittiya offence. If a
Bhikkhu who has already been provided with a
meal, goes out without having previously spoken
about it to a Bhikkhu, (if there is any one there),
goes out a begging either before or after meal-time,
except on the right occasion, or accepts a standing
invitation with regard to the requisites for more
than four months (unless there be a second or
perpetual invitation) or goes out to see an army
drawn up in battle-array, or to the numbering
or drawing up of forces, or to a review while
remaining with the army, then in each of thes^
cases, he transgresses a Pacittiya Dhamma.

If a Bhikkhu drinks fermented liquor or strong
drinks, or pokes another person with the finger,
or sports in the water, or shows disrespect * towards
a Bhikkhuni or frightens a Bhikkhum, or in order
to warm himself, kindles a fire without sufficient
cause, or takes bath at intervals of less than half-
a-month except on the proper occasion, or makes
use of a new robe without choosing one or other
of the three modes of disfigurement, or continues
to make use of a robe, which he has already given
over to another Bhikkhu, Bhikkhuni, Sikkhamana,
Samanera, or Samaneri, as a thing not formally
given, or hides or causes another to hide a Bhikkhu's
absolute belongings, then in each of these cases,
he commits a Pacittiya offence.

If a Bhikkhu deliberately deprives any living
thing of life or knowingly drinks water with living
things in it, or stirs up for decision a matter which
has already been settled according to the Dhamma,
or conceals a serious offence committed by another
Bhikkhu or admits a person under twenty years of

1 The Pali word is anadariya.

Canonical Pali Literature 57

age to the higher grade of the Order, or travels,
by appointment, with a caravan of robbers, or does
so by appointment, with a woman, or brings false
accusations against the Blessed One even after
repeated warnings and admonitions or eats, dwells,
or sleeps with a Bhikkhu who similarly brings false
witness against the Blessed One or acts similarly
with a novice who has been expelled for bringing
in false witness against the Blessed One, then in
each of these cases, he commits a Pacittiya offence.

If a Bhikkhu refuses to submit to the admoni-
tions of fellow Bhikkhus in respect of some pre-
cepts in accordance with the Dhamma, or dis-
regards precepts of the Patimokkha, or fails to take
the Patimokkha to heart when it is being recited,
and fails to attend to it with care, or being angry
cr displeased gives a blow, or makes a threatening
gesture to another Bhikkhu, or harasses a Bhikkhu
with a Samghadisesa charge without ground, or
intentionally suggests difficulties of conscience to a
Bhikkhu with the idea of giving him trouble or
overhears other Bhikkhus engaged in disputes or
quarrels, or grumbles about proceedings though
he has already declared his consent to formal
proceedings according to the Dhamma or rises from
his seat and goes away without declaring his con-
sent, when the Saihgha is conducting a formal
enquiry, or grumbles about a robe which he has
already given away in a regularly constituted
Samgha, or knowingly diverts to the use of any
individual a property dedicated to the Samgha,
then in each of these cases, he commits a Pacittiya
offence.

If a Bhikkhu crosses without having announced
the threshold of an anointed Khattiya King, when
the King and the Queen have not gone forth, or
picks up or causes another to pick up, except in a
grove or in a dwelling place, a jewel or the like,
or enters in unearthly hours, a village without
having informed a Bhikkhu (if one is present)
except on business, or uses a needle case made

58 A History of Pali Literature

of ivory, bone or horn, or makes a new bedstead
that exceeds the due measurement, or uses a chair
or bedstead stuffed with cotton, or uses a rug 01
mat-seat not made of the right measurement or
garment for the rainy season not made of the righl
measurement or an itch-cloth that exceeds the due
measurement, or uses a robe that is equal to or
larger than the measurement of the robe of the
Master, then, in each of these cases, there is a
Pacittiya offence.

PATIDESANIYA DHAMMA*

The four rules regarding matters which ought
to be confessed are next recited. If a Bhikkhu
accepts and eats food given by a Bhikkhum not
related to him, that is an offence which he should
confess. If a Bhikkhum stands and gives directioli
as to serving the dishes to a number of Bhikkhus
who are taking a meal, and the Bhikkhus fail
to rebuke her, then that is an offence which the
Bhikkhus should confess. If a Bhikkhu accepts*
without having been previously invited, food with
his own hand in a household under discipline, then
that is also an offence which ought to be confessed.
If a Bhikkhu living in an insecure and dangerous
forest-dwelling accepts food with his own hand
at his place without having previously given notice
of the danger to those who enter the forest, then
that too is an offence which ought to be confessed.

SEKHIYA DHAMMA*

The rules regarding matters connected with
discipline should be next recited.

A Bhikkhu should put on his undergarment
and robe all around him. He should go and take
his seat properly clad amidst the houses, with his

1 Pafadesaniya means that which ought to be confessed.

2 Minor precepts regulating the conduct of the priest and apply-
ing to his mode of dress, department, eating, etc. They are also
known as Sekhiyavattam (Childers' Pali Dictionary, p. 472).

Canonical Pali Literature 59

body under proper control, his eyes downcast, and
his robes nc4> pulled up.

He should not laugh loudly, should make
but little sound, and he should not sway his body,
arms or head while going and taking his seat amidst
the houses.

He should not put the hands on the hips (i.e.,
to keep arms not akimbo), or keep his head covered,
or walk on his heels or toes, or loll (i.e., make rest
with his hands or with a cloth) while going and
taking his seat amidst the houses. He should keep
his mind alert and receive alms with attention to
his bowl and with equal curry and equally full.

He should eat the alms with mind alert and
with attention to his bowl. He should beg straight
on from house to house and eat the alms placed
in his bowl with equal curry, but without pressing
down from the top. He should not cover the curry
or condiment with the rice in order to make it nice.
He should neither ask curry nor rice for his own
particular use (unless he is sick), nor should he with
envious thoughts look at others' bowls. He should
make his food into round mouthfulls and not into
too large balls.

He should not open his mouth till the food-
ball is brought close, nor should he put his whole
hand into the mouth. He should not talk while
the food is in his mouth, nor should he toss the food
into his mouth. He should eat without nibbling
at the balls of food, without stuffing his cheeks,
without shaking his hands about, without scattering
the lumps of boiled rice, without putting out his
tongue, and finally without smacking his lips.

He should eat further without making a hissing
sound and without licking his fingers or his bowl
or his lips. He should not take hold of the water-
jar with a hand soiled with food, nor throw into the
inner court the rinsings of the bowl mixed with lumps
of boiled rice. He should not preach the Dhamma
to a person with a sunshade or a stuff, or a sword,,
or a weapon in his hand (unless he is sick).

60 A History of Pali Literature

He should not preach the Dhamma also to a
person wearing slippers or sandals, or seated in a
cart, or lying on a couch, or lolling, or Adth a turban
on his head, or with his head otherwise covered,
unless he is sick. He should not preach the Dhamma
himself seated on the earth, or on a low seat, or
standing, to a person who is respectively seated
on a seat, or on a high seat, or sitting (unless he is
sick).

He who is walking behind or by the side of the
path, should not preach the Dhamma to a person
who is walking respectively in front of him or walk-
ing on a path unless he is sick.

He should not ease himself standing on growing
grass or into water.

All these are rules of discipline which ought
to be observed.

THE ADHIKARA^A-SAMATHA DHAMMA

The seven rules regarding the settlement of
Ceases are next recited.
They are :

(1) Proceeding in presence (Sammukha-

vinaya).

(2) Proceeding for the consciously innocent

(Sati vinaya).

(3) Proceeding in the case of those who

are no longer out of their mind
(Amulha vinaya).

(4) Proceeding on confession of guilt

(Patinfiaya).

(5) Proceeding by majority of the Chapter

(Yebhuyyasika).

(6) Proceeding for the obstinate (Tissa-

papiyyasika).

(7) Proceeding by covering over as with

grass (Tinavattharaka).

These are the words of the Blessed One handed
down in the suttas, and they should be recited
every half-month. All Bhikkhus are fully expected

Canonical Pali Literature 61

to train themselves accordingly in concord, in
pleasantness and without dispute.

(2) The Khandhakas or Treatises in set frag-
ments comprise two divisions :

(i) The Mahavagga and (ii) The Cullavagga.

The Mahavagga 1 is the greater division. It
gives in the first chapter in a dignified archaic
language an account of Gautama's attainment of
enlightenment, determination of preaching the law
and his winning the first disciples. The first sermon
of the Buddha at Benares, the well-known Fire
Sermon and the ordination of Rahula are also
related herein. This book lays down rules for
admission into the order, the observance of the
Uposatha ceremony and the Patimokkha, the place
of residence during the rainy season, the observance
of the Pavarana ceremony, 2 foot-clothing, seats,
conveyances, dress, etc. It prescribes rules for
the determination of the validity and invalidity of
the formal acts of the Samgha, and for the restora-
tion of order in the Samgha. Certain medicines
for certain specified diseases are also prescribed
herein for the bhikkhus. " We obtain quite
incidentally ", says Rhys Davids, " a very fair insight
into a good deal of the medical lore current at
that early period, that is about 400 B.C., in the
valley of the Ganges. It is a pity that the current
authorities on the history of law and medicine
have entirely ignored the details obtainable from
these ancient books of Buddhist Canon Law." 8

It is worth mentioning here that in the
Mahavagga we find evidence of the existence of an
" ancient commentary " on which has been based
the Suttavibhanga. The " ancient commentary " was
a word for word commentary on the Patimokkha

1 Read C. Bendall, *' Notes and Queries on passages in the
Mahavagga "J.P.T.S., 1883.

2 It is the name of the festival held at the end of the Buddhist
vassa or lent.

3 Rhys Davids, American Lectures on the history of Religions,
Buddhism, its history and literature, pp. 57-58.

62 A History of Pali Literature

rules without relating why, when, where and con-
cerning whom the said rules were formulated
by the Master. These have been later on included
in the Suttavibhanga. Hence the Suttavibhanga
is an improvement on the ancient commentary
which is found verbatim in the above work. The
Mahavagga refers to Buddha's stay at Uruvela
on the banks of the river Neranjara just after he
had become Sambuddha and it relates the account
of the events which happened under the Bodhi
tree. Then it describes what passed under the
Ajapala tree, the Mucalinda tree and the Rajayatana
tree. It gives us the account of the conversion
of Tapussa and Bhallika into Buddhism by the
Buddha. This account has to say nothing about
the three weeks immediately following the period
spent under the great Bo-tree. The omission may
however be due to incompleteness of the text itself.
From the conversion of Tapussa and Bhallika, the
thread of narrative runs to give an account of the
meeting of the Buddha with Upaka, the Ajivaka,
on his way to Benares via the city of Gaya, and
of the preaching of the first sermon in the well-
renowned Deer Park near Benares and the con-
version of the first five disciples Anfiakondanna,
Bhaddiya, Vappa, Assaji, and Mahanama. It
records the history of the conversion of Yasa. Mara 1
approached the Buddha and had a conversation
with him. Hearing the utterances of the Buddha,
he vanished. Buddha converted three Jatila
brothers, Uruvela Kassapa, Nadi Kassapa, and Gaya
Kassapa. An account of the ordination of Sari-
putta and Moggallana is given in it. Duties towards
an upajjhaya (preceptor) and a saddhiviharika
(fellow priest) are detailed in it. In the account
of Jivaka Komarabhacca given in the Mahavagga,

1 Vide Dr. B. C. Law's Buddhist Conception of Mara published
iri the Proceedings and Transactions of the Third Oriental Con-
ference held at Madras. Vide also J. Przyluski-La place do Mara
dans la mythologic bouddhique, pp. 483-493, J.A., Vol. ccx, January-
March, pp. 115-123.

Canonical Pali Literature 63

we read that five diseases prevailed among the
Magadhans, leprosy, boils, dry leprosy, consump-
tion, and fite. The people affected with these
five diseases went to Jivaka who used to treat
King Bimbisara of Magadha and the members of
the royal family. The Mahavagga furnishes us
with an interesting account of Upali. Besides,
there are various other topics discussed in it, e.g.
ten precepts for novices, regulations for the Upasam-
pada or ordination, Uposatha ceremonies, and the
recital of the Patimokkha by the bhikkhus, the
residence during the rainy season (vassa).

Sona Kolivisa was ordained by the Buddha who
instructed him to use shoes having one lining.
He had eighty cart-loads of gold and a retinue
of seven elephants. The bhikkhus were instructed
by the Buddha not to wear shoes having edges of a
blue, yellow, red, brown, black, orange or yellowish
colour. Shoes with heel-coverings are not to be
worn by the bhikkhus. The bhikkhus are not
to wear shoes in the open arama. Wooden shoes 1
*are not to be worn by them. Foot coverings
made of talipat leaves are not to be worn. Shoes
made of tina-grass, munja-grass, etc. are not to
be used. The bhikkhus are allowed to use three
kinds of clogs fixed to the ground, e.g. privy-clogs,
urinal-clogs, and rinsing clogs. Calves should not
be killed by them. The bhikkhus are allowed
to use a sedan chair. Lofty and large things to
recline upon are not to be used by them. Some
skins, e.g. lion, tiger, panther, for skins are not to
be used. The bhikkhus are allowed to sit down
on seats arranged by laymen but not to lie down
on them. They are allowed to have bath con-
stantly in all the border countries which are situated
beyond Mahasala, beyond the river Salalavati,
beyond Thuna 2 and beyond Usiradhaja. 8 Shoes

1 KaMhapaduka-Vinaya Pifcika, Vol. I, p. 189.

2 A brahmin village in the Majjhimadesa (Jataka, Vol. VI,
pp. 62, 65).

8 A pabbata in the Majjhimadesa.

64 A History of Pali Literatwre

with thick linings are allowed for the bhikkhus
to use in all these border countries. The Maha-
vagga prescribes the five medicament, e.g. ghee,
butter, oil, honey, and molasses. The bhikkhus
are permitted to use them at the right time and
at other times. The bhikkhus are allowed to use
the fat of bears, fish, alligators, swine, and asses
if received at the right time, cooked at the right
time, mixed at the right time, to be partaken of
with oil. The use of certain roots as medicines
are allowed for the bhikkhus turmeric, ginger,
orris root, white orris root, ativisa, black hellebore,
usira root, bhaddamuttaka. The use of astringent
decoctions as medicine is allowed nimba, pakkava, 1
nattamala, kutaja, 2 etc. The use of leaves and
fruits as medicines is allowed, e.g. leaves of nimba,
tulasi, kappasika, etc., pippala, haritaka, amalaka,
etc. The use of gums and salts is allowed as
medicines, hingu, sipatika, etc., sea-salt, black
salt, rock salt, red-salt, etc. The use of raw flesh
and blood is permissible in case of disease. The
use of eye ointments is permissible. The bhikkhus
are allowed the use of a little oil on the head, use
of a double bag, a decoction of oil. The practice
of taking medicine through the nose is permissible.
The bhikkhus are allowed the use of three kinds of
pots, e.g. bronze pots, wooden pots, and pots made
of the shells of fruits. They are allowed the use
of hot baths in water in which the medicinal herbs
have been steeped. The use of artificial and
natural juice is allowed. The bhikkhus can cook
in-doors. No surgical operation is to be performed
within a distance of two inches round the anus and
a clyster is not to be used. The bhikkhus are not
to eat elephants' flesh, dogs' flesh, serpents' flesh,
lions' flesh, and hyenas' flesh. They are to take
rice-milk and honey-lumps. The Mahavagga gives
us an idea of the dress of the bhikkhus arid it
describes the Kathina ceremonies. The bhikkhus

1 A kind of creeper. 2 An antidote to dysentery.

Canonical Pali Literature 65

are allowed the use of a mantle, silk mantle, and
woollen garments. They are also allowed the use
of a dye-ladle 'or a scoop with a long handle and
they can have the use of a trough for dyeing cloth in.
The bhikkhus can use an under-robe of torn pieces,
an upper-robe of torn pieces, and a waist cloth of
torn pieces. They are allowed the use of gar-
ments for the rainy season, the use of mat, the use
of an itch-cloth when the bhikkhus have the itch
and the use of a cloth to wipe the faces^with. There
is a chapter dealing with validity and invalidity
of formal acts of the Samgha. If an act is un-
lawful and performed by an incomplete congrega-
tion, such an act is objectionable and invalid on
account of its unlawfulness and of incompleteness
of the congregation. An official act which requires
the presence of four persons if performed by a
congregation in which a bhikkhum is the fourth
is no real act and ought not to be performed. An
account of the schisms of the Samgha is given in
the Mahavagga.

It will be interesting to note that the Maha-
vagga in presenting a systematic history of the
developments of the Buddhist Order only records a
few episodes in the life of the Buddha. It leaves
the life of Siddhartha out of account and starts
the history just from the Buddhahood of Gautama.
The justification for the inclusion of such a life
history of the Buddha seems to be this that with
the Buddhists, the whole set of laws regulating
their life and conduct derived their authority
from the Buddhahood and personality of the
Master.

(ii) The Cullavagga is the smaller division.
In it is found a number of edifying anecdotes, all
connected with the life of the Buddha and history
or constitution of the Order. It contains twelve
khandhas. The first nine chapters deal with disci-
plinary proceedings, different offences and expia-
tions, settlement of disputes among the fraternity,
the daily life of the bhikkhus, residence, furniture,

5

66 A History of Pali Literature

duties of bhikkhus towards one another, and the
exclusion from the Patimokkha ceremony. The
tenth chapter describes the duties of the nuns.
The last two chapters, eleventh and twelfth, fur-*
nish us with an account of the first two councils
of Rajagaha 1 and Vesali and are regarded as later
supplements. The rules are generally preceded
by a history of the occasion on which the Buddha
was supposed to have made them.

The Cullavagga deals with the 12 cases of a
proceeding (Kamma) which is against the law
and 12 cases of a proceeding which is according
to law. There are six permissible cases of Tajjaniya
kamma (act of rebuke). A bhikkhu against whom
the Tajjaniya kamma has been carried out, ought
to conduct himself aright. He ought to confer
upasampada or ordination ; he ought not to provide
himself with a samanera or a novice, he ought not
to accept the office of giving exhortation to the
nuns and if he has accepted the office, he ought
not to exhort the nuns. There are eighteen duties
which follow on a Tajjaniya kamma and there are
18 cases in which there ought to be no revocation
of the Tajjaniya kamma and there are 18 cases
in which there ought to be a revocation.

Pabbajaniya kamma (act of excommunication)
has been carried out by the Samgha against those
bhikkhus who are followers of Assaji and Punab-
basu to the effect that those bhikkhus who are
followers of Assaji and Punabbasu are not to dwell
on the Kita Hill. The Samgha approves of it.

There are three kinds of bhikkhus against
whom the Samgha, if it likes, should carry out the
Pabbajaniya kamma, that is to say, one who is
frivolous in action, in speech, and both in action
and speech.

1 Vide Przyluski's Le Concile de Rajagaha, 1928. It is an
interesting and instructive treatise on the subject. Mrs. Rhys
Davids in the 19th section of her ' Sakya or Buddhist Origins ' has
ably discussed Buddhist councils, pp. 348 foil.

Canonical Pali Literature 67

There are acts of reconciliation (patisaraniya
kamma). " TJie patisaraniya kamma has been
carried out against the bhikkhu Sudhamma with the
words, * You are to ask and obtain pardon of
Citta, the householder '. The Samgha approves the
motion. There are five kinds of bhikkhus against
whom the Samgha, if it likes, should carry out
the patisaraniya kamma, that is to say, one who
goes about to bring loss on the laity, etc."

There are acts of suspension for not acknowledg-
ing, and for not atoning for an offence. Channa,
the bhikkhu, has been subjected by the Samgha to
the Ukkhepaniya kamma (act of suspension) for
not acknowledging a fault.

There are 18 cases in which a revocation of the
Ukkhepaniya kamma on not renouncing a sinful
doctrine should be carried out.

If a meeting of four bhikkhus, of whom one is
a probationer, should place a bhikkhu on proba-
tion or throw him back to the beginning of his
probationary course, or subject him to the manatta
discipline or if a meeting of 20 bhikkhus, of whom
one is a probationer, should rehabilitate a bhikkhu,
that is an invalid act and need not be obeyed.

There are three ways of interruption of the
probationary period of a bhikkhu who has been
placed under probation. The bhikkhu who has
been placed under probation is to go up to a single
bhikkhu and arranging his robe on one shoulder
and squatting down on his heels and stretching
forth his hands with the palms together, he is to
say " I take my probation again upon myself ".
Then the probation is resumed or he is to say
" I take the duties of a probationer upon myself
again ". Then also is the probation resumed.

The bhikkhus are to follow three kammavacas,
one for the throwing back, one for the inclusive
probation, and one for the new manatta.

There are proceedings on the breach of the
first Samghadisesa. Let the Samgha impose upon
the bhikkhu a probation for a further month for

68 A History of Pali Literature

those two Samghadisesa offences concealed for two
months. If a bhikkhu while he is undergoing pro-
bation, becomes a Samanera, there can happen no
probation to him so long as he is a Samanera. '

There are 36 cases of fresh offences being
committed whilst under probation.

If a bhikkhu who is undergoing probation is
guilty meanwhile of a number of Samghadisesa
offences and concealing them throws off the robes
and he, when he has again received the upasampada,
does not conceal those offences the bhikkhu ought
to be thrown back to the commencement of his
term of probation and an inclusive probation
ought to be imposed upon him corresponding to
the period which has elapsed since the first offence
among those offences which he has concealed.

There are nine principal cases in which a
bhikkhu is not purified by undergoing a term of
probation.

The bhikkhus assembled in the Sarhgha were
unable to settle the disputed question (that was
brought before them) since they became violent,
quarrelsome and disputatious and kept on wounding
one another with sharp words. They were allowed
to settle such a dispute by the vote of the majority.

There are four kinds of legal questions requiring
formal settlement by the Samgha, that is to say,
legal questions arising out of (1) disputes, (2)
censure, (3) offences, and (4) business.

The bhikkhus are allowed to appoint on the
jury a bhikkhu possessed of ten qualities. There
are three ways of taking votes the secret method,
the whispering method, and the open method.
A bhikkhu who is the teller of the votes is to make
the voting tickets of different colours and as each
bhikkhu comes up to him he is to say to him thus,
" This is the ticket for the man of such an opinion ;
this is the ticket for the man of such an opinion.
Take whichever you like." When he has chosen
(he is to add) " Don't show it to anybody ". If
he ascertains that those whose opinion is against the

Canonical Pali Literature 89

dhamma are in the majority, he is to reject the
votes as wrongly taken. If he ascertains that
those whose opinion is in accordance with the
'dhamma are in the majority, he is to report the
votes as well taken. This is the secret method of
taking the votes.

A bhikkhu who is the teller of the votes is to
whisper in each bhikkhu's ear, " This is the ticket
of those of such an opinion ; this is the ticket of
those of such an opinion. Take whichever you
like." When he has chosen (he is to add) " Don't
tell anybody (which way you have voted) ". If
he ascertains that those whose opinion is against
the dhamma are in the majority, he is to reject the
votes as wrongly taken. If he ascertains that
those whose opinion is in accordance with the
dhamma are in the majority, he is to report the
votes as well taken. This is the whispering method
of taking the votes.

If a bhikkhu ascertains (beforehand) that those
whose opinion is in accordance with the dhamma
are in the majority, the vote is to be taken un-
disguisedly, openly. This is the open method of
taking the votes.

The bhikkhus are not to wear long hair. They
are not to smooth the hair with a comb. They
are allowed the ordinary mode of shampooing with
the hand. They are not to look at the image of
their faces in a looking-glass or a bowl of water ;
but they are allowed to do so only when they are
ill. They are not to anoint their faces nor to rub
ointment, etc. into their faces. They are not
to go to see dancing, or singing, or music. They
are not to wear woollen cloth with long fleece to it.
They are not to put away their bowls with water
in them. They are allowed to dry their bowls
for a short time in a warm place and then to put
them away. They are allowed the use of a mat
made of grass, the use of a small cloth, the use of
bags to carry their bowls in. They are not to put
their bowls on the bed or on a chair. They are

70 A History of Pali Literature

not to keep their bowls on their laps. They are
not to put them down on a sunshade. They are
not to open the door with their bowls in their hands.
They are allowed the use of a blade and of a sheath*
(for the blade) made of felt. They can use needles
and needlecase made of bamboo. They are allowed
the use of a grass-mat, false threads, a box or drawer
in the workshop. The bhikkhus are allowed to
line the basement of a hall or a shed with facing of
three kinds brick facing, stone facing, and wooden
facing ; the use of stairs of three kinds brick
stairs, stone stairs, and wooden stairs and the use
of a balustrade. They are allowed to provide a
railing for the cloister. They are allowed to face
round the lower half of the wall with bricks. The
use of a chimney is allowed. They are allowed the
use of clay to spread over their faces, if their faces
are scorched. A trough can be used by the bhikkhus
to moisten the clay in. They are allowed to lay
the floor with flooring of 3 kinds brick flooring,
stone flooring, and wooden flooring. The use of &
drain to carry off the water is allowed. The use of
stools for the bathroom is allowed. They are allowed
to enclose the bathroom with three kinds of
enclosures brick walls, stone walls, and wooden
fences. The bhikkhus can have an antechamber
in the bathroom. Outlet in the antechamber of
the bathroom is also allowed. The hall to the
bathroom is allowed. Water vessels of three kinds
can be used brass pots, wooden pots, and skins.
The bhikkhus are allowed to make use of a towel
and to wipe the water off with a cloth. They
are allowed a tank. A stand for the bowl can be
used. The bhikkhus are allowed the use of small
jars and brooms, the use of fans and flower-stands,
and the use of mosquito-fans. They are allowed to
cut their nails according to the length of the flesh.
They are allowed the use of razors, of a stone to
sharpen the razors on, of powder prepared with
sipatika-gum to prevent them rusting, of a sheath
to hold them in, and of all the apparatus of a barber.

Canonical Pali Literature 71

They are not to have their beards cut by barbers,
nor to let them grow long nor to wear them long
on the chin like a goat's beard. They are allowed
the use of an instrument to remove the wax from
the ear. They are allowed the use of a loom and
of shuttles, strings, tickets, and all the apparatus
belonging to a loom. They are not to wear their
under-garments arranged as laymen do, nor to
wear upper-garments as the laymen do. Tooth-
sticks four finger-breadths long at the least are
allowed. They are allowed to eat onions when
diseased. They are not to follow manifold evil
practices. Abodes of five kinds are allowed for the
bhikkhus, e.g. viharas, addhayogas, 1 storied dwell-
ings, attics, and caves. Bedsteads made of laths
of split bamboo are allowed. A rectangular chair,
an arm-chair, a sofa, a sofa with arms to it, a state-
chair, a cushioned chair, a chair raised on a pedestal,
a chair with many legs, a board (to recline on), a
cane-bottomed chair, a straw-bottomed chair are
^ilso allowed. Supports to bedsteads are allowed to
the bhikkhus. Pillows half the size of a man's
head and bolsters of five kinds are allowed; use in
the viharas of whitewash, black colouring, and red
colouring is allowed. Curtains can be used.
Chambers in shape like a palankeen, chambers in
shape like a quart measure, chambers on an upper
storey, pins in the wall and bone hooks are allowed;
verandahs, covered terraces, inner verandahs, and
overhanging eaves are allowed. A service hall,
a water-room, and a watershed are allowed. The
bhikkhus are enjoined upon that paying of
reverence, rising up in reverence, salutation, proper
respect, and apportionment of the best seat, and
water and food, shall be according to seniority.
But property belonging to the Samgha shall not
be exclusively appropriated according to seniority.
The bhikkhus are to sit down on seats arranged by
laymen excepting three, namely, large cushions,

1 Name of a sort of house which is said to be a house shaped
like a garu^a bird.

72 A History of Pali Literature

divans, and mattresses but not to lie down upon
them. The bhikkhus are allowed to appoint a
bhikkhu possessed of five qualifications as an
apportioner of lodging places. They are allowed the
use of stuffed couches after having broken off the
legs. There are rules authorising the fraternity
to place a vihara in charge of an individual
monk temporarily while it is under construction.
The bhikkhus are allowed to barter either of these
things in order to increase the stock of legally
permissible furniture. They are allowed to appoint
a bhikkhu as distributor of lodging places.

There are regulations as to the duties of the
bhikkhus towards one another. If the resident
bhikkhu be senior, he ought to be saluted ; if junior
he ought to be made to salute (the incomer). If a
vihara be unoccupied, he ought to knock at the
door, then to wait a minute, then to undo the bolt,
and open the door and then still standing outside,
to look within. If the vihara is covered with
cobwebs, they should first be removed with a cloth.*
If the cell or the storeroom or the refectory, or the
room where the fire is kept, or the privy, is covered
with dust, it should be swept out. If there is no
drinking water, or water for washing, they should
be provided. If there is no water in the rinsing-
pot, water should be poured in. The bhikkhus are
allowed to leave the hall, if necessary, after
informing the bhikkhu sitting immediately next.
The bhikkhus are allowed to recite the Patimokkha
to the bhikkhus. They are allowed to tell
bhikkhunis how to recite the Patimokkha. They
must tell bhikkhunis how they should confess their
faults. They are allowed to receive the confession
of a fault from bhikkhunis. A bhikkhum is not to

wear robes that are all of a blue, light yellow,
crimson, black, brownish-yellow or dark yellow
colour.

A bhikkhuni is not to assault a bhikkhu.

The bhikkhus are to take seats according to
seniority.

Canonical Pali Literature 73

4*

The bhikkhus are allowed the use of a carriage
which is given to a sick bhikkhuni. A bhikkhuni
is not to adopt the forest life. The bhikkhus are
allowed the use of a stable. A separate residence
for bhikkhunis is allowed. The building operations
are to be carried on for the benefit of the bhikkhunis.
Certain places are assigned to live in to individual
members of the Order. Bhikkhunls are not to
bathe in a steam bath. A bhikkhuni is not to
bathe at a place which is not a common bathing
place. She is not to bathe at a bathing place
used by men. She is not to bathe against the stream.

Bhikkhunis and theris were exempted from all
sorts of punishment for any offence committed
before entering the Order. Once a Licchavi wife
committed adultery. Her husband resolved to kill
her, so she went to Savatthi and succeeded in
getting herself ordained by a bhikkhuni. Her
husband came to Savatthi, saw her ordained, and
complained to King Pasenadi of Kosala. He also
informed the King that his wife had become a
bhikkhuni. The King said that as she had become
a bhikkhuni, no punishment could be inflicted
on her (Bhikkhumvibhanga, Samghadisesa, II,
Vinaya Pitaka, Vol.' IV, p. 225).

There were eight conditions on which a woman
Conditions for could enter the Order. The condi-

entering the Order. tions are as f olloWS :

(1) A bhikkhuni even if she is of a hundred
years standing shall pay respects to a new bhikkhu.

(2) A bhikkhuni must not spend the lent in
a district in which there is no bhikkhu.

(3) Every half month a bhikkhuni must ask
the bhikkhusamgha as to the date of the Uposatha
ceremony, and the time when the bhikkhu will
come to give the exhortation.

(4) After the expiry of the lent, a bhikkhuni is
to hold Pavarana (to enquire whether any fault
can be laid to her charge) before both the bhikkhu
and the bhikkhumsamghas in respect of what she
has seen, heard, or thought of.

74 A History of Pali Literature

(5) A bhikkhuni is to undergo the manatta
discipline towards both the SamghaSfif any serious
offence is committed.

(6) A bhikkhuni shall ask for upasampada*
from both the Samghas after she has learnt six
precepts for two years.

(7) A bhikkhuni must not abuse or speak ill of
any bhikkhu.

(8) A bhikkhuni must not talk with a bhikkhu
but a bhikkhu can give instructions to a bhikkhuni
(Vinaya Pitaka, Vol. II, p. 255).

The bhikkhumsamgha has several rules which
the bhikkhunis are required to abide

rules for the j The rules, as will be evident

guidance of a bhik- *? ,1 i , j_ *

. from their character, are very stnct.

They are as follows :

(1) A bhikkhuni must not collect more than one
alms bowl in a vihara.

(2) A thing asked for by a bhikkhuni from any
upasaka or upasika cannot be taken in exchange
for another thing.

(3) The thing given to a bhikkhuni for a purpose
must be used by her for that purpose only.

(4) A bhikkhuni cannot ask for anything, the
value of which is more than 16 kahapanas from any
person although she is requested by the person
to ask for something from him.

(5) She must not take any white onion.

(6) She must not accept paddy.

(7) She should not throw impurities on the
road through the window and also in the field.

(8) She should not attend to dancing, singing,
and instrumental music.

(9) She should not talk with any person alone
in the dark.

(10) She should not sit and talk with any man
in a covered place.

(11) She should not do so even in moonlight by
sitting on the meadow when there are no other
persons.

(12) She should not talk with any man alone

Canonical Pali Literature 75

in the public street or cross roads where there are
crows.

(13) She should not go away from the house
where she gets her food daily without taking
permission from the head of the house.

(14) She should not sit or lie down in a house
where she enters in the afternoon without taking
permission from the head of the house.

(15) She cannot curse anybody.

(16) She cannot take her bath being naked.

(17) Two bhikkhums cannot lie on the same
bed and cannot cover their bodies with the same
covering.

(18) If a bhikkhuni fall ill, the companion
bhikkhum should nurse her or cause her to be
nursed by others.

(19) A bhikkhuni should not drive out or cause
to be driven out another bhikkhum to whom she
has given shelter.

(20) She should not associate herself with a
.householder or householder's son.

(21) She should walk about with weapons
within her own country in times of fear of robbers,
dacoits, and other wicked persons.

(22) During the lent she must not travel from
place to place.

(23) After lent she must not stay in the vihara.

(24) A bhikkhum must not go to see a palace,
royal-garden, picture-gallery, pleasure-garden,
garden-tank having beautiful flowers, etc.

(25) She must not enjoy a valuable couch or a
beautiful bedstead.

(26) She must not serve a householder.

(27) She must not give food with her own
hands to a householder, a paribbajaka or a pari-
bbajika.

(28) She must not leave her dwelling place
without placing it in charge of any other bhikkhuni.

(29) She must not learn any art for her liveli-
hood.

(30) She must not teach any art to anybody.

76 A History of Pali Literature

(31) She must not enter any hermitage where a
bhikkhu dwells not having taken the necessary
permission.

(32) She must not abuse a bhikkhu.

(33) She must not take food beforehand when
invited to take food in another's place.

(34) She must not be attached to any particular
family.

(35) She must not spend the lent in a hermitage
having no bhikkhu.

(36) She must go to take instructions from a
bhikkhu.

(37) She must not make any female her disciple
who has not received her parents' consent to give
up household life.

(38) She must not go in a conveyance when
fit.

(39) She must not put on ornaments and take
her bath in perfumed water.

(40) She must not take her seat in the presence
of a bhikkhu without his permission.

(41) She must not put any question without
taking the bhikkhu' s permission.

(42) She is prohibited from going out alone at
night.

(43) The bhikkhunis should learn the precepts
common to the bhikkhus and bhikkhums, and the
precepts specially meant for the bhikkhunis should
be learnt by the bhikkhunis (Vinaya Pitaka, II,
p. 258).

(44) The bhikkhunis should not wilfully touch
the bodies of laymen. They are also prohibited
to touch the bodies of the bhikkhus with lustful
thoughts (Vinaya Pitaka, IV, pp. 220-221).

(45) In all assemblies where there is a samaneri
or a bhikkhum, the Patimokkha should not be
recited and also in the Pavarana ceremony (V.P.,
I, p. 167).

The Vinaya Pitaka informs us that a robe once
given to a bhikkhuni should not be taken back
(Vol. IV, p. 247).

Canonical Pali Literature 77

The bhikkhunis should not be saluted by the
bhikkhus (V|P., II, pp. 257-258).

The bhikkhunis should not help a bhikkhuni
who is excommunicated by the Samgha.

A bhikkhuni who knowingly hides any parajika
*r i *^* offence of any other bhikkhuni,

Violation of Order. . * .-.. . ..., . *

is also guilty 01 parajika.

If a bhikkhuni follows a bhikkhu excom-
municated by the bhikkhusamgha, she will be
guilty of parajika.

A bhikkhuni cannot bring any suit against
any householder, or householder's son, slave,
employee, even samana or paribbajaka. If she does
so, she will be guilty of Samghadisesa offence.

If a person with evil motive sends presents to
any bhikkhuni and if she knowingly accepts them,
the bhikkhuni will be guilty of Samghadisesa
offence.

" If, Ananda, women had not received per-
T> JJL , mission to go out from the household

Buddha s predic- , . -, -, . .-, -. , . .

thm on the effect of hie and enter the homeless state,
the admittance of under the doctrine and discipline

women into Order. -, . j i j i m j_i - ^.1^.1

proclaimed by the Tathagata, then
would the pure religion, Ananda, have lasted long,
the good law would have stood fast for a thousand
years. But since, Ananda, women have now received
that permission, the pure religion, Ananda, will
not now last long, the good law will now stand
fast for only five hundred years. Just, Ananda,
as houses in which there are many women and
but few men are easily violated by robbers or
burglars, just so, Ananda, under whatever doctrine
and discipline women are allowed to go out from
the household life into the homeless state, that
religion will not last long. And just, Ananda,
as when the disease called mildew falls upon a
field of rice in fine condition, that field of rice does

1 It means one who has trodden the right path. Vide Lord
Chalmers, Tathagata, J.R.A.S., 1898, 391 foil. It is indeed.. an
useful article. See also Prof. Walleser's learned article
of the Tathagata published in the Journal, Taisho Tl

78 A History of Pali Literature

not continue long ; just so, Ananda, under what-
soever doctrine and discipline womei^ are allowed
to go forth from the household life into the home-
less state, that religion will not last long. And
just, Ananda, as when the disease called blight
falls upon a field of sugar-cane in good condition,
that field of sugar-cane does not continue long ;
just so, Ananda, under whatsoever doctrine and
discipline women are allowed to go forth from the
household life into the homeless state, that religion
does not last long. And just, Ananda, as a man
would in anticipation build an embankment to a
great reservoir, beyond which the water should
not overpass ; just even so, Ananda, have I in
anticipation laid down eight chief rules for the
bhikkhunls, their life long not to be overpassed
(Vinaya Texts, S.B.E., pt. Ill, pp. 325-326).

Buddha's prediction was fulfilled when many
troubles arose on account of the frequent meetings
between the bhikkhus and the bhikkhunls, and the
bhikkhunls and the lay people as we find in the-
case of Thullananda and Dabba the Mallian, and
also Abhirupananda and Salho, grandson of Migara,
the banker of Savatthi (Vinaya Pitaka, IV, p. 211).

(3) The Parivarapatha is a digest of the other
parts of the Vinaya and consists of nineteen chapters.
It appears to be of later origin, being probably the
work of a Ceylonese monk. It is a manual of
instruction in the Vinaya Pitaka. In some stanzas
which are found at the end of the Parivarapatha,
it is stated to have been composed by " the highly
wise, learned, and skilful Dipa, after he had
inquired here and there into the methods (literally
the way) followed by former teachers." l " It is a
very interesting bit of evidence, " says Rhys Davids,
" on early methods of education." Readers are
referred to the introduction to the Vinaya Texts

i Pubbacariyamaggan ca pucchitva va tahim tahim Dipa
nama mahapafifio sutadharo vicakkhano imam vittharasamkhepaxh
sajjhamaggena majjhime cintayitva likhapesi sissakanam sukha-
vaham (Vinaya Pitaka, Vol. V, p. 226).

Canonical Pali Literature 79

translated from the Pali by Rhys Davids and
Oldenberg. The introduction is a learned review
of the whole of the Vinaya Texts.
> (4) The Patimokkha (vide ante in the section
on the Suttavibhatiga).

In the Colombo Museum the following manus-
cripts are available :

1. Parajika (Burmese and Sinhalese

characters).

2. Pacittiya (Burmese and Sinhalese

characters).

3. Mahavagga (Burmese and Sinhalese

characters).

4. Cullavagga (Burmese and Sinhalese

characters).

5. Parivarapatha (Burmese and Sinhalese

characters).

Khuddakasikkha and Mulasikkha which are the
mediaeval compendiums of the Vinaya have been
edited by E. Muller in the J.P.T.S., 1883. They are
mostly in verse, a few passages being given in
prose. It is difficult to say anything about the
date of these works. The language is more modern
than that of the Mahavamsa. It deals with the
four parajikas, monk's garments, pavarana festival,
alms-bowl, pacitti, kamma, kayabandhana, requisites
of a monk, instructions, uposatha ceremony, suddhi,
etc.

SECTION II. SUTTA PITAKA

As the Vinaya Pitaka is the best source of
information relating to the ancient Buddhist Order
and the monk-life, so also is the Sutta Pitaka or
" the Basket of Discourses ", the main source for
the Doctrine of the Buddha as expounded in
argument and dialogues and also for that of his
earliest disciples. The Sutta Pitaka contains prose
dialogues, legends, pithy sayings, and verses. It
contains, in prose and verse, the most important

80 A History of Pali Literature

products of Buddhist literature grouped in five
collections named nikftyas. The first four of these
consists of suttas or discourses which are either
speeches of the Buddha or dialogues in prose
occasionally diversified by verses. These four are
cognate and homogeneous in character. A number
of suttas reappear in two or more of them. There
is little difference in the doctrines they contain.
The same mode of discussion prevails in these
nikayas.

The Sutta Pitaka is divided into five nikayas,
1. Digha, 2. Majjhima, 3. Samyutta, 4. Anguttara,
and 5. Khuddaka.

A. DIGHA NIKAYA

The Digha Nikaya 1 or Dighagama or Digha
Samgaha is the first book of the Sutta Pitaka and
is a collection of long discourses. It is divided
into three parts, (i) Silakkhandha, (ii) Mahavagga,
and (iii) Patheya or Patikavagga. It contains
thirty-four suttas, each of which deals fully with
one or several points of Buddhist doctrine. The
first of these suttas is called the Brahma jala Sutta
which may be translated as the ' excellent net *.
Prof. Rhys Davids explains it as the ' perfect net '
or the net whose meshes are so fine that no folly

1 The P.T.S. editions, Vols. I and II by T. W. Rhys Davids
and J. E. Carpenter and Vol. Ill by J. E. Carpenter ; Digha
Nikaya published by W. A. Samarasekara, Colombo, 1904.

The Chinese Dlrghagama Sutra is to be compared with the
Pali text of the Digha Nikaya, collection of long suttas, 34 in
number.

The following six sutras included in the Dlrghagama Sutra
[the sutra : on the four castes, on the Ekottara (-dharma), on the
Trirasi (-dharma), on (the city) tho i (?), on the pureness
of practice, and on the record of the world] seem not to be given
in the Pali text, or at least with different titles. At the same
time, the following ten suttas seem to be left out in the
Dlrghagama Sutra : Mahali Suttanta, Jaliya Suttanta, Subha
Sutta, Mahasudassana Sutta (this is, however, found in the Chinese
Madhyamagama Sutra), Mahasatipatthana Sutta, Pafaka Sutta,
Agganna Suttanta, Pasadika Sutta, Lakkhana Suttanta, and
Afcanatiya Sutta (see Bunyiu Nanjio's Catalogue of the Chinese
Translation of the Buddhist Tripi^aka, pp. 135-138).

Canonical Pali Literature 81

of superstition, however subtle, can slip through. 1
Be it noted tljat in the Sutta itself the Buddha is
represented as suggesting other alternative titles
'such as atthajala, dhammajala, ditthijala, anuttara-
samgamavijaya* The incidents to which this sutta
owes its origin, are interesting from the standpoint
of philosophy and may be narrated here. Suppiya
was a disciple of Sanjaya, the paribbajaka. He
followed the Buddha with his pupil, Brahmadatta*
On the way Suppiya was speaking ill of the Buddha
while his pupil, Brahmadatta, was praising him.
The conversation held between Suppiya and his
pupil gave rise to the occasion for the entire
discourse.

The Brahmajala Sutta 2 (Dlgha Nikaya, Vol.
/, pp. 1-46) is very important in the history of

Read ' fc The Relation of the Chinese Agamas to the Pali
Nikayas" (correspondence, J.R.A.S., 1901) by Dr. Anesaki The
materials of both are much the same but the arrangement is
different. The author has cited the following comparisons, e.g.
Kosalasamyutta, Marasamyutta, Bhikkhumsamyutta, Vangisa-
sazhyutta. The Mahaparinibbana, which is the 16th suttanta
in the Pali Dlgha, is the 2nd in the Chinese. The names men-
tioned in the Chinese remind us of some of the scriptures
mentioned in the Asokan inscriptions. Vide also <4 The Chinese
Nikayas " by A. J. Edmonds, published in the Buddhist Manual
of Ceylon, 1931.

Read R. O. Franke, Die gathas des Dighanikaya neit ihren
parallelen ; K. E. Neumann, Reden Gotamo Buddha's aus der
langereri sammlung Dlgha Nikaya des Pali-Kanons iibers, Bd. I,
II. Miinchen, 1907, 1912; Buddhist Suttas, S.B.E., XI. This
work has been translated into English by T. W. and C. A. F. Rhys
Davids under the title of the Dialogues of the Buddha (Sacred
Books of the Buddhists). Vide Ch. Akanuma-Kanyaku agon
to Palinikaya no taisho (comparison entre les Agamas chinois
et les Nikayas pali). This book contains a comparative catalogue
of Chinese Agamas and Pali Nikayas. It is no doubt a laborious
production and should be often consulted. Vide my paper on
44 A Study of the Dlgha Nikaya of the Sutta Pitaka" published in
the Young East, Volume IV, No. 4, September, 1928.

1 Rhys Davids, Buddhism, its History and Literature
(American Lectures on the history of religions).

2 In Pali sutta and suttanta are the same (Suttam eva
Ruttanto). It means a thread, string, a dialogue, a discourse, a rule,
or an aphorism. Certain portions or chapters of the Buddhist
scriptures are called suttas. They may be either in verse or in
prose and vary in length. A sutta is complete in itself consisting of

6

82 A History of Pali Literature

Buddhism. It explains the sllas or moral precepts in
three successive sections : Cula (th$ concise), maj-
jhima (the medium length), and maha (elaborate). 1
It further deals with the various types of current'
philosophical views, e.g. Sassatavada 2 (eternalism
of the world and the soul maintained on four
grounds), Ekaccasassata and Ekaccasassatavada
(semi-eternalism eternalism of something and non-
eternalism of something maintained on four
grounds), antananta (extentionism), amara-vikkhepa
(eel- wrigglers), adhicca-samuppada (fortuitous ori-
gination), uddhamaghatana (condition of soul after
death), ucchedavada (annihilationism), and dittha-
dhamma-nibbana-vada (the doctrine of happiness in
the present life). 8 The sections dealing with the
sllas throw much light on the various conditions of
life, arts, handicrafts, sports, pastimes, different
kinds of sacrifices, different occupations of the
people, development of astronomy and astrology,
arithmetic, accountancy, royal polity, medicine,
surgery, architecture, palmistry (ah gam), divining
by means of omens and signs (mmittam), fortune-
telling from marks of the body (lakkhanam),
counting on the figures (mudda), counting without
using the figures (ganana), summing up large
totals (sankhanam), sophistry (lokayata), practising
as an occultist (salakiyaih), practising as a surgeon
(sallakattikam), fixing a lucky day for marriage
or giving in marriage (avahanam vivahanam),
fixing a lucky time for the conclusion of treaties

a connected narrative or a collection of verses on one subject.
Some of them are didactic and consist mainly or wholly of a
discourse of Buddha in prose or vorse.

1 These terms have been explained by Rhys Davids as ( 1 ) short
paragraphs on conduct, (2) the longer paragraphs on conduct, and
<3) long paragraphs on conduct. Dialogues of the Buddha.

2 Vide, my Historical Gleanings, p. 33.

8 Among the Jains, there are similar schools of thought, e.g.
Atmasasthavadins, Tajjivatacchariravadins, Nastikavadins, 6unya-
vadins, Satavadins and Ajivikas, besides the Kiriyavadins, the
Akriyavadins, the Ajn&navadins, and the Vinayavadins. Vide
Dr. Baraa's Pre-Buddhistic Indian Philosophy, pp. 282 foil, 295,
303, 306, 318 foil., 332 foil.

Canonical Pali Literature 83

and for the outbreak of hostilities (samvadanam
vivadanam), sluguries drawn from thunderbolts and
other celestial portents (uppadam), prognostication
by interpreting dreams (supinam), sacrificing to
Agni (aggi-homam), looking at the knuckles (anga-
vijja), etc., and after muttering a charm to divine
whether a man is well born or lucky or not, deter-
mining a proposed site for a house which would
be lucky or not ( vatthu- vijj a), advising on customary
law (khatta vijja), laying ghosts (bhuta vijja),
knowledge of the charm to be used when lodging
in an earth house (bhuri vijja), foretelling the
number of years that a man has yet to live
(pakkhajjhanam), using charms to procure abortion
(viruddha-gabbha karanam), incantations to bring
on dumbness (jivha-nittaddanam), keeping a man's
jaws fixed by charms (hanusamhananam), and
fixing on lucky sites for dwellings and consecrating
sites (vatthu kammam vatthu parikiranam). This
sutta tells us of two classes of gods, the Khidda-
padosika and the Manopadosika. Both these classes
are of a rather low order. Thus the Buddha says
that the Khiddapadosika gods spend their time in
laughing, playing, and enjoying sensual pleasures.
For this reason they lose control over their mind,
as a result of which they fall down from their
position and are reborn in the human world. Of
the second class, the Buddha says that they think
much of one another. In consequence of excessive
thinking their mind becomes polluted and on
account of pollution of their mind they fall down
from that situation and are reborn in the human
world.

The world of radiance (abhassaraloka) described
in this suttanta is one of the higher brahmalokas.

This suttanta tells us that at the beginning
of a new world system a being falls from the
abhassaraloka on account of loss of life or merit
and he is reborn in the brahmavimana which is
then empty, and there he dwells with his mental
body, living in joy, having a lustrous body and

84 A History of Pali Literature

moving in the sky. The Buddha relates later on
in the same suttanta that this Go\f who is first
reborn in the brahmavimana is the Great Brahma ;
he considers himself superior to the other
abhassaradevas.

Rhys Davids rightly points out that this
suttanta sets out in sixty-two divisions various
speculations or theories in which theorisers, going
out always from various forms of the ancient view
of a ' soul ' a sort of subtle manikin inside the
body but separate from it and continuing, after
it leaves the body as a separate entity attempt to
reconstruct the past or to arrange the future.
All such speculation is condemned. It is certain
from the details given in this suttanta that there
were then current in Northern India many other
philosophic and theosophic speculations besides
those the priests found it expedient to adopt and
have preserved for us in the Upanishads. (Dialogues
of the Buddha, Sacred Books of the Buddhists,
Introduction to the Brahmajala Sutta.) This sutta
really deals with the most fundamental conceptions
that lay at the root of the Buddha's doctrine, his
Dharma, his ethical and philosophical views of
life.

The second is the Sdmannaphala Sutta (Digha, I>
pp. 47-86) or ' Discourse on the reward of Buddhist
mode of holy life '. This sutta discusses the following
topics : joy and seclusion, freedom and safety,
miracle, the divine ear, memory of one's own former
births, knowledge of the other people's former
births, etc. This suttanta says that Mahavira,
the celebrated founder of Jainism, is said to have
laid great stress on the four-fold self-restraints
(catuyamasamvara). A short and malicious frag-
ment in this sutta tells us that Gosala divides actions
into act, word, and thought : thought being regarded
as half karma.

The Buddha was staying at Rajagaha in the
mango grove of Jlvaka with many bhikkhus. On
a full-moon night Ajatasattu of Magadha asked

Canonical Pali Literature 85

his ministers jas to which Sramana or Brahmana

should be approached or worshipped to pacify the
troubled mind. Followers of five heretical teachers
who were present there advised the king to visit
their preceptors but Jivaka advised him to see the
Buddha. Ajatasatru (Ajatasattu) acted according
to the advice of Jivaka. The Magadhan monarch
was converted to the Buddhist faith and made
considerable progress in his spiritual insight but on
account of his great sin of killing his father he could
not attain even the first stage of sanctification. So,
like the Brahmajala, the Samanfiaphala Sutta creates
a psychological situation in the garb of a historical
narrative which is guilty of an anachronism in so
far as it represents all of the six teachers as persons
who could be interviewed by King Ajatasattu.
It should be further noted that the literary art of
this sutta was plagiarized later on in the Milinda
Panha. Rhys Davids in his introduction to the
Samanfiaphala Sutta 1 says that this suttanta puts
forth Buddha's justification for the foundation of
the Order, for the enunciation of the Vinaya, the
practical rules of the canon law by which life in
the Order is regulated. The list of ordinary
occupations given in this suttanta is interesting
evidence of social conditions in the Ganges valley
at the time of the composition of the Digha Nikaya.
The list is briefly as follows : elephant riders
(hattharoha), cavalry (assaroha), charioteers
(rathika), archers (dhanuggaha), slaves (dasaka
putta), cooks (alarika), barbers (kappaka), bath-
attendants (nahapaka), confectioners (suda), garland-
makers (malakara), washermen (rajaka), weavers
(pesa-kara), basket-makers (nalakara), and potters
(kumbhakara). And the introductory story in which
the king explains how he had put a similar question
to the founders of six other orders and gives the
six replies he received, is interesting evidence of

1 T. W. Rhys Davids, Dialogues of the Buddha, S.B.B.,
Vol. II.

86 A History of Pali Literature

the views held by the authors of the Dialogue as
to the beliefs current at the time! The answer
which the Buddha is represented to have given to
the question raised by the king takes the form of a
counter-question. The king confesses that he would
treat a person who has joined the Order as one
worthy of honour and respect. The Buddha shows
the advantages of the life of a recluse not necessarily
of a follower of his own. And most of what he
says would apply as much to his strongest opponents
as to the members of his Order. This suttanta
only purports to set forth the advantages the
early Buddhists held to be the likely results of
joining, from whatever motive, such an order
as their own. This suttanta also states Gosala's
main thesis rather narrowly when it says that fools
and wise alike wandering in transmigration make
an end of pain (sandhavitva samsaritva dukkhas-
santam karissanti).

The third is the Ambattha Sutta (Dlgha, 1,
pp. 87-110) which deals mainly with the subject
of caste. This sutta cannot, however, be safely
utilized as a source for the study of castes in Ancient
India. It appears from the manner of interrogation
and rejoinder (between the Buddha and Ambattha,
a brahmin youth) that the compilers of this sutta
have made a fool of Ambattha. Ambattha is

versed in the three Vedas and the Buddha is an
4 Incomparable Religious Teacher '. But Ambattha's
replies to the Buddha's questions and the Buddha's
clenching the arguments are not at all convincing.
This is for two reasons. Either the followers of the
Buddha purposely made a fool of Ambattha so
that the Master would shine by contrast or that
some intervening portions in this sutta have been
omitted carelessly. Moreover we do not know
the other side of the question, that is to say, what
the Brahmanas have got to say on the point. It is
to be borne in mind, however, that the Brahmanical
books give preference to the Brahmanas over the
Ksatriyas and in the Buddhist and Jain records

Canonical Pali Literature 87

Khattiyas are given precedence over the Brahmanas.
So the relat^e position of both is a point of
controversy. There are also discussions on the
pride of birth, asceticism, and luxury of brahmins.
We learn from this sutta that a young brahmin
named Ambattha who went to Kapilavastu on
business had an opportunity of visiting the motehalls
of the Sakyas where he saw the young and the
old seated on grand seats.

It is sufficiently evident, as Prof. Rhys Davids
points out in his introduction to the Ambattha
Sutta, 1 from the comparative frequency of the
discussions on the matter of Brahman pretensions
that the subject of caste was a burning question
at the time of the composition of the nikayas.
No other social problem is referred to so often ;
and the Brahmanas would not be so often represented
as expressing astonishment or indignation at the
position taken up regarding it by the early Buddhists
unless there had really been a serious difference
pn the subject between the two schools. But the
difference, though real, has been gravely misunder-
stood. Rhys Davids further remarks that the
disastrous effects from the ethical, social, and
political points of view of these restrictions and
of caste as a whole have been often grossly
exaggerated and the benefits of the system ignored.
We are entirely unwarranted in supposing the
system, as it now exists, to have been in existence
also at the time when Buddhism arose in the valley
of the Ganges. Our knowledge of the actual
facts of caste even as it now exists, is still confused
and inaccurate. The theories put forward to explain
the facts are loose and irreconcilable. There was
a common phrase current among the people which
divided all the world into four vanna (colours
or complexions) Khattiya, Brahmana, Vessa, and
Sudda. The priests put themselves first and had
a theological legend in support of their contention.

1 Dialogues of the Buddha, S.B.B., Vol. II.

88 A History of PdU Literature

But it is clear from the pitakas that this was not
admitted by the nobles. And it is (Iso clear that
no one of these divisions was a caste. There was
neither connubium nor commensality between all
the members of one vanna '"nor was there a governing
council for each. The fourth was distinguished
from the other by social position. And though in
a general rough way the classification corresponded
to the actual facts of life, there were insensible
gradations within the four classes, and the boundary
between them was both variable and undefined
(cf. Vasettha Sutta of the Sutta Nipata, Madhura
Sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya dealing with the
subject of caste. Dr. Fick has collected the evidence
found in the Jataka book in his work, " Die Sociale
Oliederung im Nordostlichen Indien zu Buddhas
zeit "). The theory of caste or jati easily breaks
down when we see that a Brahmin and a Candala

do not differ in their physical constitution and
can procreate children. In the Vasettha Sutta
of the Sutta Nipata the Buddha opposes ths
caste system on grounds drawn from biology.
The theory of caste is untenable as it introduces
species within species. Buddha gives a list of
species of various animals, insects, and plants
and holds that such a variety of species is not to
be found among men (cf. Sutta Nipata, Verse 14).

The fourth is the Sonadanda Sutta (Digha, I,
pp. 111-126) which deals with the question of what
constitutes the essential quality which makes a
man a Brahmana. This sutta informs us that a
brahmin is he who is well born on both sides, of
pure descent, through the father and through the
mother, back through seven generations, with no
slur put upon him, and no reproach in respect
of birth a repeater of the sacred words, knowing
the mystic verses by heart, one who has mastered
the three Vedas (tinnam vedanam paragu) with
the indices (sa nighan-du-ketubhanam), the ritual,
the phonology, and the exegesis, and with the
legends as a fifth, one who is learned in the etymolo-

Canonical Pali Literature 89

gies of the words and in the grammar, versed in
lokayata (nature-lore or sophistry), and in the
theory of the signs on the body of a great man
(mahapurisalakkhanesu anavayo).

The man who knows, says Prof. Rhys Davids,
wisdom and conduct (wisdom in the sense of that
which is contrary of avijja or ignorance of the
action of Karma, of the Four Noble Truths, and of
the doctrine of the asavas or intoxications), who
finally and permanently out of the jungle and in
the open, quite beyond the stage of wasting his
wonder on the fabulous soul, has attained to,
and remains in this state of Nirvana in Arahatship,
is not only in Buddhist terminology called a
Brahmana but is, in fact, declared to be the only
true brahmin. Rhys Davids is right in pointing
out that the doctrine of brahmin supremacy was
intellectually indefensible. It was really quite in-
consistent with the ethical standard of the time,
which the brahmins in common with the rest of the
people fully acknowledged (see introduction to the
Sonadanda Sutta in the Dialogues of the Buddha
by Rhys Davids, S.B.B., Vol. II). As to the
characteristics of a true brahmin we can refer to
the Brahmanavagga of the Dhammapada, the
Vasettha Sutta of the Sutta Nipata, the Brahmayu
Sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya, the Brahmana
Samyutta of the Samyutta Nikaya, the Janussoni
Sutta of the Anguttara Nikaya, the 99th sutta of
the Itivuttaka, and so forth. " It is clear ", says
Rhys Davids, " that the word ' Brahmin ' in the
opinion of the early Buddhists conveyed to the
minds of the people an exalted meaning, a connota-
tion of real veneration and respect ". He further
says that if the contention of the Buddhists had
been universally accepted, that is to say, if the
word ' brahmin ' had come to mean not only a
man of certain descent, but exclusively a man
of certain character and insight, then the present
caste system of India could never have grown up.
There is much grain of truth in what Rhys Davids

90 A History of Pali Literature

says that the caste system was gradually built up
into a completely organized syste^i. The social
supremacy of the brahmins by birth became accepted
as an incontrovertible fact. And the inflood of the
popular superstition which overwhelmed the
Buddhist movement, overwhelmed also the whole
pantheon of the Vedic gods. Buddhism and
Brahmanism alike passed practically away and
modern Hinduism arose on the ruins of both
(Dialogues of the Buddha, S.B.B., Vol. II, p. 142).
The fifth is the Kutadanta Sutta (LHgha 9 /,
pp. 127-149) in which the Buddha in discussing
right and wrong modes of sacrifices suggests a
gradation of them according to the superior and
inferior spiritual values. Kutadanta spoke to the
brahmins about the qualities of the Buddha. He
went to the Master, listened to his religious instruc-
tions, and became a devoted lay supporter of the
Buddha. It is interesting to note what Rhys
Davids says on this suttanta. Whoever puts
this sutta together must have been deeply imbuefl
with the spirit of subtle irony that plays no lesser
part in the suttas than it does in so many of the
Jatakas. Rhys Davids attaches great importance
to the right understanding of early Buddhist
teaching, of a constant appreciation of this sort of
subtle humour. He says it is a kind of fun quite
unknown to the West. The humour is not at all
intended to raise a laugh scarcely even a smile.
In this suttanta the brahmin Kutadanta is very
likely meant to be rather the hero of a tale than
an historical character. Buddha was approached
for advice about the modes of the ritual to be
performed at the sacrifice and about the requisite
utensils, the altar-furniture to be used in making
it. The brahmin of this suttanta wants to know
the three modes in which the ritual is to be performed.
The three modes are declared in the legend to be
simply three conditions of mind or rather one
condition of mind at three different times, the

Canonical Pali Literature 91

harbouring oftno regret either before or during or
after the sacrifice at the expenditure involved. It
is the hearty co-operation with the king of four
divisions of his people, the nobles, the officials, the
brahmins, and the householders. That makes four
articles of furniture. And eight personal qualifica-
tions of the king himself. That makes other
eight. And four personal qualifications of his
advising brahmins make up the total of the sixteen
articles required. No living thing, either animal
or vegetable, is injured. All the labour is voluntary.
And all the world co-operates in adding its share
to the largesse of food, on strict vegetarian principles,
in which, alone, the sacrifice consists. It is offered
on behalf, not only of the king himself, but of all
the good. In the opinion of Rhys Davids, this
sutta is merely the oldest extant expression, in
so thorough and uncompromising a way, of an
ancient and widely held trend of opinion. On this
occasion as on the question of caste or social privi-
leges, the early Buddhists took up, and pushed
to its logical conclusions, a rational view held
also by others. For a detailed discussion of lokayata
or casuistry, readers are referred to Rhys Davids'
introduction to the Kutadanta Sutta (Dialogues of
the Buddha, S.B.B., Vol. II, pp. 166 ff.).

It is to be noted that the view involved in
this suttanta is in some respects similar to the
idea which we find in the Vedas and Upanishads,,
especially the Chandogya.

The sixth is the Mahdli Sutta (Digha, /,
pp. 150-158) which deals with the means of the
attainment of divine eye and ear. It contains
discussions whether body and soul are same or
different. While the Buddha appreciates the mode
of thinking which leads one to endorse one or the
other opinion, he on his own part does not follow
this mode of thinking at all. This sutta further
narrates that Mahali, a Licchavi, listened to the
Buddha's discourse and rejoiced over it. Rhys
Davids remarks in his introduction to the

92 A History of Pali Literature

Sutta that the form of this sutta As remarkable.
We have two distinct subjects discussed. First,
the question of the ability to see heavenly sights
and hear heavenly sounds being raised, the Buddha
says that it is not for the sake of acquiring such
powers that people join the Order under him.
And being asked what their object then is, he
gradually leads the questioner on to saintship
(arhatship) as the aim, along the Eightfold Path.
There the sutta might appropriately have ended.
But the Buddha himself then raises a totally
different question, whether the soul and the body
are the same. And though he gives no answer,
he leads the discourse again up to Arhatship,
along the series of mental states set out in the
Samannaphala Sutta. This sutta contains only
the silas in the second part. Rhys Davids gives
us a list of eight different modes of speaking of or
to a person: (1) a nickname arising out of some
personal peculiarity, (2) a personal name this has
got nothing to do with personal peculiarity, (3) the
name of the gotra or a surname or family name,
(4) name of the clan or the kulanama, (5) name of
the mother, (6) name of the position in society or
the occupation of the person addressed, (7) a mere
general term of courtesy or respect, and (8) local
name. It is interesting to note that the name
of the father is never used in this way.

The seventh is the Jdliya Sutta (Digha, /,
pp. 159-160). This sutta like the preceding one
contains a discussion on soul and body. Is the
soul distinct from the body ? This is no doubt the
most important problem involved in this sutta.
Rhys Davids is right in pointing out that the
Mahali Sutta must have already included the Jaliya
episode. For there would otherwise be no reason
for the Mahali Sutta being put into the Silakkhandha-
vagga, the silas being contained only in that episode
(S.B.B., Vol. II, Dialogues of the Buddha).

The eighth is the Kassapasihandda Sutta (Dlgha,
I, pp. 161-177) which contains Buddha's discussior

Canonical Pali Literature 93

with a nakedl ascetic regarding asceticism. The
sutta alludes fo certain peculiar practices of the
naked ascetics which characterised the life of the
ajlvikas and a general account of them is also
found in this sutta. The same account is incorporated
in the Ahguttara Nikaya and other texts without
any variation, which is a medley of laws and
customs that obtained amongst the various religious
orders of the time, most of which were weavers of
garments. We are further informed that Kassapa
went to the Buddha and exchanged friendly greetings
with him. He afterwards became an Arahat.
Regarding this suttanta, Rhys Davids remarks that
there is both courtesy and dignity in the method
employed. It is clear that at the time when this
suttanta was put together, the practice of self-
mortification had already been carried out to a
considerable extent in India. No doubt in most
cases the ascetics laid claim to special virtue. In
the suttas dealing with the practices of ascetics,
Qotama in laying stress on the more moderate view,
takes occasion also to dispute this claim. He
maintains in this suttanta that the insight and self-
control and self-mastery of the path or of the
system of intellectual and moral self-training laid
down for the bhikkhu are really harder than the
merely physical practices so much more evident
to the eye of the vulgar.

The episode of Nigrodha mentioned in section
23 of this suttanta is described in full in the
Udumbarika-Sihandda Sutta of the Digha Nikaya.

The ninth is the Potthapada Sutta (Digha, I,
pp. 178-203) which contains a discussion on the
mastery of trance and incidentally deals with the
question of soul. It further discusses about the
infinity and eternalism of the world. When the
Blessed One was at Jetavana in the arama of
Anathapindika, a paribbajaka named Potthapada
went to the arama of Mallika with a large retinue
of paribbajakas. The Master came to him and
Potthapada received him with due respect.

94 A History of Pali Literature

This sutta contains a list of topils discussed by
the paribbajakas or wandering teafehers, which is
of great historical importance as indicating the
manner in which they gradually paved the way
for a science of polity in India (vide my Historical
Gleanings, pp. 13 foil.).

Rhys Davids remarks that when the * soul '
was away the body lay still, without moving,
apparently without life, in trance, or disease or
sleep. When the ' soul ' came back, motion began
again, and life. Endless were the corollaries of a
theory which, however, devoid of the essential
marks of a sound scientific hypothesis, underlies
every variety of early speculation in India, as
elsewhere. In this suttanta it is, in the first place,
the gradual change of mental conditions, of states
of consciousness : and then, secondly, the point
that personality, individuality is only a convenient
expression in common use in the world and therefore
made use of also by the Tathagata but only in such
a manner that he is not led astray by its ambiguity,
and by its apparent implication of some permanent
-entity (S.B.B., Vol. II, pp. 241 and 243).

The tenth is the Subha Sutta (Digha, I, pp. 204-
210) which is a short one and is almost identical
with the Samannaphala Sutta differing from it
only in dividing the states of mind under three
heads of sila (conduct), samadhi (concentration),
and panfia (wisdom). The chief reason for this
suttanta being treated as a separate one is that
samadhi includes the jhanas, 1 but also other and
very different things. These are the habit of
guarding the doors of one's senses ; constant
mindfulness and self-possession and the faculty of
being content with little. From the negative point
of view it is said to include emancipation from
ill-temper, inertness of mind and body, worry and
perplexity ; from the positive point of view it is

1 Mrs. Rhys Davids has ably discussed this topic in her
.recently published work, 'Sakya or Buddhist Origins', pp. 171 foil.

Canonical Pali Literature 95

said to include! a constant state of joy and peace
(S.B.B., II, 25).

The eleventh is the Keva$$ha Sutta (Digha, I,
*pp. 211-223) which deals with the practice of wonders
or miracles, and traces the means whereby the
manifestation of gods gradually becomes clear to
a self-concentrated man. Some of the heavens
are referred to in this sutta, e.g. Catummaharajika,
Nimmanarati, Paranimmitavasavattl, and Brahma-
loka. 1

The twelfth is the Lohicca Sutta (Dlgha, I,
pp. 224-234) which discusses some points on the
ethics of teaching and enumerates three blame-
worthy teachers and the blameless teachers. It
also lays stress on the duty of spreading the truth.
This sutta further informs us that everyone should
be allowed to learn ; that everyone having certain
abilities should be allowed to teach ; and that, if
he does teach he should teach all and to all, keeping
nothing back, shutting no one out. But no man
should take upon himself to teach others unless
and until he has first taught himself, and has also
acquired the faculty of imparting to others the
truth he has learnt.

The thirteenth is the Tevijja Sutta 2 (Digha, /,
pp. 235-253) in which the Buddha criticises the
position of the Brahmanas who based their religious
life on the system of the three Vedas. This sutta
speaks of the ten representative sages who were
authors of the Vedic mantras, viz. Atthaka, Vamaka,
Vamadeva, Vessamitta, Angirasa, Bharadvaja,
Vasettha, Kassapa, Yamataggi, and Bhagu. The
Buddha discusses the three vijjas of the Brahmanas
and explains the three vijjas of his own. In this
sutta the Tathagata 3 is highly praised. He is the

1 Vide B. C. Law's Heaven and Hell in Buddhist Perspective,
pp. 1-2.

2 Translated into English by T. W. Rhys Davids in the
S.B.E., Vol. XI.

3 Mrs. Rhys Davids says that Tathagata was a worthy name
for one who had worked to help men as other men had done
before him. It is like the word Messias. She further points out

96 A History of Pali Literature

most exalted, the Excellent, the ^Charioteer of
mankind, the Charioteer of gods, thfe Buddha, and
the Blessed One. A bhikkhu becomes pious by
giving up life-slaughter and is restrained in killing
animals. 1 The law has been well explained by
Gotama in various ways. Buddhaghosa adds that
because Manasakata was a pleasant place, the
brahmins built huts there on the bank of the river
and fenced them in, and used to go and stay there
from time to time to repeat their mantras (S.B.B.,
Vol. II, p. 300 f.n.). This sutta speaks of the
union of men with Brahma, but there Brahma
appears to stand more for Brahma of the Brahmanical
system than Brahma, the creator-god. With this
sutta ends the first volume of the Digha Nikdya.

The fourteenth is the Mahdpaddna Suttanta
(Digha, II, pp. 1-54). The word * Apadana '
used in the title signifies legend or life-story of a
Buddha. 2 It is also used as the title of the thirteenth
book of the Khuddaka Nikaya of the Sutta Pitaka
and it means the legend or life-story of an Arahat.
In later books, Apadana is never used to mean
the legend of a Buddha. The Mahapadana may
mean the story of the Great Ones (Seven Buddhas).
It is rendered into English by Rhys Davids as the
sublime story. In laying down the general conditions
of the advent of the Buddha, this suttanta introduces
an account of the seven Buddhas by way of illustra-
tions. But it is only the life of Vipassi, first of
the seven previous Buddhas, which finds an elaborate
treatment in it. It should be noted that the
Cullaniddesa (p. 80) cites this suttanta as a typical
instance of the earlier Jatakas. This sublime story

"it was not a name of my duty. The name always comes up
when men are honouring me for something I did not merit. It
is the name given me by those ' Poranas ' (men of old) who were
a hundred years and more after my time. They honoured the
man they knew had once been leader ". (Gotama the man, p. 44.)

1 bhikkhu panatipatam pahaya panatipata pafavirato hoti
Tevijja Sutta, Digha, Vol. I, p. 250.

2 See Dr. B. C. Law's 'A Study of the Mahavastu' (supple-
ment), pp. 4-8 Jataka and Avadana or Apadana contrasted.

Canonical Pali Literature 97

in Pali may bt\ held in a way to be the historical
basis of the Mahavastu, the Book of the Great
Story. Further, it may be seen that this suttanta
interprets the term Patimokkha not in the vigorous
sense of a penal code of the monks but in a higher
sense of ethical discipline attainable by the imitation
of the lives of the Great Masters.

It is interesting to note what Prof. Rhys
Davids says regarding this sutta. " We find in this
tract the root of that Birana weed which, growing
up along with the rest of Buddhism, went on
spreading so luxuriantly that it gradually covered
up much that was of virtue in the earlier teaching,
and finally led to the downfall, in its home in
India, of the ancient faith. The doctrine of the
Bodhisatta, of the Wisdom-Being, drove out the
doctrine of the Aryan Path. A gorgeous hierarchy
of mythological wonder-workers filled men's minds,
and the older system of self-training and self-
control became forgotten." He further points out
that even at its first appearance here the weed
is not attractive. The craving for edification is
more manifest in it than the desire for truth
(Dialogues of the Buddha, pt. II, S.B.B., Vol. Ill,
p. 1).

The fifteenth is the Makdniddna Suttanta 1
(Digha, II, pp. 55-71) which explains fully the
doctrine of paticcasamuppada (dependent origina-
tion), and discusses soul, seven kinds of beings, and
eight kinds of vimokkhas. 2 Besides, it treats of
the cause of jati (birth), jara (old age), and marana

1 Cf. Nidana Samyutta of the Samyutta Nikaya, pt. II,
P.T.S. Ed.

2 The eight vimokkhas or stages of emancipation are the
following : the condition of rupa, arupa, saiiiii (rupi is nearly
always combined and contrasted with arupi formless, incorporeal)
recognition of subha, realisation of akasanancayatana (infinity
of space), of vinnananaficayatana (infinitude of life-force or mind-
matter), of aldncaiinayatana (realm or sphere of nothingness),
of neva-sannanasaiifiayatana (neither perception nor non-percep-
tion), of sannavedayitanirodha (cessation of consciousness and
sensation).

7

98 A History of Pali Literature

(death). In this suttanta we also read that Ananda
said to the Buddha, " It is strange tftat the Dharma
which is deep and profound appears to me to be
very easy." Buddha told Ananda not to say so'
and said that on account of ignorance and non-
realisation of his Dharma, people were entangled
in this world and could not overcome hell.

Prof. Rhys Davids is right in pointing out
that the doctrine of paticcasamuppada or dependent
origination finds in this suttanta the fullest exposi-
tion accorded to it throughout the pitakas. The
Dlghabhanakas (reciters of long discourse) excluded
the first two of the twelve nidanas (chapters), viz.,
avijja (ignorance) and samkhara (confections) and
that in the Paccayakara-vibhanga of the Abhi-
dhammaPitaka the formula is reiterated and analysed
with greater variety of presentation. But in this
sutta the doctrinal contents are more fully worked
out. Although the formula as expounded in this
sutta ends in the usual way ' such is the uprising
of the whole body of 111 ' the burden of the
dialogue is in no way directly concerned with 111,
pain or sorrow. In certain other passages where
the nidana chain occurs, dukkha occupies the
foreground (Dialogues of the Buddha, pt. II, p. 42,
S.B.B., Vol. III).

The sixteenth is the Mahaparinibbana Suttanta l
{Digha, II, pp. 72-168) which is one of the most
important suttas as it furnishes us with a highly
interesting historical narrative of the peregrenation

1 An English translation of this sutta by Childers has been
published in J.R.A.S., 1876, New Series, Vols. 7 and 8. See also
Tripitaka J. Takakusu et K. Watanabe Ed. Taisho en Vol. 55.
Japonaise du Tripifcaka chinois en 100 volumes. M. Finot has
contributed a paper on Mahaparinibbana Sutta and Cullavagga
to the Indian Historical Quarterly (June, 1932) in which he has
collected several data which entitle us to suppose that the account
of the councils of Rajagaha and Vesali once formed the latter
part of a larger historical work, which, at the time of the
compilation of the Tripi^aka, was severed into two sections, the
former being converted into the Mahaparinibbana Sutta and the
latter annexed as Capitula extravagantia to the tenth Khandhaka
of the Oullavagga.

Canonical Pali Literature 99

of the BuddhiJ during the last year of his mortal
existence. The several sets of the conditions of
welfare of a community taught by the Buddha to
the mendicants bespeak the developed ideas of
perfect organisations, in the history of social,
political or religious thought at the time of Gautama
Buddha. 1 The Pali passages, clothing as they
do, the Buddha's teachings, contain reiteration of
certain words ; but the symphony of these repetitions
does not make them an unpleasant reading. In
the third chapter of the Mahaparinibbana Suttanta,
Buddha gives us a description of his visit to Vais&Ii.
The figurative expressions as used by the Buddha,
according to Rhys Davids, have become a fruitful
soil for the outgrown of superstitions and misunder-
standings. The train of early Buddhist speculation
in this field has yet to be elucidated (Dialogues of
the Buddha, pt. II, p. 115, f.n. 2).

The sixth chapter of the Mahaparinibbana
Suttanta records the most important of all events
affecting the fate of Buddhism. In it we find the
passing away of the Founder of the Faith. The
wailings, described in Chapter V, of men and women
of countries far and near on hearing that the Exalted
One would pass away too soon, and the honour with
which the relics of the Buddha were received and
cairns made over them, as found in Chapter VI,
go to show how deeply were the people moved by
the preachings and personality of the Buddha.
The last word of the Tathagata, viz. " pecay
is inherent in all component things : Work out your
salvation with diligence " (vayadhamma sam-
khara, appamadena sampadethati, Digha Mkaya,
P.T.S., Vol. II, p. 156), strikes the key-note of the
Buddha's philosophy and mission.

This suttanta further deals with Vassakara
Brahmana's visit to the Buddha, seven conditions
of welfare of the Bhikkhusamgha, lineage of faith,
eight causes of earthquake, eight causes of subduing

i Digha Nikaya, Vol. II, pp. 73-81.

100 A History of Pali Literature

others, Buddha's visit to Cunda, wmr places of
pilgrimage of any faithful householder, efficiency of
erecting dhatucaityas, former greatness of Kusmara,
visit of Subhadra to Buddha and his conversation
with the Lord, passing away of the Lord, homage
of the Mallas, cremation of the Buddha's dead body,
quarrel over the relics, the amicable distribution
of relics by Dona and erecting the stupas over them.
It further narrates the fact that when the Blessed
One heard that Ajatasattu of Magadha determined
to approach the Vajjians, he remarked that so long
as the Vajjians fulfilled the seven conditions of
welfare, there would not be any danger for them.
The Buddha then went to Ambalatthika. Here

there were talks about sila, samadhi, etc. The
Master then went to Nalanda where he stayed as
long as he liked. Sariputta met him here.

The upasakas (lay disciples) of Pataligama
received the Buddha cordially. The Buddha men-
tioned the five disadvantages for not observing the
precepts by householders and also five advantages
for observing precepts by householders. The Blessed
One accepted the invitation of two ministers of
Magadha, Sumdha and Vassakara, who fed him
together with the assembly of monks. He then
went to Kotigama and addressed the monks on the
four Noble Truths. Further he proceeded to Nadika
where he dwelt at the Ginjaka abode. He then
came to Vesali where he accepted the invitation
of the famous courtesan, Ambapali. While the
Buddha was passing through Vesali on his way
back from the alms-seeking, he gazed at Vesali
with an elephant look and then addressed the
venerable Ananda and said, "This will be the
last time that the Tathagata will behold Vesali".
Buddha then visited Veluva and the following
Caityas, Udena, Gotama, Sattambaka, Bahuputtaka,
Sarandada, and Capala. At Bhandagama the
Buddha delivered a discourse on meditation,
emancipation, precepts, wisdom, etc. He spoke of
Dhamma and Vinaya. The Master dwelt at Bhoga-

Canonical Pali Literature 101

nagara and tl^n at Pava. Here at Pava the Master
took shelter in the mango-grove of Cunda, the
son of a blacksmith. Buddha accepted the invita-
tion of Cunda and after having taken food at Cunda's
place, he got an attack of dysentery. He then
went to Kusinara, a township of the Mallas where
the Buddha passed away between the twin sala
trees. As narrated before, as soon as the Mallas
heard of the news of the death of the Tathagata,
they, both males and females, began to cry and
paid homage to the departed. Kassapa saluted
the feet of the Buddha whose relics were distributed
amongst the Moriyas of Pipphalivana, Ajatasattu
of Magadha, Licchavis of Vaisall, Sakyas of Kapila-
vastu, Bulis of Allakappa, Koliyas of Ramagama,
a brahmin of Vethadipa, 1 Mallas of Pava and
Kusinara who built stupas over them.

In this suttanta we are introduced to a
renowned religious teacher named Alada Kalama 2
who had as his disciple a caravan merchant named
Pukkusa, a young Mallian. Pukkusa used to speak
highly of the spiritual attainments of his preceptor
whose ecstatic trance, as declared by Pukkusa,
was so very deep and profound that a long train
of heavily laden carts passed by unperceived by
him. The sutta also records that the inhabitants
of Ramagama belonged to the serpent race. It
further informs us that the Buddha mentions that
the gods had their parisa or assemblies which are as

1 In Beal's Si-Yu-Ki, Ve^hadipa has been stated to be situated
on the way from Masar in the Shahabad district to Vai6ali. It
may be assumed that Allakappa belonging to the Bulis lay not
very far from Vethadipa.

2 Mrs. Rhys Davids in her learned and interesting work on
Gotama the man ably points out that the Buddha esteemed the man
but not his method. The Buddha admits that Alara disappointed
him (p. 26). She further says, *'He is by some to-day in
accordance with certain records reckoned to have been of the
Sankhyan school. He knew of its teachings but he did not teach
them. He was a devotee of the very opposite practice to the
clear, systematic thinking taught in that school the practice of
rapt musing called in the books, jhana" (Gotama the man,
p. 25).

102 A History of Pali Literature

follows : assembly of the Catummalarajika gods,
the assembly of the Tavatimsa gods,' the assembly
of Mara, and the assembly of Brahma.

The seventeenth is the Mdhdsudassana Suttanta
(Digha, II, pp. 169-199). There is a Jataka known
as Mahasudassana Jataka (No. 95) in FausbolPs
edition of the Jatakas, but it differs from the
suttanta in some important particulars. The
Sudassana story in a suttanta form finds mention
in the Cullaniddesa (p. 80) as a typical example of
the Jatakas then known to the Buddhists. " The
suttanta commences with a long description of the
riches and glory of Mahasudassana and reveals
in its details", says Rhys Davids, "the instructive
fact that the legend is nothing more or less than a
spiritualised sun-myth " (Dialogues of the Buddha,
pt. II, p. 196). The Mahasudassana Suttanta
" seems to afford a useful example both of the
extent to which the theory may be accepted, and
of the limitations under which it should always
be applied. It must at once be admitted that
whether the whole story is based on sun-story, or
whether certain parts or details of it are derived
from things first spoken about the sun or not,
it is still essentially Buddhistic " (Dialogues of
the Buddha, pt. II, p. 197). The Mahasudassana
Suttanta is like a fairy tale which describes the
greatest glory and majesty of the greatest king,
the royal city and its palace of Righteousness.
It describes the extent of his kingdom and his
enjoyment. The object of this suttanta is perhaps
to show that all is vanity except righteousness.
This sutta also teaches us that everything is
impermanent, that which has come into being
must pass away. To attain this object the author
had recourse to rhetorical phrases and other figura-
tive expressions, the use whereof was not peculiar
to Buddhist literature. M. Senart in his valuable
work, " La Legende du Bouddha ", has traced the
rhetorical phrases used in the description of the
seven treasures mentioned in this suttanta to their

Canonical Pali Literature 103

earliest appearance in the Vedic hymns. But this
does not exhaust the interesting bearing of Buddhist
literature on the history of philosophy so far as
Buddhist forms of speech are concerned.

The eloquent description in the Mahasudassana
Suttanta of the magnificence and lost glory of the
ancient city Kusavati, the capital of King Sudassana,
was a literary development in Pali in the edification
of the Buddha's explanations offered in the
Mahaparinibbana Suttanta, for his choosing as the
place for his passing away in a daub town like
Kusinara of his day.

The eighteenth is the Janavasabha Suttanta
(Digha, II, pp. 200-219) in which important topics,
such as rebirths of the faithful upasakas of Gautama,
effect of name, great kings of four quarters, joy
of the gods, the four ways of iddhi (miracle), the
three ways of bliss, and the seven requisites of
samadhi or concentration, have been mentioned.
Prof. Rhys Davids says that after the prologue
the story turns into a fairy tale, quite well told
and very edifying and full of subtle humour. This
sutta further refers to the Tavatimsa gods, the
gods of Paranimmita Vasavatti, Nimmanarati,
Yama, Catummaharajika heavens, and the assembly
of King Vessavana Kuvera. This suttanta further
informs us that 24,00,000 upasakas of Magadha
obtained Sotapattiphalam (fruition of the first
stage of sanctification) by following Buddha's
instructions.

The nineteenth is the Mahd-Govinda Suttanta
(Digha, II, pp. 220-252) which is of great importance
from the standpoint of ancient Indian history and
geography. For a Buddhist conception of the
shape of India, we have to turn to this suttanta
which states that India is broad on the north
whereas in the south it is sakatamukham, i.e. has
the form of the front portion of a cart and is divided
into seven equal parts. The description of the
shape as given in this suttanta agrees wonderfully
with that given by the Chinese author, Fah-kai-lih-to.

104 A History of Pali Literature

It is really very important in the rfistory of Pali
literature. It is no less important as one of the
earliest examples cited in the Cullaniddesa (p. 80)
of the Jatakas that in a way served as a model
for the birth stories in the later commentaries.
It introduces us to the Sudhamma or Mote Hall
of the gods of Tavatimsa Heaven, where all the
gods with Sakka, king of gods, as President, are
found to have assembled and rejoiced at the increase
in their numbers " through the appearance in
their midst, of new gods produced by the good
karma of the followers of the new view of life put
forward by Gotama ". Sakka (lord of the gods)
uttered eight paragraphs in eulogy of the Buddha.
Next we find Maha-Brahma's views of an ideal
brahmin. The facts of the Maha-Govinda Suttanta
are found in different phraseology and order in the
Mahavastu 1 (Govindiya Sutra). In the absence of
sufficient materials it is still a difficult task for
historians to ascertain with exactitude the relation
between the Dlgha Nikaya and the Mahavastu. 8
The possible explanation of the most astounding
fact yet known about the Mahavastu is given by
Rhys Davids in his Dialogues of the Buddha wherein
it is stated, " Now we do not know exactly when
and where Buddhists began to write in Sanskrit,
though it was probably in Kashmir some time
before the beginning of our era. They did not then
translate into Sanskrit any Pali book. They wrote
new books. And the reason for this was two-fold.
In the first place, they had already come to believe
things very different from those contained in the
canon ; they were no longer in full sympathy with
it. In the second place, though Pah* was never
the vernacular of Kashmir, it was widely known
there and even very probably still used for literary
work ; translations were therefore not required "
(pt. II, p. 256).

1 Vide B. C. Law's " A Study of the Mahavastu" pp. 145-149,
or Senart's Ed. of the Mahavastu, Vol. Ill, p. 197.

2 See 'Buddhistic Studies' edited by Dr. B. C. Law, p. 837.

Canonical Pali Literature 105

%

%

The Maha-Govinda Suttanta also deals with
Nirvana, the path leading to it, practice of piety,
danger of delay, the lower and higher ways. It
also gives us an account of Maha-Govinda's renounc-
ing the world with a large number of followers and
his seven wives.

The twentieth is the Mahd-Samaya Suttanta
(Digha, II, pp. 253-262) which is of special importance
to the historians of religion in so far as it bears
testimony to the continual change in animistic
belief prevalent in India at the time. In this
connection Rhys Davids says, " The poem is almost
unreadable now. The long list of strange names
awakes no interest. And it is somewhat pathetic
to notice the hopeless struggle of the author to
enliven his unmanageable material with a little
poetry. It remains save here and there, only
doggrel still. There are three parts to the poem.
The first is the list of gods, the second, the frame-
work, put into the Buddha's mouth, at the beginning
(after the prologues) and at the end, the third the
prologue, with the verses of the four gods of the
Pure Abode. The prologue has been preserved as
a separate episode in the Samyutta, I, 27. The
way in which the list is fitted into the framework
in our sections 4, 5, and 6 is very confused, and
awkward ; and the grammar of the framework
is inconsistent with the grammar of the list. It
is highly probable therefore that the list itself
and also the epilogue, had been handed down as
independent works in the community before our
suttanta was composed. The framework may be
the work of the editor. The legends here told
were intended to counteract the animistic delusions
about them (names contained in the suttantas)
then so prevalent in the Ganges valley. They are
almost the only evidence we have as yet outside the
priestly books" (Dialogues of the Buddha, pt. II,
pp. 282-283). This sutta mentions some gods who
are found in this earth and also in the regions above.
It gives us a long list of gods and we get a similar

106 A History of Pali Literature

i

list with the addition of Siva in the Mahavastu
(Senart, Vol. I, p. 245, Vol. Ill, pp. 68, 77).

The twenty-first is the Sakkapanha Suttanta
(Digha, II, pp. 263-289) which is, in some respects,
the most interesting of all mythological dialogues.
It is quoted by name at Samyutta, III, 13 ;
Mahavastu, I, 350 ; Milinda, 350 ; Sumangala-
vilasini, I, 24 (where it is called vedalla). The last
passage is repeated in the Gandhavamsa, 57.

Sakka, king of the Thirty-three, finding it
difficult to approach the Buddha who was then in
deep meditation, sought the aid of a Gandhabba
named Pancasikha who by the sweet play of his
lyre sang in praise of the Awakened One, the Truth,
the Arahant, and the love. The verses sung by the
Gandhabba were addressed to a lady by one who
received no return for his love for her as she was
then in love with another. The song put into the
mouth of the heavenly musician is clothed in words
conveying a double meaning, one applicable to the
Buddha and the other to the lady. The Buddha
being moved by the music conversed with the
Gandhabba who in the course of conversation
informed Buddha of the advent of Sakka. Then
Sakka came forward and paid homage to the
Exalted One. He put to the Buddha several ques-
tions mostly dealing with ethics and psychology.
Buddha answered the questions to the great
satisfaction of Sakka who was thereafter converted
to the Buddhist faith. The conversion of the
king of the Thirty-three appears, at first sight, to
be preposterous, but the analysis of the meaning
in which the word ' Sakka ' is used, leads us to
hold that the king of gods is not free from the three
deadly evils, lust, ill-will, and stupidity (cf. A.N.,
I, 144 ; S.N., I, 219), nor from anxiety (S.N. I, 219).
He is still subject to death and rebirth (A.N., I, 144 ;
cf. A.N., IV, 105), and as such, he desires to be
reborn in some higher planes r of celestial beings.

1 There are twenty-six planes of celestial beings.

Canonical Pali Literature 107

Some other topics are discussed in the
suttanta :

(1) causes of malice and avarice,

(2) causes of favour or disfavour,

(3) path leading to papanca (any of the evil
conditions), sanfia (consciousness), and samkhara-
nirodha (cessation of confections), and

(4) how a bhikkhu can be said to follow the
rules of the Patimokkha.

The Sakkapanha Suttanta refers to the Buddha
dwelling in the Magadhan kingdom, and to a Sakya
princess named Gopika. She was pleased with the
Buddha, Dhamma, and Samgha. She used to
observe precepts fully, became disgusted with woman
life, and meditated to become a man.

The twenty-second is the Mahd-Satipatthdna
Sutta (Dlgha, II, pp. 290-315). In it the Buddha
urges his disciples to set up mindfulness (sati).
The doctrine expounded in this suttanta may be
said to be very important in early Buddhism.
The Aryan Path is obtained by practising mindful-
ness only. Rhys Davids says, " Sati does not
occur in any ethical sense in pre-Buddhistic litera-
ture, it is possible that the Buddhist conception
was, in one way, influenced by previous thought.
Stress is laid on the Upanishad ideal on intuition,
especially as regards the relation between the soul,
supposed to exist inside each human body, and the
Great Soul. In the Buddhist protest against this,
the doctrine of Sati, dependent not on intuition
but on grasp of actual fact, plays an important
part. This opposition may have been intentional.
On the other hand, the ethical value of Mindfulness
(in its technical sense) would be sufficient, without
any such intention, to explain the great stress
laid upon it " (Dialogues of the Buddha, II,
323). In brief, the four kinds of meditation on
impurities and impermanency of body and
impermanency of vedana (sensation), citta (thought),,
and dhamma (condition) are enumerated.

108 A History of Pali Literature

i

This suttanta speaks of the five hindrances,
seven parts of wisdom, four truths, five khandhas
or aggregates, and the various stages of inhalations
and exhalations. This suttanta breaks up in the*
Majjhima Nikaya into two portions each representing
a, separate discourse such as satipatthana (chapter on
sati or recollection) and saccavibhanga (exposition
of truth).

The twenty-third is the Pdydsi Suttanta (Digha,
II , pp. 316-358). Payasi was a chieftain of Setavya,
a city of the Kosalans. He entertained doubt as
to the existence of another world, of beings reborn
otherwise than from parents, and of results of good
or bad deeds. Touching these questions, Payasi
had a long discussion with Kumara Kassapa while
the latter was staying at Setavya with a large
retinue of bhikkhus. Kumara Kassapa had recourse
to similies and advanced childish arguments to
establish his doubt depending on analogy, the
most dangerous of all snares, put forward counter-
arguments to prove the futility of Payasi's arguments
and at length succeeded in dispelling his doubt
altogether. Payasi became Kassapa's disciple. The
second part of the dialogue which is a sequel to the
first is similarly a dialogue between Payasi and his
disciple, Uttara, in which the latter succeeds in
persuading the former to set up gifts in faith.
The dialogue closes with a reference to the heaven
where the teacher and the pupil were reborn after
death. The third part which is a sequel to the
second is also a dialogue between the Venerable
Oavampati and the god Payasi in the lonely Serissaka
Mansion. " The story of Payasi' s conversion and
pious gifts with their heavenly reward, seems to
have been invented in order just to allay the fear
caused in theological circles by atheistical pro-
paganda of the powerful chieftain and philosopher,
Payasi " (Heaven and Hell in Buddhist Perspective,
Appendix, p. XVI). It is interesting to note
that Payasi who thought on the line of Ajita
Kesakambali stated his predecessor's thesis in

Canonical Pali Literature

clear and unequivocal terms. In the language
of the Sthananga such a doctrine is aptly designated
"na santi poralokavada ". Mahavira and Buddha
were right to suppose Ajita's doctrine of non-action
because Ajita destroyed the ultimate ground of
moral distinctions by denying the possibility
of personal continuity and thus deprived life of its
zest. The Payasi Suttanta deals with moon god and
sun god, message from the dead, escape of the soul^
search for the soul, and right and wrong sacrifices.

This suttanta has a Jaina counterpart in the
Raya Paseni which is but a somewhat later and
magnified legend of the chieftain Payasi. Com-
paring the two versions of the legend it appears
that Kumara Kassapa of the Buddhist tradition
was the same personality as Kesi, the Jaina and
that Paesi (Pradeshi), and not Payasi, was the
designation of the chieftain. With this suttanta
closes the second volume of the Dlgha Nikdya.

The twenty-fourth is the Pdtika Suttanta 1
(Dlgha, III, pp. 1-35). This sutta testifies to the
fact that Nigantha Nathaputta predeceased Buddha
by a few years. Prof. Rhys Davids gives a fair
and uncontroverted comment on the style and
contents of this suttanta. In his introduction to
this suttanta, he writes that it is concerned really
with only two topics, firstly that of mystic wonders
and secondly that of the origin of things. The
former has been dealt with much better and more
fully in the Kevaddha Suttanta, the latter, here
treated quite curtly and by way of appendix only,
is fully discussed below in the Aggafina Suttanta
(Dialogues of the Buddha, pt. Ill, S.B.B., Vol. IV,
p. 2).

The treatment here is clumsy. It is no doubt
intended to be both humorous and edifying. But
the humour is far removed from the delicate irony
of the Kevaddha and the Agganna. The fun is of
the pantomime variety, loud, and rather stupid.

1 Vide F. Weller Ueber deu Aufbaudes Patikasuttanta
II Uebersetzang des chinesischen Texts.

110 A History of Pali Literature

f

It is funny perhaps to hear how corpse gets slapped
on the back, wakes up just long enough to let the
cat out of the bag, and then falls back dead again ;
or how an incompetent medicineman gets stuck
fast to his seat, and wriggles about in his vain
endeavours to rise. But this sort of fun would
appeal more strongly to a music-hall audience, or to
school boys out for a holiday, than to those who
are likely to read it in this volume. And the
supposed edification is of the same order. As an
argumentum ad hominem, as propounded for the
enlightenment of the very foolish Sunakkhatta
(and this just, after all, what it purports to be),
it may pass muster. Whether it can have appealed
to (or was even meant to appeal to) wiser folk is
very questionable. One gets rather bored with
the unwearied patience with which the Tathagata
is here represented as suffering fools gladly. And
it is difficult to bear with an author who tells stories
so foolish merely to prove that the Tathagata is
as good a magician as the best, and who has the
bad taste to put them into the mouth of the
Tathagata himself. Not only in style and taste
does this suttanta differ from the others. In
doctrine also it is opposed to them (Dialogues of
the Buddha, pt. Ill, p. 1). The subject-matter
is that Sunakkhatta, a Licchavi, was at first a
pupil of the Buddha. Thereafter he left Buddha's
Order and misinterpreted the doctrine of the Buddha.
The Master refuted his arguments and himself
explained his own doctrine.

The twenty-fifth is the Udumbarika-Sihandda
Suttanta (Digha, III, pp. 36-57) which deals with
different kinds of asceticism. The Buddha explains
the evil effect of them. He explains the life of a
real brahmacari.

The twenty-sixth is the Cakkavatti-Sihandda
Suttanta (Digha, III, pp. 58-79) which describes
that the Buddha instructed his disciples to practise
four satipatthanas, and it deals with the life of
Dalhanemi, a universal monarch. It is rather

Canonical Pali Literature 111

like a fairy tale, the moral whereof is the use and
influence of the Norm. The moral has been pro-
claimed in a thorough-going and uncompromising
^manner, but not in so argumentative a way as is
found in modern treatises on ethics or philosophy.
The authors have stated their views merely leaving
the gospel to be accepted or rejected by the hearers.
" The Buddha is represented in this suttanta as
setting out his own idea of conquest (not without
ironical reference to the current ideas) and then as
inculcating the observance of the Dhamma the
Norm as the most important force for the material
and moral progress of mankind " (Dialogues of
the Buddha, pt. Ill, p. 53).

The Cakkavatti-Sihandda Suttanta teaches us
that corruption leads to the decline of life. It
further points out that if morals improve, life
lengthens. The suttanta closes by saying much
about the condition of prosperity. It states that
the Buddha predicted that when the lease of life
of human beings would be 80,000 years, Baranasi
would be known as Ketumati which would be
the capital of Jambudipa and the king would be
Sankha who would be the universal monarch
possessing seven gems.

The twenty-seventh is the Agganna Suttanta
(Digha, III, pp. 80-98). In dealing with the claims
of the Brahmana, this suttanta establishes that
good conduct is higher than caste. The evolution
of the world, man, and society has been treated
of herein 1 but the treatment does not appear to
be satisfactory in the face of the scientifically
developed modern ideas on the subject. This
suttanta also deals with the origin of the four
castes, Ksatriyas, Brahmanas, Vaisyas, and Sudras,
and concludes by preaching that righteousness is
above lineage.

The Agganna Suttanta mentions that the
Blessed One was at Pubbarama in the palace of

1 Cf. Mahavastu (Senart's Ed.), Vol. I, p. 338 and B. C. Law's
Study of the Mahavastu (supplement), pp. 37-39.

112 A History of Pali Literature

Migaramata and that King Pasenadi of Kosala
was aware of the Blessed One's renouncing the
world from the Sakya family. Though Pasenadi
was of the same age as Buddha, yet he used to
show respect to the Buddha out of consideration
for his eminence as a great teacher.

The twenty-eighth is the Sampasddanlya
Suttanta (Digha, III, pp. 99-116) which speaks of
the excellence of the Buddha in a manner both
edifying and comprehensive. It mentions that the
Blessed One was at Pavarika's mango-grove where
Sariputta went and saluted the Buddha.

The twenty-ninth is the Pdsddika Suttanta
(Digha, III, pp. 117-141). The notable feature
that is of some importance to a student of religion,
is the condition of a perfect religion. Interesting
reading is the mention of the characteristics of the
Tathagata. The treatment of wrong views about
the past and the future appears to be common
place and has no special importance from a literary
point of view.

We learn from this suttanta that it was Cunda,
the novice of JPava, who conveyed the news of the
discussion to Ananda, which led to the breaking up
of the Jaina Order and the latter at once saw the
importance of the events and communicated the
same to the Buddha who delivered a long discourse.

The thirtieth is the Lakkhana Suttanta (Digha,
///, pp. 142-179) which mentions in detail thirty-
two signs, the possessor whereof is marked as a
great man or superman as termed by Rhys Davids
in bis Dialogues of the Buddha, pt. Ill, p. 134.

This suttanta contains in a framework of
prose a series of didactic stanzas, elegant in com-
position and restrained in tone. The enumeration
of some of the moral principles bears a close
resemblance to that in Asoka's dhamma, " sacce
ca dhamme ca dame ca samyame soceyya silalay-
uposathesu ca, Dane ahimsaya asahase rato dalham
samadaya samattam acari " (Digha, III, p. 147).
Prof. Rhys Davids aptly says that this suttanta

Canonical Pali Literature 113

i
\

seems gravely ironical in the contrast it makes
between the absurdity of the marks and the beauty
of the ethical qualities they are supposed in the
uttanta to mean. It mentions the fact that the
Blessed One dwelt at SavatthI in the Jetavana-arama
of Anathapindika.

The thirty-first is the Singalovdda Suttanta
(Dlgha, III, pp. 180-193) which deals with the duties
of a householder. It has been translated into English
by Grimbolt in Sept Suttas Palis (Paris, 1879), by
Gogerly in J.R.A.S., Ceylon Branch, 1847, and by
R. C. Childers in the Contemporary Review, London,
1876.

We agree with Rhys Davids when he says that
anyway the Buddha's doctrine of love and good will
between man and man is here set forth in a domestic
and social ethics with more comprehensive detail
than elsewhere. In a canon compiled by members
of a religious order and largely concerned with the
mental experiences and ideals of recluses, and
with their outlook on the world, it is of great interest
to find in it a sutta entirely devoted to the outlook
and relations of the layman on and to his surround-
ings. Rhys Davids further points out that the
discourse was felt to possess this interest in the
long past by Buddliaghosa, or by the tradition he
handed on, or by both (Dialogues of the Buddha,
pt. Ill, pp. 168-169). Concerning this sutta,
Buddhaghosa says " Nothing in the duties of a
householder is left unmentioned " and so it passed
current as a gihiviiiaya (Dr. Barua, Note on the
Bhabra Edict, J.R.A.S., 1915). The real interest of
this sutta centres round a scheme of the law of
persons interpreted as a code of moral duties.
Mrs. Rhys Davids rightly points out that the
sigala saying is much valued now because the
others are -nearly all of them lost (Gotama the
man, pp. 205-206).

The thirty-second is the Atanatiya Suttanta
(Digha, III, pp. 194-206) which mentions gods,

8

114 A History of Pali Literature

gandhabbas, and yakkhas who are not pleased with
the Buddha. It treats of driving them away if
they attack Buddha's upasakas and upasikas. It
is a saving chant (rakkha-manta) to get rid of evil
spirits. In this suttanta mention is made of the
Kumbhanda petas who had a lord named Virulha
in the quarter of the south and he had many sons.
We are further told by this suttanta that the petas
were backbiters and murderers, brigands, crafty-
minded rogues, thieves, and cheats.

The thirty-third is the Sangiti Suttanta 1 (Digha,
111, pp. 207-271) which deals with Sariputta's
explanation of the Dhamma. The importance of
this suttanta lies in the numerical groupings of the
dhammas obviously on the method followed in the
Ekuttara or the Anguttara Nikaya. This suttanta
corresponds, as pointed out by Prof. Takakusu,
to the Samgitiparayaya Sutra forming one of the
six Abhidhamma treatises of the Sarvastivada
school.

The subject-matter of the Puggalapannatti
is puggala or person. In the treatment of the
subject, the author gives a table of contents of
the whole work, and then follows the method of
the Anguttara Nikaya. He first gives the grouping
of human types under one term, then under two,
and so on, up to the grouping under ten terms.
Again, in its form the Puggalapannatti is indebted
to the Sangiti Suttanta of the Digha Nikaya. This
Digha Nikaya suttanta treats of the dasadhamma
or ten conditions (single doctrine, double doctrines,
triple doctrines, fourfold doctrines, etc.) much in
the same way as the Puggalapannatti deals with
the dasa puggala or ten individuals (i.e., the
varieties of those walking in the Four Paths).

1 Vide F. Wellor Ueber die Rahmenor zahlung JOB Samglti-
Suttanta im Pali Kanon, Asia Major, V, fasc. I, 1928. This sutta
has been translated into English from Pali by Suriyagoda
Sumangala Swam! and published in a book form by the M.B.S.,
Colombo, 1904.

Canonical Pali Literature 115

Occasionally we find the two subjects over-
lapping, that is to say, puggalas are mentioned
in the Sangiti Suttanta, and dhammas are referred
>to in the Puggalapannatti. Amongst the cattaro
dhamma of the Sangiti Suttanta, immediately
following the cattaro ariya vohara, mention is
made of cattaro puggala (Dlgha, Vol. Ill, p. 232)
exactly in the same words as in the Matika of the
Puggalapannatti (Puggalapannatti, p. 7). Amongst
the satta dhamma of the Sangiti Suttanta we
find satta puggala dakkhineyya (Dlgha, Vol. Ill,
p. 253), corresponding to the Matika of the Puggala-
pafifiatti, P.T.S., pp. 30-36.

The thirty-fourth and the last is the Dasuttara
Suttanta (Dlgha, III, pp. 272-293) which provides
us with a sort of compendium of the dhamma in
ten numerical settings and as shown by Dr. Takakusu
corresponds to one of the six Abhidharma treatises
of the Sarvastivada school. With this sutta the
third or the last volume of the Dlgha Nikdya comes
to an end.

B. MAJJHIMA NIKAYA

The Majjhima Nikaya 1 is the second book of
the Sutta Pitaka. It is known as the c Middle
Collection ' or the collection of discourses of medium
length. It is divided into three books each
consisting of fifty suttas (pannasas). But the text

1 Majjhima Nikaya, P.T.S. Ed., Vol. I, by V. Trenckner ;
Vol. II, pt. I, by R. Chalmers (Now Lord); and Vol. Ill, by
R. Chalmers. Indices to the Majjhima Nikaya by Mabel Bode ;
Majjhima Nikaya, Colombo, 1895. The first fifty discourses
from the collection of the medium length discourses of Gotama
the Buddha, freely rendered and abridged from the Pali by the
bhikkhu Stlacara, V. I. Broslau : W. Markgraf, 1912 (Deutche
Pali Gesollschaft) Die Roden Gotamo Buddhos : aus der mittleren
Sammlung Majjhimanikayo des Pali-Kaiions Zum ersten Mai
uebersotzt von K. E. Neumann, Leipzig; W. Friedrich, 1896-
1902 ; Discorsi di Gotamo Buddho del majjhimo Nikayo. Per la
prima volta tradotti dal testo pali da. K. E. Neumann, e.g.
de Lorenzo. 3 vols.

For English translations of the suttas vide Further Dialogues
of the Buddha by Lord Chalmers, vols. I and II.

116 A History of Pali Literature

in the P.T.S. edition contains 152 suttas, the third
book containing two suttas in excess of fifty. The
Chinese Madhyamagama Sutra is to be compared
with the Pali text of the Majjhima Nikaya, collection*
of middle suttas, 152 in number (see Bunyiu
Nanjio's Catalogue of the Chinese Translation of
the Buddhist Tripitaka, p. 127). This nikaya
deals with almost all the points of Buddhist religion.
The suttas of this nikaya throw light not only on
the life of Buddhist monks but also on such subjects
as Brahmana sacrifices, various forms of asceticism,
the relation of the Buddha to the Jainas, and
the social and political conditions prevailing at
the time. The four noble truths of the Buddhist
religion, the doctrine of form or action, refutation
of the soul theories, different modes of meditation,
etc., are discussed in this nikaya.

The Majjhima Nikaya begins with the Mula-
pariydya Sutta 1 (Majjhima, P.T.8., I, pp. 1-6) which
lays the scene of the discourse at the pleasure grove
of Ukkattha. The teaching is proclaimed to be one
that strikes the keynote of the entire doctrine of
Buddhism (Sabbadhamma mulapariyaya). The
popular aspect of this most important discourse is
to be found in the narrative of the Mulapariyaya
Jataka (Fausboll, Jataka, II, 259 foil.). In this
particular discourse the Buddha has critically
surveyed the real position of the contemporary
systems of philosophy, pointing out the difference
that exists between the standpoint of these systems
of philosophy and his own. It is apparent from
this sutta that there were then current in India
good many philosophical and theological beliefs,
the most of which can be found in the philosophical
and metaphysical works of the Hindus and in the
books of the Jains. This sutta touches on the

1 This sutta which has been translated as a Discourse on the
original cause of all phenomena has been translated into English
from Pali by Suriyagoda Sumahgala Thera and published in a
book form by the Maha Bodhi Society, Colombo, 1908. Dr.
Neumann lias translated this sutta into German.

lanonical Pali Literature 117

soul theory. A fair idea of Nirvana 1 can be gathered
from this sutta. This sutta further informs us that
the disciples of the Buddha who are greatly learned
and ariyasavakas (noble disciples) know Pajapati,
Brahma, Abhassara gods, Subhakinna gods, Vehap-
phala, Abhibhu, Akasanancayatana, Vinnanancaya-
tana, Akincannayatana, Nevasannanasannayatana
gods (vide my " Heaven and Hell in Buddhist
Perspective", pp. 8 foil.).

The object of the Sabbdsava Sutta (M.N.,
Vol. /, pp. 6-12) is to show how the banes (asavas)
can be overcome. The Buddha says that relief
from all banes comes to those who only can see
and comprehend all things. Banes may be destroyed
by a man who is wisely attentive. Banes may also
be destroyed by discernment, restraint, carefulness,
endurance, suppression, and mental exercise. Those
whose actions bring to sensual lust, craving for
existence, thought for the past existence are blame-
worthy. They fall victims to the following views :

I have a self 2
I have not a self.

By self I apprehend self .... eternity and
identity of the self ;

and then fall into the net of diverse views. Those
who pay attention to the worthy things get rid of
these. If attention is paid only to the worthy
things then no bane can come in.

Heirs of truth, Solitude, and the Middle Path
are the topics of discussion in the Dhammaddydda
Sutta (M.N., /, pp. 12-16). Here the Lord
distinguishes between the two classes of monks,
one that clings to the Dhamma and the other that

1 Mrs. Rhys Davids is perfectly right when she gives an idea
of Nirvana by saying that it is merely the ending of the bad
(Gotama the man, p. 46), and we should add, beginning of the
good.

2 Mrs. Rhys Davids has ably dealt with the subject of atta
in Buddhism vide Mrs. Rhys Davids, Sakya or Buddhist origins,
pp. 186 foil.

118 A History of Pali Literati 1 / e

clings to the food to enable him to practise Dhamma. 1
The Lord praises the former, the keeper of the real
truth. For contentment and quietness of mind
will enable him to purge off the impurities.

Sariputta is now introduced in the second
part of the sutta and is delivering sermons on
solitude. He says that there are three ways in
which the disciples of the lonely master fail to
practise solitude. He then explains the Middle
Path which leads to the destruction of avarice,
hatred, delusion, etc., and consequently to the
attainment of Nibbana. Note that this sutta falls
into two parts. The first part is merely an intro-
duction in which the Buddha relates the story of
the two bhikkhus, Amisadayada and Dhamma-
dayada. The Buddha then departs and Sariputta
takes up the thread of the discourse and explains
the doctrinal points involved in this sutta.

The subject-matter of the Bhayabherava Sutta
(M.N., I, pp. 16-24; Fear and Terror) is how
terror may arise in mind. The Lord says to
Janussoni the brahmin that fear only comes to
him who comes into the depth of forests with heart
filled with longings and desires or restless or witless
and drivelling. This sutta explains why terror
arises to some and not to others. The real value of
this sutta consists in its being reminiscent of the
fearless endeavours of the Buddha previous to his
enlightenment. This portion occurs in the Dlgha
and Majjhima many times. In this discourse the
subject of jhana 2 or ' raft musing ' or ' abstraction '
has been dealt with in glowing language.

1 MFH. Rhys Davids has written a very interesting and
illuminating chapter on Dhanna (Dhamma) in Sakya See Sakya
or Buddhist Origins, pp. 06-74. She in her Gotama the man says
that it is better not to translate it. Dhamma, ' a thing as it
may be' means a possibility. Sylvain Levi's rendering of
Dhamma by ideal is somewhat better but is only inadequate in
that it words not the thing but only the idea of it (p. 56).

2 See Mrs. Rhys Davids, Sakya or Buddhist Origins, pp. 171
foil.

Canonical Pali Literature 119

The Anangana Sutta (M.N., I, pp. 24-32;
Freedom from depravity) points out that a man
undepraved cannot be free unless and until he
himself sees that he is really far from depravation,
that is, unless he knows the pitfalls he may fall
into.

Then Sariputta says that there are some monks
who seek position and who like pleasure. These
monks are bad.

A reference to a naked ascetic Panduputta
as cited by Mahamoggallana in the course of the
discourse shows that the naked ascetics as a sect
were in existence and they were not free from
corruption.

This sutta does not claim to have come from
the mouth of the Lord and is a mere discourse
among the disciples while the Lord was still alive.
Its inclusion within the nikaya shows first that the
suttas were collected not only because they emanated
from the Lord himself but also because of the
seal of approval attached to them by the Master.

The Akankheyya Sutta (M.N., /, pp. 33-36)
teaches us that the Lord advises his disciples to
observe the strict rules of the sila (precepts) and
Patimokkha (Patimokkha samvara sambhuta).
Longing for fame and reputation and power to
know others' minds may be in their hearts. But
this should not be. The monks will only observe
the rule, be subdued and restrained, and practise
the precepts of conduct faithfully.

In the Vatthupama Sutta (M.N., pp. 36-40;
parable of the cloth) the Lord exhorts the monks
to be pure in mind and to wipe off all impurities.
Let not impurities of mind remain. Let the monks
know what impurities are and fully knowing
they will abandon them. When they have
abandoned them, they will have generated faith in
the Buddha and in the rules that will guide him
and the Samgha.

The Brahmin Bharadvaja of Sundarika asks the
Lord if he goes to the Bahuka river. The Lord

120 A History of Pali Literature

questions him the reason and when Bharadvaja
says that the river possesses the power of purifying,
the Lord explains that to purify the mind one
need not go there. Bharadvaja is afterwards
ordained.

Of the two parts of this Sutta the second is
relevant only if we take yet the faint connection
of purifying power of the Bahuka river with the
purifying power of mind. Otherwise the episode
of Bharadvaja is out of place. There are two
points worthy of notice: (1) that the parable of
cloth may be interpreted as an illustration of the
popular Buddhist conception of mind in tabula rasa
or clean sheet of cloth, contaminated by impurities
which being foreign to its nature (agantukadosa)
can be ultimately got rid of (B. M. Barua, Pre-
Buddhistic Indian Philosophy, p. 399), and (2)
that it preserves a very ancient Pali couplet
mentioning seven important rivers, e.g. Bahuka,
Adhikakka, Gaya, and the rest as holy waters in
which the people bathed to wash away their sins
and impurities, Gaya being represented the chief
of all.

In the Sallekha Sutta (M.N., /, pp. 40-46) the
Blessed One in reply to Malia-Cunda's question
says that in order to get rid of the various false
views current about self and the universe, an
almsman should see with right comprehension that
there is no ' mine ', no ' this is I ', 110 ' this is myself '.
Each of the planes (the four ecstasies, infinity of
space, of mind, of Naught of neither perception
nor imperception, etc.) is called by the Buddha
not an expunging but an excellent state. According
to the Buddha this is the way to expunge though
others may be harmful, an almsman should be
harmless ; others may kill and lie, but an almsman
should not do so.

In the Sammdditthi Sutta (M.N., /, pp. 46-55)
(Right Belief) we find that Sariputta wants to
know what right belief means. At this the
monks themselves become anxious to know from

Canonical Pali Literature 121

him the meaning of it. Then Sariputta says that
right belief means the disciples' knowledge of good
and evil with all their roots.

In the fold of evil are included :

(1) to kill, (2) to steal, (3) to be guilty of
sex indulgences, (4) to speak falsely, (5) to spread
scandal, (6) to speak harshly, (7) to speak roughly,
(8) to speak frivolously, (9) to covet, (10) to cherish
ill-will, (11) to entertain erroneous views;

within the fold of rest of evil are included :
(1) Desire, (2) Hatred, (3) Delusion;

within fold of good are included :

(1) to abstain from (as above in evil) ;

within the root of good are included :

(1) Absence of attachment to passion, (2) Love,
(3) Wisdom.

At the suggestion of the fellow monks, Sariputta
acknowledges the various ways leading to right
belief, namely :

1. by knowing aharo (nutriment) its origin, its

cessation and
the cause
leading to its
cessation.

2. Do. Suffering Do.

3. Do. Decay and death Do.

4. Do. birth Do.

5. Do. existence Do.

6. Do. attachment Do.

7. Do. sensation Do.

8. Do. contact Do.

9. Do. activity Do.

10. Do. ignorance Do.

11. Do. canker Do.

In the Satipatthdna Sutta (M.N., /, pp. 55-63)
the Lord says to the monks that there is but one way
that leads to the purification of mortals and that

122 A History of Pali Literal^

is the four Satipatthanas, 1 e.g. to keep watch over
(1) body (kaya), (2) sensation (vedana), (3) mind
(citta), and (4) phenomenon (dhamma).

The tone of this long sutta, known as the
Satipatthana Sutta, is always harmonious. The
Buddha advises the monks to practise mindfulness.
It is by the fourfold mastering of mindfulness that
one can pass beyond sorrow and lamentation and
ills of body and of mind and obtain the right path
and realise nirvana.

The teachings in this sutta may be judged as
the corner-stone of the whole of the Buddhist
system of self-culture.

The Culaslhandda Sutta (M.N., I, 63-68) informs
us that the Blessed One asks his disciples to tell
the votaries of other paths that they excel them
in the following :

1. Sattharipasada (faith in teacher),

2. Dhammepasada (faith in the law),

3. Silesu paripurakarita (strict observance of
silas),

4. Sahadhammika piyamanapagahattha c'eva
pabbajita ca agreeableness in the company of the
dear fellow believers whether they are laymen or
monks.

He explains to them that all ideas about self,
eternity, non-eternity arise from the clinging to
the self, i.e. non-comprehension of the law.

We find here that there are some philosophers
who hold the existence of things to be eternal
while others belief in the non-existence of things.

In the Mahdslhandda Sutta (M.N., I, 68-83 ;
great lion's roar) we read that Sariputta informed
the Blessed One that Sunakkhatta, a Licchavi

1 It is interesting to note here the valuable remarks of Mrs.
Rhys Davids in her Gotaraa the man (p. 222), " the same way of
values in the other formula of ordered thinking called the four
satipatt-hanas has, as two of its stages ' ideas' and 'mind', brought
in the same two ideas here, where the training has a somewhat,
but not wholly, different emphasis. And it will not be a true
picture of my teaching, if the training in iddhi is passed over"

^

" onical Pali Literature 123

9

prince, who had left the Order, spoke ill of him.
At this the lion-like Lord began to roar that his
teachings were such that if one pondered over
them one would surely leave the world. Sariputta
further informed the Buddha that he was so powerful
because he possessed the ten powers which included
his capacity for knowing facts. He further declared
that he possessed the four Vesarajjas (four kinds of
confidence). He also knew the various classifications
of beings, the birth of beings, the Nibbana, the
mind of men, and the five different destinies of
men. This long sutta only glorifies the Buddha.

Reference is also made to the existence of
certain kinds of religious men (1) who believe in
purification by food, (2) who believe in purification
by offering, and (3) who believe in purification by
the fire rituals. The Lomadhamsapariyaya is an
alternative title suggested in this discourse. A
popular version of this discourse is to be found in
the Lomahamsa Jataka. 1

The Mahddukkhakkhandha Sutta (M.N., I,
83-90) tells us that the monks were thinking as
to the distinction between their school of thought
and those of the other sects, particularly when both
taught subjects of desire. They approached the
Lord and the Lord asked them if they could put
the question before the ascetics of the other sects
as to the pleasures of senses, and escape from
sensual pleasures, etc. Surely the ascetics of the
other sects would be puzzled. This sutta informs
us that it is the sensual pleasure that brings lots of
troubles when kings fight, private persons engage in
feuds, etc. So the end of sensual pleasure is happiness.

In this sutta we find a long enumeration of the
offences that were punishable by the penal laws
of ancient India, e.g. burglary, robbery, highway,
adultery, etc. The kind of punishment for each
offence is mentioned as follows : by flogging, by
bastinado, by bludgeoning, by cutting off hands

1 Fausboll, Jataka, Vol. I, pp. 389 foil.

124 A History of Pali Literatme

or feet, hands and feet, ears or nose, ears and nose
or they are subjected to the tortures of the sauce-
pan, 1 the chauk-shave or the lanthorn, 2 the wreath
of fire, 8 the fiery hand, the hay-band, 4 the bark-'
robe, the black hart, 6 the meat-hooks, 6 the pennies, 7
the pickle 8 , bolting the door 9 or the palliasse 10
or they are sprayed with boiling oil, or are given to
starved dogs to devour, or are impaled alive, or
have their heads chopped off.

There is a reference here to sects other than
the order of Buddhist monks, for whom too sensual
pleasure was the main point of attack and their
identification will be of great interest.

There is also a mention of the kinds of pro-
fession that suited the householder, e.g.

1. Mudda . . conveyancing

2. Ganana . . accountancy

3. Sankha . . appraising

4. Kasi . . agriculture

5. Vanijja . . trade and commerce

6. Gorakkha . . cattle breeding

7. Issattha . . soldiery

8. Rajaporisa . . royal service

1 The skull was first trepanned and then a red-hot ball of
iron was dropped in so that the brains boiled over like porridge.

2 The mouth was fixed open with a skewer and a lighted lamp
put inside. This torture was called the mouth of Rahu because
Raliu, the asura, was supposed at an eclipse to swallow the sun.

3 The whole body was oiled before ignition but mat! suggests
a coronal of flames just as the next torture is localized to the hands.

4 From the neck downwards the skin was flayed into strips
not severed at the ankles but there plaited like a hay-band to
suspend him till he fell by his own weight. In the next torture
the strips formed a kilt.

5 The victim was skewered to the ground through elbows
and knees with a tire lighted all round him so as to char his flesh.

6 The victims were slung up by double hooks through flesh
and tendons.

7 With a razor little discs of flesh were shaved off all over the
body.

8 Into gashes salt or alkali was rubbed with combs.

9 The head was nailed to the ground by a skewer through
both ear-holes.

10 The skin being left intact, the bones and inwards were pound-
ed till the whole frame was as soft as a straw mattress (Lord
Chalmers, Further Dialogues of the Buddha, Ft. I, pp. 61-62 f.n.).

Canonical Pali Literature 125

and other arts and occupations, e.g. clerk of the
signet, clerk of accompt, computer, estate-agent,
purveyor, herd-manager, archer, member of the
royal household.

The Culadukkhakkhandha Sutta (M.N., /, 91-95)
informs us that Mahanama the Sakya approached
the Lord and asked him, " How is it that thoughts
for craving, hatred, and delusion are the defilements
of mind ? " The Lord explained to him thus
" something has not been cast out and for this
such trouble comes to him again". In this sutta
is found a description of the naked ascetics whom
the Buddha is said to have met. Some of the naked
ascetics lived in large numbers at the Black rock
in Rajagaha. Their teacher was Nathaputta who
believed in bad works done by them in their past
life for which they were to suffer. They believed
that by suffering, happiness may be attained.

The object of Anumdna Sutta (M.N., I, 95-100)
is to warn the monks in concrete cases to be careful.

Mahamoggallana advises the monks that if
any of them goes astray and does not listen to the
warnings of the fellow monks then the best way
lies with them is to punish him by not mixing
with him and not speaking to him.

Like the Mahavagga and Patimokkha this
sutta enumerates offences and their punishments.
Nowhere there is any mention of a citation of a
standard book on these rules. And the principal
figure here is not the Lord but Mahamoggallana.
Buddhaghosa informs us that this discourse was
known to the ancients as Bhikkhuvinaya or treatises
on discipline.

The Cetokhila Sutta (M.N., I, 101-104) lays
down that there are five bolts of the heart, e.g.
the doubt about the teacher, the doubt about
the doctrine or confraternity or the course of
training with the lack of bent towards ardour,
zeal, perseverance and exertion and anger and
displeasure towards fellows in higher life. The
Buddha says that there are five cetaso vinibandha

126 A History of Pali Literatujx

<

(five mental enslavements or five bondages of the
mind) 1 from which every monk has to free himself
in order to achieve the highest goal.

The sutta also lays down some Vinaya rules
and illustrates the cases. It may be pointed out
that the Buddhist term cetokhila corresponds to
Jaina dukkhasejjd (the thorny bed).

In the Vanapattha Sutta (M.N., I, 104-108;
Woodland Solitude) the Blessed One lays before
his disciples a way of woodland solitude. The
Master quotes instances of monks living in forests
with an unbalanced mind and an unsteady recollec-
tion. Such monks could not achieve anything
noble because they were not accustomed to live
without necessities.

This sutta also exemplifies the Vinaya rules,
as for example, a monk's needs in the matter of
clothing, food, bed, and medicaments.

The Madhupindika Sutta (M.N., I, 108-114;
the Daily morsel) points out that Dandapani,
the Sakya, met the Blessed One and asked him
what doctrine the latter held. At this the Blessed
One explained to him that he held such a doctrine
that both Brahma and Mara were unable to hold.
At this Dandapani retired. The Buddha then
narrated the events to the disciples who also wanted
to know what doctrine the Blessed One held. He
then retired after telling them his doctrine in a
nut-shell that there is an end of all inclinations to
passion, pride, doubts, ignorance, and speculative
ideas for a man if he does not adhere to obsessions,
whatever be the origin. Then Mahakaccana was
sought after by the monk to explain the meaning

1 Attachment to sensual pleasures, attachment to the body,
attachment to the visible forms, if after eating as much as his
belly will hold, a bhikkhu is fond of his chair or bed or of
slumber, then his heart's bent is not towards ardour, zeal,
perseverance, and exertions. If a bhikkhu aspiring to belong
to one of the deva communities practises morality saying unto
himself that by practising this precept, vow, asceticism or austerity
he would become a particular god, then his heart's bent is not
towards ardour, etc.

anonical Pali Literature 127

of what the Blessed One had spoken so briefly.
Thereupon Mahakaccana explained to the fellow
monks the psychological meaning of the sayings
,of the Buddha. Then the Lord also corroborated
the same statement of Mahakaccana.

The Dvedhdvitakka Sutta (M.N., I, 114-118) is
very important so far as the history of Pali literature
is concerned. Mahakaccana's exposition of what the
Buddha had spoken shortly furnishes us at least
with important data as to the way in which the
system of exposition began, and that the system
of Abhidhamma exposition based on philosophical
thought and explanation of what the Buddha
had spoken may be found here. Here we may
find the genesis of Abhidhamma and the author
was the same Mahakaccana. Mahakaccana's duty
was ever the same. No text is referred to as there
was no text and the succeeding numbers of texts
are nothing but embodiments of all philosophical
expositions and Buddha's short teachings which
are sought to have passed through the mouth of
Buddha's disciples, e.g. Mahakaccana.

The Blessed One explained to his disciples
that he failed to achieve the highest object so
long as he practised the habit of dividing things
which gave rise in his heart to craving, considera-
tions of ill-will and cruelty. But when he thought
and pondered more on renunciation, then the
thoughts of craving passed away. He gave them
a number of parables and finally exhorted them
to devote themselves to meditation so that they
might not have to repent later on.

In the Vitakkasanthdna Sutta (M.N., /, pp. 118-
122) we find that there are discussions which bring
about merit and there are discussions which bring
about demerit, suffering, etc. A bhikkhu should
be called one who is well restrained in discussions
when he discusses with one who wants discussion
and refuses discussion with one who does not want it.

The Kakaciipama Sutta (M.N., /, pp. 122-129 ;
parable of the saw) points out that the Blessed

128 A History of Pali Literature

t"

One spoke in very reproaching terihs to Moliya-
Phagguna and asked him to avoid the society of
bhikkhums and to do as the senior bhikkhus
instructed him to do. He should drive away all
anger from his mind and should not give way to
anger even if villainous bandits were to carve him
limb from limb with a two-handled saw (ubhato-
dandakena kakacena).

In the Alagaddupama Sutta (M.N., I, pp. 130-
142 ; parable of the snake) Arittha says that what
Buddha had laid down, so far as hindrance was
concerned, was not yet sufficient. The monks tried
to correct him and failing in this they approached
the Buddha. Buddha sent for Arittha and when

the latter arrived before him he approached him
saying that the teachings were quite sufficient but
that Arittha had not well comprehended them
and that he had been misguided. 1

The Vammlka Sutta (M.N., /, pp. 142-145 ; the
parable of the ant-hill) deserves only a passing
notice.

In the Raihavinita Sutta (M.N., I, pp. 145-151)
Punna Mantaniputta 2 dwells upon the various
stages in the path of the attainment of nibbana. 8
One cannot have nibbana at once. Nibbana is the
goal and to attain that one is to pass through
various states of mind, one leading to the other.
First, purity of life will take one as far as purity of
heart and no further, and purity of heart takes
one only up to purity of views. In the same way
one will have gradually the purity by dispelling
doubts, the purity by the fullest insight into paths,
right and wrong, the purity by insight into the way
by which to walk, and the purity which insight

1 Cf. Vinaya Texts, II, S.B.E., p. 377, Vinaya Pifcaka, Vol. II,
Cullavagga, pp. 25 foil.

2 Vide Mrs. Rhys Davids, Gotama the man, pp. 111-113.

3 For an interesting discussion on Nibbana (see * Buddhistic
Studies* edited by B. C. Law, pp. 564 foil.). It is true to say that
nibbana is not for many but for the very ripe few (Gotama the
man, p. 174).

Canonical Pali Literature 129

gives. The question of Upatissa in this sutta is
identified by Dr. Neumann with the passage,
entitled Upatissapasine in Asoka's Bhabru Edict.
We agree with Dr. B. M. Barua in thinking that
Buddhaghosa's encyclopaedic Visuddhimagga or even
Buddhadatta's earlier Abhidhamma Manual, Abhi-
dhammavatara, is nothing but an elaborate treat-
ment of the topics suggested in the questions of
Upatissa.

In the Nivdpa Sutta (M.N., I, pp. 151-160)
we find that the Buddha instructs the bhikkhus
how to avoid the five pleasures of senses and thus
become free from the clutches of Mara and his
train. According to the Master such a bhikkhu is
said to have passed the range of vision of the Evil
One, who divested of pleasures and wrong states
of mind abides in the First Ecstacy, the Second
Ecstacy, the Third Ecstacy, the Fourth Ecstacy,
the plane of infinity of space, the plane of infinity
of consciousness, the plane of naught, the plane
of neither perception nor non-perception, the plane
where feeling and perception cease.

The Ariyapariyesana Sutta (M.N., I, pp. 160-
175) furnishes us with one of the earliest examples
of legends of the early days of Buddhahood, and
as such it forms the historical basis of later legendary
accounts in the Jatakas and Avadanas.

In the Culahatthipadopama Sutta (M.N., I,
pp. 175-184) the Buddha narrates to the brahmin
Janussoni the achievements of a Truth-finder. A
Truth-finder preaches his doctrine which is con-
ducive to good of all. He propounds a higher
life that is wholly complete and pure. This doctrine
is heard by the head of a house or his son or by
one of any other birth, who hearing it forsakes the
worldly life and becomes a bhikkhu. He keeps the
silas (precepts), cula (small), majjhima (middle size),
and maha (large). He becomes a master of this
noble code of virtue and of control of his faculties
of sense. He becomes a master of noble mindful-
ness and purpose in all he does. He resorts to a

9

130 A History of Pali Literyf^re

*
lonely lodging. His heart is set on mindfulness.

His life is purged of all evils. He abides in the
Four Ecstacies. This is the Truth-finder's footprint.
The disciple of the Noble concludes that the Lord
is Enlightened and he has truly revealed his Doctrine
and his Order walks aright.

The Mahdhatthipadopama Sutta (M.N., /,
pp. 184-191) is attributed to Sariputta. Sariputta
says that just as the foot of every creature that
walks the earth will go into the elephant's footprint,
which is pre-eminent for size, even so are all right
states of mind comprised within the Four Noble
Truths ill, the origin of ill, the cessation of ill,
and the way leading to the cessation of ill. Sariputta
then explains the Noble Truth of ill and says that
the Five Attachments to existence (visible shape*;,
feeling, perception, plastic forces, and consciousness)
are ill. He next dwells upon the constituents of
the attachment of visible shapes, viz. earth, water,
fire and air, and concludes by saying that what is
true of visible objects, is equally true of sound,
smell, taste, touch, and mind.

In the Mahasdropama Sutta (M.N., 1, pp. 192-
197) the Buddha refers to Devadatta's secession
from the Order 1 and says that there are certain
youths who outwardly being allured by the life of
monks leave the household life. As monks, they
receive presents, esteem, and repute. But these
things so please them and so satisfy their aspirations
that thereby they become puffed up and disparage
others. Thus they grow remiss, and having become
remiss, live a prey to ill. But there are also certain
youths who do not fall a prey to ill.

In the Gulasdropama Sutta (M.N., /, pp. 198-
205) the Blessed One says to the brahmin Pingala-
Koccha that the reward of the higher life is not to
be found in presents, esteem, and repute, nor in a
life of virtue, nor in rapt concentration, nor in
Mystic Insight. It is immutable Deliverance which

1 Of. Vinaya Texts, III, S.B.E., pp. 238 foil.

9ktqionical Pali Literature 131

is the prize and the goal of the higher life. This
is the Buddha's reply to the question of the brahmin
Pihgala-Koccha. The question is this : whether by
feason of their own professed creed that all of the
religious teachers, such as Purana Kassapa, Makkhali
Gosala, Ajita Kesa-Kambali, Pakudha Kaccayana,
Sanjaya Belatthiputta, and Nigantha Nathaputta 1
have, or have not, discerned truth, or that some of
them have discerned it, while others have not.
In this sutta Buddha simply reproduces verbatim
what we get about these six teachers at Sumangala-
vilasim, I, pp. 142-4.

In the Culagosinga Sutta (Jfcf.JV., /, pp. 205-211)
the Lord praises Anuruddha, Nandiya, and Kimbila 2
who by putting an end to evil desires have risen
beyond the ordinary mortals.

In the Mahdgosinga Sutta (M.N., I, pp. 212-
219) we find that in reply to the question what
type of bhikkhu would illumine Gosinga wood,
Ananda speaks of one who treasures and hoards
what he has been taught and learns by heart the
ideas which declare the higher life in all its per-
fection and purity ; Rcvata, of one who delights in
meditation ; Anuruddha, of one who is blessed with
the celestial eye ; Mahakassapa, of one who living
in the forest recommends forest life and lives in
solitude ; Mahamoggallana, of one who holds dis-
course on the Abhidhamma with another bhikkhu
for gaining edification on it ; Sariputta, of one who is
master of his heart ; and the Buddha, of one whose
heart is delivered from all evil desires.

In the Mahdgopdlaka Sutta (M.N., /, pp. 220-
224) the Buddha says that there are eleven good or
bad qualities, in the case of a bhikkhu, which
either enable him to show or disable him from show-
ing progress in the doctrine and rites. A bhikkhu
who knows the four elements, comprehends what

1 Vide Buddhistic Studies (edited by B. C. Law), pp. 73-88,
chap. Ill, on six heretical teachers by B. C. Law.

2 Of. the Vinaya account, S.B.E., XX, 228.

132 A History of Pali Litery&re

t

marks the doings of the fool and the doings of the
wise, develops control over his faculty of sight,
goes from time to time to learned bhikkhus to ask
and enquire of the difficult points of doctrine, has &
perfect knowledge of the Noble Eightfold Path
(ariyo atthangiko maggo) and tends with special
attention the experienced and senior Elders, can
really show growth, increase, and progress in the
doctrine. But a bhikkhu who has not these qualities
cannot show progress in the doctrine.

In the Culagopdlaka Sutta (M.N.,I 9 pp. 225-227)
the Buddha says that those who will listen to and
trust in the recluses and brahmins who are wrong
about this world and hereafter, wrong about what
is and what is not the realm of Mara, 1 wrong about
what is and what is not the realm of Death, will
long suffer and smart for it. They who follow the
recluses and brahmins who rightly comprehend
this world and the next, the realm of Mara and
Death, will long enjoy weal and welfare.

In the Culasaccaka Sutta (M.N., I, pp. 227-237)
we have an account of a conversation between
Saccaka and the Buddha. This Saccaka was the
son of a Jain (woman), and was a great controversial-
ist who gave himself out as learned and was held
in high popular repute.

The Mahdsaccaka Sutta (M.N., /, pp. 237-251)
narrates the Lord's triumph over Saccaka whose
aim was to discredit the Buddha and the Doctrine
and the Confraternity. It appears from this sutta
that Mahavira (Nigantha Nathaputta) is said to

1 Mrs. Rhys Davids' interpretation of Mara is worth noticing.
She says, " when we used the term ' mara ' it was to speak of
this or man as a very type of will-worsener, either as a sceptic, or
as an encourager of low desires. .. .Mara is never a very devil
or demon but just a man who wills evil. The name means death
and evil leads ever to some sort of destroying. The many stories on
Mara mean only that. Mara is never described save as some man
or creature. Never as woman I The daughters of Mara come
nearest to that. Woman was reckoned as in herself Mara without
the name" (Gotama the man, pp. 126-127). Read in this connec-
tion my paper on the Buddhist conception of Mara (Buddhistic
Studies, pp. 257 foil.).

Canonical Pali Literature 133

*

have laid equal stress on manokamma and kaya-
kamma on the ground of the interaction of the
body and mind (cittanvayo kayo hoti, kayanvayam
eittam hoti).

In the Culatanhdsankhaya Sutta (M.N., I,
pp. 251-256) the Lord explains briefly how a bhikkhu
wins deliverance by the extirpation of cravings,
so as to become consummate in perfection, in his
union with peace, and in the higher life, and fore-
most among gods and men.

In the Mahdtanhdsankhaya Sutta (M.N., I,
pp. 256-271) we find the Buddha expounding his
doctrine to Sati, a fisherman's son, who misunder-
standing the Lord's teaching of the doctrine, holds
that consciousness runs on and continues without
break of identity.

In the Mahd-Assapura Sutta (M.N., /, pp. 271-
280) the Buddha enumerates the qualities which
are essential for an ideal recluse. An ideal recluse
should be conscientious and scrupulous and pure in
deed, word, and thought. He should train himself
to guard the portals of the senses and to moderation
in food. He should be mindful and self-possessed
and should live in solitude and sit in a charnel-
ground with his mind set on mindfulness. He
should put away the five hindrances and abide in
the Four Ecstacies (jhana is rapt musing or abstrac-
tion, according to Mrs. Rhys Davids). Such a
bhikkhu is styled brahmin, noble, and saintly.

In the Cula-Assapura Sutta (M.N., /, pp. 281-
284) the Lord also speaks of the recluse's regimen.
A bhikkhu should not tread the recluse's path of
duty. He should put away greed, malice, wrath,
revenge, hypocrisy, fraud, and evil desires from
him. It is not the robe which makes the recluse,
nor living under a tree, nor intoning texts, nor hav-
ing matted hair. It is by putting away all the
qualities that one becomes a true bhikkhu.
putting away the five hindrances and desl
the cankers a bhikkhu abides in the Four

134 A History of Pali

The Sdkyyaka Sutta (M.N., I, pp. 285-290)
narrates how the Buddha exhorted the brahmin
householders of Sala, a brahmin village of the
Kosalans, convincing them of the truth of what
he said. This sutta gives a list of all the gods
of the Kamaloka, Rupaloka, and Arupaloka in the
proper order though without the details which,
however, must have been known to the author of
these suttas.

In the Veranjaka Sutta (M.N., /, pp. 290-291)
the Master instructed the brahmins who came to
Savatthi from Veranja on some business or other,
convincing them of the truth of his doctrine.

The Mahdvedalla Sutta 1 (M.N., /, pp. 292-298)
is a catechism of questions and answers of certain
psychological topics, e.g. understanding, conscious-
ness, feeling, perception, pure mental consciousness
isolated from the five faculties of bodily sense, eye
of understanding, right outlook, types of rebirth,
and first jhana ('rapt musing or abstraction').

In the Culavedalla Sutta (M.N., I, pp. 299-305)
the bhikkhum, Dhammadinna, replies to the lay
disciple Visakha's questions on personality, the
Noble Eightfold Path (ariya atthangikamagga), and
the plastic forces (samkhara).

In the Culadhammasarndddna Sutta and the
Mahddhammasamdddna Sutta (M.N., /, pp. 305-
317) the Master says that there are four ways to
profess a doctrine. The first is pleasant for the
time being but ripens to pain thereafter ; the second
is unpleasant for the time being and ripens to
pain thereafter ; the third is unpleasant for the
time being but ripens to be pleasant thereafter ;
and the fourth is not only pleasant for the time
being but also ripens to be pleasant thereafter.

1 Read 'The Vedalla Sutta as illustrating the psychological
basis ' by C. A. Foley, M. A. In this paper questions on matters
mainly psychological are answered and some miscellaneous philo-
sophical problems, psychological, ethical, logical, and metaphysical
are raised and discussed, J.R.A.S., 1894.

Read also Mrs. Rhys Davids' Buddhist Psychology.

Canonical Pali Literature 135

In the Virhamsaka Sutta (M.N., I, pp. 317-320)
the Buddha says that the enquiring bhikkhu who
searches the heart of others, ought to study the
t Truth-finder. He ought to study the Truth-finder
in respect of the two states of consciousness which
come through eye and ear. He should see whether
the revered man is restrained in fearlessness or
through fear or whether it is solely by reason of
passionlessness that he eschews pleasures of senses,
having eradicated all passion. If any man's faith
in the Truth-finder is planted by the foregoing
researches, then such faith is based on insight and
reason.

In the Kosambiya Sutta (M.N., I, pp. 320-325)
we are told that once disputes were ripe in Kosambi
among the bhikkhus regarding certain Vinaya rules.
The Master spoke on amity and its root in order
to bring about a conciliation.

In the Brahmanimantanika Sutta 1 (M.N., I,
pp. 326-331) we are told that the Buddha held
conversation with Baka the Brahma who conceived
the pernicious view that this world was permanent
with no rebirth thence. The Master explained what
was true. Mara tried to conquer both the Buddha
and Brahma, but he failed to do so.

The Mdratajjaniya Sutta (M.N., I, pp. 332-338)
is one of those early dialogues which presents an
episode of the Buddha and Mara, the tempter.
The verses forming the epilogue of the sutta bear
a favourable comparison with the Padhana Sutta
in the Sutta Nipata. With this sutta closes the
first series of 50 suttas.

In the Kandaraka Sutta (M.N., I, pp. 339-349)
Buddha speaks against asceticism. He denounces
one who torments himself and is given to self-
mortification ; one who torments others and is given
to tormenting others ; and one who torments himself
and others, and is given to tormenting both. He

1 Cf. Saihyutta, 1, 142. No) mention of Mara in the Bakobrahma
Sutta. Many Brahmakayikadevas are mentioned in this sutta.

136 A History of Pali Literatur/*

praises one who tormenting neithefc himself nor
others dwells beyond appetites and in bliss and in
holiness.

In the Atthakandgara Sutta 1 (M.N., I, 349-
353) Ananda speaks of the steps to Nirvana. A
bhikkhu divested of pleasures of senses and divested
of wrong states of consciousness, enters on and
dwells in the first, the second, the third, and the
fourth rapt musings or j lianas. With radiant good
will, pity and sympathy and poised equanimity, he
pervades the four quarters of the world. By passing
beyond perception of material objects, perception
of sense-reactions, and perception of differences,
he abides in the plane of infinity of space, the plane
of infinity of consciousness, and the plane of naught.

In the Sekha Sutta (M.N., I, pp. 353-359)
Ananda says how a disciple of the Noble is virtuous,
keeps watch and ward over the portals of sense,
is temperate in eating, vigilant, established in
the seven virtuous qualities, and is able at will to
induce the four rapt musings 2 which transcend
thought and confer well-being here and now.

In the Potaliya Sutta (M.N., /, pp. 359-368)
the Buddha deals with what is true-giving under
the law of the Noble. This includes abstention
from killing, theft, lying, calumny, covetousness,
taunts, anger, and arrogance.

In the Jwaka Sutta (M.N., I, pp. 368-371)
the Buddha speaks of what is meant by lawful and
unlawful meats. A bhikkhu should not take meat
if there is the evidence either of his eyes or of
his ears or if there are grounds of suspicion that
the animal is slain expressly for him. They should
take the same in other cases except these three.

In the Updli Sutta (M.N., I, pp. 371-387) the
Buddha had a conversation with Upali, 8 a Jain,

1 Cf. Anguttara, V, 342-7.

2 See Mrs. Rhys Davids' Sakya or Buddhist Origins, pp.
171 foil.

8 Mrs. Rhys Davids says "in his own way he was worldly
enough ; the laity looked upon him as the mainstay of a dignified

\ Canonical Pali Literature 137

a follower of Nathaputta, the Nigantha. According
to the Niganthas, there are three kinds of inflictions
which effect and start demerit those of deed, word,
and mind. They hold that those of deed are the
most criminal in effecting and starting demerit, the
other two being less criminal. The gathas uttered
by Upali in praise of the qualities of the Buddha
are pieces of a remarkable composition characterised
by majestic and dignified tone (cf. Sutrakritanga,
Jaina Sutras, pt. II, pp. 414-417).

In the Kukkuravatika-Sutta (M.N., /, pp. 387-
392) we are told that to Punna Koliyaputta who
was a man of bovine vow and Seniya, a naked
ascetic who was a man of canine vow, Buddha says
that the future state of both is either purgatory or
rebirth as an animal. The Buddha says that there
are four kinds of action (1) actions which are dark,
with dark outcome, (2) actions which are bright,
with bright outcome, (3) actions which are both
dark and bright, with dark and bright outcome,
and (4) actions which are neither dark nor bright,
with an outcome neither dark nor bright, con-
ducive to the destruction of Karma. Both Punna
and Seniya took refuge in the Buddha.

In the Abhayardjakumdra Sutta (M.N., I, pp.
392-396) we find that Abhaya-Raja-Kumara, a dis-
ciple of Nathaputta the Nigantha, tried to discredit
the Buddha. But the Buddha triumphed over him
and the latter took refuge in the Buddhist Triad.
It follows from the evidence available in this sutta
that Nigantha Nathaputta was aware of the
dissension between the Buddha and Devadatta
(vide my Historical Gleanings, p. 93).

and self-respecting standard in the monk-world. He attached
great importance to discipline" (Gotama the man, p. 215. Vide
also my Historical Gleanings, p. 92). Mrs. Rhys Davids draws our
attention to the fact that the three verses in the collection were not
by this Upali. He was not a poet. Nor are they by Upali called
the barber. They are by an Upali of whom no memory remains ;
the commentary is in double error here (Gotama the man,
pp. 215-216).

138 A History of Pali Literaturf

In the Bahuvedaniya Sutta 1 (M.N., I, pp. 396-
400) the Lord speaks on the various classes of
feelings. Five in number are the pleasures of
senses, namely, material shapes apparent to the
eye, sound, smell, taste, and touch. Every pleasant
gratification which arises from these five pleasures of
senses is called sensual pleasure. But this is not the
highest pleasure. Beyond this, there is a pleasure
more excellent. This is enjoyed by a bhikkhu
who abides by the Four Ecstacies or rapt musings,
plane of infinity of consciousness and plane of
naught.

In the Apannaka Sutta (M.N., I, pp. 400-413)
the Master expounds the sound doctrine to recluses
and brahmins who held views which were diametri-
cally opposed. He discards both and points out
the doctrine which is sound, namely, the Master's
own doctrine.

In the Ambalatthikd Rdhulovdda Sutta (M.N. 9
I, pp. 414-420) the Buddha discourses about
lying. He condemns it and advises the bhikkhus
to win purity in deed, word and thought by constant
reflection. This sutta supplies the Pali counterpart
of the tract referred to in the Bhabru Edict under
a descriptive title, Laghulavada Sutta, embodying
the Buddha's discourse on the subject of falsehood.

In the Mahd Rdhulovdda Sutta (M.N., /,
pp. 420-426) Sariputta admonishes Rahula to
develop mindf ulness which comes from inhaling and
exhaling (breathing exercises).

In the Cula-Mdlunkya Sutta (M.N., /, pp. 426-
432) we are told that Malunkya-Putta was dis-
satisfied with the life of a recluse as the Buddha
did not expound to him the various speculations
about the past and present. The Buddha said that
he did not expound them as they were irrelevant and
not conducive to the higher life.

In the MahdrMdlunkya Sutta (M.N., I, pp. 432-

1 Of. Samyutta Nikaya, IV, pp. 223-8.

Canonical Pali Literature 139

437) the Budclha deals with the five bonds 1 which
chain men to the lower life. He also suggests the
means to put an end to the five bonds.

In the Bhadddli Sutta (M.N., I, pp. 437-447)
the Buddha admonishes Bhaddali to be obedient
and to conduct himself according to the Master's
teachings.

In the Latukikopama Sutta (M.N., I, pp. 447-
456) the Buddha says that there are foolish people
who when told to give up something, think that it
is a matter of no moment. They do not give it
up. But this insignificant thing grows into a bond
strong enough to hold them fast. The Latukika
Jataka 2 is nothing but a popular illustration of
the teaching of this sutta.

In ihe^Cdtuma Sutta (M.N., /, pp. 456-462) the
Lord mentions the four terrors (temper, gluttony,
the five pleasures of senses and women) which await
those who, in this doctrine and rule (Dhammavi-
naya), go forth from home to homelessness as
monks.

In the Nalakapdna Sutta (M.N., I, pp. 462-468 ;
the stimulus of example) the Truth-finder's object in
saying that such and such a bhikkhu by tearing
five bonds, has been translated to a heaven never
to come back thence to earth, by tearing the three
bonds he is safe from future states of punishment,
is not to delude folk, nor to get for himself gains
or fame, nor to advertise himself as revealing the
respective states hereafter of his disciples, dead and
gone. It is because there are young men who
believe and are filled with enthusiasm and gladness,
who, on hearing this revelation, concentrate their
whole hearts on becoming like these, for their own
abiding good and welfare. For a popular illustration

1 The five Orarnbhagiyani Samyojanani are the following :
SakkayadiMhi (false view of individuality), Vicikiccha (doubt),
Sllabbataparamasa, (affectation of rites), Kamacchanda (desire for
sensual pleasures), and Byapada (malevolence).

2 Fausbdil, Jataka, Vol. III.

140 A History of Pali Literature

of this teaching, one must turn to Nalakapana
Jataka.

In the Oulissdni Sutta (M.N., I, pp. 469-473)
Sariputta discusses the duties of a bhikkhu who
comes in from the wilds to the confraternity and
lives with the bhikkhus. Such a bhikkhu should
show respect and consideration to his fellows in
the higher life. He should be correct in the matter
of seats, punctilious neither to displace seniors nor to
oust juniors. He should not visit the village at too
early an hour. He ought to keep watch over his
faculties. He should be moderate in his eating and
steadfast in good will.

In the Kltagiri Sutta (M.N., I, pp. 473-481)
the Buddha admonishes two bhikkhus to put implicit
faith in his teachings. He says that he has the
knowledge of what is to be eschewed and that they
should give it up.

In the Tevijja-Vacchagotta Sutta (M.N., I,
pp. 481-483) we are told that Vaccha-gotta, 1 a
wanderer, had a wrong idea of the lore possessed
by the Buddha. The recluse Gotama tells the
wanderer that the threefold lore possessed by him
is as follows : he can call to mind his past existences,
with eye celestial he can see creatures in act to pass
hence and reappear elsewhere, and by destroying
evil desires he has won deliverance. In this sutta,
Gotama points out that there is none among the
Ajivakas who after death has attained arahatship.
He further says that he knows only one among
them who has gone to heaven.

In the Aggi-Vacchagotta Sutta (M.N., I, pp. 483-
489) we are told that the Master got Aggivaccha-
gotta as his disciple who put to him questions on
the speculations about the past and the future.

In the Mahdvacchagotta Sutta (M.N., I, pp. 489-
497) we find that the Lord requested by Vaccha,
explains to him what is right and what is wrong.
Vaccha is impressed. By his discourses he acts

1 See Dr. B. C. Law's Historical Gleanings, p. 19.

Canonical Pali Literature 141

up to the teachings of the Master. He is in a short
time numbered among the Arahats.

In the Dlghanakha Sutta (M.N., I, pp. 497-501)
Buddha in reply to Dighanakha's question says that
those who are satisfied with all, hold a view which
is allied to passion and pleasure. Those who are
dissatisfied with all, hold a view which is allied to
passionlessness and freedom. Others again partly
take the former and partly the latter view. The
Master then expounds the doctrine leading to
deliverance. This sutta is referred to as Vedana-
pariggaha Suttanta in the Dhammapadatthakatha
(P.T.S.), I, 96.

In the Mdgandiya Sutta (M.N., /, pp. 501-513)
we are told that Magandiya, a wanderer, described
the Buddha in an opprobrious term as a repressionist
(Bhunahu). 1 Buddha said that he was not so. The
truth-finder subjugated the ear, the nose, the
tongue, the body, consciousness and their respective
functions. He preached the doctrine for the sub-
jugation of these. The attainment of the highest
gain can be obtained by destroying all these.

In the Sandaka Sutta (M.N., /, pp. 513-524)
Ananda refers to the four antitheses to the higher
life. First, there is the teacher who holds that it
does not matter whether actions are good or bad.
Secondly, there is a teacher who holds that no evil
is done by him who either acts himself or causes
another to act, who mutilates or causes another to
mutilate. Thirdly, there is a teacher who holds that
there is no cause or reason for either depravity or
purity. Lastly, there is the teacher who holds the
Sattakaya doctrine.

Ananda also speaks of four comfortless vocations.
First, there is the teacher who is all-knowing and
all-seeing. Secondly, there is the teacher who

1 In Sanskrit it is Brunahaii, cf. JUopanisad in which the
Vajasaneyas speak of some unknown opponents who were perhaps
unmarried recluses as atmahanojana (vide my Historical Gleanings,
p. 19).

142 A History of Pali Literature

preaches a doctrine which is both traditional and
scriptural. Thirdly, there is the teacher who is a
rationalist of pure reason and criticism. Lastly,
there is the teacher who is stupid and deficient.
All these are false guides to the higher life. The
first volume of the Majjhima Nikdya ends with this
sutta.

In the Mahasalculudayi Sutta (M.N., //, pp. 1-
22) the Master deals with the key to pupil's esteem
how a teacher can command the respect of his dis-
ciples. In this sutta we read that Sakuludayi
informed the Buddha that in the past Anga and
Magadha were seething with sophistic activities.
Lord Chalmers in his introduction to the Further
Dialogues of the Buddha, pt. I, p. xix, points out
that it is apparent from this sutta that each
individual was left free, within generous limits, to
choose the mode of living which suited his own
particular needs, even if it included austerities which
Gotama neither recommended to others nor practised
in his own person.

In the Samanamandikd Sutta (M.N., //, pp. 22-
29) we are told that according to Uggahamana, a
wanderer, 1 four qualities characterise a triumphant
recluse who has won all that is to be won. He
does nothing evil, lie thinks nothing evil, and lie-
gets his living in no evil way. According to the
Buddha, however, there are ten qualities which
make a bhikkhu a triumphant recluse who is imbued
with the right, excels in the right, and has won all
that is to be won.

In the Culasakuluddyi Sutta (M.N., //, pp. 29-39)
the Blessed One pointed out the emptiness of the
tenets of the wanderer Sakuludayi, who had a
vague idea of what is perfection, and spoke on the
Four Ecstacies or rapt musings or abstractions and
other states of consciousness while explaining the
world of absolute bliss and the sure way to realise
it. Sakuludayi was converted. This sutta further

1 Fide my Historical Gleanings, p. 18.

^ Canonical Pali Literature 143

informs us that according to Mahavira, the four
precepts and self-privation are the recognised roads
to the blissful state of the soul.

In the Vekhanassa Sutta (M.N., II, pp. 40-44)
the Lord proves the emptiness of the tenets of the
wanderer Vekhanassa who had a very queer idea of
what perfection is. Vekhanassa became a lay
disciple of the Buddha. It may be noticed here
that Buddhaghosa says that Vekhanassa was the
teacher of Sakuludayi. 1

In the Ghatikara Sutta (M.N., //, pp. 45-54) the
Blessed One spoke to Ananda on Ghatikara's (a
potter by profession) devotion. Ghatikara 2 had a
friend named Jotipala. Once they went together
to Kassapa the Lord. Hearing the doctrine preached
by the Lord himself Jotipala decided to go from
home to homelessness as a monk. Ghatikara could
not forsake the worldly life as he had to support
his aged blind parents. But he in his devotion to
the Lord Kassapa surpassed all others and he
fulfilled the layman's duties as sanctioned by
Buddhism. Once the Lord Kassapa was invited
by Kiki, King of Kasi. Kassapa accepted the
invitation and went to Kiki. The King entreated
the Lord to spend the vassavasa in his kingdom.
But Kassapa told the king that he had already
promised to Ghatikara to stay at Vehalinga
under his care. Kassapa then spoke very highly of
Ghatikara's devotion.

In the concluding lines Buddha identifies himself
with Jotipala.

In the Ratthapdla Sutta* (M.N., II, pp. 54-74)
we find that a true bhikkhu goes from home to

1 Lord Chalmers, ' Further Dialogues of the Buddha ', pt. II,
p. 21 f.n.

2 Cf. Dr. B. C. Law's ' A Stud}' of the Mahavastu', pp. 45 foil.
8 There is a paper on the Ra^hapala Sutta by Walter Lupton,

l.C. 8. The Pali text together with a translation is given there.
The writer has made use of the commentary wherever necessary,
J.R.A.S., 1894. The same story is told in practically the same
words about Sudinna in Vinaya, III, 11-15.

144 A History of Pali Literatun

homelessness as a monk, when he knows, sees, and
hears the following four propositions enumerated by
the Master, e.g., the world is in continual flux
and change ; the world is no protector or preserver ;
the world owns nothing ; the world lacks and hankers
being enslaved to craving. That cannot be called
a true renunciation when one goes forth from home
to homelessness as a monk, for old age, failing health,
impoverishment, and death of kinsfolk. The gathas
uttered by Ratthapala giving out his religious
experience are highly interesting as being the
prototype of the poems in the Theragatha (verses
769-788).

In the Makhddeva Sutta (M.N., II, pp. 74-83)
we find that Makhadeva, King of Mithila, in order to
seek pleasures celestial, renounced the world. His
son also when he enjoyed fully worldly pleasures,
left the worldly life. The last of three kings to
do so was Nimi. Nimi's son Janaka broke this
tradition. This sutta is mentioned in the Culla-
niddesa (p. 80, Maghadeva) as one of the four earliest
examples of Jatakas (cf. Makhadeva Jataka, Jataka,
vol. I, No. 9).

In the Madhura Sutta 1 (M.N., II, pp. 83-90)
Mahakaccana speaks against the Brahmanical claims
that they are superior to all other castes.

In the Bodhirdjakumdra Sutta (M.N., 1 1, pp. 91-
97) we find that in reply to Bodhi's question how
long it would take a bhikkhu with the Truth-finder
as his guide to win the prize of prizes, Buddha says
that there must be aptness, in a bhikkhu, to learn.

The Angulimala Sutta (M.N. 9 II, pp. 97-105)
gives a vivid account of taming and conversion of
the bandit, Angulimala by the Buddha. The gathas
uttered by Angulimala are precisely those attributed
to him in the Theragatha (verses 867-891).

1 Read a paper on the Madhura Sutta concerning caste by
Robert Chalmers. The Pali text and commentary together with a
translation are given here. This paper reveals the Buddhist views
of caste, J.R.A.S., 1894 ; cf. Ambattha Sutta, Digha, I, which also
deals with the same topic.

^Canonical P&li Literature 145

In the Piyajatika Sutta (M.N., //, pp. 106-112)
the Lord by references to actual facts points out
that dear ones do bring sorrow and lamentation,
.pain, suffering and tribulation.

In the Bdhitika Sutta (M.N., //, pp. 112-
117) King Pasenadi conversed with Ananda on the
subject of right and wrong behaviour. This sutta
teaches us that behaviour whether of act or of
word or of thought is wrong which is blame- worthy,
malevolent and which ripens into ill and which
conduces to the harm either of one's self or of others
or of both together ; and that behaviour is right
which is divested of all these evils.

In the Dhammacetiya Sutta (M.N., II, pp. 118-
125) King Pasenadi commends the doctrine in
monumental words. He says that there is always
strife going on between kings, nobles, brahmins, and
householders, but the bhikkhus live in peace and
concord. There are samanas and brahmins who are
lean miserable creatures, but the almsmen are joyous
and joyful beings free from care and worry.

In the Kannakatthala Sutta (M.N., II, pp. 125-
133) Pasenadi asked the Lord about omniscience,
about the purity of the four classes of nobles, brah-
mins, middle-class people and peasants and about
the supreme Brahma. The Buddha explained these
in a manner which gladdened the king. According
to him at one and the same time, no brahmin could
know and see everything. He further said, " a
malign Brahma does return to life on earth, while a
benign Brahma does not".

In the Brahmdyu Sutta (M.N., //, pp. 133-146)
the Buddha convinces both the brahmin Brahmayu
and his pupil Uttara that he possesses the thirty-two
marks of a superman, viz., "(1) His tread is firmly
planted ; (2) on his soles are the wheels, complete
with a thousand spokes and with felloes and hubs ;
(3) his heels project ; (4) his digits are long ; (5) he
has soft hands and feet ; (6) his fingers and toes
spring clean, without webbing between them ; (7) his
ankles are over the exact middle of his tread ; (8)

10

146 A History of Pali Literature

his legs are like an antelope's ; (9) while standing
bolt upright, he can, without bending, touch and
rub his knees with both hands at once ; (10) his
privities are within a sheath ; (11) golden of hue,
is he ; (12) so fine is his skin's texture that no dust
or dirt can lodge on it ; (13) each several hair on his
body grows separate and distinct, each from its
own individual pore ; (14) each hair starts straight,
is blue-black like collyrium, and curls to the right
at the tip ; (15) he is as straight as a die ; (16) his
body shows the same convexities ; (17) his chest is
like a lion's ; (18) his back is flat between the
shoulders ; (19) his proportions are those of the
banyan tree, his stretch being the same as his
height ; (20) the curve of his shoulders is symmetrical ;
(21) his sense of taste is consummate ; (22) he has
the jaw of a lion ; (23) he has forty teeth ; (24) his
teeth are all the same length ; (25) there are no
interstices between his teeth ; (26) his teeth are
sparkling white ; (27) his tongue is big ; (28) his
voice is melodious as the cuckoo's note ; (29) the
pupils of his eyes are intensely dark ; (30) his eye-
lashes are like a cow's ; (31) between his eyebrows
grow soft white hairs like cotton-down ; and (32) his
head is shaped like a turban " (Lord Chalmers,
Further Dialogues of the Buddha, Vol. II, pp. 72-73 ;
cf. Majjhima Nikaya, Vol. II, pp. 137 foil.).

In the Sela Sutta (M.N., II, p. 146) the brahmin
Sela, seeing the thirty-two marks 1 in the body of the
Buddha, took refuge in the Buddhist Triad.

In the Assaldyana Sutta (M.N., II, pp. 147-157)
the Buddha speaks against the brahmanical preten-
sions that the brahmins are superior to all other
castes. The Madhura Sutta (Majjhima) and the
Ambattha (Dlgha) deal with the same subject.
The importance of this sutta lies in its allusions to

1 Cf. Visuddhimagga (P.T.S.), I, pp. 249-265; pp. 353-363;
Paramatthajotika on the Khuddakapatha, I, pp. 41-68;
Sammohavinodan! (Sinhalese Ed.), pp. 49-63.

^Canonical Pali Literature 147

Yonakamboja region where the caste-system of the
brahmins did not prevail.

In the Ohotamukha Sutta (M.N., II, pp. 157-

163) Udena, a revered Buddhist monk, convinces

Ghotamukha 1 of the inefficiency of self-torture. The

Kandaraka Sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya also deals

with the same subject.

In the Cankl Sutta (M.N., II, pp. 164-177)
the Buddha condemns the brahmanical pretensions
that the brahmins are superior to all other castes.

In the Esukdri Sutta (M.N., II, pp. 177-184) the
brahmin Esukari considers birth as the criterion
of division of people. But Buddha does not
support it.

In the Dhdnanjdni Sutta (M.N., II, pp. 184r-196)
we are told that the brahmin Dhananjani lacks in
zeal for pious acts. Sariputta convinces the brahmin
of merit of pious acts. This sutta furnishes us with
an account of the various grades of gods, e.g.,
Catummaharajika, Tavatimsa, Yama, Tusita,
Nimmanarati, and Paranimmitavasavattl. 2 After
these there is the Brahmaloka.

In the Vdsettha Sutta (M.N., II, p. 196) the
Lord expounds to the young brahmins, Vasettha and
Bharadvaja, as to who is a real brahmin. This
sutta recurs in the Sutta Nipata 8 and forms the
canonical source from which half the number of the
verses of the Brahmanavagga in the Dhammapada
has been derived.

In the Subha Sutta (M.N., II, pp. 196-209) the
Lord explains to the brahmin Subha the real union
with Brahma.

In the Sangdrava Sutta (M.N., II, pp. 209-213)
we are told that the young brahmin Sangarava

1 Such a name as Ghotamukha occurs in the Kamasutra by
Vatsyayana. We are entitled on the authority of the Buddhist
texts to maintain that Ghotamukha was one of the contemporaries
of Gotama.

2 Vide Dr. B. C. Law's * Heaven and Hell in Buddhist Perspec-
tive', pp. 6-7.

8 Sutta No. 9, P.T.S., p. 115.

148 A History of Pali Literature

hearing the exclamation of the brahmin lady
Dhananjani in praise of the Buddha scolded her for
paying respect to a shaveling of a recluse. Later
on the young brahmin met the Buddha who, when
asked by the brahmin, said that He discerned a
Doctrine and so had by insight won the goal and
achieved Perfection, recognising the foundations
on which the higher life was based. It is interesting
to notice that the Buddha in reply to Sangarava's
question admitted that there were gods.

With this sutta doses the middle series of fifty
suttas.

In the Devadaha Sutta (M.N., II, pp. 214-228)
the Buddha characterises the doctrine of the
Niganthas as fatuous. The Niganthas hold that
whatever the individual experiences might be, all
come from former actions. Hence, by expiation
of former misdeeds and by not committing fresh
misdeeds, nothing accrues for the future.

In the Pancattaya Sutta (M.N., II, pp. 228-238) 1
the Buddha refers to the various schools of thought.
The various schools of thought make various
assertions about futurity. Some assert that the
self is conscious after death while others deny this.
Some hold the theory of annihilation of the existing
creature while the others do not ; Buddha does not
support these speculations.

In the Kinti Sutta (M.N., II, pp. 238-243) the
Buddha admonishes the bhikkhus to school them-
selves in the higher lore, namely, satipatthana
(mindfulness), bala (five forces or potentialities),
indriya (fivefold sphere of sense) and in unity and
harmony without strife. If there be any quarrel
between a bhikkhu and another on the Abhidhamma,
if a bhikkhu be guilty of offence, everything should
be settled amicably.

In the Sdmagdma Sutta (M.N., II, pp. 243-251)
the Buddha speaks on unity and concord. After

1 Of. Brahmajala Sutta, Digha, I; Samyutta Nikaya, III,
pp. 213 foil

^Canonical Pali Literature 149

the death of the Nigantha Nathaputta there arose
quarrels among the disciples. Ananda knowing this
fact referred the matter to the Master. The Master
expounded six conciliatory things which when
embraced and practised would lead to no strife
among the disciples. This sutta throws some light
on the ways in which the wandering teachers spent
their time. 1 This sutta is regarded as a Vinaya
tract on Adhikaranasamatha. It testifies to the
fact that Mahavira 2 (Nigantha Nathaputta) pre-
deceased Buddha by a few years.

In the Sunakkhatta Sutta (M.N., II, pp. 252-261)
we are told that Sunakkhatta enquired of the Buddha
whether the bhikkhus professed all they had really
won or extravagant in their professions. The
Buddha said, " If a bhikkhu is in full control of his
six sense-organs to see in attachments the root of
ill, and therefore to detach himself and to find
deliverance in removing attachments, such a bhikkhu
cannot possibly either surrender his body or devote
his thought to attachments ".

In the Ananjasappdya Sutta (M.N., //, pp. 261-
266) the Buddha speaks of what is real permanence.
He also explains the several paths that lead to
permanence, e.g., the subjugation of the pleasures
of senses by developing the heart.

With this sutta ends the second volume of the
Majjhima Nikdya.

In the Ganakamoggalldna Sutta (M.N., ///,
pp. 1-7) we have an important discussion between the
Buddha and the brahmin mathematician Moggallana.
The discussion brings home the fact that the brah-
manical training was a thoroughly graduated system
(anupubbasikkha, anupubbakiriya). Although the
Buddha claimed that the system as propounded
by him also admitted of the idea of graduation, the

1 Digha, I, Brahmajala Sutta, paragraph 18.

2 See my paper on Mah&vira the last Tirthankara of the Jains
(Oevala Navayuvaka, Mahavira No., 1932).

150 A History of Pali Literature

sutta makes it clear that graduation in the case of
Buddhism was suggested duly by expediency.

In the Oopakamoggalldna Sutta (M.N., III,
pp. 7-15) it is said that there is not a single bhikkhu
who in every respect and in every particular has
acquired all the qualities possessed by the Buddha.
The Lord has traced out a path and his disciples
follow him in the path which has come down to them
from him.

In the Mahdpunnama Sutta (M.N., III, pp. 15-
20) the question asked is how does the view of
personality (sakkaya-ditthi) arise ? The answer is
that an uninstructed ordinary man who has no
vision of the Noble Ones and is unversed and
untrained in the doctrine of the Noble Ones, who
has no vision of the Exalted Ones and is unversed
and untrained in the doctrine of the Exalted Ones
views form as self or self as possessing form or form
in self or self in form. He does the same with
feeling and perception, with the constituents and
with consciousness. This view is not supported by
the Buddha.

In the Culapunnama Sutta (M.N., III, pp. 20-24)
we read that the Buddha says that a bad man is
bad in his nature, nurtured on bad, bad in his
thoughts, speech, doings, views, resolves and in
distribution of alms. He further says that a good
man is good in his nature, nurtured on good, good
in his thoughts, aims, speech, doings, views and in
the distribution of alms. The bhikkhus rejoiced
in what the Buddha had said.

In the Anupada Sutta (M.N., III, pp. 25-29)
the Buddha praises Sariputta whose learning and
understanding are vast. He has gone through the
complete course of training as laid down by the
Master. He is consummate in rolling onwards
the peerless wheel of the doctrine which the Truth-
finder first set a-rolling.

In the Chabbisodhana Sutta (M.N., III, pp. 29-
37) the Blessed One speaks of the sixfold scrutiny
by which a bhikkhu is to know whether one is

% Ca/nonical Pali Literature 151

justified in saying that rebirth is no more ; that
he has lived the highest life. A bhikkhu should
see by what manner of ken and vision one's heart
has been absolutely delivered from the cankers
with regard to the domain of vision, of hearing, of
taste, of smell, of touch, and of apprehension.

In the Sappurisa Sutta (M.N., III, pp. 37-45)
the Lord informs a bhikkhu about the attitude of
the good man and of the bad man.

In the Sewtabba-Asevitabba Sutta (M.N., III,
pp. 45-61) the Lord expounds what should be
cultivated and what should not be cultivated.
Behaviour in act, speech, and thought is not to be
cultivated if thereby wrong dispositions wax apace
while right dispositions wane, but to be cultivated
if thereby wrong dispositions wane while right
dispositions wax apace.

In the Bahudhdtuka Sutta (M.N., III, pp. 61-67)
the Lord admonishes the bhikkhus to train themselves
up to become informed by study in diverse
approaches.

In the Isigili Sutta (M.N., III, pp. 68-71)
the Buddha relates the names of those Pacceka-
Buddhas 1 who had long been residents on the
Mount Isigili, one of the five hills surrounding
Rajagaha, the capital of Magadha.

In the Hatiacattarisaka Sutta (M.N., I II, pp. 71-
78) the Lord expounds to the bhikkhus right
concentration (samniasamadhi). Right views rank
first.

In the Anapanasati Sutta (M.N., III, pp. 78-88)
the Lord speaks on breathing exercises.

In the Kdyagatdsati Sutta (M.N., 1 1 1, pp. 88-99)
the Master deals with meditation on the body how
is mindfulness of the body cultivated and developed
so as to abound in fruit and blessings ? In reality

1 Individual Buddha. He is inferior to the Sammasambuddha.
He is not omniscient. He has acquired the knowledge necessary to
attain Nirvana but he does not preach it to men.

152 A History of Ptili Liter aturt

like the Anapana, the Kayagatasati Sutta is only a
sectional presentation of the Satipatthana Sutta.

In the Samkhdruppatti Sutta (M.N., III, pp. 99-
103) the Buddha expounds to the bhikkhus how
plastic forces (samkharas) arise.

In the Culasunnata Sutta (M.N., III, pp. 104-
109) the Lord deals with true solitude.

In the Mahdsunnata Sutta (M.N., III, pp. 109-
118) true solitude has been explained by the Master
to the bhikkhus.

In the Acchariyabbhutadhamma Sutta 1 (M.N.,
III, pp. 118-124) Ananda expounds fully the
wonders and marvels of Truth-finder's nature.

The Bakkula Sutta (M.N., III, pp. 124^-128)
deals with a saint's record. Bakkula said to Acela-
Kassapa that during his 80 years of bhikkhuhood he
did not commit any sin. He led a life of purity.

In the Dantabhumi Sutta (M.N., III, pp. 128-
137) the Buddha speaks of discipline. He says it is
impossible for one who lives in the lap of enjoyment
and pleasure to know or see or realise what is to be
known by renouncing worldliness. He should be
under training if he likes to see what is to be
attained by giving up worldliness.

In the Bhumija Sutta (M.N., III, pp. 138-144)
the Buddha says that right outlook is essential in
order to win the fruits of the higher life.

In the Anuruddha Sutta (M.N., III, pp. 144-152)
the venerable Anuruddha explains to the carpenter
Pancakanga what is boundless deliverance, and
what is vast deliverance of the heart. If a bhikkhu
dwells with radiant thoughts of love pervading all
the quarters of the world, the whole length and
breadth of the world, above, below, around, every-
where this is termed the heart's deliverance that is
boundless. If the bhikkhu pervades and imbues a

1 See " The Nativity of the Buddha " by Chalmers dealing with
the marvels and mysteries of the Buddha's nativity. This paper
contains this sutta with Buddhaghosa's Commentary on it, J.R.A.S.,
1895.

* Canonical Pali Literature 153

single tree with the idea of vastness, that is termed
vast deliverance of the heart. Anuruddha then
speaks on the four states of rebirth, among the
Parittabha gods, the Appamanabha gods, the
Sankilitthabha gods, and the Parisuddhabha gods.

In the Upakkilesa Sutta (M.N., III, pp. 152-162)
we are told that once there was a strife among the
Kosambi monks. The Buddha tried to settle the
dispute, but he failed. He then retired elsewhere.
He admonished Anuruddha, Nandiya, and Kimbila
to do away with the blemishes which make the
mental reflex (nimitta) fade away.

In the Bdla-Pandita Sutta (M.N., III, pp. 163-
178) the Buddha speaks of men, wise and fool.
The sutta forms a prose background of the Balavagga
and the Panditavagga of the Dhammapada.

In the Devaduta Sutta (M.N., III, pp. 178-187)
the Lord speaks of Heaven's warning messengers.
King Yama punishes those that are reported to do
evil in the world.

In the Bhaddekaratta Sutta, Ananda-Bhaddeka-
ratta Sutta Mahakaccdna-Bhaddekaratta Sutta, and
Lomasakangiya-Bhaddekaratta Sutta (M.N., II 1 9
pp. 187-202) the Lord lays the whole emphasis
on not having much to do with the past and the
future but on that which concerns oneself mainly
with what is immediately present.

In the Cula and Mahdkammavibhanga Sutta
(M.N., III, pp. 202-215) we find the young brahmin
Subha Todeyyaputta asking the Buddha why is it
that among human beings there are high and low.
The Lord says that their deeds are their possessions
and heritage, their parents, their kindred, and their
refuge, and that it is their deeds which divide the
beings into high and low.

In the Saldyatanavibhanga Sutta (M.N., III 9
pp. 215-222) we have an exposition of the six
spheres of sense more or less of the Abhidhamma
type. Indeed this sutta is the sutta counterpart
of the Abhidhamma exposition of ayatanas in the
Vibhanga.

f

154 A History of Pali Literature

In the Uddesavibhanga Sutta (M.N., ///, pp. 223-
229) Mahakaccana says that an almsman's thinking
should always be so conducted that, as he thinks,
his mind may not either be externally diffused and
dissipated or be internally set, and that through
non-dependence he may be imperturbed, so that,
with his mind thus secure, birth, old age and death
and the arising of all ill do not happen.

In the Aranavibhanga Sutta (M.N., III, pp. 230-
237) the Lord explains to the bhikkhus the detailed
exposition of calm. A man should neither give
himself over to pleasures of senses nor give himself
over to self-mortification. He should follow the
Noble Eightfold Path for complete deliverance.
This sutta is essentially a philosophical discourse as
to the judicious use of the local terms signifying
distinct objects.

In the Dhdtuvibhanga Sutta (M.N., II I, pp. 237-
247) the Buddha expounds to the revered Pakkusati
the six elements, earth, water, fire, air, space, and
consciousness. This forms the suttanta counterpart
of the Abhidhamma exposition of dhatus in the
Vibhanga.

The Saccavibhanga Sutta l (M.N., III, pp. 248-
252) corresponding to the Saccaniddesa in the
Mahasatipatthana Sutta of the Digha Nikaya ex-
pounds fully the four Noble Truths 2 and the Noble
Eightfold Path.

1 The Mahasatipatthana Suttanta of the Digha Nikaya consists
of two parts. The first part deals with the four satipatthanas
while the second part deals with the four Aryan Truths and the
Noble Eightfold Path. In the Majjhima Nikaya the Satipatthana
Sutta and the Saccavibhanga Sutta together contain what has been
set forth in the Mahasatipatthana Suttanta. In the Satipatthaiia
Sutta only the four satipatthanas have been explained while the
Saccavibhanga Sutta explains only the four Aryan Truths and the
Noble Eightfold Path.

2 Cattari ariyasaccani, e.g. dukkha, dukkhasamudaya,
dukkhanirodha and dukkhanirodhagaminipatipada ; ariya atthahgi-
kamagga, e.g. sammaditthi, sammasamkappo, sarnmavaca,
sammakammanto, samma-ajlva, sammavayama, samma sati, and
samma samadhi, that is, right views, right thoughts, right speech,
right action, right living, right exertion, right recollection, and
right meditation.

Canonical Pali Literature 155

In the Dakkhindvibhanga Sutta (M.N., III,
pp. 253-257) the Lord gives an analysis of
almsgiving. Donations to individuals are ranked
in fourteen grades, e.g. a Truth-finder, Arahat,
All-Enlightened, Pacceka-Buddha, Truth-finder's
arahat disciples, one on the way to become a
perfected arahat, one who will never be reborn on
earth, and so on.

In the Andthapindikovdda Sutta (M.N., III,
pp. 258-263) we are told that when Anathapindika
became seriously ill, he sent a man to go in his
name to the Lord and the venerable Sariputta, and
bowing at their feet, to say how ill he was and
how he bowed his head at the feet of the Lord and
the venerable Sariputta. Sariputta accompanied by
Ananda came to Anathapindika's house. Sariputta
exhorted the householder not to be a creature of
sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch, and mind. He
should not also be a creature of the elements such
as earth, water, fire, wind, space, and consciousness.
He should not be a creature of the plastic forces,
of the Realm of Infinity of space, of the Realm of
Naught, and of the realm of neither perception nor
non-perception. The exhortation was over, Sari-
putta * and Ananda rose up and departed ; nor had
they gone long when the householder Anathapindika,
at his body's dissolution after death, passed away to
the Tusita heaven.

The Channovddo Sutta (M.N., III, pp. 263-266)
deals with Channa's suicide. Channa became
seriously ill and was bent on committing suicide.
Sariputta exhorted him not to do so. But Channa
did not listen to Sariputta's exhortation and used
the knife on himself.

In the Punnovdda Sutta (M.N., III, pp. 267-270)
Punna asked the Buddha how having listened to the
Lord's doctrine, he should live alone and aloof,

1 A leading and eloquent pupil of the school of Sanjaya, the-
dialectician. Among debaters Sariputta was eminent and could
get the better in any argument (Gotama the man, p. 109).

166 A History of Pali Literature

strenuous and purged of self. The Lord gave
counsel to Punna. 1

The Nandakovdda Sutta (M.N., III, pp. 270-277)
deals with Nandaka's homily to bhikkhunis.
Nandaka preaches to bhikkhums on the imper-
manency of sight, forms, and six groups of perception.

In the Culardhulovdda Sutta (M.N., III,
pp. 277-280) the Lord admonishes Rahula, who is
ripe in the qualities which mature into deliverance,
in order to school him in the eradication of the
cankers. He speaks of transitoriness of things
material.

In the Chachakka Sutta (M.N., III, pp. 280-287)
the Lord explains to the bhikkhus the six sixes
six internal senses (senses of hearing, sight, smell,
taste, touch, and mind), six external sense-objects
(forms, sounds, odours, savours, touch, mental
objects), six groups of perceptions (sight and forms,
hearing and sounds, smell and odours, taste and
savours, touch and tangible objects, mind and
mental objects), and six groups of cravings. With
this sutta ought to have closed the third or the last
group of fifty suttas.

In the Mahdsaldyatanika Sutta (M.N., III,
pp. 287-290) the Blessed One instructs the bhikkhus
in the import of the six great domains of sense
(the sense of sight, the sense of hearing, the sense
of smelling, the sense of taste, the sense of touch,
and the sense of comprehending).

In the Nagaravindeyya Sutta (M.N., III, pp. 290-
293) we are told that once the Lord went to the
brahmin village of Nagaravinda in Kosala. The
brahmins of Nagaravinda went to the Lord who
spoke on the types of recluses and brahmins who
should or should not receive honour, reverence,
and devotion. The Lord said that those recluses

1 He was a man of iron will, but, wilful, he willed to go his own
way. He understood the real object of the Jhana-musing.
More than most men he dwelt ' lokuttara * beyond this world
(Qotama the man, p. 113).

Canonical Pali Literature 157

and brahmins should get honour who had shed all
lust in connection with the six domains of sense.

In the Pindapdtapdrisuddhi Sutta (M.N., III,
pp. 293-297) the Master speaks of the perils of the
daily round.

In the Indriyabhdvand Sutta (M.N., III, pp. 298-
302) the Lord speaks on the culture of faculties.
The brahmanical culture of the faculties was
according to him faulty. It is when a man neither
sees forms with his eyes nor hears sounds with his
ears. But according to the rule of the Noble it
is when a bhikkhu is indifferent to something agree-
able or disagreeable which results either from his
seeing forms with the eyes or from his hearing sounds
with the ears. With this sutta ends the third or the
last volume of the Majjhima Nikdya.

C. THE SAMYUTTA NIKAYA

The Samyutta Nikaya is the third nikaya of
the Sutta Pitaka. Mrs. Rhys Davids translates it
by ' grouped suttas ' or ' the Book of the Kindred
Sayings '. This book has been edited for the
P.T.S., in five volumes by Leon Feer. The sixth
volume * containing indexes has been prepared by
Mrs. Rhys Davids. The Samyutta Nikaya has been
translated into English by Mrs. Rhys Davids
assisted by Suriyagoda Sumangala Thera in pt. I,
and assisted by F. L. Woodward in pt. II, and
in pts. Ill, IV, and V, F. L. Woodward has done
the entire translation work. There is a German
translation of this text by W. Geiger, Miinchen,
1925. 2 The Sinhalese 8 and Burmese editions of
this work are available. The Samyutta Nikaya
consists of the following samyuttas or groups :

1 In this volume Mrs. Rhys Davids acknowledges her indebted-
ness to her deceased husband in quoting references given to words,
parallel passages, etc. from her husband's annotations and dictionary
collectanea.

2 Vols. I and II have been published (II first and then I),
Sagathavagga and Nidanavagga.

8 Samyutta Nikaya, Ed. B. Amar Sinha, Welitara, 1898.

158 A History of Pali Literature

Part I Sagathavagga

1. Devata Samyutta consisting of 8 chapters.

2. Devaputta 3

O JVOScilcl 99 99 99 O 99

4. Mara 3

5. Bhikkhum

6. Brahma ,, ,,2

7. Brahmana 2

8. Vangisa

9. Vana

10. Yakkha

11. Sakka

99 ^ 99

Part II Nidanavagga

1. Nidana Samyutta consisting of 9 chapters.

2. Abhisamaya

3. Dhatu 4

4. Anamatagga 2

5. Kassapa

6. Labhasakkara ,, 4 ,,

7. Rahula 2

8. Lakkhana 2

9. Opamma
10. Bhikkhu

Part III Khandhavagga

1. Khandha Samyutta divided into three

sections of 5 chapters each.

2. Badha Samyutta consisting of 4 chapters.

3. Ditthi ,,2

4. Okkantika

5. Uppada

6. Kilesa

7. Sariputta

8. Naga

9. Supanna

10. Gandhabbakaya,,

11. Valaha

12. Vacchagotta

13. Jhana (or Samadhi) Samyutta.

99 99 99 ** 99

99

Canonical Pali Literature 159

Part IV Salayatanavagga

1. Salayatana Samyutta divided into 4 sections

of which the first three 5 chapters each
and the last 4 chapters only.

2. Vedana Samyutta consisting of 3 chapters.

3. Matugama 3

4. Jambukhadaka

5. Samandaka

6. Moggalana

7. Citta

8. Gamani

9. Asankhata
10. Avyakata

Part V Mahavagga

1. Magga Samyutta consisting of 8 chapters.

2. Bojjhanga 18

3. Satipatthana ,,10

4. Indriya 17

5. Sammappadhana 5

6. Bala 10

7. Iddhipada 8

8. Anuruddha 2

9. Jhana ,, ,, 5

10. Anapana 2

11. Sotapatti 7

12. Sacca ,,11

The Samyutta Nikaya is a compilation of
suttas with their main bearings on psycho-ethical
and philosophical problems. In the preface to the
Book of the Kindred Sayings, Part I (pp. V-VIII),
Mrs. Rhys Davids says that these are concise prose
discourses contained for the most part in the volumes
numbered II, III, and IV, of the Pali Text Society's
edition. She further observes that the mass of
these little suttas, slight and concise sketches, with
the verses which sum them up, or which they, the
suttas, explain many of them very poor poetry
as such dealing with legends of fairies, gods, and
devils, with royal and priestly interviewers of the

99
99
99
99

160 A History of Pali Literature

sublime teacher, may seem a tantalising jungle to
the traveller bound for the hills of thought more
austere. But let him enter with open mind and
sympathetic imagination awake. So will he wander
not unrewarded. He will find himself for the
most part in a woodland of faerie, opening out
here on a settlement of religious brethren, there on
scenes of life in rural communities such as might well
be met in the India of to-day, or indeed in other
countries. Mythical and folk-lore drapery are
wrapped about many of the sayings here ascribed
to the Buddha. Nevertheless, the matter of them
is of the stamp of the oldest doctrine known to us,
and from them a fairly complete synopsis of the
ancient dhamma might be compiled. And short
and terse as are the presentations of both saying
and episode, they contribute not a little to body out
our somewhat vague outline of India's greatest son,
so that we receive successive impressions of his
great good sense, his willingness to adapt his sayings
to the individual inquirer, his keen intuition, his
humour and smiling irony, his courage and dignity,
his catholic and tender compassion for all creatures.

It may be interesting to give below a gist of
all the samyuttas.

In the Devatd Samyutta 1 (S.N., /, pp. 1-45)

1 Cf. Samyutta Nikaya, I, p. 3

" Accent! kala tarayanti rattiyo,
vayoguna anupubbam jahanti,
etam bhayam marane pekkhamano
punnani kayiratha sukhavahanlti."

The repetition of the first two lines with varying conclusion
in Jataka, IV, p. 487.

Samyutta Nikaya, I, 7

"Nidda tandi vijambhika, aratl bhattasammado,
etena nappakasati, ariyamaggo idha paninan-ti."

The first two lines occur in Jataka, VI, 57.

Cf. also Vibhanga, 352, cited by Buddhaghosa and Samyutta
Nikaya, V, 64 ; Anguttara Nikaya, I, 3.

Cf. Samyutta Nikaya, I, pp. 8-9

" Abhutva bhikkhasi bhikkhu, na hi bhutvana bhikkhasi,
bhutvana bhikkhu bhikkhassu, ma tarn kalo upaccagati kalam
vo-ham na janami, channo kalo na dissati, tasma abhutva bhikkhami,
ma mam kalo upaccagati."

Canonical Pali Literature 161

certain devatas or gods put some questions to the
Blessed One and the latter explains the same
clearly. He gives an enigmatic reply to the ques-
tion how he has put an end to the fourfold wave
of craving for sensual joys, rebirth, erroneous
opinions, and ignorance-begotten desires. He also

These verses are verbatim those in the Samiddhi Jataka
(Vol. II, pp. 57-58). The story is the same, the diction a little
different. The devata in the Nikaya is shown in the Jataka to
be a deva-dhita or goddess.

Samyutta Nikaya, I, p. 11.

" Akkheyyasafmino satta, akkheyyasmim patit^hita,

akkheyyam aparinfiaya, yogam ayanti maccuno

akkheyyan ca parinnaya, akkhataram na mannati

tarn hi tassa na hotiti, yena narh vajja na tassa atthi."

The verses occur in the Itivuttaka 63, the last two lines are

quite different,

Samyutta Nikaya, Vol. I, p. 13.

" Yo appadu^thassa narassa dussati,
suddhassa posassa ananganassa,
tarn eva balam pacceti papam,
sukhumo rajo pativatarh va khitto-ti."

These lines occur in the Dhammapada, vorse 125.
Samyutta Nikaya, Vol. I, p. 19.

"Duddadarh dadamananam, dukkaram kamma kubbatam
asanto iianukubbanti, satam dhammo durannayo
tasma satanca asatafica, nana hoti ito gati
asanto nirayam yanti, santo saggaparayana ti."

This gatha is that of the Duddada (hard to give), Jataka
No. 180. All the verses occur in the Bilarikosiya Jataka, No. 450.

Samyutta Nikaya, I, 20-21

" Sadhu kho marisa danam,
Appasmirh pi sadhu danam,
Saddhaya pi sadhu danam
Dhammaladdhassa pi sadhu danam
Api ca viceyyadanam pi sadhu,
Yo panabhutesu ahe^hayarh caram
parupavada na koroti papam,
bhirum pasamsanti na hi tattha suram,
bhaya hi santo na karonti papan-ti."
" Sadhu kho marisa danam
Appasmim pi sadhu danam
Api ca saddhaya pi sadhu danam,
Danafica yuddliailca samanam ahu,
Appapi santa bahuke jinanti
Appam pi ce saddahano dadati,
ten-eva so hoti sukhi parattha ti,"

The fresh matter in the two gathas occurs in the Aditta Jataka,
(III, 472).

11

162 A History of Pali Literature

explains how one can attain deliverance from sin
and detachment from misery and sorrow by doing
away with lust and the five khandhas or aggregates.

In the Devaputta Samyutta (S.N., pt. I, pp. 46-
67) we find that certain devaputtas or sons of the
gods put some questions to the Great Buddha and
the latter explains these to their full satisfaction.
Thus the Buddha says that one should give up wrath
if one wishes to be happy in life, and should keep
company with good men.

The whole of the Kosala Samyutta^ (S.N., I,
pp. 68-102) is devoted to Pasenadi, King of Kosala.
Some twenty-five anecdotes are told of him. He
was at first a Hindu and the Brahmin Bavari was
his preceptor. This is evident from the fact that a
great sacrifice was arranged to be held for the
king. But later on he became an ardent supporter
of the Buddha. We are told that there broke out a
war between Ajatasattu, King of Magadha, and
Pasenadi, King of Kosala, nephew and uncle, for the
possession of the township of Kasi. At first victory
inclined to Ajatasattu. But later on he was defeated
and taken prisoner. Pasenadi, however, married
his daughter, Vajira, to Ajatasattu and made over
the township of Kasi to his son-in-law as a pin
money.

Samyutta Nikaya, I, 22.

" Na te kama yani citrani loke,
Sankapparago purisassa kamo,
titthanti citrani tath-eva loke,
ath-ettha dhira vinayanti chandam."

This gatha in the Ahguttara Nikaya, III, 411, is ascribed
to the Buddha and is quoted in the Kathavatthu. It is also
quoted with variations in our commentary with reference to the
Pasura sutta in the Sutta Nipata.

Samyutta Nikaya, I, 23.

" Kodham jahe vippajaheyya manam."

This line occurs in Dhammapada, 221.

Samyutta Nikaya, I, 25.

The Samayo sutta is verbatim the opening part of the
Mahasamaya (or the great concourse) suttanta of the Digha Nikaya,
II, 253 f. (Dialogues, II, 282 f.).

1 Read Sage and King in Kosala Samyutta by Mrs. Rhys
Davids (R. G. Bhandarkar Commemoration Vol., pp. 133-138).

Canonical Pali Literature 163

The Mara Samyutta (S.N., pt. I, 103-127) deals
with the Buddha's encounter with Mara, the Evil
One. When the Buddha obtained Enlightenment,
Mara tried every means so that the Master might
give up the holy life. Desirous of making the
Exalted One feel dread and horror, he turned
himself into the likeness of a king-elephant, assumed
the mighty appearance of a king of the snakes,
and drew near to the Blessed One. Standing on the
crest of the hill, he hurled huge rocks which fell
incessantly, crushing against each other. He urged
the householders of Pancasala not to give alms
to Gotama the recluse. But his attempts were all in
vain. These could not prevent the Blessed One
and his followers from leading a pious life.

In the Bhikkhum Samyutta (S.N., pt. I, pp. 128-
135) we find that Mara, the Evil One, tried to desist
Gotami, Uppalavanna, Vajira, and certain other
Bhikkhums from following the path laid down by
the Blessed One. But those sisters recognised
Mara, and the latter went away sorrowful.

In the Brahma Samyutta (S.N., pt. I, pp. ISO-
ISO) Brahma persuaded the Buddha to preach the
doctrine. After reaching perfect Enlightenment the
Buddha did not wish to preach the Norm, for
others might not acknowledge him. Out of com-
passion for the worldly beings Brahma Sahampati
entreated the Blessed One to preach the Doctrine
by following which people might not suffer from the
sorrows of the world. After much deliberation the
Lord acceded to the request of Brahma.

In the Brdhmana Samyutta (S.N. 9 /, pp. 160-184)
we find the conversions of Bharadvaja brahmin and
some other brahmanas of Bharadvaja gotta. The
wife of the Bharadvaja brahmin, a Dhananjani
brahman!, was a follower of the Buddha. Tired
of the proclamation of her faith in the Buddhist
Triad, Bharadvaja once went to see the Buddha.
He was so much impressed by the discourses of the
Buddha that he forthwith left the world and took
refuge in the Buddha. Following him other

V

164 A History of Pali Literature

brahmins of the Bharadvaja gotta also became
followers of the Buddha.

The Vangisa Samyutta (S.N., I, pp. 185-196)
deals with how the thera Vangisa quelled his passion.
Once, while a novice, he was staying near Alavi
at the chief temple of that place, together with his
tutor, the venerable Nigrodha-kappa. Then a
number of women, gaily adorned, came to see the
vihara. At the first sight of the women, discontent
arose in him and lust harassed his heart. But he
saw the evils and himself got rid of his disaffection.

The Vana Samyutta (S.N., /, pp. 197-205) deals
with how certain forest deities put some bhikkhus,
who transgressed the Law, on the right path. A
certain bhikkhu was once staying among the Kosalans
in a certain forest tract. But he indulged in wrong
and evil thoughts connected with worldly matters.
Then a deva who haunted the forest, out of com-
passion for the brother, admonished him to give
up the wrong path. The sutta also speaks of other
bhikkhus who were also set on the right path by
the forest deities.

In the Yakkha Samyutta (S.N., I, pp. 206-215)
we read that the Blessed One dwelt in the house of
Yakkha Indaka in the Indakuta mountain. He
spoke to the Buddha thus, "Form is not living
principle in the opinion of the Buddhas. How does
the soul possess this body ? Whence to soul does
come the lump of bones and liver ? How does this
soul hide within the belly ? " The Buddha answered
thus, "At first the Kalala takes birth and thence
the abbuda and so forth ".

A yakkha named Sakka approached the Buddha
while he was dwelling in the Gijjhakuta mountain
and addressed him thus, " A monk is free from all
ties, is one who instructs others in the dhamma.
He who instructs others in the dhamma with a
compassionate mind is in no way bound, compassion
moves him and sympathy ".

A yakkha named Suciloma spoke to the Blessed
One, " Don't be afraid, oh Samana ". The Lord

^Canonical Pali Literature 165

answered, " I am not afraid, contact with you is
sinful ". The Yakkha put the following questions to
him, " Say, wherefore passion and hatred are caused,
discontentment, delight, and terror whence have
they come, wherefrom spring thoughts into the
mind ". The Blessed one answered, " They who know
self and wherefrom it rises, they crush it down,
listen to me, O yakkha, they cross this flood which
is difficult to be crossed ; so they may never come
back again to rebirth ".

A yakkha named Manibhadda addressed the
Blessed One thus while he was dwelling in his house,
" Luck always comes to him whose mind is alert,
he prospers with increasing happiness. To-morrow
is a better day for him and he is free from enmity ".
The Exalted One answered him by repeating the
first three lines and pointed out to him, " For him
whose mind ever by night and day is given up to
hatred, is not released from all hate ; he who takes
delight in harmlessiiess and kindness, bearing his
share in love for all that lives, in him no hate is
found."

The Exalted One was once staying at Savatthl
in the Jetavana grove of Anathapindaka. A child
named Sanu of a certain lay female devotee was
possessed by a yakkha. Mother uttered some verses
in lamentation saying that she has kept the fast,
firm in the eight precepts, the extra fast and so
forth. The demon in possession of Sanu said thus,
"On the 14th and 15th day and on the 8th of either
half of the month who keep the fast, firm in the eight
precepts, the extra fast and so forth, with such the
demons make no cruel sport ". The child Sanu 1 said
thus, " Mother, they weep for the dead or the living
whom they cannot see, but O mother ! why are you
mourning for him, who is here and alive". The
mother answered, " They mourn for the dead son or
the living son whom they cannot see. They also

1 Cf . Psalms of the Brethren pp. 48-49 ; Dhammapada Com-
mentary, IV, pp. 18 foil.

166 A History of Pali Literature

mourn for him who has renounced the world." The
mother requested her son to come back again.

A yakkhini known as Piyankara's mother
satisfied her son by saying " Make no noise,
Piyankara ! The monk is uttering holy words. If
we can hear and learn those holy words and practise
them, it will be for our good. If we can knowingly
utter no lies, train ourselves to do the things we
ought to do, we may be spared from this demon
world."

A yakkhini named Punabbasu's mother satisfied
her little children thus, " Oh silence little Uttara !
Be still Punabbasu that I may hear the Norm
taught by the master. Nibbana is the deliverance
from every tie and for that truth my love is passing
great. One's own son is dear in this world and
dear is also one's own husband ; dearer still than
these is the path of Dhamma. Neither child nor
husband can save us from suffering as by hearing
the true law living beings are saved from suffering r '.
Punabbasu remained silent and so also Uttara.

A yakkha named Sivaka himself invisible caused
a sound to be heard, "A hundred elephants and
horses and a hundred chariots drawn by mules, a
hundred thousand maidens adorned with rings in
their ears all are not worth the 16th fraction of a
single stride. Advance, householder, go forward !
(abhikkama gahapati), advance for you is better
than retreat." As soon as this sound was heard
darkness vanished to Anathapindika, all this happen-
ed a second and a third time, then Anathapindika
approached the Lord who said thus, " A Brahmana
after having reached parinibbana always takes rest
in happiness, who does not cleave to sensual pleasure,
calm and devoid of substance. After cutting out
all roots of attachment and subduing the pain of
the heart, calm and serene, he takes rest happily
for in his mind he has attained peace ".

A yakkha enthusiastic about a bhikkhuni named
Sukka went to Bajagaha going from chariot road to
chariot road, from cross ways to cross ways and

Canonical Pali Literature 167

spoke about the path leading to nibbana. 1 The
Buddha was once staying at Rajagaha in the Bamboo
grove at Veluvana. A certain lay follower then
gave food to another bhikkhum of the same name
Sukka. A yakkha enthusiastic about her went to
Rajagaha and spoke that the lay man had ac-
cumulated much merit by supplying the wants of
Sukka who was free from all bonds.

A lay follower gave food to a bhikkhum named
Vira or Cira. A yakkha enthusiastic about her
said that a lay follower had accumulated much
merit by supplying her wants. The Blessed One
was once staying in the house of a yakkha named
Alavaka. The yakkha said to him, " Get out,
O Monk ! " The Exalted One obeyed his command.
The yakkha again asked him to come in and the
Exalted One came in. Thus the yakkha ordered the
Exalted One a second and a third time and each
time the Master complied.

The yakkha again said to him, " Come out "
This time the Master refused to do so. The yakkha
said thus, " I will ask you, O Monk ! a question. If
you will not answer I will either derange your mind
or split your heart or take you by the feet and throw
you over the Ganges ". The Buddha told him thus,
" I find no one in the whole world who is able to do
any one of these things to me. Ask according
to your desire ". The Blessed One in answer to the
yakkha said, " Fate is the best wealth that a man
can have ; right deeds well-performed bring happiness.
Life lived by wisdom is the best." The Blessed One
further answered the questions put to him thus, " By
faith you can easily pass over the flood ; by zeal you
can pass over the watery waste ; by energy you can
overcome ill and woe ; by wisdom you can win
utter purity." The Exalted One further said, " He
who believes in the Dhamma of the Arahants,

1 See my paper on Nirvana and Buddhist laymen (Annals of
the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, vol. xiv, pts. I -II,
pp. 80-86).

168 A History of Pali Literalum

leading to Nibbana, being ardent and skilful, acquires
wisdom. A fit person who bears the burden obtains
riches with vigour, he wins fame by speaking truth,
he binds friends by gift. Thus he will not suffer
in this world and in the next. He who seeks the
life of a believer and who has these four : truth,
self-control, patience, and self-sacrifice, will not suffer
in this world and in the next." The yakkha became
very much pleased with the Buddha and said, " I
will now travel from village to village, and from
town to town, paying reverence to the Exalted One
and to the seemly Order of the Norm (Dhammassa
Sudhammatam) preached by the Buddha ".

In the Sakka Samyutta (S.N., /, pp. 216-240)
we find that the Blessed One told the bhikkhus
how Sakka became king of the world of the thirty-
three gods by meritorious acts. Once there broke
out a war between the gods and the asuras. The
asuras were defeated and their ruler Vepacitti was
taken prisoner. Vepacitti, when brought before
Sakka, reviled the latter and withdrew with coarse
words. But Sakka knowing the ruler of the asuras
to be a fool did not do any harm to him and patiently
forebore the insult. In this way various other
qualities of Sakka are narrated in this Samyutta.

In the Niddna Samyutta (S.N., pt. II, pp. 1-133)
we find that the Blessed One explained to the
bhikkhus the chain of causation which begins with
avijja or ignorance and ends with birth, old age,
and death leading to grief, lamentation, suffering,
sorrow, and despair ; the four sustenances (material
food, contact, volition, and consciousness) and the
bases of knowledge (knowledge that decay-and-death
is conditioned by birth, knowledge that where
birth is not there is no decay-and-death, etc. ;
knowledge in the nature of decay-and-death, in its
uprising, its ceasing, and in the way leading to its
ceasing, knowledge in the nature of birth, becoming,
grasping, craving, feeling, contact, sense, etc. ;
knowledge in the uprising and ceasing of each, and
knowledge in the way leading to their ceasing).

* Canonical Pali Literature 169

In the Abhisamaya Samyutta l (S.N., II, pp. 133-
139) the Blessed One says that for the Ariyan
disciple it is the greater ill to think that little is the
ill that remains when measured with the former
ill which for him is wholly perished. So he should
not cease to strive to put an end to little ill that
still remains, otherwise he cannot be said to have a
perfect vision.

In the Dhdtu Samyutta (S.N., II, pp. 140-177)
the Lord speaks on the dhatus or elements. In
explaining the diversity in elements he speaks of
the elements of eye, of visible object, of eye-
awareness ; the elements of ear, of sound, of ear-
awareness ; the elements of nose, of odour, of nose-
awareness ; the elements of tongue, of taste, of
tongue-awareness ; the elements of body, of tangibles,
of body-awareness ; the elements of mind, of ideas,
of mind-awareness ; the radiant-element (revealed
through darkness) ; the beauty-element (revealed
through ugliness) ; the space-infimty-element (re-
vealed through visible object), etc. He further
says that because of the diversity in elements,
arises diversity of contact from which arises diversity
of feeling.

In the Anamatagga Samyutta (S.N., II, pp. 178-
193), Buddha says that the beginning of one who is
fairing on, cloaked in ignorance and tied to craving,
cannot be known.

In the Kassapa Samyutta (S.N., //, pp. 194-225)
the venerable Kassapa is praised for his contentment.
He is content with no matter what robe, with no
matter what alms, with no matter what lodging,
with no matter what store of medicines. He is
comparable to the moon when he goes among the
families, drawing back in both heart and demeanour,
even as a new-comer he is unobtrusive among the

1 Cf. Samyutta, II, 134 * Sattakkhattum paramata ' cf. Points
of Controversy, 77,268; Samyutta, V, 458; Anguttara, I, 233 f.
The commentary explains as * a measure of seven lives (bhava)
or rebirths '.

170 A History of Pali Literatufo

families. The Blessed One then exhorts the bhikkhus
to be like Kassapa.

In the Ldbhasakkdra Samyutta (S.N., II, pp. 225-
244) Buddha says that just as a fish swallowing the
fisherman's hook falls into misfortune so also the
bhikkhus are liable to misfortune if they seek after
gain and favour.

In the Rahula Samyutta (8.N., II, pp. 244-253)
the Blessed One speaks to Rahula on the subject of
discipline. Sight, hearing, smelling, taste, touch,
and mind all these are fleeting and so unhappy.
So that which is fleeting, unhappy and changeable,
it is not fit to consider that as ' This is mine ', ' This
I am', 'This is my spirit'. One should not have
notions of an ' I ', nor of ' mine ', nor an insidious
tendency to vain conceits in the matter of this
body with its mind. He who fully understands all
these, is really at peace.

In the Lakkhana Samyutta (S.N., II, pp. 254-
262) we read that the venerable Lakkliana enquired
of Maha-Moggallana why he laughed while Lakkliana
and Moggallana were wandering about seeking alms
and Moggallana explained these to Lakkliana and
the other bhikkhus assembled in the presence of
the Blessed One.

In the Opamma Samyutta (S.N., II, pp. 262-272)
the Lord says that all sinful acts may be traced to
avijja or ignorance. According to him all wrong
states have their origin in ignorance. The Blessed
One also exhorts the bhikkhus to be strenuous
and zealous in energy, otherwise to them, Mara,
the Evil One, will gain access, just as Ajatasattu
will get occasion to overthrow the Licchavis when
they will not be strenuous and zealous in their
service.

In the Bhikkhu Samyutta 1 (S.N., II, pp. 273-286)
we find Maha-Moggailana explaining to the bhikkhus
that which is called ' Aryan silence ' which is enjoyed

1 Cf. Samyutta Nikaya, II, 278-
' Maram savahananti '

% Canonical Pali Literature 171

by one who resides in the second jhana. Among
other things we also find the Buddha addressing
Nanda and Tissa and other monks to follow the
bhikkhu life strictly as laid down by him.

The Khandha Samyutta (S.N., III, pp. 1-188)
deals with the five Khandhas or constituent elements.
Those who are unskilled in the Aryan doctrine are
possessed of the ideas ' body is mine ', ' feeling is
mine ', ' perception is mine,' ' consciousness is mine ',
and regard activities as the self and the self as
having activities, etc. When these five Khandhas
or constituent elements change owing to their
unstable and changeful nature, then sorrow and
despair arise in them. But to him who is well
trained in the Aryan doctrine, such a state of thing
does not happen. The Blessed One also deals with
the seven points. A brother who is skilled in these
points is called ' accomplished in this Norm and
Discipline '. The seven points are : a brother fully
knows his body, the arising of the body, the ceasing
of the body, and the way leading to the ceasing
of the body ; he fully knows the satisfaction there
is in the body, the misery that is in the body, -and
the escape from the body. He fully knows feeling
in like manner, and perception, the confections,
and consciousness. The Lord further says that he
who clings to the five Khandhas is a Mara's bonds-
man ; but he who does not, is released from the evil
one. The perceiving of impermanence, if practised
and enlarged, wears out all sensual lust, all lust of
rebirth, all ignorance wears out, and tears out all
conceit of ' I am '. But in what way does it so
wear them out ? By seeing, 4 such is body ; such

Cf. Dhammapada, verse 175 ;

Samyutta Nikaya, II, 284

' Diva tapati adicco|| rattim abhati candimaij
Sannaddho khattiyo tapati || jhayi tapati brahmano |!
Atha sabbamahorattim || Buddho tapati tejasati |j '

cf. Dhammapada, verse 387

' Khattiyo seftho j ane tasmim || ye gottapatisarino
vijjacarana sajnpanno || so setiho devamanuse || *

cf. Digha Nikaya, III, p. 98, Aggafiiia Suttanta.

172 A History of Pali Literaturk

is the arising of the body; such is the ceasing of
the body, such is feeling, such is perception, and such
are the confections '.

In the Rddha Samyutta (S.N., HI, pp. 188-201)
the Buddha replies to the questions asked by the
venerable Radha on some parts of the teachings of
the Lord. He explains (1) Mara by saying that
where a body is, there would be Mara or things
of the nature of Mara, or at any rate what is perish-
ing ; (2) a being by saying that craving which is
concerned with body, with feeling, with perception,
with confections, and with consciousness is entangled
thereby, therefore is one called a being ; and (3)
impermanence by saying that body is impermanent,
feeling is impermanent, and so are perception,
confections, and consciousness.

The Ditthi Samyutta (S.N., 111, pp. 202-224)
explains the origin of certain views. Buddha says
that by clinging to body, feeling, perception, con-
fections, and consciousness (that is to say, the five
Khandhas) arise such views as these : "All are stable
or permanent ; this is mine ; this am I ; this is the
self of me ; there is no fruit of good or evil deeds ;
this world is not, the world beyond is not, and the
heretical views the world is limited or unlimited,
the identity or non-identity of the life and the
body. 1 But the five Khandhas are impermanent
and woeful. When an Aryan disciple fully knows
this and also when for him doubt as to suffering is
put away, doubt as to the arising of suffering,
cessation of suffering, and the way leading to the
cessation of suffering is put away this is how an
Aryan disciple is saved from disaster, and bound for
enlightenment.

In the Okkantika Samyutta (S.N., ///, pp. 225-
228) the Exalted One says that such a person is
called " walker in faith " who has faith and con-
fidence in the doctrine that the eye, the ear, the nose,

Cf. Majjhima Nikaya, I, pp. 157, 426.

Canonical Pali Literature 173

the tongue, the body, and the mind are impermanent
and changeable.

In the Uppdda Samyutta (S.N., HI, pp. 228-231)
the Buddha says that the arising of eye, ear, nose,
tongue, body, and mind, is the arising of suffering,
diseases, decay, and death.

The Kilesa Samyutta (S.N., III, pp. 232-234)
deals with the kilesas or sins. The desire that is
in the eye and in material object in the ear and in
the sounds, in the nose and in scents, in the tongue
and in savours, in the body and in the tangibles,
and in the mind and in things, is a corruption of
the heart. The desire that is in eye-consciousness
and in consciousness that comes by ear, nose, tongue,
body, and mind, in eye-contact with the other sense-
organs and mind, and in consciousness of visible
shape, sound, scent, savour, tangibles, and things,
is a corruption of the heart.

In the Sdriputta Samyutta (S.N., III, pp. 235-
240) the venerable Sariputta in reply to Ananda's
question says that his senses have been calmed
because he has dwelt aloof from passions, with his
thought applied and sustained in first jhana, which
is born of solitude and full of zest and happiness
and that he has also given up the vain idea of ' I '
and ' mine '.

In the Ndga Samyutta (S.N., III, pp. 240-246)
the Lord says that there are the four sorts of birth
as nagas, viz. the egg-born, the womb-born, the
sweat-born, and those born with parents.

In the Supanna Samyutta (S.N., III, pp. 246-
249) the Buddha says that there are the four sorts
of rebirth as harpies, viz. the egg-born, the womb-
born, the sweat-born, and those born without parents.

In the Gandhabbakdya Samyutta (S.N., III,
pp. 249-253) the Lord speaks to the bhikkhus about
the devas belonging to the Gandhabba grouj
He says that they are those devas who dwell.,
the fragrance of root-wood, heart-wood, pith,
sap and in that of leaves, flowers, and scents.

174 A History of Pali Literature

In the Valdha Samyutta (S.N., III, pp. 254-257)
the Exalted One speaks about devas that belong to
cloud-groups (valahaka-kayika). He says that there
are devas (embodied) in cool clouds, hot clouds,
thunder clouds, wind clouds, and rain clouds.

In the Vacchagotta Samyutta (S.N., III, pp. 257-
263) the Buddha speaks to Vacchagotta, a wanderer,
who holds the heretical views which have been
condemned by the Lord in the Brahmajala Sutta of
the Digha Nikaya, Vol. I. Vacchagotta enquires
of the Blessed One of the cause of the origin of these
diverse opinions which arise in the world, e.g.
the world is eternal or non-eternal, finite or infinite,
the identity or the non-identity of the life and
the body, etc. The Buddha says that it is through
ignorance of the five khandhas (rupa or form, vedana
or feeling, sanfia or perception, samkhara or confec-
tions, and vinnana or consciousness) that these
diverse opinions arise in the world.

In the Jhdna (or Samddhi) Samyutta (S.N.,
III, pp. 263-279) the Bhagava says that there are
these four who practise the jhanas or rapt musings
or abstractions : one who practises meditation is
skilled in concentration, but is not skilled in the
attainment thereof ; one who practises meditation
is skilled in the attainment of concentration itself ;
one who practises meditation is neither skilled in
concentration nor skilled in the attainment thereof ;
and one who practises meditation is skilled both
in concentration and in the fruits thereof. Of the
four, the last one is the best and most pre-eminent.
In the Saldyatana Samyutta 1 (S.N., IV, pp. 1-204)
the Blessed One speaks of the six senses. The
Buddha says that the eye and the objects of sight,
the ear and the sounds, the nose and the scents,
the tongue and the savours, the body and the
things tangible, the mind and the mind states, are

1 The account of Punna in this Samyutta is found almost word
for word in the Sanskrit version of Purna in the Divyavadana,
pp. 24 foil

Canonical Pali Literature 175

all impermanent, ill, and void of the self. But
there is the way of escape from these. This is the
restraint of desire and lust, the renouncing of
desire and lust which are in the eye, etc. Where
there is no desire, there is no ill. He further says
that by seeing the six senses as impermanent, as
fetters, and as asavas, ignorance is vanished and
knowledge arises, fetters are abandoned and asavas
or sins are uprooted. He also explains c the world *
by saying what is transitory by nature is called the
world. In this connection the Lord also characterises
the eye and the objects of sight, the ear and the
sounds, etc. as transitory. According to him passion
is a disease and one can abide passionless by not
imagining ' I have an eye ', etc. One should not
be enamoured of the object cognisable by the
eye, etc. If one is so, then one is called restrained.
If one is not so, then one is said to have lack of
restraint.

The Vedand Samyutta (S.N., IV, pp. 204-238)
deals with the three vedanas or feelings : feeling that
is pleasant, feeling that is painful, and feeling that
is neither pleasant nor painful. The lurking ten-
dency, to lust for pleasant feeling, to repugnance
for painful feeling, and to ignorance of feeling that is
neither pleasant nor painful, must be abandoned.
Pleasant feelings should be regarded as ill, painful
feelings as a barb, and neutral feelings as imper-
manence. So all these should be abandoned. This
abandonment in a bhikkhu is called ' rightly seeing '.

The Mdtugdma Samyutta (S.N., IV, pp. 238-251)
deals with the womankind. A woman, if she is
beauteous in form, possessed of wealth, moral,
vigorous, and gets offspring, is altogether charming
to a man. If she does not possess these five qualities
she is without charm for a man. There are five
special woes which a woman has to undergo as
apart from a man. They are : a woman at a tender
age goes to her husband's family and leaves her
relatives behind, she is subject to pregnancy, she
has to bring forth, and she has to wait upon a man.

176 A History of Pali Literature

Possessed of five things a woman is reborn in purga-
tory, if she is faithless, shameless, unscrupulous,
wrathful, and of weak wisdom. A woman is also
reborn in the heavenly world, if she is faithful,
modest, scrupulous, not wrathful, rich in wisdom,
not envious, not an adulteress, moral, and of wide
knowledge.

In the Jambukhddaka Samyutta 1 (S.N., IV,
pp. 251-261) we find Sariputta explaining to
Jambukhadaka Paribbajaka some of the fundamental
teachings of the Buddha. Nibbana and arahatship
have been described as the destruction of lust, of
hatred, and illusion, and the path leading to the
attainment of nibbana and arahatship is the
Noble Eightfold Path (right view, aim, speech,
action, living effort, mindfulness, and concentration).
They who have completely given up lust, hatred,
and illusion, are well-practised and happy ones in
the world. It is for the comprehension of ill that the
righteous life is lived under Gotama the recluse.
There are three kinds of feelings (pleasant, painful,
and neutral) and three kinds of asavas (sensuality,
becoming, and ignorance). The Aryan Eightfold
Path is the only way to the comprehension of these
feelings and to the abandonment of these asavas.

In the Sdmandaka Samyutta (S.N., IV, pp. 261-
262) the venerable Sariputta explains to Samandaka,
the wanderer, the term ' nibbana '. Sariputta says
that nibbana is the destruction of lust, hatred, and
illusion, and that nibbana can be attained by
following the Noble Eightfold Path.

In the Moggalldna Samyutta (S.N., IV, pp. 262-
281) the venerable Moggallana explains to the
bhikkhus who have assembled the four jhanas
or rapt musings. He also explains to them ' the
realm of infinite space ', ' the realm of infinite

1 Read ' Buddhist Nirvana and the Noble Eightfold Path*
by O. Frankfurter, J.R.A.S., 'New Series, Vol. XII, 1880. This
paper is also devoted to the study of the contents of the
Jambukhadaka Samyutta, Samancjaka Samyutta, and Asankhata
Samyutta.

^Canonical Pali Literature 177

consciousness ', ' the realm of nothingness ', 'the realm
of neither perceiving nor non-perceiving ' and the
unconditioned heart's rapture (animitta ceto-
samadhi).

In the Cilia Samyutta (S.N., IV, pp. 281-304)
the house-father explains to the bhikkhus that the
fetter and the things that tend to fetter are different
both in spirit and in letter. The eye is not a fetter
of objects, nor objects a fetter to the eye. But the
desire and lust that arise owing to the pair of them
constitute the fetter. The same applies to ear
and sound, nose and scents, tongue and savours,
and mind and mind states.

In the Gdmani Samyutta (S.N., IV, pp. 305-359)
the Blessed One explains why one is called ' wrathful '
and one is styled ' kindly '. In the first case a
certain man's passion is not abandoned owing to
the fact that others harass him. Harassed by
others he shows vexation. Thus he is styled
' wrathful '. In the second case a certain man's
passion is abandoned, owing to that others do not
harass him. Unharassed by others he shows no
vexation. Thus he is styled ' kindly '. The Blessed
One also exhorts the headman of the village to
follow the middle path by giving up the two extremes
devotion to the pleasures of senses and devotion
to self -mortification.

In the Asankhata Samyutta (S.N., IV, pp. 359-
373) the Blessed One says about the uncreated
(nibbanam) and the path leading to it. He inter-
prets it by saying that nibbana is the destruction of
lust, hatred, and delusion. According to him,
mindfumess, calm and insight, the four best efforts
(satipatthaiia), the four bases of effective power
(iddhipada), and the Noble Eightfold Path are the
means to the attainment of nibbana. 1

In the Avydkata Samyutta (S.N., IV, pp. 374-
403) we find that once King Paseiiadi asks Khema
the following questions : Does the Tathagata exist

1 Vide Yamakami's systems of Buddhistic thought, pp. 28-42 ;
J.P.T.S., 1904/5 ; F. O. Schrader on the problem of Nirvana.

12

178 A History of Pali Literature

after death ? Does the Tathagata both exist and
not exist after death ? Khema in reply to these
questions says that the Blessed One has not revealed
these points to them. She further says that it is
impossible to define the Tathagata for he is as
boundless and unfathomable as the mighty ocean.
So these questions do not apply. Anuruddha,
Sariputta, and Moggallana answer in the same way
the question put to them regarding the Tathagata. 1

The Magga Samyutta (S.N., F, pp. 1-62)
deals with the Noble Eightfold Path, e.g. samma-
ditthi (right view), sammasankappo (right aim),
sammavaca (right speech), sammakammanto (right
action), samma ajiva (right living), sammavayama
(right exertion), sammasati (right mindfulness), and
sammasamadhi (right concentration).

The Bojjhanga Samyutta (S.N., V, pp. 63-140)
deals with the sattabojjhangas or the seven elements
of supreme knowledge, e.g. sati (mindfulness),
dhammavicaya (investigation of the Norm), viriya
(energy), plti (tranquillity), passadhi (concent ration),
samadhi (equanimity), and upekkha (indifference).

The Satipatthdna Samyutta (8.N., V, pp. 141-
192) deals with the four satipatthanas, the four
stations of mindfulness as regards body, feelings,
mind, and mind states kaye kayanupassi, vedanasu
vedananupassi, citte cittanupassi, dhammesu
dhammanupassi.

The Indriya Samyutta (S.N., V, pp. 193-243)
deals with the five indriyas, e.g. saddha (faith), viriya
(energy), sati (mindfulness), samadhi (equanimity),
and paniia (wisdom).

The Sammappadhdna Samyutta (S.N., V, pp.
244-248) deals with the four sammappadhanas
or perfect exertions, e.g., to check the growth of
sins which have not arisen, to put an end to sins
which have arisen, to help the growth of merit
which has not arisen, and to help the growth of
merit which has arisen.

1 Why is the Buddha called the Tathagata, see Papaiicasudani,
I, pp. 45 foil.

1 Canonical Pali Literature 179

The Bala Samyutta (S.N., V, pp. 249 foil)
deals with the five balas or powers, e.g. saddha
(faith), viriya (energy), sati (mindfulness), samadhi
(equanimity), and paiina (wisdom).

The Iddhipdda Samyutta (S.N., F, pp. 254-293)
deals with the four iddhis 1 or wonderful powers,
e.g., chanda (desire), viriya (energy), citta (thought),
and vimamsa (investigation).

The Anuruddha Samyutta (S.N., V,pp. 294-306)
relates to the attainment of great supernatural
power by the venerable Anuruddha by being self-
possessed and mindful with regard to body, feelings,
mind, and mind states.

The Jhdna Samyutta (S.N., V, pp. 307-310)
deals with the four j lianas, the first trance the
second the third, and the fourth.

In the Andpdna Samyutta (S.N., V,pp. 311-341)
the Blessed One says that concentration on in-
breathing and out-breathing if cultivated, leads to
great profit.

In the Sotdpatti Samyutta 2 (S.N., V, pp. 342-413)
the Lord says that the Ariyan disciple is possessed
of unwavering loyalty to the Buddha, the Norm
and the Order, that is, to the Buddhist Triad, and
is blessed with the virtues dear to the Aryans
(virtues untainted by carving or delusion), therefore
he lives on gathered scraps though he be clothed in
rags and is released from purgatory and rebirths.

The Sacca Samyutta (S.N., F, pp. 414-478)
deals with the four Aryan truths : suffering, its
origin, its destruction, and the path leading to its
destruction.

1 Superwill-morewilJ. For to use iddhi is a very high mandate
within the power of very few (Gotama the man, p. 221).

2 Cf. Samyutta Nikaya, V, 384

" Yassa saddha Tathagato || acala supatifthita ||
silanca yassa kalyanam || ariyakantam pasamsitam [|
sanghe pasado yassatthi || ujubhutaii ca dassanam j|
Adaliddo ti tarn ahu || amogham tassa jlvitam ||
Tasma saddham ca silanca || pasadam dhammadassanam
anuyunjetha medhavi || saram buddhanasasanan ti."
The verses also occur in the Samyutta Nikaya, I, 232, and
the Anguttara Nikaya, II, 57 and III, 54.

180 A History of Pali Literature

D. THE ANGUTTARA NIKAYA

The Ekuttara or Anguttara Nikaya 1 is the
fourth book of the Sutta Pitaka. It is a collection
characterised by numerical groupings of dhammas
arranged serially in an ascending order. The P.T.S.,
London, has edited this book in Roman character
in five volumes with an Index volume. The
Sinhalese 2 and Burmese editions of this work are
available. This book consists of the following
nipatas :

1. Eka Nipata consisting of 21 chapters, A.N., I. 1-46.

2. Duka ., ., 16 1.47-100.

3. Tika ., 16 ,, }5 I. 101-304.

4. Catukka ,, ,. 26 ,, II. 1-257.

5. Pancaka ,, 26 ,, ,, III. 1-278.

6. Chakka ., 12 III. 279-452.

7. Sattaka 9 IV. 1-149.

8. Atthaka 9 IV. 150-350.

9. Navaka ,, ,,9 ,, IV. 351-466.

10. Dasaka ., 22 V. 1-310.

11. Ekadasaka 3 ,. V. 311-361.

The Eka Nipata (A.N., 7, pp. 1-46) deals with
the nivaranas (obstacles), the mind concentrated or
unconcentrated, the mind trained or untrained, the
mind cultivated or uncultivated, exertion, diligence,
and the Tathagata the only person who does good
to mankind. It further deals with the foremost
disciples of the Buddha Sariputta, Moggallana,
Mahakassapa, and other eminent bhikkhus, the
wrong view and the right view, wrong concentration
and right concentration.

1 P.T.S., editions pts. I and II by Rev. Richard Morris,
LL.D., pts. III-V by Prof. Dr. E. Hardy, Ph.D., D.D. ; pt. VI
(Indexes) by Mabel Hunt revised and edited by C. A. F. Rhys
Davids. The P.T.S. has brought out an English translation of
this work known as the Book of the Gradual Sayinys, some portions
of this nikaya have been translated into English by A. D. Jayasundera
and edited by F. L. Woodward known as, the Book of the Numerical
Sayings, an English translation of the first tliree nipatas has been
published by E. R. J. Gooneratne.

A German translation of this Nikaya known as Die Reden des
Buddha by Nyanatiloka has been published.

2 The Sinhalese edition by Devamitta, Colombo, 1893, is worth
mentioning.

Canonical Pali Literature 181

The DuJca Nipdta (A.N., I, pp. 47-100) deals with
the two kinds of sins which should be avoided sins
which bear evil fniits even in this birth and sins
which lead one to rebirth in hell, two kinds of balas
or powers the power of seeing with close observa-
tion the evil effects of sinful acts through body,
speech, and mind and the power of cultivation of the
seven elements of knowledge (satta sambo jjhan gas),
the causes of the origin of the good and evil, different
kinds of hopes or desires desire for gain and longev-
ity, two kinds of gifts gift of material objects and
gift of dhamma, different kinds of assemblies of the
bhikkhus (assemblies of the bhikkhus who have
not fully realised the four Noble Truths and the
bhikkhus who have done so, of the bhikkhus who
live in concord and harmony and the bhikkhus
who do not).

In the Tika Nipdia (A.N., /, pp. 101-304) the
Blessed One says that they are fools who commit
sinful acts through body, speech, and mind and they
are the wise who do not do so. He praises gifts,
renunciation of the worldly life, and supporting one's
own parents. He recommends exertion for checking
the growth of the evils which have not arisen, for
developing the dhammas which have not arisen,
and for removing the evils which have already arisen.
He refutes some heretical views and gives a clear
exposition of the fundamental teachings of the
dhamma propounded by him. He says that there
are some samanas and brahmanas who hold that

the pleasant or painful and neither pleasant nor
painful experiences are due to previous action,
others who hold that these are providential, others
again who hold that these are due to no cause what-
soever. The Blessed One condemns these heretical
views and gives a clear exposition of the chain of
causation and the Four Aryan Truths. He also
speaks of the duties of a samana. He then speaks
on the subject of mangala or well-being. According
to him he who commits sinful acts through body,
speech, and mind is thrown into purgatory. But he

182 A History of Pali Literature

who is restrained in his body, speech, and mind and
does meritorious acts through these goes to heaven
and enjoys heavenly joys there.

In the Catukka Nipdia (A.N., II, pp. 1-257)
the Buddha says, " He who is not possessed of four
things (holy conduct, holy concentration, holy in-
sight, and holy emancipation) is said to be fallen
away from this Norm and Discipline (Dhamma-
Vinaya). An ignorant man who praises one who
does not deserve praise, blames one who is worthy
of praise, rejoices wherein one should not rejoice,
and does not rejoice wherein one should rejoice,
stores up much demerit. A wise man who does the
right thing in these respects stores much merit."
There are to be seen existing in the world four
beings :

(a) he that is ill-versed and leads not a

virtuous life,

(b) he that is ill-versed but leads a virtuous

life,

(c) he that is well-versed but leads not a

virtuous life, and

(d) he that is well- versed and also leads a

virtuous life.

The Blessed One also speaks of sloth and
energy as evils and recommends exertions. He
deals with the subject of wrong behaviour and right
behaviour. The Lord says that there are four
trifling things which are easily procurable and also
faultless. They are pamsukula-civara, pindiyalopa-
bhojanam, rukkhamula-senasana, and putimutta-
bhesajja. 1 He speaks of the four ancient, agelong,
and traditional noble lineages and says that a
bhikkhu should rest content with whatsoever robe,
alms, dwelling place, and medicine he gets. He
deals with the four kinds of blessings (e.g. pati-
rupadesavaso, dwelling in a suitable region;

1 Clothes made of rags taken from a dust heap, eating a morsel
of food, dwelling at the foot of a tree, strong-smelling urine (usually
urine of cattle) used as medicine.

Canonical Pali Literature 183

sappurisupassayo, ' taking refuge in good men ' ;
attasammapanidhi, right realisation of self; and
pubbe ca katapunnata, good deeds done in former
existences), the four kinds of kindly feelings, the
four qualities which make one a great personage,
the four qualities which guard a bhikkhu against
his falling away and qualify him to be close to
nirvana. Such a bhikkhu should observe the silas,
control the portals of senses, be moderate in eating,
and be ever watchful in the day time and at night
in its three yamas (watches) pathama, majjhima,
and pacchima. The Lord deals with the question
as to who is a real bhikkhu. He speaks highly of
oblations which are performed without cruelty. He
speaks of the four ways of self -concentration, 1 of
the four persons existing in the world who foster
hatred, hypocrisy, gains, honours and not the Norm,
of the four hallucinations, 2 and of the four faults
of recluses and brahmins. 8 He deals with the
four yields in merit 4 and virtue which bring about
happiness, the four yields in merit which bring
about heavenly bliss, and the four ways of living
together/ He says that the Ariyan disciple who
offers food gives to the recipient four things ; long
life, personal beauty, happiness, and physical

1 They arc as follows : ditthadhammasukhaviharaya (for
happy condition in this world), nanadassanapatilabhaya (for
knowledge and insight), satisampajaiinaya (for mindfulness and self-
possession), and asavanam khayaya (for the destruction of sins).

2 (a) taking what is anicca as nicca, (b) taking; what is adukkha
as dukkha, (c) taking what is anatta as atta, and (d) taking what
is asubha as subha.

3 (a) bhikkhus drinking fermented liquor, (b) bhikkhus addicted
to sensual pleasures, (c) bhikkhus accepting gold and silver, and
(d) bhikkhus earning their livelihood by falsehood.

4 (a) rightly believing that the Buddha is all-knowing, etc.,
(6) rightly believing that the Dhamina has been well -propounded
by the Buddha, (c) rightly believing that the Sangha founded by
the Buddha is well-established, and (d) the ariyasavaka (disciple of
the Noble) is free from all impurities, etc.

6 (a) the vile living with the vile, (b) the vile living with the
good (goddess), (c) the good (god) living with the vile, and (d) the
good (god) living with the good (goddess).

184 A History of Pali Literature

strength. He speaks of the duty of a layman, of
blessings and happiness, gratitude to parents, the
lures to hell, the four kinds of sinful persons, the
four kinds of snakes to whom thoughts of loving-
kindness should be sent forth, the fall of Devadatta,
the four exertions, and of righteousness and un-
righteousness. The Buddha says that a brother
who is virtuous, well- versed, strenuous, and possessed
of insight, follows the perfect way of conduct and his
knowledge is directed to destroying the intoxicants.
A brother who is endowed with thoughts of
renunciation, of benevolence, of love, and of right
views follows the perfect way and his knowledge
is directed to destroying the intoxicants. The Lord
also speaks of the qualities by which a wicked man
is to be known, of the qualities by which a good
man is to be known, of the four excellences, of the
highest things, of the question of removal of doubts,
of the four unthinkables which should not be
pondered over, and of the four purities of gift.
He speaks of heaven and hell, of persons in darkness
and light, of persons of low state and high state,
of titans and gods, of peace and insight, and of the
persons who are praiseworthy and blameworthy.
He speaks of the four kinds of clouds, the four kinds
of jars, the four kinds of pools of water, the four
kinds of mangoes, the four kinds of mice, the four
kinds of oxen, the four kinds of trees, and the four
kinds of snakes. The Buddha points out how he
trains men. He speaks of four things : a thing which
is unpleasant to be done, and when done, it results
in loss ; a thing which is unpleasant to be done but
when done, it results in gain ; a thing which is
pleasant to be done, but when done, it results in
loss ; a thing which is pleasant to be done and
when done, it results in gain. He speaks of earnest-
ness and mindfulness, of the four holy places which
should be visited by the faithful clansman the
place of the Buddha's birth, the place of his
enlightenment, the place of his setting rolling the
supreme wheel of righteousness, and the place of

Canonical Pali Literature 185

his Mahaparinibbana. The Buddha speaks of the
fetters, of understanding, of sinful and sinless men,
of morality, concentration, and insight. He speaks
of men subdued or unsubdued in mind, in body,
and in mind and body together. There are four
lustres of moon, sun, fire, and wisdom. Of these
the lustre of wisdom is the most excellent. There
are four radiances of which the radiance of wisdom
is the most excellent. There are four lights, of
which the light of wisdom is the most excellent.
There are four effulgences, of which the effulgence
of wisdom is the most excellent. There are four
lamps, of which the lamp of wisdom is the most
excellent. There are four kinds of misconduct by
word, viz. musavada (falsehood), pisunavaca (back-
biting), pharusavaca (harsh speech), and samphap-
pallapa (frivolous talk). There are four kinds of
good conduct by word, viz. saccavaca (truthful
words), apisimavaca (no backbiting), sanhavaca
(gentle speech), and mantavaca (thoughtful speech).
There are four essences, viz. sila (conduct), samadhi
(meditation), panna (wisdom), and vimutti (emanci-
pation). There are four faculties and four powers,
viz. saddha (faith), viriya (energy), sati (recollec-
tion), and samadhi (meditation). The Lord speaks
of the four things which lead to the decay and
disappearance of the Norm * and of the four things
which lead to the preservation of the Norm. The
Lord says that the monks should aspire to become
like unto Sariputta and Moggallana. He speaks of
the elements and of the annihilation of personality.
Just as a warrior possessed of four qualities becomes
worthy of the king, so a brother possessed of four
qualities becomes worthy of offerings. The Exalted
One speaks of conduct, integrity, firmness, and
wisdom. The Exalted One replies to the charge

1 Causes of the disappearance of the Norm are the following :
(a) if the bhikkhus learn the suttantas which are not well taught,
(6) if the bhikkhus are wrong in speech, (c) if the learned bhikkhus
do not proclaim the suttantas rightly, and (d) if the learned
bhikkhus are not serious about nibbana the opposites of these
causes lead to the preservation of the Norm.

186 A History of Pali Literature

that he is a charmer and knows a trick of glamour,

_ CP *

whereby he entices the followers of other sects.
He also speaks of the asavas or sins and says that
it is not possible to cross the flood by self-mortifying
austerities. The Lord explains to the bhikkhus
about the wicked man and the good man and speaks
of the sinful and the virtuous, the man of evil
nature and the man of good nature. The Buddha
says that there are four kinds of misconduct and
four kinds of good conduct by word. The Blessed
One says that from relying on a good man, four
blessings should be expected as regards sila (conduct),
samadhi (meditation), paiina (wisdom), and vimutti
(emancipation). The Exalted One says that a
bhikkhu who does not observe the silas, who enter-
tains wrong views, who lives on lying, and who
hankers after glory and fame, rejoices in the breaking
of an order and that the holy life is lived for higher
wisdom, for the sake of realisation of emancipation
and for the mastery of mindfulness. The Buddha

%/

says that there are four persons worthy of monu-
ments, Tathagata, 1 Paccekabuddha, 2 Tathagatasa-
vaka 8 , and Rajacakkavatti. 4 He speaks of the four
balas or potentialities : energy, mindfulness, con-
centration, and wisdom and says that the bhikkhu
who is given to lust, malice, and envy and who is a
fool and has no common sense at all, should not
take to forest life. According to him, he who
kills living beings, incites others to kill, is expert
in killing, and praises the killing of lives, is sure to
go to hell and suffer there.

The Pancaka Nipdta (A.N., III, pp. 1-278)
deals with the five sekhabalas or the strength of
the learner or disciple (saddha or faith, hiri or

1 An epithet of the Buddha, lit., meaning one who has trodden
the right path.

2 Individual Buddha, one enlightened by oneself, i.e. one
who has attained to the supreme and perfect insight but dies without
proclaiming the truth to the world.

8 A disciple of the Tathagata.

4 Universal monarch. Read a paper on Cakkavatti by T. W.
Rhys Davids (R. G. Bhandarkar commemoration vol., pp. 125-131).

Canonical Pali Literature 187

bashfulness, ottappo or shrinking back from com-
mitting sin, viriya or energy and panna or wisdom),
the five balas of the Tathagata (saddha, viriya, hiri,
ottappo, and panna), the five upakkilesas or sins of
the body (ayo or iron, loham or copper, tipu or tin,
sisam or lead, and sajjham or silver), the five
mvaranas or obstacles (kamacchando or desire for
sensual pleasures, vyapado or ill-will, thmamiddham
or sloth and torpor, uddhaccakakkuccam or haughti-
ness and restlessness, and vicikiccha or doubt), and
the five objects of meditation (asubha or disagreeable,
anatta or without individuality, marana or death,
ah are patikkula or disagreeableness in food, and
sabbaloke anabhirati or not finding delight in the
whole world). This nipata also points out that a
bhikkhu endowed with five evil qualities, viz.,
avitaraga or not free from passion, avitadosa or not
free from hatred, avitamoha or not free from delusion,
makkho or hypocrisy, and palasa or malice, is not
dear to his fellow monks ; but when endowed with
five good qualities, he is dear to his fellow monks.
It also deals with the five phasuviharas, viz., mettam
(friendliness), kayakamniam (action by body),
vacikammam (action by speech), manokammam
(action by thought), observance of the Silas, and
holding right views which lead to the extinction of
suffering. The idea of aghata or harm should be
replaced by metta feeling. It deals with the
degradation of the brahmanas, the evils which
befall a bhikkhu who becomes angry, and the evils of
wrong behaviour.

lii the Chakka Nipata (A.N., III, pp. 279-452)
the Blessed One says that a bhikkhu endowed with
six qualities becomes worthy of veneration and
worship. Such a bhikkhu should be indifferent
to the objects of sight, sound, savoury, taste,
tangible things, and phenomena. There are six
dhammas which should be remembered by a bhikkhu.
As regards his body, speech, and mind he should
cultivate the metta feeling. He should also observe
the silas and hold right views which lead one to the

188 A History of Pali Literature

destruction of suffering. The Exalted One speaks of
the six dhammas which are essential for a bhikkhu
to cultivate. They are as follows : na kammara-
mata (no delight in deeds), na bhassaramata (no
delight in disputations), na niddaramata (no delight
in sleep), na sanganikaramata (no delight in com-
pany), sovacassata (gentleness), and kalyanamittata
(association with the virtuous). According to the
Buddha the highest of sight is the sight of the
Tathagata, the highest of hearing is the hearing of
the preaching of doctrines by the Tathagata, the
highest of gain is gaining faith in the Tathagata,
the highest of learning is learning the doctrine
preached by the Tathagata, the highest of service
is serving the Tathagata and his disciples, and the
highest of anussati (recollection) is the anussati
(recollection) of the Tathagata and his disciples.

The Sattaka Nipata (A.N., IV, pp. 1-140)
deals with the seven dhanas or riches (e.g., saddha
or faith, sila or conduct, hiri or bashfulness, ottappa
or shrinking from committing sins, suta or learning,
caga or sacrifice, and paiina or wisdom, and the
seven samyojanas or bonds : anunaya or friendliness,
patigha or repugnance, ditthi or false belief,
vicikiccha or doubt, mana or pride, bhava or
existence, and avijja or ignorance). The Exalted
One condemns the sacrifices in which slaughter of
living creatures occurs. He says that a true and
noble disciple does not trouble himself with the
thought whether the Tathagata exists or does not
exist after death. He further says how a bhikkhu
becomes an upholder of the Vinaya (Vinayadharo).

The Atfha Nipata (A.N., IV, pp. 15(>-350) deals
with the teachings of the Buddha elaborately, the
various kinds of alms-giving, the uposatha ceremony,
the eight causes of earthquake and mindfulness.

The Navalca Nipata (A.N., IV, pp. 351-466) deals
with the nine kinds of persons : araha (saint),
arahattayapatipanno (one who has reached the
stage of an arahat), anagami (one who has reached
the third stage of sanctification), anagamiphal-

Canonical Pali Literature 189

asacchikiriyayapatipanno (one who has attained
the fruition of the third stage of sanctification),
sakadagami (one who has reached the second stage
of sanctification), sotapanno (one who has reached
the first stage of sanctification), sotapattiphalas-
acchikiriyaya-patipanno (one who has attained the
fruition of the first stage of sanctification), puthuj-
jano (ordinary man), and nine kinds of sannas or
objects of thought : asubha (impurity), marana
(death), ahare patikkula (disagreeableness in food),
sabbaloke anabhirati (not finding delight in the
whole world), anicca (impermanence), anicce dukkha
(suffering in impermanence), dukkhe anatta (not a
self in suffering), pahana (abandonment), and viraga
(absence of passion). It further says that one can
attain arahatship by putting away raga (passion),
dosa (hatred), moha (delusion), kodha (anger),
upanaha (enmity), makkha (ill feeling), and palasa
(spite). It also mentions the five constituent ele-
ments : raga (passion), vedana (sensation), sanna
(perception), sankhara (constituent elements), and
viiinana (consciousness) and the five destinies of
beings : -niraya (hell), tiracchanayoni (region of
animals), pettivisayo (realm of the departed spirits),
mantissa (human beings), and deva (gods).

In the Dasaka Nipdta (A.N., V, pp. 1-310)
we are told of the attainments of the Buddha.
We find Upali asking questions on doctrinal points
and the Buddha giving the replies. The Blessed
One explains what is meant by the term ' sangha-
bheda '. He says that when the bhikkhus preach
dhamma as adhamma and vice versa, vinaya as
avinaya and vice versa and attribute to the
Tathagata that which has not been spoken by him,
preached by him, practised by him, and laid down by
him, then sanghabheda occurs. There is mention
of the ten sannas, the cultivation of which leads to
great advantages. The dasa sannas are : anicca
(impermanence), anatta (non-self), marana (death),
ahare patikkula (disagreeableness in food), sabbaloke
anabhirati (dissatisfaction towards the whole world),

190 A History of Pali Literature

atthika (bone), pulavaka (one of the asubha kamma-
tthanas which is called pulavaka, i.e. the contempla-
tion of the worm-infested corpse), vinilaka (one
of the asubha kammatthanas obtained by the
contemplation of a corpse black with decay),
vicchidaka (one of the asubha kammatthanas
obtained by the contemplation of a corpse fissured
from decay), and uddhumataka (idea of a bloated
corpse). There is also mention of the seven elements
of knowledge, viz.: sati (recollection), dhamma-
vicaya (investigation of doctrine), viriya (energy), piti
(delight), passaddhi (calmness), samadhi (meditation),
and upekkha (indifference). The seven bojjhahgas
make one to attain the three kinds of knowledge
knowledge of previous existence, knowledge of the
passing of beings from one existence to another, and
knowledge of the extinction of the asavas (sins).

The ten parisuddhis (purifications) are also
enumerated here. They arc sammaditthi (right
view), sammasankappo (right determination),
sammavaca (right speech), sammakammanto (right
action), samma ajivo (right living), sammavayamo
(right exertion), sammasati (right recollection),
sammasamadhi (right meditation), sammananaih
(right knowledge), and sammavimutti (right eman-
cipation). The Blessed One explains to the bhikkhus
what is sadhu and what is asadhu, what is ariya-
magga and what is anariyanmgga. A person
possessed of the bad qualities should not be served
whereas a person possessed of the good qualities
should be served. The former is reborn into hell
and the latter goes to heaven.

In the EkSdasaka Nipdta (A.N., V, pp. 311-361)
we are told of the qualities which are essentially
necessary for the attainment of Nibbana and which
will help one to become the highest and best among
gods and men. It is stated that through Vijja
and Carana * one can attain Nibbana. This nipata

1 In the Ambaftha Sutta we read : Vijjacarana-sampanno
so set$ho deva-marmse. The terms vijja and carana are explained
in this sutta (pp. 99-100).

' (Janonical Jfali Literature 191

also deals with the eleven blessings which are to be
expected from the exercise of benevolence, with the
eleven gates leading to Nibbana, by each of which
one may save oneself. One should also develop
eleven conditions for acquiring the knowledge of
human passion.

As regards the importance of the Ahguttara

Nikaya, we may point out that it
importance of the applies on a comprehensive scale
Anguttara Nikaya. to the numerical scheme of

mnemonics as enunciated in the
Kumara Panha, the * Novice's Questions.' The
same scheme has been followed also in the Sangiti
and Dasuttara Suttantas of the Digha Nikaya, as
well as in the Thera and the Therigathas. The art
has been tried, though not very systematically, in
the Atharvavedasamhita. Thus at the first sight
this nikaya is far from presenting a connected
exposition of the doctrine. But on a closer examina-
tion it may be found that it works out a definite
scheme of its own, all the suttas grouped in the
successive numerical sections have bearings on a
twofold Vinaya, namely, the Bliikkhuvinaya and
the Gahapativinaya. Although the groupings or
enumerations of doctrines or principles are in many
instances similar to those in the Samyutta Nikaya,
the distinction of the Anguttara lies in the fact that
its bearing is, on the whole, practical, we mean on
the aspect of discipline and the time may come
when it will be satisfactorily proved that the origin
of the materials of the Vinaya Suttavibhanga were
derived mainly from this nikaya. Its importance
lies also in the fact that the contents of the Puggala-
panfiatti which is one of the earliest of the
Abhidhamma books are nothing but excerpts from it.

Comparing the individual passages it becomes
increasingly clear that the lengthy discourses in
the Digha and Majjhima Nikayas have been broken
up in the Anguttara, and the points dealt with in
them have been emphasised separately in smaller
groupings. Thus it may be shown that the purpose

192 A History of Pali Literature

of this nikaya is to sufficiently emphasise certain
doctrinal points by repeatedly dinning them into
the ears of the hearers.

But we are not to suppose that the Anguttara
has not an originality of its own as regards its
contents. There are indeed many suttas or passages
which are peculiarly its own and these passages
shed much lustre on the development of Buddhism
and its history. 1

Attention may be drawn, for instance, to the
Etadaggavagga in the Ekanipata. It furnishes us
with a list of prominent Buddhist personalities
among the bhikkhus, the bhikkhums, the upasakas,
and upasikas who are declared by the Buddha to
be the foremost in ranks in certain attainments or
qualities. For instance, the Thera Mahakaccana
was declared to be the foremost amongst those
immediate disciples of the Buddha who had the
capacity to set forth in detail the meaning of a truth
briefly enunciated by the Master ; the Thera Vangisa
amongst those who excelled in the art of improvisa-
tion. All this goes to prove that the Buddhist
Order as organised by the Buddha left sufficient
scope for the development of individualism and
initiative. The Appamattakavagga in the same
nipata is highly significant as emphasising the need
of philanthropic works and having as such a direct
bearing on Asoka's Dhaimna.

In the Dukampata we may draw attention to
the Kammakaranavagga throwing a flood of light
on the brutal methods of punishment and criminal
justice, the rigour of which was sought to be modified
by King Asoka.

In the same nipata we have a Viiiaya tract,
Atthavasavagga, which may even be identified with
the passage, ' Vinaya-samukase ', recommended by
Asoka in his Bhabru Edict. Its interest centres
round a scheme which it lays down, presenting a
plan for the whole of the Vinaya Pitaka. Attention

1 e.g., Anguttara Nikaya, I, pp. 11, 33, 55, etc.

Canonical Pali Literature 195

may be drawn to the Parisavagga in the Dukanipata,
the tract on Ariyavamsa in the Catukkanipata and
the tract on Anagatabhayani, future dangers of the
faith, as well as the Rajavagga in the Pancakanipata,
all of which has a close bearing on the edicts and
teachings of Asoka.

Sanity and perspecuity characterise the style
of this Nikaya. In a purely prosaic and mechanical
scheme there are to be seen matters that bristle
with interest. The variety of contents assigns a
very important place to this Nikaya in regard to the
subsequent development of Buddhist texts belonging
to all the three pitakas.

E. THE KHTTDDAKA NIKAYA

The Khuddaka Nikaya is the fifth and the
last division of the Sutta Pitaka. Strictly speaking
it is composed of sixteen independent treatises which
are enumerated by Buddhaghosa as fifteen. Its
contents are of different times. Some of its parts
belong to the earliest period while others to the
latest stratum of the Pali Canon. It is composed
for the most part in verse, and contains all the
most important works of Buddhist poetry. The
sixteen books are as follows :

(1) Khuddakapatha, (2) Dhammapada, (3)
Udana, (4) Itivuttaka, (5) Sutta Nipata, (6) Vimana-
vatthu, (7) Petavatthu, (8) Theragatha, (9) Theri-
gatha, (10) Jatakas, (11 and 12) Mahaniddesa and
Cullamddesa (counted as one treatise by Buddha-
ghosa), (13) Patisambhidamagga, (14) Apadana,
(15) Buddha vamsa, and (16) Cariyapitaka.

According to the Burmese tradition, there are
four other works besides the above-mentioned texts,
namely, the Milindapanha, the Suttasamgaha, the
Petakopadesa, and the Netti or Nettipakarana.

Khuddakapatha. The Khuddakapatha or
" short lessons " is the first book. It is also known
as " Lesser readings " . Mrs. Rhys Davids calls it the
text of the minor sayings. It is a selection made

13

194 A History of Pali Literature

out of an original collection of the canon. It
possesses a high authority in Ceylon. It takes
its name from its first four texts which are very
brief and are termed pathas. The first four pathas
and the Mangala, Ratana, and Metta Suttas are
translated by Gogerly in his version of Pirit in the
Ceylon Friend (June, July, and August, 1839).
Besides there are two suttas, Tirokuddasutta and
Nidhikandasutta.

The Khuddakapatha consists of nine texts.
According to the commentary, the book derives its
name from the first four passages which are shorter
in comparison with the remaining five passages
or suttas. The first is the Buddhist creed ; the
second gives the ten commandments prescribed for
the novices ; and the ninth is the Karanlyamettasutt a
in which kindness towards all creatures is esteemed
as the true Buddhist cult. The work is a booklet
of only a few pages, starting with the so-called
Buddhist creed :

" I take my refuge in the Buddha (Buddham

saranarh gacchami).
I take refuge in the Dhamma (religion)

(Dhammam saranam gacchami).
I take refuge in the Samgha (Order) ( Samgha m

saranam gacchami)." a

Then the following other topics are discussed
in the Khuddakapatha :

(A) The ten precepts, 2 e.g.

1 This is known as the refuge formula, better known as Saranat
tayaxh or Tlsaranam. From the Mahavagga it appears that the two
merchants, Tapussa and Bhallika, were the first in the world to
become lay disciples (of the Buddha) by the formula which contained
(only) the dyad. Because there was no Samgha at that time, their
declaration of taking refuge, by which they became upasakas, could
refer only to the dyad (the Buddha and the Dhamma), instead of the
triad of the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Samgha. Yasa, the son
of a setthi of Benares, was the first person in the world who becanu-
a lay disciple by the formula of the holy triad (cf . Sacred Books of
the East, Vol. XIII, p. 106).

2 The first five commandments are meant for the laymen and
all the ten commandments are meant for the monks. Mrs. Rhys
Davids translates it as " the tenfold course ".

Canonical Pali Literature 195

(i) Avoidance of life-slaughter,
(ii) Avoidance of theft,
(iii) Avoidance of leading irreligious life,
(iv) Avoidance of falsehood,
(v) Avoidance of drinking spirituous liquor,
(vi) Avoidance of dancing, singing, and music,
(vii) Avoidance of using garlands, scents,
ointments and avoidance of orna-
mentations,

(viii) Avoidance of using luxurious and magni-
ficent household furniture,
(ix) Avoidance of using gold and silver,
(x) Avoidance of taking food at improper
time.

(B) The 32 parts of the body, e.g. hairs of the
head, nails, teeth, heart, liver, skin, flesh, spleen,
abdomen, bile, phlegm, lungs, mucus, pus, blood,
kidney, marrow, etc. (cf. Visuddhimagga, I, pp. 249-
265, Sammohavinodam, Sinhalese Ed., pp. 49-63). l

(C) Novice's questions or as Mrs. Rhys Davids
puts it " questions for young gentlemen "

What is meant by one ? all beings live on
food.

What are meant by two ? name and form.

What are meant by three ? the three sensa-
tions.

What are meant by four ? the four truths.

What are meant by five ? the five constituent
elements of beings.

What are meant by six ? the six sense-organs.

What are meant by seven ? seven super-
natural knowledges.

What are meant by eight ? the noble eight-
fold path.

1 The thirty-one parts of the body excepting Matthake Mattha-
hmgam are also mentioned in the Maha-satipaithana Suttanta of
the Dlgha Nikaya, Vol. II, p. 293, and in the Satipatthanasuttaiii
of the Majjhima Nikaya, Vol. I, p. 57. Mrs. Rhys Davids translates
tk Dvattimsakararh " as the thirty -twofold formation (vide the Minor
Anthologies of the Pali Canon, Pt. I, S.B.B., 1931).

196 A History of Pali Literature

What are meant by nine ? the nine abodes

of human beings.
What are meant by ten ? the ten attributes

which go to make a being a saint.

There are five suttas in the Khuddakapatha, a
brief summary of which is given below.

Mangala Sutta (Khuddakapafha, P.T.S., pp.
2-3). This sutta 1 is like the Svastyayana gatha.
The chief blessings are the following :

Not to serve the unwise but to attend to the
learned and to offer offerings to those worthy of
homage, to live in a suitable place, to have done
meritorious deeds in past existences and right self-
application, to serve parents, to provide for wife
and children and to follow a peaceful vocation, to
give alms, to lead a religious life, to help relatives
and to do good deeds, to abstain from sin, to refrain
from the use of intoxicants and to preserve in virtue,
reverence, humility, contentment, and gratitude and
to attend to religious sermons at proper time, to
be patient and gentle in speech, to visit the order
of monks, to hold religious discourse at proper
season, asceticism and celibacy, discernment of the
four noble truths and realisation of Nibbana, to
have a mind unshaken by ups and downs of life,
free from sorrow, impurity, and tranquil. The
Mahamangala Jataka in Fausboll's Jataka, Vol. IV,
may be taken to represent the Hindu background of
the Buddhist Mangala Sutta.

Ratana Sutta (Khuddakapatha, pp. 3-6). This
sutta 2 is one of the finest lyrics in early Pali poetry, a
charming hymn of praise of the Buddhist holy
Triad, recited to ward off dangers and secure pros-
perity. The poem, as we now have it, consists of
two separate groups of stanzas, the one of the five

1 There is a commentary on this sutta known as the Marigalat-
thadipani. This sutta also occurs in the Sutta Nipata. But the
title of the sutta in the Sutta Nipata is Mahamangala Suttam
(Sutta Nipata, P.T.S., pp. 46-47).

2 Cf. Sutta Nipata, p. 39.

Canonical Pali Literature 197

stanzas (first two and the last three) being tradi-
tionally known as the original structure (adito
paiicagatha). The remaining stanzas appear to
have been inserted into the original scheme of
five.

Whatever treasure there is in the world or in the
next and whatever excellent jewels there are in
heaven there is none equal to the Buddha. There
is nothing equal to the unceasing meditation extolled
by the Buddha. Those who being free from desire
with a steadfast mind are firmly established in the
religion of Gautama, obtain arahatship. As the
pillar of a city-gate standing on the earth is immov-
able by the wind from the four directions, so I call
him a righteous man who realises four noble truths.
They that clearly meditate on the four noble truths
laid down by the wise one, however much they may
be led astray, cannot obtain the eighth birth in
the Niraya hell. He who is blessed with the know-
ledge of Nibbana, these three things are cast off
by him vanity of self, doubt, and false belief in
vain ceremonies or any other thing that exists.
Such a person is delivered from the four states of
punishment and it is impossible for him to commit
six deadly sins. The Buddha preached his excellent
doctrine for the good of men. The wise whose
old karma is destroyed and no new karma is pro-
duced, whose heart no longer cleaves to future
existence, whose seeds of existence are destroyed
and desires quenched extinguish like a lamp.

Tirokudda Sutta 1 (Khuddakapdtha, p. 6). The
departed spirits stand outside our dwelling houses,
at corners, at cross roads, they stand at our doors
coming back to their old homes. Those of the
kinsmen who are compassionate, bestow on them
in due time food and drink, pure, sweet, and excellent,
thinking let these be for our departed relatives,
let them be happy. In the land of the departed

1 Cf. Petavatthu (P.T.S.), pp. 4-5 Tiroku4dapetavatthu.
Mrs. Rhys Davids calls this sutta as " The saying on over the walls ".

198 A History of Pali Literature

there exist no husbandry, no tending of cattle, no
commerce and no trade in gold. The departed
live in that world on what they receive from this
world. Weeping, sorrow, and other manners of
lamentation, none of these benefit the departed.
The gift offered by mankind to an well-established
order of monkhood will be for their good for a
long time and will surely benefit the dead. This
sutta represents the earliest known Buddhist formula
of offering oblations to the departed spirits, a
custom evidently taken from the general custom of
the Hindus.

Nidhikandasutta (KhuddakapdtJia, p. 7). A man
buries his treasure in a pit near water thinking thus
within himself, " if occasion arises this treasure will
be of use to me, when I am accused by the king or
plundered by thieves, or for release from debt
or in times of famine and calamity ". For these
purposes a man conceals his treasure in this world.
A wise man should practise virtue, a treasure which
will follow him after death. Fine complexion,
sweet voice, good feature, and beauty of person,
pomp and power over his family all that is obtained
by this treasure. All worldly prosperity, every
pleasure in celestial abode, the bliss of Nirvana all
that is obtained by this treasure. A man obtaining
good friends by his wisdom can obtain knowledge,
emancipation and self-control by means of this
treasure. Analytical knowledge, emancipation, ail
the perfections of a disciple, the knowledge of all
individual Buddhas and the state of the Buddha
all that is obtained by this treasure. The wise and
the learned should praise meritorious deeds.

Kamniyamettasutta (Khuddakapdtha^ pp. 8-9). r
A person should be diligent, straightforward, up-
right, obedient, gentle, and not vainglorious. He
should not do any mean acts for which the wise
might abuse him. Let all creatures be happy and

1 Of. Sutta Nipata, p. 25, but the title of the sutta is Mettasutta
or " saying on amity ".

Canonical Pali Literature 199

prosperous, let them be contented. A person
should not deceive another, nowhere and in no
way should show disrespect to any one. Let none
out of anger or sense of resentment wish misery
to another. A person should cherish boundless
goodwill towards all the beings. Without embracing
false views and false doctrines, the virtuous man
possessed of insight subduing his desire for sensual
pleasures, will never be born in the womb.

The Khuddakapatha does not contain much
idea of Nibbana in about Nibbana. In the Ratana

the Khuddakapatha. g utta the WQ ^ d amatar fc, ^ as b een

used for Nibbanam (cf. tepattipattaamatam vigayha).
In the Mettasuttam Santam Padam has been used
for Nibbana (cf. karamyam atthakusalena yam
tam santam padam abhisamecca, etc.).

The Novice's questions appear to have been
,, , ,. . taken from the Vinaya. The

Concluding remarks. ,.- . , ~ __ J ,

Mangala butta, Ratana Sutta, and
Karamyamettasutta occur also in the Sutta Nipata
of the Khuddaka Nikaya and the Tirokuddasutta
also occurs in the Petavatthu. As regards the date
of the work, it appears to have been compiled even
after the first commitment of the canon to writing
in the 1st century B.C. It has been edited by
Helmer Smith for the P.T.S., London, with its
commentary. The commentary appears to have
been written by Buddhaghosa/ The commentaries
on the Khuddakapatha and the Sutta Nipata are
known as the Paramatthajotika. Buddhaghosa
wrote them of his own accord in the fifth century
A.D. There is an edition of this book by R. C.
Childers published in the J.R.A.S., 1870, N.S.
with English translation and notes. A German
edition by Karl Seidenstucker is also available
published in Breslau in 1910. There is another
edition with English translation by M. K. Ghosh
and published by Messrs. Chakravartty Chatterjee
and Co., Calcutta. There are Sinhalese, Burmese,
and Siamese editions of this text. The text of the
Khuddakapatha has been re-edited and translated

200 A History of Pali Literature

by Mrs. Rhys Davids in the Sacred Books of the
Buddhists series under the name of the Minor
Anthologies of the Pali Canon.

Dhammapada. The Dhammapada is the second
book. It contains the sublime teachings of the
Buddha. The text contains 423 verses divided into
26 vaggas or chapters which are as follows: (1)
Yamaka, (2) Appamada, (3) Citta, (4) Puppha,
(5) Bala, (6) Pandita, (7) Arahanta, (8) Sahassa,
<9) Papa, (10) Danda, (11) Jara, (12) Atta, (13)
Loka, (14) Buddha, (15) Sukha, (16) Piya, (17)
Kodha, (18) Mula, (19) Dhammattha, (20) Magga,
(21) Pakinnaka, (22) Niraya, (23) Naga, (24) Tanha,
(25) Bhikkhu, and (26) Brahmana, a brief summary
of which is given below :

Chapter I Yamakavagga 1 (Dhammapada,
P.T.S., pp. 1-3). Hatred does not cease by hatred.
It ceases by love. Those who know that we all must
come to an end in this world, their quarrels cease
at once. He who lives looking for pleasures only,
his senses uncontrolled, immoderate in his food, idle
and weak, will be overcome by Mara. He who
disregards temperance and truth and who puts on
yellow robe without having cleansed himself from
sin is unworthy of the yellow robe. He who knows
truth in truth, untruth in untruth arrives at truth
and follows true desires. An evil-doer mourns in
this world and in the next ; he mourns in both.
He mourns and suffers when he sees the evil result
of his own work. A virtuous man delights in this
world, in the next and in both. He delights and
rejoices when he sees the purity of his own work.
A virtuous man is happy when he thinks of the
good he has done.

1 Anikkasavo kasavam yo vattham paridahessati, apeto dama-
saccena, na so kasavam arahati. Of. Mahabharata, xii, 568. Anish-
kaehaye Kashayam lhartham iti viddhi tarn. Dharmadhvajanam
mundanam vrittyartham iti me matih.

Pare ca na vijananti " mayam ettha yamamase", ye ca
tattha vijananti, tato sammanti medhaga ". See Theragatha, p. 33.

Canonical Pali Literature 201

Chapter II Appamddavagga l (Dhammapada,
pp. 4-5). Earnestness is the path of immortality,
thoughtlessness, the path of death. The wise
people, meditative, steady, always possessed of
strong powers, attain to Nirvana, the highest
happiness. Fools follow after vanity. Earnestness
is praised and thoughtlessness is always blamed. A
bhikkhu who delights in earnestness, who looks
with fear on thoughtlessness, moves about like
fire and a bhikkhu who delights in reflection, who
looks with fear on thoughtlessness cannot fall away
he is close upon Nirvana.

Chapter III Cittavagga 2 (Dhammapada,
pp. 5-6). Well-guarded thoughts bring happiness.
If a man's faith is unsteady, if he does not know
the true law, if his peace of mind is troubled, his
knowledge will never be perfect. Whatever a hater
may do to a hater or an enemy to an enemy, a
wrongly directed mind will do him greater mischief.

Chapter I V Pupphavagga 8 (Dhammapada 9
pp. 7-9). The perfume of those who possess virtue
rises up to the gods as the highest. The odour of
good men like good flowers travels against the wind.
The fame of a good man is spread all over the
regions.

1 " Appamado amatampadam, pamado maccuno padam,
appamatta na mlyanti, ye pamatta yathamata." This verse, as
recited to Asoka, occurs in the Dipavamsa, VI, 53. Cf. Mahavamsa
(Geiger), p. 35 ; Jataka, V, p. 99 and Nettipakarana, p. 34.

2 Dunniggahassa lahuno yatthakamanipatino, cittassa damatho
sadhu, cittarh dantarh sukhavaham (cf. Jataka, I, pp. 312, 400).

8 "Pupphani h'eva pacinantam vyasattamanasam naram suttarh
gamam mahoghova maccu adaya gacchati.

Pupphani h'eva pacinantam vyasattamanasam naram atittam
yeva kainesa antako kurute vasam."

There is a curious similarity between these verses and verses
6540-41, and 9939 of the Santiparva.

" Puspaniva vicin van tarn anyatragatamanasam
anavaptesu kamesu mrtyur abhyeti manavam
Suptam vyaghram mahaugho va mrtyur adaya gacchat*
Sancinvanakam evainam kamanarh avitrptikam."
** Yathapi bhamaro puppham vannagandham ahe^hayi
paleti rasam adaya, evam game muni care ti."

(Cf. Nettipakare

202 A History of Pali Literature

Chapter V Balavagga 1 (Dhammapada, pp. 9-
11). A fool who thinks himself wise is a fool indeed.
If a fool is associated with a wise man even all his
life, he will perceive truth to some extent. If an
intelligent man be associated with a wise man for
a moment, he will soon perceive the truth. As
long as the evil deed done does not bear fruit, the
fool thinks it is like honey but when it ripens,
then the fool suffers grief. A fool wishes for a false
reputation. If a bhikkhu realises the fact that one
is the road leading to wealth and another is the
road leading to Nirvana, he will not yarn for honour
but he will strive after separation from the world.

Chapter VI Panditavagga 2 (Dhammapada,
pp. 11-13). Wise people after they have listened to
the laws, become serene. Good men walk under
all circumstances. A wise man should leave the
dark state of ordinary life and follow the bright
state of the bhikkhu. Those whose mind is well-
grounded in the seven elements of knowledge who
without clinging to anything rejoice in freedom
from attachment, whose appetites have been con-
quered and who are full of light, are free in this world.

Chapter VII Arahantavagga (Dhammapada,
pp. 13-15). There is no suffering for him who has

1 Madhuva rnafifiatl balo yava papam ria paceati
Yada ca paccati papam atha (balo) dukkharh nigacchatt.
The verse is taken from the Samyutta Nikaya where, however,
we read * thananhi ' instead of rnadhuva.

Cf. Nettipakarana, p. 131 Caranti bala dummodha amitteri '
eva attana

karonta papakain kammam yarn hoti kat-ukapphalam.
Na tam kammam katarh adhu yam katva anutappati
yassa assumukho rodarh vipakam patisevati.

Cf. Jataka, Vol. Ill, p. 291.
Mase mase kusaggena balo bhuiljetha bhojanam
na so sankhatadhammanam kalam agghati sojasim.

Cf. Uttaradhyayana Sutra, ix, 44.

Na hi papam katarh kammam sajju khirarh va muccati
dahantam balarh anveti bhasmachanno va pavako.

Cf. Nettipakarana, p. 161.

2 Nidhinam va pavattararh yam passe vajjadassinarii
^gga-y^vadim medhavirh tadisam panditam bhaje,
tadisam bhajamanassa seyyo hoti na papiyo.

Cf. Jataka, Vol. Ill, p. 367 ; Theragatha, pp. 89-90.

Canonical Pali Literature 203

abandoned grief, who has freed himself on all sides
and thrown off the fetters. The man who is free
from credulity but knows the uncreated, who has
cut all ties, removed all temptations, renounced all
desires, is the greatest of men.

Chapter VIII Sahassavagga 1 (Dhammapada,
pp. 15-17). He who always greets and constantly
reveres the aged, will gain these four things, namely
life, beauty, happiness, and power. He who lives
a hundred years, vicious and unrestrained, a life
of one dav is better if a man is virtuous and

>

reflecting. He who lives a hundred years, ignorant
and unrestrained, a life of one day is better if a
man is wise and reflecting. He who lives a hundred
years, idle and weak, a life of one day is better if
a man has attained firm strength. He who lives a
hundred years not seeing beginning and end, a
life of one day is better if a man sees beginning and
end. He who lives a hundred years, not seeing the
immortal place, a life of one day is better if a
man sees the immortal place. He who lives a
hundred years, not seeing the highest law, a life
of one day is better if a man sees the highest law.
Chapter IX Pdpavagga 2 (Dhammapada, pp. 17-
19). A man should hasten towards good and should

1 The Sahassavagga is quoted as Sahasravarga in the Mahavastu,
ef. Tesarh Bhagavan jatilanarh Dharmapadesu sahasravargam
bhasati : v Sahasram api vacanaih aiiarthapadasamhitanam, ekartha-
vati Sreya yam 6rutva upasamyati. Sahasram api gathanam
anarthapadasamliitaiiam ekarthavati 6reya yam 6rutvaupa6amyati.'

Abhivadanasilissa niccam vaddhapacayino cattaro dhamma
vaddhanti : fiyu, vanno, sukham balaih. Cf. Manu, II, 121.
Abhivadaua6ilasya nityarh vrddhopaseviiiah
Cat van sampravardhante ayur vidya ya6o balaih.
" Yo sahassam sahassena sangame manuse jine
ekam ca jiyya attanam sa ve sangamajuttamo."

Cf. Uttaradhyayana Sutra, ix, 34.

2 Papo pi passati bhadram yava papam na paccati,
yada ca paccati papaiii (atha) papo papani passati.
Bhadro pi passati papam yava bhadram na paccati,
yada ca paccati bhadram (atha) bhadro bhadrani passati.

Cf. Jataka, Vol. I, p. 231.

4i G abb ham eke upapajjanti nirayam papakammino,
Saggarh sugatino yanti. .... .anasava."

Cf. Mahavastu, ii, p. 424.

204 A History of Pali Literature

keep his thought away from evil. If a man commits
a sin, let him not repeat it. If a man does what is
good, let him do it again. A man should think
lightly of evil. If a man offends a harmless, pure
and innocent person, the evil falls back upon that
fool.

Chapter X Dandavagga 1 (Dhammapada, pp. 19-
21). All men are afraid of punishment and all
men fear death. He who seeking his own happiness
punishes or kills beings who also long for happiness,
will not find happiness after death. Do not speak
harshly to anybody. A fool does not know when
he commits his evil deeds. He will have cruel
suffering, loss, injury of the body, heavy affliction or
loss of mind. Not nakedness, not plaited hair,
not dirt, not fasting or lying on the earth, not
rubbing with dust, not sitting motionless can purify
a mortal who has not overcome desires.

Chapter XI Jardvagga 2 (Dhammapada, pp. 22-
23). The body in this world is wasted, full of sick-

1 Attanam upamam katva na hanneya, na ghataye.

This is an expression which occurs frequently in Sanskrit.
<?f. Hitopade6a, I, 11

Prana yathatmano-bhis^a bhutanam api te tatha,
Atmaupamyena bhutesu dayam kurvanti sadhavah
Sukhakamani bhutani yo dandena vihirnsati,
Attano sukham esano pecca na labhate sukharh.

Cf. Manu, V, 45, cf. Netti, p. 130.
" Yo himsakani bhutani hinastyatmasukhecchaya,
Sa jivamSca mrta^caiva na kvacit sukham edhate.

Cf. Mahabharata, XIII, 5568.
Ahiihsakani bhutani dandena vinihanti yah,
atmanah sukham icchan sa pretya naiva sukhl bhavet.
Sabbe tasanti dandassa, sabbesarh jlvitam piyam,
attanarh upamam katva na haneyya na ghataye.

Cf. Jataka, Vol. Ill, p. 292.

Na naggacariya na ja^a na panka nanasaka thandilasayika va |
rajo ca jail am ukku^ikappadhanam sodhenti maccam avitinna
kankhazhll

Cf. Divyavadana, p. 339.
" Hirinisedho puriso koci lokasmi vijjati,

so nindam appabodhati asso bhadro kasam iva.

Cf. Uttaradhyayana Sutra, p. 3.

2 Yani ' mani apatthani alapun'eva sarade
kftpotakani atthini tani disvana ka rati ?

Canonical Pali Literature 205

ness and frail ; this heap of corruption breaks to
pieces, life ends in death. After a stronghold
has been made of the bones, it is covered with
flesh and blood and there dwell in it old age and
death, pride, and deceit. A man who has learnt
little grows old ; his flesh grows but his knowledge
does not grow. Men who have not observed
proper discipline and have not gained wealth in
their youth, perish like old herons. Men who have
not observed proper discipline and have not gained
wealth in their youth lie like broken bows.

Chapter XII Attavagga l (Dhammapada,
pp. 23-25). Let each man direct himself first to
what is proper, then let him teach others, thus a
wise man will not suffer. Self is the lord of self,
who else could be the lord. He whose wickedness
is very great brings himself down to that state
where his enemy wishes him to be. It is difficult
to perform good and beneficial deeds. Bad deeds
can be easily performed. A fool who scorns the
rule of the venerable, of the elect, of the virtuous
and follows a false doctrine, bears fruit to his own
destruction. Let no one forget his own duty for
the sake of another however great.

In the Rudrayanavadana of the Divyavadana this verse
appears as

Yanimani apariddhani viksiptani dis"o didah
Kapotavarnani asthini tani drstvaiha ka ratih.
The expression * mamsalohitalepanam ' is curiously like that
used in Manu, VI, 76, mamsaSonitalepanam, and in several passages
of the Mahabharata, XII, 12462, 12053. Jiranti ve rajaratha sucitta

pavedayanti." Cf. Jataka, V, 483.

1 Cf . the first stanza of this vagga with the Brhadaranyaka
Upauisad, 1, 4, 8 ; 2, 4 ; 4, 5

Atta hi attano natho ; ko hi natho paro siya ?
Attana hi sudantena natham labhati dullabham.

Cf. Gita, Ch. VI.

" Uddharedatmanatmanam natmanamavasadayet
atrnaiva hyatmano bandhuratmaiva ripuratmanah
bandhuratmatmanastasya yenatmaivatmana jitah
anatmanasthu 6atrutve varttetatmaiva 6atruvat ".
Attadattham paratthena bahunapi na hapaye of. Bhagavad-
gita, the translation of the passage in the Bhagavadgita is this:
" Better one's own dharma, however ill-performed, than others'
dhanna well -performed tho' it be ".

206 A History of Pali Literature

Chapter XIII Lokavagga l (Dhammapada,
pp. 25-26). One should not follow false doctrine.
One should follow the law of virtue. He whose
evil deeds are covered by good deeds brightens up
this world like the moon. If a man has trans-
gressed the one law and speaks lies and scoffs at
another world, there is no evil he will not do. The
reward of sotapatti is better than sovereignty
over the earth, going to heaven and lordship over
all the worlds.

Chapter XIV Buddhavagga 2 (Dhammapada,
pp. 27-29). The teaching of the Awakened is not
to commit any sin, to do good to others, and to
purify one's own mind. Patience is the highest
penance and long suffering is the highest Nirvana
(cf. Dlgha, II, 49). He is not an ascetic who insults
others. Not to blame, not to strike, to live
restrained under the law, to be moderate in eating,
to sleep and sit alone and to dwell on the highest
thoughts this is the teaching of the Buddha (cf.
Digha, II, 49; Netti, 43, 81, 171, and 186; Maha-
vastu, III, 420). The wise people know that lust^
have a short taste and cause pain. He who takes
refuge in the Buddha, the law and the church and he
who with clear understanding sees the four holv

C2 .

truths, namely, suffering, origin of suffering, cessation
of suffering, and the path leading to its cessation, is

nappamaj jeyya, dhammam sucaritarh care

paramhi ca cf. Milinda, 213.
Harhsadiccapathe yanti

In Hinduism the Paramaharhsa fc the swan ' is the my stir
name for the literated being (ef. the Bhagavadgita) who goes to th<
Sun (aditya) and is reborn no more ; also in Chandyogya Upanisad,
VIII, 7-5, we read, " when mind ceases to act he attains the Bun.
That is the way to the region above. It is open to the learned
but closed to the ignorant." Those who are reborn are said to go
on the path of the moon. See the Buddha's Path of Virtue by
F. L. Woodward, p. 43 f.n.

2 Api dibbesu kamesu ratiih so nadhigacchati, tanhakkhayarato
hoti sammasambuddhasavako. There is a curious similarity
between this verse and verse 6503 (9919) of the Santiparva
" yacca kamasukham loke, yacca dibbarh mahatsukham, trsna
ksayasukhasyaite narhatah soda&m kalam ".

Canonical Pali Literature 207

delivered from all pain. A Buddha is not easily
found, he is not born anywhere.

Chapter XV Sukhavagga 1 (Dhanwnapada,
pp. 30-31). There is no fire like passion, there is
no losing thread like hatred, there is no pain like
this body, and there is no happiness higher than
rest. Hunger is the worst of all diseases, the ele-
ments of the body, the greatest evil ; if one knows
this truly, that is Nirvana, the highest happiness.
Health is the greatest of gifts, contentedness, the
best riches, trust is the best of relationships,
Nirvana, the highest happiness (cf. Majjhima, I,
508, 257 ; Jataka, iii, 196). He who has tasted the
sweetness of solitude and tranquillity is free from
fear and sin. The sight of the elect is good, to
live with them is always happiness ; if a man does
not see fools, he will be truly happy. Company
with fools is always painful while the company
with the wise is delightful. One ought to follow
the wise, the intelligent, the learned, the much
enduring, the dutiful, and the elect.

Chapter X VI Piyavagga (Dhammapada, pp. 31-
33). Those who love nothing, hate nothing have
no fetters. From pleasure comes grief, from pleasure
comes fear, he who is free from pleasure knows
neither grief nor fear. From affection comes grief
and from it comes fear ; he who is free from affection
knows neither grief nor fear. Grief comes from
lust and from lust comes fear. He who is free

1 Sustikharh vata jivama yesan no n'atthi kiiicanam, pibibhak-
kha bhavissama deva iibhassara yatha cf. the words placed in the
mouth of the king of Videlia while his residence Mithila was in
flames, which are curiously like this verse. Cf. Mahabharata,
XII, 9917 Susukham vata jivami yasya me nasti kificana,
mithilayaih pradlpatayam na me dahyati kincana.

Jay am veram pasavati, dukkhan seti parajito,

Upasanto sukharh seti hitva jayaparajayam.

This verse is ascribed to the Buddha. It exists in the Northern
or Sanskrit and in the Southern or Pali text, that is, in the
Avadanadataka and in the Samyutta Nikaya.

In the AvadanaSataka the Sanskrit version is as follows :

Yayo vairam prasvati, dukkham ete parajitah
Upadantah sukham ete hitva jayaparajayam.

208 A History of Pali Literature

from lust knows neither grief nor fear. 1 He who
possesses virtue and intelligence, who is just, speaks
the truth and does what is his own business, him
the world will hold dear.

Chapter XVII Kodhavagga* (Dhammapada,
pp. 33-34). A man should overcome anger by
love. Let him overcome evil by good, let him
overcome the greedy by liberality and the liar by
truth (cf. Jataka, ii, 4).

The sages who injure nobody and who always
control their body will go to Nirvana. Those who
are watchful, who study day and night, and who
strive after Nirvana, their passions will come to
an end. Beware of bodily anger and control your
body. Beware of the anger of the mind and control
your mind. The wise who control their body,
who control their tongue, who control their mind
are indeed well controlled.

Chapter X VIII Malavagga 3 (Dhammapada,
pp. 35-37). When your impurities are removed and
you are free from guilt, you will enter into the heaven-
ly world of the elect. You will not enter into the
birth and decay when your impurities are removed
and you are free from guilt. Bad conduct is the
taint of woman, niggardliness, the taint of a bene-

1 Cf. Kathopanisad, 61. 14, 3 valll.

2 The idea conveyed in the first stanza of this vagga is similar
to the idea found in the Mundakopaiiisad, 61. 8, 3rd Mundaka, pt.
II.

3 Akase padam n'atthi, samano n'atthi bahire,
papaficabhirata paja, nippapanca Tathagata.
Akase padam n'atthi, samano n'atthi bahire,
Sankhara sassata n'atthi, n'atthi Buddhanarh injitam.

In the story of Subhadda the wanderer (Dh. Commy., Ill,
p. 378) who came to see the Master on his death-bed, he asked
these three questions : ' Is there any track in space ? Is there any
(real) recluse in the outer world ? Are the constituents (of
existence) eternal ? These gathas were the answer.

In the canonical account (Digha N., II, 150) he only asked
whether the leaders of heretical sects had true knowledge. The
Master put aside the question and said that outside the eightfold
way (in four degrees) there were no real samanas or recluses. See
the Buddha's Path of Virtue, pp. 62-63. So karohi dlpam attano ;

khlppam vayama, pandito bhava ehisi. (cf. Chandogya

Upanisad, 3, 13, 7 ; Kaihopanisad, 5, 15).

*

Canonical Pali Literature 209

factor, tainted are all evil ways in this world and
in the next. Ignorance is the greatest taint. The
monks should throw off that taint and become
taintless. Life is easy to live for a man who is
without shame. It is hard to live for a modest
man, who always looks for what is pure, disinterested,
quiet, spotless, and intelligent. He who destroys
life, who speaks untruth, who in the world takes
what is not given him, who goes to another man's
wife, who gives himself to drinking intoxicating
liquors, he digs up his own root. There is no fire
like passion, no shark like hatred, no snare like
folly, and no torrent like greed. It is easy to find
out the fault of others but it is difficult to find one's
own fault. If a man looks after the faults of
others and is always inclined to be offended, his own
passions will grow and he cannot destroy them.
The Buddhas are free from vanity. A man cannot
become a samana outwardly.

Chapter XIX Dhammatthavagga (Dhamma-
pada, pp. 38-39). A man is not learned because
he talks much. He who is patient, free from hatred
and fear is learned. A man is not a supporter of
the law because he talks much. If he has learnt
little but sees the law, he is a supporter of the law,
he never neglects the law. A man is not an elder
because his head is grey and his age may be ripe.
He in whom there are truth, virtue, piety, restraint,
moderation, he who is free from impurity and is
wise, he is called an elder. An envious, stingy
and dishonest man does not become respectable
by means of much talking only or by the beauty of
his complexion. He in whom all this is destroyed,
and taken out with the very root, he, when freed
from hatred and wise is called respectable. He
who always quits the evil, whether small or large,
is called a samana because he has quitted all evils.
He who follows the whole law is a bhikkhu, not he
who only begs. He who is above good and evil,
who is chaste, who with care passes through the
world, is called a bhikkhu. A man is not a muni

14

210 A History of Pali Literature

because he observes silence. A muni is one who
chooses the good and avoids the evil. A man is
not an elect because he injures living creatures.
He who has obtained the extinction of desires has
obtained confidence.

Chapter XX Maggavagga l (Dhammapada,
pp. 40-42). The best of ways is the eight linked
one ; the best of truths the four words ; the best of
virtues passionlessness ; the best of men is he who
has eyes to see. The Buddhas only point out the
way. You have got to exert. The thoughtful
who enter the way are freed from the bondage of
Mara. All created things perish he who knows
and sees this becomes passive in pain. This is the
way to purity. All created tilings are grief and
pain he who knows and sees this becomes passive
in pain. This is the way leading to purity. All
forms are unreal he who knows and sees this
becomes passive in pain. This is the way leading
to purity. A lazy and slothful man never finds the
way to knowledge. Through zeal knowledge is
acquired. So long as the desire of man towards
women even the smallest is not destroyed, so long
is his mind in bondage.

Chapter XXI Pakinnakaragga (Dhammapada,
pp. 42-44). If by leaving a small pleasure one sees
a great pleasure, let a wise man leave the small
pleasure and look to the great. He who by causing
pain to others wishes to obtain pleasure for himself,
he entangled in the bonds of hatred will never be
freed from hatred. The desires of unruly and
thoughtless people are always increasing. A true
Brahmana goes scatheless though he has killed his
father and mother and two valiant kings, though

1 Etamhi tumhe pat-ipaiina dukkhass 'antarh karissatha,
akkhato ve maya maggo afmaya sallasanthanam.

The thorns are the stings arid torments of passion. The
Buddha has been called the " Great-thorn -remover ", Lalitavistara,
p. 650 ; see Mr. Woodward's The Buddha's Path of Virtue, p. 68.

" Sabbe sankhara anicca esa maggo visuddhiya ; cf. Thera-

gatha, 676-678 ; Brhadaranyaka Upanisad, 4. 4, 8.

Canonical Fali Literature 211

he has destroyed a kingdom with all its subjects.
The disciples of the Buddha Gotama are always
wide awake and their thoughts day and night are
always set on the Buddha. Their thoughts are
always set on the law and on the church. Their
mind always delights in compassion. It is hard to
leave the world, to enjoy the world, hard is the
monastery, painful are the houses, painful it is to
dwell with equals and the itinerant mendicant is
beset with pain. A man full of faith if endowed
with virtue and glory is respected everywhere.
Good people shine from afar like the snowy mountains
and bad people are not seen like arrows shot by
night. Sitting alone, lying down alone, walking
alone without ceasing and alone subduing himself,
let a man be happy near the edge of a forest. 1

Chapter XXII Nirayavagga (Dhammapada,
pp. 11 46). Many men whose shoulders are covered
with the yellow gown are ill-conditioned and un-
restrained. Such evil-doers on account of their
evil deeds go to hell. A reckless man who covets
his neighbour's wife gains demerit, an uncomfortable
bed, punishment and hell. Let no man think of
his neighbour's wife. Badly practised asceticism
leads to hell. An act carelessly performed, a
broken vow, and hesitating obedience to discipline
all this brings no great reward. An evil deed is
better than an act left undone for a man repents for
it afterwards. A good deed is better done, for
having done it, one does not repent. They who
are ashamed of what they ought not to be ashamed
of, and are not ashamed of what they ought to be
ashamed of, such men embracing false doctrines
enter the evil path. They who fear when they
ought not to fear and fear not when they ought to
fear, such men embracing false doctrines enter the
evil path. They who see sin where there is no
sin and see no sin where there is sin, such men

1 Matararh pitaram hantva. . . . brahmano (294 verse) cf. Netti-
pakarana, 105.

212 A History of Pali Literature

embracing false doctrines enter the evil path. They
who see sin where there is sin and no sin where
there is no sin, such men embracing the true doctrine
enter the good path. 1

Chapter XXIII Ndgavagga 2 (Dhammapada,
pp. 46-48). The best among men is one who is
tamed and is one who silently endures abuse. If a
man finds a prudent companion who walks with
him, is wise and lives soberly, he may walk with
him overcoming all dangers, happy, and consider-
ate. It is better to live alone. One should not
associate himself with a fool. Pleasant is attain-
ment of intelligence and pleasant is avoidance of
sins.

Chapter XXIV Tanhdvagga* (Dhammapada,
pp. 48-52). The thirst of a thoughtless man grows
like a creeper.* One should dig up the root of thirst.
Men undergo birth and decay repeatedly if given
up to pleasure and deriving happiness. Beset with
lust men run about like a snared hare. Those who
are slaves to passion run down the stream of desires.
If one's own mind is altogether free from thirst, he
will not be subject to continued births and destruc-
tions. He who is free from thirst and affection,
who understands the words and their interpretations,
who knows the order of letters, he lias received
his last body, he is called the great sage, the great

1 Kuso yatha dugjrahito hattham cvanukantati. . . . upakaddhati
(Verse, 311). Cf. Samyutta, N., I, 49.

2 Appamadarata hotha, sacittam anurakkhatha. . . .kunjaro
(Verse, 327). Cf. Milinda, 379.

3 Sabbabhibhu sabbavidu'haih asihi, sabbe.su dliammesu anii-
palitto, sabbanjaho tanhakkhaye vimutto, .sayaih abhiiiiiaya kam
uddiseyyazh ?

This was the reply of the Buddha to one Upaka who, struck
by the Master's radiance after attaining Nibbana, enquired who
was his teacher and what was the cause of his joy.

Cf. Majjhima Nikaya, I, 171 ; see Woodword's The Buddha's
Path of Virtue, p. 88.

4 Yathapi mule anupaddave dalhe chinno pi rukkho punar eva
ruhati punappunam.

Cf. Nettipakarana, 42 ; cf. Mundakopanisad,
6l. 2, third Mundaka, pt. II. " Kanian yah kamayate manya-
manah sa kamabhiryayate yatra tatra "

Canonical Pali Literature 213

man. The gift of the law exceeds all gifts, the
delight in the law exceeds all delights, and the
extinction of thirst overcomes all pain. Mankind is
ruined by passion. Therefore a gift bestowed on
the passionless brings great reward. Mankind is
ruined by hatred. Therefore, a gift bestowed on
those who do not hate, brings great reward. Man-
kind is ruined by vanity and lust. Therefore, a
gift bestowed on those who are free from vanity
and lust, brings great reward.

Chapter XX V Bhikkhuvagga (Dhammapada,
pp. 52-55). He is a bhikkhu (monk) who controls
his hand, feet, and speech. He is well controlled.
A bhikkhu controls his mouth, speaks wisely and
calmly, and teaches the meaning and the law. He
dwells in the law, finds delight in it, meditates on
it, and recollects it. A bhikkhu does not pay any
attention to several pleasures. A bhikkhu possesses
the following qualities, e.g., watchfulness over the
senses, contentedness, restraint under the law. He
should keep the company of noble friends whose
life is pure and who are not slothful. A bhikkhu
should be perfect in his duties. The bhikkhu whose
body, tongue, and mind are quieted, who is collected
and has rejected the baits of the world is called
quiet. The bhikkhu full of delight, who is happy
in the doctrine of the Buddha, will obtain Nirvana.
He who even as a young bhikkhu applies himself
to the doctrine of the Buddha brightens up this
world like the moon when free from clouds.

Chapter XX VI Brahmdnavagga 1 (Dha/mmapada,
pp. 55-60). He who is thoughtful, blameless,
settled, dutiful, free from passion and who has
attained the highest end is a Brahmana. No one
should attack a Brahmana but no Brahmana
should let himself fly at his aggressor. He who does

1 Read the first stanza of this varga and cf. it with the
Brhadaranyakopanishad, 4, 4, 7

" Yada sarve pramucyante kamaye'syahrdidritah atha
martto'mrto bhavatyatra Brahma sama&rate."

214 A History of Pali Literature

not offend by body, word, or thought and is con-
troDed on these three points is a Brahmana. A man
does not become a Brahmana by his platted hair,
by his family, or by birth ; in whom there are truth
and righteousness, he is blessed, he is a Brahmana.
The man who wears dirty raiments, who is emac-
iated and covered with veins, who meditates
alone in the forest is called a Brahmana. A person
is called a Brahmana who is free from bonds and

attachments. A Brahmana endures reproach,
stripes, and bonds. He knows the end of his own
suffering. He does not kill nor cause slaughter.
He is a Brahmana who is tolerant with the in-
tolerant, mild with the violent and free from greed
among the greedy. A Brahmana is he who utters
true speech, instructive and free from harshness.
He is not a Brahmana who fosters no desires for

this world or for the next. He is a Brahmana
who in this world has risen above ties, good, and
evil, who is free from grief, sin, and impurity. A
Brahmana is pure, serene, undisturbed, and bright
like the moon. He has abandoned all desires.
He is a hero who has conquered all the worlds.
He is a Brahmana who knows the destruction and

return of beings everywhere, who is free from
bondage, the blessed, and the enlightened. He is a
Brahmana whose passions are extinct, who calls
nothing his own, the manly, the noble, the hero,
the great sage, the conqueror, the indifferent, the
accomplished, and the awakened. A Brahmana is
he who knows his former abodes, sees heaven and
hell, has reached the end of births, is perfect in
knowledge, a sage, and whose perfections are all
perfect. 1

The verses of the Dhammapada are compiled
from various sources but nowhere do we find any
mention of the authorship of each of the verses.

1 Yassa kayena vacaya manasa n'atthi dukkatam tarn

aham brumi brahmanam, cf. Netti 183. Na caham brahmanam
briimr y.onijam mattisambhavam . . . .brahmanam, cf. Uttaradhya-
yana SStra, p. 14.

Canonical Pali Literature 215

The verses are mostly detached. The majority of
verses is found in other canonical texts. The
arrangement seems to be arbitrary. The chapter
on miscellany, for instance, stands in the middle
instead of coming at the end. The language of the
work is smooth and appears to be similar to that
of the gathas. The inflexion of words is perfectly
regular and rare are the irregularities caused by
metrical exigencies here and there. The syntax is
easy. Two metres, anustup, and trishtup, are used.
The verses are charming to sympathetic readers,
and their import is intelligible throughout. Happy
similes chosen from every day life have beautified
the style, the striking feature whereof is the use of
contrast, made to show the bright as well as the
dark sides of the same questions in parallel language.
In the time of the Mahavihara fraternity a thorough
knowledge of the Dhammapada and its commentary
entitled students of Pali literature to the popular
degree called " Khuddakabhanaka ". The language
is chaste, elegant, and sometimes simple. The verses
are full of similes. The chapters on Bhikkhu and
Brahmana are worth studying. A good idea of
nirvana can be gathered by going through some of
the verses of this work. It is still highly esteemed
in Ceylon as a classical work and is used as a text-
book for novices who can gain the higher ordination
or upasampada on proving their thorough under-
standing of the Dhammapada text and its com-
mentary. It is indispensable to students of
Buddhism.

There are, strictly speaking, five recensions of

the Dhammapada, viz. (1) the

Pali Dhammapada, Pali, (2) the Prakrit, (3) the mixed

2? tt. D oZ2' Fa 6 ' Sanskrit which is supposed to have

kheu-king compared. been the original of the Chinese

Fa-kheu-king, but which, however,
is no longer extant, (4) the Sanskrit which com-
prises, in the first instance, the original _of the
Chinese version of the Dhammapada
in the Ch'uh-yau-king, and in the secj

m

216 A History of Pali Literature

the Udanavarga, another Sanskrit Dhammapada.
The Ch'uh-yau-king seems to have been, as implied
by its title, a Dhammapada commentary rather
than a Dhammapada text. The (5) fifth is the
Fa-kheu-king, which is a Chinese recension in
translation, which has been rendered into English
by Samuel Beal.

The Pali Dhammapada is the best known and
the most complete, and has been edited and
translated in several languages. The Prakrit
Dhammapada is preserved only in one fragmentary
manuscript in Kharosthi discovered in Khotan ; but
as the record is most incomplete it is impossible to
say exactly what its contents had been (Barua and
Mitra, Prakrit Dhammapada, p. viii).

The existence of the mixed Sanskrit original is
known only from the Chinese Fa-kheu-king, and
does not, therefore, come into our account. The
Fa-kheu-king, according to Mr. Beal, is more than a
faithful translation of the Indian text which the
monk Wei-chi-lan carried from India to China in
223 A.D. (Seal's Dhammapada, p. 35). The
Chinese translator has added and altered the dis-
tribution of the verses according to his will. The
existence of the original of the Chinese version of
the Dhammapada incorporated in the Ch'uh-yau-
king is known only from the translator's preface,
but is no longer extant. Rockhill, however, identi-
fies the Dhammapada text in the Ch'uh-yau-king
with the Udanavarga (RockhilPs Udanavarga, p. x),
which is again another Dhammapada text in pure
classical Sanskrit. A fragmentary manuscript of
this text in a later variety of the Gupta script has
been found at Turfan. The Dharmapada has also
been quoted in the Mahavastu in the shape of a
whole chapter, the Sahasravarga containing 24
stanzas (Senart, Mahavastu, III, p. 434 " dharma-
padesu sahasravargah ").

To take the Pali Dhammapada first into
consideration the following table may easily be
provided with regard to its chapters and verses :

Canonical Pali Literature 217

Title of chapter, Pali Dhammapada Number

of verses

1. Yamakavagga (Twin verses) . . 20

2. Appamadavagga (on Earnestness) . . 12

3. Cittavagga (Mind verses) . . 11

4. Pupphavagga (Flower verses) . . 16

5. Balavagga (on the Fool) . . 16

6. Panditavagga (on the Wise) . . 14

7. Arahantavagga (on the Arhant) . . 10

8. Sahassavagga (Number verses) . . 16

9. Papavagga (on the Evil) . . 13

10. Dandavagga (on Punishment) . . 17

11. Jaravagga (on the Old Age) . . 11

12. Attavagga (on the Self) . . . . 10

13. Lokavagga (on the World) . . 12

14. Buddhavagga (on the Buddha) . . 18

15. Sukhavagga (on Happiness) . . 12

16. Piyavagga (on the Agreeable) . . 12

17. Kodhavagga (on Anger) .. ..14

18. Malavagga (on Impurity) . . 21

19. Dhammatthavagga (on the Just) . . 17

20. Maggavagga (on the Way) . . 17

21. Pakinnakavagga (miscellaneous verses) 16

22. Nirayavagga (on Hell) . . . . 14

23. Nagavagga (on the Elephant) . . 14

24. Tanhavagga (on Desire) . . 26

25. Bhikkhuvagga (on the Bhikkhu) .. 23

26. Brahmanavagga (on the Brahmanas) 41

423 vv.

The chapters and verses of the Prakrit Dhamma-
pada as they occur in the arrangement provided by
Barua and Mitra in supersession of those of M. Senart
are as follows (Prakrit Dhammapada, p. viii,
Intro.) :

Corresponding chapters of the

Orders of Titles of chapters with Pali Dhammapada with
chapters number of verses number of verses

1 Magavaga (30) 20. Maggavagga (17)

V-7 tX * " i+*S\*J C^tJ ^ /

2 Apramadavaga (25) 2. Appamadavagga (12)

3 Citavaga (5, incomplete) 3. Cittavagga (11)

218 A History of Pali Literature

Corresponding chapters of the

Orders of Titles of chapters with Pali Dhammapada with
chapters number of verses number of verses

4 Pu^avaga (15) 4. Pupphavagga (16)

5 Sahasavaga (17) 8. Sahassavagga (16)

6 Panitavaga or Dhama- 6. Panditavagga (14)

thavaga (10) 19. Dhammatthavagga (17)

7 Balavaga (7, incomplete) 5. Balavagga (16)

8 Jaravaga (25) 11. Jaravagga (11)

9 Suhavaga (20, almost 15. Sukhavagga (12)

complete).

10 Tasavaga (7, incomplete) 24. Tanhavagga (26)

11 Bhikhuvaga (40) 25. Bhikkhuvagga (23)

12 Bramanavaga (50 ?) 26. Brahmanavagga (41)

From the table given above, it is apparent that
a complete record of the Prakrit text has not been
recovered so that it is impossible to say exactly
how many chapters and verses the text contained.
It is equally difficult to ascertain the arrangement
of its chapters from detached plates and fragments
on which Mon. Senart's edition is based (Barua
and Mitra, Prakrit Dhammapada, p. viii, Intro.).

Fa-kheu-king, the Chinese Recension referred
to above, has, as we have already noticed on the
authority of the Chinese translator, altered the
number and distribution of the verses in the original.
But the translator has done something more ; he
has added thirteen new chapters in Chinese, in
addition to the existing 26 of the Pali Dhammapada,
making up a total of 39 chapters and 752 verses.

Corresponding chapters of

Titles of chapters in order the Pali Dhammapada
with number of verses in order with number

of verses

1. Impermanence (21) . . ....

2. Insight into wisdom (29) ....

3. The Sravaka (19) ..

4. Simple faith (18) . .

5. Observance of Duty (16) ....

6. Reflection (12) .. ....

7. Loving kindness (19) ....

8. Conversation (12) .. ....

Canonical Pali Literature 219

Corresponding chapters of

Titles of chapters in order the Pali Dhammapada
with number of verses in order with number

of verses

9. Twin verses (22) . . 1. Yamakavagga (20)

10. Earnestness (20) . . 2. Appamadavagga (12)

11. On Mind (12) .. 3. Cittavagga (11)

12. On Flower (17) . . 4. Pupphavagga (16)

13. On the Fool (21) .. 5. Balavagga (16)

14. On the Wise (17) . . 6. Panditavagga (14)

15. On the Arahant (10) 7. Arahantavagga (10)
16 Number verses (16) . . 8. Sahassavagga (16)

17. On Evil (22) . . 9. Papavagga (13)

18. On Punishment (14) 10. Dandavagga (17)

19. On Old Age (14) .. 11. Jaravagga (11)

20. On Self (14) . . 12. Attavagga (10)

21. On the World (14) .. 13. Lokavagga (12)

22. On the Buddha (21).. 14. Buddhavagga (18)

23. On Happiness (14) .. 15. Sukhavagga (12)

24. On the Agreeable (12) 16. Piyavagga (12)

25. On Anger (26) .. 17. Kodhavagga (14)

26. On Impurity (19) .. 18. Malavagga (21)

27. On the Just (17) . . 19. Dhammatthavagga

(17)

28. On the Way (28) .. 20. Maggavagga (17)

29. Miscellaneous verses 21. Pakinnavagga (16)

(14)

30. On Hell (16) . . 22. Nirayavagga (14)

31. On Elephant (18) . . 23. Nagavagga (14)

32. On Desire (32) . . 24. Tanhavagga (26)

33. Advantageous Service ....

(20)

34. On the Bhikkhus (32) 25. Bhikkhuvagga (23)

35. On the Brahmanas (40) 26. Brahmanavagga (41)

36. Nirvana (36) . . ....

37. Birth and Death (18)

38. Profit of Religion (19)

39. Good Fortune (19) ..

About the first and the last two chapters of
the Fa-kheu-king, a word of comment is necessary.

220 A History of Pali Literature

The last chapter on Good Fortune may be regarded,
as has already been pointed out (Beal, Dhammapada,
p. 208), as a translation of some Indian recension
of the Mangala Sutta, whereas the chapter on
Profit of Religion ' appears to be a translation of
some Indian recension of the Mahamangala Jataka
(Prakrit Dhammapada, p. xiv Introduction). Most
of the verses of the first chapter on Impermanence and
the nineteenth chapter on Old Age can be traced in
chapter 8 (Jaravaga) of the Prakrit Dhammapada,
as also in the first chapter of the Udanavarga
dealing with Impermanence. Chapter 3 on the
Sravaka, and chapter 8 on conversation have
striking parallels in corresponding chapters of the
Udanavarga.

It has already been mentioned that the Udana-
varga is a Dhammapada text in classical Sanskrit
of which a fragmentary manuscript in a later variety
of the Gupta script has been found at Turf an. The
Tibetan version (The Tibetan translation was made
during the reign of King Ral-pa-chan A.D. 817-
842; Rockhill, Udanavarga, Intro., pp. xi-xii) of
this manuscript has been translated by Rockhill
under the title of Udanavarga. Pischel gives us a
table which illustrates the comparativeness of the
Tibetan and Sanskrit versions of the Dhammapada
with that of the Pali text.

Sanskrit Dhammapada Tibetan version of Pali Dhamr/mpada

or Udanavarga with the, Sanskrit with chapters

chapters in order Dhammapada or and number of

and number of Udanavarga with verses
verses chapters and

no. of verses

Chap. II. 20. II. 20.

V. 27. V. 28. XVI. 12.

VIII. 15. VIII. 15.

XVI. 24. XVI. 23. XXL 16.

XX. 22. XX. 21. XVII. 14.
XXIX. 57.

(66 or 65?). XXIX. 59. I. 20.

XXX. 51 (52). XXX. 53. XV. 12.

XXXI. 60. XXXI. 64. III. 11.

Canonical Pali Literature 221

The multiplication of verses in several chapters
of the Prakrit Dhammapada (Chapters 1, 2, 5, 8,
9, 11, and 12) in addition to those already existing
in the Pali text is due to different causes and cir-
cumstances. The Prakrit text contains some
verses that might have evidently been compiled
from canonical sources unknown to or untouched
by the compiler of the Pali text. Some verses
may similarly be regarded as independent composi-
tions of its own compiler. Still there are other
verses which may be regarded as mere amplifications
of some existing and well-known verses, or presenta-
tion of old verses of the Pali text in a garb of new
expressions. The same remark can equally be applied
to the multiplication of verses in the Fa-kheu-king
original and the Udanavarga (For instances of
multiplication of verses and its significance, see
Prakrit Dhammapada, Intro., p. xxxi) with regard
to the corresponding chapters of the Pali Dhamma-
pada.

As we have already noticed, the Fa-kheu-king
original has 26 chapters out of 39 in common with
the Pali Dhammapada. The remaining 13 chapters
were undoubtedly added later on by the translator
of the Sanskrit original. It has already been pointed
out above that some of these additional chapters
were drawn upon some already existing Buddhist
texts. But a closer scrutiny shows that the translator
of the original made use of one Pali Buddhist Text
namely, the Sutta Nipata, more than any other in
the composition of the additional chapters. The
chapters on Impermanency, Insight into wisdom,
the Disciple, simple faith, love, words, and finally,
good fortune have very close similarities respectively
with the Salla Sutta, Utthana Sutta, Cunda Sutta,

" 7 *

Alavaka Sutta, Metta Sutta, Subhasita Sutta, and
the Mahamangala Sutta of the Sutta Nipata. Like
the additional chapters, the 26 common chapters
of the Pali Dhammapada and the Fa-kheu-king
original had their common canonical source in the
Sutta Nipata as we now have it.

222 A History of Pali Literature

The Udanavarga, however, contains 33 chapters
which is equal to that of the text portion of the
original of the Ch'uh-yau-king. They have evidently
26 chapters in common with the Pali text ; only
seven are later additions which were probably based
upon certain poems of works similar to the Sutta
Nipata, the Dhammapada, and the Jataka book
(Prakrit Dhammapada, Intro., p. xxx).

The Sutta Nipata and the Jataka book may also
be said to have served as the canonical sources of
some of the additional verses of the Prakrit Dhamma-
pada as well (Barua and Mitra, Prakrit Dhamma-
pada, Intro., p. xxx).

In the Appamadavagga it is said that earnest-
idea of Nibbana in ness is the path of immortality

the Dhammapada. an( J tllOUglltleSSneSS the path of

death (cf. Appamado amatapadaiii, pamado maccimo
padam), and those wise people who delight in
earnestness and rejoice in the knowledge of the
Ariyas and who are meditative, steady, and always
possessed of strong powers, attain to Nibbana, the
highest happiness (cf. Te jhayino satatika niccaiii
dalhaparakkama, Phusaiiti dhira iiibbanam yogak-
khemam anuttaram). In the same vagga it is
further said that a bhikkhu who delights in reflection,
who looks with fear on thoughtlessness, cannot fall
away (from his perfect state) he is close upon
Nibbana (cf. Appamadarato bhikkhu Pamade bhaya-
dassiva abhabbo parihanaya nibbanass'eva santike).

In the Balavagga it is said that the paths to
the acquisition of wealth and to the attainment of
Nibbana are quite different, and that if one wishes
to win Nibbana he should strive after separation
from the world (cf. Anna hi labhupanisa, anna
nibbanagamim, evam etam abhinnaya, bhikkhu
Buddhassa savako sakkaram nabhinandeyya,
vivekam anubruhaye).

In the Buddhavagga it is said that the Buddha
calls patience the highest penance and long suffering
the highest Nibbana (cf. Khanti paramam tapo
titikkha, nibbanam paramam vadanti Buddha).

Canonical Pali Literature 223

In the Sukhavagga it is said that hunger is
the worst of diseases, the elements of the body the
greatest evil ; if one knows this truly, that is Nibbana
(cf. jigacchaparama roga sankhara parama dukkha,
etam natva yathabhutam, nibbanam paramam
sukham). In the same vagga it is also said that
health is the greatest of gifts, contentedness the best
riches ; trust is the best of relationships, and Nibbana
is the highest happiness (cf. Arogyaparama labha,
santutthi paramam dhanam, vissasaparama nati,
nibbanam paramam sukham).

In the Kodhavagga it is said that those who
are ever watchful, who study day and night, and
who strive after Nibbana, their passions will come
to an end (cf. Sada jagaramananam, ahoratta-
nusikkhinam nibbanam adhimuttanam, attham
gacchanti asava).

In the Magga vagga (cf. Etam atthavasam
fiatva pandito silasamvuto, nibbanagamanam
maggam khipparii eva visodliaye), the way to the
attainment of Nibbana has been described. He who
knows that all created things perish and lead to
grief and pain, that all forms are unreal, that
one should be well restrained in speech, mind, and
body, and that one should shake off lust and desire
and cut out the love of self, is sure to win Nibbana.

In the Bhikkhuvagga it is said that without
knowledge there is no meditation, without medita-
tion there is no knowledge ; he who has knowledge
and meditation is near unto Nibbana (cf. Natthi
jhanam apafmassa paiina natthi ajjliayato, yamhi
jlianam ca paiina ca, sa ve mbbanasantike).

The Dhammapada was first published in

Different editions Roman characters by Fausboll in
and translations of 1885, a second edition appearing

tho Dhammapada. ^ ^QQ The twQ editions were

exhausted, necessitating another edition. Suriya
Sumangala Thcra undertook the task of editing the
Dhammapada under the auspices of the P.T.S. in
1914 ; his work was based on two Sinhalese edi
one Burmese edition, one Siamese edition.

224 A History of Pali Literature

FausbolFs second edition. The editor acknowledges
to have consulted the ancient Sinhalese glossary
to the Dhammapada commentary which was
written by Aba Salamevan Kasup V (Abhaya
Sflameghavanna Kassapa), king of Ceylon, who
flourished in 929-939 A.D. Dr. Dines Andersen's
glossary of the words of the Dhammapada is an
invaluable aid to the study of this text. This
book is so widely studied that there are four German
translations, two English translations, two French
translations, and one Italian translation. They are
as follows :

1. German translation by Weber (Z.D.M.G.,

14, 1860, and Indische Studien, Vol. I,
1860).

2. German translation by L. V. Schroder

(Worte der Wahrheit, Leipzig, 1892).

3. German translation by K. E. Neumann

(Der Wahrheitspfad, Leipzig, 1893).

4. German translation (Der Pfad der Lehre,

Neu-Buddhistischen, Verlag, Zehlen
dorf west bei Berlin, 1919).

5. English translation by Max Muller, S. B. E. ,

Vol. X.

6. English translation by F. L. Woodward

(The Buddha's Path of Virtue, Theo-
sophical Pub. House, Madras, 1929).

7. French translation by Fernand Hu (Paris,

1878), known as Le Dhammapada,
avec introduction et notes.

8. Italian translation by P. E. Pavolini

(Mailand, 1908).

9. English translation by A. J. Edmunds.

10. by Wagiswara and
Saunders.

11. A re-translation from German by " Sila-

chara " (London).

There is a literal Lathi translation of the work
by V. Fausboll, who has also edited this text.
There is another French translation by R. et M.

Canonical Pali Literature 225

De Moratray. Mrs. Rhys Davids has re-edited and
translated the Dhammapada in the S.B.B. Series
under the title of the " Minor Anthologies of the
Pali Canon ", Pt. I, 1931.

There is a Chinese translation of this work by
S. Beal. Dr. B. M. Barua and Mr. S. N. Mitra
have jointly edited the Khrosthi recension of this
work which has been published by the University
of Calcutta. The work has been translated by many
Indian scholars, e.g., Srikhande, 1 Rai Bahadur
Sarat Chunder Das, C.I.E., Charu Chandra Bose.
There are other copies of the Dhammapada in
mixed Sanskrit and Sanskrit, for instance, the
Mahavastu preserves in quotation the sahasravarga
of a Dhammapada in mixed Sanskrit. There are
two recensions of the Udanavarga, the manuscripts
of which have been found out in Eastern Turkisthan
in several fragments and a full and critical edition
of it prepared by Dr. N. P. Chakravarty is now
passing through the press. The latest copy of the
Dhammapada, the Dharmasamuccaya, is entirely
based on an earlier anthology called Mahasmrityu-
pasthana Vaipulya Sutra and is composed of some
2,600 gathas. L'Apramadavarga, edited by S. Levi
with a valuable study of the recensions of the
Dhammapada published in the J.A., t. XX, 1912,
deserves mention.

The Udana 2 or solemn utterances of the Buddha
TTJ _ is the third book. It is a treatise

1 1 fi An A

containing Buddhist stories and
sentences. It is divided into eight vaggas or
chapters : (1) Bodhivagga, (2) Mucalindavagga,
(3) Nandavagga, (4) Meghiyavagga, (5) Sonatheras-
savagga, (6) Jaccandhavagga, (7) Culavaggo, and
(8) Pataligamiyavaggo.

1 The text of the Dhammapada in Devanagari with notes,
introduction, and translation published by the Oriental Book Supply-
ing Agency, Poona, 1923.

2 Vide Udanavarga translated from the Tibetan Bkah-hgyur
with notes and extracts from the commentary of Pradjnavarman
by W. W. Rockhill, London, 1883.

15

226 A History of Pali Literature

The style of the work is very simple. In this
little work, the Buddha is represented as having
given vent to his emotions or feelings on various
occasions in one or two lines of poetry. These
outbursts are concise and of an enigmatic nature.
Subtle points of arhatship and the Buddhist ideal
of life have also been dealt with. Several suttas
(pp. 87, 89, 92, 93) are found in the Mahavagga
and the Cullavagga of the Vinaya Pitaka and the
Mahaparinibbana Suttanta of the Digha Nikaya of
the Sutta Pitaka. Each sutta is concluded by an
udana (ecstatic utterance) of the Buddha, com-
posed for the most part in ordinary metres (sloka,
Tristubh or Jagati), seldom in prose as Dr. Paul
Steinthal points out in the preface to the Udana
which has been edited by him for the P.T.S.,
London.

Some knottical points of Buddhism have been
discussed in it, e.g., Salvation or deliverance,
Nirvana, four unthinkables, life after death, karma,
evolution, the cosmos, and heaven and hell.

Dr. Windisch has published an interesting paper,
" Notes on the edition of the Udana " (P.T.S.,
1885) in the J.P.T.S., 1930, which is worth perusal.
Major-General D. M. Strong has translated this
book from Pali into English. The translation is
published by Messrs. Luzac & Co., London. Udana
extracts translated into German by K. E. Neumann
in his Buddhistische Anthologie, Leiden, 1892, deserve
mention.

Manuscripts available are

(1) Manuscript of the India Office in Burmese

character.

(2) Manuscript presented to the Bible Society

by the Thera S. Sonuttara of Kandy in
Sinhalese character.

(3) Mandalay manuscript used by Dr.

Windisch.

A brief summary of the chapters of the text
is given below.

Canonical Pali Literature 227

Chapter I The Enlightenment (Uddna, P.T.S.,
pp. 1-9). The first chapter deals with some in-
cidents that occurred soon after the enlightenment
of the Buddha. The Lord thought out the chain
of cause and effect in both the direct and indirect
orders. He discussed about the right standard of
conduct required of a Brahmana and the nature of
the works he should perform. According to the
Buddha the only ideal worth striving after is the
ideal of a perfect life, in this present world, in
saintship and this ideal is to be reached by emancipa-
tion from desire (tanha).

Chapter II Muaalinda (Uddna, pp. 10-20).
The second chapter also deals with certain incidents
that occurred subsequent to the attainment of
Buddhahood. Mucalinda, the serpent king, forms
with his hood a great canopy above the head of
the Buddha and protects him from great cloud
that has appeared. The Master exhorts the bhikkhus
that they should not be engaged in trifling disputes,
such as, whether the king Bimbisara of Magadha
is the wealthiest or the king Pasenadi of Kosala, etc.

Chapter IIlNanda (Uddna, pp. 21-33). The
venerable Nanda, a cousin of the Buddha, intends
to abandon the precepts and return to the lower
life. The Lord convinces Nanda of the worthless-
ness of the worldly life and the sorrows connected
with it. Nanda finding joy in the state of home-
lessness does not revert to the worldly life.

Chapter IV Meghiya (Uddna, pp. 3446).
The venerable Meghiya is the servitor of the Blessed
One. Disregarding Buddha's advice he goes to the
delightful Grove of Mango-trees on the banks of the
Kiiimkala river in order to struggle and strive after
' holiness '. But he is constantly assailed by three
kinds of evil thoughts, e.g., lustful thoughts,
malicious thoughts, and cruel thoughts. Meghiya
comes back to the Buddha. The latter explains
why such a state of thing happens to Meghiya.

Chapter V Sona Them (Uddna, pp. 47-61).
This chapter deals with Pasenadi's visit to the

228 A History of Pali Literature

Buddha, the conversion of the leper Suppabuddha,
the admission of the lay-disciple Sona Kotikanna
(afterwards Sona Thera) into the higher ranks of
the Order, etc.

Chapter VI Jaccandha (Uddna, pp. 62-73).
The Buddha while sitting down on the appointed
seat in the Capala shrine gives clear hint of his
passing away (that is, attaining Mahaparinibbana)
three months hence. But Ananda fails to under-
stand the meaning of the palpable sign made. This
chapter also deals with Pasenadi's visit to the
Buddha. The Lord also discusses various heretical
views, e.g., the world is eternal or not eternal, the
world is finite or infinite, the soul and the body
are identical or not identical. He rejects all these
false views.

Chapter VllCula (Uddna, pp. 74-79). This
chapter deals with various topics. The heart of
the venerable dwarf Bhaddiya is set free from
attachment and the sins by the manifold religious
discourses of the venerable Sariputta.

Chapter VIII Pdtaligdmiya (Uddna, pp. 80-
93). The Blessed One instructs and gladdens the
bhikkhus with a religious discourse on the subject
of Nirvana. The Master after partaking of the
food provided by Cunda, the potter's son, is attacked
with a severe malady. But the Lord, ever mindful
and intent, endures the pains without a murmur.
The Lord then goes to Kusinara. Once the Lord
in company with a number of the brethren arrives
at Pataligama. The lay-disciples of Pataligama
receive the Buddha and the bhikkhus with great
honour. The Master points out the five losses to
the wrong-doer and five gains to the virtuous man.

The Itivuttaka 1 is the fourth book. The title

of the book signifies that it is a
book of quotations of the authorita-

1 Read " A Chinese Collection of Itivuttaka " by K. Watanabe,
J.P.T.S., 1906-07; "Collation of the Siamese Edition of the
Itivuttaka" by J. H. Moore (J.P.T.S., 1900-01).

Canonical Pali Literature 229

tive sayings of the Buddha. It has been published
by the Pali Text Society under the able editorship of
E. Windisch. The entire work consists of 112
sections, each is composed partly in prose and
partly in verse. Nipatas are subdivided into vaggas
or chapters. The contents of the book are supposed
to be Buddha's own words which are reported to
have been heard and afterwards written down by
one of his disciples. The authorship of the book is,
however, very uncertain like that of other canonical
works. It is an anthology of ethical teachings of
the Buddha on a wide range of moral subjects.
Passion, anger, pride, lust, and other shortcomings
of body, word, and thought, friendliness, charity,
virtue, modesty, truth, and several characteristic
Buddhist doctrines are dealt with in it. Nirvana,
the aggregates, the substrata, previous existence,
and supreme enlightenment are discussed in it.
The book contains repetitions of phrases and
formulas. It is somewhat marred by the frequent
use of the indefinite relative clause. The prose
style is generally abrupt and inelegant. Occasional
metaphors and similes give a pleasing touch to the
style. Figures of speech drawn from Nature, from
animals and their character, and from man and
his relations in daily life, have not been abundantly
used. The work is divided into five vaggas and
contains 120 short passages which begin with the
words, " vuttarii hetam Bhagavata, vuttam arahata
ti me suttam ", " Thus was it said by the Blessed
One, the Exalted One Thus have I heard ", and
each bhanavara (chapter) ends with the words
ayampi attho vutto Bhagavata iti me sutanti ",
This meaning was told by the Blessed One Thus
have I heard".

Manuscripts available are three Sinhalese
manuscripts and four Burmese manuscripts. 1
Dr. Windisch is right in saying that the irregular

1 See Preface to the Itivuttaka (P.T.S.).

tc

66

230 A History of Pali Literature

number of syllables is sometimes the result of
turning a regular verse into its opposite.

Dr. Moore translated the book for the first
time into English with an introduction and note
in 1908 included in the Indo-Iranian Series of the
Columbia University edited by Dr. William Jackson.
A. J. Edmunds is engaged in preparing an English
translation of this text. It is one of the shortest
of the Buddhist books in size.

In editing the Itivuttaka Dr. Windisch has
made use of the following manuscripts :

(1) Sinhalese manuscripts

(i) Palm-leaf MS. of the India Office library,
(ii) Paper manuscript in the possession of

Prof. Rhys Davids.

(iii) Paper MS. being a present to Dr.
Windisch from Donald Ferguson,
Ceylon.

(2) Burmese

(i) Palm-leaf MS. of the India Office library,

Phayre collection.

(ii) Palm-leaf MS. of Mandalay collection,
(iii) Palm-leaf MS. of the ' Bibliotheque
Nationale at Paris, marked on the
cover " A 28 Itivuttaka Pali, A 29
Atthakatha. P. Grimbolt ".

(iv) A second palm-leaf MS. of the Biblio-
theque Nationale.

Justin H. Moore published the collection of
the Itivuttaka in 1907.

A brief summary of the chapters of the text
is given below.

Ekanipata (Itivuttaka, P.T.S., pp. 1-21). The
Lord speaks on evil and good, the evil effects of
desire, hate, delusion, anger, hypocrisy, pride, and
the merit which accrues to one who keeps himself
away from all these evils. He describes thirst
as a fetter that causes transmigration. Perfect
attention and goodness are characterised as attri-

Canonical Pali Literature 231

butes of a novitiate-monk. He speaks of impurity
in thought and its consequences and tranquillity of
thought and its reward. According to him zeal in
good works gains welfare now and in future. He
condemns intentional falsehood. He praises charity,
especially in giving food.

Dukanipdta (Itivuttaka, pp. 22-44). The Lord
speaks of the temptations of senses, and sins of
body, word, and thought. He describes sloth and
perversity as chief drawbacks to the attainment
of supreme enlightenment. According to him a
recluse should be cautious and should strive for
spiritual power. He describes the various moral
qualities of monks and the rewards of a recluse
life.

Tikanipdta (Itivuttaka,, pp. 45-101). The Lord
speaks of how impropriety originates. He describes
feelings pleasant, painful, and indifferent. He says
about the taints of lust, existence, and ignorance, and
condemns the thirst for lust, existence and non-
existence. He describes charity, character, and
devotion as essential qualities of virtuous deeds.
According to him, knowledge and understanding
lead to emancipation, and full comprehension of
the Indestructible leads to release and repose.
According to him Mara's (the Evil one) weapons are
passion, hatred, and delusion, and that transmigration
may be avoided by renouncing these evils. He
speaks of good and bad actions of body, word, and
thought and their respective good and bad effects.
He speaks of the impermanence of the body and
transitoriness of the substrata. He says that lust,
malevolence, and cruelty do not lead to Nirvana.
He speaks of the Noble Eightfold Path. He shows
the way to escape birth, old age, and death.

Catukkanipdta (Itivuttaka, pp. 102-124). The
Lord speaks of the simplicity in the daily life of a
faithful follower. According to him he who has
the knowledge of miseries and sorrows the cause of
their origin and decay can easily do away with
earthly ties. He describes lust, malevolence, and

232 A History of Pali Literature

cruelty as constant sources of temptation which
may even cause the fall of a virtuous man.

The Sutta Nipata * is the fifth book. It consists

of five vaggas or chapters which

Sutta Nipata. - T? /-i \ TT /o\

are as follows: (1) Uraga, (2)
Cula, (3) Maha, (4) Atthaka, and (5) Parayana.
The first vagga known as the Uragavagga con-
tains 12 suttas, namely, Uraga, Dhaniya, Khag-
gavisana, Kasibharadvaja, _Cunda, Parabhava,
Vasala, Metta, Hemavata, Alavaka, Vijaya, and
Muni. The second vagga or the Cula vagga contains
14 suttas, e.g., Ratana, Amagandha, Hiri, Maha-
mangala, Suciloma, Dhammacariya, Brahmana-
dhammika, Nava, Kimsila, Utthana, Rahula,
Vangisa, Sammaparibbajaniya, and Dhammika.
The third vagga or the Mahavagga contains 12
suttas, e.g., Pabbajja, Padhana, Subhasita, Sundari-
kabharadvaja, Magha, Sabhiya, Sela, Salla, Vasettha,
Kokaliya, Nalaka, and Dvayatanupassana. These
are long suttas. The fourth vagga or the Attliaka-
vagga consists of 16 suttas, e.g., Kama, Guhatthaka,
Dutthatthaka, Suddhatthaka, Paramatthaka, Jara,

' 7 ., 7 7

Tissametteyya, Pasura, Magandiya, Purabheda,
Kalahavivada, Culaviyuha, Mahaviyuha, Tuvataka,
Attadanda, and Sariputta. The fifth and the last
vagga, namely, the Parayana vagga, contains (1)
Vatthugatha, (2) Ajitamanavapuccha, (3) Tissamet-
teyamanavapuccha, (4) Punnakamanavapuccha, (5)
Mettagumanavapuccha, (6) Dhotakamanavapuccha,
(7) Upasivamanavapuccha, (8) Nandamanavapuccha,
(9) Hemakamanavapuccha, (10) Todeyyamanava-
puccha, (11) Kappamanavapuccha, (12) Jatnkanni-
manavapuccha, (13) Bhadravudhamanavapuccha,
(14) Udayamanavapuccha, (15) Posalamanava-
puccha, (16) Mogharajamanavapuccha, and (17)
Pingiyamanavapuccha.

The Sutta Nipata is one of the most important
works of the Sutta Pitaka. It contains informa-

tion about the social, economical, and religious

1 Read Sutta Nipata in Chinese by M. Anesaki (J.P.T.S., 1906-07).

Canonical Pali Literature 233

condition of India at the time of Gautama Buddha.
It refers to the six heretical teachers and the
Samanas and Brahmanas. It gives us sufficient aid
to the study of Buddhism as an ethical religion.
It is, as Dr. Rhys Davids says, " the result rather
of communistic than of individual effort ". It
presents us with the philosophical and ethical teach-
ings of the Buddha and with the ideals of a Buddhist
monk. It has references to religious sects like the
Samanas or the Brahmanas. and certain customs of

'

the Indian people. It is, in the words of Prof.
Fausboll, " an important contribution to the right
understanding of primitive Buddhism, for we see
here a picture not of life in monasteries, but of life
of the hermits in its first stage. We have before us
not the systematising of the later Buddhist Church
but the first germs of a system, the fundamental
ideas of which come out with sufficient clearness".
The Sutta Nipata comprises five cantos. The first
four cantos contain fifty-four short lyrics while
sixteen others cover the fifth one, called the Para-
yana. Out of thirty-eight poems in the first three
cantos, six are found in other books of the canon.
These poems had existed separately as popular
hymns before they were incorporated into the Sutta
Nipata. They appear to be current as proverbs or
favourite sayings of the people. The fourth canto
is called " The Eights ". four of the lyrics in it
contain eight stanzas a piece. A reference to this
canto as a separate work appears in the Samyutta
Nikaya, Vinaya Pitaka, and the Udana. Rhys
Davids holds that this canto must, in earlier times,
have been already closely associated in thought
with the fifth canto, for the two together are the
subject of a curious old commentary, the only
work of the kind, included in the nikayas. That
this commentary, the Niddesa, takes no notice of
the other three cantos would seem to show that
when it was composed, the whole of the five cantos
had not yet been brought together into a single
book. The fifth canto is called the Parayana. It

234 A History of Pali Literature

is quoted or referred to six times as a separate
poem in the nikayas. About one-third of the
poems in the collection are of the nature of ballads.
They narrate some short incidents, the speeches are
in most cases in verses, though the story itself is
generally in prose with certain exceptions. They are
in this respect like a large number of suttas found in
other portions of the canon.

The Pabbajja, Padhana, and Nalaka Suttas are
specimens of old religious ballad poetry. The
language of the book shows that some portions of it
are far older than the Dhammapada. The metres
are like the Vedic metres of eight syllables (anus-
thubh), eleven syllables (tristhubh), or twelve
syllables (jagati). The number of syllables is fixed
but the arrangement of long and short syllables is
not satisfactory. A combination of Indravajra and
Upendravajra (208-212, 214-219) or Vamsastha and
Indravamsa (221, 688-90) occurs very often.
Mr. Bapat is right in pointing out some stanzas of
thirteen syllables as 220, 679-80, 691-98 which appear
to be in the style of Atijagati, but the scanning
of the lines discloses that they do not conform to the
subdivisions of that class according to the later
Gana system. Gana and Matra Vrittas are also
found in combination. Stanzas in Vaitallya (33-34,
658-59, 804^-813) and Aupacchaiidasika (1-17, 83-87,
361-73) metres are also found. Stanzas (663-676)
in the Kokaliya Sutta illustrate Vegavati metres
with slight variations. Prof. Bapat rightly observes,
" There was no inflexible rigidity in the then existing
scheme of versification as in the later Sanskrit
classical literature of the Kavyas and Natakas "
(Sutta Nipata, Devanagri Ed., Intro., p. xxix).
The Pali Text Society of England under the editor-
ship of Mr. Helmer Smith has brought out an ex-
cellent edition of the Sutta Nipata commentary in
Roman character (known as the Paramattha-jotika),
useful and helpful in understanding the text. It
is rich in materials for the reconstruction of the
history of Ancient India. Its language is simple

Canonical Pali Literature 235

and easy to understand. It contains an account of
the interesting dialogue between Dhaniya and
Buddha, the one rejoicing in his worldly security
and the other in his religious belief. It teaches
us to avoid family life and corrupted state of society.
In it we find the Buddha describing the different
kinds of samanas to Cunda. There is a dialogue in
it between two Yakkhas on the qualities of the
Buddha. It contains good definitions of a muni
and true friendship. There is an interesting admoni-
tion by the Buddha to the bhikkhus to get them-
selves rid of sinful persons. It teaches men not to
be slothful. In it we find the Buddha recommending
the life of a recluse. It contains accounts of the
conversions of Sabhiya and Sela by the Buddha.
There are suttas in the Sutta Nipata which relate
to many venerable theras asking questions to the
Buddha, cf. Aitamanavapuccha, Tissametteyamana-
vapuccha, Punnakamanavapuccha, etc. etc.

Buddhism is essentially an ethical system,

and Nirvana, the goal of Bud-

. an ethical ^{^ philosophy, is attained

religion from the Sutta . , f , .1-1

mainly by practising some ethical

virtues, and by realising the
Four Noble Truths (Cottar i ariyasaccdni) and the
Law of Causation (patiecasamuppada). The Sutta
Nipata, one of the earliest books of the Pali
Canon, at least seems to interpret the religion
mainly from its ethical point of view ; for a large
number of the more important suttas are mere
didactic poems on Buddhist ethics. Thus the
PardbJwvasutta relates the various causes of loss to
the losing man, and all these causes are concerned
with what one's moral conduct in life should be.
The Navasutta- directs one to cultivate the society
of a good man, who is intelligent and learned, and
leads a regular moral life with penetration into the
Dhamma. In the Dhammikasutta the Buddha
teaches the Dhamma that destroys sin, and this
Dhamma is therein described to consist in the
dutiful and faithful performance of some rules of

236 A History of Pali Literature

daily conduct and some moral virtues. Thus a
bhikkhu is asked to walk about only at a right time,
to subdue his desire for name and form, sound,
taste, smell, and touch which intoxicate creatures,
to turn his mind away from outward things, and
not to utter slander against others. Above all,
he should not cling to material things ; and should
thus be like a waterdrop on a lotus. And similarly
a householder too must abide by certain similar
moral rules. He must not kill or cause to kill
any living being, he must not steal or approve of
stealing ; he must not speak falsehood, take in-
toxicating drinks ; he must refrain from unchaste
sexual intercourse ; lie must practise the eightfold
abstinence and make distribution of charity accord-
ing to his ability : and, he must also dutifully
maintain his parents and practise an honourable
trade. And what a life should an ascetic, a niuni,
lead the pivot of the Buddhist Church ? It is
not easy for a householder to lead a perfectly
spotless, holy life ; so a muni, a bhikkhu should remove
himself from all relatives and worldly possessions,
and live away from society. He should observe
all moral rules of conduct and lead a life of austere
simplicity. He should have no dealing in gold
and silver, or buying or selling or be subservient to
anybody. He should indulge only in moderate
food and that only once by day. He should scru-
pulously observe the rules of Patimokkha, and be
restrained in body, tongue, and mind. This is the
keynote of the teachings of Buddhism ' lead a
perfectly honest and moral life ' ; and this is as well
the burden of many a sutta of the Sutta Nipata.
The suttas of the Sutta Nipata record simple rules
of moral conduct for bhikkhus and householders as
well, and if those rules are observed, Buddhism has
scarcely to ask for more. Even the Padhdnasutta
that narrates the conversation between Mara and
Gotama is nothing but a poetic representation of
the struggle between evil and moral tendencies in
man ; and the defeat of Mara symbolises one's

Canonical Pali Literature 237

victory over covetousness, discontent, hunger, thirst,
hankering, laziness, dullness, fear, doubt, love of
glory, fame, self-exaltation, slander, sexual and
physical pleasures, and hankerings. A number of
suttas, as for example, the Amagandhasutta, gives
the Buddhist idea of purity and impurity of life ;
bad mind and wicked deeds defile a man ; no out-
ward observances can purify him this is what
Buddhism seeks to teach in direct contrast to the
teachings of Brahmanism. There is moreover a
very large number of suttas like the Uraga, the
Sammdparibbdjaniya, the Mdgandiya, the Purd-
bheda, the Tuvataka, the Attadanda, the Sdriputta,
the Khaggavisdna, the Muni, etc., which set out
the ideal of the life of a bhikkhu or a householder.
And this ideal, as related above, is nothing but
an ideal of a perfectly honest, regular, and moral
life. There is nowhere any talk about God or any
other supreme deity, nor even of any sort of
religious observance, such as worship or the like.
Even the philosophical character of Buddhism as
related in the Sutta Nipata is ethical. A bhikkhu
should not indulge in the extremes of pleasure and
self-mortification, but should follow the middle
path. And the three cardinal principles which he
is required to realise are that all worldly pleasures are
impermanent (anicca), painful (dukkha), and un-
substantial (anatta). Buddhism thus enjoins upon
its followers to know the real nature of the world
and knowing it, to lead a moral life shaking off
all philosophical views whatsoever. This is what is
the essence of the Sutta Nipata ; and this essence
is nowhere more emphasised than in the Parayana-
vagga, the concluding chapter of the Sutta Nipata.
This vagga, as Mr. Bapat rightly points out, is really
a ' fitting closure ' to the mainly ethical subject-
matter of the different vaggas of the important
treatise. Here, in almost all the answers to the
questions of the sixteen disciples of Bavarin, the
Master tells them " the way to cross the worldly
ocean, to destroy thirst and detachment, to cease

238 A History of Pali Literature

all ditthis, silos, and vatas, and to attain, in this
very world, a state, where one would have no fear
from death, and where one would be completely
happy ; in short, to attain Nibbana, the goal of
Buddhist philosophy ".*

The Sutta Nipata is one of the oldest books of

the Pali Canon, and as such, it
Traces of Primitive contains important traces of Primi-

Buddhism in Sutta . . -r* i n i i

Nipata. tive Buddhism, recognisable not

only from the language and style
of some of the vaggas, but also from its contents.

Buddhism, as understood from the Sutta Nipata,
is not yet an established philosophical system, at
best it is an ethical religion. In the Atthakavagga,
the Buddha pronounces himself distinctly against
philosophy or ditthi or darsana. In his time, there
were in Mid-India a number of philosophical systems,
and these systems people considered as religion.
It was asserted that purity of life consisted in the
attainment of knowledge and of philosophical views,
in following traditions and in doing holy works.
Buddha stood against this view of a religious life,
he discarded all philosophical systems. A religious
life, the life of a muni or ascetic, consists, in his
view as propounded in the Sutta Nipata, in shaking
off every philosophical theory in being indifferent to
learning, in giving up all prejudiced ideas, and in
not being a disputant which all followers of philoso-
phical views must invariably be. There is misery,
he seems to say, in the philosophical views and in
traditional instruction ; none is thus saved by
philosophy or finds peace in virtuous works.
Dhamma in his opinion seems to consist in dutiful
and faithful performance of some rules of conduct

1 Sutta Nipata by P. V. Bapat, Poona, Intro., p. xxvii.
" Another feature ", says Mr. Bapat, " of the same ethical tendency
of Buddhism, is found in the unusual fondness displayed as for
instance in the Sabhiyasutta in interpreting, according to the
Buddhist philosophy of ethics, some older brahmanical or other
technical terms, Uke Brahmana, Samana, Nahataka, Khettajina,
Vedagu, Paribbajaka, Naga, Pandita, etc."

Uanonical rato literature 239

and some moral virtues, and if they are observed,
Buddhism of the Sutta Nipata would not ask for
more. Nevertheless, there are in the Sutta Nipata
the germs of a philosophical system which later on
came to be more logically and consistently sys-
tematised ; but even this philosophical character, as
we have said before, is mainly ethical (see Buddhism :
an ethical religion in the Sutta Nipata). Buddhism
of the Sutta Nipata is thus a very simple Faith
mainly consisting in the conscientious performance
of some rules of conduct and moral duties and in
realising that all worldly pleasures are impermanent
(anicca), painful (dukkha), and unsubstantial
(anatta). Sutta Nipata thus represents Buddhism
in its primitive stage as a simple ethical religion,
and as a repository of germs which later on grew
up into a philosophical system.

The primitive character of Buddhism of the
Sutta Nipata is equally evident from the picture of
social life contained in it. We gather from the
Sutta Nipata that in those days there were two
large religious sects in Northern India, the
Brahmanas and the Samanas. Both the sects had

a good number of teachers with numerous followers
and adherents around them. The Samanas were

divided into four classes, viz. Maggajmas, Magga-
desakas, Maggajivins, and Maggadusins. Both
Samanas and Brahmanas were followers of different
philosophical systems and traditional knowledge.
With regard to their various systems and knowledge,
disputes arose ; they are thus called disputants,
vadasila. Of such Brahmanas, three classes are
mentioned in the Sutta Nipata, viz. Titthiyas,
Ajivikas, and Niganthas. The Brahmanas were
well-versed in hymns, principal of which was
Savitti. They used to worship and make offerings
to the fire ; not unoften they killed cows for sacri-
fice.

Buddha was himself a Samana, but he did not
agree with their philosophical systems and tradi-
tional knowledge, nor with those of the Brahmanas.

240 A History of Pali Literature

He was also against their view of a religious life and
against disputations. He was also against any sort
of worship or offering, or any sort of sacrifice,
specially those which involved loss of life. Accord-
ing to his view of life, it was not easy or possible
for a householder to lead a perfectly spotless, moral
life, so he himself became a muni, an ascetic, and
asked his followers to become like him a muni,
and thus to remove himself from all relatives, worldly
possessions, and live away from society. It should
be noticed that he did not ask them to come and
join any Samgha or any such Order. In fact, at
that time, of which the Sutta Nipata presents a
picture, no Samgha or religious Order had then
come to be established. Followers of Buddha's
teachings were not too numerous to necessitate the
formation of any such Order or monastic establish-
ment. His followers were at that time individual
hermits who lived away from society singly by
themselves. The idea of a religious fraternity, of a
unified religious Order had not then matured. Each
in his own way by accepting the teachings of
Buddha, by leading a moral life, and by realising
the real nature of the world could become a follower
of Buddhism without himself belonging to a parti-
cular religious Order. The idea of a religious
fraternity living within well-defined and strictly
regulated monastic life and establishments was a
later development ; it has but very little trace hi
the Sutta Nipata. Fausboll, therefore, rightly
points out that we see in the Sutta Nipata "a
picture not of life in monasteries, but of the life of
hermits in its first stage. We have before us not
the systematising of the later Buddhist Church, but
the first germs of a system, the fundamental ideas
of which come out with sufficient clearness 'V

A summary of the vaggas or cantos is given
below.

1 S.B.E., Vol. X, Sutta Nipata (Fausboll), Intro., p. xii.

Canonical Pali Literature 241

I. URAGAVAGGA

Uragasutta (Sutta Nipdta 9 P.T.S., pp. 1-3). The
bhikkhu who discards all human passions anger,
hatred, passion, craving, arrogance, doubts, and
desires, he who has not found any essence in the
existences, he who has overcome all delusion, he
who is free from covetousness and folly, he whose
sins are extirpated from the root, he who is free
from fear or suffering, is compared to a snake that
cast its skin.

Dhaniyasutta (S.N., pp. 3-6). Dhaniya was a
rich herdsman who rejoiced in his worldly security of
a happy family life, in his large number of milch
cows, and in his good sons and wife. He, therefore,
entreated the sky to rain if it liked. He one day
held an interesting conversation with the Buddha
who rejoiced in his religious beliefs, in his pure and
virtuous life. He, too, entreated the sky to rain if
it pleased. Then at once a shower poured down,
and Dhaniya wanted to take refuge in the Buddha
endowed with the eye of wisdom, and conquer
birth and death, and put an end to pain.

KJtaggavisdnasutta l (S.N., pp. 6-12). Family
life, friendship, and intercourse with others should
be avoided, for society has all vices in its train ;
one should, therefore, leave the corrupted state of
society and lead a solitary life. But if one can
get a clever, \\ise, and righteous companion,

1 This sutta also occurs in the Mahavastu, I, pp. 357-358.

tk Vaihso visalo .... eko care-pe- " (S.N. pp. 6-7, v. 38),
cf. Dhammapada, v. 345.

' Sace labhotha nipakam sahayam. . . .attamano satima "
(S.N., p. 8, v. 45), cf. Dhammapada, v. 328.

"No ce labhetha nipakarh sahayam .... eko care "

(S.N., p. 8, v. 46), cf. Dhammapada, v. 329.

" Sltafi ca unhan ca eko care " (S.N., p. 9, v. 52),

cf. Jataka, I, p. 93.

" Patisallanam jhaiiaiii ariiicamano eko care. ..."

(S.N., p. 11, v. 69), cf. Dhammapada, v. 20.

" Ragafi ca dosaii ca pahaya moham....eko care "

(S.N., p. 12, v. 74), cf. Dhammapada, v. 20.

"Sabbesu bhutesu nidhaya dandam. . . .eko care khaggavisa-
ijiakappo " (S.N., p. 6, v. 36), cf. Dhammapada, v. 142.

16

242 A History of Pali Literature

he may wander about with him, glad and thought-
ful. Family life and friendship bring in sensual
pleasures; one should, therefore, avoid a wicked
companion who teaches what is useless and has
gone into what is wrong.

Kasibhdradvdjasutta (S.N., pp. 12-16). A
brahmana, Kasibharadvaja by name, ploughed,
sowed, and worked hard on this field for livelihood.
One day seeing Gotama seeking alms from door to
door, he reproached him for his idleness. But
Gotama convinced him that he too ploughed and
sowed, for his faith was the seed, penance the
rain, understanding the yoke and plough, modesty
the pole, mind the tie, and thoughtfulness the
ploughshare and goad. He also convinced him
that he too worked hard for carrying him to
Nibbana.

Cundasutta ' (S.N., pp. 16-18). Cunda, a smith,
enquired of the Buddha how many kinds of Samanas
were there. Buddha said that there were four,
viz., Maggajinas, Maggadesakas, Maggajivins, and
Maggadusins. The Buddha next explained to him
peculiar traits of each particular class.

Pardbhavasutta* (8.N. 9 pp. 18-20). When the
Buddha was at Jetavana, one night a god visited
him, and saluting him asked what had been the
cause of loss to the losing man. The Buddha told
him that he who loved Dhamma was the winner,
he who hated it was the loser. To the losing man
wicked men were dear and their religion, full of
vices and bad deeds, was his religion too. Having
taken into consideration all these losses, the wise
man, endowed with insight, cultivates the happy
world of the gods.

VasalasuMa (S.N., pp. 21-25). When living in

1 " Chadanam katvana sa maggadusi " (8.N., p. 17, v. 89),

cf. Jataka, II, p. 281.

2 This sutta represents the antithesis of the Mahamangala
Sutta. The text of this sutta has been published by Grimbolt
in the J.A., t. xviii (1871), translation by Feer in J.A., t. xviii
(1871) and by Gogerly, J.A., t. (1872), xx.

Canonical Pali Literature 243

the Jetavana, the venerable Gotama one day went
out to seek alms to the house of brahmana Aggi-
kabharadvaja who reproached the Sage as an
outcaste. Buddha told him that he was not an
outcaste and explained to him what an outcaste
did really mean. "It is not by birth ", he said,
" that one becomes an outcaste, not by birth does
one become a brahmana, it is by deeds alone that
one becomes an outcaste or a brahmana ".

Mettasutta (8.N., pp. 25-26). A man who seeks
to avoid rebirth should be gentle, upright, and
conscientious. He must not do anything mean or
harmful. He must be contented and unburdened,
and should not be arrogant. He should cultivate
a boundless mind towards all beings, and good will
towards all the world (cf. Khuddakapatha, pp. 8-9).

Henmvatasutta (8.N.,pp. 27-31). Two Yakkhas,
Satagira and Hemavata, with their doubts about
the qualities of the venerable Gotama, resolved with
the help of each other, went to the venerable Gotama,
and enquired of him about the means of deliverance
from the snares of death. And the Master explained
to them the different stages of a life that was
aspirant after becoming the all-knowing, the wise,
the great risliis, walking in the noble path.

Alavaka&utta (8.N., pp. 31-33). At one time
when the Lord was dwelling at Alavi, the king of
the realm, Yakkha Alavaka, came to him and in a
threatening attitude asked him some questions
as to what in this world was the best property
for a man, what conveyed happiness, how could
one cross the stream of existence, how could one
obtain understanding, and so on and so forth.
Buddha with his lucid exposition answered them
to the satisfaction of the king, who then became
converted.

Vijayasutta (S.N., pp. 34-35). Very few men
see the body as it is. It is full of impurities that
flow in nine streams, it is filled with intestines, liver,
stomach, abdomen, heart, lungs, kidneys, etc., and
the hollow head is full of brain. When dead

244 A History of Pali Literature

nobody cares about it which is eaten by dogs and
jackals and other animals. Only a bhikkhu pos-
sessed of understanding knows it thoroughly well,
sees the body as it is, and reflects on its worthless-
ness. And, thus consequently he goes to Nibbana
(cf. Jataka, I, p. 146).

Munisutta 1 (S.N., pp. 35-38). Here we find
the definition of a muni. A muni is in a houseless
state and free from acquaintanceship. He has
uprooted his sin, he has no desire, and he has seen
the end of birth and destruction. He is free from
strife and covetousness, he has overcome everything
and knows everything. He is thoughtful and free
from passion, and delights in meditation. He is
firm, solitary, self-restrained, and is free from
sensual enjoyment. Such is a muni who is far
above a householder.

II. CULAVAGGA

Ratanasutta (8.N., pp. 39-42). For all beings,
whether living in the air or on the earth, whatever
wealth there be here or in the other world, or
whatever excellent jewel in the heavens, there is
nothing equal to the Buddha, there is nothing equal
to the Dhamma, there is nothing equal to the
Samgha. So all beings, desirous of salvation, should
take recourse to nothing else than the Buddha, the
Dhamma, and the Samgha (cf. Khuddakapatha,
pp. 3-6).

Amagandkasutta* (S.N., pp. 42-45). A brah-
mana once accused Kassapa Buddha of having taken
food made of rice together with well-prepared flesh

1 This is tho Pali counterpart of the Muriigatha recommended
by A6oka in his Bhabrvi Edict.

" Sabbabhibhurh sabbavidum surnedharh tarn vapi

dhira munirh vedayanti " (S.N., p. 36, v. 211), cf. Dhammapada,
v. 353.

2 " Na maccliamamsam nanasakattarh . . . .sodhenti maccarh
avitinnakamkham " (Sutta Nipata, p. 44, v. 249), cf. Dhammapada,
v. 141.

Canonical Pali Literature 245

of birds, and, therefore, of having eaten Amagandha
(what defiles one). But Kassapa Buddha explained
to him again and again that eating of flesh was
not Amagandha, or something what defiles one.
Bad mind and wicked deeds defile a man; and
neither hymns nor oblations, nor sacrifices, nor
penances, can purify a mortal of such defilement.

Hirisutta 1 (S.N., pp. 45-46). This is a short
dissertation on true friendship. A friend who does
not help in time of need is not a real friend ; whoso-
ever uses pleasing words to friends without giving
effect to them, whosoever looks out for faults in
friends, whosoever hopes for fruits and cultivates
the energy that produces joy is not a real friend.

Mahdman galas utta (S.N., pp. 46-47).- When
the Buddha was residing in the Jetavana, one night
a deity approached him and asked as to what had
been the highest blessing. Buddha explained to
him in detail that in cultivating the society of wise
men, in having done good deeds in a former existence,
in waiting upon the superiors, in ceasing and abstain-
ing from sin, in reverence, humility, and in similar
virtues and in living religiously, in penance and
chastity, and in the realisation of Nibbana, lay the
highest blessing (cf. Mangala Sutta, Khuddaka-
patha, p. 3).

Sucilomasutia (8.N., pp. 47-49). At one time
when the Blessed One was dwelling at Gaya,
Suciloma, a Yakkha, wanted to find out whether
the Buddha was really a Samana or Samanaka
(wretched Samana) ; and threatened him with a
question as to what had been the origin of passion,
hatred, disgust, delight, horror, and doubt. Buddha
told him that all these had their origin in the body,
they originated in desire and arose in self.

Dhammacariyasutta or Kapilasutta (S.N., pp. 49-
50). One who has become a bhikkhu should lead a
just life, a religious life ; and should not injure others

1 " Pavivekarasarh pltva Dhammapitirasam pi van ti "

(B.N., p. 46, v. 257), cf. Dhammapada, v. 205.

246 A History of Pali Literature

as well as his own cultivated mind. He must not
take delight in quarrelling ; otherwise he would go
to calamity from womb to womb and afterwards to
pain. One who is full of sin is difficult to be purified ;
so the bhikkhus should always avoid the company
of such a person who is dependent on a house having
sinful desires and sinful thoughts.

Brdhrnanadhammikasutta (S.N. 9 pp. 50-55). At
one time when the Buddha was living at the
Jetavana-vihara, some old, decrepit but wealthy
brahmanas came to the Buddha and enquired of
him the customs of the ancient brahmanas. Buddha
described in detail to them the high moral standard
of life they used to live ; but there was a change in
them after gradually seeing king's prosperity and
adorned women. The brahmanas thus gradually
became covetous, and induced the king to make
offerings and sacrifices of animals so that they
might gain something. Dhamma thus came to
be lost to the brahmanas. The brahmanas were

convinced of Buddha's explanations, and were after-
wards converted.

Ndvdsutta (8.N., pp. 55-56). A man who takes
his lessons of Dhamma from a worthy teacher is
able to manifest the highest Dhamma. But one
who serves a low teacher who is ignorant of Dhamma
goes to death. A man who does not understand
Dhamma cannot help another to do it ; but one,
who is accomplished, is easily able to make others
endowed with the highest knowledge. One should,
therefore, cultivate the society of a learned and
intelligent man.

Kimsllasutta 1 (8.N., pp. 56-57). One who as-
pires after attaining the highest good should not be
envious, obstinate, or careless. He should be regular
in his studies and religious discourses, and above
all he should practise what is good, the Dhamma,
self-restraint, and chastity. Dhamma must be his

1 " Dhammaramo dhammarato tacchehi niyyetha subha-

sitehi (S.N., p. 67, v. 327), cf. Dhammapada, v. 364.

Canonical Pali Literature 247

first and last concern, and he should be free from
infatuation. Those who do this come to be es-
tablished in peace and meditation and go to the
essence of learning and understanding.

Utthdnasutta (S.N., pp. 57-58). This is an
advice not to be lukewarm and slothful. For one
who is sick, pierced by the arrow of suffering and
pain, there is no rest, no sleep. He should rise
up and learn steadfastly for the sake of peace, and
conquer the desires. He must not be indolent, for
indolence is defilement.

Rahulasutta l (S.N.,pp. 58-59). Buddha recom-
mended the life of a recluse to Rahula, and told
him to respect the wise man and live with him
constantly. He admonished him to turn him away
from the pleasures of the world, and enjoined upon
him the principles of moderation.

Vanglsasutta (8.N., pp. 59-62).- At one time
when the Blessed One was dwelling at Alavl, Vangisa
came to know the fate of his teacher Nigrodhakappa
who had just attained bliss (aciraparinibbuta). He
wanted to know whether he had been completely
extinguished, or whether he was still with some
elements of existence left behind. Buddha told
him that his teacher had cut off the craving for
name and form in this world, and had crossed
completely birth and death, and had, therefore, been
completely extinguished.

Sammdparibbdjaniyasutta (8.N., pp. 63-66).
This is a dissertation on the right path for a bhikkhu.
A bhikkhu who has abandoned the sinful omens,
subdued his passions, conquered existence, under-
stood the Dhamma, cast behind him slander, anger
and avarice, and liberated from bonds, such a one
will wander rightly in the world. He who does not
see any essence in the upadhis (attachments), is not
opposed to anyone in the world, not intoxicated with
pride, not subjected to sins and affections, and,

1 *' Mitte bhajassu kalyane. . . .nmttanfiu hohi bhojane
(S.N., p. 58, v. 338), of. Dhammapada, verses 185 and 375.

248 A History of Pali Literature

above all, ever longs for Nibbana, such a person
wanders rightly in the world.

Dhammikasutta (S.N., pp. 66-70). At one time
when the Buddha was dwelling in the Jetavana-
vihara, Dhammika, an upasaka, came to him, and
enquired of him what the life of a bhikkhu and what
the life of a householder ought to be. A bhikkhu
must not walk about at a wrong time, he must
subdue his senses and desires, he must reflect
within himself and talk only about the Dhamma
and nothing else. A savaka or a householder must
be a good one, must not kill, and must abstain from
greed and theft and falsehood. He should avoid an
unchaste life, intoxicating drinks, and should practise
abstinence on the eighth, fourteenth, and fifteenth
days of the half-month. He should also entertain
bhikkhus with food and drink.

III. MATIAVAGGA

Pabbajjdsutta (8.N., pp. 72-74). When Got am a
entered Giribbaja in Magadha for alms, Bimbi-
sara saw him from a distance, and when he
made enquiries of him, he came to know through
his messengers that the Sage was dwelling in the
Panda va hill. The king then went to the Pandava

C->

hill and tried to tempt him with wealth and wanted
to know his birth. Buddha told him that he had
been born of the Sakivas of Kosala, but he had

< 7

wandered out, not longing for sensual pleasures,
seeing misery in them.

Padhdnasutta l (8.N., pp. 74-78). When the
Buddha gave himself to meditation for the sake of
acquiring Nibbana, Mara came to tempt him with
his eightfold army of lust, discontent, hunger and
thirst, craving, sloth, cowardice, doubt, hypocrisy,
and stupor. But the Buddha sat firm on his seat,
and gave him battle saying, " Woe upon life in this

1 Cf. Lalitavistara (Lefmann), pp. 207 foil.; Mahavastu, IT,
238 E.

Canonical Pali Literature 249

world, death in battle is better for me than I should
live defeated ". Eventually Mara was disappointed
and obliged to withdraw.

Subhdsitasutta (S.N., pp. 78-79). This is a short
dissertation addressed to the bhikkhus on well-
spoken language. The language of a bhikkhu should
have four requisites. It should be well-spoken, it
should be pleasing, it should be right, and lastly it
should be true.

Simdarikabhdradvdjasiitta (S.N., pp. 79-86). At
one time when the Lord was dwelling on the river
Sundarika, a brahmana, Sundarikabharadvaja by
name, intent upon making an offering and oblation,
came up to him and asked if he was a brahmana
and to whom an offering might well be made. The
Lord spoke out to him that it was not by descent
that one became worthy of receiving an offering,
but by conduct alone. He then explained to the
brahmana in detail the conduct and high moral and
intellectual powers of a man worthy of such an
honour.

MdgJtasuMa (8.X., pp. 86-91). At one time
when the Lord was dwelling at Rajagaha, Magha, a
young man, and a liberal and bountiful giver, came
up to him and asked of those who were worthy of
offerings. The Lord then explained to him in detail
the conduct and high moral and intellectual powers
of a man worth v of such an honour. Asked further

*'

he proceeded to speak out to him again of the
various kinds of blessings of offerings.

SabhiyasiiUa (S.N., pp. 91-102). Sabliiya, a
paribbajaka, went to the six famous teachers of
his time to have some questions answered. But
they could not clear up his doubts ; he then repaired
to Gotama and asked him how T one is to behave to
become a brahmana, a samana, a nahataka, a

" ^

khettajina, a kusala, a pandita, a muni, a vedagu,
an ariuvidita, a dhfra, an ariya, a paribbajaka, and
so forth. The Lord answered all these questions to,
his satisfaction ; and Sabhiya received
and the orders from the Buddha.

250 A History of Pali Literature

Selasutta (S.N., pp. 102-112). Keniya, a Jatila,
once invited Buddha with his assembly to take his
meals with him on the morrow. Sela, a brahmana,
arrived at that place with three hundred young
men ; seeing the preparation he asked what was
going on, and was answered that Buddha was
expected the next day. On hearing the word
* Buddha ', Sela asked where the Buddha lived, and
then went to him, conversed with him, and became
converted with his followers.

Sallasutta (8.N., pp. 112-114). This is a short
dissertation which purports to mean that life is
short and that all mortals are subject to death, but
knowing the terms of the world the wise do not
grieve. It means further that those who have left
sorrow, will be blessed.

Vdsetthasutta 1 (S.N.,pp. 115-123). Once a dis-
pute arose between two young men, Bharadvaja
and Vasettha, the former contending that a man
should be a brahmana by birth, the latter by deeds.
They agreed to go and ask Samana Gotama, who
being approached answered that a man was a
brahmana by his deeds only. The two men were
then converted.

Kokdliyasutta 2 (S.N. 9 pp. 123-131). Kokaliya, a
bhikkhu, once approached Buddha and complained
to him about the evil desires of Sariputta and
Moggallana. On account of this behaviour not
worthy of a bhikkhu, he was struck with boils as
soon as he had left Buddha, and met with his death.
He next went to the Paduma hell, whereupon
Buddha describes to the bhikkhus the punishment
of back-biters in hell.

1 " Na caham brahmanam brumi. . . .akincanam anadanam
tarn aham briirai brahmanam " (S.N., p. 119, v. 620), cf. Dhamma-
pada, v. 396.

2 " Abhutavadi nirayam upeti nihinakamma mamija

parattha " (S.N., p. 127, v. 661), cf. Dhammapada, v. 306.

" Yo appadutihassa narassa dussati sukhumo rajo pativa-

tam va khitto" (S.N., p. 127, v. 662), cf. Dhammapada, v. 125.

Canonical Pali Literature 251

Ndlakasutta 1 (S.N., pp. 131-139). The sage
Asita, also called Kanhasiri, once saw the gods
rejoicing and asked the cause of it. He was told
that Buddha's birth was the cause. He then
descended from the Tusita heaven, and seeing the
child, he received it joyfully and prophesied about
it. Asita had a sister whose son was Nalaka, to
him Buddha explained the highest state of wisdom.

Dvayatanupassanasutta (S.N., pp. 139-149).
At one time when the Blessed One was dwelling at
Savattlii surrounded by the assembly of bhikkhus he
made a dissertation on the origin of pain and suffering.
All pain in the world, he spoke out, arose from
upadhi (substance), avijja (ignorance), samkhara
(confections), vinnana (consciousness), phassa (con-
tact), vedana (sensation), tanha (desire), upadana
(attachment), arambha (effort), ahara (food), ingita
(sign), nissaya (support), rupa (form), mosadhamma
(theft), and sukha (happiness).

IV. ATTHAKAVAGGA

Kdmasutta (S.N., p. 151). Whoever desires to
enjoy sensual pleasures, must suffer from pain and
sins would overpower him. So sensual pleasures
should always be avoided.

Gukatlhakasutta (8.N., pp. 151-153). A man
who adheres to the body and to physical pleasures,
and laments to live at the mouth of death is a
wretched man, and must suffer from pain. None
desirous of deliverance should, therefore, cling to
physical existence and sensual pleasures.

Dutriwtthakasutta (S.N., pp. 153-154). One
who praises liis own virtue and is dependent upon
dogmas of philosophy that change from man to
man and sect to sect lives a censured life. But
a muni is not censured, for he is calm, and does
not praise himself ; for he has shaken off all systems
of philosophy and is, therefore, independent.

1 " Yatha ahara tat ha ete attauam upamam katva na

haneyya na ghataye (S.N., p. 137, v. 705), cf. Dhammapada, v. 129.

252 A History of Pali Literature

Suddhatthakasutta (S.N., pp. 154-156). Know-
ledge of the systems of philosophy cannot purify a
man ; for those devoted to philosophy go from one
teacher to another and they are never calm and
thoughtful. But the wise who have understood
the Dhamma are never led by passion, and do not
embrace anything in the world as the highest.

Paramatthakasutta (S.N., pp. 156-158). One
should not, therefore, give oneself up to philosophical
disputations. A brahmana who does not adopt
any system of philosophy, is unchangeable and
has, therefore, attained Nirvana.

Jardsutta (S.N., pp. 158-160). From selfishness
come grief and avarice. The bhikkhu who has
turned away from the world and wanders about
houseless, is independent, and does not wish for
purification through another.

Tissametteyasutta (S.N., pp. 160-161). Tissa
Metteya once wanted to hear from the Venerable
One the defeat of him who is given to sensual
intercourse. All sorts of vice, Gotama told him,
follow in the train of sensual intercourse which
should, therefore, always be avoided.

Pasurasutta (S.N., pp. 161-163). Disputants
dispute with each other and call each other fools,
they wish for praise, but being repulsed they become
discontented. But none is purified by dispute, says
the Master.

Mdgandiyasutta (S.N., pp. 163-166). This is a
dialogue between Magandiya and Buddha. The
former wanted to offer Buddha his daughter for a
wife, but Buddha refused her. Magandiya was of
opinion that purity came from philosophy, but
Buddha held that it came from ' inward peace '.
The muni is a confessor of peace, and he does not
dispute.

Purabhedasutta (S.N., pp. 166-168). This is a
dissertation in which Buddha puts forth in detail
the conduct and characteristics of a calm muni.
He is free from craving, anger, desire, passion, and
attachment. He is equable and thoughtful, he is

Canonical Pali Literature 253

houseless and has nothing in the world which he
may call his own. He is calm and walks always in
the path of Dhamma.

Kalahavivddasutta (S.N., pp. 168-171). This is
a dissertation on the origin of contentions and
disputes, etc. From dear objects spring up conten-
tions and disputes, from wish originate the dear
objects in the world, from pleasure and displeasure
springs up wish, from phassa (touch) spring up
pleasure and displeasure, and so on and so forth.

Culaviyuhasutta (8.N., pp. 171-174). Thissutta
gives a description of disputing philosophers. The
different schools of philosophy contradict one another,
they proclaim different truths, but the truth is
only one. As long as the disputations are going
on so long will there be strife in the world.

Mahdviyuhasutta (S.N., pp. 174-178). Philoso-
phers cannot lead to purity, they only praise them-
selves and stigmatise others. But a brahmana
has overcome all disputes, and he is indifferent to
learning, for he is calm and peaceful.

Tuvaiakaxutta (8.N., pp. 179-182). A bhikkhu
to attain bliss must cut off the root of papanca
(sin) and of all cravings ; he should learn the
Dhamma, and should not seek peace from any
other quarter. He should be calm and meditative ;
and follow other duties of a bliikkhu strictly and
faithfully. He must avoid boasting and talking
much and indolence and other human vices.

Attadandasutta (S.N., pp. 182-185). This sutta
sets forth the description of an accomplished muni.
He should be truthful, undeceitful, sober, and free
from avarice and slander. He must not be indolent,
nor deviate from truth, nor have any desire for
name and form. He should be thoughtful and
know the highest wisdom.

Sdriputtasutta 1 (S.N., pp. 185-189). Sariputta
once asked Buddha what a bhikkhu is to devote

1 " Karh so sikkham samadaya ekodi nipako sato malarh

attano " (S.N., p. 186, v. 962), c Dhammapada, v. 239.

254 A History of Pali Literature

himself to. Thereupon Buddha spoke out to him
some principles which he should lead and follow in
life. A wise and thoughtful bhikkhu should be
afraid of the five dangers, or of adversaries. He
should learn to endure cold and heat ; he should not
commit theft or speak falsehood or fall into the
power of anger or arrogance. He should be guided
by wisdom and exercise moderation in life, and so
on and so forth.

V. PARAYANAVAGGA

Vatthiu/dthd 1 (8.N., pp. 190-197). To the
brahmana Bavari living on the banks of the Godavarl
in the Assaka territory, came another brahmana,
and asked for five hundred pieces of money. Bavari
could not, however, comply with his request, upon
which the brahmana cursed him saying, " May thy
head on the seventh day hence cleave into seven ".
A deity then comforted Bavari by referring him
to the Buddha. Bavari then sent his sixteen dis-
ciples to the Buddha, and each of them asked him
a question to which the All-Wise gave fitting replies.

Ajitamdnavapucchd 2 (&.JV., pp. 197-198). In
reply to enquiries made by Ajita, Buddha spoke
out to him that the world was shrouded by ignorance,
by reason of avarice it did not shine and desire
was its pollution ; that the dam of desire was thought-
fulness ; and that the desire for ' name and form '
could only be stopped by the cessation of con-
sciousness.

Tissametteyamdnavapucchd (8.N. 9 p. 199). In
reply to enquiries made by Tissametteya, Buddha
spoke out that the bhikkhu who abstained from
sensual pleasures, who was free from desire, always
thoughtful, happy by reflection, was without

1 " Sace ca so pabbajati agara anagariyaxh . . . . araha bhavati
anuttaro " (S.N., p. 193, v. 1003), cf. Lalitavistara (R. L. Mitra'sed.),
pp. 116, 118.

2 " Kena-ssu nivuto loko kizb su tassa mahabbhsyam "

(S.N., p. 197, v. 1032), cf. Mahabharata, III, 17366; XII, 11030.

Canonical Pali Literature 255

commotions, he after knowing both ends did not
stick in the middle as far as his understanding was
concerned ; him he called a great man, and he had
overcome craving in this world.

Punnakamdnavapucchd (S.N., pp. 199-201).
Questioned by the venerable Punnaka, the Blessed
One told him that all sages and men, khattiyas and
brahmanas, who offered sacrifices wished something,
viz., praise and sensual pleasures, in return did not
cross over birth and old age. Only he for whom
there is no commotion, who is calm and free, can
alone cross over birth and old age.

Mettagumdnavapucchd (S.N., pp. 201-204).
Asked by Mettagu as to the origin of pain, Buddha
told him that upadhi was the cause of pain. Asked
next as to how did the wise cross the stream of
birth and old age, Buddha told him that it was by
knowing the Dhamma and by being thoughtful.

Dhotakamdnavapucchd (S.N., pp. 204-205).
Asked by Dhotaka as to how one could learn his
own extinction, Buddha replied that one to learn
this should be wise and thoughtful, and learn the
best Dhamma. He must not have any doubt and
should be calm and independent, above all, he
must not have thirst for reiterated existence.

Upaslvamdnavapucchd (S.N., pp. 205-207).
Asked by Upasiva as to the means by which one
may attain Nibbana, Buddha replied that having
abandoned doubts and sensual pleasures one should
reflect on nothingness day and night whereby one
can attain Nibbana. He remains there without
proceeding further, and he thus delivered from name
and body cannot be reckoned any more as existing.

Nandamdnavapwchd (S.N., pp. 207-209). Not
because of any philosophical view, nor of knowledge,
any one is called a muni, for purity can come from
neither of these. Samanas and brahmanas who hold

a contrary view and live accordingly in the world
cannot cross over birth and old age. But those
samanas and brahmanas who are free from craving
and independent can easily cross over them.

256 A History of Pali Literature

Hernakamdnavapucchd (S.N., pp. 209-210). In
pursuance of a request of Hemaka to know the
Dhamma, Buddha told him that the destruction of
passion and of desire was the imperishable state of
Nibbana. Those who realise this have also under-

% _^

stood the Dhamma and are, therefore, calm and
thoughtful.

Todeyyamdnavapucdid (S.N., pp. 210-211). In
reply to queries made by Todeyya, Buddha replied,
"he in whom there are no lust, no craving, no
doubt, for him there is no other deliverance. He is
possessed of understanding and knows the Dhamma."

Kappamdnavapucchd (S.N., pp. 211-212). For
those who stand in the middle of a formidable
stream, there is a matchless island called Nibbana,
which possesses nothing, grasps at nothing, and
which is the destroyer of decay and death, so said
the Buddha to the venerable Kappa.

Jatukannimdrwvapucdid (S.N., pp. 212-213).
In pursuance of a request made by Jatukanni,
Buddha advised him to subdue greediness for
sensual pleasures and for name and form ; then
there would be 110 passions by which he might fall
into the power of death.

BJiadrdvudhamdnavapncchd (ti.N., pp. 213-
214). A bhikkhu must not grasp after anything
in all the world, for whatever they grasp after, just by
that Mara follows the man, so said Buddha to
Bhadravudha.

Udayamdnavapucchd (8.N., pp. 214-215). In
pursuance of queries made by Udaya, Buddha
spoke out to him that deliverance lay in leaving
lust, desire, grief, and sloth, and in the knowing and
understanding Dhamma. The world, he continued,
was bound by pleasure, and by leaving desire
Nibbana could be attained. There was no con-
sciousness for one who was thoughtful and who
delighted not in sensation, so concluded the Master.

Posdlarnanavapucchd (S.N., pp. 215-216).
Tathagata who knows all the faces of consciousness,
knows also him who stands delivered. Having

Canonical Fall Literature 257

understood that the bonds of pleasure did not
originate in nothingness, he saw clearly in this
matter, knowledge of a perfect accomplished
brahmana, so said Buddha to the venerable Posala.

Moghardjamdiwvapiicchd 1 (S.N.,pp. 216-217).
Thrice asked by the venerable Mogharajan as to
how one would look upon the world to cross over
death, Buddha advised him to look upon the world
as void, to be always thoughtful, and to reckon
himself as not existing. By so doing one could
overcome death.

Pingiyamdnavapucchd (S.N., pp. 217-218).
Requested by the old and feeble Pingiya to let
him know how to overcome birth and decay, Buddha
advised him to leave the body and desire behind
so that he might not have to come to exist again.

Thus Buddha was sought by sixteen brahmanas
who were the sixteen disciples of Bavari to answer
their sixteen questions to which the Master gave
fitting and satisfactory replies. All of them having
understood the meaning and tenor of each question
lived according to the Dhamma, and went to the
further shore of decay and death. Pingiya, there-
fore, thought that he would proclaim accordingly
the way to the further shore. This he did, and for
his faith, he was, by the direction of Buddha,
delivered to the further shore of death.

There is a Sinhalese edition of this text by

Pannatissa Thera and a Burmese

^TraLfauiT edition published by Zabu Meit Swe

Press, Rangoon, is available besides
the P.T.S. edition by Andersen and Smith (1913).
R. Otto Franke's articles, " Die Sutta-Nipata Gathas
mit ihren Parallelen " in Zeitschrift der Deutschen
Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft, Vols. 63, 64, and 66
(1909-1910, 1912) deserve mention and these are
now available in a book form. There is a Deva-
nagari edition by P. V. Bapat, M.A., Poona, 1924.

1 " Sunnato lokam avekkhassu Mogharaja sada sato ns

passati" (S.N., p. 217, verse 119), cf. Dhammapada, v. 170.

17

258 A History of Pali Literature

This text has been translated into English by
Fausboll in S.B.E., Vol. X, and this is the earliest
English translation. Lord Chalmers has translated
it into English in the Harvard Oriental Series. 1
Seidenstiicker is translating it in Zeitschrift fur
Buddhismus, Munich.

The oldest form of the Aryan language we
find in the Rgveda. Vedic and
classical Sanskrit represent this
for the history of period, and this stage of the Aryan

language is called the Old Indo-
Aryan or Old Indo-Aryan stage.
The Aryan language in the time of the Buddha
represents another stage which is called the Middle
Indo-Aryan or Middle Indo-Aryan stage in the
line of development. Various Prakrits and Pali
represent this period. There is also a third stage
called New Indo-Aryan stage. Various modern
vernaculars, such as Oriya, Bengali, Mahrati, etc.,
represent this period.

It is maintained by majority of scholars that
Pali is a midland dialect based on an old Middle
Indo-Aryan dialect, which may be called an old
form of the Saurasem language, with elements
from other dialects, such as Paisaci, Gujarat!, and
Magadhi. They are also of opinion that originally
the Buddhist Canon was in the S variant of the
Pracya or Magadhi speech and that later on the
canon was translated into Pali and other languages.
Pali is not a unique speech. Numerous double
forms show that it is a language very much mixed
indeed. To a large extent apparent dialectical de-
posits and scholastic formations occur. But in spite
of this rather heterogeneous character of the Pali
language, a chronological development, a division
of the history of the language in periods, a sort of
stratification is clearly seen. We find four strata
in the development of Pali.

1 Prof. Lanman was kind enough to send me this English
translation in proofs as the book was not then ready. I have found
this translation very useful.

Canonical Pali Literature 259

(1) The speech of the metrical portions (the
gathas in the canonical literature). This is of a very
heterogeneous character. On one hand it retains
many old speech forms separated from those of Old
Indo- Aryan only through sound change, while on
the other there are many standardised forms of
Pali, new formations younger in point of time
frequently occurring in the same verse : Pita and
ranna are old, developed out of Old Indo-Aryan ;
Pitussa and rajino are new formations. At times
the exigencies of metre have determined the form
employed, the choice being between the old form
and the new one. When verses in an earlier form
of speech, e.g., in the eastern speech of Asoka
were altered into a later one, alteration of the
archaic form was usually permitted when no violence
was done to metre. Sutta Nipata is typical of this
stratum.

(2) The speech of the canonical prose. It is
more uniform and more settled than that of the
gathas. The archaic and dialectical forms are con-
trolled, and in part disappear entirely. The change
of archaic forms is no more capricious and random as
in the previous stratum. But they are regulated
properly by the grammatical rules of a standardised
speech. Jataka is typical of this stratum.

(3) The younger prose of the post-canonical
literature as in the Milinda Panha and in the greater
commentaries. It is based on the immediately
preceding stratum and displays a scholarly and
artistic modification of it. Consequently the dis-
tance between the first stratum and the second
stratum is greater than that between the second
stratum and the third stratum. The third stratum
can be distinguished from the second stratum by a
greater restriction of the older forms and by a
more elegant style. There is apparently the in-
fluence of Sanskrit in it to a greater extent.

(4) The speech of the later artistic poetry
(cf. the Mahavamsa, the Dipavamsa, the Datha-
vamsa, etc.). This does not bear any more uniform

260 A History of Pali Literature

character. The authors draw upon their knowledge
of language and use forms indiscriminately from the
older and newer strata. At times there is an air
of archaism, but this is false; and Sanskritism is
frequent.

Mr. Fausboll, in his introduction to the Transla-
tion of the Sutta Nipata, has drawn attention to the
fact that there are many old Vedic forms of
substantives and verbs in the plural, such as,
samuhatase, paccayase, panditase, caramase, and
sikkhissamase ; the shorter Vedic plurals as,
vinicchaya lakkhana for vinicchayani lakkhanani ;
shorter instrumental singulars as, manta, parinna,
labhakamya for mantaya, parinfiaya, and labhakam-
yaya ; Vedic infinitives as, vippahatave, unnametave,
sampayatave ; contracted forms, such as, santya,
duggacca, titthiya, sammucca ; thiyo by the side of
protracted forms, such as, atumanam, suvami,
suvana, as well as same archaic forms, as, sagghasi
(=sakkhissasi), pava or pava (pavadati), pavecche
(=paveseyya), sussarii ( = sunissami), datthu ( =
disva), paribbasana (parivasamano), avocasi,
ruppena, uggahayanti ; and some usual words like
vyappatha, bhunahu, patiseniyanti, kyassa, upaya,
and avivadata. Sometimes forms are contracted
for the metre tad for tada, janetva for jenetva,
yad for yada, sincitva for sincitva. Sometimes we
meet with difficult and irregular constructions es-
pecially in the Atthakavagga, and sometimes with
very ambiguous or condensed words or expressions
like diguna, ekaguna, kuppapaticcasanti, sanna-
sanno, visannasanno, vibhutasanrio, etc.

The Vimanavatthu is the sixth book. It gives
._. . , in verse a graphic description of

Vimanavatthu. ,. I/?IT_J JT_

certain celestial abodes enjoyed by
the devas for having done meritorious deeds while
on earth as human beings. The stories told in it
induce listeners to lead a pure life and to do meri-
torious deeds in order to obtain bliss after death.
This work lays much emphasis on individual morality
and duty and clearly shows the effect of karma,

Canonical Pali Literature 261

good, bad, or indifferent. The highest of pleasures
that the heavens bestow has a limit according
to the Buddhists. They can never bring about a
final release from evil and hence the experiences in
heaven, though pleasurable, are evils to be guarded
against the more so on account of their luring
attractiveness. Lord Zetland is right in pointing
out that the heavens and hells, of which we read
so much in the Vimanavatthu and the Petavatthu,
may be said to exist for the purpose of providing
a more elaborate stage than this earth can do, for
the play of the ever revolving cycle of existence and
all that it involves. The descriptions of the pleasures
of heaven and the sorrows of hells are interesting
as showing the nature of the rewards and punish-
ments which in those early days were considered
appropriate to particular acts of piety and to
particular sins. 1 Rhys Davids says, " The whole
set of beliefs exemplified in these books (Petavatthu
and Vimanavatthu) is historically interesting as
being in all probability the source of a good deal
of mediaeval Christian belief in heaven and hell.
But the greater part of these books, composed
according to a set pattern, is devoid of style ; and
the collection is altogether of an evidently later
date than the bulk of the books included in this
Appendix ". 2

The Vimanavatthu has been edited by E. R.
Gooneratne for the Pali Text Society, London. It
has not yet been translated. 8

The Petavatthu is the seventh book. It con-
~ 4 _ tains little poems illustrating belief

Petavatthu. ., . , r f ,. , P , , ,

ni the existence of lite beyond death,
and sufferings after death for having done evil
deeds while on earth. In the Southern Buddhist

1 Foreword to my book, '" Heaven and Hell in Buddhist Perspec-
tive ".

2 Buddhism, its history and literature (American Lectures),
p. 77.

8 Mr. H. Gehman is preparing an English translation of this
text together with that of the Petavatthu for S.B.B.

262 A History of Pali Literature

faith there is hardly any trace anywhere of the
worship of a personal being whether an ancestor or
a spirit or a deity. The lesson inculcated is a
natural concomitant of the Law of Karma which
is the central idea of the whole Buddhistic faith.
The result of karma cannot be obviated, we must
suffer for what we have done. It is a force which
must produce its own consequence. A careful
study of the Buddhist stories regarding spirits
convinces us of the fact that a person is not a seeker
after Nirvana nor the intellectual seeker after eternal
verities or fundamental realities, but the ordinary
everyday individual, the seeker after good things
of earth, he who eats, drinks, and multiplies here
below and wishes for the plenty of similar enjoy-
ments in the life to follow after death. One great
doctrine is dinned into our ears and that is, that
charity here on earth, charity with a sincere heart
while alive, is the only means of commanding the
objects of pleasures after death. If one gives away
plenty of food and drink while possessed of the
earthly corporeal frame, he will be entitled to enjoy
them hereafter. We also learn from the Petavatthu
that the needs of the pretas and the pretls are
identical with those of human beings in flesh and
blood. They are oppressed with hunger and thirst.
The passion of love and desire for companions of
the other sex does not leave them ; and it is interest-
ing to note in this connection that a lover in the
spirit form whether of male or female sex enjoys
fully the company of a comrade of the other sex
who is still in the world of the living. It is clear
that a preta cannot directly take food, drink or
clothing by force or guile or even when voluntarily
offered. A hand-to-hand interchange of these
things is impossible between a man and a departed
spirit. It is only when the gifts are made to a
human being and the merits thereof transferred to
the spirits that their comforts can reach the Peta
and satisfy his needs. This is the fundamental
idea of the Buddhist conception of the method of

Canonical Pali Literature 263

removing the disabilities and miseries of departed
spirits, and this is also the basis of the Hindu
conception of &raddha. In fact it is one of the
established ideas of the Indian mind even from the
Vedic days. A close study of the Petavatthu gives
us some ideas as to the -character of the Petas
which appears generally to have undergone a change
for the better in their spirit life. Their hunger and
thirst, their miseries and sufferings, the bitter
experiences for past misconduct seem to have
rubbed off their angularities, softened their temper,
chastened their mind, and made them realise the
truth that charity is the door to enjoyment of
comfort in the other world. We hardly find them
doing ill to others, they are too much pressed down
with the burden of their own miseries to think of
or to get any opportunity for doing mischief to
others. They are suffering rather than malevolent
spirits. The stories in the Petavatthu, though some
among them may seem puerile and even absurd,
have served to restrain a believer in the words of
the Great Master, from straying away from the
path of virtue, in his body, or his word or his action
and have made him practise charity and ahimsa
towards all living creatures.

The Petavatthu has been edited in Roman

character by Prof. Minayeff of St.

Editions and Petersburg for the Pali Text Society

translations ot the T-I i -i -rt -r-r -i i * t t

Petavatthu. ot England. E. Hardy has written

a paper on the " Notes for an edition
of the Petavatthu " (J.P.T.S., 1904-1905). It has
been translated into German by Dr. Stede known
as " Die Gespenstergeschichteii des Petavatthu ",
Leipzig, 1914.

The Theragatha is the eighth book. This book
-xu- together with the Therigatha has

Theragatha. . IM. j T i j. i.

been edited in Roman character by
Drs. Oldenberg and Pischel for the P.T.S., London.
It is a collection of poems, some of which are believed
to have been sung by theras during the lifetime of
the Buddha, and others shortly after his parinirvana.

264 A History of Pali Literature

These poems are conducive to the understanding of
the religious theories and feelings prevalent in the
Buddhist Order. The method of the arrangement
of these gathas is what is generally followed in the
Buddhist literature, viz., the single verses are
placed first, then follow the dyads, triads, etc. The
language of this book is not simple and in many
places it is difficult to find out the meaning without
the help of the commentary.

There are two manuscripts :

(1) MS. of the India Office (Phayre collection)

written in Burmese character.

(2) MS. of the Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris

(fonds Pali 91), Burmese writing.

The Theragatha has been translated into English,
known as Psalms of the Brethren, by Mrs. Rhys
Davids and published by the P.T.S.

The Therigatha is the ninth book. It is a collec-
..,_ tion of verses attributed in the

engat a. tradition of the Pali Canon to 73
of the leading Theris or Sisters in the Order during
the lifetime of Gotama himself. " A good many
of the verses ascribed to them are beautiful in form,
and not a few give evidence of a very high degree
of that mental self-culture which played so great a
part in the Buddhist ideal of the perfect life."
Women of acknowledged culture are represented as
being the teachers of men, and as expounding,
to less advanced Brethren or Sisters in the Order,
the deeper and more subtle points in the Buddhist
philosophy of life. 1

The available manuscripts are :

(1) The Phayre MS. in the India Office
Library, London Burmese writing
19 leaves, 9 lines.

1 Rhys Davids, Buddhism its history and literature (American
Lectures), p. 72.

Canonical Pali Literature 265

(2) MS. of the Bibliotheque Nationale at

Paris, fonds Pali, No. 91. 16 leaves,
9 lines. Burmese writing.

(3) MS. with Mr. Subhuti, 12 leaves, 9 lines.

Sinhalese writing.

(4) MS. with Mr. Subhuti, 20 leaves, 8 lines.

Burmese writing. Dated Sakkaraj
1128.

This work has been translated by Mrs. Rhys
Davids known as Psalms of the Sisters, which is
very useful. Two interesting papers on " the women
leaders of the Buddhist reformation, as illustrated
by Dhammapala's commentary on the Therigatha "
(Transactions of the Ninth International Congress of
Orientalists, London, 1893), and " Buddhist Women "
by Dr. B. C. Law, published in the Indian Antiquary
(March, April, and May, 1928), deserve mention.
" Women Under Primitive Buddhism " by Miss
I. B. Horner, should also be consulted. There is a
Bengali translation of this work by Mr. Bijoy
Chandra Majumdar.

Mrs. Rhys Davids in her introduction to the

f _ , Psalms of the Brethren says, re-
Essence of Bud- ,. ., i , i -i j i

dhism involved in garding the doctnne involved in the
1 stha Thera ' TherI " Theragatha, " anicca, dukkha,
ga a ' anatta, the four truths, the Aryan

Path, the seven Buddhas, Arahants as no less Buddha
and Tathagata than their Great Master, and so
forth : such is the range of the ancient Theravadism
of these poems " (Introduction, p. xxii). Our know-
ledge of the ancient Theravadism is also derived
from the Suttantas, the Sutta Nipata, and the
Dhammapada.

It is amply sufficient to say that some parts of
the Pali Canon are later than others, and that the
books, as we have them, contain internal evidence
from which conclusions may fairly be drawn as to
their comparative age. Prof. Rhys Davids in his
Buddhist India says, regarding the Sutta Nipata,
that single verses, single poems, and single cantos,

266 A History of Pali Literature

had all been in existence before the work assumed
its present shape. He further says that this is very
suggestive as to the manner of growth not only of
this book, but of the Indian literature of this period.
It grew up in schools ; and was the result rather of
communistic than of individual effort. What applies
to the Sutta Nipata also applies to the Dhammapada.
That many of its verses were current as proverbs
or as favourite sayings before they were independent-
ly incorporated in the poems in which they are now
found, nobody can question. The same is the case
with the Theragatha poems. Though Dr. Winternitz
suggests signs of later thought in Khanda-Sumana's
stanza in the Theragatha, yet the great bulk of the
poems is relatively early. This seems probable by
both the doctrine and diction of them.

These remarks are sufficient to maintain our
contention that the importance of the Theragatha,
the Sutta Nipata, the Dhammapada, and the
Suttantas lies in the fact that these are the main
sources for our knowledge of ancient Theravadisnu
The difference both in doctrine and diction that
exists between these works and other works of the
Pali canonical literature enables us to distinguish
between ancient and later Theravadism. It is
worthy of notice that the idea of 25 Buddhas is a
later one. The earlier Pali books know only of
seven Buddhas.

When we turn to the Therigatha, the most
important thing that strikes us here is the idea of
Nibbana as held by the Theris. In order to give a
purview of how the Theris envisaged their summum
bonum, we shall deal with Nibbana in its two aspects
negative and positive, as we find in their gathas.

In its negative aspect Nibbana means the going
out of greed, ill-will, and dulness and also freedom
from these. It has been also variously described as
comfort, end to ill, end of becoming or life, end of
craving, and rest.

In its positive aspect Nibbana, as subjectively
considered, means mental illumination conceived as

Canonical Pali Literature 267

light, insight, state of feeling happiness, and cool
and calm and content (sitibhava, nibbata, upasamo,
peace and safety, state of will self-mastery).
Nibbana, when objectively considered, means truth,
the highest good, a supreme opportunity, a regulated
life, communion with the Best, and bringing con-
genial work.

The Jataka is the tenth book. It is widely
T _ , studied by the students of the

Jataka. , . . ^ -.. . -r *

history of religion. Professor
Fausboll edited the Jataka for the first time in six
volumes and he prepared a volume on Index. The
English translation of this work by various scholars
under the editorship of Co well has no doubt made the
study of the Jatakas very easy, especially for those
who do not know the original language in which the
Jatakas were written. Professor Rhys Davids under-
took to translate the Jatakas but he was obliged
to give it up after the appearance of one volume.
It is interesting to note that each story opens
with a preface which describes the circumstances
in the life of the Buddha which led him to tell the
birth story and thus reveal some events in the long
series of his previous existences as a Bodhisatta.
At the end there is always given a brief summary
where the Buddha identifies the different persons
in the story in their present births. The stories are
very interesting as they throw a flood of light on
the social, political, and religious life of the people
in ancient India.

The Jataka was composed in North India in
the so-called ' middle country ' (Madhyadesa) (Rhys
Davids, Buddhist India, p. 172). It consists of
gathas or stanzas only, and is divided into twenty-
two sections (iiipatas), which are arranged according
to the number of stanzas belonging to or forming
a Jataka. The first section is supposed to contain
150 Jatakas, each verse belongs to a separate
story ; the second, 100 Jatakas, with two verses
each ; the third, 50 Jatakas, with three verses each,
and so on. Each successive section (nipata)

268 A History of Pali Literature

contains a larger number of stanzas and a smaller
number of Jatakas. These gathas are in many
oases poetic tales or ballads or epic poems. Verses
are attached to all the Jatakas. They are, in a few
instances, in the framework and not in the stories
themselves. The stories without the verses may be
said to have preserved the original form of Indian
folklore. Some of the stories are noticed also in
the Pancatantra, Kathasaritsagara, etc. Some have
parallels in the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, the
Puranas, and the Jain literature. It would not
perhaps be unreasonable to hold that most of
the stories were derived from existing folklore of
North India (Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, pp. 207-
208). The Jatakas are frequently quoted in the
later books of the Milinda Pafiha. Many Jatakas
occur in the Mahavastu 1 in prose as well as in verse
in mixed Sanskrit. Some of them are variants of
Pali Jatakas while others are not found in the Pali
collection.

It would not be out of place to give here gists
of some of the Jataka stories which are remarkable
for their variety.

A young man finding a dead mouse sold it.
He got some money with which he carried on trade
and became rich (Cullakasetthi Jataka, Jat., Vol. I).
There were incompetent valuers (Tandulanali
Jataka, Jat. I) and there was a strong belief in being
seized by an ogre (Devadhamma Jataka, Vol. I). A
king finding a grey hair in his head forsook his
family life ((Makhadeva Jataka, cf. Nimi Jataka,
Vol. I). A king of the deer not only saved his own
life but also the life of all creatures at the risk of
his own life (Nigrodhamiga Jataka, Vol. I). A
brahmin desiring to give food to the dead was about
to sacrifice a goat which showed signs of great
joy and of great sorrow. The goat explained the
reason for each emotion (Matakabhatta Jataka).
True release does not lie in offering sacrifice ( Ayacita-

1 Vide my work, " A Study of the Mahavastu ", pt. II Stories.

Canonical Pali Literature 269*

bhatta Jataka, Vol. I). There was a pool haunted
by ogre (Nalapana Jataka, Vol. I). The Kulavaka
Jataka relates as to how a man through the practice
of goodness went to heaven and how his three
wives were reborn in heaven as a reward of their
doing good deeds. A tree caught fire, the wise
birds flew, the foolish ones remained and were burnt
to ashes (Sakuna Jataka, Vol. I). A treasurer gave
alms to a Paccekabuddha though Mara tried to
prevent him from doing so (Khadirangara Jataka,
Vol. I). A king put a stop to sacrifices of living
creatures (Dummedha Jataka, Vol. I). The
Andabhuta Jataka (Vol. I) relates the innate
wickedness of women. The Surapana Jataka (Vol.
I) deals with the effects of strong drinks on
hermits. The Asatarupa Jataka (Vol. I) relates
how a city was captured by stopping the supply
of water and firewood. A slave forging his master's
name married a rich wife. The master did not take
any revenge but he taught the slave's wife to
restrain her husband's arrogance (Katahaka
Jataka, Vol. I). A wicked prince is reformed by
the analogy of poisonous seedling (Ekapanna Jataka,
Vol. I). Some shipwrecked mariners escaped from
a city of goblins by the aid of a flying horse (Vala-
hassa Jataka, Vol. II). A king of Benares was
most tyrannical. At his death the porter of the
royal palace mourned fearing that the king should
prove too much for the King of Death and should be
sent back again to earth (Mahapingala Jataka,
Vol. II). Some men won a treasure by digging, but
they dug too much and lost it again (Jarudapana
Jataka, Vol. II). A brave man saved a caravan from
robbers (Khurappa Jataka, Vol. II). A king was
taken captive and suffered much at the hands of his
enemy, but by his patience and suffering he won over
his enemy through repentance (Ekaraja Jataka,
Vol. III). A king killed his own son out of jealousy
as his queen showed much affection for the son.
The king was punished by being thrown into hell
(Culladhammapala Jataka, Vol. III). A foolish

270 A History of Pali Literature

mendicant mistook the butting of a ram for a
respectful salutation. He met with his death owing
to his foolishness (Cammasataka Jataka, Vol. III).
A wicked king cruelly maltreated an ascetic who
patiently endured the maltreatment. The king was
thrown into hell (Khantivadi Jataka, Vol. III). Sakka
was pleased with an ascetic and offered him boons.
The ascetic made a wise choice of boons (Kanha
Jataka, Vol. IV). Two princes with then: sister went
to a forest. They came to know of their father's death.
The eldest prince sent his slippers to take his own
place on the throne. They were displeased when
the news of wrong judgment came to their ears
(Dasaratha Jataka, Vol. IV). Jealous of a holy
ascetic, Sakka approached the king of a country
and said that the drought from which the land
was suffering, was due to the ascetic. The king
advised by Sakka sent his daughter to beguile the
ascetic. The ascetic fell a victim to the temptation.
But the ascetic's father who was away, returned to
his son and cautioned him against the wiles of
womankind (Nalinika Jataka, Vol. V). A king
developed a taste for human flesh. In order to
supply himself with favourite food he used to murder
his own subjects. His action became known to all
and he was driven out of his kingdom. Once he
captured a king who had been his friend and teacher.
The king was released on condition that he should
return as soon as he fulfilled his promise. The king
kept his words. The man-eater being pleased with
the king desired to give him four boons. At the
request of the king the man-eater gave up canni-
balism (Mahasutasoma Jataka, Vol. V). A king
questioned an ascetic as to the various moral duties.
He himself indulged in pleasures but his daughter
was virtuous. She tried to save him from heretical
beliefs. At last the Buddha converted him (Maha-
narada Kassapa Jataka, Vol. VI). Four kings in-
cluding Sakka disputed as to who was the most
virtuous. For the solution they came to a wise
man who decided that they were all equal. The

Canonical Pali Literature 271

wife of the Naga king desired the heart of that wise
man. The Naga king sent a yakkha to kill the
wise man who won over the yakkha to his side
(Vidhurapandita Jataka, Vol. VI).

The gists of some of the Jatakas given above
may lead one to believe that the Jatakas are
but amusing tales, having no serious lessons to
impart. But the fact is otherwise. A careful
perusal of the Jataka stories will not fail to convince
a thoughtful reader that these stories have various
purposes to serve.

We read in the Saddharmapundarika, V (S.B.E.,
xxi, 1884, 120), that the Buddha
knowing the differences in faculties
and energy of his numerous hearers,
preaches in many different ways, tells many tales,
amusing, agreeable, both instructive and pleasant,
tales by means of which all beings not only become
pleased with the law in this present life, but also
after death will reach happy states ; and in the
same book it is stated (ii. 44, S.B.E., xxi. 44 f.)
that the Buddha teaches both by sutras and
stanzas and by legends and Jatakas. It is,
indeed, likely enough that Gautama Buddha himself
made use of popular tales in preaching to the people.
It is certain that the Buddhist monks and preachers
did so. In his numerous existences before he came
to be born as Sakyamuni who was to be the Buddha,
the Bodhisattva had been born according to his
karma, sometimes as a god, sometimes as a king,
or a merchant, or a nobleman, or an outcaste, or
an elephant, or some other man or animal. It was
thus only necessary to identify the hero or any
other character of a story with the Bodhisattva in
order to turn any tale, however secular or even
frivolous, into a Jataka. Some of the stories which
were afterwards turned into Jatakas are told in the
suttas as simple tales, without any reference to the
Bodhisattva (cf. Cullavagga, vi. 3, with the Tittira
Jataka, No. 37 ; or Mahavagga, x. 2, 3, with the
Dlghiti Kosala Jataka, No. 37 1). On the other hand

272 A History of Pali Literature

there are some real Jatakas included in the suttas
e.g., the Kutadanta Sutta and Mahasudassana Sutta
in the Digha Nikaya. That the Jatakas form an
essential part of the Buddhist Canon is shown by
the fact that they are included in the list of nine
angas (twelve Dharmapravacanas in the Sanskrit
Buddhist Canon) into which the Sacred Books of
the Buddhists were divided according to the subject-
matter as the seventh anga (the ninth Dharma-
pravacana). 1 The Jatakas preserve an invaluable
record of the history of Indian literature.

The Jatakas are highly important for the

history of Buddhism, as they give us

J5 , tak ^ popu ~ an insight into popular Buddhism.

lar Buddhism. e> r r

The whole system of Jatakas is
based on the most popular dogma of Karma, and
the ethical ideal of this religion is not the Arhat
who has attained to Nirvana, but the Bodhisattva

7

who in all his former existences has shown one
or more of the great virtues by which he prepared
himself for becoming the future Buddha. However,
high or low he may have been born, in every
Jataka he is either helpful, kind, and self-
sacrificing or brave, clever and even possessing
supernatural wisdom. Jatakas like those of king
Sivi (No. 499), who gave away his eyes as a gift,
or of prince Vessantara (No. 547), who even gave
away his children as a gift to a wicked brahmana,
are standard texts for this ideal of ethics. It may
easily be understood how the theory of the para-
mitas which has become important in the Mahayana
Buddhism, though not mentioned in the Jataka
gathas, but only in the Buddha vamsa, Cariyapitaka,
and the Jataka Commentary, was already latent in
the Jataka theory. It is no wonder that the
Jatakas belong as much to the Mahayana as to the
Hinayana Buddhism. They are indeed the common
property of all Buddhist sects in all Buddhist

1 Vide Dr. Winternitz's article " The Jataka " in Hastings'
Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. VII, pp. 491 ff.

Canonical Pali Literature 273

countries. They were the chief vehicle of Buddhist
propaganda and are the chief witnesses of popular
Buddhism. 1 Rhys Davids 2 says, "Our existing
Jataka book is only a partial record. It does not
contain all the Jatakas that were current, in the
earliest period of their literature, among the Buddhist
community. I venture to suggest that the character
of ten earlier Jatakas, in their pre-Jataka shape,
enables us to trace their history back beyond the
Buddhist literature altogether. None of them are
specially Buddhist. They are modified, perhaps
more or less to suit Buddhist Ethics. But even the
Mahasudassana, which is the most so, is in the main
simply an ancient Indian legend of sun worship.
And the rest are pre-Buddhistic Indian folklore.
There is nothing peculiarly Buddhist about them.
Even the ethics they inculcate are Indian. What is
Buddhist about them, in this their oldest shape, is
only the selection made. There was, of course,
much other folklore, bound up with superstition.
This is left out. And the ethic is, of course, of a
very simple kind. It is milk for babes. This
comes out clearly in the legend of the Great Eong of
Glory the Mahasudassana. In its later Jataka
form it lays stress on the impermanence of all
earthly things, on the old lesson of the vanity of
the world. In its older form, as a suttanta, it lays
stress also on the ecstasies (the Jhanas), which are
perhaps pre-Buddhistic and on the sublime con-
ditions (the Brahma- Viharas) which are certainly
distinctively Buddhistic. These are much deeper
and more difficult matters."

" So much for the earliest forms in which we
find the Jatakas. The next evidence in point of
date is that of the bas-reliefs on the Bharhut and
Safichi Stupas those invaluable records of ancient
Indian archaeology. Among the carvings on the
railings round these stupas are a number of scenes,

1 Vide Dr. Winternitz's article, " The Jataka " in Hastings'
Encyclopaedia of R. and E., p. 494, Vol. VII.

2 Buddhist India, pp. 196-198.

18

274 A History of Pali Literature

each bearing as a title in characters of the third
century B.C. the name of a Jataka ; and also other
scenes without a title but similar in character.
Twenty-seven of the scenes have been recognised
as illustrating passages in the existing Jataka Book.
Twenty-three are still unidentified, and some of
these latter are meant, no doubt, to illustrate Jataka
stories current in the community, but not included
in the canonical collection." The very fact that
the Jataka stories served as favourite topics for
sculptures and paintings through all the centuries
in all Buddhist countries, goes to show the immense
popularity of the Jatakas which are found in
India in Bharhut, Sanchi, and Bodh-Gaya in the
third or second century B.C., in Amaravati in the
second century A.D., and later on in the caves
of Ajanta. Hundreds of bas-reliefs representing
scenes from Jatakas are found decorating the famous
temples of Boro-Budur in Java (ninth century A.D.)
mostly based on legends in the Lalitavistara, of
Pagan in Burma (thirteenth century A.D.), and of
Sukhadaya in Siam (fourteenth century A.D.). 1

According to Professor Rhys Davids, the
edition of the Jatakas by Fausboll is an edition of
the commentary written probably in the fifth century
A.D. by an unknown author who, as Childers thinks,
was Buddhaghosa (Buddhist India, pp. 200-201).
Whether this commentary was actually written by
Buddhaghosa or not, the numerous Jatakas quoted
or narrated by Buddhaghosa in his commentaries
show a close agreement with the commentary edited
by Fausboll.

Dr. Fick says that so far as the verses and the
prose portions of the stories are concerned, as
distinct from the framework, they have been scarcely
altered from the original state (Dr. Fick, Sociale
Gliederung im nordostlichen Indian Zu Buddha's
Zeit, pp. vi and vii).

1 Hastings* Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. VII,
p. 494.

Canonical Pali Literature 275

Hof rath Biihler points out that the Jatakas make
no mention of the Nandas and Mauryas.

The state of civilisation described in the Jatakas
is no doubt very ancient in many respects. The
Jatakas describe the palaces of kings as built
of wood. They are full of materials which help us
a great deal in reconstructing the history of ancient
India, but we should be cautious in accepting them
wholesale as historical evidences.

Prof. Rhys Davids holds that whole of the
longer stories, some of them as long as a modern
novellete, contained in Vol. VI of the edition, are
later, both in language and hi their view of social
conditions in India than those in the earlier volumes.
Yet several of those latest in the collection are shown
by the bas-reliefs to have been already in existence
in the third century B.C. And this holds good,
not only of the verses, but also of the prose, for
the bas-reliefs refer to the prose portions of the
tales (see in the Appendix under Vidhura, Sama,
Ummagga, and Vessantara Jatakas).

It is possible to conclude, says Rhys Davids,
that some of the tales, when they were first adopted
into the Buddhist tradition, were already old. We
have seen above that out of those tales of which we
can trace the pre-Jataka book form, a large propor-
tion, 60 to 70 per cent., had no verses. Now in the
present collection, we do not find verses in the
majority of tales. And there are other tales, where
the verses do not occur in the story itself, but are
put like a chorus, into the mouth of a fairy (devata)
who has really nothing else to do with the story.
It follows that these stories existed, without the
verses, before they were adopted into the Buddhist
scheme of Jatakas by having verses added to them,
and they are therefore probably not only pre-
Buddhistic but very old.

Dr. Rhys Davids further adds that the custom
on which the Jataka system is based of handing
down tales or legends in prose, with the conversation
in verse is itself pre-Buddhistic. And the Jataka

276 A History of Pali Literature

Book is only another example of that pre-epic form
of literature of which there are many shorter speci-
mens preserved in the earlier books of the canon
(Buddhist India, pp. 205-206).

The Jataka has been translated from Pali into

English by various hands under the

Lite Ta t t U aka s n the editorship of E. B. Cowell in six

vols. Etude Sur les Jatakas Par
Leon Fur, Paris, 1875 (reprinted from Journal
Asiatique, 1875); Nine Jatakas by L. H. Elwell,
Boston, 1886 ; Lineage of the proud King by Robert
Chalmers, J.R.A.S., 1892 ; Serge D'Oldenberg " On
the Buddhist Jatakas " by H. Wenzel, J.R.A.S.,
1893 (a valuable paper in which three tables of
parallels are given. The Jatakas and the Jain
parallels and the Jatakas in the Mahavastu are also
discussed in it) ; Notes on the Buddhist bas-reliefs
by Oldenberg, J.R.A.S., 1896 ; Index to the Jatakas
by Rouse, J.P.T.S., 1890.

M. Winternitz Die Jatakas in ihrer Bedentung
fur die Geschichte der indischen und ausserindischen
Literatur und Kunst., Berlin, 1913.

Keilhorn The Jatakas and Sanskrit Gram-
marians, J.R.A.S., 1898.

Dr. M. Gester The Nigrodha-Miga-Jataka and
the Life of St. Eustathins Placidus, J.R.A.S., 1894.

T. W. Rhys Davids" The Last to go forth ",
J.R.A.S. 1891. (This paper contains some curious
passages from the Jatakas. Rhys Davids attempts
to make the meanings of these passages clearer.)

H. T. Francis and E. J. Thomas Jataka Tales.

Stories of the Buddha by Mrs. Rhys Davids,
D.Litt., M.A. (The Treasure House of Eastern
Story under the editorship of Sir E. D. Ross.)

Buddhist Birth-stories (Jataka Tales) by T. W.
Rhys Davids and revised by Mrs. Rhys Davids, with
notes and Index. (George Routledge & Sons, Ltd.)

Tripitaka Edition of Buddhist Jatakas and
Avadana (12 vols.).

N. B. Utgikar Some points of contact between
the Mahabharata and the Jatakas J.B.B.R.As.,

Canonical Pali Literature 277

Vol. IV, Nos. 1 and 2. Story of the Dasaratha
Jataka and of the Ramayana by the same author
(J.R.A.S., centenary supplement, pp. 203 foil.). The
Bengali translation of the Jatakas by Rai Shaheb
Ishanchunder Ghosh deserves mention.

Notes on five Bharaut Epithets by B. M. Barua,
M.A., D.Litt. Identification of four Jatakas at
Bharaut by Dr. B. M. Barua.

The eleventh and the twelfth books are styled
^ e Mahaniddesa and the Cullanid-
desa. They contain " a detailed
explanation by Sariputta of 33 sutras belonging to
the last two vaggas of Sutta Nipata, from Kamasutta
to Khaggavisana Sutta ". The P.T.S., London,
has published an edition of the Mahaniddesa in
Roman character under the able editorship of L. De
La Vallee Poussin and E. J. Thomas.

The P.T.S. edition of the Mahaniddesa is based
upon three MSS. : (1) King of Siam's printed edition
of the Tripitaka, (2) Phayre MS. in the British
Museum, and (3) A Sinhalese MS. The P.T.S.
edition of the Cullaniddesa is based on (1) Palm-
leaf MS. in Sinhalese character, (2) Palm-leaf MS.
in Burmese character, and (3) the Cullaniddesa in
the printed Siamese Tripitaka, Vol. XXVII.

It is a sort of word-for-word comment or gloss
on the Atthakavagga of the Sutta Nipata. The
Atthakavagga consists of ten sections while the
Sutta Nipata is divided into 16 sections.

The Cullaniddesa deals in the first place with
all the sections of the Parayanavagga of the Sutta
Nipata and in the second place with the Khaggavi-
sana Sutta of the Uragavagga of the Sutta Nipata.
In the Uragavagga there are altogether twelve
suttas, of which the only one, the Khaggavisana
Sutta, has been dealt with in the Cullaniddesa.

Dr. Stede, who has edited the Cullaniddesa
for the P.T.S., writes in the introduction to the
Cullaniddesa that the Niddesa or Exposition consists
chiefly in the interpretation of each word. This
interpretation is repeated at every place where the

278 A History of Pali Literature

word is found in the text, and is literally the same
all through. Very seldom a paraphrase of a sentence
or part of a sentence is given, and in some cases a
quotation from Canonical Books (" Vuttam h'etam
Bhagavata ") takes the place of an explanation ;
but the rule is, that, once the words are made clear,
the stanza is " exposed " (Introduction, p. xxii).

We give below interpretations of some words
from the Niddesa :

Muni. The term muni is applied by the
Buddha to any man attaining perfection in self-
restraint and insight. In the Niddesa (I, p. 57),
we find several schedules of muni-qualities, especially
based on the threefold division of character as
revealed in action (kaya), speech (vaci), and thought
(mano). Just as these three are in general exhibited
in good or bad ways of living (sucaritam and duccari-
tarii), they are applied to a deeper quality of saint-
ship in kaya-moneyya, vaci-moneyya, and mano-
moneyya ; or muni-hood in action, speech, and
thought. The Niddesa (I, p. 58) also gives a division
of six munis agara-muni, anagara (bhikkhus), sekha
(learners), asekha (arahants), pacceka (the Paeceka-
Buddhas), and muni (the Tathagatas).

Kama. The Niddesa (I, pp. 1-2) distinguishes
between two kinds of Kamas : (1) Vatthukama
desires relating to a base, i.e., physical organ or
external object (e.g., riipa, sadda, gandha, rasa, etc.),
and (2) Kilesakama desire considered subjectively
[e.g., chando (desire), rago (passion), samkappo
(determination), etc.].

Sikkha. According to the Niddesa (I, pp. 39-
40) there are tisso sikkha : (1) aclhislla sikkha
including Khuddaka sllakkhandho and Mahanto
silakkhandho (ten precepts, etc.), (2) adhicittasikkha
including the four jhanas, and (3) adhipaniiasikkha
including dukkha, dukkha-samudaya, dukkha-
nirodha, dukkha-nirodhagaminipatipada.

Bhikkhu (Niddesa, I, p. 70). He is called the
bhikkhu who has freed himself from the seven evil
qualities, e.g., sakkayaditthi (speculation as to the

Canonical Pali Literature 279

eternity or otherwise of one's own individuality),
vicikiccha (doubt), silabbata-paramaso (the con-
tagion of mere rule and ritual), rago (passion), doso
(malice), moho (delusion), and mano (pride).

Dhono (Niddesa, I, p. 77). It means panfia
or wisdom.

Ogha (Niddesa, I, p. 159). There are four
kinds of oghas (oceans of evils), e.g., kama (desire),
bhava 1 (becoming), ditthi (wrong views), and avijja
(ignorance).

Kusala (Niddesa, I, p. 171). Kusala (skilful)
means khandha^kusala (constituent element),
Dhatu (element), Ayatana (element of sense-percep-
tion), Paticcasamuppada (dependent origination),
Satipatthana (application of mindfulness), Sam-
mappadhana (right exertion), Iddhipada (bases of
iddhi or miracle), Indriya (sense-organs), Bala
(powers), Bojjhanga (elements of knowledge), Magga
(path), Phala (fruition), and Nibbana (salvation).

Gdmakathd (Niddesa, I, p. 367). It contains
gossips about kings, thieves, soldiers, battles, drink-
ing, vehicles, relatives, women, etc.

Loka (Niddesa, I, p. 409). Various world-
systems are described :

Niraya loka (hell).

Tiracchanayoniloko (realm of the brute

creation).

Pittivisaya (the realm of the departed spirits).
Manussa.
Deva.

Khandha (the world of sensory aggregates).
Dhatu (ten dhatu lokas).
Ayatana (sphere).
Ayam loko (this world).

1 According to the P.T.S. Dictionary, Bhava means becoming,
(form of) rebirth, (state of) existence, a life. For a discussion on
this subject, see Mrs. Rhys Davids' A Manual of Buddhism, pp.
121-122. If we take the root meaning, it is "becoming". R. C.
Childers translates "bhava" as "existence, birth, origin". The
difference between * existence ' and ' becoming ' is very slight. We,
however, consider the view of Mrs. Rhys Davids to be sound.

280 A History of Pali Literature

Paro loko (the next world).
Sabrahmaloko (the world of Brahma).
Sadevaloka (the world of gods).

Ejd (Niddesa, I, p. 441). It means tanha
(desire).

Ganthdni (Niddesa, I, p. 329). There are four
kinds of bonds, usually called the four bodily ties
(kayagantho) : abhijjha covetousness, byapado
malevolence, silabbataparamSso the contagion of
mere rule and ritual ; idamsaccabhinivesa- inclina-
tion to say : only this is the truth, i.e., inclination
to dogmatise.

Pubbdsava (Niddesa, /, p. 331). Past rupam
(material qualities), Vedana (feeling), Safina (Percep-
tion), Samkhara (coefficients of consciousness),
Vinnanam (consciousness).

Vivata Cakkhu (Niddesa, 1, p. 354) means
* open-minded ', ' clear-sighted '. The five kinds of
the sense of sight are : Mamsa Cakkhu (bodily eye),
Dibba Cakkhu (divine eye), Pafiiia Cakkhu (the eye
of wisdom), Buddha Cakkhu (the eye of a Buddha),
and Samanta Cakkhu (all seeing).

Parissaya (Niddesa, I, pp. 360-361) means
danger, risk or trouble. The Parissayas are of two
kinds : (1) Pakata external danger from lion, tiger,
and other ferocious beasts and also from various
diseases, such as cholera, leprosy, etc., (2) Patic-
channa internal danger from anger, hatred, de-
lusion, desire, and so forth.

Kanha (Niddesa, I, p. 489). Mara, the evil one,
is also called Kanho and Namuci.

The Mahaniddesa (or the Niddesa I) also
contains references to many miscellaneous matters.
Cattaro ddsd (four kinds of slaves) antojatako daso,
dhanakkitako daso, samam va dasavisayam upeti,
akamako va dasavisayam upeti : born slave, bought
by money, himself becomes a slave, out of fear
(bhaya) one becomes a slave (Niddesa, I, p. 11).

Cattaro bandhu (four kinds of friends) nati-
bandhava, gottabandhava, mantabandhava, sippa-
bandhava (Niddesa, I, p. 11).

Canonical Pali Literature 281

Naro classification Khattiyo, Brahmano,
Vesso, Suddo, Gahattho (householder), Pabbjito
(monk), Devo, Manusso (Niddesa, I, p. 11).

Various diseases (Niddesa, I, p. 13) Cakkhurogo
(disease of sight), Sotarogo (disease of hearing),
Ghanarogo (disease of smelling), Jivharogo (disease
of taste), Kayarogo (disease of body), Sisarogo
(disease of head), Kannarogo (disease of ear),
Mukharogo (disease of mouth), Dantarogo (disease
of teeth), Kaso (cough), Saso (asthma), Pinaso
(cold in the head), Paho (burning), Jaro (old age
disease), Kucchirogo (abdominal trouble), Muccha
(fainting), Pakkhandika (diarrhoea), Sula (acute
pain), Visucika (cholera), Kuttham (leprosy), Gando
(boil), Kilaso (a cutaneous disease, perhaps leprosy),
Soso (consumption), Apamaro (Epilepsy), Daddu
(ringworm), Kandu (itches), Kacchu (itches),
Rakhasa, Vitacchika (scabies), Lohitapittam (the bile
with blood), Madhumeho (diabetes), Amsa, PUaka
(boil), Bhagandala (Fistula), Pittasamutthana (rising
of bile), Semhasamutthana (rising of phlegm), Vata-
samutthana (wind disease), Sannipatika (disease
resulting from the union of the humours of the
body), Utuparinamaja abadha (change of the season
as cause of disease), Visamapariharaja abadha
(diseases resulting from miscarriage).

Various doctrines. The Mahaniddesa deals with
various doctrines which the Buddha condemns as
fruitless (Niddesa, I, p. 64) : Sassatoloko, Asassa-
toloka (eternal or non-eternal), Antava loko,
Anantava loko (finite or infinite), tam jivaih tarn
sariram, annam jivaih aniiam sariram (identity of
soul and body or non-identity of the same).

Various religious beliefs (Niddesa, /, p. 89).
Some Samanas and Brahmanas are the worshippers
of elephants, horses, cows, dogs, crows, fire, serpent,
goblin, demon, sun, moon, Inda, Brahma, gods
Krishna and Balarama, four directions, a kind of
fairy bird and Punnabhaddha, perhaps a Yakkl
(Hatthivattika, Assavattika, Govattika, Kul
vattika, Kakavattika, Vasudevavattika,

282 A History of Pali Literature

vattika, Punnabhaddavattika, Aggivattika, Naga-
vattika, Manibhaddavattika, Supanna vattika,
Yakkha vattika, Asura vattika, Gandhabba, Maharaja,
Canda, Suriya, Inda, Brahma, Devavattika, Disa-
vattika).

The Patisambhidamagga is the thirteenth book.
It consists of three vaggas or
chapters, e.g., Mahavaggo, Yuganan-
dhavaggo, and Pannavaggo. Each
of the vaggas, again, contains ten topics (katha), e.g.,
Nanakatha, Yuganandhakatha, Mahapannakatha,
etc.

It may be noted here that the first volume
of the Patisambhidamagga deals only with the
three out of the ten topics of the Mahavagga. This
volume begins with the matika which gives the
contents, not of the whole work (i.e., Patisambhi-
damagga, Vol. I), but of the JJanakatha only, the
opening chapter of the Vinaya Mahavagga.

In the second volume of the Patisambhidamagga
there is no matika (a table of contents) at all.

I. Mahavagga (Patisambhiddmagga, II, pp. 1-
91). It deals with fiana or knowledge of the imper-
manence and sorrowfulness of the confections, of
the four Aryan truths, of the chain of causation
(dependent origination), of the four stages or
bhumiyo-kamavacaro (realm of lust) rupavacaro
(world of form) arupavacaro (incorporeal world)
Apariyapanno (all that are not determined by this
cycle), of the miracle of the double appearances
consisting in the appearance of phenomena of
opposite character in pairs, as for example, streaming
forth of fire and water, of omniscience of the Buddha ;
with ditthi or false views, e.g. holding the world
to be eternal or non-eternal and finite or infinite,
believer in fortuitous origin and in complete annihila-
tion at death, etc. ; with five indriyas saddha
(faith), viriya (energy), sati (recollection), samadhi
(concentration), pafina (reason) ; with the three
vimokkhas sufinato (devoid of soul, ego), animitto
(the signless), appanihito (the desireless) ; with

Canonical Pali Literature 283

kamma (action or deed) and kammavipaka (the
results of action), kusala kamma and akusala
kamma (good and bad actions) and their results ;
with vipallasa or perversion of sanna (perception)
of citta (thought) of ditthi (views) perceiving
wrongly anicca, dukkha, anattani, and asukha as
nicca, sukha, atta, and subha respectively, with
magga or the stage of righteousness, with reference
to the various conditions of arahantship divided into
four stages Sotapatti (the stage of entering the
stream of salvation), Sakadagami (that of returning
once), Anagami (that of the never-returner), and
Arahatta (that of saintship).

II. Yuganandhavagga (Patisambhiddmagga, II,
pp. 92-184). It deals with sacca or the four Aryan
truths, e.g. dukkha, dukkhasamudaya, dukkhani-
rodha, and dukkhanirodhagaminipatipada (suffering,
its origin, its cessation, and the path leading to its
cessation) ; with bojjhangas or constituents of
supreme knowledge, e.g. sati (mindfulness), dhamma-
vicaya (investigation of the law), viriya (energy),
piti (rapture), passaddhi (repose), samadhi (con-
centration), upekkha (equanimity) ; with lokuttara
dhamma, e.g., the four vsatipatthanas (referring to
the body or kaya, the sensations or vedana, the mind
or citta, and phenomena or dhamma) ; the four right
exertions (exertions to put away the evil dhamma
which has not arisen from arising, exertions to
put away the evil dhamma which has arisen, exertions
to help the growth of the good dhamma which has
not arisen and exertions to keep up the good dhamma
which has arisen) ; the four bases of iddhi or miracle
(making determination in respect of concentration
on purpose, on will, on thoughts, and on investiga-
tion) ; the four indriyas or controlling faculties
(saddha or faith, viriya or energy, sati or recollection,
samadhi or concentration, panna or reason) ; the
five powers (saddha, viriya, sati, samadhi, and
panna they represent the intensification of the
corresponding five indriyas) ; the seven constituents
of supreme knowledge (satta bojjhanga), the noble

284 A History of Pali Literature

eightfold path (sammaditthi or right views, samma-
samkappo or right resolve, sammavaca or right
speech, sammakammato or right action, samma-
ajlva or right living, sammavayamo or right exertion,
sammasati or right recollection, samma samadhi
or right concentration) ; four fruits of the life of
the recluse and nibbana (final deliberation). This
chapter also deals with the sixty-eight kinds of
balas or potentialities.

III. Panndvagga (Patisambhiddmagga, II,
pp. 185-246). It deals with cariya or conduct.
There are eight cariyas : iriyapatha (four postures
walking, standing, sitting, lying down), ayatana
[spheres of sense cakkhu (rupa), sota (sadda),
ghana (gandha), jivha (rasa), kaya (photthabba),
mano (dhamma)], sati (application of mindfulness
referring to body, sensation, mind, phenomena),
samadhi (four stages of jhanas pathamo, dutiya,
tatiya, catuttha), $ana (the four Aryan truths),
Magga (the four Aryan paths), Patticariya (the
four fruits of the life of the recluse), and lokattha
(for the promotion of the good of the world). It
further deals with the application of mindfulness
(referring to the body, the sensation, the mind, the
phenomena) ; with the patihariya or miracle [usually
in stock phrase iddhi or miracle], adesana (spiritual
command), anusasani (inspiring instructions), as
the marvellous modes of Buddha's taming other
people.

Mr. Arnold C. Taylor who has edited the Pati-
sambhidamagga, Vols. I and II, for the Pali Text
Society, London, observes in his preface to the
Patisambhidamagga, Vol. II (p. vi), that " the
traditional opening, ' Evam me sutam ', occurs
fairly frequently, and explains the formal inclusion
of the Patisambhidamagga in the Sutta Pitaka.
In essence the book is wholly Abhidhammistic,
if one may use the word, and must be placed
among the very latest of the canonical books. Not
only is the treatment of the various subjects essen-
tially scholastic in character, but whole passages

Canonical Pali Literature 285

are taken verbatim from the Vinaya, and from the
Digha, Anguttara, and Samyutta collections of the
Sutta Pitaka, while a general acquaintance with the
early Buddhist legends is assumed. In the Iddhi-
katha in this volume, for instance, the names of
saints who possessed various kinds of iddhi are given
without comment, as if their stories were well
known." The Patisambhidamagga belongs to the
literature of the Abhidhamma type and it describes
how analytical knowledge can be acquired by an
arahat (saint). There are Sinhalese and Burmese
manuscripts of this text and a Siamese edition of the
same is available, which very closely resembles the
Burmese tradition. Mabel Hunt's Index (J.R.A.S.,
1908) to the Patisambhidamagga deserves mention.

The Buddhavariisa is the fourteenth book and
1JL . it contains in verse the history of

Buddhavatnsa. . , . . r -r> i n -i

the twenty-four Buddhas supposed
to have preceded the historical Gautama Buddha,
the founder of Buddhism, during the last twelve
world-cycles (Kalpas). They are Dipankara, 1
Kondafina, Mangala, 2 Sumana, Revata, Sobhita,
Anomadassi, Paduma, Narada, Padumuttara,
Sumedha, Sujata, Piyadassi, Atthadassi, Dhamma-
dassi, Siddhattha, Tissa, Phussa, Vipassi, Sikhi,
Vessabhu, Kakusandha, Konagamana, and Kassapa.
The last six Buddhas are mentioned in the Maha-
padhana Sutta and the Atanatiya Sutta of the
Digha Nikaya. Gotama was the twenty-fifth
Buddha. A brief summary of the account of these
Buddhas is given a few pages below. Metteyya
will be the successor of Gautama and a legendary
account of this future Buddha forms the subject-
matter of a later poetical work called the Anagata-
vamsa. The Rev. Richard Morris, who has edited
the text in Roman character for the P.T.S., remarks
in his edition, " The Buddha vamsa may be a mere

1 and 2 The Northern Buddhists have also Buddha histories.
The Mahavastu lias a long list of Buddhas arid it also gives accounts
of them (vide my book " A Study of the Mahavastu ", pt. I, chap. I).

286 A History of Pali Literature

poetical expansion of some short prose history of
the Buddhas who appeared before Gotama's time ".
In the Buddhavamsa there is a chapter on the
distribution of the Buddha's relics.

The Buddhavamsa was propounded by the
supreme Buddha, the omniscient Tathagata while
he was perambulating in the Ratanacahkama at the
great Nigrodha vihara at Kapilavatthu. His object
in so doing was to rescue twenty-two thousand
kinsmen of his and innumerable kotis of men and
gods from the four torrents of the passion or oghas.
The occasion for its enunciation was an interesting
one. The supreme Buddha during the first twenty
years of his Buddhahood led the life of a pilgrim
sojourning at such places as he found most con-
venient to dwell. The twentieth year was passed
at Rajagriha, and from that period, he exclusively
dwelt either at the Jetavana-mah a vihara or at
Pubbarama, deriving his subsistence by alms. At
that time, once, when the hemaiita season had been
over and vasanta arrived, Sattha (the divine teacher
Sakya), who had by this time come to Rajagriha,
thought that it was the time when the Tathagata
had promised to repair to Kapilavatthu. On an
appeal being made, he set out from Rajagriha to
Kapilavatthu attended by twenty thousand Arhats.
On reaching there, he performed two miracles of
two opposite results ; and it was upon this occasion
that he propounded the Buddhavamsa. It had been
perpetuated till the third convocation by the un-
broken succession of the theras, and subsequently
by their disciples up to the present day.

The Buddhavamsa has been intelligently divided
into three portions or niddnas. The life-history
of the Buddha " extending from the age in which
the sacred assurance was vouchsafed to the Great
Being at the foot of Dlpankara Buddha, until by
his death in the character of Vessantara he was
reborn in the Tusita-devaloka, is called the dure
niddna or the history of remote antiquity. The
history extending from the translation by death

Canonical Pali Literature 287

from Tusita to the attainment of omniscience at the
foot of the Bodhi is called Avi-dure-niddna."
And lastly the history from the attainment of
Buddhahood under the Bodhi tree to the Pari-
nirvana and whatever else that intervened between

these two is included under the Santike Nidana,
i.e., contemporaneous history.

We shall now give a brief account of each of
the twenty-five Buddhas already mentioned.

The first Buddha (Buddhavamsa, P.T.S., pp. 6-
18) was Dipankara. In the time of the Buddha
Dipankara, Sumedha, who was destined to be a
Buddha, was born in a rich brahmin family at the
city of Amaravati. But seeing that * birth is
sorrow ' he distributed his wealth and retired to the
Himavanta. Once the people of the Paccanta-
desavisaya invited the Tathagata to visit their
country. They set on clearing the road. Sumedha
also began to clear a part of the road. But before
he finished his task, Dipankara with a good number
of bhikkhus came to the place. Sumedha desired
that the Buddha should not go through the mud.
The Lord with his followers crossed the muddy
place walking on the body of Sumedha. Dipankara
impressed with this act of merit foretold that
Sumedha would be a ' Buddha ' in future.

Dipankara was born in a Khattiya family of the
city of Bammavati. Sumedha and Sumedha were
his parents. Paduma was his wife and Usabha-
kkhanda his son. He left the world. He attained
perfect enlightenment and preached the Norm for
the good of all at the request of Brahma.

The second Buddha (Buddhavamsa 9 pp. 19-21) was
Kondafifia. He was born in the city of Bammavati.
His father was Sunanda, a Khattiya, and mother
Sujata. His wife was Bucidevi and got a son
who went by the name of Vijitasena.

The third Buddha (Ibid., pp. 21-23) wasMangala
who was born in the city of Uttara. His father was
Uttara and mother Uttara. Yasavat! was his wife
and Sivala his son.

288 A History of Pali Literature

The fourth Buddha (Ibid., pp. 23-25) was Sumana.
He was born in the city of Mekhala. His father
was Sudatta and mother Sirima. His wife was
Vatamsika and son Anupama.

The fifth Buddha (Ibid., pp. 25-26) was Revata.
He was born in the city of Sudhanfiaka. His father
was Vipula and mother Vipula. His wife was
Sudassana and his son Varuna.

The sixth Buddha (Ibid., pp. 27-28) was Sobhita.
He was born in the city of Sudhamma. His father
was Sudhamma and mother Sudhamma. He enjoyed
the worldly life for nine thousand years. His wife
was Sumangi and Slha was his son.

The seventh Buddha (Ibid., pp. 29-30) was
Anomadassi. He was born in the city of Candavati.
His father was Yasava and mother Yasodhara.
His wife was Sirima and Upavana was his son.

The eighth Buddha (Ibid., pp. 31-32) was Paduma.
He was born in the city of Campaka. His father
was Asama and mother Asama. Uttara was his
wife and Ramma his son.

The ninth Buddha (Ibid., pp. 33-34) was Narada.
He was born in the city of Dhanfiavati. Sudeva
was his father and Anoma was his mother. Jitasena
was his wife and Nanduttaro his son.

The tenth Buddha (Ibid., pp. 35-36) was Padu-
muttara. He was born in the city of Hamsavati.
Ananda was his father and Sujata his mother. His
wife was Vasudatta and his son was Uttara.

The eleventh Buddha (Ibid., pp. 37-38) was
Sumedha. He was born in the city of Sudassana.
His father was Sudatta and mother Sudatta.
Sumana was his wife and Sumitta his son.

The twelfth Buddha (Ibid., pp. 39-41) was
Sujata who was born in the city of Sumangala.
His father was Uggata and mother Pabhavatl.
Sirinanda was his wife and Upasena his son.

The thirteenth Buddha (Ibid., pp. 41-42) was
Piyadassi. He was born in the city of Sudhanna.
His father was Sudatta and mother Sucanda. His
wife was Vimala and Kancanavela his son.

Canonical Pali Literature 289

The fourteenth Buddha (Ibid., pp. 43-44) was
Atthadassi. He was born in the city of Sobhana.
Sagara was his father and Sudassana his mother.
His wife was Visakha and Sena was his son.

The fifteenth Buddha (Ibid., pp. 45-46) was
Dhammadassl. He was born in the city of Sarana.
His father was Sarana and mother Sunanda. Vicitoli
was his wife and Punnavaddhana his son.

The sixteenth Buddha (Ibid., pp. 47-48) was
Siddhattha. He was born in the city of Vebhara.
His father was Udena and Suphassa was his mother.
Sumana was his wife and Anupama his son.

The seventeenth Buddha (Ibid., pp. 48-50) was
Tissa. He was born in the city of Khemaka.
Janasandha was his father and Paduma his mother.
Subhadda was his wife and Ananda his son.

The eighteenth Buddha (Ibid., pp. 50-51) was
Phussa. He was born in the city of Kasika. His
father was Jayasena and Sirima was his mother.
His wife was Kisagotami and his son was Ananda.

The nineteenth Buddha (Ibid., pp. 52-54) was
Vipassi. He was born in the city of Bandhumati.
His father was Bandhuma and Bandhumati was his
mother. His wife was Sutana and his son was
Samvattakkhanda.

The twentieth Buddha (Ibid., pp. 54-55) was
Sikhi. He was born in the city of Arunavati.
Aruna was his father and Pabhavati was his mother.

Sabbakama was his wife and Atula his son.

The twenty-first Buddha (Ibid., pp. 56-57) was
Vessabhu. He was born in the city of Anoma.
Supatita was his father and Yasavati his mother.
Sucitta was his wife and Suppabuddha his son.

The twenty-second Buddha (Ibid., pp. 58-59) was
Kakusandha. He was born in the city of Khema-
vati. The brahmin Aggidatta was his father and
Visakha his mother. His wife was Virocamana and
his son was Uttara.

The twenty-third Buddha (Ibid., pp. 60-61) was
Konagamana. He was born in the city of Sobhavati.
The brahmin Yannadatta was his father and Uttara

19

290 A History of Pali Literature

his mother. Rucigatta was his wife and Satthavaha
his son.

The twenty-fourth Buddha (Ibid., pp. 62-64) was
Kassapa. He was born in the city of Benares. The
brahmin Brahmadatta was his father and Dhanavati
his mother. His wife was Sunanda and Vijitasena
was his son.

The twenty-fifth Buddha (Ibid., pp. 65-66) was
Ootama Buddha. He was born in the city of
Kapilavatthu. His father was the king Suddhodana
and his mother was Maya. Bhaddakacca was his
wife and Rahula was his son.

The Cariyapitaka is the fifteenth book. It is a
^ . _ . , post-Asokan work. It means a

Canvapitaka. A -. nj_ < ., -11

* canonical collection of stones illus-

trating the modes in which the Bodhisattva practised
the cariya or conduct. It contains in verse a series
of narratives relating to the thirty-four of the
supposed previous births of the historical Buddha
himself. The lofty means or ten perfections (dasa
paramiyas) whereby Gautama attained Buddhahood
are mentioned in it. The stories told in the verses
of the Cariyapitaka are parallel to the Jataka stories
in prose. The Rev. Richard Morris who has edited
the text for the P.T.S. says " These birth -stories
presuppose a familiar acquaintance with all the
incidents of the corresponding prose tales ". The
verses are written in anutthuva chanda. The

language is simple and the style is similar to that
of the Dhammapada. 1 This work was repeated by
Ananda and rehearsed by 500 arahats who were
members of the First Council. Dr. Morris who has
edited this work for the P.T.S. has traced all the
stories found in this work to their sources excepting
three, namely, Mahagovinda, Dhammadhamma, and
Candakumara, the sources of which have been
traced by me (see my Edition of the Cariyapitaka).

1 For a detailed comparison of these verses with the Jataka
tales, see Introduction to my Devanagri edition of the Cariya-
pitaka, published by Messrs. Matilal Benarsi Dass, Saidmitha Street,
Lahore.

Canonical Pali Literature 291

The work shows how the Bodhisattva had
attained the ten paramitas or perfections in his
previous births. The first two paramitas, generosity
and goodness, are illustrated by ten stories each,
while fifteen stories refer to the other eight perfec-
tions, viz., renunciation, wisdom, energy, patience,
truthfulness, resolution, kindness to all beings, and
equanimity. The stories are put into the mouth of
Gautama himself. The stories of Akatti, Sankha,
Dhananjaya, Sudassana, Govinda, Nimi, Canda-
kumara, Sivi, Vessantara, Sasapandita, Silava-naga,
Bhuridatta, Campeyya, Culabodhi, Mahimsa-raja,
Ruru-miga, Matahga, Dhammadhammadevaputta,
Jayaddisa, Sankhapala, Yudhafijaya, Somaiiassa,
Ayoghara, Bhisa, Sonapandita, Temiya, Vanarinda,
Saccasahvaya, Vattapotaka, Maccharaja, Kanha-
dipayana, Sutasoma, Suvannasama, Ekaraja, and
Mahalomahamsa form the subject-matter of the
Cariyapitaka, a summary of which is given below.
Akatti was meditating in a forest. As he was
making a strong effort to acquire
^ atti ^ I^f riya " merits, Inda came to test him in

pitftka, F.T.S., p. , 7 . 11- AI j.^.'

73). the guise of a brahmin. Akatti

thrice gave in charity the leaves
which had been heaped up in front of his leaf-hut,
to the brahmin for the attainment of bodhi (enlighten-
ment) (cf. Akitti Jataka, Jataka, IV, pp. 236-242).
Hankha went to the sea-shore and on the way
he saw a sayambhu (Buddha) tread-
ing the path which was very hot
and the sands on the path were also
heated by the rays of the sun. Sankha saluted him
and gave him in charity a pair of wooden slippers
and an umbrella for the attainment of bodhi
(cf. Sankhapala Jataka, Jataka, V, pp. 161-177).
Dhananjaya was the king of Indapatta. Some
brahmins came to him from Kalinga,

at that time reatl y troubled by
drought and famine, for a royal
elephant, the presence of which in a country brings
copious rain. Dhananjaya gave in charity the

292 A History of Pali Literature

elephant to them for the attainment of bodhi
(cf. Kurudhamma Jataka, II, pp. 365-381).

Sudassana was the king of Kusavati. He thrice
declared that he would satisfy the

SudaS p8 ana(/6*, desire of every b o dy, when CO1B-

municated to him. Hungry and
thirsty people as well as those in need of garlands,
unguents, clothes, wooden slippers, etc., came to
him and he fulfilled their desires. In many parts of
his kingdom, arrangements were made to offer
charities. The charities made by him with a view
to the attainment of bodhi, were unparalleled
(cf. Mahasudassana Jataka, Jataka, I, pp. 391-393).
Govinda was a chaplain of seven kings. His

income from the seven kingdoms

GovindMI6id., wag g vm in charity b y him for

the attainment of bodhi (cf. Maha-
govinda Suttanta, Digha, II).

Nimi was the king of Mithila. He built four

M- -(Th-j * it-\ danasalas (alms houses) in which

Nimi (Ibid,, p. 7b). -. ... x , ; . , .

chanties, on a large scale in dnnk,
food, seats, garments, etc., were made to beasts,
birds, human beings, all for the attainment of bodhi
(cf. Nimi Jataka, Jataka, VI, pp. 95-129).

Canda-Kumara was the son of Ekaraja of
Pupphavati. He offered charities
whole-heartedly and he never ate
anything without first giving it to
a beggar (cf. Khandahala Jataka, Jataka, VI,
pp. 129-157).

Sivi was a king of Arittha. He thought that

he would offer such charities as no
Sivi <IM*. pp. 77- man had evcr of f ered He wag ready

to offer his eyes in charity if anybody
would ask for them. In order to test him, Inda in
the guise of an old blind brahmin, came to him and
asked for one of his eyes which he gave with great
pleasure. When asked for another of his eyes
he gladly offered to him. Simply for the attainment
of bodhi, he offered his two eyes in charity (cf.
Sivi Jataka, Jataka, IV, pp. 401-412).

Canonical Pali Literature 293

Vessantara was the son of Sanjaya and Phusati,
king and queen of Jetuttara. When

he was ei g ht Y ears old, he thought
that he would offer his eyes, ears,
heart, flesh, blood, etc., to anybody, if he so desired.
Once on a full-moon sabbath day he went to the
alms house, riding an elephant named Paccaya to
offer charity. This elephant was the royal elephant,
the presence of which would turn bad days into
good days, drought into rain, famine into good
harvest. At this time there was an outbreak of
famine at Kalinga and the king of Kalinga sent
some brahmins to him to request him to give the
elephant. Vessantara at once gave him the elephant.
On account of this act of giving the elephant to
them, the inhabitants of the kingdom of Sivi became
very angry and banished him from the kingdom to
the Vahkapabbata. Vessantara asked the people
of the kingdom of Sivi to allow him to offer a
charity before he left Jetuttara. Being allowed he
caused drums to be beaten in every part of his
kingdom to announce that he would offer a large
charity. There was a talk among the people that
king Vessantara was being driven out of Ms kingdom
for his charity but that it was a wonder that he
was again preparing for a large charity. He left
the city after offering in charity elephants, horses,
chariots, slaves, slave-girls, cows, and everything he
possessed. He went to Vankapabbata with his
queen Maddi, son and daughter, Jail and Kanha.
One day he offered his son and daughter to a cruel
brahmin named Yojaka in the absence of Maddi.
In order to protect Maddi, a faithful woman, Inda
came to him in the guise of a brahmin and asked
for Maddi. Vessantara gave Maddi, his queen, to
the brahmin. For the attainment of bodhi, Vessan-
tara gave in charity his wife, son, and daughter.
Vessantara' s father came to the Vankapabbata
and took him to his kingdom. On his arrival, the
kingdom became prosperous (cf. Vessantara Jataka,
Jataka, VI, pp. 479-593).

294 A History of Pali Literature

Once the Bodhisatta Siddhartha was born as
a hare. He used to live in a forest

Sasapan4ita^/6trf., ^^ three frien( Js. HlS duty Was

to instruct his friends to offer charity,
to observe precepts, and to do other meritorious deeds.
On a sabbath day his friends collected something to
offer but he had nothing to give in charity. To
test him Inda in the guise of a brahmin first came
to him and asked for something to eat. He told
the brahmin that he would offer something not
offered by anybody else before and he requested
the brahmin to kindle a fire. The hare shook his
body in order to let go other creatures existing on
his body and then he jumped into the fire in order
to have his body cooked so that the brahmin might
take the cooked flesh. By the force of his virtue,
the fire became cold as ice (cf. Sasa Jataka, Jataka,
III, pp. 51-56).

Silava-naga was devoted to his mother and he

used to live in a forest looking after
siiava-nsga (ibid., j^ old mot h e r. A king was inform-

ed by the frequenters of the forest
that an elephant was available in the forest which
was worthy of being king's mangalahatthl. The king
sent a skilful elephant-driver who saw the elephant
in the forest picking up lotus-reed for his mother.
When the elephant was caught, it did not show
any sign of anger nor any grief for its mother. For
the fulfilment of silaparami, the elephant behaved
very gently when caught (cf. Silava-naga Jataka,
Jataka, I, pp. 319-322).

Once Bodhisatta was born as a snake-king named

Bhuridatta who was taken to the

Bhuridatta (ibid., devaloka by king Virupakkha. See-

P ' ' ing the beauty and wealth of the de va-

loka, Bhuridatta made up his mind to acquire virtues
which would enable him to attain heaven. He spent
his days taking little food and observing precepts.
He lay down on an ant-hill observing precepts. A
certain person took him to various places, made
him dance and gave him lots of trouble which he

Canonical Pali Literature 295

patiently bore for the observance of precepts (cf.
Bhuridatta Jataka, Jataka, VI, pp. 157-219).

Bodhisatta was born as a snake-king named
Campeyya. On an uposatha day
when he was observing the precepts
a snake-charmer caught him and
took him to the palace where he was made to dance.
He was endowed with such a miraculous power
that he could perform many miracles, but for the
fulfilment of silaparami he patiently did what he
was forced to do (cf. Campeyya Jataka, Jataka, IV,
pp. 454-468).

Once the Bodhisatta was born as Culabodhi.
Finding fear in the world and delight
in renunciation, he left his beautiful
wife and led the life of a hermit.
At Benares he was living in the king's garden not
being attached to anything. His wife followed him
into the garden and engaged herself in meditation
there, a little away from him. The king asked him
about his beautiful wife, but he was informed by
Culabodhi that she was not his wife but she was
following the same dhamma and same sasana. The
king forcibly took away the woman but Culabodhi
patiently calmed his anger for the attainment of
silaparami (cf. Cullabodhi Jataka, Jataka, IV,
pp. 22-27).

Bodhisatta was born as a king of the buffaloes
living in a forest. He was horrible to

look at ' stout and stron s and bulk y-

He used to lie down everywhere
according to his will. In a nice place in the forest, he
used to live. A monkey came there and troubled him
much. A yakkha advised him to kill the monkey
but he did not pay attention to his word, because
the observance of the precepts might be disturbed
(cf. Mahisa Jataka, Jataka, II, pp. 385-387).

In a beautiful place near the banks of the
Ganges there was a deer named
Ruru - Farther up a person being
oppressed by his master jumped

296 A History of Pali Literature

from the spot, not caring for his life. The person
being carried by the current came to the deer who
took him to his abode. The deer asked him not to
disclose the spot where he was living. He promised
not to do so, but he left the place and soon came back
with the king for profit. The deer said everything
to the king who was going to kill the person for his
treacherous conduct. The deer came to the rescue
of the person with the result that the deer was
killed with the arrow thrown by the king (cf. Ruru
Jataka, Jataka, IV, pp. 255-263).

A Jatila named Matanga was a very pious

hermit. He used to live on the

banks of the Ganges with a brahmin.

The brahmin out of jealousy cursed
the Jatila that his head would be broken. The
hermit was very pious and faultless. The curse was
therefore effective in the case of the brahmin and
the hermit sacrificed his own life and saved the
brahmin (cf. Matahga Jataka, Jataka, IV, pp. 375-
390).

A yakkha named Dhamma was endowed with

miraculous powers and compas-

Dhammadhamma gionatC to all. He Was always

devaputta (Ibid.. -, . f . . . . ^

p . 89). engaged in performing ten virtuous

deeds and instructing others to do
so. He used to travel from place to place with his
retinue. Another yakkha named Adhamma used
to travel from place to place instructing people to
commit ten kinds of sins. One day both of them
met each other on the way and quarrelled. Dhamma
for the fulfilment of silaparaml did not quarrel with
him and allowed him to pass (cf. Dhamma Jataka,
Jataka, IV, pp. 100-104).

In the kingdom of Pancala, in the city of
Kappila there was a king named

Jayad p di 90) (/6id " Jayaddisa. His son was Suta-

dhamma who was pious and virtuous
and he was always protecting his own retinue.
Bong Jayaddisa went out to hunt and was caught
by a demon who was asked by the king to save his

Canonical Pali Literature 297

life for the time being by taking the deer. The
king said he would again come to him after making
necessary arrangements in his kingdom. Suta-
dhamma went to the demon not being armed.
Sutadhamma asked the demon to kindle a fire into
which he would jump to have his body cooked for
his food. For the fulfilment of slla he gave up his
life (cf. Jayaddisa Jataka, Jataka, V, pp. 21-36).
Sankhapala was a snake-king, endowed with
miraculous powers and very poison-

Sankhapala (Ibid., oug jj e gftt ftt the j unction Q f the

four streets to offer himself in charity
to any beggar. The sons of the Bhojas who were
very rough, harsh, and cruel, drew him with a
rope pushed through his nose. For the observance
of precepts he did not cherish anger (cf. Sankhapala
Jataka, Jataka, V, pp. 161-177).

When the Bodhisatta-Siddhartha was a prince
named Yudhanjaya in the kingdom
of Kuru he J>ecame disgusted with
the worldly life on seeing dew drops
becoming dried up by the rays of the sun. He left
the world after saluting his parents. For the
attainment of bodhi he did not care for the kingdom
nor listen to the prayers of the king and his subjects
(cf. Yuvanjaya Jataka, Jataka, IV, pp. 119-123).
In the city of Indapatta, the Bodhisatta was
born as a prince named Somanassa.
The kin g of Indapatta had a hermit
named Kuhakatapasa. The king
used to love and respect Kuhaka and built a beautiful
garden for him. Somanassa said to Kuhaka thus,
" You are worthless, you have not the qualities of
an honest man in you and you have fallen off from
the state of a samana. You have abandoned all

good qualities, such as shame, etc." Kuhaka be-
came angry with him and induced the king to drive
him from the kingdom. Some cruel persons caught
him and took him away from his mother. They
presented him before the king. He then succeeded
in appeasing the wrath of the king who offered him

298 A History of Pali Literature

the kingdom. He left the world for the attainment
of bodhi (cf. Somanassa Jataka, Jataka, IV,
pp. 444-454).

The Bodhisatta was born as the son of Kasiraja.
He was brought up in an iron

house and hence he was called
Ayoghara. He had to earn his bread

with great difficulty. He was offered the kingdom,
but he did not accept it and renounced the world
for the attainment of bodhi (cf. Ayoghara Jataka,
Jataka, IV, pp. 491-499).

Bodhisatta was born in a Ksatriya family
consisting of seven brothers and
PP ' sisters. Parents, brothers, sisters,
and companions asked him to marry
and lead a household life, but he renounced the
world for the attainment of bodhi (cf. Bliisa Jataka,
Jataka, IV, pp. 304-314).

In the city of Brahmavaddhana, Bodhisatta
was born in a very rich family.
(IMd " Parents and relatives asked him to
enjoy worldly pleasures, but he did
not hear them and renounced the worldlv life for

,

bodhi (cf. Sona-Nanda Jataka, Jataka, V, pp. 312-
332).

The Bodhisatta, in order to attain bodhi

(enlightenment) had to fulfil the

T pfr 96- 9 7 7)*. d " ten paramitas or perfections for

which he had to undergo several
births to fulfil each paramita. He fulfilled the
adhitthana paramita by steadfastly adhering to his
endeavour to become a Buddha like a mountain
unmoved by storm coming from all directions. He
was born as the son of the king of Kasi. He was
brought up in a way that befits a prince. But he
was not destined to indulge in the vile pleasures
of a worldly life, which lead one to niraya or hell.
In order to carry out what he desired he became
deaf, dumb, and motionless through the help of the
guardian deity. Thus he was not fit to do any sort
of work. The commander, the chaplain, and the

Canonical Pali Literature 299

countryfolk unanimously agreed to leave him. The
charioteer took him out of the city and dug a pit
in order to bury him alive. But the Bodhisatta
did not give up his steadfast resolve [cf. Temiya
Jataka (Mugapakkha Jataka), Vol. VI, pp. 1-30],

Bodhisatta was born as a monkey-king living
in a cave on the banks of a river
where a crocodile, who was waiting
to catch hold of him, invited him to
come to him. Vanarinda said, " You open your
mouth, I am coming ". Then the monkey-king
jumped over his head and fell on the other side of
the river. This he did for the sake of truth (cf.
Kapi Jataka, Jataka, II, pp. 268-270).

When the Bodhisatta was born as a hermit
named Saccasahvaya, he asked the

P e P le to s P ea k the truth - He

effected the unity of the people
by means of truth (cf. Saccamkira Jataka, I, pp. 322-
327).

Bodhisatta was born as a young quail, his
parents left him in the nest and went

awav for food - At this time there
was a forest fire. He could not flv

\j

as his wings were undeveloped. He asked the
fire to extinguish itself as his parents were not in the
nest and he also was unable to move. He acquired
much merit in the previous births and hence the
fire became extinguished due to the influence of this
truth (cf. Vattaka Jataka, I, pp. 212-215).

Bodhisatta was born as a fish-king in a big

pond. Crows, vultures, cranes, and

Macch p. r 99 5 ). (/6irf " other bipeds were always troubling

his relatives. So he thought of
saving his relatives, but finding no means, he made
up his mind to save them by truth. He said that
as far as he could remember, he never willingly
killed any being. By this truth he prayed for rain.
Soon there was a heavy rain and lands, high and low,
were over-flooded, fishes went away hither and

300 A History of Pali Literature

thither and the nests of birds were destroyed (cf.
Macoha Jataka, Jataka, I, pp. 210-212).

Bodhisatta was born as a sage named Kanhadi-

Kanh dr s payana. He used to live unknown

(/&td?, p P ! P 9 J-loo). an ^ f ree from attachment. A fellow

brahmacari named Mandavya came
to his hermitage with his wife and son. The son
irritated a snake which bit him. His parents
became overwhelmed with grief. Kanhadipayana
did not do any harm to the angry snake. He
saved the son and his parents were relieved (cf.
Kanhadipayana Jataka, Jataka, IV, pp. 27-37).

Bodhisatta was born as a king named Sutasoma
who was attacked by a demon.
The demon told the king that if
he could free him, then one hundred
Ksatriyas who were seized and brought for the
sacrifice would be sent to him. The king then
abandoned his wealth and returned to the demon.
For the sake of truth the king spared his life (cf.
Mahasutasoma Jataka, Jataka, V, pp. 456-511).

When the Bodhisatta was living in a forest as
one named Sama and used to practise
meditation on metta, Inda sent to
him a lion and a tiger to test him.
He was not frightened by the ferocious animals which
surrounded him while he was practising meditation
on metta (friendliness) nor did he betray any fear
before others (cf . Sama Jataka, Jataka, VI, pp. 68-95).
Bodhisatta was born as a famous king named
Ekaraja. He used to observe pre-
P^. r ioi-io2).' cepts and instructed his subjects to

do so. He used to perform ten
good deeds and caused his subjects to do so. He
supported a great multitude by offering four re-
quisites. A king named Dabbasena attacked his
capital and looted his kingdom. Ekaraja always
desired metta of the enemy, although the enemy in
his presence cut off his ministers, subjects, and
seized his wife and son (cf. Ekaraja Jataka, Jataka,
III, pp. 13-15).

Canonical Pali Literature 301

Bodhisatta was born as Mahalomahamsa. In the
cemetery, he used to lie down on a

bed made of the bone s of the dead ;
villagers showed him various beauti-
ful sights ; some came to him with various kinds of
food and garlands. He was indifferent to those who
troubled him and to those who pleased him. He
retained the balance of mind in prosperity or in
adversity (cf . Lomahamsa Jataka, Jataka, I, pp. 389-
391).

Dr. B. M. Barua's edition of the Cariyapitaka
is in the Press. He has made an attempt to re-
construct this text with the help of some quotations
in the Atthasalim, the Jataka commentary, and the
commentary on the Cariyapitaka by Dhammapala.
His edition shows that there were other stories to
illustrate the three paramitas, e.g., viriya, panria,
and adhitthana.

The Apadana is the sixteenth and last book.
It is an anthology of legends in

pa ana. verse, which describes great deeds of

Buddhist Arahats. It contains biographies of 550
male members and 40 female members of the
Buddhist Order in the time of the Buddha. This
book has been published in Roman character in
two volumes by M. E. Lilley for the P.T.S. In the
P.T.S. edition we find that there are Buddhapadana
and Paccekabuddhapadana. Then we have the
Therapadana which contains biographies of 547
theras, e.g., Sariputta, Maha-Moggallana, Maha-
kassapa, Anuruddha, Punna-Mantaniputta, Upali,
Annakondaniia, Pindola-Bharadvaja, Khadiravaniya
Revata, Ananda, Nanda, Pilindavaccha, Rahula,
Ratthapala, 1 Sumahgala, Subhuti, Uttiya, Maha-

1 Road " The Legend of ilatthapala in the Pali Apadana and
Buddhaghoaa's commentary " by Mabel Bode. Buddhaghosa in
his Papaficasudam and Dhammapala in his tika enlarged the
legend of Ra^hapala in their most instructive vein. The Apadana
commentary while glossing carefully the phrases of eulogy of the
Buddha, does not after all dwell much on Ratthapala's earlier
existences as deva and king. Those features of the legend come
out with more distinctness and colour in the Manorathapurani

302 A History of Pali Literature

Kaccana, Kaludayi, Cunda, Sela, Bakkula, and
others. The Then- Apadana contains biographies of
40 theris, e.g., Gotami, Khema, Pataeara, Bhadda-
Kundalakesa, Dhammadinna, Yasodhara, Bhadda-
Kapiiam, Abhirupananda, Ambapall, Sela, and others.

The word Apadana means ' pure action ', or
4 heroic deed ', and each of the Apadanas gives us
first the life of its hero or heroine in one or more
previous births. An " Apadana " has both a story
of the past and a story of the present, but it differs
from a Jataka in that the latter refers always to the
past life of a Buddha, whereas an Apadana deals
usually, not always, with that of an arahat.

The Apadana stories lay much stress on formal
aspects of religion, e.g., puja, vandaria, dana, etc.
They exemplify by the lives of theras and theris
how the heavenly rewards so obtained continue
until arahatship is attained. They show the im-
portance of worship of shrines, relics, and topes, and

where Buddhaghosa takes as his starting point the more mention
of his hero's name in a list of theras. But still the Apadana-aMhaka-
tha, possibly written last of the three, adds something even to the
elaborate detail of the Papaficasudanl arid the charming fable of the
Manorathapurani. The legend that can be touched and retouched
and (adorned) ; the portrait that can be painted in different attitudes
are dear to artificers like Buddhaghosa. Under his hand the
personages who begin as traditional types often end as human beings,
with a physiognomy that we remember. But naturally it is rather
as the collector of legends than as the romancer that the old com-
mentator can claim our gratitude. In his numerous commentaries
(where no opportunity to tell a story is lost) there is material for
comparison with the Sanskrit and Chinese. The entirely Buddhistic
and pious anupubbakatha of Ratthapala gives, it is true, little
opportunity for such a comparison as is admirably worked out in
M. Felix Lacote's study of that (con to profane), the legend of the
king Udayaria (or Udena), one of Buddhaghosa' s personages, who
also appears in the vivid narrative of Gunaclhya. But the most
conventional figures have their interest as landmarks, when we are
seeking the ancient and common source whence Buddhaghosa and
writers of other schools, of widely differing doctrine, drew their
edifying legends. Only as an earnest of further research in this
direction these few notes are offered to the master who has inspired
and guided us to do our part in exploring a province of Buddhist
literature where the borders between (North) arid (South) some-
times disappear (Mabel Bode The Legend of Ratthapala in the
Pali Apadana and Buddhaghosa's Commentary).

Canonical Pali Literature 303

they also emphasise the charitable and humanitarian
aspects of the faith.

Many extracts from the 40 biographies of
bhikkhums are given in Eduard Muller's edition of
the commentary on the Therigatha (P.T.S., 1893).
One of the Apadanas l seems to allude to the Katha-
vatthu, as an Abhidhamma compilation (Apadana,
P.T.S., Pt. I, p. 37). " If this be so," Professor Rhys
Davids 2 argues, " the Apadana must be one of the
very latest books in the canon. Other considerations
point to a similar conclusion. Thus the number of
Buddhas previous to the historical Buddha is given in
the Digha Nikaya as six ; in later books, such as the
Buddhavamsa, it has increased to twenty-four. But
the Apadana (see Eduard Muller's article, ' Les
Apadanas du sud ' in the Proceedings of the Oriental
Congress at Geneva, 1894, p. 167) mentions eleven
more, bringing the number up to thirty-five. It is
very probable that the different legends contained
in this collection are of different dates ; but the
above facts tend to show that they were brought
together as we now have them after the date of the
composition of most of the other books in the

canon."

SECTION III. THE ABHIDHAMMA PITAKA

The third main division of the Tripitaka or
Tipitaka is the Abhidhamma Pitaka 8 or ' Basket of
higher expositions ' ; or as Ohilders puts it ' Basket
of Transcendental Doctrine '. It treats of the same
subject as the Sutta Pitaka and differs from that

1 " Abhidhammanayannoham Kathavatthu visuddhiya sabbesam
viiinapetvana viharaihi anasavo."

2 Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. I, p. 603.

3 There is a book called Abhidhamma matika which is a
summary of the whole of Abhidhamma or the metaphysics of
Buddhism (cf. Abhidhammamulatika which is a commentary on
the Abhidhamma Pitaka written by Ananda Mahathera of Anura-
dhapura. This is the oldest tfk& on the Abhidhamma Pitaka).
Read a valuable paper by C. A. F. Rhys Davids on the Abhidhamma
Pi$aka and Commentaries, J.R.A.S., 1923.

304 A History of Pali Literature

collection only in being more scholastic. It is
composed chiefly in the form of questions and
answers like a catechism. The starting point of
this collection appears to have been the Sutta Pitaka.
The Abhidhamma treatises follow a progressive
scheme of treatment, the matikas or uddesas are
followed by the niddesas. The ideas are classified
in outline. They are overloaded with synonyms.
In some places, it is difficult to find out the real
meaning. Originality appears to be wanting every-
where. The Abhidhamma is a supplement to
Dhamma or sutta and not a systematic presentation
of philosophy. The Abhidhamma Pitaka comprises
seven works :

1. Dhammasangani, 2. Vibhanga, 3. Katha-
vatthu, 4. Puggalapannatti, 5. Dhatukatha, 6.
Yamaka, and 7. Patthana.

These seven books of the Abhidhamma Pitaka
are commonly known as Sattapakarana or seven
treatises. We hold with Mrs. Rhys Davids that the
very form of a group of works like the Abhi-
dhamma shows that centres of education and
training had been established, drawing to themselves
some at least of the culture of the day. Such logical
development and acumen as were possessed by the
sophists and causists, mentioned in the Brahma jala
Sutta and the Udana, would now find scope in the
growing Theravada teaching and literature.

Dhammasangani. The Dhammasangani is one of
the most important books of the Abhidhamma Pitaka.
It is known as Sangiti-pariyaya-pada to the Sarvasti-
vada school. The text has been edited by Eduard
Miiller, Ph.D., for the Pali Text Society, London,
from a Burmese manuscript in the India Office and
a Sinhalese manuscript from the Vanavasa vihara
in Bentota in Ceylon. It means something like
" enumeration of conditions " or more literally " co-
enumeration of dhamma ". It may mean " enumera-
tion of phenomena ". It really means exposition
of dhamma. " Kamavacara rupavacaradidhamme
sangayha sankhipitva va ganayati sankhyati etthati

Canonical Pali Literature 305

dhammasangani." The Dhammasangani is so
called because therein the author after compilation
and condensation enumerates and sums up the
conditions of the Kamaloka, the Rupaloka, and so on
as what Childers puts it (Pali Dictionary, p. 447).
" It is, in the first place ", says Mrs. Rhys Davids,
" a manual or text-book, and not a treatise or dis-
quisition, elaborated and rendered attractive and
edifying after the manner of most of the Sutta Pitaka.
And then, that its subject is ethics, but that the
inquiry is conducted from a psychological standpoint,
and indeed, is in great part an analysis of the
psychological and psycho-physical data of ethics "
(Psychological Ethics, p. xxxii). King Vijayabahu I
(A.D. 1065-1120) of Ceylon made a translation of
the Dhammasangani from Pali into Sinhalese (see
Mrs. Rhys Davids A Buddhist Manual of Psycholo-
gical Ethics, Introductory Essay, p. xxv). The first
English rendering of this work owes its origin to the
erudite pen of Mrs. Rhys Davids and is entitled
" A Buddhist Manual of Psychological Ethics "
the introductory essay herein gives a bright idea
of the history, date, contents, etc., of the text very
lucidly and exhaustively. The Dhammasangani
aims at enumerating and defining a manner of
scattered terms or categories of terms, occurring
in the nikayas of the Sutta Pitaka. That the
technical terms used in the nikayas are used in it,
leads one to place the Dhammasangani, in point of
time, after the nikayas. The Kathavatthu which
is the fifth book of the Abhidhamma Pitaka is said
to have been composed by Tissa Moggaliputta in the
middle of the third century B.C. According to
Mrs. Rhys Davids, Dhammasangani deals with the
same topics as in the nikayas differing only in method
of treatment. The Kathavatthu raises new questions
belonging to a later stage in the development of the
faith. The Dhammasangani is, therefore, younger
than the nikayas and older than the Kathavatthu.
If we date it half-way between the two, that is,
during the first third of the fourth century B.C.,

20

306 A History of Pali Literature

we shall be on the safe side. But Mrs. Rhys Davids
thinks that the Dhammasangani should be dated
rather at the middle than at the end of the fourth
century or even earlier.

The Dhammasangani opens with an introductory
chapter which serves the purpose of a table of
contents and which falls into two subdivisions : (1)
the sections referring to Abhidhamma and (2)
those referring to Suttanta. The total number of
these sections amounts to about 1,599 and treats of
various points of psychological interest. This book
is divided into three main divisions. The first part
deals with the subject of consciousness in its good,
bad, and indeterminate states or conditions. The
main eight types of thought relating to sensuous
universe (Kamavacara mahacittam) are the first
things considered here. The Dhammasangani
lays down that whenever a good thought relating to
sensuous universe arises, it is accompanied by
pleasure, taste, touch and is then followed by
contact (phasso), feeling (vedana), perception (sanna),
volition (cetana), thought (cittarh) and in this way
come other things which include also the right
views (sammaditthi) and other methods of the
noble path, the various balas (or sources of strength),
e.g., saddha (faith), viriya (energy), etc. Then
follows an exposition of phassa (contact), vedana
(feeling), and so on. In the explanation and exposi-
tion a strict cominentarial method has been adopted
giving out fully the significance of each term.

The Dhammasangani contains the simple
enumeration and the occasion for the rise of sampa-
jannam (intelligence), samatho (quiet), paggaho
(grasp), and avikkhepo (balance). It points out that
the constituents of the first type of thought deal
with the four khandhas (aggregates),the two ayatanas
(abodes), two dhatus (elements), the three aharas
(nutriments), the eight indriyas (senses), the five-
fold jhanas (as distinguished from the four jhanas),
the fivefold path, the seven balas (as distinguished
from one as we find in the Nettipakarana), tayo hetu

Canonical Pali Literature 307

(three causes), eko phassa (one contact), one vedana
(sensation), one sanna (consciousness), eka cetana
(thinking), ekam cittam (one thought), the mana-
yatana (sphere of ideation), the manovinnanadhatu
(element of intellection). The four khandhas are
separately dealt with. In the enumeration of the
Sankharakhandho about 50 states beginning with
phasso (contact) and ending with avikkhepo (balance)
have been mentioned. The enumeration and arrange-
ment of this list differ from those given in the first
chapter of the Dhammasangani dealing with the
Kusaladhamma.

The two ayatanas are the manayatana and
dhammayatana, the sphere of mind and that of
mental states.

There are two dhatus or elements, Manovinna-
dhatu (intellection) and Dhammadhatu (condition).
The Dhammadhatu includes the vedana-khandha
(aggregate of sensation), sanna-khandha (aggregate
of consciousness), and sankhara-khandha (aggregate
of confections).

The three aharas (nutriments) are contact,
volition, and consciousness. Then come the Pan-
cangikadhamma, the fivefold j liana which includes
the vitakka and vicara (initial and sustained applica-
tion), joy, happiness, and concentration of mind.

The Dhammasangani then deals with the five-
fold path, namely, the right views, the right intention,
right exertion, right intellection, and right con-
centration.

Then the seven potentialities are discussed,
namely, faith, energy, recollection, concentration,
insight, consciousness, and the fear of blame.

Then the three hetus or moral roots are dis-
cussed : they are absence of avarice, hatred, and
delusion. Then contact, sensation, and perception
are treated of.

Then come the other topics, e.g., vedana-
khandha, safina-khandha, sankhara-khandha, and
vinnana-khandha, all these include the Dhamma and
the Khandha.

308 A History of Pali Literature

The Indriyas (senses) are the following :
saddha (faith), viriya (energy), sati (recollection),
samadhi (meditation), panfia (wisdom), manindriya
(mind), somanassindriya (delight), and jlvitindriya
(vigour).

The sankhara-khandha includes phassa (con-
tact), cetana (thinking), vitakka and vicara (initial
and sustained application), ekaggata (concentration),
saddha (faith), energy, recollection, vigour, right
determination, exertion, meditation, potency of
faith, energy, concentration, fear of blame and sin,
absence of avarice, of hatred, of covetousness, of
malice, calmness of mind and body, etc. In the
Dhammasangani there are chapters which analyse
everything into groups or pairs. The method
adopted here is merely by questioning and answering
the main points.

The Dhammsangani also discusses the four
modes of progress and four objects of thought. It
also deals with objects of meditation (atthakasinam).
Then it discusses about forms as infinite and as
beautiful and ugly.

The four jhanas or the sublime abodes may
be developed in sixteen ways. Then come the
sphere of infinite intellect, the sphere of nothingness
and the sphere where there is neither perception nor
non-perception. Then come the topics of the kama-
vacarakusalam, rupavacarakusalam, and lokuttara
cittam. Then come the twelve akusala cittas,
manadhatu having kusalavipaka (mind as a result
of meritorious work), manovinnana dhatu (con-
sciousness associated with joy as a result of
meritorious deed), consciousness associated with
upekkha (indifference).

Then come Atthamahavipaka, rupavacara-
arupavacara vipaka, suddhika-patipada (path lead-
ing to purity), suddhika sannatam (four modes of
progress taken in connection with the notion of
emptiness).

Then come the nineteen conceptions, and the
modes of progress taken in connection with the

Canonical Pali Literature 309

dominant influence of desire. Then are discussed
the following topics :

1. The Pathamamaggo vipaka the result

of the first path.

2. The Lokuttara vipaka the result of

Lokuttara citta.

3. Akusala vipaka avyakata the result of

demerit not falling under the category
of kusala and akusala.

Kamavacara-kiriya is the action in the sensuous
world, rupavacara-kiriya, action in the world of
form, and arupavacara-kiriya, action in the world of
formlessness.

After the conclusion of the subjects of kusala
and akusala, the avyakata (which is neither kusala
nor akusala) is treated in the DhammasanganL

Next follows the portion dealing with the
form which is created through some cause, the
collection of forms in two, in groups of three, four,
five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, and eleven. In this
way the forms are divided.

Then come the three kusala hetus, the three
akusala hetus, and the three avyakata hetus.

Then follow the mental impurities, avarice,
hatred, pride, false belief, doubt, dullness, restless-
ness, shamelessness, and disregard of blame and
sin.

The latter portion of the Dhammasangani is a
summary of what has been told in the previous
portion. The book is full of repetitions and is a crude
attempt at explaining certain terms of Buddhist
psychology by supplying synonyms for them, but
not the detailed explanations. It is free from
metaphor or simile.

The topics set forth in the table of contents
have been treated in the body of the book. There
are in the Dhammasangani passages which can be
traced in the Puggalapafmatti, Samannaphala
Suttanta of the Digha Nikaya, and in the Milinda
Panha. A detailed explanation of the important

310 A History of Pali Literature

topics treated of in this book is given in the
Visuddhimagga.

In dealing with the Buddhist method of ex-
position in the Abhidhamma
Method of ex- treatises, we should bear in mind
DhlimSaBahgani. the fact that the method of exposi-
tion is the same in all the Abhi-
dhamma books. For the sake of our convenience
let us take up the Dhammasahgam, the first book of
the Abhidhamma Pitaka. Mrs. Rhys Davids in her
Buddhist Manual of Psychological Ethics (pp. xxxii-
xxxvii), a translation of the Dhammasangani or
Compendium of states or phenomena, has dealt
exhaustively with the method of exposition followed
in the above book.

The Dhammasangani is, in the first place, a
manual or text-book, and not a treatise or disquisi-
tion elaborated and rendered attractive and edifying
after the manner of most of the Sutta Pitaka. That

the Buddhist Philosophy is ethical first and last,
is beyond dispute. So it is with the Dhammasangani.
Its subject is ethics. But the inquiry is conducted
from a psychological standpoint and, indeed, is in
great part an analysis of the psychological and
psychophysical data of ethics.

The work was not compiled solely for academic
use. Buddhaghosa maintains that, together with
the rest of the Abhidhamma, it was the ipsissima
verba of the Buddha not attempting to upset the
mythical tradition that it was the special mode he
adopted in teaching the doctrine to the " hosts of
devas come from all parts of the sixteen world-
systems, he having placed his mother (reincarnate as
a devi) at their head because of the glory of her
wisdom ". Whether this myth had grown up to
account for the formal, unpicturesque style of the
Abhidhamma, on the ground that the devas were
above the need of illustration and rhetoric of an
earthly kind, we cannot say. The commentary
frequently refers to the peculiar difference in style
from that employed in the suttanta as consisting

Canonical Pali Literature 311

in the Abhidhamma being nippariydyadesand
teaching which is not accompanied by explanation
or disquisition. The definition of the term Abhi-
dhamma in it shows that this pitaka, and a fortiori
the Dhammasangani, was considered as a subject
of study more advanced than the other pitakas, and
intended to serve as the complement and crown of
the learners' earlier courses. Acquaintance with
the doctrine is taken for granted. The object is
not so much to extend knowledge as to ensure
mutual consistency in the intension of ethical
notions, and to systematise and formulate the
theories and practical mechanism of intellectual and
moral progress scattered throughout the suttas.

It is interesting to note the methods adopted
to carry out this object. The work was in the first
instance inculcated by way of oral teaching respecting
a quantity of matter which had been already learnt
in the same way. And the memory had to be
assisted by other devices. First of these is the
catechetical method. Questions, according to
Buddhist analysis, are put on five grounds :

To throw light on what is known ;
To discuss what is known ;
To clear up doubts ;

To get assent (i.e., the premises in an argument
granted) ;

To (give a starting-point from which to) set
out the content of the statement.

The last is selected as the special motive of the
catechising here resorted to. It is literally the
wish to discuss or expound, but the meaning is
more clearly brought out by the familiar formula
quoted, viz., " Four in number, brethren, are these
stations in mindfulness. Now which are the four ? "
Thus the questions in the Manual are analytic or
explicative.

And the memory was yet further assisted by
the symmetrical form of both question and answer,

312 A History of PdU Literature

as well as by the generic uniformity in the matter
of the questions. Throughout the first book, in
the case of each enquiry which opens up a new
subject, the answer is set out in a definite plan
called uddesa, or " argument ", and is rounded off
invariably by the appana, or emphatic summing up.
The uddesa is succeeded by the niddesa or exposi-
tion, i.e., analytical question and answer on the
details of the opening argument. Again, the work
is in great part planned with careful regard to logical
relation. There is scarcely an answer in any of
these niddesas but may perhaps be judged to suffer
in precision and lucidity. They substitute for
definition proper the method of the dictionary. In
this way precision of meaning is not to be expected,
since nearly all the so-called synonyms do but
mutually overlap in meaning without coinciding.
Mrs. Rhys Davids, in her Buddhist Psychology
(pp. 139-140), says that the definitions consist very
largely of enumerations of synonymous or partly
synonymous terms of, as it were, overlapping circles.
But they reveal to us much useful information con-
cerning the term described, the terms describing,
and the terms which we may have expected to find,
but find not. And they show the Sokratic earnest-
ness with which these early Schoolmen strove to
clarify their concepts, so as to guard their doctrines
from the heretical innovations, to which ambiguity
in terms would yield cheap foothold.

Number plays a great part in Buddhist classes
and categories. But of all numbers none plays so
great a part in aiding methodological coherency
and logical consistency as that of duality (positive
and negative).

Throughout most of the second book the learner
is greatly aided by being questioned on positive
terms and their opposites, taken simply and also in
combination with other similarly dichotomized pairs.
Room is also left in the " Universe of discourse "
for a third class, which in its turn comes into
question. Thus the whole of the first book is a

Canonical Pali Literature 313

development of triplet questions with which the
third book begins.

Finally, there is, in the way of mnemonic and
intellectual aid, the simplifying and unifying effect
attained by causing all the questions (exclusive of
sub-inquiries) to refer to one category of dhamma.

There is, it is true, a whole book of questions
referring to rupam, but this constitutes a very
much elaborated sub-inquiry on material " form "
as one sub-species of a species of dhamma-rupino-
dhamma, as distinguished from all the rest, which
are arupinodhamma.

Thus the whole Manual is shown to be a com-
pendium or more literally, a co-enumeration of
dhamma.

Vibhanga. The Vibhanga or the Dharma-
skandha of the Sarvastivada school is the second
book of the Abhidhamma Pitaka. Mrs. Rhys
Davids has edited this volume for the P.T.S.,
London. There are Sinhalese, Siamese, and Burmese
editions of this text.

The Vibhanga (exposition) generally deals with
the different categories and formulae treated of in
the Dhainmasarigani. It has many of the repeti-
tions of the chapters of the Dhammasangani, but
the method followed in the Vibhanga and the
matter contained in it are found to be almost
different from those of the Dhammasangani. It
contains some terms and definitions not found in
the Dhammasangani. The book is divided into
eighteen chapters called Vibhanga. Each of these
chapters has three portions, viz. : (1) Suttanta-
bhajaniya, (2) Abhidhammabhajaniya,and (3) Panfia-
pucchaka or catechism. The Vibhanga opens with
Khandhavibhanga or the chapter on aggregates.
In the Suttantabhajaniya portion, each of the
ingredients, rupa, vedana, sanna, and sankhara, is
treated of and has been examined with reference to
its time, space, and matter. In the Abhidhamma-
bhajaniya portion, each of the five ingredients has
been separately dealt with. There are four ways in

314 A History of Pali Literature

which rupa arises ; there is no hetu or primal cause
for the rupa. Likewise there are ten ways for the
rise of vedana or sensation. Vedana can also be
classified into various groups according as kusala
(good), akusala (bad), avyakata (neither good nor
bad), and object ideation (arammana) are taken into
consideration. There are various methods by which
sanna can be classified and so are the cases with
sankhara and vififiana. In the chapter on Panna-
pucchaka the five khandhas have been variously
classified. In this chapter all the khandhas are
taken into consideration with respect to sukha,
vedana, etc. Rupakhandha is not an object ideation.
The three khandhas are cetasika. Rupa is outside
the citta group while vedana cannot be said to
be so. In this way all the khandhas have been
differently treated. In the Suttantabhajaniya por-
tion various ayatanas (abodes) are taken into con-
sideration. Each of them is impermanent, non-
existing, and unchanging. In the Abhidhamma-
bhajaniya portion, each of the two groups of
ayatanas is separately dealt with. The mano-
viniiana ayatana can be traced by touch. Rupa-
yatana is that which is based on four great elements.
In this way all the ayatanas are considered with
reference to their time, space, and causation. In the
Dhatuvibhanga portion it is stated that there are six
dhatus, viz. : pathavi, apa, teja, vayu, akasa, and
vinnana.

Pathavi dhatu is of two kinds, (1) internal and
(2) external. Portions of body are internal and
anything outside one's own self is external. Besides
these, there are six other dhatus. A further list of
six dhatus is added. So we find that there are
eighteen dhatus. In the Abhidhamma portion also
we find the same number of dhatus. In the Panna-
pucchaka portion it is stated that some of the
eighteen dhatus are kusala, some akusala, while
others avyakata. The dhatus are then variously
classified according as they are citta or cetasika,
sinful or not, caused or uncaused, determinable or

Canonical Pali Literature 315

indeterminate. We like to mention here in brief
some more vibhangas. In the chapter on the
Saccavibhanga, the four ariyasaccas, e.g., dukkham,
dukkhasamudayam, dukkhanirodham, dukkhani-
rodhagamini-patipada (i.e., suffering, origin of suffer-
ing, cessation of suffering, and the path leading to
the cessation of suffering) are dealt with. In the
Indriyavibhanga twenty-two indriyas have been
treated. The twenty-two indriyas are : 1. cakkhu
(eye), 2. sota (ear), 3. ghana (nose), 4. jihva
(tongue), 5. kaya (sense of touch), 6. mana
(mind), 7. itthi (feminity), 8. purisa (masculinity),
9. jivita (vitality), 10. sukha (joy), 11. dukkha
(suffering), 12. somanassa (delight), 13. doma-
nassa (grief), 14. upekkha (indifference), 15. saddha
(faith), 16. viriya (energy), 17. sati (recollection),
18. samadhi (concentration or contemplation), 19.
pafina (wisdom), 20. anannatannassamitindriyam
(the sense which says, " I will know what is not
known "), 21. afimndriyam (sense of knowledge),,
and 22. annatavindriyarh (sense of having thorough-
ly known). In the Paccayakaravibhanga various
paccayas are enumerated and explained after which
the suttanta portion naturally closes. In the
Satipatthanavibhanga the suttanta portion deals with
the four satipatthanas, each of which is separately
explained and at the end of each there is an annota-
tion of difficult words. In the Sammapadhana-
vibhanga the four essentials have been dealt with at
length after which a word-for-word commentary
follows. In the Bojjhangavibhanga the seven
bojjharigas or supreme knowledge, e.g., sati (re-
collection), dhammavicaya (investigation), viriya
(energy), piti (joy), passadhi (calm), samadhi (con-
templation), and upekkha (equanimity) are men-
tioned and the same plan has been followed as in the
previous sections. In the Maggavibhanga the
Noble Eightfold Path, e.g., sammaditthi (right view),
sammasamkappa (right thought), sammavaca (right
speech), sammakammanta (right action), sammaajiva
(right living), sammavayama (right exertion), samma-

316 A History of Pali Literature

sati (right recollection), and sammasamadhi (right
meditation), has been discussed in the same method
as noticed before. In the Jhanavibhanga various
jhanas have been enumerated and explained. Then
we have sections on sikkhapadas or precepts which
have been taken into consideration beginning with
panatipata, etc. The Patisambhidavibhanga,
Jnanavibhanga, Khuddakavatthuvibhanga, and
Dhammahadayavibhanga are discussed one after the
other and these form the closing sections of the
Vibhanga.

To sum up : the object is to formulate the
theories and practical mechanism of intellectual
and moral progress scattered throughout the
Sutta Pitaka and not to extend knowledge.

The Kathdvatthu. The Kathavatthu 1 or the
Vijnanapada is the third book of the Abhidhamma
Pitaka. It is a Buddhist book of debate on matters

of theology and philosophy. It is younger than the
Dhammasangani. A close investigation will make
it evident that this book of controversy is looked
upon in one way as no more than a book of inter-
pretation. A few specimens of controversy which
the Kathavatthu has embodied show that both
sides referred to the Buddha as the final court of
appeal. This work has been edited by Mr. A. C.
Taylor for the P.T.S. in two volumes and translated
into English by Mr. S. Z. Aung and Mrs. Rhys
Davids under the title of " Points of Controversy".
Mrs. Rhys Davids has ably written a chapter on
some psychological points in the Kathavatthu in
her work on Buddhist Psychology, Second Ed.
(1924), which deserves mention. The editor has
made use of the following manuscripts in editing
the text :

1. Paper manuscript from the collection of
Mrs. Rhys Davids,

1 An interesting paper by T. W. Rhys Davids, " Question
discussed in the Kathavatthu ", J.R.A.S., 1802, deserves mention.
Read Buddhist Notes, The Five Points of Makhadeva, and the
Kathavatthu, J.R.A.S., 1910.

Canonical Pali Literature 317

2. Palm-leaf manuscript belonging to Prof.

Rhys Davids,

3. Palm-leaf manuscript belonging to the

Royal Asiatic Society, and

4. Mandalay palm-leaf manuscript from the

India Office collection.

A Siamese edition of this work has been used
by the editor. This book consists of 23 chapters.

The first chapter deals with Puggala or personal
entity, 1 falling away of an arahant, 2 higher life
among the devas, 3 the putting away of corruptions
or vices by one portion at a time, 4 the casting off
sensuous passions (kamaraga) and ill-will (byapada)
by a worldling (puthujjano), 5 everything as per-
sistently existing, some of the past and future as
still existing, applications in mindfulness (sati-
patthana), and existence in immutable modes (atitam
atthiti)

" H'ev'atthi h'eva

n' atthiti. S'eva' atthi s'eva n' atthiti ?
Na h'evam vattabbe-pe-s'ev'atthi
s'eva n'atthlti ? Amanta."

(For English translation vide Points of
Controversy, pp. 108 foil.)

1 I like to draw the reader's attention to an interesting paper
by Mrs. Rhys Davids published in the Prabuddha Bharata, May,
1931, entitled, " How does man survive ? " According to the
Buddhists the individual has no real existence. It is only a
Sammuti. Buddhaghosa accepts this view. He says that on the
existence of Khandhas, such as rupa, etc., there is the usage
' evamnarna ', v evamgotta '. Because of this usage, common
consent, and name, there is the Puggala-Kathavatthupakarana-
att-hakatha, pp. 33-35.

2 " Falling away " is, more literally, declined, the opposite of
growth (vide Points of Controversy by Shwe Zan Aung and
Mrs. Rhys Davids, p. 64 f.n.).

8 The higher life is of twofold import : path -culture and
renunciation of the world. No deva practises the latter (vide
Points of Controversy, p. 71).

* This comes under the head of Purification piecemeal in the
Kathavatthu " Odhisodliiso kilese jahatiti ? " Kathavatthu, Vol. I,
p. 103.

5 It means an average man of the world.

318 A History of Pali Literature

The second chapter deals with the arahant or the
elect, the knowledge of the arahant, the arahant
being excelled by others, doubt in the arahant,
specified progress in penetration, Buddha's everyday
usage * (vohara), duration of consciousness, two
cessations (dve nirodha), etc.

The third chapter deals with the powers or
potentialities of the Tathagata (Tathagatabalam). 8
It further deals with emancipation, 3 controlling
powers of the eighth man (atthamaka puggala), 4
divine eye, 5 divine ear (dibbasota), 6 insight into
destiny according to deeds, 7 moral restraint (sam-
varo), unconscious life, 8 etc.

The fourth chapter deals with the following
subjects, e.g., attainment of arahatship by a lay-
man (gihi or householder), 9 common humanity of an

1 According to the Andhakas, his daily usages were supramun-
dane usages (Points of Controversy, p. 134).

2 Of a Tathagata' s "ten powers " some he holds wholly in common
with his disciples, some not, and some are partly common to both
(Points of Controversy, p. 139).

3 " Saragam cittarh vimuccati "That " becoming eman-
cipated " has reference to the mind full of passion.

4 The eighth man has no saddha (faith), viriya (energy), sati
(recollection), samadhi (meditation), and patina (wisdom). Vide
Kathavatthu, Vol. I, p. 247.

5 Fleshy eye (marhsacakkhu), when it is the medium of an
idea (dhammapatthaddharh) becomes the celestial eye (dibbacakkhu)
Kathavatthu, Vol. I, p. 251. Vide also Points of Controversy,
p. 149. This is a view of the Andhakas and Sammitiyas, says
Mrs. Rhys Davids on the authority of the Kathavatthuppakarana-

6 Cf. Majjhima Xikaya, Vol. II, 19 Dibbaya sotadhatuya.

7 Yathakarnmupagatarh fianarh dibbacakkhunti ? the celestial
eye amounts to insight into destiny according to deeds (Katha-
vatthu, Vol. I, p. 256 and Points of Controversy, p. 151). Cf. Digha
Nikaya, Vol. I, p. 82 : kt So dibbena cakkhuna visuddhena atik-
kantamanusakena satte passati cavamane upapajjamane, hliie
panite suvanne dubbanne sugate duggate yatha kammupage satte
pajanati/'

8 Asannasattesu sanna atthiti ? Is there any consciousness
among the unconscious beings ? Kathavatthu, Vol. I, p. 2(>0.
The Andhakas concede consciousness to those devas of the un-
conscious sphere at the moment of rebirth and of decease (Points
of Controversy, p. 153).

9 Cf. Yasa, Uttiya, Setu who attained arahatship in all the
circumstances of life in the laity Points of Controversy, p. 158.

Canonical Pali Literature 319

arahant, retention of distinctive endowments, 1
arahant's indifference in sense-cognition, 2 entering
on the path of assurance, 8 putting off the fetter, 4 etc.

The fifth chapter deals with knowledge of
emancipation (vimuttinanam), knowledge of a
learner (sekha), perverted perception (viparite
nanam), assurance (niyama), analytical knowledge
(patisambhida), popular knowledge (sammutifianam),
mental object in telepathy (cetopariyayenanam),
knowledge of the present (paccuppanna nanam),
knowledge of the future (anagata nanam), and
knowledge in the fruition of a disciple (savakassa
phalenanam).

The sixth chapter begins with the controverted
point that the assurance (of salvation or niyama) is
unconditioned or uncreated, so also is Nibbana.
Then it treats of causal genesis (paticcasamuppada
or dependent origination), four truths (cattari
saccam), four immaterial spheres of life and thought, 5
of the attaining to cessation (nirodhasamapatti), of
space (akasa) as unconditioned (asamkata) and

1 Under this section arise the following questions : araha catuhi
phalehi samaimagato ti ? Is an arahat endowed with four fruitions ?
Is an arahat endowed with four kinds of contact (phassa), four
kinds of sensation (vedana), four kinds of consciousness (sanna),
four kinds of cotana (volition), four kinds of thought (citta), four
kinds of faith (saddha), four kinds of energy (viriya), four kinds of
recollection (sati), four kinds of meditation (samadhi), and four
kinds of knowledge or wisdom (panna) ? (Kathavatthu, Vol. T,
p. 274.) The answers to these questions are in the affirmative.
All personal endowments, according to the Theravadins, are only
held as distinct acquisitions, until they are cancelled by other
acquisitions Points of Controversy, p. 161.

2 An arahat is endowed with sixfold indifference (upekkha).

3 During the dispensation (pavacana doctrine, teaching) of
Kassapa Buddha the Bodhisatta has entered on the path of assurance
and conformed to the life therein. Points of Controversy, p. 167 ;
of. Majjhima Nikaya, II, pp. 46 foil.

4 Sabbasannojananam pahanam arahattamti ? This is the
question raised in this section. The answer is that arahatship is
the removal of all obstacles. Mrs. Rhys Davids points out on the
authority of the commentary that this is an opinion of the
Andhakas.

6 Akasanancayatanam asamkatam the sphere of infinite space
is unconditioned or uncreated.

320 A History of Pali Literature

visible, and of each of the four elements, the five
senses, and action as visibles.

The seventh chapter treats of the classification
of things 1 (samgahltakatha), of mental states as
mutually connected (sampayutta), of mental pro-
perties (cetasikas), of the controverted points that
dana is (not the gift but) the mental state (cetasika
dhamma), that merit increases with utility (pari-
bhogamayampunnam vaddhati), that earth is a
result of action (pathavlkammavipaka), that decay
and death (jaramarana) are consequences of action,
that Ariyan states of mind (ariyadhamma) have no
positive result (vipaka), that result is itself a state
entailing resultant states 2 (vipakadhammadhammo).

The eighth chapter deals with the six spheres
of the destiny (chagatiyo). According to the Buddha
there are five destinies, such as purgatory (niraya),
the animal kingdom (tiracchanayoni), the peta-
realm (pettivisaya), mankind (manussa), and the
devas (deva). To these five the Andhakas and the
Uttarapathakas add another, namely, the Asuras.
Then it treats of the following controverted points :
that there is an intermediate state of existence
(antarabhava), that the kama-sphere means only
the fivefold pleasures of sense (Paric'eva kamaguna
kamadhatu), that the ultimate ' element of rupa '
is the thing cognised as material, that the ultimate
element of arftpa is the thing cognised as immaterial,
that in the rupa-sphere the individual has all the
six senses (salayatana), that there is matter among
the immaterials, that physical actions proceeding

1 The things cannot be grouped together by means of abstract
ideas (N'atthi keci dhamma kehici dhammehi sahgahita). We learn
from the commentary that it is a belief held by the Rajagirikas
and the Siddhatthikas that the orthodox classification of particular
material qualities under one generic concept of matter, etc., is
worthless for this reason that things cannot be grouped together
by means of ideas. The argument seeks to point out a different
meaning in the notion of grouping (Points of Controversy, p. 195).

2 See 'Points of Controversy' (P.T.S.) by S. Z. Aung and
Mrs. Rhys Davids. Vide also Buddhist Psychological Ethics by
Mrs. Rhys Davids, p. 253, f.n. 1.

Canonical Pali Literature 321

from good or bad thoughts amount to a moral act
of karma, that there is no such thing as a material
vital power l (n'atthi rupajivitindriyanto), and that
because of karma an arahant may fall away from
arahantship (kammahetu araha arahatta parihayati).

The ninth chapter deals with the way whereby
the fetters are put off for one who discerns a blessing
(in store) (anisamsadassavissa sanfiojananam
pahanam). Then it discusses that the " Ambrosial "
(amatam) is an object of thought not yet freed from
bondage, whether matter should be subjective or
objective, that latent (immoral) bias and insight
are without mental object. Then it records a
discussion between the Uttarapathakas and the
Theravadins as to whether consciousness of a past
object or of future ideas is without object. The
former holds that when mind recalls a past object,
it is without object. Their views are proved to be
self-contradictory by the Theravadins.

The tenth chapter deals with the five ' operative '
(kiriya) aggregates (khandhas) which arise before
live aggregates seeking rebirth have ceased. It
treats of the eightfold path and bodily form and
discusses the points that the eightfold path can be
developed while enjoying the five kinds of sense-
consciousness (pafica vinnana) which are * co-
ideational(sabhoga),good (kusala), and bad (akusala),
that one engaged in the path practises a double
morality (dvihisilehi), that virtue, which is not a
property of consciousness, rolls along after thought,
that acts of intimation (vinfiatti) are moral (silam)
and those of non-intimation (avifinatti) are immoral
(dussilyam).

The eleventh chapter begins with the disputed
point that the latent bias (anusaya) is ' indeter-
minate ' (avyakata). It discusses that insight is
not united with consciousness, and that insight into
the nature of ill is put into operation from the

1 Cf. Vibhanga, 123 vital power is twofold material and
immaterial.

21

322 A History of Pali Literature

utterance of the word, " This is ill ". It treats of
the force of the iddhi (magic gift, miracle), con-
centration (samadhi), the causality of things
(dhammatthitata parinipphanna), and impermanence
(aniccata).

The twelfth chapter deals with acts of restraint
(samvaro kamma). It discusses that all actions
have moral results and that sense-organs are the
results of karma. It further treats of seven rebirths,
limit, murder, evil tendencies which are eliminated
in the case of a person who has reached the seventh
rebirth.

The thirteenth chapter deals with a doomed
man's morality, captivity, and release, lust for the
unpleasant, etc.

The fourteenth chapter discusses that the roots
of good and bad thoughts follow consecutively and
conversely. It treats of the development of sense-
organs of a being in human embryo. It deals with
the questions relating to the immediate contiguity
in sense, outward life of an ariya, unconscious
outbursts of corruption, desire as innate in heavenly
things, the unmoral and the unrevealed and the
unincluded.

The fifteenth chapter treats of correlation as
specifically fixed, reciprocal correlation, time, four
asavas (sins), decay and death of spiritual things,
trance as a means of reaching the unconscious sphere,
and of karma and its accumulation (karma is one
thing and its accumulation is another).

The sixteenth chapter deals with controlling and
assisting another's mind, making another happy, and
attending to everything at the same time. It
discusses that material qualities are accompanied by
conditions good or moral, bad or immoral ; they are
results of karma. This chapter further treats of
matter as belonging to the material and immaterial
heavens, of desire for life in the higher heavens.

The seventeenth chapter records that an arahat
accumulates merit and cannot have a premature
death, that everything is due to karma, that dukkha

Canonical Pali Literature 323

is completely bound up with sentient organisms,
that all other conditioned things excepting the
Ariyan Path only are held to be ill (dukkha). It
treats of the Order, the accepting of gifts, daily
life, the fruit of giving (a thing given to the Order
brings great reward), and sanctification of the gift
(a gift is sanctified by the giver only and not by
the recipient).

The eighteenth chapter deals with the Buddha's
living in the world of mankind, the manner in which
the Dhamma was taught, the Buddha feeling no
pity, one and only path, transition from one jhana
(rapt musing or abstraction) to another, seeing
visible objects with the eye, etc.

The nineteenth chapter treats of getting rid of
corruption, the void which is included in the aggre-
gate of mental co-efficients (samkhara-khandha), the
fruits of recluseship, patti (attainment) which is
unconditioned, fundamental characteristics of all
things which are unconditioned, Nibbana as morally
good, final assurance, and the moral controlling
powers (indriyakatha).

The twentieth chapter treats of the five cardinal
crimes, insight which is not for the average man,
guards of purgatories, 1 rebirths of animals in heaven,
the Aryan Path which is fivefold, and the spiritual
character of insight into the twelvefold base.

The twenty-first chapter discusses that the
religion is subject to reformation. It treats of
certain fetters, supernormal potency (iddhi),
Buddhas, all-pervading power of the Buddha, natural
immutability of all things, and inflexibility of all
karmas.

The twenty-second chapter treats of the com-
pletion of life, moral consciousness, imperturbable
(Fourth Jhana) consciousness, attainment of Arahat-
ship by the embryo, penetration of truth by a

i Some hold that there are no such beings but that the hell-
doomed karmas in the shape of hell -keepers purge the sufferers.
Points of Controversy, p. 346.

324 A History of Pali Literature

dreamer, attainment of Arahatship by a dreamer,
the unmoral, correlation by repetition, and mo-
mentary duration.

The twenty-third chapter deals with the topic
of a Bodhisatta who (a) goes to hell (vinipatam
gacchati), (b) enters a womb (gabbhaseyyam okka-
mati), (c) performs hard tasks (dukkara-karikam
akasi), (d) works penance under alien teachers of
his own accord and free will (aparantapam akasi,
aniiarh sattharam uddisi). This chapter further
deals with the controverted point that the aggre-
gates, elements, controlling powers all save ill is
undetermined (aparinipphanna).

The Kathavatthu is undoubtedly a work of the

Asokan age. The generally accepted

Kathavatthu, a v i ew i s that the Kathavatthu was

work of Asoka s j i -n/r T A m-

time. composed by Moggahputta Tissa

Thera, President of the Third
Buddhist Council which was held at Pataliputta
(modern Patna) under the patronage of King
Asoka. 1 The Mahavamsa gives a clear account of
the council. It is evident from it that at the time
of Asoka there existed different schools of Buddhism.
It was apprehended that Theravadism might be
supplanted by other Buddhist sects which seceded
from it. Even in the Buddhist Church at Patali-

putta, which is doubtless an orthodox church,
Theravada practices were going out of use. Asoka
who was certainly a follower of Theravadism
(otherwise we do not find any reason why he should
stand for the Thera vadins a losing side), with a
view to bring order in place of disorder, and in order
that the true doctrine (Theravadism) might long
endure, was eager to convene a council which, as
we have said before, was held under the presidency
of Moggaliputta Tissa Thera, the leader of the
orthodox Buddhist Church. It was decided that
the Buddha was a Thera vadin or a Vibhajjavadin
and the doctrine preached by him was synonymous

1 Mahavamsa (Geiger), Chap. V, 55.

Canonical Pali Literature 325

with Buddhism. Moggaliputta then composed the
Kathavatthu in which he refuted the heretical views
views which were against Theravadism. It will
not be out of place to mention here that other
Buddhist sects did not take part in the proceedings
of the council. Accordingly this council was re-
garded as a party meeting of the Theravadins.

The internal evidences of the Pali books them-
selves point to the fact that the Kathavatthu is a
compilation of the Asokan age. Let us see whether
external evidences also lead us to the same con-
clusion. For this we are to turn to the lithic records
of Asoka. It has now been definitely settled that
Asoka was a Buddhist. This king, in his Bhabru
Edict, recommends to the sisters and brethren of
the Order, and to the lay disciples of either sex,
frequently to hear, and to meditate upon, certain
selected passages, namely, Aliya-vasani, Anagata-
bhayani, Munigatha, Moneya-sute, Upatisapasine,
and Laghulovade. 1 All these passages have now
been identified with those in the Pali canonical
works. It is true that Asoka does not mention the
Kathavatthu by name in the lithic records. But if
we carefully read his inscriptions we shall find the
influence of the Kathavatthu in the Rock Edict IX.

In the Rock Edict IX, the inscription runs as
follows :

Siya va-tam atharh nivateya (,) siyapuna no
hidalokike cha vase (.) lyarh-puna dhamma-
magale akalikye (.) Hamche pi tam-atham
no nite-ti hida atham palata anamtam
(puna) pavasati (.) Hamche puna tam-
atham nivate-ti hida tato ubhaye ladhe
hoti hida cha se-athe palata cha anamtam
pumnam pavasati tena dhammamagalena

1 Vide Dr. B. M. Barua's interesting paper on the Bhabra
Edict, J.R.A.S., 1915, 805 ff. and Dr. Max Walleser's thoughtful
paper on this edict, Das Edikt Von Bhabra (Materialism Zur
Kunde des Buddhismus, Leipzig, 1923).

326 A History of Pali Literature

The style of composition and the subject of
discussion which we notice here, resemble those of
the Kathavatthu and the Samanfiaphala Suttanta
of the Digha Nikaya (Vol. I) respectively.

Both the Kathavatthu and the Milinda Panha
are very interesting books of con-
Historical con- troversial apologetics. The differ-
nection between ences between them are just as

the Kathavatthu i . A / \ p ?i TP

and the Milinda one might expect (a) from the dit-
Pafiha. ference of date, and (6) from the fact

that the controversy in the older book
is carried on against a member of the same commu-
nity, whereas in the Milinda we have a defence of
Buddhism as against the outsider. The Katha-
vatthu is regarded as a work of Asoka's time (3rd
cent. B.C.). There were different Buddhist sects
in the time of Asoka. There was every chance that
Theravadism might disappear. So the council was
held under the patronage of Asoka and under the
presidency of Moggaliputta Tissa Thera. After the
council was over, Moggaliputta composed the Katha-
vatthu in which he refuted the views of other
Buddhist sects. The Milinda has been placed
between 100 and 200 of the Christian era.
Mr. Trenckner says that our text can scarcely be
older than the first century A.D., but it may be
younger. There is, however, a limit which cannot
be passed. It is older than the beginning of the
fifth century A.D. for it is quoted by Buddhaghosa.
The book consists of the discussion of a number of
points of Buddhist doctrine treated of in the form of
conversations between King Milinda and Nagasena
the Elder. These are not real conversations. The
questions raised, or dilemmas stated, which are
put into the mouth of the king, are really invented
for the solutions which are put into the mouth of
Nagasena. It is likely that the questions which
have been discussed in the Milinda agitated the
Buddhist community as like questions did in the
time of Asoka.

There are a number of points raised in Tissa's

Canonical Pali Literature 327

discussions, which are also discussed by the author
of the Milinda. In every instance the two authors
agree in their views, Nagasena in the Milinda is
always advocating the opinion which Tissa puts
forward as that of the Theravadins. This is espe-
cially the case with those points which Moggaliputta
thinks of so much importance that he discusses
them at much greater length than the other.

His first chapter, for instance, by far the
longest in his book, is on the question whether, in
the truest sense of the word, there can be said to be
a soul. It is precisely this question which forms
also the subject of the very first discussion between
Milinda and Nagasena. The thera convinces the
king of the truth of the orthodox Buddhist view
that there is really no such thing as a soul in the
ordinary sense.

The discussion in the Milinda as to the manner
in which the Divine Eye (dibba cakkhu) can arise
in a man, is a reminiscence of the question raised
in the Kathavatthu as to whether the eye of flesh
can, through strength of dhamma, grow into the
Divine Eye.

The discussion in the Milinda as to how a lay-
man, who is a layman after becoming an arahat,
can enter the Order, is entirely in accord with the
opinion maintained, as against the Uttarapathakas
in the Kathavatthu.

The discussion in the Milinda as to whether an
arahat can be thoughtless or guilty of an offence
is foreshadowed by the similar points raised in the
Kathavatthu.

The two dilemmas in the Milinda, especially as
to the cause of space, may be compared with the
discussion in the Kathavatthu, as to whether space
is self-existent.

The Kathavatthu takes almost the whole of the
conclusions reached in the Milinda for granted and
goes on to discuss further questions on points of
detail. It does not give a description of arahatship
in glowing terms, but discusses minor points as to

328 A History of Pali Literature

whether the realisation of arahatship includes the
fruits of the three lower paths, or whether all the
qualities of an arahat are free from the asavas or
sins, or whether the knowledge of his emancipation
alone makes a man an arahat, or whether the
breaking of the fetters constitutes arahatship, or
whether the insight into the arahatship suffices to
break all the fetters, and so on.

Puggalapannatti. The Puggalapannatti or the
Prajnapti-pada is the fourth book of the Abhi-
dhamma Pitaka. Rev. Richard Morris, M.A., LL.D.,
has edited this work for the P.T.S., London. This
book has been translated into English for the
P.T.S., London, by Dr. B. C. Law known as the
Designation of Human Types and into German
by Nyanatiloka, under the name of Das Bitch der
charaktere, published in Breslau in 1911. The
Puggalapannatti throws some light on several obscure
Buddhist terms and phrases. Nothing is known
definitely as to the date of this work. It can be
said with certainty that it was written after the
nikayas. The following are the topics discussed in
this book :

(1) six designations,

(2) grouping of human types by one,

(3) grouping of human types by two,

(4) grouping of human types by three,

(5) grouping of human types by four,

(6) grouping of human types by five,

(7) grouping of human types by six,

(8) grouping of human types by seven,

(9) grouping of human types by eight,

(10) grouping of human types by nine,

(11) grouping of human types by ten.

c Puggala ' means an individual or a person as
opposed to a group or multitude or class. It also
means a person ; in later Abhidhamma literature it
is equal to character or soul (vide P.T.S. Dictionary,
Puggala).

According to the Buddhists an individual has

Canonical Pali Literature 329

no real existence. The term " Puggala " does not
mean anything real. It is only sammutisacca
(apparent truth) as opposed to paramatthasacca
(real truth). A Puggalavadin's view is that the
person is known in the sense of a real and ultimate
fact, but he is not known in the same way as other
real and ultimate facts are known (Points of Con-
troversy, pp. 8-9). He or she is known in the sense
of a real and ultimate fact, and his or her material
quality is also known in the sense of a real and
ultimate fact. But it cannot truly be said that the
material quality is one thing and the person another
(Points of Controversy, pp. 14-15), nor can it be
truly predicated that the person is related or absolute,
conditioned or unconditioned, eternal or temporal,
or whether the person has external features or
whether he is without any (Points of Controversy,
p. 21). One who has material quality in the sphere
of matter is a person, but it cannot be said that
one who experiences desires of sense in the sphere
of sense-desire is a person (Ibid., p. 23). The genesis
of the person is apparent, his passing away and
duration are also distinctively apparent, but it
cannot be said that the person is conditioned (Ibid.,
p. 55).

Pannatti means ' notion, designation, etc.'
It means what the mind both conceives and renders
articulate (Expositor, Vol. II, p. 499, n. 3). It is
stated in the Compendium of Philosophy that it is
twofold according as it is known (Pafinapiyatlti)
or as it makes things known (pannapetiti). Accord-
ing to the Puggalapafinatti commentary, pannatti
means ' explanation ', * preaching ', ' pointing out ',
' establishing ', ' showing ', and * exposition '. There
are, it says, six pafifiattis. These amount to so
many (a) designations, (b) indications, (c) expositions,
(d) affirmations, and (e) depositions (pafinapana,
desana, pakasana, thapana, and nikkhipana). All
these are the meanings of pannatti. According to
the commentarial tradition, Puggalapanfiatti means
' pointing out ', ' showing ', * expositions ', ' establish-

330 A History of Pali Literature

ing ', and deposition of persons or it may also mean
' notion ' or * designation ' of types of persons.
At the outset, the author classifies the pannatti
or notion into group (khandha), locus (ayatana),
element (dhatu), truth (sacca), faculty (indriya),
and person (puggala). Of these six, the last one is
the subject-matter of this work. Mr. S. Z. Aung in
his Introductory Essay while discussing the word
pannatti has shown that this word might be used
for both name and notion (or term and concept)
(Compendium of Philosophy, p. 264). It is interest-
ing to note that the author of the Puggalapaiinatti
follows the method of the Anguttara Nikaya. Not
only in the treatment of the subject-matter but also
as regards materials, the compiler owes a good deal
to the Sangiti of the Digha Nikaya and to the
Anguttara Nikaya.

At the outset, a matika or a table of contents
has been given which in a nutshell speaks of the
different chapters that are to follow. The first chapter
deals at length how and in what way the six pafinattis
(designations) are manifested. But in the treatment
of puggala a long list of different types is given
according as one is a sekha (learner), an arahat
(one who is emancipated), paccekabuddha (individual
Buddha), sammasambuddha (Exalted Buddha),
saddhanusari (one who follows faith), dhamma-
nusar! (one who follows dhamma), sotapanna (one
who has attained the first stage of sanctification),
sakadagami (one who has attained the second
stage of sanctification), anagami (one who has
attained the third stage of sanctification), or an
arahant (saint). In this way fifty different types
are stated in it.

In the second chapter a class of persons has
been considered to have acquired two qualities so
that he may be known, e.g., as one who is both
angry as well as an enemy or who is both idle and
unscrupulous, slothful and sensuous, etc. There
are in this way twenty-six different types.

The third chapter describes a type of beings

Canonical Pali Literature 331

according to three qualities. It deals with those
persons who defy the silas or moral conduct, who
are not observers of celibacy as also all those who
actually do so. It includes all those who are free
from asavas or sins and those who are speakers of
truth, those who are so blind as not to see kusala
and akusala states. It also includes persons who
are not to be served, not to be worshipped, and
not to be adored as well as those who ought to be
done so. It includes persons who are teachers.

The fourth chapter includes persons who are
good men and saints as well as those who are not so..
There are four types of Dhammakathikas (preachers
of dhamma). There are four kinds of persons who
are like clouds, who though speak loudly but do
not act accordingly, while others do not act
accordingly and speak less. This chapter closes
with an exhaustive treatment of persons who are
lustful, self-seeking as well as those who devote their
lives for others and with persons who are still evil-
minded and having attachment.

The fifth chapter treats of the persons who
act or do not act and are or are not remorseful,
and who do not know when and how kusala and
akusala dhammas disappear, etc. There are five
types of persons : (1) those who hold in contempt
all those whom they give, (2) those who hold in
contempt all those with whom they live, (3) those
who are in gaping mouth at the praise and blame
of the people, (4) those who have low pursuits, and
(5) those who are dull and stupid.

In the sixth chapter, six types of persons are
described. There are three types of persons who
even though they have not heard the doctrine
before, obtain ominiscience and fruition thereof, put
an end to suffering in this very existence and attain
the perfection of discipleship and remove suffering
in this existence and become non-returners
thoroughly understanding truths by thei]
efforts. There are also three types of
corresponding to those above, who do

332 A History of Pali Literature

omniscience and the fruition thereof, put an end
to suffering but do not obtain the perfection of
discipleship, and do not remove suffering but be-
come once-returners.

The seventh chapter deals with seven types of
persons : those who are in touch with akusala
dhamma suddenly float or sink as if in water or
cross over to the other banks or pass over to both
the banks of the sea of life. This metaphor refers
to the life of a man.

In the eighth chapter we find that the eight
types of people are those who are in the four stages :
Sotapatti, Sakadagami, Anagami, and Arahats, as
well as the four of those who are in the stage of
fruition.

The ninth chapter deals with nine types of
people, e.g., those who are all wise, those who are
yet to be Buddhas, those who are free both ways,
whose wisdom is free, whose body is pure, who have
attained purity in thought, freedom in faith, follow
the dhammas and become faithful.

In the tenth or the last chapter we find that
there are five persons who are accomplished, who
though they live in this world yet by strenuous
effort attain to the highest stage of perfection.
There are further five classes included in the ten
classifications of persons, e.g., such persons as have
got too early parinibbana before the prime of life
in a brahmana world, and those who have risen to a
stage of Anagami as well as those who never return.

Dhdtukathd. The Dhatukatha or the Dhatu-
kaya-pada of the Sarvastivada school is the fifth
book of the Abhidhamma Pitaka. It means * talk on

elements' as Mrs. Rhys Davids puts it in her book
* A Manual of Buddhism ', p. 28. E. R. Gooneratne
has edited this work for the P.T.S., London. It
can hardly be regarded as an independent treatise,
its purpose being to serve as a supplement to the
Dhammasangani. It fully discusses the mental
characteristics most likely to be found in conjunction
with converted and earnest folk. It treats of the

Canonical Pali Literature 333

five khandhas (aggregates) : rupa, vedana, safina,
samkhara, and vinnana ; twelve ayatanas (abodes) :
cakkhu, sota, ghana, jihva, kaya, rupa, sadda,
gandha, rasa, photthabba, mana, and dhamma ;
eighteen dhatus (elements) : cakkhu, sota, ghana,
jihva, kaya, rupa, sadda, gandha, rasa, photthabba,
cakkhuvifmana, sotavinnana, ghanavinfiana, jihva-
vinnana, kayavinnana, mano, manovinnana, and
dhamma, four satipatthanas (recollections), mindful-
ness as regards body (kaya), thought (citta), feeling
(vedana), and mind-states (dhamma) ; four truths
(sacca) : dukkha (suffering), samudaya (origin of
suffering), magga (the way leading to the destruc-
tion of suffering), nirodha (the destruction of
suffering) ; four jhanas (stages of meditation
pathama, dutiya, tatiya, catuttha) ; five balas
(potentialities) : saddha (faith), viriya (energy), sati
(mindfulness), samadhi (concentration), and panna
(insight) ; seven bojjhangas (elements of knowledge) :
sati (recollection), dhamma vicaya (investigation of
the Norm), viriya (energy), piti (satisfaction),
passaddhi (equanimity), samadhi (rapt concentra-
tion), upekkha (indifference) ; the Noble Eightfold
Path : sammaditthi (right view), sammasamkappo
(right aim), sammavaca (right speech), samma-
kammanto (right action), samma-ajivo (right living),
sammavayamo (right exertion), sammasati (right
mindfulness), and sammasamadhi (right concentra-
tion). It also treats of the senses of suffering,
delight, faith, energy, recollection, concentration,
attachment, sins, consciousness, excellent dhamma
(law), kusala dhamma (merits), akusala dhamma
(demerits), rupavacara and arupavacara dhammas,
etc.

Yamaka. The Yamaka (" The Pairs-book ") or
the Prakaranapada of the Sarvastivada school is the
sixth book of the Abhidhamma Pitaka. The P.T.S.,
London, under the able editorship of Mrs. Rhys
Davids has published an edition of the work in two
volumes. Mrs. Rhys Davids was assisted by Mary C.
Foley and Mabel Hunt in editing the first volume ;

334 A History of Pali Literature

while in editing the second volume she was helped
by C. Dibben, Mary C. Foley, Mabel Hunt, and May
Smith. Ledi Sadaw has written an excellent
dissertation on the Yamaka published by the P.T.S.,
London, in 1913. Matters of psychological, ethi-
cal, and eschatological interest are noticeable
throughout the work. Mula Yamaka deals with
kusaladhamma and akusaladhamma and their roots.
Khandha Yamaka deals with five khandhas (aggre-
gates), e.g. riipa, vedana, sanna, sahkhara, and
vinfiana. Ayatana Yamaka deals with the twelve
ayatanas, e.g., cakkhu, sota, ghana, jihva, kaya,
rupa, etc. Dhatu Yamaka deals with the eighteen
dhatus or elements. Sacca Yamaka treats of four
noble truths. Samkhara Yamaka deals with three
samkharas. Anusaya Yamaka treats of the anusayas
(inclinations), e.g., kamaraga (passion for sensual
pleasures), patigha (hatred), ditthi (false view),
vicikiccha (doubt), mana (pride), bhavaraga (passion
for existence), and avij ja (ignorance). Citta Yamaka
deals with mind and mental states. Dhamma
Yamaka deals with kusala and akusala dhamma.
Indriya Yamaka deals with the twenty-two indriyas.
Patthdna. The Patthana 1 (Book of Causes)
or the Jnana-prasthana of the Sarvastivada school
is the seventh or the last book of the Abhidhamma
Pitaka. Mrs. Rhys Davids has edited the volume
for the P.T.S., London. The book consists of three
divisions : eka, duka, and tlka. The twenty-four
paccayas or modes of relations between things
(dhamma) are so many patthanas. They are
enumerated in the Paccayavibhangavara of the
Tikapatthana, pt. I, as follows :

1. Hetupaccaya (condition, causal relation),

2. Arammanapaccaya (object presented in

mind),

3. Adhipatipaccaya (dominance),

1 Buddhaghosa offers three alternative meanings of the word
a. Patthana means paccaya or something analysed or an
-established procedure.

Canonical Pali Literature 335

4. Anantarapaccaya (contiguity),

5. Samanantarapaccaya (immediate conti-

guity),

6. Sahajatapaccaya (co-nascence),

7. Annamanfiapaccaya (reciprocity),

8. Nissayapaccaya (dependence),

9. Upanissayapaccaya (suffering depend-

ence),

10. Purejatapaccaya (antecedence),

11. Pacchajatapaccaya (consequence),

12. Asevanapaccaya (habitual recurrence),

13. Kammapaccaya (action),

14. Vipakapaccaya (result),

15. Aharapaccaya (support),

16. Indriyapaccaya (control, faculty),

17. Jhanapaccaya (meditation),

18. Maggapaccaya (path, means),

19. Sampayuttapaccaya (association),

20. Vippayuttapaccaya (dissociation),

21. Atthipaccaya (presence),

22. Natthipaccaya (absence),

23. Vigatapaccaya (abeyance), and

24. Avigatapaccaya (continuance).

The entire patthana is devoted first to an
enquiry into these twenty-four ways in which X
is paccaya to Y, secondly into illustrating how in
things material or mental each kind of paccaya and
groups of paccayas originate. Some of the paccayas
are hetu (cause), arammana (object presented to
mind), adhipati (lord), and so on.

CHAPTER III

PALI COUNTERPARTS OF THE SEVEN

ABHIDHAMMA TREATISES OF THE

SARVASTIVADA SCHOOL

The Sarvastivada School of Buddhism recognises
and holds as authoritative seven Abhidhamma
treatises which have nothing in common with the
seven texts of the Pali Abhidhamma Pitaka except
as to their total number. All these seven treatises,
called padas, are preserved in Chinese translations
and are altogether lost in their original. The
Indian originals of these treatises, so far as one
can ascertain, were written in Sanskrit. In the
Sarvastivada set of seven treatises, the highest
place in importance is accorded to the Jnanapras-
thana shastra of Katyayaniputra in the same way
that in the Pali set similar importance is attached
to the seventh book called the Patthana or Maha-
pakarana or the great treatise. For the parallels to
the Sarvastivada treatises the Pali Abhidhamma
Pitaka is not certainly the place to make the search.
Strangely enough, the available Pali counterparts of
all these treatises are embodied in the Sutta Pitaka
and pass as suttanta texts. On a careful examina-
tion of the contents of these Pali counterparts it
appears, however, that they represent a step in
advance from the general bulk of the suttas and as
a matter of fact form a link of transition between the
Pah suttas and the Abhidhamma books.

The principal Abhidhamma treatise of the
Sarvastivada school is, as noted above, Katyayam-
putra's Jnanaprasthana Sastra to which there are
six supplements called ' Padas '. The seven Abhi-
dhamma works are as follows :

(1) Jnanaprasthana byAryakatyayamputra. The
author is one of the famous Sarvastivada teachers and

Seven Abhidhamma Treatises 337

lived in Kashmere three hundred years after the
parinibbana of the Buddha. The work was translat-
ed into Chinese in 383 A.D., by a Kashmirian monk
named Gautama Samghadeva. The second word of
the title Prasthana corresponds to Patthana in Pali.
Hence Kern was led to believe that the two works
were probably related to each other. Dr. Barua
has tried to convince us with some cogent reasons
that although the arrangements of topics differ, the
topics treated of in the Jiianaprasthana Shastra
and the Pali Patisambhidamagga are almost the
same. The final decision of this point is to be
waited for till we have the complete English transla-
tion of the Chinese version of the Jnanaprasthana
Shastra to enable us to make a thorough comparison
between the contents of the two texts.

The whole work is divided into eight books.
The first book deals with the Lokuttara-dhamma-
vaggo, Sfana-vaggo, Puggala-vaggo, Ahirikanot-
tappa-vaggo, Rupa-vaggo, Anattha-vaggo, Cetana-
vaggo, and a vaggo on love and reverence. In the
Lokuttara-dhamma-vaggo the following questions
are raised : what is the Lokuttara-dhamma ? to
what category does it belong ? Why is it the
highest in the world ? In this vaggo the relation
of the Lokuttara-dhamma to twenty-two Sakkaya-
ditthis is also discussed. In the Nana-vaggo, the
cause of knowledge, memory, doubt, six causes of
stupidity by the Buddha, cessation of the causes,
etc., are discussed at length. In the Puggala-
vaggo the question at issue is how many of the
twelve Paticcasamuppadas l belong to the past,
present, and future Puggala. It also deals with the
question of final liberation. The Ahirikanottappa-
vaggo deals with ahirika (shamelessness), anottappa
(fearlessness of sinning), akusalamula (the increasing
demerits), etc. In the Rupa-vaggo it is said that
the rupadhamma going through birth and death

1 Mrs. Rhys Davids has ably discussed this subject in
Hastings' Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.

22

338 A History of Pali Literature

is impermanent. The Anattha-vaggo says that all
the practices of austerity are in vain, for the things
desired cannot be secured. The Cetana-vaggo deals
with thinking, reflecting, awakening (vitakka),
observing (vicara), unsettled mind (uddhaeca), ignor-
ance (avijja), arrogance (mana), hardness of heart,
etc. The vaggo on love and reverence deals with
respect out of love (pema), respect out of honour
(garava), two sorts of honour (garava), wealth
(dhana), and religion (dhamma), strength of the
body, nirvana, the ultimate end, etc. The second
book deals with the bond of human passions. It
explains demerits (akusalamula), 3 samyojanas
(bonds or fetters), 5 views, 9 samyojanas, 98 anusayas
with their details, scopes, and results ; sakadagamin
(those who come but once) and the germs of passions
still left in the Sakadagamins. It also deals with
moral defilements arising in men from views and
from practices, 4 fruits of samaiina, death and
rebirth, and regions having no rebirth. It then
explains causes of moral defilements, single cause
and double cause ; order of various thoughts and
thought connected with indriyas ; knowledge that
can destroy the causes (prahana-parijna) and realisa-
tion of the destruction (mrodha-saksatkara). The
third book deals with sekha and asekha ; five kinds
of views, right and wrong ; the knowledge of another's
mind (paracittanana) ; the cultivation of knowledge,
and knowledge attained by the ariya-puggalas. The
fourth book explains wicked actions, erroneous
speech, injury to living beings (himsa), demons-
trable and undemonstrable, and actions bearing the
selfsame results. The fifth book deals with pure
organs (indriyas), conditions of the combination
of elements, visible truth and internal products.
The sixth book explains the twenty-two indriyas,
all forms of becoming (bhava), sixteen kinds of
touch, primal mind and mind that is primarily
produced. It also explains whether the faculties
of organs are conditioned by the past. The seventh
book deals with all conditions of the past, medita-

Seven Abhidhamma Treatises 339

tions on causes and conditions in the dhyana heavens,

ten forms of meditation (kasinayatana), eight kinds

of knowledge, three forms of samadhi, five states of

anagamins, and states of the sakadagamins. The

eighth book deals with (2) Sangltl Parydya by Mdha-

Kausfhila. According to the Chinese authorities

the work is attributed to Sariputra himself, but

Yasomitra, a Sarvastivada teacher, attributes it to

Maha-Kausthila who was a Sarvastivada teacher of

great fame. The work was translated into Chinese

by Hiuen Tsang in the middle of the 7th century A.D.

By an analysis of the work Prof. Takakusu has

established its correspondence with the Sangiti Sutta

of the Digha Nikaya. The arrangements in both

the works are similar. The order in the Pali texts,

however, is more cumbrous and thus it is evident

that the Sarvastivada Abhidhamma text is anterior

to the Pali one. This work deals with eka-dharmas

(all beings living on food, etc.), dvi-dharmas (mind

and matter nama-rupa), tri-dharmas (three akusala-

mulas ; three kusalamulas ; three duscaritas kaya,

vak, manas ; three dhatus ; three pudgalas ; three

vedanas ; three vidyas, etc.), catur-dharmas (four

aryasatyas ; four Sramanyaphalas ; four Smrtyupa-

sthanas, etc.), panca-dharmas (five skandhas ; five

sorts of attachments to nativity, home, love, luxury,

religion ; five balas ; five indriyas ; five gatis ; five

mvaranas, etc.), sad-dharmas (six vijnanakayas ;

six vedanakayas ; six dhatus ; six abhijrias ; six

anuttara dharmas, etc.), sapta-dharmas (seven

sambodhyangas ; seven anusayas ; seven dhanas ;

seven adhikaranasamathadharmas, etc.), asta-

dharmas (eight arya-margas ; eight pudgalas ; eight

vimuktis ; eight lokadharmas, etc.), nava-dharmas

(nine abodes of beings sattvavasas), and dasa-

dharmas (ten krtnayatanas ; ten asaiksa-dharmas).

(3) Prakaranapdda by Sthavira Vasumitra.

Vasumitra was one of the greatest teachers of the

Sarvastivada school and was a contemporary of

Kanishka. This work treats of the five dharmas

(rupa, citta, caittadharma, citta-viprayukta-sams-

342 A History of Pali Literature

dhatu ; seven bodhyangas ; twenty-two indriyas,
twelve ayatanas, five skandhas ; and twelve pra-
titya-samutpadas.

(7) Prajnapti-ddstra by Arya Maudgalydyana.
There is nothing in common with the Pali Puggala-
pannatti but in name. It was translated into
Chinese by Hiuen Tsang. In this work instruction
about the world (loka-prajnapti) belonging to the
Abhidharma-Mahasastra is given. This work treats
of the seven ratnas of a Cakravartti king ; 32 signs
of Buddha and Cakravartti king ; the Buddha's
teaching of three moral defilements raga, dvesa,
and moha ; trsna (love), a great cause of life ;
causes of drowsiness, arrogance, wickedness, talkative-
ness, insufficiency in speech, inability in meditation ;
difference of mental faculties between the Buddha
and his disciples ; eight causes of rain ; cause of a
rainy season, etc. These contents go to show that
this treatise has a close correspondence with the
Pali Lakkhana Suttanta of the Digha Nikaya,
Vol. III.

Published by Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Ltd., 38, Great Russell

Street, London, W.C. 1, and Printed by P. Knight,

Baptist Mission Press, Calcutta.

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