History of the philosophy of pedagogics

LA

-OF THE —

PHILOSOPHYSEPEDAGOGICS

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HISTORY

— OF THE-

PHILOSOPHY OF PEDAGOGICS

— BY —

CHARLES WESLEY BEMETT, LL.D.

LATE PROFESSOR OF HISTORIC THEOLOGY IN
GARRETT BIBLICAL INSTITUTE

UNIVERSITY

SYRACUSE, N. Y.

C. W. BARDEEN, PUBLISHER

1893

Copyright, 1893, by C. W. BARDEEN

fw. BAROEEN, SYRACUSE, N. Y.

\o3

PKEFACE

In the following brief sketch I have used
whatever material and sources were to me
available. I have not hesitated often to use
the exact language of an author when this
clearly expressed my meaning. If I have
not, by proper marks, always indicated this
my indebtedness, it will be excused in an
essay of this character, laying no claim
whatever to originality. I have been most
indebted to the masterly treatises of von Kau-
mer, Schmidt and Goldammer, and I desire
to recommend most heartily these authors
as thorough and exhaustive.

History of the Philosophy of Pedagogics

INTKODUCTION

The subject is a most difficult one, as
will appear from an analysis.

1. History means primarily " inquiry,"
"investigation," — and then is applied to
the results of this inquiry and investigation.
Perhaps Cousin's definition may be good
enough. "History is a complete and sys-
tematically arranged account of the succes-
sive and simultaneous developments of all
the elements that constitute humanity."
["Introduction to Study of Philosophy,"
p. 7.]

2. Philosophy may be variously defined,
but there is in all these diverse definitions a
germinal unity. It has been called the
" Science of Principles," " The explanation
of the reason of things," " A collection of
general laws under which all subordinate

8 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGICS

phenomena are comprehended." "The
study of universal and necessary principles
considered under their different aspects, and
in the great problems which they solve, is
almost the whole of philosophy — it fills it,
measures it, divides it." [Cousin, "Free,
Beautiful and Good." Sect. I, p. 50.]
" Philosophy is reflection, elevated to the
rank and authority of method."

3. Pedagogics is the science and art of so
developing, by means of conscious influence
on the physical, intellectual, and moral
powers of man, the ideas of truth, freedom,
and love that lie at the foundation of his
god-derived nature, that he can meet spon-
taneously, and independently, his human
responsibilities." (Schmidt, " Gesch. d.
Erziehung," p. 1.)

We are, then, assigned the following task
— "to give a complete and systematically ar-
ranged account of the general and necessary
principles and laws by which there has been
developed, by a conscious influence on the
physical, intellectual and moral powers of
the unfolding man, those ideas of truth,
freedom and love that lie at the foundation
of his god-derived nature, so that he can

THE REFORMERS AS EDUCATORS 9

spontaneously and independently meet hu-
man responsibilities."

You will immediately perceive that the
field is too vast even for the most cursory
examination within the time allotted to us.
I have, after .considerable reflection, con-
cluded to pass by the history of the nations
of antiquity, to omit all examination of the
educational theories of the Christian Fathers
in the Eomish and Byzantine Churches, as
well as the struggles of mediaeval times,
marvellous as they were,, and briefly touch
upon some of the most important and in-
fluential systems that have appeared in the
Post-Eeformation period.

I. THE REFORMERS AS EDUCATORS

A revolution in thought and life so radi-
cal and far-reaching as that of the Reforma-
tion of the 16th Century, could not leave
the great subject of educational methods
unexamined. The contrasts between the me-
diaeval or church spirit, and the spirit of
the new era, were sharp and irreconcilable.

1. It was the subjective vs. the objective.

2. It was the life of man in G-od and the life

10 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGICS

of God in man as the original revelation, vs.
the binding power of external authority.

3. It was the fullest freedom of faith and
knowledge, vs. traditional creeds.

4. It was the authority of conscience, vs.
the authority of the Church or anything
else whatsoever.

Justin's principle was accepted by the
new era — " Christ is the eternal reason, with
which the whole human race may become
participant, and they are Christians who
live according to this eternal reason." Prot-
estantism saw that the schools were the
training places for the callings of life — so
that not one class or calling — whether ruler,
or clergy, or knight — but all alike should
here be prepared for life's duties. The in-
violability of the individual carried with it
the duty of arousing the people to a sense of
their responsibility to God and the State.

So the contrast of the Pre-Eeformation
school idea to the Eeform idea is sharp.
The medieval and Catholic idea was that
education must be special — the Latin schools
to educate the clergy and government of-
ficials— the schools of arithmetic and writ-
ing for business men — the girls' schools to

THE KEFORMERS AS EDUCATORS 11

educate the wives, etc., etc. The peculiar
product and property of Protestantism was
education for man AS man — as a creature
endowed with power and awful responsibil-
ity. " The primary school of the Reformers
was based on the idea that each one was to
be his own priest, and that each was to per-
fect in himself this salvation to which he
was called ; and, therefore, that each should
walk in immediate relation to God and the
truth.

The translation of the Bible into the ver-
nacular and its wide diffusion, worked won-
ders among the people in Germany and
England. Erasmus, Luther, Melanchthon,

Calvin, Zwinglius
and all the reform-
ers had a keen ap-
preciation of the
I duty of care for
[the young. Luth-
er regarded this
as the noblest
work in which

man could engage,
ERASMUS.

and thought that

Christianity could be powerful only as it

12 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGICS

scrupulously provides for the education of
the children. His theory is — " God sustains
the church through the schools — they are
the fountains — the seed of the church."
" And just as government compels the sub-
jects in case of war to bear the sword or
knapsack^ so much more ought it to compel
subjects to educate their children/' In the
order of excellence of subjects Luther ranks
religion first and uppermost — next he es-
teems language most valuable. With lan-
guage the exact sciences are not to be
neglected. He ranks history very high —
logic is less prized, since it gives no new
capacity, as he thought. Rhetoric, gym-
nastics, and music were invaluable.

The high promises of the Reformers were
not however to be realized. The fatal error
they committed was in attempting to make
the schools aids to advance their peculiar
religious tenets, and in regarding instruc-
tion in Christianity as the chief end and
duty of the schools. They knew not how
to tolerate purely secular learning. The
spirit of the reformation was well nigh
quenched in a war of dogmatic formulas,
and by the mutual hate and jealousy of par-

ABSTRACT THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION" 13

ties whose real interest was mainly in a set-
tled harmony. Scholasticism again revived,
and we have the second stage, — that of ab-
stract theological education.

II. ABSTRACT THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION

This reached from the middle of the 16th
to the 18th Century. This period is marked
by the prominence of theologic and philosoph-
ic studies to the exclusion of what are called
natural sciences. If the latter were at all
introduced it was more for practical utility
than scientific value. Education and in-
struction under this plan consisted largely
in loading the memory with mere formulas.
No opportunity was given for the free exer-
cise of the powers of reason and imagina-
tion in any direction that was pleasing, and
in modes most natural to the individual.

Melanchthon's celebrated (( Saxon School
Plan/' that played so important a part in
Germany and in other European countries,
proposed : 1. To assemble the pupils morn-
ing and evening in the church, for hearing
the Bible and prayers ; at the evening serv-
ice Latin hymns were to be chanted. 2.
The Latin language was to be cultivated to

14 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGICS

the neglect of the vernacular. 3. The mas-
ter was not to be
so much a helper
of the pupils as
an object of their
reverence. 4. The
religious (really
the sectarian ele-
ment) was to pre-
dominate in the
instruction of all
MELANCHTHON. thevarioiisclasses

into which he divided the pupils. 5. The
memory was to be crowded with the formu-
las of the church, and with sentences pre-
pared by the teacher.

The same order, in all essentials, was fol-
lowed by Bugenhagen in his " Church order
for Brunswick " — placing all under the over-
sight of the officials and clergy. Also, this
was closely imitated in Wittenberg. Re-
ligion and Latin were the chief subjects of
instruction. The higher differed from the
lower in that the higher had reference to
the preparation for clerical orders, and in-
troduced logic and rhetoric, and a little
more freedom was allowed to students for

ABSTKACT THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION 15

self-government and independent study.
While the celebrated William Wolf uttered
a protest against this system in declaring
that thought, not religious hair-splitting,
was a preparation for a pure life ; and love
to God and man, not the inculcation of

bigoted dogmas
— the chief ob-
j ec t of educa-
tion; and Trotz-
e n d o r f and
Sturm claimed
that teaching
was a high art
that needed most
careful study for
its successful
practice, the religious and political strifes
of the Protestants worked the death of good
instruction and tended to foster the spirit
and modes of the Scholastic Philosophy, and
to dwarf the powers by a discussion of the
most minute and barren technicalities. The
school was a place of dread and gloom to
the pupils — the veriest " vale of tears " to
the youth of this unfortunate period.

STURM.

16 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGICS

III. A HOPEFUL REVOLT

It was to be expected that there would
come a serious revolt against a system so
unnatural and barren of results. It came
from several sources, and worked a new and
hopeful condition of things. The sources
of this opposition may be summed thus :

1. Inside the Romish Church, Jesuitism
represented reformation of educational
methods as well as opposition to Protestant-
ism.

2. Jansenism represented a still more rad-
ical reformation in education, as in religion,
within the Catholic Church.

3. Pietism represented the protest in the
Protestant Church against the dead, dry,
educational methods, as well as against a
drear religious formalism.

4. More powerful than all, perhaps, was
the revolt of Philosophy in the Empiricism
of Locke, and the Inductive system of Bacon.

1. Jesuitism

opposed the freedom of the Reformation
with its own freedom, which consists in
the denial of all freedom to the man ; hence
in the denial of human nature, in the denial

JESUITISM 17

of morality, and of Christianity itself. It
appealed to the ambition and avarice of
men. With a sharp and vigorous mind, it
followed out its policy. It used men of
gifted natures to inculcate its doctrine that
mankind, like a wild beast, must be tamed,
in order to be ruled.

But its outward methods were almost the
opposite of the Protestant. It substituted
mildness, ease and grace of manner, and pol-
ish for harshness, severity and solidity of
attainments. Latin and poetry were the
chief studies. To speak Latin and not the
vernacular was peremptory. Classical stu-
dies were only useful, however, to improve
the style, and not, as in Protestantism, a
mere servant of theology. Mathematics,
geography, the vernacular, and even music,
were neglected.

Obedience to superiors, was the central
idea of the system. Emulation was among
the chief motives. Prizes, rewards, dis-
tinctions, all appealing to this principle,
were a large part of the machinery of this
order. Corporal punishment was discoun-
tenanced, and seldom practised. The high-
est duty of the teacher was thoroughly to

18 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGICS

know his pupils. To change natural affec-
tion into affection for the order, was a con-
stant aim of effort.

The instruction of the Jesuits was very
mechanical — leaving small and meager op-
portunity for the exercise of the powers of
reason. They cared little for primary
schools except so far as they might find
among the masses those who might give
rich promise of aid and honor to the Order.

2. Jansenism

Not less strong, and vastly more salutary,
was the opposition to the dead scholastic
orthodoxy of Protestantism and the preten-
sions of the Eomish Hierarchy that came
from Pietism and Jansenism. In many
things they were closely related. They rep-
resent a true spiritual and religious feeling
that desired to break through the constraints
of form, and reach the central essence of
Christianity. The Jansenists in Holland
and France, the Puritans and Methodists
in England and Scotland, and the Pietists
in Germany and Switzerland, were powerful
in breaking through the dead methods of
abstract theologic, as well as the hierarchic

JANSENISM 19

systems of education, and infusing a new
vigor into this most important department
of labor.

With its errors, Jansenism, nevertheless,
manifested a most glowing love for
young — an unselfish surrender of rtse
the interests of education and the race.
matters of instruction it developed a method
simple, rational, and adapted to nature.
It inculcated the union of a more funda-
mental study of religion with thorough mas-
tery of language and philosophy. Porfr
Eoyal furnished the most thoroughly pre^
pared and philosophical text-books of that
age. Even after the suppression of Port
Eoyal and the scattering of the Jansenists,.
its spirit was perpetuated in Fenelon andi
Kollin, and reached into high places through
the matchless eloquence of the Court
Preacher. [See his " de V Education des
filles," dedicated to the Duchess of Beau-
villiers.]

In England we hear the earnest protest of
the Puritans in the 17th, and of the Meth-
odists in the 18th century, against the
formalism in religion and the pedagogical
methods of the established church. Milton

20 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGICS

had roused the kingdom by his trumpet
tones, sounding a better method in educa-
tion ; the Methodists had shamed the sloth-
fulness of the establishment by furnishing
religious instruction to the masses, and
gathering the neglected children into Sun-
day schools. In his work on education Mil-
ton had advocated an equal attention to
language and to the sciences. He gave a
plan of instruction far richer in spirit and
•extent than had hitherto been known — ar-
guing for a general culture to the exclu-
sion of professional studies.

8. Pietism

Even more powerful for reform in religion
•and in educational methods were the Piet-
ists of Germany. Philip Jacob Spener, of
whom it has been said "the world was not
worthy/' Count Zinzendorf, and, most of
all, Augustus Hermann Franke, in Halle,
brought in a better day for the science of
Pedagogics. Pietism sent a new vigor
through the entire school life of Europe.
It gave rise to better methods ; it created
normal schools ; it furnished for Germany
vastly improved text-books ; it brought the

PIETISM 21

schools back from the cloister to every-day
life ; it was the first to conceive of the
schools as an organic whole, resting at last
upon primary education.

The ground principle of Pietism was, —
without genuine piety all knowledge, all
worldly wisdom, all culture are more hurt-
ful than useful. Piety comports with every
lawful position and calling in life. First,
and foremost, therefore, must education
strive after and guard itself by a radical
improvement of the heart.

The law of the educational method of
Pietism was a continuous conversation with
the pupils. Catechism is the very soul of
instruction. Thus is learning made lighter,
the intercourse of teacher and pupil becomes
intimate. Yet this catechetical instruction
must be conducted so carefully and skilfully
as to strengthen and not to weaken the in-
tellectual powers. The education of the
memory was careful, the understanding was
vigorously exercised, and i\\e pen was freely
used with a view to exactness of expression.

We cannot too highly estimate the bene-
ficial work of Pietism in the pedagogical

HISTORY OF PEDAGOGICS

methods of Continental Europe. The effects
reach to our own day.

4. The Realistic- Philosophic Opposition to
Scholasticism and to the Rom-
ish Hierarchy

It is time to turn to another source of
opposition to Scholasticism in Pedagogics
and to the methods of the Roman Hierachy.
It came from the side of Philosophy. The
instruction had become dead and forma! —
it yielded no rich and generous fruit. Books,
mere books, words, terms — with no breath
of life in them. Terms and not things, —
zvords about things, — not the things them-
selves. Princi-
ples were scarce-
ly thought of.

M on t a i g n e
(1533-1592)', in
France, and Ba-
con - (1561-1G26,)
in England, suc-
ceeded by Locke
(1632-1704),

MONTAIGNE.

were the great
revolutionists to overturn the scholastic

REALISTIC-PHILOSOPHIC OPPOSITION 23

methods. Montaigne, so early as the middle
of the 16th century, had become disgusted
with the fruitlessness of the prevailing sys-
tems. He said — "We may take meat into
the stomach as long as we please, and it will
be all in vain unless it is digested and become
a part of ourselves — incorporated into our
system/' Pedagogues and reformers should
not speak as from a 'book, but from their
own thought — from an opinion intelligently
formed by their own investigation. This
that now seems a truism in pedagogical
science, was with Montaigne's contempo-
raries scarcely thought of. He regarded the
vernacular of more importance than the
dead languages, or any foreign language.
This was a revolution, indeed.

Bacon, the reviver, illustrator, and de-
fender of Realism, in his "Inductive Phil-
osophy/' by inviting the mind to leave the
dead past, to contemplate the living present,
and to look into living nature with open eyes,
lays the very foundation of realistic educa-
tional methods.

He thus became the real father of all
Trade-Schools, of Polytechnic Schools, etc.,
etc.

24 HISTOKY OF PEDAGOGICS

Locke, by looking into mind itself — by
studying anew its
nature, its laws
and its processes,
bases afterwards
in his "Thoughts
on the education
of Children," his
entire pedagogi-
cal views upon his

philosophy. "A
LOCKE. , , .

sound mind in a

sound body," is the foundation axiom of his
whole system. Keep the body sound — treat
children as reasonable beings, not as things —
preserve their individuality — check their
selfishness — inculcate self-government — let
the restraint come from within, through a
cultivation of the conscience and will — not
from without, by means of rods and fear.

Praise and blame are healthful motives —
corporal punishment is an extreme measure.
Let praise be given in the presence of others,
that it may not only stimulate the recipient,
but his fellows as well — administer reproof
and blame to the child alone, lest he may
lose his self-respect, as well as become a mark

KEALISTIC-PHILOSOPHIC OPPOSITION 25-

for the ridicule of his associates. A ground
or reason for his discipline must ever exist-
in the mind of the teacher, and this should,.
as far as possible, be made known to the
pupil — specially by means of examples drawn*
from history or from analagous cases sup-
posed.

Through the entire course of the child's-
training the desire for knowledge must bo
fostered. Inquiring children must be en-
couraged, not chilled by rebuke or neglect.
Play must be allowed — work must be made to
seem a recreation, not a task. Mere assigned
tasks are not recommended. No help should
be furnished by the teacher when there is
self-help. The child should learn to read
as soon as he learns to talk, and a foreign
language must be learned as we learn our
mother tongue. Latin is early recommend-
ed. Yet the vernacular was far better than
all other languages.

Locke's theory of education is strictly util-
itarian. A well-trained, well-appointed man*
of the world was the product.

In Germany the anti-scholastic methods,
from a philosophical stand-point, received
marked attention, and were wonderfully

26 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGICS

forwarded by such masters of pedagogics as
Wolfgang Ratichius (1571-1635), John Amos
Comenius, and others.

Ratichius exclaims, " Antiquity is played
•out — reason is now victorious.'' His princi-
ples were clearly conceived and thoroughly
wrought out. They were reduced to a few
heads as follows :

1. Everything according to the order and
course of nature.

2. One thing at a time, one study at a
iime, one author only from which to learn a
language.

3. One thing oft repeated and deeply im-
pressed.

4. The vernacular first and foremost.

5. No constraint, since this is unnatural.

6. No more memorizing, — since anything
repeated to the understanding will neces-
sarily be seized and retained by the memory.
Hence lectures were repeated often, and no
questions were asked during the progress of
the lecture, lest the impression might be im-
paired by this interruption.

7. Uniformity in everything, — ever pur-
suing the same method in all stages of edu-

IlEALISTIC-PHILOSOPHIC OPPOSITION 27

•cation, and in all things pertaining to the
same stage.

8. First the thing — then the modeofi\\Q
thing, — first the materials and principles^
"then the rules.

9. Everthing through experience, there-
fore no authority without a reason.

Katichius's system resulted in practical
failure, since it degenerated into foolish ex-
tremes, that defeated the very end he him-
self had proposed.

Comenins had great preference for the

Sciences. H i s
plan was to rep-
resent every-
thing possible to
the senses. See-
ing is demonstra-
tion and believ-
ing — what we
know must be
learned. What
is learned must
"be treated as present, and estimated accord-
ing to its uses. What is learned must be
learned directly, not in a round-about-way,
— it must be learned as it is — i. e., according

COMENIUS.

28 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGICS

to its causes or origin ; — the parts of a sub-
ject must be understood according to their
order,, position and connection.

Everything, therefore, by a natural suc-
cession,,— studying one thing at a time. A
subject must be continued until thoroughly
mastered. Differences in pupils must be-
noted in order that modes may be adapted
to each. All knowledge should go towards-
the elevation of the man : indeed, morality
is vastly more than erudition.

A school without discipline is like a mill
without water. This discipline, however,,
should have more reference to the charac-
ters of the pupils than to the studies them-
selves. Yet discipline should not prostrate-
and discourage, but elevate and advance the-
pupil. A high sense of honor and duty must
be awakened, that will lead to a free-will
service. With some curious and untenable-
notions, Comenius's system was complete^
very thoroughly thought out, — expressing
sound views of human nature and of the
duties and methods of education, and its in-
fluence was very widely extended, and very
lasting in its effects.

HUMANISM 29

IV. HUMANISM

Bat it was not to be expected that the
Tealistic school would proceed unquestioned
and unchallenged as to its methods. Indeed,
this extreme would provoke the opposite, —
as has ever been true in the history of human
development. So that during the 18th cen-
tury there is noticed a growing spirit of
criticism of the pedagogical theories of real-
Ism, as well as of the partial and excessive re-
ligious discipline of the Pietists. It gave
rise to the humanistic school, that taught
that the goal and purpose of all education is
to cultivate a purely human sentiment, and
to awaken in the individual, the idea of
humanity.

The sole means necessary to this end, ac-
cording to this school, was a thorough study
of classical antiquity, its language, its laws,
its antiquities. The ancient languages were
.the sole foundation of all true culture. Greek
and Latin literature are the sources of all
,true and genuine erudition, — and contain
accounts of all religions. The Eoman juris-
prudence embodies the spirit and essence of
•all that is truly valuable in law. The fun-
-•dameutals of medicine are here found, — and

30 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGICS

philosophy, rhetoric, logic, poetry and his-
tory,— all that is valuable or necessary — are-
discussed in these ancient classical writings.

Therefore, this theory of education con-
fined the student in all the preparatory
schools to the study of language, — leaving
what are technically called sciences exclu-
sively to the University. It found its most
zealous advocates in Germany, though it
was widespread in its influence, and has
largely affected the college curriculum of
England and America. It gave Germany
the leadership in Classical Erudition — a
leadership that she has maintained to the
present hour. Such men as Cellarius, Gesner,
Ernesti, Heyne, Boeckh, etc., etc., are the
direct product of this school, or its most
successful advocates.

v. DEISM

It is high time that we turn our thoughts
to a most remarkable educational phenom-
enon that appeared in England, France and
Germany. It was the other extreme of a
perverted Pietism, and the artificial, stilted,
social forms that had been imposed on
France by Louis XIV., and had found their
way into England through the Restoration.

DEISM 31

This is usually known under the term
Deism. The kernel thought of this system
is that nothing can be certain to man that is
not in accordance with the laws of his un-
derstanding,— that self-consciousness is the
acme and ultimate for man, — that revelation,-
as it is called, may be useful to educate the
crude masses, but is not necessary to Phil-
osophy. It, therefore, rejects all that is
supernatural in the Christian religion, and
retains only what is common to all religions.

The principles that are claimed to be thus
common to all religions are as follows :

1. There is one Supreme God.

2. This Supreme God ought to be wor-
shiped.

3. Virtue and Piety are the most essential
requisites to this Divine reverence and wor-
ship.

4. Man is under obligations to repent of
and forsake his sins.

5. Good and Evil will be rewarded in this
life and the life to come.

All beyond these five principles was re-
garded superfluous, and the invention of an
ambitious priesthood.

The work that most completely embodies
these principles in a system of education, is-

32 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGICS

Defoe's "Kobinson Crusoe/' It really in-
corporates into itself the ground principles
•of Deism : unfolding under its pleasing nar-
rative a theory of human development by
mere natural processes. It is the picture of
•a child of nature overcoming obstacles, and
being educated by these struggles with nature
independently of the artificial helps of so-
ciety. We all know what a marvellous pop-
ularity this work immediately enjoyed. Its
-translation into all the languages of Europe
disseminated its doctrines throughout the
entire continent, and awakened an intense
-enthusiasm in many of the master thinkers
•of the 18th century.

The man who embraced its principles most
completely, and
pushed them to a
last extreme, was
Rousseau, in his
I celebrated work
I— "Emile."Tkis
work reveals the
thought of this
wonderful man
with regard to

ROUSSEAU. . . , '

what he regards

DEISM 33

the true theory of education. The whole
theory is — Society is a curse — a state of ab-
ject bondage, that must be broken. He
would have the child put forth its activities
under no constraint, — let the child strive to
gain something because it needs it, — let its
instincts guide it to just what its nature
craves. Obedience is not a motive or an end
— necessity of the nature is the law. The
words (( obedience " and " command " he
would blot out of the lexicons.

He would not have a child see a book be-
fore he is twelve years of age. The earliest
education needs only to be negative — it does
not consisfc in distinguishing virtue from
vice, but in guarding the heart from mis-
takes, and the intellect from errors. His
dogma is that all evil is the result of circum-
stances ; these circumstances being largely
products and concomitants of society and
government. Hence the correction for these
evils is a return to a state of nature, — break-
ing through all artificial shackles that now
bind us.

We see at a glance that Eousseau had by
no means solved the deep problem of educa-
tion,— since he had recognized man neither

34 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGICS

as a member of society nor in the enjoyment
of all his powers. So that his so-called
natural development becomes, in fact, the
most unnatural. Yet the effect of his treat-
ise was powerful and far-reaching. It con-

tinued its influe-
ence for nearly a
half century in
^France and Ger-
Imany. Itwasthe
[immediate fore-
runner and induc-
ing cause of the
efforts of Basedow

in German^ that

SEDOW

UAbiLDUW. .

resulted in the

founding of his celebrated " Philanthrop-
inurn," and in the wide diffusion of a theory
of Pedagogy that worked most disastrous
results on German social life and patriotism.
The energies of this noble people had been
completely sapped by the sickly sentimental-
ism that sprung from Philanthropinism, so
that when the proud and victorious Napoleon
marched on Berlin, he made the Prussian
capital an easy prey.

We have not the time to trace the wonder-

FREEDOM OF ACTIVITY 35

ful transition in the Educational method of
Germany effected through the noble labors
of Fichte and Schleiermacher, by which the
moral element was reinstated and patriotism
reinvigorated, so that from the plains of
Leipzig the proud invader was hurled across
the Ehine and sent a prisoner to Elba; It
is a chapter in the History of the Philosophy
of Pedagogics full of instruction and full of
solemn warning to our own land.

VI. FREEDOM OF ACTIVITY

We have only time to mention the last
stage of this History, viz., that in whicn
free, untrammeled, activity of the human
intellect in every department of research
and discovery has been associated with a
more profound sense of religious need ; in
which the enterprise of commerce, the
facility of national intercourse, the conquests
over nature, the sacredness of individual
rights, have all united to realize a better,
purer type of civilization than the world has "
before seen.

36 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGICS

The great genius of this last era of Educa-
tional Philoso-
phy is emphati-
cally Pestalozzi.
His personal his-
tory and his
methods have
been made so
familiar to us
through Mr. Bar-
nard's work
PESTALOZZI.

" Pestalozzi and

Pestalozzianism," that we need spend little
time on this sketch. Dr. Karl Schmidt has
said of him :

" Unattractive in outer appearance, poor-
ly clad,, often unwashed, with matted hair,
with shoes run down at the heels, and with
stockings often half covering them, — lacking
in calm discretion, — with little tact in busi-
ness,— without social shrewdness, — through
his all-embracing love, through his readiness
to sacrifice in helping the distressed and
down-trodden, and which could send him to
cut off his silver shoe-buckles for a beggar
and then bind on his shoes with straw, he has,
through his humility, his modesty, his unself-

FREEDOM OF ACTIVITY 37

ishness, wherein none of his contemporaries
approached him, — harmless, and yielding
as a child, — mild and teachable, tender and
full of feeling, — inspired the world with the
duty of ennobling the race, and in the long-
continued contest against the coarse or more
refined Materialism of his age, against the
narrow Egoism and the trivial and painful
Utilitarianism of the period, has lifted high
the abiding ideal of human life, and labored
for the good of the race and for the natural
development of the mind of the child/''

The ground philosophical principle of this
whole system is — " Proceed from intuition
to notion." This does not imply however, a
mere passive receptivity, but a spontaneous,
active receiving. As soon as the senses re-
ceive their first impressions, begins the de-
velopment of the powers of the man. The
means used by him are to place the education
of the people under the mother's care, and
erect the home into a school.

This idea he actualized by giving to
mothers a Book on Education — " The Book
for Mothers," the first of the kind, it is be-
lieved, that had ever appeared. If the home
is not a holy temple of God, if the mother

38 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGICS

fails to vivify and inspire the heart and mind
of the child then all thorough reform of
the social condition is impossible.

This is the fundamental note that rings
through all his works. Already at the cradle
of the unreasoning child, must we begin to
snatch the race from blinding deceiving in-
fluences, and place it in the hands of a better
power which the experience of the centuries
has enabled us to deduce in relation to
mental and moral laws. This need of ele-
mentary work is general. The mother in her
processes must follow the course agreeable
to the nature of the child, — so also must the
school. All school cultivation that does not
thus accord must lead astray. Humanity is
like in its nature, its needs and its goal ;
hence a like discipline is demanded for all
and evermore.

Such in imperfect outline is the Philoso-
phy of Education of Pestalozzi.

In this connection one more man must be
mentioned, whose zeal and success in primary
instruction entitle him to a high place among

FREEDOM OF ACTIVITY 39

original workers
in the Philosophy
of Education. I
refer of course to
Frcebel — the real
founder of the
Kindergarten in
Germany. He
agreed entirely
with Pestalozzi in

FRCEBEL i • i • i j.-

his high estimate

of family training — going so far as to assert
that so long as the mother neglects to train
her child according to the laws of its nature,
all attempted reforms in the schools will be
in vain.

His observation that the first dawnings of
child-life were accompanied with desires for
activity and motion led him to the determin-
ation of the laws of this activity, and to the
devising of means of conserving this restless-
ness to useful and educating ends. Since
activity is the very condition of development,
to guide this activity into right channels he
regarded all important. Noticing what was
universal — that is, the law of the action of
the child — he reached this result — " that the

40 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGICS

nature of the child manifests itself univer-
sally in play. No more true is it that birds
build nests, or foxes dig holes, or bees form
cells, than that children play ; — it is their
nature."

Therefore, to develop and educate the
young mind by means of play, is the central
idea of FrcebePs system.

We cannot pursue the system further.
Suffice it to say that these two, — Pestalozzi
and Froebel — are the coryphei of modern
primary instruction, — exerting an influence
this hour on modern civilization that is en-
tirely inconceivable.

The fulness of this sketch might lead me
to touch upon the more modern developments
in the science of Pedagogy — and speak of the
modifying force of certain dogmas of modern
philosophic thought — such as Comte and
his school — Herbert Spencer, J. Stuart Mill,
Hamilton, etc., etc. I deem it best not to
trespass upon the territory of these essayists.

CONCLUSION

The History of the Philosophy of Peda-
gogics has proved to me a most interesting
and instructive study. It seems to me that

COJSTCLUSIOJST 4Jb

no one who makes any considerable preten-
sion to thoroughness as an Educator, can
afford to neglect it. It certainly shows us
that Pedagogics is no chance work that
every dabbler or pedant is well able to under-
take, but rather the most serious, difficult
and far-reaching in its consequences to the
individual, the family, and the State. It
teaches us that those great thinkers that
tower like Alps above their fellows, have re-
garded its study with the profoundest in-
terest, and have brought to the solution of
its hard problems their choicest powers.

It likewise teaches us that there is a deep
Philosophy of Pedagogics — a Philosophy that
has to do with subjects of no less interest
than the nature of man, the destiny of man,..
and the means by which this nature can-
realize this destiny. At a glance we see that
the Philosophy of Pedagogics is only a branch
or corollary of General Philosophy ; that it
ever has shifted, and ever will shift, with a
shifting Psychology, with a shifting Theol-
ogy, with a shifting Philosophy of History,
and with the shifting views of the doctrine
of final causes. If man is of the Earthr.
earthy — after a few clays of struggling and.

42 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGICS

of tears to return to dust to rise no more ; —
if History at best is only your incoming on
the stage to mount on the shoulders of your
predecessors, and my incoming to mount on
yours ; — you and I alike serving our brief
purpose, yet to have no share in some final
triumph, — then the Philosophy of Pedagog-
ics is one thing, — it may have its motives ;
we may, possibly, find our inspiration to
work.

But if the History of Education is like
Universal History — a History of Mankind
" ly G-od through God, to God,"— if Christ
is the middle point of Universal History,
^Iso of the History of Pedagogics, if my
sacrifice is to contribute to the elevation not
of my immediate successor alone, but to the
Jinal triumph, which I, too, am to share ; —
if my destiny is bound up intimately with
the destinies of the race, and the destinies
of the race are affected by my conduct ; if,
in short, this historic drama is the necessary
medium of moral development to the race,
which shall clearly appear in the grand de-
nouement ; — then this work of ours has its
motives, — it has its inspiration, — /know it,
— you feel it, — and we are willing, fellow

CONCLUSION 43

workers, to toil on in obscurity, if needs be,
— little appreciated it may be, — poorly re-
quited often, — but still proud, and satisfied,
because co-workers with the Great Teacher
in lifting the race from bondage to freedom,
and from darkness to the light of life.

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