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HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
THE HISTORY OF
PIANOFORTE MUSIC
BY
HERBERT WESTERBY,
MUS.BAO.LOND., F.R.C.O., L.Mus.T.C.L.
AUTHOR or Th Piano Works of ths Grtat Composes
With Numtrous Musical ttluttrationt in the Text
LONDON :
KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO., LTD.
J. CURWEN & SONS, LTD.
NEW YORK: E. P. BUTTON & CO.
1994
tK Wtiaft by MAtKAn Lm,
PRELUDIUM
THE subject of pianoforte music probably includes more
literature than that of all the other branches of the tonal art
put together.
In treating this subject the author has endeavoured to go
upon original lines and to base his classification and critical
estimate of the various Schools and composers upon personal
examination of the music in question, He was moved to do
this by the fact that existing works on tha subject are largely
" steeped in the past/' and by the necessity that the enormous
literature of the piano should be viewed from a twentieth-
century standpoint.
Moreover, the sphere of pianoforte music centres neither
in the organ-like polyphonic works of Bach as written for the
Clavichord, nor in the orchastrally-mlnded sonatas of Beet*
hoven, but in th compositions of the modern Romantic
School, and in the modern National Schools which are also
permeated with Romanticism, Hence the work has been to
proportioned m to treat these sections as of primary important^
Authorfti**.-""-* Th principal modern work on the sttbjtct &$$
bean Weitmann's flinty of CI$#*Vr Pl&ying &nd Ctei^
Litemtu?$ t 1:863, A second e&tion of this appeared la t88
(the year of Wdt&maim's dsath) and a third, enlarged by
Otto Le&sman, appeared te 887, Much notable ptanolortt
music has been published, however, since tha above dtttt, a4
passing by Weitemann*s neglect of much foreign mudc whid*
was to print by the time of the second edition, whole Schools
of National thought have sprang up and crystaffistd toto
hape itoce that time, Prosnh's H&ndbmk A$r Cftp^r
lii$r$w? (3:884 Edition Dobtop^ Vtema), fotaf only as fi$^
at 1830, hat since been brought down to 1908, Hi Seiffert
($o~ct!M f Weitemtati) GmMtMt &if Kl&w&r
Vi PRELUDIXJM
Volume I (461 pages), treats only of harpsichord and clavichord
music (on which it is the authority) up to the time of Handel,
while Villanis 1 L'Arte del Clavicembalo (Turin Fratella Bocca)
similarly discusses the history of harpsichord music of the
I7th century. Oscar Bie's History of the Pianoforte and Piano
forte Players (1889) (English Edition Dent) is based on
Weitzmann, and, like Fillmore's History of Pianoforte Music
(4th Edition, 1888 Presser) and Pauer's Dictionary of Pianists
(1895), is conservative and largely devoted to the past,
x Modern National Schools, With regard to the modern
National Schools of Pianoforte Music, various articles in
musical journals have appeared on the subject, and music in
general has been nationally classified by Niemann in his Music
and M^usicians of the Nineteenth Century (Senff in German),
but the author believes that the present is the first up-to-date
collective and comparative treatment of national pianoforte
music.
Weitzmaan, it should be noted in passing, treats his work
from the standpoint of " clavier playing/* with the resulting
anomaly that the music of Field is classified with that of the
other pupils of Clement! as perpetuating the style of his
master, who represents, however, quite another epoch in
composition.
Principal Factors. Generally speaking, the author has
searched for evidence concerning, and endeavoured to direct
attention to ; (i) the influence of the Italian School upon
eighteenth-century composers ; (2) the development aad
influence of various kinds of " technique " or technical
figuration in composition ; (3) th use of musical form, th
harmonic aspect, and the influence of the orchestra; and
(4) the definition of the romantic element*
National Schools aad Form. The author, in his treatment of
the present subject, apart from dealing with the various
" Schools'" and " NatioaaUto/' felt it was a4io ecesmry to
treat historically of the various forms of pianoforte music in
order to make the survey complete* Heac the Suit, Fugu,
Sonata, Concerto, Variation, Prelude, Programme Music,
Modern Dance Forms, Studies, Duets, have been dealt with
separately.
PRELXJDIUM Vll
Special emphasis has been laid on the original material
upon which the National Schools of thought are being built,
viz, : The National Folk Song and Dance, and an effort has
been made to treat the" British School as fully as space allowed.
Educational Aspect. The educational needs of the average
pianoforte student have not been lost sight of and it is
hoped that the whole of the chronological tables in particular
will be found useful in this direction. Attention to any
particular phase can be followed by consulting the cross
references, or the Index, or through the works mentioned in
the classified Bibliography* Piano Trios, Quartets, etc., as
coming under the head of Chamber Music are not dealt with
in this volume.
Above all, however, it is necessary that the Student should
play or listen to the various works mentioned in order to form
a critical and comparative estimate of the literature of piano
forte music in general
The teacher who wishes to obtain a comprehensive survey
of pianoforte music as graded and classified for educational
purposes is recommended to study Ruthardt's Catalogue*
Guide, or Wegweiser (6th Edition* 1905, Gebrtlder Hug or
Bos worth). No comprehensive guide, including British
publications, is in existence. Webbe's Pianist's Primer (1900)
(Forsyth) is the nearest in this respect,
Historical A*p*0t. As regards the historical aspect of the
subject generally, it is difficult to portray a movement which
runs, so to speak, in half a dozen different channels at the samt
time, but it is trusted that the reader will make allowance for
the necessary overlapping of the various chapters. Further, ts
the present work has bean written without regard to the interest
of any music publisher, the author has been enabled to maintain
a perfectly impartial and independent attitude in the oplniom
herein expressed, for which he alone is responsible.
The enormous scopa of the subject and the exigencies of
spaca ara responsible for a somewhat condensed treatment
generally and for any faults which may have crept in. For
the notification of these latter, as wail as of any new work of
teportunce, the author wotild be grateful, so that the work
may bejcept accurate and up-to-date,
Vili PRELUDIUM
Acknowledgments, The author is obliged to Mr. J, B.
MacEwen, formerly Hon. Secretary to the now defunct Society
of British Composers, to Dr. Moravcsik, the Principal of the
Royal Academy of Music of Budapest, for an historical digest
of Hungarian Pianoforte Music furnished by him one which,
unfortunately, it was necessary to condense considerably and
to Mrs, A* A. Ginever, who made the translation for the Royal
Academy ; also to Professor Philip Pedrell of Barcelona, the
late Sir Hubert Parry, Sir Alexander Mackenzie, Sir Charles
V. Stanford and the late Mr* J, E. Matthew, for kind help.
CONTENTS
PAGE
PRELUDIUM v
PART I
THE MUSIC OF THE HARPSICHORD AND
CLAVICHORD
CHAPTER I : THE STORY OF PIANOFORTE Music , . 3
Characteristics of the Piano Compositions for the Hano -The
Modern Stimdpoint Pro-existing ConditionsThe Lute and
its Musio-Evolution of Instrumental StyloThe Clavichord
-The Virginal or Spinet The Harpsichord,
CHAPTER II : ENGLISH COMPOSERS FOR THE VIRGINAL . 7
The Fitaswmkm Virginal Book Other ColJectiont Early
Programme HusioByrd, Bull and Gibbons The Old Danes
Forms.
CHAPTER III : THE OLD HARPSICHORD SUITES * * i%
Stts of Staltes of Dane^t**- Evolution of the Suite*-*" Variation "
Suit**-" Charatristio " Suiiw Handdi't nd Bach'a
FRENCH CLAVECIN Music * * 17
Chambmxnilr Coyprin*8 " Chiwrac^rfstio " Pieces Eaean*
" Hecas,
V : HARPSICHORD AND CLAVICHORD TBCHNIQUB
Tot* Bffof^ Technique of the Bnglifh Virginal Schools
Scarlatti's Technique compared with Bach' Bach's Execution
ol Jtogedc^- 11 Agrtmtnfa " or
ix
X CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER VI: THE POLYPHONIC STYLE AND THE
EVOLUTION OF THE FUGUE .... 23
Forerunners of the Fugue Early English Fantasias Italian
Ricercari and Canzoni The Fugue,
CHAPTER VII : ITALIAN " CEMBALO " Music ... 26
Its Main Features Frescobaldi Pasquini, the real Founder
of the Italian Harpsichord StyloPorpora- Michael Angelo
Rossi the Violinist Influence of Italian Violin School The
" Alberti Bass " Domenico ScarlattiScarlatti's " Lessons "
or " Sonatas " Their Historical ValueScarlatti's Technique
A " Toccata of Galuppi "-Paradies His Sonatas Latar
Composers.
CHAPTER VIII: LATER ENGLISH HARPSICHORD COM
POSERS PURCELL AND ARNE 33
Italian Influence in English Music M*totkt$i~~ Purcell'i
Lessons* Blow, Simmonds and Babell Ante's
CHAPTER IX : EARLY GERMAN SCHOOL 40
F*oberger~His Auf die Maytrin SltH-Klmau Tht Pint
Clavier SonataThe Bible Sonatas Hatthdtoa,
CHAPTER X ; HANDEL AND BACH 43
Influences Bach's Clavier Work* Bftch*$ Visit to Fredtridc
the GmlH-Tha Mmk&l 0//^f-Hie Dtpwtuw &f a
Xb^. Forty-dght Prelude aad Ftigu^ Baoh* md
Styles compiiredThd Poetry of the " Forty-eight, 1 *
Titles Bach's Ttchaiqu^ Th G&t&fotj Vw
Ex$?ci$9 Book Th Sdt--C0iic^:to--Handd
comparioa Handel's O&viar Work -Itnta
More <k>mpd803Eu^-Grma^ Coatempomd^ ol Bwh A Htw
Sous ami
CHAPTER XI; THE TBCHHiQtni of THE
PERIOD ........ 5i
of Biwh m& HmM and tto Italisa Sol^ol Xtmiifcn
Iin Techaiqtie, ^ad iti Coatotmtloii thro^i
and Qemnti Tht Bravura Toccata
CONTENTS Xi
PAGE
PART II
THE MUSIC OF THE PIANOFORTE THE CLASSIC
PERIOD
CHAPTER I : THE ADVENT OF THE MODERN PIANOFORTE , 57
Defects of the Primitive Piano -Invention of the Piano- -Its
Early Use -The " English Action " The Viennese Piano
Janko Keyboard.
CHAPTER II : TUB EVOLUTION OF THE SONATA . , 59
The Old " Sonata "Modern Sonata Form and the Old The
First Real Sonat*-~Ein, Bach's Sonatas--Haydn Mozart
dementi's Technique Beethoven's SonatasHistorical Table,
CHAPTER III : DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODERN SONATA . 63
Italian Influence Em, Bach's Sonatas" The Correct Method
of Playing " The Homophonic Styles Em, Bach's Rondos.
CHAPTER IV : HAYDN AND MOZART 66
Four CharacteristictHaydn the Croatian Mozart the
Bavaria** Italian Influence on both Mutual Influence
Haydta's " Mttitr "Works of F&shioa Em, Bach as a
ModelThematic Work The Sonataa Advance on Em, Bach
Haydn and Homrt as Hanistsn-Concertos Variations Other
Workt General Comparisons Hoart*i Melody A Fwecait
of Clementd.
CHAPTEI V : CLEMINTI, THE fl FATHER OF THE
PlANOFOlTE 11 * 71
Pivot of th Trantition Pedod His English Tradning-*A$
Vlrtuoto First Distinctively Piano Sonatat Ciemntl*s Italian
Ttchniqu As " Father of the Pianoforte "-^Mutual Influence
& Btethoven and Clement!"- Classification of Sonatas Meeting
of Moarfc and Clemen ti dementi's Style of Execution* Lile
Inddaots; Du^tk His Lyrical StyleBravura Ekmeat
His Sonatas Biography His Historical Impmtaace Bust's
Remarkably Advanced Sonatas Onnlow'ji Son au*> Hauler 'a
Sonaua,
Xli CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER VI : MODERN PIANOFORTE TECHNIQUE . . 78
Initiated by Em. Bach but founded by Clement! dementi's
Technique Mozart and Haydn Beethoven's Technique-
Kalkbrenner Weber Thalberg and Liszt Schumann-
Chopin's School of Technique.
CHAPTER VII: THE CLIMAX OF FORMAL Music
BEETHOVEN , 81
Godfather Haydn- and His Pupil Youthful Works The
" New Testament " of Music The " Three Periods " of tha
Sonatas First Period Second Period ; the Moonlight Sonata ;
Pastoral Sonata; the D Minor, Op, 31 ; the WaldsUin Sonata; the
Appassionata and The A dim Third Period- Fuguo Movements
Beethoven's Influence on the Sonata His Concertos Th
Variations " Diabelli '* VdlatloDt&MiscelIaiiou Pieces
Rage Over a Lost Penny Beethoven a Fleming Characteristics
Methods Comparisons.
PART III
THE ROMANTIC PERIOD
CHAPTER I : ROMANTICISM IN Music . * 91
A Dcfinitionr- In LiteratureArt^In Gnna~-Iri Musio
The Extremes, Realism aad QaisldsjJ3?-""True Romaact**"
Influence of Bch-The Romantic Movemaat,
CHAFTBH II: DECAY OF THE CLASSICAL SCHOOL
HtTMMEL AND OTHERS , g^
Overlapping of Various Sc^ool---Cram^-.Stdblt md Othtrt
Hummers Coatiiiualioii of Moini*s
Attractive
CHAPTER III; THE Fmsr ROMAHTICISTSFIELD AND
^
ConWtos Tlxe Noctumet-Th0 Fouixda^on ol th Lydo
CONTENTS Xlll
PAGE
Romantic Style~~P0&t>$ Intimes Forecasts of Chopin
Weber -Dramatic and Bravura Style His Technique Sonatas
Polonaises, etc, Main Characteristics of Weber Life
Incidents Charles Mayer A Lyric Romanticist His Best
Works,
CHAPTER IV : THE ROMANTIC MOVEMENT IN PIANOFORTE
Music -SCHUBERT ...... 104
Main Features of His Music Lack of Technique His Method
of Development His Sonatas The Overshadowing of Beet
hovenImpromptus, etc, Schubert's Place in Piano Mttsio
His Music Refiecta the South Adversities of His LifeSchubert
" A Favourite ol Youth."
CHAPTER V : CLASSIC ROMANCE ; MENDELSSOHN 109
As a " Backwash of Classicism "and yet a Romanticist
Individuality Reflected in his Works- His Technique
Harmonic Effects The Scmga Without WordsBest Works.
CHAPTER VI : REFLECTIVE AND CHARACTERISTIC
ROMANCESCHUMANN *.., 112
The Greatest of the Romanticists-*- YoutbJful Work* His
Literary Geniut The Bavidsblindler " League "Clara Wieck
Xaflueflce of His Marrisfo Tour in Rwiar-A Personal
Picture A Victim ol Insanity His Wife's Advice -Style-
Mystic, Characteristic aad Polyphonio-Schumarm's Modem
Harmonies * Schumann Compared with Chopin His
41 Characteristic "
stacks or
KniiMm&^^mtMsi of 17 Pagmini
Etu&ea Sympkoniqim t etc, Smtdm and Concerted
Style,
CHAFTEK VII ; CHARACTERISTIC, IMPRESSIONIST
PROGRAMME Music ...... 120
The Outer World in Muwic Its Limitations in Representation
DWiioMoBt and Dflmitions--Profriaam Mutio 'EeaHsnv-
" Characteristic " Mumc Schumann tho Leading Characteristic
Composer ImpregiiionismBritish and French Impre^siotxist
Sc.hoola.
XIV CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER VIII : LYRICAL AND POETICAL FORMS , , 124
Lyrical Origin in Vocal Forms Mendelssohn's Songs without
Words Narrative Pieces Slumber Pieces Pastoral Pieces
Poetical Pieces.
CHAPTER IX; POETS OF NATURE -- 1, STERNEALE
BENNETT ........ 127
An Idyllic Composer Individual Style- Comparisons
Original Harmonies A Musician's Tone-Poet Biographical -
Schumann's Championship The Three Sketches Romances*^
Suite de Pieces Maid of Orleans Sonata Concertos A whilom
Prophet in his own Country,
CHAPTER X ; POETS OF NATURE 2, STEPHEN HELLER . 132
A Poet of the " Characteristic "TA* Cha$&~**In the
Nature Reveries " Characteristic " Pieces Lyrical Pieces
Life Sketch Schumann's Critique of Heller-Comparisons
with Chopin Hungarian Influence Heller's Individuality
His Technique Transcriptions Scherzos, Caprice and Valaes
Tarantellas, etc. The Studies Preludes,
CHAPTER XI : POETS OF YOUTH f 138
Jensen Influenced by Schumann and Chopin His Duet Works
&, Lubeslebtn* Merkel Hilkr'a
CHAPTER XII : THE REFLEX OF SCHUMANN * . 140
Kirchner Features of His Musio Best Worto Betoackft Hit
" Characteristic " Works Concerns, ttc # Ba^fitl .Volk*
mann's Characteristic Pieces Rdnhold aad Brambacli***
Richard Strauss,
CHAPTER XIII ; JOHANNES BRAHMS . , , * 2:44
The Story of His Youtbr-G^rmany's " 1^rt Camp *^ 14 Ntw
Patht "Schumann's CMtiqu* 0t&er CriticitBai Bralims
wttk* in Vi waar-The Hungarim DmwsLi&t&litfop W $&&>**
Brahms' MelodyHis Rhythm* Fora D@vlopmeat ftm
Sonata, Second Sonata, Mwntijbt or F mine*
CONTENTS XV
PAGE
Variations Brahms' Technique the Handel Variations
D minor Concerto B\? Concerto the Smaller Pieces Rhap
sodies, Op. 79 the Op. 116, 117 and 118, Last Work 119
Brahms' Characteristics Followers of Brahms.
CHAPTER XIV : THE BRAVURA SCHOOLS AND HENSELT . 152
Viennese School Czerny and His Pupils D6hler the Idyllist
Kullak's Kinforleben Thalberg's Limited Technical Scope-
As a Virtuoso -His Salon^Educational Compositions Parisian
Virtuoso Kalkbrenner the Technician and Virtuoso Prudent
and Others. Henselt New Technique Concerto and Other
Works Si Ois&au J'ttais Henselt founds the Russian School.
CHAPTER XV : LISZT ,
A Pupil of Czerny Beethoven's Benediction Liszt's First
Appearance in London His Inclination to the Church His new
Technique- The Harmonies Po^tiqu&s Religieuses Years of
PilgrimageThe First Transcriptions The Thalberg-Liszt
ContestA Description of Liszt's Playing The Schubert
Transcriptions- Etudes Tran$c&ndanUs> Liszt's " Pyrotechnics"
Hin Part-playing Life in Weimar Liszt an " Abb6 "
His Works with Orchestra/ The Rhapsodies on Hungarian
Molodies^-Llszt's Best Works.
CHAPTER XVI ; Two MODERN ROMANTICS RUBINSTEIN
AND RAFF * 164
Hubiftstain Hi$ Lyrical Style Combined with Variety of
TechniqueHis bst Works Require Delicacy of Interpretation
Technical StyleBiographical -Rafi Technically attractive
Works Lisztian Style Bst Works,
CHAFTER XVII; MODERN CLASSICISTS MOSCHELES,
HatER, SAINT SA^NS, KTC, * 167
Life in Ixmclon His Concertos and Studi&$~~ Cosmo
politan Hlller His Conwio in F$ minor*-*- Kiel, R&itgen and
Oth^* Clara Schumah-Sint Sa5n ^Combines Modern
Ftt ling with dansio StyleCoac^rtod &ttd Works with Oroheitra
His Cultivation ol Local Colour,
xvi CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER XVIII: THE MODERN CONTRAPUNTAL
ELEMENT RHEINBERGER, ETC ..... 172
The Organised Element in Music Emotions and a Frame-work
Influence of the Organ Mozart's Fugues and Beethoven's
Mendelssohn and Schumann -Brahms' Contrapuntal Style
Rheinberger's Fugal Works- -His Toccatas Life Sketch
Jadassohn, Reger, etc.
CHAPTER XIX : MAX REGER ..... 177
A Bach-Schumann Disciple The Taga$bt*Gh~* *Th Op, 24
Fanta$i&~*~ and Charact&rstilcke*- The Intemwxi-*SilhQmtt9$
Variations and Fugues,
CHAPTER XX : SMALLER ROMANTIC GERMAN COMPOSERS 180
Hendrich Hofmann- Bendel and Others KaunMeyw-OIberi-
leben, etc. Wagner Karg Blert -Weiog&rtner Kieaxl and
Others.
CHAPTER XXI ; THE SONATA SINCE BEETHOVEN . * 183
Sonatas of Schumann Their Thematic
and Liszt's Sonatas Brahms' Early
Decline of the SonataThe Modem Model Workit by Grieg
and Sibelius MacDowell's ultra-modem WorkaGIftwunow,
Scriabin and the Russian School English Sonateu,
CHAPTER XXII : THE CONCERTO AND THE VIRTUOSO * 187
Origin ol the Modern Concerto The Old Clavier
Their FormBaeh's Trtyl* Cvnwlo in I> Af ^ar, An H!todo
Performance The Modarn ConcertoMoitrt'i Coacertoi
Their Advance on the Old Porm^ Later Davdopmmt~-Th
Cadenza Beethoven 'K Concertos The ttmf*$mv -I^ior Ufhti
of the Beethoveu School -E&rty RoouuitiaHFii<l'i md
Weber's Concertos Conservative H0schl md Mtndtls^ha
The Idyllic lematH-Bwntt~-Lyxicat Chopin Sehmana*i
A minor Comtrto Emmies F min&r Cow$rto~- Ltat'ft Tyimnste
C<wrwrte Modern Clwic Stylt^Concwtoi of Brahm*-
Natioa&l Colour The ScettUk 0Mertch-Ktii*tt School-
Other Works with Orchestra Thi Virtuoso Elomwt Hislciricat
Table Study of the Concerto,
CONTENTS XVH
PAGE
CHAPTER XXIII : FOUR- HAND Music AND WORKS FOR
LEFT HAND 201
Four-hand Works ; first arranged for two Pianos First Duets
The Romantic Style Schubert's Duets, Schumann's Duets
Characteristic Works for Four Hands Modern Classical Duets
Four-hand National Dance Forms Suites and Serenades
Works for two Pianos Works for Left Hand.
CHAPTER XXIV : VARIATIONS FOR PIANOFORTE , . 206
Influence on Technique Byrd's and Bull's Variations Fresco-
baldi's Suite " Variations " Froberger's Auf die May win
Variations -Pasquini's VariationsGroxind Bass, Chaconne and
Passacaglia Forms Bach's "32 " The Italian Style
Handel's, Rameau'a and Mozart's Variations Haydn's and
Beethoven's Harmonic Style Beethoven's C minor Set The
" Diabelli " Variations Schubert Mendelssohn's and Weber's
Variations -Schumann's and Brahms' Style Advanced Tech
niqueIts Evolution Modern Variations,
CHAPTER XXV : MODERN DANCE FORMS FOR PIANOFORTE 211
Varieties of the Old Waltz Slow Waltzes by Mozart, Beethoven,
<atc, The Modern Waltz Form National Dances.
CHAPTER XXVI ; TRANSCRIPTIONS PRELUDES AND
INDEFINITE FORMS 214
TranscriptionsThe Liszt Model Drawbacks Score Transcrip*
tioat Organ Tratticription8~"-Hodem Suites of Old Dance
Forms Misced Suites^Modern and National Dance Suites
Indefinite Forms * Preludes Toccatas, Old and New -
Caprices, etc,
CHAPTER XXVII : SALON Music 218
gC&wrftctetiitiai of Salon Muiic National Styles GeneraJ
Ddid0&dei"" w Gei'man Salon Music- French Salon Huaio -
Swim and Russian Salon Music Etiglish Salon Music Other
Nationalities,
XViii CONTENTS
PAGE
PART IV
ERA OF NATIONAL MUSIC
CHAPTER I : NATIONAL Music ... * . 227
Its Origin -The Croatian Haydn A New Mus : cal EraThe
Slavonic SchoolFeatures of Polish Music.
CHAPTER II : CHOPIN AND THE POLISH SCHOOL . * 229
Music in Poland Chopin as a Prodigy " Hats off, Gentleman 1 **
Chopin's Early Polish Works His Arrival in Paris His
Visit to Schumann Influence of " George Sand "-Polish Folk
Song Chopin's Mazurkas- Polonaises The F$ minor Polon
aise Polish Works with Orchestra Studies and Schemes -Th
Preludes Their CharacteristicsThe Impromptus F minor
Fcmtasia Nocturnes Hondo Ballades Barcarolle and
Berceuse Bolero and Tarantella -Chopin's TechniqueChopin
as a Teacher The " Tempo Rubato "Chopin's Personality-
Chopin as a Patriot The Polish School Xavr Scharwnka'
Polish Bance& Philip Scharwenka Joseph WienlawsldH-Mai-
kowski Zarembski - Zarzycki and Loschetitky and Others,
CHAPTER III: MAGYAR PIANOFORTE Music AND THE
RHAPSODIES OF LISZT , , - . . * 241
Oriental Origin of Hungarian Music Its added Gipy Ornamen
tation Magyar Folk Song and Dance Its Charitcterlstlci
Leading Hungarian Compo$er Three Classat of Hungarian
Music ; i, Original Fo$& Mmi$ : Brahms* Hunj[&rim Damn ;
a, Rk&pso&i$$ t etc, ; 3, Works in Hungarian Sfyl ; 4,
Worfa in. Cosmopolitan Sfyl&- Gaal, Chov^i, and
of Magyar Music on Compote la Gesemi,
CHAFTEE IV ; Music IN BOHEMIA *
Early ComposemOrigin of NaMonal
Feaimm of B0htnda^ National Htjsio Smttima'i Htno Werloi
Blblch Thw C!a^; i Nationtl Dract or Rhapsody;
3, Worku in National Idiom ? 3, Bohemian Cmnpoaers in G@m&*
politan Style,
CONTENTS XIX
PAGE
CHAPTER V : ANTONIN DVORAK 251
Life Sketch Devotion to Opera " Slavisch " Dances and the
Legends The Bdhmer Wald Suite and Humoresques Various
Dances Characteristics of Dvorak's Music.
CHAPTER VI : RUSSIAN PIANOFORTE Music . . .254
Russian National Music Glinka Balakirew, the Founder
His Virtuoso Style Rimsky-Korsakow Borodin and Moussorg-
sky Cosmopolitan Cui Glazounow's remarkable worksTheir
" Technique "and Tendency to Impressionism Contrapuntal
and Thematic Genius An Interlude on the Prelude Scriabin,
the Virtuoso Rhapsodist National Atmosphere in Scriabin
Concerto in F m*wo^Liadow, the Russian Chopin An Idyllist,
Stcherbatchew, the Virtuoso Impressionist Impressionist
Works Blemenfe d's Poetical and Nationalistic WorksHis
remarkable Preludes- Joseph Wihtol's Berceuses and varied
Works His artistic Pnludts Liapounow's Etudes Transcend-
aw^s -Tschalkowsky His Gift of the " Characteristic " The
B|? minor Concerto^- Life Sketch and General Notes Rach
maninoff's Modern Harmonies Arensky's Tunefulness >
Miniaturists in National Style The South Russian School
Germanic Composers- SchUtt's Expressive Compositions Von
Witoa,
CHAPTER VII ; AUSTRIAN OR SOUTH GERMAN COMPOSERS 270
Lyrical Characteristic^Ignaz Bruil, Reinhold and Others-
Bavarian Composers,
CHAPTER VIII: THE FRENCH SCHOOL OF PIANOFORTE
Music , 272
Its Artistic Inttlncts I^avoix's DictumNational Song and
D&nc& Benj, Godard- P, Laoomb^ and Faurl Lack and
Widoir^Ctoniiiade Massenet Ravina, Piern^, and Other***
Litolff, Alkan, and PleifferThom^ and Delafoss Debussy,
the Impressionist and Others.
CHAPTER IX; Music OF THE NETHERLANDSCAS AR
FRANCE ....... 282
The Ftminf and Wallooos of BelgiumFlemish Folk Music
iyad GHncm Smuldem and CH^ar---C^iar JFViwcsIc
Bnao Wm*ki late Wwla wi^i O0htm Ai a
XX CONTENTS
PAGB
Belgian Impressionist Schumann Pianoforte Music of Holland
Folk Music a Key to National Style Brandts Buys, a National
ist Schults and Ro'ntgen Saar and Schlegel Silas Kwast
and Others,
CHAPTER X : Swiss COMPOSERS FOR PIANOFORTE . . 288
Dalcroze and Juon Huber, Lysberg, and Others Raff.
CHAPTER XI; SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE PIANOFORTE
Music ...... . 290
Spanish Musical Art Spain's Characteristic Song and Dance
Forms Albeniz the Founder Alb. Jonas and Other*
Granados Portuguese Music Its sentimental Chopinesqne
Style Da Motta Kiel, Lami, Neuparth, and Others.
CHAPTER XII : MODERN ITALIAN PIANOFORTE Music . 295
Its Modern Germanic Tendency : x, Composers showing Clatsic
Influence Longo, Esposito, Albanesi and Others; 2, Modem
Germanic Sgambati, Frugatta, and Martucci, Bossi and Others.
CHAPTER XIII; SCANDINAVIAN PIANOFORTE Music . 299
Distinguishing Features Folk Song and Dance i,
Emil Hartmann's Volkstdnxe^A Band oi " Nationalists M Niali
Gadft Individual Characteristics; Schytte Two Fairy-tale
Composers, 2 ; Swedish : National Dance* Ad, H&gf Emit
Sjogren Peterson-Berger Stenhammer Bror Bdckmwia aad
Others. 3, Nowsgian ; Kjerulf, the Hoawr OtpeHwr-
Tellefsea and Hjeim Grieg His Naiioaalistic Compotitiocui-
Concerto Ballad and Lyric PiaoMGii^g's Origlsaiaity*-
Sinding, the " Schumannwque " Backw Groad&hrs Works
Ole OlsenBacktr-Lund and Skabo MeUJng mid EUlng
Alnaas Borch and Teilm&n, 4, &inl&n& ; Natiottai Soti|-
The Finnish School *SibUtts, M Sonata Op. la, 3 Mdtrtia'i
Legends,
CHAPTER XIV ; THE MODEEN BEITISH Scnoot - . 334
British Pre-eminence in Eite&bethaa Ttmet Bri^ife Folk Sonf
Modern Composers In lym SfyU\^x Hubert Fftny, Sir Qmlm
Stanford, Algernon Ashton, Arthur O'Ltary, J F, Banattt tad
Walter Bftche ; ^ir G, A, Mtcf wrren t Walter Mad nrren md
CONTENTS XXI
PAGE
Holbrooke, B, Mills, P. Sherwood, and Others Composers in
National Styte Sharpe, Somervell, German and Cowen- Lyric
Romantic School: Hurlstone, McEwen, Corder, Dale, O'Neil,
Clutsam, Ree and Others" Strelczki " (Burnand), the Salon-
Romantic His various Styles Characteristic School .'Graham
Moore's Characteristic PiecesOliver King, Farjeon, Ernest
Austin and others Byitish Impressionist School : Matthay,
Cyril Scott, Swinstead, Gardiner, Bowen and Pitt Salon
Composers : Scottish MusicMackenzieScottish Concerto
Hamish McCunn Scottish Suites Welsh Music : Brinley
Richards Irish Music .* O'Neill and Others.
CHAPTKK XV ; PIANOFORTE Music IN AMERICA . . 348
Characteristics of American Music- MacDowell A Nature Poet,
His Sonatas and Concertos- Composers showing Classical
Inftmm& : Hutchescm, Whiting, Paine, Chadwick and Foote
Modern Romantics: Wm. Mason, Bartlett, Steele, Brockway,
Huss, Sherwood, Nevin, W. G. Smith and Others Spanish
American :- Gottschalk, Guiraud and others The Negroid
t:-* Coleridge Taylor,
CHAFTER XVI : A GBOUP OF STUDY WRITERS CLASSICAL
SCHOOL ........ 354
Classified TableEarly Etudes-}, B, Cramer Beethoven's
Commendation of CramerClementi and his " Gradus " -The
Combination of the Clement! Style Kalkbrenner French
Bxpmsive Style', Bertini, Con cone and Others, Heller and
Haberbler 'Classic Style : Moscheles, Kessler, and Ktthler, the
Founder of Modern Technique, Czerny Poetical Mayer
Vi$nn$9 School /-Chopin's htudes, Bravura Liszt, Thalberg,
Ddhlw, and Henselt ;-* Academic: Loschorn, Berens, and
Battmann Modern Selections ot Studies,
CHAPTER XVII : THE EDUCATIONAL ASPECT METHODS
AND TECHNIQUE ....... 362
(i) Mtthods :- Historical Methods by Em, Bach, Turk, Adam,
Humtnel, KalkbrennerandCzerny' -(a) Tschniqm-, Plaidy and
Others, The Tausig School, Cermet's Technics (3) The Study of
Phrasing and Touch : 'Leschetitzky'a Metixod, Physical Systems
(4) T$chnic&$ Gours* f ,>~" (3) The Study A condensed Course
Studi^-The Prelude Educational Extracts from the
Collectioifti (Solo and Duet),
XXii CONTENTS
PACK
APPENDIX: SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY , . . . 375
I. Literature Classified. II. Modern Editions. III. Musical
Journals for Pianists. IV. Publishers of Pianoforte Music.
INDEX OF COMPOSERS . . . . . . 391
SUBJECT INDEX 401
ADDENDUM TO CHAPTER XIV 405
PART I
THE MUSIC OF THE HARPSICHORD AND CLAVICHORD
" An organ is a despotism your piano is the Constitutional bourgeois."
Meredith,
11 The study of the history of music, seconded by hearing the actual
performance of the master -pieces of different epochs, will prove the most
rapid and effectual cur for conceit and vanity," Schumann,
THE HISTORY OF
PIANOFORTE MUSIC
CHAPTER I
THE STORY BEGINS
PIANOFORTE music is the most universal, as well as the most
democratic, form of the tonal art. The study of the piano is
usually the first branch of musical art taken in hand by the
multitude, and its literature is correspondingly voluminous.
The adaptability of the instrument for the rendering of other
forms of musical art makes it doubly useful. It may not, in its
interpretative effect, render the rich, drawn-out sigh of the
violin, nor approach the thrill of the human voice ; it cannot
give the variety of tone and power of the modern orchestra,
nor can it yield the thunder and roll of the organ. It is,
however, superior to voice and violin in its provision both of
melody and of concurrent harmonies ; while, compared with
the orchestra and organ, it can produce characteristic and
distinctive effects of its own of the utmost delicacy, as well as
interpret the most heroic moods. Finally, in its satisfactory
reproduction of all other forms of musical art, from the Handelian
chorus to the string quartet, it has not inaptly earned the title
of " The instrumental maid-of-all*work " ; and its democratic
functions are represented in its music, since, owing to its lack
of variety of timbn or tone-colour effects, it must rely mostly
on id$a$ and their development,
The absolute ineffectiveness which much modern orchestral
music betrays when reproduced on the piano is ample proof of this.
Moreover, composers who may be really great in orchestral,
choral, operatic, and even in song forms, maybe, and often are,
pitifully lacking in pianoforte music ; while others, unknown in
thtse larger spheres, may occupy, with justice, places in the
front rank as composers for the pianoforte. It is this levelling
tendency which makes it difficult to impress on the general
3
4 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
public which goes largely by general reputations that
world-renowned composers whose genre > for instance, is orchestral
music, may be utterly banal in the realm of the piano ; while
others who have written works of great artistic merit, infinitely
more fitted to the instrument, are comparatively unknown.
In the constant sifting process which accompanies the
evolution of the fittest, much that was esteemed fifty years ago
has been overshadowed by later work and is now, artistically
speaking, of no avail. Hence the Author's difficulty is that of
taking everything de novo, not from the standpoint of a
contemporary of Mendelssohn and Schumann (as in the case of
Weitzmann) but from that of the Twentieth Century,
Casting our thoughts back to the conditions which preceded
the use of the harpsichord and clavichord, we ask ourselves
What was the general medium of musical expression similar to
that now supplied by the pianoforte ?
This we find in the guitar-like lute with its usual twenty-one
to twenty-four strings (including pairs in unison) which was in
use from the fourteenth to the eighteenth centuries* In its
day the lute, like the pianoforte, was not only much used in
tike orchestra and as a solo instrument, but also to represent
transcriptions of vocal and orchestral works, The compositions
written specially for the lute were of two classes ; (i) Those in
tbe polyphonic style of the madrigal and motet, abounding, as
such, in responsive and fugal passages ; (2) Collections of dance
forms and popular airs.
It is only natural that on the introduction of the early davkr
instruments (the spinet, virginal and clavichord) these two
styles should be transferred to them, Meanwhile the lute, ai
Wtag somewhat unsuited for polyphonic composition, did much
for the institution of a purely instrumental style. Compost rs
of that time were in the habit of writing over their polyphonic
compositions, " DA canter* o &wn&y$ ** {to be sung or played).
Not only were they suitable for voices ( (l apt for voyces or
viols ") but they were supposed to bo playable m the family of
viol instruments (a " chest of viols") and on the lute, The
Jute's lack of sustaining power, howevtr, brought about a ttyli
which consisted of chords interspersed with stogie notes kstead
of the usual flowing vocal parts ; and to this ware added various
devices for eking out the transient tone of thote imtmmenti.
HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC 5
such as turns, ornamental passages, tremolos, repeated notes,
and occasionally more ambitious runs and arpeggios.
The use of the lute also as an accompanying instrument (its
true metier, as shown in its descendant, the guitar), with its
detached chords struck in support of the voices, further aided
the formation of that instrumental style which was transferred
to the keyboard instruments when they came into fashion.
It must not, however, be imagined that the vocal style lost
its influence upon that of the instrument for some time.
Indeed, up to the time of Sebastian Bach, the polyphonic style
was very strongly in evidence. But the primitive instrumental
style, though influenced by the madrigal and vocal forms, was
also there, and was especially used in the presentation of dance
forms and in transcriptions of the popular airs of the time.
The origin of the piano in its earliest form, the clavichord, is
derived from the " monochord " a ow^-stringed instrument in
use in the eleventh century, A keyboard was added and
single melodic sounds were produced by upright wooden tangents
which struck or pushed the one string, and set the portion
marked off into vibration, The primitive monochord then
became a clavichord (clavis, a key) though it still retained the
same name, In order to produce harmonic effects, several
strings, similarly acted upon and all tuned in unison, were
added and metal tangents were used instead of wooden,
It thus became, as it were, a set of monochords. The
clavichord had already reached four-octaves compass by 1511,
and, constructed as it was in the form of a chest, it was placed
on a table when in use.
The instrument had usually more keys than strings, By
1720, however, it was made with a pair of strings (tuned in
unison) to each key, and thus became " amenable to the equal
temperament tuning preferred by J, S, Bach " (Hipkins), It
was for this instrument, with its delicate tone, its infinite power
of light and shade, and its variety of touch, that Bach wrote his
immortal Forty '-eight Prefaces and Fugues (first part in 1722),
described as being for the " well- tempered clavichord/' and
also his expressive Chromatic Fantasia.
The usually three-cornered clavicembalo or Italian harpsichord
(in French, clavecin ; in English, clavicymbafy was known in
England in its smaller forms as the virginal or spinet. The
totter, having one string only to each key, came into use shortly
6 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
after the clavichord, and was in use side by side with it.
Unlike the clavichord, its strings were plucked by quilts fastened
to a wooden bar or " Jack/' Its tone was clear and staccato.
A legato was not possible, but in florid passages the effect was
brilliant. From the larger harpsichords somewhat grandiose
but expressionless effects could be obtained. It was for the
smaller virginal (possibly so named as intended for the use of
girls) and for the spinet that the unique School of English
Elizabethan composers wrote their famous compositions.
The larger harpsichord, which usually had two, three or (more
rarely) four strings to each note, was the grand piano of the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and was used as such in
the orchestras of that time. Builders of that era, including
the celebrated Ruckers of Antwerp and (in the eighteenth
century) Tschudi, the predecessor of Broadwood's, London,
exercised their ingenuity by adding " Venetian swell/' to swell
the tone when required ; also octave couplers, as well as lute,
harp, oboe and other imitative stops. On the harpsichord,
unlike the clavichord, no expression could be made through the
touch. Contrast was obtained by addition of other effects (as
in the case of the organ) or by change of keyboard.
The swell effect was an advantage, but the tone, like the
piano's and unlike the organ's, was transient. Like the
clavichord and spinet, the harpsichord was made with doublt
keyboards, and occasionally we meet with compositions designed
to take advantage of the crossing of parts on the two claviers,
as, for instance, in the Goldberg Variations of Bach, or with
echo effects obtained from alternate use of the two keyboards,
as in the Italian Concerto,*
We must now speak of the music written for tht spinet or
virginal*
t * ty, Tk$ Oxford HitiQvy of Mum t Vol. IV, p. no ff, t tod
1 For a description of the old itringed inttrwrnmti, ii alto
Pulwr'ii Mctiunwy of Old Engtuk Mute (Kag&n Bin!) ; fttoohli
on The Destiny o! thi Plectrum/* In Mutictl Nm* t 8ipt, i^th,
CHAPTER II
THE ENGLISH COMPOSERS FOR THE VIRGINAL
Principal Composers Original Collections of Compositions
Byrd, 1546-1625, Fitswittlam Virginal Booh, 1550-1621.
Munday, 1550-1610, My Ladye N mile's Book, 1591.
Giles Farnaby, (b, 1560). Benjamin Cosyris Booh, (c, 1600),
Bull, 1563-1628, Parthenia, printed 1611.
Peeter Philips, c, 1550-1624 ?* Will Poster's Book, 1624.
THE introduction to the first real school of composers for the
forerunner of the pianoforte takes place in our own country in
the reign of Queen Elizabeth (1558-1603). In England we had,
at the end of the fifteenth century, a race of organists, who,
unlike those on the Continent, had got rid, to a certain extent, of
the inappropriate vocal style and initiated a real instrumental
technique, At this time the virginal as a domestic instrument
had become immensely popular. The Tudor monarchs were
excellent performers, and Henry VIIL, Edward VL, Mary and
Elizabeth retained the services of eminent virginal players,
Mr. Van Borren in his Sources of Keyboard Music in England
(Novello, 3:915) avows that " The English virginalists , , *
were admirably equipped for creating a repertory absolutely
appropriate to the resources of the instrument/' In truth, the
source of tha whole technique of the pianoforte must be sought
among them ; and, moreover, it seems that
not exceeded TmtI te of
In J6En^l?<^^ is icumen in, of
ttie thirteenth century, and the outstanding choral compositions
of John of Dunstable (d, 1453), had proved to be well ahead of
the Continent, and now it led also as regards instrumental
works. It is interesting to hear of Queen Elizabeth's pride in
her power as a performer on the virginal, and how the Scottish
Ambassador was introduced by " my Lord of Hunsdean ** into a
*Hot, P@@ter P&fiiip't competitions la Quw EJi*ab<9th's Vixftaal
Book mage from X5lb!o5,
8 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
quiet gallery where they " might hear the Queen play upon the
virginal/' and how he " entered within the chamber and stood
a pretty space hearing her play excellently well/' Elizabeth,
on discovering the Ambassador, " enquired whether my Queen
or she played best. In that I found myself obliged to give her
the praise."
The earliest old English virginal Piece which has survived is a
" hornpipe " of about 1500 A.D. by one, Hughe Aston, of whom
nothing seems to be known. Half a century later, Pieces
appear in the Mulliner Boke,
The principal collection or storehouse of these treasures of a
bygone age is the Fitzwilliam Virginal Book (I558-I62X)/
once known as the Queen Elizabeth Virginal Book, though
evidently compiled after her death, It contains compositions
by John Bull, Win. Byrd, Giles and Richard Farnaby, Orlando
Gibbons, Hooper, Thomas Morley, John Munday, Peeter
Philips, Thomas Tallis and others,
Its contents have been summarized as follows : " 130
Dances, 17 Organ Pieces, 46 Arrangements of Popular Songs,
9 of Madrigals, 22 Fantasias in the Ricercari Form by nine
composers, 7 Fancy Pieces by four composers (early examples of
the " characteristic " style), 19 Preludes and 6 Expositions of
the Hexachord/' Variations on all kinds of tunes are also
there, as in the delightful composition Mistris Myne, which
is built on one of the popular airs of the day. To the student of
folk-song the collection is of great interest. It belongs to a
time when English musicians were employed at various European
courts and made known there the treasures of English folk-song,
such as Fortuw my Foe, Greenstones, Packington f $ Pound and
Walsingham all composed by William Byrd with 22 Variations,
to which Dr. John Bull afterwards added 30 others, It ilao
contains The Carman's Whistte, of which Oscar Bie says :
fl Tk$ Carman's Whistle is a perfected poptdar melody which
wffl linger for <kys in our ears;*** and the more stirring
Sittinger** Round of which he says : " In the kter Variations
the graver movement is again taken tip, bat more florid and
more varied, with runs which pursue each other in canon, This
Piece, perhaps the first perfect clavier-piece on record, which
*A* J&tistintk** Virginal Book, by Ed. W. Naylor, 1899, tad The
jPWflgtftam WMfia* Book, ed, by W. B, Squ!r0 and TOto Ifeitland, 1890*
* History of $* Pianqforto 8*$ Pi*<fMi P%*rt. Dtnt, 18$^
ENGLISH COMPOSERS FOR THE VIRGINAL 9
had left its time far behind, was written in 1580.'* It must be
remembered that these old-world compositions have to be
approached in the appropriate spirit to get the effect of the
lightly-sounding virginal or spinet and the " atmosphere " of
the period. In the collection there are also "Fantasias" or
Pieces in the fugal style, in which ingenuity is shown in the
imitative presentation of themes at various intervals and in
various keys. The Pieces are noteworthy for an early exposition
of musical form and as presenting the origin of the Suite with its
dance movements all in one key. The style of technique shown
is remarkably advanced ; imitative scale passages, florid broken
chords and repeated notes occurring frequently* As regards
tonality or sense of key, both flattened and major sevenths and
the " Tierce tie Picardie " abound, and some of the Pieces are
wonderfully modern in feeling. As regards the dances, these
comprised the stately Pavan of Italian origin ; the bright Alman
or Allcmandc of German origin, with its single melody well
ornamented ; the Gallianl (sung as well as played and danced)
in triple time and usually following the Pavan in the early Suites ;
the Coranto or Courante, of French origin, in triple time ; the
sprightly Giggc or Jig, of British origin, with its spirited leaping
rhythm (mostly 3/8) often used as a closing movement.
It was introduced into Germany and used by Bach and Handel
in their Suites, and into Italy, where its dotted rhythm became
a rolling triplet measure. Finally there are the swaying round
dances the Bass$ Danse and Branh, of French origin.
There are other smaller and unique collections of this period,
vt*,, the B&nj&min Cosyns Virginal Book, which contains
98 Pieces by various composers ; Ladye N$wll*$ Book, con
taining 4% Pieces by Byrd written before 1591 ; and the book
entitled Partheni (1611), the first English engraved clavier
music, containing 21 works by Byrd, Bull and Gibbons, all set
out upon the six-line stave. 1
These various collections also afford instances of early
programme music, as in the well-known Battle Piece by Byrd
from Lady* Neville's Book, in which there is a kind of melancholy
duet for " Flutes and the Droorne/'
Another example is in the bell music by Byrd, in which the
two notes of the two large bells are kept sounding throughout
*C/. Hiinbfmlt's reprint, 1847,
10
HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
as a kind of " ground bass/' The composer begins quite
simply as in Ex. I.
working in the imitative counterpoint in a more and more
complicated manner, till he is able to add passages suggesting
a full peal of bells in full swing against the two larger bells,
which have kept on throughout as in ex. 2 .
In the Fitawilliam collection there is also a Fmt&$i& by John
Munday, depicting various kinds of weather, M Faire Wether,
tigtitning, Thunder, Calme Wether," etc*
Th three composers, Byrd (1546-1623), Bull (xsSa^x&aS)*
and Gibbons (1583-1625) , stand out as the most prominent of
this golden age of English compositions for the clavier, which
was quite ttneqiMed in itt time, Fetter PhMp* and Giles
Famaby were dso large contribiiton.
Byrd was a pupil of TalHs, nd lik his master and his
contemporaries Bull and Gibbons, a contrapuntist of the first
rank* His learned and effective Variations on the interesting
theme, The Cwman's Whi$tk t which were played by Rubinstain
at his Historical Recitals, sound wonderfully fresh,
ENGLISH COMPOSERS FOR THE VIRGINAL n
Bull was a Master of the Chapel Royal and later Organist at
Antwerp Cathedral. His King's Hunting Jigg is a charming
little characteristic piece. His Variations are quite modern,
and distinguished by wide, sweeping scale passages, The Jewel
Variations are specially artistic, Oscar Bie says that these two
composers, Byrd and Bull, " represent the two types which run
through the whole history of the clavier : Byrd the more
intimate, delicate, spiritual intellect ; Bull the untamed genius,
the flashing executant, the restless madcap, the rougher artist. "
The works of Gibbons, who was also a Master of the Chapel
Royal, are also remarkable for contrapuntal skill and technical
freedom of style.
If we put on one side the effects of incomplete emancipation
from the old church modes, the special features of this old
virginal music, composed a century before the time of Handel
and Bach, are ; (i) its advanced technical character, (ii) its
natural and pleasant melody, and (iii) the contrapuntal skill
manifested in its composition, 1
* C/ th Altmmi edited by Bantock devoted to Byrd, Farnaby, and
BulL (Kovello.) " Fourteen Pieces for Keyed Instruments " by
Wra, Byrd, Ed, by Fuller Haitland and W, Barclay Squire (Staiaerft
8M). Also Wm feyrd. Dmw, Grm and Gay, td, by Margt,
(Rogers) ; an easy selection, with notes.
CHAPTER III
THK OLD HARPSICHORD SUITES
*' Ay, such a Suite roused heart to rapture/ 1 -- J
TOWARDS the end of the sixteenth century instrumental dance
music was particularly in request. At first the old dance forms
were taken singly, but later on the advantage was noted of
performing them in sets or suites, by which interesting contrast
of character could be obtained, .SVfe or suites of dance tunes of
all possible kinds, as set for the spinet, harpsichord, clavichord,
lute and viol da Gamba came into use ; and where these tunes
were not particularly intended for dancing, greater finish was
combined with greater working out in contrapuntal style, This
grouping together of old dance tunes is important* since it led
to the evolution of (i) the highest of all developed formsthe
sonata, (2) the harmonic aspect of music in general.
The History of the Suite extends over a period of some 250
years and, as has been pointed out, takes under its wing almost
the whole era of instrumental music*
Frequently these old Suites consist not only of old dance
tunes, but also of the old fugal farms known as the Rieerari>
Cavwni, etc, ; instances of the polyphonic style referred to in
Chapter I. Then again the selection of the various dances was
influenced (i) by the fashion of the day, (a) by the nationality
of the composer. The Suite itself seems to have originated in
Italy ($. 1508) in music written for the lute, (See Zur
der Suit> Norlind.)
In Italy the collections were called Sonato di
in England, Lmans \ in Garmany, P?M& ; and in Franca,
Qrdres* We spoke of the old dance forms found in the
collections of virginal music* W should like to quote a
description of some of these given in a remarkable book entitled
Mustek* Monument, by Thomas Mace f written in 1676, tome
fifty years after the Virginal Collections referred to. The
description occurs in connection with music writ tea for " the
noble lute/*
13
THE OLD HARPSICHORD SUITES 13
*' (i) The Pr&lude is commonly a Piece of confused, wild,
shapeless, kind of intricate Play (as most use it) in which no
perfect Form, Shape or Uniformity can be perceived ; but a
Random, Bussines, Pottering, and Groping, up and down,
from one Stop, or Key to another ; And generally so
performed, to make Tryal, whether the Instrument be well
in Tune, or not ; by which doing, after they have compleated
their Tuning, They will (if They be Masters) fall into some
kind of
" (2) Allmaines, or Fansical Play, more Intelligible ; which
(if He be a Master able) is a way, whereby He may more
Fully, and Plainly show His excellency, and Ability, than by
any other kind of undertaking ; and has an unlimited and
unbound Liberty ; In which, he may make use of the Forms,
and shapes of all the rest.
" (3) Pavanes are Lessons of 2, 3 or 4 Strains, very grave,
and sober ; Full of Art and Profundity, but seldom us'd in
These our Light Days,
" (4) Allmaines, are Lessons, very Agrey, and Lively; and
generally of Two Strains, of the Common, or Plain, Tune.
" (5) Ayres are, or should be of the same Time (yet many
make Tripla's and call them so) ; only they differ from
Allmaincs by being commonly Shorter, and of a more quick
and nimble Performance.
" (6) Galliards, arc Lessons of 2 or 3 Strains, but are per
formed in a slow, and Large Triple-Time ; and (commonly)
Grave, and Sober,
11 (7) Corantoes, are Lessons of a Shorter Cut, and of a
quicker Triple-Time ; commonly of 2 Strains, and full of
Sprightfulness, and Vigour, Sprightly, Brisk, and Cheerful.
" (8) Sarabands, are of the Shortest Triple-Time ; but more
Toyish, and Light than Corantoes ; and commonly of Two
Strains,
" (9) Chichonas, arc only a few Conceited Hximotirous Notes,
at the end of a Suite of Lessons, very Short, (viz.) not many
in Number ; yet sometimes consist of 2 Strains, although but
of 2 Senubreves in a Strain, and Commonly of a Grave kind
of Humour.
" (ro) Toys, or /t&fs, are Light Squibbish Things, only fit
for Fantastical, and Easie-Light-Hcaded People ; and are of
any sort of Time.
14 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
" (n) The Ground , is a set number of Slow Notes, very
Grave, and Stately; which (after it is expressed Once, or
Twice, very plainly) then He that hath Good Brains and a
Good Hand, undertakes to play several Divisions upon it
Time after Time, till he has shew'd his Bravery, both of
Intention, and Hand,
" Thus, I have given you to understand, the several sorts,
and Shapes, of most Lessons in use/'
In addition to the dance forms mentioned by Mace, there were
frequently in use the Bourse, "of a jovial and pleasant ex
pression/' the Gavotte, the Porlane (Venetian Gondoliers'
Dance), the Hornpipe, the " small stepped " Minuet, as well as
the Variation forms of the stately Chaconne and Passacaglia*
(See Suites in Grove's Dictionary and Prout's Applied Forms,)
As regards the further evolution of the Suite, we find one of the
first steps in the contrasted alternation of Pavan and Galliard,
the former described by the composer Morley as " a kind of
staid music ordained for grave dance/' and the latter as " a
lighter and more stirring kind of dancing/ 1 These two forms
soon dropped out and the quiet, smooth- flowing AUemande in
4/4 time and the lighter Italian or French CouranU (respectively
in 3/4 time or 3/2 mixed with 6/4) took their places and formed
a nucleus for the orthodox Suite which came to consist of
Allemande and Courante, the rhythmical and massive Saraband
(in 3/2 time and accented second boat) and the lively (often in
fugal style) Gigue (in 6/8, 9/8 or 12/8 time),
In addition to these four, which were always in the same key,
it was optional to insert other dances between the last two and
to add a Prelude or Overture at the beginning.
Variation $ffes.~It should be noted, meanwhile, that the
movements of the Partitas of Frescobaldi, Frobtsrgor, Pasquini,
Buxtehude and other early composers were often in the form of
Variations on a stated theme, in which the characteristics of the
various dances were imitated, as in Proberger's AM/ die Mayerin
Suite, which was built on the tune of a popular Volkslied,
(See Chapter VI.)
As regards style, the Partitas of Frescobaldi (1616) are very
much in organ style, but those of his pupil Frobcrgcr (who died
in 1667) show much freer technique and, on the whole, are in
what was subsequently recognized as orthodox form,
THE OLD HARPSICHORD SUITES 15
If Froberger thus " brought the Suite on its first step towards
perfection " (Adler), it was reserved for his French contem
poraries Chambonniire (in 1670) and Couperin (in 1713) (see
Chapter IV) to add artistic and refined style to their * Suites,
which consisted of highly poetical and characteristic movements,
and, as such, became the model for other composers of that
period, including Bach. As an example may be mentioned the
quaint Characteristic Suites of The Seven Planets. After the
Suites of Couperin perfection was soon reached in the English
Suites of Bach which were composed about 1726 for an English
gentleman but not published till long after.
The Suites of Handel, which were published principally from
1720 to 1733, show more of the influence of Italian models.
They are more straight-forwardly melodious than those of Bach,
who is more reflective, loving to go round his periods and prolong
the "linked sweetness long drawn out" in a word, more
contrapuntal in style. Bach is most successful in the Gavottes
and BourrCcs, Handel in the typical Italian Giga. Bach, again,
is conservative, while the Suites of Handel are examples of the
freer style adopted by the Italian composers of Chamber Music.
(Sec also Chapter X.) In Handel's Fifth Suite, for instance,
occur the variations known as the Harmonious Blacksmith,
Air, with Doubles* (Harmonious Blacksmith, Handel] ,
while in his Second Suite the names of the dance forms disappear
and we have* movements entitled Adagio* Allegro, Adagio l<ugue t
presenting a link in the evolution of tin; cyclical form of the
Sonata, and also resembling in this the preceding so-called
Sonatas da Camcm (i(>K3 34) of Corelli, which are really Suites.
To smmmame, the Suite, initiated in Italy, developed in
Germany by Froherger, artistically wrought in France by
Chambonnifrre and Couperin, came to its perfection again in
Germany, As the highest form of harpsichord and clavichord
16 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
music composed during the polyphonic period, it finds its
climax in the master mind of its leading composer, John
Sebastian Bach.
The evolution of the Suite can be seen at a glance by reference
to the following Table. Besides those already mentioned, the
following are of special artistic and historical significance :
Locke's English Collection, 1673, Pasquini's Partite, 1697 ;
the Suites of Rameau, 1706 ; the Lessons of Babcll, 1713 ; the
Suites of Mattheson, 1714 ; and, finally, the Lessons of Arnc, 1750.
The reader is referred to other Chapters (see Index) for further
details,
EVOLUTION OF THE SUITE
1615-37. Partite by Fresccbaldi for 1700, lessons by Ittow.
cembalo, in organ style. 1700. Lessons by Hy. Simmon ds.
1649-67. Suites by Froberger in 1706-35, Suites by 'ifaweau*
orthodox form, 1710, Suites by Lveitlet.
1670. " Characteristic'* Suites by 1713. " Lessons " by Mattell.
Chambonw&e. 1713, "Characteristic Suites* 1 by
1675. Mehth&sia t Locke's Collection Coupmn.
of " Lessons." 1714, Matthtoon's 12 Suites,
1689, Playford's Collection of 1710, Zippoli Snitrs,
" Lessons/' 1717, Back's Fivnch Suites.
1689, Kuhlau's Partitas. 1726. Mash's English Suites,
1690-5, PurceU's " Lessons," x 7^0-23. Slanders SuittB,
1690-5. Buxt4bufo*$ Suites, depict- 1727* Gottlieb Moflcti's Suites.
ing " The Nature and Properties 1750, Am^s 3>onB,
of the Planets," 1762, Nichrtman, Suites, in French
1697, Pasquini's Purtitc, Ktylc*
1697, jKritgw's Partitas.
CHAPTER IV
FRENCH CLAVECIN MUSIC
1530. Attaignant Collection. 1550-1624. English Virginal
1551, Susato (in Holland) Collection, Collection.
1670. Chambonni&re, Pieces, 1667 d. Froberger.
1680. Anglebert. Pieces. 1697. Suites published.
1713-30. Couperin. Ordrcs, 1699. Playford's Collection.
1716, Couperin. Ordres. L'Art 1713. Mattheson. Suites.
de Toucher. 1720. Handc). First Suites.
1716-36. Rameau. Pieces. 1733. Scarlatti. First Sonatas.
1741. Rameau, Concertos.
THE next step in the evolution of a perfected harpsichord style
was made by the French composers, who flourished about 1750
(thirty years after the climax of the English Virginal School),
as well as by the Suites of Froberger, of whom more will be
said later,
The efforts of the French School resulted in a more elegant
and more ornamental style, or " style galant " as it was called.
As early as 1530, French Dances, Galliards, Basse Dances,
Branles and Pavans, together with Transcriptions of songs,
had appeared for the spinet in the Collections of Attaignant.
Programme music also came to the front as in the Pavan
La Batailk in Susato's Collection of 1551, while in the Denis
Gaultier Collection for the Lute we see the origin of those fancy
decorative titles with which Couperin and others adorned their
compositions,
Chambonniire (1620^1670), the most prominent harpsichord
composer in the time of Louis XIV, (whose court clavecinist he
was), is regarded as the founder of the French Harpsichord or
Clavecin School. His four Pi6ees in Lcs MuUres du Clavecin,
mz* t La Rare Oourante, Sarabande La Loumm (published in
1670) have a quaint meditative and refined air. Anglebert,
among whose works (1689) are twenty-two Variations on the
well-known theme Folks d'Kspagnc (used by Corcili and many
others), Le B&que and Dumart contributed works of a similar
kind, but it wan reserved for Francois Couperin (i>68*i733) the
i8
HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
contemporary predecessor of Scarlatti, Handel and Bach (whom
he influenced in many ways), to perfect the characteristic style
in the Suite. His collections of Pieces appearing in 1713, 1716,
1722 and 1730 were termed Ordrcs. These, although con
taining movements all in one key, were not Suites in the usual
sense of that time, but collections of usually over a dozen Pieces
in which Allemandes, Courantes, Sarabandes, Gavottes, etc.,
are interspersed with poetical pieces such as La Galante,
Princesse d' Esprit, Enchantercsse, Idfes Heureuses, Langueurs
Tendres, etc. These characteristic movements are quaint,
defined, and artistic as compared with the more energetic
compositions of previous composers. (See Table, last Chapter.)
The delicate portrait pictures and characteristic sketches of
Couperin 1 are unique.
His portraits of the Lonely One, The Spectre, Wavering Shadows ,
Love in the Cradle, The Shepherd's Feast, Les Folies I^ranfaises
OH Us Dominos> and Les Papillons, suggest at once the immortal
sketches of Schumann.
Tr&s fegre
ja^gLJSjs
^ Couperin, in 1717, wrote one of the first modern methods in
his Art de Toucher k Clawcin, which was compiled with a view
1 Ordvss of Couperin (Bratos and Cluryaandcr.) (Awt.)
FRENCH CLAVECIN MUSIC 19
to improving style and technique. The exemplary Preludes
attached to it foreshadow something of modern Sonata form
and its development.
Marchand, who competed against Bach (Weitzmann), Loeilly
and Dandrieu Daquin (1694-1772), who wrote Le Coucou,
composed smaller clavecin works, Rameau (1713-1764) comes
next to Couperin in Pavans and surpasses him in bolder
technique and straightforwardness of style, though not in
refinement and characterization. His Rappel des Oiseaux and
La Poule are realistic, as well as tasteful examples of Programme
Music, Rameau's Concertos for the clavecin, violin, and basse
de viole (1741), written in the ensemble style of the old Concerto,
still survive, 1
Both Couperin and Rameau show, here and there, in their
characteristic impressions, the influence of the prevailing
Italian School, but on the whole they display individuality of
style,
* For comparative exawpte, $ca Mualawell'it PfOm tht
Cmtury, a Boakt, (Klkln.) Ahw S*> fiij>hi*enth*C*Htury Pi$c$$> od. by
Alfctd Mofatt (B, & F.).
CHAPTER V
HARPSICHORD AND CLAVICHORD TECHNIQUE
BEFORE proceeding to the consideration of early Italian and
German, and later English music written for the harpsichord,
we must pause awhile to describe the technique of the instrument,
as well as the polyphonic style in which much of the art of the
period was written.
The construction and tone effects of these early instruments
had necessarily a very important influence on the music com
posed for them. The peculiar pizzicato or " plucked " quality,
and the usually unvarying strength of tone of the harpsichord,
rendered it more effective in quick passages written in two or
three parts, while the clavichord, with its clear, expressive and
minutely graduated tone, was more suitable for the quiet
weaving of the parts in polyphonic music,
Mattheson, in 1713, says that the light or Gatantcrit style
could also <{ be best brought out and in the clearest manner on a
good clavichord, as the latter produced the singing tone far more
sustained and softened than the harpsichord and spinet/*
It was this singing tone which appealed, doubtless, to Bach,
for his compositions, and some of the earlier ones of his son
Em. Bach, were written for the clavichord. The latter
recommends practice on the harpsichord, with its heavier
touch, as well as on the light action of the clavichord ; and he
himself told Dr. Burney (Bunuy's History) that he had always
endeavoured to write in a eantabil* style for the clavier*
In the sixteenth century the clavichord, as successor to the
monochord, was the favourite instrument in Italy, just as the
" virginal " or spinet was in England. It wan in connection
with the latter, as represented by the School of " Virginal "
Composers in Queen Elizabeth's time (1550-1622) that we have
the first remarkable contribution to technique in rapid passage
work in scales and broken chords, and in thirds and sixths,
The Suites of Couperin added refinement and taste, but it in to
HARPSICHORD AND CLAVICHORD TECHNIQUE 21
Italy we must look for the basis of modern virtuosity in the
works of Domenico Scarlatti.
The lattcr's wonderfully neat style, with its crossing of hands
and octave work, together with the other devices of the earlier
English School intensified, made a decided advance on the past.
The polyphonic style of his contemporaries, Bach and Handel
(somewhat influenced by the organ), was even more boldly
dealt with in that of Scarlatti. We may compare, for
instance, the vigorous declamatory recitative scale passages
followed by broken chord work and the periods of fugal
imitation which typify the Toccatas and Chromatic Fantasia
of Bach with the electric staccato, piquant phrases, rushes in
double notes, arpeggios and rolling octaves of Scarlatti. These
point to Scarlatti having the truer clavier style. It was reserved
for Paradies and dementi to develop his technique still further
and form the foundation of that used by Beethoven.
Scarlatti was known as the greatest virtuoso of his time.
Handel, his rival in Rome, whose performance is said to have
been equal to that of Scarlatti, was later taken up with opera
and oratorio work, and neither he, nor Bach, appeared very
much in this r61e. Bach's own style of playing, as befitted his
use of the clavichord and the polyphonic style, was such that he
played with " a scarcely perceptible movement of the hands;
his fingers hardly seemed to touch the keys and yet everything
came out with perfect clearness and a pearly roundness and
purity" (Spitta),
Bach's method of touch has been thus described : "He held
the five fingers so bent that the tips were brought into straight
line, each fmgcr being held in this position over its key, ready
for striking " (Ad, Kullak), the tone thus being produced, not by
giving a direct blow to the key as in the case of the piano, but
by " causing it (the finger) to slip away from the front end of
the key by gradually drawing the finger tip towards the palm
of the hand/' This scooping action of the fingers was combined
before Bach's time with a horizontal position of the finger, as
can be seen in various old prints,
Bach was one of thu first to curve the fingers. He also
reformed the method of fingering which, before his time, was
somewhat primitive. Previous to Bach's adoption of the
curved position of the fingers the thumb was little used*
J. Sab, Bach, and his son Emmanuel, in his True Art of
22 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Playing the Clavier, practically brought fingering to what it is
now.
As regards the marking of fingering, the earliest German
fingering was practically the same as the present English
method.
The Agr&nic>nt5 or various ornaments used in clavier music
were brought about by the thin, tmsustained tone of the
harpsichord and clavichord, and were particularly cultivated
by the French clavier writers,
Em. Bach, in his True Art t makes an effort to regulate their
use, remarking that " They serve to connect the notes, they
enliven them and give a special weight and emphasis, bringing
out the sense of the music, whether it be sad, cheerful or
otherwise/'
CHAPTER VI
THE POLYPHONIC STYLE AND EVOLUTION OF FUGUE
" . . . his volant touch.
Instinct through all proportions, low and high,
Fled and pursued transverse the resonant Fugue."
(Milton's Paradis0 Lost.)
WE have already pointed out (in Chapter I) that early clavier
music falls into two styles :
(1) Dance forms and popular airs,
(2) Compositions in the polyphonic style of the madrigal
and motet. *
We have noticed that English virginal composers were
contrapuntists of the first rank.
The mastery of the contrapuntal style is also manifested
somewhat later in the earliest composer of the Italian Clavier
School Frescobaldi, who, through his pupil Froberger, trans
ferred it to Germany, where it reached a climax in the Fugues
and polyphonic compositions of Bach and Handel,
Beginning with the early English School, we find in the
Fitaswilliam Collection that the so-called Fantasi s are in
the strictest contrapuntal style, one Fantasia in four Parts by
Gibbons (d. 1625) being a remarkable specimen of a free Fugue.
Hawkins, in his History of Music (1776), speaks of these old
Fantasias as abounding in " figures and little responsive
passages and all those other elegances observable in the structure
and contrivances of the Madrigal/'
The Preludes, Toccatas, and many of the Galliards and Pavans
in the Fitzwilliam Collection are also in polyphonic or imitative
style,
We next find compositions similar to the English Fantasias
appearing as Ricercari, Canwmi (German, Canzonen) and
Fantasias in the works of the Italians Frescobaldi, Pasquini
and others, and in those of the German Froberger and others.
In these compositions a theme was irregularly developed in
fugal style, the middle sections being in a different measure.
23
HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
In later times, it should be noted, the term " Riccrcari " was
applied to complete and scientifically developed Fugues.
Many of the early so-called Fugues are really in simple imitative
or Canon form. The Canzone alia Frances was modelled on
popular folk-tunes. An example is the melodious two-move
ment Canzone Franccse of Pasquini (Pieces by Pasquini, Ed. by
Shedlock, Novello). (Sec next Chapter), of which the following
is the theme :
*r~f : &rf : -Te-
In a similar manner folk-tunes were also varied in the Partitas
or Suites, as in the Aufdie Mayerin Suite of Froberger (Chapter
IX), founded on the following German Volksliod:-
The Canzone Francese, through its usually clear formation
in periods or sections, led; direct to the Fugue,
Frescobaldi's (1593-1644) compositions, written, as they were,
in a masterly contrapuntal style, exercised considerable influence
on Bach,!but Buxtchude, who was Organist for over thirty years
at Ltibeck (to which place Bach used to make excursions to hear
him play) was apparently Bach's principal model.
The Fugue, when fully developed, still continued by the side
of the less formal Canzoni, Riccrcari and Fantasias. Its
perfect form may be generalised as falling Into three continuous
sections : (i) Exposition, (a) Middle Section, (3) Recapitulation^
with intervening episodes and varying order of entry of theme ;
thus, A and B representing the Subject and Answer {
Exposition
Middle EntrtM
Recapitulation
Soprano
B
A
A
Alto
A
B
Tenor
B
A
B
Bass
A
B
A
THE POLYPHONIC STYLE 25
The Poet Browning, in his Master Hugues ofSaxe-Gotha, gives
an amusing description of a Fugue which commences thus:
" First you deliver your phrase,
Nothing profound, that I see,
Fit in itself for much blame or much praise,
Answered no Jess where no answer needs be. -
Off start the two on their ways.
Straight must a Third interpose,
Volunteer needlessly help ;
In strikes a Fourth, a Fifth thrusts in his nose,
So the cry opens, the kennel's a-yelp,
Arguments hot to the close."
Examples of Fugues of this period are the Cat's Fugue by
Dom. Scarlatti (d. 1757) on a subject suggested by a cat walking
over the keys ; Fugue in F by J. Bernard Bach (d. 1749) ;
Fugues in D and D Minor by Kirnberger (d. 1783) ; in F by
J, Ernest Bach (d. 1781) ; and in F Minor by W. F. Bach
d. 1784). For modern Fugues, see Chapter XVIII on the
"Modern Contrapuntal Element.
CHAPTER VII
EARLY ITALIAN " CEMBALO " MUSIC
Contemporary Works
1550-1624, English Virginal Collec
tions.
1670. Chambonnifcrc. Ordres,
1696. Purcell. Lessons.
1713. Couperin. Ordres.
1720. Handel. ist Suites.
Bach (1685-1750) and Handel
(1685-1759).
Haydn. Mozart (1774, Haydn's
ist Sonatas,}
Beethoven ,
Early Italian Composers
1616. Frescobaldi. Suites, etc.
1620-1660. M. A. Hossi.
1697. Pasquini. Variations^ etc,
1716. Zippoli. Pieces.
1733. Scarlatti, ist onatas.
d, 1736. Pergolesi.
d, 1740. Alberti,
1746, Paradies, Sonatas.
d. 1756. Durante,
d, 1767. Porpora,
1770. dementi, ist Sonatas.
d, 1784, Martini.
d. 1785, Galuppi,
d. 1 8i2, Turini,
d, 1816, Paisiello.
d, 1832. Clementi.
As will have been gathered from the last Chapter, the influence
of the early Italian Cembalo or Harpsichord School was an
important one, Its strength lay (i) in the melodiousness of its
polyphonic compositions, which were supreme until the
appearance of those of Bach and Handel ; (2) in the superiority
of its harpsichord technique, one which by its leaven of quasi-
Corelli violin technique was the model for Beethoven, through
the Italian Clementi. Frescobaldi (1587-1640), Organist of
St. Peter's, Rome (1627), was the first to initiate a freer instru
mental style, though those of his works intended for cembalo
the Canzoni, Ricercari, Corrente, etc,) are certainly or^mlike
and fugal in sfyk. Even his Partite, or Variations Suite on an
Aria (asm A lie Mei$tersHteke> Un. Ed.) and the Variations (1616)
on la Follia (a Spanish dance theme) are mainly contrapuntal
It is not until the second half of the seventeenth century that
a free harpsichord style appears in the works of Pasquini
(1637-1710), an organist in Rome strongly influenced by
Frescobaldi and Frobcrger.
26
EARLY ITALIAN "CEMBALO" MUSIC
27
Pasquini evidently had a fondness for the Variation form and
his smoothly written D minor La Follia Variations (1697-1702)
Pasquini Cuckoo Toccata
(Pasquini vol. Novello) show a notable advance on Fresco-
baldi's style, Those on the Italian Bergamesca dance show yet
more variety. The Toccata in C shows organ influence, with its
somewhat fussy " imitation " effects, and is interesting for
comparison with the Toccatas of Bach, Pasquini's immediate
successor,
One interesting piece, the Toccata con lo Scherzo del Cucco
(1702), in which the cuckoo's notes are heard, is neatly and
freely written in florid style. The call of the cuckoo seems to
have been a favourite device in early programme music as in
the gay Cuckoo Capriccio of Kerl (1679) and the older contra
puntal example of his teacher Frescobaldi (1629),
Pasquini left also some vary Handclian Basso Continuos for
Sonatas for two cembalos, one of \vhich has been ably filled in by
Mr, Shedlock in his Pasquini volume (Novollo) and from which
Mr, Shadlock judges that he is H really the predecessor of the
German master Kuhnait as a writer of Clavier Sonatas/'
The four pieces by Zippoli (AfaUm de Clawcin, Litolff), dated
1716, are somewhat organlike and contrapuntal in style, but
Porpora (d. 1767) in his Fugues (m last Chapter) and Mar-
in the Presto of his C minor Sonata (Bonawits Coll,,
28 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Bos.) show Scarlatti-like harpsichord technique. The style of
the former appears directly in the works of Haydn, his pupil.
Strange to relate, to secure the next link in the evolution of a
clavier style one must go back to Michael Angelo Rossi, who
lived in Rome about 1620 and died in 1660, some thirty years
before any of the Pasquini compositions mentioned were written.
Rossi was a pupil of Frescobaldi his style is remarkably
prophetic of that of Haydn, and is to be attributed to his being
an excellent violinist. In this case the correctness of the
period assigned has been doubted, but it is certain that the real
harpsichord style received its most powerful stimulus through the
Italian School of Violin and Chamber Music, which, through
Corelli, Vivaldi, Geminiani and others was pre-eminent between
1670 and 1750. Rossi as a violinist was a contemporary of the
predecessors of Corelli : Vitali and Biber.
In Rossi's works the gigue-like broken-chord figures (see last
Chapter) and roving scale passages of Corelli arc punctuated, as
it were, into neatly barred or phrased motives.
Another features in the evolution of technique, which was later
much exploited, was the so-called Alberti Bass (Ex. D), brought
forward by Dom, Alberti (b. 1717), though used before his time
by Rossi and others, and originating in such passages as the
Bass of Ex. C. by Rossi.
The compositions of Alberti, who settled in Rome in 1737,
were very popular in their day. The Gigu from his 4th
Sonata (Old MmUn, May, Ash,) is remarkably bold in style,
Other smaller composers of harpsichord music are ;
Alessandro Scarlatti (1659-1725) the father of Domenico Scar
latti, who wrote Toccatas, etc,, his pupil G, Gricco, and Padre
Martini (1706-1784), the historian and theorist whose tuneful
EARLY ITALIAN " CEMBALO" MUSIC 29
and spirited Gavotte, Ballet, Prelude and Fugue and Allegro
(MaUres de Clavecin, 12) are worthy of preservation.
The most distinguished of the Italian School, however, is
Domcnico Scarlatti (1685-1757), the contemporary of Bach and
Handel and pupil of his father Alessandro, and of Pasquini,
Domonico was reputed as the Italian virtuoso par excellence of
his time, and, on the visit of Handel to Rome in 1709, a contest
at the harpfiicord was arranged in which the honours were
divided, though at the organ Handel was acknowledged as the
superior, For two years Scarlatti was Maestro al Cembalo to the
Italian Opera in London, and afterwards he was Court Cembalist
at Lisbon, Naples and Madrid, where he is said to have died.
It was while he was in Madrid (1729-1754) that his first Sonatas
appeared (first ed. in Paris, 1733). These so-called " Sonatas"
(originally Studies) consist mostly of single movements.
The term "Sonata" here is opposed to " Cantata " the
former meaning to bo " sounded," the latter to be " sung," In
earlier times polyphonic compositions, both vocal and instru
mental, were in the same style ; hence the vague direction per
o c&ntar$~~ u to be sounded or sung,"
3 o HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
The position of Scarlatti's Sonatas in the Story of Pianoforte
Music is an important one: (i) For their melodiousness,
freedom of style and phrasing imbibed from the violin and
Chamber Music of Corelli (1653-1713), whose first Suite-like
Sonatas for two violins and bass were published in the year of
Scarlatti's birth ; (2) for their position in the development of
modern Sonata form, standing, as they do, between the
Sonatas of Corclli and those of Em. Bach ; (3) for their develop
ment of keyboard technique. Scarlatti was the Liszt of his day,
The frequent crossing of hands (Sonata in A), piquant stacca-
tissimo effects, sudden leaps, bravura passages of sixths and
octaves, present in most of his 300 harpsichord compositions,
mark an epoch in modern technique,
Scarlatti's technique is superior to that of any of his con
temporaries ; to that of the dainty Couperin (fifteen years
younger), of the more robust but conservative Rameau (same
age) or of the earlier and more energetic Purcell (d, 2:695) who,
twenty-six years his senior, wrote more in the style of Pasquini
(Scarlatti's master), though his later contemporary, Pergolese
(1710-1736), runs him close in his freely- writ ten Prelude and
Variations (Old Masters, Fl, May, Ash). Of Scarlatti's chief
German contemporaries Bach approaches him most nearly in
experiments in technique (see Bach's Stutli$$ : Old German
Composers , Pauer,), for interlocking and quick alternate use of
the hands, while Handel and his early associate, Joh, Matthoson,
generally show some of the best features of Italian harpsichord
technique.
Another aspect of Scarlatti's music is that of the purely
harmonic styk which, with him, takes up a definite position as
compared with the half -contrapuntal style of his predecessors.
Speaking generally, Scarlatti formed the basis on which
Paradies and dementi built the latter as founder of th
modern pianoforte style,
The breezy tunefulness of Scarlatti, as in the Son&la in A,
Capriccio in E> and refined Pastoral, his skilful contrapuntal
work, as in the Cat's Pugue> his strong, rhythmical character
istics (Tempo di Balh), combined with a wealth of interesting
technical devices, all tend to make his works immortal,
Scarlatti's works can be studied in the Germer Selection (ia
Sonatas, Bos,), the 37 Sonatas, ed, by Barth (Univ, Bd,) 50
Lessons (Aug.) or in the 60 Somlm (B. and HL)
EARLY ITALIAN "CEMBALO" MUSIC 31
Of less importance are the technically interesting Studios of
Scarlatti's contemporary Durante, who was mostly a writer of
church music.
Two later composers, Galuppi* (1706-55) and Paradies
(1712-95), deserve notice. The former, who was in London
from 1741 to 1744, wrote spirited and tuneful Gigues (Old
Italian Composers] and Sonatas (1746. Les Mattres de Clavecin,
II), as well as the once popular Toccatas which form the subject
of Browning's poem :
" You sat and played Toccatas, stately at the clavichord.
What ? Those lesser thirds so plaintive, sixths diminished, sigh on sigh,
Told them something ? Those suspensions, those solutions, ' Must we die ? ''
Those commiserating sevenths' Life might last I we can but try.' "
Paradies is specially noted for his bright and taking two-
movement Sonatas (1746) which, as regards form, " would seem
to form an intermediate stage between Scarlatti and Em.
Bach" (Shedlock). One may note that the works of both of
these composers show the influence of Scarlatti as well as the
use of the Albcrti Bass Formula and a leaning to a more modern
style,
Paradies lived most of his life in London, where his twelve
Sonatas were published in 1746, His works were studied
assiduously by young Clcmcnti and later by Cramer ; and along
with the works of Scarlatti they formed the principal models
for the next thirty years, after which dementi, Haydn and
Mozart became supreme, Paradies' Sonata in P is in what one
would call " Handelian" style, with a very attractive Gigue ;
and the Gigue from his second Sonata is also very bold. Light
and fluent imitation is the chief feature of the interesting
Sonata in E minor, while in the virtuoso Sonata in D there is a
delightfully piquant first movement with much Scarlatti-like
crossing of hands and a brilliant Toccata Presto Finale. His
best-known Toccata is from the Sonata in A . (All these Sonatas
have been published by Ash.)
Two still later composers deserve mention : Paisiello (1741-
1816) and Ford. Turini (1749 -18x2), both of whom trench on
the Haydn period. Paisiello's works (OUl Italian Composers)
are distinctly JIaydnish, probably as a result of his residence in
St. Petersburg, Towards the owl o the eighteenth century
* So Muxirttl Titncu for May, t^j, nrticlti an " Round about a Toccata
of Gttluj>|V by (', van thui Jtorwi (tmrm, K.
32 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
German music, though partly based on Italian models, began to
be supreme, through Haydn and Mozart, The compositions of
Matidlo (c. 1783), Sarti (1729-1802) (six Sonatas published in
London in 1762) and Sacchini (1734-1786), especially the latter
(e.g., Op, 3 and 4), arc modelled on Haydn.
Turini's music, however, though vigorous, is still in the pure
Italian style,
The works of the old Italian School, terminating only a
century ago, are interesting historically (j) as showing the
material upon which Clementi and Haydn, the first two modern
pianoforte composers, founded their style the former influenced
also by his entire devotion to the new pianoforte, the latter by
his first love for the string quartet and its orchestra : (2) as
containing much which, from its melodiousness, contrapuntal
and (especially) technical importance, is permanently interesting
and of lasting renown.
CHAPTER VIII
LATER ENGLISH ; HARPSICHORD COMPOSERS
PURCELL AND ARNE
" Then Arnc, sweet and tricksome ; and masterly Purcell." Lay
Clerical Soul.~~~Leigh Hunt.
" Musick is yet but in its nonage, a forward child, which gives hope of
what it may be hereafter in England, when the masters of it shall find more
encouragement, 'Tis now learning Italian, which is its best master, and
studying a UUle of the Prench air to give it somewhat of gayety and fashion.''
(Purcell, in his prologue to the Opera, The Prophetess, 1691).
1673. Locke's Melothesia. Contemporary Works
1699, Playford's Collection. 1670, Chambonniere's Ordres.
1696* Purcell's Lessons (Purcell d, 1689. Anglebert's Ordres.
1695). 1697. Pasquini. Variations, etc,
1699. Blow's Lessons. I 7^3. Couperin's ist Suite.
1713. Babell's Lessons. 1720. Handel's ist Suites.
c. 1690-17. Hy. Simmonds' Lessons. 1733. Scarlatti's ist Sonatas,
c. 1748-50, Nares' Lessons.
c. 1750. Arne's Lessons.
PURCELL (Introduction)
WITH the time of Purcell we come once more to an era in the
history of English clavier music, which stands out conspicuously
and deserves more appreciation than it secured until recently.
The old English Virginal School was, in its own era, supreme,
and led the way in instrumental composition ; but by the time
of the Purcell School continental composers are in full swing,
and it must therefore stand on its own merits, It is curious
that Oscar Bie should have dismissed the second or Purcell
School with the sentence, " With John Blow, Henry Purcell,
Thomas Augustine Arne, in the following generation, English
clavier music blends with the general continental stream, till it
is absorbed and must seek its nourishment from without,"
No wonder the English editors remark that " The author here
makes & startling leap of a century or so in his chronicle of
English composers/'
33
34 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
C. F. Weitzmann, in his History of Pianoforte Playing and
Pianoforte Literature, 1887 (Schirmcr, New York, 1897), takes
an equally short-sighted view when he classifies the I7th
century school with the English virginalists and expresses the
opinion that " The characteristic expression of this earlier
English clavier school is a wearisome monotony of melody,
rhythm and modulation ; it has therefore had no influence
whatever on the further development of the art of clavier
playing/' It is only right to say that the periods are separated
and a more enlightened and more detailed view is taken in Max
Sciffert's later edition of the same work (Leipzig, 1899).
It is necessary to understand something of this Purcell period
and what preceded it. The last of the virginal composers,
Dr. John Bull, died in 1628, Henry Purcell (1658-1695) did
not come forward as an instrumental composer till 1683, and
then it was in Sonatas for two violins and bass and harpsichord
compositions greatly in advance of their time. His Lessons
for the Harpsichord or Spinet were not published till 1696, the
year after his decease. Meanwhile, he had been occupied
principally with his powerful and masterly dramatic and church
works. Looking backwards again, we note that Queen
Elizabeth died and the period of the high-handed Stuarts began
in 1603. The Commonwealth lasted from 1649 to 1660, when
the Restoration took place and the organs in the churches began
to play once more, Church music of all but the simplest type
had languished, but secular and instrumental music flourished*
As a matter of comparison, two dements were to be noted in the
old virginal collections, t>/>,, the polyphonic or vocal stylo, and
the bold and appropriate clavier technique displayed by the
English masters. From the introduction of the School (about
1550) till the date of Purcell's first instrumental works (about
1683) the contest lay between these two elements, The poly
phonic element was perpetuated in Madrigals for voices and
Fancies or Fantasias for viols by Jenkins, Lawes and others ;
but the instrumental technique stood still, $o that, as Davey
remarks in his History of English Mmic t " If the keyboard
music had been of equal importance, then the reign of Charles I,
and the Commonwealth would have been the greatest English
period as regards instrumental music, but no advance seemi to
have been made by the English virginalists and organists. 11
Then again, the dramatic or operatic element was ever in
ENGLISH HARPSICHORD COMPOSERS 35
opposition to the contrapuntal,, and the popularity of the
declamatory- Airs and Dialogues of Lawes and others, and of
Masques and Operas leading up to Purcell's own masterly,
dramatic musical works, all tended to the elimination of
counterpoint.
As Dr, Walker, in his History of Music in England, aptly puts
it, " After the Restoration counterpoint was at a discount ; and
it was not until the time of Purcell that men began to see that
instrumental work could be written which should combine learn
ing with taste/' Not but that " there was plenty of counterpoint
in almost everything Purcell wrote, but it is counterpoint
on a consciously harmonic basis." (Scholes' Introduction to
British Music.}
PurccU's style was formed through that of his master, Pelham
Humphreys, who received his training in France and returned
thence in 1667, and this, together with Purcell's leaning to
Italian style, accounted for the new style of the School of
English Harpsichord Composers from about 1683 onwards.
The French influence on English music came at first through
King Charles, after the Restoration, who, as Davey says,
" killed the older English School, vocal and instrumental alike/ 1
Charles wanted music he could beat time to. As the composer
and writer, Mattheson, friend of Handel, said, "The Italians
exalt music, the French enliven it " ; and so the second English
Clavier School, through foreign influence, became more exalted
and more enlivened, or rather more direct in expression.
Italian musical influence in England was no new thing in
Purcell's day. Even in Queen Elizabeth's time we find that
Italy, which had learned the art from the Flemings, sent over
Italian musicians. Alfonso Ferrabosco, a composer of virginal
music and of Madrigals, was domiciled in Queen Elizabeth's
Court in 1562, while the Italian dances, the Galliards and
Pavans, were in fashion, and appear frequently in the
FUzwilU&m Virginal Book, John Cooper (or Coperario)
(d, 165 c.) studied in Italy and on his return wrote Fancies for
viols and the organ* Italian influence had, however, so far
proved a stimulus only, and the Early English Virginal School
(1350-1621), as we have pointed out, stands by itself, unique.
Between this " Golden Age " of English music, ending about
1625, and the publication of PurcelTs Lessons (a period of some
seventy years), compositions of no great merit, by G. Jeffreys,
HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Jno. Tillett, and I. Strengthfield, appeared. These, together
with Matthew Locke's method, named Mekthcsia, containing a
" choice collection of lessons " (1673) which already show
Italian influence, and the tuneful and neat Lessons of Locke and
Lawes in Play ford's Collection (1689) fill the intervening
period.
Purcell, in his Suites (1683) for two violins and bass and in his
Lessons* acknowledges Italian influence.
1 1
=dffi=tl:
Rff..' ' '.'.
wtf
* -Kirk
j
=E3b
j :^, ,; iji ,,*, t i;;,w,,! ;
:^ ~
glT... ...^E
- r ^
^
Mr, Shedlock thinks that Purcell must have modelled his
Suites on the similar works of Vitali (1670),
One cannot play through the Popular Piece* by Parcel!
(revised by Pauer in Augener's cd.) without feeling the forcible
ENGLISH HARPSICHORD COMPOSERS 37
instinct for rhythm the rhythm which is the essence of the
dance and is lost sight of in the Suites of Bach and Handel owing
to the linked imitation with which they abound. Imitation is
also present in Purcell, but the rhythmic and melodic interest is
always greater. The florid Preludes of the yd and $th Suites,
and the Toccata, which was printed by the Germans as an early
work of Bach, the ornamented Almands of the yd, qth, 5th
and jth Suites, which surpass those of Bach and Handel in the
pulsating rhythm of the dance, the unique grounds with their
ever- varying melody over a repeated ground bass, and the
rhythmical life of the Courante of the *jth and of the Allmand
and Courante in A minor are arresting features.
Purcell's command of rhythm the life of all music in so
great variety reminds one of Brahms, whom he surpasses in
clarity and boldness*
Mr. Fuller Maitland, in his reference to the Chester Edition of
the harpsichord music of Henry Purcell (in four volumes)
mentions the fact that his successor in England, Handel,
" appropriated many of Purcell's characteristic idioms " and
that the movements are " full of character and originality."
This Edition contains some newly-discovered Pieces. Con
cerning the ornamentation of the period the student can refer
to Dannreuthcr's work (Novello) and Dolmetsch's Interpretation
of the Music of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries
(Novello) .
In conclusion we might quote Pauer's eulogy (Popular
Pieces) : " As an inventor of harmonies he was far in advance
of his time, and his melodies will* find favour so long as men
retain the sense of appreciating all that is beautiful and lovely
in music/'
PurcelFs contemporaries and possible models in harpsichord
music were of the contrapuntal age and these men were
Frescobaldi, Alessandro Scarlatti, Chambonnfere and Froberger,
to all of whom he is superior in freshness and vigour, and
especially as regards melody and technique, in which he also
surpassed his later contemporary Pasquini (1637-1710) (whose
first representative pieces are dated 1697) and closely approaches
the later Dom. Scarlatti (b. 1684),
During the period succeeding the death of Purcell (1695) and
the arrival of Handel in 1710, English musical art was under
the influence of Italian models as represented by Corelli,
38 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
D. Scarlatti and Handel. The poet Browning represents this
period thus :
" Buononcini's work is theme
For fit laudation of the impartial few.
(We stand in England, mind you !) Fashion, too,
Favours Geminiani/'
To this time belong the Lessons of Blow (1698), the master of
Purcell, who preceded and followed his pupil as organist of
Westminster Abbey. These are somewhat contrapuntal in style,
Also the Lessons of Henry Simmonds (born at the end of the
I7th century), a fashionable teacher and performer in the
reign of George the Third, whose first set, though only in two
parts (May's Old Masters, Ash), are fresh and tuneful, Also the
Suites of Lessons (1713) by Wm. Babell (e. 1690-1723), a skilful
harpsichord executant, the Preludes from which (Schloesser's
Old English Masters, Ash) show remarkable virtuosity for that
time,
The Eight Sonatas or Lessons (c, 1750) of Thos, Ame (1710-78),
the composer of Rule, Britannia (Popular Pieces, Arnc, Aug.),
are worthy of remembrance for their fluent, neat, well-written
and melodious style, and, though showing the influence of
Handel, have something of English individuality about them,
In the Eight Sonatas or Lessons there is scarcely a single move
ment which, allowing for the thin writing of the period, is not
highly interesting.
In natural, vigorous, transparent melody they may be esteemed
superior to those of his predecessors, Scarlatti and Paradies, and
equal to those of Handel, his early contemporary ; while in
technique he is generally the equal of Paradies (but not generally
of Scarlatti) though his virtuoso Prelude to the spirited Fugue
from the Concerto with Strings (Ash) is quite equal to Scarlatti
or Handel.
Almost equal to those of Arne, the Lessons of James Nares
(1715-83) also sound remarkably fresh and modern* Nares
was organist at York Minster and at the Chapel Royal. Ha
published Eight S$t$ of Harpsichord Lessons in 1748, Fim
Harpsichord Lessons in 1758, Thrm Harpsichord Lessons and
other works in 1778. In the fourth volume of the Oxford
History of Mu$ic Mr, Fuller Maitland publishes in txtonso a
Lesson for the Harpsichord in B(? of which he says, fl the poignant
expression of the first movement and the delicious freshness
and gaiety of the second are almost worthy of Bach/*
ENGLISH HARPSICHORD COMPOSERS 39
Jeremiah Clark's (d. 1707) volume of harpsichord pieces,
published in 1700 and his Choice Lessons published in 1711 after
his death deserve attention, as also do the Lessons of Maurice
Green (1696-1755), John Stanley (1714-86), the blind organist of
St. Andrew's, Holborn, who wrote in the Handelian manner,
William Bryce (1710-79), Master of the King's Music in 1755,
Thomas Rosingrave (1690-1750), and Jonathan Batlishill (1738-
1801), harpsichordist at Covcnt Garden Theatre, whose compo
sitions are, as Dr, Walker puts it, " nearly all very worthy
work" compared with the similar class of music on the
continent.
Sonatas by I. Burton (1766) and J. Worgan (1769) also
appeared, while S. Wesley's three Sonatas and Cipriani Potter's
Studies may be mentioned, though not possessing special
interest. It is hardly necessary to say that Handel's arrival in
England (17x0) overshadowed our native composers, and it is
only now that we are discovering the treasures we have in this
country. Fortunately these are now appearing in our concert
programmes and in the lists of teaching pieces for instance, in
the recent Early English Harpsichord Music revised by Alec
Rowley (Rogers) so that they may yet come into their own.
For further study see Old English Masters^ cd, by A, M,
Henderson (B. & R) ; also J. A. Fuller Maitland's edition of
Contemporaries of Purcell, 7 vols. [John Blow, vols, i and 2 ;
Croft, vols, 3 and 4 ; J, Clark, vol. 5 ; Various, vols. 6 and 7 ;
vol. 8, " At the Court of Queen Anne," various composers.]
See also Five Pieces by Parcel! (A,F. Co.).
CHAPTER IX
EARLY GERMAN SCHOOL
Early German Composers Contemporary Works
1587-1648. Samuel Scheldt. 1616. Frescobaldi : Works.
1667. Frobergor died. 1670. Chambunni6rc , Ordres,
1579. Kerl's Cuckoo Capriccio. I&73- Locke's Melothesia.
1697, Suites, etc., published. 1696. Purcell's L&ssons published
1695. Kuhnau's ist Sonata. (died 1695).
1714, Matthcson, ist Suites, 1713. Couporin's On/ras.
1720. Handel's ist Suites.
IN Germany a good foundation had already been laid in music,
which, intended for either organ or clavichord, was, however, to
all intents and purposes, organ music. The organists Pauniann,
Schlick, Hopheimer and especially Hans Leo Hussler (161-2) and
Samuel Scheldt (d. 1648) [see Selected Pieces, Variations and
Dance Forms (B, and H,) ] had prepared the way in everything
but appropriate technique for the return of Froborger to
Vienna in 1649 from Rome, where he had imbibed the freer
Italian style. Froberger (1600-1667) was taken from Halle to
Vienna and thence to Rome, where he was a pupil of Frescobaldi
eventually reappearing as a brilliant clavierist and organist,
A legend is told of his being shipwrecked on the way to England,
of his arrival in London destitute, and of his rescue by the
organist of Westminster Abbey and presentation to Charles II.
In the slow movements of Froberger's Toccatas (Mattws d&
Clavecin, II) the influence of the organ is still apparent, as also
in the original organ forms, the Canzoni and Ricercari, while
the lighter characteristic triple time of the Italian Allegros is
found in the quick movements*
His Auf die Mayer in Suite, having seven movements in
Variation form (Gigue, Sarabande, Courante, etc,) on a popular
song theme, shows a freer and more harpsichord (or clavichord)
style of technique than that of his master Frescobaldi, and is
less contrapuntal generally ; while other extracts from Suites
seen in Niemann's Frob&rgiana (Senff) manifest something also
of that refinement which we associate with the French clavecin
school (See also Adler Ed,, 2 vols., B, and II)
40
EARLY GERMAN SCHOQL 41
The organist J. K. Kerl (1627-1693), also a pupil of Fresco-
baldi in Rome, shows the Italian leaven in his Toccata t Canzoni,
etc., for organ or cembalo. His Cuckoo Capriccio (1679) [Three
pieces by Frescobaldi, Froberger and Kerl (Shedlock, Nov.)]
deserves special notice for its gay spirit and freer harpsichord
style.
The clavier music of Johann Kuhnau (1660-1722) is somewhat
organistic and has something of an old- world ring about it.
More solid than the Italian compositions of that period, it lacks
the warm glow of Italian melody and spirit ; neither has it the
natural melody and energy of Purcell, nor the graceful technique
of Pasquini. Kuhnau's chief merit is that his Sonata in B\>
(1695) is the first real clavier Sonata, though so-called Sonatas
of the nature of Suites had previously been written for two
violins and bass. Thus we sec that the clavier got not only its
Sonata form, but much of its technique from tnat of the
Italian violin and chamber music of the period, while its primitive
instrumental style came from the lute,
Kuhnau adds the remark to his first Sonatas, " for why should
not such things be attempted on the clavier as well as on other
instruments? " Other Sonatas named Fresh Fruits appeared
in 1696, These also evince somewhat limited technique com
bined with contrapuntal and reflective style, and the constructive
ability identified with German composers in general.
In these and the Seven Partitas (1695) one meets with certain
expressions or idioms which we find later in the music of Handel
and Bach, The latter master Kuhnau had preceded in Leipzig
(1700) as Cantor of the Thomas Kirche. In 1700 appeared the
interesting Programme Bible Sonatas (Shedlock Ed, Novello)
in which, like the English virginal and other early composers, he
adopts a definite programme, In this work he depicts graphi
cally, in minute detail, incidents from the Bible, the first two
being " The Combat between David and Goliath " and " David
curing Saul by means of music/'
In the former we have the whistle of the sling, as well as the
thunder of the fall of Goliath,
Thoroughly German in style also arc the Suites (Ed, published
by R. Forberg) from the Componimenti (1727) of Gottlieb
MufiEatt (of probable Scottish origin), who was taught in Vienna,
where he settled, They are contrapuntal and solid but not
lacking in melody,
E
42 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
In the Suites (1714) of Johann Mattheson (1681-1764), the
early associate of Handel at the Opera House in Hamburg
(1703-9), we find something of Italian melody and vivacity.
Many of the movements in OW German Composers (Aug.) and
Masters (Ash), to which the reader is referred, are directly in
Handel's style, and are well worthy of study. They suggest that
Handel, with his well-known faculty for assimilating what was
"best in others, may have taken advantage of the many hints
which Mattheson boasted of having given him. Mattheson was
first a singer and then conductor (at the cembalo) of the Opera
at Hamburg, then the leading Opera in Germany. He is
also known as the writer of valuable historical books on various
aspects of music,
We must now proceed to the consideration of the principal
German composers of this period, Handel and Bach, after which
the music of their smaller contemporaries will be touched upon*
CHAPTER X
HANDEL AND BACH
, . . " and Bach,
Old father of Fugues, with his endless fine talk,
. . . and the learned sweet feeling
Of Handel." Ltigk Hunt.
" Give me some great, glad subject, glorious Bach,
Where cannon roar, not organ peal, we lack." Browning.
Contcmp ovaries .
1685-1750, Bach. 1668-1733. Coupcrin,
1685-1759, Handel. 1683-17*57. Scarlatti,
1683-1764. Rameau,
1681-1764. Matthesoru
1685-1795. Paradies.
" TWIN GIANTS OF POLYPHONY " they have been termed.
Both bom in the same year, within a few miles of each other,
their spheres of interest differed widely almost from the first,
and the two countrymen were fated never to meet.
Bach, who first saw the light in Eisenach now a pleasant
tourist centre came of a race of musicians who, for two hundred
years, had been prominent in the musical history of Thuringia.
Handel, hailing from the neighbouring town of Halle in
Saxony, came, strange to say, of an unmusical family.
Handel from the first was thrown into contact with Italian
music, A visit to Berlin at the age of twelve made him
acquainted with Ariosto Buononcini (afterwards his rival in
London) ; they were members of the Court Orchestra there.
Bach, who went to a school at Lflneburg, near Hamburg, was
early brought into contact with French instrumental music at
the ducal Hof-Kapclle at Celle, though in his position as Concert-
meister at Weimar (1714) he gave special attention, to Italian
Chamber Music.
Hii clavier Suites, with the exception of the Udian Concerto*
show the influence of French rather than of Italian models (the
first four of the French Suites bdng apparently modelled on
Couperin, as is shown by their refined dainty melancholy) ;
43
44 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
while for the rest he was much influenced by the preceding organ
school of Germany (Buxtehude, Pachelbel, etc.). Mr. Shedlock,
however, thinks that his Chromatic Fantasia was suggested by
an Adagio from a Toccata by Alessandro Scarlatti.
Bach's sympathies and experiences were strongly circum
scribed, for, with the exception of a few visits to other parts of
Germany, he was domiciled and led a quiet life in one part of
the country, while Handel, who started at Hamburg as violinist
and deputy conductor of the Opera House, was almost from the
first by reason of his stay in Italy, England, and Hanover,
associated with the splendour of Courts and the publicity of the
Opera House and Concert Hall,
In 1717 Bach was appointed Kapellmeister at Anhalt-
C6then, where he gave special attention to the clavier, composing
the French Suites, the two-part Inventions and the similar
three-part Symphonies, as well as Part I of the immortal
Wohltemperirte Clavier.
In 1723 Bach was appointed Cantor (Precentor) of the St.
Thomas's School at Leipzig a position he held till his death
twenty-seven years later. In Leipzig he wrote the English
Suites, the Concertos for two, three and four Claviers with
Strings, and the Musical Offering. With regard to the latter.
Bach had, in 1747, received an invitation from Frederick the
Great in whose Court his son was cembalist. *" On the day of
his arrival, when the usual list of visitors to the Palace was
presented to the King, Frederick was seated with his musicians
and about to play a Flute Concerto, He took the list, scanned
it hastily, but, on alighting on the name of the Cantor, turned
hastily to his orchestra and joyfully exclaimed, ' Gentlemen, old
Bach has arrived! ' " (Naumann), On arrival at the Palace,
Bach tried the new Silbermann pianofortes (then a novelty), and
then, by request, extemporized a Fugue on a theme suggested
by the King, accomplishing his task in a most masterly style.
Bach's Musical Offering consists of several Canons, Fugues in
three and six Parts, a Sonata and two-part Canon for clavier,
flute and violin, all worked after his return to Leipzig on the
theme given to him by Frederick and dedicated to the latter.
An interesting piece of programme music, and ona doubtless
inspired by the Bible Sonatas of his predecessor in Leipzig, is
Bach's Capriccio on the Departure of a Brother (Bo), which
quaintly depicts the pleading of the Mends to " remain with
HANDEL AND BACH
45
us " and the " dangers in foreign lands/' winding up with a
lively fugue on a subject " imitating the Postilion's Horn/'
The Forty-eight Preludes and Fugues have been termed the
Musician's Bible, and have formed the subject of earnest study
by Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Chopin, Schumann, and represen
tatives of all musical creeds. Schumann described the Forty*
eight as the " musician's daily bread/' Beethoven said,
" Play a great deal of Bach and everything will become clear to
you/' Bach's music, as arule, is purely subjective and reflective
in tone, while Handel's style, in consequence of his Italian models
and devotion to Opera, is distinctly dramatic, straightforward
and open in delineation of musical thought, Bach's is mostly
the language of a poet and recluse, written, so to speak, in the
eighteenth-century North German dialect. His style is, there
fore, not so easily grasped as Handel's, but it is nevertheless fttll
of poetry depicting every mood found in the range of human
emotion*
THE POETRY OF THE FORTY-EIGHT
IN order to give the student an insight into the emotional nature
of Bach we cannot do better than quote the titk$ suggested by
"Carmen Sylva," Queen of, Roumania, for the Immortal
Forty-Eight,
L C Prelude, Sakmtala; Fugue, Her Wanderings in the
Forest. fc, C minor Prelude, The Pathfinder cheerfully going to
his Goal ; Fugue, We should (as Nietzsche says) dance through Life.
3. C# Prelude, Harvest Festival, with desolate Stubbk Fields;
Fugue, The Vittage Dance, with Thoughts of Toil 4* Cf minor
Prelude, Homesickness ; Fugue, Comfort to world-weary Souls,
$, D Prelude, Mountain Stream; Fugue, Rustling of th* Leaw*
6, D minor Prelude, Th$ Conflict of Thought; Fugu, Answer to
7, H> Prelude, Procmion of Comtry
46 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Makers ; Fugue not named. 8, Eb minor Prelude, Atonement;
Fugue, Salvation to the Sinner. 9. E Prelude, Lover's Declara
tion; Fugue, perhaps the response. 10. E minor Prelude,
Murmur of the Sea; Fugue, Dialogue between Wind and Wave,
11. F Prelude, not named ; Fugue, A Breath of Spring.
12. F minor Prelude, Did I then ask to live ? ; Fugue, / have
borne the Burden of Fate, 13. F# Prelude, The Lily-of-the-
Valley's Summons to a Fairy Banquet; Fugue, Love's Young
Dream. 14. F# minor Prelude and Fugue, no names.
15. G Prelude, Youth; Fugue, The Rover. 16, G minor
Prelude, Eternal Questionings; Fugue, perhaps the answers,
17. A|? Prelude, The Knights of the Round Table ; Fugue, Sir
Galahad, 18. Ab minor Prelude, De Profundis, Fugue, Soft
Sighs, 19. A Prelude and Fugue, Sunshine in the Basilica.
20, A minor Prelude and Fugue, The Secret. 21. B|? Prelude
and Fugue, Mayday Song. 22. Bb minor Prelude and Fugue,
Jephthah's Daughter. 23. B Prelude and Fugue, Sunday on the
Rhine, 24. B minor, Vain Supplication. 25, C Prelude,
Departure of the Exiles; Fugue, Their Songs on the Way.
26, C minor Prelude, The Fiery Cross; Fugue, Ths Coronach.
27, C$ Prelude, Requiem Aeternam dona nabis, Do mine ; Fugue,
Et Lux pwpetua luceat nobis. 28, C$ minor Prelude and
Fugue, Who shall roll us away the Stone from the. Door of the
Sepulchre 1 29, I) Prelude and Fugue, Death, where is thy
Sting ? Grav$> where is thy Victory ? 30. I) minor Prelude,
The Spirit of the Storm ; Fugue, Anarchy. 31, Eb Prelude and
Fugue, Portrait of a Girl- friend. 32, I)$ minor Prelude and
Fugue, Rustling of Autumn Leaves. 33, E Prelude and Fugue,
Thankfulness for Beauties of Creation, 34, E minor Prelude and
Fugue, Consolation. 35, F Prelude, Bridal Song ; Fugue, Up
out into the World. 36, F minor, not named, 37, F# Prelude
and Fugue, Quiet Joys of Happy Home, 38. F# minor Prelude,
Lovers' First Quarrel; Fugue, Rewnciliatim* 39, G Prelude
and Fugue, GM Tidings* 40, G minor Prelude and Fugue,
Via Crucis. 41, Ab Prelude and Fugue, A Glorious Carter,
42, G# minor Prelude, Schehtrutt* ; Fugue, C butt from the
Narghikh. 43, A Prelude and Fugue, Crusttcr's Rttovn.
44, A minor Prelude and Fugue, Anxious Motfm and Wilful
Son. 45, B(? Prelude and Fugue, IdyU of Lw*. 46, Bfr
minor Prelude and Fugue, Parting and Tmn, 47, B Prelude
and Fugue, Parting and Te&rs [sic]. 48. B Prelude and Fugue,
HANDEL AND BACH 47
Domestic Peace and Joy, 48. B minor Prelude, Retrospect of
Life; Fugue, Last Words,
It is a remarkable fact that very few of Bach's compositions
appeared in his lifetime, and that forty years after his death he
was almost forgotten. It was not until 1779 that some of the
Forty-eight were first published in London, where they were
made known by Samuel Wesley the next edition appearing at
Zurich. Mendelssohn was the means of a general resurrection of
Bach's works and the beginning of a cult which has now
deservedly assumed enormous proportions.
Speaking generally, Bach's clavier technique is that of the
organ. Practically speaking, his whole life was devoted to the
organ, which embodied the spirit of the polyphonic tendencies of
the ^ age, and both his vocal and instrumental works are
reminiscent of it. Nevertheless Bach brought the technical
figuration embodied in his style to a high pitch of perfection.
He was among the first to introduce the modern method of
execution by systematizing the use of the thumb and the
position of the hand. Previously the hand had been held
horizontally and the thumbs hung down in front of the keyboard.
Both from a technical and contrapuntal point of view his
Goldberg Variations form one of the most remarkable instances
of this type of execution, Both these and the Italian Concerto
bear evidence of being intended for the double-keyboard
harpsichord in the necessity for transfer of one hand to a
second manual and in the echo p and / effects. Every third
variation is a Canon and Bach's sense of humour appears in the
" 30 " which is a qmdli'bet one made up of snatches of popular
airs of the day.
That Bach took an interest in musical education is proved by
the Kl&viw&bung t an Exercise Book containing " Inventions,
Preludes, Suites, etc/' He commends the Inventions and
Symphonies to the amateur who is anxious to learn " that he
may not only learn to play properly in two parts, but also, with
further progress, to perform well in three, and, above all, to
attam to a good cantabite style in execution/'
The elegant canonic stylei of the Inventions and Symphonies
is exchanged for a more robust and bravura one in the Toccatas
(the D major), also the Chromatic and C minor Fantasias a
style in which the organ technique is particularly prominent in
48 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
the declamatory recitative and improvisatory bravura passages
which lead off to the usual Fugue.
A still more generally attractive style appears in his gay
Bounces and Gavottes, Gigues, etc., in the Partitas, the $th and
6th French Suites, and the larger English ones, reputed to have
been written for an English gentleman. In these we note the
fine Preludes of the 2nd and 4th English Suites and the Saraband
and Allemande of the latter- Mr. Fuller Maitland, in the
Oxford History of Music, Vol. IV says, " It has been shown that
the English Suites of Bach are, in several cases, adaptations of
movements from a book of Suites by Charles Dieupart (d. about
1740), which are proved to have been in Bach's possession, and
from the accident of Dieupart's living in England may well
have been known in Bach's family as the English Suites."
The Italian Concerto was written on the old Italian model,
which consisted of two quick movements with an intervening
slow movement. The great Concertos for two, three and four
claviers with stringed orchestra (set Part III, Chapter XXII),
especially the one in D minor for three claviers, performed by
Mendelssohn, Thalberg and Moschales in London and since
revived several times, are a monument to Bach's unequalled
powers as a contrapuntist Bach, indeed, must almost always
have looked at composition from a horizontal point of view,
Here again he differs from Handel The latter, though he does
not have the variety of harmony which we find in Bach, is really
more modern in style ; his more varied experience keeps him,
to some extent, more clear of the contrapuntal yoke, and Handel
thus " unites in himself the perfect blending of both epochs,
of the old one of strict polyphony and of the new one of
accompanied melody " (Riemann). Owing to Handel having
modelled his style on the melodious contrapuntal works of the
Italians, Carissimi, Scarlatti and others, Handel excels Bach in
his vocal polyphonic works (the oratorios, etc.), while he created
instrumental works in his various sets of Concertos for Strmp,
for Organ, and for Oboe soloists, " which hold an equal rank
with those of Bach " (Riemann).
Where Bach excels is in harmonic invention, Purcell, who
admittedly copied Italian models, and died when Bach was ten
years old, specially excelled as chromatic harmonist in his day,
and it was left for Bach to build, though independently, on
PurcelTs foundations. There is this difference, however, that
HANDEL AND BACH 49
Purcell's harmonies were produced more perpendicularly and
those of Bach more horizontally or contrapuntally. In manner
Purcell, like Handel, was the more modern ; in result Bach
comes nearest to the present time.
Handel wrote little clavier solo music. There are two sets
(16) of Suites, six Fugues and twelve smaller pieces [set the
Handel Gesellschaft' s Collection, Vol. II ; also Selection from
second set of nine Suites and the smaller pieces ed. by Bulow in
Tivelve Easy Pieces (Augener) .] These represent all that his busy
life of concerto and opera, and oratorio work apparently left
time for. His Suites are in the style of the Italian Chamber
Music Suites, and are consequently free in style, showing the
influence of the Ricercare of the Fugue Suite in which various
contrapuntal movements appear. Hence we find Fugues,
Variations, Adagios, and Allegros in his Suites, The Harmonious
Blacksmith Variations in the $th Suite were so named by Lintern,
a publisher in Bath, who wished to associate with the title the
memory of his father a musical blacksmith and lover of
Handel. (See Part I, Chapter III.) Deserving special mention
are a fine sweeping Prelude (yd Suite), a free and Toccata-like
Allemande (&th Suite), an energetic and interesting Presto
(2nd Suite), the brilliant E minor Fugue (4$ Suiie), a Fantasia
in C, and several very spirited Gigues.
Handel's clavier music possesses the virtues of the Italian
style, its clearly defined and periodic melody, as compared with
the usually more indefinite " linked sweetness long drawn out "
of Bach, while his association with the " virtuoso " of the
harpsichord, Scarlatti, possibly made him bid for the necessary
" effect " on the clavier. Apart from this, Handel's whole mood
was of the " heroic " order and his music (vocal and accorapani-
mental at least) of, the strongly " characteristic " style his
subjects always interpreting in themselves* i.e,> in their contour,
the emotions implied,
In this feature of " characterization " Bach was certainly less
prominent than Handel. On the other hand, his method of
interpretation is not usually by contour of melody, but the more
modern one of harmonic colour.
While Bach makes less use generally of this more modern
method of characterization, he surpasses Handel in the depths of
his emotions. Neither Handel nor Bach, however, are what
would be called "characteristic" writers for the clavier, but
50 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
the comparison may help in an estimate of the " twin giants of
polyphony/ 1
[The student may refer to The Pianoforte Works of the Great
Composers, Bach and Handel to Beethoven (W, Reeves), in which
the works of the above are treated in detail.]
In the Story of Pianoforte Music the period succeeding the
death of Handel in 1759 begins at once to take on a crowded
aspect. In the year mentioned, 1759, Haydn had already
written his ist Symphony, Em. Bach, whose work " at the
parting of the ways " is discussed in Part III, Chapter III, had
already been at work for twenty years, and his second set of
Sonatas appeared the year after, in 1760. dementi (Part II,
Chapter V) appears on the scene ten years later, while the first
Piano Sonatas of Haydn and Mozart follow close afterwards.
Musical evolution now assumes a new course. The era of
polyphony, summed up in Bach and Handel, gives way to an
harmonic age in which Sonata form becomes the all-in-all
New centres of interest and comparison are formed and the
works of many previous composers, popular in their day, are
completely overshadowed. Meanwhile, it remains only to
mention briefly the German contemporaries of Bach and
Handel, whose names still survive. The chief of these, Em.
Bach and Haydn, are referred to elsewhere, J. Adolph Haase
(1699-1783), whose pleasant Sonaias, Op. 6 and 7 (1754) (Mttires
d^ Clavecin, I), like those of Haydn, combine Italian melody
with German solidity, was, like Matthcson, a tenor at the Ham*
burg Opera. In 1724 he became a pupil of Porpora and of
Alessandro Scarlatti, His popularity as a clavecinist was the
means of his earning the endearing title of ** II caro Sassone *'
("the beloved Saxon ").
The Sonatas (1757) of Benda (1721- 1795) have something of
a Mozartian sweetness about them and also show Italian
influence through his service in tha King of Prussia's Court
in Berlin (1742), where Italian tastes prevailed,
Benda resembles in tome measure Em, Bach, whom ho quita
equals in style, His work, moreover, is more sympathetic and
leans rather towards Mozart than Htydn. The Suite of
Nichalmann (iyij-62), who wrote In Couperin's style ;
and the contrapuntal compositions of Marpurg (1712-95),
Kimberger (172x^3) (except the two and three- part Fugues),
Eberlin (1716-62), Krebs (1713-80), and Rolle (17x^5)
HANDEL AND BACH 51
are of no special interest, while the tuneful but empty
Sonatas of Wagenseil are now quite forgotten. The sons of
Bach, other than Emmanuel J. Chr. Fr. Bach (1732-95),
Joh. Christian Bach (1735-82), known as the " London Bach/ 1
and Friedmann Bach (1710-84) , the eldest and most talented son,
are all composers for the clavier. Of these the latter is the most
important. Friedmann had much of the masculine grip of his
father, enriched also by a more modern feeling.
His remarkable Grand Fantasia in E and A minor and major
(Ash), the bold D minor Caprice and Fugue, the Fugue in F
minor (Bos), and the Polonaises (Bos), deserve to be kept in
remembrance.
The works of Joh. Chr. Bach, who was an organist and settled
in London in 1759, are mostly light and trivial in style. The
three-movement Sonata in C minor (Mattres de Clavecin, I),
with the Fugue and Gavotte, in which he leans towards Mozart,
are noteworthy for their solidity and melodiousness. J. C. F.
Bach, in his Rondo and Variations [Alte Meister (Steingraber)]
approaches Haydn in tuneful and neat, but also light style.
Finally, the art of writing an excellent Fugue seems to have
been instinctive in the numerous branches of the Bach family,
judging by the F major Fugue of John Bernhard Bach (1676-1749)
(cousin of Sebastian) and the Fantasia and Fugue in F of his
son Joh. Ernst. Bach (1722-61).
" Ye look your last on Handel ?
Why wistful search, O waning ones, the chart of stars for you,
While Haydn, while Mozart occupies Heaven ? " Browning*
CHAPTER XI
THE TECHNIQUE OF THE POLYPHONIC PERIOD
ONE important aspect of the preceding period is that of
technique.
With Bach we have essentially an organ style and almost
always a smooth-flowing one accordingly,
Handel, again, from his travels in Italy and his associations
with Scarlatti, had acquired more of the true harpsichord style
(though this was to some extent based on that of the Italian
Chamber Music of the period) and consequently we find in his
Fugal compositions more of that boldness and piquancy which
we associate with the non-sustaining harpsichord and piano.
If one only compares, for instance, Bach's comparatively
brilliant Fugue in A minor (Stcingrftbcr, Ed. No. 8, Vol. I) with
Handel's E minor Fugue of the 4/A Suite, we shall see the nearer
approach to the true harpsichord style in the latter, though
Bach gets glimpses of it occasionally, as in Nos, 3, so, 13 and
39 of the " 48."
What applies to Handel in this way is also applicable to his
Italian models, to his predecessor Pa&quini, his contemporaries
Porpora and Durante, his later contemporaries Martini,
Galuppi, and Paradies, and his successors (in tins style) Turin!
(b, 1749} and dementi (b. 1752),
The technique of the polyphonic style, as applied to the
harpsichord, clavichord and pianoforte may be divided into
three periods ; (i) that of Prescobaldi (organ style), perfected in
Bach ; (2) the quasi-violin style, probably Initiated by Pasquim
in the l) minor Follia Partita Variations (&* 1697) , which ware
founded on or suggested by the violin technique of Curelli
(Sonatas, 1683), extended by Haydn and adopted by dementi ;
(3) the modern style initiated by Clement!, combining polyphonic
with modern pianoforte style.
The essence of the CoreUi influence ia in the typical Italian
fiddle-like Gigtie (Gei$e t a fiddle) with its winding and piquant
TECHNIQUE OF THE POLYPHONIC PERIOD 53
broken chord figuration as in Allegro 1683, one branch of which
appeared in the subsequent Alberti bass. 1
/683
This freer, leaping style of technique is continued in the
Fugues of Porpora (1685-1767), a contemporary of Handel and
teacher of Haydn, especially in his Fugue in B\y (see Example)
and similar compositions of Martini (1706-84).
Haydn based the technique of his chamber music on Porpora
and the Italian models, and transferred it to his piano Sonatas,
just as Handel used his violin harpsichord style in his organ
Concertos, Meanwhile, dementi brought over the same style
to England and adapted it to the new pianoforte, and the result
can be seen in the greater sweep of style in some of his Fugues,
and in the contrapuntal studies in his Gradus* Mozart and
Beethoven both founded their technique on Haydn, and Mozart's
Fugue in C (Fantasia in C) might much more appropriately
have been intended for string quartet or orchestra. Beethoven
however, also assimilated the new pianoforte technique of
dementi's Sonatas, and the Fugue in (?> Op. 35 (Variations,
broken chord style Is, however, foreshadowed in Bull's Le$
Buf/ons Variations (1621) and j Gibbons' A minor GallHwfa (1621), and
slightly in Froberger's (d. 1667) Gigue in tha Auf du Moy&rin Suite,
54 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
1803) is probably the first fugal classic written for the piano in
something like real pianoforte style a style which is also seen,
though somewhat uninspired, in the Fugue to the Sonata, Op. 106.
Noteworthy Fugues by German composers in the intermediate
(No. 2) technique mentioned above are two Fugues by Kirn-
berger (Mattres de Clavecin, I), one in Eb by Krebs (Old
German Composers] , and a Capriccio in C by Marpurg. Strange
to say, the next great composer of Fugues, Mendelssohn, except in
in the F minor, copied the organ style in consequence of his
devotion to Bach.
Technique, or the bravura element, is pre-eminent in that old
polyphonic form, the Toccata (from toccare^to touch or to play),
of which the earlier examples begin with organ-like full chords
and then, as in the later examples, run off through passage work
into fugal periods. This form was most exploited by A, Gabrieli
(1557-1613) and Merulo (1533-1604), and it remained popular
until Bach's time. There are examples by G, Pietri in the
Italian style, tutta di salti (Fitzwilliam Virginal Book), a
spirited one by Kerl (1628-93), pupil of Frescobaldi (Old German
Composers), the massive one in A minor by Froberger (1600-67),
the light and fluent Cuckoo Toccata by Pasquini, and similar
compositions by Paradies; but the most important, though
composed in organ style, are the brilliant and florid Toccatas of
Bach (Vol. I, SteingrSber Eel), After falling somewhat into
disuse, the Fugal Toccata has been resuscitated by the excellent
example of Rheinbergcr's Op, 12 in C, The florid Prelude,
which is found in the old Suites of contrapuntal pieces and was
later attached to the Fugue, somewhat resembled the Toccata,
as did also the vague, imitative Allegro of Handel's and other
Suite,
PART II
THE MUSIC OF THE PIANOFORTE
THE CLASSIC PERIOD
The pianoforte is the modern foundation of all musical training. "-
n*
" , , , A musician with flying finger
Startles the voices of some new instrument.
In one string are blent
All its extremes of sound/' . . .
W. C. Roscoe.
CHAPTER I
THE ADVENT OF THE MODERN PIANOFORTE
THE pianoforte, harpsichord and clavichord existed together
for several decades side by side. The earlier primitive pianos
suffered somewhat in comparison with the comparative perfec
tion vto which the other keyboard instruments had been brought.
Tilrk in his Methode of 1789 gives the preference to the
clavichord because of its " delicate execution" and "pleasing
singing tone," while Em, Bach in 1753 had said, " During the
last few years my chief endeavour has been to play the Pianoforte
as much as possible in a singing manner, in spite of its deficiency
in sustaining the sound, and to compose for it accordingly."
In 1787, thirty-four years later, Em. Bach says that he still
thinks " a good clavichord, saving its weaker tone, has all the
beauties of the other (the piano) and has the further advantage
of the " Hcbung," and the sustained tone ; because after striking
I can press down on any note."
It is evident from this that the earlier pianos were deficient
in sustaining power.
The Bebung was a tremulous tone produced by the balancing
or pressing down of the finger, as already mentioned.
The first we hear of the invention of the Pianoforte is from
Count Maffei, who, in 17x1, describes a new cembalo brought
forward by . Cristof ali [sic] f the cembalist to the Prince of
Tuscany, in which, instead of the usual arrangement for
plucking the strings with quills, there is " a row of small
hammers " for striking the strings, also the new instrument has
the power of playing piano or forte -which facility was absent
from the usual cembalo (harpsichord), though not from the
clavichord, The early piano did not make much headway
because of its lack of power and its new style of touch, and it
was not until 1767 fifty-six years afterwards that the
Silbermann pianos, as improved upon originally at the suggestion
of Bach, became at ali popular,
* 57
58 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
It will be remembered (Part I, Chapter 10) that twenty years
previously Bach had tried the Silbermann pianos at the Palace
of Frederick the Great at Potsdam. In the year 1767 already
mentioned, one of Zumpe's pianos " A new Instrument call'd
Pianoforte " was used at a concert in London. On May igth,
1768 Mr. Henry Walsh of Dublin gave a public pianoforte
recital in Dublin, and later in the same year, I. Christian Bach
made his first appearance as a pianist in London, Schroeter,
also known as a pianist, appeared there in 1772,
In 1753, as we have quoted, Em. Bach was already endeavour
ing to write for the piano, but it was not until 1770, in the first
Sonatas of Clementi, that the genius of the instrument was
divined,
Erard made his first piano in Paris in 1777, but the important
" double escapement " action did not appear till 1623, Previous
to this, Americus Backers (c. 1776) invented in London the
" English " or single-escapement action which was perpetuated
by Broadwood and " demands higher finger movement from the
player " (Hipkins) than the Erard or later actions. It was this
English action which favoured Clementi in his more sonorous
style of technique.
The piano containing the light Viennese or Silbermann-Stdn
action, as praised and adopted by Mozart in 1771 {and as con
tinued by Streicher), favoured the easy and brilliant execution
of the Viennese School of playing founded by Cxrrny,
A further step in the evolution of the piano was the invention,
in 1820, of the cast-iron frame, designed to meet the titanic
demands of virtuosos of the Lisat School
The latest development seams to be the typewriter-like Janko
keyboard, which, with its closely-packed rising tiers of keys,
promises to make the extended technique of Henselt and Liszt
qdte a matter of ease,
CHAPTER II
THE EVOLUTION OF THE SONATA
" Ye know why the forms are fair, ye hear that the tale is told ;
It is all triumphant art, but art in obedience to laws."
Browning, 1I Abt Bogler."
THE second period in the story of pianoforte music is bound up
with the Sonata form.
' In the first era we found ourselves confronted by two
apparently irreconcilable elements the old dance form and
the polyphonic forms culminating in the Fugue.
By the time of Handel and Bach, however, these two forms
have become more or less blended in the freer style of Suite
from which came the notion of the cyclical nature of the Sonata.
The Sonata, as now known, is by no means a haphazard con
glomeration, Centuries of deeply thought-out experiment have
gradually evolved the fittest presentation of the highest of all
musical forms. The title " Sonata " with its meaning " to
sound n rather than " to sing,** as in " Cantata/' early became
applied to the old Suit&s of dance forms, especially when they
were intended for stringed instruments ; and they retained the
name when the titles of the dance forms were changed. As
Marpurg puts it, in 1762, " Sonatas are Pieces in three or four
movements, marked merely Adagio, Allegro, Presto, etc*,
although in character they may be really an Allemande,
Courante and Gigue."
The feature of the old Suite was that the dance forms were
all in one key.
The placing of the middle Adagio (referred to by Marpurg) in
another key was the first step towards the modern cyclical form
of the Sonata,
A collection of movements, however, does not necessarily
form a modern Sonata. For this latter it is generally expected
th&t the tot movement should be in what is called " Somtte
6o HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Form/' that is, built on two themes, which, roughly speaking,
are treated in this manner in three sections ;
Exposition Development Recapitulation
A. ist Theme Development of (i) Repetition of A as
both themes before
B. 2nd Theme in , (2) Repetition of B
contrasted key * now in key of Tonic
The evolution of this form is seen in its embryo stage in some
of the double- thcmed movements of Corelli's so-called Sonatas
for two violins and bass (1683), while in x6c/>, Handel's Sonatas
for two oboes, and movements of his third harpsichord Suite,
show attempts at development and recapitulation after the
modern manner,
It should be mentioned here that what is called th " Old
Sonata Form " of this period differs mainly from the modern
form thus :
Exposition Recapitulation
A, ist Theme A in key of B
B, 2nd Theme (often frag- B in key of A
mentary in contrasted key)
The one-movement so-called Sonatas of Scarlatti are written
mostly in this form, though the and Theme is usually ill-defined*
It is in 1695 that Kuhnau's Sonatas (see Part I, Chapter V}
the first nal clawr Sonatas appeared, In these Sonatas some
approach is made to the modem form, only the nebulous second
subject is neither developed nor repeated* Sonatas were written
by Pasquini, Galuppi and Paradies, the latter showing an
advance on Scarlatti in matters of form ($$# Chapter VII) ;
but the next link, an important one, comes with Em* Bach,
whose work is described in the following Chapter,
In Em, Bach's Sonatas for Stints and Ama^un (m next
Chapter), the second subjects are usually clear, while the
development and recapitulatory sections cause the form to
approximate! to that used by Beethoven, whom ha anticipates
also in his tmexpected modulations and sudden contrasts.
Emu Bach is also much less contrapuntal than Kuhnati in styte*
Haydn (m Part H, Chapter IV) buUt on and imitated Em,
THE EVOLUTION OF THE SONATA 61
Bach, but in his later works (1776 and 1780) he comes nearer to
his pupil Beethoven both in development and in spirit of
expression.
Mozart, with the exception of the C minor (1784), wrote his
Sonatas (see Part II, Chapter IV) apparently for the " long
ears "in a light and popular style. His best work, however,
surpasses that of Haydn.
Mozart and Haydn together enlarged the scope and develop
ment of the three sections of the typical ist movement, while
they greatly improved the slow movements and finales. Both
composers were strongly influenced by Italian models and by
their own devotion to violin and chamber music ; the result
being (i) a more melodious style ; (2) the cultivation of a more
fluent and more highly phrased and punctuated style, dementi
was the first to furnish the appropriate technique of the Sonata
as written for the new pianoforte and utilized by Beethoven,
and in Rust we find some anticipation of the depth of feeling
presented in Beethoven's works.
It was Beethoven himself, however, who perfected the Sonata
(see Part II, Chapter VII), by experimenting both as regards
the number and kind of movements, by enlarging the bounds of
key and modulation, by weaving into it an intensely animated
weft of thematic development, and by filling the form with a
greater range of feelingfrom the tragic despair of the Adagios
to the light-winged play of the Scherzos, while he also con
siderably developed the technique, introducing the virtuoso
element with artistic effect.
The work of Em. Bach, Clementi, Haydn, Mozart and
Beethoven in connection with the Sonata is further dealt
with in the respective Chapters devoted to them. It will help
the student to grasp in his mind the rapidity of the evolution of
the Sonata, occupying little more than fifty years (from
Em. Bach to Beethoven), if he will consult the following
Table :
THE SONATA
Homophonic Polyphonic
For Harpsichord or Clavichord
1695. Kuhnau. Sonatas.
1703. Pasquini Sonatas.
1713, Mattheson. Sonatas.
1733, D, Scarlatti. L$s$on$ or 1730* Couperin. 3rd Collection
Sonatas.
62 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Homophonic Polyphonic
For Harpsichord or Clavichord
1742. Em. Bach, Sonatas (ist set). 1741. Rameau. Concerts,
1746. Paradies. Sonatas. 1744. Bach's " 48," Pt, II.
1754. Paradies. Sonatas, *75'*- Bach's Art of
1760. Em. Bach's 6 Sonatas.
1770, dementi's First Sonatas.
1774. Haydn's 6 Sonatas.
1776. Mozart's 6 Sonatas.
1775. Rust's ist Sonata.
1778. Rust's D minor Sonata.
1780. Haydn. 6 Sonatas.
1781. Em. Bach's Sonatas for "Forte
Piano.' 1
1780-90. Hassler. 3 sets Sonatas,
1784, Mozart. C minor Sonata.
1796. Beethoven to Op. 2,
1802. Clementi to Op. 40.
1802, Beethoven to 0^3*.
1808. Dussek. L& R&towr & Pans.
1821. dementi, Last Sonatas.
1822. Beethoven, Op. in.
CHAPTER III
DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODERN SONATA
Emmanuel Bach (1714-88)
" The form i$ the mould in which genius is cast." Schumann.
THE position earned by Emmanuel Bach (1714-88) in the story
of pianoforte music is that of having enlarged and settled the
form of the Sonata.
In this way he stands intermediate between his father,
J. Sebastian Bach, who, in his Preludes, experimented in what
we now call modern Sonata form, and dementi and Haydn.
Em. Bach came early under Italian influence. In 1740
he was cembalist to Frederick the Great, accompanying, as
part of his duties, that monarch's performance on the flute.
Italian music at that time was much in favour at the Prussian
Court, It was in 1740 also that his first set of Sonatas (dedicated
to Frederick) were composed, Haydn at that time being eight
years old ; but his best-known collection, For Connoisseurs
and Amateurs, were composed between 1773 and 1787, when
representative works by dementi and Haydn were already in
existence*
As a link between the old and the new $iyk&> fortes, pianos,
crescendos and diminuendos, together with unexpected modu
lations and enharmonic transitions, are of special interest. The
restless modern spirit is also present, though only in outKne ;
but his work is marred by the formal nature of the theme ancj
by its fragmentary working out,
As regards his share in the evolution of the modern Sonata,
we have not space to go into great detail, but it is interesting to
note how, with Em, Bach, the second subject becomes xnor$
dear and definite* We note how the old form, as in Scarlatti
with its direct double transposition of both first and fragmentary
second subjects in the second half (s&e Chapter II) takes the
63
64 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
intermediate method of interposing some development of the
chief theme in its transposed key, and how this then leads
direct to a full recapitulation of both subjects in the tonic, as
in the modern form.
With Haydn and dementi the transposed fragmentary first
theme gives way at once to the more modern development of the
second, or portions of both subjects.
In Em. Bach's Sonatas the somewhat vague and com
paratively undeveloped slow movements also eventually emerge
into the more developed form as used by Haydn and Beethoven,
though on the whole they are thinner and not so richly
harmonized in style as those of his successors. In one particular,
however, vt *., emotion, his slow movements, being more reflective
and Teutonic than those of the Croatian Haycln or of the Italian
dementi, come nearer to those of Beethoven, as is pointed out in
detail in the excellent Schenker Edition (U. Ed.).
In Emmanuel Bach's quick movements the prevailing Italian
fashion is noticeable, as it is also in his technique, which is old-
fashioned and partly resembles that of his father,
In Styk of Composition Em. Bach broke away from the fugal
style of his father. In his introduction to the Science of
Accompaniment and Free Improvisation (1762) he says, " The
taste of to-day has brought into vogue a style of harmony
quite different from that formerly in uses/ 1
This " homophonic " or g&lani style, inculcating a more,
purely harmonic method, was particularly developed by him,
and in this he became the model for his immediate successors :
Haydn, who remarked, " I owe much to him/' and Mozart, who
said, " He is the father and we are the children/*
Besides the Sonatas ha wrote some very modern Rondos, the
fern of which he solidified, introducing, after the manner of
Cotiperin, much variety of key and treatment in the repetitions
of the chief theme. His gay, almost Haydnish Fantesits,
though modern in spirit, are mostly built on the plan of the
old Fugued Toccata,
As an Gxecttiftnt on the clavichord Em. Bach Is known to have
shown extraordinary skill and neatness, His critical study of
the Italian and French composers of thtt period and the con
fusion arising from the various methods of interpreting the
*' Manieren " or " graces " than in me lad to the tppetrtnce of
his important work, The Correct Mithod of Ploying th$ Clwitr
DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODERN SONATA 65
(I753)> * n which explanations are given of the various em
bellishments. Preferring always the clavichord, both as a
performer and composer, he stands at the parting of the ways as
compared with Clementi, who wrote always for the new
" Fortepiano," and thus inaugurated the modern Pianoforte
School. Mozart did not adopt the piano till after 1777 and his
leaning towards the harpsichord was particularly noticeable in
his Sonatas and lighter works.
Em. Bach's chronological position is seen as follows :
EM, BACH, 1714-88.
1732, Haydn born,
1733. D. Scarlatti's ist Sonatas,
1740. ist set Sonatas, 1741. Rameau's Concertos.
1746. Paradies' Sonatas,
1750. Mozart born,
1770. Haydn's ist Sonatas.
1773-87, Sonatas for" Connoisseurs, 1774. Mozart's 6 Sonatas.
etc/ 1 1781, Beethoven's early Sonatas,
etc,
CHAPTER IV
HAYDN AND MOZART
" Every composition reveals the model from which it is derived/ 1
C. M. Von Weber.
1685, Bach and Handel born,
1750, Bach died,
I732~x8o9, Haydn, *750. Handel died.
1750-91, Mozart, 1770, dementi, istS0w#4$
1788, Em, Bach died,
T 795 Paradies died,
1796* Beethoven, Qp t 2, dedicated to Haydn.
1804. Field settles in St, Petersburg,
1808. Weber, Polonai&s in gty and Variation*
IN the last Chapter we discussed the part taken by Em, Bach in
the evolution of the Sonata,
The clavier history of Haydn and Mozart is likewise summed
up in the development of that tonal structure, and, in a smaller
way, in the Variation form,
Formal development, however, is not everything* Harmonic
style also counts for much,
At an earlier stage we classed together Bach and Handel as
leaders of polyphony. In a similar way we can associate
together their successors Haydn and Mozart, as initiating
modern harmonic $tyl$.
New forms and new harmonic style do not yet, however,
suffice to distinguish the leaders of a new era. We must look,
in addition, (i) to the in/lmmt of the orck&$fr&, introducing a
more minutely-phrased structure, which, in its turn, paved th
way for the thematic development of Beethoven ; (a) in the
case of Haydn, to a new humanizing element that of folk-song
or folk-ton*, representing the virgin store of melody hidden in
the hearts of the people. The gay-spirited music of Haydn, the
Croatian of Slavonic origin and peasant stock appealed to
the world at large because of the ingenious Croatian folk-song
melodies hidden therein, Mr, Htdow, in his A C?mli&n
Composer , says, " Some of his tunes are folk-sonp altered and
HAYDN AND MOZART 67
improved, the vast majority are original, but display the same
general characteristics of Croatian f oik-song/ ' and he adds that
the folk- tunes " find their way into everything hymns,
quartets, divertimenti not because Haydn had any need
to take them, but because he loved them too well to leave them
out." When we consider how much of the phraseology of
Mozart and Beethoven comes from Haydn, especially in their
earlier works, we cannot overestimate the influence of this
national element.
Apart from this, the music of Mozart (who was of Bavarian
stock), shows also his attractive personality. This doubtless
was much influenced by his career as a prodigy in nearly every
European Court, where, as virtuoso and composer, he was the
spoilt child of fortune,
We have spoken of Italian influence on these composers.
Haydn was a pupil of Porpora in Vienna (whose Italian music
at that time was much in request), and studied Clementi and
Paradies as well as the works of Em. Bach who, as we have
already said, influenced him strongly in the architecture of the
Sonata form. Porpora's influence is perhaps the strongest,
and it is interesting to note how the phrases of Porpora permeate
Haydn's work. For instance, whole sections of Porpora's
Fugue in Bb appear iix Haydn's Creation (" The Heavens are
telling'' and "Achieved is the glorious work"). Mozart,
again, through his sojourn in Italy and his composition of Operas
in the Italian style, was thoroughly imbued with Italian melody.
It will be noted that Haydn was the senior of Mozart by some
twenty-four years, and that he also outlived his junior by
eighteen years, Owing to this, the music of the two, who were
great friends, reacted one on the other, Mozart learnt much
from " Papa " Haydn, and subsequently Haydn showed that
he had profited by the work of Mozart before the tatter's untimely
death,
Haydn's interest as a composer was chiefly centred in the
symphony and string quartet, and it was not tin 1774, four
years after the Op. 2 of Clementi, who was twenty years his
junior, had appeared, that he wrote his first Sonatas for piano.
Haydn's thirty-five Sonatas for piano do not equal tho&e of
Beethoven, though his last two in E^, the Gewigw Sonaia and
the Op. 78, approach him closely in some waye, while they again
&fe &wpie<t by the best of Mozart,
68 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Some of Haydn's, like some of Mozart's, are rather old-
fashioned, and in both cases the pianoforte technique is not
equal to that of dementi, owing to their use of the harpsichord
and the light-actioned Vienna piano.
Mozart's first six Sonatas appeared six years after those of
Haydn. It may be said that the weaker ones by both were
written for educational purposes and therefore to some extent
in the fashion of the period.
Regarding the influence of Em, Bach, we recall that
Mozart had said, " He is the father and we are the children/ 1
while Haydn acknowledged how much he owed to him ; and it
is therefore interesting to find that Haydn was accused of
caricaturing his model in Ms earliest Sonatas.
Apart from limits in form, the resemblance could probably
be traced in little tricks of manner, surprise modulations, un
expected patises, sudden pianos and forks, in which Em, Bach
was trying to make the most of the resources of the new piano
forte- In general style, however, Haydn is really nearer to
dementi than to the half-contrapuntal Em. Bach.
One special feature with Haydn is that the left hand is almost
invariably employed with accompanimental work. It occasion-*
ally initiates, alternates with, or imitates a phrase, but it lacks
the interchange and inversion of theme ao characteristic of
Beethoven's thematic work. Haydn looks on his work, as it
were, from the point of view of a first violinist ; Momrt, to
continue the simile, gives more attention to the 'cello or double
bass ; while Beethoven divides the work and interest among all
th parts, Mozart's left-hand part is more independent, and
dialogue or imitation of that part is mom frequent,
Haydn's Sonatas graduate in merit according to their date
of appearance* Those of 1776 are better developed than the
first sat, and his finest works, as we have mentioned, are the
last two in Ej? which, for Haydn, show unusually deep
feeling,
As regards Momrt's Sonatas, Mr* Shedlock singles out three
as of surpassing interest, the A minor (1778), tha C minor (1784)
and the one in F (1788). " In th first, as regards the writing,
virtuosity asserts itself, and in tfat third contrapuntal skill ;
but in the second the greatness of tfat music makes us forget
the means by which that greatness is achieved " (Tk$Piamf&rii
Sonata). The C min&r comes nearest to those of Beethoven in
HAYDN AND MOZART 69
nobility and unity of ideas. Mozart and Haydn both improved
much on the thin style and disconnected subject-matter of
Em. Bach. Their completeness of idea and greater fullness of
style, together with some thematic development, make a step
forward in the evolution of the Sonata (see Part II, Chapter
III) ; while, to discriminate in our summary a greater depth of
feeling and a realization of some of the possibilities of pianoforte
technique mark out those of Mozart as superior to those of Haydn.
The model for Mozart's technique is contained in his own
words : *' Above all things a player should possess a quiet,
steady hand, the natural lightness, smoothness and gliding
rapidity of which is so developed that the passages flow like oil,"
Haydn was so much of the violinist that in writing to his
publisher in 1788 he says, " I was obliged to buy a new forte-
piano, that I might compose your clavier Sonatas particularly
well " ; while Mozart, as we know, was a virtuoso on the clavier
from his childhood.
Mozart's superiority as a pianist is maintained also in his
classic Concertos (see Part III, Chapter XXII) of which he
founded the present form, In these he shows to advantage the
art of displaying the brittle " tone " of the piano against that of
the orchestra. Those of Haydn belong rather to the older style
in which the piano part is more in the nature of an obbligato
than of a solo part.
The favourite Concerto in D minor, the Coronation, and the
last in Bb by Mozart are still heard in the modern concert room,
The Variations of Mozart and Haydn, following, as they do,
Italian models, are mostly of the embroidery order and in the
melodic style (s** Part III, Chapter XXIV), With Mozart
especially, by means of various technical figures, the melody is
broken tip into many various forms, Haydn, however, leans
mote to the harmonic style of treatment. His F minor
Variations, those for " scholar and master " in Duet, as well as
the Duet Variations of Mozart, stand out prominently,
Of the other works of Mozart, the energetic Sonata in D for
two pianos is one of the classics in that form, while his Duet
Sonatas, the first Duets written (No. x, 1765), still rank as
important in Duet literature (see Part III, Chapter XXIII).
There are also the quaintly sweet Rondo in A minor and the
noble (2nd) Fantasia in C minor and the similar one attached
to th C minor Sonata,
70 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Haydn wrote less than Mozart for the piano, and his other
miscellaneous pieces are of no particular merit.
Generally speaking, Haydn's works are especially character
ized by an ever-flowing sprightly wit and humour, by perfect
finish and development (" according to his lights "), and by a
fund of refreshing melody in which, as we have pointed out,
Croatian influence was strong. Mozart was the soul of sincerity.
If Haydn was the first apostle of wit, Mozart was the first in the
modern style to bring out depth of feeling combined with grace and
delicacy of expression ; in the former he anticipated Beethoven,
as, for example, in his fiery and passionate C minor Sonata,
Mozart's melody, though Italian in cast, was always spon
taneous and sincere, and in chromatic harmony effects he was,
for his times, a daring experimenter, but in this he was always
effective. Finally, as a whole, Mozart's style was essentially
diatonic. His saying, " Melody is the essence of music, 1 ' is in
keeping with his own general inclination to favour the beautiful
at the expense of the characteristic, to revel, as it were, in sheer
beauty of sound rather than in its power of interpreting or
depicting in itself the various human emotions.
For this latter power, however, we must look ahead to Beethoven,
and especially to the romantic composers who succeeded him,
We shall require now to anticipate a little with regard to tha
position of Clementi, who was really the senior of Mozart by
some four years.
It is characteristic of the subject of pianoforte music that
not only do its historical periods overlap each other, but its
schools also. For instance, we note that, while Scarlatti and
Paradies in Italy, with Clementi in England, are developing
one style of art, Em Bach, Haydn and Mozart in Germany are
working out another. Or, to quote an earlier parallel, whiles
Pre&cobaldi in Italy is writing Suites with primitive, organlike
technique, the English Virginal School is already reaching a
climax in technique and developing a real harpsichord style,
Clementi, therefore, stands for w (x) as the succestor of
Scarlatti and Mozart, (2) as the originator of a genuine piano
forte style both as composer and executant.
Unlike most composers, Clementi lived a long as well as a
most useful life, and on a stage which is already becoming
crowded he occupies a unique positkm in tha story of pianoforte
musk as bridging over thr interval between the old and tha new.
CHAPTER V
CLEMENTI, THE "FATHER OF THE PIANOFORTE/' DUSSEK,
RUST, ONSLOW AND HASSLER
1739-96, F. W. Rust. 1770. Clementi. ist Sonata.
1747-1822, I W. Hassler. 1775-8. Rust, ist Sonatas.
1752-1832. Clementi. 1780-90, Hassler. Three sets Sonatas.
1761-1812. Dussek. 1792-8. Dussek. Sonatas, Op. 35.
1784-1852. Onslow. 1796. Beethoven. Op. 2.
1806, Dussek. Eltgie Harmonique.
c. i Boo. Onslow. Op. 2 and Duet Sonatas,
1821. Clementi. Last Sonatas (Didone
AbbandonMia).
1822, Beethoven. Last Sonatas.
IT is significant of the rapid rise and perfection of the youngest
of the arts that the life-time of one man should witness the
transition from the skeleton Sonatas of Scarlatti to the perfection
of that art form by Beethoven, and that this man Clementi
should (i) have been born while Handel and Scarlatti were
alive, should (2) have survived the decease of Beethoven as well
as Schubert and Weber, and (3) should have been living while
Liszt was at work on his Paganini Caprices.
The " Father of the Pianoforte/' as he is styled in his epitaph
in Westminster Abbey/left Italy at the age of fourteen, in 1766.
Already a youthful virtuoso, he had also written several contra
puntal works as a pupil of Cordicelli
The rest of his life, with the exception of visits to the Continent,
was spent in this country, where he was trained at the expense
of a " Sir Beckford " (as Marmontel terms him), the cousin of
the author of V.athek.
For four yeairs young Clementi studied most assiduously at
the house of his benefactor in Dorsetshire. Here he had a rich
literary and musical library at command, and it is said that
Bach, Handel, Scarlatti and Paradies the leading lights of his
day were his favourite composers. Added to those, no doubt,
were other Italian composers for clavecin that he had known in
Italy, including Martini and Marcello. The works of these
71
72 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
composers he is said to have played with ideal perfection,
" the clearness of his touch and the variety of his nuances
being without parallel/'
dementi's chief pupils, John Field and Cramer, also possessed
the same degree of clarity of touch. In playing the Fugues
of Bach they brought out each part distinctly with the necessary
tone, accent, etc., to ensure its individuality. As a result of
Clementi's study in private, there appeared, in 1770, (the year
he left Dorset for London), his remarkable First Sonatas, Op. 2.
Technically in advance of all notable works of the time, the
first Sonata in C contains features of interest which reappear in
Beethoven twenty-six years later.
It is evident, from a comparison of the works of Em. Bach,
Haydn and the Italian clavier composers, that the remarkably
advanced style here shown by Clementi was the result of the
study of the free, fluent style of Durante, Galuppi and other
Italian composers. Clementi, the Italian, did for the pianoforte
technique of his day what Liszt, the Hungarian, did later on,
At that time the Italian School was in the ascendant. The
style of Handel, who was also resident in this country, was
Italian, and Bach himself, although a stay-at-home, looked with
favour on the pleasant and learned Italian style and endeavoured
to write his Italian Concerto in that manner. The technique
which Beethoven adopted from the Sonatas of Clementi was
therefore Italian in its origin, and it may be that he also acquired
some of his vigour of style and his special use of the f&rmn$Q from
Clementi, whose compositions he much admired.
Young Clementi was ambitious and he showed the virtuoso
tendency of Scarlatti and his confr&res in rapid passages of
thirds, broken octaves in the bass, quick alternate flights of
octaves and sixths, telling broken-chord and scale passages,
He was throughout, in his piano Sonatas, ahead of the mort
0n?M'M%~minded Haydn and Momrt, both a$ r^gardi
technique, form and style ; and this probably arose from the
fact that he gave all Ws energies to the piano and did not
share the manifold activities of the two South German composers.
The difference is also dua to the fact that Clamentl composed
for the English piano, which aUowtd of more sonorous effects
than the lighter action of the Vienna piano in use on the
continent*
The first piano recital in London was given to 1768 by
CLEMENTI, " FATHER OF THE PIANOFORTE " 73
J. Christian Bach, son of the great Sebastian, but dementi's
Sonatas (Op. 2, 1770) were the first published in this country as
written exclusively for the piano.
The piano was yet in its infancy, and previous works had
been inscribed as " For Pianoforte or Harpsichord," so that
dementi was the t{ Father of the Piano " in a double sense :
(i) as the founder of its technique, and (2) as the first to write
for it in a real piano style, dementi played upon Broadwood's
earlier and smaller instruments. Later, he became associated
with the firm of piano manufacturers since known as Collard's,
and it was through his advice that Broadwood was enabled by
1820 to perfect his grand piano, which had such an influence
on the development of technique in the time of Liszt.
It is interesting to note the mutual influence which dementi
and Beethoven exercised on each other as composers. While
dementi was Beethoven's immediate model in technique and
form, there is no doubt that the lofty style of the latter influenced
dementi at the close of his career, when his naturally sunny and
vigorous style took on something of the pathos of Beethoven in
his last Didone Abbandonata Sonata.
Mr, Shedlock (The Piano Sonata, J. S. Shedlock) is also of
opinion that, " with the exception of Mozart's Sonata in C minor,
Haydn's Genziger London Sonatas, both in Eb, and one or two
of Rust's there are none which in spirit come nearer to
Beethoven than some of dementi's."
On the other hand, there are whole passages in Beethoven's
earlier works which can be traced to similar passages in dementi.
Like the Sonatas of Haydn and Mozart, those of dementi may
be classed as (i) technical, (2) educational, and (3) artistic.
As regards features of general interest, the Op. 2 are principally
technical, Op, 9 and 10 contain " foreshado wings " of Beethoven,
Op. 12 (No. 2) and Op. 14 (No, 2) developments of form, and
so on.
It goes without saying that some of dementi's works have
been overshadowed by the richly harmonized and more reflective
works of Beethoven and the Romantics, but there are still some
works of his which deserve attention. The famous B minor
Sonata, the E\> 9 Op, 12 (No, 4), the F minor, and the Didone
Abbandonata" one of the finest Sonatas ever written" should
be in every student's library, dementi's early Op. 12, No. i, is
notable for the Variations which are in advance of anything
74 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
written in that style for some time afterwards. The Op. 47
(No. 2) in Bb, with Toccata, is the one played by dementi
(then nineteen years of age) at the Court of the Emperor
Joseph V. in 1781. Mozart, then fifteen, who was also present,
played alternately with Clementi at sight, and both extem
porized on a given theme the palm of victory being undecided.
It seems that Mozart, after this (being always prejudiced against
Italians), derided dementi's superior technique, while Clementi
generously praised Mozart's singing touch. The theme of the
Sonata played by Clementi was afterwards taken by Mozart
as the subject of his Zauberfldte overture, in which his superiority
in thematic development is shown ; and it is through the want
of this, and also of modern harmony and of deeper and more
reflective emotion, that dementi's work suffers in comparison
with the best work of Mozart and Beethoven. It will be noted
that his Andantes are especially weak points,
dementi's pupils John Field, whom he took to St. Petersburg
(where his widely different style of composition anticipated that
of Chopin), J. B, Cramer, who was brought up and lived in
London, Bertini, who was also born in London, Bergcr (the
teacher of Mendelssohn), Klengel and Kalkbrenner became the
first pianists in Europe and spread abroad his modern method of
technique, which had been developed in his unique and in
valuable Gradus ad Parnassum (1817) and in his Preludes and
Exercises, These publications were based on the contrapuntal
style already out of date, and were soon left behind by Czerny,
but they were useful, from a technical point of view, as studies
in independence of the fingers, and generally for the Concertos
and Sonatas of Mozart and Beethoven.
After his arrival in London Clementi was busy as a virtuoso
and teacher ; and from 1777 to 1780, as cembalist of the Italian
Opera, he conducted the Operas of Porpora, Sacchini and
Pergolese, as well as the Oratorios of Handel. In 1781 he began
his concert tours on the Continent, including the one to Russia
in 1802* These occupations, together with composition, filled
an active life till he died at the age of eighty. Moscheles relates
how, at a dinner given in his honour in 1827, " Smart, Cramer
and I conducted him to tie Piano, Everyone's expectation is
raised to the utmost pitch, for Clementi had not been heard for
many years. Ha improvises on a theme of Handel and carries
tis all away to the highest enthusism, His eyes shine with the
CLEMENTI, " FATHER OF THE PIANOFORTE " 75
fire of youth, those of his hearers grow humid, dementi's
playing in his youth was marked by a most beautif ul legato, a
supple touch in lively passages and a most unfailing technique.
The remains of these qualities could still be discerned and
admired, but the most charming things were the turns of his
improvisation, full of youthful genius/' 1
DUSSEK (1761-1812)
In comparison with dementi Dussek appeals to us generally
as putting mere brilliant technical figuration less in the fore
ground, and substituting for it a more lyrical style (in which
dementi was deficient), greater repose, more sentimental feeling,
and richer harmonies. In Dussek's works thematic development
often has to retire in favour of a succession of passages of great
melodic charm, mostly constructed on basses, with frequent use
of the sustaining pedal. In short, though Dussek wrote in
classic style, he had a distinct leaning towards the romanticism
to which Weber later gave so powerful an impetus.
His lyrical style in composition was reflected also in his
playing. The Bohemian Fanaschek writes, " In the year 1804
my countryman, Dussek, came to Prague " ; and, remarking
on his " charming grace of manner " and " wonderful touch/ 1
he adds that " his fingers were like a company of ten singers/'
and that " his fine declamatory style, especially in cantabile
phrases, stands as the ideal for every artistic performance/'
Not that the bravura element in composition was wanting, as
may be seen in his Sonata in D minor, Op. 9 (No. 3), where there
are rapid passages of octaves, thirds and sixths. His use, too,
of tenths and extensions, like those of Woelfl, foreshadow, in
some degree, Weber's and Henselt's technique.
At the present day Dussek is somewhat neglected. He is
now known by the Rondos Consolation, The Adieu and Matinfa,
and the Bb Sonata, Op. 24. Other Sonatas there are, however,
which, in spite of diffuse workmanship, deserve resuscitation, if
only for their melodic charm. Some of them are equal to the
best of those by Mozart and Haydn. Most are in two move
ments, though his very expressive Adagios in the three-movement
Invocation and Le Retour 4 Paris are very attractive, Besides
those already mentioned, the jRff minor Sonata, Op, 61, con-
* iVom Moachelea' Diary.
76 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
taining the El&gie Harmonique, written on the death of Prince
Louis Ferdinand of Prussia (who was himself no mean composer),
the Op. 35 in B\? and G, the latter with attractive contrapuntal
first movement and Rondo, the bravura one in /I, 0^. 43, the
Moto Perpctuo of the Op, g (No. 3), the Pmto of the Op. 10
(No. 3), Op. 45 (No. i), and Op, 47, No. i are still worthy of a
hearing. The Op. 70 Sonaia in A\>, known on the Continent as
the Retour A Paris, was given the name Plus Ultra by an
English publisher, in answer to the Ne Plus Ultra Sonata of
Woelfl then recently published,
Dussek was originally an organist at a Jesuit Church at
Kuttenberg, and obtained an appointment in Holland. He
eventually appeared in Amsterdam as a virtuoso* Subsequently
he studied with Em. Bach and then appeared in Berlin, In
the course of a roving life Dussek played before Marie Antoinette
in Paris and settled in London as teacher and publisher for a
period of twelve years, Concert tours in Europe followed, and
in 1803 he became the companion and adviser of Prince
Ferdinand of Prussia, himself a composer. In 1806 he returned
to Paris and remained in the service of Talleyrand till his death
in 1812.
Dussek's historical importance lies (i) in his introduction of
the lyric, quasi-romantic element into the Sonata form, and
(2) especially in the advancement of technique, in which he is
ahead of Moasart and Haydn, and which, through him* reached
its climax in Liszt not by way of Cicntenti and Beethoven,
but through Weber, Hummel, Chopin and Hcnsclt.
F, W. RUST (1739-96)
A forgotten composer, but one who helped in the evolution of
the Sonata, is P W. Rust, a pupil of Friedeman and Emmanuel
Bach, Rust wrote eight Sonatas for piano, of which, at Mr,
Shedlock points out, it is sometimes " difficult to believ that
the music belonp to a pre*Beethoven period/ 1 In freedom of
form and modern feeling the D minor (1788), the Lamentation
in D (1794) and the C minor (1796), so closely anticipate the
style of Beethoven, and even of Schumann, that the question
has been asked whether Beethoven wti acquainted with and
Influenced by them, or whether it was the result of later editing
by Rust's grandson, The eariinr Soatt&s written In 1775,
CLEMENTI, "FATHER OF THE PIANOFORTE " 77
1777 and 1784 are not so advanced, and the problem remains
unsolved.
Another composer of the dementi School, as far as works for
piano are concerned, is George Onslow, a grandson of Lord
Onslow, born in France in 1784. His dignified Sonata, Op. 2
(Joubert) and Variations on an Ecossaise (Schles.), which show
leanings to the chromatic style later exploited by Spohr, were
probably written during a stay of some years in London, where
he was a pupil of Dussek and Cramer. His Duet Sonatas,
Op. 7 and 22, are still played, Onslow lived mostly in France,
and his reputation as a composer of Chamber Music secured to
him the directorship of the InstiM in Paris in succession to
Cherubini. The three sets of Sonatas by J. W. Hassler
(1747-1822) deserve mention as constituting another link
between those of Em. Bach and Beethoven, Though they
appeared (o. 1780) shortly after the first set of Haydn, they
partake of his neat orchestral style in all its piquancy,
rhythmical vigour and humour. [See Three Sonatas (Hompesch,
R. F.)]. His spirited D minor Gigue is well known.
CHAPTER VI
MODERN PIANOFORTE TECHNIQUE
" In endeavouring to conceal its defects and bring out its merits, an
artist will play compositions which are most suitable to (that) instrument "
Spohv.
THE natural continuation of dementi is to be found in Beethoven.
An interlude, however, is necessary here to consider the practical
side of the art which dementi did so much to further.
Modern piano technique may be regarded as being initiated by
Em, Bach and placed on a firm foundation by dementi, both of
whom built on Scarlatti and Paradies,
The younger by 38 years, Em. Bach had recognized the
advantages (and the deficiencies) of the early piano and com
posed for it, though it is not until 1781 that he named his
Sonatas only " for the Forte Piano/' It is interesting to note
how Em. Bach avails himself of the characteristic figuration of
Scarlatti's technique, though in the earlier works the organ-like
recitative scale-passages of his father present themselves.
Like Scarlatti's works written for the harpsichord, they are also
decidedly thin in their effect, being mostly written in two parts,
His later slow movements, however, are fuller and are more
reflective and also more reminiscent of his father's style.
dementi presents many similarities, but is bolder, fuller and
more sonorous in style than Em, Bach, The first page of his
Skmrta in C (1770) is in octaves, and there is more variety of
technique, In his Gradus he has rapid continuous successions
erf thirds and sixths, and makes great demands on muscular
force in general.
The filling modern effect of the Albert! bass is often present
jfc dementi, though qtdte absent from Em, Bach, We note
ate* the rolling effect of the broken octave passages and other
effects copied by Beethoven, who founded to much erf his earlier
style on
MODERN PIANOFORTE TECHNIQUE 79
In Mozart and Haydn we have a similar technique to that of
dementi, but a more elegant and ornamental style, influenced
by the light action of the Vienna piano, and by the composers'
devotion to the Violin and Chamber Music. Mozart's technique
is also influenced by his more lyrical, or song-like, and expressive
style, dementi, again, wrote almost entirely for the piano,
while Haydn and Mozart's compositions were manifoldly
distributed.
With Beethoven the technique is that of Clementi at first,
strongly influenced by his piecemeal or analytic style of thematic
figuration, in which chordal or scale-passages are broken up and,
passing through various keys, appear again in a new guise.
Beethoven's technique was, therefore, his own and, though it has
been imitated, it has never been equalled in its own way,
because of its psychological character. The language of the
orchestra (see Chapter IV) also plays a strong part in his
technique (as did the organ in that of Bach), especially in the
slow movements. As pianoforte executants, no doubt Clementi
and Beethoven were superior to Haydn and Mozart.
dementi's cantabile and muscular style of playing became
refined through his pupils Cramer, Berger and Field especially
the last. Cramer's quiet and smooth, yet firm, style of touch
was specially commended by Beethoven, while Field, who used
an almost perpendicular position of the fingers, was noted for
his sweet, sustained and delicate style, which is said to have
resembled that of Chopin. Kalkbrenner and Mayer combined
virtuosity with a perfectly quiet position at the piano, the
former notably cultivating octave playing in a new manner
from the wrist ; while Dussek possessed the art of making the
piano sing and was given to the use of extensions and leaps,
thereby anticipating Weber and Woelfl,
Weber also considerably extended the bravura style, which
he combined with greater animation and dramatic fire. The
bravura element was continued by Moscheles and Mendelssohn
and was combined in both with a refined classic element. The
light Vienna style of execution and composition was continued
by the Mozartcan Hummel and by Czerny (in his studies) as well
as by the arabesque adornments of the cantabile compositions
of Thalberg.
Thalberg's extremely polished but cold style of execution
caused quite a sensation for a time, but this was eventually far
60 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
surpassed by the unequalled technical power and style of the
virtuoso Lizst.
Liszt's elevated sloping hand gave great power, his equaliza
tion of fingering over black and white keys gave better methods
of phrasing, while his great energy and variety of technical
treatment (see Part III, Chapter XV) brought the instrument
to be regarded as almost orchestral in power and resources.
Schumann, in his rich romantic style, betwixt the massive
and grand, invested with contrapuntal interest a gambolling
and graceful broken chord figuration peculiar to himself.
(See Part III, Chapter VI.) He initiated a new style and bore
out in practice his own saying, " Executive passages alter with
the times/'
The original alternating, sparkling and iridescent languorous
technique of Chopin, as interpreted through his poetical com
positions, has been partly perpetuated through Henselt with his
special development of extensions, and through the Russian
School, which is founded on the works of both.
Many great virtuosos exist, as in the past, but no specially
new technical style seems to have appeared since that of Chopin,
the somewhat unpianistic technique of Brahms being based on a
mixture of Schumann, Bach and Liszt,
Pianoforte styles having thus attained a climax in technique,
are now being diverted into other channels. Impressionism
and imitation of the orchestra seem to be pre-eminent at present,
and as these depend mostly on harmonic colouring, they arc
somewhat antagonistic to the development of technique,
In our last Chapter we were discussing Clementi, while our
next is on Beethoven ; so that at first glance our intervening
iKe&tion of lisgt, Schumann and Chopin would aeem to be out
of place,
Ferhaps, therefore, the reader requires to be reminded of this
$mto in our storyhow that, while yet Clementi was alive, the
had received Beethoven's blessing, and how that,
the death of the latter, many of the best works of the
Mendelssohn, Schumann and Chopin, had already
CHAPTER VII
THE CLIMAX OF FORMAL MUSIC
" Emotion suits women only (forgive me!) ; music ought to strike fire
from the soul of a man." Beethoven Letters.
1788. Death of Em. Bach.
1791. Death of Mozart.
1802. Field with dementi at St. Petersburg,
1770-1827. Beethoven. 1809. Death of Haydn.
1826. Death of Weber.
1828, Death of Schubert.
1832. Death of Clementi.
IT was in 1790 that the venerable Haydn, then nearly sixty
years of age, in response to repeated invitations, made his first
journey to England, and his first outside his Austrian fatherland.
On the day of departure from Vienna (December isth) and at
that time Vienna was the capital of the musical world his
friend and pupil Mozart took an affectionate farewell, exclaiming
prophetically, " This is probably our last farewell in this life."
A year later the news of the lamented premature death of
Mozart reached Haydn, who was still in England. Haydn
turned his steps homeward in 1792 and was entertained to a
breakfast given in his honour at Bonn on the Rhine. It was in
this quiet, old-fashioned town that he first became acquainted
with young Beethoven, then twenty-two years of age, who
submitted a Cantata for his approval ; and at this time an
arrangement was made that the young aspirant should go to
Vienna and study under Haydn, Six years previously Mozart
had heard young Beethoven extemporize on a given theme and
had prophetically announced to his friends, " Take note of him!
he will make a stir in the world later! "
Previous to this Beethoven had already (at eleven years of
&ge) written the three " Haydnish " Sonatas which he dedicated
to the Elector of Cologne, as well as the Dresskr Variations.
His youthful show piece, his rhythmic Variations, in which he
shows greater resource and command of pianoforte technique
81
82 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
than either of his seniors, Mozart and Haydn, was written in
1789, three years before this visit of Haydn.
On the occasion of his leaving Bonn, Count Waldstein, who
had proved himself a friend, wrote as follows :
DEAR BEETHOVEN,
You are going now to Vienna in fulfilment of your long-
combated wish. The kind, protecting genius of Mozart still
laments the death of his pupil.
Through unremitting zeal you may receive Mozart's genius
from Haydn's hands.
Four years later Beethoven dedicated the first three Sonatas
(Op. 2) to Haydn, who, however, had proved a somewhat
intermittent teacher. It is not matter for wonder, therefore,
that these, as well as later works by the younger master, should
show strongly the influence of the symphonist as well as of
Mozart the two most prominent composers in the style of
theperiod.
Coming to the consideration of Beethoven's Sonatas as a
whole (not inaptly termed the " New Testament " of music,
in distinction from the " Old Testament " of Bach's " 48 "), we
must point out that Beethoven's tinapproached pre-eminence
in the modern musical world lay in his ability to develop lofty
thought and powerful emotion within the restricting bounds of
Sonata form ; just as, in a similar way, the genius of Bach was
able to express itself within the rigorous chain-bound limits of
the fugal style.
From an architectural point of view Beethoven's Sonatas
surpass all other similar structures ; while in range of emotion,
sincerity, manliness, joy, pity, pathos and humour they fully
equal and in some respects (notably in humour) surpass all
other -camposers' efforts* ^^That the Sonatas are not all of equal
ftftd* goes without saying, If we omit those in Sonatina form,
ffefr Q$. 49 and 79, there are thirty left, Of these the early
^orfes distinctly show the influence of Haydn and Mozart in
tiheir general style, while in technical figuration they are
iwxJeUed ptmdfmUy on dementi, and in form on Em. Bach
and 'Haydn,
WSbat have been des<rfbe<l as th three styles of Beethoven
at* tesratpiiftfcA in (i) th Haydn and M<mrt period, Op. x to
THE CLIMAX OF FORMAL MUSIC 83
Op. 20 ; (2) Op. 21 to Op. 100, in which the real Beethoven
comes to the front ; (3) Op. 101 to Op. 135, the reflective or
mystical period, in which Beethoven, withdrawing within
himself, becomes subjective and mysterious.
The opus numbers, however, are not to be trusted altogether
as showing progressive development, and the periods overlap
each other to some extent. In the first period we have the
light-heartedness of Haydn in the quick movements, and the
lyrical pathos in the slow ones, with occasionally a forecast of his
own deeper individuality, as in the solemn Largo Appassionato,
of the Op. 2 (No. 2) (1795), the touching and dramatic Largo in
the Op. 7 in E\? (1797), the sorrow-laden Largo of the Op. 10
(No. 3) in which the struggle with fate is powerfully depicted,
and in the pathetic Sonata (1799) as a whole.
Something also of the individual combination of boisterous
humour with the deeper emotions is exemplified in the Scherzo-
like Prestissimo of the C minor, Op. 10 (No. i) (1798). The
second period opens with the Clementi-like J?b Sonata, in
which is prominent the mysterious double-bass-like motif
accompanied by rolling chord figures in the treble an exploita
tion of the lower regions of the instrument fully developed by
Schumann and Brahms.
There are also the lovely Air with Variations- and Hero's
Funeral March of the A\> Sonata, and the so-called Moonlight
Sonata dedicated to the Countess Guicciardi, in which, as Marx
says, " Beethoven shows that love a secret flame burning
itself out in the consuming fire of insatiable desire lived on in
his heart," The Allegretto > described by Marx as a song of
farewell, and by Liszt as " a floweret 'twixt two abysses," is
icceeded by the Prestissimo in which
" . , . tempestuous passion,
The raging flood, longs to lay hold of heaven,"
The Pastoral Sonata, a favourite with Beethoven, is a good
sample of the orchestral style of treatment so often found in
im. Traces of this, partly derived from the symphonist
[aydn, are found in his frequent use of the rolling broken
staves as a substitute for the tremolando of the strings ; in the
astained bass notes with superadded wavy 2nd violin
ccompaniment figuration ; in the short melodic figures in
octaves in the bass ('cello and double-bass), and in the inversion
84 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
of themes in what is called " double counterpoint " a device
constantly used by Beethoven and probably derived from the
interchange of melody and accompaniment among the various
instruments of the orchestra.
In the Andante of the present Sonata one may notice specially
the pizzicato-like bass and the gambolling flute-like triplets.
The D minor Sonata, Op. 31 (No. 2) was prized by Beethoven
as his best work and was often played by him in the salons of
the Viennese nobility.
A restless dramatic spirit, " tumultuous mutterings and
rollings/' characterize the first movement, while the peaceful
poetical Adagio is followed by a restless, perpetual motion
(" galloping/' Czerny called it), and over the whole there
" breathes a spirit of phantasy " (Elterlein).
Mendelssohn's fairy Scherzos are anticipated in the Scherzo of
Beethoven's Op, 31 (No. 3) ; while the virtuoso element is seen
in the concert Waldstein Sonata with its somewhat orchestral
first movement, inspired by the whirlwind and distant storm,
its becalming Adagio, and the village 6te depicted in the final
Rondo, in which we have the village bell, the merry trills and
the mad " wind-up " of the Prestissimo,
The scanty two-movement Op, 54, after the introductory
Minuetto, is nothing more than a merry Dance in octaves, while
the second movement is a Study or Toccata after the Italian
style.
The Appassionata is a picture of stirring emotions; the
F#, Op. 78, an experiment in modern technique on the black
keys, and in interlocking of hands a device used by Bach and
developed by Liszt.
The Adieu Sonata is one of those in which Beethoven indicated
a definite programme the pathetic LebewoM (or Farewell)
Adagio, the earnest and exciting emotions of the leave-taking
AMegro, the pining melancholy of the And&ni, portraying
''wence," and the joy of the return movement, One wonders
If this Sonata was suggested by the Capriccio of Bach entitled
STfe Departure of a Brother.
Scarce seventy years separate the two and yet there is a vast
0&S between them in point of style.
- We Sonatas beginning with Op, 101 open the third period,
8* ;^Mch the Deflective dement holds powerful sway, as, for
: in the tender and romantic A waj&r
THE CLIMAX OF FORMAL MUSIC 85
The titanic work in B\>, Op. 106, conceived in symphonic
style, in which Beethoven begins to indulge in the somewhat
ineffective fugal movements, is probably the result of his study
of Bach. The E major Sonata, Op. 109, contains in the Adagio
one of the finest Variations ever written.
We have spoken of Bach inspiring the fugal and imitative
work in Beethoven's later Sonatas. It would also seem as if
Mozart (who, next to Bach, made the most successful use of
Fugue form in combination with the symphonic style) had been
the raison d'etre of the first movement of Beethoven's last
Sonata, written in 1822. In any case, it would certainly seem
that Beethoven was endeavouring in his latest years to combine
the mastery of the polyphonic element with that of the thematic.
It was a consummation hardly to be expected, and perhaps the
most natural effect is the first portion of the Fugue in the
Op. no.
Beethoven's influence on the Sonata, of which he was perfec
tion personified, was that of development in all respects. He
was by no means confined by the mere form, and all the various
aspects were enlarged. Movements and sections of movements
are boldly introduced in unheard-of related keys ; his modu
lations are most unexpected and take unusually wide scope ;
the cadences are full of surprises and deferments ; the Codas
are similarly treated and much elaborated ; while, finally, the
masterly thematic development of the whole renders the work
the embodiment of perfect balance of design. Beethoven's
influence is further seen in the change from the Minuet to the
Scherzo, the elaboration of slow introductory movements, the
tendency to the encroachment of the programme element, and
the development of the contrapuntal and symphonic style,
He also specially developed rhythm, giving it extraordinary
variety of effect ; and, on the whole, his Sonatas are cast in the
grand style reaching occasionally to the sublime.
The student may study the various aspects of the Sonatas in,
the works of the writer and Elterlein (Reeves), Lenz (Three
Styles), Nageli, Marx (Biography), and in the article in Grove.
For academic study perhaps the Geriner Edition (Lit,) is the
most suggestive, and St. Macpherson's Edition (Jos. Williams)
and D' Albert's Edition probably come next in general usefulness.
Besides raising the pianoforte Sonata to a pitch of perfection,
Beethoven did no less for the form of the Concerto.
86 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
The " modified Sonata form " of the Concerto (see Part III,
Chapter XXII, on The Concerto) he improved in various
ways, and, while keeping in view the virtuoso character of the
solo parts, he did not neglect to build up in masterly fashion
the orchestral portion as a whole, besides bringing forward in in
teresting dialogue-fashion the constituent orchestral instruments.
The " heroic nobility " manifested in the improvisator
G major, and the rich and complex Emperor Concerto in Ey
form, as it were, a continuation of the virtuoso Waldstein Sonata.
The variation form also reached perfection in his hands.
His early devotion to and mastery of this form have already
been mentioned. Following Haydn's lead, Beethoven gave
more attention to the harmonic aspect (see Part III, Chapter
XXIV) and these works, which are interesting both as regards
ingenuity, technique and musical effect, are among the
most noteworthy of his compositions for piano.
His fifteen Variations, with a Fugue in E\? t Op, 35, are
founded on the bass part of a Quintet by Steibelt and were
the result of an improvisation made in Steibelt's presence,
A set of Variations written by Steibelt on a theme occurring in
Beethoven's Trio in B\> had aroused enthusiasm in the un
critical audience, and Beethoven's Op, 35 was the reply, The
origin of the DiaMli Variations was that in 1822 Diabelli, the
composer and publisher (now known by his Duets), applied
to the most eminent Austrian composers for a set of fifty Varia
tions on a theme of his own. The publication finally appeared
in two volumes, thirty-three in one volume by Beethoven and
fifty in the other by various composers, including one by the
young virtuoso Liszt. According to Liszt (who tells the story),
Beethoven appeared with the MS, of the thirty-three Variations
at Diabelli's door, exclaiming, " There! You asked for one
Variation ; here are thirty-three, and now, for God's sake, leave
me in peace/ 1 * Bfflow speaks of this work as evincing " all the
evolutions of musical expression from the highest sentiment to
the broadest humour."
Beethoven's Duet Marches and Variations, though attractive,
are comparatively unimportant (Part III, Chapter XXIII), Of
Ms miscellaneous pieces, the short, sketch-like Bagatelles, the
Moa&rtean Rondo in C, the lyrical but very characteristic
Polmam in C, and the noble Andante in F, intended for a
Sonata, are specially noteworthy.
THE CLIMAX OF FORMAL MUSIC 87
There is a story connected with the latter of Ries, his pupil,
having heard Beethoven play it in private shortly after its
composition. Ries went to Prince Lichnowsky's house and
played what he remembered of it to him. The next day
Lichnowsky, as a joke, asked Beethoven to listen to a piece he
had just composed with results that may be imagined rather
than described. Beethoven's contributions to characteristic
clavier music consist of a playful Caprice, Op. 129, entitled
Rage Over a Lost Penny, concerning which Schumann said, " It
would be difficult to find anything merrier than this whim;
I laughed heartily over it the other day " ; and the Pathetic,
Pastoral and Adieu Sonatas which also come within this category.
It is interesting to observe, in these days of nationality in
music, that Beethoven was of Flemish descent, his family
having come from Louvain and Antwerp, where his grandfather,
who was alive in young Beethoven's time, had been made
Capellmeister in 1737.
His father had been a singer in the Elector of Cologne's Chapel.
This is another instance of the musical Flemings carrying the
art into various countries a century and a half earlier they had
been the means of founding the Italian polyphonic school.
Bach and Handel the Saxons, Haydn the Croatian, Mozart
the Bavarian, and Beethoven the Fleming, though adhering
more or less to the pattern of the period, have all left some
characteristics of their nationality in their works.
To return to Beethoven's characteristics, we note that though
his brusque and untempered personality is reflected in his music,
it is not shown in his workmanship. His work, as we know,
was polished and repolishcd (often for a considerable period)
with the utmost care. His discrimination of essentials was
brought out in his teaching. Ries relates that not wrong notes,
but only neglect of expression, exasperated him. Concerning
his improvisations, Czerny recounts that " there was something
wonderful in his expression. . , . Frequently (he says)
not an eye remained dry, while many people would break out
into loud sobs."
His method of composition was aided by his phenomenal
memory, which enabled him to carry the various themes in his
head till he had worked them out to the right form. " The
original idea/' he said to Schloesser, " never leaves me, but rises
and grows until I can see it in my mind as a complete picture."
88 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
It was this concentration of purpose, this devotion to and
elaboration of some central thought, which distinguishes
Beethoven from Haydn and Mozart. While the latter appear
to be aiming at contrast only of the various themes, movements
and sections, Beethoven aimed at the unity and symmetry of the
whole, while at the same time securing variety of interest,
Beethoven's style, too, is on a grander scale ; not only are his
ideas loftier, his themes broader and his feeling deeper
plumbing the depths of despair but the outlines are altogether
on a larger scale than those of his contemporaries and successors.
To conclude we have, in Beethoven, the climax of the
various aspects of the Sonata form ; and just as, in Bach and
Handel, the polyphonic age came to its height and then
decayed, so, notwithstanding later meritorious efforts, the
mastery of the Sonata style has declined, never again apparently,
to reach the height it attained with Beethoven.
" All art constantly aspires towards the condition of music which most
completely realizes this artistic ideal, this perfect identification of form
and matter." Walter Pater.
NOTE. Descriptions in detail of Beethoven's Sonatas, etc,, appear in
the Author's Pianoforte Classics, from Handel to Bttthwtn (Reeves).
PART III
THE ROMANTIC PERIOD
Music " speaks not to our thoughts as words do : it speaks straight to
our hearts and spirits, to the very core and root of our souls." Kingsley.
CHAPTER I
ROMANTICISM IN MUSIC
Romanticism " exacts only that the Form should be adequate to the
expression of the sentiment." Liszt.
BEFORE describing the romance-writers of modern pianoforte
music, it is necessary to define the meaning of the word
Romanticism as used in this connection.
Romanticism implies a comparison. In literature the word
romantic was originally applied to that of the Middle Ages as
distinguished from the classics of Antiquity.
The orderly, clear, and matter-of-fact style of the latfer
was compared with the love of the mysterious and marvellous
in the so-called Romantic School.
In Modern Art romanticism is represented by the ideally and
mystically beautiful, as compared with the formal and realistic.
It should, however, be remembered that " classical form does
not exclude romantic matter ; and disregard of classical form
does not constitute romance " (Niecks).
It is the idealistic appeal to the imagination, as manifested in
the love of the poetic and beautiful which is the touchstone of
separation. In music, the most romantic and the most fully
developed and organized of all the arts, our definition of the
romantic must be : That which is poetically beautiful, which
ever shows the cultivation of the ideal or the aspiration to
perfection in the portrayal of the human emotions or of various
aspects of nature.
The definition must of necessity include the "characteristic "
element in music, and the extension of the latter known as
" programme music/ 1 but this only in the highest plane (see
Chapter VIII), since directly this programme element becomes
" realism " we transgress the bounds of romanticism as the
expression of the ideal.
Realism and classicism are diametrically opposed to one
another.
The true romantic element may be said to occupy the golden
91
92 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
mean between classical formalism on the one hand and " rank
realism " on the other. It will be seen from the above that the
true element of romance is not confined to modern works.
The subordination of the formal or realistic and the presentation
of the ideally beautiful can be found, for instance, in the works
of Bach and Handel, who knew how to evolve the ideally
beautiful out of the bonds of polyphony, not to speak of
Beethoven, who could wield the sceptre of the emotions over the
highly artificial structure of his Sonatas and Symphonies.
On the whole, however, the Older Masters incline to the side
of Classicism rather than of Romanticism.
In the pure Romantic composers the romantic element stands
forth prominent, unfettered and unsubdued.
One noteworthy feature of the Romantic movement is that
its most advanced exponents, Schumann and Chopin, were
profoundly influenced, not by Beethoven the greatest 'repre
sentative of " thematic " composition but, on the contrary,
by Bach, the giant of Polyphony. One result, however, of the
recent cult of Brahms was to make Beethoven again the model
for the modern composer. Possibly in future both heads of
the two great divisions of Classicism will rightly share this
formative influence on the Romanticism of the twentieth century.
At present composers are more influenced by the " emotional
content " than by organic unity, formal coherence or mastery
of counterpoint ; and, with the modern tendency to the pro
gramme and realistic element, it remains to be seen whether the
artistic pendulum will swing back once more to Classicism or
proceed to the other extreme of Realism,
The Romantic Movement in pianoforte music may be said to
have been initiated as a whole by the Nocturnes of Field
(c, 1802-6), and to have been fully matured by the time of the
death of Schumann in 1856.
In looking through the works of the essentially Romantic
composers we find that they present great contrasts in harmony,
modulation (changes of key), melody and rhythmas in the
startlingly new and rich harmonies of Chopin and Schumann,
and the unexpected modulations of Schubert.
Contrast of rhythm and a lighter chromatic style of melody
is seen in Weber, while the smaller forms, in which sentiment
and emotion readily find first place, are initiated by the
Nocturnes of Field.
ROMANTICISM IN MUSIC 93
Schumann by his writings and compositions did much to
develop the campaign against " Philistinism/' as Classicism
was then called.
The general tendency of the age, as shown in the French
Revolution, the struggle for Polish nationality, the movements
in Literature, originating with Goethe and Schiller, and the
dawn of democracy and of a wider outlook generally, favoured
the upheaval in the most reflective and sensitive of all the
arts, and this upheaval we shall refer to as the Romantic
Movement.
CHAPTER II
DECAY OF THE CLASSICAL SCHOOL HUMMEL AND OTHERS
" Unless music exalt and purify, it is not under St. Cecilia's ordinance,
anditisnot, virtually, music at all." Ruskin (" Pleasures of England.")
BEFORE proceeding to the music of the first Romanticists we
must again remind the reader of the necessary overlapping of
the various periods and schools. The evolution of musical
Romance was more or less slow, while the lingering of Classicism
and its blending with Romanticism was prolonged over a
considerable period of time.
Following Beethoven, but also, to a certain extent, con
temporary with him, we notice the crowd of shallow dabblers
in the prevailing Classic or formal composition, whose hollow
and trifling pieces already indicate the decay of the movement
which found its climax in Beethoven.
A passing reference will suffice to the similarly trifling and
trashy Herz School, which found its home in Paris. With
regard to J. B. Cramer, the writer of noble studies commended
by Beethoven, we find that his Sonatas are written in the shallow
taste of the salon music of the period, though probably they
were meant for educational purposes only. A significant
Petit Rien still survives, Daniel Steibelt's name (1765-1823)
lingers yet as that of one who made a speciality of battle and
storm pieces with tambourine and triangle accompaniments,
His compositions, including a Concerto Militaire> were very
popular but are now forgotten, L, Kozduch (1753-1814)
wrote pretty, trivial Mozartean Sonatas in the educational
taste of the period, Similar pieces by the Abb6 Sterkel (whose
Rondo in A is still known), J, B, Wanhal and Pixis (b. 1788)
had a passing interest only.
Jos. Woelfl (1772-1812) stands on more solid ground. His
compositions (Sonatas, Concertos, Variations, Fugues, etc,),
noted for their technical daring (skips and extensions), were
completely overshadowed by Hummel, and his works are now
94
DECAY OF THE CLASSICAL SCHOOL 95
forgotten, with the exception of a striking Introductory, Fugue
and Allegro from the Sonata Op. 25 (Ash).
In J. Nepomuk Hummel (1778-1837) we have the true
succession as well as the termination of the style of Mozart.
Hummel was only eight years younger than Beethoven and
twenty- two years younger than Mozart, whose pupil he was ;
but his highly finished and ornamental style shows the first
step in the decay of the Classical age. He succeeded Haydn as
Kapellmeister to Prince Esterhazy, and travelled much on
concert tours as a virtuoso, gaining great fame as a pianist,
especially in extemporization, in which branch he was reckoned
the equal of Beethoven. During 1791-2 he resided in London
and was much influenced by dementi, who was also living there.
In his compositions Hummel has the virtues of his models
mastery of form and part- writing, the brightness of Haydn,
the lyrical qualities and, to some extent, the harmonic effects
of Mozart and Beethoven ; but lack of warmth of feeling, soul
and inspiration, has caused his works to be neglected for the
more strongly-coloured productions of the Romantic School.
The outstanding feature of his compositions is his charming
use of modulation, often unexpected but always effective, as in
his La Bella Capriccioso.
Other works still surviving are his A minor and B minor
Concertos (now of educational interest only), the interesting and
useful Rondo Op, 56 with Orchestra (St.), bravura Oberon
Fantasia, the E\>, F$ minor and D Sonatas, the Duet Sonata
in A\>, La Galante, the Capriccio Op. 49, La Contemplazione
(Lit.) and La Centerola Variations.
Hummel' s style is best described in the words of Riemann :
" His compositions are a faithful reflection of his playing;
garlands of passages hide a lack of passion and atone for an
absence of warmth of feeling. The influence of his teacher
(Mozart) upon his style of writing is undeniable ; nevertheless
he does not approach Mozart by a long way in nobleness of
melody, while the mechanical element most likely brought
about by the easy action of the Vienna piano predominates."
Hummel was the last of the purely Classical School. It is
interesting to remember that his contemporary, Field, the first
of the Romantics, was only four years younger, while Weber,
the other apostle of Romanticism, was again four years younger
than Field.
CHAPTER III
THE FIRST ROMANTICISTS
" Be Fields, write what you will ; be poets, be men, I beseech you."
Schumann.
John Field (1782-1837), Weber (1786-1826), and Charles
Mayer (1799-1862).
LISZT, in his preface to his edition of Field's Nocturnes (Schubert),
has said: "Formerly it was necessary that all pianoforte
compositions should be Sonatas, Rondos, etc. Field was the
first to introduce a species which belonged to none of the
established classes, in which feeling and melody reigned alone,
liberated from the fetters and encumbrances of a coercive
form. He opened the way for all those productions, which
have appeared since, under the titles of Songs without Words,
Impromptus, Ballads, etc., and to him we may trace the Origin
of those pieces designed to paint individual and deep-seated
emotions." In other words, the Irishman, John Field
(1782-1837), initiated the Romantic Movement in pianoforte
music his compositions were the direct predecessors of the
smaller lyrical pieces of Mendelssohn, Chopin and Schumann.
Field was born in Golden Lane, Dublin, a dark tumble-down
street near St. Patrick's Cathedral and not far from the dwelling
of Tom Moore, and the house where Oliver Goldsmith had lived
thirty years before. Field's father was a violinist at a Dublin
theatre, his grandfather an organist. Intended to be an
infant phenomenon, young Field, at the hands of his parents,
experienced a severe training from an early age. He became
a pupil of Giordano at the age of nine and in the following
year appeared in a Concerto composed by his teacher. His
parents removed to London in 1794, and at the age of twelve
Field was apprenticed for ten years as pupil and salesman to
96
THE FIRST ROMANTICISTS 97
Clementi, who had commenced business as a piano manufacturer.
He appeared in public in London in April, 1794, and five years
later he appeared again in his own " Concerto for the grand
forte piano, composed for the occasion."
At his earlier appearance he was introduced as the " ten-year-
old " pupil of Clementi, in company with the young mulatto
violinist, Bridgetower (who later was the first to perform
Beethoven's Kreutzer Sonata in public with the composer) and
the celebrated singer, Madame Mara. He appeared once more
in 1801, and the astute Clementi, who had started a branch
business in St. Petersburg, proceeded there in 1802, taking Field
with him. On the way, Field's appearance in Paris and Vienna
was hailed with enthusiasm, his exquisite performance of Bach's
and Handel's Fugues being greatly admired. His first three
years in St. Petersburg, where he arrived in 1804, were spent in
drudgery. Spohr has recorded his visits to Field when in St.
Petersburg, " Often in the evenings," he says, " I accompanied
Clementi to his pianoforte warehouse, where Field had to play
for hours to show off the pianos to purchasers. I have in my
remembrance a vivid picture of the tall, pale youth who
appeared to have grown out of his clothes a very English and
awkward figure. As soon, however, as his soul-stirring playing
began, everything else was forgotten and we became all ear/'
At this time Field had blonde hair, blue eyes, fair complexion
and pleasing features. Later he became easy-going, indifferent
to personal appearance and somewhat of a spendthrift ; while,
as a man of fifty, he is described as indolent, heavy-featured,
worn out and vulgar in appearance, owing to intemperate
habits. He was reputed to be somewhat cynical, good-natured
and droll in manner, but uneducated.
Field remained in St. Petersburg, where he became in great
request as a teacher and pianist, for nineteen years, and thence
he went to Moscow, where his concerts were a great success.
During this time he composed (in 18x4) his first three Nocturnes,
a Sonata and some Concertos. In 1817 appeared the Concerto
known &$L'incendiepar I'orage. Other works followed, and he
led a busy life as concert-giver till 1822, when he settled in
Moscow. The charm of Field's playing was aptly characterized
in the qualities of his Nocturnesperfect finish and cantabile
style, F6tis speaks of his " elegant playing and beautiful
manner of singing on the piano . , although his execution
98 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
had not the power of the pianists of the Modern School/'* It is
significant also of the similarity of his style to that of Chopin
that the latter was asked by Kalkbrenner if he were a pupil of
Field. In 1831 Field returned to London and appeared in
public. The Musical World of March 3ist, 1831, says in a
critique : "His wonderful, and in some degree most lovely and
dreamlike, trifles require throughout a perfect and beautiful
touch, a singing tone, and that delicate, decided and often
piquant expression so peculiar to the composer. His style of
pianoforte playing has been compared to Catalani's singing/'
There is a reference also in 1832 to the Concerto in |? (" The
middle of it is exceedingly delicious ") ; and as regards his
seven Concertos, Billow writes enthusiastically about the
second in A\) which served, he says, as the model for Chopin's
F minor. The Rondo of this Concerto (Peters) is justly cele
brated. Schumann also rhapsodizes on the yth Concerto.
(See Chapter XXIL)
Leaving London in 1832, Field entered on a successful concert
tour on the Continent ; but he was taken ill and lay stranded
at Naples, whence he was rescued by Russian friends and taken
to Moscow, where, without fully recovering, he died in 1837,
Although the Concertos and Sonatas of Field were popular in
their day, he is known now almost entirely by his Nocturnes,
He did not possess the logical nature and the grand style more
or less necessary to the formally-developed Sonata and Concerto.
Isolated movements, however, survive ; for instance, the Rondo
of the 2nd Concerto (in A\>) praised by Btilow, the sprightly
Rondo from the Sonata in E\>, which contains some charming
modulations, the Scherzo (No. 7 Popular Pwes, Augener)
which suggests the 4>th Scherzo of Chopin, and a characteristic,
pleasing Polonaise (G,R,).
The Nocturnes have been universally praised. Liszt says
that " they still exhale a balsamic freshness, a sweet fragrance/'
" Where else," he says, " do we find such perfection of inimitable
n&foeti ? No one else has succeeded in seizing these intangible
harmonies of the ^Eolian harp, these half -sighs floating away in
air, gentle plaints dissolving away in sweet pain/ 1
Apart from their own virtues, the idyllic Nocturnes of Field
proved to be the direct models and predecessors of Chopin,
* Sse Article l>y Miss D'esterre Keeling in Girl's Own Paper,
THE FIRST ROMANTICISTS
99
In Chopin's hands, however, the " charming ingenuousness of
his melodious reveries " underwent an emotional change.
" The Irishman plucked a bunch of field flowers, daisies and
buttercups twined with sweet honeysuckle and wild roses ;
their beauty was their fragrance and childlike simplicity, The
Pole took the flowers and fostered them in the hot-house of his
morbid imagination. When they came forth once more they
were exotics of rare and wonderful beauty, but they had lost
their innocence " (Keeling).
Apart from emotional significance, the type of melody and
accompaniment (the latter spread out in extended wavy form
and supported by the sustaining pedal), together with the simple
lyrical form which he used, proved, as was pointed out by Liszt,
to be the foundation of the special forms representative of the
lyrical Romantic School ; just as certainly as the bravura style
of his contemporary Weber led to that of Liszt through
Moscheles, Mendelssohn and Chopin,
Of the twenty compositions of Field which have appeared
under the title of Nocturnes only twelve were so called by the
composer, but of the seventeen in Peters' Collection we would
willingly lose none ; so charming are they in their way, though
they are not all equally good. The first five (in E\>, C minor,
A [7, A, and B}>) seem to be the most characteristic. " They are
indeed poesies in tunes," or, as they have been termed, " the
very essence of all idylls and eclogues." Nos. 13 to 17 seem
to have been inspired by Mozart, but it is Mozart at his best.
They are more cloying, and, if anything, more alluring than the
earlier ones, besides being more richly harmonized ; but they
are not so individual in style, To come to detail No. 13 uses
" imitation " effects, No. 14 has the later Chopin device of the
melody in sixths, and the elaborate and beautiful No, 17 also
reminds one of Chopin in line 4, and page 64 (line 7), in the
latter case suggesting the style of his Impromptu in F$. Of
the intermediate numbers the opening melody of No. 6 and the
accompaniment of No, 9 remind one of Chopin's early Nocturnes
in Efy, and portions of No. n (in E\>) of Chopin's first
Impromptu* The sweeping left-hand Arpeggios in No. is
recall the Spianato of Chopin's first Polonaise, while the inde
pendent recurring motif in Nos, 3 and 7 appears in some of
the Polish composer's Preludes and in the F major Nocturne,
Many other instances might be given, and one is forced to the
100
HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
conclusion that Chopin based the style, not only of his Nocturnes,
but of many of his other compositions, on those of Field.
(Vide also Billow's remark on the 2nd Concerto.)
As the teacher of Glinka, the founder of the Russian School,
and of Mayer, one of the founders of modern technique, Field
exercised an important influence on the development of piano
forte style ; though Field's style, as F6tis, who heard him, said,
was essentially his own. Ftis said his school was " neither the
school of Dussek, nor of Clementi, nor of Steibelt ; Field is
Field a school of his own." A style " exquisitely spintuelk
coupled with surprising aplomb and coquetry/'*
Field was buried in Moscow on January nth, 1837. The
* I am indebted for details to a recent little work, the first memoir in
English on John Field of Dublin, by Br, W. H. Grattan Flood, (Dublin :
Lester, Ltd.) x
THE FIRST ROMANTICISTS 101
following inscription is engraved on a monument to the inventor
of the Nocturne :
JOHN FIELD
BORN IN IRELAND IN 1782
DIED IN MOSCOW IN 1837
ERECTED
TO HIS MEMORY
BY HIS
GRATEFUL FRIENDS AND SCHOLARS
WEBER (1786-1826)
The contribution of Weber to the Romantic movement was
made (i) through his characteristically animated and dramatic
style as compared with the lyric meditations of Field, and
(2) through his enlargement of pianoforte technique by means
of the bravura element. A contemporary of Field, and only
four years his junior, Weber had a much wider scope. By his
efforts Germany became supreme in Opera, and he made the
evolution of a Wagner possible. Moreover, his devotion to
Opera, in which Sonata form and thematic development are at
a discount, led to "his free treatment oiform and the substitution
of contrasted themes for the development of one or two. His
efforts at dramatic expression led also to stronger harmonic
colouring, and all these were prominent features in the Romantic
movement. In this way Weber anticipated Schubert his
junior by eleven years, while his seniors, dementi, Hummel
and Moscheles kept up the traditional classic style. The
feature of Weber's technique as a virtuoso was his capacity for
extension^, wide leaps and passages of thirds, all designed for
showy effect, and foreshadowing Henselt and Liszt. The
characteristic element appears in his piano music in the Invitation
to the Dance and in the Concertstuck, which he associated with
the anxious expectancy of a lady awaiting her knight's return
from the Crusades.
Generally speaking, his works glow with animation and
brilliancy and are always full of rhythmical and dramatic effect.
His piano Sonatas which, as Mr. Shedlock says,* present rather
the " letter than the true spirit of a Sonata/' " enchant the ear '*
* Th$ Pianoforte Son&ta.
102 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
by means of their "romantic themes" and "picturesque
colouring " " intensified by grand technique."
The ist Sonata may be termed a drama without words,
interpreted by the dramatic attitudinizing of the ist Movement,
the love duet and pervading happiness of the slow Movement,
the obstructive and apparently out-ofplace minuet leading to
the gay frolic of the Moto Perpetuo.
The 2nd Sonata has its legendary Andante and airy Presto
telling of sprites and hobgoblins and thereby anticipating
Mendelssohn ; while the national VolksUed and dance element
is present in what might be called the Patriotic Sonata, composed
at a time (1816) when his songs of war and liberty had rendered
him popular. The 4th Sonata, written while he was recruiting
his health at Hosterwitz, shows some falling of.
Weber's early works consist of Variations, Valses and
Ecossaises. Those written before he came of age are in the
Hummel-Mozart style, but afterwards his characteristic
chromatic appogiaturas and vamping bass became prominent.
It is remarkable that in these early Variations there is far more
variety of technique than in his later works generally.
Weber's first characteristic works of importance are the
Op. 12 Momento Capriccioso and Op. 21 Polonaise in E\>, both
written in 1808 when he was twenty-two years of age. Though
warm in harmonic and brilliant in technical and rhythmical
effect, they seem simple in thematic treatment and technical
variety as compared with Hummel's Capriccioso Polonaise
and Beethoven's Polonaise (1815), but doubtless the spirit of
Romanticism is present in them, His best works after these
are the Sonatas (1812), the Variations, Op. 28, 37 and 55, the
E major Polonaise, the Rondo Brilliant, the Invitation to the
Dance, and lastly, the Concertstiick Op. 79. The main features
may be said to be (i) wonderful gift of melody ; (2) limited range
of harmonic effects though, these are always warm and
appropriate ; (3) influence of the orchestra* shown in the frequent
quasi-bowed violin passages, use of the tremolo and muttering
double-bass passages; (4) limited (though advanced) variety
of technique ; (5) limited formal development ; (6) effective
use of the crescendo ; (7) frequent repetition of certain chromatic
appogiatura figures with repeated chord-basses, by which his
music can always be recognized,
Weber came of a good family (apparently South German in
THE FIRST ROMANTICISTS 103
origin). His early years were embittered by a wandering
existence with his father in an Opera company.
Later, he held several conductor's positions which he filled
with distinction, especially in Prague, Dresden and Vienna.
Worn out by overwork, he died in London when he was
conducting a performance of Oberon in 1826.
Weber was a contemporary of his seniors, Beethoven and
Hummel, though he died a year before the former. Haydn's
work was done*when Weber's first work appeared.
His Duets (Chapter XXIII) have much of the charm of the
solos and are educationally valuable.
Of the Concertos the F minor is best known as a standard work,
although the other Concertos contain beautiful movements.
CHARLES MAYER (1799-1862)
The significance of Charles Mayer lies in his direct succession
from Field as a modern lyric Romanticist, and in his develop
ment of modern technique. Born at Konigsberg he was, at an
early age, a pupil of Field in St, Petersburg, and at the age of
fifteen he made a series of concert tours.
If we remember that Mayer was only seventeen years younger
than Field and compare the lyric simplicity of the latter with
Mayer's modern harmonies and modern technique, we shall
realize how quickly this branch of the art came to maturity.
Mayer's playing is said to have been distinguished by the great
purity of style of his master Field; his technique, however,
must have considerably developed, as his Studies rank among
the most modern and prepare directly for the bravura School
of Henselt and Chopin. Mayer, like many others, wrote a
number of trifling works to meet the popular taste of the time,
but the best of his works, in thtLangky Edition (Aug.), deserve
to rank for their warmth and purity of style with the best works
of the smaller lyrical Romanticists of to-day.
His Valsest Etudes and Concertos deserve attention. After
several concert tours Mayer settled in Dresden, where he died
in 1862.
Our story of Romance in pianoforte music now assumes a
crowded aspect and the attention of the reader must be devoted
to the many developments of the Romantic movement, from
the lyric Schubert to the virtuoso Liszt and the nationalist
Chopin.
CHAPTER IV
THE ROMANTIC MOVEMENT IN PIANOFORTE MUSIC
'1782-1837 Field (Lyric- ^1811-1886 Iffezt (Virtuoso-
Nocturnes) TTI I Transcriptions)
1786-1826 Weber (Dramatic) ) 1814-1889 Henselt (Virtuoso-
1797-1828 Schubert (Lyric- I Lyric)
Impromptu) / 1814-1888 Heller (Nature-
1799-1862 Charles Mayer Vi Poet)
(Virtuoso-Technique) * 1816-1875 Bennett (Idyllic)
'i 809-1 847 Mendelssohn ^1822-1882 Raff (Virtuoso-
Classic) v I Lyric)
II . 1810-1856 Schumann j 3:830-1894 Rubinstein
(Characteristic) [ (Virtuoso-Lyric)
^1810-1849 Chopin (National)
The composers in Group I (all contemporaries of Beethoven) laid the
foundations. Those in Group II perfected the movement. Groups III
and V are concerned with the perfecting of the virtuoso element and
concert interpretation ; Group IV with the later Idyllic and Poetic aspect.
Lyric-Romance
SCHUBERT (1797-1828)
" My musical works are the offspring of my genius and my misery/'
Schtibert.
THE various features of the pianoforte music of Schubert, with
its weaknesses and excellences, can be best studied in his Sonatas.
Schubert was pre-eminently a song-writer, and it is the song or
lyric element in inexhaustible beauty that first appeals to us in
his pianoforte works. Next to that comes his wealth of charming
unexpected modulations and harmonies. At the keyboard,
however, one is made aware of a sense of very limited command
of technique. Short-fingered as Schubert was, and blessed with
but " little technique/' as Killer avows, we find the result in the
constantly repeated chords, the limited use of extended arpeggio
and scale figures, which are either spasmodically introduced,
as in the first movement of Sonata Op. 120, or used throughout
without much variation, His technique, as a rule, would seem
104
THE ROMANTIC MOVEMENT 105
to consist of firm chord work, cantabile melodies and variation
figures combined with both ; in short, his technique was mostly
of an accompanimental style.
This want of effective technique is doubtless the reason why
Schubert's Sonatas are very rarely performed in public. As
regards the development of theme, Schubert is indeed the
antithesis of Beethoven, for instead of the piecemeal dissertation
and the almost too minute analysis of the orchestrally-minded
Beethoven, Schubert usually takes the theme as a whole and
treats it according to Variation form, either varying the form
of the melody or the harmonies, presenting the harmony alone
in various aspects, or keeping the bass and altering the melody
or the harmony or both. A favourite method of his is to put
the theme in the bass. The same tendency is seen in the
ornamentation of the chief theme in the recapitulation section
of the Sonatas. Perhaps it is too much to expect that the
intensely lyrical mind should express itself in the analytical
thematic manner, and therefore his method may be considered
as an evolution of that style of development which was later
brought into further prominence by Liszt.
If strict " thematic " presentation be regarded as the
distinguishing characteristic of the Sonata type, Schubert's
Sonatas must be reckoned as Fantasias (his Op. 78 in G is so
described) rather than as Sonatas.
As developed compositions not one of these we should say is
equal to the average of Clementi, but they are undoubtedly
graceful and attractive as music, especially the first two move
ments of Op, 42 (No. i Univ. Ed.), the Con Moto of the Op. 53 in D
(No. 2), the first movement of No. 5 (Op. 143 in A minor),
the Andantes of Nos. 6 and 7, and the last Sonata No. 10 in E\).
Despite many entrancing melodies and modulations, one
cannot overlook the fact that most of the movements have a
patchy effect, owing to systematic lack of development and
unequal technical figuration.
The Sonata No. 4 in E\> and the last three posthumous
Sonatas, written in 1828 and inspired by the visit of Hummel,
are more homogeneous, but, with the exception of the one in
Bb, they are, unfortunately, not so characteristic.
The last movement of the latter, by-the-by, shows Hungarian
influence.
Beethoven had written twenty-seven of his Sonatas before
I
io6 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Schubert commenced works of this type, but, except for the
C minor Sonata and the slow movement of the great Duo in C,
Schubert would seem to have built rather on a foundation of
Mozart and Haydn than on Beethoven.
Schubert felt, indeed, the overshadowing genius of Beethoven,
As a youth he exclaimed with a sigh, " Who can do anything
after Beethoven? " and a visit to Beethoven's house later on
with his Duet Variations ended in his impetuously leaving the
room overcome with emotion.
The Fantasia or Sonata in E Op. 78 is one of the most
poetical of his works, although it has the usual patchy technical
style, even in the Andante.
The Fantasia Op. 15 is best known for the fine dramatic
Variations in the Andante, on the theme of his own Lied,
The Wanderer.
We now come to those smaller lyrical works, the Impromptus
and the Moments Musicaux t in which, as not particularly requiring
thematic and formal development, Schubert excels, It will be
seen that they are mostly in his favourite Variation form.
The title Impromptus, by the way, like the Fantasia Op, 78,
was given by the publisher. We note that the first of the
Op. 90 (built on a very Schubertian theme) has the characteristic
repeated notes and chords, accompaniment figures, theme in
the bass and frequent charming modulations. The Etude-like
No. 2, with the spice of Hungarian rhythm in the Episode, the
Song without Words No, 4 (originally in G\>), the pretty salon-
like one in Afy, with the characteristic C# minor Episode,
complete the Op, 90.
As regards the Op. 142, Schumann thought that the ist,
2nd and 4th were intended as Movements of a Sonata in p minor,
as the ist Movement has some resemblance to Sonata-form,
He says it " seems to have been written during a pensive hour,
as if, while meditating on the past/' The favourite short
" Contemplative " No. 2 in A\>, the B|? theme with Variations,
and the elusive Scherzando No. 4, in Hungarian style, are well
known.
No. 3 of those slight improvisatory sketches termed Moments
Musicaux is also decidedly Hungarian in style, These popular
short pieces contain much of what is best in Schubert, The
miscellaneous pieces in Vol. 3 of the Litolff Collection, the five
Pieces in Sonata style, Adagio and Rondo, Op, 145, etc., together
THE ROMANTIC MOVEMENT 107
with the Variations, are not at all Schubertian in style, but are
apparently modelled on Mozart and Haydn. The artistic
Waltzes, like the immortal Lieder, have been transcribed
by Liszt, the former appearing as the Soirees de Vienne.
Schubert contributed very largely to the realm of four-hand
music (see Chapter XXIII) through the fine duet Marches,
Divertissements, Sonatas, etc.
Schubert's place in pianoforte music is that of a supporter
of the Romantic movement, which had already been stimulated
by his contemporary Weber (1786-1826), who, though eleven
years older, died only two years before him. While Weber
advanced the bravura and dramatic elements, Schubert
developed the lyric or song-like structures, which were later so
largely utilized by Mendelssohn, Chopin, Schumann and many
others. He also, by means of his charming modern modulations,
did much for modern music and modern harmony especially.
In the latter he surpasses Mendelssohn, who was only nineteen
years of age when Schubert died.
Mendelssohn, however, was the "backwash of Classicism"
in his time, and it is to Chopin and Schumann that we' must
look for the further progress of the Romantic movement.
An Austrian by race, and born in Vienna, Schubert never
left his native country except for two short visits to the
neighbouring state of Hungary. These visits left their
influence in the Hungarian style already noted in his works, and
in the Divertissement d la Hongroise, Op. 54, which was built on
Hungarian melodies and was a favourite with Liszt.
Schubert's music reflects the genial atmosphere of the South
as clearly as that of Brahms reflects the sterner North, though
the latter settled in Vienna and was strongly influenced by
Schubert's work, Schubert was a chorister at the Imperial
Training School for Court Singers till 1813, a teacher at his
father's school till 1816, and from then till his death twelve
years later he was engaged in a perpetual struggle with adversity,
existing chiefly on the proceeds of his wretchedly-paid
compositions*
It was true enough, as he himself said, that " his music was
the offspring of his misery," He was of a reserved though genial
disposition and it is sad to relate that not until nine months
before his death was the first public concert of his compositions
given,
io8 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Comparatively untrained as a composer, Schubert made up
for weakness in powers of development by a gift of unlimited
melody and by charming modulations ; and in so doing he
became, not a "Classic' 1 composer, but one of the most
charming contributors to the Romantic School.
" Schubert," declares Schumann, " will always remain the
favourite of youth. He gives what youth desires an over
flowing heart, daring thoughts and speedy deeds. He tells of
what youth loves best of knights and maidens, romantic
stories and adventures. He gives wings to the performer's own
fancy as no other composer since Beethoven."
No wonder, then, that he should be known as " the most
lovable of composers."
CHAPTER V
MENDELSSOHN (1809-1847)
THE music of Mendelssohn has been aptly described as a
" backwash of Classicism/' This description appears, at first,
to be somewhat contradictory. In the hitherto distinguishing
form of Classicism the Sonata Mendelssohn was not a success,
though his G minor Concerto, which is practically in Sonata
form, is one of the standard works of its kind. On the other
hand, where one would not look for Sonata form, as in the
B minor Capriccio for Piano and Orchestra, the three Capriccios
Op. 33, the Capriccio in F$ minor, Op. 5, the Fantasia in
E minor, Op. 16, and the third movement of the F# Fantasia
(Op. 28), we have more or less regular Sonata form used with
that mastery which distinguishes his hand. Allied to this
representative mark of Classicism is the general style of his
writing which shows more than any other modern, the influence
of Bach, as in his clever and effective Preludes and Fugues ;
while another distinction though a negative one is his
limited range of harmonic inodulatory effects as compared with
his contemporaries of note, all of whom, except Hummel,
were Romantics.
On the other hand, we must claim Mendelssohn partly also as
a Romanticist, because (i) of his thoroughly lyrical style ;
(2) of his sentimental, airy and brilliant manner in works of a
non-formal nature.
We may gain some insight into Mendelssohn's music through
his personality, At the age of fifteen, young Mendelssohn
came into contact with Moscheles, then described as the
" Prince of Pianists/ 1 who acted as his teacher for some time.
Moscheles describes the family as " such a one as I have never
known before ; Felix a mature artist and yet but fifteen ;
Fanny extraordinarily gifted, playing Bach's Fugues by heart
with astonishing correctness. The parents gave me the
impression of the highest cultivation/'
A comfortable home, wealth and ease of circumstance,
personal charm and love for the sunny side of nature are
specially reflected in Mendelssohn's music.
At the age of twenty he came on a visit to England, one of
no HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
many to our country, where he made many friends, and where
many of Ms greatest successes as a composer were achieved.
Some of his well-known pieces were written while staying
with friends in Wales, and a letter (p. 264, Vol. II, Grove)
describes his entering " into the beauty of the hills and woods."
The Rivulet, which he wrote at that time, was " a recollection of
a real rivulet." The Andante and Allegro " was suggested by
a bunch of carnations and roses," the arpeggio passages con
veying a " reminder of the sweet scent of the flowers rising up."
The Capriccio in E minor* again, was suggested by " a pretty
creeping plant covered with little trumpet-like flowers/'
Mendelssohn drawing " a little branch of that flower all up the
margin of the paper," and saying that this was " the music that
the fairies might play on those trumpets."
A happy, lovable nature, " not a bit sentimental though he
had so much sentiment," full of fun (" nobody enjoyed fun
more than h, and his laughing was the most joyous that could
be ") explains much of what we feel when we hear his unique
fairy music in the Midsummer Night's Dream and his inimitable
Scherzos and Caprices.
Mendelssohn possessed a rare individuality, a fascinating and
affectionate manner, and an extraordinary passion for taste and
neatness in everything he did, Clever as a pianist, he was too
modest to play before virtuosi ; but his performance was
distinguished by " lightness of touch and a delicious, liquid
pearliness of tone," developed with the lightest of wrists and
never from the arm. His technical figuration in composition
was, however, somewhat limited, and in his busy fidgety
broken chord figures and rapid arpeggios of the diminished 7th
we miss the sweep of Chopin and Beethoven, though it is
suitable enough for a good Scherzo style, This technique,
however, is improved upon in the G minor Concerto* which was
modelled on Moscheles, and in the B minor Capriccio, with
Orchestra, which was inspired by Weber's Conctrtsttlck*
Like his technique, Mendelssohn's harmonic and modulatory
effects are limited, Out of twenty-eight bars of the Allegro of
the 5b Sonata, ten and a half bars consist of diminished 7ths,
while his great fondness for the minor key, probably due to his
Jewish descent, is shown also in his almost stereotyped
modulation to the supertonic and other minor keys.
* The three pieces mentioned form the Op, 16 written during hi$ vMt to
Wales.
MENDELSSOHN in
On account of these deficiencies Mendelssohn's best works,
apart from those in playful Scherzo style and the brilliant ones
with orchestra, are the smaller Pieces known as the Songs
without Words. These delightful and highly-finished Pieces
more than any others have made his name a household word.
Oscar Bie, in his History of the Pianoforte and Pianoforte Players,
in a somewhat severe criticism, describes Mendelssohn as a
" composer for young girls, the elegant Romanticist of the
drawing-room " and as exhibiting a " gilt-edged lyricism/'
Speaking of the Songs without Words he says, " The Funeral
March, compared with that of Beethoven, is as if it were
written for a set of marionettes." " The Spring Song/' he says,
" is, so-to-speak, set on wires." This seems unduly exaggerated,
while something also must be allowed for interpretation or
manner of performance. There should be room, in pianoforte
music, for all aspects of nature. We have the tragedy of
Beethoven and the romantic gloom of Schumann, and we trust
there will always be a place for the sunshine and light-hearted
fascination of Mendelssohn. (See also Chapter VIII.)
Mendelssohn's best and most characteristic pianoforte music
seems to come in the early part of his life ; later on he appears
to have been much absorbed in orchestral and choral works.
One might mark the dividing point after the Concerto in
G minor, Op. 25, written at the age of eighteen. Before this,
and including the Concerto, the best are the Op. 14 (Andante
and Rondo Capriccioso) and the three Capriccios, Op. 16 and the
B minor Capriccio, with Orchestra, With these come also the
Songs without Words (Bk, I, 1830, written at the age of
twenty-one) ; the melodious Preludes and Fugues, Op. 35.
which show remarkable facility in this difficult branch of the art
and were written between 1832 and 1836, when he was less than
twenty-seven, and finally, the Variations Strieuses, Op, 54, one
of the best works of its kind in the Classic style.
With the exception of the Lieder ohne Worte, Fugues and
Variations already mentioned, the works after Op. 25 seem to
have lost their freshness through lapse of time.
On the whole, though Mendelssohn's music is never deep, it
can boast of warm sympathetic melody and of a sunny nature ;
and, in spite of its limitations in technique and harmony, it is
always truly pianistic and suited to the instrument.
CHAPTER VI
REFLECTIVE AND CHARACTERISTIC ROMANCE
Schumann
*' If heaven has gifted you with lively imagination, you will often, in
lonely hours, sit as though spellbound at the pianoforte, seeking to express
the harmony that dwells in your mind." Schumann.
ROBERT SCHUMANN, the greatest of the Komanticisis, was born
in the same year as Chopin, 1810* His father was a bookseller
at Zwickau. Already, at the age of six, the boy was a pianist,
while at seven he was a composer and extemporized at the
instrument,
A few years later, when at school, he showed that literary
faculty for which he also became famous in after-life,
At the age of eighteen he was sent to Leipzig to study law,
and there he became acquainted with Clara Wieck, then a girl
of nine only, and already known as a pianist and composer,
Schumann, neglecting the law, devoted himself to harmony
and counterpoint, the pianoforte, and the study of Bach.
Removing to Leipzig, he attended the lectures of Thibaut, who
had written a treatise on "Purity in Mwical Art"
Schumann had already been hard at work at the pianoforte
when in Heidelberg, and had there written the Abegg Variations,
the Papitlons and a sketch of the Toccata, It was not long
before he revolted against the law and determined finally to
take up music in earnest in Leipzig.
The career of a virtuoso now attracted him and, in order to
hasten his progress, he originated & device for holding up one
finger while the others were energetically employed,
The resultant laming of this finger and consequent abandon
ment of the r&le of virtuoso made a change in his career, which
was fortunate for the musical world, since he was obliged to
take to composition instead of becoming merely an executant,
REFLECTIVE ROMANCE 113
In 1832 appeared his first set of Caprices after Paganini, the
result of hearing Paganini 's performance at Frankfort in 1830.
Next year followed the Intermezzi and Impromptus on a Theme
of Clara Wieck; the Toccata was finished, the Concert- Allegro
in B minor, and a second and more virtuoso-like set of Paganini
Caprices were written, while the G minor and F$ minor Sonatas
were begun. Schumann was thus, at the age of twenty- two or
twenty-three, already in full career.
A year later began his connection with the musical journal,
Neue Zeitschriftfur Musik, which lasted for eleven years without
a break and did so much, in many instances, for the cause of
unknown aspirants to fame, such as Bennett, Brahms, Chopin
and others. The Journal represented progressive musical art.
Schumann invented certain imaginary musical personalities :
the enthusiastic, heaven-storming and humorous " Florestan/'
the gentle, reflective " Eusebius/' the philosophic " Raro " and
" Jonathan," who were supposed to meet together in critical
conclave. Essays and criticisms appeared over these signatures
considering musical art from different standpoints ; and
compositions, as, for instance, in his Carnival, were marked
" Florestan/'" Eusebius/' etc., according to their inner meaning.
The traits of these " Davidsbiindler " or " League of David/' as
they were jointly termed, were also perpetuated in the
Damdsbundler Tdnze, Op. 6.
The Carnival and five Etudes Symphoniques appeared in
1834, and in 1836 his romantic engagement to Clara Wieck
began, only to encounter for four long years the decided
opposition of her father, The struggle, however, was not
without value for art. As Schumann himself wrote : " Much
music is the result of the contest I am passing through for
Clara's sake."
The Fantasia in C, Concerto without Orchestra, Fantasiestucke,
NoveUtton, Kreisleriana, Kinderscenen, Arabeske, Blumensttick
and Hwnoreske, comprising all the best of his works, were
written at this time. Immediately after his marriag:e
Schumann's vein of composition seemed to have changed. His
facile pen produced in quick succession 130 Songs, 3 Symphonies,
a Pianoforte Concerto, and some Chamber Music. In 1843 he
became Professor of Composition at the Conservatorium with
Mendelssohn as Head, and his Variations for Two Pianofortes
now appeared.
ri4 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
In 1844 came the successful tour to Russia, under Imperial
patronage,
Yourie Arnold, a theorist, relates that during a concert given
in St. Petersburg, " Clara Schumann took part in her husband's
Pianoforte Quartet, and played his Kreiskriana and several
other pieces. She made a deep impression on us, although we
were growing accustomed to lady pianists. , . . Schumann
was silent and morose the whole evening. He scarcely spoke at
all. ... He sat in a corner by the piano, his head bent
forward, his hair falling over his face, his lips pursed up as if
about to whistle. He seemed lost in stern reflection. As I
saw him that night, Schumann was exactly like the life-size
medallion taken by the Sculptor Dondorf. Clara Schumann
was more talkative, and made up for her husband's taciturnity.
At the piano she proved a truly great artist, possessed of virile
energy and feminine instinct both in reading and execution,
though she was at that time not more than five or six-
and- twenty. But one could hardly describe her as a gracious
or sympathetic woman/'
The world-famous Kinder-Album, Op, 68, appeared shortly
after this tour.
An appointment at Diisseldorf in 1850, as successor to Ferd.
Hiller, was only held by Schumann for three years, when he
was obliged to resign owing to symptoms of incipient insanity.
A year later the unfortunate man tried to drown himself ;
and he died in an asylum near Bonn some two years afterwards,
in July, 1850, at the early age of forty-six,
It is worthy of note that practically all Schumann's piano
music was written before his marriage, and that his sympathies
afterwards seemed to have turned in a new direction, when his
energies were bestowed mostly on, works which required, so to
speak, a bigger canvas.
la Litzmann's Life of Clara Schumann appears a letter showing
how she wished her husband's genius to obtain full recognition.
This is what she wrote: <( Listen, Robert ; will you not, just
for once, compose something brilliant, something easy to
^understand, and something without a superscription a piece
which hangs together well, neither too long nor too short ?
I should so like to have something to play at concerts for the
public. For a genius this is certainly humiliating, but policy
sometimes requires it/' Fortunately for art Schumann was
REFLECTIVE ROMANCE 115
apparently unable to carry out this behest. He owes his niche
in the temple of fame to the reflective and characteristic forms
of musical art forms made for the solitary chamber rather than
for the concert hall, which naturally is a more suitable environ
ment for the " brilliant " and " easy to understand/'
Whether a further devotion to pianoforte composition would
have been a gain, had he lived longer, is problematical. His
later piano works, with the exception of the Kinder-Album,
show signs of that obscurity of style which we believe must
have been occasioned by the approaches of his terrible malady.
The key to Schumann's style is to be found in his cultivation
of the mystic element in life under the influence of the
Romanticist Jean Paul Richter.
It has been said that t( the tunes of Schumann, like the
colours of Rossetti, are always trembling on the verge of
symbolism" (Hadow), and Schumann was, indeed, the leading
representative of the "Characteristic" School. (See next
Chapter, dealing with the " Characteristic " Composers.)
Two obstacles stood in the way of the perfect recognition of
his music : (i) the employment of polyphony (an extension of
the traditions of Bach), with its ever-tangling web of the various
parts, and (2) obscured rhythmical effects. Schumann himself
said, " only study Bach thoroughly and the most complicated
of my works will seem clear/' He must needs, then, be an
educated musician who would understand Schumann in all his
moods. The persistent cross-rhythm effects do not, however,
come direct from Bach, though they are the outgrowth of his
style ; and these were later used to exhaustion by Brahms,
who modelled much of his style upon Schumann. The principal
musical virtue of Schumann was his modern feeling for harmony
in all its rich and varied colouring. The moods which he wished
to instil into his hearers were obtained, as he himself said, " by
penetrating more deeply into the mysteries of harmony/ 1
Chopin resembles him to a certain extent in harmonic feeling,
but does not go so far, the attraction in his case being made
complete by his more effective technique.
With Schumann it is otherwise. Harmonic feeling comes
first, polyphonic effects next and pianistic technique last.
Both composers, however, were as decidedly lyrical as Bach
and Beethoven were instrumental (loving the organ and the
orchestra respectively.
n6 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
As regards classical structure in which, no doubt, Schumann
was much influenced by the master-hand of his confrere
Mendelssohn we may say that Chopin and Schumann stood
further apart, the latter showing a much wider grasp of
instrumental and orchestral forms on a large scale.
Another comparison may be made between the influences
which prompted these two Romantic composers. For
Schumann it was the poets Jean Paul Richter, Byron and
others who reflected the trend and attitude of the age. For
Chopin it was his intense devotion to his native land, the spirit
of whose songs is reflected in his art.
Schumann's works may be divided into two classes : (i) those
which are avowedly " characteristic/' the great majority, and
(2) formal works such as Sonatas, Fugues, etc.
Taking Vol. I of the Litolff collection of his works, we have,
first, the Jugend-Album, Op. 68, containing those little
characteristic sketches, so true to life, from the desolate Poor
Orphan to the run-away Wild Horseman, and the mysterious
Old Goblin. Then there are the similar Kinder-Sccnen with their
charming Miniatures The Entreating Child, Perfect Happiness,
and a dozen others equally inspired. The Forest Scenes belong
to a different sphere, the realm of nature. The simple little
tone-poem Solitary Flowers recalls Burns's Ode to a Daisy, while
the sweet but melancholy song of the dainty Prophet Bird takes
all hearts captive.
The delightful Album-Blatter portray all manner of- little
scenes ; the beautiful Schlummerlied, the fantastic Elves and
Burla, the fluttering Vision and the sympathetic Presage of
Sorrow. It is not too much to say that here is Schumann at his
best. Modulations, harmonies and expressive features are here
refined and polished to the last degree, In technique Schumann
is also at his best in the light, pleasant and original, a manner or
style which, springing from the nature of his compositions, was
practically unforestalled by any composer. Here there is none
of the massive, somewhat clumsy, technique which marks many
of his other works and is unfortunately the feature most often
copied by his numerous imitators.
In the next volume (No, 2), comprising the Fanta$ie$ttick$,
Noveletten and Nachtstiicke we are conscious of a greater
energy, a greater striving, a more massive style and a richer
colouring ; as well as of something quite different from all which
REFLECTIVE ROMANCE 117
had appeared before in Pianoforte Literature. What a picture-
gallery of the emotions the Fantasiestiicke present : the twilight
Eve, the strenuous Excelsior-like Soaring, the pleading Why ?
the many-hued Whims, the ghostly Night, the mystifying Fable,
the happy entrancing Dream Visions and the jovial Finale !
The title Novelettes was suggested by the dramatic short story
which had become popular in Germany under that title. The
ist and 2nd themes of the first Novelette have been compared to
a " rugged German baron " and a " mild, elegant, domestically-
inclined Fraulein " ; No. 7 tells of dashing cavaliers and courtly
dances ; No. 8 is a mediaeval mystery with tragic ending ; and
No. 9 "a sprightly dance and frolic of forest elves round a
secluded chapel."
The ghostly and mysterious Nachtstiicke (Nocturnes or Night
Pieces) are, like all Schumann's characteristic pieces, quite
unique ; the tiptoe entry of No. i, with its stealthy dialogue,
the frolicsome yet tender No. 2, the dramatic No. 3 with the
legendary and merry episodes, and finally the heaven-inspired
Finale an evening prayer.
In the favourite Carnival (Vol. Ill) we find a series of cameos
or miniature pictures of various personalities the " David's-
League " family, Chopin and Paganini, with reminiscences of
the merry Harlequin and Columbine, and of others who
masquerade in the Papillons and the Faschingsschwank aus
Wien,
The only connecting link appears to be the insertion in the
pieces" of the musical notes (in the usual German nomenclature)
A, Eb ($$), C, B (A), or A|? (as), C, B(A), representing in each
case the word " Asch," Schumann himself describes it as
follows: " The name of a city, in which a musical friend of
mine lived, consisted of letters belonging to the scale, which are
also contained in my name ; and this suggested one of those
tricks which are no longer new, since Bach gave the example.
One piece after another " (he says) " was completed during the
Carnival season of 1835, in a serious mood of mind and tinder
peculiar circumstances. I afterwards gave titles to the numbers,
and named the entire collection The Carnival."
Referring to Liszt's performance of it in Leipzig, he expresses
the opinion that " its musical moods change too rapidly to be
easily followed by a general musical public."
Happily, however, owing to Madame Schumann's later
n8 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
interpretation of her husband's works, the Carnival became a
favourite.
Browning, who makes an interesting study of Schumann's
Carnival in his Fifine at the Fair, speaks of the
Columbine Pantaloon,
She toe-tips and, staccato-legato, shakes his poll,
And shambles in pursuit, the senior. Fil lajolle.
In the Faschingsschwank aus Wien (" A Carnival Jest from
Vienna ") we have more glimpses of the " fun of the fair " and
of similar experiences in the gay student life of Heidelberg.
The description ends in the Finale with " The noise of the
Carnival dies away, the church clock strikes six." Humour
and sentiment appear also in the Davidsbundkr Tanze, in which
the sketches are signed " F." (Florestan) or " E." (Eusebius),
according to their character. The Kreisleriana arc of a
different type truly poetical and reflective sketches suggesting
in their languor and refined melancholy the influence of Chopin
to whom they are dedicated. They seem to have been named
after the eccentric Kapellmeister Kreisler, who was also of a
literary turn of mind.
To complete the principal characteristic works, we have the
rich, songful Romances, the fine original Marches, more forceful
and dignified than those of Schubert, the ornamental tracery of
the Arabeske, the genial and really humorous Humoreskc, and
the descriptive Bunte Blatter, Op. 99.
Of the non-formal romantic works the beautiful rhapsodic
Fantasia, Op. 17, stands supreme that " mingled earthly
dream " which was originally written in connection with a
proposed memorial for Beethoven. The nature of the work
comes out in the titles intended for the three movements,
viz., Ruins, Triumphal Arch, The Starry Crown.
Besides this we have the discursive Op. 8 Allegro, and the
Etude Toccata, which is written, by the way, in Sonata form.
In the first book of the Paganini Studies Schumann, as he himself
says, " copied the original, perhaps to its injury, almost note
for note, and merely enlarged a little harmonically. In the
poetical, yet bravura, 2nd Set, which are intended more for the
concert room, he " broke loose from a too-closely imitative
translation of the themes selected from the original 24 Caprices,"
which also inspired Liszt and Brahms to unheard-of technical
feats in composition. Schumann, in his own notes on these
REFLECTIVE ROMANCE IIQ
Etude-Transcriptions of his, says (Music and Musicians, p. 360
Reeves), " it is impossible that those who have once heard them
executed perfectly should not often think of them with pleasure."
In these, and especially in the Etudes Symphoniques
(dedicated to Sterndale Bennett), which are Variations on a
theme in C# minor, we have displayed before us the originality
of Schumann's technique with its almost orchestral fulness of
tone,^ extensions, skips and massed chords, its inner melodies
and imitation dialogue and pervading sostentante style.
The " Abegg " Variations Op. i are earlier in style ; but the
Impromptu Variations (Op. 5) on a theme of Clara Wieck and
the charming Variations for Two Pianos are characteristic and
are written in the free style of small Fantasias (see Chapter
XXIV on " Variations "). Of the formally developed cyclical
works, the Sonatas, especially the G minor, are full of glowing
colour and rich in imagination, though they suffer somewhat
from want of unity of style. (See Chapter XXI, " Modern
Sonatas"). The Concerto in A minor, Op. 54, is one of the
most charming of Schumann's works (see Chapter XXII,
" Concertos "), technically attractive showing the influence of
Chopin warm and romantic in feeling, and structurally artistic.
The Concertstuck and Concert Allegro, both in Concerto style,'
are more classic in feeling and manner.
Schumann's Fugues are characteristic in feeling, but lack
somewhat of the contrapuntal fluency of Mendelssohn (see
Chapter XVII, Part III). In his four-hand music (Chapter
XXIII) he provides increased pleasure for " young and old "
in the attractive Children's Ball and Ball Scenes.
Generally speaking, one cannot but be struck by the
composer's warm romantic glow, sincere expression and fund
of humour, as exemplified in the noble and original harmonies
and the truly lyrical style,
It is true that he falls somewhat short of unity of form in his
larger works, that he inclines rather much to the creation of
small phrases, to occasionally over-complex weaving of the
parts and to rhythms coloured by a certain sombre melancholy,
while his technique is also sometimes difficult without being
correspondingly effective ; but, on the whole, we have, in his
best works, very much of what the musical world would not
willingly let die, Schumann will always be known as an
original genius and as the greatest of the Romanticists.
CHAPTER VII
CHARACTERISTIC, IMPRESSIONIST AND PROGRAMME MUSIC
" The Poet's word-mesh, Painter's sure and swift colour and line-throw
Outdo both of them music! Browning, ("Charles Avison.")
FROM the earliest periods in the history of the tonal art both
instrumental and vocal composers have striven to represent in
music the objective side of nature, or, in other words, not
content with appealing direct to the emotions, they have also
endeavoured to recall what goes on in the world around us,
This portraiture of the external is secured (i) through direct
imitation, or (2) through some effect which will call up, by
association, the mental picture desired. The direct imitation
of thunder is an instance of the first, that of a flash of lightning
an example of the second class.
In the latter case the natural phenomenon of light is usually
interpreted in sound by an extremely swift scale passage, or a
glissando.
The limitations of such imitation are very obvious.
In the words of Ambros : " Music is the best painter of the
soul's state and feeling and the worst of realistic objects."
Within the same category as the imitation of lightning we
must place also the imitation or suggestion of the emotions such
as joy, sorrow, humour and happiness, which can only be
recalled by association of ideas slow music for sorrow and quick
for joy, etc. As early as the fourth century B,C, this was
recognized by the Greek philosopher Aristotle, who says :
" It is in rhythms and melodies that we have the most realistic
imitations of anger and mildness, as well as of their opposites
generally."
Simple modern examples of these musical representations of
emotions occur in Schumann's Poor Orphan and Merry Peasant.
Some distinction requires to be made between Characteristic
and Programme music, and between these and Impressionist
music. The line of demarcation between the two former is by
no means easy to draw, but, speaking generally, characteristic
music would seem to imply that which is characteristic of, or
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CHARACTERISTIC MUSIC 121
associated with, definite states of the mind, its moods and
emotions.
Programme music, on the other hand, treats rather of definite
events, occurrences or phenomena in Nature, while Impression
ism hovers between the two in its vague presentation of a
picture, a picture which may partake of both classes.
"Music is a very imperfect language; it is all adjectives and no
substantives; it cannot delineate the objects themselves." Dr. Crotch.
Bearing in mind this dictum of a once-famous English church
composer and former instrumental prodigy, we would say
that in Programme music we naturally, first of all, look for
representations of sounds in Nature* such as the rolling of
thunder, the noise of the sea, the 'crash of the storm, the music
of bells, the song of birds, etc
Early examples are to be found in the Pitzwilliam Virginal
Book (1550-1621) as, for instance, Munday's Fantasia containing
Faire Wether, Lightning, Thunder, etc.
In the Susatos Collection of 1551 there is the Pavan La
Bataille, and we have also the glissando Jacob's Ladder of
Frobergcr, the descriptive incidents in the Bible Sonatas by
Kuhnau Bach's predecessor at Leipzig as well as Bach'a
own Capriccio The Departure of a Brother (see Part I, Chapter
X) . The call of the cuckoo has ever been a favourite device,
as in the Cuckoo Capriccio of Frescobaldi (1626), the Cuckoo
Capriccio of Kerl (1679), the Cuckoo Toccata of Pasquini, 1702,
aud Le Coucou by Daquin, the contemporary of Rameau
(c. 1705).
Rameau, also, in his artistic suites, has imitated the call of
the birds and the cackle of the hen ; and Couperin likewise
wrote a Hunting Scene and the Bells of Cythera.
With later composers artistic Programme music is more
scarce. Weber's Concertstucke and Invitation to the Dance,
Beethoven's playful Rage Over a Lost Penny, Henselt's
descriptive Thanksgiving after a Storm, and Liszt's Les Cloches
de Geneve and Mazeppa Etude stand out as examples. During this
same period and, indeed, up to the present day, we are confronted
with Realism, which one may describe as Programme music
carried to an inartistic extreme. This development of a
legitimate device brings out emphatically the weak points and
limitations of the art. Music's sway lies in its power over the
K
122 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
emotions and not in material trickery. The announcement of
a Programme naturally takes away from the interest of the
music itself and concentrates attention on the Programme
device; while rank Realism dethrones the divine art and
substitutes for it another deity and a false one. Examples
of this are not difficult to find. Kotzwara's Battle of Prague,
Steibelt's Bacchanals with tambourine accompaniment,
Dussek's guillotine scene in The Sufferings of the Queen of
France suffice without quoting later instances.
Music " characteristic " of the moods and emotions and of
their associations may be said to be first prominently illustrated
in the dainty Suites of Chambonni&re, Couperin, Rameau and
Em, Bach.
In the Suites of Couperin we have, indeed, a complete
portrait gallery.
The failings and graces of Nannette, the gossiping wife, the
Soeur Monique, the Enchanteresse, Le Turbulent, Les Dominos,
and many others are depicted. Impressions aroused by
association with nature are given by the Butterflies, the Bees,
and the Grasshopper, while the varied emotions of Les Sentiments,
Les Regrets, L'Ame en Peine, etc., are faithfully related.
Rameau again, in his Les Tendres Plaintes r La Timide, etc.,
and Em. Bach in his Les Langueurs Tendres and La Complaisante,
have displayed similar powers of characterisation.
In the same class we may also mention the Consolation and
Adieu Rondos of Dussek, the Lamentation Sonata of Rust, the
Adieu, Pathttique and Pastoral Sonatas of Beethoven.
Schumann was pre-eminently a depictor of the characteristic.
His important Kinder-Album, Kinder-Scenen, Carnival, Davids-
bundler, etc., are full of charming music and artistically " true
to nature,"
Schumann himself, in his literary articles, pleaded the cause
of both Programme and Characteristic forms. In " Florcstan's
Shrovetide Speech " occurs the following ;
" ' Did not Beethoven write a Battle Symphony, also, sir ? '
' Yes, sir, the Pastoral Symphony, ' answered Eusebius
indifferently."
Schumann also laughed heartily over Beethoven's Rage over
a Lost Penny, u Now I have you, Beethovenians," he says ;
" I could be angry with you in quite another way when you
turn up the whites of your eyes and rave about Beethoven's
CHARACTERISTIC MUSIC 123
freedom from earthliness, his transcendental flight from star
to star."
Schumann recognizes the living tone-landscapes of Bennett
the " lake " the" mill-wheel " and the" hundred voices prattling
and splashing " of the Fountain ; and his far-seeing literary
criticisms display as much characterization in his description of
works by " the manifold pictures which arise in my mind " as
in his own compositions. Heller, in his Forest and Hunting
Scenes, Jensen, Volkmann, Nicode and Hiller, in their happy
characterization of scenes in childhood and youth, not to mention
characteristic works by Reinecke, Tschaikowsky, Saint-Saens,
Huber and many others, are examples of this delightful class.
Impressionism in pianoforte music aims at no definite picture
of an occurrence or of an emotional state, but rather at creating
" a vague general impression " on the listener, as, for instance,
in Debussy's description of one of his pianoforte pieces as
" movement, rhythm, dancing in the atmosphere, with sudden
flashes of light."
It is this nebulous atmosphere, with its various possible
tendencies and interpretations, that Impressionism succeeds in
creating. Its evanescent tone-images are produced by music
of a somewhat (but not totally) formless character, which is
void, in extreme instances, of any sense of key and rhythm, and
often of grammatical succession, while its shifting harmonic
progressions are usually characterized by extreme chromaticism.
The French School, with Debussy at their head and accompanied,
to some extent, by the Belgian Cfear Franck, who settled in
Paris, have led the way here and have been closely followed by
the British School, as described in Part IV, Chapter XIV.
(The reader is further referred to the works of French
composers mentioned in Part IV, Chapter VIII.)
In the present age, tending to the purely harmonic in music,
there is, doubtless, much scope for development of this interesting
phase of art one which has its parallel in the important
impressionist school of painting,
The only danger lies in the neglect of design ; and, as Franz
says, " Colouring without a design would be as absurd in music
as it is in- painting."
In any event, this special development of Harmonic colouring
in pianoforte music will be awaited with considerable interest.
CHAPTER VIII
LYRICAL AND POETICAL FORMS
" No music is conceivable without melody." Wagner.
MANY of the non-formal pieces, and the smaller poetical forms
of pianoforte music are obviously derived from the corresponding
forms written for the voice ; i.e., from the realm of Song in all
its varied forms.
Perhaps the most prominent is the <( Song without Words "
as popularized in the charming and artistic examples of
Mendelssohn and other more recent composers.
As regards the lyrical manner, these small pieces were
anticipated to some extent by the Bagatelles of Beethoven, the
Nocturnes of Field, and some of the smaller works of Schubert ;
but in the important distinguishing marks of style, character,
or mood, they were almost unanticipated up to that time.
Of varying styles, these works of Mendelssohn present, on the
whole, the spirit of the simple, unaffected German Lied. One
may recall the Spring Song, No. 30, Spinning Song (No. 34),
Hunting Song (Book I, No, 3) and Duetto (No, 18) as examples.
Stephen Heller has suggested some interesting and appropriate
titles as far as No. 42, viz. :
(i) Sweet Remembrance, (2) Regrets, (4) Confidence, (5) Dis
quiet, (7) Contemplation, (8) Restlessness, (9) Consolation,
(10) The Wanderer, (n) The Rivulet, (13) The Evening Star,
(14) Lost Happiness, (15) The Poet's Harp, (16) Hope,
(17) Appassionata, (19) On the Shore, (20) The Vision, (21) Presto
Agitato, (22) The Sorrowful Soul, (23) Triumphal Chant,
(24) The Flight, (25) May Breezes, (26) The Departure,
(27) Funeral March, (28) Morning Song, (31) Meditation,
(32) Lost Illusions, (33) The Pilgrim's Song, (35) The Wail of
the Shepherd, (36) Serenade, (37) A Reverie, (38) The Farewell,
(39) Passion, (40), Elegy, (41) The Return, (42) Songs of the
Traveller,
The origin of these instrumentalized vocal forms may be
assigned to the popular tunes and arias represented in the old
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LYRICAL AND POETICAL FORMS 125
Suites which, on repetition, were treated in various ways by
means of ornamentation, variation and imitative work.
The legendary Lay and Roundelay, the Minstrel's Canzone,
and especially the narrative Ballad (Ballata) have also received
illustration on the keyboard.
The latter, as usually conceived, in heroic or dramatic vein,
is exemplified in the Ballads of Chopin and in the Nocturne-like
compositions of Brahms. The slighter form of the French
Chanson, resembling the German Lied, but not so subjective
nor reflective in style, and the meditative, concisely-built
Cavatina are also used.
The Romance and Novelette, specially typified in those of
Schumann, resemble the Ballad, but are more chivalrous in
style and more glowing in spirit. The antithesis of this is found
in the Nocturne which, while equally lyrical, is mostly dreamy
in style.
Chopin founded his Nocturnes on the ideally quiet-breathing
poetical Nocturnes of Field. An air of slumber and restful
night hangs also over the more massive but characteristic
Nachtstucke (Night Pieces) of Schumann.
The Serenade, in which French composers seem to excel,
together with the dawnof-day Aubade, breathe forth a similar
atmosphere, but they are delicate and ethereal compared with
the Nachtstucke, and usually have a kind of guitar accompani
ment to the melody. Still another piece connected with
slumber is the frequent Berceztse, exemplified by Chopin and
others, a soothing song-form of simple character. Finally,
there are the gently-rocking boat songs, which, under the name
of Barcarolles and Gondolier Songs or Gondellieder, were
favourites with Mendelssohn and Rubinstein,
We now come to those forms, not essentially lyrical, in which
suggestive, almost " programme effects" have a part/
Of these the Pastorale and allied Pieces, the elevated and
refined Idyll, the shepherd's musing Eclogue, the simple country
tune in the Villanetta, all express the placid delights of the
country, the piping drone of the shepherd, the humming of the
bee and the rippling of the brook, etc. The Pastorales of
Kullak, the Idylls and Eclogues of the Nature-poet Heller, with
pieces under distinctive names, such as the Fountain and the
Lake of Bennett, illustrate what has been done in this branch
of art.
126 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Another class of programme tendency which has arisen
consists of the interpretative and light-winged sketches called
Papillons ("Butterflies"), the fantastic Fantasiestucke, the
Scenes from Childhood and Kinder- Albums, all having suggestive
titles originating in the glowing imagination of Schumann and
since imitated by many composers.
Another descriptive piece is the Httmoreske, which was also
illustrated by Schumann, but which in the compositions of
many imitators scarcely justified its title.
The much imitated Novelettes of Schumann have been
classified with the descriptive Fanfasiestiicke, but they seem to
resemble more closely the chivalrous Romances and Ballads.
Of the many indefinite small pieces which do not express any
special emotions, there are the Album Leaves (Kirchner and
Schumann), the Bagatelles, the Aquarellen (" Water-Colour
Sketches" exemplified by Gade), the Sketch or Esquisse
(Heller), the delicate and ornamentally worked Arabeske
(Schumann), and the Apparitions ("Visions" of Liszt), to
which the more serious but disconnected and rambling Rhapsody
(see Part IV, Chapter III), and the convivial Dithyramb are
also allied.
The varying form and style of all these outgrowths of
Romanticism can only be studied from the actual examples of
the masters ; to which reference should be made.
CHAPTER IX
NATURE POETS
" His Fatherland is that of Shakespeare." Schumann.
" He seems to have overheard and reproduced Nature in her most
musical scenes." Schumann.
I.W. Sterndale Bennett (1816-75)
STERNDALE BENNETT is not only the chief exponent of the
English element in pianoforte music, but is also one of the most
conspicuous ornaments of the realm of Pianoforte Literature.
As a pianoforte composer alone he fills a unique position, by
reason of his thoroughly individual character and as being the
chief representative (with Field) of the Idyllic element. English
pianoforte music in the past has suffered somewhat from the
decided leaning of its composers to church and vocal music, as
well as from its bondage to the art of other nations from the
days of Purcell onwards.
It says much for Bennett, as a contemporary of Mendelssohn,
Chopin, Schumann and Henselt, that his technical and individual
style should have remained distinct and that in balance of
form he should have been surpassed only by Mendelssohn.
Much has been said as to Bennett having been indebted to
Mendelssohn without apparently taking into account the general
musical influences of the time. Doubtless, like Mendelssohn's,
his style was formed mostly on those of his predecessors in his
case Mozart of whom he was especially fond Scarlatti and
Bach (as he avowed), Beethoven and Dussek. Mendelssohn
himself was only six years older and had paid a visit to Londoa
when twenty- two years of age, some three years previous to the
composition of Bennett's Concerto in 1832. It would seem that
only an indiscriminating examination would confuse the style
of Bennett with that of his contemporary. Rather is it true
that both had imbibed the Romantic spirit of the age, both
were lyrical in style and artistic by nature, and both were excep
tionally smooth-fingered, light-wristed pianists.
But the melody of Bennett did not, like that of Mendelssohn,
127
128 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
tend " towards sentimentality/' but always remained lofty,
almost cold, in its idyllicism. Again, Bennett, in his use of
harmony is distinctively more characteristic; compare, for
example, his oscillating use of Super-tonic (on 2nd Dominant)
and Dominant harmony, and his fresh and poetic use of the
Diminished 7th, with Mendelssohn's mere technical use of the
latter and general weakness in harmonic variety.
On the other hand, Mendelssohn surpasses him in formal
structure, and in breadth of style in larger works. A similar
comparison apparently held good with regard to his playing.
Schumann said, " The Englishman excels in delicacy and finished
details, Mendelssohn in energy and grasp of the entire scope of
the piece/'
Bennett is, above all, the Musician's Tone Poet ; the delicate
finish and idyllic art of his mind appealing rather to the critical
than the popular mind.
For general comparison's sake the student would do well to
compare the Fountain, by Bennett, with the Rivulet, by Mendels
sohn, the Maid of Orleans Sonata with the similarly meditative
Sonata in G minor.
Born in Sheffield, where his father was organist of the Parish
Church, young Bennett was sent to the Royal Academy of
Music in London at the age of ten. Two years afterwards he
appeared as pianist in one of Dussek's Concertos ; at the age of
sixteen he had written his first Concerto in D minor, and three
years later he had already completed a goodly list of works,
including a yd Concerto, two Overtures, the Sextet in F$ minor
and a Symphony in G minor. On September aist, 1836, after
ten and a half years' study at the Royal Academy, Bennett left
London for Leipzig, where he again met Mendelssohn as well
as Schumann, who gave him a hearty welcome* Many of his
compositions were performed on the occasion of this stay, as
also on succeeding visits in 1838 and 1842. The relations of
Bennett and Mendelssohn were of " surpassing friendliness/'
The latter wrote at that time that Bennett " seems to have
made his friends and admirers at one stroke, for you hear only
Bennett everywhere/ 1 In the words of Mr, Q'Leary (Mus,
Assoc. 1874), " The famous Gewandhaus concerts, brought,
under Mendelssohn, to the highest pitch of perfection, the knot
of famous musicians to be met with, the hospitality of the
wealthy and educated families who welcomed him to their homes,
NATURE POETS 129
all combined to make this one of the happiest periods in his
life." Schumann championed Bennett's cause in his famous
Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung under the pseudonym of
Eusebius. He speaks of him as "a very delightful indivi
duality/' " a gentle quiet spirit, that labours on high, no matter
how storms gather below him."
One of Bennett's earliest works, the three Sketches, Op. 10
(The Lake, The Milhtream and The Fountain), proved to be a
universal favourite. The first number, with its placid,
undulating figures in 6ths, the last with its sparkling broken-
chord passages, the Millstream with its turgid imagery expressed
in a tumble of wild arpeggios all three show forth Bennett's
characteristic harmonies.
Schumann speaks of these as " the three most lovely pictures
which have appeared in Germany, true to nature-colour, poetic
in conception, musical Claude Lorraines, living tone-landscapes, 1 '
The Impromptus, Op. 12, he also speaks of as " true poems "
and " not inferior to them/'
The three Romances, Op. 14 (Ash) are grateful to play,
requiring a supple wrist for agitato elements, and are by no
means easy. Schumann speaks of them as marking " a great
step in advance as regards deep, even strange, harmonic
combinations, and a bold broad construction, " possessing
richly flowing melody" and " highly impassioned character/'
The light wrist-work in most of Bennett's compositions resembles
that of Mendelssohn, and it is valuable in both cases from an
educational point of view.
As to the four-hand Diversions, Schumann declaims on their
" imaginativeness/' their " refinement in detail" and " art in
the whole ; " and concerning the Fantasia, Op. 16, he says :
" As for lovely melodies, it rings with them as richly as a nest
of nightingales."
The Suite de Pieces, Op. 24, and Capriccio in A minor, Op. 28,
are also interesting as regards technique, besides containing
many of his characteristic touches. While speaking of edu
cational value, the useful and loose-fingered Toccata, the
charming yet precise Rondeau d, la Polonaise and the interesting
Rondo Piacevole should also be kept in mind.
Schumann speaks of " genuine creative power" manifested
in the Suite. " Here is," he says, " not the profound, the
sublime, that awakens thought and imposes on us, but the
rso- HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
delicate, playful, often fairy-like grace, that leaves small yet
deep traces behind it in our hearts." If Bennett may be
compared with Mendelssohn for the excellence of his technique,
it is interesting to note also his fine feeling for balance of form,
together with his avoidance generally of the actual form of
the Sonata.
His one successful effort in this direction, which, like the Lake
and the Fountain, is pure characteristic music, is the Maid of
Orleans Sonata, Op. 46 (Cramer), wherein the different move
ments are described as follows by extracts from Schiller's poem
I. In the Field. Andante Pastorale in AJ?.
" Tn innocence I led my sheep
Adown the mountain's silent steep."
The Andante opens in a quiet, idyllic frame of mind, (Note
the characteristic harmony in bar 2 of the Example.)
II, In the Field. Allegro Marziaic in Ab minor.
" The clanging trumpets sound, the chargers rear
And the loud war-cry thunders in mino ear,"
Here two strongly contrasted themes are heard one
portraying sharp strife, contention and the " clanging trumpets
sound/' the other an agitated and anxious prayerful melody,
NATURE POETS 131
III. In Prison. Adagio Patetico in E.
" Hear me, O God, in mine extremity,
In fervent application tip to Thee,
Up to Thy heaven above, I send my soul."
A simple, prayerful melody leads to an episode illustrating
the passage
" When on my native hills I drove my herd,
Then was I happy as in Paradise."
In the final movement
The End. Moto di Passione in A|j.
" Brief is the sorrow, endless is the joy "
the composer hardly rises to the level of his theme as the
climax of the poem, although the movement is characteristic
as far as it goes.
The most popular of Bennett's Concertos, that in F minor,
possesses a charmingly brilliant and sparkling ist Movement,
while the beautiful Barcarolle an afterthought deserves to
live in perpetuity. (See Chapter XXII.)
The Studies, Op. n, are artistic and brilliant in style, but seem
to be founded mostly on the older dementi technique.
On the other hand, the Preludes and Lessons (Ash) are among
the most artistic and delicately wrought of their kind, ranking
next to those of Chopin.
Befmett, in 1851, reluctantly refused the conductorship of
the Gewandhaus Concerts ; five years later, however, he
became conductor of the London Philharmonic Society and
Professor in the Chair of Music at Cambridge. In 1866 the
erstwhile student and professor became Principal of his old
School, the Royal Academy. It is thus delightful to relate
that honours for the greatest English pianoforte composer
were not allowed to wait until his death.
Time has flown since Bennett's name had become " a house
hold word in the musical circles of Germany/' but there will
assuredly come a time when the blare of Tschaikowsky and
Richard StrOTss will give way to reflection, and the genuine
artistic chfaftis of the " musician's poet " will again come to the
front. Bennett was a born pianist and his pianoforte music, for
genuine originality, individuality of style, subtlety and finish
within the limits of his genre, are difficult to equal.
It is something of a -reflection on us as a nation that Bennett's
works should still lack presentation in a collective edition.
Let us hope that this may soon be remedied.
CHAPTER X
NATURE POETS (continued)
" True poetry without which all art is lifeless can express itself as
well in the Sonnet as in the Epic." Fftis,
" Heller has indeed penetrated the mysteries of Nature . . the
beneficent influence of the forests, of the fields, and of the streams has
transformed his meditations into melodic transports." D& Matter.
II. Stephen Heller
STEPHEN HELLER stands next to Schumann as a master of the
" charact eristic/ >
His music shows the power to depict certain situations and
moods, to create an atmosphere, so to speak, by means of
certain melodic, harmonic and rhythmic traits.
Certain rhythms awake echoes of the dance, the chase and
martial tread ; gloomy and thick turgid harmony suggests
tragic or mournful events ; while bright, spirited, sparkling
figures in the upper registers stimulate joyful associations,
terrestrial and celestial
Heller's power lay, not in the mastery of the thematic, fugal
or formal development, nor in the management of huge choral
or orchestral effects, but in his command of the pictorial art
of " characterization,"
Take, for instance, the " Chase " a favourite theme with
many composers with its wayward echoes of " the tumult of
the chase/'
" The deep-mouthed bloodhounds' heavy bay," the clattering
steeds, the horn's merry peal, the echo " from rock, glen and
cavern/' the wild halloo, the doe cowering in her covert, the
falcon on high, the labouring stag down darksome glen all go
to make up an exciting picture, such as Sir Walter Scott knew
so well how to depict. All these wild, moving incidents of the
chase seem to be ideally interpreted in Heller's Jagtisttick, Op, 102
(Ash-Senff), as compared, for instance, with tho straightforward
132
NATURE POETS 133
ding-dong Jagdlied of Schumann, the Die Jagd of Rheinberger
or the third Song Without Words of Mendelssohn.
Each of the latter is artistic in its way, but gives only a
general impression of the galloping rhythm and the forms.
Heller's Jagdstuck, while equally artistic, is much more minute
and true to nature though his La Chasse is rather courtly
than wild.
Heller was essentially a poet of nature. In his Op. 86, In the
Woods (Aug.), which is full of imagination, a series of reveries
is given thus : (r) The Mystery of the Forest, (2) An Unfortunate
Encounter, (3) The Hunter's Rest, (4) Lost in the Wood, (5) In
Forest Glades, (6) The Supernatural Huntsman. Of these,
Nos. i, 5 and 6 are delightfully naive and characteristic, while
No. 5 has been described as " an amorous lament, exhaled in a
morning landscape of springtide." These nature studies are
interestingly continued in the Op. 128 and 136, in the latter of
which Heller shows his devotion to scenes of the forest and the
chase by taking the characteristics of Weber's similar Opera,
Der Freischutz, and reproducing them in miniature. These
should be distinguished from the studies from Der Freischutz,
Op. 127, which are transcriptions of the features and style of
the original.
Heller's ability to idealize nature is exemplified in his
Promenades d'un Solitaire, Op, 78, and the continuation, Op. 80,
Wander stunden, as well as in the Op. 89, In Wald und Flur.
These " solitary walks/' or " Nature reveries " were apparently
inspired by that student of Nature, Rousseau.
In Op. 78, Nos. i and 2, we find the key to the series, namely,
the knelling of the horns, a hunting refrain and a forest reverie,
in which the recluse penetrates Nature's mysteries. In
Germer's Edition of the Wanderstunden (Andre) titles are given
which assist the interpretation of the atmosphere surrounding
these walks in the depths of the forest. A collective edition
of these Nature studies would be a boon.
The Scenes Pastorales, Op. 50, the Reverie d'un Promeneur
Solitaire (Rousseau), Op. 101, the delicately written Eclogues,
Op, 92, and the original Bcrgeries, Op. 106, all likewise deserve
study in this connection. While Heller was always lyrical in
style and his fund of melody is always fresh his works are
not all descriptive, *
We come now to those which are simply expressive and
134 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
generally lyrical in style. To these belong the delightfully
contemplative Nuits Blanches, Op. 82 a type which, like his
nature music, stands unique, being quite different in style from
the Songs without Words, the Nocturnes, Impromptus, etc., of
other composers though, in general, bearing some resemblance
to the Etude, the Impromptu and the Reverie. This style
also includes the Op. 83, no, 123 and 114.
Then there are the collections of short characteristic pieces in
which Heller rivals his contemporary Schumann ; the charming
Album d la Jeunesse, Op. 138, the Petit Album, Op. 134, and the
Scenes d'Enfants, in which dramatic characterization in miniature
is skilfully depicted.
A comparison with Schumann's similar works is most
interesting. The work of the latter, both in his slight children's
character-sketches and in his forest scenes, is more boldly
outlined more " square-cut " and the colours are laid on
with no uncertain hand. Heller, on the contrary, may be
ranked almost as an impressionist in water-colours : he creates
an atmosphere, and the suggestive details arc most delicately
wrought out. Heller does not, perhaps, present the variety of
material, but it is equally well, if not more artistically used.
Schumann was probably the first to initiate successfully the
two branches of this art of delineation, but Heller helped to
perfect them. Many of Heller's pieces are in the Song-without-
Words style, as, for example, his Op, 73, 105, 120 and several of
the Studies, Preludes, etc,
Stephen Heller was born at Pesth, in Hungary, in 1815, of
mixed Bohemian and Austrian parentage, and at the age of
nine we find him appearing in public as a prodigy. Three years
later he had already made extensive tours, playing the then
fashionable Concertos of Moscheles, Hummel and Ries, and the
usual firework pieces by Herz, etc. At seventeen years of age
he began the study of composition and was befriended by a
Count Fugger in Augsburg, who made him acquainted with
Beethoven's and Chopin's works. There he wrote the Scherzo
and three Impromptus, Op, 7 and 8 (Ash.) which he sent to
Schumann for criticism. This was in 1836, Schumann, as
Eusebius, in pointing out Heller's individuality, declaims in his
usual style: " Thank Heaven! our young composer knows
nothing of that vague, nihilistic no-style behind which many
scribblers ape Romance, . , . We feel that there is in the
NATURE POETS 135
background of his compositions a peculiar, attractive twilight
or rather dawn a kind of f mental halo/ He finishes off finely
and carefully ; his forms are new, fantastic and free." He has
not the " harmonious euphony " of Henselt, but " has more
wit and knows how to mingle contrasts in unity." Schumann
aided the young composer by finding him a publisher.
Two years later Heller arrived in Paris, but his reserved
manner prevented his becoming popular in the Salons as Chopin
had done. Charles Halle helped to spread Heller's fame and
to alleviate the last hours of the retiring artist who had done so
much for pianoforte music. With the exception of two visits
to London in 1849 and 1862 the rest of Heller's life was spent
in Paris, where he died in 1888.
Heller, like Chopin, wrote only, or almost only, for the
pianoforte. Both these composers were dreamers, both noble
and refined in style, and both breathing the element of the
Salon. Chopin was popular in the Parisian Salons, while Heller
kept mostly in retirement. Chopin's works are more fitted for
the concert room, Heller's for the quiet of the study and boudoir.
Chopin, with a Slavonic temperament, was the more enthusiastic;
Heller, likewise of Slavonic descent, but reared in a Hungarian
revolutionary atmosphere, is more fitful. Nothing is more
characteristic of Heller than those strange, fitful and forceful
rhythmical passages which are continually appearing in his
music in the shape of reiterated chords, as, for example, in
No. 17, oiOp. 47, and the alternating quiet and forceful passages,
as in No. 2 of the Preludes, Op. 8r.
Heller's music throughout is permeated by strong contrasts.
The alternating impetuous and languorous changes of mood are
seen in the W ' anderstunden, for instance (Andr6 Ed.), pp. 10, 13,
14, 16 and 17, while strongly marked recurring short phrases
occur in Nos. 3 and 4 of the same series and in the tudes,
Op. 137. Instances of Hungarian colouring are noticeable in
most of the numbers.
Despite some alleged Mendelssohnian leanings Heller is more
allied to Weber on account of the warmth of his harmonies and
rhythms ; but his technique is restrained and artistic and never
merely showy. Heller's light fashionable pieces consist of
Variations, Caprices, Rondos, and Improvisations on the
popular airs of the day mostly operatic.
His transcriptions of Schubert's Lieder, including the well-
136 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
known concert work-, Op. 33, The Trout, the Mendelssohn Wings
of Song, the Beethoven Variations, Op. 130-133, and the
Schumann Improvisation, Op. 98, are of more than passing
interest. Heller's best-known Sonata, Op. 88, is the least
developed, but all four movements (except the Allegretto] are
individual in style.
The third and fourth Scherzos are especially interesting,
though idyllic in manner as compared with those of Chopin,
The individual Caprices, the somewhat Chopinesque Valses,
and especially the Tarantellas (including the Venitienne) show
much of the inspired vigour and dash of Heller's best style.
The Polonaises, the Impromptus, the second Interm&de, the
poetical Nocturnes and Nocturne Serenade, the refined and
original Serenade, Op. 56, the Ballades and the Canzonettes,
Op. 66, might be mentioned as containing much individual
writing.
The charming Studies, Op, 16 (The Art of Phrasing), about
which the others, Op, 45, 46 and 47, are introductorily grouped,
are of world-wide fame. After the Op. 16 appeared, Heller
was besieged by the publishers for more and it seems they were
not averse from cutting out passages which were too difficult,
Is this the reason, one asks, why they are so practical ? ( !)
The Op. 90 Studies are singularly expressive and pathetic ;
the Op. 125 resemble his Preludes in delicacy, while the Op. 116
is more technical.
Heller's Preludes are unique, surpassing those of Chopin in
poetical character and in finished perfection of detail, both
harmonic and melodic. Each of the twenty- four Preludes,
Op. 8r, is a gem a perfect miniature in itself, They have been
described as " delicious genre pictures, painted with the most
exquisite care fifty bars at the most, a passing shadow, an
azure vapour curling upwards, a will-o'-the-wisp, which dances,
is extinguished and then laughs mockingly further on "
(De Maiter), Chopin's Preludes, though given in all the keys,
are xmequal in style and length, and they are really more in
Stude form, while Heller's present all styles in poetical form,
Bennett's Preludes and Lessons, together with Chopin's
Preludes come nearest to them, and Bennett's, from their
perfectly finished style, run them very close,
The pieces in Op. 119 of Heller are on a similar scale,
Last, but not least, there are the similar dainty Arabesques
NATURE POETS 137
and Traumbilder (Aug.), intended, like the Studies, for the
formation of expression and taste in style.
The works of Heller, as may be gathered from the foregoing
account, stand by themselves. Original, noble, refined, clear,
and, withal, genuinely poetical in style, they stand supreme as
examples of the art of painting in miniature and as representing
nature in all its moods.
CHAPTER XI
POETS OF YOUTH
ADOLF JENSEN (1837-1879) may be classed as one of the
principal smaller writers in the Romantic vein. In his early
works, such as the attractive Op. 5, Innere Stimmen, the Op. 7,
Fantasiestuck, and the charming Op. 18 (F.S.), he shows traces
of the influence, of Schumann, of whom he was a great admirer.
The Impromptus, Op. 20 and 37, and the German Suite,
though containing here and there beautiful ideas, arc over-
elaborated and are not particularly convenient to play. Most of
his work, however, shows considerable power of characterization,
with refined poetical style but with no particular individuality.
The beautiful Nocturnes, Op. 38 (R.F.), the lovely Galatea
(Erotiken, Bos), and the Dryads, show the influence of Chopin.
Of his short characteristic pieces, the Romantic Studies which,
he says, are intended " to illustrate musically scenes from the
life of a true friend/' the Songs and Dances, Op. 33 (Aug.), and
the Wanderbilder (Peters), rank almost with the best of their
kind. Jensen wrote a good deal of Duet Music, of which
probably the tuneful and spirited Wedding Music, Op. 45, is
best known. On the whole, there is much in Jensen's music
that one would not like to lose. In style he was bolder than
Bennett or Kirchner, and in power of characterization almost
the equal of Heller and Schumann,
We have coupled the names of Jensen and J, L, Nicod6
(b. 1853, of Polish descent, trained in Berlin, settled in Dresden)
as poets of the youthful emotions. Both portray the romantic
passions and feelings of Youth, as may be seen from a comparison
of the titles of their similar works ; for instance, in Nicod6's
Li&besleben we have (i) First Meeting, (2) Ardent Longing,
(3) Tgte-i-tSte, etc., and in Jensen's Romantic Studies, Bk, I,
we have (i) Vow, (2) New Life, (5) Longing, etc.
Both belong to the Schumann characteristic school, but
both have individuality combined with graphic description of
passing emotions.
138
POETS OF YOUTH 139
Nicode is the more powerful and more modern, especially in
the Dreaming and Awakening. His Schumannesque Op. 6,
Souvenir of Schumann, his Tarantella in G$ minor, and his
useful Concert Study, Elfin Dance, are good music. The clever
and interesting Symphonic Variations, as arranged by himself
for Duet reflect the influence of Brahms to whom they are
dedicated.
One of the best characteristic works descriptive of Youth,
and a happy one on the whole, is the Youthful Reminiscences
by Ferdinand Hiller (Forsyth), one of those later works in which
he inclined towards Schumannesque Romanticism.
Gustave Merkel (1827-1885) may also be classed as one of the
smaller characteristic poets. His piano works, though lacking
modern harmonies, are melodious and effective, especially in
modulatory effects ; and among them we may single out the
Fruhlingslied, Op. 18, the Bagatelles, Op. 149 (Ash), Op. 31
(No. 4), Op. 81 (Nos. 2 and 4, Jennings), Op. 108 (No, 2) and
Op. 120 (Bos.) Merkel, who settled in Dresden, is best known
as a writer of valuable organ works.
CHAPTER XII
THE REFLEX OF SCHUMANN
" The pianoforte is the confidant of our solitary and deepest thoughts."
Schumann.
THE influence of Schumann on style in pianoforte composition
has probably been more far-reaching than that of any other
composer since the time of Beethoven. Both in spirit, in
technique and in harmony his works formed a model which has
been eagerly seized upon by composers in all styles and of all
nationalities during the last half-century.
Schumann's contemporary and friend, Theodore Kirchner,
was one of the most prominent apostles of his style. Born at
Neukirchen in Saxony in 1824, he was trained as a boy at
Leipzig, where he also became, like Bennett and Brahms, a
special protg< of Schumann. Kirchner eventually settled in
Leipzig. His works are practically all for piano ; and in his
smaller pieces, which constitute the majority, he is almost as
charming as his avowed model. The best known of these, the
Album Leaves, as played by Madame Schumann, are not very
characteristic of him : his best works are more difficult and,
probably for that reason, less known. His share in the dis
tinguishing harmonic richness of Schumann, his boldness in
modulatory effect, his equal command of the " still and bewegt "
(the peaceful and the agitated styles), together with his elusive,
meditative melancholy (also characteristic of his model) make
his works full of interest to the student. His technique is more
natural more suited to the instrument than that of
Schumann ; but in the composition of larger works requiring
considerable thematic development Kirchner falls far short of
his model Another distinguishing characteristic is the innig
feeling, or deep-brooding introspectiveness, which was exempli
fied sometimes to excess in Schumann and especially present
in the later works of Beethoven and in Brahms.
140
THE REFLEX OF SCHUMANN
141
Kirchner's best works may be summarized in his Op. 5
Grusse), the Im Zwielicht, Op. 31 (R.B.), the Op. 24 (Stitt und
Bewegt} and Selections from Op. 32 (Aus truben Tageri).
Kirchner. " Still and Bewegt."
Kirchner, like others, wrote much that was mediocre and not
up to the standard of the above. His strength lay in the polished
style of the smaller pieces of original conception and not in the
flattering imitation of Schumann in his Florestan and Eusebius
and Neue Davidsbundler Tdnze.
Carl Reinecke (b. 1824 ; d. 1909 or 1910) may also be included
in the Schumann group. His music is thoroughly imbued with
romantic and poetic feeling, modern and graceful in character,
and possessing those little harmonic traits which, as in Schumann,
give warmth of colouring and idea. He is especially charming
in smaller pieces, such as the Chansons des jeunes filles (Cranz),
and in the longer, purely characteristic pieces, Op. 86. Pictures
from the South (Andr6 Off.), Pictures to Tennyson's " Enoch
Arden" (Ditson), Op. 219 (B.F.W.), Ldndler, Op. 152 (R.F.),
and the Albumbldtter, Op. 243 (F.F,), Nos. I and 5.
Pleasant blending of the old with the new is seen in the
Op. 197 (B. and B.) and the Gavotte in D (Eu.), while the more
142 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
serious aspect is artistically displayed in the four clavier pieces,
Op. 117 (C.S.), the Op. 215 Ballade (G.R.), and the classically-
conceived and noble Concertos. Reinecke is also responsible
for some interesting Transcriptions, and has a sympathetic eye
to the needs of the younger generation, as may be seen in his
Kindergarten and other educational works for the young.
Until recently he was one of the " grand old men of music."
A Concerto virtuoso from the age of twelve, he appeared in public
as late as 1906 (at the age of eighty-two) in one of Mozart's
Concertos ; and since 1860 he had occupied a leading position at
Leipzig as Conductor of the Gewandhaus Concerts, Professor at
the Conservatorium, etc.
In the works of Waldemar Bargiel (1828-1897) we have the
best features of his model (Schumann) in the melodic invention
and warmth of harmonic treatment, as well as in the
characteristic technique the groping in octaves in the bass while
the right hand is engaged in mystifying devices. On the whole,
however, the tone of Bargiel's music, as exemplified in his
Suite, Op. 21 (Schles.) and in Op. 32 (8 Pieces) is more straight
forward than that of his model or of Kirchner, It is well
written and dignified, Bargiel was a step-brother of Madame
Schumann, was trained at Leipzig and settled in Berlin.
Robert Volkman (1815-1883), like Schumann and Kirchner,
was a Saxon. A composer of wide activities, he is known
principally as a successful imitator of the characteristic style of
Schumann as in the melodious Grandmother's Songs, Wander-
skizzen, and some duets (Musical Picture Book, etc.) . Volkman's
strong point lay in his gift of melody, as in the Op. 17 (Cranz)
and Op. 19 (Univ.) ; and, though lacking command of technique
and variety of treatment, his works remain popular from their
dignity and simplicity of style, Volkman was educated at
Leipzig and ultimately settled in Pesth,
The Austrian Hugo Reinhold also shows the influence of
Schumann, though in his essentially diatonic style he lacks the
characteristic richness of harmony and modulation. His
Op. 54 and 55 (Kistner), Op. 59 (D*C,), and Op. 45 (Jennings)
deserve mention,
L, ,C, Wolf, in his attractive and virile Op, x6 (R,B,), Op. 21
and 25 (G.R.) is more Schumannesque in style.
C, I. Brambach (b. 1833), a pupil of Hiller and resident in
Bonn, shows an attractive style in his Op, 34
THE REFLEX OF SCHUMANN 143
which is cast in classical mould, in the charming Reigen, Op. 50
(Schott) and in Op. 66 (Leuckart).
The Op. 17 (Rahter) of Albert Gorter (b, 1862 in Munich),
with its modern colouring, the spontaneous and refined Op. 23.
25 and 26 (Kistner) of Josef Zohrer, the artistic Op. 47 (No. i),
Op. 69 (No. i) (Kahnt) of Ed. Zillmann, the Op. 30 (No. 6) of
Kufferath (Schott) and some of the compositions of Rud.
Niemann (1837-1898), for example, the Intermezzo (Kistner),
etc., likewise show the unmistakable influence of the greatest
of the Romanticists Schumann.
Richard Strauss (b. 1864 in Munich) is known principally
for his orchestral programme works. His pianoforte works,
Op. 3 (Five Pieces) and Op. 5 (Sonata in B minor) (Univ.) were
written before the age of nineteen while he was still at school,
The former are melodious and full of character and are mostly
Schumannesque in style. The Sonata is somewhat halting in
development, but is interesting on the whole. The humour in
the Burlesque for piano and orchestra is apparently confined to
the unexpected antics of the big drum, piccolo and bassoon. In
the melodrama Enoch Arden Strauss seems to be in his element
in artistic characterization on the piano of the musical back
ground for the recitation of the poem.
Max Reger (b. 1873 in Bavaria) is another of the moderns
in whose work Schumann's influence may be discerned. His
music is discussed in Chapter XIX.
CHAPTER XIII
JOHANNES BRAHMS AND HIS FOLLOWERS
" He is come a young blood by whose cradle Graces and Heroes kept
watch/ ' Schumann.
Johannes Brahms (1833-97)
JOHANNES BRAHMS was the son of a double-bass player who
officiated in the band of the Opera House at Hamburg.
Young Brahms made his appearance as a prodigy at the age
of ten. Becoming a pupil of Marxsen, we find that he appeared
both as composer and pianist when fifteen, and that later he
was employed in the unenviable task of playing dance music
and accompanying wretched singers at " Lokals " as well as
occasionally arranging dances and marches for the garden
orchestras. A meeting with the eccentric Hungarian violinist
Remenyi was the cause of a joint concert tour undertaken in
1853, during which the shy-mannered, bloncl and youthful
composer met Joachim. Brahms had already written his
F$ minor Sonata and E^ minor Scherzo and the meeting is
memorable as leading to his introduction to Schumann and
Liszt. It is necessary to mention that at this time musical
Germany was divided into three camps : (i) the Academical
and Classic School of Mendelssohn ; (2) the Romantic School of
Schumann who, while adhering to the old forms in the main,
added to them new rhythmic and harmonic effects ; (3) the
" New German " School of Liszt, who, with Berlioz, Wagner,
Billow, Raff and Cornelius championed the cause of programme
music by advocating the expression of poetical ideas without
regard to enveloping form. Near akin as they both were in
character and genius, Schumann soon became enamoured of his
young friend Brahms, and the famous article entitled New
Paths appeared in Schumann's organ, The New Musical Journal
(Neue Zeitschrift fur Musik), written in Schumann's poetical
and literary style, thus : " He is come a young blood by whose
144
BRAHMS AND HIS FOLLOWERS 145
cradle graces and heroes kept watch. ... He is called
Johannes Brahms, come from Hamburg, where he worked in
obscure tranquillity/ 7
Brahms had been advised to go to Leipzig and introduce his
compositions himself. His adviser and publisher, Dr. H artel,
wrote that " His playing belongs essentially to his music. I do
not remember to have heard such original tone effects before."
Schumann's criticisms on Brahms' early works are interesting.
The Sonata in F minor he described as " So profoundly grasped,
living, deep and warm throughout, and so closely woven
together. Of the Ballades (Op. 10) he wrote: "The first is
wonderful, quite new, the close beautiful original. The
second, how different, how diversified, how suggestive to the
imagination ; magical tones are in it. The bass F$ at the end
seems to lead to the 3rd Ballade. What shall we call this ?
Demoniacal quite splendid, and becoming more and more
mysterious after the pp in the Trio, and the return and close 1 "
Schumann also spoke of the " splendid Variations " (on a theme
of his own), and of the " quite new " F$ minor Sonata.
Dr. Pohl, however, on the other side, wrote that Brahms'
ideas were " indiscriminate, his work inconsistent and defective
in style/' and that, like Schumann, he had " the subtle habit
of mind, the tendency to the indefinite and misty," but even
Pohl praised his diversity of harmony and rhythm and his
wealth and freedom of ideas.
The presentation at Leipzig of Brahms' D minor Concerto
in 1859 called forth anew a chorus of criticisms. The virtuoso
element, which the general public had always been led to expect,
was wanting ; and the Leipzig Signale described the work as
" Symphony with Pianoforte Obbligato."
Brahms then took the work to Hamburg, where it* had a
triumphant reception ; but to-day conservative Leipzig is the
chief stronghold of Brahms in Germany.
Three years later Brahms left for Vienna, where he received
a favourable reception and where he ultimately settled for life.
The stream of criticism was resumed by Hanslick of Vienna,
who pointed out that Brahms was " best in the Variation
form/' and that his themes were apparently chosen for the
most part " for their capacity for contrapuntal treatment
rather than for merit." Whether as the result of these criticisms,
or of his appointment as Conductor of the " Sing-Akademie/'
146 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
where he had the congenial task of conducting Bach's choral
works, Brahms did not compose any more pianoforte music for
twenty-five years, except the Handel and Paganini Variations.
After this long break appeared, in 1879, the Op. 76 for
pianoforte, rapidly followed by others, notably the B\> Concerto
in 1882. One result of Brahms' residence in Vienna, and no
doubt also of his early associations with Remenyi, was his
contact with the Hungarian elements, which resulted in the
presentation of the famous traditional Hungarian Dances for
pianoforte in Duet form, with a further Transcription by Joachim
for violin and piano. The first set appeared in 1869, the
second in 1879.
The light-hearted Viennese and the atmosphere of the Strauss
Valse showed their influence also in the attractive but simple,
lieder-like strains of the Liebeslicder Walzer, Op. 52 and Op. 65,
for piano Duet and four voices ad lib. compositions, by the
by, plentifully endowed with diminished sevenths and of no
great original artistic merit. In these the voice parts do not
merely follow the melody but weave equally individual melodies
from the concurrent harmonies.
Brahms 1 melody, we would say, possesses the qualities of
his origin.
As a North-German, his sincerity and earnestness of purpose
is represented in his music especially in his love of Folk-song
and his composition of characteristic German Lieder.
As regards what Mr. Fuller Maitland calls his " daring
experiments " in cross rhythms and elaborate syncopations,
many of these cross-grained effects are more comprehensible to
the ear than to the eye, but it is certain, nevertheless, that they
are overdone and give an impression of straining after originality,
Perhaps the most distinguished feature of Brahms as a
composer in general is his power of structural development,
>., the proper organization of all the themes by means of the
Various technical devices, and their artistic presentation in
the whole.
Whether the result with him is pleasing is another matter ;
but the polyphonic weft of Brahms, derived, as it is, through
Schumann and the later Beethoven, probably makes him the
greatest technician in this branch of the art since the death of
the Bonn master. It has been said that his smaller pieces,
where there is not so much room for development, are the more
BRAHMS AND HIS FOLLOWERS 147
pleasing, but here we are met by the objection that his naturally
big style is best in the larger works, so that, perhaps, the best
course is to take each work on its own merits.
Looking at the early Sonata in C, Op. I, we see that the first
movement opens in fine style, but that it is somewhat patchy
in development.
The connective work is accomplished, not so much by actual
thematic development, i.e., the splitting up of a subject and the
resulting discourse on the various heads as by a favourite
device (after the manner of Schubert) of Variations over a
theme as a whole, which appears in various positions and keys.
Especially is this so in the charming Andante on the theme of an
old German Volkslied a theme which appears also in the
boisterous Finale. The Op. 2, the F$ minor Sonata, impresses
one as being artificial as well as abrupt and ponderous in style,
though occasionally we catch a glimpse of the simple sincerity
of the German lied-form.
The Scherzo in E^ minor, Op. 4, is in a bold and fiery mood, to
which the Schumannesque Trio comes as a grateful relief and
contrast.
The Sonata in F minor, Op. 5, is one of the finest of his works.
The extraordinarily fine ist movement, with its song of triumph
over fate in the and theme the poetical moonlight Andante
with the motto
" Der Abend dammert, das Mondlicht scheint,
Da sind zwei Herzen in Liebe vereint
Und halten sich selig umfangen/'
(Sternau).
the Henseltian dolcissimo section, the passionate " Love-Song "
Coda, with its organ-like close, the conflicting Scherzo and calm,
sustained Intermezzo, the fond " Retrospect " in the Intermezzo
of the Andante theme, the Scherzo-like Finale, reminding one
of Schumann's Aufschwung (" Soaring ") all suggest that the
work had been inspired by Beethoven's Moonlight Sonata;
though whether any autobiographical interest attaches, as in
the case of Beethoven, is uncertain. Over all is the inspiration
of the Volkslied and an abysmal organ or double-bass-like
profundity. Though breathing the spirit of Bach and of
Beethoven, the development in these early works is not based so
much on inversion of themes as in Beethoven, but is brought
148 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
about rather by transformation effected through various modern
technical forms of figuration.
What strikes one about the Ballades, Op. 10, is (i) the organ
or double-bass effect continually present through the octave
bass doublings Brahms always appears to revel in the bottom
octaves of the piano ; (2) the mysterious folk-lore element, a
nocturnal and unearthly strain here naturally appropriate,
though a Ballad is, of course, not always given over to the
mysterious. These two elements are present, moreover, in very
much else of what he wrote, and both are derived, together with
the obscurity of style (resulting from tangled rhythmic and
contrapuntal effects), from Schumann and the later Beethoven.
The pervading sense of fulness obtained from doubled octave
melodies and from doubled and trebled massed harmonies is
very different from the more truly pianistic style of Henselt,
Chopin and the Russian School. Relief from this in the Ballads
is seen, however, in the Schumannesque Intermezzo in No. 3,
Brahms' one-sided Cyclopean technique is specially shown in
his Variations. Those on an inspired theme of Schumann,
Op. 9, and the Duet Variations, Op. 23, are better than the Op. 21
(on an original theme) both as regards effect and musicianship.
The latter, though ingenious, seem to have been suggested by
the masterly Variations S&rieuses of Mendelssohn, which,
however, they quite fail to equal. The result suggests that,
craftsman as he was, Brahms was best in the Variation form
when writing on a theme not of his own creation. Mr, Huneker,
in his literary rhapsody on the Op. 9, thus describes the
Variations on the theme of Schumann ; " The theme is never
lost; it lurks behind formidable ambushes of skips, double
notes and octaves ; it woos, caresses, sighs, smiles, coquets and
sneersin a word, a modern magician weaves for you the most
delightful stories imaginable/'
Brahms' technique seems to have been derived mostly from
Clementi with Ms primitive, bare and direct successions of
3rds, 6ths and octaves, but the massed chords and cross-rhythms
are principally from Schumann. The influence of both is to be
seen in the Paganini Variations (which are announced as
Studies and valuable as such, in Brahms' style) ; No, I of the
First Book being based apparently on Schumann's Toccata,
and the first of the Second Book on a Stotfy in yds in dementi's
Gradus.
BRAHMS AND HIS FOLLOWERS 149
Brahms* Variations are all difficult and, perhaps, as a result
of their very technical character, they are, as has been said,
more interesting to the performer than to the listener. The
Variations on a theme of Handel's, Op. 24 (excluding the
Fugue) are less difficult in some respects and are tHe most
popular. While we are on the subject of technique, we may
mention the somewhat capricious arrangements exemplified in
those on Chopin's F minor Study in which single notes become
6ths, the left-hand topsy-turvy version of Weber's Moto
Perpetuo, the study-like transcription of Bach's violin Chaconne
for left hand alone, and the 51 Studies which are based on some
of his technical peculiarities.
The D Minor Concerto, Op. 15, was originally planned as a
Symphony, but owing to orchestral difficulties, Brahms first
thought of making it a Sonata for two pianos, and finally
decided to make it a Concerto. The original conception was
inspired by the tragedy of Schumann's attempted suicide, and
the 4th movement a Funeral March was later incorporated
in his German Requiem. The above incident, therefore, is the
key to this rugged and stirring work. This Concerto, with its
emotional, noble Maestoso and. Adagio movements, is notable for
the absence of bravura work and of that rhythmical obscurity
appearing in his later works.
In the later Concerto in E\) y Op. 83, one is conscious of some
striving after effect and of much more elaboration.
The virtuoso has to weave much ornamentation over a suave
initial theme, and the counterfoil, the serious element, comes in
the succeeding Allegro Appassionato, followed again by a dreamy
'cello solo in the Schumannesque Andante and a playful Finale
in which thematic development is prominent.
With Op. 76 (Eight Pieces Capriccios and Intermezzi) begin
the sets of small pieces written after Brahms 1 twenty-five years'
rest from composing for the piano, and they represent his
matured style.
The No. 4 of these is a representative example with its linked
and syncopated rhythms, the fluttering in the mystic regions
of the bass and the unexpected modulation to the episode
in the key of the flat 6th.
The first Rhapsody in Op. 79 depicts in sombre, rich colouring
a wild, determined theme, broken by bold, massive chords
conflictingly hurled together, and also a lovely, simple,
150 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
expressive theme forming an effective foil to the principal
subject.
The masterly second subject we can imagine to have been
suggested by the ghostly legend of the " Erl King/' In the
Op. 116, Fantasias, is seen the true Brahms, spartanlike and
full of inward broodings and wayward rhythmic subtleties.
In No, I of the popular Intermezzi, Op. 117, founded on the
slumber-song, Sohlafe sanft, mein Kind, and in the Romanze of the
six Pieces, Op. 118, we have a favourite and effective device of
hiding away the melody in the inner parts and accompanying
it by syncopated rhythms.
The mysterious wandering in the lower regions and bewildering
rhythmical effects appear again in the Intermezzi, Op, 118, while
the device of exchange of massive chords between the hands is
seen in the popular Ballad in G minor of the same set. Perhaps
we may contrast the Schumannesque massiveness of the latter
with the Ballades of Chopin and conclude that, though stern
and cold, it is possibly on account of this a more healthy style.
Brahms' best work, despite its intellectual and technical
prolixities, may be described as a mental tonic,
A charming miniature is the first Intermezzo of the Op. 119
(four Pieces) his last work for pianoforte. In the episode
Brahms relaxes, and the listener yields to an attractive melody,
only, however, to be pulled up later by the rhythmical change
in the bass and the saddened feeling which resumes sway,
Brahms has been declared " a Mystic/ 1 a profound thinker, and,
above all, a " German/' " the greatest tonal architect since
Beethoven/' " a master of the Variation form/' a champion of
absolute music (forgetting his Moonlight Sonata), and a kind of
musical " Browning/ 1 whose frequent moments of obscurity are
relieved by simplicity of idea, These, together with peculiarities
of technique, summarize for us in a manner the qualities of
Brahms as a composer for the pianoforte*
Apart, however, from the peculiarities of technique and the
masterly architectural ability, Brahms' music will live because
it plumbs the depths of what is noble and enduring in human
sentiment. Grandeur, sublimity and earnestness of purpose
will continue to be the anchor of very much that is best or really
classic in pianoforte music as in all brunches of the art, and,
indeed, in all art itself.
BRAHMS AND HIS FOLLOWERS 151
FOLLOWERS OF BRAHMS
Brahms, so far, does not seem to have had any lasting or
deep influence on the present generation of pianoforte
composers.
There are those who seem to be attracted by the peculiarities
and obscurities of the North German Classic, but who do not
possess his loftiness of purpose nor his simple lied-likz melody,
and the dangers of such a model are obvious. Brahms' style
is more or less apparent in the Austrian composer Von Herzogen-
berg (b. 1843), who, in his Op. 3 Variations and Op. 4 Fantasia
(B. and H.) shows a quiet meditative style, while the somewhat
rhapsodic and chromatic Op. 69, 59 (5) of Fr. Gernsheim of
Berlin (b. 1839) suffers from want of clearness. A brooding
spirit appears also in the Op. 38, 41 (two pianos) and 43 (Kahnt)
of Von Savenau. J. Erb, in his meditative Op. 39 (No. 2), is
clearer in style ; but Herman Scholtz, though serious-minded,
lacks melodic gifts, as, for instance, in his Ballade, Op. 78
(Leuckart). The virtuoso pedagogue Von Biilow (1830-1894)
did not excel in composition. His well-written Ballade, Op. n,
is thoughtful in style, but the simple Album Blatt (Schott) is
more attractive. His Carnival is mostly uninspired. The
virtuoso D'Albert (b. 1864) excels in his early Suite, Op. I and
Concerto (B. and B.), which were both written during his
pupilage in London ; but his later works show the faults of
Brahms without his merits.
CHAPTER XIV
THE BRAVURA SCHOOLS AND HENSELT
" Brilliancy of execution is valuable only when it serves higher
purposes." Schitmann.
HAVING dilated on the Romantic movement in pianoforte music
with its various side issues a movement that is still in force
we must temporarily go back to consider the influence of the
bravura virtuoso element as initiated by Weber, of the Romantics,
and appearing in the Viennese and Parisian Schools of artist-
composers. This attained a climax in Liszt, the Hungarian, and
Henselt, the Bavarian, and afterwards blended with the virtuoso-
romantic style of Rubinstein, the Russian Jew, and Raff, the
Swiss disciple of Liszt.
At the lime that Czerny (1791-1857), the initiator of the
Viennese bravura style, was disseminating his style of execution
through his pupils, there existed several styles or schools of
composition, The earnest, dramatic, but formally developed
School of Beethoven ; the blended Lyric, Classic and Romantic
Schools of Schubert and Mendelssohn ; and the Romantic
Schools of Chopin and Schumann.
The School of Czerny, as represented by his pupils Dohler,
Th. Kullak and Liszt, was a kind of reaction against the un
attainable thunderbolts of Beethoven -one that, while culti
vating technical brilliancy, made its object, on the whole, not
the pondering over life's problems, but the pleasing of the ear by
disingenuous melody, graceful flourishes and somewhat super
ficial attractiveness. There is room, no doubt, for this class of
composition, for music is an art which should appeal to all
classes of hearers.
The compositions of this Viennese School may indeed be
regarded as the better-class salon music of the period. Much
of such music necessarily goes out of fashion as public taste
advances, and it is remarkable that practically only those com
positions which are technically interesting or useful now survive*
152
BRAVURA SCHOOLS AND HENSELT 153
An exception must, however, be made in favour of Liszt, who
brought himself more into touch with the best of his period, and,
by virtue of his national characteristics and his success as a
transcriber, or rather paraphraser, gained a position of some
permanence in art.
The name of Carl Czerny (b. 1791 in Vienna), a Czech by
nationality, is now known to us, not by his trivial Rondos,
Fantasias, etc., but (i) by his Studies and indispensable edu
cational works which, though mentally not so artistic as those of
his senior Cramer (b. 1771), survey a much greater field, and are
technically more useful ; (2) as the master of the virtuosi referred
to elsewhere (Part IV, Chapter XVI).
Theodore Dohler (1814-56), born in Naples, was famous as an
executant and travelled, like most other virtuosi, far and wide
on the necessary concert tours.
Dohler was superior to Talexy, Plachy, Hiinten and Rosellen
of the Parisian School ; but unfortunately he was overshadowed
by his more brilliant contemporary, Liszt. His works are mostly
of a quiet idyllic character. Indeed, Dohler possessed the
ideal temperament for a writer of Nocturnes. His dreamy,
plaintive, almost melancholy nature comes out in his Romance,
Op. 25, the Souvenir de Florence, Op. 34, and the delicately
ornamented Nocturne in D\> t Op. 34. His technique is of the
smooth and swift style of Thalberg, of which a good idea may
be obtained from his bravura Variations and Fantasia, Op. 17,
his Tarantelle in G minor, his useful Studies, and the pieces for
left hand alone which, with those of Kalkbrenner, were the first
to appear in that style (Dohler Alb., Lit).
Dohler, though superior to Thalberg in lyrical interest, lacks,
like him, warmth of feeling. After being ennobled by the Duke
of Lucca, Dohler married a Russian Countess and after settling
for a time in St. Petersburg ultimately died in Florence,
Theodore Kullak (1812-82) is now known mostly by his
School of Octaves and his Kinderkben (child life), some
numbers of which are still interesting.
His style is melodious but colourless, as in the pleasing
Pastorales. La Gazelle, Sylphides and BoUro (Siegel) are techni
cally in teres ting. Kullak settled in Berlin in 1843 and was much
in request as a teacher. Bischoff, Moskowsky and the Schwar-
wenkas were among his pupils,
The pianoforte music of Thalberg (1812-71) is in advance of
M
154 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
that of Dohler and Kullak, being richer and more sonorous in
style. Thalberg's scope, however, is very limited and lacks
development of idea the interest being generally sustained by
the somewhat unvaried technical treatment of each Piece, as,
for instance, in the Th&me Original et Etude (repeated notes),
La Cadence (alternate " turns " and staccato notes), and the
Andante in D\? (short chromatic runs) (Thalberg Album, Aug.).
His twelve Grand Studies, however, show more variety of
technique and are useful, especially La Trille and La Babillarde.
One technical device much exploited by Thalberg in his Pieces,
and originally brought forward by Pollini, was that of utilizing
the thumbs of both hands for the melody notes while the rest
of the fingers spin around wide-spread and brilliant arpeggio
figures.
As an executant Thalberg secured much fame in his wide
world tours, and in 1836 he competed with Liszt in Paris (See
next Chapter) . Thalberg generally held his own as an interpreter
of Salon music, His command of the keyboard caused Liszt to
remark, " Thalberg is the only artist who can play the violin on
the keyboard ; " his style being calm, clear, faultless and full
of expression as compared with the frenzy and aplomb of Liszt.
Chopin interestingly wrote, " Thalberg plays famously, but he
is not my man. He is younger than me, pleases the ladies very
much, makes pot pourris on La Muette (Masaniello), plays the
forte and piano with the pedal but not with the hand, takes
loths as easily as I do octaves, and wears studs with diamonds,"
Besides the compositions mentioned, the Motse operatic Fantasia
the Variations on Home, Sweet Home and the Tarantelle (Schott)
are most widely known the latter being one of the best of his
works, which now, on the whole, would be classed as of the
Salon-educational order.
, Though he was not a pupil of Czerny, Thalberg's music is in
the Viennese style and occupies an intermediate position both
in sonority and technique between that of Ddhler and Liszt,
both of whom were Czerny's pupils. Born in Geneva, and
educated in Vienna, his life was divided between concert touring
and residence near Naples, where he died in 1871. The modern
French Virtuoso School dates from the appointment, in 1797, of
Louis Adam to the Conservatoire in Paris where he taught
Fr, Kalkbrenner (1784-1883), who again had an important
influence on the pianists of that day, Kalkbrenner was much,
BRAVURA SCHOOLS AND HENSELT 155
in request as a fashionable teacher both in Paris and in London,
where he resided from 1814 to 1823. As a technician he did
much to develop the cultivation of the wrist, the independence
of the fingers and of the left hand. His Op. 42 was a Sonata
for left-hand solo.
In execution Marmontel says he had " a faultless neatness in
the most difficult passages and a left hand of unparalleled
bravura " ; and as a virtuoso he was most successful. Kalk-
brenner's compositions, however, mostly belong to a low level.
A Concerto in D minor, a few Studies, the Salon 'Femme de
Marin, and the educational Rondo affettuoso and Rondo in C
(Ash) still survive.
The shallow compositions of the once fashionable Herz
(1806-88), apart from a showy technique based on Weber, are
likewise now forgotten ; though a few Etudes and the Variations
on the so-called Last Thought of Weber (really by Reissiger)
survive.
The compositions of J, Rosenhain (1813-94) are superior, as
inclining to the Romantic Style, but this, as in his Romance,
Op. 31 (No. 3) (Joubert), does not rise above mediocrity.
The music of Em. Prudent (1820-63), though colourless, is
also of better class, as, for instance, in his Le Ruisseau (Joubert)
and L'Hirondelle (Aug.). He somewhat resembles Dohler in
lack of variety of technique as well as of warmth of feeling.
W. Kriiger (1820-83), the most musicianly of the " Parisian "
virtuosi (who were all of German origin, by the by, except
Prudent and Goria), is known by his Polonaise, Bolero, Caprices
and Nocturnes, which are modern and attractive.
Al. Goria's (1823-60) melodious and dignified Etudes de Salon
and Marcia for two pianos (Lit,) deserve attention.
The compositions and flippant Variations of Hunten and
Rosellen are now forgotten, except for a few Studies by the
latter, which still survive.
HENSELT (1814-89)
The virtuoso Henselt stands alone. He has been called the
" German Chopin/' Born in Bavaria, he studied in the capital,
Munich, and with Hummel at Weimar. A successful concert
tour in 1837, at the age of twenty-three, was followed by his
departure for St. Petersburg,
i 5 6 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Previous to this his Op. I, the Ricordanza Variations, showing
a new style of technique, and the romantic and poetical Studies
had already appeared. In these, eschewing the fashionable
scale-embroidery of Thalberg, he specialised in the more sonorous
spun-out arpeggio extensions of Weber, which may be said also
to have formed the basis of Chopin's style. Henselt was of the
same age as Dohler, two years younger than Thalberg, three
than Liszt and five than Chopin, whose La ci darem Variations
appeared in 1839. How much therefore of Henselt's original
style was modelled on that of Chopin is difficult to determine
but it would seem as if it was rather the result of his devotion
to Weber (of whom he was particularly fond) especially as
his technique went in some respects beyond that of Chopin,
so as to stand directly next to that of Liszt.
The features of Henselt's music are a refined but sonorous
lyrical style, combined with a unique fulness of effect arising
from original technique. Unfortunately he was of a retiring
nature and did not compose very much : a standard Concerto,
the poetical Studies, Op. 2 and 5, the Weber Transcriptions and
Variante editions (Schles.), the charming but neglected
Romances Russes (Schles.), a second piano part to a selection
from Cramer's Studies, and a few small attractive romantic
pieces such as the Frtihlingslied, Wiegenlied, Impromptu in
C minor, La Gondola (Album, Aug.), two Valses, Op. 28 (Siegel),
ist and 2nd Nocturnes (Ash). A collected edition is most
desirable. In one sense Henselt carried the arpeggio extension
technique to a cul r de-sac, i.e., as far as the present keyboard is
concerned.
Mendelssohn, in 1838, testified to this speciality of Henselt's,
the " playing wide-spread chords/' and said " that he went on
all day stretching his fingers over arpeggios played, prestissimo."
Lenz*, in the same year, heard Henselt play his jF# major Etude,
Si oiseau j'etais, and he says, " It was like an seolian harp
hidden beneath garlands of sweetest flowers. An intoxicating
perfume was crushed from the blossoms under his hands soft,
Eke falling rose-leaves the alternating sixths, which, in one
afid the same octave, pursued, teased, embraced and en
raptured ! " Lenz also dilates on Henselt's " charm of rich
fulness of tone in pianissimo/' and his taking of the instrument
* " Great piano virtuosos." Sohirmtr,
BRAVURA SCHOOLS AND HENSELT 157
by storm in the Minore. In the combination of his ethereal
arpeggio work and the dramatic power and energy, which we
find in the Heroic and Thanksgiving after a Storm Etudes, we
must assign to Henselt an original and unique position as an
artist the equal of Chopin on one side and of Liszt on the other.
Most important of all, however, Henselt is the true beginning of
the unique Russian School of Pianoforte Music. As Lenz
remarks, " Henselt's coming to us (1838) marked the obsolescence
of the Hummel-Field School and brought the piano into quite
another channel. " Henceforth the Russian School, soon to
bring forth fruit in the remarkable works of Glazounow,
Scriabin and others, was based on the most pianistic of styles
those of Henselt and Chopin. An example of Henselt's style is
here given, and the fingering should be noted.
CHAPTER XV
LISZT
" The compositions of a virtuoso often reveal not only his peculiarities,
but those of his instruments/' Spohr.
FRANZ (FERENCZ) LISZT was born in 1811 near Odenburg in
Hungary. His father, a Hungarian, was an accountant to Prince
Esterhazy; Ms mother was a German. Young Franz began
the piano at the age of six years and, making good progress, was
very soon in request as a prodigy at local concerts. By the
generosity of some of the nobility who were friends of the
Esterhazys, young Liszt was placed under the noted teachers
Czerny and Salieri in Vienna ; and though he rebelled somewhat
against Czerny *s systematic schooling, his eighteen months'
instruction gave him a good foundation in technique. He then
again appeared in public once in Beethoven's presence, when
the latter, after Liszt's improvisation, bestowed upon the young
genius a kiss of benediction, A triumphal tour was made to
Paris, where, however, Liszt was refused admission to the
Conservatoire on account of his nationality. As a result of this
the young virtuoso soon became the idol of the Parisian Salons.
Liszt now came over at the age of twelve to England, and
appeared with the greatest success at concerts at which Clemen ti,
Cramer, Ries, and Kalkbrenner were present. The Morning
Post of that time relates how " the little fellow " was handed
the theme ZiHi, Zitii for extemporization, and, " though not
very well acquainted with the air, sat down and roved about
the instrument, occasionally touching a few bars of the melody,
then taking it as a subject for a transient fugue. But the
best part of the performance was that wherein he introduced
the air with his right hand while the left hand swept the keys
chromatically ; then crossed over his right hand and played
the subject with the left, while the right descended by semitones
to the bottom I It is needless to say that his efforts were
crowned with the most brilliant success." At these " Recitals "
a term then new to London Liszt would leave the instru
ment between the pieces and freely move among his friends,
158
LISZT
159
until he felt disposed to return to the piano. Various other
tours to England, France and Switzerland followed, adding
further to his fame. The death of his father, in 1827, and an
illness turned his thoughts towards the Church, but, fortunately
for art, his inclination was not permanent. In 1830, after the
July Revolution, the news went round the Salons that " Liszt is
no longer devout " ; and he now became a member of the
literary circles and was captivated by the doctrines of the
St. Simonians.
The next influence a far-reaching one was the visit of
Paganini, after which Liszt retired for a time and then emerged
with a new technique. His attempts at imitation of Paganini's
effects widened the domain of the piano, and it became, so to
speak, almost an orchestra in itself. His contact with Berlioz
and sympathy with the ideals of that daring orchestral
romanticist led to his first notable Transcription, that of Berlioz's
Symphony Episode in the Life of an Artist.
The beautiful Harmonies poitiques et religieuses, appearing in
1835, were suggested by a collection of poems by Lamartine
which had been published in 1830. In these the freedom from
classical formula and the daring of the new Romantic movement
is apparent. Rhythm, expression and harmonies alike are
untrammelled.
Chopin now passed through Paris, and both were drawn
together the poetic, spiritual and slightly-built Pole and the
energetic, tall and lion-hearted Hungarian, The poetic charm
of Chopin made itself felt in the impromptu-like Apparitions.
During Liszt's association with the Countess D'Agoult he
retired to Switzerland (1835-39), and during his sojourn by the
Lake of Como he originated the delightfully artistic and refined
Annies de P&krinage. In his first year's Pilgrimage (in Switzer
land) we see the influence of nature in all its moods, as, for
instance, in the charming numbers, Au Bord d'une Source and
Les Cloches de Gen&ve. In his " second year " impressions of
Italy we have pictures which reproduce the effect of plastic art,
as in the Sposalizio and II Penseroso. In the former a picture
of Raphael, in the latter a statue, is represented, and beauty of
thought is transferred from the seeing ey to the hearing ear.
Other similar subjects represented are the Sonnets of Petrarch
and a Reading of Dante, in which a web of artistic ornamentation
is woven round a characteristic and expressive theme.
i6o HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Liszt's visit to Italy and his association with Rossini led to
the Rossini Transcriptions, and to this period also ^ belong the
important Transcriptions of Beethoven's Symphonies and the
Transcriptions of Schubert's Songs.
An episode during this sojourn was the Thalberg-Liszt contest
in Paris The Parisians had been dazzled by Thalberg, who was
championed by F6tis as the pianist of the future, in opposition
to the dictum of Berlioz, who pronounced for Liszt. A contest
was arranged in Princess Belgiojoso's Salon. The audience was
apparently unable to form an opinion and time alone has
pronounced in favour of Liszt. Liszt himself tells an amusing
story of the value of public opinion in art matters. He says :
" For instance, I played the same piece, now as a composition
of Beethoven, now of Czerny, then again as my own. The day
on which I introduced it as my own I won the most encouraging
applause. ' It was not at all bad for my age ! ' they said. The
day on which I played it as Czerny's they scarcely listened to
me ; but if I played it under Beethoven's authority I was quite
sure of the bravos of the whole assembly."
Liszt' s recitals in Vienna in 1837 created a veritable furore.
A correspondent of Schumann's in the Neue Zeitschrift fur
Musik gives the following description of Liszt's appearance,
" Imagine an extremely thin, narrow-shouldered, slender man,
with hair falling over his face and neck, an uncommonly
ffiteEectual, lively, pale, highly interesting countenance, ^ an
extremely animated manner, an eye capable of every expression,
beaming in conversation, a benevolent glance, strangely
accentuated speech, and you have Liszt as he is in general.
This fantastic exterior is only the covering of an internal
volcano, from which tones are hurled, like flames amid gigantic
ruins, not caressing, but with the force of thunderbolts,"
A virtuoso comparison is made : "In Liszt the most
passionate declamation is conspicuous, in Thalberg the most
delicate sensibility, in Clara Wieck natural enthusiasm, in
Henselt genuine German lyricism,"
What was most unique in Liszt's style was " high soaring
Hiind and originality."
Liszt was unrivalled in his power of making the piano sing,
and his performances of his truly artistic Transcriptions of
Schubert's Songs were most successful. In these Liszt does not
alter the melody or the harmonies, and practically all the
LISZT 161
artistic touches are introduced in the framework or form of the
accompaniment such Variations from the original being
introduced to accentuate the mood or feeling of the original.
The delightful Caprices entitled Soirees de Vienne, founded on
the Valses of Schubert and also written about this time, present
Schubert's rich melodies and harmonies orchestrated, so to
speak, under the deft fingers of Liszt an ensemble that is
altogether piquant and enchanting. In No. 3 of the charming,
Nocturne-like Consolations and Liebestrdume we discern the
influence of Chopin, though in the latter the ornamental
passages are Lisztian, In the unique, poetical Etudes d' execu
tion transcendante, ably edited by Dannreuther (Augener), we
have Liszt's own style and technique alone.
It is notable that Liszt revised these Etudes over a consider
able period of time (final Ed. 1852), as he " came to distinguish
between proper pianoforte effects and mere dare-devil bravura."
Liszt had been through the Classics with Czerny, had studied
and was au fait with the legato style of Chopin, but his style of
technique was practically his own. Mention should be made of
his manner of holding the hand high, with the fingers sloping
down to the keys, thereby giving increased power. " His
effects were always extremes. Thus his rattling octaves, his
rapid chromatic scales of 3rds and 6ths, both major and minor,
as well as of diminished 5ths, i.e., of the diminished 7th divided
between the two hands, owe their startling effect to quasi-
staccato."
Liszt, however, did not aim alone at pyrotechnics. His
style included Bach-like Part-Playing, a new method of using
the pedals, and, above all, a new increased sonority of style.
It was this sonority of effect increasingly cultivated by him
together with his symphonic style that put the piano on a footing
with the orchestra. The Mazeppa Etude, in which tumultuous
successions of srds are interpolated by alternate hands while th
melody is hammered out in widespread, sonorous chords, is
an example.
Previous to 1830 the prevailing style of performance had been
mainly classical characterized by smoothness, rapidity and
occasional cantabile passages. Liszt introduced, as a performer,
" strong contrasts of feeling, as well as giving proper
individualization to the part-playing and attention to the
innermost depths of expression."
ifi2 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
From 1839 to 1847 Liszt was occupied in concert tours as a
rirtuoso, after which he settled in Weimar for some twelve years
as conductor of the Court Theatre, where his sympathies with
the romantic movement were the cause of his giving representa
tions of the works ,of Wagner, Berlioz, Schubert and Schumann*
Weimar became an art centre and pupils flacked to Liszt from
all parts of the world, but the maestro found time also for
compositions in other forms especially Oratorios, Songs and
Symphonic works. His resignation of the Weimar position in
1861 led him to divide his time henceforward between Weimar,
Budapest, where he was honoured by the Government of his
native land, and Rome.
In 1879 his religious fervour came to the fore again and he was
LISZT 163
made an Honorary Canon (without the restrictions of the
priesthood) and an Abbe of the Church of Rome.
A triumphal visit to England and a few continental cities
in 1886 shortly preceded his lamented death, which took place
at Bayreuth in the midst of the Wagner Festival.
Of the works belonging to the " more mature " period of
Liszt's life as a composer we should mention the Concertos,
of which the one in E|? is called the Triangle Concerto, the
five Fantasias for pianoforte and orchestra, the unorchestrated
Concerto Pathetique, as it is now termed, and the somewhat
rhapsodic Sonata in B minor, in which the movements are
continuous, and thematic development is practically absent.
Liszt's strength did not lie in thematic or orderly development
of form. His method of composition consisted rather in the
metamorphosis of the rhythm of harmonies of his theme or
themes a method which could be made effective for a short
time, but which fails, through mere repetition, to sustain 'the
interest in larger works.
The Sonata has been called a drama " full of nobility, a
drastic intellectuality and sonorous brilliancy" (Huneker's
Mezzotints). The slow movement is, perhaps, the best from the
orthodox point of view.
Liszt's nationality stood him in good stead in the popular and
brilliant Hungarian Rhapsodies (see Part IV, Chapter III),
founded mostly on the traditional Magyar melodies, in which
he has incorporated the unique dulcimer and other effects heard
in the gipsy performances of the Hungarian national music.
Space does not suffice to mention all of Liszt's works of
importance, but, of the Operatic Transcriptions, once so popular,
the very difficult and showy Don Giovanni Fantasia and the
Wagner-Liszt Transcriptions are very much played, as also are
the Campanella from the Paganini Etudes (founded on
Paganini's Bell Rondo), the Concert Etudes, Waidesrauschen
and Gnomenreigen, Spanish Rhapsody, Legend of St. Francis
(the impromptu, in which he preaches to the birds), Transcrip
tions of Mendelssohn's Wedding March and Elfenreigen, of
Schubert's Marches and of Chopin's Chant Polonais, which are
among his best works. We may here conclude in the words of
Schumann's eulogy on Liszt : " A remarkable, variously gifted
and most inspiring mind. His own life is to be found in his
music."
CHAPTER XVI
TWO MODERN ROMANTICS RUBINSTEIN AND RAFF
Rubinstein (1830-94)
AN examination of the pianoforte compositions of Rubinstein,
as a whole, forces one to the conclusion that they have, of late,
been somewhat overlooked. Having on one side that " Back
wash of Classicism/' Mendelssohn, and on the other the apostle
of modernism, Liszt, and seeking, as one might, for that
romantic, impetuous virtuosity in his compositions which
characterized his playing, the general public have settled down
mostly to belief in the Melody in F, and the brilliant but
trivially-inclined Valse Caprice.
The reality is that the strength of Rubinstein's essentially
lyrical genius lay in the creation of simple, sincere melodies, like
those of the Melody in F, the Romance, Op. 20, the languorous
minor-mode Barcarolles, Op. 30 and 50, the E\> Romance, Op. 44,
and the expressive Nocturne, Op. 75, or else in the presentation
of his ideas ornamented by attractive and varied modern
technique. Regarding the latter, one need only compare him
with the lyric romantic Mendelssohn and others of that class to
see what a wonderful variety of attractive technical figuration
he introduces.
A favourite plan with Rubinstein, as, for instance, in La
MJlancolie, is to introduce in the process of development new
and increasingly interesting technical figures ; in the example
mentioned four different stages or varieties of technique are
presented. The compositions showing this blend of technical
and lyrical interest include the very effective and varied R&ve
Angelique from 'the Kamennoi Ostrow Album (Schott) the
brilliant TaranUlh, Op. 82, the Valse Caprice and the virtuoso
Polonaise in Bfc the dreamy and delicately written 5th Barcarolle
(Senff) in Lisztian style, the Rtoerit, Of. 75, the melancholy
Op. 51, the characteristic Etudes L'Ondine and Prte du Ruisseau
a charming Vahe, Op. 93, the dainty Serenade, Op. 22, its
164
TWO MODERN ROMANTICS 165
opposite the dream-awakening Aubade, Op. 75, and the Duets
Op. 50 and Bal Costume.
Many of his works, however, have merely technical interest
and lack inspiration, and among these must be included the
Variations, Op. 88, and the Concertos (Senff), of which the 3rd
is the most popular. The Concertos do not approach those of
Mendelssohn and Weber in ideas and general interest, though
surpassing them in technical treatment. Rubinstein, moreover,
did not seem to have any particular gift for the short
characteristic pieces exploited by Heller and Schumann, but
his Hunting Sketch HallaK, the Hermite in Op. 93, the Caprice
Russe and the Marche Orientale, Op. 93, may be mentioned.
Unlike his Slavonic contemporary Tschaikowsky (who,
however, was somewhat deficient in the highest development
of piano technique) he had no great feeling for rhythmical
effects or music in national style.
On the whole the impression made by Rubinstein's best works
is that the greater number require the utmost delicacy and
expression to do them justice and that the few successful
brilliant pieces are not by any means the most artistic. In
technical style, utilizing the extensions of Henselt (then settled
in St. Petersburg) and some of the airy flights of Liszt, Rubin
stein combines the technical excellences of both, and it is owing
to this technical brilliance (a feature of the Russian School
then rising) that many of his pieces, in which lyrical inspiration
falls short, are attractive.
Like Meyerbeer, Mendelssohn, Joachim and many others,
Rubinstein was of Jewish descent. Born in 1829, he made his
dSbut as an artist at the age of ten and commenced his first
European tour two years later, in 1841. In Paris, where he
played before Liszt and Chopin, he was publicly embraced by
the great virtuoso Liszt. Through the death of his father he
was thrown on his own resources at the age of 16, but after five
years of varying fortunes he found himself firmly established in
St. Petersburg,
An early Concerto in F, a succession of operas and some
Chamber Music proved his capacity as a composer, and by
1857 he had written four Concertos and four Symphonies.
Concert tours, composition and teaching at the great St.
Petersburg Conservatorium, which he founded, occupied the
rest of a busy life till he died in 1894,
166 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
RAFF (1822-82)
Raff's pianoforte music, like that of Rubinstein, is specially
attractive on its technical side, but is not so lyrical nor so refined
in style. The lyrical element, except in a few pieces such as the
attractive Fleurette, Op. 75, the Berceuse, Op. 125, the Abends
and the ist Fantasie, is somewhat colourless and placid.
He was Swiss by birth, and one may find the key to this
characteristic in the Swiss melodies on which he rhapsodizes in
Op. 60 ( j .S.). The element of triviality enters more largely into
Raffs compositions than into those of Rubinstein, both in ideas
and in style of technique, but this was probably owing to the
demands of the publishers for whom he wrote.
Raff's associations with Liszt in the advocacy of the " new
German " movement also bore fruit in the Lisztian technique
which we find so much in evidence in his works.
In Raff's work there is less leaning towards Classical technique
than in Rubinstein and more towards mere showy effect than
in Liszt.
It is, however, the exceptions that determine Raff's position
as a composer. In the serious style, the soundly written
E minor Suite, the popular Rigodon (G minor Suite) (Metzler),
the Fugue in Op. 17 (J.S.), the Minuet, Op. 126 (P. and M,), the
Gavotte, Op. 125, and the well developed and melodious Concerto,
Op. 185, show a brilliant combination of older style and modern
technique.
Beside the above, the Bolero, Op. in (Lengnick), the light-
winged Tarantella de Procida (Aug.) and La Fileuse, the showy
Polka de la Reine (Peters), the Serenade, Op. 20 (Lit.) and
L'Espiegle, Op. 125, are brilliant and attractive, especially from
the point of view of pianoforte technique. Raff wrote a number
of paraphrases, operatic and otherwise, besides a huge number
of other, mostly inferior, piano works. His life was a struggle
against adversity, and this probably accounts for the very
uneven qqality of his compositions. Born (1822) at Lachen in
Switzerland, he followed the profession of a schoolmaster, but,
encouraged by Liszt, Schumann and Mendelssohn, took to
musical composition.
His symphonic and other works bring him almost into the
front rank of composers in the modern Romantic style-
CHAPTER XVII
MODERN CLASSICISTS
Moscheles, Hiller, St. Saens, etc.
" Regard the subject matter of a piece of music as of greater moment
than its outward form." Mendelssohn.
1 794-1 870 . Moscheles. 1 82 1 . Moscheles ' G minor Concerto.
1811-85. Hiller. 1827. Beethoven died.
1833-97. Brahms. 1837. Hummel died.
1835. Saint-SaSns born. 1847. Mendelssohn died.
1839-1902. Rheinberger. 1853. Brahms' first works published.
1862. Saint-Saens' 1st Concerto.
THE greatest impetus which Classicism has received since the
death of Beethoven in 1827 was undoubtedly given by Brahms
(see Part III, Chapter XIII), whose first compositions did not
appear till sixteen years afterwards. Meanwhile, the Classical
movement had been continued by Hummel (see Part III,
Chapter II), pupil of Mozart and contemporary of Beethoven,
who worked on for ten years after Beethoven's death, and by
Moscheles, who was some sixteen years younger than Hummel.
Moscheles (1794-1870) seems to stand at the parting of the
ways.
On one side we have the Classic School, ending with Beethoven
and Hummel, on the other the more plastic School of Moscheles,
Mendelssohn, Hiller, St. Saens and others. Moscheles seems to
have led the life of a virtuoso for the ten years previous to his
settling in London, where he resided from 1826 to 1846.*
In 1824 Moscheles had given Mendelssohn lessons and the latter,
as head of the Conservatorium at Leipzig, later offered his old
Tutor the principal Professorship of the piano in 1846, a post
which he accepted and held till his death in 1870.
* See Moscheles' interesting Autobiography.
167
i68 .HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Moscheles is now known for his Concertos (Chapter XXII),
which are models in their balance of the bravura element, and
in mastery of form, for the polished Studies, Op. 70, and the
characteristic Studies, Op. 25 (see also Part IV, Chapter XVI),
for his Duct Sonatas and the Duo for two Pianos, Hommage A
Handel. His music shows his fondness for the past, and, while
not deep in sentiment, is refined and dignified. Moscheles did
not sympathize with modern art (except Mendelssohn and, in
part, Schumann), while his own work shows the influence of
Weber and Mozart. As a virtuoso Moscheles played octaves in
the old style with a stiff wrist, but improved upon his
predecessor Hummel by greater use of the now indispensable
sustaining pedal.
Ferdinand Hiller (1811-85) resembled Mendelssohn in his
Jewish descent, and in ease of circumstances ; his earlier works,
too, have a Mendelssohnian cast.
But association with Liszt, Chopin and others gave his later
works an inclination to the Romantic, so that musically he stands
as a Cosmopolitan, though with Classical leanings.
Like Moscheles, Hiller commenced as a virtuoso, and like him
also he formed a link with the past. As a pupil of Hummel
he witnessed the death-bed of Beethoven, and was the friend
of Mendelssohn and Schumann, as well as of most modern
artists. From 1853 Hiller, who was also accomplished as a
clever litterateur and conductor, settled at Cologne.
His pianoforte works are well written and are notable for
rhythmical effect, but mostly lack inspiration. His F% minor
Concerto remains a Classic (see Chapter XXII) while, of miscel
laneous pieces which survive, there are a Mendelssohnian
Bokro> Op. 29 (Hoi), a Chopinesque Impromptu* Op, 40,
(J. Sch.), a cosmopolitan Suite, Op. 144 (Novello),and, probably
the most acceptable, the Youthful Reminiscences (Forsyth), in
which Schumann's influence is noticeable,
A few of his not particularly graceful Studies also survive.
Fr. Kiel (b. 1821) is not only a classicist and a contrapuntist
but is also capable of instilling modern style into modern
forms, as, for example, in his Melodies, Humoresques, Caprices
and Valses, in the Chopinesque Impromptu, Op. 19 (Schles.)
and the Bolero (Harris).
W. Taubert (1811-91) in his six Scherzos (B, and H,) leaned
towards Beethoven, In his other works, such as Le Prinbmps,
MODERN CLASSICISTS 169
Lays of Love and La Campanella, he wrote in a graceful, lyrical
style but without individuality.
Julius Rontgen, who was born in Leipzig in 1855 of Dutch
descent and settled in Amsterdam, also takes the Classics
as his models, though his work is modern in technique and
feeling. His virile Sonata, Op. 2, the interesting Fantasiestucke,
Op. 5, in which the influence of Schumann is apparent, the
Variations, Op. II, the Passacaglia, Op. 7, and the Ballad in
D minor (B. and H.) are all worthy of attention.
Hans von Bronsart (b. 1830), a pupil of Liszt, who has resided
mostly in Hanover and Berlin, has written two noble Fantasias
(B. and H.), in which symmetrical balance of ideas is not
neglected, and also a standard Concerto.
A Concerto and a romantic and rhapsodic Sonata by Felix
Draeseke (b. 1835) of Dresden, some pleasing and sound, though
not brilliant, Variations (B. and H.) by Van Bruyck (b. 1828),
a writer on clavier music, and a fresh and vigorous Chaconne
and Polonaise (Schles.) by Richard Franck also deserve mention.
Clara Schumann is known as the wife of the celebrated
composer whose marriage in 1840, after the surmounting of
many difficulties, is one of the romances of musical history.
Her piano works are characterized by dignity and show the
influence of Beethoven. Of these the 3rd Romance, Op. 21,
written partly in the style of Chopin, is the best.
Classic influence in France has been continued mainly
through the works of Saint Sae"ns and, to some extent, through
C6sar Franck (the latter a Belgian) (see Part IV, Chapter IX) ;
in Italy through Sgambati (Part IV, Chapter XII), and in
England through Parry and Stanford (Part IV, Chapter XIV).
CONCERNING SAINT SABNS
One of the most versatile composers of the present era,
Tschaikowsky aptly pointed out (in 1875) that, while he
represented the advanced School, he united Classical methods
with modern feeling ; combining " the style of Sebastian Bach,
for whom he has evident affection, with the national French
elements, of which the characteristic piquant rhythm makes
itself clearly felt."
Born at Paris in 1835 of a Norman family, he lived to become
N
70 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
ne of the " grand old men " of the musical world. His first
ymphony, showing the influence of Mendelssohn and Beet-
.oven, was performed when he was eighteen, and his first
Concerto for piano, which caters much for the virtuoso and
vinces no distinctive style, was published nine years later.
Lbout this time Saint-Saens appeared as a successful interpreter
f Mozart's piano Concertos and as one of the best organists in
'aris. The 2nd and 3rd of his five important Concertos, showing
he influence of Schumann, appeared about 1868. Following
he siege of Paris in 1870, Saint Saens took part in a patriotic
trt movement, which resulted in La Rhapsodic D'Auvergne for
^ano and Orchestra, in which Auvergnate folk melodies are
leveloped for the piano with remarkable vigour, the orchestral
>art being unimportant. Le Rouet d'Omphale, in which Saint
>aens essays programme music after the manner of Liszt's
symphonic Poems, was originally written as a Rondo for Two
Pianos and as such performed in 1872. The piquant themes and
trange rhythm of the Fantasia Africa for Piano and Orchestra
ilso suggest local colouring. The Polonaise and the Scherzo,
both for two Pianos (1892), the artistic and attractive Th&me
Fane (1894), on a theme of Beethoven's also for two pianos
together with various pieces suggestive of travel, i.e., the
Souvenir d' Italic t Feuilkt $ Album for Duet, Valse Canariote,
Caprice Arale (two Pianos) and Souvenir d'Ismailia complete the*
1st of his principal works for Piano. Saint-Saens is an exception
to the all-absorbing passion with composers in France for the
)pera, his dramatic instincts having mostly found vent in ,th,e
lepicting of " programme " and national- or local~o|our
characteristics in works of more or less classical conception.
In workmanship and powers of development Saint-Saens
>tands in the front rank, and, though he lapses occasionally, his
tfork is not infrequently inspired, as, for instance, in his well-
cnown melody Le Cygne*
He has done much also towards the acclimatization in Ifrance
>f the rhythmic and melodic features of Schumann and Liszt,
is, for example, in his valtiable Concertos, and towards raising
:he level of French musical art generally.
On the whole, Classicism, as represented by that dignity,
-epose, thematic and formal development which is characteristic
rf the best models, is somewhat at a discount at the present
ime, when orchestral programme work holds the field* Possibly
MODERN CLASSICISTS 171
at a later time, when hazy impressionism and orchestral
colouring have had their day, a return may be made to more
normal conditions, when the logical sequence and development
of ideas may again be considered as a sine qua non for the best
forms of the art. The reader is further referred to the Chapter
on the most popular form of pianistic Classic compositions
the Concerto (Part III, Chapter XXIII) and to that on the one
next in favour, the modern Sonata (Part III, Chapter XXI).
CHAPTER XVIII
THE MODERN CONTRAPUNTAL ELEMENT: RHEINBERGER, ETC.
" Practise industriously the Fugues of good masters." Schumann,
Music, as we understand it, was primarily intended to be
beautiful. Its function is to move the emotions, feelings and
passions of the heart, to stir up deeds of chivalry and to inspire
deeds of kindness. Music is, indeed, a solace in distress, a
mental stimulant in health, and a joy to all. Unorganized
music, however, falls into a mere rabble of sound, and before it
can appeal to the ordinary mind, the intellectual element must
be taken into consideration. The necessary element of " the
beautiful " must be controlled ; effects of contrast, balance of
ideas and of emotions must be secured ; and, in short, music
as generally understood must possess all the attributes of an
art. For instance, one theme may be set against another for
contrast's sake, and ideas may be repeated, dissected and
commented upon in many different ways. In this setting of
chains, however, this fashioning and controlling of the emotional
element, there is always a danger lest the fleeting inspiration
should be lost sight of or smothered in constructive technique.
This perpetual struggle between the emotions and their
architectural framework is typified in music by the nineteenth-
century Romantic movement, led by Schumann ; and by the
" New German " School of Programme music headed by Liszt,
the reactive tendency of which is to make the form of the
musical structure quite a secondary matter (Part III, Chapter I) .
In no other branch of the art do we find the inspiration or the
emotional element so shackled as in the Canon and Fugue ;
and consequently it is proportionately rare to find examples,
which are inwardly as well as outwardly satisfying. Notwith
standing this, the Fugue should, and can, satisfy all moods.
It can, as Schumann says, be " the organ of cheerfulness and
172
MODERN CONTRAPUNTAL ELEMENT 173
gaiety, as .well as of dignity," and it may even be soul-inspiring,
interpreting faithfully Browning's lines
" Such a Fugue would catch
Soul heavenwards up/'
In these forms of art " cribbed, cabined and confined " as
they are the work of Sebastian Bach, though speaking to us in
what would nowadays be termed a North-German dialect, is
still pre-eminent. His immortal 48 Preludes and Fugues and
other similar compositions survive to-day, not because of his
wonderful and unsurpassed technique, but because he was able
to subdue the form and to infuse into it his own sincere and
honest, well-balanced emotions (see also Part I, Chapter X).
Looking at the technical figuration employed in contrapuntal
works, not only in Bach, but in his successors down to the
present day, we must note the influence of the organ.
Bach was, above all, an organist, and the organ style pervades
all his works. Moreover, he was imitated as a model by
Mendelssohn, Schumann, Brahms, Rheinberger, Reger and
others, and the organ style is also undoubtedly apparent in their
contrapuntal compositions.
Handel, in his separate clavier Fugues and in those belonging
to the Suites sinks the North-German style in the Italian model,
and consequently they usually lack great emotional depth ;
but owing to their warmth of feeling, noble style, and effective
ness, they may be said to approach closely to those of
Sebastian Bach.
Handel's style is, in addition somewhat freer in keyboard
technique than that of Bach, suggesting rather the influence of
the orchestra than of the organ, as in Bach's case.
Mention may be now made of masters whose- works are
interesting only from an educational point of view, as, for
instance, the Fugues and contrapuntal Studies of dementi,
and the 48 Canons and Fugues of dementi's pupil Klengel
(1784-1852). "Papa" Haydn excelled in effective contra
puntal writing, but he wrote comparatively little pianoforte
music beyond the Sonatas.
Mozart essayed all forms with success. His C major Fantasia
and Fugue, the Duet Fugue in G minor and the C minor Fugue
for two pianos are not only masterly in style, but breathe forth
I 7 4 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
his characteristic sweetness and nobility of expression. In style
of technique, like Handel, he shows the influence of the orchestra
rather than of the organ.
The Fuguts of Beethoven do not impress one as being of his
best. His style was essentially an orchestral one, while the
contrapuntal fugal structure is, in its essence, vocal or organ-like.
It is, therefore, perhaps not difficult to discern why Beethoven's
Fugue in his Op. 35 Variations and those in the later Sonatas,
Op. 106, etc., are somewhat stilted in style.
Mendelssohn approaches most nearly to Bach and Handel in
his mastery of the fugal style. His ist, 2nd, 5th and 6th
Preludes to his Fugues, Op. 35, remind one of the Songs without
Words ; the 3rd being an airy caprice and the 4th a lied-like
Duetto' in Canon form ; while the Fugues are distinguished by
melodic inspiration and variety of style in which the expressive
and emotional element plays quite a large part. The 2nd
Fugue in D might, indeed, be taken by some people for one of
Ms Lieder ohne Worte.
Schumann comes next to Mendelssohn in mastery of the fugal
style. Both composers were strongly influenced by Bach and
the organ. Mendelssohn was an eminent organist and organ
composer, while Schumann, among his " maxims " advises the
student to " try your little fingers at the organ bench and wonder
at this great musical power/ 1 as well as to " lose no opportunity
of practising on the organ."
In the best of his Fugues, Op. 72, No. I and the Fughettes,
Op. 32, No. 4, Op. 126 (2 and 3), we have the peculiarities of
Schumann's style, his massiveness combined with a lack of
fluency (as compared, for instance, with Mendelssohn) and of
variety of figuration, but full of rich harmonic charm and noble
sentiment.
In the *works of Brahms generally the organ profundity of
Bach is easily apparent. His one Fugue in B\>, at the end of
the Handel Variations, is masculine in style and fertile in
device, but the technical imitation of Schumann's somewhat
ungainly style becomes in Brahms something akin to clumsiness.
With him the subject is early enveloped in 6ths, a counter-
subject is run in double 3rds, and the working-out is done by
means of abrupt passages of 6ths, 3rds and octaves.
To pass from Brahms to Rheinberger is like passing from a
stern and rugged mountainous pass to a broad smiling valley.
MODERN CONTRAPUNTAL ELEMENT 175
Rheinberger (1839-1902), the greatest contrapuntist since
Mendelssohn, is pre-eminently an organist and organ composer,
and organ style is reflected in his pianoforte Fugues. He is a
member of the Mendelssohn-Schumann School, but un
fortunately his work lacks individuality.
His Pieces in this style are Op. 39, No. i, the whole of the
2nd set of Op. 68 (especially i and 2), and the Elegie and Ermah-
nung (Op. 183), both of which are in Canon form. In these we
have the thorough mastery of all the artificial devices used in
the most artificial of musical forms, combined with a quiet grace
and meditativeness. Brilliancy and the virtuoso element are
wanting, but artistic charm is present to those who look for it.
The Op. 68, No. I, is a good example of mastery in the use of
some of the ordinary devices, here exemplified in the inversion
of themes combined with stretto, canonic imitation, and aug
mentation of subject. Moreover, what is most important, the
whole is interesting and artistic. The fine Toccatas of Rhein
berger, it should be noted, differ much from the well-known
Etude-like examples of dementi, Pollini, Onslow, Czerny,
Mayer and Schumann, and follow those of Bach, which are in
free fugal style and, in addition to the development of a set
subject, deal with various subsidiary themes. The Op. 12
(Aug.) is the more closely knit and is more in organ style, while
the Op. 115 (R.F.) is somewhat modern in feeling.
Rheinberger did not confine himself to a past age, but his
versatility is shown in pieces which are modern and pleasing.
The popular Die Jagd and four-hand Tarantella, Op. 122, the
Aus Italien, Pieces de Concert, Impromptu, Op. 6, Jagdscene,
and modern Romantic Sonata, Op. 184 (Ks.) deserve attention.
Rheinberger was organist at the village parish church of
Vadioz, near Lake Constance, at the early age of seven. He
was educated at Munich Conservatorium, becoming Professor
there at a later time. His Wallenstein Symphony and Efy
Piano Quartette are well known.
The late Leipzig Professor Jadassohn has also proved, in his
2nd Serenade (R,F.), consisting of 12 Canons with free accom
paniment, (especially in Nos. i, 5, 7, 8, 9 and n) that it is
possible to write attractively and in modern style within the
narrow limits of canon form.
Max Reger has written two Fugues in his Op. 81 and 86
(L. and K.) and also the one for two pianos on a theme of
176 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Beethoven. The latter is the most straightforward and is
worthy of study. One will note the organ-like fulness of effect
and the final working together of the Beethoven theme and
Fugue subject.
Of other noteworthy compositions, in this style, we might
mention a pianistic Fugue, Op. 89 (No. i) by W, Berger (K.),
the smooth and expressive Nos. 5 and 10 of 10 Fugues of
Robert Fuchs (Re.), the Op. i, 2 and 3 of E. Hutchison, the
Op. 41 of Kroeger, the Preludes and Fugues and Toccata of
J. Vogt, the Rontgen Op. 28, Glazounow Op. 62, Raff Op. 91
and 72, Saint-SaSns Op. in, Martucci Op. 28, the Fugues of
Samuel Wesley, of Sgambati, Op. 6, and of Curtis (Belgium).
CHAPTER XIX
MAX REGER
THE music of Max Reger (b. 1873) bears the direct impress of a
powerful personality, which, in spirit and development of style,
is closely related to that of Schumann. Reger has, indeed,
imitated the technical characteristics of Brahms and has
attempted the inimitable contrapuntal style of Bach, but both
without any great artistic success. His most successful works
are decidedly in the style of Schumann, and yet they have an
individuality of their own. The manifest influence of Bach in
these is undoubtedly Bach as filtered through Schumann.
Generally speaking, these successful works are found in the
slow movements, some of which are beautiful ; but, on the other
hand, the energetic and burlesque element (following the
weakness of Schumann) is exaggerated and frequently elephan
tine in aspect. Among his later works, the Sonatinas, Op. 89
(L. and K.), which are Miniature Sonatas rather than edu
cational works, are more attractive, especially the No. 2 in D.
His more elaborate Schumannesque Reveries, entitled Aus
meinem Tagebuch (From My Diary) suggest also the influence of
Brahms and are full of subtle romantic interest. One feature
is the frequent use of unrelated phrases, following each other in
startlingly unrelated keys and yet leading back to sanity in the
appearance of the principal theme. Where this device is less
used the effect is beautiful, as in No. 10.
Like the impressionist Debussy, Reger requires some
apprenticeship, so that, taking the principal early works in order,
the best of the Six Pieces, Op. 24 (i and 5) (R.F.), we note that
the elegant No. i (Valse Impromptu) is quite clear in design
and that the No. 5, a Chant de la Nuit with its groping octaves
in the base, is nocturnal and mystic in the Schumannesque-
Brahms style. Brahms' technique is also apparent in th
similar rugged Northern Ballad, from the interesting A,quarelkn?
*77
178
HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
The sad EUgie, the profound depth of the Resignation of
Op. 26, the Chopinesque Reverie of the Fantasiestiicke, Op. 24
(R.F.), the tuneful and lightly treated four-hand Picturesque
K*s (Univ. lid.), the Intermezzo No. 4, and the wild Impromptu
of the seven Characterstticke, Op. 32 (Univ. Ed.) are amongst the
best of his works. With the Intermezzi, Op. 45 (Univ. Ed.).
MAX REGER 179
Reger begins to wield the thunderbolts of Jove, In these
interesting Sketches there are some powerful passages, marred,
unfortunately, by characteristic incoherence.
We note the cross-grained No. i, the will-o'-the-wisp No. 2,
the quasi-Liszt-Wagnerian Rhapsody No. 3. No. 4 (referred to
above) is a wild Lisztian Caprice, and No. 5 an aimless Rhapsody.
No. 6 is more coherent than the latter, but its interest centres in
its secondary theme and subsequent treatment. The rhapsodic
characteristics of the Intermezzi are also in evidence in the
charming impressionist Silhouettes, Op. 53 (Un. Ed.), which
should come next as inclining to the clearer style of his later
works already described.
In his Trdume am Kamin, Op. 143 (Simrock) we have intimate
Schumannesque sketches written in an erudite and somewhat
chromatic style.
Reger's work is undoubtedly the problem of the pianoforte
music of to-day. The special difficulties and peculiarities
require study, and much depends on the interpretation ; but
at the same time the straining after effect and lack of homo
geneity are defects which may disappear in the later works.
As in the case of Debussy, one can learn to appreciate the charm
of his virtues without losing sight of features which mar and
perhaps serve as a foil to them.
The same drawbacks are present in the Variations and Fugue
on a Theme of Bach t Op. 81 (L. and K.), the Variations and
Fugue for two Pianos on a Theme of Beethoven, Op, 86 (L. and K.),
and the technically interesting Variations and Fugue, Op. 134
(Simrock) ; but in these there is also much complication and
over-elaboration. (See further Chapter XXIV.)
Max Reger hailed from Bavaria and, while still a young man,
was a prolific composer of organ music, chamber music, songs
(two hundred) and choral music. He was a pupil of Professor
Riemann at Leipzig and lived at Munich.
CHAPTER XX
LESSER GERMAN ROMANTICS
WE now come to the minor composers of German nationality
in the modern Romantic style, who have been more or less
influenced by Mendelssohn, whose polished lyric style has
been, and still is, a powerful factor with smaller composers and
in the smaller genre of piece. Combined with this lyrical aspect,
however, there is usually found some reminiscence of Schumann
in the harmonic treatment in which Mendelssohn was somewhat
behind his contemporaries. Of these minor composers we may
first mention Heinrich Hofmann (b. 1842), a prolific composer
in almost all branches of composition, but of no great individu
ality or depth of feeling. A graceful and finished style
characterizes his piano works, of which his best known are in
Difet form (Chapter XXIII), as, for instance, the Italian Love
TaU and Hungarian Dances.
Hofmann seems best in Elf and Fairy Music, Op. 122, No. 4
(Hammond). His characteristic Solo sketch, The, Trumpeter
of Sackingcn, is well-known.
Hofmann was a pupil of Kullak and later was known as a
virtuoso and resident in Berlin.
Fr^iiz Bendel was born in 1833 in Bohemia. He was a pupil
of t Liszt and from 1862 a teacher in Berlin. His pretty,
^oiptive German Fairy Taks (Lit.) and By Lake Geneva, the
Hommagc d Chopin, Tarantella and well-known Cascade are ia
style, and popular, as are also his Salon works.
of A. Loschorn (1819-1905) is connected with
works. His pieces are modern in style, melodious
and pleasant though not deep. His effective La Belk Amazone
(Hammond), Op. 172 and 173, 161 and 162, 152 and 154 (R.F.),
and the artistic Op. 199 (2 and 3), 200 (No. 4) (B. and B.)
are commendable, Loschorn was a pupil of Berger and also
resident in Berlin.
the works of Fr. Spindler (b. 1817) are similar to those of
l^efeorn, but more transparent and simple. Though a writer
Symphonies and Chamber Music, he is best known for his
Salon Music. His Op. ir (Brauer), Op. 186 (S.L.) and
180
LESSER GERMAN ROMAJNllLb 181
Op. 392 (R.F.) may be mentioned. Spindler settled in Dresden
as a teacher in 1841. The name of Ernst Pauer (b. 1826 in
Vienna, d. 1905) is known for his Cascade (Schott) and educa
tional Collections, which give him also a place among the
composers in the above style,
Following the Lyric Romantic style, but with no particular
individuality or leaning to any one composer, we may classify
the following :
Hugo Kaun, in his charmingly modulated Nocturne, Op. 56
and Op. 42, No. 7.
The Capriccio and Transcriptions of R. Burmeister (b. 1860),
a pupil of Liszt who settled in America.
Robert Klein, in the well-written and artistically varied
Harmonies of the Mazurkas, Op. 19 and 24.
The bright and dainty Miniatures, Op. 25 and 31 (Rahter) of
Paul Zilcher,
The dignified and refined Op. 27 (Kahnt) of Emil Biichner
(b. 1826).
Josef Weiss, who shows ability and serious purpose in his
Op. 18 (ChaUier), Op. 27 and 32 (Kahnt).
The very characteristic Gipsy Dances (F.S.) of Aug. Weiss.
The very melodious Op. 32 and 36 (B. and B.) of Karl
Zuschneid.
Constantin Sternberg (settled in America) in the interesting
Op. 49, No. i, Op. 50, No. 2 (F.S.).
Oscar -Klein (b. 1858) in his well- written sentimental pieces,
Op. 40 (2 and 3), Op. 43 (No. 8) (A.P.S.).
Max Meyer Olbersleben (b. 1850), a pupil of Liszt and active
in many branches of composition, writes in a refined and
meditative style. His Ballad, Op. 8 (F.S.) and Sketchbook,
Op. 20 (x and 3) (R.F.) deserve attention.
Max Fiedler shows freedom of style in his Impromptu in Alp
(B. and H.), while W. Junker has written transparent lyrical
pieces, Op. 5 and 7 and a Barcarolle (B. and H.).
We may also mention individual works in this style
by composers of various .nationalities: Emil Liebling's
Op. 34 (Sr.) ; Georg Liebling's elegant Op. 9 and if
(Schles.) ; M. Pery's Romanze, Op. 15 and 25 (St.) ; A.
Staeger's fresh and modern Op. 3 (R.F.) ; Leon Erdstein's
original Op. 2 and 3 (Bos) ; W. Berger's Op. 2 (i) (P. and M.)
and Op. 43 (Sm.) ; Arnold Krug's Op. 31 (i, 2 and 6);
i82 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Henschel's two Nocturnes (R. and E.) ; L. Schotte's Idytte and
Allegro (Laudy) ; C. Schafer's artistic Op. 21 (Laudy) ; Al.
Gorter's StimmungsbMer (Rahter) ; E. Gayrhos' Op. 23 (3)
and 35 (Janin) ; and various pieces by Ad. Frey (Ditson).
The twentieth century has opened with the domination of the
orchestra in matters musical. The spirit of the orchestra is in
the air. Wagner made the orchestra the musical^ link of his
opera mechanism, the means by which characterization^ was
secured; while Liszt, on his part, strove to make the piano,
what it can never become, a second orchestra. Liszt, however,
wisely confined his efforts to emulating the fulness of effect
obtained in an orchestra by more or less brilliant technical
devices often of the showy order, and left alone the imitation
of effects, melodic and harmonic, which are only effective when
interpreted through the medium of certain orchestral colouring
or timbre. This, however, has not always been kept in mind
by pianoforte composers who affect an orchestral style, with
consequent loss of effect.
Wagner could not in any way be styled a pianoforte composer.
What he did write for the piano was characteristic of him, but
quite orchestral in style and ineffective, as in his Ankunft bei den
Schwarzen Schwanen (Siegel).
One of the principal writers given to orchestral diction is
Karg-Elert, who is best approached in his four clavier pieces,
Op. 23, and the Scandinavian Airs (Hof meister) . The wayward
Walzer Scenen, Op. 45 (Kistner), inspired by Schumann/requires
previous study, but the Swabian Cycle, Op. 38 (No. I, 2 and 6)
(Simon) and Bagatelles (No. 2) (Kistner) possess the breezy traits
of folksong combined with the modern tendences of Schumann
and Brahms. Karg-Elert may be almost called the German Grieg.
Felix Weingartner (b. 1863) was a pupil of Liszt. He is an
ultra-modern apostle of daydreams, as seen in his Cycles : in
Bk. II of the Op, 2 and in Op. 3 (Aus vergangener Zeit) (Fr.
Schubert).
Wil. Kienzl (b. 1857), of Austrian origin, reaches a high level
of poetic characterization in the ist Book of his Op. 46 (B. and
B.) ; while the Harzbilder of Georg Schumann (B. and B.), who
possesses vigour and powers of characterization, the Wood
Fantasies of Rich. Franck (Schles.), the vague Op. 41 of Schulz-
Beuthen (Reinecke) and the Op. 54 of Ad. Coerne all deserve
notice as belonging to this style.
CHAPTER XXI
THE SONATA SINCE BEETHOVEN
WITH Beethoven, as we have seen, was reached the climax of
thematic and formal development of the Sonata.
Beethoven's contemporaries, Weber (Chapter III) and
Schubert (Chapter IV) especially, developed the Romantic
element in the Sonata by emphasizing the dramatic and lyrical
elements respectively.
Schubert also combined specially attractive and frequent
modulations with the lyric element.
Schumann's Sonatas include the so-called Concert sans
Orchestre, and two others written in 1835 (seven years after
Schubert's death). In these we have charming lyrical slow
movements, but the quicker movements are more broken up
while the technique is often massive, fulness of effect being
sought by chords and by the doubling of the bass part. Both
the technical and actual development of ideas is much more
homogeneous than in Weber and Schubert.
Schumann does not surpass Schubert in his modulations, but
the constant transitions introduced are kept in better balance.
The movements also are connected by related subject matter.
The subjects are not so suited to thematic development as those
of Beethoven, and, to compensate for this, more subordinate
themes are introduced ; these, combined with allusions to the
chief theme, fill up the gap. This subordination of actual
treatment to the ideas themselves is not the only sign of the
Romantic movement in the Sonata form ; it is illustrated in
equal measure by the new, glowing, harmonic colouration intro
duced, the neutral tints of the past yielding to more gorgeous
rays. All three of Schumann's Sonatas are fine works. The
first, in F# minor , with its stirring ist movement, entrancing
Aria and humorous carnival-like Scherzo and Finale, is richer in
feeling and interest than the 2nd or G minor Sonata which, though
energetic, is more technical and less poetical in interest.
The interesting and lyrical yd or " Concerto " Sonata, with its
characteristic Scherzo (omitted in the first two Editions) has
more unity of style than the former.
183
184 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Chopin's Sonatas are interesting for his characteristic
technique, but, in form, luxuriant detail is preferred to concise
balance of ideas, and therefore organic unity is lacking. In the
B\> minor Sonata the fascinating Scherzo, the popular Funeral
March, with its haunting cantabile episode and the weird Finale,
stand out prominently.
This work, and the freer style of the B minor Sonata, with its
characteristic Scherzo, poetical slow movement and bravura
Finale, form a retrograde progression from Schumann, so that,
to get the next link in the evolution of the Sonata we must
consider the work in B minor by Liszt which, in a way, secures
unity of purpose by linking the movements together, and by
deriving the theme for the slow movement from that of the
Introduction. Liszt's development, however, was that of the
" transformation " type and the contents of the Sonata do not
place it on a high level as regards formal structure.
The Sonatas of Brahms discussed in Chapter XIII appeal to us
next. Both as regards general style and technique, they are
influenced by Schumann, as well as in the transient use of
subordinate transitions of key, but any actual connection of
movements is lacking.
As early works his Sonatas, Op. I, 2 and 5 do not represent
Brahms' thematic work at its best, since in these it is mostly
limited to sequential imitation of whole phrases. The working
out, therefore, is not minute, as it is in Beethoven.
The lyrical moments in all three Sonatas, and especially in the
Op. 5, suggest the influence of Schubert towards whom Brahms
seems to have had a special leaning.
No special attempt at development is made in the Sonatas of
Heller, and the same may be said of the poetically-inclined
Raff and Rubinstein ; while, curious to relate, the Sonatas of
Mendelssohn, a Classicist by nature and a successful composer
6f Chamber Music and Concertos, are very free in style and of
little value.
Josef Rheinberger's well-written and dignified Romantic
Sonata (Ks.), with an effective first movement, and his attractive
four-hand Sonata, Op. 122 (R.F.), are more or less in organ
style.
There is also an attractive poetical but somewhat rhapsodical
&p. 6 of Draeseke (Rz.).
It has been said that the Sonata, as built upon the Beethoven
THE SONATA SINCE BEETHOVEN 185
model, has been on the decline ever since Beethoven's time, and
this, especially as regards structural work, may be taken as
correct.
Modern composers do not work so minutely ; they are content
to work on models initiated by Schubert, Schumann and
Brahms, to make the development on broader lines and to
substitute for close thematic interest the attractions of modern
tone-colouring. After all, the actual contents of the form are
of more importance than the form itself.
Effectiveness, as a whole, combined with artistic feeling, form
the subject of the picture ; disposition of outline and colouring
are necessarily of secondary consideration. An artistically-
woven texture and well-balanced structure are, of course,
necessary, but they do not make a work of art by themselves.
From this standpoint, therefore, it is possible to look on the
Sonatas of Schumann in form, but not necessarily in teckniqi4e
or style, as an evolution of the fittest as, in short, the model
for the twentieth-century Sonata.
We have already spoken of Schumann's own Sonatas. We
have now to enumerate the most successful works since those of
Schumann, Brahms and Liszt, in which Romanticism takes so
bold a stand. Of these we first note the striking and original
Op. 7 of Grieg, in which new rhythmical and harmonic effects,
the result of the new national element, stand out conspicuously.
The Sonata in F, Op. 12, of Sibelius, the Finnish composer
(see Part IV, Chapter XIII), is equally striking and Scandinavian
in style ; a fine work, though lacking (as regards the ist move
ment at least) in homogeneity.
The works of Ed. MacDowell appeal to us next in his tragic
and heroic Sonatas two of the finest though intensely modern
works deep, reflective, distinctly genre pieces of rich romantic
character. The Norse and Keltic Sonatas are also impressive,
the former from its successful local colouring. The latter
has been termed "colossal" (see Part IV, Chapter XV).
Mr. Oilman, in his Biography, speaks of it as portraying " the
heroic Gaelic world, . . . that miraculous world of
stupendous passions and aspirations, of bards and heroes and
sublime adventure."
Coming to the remarkable Russian School, we have the
important Op. 74 and 75 of Glazounow, displaying mastery of
thematic and contrapuntal development' (see Part IV, Chapter
i86 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
VI). The Op. 74 is over-elaborated, but the 2nd Sonata
(Op- 75) is one of the best since Scnumann > wnose influence is
so apparent in the ist and and final movements. A sparkling
Henseltian Scherzo and the combination of fugal work with a
chorale theme are special features.
Scriabin, in his three Sonatas and Sonata Fantasie, combines
free style with poetical rhapsody, cross-rhythms and a glittering
technique founded on that of Chopin. These Sonatas stand as
a class almost by themselves. Difficult as they are, much
depends on the interpretation given to them in performance.
Jos. WihtoFs well-written and artistic Op. i shows national
feeling. The two attractive Sonatas, Op, 4 of B. Kalafati, and
Op. 10 of B. Solotarjow are Schumannesque in spirit but
Lisztian in technique, and, like those of Wihtol, more regular
in form.
An elegant Sonata in C by Lack, in characteristic style, stands
out among works by modern French composers (Part IV,
Chapter VIII).
Of works by English composers (see also Part IV, Chapter
XIV) the Op. 2, by Onslow (Part II, Chapter V), which is good
in its way, belongs to the Beethoven-Clementi School ; the
programme Sonata of Sterndale Bennett entitled The Maid of
Orleans, lacks development and must be considered principally
as a poetical composition.
The first of two Sonatas by Sir Hubert Parry, though an early
work, is grateful, refined, lyric and idyllic in style and shows the
influence of Heller. It has a delightful Scherzo with a Schu-
mannesque episode.
A pleasant Mendelssohnian Sonata by J. F. Barnett may be
mentioned, and a remarkable Sonata in D minor by B, J, Dale,
full of dramatic feeling and melody, though somewhat over-
elaborated, also claims attention. The clever fin-de-$icle
Variations, of which the Schumannesque 4th is the most
effective, and the brillianj: Lisztian Finale are noteworthy. An
early work of the gifted W. Y, Hurlstone and a dignified,
impressive and musicianly work by J. B. McEwen deserve
special attention.
The Op. 37 of Tschalkowsky, the Op. 12 of Steinhammer,
the Op. 10 of Rontgen and the recent Sonatinas by Reger
should also be included among noteworthy modern works of
the kind.
CHAPTER XXII
THE CONCERTO AND THE VIRTUOSO
" The greatest merit of a virtuoso will always consist in a pure and
perfect rendering of the composer's ideas/' Wagner.
THE term Concerto (German, Concert) was originally applied to
any vocal, and later to any instrumental, concerted or ensemble
compositions without solo parts, as in the Italian Concerto
Ecclesiastico or Concerto da Chiesa.
As regards form, the present Concerto, constructed, as it is,
in modified Sonata form, may be said to have originated in a
Concerto da Camera for two violins and bass by Torelli, published
in 1686.
In style, however, the early Concerti da Camera are composed
after the manner of a Symphony : they do not consist for the
most part of a solo work with orchestral accompaniment, as in
the modern Concerto, but are fully orchestral, or practically so,
throughout. The germ of the so lo idea came from the Concerto
Grosso, initiated by Torelli in 1709, in which a combination of
solo instruments was accompanied by the rest of the orchestra,
as in Handel's 12 Concertos for two violini and violoncelli soli
with accompaniment of stringed orchestra.
Opportunities for the Cadenza, a distinguishing feature of the
modern Concerto, consisting of a brilliant technical display by
the soloist, were probably first provided by Handel in his
organ Concertos.
Generally speaking, the Concerto before Mozart, as represented
by those of Handel, Rameau, Seb, Bach, W. F. Bach and Em.
Bach (Steingraber, Ed.), bears little resemblance to the present
form. The solo instrument or instruments usually enter and :
keep with the accompanying instruments and do not show any
particular individuality, though in the Concertos of Seb. Bach,
and of liis son Emmanuel Bach, more enterprise is shown in this;
187
z88 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
way The form also is not defined and the number of movements
varies very much. The D major Clavier-Concerto of J. S. Bach
consists of an Allegro in time, Larghetto, and Allegro in f time ;
the five-movement E minor Concerto of Handel contains a
Polonaise, while the C minor of Em. Bach is practically in one
well-knit movement, with subsidiary Adagio and Minuet sec
tions.
This form of Concerto therefore may be classified as concerted
works in the style of the old Sonatas and Overtures of the Bach
and Handel period ending with Em. Bach about 1772. Of these
older models, those for two and three claviers by J. Seb. Bach
stand out as the most prominent. The celebrated Triple
Concerto in D minor by J. S. Bach was composed about 1730,
and was probably performed by him and his two sons Friede-
mann and Emmanuel at the Concerts of the Leipzig University
Musical Society.
In the preface to the Concerto, which was not published till
1845, there is a copy of the instructions from Bach's son Friede-
mann as to its performance : "The executants of this Concerto
should remember that thumping and loudness is not the true
interpretation of this work, for the composer was a true poet as
-much as a great contrapuntist and he wanted the instrument to
sing and not to groan in the hands of the players. The music
should therefore be played with absolute neatness and delicacy
and in a singing style without much assistance from the pedal,
The accompaniment of the strings should not be too prominent
and it should always take the subordinate part in the rendering
of this glorious masterpiece." An historic performance of this
Coacerto was given in London in 1844 by Moscheles, Mendelssohn
apd Thalberg, when Moscheles unexpectedly interpolated a
IMdetza where provision is not made for one and Mendelssohn,
fit friendly rivalry, followed suit.
Ifte melodious Italian Concerto (St) of Bach was written in the
style of one of the Italian violin Concertos, but for one clavier
alone. It has -been su^fcsted that the p and / marks indicate,
as it ware, solo and accoHipeniment portions.
The modern Concerto form is the result, with added modifi
cations, of the work of Mozart, who Wrote nearly fifty Concertos
for various instruments. Em. Bach's last clavier Concertos
were published in 1772 and next year, in 1773, appeared the
first Concerto of importance by Mozart, No, 5 in D, as scored for
THE CONCERTO AND THE VIRTUOSO 189
strings, oboes, horns, trumpets and drums. The Concerto
for Three Pianos in F and that for Two Pianos in E\>,
recently revived, were published in 1776 and 1780 respec
tively.
It must be remembered, however, that Concertos in the old
style appeared later, as, "for instance, the best of Haydn's in D,
which was published in 1782.
Of the many examples of Mozart's genius in this class, with
their simple melody and delightfully modern modulations,
the D minor (1785), with its beautiful Romanze (see Ex.) is
regarded as the finest. This work was probably publicly
performed in 1796 by Beethoven, who is known to have deeply
studied Mozart's works.
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The last three Concertos, including the Coronation Concerto
in D (1788), which created a sensation on its performance in
Vienna, and the last, in B\>, require special mention as antici
pating much of Beethoven.
The technique of Mozart's Concertos belongs to a past age
and it is this fact that has probably caused their disuse for a
time ; but their manifold artistic beauty has recently caused a
desirable revival, desirable if for nothing else, for the triumph,
of art over technical display. The advance on those of the Bach
period consists in (i) the individuality of the solo part ; (2) the
igo HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
orchestral accompaniment, which, by means of instrumental
colouring and thematic development of ideas, adds to the
interest of the whole ; (3) the unity of the whole ; and (4) the
evolution of modern Concerto form. The latter, as ultimately
developed by Mozart and adopted by Beethoven, differs from
strict Sonata form in having a double exposition the first for
the orchestra, the second for the solo with orchestral accompani
ment. The double exposition also made it necessary that the
2nd subject, when given first by the orchestra, should appear in
the key of the Tonic. The solo exposition also is more florid
and contains additional matter (as with Mozart) or development
(as with Beethoven).
Later developments following the early use of Mozart who
uses a short Introduction in place of the orchestral exposition
as well as the tentative use in the later works of both Mozart
and Beethoven of fragmentary openings with the solo instru
ment, led to the praiseworthy and more concise Sonata form
adopted by Mendelssohn and most later composers. This more
modern form consists of a single exposition only, by the solo
instrument with the orchestra.
A characteristic of the Concerto (though not confined to it)
is the introduction of a Cadenza, or a brilliant improvisation,
generally introduced (at least by Mozart and Beethoven) on a
| chord of the Tonic in the final orchestral tutti of the
recapitulation.
Not trusting, however, to the improvisatory powers of the
executant, both Beethoven and Mozart, as well as later com
posers, have written out the Cadenzas in full.
Moscheles, Busoni, Reinecke, Winding, Rontgen and others
have also written Cadenzas for Beethoven's Concertos, while
Beethoven, Hummel, Reinecke, Rudorff and others have done
similar service for those of Mozart. A further development has
been the omission of the customary Cadenza, as in Beethoven's
Efy Concerto, those of Mendelssohn, the D minor of Brahms and
others.
The finest of Beethoven's Concertos is probably the one in
E|?, Op, 73 one of those works which show his genius at its
ripest stage though the G major and C minor are, perhaps,
more often performed. At the commencement Beethoven
begins, not with the orchestra only, as in other Concertos, btft
with the solo instrument, and such is the brilliance of the
THE CONCERTO AND THE VIRTUOSO 191
introductory passages that " no one can forget that he is listening
to a Concerto for the pianoforte" (Analysis, Grove. See Ex. A).
"Concerto
3 3
Megro.
A ^
-a*
?c=*
i
The orchestra now takes in hand the enunciation of the ist and
2nd Themes of the movement (see Exs. B andC), and the piano
forte after a brilliant two-octave chromatic scale, introduces
the principal subject in massed chords for both hands.
The development section gives a good idea of Beethoven's
192 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
method of breaking up his subjects into small sections or
motives, and using them over and over again as accompaniment,
bass, melody, or ornament, until the movement is homogeneous
throughout. The various ideas, such as the turn on the broken
chord in the ist subject, are tossed about from pianoforte to
wind or string instruments and vice versa, first in one key and
then in another, until almost a kaleidoscopic effect is obtained,
or else new subsidiary melodies are introduced, as in the
following :
^/>
In this Concerto, contrary to the usual previous custom,
Beethoven substitutes a written Cadenza for the customary
extemporization and provides an accompaniment for the latter
portion. We have not space to quote from the lovely . hymn-
Eke Adagio and the gay and energetic Finale, but the student
might profitably refer to the score for his own pleasure and
instruction.
Of Concertos by the contemporaries of Beethoven those in
A minor and B minor by Hummel call for notice. These,
though containing much merely mechanical passage work, also
exemplify Hummers genius for effective modulation.
The once popular Concertos of Dussek (1760-1812) have now
fallen into disuse. Though pleasing and melodious, their
slight structure,, strictly lyrical style and lack of variety and
scope of technique have rendered them practically obsolete.
Written in a somewhat mechanical imitation of the style of
Beethoven, the Cf minor Concerto of Ries is still used for
educational purposes.
The same may be said of Kalkbrenner's (1784-1849) more
technical Concerto in D minor.
With Field (1782-1837) we come to purely lyrical style,
combined with romantic feeling but evincing the same weaknesses
as Dussek, whom he resembled in some respects.
Field is educationally represented by his B\> and A b Concertos.
Schumann, speaking of the poetical jth Concerto in C minor,
THE CONCERTO AND THE VIRTUOSO 193
describes the middle Notturno as " woven from the odour of roses
and lily's snow/' and rhapsodizes over the last movement
thus : fl Thy divine tedium, thy charm, thy delightful awkward
ness, thy soulful beauty, bewitching enough to kiss from
beginning to end/'
The Efy Concerto is wonderfully fresh and modern in harmonic
feeling ; Field being, indeed, a direct link with modern Romance.
His style of development shows the influence of Mozart, but in
the cantabile portions one is reminded of his own Nocturnes.
Weber's Concertos show rich harmonies, interesting rhythms
and attractive, brilliant technique. The popular Concertstuck
is scarcely in Concerto form, but the C and Efy Concertos are
both standard works.
The polished style of Moscheles* Concertos makes them
educationally valuable. The Weberish G minor and the 7th
(Pathetiqttc) Concertos have been the most popular, but the former
is somewhat unequal in style. The Efy, Op. 56 (Klemm) is
more dignified and spontaneous.
The E major, Op. 64 has an interesting Finale built up on
The British Grenadiers while the Souvenir d'Irlande, Op. 69, is
constructed in free style on Irish airs, two of which are
ingeniously combined together in the Finale, Both works may
be considered as departing somewhat from the dignity of the
usual type.
Conservative Mendelssohn (the pupil of Moscheles), with his
somewhat limited though brilliant technique, put some of his
best work into his Concertos.
The sincerity of purpose and more artistic atmosphere of the
early G minor Concerto at once placed it ahead of the Concertos
of Hummel, which at the time were the battle-horse of every
budding virtuoso. The unique fairy scherzo element in the
Andante and the youthful gaiety of the Finale render the work
attractive. The 2nd Concerto (1837) is, perhaps, too reflective
and not very spontaneous in style.
The F minor Concerto (1840) of Sterndale Bennett is brilHant
and individual in style, but, like Mendelssohn's, shows a some
what limited variety of technique. Apart from the absence of
a really contrasted final movement, Bennett, in his larger works,
evinces some of the weaknesses of those other composers in the
earlier lyric style, Dussek and Field, viz,, the persistent use of
stand-still basses and a lack of effective modulations.
194 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
The main attraction is Bennett's fount of idyllic melody,
specially exemplified in the beautiful Barcarolle movement.
The lyrical and dignified F$ minor Concerto of Ferd. Hiller is
always interesting though more classical in style than Mendels
sohn (Part III, Chapter XVII). The romantic style is now
continued in Chopin, who resembles Field in his lyrical nature
and his weakness in structure and management of the orchestra.
Chopin, however, excelled in his delightful modern and unique
technical figuration.
His Concertos were both early works, being written at the age
of 20 and 21 (Part IV, Chapter II).
The orchestral portions have been re-scored by Klindworth,
Tausig and others, and both works have been much criticized
from a structural point of view.
The rambling tutti, for instance, in the ist movement of the
E minor, lacks balance and sense of key relationship, etc.,
but one would say that the poetical charm is really of more
importance than the enveloping form, and both have become
standard works. As Schumann pointed out, it was " the spirit
of Beethoven " which Chopin led " into the Concert Hall/'
Chopin, he says, was " the pupil of the first masters
Beethoven, Schubert and Field. The first formed his mind in
boldness, the second in tenderness, the third his hand to its
flexibility/'
; Chopin's genius lay, indeed, in lyricism rather than in
thematic formalism. This is borne out by the beautiful
Cantilena Adagio in the F minor Concerto, of which Schumann
siys, " What are ten editorial crowns compared to one such
HHagio I "
Coming to the ardent apostle of Romanticism himself, it looks
as if Schumann had been strongly influenced by his own
analyses of the Concertos of Field and Chopin, for his own
Concerto in A minor (Allegro, 1841; Intermezzo and Finale,
1845) is one of the most delightful of his works, full of warm,
romantic feeling, intensely lyrical and technically attractive.
The ist movement is thoroughly homogeneous, though the
development is of the Transformation type, as, for instance, in
the reappearance of the chief theme given out with clarinets
and bassoons, as in Ex. A and B (here in relative major).
A delightful touch is the Rondo-like re-appearance of the
ist theme in the key of A^ leading to the development section
THE CONCERTO AND THE VIRTUOSO 193
which commences in that key. Both the ist movement and
charming Intermezzo, with the beautiful 'cello solo responded to
by violin and clarinet, prove, with the continual dialogue or
A B C/or. ,
P I I fc ' * 1
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interchange of ideas between the soloist and the orchestra,
that the Concerto is no mere Symphony with Pianoforte
Obbligato.
Schumann shows the best side of his technique in this work,
while it is also free from the ineffective subtleties characteristic
of him.
The one-movement Concertstuck, Op. 92, and the Concert
Allegro are both in Concerto style, but inspiration and romantic
feeling are less apparent. The Concert sans Orchestre of
Schumann is really a Sonata, of which the title was altered by
the publisher.
Henselt's Concerto (c. 1838) written before that of Schumann
is more in the style of those by Chopin (1829-30). Founded on
quasi-Folk-song melodies, the development proceeds mostly in
Variation form, in which Chopinesque technique appears
diversified by those peculiarly wide-spread figures of which he
made special use. (See Ex. from the Concerto.)
196 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
The somewhat grandiose and rhapsodical E\) Concerto of
Liszt (Schles.) serves in a way as the starting point for the
next generation of Concerto writers, both in technique, and in
form or the want of it. The Hungarian national style is
depicted in the piquant Allegretto, which, with its frequent use
of the Triangle, has given the name of Triangle Concerto to
the work.
Rubinstein's Concertos have more variety of technique than
those of Mendelssohn, which they otherwise resemble, though
they are not so interesting. The 3rd is the most popular.
The versatile Rail wrote also a melodious Concerto.
A straightforward tuneful Schumannesque work by Ig. Brull
B. and B.) ; the Lisztian and florid work by D'Albert, written
?phen he was a student in England ; a romantic modern work by
;he American Hy. Holden Huss (Schirmer) ; the very melodious
md Weberish Op. 63 by Ravina (Leduc), and the dramatic and
lignified Op. 31 by B. Godard should be mentioned as some of
:he most effective modern Concertos in romantic style.
Of recent modern works with a classic leaning we have the
dignified jp$ minor Concerto of Reinecke (B. and H.), endued
with poetical feeling, and modern in style and technique ; and
the interesting one in A [7 by Rheinberger, which is masculine
and well worked out, with a penchant for fugal (always appro
priate) work.
The Concertos of Saint-Saens (see Chapter XVII), a master
of classical form and the Op. 10 of Bronsart are also important
modern works.
The Concertos of Brahms (see Chapter XIII) have been
described (and actually classified) as Symphonies with pianoforte
accompaniment. The rugged D minor was, indeed, planned
originally as a Symphony,
Nobility and seriousness of purpose distinguish the Maestoso
and Adagio movements, while the whole work is notable for
(i) the absence of his later rhythmical obscurity; (2) its
emotional effects; (3) the absence of the bravura element,
In the B\> Concerto, however, the virtuoso is set to work from
the outset weaving highly elaborate and clever ornamentation
over a^suave initial theme, after which the serious Allegro
Appassionato appears somewhat at a disadvantage. The
interesting dreamy and wayward 'ceHo solo in the Andante,
with the Schumannesque pianoforte elaborations, present a
THE CONCERTO AND THE VIRTUOSO 197
grateful contrast and prepare the way for the Scherzo-like Finak
in which thematic development is more prominent.
National colour has been a powerful influence in the modern
Concerto. The very attractive A minor Concerto of Grieg
stands out prominently as portraying the characteristic rhythms
and melodic figures of Norwegian music.
A notable work of this class is the Scottish Concerto of Sir Alex
Mackenzie founded on Scottish airs (see Part IV, Chapter XIV).
The poetical Pole (Part IV, Chapter II) is represented by an
effective work by Paderewski (B. and B.), the refined Op. 12 of
Zarzycki (B. and B.), and the brilliant Op. 20 by Jos. Wieniawski
(Cranz) ; while the neatly written and recently revived Concerto
Hollandais by Litolff is built on Dutch airs.
Of the Russian School there are the nationalistic work by
Rimsky-Korsakow (Belaiew) (Part IV, Chapter VI), the Op. 20
of the poetical Scriabin (Belaiew), the Lisztian and nationally
coloured Op. 4 of Liapounow (B. and B.), a successful Concerto
by Rachmaninoff, and works by Arensky, Glazounow (Op. 92)
and the popular Tschaikowsky in B fy minor.
Jules Major's stirring and brilliant Op. 12 (Leuckart) , like the
Efy Concerto of Liszt, shows its Hungarian origin.
OTHER WORKS WITH ORCHESTRA
Other modern Concertos there are that are worthy of attention,
as, for instance, the Concerto, Op. 9 by G. Mingcozzi (C. and J.),
an attractive work with dramatic feeling, melodious and
practical, and Concertos by Arthur Hinton (Fischer). The
following have been performed at Queen's Hall Concerts : one
by K. Bruckshaw, 1914 ; Delius, C minor, 1907 ; H. Farjeon,
in D, 1903 ; Josef Holbrooke, Concerto Dramatique, 1903 ;
Ed. Isaacs, C$ minor, 1907 ; York Bowen, No. 3, 1920 ;
Lenormand, in F minor, 1903 ; Ed. Schutt, G minor, 1904 ;
L. Schytte, Op, 28, 1902 ; Binding, in D\>, 1904 ; Stenhammer,
Op. 23, 1920 ; Palmgren, Op. 33, 1920 ; also the American
works : J. A. Carpenter's Concertino, Maria Zucca No. 2, and
Jno. Powell's Negro Concerto.
The less formal Concertstuck has not attracted the ambition
of the composer generally so much as the Concerto.
The most important are, the attractive Hummel Rondo
Brilliant, Op. 56 (Ash. St.), the favourite Mendelssohn, Op. 22,
Capriccio Brillant, th6 characteristic Chopin, Op. 2, La ci darem
Variations (St.), and the well-known WeSer Concertsttick,
198 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
These four form a valuable educational quasi-Concerto course,
To these may be added the Moscheles-like E\? Rondo of Mendels
sohn (St.), the brilliant and nationally characteristic Polish
Fantasia and Krakowiak of Chopin (St.), the Caprice Russe and
Fantasie in C minor of Rubinstein (Senff), the bright Allegro de
Concert by Blumenfeld (Bit), the melodious and classically
inclined Rhapsodic of Brull (Doblinger), the interesting
Chopinesque Concertstuck of Brandt Buys, the pleasing and well-
written Scene Veneziane of Pirani, Saint-Saens' Africa Fantasia,
and the Rouet d'Omphale and Cesar Franck's Symphonic poem
Les Bolides (Lit.), Variations Symphoniques and Les Djinns. The
Beethoven G minor Fantasia, which includes a part for Chorus,
is in Variation form.
We may also mention the Concertsluck by Charles Trew (J. W.),
a well-written and attractive work, The following have also
been performed at Queen's Hall, London.
Crowther, Concertstuck, 1899; Waif ord Davies, Conversations
1914 ; N. Gatty, Alkgro, 1903 ; F, Matthay, Concert Piece ,1909 ;
Louis Aubert, Fantasia, 1911 ; Gabriel Faur6, Ballade, 1913 ;
Fantasy, 1920 ; Egon Petri, Concertstuck, 1906 ; Poldowski's
Pat Malone's Wake, 1919 ; Busoni, Indian Fantasy, 1921 ;
R. Strauss, Burlesque, 1920 ; Liszt, Todten Tanz, 1921 ;
Hungarian Fantasia, 1920 ; Rhapsodie Espagnok, 1920 ;
S<^tibert~Liszt, Wanderer Fantasia, 1920 ; Vincent DTndy,
Sympfonie Montagnarde, 1901 and E, Schelling's Suite
If a virtuoso chances to astonish me for a moment, the wonder is
imtaecliately replaced by involuntary repugnance." " No rope-dancing
'-^
te
*THE VIRTUOSO ELEMENT
_,, .j Italian word virtuoso was originally understood " A
man who loves the noble arts and is a critic of them/' Now
adays we tinderstand the word to mean, not an artistic critic but
an artistic executant with a leaning towards the phenomenal.
Unfortunately, from the prevalence of mere technical display
on the part of some so-called virtuosi^ the word and its sub
stantive virtuosity have become allied with empty musical
sensationalism.
The Concerto itself, as the v^hMe for exceptional technical
THE CONCERTO AND THE VIRTUOSO 199
powers combined with artistic musical form, has also suffered
from the same misassociation of ideas: hence the amusing
incident in Paris in 1904 when a claque objected to and whistled
down the Beethoven Concerto in G as an inartistic composition.
The opinions ventured, ori this occasion, by leading French
composers are most instructive. M. Saint-Saens championed
virtuosity as triumphing " in all arts, in literature, and especially
in poetry." As " the foundation of the picturesque in music, it
gives wings to the artist by means of which he escapes from
the commonplace of the world and its dulness."
M. Faure agreed that " many mediocre Concertos exist . .* .
for mere technical display/' while M. Vincent DTndy was of
the very conservative opinion that the present form " is a very
degenerate descendant " of the Italian form as used by Bach.
Nevertheless, as was pointed out by others, virtuosity is
indispensable for the interpretation of many master-works" of
the great composers, of which the Concerto is only one form.
No work can be considered as a master- work that subordinates
musical ideas to mere technique, or even to matters of form.
Inspiration must come first. If, therefore, the work is a
masterly one and inspired, and the interpretation is con
scientiously artistic, the laws of art are satisfied and the virtuoso
truly justified.
The following Table is intended to illustrate the development
of the modern Concerto as dating from Mozart.
The Concerto
MOZART.
1785. D minor.
1791, Bb (last).
BEETHOVEN.
1809. jsb, Op. 73-
EARLY ROMANTIC.
1782-1837. Field, E\> and A\).
1786-1826. Weber in C 1810 ;
in Eb 1812.
MODERN ROMANTIC.
1830-1. Chopin, Two Concertos.
1838. Henselt, F minor.
1841. Schumann, A minor.
Liszt, b.
Rubinstein, 3rd.
SUBORDINATE.
1783-1812, Dussek (G minor).
1784-1849. Kalkbrenner (D minor).
1784-1838. Ries in C$ minor.
1778-1837. Hummel in A minor.
in B minor.
MODERN CLASSIC.
1821. Moscheles, G minor.
1831. Mendelssohn, G minor.
1840. Bennett, F minor.
1811- Killer, F$ minor.
Brahms, Op. 15, D minor.
Op. 83, Bb.
St. SaSns, E\>.
Rheinberger, Av.
Reinecke, F% minor.
200
HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Nationalistic
Grieg in A minor. Rimsky-Korsakow,
McKenzie, Scottish. Liapounow.
Major, Op. 12. Rachmaninoff.
Paderewski.
Study of the Concerto
The study of the Concerto has the double 'advantage of
cultivating the bravura style and ensemble work at one and the
same time.
If the student has already acquired a satisfactory foundation
equal in grade to the Studies, Op. 70 of Moscheles (including
special double-note and octave work) he may at once commence
with the attractive Weber in C, Killer in F$ (no double 3rds),
or Ravina, Op. 65 (Leduc) ; and taking next the light Moscheles
in G minor or the more comprehensive Moscheles in E\> minor
proceed through the brilliant Mendelssohn in G minor to the
Concertos of Schumann, Chopin and others on the romantic
side, or to the chefs d'&uvre of Beethoven and modern
Classicists.
CHAPTER XXIII
FOUR-HAND MUSIC AND WORKS FOR THE LEFT HAND
" Lose no opportunity of playing music Duos, Trios, etc., -with, others.
This will make your playing broader and more flowing/' Schumann.
To the modern player of Duets it is interesting to know that
early four-hand music was written for two separate instruments.
No doubt this was owing to the- limited compass of the harpsi
chords then used. All such four-hand works, up to the time of
the first Duet Sonata, which is said to have been composed by
Mozart in 1765, were for two harpsichords or clavichords, as,
for example, the C major and C minor Concertos of J. S. Bach
and those of Friedemann Bach.
That such disposition (i.e., for two claviers) continued to be a
favourite mode of exposition is apparent from the Sonatas of
Clementi, Dussek and Haydn, the Concertos and the Sonata
and Fugue of Mozart, and the compositions by Hummel,
Moscheles and others mentioned later.
Following the first Duet Sonata of Mozart, early examples of
Duets appeared in compositions by J. C. Bach (the third son of
Sebastian) and by Haydn in the Master and Scholar Variations,
1783. Mozart's own compositions in the Duet Sonatas (B. and
H.), Variations, Fantasias, Fugues, and the Adagio and Allegro
(1780-91) are the most important of that time. Then followed
Clementi's noteworthy seven Duet Sonatas (B. and H.), those of
Dussek, the brilliant A\) Sonata of Hummel, and Beethoven's
interesting but unimportant Marches and Variations (Lit.).
The romantic element enters with the Duets of Weber,
exemplified in the educational series, Op. 3 and 10 (the latter
written on popular airs) and in his characteristically bright
eight Pieces, Op. 60 (Lit.). In the most important and
voluminous Duets of Schubert we have also the lyric element
combined with romantic feeling and a talent for charming
modulations.
F 201
202 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Schubert himself was very fond of Duet playing and put very
much of his best work into that form.
The brilliant and interesting Variations, the stirring Heroic,
Military and Hungarian Marches, the popularly-written
Polonaises and Rondos, the fine Fantasia, the brilliant
Divertissement a la Hongroise ma.de much of by Liszt a
Mozartian Sonata, a naive Allegro (Les Or ages de la Vie) and
the Grand Duo in C (all Lit.) influenced by Beethoven and
thought by Schumann to have been originally planned as a
Symphony all rank as Classics in this form. Regarding the
Symphonic movements of the latter, Schumann, as critic, says
that " Schubert is a maidenly character compared with
Beethoven far more talkative, softer and broader/' though
" compared with others he is man enough." Schubert, he says,
" brings in his powerful passages and works in masses ; but
there is always a masculine and feminine contrast ; one
commands, and one teaches and persuades/'
Schumann added harmonic richness and polyphonic interest
to Duet Literature. One notes, also, the increasing interest in
young people shown in the charming, yet lightly written
Twelve Pieces for Young and Old, and in the Children's Ball
The Eastern Pictures, Op. 66, are characteristic and somewhat
subtle in style, but the later Ball Scenes, Op. 109 (Lit.) are very
happily appropriate. Since Schumann died, half a century has
produced a profusion of all classes of works for four hands, and
yet Duet-playing is much less popular than it was.
Possibly the great advance in technical execution has brought
about the greater preference for solo work.
The characteristic sketch style was continued, after Schumann,
in Volkmann's Musical Picture Book and Tageszeiten, in Jensen's
attractive Hochzeitsmusik (Bos.), and, in Reinecke's Marsch-
wrspiele ; as well as in Rubinstein's Charakterbilder, Nicod's
Pictures from the South, Killer's Operetta without Words, Huber's
Op. 56 and 108, Schytte's Op, 112, the very melodious Kermesse
of Hoffmann, and the distinctive Six Pieces (P.) of Binding.
Duets in more or less classical form seem to be dwindling in
number. The Sonatas, Rondos and Op. 142 of Moscheles, the
Op. i of R. Fuchs, Brahms' Op. 23 Variations, a Scherzo of
Ferd. Hummel, and Rheinberger's Grosse Sonate, Op. 122, with
an attractive Tarantella, stand out prominently. (For other
works, see Ruthardt.)
FOUR-HAND MUSIC 203
The National Dance and National Music in general seem to be
specially suitable for four-handed playing. The popular
arrangement of Hungarian Dances for two performers by
Brahms may be said to have led the way, and was followed by
the -arrangements of Gobbi, Chovan and H. Hoffmann.
These have been succeeded by the attractive and artistic
Slavische (Bohemian) Tdnze and the Op. 59 and 69 of Dvorak,
the ever-popular Spanish Dances (Sin.) and the attractive New
Spanish Dances and Polish Dances by Moskowski, the
invigorating Danses Galiciennes by Zarembski (Sin.), the
Norwegian Dances by Grieg (P.), the Nordisches (or Norsk
melodies) by Xaver Scharwenka (Sm.) and H. Hoffmann (Nov.),
the English, Scotch and Irish Dances by Ashton, the popular
Danish Volkstdnze by Emil Hartman (Sm.), the Italian Songs by
Pirani, the Swiss Suite and Russian Op. 76 by Wilm, and the
Roumanian Dances by Chovan. Each of these portrays in an
agreeable manner the characteristics of the various nationalities.
Of the more cosmopolitan Waltz or Ldndler there are artistic
examples of the simple Ldndler in the Op. 23 of Wrede (SL), in
Grunberger, Op. 57 (G.R.) and Raif, Op. 4, 7 and 9 (J.).
In the more modern Waltz form Witte, Op. 7 (P. and M.),
Hiile, Op. 10 (Sg.) and Kiel, Op. 73 and 78 (B. and B.) may
serve as examples.
In four-hand Suites, Goldner, in his melodious Waldscenen,
in the Suites, Op. 59, 61, 63 and 64, and in the six Suites
Modernes (F.S.) leads the way. There are also the attractive
Baltic Shore Suite and Op. 180 (No. 5) of Wilm (R.F.), the Op. 24
of F. Mann (F.), the poetical Op. 129 (Atalante) of H. Hoffmann
(Ch.) ; as well as the Serenades of Wrede (SI.) and Fuchs (Un.
Ed.), the Op. 8 of E. E. Taubert and Op. 12 of Schuler, which'
are written on the model of the Suites for Strings which go by
that name.
In the poetical style the name of Heinrich Hoffmann and his
graceful and pleasing series, the Italian Love Tale, and Op. 29
(Nov.) and Genrebilder, Op. 102 and 108 (Ch.) are well known.
The modern and effective Waltz-Caprices by Karg-Elert (Hi),
the agreeable Op. 38 of Kleffel (R.F.) and Op. 25 of Olbersleben
(R.F.), the Kiindiger Gnomenreigen (R.), Shaipe's Romance,
Op. 24 (WL), Kauu,"0#. 18 (Ed. S,), Kiel, Op. 74 (Educational),
(B. and B.), Asantschewsky, Op. 8 and Rudorff, Op. 4 may be
also included in this style.
204 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Instructive Duets
These date, as already mentioned, from the Duets of Haydn
(Master and Pupil), Mozart and Beethoven, etc., down to our
own day. It is not long ago that the tuneful Sonatinas of
Diabelli held the field, notably the one in D, but these are now
out of date. The average Sonatina is not advisable for early
instructive work, either for two or four hands ; the National
Airs and Dances are much more encouraging, besides providing a
more healthy foundation. Such works as C. H. H. Parry's
Popular Tunes of the British Isles are admirable as a beginning,
leading to the easily arranged Classics as in Hartung's Op. 33
(Kami), Classics for the Young (Litolff), and Low's Four-Hand
School Book, II (Litolfi).
Transcriptions. Perhaps in no way is the Duet form more
useful than in Transcriptions of standard orchestral works which,
as originally laid out, demand breadth of scope and effect.
The Overtures and Symphonies of the great masters thus
presented help us in a sense to realize the magnitude of con
ception of such works as compared with Chamber Music or the
humbler Piano (see Chapter on "Transcriptions").
For Two Pianos
Of this form of composition, already spoken of, the Bach
Concertos (for two pianos), Mozart's fine Concerto in Efy and
Sonata and Fugue (P.), Schumann's Andante and Variations,
Moscheles' Hommage & Handel, Chopin's Rondo, and Saint-
Saens' Variations, Op. 35, stand out as Classics. To these we
may add an effective Concertstuck by Al. Schmitt (SI.), Grieg's
Op. 51, Wilm's Prelude and Saraband and Waltzes, the solid
Kirchner's Polonaise (Hi), the March by Goria (Lit.), Parry's
masculine and Bach-like Duo in E minor (B. and H.), the
Variations of Sinding, the piquant and elegant Andante and
Scherzettino and Duo Symphoniques by Chaminade (En.), and
the three Valses Romantiques by Chabrier (En.).
Variations by Somervell, Fischoff and Eymien, the Prelude
and Double Fugue by Julius Harrison, the Variations Artistiques
by Pfeiffer (Jb.), the Variations, Op. 13 of Herzogenberg, the
expressive Phantasiestucke by Von Savenau (K.) and the
attractive Suites of Arensky, Rachmaninoff and Longo also
deserve attention.
FOUR-HAND MUSIC 205
The composition of works for two pianos seems to be increasing.
This increase probably arises from the more artistic presentation
of ensemble works in this form and from the convenience of
using a second piano, in practice, to represent the part of the
orchestra in a Concerto.
A full list of such arrangements as the latter can be seen in
Ruthardt's Guide.
The stentorian and not very artistic effect of the once
fashionable arrangements for six and eight pianos is fortunately
now somewhat out of date.
Practically speaking, the repertoire for three or more pianos
is confined to the Concertos of Bach andMozart ; the D minor
Concerto of Bach being the principal representative of this class.
WORKS FOR LEFT HAND
The limited scope of pieces for left hand alone confines their
interest to the educational or purely virtuoso aspect. Left-hand
playing received an impetus from the performances of Count
Zichy (b. 1849), the son of an Hungarian nobleman, who, having
the misfortune to lose his right arm at the age of seventeen,
gave all his energy to playing solos with Ms left hand and subse
quently was able to astound and delight the critics.
In addition to the left-hand technical foundation mentioned
elsewhere the following pieces may be mentioned as forming a
good course: Hollander, Intermezzi, Op. 31, Bk. I (SI.);
Niemann, Op. 40, No. 2 (Ks.), Left-Hand Album (Peters), Pauer's
Culture of the Left-Hand, Pt. IV (Aug.) , Reinecke, Op, 179
(Peters), and the Bach-Philipp Transcriptions (Fm.). A
pleasant short course consists of Germer's Op. 41, followed by
Graue's melodic Op. 25 (S. and H.) (two vols.) or Niemann's
Valse, Op. 36 (Lit.), Hoffmann's Op. 32 (Dk.) and Vantyn,
Op. 16, Bk. II. Instead of the latter, Rheinberger's Op. 113
or the more difficult Reger Studies (Univ. Ed.) mav be taken.
CHAPTER XXIV
VARIATIONS FOR PIANOFORTE
THE Variation form has played an exceedingly important part
in the evolution of pianoforte music, especially in its technical
aspect.
The composers of early clavier music were not content with
the ordinary Dance and Song tunes which they put into their
Suites, but felt they must stimulate interest by inserting
ornamental passages of grace-notes, runs, etc. Many ways of
doing this were gradually found out, such as, by Variations
on the form of the melody, or by the technical breaking up of the
chords, etc., in the Bass ; or by the alteration of the harmonies.
The transposition of the melody into the various parts, as well
as the insertion of passages constructed in imitation of part of,
or the whole of, the theme, were devices frequently used. In
the cultivation of brilliancy of the Variations used, as in the early
Variations of the Elizabethan composers, technique was
remarkably developed, while from one of their devices that of
inserting new themes between the Variations probably arose
the Round or Rondo form. Byrd (1546-1623) and Bull
(1563-1628), especially the former (see Part I, Chapter II) , were
past-masters of the Variation form of the period. Byrd's
Variations on Pavans and Galliards, including those on the
well-known air, the Carman's Whistle, though full of points of
imitation, are mainly melodically varied. In some of the
Variations of Bull the harmonies alone remain as the connecting
link with the original, the rest being freely disposed.
Alternation of rhythm was early adopted as an interesting
device. In the Aria detta da Frescobaldi the 4/2 time theme
emerges as a 3/2 Galliard and a 6/4 Courante. The Variations
(published in 1616) in Frescobaldi's Partita (Suite) Sopra Folia
(aground bass or Chaconne dance theme not usually quoted in
its original form) are more florid. Both examples are canonic
or imitative and show strongly the influence of the organ ; they
db not, however, equal the earlier English Virginal compositions.
Frescobaldi's influence is seen in his successors Froberger
(1^600^1667) and Pasquini (1637-1710). We might note that
Froberger precedes Purcell (who died in 1695) while Pasquini
206
VARIATIONS FOR PIANOFORTE 207
(Suites written about 1697), whom Purcell surpasses in freedom
of style, was a contemporary.
In the remarkable Auf die Mayerin Suite by Froberger
(Frobergiana, Senfi) , composed after the manner of the Canzoni
Francesi on a popular air, the common- time Theme appears as a
12/8 Gigue, 3/2 Courante, and 3/2 time Sarabande. In the
interesting and probably unique Chromatica Variation chromatic
progressions and altered harmony appear throughout over the
usual bass.
Pasquini, with whom the Variation form was a favourite,
wrote two sets on the usual theme La Follia, also " capricious "
Variations and Variations " of invention/' besides the usual
Partita or Suite Variations. Both in Froberger's and Pasquini's
Variations (c. 1697-1702) the technique is much freer, com
paratively modern, and with less use of canonic imitation. The
Suite Variations were usually called " Doubles/'
A favourite form of the Variation was the " ground " or
continuous " ground bass " or " basso ostinato/' in which
the Theme is put in the bass and repeated several times with
ever-varying melody and harmony. Excellent examples can
be found in Purcell (Eighth Suite, etc.) and Blow, and a good
modern example of the basso ostinato is that by Arensky.
Occasionally we find that the bass itself, especially in Italian
composers, begins to be varied. In the practically identical
forms of the Chaconne and Passacaglia the bass theme in the
latter usually dissolves sooner or later into figuration and,
appearing in other parts, is treated by imitation or in other ways.
Originally the Chaconne, like the Passacaglia, was used as a
Dance form:
" Jadis c*6tait la chaconne
Qui couronnait un long bal,
Ressuscitait, dans sa verve gasconne,
Danseuses aux abois et danseurs mis-^-mal." (E.D.)
The Passecailk and Chaconne Variations of Bach and Handel
should be mentioned, as well as some striking and modern
examples to be found in the Passacaglias by Dohnanyi and
Nawratil and La Chaconne by R. Franke.
The masterly Bach 32 Variations on an Aria (Sarabande)
in G major, for a harpsichord with two rows of keys, are contra
puntal in style but are contained throughout in similar harmonies
and the Theme is variously presented in Canon form, Fughetta,
2o8 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Overture (French style) and as a Quodlibet, in which fragments
of German Volkslieder are introduced.
Handel, in the popular Harmonious Blacksmith Variations,
the Passacaglia in the G minor Suite, and the 60 Variations-
Chaconne, like his contemporary Rameau and the Italian School,
anticipated his successors by largely putting aside contrapuntal
devices and thinking more of the melody and effectiveness as
opposed to scholastic ingenuity.
Mozart took up the same style and, by using grace-notes,
shakes, broken octaves, repeated notes, and the insertion of
showy Cadenzas, brought the Variation form into the forefront
of popular favour. One speciality with Mozart was the ante-
final Adagio, a movement always floridly ornamental.
Haydn took a more serious view of the form again and
anticipated Beethoven by frequently building on the harmonic
basis as compared with the general melodic style of Mozart,
who, however, in his Sonatas cultivated more the harmonic
style. A good example of Haydn's procedure is his artistic
double-themed F minor Variations.
Beethoven builds mainly on the harmonic basis and uses less
of the ornamented-melody style of Mozart. The remarkable
32 Variations in C minor, which form really a kind of Chaconne,
are almost entirely harmonic in style. The Variations are only
identified with the theme by means of its sequential character.
Imitation is seen in the zyth and 22nd Variations, but the rest
are brilliantly technical. Equally remarkable, from an
analytical and artistic point of view, are the poetical Variations
in the Sonata, Op. 109, and the very brilliant ones in Op. in.
Beethoven's originality is seen in all that he wrote. In the
Op. 34, written on a theme in F, most of the Variations are in
different keys, while in the masterly Diabelli Variations (the last
pianoforte work of Beethoven) (Part II, Chapter VII), which are
also of special technical interest, the more correct term would
be Transformations.
In these the connecting link is haphazardly harmonic, melodic
or rhythmic, sometimes merely by analogy, leaving but a
cadence or similar rhythmic periods for purposes of recognition,
as in the mazy 2oth. The work has been somewhat neglected
recently at Recitals. Bulow, when performing it at Leipzig in
1857, suggested various titles such as I March, II Landkr
III Duet, IX War March, XVIII Idyll.
VARIATIONS FOR PIANOFORTE 209
No student should be content until he knows the best Varia
tions by Beethoven and Mozart. Bulow's annotated edition of
three works of the former (Univ. Ed.) is useful.
The lyric Schubert and Mendelssohn, as was only to be
expected, followed generally the melodic Arabesques of Mozart.
Schubert's Impromptu in B\>, and the very attractive Duet
Variations in A}?, Op. 35, together with the Variations Serieuses
of Mendelssohn, are masterly examples of this style, both
showing also unity of the earlier classic style with the spirit of
Romance. Schubert was very fond of the Variation form,
using it frequently and especially in the bass as a kind of
thematic development. His Impromptus are mostly in
Variation form.
Weber's Variations are distinguished by their thoroughly
melodic (as opposed to harmonic) character. They are all
bright and dramatic in style. Weber generally shows a decided
leaning to chromatic harmony. His later sets, the Op. 28, 37
and 55, tend to the bravura style.
Schumann's Abegg Variations (1833), the Etudes Sym-
phoniques and the Variations for two pianos are a direct
continuation of Beethoven's method. They are decidedly-
harmonic in character and very freely interpreted through his
characteristic technique. In the Abegg Variations, the bass of
the theme appears first of all and, besides serving as a connecting
link, forms the subject of a final Fugue.
Brahms stamped his intellectuality and masterly analytical
power on his Variations. In method they are a continuation of
Beethoven and Schumann. We note, for instance, the very
free use of the harmonic style, in frequent cases forsaking the
usual clues in order to carry out an idea in sequence, and the
Schubert-like feature of the frequent appearance of the theme
in the bass, together with the use of Canon form, as in the
Handel Variations. Their distinguishing characteristic, how
ever, is that of more advanced technique and some lack of
poetry of sentiment as compared with Schumann. Brahms'
Paganini Variations (like Schumann's Etudes Symphoniques)
are avowedly laid out as Studies.
These and his Handel Variations give the key to his technical
style (see Chapter XIII). The influence of Liszt, however, is
also seen in some of his works and the Op. 21 (i and 2) are more
lightly spun out.
210 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
In the evolution of technique and style the Variation form
has always played an important part.
The La ci darem Variations of Chopin (1830) and the
Ricotdanza Variations of Henselt (1836) both heralded new
styles. Thalberg's smooth-fingered Variations on Home, Sweet
Home, together with the trivial ones of Herz on Reissiger's
so-called Last Thought of Weber, also show the fashions of a
past age.
Coming to the Variation form of recent times, there are, in
the more or less Classic style, the following noteworthy works :
Lachner, Op. 42; Reinecke, Op. 235 (Zm.), Mandyczevski,
Op. 5 (Un. Ed.) ; the difficult Op. 88 of Rubinstein ; those from
Raff's Op. 91 and the fine Op. 48 of Xaver Scharwenka, which
is technically modern and useful.
An interesting short set by F. Kiel, Op. 71 (i) (B. and B.) in
contrapuntal style ; the resourceful and pianistic Op. 91 by
W. Berger (K.) ; the ingenious and modern 19 Variations of
Sir Hubert Parry, in form continuous, and set in various keys ;
and the fine Ballade of Grieg are important.
Other outstanding works are the complicated Op. 81 (on a
theme by Bach) by Reger, the Op. 13 of Fuchs, the Elegy of
D. G. Mason (Srm.), Op. 14 of J. Cros. Hoffmann and a virtuoso
work of RosenthaL The piquant and elegant Op. 89 of
Chaminade, the Variations Capricieuses of Frugatta, Op. 23 of
Galeotti and works by Alnaes and Th. Holland require mention.
Those of the important Russian School (Part IV, Chapter VI)
; deserve special notice, as, for instance, in the masterly Op. 72
of Glazounow, the Chopinesque Op. 35 and 51 of Liadov, the
Op. 8 of Blumenfeld, the effective Variations on a Lettish theme
by Wihtol, the Op. 19 of Tschaikowsky and effective works by
Rachmaninoff, Amani, Alenew, Antipov and Bleichmann.
Of important Variations fpr two pianos there are the Op. 86
by Max Reger, the work of Saint-Saens on a theme of Beethoven,
those by Norman O'Neill on an Irish theme, the Op. 45 of
Eymieu (In.) and those by Longo.
For pianoforte and orchestra we have the advanced modern
symphonic Variations of Gsar Franck (Part IV, Chapter IX)
which are Schumannesque in spirit but Lisztian in technique.
In conclusion we may make mention of one peculiar form,
and that is the Symphonic Variations of Vincent D'Indy,
which begin with the most difficult and end with the simplest.
CHAPTER XXV
MODERN DANCE FORMS FOR PIANOFORTE
WE have seen the influence of the old Dance forms in the
evolution of the Suite and Sonata. The modern Dance also
had an important influence on modern music, especially on that
written for the piano.
Taking what may be called the Round Dances the Waltz,
Polka and Galop, we find that they emanate from the Austrian
Empire. The Waltz was the outcome of the Landler dance
hailing from the " Landel " of Alpine Austria, including Styria,
Salzburg and the Tyrol. The Polka comes from Bohemia and
the Galop from Upper Austria. The ancient Landel or Landler
(really the Tyrolese country dance) was a slow whirling dance.
In France it became known as U Autrichienne (The Austrian
Dance) and Tyrolienne.
In Germany the Landel took the title of Deutscher (German)
Tanz. In Switzerland it took the French title of Allemande
(German Dance). The latter should be distinguished from the
Prelude-like movement in 4/4 time taken from the old French
Suite. Dreher or Drehtanz (Turning Dance) was also an old
German name. In Italy Tedesco (German Dance) was the
version. The term Styrienne was applied by Lanner, the Waltz
composer, to examples with the unusual grouping of four bars
of 9/4 followed by four bars of 6/4 time. It is necessary to
mention these varying titles expressive of the same thing
the ancient slow waltz in order to avoid confusion.
The masters of the Beethoven era disdained not to write
Deutsche Tanze for the ballroom ; Dances which, though simple,
were works of art both for orchestra and for piano. At this
time the Salon or artistic form of the Waltz had scarcely arisen.
Collections of Deutsche Tanze by Haydn (1792), Beethoven
(1795-9 and 1802), Mozart (about 50 Waltzes datingfrom 1787),
Weber, Schubert (over 200), Hummel, Gryowetz and others,
212 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
appeared at various times. So far the Waltz was modelled in
the very simple form of two eight-bar sentences followed by a
similar trio and da capo and used in sets of six to twelve numbers.
Schubert, however, introduced more feeling into his Valses
SentimentaleSt Valses Nobles, etc., more modulation and some
expansion of form.
This, together with Weber's popular Invitation to the Valse,
using an Introduction and reminiscent Coda, prepared the way
both for the modern artistic Dance Waltz of Strauss and Lanner
and for the poetic Valses de Salon of Chopin, and for innumerable
other composers' works not intended for dancing but as absolute
music of the most artistic genre.
The developed modern Waltz thus dates from Vienna about
the beginning of the nineteenth century. The charming
compositions of Joseph Lanner (1801-43) and Johann Strauss
(1804-49) sent the gay Vienna into ecstasies of delight and set
the model for the rest of the artistic world. It should be noted
that Brahms, Dvorak, Kiel and a few other modern composers
have shown a tendency to go back to the simpler form.
The German Galop, anciently Hopser Rutscher or Hop Dance,
has not been drawn on very largely as a Salon composition.
Schuloffs Galop di Bravura and Liszt's Galop Chromatique are
examples.
Of the Polka, a modern Bohemian dance (see Part IV,
Chapter IV), perhaps the best known artistic, though free,
example, is the Polka de la Reine by Raff.
The Polish Mazurka, with its accented weak beats has been,
especially developed in its art form by Chopin, as also has the
national Polonaise (see Part IV, Chapter II) with the character
istic deferred or weak Cadences. The Duet Polonaises of
Schubert and the solo numbers by Weber are prominent
examples. The similar form of the Spanish Bolero (see Part IV,
Chapter II) but provided with ordinary cadence has been
used by Chopin and others, the rapid whirling Neapolitan
Tarantella by Chopin, Heller and others. ^Vj^$j
Besides those principal forms generally in use with composers
for piano, there are the less-known National Dances dealt with
in the various Chapters on National Music.
The Ballet, a Dance movement usually in piquant French
style, and of operatic origin, is frequently used by lighter
composers. The orchestral Ballets of Delibes and other French
MODERN DANCE FORMS 213
composers form excellent models. (The term Balletic refers to
a movement in Suites by Italian composers*)
The March, as an art form, has been illustrated by the best
masters, especially in four-hand form. Those by Beethoven
and Schubert are well known. The buoyant quick-step march
seems to have found a congenial home in the United States of
America, where it is in special favour.
CHAPTER XXVI
TRANSCRIPTIONS PRELUDES AND INDEFINITE FORMS
THE pianoforte Transcription is one of the most valuable forms
of composition from a practical point of view. As the ' ' maid-of-
all-work " as the universal piano has been called it brings
within our reach artistic compositions for orchestra, chorus,
organ, voice, etc., which it might be difficult to hear in their
original form.
The modern Transcription, with its frequent crowded orchestral
indications, differs much from the old figured bass and super
imposed melody, which the cembalist of that day filled up to the
the best of his ability, aided by the octave couplers in use on
the harpsichord.
The most artistic method of Transcription or arrangement is
that of Liszt, whereby a reconstruction of the composition is
made, bringing out the essential leads, voice parts and general
effects of the score.
The drawback in the Liszt model is that, as in the case of its
originator, mere cultivation of the difficult or exuberance of
technique is apt to find a place. Another drawback is that
the piano cannot really produce or imitate varieties of orchestral
tone, and thus compositions like those of R. Strauss and
Berlioz which depend on orchestral colouring and its resulting
orchestral harmony-effects are unsuccessful. Moreover,
despite all brilliant technical devices, the arrangements of
Bach's organ compositions can never give more than a weak
reflection of the stupendous body of tone of the organ, though
the two-piano (four-hand) arrangement by Philipp (Ric.) should
be more effective. Similar objections must apply in varying
degree to Transcriptions of compositions for the solo voice,
violin, etc., which imagination or past associations must
necessarily amplify; so that, after all, Transcription must,
generally speaking, be considered to be more utilitarian than
artistic, though, of course, it. may be both. Perhaps those
214
TRANSCRIPTIONS, PRELUDES, ETC. 215
instances in which a composer makes a Transcription of his
own compositions are among the most successful.
With regard to the Transcription of the combined orchestral
and vocal score of an opera, much depends on the arranger.
Of the Clavier Extractors, as Wagner called them, Mr. Dann-
reuther has said (Mus. Times, Aug. 98) : " It is interesting
to compare the method and the effect of Klindworth's pianoforte
scores of the Ring with Billow's version of the score of Tristan,
Tausig's of the Meister singer, and Joseph Rubinstein's of
Parsifal. Klindworth's version is, perhaps, even harder to play
than any other, but it is more efficient ; it reflects the orchestral
score as closely as do Liszt's Transcriptions of Weber's Overtures
or of Berlioz's and Beethoven's Symphonies and Concertos
Liszt's Transcriptions are Klindworth's models." Mr. Dann-
reuther knew of " no better practice for pianists who are up to
Liszt's technique than Klindworth's Nibelungen."
The art of transcribing from the organ has been dealt with in
a masterly way by Busoni in the Supplement to Vol. I of his
Edition of Bach's Forty-Eight (Schirmer).
Interesting comparisons may be made between the pianistic
versions of Busoni, the two piano arrangements by Philipp, the
ponderous versions of Reger, the sound and concert-like arrange
ments of D'Albert, the practical and effective arrangements of
Sandor-Laszlo (Brd.), and those of Szanto, Goe, Ansorge, Emile
R. Blanche (F.F.), Zadora (Simrock) and others. For an enu
meration of the many other important Transcriptions the reader
must be referred to the Ruthardt Guide, and it must suffice here
to mention the prominent examples of the various kinds, such as :
Chamber Music Martucci, Schultze, etc.
Symphonies Beethoven by Liszt, Brahms by Reger (Sim.)
and by Klengel (Sim.).
Overtures Tannhduser by Liszt.
Orchestral Suites Tschalkowsky's Casse-Noisette (Bos.),
- German's Gipsy Suite (Nov.) and Cowen's Old English
Suite (Nov.).
Concert Schubert's Marches by Tausig and Liszt ; Schubert's
Waltzes by Liszt ; Weber by Godowsky.
Older Piano Works Scarlatti, etc., by Sandor Laszlo (Brd.),
Opera Extracts Schubert's Rosamunde by Fischoff ; Gluck's
Gawtie by Brahms.
Classic. Transcriptions Early tlassic Masters, trans, by
A. M. Henderson (B. & F.).
216 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Songs Schubert, Mendelssohn, etc., by Liszt, Heller etc.
Operatic Wagner by Liszt, Brassin's Wagner Fire Music,
JaelTs Wagner Preislied, etc.
Solos as Duets Weber by Kleinmichel, Cramer by Henselt.
Two Pianos Most Concertos ; Philipp's Organ Transcriptions.
The Transcriptions of orchestral compositions made by the
composers themselves stand out as a special class, e.g., those by
A. Ricci Signorini (C. and J.) of his musical poems, II Viaggio
di Maria Egiziana, La Caccia di Veruccio, Papiol, Troll, Dafne e
Cloe, Guida di Kerioth, and the Suite Stati d'Anima. In these
interesting orchestral works we may see the modern im
pressionist with his striking harmonic colouring after the
manner of Debussy.
MODERN SUITES
The old Dance forms are still cultivated by modern composers
in Suite form, though perhaps not so much is made of these
interesting old movements as might be. A fine Suite by Martin
Grabert, Op. 15 (S. and H.) and attractive ones by D'Albert,
Op. i ; Reinecke, Op. 197; Longo, Op. 13 and 31; Falconi, Op. 26;
Sinding, B. Godard, P. Lacombe, D. Fleuret, Niemann (Lit.) ,
Hoth, Op. 6 (R.); Ferd. Hummel (four hands) (J.), A. Backer
Grondahl, J. A. Hagg and Smith-Hald. (Op. 5) (F.F.) ; should
be mentioned.
The word Suite is also applied to collections of Pieces of
various kinds; some of which, like those of Raff, resemble
partly the old Suites. His Op. 91 has a Fantasia and Fugue,
Gigue, Cavatina and March. Other examples are Reinecke,
Op. 157, Hiller, Op. 144, and Briill, 2nd Suite. Those by
Bargiel and Schytte make some use of Sonata form. There are
Suites also of Modern Dances (Gurlitt), of National Dances or
pieces (African Suite, Coleridge-Taylor ; Suites Italiennes, Voile
de Paz) and of poetical Pieces, such as Raff's Suite for Small
Hands and other Suites by Esposito, Op. 34 ; Whiting's Op. 15 ;
York Bowen's, Hoffmann's Ballet-Suite (Un.) and Goldner's
Four-hand Suites. Of Suites for two pianos there are fine
examples by Arensky, Longo and Rachmaninoff.
INDEFINITE FORMS
The words Prelude and Introduction have the same general
meaning. In pianoforte music, however, an Introduction is
TRANSCRIPTIONS, PRELUDES, ETC. 217
generally understood as being of a grave, dignified character
practically formless and is used to lead the way in a set
composition like a Sonata. The Prelude, on the other hand,
is usually a separate composition, often in more or less definite
form and worked out, like the Etude, on some particular
technical figure. The Prelude, however, varies much in style
(see specially Part IV, Chapter VI). The Preludes of Bach,
often written in imitative style, differ from the poetical but
mixed Preludes of Chopin, many of which are purely in Etude
style ; while these again differ from the perfect little works of
Heller. The Modern Toccata is practically an elaborated Elude,
and is developed like the Prelude on some particular figure,
but written more in bravura style. Besides the Augener
Collection, with examples of dementi, Pollini, Onslow, Czerny,
Mayer and Schumann, there are notable examples by Bennett,
Leschetitzky, Stanford, O'Leary, Alb. Jonas and Wm. Mason.
The Old Toccata form, exemplified in compositions by Bach
and Rheinberger, is written in free fugal style.
The Caprice, Scherzo, Impromptu and the modern Fantasia
resemble each other in indefiniteness of form, but can be
distinguished as a rule by the style or mode in which they are
written. One has only to compare the dainty and fairy-like
Capriccios of Mendelssohn with the more robust and energetic,
yet playful, Scherzos -of Beethoven to discern the difference
between the two generally. The running figuration usually
developed, as it were, unpremeditatively, as a certain
accompaniments! bass, is characteristic of the Impromptus of
Chopin and Schubert, while we distinguish the Fantasias of
Mozart, Schumann and Mendelssohn by their more pretentious
style. The Fantasia, it should be noted, is written (i) on an
original Theme like those mentioned, or (2) on popular airs, as in
Moscheles' composition on Irish Airs (Ash), in which, at the
close, two airs are worked in together at the same time.
As illustrating differences in form, some movements in
Mendelssohn's Fantasias are more or less in Sonata form, while
those of Liszt and Thalberg are practically potpourris.
The Intermezzo generally a middle movement is very
indefinite in form. It is used by Schumann, in the Novelettes,
in the sense of a Trio or Episode.
Q
CHAPTER XXVII
SALON MUSIC
THE difference between the best Salon music and good music of
the Romantic type is often difficult to define. Equally difficult
is it to show in what the essence of Salon music consists.
Admittedly it is not of the highest type, intellectually speaking,
nor, on the other hand, is it necessarily shallow. Salon music
may serve its purpose to while away a leisure hour, though it
may not elevate.
Music, like literature and the other arts, is many-sided.
Recreation, study, amusement, and elevation of the emotions
are some of the various aspects, so that if we speak of Salon
music as recreative in the best sense we shall not be far from
the truth. In our selection here made we shall, of course, treat
only of the best.
Since the ideas of various nationalities differ as to what
constitutes amusement or recreation, we must expect to find
different national ideals of Salon music. German Salon music
often reminds one of the open-air Tyrolean Lied and the Zither-
klang; but French Salon music is of the real atmosphere of the
Salon, with its Sentimental Valse and showy, brilliant style.
Austrian Vienna, with its Strauss Valse atmosphere, also
believes in a light style ; while hustling America is devoted to
the energetic Quick-step March. Other nations, again, have
founded their styles, more or less, on the foregoing.
The principal defect in Salon music is its harmonic aspect,
which, in many compositions, hovers perpetually between tonic
ajid dominant ; and to this may be added a shallow sameness
of technique which is often flippant in style.
Concerning deficiencies in general, we all know the sentimental
uninspired Valse d la Chopin, the piece with left-hand melody
and very much repeated arpeggio in the right-hand above ;
218
SALON MUSIC 219
as well as the threadbare melody of the Galop de Salon and the
snippety Mazurka, with snatches of melody interspersed by
sudden runs and arpeggios.
The best Salon music is, however, not devoid of poetry and
romantic feeling. It may likewise, perhaps, be brilliant but
not shallow ; while it may also be valuable from the educational
point of view.
We may now direct attention to the best composers coming
under this head, at the same time mentioning representative
works by each.
GERMAN COMPOSERS
Charles Godard writes in elegant French style, educational
and melodious, Op. 109, 116, 140-1 (R.F.). Nurnberg, similar
style (Comp. No. i, 3, 9, n (R.F.). Gustave Lange, well-
known works in expressive style : Blumenlied, etc., also Op. 218
and 219 (Frs.). H. Wenzel, light and pleasing educational
works: Op. 21, 85, 287, 258 (Portius). Ganschals, similar
style, mostly in octaves ; also with bell and zither effects,
Op. 346 (R.F.), Op. 80 (Portius). Bohms writes in popular and
varied style four Pieces (Hammond; also Schott), F. Behr
(known also as Wm. Cooper, Chas. Morley, Fr. D'Orso) is
energetic and tuneful, Op. 406, 626 (R.F.), Gitanelle (St. Lucas),
Pomponette (D'Orso) (Schott). Carl Hein is light and pleasing,
Op. 239, 147 (R.F.), but lacks harmonic variety. F. Baumf elder,
best in slow movements, Op. 192, 28 (Hof.). Schiffmacher,
shows influence of Schubert and Chopin, Op. 95 and 53
(Choudens), Aletter and Translateur, piquant Dance movements
(Bos.). Hans Mayer, poetic and modern style (Bos.). Winter-
berger is contemplative and artistic, Op. 80, 81 and 84 (J.S.).
Goldner, refined style, Op. 47 (F.S. jr.). Griitzmacher, brilliant
and well written, Op. 17, 21, 55 (Kahnt). Goldbeck, superior
romantic style, also Lisztian technique, Op. 51, 47, 44, 52 (J.S.).
Handrock is the German Sydney Smith, Op. 39, 41, 42 and 57
(Kahnt). Von Walden, idyllic, Op. 61, 84 (Zm.). Golde,
refined, Op. 62 (Ch.). Fr. Kirchner, prolific educational works,
some well written. Oesten, best in Operatic Fantasias, Salon,
Op. 75 (Gl. R.). Jos. Low, better educational style, Op. 372,
360 (Fischer). K. Kolling, educational, Op. 303 (Cranz).
Val. Armand, fresh and interesting, Op. 63, 62, etc. (R.F.).
220 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Jungmann, poetic but unequal style, Op. 29, 31 (Bos.) (Lit. Alb.).
Wollenhaupt, settled in New York and died there ; vigorous,
rhythmical and melodious, The Gazelle, Le Ruisseau and others
are good practice (two vols. Kahnt, Lit. Alb. and Aug. Selection).
Louis Kohler (the Etude-writer), interesting and brilliant,
Op, 54, 55, etc. (J.S.). Ch. Voss, technically interesting, Op. 95,
161 (Joubert), ist Valse (Ash), Abesser, concert style, Op. 38,
87 (Kahnt). Gutman, the friend of Chopin, Op. 39 and 8, in
romantic style. W. Kriiger, the romantic Harpe Ossianique
(Brandus) and Polonaise Bolero. Braungardt, favourite W aides-
rauschen (Foetisch) . Zumpe, Brinkman, Acton, write in senti
mental style. Fesca (Lit. Alb.), technically interesting only.
Jos. Ascher (Alb. Lit.), effective, though superficial in melody
and harmony, Fanfare Militaire, Mazurka des Tra ncaux, etc.
De Grau, light, brilliant ; Pluie de Corail, etc. Aug. Nolck,
refined, educational, Op. 58, etc. (Aug.). Espen (Eul.) and
Blattermann (Bos.), attractive, easy ed. pieces. St. Essipoff,
prolific writer (real name Burnand), refined elegant style,
Op. 17 (4), Leonard, etc., etc. Blumenthal (b. 1829, settled in
London), melodious; La Source, Le D&vouemcnt (Ash), Chant
de Cygne (Chappell). Oscar Strauss, fresh and light, Harle
quinade (Ch.). Gustave Merkel, some good Salon music,
Waltzes, Op, 95, etc. D. Krug, prolific composer, Op. 285
(Siegel). Fritz Spindler, well- written and tuneful easy Pieces
(Leonard, Albums Lit. and Nov.). Jaell, graceful romantic
works, La Sylpbide, Le Carillon (Scuff) . Franz Bendel (1833-74 ;
Bohemian), wrote in good style ; La Cascade (Aug.), La Gondola
(Album Lit.), Souvenir de Prague, etc.
The modern French School shows more of the real atmo
sphere of the Salons, and French composers show the influence
of Chopin where the German School leans to Hummel and
the Tyrolean Lied.
J. Leybach (b. 1817 in Alsace) shows brilliancy and elegance ;
ist and 2nd Boleros, Les Vendangeurs (Schott), Puritani
Fantasia (Bos.). Ch. Delioux (b. 1830) superior style, well-
written and effective; Caprice Nocturne (Benoit), Op. 27, 82
and 3 (Choudens), Les Bohemiens, Les Matelots (Gregh), Carnavai
Espagnol and Mandoline (Schott), Louis Brasson (1836-84),
German style, interesting; Op. 17 (Schott) and Barcarolle
(Kahnt). Al. Goria (1823-60), artistic works ; Chopinesque
ist Caprice Nocturne, interesting Op. 19, and ist four of six
SALON MUSIC 221
Etudes de Salon (Choudens). Kowalski (b. 1841), refined,
modern harmonies ; 2nd JEJldgie, Danse des Dryades (Schott},
Op. 89, 87, 93 and 30 (Sulzbach). F. Lemaire, Op. 29 and 54
(Lemoine) and V. Dolmetsch (Leduc), piquant Ballet music.
Paul Wachs (b. 1851), light but spontaneous and artistic;
Balkrine (Leduc), Madrilena and Rose du Poete (Laudy),
Gabriel Marie, sincere and artistic ; Tendre (Eil (Bos.), Im
promptu Valse (Costellat). Ernest Gillet, light, refined Pieces ;
Le Rouet (Album Cranz, Bos.). Ed. Chavagnat, delicate and
piquant ; Le Sylphe (Hamelle), Les Ailes (Gregh). E. Anthoine
(b. 1836), elegant Pieces (Leduc). The compositions of A.
Elterlen, Op. 21-4 (Clot Fils), Gast. Lemaire, 21 and 26 (Cranz),
P. Rougnon, Op. 122 (HameUe), F. Gamier (Ash) and E. Nollet,
Op. 31 (Ash), are more Teutonic in style. C. Neustadt (b. 1838),
elegant educ. works (Hammond). G. Bachmann (1848-98),
very light, brilliant Pieces, but better style in Chanson Legende,
Chanson des Bois (Clot Fils). Lebierre, brilliant; Tarantelk,
Op. 62 (Schott) . A. Tellier, very tuneful but light Pieces (Bos.) .
A. Laudry, elegant; Op. 212, etc. (Leduc). Louis Gregh,
light and piquant , Papillon, Les Spirales, etc. The brilliant
Le Reveil (Schott) of Godefroid, useful Etude L* Arabesque by
Brisson, Concert-Etudes of Goria and Spinnlied of Litolff also
deserve mention.
The Swiss Raff (Polka Glissando) and Gastone Bernheimer,
original Op. 10 and 12 (Schott) ; Gayrhos, Op. 48 and 49
(Foetisch) ; Lysberg, in his refined La Fontaine, Balladine
(Aug.), Op. 48, 94 (Hof.) ; Fr. Hitz, light Romances (Leduc) ;
the Russian Meyer Helmund, pretty sentimental pieces (Laudy),
and pieces by F. Borowski (Laudy) are also attractive.
ENGLISH SALON Music
The Irishman, Wm. V. Wallace, composer of Maritana, etc.,
wrote a good deal of piano music in somewhat commonplace
style. The Polkas de Concert and Paganini Hexentanz are still
heard.
Brinley Richards (a Welshman), wrote melodious and
transparent pieces (four vols. Hofmeister) which were once very
popular. The Salon works of Ed. Harmston's composition
(Coll. St. Ed.) are clear and melodious ; they are much occupied
with Alpine bells, zither, harp and bird effects. The above
222 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
three writers are better known on the Continent than here.
S. B. Mills (1838-98), who settled in America, contributed some
very well written and attractive pieces : Tarantellas, Recollec
tions of Home (Paul), etc. Ed. Cutler's works are characterized
by harmonic and melodic freshness (Op. 28, 31, 33, etc. ;
Brauer).
Sydney Smith's (1839-89) music is always brilliant and
effective. The Harpe Eolienne, Jet d'Eau, Pas Redouble (Ash),
ArUquin (Aschenberg) are instances ; and his well-written
Operatic Transcriptions and easy Pieces (under the nom-de-plume
of Paul Beaumont) are interesting.
George Aitken has written piquant Ballet music, Les Svlphes
(Schott) in French style.
" Anton Strelezki " (cousin of Sir Francis Burnand, writing
also under the name of Essipofi), is well known. His Salon
pieces such as La Car ess ante (Ditson), La Fileuse (Vincent) and
La Coquette (Ash) are cast in refined, romantic mould.
The elegant pieces of the Dutch Van Westerhout, Sieveking,
Hageman and P. Raina should not be forgotten.
Belgian Salon music is mostly in very light style. J. L.
Gobbaerts (1835-86) wrote over 1,200 pieces, many of them
educational, under the nom-de-plumes of Streabog, Ludovic and
Levi; most are now out of date; L'Hirondelle (Bos.).
Van Gael, superior, well- written and effective ; Air de Ballet,
' Op. 39 (Jennings), Op. 15, 28 (Katto). C. de Wulf, Op. 17, 18
(Katto) are in similar style. A. D'Haenens, brilliant and
graceful, Op. 56, 20 (Gregh), Op. n (Maison Beethoven), Op. g
(Katto). Justin Clerice, elegant and distinguished; Serenade,
etc. (Cranz). Dupont, well written; Chanson Hongroise and
Gavotte (Schott). Gustave Katto, melodious and fresh Bergerie,
Valse Caprice, etc. (Katto). Alex Ermel, piquant and varied
Airs de Balkt (Bertram). Hy. Weyts, tuneful Serenade and
works by Marius Carman (Cranz) should be noted.
Alfonso Cipollone is known for his clear and melodious pieces
(Cranz, etc.). R. Sudessi is equally attractive. Tito Mattei
(settled in London) well-known composer in brilliant style.
Melodious and effective ; Le TourUllon, the well-known Waltz
Une Perle, L'Aimant, etc. (Ash). A. Sartorio, refined Pieces;
Hortensia (S. and H.) and J. Romano, Pieces in lyrical style.
Czibulka (Album Bos. and Op. 230, R.F.) writes mostly in
light Viennese style. The Pole De Konkski, who settled in
SALON MUSIC 223
Paris, writes effective works but limited in capacity; the
realistic Reveil du Lion and Grande Polonaise (Schott) . Hustling
America does not yet, apparently, revel in the luxuriant
atmosphere of Salon music. The compositions of the Creole
Gottschalk (b. New Orleans), who studied in Paris under Halle
and toured extensively as a virtuoso, are of a refined sentimental
style ; The Last Hope, La Jeunesse and other pieces are well
known. Wm. Mason's Silberquelle and Op. 20 (Schirmer) and
W. G. Smith's refined and well-written Op. 87 (Schirmer)
claim mention.
The following are refined Salon works : St. Essipoff, Alia
Minuetto ; Frederick Co wen, Polka Gracieuse ; Fr. Mullen,
Air de Ballet; Hubert Bath, Miranda; Reg. King, Cynthia;
GL Hope, Graceful Dance; Ivy Herbert, Danse de Ballet (all
Joseph Williams).
PART IV
THE ERA OF NATIONAL MUSIC
CHAPTER I
NATIONAL MUSIC
" Listen attentively to aH folk-songs ; these are a treasure of lovely
melodies and will teach you the character of different nations/' Schumann.
NATIONAL music represents " what is composed in the peculiar
taste of the nation to whom it appertains, and appeals more
powerfully than other music to the feelings of that nation."
To obtain this music in all its purity we have to go back to the
traditional Folk-Songs and Dance-Tunes obtaining among the
people of the rural districts. Its characteristics vary according
to the influence of climate and scenery, and, more directly,
according to the particular instruments and form of scale in use.
We note, for instance, the frequent use of augmented intervals
in Polish and Eastern music and their presence in Chopin's
Mazurkas and in the music of Mendelssohn, who was of Jewish
descent.
Haydn was probably the first composer of note to make use
of national idioms, displaying, as he does, the characteristics of
Croatian folk melodies in much of his music (Hadow, Haydn as
a Croatian Composer). The use of strongly-marked rhythm is
also a distinguishing feature, and especially developed in Magyar
(Hungarian) and in Spanish music.
The general tendency of all music for the last century and a
half until recent years has been to follow that of German
composers. Previous to that, however, Italy obtained the lead,
though England had more or less of a National School, especially
in mpsic for the virginal and in vocal music, before the arrival
of Handel with the Italian Opera.
Nd^r, however, different nations, led by Norway, Sweden and
Hungary, are encouraging their own particular cult to the
undoubted enrichment of musical art. The martial glamour
and melancholy of the Pole, the vigorous rhythms and breezy
airs of Ifae Scandinavian, the grace and piquancy of the French,
the sunny voluptuousness of Italy, the philosophic German, the
227
228 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Hungarian with his wild gipsy rhythms, the stately Spaniard in
his march-like Bolero, the curiously morbid, half-Eastern, half-
Norse characteristics of Holy Russia, and lastly, the frank,
easy-going character and spasmodical features of the Composite
Anglo-Dano-Celtic-Saxon are all truly mirrored in the pianoforte
music of the various nationalities.
An interesting problem will have to be considered when the
musical art culture of the Eastern and black races takes root.
Already we have by Coleridge Taylor the son of an African
negro doctor, educated in England highly interesting and
artistic works pervaded by appropriate tone-colour and rhythms.
Possibly the Japanese may next appear on the musical
horizon. Who can tell? Schumann's words, written at the
dawn of the national movement, must indeed appear to us as
prophetically inspired. He says, " Until now we have had
three principal schools of music Italian, French and German.
How will it be when other nations step in, even from
Patagonia ? "
The term Slavonic is generally applied to the Polish, Bohemian,
Russian and Hungarian peoples. Of these the national musical
style of each is quite individual and distinctive. We shall
treat of the pianoforte music of each of these nationalities in
succession.
Polish national music, like that of Hungary, is distinguished
by its use of augmented intervals and accented weak beats as
well as by varying length of phrase and of tempo. These common
Characteristics are partly owing to gipsy influence. Before
treating of the music of Chopin, the leading Polish composer,
we may mention Collections in which the characteristics of
Polish music may be studied. These may be seen in the
four-hand melodies, RuAeniennes, and Op. 31 and 23 (Aug.) of
KoskowsM (b. 1848), in the Schoumkas Ukrainiennes by
Z&wadski (Eberle), in Noskowski's Cracoviennes (K.) and in
Statkowski's Polonica Album (Obereks, Krakowiaks, Mazurkas)
(R. and E.) ; also in the twelve Slavish folk melodies by E. I.
Wolf (S.D.) and in the Slavonic Dances (Laudy) of Zawadski.
If should be noted that the Polish Mazurka and Polonaise have
fecce common property of all nations.
CHAPTER II
CHOPIN (1810-49) AND THE POLISH SCHOOL
" In every piece we find, in his own refined hand, written on pearls :
' This is by Frederic Chopin/ " Schumann.
THE position of Poland, as a kingdom bordered on all sides by
more powerful neighbours, favoured, in days of old, the
prevalence of internecine wars and strife. This state of affairs
did not encourage the best interests of the art. The cause of
music, however, improved very much in the reigns of the
Kings of Saxony (1697-1763) as Kings of Poland, and Polish
music began to be much heard. The national opera a sign
of national interest in music, as in the similar case of Bohemia
was inaugurated in 1778, and from that time, though reared in
times of terror and military oppression, the cause of Polish
music went forward.
Frederic Chopin, the son of Nicolas Chopin a teacher of the
French language and himself of partial French extraction was
born near Warsaw in 1810.
Frederic's mother was a Polish lady, Justina Kryzanowska.
Frederic's father having established a school in Warsaw which
was patronized by the Polish nobility, young Frederic, as a
prodigy, was made much of by his proteges.
At the age of eight, as a pupil of Eisner and Zwyny, young
Chopin made his d6but in the aristocratic salons of Warsaw.
He entered the Warsaw Lyceum when fourteen, but meanwhile
did not forget his composition and practice. At this time
he had the honour of extemporizing before the Emperor
Alexander and of seeing his Op. i (1825), a Rondo in C minor,
in all the glory of print. Leaving the Lyceum in 1827, he had,
by the autumn, already written Three Polonaises, Op. 7 in
individual style, the xst Nocturne, showing the simple lyrical
style of Field, the interesting but somewhat immature Sonata$ t
and the Rondo for Two Pianos.
229
230 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
By 1830 appeared the La ci darem Variations (written five
years before) which Schumann, as critic, hailed with the
exclamation, " Hats of, gentlemen ! A genius ! " Two other
early works were written when eighteen years of age, and are
of special interest the nationalistic Fantasia of Polish Airs and
the Krakowiak, Op. 14 with their original " loose-textured,
wide-meshed " and " serpentine " technique. Chopin, mean
while, had begun his travels. First to Berlin, then to Vienna,
Prague, Dresden, etc., he went, giving concerts and becoming
acquainted with several celebrities, as well as earning the
highest encomiums as a performer, though while in Vienna his
" modest " and " feebleness of tone " was commented on. The
fatter he excused by saying, " this is my manner of playing which
pleases the ladies so much." It is interesting to note that at
this time these early Polish works referred to later met with
appreciation and drew forth this side-reference to Polish music :
M There is something in the Slavonic songs which almost never
fails in its effect, the cause of which, however, is difficult to
explain, for it is not only the rhythm and the quick change
from minor to major which produces the charm/'
Other important compositions were now written, but the next
principal event in Chopin's life was his arrival in the congenial
sphere of Paris a city then swarming with Polish refugees
where he soon made a host of friends, among whom were Liszt,
Berlioz, Heine, Ernst, and others. Kalkbrenner, then at the
height of his fame, as a teacher was applied to for lessons, but
no arrangement was come to.
Chopin's first Concert in Paris took place in the spring of
1832, and he shortly found himself much sought after both as a
virtuoso and as a teacher. In 1835 occurred a memorable visit
to Leipzig, where he met Schumann, Mendelssohn and Clara
Wfock. Schumann thus describes Chopin's playing of his Etude
tyt'Afy from the Op. 25. " Imagine an aeolian harp that had all
tfe scales and that they were jumbled together by the hands of
ari artist into all sorts of fantastic ornaments, but in such a
'Banner that a deeper fundamental tone and a softly-singing
fijig&er part were always audible, and you have an approximate
ipea of his playing."
? In 836 Chopin was introduced to " George Sand," the lady
io^efist who has been described on the one hand as a (< coarse-
It>red woman of the world/' and on the other as " a great soul,
CHOPIN AND THE POLISH SCHOOL 231
simple and affectionate/' Her influence on the tone poet has
been much debated. Older than Chopin, she described her
affection for him as " une sorte d'affection maternelle," and for
ten years she acted as a good angel by encouraging him in
work and tending him in times of sickness. In the autumn of
1838 Chopin contracted the disease of consumption after a
severe attack of bronchitis and much of his time had to be
spent in the warmer South, with visits in the concert season to
Paris. Notwithstanding rapidly failing health, he visited
England and Scotland in 1848 and 1849, when he was presented
to Queen Victoria, and gave concerts from which he returned
quite " worn out/'
The end was not far off and in October of the latter year he
passed away and was buried in the Musicians' Corner of the
Pere Lachaise Cemetery in Paris where, sad to relate, his
tomb (in common with others) does not seem to be particularly
well cared for.
For the proper study of Polish music we must look to the
character of the Polish race with its traditions of chivalry, its
courage and pride, love of finery and alternate fits of
enthusiasm and depression.
Polish folk-song, with its hovering 'twixt major and Dorian
mode is distinguished generally by its sense of melancholy, while
the dances of its aristocracy favour somewhat oriental.pomp and
richness of style. It is interesting to note how Chopin, in his
music interprets in spirit all these characteristics, together with
the melodic and rhythmic peculiarities identified with it. The
most characteristic of his compositions in this sense are the
Mazurkas and the Polonaises. The Mazurka, as derived from
the Krakowiak, exists in several different styles martial,'
historical, village, wedding, etc. Reference to the many
examples by Chopin will give an idea of the possible variety
in this art form the playful, pathetic, sad, defiant and
chivalrous emotions are all represented. The usual rhythm is
cm or
The Polonaises also vary very much in character ; the
comparatively early work, Op. 22, for instance, at which the
HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Nocturne character of the Andante Spianato gives the key to the
whole with the exception of the virtuoso episodes which might
have been written for a Concerto. The use of the orchestra
with this composition, though scanty, may have suggested the
Concerto style of treatment.
There are also the explosive one in C# minor with the tender
and pathetic meno mosso ; the one in E\) minor, telling of despair
mingled with thunder and lightning ; the martial pomp and
conflict of the A major and A b major, Op. 13 ; the latter with its
ceaseless energy thundering out the call to arms in the reiterated
bass motive.
On the other hand, the Polonaise Fantasie in A\>, Op. 61,
breathing more of the Fantasia than of the Polonaise, is essen
tially a lyrical composition a song of hope. Possibly the finest
Polonaise is that in F% minor which mirrors in gorgeous tints
the ancient feudal chivalry of Poland. Beginning, as it were,
with stately gathering steps, it ushers in the grand ceremonial
march past the throne prior to the opening of the Court
festivities.
The music, however, soon begins to be expectant of the more
sprightly measures to follow, and the result of this, after harking
back once more to the theme of the stately procession, now
appears in the opening Mazurka. At the conclusion of the
latter, the stately pompous measure once more comes to the
front this time with renewed energy and emphasis until near
the end, when it dies away. Finally, the March Past expires
with an explosive ff on the last note.
Chopin wrote only one Krakowiak an early work and that
also required the orchestra. This dance, originated in Cracovia
and represents a kind of simplified Polonaise, the rhythm of
which runs thus in 2/4 time :
JM j*i j\n //i JM-
In this Krakowiak> Op. 4, and the Op. 13 Fantasia on Polish
Airs for Pianoforte and Orchestra, the hational element is very
strong and scarcely as artistically assimilated as in his later works.
The most popular of Chopin's works, the Waltzes, are indeed
" dance poems " art forms in which the sport of the dance
has been blended with poetry and romance.
CHOPIN AND THE POLISH SCHOOL 233
We may single out the one in A minor, Chopin's own favourite,
the popular one in Z)|? a whirling cloud of butterflies, the
tender despairing C$ minor, the quaintly simple B minor, the
pathetic and meditative F minor, the cheerful one in A\>
(Op. 64, No. 3), and the songlike, conflicting Valse & deux temps ;
the remainder of those best known being of the brilliant type.
Of the universally favourite Studies beautiful from an
aesthetic and indispensable from a technical point of view it
were difficult to speak too enthusiastically (see Chapter XVI),
The Scherzos of Chopin stand by themselves, as do those of
Beethoven and Mendelssohn.
If Beethoven's Scherzis express spirit and true humour, and
Mendelssohn's depict a world of fairies and sprites, those of
Chopin curiously suggest a contradiction (since Scherzo implies
playfulness) and embody passion, caprice and melancholy.
For instance, we note the stormy music of the E\> minor, the
ironic B minor or " life tragedy, 1 ' as it has been called, the
dramatic C# minor, and the elegant and capricious E major.
The Preludes of Chopin are now so esteemed that one or more
of them is rarely absent from the virtuoso's programme.
They have been curiously described by Schumann as
" Sketches, commencements of Studies or, if you will, Ruins,
single eagle wings all mixed together/' and as containing
" morbid, feverish, repellent matter." George Sand accounts
for this minor element by stating her belief that they were
composed during the depressing period of his illness and retreat
to one of the cells of the monastery of Valdemosa, while Prof,
Niecks says they remind him of an artist's portfolio filled with
drawings in all stages of advancement finished and unfinished,
If, however, one makes an analysis of the collection, it is
possible to find some evidences of design on the part of the
composer. We find (i) that the 24 Preludes represent all the
keys in succession, each major being followed not by its tonic
minor, as in Bach's Forty-Eight but by its relative minor key.
(2) (a) That each Prelude has a definite technical aim ; (b) that
none overlaps in this respect or is redundant ; (c) that the length
of each Prelude, considering the size of the technical figure,
is a fairly average one.
(3) That they are, to a certain extent, examples of the bygone
custom of preluding before a certain composition.
(4) that the stated element of morbidity is somewhat
R
234 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
apocryphal there are two rather gloomy items, those in A minor
and E\) minor, and the key of the latter would suggest some such
tone-colour. Very few of the others are pathetic or sad, though
it would be somewhat strange if, out of twelve Preludes in
minor keys, some were not so. Two favourites of the Series
are : the one in Dfy, with its " heaven-sent " melody, and the
" thunder-riven vision/' as it has been termed, of the one in
B\> minor.
As a whole they are full of technical interest. There is the
left-hand 'cello melody of No. 6 ; No. 15 exemplifies the difficult
art of bringing out a two-part song against repeated notes ;
interlacing of hands is shown in No. 17 ; the two-part left-hand
obbligato against the right-hand melody in No, 21, and so on.
Both from a poetical and technical point of view the Preludes
are most valuable. Though in miniature form, their artistic
merit is such that they deserve the closest study.
The unique Impromptus are freer in style. The well-known
ist in A b interprets its name in a natural manner ; it sounds
really like an improvisation.
The F$ major is in similar vein, opening with a two-part
Reverie, or crooning Lullaby ; then martial music approaches
and the knight rides away leaving his lady to sing the lullaby in
a sadder key (F major). Soon, however, the original key
returns, and brighter hopes and gay visions are expressed by a
lovely variation of the original melody.
The Gb Impromptu which, by the way, requires the main
d$os$&e of a Thalberg interprets the languorous gambolling
of a violin and 'cello on a hot summer's day, interrupted here
aukl there by strains of a Polish, chant from a neighbouring
chmrch. The 'cello solo, in the Trio, is very attractive.
Finally, there is the beautiful, emotional P&ntasie~Impromptu
^-one of Chopin's posthumous works a treasure which one
would mot willingly lose.
M .Fantasia in F minor, Op, 49, is one of the very finest
f .Cfcopuou i It reminds one of an elegy on the death of a
Q,- inckidiag memori ei the conflict, stosd&s to honour of tfee
lfei% and a recurring r&quu&c&titi $m&+ The Pmta$ia, far from
-Begfcg stractoreless, displays features of recapitidatioa tnd
fp^i^^tion in tonic and related keys of secondary themes.
Tfiie Nocturnes, next to .the V&ls^ ate perhaps the most
fk>ptdar of Chopin's works. The early Op. 9, No. 3, inspired by
CHOPIN AND THE POLISH SCHOOL 235
Field, the 2nd Op. 55, the ist of Op. 62 and the Op. 22 are
not equal to his better work ; but there is much that is fine,
including the one in G (a duet by song-birds) ; the C minor
Op. 48, No. i, in which we hear a lament, patriot's hymn, and
again the conflict ; and the one in E major, reminding us of a
violin solo, with imitation and a meditative dialogue in the bass.
Of the Rondos, the Op. I and 5 are early, immature works ;
the Op. 16 is a weak imitation of Weber and may be classed with *
those posthumous works which, for the better reputation of the
composer, should have been kept back and not published.
The Ballades are held by some to be the finest of Chopin's
works.
In the first we can imagine a quaint old legend in which the
moving phases are interpreted by dramatic changes of key and
the // climaxes are a joyous song of triumph. No. 2 is a quaint
pastoral romance interspersed with strange unearthly episodes,
No. 3 is a happy and joyous love-song with a Schumannesque
fervour about it. No. 4 has the true legendary atmosphere and
is consistently developed ; it offers little contrasted episode,
but the pastoral effect is thereby enhanced, while the little
touches of imitation, after the manner of Schumann, are
noteworthy. The fresh and vigorous Allegro Ae Concert, Op. 46,
bears every sign of being composed at an early period ; probably
it was revised before being published in 1841.
Much of it is in orchestral style, and shows the influence of
Field, Hummel and Weber; and, from various accounts, it
was probably intended as part of a Concerto.
Quite a contrast to the above is the languorous Barcarolle,
which we may imagine to be a love-song on a summer eve, while
we are always sensible of the gentle rocking of the gondola in
ever-swaying movement, The Berceuse is akin to the Barcarolle,
with its unvarying and undulating soothing burden, upon which
is constructed the lovely duet theme, and which is charmingly
presented in varied form later on. Both partake somewhat of
the character of Nocturnes.
The youthful Bolero, in which the introduction shows some
thing of national colour, is unequal and patchy in style.
The A |? section would appear to be inspired by Field. The
TaranUlle does not display much local colour but is spirited in
styie and effective* It requires great clarity of execution.
We must now refer to Chopin's Concerto (s&e ako Part III,
236 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Chapter XXII). Chopin did not excel in the Sonata form, but
his Concertos, which are in the style of Hummel, are better
worked out, though the necessary scoring for the orchestra
was not a strong point of his. The virtuoso element evidently
appealed to Chopin, but it is in the beautiful lyrical portions
that he is most successful.
As regards Chopin's technique, there is no doubt that he was
much influenced by Bach. Madame Streicher speaks of his
playing to her fourteen Preludes and Fugues by Bach from
memory, and he avowed that he always practised Bach before
appearing in public. Chopin was practically the founder of
modern pianoforte technique. Liszt adorned it and added
fripperies. Schumann and Rubinstein borrowed from him,
while the Russian School is practically built on his style of
technical figuration.
When the aide-de-camp of King Louis Philippe asked Chopin
why he did not compose an opera, he modestly replied, " Ah,
M. le Cointe, let me compose piano music ; it's all I know how
to do/' Chopin's mastery of this branch of the art was
apparently not sufficient, however, for the virtuoso Tausig, who
must needs add fireworks to the piano part of the E minor
Concerto chromatic scales being put into doubled passages
and interlocking octaves introduced for single notes !
As a teacher (most of his pupils were amateurs) Chopin
showed much irritation of manner. He always insisted on
suppleness of hand and easiness of position, with special attention
to five-finger work on the black keys, a singing tone, a supple
wrist for octave work and generally keeping the elbow low.
His originality in fingering involving the frequent use of the
thumb on the black keys was the outcome of the unique
technical style of his compositions.
Liszt explains the tempo rubato, so noted a feature in the
interpretation of Chopin's works, thus : " Look at these trees,
the wind plays in the leaves, stirs up life among them, but the
tree remains the same." The meaning of this is more apparent
in Chopin's own dictum that the rubato should be generally
confined to the melodic part or right hand. He is quoted as
having said : " Let your left hand be your conductor and always
keep time."
In personal appearance Chopin was refined and apparently
of delicate constitution. A finely-cut face, high forehead and
CHOPIN AND THE POLISH SCHOOL 237
thin lips were characteristic features. He was, it appears,
somewhat difficult of access to brother artists, owing, no doubt,
to reserve and shyness, since, according to Liszt, he was most
sociable, especially in the Salons, where he willingly yielded to
the little stratagems to which the fashionable ladies of the day
had recourse in order to get him to play to them.
Chopin, apart from his inauguration of modern pianoforte
technique, and that delightful part of it directly associated with
his name, is to us the pioneer of patriotism in music, that
noblest of all phases of the noblest of arts. From this stand
point alone his name should endure ; and as long as the beautiful
in art stands out pre-eminent, so long will his works remain as a
model for the cult of nationalism in music allied to the
superlatively beautiful.
THE POLISH SCHOOL
The leading Polish composer of the present day is Xaver
Scharwenka (b. 1850), who is resident in Berlin and, apart from
nationality, one of tlie most distinguished composers of piano
forte music. His works are characterized by that dignity and
nobility of style, tinged with romantic sadness, which seems to
be inherent in Polish composers, They are replete with natural
and often inspired melody, virile harmony and a strong sense
of rhythm. His Them& and Variations (Aug.) closely approaches
Mendelssohn's Variations Sirieuses as one of the most masterly
examples of this form. His Polish Dances (Aug.) especially
Nos. i, ro and 19 are famous, as are also the Four Mazurkas,
Polonaise in C$ minor, Tarantella (No. r), Two Minuets, Op. 49
(No, x). We might mention also the massive and brilliant
Minuet, Op, 18 (Aug.), the popular Valse Caprice, Op, 31 and
Vake Impromptu, Op. 30 (P. and M.), the serious NovektUn and
four-movement Romanze (P. and M,) and the attractive and
characteristic four-hand works such as Nordisches (Simon)-
founded on Northern folk-melodies, Pictures from the South
(Aug.), and the Op. 24 (P and M,), the Sonata, Op, 6 and
Ballade, Op, 8, which are worthy of attention.
The works of his brother Philip Scharwenka (b. 1847) are more
cosmopolitan in tone, excelling in the light rhythmical tuneful
style, as, for instance, in the attractive 2nd and 3rd Dance
Caprice, Op. 66, the Dance Impromptu and Sch$nino> Op. 67,
238 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
and the 2nd and 3rd Book of the Duets, Polnische Tanzweisen,
Op. 38 (P. and M.). The interesting Op. 36, Bk. I and Op. 12,
are attractive and in characteristic style.
Jos. Wieniawski, the virtuoso pianist (b. 1837), trained in
Paris, and pupil of Liszt) is known for his fine Ballade, Op. 31
(Cz.), mingling fire with melancholy, dignity with virtuosity of
style. His Barcarolle (Cz.) is remarkable for its characteristic
chromatic harmony, while the original Impromptu (Senff)
virtuoso Polonaises, Op. 13 (Katto), Op. 27 (K.) and the
Mazurkas (Katto) are worthy of note.
Maurice Moskowski (b. 1854 in Breslau and educated in
Germany) is a leading composer. He became known through
his tuneful Duet Spanish Dances, Op. 12 (Simon) and Serenata,
Op. 15. Cosmopolitan as he is in style, it, is through his gift of
melody and a sense of the characteristic element that he has
become popular. Dignified, elegant, always technically effective,
he nevertheless is but rarely inspired. The most distinctive of
his works may be said to be Op. 37 and 41, and the Duets, Op. 43,
55, 65 (Peters), Op. 38 (No. i) (Bos,) and Op. 23 (Aug.). From
the point of view of the budding virtuoso the Op. 34 and 36
(3, 4, 6), Op. 73 (3) (Bos.), Op. 32 (3) (B. and B.), Op. 27 (i)
(Aug.), and Op. 50 (3) are interesting and useful.
An original and gifted composer is Stojowski (b. 1870) (Pupil
of Zelenski and Paderewski), who is settled in New York. His
works are distinctly Polish in character, piquant, fresh and
interesting. The Danscs Humoresques (Aug.) make striking use
of modern harmonic resources. His Mazurkas, Op. 8 (No. 2)
(Scht), No. 3 of the Op. 24 (Peters), Op. 30 (No. 3) (A.P.S.),
and the striking Concerto deserve notice.
The Etudes and Concertos (Scht.) of Jules Zarembski, a
Russian Pole (b. 1854, pupil of Liszt) are full of characteristic
and bizarre effects. His Polish Suite, Op. 16 [Polonaise, Dumka
(Complainte) Mazurka, Cracovienne and Kujawiak] has also
the national element strongly depicted.
The Duet Reverie and Passion and Mazurkas, Op. 4 (Scht.)
are interesting, as well as the Solo Polonaise, Op. 6 (Simon),
Mazurka de Concert (Scht.) and the Duet Danses Galiciennes
(Simon) .
An indefinable charm and melancholy pervades the beautiful
and well-written Mazurka, Op. 20 (No. 2), Serenade, Op. 24 and
the Op. 34 (No. 5) (B. and B.) of A. Zarzycki (b. 1831 in
CHOPIN AND THE POLISH SCHOOL 239
Austrian Poland), his Op. 18 and 19 and Op. 6 being also
noteworthy.
A*.
The works of Th, Leschetitzki (b, 1830 in Austrian Poland
and pupil of Caerny) are not particularly national in style, but
they are technically effective, The Souvenirs d'ltalie (B, and
B.) (Nos. i, 4 and 5) arc interesting and educationally valuable
from the virtuoso standpoint, Nos. 4, 6 and 9 of the Conies de
Jeunesse (B. and B.) and the tudt Caprice, Op. 20 are also
commendable,
Adolf Barjanski, in his nationalistic Op, 7 and n Sonatas
(B, and H.) lacks development but shows good harmonic and
cantabile effects. Jos, Wiclhorski is best in a very pretty
original Nocturne-like 3rd Impromptu (Op. 14) (B, and H.) with
Chopinesque technique,
240 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
The fresh and individual Op. 13 Polonaise and Krakowiak of
St. Niewiadomski, the virtuoso Prelude, Papillon and Variations
(Fr.) of M. Rosenthal, the Cracovienne, Op. 14, No. 6 and
Concerto (B. and B.) of Paderewski, as well as the national
dances of Noskowski, Variations by Mandicewski (Un. Ed.)
and Mazurka, Op. 33 (No. i) (K.) by Czerwenski are interesting.
Jean Nicod6 and Josef Hoffmann, whose compositions are
noted elsewhere, are also of Polish nationality.
Last but not leastshould be mentioned Al. von Fielitz (b. 1860
at Leipzig), a Russian Pole by descent, a graceful writer whose
charming and delicate Nocturne, Op. 5 (Rap.), Op. 22, No. i
(Hus.), Character Pieces, Children of the South and Preludes,
Fantasia, Op. 27 and better-class Salon Pieces, Op. 48 and 49
(B. and H,), are worthy of distinction.
CHAPTER III
MAGYAR PIANOFORTE MUSIC AND THE RHAPSODIES OF LISZT
OF all national music that of Hungary, may be said to be the
most individual.
This individuality arises doubtless from the Oriental origin
of the Huns or Magyars, descended, as they are, from the
Turanian race, which is closely allied to the people of Persia.
It is little more than three centuries ago that the original
Magyar music began to be known generally, and at that time
it is said to have been devoid of the fioritura or ornamental
embroidery since added to it by the gipsies (also of Oriental
origin) who appeared in Hungary about that time.
It is the pride of the Magyar, who abandoned his national art
to the lawless but technically clever gipsy dependents, that is
responsible for the extraordinary individuality of the present-day
music of the Magyar. The gipsy violinists of Hungary play the
Magyar folk-songs and patriotic melodies from memory to the
improvised and highly ornamental accompaniment of the
zimbakn (a kind of dulcimer, four octaves in compass), making
their appeal to the sympathies of their patrons with strenuous
zeal and frenetic excitement.
Magyar music may be classified into (t) the Folk-Songs;
(2) National Dances ; (3) the HMgatok (" to listen to ") music
a Rhapsody of both song and dance, and, as such, forming the
model for the Rhapsodies of Liszt and others, No special form
is used in the latter.
The characteristic of Magyar music, with its abrupt rhythms
and bold changes of key, are exemplified in the Csavda$ t a Dance
fora* which is usually ushered in by a sad and pathetic Lassan
movement succeeded by, or alternating with, the wild im
passioned Friska. It may be said that the national Hungarian
motto, " Weepingly Rejoices the Magyar/' interprets, in a
manner, the alternate pathetic and fiery movements so
characteristic of its music.
241
242 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
The strange harmonic features of Magyar music are occasioned
by the use of the sharpened 4th in addition to the notes of the
harmonic minor scale. The rhythmical features lie in the
periods of varying length, in the practically invariable 2/4 or
4/4 time in which it is written, and the frequent occurrence of
syncopation, i.e., of strong accents placed on naturally weak
beats, as in the following Example :
Regarding Hungarian music in general*, the following are
some who have done much to give it prominence in the art world.
Cornelius Abranyi (1822-1903), pupil of Kalkbrenner and
Chopin. As essayist, critic and historian, Abranyi did much to
further the national art. His style in composition, however,
shows a blend of the Magyar with the prevailing type. His
Rhapsodies, Sonata and four-hand Palotas Dances may be
mentioned. Charles Agghazy (b. 1855), a pupil of Liszt and
Volkrnan. His numerous piano compositions are very attrac
tive, the poetical pieces being quite national in style. They
include the Soirfos Hongroises, Fantasies tucke, Impromptus,
four-hand Hungarian Suite and Poems. Geza Allaga (b. 1841)
has written much for the zimbalon, also Rhapsodies and Salon
Pieces for the piano. Stephen Bartalus (b. 1821), critic and
historian of Magyar music, Variations for Piano. Ed. Bartay
(1825-91) wrote Salon and orchestral music. B61a Brt6k,
rising composer of rhapsodies, a very characteristic Rhapsodie
for Orchestra and Piano (Roz.), etc. Alex, Bertha (b. 1843) (lives
in Paris), National Dances and Rhapsodies. Kilmkn Chovdn
(b. 1852), Head of Training School of Music of Vienna ; well-
written and attractive Pieces in national and poetic style.
Francis Gaai (b. 1860), somewhat cosmopolitan Rhapsodies and
poetical works. Henri Gobbi (b. 1842), shows the influence of
Liszt in his Transcriptions of classic works for two pianos, the
Hungarian Suites and smaller pieces. Gyula Kaldy (iSsS-xgoi) ,
editor of Collections of National Music. Gyula ]. Major (b. 1859),
a leading composer, pupil of Erkel and Volkmann ; known for
* Information for this section was expressly supplied by the Principal
of the Royal Academy of Music, Budapest,
MAGYAR PIANOFORTE MUSIC 243
his striking Concerto, Magyar Sonata, Rhapsodies, etc. Michel
Mosonyi (1814-70), Rhapsodies and Transcriptions. Anthony
Liposs (b. 1839), miscellaneous Pieces in national style. Imre
Szekely (1823-87), eminent pianist, lived some years in London ;
effective Rhapsodies (40), Preludes and Fugues and Salon Music.
A. Szendy (b. 1863), distinguished performer, pupil of Liszt ;
Sonatas and Rhapsodies. Charles Them (1817-86), artistic
romantic pieces and Rhapsodies. L. Zimay (1833-1900),
characteristic pieces in national style. Smaller Pieces by
Lamzi (b. 1861). The names of Ed. Mihalovich (b. 1865),
Head of the R.A.M. at Budapest, and of Ed. Farkas and V.
Herzfeld should also be mentioned.
Hungarian Music in general may be divided into :
(1) " Original " Hungarian Dances and Airs.
(2) Compositions (Rhapsodies, Paraphrases, Fantasias, etc.)
" built upon " Magyar Themes.
(3) Works showing " influence of " Hungarian style,
(4) Works in " Cosmopolitan" style by Hungarian
composers.
(i) Treating of the original Folk-songs and Dances, we may
mention the Historical Collection made by Julius (Gyula) Kaldy
(Roz.) ranging from 1672 to 1838 and comprising the
compositions of Czinka, Lavotta, Bihari, Czermak, Boka,
Markus Rozsavolgyi and Szerdahelyi Another, edited by Ede
Bartay (Roz,) contains compositions by Gyorgy, Bihari,
Czermak, Labotta, and Rozsavolgyi. Then there is also the
well-known Collection by Keler B61a (Andr6, Roz,) ; B61a
himself having written many tuneful pieces in cosmopolitan
style.
We may also mention Magy Zoltan's collection of Czardas,
mostly original (Roz,) ; the Exhibition Album of 1885 (Roz.),
containing works of various classes ; the popular arrangement
by Brahms for four hands (and later for two), of well-known
Hungarian Dances (Simrock), and the Collection by Schwalm
(St.) for two and four hands* The Carpathian Dances (Augener)
from the border range 'twixt Austrian Poland and Hungary
show little of the real Hungarian element, while the Ungariscfo
Weisen (S. and H.) contain an example apparently taken from
the Styrian border.
244 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
(2) Of compositions built on Hungarian Airs we may
particularize a very florid and effective is* Fantasia, Op. 25,
the jth Abrdnd or Rhapsody and the simpler Bucsuhangok by
E. Szekely ; the Fantasie Eongroise by Polonyi, Op. 14 ; the
brilliant Rhapsody, Op. 28 by L. Zimay, and a short Rhapsody
by Ig. Mihaly a good specimen of the florid ornamentation
used. Also the Magyar Serenade by G. Allega and A Merengo
by J. Kirch. Carl Them has a Fantasie (in Variation form),
Op. 68, on two Hungarian Songs and an artistic and interesting
Rhapsody, Hegy Algah (all Roz.). The well-written Melodies
Tziganes of Ed. Potzes (Kt.) show the zimbalon effects.
The Op. ii of C. Agghazy gives very able and interesting
presentations of the Palotas (Court Dance), Tobozzo and
Munkdcsy Nota Dances (Kn.) ; and the Studies, in Hungarian
style of M. Mosonyi give a good idea of the genuine gipsy
fioritura (Roz.). The Rhapsodies Hongroises (Schott) of
F. Korbay are very characteristic and in true rhapsodic style
full of varying rhythms, fitful changes of tempo and style, as
are also the four Morceaux of B&a Bdrt6k (Brd.). The artistic
Kleine Rhapsodien and Phantasiestucke (Kn.) of C. Agghazy
likewise give much of the jingle of the dulcimer mingled with the
flourish of the violin ; while of the short characteristic Hungarian
Intermezzi and Improvisations of Vavrinecz (J.S.), No. 4 of the
former shows the extraordinary harmonic and melodic effects
which are possible in the Hungarian mode.
(3) Of works showing Hungarian influence we have the
harmonically attractive and well-written In den Csardas for
four hands and the poetical Hungarian Pictures, Op. 5 (Doblinger)
by Kdlm&n Chovdn.
Gold-mark's Magyar Fantasia in B and the Op. 12 (Duet) are
developed on conventional lines, while the well-written
Hateredeii, a series of Tone Poems by K. Abranyi, show a blend
of Magyar and cosmopolitan styles. A series of Tone Poems by
Gobbi, a Zenek Ctemeny by Al. Juhaz, Ellentetek by Major,
Vigasztalo Hosi atagya by Agghazzi and Sello by Atilla Horvath
are developed from more or less conventional Themes.
(4) Of works by Magyar composers in Cosmopolitan style, we
may mention the freshly-written four-handed Bagatelles and
Batcs<?dai>y Fr. Gaal, as well as his Sixth Rhapsody, from which
^e miss the tremolo passages, repeated notes and florid ornamen
tation of the true Magyar Rhapsody. Also there are the so-
MAGYAR PIANOFORTE MUSIC 245
called Hungarian Sketches of Volkmann, who settled in Hungary,
and the Pastorale, Op, 17, of Chovn, which shows effective and
pleasing imitation. The following also are Hungarian composers
whose compositions in the prevailing Germanic style may be
touched upon. The ultra modern virtuoso Dohnanyi (b. 1877)
and Szanto, both write in the elaborated modern style. A
masterly Passacaglia (Db.), a characteristic Concerto and a
well-written Suite in the ancient style (Simrock) by the former,
and a rhapsodical but suggestive Dramatic Elegy (Kn.) by the
latter deserve attention. Carl Goldmark (b. 1832) has achieved
distinction by his successful Concerto, Characteristic Pieces and
Four-Hand Op. 12. In attractive romantic style we have the
well-known Staccato Caprice of Max Vogrich (b. 1852) ; settled
in New York), together with his meritorious Romancero and
Valse Brillante (Sr.), also the useful Studies of Joseffy (b. 1853)
and Ed. Wolff (1816-80). The agreeable educational Salon
(Op. 34 (i) (B.S.), Op. 60 (Brd.), Op. 63 (2) (Aug.) of Geza
Horvath and Pieces of Louis Toth (Brd,) are commendable,
while we may mention the representative Ballade of Adler (Sf.),
Nocturnes by C. Abranyi (Kn,), the Op. 20 (Hf.) of Attila
Horvath, the pleasant Chopinesque Op, 15 and 19 (By.) of
Stephany, the attractive Habanera (Ld.) of Ketten, the refined
and fresh Valse Op, 9 (2), Mazurka, Op. 12 (Aug.), and original
Impromptus and Nocturnes of Jimbor (Aug,) and an im
pressionist Op. 7 of Rubin Goldmark (Dt).
We have left the Rhapsodies of Liszt, as the most prominent of
all Hungarian music, till the last. These effective compositions
present various styles of treatment As a rule a fragment of a
Theme generally a traditional one is worked up as an introduc
tion to the Lassan or slow movement. The latter is sometimes
treated in Sequence, Imitation or Variation form with the addi
tion of short original connecting Themes, The 3rd Rhapsody is,
perhaps, the simplest in form and here the melody appears twice
(each time both in Bass and Treble), followed by ornamental
Fantasia work founded on simple form, containing repeated
notes. The most popular is doubtless the Second, the finest,
perhaps, the Twelfth. In both of these, and in some others, we
find the imitation of the Figura or Trio, which appears in the
Collections of Csardas, a passage written generally in the style
of an Interlude and appearing between the Lassan and the
Priska , This Figura is usually built in somewhat commonplace,
246 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
improvisatory style, and mostly on the chord of the dominant
7th. In the 2nd Rhapsody this begins after the Friska with
" Tempo giusto vivace," and from this quasi-Figura is developed
the rest of the Rhapsody. In the I2th Rhapsody four Themes
are used, and after the appearance of the fourth Theme below
the trill on the A^ various fragments are combined to make up
the Figura work. Finally, the Allegro Zingaresca appears at
the close, with magical effect in the top octave.
In all the Rhapsodies, more or less, will be found the tinkling
zimbalon or quasi-campanella dulcimer effects embodied in the
rapid, repeated notes, passages played by alternate and inter
locking hands, together with the rapid skips and trills that
became such a feature, not only of the Rhapsodies but of Liszt's
most popular Transcriptions and original works. In short, much
of the effectiveness of the new technique, as inspired by Liszt,
must have been suggested by the attempts to reproduce the
music of the Magyar.
Other technical features appearing are the cataracts of
octaves in the bass ; showers of pearly Cadenzas in the treble
and other highly pianistic devices.
It should be mentioned that portions of the Rhapsodies were
originally brought out as Hungarian Melodies. Ten sets of
these, entitled Melodies Hongroises, date from 1839 to 1847 ;
the 15 Rhapsodies appeared some six years later. We should
not forget the interesting Transcriptions of Hungarian Songs
appearing in Liszt's Bilder aus Ungarn,
Finally, it must be remembered that Hungarian music has
had some influence on the Great Masters, as may be seen in the
Gipsy Rondo of Haydn and in some of his Symphonies, in
Brahms, and, above all, in Schubert's Duet works and the
Divertissement d la Hongroise, Op. 54, a version of which was
produced and performed con amore by Liszt in public.
Hungarian influence is also prominent in works by Heller and
Biany other composers.
CHAPTER IV
MUSIC IN BOHEMIA
THE appearance of Bohemia upon the musical horizon of
Europe seems to date from the connection of Mozart in 1787,
with its art centre, Prague, where he wrote Don Giovanni for its
Opera House. The formation of the present National School of
Composers did not commence until some sixty years later, when
Smtana began writing National Opera and Pianoforte works in
the National style.
Previous to this, most works of artistic pretensions by
Bohemian composers had been in the prevailing Germanic style.
The individuality of the native Czech had, however, been kept
alive from the earliest times by means of Czech literature,
Folk-Song and National Dances. Prior to the time of John
Huss the reformer, the Latin Church, together with prevailing
French, German, and Italian influence at Court, had been
antagonistic to the nature of Folk-Song.
The reformation of 1402 brought about the regeneration of
National Song and Church Music. The Guild of Meister-singers,
the Church Society of Literati, the Collegium Musicum founded
in 1616, the Court Orchestras and the establishment of National
Opera in Prague in 1723 all helped in. the development of the art.
The early composers, Benda (died 1795), Kotzeluch (i75 2 ~
1818), and Gryowetz (1763-1850), who wrote fashionable piano
forte works of the period, are now forgotten ; but Dussek (1761-
1812) the composer and pianist (see Part II, Chapter V) and
Czerny the pedagogue, may be mentioned as instances of
artists connected with the early period of Bohemian pianoforte
music.
The purely national or Pan-Slavic movement in Bohemia
began through the Opera, In 1807 opera in Italian was abolished
and in 1862 the Bohemian Theatre was opened. Operas by the
native composers Sebor, Karel Bendl, and Rozkoszny led the
way for the appearance of Fredk. Smfitana (1824-84), the
" Father of the Bohemian School."
*47
248 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
As a pupil of Liszt, Smtana began as a composer of Symphonic
poems for orchestra and works for piano, and it was not until
after 1866 that he initiated the series of operas in the National
style which culminated in European recognition of the Bohemian
School. As with Chopin and Liszt, so with Smtana, the
initiation of the National style began with works for the
pianoforte.
Regarding the Bohemian style, it may be said that it has not
the rhythmic or melodic interest of Hungarian music. Its
principal features are a kind of breezy, untrammelled vigour,
with, in some cases, alternating varieties of tempo.
In Volkslieder in the minor key we find strongly-marked
rhythm and decisive character, but those in the major are in
simple rhythm and pleasing tuneful style. No doubt the
Slavonic, German and Gipsy elements are all represented in the
music of the Czechs.
Of the many National Dances we have the well-known Polka
f^wJ&i===half(step)] in 2/4 time, dating from about 1830, the
Fwiant, a quick dance with sharp accents and alternating time,
the .beseda dudik, hulan, trinozka, sedlak, etc. Specimens of
these dance forms were written by Dvordk, Sm&tana and others.
[See Sm6tana, Bohemian Dances (Urbanek) and Malat, Forty
Tcheques Melodies (Urbanek)].
The Dumka, as used by Dvorak, is a kind of Rgverie or
ttgie and is probably related to the Douma a narrative song
form from the Ukraine district.
Smtana's best work is in his Symphonic Poems and Operas.
His piano works, however, though less interesting, show the
vigour and masculinity of the National style, his melodies being
mostly set in abrupt two-bar sections. Smtana's pianoforte
style is somewhat difficult and not always grateful to the
performer, Of his characteristic pieces, Op. I, No. 3 and 6,
axe the most attractive, and the Bohemian Dances, Op, 17 and
some of the Polkas are worthy of study,
Zdenko Fibich (1850-1900) wrote a good deal of piano music,
mostly in short pieces as, for instance, his Fancies, Impressions
mt4 Recollections (Op. 41, 44, 47, 57 (Ur.)]. These are original
and in National style, but, apart from that, not very interesting,
ifeitfeer Fibich nor Sm6tana, as pioneers of Bohemian music,
m|>are with Dvofik for general interest as far as pianoforte
music is concerned.
MUSIC IN BOHEMIA 249
Like the music of the Magyar, the pianoforte music of the
Czech may be divided into (i) that written in direct National
style ; (2) that showing influence of the National style ; (3) that
which is Cosmopolitan in style.
(1) In these are included National Dances, some works by
Dvofdk referred to separately (next Chapter), the well- written
and interesting Op. 7 (Polka and Furiant) of Beda Kridlo, and
the Husitska Rhapsodic, Op. 29 of Fr. Picka (Ur.), the latter
founded on a chorale-like theme.
(2) Those showing influence of the National idiom reach a
high level of excellence. Their technique is modern and the
harmonic style fresh. In the clavier compositions of Jos. Suk
and Oskar Nedbal both members of the famous Bohemian
String Quartet there is in the Six Pieces of Op. 7 of Suk much
that is attractive, sympathetic and characteristic. The Op, i,
7 and 8 of Nedbal, who is also a prominent composer of opera,
are, except the Variation on a Theme by Dvordk, mostly in
lighter style. The Rondo of Em. Chv&la, a composer of Chamber
music and eminent critic, is an interesting example of modern
nationalistic style in an old form of, indeed, " new wine in
old bottles/ 1 The interesting Poetical Pieces, Op. 20, with
specimens in alternating tempo and 5/4 time ; the powerful
Lisztian Ballade, Op. 2 by Vitezslav Novak, a leading composer
of Chamber music and Songs, as well as the less Nationalistic,
but very effective Impromptu of the Op. 15 of Alois Joranek and
the dainty Chopinesque Four Pieces, Op. 2 by Hanuse Tnxecka,
deserve attention (all Ur.),
The works of Ed. Napravnik (b* 1839), who has lived much in
Russia, are Slavonic in cast. His Op. 61 (r and 2) (R.) are
educationally valuable (db. 3rds and alt. hands)* The choral
writers, Jos. Nesvera and Jos, Forster, have written some smaller
Pieces, and a Tarantelk, Op. 56 (B.S.), by Charles Wehle
(1825-83) and the Valse, Op. 44 by Louis Marek (SI.) deserve
mention,
(3) For Bohemian composers who have written in cosmo
politan style, we must go back to the times of Dussek and his
contemporaries, Gelnick, Gryowetz and Kotzeluch, who indulged
in fashionable trivialities.
The true successor of Dussek was Tomaschek (1774-1850),
who wrote in a more serious style. His Rhapsodies (Hi),
published in 18x2, attracted attention by their native wayward
s
250 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
vigour and are of historical value as a step in the evolution of
the National style. In the virtuoso L 3 Inquietude (St.) and Op. 96
(B.S.) by Alex. Dreyschock, a pupil of Tomaschek, and a
brilliant pianist, who created a sensation by his left-hand solos,
may be discerned a trace of native style. Other pupils of
Tomaschek were Tedesco (1817-82), the " Hannibal of Octaves/'
known for his Bohemian Op. 22 and 24 ; and Schulhoff (b. 1825),
also a public performer.
The compositions of the latter became exceedingly popular
for their melodious, elegant and brilliant style. His best works
are the Bohemian Airs, the Op. 25, Chanson and Polka, Op. 33,
in national style, and the characteristic Dances, Mazurkas,
Op. 30 and 5, Styrienne (Lit.) and Galop di Bravoura.
Felix Dreyschock (b. 1860), the nephew of Alex. Dreyschock
is more cosmopolitan and shows something of the elegance of
the French style combined with technical and educational
value, as, for instance, in Op, 17, 21, 22, 24 and 37 No. 2 (Fr.)
and Op. 25 and 27 (J.). Alfred Griinfeld writes in a similar
but more serious style, his Op. 49, 50, 51 (B. and B.), Op, 17, 20,
21 (Ch.) being examples.
The Chopin-like Valses and Polonaises (Hf.) of Johann
Skmicko are attractive and effectively written.
For the rest, we may mention the melodious and elegant
Three Pieces, Op. 24 (Db.) and Op. 14 (Eu.) of Hansa Cesek ;
the original and attractive Mazurkas, Op. 15 (R.B.), the artistic
Schilflieder, Op. n and the useful Studies (SI.) of Hans Seeling
(1828-62) ; Wenzel Plachy's (1785-1858) educational Rondos
and Transcriptions (Ash.) ; Hans. Schmitt's (b. 1835) Studies
and freshly-written Fantasias, Op, 66 (Db.) ; and the names
of A. F. Becvarosky, F. Z. Chotek (educational), J. Drechsler,
Ht : Kaan, Kafka (Salon Pieces), Jos. Low (educational),
Ptoksch (Contwtos, three pianos), and Bernard Rie (Etudes).
CHAPTER V
ANTONIN DVORAK (1841-1904)
ANTONIN DVORAK (pronounced Dvorshak) was born in 1841 at
Mulhausen, a small village near Prague. His father occupied
the village inn. As a boy Dvorak was taught singing and the
violin by the village schoolmaster; and subsequently, on
removing to schools at Zeonitz and Kainnitz, he learnt the
organ, piano and something of harmony. After much debate
young D vof dk was allowed to prepare for the musical profession,
and he entered Prague Organ School at the age of sixteen. In
order to eke out his small allowance he joined one of the small
local bands as a violinist.
In 1860 after a three-years' course Dvofik graduated at his
school and, fortunately for him, became a violin player in the
orchestra at the Bohemian Theatre of which Sme'tana was the
conductor. It was not until eleven years later, in 1873, that
an organist's position lifted Dvof&k into a more independent
position, but, undaunted by adverse circumstances, Dvoidk
was the whole of this intervening period diligently at work on
Symphonies, Chamber music and Piano music. It was in this
same year (1873) that he became known as a composer by his
patriotic hymn for Chorus and Orchestra, The Heirs of th&
White Mountain. Two years previously he had written his first
Opera in the Wagnerian style, which, being rejected, was
rewritten in the National style and thereupon accepted.
Dvofdk's career was now one continual success. Liszt procured
him Concert hearings and Brahms got his works published,
His Slavonic Dances, written in 1878, became popular in
Germany; other works, the Stabat Mater t Orchestral and
Chamber music closely followed and were successfully produced
some of these making their first appearance in this country,
From 1892 to 1895 Dvoflk was Director of the New York
National Conservatoire, where he made the mistaken effort of
attempting through the " New World" Symphony and other
works, to found a National American School on purely Negro
melodies.
25*
252 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
His subsequent life at Prague was devoted to Opera, of which
nine were composed, orchestral and other works strongly
imbued with Bohemian and other idioms in the National style.
The death of Dvorik in 1904 will be remembered for the general
and universal expression of regret that so great a master of all
that is best in the music of his country should have passed away.
Dvorak does not seem to have written very much piano music
and a good portion of it, inspired, perhaps, by the four-hand
Brahms arrangements of Hungarian music, is also laid out for
. four hands.
We may take the Bohemian National Furiantes in D and F t
Op. 42 (B. and B.) and the Rhapsodies, Op. 45 (Sr.) as arranged
by Kirchner as reflecting the peculiarities of Bohemian music,
with its simplicity of character mostly expressed in Waltz time
with occasional irregular (quasi-Gipsy) rhythms.
The Slavisch Dances for four hands, Op. 46 and 72 are more
vigorous, and using more the 2/4 rhythm are interesting as
presenting some points of resemblance to Scotch music.
The Poetische Stimmungsbilder, Op. 85 (Sr.) have no distin
guishing feature, but, on the other hand, the duet Legends,
Op. 59 (Sr.) are amongst the best and most characteristic of his
works. Dvof k seems to be most original where he can indulge
in mystery and is not limited in the interpretative mestns ^t his
disposal as, for example, in his well-known Spectres Bride;
and hence it is in the mysterious depths of the Bohemian
Forests, as in the four-hand Bohmerwald, that we meet with
his most original and characteristic pianoforte worfc
The interesting Sketches, Silhouetten, Op. 8 (HI) ine of special
interest as showing Dvorak's use of chromatic tonality, i.e., the
sudden transition to chromatically related keys and th return
to the original tonality.
Of the Op. 52 (Hf.) the Impromptu, Intermezzo and Gigue are
imitations of more or less Classic style, but are not particularly
successful ; the Eclogue, however, is more characteristic of him.
-Dvorak's Dumka (filtgie), Op. 35 (B. and B,) is musicianly,
characteristic and National, but not very inspired. The Suite,
Of. 98 (Sr.) is interesting, attractive, musicianly and subtly
reminiscent df the technique of Chopin ; rhythmically speaking,
jT-sigain suggests Scottish music. The Humoresken, Op. loi
(Sir.) which are mostly in lyrical form, show also National feeling
and Caprice but alas, no humour. One of the set has become
ANTONIN DVORAK
253
deservedly popular as arranged for the violin, but, strange to
say, its features are not those of humour but of delightful grace
alternating with truly lyrical fervour. The diatonic Polonaise
for Four Hands (Aug.), the abrupt Furiant of the Op. 12 (Aug.),
Minuets, Mazurkas and Waltzes also claim attention, as well
as the Scottish Dances, Op, 41 (B. and B.) which, however, are
not particularly Scottish in style.
fc/ogue
The success of Dvorak's compositions may be attributed to
(i) the nuances of Bohemian melody ; (2) the use of modern
harmonies ; and (3) the Dance rhythms of the Czechs. New
forms of expression of musical ideas were created and their
novelty, no less than the sterling genius which evolved highly
artistic works out of comparatively crude material, helped to
set forth a new individuality in the musical world, With regard
to musical form, Dvorak, while not extending its resources,
sometimes used the Dumka (Sligie) for the slow movement, and
the Fimant for the Scherzo in set compositions. As regards
technical style, his works are grateful to play, while the varying
combination of rhythms and new harmonic modulatory effects
always tend to make them interesting and attractive.
CHAPTER VI
RUSSIAN PIANOFORTE MUSIC
As in the case of other European countries, the key to the
distinctive national style of Russia lies in the traditional folk
song, aided by the rich heritage of imaginative literature,
exemplified in the National Poetry and Folk-Tale.
These folk-songs may be divided into such as Ritual or
Mythic songs, Ceremonial, Epic or Historic. Freely metrical
and expressive in style, they are sung in harmony and mostly
in the minor mode. The Dance-Songs showing Gipsy influence,
as in Bohemia and Hungary, are in the major mode. Those of
Great Russia are brighter than the poetic ones of Little Russia.
The improvised epic Doumas of the Ukraine and somewhat
monotonous Dainos of Lithuania form another class, while
modal or ecclesiastical influence is generally apparent. The
National characteristics can be studied in the following interest
ing Collections for pianoforte ; Russian Folk-Songs and Dances
(Kleinmichel) (B.S.), showing the characteristic three-bar
'sections ; Wilm's arrangement of Russian Folk-Songs, and
Wihtol's Transcriptions of Lettish Mekdics (Blf.). Granville
Bantock has utilized Russian Themes in his Russian Scenes
,|Bos.).
,; Generally speaking, their principal characteristics may be said
fecr lie in the peculiar rhythm, original melody, ornamental
.embroideries, and strange cadences showing modal influence.
The prevailing minor key and a rugged kind of gloom seems
to dominate much Russian music, and this no doubt accounts
for much of the so-called pessimism of the Russian School,
Apart from National Song and Dance, music in Russia seems
ave been imported up to the time of Glinka (1804-57), who
^tSMiied with Field in Si. Petersburg and also in Berlin, Glinka
wrote National Operas in which the National Folk-Song appeals
as well as in his Symphonies and Chamber music.
His pianoforte works, while showing touches, both harmonic
and melodious, of the Slav temperament, are not quite in
254
RUSSIAN PIANOFORTE MUSIC
255
National style. His modern and artistically attractive Barcarolle,
Tarantella and Souvenir d'un Mazurka have something of the
artistic meditative character of his teacher, Field.
Dargomisky and Seroff are classified as representing the
transition from Glinka to the Modern School. Dargomisky
(1813-69) wrote Operas and Orchestral works and a three-hand
Tarantelle Slave for Piano. Seroff (1820-71) was chiefly an
Opera composer.
The originator of the Modern Russian School is Mili Balakirew,
who, with C6sar Cui, Modest Moussorgsky, Alexander Borodin,
and Rimsky-Korsakow set himself to establish it on the basis
of Russian folk-song.
Balakirew (b. 1836) first gained fame as a pianist and later as
a composer chiefly of Songs and Pianoforte works. His
individuality is seen in the quaint, murmuring, chromatic
under-current of sweet discontent in his charming Dumka
(complaint) (Zim), ist Nocturne (St.) and Idylle-Etude (Bos.).
C6sar Cui, the historian of Russian music, says, with some
show of reason, that his works are " distinguished by broad and
limpid melody and elegance of accompaniment, also by passion
and abandon.' 1
His harmonies and technique are founded on Liszt and Chopin,
and the virtuoso element is considerable, whether in the poetical
Pieces or in the more technical Toccata, the yd Scherzo and
Valse di Bravura (Zim), the artistic, somewhat Lisztian Tran
scriptions, L'Alouette on a Glinka Theme (Eu. or St.), or the
Fantasia on A Life for the Czar (Zm.) The Humoresque
Tyrolienne and Oriental Fantasia Islamey may be mentioned,
the latter for its true descriptive colouring.
N, Rimsky-Korsakow (b. 1844) is an admiral by profession.
In musical art he is chiefly a symphonist after the highly-
coloured style of Berlioz. His works are distinguished by good
taste and self-restraint combined with sonority of style and the
use of National idiom and Folk-Song melody.
His pianoforte Concerto is founded on the characteristic
theme :
from which its continuous movements are developed*
256 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
The work is pervaded by National feeling and is somewhat
ornamental in style, the technique and development being after
the manner of Liszt.
In the pianoforte Op. n of the four Pieces showing
successively Chopin, Schumann, Henselt and Chopin as models,
the Second is attractive and the best ; the Variations on the
notes B, A, C, H show skill but, like other similar compositions,
are pointless.
A. Borodin (1834-87), apart from his share in the National
movement, is known mostly for his Songs, Symphonies and
Chamber music. His best pianoforte work, the Petite Suite
(Bos.), though poetical in feeling, lacks inspiration.
Moussorgsky (1839-81) excels in the national style. His
characteristic vigour and emotional realism are seen to some
extent in his Exposition Tableaux (Bl.) and in the Kinderscherz
and Intermezzo (BL), but otherwise he has no distinctive message.
C6sar Cui (b. 1835) is of partial French descent and is by pro
fession a military engineer. Cui excels in the Song form and
his Piano works do not specially exemplify Russian style.
The Miniatures (Fr.) are obviously inspired by Schumann, as
also are his best works, the Petit Caprice (Op. 25) and Romanzetta,
Op. 39 (Bos.). These are graceful and pleasing, though not
distinguished in manner.
Leaving the founders of the Russian School, we come to
Alexander Glazounow (b. 1865), one of the most eminent
European composers of the present time. Born at St. Peters-
berg, where his father was a bookseller, he appeared as a
Symphonist at the age of sixteen, in 1881. In this country
Glazounow is known mostly by his Symphonies, which are
remarkable for their logical treatment, clever technical and
contrapuntal manipulation and fluent style,
His Pianoforte compositions, on the other hand, though
equally remarkable and effective, would seem to be almost
unknown in this country,
^Combining as they do, in large measure, the technique of a
Liszt, the development of a Brahms and the romantic feeling
of a Chopin, it is hardly an exaggeration to say that a new
pianistic world opens to us in the compositions of Glazounow
and In the works of the new Rmssian composers for pianoforte
generally.
It may; be said of Glazounow's works that they are, at first
RUSSIAN PIANOFORTE MUSIC 257
sight, not distinguished by more than occasional leanings to the
National style, and that they are sometimes complex and
uninspired. Their outstanding feature is, no doubt, their
remarkable technical effect resulting in a combination of
sonority and sweetness.
The widespread material and frequent sustained pedal notes
make the piano hum like an orchestra, sparkling awhile with
Chopinesque broken and combined 3rds and 6ths heard in the
highest treble register. For technical disposition of harmonic
material securing luxuriant beauty of sound the works of
Glazounow are difficult to equal. As an example, there is the
Petite Valse, Op. 36 (Bli), in which, though the Themes in
themselves are not distinguished, the effect of the whole is
charming : it reminds one of a Turner sunset, aglow with beauty
of colour. Such work represents the prevailing tendency
towards impressionism and idealization of technique. Another
phase of Glazounow's work is his power of development, as in
the Barcarolle, Novelktte, Op. 22, Prelude, Op. 25 and Nocturne,
Op. 37, which open somewhat unpromismgly, but, by means of
variation, combination of Themes and effective technique
lying well under the hands, attain a most interesting climax.
In the Fugue, Op. 62, a masterly one on two subjects, and the
Variations, Op. 72, the latest developments of modern technique
combined with contrapuntal genius are displayed. The Sonatas
Op, 74 and 75 also display mastery of contrapuntal work
combined with thematic development, but with a resulting
tendency towards over-elaboration, The 2nd Sonata is mostly
in the -style of Schumann and is technically effective.
National feeling is noticeable in some of the higher Opus
numbers of Glazounow's works, and a vein of idyllic discontent
runs through the chromatic Caprice, Impromptu Op, 49, and
Prelude and Fugue, Op, 62, while the very interesting Mazurkas,
Op. 35, are National in tone and effective. The masterly
Variations, Op. 72 (fourteen in^number) are built on a
Nationalistic Theme commencing
258 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
and exemplify various styles from the Handelian to the Liszt
quasi-campanella .
As regards direct tunefulness, there are the noble Prelude
and cheerful Gavotte in Op. 49, the Pastorale, the sparkling
Polka, the simple Valse of the Op. 42 and the effective Salon
and Concert Valses, Op. 43 and 41. The poetical and brilliant
Impromptus, Op. 54 and the melodious 2nd Etude, Op. 31,
deserve special mention. With the exception of the ingenious
but pointless Suite, Op. 2 on Sasoha (S representing E[>), and
the similar but more effective Waltz, Op. 23, on the Theme
Sabela, the works of Glazounow (Blf.), stand as prominent
representatives of the unique Russian School.
It is, perhaps, not a very remarkable feature in the Russian
Sfehool of Composers for pianoforte, founded as it is on the
efforts of Field, Henselt (the German Chopin), the two
Rubinsteins and Balakirew, that in forming their National style,
they should have followed to so large an extent the spirit and
technique of the most genuinely pianistic of all styles that
of Chopin: but it is remarkable that they should not only
have attained superiority in that style, but have suggested, in
addition, through the works of Scriabin and Blumenfeld a
further development of it. This style is mostly in evidence in
the form of the Prelude a form akin to the Etude, but distinctly
poetical in spirit. Russian composers have made this form
their own and, basing it on the Preludes and Impromptus of
Chopin, have elaborated it, making it generally longer and more
difficult, while keeping the fleeting, iridescent artistic touch.
Generally speaking, we may distinguish the Preludes of
olumenfeld as elaborate, those of liadoff as idyllic, those of
Scriabin as mystic, while those of Wihtol are poetical but less
Slavonic than the others.
Much of the voluminous work of Alexander Scriabin will
probably remain a sealed book to the average pianist.
We find in them the virtuoso instinct combined with poetical
feeling, but rhapsodically expressed through excessive w$e 01
rhythmical complications. The cross rhythms and combination
of rhythms are used even in Dance forms, such as the Mazurkas,
Polonaise and Valse.
General complication is present also in the more pretentious
works, such as the Sonatas, Allegro Passionata, Allegro de
Concert, the Tragodie and many of the Preludes and Etudes,
RUSSIAN PIANOFORTE MUSIC 259
relieved only by the usual glittering, artistic, technical figuration,
which is characteristically Russian.
His style, built almost entirely on Chopin, both in feeling and
technique (but not in melodic inspiration) usually presents
widespread Henseltian-Chopin figures, in which the left hand
frequently passes beyond the right. They are probably the
most difficult of all works to read and interpret.
The redeeming features are the National atmosphere and the
highly interesting smaller works, as, for instance, some of the
Preludes and Impromptus, in which his delicate style appears
full of r&varie and waywardness, as of a breath among leaves.
In these his style would seem to be in direct succession to that
of Chopin. The best of these works are the following, the
beautiful six Preludes, Op. 13, No. i and 3 of Op. 17, Op. 16
(No. i), Op. 22 (No. 3), and the specially Schumannish Op. 35
(No. 3) and Op. 27 (No. i). There is also the same* delicate
filagree work in the Impromptus, Op. 14 and Op, 10, while turgid
Slavonic force is expressed in the interesting two Poems, Op. 32,
and the Fantasie, Op. 28,
The one successful large work is the Concerto in F$ minor,
Op, 20, a delicately-wrought work, full of elegiac poetical feeling,
in which the slow movement consists of brilliant yet restrained
and artistic variations on an expressive Theme written in
National style.
Scriabin was born in Moscow in 1872. He studied at Moscow
Conservatoire and thence made Concert Tours in Europe as a
virtuoso, introducing his own compositions.
The Example given on p. 260 is from the first Prelude in Op, 17
(BIf.).
Anatole Liadow (b, 1850 at St Petersburg) is the senior of the
younger Russian School which has sprung up on the foundation,
of Rimsky-Korsakow, He was educated at the Conservatoire
of St. Petersburg and has been Professor there since 1878.
Liadow may be termed the Russian Chopin. He resembles
the Polish Composer both in technique and style, though
possessing individuality, Some of his earlier works, however,
such as the pretty Valse, Op, 9 and Impromptu, Op. 6 (Bos.),
the light Intermezzo, Op, 7 (Fr.) and the more forceful Novelette,
Op. 20 (BIf.), are evidently formed on the Schumann model
Though Slavonic in feeling, Liadow's compositions are usually
idyllic in style. The Ballade, Op. 21 and On the Prairie, Op. 23,
36o HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
the most National of his works, have practically none of the
passion and turgidity of other Russian composers.
Liadow, again, has little of the fitful wayward moods of
Scriabin and has much more lyrical feeling, while in technical
figuration he is similar to the latter but has more variety, and
is not so difficult His works are, moreover, more interesting
to the average student. We may divide Liadow's works into
the light-winged and melodious Preludes, Op. 10 (No. 2) (Bos.),
Op- 36, 39, 4i and 42, the Bagatelks, Op. 53, the similar and
Etude-like Preludes, Op. 27 and Etude, Op. 48, the interesting
and characteristic Mazurkas, Op. 38 and 31, the artistic
Barcarolle, Berceuse, Idylle, CanzoneUa and Bagatelle, Op. 7, the
light but artistic Op. 52, 29 and 32,
The Variations, Op. 51 and 35 are also specially interesting
for the artistic Chopin-like technical treatment.
The fragment given on p. 2 61 is from the Idylh A ndante Rubafo.
Like Scriabin and others, Liadow requires only the gift of
inspired melody to insure him a place in the front rank of
pianoforte composers.
Nicholas de Stcherbatchew (b. 1853) reveals himself to us
chiefly in two aspects : (i) as a brilliant techniaaaia
style ; (2) as a poet and impressionist.
RUSSIAN PIANOFORTE MUSIC
261
The former aspect is illustrated by the fine Fantasies-Etitdes,
Op. 26, which are in Suite form, the interesting Prelvdes t Op. 21,
virtuoso 0^. 19, and Impromptu tude, Op. 22, modelled on
Schumann, the Chopinesque Villanelle, Op. 38, and Nos. 4, 6,
9 and 14 of the brilliant and attractive Pantomimes, Op. 8. The
technical style of the other compositions inclines to that of
Liszt and Chopin. %he impressionist compositions of Stcher-
batchew, dating from about. i8S6, are of historical importance
as being the probable forerunners of the works of Debussy and
others of the French School. The younger composer, Sciiabin,
has also shown some tendency to this style. ^ - r
Of the compositions in this style we may mention Ifee
languorous Barcarolle, Op. 35; Son d '% u ^ Claif de Lum >
Op. 25.
In the remarkable Example quoted from the latter on ip. 262,
the accompanying chords, like echoing harmonies, should be
extremely lightly played, in order that the necessary " eerie "
effect may be realized. There are also L'Etoik du Berger,
Op. 23, with its pastoral atmosphere, the interesting and artistic
effects of running water and song of birds in the other Idytts,
Op. 23, the fall of leaves in the Etude, Op. 30, and the enigmatical
262
HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
garden and fairy scenes in Op. 8 (No. 2 and. 7). The Valses
Pages Intimes incline likewise to this impressionist style.
c?rghetfo '
i 'i "i "i r
u
Stcherbatchew is more successful in his light compositions in
the French style the V&ke> Op* 39, New Marionettes^ Op, 41,
Guitarre, Op. 15, and his own Transcription of the pretty Serenade
for Strings than in his best lyrical poetical Pieces Adiwx,
Canzone and Sotwenance. , We notice some slight Slavonic
flavour in the melancholy of the quieter Pieces and in the
Mazurkas, Op. 42 and 16 (No. 3), but, on the whole, the
composer's merit lies on the technical side and in some T>f the
impressionist Pieces rather than in the National vein ; in short,
ill the combination of beautiful harmonies and modulations
with attractive technique.
There is an attractive vigour and National element, together
with lyrical feeling about the Mazurkas [Op. 35, II, 22 and 2
(No. 3 and 4)] and the Suites Polonaises of Felix Blumcnfeld
(b. 1863), th e chief of the South Russian group.
S The Chopinesque technique which is so highly developed in
Russian composers appears in the Etude-like Impromptus,
Op. 28 and 3, the Valse Etude, Op. 4 and the poetical Sketches,
Le Soir, Op. 21 (No. 2), from which the following is taken :
RUSSIAN PIANOFORTE MUSIC
263
Une Course, Op.. 21 (No. 3) and Op. 16. The latter, a Valse
Impromptu, is also a notable example of technical effect developed
on the harmonic theme :
The Poetical Etudes Fantasies and Swy Afsr, cast in the bravura
mould, are aiso weir worthy of attention. The remarkable
collection of Preludes* Op. 12 and 17) the latter numbering
twenty-four in all the keys, arc based on the style of Chopin,
but are much more elaborate and ambitious, constituting, as it
were, a further development of that form.
Compared with the mystical quasi-impressionist Preludes of
Scriabin and the idyllic ones of Liadow, they are more masculine
and straightforwardly lyrical in style and lack something of their
delicacy of touch. Nevertheless, they are full of poetical
feeling and represent a great variety of effective technical
ment. The lyrical, romantic and technically effective
combined in the interesting Nocturne Fantasie, Op, 6 ; in
3) of the Moments Lyriques and the Suite Lyrique, while the
iically resourceful Variations, a Ballade and a Valse, Op. 22,
rve mention,
oming to the Preludes of Joseph Wihtol (b. 1863 and edu-
at St. Petersburg Conservatoire) we are again confronted
an embarras de richesses. His other compositions, the
tic and expressive Berceuses, Op. 18 and 8, the Meditation
JL Impromptu, Op, 20, the well-written -Sonata, Op. i, in
ffonal style, consisting of Alkgro, Variations &n<iScherzando>
!e clever Variations on a Lettish Theme, Op, 6, the original
Mazurka and Valse, Op, 6, the Valse Caprice* Op. 24, and the
realistic Humoresque are attractive ; but he excels in his
Preludes, in which the hand of the artist is everywhere
apparent*
The distinguishing features, apart from those already mention
ed here, are the leaning to the chromatic style, the chartning
264
HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
modulation, and the greater variety in vigour and delicacy of
style ; but the Slavonic element is not so prominent, as may
possibly be expected from a Lett of the Baltic Provinces, where
the population is largely Germanic. The best of the Preludes
are Op. 13 (in 3rds), 19, 16, 23, 10 and 25. The latter is
represented in the following Example :
There are also excellent poetical Etudes , Op. 26 (3) and single
numbers in Op. 22, 19, 25.
S, ML Liapounow (b. 1859), w ^ writes in the Liszt-Chopin
style, is best known for his tudes Transcendantes, for a fine
Concerto, Op. 4 which is full of romantic poetical feeling, and
for an Etude and Vake in Op. I (B11).
Mention may here be made of the humorous Paraphrases of
Variations on a one-fingered Theme jointly contributed by
Borodin, Cui, Liadow, and Korsakow (Bit) in pursuance of a
once fashionable plan (see Part II, Chapter VII, on Beethoven's
Diabetti Variations).
RUSSIAN PIANOFORTE MUSIC 265
We have postponed consideration of Tschafkowsky, Rach
maninoff and Arensky till now because, though their works are
popular from an expressive point of view, they are inferior to the
foregoing as regards genuine pianoforte style.
Tschalkowsky, although a leading Russian composer, is not
essentially a writer of pianoforte music, his domain lying in his
considerable powers of characterization through the medium of
orchestral colour. Of his piano music, much of which is some
what inferior in interest, as such, to that of other Russian
composers both on the score of National feeling and through
lack of suitable technical expression we find that his most
successful Pieces are those in which his gift of the
" characteristic " is combined with melodic inspiration, as in the
Barcarolle (June), Troika Fahrt (Sleigh Ride) (November) and
Snowdrops (April) from the Seasons (Bos.). Though written
in conventional style, the melodic feeling in these is fresh and,
to some extent, Slavonic, as in the Chant sans Paroles (Op. 2),
Chanson Triste of the Op. 40, Feuillet d' Album of the Op. 19,'
and the Mazurka de Salon, Op. 9, No. 3 (Album Lit.).
Tschalkowsky has a keen feeling for rhythmic effects and these,
as in his Capriccioso (Op, 19), the Polka de Salon t the very
Slavonic Danse Russe (Op. 40), and the Vake, de Salon, Op. 51,
are attractive where otherwise the melodic inspiration is
wanting. For his principal pianoforte work we must look to
the Concerto (Op. 23) in Bfy minor with its gorgeous orchestration,
Slavonic style and pompous leading Theme, the Schumannish
Poco Meno, the Nocturne-like Andantino with the fairy Pres
tissimo, the capricious Allegro con Fuoco, with the suave second
subject and thundering Finale. The B\> minor Concerto was
written in 1874-5 and first played by Billow in Boston, U.S.A.
The pianoforte part was rewritten in 1889, probably as the
result of the criticism of the technique by Nicolai Rubinstein.
Of the other two Concertos, that in G is more developed, but is
somewhat symphonic in style, while the one in E\> is fantastic
and vigorous. The masculine, but very difficult and long
Fantasia with Orchestra, Op. 56, a conventional Sonata and
somewhat unattractive Variations may be also mentioned.
Here we shall say that Tschalkowsky (1840-93), like Cui, was
partly of French descent.
He fortunately came early under the influence of Anton
Rubinstein, by whom he was induced to take up music seriously.
T
2 66 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
He was appointed Teacher of Harmony at the Conservatoire in
Moscow in 1866, holding that position till 1877.
Generally speaking, Tschaikowsky is known principally by
his emotional Pathetic Symphony, the popular (and noisy)
1812 Overture, the light Nutcracker Suite and the orchestral
Italian Capriccio. In the future, however, it is possible he will
be known as the composer of the last four Symphonies, the
A minor Trio, the String Quartet, his Songs and the 1st Piano
forte Concerto. The merit of Tschaikoswky's piano music lies
in his sense of melody, in which he surpasses his confreres,
enhanced by piquant rhythm but affected somewhat adversely
by lack of modern technique.
" Sergei Rachmaninoff (b. 1873 ; educated at the Conservatoires
of St. Petersburg and Moscow) surpasses his senior Arensky in
dignity of style. His works show decided tone colour, mani
fested through daring harmonies and modulations, characteristic
rhythm effects, modern technique and expressive melodic style.
The best-known are the fatalistic C# minor Prelude, a beautiful
Melody in E, a very original Serenade and a fine tUgie (Bos.),
while the rare sense of humour is ably depicted in the Polichinelle
and Humoresftie. Of less known works there are the first
Concerto, with graceful slow movement and brilliant Finale, an
effective and better developed 2nd Concerto, a clever Suite for
Two Pianos and some effective Variations.
Taking next the works of Anton Arensky (1861-1906), we
find that their characteristics, in brief, are tunefulness and talent
for the scholastic.
Arensky was educated at the St. Petersburg Conservatoire.
Of his pianoforte works probably the best is the sparkling
Suite, Op 15 for Two Pianos (Romance, Valse and Polonaise)
(Bos.), which is mostly written in Variation form. Of the
smaller pieces, the Consolation, Op. 36, is probably the
best.
The Pieces in Canon form, Op. i (R.) and the Basso Ostinato
on a subject in 5/4 time are exceptionally ingenious and tuneful.
In the latter the recurring bass presents a different figure in
each bar, while, as Tschaikowsky pointed out, the Piece, or
rather the accompaniment to the bass, is really in 3/4 time.
Arensky's partially Slavonic style is rather similar to that of
Tschaikowsky. It is more pianistic on the one hand, but lacks the
rhythmic interest of the former. Attention may be drawn to
RUSSIAN PIANOFORTE MUSIC 267
his Concerto, Op. 2 and Fantasia with Orchestra on Russian folk
songs.
Of composers of small Pieces in more or less National style
there is first : W. Rebikow, whose powers of characterization
are principally seen in the clever dramatic Melonique Sketches,
of which Les Reves is set in the old modes. His Autumn
Reveries (Jr.), which are mostly in National style, are also
interesting. L. Aloiz wrote a melodious and artistically treated
Barcarolle, Op. 4 (Jr.) and Mazurka, Op. 35 (Bos.).
A. Gretchaninow, refined and characteristic Pastels (Chant
d'Antonine, Nocturne, etc.). The Op. 13 (Doumka, etc.) and
Esquisses Orientales of W. Kotschetow are very Russian in
style. A. Ilynsky, pretty Cradle Song (Jennings) and Op. 7
(Jr.). N, Artibouchew, two Mazurkas, Op. 3 (Blf.). A.
Zatayewitsch, 4th Mazurka (Jr.)* S. Scepanowski, well-written
and interesting Barcarolle and Eclogue, and also U Insouciance,
which is very Slavonic in style.
The compositions of the South Russian School of composers,
while National in style, are distinguished by a more luxuriant
style of melody. We may mention briefly H. Amany, whose
best works are delicate and artistic in manner, Souvenir and
lgie, Op. 7, Prelude, No. 3 of Op. 8 and the effective Variations.
E. Alenew's works are allied to those of Chopin and Schumann
in technique. There is a pretty set of pieces, Op. 7 and the
more elaborate but effective Op. 10, with attractive and well-
written Variations, Valse, and the Schumannesque Intermezzo
and Canzona t
The 2nd Sonata (Op, 4), and 2nd Novelette, Op. 6, of B.
Kalafaty, are a welcome addition to musical literature in the
massive and richly harmonised style of Schumann, in which
Lisztian technique is present. The Nocturne, Op. 5 is
Nationalistic.
The characteristic Russian SSr&nade Levantine, Mazurkas,
Op. 27 and an tude, Op. 30 of A, Alpheraky may be mentioned ;
as well as the melodious Op. 16 (3 Pieces) and two Mazurkas,
Op. 6 by Sigismund Blurnenfeld.
Of the South Russian composers who have no partial leanings
towards National or Individual style there are A. Korestchenko,
who has written dainty poetic Pieces in modern harmonic
style, Op. 19 (x, 2, 3 and 5 )(Bes.) and the Rhapsodic Georgiennes,
founded on Caucasian melodies, and Genari Kargenow, composer
268 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
of small melodious Pieces showing the influence of Schubert,
e.g., Impromptu, Op. 10 (No. 6), Album Lyrique (No. 3 and 4)
(R.) as well as some educational Pieces.
A. Kopylow, in the pretty sympathetic Miniature Pieces,
Op, 20, vies with Schumann, his model, in warmth and treatment
of idea. The poetical and melodious Album Leaves, Op. 26 and
Pieces, Op. 13, the Slavonic Mazurkas, Op. 3 and 8 (Bl.) and the
pretty Petit Ruisseau (Zm.), are worthy of note, and a scholastic
composition consisting of three fluently written Fugues is of
interest. C. Antipow leans to Chopin in the attractive Im
promptu and Valse, Op. 13, the poetical tude, Op. I (No. 3),
and the Nocturne, Op. 6, tinged with Slavonic colour.
. A, Koptiaiew, Schumannish Bal Ma$qu& (Jr.), J. Bleichman,
daintily written Miscellanies (Jr.). A. Winkler, brightly
written Stude-Humoreske (BL). B. Grodzky, popular Vakt
Melodique. The pianoforte music of Meyer Helmund (b. St.
Petersburg, 1861), the Song writer, is mostly in light Salon style,
but his Op. 72 (Hs.) and Petit Serenade may be mentioned.
Felix Borowski is known for his well written, elegant and
artistic Pieces (Ld.). His Mazurka Russe (Wh.) and Sonata
Russe are Nationalistic. M. Ladoukhine, Miniatures in simple
lyrical style (Jr.). N. Terestchenko, Schumannish Intermezzi
and L'Oiseau Voltige (Jr.). W. Sapellinkow, finely written
Pieces, Op. 6 and 7, and Concert Etude, Op. 3 ( J. A,) . A. Goedicke,
attractive Duetto and Valse (Jr.). 0. Gabrilowitsch, Caprice
Burlesque (B. and B.). Basile Wrangell, tuneful Op. i and
13 (Srm.).
Of Russian composers in the prevailing Germanic or European
style the most prominent are Ed, Schiitt (b. St. Petersburg,
1856 ; studied at Leipzig, settled in Vienna) and Nicolai von
Wilm (b. 1834) ; studied in Leipzig, resident in St. Petersburg
and Wiesbaden),
Ed. Schiitt writes in artistically refined, meditative and some
what chrdmatic style and his best efforts are simple conceptions
in the expressive style, as in Tendre Aveu, Op. 47, Valse Mignonne
Op, 16, the charming slow movements of the Carnaval Mignon
and the Ponies, Op. 58 (Lg.). The Op, 28 and 45, the Seines
de Bal, written in popular style, the interesting 4-hand Seines
Champetres (Lg,), the Danse Caracitristique (Jn), the Romance
Op. 38 (St.), andNos. i and 5 of the Silhouettes (B. and B.) are
also attractive. The artistic but somewhat meditative Concert
RUSSIAN PIANOFORTE MUSIC 269
Caprices on the themes of Strauss Valses (Cz.), the dignified
Preludes, and the richly harmonic Concerto claim notice, while
the Slavonic element is present in the Caprice Slave, the 4th
Prelude, Op, 35 in 7/4 time, the Rococo, Op. 17, and the Mazurka,
Op. 40 (Jn.).
Schutt's style shows the influence of Chopin arid Schumann.
Von Wilm is known as a prolific writer of excellent educational
works, the earlier of which are in the style of Heller (Fs.), the
latter in that of Mendelssohn and Schumann. Of general
interest are the Op. 2, Op. 107 (i and 7) (Bos.), Op. 138, 149 (Ld.),
Op. 173 (No. 3), the interesting Duets, Op. 169 (R.F.) and the
Ball Suite for two pianos. S. Barmo tin's technically interesting
Variations (Blk.) must also be noticed.
CHAPTER VII
AUSTRIAN OR SOUTH GERMAN COMPOSERS
MUSICALLY speaking, Austria has always differed from the more
austere North Germany, as represented, for instance, by the
Saxons, Bach and Handel, and the Hamburger, Brahms, in the
more intensely lyrical character of its composers. Schubert,
the song-writer, Haydn, the light-hearted Croatian, and Mozart
from Salzburg prove the contrast. It was Vienna which took
the musical supremacy from Italy and passed it on to Leipzig
and Berlin in the North. Up to 1914 Vienna was looked upon
as the Paris of the South, the centre of all that is light and
gay-hearted, and it is still the home of the Strauss Waltz and
Viennese Opera, though no doubt it would be wrong to judge
Vienna in an artistic sense entirely from this point of view.
The musicianly works of Ignaz Brail (born at Prosnitz,
Moravia, in 1846) show the characteristic prominence of
melody. His noteworthy second Sonata (A.P.S.) shows the
influence of Folk-Song, as also do the attractive Tanzweisen,
Op. 89, No. i (Bos.) and Op. 69 (i and 3) (G.R.) ; while the
pleasant Idytte, Op. 37 (Bk.), Op. 72 (i and 4) (A.P.S.) and the
Romance, Qp. 38 (i) (Ash.) are in lyrical style. The Prelude
and Quasi-Variazione of the 2nd Suite (A.P.S.) are worthy of
attention. Brull wrote also a Sonata for two pianos,
The compositions of Hugo Reinhold (b. 1854 at Vienna)
(see Part III, Chapter XII), Heinr. von Herzogenberg (b. at
Graz, Styria, 1843) (see Part III, Chapter XIII), Wilhelm Kienzl
(b. 1857 in Upper Austria), (Part III, Chapter XX), and Ernst
Pauer (b. at Vienna, 1826) (Part III, Chapter XX) are treated
of in the Chapters indicated. Ferdinand Hummel, though born
in Berlin (1855), may be classed as South German, His works
are noted for their melodiousness, their bold harmonic style and
the energy one associates with Hungarian music. The Skizzen,
Op. 13, the E\> Polonaise, the four-hand Suite and the Scherzo
(Jn.) are worthy of attention.
270
AUSTRIAN COMPOSERS 271
The Passacaglia and yd Ballad, by the serious-minded Carl
Navratil (b. 1836 at Vienna), and Robert FischofTs (b. 1804)
pleasing and melodious Impromptus (Cz.), " Melusine " Etude
(Db.) and Variations for two pianos can be commended. The
light, tuneful pieces of Roderick Bass, Fete Champetre (Bos.),
etc. ; F. de Gernerth's brilliant and melodious Caprice, Op. 62
and Valse, Op. 63 (Eb.) ; B. Schonberg's Ungarische Tdnze (St.)
and Baron le Baillon's poetical Stimmungsbilder (Eb.) may be
mentioned.
Other Austrian composers dealt with elsewhere are Wagenseil
(d. 1777), Eberl (d. 1807), Woelfl (d. 1812), Czerny, Diabelli,
Herz, Neukom, Egghard, Czerwinski and Pacher.
Of composers from the Southern kingdom of Bavaria we
might mention Burgmuller, Eckard, Henselt, Kessler, Kunz,
Lachner, Reger, Aloys Schmitt and Richard Strauss.
CHAPTER VIII
THE FRENCH SCHOOL OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
To the lover of pianoforte music the French School is somewhat
disappointing.
No doubt the whole genius of the French people is dramatic,
and the love of effect and theatrical pose leads their composers
to give their best energies to the Opera to the detriment of the
less sensational art. This tendency, however, is balanced to
some extent by the innate national feeling for the artistic, so
that, whether any inspiration is reserved for the humble
pianoforte or not, what does appear is at least generally artistic
in style. It goes without saying that the French do not excel in
the Sonata, and it is difficult to mention any one French com
poser who has written universally acknowledged successful
examples of this form, unless we include the Concertos as coming
under this head. On the other hand, the influence of the
Opera makes them unequalled in the light Ballet forms and in
the elegant, piquant style allied thereto.
The studied love of effect also leads to some almost National
peculiarities of style, as, for instance, the intensified depicting
of light and shade, the persistent and repeated accentuation of
somewhat ugly chromatic dissonances (augmented 5ths ; etc.),
in order that the ensuing diatonic progressions may appear
beautiful by contrast.
Lavoix, in an effusion on La Musique Pranfaise, says, " Our
musical imagination does not rise into the sphere of ecstasy and
absolute music as with the German masters. ... It has,
moreover, less lyricism than with the Germans, less sensuousness
than with the Italians ; but it excels in precious qualities of
expression ; of correctness, of sober and profound emotion/'
The emancipation from the Opera and the desired devotion to
National Music will doubtless be accomplished in good time, as
in other countries, through the National Folk-Song and Dance,
The study of the simple, natural and engaging National element
272
THE FRENCH SCHOOL 273
is exemplified in the four-hand Danses Populates Franfaises by
Tiersot (Lin.), the Vieux Airs and Basque Airs by Paul Lacombe
(Cs.) and the Ballet en Formede Danses Anciennes byBerge (B.P.).
The Chansons and Pastorales of the Troubadours of Provence
and Northern France in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries,
the later tender Romances and gay Vaudevilles, the Chansons-
Ballades (Dance Songs mostly in 6/8 time), the Bourr&e Songs of
Aubergne, the Noels and Drinking Songs of Burgundy and the
pathetic songs of the B6arnais in their simple, unsophisticated
style, give the key to the National feeling ; as do also the
National Dances of the old set Branles and Minuets, the gayer
Passepied, the lively Tambourin and the Rigodon. Apart from
the National movement, however, French instrumental music
has made wonderful strides in the last twenty years.
Emancipating itself from the Kalkbrenner and Herz trivi
alities on the one hand, and the absorbing Opera on the other,
it has, under the leadership of Saint-Saens (Part III, Chapter
XVII) approached more nearly to the level attained by other
nations. We may now give a brief account of the leading
composers of Pianoforte music.
The individuality of Benjamin Godard appears, as in his
2nd Romance (HI.), in passages of great beauty and tenderness
which are nevertheless marred by certain dissonant melodic or
harmonic passages persistently repeated. His individuality is
best seen in small Pieces such as the ist Mazurka (L.G.), Redowa,
Op. 141, Serenade Op. 138 (No. 2) (HI.), Suite Op. 103 (Jb.) and
Scherzo Op. 107. Instances of dissonant persistent figures can
be seen in the znd Nocturne (Cz.), the Valse Villageoise, the
4^A and 8th Valses, and the Op. 58 (Lc.), the effect sometimes
verging on impressionism. His powers of development are seen
in the movement La F&e d* Amour from the Sonate Fantastique
(HI,), in which the climaxes are well worked up. He essayed
the diatonic manner successfully in Collections in the " Style
Ancien " (L.G.). His tudes de Concert Op. 149 are useful and
interesting for variety of technical treatment. Paul Lacombe
is one of the few French composers who seem to have got away
to a large extent from the influence of the " Ballet " and the
excruciating augmented 5th, as, for example, in his masculine
yd Suite (Lc,), the noteworthy Suite with Orchestra, the refined
Sketches > Souvenirs t Airs de BMet t Intermtde et Lied, Toccatina,
etc.
274 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
The Piano works of Gabriel Faur6 are generally characterized
by broad melody and elevated style, as in his Nocturnes,
etc., but a bizarre habit of plunging into disconnected and
extraneous keys frequently makes its appearance. There is
commendable freedom from this in the $rd Romance (HI.) and in
the original and poetic Mazurka.
Theodore Lack (b. 1846 at Finisterre) is one of the principal
composers in what is eminently the French elegant style. His
Sonata in C (1904) is interesting on the whole, though thematic
development is not conspicuous. Generally speaking, his works
are characterized by melodiousness and piquancy unmarred by
the usual French weakness of triviality. His Moment de
Caprice (Lc.), Caldbraise and Au Gri des Plots (HI.) are in his
best style. The Polonaise Jor Two Pianos should be mentioned.
Ch. M. Widor (b. 1845), the distinguished organist, has written
two Concertos, a Fantasia with Orchestra, Suites and interesting
Miniatur&s, Dans les Bois. His Waltzes are melodious but lack
distinction.
Mine. Chaininade (b. 1861 inParis) is the leading French lady
composer. Showing signs of ability at an early age she became
a pupil of Le Couppey (piano) and Savard (theory), and she has
since won fame both as a composer and as a performer. Mme.
Chaminade excels in the dainty and charming inspirations of
the Ballet type, the Pas des Amphores, Air de Ballet, Valse
Ballet, Pas de Cymbales and the pretty CallirrhoZ Transcription.
Those of her compositions of the Romance type, as, for
instance, the pretty Serenade, the elegant, though not deep,
Ugie, the Valse Romantiq-ue, the M&lancolia, and the Romance
en Ri, are almost equally successful. The artistic Divertisse
ment Pastoral and Tristesse, as well as the four-hand Andante
and Scherzettino and the striking Dito Symphonique for three
pianos show to some extent classical influence. These are
attractive, always clear-cut, piquant and melodious, and the
same may be said of the Caprice Humoristique, the 4/A Valse,
Op. 91, the Th&me VarU and the Novelette (En.), Distinction
and elegance are the features of the one type, inspired piquancy
and charm combined with clever artistic writing are those of
the other. The pianistic world would be the poorer if it were to
ose the lighter compositions of Mme. Chaminade. Other works
ire a Concertstiick with orchestra, besides an Orchestral Suite,
Symphony, Trios, many Songs, and her Romanesca and Air a
Danser (Enoch).
THE FRENCH SCHOOL 275
Massenet is a clever but somewhat uninspired composer of
orchestral and operatic music, where he excels in orchestral
colouring.
In the words of a compatriot, " He has written little for piano
and his pianoforte music is not very characteristic : one finds
in it reminiscences of Chopin and the influence of Stephen
Heller. Nevertheless, there are some pretty things in his
Scenes de Bal for four hands (Hartmann), written in an
aggravating style (d'un style tourmente) and very difficult in
execution, and in his 7 Improvisations (Hartmann)/'
Of French composers in the Romantic style we have Henri
Ravina (b. 1818 at Bordeaux), formerly known as a virtuoso,
whose simple and artistic style is seen in his four-hand Pieces
Intimes (Lc.), Nocturne, Op. 55, Petit Bolero, Op. 62 (Lc,) and
refined Studies (see Chapter XVI).
MeL Bonis has written his Pens&es d'Automne and Meditation
(Lc.) in a dignified, refined and superior style. Gabriel Piern6 is
best known by the Transcription of his charming Serenade Op. 7
and graceful ist Nocturne. His fairy-like touch is seen also in
the Fantasinagorie and Coquetterie in the Op, 3 (Lc.).
Theodore Ritter (real name Bennet, b. 1841 in Paris, d. 1886)
was a pupil of Liszt and wrote popular pieces, technically effective
and transparently melodious, such as Les Courriers, Le Tour-
billon, etc. The pianoforte works of the orchestral writer and
symphonist D'Indy (b, 1852) are of slight academic interest only.
As a pupil of Cfear Franck he has a similar tendency to im
pressionism, Louis Lacombe's (b. 1818) piano works are
similarly uninspired. We may mention Le Torrent (Harmonics
de Nature) and the Transcription, Op. 39 as perhaps the most
attractive.
Henri LitolfE (b, London, 1818, of Alsatian parents; died
1891), wrote the well-known effective Chant de la Fileuse (Lit.)
and the Chanson du Rouet (Jb f ). He is known to posterity
principally as the founder of the Publishing House of LitolffL
His 1st and 2nd Studes de Concert (SI.) axe highly useful arxd
his Concerto Hollandais on Dutch airs is occasionally performed,
L. Wiirmser has written a very modern and effective
Impromptu as well as an interesting Idylle and Feuillet d' Album
(Cs,),
The works of Chu V. Alkan (1813-88) are principally of techni
cal interest. His tude$ Mineures, Pribres and Benedicts for
276 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
two pianos (Cs.) are weU written but, though showing French
facility for extraneous modulation, they lack modern harmonic
effects and, above all, inspiration.
Geo. Pfeiffer (b. 1835) has composed some excellent Studies,
an effective and original Bolero (L.G.) and some Concertos.
F. Peru's unaffected and charming 6 Pieces (Lc.) are French and
artistic. Fernand le Borne, like Wiirmser, depicts with the
utmost delicacy and charm of refinement his Scenes Fantastiques
(Lessarague), while Ch. Lefbre, in his dreamy Ballade (B.P.),
shows most artistic modulatory effects. Henri Lutz's 5 Pieces
(2 and 4) (B.P.) are poetical. The early works of R6n Lenor-
mand are of academic interest only, but his later works, such as
the Novelette Op. 60 (J.W.), are poetical, though somewhat
uninspired. Henri Eymieu (b. 1860) may be mentioned as
composer of a well-written and attractive Andante with
Variations, for two pianos. (Jn.). J. Jemain's best work is a
very modern Berceuse Op. 10 (Ct.).
Francis Thom6 (b. 1850 ; Mauritius) is best in broad flowing
compositions of the type of his Simple Aveu. He is happy also
in the dainty little improvised Preludes, Bks. 528 and 539 (Lm.)
and Papittons (HI.). L6on Delafosse is known for his showy
and melodious Fantasia with Orchestra.
Ch. de S. Delioux (b. 1830) may be mentioned for the tone-
colouring of his Carnaval Espagnol Op. 38 and Mandoline
Op. 28 (St.): Prudent for his Etudes de Genre (No. 6,
Feu Folkt on black keys) (St.), which are well written
and effective. Auguste Durand's light and unhackneyed
Pieces, Air de Ballet Op. 77 and Kerme$$e Op, 71 ; the
foe Variations by Chevillard ; the Sonata and Variations on a
Theme of Rameau by Dukas ; the Concert and Poetical Studies
of Ravel ; the delicate Tone Pictures of Lacroix aiid the
" heroic " Pieces of Vanzande deserve notice.
Claude Debussy (b. 1862), the impressionist and designer of
" atmosphere," has come very much to the front of late,
M. Calvocoressi points out that the inclination of the younger
French composers is towards impressionism, as is also the case
to some extent in Great Britain. (See Chapter XIV)*
He avers that the quasi-classical Suite Bergamesque (Fromont),
Pavane, and Minuet Antique of Debussy and the Sonatine of
Ravel are " full of really picturesque colour and of extreme
modernism in style ; " and he dilates on the daring harmonic
THE FRENCH SCHOOL 277
experiments of " picturesque and expressive music " of Ravel
and " the thrilling sense of colour" in works by De S6v6rac
(b. 1873).
In playing over the compositions of Debussy the question
occurs to one does their charming picturesque character
suggest the beautiful in nature, or does it remind us of the
languorous sentimentality which is often characteristic of Chopin,
and which one would associate with glamour of the Salon and
the artificialities of the relaxations of Society ? As it happens,
the Selection played may possibly suggest the latter atmosphere,
coupled with abrupt effects which challenge acutely the sense
of contrast. Can it be that this phase represents the real
Debussy ? Perhaps not I
An examination of the whole of his Piano works reveals to us
that there are, as it were, two Debussys, or shall we say, two
phases of Debussy an earlier (and, incidentally, an easier)
phase, and a later phase, which is more mystical, more individual,
less understood, yet, on the whole, a charming companion of
the keyboard. And thus it occurs to one that it would be
best for the student to approach the later phase through the
earlier, and, in any case, for the ordinary pupil to attempt first
the easier pieces in progressive order, and thus gain an insight
into those which are more difficult of comprehension. To do
this, suppose we take first the piquant 2nd Arabesque. An
engaging melodic sense pervades the whole with various little
asides or sudden incursions into unexpected keys. The effect
is charming and the piece is technically useful,
We next attack the Album " de moyenne force " (of medium
difficulty) and the melodious smoothly-flowing Le Bateau claims
our attention. The is* Arabesque, with its refreshing harmonies
and pleasant rippling character appeals to us next. These form
three valuable educational Pieces in the earlier refined Salon
style. The other items of the Album do not, at present,
especially claim our interest. Other items in the earlier style
which may be referred to are the Cortege et Air de Danse from
L'Enfant Prodigue and the arranged Ballet from the Petite
Suite for four hands ; also the Prelude from La Demoiselle lue
and the Pr&lude, Danseuses de Delphe. The next to be noticed
as introducing the higher technical work might be the Prtlude
Sarabands and Toccata (Fromont), There is no mistaking
the individuality of the Prelude, the scintillating, rich but
278 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
bizarre harmonies of the Sardbande, and the attractiveness of
the Toccata, which reminds us of Heller but with added harmonic
richness. The engaging Suite Bergamesque would naturally
follow. In this the Prelude will appeal to all its modulations
of key are not so brusque as in the ensuing old-world Minuet,
with its archaic atmosphere, which contrasts strongly with the
popular and beautiful Clair de LunexoA. the still more im
pressionistic La Terrasse des Audiences du Clair de Lune of the
Preludes. Compare the former with the Moonlight Sonatas of
Beethoven and Brahms and realize the progress music has
made iii the creation of atmosphere. After this the melodious
but antique Passepied comes somewhat as an anti-climax, so
that we long for the atmosphere which we find, for instance, in
the CathSdrale Engbutie (Buried Cathedral) -With its long-
drawn-out, swelling harmonies.
But we are almost getting along too quickly, for the later
style of Debussy needs an apprenticeship in order fully to
appreciate its effect. Three Pieces may serve for this: the
Valse la plus que Lente (Album de majeure force] , in which we
have the languorous, sentimental element of the heavy-laden
Air of the Salon, and the Mazurka and Valse Romantique
(Fromont). In each case we have vague, cloying harmonies
leading as a strong relief into a beautiful gleam of sunlight or
fascinating technical passage as in the Valse Romantique. The
former Piece will probably be found the more attractive. Other
works in this stage and claiming more technique are the
interesting Danse (Fromont) with its perverse Val$e~-deux
temps rhythm, and the Ballade, a well-defined melody with an
antique and varied setting.
In the remaining works we are well into the later style.
Incursions into it have been already mentioned, as in the
Cathtdrale Engkutie, with its " fifthy " chain of harmonies and
linked mysteries, and the Terrasse des Audiences, " in which
apparently unrelated series of harmonies seem to float in from
an outer world/'
We have the same barbaric " fifthiness ' ; in the Danse
Profane, in its subdued opening Theme, The thoroughly
Eastern atmosphere, which has become so popular through
Miss Amy Woodeford Finden's Indian Lyrics, is in evidence,
with swirling accompaniments, alternating chords and Indian
tom-tom effects an effective though mystical work. One
THE FRENCH SCHOOL 279
imagines, in the Danse Sacve, the presence of the whirling
dervish. Both need the orchestral accompaniment to realize
fully all the effects.
The Pagodas of the Estampes next claims our attention as a
masterpiece of impressionist Eastern scenes and unaccustomed
sounds, the native chant and the tinkling of Pagoda bells.
It is the undoubted drawback of all purely Impressionistic
or Programme music that its various phases have often to be
denoted to be intelligible. How many of us who did not know
the title of the Chaos in Haydn's Creation could correctly name
it ? Indeed, unless such music has interesting melody and
harmony, apart from its Programme, its existence can hardly
be qualified.
Something of this might be laid to Debussy's charge. Of the
books of Preludes, for instance, we might mention Des Pas sur
la Neige and the Srnade Interrompue, of which we have only
the background in the quasi guitarre. There are also those wild
flights which are possibly suggestive with a title, but incompre
hensible without as in the Hommage d Haydn, Voiles, Le Vent
dans la Plaine, Brouillards, Cloches d travcrs Us Feuilles, Les
Fe$, Ondine, Hommage d Pickwick, CanopS, Feuilles Merles,
Ulk joyeuse, that picture of desolation LaLune descend sur k
Temple qui fut, and the dirge-like Berceuse Hroique.
In Masques and the other Sketches of the Children's Corner
we have little beyond rhythm and the vague harmonic back
ground, with the exception of Ad Parnassum, which would make
an excellent study.
In surveying the various styles we encounter in Debussy, one
cannot help forming the opinion that he is not only an idealistic
impressionist, but also a realist. We get the former phase in
the Clair de Lune, and the latter, with its mixture of extraneous
and out~of-tune noises breaking in from the outer world, in the
Terrasse des Audiences a feature more developed in other
works. As in actual nature, we hear a jumble of sounds, the
rustling of leaves, the chirp of birds, the striking of bells and of
chimes in various dissonant keys. There is room in Music, as in
other Arts, for these phases of Nature, but we must not mistake
the importance of the phase ; realism is not always beautiful,
After all, the idealist, with his beautiful vision, is to be preferred
to the realist. But we can learn from both. Let us take, for
example, the well-known realistic fardins sous la Pfait* We
2 8o HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
hear the realistic 3^ ^p O f the rain, a melody floats out and
the shower grojg intermittent, but soon the pelting rain resumes
sway and jg {$ all. One can hardly say that we receive an
imprest o f beautiful flowers and of the scents of the garden.
Injge Poisscns a' Or we have no sounds for interpretation:
Jfothing but the gleam of a bevy of goldfish and a shimmering,
graceful movement, and yet Debussy has built up a more
elaborate composition of some thirteen pages in length, full of
flights of arpeggio, whirling tremolo and quick alternating chords,
The idealist here depicts a mental emotion that experienced by
a sight of the goldfish and endeavours to communicate the
sense of novelty and delight to his hearers : and the worth of the
picture depends on the sense of enjoyment experienced, and its
individuality of effect. There is again the popular Reflets dans
FEait,< in which the case is similar. A soundless picture is
interpreted in sound waves of rippling arpeggios, across which
comes apparently the chime of a distant steeple (an auxiliary
effect, with a pianissimo Coda dying away at the close. In this
more homogeneous of Debussy's works, the chime motive acts as 1
a connecting link. In the remarkable Hommage a Rameau, the
great harmonist of the musically primitive past is approached
through an orgy of modern harmony which would probably make
the ancient shade of Rameau flee in dismay.
Of those works in which the atmosphere is more definite we
can instance the Mouvement de Habanera in the attractive La
Soiree dans Grenade (Estampes) and the La Puerta del Vino
(Preludes) with their Spanish quasi-Eastern half-lights; also
General Lavine (Preludes) and Golliwog (Children's Corner), both
devoted to the rhythm of the cake-walk and endowed also with
melody a feature not always present in the impressionist
picture, with its lack of outline.
In conclusion it might be interesting to note what are the
typical features of Debussy's later style. Let tis take his well-
known Reflets dans I'Eau. Here we have (i) a pretty, scintil
lating accompaniment of secondary harmonies against a short
theme in D (page i, lines 3 and 4)* (2) Sudden extraneous
modulations (page r, etc.). (3) Remote modal or tonal effects
from use of whole- tone scale, etc. (pages 2 and 4) . (4) The use of
cacophony followed by a grateful burst of euphony, typically
French (change to >, page 5). Debussy, like Wagner, does not
invent new harmonic combinations, but makes daring use of
THE FRENCH SCHOOL 281
extraneous concords against discords (see page I, bar 9 ; page 6,
bar 10), or against other concords. As to the form of his works,
Debussy uses no more than is necessary to connect his ideas, and,
after all, the contents of a work are more important than its form.
In the work described above a short Theme appears thrice with
varied treatment and serves to unify the work. Finally, let me
advise the student riot only to try the above course, but to
analyse and find out how Debussy produces those charming
effects which appeal to so many admirers.
Maurice Ravel (b. 1875) claims attention as a post-Debussyist
not through impressionism but through his refined simplicity of
style combined with Lisztian technique. He is best known by
his brilliant Jet d'Eau, and beautiful Sonatine.
Of other composers we can recommend A. Fleury Intermezzo-
Valse of elusive charm (L.G.) ; Ch. de B6riot, UAmazone (Salon
tude) (L.G.) ; D. Fleury, Pr&lude (Suite Ancienne] (Jn.) ;
Em. Bernard, R&verie Caprice (Jn.) ; A. P. F. Boely, Danse
Villageoise (Cs.) ; Em. Passard, Op. 121 (L.H.) ; Lef. W61y
(1517-70), the well-known Salon Pieces Les Cloches du Monastere
and Bolero (L.G.) ; L. Diemer, a fresh Petite Valse (HI.) ; Luc.
Vieuxternps, Barcarolle (L.G.) ; M. Dubois, dainty and modern
Petite Valse (Lc.) ; Fr. Brisson (b. 1821), refined and technically
interesting Pieces, as L' Arabesque (Lc.) and La Volilre (L.G.) ;
Paul Paget, Minuet and Dix Pieces (Fm.) in tasteful style with
modern harmonies ; E. Nollet, a Thalbergian Les P&rles ;
Barbadette (b. 1827), Sonatas, Scenes d'Enfants, etc. ; Pieces by
P. H. Barbara (1823-63) and F. Bentayoux (b. 1840) ; Bizet
composer of Carmen pleasing Chants du Rhin ; Gounod, com
poser of Faust, Various Pieces in the sentimental style (Aug.) ;
Ch.Xhaulieu (1788-1849), Pieces and Studies; Hy. and L, E.
Jadin, Concertos and Sonatas; J. A. Ladurner (1766-1839),
two- and four-hand Sonatas ; and G. Louchet (b, 1840), popular
small Pieces.
CHAPTER IX
THE MUSIC OF THE NETHERLANDS
Cfcar Franck, etc.
IN considering the Pianoforte music of Belgium we must not lose
sight of the dual individuality of the people. There is the fair-
haired, reflective Fleming, akin to the Dutch and first-cousin to
ourselves, famous in earlier times for his superiority in the
pictorial art, and there is also the dark, lively Celtic Walloon,
akin to, and speaking a dialect of, the French people, and noted
from early times for his enthusiastic devotion to, and excellence
in, the more emotional art of music.
Going back to the great school of Netherlandish choral com
posers, commencing in the fifteenth century, we find the names
of the Walloons Dufay, Josquin des Pr&, Roland de Lattre
(Orlando di Lasso) and others. In the eighteenth century we
find Gr6try (1741-1813), who incorporated the pathetic sim
plicity of the Walloon Folk-Song into his Operas, He wrote also
some (for that period) interesting Pianoforte Sonatas. Later
times have witnessed the devotion of the Belgians generally and
especially of the Walloons to the violin, as represented in the
composers and virtuosos Vieuxtemps, De B^riot, Leonard,
Prume, Ysaye, C6sar Thomson and Musin, as well as the
'cellist Gerardy. Other branches of the art have been repre
sented, however, in the eminent C<sar Franck, whom we treat of
later on, and in Lekeu, Paul Gilson and the eminent Flemish
Opera composer, Jan Blockh (b. 1851).
The characteristic qualities of Walloon, and Flemish Folk
Musicas evinced in the following pianoforte scores, Noti
Walloons (Mu.), Dan$e$ Anciennes de Litge (Mu.) and the
eighteenth-century music of Ghent (By.), Popular Flemish Air$
(Berghs) (Ko.) and Arthur de Greef 's Transcriptions de Chansons
Flamandes, are cheerful simplicity and tunefulness, regularity of
tempo, mostly in 6/8 time, and a striking likeness to Old English
282
THE MUSIC OF THE NETHERLANDS 283
Songs and Dances. In the Liege Dances is one number, Les
Maclottes, which is practically identical with a well-known English
Hornpipe, and one Flemish Air is entitled, Hip, hip, hoera.
Since the Flemish are first-cousins of the Anglo-Saxons, the
resemblance is to some extent explained. Some of the
Cramignons, as sung and danced at the fetes in the district of
Li6ge (the Farandoles of Liege) and old Netherlandish airs are
very irregular in time, and this feature is reflected in the music of
Lekeu, the promising Walloon composer who died at an early age.
The general features of Belgian music, owing to the prominence
of the Walloon element, may be said to be light-hearted tuneful
ness tending sometimes to the trivial.
Among those composers showing classical influence are
S. Curtis, in his 10 Poetical Pieces (i, 3, 5, 6 and 9) and effective
Prelude and Fugue (By.) ; Daniel van Goen's well-written Au
Bords de Loing (Hm.) and Legend (Ff.) ; and Adolphe Samuel's
attractive series of Characteristic Pieces in Schumann's style,
0^.52 (3 to 6, 9, IT, 12) (By.).
Of the piano compositions of Guillaume Lekeu (already
referred to) there ares Pieces a tender Wagnerian Cfows0wn0/te,
a Vake Oubliee and a wild Nationalistic Danse Joyeuse all
displaying irregular phrase lengths after the manner of the
Walloon folk-melodies. In this division we may include the
two Scherzi of Philippe Rufer (Ch.) and a Minuet by A. Chesneau
(Bm.).
In the Romantic and Lyric styles we have the composer Paul
Gilson (b, in Brussels, 1869), whose charming Impressionist
Paysages and Nocturne (G,0.) show the influence of Wagner ;
also the pretty StrSnade Nocturne (G.O.) of Aug. de Brock, and
the quaint impressionist Album de Croquis of Eugene Samuel.
P. L, L, Benoit (b, 1834), who is also a writer on Flemish music,
has written an interesting and melodious ist Caprice and
2 Mazurkas (Cs.), Franz de Vos writes in Chopin's style. His
6 Feuillets d* Album, Mai du Pay 5, Moments du Piano (By.) are
sympathetic, artistic and recherche. We may mention also
P Crets, La Cascade (Bm.) ; Ad. Wouters, Moments de Musique
(Bm,) ; L6on Pagnion, M&lancolie (Ks.) ; the Petite Histoire by
Ch. Grellinger, the Ballade of Th. Hege (By.) ; the 3rd Nocturne
of J. Eykens (Ks,) ; the Impromptu and Meditation by van B,
Douglas (Fb.) ; as well as J, F. de Coninck (1791-1866),
Concertos, Sonatas, etc.
284 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Composers of note are Carl Smulders, whose dignified and
modern Concerto (Mu.) may be mentioned, and Sylvain Dupuis,
whose Op. 23 (6 Pieces) (Ks.) is poetical and artistic. Also there
is Maurice Koettlitz, modern and melodious Op. 9, 12, 23, 24,
25 ; Xavier Carlier, represented by an attractive Scherzo and
Chant de Soir (Cz.) ; Ch. Melant, pretty and artistic Romance
and Bluette (Ks.) ; Van Avermaete, Sarabande Op. 59 (By.) ;
Magnus D6sire (b. 1828), mainly Salon music ; Dupont, Op. 37,
27 (St.) and ist Rondo Ardenne for four hands (Cz.) ; Alf.
Mailly, is* Esquisse (Cz.) ; J. L. Gobbaerts (1836-86), an
educational writer under noms de plume of Streabog, Ludovic,
etc., and J. M. Gregoir (1817-72), Concerto, Studies, etc.
CSAR FRANCK
Cesar Franck (1822-90), the greatest of the Belgian, School,
is a mediaeval Mystic and Romantic, known principally through
his sacred choral and descriptive orchestral works. Franck was
born at Li6ge, whence he removed to Paris at the age of fifteen,
to remain there until his death in 1890. Having obtained the
Grand Prix for 'Piano at the Conservatoire he was apparently
intended for a virtuoso, and his youthful works, Op. 3 (Eclogue),
Op. 4 Duet on God Save the King, Op. 5, Caprice and Op. 7.
Fantasias on Polish Airs were written for Piano, An unsuccess
ful attempt at Opera, however, turned him into other channels,
and he wrote Masses, Motets, Oratorios (The Beatitudes), Organ,
Orchestral and Chamber Music. Five years before his death he
wrote some works for Piano and Orchestra : the Symphonic
Poem Les Djinns, in the descriptive supernatural element of
which the orchestra appears to most advantage ; the clever
Variations Symphoniques (Lit.) employing brilliant modern
technique and delicate orchestral manipulation, and the poetical
Les Bolides (Lit.), which is the most directly melodious of his
works. In the previous year (1884) Franck had written his well-
known Prelude, Chorales and Fugue, which, in dignity and style,
shows the influence of Bach and the organ, and the clever
Prelude, Aria and Finale (HI.) which forms a kind of sequel to
the former.
Notwithstanding a certain nobility of style there are draw
backs to Franck's art. A Mystic and Impressionist by nature,
it is rarely that, from the atmosphere of technical figuration and
THE MUSIC OF THE NETHERLANDS 285
short-lived imitation, he produces anything in the nature of a
melodic idea. If it were not for the lack of lyrical style, he might
be called the Belgian Schumann, whom Franck resembles in
subtle and mystic Romantic feeling. His strength lies in his
ability to create an atmosphere, as in the supernatural Les
Djinns and other works. For the rest, his vague outline and
freedom of form, the restless chromatic harmonies and quasi-
contrapuntal structure require intellectual penetration for the
due appreciation of what lies beyond. Franck's position in the
story of Pianoforte music is, in a word, that of an impressionist
influenced by Bach, writing for the combined forces of Piano
and Orchestra.
PIANOFORTE Music OF HOLLAND
The people of Holland are closely akin to their neighbours, the
Flemings of North Belgium and, like them, are reflective in
temperament. Attaining, like them, great eminence in painting,
and sharing with them, to some extent, the honours of -the early
Polyphonic Choral Age, they have not, as yet, become prominent
in the realms of modern instrumental music, , Their music does
not seem to possess any very distinctive traits and it resembles
to some extent their Folk-Songs, which are meditative and
sincere in character, but lacking somewhat in strong feelings
and vigour.
Little need be said historically of Dutch music here, except
that, as in other countries, instrumental music first appeared in
vocal or polyphonic style. Compositions were written for
voices or instruments and Om te singen op te spielen corresponded,
to the usual Italian Da cantare e suonare (To be sung or played).
In the pre-clavier period the lute was the universal instrument
The clavier became fashionable at the end of the seventeenth
century, but no Dutch Harpsichord or Pianoforte music seems
to have become prominent till the present century.
Jan Brandts Buys has made some interesting attempts in
Pianoforte music in the interpretation, of the National Folk-Song.
In his interesting Aus dem Lande Rembrandt's (Cohen) he has
artistically treated some of the Dutch Volkslieder [see ako
Altni&derldndsche Volkslieder, arranged, by Kremser (Lk.)]. In
these and the Tdnze und Weisen (Cz,) he occasionally, however,
introduces an ultra-modern style. Holland, musically speaking,
286 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
is somewhat conservative and the music is of the universal
rather than of the distinctive type, but the efforts of Brandts
Buys are in the right direction.
LitoIfP s Concerto Hollandais, as founded on Dutch Airs, is
another instance of what is possible. A promising composer is
Ulfert Schults, though he is as yet given to restless changes of
key. His Op. 5 Papillons (A.M.) and an attractive Tambourin
Op. 14 show originality and masterly grip. One of the most
important Dutch composers is Julius Rontgen (b. 1855 in
Leipzig of Dutch descent and settled in Amsterdam) who blends
both Classical and Romantic elements in his works (see Part III,
Chapter XVII) . Louis Saar (b. in Rotterdam, 1868) , who settled
in America in 1892, was a pupil of Rheinberger and spent a
winter with Brahms whose influence is seen in the two Ballads
(Srm.), the rugged D minor with a characteristic Nocturnal
episode, and the dignified one in F major. A Valse Noble and
Berceuse Op. 24 (Srm.) and a book of Duets Op. 21 (E,S.) are
very attractive.
Leander Schlegelin his 3 Pieces Op. 10 (R.), 6 Fantasias, Op. 15
(B. and H.) and Adagio (Suite, Op. 14) (Fritzsch) has the brooding
meditative spirit of Schumann and Brahms and the linked,
syncopated orchestral diction of Wagner, specially manifested
in the interesting Sketch Gretchen wr dcr Mater Dolorosa. The
Phantasie Walzer, despite its restless modulatory spirit, is
attractive. The dreamy Nachruf is technically interesting and
melodically so, as far as the Impressionist nature of the Sketch
allows it to be.
Dirk Schafer, in his richly harmonized and Schumannesque
4 Petits Morceaux (S.D.), strikes a pathetic note, while Von
Brucker Fock excels in his Moments Musicaux (A.M.), which are
ably written in a refined and poetic vein.
The Preludes of Job. Wijsman (A.M.) show elemental force and
originality of idea.
Van Tetterode is a fluent writer, but lacking in ideas, his
Op. 3 Etude Caprice being the best.
Henri Tibbe has written an artistically modern W alzer Op. 10
(A.M.). Ed. Silas (born 1827 in Amsterdam and settled in
London) has written much for Piano. His tuneful and well-
written Romance and Barcarolle may be mentioned.
J. H. Oushoorn's Impromptu, Op. 10, Serenade, Op, 22 (Lange)
and Minuetto (Lht.) are modern and melodious. The 6 Character
THE MUSIC OF THE NETHERLANDS 287
Sketches of Philip Toots (A.S.), depicting F. W. Weber's Dreizehn
Lieder show promise, modern style and disciplined power.
James Kwast (b. 1852) writes in melodious, solid but some
what uninspired style, Op. 8 Widmung (B. and F.) being among
his best. M. van de Sandt's (b. 1863) 4 Pieces (A.S.) are lyrical
and Mendelssohnian.
The 8 Seines Lyriqiies Op. 61 (J.A.) and Op. 17 (Lht.) of Alex
Heyblom are interesting, well written and tuneful. The Piano
works of S. de Lange (b. 1840), the organ virtuoso, who is settled
in Stuttgart, are organistic. We may mention his Op. 29
( Wernthal) . Of prominent Dutch composers of partial German
descent there are M. van Leeuwen, whose praiseworthy Op. 3,
Marionettcn Hochzeitsscenen (Lht.) is after the style of Schu
mann's Carnival.
Joz. Schravesande's Three Pieces (Lht.) are in melodious and
transparent style, and the Bagatelles, Op. 12 (i and 5) can be
commended.
The following modern works also arc worthy of mention :
J, G. Litzau, Lyric Pieces (Lht.) ; Jan Morks, Op. 80,
Miniatures (Lht,) ; Richard Hoi (b. 1825), Sonatas ; K. Kuiler,
Bagatelles (Noske) ; von Groningen (b. 1851), Suite for Two
Pianos ; Pieces by W. de Haan ; M. L. Hageman ; Berthold
Tours (who settled in London), Gavottes, etc. ; G. H. Witte,
Characteristic Pieces ; A, J. Ackerman, Duets ; von Boom, Duets
and Studies; A. Fodom (1759-1849), Concertos, Sonatas ; Karl
Heymann (b. 1853), Elfenspiel, etc. ; D. Koning, Studies and
Sonatas; C. M, Mansuy, Sonatas and Fugues; L. Coenen
(b. 1828), Octave Studies; Ten Have, Romance (Ct.) ; M. J.
Bouman, 2 Pieces (Lht.).
We may judge from the above that little Holland does not lack
Pianoforte composers.
CHAPTER X
SWISS COMPOSERS FOR PIANOFORTE
No very distinctive style attaches to music by Swiss composers,
but the National melodies have been set forth in four-hand Swiss
Lieder und Tdnze (R.F.) by Hans Huber and in Fantasia form
by Bern, Aus Berg und Thai (Hug) ; while of the compositions
inspired by Swiss associations in the favourite Styrienne and
Tyrolienne rhythms may be mentioned the four-hand Swiss
Suite by Wilm (Hug).
One of the leading Swiss composers is E. Jacques Dalcroze,
who writes effectively in modern style despite a tendency to a
somewhat French feeling for ineffective extraneous modulation.
His 6 Danses Romandes (SJ<), the Op. 8 (Jn,), an effective
Arabesque and Valse Caprice, a Wagnerian Nocturne (B.P.) and
the Ballade, Op. 46 may be specially mentioned.
Paul Juon is of Swiss parentage. He was brought up in
Russia, but is resident in Berlin. Most of his music is in the
prevailing complicated Lisztian orchestral style and shows some
instinct for melody. His simpler and most attractive Pieces are
Op. r (5 and 6), Satyr und Nymphen (i and 3) and an effective
Ballad (SI.)- Russian influence is seen in the more complicated
Preludes (i and 2) and Caprices, Op. 26 and in the four-hand
Dance Rhythms, Op. 14. The New Dance Rhythms, Op, 24, are
remarkable for their rhapsodical tempo ; scarcely two bars are
in the same tempo. Various times, such as 1/4, 2/4, 3/4, 4/4,
5/4 alternate, and the result is interesting though not very
dance-like in some instances.
The genius of Hans Huber (b. 1852, educated in Leipzig,
resident in Basle), shows best in those works of his which are
modelled on Schumann. His music descriptive of nine Scenes
from Heller's Na&laub (A.P.S,) is one of the most interesting
modern characteristic works, dignified and not without distinc
tion in style. Other attractive works in similar style are Op 86
(No. 2) (Sg.) ; 3 Pieces (No. 3) (A.P.S.) ; 3 Pieces (J.S.), Op, 77
(No, 4) ; Of. 85 (i and 5) (R.F.) ; the Skizzen, Op. 51 (Hg.), and
283
SWISS COMPOSERS 289
6 Romances (2, 3 and 4) (Ff.). The descriptive four-hand
Ldndliche Suite, Op, 73 (B. and B.) is attractive. Huber has
also written a Concerto (B. and H.).
C, J. Lysberg or Bovy (1821-73) is now known principally as a
composer of better-class Salon music, His pleasing Idylle and
Romance, Op. 46 are in romantic style.
The following composers are Swiss : J. Vogel (b. 1850),
agreeable Papillons (Ff.) ; Justin BischofE (b. 1845), Chanson du
Printemps (Ff.) ; W. Rehberg, poetic Barcarolle (Fritzsch) ;
Geo. Pantillon, Op. 28, Nos, 2 and 3 (Ff.).
It is quite appropriate that Switzerland, the holiday ground of
Europe, should excel in pleasantly-written instructive works.
Of these are the graceful Seven Pieces of A. Lambert Gentil ;
Joseph Lauber's Op. 13, No. 3, Op. 14, No. 2, Op. 23, No. i,
Op. 25, No. i, and Chaconne ; Eugene Gayrhos* Aquarelles and
numerous other works built upon good models, as well as the
easy pieces by Angelo d'Arosa (Foetisch), Gustave Sandr6,
E. Rostok, W. Grunbcrg, J. Hanson, A, Roth, Ch. Grellinger
(all Ff.) and P. Hahncmann (Op. 7-9 and 14).
A deeper note prevails in the Pieces by Hy. Reyrnond Pieces
Inkimcs (Nos. I, 2 and 5) and the Prelude and Fugue,
Switzerland has its advanced disciple of Debussy in Emile R,
Blanchet, aud just as Debussy requires an introduction, so the
student should try first his Barcarolles, Serenade Op. 25, No. 2,
Prelude, Op. 26, No. 2, and that striking Impressionist Eastern
Sketch Adrianaple, Op. 18 (Ft),
The leading composer of Swiss nationality, Raff, has beea
dealt with elsewhere,
CHAPTER XI
SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE MUSIC
THE people of Spain are a people unto themselves. Reputedly
proud and reserved in manner, they are also, in matters of
musical art, somewhat isolated and retrograde. At present the
dominion of Italian Opera is still felt, as it has been until
recently in other countries, and this hinders the development of
what would probably be one of the most individual of National
styles in musical art, In the past Spain has had prominent
composers in Morales, Guerrero, Vittoria, and the organists
Cabezon and Selmas, as well as clever theorists.
Early instrumental music was, as in other countries, mostly
written for the lute, and as such showed the contrapuntal style
of the period and the influence of the Netherlandish composers.
The hope of Spain's musical future is in its rich store of
unique Songs and Danc&s with their oriental flavour. Professor
Felipe Pedrell of Barcelona, the author and critic, has said that
" every country should establish its system of music on the basis
of National Song." No doubt, the National Dance is .also
intended, since the two are always bound up together, as in the
stately old Spanish Sarabande with its f I J J J [ J J
the Jota Aragonesa and the Joia Navarresa,
These two latter are in 3/4 time, mostly in two-bar sections
to the r
and in the minor mode.
They are danced to the accompaniment of castanets, with a
- m 3rd$, while the melody is played by a mandoline,
SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE MUSIC 291
In the 3/8 Fandango or Malaguena Rondena, with its guitar
accompaniment and castanet rhythm of
the vocal refrain or copla (couplet) alternates with the instru
mental ritornel.
Spanish Songs and Dances derive their names from the
various provinces.
The Bolero, with its
rhythm and more or
less elaborated castanet accompaniment, and the various kinds
of Sequidillas (written in 3/4 or 3/8 time in the minor )with their
quick changes of movement and of key are similarly performed
and belong to the provinces of Galicia and old Castile.
The music of Andalusia or Southern Spain shows most of all
the Eastern element, and is of a languorous, dreamy type with a
highly-ornamented voice-part, and to this belong the graceful
Tirana in 6/8 time, Fandango and Habanera types. The
Guajiras and Tango are akin to the latter and belong to Cuba.
The Andalusian Cachuca in 3/4 time resembles the Bolero.
Mention of these is necessary as showing the lines on which
much Spanish Pianoforte music is written, With these and the
5/8 and 7/4 Basque melodies, the traditional Ballads, the peasant
Villancicos and the ancient Romancer o$, Spain has ample
material for artistic development of National style. Spanish
music reflects the proud and pompous, yet fiery and vivacious
elements of the Spanish character.
Don Pedro Albeniz (1795-1830) has been called the founder of
the modern Spanish Pianoforte School. A pupil of Herz and
Kalkbrenner, he wrote some 70 Pianoforte works, such as
Rondos, Variations, etc., and a Method for the Madrid
Conservatoire.
His grand-nephew Don Isaac Albeniz (1861-1909), the com
poser of 220 published Pieces, was resident in London. His
Concerto Fantastiqus, interesting Sevillana Dances, Barcarolle
Cctialane, Cadiz Gaditana, Caprice Crtok (J.W.) and Suites
HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Espagnoks (especially the Suite Iberia, 1905) are artistic
compositions and fully reflect the Spanish style.
Gonzalo de' J. Nunez has written a characteristic Aragonese
and cosmopolitan Doux Songe (St.). Oscar de la Cinna has
written his tuneful Jota Aragonesa, Chanson Andalouse, and
Moment Joyeux (St.) in National style. His Moorish War Scenes
and Album of 6 Pieces (W.A.), particularly the former, are in
similar vein.
The Jota Navarresa, Habanera and Zapateado (after Sarasate)
by Berthe Marx (St.) are also interesting. Alberto Jonas'
(b. 1868 at Madrid and settled in America) artistic and attractive
Northern Dances and poetical Valse, Op. 1 8 and Mazurka (Srm.)
are not in Spanish idiom, nor are the beautiful and original six
Caprices Nocturnes by Rafael de Aceves (Lm.), though he has
written several Pieces in Spanish rhythm.
Essentially Spanish are the Malaguena Serenade and Jota
Aragonesa of J. Mulder (Jm.). The artistic Rapsodia Aragonesa
of E. Granados and his attractive Danzas Espatiolas and
Goyescas are well known, as is the Jota Aragonesa of A, Nogues
(U,L.) ; while the Eastern colouring of the Rapsodia Andaluzia
of Costa Noguerras is very apparent. In the impressionistic
Gabriel Grovlez's Child's Garden a quasi-Eastern atmosphere is
produced by simple means. The lighter Dances of Alberto Cota
(U.L.) are pleasing, and we may also mention the pleasant
Serenata Espanola of S. Lanrich (St.) and a Zapateado by Sant
E$teban (Lm.).
Spanish Dances and Rhythms have inspired composers of all
nationalities. We need only mention the Rhapsodic Espagnole
of Liszt, which is built upon two or three Spanish tunes the
much-exploited Les Folies d'Espagne and La Jota Aragonesa;
also Grenada by Delioux (Sh.), Fantasie by Gevaert (Ks.),
Spanish Dances by Moskowski (Aug.), Bokros by Nuchirez (Ash)
and Geo. Matthias (La), and the Alborada by Colomer (Jn.).
Lastly reference may be made to the Spanish Dances and
Romances (Aug.) arranged by Pauer.
Other Spanish composers claiming attention are Zabalza
(1^33-94), Studies, etc. ; J. M. Echeverria (b. 1855), Mazurka,
Serenata, etc. ; Guelbeuza (1819^86) ; and the young Anda-
lusians J. Turina, in his Sonata Romantique and Suites, and
Manuel de Falla, in his imaginative Spanish Pieces.
In the absence of information as to the works of the following,
SPANISH ANJ) PORTUGUESE MUSIC 293
which are very difficult to procure, we must merely mention the
names of Chapi, Malati, Saldoni (1807-90), Eslava (1807-78),
Breton, Morera, Rogelis Vellar, Bartolom6 Casas and Conrado
de Campo.
PORTUGUESE PIANOFORTE Music
The music of Portugal does not bulk largely on the artistic
horizon, so it is with some surprise that one finds Portuguese
Piano music reaching so high a standard as it does. Simple
melodiousness inclining to the sentimental, refinement, modern
technique and freedom from pessimism are its general
characteristics. The easeful and pensive melancholy of the
people is reflected in their art and one finds oneself comparing
their Pianoforte compositions with those of Chopin. The
National Dance Songs are the Fados with the rhythm
n
the Malhao, Fandango, etc.
The best-known Portuguese composer is Jos< Vianna da
Motta, whose Fantasiestuck (Cohen) and qth Portuguese Rhap
sody on CracAo da Tarde are attractive compositions, the latter
especially so with its modern technique and skilful and varied
artistic treatment.
An Idyllio on a melody from Antigua by A. P. Lima, Jr.
(Nu.) is in similar style, but inclined to be sentimental.
A. Kiel has the melodic gift and has written some tuneful and
artistically-wrought short works in Papillon, the 4th Book of the
Recueil, Douze Melodies and the 2nd and 3rd Books of the
Impressions PoStiques. Em, Lami writes in Chopinesque style,
as, for instance, in his well-written and elaborated Nocturnes
La Charmeusc and Gentilesse (Nu.) ; while J, G. Daddi approxi
mates to Liszt's style in his Andante Cantabile and La Milan
colie (Nu,).
The attractive and piquant Arlequin and Entr'acte of Th. del
Negro (Nu.) are somewhat after the French style.
J. Neuparth delights in dramatic contrast and daring
harmonies, as in his R&verie, Op. 5, Vision, Minuet and Charme
(Nu.).
294 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
G. Ribeiro has written a very tuneful Ictylle and Tarantelle
(Nu,) and F. Bahia two artistic and individual Pieces, Barcarolle
and A Briza (Nu.). We may also mention D. R. Silva a
Chopinesque Nocturne Op, 24 and Rondo de Concert (Nu.) ;
Vargas, Jr., a Scherzo ; E. Viera, Caprice Mazurka; F. Gazul,
Grace (Nu.), and Arthur Napoleon, the pianist (b. 1843), some
effective Pieces, Leoncavello's Spanish Album (Asch.) is a
welcome addition to this category.
CHAPTER XII
MODERN ITALIAN PIANOFORTE MUSIC
SINCE the decease of D. Scarlatti (d. 1757) Italy would seem to
have been almost entirely taken up with the pursuit of Opera,
while young Italian composers appear to be immersed in Wagner.
The devotion to the mental and technical subtleties of the
modern German School has apparently been the means of young
Italy losing sight of the glorious heritage of inspired melody
which has been associated in the past with Italian Art.
Wagner's many-coloured Orchestral style transferred to the
piano becomes of non-effect, hence the ineffectiveness of most
modern Italian pianoforte music. The hope of the young
Italian School seems to lie in the increasing devotion to the
ancient Suite, to which some of their number have a distinct
leaning.
The revivification of old Italian melody in this form with
modern harmonies may go far to form a modern and true
National School.
To Ihe transition period from Scarlatti to the present day
may be assigned;
Th. Dohler (1814-56) (see Part III, Chapter XIV).
G, Giordani (b. 1753) ; Concertos, Sonatas, etc.
S, Golinelli (b. 1818) ; once popular Sonatas, Fantasias, etc.
B, Asioli (1769-1832) ; Sonatas, Four-Hand Capriccios, etc.
G. Concone (1810-61) ; interesting Characteristic Studies.
Italy's modern writers for Piano may be summarized as
follows, taking first those who have been influenced by Classical
models :
Cesare Galeotti has written an attractive Sonata, Op. 32 (Lm.),
full of dignity and well developed, and an interesting Nocturne.
The technique suggests the influence of Liszt and Brahms, The
three Pieces, Op, 118, 122, 214 (Hm,), the Theme and Variations,
295
296 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Op. 23, and the Etude de Concert, Op, 19, though not inspired,
are interesting.
Alfonso Falconi, a promising writer, is vigorous and masculine
in his Suite (R.), in which the old Italian style peeps out, and
in the interesting and characteristic Canti dell' A Ilia (R.) and
the Serenata, Op. 39 (Hg.).
Alessandro Longo is one of those who point to the future of
Italy: he excels in the ancient style. His Prelude (Re.),
Capriccio (R.), Toccata and Fugue (Hg.) and Variations for
Two Pianos are effective and well written. Of Pieces in the
modern style those most instructive are Op. 16 (2 and 6) (A.P.S.).
Ed. Poldini, on the other hand, is, in one sense, a kind of modern
Italian Mendelssohn a poet of fun, witchery and caprice com
bined with a masterly modern style and clever modulatory
effects as in F&tes Galantcs (Fr.), Op. 30 (i and 3) and Op. 20
(No. 7) (E.S.). See also his Suite, Op. 90 (Chester).
Michele Esposito (educated in Naples now Prof. A. I, A.M.,
Dublin) possesses modern technique and style with pleasing
melody. His ist Nocturne, Op. 13, an attractive Op, 26 (No. 2),
and a well-written modern poetical Suite (7 Pieces) (B. and H.)
are worthy of interest. A refined writer is D'Ambrosio, whose
characteristic Chanson Napolitaine and tasteful French Valse,
Op- 37 (3) (J.W.) deserve mention. Of the brothers Fumagalli,
Adolphe (b. 1828) composes tasteful French Salon music
(Papilkn and Reverie) (Chd.), while Luca (b. 1837) writes a
refined modern style in his 2 Pieces (Jn.) and 2 Sketches (Hg.).
Another and separate Fumagalli, Benito, has also composed
some well-written works (R.B.), Frank Alfano is a most
promising composer with an ultra-refined, almost cloying
Romantic style. Owing to his ultra-modern style, his strength
is harmonic rather than melodic. His best works are Op. II
(i and 4) and Op. 8 (2 and 4) (Hg.), while other interesting
Pieces are Op. 24 (i and 3) and Op. 16 (i, 2 and 3) (B. and B,).
Carlo Albanesi (b. 1856 at Naples) is Professor at the R.A.M,,
London. He possesses an elegant, somewhat French style
combined with warm-hearted Italian melody. We may mention
his Aveu, 2nd Ballet, Berceuse and 2nd Gavotte (Ch.) and also a
well-written Sonata in B\> minor (B. and H,),
Eugenio Pirani (b. 1852, settled in Berlin) has written artistic
Impromptus on Chansons Populates Italiennes (R.) His
Valse, Op. 30 and Feux Folkts (SI.) are in French style.
MODERN ITALIAN MUSIC
G. Andreoli (1835-60) wrote a poetic Barcarolle and Serenade
(Hg.), and the following also deserve mention :
Al. Cajani, tasteful Barcarolle (Srm.). Da Crescenzo, Ricordi
da Napoli (Aug.). Al. Luigini, Reverie (Ct). Foschini,
Capricciosetta (M.C.) . Marchisio, Preludio (M.C.) . Leoncavallo,
Gagliardo (Bk.). Fr. Cilea, Op. 28 (i and 2) (B. and B.).
S. La^zari, 2nd Miniature (B.P.). G. B. Pollen, Capriccio and
Op. 12 (F.S.). P. Floridia (b. 1860), Op. 15, Epithalme (Hg.).
Busoni, Op. 9 (Re.). E. Wolf Ferrari, 2nd Impromptu, Op. 13
(R.). F. Luzzato (b. 1857), distinguished and melodious
Op. 35 (Hm.). Del Valle de Paz (b. 1861), graceful Pieces (Aug.)
and a Pianoforte School.
We may now set apart those composers who write strongly
in the modern Germanic style. G. Sgambati (1843-1914),
whose mother was English), above all his compatriots, has the
air of Classic repose. This and some feeling for melody renders
him at his best in small lyrical works, as in the refined Romance,
Op. 23 (No. I) (St.) and Op. 36 (P.), His 5th Nocturne, Op. 14
Gavotte, and Etude Melodique, Op. 21, deserve mention, but his
works as a rule lack distinction in melody and harmony.
L. Sinigaglia has a somewhat bizarre and chromatic style,
as seen in his Capriccio (St.). G. Frugatta's (b. 1860) rich
chromatic style is characterized by a pessimistic undertone and
lack of melodic spontaneity. His most straightforward works
probably are the Chopinesque Croquis de Valses (St.), the most
attractive, very characteristic Gondolina, and Andalousienne
(St.), the 3 Caprices (Jn.) and the Variations, Op. 36. F. da
Venezia shows also modern German influence, with the usual
technical fluency, lack of charm and National feeling. His most
attractive works are the Brahms-Chopinesque Intermezzo, Op. 5,
and Scherzo, Op, 2 (Hg.). G. Martucci (1856-1909) is imbued
with mysterious pessimism and orchestral Wagnerian diction.
His 4 Pieces, Op. 74 (R.) and a Concerto show him at his best.
M. E. Bossi (b. 1861) is best in the Wagnerian Ultimo Canto,
Op. 109 (R.B.), the Prelude, Op. 101 (Hg.) and a French
Papilhn (Hs,)- His Satire Musicale (R.B.) a piece of musical
f ooiinghas on e piece in ninths, the next in consecutive fifths,
another in the key of C, but only remotely touching that key,
and the last in two keys at once ; a Satire indeed which explains
itself, Bossi is a fluent and promising composer, but somewhat
lacking in inspiration.
x
298 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
One notable branch of activity in the present period, and a
sign of good promise, is the production of educational works.
The Italians Busoni (for Bach), Buonamici (for Beethoven),
Mugellini (for Bach) and Valle de Paz, are doing good work in the
preparation of Critical Editions and Educational Collections ;
while the National Collection of Old Italian Masters for Piano
by the Societa Anonima Notari (Chester) keeps before the
student the glories of the old Italian School.
CHAPTER XIII
SCANDINAVIAN PIANOFORTE MUSIC
UNDER the designation of Scandinavian we may include
Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Iceland, and Finland. The music-
loving people inhabiting these countries are noted for their rich
store of traditional Song and Dance, which was, until a century
ago, perpetuated by ear alone. Of Scandinavian music as a
whole, the distinguishing features are the heroic epic element,
and the peculiarities due to the use of certain instruments, such
as the Norwegian harp-like " Langleike," and the " Hardanger
Fiddle," with its extra vibrating sympathetic strings, an instru
ment used for Dances and Marches only; also the wooden Horn
called the " Lur," used in the Highlands, the Swedish " Nycel-
harpe," which resembles the " Langleike," and the Finnish
" Kantele/' which has five strings tuned to the scale of G, A,
B|?, C, D. The influence of the latter instrument is particularly
reflected in the musical setting of the national Runos, or Finnish
Ballads.
One feature of Scandinavian Folk-Songs is that the majority
are in the minor mode. Some begin in the major and end in
the minor, and vice versa, while some show the influence of the
old modes. Generally, also, they are in duple or 2/4 time. The
Norwegian, North Swedish, and Danish melodies (except Jut
land) are usually in 8-bar rhythm, while those of North Denmark
and the opposite district of Norway are free as regards rhythm,
and are more declamatory in style.
We have mentioned the Epic Songs, or Kampeuise, as they are
termed, as being characteristic of Scandinavia. There are also
the pastoral or Herdman's Songs, in which the "Lur" or
Shepherd's Horn is used. Coming to the National Dances, we
find that the Polska, and the Hailing, which is danced to the
accompaniment of the Hardanger Fiddle, are the principal. The
Hailing is mostly in 2/4 time, major mode, and generally taken
allegretto. We are familiar with examples of the Hailing and
299
300 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
of the triple-time Spring Dances in the works of Grieg. For
instance, the simple Hailing in his Op. 71 occurs in a slightly
different and more developed form in the well-known Bridal
Dance.
The people of our own country, who are largely, at least in
the northern half, of Scandinavian origin, should not fail to
be interested in Scandinavian Song and Dance melodies, since
some at least of these are practically identical with British
melodies.
The national movement in Scandinavian music is compara
tively recent. Formerly, like the music of this and other
countries, it was in foreign hands, and foreign models prevailed.
The movement bringing forward Northern Music and Song
which resulted in the foundation of what was called the Gothic
Union, with its Collection of Swedish, Danish, and Norwegian
Songs, proved to be the stimulus which was required to bring
the National Schools of Composition to life.
DANISH PIANOFORTE Music
Denmark has its heroic or historic ballads, Scherzlieder,
children's songs, love songs, sailor songs, street ballads, and
sacred songs. A recent Danish authority, Hjalman Thuren,
has said that " a greater part of the Norwegian and Swedish
Folk-Songs have the same rhythm and the same tonality as
the Danish/ 1
In speaking of Danish music, the prominent name of Gade
springs to one's mind.
The master of Gade, by name A, P. Berggreen, the compiler
of the best Selection of Danish Folk-Songs, has expressed the
opinion that the characteristics of Norwegian, Swedish, and
Danish Folk-Song progress, as it were, from the pointed and
springing outline of Norwegian melody to the more quiescent
form of Swedish and Danish melody. There is no doubt some
thing to be said for this comparison, though it apparently does
not seem to apply to Pianoforte music, for if we listen
to the delightful Nordische Volkstdnze of Emil Hartmann
(1836-89), the son of John Hartmann, the " Father of the
National Danish School/' who was born in 1805, we find breezy
and melodious movements which are certainly vigorous and
pointed enough.
SCANDINAVIAN MUSIC
301
The Volkstdnze were originally written for orchestra, and
then transcribed by the composer for the piano, (i) First we
have a Scherzo which would seem to anticipate Grieg, except in
the important qualification of modern harmonic effects, in
which Grieg was certainly one of, if not the foremost of all
composers. (2) There is also a Minuet, and (3) a Hailing, both
of which contain the characteristic Scottish snap, In this
connection it is interesting to note that both our Scottish Reel
and English Hornpipe are probably of Scandinavian origin.
The elder Johann Hartmann, the " Father of Danish Music/'
who was born in 1805 a^d, died in 1899 at the age of ninety-four,
and whose daughter married Gade, the composer, was the first
Danish composer of note who portrayed National characteristics
in his works, His Studies (Op. 53) and Kleine Novektten,
(Op, 53) are fairly well known. The third of the Noveletten,
written in Minuet form, contains Scandinavian features which
seem to foreshadow Grieg. In other numbers Johann Hartmann
seems also to anticipate Gade. It is interesting now to note how
that Emil Hornemann (1841-1906), who is known for his melodi
ous easy Studies , Piano Caprices, and Collection of Folk-Songs,
was living in Copenhagen in 1863, along with the Norwegians
302 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Grieg and Nordraak, and that these were making history in
their efforts to revolutionize the " old conservative c6terie/' as
Grieg termed musical Europe. Before we leave Emil Hartmann
I should mention that, besides his popular Volkstdnze, he wrote,
among other things, some attractive Ball Scenes (Litolff), a
Sonata, Op. 17, a Concerto, some Suites (Duet, Carnival, Op. 32).,
some Mazurkas, an Arabesque, and Caprice. The latter is in
brilliant style, showing the influence of Weber and Mendelssohn
as regards technique, and to some extent as regards style,
but is lacking somewhat in individuality and National feeling.
The second theme is interesting and inclines to Schumann.
We now come to Gade (1817-90), the chief Danish composer
for the Pianoforte, who, apart from his Nationality, deserves
distinction as one of the best poetical and characteristic
composers for that instrument.
Gade has been somewhat unthinkingly classed by critics as
Mendelssohnian. With the exception, however, of a few
cantabile movements, such as the Barcarolle of the Aquarelles,
his individuality, clothed as it is in a light, rhythmical, piquant
and refined style, can easily be discerned. If we go back to
Johann Hartmann's Noveletten we may note the origin of some
of these features. I am inclined to think that the long, tripping
staccato passages of the Canzonette and Humoreske, and the
marked lilting rhytm of the Capriccio, of the Aquarelles, the
Ring Dance, and Weihnachtsmarsch, from the Children's
Christmas Eve } are, rhythmically speaking, of Scandinavian
origin, while the light-flowing figures in alternate hands, such as
occur in Im Walde (Fantasiestucke), and the homely melodies,
such as that in the Canzonetta, from the Albumbl&tter> betoken
also an individuality apart from considerations of nationality.
Gade, we may say, excelled in the fairy-elf style as represented
in the small Poetical Sketch, and as compared with Mendelssohn's
pre-eminence in his larger Scherzos, which are designed on a
larger scale, Something of the light tripping style may be seen
in the elder Hartmann's Novektten, Nos. 6 and 2, and it is very
likely, as I have hinted, that Gade may have formed something
of his style from that of his father-in-law, Gade's larger works
do not chain the interest so well as his small dainty pieces, such
as the Aquarellen, Idyllen, and Albumbldtter. It is these smaller
works that Gade will, in all probability, be known by in the
future, though his Sonata, Op. 28, a little-known work, and the
SCANDINAVIAN MUSIC 303
Volkstdnze, Op. 31 (Br. and Hartel), deserve special mention.
Of his other works the Northern Tone Pictures, Op, 4, Fruhlings-
blumen, Op. 2, Op. 27 Arabesque (Br. & Hartel), and the
four-hand Marches, Op. 18 and the thirty Scandinavian Volks-
lieder, published by Peters, may be mentioned.
Gade was taught by Berggreen in Copenhagen and at Leipzig,
where he was a friend of the Lyric Romantic composers, Mendels
sohn and Schumann ; and at a period when these two com
posers were recognized, as they are to-day, as models of style,
it is no mean thing that Gade preserved his own individuality.
We always find his childlike and simple nature reproduced in
his compositions. In the Idyllic element he resembles our own
Sterndale Bennett ; in dainty power of characterization,
Schumann and Heller; while, as regards National feeling, though
to some extent overshadowed by the Leipzig element, there is
much we can point to in his works as a continuance of the
work of the Hartmanns.
Aug. Winding, who was born 1825, died 1900, and was but
eight years younger than Gade, was also a pupil of his, as well
as of Reinecke and others. Winding represents a kind of
combined Danish Schumann and Heller. Though he is at
home in the virtuoso element, as may be seen in his effective
Toccata, he is best known in the charming Characteristic Sketch
which was perfected and made so artistic by Heller and Schu
mann. Messrs. Steingraber have published a number of his
later works, which deserve, the attention of all who appreciate
characteristic music for the piano. Winding's Toccata, No. 2,
in E minor, Op. 43, will give an idea of his technical style. The
work is evidently founded on the usual Schumann and Czerny
model (a kind of poetical study in double notes), and is distin
guished by an interesting meditative melancholy combined
with fire and energy.
It is difficult, in the space allowed, to give an idea of Winding's
characteristic talent, but, taking the Recollections of Home,
Op. 44, we may note a lively Piece entitled The Spinning Wheel
a well-worn theme, but here artistically treated. A simple
but pretty Landler in the same book deserves mention also.
The Travel sketches from Far and Near represent a succession
of movements such as Hungarian Reitermarsch, Styrian Waltzer,
Tarantella, Gondoli&ra, representations of different climes. The
most interesting and the best, from the point of Nationality,
304
HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
are the two entitled Nordische Tanzweise and Auf Bergs hofie
(On the Mountains). These speak for themselves, with their
4//egreffo v/'vace
A/orc/tiche Tanzwe/se. Mfrnc///td
\6S J
" Auf Bergshohe " Winding, Op. 45
Mesto
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characteristic rhythm and plaintive melody. Of the Album*
blatter, perhaps the best are a very Scandinavian Im Volkston,
with its harmonies something after the Grieg style, and a
charming little Waltz.
Of the interesting book entitled Aus Her Kinderwelt, one may
particularly recognize the inspiration of Schumann in both of
the Pieces entitled In Sunshine and A Fatal Story.
These grateful Sketches of Windings, together with those
of his Swedish contemporary Ad. H&gg, may be fitly ranged
SCANDINAVIAN MUSIC
305
along with the world-wide popular Kinderscenen of Schumann,
whom we may term the leading poet of the child's musical
world.
Winding was for some years both the Director and the
Professor in the Copenhagen Conservatoire. Besides a Concerto
and Concert Allegro of his own, he wrote well-known cadenzas
for the Concertos of Beethoven and Mozart. Besides the above,
Op, 43-44, 45, 46-51, there are the Reisebilder, Op. 3, Genrebilder,
Op. 15, some interesting Pieces in the form of Studies (Op. 25),
Preludes in all keys, Op. 26, Duet (Op. 32), In Youthful Days,
also Op. 30 (Songs for Klavier), Op. 33 (Album Leaves), and
(Bagatelles), Op. 40.
Julius Bechgaard, born 1843 in Copenhagen, where he now
lives, was a pupil at Leipzig, and also of Gade at Copenhagen.
His PoSsies Musicales (27 numbers) are written in a poetical
and unhackneyed style. The shorter numbers are the best.
Bechgaard seems to have something of the daintiness of Gade.
An illustration of this is seen in the Arabesque from the first book.
, A rabesque. Bechgaard.
Perhaps the best-known Danish composer of pianoforte of
the present day is Ludvig Schytte (born 1850), who was also a
pupil of Gade. He now resides in Vienna, and is mostly known
3 o6 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
by refined and elegant pieces of the salon style, which I need not
describe, as they are well known, but he has also done a good
deal of work of a higher class.
His Nafarstimmungen, of which No. 3, On the Mountain, is
the most Scandinavian in character, and the Improvisations
(3 and 4) are well written and attractive, and we note the
Scandinavian style of the Minuotto in the latter piece.
His Modern Suites, written in educational style, show also the
influence of Folk-Song melodies in their short rhythmical
periods and artless and vigorous style.
Some of Schytte's excellent Studies (most of which are
published by Hansen), lean to the brilliant style of Liszt, of
whom he was a pupil. Especially is this so in his Caprices and
Fantasies, while his admirably written pieces for the young also
deserve special mention. His musical illustrations to A nderseris
Fairy Tales are dainty and fresh characterizations, melodious
and "attractive. A successful Concerto, Duet arrangements of
Danish and Swedish melodies, and a Sonata in B\? should be
kept in mind.
The Idylls of Alfred Tofft (Augener) deserve attention for
their elegiac character. His other works are refined, but not
always distinctive in .style.
It is interesting to note that in the land of Hans Andersen,
the world-renowned writer of fairy tales, so much music
descriptive of the pranks of elves and fairies should be fpund
in Danish Pianoforte music. Possibly the idea began with
Johann Hartmann, whose Op. 50 consists of small characteristic
Sketches with introductory poetry by Hans Andersen. We
mentioned its presence in Cade's works, and we find the same
element in the three books of dramatic Sketches by P> A. D.
Steenfeldt depicted in a simple but vivid manner, and showing
Scandinavian influence as in the numbers entitled severally
The Gnome King's Bride, The Fairy Queen, The Brownies,
F. L, Wiel-Lange, a clergyman, pupil of Gade and Hartmann,
in his four books of Fairy Tales f illustrating those made famous
by Andersen, has exploited the same sphere, Ludvig Schytte
and Adolf Hagg, the Swede, have also done something in the
same way. Of other works by Wiel-Lange, we may mention
Skovblomster (Forest Flowers), Vtd Low/aid (At Lowfald),
Stimmungsbilder (Summer Idylls), / Shumringen (la the Twi
light), etc. The latter are agreeable little Sketches,
SCANDINAVIAN MUSIC
307
We are all acquainted with the Wanderstunden and 'other
Sketches of Stephen Heller, depicting noonday reveries in the
forest and his sympathies with nature in its every mood. It
may be said also that Binding's more concertized Fruhlings-
rauschen appeals to us in the same way as a popular nature
study.
In P. T. Lange-Muller's poetical Reverie^, the Skovstykker
(Forest Pieces) we have Nature similarly revealed to us, both in
the gloomy depths of the forest and in its lighter, more breezy
aspect. Scandinavian atmosphere prevails, and the second book
is perhaps the best. The last number, Op. 13, partakes of both
aspects of the Forest Reverie. Other works are his Op. 66,
Fantasu, and Op. 26, Meraner fteigcn, for Duet.
The elusive spirit of reverie must be sought in the similarly
interesting Daempede melodies. Perhaps the first number is
the easiest to interpret. One wonders, in music of this kind,
how much would have been possible without the brooding spirit
of Schumann, the chief of the Romanticists.
Of other Danish composers we may mention Otto Mailing,
the organ composer, who has written sets of Humoreskes,
Fantasies, Op. 16, Rhapsodies, Op, 21, and especially Aug. Enna,
born 1860, the brilliant opera composer, whose life reads
like a romance. Enna has written some very agreeable
3 o8 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Pianoforte Pieces, though they are lacking, perhaps, in distinctive
style. The numbers of the first book, however, of his Eight
Pieces (Bote & Bock) are very melodious. The Barcarolle
will suffice as an example. Two sets of Characteristic Pieces
and a set of other Five Pieces by him are published.
Enna's grandfather was an Italian soldier in Napoleon's army,
who married a German girl ; his father was a poor shoemaker.
The composer himself, after a chequered career, was enabled to
study in Germany through the help of Gade. Other Danish
composers there are whose works may be said to be agreeable,
but without any particular individuality, such as those of
Anton Ree (1820-66), the Album Leaves of C. Riibner, the solid
but tuneful compositions of Victor Bendix, Conductor of the
Danish Concert Society (b. 1851), including a Sonata, Op. 26,
StimmungsbMer (Op, 9), and Five Pieces (Op. 2). An effective
Concerto in G minor by Bendix was produced in London,
December 6th, 1907.
We would finally speak of Fini Henriques, who is known
for his well-written Children's Pieces. Of his Variations and
Lyric Pieces Op, n, 15, 19, two former works have been well
spoken of. Louis Glass is known for some Sonatas (Op. 25 in
A\), etc.), composed in the Brahmsian manner. His Op. 20
I det Fri (six Characteristic Sketches, Out in the Open), shows
originality in a style somewhat elaborated and combines with
rich modern harmonies power of characterization, but lacks
any particular message. The Sketches, Op. 21, a Children's
Album, Op. 24, and Lyric Bagatelles, Op. 25, are by his pen.
Of C. H. Glass the sets of Pieces Op. 56, 57, 58 deserve mention.
The Fairy Sketches, Fra Nissernes Verden, taken from the
Op. 56, show originality, modern harmonies, and ability to
portray the Characteristic, There are also the Salon composers,
Hitz and H. C. Lumbye, to be mentioned.
E. F. Weyse, known for his Studies, I take to be German,
as he was born near Hamburg^ and I suppose of German
parents, though he is generally reckoned as Danish, Similar
circumstances attend Friedrich Kuhlau, the composer of
educational Sonatas, who, like Weyse, settled in Copenhagen.
It will be seen that for such a small country as Denmark
there are quite a number of reputable composers for piano,
If we summarize the foregoing we may say, though forecasting
what Is to follow, that the National element, on the whole, is
SCANDINAVIAN MUSIC 309
not quite so frequently found in Danish music as in Swedish,
and especially in Norwegian music.
I would suggest that the contrast is not so much of melody
of outline, as was opined by Berggreen, i.e., not so much in
lack in the quality of distinctive features, but rather the lack
of quantity of music designedly National in feeling. One might
say that National feeling manifested itself in different stages in
the three countries, Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, and that
there is more room for the leaven of Nationality to work in
Denmark than in Norway. Time alone will alter this and
show what are the possibilities of Danish music, as manifested
through the pianoforte.
SWEDISH PIANOFORTE Masic.
For a long time, as in other countries, imported or foreign
art held sway in Sweden, and it is only of recent years that
Swedish composers have begun to build on its foundation of
natural Folk-Song and Dance melodies.
I do not intend to do more than mention the names of the
older composers, Johann Agrell (1707-65), the pianoforte
composer of the Dussek-Haydn period, the vocal composers
Bellman, Ohlstrom, Otto Lindblad, Wennerberg, Josephson,
and Adolf Lindblad, the Swedish Schubert; the orchestral
composers, Albert Rubenson, Franz Berwald, and Sodermann ;
and Ivar Hallstrdm, the founder of Swedish opera, who all,
more or lessj wrote in the prevailing European mode.
As regards theyounger Swedish composers, it is now interesting
to note that, though they are followers, to a certain extent, of
Liszt, Berlioz, Wagner, and Schumann, they are still uplifted
in their aim of building upon the plaintive sweetness of their
own Native Song.
Before treating of these younger Swedish composers, however,
we might say that Swedish Folk-Song and Dance music, upon
which they have built, resembles that of Norway to some
extent, except that it perhaps shows somewhat less vigour and
variety of rhythm.
The Hailing Dance in 2/4 time and the Spring Dances, as in
Norway, are in use, and if there is any distinctive form, it is
the Polska, which is mostly written in the minor mode and in
3/4 time. The Polska, we should mention, was originally an
310
HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
importation from Poland in the seventeenth century. There
is little doubt, indeed, that the March or Processional-like
Polonaise, gave rise to the Swedish Polska, which, taking root in
West Gothland in the seventeenth century, took on its present
form and character. In the Collection of twenty Gothland
Polskas, collected by Ad. Hagg, we find still the old Polonaise
character. They are mostly in the major mode, and have the
familiar divided or six half-beats in the 3-time bar.
In Nos. 17 and 18 of these Polskas we note that there is the
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SCANDINAVIAN MUSIC 311
usual rhythm, but they show also the tendency to a florid or,
shall we say, Scotch-reel like character. In other parts of
Sweden the Polska has become indued with the plaintive minor
mode and the simplicity of character distinctive of Swedish
music, though the Polonaise character is still strictly retained
in the Fackeltanz, or Torch Dance (Svenska Toner, p. 10). One
may show the transition to the more characteristically Swedish
form through two examples in the minor from West Gothland
(Svenska Volkviser, I, and Fifty Melodies, 13.) In the next
example the quasi- Waltz or Mazurka rhythm in the minor mode
(most characteristic of the real Swedish Polska) becomes very
apparent. Perhaps we may say that many of the Polskas have
taken on something of the character of the Swedish ballad
[No. 10 (50 Melodies)], assimilating something of their dreamy
minor mode and lyrical form.
On the other hand, many of the Polskas seem to have taken
on the character of the quicker 2/4 time Hailing, which resembles
much the Scottish reel, and which again, as I have said, is
most probably of Norwegian origin.
In No. 25 of the 50 Melodies we notice the halting syncopated
character present in the Hailing as well as the Polska f In both
cases the accentuation of weak beats probably comes from the
original Polish dance. Those further interested in Swedish
Dances I can refer to the interesting and skilful arrangements
made for Concert use by Richard Andersen in something after
the style of Brahms' Hungarian Dances and the Duet, Swedish
Dances, of Schytte.
I have gone into the question of the Swedish Dance forms
because it is in these, as in other countries, that we note the
distinguishing features of National music. Turning to the older
of the Cosmopolitan School of Swedish composers, and putting
on one side those of the Classical era, such as Agrell, etc., we
come to L. Adolf Hagg, born 1850, the composer of a meritorious
Nordische Symphonic, and who, as a pupil of Gade, wrote
somewhat in his master's style, also to Ludvig Normann
(1831-85), who became known as the husband of Madame
Neruda, who later again was known as Lady Hall6
A quiet idyllic restful strain runs through the compositions
of Normann. Of his Op, 2, 5 and 14, a Vivace confuoco from
the Op, 2 deserves perpetuation, and when the therapeutic
influence of music comes to be more practically considered in
3 i2 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
the neurasthenic atmosphere of to-day, the soothing and
attractive Concertstucke, with Orchestra, Op. 54 ( R - Forberg),
will assuredly have a place.
Vivace confuoco. Ludvig Normann, Op. 2, No. 3.
Hagg's compositions may not at once commend themselves
to the present-day hearer, imbued as he is probably with the
hurry and bustle of the twentieth century. Like much of
Schumann's music, that of Hagg is introspective, and requires
a quiet, meditative hour for its appreciation. He has a good
deal of the quiet artlessness of Gade, of whom he was a great
admirer, and like him also he is best in smaller Pieces, though,
on the other hand, unlike Gade, he has little of the sparkling
and dainty passages typical of the Danish composer, and even
in his more energetic and brilliant compositions there is always,
one will notice, an underlying idyllic elemeht ; especially is it
so in the sweet Blumenlieder. These unassuming but artistic
little Pieces merit, I think, a place in the front rank of works
of that genre. The Characterstucke and Balletstuckc are in a
similar vein, but are somewhat larger and more developed.
One of the former is entitled Greeting to Frau Matilde Gade, and
is exceedingly pretty. The Epilogtle to the otherwise very
solid five Fantasies also deserves special mention. The
Blumensttick is a charmingly simple little Piece, with a weakness,
however (as in some of his other Pieces), and that is in the
connecting episode. Needless to say, Hagg's Pieces, as in the
SCANDINAVIAN MUSIC
313
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HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
case of most modern pianoforte composers, show the influence
of Schumann. The Blumenstuck and Balletstucke especially
recall this influence.
We know how the supernatural element plays a large part
in Scandinavian composition. Hagg's Kobolde und Nixen
recalls to us at once the elves, sprites, nymphs, and goblins with
which we are familiar through the fairy tales of our youth.
No. i, here instanced, I would name Dance of Sprites, and a lover's
song. No. 2, Hall of the Gnomes or Mountain Kings, with a
second Theme illustrating Happiness, or the lovers' meeting,
the last remarkable for its almost orchestral fulness of tone and
its harmonic richness. No. 3 recalls the elves' mad revels or
rejoicings, during which the Theme of the gnomes is thundered
out. This exciting last movement reminds one of the super
natural element depicted in Wagner's Tannhduser, and Grieg's
Hall of the Mountain Kings,
On the whole, Hagg's nationality is not very prominent, but
it is certainly noticeable in the fresh and artless melodies of his
short movements, as in the Volkstanze from the Characterstiicke,
d//egr6
the Kobolde und Nixen, and others. Hagg, we think, deserves
some attention on this side of the water, His characteristic
small Pieces take a prominent place, and their attractiveness
is increased to some extent by the flavour and individuality of
the nationality to which he belongs, H&gg, who was a fairly
voluminous composer, wrote also a Sonata in F minor, a Suite
SCANDINAVIAN MUSIC
315
Sentimentale, three Kleine Suiten in the old style, a Ballade,
Waltzes, Impromptus, and other smaller works. I should
mention, by-the-by, that Hagg's name is not mentioned in
English dictionaries of music.
Other Swedish pianoforte composers more Cosmopolitan are
Gustav Hagg, Hugo Sedstrom, Valborg Aulin, V. P. Vretblad,
and others,
Gustav Hagg, who is organist at the Klara Kirche, at
Stockholm, in general shows a strongly ultra-modern tendency,
as in the Collections of Pieces Op. 18 and 21. His quick move
ments are best, as in the Humoreske, taken from the five Pieces
Op. 18, which is both vivacious and interesting. Most
Humoreskes are nothing more, so to speak, than capricious
Caprices. Hagg seems to have something of genuine humour.
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HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Adolf Wiklund, who has- written a popular Concerto, is a
clever writer in the Schumann-Brahms style. Rich harmonies
and easy-flowing melody characterize the noteworthy Fantasia
of the Op. 3.
Hugo Sedstrom happily combines the rich harmonic effect
with a gift for melody, and is one of the most promising of the
younger composers. We note the attractive Pieces entitled
Mystik, with its Scandinavian atmosphere, and the sentimental
Idyll of the Op. 16. His Op. 15 (Five Pieces), Four Pieces
Op. 13, and Four Pieces Op. 12, are similarly interesting.
In the Sketches, Op, 3, of Patrick Vretblad we may notice
particularly the influence of Schumann, who, above all others,
has become a model for modern composers of the Pianoforte.
This influence is seen in the rich, glowing harmonies and broad-
flowing melodies of the Album Leaf and Canzona, which are
particularly attractive. The Op. 12 is also refined in style.
W. Berwald -whose works, by-the-by, are published by
Ditson, of New York, and whom I take to be a Swede writes
also in a very refined modern style, A Canzonetta is a good
example of his attractive manner,
Adrian Dahl writes with technical fluency and a command
of melody. His tuneful V&lse Ae Concert is interesting.
SCANDINAVIAN MUSIC 317
The strength of Miss Valborg Aulin's Pieces lies in their
modern attractive harmonies. They are generally dainty,
agreeable, but perhaps not distinctive in style. A Caprice from
the Collection of Pieces Op. 5 will serve as an example.
Ed. Rendahl writes in a very melodious though cosmopolitan
style. A pretty Serenade from the Eight Pieces is an instance,
Some of his Collection of Seven Pieces, however, are in National
style, and attractive. The Valse Arabeske by Gustav Brink
may be mentioned.
Richard Andersen, the teacher of Stenhammar and Wiklund,
is the composer of twenty-one freshly written short Sketches,
which form useful studies in style. His Pieces, Op. 14, and the
seven Sketches also are attractive.
Emil Anjou has written light and refined six Sketches or
Fantasies, which are not lacking in Scandinavian atmosphere.
Tuneful, attractive, but not very individual are the four
Album Leaves by Nina Wahlstrom, the six Pieces of the Sketches
of A. N. Myrcberg, and the Collection of Sketches of Op. 20 and
27 by Torsten Petre.
Miscellaneous items by Albert Rubensen and August Korling,
and a meritorious Idyll by Jacobson, may also be mentioned.
The leading Swedish Pianoforte composers of the Wagner and
Liszt rSgime are Emil Sjogren, who was born in 1853, an d e du-
cated in Berlin ; W. Peterson Berger (b. 1867, educated in
Stockholm and Dresden), the Swedish virtuoso Wilhelm Sten
hammar (b. 1871, educated in Stockholm and Berlin), and
others to be mentioned later. These younger composers are
not only more modern, but are also, I might say, imbued to a
greater extent with National feeling,
Sjdgren, it should be said, is principally a Song and Violin
composer. His Pianoforte works are somewhat orchestral in
style, and lean toward Impressionism, thus exemplifying the
modern tendency to rich recherche harmonies (in which, of all
composers, he approaches more closely to Grieg) and of the oft
accompanying lack of melodic inspiration.
His naturally big style appears to advantage in his Nuptial
March and the energetic and festive Sketch, The Village Inn
or Village F&te, from his interesting six Fantasies entitled
Wandering. These are well worthy of inspection. The rich
harmonic colouring and skilful working out of what sometimes
are insignificant ideas makes them attractive. An instance of
HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
this may be shown in a Sketch from one of the three lyric
poems entitled A Rower's Song.
The harmonic aspect of Sjogren's music comes out strongly
in the Prelude Funebre and the March of the Three Holy Kings.
His Op. 20 (Moods), Op. 14, Novelettes, and the Erotikon,
consisting of expressive Sketches in the modern style, though
showing Scandinavian atmosphere, deserve attention. Sjogren,
since 1891, has been organist at the Johannis Kirche in Stock
holm. Sjogren's work is distinctly National in tone. This
Nationality, with increased definiteness, comes out specially in
his beautiful vocal Romances as arranged by Peterson-Berger.
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Peterson-Berger, the opera composer, we may say at once, is
not as richly harmonic as Sjogren, but is more Scandinavian in
SCANDINAVIAN MUSIC
319
style. His Lisztian Norlandsk Rapsodie, and the charming
Sketches In the Highlands and Memories, from the Six Pieces,
and the new Collection of Frosobldmster (Froso Flowers) are
poetical, fresh, and vigorous both in harmonies and melody.
His first Collection of Frosobldmster is not as individual or
interesting, while the attractive Dance Poems again are Cosmo
politan. The Sketches in the Ladies' Album (Damernas Album)
are, however, interesting, dignified, and refined. The idyllic,
dreamy Reveries entitled Last Summer are also remarkable for
their Scandinavian and realistic or Impressionist tendency.
Quite similar in spirit are the somewhat rhapsodic Barcarolle
and Legend of the Op. 7 of Lennart Lundberg (b, 1870), a
teacher at the Stockholm Conservatoire,
Stenhammar, as I have said, is the principal Swedish pianist.
He is now Conductor of the Musical Union at Gothenburg, and
has composed Wagnerian Operas and Choral Works. His
Concerto, Op. I, is poetical and very interesting. Like his other
works, it is pervaded by an idyllic pensiveness throughout,
It is well written and technically attractive. The fluctuating
moods of theModerato, the fairy-like Vivacissimo, the Folk-Song
melody of the Andante, and the animated Finale, all go to
make up an attractive work. The Sonate, Op. 12, is a dignified,
high-souled work which gains in re-hearing ; while the solidly
320
HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
written three Fantasies, Op. II, are meditative and intro
spective.
National style comes again to the front in Bror. Beckman's
Strangaspel (or string music). Like the last-mentioned
composer, Beckman also combines with National feeling
modern harmonies and a leaning to Impressionism, A quaint
number of this work is one entitled The Scythe-Grinder Sings, in
which you have the squeaking three-note accompaniment of
the revolving grindstone with the Song melody. The beautiful
Nature Sketch No. 5, entitled Sunset in the Blue Mountains, is
thoroughly Scandinavian and interesting.
The Yuletide Sketches of Otto Olsen (not to be confused with
Ole Olsen, the Norwegian) are also interesting (especially No. 5,
SCANDINAVIAN MUSIC 321
Gnomes) for their rhythmical and National traits, A Sketch
by Wilhelm Svedstrom, entitled Pa Fjellet (On the Mountains)
is similarly of interest.
We shall conclude with compositions of one of the youngest
Swedish composers, Karl Wohlfart a coming man, say my
Swedish friends and of Andreas Hallen (b. 1846), a noted
choral, symphonic, and operatic composer, who was Conductor
at the Opera House at Stockholm. Wohlfart's Bildcr Fran
Landet, Op. 7 (Country Sketches), are fresh and charming,
thoroughly Scandinavian, and contain some of the harmonic
beauty one always looks for in Grieg. The Folk-Song melody
in the Ballad by Hallen is fittingly clothed in rich and artistic
harmonies, interpreting the words of the well-known ballad
entitled, There was an old King, or in the German :
Es war em alter Konig
Sein Herz war schwer, sein Haupt war gran.
This is an instance of the Swedish National spirit allied to
modern harmonies and methods. The result is artistic, but
no such technical display is endeavoured, as might have been
expected at the hands of a Liszt.
In summarizing the foregoing, I would say that Denmark is
apparently the least advanced in asserting its musical Nationality,
but that, speaking generally, it has two eminent composers also
of Characteristic Pianoforte Music in Gadc and Winding. We
noted also the devotion of the Danish composers to the Fairy
World, as exploited by their countryman, Hans Andersen.
As regards Sweden, its adopted Dance form of the Polska
reflects to some extent its National style. Adolff Hagg, with
his Danish compatriot Winding, shares with Schumann and
Jensen pre-eminence in the characterization of the Children's
World; while Sweden's Pianoforte composers in the Cosmo
politan style, such as Gustav Hagg, Hugo Sedstrom, Valborg
Aulin, and Rendahl, have written much of interest. The more
eminent Emil Sjogren, Peterson-Berger, Stcnhammar, and Bror.
Beckman, in their more modern style, have not only much
more of the rich modern harmonic style, but also much more
National feeling. Left in the hands of such as Sjogren, Peterson-
Berger, Stenhammar, and Bror, Beckman, the musical
of Sweden has little to fear.
322 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
NORWEGIAN PIANOFORTE Music
Norway, the land of the mountain, fiord and forest, has a
distinctive musical culture of its own quaint, traditional Folk-
Melodies. These, as has been mentioned, show the influence of
the old modes and the various old-fashioned instruments in use.
[See Album of Norwegian National Music, English Edition
(Hals.) and Scandinavian Album (Aug.)] Musical history in
Norway seems to commence with 0. 0. Lindemann, the noted
compiler of its National Song, and one of its first composers ;
after whom Ole Bull (b, 1810), the eccentric violinist, attracted
attention.
The first prominent name, however, is that of Halfdan
Kjerulf (1815-68), whose artistic Songs are universally popular.
His freshly-written Pianoforte music, abounding, as it does, in
distinctive National colour, led the way for that of Grieg.
Kjenilf and Grieg are, indeed, the mainstays of the Norwegian
National movement as manifested in Pianoforte music, Kj erulf
first made his mark with his Songs, and by Government aid he
was enabled to study at Leipzig, whence he returned to settle
dawn as a Teacher in his native town of Christiania.
Of his most prominent Pieces we may point out the sprightly
and vigorous National characteristics of the Caprice and
Humoreske of the Op. 12, the Frilhlingswehen of the Op. 24,
and Spring Dance, Op. 27.
Wvace
Since, however, these were, at a later time, eclipsed in some
measure by those of Grieg, it is not surprising that the charming
Mendelssohnian Fruhlingslied, the Henseltian Wiegenlied, the
original and beautiful Berceuse, Op. 12 and the ligie (Hals)
should be more popular, expressing, as they do, the suave,
artistic charm which made his Songs so popular.
SCANDINAVIAN MUSIC
The most capable composer of this period next to Kjerulf is
Christian Capellen, whose music, though not Nationalistic, is
broad and melodious in style. The artistic Album Leaves,
Op. 10 and Nocturne, Op. 12, the pretty Foraarshilsen, the
expressive Impromptu, Op. 16, and legie, Op. 22 (Wa.), together
with the Nationally energetic and attractive Mazurka Caprice,
Op. 15, and Scherzo (Wa.) all in Mendelssohn- Schumann style
are specially worthy of note.
Thomas Dyke Ackland Tellefsen (1823-74), a native of
Trondhjem and one of the youngest of the pre-Grieg School
should not be forgotten. He was a pupil of Chopin, and his
teacher's influence is visible in his compositions, as, for instance,
in the energetic and dignified Impromptu, Op. 38, and the refined
and well-written Nocturne, Op. 39 (Cs.) ; but the National
element also is strong in the Huldredansen (National Dance) and
Mazurkas, Op. I (Wa.).
0. Winter Hjelm (b. 1837) was trained at Leipzig. His
tuneful Danse Burlesque (Wa.), after the model of Schumann
and Chopin, as well as the Bravura tude, in Henselt-Chopin
style, and the Flying Sketches (Hs.) of Ed. Neupert should be
mentioned. Neupert was an excellent pianist who, after several
Concert Tours, settled in New York in 1888.
Leading lights at this time also were Johann Selmer, composer
of ambitious Orchestral and Choral works and successful Songs ;
and Richard Nordraak (1842-66), a talented Song composer,
who was the means of turning Grieg from the " effeminate
Mendelssohn-Gade Scandinavianism " into the sphere of
Northern Folk-Song.
Ed. Hagerup Grieg (b. 1843) is partly of Scotch ancestry, being
descended from the Greigs of Peterhead (a branch of the clan
Macgregor), his great-grandfather Alexander Greig having
migrated to Norway after the rising of 1715. At the instance
of Ole Bull, young Grieg was sent to Leipzig at the age of
fifteen (in 1858), In 1863, when residing in Copenhagen, he
received encouragement from Gade and Hartmann, the then
representatives of the Scandinavian School, and in the next
year, meeting the patriotic Richard Nordraak and Ole Bull, he
was again inspired by them to eschew the prevailing Germanic
style and compose on the lines of his own native strains the
Norwegian Folk-Song and Dance. Previous to the latter
incident Grieg had written his since-popular Poetische Toribilder,
HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Op. 3, which are in the Schumann-Mendelssohn style
characteristic little Sketches, not unlike those of Gade, but
already full of little energetic syncopations and short character
istic Norwegian melodic figures, as in No. 3, as well as of the
individual chromatic progressions and bustling little dramatic
episodes. In his next much more National work, (Op. 6), the
Humoresken dedicated to Nordraak, we find that the first number
is really a Spring Dance under the title of Tempo di Valse.
Nos. 3 and 4 are thoroughly in Norwegian Dance style and the
Schumann-Mendelssohn element is kept in the background.
The next work, (Op. 7), the Sonata in G minor, presents decided
features of originality as compared with other Sonatas in the
modern Romantic style. The figuration and rhythmical
effects, both due to the National element, distinguish the work
as unique of its kind. In the next Op. 12, the ist Book of
Lyric Pieces, four numbers are Norwegian Songs and Dances
(one, a Norsk or Spring Dance), three are in National style, and
oufc (the ist) shows the interesting influence of Schumann, as it
appears in his later works, giving rise to new and attractive
harmonic combinations and a more Lyrical style.
Op. 16 is the fine Concerto in A minor, one of his most
characteristic works, though not strong in thematic develop
ment. It is based on the leading Theme, commencing (a), and
continued through the interesting augmented interval pro
gression as in (b) and the 2nd Theme (c). Both are first intro^
SCANDINAVIAN MUSIC
325
duced by the Orchestra in the usual way (see Part III, Chapter
XXII). In the Op. 19, From the People's Life, we meet with
the vigorous Nationalistic Auf den Bergen, the Carnival, with its
rousing " snap" and the well-known Bridal Procession, which
is based on the Theme of a Hailing Dance, with its lilting
rhythm and characteristic persistent dominant progression,
as in (a), (b), (c).
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Of the remaining most prominent works there is first the
four-hand ist Peer Gynt Suite, Op. 23, with the rhythmically
interesting Troldans and Anitra's Dance, the harmonically rich
Death of Ase and the charming tone-sketch Morning.
The fine and effective Ballade, Op. 24, consists of rhapsodical
Variations on a Folk-Song melody, The Nordland Peasantry,
showing masterly and original harmony effects and modern
technique. The Theme is as follows :
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326
HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
The 2nd, 3rd and roth Book of Lyric Pieces deserve special
attention. The 2nd Book has three numbers in direct National
form : a Folk Tune, an elaborated Hailing and a simple Spring
Dance ; two show Norwegian style, while two the Waltz and
Canon, as well as most of the 3rd Book, are distinctly Schu-
mannish, especially the Papillon, Voglein and Erotik.
The 3rd Book is notable also for its harmonic and modulatory
charm. The roth Book is mostly Norwegian in tone. We must
refer our readers to the various works in order that they may
see for themselves their many beauties. Grieg's originality
consisted of certain melodic and rhythmic figures common
to the National Song and Dance ; suave figures such as
energetic ones such as
combined with an unusual gift for harmonic effects and artistic
style. The latter alone would probably have ensured Grieg's
prominence as a composer.
It is a mistake, we think, to judge of Grieg's works, on the
whole, either as " Norwegian Folk-Music sublimated" or as
having " much more of Grieg in them than of Norway." The
right classification is, as we have shown : (r) Those directly
transcribed from or inspired by the National music; (2) those
combining both Grieg and the National element; (3) those
poetical Pieces modelled on the Romantic style of Schumann.
Our composer, after settling for some years in Christiania^
retired to his villa near Bergen, where he was enabled, by a
Government pension, to devote himself to composition.
Those who know only the graceful and popular Fruhlings-
rauschen of Christian Sinding will not recognize the massive
Schumannesque technique and straightforward diatonic style
in which most of his pieces are written.
It may suffice to mention the Caprices (Nos. 3, 5 and 12 (Hs,),
SCANDINAVIAN MUSIC
327
No. 7 of the Intermezzi, Op. 65 (P.) and the lighter Duets, Op. 71
(P.) Also Op. 52, No. 3, and Op. 59> No. 3 (Wood edn.).
Sinding generally lacks individuality and often inspiration,
as well as the variety of rhythm and melodic figuration, which
are associated with Norwegian music, and he is best in the
Song-without- Words style. Besides the above, we may refer
the student to the Melodies Mignonnes, Op. 52, Etudes, Im
promptus, the early Variations for Two Pianos, and the
Concerto in D\>.
Sinding was born in 1856. He studied in Leipzig and resides
in Christiania. His Songs and Chamber Music are highly
esteemed. The Capriccioso (Norsk Jubilee Album) (Wa.) gives
a good idea of Binding's style.
Written in Norwegian style is Frederick Mullen's bracing and
melodious Norway Revisited (Swan).
Capriccioso Sinding.
Agathe Backer-Grondahl (1847-1907) probably ranks next to
Sinding as a Norse composer. As a pianist pupil of Kullak and
Liszt she made many Concert Tours in Europe, and her Etudes,
Op, 22, and Idylls (Wa.) are of technical importance. Her
compositions show various styles, including the energetic
Humoreskc (Wa.) and Caprice (Hals) ; but the most individual
and interesting may be classified as (i) the artistic and] poetical
328
HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
characteristic Sketches, Op. 36 (No. 47), Op. 39 (Bk. I), Op. 49
(No. 3), Op. 53 (No. 3) and Op. 59 (No. 3) (Wa.), which somewhat
resemble those of Grieg in refinement of style, but are practically
without the Norwegian characteristics ; (2) those pre-eminently
in National style the arrangement of Norsk Airs, Op. 30 and 33,
the Spring Dance and Swedish Polska in Op. 55, the Huldreslaat
(Slatt Dance), the rugged Ballade, Op. 36 and above all the
interesting Fairy Suite, In The Blue Mountains (Wa.), in which
she approaches closely to Grieg.
The best works of Ole Olson (b. 1851) have a specially rugged
National character and wayward individuality. The attractive
characteristic Dances, Op. 66, and especially the wild Tarantella
(Wa.), the savage Fanitul from the Pieces put together to form
the Petite Suite (Cz.), the rugged Sagn, Stampestubben, Opritt-
schnicken (2nd Album Comp. Hals), Brurslaat (Dance) (Wa.),
and Festforspiel, Op. 58 (Hals) are all interesting.
Olsen lived for some time in Paris, and his popular light Pieces
show French influence.
Johann Backer Lunde, like Sinding, seems to have formed his
style on the model of Schumann, as manifested in his Papillons.
His earliest works are capriciously National and bizarre, the
later ones preserving the Norwegian masculinity of style and
SCANDINAVIAN MUSIC 329
rhythm, and though they are not always melodically inspired,
they are interesting. Of these we note specially those in the
light, capricious style, the Impromptu in Op. 12 (Hals), Scherzino
and Valse, Op. 13, the Papillons, Mazurka and Caprice, Op. 19,
the Pastorale of Op. 18 and the ist Valse, Op. 20.
In the expressive style there are the Arabesque, Op. 13 and
Romances, Op. 13 and 19.
In the three Ballades of Op. 18 Lunde returns to the rugged
Norwegian style and the powerful Ballade in D minor is specially
noteworthy.
Signe Lund Skabo writes only occasionally in Norwegian
style ; he has the gift of melody and makes use of modern
harmonies.
The Norsk Pieces, Op. 15 (Zp.) and the light, almost French,
Op. 16 are very attractive. No. 2 of Op. 17 and No. i of Op. 24
are more Nationalistic, while Op. 19 and 24 (2 and 3) (Zp.) are
dignified and refined.
In Einar Melling and Catharinus Elling we have two highly
attractive composers of the Miniature. Melling, overflowing
with melody, writes in the refined Cosmopolitan style of Schiitt,
Of his interesting Erotik (Hals) and 6 Lyrical Pieces, Op. 3 (Zm,),
the Abendfriede and Voglein are very charming.
Elling writes in exceedingly dainty style. His Mosaic (No. 2,
7, 8 and 10) (Wa.) and Op. 50 (5 Pieces) (Hals) suggest a
combination of the fairies of Mendelssohn and the sprites of
Heller. They are Norwegian in style, melodious and original.
The Melodie in Op. 50 is a gem.
Eyviftd Alnaes seems to be one of the most promising of
Scandinavian composers. His style is massive, as though
founded on Schumann, but is fresh and healthy in tone as well
as Romantic and melodious in style. The 4 Pieces, Op. 4, the
original Variations, Op. 5 and 3 Pieces, Op. g'(Wa.) are all
effective and interesting, as well as showing Norse style,
especially in the Op. 4,
The Norwegian Suite,, Op. 22 (Aug.), Op. 30 and the Cosmo
politan Op. 32 and 37 (Hals) of Gaston Borch are tuneful but
not individual in style.
The composer Halfdan Cleve writes somewhat after the
manner of Sinding. His work is vigorous and full of technical
interest.
We may also mention the meritorious Griegian Legends and
z
33 o HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Nos i and 3 of the Traumbilder of Inga Laerum (Wa.) ; the
Railings and Slatt Dances (Wa.) of Chr. Teilman, a tuneful and
popular writer of Norwegian Dances ; also single Nationalistic
Pieces by J. Haarklow and Sigurd Lie (Hals), the Norwegian
Suites of Smith-Hald (Foetisch) and miscellaneous Pieces in
Cosmopolitan style by Elise Wiel, Iver Holter, Peter Lindeman,
Per Winge and Per Lasson.
THE PIANOFORTE Music OF FINLAND
Finland is the " land of the thousand lakes," the heath and
the forest. As the most northerly country in Europe it is also
inhabited by one of the most highly-educated of peoples. Its
National epics, appearing first in written literature in the
sixteenth century, and typified in the Kakvala and the Kantele
tar, are sung to the Finnish lute. Kantek, with its limited
minor scale foundation,
That this
j
primitive scale.has- strangely influenced the National song is seen
in the Sibelius Transcriptions of National Airs entitled Finsk
Volkvisen (N.M.), five out of six being in that mode, one with
the minor 7th, one with varying major and minor 7th, and one
in the major. Minum Kultani runs thus:
The Collection of Patriotic Songs by F. Paccius (1809-91), the
father of Finnish music and an opera composer, those of
K. Collan and Kajanus, the Symphonist, though individual,
lean somewhat to the Teutonic style, while the Songs of Sibelius
(F. and W.), brilliantly transcribed by Melartin, Palmgren and
Ekman, show him to be a follower of the characteristic National
style, as appears also in the now popular orchestral Finlandia
(B. & H.) built upon Finnish patriotic Themes.
The Finnish Songs without Words by Max Kroojc (J.A.) and
Wilm's Duet Paraphrase, Op. 140 (Hs.), partly based on Finnish
Folk-Song 1 , may be referred to as well as the interesting and
SCANDINAVIAN MUSIC
33*
effective Finnish Rhapsody by Ilda Tilike (B. & H.) on 3
Finnish Airs.
The Finnish School, though still young, is specially indebted
to the efforts of R. Faltin (b. 1855), Wegelius, Krolm and
Genetz for their choral works, and to the symphonic and
orchestral works of Melartin, Palmgren, Merikanto and Jarnefelt.
Robt. Kajanus (b. 1856) initiated the National movement by
his symphonic poem Kulkrvo (from the National epic Kalevala)
and by an orchestral Finnish Rhapsody and Summer Reminis
cences based on national Themes. The leading spirit in Finnish
music, however, is Jan Sibelius (b. 1865), who studied under
Wegelius and in Berlin and Vienna. Sibelius is a composer of
real eminence who has brought out in his Orchestral Legends
(En-Saga, Finlandia and Elegie), and especially in his Songs,
the rugged earnestness of the Finnish nature, interpreted through
the free characteristic rhythm, weird melodies and pungent
harmonies which are associated with Finnish music. The Finn
is said 'to be near akin to the -Magyar. Be that as it may, the
gloom of a land that knows no sunlight in December and
January is seen in Sibelius' Piano Pieces, the Barcarolle, the
Romanze (Bo's.), the rich and sombre Nocturnes, the sad
Schubertian Andantino } the Idyll, the arranged Dance Inter
mezzo and the popular Valse Triste (B. & H.). Also Op. 75,
No. 5 (Wood edn.) and Op. 94, Nos. 4 and 5.
These are rendered interesting by their modern technique
and by their unique, as it were, intensified minor element.
The Sonata, Op. 12 (B, & H.) contains very much of the
elemental National vigour and gloom and is extremely interesting
from this point of view, though lacking somewhat in cohesiveness .
The first movement opens in a Griegian manner, and a
quaint, sad Andante and wild Vivacissinto complete the work.
332
HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
The rich sombre passage here given is from the Barcarola,
Op. 38, No. 10 (B. & H.).
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8 O&.6
If the gloom of Finland is seen in the Piano works of Sibelius,
we have the sunlight in the more important Woftsof E. Melartin,
who, in his very fine Legends, Op, 6 and 12, and the Lyric Pieces,
SCANDINAVIAN MtSIC 333
Op. 18 (B. & H.) combines National characteristics with a gift
for melody and a richly harmonized style showing the influence
of Liszt and Wagner. The Legends are somewhat after the
style of Liszt's Rhapsodies and are very effective. The Lyric
Pieces comprise a Lied in Folk-Song style On the Mountain,
On the Shore, Twilight and Summer Evening (Finnish Fclk Song)
all thoroughly interesting.
In conclusion, an attractive Duet Prelude by Jarnefelt, Valse
Lente by Merikanto, Finnish Dance by Palmgren, and his
Op. 35 (Wood edn.) deserve mention.
CHAPTER XIV
THE MODERN BRITISH SCHOOL
THE recent renaissance of British Musical Art carries one's
thoughts back to the time when this country was ahead of
most others in its cultivation of music. From the earliest times
Folk-Song and the Dance have nourished among the people of
this country, the former occasionally influenced, as elsewhere,
by ecclesiastical plainsong. In the seventh century a knowledge
of the Harp and Part-singing was general, while English com
posers for the virginal and viols were supreme in the reign
of Queen Elizabeth.
When Handel arrived in this country in 1710, he found a
unique School of Church Music and Madrigals and the masterly
compositions of Purcell, who had died fifteen years previously
and had in his time been far ahead of his foreign contemporaries
Carissimi, Schiitz, Lully and others. The outlook for English
music at that time had reached a climax, and great pride was
taken in our National School of Composition. Unfortunately
the arrival of Handel and the Italian Opera put an end to the
prospects of our art until the recent re-awakening. Going back,
however, to the mainspring of all National Art the Folk-Song
and Dance abundant material exists for the foundation of a
National School:
The gay humour of the Saxon and the dreamy and passionate
moods of the Celt have found expression in stirring rhythms
and, above all, in an overflowing fount of melody. As M. Paul
Millien has said, " Melody found a shelter from scientific
complications in England. English composers preserved their
sensitiveness to the simple beauty of melody."
The rollicking old English Sea Songs, the old English Hornpipe
and Morris Dance, the vigorous and fresh Lowland Scotch
Folk-Song, the quaint and melancholy Gaelic airs of the north
and west of Scotland, the buoyant harp-accompanied melodies
of Wales, and, lastly, the cloying sweetness of Erin's airs, all
334
MODERN BRITISH SCHOOL 335
form a rich, heritage for him who can avoid the Germanisms of
Mendelssohn and Brahms and the Slavisms of Dvorak and
Tschalkowsky, and combine with sound workmanship and
modern harmony the many varied melodic and rhythmic
characteristics of the music of his own country.
In treating of Modern British Pianoforte Music we shall
classify its composers according to the qualities manifested, and
deal first with the older School of writers showing strong
Lyrical powers with, in some cases, the National tendency to
the Idyllic,
The two Sonatas of Sir C. Hubert H. Parry (b. 1848, d. 1918)
(No. i, Ash; No. 2, Aug.), both early works, are essentially
Lyrical in style, and modelled on Heller and Schumann (see
Part III, Chapter XXI, on Modern Sonatas). No. i is the
more attractive. The freedom of style of the Sonatas is less
apparent in the vocally massive Sonnets and Songs without
Words (also an early work) and the orchestrally-minded,
ingenious and continuous 19 Variations in quasi- Fantasia Form
(Ash) (Part III, Chapter XXIV) ; but the Suite in F (Nov.) and
the masculine Duo in E minor for Two Pianos (B. H.) are
written in masterly style and the latter shows strongly the
influence of Bach, the Finale being a kind of Toccata in Fugato
style. Mention should also be made of the Concerto in JFjf.
Sir Charles Villiers Stanford (b. 1852) has, like Sir H. Parry,
written comparatively little for the Piano. A resourceful and
interesting Toccata in C (Cpl.) is an early work. His masculine
style appears in the masterly Variations for Orchestra and Piano
on the old English Theme, Down Among the Dead Men, in which
the interest is well sustained, increasing especially in the
Schumannesque nth Variation and Canonic izth, which leads
to a brilliant Finale in the major mode. This work has been
arranged for two Pianos by the composer. In the Three Dante
Rhapsodies, Op. 92 (Houghton) we have remarkable nobility of
style and a clear portrayal of the spirit animating the genius of
Dante according to the chosen quotations, No. i, Francesca;
No, 2, Beatrice; No. 3, Capaneo.
" Nessun maggior dolore
Che ricordarsi del tempo felice
Nella miseria."*
* " That a sorrow's crown of sorrow is remembering happier things/'
Tennyson, " Locksley Hall."
336 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
The technique is Lisztian in style and effective. The work,
as a whole, is individual and English in style. Born in Dublin,
Sir Charles Villiers Stanford has also done much for Irish music
by his arrangement of Irish melodies. Ireland was always a
musical nation, though little has been recorded as regards Irish
composers for the Pianoforte in the past. In 1768 were
published Six Sonatas by a Mr. Bird of Dublin ; a Concerto by
Harden Smith was published by S. Lee in Dublin in August,
1770; Piano Pieces by Barthelemon appeared in Dublin in
1771-72 and Two Lessons by Wm. Heron in 1772,*
In Arthur O'Leary (b. 1834, d. 1919), who was educated at the
Royal Academy of Music and at Leipzig (and was a pupil of
Mendelssohn) we have a gifted fellow-countryman of Field and
Osborne, who wrote a charming Barcarolle (Bos.), Valse
Heureuse (Aug.), characteristic Wayside Sketch, No. 3, and a
Berceuse (Nov.) showing refined melody and modern style.
Algernon Ashton (born 1859 at Durham) was educated at
Leipzig and was also a pupil of Raff. Ashton is a disciple of the
Schumann-Brahms School. His tendency to nobility of style
is unfortunately discounted by perpetual turgid writing, and his
melody and harmony also lack distinction. The most acceptable
of his works are the Albumbldtter (Cz.), portions of the Gedanken-
spiele (K.), the Fandango (Aug.), the effective English, Scotch
and Irish Dances for Duet, the fanciful Berceuse and the neatly-
written Perfietuum Mobile.
The somewhat Mendelssohnian Sonata, Op. 45 (Aug.) of John
Francis Barnett . (b. 1837) is interesting and fresh, while his
Twrantelle (Aug.), St. Agnes' Eve, Chopinesque Valse Brillante
and Valse Caprice (B. & H.), as well as the pleasing Intermezzo
and Gavotte, are modern in harmony, melodious and effective.
Francis E. Bache (1833-58), whose early death was a loss to
English music, reminds one, in his youthful flan and spirit of
Mayer and WoUenhaupt, as, for instance, in his brilliant and gay
Souvenir d'ltalie, No, i (Aug.), L' Irresistible (Aug.) and the
Poknai$.e> Op. 49 (Ash) ; while a fresh, healthy, Lyrical style
pervades the attractive La Penserosa and L' Allegro, the
2 Romances, the Barcaroti&(A.ug.) and the 4 Mazurkas. These are
all good instructive Pieces. Bache was taught by Sterndale
an* wdsefested for ttee details t Pxu Qrattan Flood, the leading
n Irish Music.
MODERN BRITISH SCHOOL 337
Bennett and at Leipzig. He wrote also some pretty Character
istic Pieces and a Concerto, etc. His younger brother, Walter
Bache, devoted his life to the propaganda of Liszt's music in
England.
Walter C. Macfarren (1826-1905) in his Rondeau d la Berceuse,
Album Leaf and Rondino Grazioso shows a graceful English
Lyric style, though lacking in distinctive harmonic effects. His
3rd Tarantella and yd and qth Polonaises are among the best
examples of his useful teaching Pieces. The 12 Studies also are
well written and melodious.
Ignace Gibson (b. in London, 1826) has written pleasant Pieces
for teaching purposes, as in his Meditations, Carmencita (Ash)
and Podolia (Leonard).
Michael Watson (Jules Favre) excels in the attractive Old
English characteristic Dances the Morris Dance, Hornpipe,
Branle, etc,
Henry Parker (b. 1845) is also known for Sarabands and
Pavan (Cramer) in the older style,
The Lyric and Idyllic style has been continued by the
following (mostly) younger composers :
Josef Holbrooke (b. 1878), one of the most promising of
British composers, in, his 4 Pieces (Hammond), Air de Ballet
(Vincent) and Esqwisses (Leonard), possesses all the charm and
finish of the French School without being Gallic in conception,
His harmonies are original and modern.
S. B, Mills (b, at Cirencester, 1838) was a pupil of Sterndale
Bennett and at Leipzig, and settled in New York in 1859,
He died in 1898 at Wiesbaden. Mills was a brilliant pianist
and wrote some very attractive works, for example, his Barcarolle
Op. 12 (J.S,), ist Tarantella and Caprice, Op, 24 (Pd.), which are
melodious, well written and effective.
Percy Sherwood (b. 1866, educated and resident in Dresden)
has written charming poetical Miniatures, Op, 9 (Kistner) and
a well-written Capriccio in the Idyllic style,
Charles Vincent in his modern Vake Poitique and Alkgr
Vivact> Walford Davies, in his unpretentious but effective
3 Pisces (Or.), and H. W. Nicholls (born in Birmingham and
settled in America) in the emotional and curiously rhapsodical
Op. 22 (Rab.) and Op. 21 (B. & B,) also deserve mention.
Walter Fitton, in his attractive Pastoral Romance and Meii
tation, combines fresh melody with modern harmonies.
338 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Ketelbey's and Denis Dupre's very tuneful and graceful teaching
Pieces also. deserve mention.
We now come to those whose style is peculiarly English in tone.
Herbert F. Sharpe (b. 1861 and educated at the National
Training School), in his English Pastorals, comprising My
Country, Pastoral, Country Revels, Elegy, Courtly Lance and
Morris Dance (Woolhouse) gives us the atmosphere of the
typically English merry Jig, the Maypole, the Morris Dance
and the salt-sea wave. He combines delicacy and skill with
National characteristics. His 5 Characteristic Pieces for Duet
(Woolhouse) are well written.
Arthur Somervell, in the charming Spring Fancies (St. Lucas),
the 6 Dances for Duet (Leonard), the melodious Romance of the
Ball and the Pan Pipes, No. 3, gives us overflowing melody and
idyllic tone in the Pastoral Pieces and quaint gambolling in
the Dances.
Ed. German (Jones) (b. 1862 of Welsh descent) has not
written much Piano music. His beautiful Abendlied (S.L.),
Graceful Dance (Ash) and four-hand Caprice (Suite) are specially
melodious.
The well-known Sir Frederic H. Cowen (b. 1852), in his few
Piano works, the Months (Nov.) and the Concertsttick for Piano
and Orchestra, Romance and Scherzo, shows individual Lyric
style.
Another class of the younger generation has caught some
thing of modern Romance and manifests it in addition to natural
Lyricism. The late lamented Wm. Y. Hurlstone (1876-1906),
who died full of promise, is at present known by his charming
Miniatures, Op. 8 (J.W.) in which he shows originality of idiom
and piquant harmonic effects. Hurlstone was trained at the
Royal College of Music, and had written a Concerto, Capriccio
(performed from MS. in 1902) and other works,
John B. McEwen is known for his important, well-developed
and attractive Sonata in E minor evincing a command of modern
technique; while the intellectual and modern Concerto of
Donald Tovey has been successfully performed in public. In
liue 9 Preludes of Paul Corder (Avison) we have dramatic
Sketches in modern style tending towards the ultra-modern
phase of Impressionism. In No. 5 he shows striking harmonic
Benjamin Dale has written a remarkable Sonata in D minor
MODERN BRITISH SCHOOL 339
Avison), full of passion and modern feeling and Lisztian
technique combined with a tendency to over-elaboration.
Norman O'Neill, in his Op. 4, Four Pieces (Forsyth) and an
original Gavotte (Scht.) shows a fund of quaint melody combined
with modern style (see Irish Composers) .
George H. Clutsam (born in Australia) in his tudes Pittor-
esques (En,) excels in the dreamy Romantic style ; while Louis
R6e, a pupil of Leschetitzky, who lives in Vienna, displays
strength, melody and originality in his Op. 7 (5 Pieces).
In the Pianoforte works of W. Wolstenholme, the blind
organist, we find a beautiful and original Liebeslied, a Gallic
Spanish Serenade and a sentimental though refined Melody
in F and Romanza (Lengnick). He has also made essays in
the Antique style.
A number of commendable individual works may be men
tioned: the Caprice Vake (En.) in French style, of Herbert
Bunning; the Petites Danseuses (Un.) of Herbert Botting;
the dignified and modern Album Leaf (Ash) by Ch. Dunkley;
a Nocturne by Cliffe Forrester (Wl.) ; a Romance (Aug.) by
E. Duncan ; Noontide Reveries (Un.) by H. Blair ; a Serenade by
Hopekirk (Patterson) ; a Barcarolle (S.L.) by Mary Carmichael;
a Romantic Sonata and tuneful Vake Arabesque (Aug.) by
Horace Barton (born in Port Elizabeth, Cape Colony) ; Four
Sketches by Ethel Barns (Cramer) ; a modern and impressive
Prelude (Hammond) and various instructive Pieces by Albert
Ketelbey; and an attractive Suite for Duet by S, P.
Waddington. The melodious and well-written Barcarolle and
Jagdlied (B. & H.) by J. A. Jeffrey ; the cultured Penstes
Lyriques (Laudy) of R. K. Armitage ; the Cabalette (Scht.) by
Percy Godfrey; the effective Variations on a Swedish Air by
Theodore Holland (educated Royal Academy of Music., resident
in Berlin) ; the Humoresque by Martin Shaw ; and the Impressions
(Gary) by H. Jervis Read are also worthy of notice.
There are graceful pieces in Sydney Rosenbloom's Sketch Book
(Bos.), and he has composed a well- written Barcarolle (Avison),
Serenade (Gary) and Op. 6 (i and 3) (Aug.), which are interesting
both in melody and harmony. A. H. Brewer's 3 Pieces (Aug.)
are tuneful and the Old English Dances by Edward L, Bainton
are very attractive.
Perhaps the best-known of British composers in the Romantic
style is " Anton Strelezki," the nom de plume of Mr. Burnand, a
340 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
cousin of Sir Francis Burnand, who was born in 1859 at Croydon
and trained at Leipzig.
Mr. Burnand also has written much in the educational Salon
style under the nom de plume of " Stephan Essipoff." His most
familiar works in this country are those in the style of Serenades,
full of con amore melody with wide-sweeping arpeggio accom
paniments and resounding low bass foundation, as, for example,
in his delicately finished Spanish Serenade ( J. W.) . Mr. Burnand
has, however, cultivated other styles most successfully and with
Lisztian technique in the brilliant and effective Op. 120 (No. 2)
(P. & M.), Op. 91*, Op. 89 (Nos. 3, 7*, 8*, 5 and i), (R.F.) in
the Chopinesque Nocturnes, Op. 104 (R.F.) and Op. 120 (No. i*)
(P. & M.), and in the Valses Mignonnes, Nos. 2 and 3 (R.F.)
written in the piquant French style. (Those marked * deserve
special attention.)
Also in the expressive and lyrical Op. 89 (No. 2) (R.F.),
Landschaft and Valse Pottique (F.S.), Songs without Words
(U. Ed.) and Eight Pieces (Nov.) ; while local colouring is seen
in the Mazurka, Op. 89 (R.F.), the Ungarisch (J.W.) and the
Duet Danses Espagnoles (Aug.).
At the head of those who have written in the characteristic
style stands Graham P. Moore, whom younger composers, how
ever, are now running close. Moore was born in Australia
(1859), studied in Berlin, and was later Professor at the Royal
College of Music. His earlier works belong to the Mendelssohn-
Heller School. Of the collective volume of his works (B. & H.)
tlie Valse Capricieuse, Pleading and Valse Po6tique are interest
ing; and two numbers of th,Q.Chromatische tuden are useful.
; The xst Book of his Op. 12, The Village Wedding, is a happy
example of his power of characterization, and the W#ihnacht$~
gabe, Op. 39 (Christmas Gifts) are also delightful Pieces in the
same style. The Op. 35, nine Clavier Pieces in Study form,
the Rhapsodic Polonaise, Op. 41, the Tarantelle, Op. 22 and
Attwm Miniature (all B. & H.) are excellent virtuoso pieces,
foesh and interesting, effective and grateful to play.
,,;; One interesting section of the Characteristic is shown by
^ijiyer Bang m his imitation of the styles of Grieg, Henselt,
jfeler anl Liszt in his 3rd Book oi Miniatures, the first being
^e most successful ; while Percy C. Buck evinces sterling merit
Sdpmarnie&que Albira Seven Days of the
Two welt-written sketches, The Old Castle and
MODERN BRITISH SCHOOL 34*
The Wishing Well by Katharine E. Eggar show considerable
descriptive power. The piquant and individual Minuet and
Humoreske by Martin Shaw (Lengnick) may also be mentioned.
H. Far j eon, in his Night Music, Pictures from Greece, Tone
Pictures, Part IV and Swan Song (Aug.) shows the gift of dainty
melody and characterization. He has written a Brahmsian
Sonata, Op. 43 (Ash) and has breathed the spirit of the Dance
into the Miniature Sonata. The characteristic element is also
strongly in evidence in his interesting Concerto and in the Four
Winds for orchestra and piano (Aug.). Ernest Austin (b. 1874)
excels in the poetical Miniature, as in his interesting and refined
37 Short Pieces for a Musical Calendar (M.S.), and in a five-
sectioned Musical Poem, Op. 28 (M.S.). Lindsay Kearne, a
composer of Chamber music, in his 7 Short Pieces, Sylvan Song
and B minor Nocturne (M.S.) shows refined melody and powers
of expression. Joseph Hathaway and Alfred H. Barley are also
cultivating this style,
" Florian Pascal " (nom de plume] has also successfully culti
vated local tone colour in his four Spanish Rhapsodies and
5 Sketches in the Irish style (J.W.). Geehl's Suite Espagnole
and F. A. Armstrong's Autumn Leaves (Nov.) may also be
mentioned.
Frederick Nicholls, in his pretty April Melody (B.F.W.),
Fairy Gold, No. 3 and Op. 40, No. i, shows talent. Frank
William Baines' Four Sketches (3 and 4) (Banks) deserve
attention. Alec Rowley builds on a good foundation in his
Georgian Suite with their gratefully British and old-world
flavour. In his North Sea Fantasies a breath from the rolling
sea is inhaled, and he is equally at home in the glamour of the
fairy world, as shown in From the Fairy Hills (Rogers) . Roger
Quilter in his Three Pieces, Op. 16, shows originality combined
with a reflective spirit.
Reginald Steggall, in his 5 Pieces (Op. 18) and Prelude and
Valse (S, & B.) presents a virile and modern though some
what chromatic style. Eric Fogg's Album (Bos.) of broad,
simple, pretty Sketches may be commended ; while attractive
and well-written work will be found in Mr. Joseph Speaight's
Three Pieces (S. & B.) and Tone Pictures (Rogers). Charming
examples of the cult of the light heart are present in Thomas J,
Hewitt's Ballet Suite Columbine, Four Trifles, and In Downlmd
(K. & P.)-
342 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
In W. J. Fenney's Early Spring we have a charming Sketch-
but withal an overcrowded canvas; and Gustave Lind has
attained popularity in his poetic Sketch Albums, such as the
Silent Mere.
We now come to the British Impressionist School, which,
like that of the French, is beginning to be of some importance.
Tobias Matthay, in his Monotliemes (Patterson) was one of
the first to appear in this style. His Lyrics (Patterson), Moods
of a Moment (Ascherberg) and Preludes (Weekes) are all examples
of that elusive charm which arises rather from a succession of
beautiful suggestive harmonies than from any defined melody
or development of form a style which does not always make
itself clear on a first hearing. His more transparent Love
Phases ( J.W.) and Elves (Weekes) are charming examples of
their style. Matthay's A minor Concert Piece for orchestra
and piano has been performed at the Bournemouth Symphony
Concerts.
In Cyril Scott (b. 1869, in Liverpool) we have one of the
leaders of this School. In Dagobah (Forsy th) we are initiated into
Egyptian mysteries and the Andante Pastorale is an example
in this style of the thickening of what would otherwise be simple
passing notes by the addition of chords, thus giving rise to a
confiscating succession of subordinate secondary harmonies
weaving their way betwixt those of the thereby obscured
principal Theme.
Similar qualities are also found in the interesting Solitude and
fa$p&4l& (Forsyth).
Perhaps the most lucid are the English Waltz an early work
the Passacaglia from the Pastoral Suite.
* Jhfr later Ballads, Rondeau de Concert and Sonata (Op. 66)
are 'good examples of the absolute incoherence which results
from putting tonal atmosphere first and last with practically
eyery &hord in a different key, every discord unresolved and
r%%n almost non-existent . Should not our Impressionists
rather look to Debussy as a model ?
Felix Swinstead reveals strength of purpose and the influence
of Wagner in .Ms Prelude in D (Avison), while the 6 Preludes
(M.S.) and Vahe Caprice (M.S), show delicacy of style and
new harmonic effects.
Balf our Gardiner makes striking jise of successions of massed
discords in his original De Profundis, in a really humorous
MODERN BRITISH SCHOOL 343
motto eipnx. Dagobah, Cyril Scott, Op. j.
344 HISTORY- OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Humoreske, an impassioned Sketch entitled Mire and the
attractive Two Simple Pieces.
Percy Pitt's (b. 1870, in London, trained in Leipzig and Munich)
Impressionist metier is revealed in the sombre colouring of his
Autumn Harmonies (Nov.) especially in No. 3, Crepuscule, and
also, though less decidedly, in an effective Scherzo (Aug.):
His refined and modern Scene de Ballet, Op. 4, Lointain
Passe and Scherzo Valse display piquant harmonies and his
Op. ii, 8 and 37 (Aug.) also deserve attention.
York Bowen (b. in London, 1684, trained at the Royal
Academy of Music), shows a Lisztian virtuoso element com
bined with masterly modulatory effects in his Miniature Suite
(Avison). His -Concerto (M.S.) has been well received in
public.
Frank Bridge, in his Minuet Idyll, Dew Fairy (Aug.), Three
Sketches and Four Characteristic Pieces (Rogers), shows a bold,
facile pen in the scintillating, kaleidoscopic harmonic effects.
They have the merits and deficiencies of their class. His pretty
Miniature Pastoral, No. 3, a simple Sketch, shows he is not lost
to form and sense.
William Baines, in his Seven Preludes and Paradise Gardens^
with their mystical half-lights, reminds one of Debussy. In
Leo Livens' Moorland Suite (Rogers) there are some pretty bell
effects in Heather Bells, produced by consecutive fourths, fifths
and octaves. Gerard Williams, in his descriptive Three Preludes
(Rogers) shows commendable sequence of thought, and secondary
harmonies are not the only feature. In John Heath's Six
Inventions -(Rogers), which are pictures of various moods, we
find daring experiments in harmonic colouring ; while in John
Ireland's Preludes (Rogers), Island Spell and Chelsea Reach
(Aug.) tfte, moods are forcibly expressed, afanost every melodic
note befeig driven home by a compelling dissonance. In this
he resembles Cyril Scott " strong meat " in both but perhaps
Ireland is the more coherent, In Arnold Bax's Mountain
Mood (Chester) the usual chain of subsidiary harmonies gives
place to subsidiary (and alien) melodic or contrapuntal accom
paniments. He is best known by In Vodka Shop (Aug.).
Eugene Goosens' Nature Poenis (Chester) glow with gorgeous
colouring,
In summing up this highly meritorioEs British Impressionist
School it is, perhaps, ungrateful to observe that colours in an
MODERN BRITISH SCHOOL 345
Impressionist should not clash continually, and that there
should not be a total absence of outline. 'These are faults in
most Impressionists. We are confronted with gorgeous studies
in the art of colour obtained by (i) chromatic harmony ; (2) an
undercurrent of alien harmonies or alien melodies. Composers
are apt to forget that melody is the unit and harmony but the
accessory. No doubt it is an age of colour and in our own
country the movement will have a good influence, since the
weak point in British composition down to the time of Sterndale
Bennett and Sullivan has been its backwardness in use of modern
harmonies. Equally patent is it that the undercurrent was
prompted by Wagner's wonderful polyphonic weft. But it is
well to remember Wagner's own dictum: " Whenever a com
poser attempts to be a painter in music, he will succeed in
producing neither good music nor a good picture/'
British composers of Salon music are dealt with in the
Chapter on " Salon Music. 1 '
The leading exponent of Scottish music is Sir Alex. Mackenzie
(b. in Edinburgh, 1847), who, while excelling as a dramatic
writer for the orchestra, has written some charming Pianoforte
music.
His Scottish Rhapsodies and Scenes in the Scottish Highlands
are fired by enthusiasm for the stirring rhythm and beautiful
melodies characteristic of Scottish music. The very attractive
little piece On the Heather is an example.
The Scottish Concerto (Kistner) is a very interesting work from
a National as well as from an artistic point of view. It is cast
in a Romantic mould and the Scottish atmosphere is maintained
by the use of fragments of Scottish melodies skilfully developed.
The Theme Green grow the Rashes is used in both first and
last movements, together with other Themes, as quoted on p. 346.
Hamish McCunn has a beautiful pathetic Pastoral By the
Burnside knd a piquant Harvest Dance in his own Arrangement
of his Highland Memories (Aug.) .
A. E, Moffat (b. in Edinburgh, 1866), the vocal composer, has
also written several Pianoforte works.
Most interesting publications are the Piano Lyrics and Sea
Pieces from the Hebrides (Boosey), also the Scots Folk-Tune
Suite, arranged by Marjory K, Fraser. after the style of the Old
English and Continental Suites and consisting of (i) Slow
Strathspey; (2) Old Dance Song; (3) Celtic Coasting Song;
AA
346
HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
(4) A Lowland Lilt, in which the Themes are appropriately set
out. No. 3, for example, is after the manner of Grieg.
ist Movement. Scottish Concerto } Sir A. Mackenzie.
dk
p
fc
MODERN BRITISH SCHOOL 347
Tobias Matthay also, in his Concert Arrangement of Scottish
Dances and Melodies uses the virtuoso method of Liszt as
displayed in the latter's Hungarian Rhapsodies.
Another attractive and artistic method is shown in the
interesting Scottish Songs without Words (Patterson) by
Eugene Woycke (4 Books), in which a freely elaborated
accompaniment is used. Examples of artistic Fantasias on
Scottish airs are to be found in In the Highlands by D. R. Munro
(Cary) and in the six Schottische Weisen by Gustave Lange
(Chattier).
The resources of the strikingly simple and pathetic airs of
Wales, beyond the usual Potpourris and the Transcriptions of
Brinley Richards (1817-85) ; trained at the Royal Academy of
Music, in particular, do not seem to have been made much use
of. Ed. German (Jones) has recently written a Welsh Rhapsody
for Orchestra, but, beyond this, Welsh composers at present
seem to be absorbed in Vocal Music.
The characteristic and cloying pathos of Irish Folk-Song has
been little exploited beyond the usual Potpourris and flimsy
Fantasies one exception being the Souvenir d'Irlande, a quasi-
Concerto by Moscheles. Stanford has made some artistic
Arrangements of Irish Airs and Norman O'Neill, in his very
attractively written Variations and Fugue for Two Pianos
(Scht.), has used as the foundation a beautiful Irish Theme.
Signor Esposito (resident in Dublin) has also written artistic
Transcriptions (Piggot, Dublin) and Carl G. Hardebeck (Belfast)
has composed effective Rhapsodies on Irish Airs.
The names of the principal Irish composers of Piano music are
Field, Osborne, Vincent Wallace (see " Salon Music "), O'Leary,
Stanford, Augusta Holmes (born in Paris) and O'Neill,
For the most recent compositions of the Modern British School see
ADDENDUM, pp, 405 seq.]
CHAPTER XV
PIANOFORTE MUSIC IN AMERICA
WHAT impresses one particularly in reviewing the mass of
Modern American Pianoforte Music is its melodiousness and
general attractiveness.
We note in it the absence of the ruggedness of the Norwegian
and the Finn, the pessimism of the modern Italian and modern
German, the triviality of the French style, and in its stead we
note the presence of simple, unaffected melody a characteristic
also of the British School to which it is allied. American
compositions also incline to the effective rather than to the
reflective side of one's sympathies; and consideration of this
ippeal to the effective moves one to ask whether the New World
will lead the way in that aspect of the evolution of the fittest
the appeal to effectiveness ?
The influence of Nationality on Musical Art in America seems
to be in a comparatively early stage of development, as compared
flrith the state of affairs in Great Britain and Ireland, where we
aave an Anglo-Celtic basis leavened for a thousand years by
Dane and Norman. America's Pilgrim Father basis has
tpparently not yet assimilated the other various nationalities
tfho are settling in that vast country. So far, indeed, American-
t>orn composers of any repute seem to be of British origin.
&s regards sources of inspiration, there is always the vigorous,
tealthy British Folk-Song and Dance to fall back upon,
especially since British composers themselves have largely
neglected the birthright which lies at their own door. At least
one may hope that American composers of the future will avoid
the " isms " of the European States, and manifest and preserve
their individual and National feeling as far as may be.
Ed. MacDowell (b. 1861 ; d. 1908), is not only a distinguished
and original composer in Sonata form, but one thoroughly
endowed with the spirit of the Romantic, especially in his
interpretations of Nature. He is up to the present the most
prominent composer that America has produced.
His Waldstilk (Stillness of the Woods) in his Wald Idylle (K.)
348
MUSIC IN AMERICA 349
strikes the keynote of his Nature Studies, and the Nature
atmosphere appears to us at once in the Driadentanz of the
same Collection, in the Hexentanz, Op. 17 (Bos.), and in the
American Wood Sketches, Op. 51 (Elkin, A.P.S.). In purely
poetical Sketches, too, as in the Op. 51, To a Water Lily, the
Serenade (Siegel), the Impressionist Sketches, Op. 32 (Four Little
Poems) (A.P.S.) and his Sea Pieces (especially " 1620," i.e., The
Mayflower's Journey) he is highly attractive.
The genius of MacDowell is meditative and, though his
modern and striking Sonatas, showing the influence of Schumann
and Brahms, especially the Tragic and Keltic, are very fine,
he is at his best in, smaller works and most inspired in the
moods of Nature. The influence of the modern German School
has been such as to incline him towards Impressionism, and his
power is harmonic rather than melodic : see his New England
Idylls and Forgotten Fairy Tales (Elkin), indicating a composer of
the Characteristic worthy to rank with Schumann and Heller.
MacDowell has also written two sonorous and brilliant
Concertos and two Suites . Altogether some sixty-four Pianoforte
works of his have been published. For a detailed description of
these the reader is referred to Oilman's Edw. MacDoivelL
The composer is of British descent, his grandfather having
been born at Belfast of Scoto-Irish parents. MacDowell himself
was born in New York in 1861. In 1876, at the age of fifteen,
he went to study in Paris, and for some twelve or thirteen years
he studied and taught in Germany, not settling again in
America until 1889. Through his death not only America but
the whole musical world became the poorer.
Ernest Hutcheson represents in an able manner the Classical
spirit in American Pianoforte Music. His Andante Tranquillo,
Capriccio and Sarabande of the Op. 10 (Schirmer) are noble,
refined and dignified in tone, besides being melodious and
attractive generally.
Arthur Whiting, who was born at Cambridge, Mass., in i6i,
and educated in the United States and at Munich, lives now in
New York. His remarkably virile Modern Suite (S.R.M.)
shows the influence of Schumann and Liszt.
The pretty and effective La Fileuse and the interesting
Bagatelle and Sckerzino, Vahe Brillante^n&Op. 14, No, 3, are
like the rest of his works, masculine and original.
J. K. Paine (b. 1839), together with G. W. Chadwick and
350 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Arthur Foote, also represent the Conservative aspect of American
music, though they have not contributed much of importance
for the Pianoforte.
Paine has written a Book of Characteristic Pieces and also
Three Pieces, Op. 41 ; Chadwick (b. 1854), some Miscellaneous
Pieces, Op. 7, Caprices and Waltzes ; and Foote (b. 1853), 2 Suites,
Bagatelles, 5 Poems and Miscellaneous Pieces. Paine and
Chadwick both studied in Germany.
Horatio Parker (b. 1863) has contributed some characteristic
Pieces and Sketches, while Ed, S, Kelley (b. 1857) has written
some popular Pieces in individual style.
Of composers in the modern Romantic style, apart from
McDowell, we place first William Mason (b. 1829), who, after
studying in Germany, made a name as a virtuoso and settled in
New York in 1855. His compositions entitle him to more than
local or American fame. His R&verie Poitique (Srm.) and 1st
Ballade (J.S.) in the Romantic style ; the Toccata and Dance
Caprice (E.S.), of technical interest, and showing the influence
of Liszt, which appears in all his works ; and finally, the
Capriccio (Srm.), Minuet and Scherzo in the Classic- Romantic
style, all appeal to the hearer as refined, well- written, melodious
and effective compositions.
Homer N, Bartlett (b. 1845) writes in refined style and with
Lisztian technique. His Le Matin Nocturne, Op. 210, Mazurka
de Concert (Dt.) and tude La Grace (Pa.) are Romantic in feeling
and charmingly written. His harmonic treatment is specially
noteworthy.
Porter Steele is a skilful " characteristic " writer. His
attractive September Morn, Barcarolle and Petite Slrinade (Srm.)
have vigour, melody and elegance,
Howard Brockway's Schumannesque Op. 8 (6 Pieces) (SI.) are
very interesting, and the influence of his model is apparent in
tfye attractive Op. 21, Nos. I and 3, the March, Op. 25, the Skw
Waltz, Op. 25 (Srm.) and the delightful Suite of small Pieces,
Of, 26 (Sim), Brockway was born in Brooklyn in 1870 and
educated in the States and in Berlin.
H. H, Huss, who was born at Newark, N J,, and educated in
tjtae States and at Munich, is a refined writer with a passion for
ethereal andw# c&rda effects, as, for instance, in The Night, the
Nocturne, Op. 20, and the Mintoet, Op. 18 (Srm.).
Wnx H. Sherwood, who was born in Lyons, N.Y., in 1854,
MUSIC IN AMERICA 351
and educated in the States and in Europe, shows in his Piano-
forte Pieces a richly ornamented style, as, for example, in his
Autumn (Dt.).
Ethelbert Nevin (b. at Edgeworth, Penn., 1862, and educated
in the States and in Europe) is the well-known composer of the
Romantic and charmingly modulated Narcissus. Possessing a
fund of grateful melody, recherche 1 harmony and transparent
style, his charming Pieces, Shepherds All and Lullaby from the
Pastoral Scenes, Op. 16 (St.), the Suite Maggio in Toscano
(Barchetto-Notturno), the II Rosignuolo and Barcarolle of the
Op. 13, together with the Narcissus and Barghetta from the
Water Scenes are highly attractive in the best sense.
Wilson G. Smith (b. in Ohio State, 1855) is the composer of
some pleasantly written Pieces, Op. 88 (Srm,), the Romance and
Valse, Op. 9 and an Arabesque (Dt.).
J. H. Rogers displays a genius for the " Characteristic" and
a bold melodic style in his attractive Op. 53 (i and 2) and Air de
Ballet (Dt.), and also in the Toccatina (Pd.).
R. H. Woodman's melodious and poetical Brook and Spring
Song (Dt.) and John Orth's pleasant melodious Romanza and
Brookside (Dt.) should be mentioned.
Charles Den6e (born in Oswego, 1863) has written Suites*
Characteristic Pieces and smaller Pieces.
Mrs. H. H. A. Beach's (b. 1867), Sketches and Children's
Carnival; Hy. Hadley's elegant Tone-Pictures (Dt.) ; K R.
Kroeger's yd Sonnet (F.S.) ; Arthur Bird's Valse Noble (Jn.) ;
Gr. Schaefer's Gondoliere (C.F.S.) ; D. G. Mason's Elegy
(Metzler); E. Schelling's Variations (Srm.); N, J. Hyatt's
A Frolic (Dt.) and Serenade; and the well-written Pieces of
Marie von Hammer (Dt.) deserve notice.
American Pianoforte composers seem to have the faculty of
writing attractive educational Pieces, and in this connection we
may mark those by J. F. Gilder, (Tarantelle and Carnival Dance)
(Dt.), the energetic Pieces of B. C. Henry (Dt.), the refined
Op. 41 (No. 4) and Op. 42 (No, i) of A. G, Salmon.(b. 1868), the
Op. 10 of Rudolph Ganz (A.P.S.), L, E. Orth's Pieces (Dt.), and
those of Frank Lynes (b. 1858), Stephen Emery, G. W. Marston,
A. D. Turner and Templeton Strong.
The Spanish American element in Pianoforte music is repre
sented by Ernest Redon and Louis Moreau Gottschalk, both
born in New Orleans, the former in 1835, the latter in 1829.
352 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
In the interesting Chants Creoles, Op. 35, by Redon, and Nos. i
and 3 of the Chants d' Ami-tie we have the languorous element of
the South set forth with charm and refinement, as well as in
the attractive Deux Preludes and Reflets d' Orient (Cs.),
Redon afterwards retired and settled in Bordeaux, Gott-
schalk studied in Paris with Hall6 and toured as a virtuoso.
His works, which are of a refined Salon type, lean to the senti
mental side and require a sympathetic touch. His Last Hope,
La feunesse, etc. (Dt.) are well known.
Other Spanish- American composers are Ernest Guiraud, also
born at New Orleans (1837) an d died in Paris (1892), who wrote
some effective Pieces ; R. Espadero (b. 1835 at Havana in Cuba),
a composer of brilliant Pieces ; and A. Rogues, author of a
Capncho Espaftol (A. Becker, Santiago, Chili). C. .Heuser
(Konzertwalzer), E. Pons (Spirito Aereo, Kirsinger, Santiago),
and D. Sequeira (a piquant Atlantida, A.P.S.) may also be
mentioned.
In the following Section we deal with the work of the English
negro-composer, Coleridge Taylor, whose excellent choral work
Hiawatha is well known. In Grant Schaefer's Tales of the Red
Man (A.P.S.) we have charming Sketches utilizing quaint
melodies of the Red Indian.
It may seem a far cry to the Far East from the New World,
but the subject justifies the mention here of W. Niemann's
Orchid Garden, Op. 76 (Simrock) ten interesting Impressions
of the Far East, giving the appropriate atmosphere of India,
Java, China, etc.
THE NEGROID ELEMENT
With the growth, of the National element in music we must, at
ao distant date, look for a greatly enlarged sphere of activity.
In S. Cokridge Taylor (b, 1875, d, 1912) we have the herald
of an art movement, the limits of which it is difficult
to foresee.
father of Coleridge Taylor was a full negro. He was a
xt&t&re of Sierra Leone and was educated as a doctor in London.
fife married an Englishwoman, and their son was born in London
ains at the Royal College of Music, His 24
fN^gro Mekdies (Rogers) and (Dt), taken, from
South and West Africa, from the West Indies
MUSIC IN AMERICA 353
and from the Plantations of America, are extremely interesting.
Coleridge Taylor's purpose is best explained in his own words :
" What Brahms has done for the Hungarian Folk-Music,
Dvorak for the Bohemian and Grieg for the Norwegian, I have
tried to do for these Negro melodies." The plan adopted here
has been almost without exception that of the Tema con
Variazioni. The Transcriptions are cleverly set forth and have
just enough ornamental work to entrance without overwhelming
the simplicity and beauty of the original Themes.
Coleridge Taylor, in his Introduction, makes the interesting
statement that : " The native music of India, China, Japan,
and, in fact of all non-European countries, is to our more
cultivated ears most unsatisfactory in its monotony and
shapelessness. The music of Africa is a great and noteworthy
exception. Primitive as it is, it nevertheless has all the elements
of European Folk-Song." This fact the writer can bear out
as the result of a stay in South Africa.
The virility and freshness of the Themes and the masterly
treatment by Coleridge Taylor make them well worthy
of study.
Coleridge Taylor has also a gift for the Characteristic, as,
for example, in the Oriental Valses (Fs.), the 4 Characteristic
Valses (Nov.), etc.
CHAPTER XVI
A GROUP OF STUDY WRITERS CLASSICAL SCHOOL
" The three great inseparable requisites of the art of playing the piano
iorteare: correct fingering, good style, and graceful execution." Em. Bach.
THE reader of the Chapter on the " Educational Aspect " will
realize that, prior to the nineteenth century, the study of the
pianoforte was not systematized in any particular way, apart
from the omniscient and very-much generalized " methods "
then in vogue.
Isolated efforts, it is true, had been made. Couperin, in his
UArt de Toucher, provides progressive Exercises, Preludes and
movements from his own works for purposes of study, and these
were improved upon in the Methode of Rameau. J, S. Bach
also wrote Progressive Preludes, Minuets and Allemandes for his
sons' use. The Lessons of D. Scarlatti (originally Esercizi)
seem to have an educational purpose though, perhaps, an
ill-defined one. Coming to the beginning of the nineteenth
century, the Caprices of Miiller, though more or less in Sonata
form, are in the style of Etudes and refer principally to the
crossing of hands in the style of Scarlatti.
It was also about this time, 1604, that the much superior
first Studies of Cramer appeared.
John Baptist Cramer came to England as an infant in arms
in 1772. At the age of twelve he was taught by Clemen ti, who
also resided in London, and with whom he shortly took part at
a Concert, in a Duetto for Two Pianofortes, duly announced as
Clayed by " Master Cramer and M. dementi."
Young Cramer, then nineteen, also appeared in 1791 with
Master Hummel, then aged twelve, in another Concert at which
Haydn was present.
i Cramer's world-famed Studies appeared in 1804. It is curious
iJ note that dementi's Gradus, which is altogether in an earlier
<af technique the polyphonic did not appear till fifteen
354
A GROUP OF STUDY WRITERS 355
years later. It is also quite natural that Beethoven, whose
technical style had been developed from dementi's Sonatas,
should declare that the Studies of Cramer, which were further
advanced in style, " were the chief basis of all genuine playing."
Beethoven was so far interested in Cramer's Studies that he
annotated a Selection from them now reproduced as the
Beethoven-Cramer Studies (Aug.) and edited by the late Mr.
J. S. Shedlock. Cramer later became a Professor at the Royal
Academy of Music. As a performer, Cramer had a perfect
legato and singing velvety touch, and he was the means of
introducing Mozart's Concertos to English audiences. Dying at
the age of eighty-seven, he was a connecting link between the
pre-Beethoven era and that of the Rhapsodian Liszt.
The Gradus ad Parnassum of dementi appeared in 1817.
Before this, however, his Sonatas had set the pattern for the
pianoforte technique of his time. Clementi's own execution
was described by a contemporary as " marvellous in its correct
ness and regularity the hand keeping motionless ; the fingers
alone, supple, active, independent, of incomparable equality,
drew from the clavier harmonious sonority and exquisite
charm." As has been mentioned, Clementi's Gradus represents
the older polyphonic style of execution, and some of the numbers
of this and the whole of his Preludes and Exercises are still
valuable for that style, and especially for (i) independence of
the fingers, (2) florid fugal works ; (3) double-third passages.
Cramer's Studies, though more advanced, are founded on
Clementi and are useful for cantabile and broken-chord work.
For the continuation of the dementi-Cramer style we must
look to another of Clementi's pupils, Ludwig Berger, whom he
took with him to St. Petersburg in 1804, and who subsequently
became the teacher of Mendelssohn, Taubert and Henselt.
Berger 's Op. 12 and 22 have the Clementi solidity and make
progress in extensions, repeated notes and shakes. Berger
ultimately settled in Berlin. Daniel Steibelt, composer of
trashy Battle Pieces and fashionable Classical Pieces, who
settled iu St. Petersburg in 1810, in the time of Fielcl/s sojourn
there, wrote some excellent Studies (Op. 78) of the Clementi type.
Kalkbrenner was trained at the Conservatoire in Paris* where
h6 was later (as also in London) , in great demand as a fashionable
teacher. The 12 Studies belonging to his Method, in which he
newly advocates octaves to be played from the wrist, are in the
356 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
dementi-Cramer style. They teach nothing new, however,
except Solos for the left hand, which Kalkbrenner was the first
to exploit. Hummel (d. 1837) also wrote Studies, a few of
which, in florid style, survive. The Studies of Aloys Schmitt,
upon which Mendelssohn was brought up, are modern and
tuneful and partly in Cramer's style. They are useful for
broken-chord work and simpler passages in double-thirds. The
best Selection is that of Germer (Bos.) . Schmitt was established
mostly at Frankfort, where he taught Hiller.
The Romantic Chopin speaks of his " excellent Studies/' but
mentions that he composes "eighty-years-old music. 1 '
Bertini's Studies, Op. 29 and 32, which were written as
preparatory to those of Cramer, are notable as being probably
the first Studies in phrasing, staccato, expression, etc. Some of
these, as well as the Op. roo for small hands (probably his first
Elementary Studies] are still useful. See Buonamici, Selection
(Lit.).
Bertini was born in London (1798) but ultimately settled in
Paris, where he was trained. The style of Bertini was continued
in the- works of Lemoine (d. 1854), Duvernoy (d. 1880), Burg-
muller (d, 1874), Concone (d. 1861), Heller (d. 1888), Ravina
(d. i8iS) and Lack, all of whom taught in Paris. Those of
Lemoine, Duvernoy and Burgmtiller are mostly elementary in
grade and very useful for their purpose. The Studies in style
of Burgmuller and of Concone, the Italian composer of vocal
Solfeggios, are piquant but not so expressive as those of Heller,
[aft* Germer Selection (Bos.)], who still stands facile princeps in
this branch. (S*e Part III, Chapter X.) The "artistic' 1
' of Ravina and Lack are also admirable in their way*
general and " characteristic" Studies of LSschorn, the
s Potsies of Haberbier, who lived mostly in St, Petersburg,
tte Bravura Studies of the Bohemian Seeling, the excellent
StotfAes of Schytte the Dane (residing in Vienna) and of Gurlitt,
^iho settled in Copenhagen, have done much to carry on this
branch of the art.
The Classic style of Schmitt reappears at its climax in the
Op. 70 of Moscheles which, with its added polish and style, is
on the whole the most prominent work of that kind since Cramer.
As,- however, nearly every Study illustrates a different branch
of technique, concentration is not possible, and some additional
work is needed. Moscheles' Op, 95 may be added to the list ol
A GROUP OF STUDY WRITERS 357
Characteristic Studies, though, they have not the spontaneity
of the earlier Op. 70.
Moscheles was at one time greatly esteemed as a virtuoso.
Born in Prague in 1791, he settled in London in 1826, where he
was much in request. After twenty years' residence in this
country, Moscheles, at Mendelssohn's request, joined the staff
of the Leipzig Conservatoire. Though a prolific composer, he
will be mainly known to posterity by his Concertos and his
Studies.
The Studies of Kessler are in dementi's stiff, unwieldy style,
but useful numbers for the cultivation of endurance can be
found in the Selection compiled from Op. 20 and roo by Germer
(Schles.). Kessler was born in Augsburg (Bavaria) and resided
mostly in Poland and Vienna. His energetic style is continued
in Killer's Studies a few of which serve the same purpose.
Louis Kohler (1820-66) has been called the " heir of Czerny."
His style, however, follows the unbending style of dementi,
and, as a consequence, his elementary works are rather un
grateful. He wrote in all branches of technique and always to
the point, and some of his advanced Studies are valuable
especially Op. 270 (Senff) and his Repetition and Virtuosity
Studies. Kohler settled and taught in Konigsberg. He was
known as a clever writer on educational matters. In similar
style the modern works of C. H. Doring, of Dresden (b. 1834),
Albert Biehl (b. 1833) and Bernard Wolff are valuable.
Carl Czerny (1791-1857), the Czech pedagogue, pupil of
Beethoven, and tutor of Liszt, Dohler and Thalberg, who
devoted practically the whole of his life to teaching in Vienna,
was the composer of some 800 books of Studies. He may be
esteemed the real founder of modern technique. The result
of his work, as seen in Liszt, together with the individual
technique of Chopin, represent all that is best in this framework
of the aft.
Czerny wisely made the mental aspect of his Studies of the
slightest, so that all attention could be concentrated on the
technical figures on which they are built. His style as lighter,
more natural and spontaneous than that of Clementi partly
as the result of the lighter action of the Viennese piano.
Czerny's works, unlike those of his predecessors, Cover every
branch of technique and all styles, and many of them are
indispensable to the modern student. His School of the Legato
358 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
and Staccato, School of the Left Hand, The Virtuoso School and
the Art of Execution, Op. 740, deserve special attention. Czerny
was also an industrious composer of Symphonies, Concertos and
numerous other works which, however, have not survived.
Chopin speaks of him thus : "He was, as he always is (and to
everybody) very pliable, and asked, ' Hast fleissig studiert ? '
(Have you studied diligently?). He has again arranged an
Overture for 8 pianos and 16 performers, and seems to be very
happy over it."
Charles Mayer (1799-1862) was only eight years younger than
Czerny. He was taught by Field in St. Petersburg, where he
resided for some twenty-six years. Mayer grasped something
of the poetical and lyrical style of his master as opposed to the
contrapuntal m&tier of Clementi Field's own tutor. This
accounts for the fact that Mayer's graceful and interesting
Studies of Velocity (Germer, Lit.) and Op. 305, 119 and other
works (Germer, Lit.) stand in the same relation to Czerny as
Moscheles does to Clementi, but Mayer's work is much more
comprehensive and systematic. It also explains why his works
form' a direct link with those of Chopin and Henselt.
Mayer spent the last twelve years of his life in Dresden, where
he died in 1862.
As regards style, the light and brilliant Czerny was soon
improved upon in the Studies of Chopin (b. 1810) and the
Viennese School Thalberg (b. 1812), Henselt (b. 1814), Dohler
J>, 1814) and Liszt (b, 1811),
The technique of the piano matured wonderfully quickly.
While Czerny and Mayer were at work, Chopin had already, in
1827, written the first Book of his famous tude$, Op, 10. It is
difficult, indeed,, to realize that this was only ten years after the
appearance of dementi's Gradus. England at that time seemed
to be the home of the older technicians, Clementi, Cramer,
Italkbrenner and Moscheles, while the newer and more perfect
style was matured in Paris. Chopin and Liszt not only summed
ipifcn themselves a new and matured technique, but in addition
shpwed the perfect union of the poetic and artistic
Tfee Studies of Chopin show the best aspect of his work- a
H^tog Q! glpwi^g Romanticism, whether in the stormy C minor,
after the iaOl of Warsaw, or the beautiful lyrical
10, No. 3), which Lisit declared he would have
A GROUP OF STUDY WRITERS 359
given four years of his life to have written, or the A\> (Op. 25,
No. i), which Schumann likened to a vision, or the glittering
Study on the black keys. They appeal equally to the people
and the musician as unique inspirations of their kind.
The Studies of Liszt, represented by the clever Paganini
Caprices, the Transcend antes, and the Concert Studies are not so
deeply poetical as those of Chopin, but they carry the bravura
element to its greatest height, combined with powerful
descriptive faculty as shown, for instance, in the forcible
Mazeppa and Wild Hunt Studies or in the ethereal Twilight
Harmonies.
Liszt's more advanced style was partly the result of, and dates
from, the almost supernatural performances of Paganini on the
violin in 1830. These inspired alike the Paganini Caprices of
Liszt, of Schumann (1833-5 ; poetical style) and of Brahms .
the latter being purely technical. Whether in those of Liszt, in
the well-known Campanella, built on the Bell Rondo of Paganini,
or in the Venetian Carnival (last number), which, as Schumann
says, should glide past the hearer " like the scenes of a Marionette
show," they reach almost a climax as regards difficulty.
Ed. Dannreuther, in his excellent edition of Liszt's fitudes
(Aug.), says that " no pianist can afford to ignore Liszt's
Etudes ; and, though the appeal more often than not is " to the
hearer's nerves," " the methods employed . . . are $o very
clever and altogether hors ligne that a musician's intelligence,
too, may be delighted and stimulated/'
In technique, at least, Liszt's contemporaries and rivals,
Thalberg and Dohler, were left far behind. The former, in his
melodious (but not poetical) Op. 26, lays himself out to produce
more variety of technique than in his smooth-fingered compo
sitions, and some numbers are still useful (see Part III,
Chapter XIV), as are also some of those by Dohler dealing with
scales and trills in his Nocturne-like style. Technically speaking,
the Studies of Henselt stand between those of Chopin and Liszt ;
like those, they are also poetical in style. In some respects, as
in the use of extensions, Henselt goes beyond Chopin. In style
he approaches Chopin in his Si Oiseau j'ttais, and resembles
Liszt in his powerful Thanksgiving after a Storm (Part III,
Chapter XIV).
The light-fingered technique of Czerny, combined with modem
style and expression, has been academically continued by many
3 6o HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
composers. Among these, the works of Berens, Battmann and
Loschorn stand out prominently. Loschorn (1819-1903) was a
pupil of Berger and resident in Berlin. His excellent Studies
comprise all styles and are melodious and elegant as well as
practical. Berens (1825-80), a Norwegian, lived mostly in
Stockholm, and is the author of a meritorious Velocity School
and Studies for Left Hand.
J. L. Battmann (1818-86), one of the French pedagogues, was
an Alsatian, who resided in Belfort and wrote excellent Studies
(Leduc) in the above-mentioned style.
Space will not allow more than a mention of the leading
Pedagogues and Apostles of Technique: the virtuoso Tausig
(d. 1871), Beringer, who settled in London in 1871, and Germer
(b. 1837), who is resident in Dresden,
The Variations and the Paganini Etudes of Brahms may be
considered, like those of Chopin, as constituting an exposition
of his own peculiar technique.
What impresses one in the consideration of various books of
Etudes is that probably not one in itself serves the general
needs of the pupil. The too universal 101 Exercises of Czerny,
now it is to be hoped extinct (as a whole), are a specimen of the
dilettante presentation in miniature of many different branches
of technique, none of which is more than touched upon. It has
remained for Editors recently to gather the best of each kind
from various sources and to put them into progressive order in
different Collections, according to the capacities of various
pupils. In, this way great educational help has been rendered
by Franklin Taylor, Germer, Thiimer and Reinecke ; and, in
a lesser way, by Bulow, Buonamici, Pauer and others in the
xcellent Collections connected with their names.
CLASSICAL SCHOOL*
:ouperin, UArt de Toucher (1717), Kalkbrenner (1788-1849), Method,
f. S. Babh (d. 1759), Inventions, etc, based on MUIler.
>. Scarlatti (d. 1760), Lessons. Aloys Schmitt (1788-1866) Op 16
L E. Mailer (1767-1817), Caprices. etc. ^'
Method (1804). KOhler (1820-86), Studies.
framer, Studies (1804-10), Moscheles (1794-1870) Op 70
lementi, Gradus (1817). (before 1830), Op 95,
Merger (1777-1822), Op. 12 and 22. Kessler (1800-72), Op 20 and 51
JJetbelt (1765-1823), Fifty Studies. F. Hiller (1811-85),' Twenty-four
>-}. Studies (i 83 i). * J
Ddrmg (b, 1834), BieW and B.Wolff,
A GROUP OF STUDY WRITERS 361
MODERN SCHOOL.
Czerny (1791-1857), Op. 740, etc. Characteristic Studies.
Mayer (1799-1862), Studies. Bertini (1798-1876).
Thalberg (1812-71), Op. 26. Burgmiiller (1806-74).
Dohler (1814-55), Op. 30 and 42. Concone (1810-61).
Henselt, Op. 2 and 5 (before 1814). Heller (1815-88).
Chopin, Op. 10 (1827), Op. 25 (1836). Ravina (b. 1818).
Liszt, Paganini Caprices (1831-5), Haberbier (1813-69).
Etudes Trans cendantes (1835-9), Seeling (1828-62).
Etudes de Concert (1849). Gurlitt (b. 1820).
L&schorn (1819-1903). Schytte (b. 1850).
Berens (1825-80). Franklin Taylor.
Battmann (1818-86).
BB
CHAPTER XVII
THE EDUCATIONAL ASPECT
Methods and Technique
" Consider technical exercises as the daily physical exercise which is
necessary to keep you in health." Schumann.
GREAT composers and artists have, more or less, in the past
been disinclined to present the fruits of their experience in
methodical form, both as regards the purely introductory stage
of pianoforte playing and the necessary systematic arrangement
of the technical material used. It is, therefore, to the patient
teacher that we must mostly look for results in this direction.
An Italian work by Doni (b. 1593) is about the first Method
of importance on record, the next being Couperin's practical
L'Artde Toucher, 1717, and Rameau's more advanced MMode,
1724. Em. Bach's The True Art of Playing the Clavier (1753)
was praised by Haydn and dementi and is still highly esteemed
for its historical value and " as representing the high-water
mark of the clavier before the advent of the pianoforte "
(Dannreuther) .
The work is divided into two parts. The first contains
sections on (i) Fingering ; (2) Embellishments ; and (3)
Rendering ; the second Part treats of (r) The Art of Accompani
ment ; (2) Free Improvisation ; and (3) Harmony, The most
important of these is the section on Embellishments and the
graces prevalent in older music ; and though Em. Bach's
interpretations of the signs in his father's works may be mis
leading, this Section as a whole is, according to Dannreuther
(Ornamentation), of considerable value. (Students should see
Schwenker's Beitrag zur Ornamentik, Univ. Ed.)
Marpurg's Method appeared in 1765 and that by Tiirk,
embodying the results of both the preceding, was published in
X78g, The latter is noteworthy as marking the transition
period in technique between clavichord and pianoforte. It
treats especially of Fingering, for which ten rules are given
362
THE EDUCATIONAL ASPECT 363
[sec Kullak's ^Esthetics of Pianoforte Playing (Schinner)] and it
also gives some hints which are still worthy of notice, one of
which is that " keeping time is more important than the
development of velocity/' Other Chapters notably those on
"Performance and Rendering" are useful, including one
point, much overlooked in this breathless age, viz., the necessity
of pauses similar to those employed in rhetorical declamation.
Turk points out also the interpretation of National style ;
the French a light style ; Italian medium ; and German
" heaviest of all."
The MSthode by Adam (c. 1802) refers to the " hammer
clavier " or pianoforte, the others apparently being more
concerned with its predecessors. Adam is particularly interested
in touch; he recommends that the aim of the pupil should be
" to imitate as far as possible the singing tone, developed by
great masters on all instruments, and the manifold inflections
of the voice which are so tender and affecting/' He recommends
also, with regard to style, that " each composer must be
interpreted according to his character, the one with deep
feeling and forceful rendition, the other in a gay, romantic,
often fantastic spirit/'
The Clavierschule of Cramer was for a long time popular for
its treatment of the elementary part of the subject, but is now,
along with the Methods of Hummel (1828), Kalkbrenner and
Czerny, entirely out of date.
Hummel introduced for the first time a large number of
Exercises, and technique is, with him, more systematically
developed ; but in one point the treatment of the pedals he
is rather behind the times, remarking, as he does, that " Mozart
and dementi did not need this help to win fame as the most
expressive players of their period/'
Kalkbrenner, on the other hand,' complains, on a Concert
tour, that most of the German instruments have no pedals at all.
Kalkbrenner, in his Method, adds the study of the wrist to
technique, and has some trenchant remarks on expression,
rhythm and touch, as, for instance, that " all notes foreign to
the keys or notes with accidentals, tied or syncopated notes
must be more marked," that " repeated notes must be shaded
in tone/' that " the manner of striking the key must exhibit
innumerable variations," that " one must now caress the keys,
now pounce upon it, as the lion hurls himself upon his prey/'
364 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Czerny's Method (Op. 500) is the more complete and scientific,
and it forms the practical foundation of all modern technique.
Among general rules, he mentions that " the most convenient
fingering is the best," and he gives also special attention to the
fingering of the chromatic scale.
This voluminous work, now (from its size) out of date, treats
at great length of Beethoven's style of rendering, of Fugue-
playing (giving eleven rules), of the virtuosi, besides Chapters
on "Transposing," "Playing from Score," " Preludizing,"
" Improvising," etc. Other Methods, by Moscheles, F6tis,
Lebert and Stark (1858) have appeared, but those have been
mostly occupied in the grouping of Studies to a certain end.
The well-known Technical Studies of Yl&idy (1852) formed the
first practical and comprehensive work brought within reason
able limits. Other aspects have been dealt with by A. Kullak
(1855) in the Art of Touch, by L. Kohler's Mechanical Training
as the Foundation of Technique (1857), by Marx, incidentally,
in a treatise on the treatment of the music of Bach and Beet
hoven, and by Thalberg's Art of Singing on the Pianoforte,
where he recommends that " For simple, tender and graceful
melodies one should knead the keys, so to speak, pressing and
working them as with a boneless hand and fingers of velvet."
Also, in Wieck's Method (Simrock), which takes the Cantabik
tone as a basis, and in Riemann's comparative Theoretical and
Practical Pianoforte School, which is intended as a general guide.
Tausig's Studies were the next important factor in educational
technique ; not that, in themselves, they provide systematically
arranged study, but because this has been provided by others
6n the principle acted upon by Tausig, viz., the use of similar
fingeririg in similarly constructed phrases. This principle,
which involves the free use of the thumb and little fingers on
the black keys, was advocated by Liszt, Billow, Klindworth,
Scholtz and Riemann, and was further carried out in the work
on Technique by Germer (1877) and the later work of Beringer.
As the latter remarks, " Chopin's advent knocked the first nail
into the coffin of the dementi and Cramer system of fingering.
It has now become entirely inadequate and obsolete for the
rendering of the works of modern composers for the pianoforte."
A valuable guide to Germer's Technics (Hug, Bos. ; in the
four-course Edition) is his How One Ought to Study Piano
THE EDUCATIONAL ASPECT 365
Technique (1902) (Hug, Bos.), The theoretical basis can be
studied also in Germer's Tone Production in Pianoforte Playing
(1896), which treats of the various kinds of touch and of style
and gives practical examples of the same for study. Germer's
Ornamentation attached to his Technics is reliable and concise.
That the artistic rendering is also receiving attention is
evident from the valuable works recently published on the
subject, especially in England and America. Franklin Taylor,
whose little book on Pianoforte Playing (Macmillan) has been
translated into German, has also written a treatise on Technique
and Expression (Nov.) in which he also treats lucidly of
Fingering, Rhythm, Phrasing, Ornaments and Methods of Study.
Gordon Saunders' valuable Art of Phrasing (Hammond)
expatiates also on Phrasing, Fingering and Embellishments,
giving some 350 examples. Matthay's Principles of Teaching
Interpretation (Bos.) is the leading book on the subject. Adolph
Carp6 similarly treats of Grouping, Articulating and Phrasing
in Musical Interpretation (Bos.) and of The Pianist's Art
(B.F.W.), the latter work dealing with Pianoforte Literature.
Tuft's Technique and Notation (Summy), containing hints on
Technique and Phrasing, and Amina Goodwin's Hints on
Technique and Touch (Aug.) are useful. Much can be learnt as
to musical interpretation from Lussy's Musical Expression,
1873 (Nov.), while Adolph Kullak's Esthetics of Pianoforte
Playing (Schirmer) is valuable for its general historical and
critical view of the whole subject.
Riemann touches on the old and new systems of Fingering
and Phrasing in his Catechism of Pianoforte Playing, 1880-90
(Hesse, Aug.) . Useful hints may be also gathered from Ehrlich's
(Editor of Tausig) How to Practise (Schirmer), Hortense Parents'
L'fitude du Piano, 1871 (Hachette), Klaitwell's Musical Execu
tion (Schirmer), and (especially on the Trill) from F, Kullak's
Beethoven's Piano Playing (Schirmer).
The two most useful modern practical works dealing with
lementary technique and touch are Graham Moore's First
Principle of Technique (Bos.) and Johnstone's How to Strike the
Keys of the Pianoforte (Hammond). Mason's Touch and
Technique, Part I (Presser) is similar but more advanced It
had already been pointed out by Brcndel that Hummel's tone
was not full owing to his finally bringing the finger-nail over the
keys, and that Field pressed with perpendicular fingers to the
366 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
bottom of the key. Early masters had always adhered steadily
to a certain position of the hand. Modern technique, however,
demands more freedom in style.
The touch which suits one instrument does not always suit
another. Similarly, the touch may vary with the technical
requirements and particular style of the composition, just as it
is recognized that the most convenient fingering is the best.
Something of this freedom of action is discerned in the Lesche-
titzky Method, Prentner (Curwen) a work somewhat opposed to
the recent First Principles of Pianoforte Playing by Tobias
Matthay (Longmans), which, with his Act of Touch and the
illustrative Muscular Relaxation Studies (Bos.) deserve serious
study.
Of late years the tendency has been to cultivate the muscles
employed in playing, apart from the keyboard, as in the use of
the Virgil clavier, the Technique, the Hand Gymnastics of
Prentice (Nov.), the "McDonald Smith" system, and the
Rhythmical Exercises of Parsons (Schirmer).- Elementary
training is now proceeding on better lines than before. The
inculcation of ear- training, perception of rhythm, sight-reading,
etc., are dealt with, for instance, in Mrs. Curwen's Method, and
theoretically discussed in C. B. Cady's Music Education,
2 rols. (Summy) ; while the Psychological side is treated in
Mrs. Curwen's able Psychology and in Dr. Warriner's Art of
Teaching (Hammond). This leads us to the various modern
practical educational works, and since no mere enumeration is
of value in itself, their relative position and value will be disposed
in order, as follows ;
Technical Course*
The best modem foundation for fairly advanced pupils is that
of Genner or Beringer (Bos., 1915 Ed,), built upon the Tausig
principles. Philipps* Edition of Cesi (Ricordi) is also useful,
A good shorter course is Philipp's cole du Mtcanisme (Janin)
(octaves and chords very good). Franz Kullak's Die Hdhere
Klaviertechnik (Leuckart) is useful for fingering of 3rds, 6ths
and octaves, Rosenthal and Schytte's School of Higher Piano-
forte Playing (Fiirstner) is representative and modern (thumb-
work good) but not well classified. The Tausig Vorstufe
(Tausig Preparation) (St. Ed,), though crowded, is valuable
THE EDUCATIONAL ASPECT 367
(scale passages good, but more double-third work required).
Manhire's double-thirds (Larway) and the Germer system of
double-third scales are to be recommended. Langley's
Student's Chart (Aug.) is useful as a concise survey of the
whole field of technique.
For the use of younger or less apt pupils (i) Moore's First
Principles of Technique (Bos.) ; (2) Suss' Academic Studies,
Part I (very clear) (Lit.) ; or (3) Hartung, Op. 34 (Kaun) are
valuable; (4) the modern Mayer-Mahr Technik (Sim.),
excellently designed work, co-ordinating both Technical
material and Studies from the elementary to the difficult stage.
Good comprehensive works, but not reaching the higher stages,
are the (i) Eccarius-Sieber System (Lit.) (very good) ; (2) Siiss,
Academic Studies, II and III (Lit.) ; or (3) Breslaur, Technische
Grundlage (B. & H.) (well graduated scale work).
Preparatory foundation work is available in (i) Schmitt,
Preparatory Exercises (Hammond) ; (2) Rie, Five-Finger
Exercises (very good) (Leduc) ; or (3) Kullak, Technical Studies
(Schirmer) ; which can be extended by (i) Bellairs' Elements of
Technique (Enoch) (very good) ; or (2) Cyril Scott's Modern
Finger Exercises (Elkin) ; or (3) Schultze, Technical Studies
(Lit.).
With the scales as a basis, Hougounene's Mecanisme (Hachette)
or Sol way's Exercices Journaliers (Katto), in conjunction with
Bellairs' Short Scale Studies (Enoch) are recommendable.
Other useful foundation systems with wider scope are the
excellent Hanon Pianist Virtuoso (Junne) (in sequential form) ;
Krause, Op. 38, i and 2, or Pischner Studies, Rehberg Edition
(Eul.) (mostly with fixed notes).
For fairly advanced pupils not working on any particular
system there are Henselt's Exercices Preparatories (Schles.),
which are very good, or the Suite (sequel) to the same, which
are not so good. Also there is Philipp's Une Heure d'Exercice
(Costallat).
The following graded works are best used for keeping up
practice upon a regular course : (i) Gurlitt, Op. 78 (Cranz) ;
(2) Czerny, Forty Daily Studies (Schles.), To extend the course,
Czerny's Virtuoso School (Lit.) or Josefry's School (Schirmer)
are best.
The best work for the left hand is that by Pauer in four Parts
(Aug.). For the weak fingers and thumb there is a good work
368 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
- O'Neill (Nov.), Schroeder (Cranz, 57 and 58) or Falkenberg,
Six Etudes (Leduc). For independence of finger we have the
work by Phillips (Schirmer) and Philipp's admirable Exercices
Preparatories, 2 vols. (Hain), Marchisi's Seventy- Four Exercises
(Capra), Krug (Nov.) and Doling, Op. 69 (Eul.) ; while
Variant's Exercices Progressifs (Ricordi) and Fowles' Studies
in Part Playing (Aug.) are excellent.
For polyphonic work the best introduction is to be found in
the Collections of Bellairs (Ash) or Leede (Bos.), or, for more
advanced students, in the Bach-Vorschule (Lit.).
Graduated wrist-work is available in Williams' Wrist and
Forearm Studies (Schirmer), Krug's Wrist Studies (for weaker
pupils) (Nov.) or Bellairs (Ash) ; and more advanced wrist-work
in Taylor's Chord Studies (Nov.) and Pauer's Gradus (Aug.).
For the important branch of octave playing there is Germer's
excellent School (three Parts) followed by Part III of Kullak
(Schles.) or the more modern Philipp School (Part III) (Schirmer) .
The Schools of Loschorn (Peters) and Gurlitt (Cranz) require
preparatory work. Excellent extended octave Studies are
found in Collections of Taylor (Nov.), and in Pauer's Gradus
(advanced) (Aug.), orin B. Wolf, Op. 100 (Lit.) and Coenen (Nov.)
A course of double notes can be best prepared for in Gurlitt's
School of Thirds (Cranz) and continued in Taylor's Studies (Nov.)
and Philipp's 10 Studies in Double Notes (Leduc) ; preparatory
3rds and 6ths in Krause, Op. 57, II (Cranz), or 6ths alone in
Gurlitt's Op. 100, II (Cranz). The best sequel to these is
Philipp's Double Notes (Schirmer).
The more fully developed Study forms a link between the
plain technical material and the Piece. The perfect Study
should make little mental demand on the student. Excellent
and unsurpassed general courses are to be found in the Collections
of Taylor (Divisional) (Nov.) and Thiimer (mixed) (Aug.) . Of
strictly preparatory Studies the best are Holmes and Karn I
(Ash) and Gurlitt, Op. 187 (J.W.). In the next grade Rowley's
12 Little Fantasy Studies (Rogers), Taylor's Progressive Books
Nos. i and 5 (or Selected, Bk. I), Holmes and Karn II (Ash),
Leduc, 25 Studies and Sartorio Bk. I (Ash) (cantabile style) are
vtry good.
The easy velocity Studies, Gurlitt, Op, 141 (Aug.) and Biehl,
Op. 170 (R.F.) come first. Good and really elementary Studies
in style are not easy to find. Concone's Op. 24, Matthew's
THE EDUCATIONAL ASPECT 369
graded Course II (Presser) and Rowley's 2nd Year Fantasy
Stttdies (Rogers), the latter also as an introduction to polyphonic
work, are perhaps the best. Following the easy Velocity
Studies, Thiimer's Bk. II, Lemoine, Op. 37 (Lit.), Loschorn
Selected Studies, II (Presser) or Germer's Selection from Schmitt
(Bos.) are recommendable.
In the next grade, Taylor's Progressive Studies, Nos. 3 (Scale)
and 14 (Arpeggio) are excellent. Instead of the Arpeggio
Studies the easier Germer, Schmitt, or Ebor Bk. Ill can be
used. The best mixed Studies here are Thumer, Bks. Ill and^
IV; for velocity, Le Couppey, Op. 20 (Ed. Wood); for
polyphonic work, J. Vogel, 6 Studies, Op, 15 (Foetisch), and for
expression, Ebor IV and Heller, 30 SeUct Studies (Presser).
Foundation work, continued as before, but amplified by
Taylor, No, 6 or 7, broken chords, wrist- work and easy double
notes. The best mixed Studies are Taylor's Selected, Set I,
No, 4, Karn V and VI, or Vogt, 24 Studies (Schles.) . For velocity
there is Biehl, Op. 179, I (R.F.) or Berens, Newest School (Aug.) ;
while for expression, Heller or Burgmuller, Op. 109 (Aug.) are
best.
In the next grade, Taylor's Velocity VI, Arpeggio III, Double
notes and wrist-work, or the pleasant Phillip's Etudes Classiques
(Leduc) are useful for a foundation ; while of mixed Studies
Thumer, XA and XB, Ebor Series, V and VI, Karn VII, or the
Billow-Cramer (Univ. Ed.) (broken chords and double notes)
are the best. For style Heller's Studies, MacDowell's 12
Studies, Op. 39 (Elkin), Lack's tudes Artistiques (Lemoine) or
Haberbier (Lit.) are available.
For the difficult grade we recommend a continuation of the
above or Pauer's Gradus (scales and arpeggios) (Aug.) amplified
special courses in polyphonic, wrist, and double notes. The
Mixed Studies of Thumer, XI to XIV, or Reinecke, Schule der
Technik (B. & H.) are very good, or selections can be made
from Tausig's dementi (Univ. Ed.), Mayer's modern Op. 168
(Pauer Ed., Leuckart) or Czerny's Op. 740 (R.F,). Moscheles,
Op. 70 (Aug.) is useful for style. The best introduction to the
more difficult Chopin works is through Philipp's tudes Tech
niques (Ricordi, 2 vols.) mostly on the black keys, the Germer
Selection of Mayer (Lit.) or the Heller-Chopin Studies (Ash).
Suitable preparatory material for the Concert Room is to be
found in Augener's Etudes de Concert and in works by Geo.
370 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Schumann (Hop.) and Seeling (Aug.), in Philipp's Caprice,
Op. 14 (Ham.) and Georges Beach, 4 Etudes (Foetisch). The
highest grade includes specialization in wrist and polyphonic
work with Selections from the Studies of Chopin, Thalberg,
Op. 20 (Ash), Henselt, Op. 2 (Aug.) and Liszt's Concert Studies
(Aug.). The separate Studies in Petit Gradus and the Nouveau
Gradus of L Philipp (Leduc) are very useful. Philipp's Etudes
dePerfectionnementCLzduc), Joseffy, Selected Studies (Schirmer)
and Thiimer, Bks. XV and XVI also are useful.
Somewhat allied to the Study in style or expression is the
modern Prelude, which is mostly designed on a technical figure
and indued with artistic feeling. It is distinguished by vague,
unfettered form, considerable poetical feeling and charm.
The Russian School excels in the Prelude and Scriabin and
Wihtol stand out pre-eminently in this delightful class of
composition, with their interesting rhythmical peculiarities
and Chopinesque technique (see Part IV, Chapter VI). The
Preludes of Liadow, Glazounow, Stcherbachew, Antipow,
Blumenfeld and Schtitt are likewise interesting. (5*0 Part IV,
Chapter VI.)
Of the attractive Concert Etudes which are suitable for the
Concert Room Liszt's and Liapounow's Transcendant Etudes;
and the Concert Etudes of Aus derHohe (Schirmer), Stradal (J.S.)
and E. Kullak (Schles.) may be mentioned, in addition to the
standard Poetical Studies of Chopin. We have not space to
mention more than leading works dealing with special branches
of technique, but these are : Scale Work, Kullak, Hints (Aug.) ;
Arpeggios, etc., Taylor, and Pauer's Gradus; Extensions and
Skips, by Philipp (Leduc), Pauer's Gradus and Taylor;
Repetition, Pauer's Gradus and Taylor ; the Shake, Philipp's
La Trille (Leduc) ; Alternation of Hands, Schytte, Op, 75,
Bk. 4 (Hansen).
The right use of the pedals is important. Whiting's Pedal
Studies (Schirmer), coupled with the Guide to Pianoforte Pedals
(Examples from Rubinstein's Programmes) (Bos.) are sufficient.
The works on Phrasing by Saunders (Hammond), Taylor (Nov.)
and Carp< (Bos.) are very useful ; while practical phrasing studies
(a neglected branch) can be found in Matthew's Studies in
Phrasing, 2 vols. (Presser), in Czerny's Legato and Staccato (Lit,),
in Genner's Selection from Heller (Bos.) and Presser's Selection
Concone (Presser).
THE EDUCATIONAL ASPECT 371
For Rhythm, Germer's Rhythmical Probkms (Bos.) and Rein-
hold's Op. 57 (Dob.) are the best. In the insufficiently cultivated
branch of Sight- Reading, works by Geehl (Ash), Scale Melodies
(Hammond), Charles de Beriot's advanced Lecture de Piano
(Leduc), Somervell's Sight Reading, 6 vols. (Swan) and Harrison's
Sight Reading Tests (Weekes) are all useful.
The reviving art of Improvisation can be studied in Czerny's
L'Art d'Improviser (Leduc) with his L'Art de Preluder and
Sawyer's Improvisation.
The very practical and interesting method of studying
classified extracts from the works of the masters is adopted in
Billow's Applied Piano Technic (Bos,), in Philipp's more
complete Etudes Classiques, 3 Parts (Leduc), in the admirable
but advanced Exercices Journaliers, edited by I. Philipp and in
his preparatory Exercices Pratiques (Dur.), in Buonamici's
Passages from Beethoven (Venturing, in Langley's Selections
from Wollenhaupt (Aug.), in Heller's Chopin Studies (Ash) and
in Henselt's difficult Meister Studien (Chillier).
We now leave the technical side and proceed to general
instructive works.
Many methods exist, but it is still difficult to select really good
works interesting to the average pupil.
Pt. I and II of the ABCDarian (Aug.) the most elementary
introduction Piano Methods by Beringer (Duet Systeiri) (Bos.),
Mrs. Curwen (very exhaustive) and The Art of Pianoforte
Playing by Jackson and Ed. Duncan (Dent & Sons) may be
specially mentioned. Good Collections of elementary material
are to be found in Alec Rowley's First Year at the Piano (Swan),
Tapper's Graded Course (Ditson), Spurling's Miniatures (Aug.),
Pieces by Bath (Curwen and Nov.) and G. Newton's Woodland
Dances, Classical work in the Classisches Jugend- Album (Andr),
Germer's Sonatina Playing (Bos.) and Philipp's Petite Biblio-
thfyue Classique (Ja.). and Recreative work in Carl Hein'a
Bhun&nlese (Harris) and in Gurlitt, Op, 120 (Lit.). Selections
from Schumann's Kinder-Album and Schytte's Op. 94, 96 and
97 (Haasen) also are most valuable, Recommendable instruc
tive Collections ia the 2nd Grade are Tapper's Courses II and III
(Ditson), the Recreative Zuschneid, Op, 42 (Siegel) and Espen,
Preudvoll and Leidvoll (Portius). In the 3rd Grade there are
the Sonatina Album (Lit), Germer's Teaching Material, II and
III (Bos.), Sonatinas by Von Wilm, Op. 20 (Univ, Ed,) and by
372 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Beringer (St. Lucas), Poetical and Recreative work by Heller,
Op. 138 (Ash), Behr, Op. 310 (Lit.) and Henrique's Bilderbuch, II
(Rahter). For lists of separate instructive Pieces, graded in
order of difficulty, one must refer to Webbe's Primer (Forsyth)
or to the Ruthardt (Bos.) and Eschmann Guides (Foetisch).
We might mention finally representative Duet Collections
in graded order. In the Elementary Grade, ABCDarian,
I and II (Aug.) Claviematerialien, I, Hartung (Kaun), Gurlitt,
Op. 81 (Donajowski), E, Low, Duet School, I (Lit.), and, further
advanced, Gurlitt's Grateful Tasks (Aug.). Second Grade, Low,
Part II (Lit.) and Diabelli, Sonatinas, I, etc. (Lit.). For
Recreation, 10 Easy Duets, Moffatt (B. & F.) and Hein's
Travel Pictures (Harris). Third Grade, Hartung, Clavier
Material, IV and V (Kaun). Poetical, Low, Op. 150 (Lit.) and
Gurlitt, Op. 202 (Lit.), After these may follow Selections from
Beethoven Duets (Lit.), Schubert Rondos, etc. (Lit.), Weber,
Duet Compositions and Schumann, Oriental Pictures (Lit.).
The American School of Four-Hand Playing (Presser) and
Tapper's Graded Four-Hand Course (Ditson) are also generally
useful.
CODA
We now come to the conclusion of our work, and by way of
Coda would ask ourselves in what direction Pianoforte Music
is tending, and what is its future. Unmistakably the tendency
at present is the development of National modes of thought
and the substitution of new features, both melodic, harmonic
and rhythmic, for the now well-worn and until recently universal
models.
Peering more closely into the future, we see that the most
likely factors are the influence of (i) the orchestra ; (2) the
opera, and (3) a new keyboard.
The organ and vocal styles have had their day in Pianoforte
music ; the orchestra is now to the fore. From an " effective "
point of view the orchestra's influence is certainly nugatory,
Beethoven blended the Thematic and Orchestral styles in his
Sonatas with passable pianistic results, while Liszt, through
his widened technique (in his own words) contrived that " a
man's ten fingers are enough to render the harmonies which are
brought out by the combined efforts of hundreds of musicians/'
THE EDUCATIONAL ASPECT 373
Mere fulness or power does not, however, add materially to the
resources of the composer, and Pianoforte works written in the
language of the orchestra are usually ineffective.
The Opera, again, with its ever-changing dramatic situations
and its kaleidoscope of the emotions, does not favour the
reasoned detail of Thematic treatment, but it would seem to have
an important influence on the evolution of new and more intense
harmonic combinations. From this and from the compositions
of the Impressionist School there is no doubt that we may see
in the future the evolution of new and entrancing harmonization
in combination with the new melodic and rhythmic charac
teristics of the various National Schools.
The next step in the future may be a revived interest in
Thematic work, stimulated, perhaps, by the appearance of a
future Beethoven who will write Pianistic works endowed with
the new and charming features just mentioned.
The new Janko and Emmanuel Moor keyboard, with added
mechanical devices, such as prevailed in the harpsichords, viz.,
octave stops, additional row of keys and pedal keys, may also
add to our technical resources, and to variety of tone and effect
and fulness or power.
The artistic conscience, however, desires, above all, not
quantity but quality and we, for our part, while welcoming the
facilitation of difficult works, would be inclined to favour the
composer of the future who does not attempt to rival the organ
or the orchestra, but is able to sketch with the pen of a Chopin
or Heller a simple but charming Prelude; or, on the other
hand, can, make us realize that music is the " archetype of all
the arts/' the "perfect identification of form and matter"
(Pater) as applied in all artistic sincerity to the most universal
form of Art Pianoforte Music.
APPENDIX.
Modern methods for young children have been enriched by
S. M, Livsey's Children's Musical Moments (Wood ed,), in which
all melodies have nursery rhymes added, and by Alec Rowley's
Child Heart, Duet Albums (Ash) founded on nursery folk-songs.
Dr. Bellairs' admirable Primer (Enoch) is also based on the
Duet principle. Felix Swinstead's First Lessons (A.F. Co.)
begins on the Great Staff principle.
374 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Good elementary Pieces, endued with good melody and avoid
ing cacophony, have appeared by M. E. Marshall, T. F. Dunhill,
Julius Harrison, and Markham Lee (all Curwen) . Good material
will be found in similar Pieces by Cyril Jenkins, and Carl
Hemann (Cary), Harold Craxton (A.F. Co.), Dr. Cuthbert
Harris, Gladys Cumberland (Warren and Phillips), the Four
Album Leaves by Felix Swinstead, E. L. Bain ton's By Wave and
Shore (A.F. Co.), and in Dr. Bellairs' Progressive Pianist (Enoch).
This is a sphere in which Alec Rowley stands to the front.
Further works by him should be mentioned in the Seven Little
Pieces, Mosaics and Fragments (Ash) ; also in his very imagina
tive Goblin Suite, poetic Shepherd's Calendar, the invigorating
English Dance Suite and Punchinello Suite, the melodious and
refined Six Impromptus and the Rivulet (all Ash). Further
select material should also be named in the fresh and melodious
Five Sketches by Reg. H. Hunt (St. & B.), R. Richard's Souvenirs
(Wood edn.), Dr, Darke's Miniatures (St. & B.), Playtime
Pleasures by Alg. Ashton (Ricordi), and an attractive Our
Holidays Suite (Lg.) by Cecil Hazlehurst.
To selected elementary studies should be added the excellent
series by Cuthbert Harris (W. & P.), the Poetical Studies by Alec
Rowley (Ash), and for the classic style Alg. Ashton's Eight
Studies (Aug.).
Coming to special Studies, there are, as an addition to Julia
O'Neill's invaluable Weaker Finger Studies, her Picturesque
Technique (S. & B.), and its sequence, Melodious Technique
(Nov.). For the Left Hand, Moskowski's work (Enoch) and
Utta Lyn's Night Song (Wood's edn.) provide useful material.
For Alternate Hands there is the attractive Op, 2, 3 and 5
by Caroline Crawford (Wood's edn.). Regarding Double-Note
Scales, Manhire's Chart (Larway) should be supplemented by
Moskowski's School (Enoch), while to Concert Studies a useful
example by Leonard Peck (Banks) and a virtuoso Toccata by
Tobias Matthay (A.F. Co.) can be added. * *
In Matthay and Swinstead's First Music-Making, elementary
technique is taught on Mr. Matthay's system.
Noteworthy Pieces : M. E. Marshall, Three Sketches ; Reg.
King, Second Arabesque] G. Devers, Canzonetta; and the
Scandinavian Pieces by Olaf Petersen (all Jos. Williams)^
APPENDIX
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
I. LITERATURE CLASSIFIED.
II. MODERN EDITIONS.
III. JOURNALS FOR PIANISTS.
IV. PUBLISHERS OF PIANO Music.
PART I
LITERATURE.
Histories of Pianoforte Music.
1842-45. Whistling, Handbuch der Musical. Liter atur (Hoffmeister).
1863-87. Weitzmann, Geschichte des Klavierspiels und der Klavier-
litteratur. Lessmann Ed. 1887 (Breitkopf & Hartel).
1884. Prosniz, Handbuch der Clavier Literatur, 1450-1830. 2 vols.
(Doblinger, Vienna).
1895, Pauer, Dictionary of Pianists (Novello).
1897. Dr. Baker's Translation of Weitzmann (Schirmer, New York).
1898, Max Seiffert's revised and enlarged (3rd) edn. of Weitzmann,
vol. I: to 1750 (Breitkopf & Hartel).
1899. Oscar Bie, History of the Pianoforte and Pianoforte Players.
Translated and revised from the German, by E. E. Rellett and E. W.
Naylor (Dent).
1901. Villani, L'Arte del Clavicembalo (Fratella-Bodia, Turin).
1904. J. C. Fillmore, Pianoforte Music (Presser, Philadelphia). Ridley
Prentice's edn. of above (no date; Reeves).
I QIC, H. E. Krehbiel, The Pianoforte and its Music (Scribner, New York ;
Murray, London).
CLASSIFIED GUIDES EDUCATIONAL.
x888. Eschmann-Dumur, Guide (Foetisch).
1900. Webbe, Pianist's Primer and Guide (Forsyth) valuable en
cyclopaedic work.
Parent, Repertoire Encycloptdique i6th Century to Schumann^-
with Biographies. (Hachette).
5. Ruthardt (Hug-Bos) Enlargement of Eschmann. Best general
Guide ; but deficient in British, American and Modern National
School of Composers.
igo$. Georgi, Pianist's Guide (lithographed) (Pabst Breitkopf & Hartel).
Marxnontel, Vade Mecum (Paris).
L6schorn, Fuhrer. (Guide) concise (Breitkopf & Hartel).
1894 and 1905. KShler, Fiihrer (Breitkopf & Hartel).
Wysman, Vade Mecuin (Stumpf & Koning).
1886, in German , Reinecke, What shall we play ? (Presser).
375
376 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
GENERAL PIANOFORTE STUDY.
Fr. Taylor, Technique and Expression (Novello). (Technique, Finger
ing, Rhythm, Phrasing, Expression, and Ornaments).
Parent, How to Study the Piano (Presser).
Pauer, The Art of Pianoforte Playing. 1877 (Novello).
Fisher, The Pianist's Mentor (Curwen).
Vincent, The First Year's Study (Vincent).
Friskin, The Principles of Pianoforte Practice (Gray).
J. F. Cooke, Great Pianists on Piano Playing, 1913-17 (Presser).
GENERAL TECHNIQUE.
Ad Kullak, ^Esthetics of Piano Playing. 1861 (Schirmer).
(i : Historical ; II : Technique ; III : Rendering). Additions by Bischoff,
1876 and 1889.
Fr. Taylor, Primer of Pianoforte Playing (Longman). Also in German.
Davenport and Baker, Guide to Pianoforte Students (Longman).
Amina Goodwin, Technique and Touch (Augener).
S. Vantyn, Modern Pianoforte Technique (Kegan Paul).
Langley, Students' Chart of Technique (Augener).
SYSTEMS OF TECHNIQUE.
Germer, How Ought One to Study Technique (Bos). Guide to author's
Technics.
Ehrlich, How to Practise (Tausig system) (Schirmer).
Prentner, The Leschetitzky Method (Curwen ; Presser).
Melasfield, The Hand of the Pianist (Leschetitzky Method).
Ehrenfechter, Technical Study (Deppe System) (Reeves).
, Delivery in Pianoforte Playing (Reeves) .
Amy Fay, Musical Study in Germany (Deppe System ) (Macmillan).
Bettina Walker, My Musical Experiences. 1890 (Bentley).
Mason, Touch and Technique. 4 Vols. (Presser; Curwen).
Tuft, Technique and Notation (Summy).
PHYSICAL TRAINING.
R. Prentice, Hand Gymnastics (Novello).
Stoewe, Die Klavier Technik. 1886 (Berlin).
ON TOUCH AND FINGERING.
O. Klauwell, Der Fingersats des Klavier spiels. 1885.
A. Richter, Das Klavier spiel (Breitkopf& H artel).
Riemann, Catechism of Pianoforte Playing (Augener).
M. Faell, Der Anschlag (Breitkopf & Hartel),
Germer, Tone Production (Bos).
T. Matthay, First Principles of Pianoforte Playing (Longman),
, Muscular Relaxation Studies (Bos).
J, A. Johnstone, How to Strike the Keys (Hammond),
, Touch, Phrasing and Interpretation (Reeves).
Wm. Townsend, Balance of Arm in Pianoforte Technique (Bos.).
INTERPRETATION, PHRASING AND EXPRESSION.
Lussy, Musical Expression (Novello). Foundation work.
0. Klauwell, On Musical Execution (Schirmer).
Riemann, Catechism of Pianoforte Playing (Augener).
APPENDIX 377
Wieck, Clavier und Gesang. Translated by Kriiger, of Aberdeen.
Carp 6, Grouping, Articulating and Phrasing (Bos.).
, The Pianist's Art (B. F. Wood).
Christian, Principles of Expression (Presser).
J. A. Johnstone, Phrasing in Pianoforte Playing (Ashdown).
G. Saunders, Art of Phrasing (Hammond). Very good.
J. B. McEwen, The Principles of Phrasing and Articulation (Augener).
Mathews, Studies in Phrasing. 3 Vols. ; practical (Presser).
T. Matthay, Interpretation (Jos. Williams).
J. A. Johnstone, The Art of Expression (Weekes).
WORKS FOR TEACHERS.
Mrs, J. S. Curwen, Psychology Applied to Music Teaching (Curwen).
Dr. Warriner, Art of Teaching (Psychological) (Hammond).
Wra. Wallace, The Threshold of Music (Macmillan) . The development of
the musical sense,
, The Music Faculty ; its Origins and Processes (Macmillan).
Cady, Music and Education, 2 vols. (In general) (Summy).
Lavignac, Musical Education (4th American Ed.) (Putnam).
Marmontel, Conseils d'un Prof 'ess eur, Paris.
Em. Bach, Die Wahre Art das Clavier zu spielen. 1753 and 1761 ; new Ed.
by Niemann (Breitkopf & Hartel). Nine Chapters are given in
Dannreuther's Ornamentation, Pt. II (Novello).
Plaidy, The Piano Teacher (Reeves).
Le Couppcy, Piano Teaching (Reeves).
Riemann, Theortisch-Prahtischc Klavier-Schule, 2 vols. (Rahter).
Eccarius Sieber, Handbuch der Klavier-V ' nterrichtslehre (Viewey).
Eschmann, 100 Aphorismen. New Ed. (Raable and Plothew).
Mrs. Curwen, The Teacher's Guide to Mrs. Curwen' s Method (Curwen).
Prcsser, Suggestions in Modern Methods (Gratis) (Presser).
Mathews, Teacher's Manual of Mason's Technics (Chicago).
J A. Johnstone, The Art of Teaching Pianoforte Playing (Reeves).
Chas. W. Pearce, The Art of the Pianoforte Teacher (Rogers).
H. AntclifTe, The Successful Music Teacher (Augener).
Woodhouse, Pianoforte Pedagogy of to-day (Kegan Paul).
Horrocks, Pianoforte Teacher.
Ernest Fowles, Harmony in Pianoforte Study, 2 vols. (Curwen).
WORKS ON FORM.
Pauer, Musical Forms (Novello).
Jadassohn, Musical fiorms (Breitkopf & Hartel).
Prout, Form and Applied Forms (Augener).
Anger, Form in Music (Rogers).
Peterson, Handbook of Musical Form (Augener),
Cornell, Musical Form (Schirmer).
Stewart Macpherson, Form in Music (Jos. Williams).
Mathews, Primer of Musical^ Forms (Schmidt, Boston).
Goetschius, Lessons in Musical Form (Ditson),
Henderson, How Music D&veloped (Murray). -
M H Glynn, Analysis of the Evolution of Musical Form (Longman).
Prescott, About Music and What it is Made of (Methuen).
Mathews, How to Understand Music, % vols, (Form and Biography) (Presser).
cc
378 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
HISTORY OF MUSICAL FORMS.
The Sonata.
Shedlock, The Pianoforte Sonata (Methuen).
Hadow, Sonata Form (Novello) .
O. Klauwell, GesMchte der Sonata.
Bagge, Die Geschichte der Entwickelung der Sonata (Breitkopf & Hartel) .
Grove's Dictionary. Article on " Sonata."
The Concerto.
Daffner, Die Entwickelung des Klavier-Konzerts bis Mo? art (Breitkopf &
Hartel).
Shedlock, Mozart's Pianoforte Concertos (Musical Record, Nov. and Dec.,
1906).
FORM ANALYSIS.
Stewart Macpherson, Studies in Phrasing and Form (Jos. Williams).
Bertenshaw, Rhythm, Analysis and Musical Form (Longman).
Bannister, Musical Analysis (Bell).
Goodrich, Musical Analysis, 2 vols. 1889 (Schirmer).
Statham, Form and Design in Music (Reeves).
Fisher, Pianist's Mentor (Form ; Analysis, etc.).
A. E. Hull, Questions on Musical Form (Augener).
APPLIED ANALYSIS.
R. Prentice, The Musician, 6 grades (Curwen).
Perry, Descriptive Analyses, 2 vols. (Presser).
Holmes & Kara, Analyses, 4 pieces (Weekes).
ANALYSED EDITIONS OF Music.
Dr. G. Saunders, Annotated Editions of the Classics (Hammond).
Dr. E. Turpin, Student's Edition of the Classics (Weekes).
Billow Edition of Beethoven's Sonatas, Op. 53 in Cotta Edition.
Editions of Bach's 48 Preludes and Fugues by Lott (Ashdown) ; Reinecke,
(Breitkopf & Hartel) ; Stade's Open Score Edition (Steingr&ber) ;
Vincent's Open Score Edition (Vincent) ; Saunders' Edition (different-
sized notes) (Hammond) ; Boekelmau's Edition (coloured entries of
subject, etc.).
DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS OF THE CLASSICS,
Analysis of Mozart's Sonatas, by Janet Salisbury.
Analysis (Form, etc.) of Bach's 48 Preludes and Fugues, by Iliffe (Novello) ;
Riemann, 2 vols. (Augener) ; Van Bruyck (Breitkopf & Hartel) and
Sampson (Digest of in 3 sections) (Vincent).
Analysis of Beethoven's Sonatas, by Elterlein (Reeves) ; Nagel (1903) to
German (Langens) . Harding Detailed Formal AnaJy sis (NoveHo) .
How to Study the Pianoforte Works of Beethoven, by Herbert Westerby
(Reeves).
Descriptions. See Reinecke's Letters to a Lady (Augener), and Lens's The
Three Styles.
APPENDIX 379
DESCRIPTIONS AND CRITIQUES.
Herbert Westerby, Piano Works of the Great Composers : Bach and Handel
to Beethoven, i vol. ; also 7 Parts (Reeves).
Marx, Beethoven's Piano Works (trans. Summy, Chicago).
F. Kullak, Beethoven's Pianoforte Playing (Concertos, etc.) (Schirmer).
Lorenz, Mozart als Klavier Componist (Leuckart).
Reinecke, Zur Wiederbelebung der Mozartschen Clavier-Konzerte,
Schumann, Music and Musicians, 2 vols. (Reeves).
Vogel, Schumann's Klavier Ton Poesie (Hesse).
Jansen, Die Davidsbtindler (Breitkopf & Hartel).
Kleczynski, Greater Works of Chopin (Reeves).
, How to Play Chopin (Reeves).
Jonson, Handbook to Works of Chopin (Heinemann) .
Naylor, An Elizabethan Virginal Book (Breitkopf & Hartel).
Pauer, Three Historical Performances (Recital Notes) (Augener).
Henderson, Preludes and Studies. 1891 (Evolution of Piano Music, etc.)
(Longman).
J. A. Johnstone, Modern Tendencies in Musical Art (Schumann, Chopin,
etc.).
Billow, Studien (Notes on various works) (Luckhardt).
Niecks, Programme Music (Novello).
Jeffrey Pulver, The Ancient Dance Forms (Musical Association Lectures,
1914).
ORNAMENTATION.
Harding, Musical Ornaments (Weekes).
Fowles, Studies in Musical Graces (Vincent).
Germer, Ornamentation (now added to his Technics) (Bos.).
Dannreuther, Ornamentation, 2 vols. (Novello).
Schwenker, Ein Beitrag zur Ornamentik (in Em. Bach's works), Universal
Edition.
Dolmetsch, The Interpretation of the Music of the i^th and iSth Centuries
(Novello).
Ehrlich, Ornamentation in Bach's Works (St. Ed.).
, Ornamentation in Beethoven's Works (St. Ed.).
SIGHT READING AND MEMORIZING.
White, Reading at Sight (Curwen),
:t Harrison, Sight Reading Tests (Weekes) .
xervell, Sight Reading, 6 vols, (Swan).
le Melodies, 4 Parts (Hammond),
Le Beriot, Lecture du piano (Leduc) ,
ent, Lecture Musicale (Hamelle).
an, Musical Memory (Vincent) .
>per, Sight Reading and Memory Lessons (Schmitt, Boston).
ier, Pianist's Mentor (Memorizing, etc.) (Curwen).
ACCOMPANIMENTS.
xrtotx, Song Accompaniments (Gould).
n, How to Accompany (Cocks),
H. Lindo, The Art of Accompanying (Rogers).
ms, The Aft of Accompanying at the Piano (Reeves),
necke, Aphorisms on ppwgf Accompaniments (Gebr, Reinecke).
3 8o HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
MUSICAL APPRECIATION.
Scholes, The Listener's Guide (Oxford Univ. Press).
Kobb6, How to Appreciate Music (Sisley).
Antcliffe, How to Enjoy Music (Kegan Paul).
St. Macpherson, Music and its Appreciation (Jos. Williams).
Dickinson, The Art of Listening to Good Music (Reeves).
Henderson, What is Good Music ? (Murray).
THE PEDALS.
Rubinstein, Piano Pedal Studies (Bos,).
Schmitt, The Pedals of the Pianoforte : trans. (Presser).
T A Johnstone, How to Use the Pedal (Ashdown).
A. H. Lindo, The Art of Pedalling. 1923 (Kegan Paul).
ORCHESTRAL SCORE READING.
Riemann, Playing from Score (Augener) .
RHYTHM.
Germer, Rhythmical Problems (Practical) (Bos.).
M. H, Glyn, The Rhythmic Conception of Music (Longman).
EXTEMPORIZATION.
Sawyer, Extemporization (Novello).
Czeray, L'Art d'Improviser (Leduc).
, L'Art de Prttuder (Leduc).
HISTORY OF THE PIANOFORTE.
Hipkins, The Pianoforte (Novello).
Weitzmann, History of Pianoforte Playing, etc. (Schirmer).
Paul, Geschichte des Klaviers (Payne).
Oscar Bie, History of the Pianoforte : trans. (Dent).
Southgate, English Music (Evolution of Piano, etc.) (Scott).
Ruthardt, Das Klavier (Origin; Style; Technique) (Hug).
Marmontel, Histoire du Piano (Influence on Composers) (Paris),
GENERAL MUSICAL HISTORY.
Concise Histories : by Davey, is. (Qurwen) ; Hunt, 33, 6d, (Bell) ; and
Riemann (Augener).
Parry, Summary of Musical History ( Novello).
Colles, The Growth of Music, 2 Parts (Clarendon Press).
Dickinson, Study of the History of Music (Scribner ; Reeves),
J. E. Matthew, Handbook of Musical .History (For Authorities) (Grevel).
Oxford History of Music, Vol. Ill : The lyth Century ; Vol, IV : B&ch
and Handel ; V : Viennese School ; VI : Romantic Period (Clarendon
Press) .
Stanford and Forsyth, History of Music (Macmillan),
APPENDIX 381
MUSICAL CRITIQUE.
Streatfeild, Modern Music and Music (PalestrinatoR. Strauss) (Methuen).
Hadow, Studies in Modern Music, 2 vols. 1893 (Schumann to Brahms)
(Seeley).
Huneker, Mezzotints. 1900 (Chopin, Brahms, Liszt studies, etc.) ^Scribner ;
Reeves).
Mason, Beethoven and his Forerunners (Macmillan).
, The Romantic Composers (Schubert to Liszt) (Macmillan).
, From Grieg to Brahms (Includes also Dvorak, Saint~Sae"ns and
Franck) (Outlook Co.).
Gilman, Phases of Modern Music (McDowell ; Grieg, etc.) (Harper).
Filson Young, Mastersingers. 1901 (Hall6 ; Saint-Sae'ns ; etc.) (Reeves).
Rubenstein, Music and its Masters (Augener).
Elson, Modern Composers of Europe (Page, Boston).
Niemann, Musik and Musiker des igten Jahrhunderts (SenfT).
Riemann, Geschichte der Musik seit Beethoven (1800-1900) (Spemann).
GREAT PIANISTS.
Lahee, Great Pianists (Putnam). (Very good).
J. F. Cooke, Great Pianists on Piano Playing (1913-17) (Presser), (Very
good).
Ehrlich, Celebrated Pianists (Presser).
Lenz, Great Piano Virtuosos (Liszt ; Henselt ; etc.) (Schirmer).
Marmontel, Les Pianistes Celebres (Heugel).
MUSICAL BIOGRAPHIES.
BACH. By Parry. 1909 (Novello). By Spitta, 3 vols, 1884-5 (Novello).
BEETHOVEN. By D'Indy (Boston Music Co.). By Remain Rolland.
1917 (Kegan Paul).
BENNETT (Sterndale). By J. R. S. Bennett. 1907 (Camb. Univ. Press).
By O'Leary. 1881 (Mus. Assoc. Lecture).
BRAHMS. By Colles (Lane), By Deiters. 1888 (Unwin). By Fuller
Maitland. 1911 (Methuen). By Florence May, 2 vols, 1905 (Arnold).
CHOPIN. By Huneker, (1900) 1903 (New York). By Niecks, 2 vols,
1888 (Novello).
DEBUSSY. By Cortot (The Pianoforte Music of Debussy) (Chester). By
Le Cas (Breitkopf & Hartel). By Liebich. 1908 (Lane).
DVORAK. By Markham Lee (Lane).
FRANCK (GSsar), By Derepas (Breitkopf & Hartel). By D'Indy (Lane).
GRIEG. JBy FincJ\ 1906 (Lane).
HALLE. Autobiography (Macmillan).
HANDEL. By Streatfeild (Methuen) . By Rolland (Kegan Patil).
HAYDN, By Hadow (A Croatian Composer) (Seeley),
HELLER. By Barbadette (Ashdown).
HOLBROOKE. By Lowe. 1920 (Kegan Paul).
HULLAH, By Leschetitzky (Lane).
LISZT, By Calvocoressi (Paris), By Hervey (Lane), By Huneker
(Chapman & Hall). By Ramann, a vols. 1882 (Reeves). By
Wohl. 1887 (Ward & Downey).
MACDOWBLL. By Gilman, 1905 (Lane). By Porte. 1922 (Kegan
Paul).
MOSCHELBS. By his Wife, 2 vols. 1873 (Hurst & Blackett).
By Jahn, 3 vols. 1883 (Novello). By Wilder (Reeves).
382 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
MUSORGSKY. By Calvocoressi. 1919 (Kegan Paul).
RUBINSTEIN. By M' Arthur. 1890 (Reeves).
SAINT SAENS. By Neitzell (Die Harmonie). By Watson Lyle, 1923
(Kegan Paul).
SCHUBERT. By Hellborn, 2 vols. 1869 (Longman), Article " Schubert "
in Grove's Dictionary.
SCHUMANN. By May (Arnold) . By Reissmann. 1886 (Bell).
SCOTT (Cyril). By Hull. 1918 (Kegan Paul).
SCRIABIN. By Hull (1916) 1920 (Kegan Paul).
TCHAIKOWSKL By Newmarch (Grant Richards).
WEBER. Article " Weber " in Grove's Dictionary.
See Appendix to Webbe's Pianist's Primer and Guide (Forsyth) for " BOOKS
for Musicians ; " also Articles in Grove's Dictionary, 5 vols. (1879-88)
1904-10 (Macmillan) and the :
New Library of Music Series (Methuen).
Master Musician Series (Dent) .
Living Masters of Music Series (Lane).
Music of the Masters Series (Lane).
Library of Music and Musicians Series (Kegan Paul) .
The Musician's Book Series (Kegan Paul).
Miniature Series of Musicians Series (Bell).
Great Musicians Series (Sampson Low).
Les Maltres de Musique Series (Paris).
Musical Booklets Series (Weekes).
WORKS OF REFERENCE.
Baker, Biographical Dictionary (Schirmer).
Grove, Dictionary of Music, 5 vols. 1909 (Macmillan).
Riemann, Dictionary of Music (Shedlock ; Augener).
, Dictionary of Russian Composers (Longman) .
Schytte, Nordisk Musik Lexicon. 1888 (Scandinavian Composers)
(Copenhagen).
Fetis, Biographic. 1863 ; Supplement 1878 (Paris).
THE NATIONAL ASPECT.
Engel, The Literature of National Music. 1879 (Novello).
Niemann, Musik und Musiker des igten Jahrhunderts (Sentt),
Crowest, British Music. 1896.
Davey, History of English Music : new Ed. 1922 (Curwen).
Maitland, English Music of the igth Century. 1894.
Scholes, Introduction to British M%isic (Palmer & Hay ward) ^
Browne and Stratton, British Musical Biography (Vincent).
Grove, Dictionary : Articles on " Scottish and Irish Music."
A merica.
Elson, History of American Music. 1904 (Macmillan).
Mathews, A Hundred Years' Music in A merica.
Ritter, Music in America. 1883 (Reeves).
Germany.
Maitland, Masters of German Music, 1884.
Soubies, La Musique Allemande (Paris).
APPENDIX 383
France.
Hervey, Masters of French Music (Osgood, Boston).
Jean Aubry, French Music of To-day (Kegan Paul).
Hargrave, The Earlier French Musicians (Kegan Paul).
Expert, Mattres Musiciens de la Renaissance (Paris).
Serviere, La Musique Francaise (Franck ; Saint-SaSns, etc.) (Harvard
Fils).
Russia.
Nathan, Introduction to Russian Music (Palmer & Hayward).
, Contemporary Russian Composers (Palmer & Hayward).
A Pougin, Short History of Russian Music (Chatto & Windus),
Cui, La Musique en Russe. 1880 (Paris).
Articles on Russian Composers in Russian Edition of Riemann's Dictionary
( Jurgenson) .
Finland.
Flodin, Musik in Finnland. 1900 (Soderstrom, Helsingfors).
Newmarch, Jan Sibelius (B. & H.).
Scandinavia.
Niemann, Die Musik Scandinavians. 1906 (B. & H.).
Og-W. Behrend, Panum Hortense, 2 vols. 1905 (Norway ; Sweden ;
Denmark) .
Soubies, L'Art Scandinave, 3 vols. 1874 (Paris).
Schytte, Nordisk Musik Lexicon. J888 (Copennagen).
Bohemia.
Hostinsky, Musik in Bohemia (Urbanek, Prague),
Soubies, Histoire: Boheme (Paris).
Mackenzie, R.A . Lectures (Internationale Musikgesellschafts Magazine).
Hungary.
Kaldy, History of Hungarian Music (Reeves).
Soubies, Histoire: Hongrie (Paris).
Liszt, Die Zigeuner und ihre Musik in Ungarn.
Hona de Gyory, Hungarian Music Musical Assoc. Lecture.
Netherlands.
Soubios, Histoire: Belgique, 2 vols, ; Hollands (Paris).
Cobbett, Music and Musicians of Walloon Provinces (Musical Assoc, Lee.
1901),
Courier Musical, Paris, Feb. ,1904. L'Ecoh Flamande.
Van der Straeten, Musique des Pays Bas avant le XIX. Siicle (1867-85).
t Switzerland.
Becker, La Musique en Suisse, 1874.
Italy,
Villani, L'Art* del Clavicembalo, 1901 (Fratelle-Bodia, Turin),
Torcai, UAvte Musical* in Italia, 5 vols. (Bodia).
1902.
384 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Spain.
C. van Vechten, The Music of Spain (Kegan Paul).
Cart, Spanish Music (Musical Assoc. Lect., 1906).
Soubies, L'Histoire de la Musique en Espagne, 3 vols, (Paris).
, L'Histoire de la Musique en Portugal (Paris).
Pedrell, Dictionary of Spanish and Portuguese Musicians.
Reference.
See Articles on Music of various nationalities in the American magazines,
tude and Musician, and in the German Die Musik. See also the
Universal Handbook of Musical Literature (annual) (Augener), and the
M ' onatsbericht (Hofmeister) which contains monthly announcements
of new music.
MODERN EDITIONS.
" Look upon the alteration or omission of anything or the
introduction of modern ornaments in the works of good composers as a
contemptible impertinence." R. Schumann.
The modern Edition of Standard Pianoforte works may "be said to
date from the publication of the Cotta Edition. No doubt this Edition
was a great advance in the way of giving educational help, on what had
gone before. Since that time, however, quite a generation of well -equipped
Editors has come to the front, and much progress has been made. We
may put down the following as being essential to good modern editions of
any work :
1. Good paper and bold, clear print.
2. Correct phrasing.
3. Modern Fingering.
4. Suitable Pedal signs.
5. Rational Expression Marks where not provided by the Composer,
6. Intelligible Analysis in Analytical Editions.
Of many well-known Editions several offend against one or other of
these requirements. Several of our British Editions take front rank, and
of the foreign Editions probably the Germer Editions are the best.
Riemann's Editions are too subtle and overcrowded. Buonamici is prodigal
of Pedal Indications, while, going further back, Hensfclt (Edition of Weber)
and Tausig, on paper, like Liszt, in actual practice, took many liberties
with what they attacked. Perhaps, the addition of rational phrase marks
is the most important point. Germer, O'Leary, Agnes Zimmermann and
Conrad Kuhner, among others, have earned distinction in this way. It is
greatly to be desired in the interests of clear phrasing that mere legato
playing should no longer be indicated by the slur -. As regards the
Pedal, perhaps, the best sign, is , one which is fast growing in favour.
APPENDIX 385
PART II
CHIEF COLLECTIVE EDITIONS OF THE CLASSICS.
N.B. Other Collective Editions are mentioned in the various chapters.
Chopin : Valses (contains posthumous numbers) (Jos. Williams).
Couperin : Brahms and Chrysander, 4 vols. (Augener).
Les Maltres de Clavecin, 13 pieces (Lit.).
Old French Composers (Augener).
Rameau : Les Maltres de Clavecin, 12 pieces (Lit.).
Old French Composers (Augener).
Concertos (Steingr&ber Ed.).
Scarlatti : Compositions (70), Ed. by Barth, 4 vols. (Univ. Ed.).
Sonatas (60) (B. & H.).
8 Suites, 24 pieces (Ed. by Longman) (Rather),
New Collection (Ed. by Pedrell) (Barcelona).
12 Sonatas (Hug.).
Old Italian Composers. Ed. by Pauer, 117 pp. (Augener).
Old German Composers. Ed. by Pauer, 114 pp. (Augener).
Early English Composers. Byrd ; Bull ; Gibbons. Separate vols.
(Augener) .
Later English Composers. Blow ; Purcell ; Arne. Separate vols.
(Augener).
Early English. Fitzwilliam Virginal Collection (B. & H.).
. Rirnbault's Reprint of Parthenia (1611 A.D.). Byrd; Bull j
Gibbons (Reeves).
Later English. Henry Purcell, Suites, 4 vols. (Ed. by Squire) (Chester).
General Early Classics . Les Maltres de Clavecin, Vol. I . German Master
(Lit.) ; Vol. II. English, Italian, French (Lit).
Alte Klavier Musih (B. & H. ; Simrock).
Golden Treasury , 2 vols. (Schirmer),
From the i8th Century's, 2 vols. (Ed. by McDowell) (Elkin).
Le Petit Claveciniste (Ed. by Philipps) (Ja).
Froberger, Adler Collection (B. & H.). Nieman Selection (Senff).
Em, Bach: Compositions (14 Sonatas, and Rondos) Ed. by Schenker.
Baumgart Edn., 6 Books (Leuckart). Concertos (Steingraber Edn.).
W, F. Bach; Polonaises and Fugues (Peters). 4 Fantasias (Kistner).
Concertos (Steingraber Edn.).
Handel 15 vols. (Univ. Edn.), 3 vols. (Peters), 3 vols. (B. & H.), i vol.
(Lit,), Compositions (Kistner) ; Suites Ed, by Reinecke (Schweers
and Haake) ; Easy Pieces, Ed, by Biilow (Augener).
Seb. Bach ; Bachgesellschaft Edn., 5 vols. (B, & H,). Bischotf Edn.,
7 vols. (Steingraber) ; also Editions in Peters, Litolft, B. & H. and
Augener Collections,
Bach's 48 Preludes and Fugues. Germer Edn. (Lit,). Busoni Edn.
(Schirmer). Saunders Edn. (Hammond). Lott, Edn, (Ash) ; also
Novella Edn,
Haydn. Sonatas. Riamann Edn, (Augener) ; also Lit., Peters (Augener) j
- B. & H. Edn,
Mozart ; Gesammtausgabe (B, & H,), vols. 16, 19-22 ; also Peters,
Lit,, Cotta., Steing,, and Simrock Edns. The Concertos (Peters
and B, & H,) ; also 5 for 2 Pianos (St, Ed,) 4 3 (Peters), The Sonatas
(Augener, Bos.) ; Novello Edna,
Beethoven : Gesammtausgabe (B, & H,), vols, 9, 15-18 j also Petera
Edn* and Lit, Variations, 2 vols (IMv, Edn.). Sonatas. Germer
Edn. (Lit,) ; D'Albart Edn, (Forberg) ; Cotta Edn. ; also Novello,
Augener and Gebr, Kaineck Edns,
386 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Beethoven and Mozart: Sonatas: analytical edn., ed. Macpherson
(J. Williams).
Clementi : Aug. ; Univ. Edn. ; Lit. (B. & H.) Holle Edns.
Hummel : Lit., B. & H., Peters ; Concertos, St. Ed., Univ. Ed.
Weber: Peters, Augener, Wouters Edn. (Katto). Concertos. Lit.
and St. Edn.
Schubert: Gesammtausgabe (B, & H.). Sonatas, Augener and Univ.
Edns. Works vol 1802 (Peters). Duets Lit. Edn. Impromptus
(Lengnick) .
Mendelssohn: Complete (Nov.) (unfingered) ; Gesammtausgabe (B. &H.).
Concertos. St. Edn. Lieder ohne Worte Klind worth Ed. (Novello
and Augener). B. F. Wood Edn. with Titles.
Schumann : Gesammtausgabe (B. & H.) Lit., Novello and Augener
Edns. Neitzels Edn. (Riihle).
Chopin : Univ. Edn. (Peters), Augener and B. & H. Edns.
Field : Nocturnes arid Concertos (J. Schubert Edn.).
Bennet : Augener, and Ashdown.
Brahms : Simrock Edn.
Dvorak : Simrock Edn.
Reger : Univ. Edn. ; Lauterbach and Kuhn.
Thematic Catalogues in B. & H. Edn. of Em. Bach, Beethoven, Chopin,
Liszt, Mendelssohn and Mozart.
Phrased edition of Bach in Wood's and Berner's edns. ; and of Gade in
the new Litolfi edn.
PART III,
CHIEF MUSICAL JOURNALS FOR PIANISTS.
Great Britain : Musical Record ; Times ; Opinion ; News ; Standard ;
Music Teacher.
America : Music ; Etude ; The Musician.
Germany : Der Klavier Lehrer; Die Musik ; A llgemeine Musik Z&itung ;
Neue Musik Zeitung ; Signale ; Musikalisches Wochenblatt ; Neue
Zeitschrift fur Musik.
Austria: Neue Musik Presse (Vienna) ; Musiker Zeitung (Vienna).
Bohemia : Dalibor (Prague),
Switzerland : La Musique en Suisse ; Schweizerisclie Musik Zeitung,
Netherlands ; Le Guide Musical (Brussels) ; Caecilia (The Hague) ;
De Muziekbode ; Tydschrift der Vereemgung ; Weekbladfur Muxiek.
France : Le Menestrel ; Le Monde Musical ; Revue Musicals,
Italy ; // Pianoforte ; Rivista Musicale Itatiana ; La Nuow Musica ;
La Cronaca Musicale (Pesaro) ; Musica e Musicisti.
Russia : Am Klavier (Riga) ; Russkaij Musij kaalja Gazeta,
Sweden * r ~Sven$k Musiktidnung.
Finland : JFinsk Musikrevy.
Spain : Revista Musicale Catalana (Barcelona).
Bavaria ; Kunstwart (Munich).
Hungary: Zenevilag (Budapest).
Poland : Musikal Novitdten (Warsaw;,
Ronmania :*- Romania Musicale,
Particulars of the above can be found in Hesse's Musik Calender (Leipzig) ,
APPENDIX 387
PART IV.
PUBLISHERS OF PIANOFORTE Music.
GREAT BRITAIN.
ABBREV.
London Anglo-French Co., 95 Wimpole Street, W.i. A.F.
Ascherberg, 16 Mortimer Street. Ac,
Ashdown, 19 Hanover Square. A.
Augener, Great Marlborough Street. Aug.
Bayley & Ferguson, 2 Great Marlborough Street. By.
Boosey, 295 Regent Street. B.
Bos worth, 8 Heddon Street, W. Bos.
Gary, 13 Mortimer Street. Cr.
Chappell, 50 New Bond Street. Cp.
Chester, 1 1 Great Marlborough Street. Ch.
J. Church, 105 Great Russell Street, W.i. J.C.
Cramer, 139 New Bond Street. Cm.
Curwen, 24 Berners Street. Cw.
Duff, Stewart & Co., 51 High St., Bloomsbury, W.C.2, Df.
Elkin, 8 Beak Street, W. Ek.
Enoch, 14 Great Marlborough Street. En.
Forsyth, 34 Berners Street, W.i. Fs.
Gould, 24 Poland Street. G.
Hammond, 6 Kingly Str,, W. Hm,
F, Harris, 40 Berners Street. Hr.
Laudy, 8 Newman Street. Ld.
Lengnick, 14 Berners Street. Lg.
Leonard, 47 Poland Street, W.i. Ln.
Metzler, 142 Charing Cross Road, W.C.2, M.
Murdoch, 23 Princes Street, W.i. Mur.
Novello, 1 60 Wardour Street, W. Nov.
Orpheus Co., Moorgate Street Arcade. Os.
Reeves (Literature), 83 Charing Cross Road. R.
Ricordi, 283 Regent Street. Re.
Schott, 48 Great Marlborough Street. Sht.
Stainer <fe Bell, 58 Berners Street. S.B.
Swan, 288 Regent Street. Sw.
Warren & Phillips, 24 East Castle Street, W.i. W. <fc P.
Weekes, 14 Hanover Street, W.
Wickins, New Bond Street. Wk.
B, Williams, 26 Goodge Street, W. B.W.
J, Williams, 32 Great Portland Street. J,W.
Winthrop Rogers, 18, Berners Street. W,R,
B. F. Wood, 84 Newman Street, W.i. Wd.
York Banks, Stonegate. Bn,
Edinburgh Patterson, George Street. Ps.
Dublin Pohlraan, 40 Dawson Street, Ph.
GERMANY,*
Btrlin Bote & Bock, Leipziger Strasse, 37, B. <fc B.
Challier, Beuth Strasse, 10, Ch.
Ftirstner, Kronen Strasse, 16. Fr.
Ries & Erler, Kurftirstendarnm, 32. R, & E,
Schlesinger, Franz Strasse, 23. Schles,
Simon, Markgrafen Strasse, 101, Sm.
Simrock, Friedrich Strasse, 171* Sr,
* Moat foreign music can be imported through Novello, or Augener, London,
388 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
ABBREV.
Leipzig Belaieff, Rabenstein Platz, 3. Bl.
Bertram. Bm.
Bos worth, Konig Strasse, 266. Bos.
Breitkcpf & Hartel, Niirnberger Strasse, 38. B. & H.
Brockhaus, Quer Strasse, 76. Bk.
Dieckmann. Dk.
Eulenberg, Konig Strasse, 8. Eu.
O. Forberg, Steplian Strasse, 10. O.F.
R. Forberg, Thai Strasse, 19. R.F.
M. Hesse, Eilenburger Strasse, 4. M.H.
Hofmeister, Quer Strasse, 13. HI
Hug, Konig Strasse, 20. Hg.
Junne, Thai Strasse, 21. J.
Jurgensson, Thai Strasse, 19. Jr.
Kahnt, Niirnberger Strasse, 27. K.
Kistner, Rabenstein Plat 2, 3. Ks.
Klemm, Neuixiarkt, 28. Kl.
Lauterbach & Kuhn, Ross Strasse, 18. L. & K.
Leuckart, Dresdener Strasse, n. L.
Pabst, Neumarkt, 26. Pb.
Peters, Thai Strasse, 10. P.
Porting, Quer Strasse, 8. Pr.
Rahter, Rabenstein Platz, 3. R.
Geb. Reinecke, Felix Strasse, 4. G.R.
Rieter Biedeman, Gerichtsweg, 3. Rb.
A. P. Schmidt, Gerichtsweg. A.P.S.
Fr. Schubert, junr., Markgrafen Strasse, 8. F.S.
J. Schubert, Dorrien Strasse, i, J.S.
Bartholf Senff, Ross Strasse, 22. B.S.
Siegel, Dorrien Strasse, 12. Sg.
Steingraber, Seeburger Strasse, 100. St.
Zimmermann, Quer Strasse, 26. Z.
Braunschweig LitolfE. London Agent, 57, High St., W.2. Lit.
Bremen Fischer, Katharinen Strasse, 30. F.
Praeger & Meier. P. & M.
Schweers & Haake. S. & H.
Breslau Hainauer. Hn.
Dresden Brauer, N. Haupt Strasse, 2. A.B,
L. Hofiarth. L.H.
Hameln Oppenheimer. O.
Magdeburg Heinrichshofen. Hs,
Mainz Schott. St.
Offenbach-am-Main J. Andre, Bon Strasse, 21. J.A.
Regensburg M. Cohen, M,C,
Strassburg Siid-Deutscher Musik Verlag. SD.
Stuttgart Cotta Edn., Cotta Strasse, 13, Gt,
AMERICA.
New York -Schirmer, 3, E. 43rd Street. Srm,
Pond & Co., 148, 5th Avenue Street. Pd>
Schubert & Co., 23 Union Square, "West, E.S.
H. W. Gray, 2 W. 45th Street, Gray
Chicago C. F, Summy, 220 Wabash Street. C.F.S.
J. Church, 200 Wabash Avenue* J,C.
APPENDIX 389
. . . ABBREV.
Cincinnati G. B. Jennings. j n<
Milwaukee Rohlfing. j^
Philadelphia Presser, 1712 Chestnut Street. Ps.'
Hatch, Locust Street. Hh.
CANADA.
Toronto Anglo-Canadian Co., 88} Yonge Street. An. C.
AUSTRIA.
Wien (Vienna) L. Doblinger. Db.
Weinberger, I. Maximilian Strasse, u. Wn.
Universal Ed., I. Maximilian Strasse, n. U. Ed.
Eberle (late Spina), Augustiner Strasse, i. Er.
Gutman, Hofoper, i. Gt.
Robitschek, Brauner Strasse, i. Re.
Innsbruck Grosz, Landhaus Strasse. Gr.
BOHEMIA.
Prague 'Urbanek, Ferdinand Av., 14, Ur.
HUNGARY.
Buda Pest Rozsavolgyi, Christopher Platz. Rz.
Bard & Bruder, Kossuth Lajos Strasse. Brd.
Harmonia, Waitznerg, 20. Ha.
SWITZERLAND.
ZUrich Hug & Co. Hg.
Neuchdtcl Sandoz Jobin. S.J.
Lausanne Foetisch Freres. F.F.
FRANCE.
Paris Sulzbach (late Benoit), 13 Faubourg St. Martin. Sb.
L. Gregh, 78 Rue d'Aixjou (London Agent : Ricordi), L.G.
Lemoine, 17 Rue Pigalli. Lm.
Grus, 116 Bd, Hausmann. Gs.
Gallet, 6 Rue Vivienne. Gl.
Hamelle, 22 Bd. Malesherbes. HI.
Bellon Ponscarme (late Baudoux), 37 Bd, Hausmann. B.P.
Durand, 4 Place de la Madeleine. Dr.
Societ6 Nouvellc (late Dupont) 24 Rue des Capucins. S.N.
Costallat (late Richault), 15 Cliauss^o D'Antin. Cs.
Noel, 22 Passages des Panoramas. Nl.
Leduc, 3 Rue de Granxmont. Lc.
Librairie Hachette, 79 Bd, de St. Germain. L.H,
Heug<Sl (Au M&nestrel), 2 bis Rue Vivienne. Hn.
Toubert, 25 Rue d'Hautoville, Tb,
Fromart, 40 Rue d'Anjou, Fm.
Choudens, 30 Bd, dos Capucins. Chd.
Lyons Tanirt Fr6res. Ja,
Clot Fils. Ct
HOLLAND.
Muzickhandel, Leidsche Straat, 24. Mz.
Algerneeno Muzieliiandel, Spin, 2, A.M.
G. Alsbaca & Co,, Musiekhandelaren en Uitgevers. As.
Seyf ardt, Danxrak. Sy,
3 go HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
ABBREV.
Rotterdam W. C. de Lange, Schiedsingel, 16. Lng.
W. D. Lichtenauer, L. Blaak, 44. Lht.
The Hague G. H. van Eck, Vlamingstraat. V.E,
Utrecht G. A. H. Wagenar, Ondkerkhof. Wa.
H. Rahr. ^ a -
Rennes, Maria Plaats. Re.
MiddleburgNoste. Ns.
RUSSIA.
PetrogradrIteLB.^ (also Leipzig). Bl.
Bessel, Nevsky, 54. Bes.
Jkf0$c0tt> Jurgenson, Neglumy, 14. Jr.
Idzikowsky. Iz-
J2^o Neldner. N.
POLAND.
T^arsafe^ Gebethner & Wolff. G. & W
DENMARK.
Copenhagen Nordisk Forlags. N.F.
Hansen. Hs.
NORWAY.
Christiania BrSdrene Hals, Storthingsgade, 24. Hals.
Haakon Zapfe, Carl Johaimis Gade, 23. Zp.
Warmuth, MuzikKandel. Wa.
SWEDEN.
Stockholm A.. Lundguist, Malmtorgsgaten, 8. A.L,
Elkam & Schildknecht. E. & S.
FINLAND.
H^sing/orsNya, Musikhandel Forlag. N,M.
SPAIN.
Barcelona Vidal Llimona de Boceta. VI.
Sindicato " Dot^sio/' i y 3 Pucrta del AngeL S.D.
San Sebastian Czsz Erveti, 28 San Martin. C.E.
PORTUGAL.
Lisbon Neuparth & Carnelro, 97 Rua Nova do Almado, Na.
ITALY.
MILAK Ricordi (see London).
Carisch & Janichen. C, & J,
Al Pigna, Viale Manza, Sesto St. Giovanni, Pg,
Florence Bratti, Via de Martelli, 7. Bra.
Turin Marcello Capra. M.C.
Rome -Venturini. Vn.
BELGIUM.
Brussels Ges. Oertel, Rue de la Hdgence, 17. G.O,
Katto, Rue de 1'Ecuyer, 46. Ko.
Aynssa, Rue Neuve, 92. Ay.
Scbott & Co. Sbt,
Cranz & Co. Cz.
LUge Muraille, Rue de 1'Universit^ 45. Mu.
Ghent (Gand)'B&y<zT l Digue de Brabant, 14. By.
INDEX OF COMPOSERS
Abranyi, C., 242, 245
K,2 4 4
Aceres, R. de, 292
Agghazy, C,, 242, 244
Aitken, G., 222
Albanesi, C., 296
Albeniz, Don L, 291
Don P., 291
Albert!, Dom., 28
Alcnew, E., 267
Alfano, F., 296
Alkan, C. V., 275
Allcga, G,, 242, 244
Alnaes, E., 329
Alpheraky, A,, 267
Amany, H., 267
Andersen, R., 317
Andreoli, G,, 297
Anjou, Emil, 317
Antipow, C,, 268
Arensky, 197, 204, 207
Armand, V. ; 219
Armitage, R. K., 339
Armstrong, F, A., 341
Arne, T., 38
Artibouchew, N,, 267
Asantschewsky, 203
Ascher, J,, 220
Ashton, A,, 336
Asioli, B., 295
Aubert, L., 198
Aulin, V., Miss, 317
Austin, E., 341
Avermaete, van, 284
B
Babell, 38
Bach, E., 20, 22, 60, 63 fl,
J. B,, 25- 5i
1 C,, 5*
J. C, F., 51
J. B,, 25. 51
* John Seb,, 43 fi f , 52, 54, 188,
204, 207
Bach, W. F., 25, 51
Bache, F. E., 336
Bachmann, G. ; 221
Backer-Grondahl, A., 327
Bahia, F. L., 94
Baines, F. W., 341
W,, 344
Baillon, de, 271
Balakirew, M., 255
Barbadette, 281
Barbara, P. H., 281
Bargiel, W., 142
Barjanski, 239
Barmetin, $., 269
Barnett, J. F., 186, 336
Barns, E.> 339
Bartalns, S,, 242
Bartay, E., 242
Bartlett Homer, 350
Bartok, B,, 242, 244
Barton, H,, 339
Bass, R., 271
Battishili, J., 39
Battmann, J, L,, 360
Bax, A., 344
Beach, H. H. A., 351
Bechgaard, J., 305
Becker, A., 352
Beckman, B., 320
Beethoven, 53, 81 ff. f 122, 174, 190,
208 ff,, 217
Behr, F,, 219
Bcnda, G., 50, 247
Bendel, F,, 180, 220
Bendix, V., 308
Bennett, W. S,, 123, 127 ff., 186, 193
Benoit, P. L,, 283
Berens, H,, 360
Berg6, 273
Berger, L., 355
W., 176,181
Beriot', C, de, 28 1
Bertha, A,, 242
Bertini, H., 356
Berwald, W,, 316
Bird, A,, 351
Bizet, G,, 281
Blair, Hugh, 339
392
HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Blanchet, E. R., 289
Bleichmann, J., 268
Blow, J., 38
Blumenfeld, Felix, igS. 262
Blumenthal, J., 220
Boely, A. P., 281
Bohm, 219
Boom, von, 287
Borch, G., 329
Boris, M., 275
Borodin, A., 256, 264
Borowski, 221, 268
Bossi, M. E., 297
Botting, H., 339
Bouman, M. J., 287
Bowen, York, 197, 344
Brahms, J., 144, 174, * 8 4> I 9 6 2O2
209, 243, 360 E.
Brambach, C. J., 142
Brassin, L., 220
Braungardt, 220
Brewer, A, H., 339
Brisson, F., 281
Brock, A. de, 283
Brockway, H., 350
Bronsart, H. V., 169
Bruckshaw, R., 197
Brfill, J., 196, 198, 270
Bryce, W., 39
Biichner, E., 181
Buck, P., 340
Bull, J., 8, ii
Bunning, H., 339
Burgmiiller, 356
Burmeister, R., 18
Burnand (" Strelezki " and " Essi-
pofi "), 339
Burton, J., 398
Busoni, 198, 215, 297
Buxtehude, D., 16
Byrd, 8, 9, 28
Cajani, A., 297
Capellen, C., 323
Carlier, X., 284
Carmichael, M., 339
Cesek, H,, 250
Chambonniere, A., 17
Chaminade, 204, 244, 245, 274
Chaulieu, C,, 281
Chavagnat, E., 221
Chavner, 204
Chesneau, A., 283
Chopin, F., 99, 184, 194, 204, 258
Chotek, F. Z., 250
Chovan, K., 203, 242
Chvala, E., 249
Cilea, F., 297
Cinna, O. de la, 292
Clark, J., 39
Clemen ti, M., 70, 7 iff.
Clerice, J., 222
Cleve, H., 329
Clutsam, G. H,, 339
Coenen, L., 287
Coleridge-Taylor, S., 216, 352
Concone, G., 295,356
Coninck, J. F. de,|283
Cooper, J., 35
Corder, P., 338
Corelli, A., 15
Cota, A., 292
Couperin, F., 17 ff., 122, 354
Cowen, Sir F. H., 338
Cramer, J. B., 352 JBE.
Crescenzo, da, 297
Crets, P., 283
Growth er, 198
Cui, C,, 255, 256, 264
Curtis, S., 283
Cutler, E., 222
Czerny, C., 153, 257
Czibulka, 222
D
Daddi, J. G., 293
Dahl, A., 316
D'Albert, 151, 196, 216
Dalcroze, E, J., 288
Dale, B. J,, 186, 338
D'Ambrosio, 296
Daquin, D., 19
Dargomisky, 255
D'Arosa, A., 289
Davies, W., 198
Debussy, Cl., 123, 276 ff
De Grau, 220
De Kontski, 222
Delafosse, L., 276
Delioux, C., 220, 276
Denee, C., 351
Desir6 ; M., 284
Diabelli, A., 86
Diemer, L., 281
D'Indy, V., 198
D6hler, T,, 153
Dohnanyi, 245
INDEX OF COMPOSERS
393
Douglas, I., 283
Draeseke, R., 181
Dreyschock, A., 250
F., 250
Dubois, M,, 281
Dukas, 276
Duncan, E., 339
Dunkley, C., 339
Dupont, 222, 284
Dupr6, D,, 338
Dupuis, S., 284
Durand, A., 276
Durante, F., 26
Dussek, C,, 75 ff., 192, 247
Dvorak, 203, 251
Fogg, E., 341
Forrester, C., 339
Forster, J., 249
Foschini, 297
Franck, Cesar, 198, 210, 284
Frescobaldi, G., 14, 26", 206
Frey, Ad., 182
Froberger, J. J., 14, 15, 40, 54, 207
Fmgatta, G., 297
Fuchs, Robt., 176, 202, 203
Fumagalli, A., 296
B., 296
L., 296
E
Eberlin, J. E., 50
Echeverria, J, Si, 292
Eggar, Kath, E,, 341
Elling, C., 329
Enna, A., 307 ff.
Erb, J., 151
Erdstein, L,, 181
Ermel, A., 222
Espadero, R,, 352
Espoaito, 3M, 296
Essipoli, St. (Burnand), 340
Esteban, 8,, 292
Eykens, J,, 283
Eymieu, H,> 276
Falconl, A., 296
Falla, M, de, 292
Farjoon, H,, X97 34
Farnaby, G,, 8
R,, 8
Faur^ G., 192, 74
Fenny, W. J,, 342
Ferrabosco, A, 35
Ferrari, E, W., 297
Fibich, Z,, 248
Fiedler, M,, x8x
Field, J,, 96 $., 192, 193
FieUtas, A, von, 240
FischofiE, R,, 271
Fitton, W,, 387
Fleury, A., a 81
Floriaia, P. 397
Fock, B, von, 286
Fodom, A,, $87
Gaal, F., 242, 244
GabrieU, A., 54
Gabrilowitsch, O,, 268
Gade, N. W., 302
Gael, van, 222
Galeotti, C., 295
Galuppi, B., 28
Ganz, R., 351
Gardiner, Balfour, 342
Gatty, N., 198
Gayrhos, A., 182, 221, 289
Geehl, H. E., 341
Gernerth, F. de, 271
Gentil, A. L,, 289
German (Jones), Ed., 328
Gernsaeim, F., 151
Green, M,, 39
Gregoir, J. M., 284
Grellinger, C., 283, 289
Gibbons, 0,, 10, 23
Gibson, J,, 337
Gilder, J, F., 351
Gillet, E,, 22 x
Gilson, P., 283
-GiordBiii, G,, 295
Glass, L., 309
Glazounow, 185, 210, 256 ff
Glinka, 254 ff.
Gobbaerts, J. L., 222, 284
Gobbi, H,, 242, 244
Goddard, B., 196, 273
C., 219
Godfrey, P., 339
Goedicke, A,, 268
Goon, D. van, 283
Goldbeck, 219
Golde, 219
Goldmark, C,, 244, 243
N. R,, 245
394
HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Goldner, W., 203, 216, 219
Golinelli, S., 295
Goria, A., 155, 204, 220
Gorter, A., 143, 182
Gottschalk, L. M., 223, 351
Gounod, F. C., 281
Grabert, M., 216
Granados, E., 292
Green, M., 39
Gregoir, J. M., 284
Greliinger, C., 283, 289
Gretchaninow, A., 267
Orieg, E. H., 197, 3 2 3
Grodsky, B., 268
Groningen, von, 287
Grovlez, 292
Griinberg, W., 289
Grunfeld, A., 250
Grutzmacher, 219
Gyrowetz, A., 247
Guelbenza, Don J. V. F., 292
Giiiraud, E., 352
Gutmann, A., 220
Herz, H., 155
Herzogenberg, H. von, 151, 204
Hewitt, T. J., 341
Heyblom, A., 287
Heyman, K., 287
Killer, F., 139, 168, 194. 2O2
Hinton, A., 197
Hjelm, O. W 323
Hofmann, H., 180, 202, 203, 208
Holbrooke, J., 197, 337
Holland, T., 339
Hollander, 205
Hopekirk, Miss, 339
Horvath, A., 242, 245
, G., 245
Huber, Hans, 202, 288
Hummel, F., 202, 270
, J. N., 95
Hurlstone, 186, 336
Huss, H., 196, 350
Hutchison, E., 176, 349
Hyatt, N. J., 351
H
Haan, W. de, 287
Haberbier, E., 356
Hadley, H., 351
Hagemann, M. L., 287
Hagg, A., 312
- G., 315
Hahnemann, P., 289
Hammer, Marie von, 357
Handel, G. F., 15, 43 ff., 48 ff., 54,
208
Handrock, J., 219
Hanson, J., 289
Harnxston, E. ; 221
Harrison, J., 204
Hartmann, E., 203, 300
Hasse, J. A., 50
Hassler, W., 77
Have, Ten, 287
Haydn, J., 64, 66 ff., 73, 208
Heath, J., 344
Hein, C., 219
Heller, S., 132 ff.
Helmund, M., 221, 268
Henriques, F., 308
Henry, B,, 351
Henschel, G,, 181
Henselt, Adolph von, 155 ff., 195
Heuser, C., 352
Ilynsky, A., 267
Ireland, J., 344
Isaacs, E., 197
Jackman, A., 287
Jacobson, 3x7
Jadin, H., 281
1 L. E., 28
Jaell, A., 220
Jambor, 245
Jarnefelt, 333
Jeffrey, J. A., 339
Jeffreys, G., 35
'emain, J., 279
ensen, A,, 138
onas, A., 292
oranek, A,, 249
oseffi, JR., 245
'uhaz, A., 244
'ungmann, L., ^20
uon, P., 288
K
Kafka, 250
Kalafaty, B,, 186, 267
INDEX OF COMPOSERS
395
Kaldi, G., 242, 243
Kalkbrenner, F., 154, 192, 355
Karg-Elert, 182, 203
Kargenow, 267
Katto, G., 222
Kaun, H., 181, 203
Kearne, Lindsay, 341
Kerl, F., 41
Kessler, J. C., 357
Kctelbey, A., 338, 339
Ketten, H., 245
Kiel, A., 293
F., 168, 203
Kienzl, W., 182, 203
King, Oliver, 340
Kirch, J,, 244
Kirchner, Fr., 219
T., 140 f., 204
Kirnberger, J, P., 53
Kjerulf, H., 322
KlefM, A,, 203
Klein, Oscar, 181
R., 181
Klindworth, C., 215
Koettlitz, JM, 284
Kohlor, L., 220, 357
Kolling, K., 219
Koning, B. ; 287
Koptiaiew, A., 268
Kopylow, A,, 268
Korbay, F., 244
KorORtchenko, A,, 267
KorsakGW, Rimsky, 264
Kotchetow, W., 267
Kowalski, 221
Kozeluch, L., 94, 247
Krebs, C, A., 53
Kroeger, 176
Mrs, E, R,, 351
Krtig, A,, i8t
D., 220
Krttger, W,, 155
Kufforath, 143
Kuhlau, F,, 308
Kuhnau, J,, 41
Kuiler, K., 287
Kullak, T. f 153
Kandiger, 203
Kwast, J., 287
Lack, T,, 186
Lacombe, L,, 273
P., 273
Lacroix, 276
LadoukMne, M., 268
Ladurner, J. A., 281
Laerum, Inga, 330
Lami, E., 293
Lamzi, 243
Lange, G., 219
S. de, 287
Lange-Miiller, P. T., 307
Lauber, J., 289
Lanrich, S., 292
Lawes, H., 36
Lazzari, S., 297
Lebierre, 221
Le Borne, F., 276
Leeuwen, M. van, 287
Lef&bre, C., 276
Lemaire, F., 221
Lenormand, 197
Leoncavallo, R., 297
Leschetitzky, Th., 239
Leybach, J., 220
Liadow, A., 259 ff.
Liapounow, S. M., 197, 264
Liebling, E., 181
G., 181
Lima, A. P., 293
Lind, Gustav, 245, 342
Liposs, A., 243
Liszt, Fr., 80, 158 ff., 196,^198,
245, 246
Litolff, H., 197, 275, 286
Litzau, J. G., 287
Livens, Leo, 344
Locke, M,, 1 6
Loeillet, J. B., 16
Longo> A., 204, 296
LSschorn, A,, 180, 356, 360
Louchet, G,, 281
Low, J, 219, 250
Luigini, A,, 297
Lundberg, L., 319
Liande, J. Backer, 328 ff.
Lutz, H., 276
Luzzato, F., 297
Lysberg, C, J., 221, 289
M
MacDowell, E,, 185, $4%
Macfarren, W, C., 337
Mackenzie, Sir A,, 197, 315
Mailly, C., 284
Major, Gy., 197* 242
Mailing, Otto, 307
396
HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Manusy, C. M., 287
Marcello, B., 27
Marchisio, 297
Marek, L., 249
Marie, G., 221
Marpurg, F. W., 50, 54
Martini, Padre, 28
Martucci, G., 297
Mason, D. G., 351
Massenet, J., 275
Mattei, T., 222
Matthay, T., 198, 342
Mattheson, J., 20, 42
Mayer, C., 103, 358
H., 219
McEwen, J. B., 186, 338
Mege, T., 283
Melant, C., 284
Melling, E., 329
Mendelssohn, F., 54, 109 ff., 124 if.,
174, 193, 217
Merikanto, Oskar, 333
Merkel, G., 139, 220
Merulo, Cl., 54
Mills, S. B., 222, 337
Mingcozzi, G., 197
Moffat, A. E., 345
Moore, Graham P., 340
Morks, J., 287
Morley, T., B
Moscheles, I., 167 ff., 193, 202,
204, 356
Moskowski, M., 203, 238
Mosonyi, M., 243, 244
Motta, J. V. da, 293
Moussorgsky, 256
Mozart, 53, 66 fL, 73, 173, 189, 204,
208
Muffatt, Gottlieb, 41
Mulder, J., 292
Miiller, A. E., 352
Mundy, J., 10
Myreberg, A. N 317
N
NapolSon, A., 294
Napravnik, .,249
Nares, J v 38
Navratil, C., 271
Nedbal, O., 249
Negro, T. del, 293
Nesvera, J., 249
Neuparth, J., 293
Neupert, J., 323
Nevin, Ethelbert, 351
Nichelmann, C., 50
Nicholls, Fredk., 341
H. W., 337
Nicode, J. L., 138, 202
Niemann, R., 143, 205
W., 352
Niewiadomski, 240
Noguerras, C., 292
Nolck, A., 220
Nollet, E., 281
Normann, L., 311 ff.
Novak, V., 249
Nufiez, Gde. J., 292
Oesten, Th., 219
Olbersleben, M. M., 181, 203
O'Leary, A., 336
Olsen, Ole, 328
Otto, 320
O'Neill, N., 210, 339, 347
Onslow, G., 77
Orth, L. E., 351
Oushoorn, J. H., 286
Paderewski, 197
Paget, P., 281
Pagnion, L., 283
Paine, J. K., 349
Paisiello, G., 31
Palmgren, S., 197
Pantillon, G., 289
Paradies, P. D., 28, 54
Parker, H., 356
Parry, Sir H., 186, 203, 210, 335
Pasquini, B., 24, 26 ft., 52
Passard, E., 281
Pauer, E., 181, 205
Pergolesi, G. B., 16, 30
Peru, F., 276
Pery, M., 181
Peterson-Berger, 318
Petri, E., 198
Pfeiffer, G., 204, 276
Philips, Peeter, 7, 8, 10
Phillip, I,, 214
Piern6, G., 275
Pietri, G. f 54
Hrani, E., 198, 203, 296
Pitt, Percy, 344
INDEX OF COMPOSERS
397
Plachy, W., 250
Playford, J., 16, 33, 36
Poldini, E., 296
Poldowski, 198
Polleri, G. B., 297
Pons, E., 352
Porpora, N. A., 27, 367
Potter, C., 39
Potzes, E., 244
Powell, J., 197
Proksch, J., 250
Prudent, E., 155
Purcell, J., 34 ff.
Quilter, Roger, 341
R
Rachmaninoff, 197, 204, 266
Raff, 1 66, 216
Rameau, 19, 122
Ravel, M., 276, 281
Ravina, H., 275
Read, H. Tervis, 339
Rebikow, W,, 267
Redon, Ernest, 351
Ree, L., 339
Reger, Max, 175 fr, 177 ff. f 186,
205, 210, 215
Rehburg, W., 289
Reinecke, C., 141 ff*, 196, 202, 205
Reinhold, H., 142
Rendahl, E., 317
Raymond, H., 289
Rheinberger, 54, 175, 184, 202, 205
Ribeiro, G, 294
Richards, B., 221
Rie, B,, 250
Rie$, F., 192
Rimsky-Korsakow, N., 197* 2 55
Ritter, T., 275
Roger, J, H,, 351
Rogues, A,, 352
Rolle, L H., 50
Rontgen, J., 169, *86, 286
Rosenbloom, Syd., 339
Rosenhain, J, 155
Rosingrave, T., 39
Rossi, M. A,, 28
Rostek, E., 289
Roth, A., 289
Rowley, A., 341
Rubinstein, A., 164 ff., 196, 202
Riibner, C., 308
Rudorff, G. F. C., 203
Rufer, P., 283
Rust, F. W., 73, 76
Saar, L., 286
Saint-Sagns, 169 ff., 196, 198, 204,
210
Salmon, A. G., 351
Samuel, A., 283
E., 283
Sandor-Laszlo, 215
Sandre, G., 289
Sandt, M. vande, 287
Sapellnikoff, W., 268
Sartorio, A., 222
Savenau, von, 151, 204
Scarlatti, Dom., 21, 25, 29 ff.
Schaefer, G., 352
Schafer, C., 182
Dirk, 286
Scharwenka, P., 237
X., 203, 210, 237
Schelling, E., 198, 35*
Schmitt, A., 356
H., 250
Schlegel, L., 286
Scholtz, A., 151
SchSnberg, B., 271
Schotte, L., 181
Schravesande, J., 287
Schubert, Fr., 104 ff., 202, 209, 246
Schuler, 203
Schuloff, J., 250
Schultz, N., 286
Schumann, Cl., 169, 174
R., 80, 112 flf., 122, 126, 185,
192, 195, 2O2, 204, 2O9
Schiitt, E., 197, 268 ff.
Schytte, L., 197. 35
Scott, Cyril, 342
Scriabin, A,, 186, 197* 2 5
Sedstrdm, H., 31 6
Seeling, Hans, 250, 356
Sequeira, P., 352
Seroft, 255
Sgambati, G., 297
Sharpe, H. F., 338
Shaw, Martin, 339* 34^
Sherwood, P,, 337
W. H., 350
Sibelius, J,, 185, 33 1
HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Signorini, A. R., 216
Silas, E., 286
SiJva, D. R., 294
Sinding, C., 197, 202, 204, 326
Sinigaglia, L., 297
Sknmonds, Hy., 38
Sj6gren, E., 316
Skabo, Signe L., 329
Smetana, F., 247 .
Smith, S., 222
Wilson G., 351
-Hald, 330
Smulders, C., 284
Solotarjow, B., 186
Somervell, A., 338
Speaight, J., 341
Spindler, F., 180, 220
Staeger, A., 181
Stanford, Sir C. V., 335, 347
Stanley, J., 39
Stcherbatchew, N. de, 260 ff.
Steele, Porter, 350
Steenfeldt, P. A. 0., 306
Steenharnmer, 186, 197
Steggall, Keg., 341
Steibelt, D., 94
Sterkel, A., 94
Sternberg, Con., 181
Stojowsky, S., 238
Strauss, J., 212
0,, 220
T R., 143, 198
Strelezki, A., 222
StrengtMeld, ] t , 36
Suk, J., 249
Swlnstead, Felix, 342
Szcekely, E., 244
> J., 243
y, A,, 248
Tallis, X,, 8
Taubert, E, E., 203
- - W., 168
Taylor, S f , Coleridge-, 216, 352 ff.
, Ig,, 250
n T. D,,
323
Teller, A., 221
<&, van, 286
g, S,, X54
Tillet, J., 36
Toft, A., 306
Tomaschek, J. W., 249
Toots, P., 287
Torelli, G., 187
Toth, L., 245
Tours, B., 287
Trew, C. ; 198
Trnecka, H., 247
Tschaikowsky, P. I., 186 197, 265
Turina, J., 292
Turini, Ferd., 31
V
Vahlstrom, N., 317
Vantyn, 205
Vanzande, 276
Vargas, J., 294
Venezia, F. da, 297
Viera, E., 294
Vieuxtemps, L,, 281
Vincent, C,, 337
Vogel, J., 281)
Vogrich, M,,245
Vogt, J., 176
Volkmann, K,, 142, 202
Vos, F. de, 283
Voss, C,, 220
VretWad, V., 316
W
Wachs, ? 221
Waddington, S. P,, 339
Wagenseil, G. L,, 51
Wallace, W, V., 221
Watson, M.> 337
Weber, C. M,, 209
Wehle, C,, 249
Weiss, Aug., 18 1
, Jos., i8r
Wely, L. t 281
Wenzl, H,, 219
Wesley, B t> jg f 176
Wey, E, F,, 308
Whiting, A., 349
Wider, C, M, t 74
Wtelhorski, J,, 239
ge, F, L,, 306
gfa, T,, 238
J., 18*, 263
INDEX OF COMPOSERS
399
Wijsmann, J., 286
Wiklund, A., 3*6
Williams, Gerard, 344
Wilm, von, 203, 204, 269
Winding, A., 303
Winkler, A., 268
Winterberger, A., 217
Witte, G. H., 287
Woelfe, J., 94
Wohlfahrt, R., 321
Wolf, L. C., 142
Wolff, E., 245
Wollenhaupt, H. A., 220
Wolstenholme, W., 339
Woodman, R. H., 35
Worgan, J., 39
Wouters, A., 283
Wrangell, B., 268
Wrede, F., 203
Wtirmser, L., 275
Zabalza, D., 292
Zarembski, J., 203, 238
Zarzycki, A., 197, 2 3^
Zatayewitsch, A., 267
Zilcher, P., 181
Zillmann, E., 143
Zimay, L., 243, 244
Zippoli, D., 27
Zohrer, J., 143
Zoltan, M., 243
Zuschneid, K., 181
SUBJECT INDEX
" Act of Touch/' T. Matthay's, 366
Agr&ment, 22
Albert! Bass, 29
Allemande, 9
Allmaine, 13'
Alman, 9
American Pianoforte Music, 348
" Art of Teaching," Dr. Warriner's,
366
Austrian Composers, 270
Ayre, 13
B
Ballade, Grieg's, 210, 325
Ballades, Brahms', 145, 148
, Chopin's, 235
Ballet Music, Chaminade's, 274
" Bible " Sonatas, 41
Bohemian Pianoforte Music, 247
Bourr6e, 14
Branle, 9
Bravura Element, 10 1
~ School, 152
Canzoni, 12, 24
Capriccios, Mendelssohn's, no, 217
" Carnival/' Schumann's, 117
Chaconne, 14
Characteristic Music, 120, 122, 132
* Pieces, Bennett's, 123, 139
~ t Gade's, 303
-, Hagg's, A., 312
~, Killer's, 123, 132
Schumann's, 116, 122
- Tchalkowsky's, 265
-, Winding's, 303
Chichona, 13
Gassical School, Decay of, 94
Classicists, Modern, 167
Clavecin Music, French, 17
Clavicembalo, 5
Clavichord, 5
Componimienti, 41
Composers, Later English, 33
Concerto, The, 187 ff.
Concertos, Bach's, 188
, Em., 188
Beethoven's, 190
S. Bennett's, 193
Brahms', 149, 196
Great, 48
Grieg's, 194, 324
Henselt's, 195
Liszt's, 163
Mackenzie's, 197, 345
Mendelssohn's, 109, 193
Moscheles', 193
Mozart's, 189
Rameau's, 19
Rimsky-Korsakofif's, 255
Rubinstein's, 196
Saint-Sa8ns', 196
Schumann's, 194 ff.
Stenhammar's, 319
The Study of, 200
Contrapuntal Element, Modern, 172
Coranto, 9, 13
Courante, 9
Cuckoo Capriccio, 27
, Toccata, 27
Czechs, Music of the, 248
Dance Forms, Modern, 211
Danish Pianoforte Music, 300
Danse-basse, 9
Duet Collections, 372
Duets, 201
, Instructive, 204
, Schubert's, 202
, Schumann's, 202
Duet Sonatas, 201
Suites, 203
Dumka Dance Form, 248
401
402
HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Educational Music, 362
fitudes de Concert, 273, 370
" Etudes Transcendantes," 161
Holland, Pianoforte Music of, 285
Hornpipe, 14
Humoresques, G. Hagg's, 315
Hungarian Dances, 243
Music, 241 ff.
Rhapsodies, 244, 245
Fantasias, 9, 23
Fantasie-Etudes, 261
Finnish Pianoforte Music, 330
Fitzwilliam Virginal Book, 8
Flemish Folk Music, 282
Forlane, 14
Formal Music, Climax of, 8
Forty-eight Preludes and Fugues,
Bach's, 45
French Pianoforte Music, 272
Froberger, 40
Fugue, 24
Fugues, Beethoven's, 174
, Brahms', 174
, Handel's, 173
, Mendelssohn's, 174
, Mozart's, 173
, Porpora's B|?, 67
, Reger's, 175
, Rheinberger's, 175
, Schumann's, 174
Furiant, Bohemian, 248, 252
Galliard, 9, 13
Calop Dance Form, 212
Gavotte, 14
German School, Early, 40
Impressionism, Debussy's, 123
, C. Franck's, 288
, Cyril Scott's, 342
Impressionist Music, 120, 123
Improvisation, 371
Italian School, Early, 26
, Modern, 295
Jig, 9, 13
K
Ground, 14
" Keyboard Music in England/
van Borren's, 7
" Klavierlibung, Bach's," 47
Lady Nevill's Book, 9
Left-hand Studies, 367
- Works, 205
" Lessons," 12
" Life of Clara Schumann," Litz-
raann's, 4
Lute, Compositions for, 4
Lyrical Forms, 124
H
" Harmonies Po6tiques," Liszt's,
159
Harmonious Blacksmith, 15, 49
Harpsichord, 6
Composers, 33
< Lessons, 34
" History of English Music/'
Davey'sj 34
" Pianoforte Playing/'
Weitzmanu/s, 34
the Pianoforte/' Oscar
M
Magyar Music, 24 x
Mazurka Dance Forms, 212
Method, Em. Bach's, i, 362
, Beringer's, 371
, Couperin's " L'Art d
Toucher," 18
Czerny's, 364
Kalkbrexraer's, 363
urg's, 36^
%5 7 ,36^
Minuet, 14
Monodbtorci, 5
SUBJECT INDEX
403
" Mulliner Boke," 8
Music for Two Pianos, 204
"'Musick's Monument/' 12
Romanticists, Greatest of, 112
Romantic Movement, 104
Romantics, Two Modern, 164
Russian Pianoforte Music, 254
N
National Music, 227
Nature Poets, 127
Negroid Element, 352
Nocturnes, Chopin's, 234
Norwegian Pianoforte Music, 322
Ordres, 12
Parthenia, 9
Partita, 12, 14
Passacaglia, 14
Pavan, 9, 13
Pedal Studies, 370
" Phrasing, Art of," Gordon-
Saunders', 365
" Pianoforte Playing," Fr. Taylor's,
365
Polish Music, 229, 237
Polka Dance Forms, 212, 248
Polonaises, Chopin's, 231 ff.
Polonaise Dance Forms, 212
Polskas, Swedish, 309
Polyphonic Forms, 54
Portuguese Pianoforte Music, 293
Preludes, 13, 216
. Blumenfeld's, 263
Chopin's, 233 ff.
Heller's, 136
Liadow's, 260
Scriabin's, 259
. Wihtol's, 263
Programme Music, 17, 120, 121
f
B.
Reflective Romance, 117
Rhapsodies, Hungarian, 244
, Liszt's, 245
, Stanford's, 335
-*., Tomaschek's, 249
Ricercari, is, 24
Romanticism in Music, 91
Salon Composers, English, 221
, German, 219
Music, 218
Saraband, 13
Scandinavian Pianoforte Music, 299
Scherzos, Beethoven's, 217
, Chopin's, 233
Serenades, Strelezki's (Burnand's),
34
Slavonic Dances, Dvorak's, 251
Sonata, 29
. , Haydn's "Genziger/* 67
, " Maid of Orleans," 130
, Sibelius' Op. 12, 351
Sonatas, Bach's, Em., 60/78
, Beethoven's, 82
, Brahms', 147, 184
, Chopin's, 184
, dementi's, 73
, Evolution of, 59
1 Glazounov's, 185
, Haydn's, 68
, McDowell's, 185, 349
, Mozart's, 68
; Schubert's, 105
, Schumann's, 183
, Scriabin's, 186
, Weber's, 101
Sonate di Camera, 12, 15
Spanish Music, 290
Spinet, 6
Studies, Chopin's, 358
, dementi's, 355
; Concert, 370
, Cramer's, 355
, Czerny's, 357
, Liszt's, 359
, Mayer's, 358
, O'Neill's, 368
, Pauer's (Gradus), 369
, Thalberg's, 364
Study Writers, 354
" Style Galant," 17
Suite, " Auf die Mayerin," 40
Suites, Couperin^, 122
, Evolution of, 1 6
, Modern, 216
, Purcell's, 36
404
HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Suites, Raraean's, 122
, Variation, 14
Susatos' Collection, 121
Swedish Pianoforte Music, 309
Swiss . 288
Tarantella Dance Form, 212
Technics, Bellairs', 367
, Beringer's, 364
, Germer's, 364
, Phillip's, 366, 369
, Plaidy's, 364
Technique, 101
, Clemen ti, Founder of, 73
, of Polyphonic Period, 52
, Bach's, 21
, Beethoven's, 79
, Czerny's, 152, 153, 357
, Henselt's, 156
, Scarlatti's, 30
, Weber's, 101
Toccatas, Galuppi's, 31
Transcriptions, 214
, Coleridge-Taylor's, 353
, Liszt's, 1 60
Valses, Chopin's, 232
Valse, Dance Form, 212
Variations, 200
, " Auf die Mayerin," 207
, Bach's, 32, 207
, Beethoven's, 32, 208
, Brahms', 148, 209
, " Diabelli," 86
, Glazounov's, 257
, Goldberg's, 6, 47
, Ground Bass, 207
, Parry's, 335
, Piano and Orchestra, 210, 284
, Schubert's, 209
, Schumann's, 209
Virginal, 6
Book, B. Cosyns', 9
f Queen Elizabeth's, 8
Virtuoso Element, 198
W
Waltzes, Chopin's, 232
ADDENDUM TO CHAPTER XIV
Those seeking inspiration in Scottish music will delight in
Granville Bantock's Three Scottish Scenes (Swan), as built on
Scottish melodies ; and in Henry GeehTs " 1745," five episodes
No. i, The Gathering of the Clans ; etc. (Swan). Music of the
best British type we find in Balfour Gardiner's Sailor's Piece,
and in Nos. 2 and 4 of Shenadoah (Forsyth) with their invigor
ating melody and modern harmonies, in which also Roger
Quilter runs him close in his Country Pieces (Rogers). The same
bracing atmosphere is found in York Bowen's tuneful Three
English Dances (Swan) ; Alec Rowley's Elizabethan Portraits
(Swan) in diatonic mode ; and in W. F. Arnold's Call of the
Sea (Swan).
Of notable contributions to the school of the characteristic
we must mention Alec Rowley's very attractive Three Lyrics and
The Sea (Ash), and his Festival of Pan (Swan) ; also one by Percy
Godfrey, who, in his Oberon's Court (Swan), writes good modern
" fairy music/' York Bowen, in the piquant Nos. 4 and 6 of his
Hans Andersen's Fairy Tales (Swan) and invigorating At the
Play House (Ascherberg) and Three Serious Dances, also shows
mastery of the characteristic. Coleridge Taylor's .individual
style is seen in his popular Three Fours Suite (Aug.), his Inter
mezzo, and Three Dream Dances (Asch).
With Cecil Hadehurst's very captivating Scherzo (Elkin), his
Petite Suite, Impromptu, Valse Caprice and Fughetta, are
associated attractive melody, rhythm, and harmonic effects,
while d modern and elusive charm also characterizes James
Lyon's Water Mirror Suite (Rogers). Sir Edward Elgar appears
in lighter vein in his Rosemary, and in the Starlight Express Suite
(Elkin) ; his masterly individuality is also seen in Carissima.
Other able composers in the characteristic style are Percival
405
406 HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE MUSIC
Driver, in his effective Four Sketches, and Paul Corder, who has
written a fine Heroic Elegy, and Nine Preludes ; there is also a
very good modern Interlude by Felix Swinstead (A.F. Co.).
Similar effective compositions are the delicately wrought Three
Preludes and Vignettes by John McEwen, and the highly refined
and poetical Miniatures of Tobias Matthay in his typical Album
Leaf, Op. 2, and Sketch Books, Op. 24 and 26 (A.F. Co.). Of
Leo Livens' virtuoso bizarre compositions his Sing a Song of
Sixpence and Sunset are effective.
These also are commendable ; Herbert Howell's Street Dancer
(Snapshots) (Swan) ; Percy Fletcher's Idyllesques (Swan) in
modern mood. Fredk. C. Nicholls' Autumn Song (Stainer and
Bell), Welton Hickins' Suite Mignonne (A.F. Co,), and Alg.
Ashton's Two Characteristic Pieces (Aug.), written in classical
style.
The British Impressionist School has grown in power, and in
Cyril Scott's Handelian Rhapsody (Elkin) we have bold outlines
enriched by modern secondary harmonies. Of his Three Vistas,
"A Lonely Dell 1 ' aptly describes itself, while in his attractive
Lotus Land (Elkin) dank, sweet vapours hang low. In John
Ireland's Merry Andrew (Asch.) appears a masterly sketch. Harry
Farjeon has depicted real Eastern atmosphere effects in his
Moorish Idylls (A), as has also Arnold Bax in The Slave Girl (A.F.
Co.). The Worcestershire, Suite of Julius Harrison (Enoch)
effectively portrays a mystical atmosphere, and Chris. M.
Edmunds in Pan's Garden proves a capable disciple of Debussy.
John R. Heath also proves to be deeply immersed in his
Debussean harmonic rhapsody, A Rune (Enoch), while H. V*
Jervis Read shows that it is possible to combine melody with the
new harmonic effects in his Little Preludes (Elkin). J. Gerrard
Williams, in The Isle from Three Miniatures (Curwen), also
creates a good effect.
To turn to the more serious aspect York Bowen's Short-
Sonata (Swan) presents a confiscating succession of secondary
harmonies of great interest, but one feels the atmosphere to be
unfavourable to the development neces$ary to a work of this
kind. One can, however, commend his Mood ^Phases and a
feriXLiant Lisztian Polonaise in F% (A.F, Co.), By way of con
trast, Landon Ronald's Three Compositions (Swan) interest in
another way, a$ putting ideas first. Ideas, too, masterly and
^characterize the Preludes by Sir Ch. V. Stanford (Swan).
ADDENDUM TO CHAPTER XIV. 407
In the 48 numbers (in 7 Books) are to be found material for
interesting Suites, Studies, etc.
Josef Holbrooke's dramatic style is best seen in No. 4 L'Orgie.
Fantaisie Bacchanale from his Suite, Op. 18 (Gary). His genius is
essentially orchestral, and can be clearly seen in his Piano
Transcriptions of his Variations on The Girl I Left Behind Me
and the Pierrot Ballet Suite (Nov.). He has also transcribed his
Preludes to Bronwen, Dylan, The Raven and Pontorewyn.
To the Variations mentioned in Chapter XXIV one should
add the ably written and very effective ones written On an
Original Theme by R. Walker Robson (Nov.).
Printed in Great Britain by MACKAYS LTD., Chatham.
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