il!"^
r; i:
FROM THE LIBRARY OF
REV. LOUIS FITZGERALD BENSON. D. D.
BEQUEATHED BY HIM TO
THE LIBRARY OF
PRINCETON THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY
Sectloii /Ol(oQ-
<^R^ OF PHiff^
APR 23 1932
History of the Presb
Churches of the Wo?
r./i 8F.v^\^
Adapted for use in
the Class Room
R. C. REED D. D.
Professor of Church History in the Presbyterian
Theological Seminary at Columbiay South Carolina ;
author of ** The Gospel as Taught by Calvin.'''*
PHILADELPHIA
?rbe Mestminater ipress
1905
Copyright, 1905, by
The Trustees of the Presbyterian Board of Publication and
Sabbath-School Work.
Contents
CHAPTER PAGE
I Introduction i
II Switzerland 14
III France 34
IV The Netherlands 72
V Austria — Bohemia and iVIoravia . . . 104
VI Scotland 126
VII Ireland 173
VIII England and Wales 205
IX The United States of America . . . 232
X United States {Continued) 269
XI United States (Continued) 289
XII United States (Continued) 301
XIII United States (Continued) 313
XIV United States (Continued) 325
XV Canada 341
XVI British Colonial Churches .... 357
XVII Missionary Territory 373
Appendix 389
Index 405
m
History of the Presbyterian Churches
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Writers sometimes use the term Presbyterian to cover
three distinct things, government, doctrine and worship ;
sometimes to cover doctrine and government. It should
be restricted to one thing, namely. Church Government.
While it is usually found associated with the Calvinistic
system of doctrine, yet this is not necessarily so ; nor is
it, indeed, as a matter of fact, always so. Presbyterianism
and Calvinism seem to have an affinity for one another,
but they are not so closely related as to be essential to
each other. They can, and occasionally do, live apart.
Calvinism is found in the creeds of other than Presby-
terian churches ; and Presbyterianism is found professing
other doctrines than Calvinism. Let it be understood
then that Presbyterianism does not signify any particular
system of doctrine or form of worship ; and that its only
and exclusive meaning is a certain form of Church gov-
ernment.
The Apostolic Church Presbyterian.— A complete
history of the Presbyterian churches must include the
Church founded by the apostles. Taking the govern-
ment of the synagogue as their model, they organized the
Church under very simple forms. They appointed pres-
byters or elders in every church, and committed to them
I
2 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
its oversight, charging them to " take heed unto . . .
all the flock, over the which the Holy Ghost hath made you
overseers, to feed the church," or to exercise pastoral care
over it. Some of these presbyters labored in word and
doctrine ; others did not ; but they all ruled. No distinc-
tion in name, or qualification, or office was made between
them. They were designated indiscriminately by the two
titles, bishop and presbyter, and were all exhorted to dis-
charge the duty of pastors. All presbyters were bishops,
and all bishops were presbyters. A plurality were ap-
pointed in every Christian congregation, and being of
equal rank and authority, they must of necessity have
exercised their rule jointly. This is Presbyterianism,
reduced to its simplest elements — a government in the
hands of presbyters, ruling jointly.
The Church of the Second Century.— Assuming that
certain letters ascribed to Ignatius are genuine, we learn
from them that very early in the second century a dis-
tinction began to be made between the presbyters. To
one in each church the title of bishop was restricted, and
he was accorded superiority over the others. Gradu-
ally, and yet very swiftly, the distinction broadened, and
by the end of the second century, the bishop was an
officer clearly discriminated in rank and authority from
the elder. And so it came to pass that at an early
period, out of the Presbyterianism established by the
apostles, a certain type of episcopacy emerged. The
evolution was not simultaneous, however, throughout the
entire Church. It progressed more rapidly in some
regions than in others. Traces of the older form of gov-
ernment lingered in certain places down to the fourth and
fifth centuries. It should also be noted that the episco-
pacy at first evolved was not diocesan, but parochial.
INTRODUCTION 3
Each particular church, as that at Smyrna or Philadel-
phia, had its bishop, its council of elders and its board of
deacons. So far as our limited information permits us to
judge, the organization of the Church, during the second
century, differed in no essential from the organization
which we find to-day among the various bodies of Pres-
byterians. The elders and deacons were substantially the
same then as now, and the bishop of the second century
differed in no important particular from the Presbyterian
pastor or bishop of the twentieth century.
Continued Evolution, Resulting in Papacy. — The
process of evolution cannot be traced in all of its details
with absolute certainty, — the sources of our knowledge
are too limited and defective; but the process can be
traced with approximate accuracy in its general outlines.
There is reason to think that the process of evolution
began by making one presbyter in each congregational
presbytery, or session, permanent moderator, just as it is
common in our day for this position to be assigned to
the preacher, or teaching presbyter in each Presbyterian
church. The one selected for permanent moderator
would, as a matter of course, be the one noted for
superiority of gifts and force of character. On him very
naturally, and for the same reason, would devolve the
principal care of the church. He would also be the
medium of communication between the different churches,
and would, therefore, take the lead in all matters affect-
ing the common interests of the various Christian com-
munities. As heresies and other disorders began to
affect these communities, his position would grow in
importance, and his influence increase in power. It is a
well-attested fact that nothing contributed so much to
create the office of bishop as an office distinct from that
4 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
of presbyter, and to lift it to a position of supremacy in
the government of the Church, as the demand for speedy
and stringent discipHne to suppress rising disorders. The
testimony of Jerome, who hved a. d. 340-420, is that
" before factions were introduced into rehgion by the
prompting of the devil, the churches were governed by a
council of presbyters ; but as soon as each man began to
consider those whom he had baptized as belonging to him-
self and not to Christ, it was decided throughout the
world that one elected from among the elders should be
placed over the rest, so that the care of the church should
devolve on him, and the seeds of schism be removed."
Again he says : " When afterwards one presbyter was
elected that he might be placed over the rest, this was
done as a remedy against schism, that each man might
not drag to himself, and thus break up the Church of
Christ." Bishop Lightfoot quotes approvingly these
testimonies of Jerome, and adds : " To the dissensions of
Jews and Gentile converts, and to the disputes of gnostic
false teachers, the development of episcopacy may be
mainly ascribed." The motive which prompted a de-
parture from scriptural simplicity was the belief that, for
the preservation of sound doctrine and good order, it was
necessary to concentrate power in a few hands, that dis-
cipline might be more effectively administered. This
motive continued to operate, along with less worthy ones,
until parochial episcopacy was changed into diocesan, and
that into the papacy. The city bishop was exalted above
the country bishop, the metropolitan above the city bishop,
the patriarch above the metropolitan, and finally the
patriarch of Rome was exalted as Pope over all.
The Extinction of Presbyterianism.— The lifting
up of the bishop meant the letting down of the pres-
INTRODUCTION 5
byter. The latter, having been robbed of the title which
defined his scriptural function, was soon robbed of his
function itself. Ceasing to be a bishop in name, he ceased
to be an overseer in reality. He was degraded to the posi-
tion of a servant, and had his sphere of labor assigned
him by his bishop. Excluded from all part in the gov-
ernment of the church he was deputed by the bishop to
preach and administer the sacraments. About this junc-
ture the idea of the sacerdotal character of the ministry
was introduced into the church, and in keeping with this
idea the presbyter's name was curtailed to priest. As the
priestly idea gained ground, a magical virtue was attrib-
uted to the sacraments, and preaching was for this reason
discredited, and fell into neglect. Henceforth the princi-
pal business of the priest was to hear confessions, pre-
scribe penance and celebrate mass. Not only did the
ruling elder fall out by the way, but the teaching elder
also disappeared, and in their place arose a monstrous
creation of a degenerate church — a so-called priest, usurp-
ing the functions of the one Mediator, and claiming that
by the use of a set phrase, he could change a little wafer
into the body and blood of the living and glorified
Christ. When all traces of the New Testament presbyter
had vanished, there was but little of Presbyterianism
left.
Church Polity and the Reformers.— The government
of the Church was not made a matter of profound and
prayerful investigation by the early reformers. The inti-
mate relation between doctrine and polity was not sus-
pected, and consequently men who were ready to die for
purity of doctrine were unconcerned about the constitu-
tion of the Church. The uniformity of doctrine through-
out the countries that had separated from Rome was re-
6 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
markable. The explanation is to be found in the fact
that the Bible had been exalted to the position of supreme
arbiter, and devout souls everywhere carried their doc-
trinal problems to the same tribunal and received the
same answer. But it did not occur to them that the Bible
had a message for them on the subject of the visible form
of Christ's kingdom of grace. Church government was
left to take care of itself, or to be shaped and determined
largely by circumstances of time and place.
State of the Case in England.— Here the Church re-
tained the organization in substantially the same form
that it had worn for centuries. This was due, no doubt,
to the controlling hand of royalty in shaping the early
history of the English Reformation. There were two
simultaneous movements, one political, the other religious.
The latter concerned itself with doctrine and worship,
and left the former to determine the source of ecclesias-
tical power, and the methods of ecclesiastical administra-
tion. The king supplanted the Pope, and Parliament
made a few modifications demanded by this change of
head. But the government of the Church remained an
absolutism, all power emanating from the head, and ad-
ministered, as formerly, through " archbishops, bish-
ops, their chancellors and commissaries, deans, arch-
deacons, and all other ecclesiastical officers depending on
that hierarchy." The English Church has set for itself a
difficult task. Having cast overboard its infallible Pope,
and having accepted the Bible as the only infallible rule
of faith and practice, it has spent some three hundred
years in trying to prove that its lofty structure of gov-
ernment, with the king at the top, is based on the word
of God. It would have been a marvelous thing, if god-
less sovereigns, shaping the polity of the Church with un-
INTRODUCTION 7
fettered hand, solely in the interests of their own selfish
ends, had shaped it along the lines prescribed in the
Bible. The great reformers of the sixteenth century
wisely claimed for it no other merit than present con-
venience. It was an organization prepared to hand, and
fitted into the framework of the state. The Pope had
claimed to be head over both church and state. When
his supremacy was renounced, the person to fill the
vacancy could be no other than the king. To reform
radically the government of the Church, would mean a
revolution of the monarchy. The leaders of the religious
movement had no thought of this. They had no scru-
ples of conscience in perpetuating a form of Church gov-
ernment for which no higher warrant could be pleaded
than political expediency.
Luther and the Lutherans.— As early as 15 20, Luther,
in his " address to the German nobles," denied the sacer-
dotal character of the clergy, teaching that they and the
laity constituted one spiritual estate, and that ordination
to the ministry was nothing more than the designation
of certain persons to be the official servants of the people.
He asserted the doctrine of the universal priesthood of
believers, and claimed on this ground the right of God's
people to govern themselves, to elect their own pastors,
and along with them to exercise discipline. But Luther
was deterred by the circumstances of the times from at-
tempting to put into practice these abstract doctrines.
He said the Germans were too rough and turbulent to
have placed in their hands the power of self-government.
The Peasants' War, and the efforts of fanatics to break
down the authority of civil magistrates, and to transfer
all power to the hands of the "saints," strengthened
Luther in his conviction that the times were not ripe for
8 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
giving to God's people the rights which he in theory
claimed for them. For the present, he believed it was
his duty to magnify the functions of the civil ruler, and
to encourage the German princes to take a liberal part in
the management of ecclesiastical affairs. By the Treaty
of Augsburg, 1555, it was granted to each secular ruler
to determine what should be the religion of his state.
The Lutherans accepted this arrangement without a mur-
mur, and in doing so conceded to the civil power suprem-
acy over the Church. A theory was devised to harmon-
ize this concession with the doctrine of the people's right
to rule themselves ecclesiastically. The theory was that
in an emergency the rulers were bound to take the lead,
not as rulers, however, but as chief members. Unfor-
tunately for the theory, the rulers did not merely take
the lead, but they took the whole control, and when the
emergency was over, they continued to exercise it.
Various Forms of Polity Among the Lutherans. —
Lutheran reformers generally did not attach much im-
portance to the way in which the Church should be gov-
erned. They would have been content with the system
which Rome had built up, if only it could have been
made subservient to the propagation of evangelical doc-
trine. " If the existing bishops," they said, " would
cease from their enmity to the gospel, and embrace the
true doctrine, we might patiently endure their authority."
The same thought finds expression in the Augsburg
Confession : '< Now our meaning is not to have rule
taken from the bishops ; but this one thing only is re-
quested at their hands, that they would suffer the gospel
to be purely taught, and that they would relax a few ob-
servances which cannot be held without sin." In Sweden
the Episcopal form was left standing ; in Denmark the
INTRODUCTION 9 '
king appointed superintendents, who exercised episcopal
functions ; in most of the German states, the general
management of the Church was placed in the hands of
consistories, courts made up of clergy and civil jurists,
but with supreme control still lodged with the princes.
Says a Lutheran writer, ** The Lutheran Church, be-
lieving the form of Church government to belong en-
tirely to the accidents of the Church, is ready to adapt
its form to changing circumstances. Hence under mon~
archies, the Church is Episcopal ; under aristocracies,
Presbyterian ; and under republics, Congregational."
Presbyterianism Approximated in Hesse. — The
Landgrave Philip, who ruled over the German principal-
ity of Hesse, was a very zealous reformer, and was ready
to give effect to any measures that might strengthen the
Protestant cause. He had, for a time, as his chief ad-
viser in ecclesiastical matters, Francis Lambert, a con-
verted Franciscan. Guided by Lambert, the Synod of
Homberg, 1526, devised a Church constitution of an
original and liberal character. It defined a particular
church as an organization of true believers who were
willing to unite in a common subjection to the rules of
discipline. The church was to choose its pastors, and
these were to exercise discipline to the extent of exclud-
ing the unworthy from fellowship. The constitution
provided for a synod composed of bishops and delegates
from each church, to meet annually, to which all com-
plaints and doubtful questions were to be submitted.
This was the nearest approach, in the matter of Church
government, which had been made up to that time, to
the principles laid down in Scripture. It designed to
give effect to the self-governing power of the people — a
power which Luther had already said belonged to them.
lo HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
Luther, however, opposed it, not on theoretical grounds,
but because he deemed it impracticable, owing to the ig-
norance and rudeness of those for whom it was intended.
Luther's opposition and other causes prevented its going
into full effect.
Zwingli and His Followers.— Zwingli, though a co-
temporary of Luther, carried on his work absolutely in-
dependent of the great Saxon reformer. In many
respects he was more thoroughgoing than Luther, and
followed the word of God fearlessly in his warfare on the
corruptions of Romanism. But clear-sighted as he was,
he failed utterly to grasp the true conception of the
Church as a body distinct from and independent of the
state, with its own code of laws and officers of govern-
ment. He merged the Church in the state, and placed
ecclesiastical authority in the hands of the same Council
that ruled the city of Zurich. He believed in barring
the unworthy from the communion, but taught that this
duty pertained to the Christian magistracy. The only
privilege granted to the people was the privilege of ob-
jecting to the pastors who were presented to them by the
civil authority. CEcolampadius and others of Zwingli's
followers tried to give to the people some power in the
government of the Church ; but ultimately the model
furnished by Zwingli at Zurich prevailed in nearly all the
Swiss cantons.
Presbyterianism and the First Reformers.— It is evi-
dent from the foregoing review that in no part of Chris-
tendom did the first generation of reformers set them-
selves, with intelligent and persistent effort, to restore the
lost polity of the Church. They went back to the Bible
for purity of doctrine, and for a measure of purity in
worship, but they did not go there to find a pattern after
INTRODUCTION ii
which to reform the government of the Church. They
did not feel any urgent necessity for reformation in this
respect. Church government was not rated by them as
a matter of great importance. Their first concern was to
escape from the tyranny of the papacy, and to give the
people once again the pure evangel. Some were pre-
pared to accept any form of government that might
seem most convenient ; others were willing to leave the
matter largely to be determined by the exigencies of the
future ; and yet others were disposed to define no visible
form for the Church, but treat religion merely as a de-
partment of the state.
John Calvin, the Restorer of Presbyterianism.— The
same great reformer, to whom we are indebted for our
logical system of doctrine, is entitled to recognition as
the author of our restored system of government. He
seems to have felt, almost from the first moment of his
casting in his lot with the Reformation, that there was
urgent need for a settled and well-ordered plan of rule
in the house of God. He perceived that the fruits of
evangelical preaching could not be gathered up and con-
served without drawing a distinct boundary line between
the Church and the world ; that the testimony of holy
living could not be given in behalf of the gospel without
the exercise of discipline ; and that the power of the Re-
formed faith could not be made effective for aggressive
evangelism without a clearly-defined and independent
organization. The kingdom of Christ, while not of this
world, is nevertheless in this world, and is here for pur-
poses of conquest ; it must therefore have visible shape,
and in order to have this its limits and powers must be
distinctly marked out. John Calvin went directly to the
Bible for the model. He found it in the simple presby-
12 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
terial forms prescribed and practiced by the apostles.
He devoted about one sixth of his great work, " Insti-
tutes of the Christian ReHgion," to the subject of church
government ; and if he did not trace all the Hues with
fair accuracy, he at any rate discovered the essential
principles. Having discovered these, he set himself with
all the pertinacity of his inflexible will to give them prac-
tical effect. It was his effort to establish church gov-
ernment that brought him into collision with the civil
authorities. Had he been content merely " to preach the
word . . . reprove, rebuke, exhort with all long-
suffering and doctrine," the current of his life might have
flowed smoothly. It was his attempt to make the eccle-
siastical court an independent tribunal, free from state
control, that brought on the conflict ; and it was in this
conflict that the lofty heroism of his character was
brought to Hght. For fifteen years he waged a doubtful
warfare, often putting his life in jeopardy, and only nine
years before his death did he achieve the final victory.
Great as was the service which he rendered to the Re-
formed Church as a theologian, not less great was the
service which he rendered as an ecclesiastic.
Influence of Restored Presbyterianism.— In restoring
the scriptural rule of presbytery, Calvin gave the laity a
fuU half share in the government of the Church. One
effect of this was to bring preacher and people together,
and dissipate the idea of the sacerdotal character of the
clergy. Another effect was to teach men to govern
themselves, and thus to start a movement for the over-
throw of all tyrannies — a movement which has not yet
spent itself. The influence of Calvin on the political
history of many nations is recognized by the leading
historians of our day. This influence was due not alone
INTRODUCTION
13
to the system of doctrine which he taught, but also, and
perhaps we might say chiefly, to the repubhcan form of
government which he provided for the Church. " He
vindicated," says Fisher, " the right of the Church to
perform its own functions without the interference of the
state. The Church thus became the nursery of liberty.
Wherever Calvinism spread— in England, Scotland,
Holland, or France — men learned to defend their rights
against civil rulers." While it is not contended that
Calvin was personally favorable to the largest popular
liberty, yet it is noticeable that the freest nations to-day
are those in which his teachings took deepest root and
yielded the largest harvest.
CHAPTER II
SWITZERLAND
This land, not more famous for the picturesque gran-
deur of its mountains than for the lofty heroism of its
freedom-loving people, was chosen of God to be the
birthplace and the cradle of modern Presbyterianism.
France furnished the man, but Switzerland furnished the
home.
Geneva. — It was here in Geneva that the first church
of modern times was organized under the Presbyterian
form. The form was not, indeed, pure and ideal Presby-
terianism, but it embodied most, if not all of the essential
principles of this form of government.
William Farel, a Frenchman of robust and resolute
character, was the first to preach the Reformed doctrines
in Geneva. The Romish priests on learning of the pres-
ence of Farel, took immediate steps to rid the city of his
pestiferous influence. Honoring him with the title of
devil, they very soon had their emissaries handling him
with violence and defiling him with spittle. The brave
preacher escaped, to return again in two years, and
defend the truth of God against all comers. He held his
ground this time and was permitted to see the citizens,
assembled in general council, in the Cathedral of St.
Peter, lift up their hands and swear " that they wished to
live in accordance with the holy scriptural law." This
oath was taken on the 24th day of May, 1 5 36, and marks
the first decisive victory for the Reformed faith.
14
SWITZERLAND 15
Calvin's Arrival. — Later on, in that same year of 1536,
Calvin essayed to pass through Geneva. He was on liis
way to seek refuge for a second time in the city of Basel.
He had planned a quiet life of literary labor, a life con-
genial to his taste, and suited to his reserved and shrink-
ing disposition. Farel heard of his being in the city.
He believed that Calvin was just the man to aid him in
his arduous and perilous task of making the Reformation
thorough and permanent in Geneva. He hastened to see
him, and lay the matter before him. Calvin was not at
all inclined to such a sphere of labor. Farel, growing
more and more earnest, finally invoked a curse on him if
he persisted in his refusal. Calvin's conscience was aroused
and took sides with Farel, and then, as ever, he put incli-
nation aside, and yielded to that stern monitor. From
the first, he and Farel set before themselves, as the aim
of their efforts, practical righteousness. They sought
reformation of doctrine in order to reformation of life.
Taking the people at their word, they began, not
only to teach them that law of God, by which they had
sworn to order their lives, but also to constrain them to keep
their oath. Calvin prepared a Confession of Faith. The
Civil Council demanded that all the citizens should swear
allegiance to it. The magistrates were first required to
take the oath. Those who refused were dismissed. Each
magistrate was required to administer the oath to all the
people in his district. Those who resisted were ex-
communicated and banished. The effort to carry this
severe measure into effect was a practical failure. Oppo-
sition to the zealous reformers grew. The Civil Council
changed sides, and favored those who advocated lax
doctrine. It enjoined the preachers to administer the
communion to all, irrespective of character. This the
1 6 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
preachers positively refused to do. The result was their
banishment when they had labored together only two
years.
Calvin's Return.— After a short while the people
repented. They preferred Calvin and his rigid dis-
cipline to the wild disorder that sprang up and developed
in his absence. Of the four magistrates who were at the
head of affairs when the two reformers were banished,
one was killed while attempting to escape arrest, one was
beheaded, the other two fled and were sentenced to per-
petual exile. The distracted city sent a deputation to
invite Calvin to return. It required much solicitation to
overcome his reluctance. At length he consented, but
only on condition that the people should submit to the
exercise of discipline. He entered the city again in
September, 1541, amidst general rejoicing. At once he
took steps in connection with the civil authorities for the
revision of the ecclesiastical system. A number of ordi-
nances were drawn up ; and on the 20th of Novem-
ber, 1 541, two thousand citizens assembled in general
council and approved these ordinances by a majority
vote. This marked another decisive victory for the Refor-
mation, and that day has been called the birthday of
modern Presbyterianism.
The Government of Geneva. — There was a blending
of the civil and the ecclesiastical machinery in such a
way as to make it a little difficult to discriminate between
the two. The republic had a civil polity before Calvin
came to the city. It consisted of a General Council, com-
posed of all males over twenty-one years of age. This
was the primary source of all authority in the state. It
assembled in the Cathedral of St. Peter, at the tolling of
the bell, while its meetings were announced by criers and
SWITZERLAND 17
the blowing of trumpets at the street corners. This
council elected four syndics, or magistrates, and these ap-
pointed a council of twenty-five, called the Lesser Coun-
cil. There were two other councils, one consisting of
two hundred members, and the other of sixty. The lat-
ter was designed to discharge ordinarily the functions of
the General Council, and thus prevent the disorders
which so often attended the assembling of this large and
democratic body. The relation of these several councils
to each other was not very clearly defined, but the meas-
ure of power exercised by each was in inverse ratio to
its size. Nothing could be considered by the General
Council which had not previously been considered by the
council of two hundred; nor anything by this that
had not been brought before the council of sixty ; nor
anything by this that had not been examined and ap-
proved by the Lesser Council. Hence the power of the
whole state was largely concentrated in the smallest
body, and the government was practically an oli-
garchy.
Formation of the Church. — Calvin had no thought of
organizing a church entirely separate from the state.
His views of the relation of church and state were
largely colored by the teachings of the Old Testament,
and his aim was the establishment of a theocracy. Church
and state were to have their distinct spheres, but were to
cooperate in the promotion of the same end, namely, the
glory of God through the righteousness of the people.
With such an aim, it was inevitable that he should con-
cern himself with the civil as well as the ecclesiastical
polity. As a matter of fact, he had much to do in re-
vising, modifying and enlarging the body of civil laws.
As the two powers were copartners, working together
1 8 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
for the same end, the machinery of each must be adapted
to the other.
Ordinances Pertaining to the Church. — We cannot
better set forth the character of these ordinances than by
transcribing a few of the more important. The civil au-
thorities prefaced the adoption of them with the following
declaration : " In the name of the most mighty God, we
syndics, with the Great and Small Councils of Geneva,
with our people assembled by sound of the trumpet, and
the great bell, following our ancient customs, having con-
sidered that it is a thing worthy of commendation above
all other that the doctrine of the holy gospel of our Lord
God be conserved well in purity, and the Christian Church
maintained accordingly, also that youth in time to come
be well and faithfully instructed, and the hospital be or-
dered in good state for the sustentation of the poor, the
which cannot be except there be established a certain rule
and manner to live, by the which every state may under-
stand the duty of his office. For this cause it seemed
good to us that the spiritual government, such as God
hath showed unto us and instituted by his word, be
brought into good form, to have place and to be ob-
served by us, and we have ordained and established to
follow and to keep in our own town and territory the ec-
clesiastical polity following, which is taken out of the
gospel of Jesus Christ :
" Church Officers. — First of all, there are four orders of
officers, which our Lord hath instituted for the govern-
ment of his Church, that is to say, pastors, doctors, elders,
otherwise named commissioners for the seniory, and
fourthly deacons. If we will have a church well ordered
and kept in the purity, we must observe this form of
government :
SWITZERLAND 19
" I . As concerning pastors, which the Scriptures name
sometime watchmen, and sometime ministers, their offices
are to declare the word of God, to teach, to admonish, to
exhort, to reprove as well publicly as privately, to minis-
ter sacraments, and to do brotherly correction with the
elders, or commissioners.
" 2. The proper office of doctors is to teach the faithful
with sound doctrine to the end that the purity of the gos-
pel be not corrupted by ignorance, or wicked opinions ;
nevertheless according as things be disposed in these
days, we do comprehend them under this title, to be
aides and instruments to conserve the doctrine of God, so
that the church be not desolate for fault of pastors and
ministers, but to use a word more intelligible we shall
call them the order of scholars.
" 3. The office of the elders is to take heed and to watch
of the demeanor and behavior of all and every of the
people, to admonish lovingly those which they see fall,
or lead a dissolute life, or if it be needful to make the re-
port, or to do brotherly correction, and that shall be com-
monly done by the company that shall be thereto appointed.
" 4. There hath been always two sundry kinds or sorts
of officers in the ancient Church, the one were depu-
ties to receive, to deliver and to conserve the goods
of the poor, as well daily alms, as possessions, stipends
and pensions ; the other to feed and oversee the sick, and
to minister the portion of the poor."
Peculiarities of Organization. — Such were the officers
chosen for the Church in Geneva. They were with
slight exceptions the same in name and in function with
the officers which at the present time are found in all
Presbyterian churches. We find no room for the office
of doctor, and think that the terms "pastors and teach-
20 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
ers," as used in the Scriptures, apply to incumbents of
the same office. Probably this office was created in the
Church of Geneva for the reason that it was proposed to
found a school with special reference to raising up a min-
istry, and this school was to be under the strictest super-
vision of the Church. The teachers in this school were
to be selected by the ministers, approved by the council,
and subject to the ecclesiastical discipline. The deacons
were divided into two classes, but this was merely for
convenience, based on an arrangement already in exist-
ence for looking after a hospital, in which the sick, the
aged, the poor and the orphans were cared for.
Election and Appointment of Officers.— A candidate
for the ministry was examined by the company of pas-
tors. If approved by them, he was presented to the
council. If he passed a satisfactory examination before
this body, he was given a testimonial and was required
to preach a sermon before the people. If he was not ac-
ceptable to the people, they could veto his ordination as
pastor, but were required to show good cause for their
dissatisfaction. If approved by the people, he was in-
ducted into office, and then made to take a very compre-
hensive oath of loyalty to the city and its institutions.
No one could be received into the office of doctor ex-
cept by approval of the ministers. He must also be pre-
sented to the council with witnesses, and be examined
before two of the seniors.
The elders were chosen, two from the small council,
four from the council of sixty, and six from the council
of two hundred. They all were nominated by the small
council in conference with the ministers, and their nomi-
nation confirmed by the council of two hundred. An
oath of fideUty to the duties of their office, and of loyalty
SWITZERLAND 21
to the laws of Geneva was exacted of them. They were
on probation for one year, and at the end of the year
were presented to the seniory, and if no cause could be
shown to the contrary they were continued in office.
The council was to choose the deacons in the same
manner in which the elders were chosen, and in making
choice they were to " follow the rule of St. Paul touching
deacons in the First Epistle to Timothy, the third chapter;
and the Epistle to Titus, the first chapter."
The Consistory. — There was only one ecclesiastical
court in Geneva, and this was called the consistory. It
was composed of the pastors of the city, six in number,
and the twelve elders chosen by the council of two hun-
dred. In selecting the elders, the council was to see to
it that *' there be of them in every part of the city, that
their eyes may be over all that is ordained or done."
An ordinance required the elders '* to gather once a week
with the ministers, which shall be on Thursday, to see if
there be any disorder in the church, and to talk together
for the remedy thereof, when and how as shall be most
convenient." They had no authority to constrain any
one to appear before them, but the council deputed one
of their number to cite any one whom the consistory
thought deserving of censure. If he refused to come,
they could report him to the council, which would take
order as it saw fit. There was an ordinance detailing
very minutely the sins of which the consistory should
take notice. If the offense were of such character as to
merit nothing more than admonition, the consistory
could dispose of it. But if the offense were of such
gravity as to call for excommunication, the consistory
could pronounce the sentence, but must report their
action to the council.
2 2 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
Other Regulations. — A commission of four was ap-
pointed, two by the magistrates, and two by the minis-
ters from the congregation, to visit every parish once in
the year, to inquire into the faithfulness of the ministers.
The commissioners w^ere to investigate touching the
soundness of the doctrines which they preached, the
character of the Hves which they led, and the diligence
with which they discharged the duty of preaching and
visiting the sick. If the commissioners found any serious
blemish in any of the ministers, they were to make report
of the same to the seniory, to the end that the seniory
might •' proceed according to reason." Geneva had suf-
fered enough from the despotism of an irresponsible
priesthood, and they would take no risk of placing the
same yoke on their necks again. It is not to be pre-
sumed, however, that this jealous watchfulness over the
lives and conduct of the ministers was without the cordial
assent of these. They organized a constant vigilance
over each other's ministry. " The Venerable Company,"
as it was called, was a council of all the pastors of Geneva.
It could not exercise any official authority, but it met
monthly for the purpose of mutual admonition and help.
It was also charged with the examination of those seek-
ing admission to the ministry.
The Mother Church. — Such, in brief outline, was the
Church of Geneva, organized under the guiding hand of
the illustrious Calvin, but that hand was by no means free
from the constraint of a jealous civil authority. It was
not just what Calvin would have preferred, and had it
been, it still would have been far from our ideal. We
may note, however, four fundamental principles which it
embodied : First. A church organization entirely dis-
tinct from, if not independent of, the state. Second. A
SWITZERLAND 23
revival of the offices of ruling elder and deacon in their
scriptural form. Third. Government in the hands of a
court composed of teaching and ruling elders. Fourth.
Unity of the Church recognized by placing several
churches under the discipline of one court. These are
the constituent elements of Presbyterianism ; and rightly,
therefore, do we name this the Mother Church of all
modern Presbyterian churches.
Its Relation to the Civil Power.— It is a matter for
regret, of course, that the fair form of our Mother Church
should have been so marred by too close a relationship
to the state. They two were joined in an unholy, and
in an unhappy wedlock. The lordship belonged to the
state, the Church being the weaker vessel. This was
not so manifest during Calvin's lifetime, because of his
overshadowing personality. He was a host in himself,
and in every conflict between Church and state as to the
bounds of their respective jurisdictions, his powerful in-
fluence was thrown on the side of the Church. He was,
by an unwritten law, permanent president of the Vener-
able Company, and in any matter in dispute that touched
his conscience, his indomitable will usually carried the
day. But a brief analysis of some of the ordinances al-
ready quoted will make it plain that the Church was
hampered at every turn by the civil power. The candi-
date for the ministry was presented to the Lesser Coun-
cil, and it rested with the council to pronounce the final
word as to his fitness for office, and to determine whether
he should be permitted to try his gifts before the people.
The elders and deacons were elected and appointed to
office by the council of two hundred, and the people had
not even the power of vetoing the appointment. While
the consistory could exercise discipline over the members
24 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
of the church, and punish with spiritual censures, the
Lesser Council had the right of review, and sometimes
attempted to nullify the findings of the spiritual court.
In cases of aggravated sin, or dangerous heresy, the civil
power supplemented the censures of the consistory with
bodily pains and penalties. Thus it happened in the
case of Servetus, who not only denied the doctrine of the
Trinity, but made himself very offensive by his coarse
denunciation of the orthodox faith. As Calvin has been
loaded with much odium because of his part in the de-
struction of Servetus, we may pause long enough to ob-
serve that he was to blame, along with the other leaders
of the Reformation, for holding to an error common to
the age. It had been the doctrine of the Romish Church
for centuries that heresy was the greatest of all crimes,
because it destroyed souls, and that the secular power
should put the heretic out of the way. The reformers
inherited this error, and very few of them escaped from
it. The Romish Church had condemned Servetus to
death, and if he had not made his escape, Calvin would
never have had the opportunity to put this blot on his
fame. He believed that Servetus deserved death, and
volunteered to prosecute him before the civil tribunal.
The case went against Servetus, and then Calvin tried to
save him by persuading him to renounce his errors ; fail-
ing in this he did what he could to have the form of the
death sentence mitigated. But after all is said that can
be said by way of palliation, it is still to be deplored that
the noble Christian men of that day could not have seen
with clearer vision the proper relation between the things
which belong to Caesar and those which belong to God.
Rights of Conscience. — Calvin and his coadjutors had
slight respect for the rights of conscience. They left
SWITZERLAND 25
nothing, in fact, to its decision, but tried by a rigid disci-
pline, covering all departments of life, and entering into
the most minute details of conduct, to constrain all to live
by rules which they had prescribed. Proclamations,
published by sound of trumpet, laid down injunctions
and prohibitions of a most remarkable kind, and obedience
was enforced by severe penalties. In one of these proc-
lamations we read such specifications as the following :
" Item, that no manner of person, of what estate, quality,
or condition soever they be, men, nor women, shall wear
any chains of gold, or silver ; but those who have been
accustomed to wear them, shall put them off, and wear
them no more after this proclamation, upon pain of three-
score shillings for every time. Item, that no woman
shall wear above two rings upon their fingers, saving that
upon the day of their marriage, they may wear more,
and the day after likewise, upon pain for every time three-
score shillings. Item, that no manner of person, whatso-
ever they be, making bride-ales, banquets, or feasts, shall
have above three courses, or services to the said feasts,
and to every course, or service, not above four dishes,
and yet not excessive, upon pain of threescore shillings
for every time, fruit excepted." In a proclamation issued
on the 28th of February, 1560, and published by sound
of trumpet, it is enjoined that " every person shall send
their children to the catechism to be instructed and
taught, upon pain of three shillings when they shall be
found lacking. Item, that no manner of person be so
hardy to swear by the name of God, under pain the first
time to kiss the ground ; the second time, to kiss the
ground and pay three shillings ; the third time, to pay
forty shillings and three days in prison ; the fourth time,
to be banished the town a year and a day."
2 6 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
These proclamations were issued in the name of << our
most redoubted senior syndics and council of Geneva."
They were civil and not ecclesiastical enactments ; and
suggest to us that, while the Church was held in the close
embrace of the state, the state itself was a unique body.
It sought, as perhaps no other civil power ever sought,
upright living as the ultimate aim of all its endeavors. It
freely adopted the Reformed faith, and the citizens in
their general council took an oath to live according to
God's law. It is true that many were not in sympathy
with this movement, and many who thought they could
abide by it, found that their hearts were not equal to it.
But the majority stood by Calvin, and used the machinery
of the state, not merely to make men profess orthodoxy,
but to make them live holily. The severity of discipline
cannot be justified, but it can be said in behalf of it that
it helped to transform Geneva from a city of deservedly
bad repute into a city famed for purity of life. We say
helped, for it must ever be borne in mind that Calvin and
those who wrought with him laid the greatest possible
stress upon the transforming power of preaching and
other forms of religious instruction. An ordinance re-
quired that " upon the Sundays there shall be morning
sermons at the churches of St. Peter and St. Gerveis, also
at the hour accustomed, sermons through all the parishes.
At noon the catechism, that is to say, instructions for the
small children, in three churches, and at three o'clock
likewise sermons in all the churches. Upon the week
days, over and besides a sermon in every parish, also
there shall be sermons at the head churches, Monday,
Wednesday and Friday at four of the clock in the morn-
ing."
Struggles and Triumph. — When Calvin returned to
SWITZERLAND 27
Geneva, after having been banished, he began the war-
fare just where he had laid it down. As we have seen,
he and Farel were contending for the right of the Church
to bar the unworthy from the communion table. They
suffered a defeat. Calvin never for one moment thought
of yielding the point. The ordinance bearing on this
point was ambiguous, and possibly it was so drawn
intentionally. It empowered the consistory to excom-
municate, but required that the action should be reported
to the council. What was the meaning of this require-
ment ? One object was that the council might follow up
the spiritual censure with corporal punishment if it saw
fit. Did it further mean that the council might modify,
or reverse the sentence of the consistory? The council
claimed this right, but Calvin would not concede it.
Through fifteen years he contended for the Church's
independence of the state in the exercise of disciplinary
power. Much and bitter opposition was arrayed against
him. More than once his life was in serious jeopardy.
Finally, a crisis was precipitated. Calvin preached a
farewell sermon, expecting banishment on the morrow.
But the council yielded, and from that day till his death,
in 1564, Calvin remained master of the situation.
The Academy of Geneva. — In 1558, this famous
school was founded, and Theodore Beza was appointed
its first rector. He stood second only to Calvin, dis-
tinguished as he was for high birth, courtly manners,
elegant culture, deep piety and effective eloquence. The
first year of the academy's existence, the students num-
bered eight hundred. They represented nearly all the
nations of northern and western Europe. The influence
of this school in disseminating the Reformed doctrines was
incalculable. It is interesting to know that while changes
28 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
of all kinds have passed over the city, modifying and
transforming its diversified life, this school has lived on to
our day. Unfortunately, however, it no longer ministers
to the spread of an orthodox faith, but rather to the spread
of rationalism. The spring has become poisoned at the
fountain, and the streams that flow out bear the germs of
spiritual disease and death.
Later History. — When Calvin was removed by death,
and the precedents established by his dominating power
were no longer respected, the Church of Geneva became
more and more helpless in the toils of the civil law.
Zwingli's views grew in popularity until the Church lost
even the shadow of autonomy and became merely a
department of the state. The constitution adopted in
Calvin's time remained with slight modifications until the
middle of the nineteenth century. But all the while the
administration of the laws, in respect to purity of faith
and morals was becoming more lax, and whatever changes
were made were unfavorable to the vigor and inde-
pendence of the Church. Geneva soon ceased to be the
pride of Reformed Christendom, and the center of its
most powerful and most beneficent influences.
Recent Revival. — No land owed more to Geneva than
Scotland. Through John Knox, and afterwards through
Andrew Melville, Geneva furnished to that land the type
of doctrine and form of church government that have
contributed so much to the glory of its history. It was
meet that in her hour of need, Geneva should receive a
blessing in return. That blessing came in the visit of
Robert Haldane in 1816. He spent two years there in
close contact with the theological students of the uni-
versity. They met him daily in his parlor, where he ex-
pounded to them the Epistle to the Romans, and by the
SWITZERLAND 29
blessing of God infused a warm evangelical spirit into
many lives that knew religion merely as a form. Among
these were some men of brilliant gifts, Cesar Malan,
Merle d'Aubigne, Francois Gaussen. They soon found
themselves out of sympathy with the established church.
By and by, there was an open rupture. In 1830 the So-
cietie Evangehque was formed for the purpose of " spread-
ing sound apostolic doctrine throughout Switzerland
and France." It carries on an extensive missionary work,
and is supported by voluntary contributions from Chris-
tians in various parts of the world, who are interested in
its noble aims. This society founded a new theological
school in direct rivalry with the old academy that owed
its origin to Calvin.
Present Condition.— Changes in the laws have brought
the Church more completely under the power of the state.
The Venerable Company, which, along with the con-
sistory, had been intrusted with the general direction of
affairs, was in 1834 deprived of its authority over the
academy; in 1847, it was deprived of the privilege of
sitting in judgment on the qualification of candidates for
the ministry. In the same year the Confession of Faith
was abolished. So that now the features of Calvin's
Church are so marred that he would hardly recognize it.
A minister of the Church of Scotland recently made a
visit there and spent the Sabbath. " I had the privilege,"
he writes, " of witnessing an ordination in the church of
St. Peter. Under her democratic regime, Geneva has
departed so widely from Calvin's idea of the ministry that
a young man who has passed his college examinations,
and those of the consistory does not require to be or-
dained by a classis to be eligible for a pastoral charge.
The Church being treated as but a department of the
30 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
public administration, the state takes no cognizance of
the candidate's personal beliefs, competency for the work
of the ministry being presumably guaranteed by his tes-
timonials. The ministerial office is thus looked at not in
reference to its spiritual character or objects, but rather
as to its social and moral functions ; and as connected
with certain semisecular duties which the minister is
expected to discharge." This state of affairs led to the
formation, in 1849, of the Free Evangelical Church of
Geneva. As yet it is but a handful of corn on the top
of the mountain, but it may in time to come wave like
Lebanon. In 1896 it had only four parishes with six
hundred and eighty-seven members.
The Church of Neuchatel. — It was under the leader-
ship of the bold and impetuous Farel that the Reforma-
tion was established in Neuchatel. He preached a ser-
mon on the 23d of October, 1530, in the cathedral
church which swept the hearts of the people like a breath
from heaven. Under the prompting of a resistless en-
thusiasm they seized mattocks, hatchets and hammers,
and proceeded to smash the images, statues, altars and
paintings in the church. They threw the shattered frag-
ments from the top of the rock on which the church
was built. A few days after this a vote was taken to
decide whether Neuchatel should remain under the
power of the Pope, or shaking off his yoke declare itself
free to serve Christ according to the teachings of the
New Testament. Great excitement prevailed while the
vote was taken in silence. The parties were so evenly
balanced that it was not till the vote was counted that
one could conjecture with any approach to certainty on
which side the victory would lie. The count of the vote
revealed a majority of eighteen for the Reformation.
SWITZERLAND 31
This sealed the fate of the papal party, and placed Neu-
chatel permanently in the ranks of reform.
Hostility of Church and State. — One thing distin-
guished the Reformation in Neuchatel from that in all
the other cantons of Switzerland. In the others the
heads of civil government sympathized with the move-
ment, and Church and state ultimately became identified,
with all power in the hands of the magistrates. In this
canton, while the majority carried the day for reform, the
civil power remained in the hands of the Catholics. Thus
the churches acted independently of the state. Farel
and the other pastors met regularly in the city of Neu-
chatel, and being organized under the name of the
" Company of Pastors," governed the Church. This sys-
tem continued down to 1848, when a synod, composed
of pastors and laymen took the place of the Company
of Pastors. Some twenty years later the civil govern-
ment enacted laws destructive of the Church's autonomy,
declaring every citizen of the state a member of the
Church and entitled to vote, and further declaring every
minister eligible to office in the Church, no matter what
his belief. This led in 1873 to a secession, and the for-
mation of the Evangelical Church of Neuchatel. It now
numbers twenty-eight congregations, and ten thousand,
five hundred and seventy-one communicants.
The Canton of Vaud. — Only three of the thirteen
cantons of Switzerland adopted clearly-defined Presby-
terian forms of government, on becoming reformed.
These were French speaking, and the Reformed doctrines
were brought to them from France. While the others
were Calvinistic in doctrine, and had much in common
with the three distinctively Presbyterian cantons, they
accepted the Reformation under the dominating influence
32 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
of Zwingli, and, in the relation which they estabHshed
between Church and state, gave expression to his
views.
Lausanne.— The Church in this capital city of the
Pays de Vaud was founded by Pierre Viret. He was
intimately associated with both Calvin and Farel. These
three constituted a noble triumvirate, to whom the Pres-
byterian churches of all lands are deeply indebted. They
somewhat supplemented each other, and together exhib-
ited an aggregate of gifts and graces that is rarely wit-
nessed. Calvin was the profound scholar and acute
logician, Farel the impassioned and indomitable preacher,
and Viret the amiable and captivating counselor.
Relation to Bern. — Shortly after the establishment of
the Church in Lausanne, the Vaudois passed under the
control of the Bernese. For more than two centuries
their ecclesiastical affairs were governed after the fashion
of the government of Bern. In 1798 the Vaudois were
liberated and formed the canton of Vaud, and entered
the Helvetic Confederacy. The canton established a
national Protestant Church, based on a profession of faith
in the Old and New Testaments, interpreted according to
the principles of the Reformed evangehcal communion.
Rupture.— By changes in the government the civil
power more and more encroached on the prerogatives of
the Church. In 1845, those who held evangelical views
and labored for the spiritual welfare of the Church, de-
cided to submit no longer. They separated from the
national Church, and organized the Free Church of the
canton of Vaud. It now numbers forty-three congre-
gations, one hundred and fifty-seven ministers and four
thousand, eight hundred and ninety-four members. It
has a flourishing school at Lausanne, in which the able
SWITZERLAND 33
and devout scholar, Alexander Vinet, shone for a time
with brilliant luster.
Present Condition and Future Prospects. — Our re-
view of the history of the Presbyterian churches of
Switzerland indicates that instead of healthful develop-
ment, there has been sad degeneracy. The noble labors
of Calvin, Beza, Farel and Viret failed to achieve perma-
nent results worthy of their illustrious names. At the
end of three and a half centuries the cause for which
they wrought is represented by the three independent
churches of Geneva, Neuchatel and Vaud. The estab-
lished churches, which are the legal successors of their
organizations, no longer represent the evangelical prin-
ciples which were the inspiration of their lives.
The outlook for the future of the independent churches
is not very hopeful. Feeble in numbers, and limited in
resources, they have to struggle against the strong cur-
rents of opposition which result from the secularized
Christianity of the state establishments. But God can
take the weak things to confound the mighty, and there
is always ground to hope for the success of those who
are striving to uphold his honor and promote his truth.
It is gratifying to note that the three churches have
recently formed a federation to look after their common
interests.
CHAPTER III
FRANCE
Much in the history of France furnished hope that the
Reformed doctrines would find ready acceptance and
rapid development in that land.
Independent Spirit of the Galilean Church.— The
Church in France had ever been impatient of the tyran-
nical exercise of power by the papacy. From time to
time, it put forth effective protest in the name of the
Galilean liberties. Phillip, the Fair, had been the first of
European monarchs to humble the haughty pretensions
of the Pope, and to give an effectual check to his tem-
poral power. He had been nobly sustained in his bold
attitude of resistance by all classes of his subjects, includ-
ing the clergy.
The Revolting Sects. — In southern France, numerous
sectaries had achieved minor reforms, long before the
great Reformation of the sixteenth century. The Al-
bigenses attracted attention as early as the beginning of
the twelfth century. Though accused, and, perhaps
justly, of holding some views that exhibited their kinship
with the gnostics of an earlier day, yet they both taught
and practiced a purity of life in beautiful contrast with
the corrupt lives of Romish priests and monks.
A little later in the same century, Peter Waldo led a
movement which resulted in giving birth to a numerous
sect, named from him, Waldenses. They were free from
the errors of the Albigenses, and rivaled them in the
34
FRANCE 35
preaching of the primitive faith and in the exhibition of
a pure and lovely morality. They put the authority of
the Scriptures in place of that of the Pope, or the Church,
and did what they could to give the v^ord of God free
course. Both these sects were made to feel the heavy
hand of Rome, more heavy at that time against the true
disciples of Christ and his apostles than it had been even
when the worst of the pagan emperors sat on the throne.
The Albigenses were apparently exterminated, but it is
not to be doubted that their lessons and hves continued
to exert an influence after they had passed from the
scene. The Waldenses were crushed and mangled, tor-
tured and tormented, but they lived on, and continue to
live.
The Reforming Councils. — During the fifteenth cen-
tury several councils met for the avowed purpose of re-
forming the Church. France furnished to these councils
some distinguished leaders, who, with sublime courage,
and great force of intellect, dealt powerful blows at the
gross abuses of the papacy. They failed to reform, but
they did much to break the spell of superstitious rever-
ence that made the people prefer to be slaves rather than
risk perdition by incurring papal anathemas.
Jacques Lefevre. — Eight years before Luther made
such a noise with his hammer on the door of the Witten-
berg Church, Jacques Lefevre published in France the
evangelical doctrines that afterwards became the watch-
word of all reformers. He also exalted the Bible to its
proper place of supreme authority in matters of faith
and practice. Many hearts gave heed to his teaching,
and a group of earnest souls began to speak often one to
another about the urgent need of purer doctrines and
purer lives.
36 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
These historical phenomena gave promise of a glad
welcome, and a speedy harvest for the Reformed faith.
The promise was in a measure fulfilled.
Early Attitude of the King. — In 15 15, Francis I. came
to the throne. He was young, handsome and high-
spirited. He displayed a warm interest in the classical
culture which, emanating from Italy, was spreading
throughout Europe. By a generous patronage, he drew
men of learning and genius to his court, and gave them
cordial welcome notwithstanding many of them had out-
grown the absurd dogmas of the Romish Church. He
looked with suspicion, however, upon any change in
Church polity that threatened revolution in the state.
Believing that unity in faith was essential to the unity of
the realm, he would countenance no such radical meas-
ures of reform as might involve the total overthrow of
the papal system. At the same time he had no sym-
pathy with the Sorbonne, the Parliament, and the monks
in their narrow spirit of intolerance. He protected Ber-
quin, a distinguished courtier, whom the dignitaries of
the Church sought to destroy; he honored Erasmus;
and even went so far as to invite Gerard Roussel to
preach the Reformed doctrines in Paris. His sister Mar-
garet was still more kindly disposed toward the reformers
and their evangelical preaching. She embraced many of
the new doctrines, and showed public favor to those who
were outlawed by the Church, notably to the illustrious
Calvin. But with all these things in favor of the spread
of the Reformed faith, there were powerful opposing
forces. The queen mother, Louise of Savoy, was in-
tensely hostile, and with her was Duprat, the able prime
minister of the king, who for his zeal in resisting and
repressing heresy was rewarded with a cardinal's hat.
FRANCE 37
Moreover the University of Paris, the Parliament, and al-
most the entire body of the clergy were ready to exert
themselves to the utmost to maintain the old order.
Change in Attitude of the King. — Every influence pos-
sible was brought to bear on the king to determine him
to the policy of intolerance. Arguments were used to
excite his fears as to the stabihty of his throne in case
any favor were shown to the religious innovators.
Whether or not moral suasion alone could have won him
to the side of bigotry, cannot be known. It was not left
to moral suasion alone, but the indiscretion, and rash
zeal of certain reformers brought to bear a more power-
ful influence. The zealots posted on the walls along the
streets and even on the door of the royal bedchamber
placards denouncing in no measured terms the sacrifice
of the mass. This was a crime above all crimes, the very
extreme of sacrilege in the eyes of all devout papists.
The king was outraged along with the rest, not alone at
the blasphemy of the placards, but also at the audacity
that could invade the privacy of his sleeping apartments.
Eighteen heretics were burned at the stake by way of
avenging the outrage, and the king showed his devotion
to the Catholic faith by gracing the occasion with his
presence. For political reasons he still courted the
Lutherans of Germany. He wished to use them to
weaken the power of his great adversary, Charles V, with
whom he was involved in almost constant wars. He
offered to the Lutherans as an apology for his violence
toward the reformers of his own kingdom the slanderous
statement that they were of a different spirit from the
Protestants of Germany, being in fact disorderly and
fanatical anabaptists. It was partly for the purpose of
refuting this slander that Calvin published in 1536 the
38 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
first edition of his Institutes. In the dedication of this
book, which is addressed to •< His Most Christian Majesty,
Francis, King of France," he put forth one of the most
eloquent defenses of his suffering fellow Christians that
the genius of man could frame. In concluding it he ex-
pressed the hope that the king might be won to look
with favor upon his poor afflicted subjects. " But," he
adds, " if your ears are so preoccupied with the whispers
of the malevolent, as to leave no opportunity for the
accused to speak for themselves, and if those outrageous
furies, with your connivance, continue to persecute with
imprisonments, scourges, tortures, confiscations and
flames, we shall indeed, like sheep destined to the slaugh-
ter, be reduced to the greatest extremities. Yet shall we
in patience possess our souls, and wait for the mighty
hand of the Lord, which undoubtedly will in time ap-
pear, and show itself armed for the deliverance of the
poor from their affliction and for the punishment of their
despisers, who now exult in such security." Calvin's
noble words were wasted on deaf ears. Francis grew
more intolerant, and put his royal power at the service
of those who scrupled at no methods, and shuddered at
no cruelty in their persistent purpose to crush out the
new doctrines. He suffered the Pope to wage a crusade
of merciless violence against his unoffending Waldensian
subjects. " The result of his attitude in relation to the
Reformation was that, a few years after his death, his
country was plunged into civil wars, during which it be-
came, not the arbiter but the prey of Europe, and its
soil the frightful theater of the battle of sects and nations.
From such wars it had no respite until his dynasty per-
ished in blood and mire."
Growth of Reform. — Notwithstanding the strenuous
FRANCE 39
efforts at suppression, revolt against the Church continued
to gain strength, and the numbers of those who embraced
evangehcal doctrines rapidly increased. The movement
was greatly aided from Geneva, where Calvin had taken
refuge in 1536. From the printing presses of the Swiss
city, Bibles and other books were sent into France
Calvin gave the reformers the constant benefit of his
counsels and encouragement. Preachers trained by him
were sent into all parts of the kingdom. The records
show that at least one hundred and twenty-one min-
isters were sent from the Church in Geneva into France
in the eleven years between 1555-66. Many of high
social standing and of great consideration embraced the
Reformed faith.
Henry II and Catharine de' Medici. — Francis died in
1547, and was succeeded by his son Henry II. A few
years before, Henry had married Catharine de' Medici.
She was the niece of Pope Clement VII, and through
his diplomacy the marriage was contracted. Guizot says
that Catharine was Clement's " fatal gift to France."
Had Henry needed any prompting to pursue with vigor
the policy adopted by his father toward the Reformation,
this wily, and wicked Italian woman would have fur-
nished it. King and queen were of one mind in their
hostility to the rising spirit of revolt against the papacy,
but their efforts at repression were unavailing.
Beginning of Protestant Organization. — The fruits of
the Reformed teaching were slow in crystallizing into
organic form. But in 1555, just eight years after Henry II
came to the throne, the first Reformed church was organ-
ized in Paris. The circumstances were interesting. Ac-
cording to a custom, now of long standing, those who
had given up Rome, met in private for worship. La
40 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
Ferriere, at whose house they met, had an infant which
he wished to consecrate to God in the ordinance of bap-
tism. He was totally averse to soiling its fair young
brow with the mixture of spittle and salt used by the
papists in this ordinance. He wished the baptism to be
administered in the pure and simple apostolic form.
How to obtain this was the question. The little band of
secret worshipers solved the difficulty by organizing them-
selves into a church and electing one of their own number
to the office of pastor. Fortunately for them, they had a
young man in their midst well fitted for this office, La
Riviere, who had been trained in the doctrines of the Re-
formed faith by Calvin in Geneva. Not only a pastor,
but elders and deacons were elected, and thus a fully-
equipped Presbyterian Church was launched. In four
years from the organization of this first church, two
thousand churches of like character were organized in
different parts of the kingdom. This shows how ex-
tensive the sowing had been, and how well prepared the
soil to yield a quick and bountiful harvest.
Another Succession in the Throne.— The year 1559
was an eventful year both in the political history of
France and in the history of the Reformed Church. In
this year Henry II. was accidentally killed in a tournament
while celebrating the marriage of his daughter Elizabeth
with Philip II. of Spain. His eldest son came to the
throne as Francis II. Just one year before, he had
married the beautiful and brilliant heiress to the throne
of Scotland, known in history as Mary Queen of Scots.
Francis, Duke of Guise, was her uncle. Apart from this,
he was the most powerful noble in the kingdom. Not
only was he a man of exalted rank, — he was a man also of
vigorous intellect, strong will, intense passions, eager
FRANCE 41
ambitions, and of great military reputation. His brother
Charles was Cardinal de Lorraine, a man of kindred
spirit and of like great gifts. They were the leaders of
the Catholics and their partisan zeal was ardent and un-
remitting. With their niece as queen they were in a
position to exert an almost unlimited influence over the
destinies of the kingdom. To make their position more
commanding, Francis II. was only sixteen years old when
he came to the throne, and was neither strong in body
nor in mind. It was not without reason, therefore, that
apprehension of the gravest character was entertained as
to the fate of those whose religious views were offensive
to the Guises.
An Opposition Party. — This apprehension drew to-
gether the leaders of the house of Bourbon, Antoine of
Navarre, and Louis, Prince of Conde, and the head of
the house of Chatillon-sur-Loing, Admiral Coligny.
These openly espoused the cause of the Protestants, partly
from religious convictions and partly from political reasons.
The Bourbons were a branch of the royal family, and no
doubt jealousy of the influence of the Guises had much
to do with determining their course. Very naturally the
Protestants, who had before them the prospect of con-
tinued and increased persecutions, welcomed the acces-
sion to their party of these distinguished and powerful
allies. By this alliance, however, the Protestants became
identified with a political party, and the house of Bourbon
with a religious party. Henceforth France was a king-
dom divided against itself politically and religiously.
One Other Party. — This was made up exclusively of
the queen mother, Catharine de' Medici. She was a
Catholic, but she was not going to suffer her religion to
stand in the way of her political interests. It did not
42 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
promise well for her ambitions for the Guises to gather
all the reins of power into their hands. Hence she did
not permit her position as queen mother to be over-
shadowed by them. This was fortunate for the Prot-
estants. Had she united her influence to that of the
Guises and the court, in the impending conflict between
the two religions, the Reformed faith would have been
blotted out. Catharine was first of all for herself, and
her policy was to prevent either party from gaining a
complete victory over the other.
Organization of the Reformed Synod. — Such was the
state of affairs in the year 1559 — a weak young king on
the throne, a powerful kinsman of his wife at his elbow,
an artful and selfish mother behind his chair. Opposed
to them was the house of Bourbon, the avowed head of
the Protestant interests. In this same year, the two
thousand Reformed congregations scattered throughout
France, sent their delegates to Paris, to the number of
one hundred and fifty, and organized the first synod of
the Reformed Church. They conducted their business
in secret, and laid the foundation of their Church at the
peril of their lives.
Work of This Synod. — The chief business of this first
synod was to frame and adopt a Confession of Faith, and
a Book of Discipline. They had the help of Calvin. He
had already demonstrated in Geneva that the scheme of
government which he had outlined in the Institutes was a
workable scheme. He had put it into practical opera-
tion, and the results were highly gratifying. The French
Church did not have to adopt an untried experiment.
The Confession of Faith which the newly-organized
Church adopted was drafted by Calvin's hand. It em-
braced forty articles, covering the whole ground of
FRANCE 43
polemic theology. The infant Church, too feeble as yet
to confront its powerful adversary in open battle, was
nevertheless willing that the whole world should know
exactly where it stood on all debatable questions. In our
age and country we can hardly conceive what was im-
plied in publishing a Protestant Confession of Faith in
the sixteenth century in France. Nearly every article in
this Confession was an anathematized heresy, the holding
of which made one liable to death by burning. Men did
close thinking, and lingered long and prayerfully over
the living oracles, before giving to the public a statement
of doctrine for which they might have to die.
The Form of Government adopted by the synod
was distinctly Presbyterian, though differing somewhat
from the type common in our day. It gave the dea-
cons a seat with the pastor and elders in the church
courts. It allowed the congregations to choose their
officers in the first instance, but it empowered the
officers to fill vacancies afterwards occurring in their own
ranks.
Growth of the Church. — During the twelve years fol-
lowing the organization of the first synod the growth of
the Church was marvelous. In 1 571, the synod met in
Rochelle. Theodore Beza, the distinguished colleague of
Calvin, was present to moderate its sessions. The noble
queen of Navarre, and her son, Henry, afterwards to
wear the crown of France, the Prince of Conde and
Count de Coligny, Admiral of France, graced the occa-
sion by their presence. Two thousand one hundred and
fifty churches were represented by the synod. Many of
these were phenomenally large, that of Orleans number-
ing seven thousand communicants, served by five pastors.
In some of these churches there were even ten thousand
44
HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
communicants, and the number of their pastors was pro-
portionately great.
This was the cHmax of the Church's growth and
prosperity. It seems a httle remarkable that a move-
ment which even in its tender infancy was irrepressible
should, after developing to such magnificent proportions,
have received a sudden and permanent check. But so it
was. Perhaps in 1571, the Huguenots comprised one
fourth of the total population of France. But the thick
clouds were gathering, and soon such a storm burst upon
this Church as can hardly be paralleled in history.
Growth in the Midst of Conflict.— Let it not be sup-
posed that all the twelve years, during which the Church
passed from infancy to the acme of its growth were years
of peaceful progress. The remarkable thing is that this
rapid growth took place in the midst of incessant con-
flict. It was the very year of the organization of the
synod, that the nation divided into two parties and these
aligned themselves, the one with Rome, the other with
Calvin. It was the religious belief of each that the other
was the advocate of fatal error, and that fatal error was
something to be suppressed at all hazard. He who
murdered the body was to be put out of the way for the
safety of society. Much more was it necessary for the
safety of society that the murderer of souls should be put
out of the way. Hanging was too good for him. This
was the estimate in which these two parties held each
other. How inevitable that they should soon find occa-
sion to begin the work of mutual extermination !
The Conspiracy of Amboise, 1560.— The Protestants
were now called Huguenots, a name about which there
is still much disputing. Probably it is from Eid-gcnosscii,
oath comrades. The first hostile movement after the
FRANCE 45
parties stood confronting each other was the conspiracy
of Amboise. For this the Huguenots were held re-
sponsible, though it was strictly and exclusively political.
The object was to get possession of the king, and
remove him from the dominating influence of the Guises.
The conspiracy was discovered and quite a number of
persons were put to death for supposed compHcity in it.
The Prince of Conde was the only one of the great nobles
implicated. He was arrested, sentenced to death and
thrown into prison.
Another Change in the Throne.— It was most fortu-
nate for Conde, and for the Protestant cause that just at this
juncture, the sickly young king died. He was succeeded
in the throne by his brother Charles IX, a boy ten years
of age. The regency of the kingdom, during his minority,
was committed jointly to Catharine de' Medici, and An-
toine, king of Navarre. This change in affairs greatly
relieved the situation of the Huguenots. Had Antoine
been a man of courage and firmness, and withal a
stalwart Christian character, he could have used his
position to put his party on a secure footing. But he
was weak and inconstant, and permitted the shrewd and
enterprising Catharine to absorb all the power. But even
this was for the time being a fortunate thing for the Hugue-
nots. She was not willing to see the Guises make their
victory in the matter of the conspiracy of Amboise too
complete. She, therefore, released Conde from prison
and granted toleration to the Protestants.
Another change in the composition of the court,
caused by the death of Francis II, was favorable to the
Reformers. In this same year, 1560, Mary of Guise,
mother of Mary Queen of Scots, died, and the beautiful
young widow of the deceased Francis went home to
46 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
Scotland. She took with her, of course, much of the
influence which her uncles, the Duke of Guise and
Cardinal de Lorraine, had exercised. They were still
powerful, but their most efficient agent at court was
henceforth wanting to them.
The Colloquy of Poissy. — Catharine not only showed
consideration for the Huguenots by releasing Conde but
she appointed immediately a colloquy, or conference to be
held on the 9th of September, 1561. It was galling to
the pride of the papists to be constrained to meet the
Calvinists on a footing of equality ; but Catharine had
resolved that such a meeting should take place, and
nothing could turn her from her purpose. Even in that
age, so given to the spectacular, and bombastic, there
were few more brilliant pageants than the gathering for
this conference in the refectory of the nuns' convent at
Poissy. It was resplendent with all the glittering para-
phernalia incident to the presence of two royal courts, six
cardinals and many high dignitaries in both Church and
state.
Each side was permitted to select whom it would to
represent its cause. The Protestants would have pre-
ferred Calvin, but were prevented from selecting him for
prudential reasons. They wrote to him, saying : " We
see no means of having you here without grave peril, in
view of the rage which all the enemies of the gospel have
conceived against you, and the disturbances which your
name alone would excite in this country, were you
known to be present. In fact. Admiral Coligny is by no
means in favor of your undertaking the journey, and we
have learned with certainty that the queen, Catharine de'
Medici, would not relish seeing you. She says frankly
that she would not pledge herself for your safety."
FRANCE 47
Would that Calvin might have confronted that Assembly,
and looked with his deep-set, piercing eyes into the face
of Cardinal Lorraine, the presiding officer, while he
pointed out their errors, and " expounded to them the
way of the Lord more accurately." But it might not be.
His life was too precious for his devoted followers to see
him take the risk. Fortunately there was one, versed in
all Calvin's teaching, who was available, and who was in
some respects better fitted to stand in that presence than
Calvin himself. That one was Theodore Beza. Of noble
birth and breeding, he had in early life moved amid the
splendor and become famihar with the etiquette of courts.
He was handsome, graceful, scholarly and eloquent. The
hatred against him was not so bitter as against the stern,
inflexible Calvin. It fell to his lot, therefore, to plead the
cause of the Huguenots. Most nobly did he perform
the duty. But the conference amounted to nothing more
than a show of fine regalia, and a sound of fine words.
Each party said its say, and then held on its predeter-
mined course.
Edict of St. Germain.— On the 17th of January, 1562,
a royal edict was issued, known as the Edict of St. Ger-
main. This was a notable document for the reason that
it granted the Protestants legal recognition. Viewed in
the light of our day the concessions were meager enough,
but in that harsh and intolerant age they were hailed with
delight by those in whose behalf they were made. By
the terms of this edict the Protestants were granted the
privilege of meeting for worship anywhere outside of the
walls of the cities. On the other hand they were re-
quired to surrender all the churches, of which they had
taken possession, situated within the city walls. Of
course, there were many Huguenots who were far from
48 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
thankful for such small favors, but Beza, representing a
large gathering of ministers, wrote to all the congrega-
tions of the realm advising them to accept the terms and
observe them in good faith. The noble Coligny was sat-
isfied, and Calvin was content, saying, *' If the liberty
promised in the edict last, the papacy will fall to the
ground of itself." All that he and the other men of faith
wanted was merely the opportunity to proclaim the
truth.
Massacre of Vassy.— The liberty guaranteed by the
edict lasted just six weeks. On the ist day of March,
1562, the Duke of Guise was passing through the small
town of Vassy. A number of Huguenots had gathered
in a rude barn for worship. Some of the duke's soldiers
entered the building and interrupted the service. A con-
flict was precipitated, and the defenseless Huguenots were
slaughtered like sheep, no respect being shown to age or
sex. The Protestants made earnest complaint to the
queen mother against this palpable breach of the Edict
of St. Germain, but their complainings were in vain. No
redress could be had. They accepted this as a token that
the few rights granted them were not to be respected.
Under their leaders, they prepared to vindicate those
rights by force of arms. Thus began a series of cruel
and desolating wars that lasted for thirty years.
Huguenot Reverses and the Treaty of St. Germain.
— Without going into detail, it may be said as a general
summing up of the tragic history that the Protestants
were greatly outnumbered, and the battles usually went
against them. But their unfailing courage and their per-
tinacity of purpose made it a costly thing for their ene-
mies to subdue them. Hence frequent truces were
granted, and favorable terms were conceded to them.
FRANCE 49
The most favorable of these were contained in the Treaty
of St. Germain in 1569. The Protestants had suffered
a most disastrous defeat, involving the loss of one of their
gallant leaders, the Prince of Conde. Probably the des-
perate straits into which their cause was falling moved
Catharine to favor a scheme for their relief. She was
still playing the role of an opportunist, and she did not
wish the victory of the Guises to yield larger results. By
this treaty the Huguenots were granted liberty of wor-
ship in all towns except Paris, and as a guarantee of their
rights they were put in possession of four fortified towns,
La Rochelle, Montauban, Cognac, and La Charite. This
constituted an imperiiun in imperio. " A kingdom divided
against itself cannot stand."
A Royal Marriage.— Steps were soon taken which
gave greater promise of permanent tranquillity than the
possession of any number of fortified towns. Catharine
de' Medici had a daughter just nineteen years of age.
Jeanne d'Albret, queen of Navarre, now like Catharine, a
widow, had a son, Prince Henry, just nineteen years of
age. When these two were little children, it had occurred
to older heads that their marriage would make good
cement with which to unite Catholics and Protestants.
The matter was discussed even before the death of Henry
n. Now after years of desolating wars had brought the
country into the sorest distress, the project was revived,
and was entered into with the greatest interest. King
Charles was mightily bent on it. Catharine seconded
him heartily. Admiral Coligny, the head of the Prot-
estant party, was delighted with it. Jeanne d'Albret, the
mother of Henry, was not so eager. She was extremely
anxious for peace, and in so far as this marriage gave
promise of peace, she favored it. But with her, religion
so HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
was the great concern. She said she would consult her
spiritual adviser, and as soon as her conscience was at
rest, she would go any lengths to bring about cordial re-
lations with the king and queen. '' But," she added, " I
would rather sink to the condition of the humblest
dainoiselle in France than sacrifice to the aggrandizement
of my family my own soul and my son's." Such was
Jeanne d'Albret, the greatest woman of the age in which
she lived. She went up to the court to see the royal
family, and to talk the matter over. She liked the young
girl, Margaret. In a letter to her son she describes her
as " beautiful, and discreet and of good demeanor, but
brought up in the most accursed and most corrupt society
that ever was. I would not for anything in the world
have you here to remain here. This is why I desire to
get you married, and you and your wife withdrawn from
this corruption ; for though I believed it to be very great,
I find it still more so." The young Duke of Guise
seriously objected to the marriage, principally for the
reason that he wanted Margaret for himself and had en-
tertained hopes that he might get her. The Pope of
Rome objected, for the reason that he did not wish to see
Catholics and Huguenots brought together in permanent
peace. He sent a cardinal to oppose the marriage, but
King Charles was not to be turned aside. Just what his
motive was we shall never know. The marriage was
celebrated on August i8, 1572.
St. Bartholomew Massacre. — Many of the Huguenot
leaders came up to Paris to attend the wedding. Some
days were spent in social festivities. The Guises left the
court, to avoid witnessing the nuptials. They very soon
returned, and a close intimacy developed between them
and Catharine. It is supposed that Catharine had grown
FRANCE 51
jealous of Coligny's influence over Charles. The young
king was in constant intercourse with the great admiral,
and seemed disposed to give him first place in his coun-
sels. It was time for Catharine to throw her influence on
the other side. She and the Guises began to plot. An
effort was made to assassinate Coligny. A badly-aimed
shot from an upper window shattered his hand and lodged
a ball in his left arm. This alarmed the Huguenots.
Catharine and the Duke of Guise took the king into
their confidence. They represented to Charles that the
Huguenots were plotting to take his life. They either
worried or frightened him into an acquiescence in their
plans. In a fit of desperation he bade them to make a
clean sweep, and leave no Huguenot to reproach him.
Before dayhght of August 24, 1572, the signal sounded,
and the most notable, because the most atrocious, mas-
sacre known to history was begun. It spread from Paris
to other cities, and lasted several days. The number of
victims must ever remain a matter of conjecture. It is
variously estimated from twenty thousand to one hun-
dred thousand. It is called the Massacre of St. Barthol-
omew because in the calendar of the Romish Church the
24th of August is the feast of this saint.
Result Disappointing. — Wickedness overreached itself.
A crime so great shocked all Europe, excepting only the
Pope and Philip II of Spain. Gregory XIII, who was
Pope at the time, ordered the Te Deum to be sung, and
had a medal struck to commemorate the event. His
apologists say that his rejoicing was not over the slaughter
of the Huguenots, but over the deliverance of the king
from their conspiracy. The medal tells its own tale — it
pictures not deliverance but destruction.
Siege of Rochelle.— While the blow weakened the
52 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
Protestants numerically, it put fresh energy into those
who remained, and brought to their side many moderate
Catholics. In three months, civil war was again raging.
It centered in an effort to capture Rochelle. From the
1 6th of February to the 13th of June, the city was be-
sieged by an army of forty thousand men. It was de-
fended by a garrison of only thirty-one hundred. Six
assaults were made on it. But the efforts of besiegers
were in vain. The war ended by granting the Huguenots
the most advantageous terms they had yet enjoyed.
Change in the Throne.— In May, 1574, Charles IX
died, leaving the Huguenots as far from extermination,
and as formidable as they were before the perpetration of
that crime that haunted him night and day and made
his deathbed a scene of horror. He was succeeded by
his brother Henry HI. From this time until 1588 there
were three parties in the kingdom. At the head of one
was Henry, King of France ; at the head of another was
Henry, King of Navarre ; and at the head of the third
was Henry, Duke of Guise. Civil wars continued, part
of the Catholics acting with the Huguenots. At times
Henry HI had more cause for apprehension from the
ambition of the Guises than from the hostility of the
Protestants. Especially was this the case after the death
of his younger brother. It then became highly probable
that Henry of Navarre would fall heir to the crown of
France. Henry HI had no children, and should he die,
the king of Navarre would have the right of succession.
The intense Catholics formed a league under the leader-
ship of Guise, in which they were joined by Spain. The
object was to prevent by force of arms the accession of
a Huguenot to the throne of France. Henry III by a
vacillating policy had rendered himself very unpopular.
FRANCE 53
and the Duke of Guise could not refrain from making it
manifest that he was more powerful than the king. By
a display of military force he constrained the king to
flee from his own capital. No king can be content to
occupy a position subordinate to one of his nobles.
Henry III knew no other way of regaining the ascend-
ency, and so he procured the assassination of the duke.
This sealed his own fate. In a short while a fanatical
monk, gaining access to him by treachery, dealt him a
fatal blow.
Accession of Henry IV — After the death of Henry
III nothing stood between the king of Navarre, the
leader of the Huguenots, and the throne of France ex-
cept the opposition of the Catholic League. This oppo-
sition, however, was very formidable. It was backed by
Philip II of Spain, who was all too wilhng to take a
hand in the work of suppressing the Protestants. The
moderate Catholics who had for some while sided with
the Huguenots, were not willing to see a Protestant on
the throne. Their withdrawal would greatly weaken the
hands of Henry. The Pope used the spiritual powers
with which he was clothed to blight Henry's prospects.
Henry's position was a trying one. While at the head
of the Protestants, he was in opposition to the vast ma-
jority of his fellow-countrymen. His title to the crown
was clear, but he could only wear it, if at all, after years
more of desolating wars. He did not wish to reign over
the dead, and yet if he must conquer his way to the
crown, France would be one vast burial ground. An-
other difficulty grew out of the intense bigotry of some
of the Huguenots. They could not bear the thought of
Henry's granting equal rights to Catholics with them-
selves. No sooner had Henry intimated that it would be
54 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
his policy to grant full liberty to both religions, than
many Protestants drew away from his standard. It was
said by some cotemporaries that he was deserted by as
many Huguenots as Catholics. Surely this was an un-
happy position. For a time Henry stood true to the
religion in which he had been trained from childhood.
When he heard that some in the army felt scruples about
remaining in his service unless he would embrace the
Catholic faith, he said : " I am very glad to inform them
here, in the presence of you all, that I would rather this
were the last day of my life than take any step which
might cause me to be suspected of having dreamt of re-
nouncing the religion that I sucked in with my mother's
milk, before I have been better instructed by a lawful
council to whose authority I bow in advance." Even
here, however, while claiming loyalty to his convictions,
he throws out a hint that these convictions were not so
settled as that they might not be changed.
The passionate zeal of the leaders of the League left
him no option but to maintain his rights by force of
arms. They were not willing that he should be permit-
ted to ascend the throne even on condition that he should
change his religion. In their eyes he had already sinned
beyond forgiveness. In the war that followed, Henry
added greatly to his military renown, especially at the
battle of Ivry. His words to his soldiers just before the
action began will never cease to thrill : " Comrades, if
you lose your standard, do not lose sight of my white
plume ; you will always find it in the path of honor, and,
I hope, of victory, too." He not only gained victories
over his enemies in the field, but by his gracious and
generous bearing toward captured towns and provinces,
he won the hearts of his countrymen. Still he was con-
FRANCE 55
vinced that the majority would never wilhngly see him
king while continuing a Protestant. He determined,
therefore, to submit himself to the Pope, and thus pave
the way to the peaceable possession of the throne. On
the 15th of July, 1593, he entered the Church of Notre
Dame, made his recantation, knelt and received papal
absolution.
Fortunes of the Church. — Of course the fate of the
Reformed Church was bound up in the political fortunes
of the Huguenot cause. Perhaps no Church has ever
survived a more trying ordeal than that through which
this Church passed during the thirty years beginning
with the first civil war in 1562. It is hardly putting it
too strongly to say that the whole soil of France was
stained with the blood of her children. To the usual
horrors of civil war were added the unspeakable horrors
of frequent massacres, in which the sword devoured all
ages and sexes. Poverty and general demoralization
followed in the wake of war. The fields were desolate,
the cities dismantled, the land dotted with ruins, agricul-
ture and commerce interrupted and, to a large extent,
destroyed. This distressing state of affairs, continuing
so long, told powerfully against the Church. The 2,150
congregations represented in the Synod at Rochelle in
1 571 were reduced to 760 by the year 1598. The
schools, which the Church had founded at the cost of so
much self-denial and which were her pride and glory
were broken up ; her ministers were poorly paid, and the
tone of piety was seriously lowered.
Result of the King's Policy. — Henry IV was richly
gifted in intellect and heart. He was every inch a
Frenchman, brilliant, versatile, brave and generous. He
knew the French people, and acquired an ascendency
56 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
over them such as no other king, perhaps, has ever had.
He has never ceased to be regarded as their ideal king.
His quahties were of a kind to attract the admiration of
those who could not approve his course in the matter of
religion. Evidently he was not a deeply-religious man.
Vastly different was his spirit from that of his mother,
the ever to be venerated, Jeanne d'Albret. A saying of
hers has survived to the effect that if she held her king-
dom in one hand and her son in the other she would
sink them both in the sea before she would go to mass.
In contrast with this, Henry said a kingdom was worth
a mass, and so he paid the price and took it.
Happy Consequences of Henry's Policy. — He rightly
judged that his change of religion would bring peace to
his distracted country. Sorely it needed peace, and when
this came prosperity came in its train. Soon the desert
began to blossom as the rose. Agriculture, commerce,
and the arts of industry revived, and to the disasters of war
there succeeded a rich abundance as the reward of intel-
ligent thrift. In 1598, the Edict of Nantes was issued,
granting full religious liberty to the Huguenots in all
parts of France, except Paris. At the same time, it
guaranteed to them their civil rights, and confirmed them
in the possession of the strongly-fortified towns which
had been ceded to them in the Treaty of St. Germain.
The king in changing his religion did not change his
sentiments toward his former associates. He continued
to love the H^uguenots, and he used his exalted position
to throw over them a shield of protection, and to give
them the rights of citizenship.
Later Consequences. — Consequences do not all ripen
at once. Could Henry IV have lived forever, or could
he have transmitted his power and policy to a like-
FRANCE 57
minded successor, France might have continued to reap
a harvest of blessing. But neither of these could be.
In 1610, the knife of an assassin laid the king low. Then
the power which he had wielded for the good of all his
subjects passed to those who had no love for the Hugue-
nots, and who had never reckoned them as entitled to
any rights. A few years before his death, Henry had
married a second time, and had again chosen a wife with
the blood of the Medici flowing through her veins. This
blood was all poisoned with hatred toward the Prot-
estants. By this marriage Henry left an heir to the
throne in the person of Louis XHI. He inherited no
trace of Henry's broad and generous views, much less
any trace of his paternal grandmother's intelligent and
fervent piety. While he was yet under age, his mother
chose Richelieu as prime minister. The controlling idea
of his administration was the doctrine of royal absolu-
tism. He set himself with deliberate purpose to make the
king supreme in every department of government, and
pursued this purpose relentlessly and with consummate suc-
cess. In a few years he found a pretext for suppressing
the synods of the Church. He sent troops into the prov-
ince of Beam, the stronghold of the Huguenots, and after
much bloodshed, reestablished the papacy. He be-
sieged the city of Rochelle ; and when the city had been
reduced by starvation from 20,000 to 4,000 inhabitants,
it was compelled to surrender. In the fall of Rochelle
the last bulwark of religious liberty was swept away.
The political power of the Huguenots having been des-
troyed there was domestic peace for the remainder of
the reign of Louis XIII.
Accession of a New King. — In 1643, Louis XIV
came to the throne and began the longest, and in the
58 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
mere matter of pomp and circumstance of royalty, per-
haps the most brilliant reign in the whole history of the
French nation. Like his father, he had a cardinal for his
prime minister. Mazarin was of a different spirit, how-
ever, from Richelieu in his attitude toward the Protes-
tants. These had won a right to kindly consideration.
During the wars of the Fronde — wars waged by the
great nobles against the king and his court, the Hu-
guenots were faithful to the king, and their fidelity
counted for much in securing the stability of the throne.
The attitude of the Protestants deterred Cromwell from
sending aid to the rebellious princes. It may well be
questioned, therefore, whether Louis XIV did not owe
to the good will of the Huguenots in the beginning of
his reign that position of advantage which made possible
the splendor of his marvelous career. Cardinal Mazarin
certainly recognized that the court owed them a debt of
gratitude, and a royal edict was issued in 1652 confirming
and ratifying the Edict of Nantes.
The King's Way of Showing Kindness to the Hugue-
nots.— Mazarin died in the spring of 1661. But even
before his death the king's policy had undergone a
change. To the synod which met at Loudun in 1660,
the king sent a messenger to announce that " His Maj-
esty has resolved that there shall be no more such as-
semblies until he deems it expedient." He never deemed
it expedient, and that was the last national synod that
met until 1872. In 1661, Louis wrote that " those who
employed violent remedies against the religion styled Re-
formed did not understand the nature of this malady,
caused partly by heated feelings which should be passed
over unnoticed and allowed to die out insensibly instead
of being inflamed afresh by equally strong contradiction,
FRANCE 59
which, moreover, is always useless when the taint is not
confined to a certain known number but spread through-
out the state. I thought, therefore, the best way of re-
ducing the Huguenots of my kingdom little by little was
in the first place, not to put any pressure on them by
any fresh rigor against them, to see to the observance of
all that they had obtained from my predecessors, but to
grant them nothing further, and even to confine the per-
formance thereof within the narrowest limits that justice
and propriety would permit. But as to graces that de-
pend on me alone, I have resolved, and I have pretty
well kept my resolution ever since, not to do them any,
and that from kindness, not from bitterness, in order to
force them in that way to reflect from time to time of
themselves and without violence whether it were for any
good reason that they deprived themselves voluntarily of
advantages which might be shared by them in common
with all my other subjects."
His Kindness Not Appreciated. — It seems that thus
early in his reign the Grand Monarch had become pos-
sessed with the notion that none of his subjects could
live without his favor ; and that all that was necessary to
break the spirit of the Huguenots was to shut them off
from royal patronage. It did not require a great while
to disclose to him that his kindness was misplaced. Not-
withstanding he left them to meditate on the folly of
their way, they were not by meditation converted from
it. The king was shocked at their obstinacy. He could
never understand why they should insist on trying to
please God, by worshiping and serving him in a way that
was not pleasing to the king. Finding that his policy,
born of kindness not of bitterness, was a failure, he put
it aside.
6o HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
King Resorts to Bribery and Force. — He relied much
on a system of purchasing conversions. He opened the
way to promotion for Huguenots of noble birth. He
rightly judged that those who had hitherto figured in af-
fairs of state would find it hard to be relegated to ob-
scurity, and to them he held out the tempting bait of
official preferment. To those who would not renounce
their faith all doors were closed. " They could no longer
sit in the courts, or parliaments, or administer the finances,
or become medical practitioners, barristers or notaries."
Many Huguenots of the higher ranks gave way. But
the middle and lower classes were more loyal to their
convictions and on them bribes had little effect. The
king had nothing to offer, not even if he had offered all
the wealth and honors of his realm, comparable to that
which they were asked to resign. Hence he had to resort
to directly repressive measures. Pastors were forbidden
to visit their flocks except under severe restrictions.
They were not to make any more converts to the Prot-
estant faith, and " every chapel into which a new convert
was admitted was to be pulled down, and the pastor was
to be banished."
The Dragonnades. — The king departed farther and
farther from his first policy, as he came to know more
and more of the Huguenot obstinacy. He hit upon one
of the most cruel methods of persecution that was ever
conceived, even by the ** Most Christian " king of that
age. He sent regiments of cavalry to the provinces in
which the Huguenots were most numerous, and made
these Protestants receive them into their homes and care
for them. These unwelcome guests were encouraged to
be as uncivil and brutal as they could find it in their
hardened natures to be. " The dragoons took up their
FRANCE 6i
quarters in peaceable families, ruining the more well to
do, maltreating old men, women and children, striking
them with their sticks or the flat of their swords, hauling
off Protestants in the churches by the hair of their head,
harnessing laborers to their own plows and goading them
like oxen." Finding this method of conversion fairly
effective they redoubled their efforts. Foucauld, who had
charge of this missionary agency in the province of
Beam, where the taint of heresy was deepest and most
nearly universal, distinguished himself. *' He egged on
the soldiers to torture the inhabitants of the houses they
were quartered in, commanding them to keep awake all
those who would not give in to other tortures. The
dragoons relieved one another so as not to succumb
themselves to the punishment they were making others
undergo. Beating of drums, blasphemies, shouts, the
crash of furniture which they hurled from side to side,
commotion in which they kept these poor people in order
to force them to be on their feet and hold their eyes
open, were the means they employed to deprive them of
rest. To pinch, prick, and haul them about, to lay them
upon burning coals, and a hundred other cruelties were
the sport of these butchers ; all they thought most about
was how to find tortures which should be painful without
being deadly, reducing their hosts thereby to such a state,
that they knew not what they were doing, and promised
anything that was wanted of them in order to escape from
those barbarous hands."
Huguenots Leave France. — Powerless to resist, those
of the Huguenots who could sought safety in flight.
This method of freeing the country of heresy was not at
all to the king's liking. He knew that he could ill afford
to lose so large and so valuable a portion of the people.
62 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
What he wanted was to destroy heresy and keep the
heretics. Hence stringent enactments were passed to
prevent the Protestants from leaving the kingdom. If
men were caught trying to escape they were condemned
to the galleys, a kind of punishment corresponding to the
chain gang of our day. The women were punished with*
confiscation of person and property. Many thousands
preferring the galleys to apostasy took their chances, and
made their escape. Other thousands, with no oppor-
tunity for flight, and unable to endure the diversified
torments to which they were subjected professed conver-
sion. At length the king assumed that the taint, as he
called it, was pretty well eradicated, and -that there was
no further need of the Edict of Nantes. There were still
spots of the disease, but a few more finishing touches
would put an end to them.
Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. — The king called
together his council, and after due deliberation a resolu-
tion was unanimously passed for the suppression of the Edict
of Nantes. This was signed by the king on the 15th of
October, 1685, with the explanation that "our pains
have had the end we had proposed, seeing that the better
and the greater part of our subjects of the religion styled
Reformed have embraced the Catholic ; the execution of
the Edict of Nantes consequently remaining useless, we
have considered that we could not do better, for the pur-
pose of effacing entirely the memory of the evils which
this false religion has caused in our kingdom, than revoke
entirely the aforesaid Edict of Nantes and all that has
been done in favor of the said religion." The king was
very considerate, desiring to destroy not only the evils,
to which the Reformed faith had given birth, but even the
memory of those evils. It is evident that his measure
FRANCE 63
was not a success, for it has affixed a stain upon his
character that will remain while history continues to re-
count the glories of the " Grand Monarch."
The edict, revoking that of Nantes, ordered the demoli-
tion of all chapels, and forbade all assembling for wor-
ship ; the schools were closed, all new-born babes were to
be baptized by the Catholic priests, and the Protestant
ministers were ordered to leave the kingdom in fifteen
days.
Flight of the Huguenots. — All attempts to prevent the
flight of the Huguenots were unavailing. They poured
over the borders by the thousands, carrying with them
riches in the way of sturdy character and intelligent
energy that France could poorly afford to lose. They
belonged for the most part to the thrifty middle class.
Out of Tours went thirty thousand silk-weavers ; out of
Lyons nine thousand ; other cities and other industries
lost in like proportion. Louis XIV was knocking the
props from under the throne, the truth of which came to
light toward the end of the next century. All the sur-
rounding nations, England, Germany, Switzerland and
Holland were made richer by the suicidal policy of the
proud monarch, whose will it was " that there be no
more than one religion in this kingdom ; it is for the
glory of God and the well-being of the state."
An Outburst of Fanaticism. — It was soon evident that
sparks enough had been left to kindle into quite a con-
flagration. The Cevennes Mountains furnished a con-
venient hiding place for those who could not escape to a
greater distance. Persecution followed them thither.
Many ministers who were risking life to instruct and
comfort their poor bleeding and mangled flocks were
taken and executed. Instead of awing into silence the
64 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
humble peasants of Languedoc to whom these pastors
had ministered, these executions hfted their reHgious
zeal to the loftiest enthusiasm ; desperation took on the
form of fanaticism ; and gray beards and children began
to play the role of prophets. The contagion of fanat-
icism spread, and meetings were held in defiance of dan-
ger and death to hear what the inspired children had to
say. Efforts at repression began. One of the worst
enemies of the Protestants was Abbe du Chayla who had
undertaken a mission of suppression at the head of the
Capuchins. When his house was crowded with con-
demned Protestants, the peasants, inflamed with pro-
phetic hopes surrounded the house, and demanded the
release of the prisoners. Their demand being refused,
the doors were forced, the prisoners released, and the
priests, including the Abbe du Chayla, who were in
charge of them were put to death.
War with the Camisards. — This serious uprising oc-
curred in a region that had been converted to Catholi-
cism in a wholesale manner by the terrible dragonnades.
The testimony of an able captain who was sent there to
repress it, is to the effect that there were not in that
whole district forty real converts. " I include in that
number females as well as males, and the mothers and
daughters would give the more striking proofs of their
fury if they had the strength of the men. I will say but
one word more, which is that the children who were in
their cradles at the time of the general conversions, as
well as those who were four or five years old, are now
more Huguenot than their fathers. Nobody, however,
has set eyes on any minister ; how then comes it that
they are so Huguenot? Because the fathers and
mothers brought them up in those sentiments all the
FRANCE 65
time they were going to mass. You may rely upon it
that this will continue for many generations." So it has
and the end is not yet.
The revolt grew more and more serious until the
Cevennes were proclaimed outlaws and the Pope decreed
a crusade against them. Now the king began in earnest
to attempt the suppression of the Camisards, as they were
called, presumably from a white blouse which they wore.
At the head of the Camisards appeared a remarkable
youth of eighteen years of age. His name was John
Cavalier and he caused it to be embalmed with honor in
the pages of history. Against him and his untrained
band of peasants were sent the veteran soldiers of the
kingdom led by generals who had won glory on the bat-
tlefields of Europe. For three years he maintained the
unequal conflict, displaying a remarkable genius for war,
and a spirit that quelled before no difficulties or dan-
gers. His career, however, was only made possible by
the rare quality of the people whom he led. Marshal
Villars who was intrusted with the military operations
against them, wrote that they were stark mad on the
subject of religion. " The first little boy, or little girl
that falls a-trembhng, and declares that the Holy Spirit
is speaking to it, all the people believe it, and if God
with all his angels were to come and speak to them they
would not believe it more ; people, moreover, on whom
the penalty of death makes not the least impression ; in
battle they thank those who inflict it on them ; they walk
to execution singing the praises of God and exhorting those
present insomuch that it has often been necessary to sur-
round the criminals with drums to prevent the pernicious
effect of their speeches." It was no slight undertaking
to subdue such a people. But by and by their resources
66 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
were exhausted. Marshal Villars had chivalry enough in
his bosom to admire the noble spirit of the young leader,
and granted him favorable terms. A remnant refused to
surrender, and for some years longer continued a kind of
guerrilla warfare in parts of the Cevennes.
A New Leader and a Great Revival. — It looked for a
time as if the king had at length accomplished the task
of exterminating heresy, and only a few years after the
close of the Camisard Wars, he issued a proclamation
saying that his kingdom was free from Protestantism.
This was in 17 15, the last year of his reign; but instead
of marking the end of Protestantism, it marked the begin-
ning of its most remarkable revival. Louis XIV closed
his eyes for the last time on all the scenes of his earthly
glory on the 1st of September, 171 5. Just ten days be-
fore that, August 2 1st, there met under the leadership of
Antoine Court a few representatives, pastors and laymen,
of the fragments of the Reformed Church that still sur-
vived in the Cevennes. They met at sunrise near Nimes,
and proceeded to organize " The Church of the Desert."
They revived congregational organizations wherever a
handful of faithful ones could be found. The few
preachers divided up the territory, and visited, instructed
and comforted the feeble and scattered flocks as best
they could. In a few years, working quietly, persistently,
and in the midst of constant perils, they demonstrated
on a considerable scale the mistake of the Grand Mon-
arch. So far was heresy from being exterminated that
it could muster under cover of darkness assemblies num-
bering three thousand. In Languedoc there were one
hundred and twenty parishes, and in this province and
Dauphine the evangelicals numbered about two hundred
thousand. The policy of persecution was kept up by
FRANCE 67
the successors of Louis. Meetings of the Protestants
were surprised, and the men were sent to the galleys,
and the women to prison. Houses and villages were
razed to the ground, and the pastors if apprehended
were put to death. But the Church of the Desert con-
tinued to grow. Antoine Court, who ranks among the
great heroes of Huguenot history was constrained to
spend a good part of his life in exile. He founded a
school at Lausanne in Switzerland, where he never ceased
to labor for his beloved Church by training and sending
to her a much-needed ministry. By the year 1763, the
Church had sixty-two preachers and its growth had been
such as to force on the rulers of France the conviction
that perhaps after all the policy of persecution was a
failure, and had therefore better be abandoned.
Toleration Granted.— Voltaire indirectly did the
Protestants a great service. Jean Calas, a Protestant
noble, had been prosecuted, tortured and finally executed
on the preposterous charge of having strangled his eldest
son. The only ground for the accusation was that this
son wished to go over to the Catholic Church. Voltaire
met the widow of Calas a few years afterwards, and be-
coming interested in her sorrow secured a revision of the
trial. Fifty judges after careful investigation pronounced
the father entirely innocent. Using this outrage on
justice as a text Voltaire aroused a storm of indignation
against the corrupt and persecuting clergy. It was a
good text, and he made such effective use of it that the
whole of France was soon informed of the iniquity.
This was in the year 1762. It was twenty-five years
later that Lafayette, who had become inspired with the
spirit of liberty while helping the Americans to gain
their independence, began to move for the legal recogni-
68 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
tion of the right of reHgious dissent and his efforts re-
sulted in a formal edict of toleration. This point was
reached however against the earnest protest of the
Catholic clergy. In 1789, they presented a report in
which they say, speaking of the Protestants, " This
sect, which in the midst of its ruins preserves the spirit
of audacity and independence which it has shown from
the beginning, wishes to arrogate for falsehood the rights
which belong only to truth. It presumes to demand a
civil and religious existence ; hence the necessity of
vigorously resisting aU its efforts." Truly it was a
strange audacity on the part of the Protestants that they
should demand the privilege of existence ! Despite the
exhortations of their enemies that this privilege should
be denied them, they were permitted to live. This was
about the extent of the state's concession, but this was
immeasurably better than the dragonnades, the galleys
and the fire.
The French Revolution. — The year 1789 is one never
to be forgotten. The gorgeous extravagance of Louis
XIV, the wasteful prodigality of his feeble successors,
and the rapacity of a luxurious and profligate priesthood
had brought the nation to the verge of ruin. The
public coffers were empty, and the government was at
the end of its resources. One third of the landed
property was owned by the Church and this was largely
exempt from taxation. The oppressed people had
carried the double burden of state and Church until they
could carry it no further. The thrift and energy of the
Huguenots would have stood the nation in good stead at
this critical time. Rather we may say this critical time
would never have come had not this substantial element
of the population been driven out. Their moral stamina
FRANCE 69
was needed even more than their financial help. Had
the Reformed Church been permitted a normal develop-
ment not only would she have furnished in her own
membership a powerful conservative force to withstand
the evil influences that brought such sorrow and disaster
during the period of revolution, but her great rival, the
Papal Church would have kept herself from such a
career of shame.
Calling of the States-general. — In the nation's dire
extremity, the king summoned the States-general, i. e.,
an assembly composed of representatives of all the estates
of the realm, the nobles, the clergy, and the common
people. Such a thing had not been done for one hun-
dred and seventy-five years. So long as king, and clergy
and nobles could indulge themselves in the wildest excess
of luxury, they did not concern themselves about the
under crust. The delegates of the third estate, as the
commons were called, outnumbered the representatives
from both the other orders. To prevent their exercising
an absolute authority, the nobles and clergy proposed
that each estate should vote separately and that no
measure should carry without receiving the votes of two
estates. They hoped by combining to control the
assembly. But the third estate demanded that the
assembly should vote as individuals, and the majority
carry the day. They succeeded after a protracted struggle
in enforcing their demand. This put them in complete
control. The third estate, which began by being noth-
ing, ended by being everything. They had some able
and fearless leaders. One of these, Talleyrand Perigord,
came over to them from the ranks of the clergy. It was
on his motion that the States-general, after discussing
various methods for raising money, finally decided to
70 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
confiscate the property of the Church. By this act they
put ^^40,000,000 of annual income into the treasury of the
state. The clergy opposed, as a matter of course, but
their opposings availed naught. The assembly proceeded
to divide the Church up into dioceses and parishes,
decreed that the people had a right to call their own
bishops and pastors, and set aside a modest salary for
them out of the revenues of the confiscated property.
The state had served the Church long enough ; now the
Church must serve the state. The clergy were required
to take an oath to the new constitution. The Pope
forbade their doing this. Many refused and left the
country.
The Reign of Terror. — The sentiments of justice and
humanity which seem to have animated the States-
general in the early part of its movements gave place, by
and by, to impracticable theories of government. The
people, so long oppressed and their rights utterly ignored,
finding themselves complete masters were intoxicated
with the idea of power. They apparently taxed their
wits for new and novel ways to exercise it. In Sep-
tember, 1792, they declared France a Republic. In
January of the next year they beheaded the king, and
inaugurated the " Reign of Terror." Christianity was
abolished. The calendar was changed, and the birthday
of the Republic, September 23d, 1792, selected to mark
the beginning of a new era. The Sabbath was abrogated
and for a week of seven days, they substituted a week of
ten days. They parceled thirty days to the month, and
the five supernumerary days were set apart as holidays.
For eighteen months not a church in France opened its
doors to worshipers. In Notre Dame, Paris, the God-
dess of Reason was enthroned in the person of a profligate
FRANCE 71
woman, dressed in the classic costume of ancient Greece.
France reveled in Atheism and blood, and gave the
world proof that only a little while would be required for
unrestrained wickedness to make a hell of earth. In
1795 the land began to awake from its horrible night-
mare, and the churches were opened again. From this
date the Huguenot Church, having survived two centuries
of strenuous endeavor to exterminate it, has enjoyed free-
dom of worship.
Since the Revolution. — During the rule of Napoleon,
the Reformed Church, hke every other institution felt
the weight of his iron hand. He tampered with its gov-
ernment, and shaped it to suit his pecuHar notions. His
special concern was to see that its national unity was
completely broken up. It has had no unity since his
day. In 1848, the scattered communities came together,
and tried to find a common basis and a common bond.
Divergent views had grown up, and the confession
framed in 1559 would no longer serve to bind them
together. Discussion led to alienation. A formal seces-
sion took place under the lead of Frederick Monod.
Those who left the old Church formed themselves into an
organization known as the Union of the Free Evangelical
Churches of France. They inherit the pure evangelical
faith of the fathers. At present they number only 3,665
communicants. The party that adhered to the historic
pohty represents the continuity of the Huguenot Church.
There is reason to regret the laxity of doctrine that pre-
vails among them, but He who was with them in the
furnace, and brought them out despite its terrible heat,
must have a grand mission for them. They number
800,000 adherents, a mighty host when it is con-
sidered of what temper they are.
CHAPTER IV
THE NETHERLANDS
This name designates a strip of flat land in the north-
west of Europe. Centuries ago it was one vast quagmire
where the Rhine and the Meuse had been emptying their
sHme for untold ages. Part of it was submerged by the
ocean at high tide, and all of it was subject to the fre-
quent overflow of these rivers. Here and there, how-
ever, were islands, slightly elevated above the yielding
ooze, on which dwelt numerous tribes of hardy and
savage people. When the light of Christian civilization
penetrated their darkened minds, and they came to feel
the need of a change in their mode of hving, they began
the arduous work of redeeming their land from marsh by
an extensive system of drainage, and of protecting it
from the overflow of the ocean by a bulwark of sand-
banks. These latter are called dikes, and were first built
at a cost of ^15,000,000, and are kept in repair at an
annual outlay of ;^2,ooo,ooo. The land thus reclaimed
from rivers and ocean at such expense has proved,
nevertheless, a good investment. At an early day its
luxuriant meadows and ample harvests were capable of
sustaining a numerous population, and in the beginning
of the sixteenth century the Netherlanders were, perhaps,
the most prosperous people of Europe. They had built
up 350 flourishing cities, fed by their own agriculture, and
fostered and enriched by a commerce extending to all
parts of the world. Some of these cities were very large
72
THE NETHERLANDS 73
for that age, Antwerp, with its 100,000 inhabitants,
being no mean rival of London. The people were
noted not alone for thrift and wealth, but also for their
intelligence and their spirit of independence. They
enjoyed an unusual measure of local self-government,
their cities having secured charters which granted
them the privilege of managing their own affairs
in their own way. Learning was much more generally
diffused than in most countries of Christendom. While
the useful accomplishments of reading and writing were
elsewhere confined, as a rule, to those of noble birth, and
elegant leisure, they were here possessed by the artisan
at his loom, the husbandman at his plow, and the fisher-
man in his boat. If " ignorance is the mother of de-
votion," it is only when devotion means bhnd sub-
mission to priestcraft, and bondage to absurd super-
stition. Intelligence is the best preparation for receiving
the reasonable doctrines preached by Christ and his
apostles. Hence the revolt in the Netherlands against
Rome began early and rapidly developed into irresistible
dimensions.
Union of Church and State. — In the Netherlands as
elsewhere, rehgious and political questions were inextri-
cably interwoven. For centuries Church and state,
throughout all Christendom, had been bound together
by innumerable legal bonds. It was supposed to be the
supreme duty of the civil power to render effective the
decrees of ecclesiastical courts, and especially to repress
all revolt against ecclesiastical dogmas. It belonged to
the Church to define orthodoxy, and to the state to de-
fend it. To depart from the prescribed faith was to
come into collision with both powers. Freedom from
the papacy could be secured only by breaking every tie
74 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
of allegiance to the powers controlled by the Pope. For
this reason the history of the Reformation in the Nether-
lands is the history of a struggle, not only against spiritual
despotism, but also against political tyranny. Further-
more, it is the history of one of the most heroic struggles
that has ever been waged by any people. The courage,
the patient endurance, and the invincible persistence dis-
played by the Netherlanders, during a war that stretched
its bloody horrors through forty long years can hardly be
paralleled in all the annals of the past. The thrilling
story, as told in Motley's graphic pages, stirs the blood to
fever heat, and awakens a fervent gratitude toward that
noble people who taught their own and after ages how to
prize the inalienable rights of man. It looked at times
as if they might be exterminated ; it never looked at any
time as if they might be subjugated. They knew how
to suffer the worst that war could bring, how to meet
death in any form, on the battlefield, at the stake, or by
starvation in the straitness of the siege, but they did not
know, and would not learn how to confess defeat. With
meager resources in money and men, with little military
discipline, and no experienced captains, save their one
great leader, they baffled all the assaults of the greatest
power among the nations, exhausted its expedients and
finally won absolute independence.
Charles V. — The movement for reform began in the
Netherlands at a time of all others the least auspicious.
The country was held as a part of the hereditary posses-
sions of Charles V. Since the days of Charlemagne, no
monarch had ruled so vast an empire as that over which
Charles held sway. By right of birth, he was King of
Spain, Naples, Sicily and Jerusalem, Duke of Milan, and
Count of the Netherlands ; by right of election, Em-
THE NETHERLANDS 75
peror of Germany and by the gift of the Pope to his
grandfather, Dominator of the New World extending as
far westward as men had yet dared to travel. He was
fully imbued with the idea common to his age that
kings rule by divine right and that the only divine right
belonging to subjects is the right of obedience. It was
his prerogative to rule the souls as well as the bodies of
men. Being himself an intense Roman Catholic, he
reckoned that all his subjects were under obligation to be
Catholics. If they would not voluntarily think as he
thought on the subject of religion they must be made to
think that way. His very earnest purpose was to have no
freedom of rehgious thought in all his vast dominions.
He deemed it a matter amply worth going to war about.
Indeed he thought that there was no way in which the
blood and treasure of his kingdom could be so well ex-
pended, even to the last drop and the last dollar, if need
be, as in suppressing dissent from the Catholic faith.
How unfortunate for the Netherlands, this little corner of
his empire, that it should wish a somewhat larger latitude
of belief just when the power, to which it owed alle-
giance, was in such strong hands.
Beginning of Hostility.— Charles had shown already
by his efforts to crush the Reformation in Germany, what
his attitude would be toward a similar movement in the
Low Countries. He was less hindered here than in
Germany where his sway was embarrassed by the power-
ful princes and nobles who ruled under him, and who
had some hereditary rights which he could not altogether
ignore. By so much as his will was thwarted in Ger-
many, by so much was he the more determined to have
his way where he supposed his will was supreme. He
had the ban against Luther, passed by the Diet of Worms
76 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
in 1 52 1, published in the Netherlands, and along with it
an edict for the suppression of any outcropping of Lu-
theranism in that country. He was none too early, for
already the contagion of the new faith had begun to
show itself. It had been brought in by Swiss and Ger-
man soldiers who had been employed by Charles in his
military operations, and also by foreign merchants, who
along with other commodities brought this in and offered
it without money and without price.
The First Victims. — On the first of July, 1523, two
Augustinian monks, having shown that they were hope-
lessly enthralled by the evangelical doctrines which were
being preached at Wittenberg by their fellow Augustin-
ian, were tied to stakes and burnt at Brussels. By con-
senting to be thus tied and burned Henry Voes and John
Esch purchased the right to have their names transmitted
to the remotest posterity. This kindling of martyr fires
served notice on the Netherlanders that their royal master
was terribly in earnest, and that no delicate sensibilities
would prevent his discharging to the fullest the sacred
duty which he owed to the Church.
Rule by Regents. — Charles' dominions were too vast
for him to give his personal attention to every part of
them. He was bound to leave largely to others the exe-
cution of his will. In the Netherlands he intrusted to
his aunt, Margaret of Savoy, the pleasant task of carry-
ing into effect his pious and sanguinary " placards," as
they were called, against heretics. It seems not to have
afforded his aunt a great deal of pleasure to burn the
troublesome Calvinists, and consequently she did not dis-
charge her duty very efficiently. On her death, Charles
with that tender regard for his family which ever char-
acterized him, appointed his sister Maria, the widowed
THE NETHERLANDS 77
queen of Hungary, to succeed her. The burning of Hve
human flesh on account of errors in religion proved not
to be to her taste, and so she was less faithful than her
aunt had been. As a result of this leniency, the out-
lawed opinions, pressing over the borders both from
Germany on the north, and from France on the south,
spread at a rapid rate. It was soon discovered that these
opinions, coming from opposite directions, were not ex-
actly the same. They differed especially and widely on
the subject of the sacraments. When the difference was
clearly defined, the Dutch people showed a decided pref-
erence for the views of Calvin. Hence Calvinism instead
of Lutheranism was the type of the Reformed faith
that had to fight for existence against the destructive
efforts of Charles. It was peculiarly fortunate that it had
an opportunity to travel far and take deep root before
encountering the awful stress of conflict which came on
later. Let it not be supposed, however, that " leniency "
means that the regents permitted the fires of persecution
to die out entirely. So far from it, they furnished ample
opportunity for martyrdoms. In the meanwhile the
Anabaptists, a name covering a great variety of charac-
ters, from true and noble Christians down to disreputable
and disorderly fanatics, offered occasion by their excesses
for Charles to issue from time to time fresh placards of
growing severity. In a blood-curdling one which he
published in 1550, he made significant reference to " In-
quisitors of the Faith." This greatly alarmed the people
as they saw in it a prospect that the famous Inquisition
which had recently done such splendid work in Spain for
the maintenance of good order in Church and state
might be introduced for the same purpose into the Neth-
78 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
eriands. Merchants prepared to emigrate, trade and
commerce received a violent shock.
The reign of Charles, however, was drawing near its
end. The number of martyrs for whose death he was
responsible has been variously estimated, ranging from
thirty to one hundred thousand. Taking even the lowest
figure, thirty thousand, it might be supposed that the
Netherlanders had no tears to shed over the termination
of his reign, and yet they did shed tears in great abun-
dance.
Resignation of Charles V. — This greatest ruler of his
age was a great glutton, and grossly sensual in other re-
spects. He paid the penalty by suffering from the gout,
and by premature old age. In 1555, the burdens of em-
pire had become too heavy for his racked and wrecked
body, and although only fifty-five years and eight months
old, he transferred the scepter to his son Philip II, in or-
der that he might devote the remainder of his life to re-
ligious retirement in a monastery. Much he needed the
retirement, but unfortunately he carried with him his old
habits, and consequently kept his old maladies. Nor did
he withdraw his mind from the great, busy, sinful world.
His hatred of heretics grew more intense, and he did his
soul a gratuitous injury by regretting that he had not
broken faith with Luther at the Diet of Worms and put
to death the man who had given the world so much
trouble. So far was he from repenting, as he should have
done, of the oppressions and cruelties inflicted on the
patient and loyal Netherlanders, that he rather repented
of having shown so little zeal in the extermination of
heretics.
Philip II. — Impartial history has about as little to com-
mend in this monarch as in any whose name she has pre-
THE NETHERLANDS 79
served for us. The worst enemy of his father could find
something in him to admire. He was a great soldier,
hardy and brave. He was broad of shoulder, strong of
limb and able to hold his own in tourney with the stur-
diest knights of his time. But Philip's best friend can find
nothing in him to admire, either in mind or body. His
mind was only broad enough for a few inherited ideas ;
and his body was frail and diminutive, incapable of manly
sports, or of warlike achievements. His appearance was
unattractive, his spirit selfish, and his nature cold and
cruel. He was united to Mary Tudor, queen of Eng-
land, on the 25th of July, 1554, "and if congeniality of
tastes," says Motley, •* could have made a marriage happy,
that union should have been thrice blessed. To main-
tain the supremacy of the Church seemed to both the
main object of existence, to execute unbelievers the most
sacred duty imposed by the Deity upon anointed prin-
ces, to convert their kingdoms into a hell the surest
means of winning heaven for themselves."
Beginnings of the New Reign.— We may easily believe
that to the bigoted and atrabilious Philip, the task left
incompleted by his father was congenial. It furnished
him a fine field for the cultivation and exploitation of his
piety. Sure it is that he took up the work in the Neth-
erlands with great zeal, and he found plenty to do. De-
spite the burnings and hangings and buryings alive, there
was a large crop of heretics left, and they were still mul-
tiplying rapidly. In the language of a Catholic writer :
" Nor did the Rhine from Germany, or the Meuse from
France send more water into the Low Countries, than by
the one the contagion of Luther, and by the other that
of Calvin were imported into the same Belgic provinces."
Philip, in order to tighten the grip of the Church, not on
8o HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
the hearts, but on the necks of the people, increased the
number of bishops. Hitherto four had been deemed suf-
ficient to administer the affairs of the seventeen provinces.
He added ten to this number, making the total fourteen.
His aunt having resigned the regency on the abdication
of her brother, the emperor, Philip appointed in her place
his half sister, Margaret, Duchess of Parma, and gave her
for principal counselor the most astute of the Spanish
bishops, Cardinal Granvella. These measures were all
offensive to the Netherlanders. Increasing the number
of bishops decreased the power of the secular princes, for
the reason that the bishops had seats in the civil council.
The appointment of Margaret was a slight put upon the
native nobles ; and the exaltation of Cardinal Granvella
was a notification that strenuous efforts would be made to
bring the Netherlands as completely under the domina-
tion of the papacy as the Pope himself could wish. He
was a man of affairs, and of great ability, but his supreme
qualification for the position assigned him was his devo-
tion to his master's poHcy, and complete sympathy with
his master's intolerant spirit.
Republishing the Edict of 1550. — Philip began his ad-
ministration by republishing the placard of 1550. He
was at pains to have it understood that he was merely
carrying out the policy of his father. He was not intro-
ducing an innovation, but following in the footsteps of
one whose clemency had made him popular with his
Dutch subjects. It may be well to look at this placard
by way of getting a clear idea of Charles' clemency.
Translated by an eminent authority, it reads as follows :
" No one shall print, write, copy, keep, conceal, sell, buy
or give in churches, streets, or other places any book or
writing made by Martin Luther, John CEcolampadius,
THE NETHERLANDS 8i
Ulrich Zvvingli, Martin Bucer, John Calvin, or other
heretics reprobated by the Holy Church ; nor break or
otherwise injure the images of the holy virgin or canon-
ized saints ; nor in his house, hold conventicles, or illegal
gatherings, or be present at any such in which the ad-
herents of the above-mentioned heretics teach, baptize,
and form conspiracies against the Holy Church and the
general welfare. Moreover, we forbid all lay persons to
converse or dispute concerning the holy Scriptures, openly
or secretly, especially on any doubtful or difficult matters,
or to read, teach, or expound the Scriptures, unless they
have duly studied theology and been approved by some
renowned university ; or to preach secretly or openly, or
to entertain any of the opinions of the above-mentioned
heretics ; on pain should any one be found to have con-
travened any of the points above mentioned as perturba-
tors of our state and of the general quiet, to be punished
in the following manner, viz., — the men with the sword,
and the women to be buried alive, if they do not persist
in their errors ; if they do persist in them then they are
to be executed with fire ; all their property in both cases
being confiscated to the crown." The clemency of this
edict consists in the merciful consideration shown to the
penitent heretic. If a man, he was gently dispatched by
the sword ; if a woman, she was tenderly buried alive ;
and thus they both escaped the cruel agony of the flames.
It can hardly be supposed that with this inducement
held out to them any heretics died unrepentant.
Philip II Returns to Spain. — After organizing his gov-
ernment, and getting everything in running order, Philip
left the Netherlands and never came again to see his be-
loved subjects, over whose religious interests he watched
with such kindly concern. On his return to his native
82 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
country of Spain, his loving people prepared him a re-
ception to his taste. It was an auto daf'c, a kind of re-
ligious festival in which thirteen heretics, clothed in yel-
low gowns, decorated with red devils, were burnt with
much ceremony. As one of the victims, a young man
of noble birth, and distinguished ability, passed the king
on his way to the stake, he asked, " How can you look on
and permit me to be burnt?" To which Philip replied,
" I would carry the wood to burn my own son, were
he as wicked as you." Perhaps the Netherlanders acted
wisely to shed tears over the abdication of Charles V.
Persecution Must be Pressed. — Philip gave stringent
orders that the famous placard of 1550 should be faith-
fully executed. He said that he would rather suffer a
hundred thousand deaths than to suffer the slightest devi-
ation from the standards of the Catholic Church. His
sister Margaret was not a bad choice to superintend and
hasten the business in hand. The fact that she was Phil-
ip's sister furnished a strong guarantee of special quali-
fications for such work. In addition to possessing hered-
itary gifts for the exercise of tyranny, she had enjoyed
the benefit of having no less a personage than Ignatius
de Loyola, founder of the Jesuit order, for her father con-
fessor and spiritual guide. Under such tuition she had
well learned the lesson that there was no crime equal to
heresy and no work so meritorious as burning heretics.
Discontent Growing. — It might have been foreseen
that heretics would be so unreasonable as to seriously
object to being burnt, or even to being executed by the
mild method of the sword, or by the yet gentler process
of being buried alive. But they were not the only ones
to object to the arbitrary proceedings of the king.
Without regard to religious differences, the people looked
THE NETHERLANDS 83
with disfavor on the assumption that a man of foreign
birth, of foreign language, of foreign customs and manner
of hfe had a right to set up his lone will as the supreme
law over their lives and property. They had known too
much in the past of local self-government to relish this
assumption. Moreover, they did not like the Spaniards
any too well. Especially they did not like to have
Spanish troops quartered on them, and had earnestly en-
treated Philip to send them back to Spain. His reluc-
tance to do this awakened a suspicion that he meant to
use them for the purpose of making his power absolute.
A Protest by the Nobles. — After a few thousand here-
tics had been put to death, and a few other thousands
had been driven into exile, the discontent shaped itself
into a protest. The nobles, to the number of five hun-
dred, banded together and laid before the regent a peti-
tion, praying for a redress of grievances. The duchess
displayed considerable agitation ; whereupon one of her
counselors exclaimed : •' Madam, are you afraid of a pack
of beggars ? " When this speech was reported to the
authors of the petition, they adopted the name, " Beg-
gars," and wore it as a badge of patriotism. At a ban-
quet, one of the nobles proposed as a toast the sentiment,
" Long live the Beggars ! " Each guest drained his
goblet, amid shouts of " Vivent les gueulx:' And thus
" for the first time from the lips of these reckless nobles
rose the famous cry, which was so often to ring over
land and sea, amid blazing cities, on Wood-stained decks,
through the smoke and carnage of many a stricken field."
Notwithstanding the insulting sarcasm of the haughty
counselor, the petition bore fruit. The government
abated the severity of its violence against heretics — it
substituted hanging for burning. The decree, embody-
84 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
iiig this merciful concession, was called The Moder-
ation. The ungrateful wretches, in whose behalf it was
issued, renamed it " The Murderation." The government
was disposed to be accommodating, but it seemed that it
could devise no way of destroying heretics, to which ob-
jection would not be taken.
Events of the Year 1566. — The petition, to which
reference has just been made, belonged to this year.
One month after this significant event, the Calvinists of
the southern provinces met in convention at Antwerp.
They met in secret but in considerable numbers, their
object was to lay the foundation of Church organization.
The Reformed faith had gained such a footing that it
seemed necessary to take steps to bind its scattered ad-
herents into a united brotherhood. Progress toward this
end was made by this convention. Also this meeting
together stimulated the courage of the Reformers, which
had already been kindled afresh by the stand of the
nobles in their petition to the regent. Many preachers
came forth from their hiding places and began to pro-
claim their message openly and without reserve. Sud-
denly field-preaching developed into a great popular
movement. It is estimated that sometimes as many as
20,000 gathered at one place to hear the new doctrines
expounded. It mattered not that both preacher and
hearers were incurring the death penalty, they preached
and heard with growing enthusiasm. At length the feel-
ings evoked by these meetings could no longer be re-
pressed. They had become so ardent that they must
have an outlet. Arming themselves with sticks and
clubs, the people started on a crusade, not against fiesh
and blood, however. They entered churches, smashed
the windows, and demolished the countless images that
THE NETHERLANDS 85
had become the chief objects of worship. They were
utterly merciless. They even entered the beautiful Ca-
thedral of Antwerp, and made a hideous wreck of its vast
collection of fine art ; the statuary was broken, the pic-
tures torn from the walls, the gorgeous windows dashed
to pieces, crucifixes and altars, shattered to atoms. They
have been much reproached for all this vandalism. They
no doubt did show a lack of taste, and may have been
wanting in aesthetic culture. Some, however, who think
that human life is more sacred than chiseled marble, and
painted canvas, are disposed to compliment their moder-
ation in that they were content to wage a warfare against
the creations of artistic genius in retaliation for the blood
of kindred which had been so freely shed by the image-
worshipers.
Serious Consequences. — Whatever may be said in
justification or palliation of this outburst of iconoclasm,
nothing can be said in its defense on the ground of ex-
pediency. It was an outrage on religious sentiment,
false and foolish no doubt the sentiment was, but the
outrage awakened a resentment as fierce as the assault
was violent. Many Catholics who were in sympathy
with the growing opposition to Philip and his Spaniards
were repelled by what seemed to them nothing less than
sacrilegious vandaHsm. Philip, of course, was angry be-
yond measure when news of the affair reached him. In
fact he was never able to see why the people received
with such poor grace his pious efforts to save them from
perdition by the vigorous use of the halter and the torch.
This audacious resistance to his divinely-delegated au-
thority must be dealt with promptly and properly. To
this end he sent the Duke of Alva with a choice army of
10,000 veteran troops. The duke was in Italy at the
86 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
time, and as his route to the Netherlands carried him
near Geneva, Pope Pius V proposed to him to turn aside
and destroy that *• nest of devils and apostates." Fortu-
nately for our great Calvin and his colaborers, who were
designated by these complimentary titles, the duke could
not be diverted from his course. When he reached the
Low Countries, the gentle Margaret was removed, and
the whole management of affairs was put into the hands
of the hardy soldier. He at once organized a Council of
Disturbances, the object of which was to bring to speedy
justice the leaders of the recent uprising. It would seem
that the leaders must have been very numerous, for this
council had, at the end of three months, put to death
1, 800 persons. Those who witnessed the efficiency of
this machinery for administering justice renamed it •* The
Council of Blood." But the methods of the council were
still too slow to satisfy the zeal of the king, and so an
edict was issued condemning all the Netherlanders to
death, with a few specified exceptions. It seemed much
simpler to pick out the few who deserved to live than to
prosecute and convict the many who deserved to die.
William of Orange. — Even the king's readiness to
promote the spiritual welfare of his subjects by hanging
them all failed to secure their approbation. And being
unwilling to testify their loyalty by quietly submitting to
strangulation, their only alternative was to fight. The
Lord had provided a man for the occasion. The name
of ** William the Silent," Prince of Orange, is a name
that will live in history side by side with that of Wash-
ington and a few other choice spirits, whose greatness is
glorified by goodness. William was born of Lutheran
parents, but reared a Catholic in the court of Charles V.
He was a great favorite with the emperor, who kept him
THE NETHERLANDS 87
ever near him, and leaned on his shoulder to support his
own crippled body during the imposing solemnities ac-
companying the abdication. Philip U continued to
honor the favorite of his father, and employed him in re-
sponsible positions. For one thing he gave him as a
hostage to Henry H, of France, as a pledge of good faith
in the Treaty of Ceteau-Cambresis. It was at this time
that William earned the title by which he will ever be
known. Henry H, taking it for granted that his hostage
was a good Catholic and in the secrets of his master,
talked to him freely about the plot which the two kings
of France and Spain had formed to massacre all their
Protestant subjects. VVilHam maintained a discreet si-
lence, not betraying by the slightest quiver of a muscle
of the face, or twitch of the eye the fact that Henry had
made a great blunder in telling him a piece of news that
filled his soul with horror, and gave a new bent to the
course of his life.
Beginning of the Great Struggle.— The Duke of
Alva, with his Council of Blood, had been especially
active in bringing to justice the rich nobles who had
taken any hand in presenting the petition of the " Beggars"
to the regent, or who had failed to take any hand in
suppressing the field-preaching and preventing the image-
smashing. As the property of those who were convicted
was confiscated, the duke by destroying the rich was
killing two birds with one stone, putting traitors out of
the way, and putting money into the king's coffers.
While William of Orange had behaved with the greatest
prudence, he knew that he was too rich to be safe, and
so he withdrew into Germany. When it became evident
that the crushing of heresy, meant the crushing out of
all liberty, political and religious, in the Netherlands, he
88 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
determined to stake all on an effort to deliver his be-
loved country from such a fate. He raised a considera-
ble force in Germany, marched across the border and
joined issue with the duke. This was in the year 1568,
and marks the beginning of a struggle that lasted forty
years, a struggle in which both sides exhibited desperate
courage, and in which the people of the Low Countries,
on whose soil it was waged, endured all the horrors that
war in its most cruel form could inflict. The struggle
ended in the triumph of the invincible " Beggars," and
the establishment of the Dutch Republic. It was twice
forty years, however, before Spain confessed her defeat
by acknowledging the independence of the provinces.
Change in the Regency. — In this famous struggle,
William of Orange met successively the ablest generals
that Spain could send against him, and they were among
the ablest of that warlike age. After the Duke of Alva
had put to death, according to his own count, 18,000
heretics and after he had almost destroyed trade and
commerce by a destructive system of taxation, and after
he had heaped upon his head the undying hatred of all
the people by six years of brutal tyranny, he took his
permanent leave of the country, with his task unaccom-
plished. He was succeeded by Requesens, a man of
equal military genius, but of a much more conciliatory
temper. This made him more dangerous to the cause of
liberty, for the reason that by a show of kindness he
might beguile the distressed people into a disastrous
sense of security.
Siege and Relief of Leyden. — It was during the re-
gency of Requesens that the crowning incident of the war
occurred — the siege and relief of Leyden. As indicating
the quality of Dutch heroism, we may be permitted to con-
THE NETHERLANDS 89
dense from Motley's account the story of this event. The
city of Leyden was situated in a beautiful plain, in the midst
of orchards and gardens. It was invested in the month
of May, 1574, by an army of 8,000 Spanish troops. It
was poorly provisioned, and by the latter part of June,
the food supply was running short. On the 30th of
July, when the Spanish general knew that their condition
was becoming desperate, he offered them ample pardon
if they would open their gates to him. They treated
the offer with contempt. Soon they were reduced to
the very verge of starvation, and there seemed no pros-
pect of deliverance. William was doing all that he could.
He had cut the dikes, and turned the North Sea on the
land as the only means of bringing relief. As the waters
began to pour in, the Spaniards were filled with alarm.
It appeared as if they were to be besieged in their turn
by the ocean whose power was even mightier, and more
merciless, if possible, than their own. The citizens of
Leyden were exultant. The burgomaster ordered bands
of music to parade the streets, playing lively airs. Salvos
of cannon were fired ; and the starving indulged in festive
joy. But alas ! the waters did not rise high enough to
carry the flotilla of vessels, bearing relief, to the walls of
the city. It stranded five miles away ; and days grew
into weeks while destined help lay in sight, but only near
enough to tantalize their wistful eyes. At length the
faint-hearted were about to yield to despair. They
gathered around the heroic burgomaster, Adrian Van
der Werf, with threats and reproaches. He was a strik-
ing figure, " tall, haggard, with dark visage, and a tran-
quil but commanding eye. He waved his broad-brimmed,
felt hat for silence, and then exclaimed : ' My own fate
is indifferent to me, not so that of the city intrusted to
90 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
my care. I know that we shall starve, unless soon re-
lieved; but starvation is preferable to the dishonored
death which is the only alternative. Your menaces move
me not; my Hfe is at your disposal; here is my sword,
plunge it into my breast and divide my flesh among you.
Take my body to appease your hunger, but expect no
surrender so long as I remain alive.' " These stout words
inspired fresh courage and were greeted with a shout of
applause. Already everything that usually goes for the
food of human beings had been consumed. " Cats and dogs,
rats and other vermin were esteemed a luxury. Starving
wretches swarmed daily around the shambles, where the
few remaining milk cows, kept as long as possible for their
milk, were being killed, contending for any morsel that
might fall, and lapping eagerly the blood as it ran along
the pavement ; while the hides, chopped and boiled were
greedily devoured. Women and children all day long
were seen searching the gutters and dunghills for morsels
of food, which they disputed fiercely with the famishing
dogs. The green leaves were stripped from the trees,
every living herb was converted into human food, but
these could not avert starvation. The daily mortality
Avas frightful; infants starved to death on the maternal
breast, which famine had parched and withered ; mothers
dropped dead in the streets, with their dead children in
their arms." It is certainly not remarkable that people in
such a case should have pleaded with the commandant to
surrender. It is remarkable, however, that after his brave
words they could hurl defiance again in the face of their
taunting foes, crying to them from the top of their ram-
parts : " You call us rat-eaters, and dog-eaters, and it is
true. So long then as you hear a dog bark, or a cat
mew within the walls, you may know that the city holds
THE NETHERLANDS 91
out. And when all has perished but ourselves, be sure
that we will each devour our left arms, retaining our right
arms to defend our women, our liberty and our religion
against the foreign tyrant. Should God in his wrath
doom us to destruction, and deny us all relief, even then
will we maintain ourselves forever against your entrance.
When the last hour has come, with our own hands we will
set fire to the city and perish, men, women and children to-
gether in the flames, rather than suffer our homes to be
polluted, and our liberties to be crushed." It is a com-
fort to know that God did not in his wrath doom them
to destruction, but suddenly turning a strong north wind
on the waters of the ocean, he lifted them into huge bil-
lows, and sent them tumbling over the ruined dikes, and
sweeping up around the stranded vessels. These were
soon raised from the mud, and borne onward to the city,
into the gates of which they entered on the 3d day of
October. The emaciated remnants of the population
were waiting their advent. They recognized the good
hand of God in their deliverance, and went in a body to
the cathedral. There they poured out thanksgiving to
God, at first in song, but soon their feeble voices failed,
and they finished the service with a tribute of grateful
tears.
This was the turning point in the great conflict. Spain
had learned by this time that the task of exterminating
heresy meant nothing less than the extermination of the
great majority of the people ; and while the king's piety
was earnest enough to carry matters to that extent, his
material resources were hardly adequate.
The Spanish Fury.— Shortly after this crowning event
of the struggle, Requesens died, and the Spanish troops,
grown sullen and discontented because of the long arrear-
92 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
age in their pay, mutinied, trampled all restraint under
foot, and gave loose rein to passions more fiendish than
human. The city of Antwerp which had witnessed a
Calvinistic mob wreak its malice on pictures and images,
was now to witness a Catholic army, transformed into a
mob, make a display of itself. The soldiers showed no
respect for anything sacred, nor any regard for anything
living. They entered houses, laid their hands on what-
ever was valuable, slaughtered the inmates, sometimes
meting out worse than death to helpless women. Stores
were looted, churches demolished, and the streets were
running red with the blood of those slain in the very
wantonness of brutality. More lives were destroyed in
Antwerp by the " Spanish Fury," as it was called, than
were destroyed in Paris on St. Bartholomew's fatal day.
Where Calvinists destroyed the worthless images, these
soldiers, trained in the faith of the papacy, fairly reveled
in the butchery of human beings.
The Pacification of Ghent. — The effect of the Spanish
Fury was favorable to the Protestant cause. Previous to
this time the two provinces of Holland and Zealand had
declared their independence and united on William of
Orange for their stadtholder; but there had been no
unity of effort among the other provinces. Now the
other fifteen, alienated from Spain by the savage out-
rages of her uncontrolled soldiers, were ready to make
common cause with the two. Conference led to the
Pacification of Ghent. This was an agreement to stand
together in an effort to drive the Spaniards from the
Netherlands. Protestant and Catholic were at length
united in a well-considered resolve to be rid of foreign
tyranny, and military oppression.
Founding: of the Dutch Republic. — Philip sent Don
THE NETHERLANDS 93
John of Austria, his half brother, to fill the regency,
made vacant by the death of Requesens. He was a re-
nowned soldier, having distinguished himself very greatly
in a war with the Moors. More recently he had added
to his fame by a victory over the Turks in a naval battle
in the Gulf of Lepanto. This was the first serious check
which the Turks had received in their aggressive warfare
on Central Europe. The Pope had tried in vain to stir
the old crusading spirit, and to hurl against the Cresent
the combined powers of Western Christendom. In this
he had failed, and in consequence was trembling for the
fate of his throne. This naval battle, in which Don John
was leading the Christian forces would decide it. He
listened with bated breath for news from Lepanto.
When a messenger came, and announced the result, the
Pope embraced the messenger, exclaiming, " There was a
man sent from God whose name was John." This was
the man whom PhiHp sent to the Netherlands, but it may
be doubted whether the Protestants regarded him as •' a
man sent from God." Under his vigorous leadership,
the war went on with its treacheries, its massacres, its
sieges and its famines. After winning many victories
and proving himself a worthy successor of the bloody
Alva, Don John died in a mood of deep despondency,
not on account of his sins, but because he had lost the
confidence and support of the home government, and
was thwarted in his congenial task of destruction. He
was followed by his nephew, the Duke of Parma, who
surpassed all of his predecessors in military genius, and
who was also an adept in the art of diplomacy. Un-
fortunately the feeling of resentment, the sense of outrage,
awakened by the Spanish Fury, had begun to abate, and
the inhabitants of the southern provinces were willing to
94 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
listen to the voice of the charmer. They were of a dif-
ferent race from their northern neighbors. Their lan-
guage was French, and they were essentially a Celtic
people, having the Celtic characteristics, warm-blooded,
impulsive and mercurial. The inhabitants of the north-
ern provinces were of the sturdy Teutonic stock, noted
since the days of Julius Caesar for its spirit of independ-
ence, and its heroic fortitude. The Duke of Parma, by
his specious speeches, and conciliatory bearing, succeeded
in severing these two dissimilar elements, and in bring-
ing the ten provinces which now constitute the kingdom
of Belgium permanently under the power of the papacy.
The other seven provinces continued to hang together,
and to wage a desperate warfare with the tremendous
odds which Spain marshaled against them. They
suffered many defeats, and won few victories, but by
patient endurance and dogged perseverance they finally
wore out their relentless adversary. In the Treaty of
Utrecht, 1579, their independence was practically con-
ceded, and the foundations of the Dutch Republic were
laid deep and lasting.
Fortunes of the Church. — The foregoing account has
seemed necessary in order to give some idea of the con-
dition of turmoil and bloodshed in which the Reformed
Church of the Netherlands was born, and in which the
years of its infancy were passed. As already noticed
two types of evangelical doctrine flowed into the country
from opposite directions. While Lutheranism was first
on the ground, Calvinism first took definite shape and
soon supplanted its rival. To Guy de Bres, a Walloon
preacher, belongs the honor of preparing for the scattered
congregations a Confession of Faith. He had been
taught by Calvin, and as the faith which he formulated
THE NETHERLANDS 95
had been received from France it was natural that this
Confession should be modeled closely after that of the
French Church. It was prepared as early as 1561, only
two years after the Gallic Confession had been adopted
by the first synod of the Reformed Church of France.
The convention of Antwerp, secretly held in 1566, ap-
proved both the Confession of Guy de Bres, and the
Heidelberg Catechism.
External Synods.— It was the next year after the Ant-
werp convention that the Duke of Alva descended on the
Netherlands and began his furious persecution. Many of
the Protestant leaders fled across the border, and took
refuge in the city of Wesel. Here a synod was held in
1568. This synod in addition to ratifying the two
symbols above mentioned proceeded to erect a super-
structure of Church government. They made provision
for four officers, and defined their duties ; these were
pastors, teachers, ruling elders and deacons. Another
synod met at Emden, which confirmed the action of that
at Wesel, and made certain additions. It required that
ministers should subscribe the standards of doctrine, gave
the name consistory to the congregational court, formed
by pastor, elders and deacons, and provided for classes
which should meet quarterly, or semiannually. Thus
these exiles constructed the whole machinery of the
Church, and only awaited favorable conditions to return
home and put it in operation. Such conditions prevailed
in the provinces of Holland and Zealand as early as
1572, the year in which these provinces declared their
independence.
Synods in the Home Land.— The first synod to as-
semble on native soil met in the city of Dort in I574-
It organized the churches of the two independent prov-
96 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
inces into fourteen classes, and enjoined upon them the
articles adopted at Emden.
The first National Synod was held in the same city of
Dort in 1578. It completed the polity of the Church by
defining four courts of the Church, consistories, classes,
provincial and national synods, the last to meet tri-
ennially.
Relation of Church and State. — The first National
Synod was called without the consent of the civil power,
and it declared that the Church had a right to manage
its own affairs. The Church did not mean to separate
entirely from the state. Its theory was that Church and
state should be copartners, each independent in its own
sphere, but both cooperating in forwarding the same
interests. The Church should lend its counsels and in-
fluence to the state; and the state should give to the
Church the benefit of its strong arm of power in regu-
lating faith and morals. Like the Protestant Church of
P>ance, the Reformed Church of the Netherlands put
into its Confession of Faith its belief that it was the office
of the civil magistrate " to remove and prevent all idolatry
and false worship, that the kingdom of Antichrist may
thus be destroyed, and the kingdom of Christ promoted."
In other words it was the doctrine of the Reformers, as
it was the doctrine of the papacy, that heresy should be
suppressed by the sword. They differed only as to what
constituted heresy. Very naturally those who were not
ardent Calvinists were in no haste to put power in their
hands. They feared that in so doing they would sacri-
fice the religious freedom which they had purchased at
such a dear price. William of Orange wished freedom
of worship for Catholics, and even for the Anabaptists.
From the very beginning of the struggle to cast off
THE NETHERLANDS 97
Spanish tyranny he had expressed the conviction that
faith could not be controlled by violence. He was there-
fore utterly averse to clothing the Church with power
that would enable it to persecute. He wished the state
to have the appointment of ministers and the general ad-
ministration of Church affairs. He was not alone in his
views. The magistrates of Leyden said : " If we accept
everything resolved on by the synods, we shall in the
end become their vassals. We will not open to the
churchmen our gates and our doors for a new mastership
over magistrates and subjects, wife and child." No doubt
the influence of Luther and Zwingli had much to
do in producing this demand of the state for rulership
over the Church. The outcome was the disappointment
of the hopes of the Reformers to have a national Church
possessing complete autonomy. They had to consent to
a separate church for each province, the highest court
being the Provincial Synod. Of course, the churches of
all the provinces were bound together by a close bond
of sympathy inasmuch as they all had the same polity,
the same creed and constitution. But over all, the civil
power exercised a supervisory control.
Devotion to Learning. — Nothing was more character-
istic of the youthful Church in the Netherlands than its
love for learning. Recognizing that they owed to the
light of knowledge their escape from the errors of
Romanism, they were intent on giving this light to the
whole land. Knowing that Protestantism was due to a
revival of the pure doctrines of the gospel, and that its
life depended upon a true theology, they lost no time
and spared no pains in providing for permanent and
thorough instruction. The spirit of the people may be
judged by the choice made by Leyden. The service
98 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
which her heroic people had rendered to the cause of
hberty by sustaining the siege in 1574 until deliverance
could be brought merited the warmest recognition.
William the Silent was prompt to acknowledge this and
to offer a fitting reward. He gave the city the choice of
exemption from certain taxes, and other pecuniary favors,
or the establishment of a university in her midst. The
people, so recently stripped of their property, and re-
duced to the verge of starvation, at once made choice
of the university. Certain funds and buildings were set
apart for the purpose by the prince, and the University
of Leyden was duly inaugurated only four months after
the siege was raised. Eleven years afterwards, and while
the terrible war was still in progress the University of
Franeker was founded. By the middle of the next cen-
tury three other great institutions of learning were estab-
lished, and the Dutch Republic became the schoolmaster
of Reformed Christendom. While all branches of learn-
ing made up the curricula of these schools, they gave
special prominence to theology, and from that day till
this Holland has been famous for her theologians. These
have not always followed the " old paths," but from time
to time, they have made serious departures and precipi-
tated fierce and protracted controversies.
Arminianism. — The first of the great theological battles
was over views propounded by Arminius. He began his
public ministry as pastor of the church of Amsterdam.
He gained reputation for learning and eloquence. It was
Vv^hile pastor of this church, and in an endeavor to meet
certain difficulties raised by his parishioners touching the
doctrine of election that he gave proof of having departed
from the doctrinal standards of the Reformed Church.
This created considerable disturbance, but after a time
THE NETHERLANDS 99
the trouble was adjusted and the excitement died down.
He was transferred from the pastorate to the professor-
ship of theology in the University of Leyden. It soon
developed that he was teaching objectionable views.
Gomarus, a colleague of his in the faculty of the uni-
versity, and who belonged to the " most straitest sect" of
the Calvinists, took up arms against him. The conflict
spread until the whole country was excited over it, and
divided into hostile parties. While the strife was still
raging, and even growing more bitter, Arminius died in
1609. By this time his views had won quite a strong
body of adherents. They presented their views to the
States-general in a paper called a remonstrance, and from
this circumstance they came to be called Remonstrants.
Synod of Dort. — When there seemed no other way of
settling the vexing questions, a synod was called to meet
in the city of Dort on November 13th, 161 8. Reformed
churches of other countries were invited to send delegates.
Several accepted the invitation, and there were delegates
present from England, Germany, Switzerland and the
Southern Netherlands. This was the recognition of a
common faith, and the profession of essential unity among
all these churches. While we may regret the rise of
Arminianism, we can at the same time rejoice that there
was assembled one truly oecumenical council in Protestant
Christendom during the Reformation period. The synod
agreed to make the word of God the sole standard of
judgment and to subject the matters in dispute to that
test. The result was the condemnation of the five dis-
tinctive doctrines of the Arminians, and the affirmation
in their stead of what have since been known as the
" five points of Calvinism." The synod continued in
session for several months, and its decrees were adopted
loo HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
by the Reformed Church of Holland as a part of its
standards, and they so continue to this day. It is inter-
esting to know that the hall in which this famous synod
met is now used as a prison for female offenders.
The Netherlands a Place of Refuge.— While the
doctrine of religious liberty was not clearly apprehended
by the Dutch, the government of that brave little republic
was far more liberal than that of any of its neighbors.
Hence it became a place of blessed retreat for the poor
Huguenots of France, the Puritans of England, and the
Covenanters of Scotland. These refugees were permitted
to organize themselves into churches and provide in their
own way for their own religious needs. In some in-
stances church edifices were freely put at their use.
Then the great universities were at hand, offering their
unparalleled advantages to those who could avail them-
selves of them. It would not be easy to exaggerate the
debt which the persecuted saints of other lands owed to
freedom-loving and freedom-giving Holland. Perhaps
not the least part of this debt was due to theological con-
tributions which the Reformed Church of the Netherlands
made to sister churches beyond her borders. It is hardly
true to the history of doctrine, however, to attribute, as
is too often done, the origin and development of the
federal theology altogether to the able scholars of that
land. It is enough to say that Cocceius gave it a more
complete elaboration than it had before received, and
owing to the very influential relation of Holland to the
churches of England and Scotland, the creedal statemente
of these churches were more or less colored by the Dutch
theology.
The Church of the Netherlands in More Recent
Times. — An eminent authority says that the effect of the
THE NETHERLANDS loi
Synod of Dort was to draw more closely the bond be-
tween Church and state. The synod was called by the
state ; its meetings were supervised by delegates from the
state ; it asked and obtained the approval of the state for
all its proceedings ; and expected the state to enforce its
decisions against the Remonstrants. From this time
forth the Church was in bondage to the state. It derived
its support from the public purse, and took its law largely
from the secular power. While it gave birth to many
great and noble spirits, did much to promote sound learn-
ing, and for a time exhibited a fair measure of zeal in the
maintenance and promotion of a high type of piety, yet
the freshness and buoyancy of its young life felt the dead-
ening effect of this unhappy union.
This condition continued until the French Revolution,
when the Dutch Republic became a part of the Empire
of France. The bond between Church and state was
severed, and for a few years the Church was thrown on
her own resources, and permitted to go her own way.
On the fall of Napoleon, the Netherlands were trans-
formed into a kingdom, with William I. on the throne.
He laid a strong hand on the Church, throwing rigid
restrictions around the administration of its courts, and
decreeing that none of their resolutions should be promul-
gated without his approval.
Rise of Rationalism. — It was only a few years before
rationalism began to creep into pulpits and seminaries.
Those who subscribed the standards took the ground that
they were bound by them only in so far as they were in
accord with the word of God, and the subscribers, of
course, were to be the judges. Earnest protest was made,
but the synod, which was the creature of the king, sus-
tained the position of those who claimed liberty. The
I02 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
men of evangelical views who still adhered to the stand-
ards in their integrity were greatly grieved, but discipline
was not possible. Some took the only course that would
satisfy conscience, — they separated themselves from the
Church, whose testimony had ceased to ring clear for the
truth. The first to break away was Henry de Cock in
1834. He was soon followed by a few others, eminent
for piety and learning.
Formation of the Christian Reformed Church. —
In 1837, those who had separated themselves from the
National Church met together and organized a Church
independent of state control and of state support, and
gave it the name of the Christian Reformed. The king,
who had shown such a disposition to govern with a high
hand expressed his disapproval of this movement in a
very vigorous way by inflicting fines and imprisonments
on the separatists. In consequence of these persecutions
a large number from the Christian Reformed Church left
the Fatherland in 1847 and came to America. It is sad
to have to record that after nearly the whole of Protestant
Christendom had come to look upon persecution for
opinion's sake as a characteristic of a barbarous age, the
practice was revived near the middle of the nineteenth
century, and among a people who had at an earlier
period won an enviable name for their spirit of tolerance.
But, as is usually the case, the persecuted Church flourished,
and soon attained a position of great power.
The sovereigns who succeeded William I. were far more
liberal, and since his day there has been no further state
interference. Still the government of the National
Church developed from bad to worse. Rationalism in-
creased, the synod in 1853 declaring that its ministers
would be required to agree only with " the spirit and
THE NETHERLANDS 103
essence " of the standards. A second secession took
place in 1886 under the leadership of the distinguished
Dr. Kuyper. It has since united with the Christian Re-
formed Church. Before this union two theological semi-
naries had been founded, to secure a succession of edu-
cated and orthodox ministers, — one at Kampen and the
other at Amsterdam. An effort is being made at present
to consolidate these two, the outcome of which will be
watched with interest.
CHAPTER V
AUSTRIA
I. Bohemia and Moravia
First Reformers. — Huss and Jerome, names spoken
with reverence by all evangelical churches, were burnt by
the Council of Constance in the years 141 5 and 1416.
Their offense was an effort to put the word of God in its
proper position of supreme authority, and to bring the
clergy of Rome back to the discharge of the duties
which by divine appointment belonged to their office,
and to reform their lives in harmony with the purity and
simplicity of apostolic times. Their martyrdom awak-
ened profound indignation throughout Bohemia. Thou-
sands had opened their minds and hearts to the teaching
of those bold assailants of a corrupt priesthood, and the
fires kindled at Constance, instead of terrifying them into
silence, stirred them to open and vehement protest. An
attempt to put down the disaffection by force, caused the
Hussites to organize for defense.
Calixtines and Taborites. — Unfortunately, they split
into two hostile factions. The one party was known by
the name of Calixtines, because they insisted that the
cup, as well as the bread, should be given to the laity in
the distribution of the elements of the Lord's Supper.
For a long while the Church of Rome had refused the
cup to the people out of reverence for the wine, lest it
should be spilled in passing from one to another.
Thomas Aquinas justified this custom by his doctrine of
104
AUSTRIA 105
" concomitance," the doctrine that Christ is whole and
entire in each of the elements, and therefore, both his
body and his blood are received by those who receive the
bread alone.
The other party was more radical, and came to be
known by the name of Taborites from the hill on which
they strongly fortified themselves and bade successful de-
fiance to their enemies. These went beyond Huss in
denouncing the various abuses and errors of the Romish
Church. " Their creed which took on new phases from
time to time, embraced the leading points of what, a
century later, was included in Protestantism."
Though the relation of these two parties was not
friendly, they were able to lay aside their mutual ani-
mosities and stand together against the efforts of Rome
to crush them both. Under the leadership of the brave
Ziska, they performed unsurpassed prodigies of valor.
They beat back, time after time, the strongest armies of
veteran troops that the German emperor could send
against them. At length, quitting the defensive, they
" carried the war into Africa," and their devastating in-
vasions of the neighboring German states soon made the
emperor think of some method of conciHation.
The Council of Basel.— The Pope was equally con-
cerned, for he and the emperor were making common
cause, which in this case meant common failure. They
put their heads together and concluded to call a general
council of the Church, and invite the invincible Hussites
to come and confer in reference to some ground of agree-
ment. The council met at Basel in 1430. Having
obtained full guarantees for their personal safety and
abundant pledges that they should have a fair hearing,
representatives from both parties attended the council.
io6 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
Their reception and treatment were in marked contrast
to the burning of their great spiritual guides only fifteen
years before. This time there was no disgraceful perjury
on the part of the emperor by violating a safe-conduct,
and no advice to such a course on the part of the Pope,
who claimed the right to absolve one from the obliga-
tions of his oath. There was nothing like the power of
self-defense to make an emperor and a Pope behave like
Christian men. Important concessions were made to the
Bohemians, and they departed, victors in the contest. It
was not long, however, till the two factions, free from
outside danger, went to war against each other, and the
brave Taborites, outnumbered by their equally brave ad-
versaries, were practically exterminated.
The Brethren of the Unity. — After the destruction of
the Taborites, the CaHxtines gradually lost their spiritual
ardor, and many of them melted back into the Catholic
Church. In fact they had never been formally separated
from it, and gradually they became enveloped again in
the prevailing spiritual darkness. But God had his
chosen remnant. He did not suffer the seed sown in the
tears and nourished by the blood of his children to fail of
its blessed fruitage. About the middle of the fifteenth
century there arose another party, inheriting the evan-
gelical ideas of the past, and manifesting a disposition in
harmony with them. They were the Taborites in doc-
trine, but with peaceful and gentle spirits. They sep-
arated entirely from the Church and took the name of
Unitas Fratrorum, known in after history as the Bo-
hemian Brethren. Many nobles joined them and by the
beginning of the sixteenth century they had gathered a
good degree of strength, numbering 400 parishes and
200,000 members. Their organization was substantially
AUSTRIA 107
Presbyterian, but their doctrinal views, while evangelical,
were not formulated into a logical system.
Luther had not long been assailing the errors of Ro-
manism till his teachings reached Bohemia. They were
carried thither in his writings and also in the minds and
hearts of Bohemian students who attended the Wittenberg
University. Moreover, the Bohemian Brethren sent
several deputations to consult Luther, one of which in
1536 carried their Confession of Faith for Luther to ex-
amine. He disapproved of some of its views, but after
slight modifications, he published it at their expense, and
sent it forth with a favorable preface, written by his own
hand.
When war broke out in Germany between the emperor
and the Protestants, banded together in the Smalcald
League, Ferdinand, king of Bohemia wished all of his
subjects to side with the emperor. This was very
natural, inasmuch as he was the emperor's brother, and
was also an intense Catholic. Very naturally, the Bo-
hemian Protestants did not wish to fight against their
Protestant brethren in Germany. They had a very
stubborn way of not doing what they did not wish to do,
and the result was a refusal on their part to help their
king in the war, and when the war terminated in victory
for the emperor, Ferdinand took vengeance on his dis-
obedient subjects by persecuting them severely and ban-
ishing many of them from his country. But those left
behind continued to grow in numbers. Their next king
did them little harm, and they enjoyed several years of
peaceful prosperity.
Change of Views.— In the latter part of the sixteenth
century, their intercourse with Swiss reformers led the
non-German population of Bohemia to change from
io8 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
Luther to Calvin. The Church put forth a great many
confessions, but in 1 781, all these gave place to the second
Helvetic, which, along with the Heidelberg Catechism,
continues to be their official standard of doctrine.
Such was the growth of Protestantism in Bohemia that
by the beginning of the seventeenth century the Prot-
estants included four fifths of the entire population, some
writers put their number at nine tenths. They had suf-
ficient strength in 1608 to constrain the emperor, Ru-
dolph H, to grant them full religious and political rights,
securing for themselves a separate consistory at Prague,
and the control of the university. This marked the
culmination of their temporal prosperity, and it was not
long till disasters unspeakable overtook them.
The Persecution Under Ferdinand II. — In the year
1 61 7, Ferdinand of Styria secured possession of the
crown of Bohemia. He was a zealous Catholic, edu-
cated by the Jesuits and thoroughly imbued with the
spirit of religious intolerance. He only wanted an op-
portunity to demonstrate his piety by crushing out all
opposition to the Catholic faith. This opportunity was
not long in coming to him. His Protestant subjects
were in no mood to submit to any encroachments on
their rights, and considering themselves aggrieved, they
pitched two government officials out of a high window.
This was the beginning of rebellion and both sides
marshaled their forces. In 161 9, Ferdinand was elected
emperor, and in that very same week the Bohemians re-
nounced their allegiance to him and offered the crown of
Bohemia to Frederick V, elector of the Palatinate. He
was an evangelical Protestant, warmly attached to the
Reformed faith as set forth in the Heidelberg Catechism.
He was son-in-law of James I of England, having mar-
AUSTRIA
109
ried Elizabeth, the only daughter of that king. Fred-
crick accepted the crown that was offered to him,
counting no doubt on large assistance from Protestant
Christendom in his efforts to make its possession perma-
nent and secure. It did seem a great opportunity for the
enemies of Rome. But unfortunately the Protestants of
North Germany had been taught by Luther to hate the
Calvinists more bitterly than they hated the papists ; and
James I had his hands full in the pious task of trying to
make truculent Episcopalians out of the free-spirited
Presbyterians of Scotland and to marry his son to the
Spanish Infanta. Could the Lutherans of Saxony have
laid aside their irrational prejudice against the " Sacra-
mentarians," or could James I have been transformed
into a Cromwell, Bohemia would have won her inde-
pendence, the Catholic reaction in Austria would have
been checked, and both Bohemia and Austria would
have taken their place in the ranks of Protestant nations.
Moreover Spain's ambition would have been curbed, and
France would not have been permitted, under the saga-
cious leadership of Richeheu, to take advantage of the
quarrels of her neighbors to mount to a dominant posi-
tion in the affairs of Europe. But the great opportunity
was lost. Frederick was left almost alone to battle for
his crown, and the Catholic forces, led by an able general,
gained an overwhelming victory at White Hill, near
Prague, in 1620. The fortunes of war continued to go
against the Protestants until Frederick was compelled to
flee for his life and seek refuge in Holland. His heredi-
tary possessions were given to Maximilian, Duke of
Bavaria, as a reward for his services in helping to over-
throw the Protestant cause; and Frederick's newly-ac-
quired kingdom of Bohemia was laid prostrate at the feet
no HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
of Ferdinand. This zealous Catholic now had a fair
field in which to display his ardent piety. In 1621,
twenty-five nobles were decapitated before the city gate
of Prague; and, in the course of twelve months, 4,000
helpless prisoners were precipitated to their death in the
silver mines of Kuttenberg. Thirty thousand burgher
families were sent into exile, and the peasants, who as
tillers of the soil could not be spared from the country
without converting it into a waste wilderness, were sub-
jected to every form of outrage and cruelty. The char-
acter of the persecution may be judged by the fact that
the population was reduced from three millions to eight
hundred thousands, and all visible signs of a Protestant
Church were obliterated.
Edict of Toleration. — This was issued in 1781 by the
emperor, Joseph II, an emperor whose name will ever
be held in affectionate reverence by the Bohemians. On
the repeal of the old oppressive laws, to the surprise of
every one it was discovered that the seeds of evangelical
faith had been growing in secret In a short while fifty
congregations of Protestant Christians were organized,
pastors were obtained from the neighboring kingdom of
Hungary, and prosperity began to dawn once again on
the Reformed Church. This day of mercy came to an
end all too soon. On the death of Joseph II, a ruler of
different temper succeeded to the throne, and the old re-
pressive measures were revived.
Equal Rights Granted in 1861. — It was not until 1861
that the pressure of despotism was lifted from the Bo-
hemian Protestants. In that year their church was
placed on the list of the <• Recognized " communities.
This means that it became a state institution along with
many other churches. It has ever since that day been
AUSTRIA III
protected in its social and civil rights. No one dares to
interfere with its ministers, its people, or its worship.
But Austria has gone to the other extreme, and her
policy of protection is almost as destructive of ecclesias-
tical vitality, as her policy of oppression. Instead of per-
mitting one body of Christians to usurp all rights and
persecute other Christians, the government now protects
each against all others to the extent of strictly forbidding
all efforts at proselyting. No Protestant without viola-
ting the law, and incurring liability to severe penalty can
ask a Roman Catholic to join his church. Never was
there a more striking illustration of extremes meeting
than in the policy of Austria toward the many bodies of
Christians under her sway. She gives legal recognition
to Catholics, Protestants, Greeks, Jews, Lutherans, Mo-
ravians, and Mohammedans, and then builds a legal wall
around each that practically takes away all its liberty.
The government " fixes for each pastor the bounds of his
parish, and restricts him in his evangelistic efforts to the
people of his own religious profession." It is evident
that a church in this restrained position can have no
normal life and expansion. The tendency, however, is to
more liberal laws, and there is ground to hope that the
Church which has survived centuries of fiery trial will
soon be brought out into a large and wealthy place.
The Government of the Church.— This is Presbyterian
in so far as it has autonomy. The courts are a session ;
a seniorate, or presbytery ; superintendency, or synod ;
and a general synod. There are some peculiar features
of polity in this Church. The most marked are in re-
spect to the moderatorship of the courts. The modera-
tor of the presbytery is elected for six years and during
the term of office, he exercises extensive episcopal powers
112 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
over all the ministers and churches of the presbytery,
visiting every church once in three years and inquiring
into its affairs. The moderator of the superintendency,
or provincial synod, is elected for life. He likewise has
episcopal oversight of the churches and ministers in his
province, and must make triennial visits to every parish.
Over the highest church court there is a yet higher
civil court, called the Oberkirchenrath, which sustains a
common relation to both the Reformed and the Lu-
theran churches. It reviews their proceedings, and
judges whether the churches have conformed in all things
to both the civil and the ecclesiastical laws. No action
of the Church becomes final and authoritative until sanc-
tioned by the emperor.
The Reformed Church is restless under this arrange-
ment, and has through its highest court expressed its
purpose to strive for a free and fully-developed Presby-
terian polity.
It is hardly necessary to give a separate history of the
church of Moravia. The two churches have had sub-
stantially the same history, and are now practically one.
Together they number 650,000 adherents.
II. Hungary and Transylvania
These two countries, which for our purpose may be
treated as one, constitute at present the eastern part of
the empire of Austria-Hungary. They lie far toward
the southeast end of Europe and mark the limit of the
Reformation in that direction. They have an area of
108,258 square miles, and are rich in agricultural and
mineral resources. Through the very heart of Hungary,
for a distance of eight hundred miles, flows the Danube
River, navigable for nearly this whole distance for large
AUSTRIA 113
vessels. This river, with its tributaries, drains a great
valley of unusual fertility. Obviously all that is wanted
to make Austria-Hungary one of the great countries of
Europe, is a just and liberal government that will stimu-
late and encourage the development of its people and
their latent riches. It is occupied by three principal
races, Germans, Slavons and Magyars.
Beginning of the Hungarian Church. — The Refor-
mation of the sixteenth century was not long in making
itself felt in Hungary. It is estimated that between
the years 1522, and 1560, five hundred students attended
the University of Wittenberg. These, on returning to
their native country, became teachers and preachers, and
scattered the " good seed of the kingdom " far and wide.
The seed quickly sprang up and yielded a rich harvest,
so that by the year 1545, the disciples of the new doctrine
were ready for organization. In that year a synod was
held at Erdod which adopted the Augsburg Confession,
thus giving to Lutheranism a fixed and abiding form.
Introduction of Calvinism. — The most influential of
the early preachers was Mathias Devay, who had lived
for some years in Luther's family, and had been a zealous
propagator of Luther's views on his return to Hungary.
In 1537, he went to Basel for the purpose of publishing
a controversial work which he had written. There he be-
came acquainted with the Swiss views of the sacraments,
was converted to them, and preached them afterwards
with great effect to his fellow-countrymen. Luther, on
hearing of it, was very indignant, and wrote to his breth-
ren in Hungary, strongly condemning the teachings of
his former friend and follower. But it was to no pur-
pose. While the Germans generally adhered to Luther,
the native Hungarians, or Magyars, showed a decided
114 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
preference for the other views. In 1558, Peter MiHus,
having graduated at Wittenberg, took charge of the in-
fluential church of Debreczin. Very soon he changed
from Luther to Calvin, and became the most zealous and
efficient leader of the evangelical movement, and was
honored by succeeding generations with the title of the
*' Hungarian Calvin."
Triumph of Calvinism in Transylvania. — In 1562,
Calvin's catechism was introduced into the schools of
Transylvania. This province had been separated from
Hungary proper, and was ruled by a native dynasty.
The controversy over the two rival creeds was carried on
with increasing warmth, until finally a general national
synod was convoked April 9th, 1564, the Saxon Luth-
erans and the Magyar Calvinists coming together by the
king's permission. All attempts to make peace between
the two parties failed. Hence the succeeding state diet,
in the same year, sanctioned officially and forever the
separation into two distinct denominations. Thus the
Reformed Church of Hungary in the province of Tran-
sylvania was born only a few months after the death of
the great Calvin, from whose fertile mind it had received
the mold both of doctrine and polity into which it was
cast.
In this same year some of the Calvinistic preachers
and professors wrote to the theologians of Heidelberg
for advice and for arguments to aid them in their con-
troversy with the Lutherans. The professors of Heidel-
berg University sent with their reply a copy of the Hei-
delberg Catechism, which had made its advent into the
world only the year before. " Thus came into Hungary
the Palatine Catechism which afterwards conquered an
unheard-of popularity in all parts of Hungary, and be-
AUSTRIA 115
came, by and by, through a common adherence, one of
the most notable symboHcal books in that country."
At the Synod of Debreczin in 1567, the organization of
the Reformed Church was completed by the adoption of
the second Helvetic Confession, and seventy-four articles
of Church Order and Discipline.
In Hungary Proper. — It was exceedingly fortunate for
the Protestant Church that Transylvania became sepa-
rated from the remaining part of Hungary. The native
princes who governed it, were unusually tolerant for that
age, and granted complete religious liberty to all sects,
Catholics, Lutherans, Calvinists and Unitarians. Truth
being left free to fight its own battles, the Reformed
Church made rapid progress for many years. Hungary
proper was ruled by the house of Hapsburg, noted
throughout its long history for a spirit of intolerance and
ardent devotion to the Catholic Church. From the mid-
dle of the sixteenth century, the rulers of this house
were under the influence of the Jesuits ; and it goes with-
out saying that they repressed Protestantism to the extent
of their power. They could not, however, do more than
throw hindrances in its way and retard its growth. By
the end of the century, the Protestants were in the ma-
jority. Rudolph II who came to the throne in 1576,
had been educated by the Jesuits at the court of Spain,
and displayed the intolerance that might have been ex-
pected. Having conquered Transylvania, he attempted
to repress the Protestants by violent persecution.
Whereupon, they rose in rebellion under Stephen Botskai
and forced Rudolph, in the peace of Vienna in 1606, to
grant full religious liberty. But owing to the perpetual
contentions between the different sects of Protestants,
and the perpetual intrigues of the ever-industrious Jesuits,
ii6 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
the Catholics regained absolute control. During the per-
secutions, beginning with Ferdinand II in the second
quarter of the seventeenth century and continuing with
greater or less degrees of violence for more than a hun-
dred years, Protestantism dechned in numbers at least
one half.
Edict of Toleration in 1781. — The edict issued by
Joseph II, which has already been referred to as giving
relief to the Bohemian Protestants, did a like beneficent
service to the Protestants of Hungary. This good
emperor recognized the rights of conscience, granted the
privileges of citizenship to all denominations of Christians,
suppressed many convents, and greatly abridged the
power of the Pope and the Romish clergy. But his reign
was short, and his successor repealed many of his tolerant
laws, and gradually Austria settled back into her old
status of subjection to Rome and the Jesuits. It is true
that violent persecution on an extended scale came per-
manently to an end, but in many ways Protestantism has
had its energies stifled and its growth dwarfed.
Present Condition. — The population of Hungary,
including Transylvania, is a little over 15,000,000. Only
3,400,000 are Protestants. The Reformed Church has
2,055 congregations and 2,794,350 adherents.
It was not until 1881 that the five superintendencies,
into which the Church is divided, came together in a
national synod, and thus gave legal and visible form to
their unity. At the first meeting of this national synod,
a revised constitution was adopted and a relief society
organized. The form of government is essentially Pres-
byterian, but with certain interesting modifications.
These can best be given in the words of one of its own
members : " Its home affairs and schools are governed
AUSTRIA 117
by its own laws. The king of Hungary has his jus
supremum inspectionis, that is, he has the right to send
a representative to the General Synod, and the laws
which are made by the synod must be submitted to him
for his sanction. Without this the laws would be worth-
less, but with this the laws of the synod are of the same
value as the laws of the state. According to these laws,
the Reformed Church is organized into congregations,
classes and synods. The affairs of the congregation are
governed by the general meeting of the church members
and the session. The actions of the general meeting are
(i) election of ministers ; (2) election of session and cura-
tor ; (3) the oversight of the financial affairs of the congre-
gation. All other affairs of the congregation are governed
by the session, whose members are the ministers, the cura-
tor, teachers, and where the congregation has a college,
one delegate from the professors. The congregations elect
members to the session according to their numerical
strength." It may be well to explain that all the con-
gregations in a city are under the jurisdiction of one ses-
sion. In the city of Debreczin, for example, where
there are 40,000 members belonging to the Reformed
Church, there are five pastors and one hundred and eighty
elders, composing the session. The elders are elected for
a term of twelve years. " Several congregations form a
classis. The presidents of the classis are the subdeacon,
and the curator of the classis, who is a layman. These
are elected for life, and both preside at the meetings.
Several classes form a synod. The presidents of the
synod are the bishop and the chief curator. The highest
authority of the Reformed Church is the conventus, or
assembly. It is composed of the bishops, and chief
curators and twenty-eight representatives of the five
ii8 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
synods." It will be noticed that there is in this govern-
ment an Episcopalian element, even the name bishop
being retained. These bishops, however, are such simply
as a matter of expediency. While they are intrusted
with the power of general oversight they are elected to
office by the people, and, along with the other ministers,
are amenable to the courts of the church.
The Hungarian Church, like all other " recognized "
communities in Austria, is really a state institution. Its
pastors are supported by state aid, and its laws are only
valid after receiving the emperor's sanction. It is under
legal protection, and Hkewise under very strict legal
restraint. No outsider can touch it by way of prosely-
ting, and it can touch no outsider. Manifestly while this
close supervision lasts, the church can grow only so fast
as its own children increase.
Church Education.— Perhaps the most remarkable
characteristic of the Hungarian Reformed Church is its
self-sacrificing zeal in behalf of denominational education.
Although its members are taxed to support state schools,
the church supports a complete system of schools of its
own, including primary, academic, collegiate and even
professional schools. The reason for this is that the
Catholics have such a dominating influence in the govern-
ment as to make the schools practically Catholic ; and the
Reformed Church is persuaded that the only way to hold
their children to their creed is to educate them in their
own schools. At their own expense, therefore, they sus-
tain a staff of 5,000 teachers, under whose tuition are
gathered 300,000 children. In these schools, not only is
Protestant history taught, but also the Heidelberg Cate-
chism. The result is, according to one of their recent
writers, '' that neither ritualistic tendency, nor the giving
AUSTRIA 119
up of the Reformed religion occurs but exceptionally and
very rarely in Hungary." Here then is the future hope
of this church, in the well-rewarded pains which she takes
to •' train up the child in the way it should go." Even
now a brighter day seems to be dawning over Austria.
It is reported that within the last few years as many as
thirty thousand have been converted from Romanism to
Protestantism. The laws are becoming more liberal, and
there is ground to hope that soon " the word of God will
have free course," with the result that the churches built
on that word will enter on an era of unexampled pros-
perity.
III. Other Continental Churches
I. The Waldenses. — From the days of Peter Waldo,
who lived in the twelfth century, a heroic band of Chris-
tians, taking their name from him, have made their home
in the Piedmontese Alps. It would be tedious to relate
the many persecutions which have imparted a tragic
interest to their history. Suffice it to say that despite
crusades and massacres, torturings and burnings, in
which thousands nobly yielded up their lives on the altar
of their faith, they never ceased to maintain an inflexible
opposition to the abuses of the papacy, and to bear wit-
ness to a pure gospel and a scriptural worship.
After the days of Huss, they derived help from the
Bohemian brethren in purging out some of the Romish
leaven that still marred their doctrines ; and when the
Reformation of the sixteenth century burst forth, they
received further aid in perfecting their views through
intercourse with the reformers in Basel and Strassburg.
Farel, the strong, rugged and eloquent pioneer of the
Reformation in France, attended a meeting of the Wal-
I20 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
densian Synod at Chanforan in 1532. At this time they
declared their full agreement with the teachings of Luther
and Calvin. As illustrating their devotion to the word
of God, in the light of which they had been earnestly
striving to walk for so many centuries, it may be men-
tioned that at this same synod, out of their deep poverty,
they subscribed 1,500 gold crowns for the pubhcation of
a folio edition of the Old and New Testament, a work
which they intrusted to Olivetan, a near kinsman of
Calvin.
Persecutions. — Having identified themselves with the
Reformation, they became the victims of fresh and hor-
rible persecutions. In 1545, Francis I, whose subjects
they were, gave them over to the will of their papal
enemies. These raided their peaceful villages, utterly
destroying twenty-two of them, and putting to death the
inhabitants, men, women and children, by methods as
cruel as malice could devise. A remnant, however, was
left to pass through similar scenes later. The days of
fiery trial were not over until about the middle of the
nineteenth century, when northern Italy threw off the
papal yoke, and opened that part of the country to
Protestant evangelism.
Returning Good for Evil.— The Waldenses at once rose
to the occasion, and began to lengthen their cords, and
strengthen their stakes. In 1848, they founded a congre-
gation in Florence, and made that the center of an active
propagandism, and the next year a mission was begun in
Turin.
When in i860 the whole of Italy was opened to the
preaching of the gospel, a special committee was formed
for the purpose of pushing their mission work among
their CathoHc fellow-countrymen. Since 1883 this com-
AUSTRIA T2I
mittee has had its headquarters in the city of Rome,
thus ♦' bearding the hon in his den." Gradually it has
extended its operations until now it has a number of
schools, mission stations, and congregations under its
care. The sympathy, which is properly felt throughout
Protestant Christendom for the Waldenses, secures aid
from various sources to assist in sustaining this work.
What a noble revenge these humble Christians are taking
on their once haughty oppressors ! The beautiful and
familiar prayer of Milton may yet be answered. It is
meet that it be kept familiar.
Avenge, O Lord, thy slaughtered saints, whose bones
Lie scattered on the Alpine mountain cold ;
E'en them, who kept thy truth so pure of old.
When all our fathers worshiped stocks and stones,
Forget not : in thy book record their groans
Who were thy sheep, and in their ancient fold
Slain by the bloody Piedmontese, that roll'd
Mother with infant down the rocks. Their moans
The vales redoubled to the hills, and they
To heaven. Their martyred blood and ashes sow
O'er all the Italian fields, where still doth sway
The triple tyrant ; that from these may grow
An hundredfold, who having learnt thy way
Early may fly the Babylonian woe !
The only court of the Waldensian Church is its gen-
eral synod, which meets in Torre Pellice always on the
first Monday of September, each year. It consists of
first, the eighteen pastors of the valleys, with two lay
delegates from each congregation who may, or may not
be elders ; second, the professors of theology at Flor-
ence ; third, the ordained ministers working under the
committee of evangehzation ; fourth, lay delegates from
the congregations in the mission field, at the rate of one
122 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
delegate for every four hundred communicants. This is
not a Presbyterian court in the strictest sense, but it may
easily develop into one. The mission stations are grouped
into five conference districts, or presbyteries, meeting
generally once a year, to consider in an unofficial way
the interests of the work. It is expected that these will
grow into regular presbyteries.
The official standard of doctrine in the Waldensian
Church is the confession of La Rochelle, which is the
Gallic confession, drafted by Calvin, adopted by the first
synod of the Reformed Church of France which met at
Paris in 1559, and was afterwards revised and readopted
by the Synod of Rochelle, 1571.
2. Churches of Belgium. — When the Dutch Republic
was founded by the Union of Utrecht in 1579, only the
seven Northern Provinces of the Netherlands entered the
union. The other ten provinces, partly by the skillful
diplomacy, and partly by the military genius of Alex-
ander of Parma, were brought permanently under the
power of Rome. Phihp II did not relax his power to
weed out all heretics from these recovered lands. He
consented to remove the Spanish troops from the coun-
try on condition that the Romish worship should be
everywhere restored, and Protestantism abolished. By
an unusual stretch of leniency he gave the Protestants
two years in which to return to the bosom of the
Catholic Church, or leave the country. The one thing
in reference to which he was uncompromising was that
these provinces must be absolutely free from the con-
tamination of heresy. F'rom that day till this, Belgium
has been under Catholic rule, and not until 1781 was
there permitted the slightest dissent from the papal
creed. There was little need, however, of religious
AUSTRIA 123
liberty, inasmuch as the Protestant population at that
time, including officials and merchants from Holland,
numbered only three thousand souls. These were
scattered over the country as sheep, having no shepherd.
In the year 1839, as many as could be brought together,
were organized into seven churches. Pastors were
secured from outside sources. These seven churches
have increased to thirteen, with a total membership of
two thousand and eight hundred. The official name of
the Church is The Union of Evangelical Protestant
Churches in Belgium. It has adopted no creed, but
accepts the Bible alone as the bond of union. The
thirteen congregations are united in a general synod
which meets annually, and carries on the general work
of the Church through the agency of three permanent
executive committees.
The Belgium Missionary Christian Church. — In
1834, Bible societies were organized in Brussels, and a
number of other towns, in connection with the British
and Foreign Bible Society. The object was to supply
the very great destitution of that land that has lain all
these centuries under the dominion of that Church
which regards the Bible as a dangerous book to put into
the hands of the common people. The colporteurs, in
carrying on the work of these societies, have found in
many places that the good seed has fallen into good
ground. A spirit of inquiry has been awakened, and
under the blessing of God, considerable numbers have
been led to renounce their connection with the Romish
Church. In view of this state of affairs in 1837, "the
Evangelical Society " was formed to work in harmony
with these Bible Societies, to look after these new con-
verts, and to provide them, with the ordinances of the
124 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
gospel. By 1849 the work had grown to such dimen-
sions that it was deemed wise to organize the scattered
behevers into churches. This was done, and these new
organizations met together by their representatives and
adopted as their standard of doctrine the Belgic Con-
fession of Faith, a confession prepared in 1559 by Guy
de Bres, and adopted by their brethren in Holland in the
Reformation period. This Church now numbers thirty-
two congregations and 1,760 communicants.
3. Spanish Christian Church. — The intellectual con-
dition of Spain is sufficiently indicated by the fact that
out of a population of 17,500,000, there are 12,000,000
who can neither read nor write. The Catholic Church
which for centuries prevented the free circulation of the
Scriptures succeeded in keeping the people so totally
illiterate that it was hardly worth while to forbid their
having the Bible. Now that the way is open to scatter
the word of God, it is practically a sealed book to the
vast majority of the people after it comes into their
hands. Nevertheless, the Protestants of other countries
began the work of Bible distribution in Spain shortly
after the beginning of the nineteenth century, trusting
that when once the book was in the homes of the peo-
ple, they would find some means of becoming acquainted
with its message. There is evidence that their expecta-
tions have not been wholly disappointed. In 1868, a
revolution in the government drove Queen Isabella from
the throne. A regency was established which pro-
claimed religious liberty. At once the Protestant
churches of Great Britain and the continent began an
active campaign of evangelism. It gave great promise ;
crowds attended the services ; church buildings were
erected ; schools were opened ; and many congregations
AUSTRIA 125
were organized. This bright promise was disappointing.
The movement was carried forward largely by political
influences. The crowds were attracted to the Protestant
services by their novelty, and many were led to attach
themselves to the evangelical churches merely by way
of manifesting their new-born liberty. In 1874 the
Bourbon dynasty was restored, and with it the dominancy
of the Catholic Church. Difficulties were thrown in the
way of Protestant propagandism, and in the day of trial,
it was demonstrated that much of the seed that gave
such speedy signs of hfe had fallen on stony ground.
The quick and promising growth withered away. How-
ever, there have been some permanent victories won.
The results up to the present are a church of thirteen
congregations, fourteen ministers and three hundred
communicants. These are distributed in the two pres-
byteries of Andalusia and Madrid.
4. Scattered Groups. — Throughout the different states
of the German Empire, in Austria, and in Russia, there
are groups of churches, adhering to Calvinistic standards
of doctrine; and organized, as far as organization is
practicable to them, on Presbyterian principles. In the
aggregate, they number about 71,000. Unfortunately
they are so situated, being hedged in by unfriendly in-
fluences, and closely restricted by government super-
vision, that it is almost impossible for them to grow into
large dimensions.
CHAPTER VI
SCOTLAND
Condition of the Country. — Scotland was slow in
yielding to the authority of the Church of Rome. Hav-
ing received in the sixth century a comparatively pure
faith through the labors of missionaries from Ireland, it
was only after a prolonged and strenuous struggle that
she permitted the agents of Rome to substitute for this
faith one less pure, and to fasten on the country a polity
of which the Pope was the acknowledged head. But
once having accepted the rule of the papacy, Scotland
tested its virtues to the utmost, with the result that at the
opening of the sixteenth century, there was no country
in the limits of Christendom that more needed reforming.
The light of the new learning, which long since had shed
its cheerful morning beams over southern and central
Europe had not penetrated to any appreciable extent the
darkness that had hung in dense folds for weary centuries
over this rugged land. Few even of the nobles could
read, their manners were rough, and their dispositions
were harsh and cruel. There was no central government
strong enough to keep in subjection their turbulent
spirits. Feuds between the different clans, perpetuated
from generation to generation, made lawlessness and vio-
lence a chronic condition. The clergy rivaled the gentry
in ignorance, coarseness and immorality.
Owing to the backward state of learning, the Refor-
mation was slow in finding its way to Scotland. Ger-
126
SCOTLAND 127
many and England had felt the thrill of the new life long
before any decided impression was noticeable there. But
the Scotch were a sturdy stock, and it only needed the
light of knowledge, and the stimulus of new motives to
work a speedy and marvelous transformation. In no
land did the new doctrines take deeper root, or produce
a more bountiful and blessed harvest.
Beginning of the Reformation. — The first voice raised
effectively against the established order was that of Pat-
rick Hamilton. He was of a noble family, studied abroad
in the University of Paris, and elsewhere, was unusually
proficient in languages and philosophy, held intercourse
with Erasmus, came into contact with some of the re-
formers, and returned to his native land with a wide
intellectual horizon and a heart in love with the truth.
Soon he had the opportunity, which he embraced, of
commending the teachings of the New Testament to his
countrymen. This excited the alarm of the Church
authorities, and on the advice of his friends, Hamilton
went back to the continent. On this visit he had further
intercourse with the reformers, meeting Frith and Tyn-
dale and Lambert at Marburg. His desire to preach
Christ in his native land grew until he resolved to carry
it into effect at the risk of life. Returning in the autumn
of 1527, he preached for a short while with great success,
winning to the faith a number of his kinsmen. He also
won the heart and hand of a noble young lady whom he
married, only to leave a widow in a few brief weeks. In
February of 1528, he was arrested, tried and found guilty
of teaching that •' a man is not justified by works, but by
faith ; that faith, hope and charity are so linked together
that if a man have one, he will have all; and that good
works maketh not a good man, but a good man doeth
128 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
good works " ; and being further pressed, he affirmed that
" it is not lawful to worship images, nor to pray to saints ;
and that it is lawful for all men that have souls to read
the word of God." He was burned at the stake on the
same day that he was tried and convicted. But even this
radical and summary method of procedure proved not
altogether effective, for " the reek of Patrick Hamilton
infected all on whom it did blow." It was eighteen years,
however, before the Romish Church was put to the
necessity of burning another distinguished heretic. This
time it was George Wishart, described by one of his
pupils, as " a man modest, temperate, courteous, lowly,
lovely, fearing God, hating covetousness, his learning no
less sufficient than his desire to do good." Cardinal
Beaton, the same dignitary who had brought Hamilton
to the stake, presided at the trial of Wishart, and from an
upper window of the castle of St. Andrews, feasted his
eyes on the dying agonies of the " lowly and lovely "
young man.
John Knox. — It would have been a master stroke for
his side of the controversy, if Cardinal Beaton had been
a little more prompt in putting George Wishart out of the
way. As it was, he neglected this important matter until
Wishart had been used of God to convert John Knox,
and then it was too late to burn him. He has done that
which all the cardinals cannot undo, and which will
bring everlasting disaster on the cause they represent.
Knox was born in 1505, and was educated at the Uni-
versity of St. Andrews for the priesthood. He took
orders about 1530, and soon after that began to feel the
influence of the evangelical doctrines with which he
came in contact from time to time. It was not, however,
until he met with Wishart in 1544 that he broke with the
SCOTLAND 129
Church of Rome. He attached himself very closely to
Wishart, attending him from place to place, and after a
fanatical priest had tried to assassinate Wishart, Knox
carried a sword, with which to defend him. After Wis-
hart's death he exchanged this sword for the sword of the
Spirit, and found in this a weapon which he could wield
with such power as to appall the hearts of his stoutest
adversaries. It was not long before serious dangers be-
gan to threaten him. In 1547, he took refuge in the
Castle of St. Andrews along with those Protestants who
had assassinated Cardinal Beaton, thus showing that he
had no tears to shed over that deed. The castle was be-
sieged by the Regent of Scotland, aided by a French
fleet. When at length it was forced to surrender, Knox
was carried a prisoner to France, and made to row in the
galleys, chained to an oar. He served on this ancient
form of the •' chain gang " for nineteen months. Ac-
cording to the testimony of one of his fellow-prisoners,
Sir James Balfour, he uttered, on one occasion during
this confinement, a memorable prophecy. While they
lay on the coast between St. Andrews and Dundee, Sir
James, pointing to the spires of St. Andrews asked him
if he knew the place. " Yes, I know it well," was the
reply, " for I see the steeple of that place where God first
opened my mouth in public to his glory ; and I am fully
persuaded, how weak soever I now appear, that I shall
not depart this life, till that my tongue shall glorify his
godly name in the same place."
Sojourn in England Released from the galleys in
1549, Knox went to England, where the Reformation
under the reign of Edward VI was making unrestrained
and prosperous headway. The king showed great
respect to Knox, appointing him one of his chaplains.
I30 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
He was likewise greatly honored by the leading reformers,
who consulted him about the prayer book and offered
him a bishopric which he declined. He remained, how-
ever, for some years in England, preaching at Berwick
and New Castle.
An Exile on the Continent, — When Mary came to the
throne, it soon became manifest that there was no longer
any room for Knox in that kingdom. He went to the
continent, and after wandering around somewhat aim-
lessly for a time, he made his way to Geneva. There he
met a congenial spirit in the illustrious Calvin, and soon
their acquaintance ripened into a close friendship which
lasted tin Calvin's death in 1564. At the end of eighteen
months Knox returned to Scotland. Just at that juncture
the Regent, Mary of Guise, was permitting the persecuted
saints of England to find a refuge in her kingdom, and
winking at their quiet dissemination of evangelical doc-
trines. This was not because she hated heretics less, but
because she hated " Bloody Mary " and her newly-ac-
quired husband, Philip II of Spain, more. Knox was
encouraged to believe that he could safely venture back
to his native land. On his arrival he was rejoiced to find
many ears that were eager for the truth. Writing from
Edinburgh to his mother-in-law, who was in Berwick, he
says : " If I had not seen it with my eyes in my own
country, I could not have believed it. I praised God,
when I was with you, perceiving that in the midst of
Sodom, God had more Lots than one, and more faithful
daughters than two. But the fervency here doth far
exceed all others that I have seen. And therefore ye
shaU patiently bear, although I spend here yet some days ;
for depart I cannot, until such time as God quench their
thirst a little." He remained in Scotland hardly a year,
SCOTLAND 131
but he preached almost daily, mostly in private houses,
traveling from place to place, thus making the greatest
possible use of the brief time. The results of this visit
were of incalculable benefit to the cause of reform. He
strengthened the timid, confirmed the wavering, and won
over many distinguished noblemen. But thinking the
time was not ripe yet for a decisive conflict he accepted a
call from an English congregation at Geneva to be-
come their pastor, and went back to that city. Never-
theless the revolution of thought went on, and in 1557 a
number of nobles and gentlemen at Edinburgh signed a
covenant, engaging to " renounce the congregation of
Satan, with all the superstitions, abominations and
idolatry thereof; and to defend the whole congregation of
Christ and every member thereof." This was the begin-
ning of the crystallization of the Reformed movement, and
was the first of the covenants by which the Protestants
from time to time bound themselves in subsequent crises
of their history.
Permanent Return of Knox. — The current of events
was setting ever more rapidly and strongly toward refor-
mation.
It was time now for Knox to be back among his
countrymen to add the weight of his great influence and
to give direction to the trend of afTairs. Receiving an
urgent invitation from numerous adherents of the new
faith, he returned to Scotland in the early part of the year
1559. He lifted up his voice in trumpet tones, calHng the
people to separation from the iniquities of Rome,
and to a strenuous ' conflict with her idolatry. He
stirred the emotions of the populace to such a pitch
as to result in many places in an iconoclastic cru-
sade. Images were destroyed, and monasteries were
132 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
demolished. Passions grew more violent on both sides,
and at length the Queen Regent resorted to arms to put
down the turbulent reformers. The " Lords of the Con-
gregation," as the leaders of the Protestant movement
were called, met arms with arms. The Regent called in
the aid of French troops ; the reformers secured the assist-
ance of the English. For about a year the country was
in the throes of a civil war, but fortunately it was brought
to a close with very little bloodshed. In June of 1560,
the Regent died, and a treaty was concluded which
involved the withdrawal of both the French and the Eng-
lish troops from the land and the placing of the govern-
ment temporarily in the hands of a regency of noblemen.
Establishment of the Reformed Religion. — The Par-
liament met on the ist day of August, 1560, and was in
session for twenty-one days. It stuck the knife deep and
performed some radical surgery. Not content with
removing certain offensive excrescences from the old
system, it proceeded to cut it up by the roots. It
abolished the power of the Pope, repealed all the laws
that gave validity to the papal hierarchy, and enacted the
death penalty for the third offense of celebrating mass.
It did not stop with merely negative and destructive legis-
lation. It adopted a Confession of Faith, which, by its
orders had been drafted by six Johns, the chiefest of
whom was John Knox.
The First General Assembly. — This met on the 20th
day of December, 1560, and was composed of forty mem-
bers, only six of whom were ministers. Perhaps, the
most important work of this assembly was the adoption
of a Book of Discipline, which had been prepared pre-
viously under direction of the Privy Council, by the same
Johns who had drafted the Confession of Faith. This
SCOTLAND 133
book defined what doctrine should be taught in the
Church, what quahfications must be possessed by those
who should be admitted to the ministry, how these should
be settled in their charges, what other officers should be
appointed in the Church, how the ministry should be
supported, discipline administered, marriage regulated,
and the sacraments dispensed.
Flexibility of the Church's Polity. — As might be ex-
pected, this book shows the effect of Knox's stay in
Geneva, but it likewise shows that Knox had a mind of
his own. He modified the Genevan discipline to suit the
peculiar circumstances of Scotland. Instead of one city,
here was a vast extent of territory to provide for. It was
far from the disposition of Knox to sacrifice the needs of
the people to the demands of a theory. In laying the
foundations of the church organization, he proceeded on
the supposition that the polity of the Church was for the
people, not the people for the polity. Consequently he
did not hesitate to mar the ideal system in deference to
practical utility. The reason there were only six minis-
ters in this first Assembly was because there were only
thirteen in the whole kingdom. What could this little
handful do toward meeting the wholesale and urgent
demands ? There was little material from which to
augment their numbers. Provision was made, there-
fore, for the employment of unofficial readers, whose sole
business, at the first, was to assemble the people and read
to them the word of God. A much-needed function this
was, seeing that few of the people could read this word
for themselves. It was demanded of these readers that
after becoming familiar with the teachings of scriptures
they should add to reading exhortation ; and it was fur-
ther contemplated that while engaged in these exercises.
134 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
they should fit themselves for the office of the ministry
and receive ordination. It was from the ranks of these
that the ministry was to receive most of its first recruits.
Another temporary provision was the office of superin-
tendent. Those holding this office were ordained minis-
ters, to each of whom was assigned, in addition to the
pastorate of a church, the oversight of a particular cir-
cuit. He was not to remain in his church more than
three or four months at a time, and then he must visit
throughout his circuit, examining the doctrine, life, dih-
gence and behavior of ministers, readers, elders and dea-
cons. The superintendents were to admonish, and to
correct as best they could by their counsels whatever
they should find out of order. But they were subject to
the same discipline and jurisdiction as all the other min-
isters.
It is questionable whether all the Presbyterian churches
since the days of Knox have been as wise in adapting
their machinery to meet peculiar and urgent needs. It is
to be feared that some of them have failed to " go up and
possess the land," which by right of inheritance belonged
to them because they were hampered by a polity too
rigid and inflexible. Possibly they have too persistently
refused to recognize in the practical administration of
Church affairs that " half a loaf is better than no bread."
Mary Queen of Scots. — When James V died, he left
an infant daughter, who had been educated in the court
of France, had been married to Francis II, had reigned
with him over the kingdom of France for two years, had
then been left a widow, and now returned to Scotland on the
19th of August, 1 561, " with a purpose fixed as the stars
to trample down the Reformation." She was not yet
twenty years of age, radiantly beautiful, cultured, clever,
SCOTLAND 135
vivacious, and with it all she was utterly unscrupulous.
Froude gives an inventory of her qualities : " She had
vigor, energy, tenacity of purpose, with perfect and
never failing self-possession, and as the one indispensable
foundation for the effective use of all other qualities, she
had indomitable courage." With such an accumulation
of rare gifts and accomplishments it is not to be won-
dered at that she threw a spell over all the courtiers who
approached her. But she was half French by birth, and
altogether French by rearing. When she fixed her pur-
pose to trample down the Reformation, she was utterly
incapable of measuring the magnitude of the task which
she had set for herself. There were, indeed, some ele-
ments of strength still belonging to the old order of
things, and if Mary had continued as she began, patient,
conciliatory, and willing to leave matters largely under
the direction of her brother, while she bided her time,
she might have postponed the day of complete victory
for Protestantism for some years to come. But Mary
was her own worst enemy. She permitted her heart to
run away with judgment and discretion. She made two
of the most criminally reckless marriages that it was pos-
sible for her to make. The first was with her cousin.
Lord Darnley, three years her junior, a weak, vain and
profligate boy. After rendering himself odious to Mary
by participating in the murder of her favorite, he was
himself murdered in circumstances which cast serious
suspicion on Mary. Three months thereafter she mar-
ried the Earl of Both well, whom everybody believed to
have been the principal agent in the brutal taking off of
Darnley. Such an open outrage on all decency was too
much for her subjects. They rose in arms, took her by
constraint from her bloody husband, put her in prison
136 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
and forced her to abdicate her crown in favor of her in-
fant son. She soon made her escape, rallied a respecta-
ble body of troops to her standard, was worsted in battle,
fled to England, became a center of popish plots against
the throne of Elizabeth and finally lost her beautiful and
wayward head. Surely no such gifted woman ever de-
scended from such lofty elevation down the declivity of
sin and shameless folly to utter destruction so quickly as
did Mary Queen of Scots. She ran her inglorious career
in Scotland in the short space of six years.
Last Years and Death of John Knox.— From the
meeting of the first Assembly in 1560, John Knox took
the lead in shaping the policy of the Church in its con-
flict with the remaining forces of the papacy. He bore
the brunt of the battle during the years that Queen Mary
tried by the arts of intrigue, by cajolery, and by the use of
all the means at her command to destroy the work of the
reformers. She refused to ratify the acts of Parliament,
establishing the Reformed religion ; she won over to her
side many powerful nobles ; and she put out her full
strength on Knox. She tried flattery ; she tried tears,
the most formidable v/eapon that a young, beautiful, and
widowed queen could wield ; she tried threats, and finally
had him brought before the privy council to fasten on
him the charge of treason. Through it all he bore him-
self with an inflexible front. His life was a perpetual
scene of conflict, his last two years especially were filled
with sorrow by the assassination of his illustrious friend,
the Regent Murray, and by the alarming disorders that
followed. Matters, however, had assumed a brighter face
toward the cause for which he had fought and suffered
before he sank to rest in November, 1572.
The " Convention of Leith."— In the year of Knox's
SCOTLAND
137
death a notable convention was held at Leith, called at
the instance of some of the nobles for the purpose of se-
curing for themselves the rich revenues of the former
bishoprics. Before the Reformation, the bishops and
archbishops had princely incomes from lands which at-
tached to their offices. Their offices having been abol-
ished, the question was, Who should enjoy the revenues ?
The first Book of Discipline provided that all revenues
arising from the old ecclesiastical properties should be
used for the support of the ministry, the schools, and the
poor. To quote the somewhat irreverent language of
Froude : " The gaunt and hungry nobles of Scotland,
careless most of them of God or devil, had been eyeing
the sleek and well-fed clergy of Rome like a pack of
famished wolves." Now that these clergy had been
ousted, " the gaunt and hungry nobles " were eager to
pounce upon the spoil. Technically the revenues of the
bishoprics could be collected only by bishops ; but as
the Reformed Church had no bishops no one could law-
fully collect the revenues. This Assembly was called at
Leith to appoint bishops, it being understood that their
office was merely nominal. Lifluenced by Regent Mor-
ton, the assembly restored the old titles. The greedy
nobles then proceeded to secure the appointment of crea-
tures of their own, who were required to stipulate in ad-
vance to turn over the revenues of their office to those to
whom they owed their appointment. Those who per-
mitted themselves to be thus used were called
" Tulchan Bishops " — tulchan being a stuffed calfskin set
up by the side of a cow which had lost her calf to make
her give down her milk. This term indicates that these
bishops were universally derided, but their anomalous po-
sition was the cause, or occasion at least, of later trouble.
138 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
Andrew Melville.— In 1574 there entered into the
struggles of the Church, a champion of rehgious Hberty
and of Presbyterian pohty whose name is placed by
many next on the roll of fame to that of Knox. Andrew
Melville was born in 1545, educated at St. Andrews,
studied in Paris two years, and then spent five years in
Geneva, teaching in the Academy of Geneva, and study-
ing theology under Theodore Beza, the distinguished
successor of John Calvin. When he returned to Scot-
land in 1574, he found that trouble had already arisen,
and worse trouble was threatened, through the machi-
nations of the civil government to destroy the liber-
ties of the Church by introducing under the shadowy
forms of the tulchan bishops a thoroughgoing episco-
pacy. He entered into the defense of presbytery with
great ardor, and by calling into requisition his consum-
mate knowledge of Greek, a language which he spoke
with fluency, he succeeded after a protracted struggle in
winning a temporary victory. He demonstrated to the
satisfaction of the assembly that in the New Testament,
bishop and presbyter are merely two names for the
same office ; and the assembly, without a dissenting voice,
abolished every remaining trace of episcopacy. In 1578,
the second Book of Discipline, the authorship of which
is ascribed to Melville, supplanted the book drafted by
Knox and his associates. In this second book, the rela-
tion between Church and state is more clearly defined,
the independence of the Church in spiritual things is
affirmed, and the duties of the various officers of the
Church are more accurately stated. It embodied the
purest type of Presbyterianism which had yet been set
forth in the formularies of any of the Reformed churches.
Renewal of the Conflict. — In the year 1578, James VI
SCOTLAND
139
took the reins of power from the hands of the Regent
Morton, and nominally began to rule in his own name.
He was but twelve years of age, and soon fell under the
dominant influence of bad advisers. In the course of a
few years, efforts were renewed to bring the Church
under the power of the crown. The articles of Leith
were revived, creating the tulchan bishops. One of the
king's favorites was made Archbishop of Glasgow. The
Church excommunicated him. The privy council pro-
nounced the excommunication null and void. Melville
thundered against these encroachments on the Church's
liberties. He was charged with treason, and prudently
retired across the border. The Parliament which met in
1584 passed the " Black Acts," by which the liberties of
the Church were completely taken away, and the king
and privy council were empowered to regulate ecclesi-
astical matters at their will. Soon Melville returned from
exile and took up the gauge of battle again. He did
not cease from the arduous conflict until in 1592, Parlia-
ment passed an act ratifying the form of government as
then administered by general assemblies, synods, presby-
teries and kirk-sessions.
The Vascillating Policy of the King.— If the slightest
faith could have been put in the character of the king
there would have been no further trouble. He made
loud protestations of admiration for the Church, and
loyalty to it. In 1590, he married a Danish princess.
During the honeymoon, he visited the General Assembly,
and made a speech that delighted the hearts of the
brethren. He praised God " that he was born in such a
time, as the time of the light of the gospel, and to be
king in the sincerest kirk in the world. The kirk of
Geneva keepeth Pasche and Yule (Easter and Christmas).
I40 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
What have they for them? They have no institution.
As for our neighbor kirk of England, it is an ill-said
mass in English, wanting nothing but the Hftings. I
charge you my good people, ministers, doctors, nobles,
gentlemen, and barons, to stand to your purity, and I
forsooth, so long as I brook my life and crown shall
maintain the same against all deadly." There was never
a more propitious moment for James to have been trans-
lated than that. Unfortunately it could not be, and two
kingdoms were none the better off because it could not
be. It was not long before he was plotting against the
*' sincerest kirk in the world," and trying to take away
all liberty of action from its courts, and all liberty of
speech from its ministers. He was filled with a conceit
of the divine right of kings, and that included the de-
nial of all rights to his subjects. He provoked the brave
Melville into giving him some wholesome doctrine on
the subject of Church and state. " I must tell you," said
he, " that there are two kings and two kingdoms in Scot-
land; there is King James, the head of the common-
wealth ; and there is King Jesus, the head of the Church,
whose subject James VI is, and of whose kingdom, he is
not a king, nor a head, nor a lord, but a member. We
will yield to you your place, and give you all due obe-
dience ; but again I say you are not the head of the
Church." Good as was this doctrine, James did not
relish it, and continued his efforts to get control of the
Church until he succeeded in having three bishops ap-
pointed, with seats in Parliament as spiritual lords. He
was greatly stimulated in his purpose to have obsequious
bishops through whom he could manage the Church by
the example and success of his cousin over in the ad-
joining kingdom. He saw how beautifully the scheme
SCOTLAND 1 41
worked in England, how Elizabeth as head of the Church,
and with the power of making bishops in her own hand
was able to regulate everything from the standard of
doctrine down to the " bib and tuck " to be worn by the
parish priest.
James I of England. — In 1603 James VI of Scotland
succeeded Elizabeth as James I of England. The lead-
ing Puritans of England, who had long grieved that the
royal head of the Church seemed to exercise so much
more authority than the divine Head, rejoiced in the
coming of the Scotch Presbyterian. They met him
with a petition signed by nearly a thousand names, pray-
ing for a httle more liberty to obey God on the ordering
of the worship of his house. James appointed a con-
ference, to which he invited nine bishops, seven deans
and two other clergymen to meet four Puritans, ap-
parently thinking the two parties would thus be equally
matched. They were to discuss matters in dispute be-
tween them, and he was to act as judge. This was a
delightful change from his previous position. It did not
take the king long to see that the bishops were on his
side. In fact, he saw this long before he left Scotland.
The conference was a mere pretense, a farce ; but it fur-
nished the occasion for James to declare himself. This
he did in very emphatic terms, accusing the Puritans of
a purpose to bring in a Scotch presbytery, " which," said
he, " agreeth with monarchy as God with the devil."
The bishops were much delighted, crying out, " A Daniel
come to judgment," and gave it as their opinion that
" not since the days of Solomon had so wise a king sat
on a throne." James brought the conference to a close
by telling his Puritan subjects that he would make them
142 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
conform to the prayer book, or ** harry them out of the
kingdom."
This was practically a notification to his Scotch people
that he would use whatever advantage his new position
gave him in carrying out the purpose already inaugurated
to make the " sincerest kirk in the world," the facsimile
of the most subservient church in the world. It was not
long before he had his three Scotch bishops brought
down to London, and linked on to the chain of apostolic
succession, by a regular bona fide Episcopal consecration,
and sent them back with the precious deposit of the
grace of orders in their hands to propagate the succession
in his native land.
James Visits Scotland. — In the year 1617, the king,
to use his own expression " indulged his natural and sal-
mon-like affection for the place of his breeding." It is
altogether probable that affection had less to do with it
than kingcraft. He had certain schemes on foot which
he could forward more effectively by being on the
ground. He had an assembly called to meet at Perth.
He has been accused of using many crooked methods to
secure such an assembly as he could control. It is espe-
cially charged that he used bribery in the delicate way of
paying the expenses of the members. In this and other
ways he spent some ;^ 300,000 to have the Scotch Church
provided with bishops. The assembly at Perth ordained
in accordance with the king's wishes, that the Lord's
Supper should be received kneeling, that it might be ad-
ministered in private, that baptism might also be admin-
istered in private, that children should be confirmed, and
that certain days, as Christmas and Easter should be ob-
served as holy days. These articles were known as the
" Five Articles of Perth " and strenuous efforts were
SCOTLAND 143
made to have them recognized in the worship of the
Church. To this end, Parhament demanded it, the king
threatened, and the Court of High Commissions perse-
cuted ; still the obstinate people continued to worship,
for the most part, as they had done before the king " in-
dulged his natural and salmon-like affection for his place
of breeding." But by one means and another James had
succeeded in putting quite an Episcopal face upon the
" sincerest kirk in the world."
Charles I and His Advisers. — In 1625, James VI
died, and was succeeded by his son, Charles I. He was
in some respects an improvement on his father. " The
face of the court," writes Mrs. Hutchinson, " was much
changed, for King Charles was temperate, chaste and
serious ; so that the fools and bawds, mimics and cata-
mities of the former court, grew out of fashion ; and the
nobility and courtiers, who did not quite abandon their
debaucheries, yet so reverenced the king as to retire into
corners to practice them." This sounds well, and pre-
pares us to hope for good things from the new king ;
but the same writer feels constrained to add, " he was a
prince that had nothing of faith or truth, justice or gener-
osity in him." A part of the legacy which his father left
him was a book bearing the title, '' Basilicon Doron."
In this book Charles was taught that " the office of a king
is of a mixed kind, civil and ecclesiastical, and that a
principal part of his function consists in ruling the
Church." Charles very cordially embraced this doctrine ;
and associated with himself as chief advisers in carrying it
into effect, Charles Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, and
William Laud, Bishop of London, and after 1633, Arch-
bishop of Canterbury. Wentworth made it his business
to make the king independent of Parliament, and Laud
144 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
exercised himself to secure for the king complete control
of the church.
The Service Book for Scotland. — In reference to the
Church of Scotland, they took up the work just where
James left it off, but they proceeded with much less cau-
tion and much greater rapidity — this for the reason that
they did not know any better. Laud prepared a Service
Book for the use of the Scotch Church, making it a little
more popish in its cast than the English prayer book.
The king appointed Easter Sunday 1637 for its intro-
duction. So far were the Scotch Presbyterians from
showing gratitude for these royal attentions, that they
frightened the king's agents, and they let Easter pass
without trying to introduce the new liturgy. The king
then set the 23d of July, and put his foot down firmly,
demanding £hat there should be no further delay. A
great congregation was gathered on the appointed day in
St. Giles Church, Edinburgh. The surface was calm, but
volcanic fires were burning beneath. The dean of the
Cathedral began to read, but he had not proceeded far,
when Janet Geddes — a name to be remembered — rising
from the stool on which she was seated near the pulpit,
picked up the stool and hurled it at the dean's head,
with the exclamation : *' Pause loon, dost thou say mass
at my lug ! " Others followed the example of the irate
dame, and for awhile missiles of all kinds, especially little
clasp Bibles, flew toward the unhappy dean's head thick
and fast. He took himself out of the way as quickly as
possible. The bishop tried to quiet the turbulent crowd,
but they had no reverence even for a successor of the
apostles. So far from it, they shouted, '' A Pope, a Pope,
down with him ! " and began to suit the action to the
words, when the bishop prudently followed in the foot-
SCOTLAND 145
steps of the dean. The king and his archbishop had
gone too far. The patience of his people was at length
exhausted, and their long-restrained aversion to episco-
pacy vented itself with greater freedom than tenderness.
Renewing the National Covenant.— When Charles
heard what had taken place on the 23d of July in St.
Giles Church, he raved quite a good deal, but his raving
did not mend matters. The Scotts were terribly in ear-
nest. The privy council appointed representatives from
the different classes of citizens to negotiate with the
king. They petitioned him very humbly and very ear-
nestly to reconsider, and not try further to force the
Service Book on them. He turned a totally deaf ear to
their petitions and grew more determined. Then the
Scotts did one of the most memorable things in all the
stirring history of those times. They met together in
great numbers, nobles, gentry, ministers and peasants, in
old Greyfriar's churchyard, on the ist day of March,
1638, and renewed the National Covenant. This coven-
ant was drawn up in 1580, and at that time had been
signed by King James, along with his loyal subjects. By
this act they bound themselves to defend the doctrine and
discipline of the Church of Scotland. The king proved
utterly false to his oath, and taught his son to seek the
overthrow of the Church which he had sworn to defend.
It is evident that while the long-suffering people had per-
mitted the king to mar in no small measure their beloved
church, they had not changed their minds. They were
at heart still true to the faith of their fathers, and with
tears of joy they affixed their names to the old covenant.
What was done in Edinburgh on that ist of March was
soon known throughout the land, and everywhere, with
like demonstrations of joy, the covenant was renewed.
146 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
Church Restored to Pure Presbyterianism. — The
king had no force at hand to compel his refractory sub-
jects to obey his will, and so he reluctantly consented to
the calling of a general assembly, and to the meeting of
Parliament, " for settling and confirming peace in Church
and state." The assembly met at Glasgow on the 2ist of
November, 1638. The king's commissioner, the Marquis
of Hamilton, was present to act in the king's name, and
to see that the assembly took no radical step. Alexander
Henderson was elected moderator. With courtly grace,
but with imperturbable courage, he parried all the efforts
of the royal commissioner to control the proceedings of
the body. Under his skillful and determined leadership,
the assembly set to work to wipe out every vestige of
Episcopacy, and to restore the church to the pure type
of Presbyterianism into which it had been molded by
the hand of Andrew Melville. They wrought faithfully,
and at the end of one month, they had deposed all the
bishops in Scotland, and excommunicated eight of them ;
they had nullified the acts of all the assemblies, held
from 1606 to 161 8, by which prelacy had been intro-
duced, and declared all the innovations made by them
illegal ; they had condemned the Five Articles of Perth,
the canons, liturgy, and book of ordination and the High
Commission. Having finished the business of the as-
sembly, Henderson said in dissolving it : " We have now
cast down the walls of Jericho. Let him that rebuildeth
them beware of the curse of Hiel the Bethelite."
Attempt at Coercion. — The king's temper was not
sweetened by these proceedings, and he at once pre-
pared for war. The Scots, hearing of this, did the
same. When the king reached the borders of Scotland,
he found an army confronting him, marshaled under a
SCOTLAND 147
blue banner, bearing the significant words, " For Christ's
Crown and Covenant." He deemed discretion the
better part of valor, and retired without risking a battle.
He called together his Parliament, the first that had
met in eleven years, and asked for money to increase his
force. His Parliament was more concerned about the
king's bad behavior at home than about the bad
behavior of the Scots, and consequently replied to the
king's request for money, by asking a redress of griev-
ances. On this Charles indignantly prorogued Parlia-
ment, and called on the English bishops for help. Hav-
ing preached the divine right of kings and the duty of
passive obedience, they put in practice their doctrine by
helping the king to the full limit of their purses. Hav-
ing recruited his forces he marched North again. The
Scots did not trouble him to cover the whole distance
but with generous consideration started to meet him
half way. Charles reconsidered and declined the meet-
ing. Once more he summoned his Parliament to ask
their help. This Parliament met in 1640, and is known
as the " Long Parliament." Before it adjourned the
monarchy, the monarch, his chief advisers, Wentworth
and Laud, and the Established Church of England had
all been swept away.
The Civil War. — Charles dropped his quarrel with the
Scotch, and entered on a more serious one with his
Parliament. War between them was declared in 1642,
and then both sides sought the aid of the Scots. The
sympathy of these was, as a matter of course, with the
Parliament, for that was the side, sanctified by the sacred
cause of liberty. At the same time they were very
reluctant to lift the hand of revolt against the dynasty,
which they themselves had given to England. They de-
148 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
cided, finally, to cast their lot with the Parliament
provided Parliament would unite with them in a Solemn
League and Covenant, in which both parties would bind
themselves " to endeavor the preservation of the Reformed
religion in the Church of Scotland, in doctrine, worship,
discipline and government, against our common enemies ;
the reformation of religion in the kingdoms of England
and Ireland in doctrine, worship, discipline and govern-
ment, according to the word of God, and the example
of the best Reformed churches ; and shall endeavor
to bring the churches of God in the three king-
doms to the nearest conjunction and uniformity in
religion. Confession of Faith, Form of Government,
Directory of Worship and Catechising ; that we and our
posterity after us may, as brethren, hve in faith and love,
and the Lord may delight to dwell in the midst of us."
This covenant further bound them " to endeavor the
extirpation of all popery and prelacy," and to attempt
several other things. But the interests of religion were
placed by the Scotch in the first place, and it was clearly
manifest that while patriotism was not absent, the motive
which overcame their scruples about taking arms against
their king was their concern for the kingdom of Christ.
The "Westminster Assembly. — Before the actual be-
ginning of hostilities between the Parliament and the
king, the Parliament had issued a call for the assembling
of a body of learned and godly divines to advise with
them in reference to reforming the Church. The king
refused to sign the call, but in defiance of his will, the
Assembly met in Westminster Abbey on the ist day of
July, 1643. When the treaty was concluded between the
Parliament and the Scots, the Solemn League and
Covenant was sworn to and signed on the same day by
SCOTLAND 149
both the ParHament and the Westminster Assembly of
Divines. One result of this, previously agreed on, was
that the Church of Scotland sent commissioners to sit in
the Assembly at Westminster. These commissioners ex-
erted an influence over the proceedings of the assembly
altogether out of proportion to their number. One rea-
son for this was the great ability of the men. The two
lay delegates from Scotland, Maitland and Johnstone,
measured up to the ablest lay members from the English
Parliament; while Henderson, Rutherford and Gillespie
formed a triumvirate that could hardly be equaled by
any church of Christendom. Another reason, and a
yet more powerful one, perhaps, was the fact that the
Scotch commissioners knew exactly what they wanted
and why they wanted it. The majority of the assembly
were favorable to Presbyterianism in the abstract, but
they had been reared in the Episcopal Church, and knew
nothing from personal experience of the practical work-
ing of the Presbyterian polity. Thus the Scotch had
the advantage of contending for principles with which
they had been familiar, all their lives, and under the
operation of which they had for years been exercising
their ministry. The work of the assembly consisted in
framing a Confession of Faith, Directory for Worship,
Form of Government, and the Larger and Shorter
Catechisms. From reasons, which it would be out of
place here to consider, England received very little direct
benefit from the labors of the Assembly. On the other
hand, Scotland at once accepted all the formularies
which it produced, and from that time to the present, not
only the Church of Scotland, but all the churches that
have sprung from her in other lands, in Canada, in the
United States of America, and in Australia, have
I50 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
measured orthodoxy by the Westminster Confession of
Faith and have carried on government and exercised
discipline in accordance with the poHty framed by that
famous assembly.
Outcome of the War. — When the Scots joined the
English patriots in a war against Charles I, it was not
with the thought of overthrowing the monarchy, or of
injuring the king. They merely meant to recover him
from his evil ways, and secure from him certain guarantees
that he would henceforth respect the rights of his sub-
jects. But as the war progressed, Oliver Cromwell came
into prominence as the one great military genius of the
times ; and before the revolution was over he held all the
reins of power in his hands. Cromwell well knew that if
Charles were restored to his throne, no matter with what
guarantees, there would be no room in England for him,
and he very rightly judged that of the two, England
could much better spare Charles. In conformity with
this judgment, he " purged " ParHament and had the
king beheaded. At this the Scotch were horrified, and
at once took steps to bring the king's young son over
from Holland. They managed to get him safely landed
among them ; and after making him kneel down and con-
fess the sins of his father and mother, and then sign the
National Covenant, with hand lifted high to heaven in
solemn oath, they put the crown on his head. Cromwell
did not wait for this consummation before starting north
with his Psalm-singing Ironsides to see if their matters
would stand. In two great battles he annihilated the
military force of Scotland. The young king, leaving his
crown behind fled in disguise from the kingdom, barely
escaping with his head. The hand that had proved re-
sistless in England and Ireland was laid with such heavy
SCOTLAND 151
weight on Scotland that " even that stubborn church," to
quote the words of Macaulay, "which had held its own
against so many governments, scarce dared to utter an
audible murmur."
Oliver Cromwell and the Church of Scotland. —
Cromwell has been much censured for invading the liber-
ties of the Church of Scotland, dispersing its synods and
breaking up its general assemblies. It should be noted,
however, that the church had made common cause with
Charles II, and the ministers had exerted themselves to
rally the nation to the royal standard. They did this
when they had good reason to know that the young king
was playing the hypocrite and perjuring himself in sign-
ing the covenant. Cromwell wrote just after the battle
of Dunbar : " Some of the honestest in the army among
the Scots did profess before the fight that they did not
beheve the king in his declaration ; and it is evident he
did sign it with the greatest reluctance, and so much
against his heart as could be ; and yet they venture their
lives for him upon this account ; and publish to the world
this ' Declaration ' to be believed as the act of a person
converted, when in their heart of hearts they knew he ab-
horred the doing of it, and meant it not. " Cromwell's
judgment was so manifestly just in this matter that we
censure him less severely for selling some of the captives,
taken in this battle of Dunbar, as slaves to the colonists of
New England. Till his death in 1658, the great Oliver
ruled Scotland with a despotism that would brook no op-
position, but it was a despotism in the interests of right-
eousness. No minister who devoted himself to his
proper work of building up the spiritual kingdom of Christ
was molested. No trace of prelacy was permitted; and
fair-minded Scotchmen now admit that while the people
152 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
were ruled against their will, they were on the whole
ruled well. The means of grace were furnished in abun-
dance and in purity ; and religion flourished as at no other
time since the Reformation.
Restoration of the Monarchy. — On the death of Crom-
well, the scepter of his power passed to the hand of his
son Richard. That hand was too feeble to wield it.
After a few months, Richard resigned the Protectorate,
and retired to private hfe. The country was now trem-
bling on the verge of anarchy. The thoughts of the peo-
ple turned to Charles II, who was again in Holland, and
their hearts grew tender as they reflected on his pathetic
condition and the tragic fate of his father. Without ex-
acting any pledges that he would be more considerate of
their rights than his father had been, they brought him
back, and seated him on the throne with great rejoicing.
Scotland shared in the joy. Was he not their own kith
and kin ? Had he not put his hand to the National
Covenant, thus engaging to defend the beloved kirk?
Did he not do this after having been solemnly admonished
not to sign if he had any scruples ? It may be suggested,
in passing, that he evidently had no scruples in signing
the Covenant, for he never had any scruples about any-
thing. He could make an oath and break it with equal
freedom from scruples. But the Scots had to learn
some things yet about the king for whom a few years be-
fore they had poured out their blood so freely. In the
meantime they joined in the general rejoicing over the set-
ting up again of the throne, and the substitution of a
crowned Stuart for the uncrowned Oliver.
Episcopalians Uncompromising and Resentful. —
Never was joy more untimely. The utmost that can be
said for the new king is that he was good-natured, and ut-
SCOTLAND
153
terly godless. He might have been wiUing to let the Scots
alone in the enjoyment of their Presbyterianism, if his
Episcopal advisers had let him alone. But with the res-
toration of the monarchy came the restoration of the Es-
tablished Church ; and this meant the restoration of the
bishops who had suffered because of their devotion to
Charles I. It hardly consisted with their idea of justice,
to say nothing of gratitude, for Charles II to treat with
equal consideration those who had been responsible for
the revolution that resulted in his father's death, and
those who, throughout the revolution, had shared his
father's sufferings, and exerted themselves to the utmost
to avert his tragic fate. They recognized that their turn
had come now, and bishops though they were, they were
also human enough to enforce the lex talionis. They re-
solved to restore the old order to the very last jot and
tittle, and constrain the Presbyterians either to accept it,
or take the consequence of expulsion from the Church.
Effects of the Restoration on Scotland. — Whether or
not Charles II was good-natured, it cannot be questioned
that his conduct toward his loyal subjects of Scotland was
about as bad as it could be. He was guilty of perjury,
ingratitude, treachery, and savage cruelty. As a specimen
it may be noted that the Duke of Argyle, who had placed
the crown on his head nine years before, and had then
put his life in peril to defend that crown, went down to
London to pay his respects to Charles, was there cast into
prison, and afterwards was sent to Scotland and beheaded.
Others who had fought under the banner of Charles in
his effort to overthrow Cromwell fared no better. He
had learned nothing from the fate of his father, but went
to work to overthrow all the liberties that had been en-
joyed during the period of the Protectorate, and to make
154 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
himself absolute in both state and Church. Absolutism
necessitated the destruction of Presbyterianism in Scot-
land, and no time was lost in entering on this undertak-
ing. Apart from the king's own base ingratitude and
treachery, the most shameful aspect of the history is in
the fact that the king found willing agents to assist in
destroying the kirk among the Scots themselves, and
even among the Presbyterians.
The Setting Up of Episcopacy.— The Parliament met
on the 1st day of January, 1661, and lent itself, with the
most obsequious servility, to the purpose of the king. It
'• did rescind all the acts approving the National Cove-
nant, the Solemn League and Covenant, and the abolish-
ing of bishops in Scotland ; and they rescinded all acts
for Presbyterian government, yea, all Parliaments since
1637, as wanting lawful authority — only tolerating Pres-
byterian government during the king's pleasure." It
may be presumed that it was not the king's pleasure to
tolerate Presbyterian government long. In the following
September, only eight months after the Parliament put
the power in his hands, the king had proclamation made
that it was his pleasure that the kirk be restored *• to the
right government of bishops." Immediately thereupon
four clergymen were sent down to London to be ordained
bishops and to receive the sacred deposit of holy orders
for the propagation of a perennial line of bishops. On
their return to Scotland they consecrated ten bishops to
as many vacant sees, and we have it from Episcopal au-
thority that " the Apostolic Succession has not been
again interrupted." The next step was to declare that all
preachers who had been settled in their pastorates since
1649, had been settled unlawfully, and now if they would
retain their churches they must receive them at the hands
SCOTLAND 155
of the patron and the bishop of the diocese. When this
act was enforced, as it was with unrelenting rigor, the
Presbyterian Church of Scotland had ceased to exist.
It is matter for astonishment that Charles II should
have succeeded in a very little while in doing what both
his father and grandfather strove to do through many
years and failed to do. We must look for an explanation
in two facts : (i) the people were worn out with the in-
cessant strife of years, and were wanting in that vigor of
spirit which had belonged to former days ; (2) there was
no Knox, nor Melville, nor Henderson to arouse them to
heroic resistance. There was at this juncture a dearth of
great men.
Persecution. — Let it not be supposed that all the peo-
ple were submissive. Far from it. Never did the spirit
of inflexible devotion to principle exhibit itself in more
lofty heroism than during this period. When the preach-
ers were given the alternative of submitting to the
bishops, or giving up their churches and homes, four
hundred of them went out, sacrificing not only comfort,
but their only means of livelihood. Their people gener-
ally were loyal to them, and deserted the churches from
which they had been expelled. But this could not be al-
lowed. Soldiers were sent to enforce attendance on the
parish church. Fines and imprisonments were the pen-
alty for absence. The ejected preachers were forbidden
to preach anywhere, and in case they should disregard
the prohibition, the people were forbidden to attend on
their ministry. It was utterly impossible for all the
preachers and people to so stifle their convictions, and
repress the spirit of independence which is so strong in
the Scotch character, as to comply with these stringent
measures. They worshiped together in the woods and
156 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
fields, taking the risks of discovery and punishment.
Many were the trials which they suffered, their condition
growing worse all the while as the government became
more thoroughly organized in its machinery for sup-
pressing dissent.
The Pentland Rising. — Goaded to desperation, a few
brave spirits came together and resolved to try what vir-
tue there was in open resistance. A battle took place
with the government troops on the 26th of November,
1 666, at RuUion Green, on the Pentland Hills. The raw
recruits were no match for the trained soldiers, and suffered
a sore defeat. This was made the pretext for increasing
severities. The court of High Commission, near of kin to
the Spanish Inquisition, in its spirit and methods, used
the thumbscrew and the boot, to extort confessions, and
to secure information against suspects. Ten of the pris-
oners, taken in the battle, were executed on the charge of
treason. The condition of the people was now most pit-
iable. They were constrained to endure without a mur-
mur the imposition of a Church government and worship
which were odious to them, and daily making itself more
odious ; and also to repudiate vows which they felt to be
binding on their consciences ; or as the only alternative, to
suffer whatever indignity and outrage a brutal soldiery
chose to inflict on them. Many families were ruined
by fines ; and men, women and even children were the
victims of violence in various forms.
The Agents of the Government. — Those who were
most prominent in the persecution of the Presbyterians,
or the Covenanters, as they were now called, were native
Scotchmen, many of them renegades, or apostates from
the faith which they were persecuting. The Duke of
Lauderdale^ who sat in the Westminster Assembly as a
SCOTLAND 157
trusted and honored elder from the Church of Scotland,
was Secretary of State and specially active in forcing
Episcopacy on his countrymen. Perhaps, however, the
palm for supereminence in evil was fairly won by James
Sharp. He had held a pastorate in the Presbyterian
Church during the time of the commonwealth. On the
eve of the restoration, being recognized as a man of af-
fairs, Sharp was sent over to Breda, as a representative
of the Presbyterian interests, to " provide for the protec-
tion and preservation of the government of the Church
of Scotland, as it is settled by law, without violation."
He most shamefully betrayed his trust, and came back to
Scotland to be a docile instrument in the hands of the
king and court to overthrow the Church whose interests
he had been appointed to guard. He was rewarded for
his treachery by being made Archbishop of St. Andrews.
He sold himself to do evil in the sight of the Lord, and
his name is not likely to be forgotten. An attempt was
made on his life which failed, and the result was an in-
crease of his malignant zeal. By and by, another attempt
was made on his life which did not fail. A few Cove-
nanters met him on a lonely moor, and there and then,
they constituted themselves judge, jury, and executioner,
and deliberately put him to death — not, as they said, to
gratify any personal malice, but merely to vindicate jus-
tice.
Drumclog and Bothwell Bridge.— The allegiance of
many of Charles' poor persecuted subjects gave way un-
der the prolonged injustice and outrage to which they
were subjected. They came to deny his right to exercise
power over their religious beliefs, and to feel that it
would be no violation of their duty to God, if they should
take up arms in self-defense. This view led numbers to
158 HISTORY OF. PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
arm themselves, and to stand guard over the congrega-
tions that met for worship in the open air. John Gra-
ham, or Claverhouse, as he is more frequently called, at
the head of the king's troops, while scouring the country
to break up these •' Conventicles," came upon a body of
these sentinels, and ordered his soldiers to fire into them.
The fire was returned, and was followed by a determined
charge. Claverhouse had to save himself by flight, and
left forty troopers behind him dead on the ground. Of
course, this act of rebelhon must be revenged. A large
force was sent out from Edinburgh, under the Duke of
Monmouth. The Covenanters marshaled what strength
they could for resistance. The two forces met at Both-
well Bridge. The battle went against the Presbyterians,
four hundred were slain and twelve hundred were taken
prisoners. On these, horrible cruelties were practiced,
and fresh means of persecution devised against the weak-
ened Covenanters. So many were the victims of this in-
discriminate persecution that it is known in history as the
" Killing Time."
Reign of James II. — In 1685 Charles II died, and
having no offspring, the crown passed to his brother
James II. The new king was a Roman Catholic, and it
might have been supposed that it was a matter of no
concern to him whether his Scotch subjects were Episco-
palians or Presbyterians. As they were in revolt against
the Pope, they were, by that, debarred from heaven, in
either case, and why should it matter with him whether
they went to perdition with or without bishops ? Ob-
viously it was not a question of the hereafter with James,
but a question of the here and now. He had inherited
the dictum of his grandfather, " No bishop, no king," and
in the light of this he was shaping his policy. It would
SCOTLAND 159
not make their chances of heaven any brighter to impose
Episcopacy on them, but it would greatly brighten his
prospects of ruling with an absolute and arbitrary power.
So the persecution of the Covenanters went on, not with
the same unremitting severity, but with the same brutal
ferocity. Fortunately for the distressed Covenanters,
James very soon alienated all classes of his Protestant
subjects. He undertook by the sheer exercise of his own
royal will to relieve his fellow Catholics from the opera-
tion of the laws against dissent. Very naturally the
whole country became alarmed. If the laws could not
restrain this Catholic king, there was grave reason to fear
that the realm would again be brought under the rule of
the Pope. England and Scotland, Episcopalian and
Presbyterian were at one in their purpose that this should
not be done ; and so they joined in an invitation to
William of Orange, grandson of Charles I, the son-in-law
of James, and stadtholder of Holland, to come over and
be their king. James found himself deserted by his
army, and was constrained to flee from his kingdom in
the disguise of a servant.
Policy of the New King. — William HI, as he was
henceforth known, was a Dutch Presbyterian. Very
naturally the Scotch looked for better times, nor were
they disappointed. This sturdy Dutchman did not, Hke
James I, forget his Presbyterian raising when he found
himself at the head of the English Church. He was the
only genuine Presbyterian head that Church has ever
had, and on the whole he was, with the exception of
Queen Victoria, the best head it has ever had. In respect
to religious tolerance, he showed the same largeness of
view that had been characteristic of his countrymen since
the days of his great-grandfather, William the Silent.
i6o HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
The Revolution Settlement. — In 1690 was formed the
Revolution Settlement, by which the Presbyterian Church
was again established by law as the national Church of
Scotland. " The first step in this settlement was the
abolition of the act of 1661, which had made the king
supreme over all persons and in all causes civil and
ecclesiastical. The next was to restore the surviving
ministers, about sixty, who had been ejected in 1662.
The last decisive step was to establish the Church on the
basis of the Confession of Faith, and of the Presbyterian
pohty as defined and secured by the act of 1592." It
seems that it took the Stuart dynasty just a hundred
years to demonstrate that the Scotch people could not be
transformed into EpiscopaHans, and precisely the same
length of time to render their ideas of kingcraft so
odious to the whole British nation that they could no
longer endure their rule.
Character of the Reconstituted Church.— William
Carstairs was the king's chief adviser in Scotch affairs.
He was educated in Holland, and had formed an intimate
relation with William of Orange before they crossed to
England together. He shared in the broad-minded views
of the king, and advised the reestablishing of presby-
tery with certain checks, which would prevent a deeply-
wronged and irritated people from taking vengeance
on their former oppressors. The appointment of preach-
ers was placed in the hands of the land-owners and the
elders. The conditions were made easy for those already
holding churches under Episcopal appointment to retain
their positions. Only a mild repentance was required,
and the avowed acceptance of the new order of affairs.
Many complied, and without any loss to themselves were
transformed from Episcopal to Presbyterian preachers.
SCOTLAND i6i
When it is considered that thousands of the Covenanters,
including the ablest and the best, paid with their lives the
price of their devotion to principle, and that their place
was taken by this element, whose principles sat so loosely
on them that they could lay them aside at the bidding of
policy, it becomes obvious that the rehabilitated Church
entered on its new career on no very lofty plain of piety.
'' Its ministry consisted, first, of sixty elderly men, the
survivors of the ejectment of 1662 ; second, of more than a
hundred others who had been ordained after that date, but
who had in many ways conformed to the prelatic system ;
third, of three preachers, who had been ministering among
the hill-folk, or extreme Covenanters ; and lastly of the
curates who were found willing to submit to the new
order of things." It was not long before it came to be
manifest that these heterogeneous elements had in them
the seeds of future trouble. After the lapse of a few
years two distinct parties emerged, the Moderates and
the Evangelicals. As the names import, one party dis-
counted experimental religion, magnified scholarship and
preached the ethical side of Christianity ; the other party
believed in a religion which warms the heart and inspires
devotion, and they preached Christ, and the need of
regeneration.
Formation of the Associate Presbytery. — In 1702
Queen Anne came to the throne. She was the last of
the Stuart dynasty, and showed herself true to its spirit
and history by meddling in the affairs of the Scotch
Church. In the changed state of the world, she could
not undertake anything so rash as attempting to put it
again under the control of bishops, but she did it all the
harm she could. In saying this it is assumed that she
was responsible for an act of Parliament, which was an
i62 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
embodiment of the old spirit of hostility to the Presby-
terian Church of Scotland, and in a line with former
efforts to gain an advantage for Episcopacy. In 1707
the two realms of England and Scotland were united
under one Parliament. In entering into this union one
of the guarantees exacted by the Scots was that the
Confession of Faith and Presbyterian form of Church
government were •' to continue without any alteration to
the people of this land in all succeeding generations."
And yet just five years after the Union, the English
Parliament, in the face of earnest protest from all parties
in the Church, imposed upon it one of the greatest curses
under which it ever suffered. This was the act restoring
lay-patronage. The new act did not go into effect at
once. The lay patrons for a time respected the rights of
the people, but at length, as Moderatism ripened into a
large measure of religious indifference, patrons became
more aggressive and the assembly less jealous of their
encroachments upon religious liberty. Matters reached
a crisis in 1733, when Ebenezer Erskine was rebuked for
advocating reform, and on refusing to submit was sus-
pended from the ministry. Three other ministers went
out with him, bearing the same reproach, and these four
on the 6th of December, 1733, formed themselves into
the Associate Presbytery. It is a day to be remembered
with sadness. The noble Church of Scotland, which had
suffered through nearly two centuries, resisting even unto
blood, in a heroic struggle for the right to manage her
own affairs, thrust out from her bosom those of her own
children who still had the spirit to prolong the same
struggle. Such a shameful thing could never have hap-
pened, had not the fires of devotion been permitted to
burn low on her altars.
SCOTLAND 163
Formation of the Relief Church. — This secession did
not put an end to the troubles. The patrons continued
to present unacceptable men to the livings. The people
continued to reject them and the General Assembly con-
tinued to uphold the legal rights of the patron. If a
presbytery sided with the people, the assembly over-
rode the presbytery. Soon another earnest soul could
endure the outrage no longer, and daring to obey his
conscience, he was suspended from his sacred office.
This was Thomas Gillespie, and being joined by Thomas
Boston, and Collier of Cohnsburgh, they organized a pres-
bytery to which they gave the significant title of the
" Relief Church." They designed that it should be a
refuge for aU those who, like themselves, could no longer
bear " the yoke of patronage and the tyranny of Church
courts."
This second secession took place in the year 1752, the
year which marked the advent of Principal Robertson as
the acknowledged leader of the General Assembly. He
was the consummate flower and fruitage of Moderatism,
calm, cultured, eloquent, ardent in the pursuit of liter-
ature, but utterly phlegmatic in reference to piety. As
historian of Scotland, America and Charles V, he won
great fame, and came into intimate relations with such
writers as Gibbon and Hume. Drawn to them by con-
geniality of literary taste, he was not repelled by their
avowed hostility to Christianity. During the twenty
years of his ascendancy over the General Assembly, the
unrighteous laws concerning patronage were rigidly en-
forced, " now and again with the help of a troop of
dragoons," and the complaints of the people and the
scruples of presbyteries were alike disregarded. It was
well for the cause of Christ that Erskine and Gillespie
1 64 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
threw off the yoke, and opened the way for others to
escape from a tyranny so gaUing to every truly devout soul.
The Evangelical Revival With the incoming of the
nineteenth century, there came also the dawn of a brighter
day for the Church of Scotland. Among the human
agents of God chosen to usher in this day, two names are
especially prominent. One of these was Andrew
Thompson, who began his ministry in Edinburgh in 1810.
With effective eloquence he lifted into prominence the
great doctrines of grace, and then with fearless plainness
rebuked the worldhness, the lax living that pervaded the
Church. In addition to his pulpit ministry he established
a church paper, The Christian Instructor, which gave him
a larger audience, and contributed in no small degree to
the dissemination of evangelical views. The other name
is more illustrious still. "In 181 1, the tongue of Thomas
Chalmers was first unloosed to preach the truth." This
was eight years after his ordination, but up to 181 1, his
preaching had been purely professional, and had by no
means enlisted as much of his interest as his mathematical
and philosophical pursuits. God used the writings of
William Wilberforce to awaken his conscience, to quicken
and warm his heart. His preaching now took on a de-
cidedly evangelical tone ; and it was not long before all
Scotland knew that a mighty force had entered into the
life of the reviving Church. In adding Chalmers to the
side of the Evangelicals, God had given them a " mouth
and a wisdom which none of their adversaries could
gainsay or resist."
Home and Foreign Missions. — The tide of genuine
piety which had long been ebbing was now fairly turned,
and the church was aroused to beneficent activity in many
directions. She began to concern herself about the
SCOTLAND 165
neglected classes for whom no adequate provision was
made in the Established Church. A scheme of Church
extension was inaugurated, which in a few years had
planted two hundred Chapels of Ease throughout the
country. But the sympathies of the Church, throbbing
now with renewed animation, could not be restricted
within the narrow limits of Scotland, nor indeed of Chris-
tendom. From the time of his conversion, the heart of
Chalmers had glowed with missionary fervor. God, in
his providence, brought under the power of his voice a
student in the University of St. Andrews, whose name is
honored to this day as the greatest missionary that has
yet been given to India, the name of Alexander Duff.
He was sent out by the Church of Scotland in 1829, one
of the best missionaries ever sent to the heathen world.
Up to that time only voluntary societies in the Church
had carried on the work of foreign missions.
Origin of the Free Church. — As spiritual life became
more vigorous, the chronic troubles over lay patronage
reached an acute stage. Patrons were still exercising
their legal right, under the act of Queen Anne, to force
unacceptable pastors on the people. The assembly had
now come to sympathize with her oppressed children,
and in 1834 passed a veto act, by which presbyteries were
forbidden to induct the nominees of patrons against the
will of the people. A test case was made and the civil
court decided that the veto act was unconstitutional, and
so the parishioners were still at the mercy of the unmerci-
ful patrons. Two ways only were open to the General
Assembly — it must either resist and take the consequences,
let them be what they might, or shamefully submit and
betray the sacred interests of God's people. It is painful
to record that it chose the latter way.
i66 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
The year 1 842 a convocation was held, and a large
number of ministers resolved that if no relief could be
secured, they would withdraw from the establishment.
It was their purpose, if the government would not agree
to protect and support the Church without attempting to
subvert its liberties, to renounce the protection and sup-
port of the government, and cast themselves on the
providence of God and the voluntary gifts of his people.
No relief came, and so the next year, they carried out their
purpose. On the i8th day of May, 1843, four hundred
and seventy ministers and a large body of sympathizing
elders withdrew from the Established Church, and organ-
ized themselves into the Free Church of Scotland.
Effects of this Disruption. — Few churches have ever
suffered such a blow as that inflicted by the Disruption
of 1843 on the Church of Scotland. *' In the large towns
her chief pulpits were vacant ; of her country parishes
more than one fourth were in like condition ; of her
Chapels of Ease, her latest joy and pride, nigh two
thirds had deserted the mother that bore them ; and her
very claim to the fabrics of these last, which were bur-
dened with a debt of ^30,000, had to be vindicated in
the civil courts. Abroad the outlook was equally dis-
couraging. Of all her missionaries, Indian and Jewish,
only one remained steadfast. Taking their converts and
the good name of the Scottish Church along with them,
they cast in their lot with the Free Church." Truly it
was an appahing task to which the Church must address
itself. Vacant pulpits of commanding importance were
to be filled, and there were no preachers to fill them ;
foreign mission stations were well equipped with build-
ings, but there were no missionaries to occupy them ; the
home work was prostrated, and the men through whose
SCOTLAND 167
energy it had so recently prospered were no longer
within the Church's pale.
Present Condition of the Church. — It may be said to
the credit of the Church that it wasted no time in idle
repining over the great disaster which had befallen it;
but set to work with vigor to build up the waste places.
It soon organized both its home and foreign missions,
and these departments of the Church's work have gone
steadily forward. In the meantime efforts were put forth
to secure a more satisfactory adjustment of the relation
of Church and state. Some relief was obtained by par-
tial concessions from the government; and in 1874 the
law of private patronage, which had wrought so much
damage, was finally abolished, since which time the people
have been permitted to choose their own pastors. For
those who believe in the principle of establishment, the
condition of the Church of Scotland is as nearly ideal,
perhaps, as its members could reasonably expect. Still
the government is careful to keep the Church reminded
of its presence and authority, even while it does not
exercise its power oppressively. A representative of the
crown must be present at every meeting of the General
Assembly; and it belongs to his office to appoint, by
royal authority, the time and place of the next meeting.
This may be an innocent formality, but to those who
have ever breathed the air of perfect religious liberty,
such an intimation of a right to a voice in the .govern-
ment of the Church, on the part of him who wears an
earthly crown, and solely in virtue of the fact that he
wears an earthly crown, would be intolerable.
In 1866, the General Assembly passed an act permit-
ting congregations to introduce instrumental music and
other innovations in the forms of worship where this
1 68 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
could be done without creating dissension. Many con-
gregations have availed themselves of the permission ;
and there has become manifest in some quarters a de-
cided tendency to " enrich the worship," as it is expressed,
by ritualistic elaborations.
The growth of the Church is indicated by the fact
that its ministers, congregations and communicants are
much more numerous now than before the disruption.
The Divisions of Scotch Presbyterianism.— During
a part of its history, the Presbyterianism of Scotland
manifested a remarkable propensity to split. The Scotch-
men of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries showed
no disposition to compromise principle, nor did they
concern themselves much to find means of conciliation.
When, therefore, a clear-cut issue was raised, involving
a matter of any consequence, the result was likely to be
a division of the Church into two bodies. At the Revo-
lution Settlement, the followers of Richard Cameron saw,
in the Erastianism involved in the Settlement, a good
reason for refusing to go into the National Establish-
ment. For some years they had no preachers to minister
to them, but they held together as praying societies
until joined by ministers, at which time they took the
name of the Reformed Church. In 1733, Erskine, and
three other ministers saw, in the iniquity of lay patron-
age, a sufficient reason for refusing to remain in the
church of their fathers, and organized the Associate
Presbytery. In the course of a few years, the members
of this presbytery differed as to the propriety of taking
certain oaths which were administered by the leading
cities of Scotland to burgesses. They divided into two
churches, Burghers and Anti-Burghers. Toward the end
of the eighteenth century, each of these divided into Old
SCOTLAND 169
Light and New Light. In 1752, Thomas Gillespie, un-
willing to take part in the obtrusion of an unacceptable
minister on a parish, disobeyed the injunction of the
superior court, and was cast out. He and others formed
the Relief Church. Thus for a time there were seven
Presbyterian churches in Scotland, all having sprung
from the same root, but all standing apart in hostile atti-
tude toward each other. These frequent and numerous
divisions are a testimony to the Scotchman's strength of
will and persistence of purpose. He professes himself
'' open to conviction," but challenges " any man on earth
to convict him."
The Unions of Scotch Presbyterianism.— During the
nineteenth century, the proverbial firmness of the
Scotchman seems to have given way. His nature soft-
ened and his will relaxed under the more benign in-
fluences of these later days. In 1820, the two main
divisions of Erskine's church came together and coalesced
under the name of the United Secession Church. In
1847, it was discovered that the Relief Church and the
United Secession Church had grown to be so much alike
that no sufficient reason existed for their longer standing
apart ; so they consolidated into one with much enthusi-
asm, taking the name of the United Presbyterian Church
of Scotland. Both the churches entering into this union
were strong in elements of intellectual, moral and spiritual
power. They were conservative in doctrine, evangelical
in spirit, and aggressive in practice. They carried on a
vigorous home mission work, and after their union they
easily took the lead of all the churches of Scotland, or
of Christendom for that matter, w^ith the one exception of
the Moravians, in their devotion to the work of world-
wide evangehsm. The last and greatest union took place
lyo HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
in October, 1900. Then the Free Church and the United
Presbyterian Church formed a happy combination, and
are now known as the United Free Church. As all
these unions seem to have been consummated without
the sacrifice of any vital principles, it is matter for
thanksgiving to all who wish well to the future of Pres-
byterianism in Scotland.
The Free United Church. — Notice has been taken of
one of the bodies of which this church is composed.
The other, the Free Church of Scotland, had its birth,
as we have seen in the " Disruption of 1843." Those
who at that time went into the new organization gave
up their churches, their manses, and their stipends.
Their sacrifice was the same as that of the two thousand
who were ejected from the English Church in 1662 by
the act of uniformity, and of the four hundred who in
like manner were ejected from the Church of Scotland.
The motive of the sacrifice was the same devotion to a
great principle. It was, therefore, not without reason
that this body claimed to be in true succession to the
Church of Knox, of Melville, and of Henderson. It was
standing by the same principle for which they fought,
the spiritual independence of God's people. Their
splendid act of self-abnegation excited the admiration of
the whole Christian world. It was an eloquent testimony
to the power of vital godliness. The sympathy which it
awakened started the Free Church on a high vantage
ground. Moreover it was blessed with leaders of trans-
cendent ability. Seldom has any church been blessed
with such a galaxy of lustrous names as those of Chal-
mers, Guthrie, Candlish, Cunningham, Welsh and Duff.
Under their wise administration schemes of self-support
were quickly matured and put into successful operation.
SCOTLAND 171
Whereas the prime need of the National Church was
men, the prime need of the Free Church was money.
The noble enthusiasm kindled by the righteousness of
her cause proved sufficient to supply it. The growth of
the church, both at home, and abroad has been rapid,
steady and healthful. This growth has been confined to
no one class of the population, but has been pronounced
among the professional and commercial classes.
Comparison of Free Church With the Mother
Church. — The adherence of all the missionaries to the
Free Church, when the disruption occurred, threw a
great responsibility on the new organization. It speaks
volumes for the strength and fervor of its evangelical
hfe that, notwithstanding the burden of self-support
which was suddenly thrown upon it, the church gladly
assumed the responsibility in the foreign field, and with
generous liberality furnished new equipment, and sped
the work on its way. In every department of activity,
the Free Church has demonstrated its wisdom in with-
drawing from an establishment in which its life and
energies were cramped, and its noblest aspirations
thwarted. Moreover it is evident that its withdrawal has
proved a great blessing to the Mother Church. Com-
petition has stimulated her to more intense activity ; and
the example of self-sacrificing liberality set before her by
the Free Church has induced her to put forth efforts of
enlarged beneficence. A glance at the records will show%
however, that the National Church still has much to
learn in the matter of Christian liberality. The Free
United Church, composed of bodies which for genera-
tions, have been thrown on their own resources for self-
support, shows the blessed result of such training. Its
foreign mission work is represented by 396 European
172 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
and 1,387 native workers; the communicants gathered
from among the heathen number 37>94S ; while the
annual contributions for sustaining the work amount to
;^65 8,285. Over against this, the National Church re-
ports ninety-nine European workers, 171 native workers,
2,483 communicants, and annual contributions, aggrega-
ting ;^243,890. Looking at the roll of communicants of
the two churches, and comparing their respective con-
tributions, it is seen that the National gives forty cents
per member, while the Free United Church gives ^1.35
per member. These figures furnish a strong argument
against state establishment, — its tendency is to make the
church a parasite, and to dry up the fountain of her
benevolence.
Fragments of Churches.— In the various unions that
have taken place from time to time, nearly all the
Presbyterian elements in Scotland have at length gotten
together in the two great churches, to which reference is
made above. But certain fragments were broken off in
the process of forming the unions. There is still a Re-
formed Church, consisting of eight ministers, and 1,040
communicants ; there is also the United Original Seces-
sion Church, with twenty-four ministers and 3,769 com-
municants; and finally there is a synod in England
connected with the Church of Scotland, consisting of
fourteen ministers and 3,520 communicants.
CHAPTER VII
IRELAND
Introduction of Presbyterianism. — St. Patrick and the
church which he planted in Ireland have been claimed
by Roman Catholic, Episcopalian and Presbyterian.
While believing that Patrick more resembled a Pres-
byterian bishop than any other church dignitary, yet we
will waive the question as to the character of the church
which he founded and date the beginning of Pres-
byterianism in Ireland from the early years of the
seventeenth century. The way was opened for it by
the collapse of the rebellion, headed by the two power-
ful chieftains, O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, and O'Donnell,
Earl of Tyrconnell. They sought refuge in exile on the
continent and their lands were forfeited to the crown.
King James opened the territory to settlers from Eng-
land and Scotland, on very advantageous conditions. A
goodly number from both nations, the majority from
Scotland, speedily availed themselves of the opening.
The Scotts settled mostly in the counties of Down and
Antrim, but in considerable numbers throughout the
province of Ulster. They were moved especially by
two impulses, one was to secure good lands at cheap
rates, and the other was to escape from unhappy condi-
tions at home. Their renegade king, James I, now be-
come an ardent Episcopalian, was trying to force the
blessings of Episcopacy on his native land. Thus he
put an inducement in front, and a goad behind.
173
174 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
Ecclesiastical Conditions in Ireland — These were pe-
culiarly favorable for the introduction of Presbyterianism.
The Primate of the Irish Church was the saintly-souled
and liberally-minded Usher. He had been taught in
Trinity College, Dublin, by a Presbyterian teacher, while
the provost of the college was the distinguished Presby-
terian clergyman, the Rev. Walter Travers. The arch-
bishop never outgrew his respect for men of this faith.
Echlin, Bishop of Down, was also liberally inclined, and be-
ing himself a native of Scotland, seemed altogether willing
to see his fellow-countrymen settled in his jurisdiction.
There was sore need of more preachers than the Episco-
pal Church could furnish, for the new settlers were a mot-
ley mixture, tares of a very ugly kind being mingled with
the wheat. A writer of the seventeenth century is quoted
as saying that, " From Scotland there came many, and
from England not a few, yet all of them generally of the
scum of both nations, who for debt, or breaking and flee-
ing from justice, or seeking shelter, came hither, hoping
to be without fear of human justice, in a land where there
was nothing, or but little yet of the fear of God. Thus
on all hands, atheism increased and disregard of God ;
iniquity abounded, contention, fighting, murder." But
there was among the Scotts a sufficient number who
feared God " to set up preaching in all the churches
wherever they fixed." According to an Episcopal writer
these " brought with them hither such a stock of Puritan-
ism., such a contempt for bishops, such a neglect of the
public liturgy, and other divine offices of this Church that
there is nothing less to be found among them than the
government and forms of worship established in the
Church of England." With such parishioners as these to
contend with, some full of devilishness and the rest full of
IRELAND 175
Puritanism, the dignitaries of the Episcopal Church were
ready to avail themselves of Presbyterian preachers from
Scotland. They therefore welcomed Edward Brice in
161 3, Robert Cunningham in 1615, and a httle later,
Robert Blair, James Glendinning, James Hamilton, John
Livingstone, Josias Welsh and others of hke lofty
character and earnest spirit. These were permitted
to occupy the parish churches, receive the legal tithes
for their support, and to conduct worship and admin-
ister discipline according to the forms of the Church of
Scotland ; and all this without any Episcopal ordination.
Had this liberal and sensible policy continued as a per-
manency, what a different history would have been writ-
ten of Protestantism in L'eland !
A Great RevivaL — God wrought with these pioneer
preachers, and soon a marked change began to manifest
itself in the rehgious condition of the new settlers. In
1625 a great revival commenced in the congregation to
which the Rev. James Glendinning ministered. The Lord's
choice of him for the honor of beginning such a work was
an illustration of his using " the weak things of the world
to confound the mighty." He was first settled at Car-
rickfergus. Robert Blair, regarding this as a very disas-
trous misfit, visited him and advised him to leave Car-
rickfergus, because of its importance, and to retire to a
country charge, better suited to his ability. It is proof of
abounding grace in his heart that he took this advice and
went to Old Stone. " He was," says Mr. Blair, " a man
who would never have been chosen by a wise assembly of
ministers, nor sent to begin a reformation in this land, for
he was little better than distract, yea, afterwards did actually
distract. Yet this was the Lord's choice to begin the ad-
mirable work of God, which I mention, on purpose that
176 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
all men may see how the glory is only the Lord's in mak-
ing a holy nation in this profane land ; and that it was
not by might, nor by power, nor by man's wisdom, but
by my spirit, saith the Lord." He knew only how to
wield the terrors of the law, but he did this with such
effect, under the blessing of God, that a lewd and turbu-
lent people were brought to their knees in deep, and even
agonizing contrition. Their spiritual distress was accom-
panied with remarkable physical manifestations. <' I have
seen them myself," writes the same Mr. Blair, " stricken
and swoon with the word ; yea, a dozen in one day car-
ried out of doors as dead, so marvelous was the power of
God, smiting their hearts for sin, condemning and kill-
ing." The influence of this work spread widely through
the country. The other ministers came to the help of
the eccentric Glendinning. Regular monthly meetings
were established, attended by all the ministers who
could reach them. By this means method was given
to their aggressive efforts, and these resulted in the con-
version of great numbers, and in the elevation of the
standard of piety all over the country.
A Change in the Attitude of the Bishops.— With the
increasing prosperity of their work, came a change in the
bearing of the Episcopal clergy toward them. No doubt
the friendliness of these in the outset was based on the hope
that by kindness and courtesy, they could win the Presby-
terians to the P2piscopal Church. But what persecution
could not do in Scotland, kindness could not do in Ireland.
These Presbyterians were o{ the jus divimim stamp, and
to give up their Church polity would involve the sacrifice
of convictions as sacred as their reverence for God's word.
Possibly the changed attitude of the Episcopal clergy
which occurred later was caused by the growing influence
IRELAND 177
and importance of the Presbyterian ministers. Whatever
the cause, the change itself was a very serious matter.
Bishop Echhn set to work to silence them. He tried one
plan after another, and these proving only partially suc-
cessful, the matter was finally brought before King
Charles. He put it into the hands of Wentworth, whom
he had appointed Lord Deputy of Ireland. The prospect
of the Presbyterians was dark indeed, when their fate was
made dependent upon the good, or ill-will of this un-
scrupulous servant of the crown. He and Archbishop
Laud had committed themselves to an effort to make the
king's power absolute in both Church and state. From
this effort the Presbyterians of Scotland were suffering at
this time, and of course the same policy could bring no
good to the Presbyterians of Ireland. It was not long
before all the preachers were brought to trial before the
bishops and silenced. The godly and generous Ussher
had interposed as long as his interposition could avail,
but he had no power to withstand the malignant enemies
who had now taken in hand to crush out all who would
not conform to the prayer book. Henceforth he was
helpless to protect brethren whom he sincerely loved, and
his noble spirit was to find no further expression in the
administrative pohcy of the Episcopal Church in Ireland.
An Effort to Take Refuge in America.— The door of
opportunity being thus shut in their faces, and strongly
bolted, the Presbyterians turned their eyes longingly to
America. In the year 1636, they built a little vessel of
one hundred and fifty tons burden, and named it the
Eagle Wing, hoping that it would bear them by a swift
flight to their desired haven. On the 9th day of Sep-
tember, one hundred and forty of them embarked in this
frail craft, and committed themselves to the perils of the
178 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
ocean. Turning the prow Westward, they sailed a thou-
sand miles, in perpetual struggle with wind and wave.
God set this distance as the limit of their journey. He
had no thought of giving up the work which through
them he had begun, and so he increased the fury of the
storm against which they had all the while been battling,
shattered their little vessel, and forced it back to the port
from which it started. Disappointed in their hope of
reaching America, the silenced ministers returned to
Scotland.
The Black Oath and What Followed.— Wentworth
and the bishops did not stop with shutting the mouths of
the preachers. They undertook the forcible conversion,
or suppression of all the Presbyterians. They imposed
ruinous fines upon some, they locked others up in prison,
and they tried to force the '' Black Oath " on all. By
this oath they were required not only to swear allegiance
to the king, but to swear that they would never oppose any-
thing which he might command, and that they would re-
nounce and abjure all covenants, such as the National
Covenant, which at this time was giving the king and his
supporters so much trouble in Scotland. Many of the
staunch Presbyterians refused to take the oath, preferring
rather the cruel penalties which the court of high com-
mission chose to inflict. Soon their homes were in ruin,
and they themselves in prison, with worse things in pros-
pect. Wentworth had made up his mind and matured
his plans for freeing Ireland from the presence of Pres-
byterians. Apparently there was nothing to hinder his
executing his purpose. But the day of retribution was
drawing near. The Long Parliament met in 1640, and
very soon thereafter it called both Wentworth and Laud
to account for their high-handed oppressions. On the
IRELAND 179
1 2th day of May in that same year Wentworth was be-
headed, and four years later the same fate overtook
Laud ; and to finish this tale of retributive justice, it
is worthy of mention that their most active accomplice,
Charles I had the same measure meted out to him in
1649.
The Irish Rebellion. — A far worse scourge awaited
Ireland, however, than the tyranny of Wentworth. It was
only about six months after he had paid the penalty of his
sins, when the native Irish rose up to exterminate the
foreigners who had taken possession of lands which these
natives still claimed as their own. This rebeUion, or up-
rising, was instigated by Catholic priests, and the decree
of extermination was issued against all Protestants. That
was a cruel age, and many are the thrilling stories of
bloody horrors which its history has transmitted to us.
Of them all, not even excepting the massacre of St. Bar-
tholomew, this " Irish Rebellion " stands out peerless in
the utter fiendishness of its atrocities. The degraded
savages, going forth with the benediction from priestly
lips resting on their hearts to make them insensible to ap-
peals for pity, illustrated as few savages have ever illus-
trated, the indescribable, unutterable measure of diabol-
ical cruelty of which human nature is capable. They
dashed out the brains of infants before the eyes of their
mothers ; they threw some into boiling pots, and others
into filthy ditches. Merely to gratify their brutal in-
stincts, they gouged out the eyes, cut off the ears and
hands, cut out the tongues and otherwise mutilated the
bodies of their helpless victims. They buried some alive,
roasted some over slow fires, and devised every con-
ceivable way to inflict shame and pain on those for whom
they accounted death too gracious a boon. Their worst
i8o HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
deeds were of such a nature that decency will not permit
them to be unveiled. No discrimination was made be-
tween Episcopalians and Presbyterians, between English-
men and Scotchmen ; their object was to sweep all away.
Thanks, however, to the preceding oppressive measures of
Wentworth and the bishops, many Presbyterians were
saved from this reign of terror by being driven across the
channel to their native land. In this manner were pre-
served nearly all the preachers, and influential leaders,
against whom especially the hostility of the Lord Deputy
had been directed. Thus the Almighty made the wrath
of man to praise him, using persecution to drive some of
his children to a place of safety. He would not suffer them
to cross to America, because he needed them in Ireland.
He would not permit them at that time to remain in Ire-
land to be butchered, because he would save them till
the opportunity came for service.
Presbyterians Make a New Beginning. — The oppor-
tunity soon came for the banished Presbyterians to reap-
pear. Scotland sent ten thousand men under command
of General Monro to put down the rebellion. These
landed at Carrickfergus, and with the aid of a few troops
who were already on the ground, quickly broke the force
of the uprising. When the country had become in a
measure quiet, the chaplains, who had crossed with the
Scotch regiments, set about establishing ecclesiastical
order in the army. They selected a number of ruling
elders in each regiment, and formed them into sessions.
When four of these courts had been formed, they called
a meeting of their representatives, and, on June lO, 1642,
organized the first presbytery that ever met on Irish soil.
It will be recalled that the Presbyterian preachers who
first came over to Ireland were permitted to exercise
IRELAND i8i
their ministry in the parishes of the EstabHshed Church.
Content with this arrangement, they made no effort to
build up organic Presbyterianism. Hence the formation
of the presbytery in 1642 marked a new, and most
significant departure. It marked the beginning of great
things for the permanent prosperity of the province of
Ulster. It was the laying of the foundation of a structure
that is still enlarging, and whose splendid proportions are
already the glory of that land. This first presbytery was
composed of five ministers and four ruhng elders.
Changes Produced by the Revolution in England. —
By the time the rebellion had been thoroughly crushed
out, and the work of building up the waste places fairly
inaugurated, war had broken out in England between
Charles I and the Long Parliament. One of the first
things which Parliament did was to abolish the Estab-
lished Church, and remove the bishops from the House
of Lords. Very soon they proceeded to more radical
measures, issuing a manifesto in which they declared that
such a prelatical church government as that which had
existed in the realm was " an evil, and justly offensive
and burdensome to the kingdom, a great impediment to
reformation, and very prejudicial to the civil govern-
ment," and so they resolved to have no more of it. A
few months thereafter, they called together the West-
minster Assembly of Divines '< to consult as to the set-
tling such a government in the Church as may be agree-
able to God's word, and to bring it into nearer agreement
with the Church of Scotland, and other Reformed
churches abroad." The Parliament invoked the aid of
the Scotch in their struggle with the king ; and this gave
birth to the Solemn League and Covenant. This cove-
nant pledged the signers thereof, among other things, to
i82 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
stand for the preservation of the Reformed rehgion in
Scotland, and to endeavor " the bringing of the three
kingdoms to the nearest conjunction, and uniformity in
rehgion. Confession of Faith, Form of Church Govern-
ment, Directory of Worship and Catechising." Of
course, this sweeping revolution changed the face of
things in Ireland. Not only were the persecutions,
directed against Presbyterians, stopped, but the church
which had been guilty of them was overturned, and the
church which had endured the persecutions was invited
to become a helper in inaugurating a new order of affairs.
Scotch ministers brought the Solemn League and Cove-
nant to Ireland ; traversed the country ; called the people
together ; preached to them, and urged them to sign this
document as the charter of their new-born liberties.
Their appeals met with a favorable response, and their
mission did much to forward the interests of Presbyte-
rianism.
In 1645, the Parliament sent over three governors to
the province of Ulster. These gave public countenance
and encouragement to the presbytery, and by their pres-
ence and influence did much to give effect to its labors.
The parochial tithes were paid to the Presbyterian min-
isters, and they were thus recognized as the representa-
tives of the state church. Under such favoring auspices,
the growth of the Church was very rapid. By the close
of the year 1647 there were thirty ordained ministers per-
manently settled in Ulster, and in addition to these were
the chaplains of the Scotch regiments which still garri-
soned the country.
Loyalty to the King Brings Fresh Troubles. — On
the 30th day of January, 1649, Charles I was beheaded.
To this act of violence, the Presbyterians in all three
IRELAND 183
kingdoms offered vigorous resistance. It was necessary
for Cromwell to expel a number of them from the Long
Parliament before the consent of that body could be
secured. In Scotland, the Presbyterians invited Charles
Stuart over from the Netherlands, crowned him at Scone,
and took up arms in his behalf. In Ireland, the Presby-
terians of Ulster drew up a " Representation," in which
they condemned in no measured terms the execution of
the king. They ordered this " Representation " to be read
from every pulpit. It received the honor of an answer,
by order of the council of state, and the author of this
answer was no less a person than John Milton. He
drew upon his well-stocked vocabulary for some of his
most expressive epithets, calling attention to the " devil-
ish mahce, impudence and falsehood" of the remon-
strance sent up from a " barbarous nook of Ireland."
Obviously such conduct on the part of the Presbyterians
was not calculated to draw toward them the favor of the
Parliament, which, after being purged, had made itself
responsible for the king's death. It was with this Parlia-
ment, known as the " Rump Parliament," that the Pres-
byterians now had to deal, and during the brief period of
its power, they were not '' carried to heaven on flowery
beds of ease." An oath was submitted to them, called
the " Engagement," by which they were required to " re-
nounce the pretended title of Charles Stuart, and the
whole line of the late King Charles, and every other per-
son, as a single person pretending to the government."
It was not the purpose of the Rump Parliament to have
any more kings ruling in England, and empowered to
trample on the rights of the people. The " Engage-
ment " further bound them to be true and faithful to the
commonwealth. The Presbyterian preachers refused to
i84 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
take the oath, beheving as they did in the hereditary
right of Charles Stuart to the throne, and preferring
monarchy, under proper restrictions, to any other form
of government. The result was, they had to suffer for
their loyalty to a king, who in after years demonstrated
most conclusively his utter unworthiness of such sacrifices
as they made in his behalf. They were summoned before
the governors ; forbidden to preach ; soldiers were sent
to keep watch over them ; when they dared to disobey
orders, they were arrested and thrown into prison. Some
fled to the woods and to other hiding places, and others
made their way to Scotland.
Conditions During Cromweirs Protectorate. — The
churches suffered greatly from these repressive measures ;
but the time of their tribulation was short. Oliver
Cromwell soon tired of the Rump Parhament, and
abolished it. Having secured for himself the title of
Lord Protector, he took the reins of power in his own
untrammeled hands. He had reason to look with grave
suspicion on the Presbyterians who were still professing
loyalty to a kinglet across the channel. But conscious
of his mastery, he had the grace to be magnanimous.
When he found that the Presbyterians were willing to
submit quietly to the inevitable, and to give themselves
to preaching the gospel, and seeking the spiritual welfare
of the people, he not only put a stop to all persecution^
but granted to every one, who applied for it, state aid to
the extent of one hundred pounds per annum. Under
such generous treatment, the Presbyterian Church re-
covered lost ground, and bounded forward with rapid
strides. Congregations multiplied, parts of the country,
hitherto unoccupied, were possessed, the one presbytery
IRELAND 185
became five, and the twenty-four ministers of 1653 in-
creased in a few years to seventy.
Restoration of Monarchy. — Oliver Cromwell died in
1658. His son Richard, who succeeded to his title, very
soon demonstrated his inabihty to rule, and voluntarily
gave up the effort. The eyes of the nation turned to
Charles Stuart. He was recalled to the throne of his
father amidst a great outburst of universal joy. In the
strong reaction against the military despotism, estab-
lished by Cromwell, the people hastily set up the throne,
without exacting from Charles II any guarantees for the
protection of their liberties. In so short a time they seem
to have forgotten the wrongs which they had suffered
from a line of kings who cherished absurdly exaggerated
ideas of royal prerogative. They were not long in dis-
covering their folly. The restoration of monarchy carried
with it the restoration of Episcopacy, and this brought
back to power the dignitaries of the Church, who had
suffered during the period of the Commonwealth, and
who now had the opportunity to pay off some old scores.
Irish Presbyterians were the first to suffer, notwithstand-
ing they had been among the first to demand the resto-
ration of the king. Prelacy was again set up among
them; bishops were placed in all the dioceses, and these
at once made it understood that no one was to preach
the gospel who had not been consecrated to the holy
office by the laying on of Episcopal hands. Jeremy
Taylor, " the impersonation and special jewel of Angli-
canism," was bishop of Down and Connor. He made
himself conspicuous by his intolerant spirit. He silenced
Presbyterian preachers at a rapid rate, declaring, in one
day, thirty-six of their pulpits vacant and sending curates
to take their place. Other prelates followed Taylor's
1 86 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
example. They not only silenced, but deposed Presby-
terian ministers. The only price at which these could
purchase the dearly-prized privilege of preaching the
gospel was to accept Episcopal ordination, and conform
their worship to the prayer book. To their credit, be it
said, only seven, out of sixty-eight, paid the price. The
other sixty-one sorrowfully bade their devoted flocks
farewell, gave up their manses, and went forth with their
dependent families to endure poverty, and to trust God
for their daily bread. The cruel blow fell not only on
the preachers, but also on the people whom they had
served. Says Mr. Froude : " To insist that none should
officiate, who had not been ordained by a bishop, was to
deprive two thirds of the Protestant inhabitants of the
only religious ministrations which they would accept, and
to force on them the alternative of exile or submission to
a ritual which they abhorred as much as popery, while to
enhance the absurdity, there were probably not a hun-
dred episcopally- ordained clergy in the whole land. Yet
this is what the bishops deliberately thought it wise to
do. Every clergyman had to subscribe a declaration that
a subject, under no pretense, might bear arms against the
king, and that the oath to the League and Covenant was
illegal and impious. Non-conformists became at once the
objects of an unrelenting persecution."
It is worthy of note that while a similar act of uniform-
ity was passed in England, and similar persecutions were
visited on the non-conformists of that kingdom, the blow
did not fall till a year later. It was given to the Presby-
terians of Ireland to take the lead in suffering afflictions
for conscience' sake. Well did they perform the part
which providence assigned them. They walked with
steady tread through the fires that were kindled upon
IRELAND 187
them, and illustrated in the face of the world how grand
a thing it is to sacrifice self for God and his truth. By
their loyal adherence to principle, and their heroic en-
durance of the tragic consequences, they saved Presby-
terianism to Ireland, and no one can easily estimate what
that meant for distant lands, and for generations yet un-
born.
A Period of Change for the Better. — In course of time,
the loyalty of Presbyterians to law and order vindicated
itself, and the government ceased to treat them as crimi-
nals. The deposed preachers gradually ventured to ren-
der service to their bereaved people. For awhile they
moved among them privately, ministering to them in
their homes. Occasionally they met them in barns, or
in the open country under cover of darkness, and
preached to them, and celebrated the sacrament of the
Lord's Supper. The officers of the law showing less and
less disposition to molest them, they began about the
year 1668 to build rude houses of worship. The in-
fluence of the preachers was enhanced by the fortitude
with which they had borne their heavy trials. Their old
congregations gathered lovingly around them, and their
labors were blessed to the rapid upbuilding of the Church.
Sessions and presbyteries were reorganized, discipline
was enforced, and candidates for the ministry were li-
censed and sent forth. The Church's safety was still de-
pendent, not upon legal securities, but upon the personal
good will of the magistrates, yet during several years it
enjoyed such measure of liberty as enabled the ministers
to prosecute their work with diligence, and with most
gratifying success.
New Troubles, Arising from Developments in Scot-
land.—The relations between Ireland and Scotland were
i88 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
so very close that the resistance of the cruelly-oppressed
Covenanters of the latter country to the will of the king
awakened feelings against the Presbyterians of Ireland.
Especially the affair at Bothwell Bridge, where the Cove-
nanters ventured to meet armed force with armed force,
had an unhappy effect on the Irish Church. Ormond,
the lord-lieutenant, was alarmed at the news of the in-
surrection in Scotland, and took measures to stop all
communication between the two countries. He pressed
the oath of supremacy with renewed rigor, and used
military force to see that his commands were obeyed.
Presbyterian preachers were again introduced to the
prisons, their church doors closed, and preachers and
people were made to suffer in various ways for recusancy.
Many now began to think of America afresh as an
asylum, and perhaps no small number would have found
means to cross the Atlantic, had not a change occurred
which held out some hope of relief.
Policy of James II Brings Temporary Relief. —
Charles II died in 1685, and was succeeded on the
throne by his brother, James 11. The new king was a
Roman Catholic, and it might have been presumed that
he would be at no pains to enforce uniformity to Episco-
pacy. The result justified such a presumption. It soon
became evident that his prime aim in respect to Ireland
was to relieve papists of their disabilities, and to make
the Church of Rome once again supreme. Of all con-
ceivable evils this would have been about the worst. It
meant not merely subjecting Protestants to Catholics —
this would have been bad enough, considering the old
grudges that would have sought gratification — but it
meant putting intelligent and cultured Englishmen under
the power of ignorant and savage Celts. Terrible as w^s
IRELAND 189
the prospect, James sought, with a blind persistency of
purpose, to bring it to pass. He appointed his brother-
in-law. Earl of Clarendon, lord-lieutenant in place of
Ormond. He could count on Clarendon's abject sub-
serviency in carrying out his ill-starred purpose. But
the king's fatuity was yet more clearly manifest in his
appointing the Earl of Tyrconnel to the command of
the army in Ireland. This most unscrupulous dare-devil
proceeded to remodel the army by supplanting Protesant
officers with Catholic, and by filhng the ranks with papists.
Civil offices were in like manner vacated that they might
be filled with Catholics. Matters went from bad to worse
until 1687 when James put the crown of folly on all his
past administration by withdrawing Clarendon and put-
ting Tyrconnel in the office of lord-lieutenant. With a
free hand this rabid Romanist hurried on the work of
revolutionizing all departments of the government. Not
only were Protestants removed from all positions of
power, but they were forbidden to carry arms. So great
became the alarm that numbers of the English settlers
hastily took steps to secure their property as best they
could, and emigrated to England.
During all this period, the Presbyterians were unmo-
lested. They, along with Roman Catholics, belonged to
the class of dissent, and James could not relieve the
Roman Catholics except by proclamations of indulgence
which included all the nonconformists. Thus while the
Presbyterians were not favored by promotions to posi-
tions in the army, or in the civil government, as were the
papists, they enjoyed liberty of worship, and they used
their liberty to advance the interests of Christ's kingdom.
They were far, however, from approving the high-handed
exercise of arbitrary power by which James set aside the
I90 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
laws of Parliament. They declined to join in a letter of
thanksgiving, which was sent to the king, commending
him for his leniency toward those who had hitherto suf-
fered under the penalty of oppressive laws. They knew
the leniency was not born of any good will to them ;
and further they could not fail to know that if James
succeeded in making the Roman Catholics supreme, the
evils under which they had suffered for dissenting from
Episcopacy would be light in comparison with the evils
which their new masters would inflict.
A Threatened Massacre Gives Rise to the Siege of
Derry In December, 1688, an anonymous letter was
picked up in a little village near Belfast, addressed to the
Earl of Mount-Alexander. The object of the letter was
to warn him of a general massacre of the Protestants,
planned for the 9th of that month. Copies of this let-
ter were scattered abroad, and produced serious alarm
among the Protestants. They recalled the blood-curdling
stories of massacres of 1641, and knew that precisely the
same deep-seated hatred that gave rise to those still ex-
isted, and that the same element of the population that
perpetrated those massacres were as capable of such
atrocities now as they had been then. Furthermore,
Tyrconnel, who was supreme in power, was, with good
reason, believed to have a heart black enough for any
crime. There was thus abundant cause for alarm. Cer-
tain movement of troops tended to confirm the announce-
ment contained in the letter. Detachments under Cath-
olic commanders were sent to garrison some of the
principal towns. In Enniskillen and Derry, news of
their approach awakened the spirit of resistance. The
Protestant inhabitants in these two cities determined to
withstand, at all hazard, the purpose of the governor.
IRELAND 191
The valor displayed in carrying out their determination
furnishes one of the most thrilling stories in the an-
nals of war. Especially has the siege of Derry become
famous. It so happened that the very day that the letter,
warning of the intended massacre, reached the city, news
was also brought that two regiments of Catholic troops,
under Lord Antrim, were on their way to take possession
of the city's garrison. Mayor Tomkins was much dis-
turbed, and asked counsel of the Rev. James Gordon, a
Presbyterian minister. His prompt advice was "shut
the gate, and keep them out." For further counsel, the
mayor sought the advice of the Episcopal bishop, Ezekiel
Hopkins. Of course, the bishop counseled in harmony
with the doctrine of nonresistance. King James was the
Lord's anointed, and his troops must not be molested.
Antrim's men were now at the gate. Eight or nine
young apprentices of the city, inspired, as it would seem,
by Gordon's brave words, ran and shut the gate and
locked it. The citizens determined to stand by the action
of the young men. This led to the siege of Derry,
which began on the i8th day of April, 1689, and lasted
one hundred and five days. The resources of the city,
in food and ammunition, were soon exhausted. The
famine increased until " rats were a dainty, and hides and
shoe leather were the ordinary fare." Fever and cholera
added their horrors to those of famine. But no one
counseled surrender; indeed, no one was permitted to
use the word. The Roman Catholic general, who w^as
conducting the siege, brought in all the Protestant fami-
lies from a distance of ten miles, old men, women and
children, and herded them together under the wall ; then
issued a proclamation to the city, saying that he would
keep them there till they starved if the city did not
192 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
capitulate. This barbarous device signally failed of its
purpose. These starving ones, herded on the outside of
the walls, called to the sentinels at their post, and ex-
horted them to remain firm. But the besieged had no
idea of remaining passive while their helpless kinsmen
were slowly enduring the pangs of starvation. They
erected a gallows on the highest bastion, and proclaimed
to the besieging army their purpose to hang all the
prisoners in their possession if the suffering people were
not permitted to return to their homes. This had its
designed effect. Without going further into the details
of this famous defense, suffice it to say that after the
inhabitants of Derry had exhibited the very utmost of
fortitude that is possible to man, relief reached them,
and the siege was raised.
A Change of Dynasty in England. — The very month
in which the anonymous letter, which alarmed the Prot-
estants, was picked up in the streets of the Irish village,
a bloodless revolution took place in England which
seated William and Mary on the throne and sent James
II into exile. The cause of this revolution was the uni-
versal discontent among all the Protestants of the three
kingdoms. To the usual vices of the Stuarts, James added
certain vices which grew out of his devotion to the Ro-
man Catholic Church. By his folly, his cruelty, his
treachery, and his utter disregard of all legal restraints
placed on the royal prerogative, he demonstrated his utter
unfitness to rule over subjects who had any spark of true
manhood in them. In the short space of three years, he
exhausted their patience, and they invited his son-in-law
and daughter over from Holland to take his place. He
escaped to France, and in March of the next year, crossed
over to Ireland, hoping by the aid of the Roman Catho-
IRELAND 193
lies and the Irish Episcopalians, both of which parties
were still loyal to him, to regain his throne. The Pres-
byterians of Ireland had gladly hailed the accession of
William and Mary ; and while they were in a feeble mi-
nority, by heroic endurance, as in the sieges of Derry
and Enniskillen, they managed to keep the forces of
James busy until William could first send troops, and then
afterwards come in person, to their relief. Several indeci-
sive battles were fought; and finally on the 1st day of
July, 1690, in the famous battle of the Boyne, the army
of James was completely routed, and his power perma-
nently overthrown.
Lights and Shadows During the Reign of William
and Mary.— William III was a Presbyterian, having been
reared in the Reformed Church of Holland. He brought
to the throne of England the broad and tolerant prin-
ciples which were characteristic of his countrymen. In
accepting the crown of England, William was bound to
accept the headship of the Established Church, and to
rule according to the laws previously enacted. It was his
desire to have the laws so modified, and the Church so
broadened as to make room in it for the Presbyterians ;
but the narrow bigotry of the Episcopal hierarchy pre-
vented this ; and throughout his reign William found
himself handicapped in his efforts to secure religious free-
dom for dissenters. In Scotland, where the Parliament
and the majority of the people were Presbyterians, there
was no difficulty. They were given a controlling voice
in arranging their own affairs, and by the Revolution
settlement, all the laws, framed for the purpose of forcing
Episcopacy upon that land, were abrogated, and the Pres-
byterian Church was established as the National Church.
There it was the Episcopalians who suffered, and it is not
194 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
to be denied that some of the preachers of that Church,
who had been foisted on an unwiihng people in the pre-
vious reigns, were handled very roughly. But condi-
tions in Ireland were just the reverse of those in Scotland.
Here the local government was in the hands of the Epis-
copalians, and their church continued to be, what it had
been since the days of Elizabeth, the lawful establish-
ment. The Presbyterians had no legal standing, and
while William did what he could for their protection,
they suffered not a little annoyance, and at times severe
persecution from those who held the reins of power.
The king knew of their staunch loyalty, and what that
loyalty had cost them in holding Derry and Enniskillen ;
also what service they had rendered in helping to win the
victories that saved Ireland from the triumph of the
papists, and the three kingdoms from the further iniqui-
ties and oppressions of James II. He showed his appre-
ciation by hindering, as far as possible, the execution of
unrighteous laws and also in a very especial manner
by granting them an endowment of twelve hundred
pounds per annum. Strange to relate, this special mark
of favor had been shown them previously by Charles II.
In a fit of good-nature, he had commanded this same
amount to be paid them, but at the time, the revenues of
the kingdom had run so low that only half the amount
was actually paid. The payment of this had been irreg-
ular, and for quite a while before William renewed the
grant, payment had ceased altogether. This Rcgiiim
Domim was expressly designed by William HI, as a testi-
mony to ♦' the peaceable and dutiful temper of our said
subjects, and their constant labor to unite the hearts of
others in zeal and loyalty toward us," and because
*• we are sensible of the losses they have sustained." With
IRELAND 195
such protection and aid as William was able to afford the
Church, it prospered amazingly. By the time of his death,
the presbyteries had increased to nine, these were sub-
ordinated to three synods, and the organization of the
Church was completed by a General Synod.
Return of Troubles in the Reign of Queen Anne.—
William III died in 1702. His death opened the way to
the throne for the last of the Stuarts, in the person of
Queen Anne. From the accession of James I in 1603,
the reign of the Stuart dynasty had been one perpetual
calamity to Presbyterians in all the three kingdoms. It
lavished its love and its favor on Episcopacy, because it
had the making of the bishops, and these, with a shame-
less truculency, lent themselves to the exaltation of royal
prerogative. They taught that the king could do no
wrong, and that resistance to the will of the king, under
any and all circumstances, was a sin against God.
Queen Anne was no sooner seated on the throne than
the condition of the Presbyterians of Ireland changed for
the worse. At the request of the Bishop of Derry that
the Regiitm Donum should be stopped, or if continued,
so distributed as to cause " division and jealousy " among
the Presbyterians, the control of it was put in the hands
of the lord-lieutenant, with power to give, or withhold, as
he should see fit. Before the end of the reign it was
entirely withheld.
Iniquity of the Test Act.— In 1704, the Test Act,
which for some years had been a blight on dissent in
England, was introduced into Ireland. By this act, every
one was required to partake of the sacrament in the
Established Church as a condition of holding a civil
office, or of serving in the militia. The bishops may
have hoped by this means to increase the roll of their
196 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
communicants ; but, if so, they were doomed to disap-
pointment. Hard as it was for able and loyal men to be
excluded from all share in the government of the country
which their valor had saved, the Presbyterians preferred
exclusion from office to inclusion in a church which had
done all that it well could do to earn their hatred. Of
the twelve aldermen in Derry, ten lost their office ; four-
teen of the twenty-four burgesses, being Presbyterians,
were expelled. In Belfast nine out of thirteen burgesses,
by refusing to comply with the conditions, forfeited their
seats. These samples will serve to show the effect of the
Act. In the north of Ireland, the great majority of
the Protestant population were Presbyterians. In some
regions they were fifty to one. While the parish
churches were almost empty, " the Presbyterian meet-
ings were crowded with thousands, covering all the
fields." This is the testimony of a dignitary of the
Episcopal Church. Where there was such disparity in
numbers, it was a great aggravation of their grievance
that they must resign the whole administration of civil
affairs into the hands of a hostile minority.
Contribution of the Irish Presbyterian Church to
America. — We have seen that as early as 1636, the per-
secuted Presbyterians of Ireland tried to escape to
America. God's providence brought their effort to
naught. " The fullness of time " had not yet come. But
colonies were growing up in the western world, and
along with this growth was a growing need of the
material that God was preparing in Ireland. In 168 1,
Francis Makemie was licensed by the Presbytery of
Lagan. In response to a call for a preacher, made by
Colonel Stephens of the Eastern Shore of Maryland in
behalf of that colony, the presbytery ordained Makemie,
IRELAND 197
sine tituloy and sent him to America. That was the
beginning of a stream that trickled until the early years
of the next century, when it began to flow in a larger
current, and continued to increase in volume till it
drained Ireland of about twelve thousand annually,
through several successive years. These were from the
North of Ireland, and mostly Presbyterians. In con-
sidering the work of the Irish Presbyterian Church, we
must count as one of its greatest achievements, this
contribution to the founding and building up of the
American Presbyterian Church, and also to the founding
and building up of the American Republic. The foolish
and persecuting policy of the English Government
wrought this invaluable benefit to the transatlantic
colonies.
Internal Troubles From Novelties in Doctrine. —
With the death of Queen Anne in 17 14, and the ac-
cession of George I, the external troubles of the Church
were very considerably lightened. But preceding this
date some apprehension had been awakened by certain
doctrinal divergencies. In 1703, the Church found it
necessary to depose the Rev. Thomas Emlyn for
preaching Arianism. It was much easier, however, to
deal with an error so manifest and so flagrant as this
than with other more vague and subtle errors which now
began to diffuse themselves. The '' Belfast Society "
was organized in 1705. It was a clerical club, the object
of which was mutual improvement by the discussion of
theological, and alhed topics. The leading spirit in form-
ing the society and in directing its discussions was the
Rev. John Abernethy of Antrim. He was a laborious
pastor, a diligent student, and a man of fine literary gifts
and taste. In the meetings of the society, many new
198 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
views were exploited, some of which crystaUized into the
outspoken conviction that sincerity was the true and
only test of one's religious state ; that only errors willfully
held were culpable ; and that it was a sin against personal
liberty to require subscription to a creed. A sermon
preached by Mr. Abernethy in 17 19 brought him
prominently to the front as the champion of these views.
It awakened a controversy that was carried on through
the press and in the Church courts for many years. The
synod passed a number of acts of a temporizing char-
acter to allay the irritation, and to stop the growing dis-
sensions, but these failed of their good intent. Matters
grew worse rather than better. Rev. Samuel Halliday
refused to sign the Confession of Faith, but presented in-
stead, a declaration of faith prepared by himself. The
majority of the presbytery expressed themselves satisfied,
and installed him pastor at Belfast. The minority carried
the matter by complaint to synod. That body rebuked
the majority, but when these declared that their con-
sciences would not permit them to " subscribe to the Con-
fession of Faith, or submit to the act of synod," nothing
further was done in the case. At the meeting of the
General Synod in 1721, seventeen memorials were pre-
sented from as many sessions, asking that all the mem-
bers of all Church courts be required to sign the Con-
fession of Faith. The synod contented itself by simply
resolving to permit all members of the court to sub-
scribe the Confession, hoping by this means to quiet the
apprehension felt throughout the Church. The Belfast
Society argued against even this voluntary subscription ;
but an overwhelming majority favored it, and nearly all
the members of the synod who were present signed the
Confession. Some, however, refused, and this gave rise
IRELAND 199
to the party names, " subscribers," and " nonsubscribers."
Four years later the synod tried another metliod of
heahng the contentions which were all the while widen-
ing and deepening. It formed the Presbytery of Antrim
on the elective affinity principle, and into this presbytery
it endeavored to gather all the nonsubscribers. By this
quarantine measure, it was hoped, but vainly hoped, to
prevent the contagion of lax doctrine from spreading
more widely. This arrangement was to continue *• until
the God of peace shall mercifully remove present misun-
derstandings." But the very next year it was deemed
advisable to resort to a more drastic remedy, and the
synod cut off the diseased member. This brave act of
surgery was performed largely through the votes of the
ruling elders.
Coming of the Seceder Church of Scotland into Ire-
land.— Not even the cutting off of the Presbytery of
Antrim from the communion of the Church prevented the
spread of lax doctrinal views. It was a time of sad spir-
itual declension in both England and Scotland. With
the decline of spiritual life in those two kingdoms, doc-
trinal divergences grew up. Arianism and Socinianism
were widely prevalent, and were treated leniently. Ire-
land was too closely related to those two countries, and
especially to Scotland, to remain unaffected by their con-
dition. It was from Scotland that the Irish Church con-
tinued to receive her supply of ministers, sending her own
sons there to be educated.
Hence it happened that God had to provide a more
effective method than any yet tried for the preservation
of a pure faith in Ireland. His method was to bring
in the conservative seceders from Erskine's Church in
Scotland. A little handful of people at Lylehill, near
200 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
Belfast made application to be taken under care of the
Associate Presbytery of Scotland. After several tem-
porary supplies had been sent to them by that presbytery,
it ordained over them as pastor the Rev. Isaac Patton in
1746. This was the beginning of the Secession Church
in Ireland. It grew with considerable rapidity, so that a
presbytery was organized on the 12th of April, 1750.
Before this date, the Mother Church in Scotland had
split into Burgher and Anti-Burgher. The struggling
infant in Ireland had to follow the maternal example ;
and consequently another presbytery was formed on the
24th of July, 175 1, bearing the name of Burgher, while
the presbytery previously formed rejoiced in the name of
Anti-Burgher. In course of time, however, these divi-
sions were healed ; and despite strenuous opposition from
various quarters, the Secession Church grew into a posi-
ition of great influence, and that influence was exerted in
behalf of conservative orthodoxy. It was the salt that
preserved Presbyterianism in Ireland from total putrefac-
tion. Apparently it was rapidly degenerating into the
same lifeless Unitarianism, into which the Presbyterianism
of England had descended. As it was, Arianism con-
tinued to taint a large proportion of the Presbyterian
ministry, and to perpetuate in the Church the troubles
which began in 17 19 with Mr. Abernethy. The advo-
cates of sound doctrine had sufficient numerical strength
to purge the lump of the leaven, but they lacked the
spiritual earnestness necessary to call into exercise that
strength.
The Church Finally Purged Under the Leadership of
Henry Cooke. — With the incoming of the nineteenth
century, there was the ' incoming of a more ardent,
rehgious life. In connection with this blessing there
IRELAND 201
came another, an effective leader in the person of Henry
Cooke. He was the greatest individual gift, perhaps,
which God has ever bestowed on the Presbyterian
Church in Ireland. He was born in 1788, educated at
Glasgow College, and ordained to the ministry in 1808.
He soon displayed great intellectual force, deep piety and
splendid gifts of oratory. About the year 1821, he be-
gan a warfare against Arianism, and he waged this war-
fare with persistent purpose and unrelenting rigor until
it terminated in a victory for orthodoxy, glorious and
complete. In 1829, the Arians withdrew, and formed a
separate body, taking the name of the Remonstrant
Synod. In 1836, an act was passed by the general synod
of the Presbyterian Church of Ireland, requiring that
every one entering the ministry, or eldership, should sub-
scribe to the Westminster Confession of Faith. On this
high, firm ground the synod then planted itself, and from
that ground the Presbyterian Church of Ireland has
never to this day suffered itself to be moved.
Union of Different Presbyterian Bodies.— Having
purged itself thoroughly from lax doctrine, it was recog-
nized that there was no difference between the Synod of
Ulster, and the Secession Synod, which should longer
keep them apart. Negotiations looking to union were
opened up in 1839, and the next year saw the union hap-
pily consumrnated. The congregations of the Synod of
Ulster numbered two hundred and ninety-two, and those
of the Secession Synod one hundred and forty-one. The
consolidation of the two bodies formed what has since
been known as the general assembly of the Presbyterian
Church of Ireland. A few scattering congregations in
the south and east of Ireland, which had been gathered
into the Synod of Munster, joined the assembly in 1854.
202 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
Religious Life and Activity of the United Church. —
The work of this homogeneous and conservative Church
has made itself powerfully felt in many fields. It has
carried on successful foreign missions in India, and among
the Jews, and a vigorous home mission work in diffusing
evangehcal religion throughout its native land. The
church has two excellent theological schools, — Magee Col-
lege at Londonderry, and the Assembly's College at Belfast.
One much needed work to which the Church began to
address itself about the year 1829, was the work of Tem-
perance Reform. " The use of whiskey was at this time
almost universal, and seemed to be rapidly growing.
During the ten years ending with 1829, the consumption
of intoxicating liquor in the three kingdoms doubled.
The bottle was everywhere — on the dinner table, and the
supper table, at the wedding, and at the wake, at the
baptism and the funeral, produced as regularly as the
Bible when the minister called to visit a parishioner, kept
in the vestry of nearly every church, and applied to be-
fore service, or after, or both. In a word, it was supposed
to be an absolute necessity of life — as necessary as the
staff of life itself. Ministers and people alike drank ; the
elders drank ; everybody drank." The suggestion for
reform came from America, where the first temperance
societies had recently been formed. Dr. John Edgar led
the movement, and began by emptying a jug of his own
from his parlor window. The first pledge required
abstinence only from distilled liquor. But later, the
pledge was made more rigid, including all intoxicating
drinks. The sentiment of the Church was gradually
revolutionized, and now five sixths of the ministers, and
nearly all the theological students are committed to total
abstinence.
IRELAND 203
In conjunction with the government, a great work has
been accomphshcd in behalf of pubUc education. In the
province of Connaught, forty thousand poor children
have been educated. Another work of beneficence is
carried on through the Orphan Society. Three thousand
children are cared for at an expense of ;^50,ooo annually.
Church Endowment. — The Rcgiuui Domini, which
had its origin in a gift of six hundred pounds from
Charles II, was enlarged from time to time until it
amounted to ;^ 39,000 per annum. In 1869, the Parlia-
ment passed an act, commuting the Rcgiuvt Donnm to a
lump sum of ^587,735. This constitutes a permanent
endowment, yielding about ;^25,ooo per annum. At
once a movement was set on foot to raise a sustentation
fund by the voluntary contributions of the people, to
supplement the government grant. The movement re-
sulted in adding an additional ^25,000 to the annual
income of the Church. From this permanent resource of
;^5O,000, the salaries of the ministers are paid, supple-
mented by the congregations as their ability and the cir-
cumstances of the minister may determine.
Instrumental Music in Worship. — Beginning with the
year 1868, when a harmonium was introduced into the
congregation of Enniskillen, the Church entered on a
period of high debate on the subject of instrumental
music in worship, lasting eighteen years. A truce was
then agreed upon for three years, on condition that a
committee, composed of those who favored the use of
instruments, should be appointed to persuade, if possible,
congregations into which instruments had been intro-
duced to dispense with them. The final outcome, how-
ever, has been to leave the matter of instrument, or no
instrument, discretionary with each congregation.
204 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
As a concluding word, it may be safely said that the
Presbyterian Church of Ireland is one of the most
thoroughly orthodox, consistently conservative, and
healthfully active of all the churches in the great brother-
hood of hke faith and order.
CHAPTER VIII
ENGLAND AND WALES
I. The Presbyterian Church of England. — The
origin and development of Presbyterianism in England
were peculiar and are somewhat difficult to trace. It
was smothered down, and almost smothered out by the
superincumbent weight of royal and episcopal intoler-
ance. Until the period of the Commonwealth, when for
a time the Puritans had matters their own way, Presby-
terianism was little more than a theory. Its advocates
tried, indeed, to give it practical effect, but without
breaking with the Established Church, and within the
very narrow limits allowed by that church to liberty of
dissent. It was like trying to grow a flower garden on a
window sill, or rear a forest of oaks in a greenhouse.
The poor cramped product was feeble and defective.
Not only was the space too small, but the environment
was unfriendly. The patrons of Presbyterianism had to
show their love for it stealthily, and nurse its sickly and
deformed hfe under cover, as if guilty of a crime. So
careful were they to conceal their doings that they left
few records behind them; and this increases the diffi-
culty of tracing their history.
The Act of Uniformity, 1559.— When Elizabeth came
to the throne in 1558 it was expected that she would blot
out, as far as possible, the sad effects of the policy of
her predecessor's bloody reign, take up the work of the
Reformation where the death of Edward VI had inter-
205
2o6 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
rupted it, and carry it out to a glorious conclusion. This
expectation was grievously disappointed. It is true that
she, in a measure, undid the work of Mary, but she threw
her imperious will across all efforts to carry the Reforma-
tion any farther than it had already gone. Utterly
destitute of religious sentiment, she availed herself of her
position as head of the Church to make ecclesiastical
affairs subservient to her ideas of statecraft. Instead of
adopting a thoroughgoing Protestant policy, she chose a
compromise position with the hope of conciliating her
large body of Roman CathoHc subjects. " The hturgy,
after being stripped of some phrases likely to prove offen-
sive to Romish ears, and brought into closer affinity to the
popish missal, was fixed down by Parliamentary statute."
In 1559 the Act of Uniformity was passed, forbidding
the slightest deviation from the prayer book in the con-
duct of service in the Church. Thus the worship of the
Church was stereotyped, and compliance with this form
was enforced by the civil power. There were many in
the Church, and among them some noted for learning
and piety, whose consciences were troubled by certain of
the prescribed rites and ceremonies, which savored of
popish superstition and idolatry. The effect of the Act
of Uniformity was to draw these earnest reformers closer
together, and to form them into what was henceforth
known as the Puritan party. Presbyterianism had its
development in this party.
External Influence Favorable to English Presby-
terianism.— The first English reformers maintained a
close and friendly relation with the reformers of the con-
tinent, and especially with the Swiss reformers. Many
of them took refuge in the cities of Switzerland during
the Marian persecution. These became acquainted with
ENGLAND AND WALES 207
the model of church government instituted by Calvin.
Indeed, Miles Coverdale, one of the noblest of them all,
acted as an " humble elder in John Knox's Church in
Geneva." These exiles hastened home when Elizabeth
came to the throne, naturally supposing that their day
had at length come. Sad was their disappointment at
the course pursued by their new sovereign ; and when she
insisted on retaining in the English Church the mediaeval
ceremonies, vestments, and ritual, •* the bag and baggage "
of popery, they found themselves entirely out of sympathy
with their environment. For a time, the Act of Uni-
formity was not strictly executed, and these earnest
reformers were permitted to pursue their pastoral duties
unmolested. But in a few years more stringent measures
were taken, and then a number of these devoted men
consented to be suspended or deposed from office rather
than conform. Such tyranny developed a more radical
opposition on the part of the Puritans, and made them
long for the freer and more scriptural type of church
government with which they had become acquainted on
the continent.
Thomas Cartwright (1535-1603). — Presbyterianism
needed an expounder and a champion, and one was raised
up in the person of Thomas Cartwright. He was a
graduate of Cambridge, and was made Lady Margaret
professor of divinity in 1569, and began to lecture on the
Acts of the Apostles. It was soon found that his ex-
positions of Scripture would prove destructive of the
Episcopal establishment, for he professed to find an
entirely different form of government provided for the
Church by the apostles. He laid down six propositions
which formed the platform of the Presbyterian party :
(i) "That the names and functions of archbishops and
2o8 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
archdeacons ought to be abohshed. (2) That the offices
of the lawful ministers of the Church, viz., bishops and
deacons, ought to be reduced to their apostolic institu-
tion ; bishops to preach the word of God and pray, and
deacons to be employed in taking care of the poor.
(3) That the government of the Church ought not to be
intrusted to bishop's chancellors, or the officials of arch-
deacons ; but every church ought to be governed by its
own minister and presbyters. (4) That ministers ought
not to be at large, but every one should have charge of a
particular congregation. (5) That no man ought to
solicit, or to stand as a candidate for the ministry. (6)
That ministers ought not to be created by the sole
authority of the bishop, but to be openly and fairly
chosen by the people." For such wholesome teachings
as these he was ousted from his professorship, and sought
refuge from persecution, by crossing to the continent.
He went to Geneva, where by intercourse with Theodore
Beza, he had his Presbyterian convictions deepened. He
returned to England, and took the leading part in a bitter
controversy, stretching through years, betw^een the Puri-
tans and Prelatists.
The Presbytery of Wandsworth, 1572. — The first
attempt which the Presbyterians made to give practical
effect to their principles was in the fall of 1572, at
Wandsworth, a suburban parish of London. This they
did, not by separating from the establishment, but by
trying to create an ecclesiola in ecclesia. They attempted
substantially what Wesley attempted two centuries later,
to organize societies in the Church for the purpose of
purifying the morals and nourishing the piety of the mem-
bers. Eleven elders were chosen ; and these, together
with the Rev. John Pleld, constituted a kind of church
ENGLAND AND WALES 209
session, or congregational presbytery. They did not
assume jurisdiction, however, over the entire parish of
Wandsworth, but only over those who voluntarily placed
themselves under their supervision. No minutes of their
proceedings have been preserved ; but it is manifest from
the literature of the period that they adopted in the out-
set a book of discipline. This was known as the " Order
of Wandsworth," but no copy of it has come down to us.
This parochial presbytery of Wandsworth was the model,
and its book of discipline the basis, of hundreds of other
parochial organizations throughout England. These or-
ganizations were formed with as little noise as possible,
and the effort was made to carry out their purpose with-
out disturbing the settled order of the establishment.
But the queen and her bishops were watching them like
a hawk watching the chickens, ready to pounce upon
them at any moment, and destroy them.
The Prophesyings. — This is the name, given to meet-
ings of the clergy for conference, for mutual help, and
Scripture-exposition. Froude gives an account of these
meetings as held in the Church of Northampton as early
as the year 1571. "On Saturdays, the ministers of the
different neighborhoods assembled to compare opinions,
and discuss difficult texts ; and once a quarter all the
clergy of the county for mutual survey of their own gen-
eral behavior. Offenses given or taken were men-
tioned, explanations heard, and reproof administered
when necessary." Ministers who took part in these
meetings were required to declare by subscription their
" consent in Christ's true religion, with their brethren, and
submit to the discipline and order of the same." It will
be seen from this language that these meetings were dis-
tinct organizations. Among other things they made it
2IO HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
their business both to confer about, and to practice dis-
cipline. They took steps to organize parochial presby-
teries ; and in a general way, as circumstances permitted,
they performed the function of classical presbyteries.
Like the lesser organizations of their creation, they felt
it necessary to carry on their work stealthily. For ex-
ample, we read : " There was an assembly of threescore
ministers appointed out of Essex, Cambridgeshire, and
Norfolk, to meet the 8th day of May, 1582, at Cock-
field, there to confer of the Common Book, what might
be tolerated and what necessarily to be refused in every
point of it, apparel, matter, form, days, fastings, injunc-
tions, etc. Of this meeting it is reported, Our meeting
was appointed to be kept very secretly and to be made
knozvn to none!' It is obvious that Presbyterianism could
have no healthy development, nor reach any large propor-
tions when it was felt that all manifestations of its life
must be kept a profound secret. Still it was growing
and its principles had found clear and definite expression
in the " Book of Discipline," This book is supposed to
be the outgrowth of the " Order of Wandsworth," which
was revised, corrected and enlarged from time to time in
the numerous conferences which were held during the
years between the setting up of the Presbytery of
Wandsworth, and the printing of the book in 1584. It
was first written in Latin, and then translated into Eng-
lish by Thomas Cartwright. It was reprinted in 1644
for the use of the Long Parliament and the Westminster
Assembly, with the title : " A Directory of Church
Government. Anciently contended for, and as far as
the times would suffer, practiced by the first Noncom-
formists in the days of Queen Elizabeth. Found in the
study of the most accomplished divine, Thomas Cart-
ENGLAND AND WALES 211
wright after his decease, and reserved to be published for
such a time as this. PubHshed by Authority. London :
printed for John Wright in the Old Bailly, 1644."
The Growing Opposition of the Queen.— Few Popes
have been more determined, or more zealous in putting
down heresy than was Queen Elizabeth in suppressing
all liberty of worship and of ecclesiastical administration.
The Act of Supremacy put the Church absolutely under
her power. This act was supplemented by another
creating the Court of High Commission, an agency
through which the queen's supremacy could be made
effective. The queen appointed the members of this
court, and its jurisdiction and powers resembled very
closely the famous Spanish Court of Liquisition. It
could arrest all suspects, and if witnesses were wanting,
it could apply torture. Lord Burleigh, one of Elizabeth's
great ministers, compared it to the Spanish Liquisition,
and accorded it the preeminence as an instrument of un-
righteousness. It was a fit instrument for the queen's
overbearing and arbritary disposition. She found an ad-
mirable engineer for it in the person of Whitgift, her
archbishop. When it was discovered that the prophesy-
ings and the presbyteries were spreading, and their in-
fluence growing, despite the milder measures of repres-
sion that were used, at the instance of the archbishop
the queen reorganized the Court of High Commission,
and inaugurated a more vigorous crusade. In a short
while, more than two hundred ministers were suspended,
and these were described by the Earl of Leicester as
among the most faithful and laborious of the clergy. It
was no concern to the queen that the people were de-
prived of the services of these godly men. She said two
or three preachers to the county were sufficient. She
212 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
seemed to think that all could be saved who were worth
saving by means of the prayer book and the homilies.
She and her •* little black parson " held on their way
until all of Presbyterianism that dared to show itself was
crushed out. It probably reached its highest organized
development when as many as 500 clergymen had signed
the " Book of Discipline," and when defective parochial
presbyteries after the pattern of Wandsworth had been
set up in quite a number of counties over the kingdom.
Presbyterianism During the Reigns of James I and
Charles I. — When EUzabeth died in 1603, her cousin,
James I, came down from Scotland to take her place.
He had been reared a Presbyterian ; and on one occasion
when he wished to make himself peculiarly agreeable to
the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, he de-
clared that the Presbyterian Church was the " sincerest
kirk in the world," and that the Episcopal Church was
but an " ill-said mass in English." But things looked
differently when he came to be head of the English Es-
tablishment with a set of truculent bishops to help him
to realize his ideas of the '* divine right of kings." Then
it seemed to him that nothing was more certainly de-
structive of royal prerogative than the form of church
government under which he had been reared. He
promptly announced this conviction, and declared his
purpose to grant no tolerance to dissent from the prayer
book. Throughout his reign of twenty-two years, the
spirit of discontent did not slumber. The desire for a
more liberal policy grew more intense and widespread.
But there was no further attempt to organize the discon-
tented elements along Presbyterian lines.
With the incoming of Charles I in 1625, there arose to
a position of great and growing influence an ecclesiastic
ENGLAND AND WALES 213
who by developing the tyrannical tendency of Episcopacy
to the utmost contributed to the rapid growth of Presby-
terian sentiment. William Laud, elevated to the Sec of
Canterbury in 1633, attempted by the most cruel and arbi-
trary methods to crush out dissent. His policy culminated
in an effort to force a fully-developed Episcopacy on
Scotland. This precipitated a revolt ; and this led to the
king's calling the Long Parliament. Then followed the
civil war, the abrogation of the Episcopal Church, and
the overthrow of the monarchy.
The Westminster Assembly.— On the 13th of June,
1643, the Parliament passed an ordinance with the fol-
lowing title : " An ordinance of the Lords and Commons
in Parliament, for the calling of an assembly of learned
and godly divines and others, to be consulted with by
the Parliament for the settling of the government and
liturgy of the Church of England, and for vindicating and
clearing the doctrine of said Church from false aspersions
and interpretations." The ordinance specified for this
advisory assembly one hundred and twenty-one divines,
and thirty laymen, ten of these to be taken from the
House of Lords, and twenty from the House of Com-
mons. As the object of the assembly was to assist Par-
liament in devising a new National Church to take the
place of the prelatical system which had been abolished,
Parliament very wisely sought to have a variety of views
represented. Hence the assembly contained four distinct
parties. There were some who preferred Episcopacy ;
others, who had submitted to Episcopacy, serving parish
churches in the establishment, but who were by convic-
tion Presbyterians ; others, who had left the Established
Church and were known as Independents ; and others,
who were opposed to any and every form of church
214 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
government, believing that all administration of ecclesias-
tical affairs should be in the hands of the civil magistrate
these were designated Erastians. The assembly was in
the fullest sense the creature of Parliament. It had its
work cut out for it by Parliament ; its method of proce-
dure was prescribed ; and its conclusions were of force only
when ratified by Parliament. Four bishops were nomi-
nated to the assembly ; but as the king was already at
war with Parliament, and had forbidden the meeting of
the assembly, these bishops declined to take part in it, and
along with them all the thoroughgoing Episcopalians.
The assembly, therefore, as actually cojistituted, was
composed of Presbyterians, Independents and Erastians.
The Meeting of the Assembly, and Its Work.—
The assembly met on the first day of July, 1643, in the
Abbey Church of Westminster; and was opened with a
sermon by Dr. Twisse, from the text (John 14: 18): "I
will not leave you comfortless." There were present
sixty-nine members of the assembly, both houses of Par-
liament, and a great congregation of others. After the
sermon, the members of the assembly adjourned to the
chapel of Henry VII. There the ordinance, calling them
together, was read ; the roll was called ; and then they
adjourned for a few days to give Parliament time to pre-
pare work for them. When they reassembled, they or-
ganized for work by distributing the whole assembly into
three committees, to each of which was assigned a
specific work. The first task committed to them was the
revision of the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of Eng-
land. They wrought on this from July till the following
October. In the meantime an alliance had been formed
with Scotland, on the basis of the Solemn League and
Covenant. This brought to the assembly six commis-
ENGLAND AND WALES 215
sioners from the Church of Scotland ; and committed
ParHament to a new undertaking. In signing the Solemn
League and Covenant, the Parliament engaged to en-
deavor to bring about a general uniformity in religion of
the three churches of England, Scotland and Ireland.
To carry into effect this engagement, it ordered the
assembly to lay aside the work of revising the Thirty-
nine Articles and to enter upon the work of constructing
de novo articles of faith, a form of government, rules of
discipline and a directory of worship. The assembly lost
no time in entering on this arduous and most important
task. The work of framing all these formularies was
carried on simultaneously, sometimes the one receiving
special attention, sometimes another. As the prayer
book had been abolished, the most urgent demand was a
directory of worship, and a form of ordination, that the
many vacant churches might be supplied with properly-
constituted pastors. These two matters engaged most of
the attention of the assembly until they were finished.
After these in order of completion came the P'orm of
Government, Confession of Faith, and the two Cate-
chisms. The time occupied on the various tasks was five
years and six months ; and the number of sessions held
for their consideration was eleven hundred and sixty-
three.
Result of the Assembly's ^Vo^k.— On the 19th of
June, 1647, the Parliament ordained " that all parishes
within England and Wales be brought under the govern-
ment of congregational, classical, provincial and national
churches according to the form of Presbyterial govern-
ment agreed upon by the Assembly of Divines at West-
minster." In carrying this into effect the kingdom was
to be divided into sixty synods ; these were to be cut up
2i6 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
into classical presbyteries; and the whole was to be
topped with a National Assembly. The presbyteries
were to meet monthly ; the synods semiannually, and
the General Assembly annually. Thus the machinery
was perfected, and orders were issued that it be put into
operation. It seemed as if the brightest hopes of the
Presbyterians were to be realized. But such a consum-
mation was not to be. The strange sequel of the history
is that the Westminster Assembly performed a work of
inestimable and permanent value for the Presbyterians of
Scotland, of Ireland, of the United States of America, of
the world at large, but a work which proved of almost
no practical value to the Presbyterians of England, the
very persons for whom it was especially designed.
Presbyterianism, as a legal establishment, took posses-
sion of a very small part of its territory, and had a very
short career. A provincial synod was set up in London,
which met for the first time on the 3d of May, 1647 ; and
for the last time, probably, on the 15th of August, 1660.
Thirteen years was the extreme limit of its age; and
only in London did it have anything like so long a ten-
ure of life as that. In fact, the only other place where it
went into full operation was in the County of Lancashire.
There a synod was formed, and the county divided into
nine presbyteries. Futile attempts were made in a few
other counties to start the machinery to going ; but over
the larger part of England there seems not to have been
any serious effort to make the Presbyterian Establishment
effective.
Reasons for the Failure of Presbyterianism as a
National Institution.— In the first place, it was national
only by act of Parliament. The majority of the English
nation knew nothing by experience of Presbyterianism,
ENGLAND AND WALES 217
and cared nothing for it as a theory. They knew it as
a Scotch commodity, and the fact that it was Scotch did
not by any means commend it to their favorable regard.
They might have suffered it to be thrust upon them by
ParHament, but they were not eager to cooperate with
Parhament. In the second place, Parliament tacked on
an Erastian feature to the work of the Westminster As-
sembly which dampened the ardor of the great leaders of
that body. The Westminster divines framed a govern-
ment for the Church which was designed to give it
autonomy. In other words, they made provision for the
Church to govern itself; and they were zealous for the self-
government of the Church. But Parliament determined
to keep all reins of power in its own hands, and so re-
served to all church members the right of appeal from the
censures of the Church to the civil power. The Erastians
who were defeated in the assembly carried the day in
Parliament. Very naturally the Presbyterians were not
over-zealous to give effect to a church polity that was
thus disfigured with the obnoxious feature against which
they had so earnestly contended. They cared little for
the establishment of a church government which was de-
prived of the power to determine the qualifications of its
own members. In the third place, the crowning and all-
sufficient reason for the failure of the Presbyterians to
carry into effect their system was the ascendency of
Cromwell. He was an Independent and sympathized
with all the other Independents in their jealousy of the
Presbyterians. He believed, and had some ground for
believing that were the Presbyterians permitted to exer-
cise the power for which they contended, the Independ-
ents along with other sectaries would suffer from their in-
tolerance.
2i8 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
The Presbyterian Theory of Church and State. —
While the Presbyterians claimed the right to govern the
Church independently of the state, they also believed that
a national church should have the cooperation of the civil
power in suppressing dissent. Just how far they would
have used persecuting measures to punish noncon-
formity, we can never know. Their enemies, prominent
among whom was the illustrious Milton, exerted them-
selves to make it appear that the cause of liberty would
gain nothing, but rather be the loser, if a Presbyterian
Establishment, with full power to work its own will, were
substituted for the old tyrannical church of Laud which
had been abolished. Cromwell reached the summit of
power just in time to prevent the experiment from being
made. He laid his iron hand on Church affairs, and the
enactments of Parliament, favoring Presbyterianism went
for nothing. His temper toward the Presbyterians was
not improved by their formal and earnest protest against
the execution of the king. Moreover, they were
strongly suspected of sympathizing with the Scots when
the latter rose in favor of Charles II. One of their num-
ber, Christopher Love, was tried, convicted and executed,
on the charge of secretly abetting the rising in Scotland ;
and one or two others barely escaped the same fate.
Restoration of Monarchy and Episcopacy, 1660. —
The Presbyterians, having been thwarted in their aims
and expectations, were heartily tired of the common-
wealth and vied with the Episcopalians in their eagerness
to welcome Charles II to the throne. So eager were they
that they neglected to provide any sufficient guarantee
for the protection of their liberty. The result was that
they soon found themselves at the mercy of an unprinci-
pled king, dominated by resentful and uncompromising
ENGLAND AND WALES 219
Episcopalians. The restoration of the monarchy carried
with it the restoration of the old establishment. The
bishops and others who had suffered from the abolition
of prelacy counted that their day had come. The king
had promised in a famous " Declaration," sent to Parlia-
ment from his place of exile, that if he should be restored
to his father's throne " no man should be disquieted or
called in question for differences of opinion in matters of
religion, which do not disturb the peace of the king-
dom."
The Savoy Conference. — As if he meant to keep this
promise, and by way of showing that he was not alto-
gether ungrateful to the Presbyterians for their conspicu-
ous loyalty, the king appointed a conference to be held
at the Savoy Palace between the Prelatists and the Pres-
byterians to see if a satisfactory basis of compromise
might not be arranged. When the conference met, it soon
became evident that whatever might be the mind of the
king, the minds of the bishops were distinctly and strongly
against any compromise. The Presbyterians showed a
willingness to accept a modified Episcopacy ; but the re-
sentful prelates would not agree to the slightest conces-
sions. The old establishment must be restored precisely
as it was before the meeting of the Long Parliament in
1640, with its Thirty-nine Articles, and its prayer book
unaltered in the slightest particular.
The Act of Uniformity, 1662.— The reactionary tide in
favor of royalty which had brought the king back to
the throne continued to swell until it became a perfect
tidal wave, sweeping all before it. The Parliament which
met in 1662 was impatient to wipe out every trace of the
recent commonwealth. To set at rest all questions of
religious compromise, they passed an " Act of Uniform-
220
HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
ity," which required that every minister who had not
received Episcopal ordination should be reordained ; and
that every minister should on or before the 24th of
August following " declare his unfeigned assent and con-
sent to everything contained in the book of common
prayer," on pain of being deprived of his benefice. By
this act, which went into effect on St. Bartholomew's Day,
a day made forever memorable by the massacre of the
Huguenots of France, upwards of two thousand ministers,
the majority of whom were Presbyterians were driven out
bare, roofless, and shiftless upon the wide world." From
this time forth, Presbyterianism was without any organ-
ization beyond that of the congregation. As respects
the congregation, the practice was not uniform of
having elders. The exercise of discipline was largely
in the hands of the pastor, with whom was associated
sometimes deputies, or committeemen. There were
no superior courts. Ordinations of ministers were per-
formed by associations of neighboring pastors.
The Revolution of 1688. — When James II was expelled
from the throne, and William of Orange came over from
Holland to take his place, the condition of all dissenting
bodies was much improved. In 1690 the " Toleration
Act " was passed which permitted freedom of worship to
dissenters who secured a license for their " meeting
houses," and reported the same to the bishops. This led
to quite a revival of church life among both the Presby-
terians and Independents. While suffering together
through a number of years the old spirit of hostile rivalry
between these two bodies largely died out. For the sake
of common interests, they drew close together, and
sought for a modus viveridi, by which, if they could not
become identified as one body, they could cooperate ef-
ENGLAND AND WALES 221
fectively in the preservation and propagation of a vigor-
ous Protestantism. There was formed by the ministers
of the two bodies in London what was called the " Happy
Union " in 1691 ; and speedily similar unions were formed
in other parts of the land. The basis of the union was a
document, known as " Heads of Agreement," in which
both parties made concessions. There was the prospect
of a permanent consoHdation ; but before the union
had time to set and solidify, a violent controversy
broke out over a book, of which Dr. Daniel Williams, a
distinguished Presbyterian, was the author, and the object
of which was to combat Antinomianism. An Independ-
ent minister assaulted the book on the ground that it
went to the other extreme and substituted law for gospel.
Thus the strife was started, and before it ended the
" Happy Union " in London was shivered to atoms ; and
throughout the country the two denominations were driven
apart. Ever since, they have continued to travel in dif-
ferent paths. While the Presbyterians were eased during
the reign of William and Mary, and developed consider-
able congregational life, building many " meeting houses,"
they made no attempt to revive the series of courts which
are essential to fully-organized Presbyterianism. They
believed in a National Establishment, and while occupy-
ing the position of dissent, they would not try to give
national form to their own Church.
Doctrinal Declension. — About the opening of the
eighteenth century, a blight seemed to fall on evangelical
piety throughout all the Protestant churches of Europe.
As always happens, a lowering of the tone of piety was
accompanied by laxity of doctrinal views. Arminianism,
which had long since obtained a foothold in the Church
of England, found its way into the dissenting churches.
222 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
This was followed by Arianism, high and low, and ended
in the most outspoken and aggressive Socinianism.
When in 1753, Samuel Davies and Gilbert Tennent went
to England to solicit funds for Princeton College, they
were greatly distressed over the degeneracy of the Pres-
byterians. Their application for aid for the young insti-
tution was met with the objection " that the principles
inculcated in the college of New Jersey are generally
looked upon as antiquated and unfashionable by the dis-
senters in England." Samuel Davies wrote that " The
Presbyterians particularly, being generally Arminians or
Socinians, seem shy of us." The character of these
degenerate sons of noble sires grew from bad to worse till
the close of the eighteenth century. Along with decline
in piety and doctrinal soundness there was a decline in
numbers. A reliable computation puts the number of
Presbyterian congregations in 171 5 at 550. The same
authority puts the number in 1772 at 302, and these
divided about equally between orthodox and heterodox.
This number continued to diminish until nearly every-
thing worthy of the name Presbyterian became extinct.
What were the causes of this sad and fatal degeneracy
and decay ?
(i) A deliberate rejection of tests of orthodoxy.
When the first symptoms of doctrinal laxness appeared,
it created an alarm, and soon led to the caUing of a meet-
ing at Salter's Hall, London. There the question of re-
quiring subscription to a doctrinal test was long and
fiercely debated. When the vote was taken, it was de-
cided by a majority of four that it would be an unwar-
rantable interference with Christian liberty to require sub-
scription to any uninspired statement of doctrine. This
convention was composed of both Independents and
ENGLAND AND WALES 223
Presbyterians, the latter in a majority. On inspecting
the vote it was found that nearly all the Independents
were for subscription, while the vast majority of Presby-
terians were opposed to it. This was remarkable, that
the denomination which had the honor of framing the
Westminster Standards deliberately refused to require
subscription to them as a condition precedent to preach-
ing in a Presbyterian pulpit. Thus the door was
opened to the inroads of heresy.
(2) Want of an organization for the exercise of dis-
cipline. There were no courts above the session, and
therefore the orthodox portion of the ministry was pow-
erless to purge the body of heresy when once it became
affected.
(3) Lowering of the educational standard of the min-
istry. One of the severest blows struck at the Presby-
terians was closing the universities against all noncon-
formists. Those who laid the foundations of Presby-
terianism in England, and nursed it into its largest
growth, from the days of Cartwright down to the close of
the seventeenth century, were University men. But
those coming later received only such training as the
poorly-equipped schools, founded in the emergency by
dissenters, could afford. This distinct lowering of the
scholarship and dignity of the Presbyterian pulpit caused
the loss of social influence, and at the same time con-
tributed to the decline of doctrinal purity.
Thus " under the chilling influences of civil persecu-
tion, social ostracism, and spiritual infidelity, Presby-
terianism in the eighteenth century drooped, and all but
died. Isolated congregations remained throughout the
country which were Presbyterian in name, but with
a few bright exceptions, they had adopted the Uni-
2 24 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
tarian creed, and the Congregational mode of govern-
ment."
Resuscitation and Reorganization of Presbyterianism.
— Early in the nineteenth century a brighter day dawned
on the feeble remnant of the Presbyterian Church of
England. Several influences were helpful to its revival
and growth. In the first place, the great Wesleyan
revival had infused a large measure of evangelical fervor
into the church life of England. This was felt especially
among the dissenting bodies ; and the scattered congre-
gations of Presbyterians that were more or less loyal to
the faith of the fathers began to strengthen the things that
remained, and were ready to die. In the second place,
the revival of evangelical piety in the churches of Scot-
land, which put an end to the long and blighting reign of
Moderatism, contributed to a Hke revival in those churches
in England which were closely united in sympathy with
the Presbyterianism of Scotland. In the northern coun-
ties of England, bordering on Scotland, there were quite
a number of the old English churches which through all
the vicissitudes of intervening years had maintained the
Westminster type of Presbyterianism in its purity, in so
far, at least, as their circumstances would permit. They
had sent their sons to the Scotch universities to be trained
for their pulpits ; and they had also been served by min-
isters from the Scotch churches. In the third place there
was an increasing number of immigrants from Scotland,
settling in the great centers of English population. These
sometimes formed churches of their own ; and sometimes
cast in their lot with the English survivals. In either
case they helped to draw ministers from the Scotch
churches.
Organization of Presbyterianism in England. — Stim-
ENGLAND AND WALES 225
Lilated by these various healthful influences, the growth
of Presbyterianism in England has been marked, and the
future is bright with promise. It was found that by the
year 1836 there was a sufficient number of churches
holding fast to the Westminster standards and served by
ministers of the established Church of Scotland to form a
synod. When the disruption of the Church of Scotland
occurred in 1843, this synod sympathized with the Free
Church, and severed its connection with the Scotch
Establishment. There were a number of other Presby-
terian churches in England served by ministers of the
Secession Church of Scotland, or, after 1844, the United
Presbyterian Church of Scotland. Li 1 863 these churches
organized a synod. Then there were two separate and
distinct Presbyterian synods in England, independent
of outside churches, and also independent of each
other. They held precisely the same doctrines and
polity. A few years of brotherly intercourse made it
evident that there was no reason why they should con-
tinue to live apart. In 1876, they became one by mutual
and happy consent. Since that auspicious event the united
body has grown very rapidly ; and to-day the English
Presbyterian Church stands forth a strong, well-organized,
well-equipped division of the sacramental host. It has
its college and theological seminary, bearing the proud
name of Westminster, planted within the sacred environs
of historic old Cambridge. Scattered throughout the
world are multiplied thousands of Presbyterians who pay
homage to the truth as it is expressed in the Westminster
Confession of Faith, the Larger and Shorter Catechisms ;
and these all look with peculiar interest on the Church
which inherits the name and the traditions of the fathei-s
who gave them these standards. They rejoice in the
2 26 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
present vigor, and future outlook of English Presby-
terianism.
When the disruption occurred in the Church of Scot-
land, and the English Presbyterians, out of sympathy
with the Free Church, severed their connection with the
Church of Scotland, a small fragment remained faithful,
and still continue in organic relation with the Church of
Scotland. They are distributed in three presbyteries, and
have about three thousand five hundred communicants.
II. The Calvinistic Methodist Church of Wales
Origin of the Name. — This title may seem a contra-
diction in terms to those who have been long accustomed
to associate '• Methodist " with " Arminian." In its origin
the term " Methodist " had nothing to do with doctrine ;
but signified a manner of Christian living. It was applied
to the church in Wales because that church had its rise
about the same time with English Methodism, and the
two movements were closely and sympathetically related,
and adopted substantially the same means for promoting
spiritual hfe. In doctrine, however, it differed from the
societies organized by Wesley, and to indicate this differ-
ence the term •' Calvinistic " was used. The church may
be described as Calvinistic in doctrine, Presbyterian in
polity, and Methodist in worship and hfe.
The Beginnings of Welsh Methodism. — The apathy
which, in the beginning of the eighteenth century, laid
its paralyzing touch on the rest of Protestant Christen-
dom, was manifest in Wales. But the signs of reviving
life were witnessed sooner here than elsewhere in Great
Britain. The dawn of a brighter day was due to the
very earnest labors of the Rev. Griffith Jones, who com-
menced his ministry in 1716. In addition to abundant
ENGLAND AND WALES 227
seed-sowing through his faithful preaching, he organized
a system of circulating schools in which young and old
were instructed in the Bible. His work was thus an
admirable preparation for the soul-stirring evangelists
who were to follow a little later. His Bible schools in-
creased till they numbered 215, into which were gathered
more than 8,000 scholars.
The Great Revival Beginning in 1735.— The first
directly evangelistic efforts were put forth by Howell
Harris. He was educated at Oxford, and purposed to
be ordained to the ministry. The flame of devotion
burned fiercely in his heart, and he delivered his mes-
sage with a force and a fervor that startled men out of
their carnal security. When he applied for ordination,
he was refused. He continued his work as a layman.
God wrought with him ; and before either Whitefield or
Wesley had stirred the smoldering embers in England
into a flame, Howell Harris had, under the blessing of
God, set nearly the whole of South Wales on fire. He
began his work about the year 1735, and four years
later, there were thirty societies organized as the fruit
of his labors. These were not churches, but companies
of Christians, outwardly connected with the English
Episcopal Church, but holding their own regular meet-
ings for mutual edification. They were subjected to
considerable persecutions from those who looked up on
their methods as hurtful innovations. They persisted in
their work, however, and their first General Association
was held at Watford, Glamorganshire, January 5, 1742,
two years prior to the first Conference of English
Methodists at London.
Other Distinguished Helpers. — Harris had not been
preaching long before God gave him a like-minded assist-
221
HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
ant in the person of the Rev. Daniel Rowlands. He was
admitted to orders in the English Church in 1733, but,
according to his own testimony, was not converted until
five years later. Rowlands was a preacher of extraordi-
nary power, accounted by some as second only to White-
field. Bishop Ryle speaks of him as '' one of the giants
of the eighteenth century." It was largely through his
ministry that North Wales was soon sharing in the re-
vival that brought such blessings to South Wales. Often
he preached in the open fields to audiences numbering
several thousands.
Other preachers of great spiritual power were soon
added to the evangelistic force. Among them, the most
prominent were William WiUiams, Howell Davies and
John Evans. William Williams was the poet of the
movement, doing for the Methodists of Wales the same
service, only in less eminent degree, which Charles
Wesley did for the Methodism of England. In 1739,
George Whitefield made a preaching tour through many
of the towns of Wales, and gave a strong impetus to the
revival movement. At this time he first met Harris, and
writes : " I was much refreshed with a sight of my dear
brother, Howell Harris, whom I knew not in person, but
long loved in the bowels of Jesus Christ, and on whose
behalf I have often felt my soul drawn out in prayer."
Of all the blessings which God bestowed upon Wales,
in the gift of great and good men, perhaps the greatest was
the gift of the Rev. Thomas Charles of Bala. His warm
evangelical piety put him out of sympathy with the Eng-
lish Church, and for this reason he cast in his lot with the
Welsh Calvinists, joining their ranks in 1785. He will
ever be honorably known as one of the founders of the
British and Foreign Bible Society. His agency in this
ENGLAND AND WALES 229
was due to his zealous and persistent efforts to supply the
Welsh people with the word of God. He stamped his
impress permanently on the Church of Wales by the
prominent part which he took in giving the church its
rules of discipline, and its organic form.
Separation of the Societies from the Church. —
Those who had been toiUng so arduously, and suffering
so heroically for the spiritual good of Wales were not
purposing to organize a new church. They were merely
striving to lift Christian life to a higher plane. This was
the object of their preaching, their pastoral labors, and
their societies. They were loyal to the Established
Church of England, looked to it for the administration of
the Lord's Supper, and for the ordained ministry. But
the church looked upon them as wayward children ; and
instead of trying to supply their spiritual need, tried to
reclaim them, even by the use of violent measures, from
their Methodistical ways. The breach continually wid-
ened, until it finally became perfectly evident that the
Welsh Methodists must either follow the example of the
English Methodists, and set up for themselves, or lose
what they had gained and gradually lapse back into the
settled ways of the old establishment. Under the leader-
ship of Thomas Charles, and a few other noble spirits,
they chose the former alternative. Having already
demonstrated that Episcopal ordination was not essential
to effective preaching, the Quarterly Associations, which
met in 181 1 proceeded to set apart twenty-one men to
the gospel ministry by the laying on of the hands of
presbytery. By this step the Rubicon was crossed, and
the Calvinistic Methodist Church of Wales was started on
her career as a separate and distinct member of the great
sisterhood of churches. The prosperity which has at-
230 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
tended her labors since that date, the healthful growth in
membership, and the wide expansion of her activities
abundantly attest the wisdom of the step.
The Organization Completed. — The germ of the
church's polity was in the societies which were formed
in each parish. These societies met weekly for edifica-
tion under the lead of their minister or elders. To these
was added a monthly meeting, made up of representa-
tives from the parish societies. As the societies increased,
the number of monthly meetings was increased, and to
each monthly meeting was assigned the supervision of a
certain number of societies. In the course of a few
years two Quarterly Associations were added, one of
which had Episcopal power over South Wales and the
other over North Wales. It was not till 1864 that unity
and completeness were given to the organization by add-
ing a General Assembly. While the polity is clearly
based on Presbyterian principles, it has certain marked
peculiarities due to the fact that the church is purely an
indigenous growth. It did not spring from any seed
brought from a foreign source, nor has it grown up under
a culture derived from a foreign source. It was born in
the convictions of Welsh hearts ; its Presbyterian prin-
ciples have been derived direct from the Bible, and have
been framed into a system gradually as exigencies arose.
No doubt the system will receive some further modifica-
tions in the hght of growing experience; and as the
church comes into closer affiliation with other churches
of like faith and order, its polity will likely be brought
into closer conformity with the prevalent type of Presby-
terianism.
Its '' Rules of Discipline, or General Principles of
Church Government" were published in 1801 ; and in
ENGLAND AND WALES 231
1823, it adopted a Confession of Faith of forty-four
chapters, setting forth a distinctly Calvinistic system of
doctrine. It carries on a home mission work in the
border counties of England ; and a foreign mission work
in India. It has two colleges for training preachers, one
at Bala, the other at Trevecca. More than 160,000 com-
municants have been gathered into its 1,137 churches.
CHAPTER IX
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Presbyterianism in the United States is divided into
thirteen distinct organizations. Several of these are de-
scended from the same ancestral stock, and the family
likeness is very close. It requires continual practice in
dialectical skill to find reasons for their remaining apart.
A few years without discussion, and the members would
lose sight of the marks that discriminate one from the
other.
In order to clearness it is necessary to trace the history
of each separately. This chapter will be devoted to the
largest and the most influential of them all. Its official
title is, The Presbyterian Church in the United States of
America.
The Manifoldness of Its Sources.— An interesting
feature of this Church is the number of sources from
which its original material was derived. In this respect
it is like the Republic, of which it forms a part. On
these shores the oppressed of all lands found a refuge ;
and adventurers from all lands found an attraction.
When once here, the mixed peoples, bound together by
common interests and a common destiny, coalesced into
one government. By interminglings and intermarriages,
and through the molding influence of common institu-
tions, they have become assimilated, in large measure, to
a common type. In like manner, the manifold varieties
of Presbyterianism, constituting the original material of
232
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 233
the Church, whose history we are now to trace, have be-
come blended into a type of Prcsbyterianism, pecuHar to
itself. England, France, Scotland, Ireland, Wales and
Germany, all contributed in different proportions to the
common stock ; but these distinctive national traits have
long since become merged into one fairly homogeneous
whole.
Presbyterianism Among the Puritans. — A goodly
number of the Puritans who settled New England were
Presbyterians. The first, however, to plant a colony
were Independents. These were the Pilgrim Fathers,
who came from England by way of Holland, and reached
Plymouth Rock in the Mayflozver \w 1620. Eight years
later a much larger body landed at Salem. The two lit-
tle colonies were composed of men of the same blood,
from the same land, and substantially of the same faith.
The only difference was that the colonists settled at
Salem had not carried their antagonism to the Church
of England to the point of separation. They had lived,
up to the time of their leaving England, in the com-
munion of the Episcopal Church. The preachers who
came over with the first Puritan colonists were in orders
in the Church of England ; and while alienated from
Archbishop Laud and his school, they were proud to
claim the English Establishment as their mother church.
" We do not go to New England," they said, " as sepa-
ratists from the Church of England, though we cannot but
separate from the corruptions of it ; but we go to prac-
tice the positive part of church reformation, and to prop-
agate the gospel in America." But when they came to
organize their church in the new world, they reformed
away all the Episcopal features.
The little handful of separatists, who formed the colony
234 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
of Plymouth Rock, exercised a marked influence over the
colony at Salem. By a little brotherly intercourse, and
interchange of religious views, it became evident that the
Puritans, who came direct from England, held virtually
the same views with the Pilgrims, who came by way of
Holland. The result was that the churches in both colo-
nies were fashioned on the same general principles.
These churches were not purely Congregational, nor
purely Presbyterian, but represented " a Congregation-
alized Presbyterianism, or a Presbyterianized Congrega-
tionalism." The Presbyterian elements grew stronger
with the coming of fresh colonists. The churches of
Connecticut were popularly known as Presbyterian. But
in the end the Congregational elements largely prevailed,
and with a few exceptions only so much of the Puritan
Presbyterianism as drifted south and west of New England
became permanently a part of the Presbyterian Church.
The Beginning of Organized Presbyterianism.—
While certain Presbyterian principles were embodied in the
church life of New England, yet we must look elsewhere
for the tap root of the great Presbyterian tree. Some find
it in Maryland in the middle portion of the seventeenth
century. Rehoboth Church claims to be the first-born
of American Presbyterian churches, though the claim is
contested. It was organized about the year 1 684, and prob-
ably by Francis Makemie, who is, perhaps, rightly called the
" Father of American Presbyterianism." Two Presby-
terian preachers, Francis Doughty and Matthew Hill had
previously sown good Presbyterian seed in Maryland and
parts of Virginia. Both of these were nonconformist min-
isters from England, exiles for conscience' sake ; and al-
though much obscurity rests upon their labors, it is evident
from what information remains to us that they were the real
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 235
pioneers, and faithful seed-sowers of Presbyterianism in
the middle colonies.
Francis Makemie.— There was needed a man of stron^^
personality, of sagacity, and of good executive ability to
gather the scattered adherents of Presbyterianism into
organized bodies. This need was supplied by P^rancis
Makemie. He was born in Ireland, educated in Scotland,
and sent out as a missionary by the Presbytery of Lag-
gan in 1 681, to labor in the Barbadoes and in the Ameri-
can colonies. After laboring for awhile in the Barbadoes
he came to Maryland in 1684, and began his arduous and
fruitful ministry. He traversed the country from Massa-
chusetts to South Carolina, preaching as opportunity
permitted, acquainting himself with the condition of the
people, and striving to supply them with the gospel. To
this end he wrote urgent appeals to Boston and London ;
these proving unavailing, he crossed the ocean and laid
the matter before an association of ministers in London
— an association composed of both Presbyterians and
Independents. This association showed its interest by
furnishing money for the support of missionaries ; and
thus enabled him to persuade two ministers, John
Hampton and George McNish to return with him.
Difficulties of the Pioneers. — The obstacles in the way
of these foundation-layers were neither few nor insig-
nificant. The country was sparsely settled ; the people
poor; social and political life in a fluid state; and in
many places the government was unfriendly. The Epis-
copal Church was established by law in the colonies of
New York, Virginia, and the Carolinas ; and also in
Maryland, after William and Mary came to the English
throne in 1688, The early preachers had to endure not
only the hardships and self-denials incident to the new-
236 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
ness and unsettled condition of the colonies, but they
were subjected to more or less of persecution from the
hands of the same church that had driven them and their
people from their homes in the old world. Makemie
and Hampton were arrested, and confined in prison for
two months in New York " for taking it upon them-
selves to preach in a private house, without having ob-
tained any license for so doing." When brought to
trial they were acquitted; but Makemie was unjustly
made to pay a heavy bill of costs. In Virginia it was
difficult for " dissenting " ministers to secure license to
preach, and they and their people were heavily taxed to
support the Established Church. The same state of af-
fairs prevailed in South Carolina, where those who did
not conform to Episcopacy were disfranchised. Under
these manifold adversities, the growth of early Presby-
terianism was very slow ; but it did grow, and by the
end of the seventeenth century several congregations
had been formed in Virginia, Maryland, New Jersey,
Pennsylvania and New York.
Organization of the First Presbytery. — The first leaf
of the records of the first presbytery is lost, but as Dr.
Roberts has shown, it must have been organized at Phil-
adelphia, Pa., in 1706. The record begins with the
minutes of a meeting held at Freehold, New Jersey, De-
cember, 27, 1706, for the ordination of Mr. John Boyd.
The number of ministers composing the presbytery at the
time was seven. By the ordination of Mr. Boyd, the
number was increased to eight. All of these, except one,
were foreign born, and all except two were ordained to
the ministry in Scotland and Ireland. The only one born
in America was Jedediah Andrews, pastor of the church
in Philadelphia. He was born in Massachusetts, and edu-
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 237
cated at Harvard College. He went to riiiladclphia in
1698, was ordained in 1701, and by dint of persevering
efforts gathered a feeble congregation of very heter-
ogeneous elements. A new ♦• meeting house " was built
for him in 1705, and in that new house the first pres-
bytery, the germ of the great Presbyterian Church, was
organized.
Inasmuch as seven of the eight ministers, who com-
posed the first presbytery, were from Scotland and Ire-
land, it may be presumed that they meant to establish a
church in all essentials like the churches from which
they had come. While there is no evidence that they
required subscription to any standard of orthodoxy, the
records of their proceedings make it perfectly manifest
that as to doctrine, they were all Calvinists, and as to
polity, they were all genuinely Presbyterian. Yet this
fact did not prevent their maintaining the closest rela-
tions w^ith the churches of New England. They appealed
as earnestly to Boston for ministers as to London, Glas-
gow, or Dublin. The Boston ministers responded with
true Christian sympathy, and did what they could to
supply their need. While the Presbyterianism of the
founders was pure and thoroughgoing, it was neither
over-rigid, nor suspicious.
Organization of the First Synod.— After the organiza-
tion of the presbytery, the Church grew with considerable
rapidity, due mainly to constant immigration of both min-
isters and members from abroad. Notwithstanding sev-
eral deaths, by the year 17 16 the presbytery contained
seventeen ministers. As these were scattered over a
wide territory, and travel was attended with difficulty, it
was deemed advisable to break up the one presbytery
into four. The names of these four presbyteries were
238 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
Philadelphia, Newcastle, Snowhill and Long Island. On
the 17th of September, 1717, the members of three of
these presbyteries met in Philadelphia and organized the
first synod. Of the seventeen members, two were from
New England, two were from Wales, one was from Eng-
land, and the remaining twelve were from Scotland and
Ireland. Obviously the Scotch and Scotch-Irish were
able to have everything their own way, and no doubt
their way was the way of their mother churches across
the waters. It is further obvious, however, that this way
was perfectly agreeable to all parties. There was but one
type of doctrine, and the working of a simple, but thor-
oughgoing Presbyterian polity produced no friction.
Need of a Doctrinal Standard. — Up to the year 1729,
the synod required no formal subscription to any stand-
ard of doctrine. The need for this had not been felt, in-
asmuch as the ministers from across the waters came
from churches whose orthodoxy was unmistakable, and
those from New England were likewise from a church,
which up to this date, had been solidly Calvinistic. But
in the early part of the eighteenth century, serious doc-
trinal laxity began to manifest itself in Scotland. From
there it passed to Ireland through the ministers of the
Irish Church who were educated at the Scotch univer-
sities. In 1 7 19, the New Light controversy arose in
Ireland, led by the Rev. John Abernethy. It was a revolt
against creed-subscription on the ground that to require
such subscription was a sin against personal liberty, and
that sincerity of belief should be accepted in lieu of
any creedal profession. This movement spread, and gave
the Presbyterian Church of Ireland no little trouble
through a period of several years. It opened the door
for the introduction of many doctrinal errors, especially
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 239
in the direction of Arminianism, Arianism and Socin-
ianism. As the Church in this country continued to
look to Scotland and Ireland as the principal source of
ministerial supply, grave alarm was felt. The fountain
corrupted, the stream must inevitably become tainted.
The Adopting Act.— Apprehension first took practical
shape in the Presbytery of New Castle, which began as
early as 1724 to require its candidates for the ministry to
subscribe the Confession of Faith. Very soon thereafter,
the matter was called to the attention of the synod by a
member of this presbytery, the Rev. John Thompson. It
was carefully considered by the synod, and the result
was the following declaration : —
"Although the synod do not claim, or pretend to
any authority of imposing our faith upon other men's
consciences, but do profess our just dissatisfaction with,
and abhorrence of, such impositions, and do utterly
disclaim all legislative power and authority in the
Church, being willing to receive one another as Christ
has received us to the glory of God, and admit to fel-
lowship in sacred ordinances all such as we have ground
to believe Christ will at last admit into the kingdom
of heaven ; yet we are undoubtedly obliged to take
care that the faith once delivered to the saints be kept
pure and uncorrupt among us and so handed down to
our posterity. And do, therefore, agree that all the
ministers of this synod, or that shall hereafter be ad-
mitted into this synod, shall declare their agreement in,
and approbation of, the Confession of Faith, with the
Larger and Shorter Catechisms of the Assembly of Di-
vines at Westminster, as being in all essential and neces-
sary articles good forms of sound words and S}^stems of
Christian doctrine, and do also adopt the said Confession
240 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
and Catechisms as the confession of our faith. And we
do also agree that all the presbyteries within our bounds
shall always take care not to admit any candidate of the
ministry into the exercise of the sacred functions, but
what declares his agreement in opinion with all the essen-
tial and necessary articles of said Confession, either
by subscribing the said Confession of Faith and Cat-
echisms, or by a verbal declaration of his assent
thereto, as such minister or candidate shall think best.
And in case any minister of this synod, or any candidate
for the ministry, shall have any scruple with respect to
any article or articles of said Confession or Catechisms,
he shall, at the time of his making said declaration, de-
clare his sentiments to the presbytery or synod, who
shall, notwithstanding, admit him to the exercise of the
ministry within our bounds, and to ministerial commun-
ion, if the synod or presbytery shall judge his scruple or
mistake to be only about articles not essential and neces-
sary in doctrine, worship, or government. But if the
synod, or presbytery, shall judge such ministers or can-
didates erroneous in essential and necessary articles of
faith, the synod or presbytery shall declare them inca-
pable of communion with them. And the synod do
solemnly agree that none of us will traduce or use any
opprobrious terms of those that differ from us in these
extra-essential and not necessary points of doctrine, but
treat them with the same friendship, kindness and broth-
erly love as if they had not differed from us in such
sentiments,"
Significance of this Act. — This document, known as
the Adopting Act of 1729, reflects great credit on both
the heads and hearts of those who framed, and those who
approved, it. The members of the synod had on
THE UNITED STATES OK AMERICA 241
scruples except touching the articles in the Form of Gov-
ernment, defining the duties of the civil magistrate.
Having expressed these scruples they signed the Confes-
sion of Faith and Catechisms, and " unanimously agreed
in giving thanks to God in solemn prayer and praise."
There has been no greater day in the history of the
Church than that day when it flung this banner to the
breeze, and proclaimed itself a witness-bearing Church.
By these presents, all men knew what this Church,
destined to be one of the greatest forces in the new
world, stood for ; what it proposed to contend for, and if
need be die for. The Adopting Act stamped it as a
Confessional Church and prepared it for a glorious war-
fare in behalf of truth and righteousness.
''The Great Awakening."— Only a few years elapsed,
when the Spirit of God came upon the churches in
blessed reviving power. The beginning is usually traced
to the fervent ministry of Jacob Frelinghuysen, pastor
of the Dutch Reformed Church at Raritan, N. J.
Independently and almost simultaneously, showers of
blessing accompanied the preaching of Jonathan Edwards
in New England. About this time, George Whitefield
made his first visit to America, and preaching to great
crowds in New York, Philadelphia and elsewhere, gave
a mighty impulse to the movement. In the Presbyterian
Church, the Tennents threw themselves heart and soul,
into the revival, and soon Gilbert Tennent, quickened
into fiery zeal through the ministry of F^relinghuysen,
attained a position, second only to that of Whitefield, as
a preacher of thrilling and persuasive oratory. The
revival spread throughout the country, growing in
power, but developing certain features which gave rise
to bitter controversies and long-continued alienations.
242 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
Many looked on the whole movement with grave
suspicion, as being merely an outburst of emotionalism.
They held aloof, and gave free expression to their ap-
prehensions. Some of the leaders of the movement had
more zeal than discretion. They regarded all want of
sympathy with the revival as due to spiritual deadness.
They invaded the parishes of those ministers who were
in opposition, held meetings and won away the people
from their pastors. Gilbert Tennent was especially
violent, and went so far as to preach a sermon on " An
Unconverted Ministry," aimed at the adversaries of the
revival.
The Division of the Synod in 1741. — In a few years
the two parties had been driven by their fierce an-
tagonisms so far apart as to make it impossible for
them to meet peaceably in the courts of the Church.
They were labeled with party names, — Old Side and
New Side. The New Side had charged the Old Side
with being graceless, had invaded their congregations,
divided and alienated them, and in their zeal to promote
and extend the revival, they had introduced candidates
into the ministry in opposition to the rules previously
adopted by the synod for testing their qualifications.
When the synod met in 1741, the Old Side, led by
Robert Cross, adopted a protest against these alleged
antipresbyterial, antiscriptural, and divisive methods. In
this protest it was declared that those, against whom it
was aimed, were not entitled to sit in the synod. The
protest was therefore an act of exclusion, and when it
was adopted by the majority, there was nothing for the
minority to do but to withdraw. This they did in the
midst of a scene of stormy altercation.
Organization of Synod of Nev^ York. — Not a member
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 243
of the Presbytery of New York was present, possibly
absenting themselves intentionally because not willing to
take sides with either party. They sympathized with
the protest of the Old Side in so far as it was merely a
protest against the unseemly and questionable beha\'ior
of their opponents ; but they did not approve of it as an
act of exclusion. For a time they tried to mediate be-
tween the belligerent parties. Failing to reconcile them,
they cast in their lot with the New Side, not, however,
until after they had secured certain declarations and con-
cessions from them. The New Side, thus strengthened,
organized, in 1745, the Synod of New York. There
were now two distinct Presbyterian churches, occupying
in part the same ground, and rivals for the same con-
stituency. They were divided, not on questions of
doctrine, or poHty, but on questions deeply affecting
Christian life, and the work of propagandism. The one
stood for a high and inflexible standard of education,
and a rigid conservatism in forms of worship and
methods of evangelization ; the other emphasized ex-
perimental piety, and in worship permitted a wide
latitude to emotionahsm.
Work of the Synod of New York.— At the time of
the unhappy breach, numerically the two parties were
very nearly equal, the Synod of Philadelphia having
twenty-six ministers, and the Synod of New York
twenty -two. As to growth, their histories during the
next twelve years were vastly different. The Synod of
New York, zealous in its missionary spirit, and freely
using revival methods, bounded forward with remarkable
rapidity. It put forth strenuous and successful efforts
to give the gospel to the frontier settlements in Virginia
and North Carolina. Its greatest achievement in this
244 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
direction was sending Samuel Davies to Hanover,
Virginia, immediately on his ordination to the ministry
in 1747.
Dissenters in Virginia. — His field of labor had been
prepared for him by a marvelous providence in connec-
tion with Morris' Reading House. A little band of
Christians had drawn away from their parish church be-
cause their souls were not fed ; and they were under-
taking to care for themselves by meeting together on the
Sabbath and reading devotional books. Soon they were
summoned before the governor and council. On their
way to obey the summons, they happened on a copy of the
Westminster Confession of Faith. It was to them a strange
book, but on examination, they found that it fittingly
expressed their own faith. Reaching Williamsburg, they
presented this book to Governor Gooch as their creed.
The governor, being a Scotchman and therefore ac-
quainted with the Confession of Faith, had no trouble in
placing the culprits. He told them they were Presby-
terians and dismissed them with a caution not to create
disturbance. Shortly after this they had the privilege of
hearing a sermon from the Rev. William Robinson, the first
Presbyterian preacher to visit Hanover County. On his
leaving them, they constrained Robinson to accept a gift
of money. With this, he aided young Davies in securing
an education, and four years later, their gift of money re-
turned to them in the shape of their first pastor, the Rev.
Samuel Davies, one of the greatest blessings that God
has ever given to the Presbyterian Church of America.
Mission Work in North Carolina. — The Synod of
New York extended its evangelizing labors into North
Carolina, as far south as Sugar Creek where Alexander
Craighead settled in 1755, and began to educate the hardy
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 245
Scotch-Irish in those principles of rehgious and civil hb-
erty which found expression, twenty years later, in the
Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence. In this same
year, 1755, the Presbytery of Hanover was organized, and
included all the ministers south of the Potomac River,
except one or two in the valley of Virginia who adhered
to the Synod of Philadelphia.
During this period of separation the Synod of New
York was also active in mission work among the Indians.
To this work it set apart, among others, that most apos-
tolic man, David Brainerd, whose name will live forever
in the missionary annals of the Church side by side with
that of the saintly Elliot.
Work of the Synod of Philadelphia. — In the mean-
time, the Synod of Philadelphia was at a standstill. While
rightly protesting against the extremes to which the
New Side carried their revival measures, they swung
too far to the other extreme. They alienated all those
whose hearts were earnestly set on evangelical aggres-
siveness, and no revivals of any marked power attended
their labors. A want of revivals meant a dearth of can-
didates for the ministry. The stream of immigration
from Scotland and Ireland had well-nigh ceased to flow.
Consequently their ministerial force dwindled, instead of
increasing. There were accessions, but these did not
keep pace with the losses by death. Obviously a church
cannot prosper with a constantly diminishing roll of min-
isters. While, therefore, the Synod of Philadelphia is en-
titled to credit for a noble testimony against fanaticism,
its history is a warning against undue suspicion of re-
vivals.
Union of Synods in 1758. — No sooner had the separa-
tion taken place, than lovers of peace began to seek for a
246 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
reconciliation. Those foremost in this work were mem-
bers of the Presbytery of New York. They thought both
parties in the conflict that led to separation were in the
wrong, and succeeded in drawing from the New Side
confession of wrongdoing. Year after year they pro-
posed plans for reunion. It was not easy to overcome
the hngering distrust of the Old Side. But, by and by,
death removed some of the older men on either side ;
time softened asperities, and grace overcame prejudices.
Each side made some concessions, and in 1758 they
found a platform on which both could stand and be at
peace.
The Reunion Platform.— This platform reaffirmed
their common adherence to the Confession of Faith and
the Catechisms '' as an orthodox and excellent system of
Christian doctrine, founded on the word of God," and also
their adherence to the " plan of worship, government and
discipline contained in the Westminster Directory, strictly
enjoining it upon all our members and probationers for
the ministry, that they preach and teach according to the
form of sound words in said confession and catechisms,
and avoid and oppose all errors contrary thereto." Very
fortunately for the future peace of the Church the union
was brought about without the slightest compromise in
the matter of doctrine or discipline. Presbyterians can
never live together comfortably while differing in these
respects.
Some Early Educational Institutions.— The Presby-
terian Church from the day of its birth was insistent in
its demand for an educated ministry. Its first preachers,
most of whom came from the old world, were educated
principally at the Scotch universities. Those from New
England were degree men from Harvard and Yale.
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 247
The '' Log College."— At a very early day, it was felt
that the Church should take steps to do its own educating.
The pioneer in this work was the Rev. William Tennent,
Sr. When he came to America in 1716, he was a member
of the Episcopal Church of Ireland ; but he changed his
ecclesiastical relations, and joined the Synod of Philadel-
phia, in September, 17 18. In 1726 he settled at
Neshaminy, Pa., and in the course of a year or two there-
after opened a school with the avowed object of training
up a pious and learned ministry. This school became
famous as the " Log College." It was honored to do a
noble and much needed work for the Church. Several
of its alumni were among the most eminent and useful
ministers of the day. The older members of the synod
were not disposed, however, to accord to it due credit,
showing an unwillingness to receive its credentials as a
guarantee of scholarship. This constituted one of the
several grounds of contention between the Old Side and
the New Side at the time of the disruption in 1741.
Princeton College. — Immediately on the division of
the synod, both bodies set about establishing schools.
The Synod of New York planted one at Elizabethtown,
N. J., with the Rev. Jonathan Dickinson at its head. A
charter was obtained for this school in October, 1746.
On the 7th of the next October, its distinguished presi-
dent died. The school was then removed to Newark,
N. J., and placed in charge of the Rev. Aaron Burr. In
1755, another removal took place, this time to Princeton,
N. J., where it still continues to flourish as Princeton
University.
The Classical School at Fagg's Manor, Pa. — This
famous school was established by the Rev. Samuel Blair
about the year 1740. He continued at its head until his
248 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
untimely death at the early age of thirty-nine in 175 1.
His brother, the Rev. John Blair succeeded him, both in
his pastorate, and in the school. " At this school were
trained several young men, who afterwards ranked
among the most prominent clergymen of the Presbyterian
Church ; and one at least, the Rev. Samuel Davies, among
the greater lights of his generation." As both the
Blairs were educated in the " Log College," the school at
Fagg's Manor may properly be regarded as a part of the
abundant fruit of that earlier institution.
The Academy at Pequea, Pa. — About the year 1750,
the Rev. Robert Smith, D. D., was settled over the church
at Pequea, Pa., and soon thereafter opened a school for
the training of youth in the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew
languages. The school became famous for its thorough-
ness, and quite a number who obtained their classical
education there returned to study theology under its dis-
tinguished principal. Three of Dr. Smith's own sons,
who became ministers, owed their early training to this
school. Two of these, the Rev. Samuel Stanhope Smith,
D. D., LL. D., and the Rev. John Blair Smith, D. D., rose
to great distinction both as preachers and as educators.
It was here also that John McMillan in part was trained
for his career of very great usefulness as the "Apostle
of the Presbyterian Church in the West." From his log-
cabin school in Washington County, Pa., he sent forth
a great many young men to preach the gospel, and in
that log cabin laid the foundation of Washington and
Jefferson College.
As Dr. Smith was the product of the school at Fagg's
Manor, and as that school was the fruit of the Log College
at Neshaminy, we see the ever-widening influence of that
pioneer undertaking.
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 249
The Old Side School at New London, Pa. — The
Synod of Philadelphia in 1744 adopted as their own a
school which the Rev. Francis Alison had established at
New London, the year before. This school was con-
tinued by Mr. Alison until 1752, when he removed to
Philadelphia. It was justly celebrated for its high stand-
ard of scholarship, and gave to both church and state
some eminent men.
Church Schools and Church Growth. — The Synod of
New York was much better supplied with facilities for
educating a ministry, and this accounts in no small degree
for its so far outstripping the other synod during the
period of separation. Its twenty-two ministers grew to
be seventy-two in twelve years, while the twenty-six of
the Synod of Philadelphia were reduced to twenty-two.
Early Churches in the Carolinas. — In the closing
years of the seventeenth century and the opening years
of the eighteenth century, a few Presbyterian churches
were formed in and round Charleston, S. C. These
were formed out of elements which had come from Eng-
land, Scotland, Ireland and France. By the year 1730,
the churches had become sufficiently numerous for the
organization of a presbytery. Owing to its distance from
all other bodies of organized Presbyterians, this presby-
tery continued without connection with a superior court
for a great many years. In 1770, it made application for
admission to the Synod of New York and Philadelphia,
but for some reason it was not admitted ; and conse-
quently the Presbytery of South Carolina remained in-
dependent till long after the Revolutionary War.
Presbyterians began to settle in North Carolina at an
early period, but owing to their scattered condition, and
the want of preachers, they were not gathered into or-
2^0
HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
ganizations until far along in the eighteenth century.
The material of the first churches was mainly Scotch.
Beginning with 1729, these came in increasing numbers
through many years and formed settlements mainly along
the Cape Fear River. The first minister to labor per-
manently among them was the Rev. James Campbell, who
settled near Fayetteville in 1747. About this time there
began to pour in a strong tide of Scotch-Irish immigra-
tion, which furnished the sturdy material out of which
Alexander Craighead, Hugh McAden and Henry Patillo
organized churches that continue to this day.
Growth of the Church from 1758 to 1776. — At the
time of the union of the two synods in 1758, the strength
of the Church, as nearly as can be ascertained, consisted
of one hundred ministers, two hundred congregations and
ten thousand members. Its strength was chiefly in New
York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, in which colonies
it was much stronger than all the other churches com-
bined. Congregationalism held New England almost
solidly, while Episcopacy maintained its ascendency in
Virginia and the Carolinas. The Presbyterian Church
continued to lengthen its cords and strengthen its stakes
during the years of political agitation preceding the War
of Independence. But as this agitation became more
fierce and absorbing, religious life became more languid.
The Presbytery of Hanover was reorganized in 1758,
so as to include all the ministers of both the old synods,
living in Virginia and North Carolina. Those in North
Carolina were set off in Orange Presbytery in 1770.
New presbyteries were formed in the meantime in Penn-
sylvania and New York. The total strength of the
Presbyterian Church at the outbreak of the Revolutionary
War was represented by twelve presbyteries, three hun-
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 251
dred churches, one hundred and forty ministers, and about
twenty thousand members. At the same period the
CongregationaHsts numbered seven hundred churches;
the Baptists three hundred and eighty ; and the Episco-
pahans three hundred. These four denominations far
outranked all others ; and, of the four, the Presbyterians
were numerically the weakest. But in the great colonies
of New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, where their
strength was largely concentrated, the Presbyterians were
much the strongest.
Presbyterians and Patriotism. — " If my kingdom were
of this world, then would my servants fight." Some per-
sons think that a history of the Presbyterian Church should
make no mention of the part which her members took in
the struggle for independence, inasmuch as it was only as
citizens, entitled to certain political rights, that they were
justified in taking the sword. The line, how^ever, between
ecclesiastical and civil was not then clearly drawn, and
because the Presbyterians, along with other dissenting
bodies, had suffered from the oppressions of a church
establishment they were prompt to enter into a conflict,
in the issues of which both civil and religious liberty were
involved. The testimony of an Episcopal rector in
New York City has been frequently cited as showing the
unanimity of the Presbyterians and the motives which
actuated them at this crisis : " Although civil liberty was
the ostensible object, the bait was flung out to catch the
populace at large and engage them in the rebelHon, yet
it is now past all doubt that an abolition of the Church of
England was one of the principal springs of the dissent-
ing leaders' conduct; and hence the unanimity of the
dissenters in this business. I have it from good authority
that the Presbyterian ministers, at a synod w^here most of
252 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
them in the middle colonies were collected, resolved
to support the Continental Congress in all its measures.
This and this only can account for the uniformity of
their conduct ; for I do not know one of them, nor
have I been able after strict inquiring, to hear of any,
who did not by preaching and every effort in their power,
promote all the measures of the Congress however ex-
travagant." Mr. Bancroft says : " The first voice publicly
raised in America to dissolve all connection with Great
Britain came not from the Puritans of New England, nor
the Dutch of New York, nor the planters of Virginia,
but from the Scotch-Irish Presbyterians." He refers to
such deliverances as that of the convention which met in
Abingdon, Virginia, in 1775, in which the sturdy pioneers
declared : " We are deliberately and resolutely deter-
mined never to surrender any of our inestimable privi-
leges to any power on earth but at the expense of
our hves." The Scotch-Irish of Mecklenburg County,
N. C, in the same year took still stronger ground
in the famous Mecklenburg Declaration, in which they
practically renounced the government of Great Britain.
In the person of the Rev. John Witherspoon, the Presby-
terian Church furnished one illustrious signer of the Dec-
laration of Independence put forth by the Continental
Congress, July 4th, 1776. It was inevitable that a
Church which made itself so prominent in the struggle,
should have suffered much in the death of its members,
the breaking up of its congregations, and the destruction
of its property.
Organization of the General Assembly. — The Church
soon rallied from the crippled condition into which the
fortunes of war had brought it. The territory over
which it spread extended from New York to Georgia.
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 253
Its highest court was the Synod of New York and
Philadelphia. This was not a delegated body, but was
composed of all the ministers, and one elder from each
church. The difficulty of attendance, now that the
territory had grown so large, made it advisable to divide
up the synod, and organize, as a Central Court, a repre-
sentative assembly. Accordingly a movement to this
end was set on foot in 1786 and consummated in 1788.
The synod was divided into four ; — viz., the Synod of
New York and New Jersey, with four presbyteries;
Philadelphia, with five presbyteries ; Virginia, with
four presbyteries; and the Carolinas, with three pres-
byteries. These sixteen presbyteries contained 177
ministers, in probationers, and 419 churches. The
synod, at this same session in 1788, revised the Con-
fession of Faith and the Larger Catechism by strik-
ing out those passages which defined the relation of
Church and state, and the powers of the civil magis-
trate, conforming these standards to the American idea
of the complete separation of Church and state, and
the absolute independence of each in its own proper
sphere. It then adopted all the Westminster symbols,
thus revised, as the constitution of the reorganized
Church provided that they could be amended only by a
two-thirds vote of the presbyteries and subsequent enact-
ment of the assembly, and then passed out of exist-
ence, giving place to the General Assembly, which met
for the first time in 1789.
Union with the General Association of Connecticut
in 1801.— The treaty between England and France in
1763 opened the country west of the AUeghanies for
settlement. Immediately a stream of emigration be-
gan to pour across the mountains into the region of the
254 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
Ohio. A few years later, Kentucky and Tennessee
were filling up at a rapid rate. The population of these
territories increased, during the decade between 1790
and 1800, from one hundred thousand to three hundred
and twenty thousand. Here then west of the Appa-
lachian Mountains, lay an ever-widening field for mis-
sionary effort. The churches of all denominations felt
deeply the obligation to supply the destitute pioneers
with the gospel. In order to economize in men and
money in the prosecution of their vast home mission
work, the General Association of Connecticut and the
General Assembly adopted a Plan of Union. By this
plan all competition between the Congregationalists and
the Presbyterians was to be avoided. Either church
might be served with a pastor from the other, and the
pastor retain his connection with his own church. A
Congregational Church with a Presbyterian pastor con-
ducted its internal affairs in its own way. In case of
difference with its pastor, he had the right of appeal to
his presbytery ; or if church and pastor preferred the
difference could be referred to a council composed of an
equal number of Presbyterians and Congregationalists.
The same principles applied when the church was Pres-
byterian and the pastor Congregational. A church
might be composed of both Congregationalists and Pres-
byterians. In such case, they could intrust the govern-
ment to a standing committee. This committee was
authorized to depute one of its members to represent
the church in presbytery.
It is easy to see that in the practical working of such
a plan, serious friction might be introduced into the
Presbyterian machinery. It was, at best, a somewhat
perilous experiment.
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 255
It may be proper to note that at this period much of
the benevolent work of all the churches was carried on
by voluntary societies. These did not owe their origin
to the Plan of Union. Quite a number of the evangel-
ical churches cooperated in sustaining them. But this
method of carrying on benevolent work was in har-
mony with the Plan of Union, and it increased the
embarrassments which grew out of this plan at a later
date.
Advantages of the Union to Presbyterianism.—
This combination of forces worked well so far as con-
cerned aggressive evangelism. Under its operation
churches multiplied rapidly, and the lion's share fell to
the Presbyterians. The number of communicants in
the year 1800 is reckoned at 40,000. When the Plan
of Union was abrogated in 1837, the number had risen
to 232,000. It was during this same period that nearly
all the theological seminaries of the Church were
founded— Princeton in 181 2; Auburn, 18 19; Union,
Virginia, 1824; Allegheny, 1827; Columbia, S. C,
1828; Lane, 1829; McCormick, 1830; Union, New
York, 1836. Of course, this great and rapid develop-
ment of the Church was not due solely, possibly not
even chiefly, to the Plan of Union ; but it could readily
be shown that this contributed to it in no small degree.
Owing to the union, nearly all the Puritan migration
from New England westward flowed into the Presby-
terian Church.
Disadvantages of the Union.— The gain was not all
gain. The growth was not altogether healthy. The
Calvinism of the New England churches had already be-
come diluted with Hopkinsianism ; and this was further
diluted by Emmonsism and all the other novelties that
256 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
ultimately made up the " New England Theology." The
Plan of Union opened the floodgate for this stream of
diluted doctrine to debouch into the Presbyterian Church.
Along with doctrinal errors came also abnormalities in
polity and laxity of discipline. It was charged that many
gained admission to the Presbyterian ministry without
subscribing to the Confession of Faith, men who knew
nothing about the polity of the Church, and who set at
naught its discipHne. Friends of the old order became
seriously alarmed. They summed up doctrinal defec-
tions in sixteen counts ; errors in Church order in ten ; and
errors in discipline in four. Even supposing this an
exaggeration, it is evident that a new and degenerate
type of Presbyterianism was rapidly developing. Fric-
tion sprang up between the old and the new. Friction
gave rise to parties, and, by and by, the whole Church was
converted into a battle ground.
Some Famous Ecclesiastical Trials. — With each
passing year the hostility increased between the parties,
which came to be known as Old and New School.
The Old School attempted to arrest the current of
evils that was flowing in on them, by the use of dis-
cipline. Several ecclesiastical trials were instituted.
The two most noted were against Lyman Beecher, pro-
fessor of theology in Lane Seminary, and Albert Barnes,
pastor of First Church, Philadelphia. Dr. Beecher was ar-
raigned before the Presbytery of Cincinnati in 1835,
charged with holding and teaching Pelagian and Ar-
minian doctrine in respect to free agency, accountability,
original sin, total depravity, regeneration, and Christian
character. He was ably prosecuted by Dr. J. L. Wilson,
but was acquitted by a vote of nearly two to one. The
case was carried up to the synod, and again he was ac-
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 257
quitted. Dr. Wilson gave notice of complaint to the
General Assembly, but for some reason failed to prose-
cute it before that body.
Albert Barnes was charged before the Second Presby-
tery of Philadelphia with holding and propagating ten
distinct errors, all of the same general character as those
charged against Beecher. He was prosecuted by Dr.
George Junkin, who failed, in the judgment of the pres-
bytery, to make out his case. He made complaint to
synod. This body reversed the decision of the presby-
tery, and suspended Mr. Barnes from the ministry. He
appealed to the General Assembly meeting in Pittsburg
in 1836. After eleven days of discussion, the assembly
reversed the decision of the synod and restored Mr.
Barnes to the office of the ministry by a vote of 145
to 7^.
Growing Strength of the New School Party.— By
this time it became evident to the Old School party that
they could not check the spread of the sentiments which
were held by the opposite party, by the ordinary process
of discipline. The two parties were too evenly divided,
and the New School party had the advantage in the
places of meeting of the General Assembly. Its almost
uniform place of meeting was in Philadelphia. There
had been only two exceptions since the year 1799, and
on those two occasions it had met at Pittsburg. The
regions of the Church most seriously affected by the new
departures were central and western New York and Ohio.
These regions, lying so convenient to Philadelphia and
Pittsburg were much more fully represented than the
Church at large. Every year increased the relative
strength of the New School.
The Division of 1837, 1838.— When the assembly met
258 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
in 1837, it was expected that the Old School would take
very decided action, if they found that they had the reins
of power in their hands. The leaders of this party held a
convention a few days preceding the meeting of the
assembly for the purpose of formulating a method of
procedure. It was impossible, however, to decide in
advance how to meet and surmount all the difficulties
confronting them. On going into the assembly, they put
forward more than one measure which was found, after
discussion, to be impracticable. Finally they resolved on
an act of very bold and unprecedented surgery. First,
they abrogated the Plan of Union, on the ground that it
was unconstitutional ; second, they resolved that the Plan
of Union being unconstitutional, all that was done under
it was unconstitutional ; third, they followed up this reso-
lution by cutting off four synods that had become most
thoroughly New School views, and were threatening
the life of the whole body. The only motive that could
justify such a drastic remedy would be that of self-preser-
vation. This was in reality the motive ; for the Old
School, whether rightly or wrongly, judged that the pu-
rity and efficiency of the whole Church were in mortal
peril. The four exscinded synods were the Western
Reserve, Utica, Geneva and Genesee.
Formation of the New School Assembly. — When the
assembly of 1838 was organized, the stated clerk omitted
the commissioners of those synods from the roll. This
led to the formation of another assembly. The line that
bounded it was not the same as that bounding the four
synods which had been extruded, but it ran zigzag in
every direction through the Church. It included many,
especially in the South, who had no sympathy with the
errors charged against the four synods, but who believed
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 259
the exscinding act to be unconstitutional, and such a
remedy to be worse than the evil which it was designed
to cure. Of the 232,000 communicants at the time of
the division, 106,000 went with the New School,
and 126,000 remained with the Old. After carrying
property questions into the civil courts, where conflicting
decisions were rendered, each church retained control
of the property which it actually held.
Deplorable Consequences of Separation. — While the
division of the Church seems to have been essential to
the preservation of its integrity, yet the necessity for di-
vision must be regarded as a serious blow to the progress
of Presbyterianism. Congregations were divided ; com-
munities were divided ; even famihes were divided, and
the bitterness of strife took the place of evangelical fer-
vor. Feeble organizations were formed, in order to per-
petuate doctrinal feuds. Instead of an army, two
hundred thousand strong, going forth with united
strength to the conquest of unevangelized territory for
Christ, the army was split up into innumerable little fac-
tions at war with each other. The energy that should
have gone into missionary effort was expended by each
party in trying to bring the other under the suspicion
and contempt of the general public. Thus they not
only hindered each other, but played into the hands of
unfriendly denominations. They furnished ammunition
to the Methodists and Baptists, who, taking advantage of
this internecine warfare, preempted the territory which
by right of inheritance belonged to the Presbyterians.
No church in this country had an equal opportunity with
the Presbyterian Church at the opening of the nineteenth
century. During the first third of the century it in-
creased sixfold, outstripping all rivals. But during the
26o HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
next third of the century it scarcely more than doubled ;
while it lost to the other denominations perhaps two
thirds of the descendants of Ulster Presbyterians.
Slow Growth of the New School Assembly. — When
the Synod of Philadelphia divided in 1741, nearly all the
aggressive vitality went with the New Side. It was
otherwise with the division in 1837. The New School
continued to cooperate with the Congregationalists under
the Plan of Union, but the increasing degeneracy of the
Congregationalists in both doctrine and polity more and
more demonstrated the unwisdom of such cooperation.
Finally the Congregationalists departed so far from the
primitive faith as to be unwilling longer to affiliate with
even the very liberal ecclesiasticism represented by the
New School Assembly. Their National Convention,
therefore, which met in Albany in 1852 abrogated the
Plan of Union. This was a useful service to the Presby-
terians, for the Plan of Union had long been a source of
weakness to them, crippling them in their work of mis-
sions both at home and abroad.
After the division, the New School Assembly developed
in the course of a few years a very intolerant antislavery
sentiment. The discussions on this. subject in the annual
meetings became increasingly exasperating to the slave-
holders in the South, and the deliverances increasingly
stringent. The result was the voluntary withdrawal of
nearly all the churches in the South connected with this
assembly, and the organization, April ist, 1858, of the
United Synod of the Presbyterian Church.
Owing to these various retarding causes the growth of
the New School body was slow. Its roll of communi-
cants contained only thirty-two thousand more names in
1864 than it started with in 1838.
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 261
The Greater Prosperity of the Old School Church. —
The Old School Assembly had a much more rapid and
healthy growth. It began its separate career with its
ecclesiastical machinery in good working order ; with a
homogeneous membership, standing for a distinct type of
doctrine, and with an earnest missionary spirit. In the
South and West it had a fine field for expansion. Utilizing
with commendable zeal its splendid resources, and avail-
ing itself of its fine openings it grew from 126,000
communicants in 1837 to 290,000 in i860. The coming
of the Civil War, of course, retarded its progress, and
caused the loss in 1861 of nearly its entire southern
constituency, amounting to about seventy thousand
members.
Attitude of the Assemblies Toward Each Other
Up to the outbreak of the Civil War there was no evidence
that the two bodies were drawing sensibly nearer to-
gether. It is true that the New School Assembly had
been disburdened of the Plan of Union, and had come to
prefer its own agencies to voluntary societies in the con-
duct of home missions, education, and publication. But
it was still in partnership with the Congregationalists in
the work of foreign missions ; it still had a great many
" Presbygational " churches, as they were called, nonde-
script organizations inherited from the Plan of Union ;
above all, it was still as tolerant as it ever had been of
doctrinal divergencies, and stood uncompromisingly for a
liberal construction of the constitution. Such was the
New School Church in 1861 ; and up to this date, the
Old School Assembly had refused to listen to any over-
tures for closer relations. It had even refused on one
occasion to join with the New School Assembly in cele-
brating the Lord's Supper.
262 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
Reunion of the Assemblies, 1870.— The war between
the sections brought new issues to the front. The pas-
sions of men were deeply stirred ; and very naturally
those who entertained common views touching the mat-
ters involved in the great civil strife were drawn together.
In the profound solicitudes and intense excitements of
the present, the contentions over doctrinal and specula-
tive questions belonging to the past dwindled into insig-
nificance.
So early as 1862, the Old School Assembly took the
initiative of proposing an annual interchange of fraternal
delegates. The New School responded to the proposal
with great heartiness ; and the very next year the inter-
change took place, with marked effect on the rising tide
of fraternal feeling. In 1866, both assemblies met in
St. Louis, and the last lingering spark of mutual distrust
and animosity was extinguished by a free interchange of
views and sentiments.
At this meeting of the assemblies, committees of con-
ference were appointed to arrange a platform for reunion.
This committee during three successive years sought for
a doctrinal basis of agreement. They had for a starting
point the fact that both bodies had the same confessional
standards. It was known, however, that these standards
did not mean the same thing to both bodies. The effort
was therefore made to formulate an interpretation of the
standards in such vague and general terms as that each
party could accept it and put its own meaning on it.
The effort proved unavailing, and finally the suggestion
was made that they come together on the '* basis of the
standards pure and simple." This suggestion was sub-
mitted to the presbyteries of both assemblies, and after
being accepted by them, the assemblies ratified the
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 263
agreement, and were merged into one body in 1870.
The reunited Church resolved to celebrate the happy re-
union by raising a thank-offering of ^5,000,000. The
effort resulted in the gratifying sum of ^7,607,491.
Progress Since Reunion, and Present Condition of
the Church. — Ever since the reunion, the spirit of the
Church has been earnestly aggressive. It has pressed its
work with unremitting zeal, both at home and abroad.
Its growth has been commensurate with its zeal. At the
time the two churches became one, their combined mem-
bership was 446,561. This number had been swelled to
1,094,908 in 1904. No church in this country has a
more enviable record for world-wide missionary effort.
With commendable wisdom it divides its forces so as to
broaden the basis of operations at home to keep pace
with the ever-enlarging demands of the work abroad.
Its Board of Home Missions directs the labors of a great
army of missionaries, scattered thickly over forty states
and territories. Its foreign mission work is carried on
in one hundred and twenty-seven principal stations, re-
presenting nearly all the countries of the heathen world.
Indications of Conservatism in Doctrine. — Some fa-
mous heresy trials have been a marked feature of Church-
life since the reunion. Especially worthy of notice are
the decisions against Prof. David Swing in 1874, Dr.
Charles A. Briggs, 1893, Dr. Henry Preserved Smith,
1894, and Prof. A. C. McGiffert, 1899. Prof. David
Swing, who was accused of denying the divinity of
Christ, after having been acquitted by the Presbytery of
Chicago, withdrew from the Presbyterian Church before
his case could be brought before the GeneralAssembly.
Drs. Briggs and Smith were suspended from the ministry
for holding and teaching doctrines at variance with the
264 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
word of God and the standards of the Church. The
views of Dr. McGiffert, as found in his pubHshed writings,
were condemned, and the attention of his presbytery was
called to them by the General Assembly. He did not
wait for the action of the presbytery, but quietly with-
drew from the Church. These three distinguished profess-
ors, one occupying a chair in Lane Seminary, and the
other two occupying chairs in Union Seminary, N. Y.,
were all in the same category. Their defections were
due to their having adopted the methods, and accepted
many of the radical results of the higher criticism. The
fact that their admitted scholarship, their eminent posi-
tion and their personal popularity could not save them
from the official censures of the Church, would indicate
that the Church was healthily orthodox, and soundly con-
servative.
Revision of the Standards, 1903. — In 1889 the Gen-
eral Assembly took up the subject of revision, and sub^
mitted to the presbyteries certain questions, calling for
an expression of their wishes in the matter. A consid-
erable majority of the presbyteries expressed a desire for
revision. Whereupon the General Assembly appointed
a committee to take the matter in hand. After a few
tentative efforts in which the presbyteries failed to reach
an agreement as to the form and extent of the desired
revision, the subject was laid aside. In 1900, the as-
sembly, moved thereto by the importunity of a number
of presbyteries, revived the project. This second effort
was brought to what the Church regarded, with remark-
able unanimity, as a happy consummation in 1903. The
revision consists of three parts : (i) Two declaratory
statements, explaining Chapter III of the Confession of
F^ith, touching God's eternal decree ; and Chapter X,
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 265
Section 3, concerning elect infants ; (2) slight changes in
the text of three relatively-unimportant articles of the
confession; and (3) the addition of two chapters to the
Confession of Faith — one on the Holy Spirit, and the
other on the Love of God and Missions. When the as-
sembly resolved to enter on the work of revision, it was
with the express understanding " that the revision shall
in no way impair the integrity of the system of doctrine
set forth in the confession and taught in the holy Scrip-
ture." One year after the revision was adopted, the Gen-
eral Assembly deliberately declared that the revision had
not impaired the system of doctrine contained in the
confession. Thus it would appear that the Church claims
to be as genuinely and thoroughly Calvinistic as it ever
was.
A Brief Statement of the Reformed Faith.— The as-
sembly of 1902 adopted a " Brief Statement of the Re-
formed Faith," comprising sixteen articles. The previous
assembly explained that this brief statement was " to be
prepared with a view to its being employed to give in-
formation and a better understanding of our doctrinal
beliefs, and not with a view to its becoming a substitute
for, or an alternative of, our Confession of Faith." The
sixteen articles bear on their face that the assembly had
in mind to present the doctrines of Calvinism in untech-
nical language and thus render them more easily under-
stood by the mass of the people. But while doing this,
the assembly put itself on record as purposing to con-
tinue to test the orthodoxy of its ministry by the Con-
fession of Faith. If faithful to this purpose, the truth as
held by the fathers will suffer little or no harm from the
revision of the standards. The design of the brief state-
ment is to inform and conciliate the people, not to widen
266 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
the door of entrance to the ministry. The only cause for
apprehension is that " the spirit of inquiry which has re-
suhed in present changes will require further progress
and additional statements."
Movement Toward Closer Relations with Other
Churches. — In response to overtures from a number of
presbyteries, the General Assembly of 1903 appointed a
committee " to consider the w^iole subject of cooperation,
confederation and consolidation with other churches."
This committee met in conference a similar committee
appointed by the General Assembly of the Cumberland
Presbyterian Church ; and the two committees formu-
lated a " Plan of Union," which they reported to their
respective assemblies in 1904. This plan recommends
that *' the union shall be effected on the doctrinal basis
of the Confession of Faith of the Presbyterian Church in
the United States of America, as revised in 1903, and of
its other doctrinal and ecclesiastical standards ; and the
Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments shall be ac-
knowledged as the inspired word of God, the only infal-
lible rule of faith and practice."
In order to a fuller understanding, a number of " con-
current declarations " were submitted along with the
Basis of Union to the two assemblies. In these " concur-
rent declarations " it is stated that " in adopting the Con-
fession of Faith of the Presbyterian Church in the United
States of America, as revised in 1903, as a Basis of Union,
it is mutually recognized that such agreement now exists
between the systems of doctrine contained in the Con-
fessions of Faith, of the two churches, as to warrant this
union, — a union honoring alike to both. It is recognized
also that the doctrinal deliverance contained in the brief
statement of the Reformed Faith, adopted in 1902 by the
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 267
General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the
United States of America, ' for a better understanding of
our doctrinal beliefs,' reveals a doctrinal agreement favor-
able to reunion." These statements made it clear that
the Cumberland Presbyterian Church was favorable to
reunion on the ground that the revised confession and
the brief statement contained a modified form of Calvin-
ism in substantial accord with that held by the Cumber-
land Church. In other words, the Cumberland Church
was ready to unite with the Northern Church on the
basis of the latter's standards because these standards had
come to be substantially identical with its own. The
General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the
United States of America, meeting in Buffalo, N. Y.,
May, 1904, approved this '* Plan of Union," by an over-
whelming vote, and sent it down to the presbyteries for
their adoption. In doing so, the assembly simply de-
clared its sympathy with movements intended to secure
the union of the Presbyterian Churches in the United
States into one body.
Outlook for the Future. — Splendid as have been the
achievements of this Church in the past, it is manifestly
entering on a career of much larger achievement. Its
vast and varied resources of strength, its earnest and en-
ergetic spirit of evangelism, and its thoroughly-organized
and well-equipped agencies give promise of rapid and in-
definite expansion, of great and glorious triumphs for the
kingdom of Christ. All lovers of Zion, and especially all
who cherish, as a precious treasure, the doctrines of the
Reformed Faith, must watch with profound interest the
onward march of this mighty division of the sacra-
mental hosts. In numbers, in wealth, and in the wide
sweep of its manifold activities, it is by far the greatest
268 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
Presbyterian Church in the world. Numerically weaker
than two other denominations in the United States, yet,
owing to the intelligent, thrifty and cultured character
of its constituency, it probably exerts a more powerful
influence than any other church on the destinies of our
republic.
CHAPTER X
UNITED STATES (^Continued)
The Presbyterian Church in the United States. —
The cause that brought about the Civil War of 1861-65
made the organization of the Southern Presbyterian
Church inevitable. The nation could not divide without
rending the Church. Slavery was the leading cause in
dividing the country. At first it was an institution com-
mon to all sections of the land ; but in course of time it
became localized in the South. Moral and religious mo-
tives had little, or nothing, to do with this localization.
The causes for it were purely economic.
In the early history of the country there was little
scruple of conscience on the subject of slavery, unless
among the Quakers. When, by and by, conscience did
begin to make its protest, this protest was wide-spread
and earnest in the region where slavery existed. When
it took the form of antislavery societies, these were more
numerous in the South than in the North. Unfortu-
nately for the continued development of a healthy antisla-
very sentiment, an opposition sprang up in New England,
which, not appreciating conditions in the South, took
on what was regarded as an extreme form. Its spirit
and methods provoked resentment, and created alarm
throughout the South. The attitude of the sections to-
ward the institution of slavery rapidly changed. The
South, thrown on the defensive, disbanded its antislavery
societies, lost interest in schemes of colonization, and
269
270 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
planted itself squarely on its constitutional right to hold
slaves. The opposition sentiment spread from New
England through the North. Controversy embittered
both sides. A political party was formed on the basis
of no further extension of slavery. The South looked
upon this as a violation of the constitutional compact on
which the Federal Government was founded. Hence
when Abraham Lincoln led this new party to victory in
i860, the Southern states construed this as a virtual dis-
solution of the bond of national unity, and at once began
to assert in a practical manner their right of secession.
Political Excitement in Church Courts.— When the
General Assembly of the Old School Presbyterian Church
met in Philadelphia in 1 861, the fires of civil strife had
been already kindled. The delegates who composed the
assembly were divided in their allegiance. The occasion
was, therefore, a most remarkable one. It called for the
greatest prudence and patience, a gentleness, delicacy
and self-control that could hardly be expected of any
but the perfectly sanctified.
When the delegates came together in 1 861, they came
with the convictions which had been gathering strength
through the years, and which were bursting forth. North
and South, in flames of civil war. Some of these dele-
gates believed that slavery was a grievous sin ; that se-
cession was rebellion; and that disobedience to the
Federal Government was treason. Others believed that
slavery had the sanction of God's word ; that secession
was a constitutional right ; and that disobedience to the
Federal Government, when demanded by one's state, was
an act of patriotic duty. What ground was there to
hope that an assembly thus constituted could perma-
nently hold together ?
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 271
Political Deliverances. — In both sections of the Church,
political excitement was running high, and was making it-
self manifest to some extent in the pulpits and courts of
the Church. One of the first political deliverances was
by the Synod of South Carolina which passed the follow-
ing resolution : *' Resolved, the synod has no hesitation,
therefore, in expressing the behef that the people of
South Carolina are now solemnly called on to imitate
their Revolutionary forefathers, and stand up for their
rights. We have an humble and abiding confidence that
that God, whose truth we represent in this conflict, will
be with us ; and, exhorting our people and churches to
put their trust in God and go forward in the solemn path
of duty, which his providence opens before them, we,
elders and members of the Presbyterian churches in
South Carolina Synod assembled, would give them our
benediction, and the assurance that we shall fervently
and unceasingly implore for them the care and protec-
tion of Almighty God."
Evidently the Presbyterians of the South were in full
political sympathy with the movement for dismembering
the general Government. Their sympathy was actively
assisting in this disintegrating work. The Presbyterians
of the North were just as heartily and actively in sym-
pathy with the effort forcibly to put a stop to the move-
ment. Was it reasonable to expect that those who were
political enemies would meet together in the courts of
the Church, and preserve intact the bonds of ecclesiastical
brotherhood ?
The " Spring Resolutions."— It was evident that if the
General Assembly of 1861 should give expression to any
sentiments concerning the conflict that was on between
the sections, a violent controversy would be precipitated,
272 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
and perhaps the result would be a division of the Church.
For somevvhile after the assembling of the body, the
effort to keep out political discussion was successful.
But there was a strong demand from the outside that this
assembly should put itself on record touching the grave
issues that were threatening the life of the Government.
And there were members of the assembly who felt that
the Church owed a duty to a distracted country; and
that it should discharge this duty, even at the risk of
dividing its own constituency. Accordingly on the sixth
day of the session, resolutions were introduced providing
for a day of fasting and prayer " that God would turn
away his anger from us, and speedily restore to us the
blessings of an honorable peace." Had the resolutions
stopped here all could have acquiesced, but the assembly
proceeded to declare '• our obligation to promote and
perpetuate, so far as in us hes, the integrity of the United
States, and to strengthen, uphold and encourage the
Federal Government in the exercise of all its functions
under our noble constitution ; and to this constitution, in
all its provisions, requirements and principles, we profess
our unabated loyalty." These resolutions, known as the
"Spring Resolutions," because offered at first by Dr.
Gardner Spring, were adopted by a vote of one hundred
and fifty-six to sixty-six.
The Protest of Dr. Hodge and Others.— The character
and purport of these resolutions, as they were, and still
are, regarded by the Presbyterians of the South, cannot
be set forth more clearly than they were set forth at the
time in the protest offered by the eminent theologian.
Dr. Charles Hodge, and signed by himself and fifty-seven
members of the assembly, including fourteen of the six'
teen commissioners who were present from the South.
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 273
In this protest the signers declare : " We make this pro-
test, not because we do not acknowledge loyalty to our
country to be a moral and religious duty, according to
the word of God which requires us to be subject to the
powers that be, nor because we deny the right of the
assembly to enjoin that and all other like duties on the
ministers and churches under its care, but because we
deny the right of the General Assembly to decide the
political question to what government the allegiance of
Presbyterians, as citizens, is due, and its right to make
that decision a condition of membership in our Church."
Withdrawal of Southern Presbyteries and Synods. —
The Presbyterians of the South believing, whether rightly
or wrongly, that the General Assembly in passing a
resolution which put into the mouth of all who were
represented in it " a declaration of loyalty and allegiance
to the Union and to the Federal Government," had trans-
cended its constitutional right, had no scruples of con-
science about renouncing their allegiance to the Church
of their fathers. During the summer and fall of 1861,
forty-seven presbyteries in the South by formal official
action severed their organic connection with the General
Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States
of America. The synods to which these presbyteries
belonged ratified their action. Each of these synods,
having withdrawn from the central authority, was for the
time being independent. But as they were all in hearty
accord politically, and at one in other respects, they
promptly sought a bond of unity in another central
authority.
Organization of the First Assembly. — A convention,
representing a number of presbyteries, met in Atlanta in
August of 1 861, and arranged for an orderly meeting of
274 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
a General Assembly to be held in Augusta, Georgia, on the
4th day of the following December. Accordingly ninety-
three ministers and ruling elders, commissioned for that
purpose, met at the time and place appointed. They
effected a temporary organization by selecting the Rev.
Francis McFarland, D. D., to preside, and the Rev. B. M.
Palmer, D. D., to preach the opening sermon. After-
the sermon, the assembly was permanently organized by
electing Dr. Palmer moderator, and the Rev. Joseph R.
Wilson, stated clerk.
Immediately after the organization, the assembly pro-
ceeded to choose a name and adopt a constitution, which
it did in the following resolutions : —
1. That the style and title of this Church shall be :
The Presbyterian Church in the Confederate States of
America.
2. That this assembly declare, in conformity with the
unanimous decision of our presbyteries, that the Con-
fession of Faith, the Larger and Shorter Catechisms, the
Form of Government, the Book of Discipline, and the
Directory of Worship, which together make up the
Constitution of the Presbyterian Church in the United
States of America, are the Constitution of the Presby-
terian Church in the Confederate States of America.
An Address to the Churches of Jesus Christ Through-
out the World. — Early in the sessions of this first as-
sembly a committ-ee was appointed to prepare an address
which should publish to the Christian world the reasons
for the new organization, and its attitude toward certain
questions of general interest. The chairman of this com-
mittee, and the author of the able and eloquent address
was the Rev. James Henley Thornwell, D. D. In this
address two reasons are assigned for separation : —
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 275
1. " la the first place, the course of the last assembly,
at Philadelphia, conclusively shows that if we remain
together, the political questions which divide us, as citizens,
will be obtruded into the Church courts, and discussed
with all the bitterness and rancor with which such ques-
tions are discussed by men of the world. Our assembly
would present a mournful spectacle of strife and debate."
(The address proceeds to argue that separation is there-
fore necessary in the interest of peace and Christian
charity.)
2. " Though the immediate occasion of separation
was the course of the General Assembly at Philadelphia
in relation to the Federal Government and the war, yet
there is another ground on which the independent or-
ganization of the Southern Church can be amply and
scripturally maintained."
This other ground was that churches should be
bounded by national limits. Inasmuch, therefore, as the
presbyteries in the South had, in the Providence of God,
been placed under a new national government, they
should conform their organization to these new limits.
While the address asserts that this is a sufficient ground
to justify separation from the Church of the fathers, it
strongly insists that this separation does not mean that
the Presbyterians of the South have ceased to love the
old Church, or have abjured its ancient principles, or for-
gotten its glorious history.
Organization of the Benevolent Work of the Church.
— It devolved on this first assembly to shape the pohcy
of the Church in the conduct of all its schemes of Chris-
tian beneficence, and to give practical effect to this
policy. It appointed four executive committees, to
which it intrusted the direction of foreign missions,
276 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
domestic missions, education and publication. The con-
stitution of all these committees was the same. Before
the division of the Church, Dr. Thornwell had contended
for such a modification of the boards of the Church, as
would bring them more directly under control of the
General Assembly. His views found expression in the
constitution of these executive committees. The com-
mittees are appointed for only one year ; their powers
are clearly defined and closely limited ; and their work
is kept under the immediate supervision of the General
Assembly.
Since that first assembly, the Church has found it
necessary for the more efficient prosecution of its work
to create two other executive committees, one of Colored
Evangelization, in 1891, and one of Ministerial Relief, in
1 90 1. The two committees of Ministerial Education and
of Ministerial Relief were consolidated by the assembly
of 1904. So that at the present time, the Church carries
on its benevolent work through five executive agencies,
and carries it on in a thoroughly systematic and satis-
factory way.
The Church During the Civil War.— Of course, the
Church shared in the disasters that laid waste the whole
South during the terrible years between 1861-65. It
had to move its executive agencies from place to place,
according to the changing fortunes of the war. When
one assembly was dissolved it was a matter of much un-
certainty where and when the next would meet. The
one appointed to meet in Macon, Georgia, in the spring
of 1865, could not meet there until the succeeding De-
cember. The inferior courts were in like manner thrown
into confusion and hindered in their regular work.
The Church maintained, however, in the midst of all
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 277
discouragements, a vigorous life, furnishing chaplains for
the army, and caring as best it could for the congrega-
tions which in the providence of God were committed to
its trust. It gave constant and earnest attention to the
religious instruction of the colored people, devoting to
this work some of its finest pulpit talent. It was also
privileged to do some effective mission work among the
Indians.
At the close of the war, its people were impoverished ;
the flower of its young men had been slain in battle ; and
many of its church buildings were in ashes. In these
distressing circumstances, the assembly gratefully ac-
knowledged timely help received from the " Board of
Aid for Southern Pastors," located in Louisville, Ky. ;
and for similar generosity shown by churches in Balti-
more.
Union With the United Synod of the Presbyterian
Church. — This Church was organized in 1858 out of the
southern contingent of the New School Assembly, as a
practical protest against the deliverances of that assembly
on the subject of slavery.
The propriety of seeking a union with the United
Synod was brought to the attention of the assembly,
during its sessions in Columbia, S. C, in 1863, by an
overture from the Presbytery of East Hanover. Com-
mittees of conference were appointed by both bodies
which met in Lynchburg, Virginia, in the July following,
and found little difficulty in framing a platform on which
both churches could stand.
The difference between these churches did not have
respect to doctrine so much as to questions of ecclesias-
tical polity involved in the exscinding resolutions which
consummated the division of the Church in 1837. When,
278 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
therefore, this union was formed, it was without the
shghtest doctrinal concession, or compromise, on the part
of either body. They not only adopted the same stand-
ards, but adopted them ex animo and in the same sense.
The result was a perfect fusion, leaving no mark or scar
to show where the old line of cleavage had run.
By this union the Southern Presbyterian Church re-
ceived an accession of about one hundred and twenty
ministers, one hundred and ninety churches, and twelve
thousand communicants.
Affairs in the Synod of Kentucky. — In the great up-
heaval of 1861-1865, the Synod of Kentucky adhered to
the Northern Assembly. At the same time, it avowed
its purpose to steer clear of all political entanglements.
It " enjoined on all its members, and upon all under its
control and care to avoid all divisive and schismatical
courses, to cultivate the peace of the Church, and to
practice great mutual forbearance." It deplored the
schism which had occurred in the Southern states, and
condemned it as without sufficient justification. On the
other hand, it expressed regret that the General Assem-
bly had taken the action which furnished the chief pre-
text for it. The assembly, at its next meeting, when the
minutes of the Synod of Kentucky came before it for re-
view, censured the synod for having disapproved its
action of the previous year. This was the beginning of
a strife between these two bodies which waxed more and
more bitter until it culminated in separation.
The Declaration and Testimony. — In 1865, the Gen-
eral Assembly declared that all who approved of slavery
and abetted the rebellion were guilty of heresy and
treason, and enjoined the different courts under its
jurisdiction to admit none to their fellowship who had
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 279
been guilty of these sins, except on evidence of sincere
repentance.
In view of this injunction, the Presbytery of Louisville
put forth a paper that became notable as " The Declara-
tion and Testimony." This was a protest against what
the presbytery was pleased to call " the erroneous and
heretical doctrines and practices which had obtained and
been propagated in the Presbyterian Church in the United
States during the last five years." This paper brought
matters to an acute crisis.
The Gurley Ipso Facto Resolutions. — When the assem-
bly met in St. Louis in 1866, one of the first things to en-
gage its attention was the " Declaration and Testimony."
The commissioners from the Louisville Presbytery were
deprived of their seats m the Assembly while the matter was
pending. The result was the adoption of a series of vig-
orous resolutions, citing the signers of the Declaration
and Testimony to appear before the next assembly to
answer for what they had done, and forbidding them in
the meantime to sit as members of any Church court
higher than the session. It was further resolved that
if any presbytery should refuse obedience to this action
of the Assembly, such disobedience should ipso facto dis-
solve the presbytery. The synods were also required to
be guided by this action of the Assembly in making up
their rolls at their next stated meetings.
Division of the Synod of Kentucky. — The Synod of
Kentucky, at its next fall meeting, disregarded the action
of the Assembly. Whereupon Dr. R. J. Breckenridge
withdrew, taking with him thirty-one other ministers, and
twenty-eight ruling elders, representing one thousand and
eight hundred -communicants. One hundred and eight
ministers, representing nine thousand and eight hundred
28o HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
communicants stood together against the Assembly.
The Assembly of 1867 recognized the seceders who fol-
lowed Dr. Breckenridge as the true synod and declared
the regular synod and its presbyteries to be no true
courts of the Lord Jesus Christ. These, however, still
accounted themselves the constitutional Synod of Ken-
tucky.
Union With the Southern Assembly. — Considering
the action of the Northern Assembly as having severed
their connection with that body, they immediately sought
admittance to the Southern Assembly. A comparison of
views revealed an essential harmony and consequently
a union was speedily consummated. Commissioners from
the presbyteries of Kentucky appeared, and were ad-
mitted to membership in the Assembly of 1868.
Union With the Synod of Missouri. — This synod
went through an experience, in all essential respects, sim-
ilar to that of Kentucky. It had among its members
some who had signed the " Declaration and Testimony."
It refused to discipline them according to the require-
ment of the '* Gurley ipso facto resolutions," and ex-
pressed disapproval of what it termed the unconstitutional
and unjust deliverances of the Assembly. For this it was
called to account, and refusing submission was cut off.
For a number of years it maintained an independent po-
sition. At length, in 1874, a large part of it united with
the Southern Assembly.
Addition of Several Smaller Bodies. — The Inde-
pendent Presbyterian Church, a small brotherhood in
North and South Carolina, was brought into the South-
ern Assembly in 1863; the Presbytery of Patapsco, in
Maryland in 1867; the Alabama Presbytery of the As-
sociate Reformed Presbyterian Church, with permission
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 281
to continue to sing exclusively Rouse's version of the
Psalms, in 1867; and the Associate Reformed Presby-
tery of Kentucky in 1870.
The union with all these various bodies " brought in
about 282 ministers, 490 churches, and 35,600 com-
municants." As the union, in every case, was on the
basis of perfect doctrinal affinity, there has been no re-
sultant evil. The Church as it stands to-day is one
hving organism, with no scars on its body to show that
any grafting has been done. The ten synods have ex-
panded into thirteen; the forty-seven presbyteries into
seventy-nine; and the sixty-five thousand white com-
municants into two hundred and thirty nine thou-
sand.
Relations with the Northern Assembly. — In 1870,
immediately after the union of the Old School and New
School Assemblies at the North, the united body made
friendly overtures to the Southern Church, asking that
a committee of conference be appointed to meet a
similar committee of their own church, to see if it were
not practicable to find a basis for closer relations between
the two churches. The Southern Assembly granted the
request but accompanied the appointment of the com-
mittee with " instructions," setting forth grave charges
made by both Old School and New School Assemblies
against the character of Southern Presbyterians. It was
asserted that these charges presented a serious difficulty
in the way of closer relations, and that they must be
distinctly met and removed. Owing to these " instruc-
tions " which were construed as a virtual prejudging of
the matters to be considered in conference, the com-
mittee of the Northern Assembly declined to meet for
conference.
282 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
A Second Unsuccessful Effort to Bring About Closer
Relations. — In 1874, overtures were renewed, and again
committees of conference were appointed by both as-
semblies. These committees met in Baltimore, and dis-
cussed very fully the obstacles which lay in the way of
closer relations. This time the committee of the South-
ern Church was not instructed, but evidently it deemed
the former " instructions " as still expressing the mind
of the church. Consequently it suggested as a condition
precedent to fraternal relations : " If your Assembly
could see its way clear to say in a few plain words, to
this effect, that these obnoxious things were said and
done in times of great excitement and are to be regretted,
and that now on a calm review, the imputations cast on
the Southern Church (of schism, heresy and blasphemy)
are disapproved, that would end the difficulty at once."
The committee of the Northern Assembly declined to
recommend such a retraction to their Assembly, on the
ground that their Assembly had already said enough in
recent deliverances, in reaffirming its adherence to con-
stitutional principles, and in expressing its confidence in
the Christian character of the Southern Presbyterian
Church, to afford a basis for fraternal relations.
Fraternal Relations Established.— In 1882, the
Southern Assembly took the initiative in an effort to
remove all grounds of offense, and adopted the follow-
ing : " In order to remove all difficulties in the way
of that full and formal fraternal correspondence which on
our part we are prepared to accept, we adopt the follow-
ing minute, — that while receding from no principle, we
do hereby declare our regret for, and our withdrawal of,
all expressions of our Assembly which may be regarded
as reflecting upon, or offensive to, the General Assembly
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 283
of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of
America.
" Resolved, that a copy of this paper be sent by tele-
graph to the General Assembly, now in session at
Springfield, Illinois, for their prayerful consideration,
and mutatis mutandis, for their reciprocal concurrence,
as affording a basis for the exchange of delegates forth-
with."
On receipt of this telegram, the Northern Assembly
adopted a reply couched in the same language, and re-
newed its expression " of warm fraternal regard for all
who compose the communion of the Southern Church,"
and declared its readiness to exchange delegates forth-
with.
This reply was received by the Southern Assembly
with sentiments of warmest satisfaction.
A Resolution that " Explained." — Thus a wide and
painful breach was apparently healed, and feelings of
perfect fraternity restored. But a note of discord was
thrown in by a telegram from the moderator of the
Northern Assembly, telling of a resolution of that as-
sembly to the effect •' that in the action now being taken
we disclaim any reference to the actions of preceding as-
semblies concerning loyalty and rebellion, but we refer
only to those concerning schism, heresy and blasphemy."
This necessitated another interchange of telegrams — one
from the Southern Assembly to know if it was the in-
tention of the Northern Assembly to " modify " the
concurrent resolution by the subsequent resolution ; and
a reply from the Northern Assembly saying it was not
their intention to " modify," but to " explain." This was
declared satisfactory by the Southern Assembly, and so
fraternal relations between the two churches were an ac-
284 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
complished fact. Delegates were appointed by each
assembly to carry salutations to the other at their next
annual meeting.
Cooperation of the Two Assemblies in Christian
Work. — Since the establishment of fraternal relations in
1882, efforts have been made from time to time to bring
the two churches into closer cooperation. These efforts
have proved in a measure successful. Cooperation has
been brought about in the work of foreign missions, in
publication, and recently in education in the states of
Missouri and Kentucky, as respects Westminster College,
Centre University, and Louisville Theological Seminary.
Revived Interest in Closer Relations with Other
Presbyterian Bodies. — A wide-spread interest is manifest-
ing itself touching closer relations with several Presby-
terian bodies. A number of presbyteries sent overtures
to the assembly which met in May, 1904, in Mobile,
Alabama, asking the appointment of a committee of
conference on the subject. Some of these presbyteries
specified the Dutch Reformed Church as one with which
closer relations were especially desired; other presby-
teries singled out the Northern Presbyterian Church.
On the second day of the assembly's sessions, it re-
ceived the following telegram : *' The General Assembly
of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of
America, in session at Buffalo, has adopted, with only
one dissenting vote, the following resolutions : —
"Whereas, It is known that the General Assembly
of the Presbyterian Church in the United States, now
in session in Mobile, Alabama, has before it over-
tures from several of its presbyteries, looking to closer
relations with this Assembly, and
" Whereas, We earnestly desire to remove all obstacles
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 285
to such relations; therefore, be it Resolved that this
General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the
United States of America hereby removes all asper-
sions and charges of any and every kind made by
previous assemblies reflecting on the Christian character
of the Presbyterian Church in the United States, and is
ready at any time to confer on the subject of closer re-
lations whenever such conference shall be agreeable to
the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the
United States."
Appointment of a Committee of Conference.— The
assembly in Mobile heard the foregoing telegram with
much gratification; and sent a response as follows:
" The General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in
the United States learns with joy of the action of your
assembly in the removal of all aspersions upon the Chris-
tian character of the Presbyterian Church in the United
States, and declares its readiness to follow the leadings of
providence in the matter of closer relations, overtures
touching which are now before us for consideration."
When these overtures were considered by the Assem-
bly, the result was the appointment of a committee of
conference, not charged, however, with the specific duty
of conferring with representatives of the Northern
Church, but " authorized and empowered to confer with
similar committees that may be appointed by other Pres-
byterian and Reformed churches." The assembly speci-
fied that its committee was to confer on the subject of
closer relations with such churches as enter the confer-
ence with a view to discover : —
" I. The real sentiments of the churches on the sub-
ject.
*' 2. The leadings of God's providence in the matter.
286 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
" 3. The obstacles that may stand in the way of closer
fellowship.
" 4. Whether and how such obstacles can be re-
moved.
"5. And what may be the nature and form of the
relation which shall best secure effective cooperation, by
federation or otherwise, and at the same time preserve
loyalty to those great principles for which the various
churches have been called to testify."
The heart of the Southern Church is profoundly in-
terested in the great Church, of which it once formed a
part, whose early history it helped to make, and by whose
present power it is sensibly affected. Lying contiguous
and in part overlapping, the two churches cannot be
separated in influence.
Characteristics of the Southern Presbyterian Church.
1. Perhaps the most prominent characteristic of this
church is jealous loyalty to the Westminster Standards.
It holds with unwavering firmness to the undiluted Cal-
vinism of those standards. It acknowledges no need of
any new statement of old truth, but continues satisfied
with the statement furnished by the heroic and godly
men of the seventeenth century.
2. This jealous loyalty demands of the ministry strict
creed-subscription. Such hberty of dissent in minor
matters as was granted by the Adopting Act of 1729 is
still permitted, but there must be no uncertain sound
touching the doctrinal system of the Confession. The
law requires that every presbytery shall cause to be tran-
scribed in some convenient part of its book of records the
obligations required of ministers at their ordination,
which shall be subscribed by all admitted to membership
in the following form: *' I, A. B., do ex anuno receive
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 287
and subscribe the above obligation as a just and true ex-
hibition of my faith and principles, and do resolve and
promise to exercise my ministry in conformity there-
unto."
3. The church stresses the principle that " synods and
councils are to handle, or conclude nothing but that
which is ecclesiastical, and are not to intermeddle with
civil affairs." Interpreting this with rigid literalness, the
church excludes from its courts all discussion of political
questions, and refuses alliance with any organizations that
aim merely at social or political reforms.
4. It stands by the " plenary verbal inspiration " of
the Bible, believing that this is the claim which the Bible
makes for itself. Its views touching the inerrancy of the
Scriptures have not been affected perceptibly by the find-
ing of what claims to be the highest and broadest
scholarship in the sphere of biblical criticism.
5. It has not yet given up certain traditional inter-
pretations, which have been generally discarded : —
{a) While thoroughly satisfied, and more than satis-
. fied, with the destruction of slavery as it formerly existed
in the South, it continues to believe, as did the Old
School Assembly in 1845, that the word of God sanc-
tions the institution of slavery.
{p) It persists in maintaining, as did the undivided
Church in 1832 that to " teach and exhort, or to lead in
prayer in public and promiscuous assemblies, is clearly
forbidden to women in the Holy Oracles."
6. It has committed itself to the policy of a separate
church for the colored people. It has been moved
thereto, {a) by deference to the wishes of the colored
people ; [b) by the conviction that the increased responsi-
bility would best develop the colored people ; and (c) by
288 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
the apprehension of social embarrassments which might
result from ecclesiastical mixture.
By this policy of an independent African Church, it
has not meant to cast off the colored people from its
sympathy and help. It maintains a school for educating
colored preachers ; contributes to the support of their
churches ; organizes and conducts colored Sabbath
schools ; and thus in various ways continues to manifest
a practical interest in the religious Hfe of the colored
people.
CHAPTER XI
UNITED STATES (^Continued)
The Cumberland Presbyterian Church. — Few
churches have had a more humble beginning than the
Cumberland Presbyterian. It came into distinct exist-
ence on the 4th day of February, 1810, in the log-cabin
home of the Rev. Samuel McAdow, in Dickson County,
Tennessee. This venerable minister joined with two
others, Finis Ewing and Samuel King in the organization
of an independent presbytery. These two latter were
young men, who had been brought into the ministry in
an irregular manner, and their ordination was never
recognized by the Church from which they were seced-
ing. They met at the home of Mr. McAdow because he
was too infirm to meet with them elsewhere. Surely
these first elements of the Cumberland Presbyterian
Church were " the weak things of the world." But it is
the prerogative of God to take the weak things and
«' confound the mighty."
Ministry of the Rev. James McGready.— The founding
of this new church was the result of troubles, growing out
of the great revival that marked the opening years of the
nineteenth century. The revival began in Kentucky
under the ministry of the Rev. James McGready. He
was a native of North Carolina, and was educated by
the Rev. John McMillan at his famous school in western
Pennsylvania. In 1796, he moved from North Carolina
to Logan County, Kentucky, and became pastor of three
289
290 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
congregations with the euphonious names of Caspar
River, Red River, and Muddy River. His parishioners
were hardy pioneers, many of them reckless adventurers
from the older colonies. Probably in all the wild border
territory, no more irreligious population could have been
found than that which made up the young state of Ken-
tucky. The whole country was still feeling the demoral-
izing effects of the Revolutionary War, and the influx of
P>ench infidelity which belonged to that period. But
nowhere did ungodUness in all its forms take deeper root,
or flourish more vigorously than in Kentucky. In 1793,
the Legislature passed an act, dispensing with public
prayer in its sessions. No man ever had more need of faith
and courage than did the Rev. James McGready. F'or-
tunately for the future of that country, few men have had
greater faith and courage than he. Finding a few Chris-
tians who knew how to pray and were willing to pray,
he formed them into an aggressive band. They entered
into the following covenant : " We bind ourselves to
observe the third Saturday in each month for one year as
a day of fasting and prayer for the conversion of sinners
in Logan County and throughout the world. We engage
to spend half an hour every Saturday evening, beginning
with set of sun, and half an hour every Sabbath morning
at the rising of the sun, in pleading with God to revive
his work."
The Revival and Its Consequences. — The praying
band was formed in 1796. In May of the next year, the
httle cloud not bigger than a man's hand appeared. It
grew larger and larger till it overspread all the heavens
in parts of Kentucky and Tennessee, and gave forth
" showers of blessing." The history of the Church in
this country furnishes no more striking illustration of the
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 291
fact that " the Lord will hear his chosen when they
cry."
As the revival spread and grew in power, some irregu-
larities began to manifest themselves. Those leading the
movement were not so much concerned for the way in
which sinners were brought to repentance, as for the
actual bringing of them to repentance. Perhaps, they
were too little careful to see that everything was done
decently and in order. But after all people will differ,
even good people, as to what constitutes decency and
order, and further as to how much relative importance
should be attached to these things. So it came to pass
that two parties sprang up, and the history of the '' Great
Awakening" of 1740 repeated itself. One party was
heart and soul in sympathy with the revival, made it
their aim to promote it and to secure from it the largest
possible harvest of professed conversions. If to any of
this party the disorders were objectionable, the joy at
seeing sinners crying for mercy so far outweighed all that
was objectionable as to make the latter scarcely worth a
thought. The other party was completely alienated by
the disorders. They could see no good equal to the evils
that were incident to the great emotional excitement.
Some of these objectors were good men, overcautious,
perhaps, but they firmly believed that the revival was
little else than wildfire that would soon burn over the
ground, burn itself out, and leave matters worse than
they were before. Others objected because they had
little or no sympathy with religious aggressiveness. But
despite opposition, the revival continued to spread and
deepen for the space of three years.
Extraordinary Manifestations, Mental and Phys-
ical.— It is probable that the emotional excitement at-
292 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
tending some of the meetings, during this revival, has
not been exceeded by anything of hke kind in the history
of the Church. A writer describing it says : " It was
subhme, grand, awful. The noise was like the roar of
Niagara. The vast sea of human beings was agitated
as if by a storm. The tide of emotion seemed to roll
over them like tumultuous waves. Sometimes hundreds
were swept down almost at once, like the trees of the
forest under the blast of the wild tornado. Seven
ministers, some in wagons, others standing on stumps,
might have been seen, all addressing the multitude at
the same time. Of the people, some were singing, others
praying, others crying aloud for mercy, others still,
shouting most vociferously, while hardened men, who,
with horrid imprecations, rushed furiously into the pray-
ing circles, were smitten down as if by an invisible hand,
and lay powerless, or racked by fearful spasms till their
companions, beholding them, were palsied by terror. At
times the scene was surpassingly terrible, and the boldest
heart was unmanned. The infidel forgot his philosophy,
and trembled till he sank to his knees, or fell to the
earth. ' At one time,' says a spectator, • I saw at least
five hundred swept down in a moment, as if a battery of
a thousand guns had opened on them; and then im-
mediately followed shrieks and shouts that rent the very
heavens. My hair rose upon my head, my whole frame
trembled, the blood ran cold in my veins, and I fled to
the woods.' Such is the testimony of one who would
not have fallen to the ground for the whole of Kentucky,
and who, when his feelings had become intense and in-
supportable sought to allay them by a dram of brandy."
In addition to these mental and spiritual phenomena there
were others just as remarkable of a purely physical kind.
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 293
" There were the falling, the jerking, the running, the danc-
ing and the barking exercises. Individuals were seized by
these, often in spite of studied resistance, and sometimes
almost while the jest or open blasphemy was upon their
lips." The experiences were certainly remarkable, and
no satisfactory psychological explanation of them can be
given. Similar experiences are recorded of other revivals.
Formation and Character of Cumberland Presby-
tery.— At the beginning of the revival, the Presbytery of
Transylvania covered the w^hole state of Kentucky. In
1799, it was divided into three; in 1802 it was again
divided, and the new presbytery was named Cumber-
land. It comprised ten ministers, and they were equally
divided on the subject of the revival. By the addition
of the Rev. James Howe, who came from the Metho-
dist Church, those who favored the revival gained a
majority. As might be supposed, the majority as-
sumed that they were the wise, and so proceeded to
ordain, in the course of the next three years, several new
preachers who were in accord with them. This gave
them a good working majority, and henceforth they had
everything their own way.
Complaint of the Minority to Synod.— In October,
1804, the minority of the Cumberland Presbytery com-
plained to synod, charging the majority of the presbytery
with ordaining young men, who were uneducated and un-
sound in the faith. The synod cited the members of the
Cumberland Presbytery, complained of, to appear before
its bar at its next meeting. It also appointed a com-
mittee to attend the next meeting of the presbytery, and
look into its irregularities. The presbytery resented
these acts of synod, and the members, whose conduct
was under censure, refused to obey the summons.
294 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
A Commission Appointed by Synod with Plenary
Powers. — At its meeting in 1805, the ^ynod appointed a
commission to confer with the Cumberland Presbytery,
and empowered this commission to rectify whatever it
found wrong in the previous doings of the presbytery.
The commission met, and cited before it all the
preachers, and licentiates of the presbytery. These all
obeyed the citation. After some investigation the com-
mission adopted a paper solemnly condemning the
presbytery for having ordained and licensed men con-
trary to the constitution of the Church, and demanding
that those so ordained and Hcensed should be reexamined
before the synod. The presbytery protested against this,
and the young men refused to submit to reexamination.
The commission then rendered its verdict, declaring the
young men, not only illiterate, but erroneous in senti-
ment, and that their ordination, or licensure, was there-
fore illegal, and prohibiting them from exhorting, or
preaching, or administering the sacraments. The com-
mission cited the older ministers for trial before the synod
at its next meeting. They refused to appear; where-
upon the synod, in October, 1806, suspended them from
the ministry and dissolved the Cumberland Presbytery.
During its brief existence this presbytery ordained four
ministers, Hcensed seven, and received under its care a
number of candidates and exhorters.
Failure to Obtain Redress through the General
Assembly. — The suspended members of the dissolved
presbytery felt aggrieved, and not unreasonably, at the
action of the synod. They sought redress from the Gen-
eral Assembly, explaining the urgent demand for
preachers growing out of the revival, and the impossi-
bility of meeting this demand with a supply of regularly-
THE UNITED STA lES OF AMERICA 295
qualified preachers. In licensing young men of defective
literary qualification, the presbytery had permitted them,
in subscribing to the Confession of Faith, to except to the
" idea of fatality," which they believed to be taught in
the chapter on " God's Eternal Decrees." They ex-
plained to the General Assembly that they permitted
this exception because of " the concise manner in which
the highly-mysterious doctrine of divine decrees is
therein expressed." Unfortunately for these brethren,
they failed to lodge a formal complaint against the Synod
of Kentucky in the manner prescribed by the Rules of
Discipline. More than one assembly expressed a kindly
concern for them, and a willingness to give them a hear-
ing if they would seek redress in an orderly way. They,
however, permitted the favorable opportunity to pass
away unimproved, and the Synod of Kentucky ultimately
succeeded in securing from the assembly an endorsement
of its course. Nothing was now left to them but to sub-
mit and seek readmittance to the old Presbytery of Tran-
sylvania, to which they had been remanded when the
Cumberland Presbytery was dissolved, or to set up a new
and independent organization.
The Birth of a New Denomination.— At this juncture
of affairs, the aggrieved brethren numbered six. When
it was proposed to organize an independent presbytery,
three of them withdrew and sought reconciliation with
the old Church. One of the others could not see his way
clear, and so there were only two left, Finis Ewing and
Samuel King, who were ready to go forward. They
were of the number of those whose ordinations were
pronounced invalid. It seemed as if the repressive meas-
ures of the Synod of Kentucky were about to succeed.
One possible way remained to these two young men to
296 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
carry out their purpose. Rev. Samuel McAdovv, too in-
firm from age to meet with his brethren, had ever been
an earnest promoter of the revival, and had helped to
license and ordain Ewing and King. It occurred to them
that he might join them, and thus furnish the requisite
number for a new presbytery. They sought him at his
home and laid the matter before him. He asked them to
wait till the next morning for his answer. He spent the
night in prayer, and the next morning assented to their
request. Thus was brought into existence a church,
which has had, in many respects, a remarkably successful
career.
Rapid Growth of the Church.— When the new and
independent Cumberland Presbytery was organized, there
was before it an open door into a wide and promising
field. Thousands of converts had been gathered into
churches during the great revival, who were ready to
welcome any kind of preachers, who could pray and ex-
hort, and whose hearts were in sympathy with the new
movement. Hence the infant church grew with amazing
rapidity. In three years, the three preachers had devel-
oped into three presbyteries, and these, in October, 181 3,
formed the Cumberland Synod. This continued to be
their supreme court until 1828, when it divided into four
synods, and in May, 1829, a General Assembly was formed.
At this time there were sixteen presbyteries. The church
has never ceased to grow, though its rate of progress has
been by no means so rapid in recent years. At present
it numbers nearly two thousand ministers, about three
thousand churches, and one hundred and eighty thousand
communicants.
In addition to the fact that much material was ready
to hand in the beginning of the church's career, it may
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 297
be further stated, as explaining its rapid growth, that its
ministry has usually been imbued with a warm evangel-
istic zeal, and has been persistent in the use of revival
methods. As a rule, its preachers have equaled or sur-
passed the Methodists in the use of " high pressure "
methods. The mourner's bench, with stirring appeals to
the feehngs, has been a prominent instrument of propa-
gandism. Born amidst scenes of wild excitement, the
church has ever regarded such scenes as the fittest for
the healthful development of piety and the rapid exten-
sion of the kingdom. While it has commended itself to
many of the educated and thoughtful class, its success
has been largely among those with whom appeals to the
emotions are more effective than reasons and persuasion
addressed to intellect and conscience.
Colored Cumberland Presbyterians, — At the close of
the Civil War, the Cumberland Presbyterian Church had
quite a considerable membership of colored people. In
1869, these asked to be set off by themselves. Their re-
quest was granted. They now have an assembly of their
own, representing twenty presbyteries and about thirty
thousand communicants.
Doctrinal Position of the Cumberland Presb5^erian
Church. — The doctrinal position of this Church has not
been so clearly defined as that of some other churches.
What it has done at creed-making has been in the line
of modification of the Westminster Standards, It claims
to occupy a middle ground between Calvinism and Ar-
minianism.
The first published statement of ddctrine was put forth
by the synod at its organization in 181 3. The object
was to show the points of departure from the Westmin-
ster Confession of Faith ; and these points were stated in
298 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
the following form : " First, there are no eternal repro-
bates ; second, Christ died not for a part, but for all of
mankind ; third, all infants, dying in infancy are saved
through Christ and the sanctification of the spirit ; fourth,
the spirit of God operates on the world, or, in other
words, coextensively with the atonement of Christ, in
such manner as to leave all men inexcusable." The same
synod appointed a committee to prepare a fuller creed.
The work of this committee consisted in revising the
Westminster Confession. The changes were made prin-
cipally in Chapters III and X, and these were made for the
purpose of relieving the confession of the charges of fatal-
ism and of damning infants. To extend God's eternal
decrees to " whatsoever comes to pass," and then to predi-
cate of them immutability is, in the view of the Cumber-
land Church, to teach fatalism. The revised Confession
of Faith was adopted October 14, 18 14, and continued to
be the creed of the church down to 1883. At this time
a second revision was adopted. This revision was merely
in form of statement, leaving the doctrines unchanged.
Some of their writers sum up the points that discrimi-
nate the doctrinal position of the Cumberland Church
from Calvinism on the one hand, and Arminianism on
the other, in the three following statements : —
" I. All men must be born again or perish.
" 2. All may be born again and not perish.
" 3. None who are born again will perish."
On these propositions it may be remarked that the first
is held tenaciously by both Calvinists and Arminians ;
the second is hypothetical, and according to the condi-
tions implied would be either rejected or accepted by both
Calvinists and Arminians ; and the third is one of the
historic doctrines of Calvinism. It did not need the
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 299
efforts of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church to demon-
strate that there is no middle ground between Calvinism
and Arminianism. The logical mind is shut up to one
or the other. The space between them is " bridgeless
and fathomless."
The Present Position of the Church. — In its own
field, and in its own way, it may be said that the
Cumberland Presbyterian Church has borne an honor-
able part in helping to build up the one kingdom of
Christ. It has been conspicuously zealous and suc-
cessful in home mission work, carrying the gospel, at
the cost of heroic self-sacrifice, into many destitute
regions. In 1828, its first missionary entered Texas.
Nine years later the Texas Presbytery was formed, and
this one presbytery has grown into twenty-seven, repre-
senting five hundred and fifty-one churches.
In 1852, it sent its first missionary to the foreign
field, in the person of a consecrated young colored
man. Since that time it has sent missionaries to
Turkey, to Japan and Mexico. While its work in
these fields is carried on in a very small way, yet the
spirit of foreign missions is growing in the church, and
promises better things for the future.
Its Educational Policy and Work The church was
organized by ministers of limited education, and from the
beginning refused to make a high standard of literary
qualification a condition of entering the ministry. By
this the Church did not mean to undervalue education,
or discourage efforts for liberal attainments on the part
of those seeking the ministry. The position of the
Church is that while no one should be prohibited from
preaching the gospel who has sufficient education to ex-
pound it clearly, at the same time facilities should be
300 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
provided by the church for thorough training, and those
who wish to preach should be stimulated to secure the
best preparation possible to their circumstances.
Its first college was founded at Princeton, Ky., in 1825,
and was named Cumberland College. This institution
was moved to Lebanon, Tenn., in 1842, and chartered as
" Cumberland University." In addition to the academic
department, it comprises a law school and a theological
seminary. This is the church's principal school, but it
has a number of other colleges and academies, scattered
over its territory.
CHAPTER XII
UNITED STATES {Continued)
The Dutch Reformed Church. — Since 1867 the official
name of this church has been the Reformed Church in
America. But it continues to be known popularly as
the Dutch Reformed, and this name will probably cling
to it for years to come as designating the historic source
of its origin. It is a daughter of the Church of Holland,
and is entitled to the distinction of being the first church
to organize a congregation on Presbyterian principles in
the western hemisphere.
The Settlement of New Amsterdam.— Emigration
from Holland to America dates from the year 1609,
when Henry Hudson sailed up the river, which has
since borne his name, in search of a northwest passage
to India. He was sent on this quest by the Dutch East
India Company, who hoped by travehng Westward to
shorten the distance to the East. They were disappointed
in this hope, but found compensation in the opening up of
a profitable fur trade with the natives of the new world.
Very soon after exploring the Hudson River, a number
of armed trading posts were established along its shores.
The country between the Connecticut and the Delaware
rivers was called the New Netherlands, and it was fondly
hoped that this would prove a permanent and valuable
province of the mother country.
The first considerable colony was planted on the island
of Manhattan, and this colony, after the coming of its
301
302 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
first governor in 1626, took the name of New Amster-
dam.
The Beginning of Church Life. — The earliest colonists
were not moved to cross the ocean from religious consid-
erations. They were not, like the Puritans of New Eng-
land, seeking an asylum from the oppressor, a place
where they might worship God without fear, and build
up a church according to their own views of scriptural
teaching. They were first of all seeking to better their
fortunes by buying furs in the cheapest market and sell-
ing them in the dearest. The interests of religion had to
wait. No preachers came over for some years. The
first to perform the public offices of religion were the
Kranken-besoeckers , or comforters of the sick. These
gathered the people on Sundays and read to them from
the Scriptures and the creeds.
The Dutch West India Company.— In 1621 the Dutch
West India Company was organized, and to it was com-
mitted the task of conquering and colonizing the wes-
tern shores of the Atlantic from the Strait of Magel-
lan to the North Pole, or as much thereof as they might
find it convenient to undertake. They at once gave a
fresh impetus to the settlement of the New Netherlands.
In 1623, they brought over quite an addition to the
colony on Manhattan Island. Many of these were orig-
inally from Belgium, the lower provinces of the Nether-
lands which had not been able to throw off the tyran-
nical yoke of Spain. Thousands of Protestants in that
country took refuge in Holland, and afterwards numbers
of them came to seek the larger liberty of the new world.
These were known by the name of Walloons, and spoke
the French language. But they were closely allied to
the Dutch, were in fact a branch of the Dutch family, and
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 303
found a congenial home in New Amsterdam. As they
had given up their country for the sake of rehgion their
coming was a decided gain to the moral and spiritual in-
terests of the young colony. Three years after these
landed on the island, Peter Minuit, the first governor,
arrived. He was an earnest Christian, having served as
a deacon in the church of Wesel. Two years later came
the first minister, the Rev. Jonas Michaelius, and the
same year, 1628, he organized the first church, with fifty
communicants, and the governor as one of the
elders.
The Church During the Rule of the Dutch.— The
Dutch West India Company was supreme in the affairs
of the New Netherlands, its rule extending to church as
well as state. It belonged to this company to send out
and support preachers to meet the spiritual needs of the
colonies. The members of the company seem not to
have been deeply impressed with these needs. They
were more concerned about the interests of commerce.
Hence preachers were a scarce commodity in the Dutch
settlements, and churches developed slowly. For thirty-
six years from the date of the birth of the first church
only eleven churches were organized, notwithstanding
the fact that during all this while there was a steady
stream of immigration from Holland. The principal
church was in New Amsterdam, and most of the others
were in the near neighborhood. One of considerable
importance was at Fort Orange, where the city of
Albany now stands. This was served by the most fa-
mous of the early Dutch preachers, Megapolensis. He
was a man of great energy, courage and force of char-
acter. Learning the language of the Mohawks, he
preached to them and gained such influence with them
304 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
as enabled him to save from torture and probably
from death the distinguished Jesuit priest, Jogues. It
has been claimed for Megapolensis that he was the
first Protestant missionary to the Indians, but this
claim can hardly be made good in face of the fact
that years before this, Alexander Whitaker had con-
verted and baptized Pocahontas, and by arduous labors
in behalf of her people had well earned the title, " The
Apostle to the Indians."
Relation of the Dutch to the Other Colonists. — The
New Netherlands was under the same liberal laws as the
mother country, and like the mother country welcomed
to its protection the oppressed of other lands. It fur-
nished an asylum for Francis Doughty and Richard
Denton, who came with their congregations from New
England, also to Mrs. Anne Hutchinson and others who
were banished from Massachusetts. Quite a number of
sects, including Independents, Lutherans, Presbyterians
and Anabaptists found a refuge under the protecting
shield of the generous Dutch. But during the reign of
the strenuous Peter Stuyvesant a change came over the
spirit of the Netherlanders. Their efforts to prevent the
Lutherans from securing a minister, and establishing a
church and worship of their own, were for a time suc-
cessful, but at length the liberal spirit of Holland pre-
vailed, and the West India Company promised the same
toleration in the New Netherlands as was enjoyed in Hol-
land. This, however, did not prevent Stuyvesant and his
council from passing another stringent order against con-
venticles. The Quakers, who had settled on Long Island
in considerable numbers, were the principal sufferers,
some of these being fined and imprisoned. Finally, in
1662, the company severely rebuked the intolerance of
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 305
Stuyvesant, and ordered that no one be disturbed in the
free exercise of his rehgion so long as he was '< modest,
moderate, and irreproachable in his political conduct."
This was a timely order, for in a little while the Dutch
needed the mercy which they were enjoined to show to
others.
New Amsterdam Taken by the English, 1664. —
Charles II, of England, with a remarkable and un-
scrupulous generosity, gave the New Netherlands to his
brother, Duke of York. Whereupon an English fleet,
under command of Richard Nicolls, crossed over from
England, sailed up into the bay of North River, near
Staten Island, and demanded the immediate surrender of
New Amsterdam. The little city was without means of
defense either in men or munitions of war. Notwith-
standing this, the fiery old governor, Peter Stuyvesant,
was for throwing down the gage of battle, and only the
earnest entreaties of citizens and burgomasters induced
him to yield. Thus without bloodshed one of the most
prosperous colonies of the new world changed rulers, and
England added to her possessions the most valuable
province on this side of the ocean.
The conquest checked the immigration from Holland,
and put new difficulties in the way of the progress of the
church. The Dutch feared for their religious liberty,
and not without reason. They had taken care to guard
the rights of the church by having inserted in the terms
of surrender an article which read : " The Dutch here
shall enjoy the liberty of their consciences in divine
worship and church discipline." Despite this fact the
English governors tried to establish the Episcopal Church,
and cripple the other churches, though P^piscopalians
constituted not more than one tenth of the population.
3o6 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
It was not till the reign of the Dutch Presbyterian,
William III, that the Reformed Church, by securing a
charter, rendered its liberties secure.
Some Hindrances to the Prosperity of the Church
When New Amsterdam became New York, by passing
under English rule, there were thirteen Reformed churches
and seven ministers. Twelve years after this date there
were only three ministers. At the beginning of the
eighteenth century, there were but twenty-nine churches
in the whole province of New York, and the ministers
were so scarce that few congregations had the privilege
of hearing preaching more than two or three times a
year. Several causes obstructed the progress of the
church — such as the character of the earliest colonists,
who sacrificed the ample religious blessings of the home
land for the sake of commercial gain ; the unsettled con-
dition of the colony politically ; the constant struggle of
a feeble but aggressive minority to secure an advantage
for the Episcopal Church ; above all the dependence of
the Colonial Church on the Classis of Amsterdam. Had
the Dutch Reformed imitated the Puritans of New Eng-
land, and the Scotch-Irish of the middle colonies, and cut
loose at once from the mother church, trusting to its
own resources, developing its own institutions and pro-
viding its own ministry, no doubt its growth would have
been far more rapid. But for a century and a half it
maintained an organic connection w^ith the Classis of
Amsterdam, and permitted its interests to wait on the
fostering care of that court three thousand miles distant.
Later, another retarding cause was found in the per-
sistent use of the Dutch language. As late as 1820, the
county churches clung to the use of this language in the
public services of the sanctuary. This stamped the
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 307
church as an exotic, and restricted its growth to Dutch
emigrants and their descendants.
The Formation of a Coetus, 1747. — It was not till the
year 1737 that the church began to think seriously of
taking steps to provide a fountain of authority on this
side of the ocean to look after the interests of the needy
congregations. Through all the preceding century when
they had a candidate for the ministry, they sent him in a
slow sailing vessel three thousand miles for ordination.
Provided he was not lost at sea, it cost him six months'
time and the expense of the voyage to receive authority
to preach. The " Great Awakening," beginning about
1730, and promoted in no small measure by the devoted
labors of the Rev. Theodore J. Frelinghuysen, made the
necessity for more preachers painfully felt. In 1737 a
number of ministers met together and formulated a plan
for a Coetus. This plan was submitted to the churches,
and being approved by them was sent to Holland for the
approval of the Classis of Amsterdam. After nine years
of waiting, a favorable response was received. But the
Coetus was so hedged about with restrictions on its
authority as to render it almost useless. Through sub-
ordinate circles it could exercise a general supervision
over the congregations, but could neither license candi-
dates, nor ordain licentiates, without special permission in
each case from the distant classis. The church worked
badly under this nondescript affair, which had no logical
place in the polity of the church, being neither a con-
sistory, a classis, nor a synod. Young men continued to
take the long and perilous voyage to Holland to have the
hands of the presbytery laid on them.
Transformation of the Coetus into a Classis. —
The conviction deepened that a more effective organiza-
3o8 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
tion was essential to the well-being of the church. There
should be a bona fide court with power to license and or-
dain, and to manage all local interests without referring
to Holland for advice, or permission. Moreover the bond
with the mother church was weakening. With few ex-
ceptions, ministers and people were American born, and
the spirit of western independence was stirring in their
veins. In 1754 an assembly of eleven ministers and
eleven elders adopted a plan for so modifying the Coetus
as to change it into a constitutional classis. The plan
was submitted to the congregations, and also sent to the
Synod of North Holland asking the assistance of that
body to carry it into effect.
Just at this juncture, there was a most unfortunate
split in the church, which lasted for seventeen years. * A
few ministers wished to lend themselves to an effort which
the Episcopalians were making to found a denominational
college in the city of New York. They withdrew from
the Coetus, and sent a letter to Holland, entreating the
Classis of Amsterdam not to approve the plan on foot to
form an independent authority in America. But the
Coetus met on the 30th of May, 1754, and without wait-
ing longer for the approval of the mother across the
Atlantic assumed all the powers of a self-governing body.
Consolidation and Complete Autonomy. — By a happy
compensation of providence there came at this time into
the councils of the distracted church, one raised up of
God to be a peacemaker, and a source of abundant bless-
ing to the church in many directions. This was John
H. Livingston, a descendant of John Livingston, who in
the seventeenth century, having been driven from Scot-
land by persecution, had received a loving welcome by
the Reformed Church of Holland. The reward for re-
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 309
ceiving a prophet in the name of a prophet was bestowed
on the American church in the person of this descend-
ant. Graduating from Yale College in 1762, he dedicated
himself to the gospel ministry, and cast in his lot with
the adopted church of his ancestors. To qualify himself
to preach in the Dutch language, he went to Holland for
his theological education. By the influence gained in
the mother church he was the better fitted for the task
of bringing together the warring factions in the daughter
church. Immediately on his return home he gave him-
self with great earnestness to this delicate task. Such
was his success that within less than two years, the
breach was healed, a new form of organization was
adopted, and the approval of the Classis of Amsterdam
was secured. The new organization consisted of one
general body, and five particular bodies, and these with
such powers as to make the church practically independ-
ent, though it still bore a nominal subordination to the
church in Holland. It was not until 1794 that a General
Synod with complete autonomy was organized, and
under it a Particular Synod.
Present Organization of the Church. — In the year
1800, the particular Synod was divided into the two
Particular Synods of New York and Albany. The
Particular Synod of Chicago was organized in 1856; and
the Particular Synod of New Brunswick in 1869.
Subordinate to these four particular synods are thirty-
five classes ; and under these are the congregational
courts called consistories. These consistories differ from
the sessions of most Presbyterian churches in that they
are composed of both elders and deacons. Another
peculiarity is that these elders and deacons are chosen by
the congregation for only two years, and half go out
3IO HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
each year. These ex-elders and ex-deacons constitute
the " Great Consistory " which is summoned on occasion
to give advice on important matters. The classis is
identical with a presbytery ; both the Particular Synod
and the General Synod are delegated bodies, composed
of representatives from the classes, and each meets annu-
ally.
Educational Institutions. — The Reformed Church has
had a creditable history in the matter of education.
When too feeble to support institutions of its own, it
sought the benefit of schools founded by those more
fortunate, and in the face of all difficulties, maintained a
high standard of education for its ministry. Its oldest
college was chartered in 1770 under the title of Queen's
College, and was located at New Brunswick, N. J. The
name was changed in 1825 to Rutgers College, in honor
of a generous benefactor. Colonel Henry Rutgers.
Union College, Schenectady, N. Y., obtained its charter
ii^ 1 795 J ^^^ proved a great blessing to the church in
preparing young men for the ministry. Hope College,
Holland, Michigan, grew out of Holland Academy, and
was chartered in 1866.
The Reformed Church claims the oldest Theological
Seminary in America. It began theological education
by electing the Rev. John H. Livingston professor of
theology in 1784. He taught for many years in New
York City. In 18 10, he was called by the synod to open
a theological seminary in New Brunswick, N. J., and the
same year he was elected president of Queen's (now
Rutgers) College. He accepted both positions, and
labored in them with great efficiency until his death.
Such was the beginning of the theological seminary at
New Brunswick. It now has eight fine buildings, five
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 311
endowed professorships, a good library, and all other
essentials to make it one of the best-equipped institutions
of sacred learning in the land. At Holland, Mich.,
the church has another school for educating its ministry,
the Western Theological Seminary, which is growing
into strength and enlarged usefulness in connection with
Hope College.
Doctrine and Liturgy. — This church is remarkable for
the stress it lays on doctrine, measuring orthodoxy by no
less than three great confessional symbols, viz., the Belgic
Confession, the Canons of Dort, and the Heidelberg
Catechism. This last is made particularly prominent, as
the church requires it to be taught in families and schools,
and makes a short compend of it the doctrinal standard
for all who join the church. Ministers are required to
subscribe both the Confession and Catechism, and pledge
themselves not to teach any views contrary to them with-
out first consulting the classis to which they belong.
The church of this country was but following in the wake
of the Church of Holland in receiving and enthroning all
these elaborate doctrinal standards, but it has adhered to
them with a courage and consistency which should put
the mother church to shame.
The Reformed Church in America inherited from
Holland a somewhat extensive liturgy, consisting of
sacramental forms, forms of ordination of ministers, elders
and deacons, of discipline, marriage, consolation of the
sick, etc. Some new forms have been added, making the
liturgy very full and complete. While these forms are
used with a good degree of uniformity, they are all
optional except those for the sacraments, for ordination,
and for discipline.
The Christian Reformed Church. — This church is so
312 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
nearly related to the one whose history we have been
considering as not to demand separate treatment. It is
composed of three constituent parts. The oldest of these
was a small fragment that split off from the Dutch Re-
formed Church in 1822, giving as their reason that the
church had become corrupted with Hopkinsian error, and
had relaxed its discipline. The next oldest of the three
elements was a part of the Christian Reformed Church
of Holland which emigrated to this country about the
middle of the nineteenth centur}^ and settled in the
western states. The remaining element was a secession
from the Dutch Reformed Church in 1882 because the
General Synod refused to condemn freemasonry, and to
reject from Christian fellowship those who belonged to
secret, oath-bound societies. These secessionists were
recent immigrants from Holland, living in the West.
The three elements came into organic unity in 1889.
They have nine classes, and something over seventeen
thousand communicants. They hold the same doctrinal
standards, and use the same forms of worship as the
Dutch Reformed Church.
CHAPTER XIII
UNITED STATES {Continued)
THE GERMAN REFORMED CHURCH
The official name of this church omits the word " Ger-
man " for the reason that the church has long since be-
come Americanized. But the word is convenient to dis-
criminate this church from the many other Reformed
churches, and also to indicate its historic origin. It roots
itself in the Reformed churches of Germany and Switzer-
land, and continues to derive its growth and strength
almost exclusively from Germanic sources. Some of the
material that entered into the formation of the church
was early on the ground. By invitation of WiUiam Penn,
Francis Daniel Pastorius brought over a colony of Ger-
mans and settled Germantown, Pennsylvania, in 1683.
This was the beginning of a stream of immigration that
has never ceased to flow, but the volume of which was
very small till the second decade of the eighteenth cen-
tury.
The Great Influx Under Queen Anne.— The barbarous
wars of Louis XIV, beginning in 1674 and waged from
time to time until 1704, desolated the country along the
Rhine, especially the Palatinate, to such a degree as to
leave many of the wretched inhabitants no choice save
starvation, or emigration. In the spring of 1709, more
than thirty thousand poor exiles, casting themselves on
the known sympathy of Queen Anne and her govern-
ment, made their way to England. Many of these were
314 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
shipped to America, and formed small settlements at dif-
ferent points from New York to South Carolina ; but the
larger part ultimately found permanent homes in Penn-
sylvania. From this time forth the German population
in the colonies grew rapidly, and a large part of it be-
longed to the Reformed Church.
Early Religious Conditions.— No preachers came with
the early immigrants. For several years the only public
ministrations of religion were by the parochial school-
masters. These taught the children to sing, catechized
them, read prayers at funerals, and sometimes read ser-
mons in the public assembly on Sundays. Peter Boehm
was the first preacher to minister to them, and being him-
self a schoolmaster he discharged the duties of preacher
and pastor for quite awhile before receiving ordination to
the ministry. He came to Pennsylvania in 1720, and
his work was principally in Montgomery County. He
was joined in 1727 by the Rev. George Michael Weiss,
and they labored with earnestness and success in gather-
ing the scattered people into congregations, and in start-
ing the currents of regular church life.
Period of the Coetus. — In the year 1746, the synods
of Holland sent out Michael Schlatter with the special
object of gathering the scattered flocks into one fold, and
building up a unified denominational structure. He was
richly endowed with gifts that fitted him for leadership.
He was patient and tactful, skillful in organization and
administration. He entered with determined zeal, and
persistent purpose on his arduous mission. In the face
of many difficulties, he succeeded in harmonizing con-
flicting views, and in arousing considerable enthusiasm
for a common cause. On the 29th of September, 1747,
a meeting was held in Philadelphia, attended by thirty-
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 315
one church officials, and a Coetus was organized. At this
time there were forty-six churches and only five ordained
ministers. As an administrative council, the Coetus was
of little worth, having scarcely any ecclesiastical author-
ity, but it formed a bond of union, and marked a decided
step toward an independent American church.
Subordination of the Coetus to the Classis of Amster-
dam.— In the long period of distress, to which reference
has been made when repeated wars laid waste the coun-
try of the Rhine, thousands of the suffering people took
refuge in Holland, where they were kindly welcomed.
Many of these afterwards came to America, and became
members of the German Reformed Church. Naturally
they cherished a grateful attachment for Holland, and
Holland felt a reciprocal interest in them. These early
immigrants were very poor ; their native church of the
Palatinate was wounded nigh unto death and despoiled
of its goods ; and hence in looking across the ocean for
help there was no country to which they could so hope-
fully apply as to Holland. In 175 1, in response to an
appeal, made through Schlatter, who went to Europe for
that purpose, the synods of Holland contributed ^12,000,
the interest of which was to be paid annually for the sup-
port of the American churches and pastors. It was,
however, stipulated that " as a condition of this aid, the
Coetus was in all things to be subordinate to the Classis
of Amsterdam. Its minutes, translated into Dutch, were
to be annually sent to Holland, and none of its acts were
final until they were approved." . Even with such condi-
tions attached, the aid was gratefully received ; but
through many years the church was much hampered, and
retarded in its growth by these restrictions on its liberty
of action. It could ordain no minister ; nor could it ad-
3i6 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
mit to its service ministers from other bodies without ex-
press permission from Holland.
Relation with Other Churches. — Owning allegiance
to the same foreign authority, drawing much of its life-
blood from the same source, and holding in part the same
standard of doctrine as the Dutch Reformed Church, it
was but natural that these two churches should live in
closest fraternity. They showed their affinity by many
mutual offices of kindness, and on various occasions ef-
forts were made to bring about organic unity. More than
once these efforts gave bright promise of success, but one
insuperable difficulty stood in the way — the unwillingness
of the German Reformed Church to increase the number
of its doctrinal standards. Both churches were equally
attached to the Heidelberg Catechism, but this was
the only test of orthodoxy that the German Reformed
Church wished. It would not consent to swear by the
more elaborate and more rigidly dogmatic statements of
doctrine contained in the Belgic Confession, and the De-
crees of the Synod of Dort. In its early history, there
was perhaps a yet closer affinity between the German
Reformed and the Lutheran churches. These were
brought near together by identity of race and language,
and by historical associations as to origin. Henry
Melchior Miihlenberg of the Lutheran Church and Mi-
chael Schlatter were closely associated for many years, en-
couraged and assisted each other, and by their united in-
fluence promoted the closest fellowship between their
churches. It was said in reference to this period : " If a
Pennsylvania farmer had been asked to point out the dif-
ference between the Reformed and the Lutheran churches,
he would probably have said : ' In the Lord's Prayer the
Reformed say Unser Vater, and the Lutherans say Vater
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 317
Unser ; and further on in the same prayer the Lutherans
say, Erlose uns von dem Uebel,and the Reformed, Erlose
uns von dem Bosen.' " These two churches went so far
in cooperative labors as to estabhsh their first college in
common. This was FrankHn College at Lancaster, Pa.,
founded in 1787. In Germany, a union between the Re-
formed and Lutheran churches was effected in 1 817; and
this stimulated efforts to bring about a union between the
two churches in this country. The very next year, they
agreed on a proposition to establish a joint theological
seminary in connection with Franklin College. But these
efforts to merge the two churches into one revealed cer-
tain conditions which made union, for the time, seem
unadvisable, and gradually they drifted further apart.
Pietistic Movement Giving Birth to the "United
Brethren." — Two tendencies were early manifest in the
Coetus — one toward a stereotyped conservatism ; and the
other toward a somewhat lawless evangelism. Some
members of the Coetus thought the supreme business of
the church was to preserve purity of doctrine, and keep
alive the traditions of the fathers. Others felt the bur-
den of souls, and cared comparatively Httle for matters
of doctrine and order. These latter were known as
pietists. Their most distinguished leader was Phillip
William Otterbein, who had been brought over from
Germany by Schlatter in 1752. When Francis Asbury
was sent to this country by John Wesley in 1771 to pre-
side over the young and tender shoot of Methodism, he
very soon came into contact with Otterbein, and found in
him a kindred spirit. It was from Asbury that Otter-
bein received the suggestion to organize in the Reformed
churches societies for the promotion of personal piety.
The measure seemed to be demanded by the distressingly
3i8 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
low state of spiritual life, all idea of regeneration being
regarded as mere " pietistic whimery." As preachers
were scarce, and an increase through ordinary methods
was unattainable, Otterbein and his coworkers thought
the best thing to do in the circumstances was to form
" classes " and place " leaders " over them after the Meth-
odist fashion. In all the Reformed churches in Mary-
land, except the First Church of Baltimore, and in some
churches in southern Pennsylvania, these classes were or-
ganized, and semiannual conferences were held to hear
reports from their leaders. It was no more the purpose
of Otterbein to form a new denomination among the
Germans than it was the purpose of Wesley to form a
new denomination among the Enghsh. But in each case
the movement went beyond the intention of its promoters.
An intimate and honored associate of Otterbein's in the
special work of deepening the spiritual Hfe of the churches,
and in giving direction to this quickened spiritual life was
Martin Boehm. He was a Mennonite, uneducated, but
able, resourceful and aflame with evangelical zeal. At
the conclusion of one of his moving discourses, Otterbein
grasped his hand and with cordial fervor said, " We are
brethren." From this incident came the name '< United
Brethren." Many of these societies, some from the Ger-
man Reformed, and some from the Mennonites, gradually
drew away from the churches with which they were con-
nected, and drawing together formed a distinct denomi-
nation.
Change of the Coetus Into a Synod. — During the war
for independence, the Germans were, with few exceptions,
enthusiastically devoted to the interests of the colonies.
They suffered much in loss of property, and in religious
and ecclesiastical demoralization. A prime trouble with
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 319
the German Reformed Church had ever been a lack of
preachers. It was dependent upon Holland, and
Holland was too far away to know fully or feel deeply
the needs of the struggling congregations, which it per-
sisted in holding in leading strings. The synods of Hol-
land were faithful in paying the regular annuities, and
as the beneficiurn and the control were tied together it re-
quired no little courage and self-denial for the Coetus to
assert its right to independence. But the necessity for
more preachers became increasingly urgent, and so pain-
fully was this necessity felt that as early as 1772, the
Coetus ventured to stretch its authority and administer
the rite of ordination. Its conduct was looked upon with
disfavor, however, by the jealous patron across the ocean.
But finally the restraint became intolerable, and in the
year 1 791, the Coetus passed the following resolution :
" Resolved, That the Coetus has the right at all times to
examine and ordain those who offer themselves as candi-
dates for the ministry, without asking, or waiting for per-
mission to do so from the fathers in Holland." Having
at length attained its majority, and cast off parental au-
thority, it must of course, henceforth look to itself for
support. This was perhaps as great a gain as its inde-
pendence of action, for no church, leading the life of a
parasite, can develop either aggressive strength or high
spiritual qualities. The next year after asserting its right
of autonomy, a synodical constitution was formed and
the synod held its first meeting, April 27, 1793, at Lan-
caster, Pa., with thirteen ministers present. It is esti-
mated that at this time the church numbered one hun-
dred and seventy-eight congregations, and fifteen thou-
sand communicants. It is further stated that at least
fifty-five per cent of the congregations were vacant.
320 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
These were scattered over a wide extent of country ; but
the chief strength of the church was in Pennsylvania.
Organization of the Church Completed. — After taking
matters in its own hands, the church was not slow to in-
crease its ministerial force by raising up a native ministry.
At first candidates were instructed privately, and later
schools of theology were established. The gain in preach-
ers was soon noticeable ; many charges long vacant were
supplied with the means of grace ; and stronger currents
of life were sent pulsing through all the church. Its
progress as compared with former periods was gratifying.
In 1 8 19, the synod divided itself up into eight classes, or
presbyteries, retaining, however, the power of ordaining
ministers in its own hands. When the country west of
the Alleghanies was opened for settlers, the Germans
crossed the mountains in considerable numbers. They
organized churches, and formed a classis in Ohio. This
classis judged that it could do the work laid to its hand
more effectively if it were granted the right to^ ordain
candidates for the ministry. It sent an overture to the
synod asking this privilege. The synod refused the re-
quest, and this refusal led to the organization of the In-
dependent Synod of Ohio. For several years there was
no organic connection between these two synods, and it
looked as if the German Reformed Church might be per-
manently divided into two distinct bodies. But in 1844,
delegates from the two synods began to meet in triennial
conventions, merely for conference. Happily this con-
vention gave place in 1863 to the General Synod, a
court representing the unity of the whole church, and ex-
ercising supreme authority. This gave the finishing
touch to the church's machinery of government, the four
courts being, in ascending gradation, Consistory, Classis,
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 321
District Synod, General Synod. Since the middle of last
century large migrations from Germany have poured into
the middle West and the Northwest. The Reformed
Church has pushed its home mission work with commen-
dable energy, and as a result several new synods and classes
have been added to its rolls. The General Synod now
comprises eight District Synods, of which five are pre-
dominantly English, and three are German. These eight
synods are divided into fifty-seven classes, containing
about two hundred and fifty thousand communicants.
Educational Institutions.— On the 6th of June, 1787,
Franklin College was opened at Lancaster, Pa. As al-
ready noted, it was a joint enterprise of Reformed and
Lutheran. In the impoverished condition of their peo-
ple at that time neither church felt equal to the task of
planting and building up a college. Their needs and
aims being the same they found no difficulty in cooperat-
ing. The first president was a Lutheran, and the first
vice-president a German Reformed pastor. Eminent cit-
izens of Pennsylvania, not connected with either church,
were glad to lend their aid. The largest individual con-
tributor was Benjamin Frankhn, and this furnished a good
reason for ornamenting the young college with his illus-
trious name. This was a beautiful and promising begin-
ning ; but the fulfillment did not answer to the promise.
Responsibility was too much divided — the outside com-
munity having been taken in as a third partner. Not
till the Reformed Church gained full control, by buying
out the Lutherans, and securing a concession of outside
interests, did the college enter upon a career of pros-
perity.
The Theological Seminary of the German Reformed
Church was opened March 11, 1825, at Carlisle, Pa. It
322 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
proved to be quite a peripatetic institution. In 1829 it
was moved to York, Pa.; in 1837 to Mercersburg, Pa.,
and finally in 1871 to Lancaster, Pa. While at Carlisle,
it was closely associated with Dickinson, a Presbyterian
College. While it was located at York there grew up
in connection with it a classical high school under the
fostering care of Dr. Rauch, a man of fine scholarship
and of exceptional ability. It was the removal of his
school, transformed into Marshall College, to Mercers-
burg in 1835, that carried the Theological Seminary there
two years later. In like manner it was the removal of
Marshall College to Lancaster, where it was consolidated
with Franklin College, that caused the removal of the
seminary to that point.
The church has other important institutions for educa-
ting its young people of both sexes, and for training its
ministers. The most important are Heidelberg Univer-
sity, and the Western Theological Seminary, at Tiffin,
O. ; Ursinus College, Collegeville, Pa. ; Catawba College,
Newton, N. C. ; and colleges for women at Allentown,
Pa., and Frederick, Md.
The Mercersburg Controversy. — While the Theolog-
ical Seminary was located at Mercersburg, it was served
by two men of rare genius and rich scholarship —
J. W. Nevin and Philip SchafT. Dr. Nevin was reared in
the Presbyterian Church, and was occupying a chair in
the Allegheny Seminary at the time he was called to the
professorship of theology in Mercersburg. This was in
1840. Only four years later Dr. Schafif came from Ger-
many to be his colleague and sympathetic coworker.
They were both deeply imbued and thoroughly fas-
cinated with recent developments of German theology
and philosophy, as these developments found expression
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 323
in such leaders of thought as Schliermacher and Hegel.
They set themselves the task of giving to America, and
especially to the German Reformed Church, the fruits of
their German scholarship. Their purpose was to infuse
fresh vitality into theology; exalt the sacraments as
channels of grace ; and enrich the worship by providing
a more satisfactory liturgy. Some of their cherished
ideas were novel and provoked strong opposition.
Dr. Schaff's inaugural address subjected him to a trial
for heresy. While he was triumphantly acquitted, the
apprehensions of the more conservative brethren were by
no means laid. Dr. Nevin, when serving on a committee
to revise the liturgy of the church, took strong ground
for what he called an " altar liturgy." Hostility to his
views, which seemed to smack of Romanism, became
very bitter, and a serious schism seemed imminent. It
was averted however through the labors of a " Peace
Commission." This able body succeeded in harmonizing
all views in the '' Directory of Worship " which it pre-
pared and presented to the church in 1881. This con-
tains elaborate forms of worship which are generally
used by those who conduct the devotions of the people,
for the German Reformed Church has always been dis-
tinctly liturgical ; but these forms are optional, as it is
contrary to the very genius of this church to lay strong
restraint on individual liberty.
Doctrine of the Church.— Its only official standard of
doctrine is the Heidelberg Catechism. This it inherited
from the church in the fatherland, and deems itself amply
rich in the possession of this one doctrinal formulary.
The Heidelberg Catechism is not so remarkable for its
logical precision as for its devotional fervor. It is de-
signed rather to guide and develop Christian experience
324 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
than to inform the intellect. The sharp-edged dog-
matism, which is a virtue in a purely doctrinal symbol, is
absent from this Catechism. The result is that those
who use it as the sole test of orthodoxy do not regard
themselves as bound to a rigid system of Calvinism, and
exhibit a wider latitude of doctrinal views than is com-
mon in the great family of Reformed Churches.
CHAPTER XIV
UNITED STATES (^Continued)
CHURCHES OF SCOTTISH DISSENTING ORIGIN
There are several churches which fall under this head.
They have substantially the same origin, cherish the
same principles, and are animated by the same spirit.
Their histories have become much blended, and to an
outsider there seems no sufficient reason why they should
not long since have been merged into one church. But
the Scotch have ever shown a remarkable disposition to
chng to '' every jot and tittle of the law till all be ful-
filled." Heaven and earth may pass away, but their
party shibboleths must not pass away. In order to clear-
ness it is necessary to begin with the origin of these
churches in Scotland. It is in their origin that we find
those principles which have continued to impart to them
their distinctive characters.
The Reformed Presbyterian Church. — We trace the
stream of this church's history to its fountain head in
Richard Cameron, and Donald Cargill. These were the
heroic leaders of those uncompromising covenanters,
who met in 1680 at Sanquhar, and posted a public proc-
lamation, renouncing their allegiance to Charles II.
They assigned as the reason for their bold act that the
king, by violating his solemn engagements to his sub-
jects, by his treachery and tyranny, had forfeited all
right to the crown. Both noble leaders lost their lives
in defending their principles ; but their followers,
325
326 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
popularly known as Cameronians, held together and
perpetuated their doctrines and spirit. Without preach-
ers to minister to them, they organized praying societies,
and by a system of general correspondence, preserved
their unity and kept alive the faith.
By and by, England and Scotland grew into the same
conviction with the Cameronians, viz., that a king by
treachery and tyranny forfeits the allegiance of his sub-
jects. Acting on this conviction, they expelled the
Stuarts from the throne, and gave the crown to William
and Mary. This brought relief from persecution to the
covenanters ; but did not end their contentions. By the
Revolution Settlement of 1690, Presbyterianism was
once again established by law as the National Church.
The disciples of Cameron refused, however, to accept
the settlement, because of certain Erastian elements.
To the king and parHament were given such power in
the management of ecclesiastical affairs as was incon-
sistent with the doctrine of Christ's sole headship. De-
clining to become a part of the National Church, the
covenanters maintained a separate existence through
their praying societies. After the lapse of sixteen years,
one preacher was found to endorse their views. This
was the Rev. John McMillan, who joined them in 1706.
It was not till 1743 that another was added. In that year
the Rev. Mr. Nair cast in his lot with the feeble but faith-
ful flock ; and he and McMillan, together with a few rul-
ing elders, organized a presbytery, and thus gave birth to
the Reformed Presbyterian Church.
The Associate Presbytery. — The history of this
church had its beginning in the secession from the National
Church of Scotland in 1733. This secession was led by
Ebenezer Erskine, and was due, in large measure, to the
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 327
evil workings of those Erastian principles, against which
the inflexible Cameronians had so vigorously protested.
The Revolution Settlement restricted the rights of the
people in the calling of their pastors, giving to certain
land-owners undue power in this matter, a power which
they could use, and frequently did use, to the great
offense and hurt of the people. Erskine pleaded boldly
for reform, and by so doing brought upon him the
judicial censures of a church that had lost much of the
devout and liberty-loving spirit of the fathers. He was
joined by three ministers, who sympathized with him in
his struggle, and all these being suspended from the
ministry and extruded from their charges, met together
on the 6th day of December 1733 and constituted them-
selves into the Associate Presbytery. Thus was formed
another distinct Presbyterian Church in Scotland.
From these two churches, the Reformed and the
Associate, have descended a number of churches in
America. The children continue to be more numerous
than the parents, notwithstanding several unions have
taken place.
Planting of the Reformed Church in America. —
In the stream of immigration that set in from Ireland
in the early part of the eighteenth century, many
Covenanters, who had previously fled from Scotland and
taken refuge in Ireland, found their way to America.
They organized their praying societies and their system
of general correspondence, and thus continued their
separate church life in the new world. The first preacher
to minister to them was Alexander Craighead, a member
of the Presbyterian Synod of Philadelphia. He gathered
a few congregations together, and in the year 1743 joined
with them in renewing the covenants. His presbytery
328 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
called him to account for it, and renouncing the presby-
tery's authority, he attached himself to the Reformed
Church. One of the first services he rendered the
church was to write to the newly-formed presbytery in
Scotland to send a minister to his assistance. In re-
sponse to this appeal, they sent over the Rev. John Cuth-
bertson ; but before his arrival, Craighead withdrew, and
renewed his connection with his former church. Cuth-
bertson had to blaze the way for the infant denomina-
tion with no one to assist him. Most bravely and
earnestly did he give himself to the trying task, '* riding
horseback during his first year 2,500 miles, preaching
120 days, baptizing no children, and marrying ten
couples." He held his first communion on the 23d day
of August, 1752, at Stony Ridge, when 250 commu-
nicants sat down together at the Lord's Table. This
was exactly one year after he landed on these shores.
He continued to labor alone for many years with the
same strenuous persistency, and with marked effective-
ness.
In the year 1773, he was joined by two fellow-
laborers from Scotland, the Revs. Matthew Lind, and
Alexander Dobbin. In March of the next year they
organized the Reformed Presbytery of America.
Planting of the Associate Church in America. — The
same current of immigration that brought so many
Scotch and Scotch-Irish to America in the beginning
of the eighteenth century, to furnish the foundation ma-
terial of other churches, brought quite a number whose
affiliations were with the Associate Church of Scot-
land. At that day when any doctrinal difference was
deemed sufficient by a Scotchman to justify a division of
the church, or the perpetuation of a division, it hardly
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 329
occurred to these followers of Erskine to seek a home
in some church already on the ground. They held
aloof, and in 1753 sent a petition to their mother
church in Scotland for ministers. The petition was
successful, and two ministers, Alexander Gallatly and
Andrew Arnot were sent over by the Anti-Burgher
Synod, one of the two synods into which the church
of Erskine had by this time split. On the 2d day
of November, 1753, the three ministers organized the
Associate Presbytery of Pennsylvania. Other preachers
followed in considerable numbers during the next few
years ; and the church grew to such dimensions that by
the year 1776 it was deemed advisible to organize the
Presbytery of New York. This presbytery included all
the ministers in New York and New England.
Union of the Reformed and Associate Churches. — The
members of these two churches were of the same blood,
of the same national origin, their dissent from the Na-
tional church of Scotland had been for substantially the
same reasons, — dissatisfaction with the power of the state
over the church, and the increasing laxity of doctrine in
the National Church. On comparing notes, they could
discover no sufficient ground, Scotchmen though they
were, for remaining apart ; and they did discover some
good reasons why they should become one. They oc-
cupied, in good part, the same territory, preached to the
same people, and held the same standards of doctrine.
Steps were taken in 1777 to bring about closer relations,
and these resulted in 1782 in a happy union. " Behold,
how good and how pleasant it is for brethren to dwell
together in unity." The names of both the uniting
churches were used to designate the resultant church,
and henceforth the Associate Reformed Church will
330 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
keep alive the honorable traditions of its noble an-
cestry.
Resuscitation of the Reformed Church. — Every min-
ister of the Reformed Church went into the union with
the Associate Church ; but a few of the congregations
refused to go with the ministers. They had learned from
their fathers in Scotland and also in this country how to
live without preachers. It was nothing to them that
they were a little flock, remembering that it was to the
" little flock " that Christ had promised the kingdom.
Hence, when they were deserted by all their ministers,
and by all their strong and well-organized congregations,
the few weak and isolated societies held on their way,
walking in the old paths. They reported the state of
affairs to the mother church in Scotland, and asked for a
new supply of preachers. The mother church sent a
minister over to examine the field carefully, and report.
What it was he saw, and what it was he reported that made
it seem righteous and expedient to encourage these feeble
societies in their aloofness, and to nurse them back into
denominational church life, it would be difficult at this
late day to conjecture. But so it was. As the result of
its reconnoissance, the church in Scotland sent over one
minister in 1791, and another the next year. These were
about all it could spare without committing suicide. But
by 1 798, there were enough ministers on this side the ocean
to organize a new Reformed Presbytery of America. It
has continued to live, and has never grown less from that
day to this.
Division of the Church in 1833.— It has been the tradi-
tional policy of this church to demonstrate its loyalty to
truth by division, rather than by union. It found oc-
casion in 1833 to put this policy into practice. The
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
33^
most distinctive characteristic of the Reformed Church
is its attitude toward civil government. It holds that
Christ is not only Head of the Church but also of the
state, and refuses close incorporation with any civil power
that does not make express recognition of Christ's su-
premacy. Because the Constitution of the United States
does not acknowledge God, nor tender national homage
to Christ, the Reformed Church will not suffer its mem-
bers either to vote, or to hold office. Owing to some
softening, or broadening of views, a party grew up in the
church that was unwilling longer to occupy this extreme
position. The view of this party is that while the Consti-
tution of the United States is very defective, and this fact
is much to be deplored, yet inasmuch as it is neither in-
fidel nor immoral, members of the church should be per-
mitted to take part in the affairs of Government to the ex-
tent of voting and holding office. After a few years of
discussion, the antagonisms of parties became sufficiently
marked to make division appropriate. It is an unsettled
question as to which party seceded. The legal name
of the strict constructionists, or Old Side is " The Synod
of the Reformed Presbyterian Church in the United States
of North America." The legal name of the New Side is
*' The General Synod of the Reformed Presbyterian Church
in North America." The former has about ten thousand
members, and the latter about five thousand.
Resuscitation of the Associate Church. — Not to be
outdone by their brethren of the Reformed Church, a
few members of the Associate Church refused to go into
the union of 1782. At the meeting of the Associate
Presbytery of Pennsylvania, in June, 1782, when the
basis of union with the Reformed Church was adopted
by the presbytery, two ministers and three ruling elders
332 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
protested against it, went out and organized themselves
into a new presbytery and took the old name, claiming
to be the legal successor of the Associate Presbytery of
Pennsylvania for the reason that they had remained true
to the ancient faith and loyal to the ancient landmarks.
The mother church in Scotland approved their course,
and sent over preachers to strengthen the fluttering pulse,
and to give the Associate Church in America a new and
continuous lease on life. The church spread South and
West, presbyteries being formed in Kentucky and the
Carohnas. By the year 1801, the growth had been such
as to make it advisable to change the form of organiza-
tion. The original presbytery was changed into the As-
sociate Synod of North America, and the whole church,
acknowledging this synod as the supreme court, was
divided into four presbyteries.
Some Peculiarities of the Associate Church. — The
ministers of this Church were warmly attached to the
old Covenants of Scotland ; and they taught that the
obligation of these Covenants, in so far as the duties
which they enjoined could be discharged in this country,
was binding on the descendants of those who had sworn
them in the old country. Moreover the presbyteries, and
the synod, after its formation, engaged from time to time
in public solemn covenanting, and encouraged all their
congregations to do likewise. This custom was pre-
served into a period as late as 1830. At an early date
the synod took strong ground against slavery. In 181 1,
it demanded that all members of the Associate Church
should free their slaves, and if any one refused, he should
be excluded from the fellowship of the church. This de-
mand was not generally complied with, and the subject
continued to occupy the attention of the church. In
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 333
1840, a letter was addressed to congregations in the
South, setting forth their duties in respect to emancipa-
tion. The moderator of synod was sent to read this
letter to the congregations. The result was a riot in one
of the congregations in South Carolina, and the violent
expulsion of the preacher from the state. The uncom-
promising attitude of the church on this subject de-
stroyed its promising beginnings in the South, and con-
fined its growth to the regions north of the Ohio
River. The Associate Church was also opposed to se-
cret societies, barring from its membership Freemasons
and Odd Fellows, and notwithstanding its ardent cham-
pionship of temperance reform, it warned its mem-
bers against the Sons of Temperance because of their
secrecy.
The Associate Church lost its identity in 1858 to be-
come a part of the United Presbyterian Church.
The Associate Reformed Church.— It will be remem-
bered that this church came into existence in 1782, by
the union of the Associate and the Reformed churches.
A fragment of each church refused to enter the union,
but the fusion gave birth to a church of considerable
strength, scattered over a territory embracing Pennsyl-
vania, New York and New England. Its organization at
first consisted of a synod as the supreme court, and three
presbyteries. In 1786, the congregations of New Eng-
land were set off into the Presbytery of Londonderry.
This presbytery seems to have become affected with the
spirit of independency, characteristic of the Congrega-
tional churches by which it was surrounded. F'ailing for
a number of years to send delegates to synod, and mak-
ing no suitable response to the admonitions of synod
touching the matter, the synod felt constrained in 1801
;4
HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
to renounce connection with it, and to disclaim all re-
sponsibility for its transactions.
This was the end of the Associate Reformed Church
in New England for many years.
Changes in Form of Organization. — The church had a
healthy growth, and lengthened its cords until it
was represented in all the states from New York to
Georgia. Owing to distance and difficulties of travel, a
change of organization was deemed advisable. In 1 802,
the whole church was divided into four synods of two
presbyteries each, and these four were confederated into
one General Synod. The first meeting of the General
Synod, which was a delegated body, was held on the
30th of May, 1804, in Greencastle, Franklin County,
Pennsylvania. Subsequent meetings were uniformly
held in Philadelphia. It was a task of no little difficulty
for delegates from the regions farthest south and west to
attend its annual sessions. As a result, these regions
were poorly represented, and as a further result the power
exercised by the General Synod came to be exercised by
a few men. In a short while, serious complaint de-
veloped. The Synod of Scioto, embracing all the
churches west of the Alleghanies, petitioned the General
Synod to hold its meetings at least occasionally farther
westward ; or if not this to divide the church into two or
more independent parts. The synod refused both re-
quests. Whereupon in 1820, the Synod of Scioto with-
drew from the General Synod, and constituted itself an
independent tribunal with the title, " The Associate Re-
formed Synod of the West." The next year, the Synod
of the Carolinas asked and obtained consent of the
General Synod to set up an independent authority as
the Associate Reformed Synod of the South. This left
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 335
only the two Synods of Pennsylvania and New York to
constitute the General Synod.
An Attempt at Union with the Presbyterian Church.
— At the first meeting of the General Synod after it had
been reduced by the withdrawal of the two synods West
and South, it received an overture from the General As-
sembly of the Presbyterian Church, proposing the organic
union of the two bodies. The General Synod looked
upon the overture favorably, and sent it down to its
presbyteries for their action. When it met on the 1 5th of
May, the next year, 1822, the answers from the presbyter-
ies showed that three fifths of them were opposed to
union with the Presbyterian Church. In the face of this
the synod voted by a majority of two in favor of union,
and proceeded at once to carry it into effect. Accord-
ingly the library and funds of the theological seminary in
New York were removed to Princeton, New Jersey, and
the clerk of synod was ordered to deposit his minute-
book and other documents with the session of the Spruce
Street Church, Philadelphia, " subject to the further dis-
posal of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian
Church." Obviously this was a very arbitrary and high-
handed procedure on the part of the General Synod.
Because some of the presbyteries were poorly represented
in the meeting, it had an accidental majority in favor of
union, and proceeded to override the known will of the
larger part of the church. Of course, this larger part
could not be dragged into the union, and a few years
later it appealed to the civil court and gained possession
once more of the library and funds which had been car-
ried to Princeton. The Presbyterian Church complied
promptly with the orders of the courts. But there was no
way to repair certain other damages which the movement
^^6 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
inflicted on the Associate Reformed Church. It wiped
out its strength in all the large eastern cities, and drew
a broad line between its different sections, separating it
broadly into three distinct divisions, North, West and
South. These were absolutely independent of each other,
having no connection save a bond of mutual sympathy
and brotherly love.
The Associate Reformed Synod of the South. —
This is the only one of the four original constituents of
the General Synod that has preserved its identity to the
present day. It has been courted much by other bodies,
and is now receiving very special attention from the
United Presbyterian Church, but, so far, it has per-
sistently declined to enter into closer bonds with any.
It still retains much of the conservatism, for which all the
churches formed of the old covenanting elements of Scot-
land have ever been noted. This conservatism is par-
ticularly manifest in its exclusive use of the Psalms in its
service of praise, and in its close adherence to the doctri-
nal system contained in the Westminster Standards. It
has broadened a little with respect to some of its tradi-
tional peculiarities. The law against the use of instru-
mental music in public worship has been rescinded, and
organs are found in many, perhaps most of its churches.
Former deliverances against secret oath-bound societies,
forbidding its members to join fraternities of Masons and
Odd Fellows, have fallen into inoctioiis desuetude.
Neither close nor restricted communion is any longer
enjoined, but " all members of other Evangelical churches
in good and regular standing are cordially invited " to
join in the service.
A classical high school, known as Clark and Erskine
Seminary was opened at Duewest, South Carolina, in
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 337
1836. This grew into Erskine College in 1843. During
its existence as seminary and college, there has been con-
nected with it a theological department.
The Associate Reformed Synod of the South is divided
into nine presbyteries, and these contain an aggregate of
about twelve thousand communicants. The members are
scattered over all the southern states, including Texas,
Arkansas and Missouri, but the chief strength is in the
two Carolinas.
The Associate Reformed Synod of the West. — When
this synod drew away from the General Synod in 1820,
it was made up of three presbyteries with congregations
scattered from the Alleghany Mountains to the Missis-
sippi River. Its wide territory was principally home-
mission territory, and its great need was preachers.
To meet this need it very early established two theolog-
ical seminaries — one at Pittsburg, Pa., in 1825, and one at
Oxford, O., in 1839. By taking strong ground against
slavery, it lost its hold in Kentucky ; but its growth
toward the north and west was such that in 1839, it was
under the necessity of dividing into two synods, and a
little later a third was formed. These united to form a
General Synod. In 1855, these three synods united with
the Associate Reformed Synod of New York, thus bring-
ing into one General Synod all the forces of the church,
except the Associate Reformed Synod of the South.
The United Presbyterian Church. — This Church is
the result of a union between the Associate Synod and
the General Synod of the Associate Reformed Church.
Its history, therefore, has nearly all been written. It falls
heir, through the two tributaries of which it is formed, to
Richard Cameron and Donald Cargill, on the one hand ;
and on the other to Ebenezer Erskine and his confreres.
338 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
The union took place in the City Hall of Pittsburg, Pa.,
May 26, 1859. The Associate Synod brought into the
United body twenty-three thousand, and the Associate
Reformed Synod thirty-one thousand communicants.
The basis of union was the Westminster Standards, ////j
a " Judicial Testimony." This latter comprises a series
of eighteen articles, singling out for emphasis and ex-
planation certain doctrines of the Confession of Faith,
and embracing a few distinctive points not contained in
the confession. The last five articles set forth these
distinctive points, and are worth quoting in full as
exhibiting certain peculiarities which attach to all the
churches of Scottish Dissenting Origin.
14. " We declm'e, That slave holding — that is the
holding of unoffending human beings in involuntary
bondage, and considering and treating them as property,
and subject to be bought and sold — is a violation of the
law of God, and contrary both to the letter and the spirit
of Christianity.
15. " We declare y That all associations, whether
formed for political or benevolent purposes, which im-
pose on their members an oath of secrecy or an obliga-
tion to obey a code of unknown laws, are inconsistent
with the genius and spirit of Christianity, and church
members ought not to have fellowship with such associa-
tions.
16. " We declare, That the church should not extend
communion, in sealing ordinances, to those who refuse
adherence to her profession or subjection to her govern-
ment and discipline, or who refuse to forsake a com-
munion which is inconsistent with the profession that she
makes ; nor should communion in any ordinance of wor-
ship be held under such circumstances as would be
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 339
inconsistent with keeping of these ordinances pure and
entire, or so as to give countenance to any corruption of
the doctrine and institution of Christ,
17. " l^Fe dt'c/are, That pubhc social covenanting is a
duty, the observance of which is not required at stated
times, but on extraordinary occasions, as the providence
of God and the circumstances of the church may indi-
cate. It is seasonable in times of great danger to the
church, in times of exposure to backsliding, or in times
of reformation, when the church is returning to God
from a state of backsliding. When the church has en-
tered into such covenant transactions, they continue to
bind posterity faithfully to adhere to and prosecute the
grand object for which such engagements have been en-
tered into.
18. " IVe declare y That it is the will of God that the
songs contained in the Book of Psalms be sung in his
worship, both public and private, to the end of the
world; and in singing God's praise these songs should be
employed to the exclusion of the devotional compositions
of uninspired men."
Educational Institutions. — Probably no church has
been more zealous in the cause of Christian education.
With comparatively meager resources it has built up a
number of excellent colleges and seminaries in the mid-
dle and western states. It claims to have founded the
first theological seminary on the continent. This was the
seminary established by the Associate Church in 1794 at
Service, Beaver County, Pa. No doubt, the Dutch Re-
formed Church would dispute the claim that this was the
first theological seminary on the continent. That church
claims that the theological seminary, now at New Bruns-
wick, N. J., " was founded in 1784 by the election of the
340 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
Rev. J. H. Livingston, as professor of theology." We shall
not attempt to adjudicate between these conflicting
claims. The United Presbyterian Church has two flour-
ishing theological seminaries at present, one at Alle-
gheny, Pa., and the other at Xenia, O. It also has a
number of colleges, including three located in Tennessee
and Virginia for educating negroes.
The church has grown from fifty-four thousand in
1858 to about one hundred and thirty thousand at the
present, thus showing vigorous life, and energetic prop-
agandism.
CHAPTER XV
CANADA
Failure of Huguenot Colonies — The first Presbyterians
to set foot on the shores of the western world were from
the Reformed Church of France. One company landed
in Plorida in 1565, was captured by treachery, and mur-
dered in cold blood by the Spaniards, under the leader-
ship of Pedro Menendez. Others settled in Canada
along the St. Lawrence and in Nova Scotia. The
Huguenots in seeking a home in New France were es-
caping from religious persecution ; and were also actuated
in some measure by the hope of commercial advantage.
Under the reign of Henry IV, they were assured of pro-
tection, and were given the privilege of carrying on
trade with the natives. But after his death, they were
made to suffer from the hostility of his successor. Their
privileges of trade were taken away, and they were sub-
jected to such restrictions and persecutions as to prevent
further development.
Permanent Settlement of English Speaking Colo-
nists.— In 171 3, Nova Scotia was ceded to England. At
that time it was settled by Roman Catholics, the deporta-
tion of whom has formed the theme of song and story.
England was moved to this severe method of treatment
by the persistent insubordination of these Catholics.
They would neither leave the country of their own
accord, nor would they take the oath of allegiance.
The government bore with them for some years, during
341
342 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
which time, they were constantly intriguing with the
natives against the constituted authorities. Finally the
government, after the manner of the old Assyrian
conquerors, forcibly removed them from their homes
and transported them to the far distant south. Prot-
estant settlers were invited to take their place, and
quite a number migrated thither from Boston, Rhode
Island, and other colonies, also from England, Scotland
and Ireland.
By the treaty of Paris in 1763, the whole of Canada
was ceded to Great Britain ; and this opened a wide and
inviting field to the occupancy of English-speaking
people. They were not slow to take advantage of the
opening. As many as ten thousand arrived the first
year ; and soon the population had increased to such
numbers as to make the demand urgent for preachers,
and the ordinances of public worship.
Beginning of Presbyterian Organization. — Most of
the early Presbyterian settlers were from Scotland.
Naturally the churches of that land accepted the obliga-
tion to supply their religious wants. The first ministers
from Scotland were from the Burgher Synod, one of the
two bodies into which the secession church of Erskine
divided. Three ministers from the synod, Daniel Cook,
David Smith, and Hugh Graham met together in 1786,
and with two ruling elders organized the Presbytery of
Truro. The Rev. James McGregor, a minister from the
Anti-Burgher Synod of Scotland labored for a time as
an independent missionary, enduring much hardship, and
exhibiting much heroism of character. In 1795, being
joined by two other ministers from the Anti-Burgher
Synod, they together organized the Presbytery of Pictou.
Thus the divisions of the mother church were trans-
CANADA 343
planted to the new world ; and the necessary steps were
taken to perpetuate them indefinitely. It looked as if
the separative propensity of Scotch Presbyterianism
were congenital and incurable. But after years were
to show that such was not really the case. Unity of
doctrine, of polity, and of worship has furnished an
attractive power sufficient to overcome long-cherished
devotion to party shibboleths.
Formation of Synod of Nova Scotia, 1817.— Soon
after the organization of the Anti-Burgher Presbytery
of Pictou the Burgher Presbytery of Truro made over-
tures for fraternal relations and cooperation. These
overtures were not at once successful; but in 1 8 17, the
unreasonable antagonisms gave place to brotherly confi-
dence, and the two presbyteries came together. A few
ministers from the Established Church of Scotland also
entered into the union. Thus was formed the Presby-
terian Church of Nova Scotia. It organized a synod,
and this divided into the three presbyteries of Truro,
Pictou and Halifax. The strength of the church at this
time was represented by nineteen ministers with a Pres-
byterian population of forty-two thousand. The terri-
tory of the synod included Nova Scotia, Cape Breton,
New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island.
The history of the Church of Canada falls naturally
into two distinct parts owing to the geographical division
of the country into the Eastern and Western Provinces.
It will perhaps be in the interest of clearness to recite the
history of each separately. The history of the Eastern
Province will, therefore, be continued down to the year
1875.
Efforts to Provide for a Home-grown Ministry. —
The most urgent need of the church was a greater
344 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
number of ministers. Nineteen were a very inadequate
supply to look after the population already on the
ground. But immigrants continued to pour in, and
the need became more and more urgent. Scotland and
Ireland could not be depended on for an adequate
supply. So the synod immediately set about providing
for the training of a ministry at home. King's College,
Windsor, would have answered their purpose, had the
English government been more just and liberal. But
according to one of the statutes of this college, no
degree was to be conferred until the candidate had
subscribed the thirty-nine articles of the Church of
England. Another statute forbids " any member of the
university from frequenting the Romish Mass, or the
meeting houses of Presbyterians, Methodists, Baptists,
or the conventicles, or other places of worship of any
other dissenters from the Church of England, or where
divine service shall not be performed according to the
liturgy of the Church of England." Such narrow in-
tolerance necessitated an effort on the part of the
Presbyterians to provide their own school. The effort
resulted in the establishment of Pictou Academy. This
academy was inaugurated under the presidency of the
Rev. Thomas McCulloch, and for many years did a most
useful work, training many godly ministers for the church.
It was closed in 1834, when Dr. McCulloch was trans-
ferred to Dalhousie College.
An Effort to Secure Religious Liberty. — The Synod
of Nova Scotia invited the cooperation of other dissent-
ing bodies in an effort to secure equal rights with the
clergy of the Church of England. " They petitioned for
(a) the right of marrying by license without proclama-
tion of banns; (d) the right of congregations to hold
CANADA 345
real estate, so far at least as regards places of worship
and glebes ; (c) the right to enjoy a proportional share
of whatever money should be granted by the British
Parliament for the support of the gospel in the Province ;
(d) and that admissibility to be trustees in Pictou Academy
be extended to dissenters of all denominations." Slight
and reasonable as these requests were, they were denied.
The British Parliament continued to grant thousands of
dollars to bishops and clergymen of the Church of Eng-
land ; and in many ways to favor Episcopalians at the
expense of dissenters. Nothing strikes the " free-born "
with greater surprise than the patience with which the
subjects of England, who chose to manage their church
affairs without a bishop, and to worship without the
prayer book, bore the oftentimes insolent oppression
of the English Establishment.
The Glasgow Colonial Society. — This society was
formed in 1825, and had for its object the promotion of
the religious and moral interests of the Scottish settlers
in British North America. During the first ten years of
its existence it sent forty ministers of the Church of Scot-
land into Canada. Many of these chose the Eastern
Provinces for their field of labor. Refusing to join the
church which had already been planted on this soil,
these ministers organized in 1833 a synod in connection
with the Church of Scotland. Thus again the divisive
spirit of the home land was transplanted to the colony.
Two churches, holding the same identical standards, were
working in the same field as rivals. The Synod of Nova
Scotia made overtures for union, but in vain. These
overtures were renewed from time to time up to the
year 1841, at which time the synod in connection with
the Church of Scotland declared its willingness to absorb
346 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
the other synod, or any part thereof. The Synod of
Canada, being both the older and the larger body was
not asking to be absorbed, and proposed to break off
negotiations, if there could be found no other basis of
union.
Effect of the Disruption on the Churches in Canada. —
The Synod of Canada in connection with the Church of
Scotland very naturally took a profound interest in the
discussions and troubles which led to the disruption of
the Church of Scotland in 1843. When that event came,
its sympathies were with the members who went out and
formed the Free Church. The prevailing view was that
the mother church had sacrificed important principles in
submitting to the oppressive acts of the civil government.
Hence the synod, with the exception of four members,
renounced connection with the National Church of
Scotland and changed its name to the Synod of Nova
Scotia, adhering to the Westminster standards.
In 1833, a presbytery had been organized in the Prov-
ince of New Brunswick, composed of ministers from the
Church of Scotland. In the course of ten years, this
presbytery grew into a synod. When the disruption oc-
curred, it adhered to the mother church.
There was at this time a little handful of Presbyterians
in the Eastern Provinces, representing the Reformed
Church of Scotland. These had their separate organiza-
tion.
Thus at the close of the year 1844, when the smoke of
the battles over disruption had lifted, it was discovered
that in the Eastern Provinces of Canada there were five
distinct and rival Presbyterian organizations. These had
an aggregate of only sixty ministers, and represented a
Presbyterian population of only one hundred and ten
CANADA 347
thousand. There were five organizations instead of one
simply because the divisions of the old country had crossed
the ocean, and they grew and flourished despite the fact
that there was not the slightest local reason for perpetuat-
ing them. The ground of them had no existence on the
western side of the Atlantic.
The Beginning of Unions. — After the synod in connec-
tion with the Church of Scotland severed its connection
with that body, its attitude toward the Synod of Nova
Scotia was more friendly. The negotiations which were
broken off in 1 841, were renewed. Some grounds of
difference still existed which kept the two synods apart
a few years longer. But in i860, the attractive power of
spiritual affinity prevailed over all obstacles, and brought
them together in a happy union. The united body took
the name of the Presbyterian Church of the Lower Prov-
inces.
At the time of the disruption, three ministers, out of
sympathy for the Free Church of Scotland, withdrew
from the Synod of New Brunswick. Others joined them
until they grew into a synod of eighteen ministers. In
1866, this synod united with the Church of the Lower
Provinces.
There were still two small synods in the Eastern Prov-
inces remaining in connection with the Church of Scot-
land. These were the Synod of New Brunswick, and the
Synod of Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island. In
1868, they united and took the name of the Synod of the
Presbyterian Church of the Maritime Provinces. Hence
at this period the whole of Eastern Canada, so far as
Presbyterian interests were concerned, was divided be-
tween these two Churches — the Church of the Lower
Provinces and the Church of the Maritime Provinces.
348 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
The former was free ; while the latter continued in con-
nection with the Church of Scotland.
Beginnings of Church Life in the Western Prov-
inces.— By the fall of Quebec in 1759, all the western
territory passed into the possession of Great Britain. The
immigrant population amounted to seventy thousand,
nearly all of whom were Roman Catholics. The few
Protestants were noted only for their immorality.
The first Protestant minister was the Rev. George
Henry, a military chaplain who was present at the
capture of Quebec. He gathered a small congregation
of Presbyterians, and preached to them in the college of
the Jesuits.
The first Presbyterian minister settled in Montreal was
the Rev. John Bethune. This was in the year 1786, in
which year he organized a congregation in that city. He
was followed by the Rev. John Young. Up to the year
1792, they worshiped in a Roman Catholic Church.
When pay was offered, the good fathers declined to re-
ceive any remuneration for the use of their church ; but
accepted thankfully as a gift, '' two hogsheads of Spanish
wine and a box of candles." Under the ministry of Mr.
Young, St. Gabriel Street Church was built, the first
Protestant Church erected in the Western Provinces.
The old Province of Quebec was divided in 1791 nito
the two provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, now
known as Ontario and Quebec. Very slowly were the
religious destitutions of these provinces met. The Dutch
Reformed and the Associate Reformed churches of the
United States sent missionaries into this region who did
much valuable work but formed no organizations.
Organization and Union of Two Synods. — As in the
case of the Eastern Provinces, the Burgher Synod of Scot-
CANADA 349
land furnished the preachers for the first presbytery.
These were Robert Easton, William Stuart, William
Bell and WiUiam Taylor. In the year 1818 they organ-
ized the Presbytery of the Canadas. After a few years,
this presbytery was dissolved, and reorganized into the
United Presbytery of Upper Canada.
At this time there were quite a number of ministers
connected with the Church of Scotland, who were labor-
ing in these parts. Instead of joining with the organiza-
tion already formed, they met together on the 8th of June,
1 83 1, and organized the synod of the Presbyterian Church
in connection with the Church of Scotland. On the 15th
day of the same month, the United Presbytery changed
its organization into the United Synod of Upper Canada.
These two synods were identical in doctrine and practice.
They differed only in certain theoretical points that were
never likely to have the slightest practical value. In the
course of a few years they discovered that their useless
theories, by keeping them apart, were costing them too
much. In the presence of certain serious difficulties
which were confronting both churches, they needed the
strength which comes from unity. On the 3d day of
July, 1840, they became one, retaining the connection
which had hitherto existed between one of them and the
Church of Scotland. " This was a union partly of love
and partly of policy. Scottish Presbyterianism \vas
called upon to maintain its rights, in the face of an ag-
grandizing English Episcopacy ; and for this a solid front
was desirable."
A Contention for Denominational Rights. — When the
constitution was adopted in 1791, one seventh of the un-
ceded land of the Western Provinces was set apart for
*' the support of a Protestant clergy." The clergy of the
350 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
Church of England modestly claimed to be the only
Protestant clergy, and consequently entitled to the whole
of this reserve, amounting to three millions of acres.
The Presbyterians having been reared, for the most part,
in connection with the National Church of Scotland, held
to a different doctrine, and were arrogant enough to re-
sist the Episcopal claim. The Legislative Council ap-
pointed by the crown, and the Legislative Assembly
elected by the people aligned themselves on opposite
sides. The battle was joined and was waged fiercely for
many years. The Episcopal leaders urged that great
harm would come to the imperial government if the
Presbyterian preachers should be recognized as Prot-
estant clergy. On the other hand, the Presbyterians
urged that great harm would be done to the cause of
truth and justice if they were not so recognized. The
Presbyterians won the fight, but, strange to relate, the de-
feated party carried off most of the spoils of victory.
The imperial government decided that the clergy of the
Church of England should have two thirds and the synod
in connection with the Church of Scotland, one third.
Founding of Queen's College.— The same intolerant
spirit, which was exhibited in the matter of the Clergy
Reserve, refused to admit that the Presbyterians were en-
titled to any government aid in building up an educa-
tional institution for training a ministry. The Presby-
terians applied to the government to endow certain chairs
for their benefit in King's College, Toronto. Their ap-
plication was refused. This put them on their mettle,
and going to work with a zeal they built a college of
their own, and opened it in 1842, with Dr. Liddell as
principal, and the Rev. P. C. Campbell as professor of
classics. This was Queen's College at Kingston.
CANADA 351
The Missionary Synod of Canada. — In 1832 three
missionaries arrived in Western Canada, who had been
sent thither by the United Associate Synod of Scotland.
They found two synods already on the field, both of
which had been formed out of ministers from the Pres-
byterian churches of Scotland. These missionaries
thought at first that they could cast in their lot with one
of these synods, inasmuch as its members were of the
same ecclesiastical pedigree with themselves. But on a
careful analysis of views, it was discovered that the synod
was willing to receive aid from the government. These
missionaries were from a church which had within the
past few years become converted to the doctrine that the
church should depend for support exclusively on the
voluntary contributions of its members. This question
had been debated in Scodand until considerable heat was
generated. Consequently the missionaries felt in con-
science bound to add another organization to the list.
On Christmas Day, 1834, they formed the Missionary
Presbytery of the Canadas. By the year 1843, this pres-
bytery had grown sufficiently large to split into three,
and to organize the Missionary Synod of Canada. The
next year, there was admitted to this synod the Mission-
ary Presbytery of Canada East, making the total mem-
bership of the synod at that time twenty-two.
Effects of the Disruption in the West.— When the
disruption of 1843 occurred in the Church of Scotland,
the quarrel was taken up in the Western Provinces, with
the same zest as in the Eastern. The majority of the
synod in connection with the Church of Scotland re-
mained loyal to the mother church ; but twenty-six en-
tered their protest and went out. These organized the
Synod of the Free Church of Canada on the lOth day of
352 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
July, 1844. At its first meeting this new synod appointed
a commission to look after the interests of education and
home missions. It also authorized the publication of a
pastoral address, setting forth in strong terms its reasons
for repudiating connection with the National Church of
Scotland.
Establishment of Knox College, Toronto. — Before
the division of the synod, Queen's College had been put
in successful operation. This college with its professors
remained with the old synod. Nearly all the students
cast in their lot with the new synod. Here was an
urgent necessity for a new educational institution, as the
two synods could not cooperate in any form of church
work. This urgent necessity was met at once by open-
ing a school in Toronto, with two professors, and using a
room in a private residence as a place of meeting. In
the course of a few years this small beginning grew into
Knox College.
Union of Two Western Synods, 1861. — When the
Free Church Synod was formed, that made three separate
organizations in the Western Provinces. These con-
tinued to work separately and with more or less hurtful
rivalry until 1861. In that year a happy union was
formed by the Mission Synod and the Free Church
Synod, the former body bringing into the union sixty-
eight ministers, and the latter one hundred and fifty-eight.
This union was made possible by the refusal of the Free
Church Synod to accept of state aid. While it did not
profess the doctrine of voluntaryism, it was constrained
by circumstances to adopt this principle in practice.
The United Church took the name of the Synod of the
Canada Presbyterian Church.
One Presbyterian Church for the Whole of Canada.
CANADA 353
—From the year 1868 up to the year 1875, there were
two Presbyterian organizations in the East, and two in
the West. In each division there was one free synod,
and one synod in connection with the Church of Scot-
land. The year 1875 is memorable for having witnessed
the union of these four synods. ** In the early part of
Tuesday, the 15th of June, 1875, the supreme courts of
the four negotiating churches met separately for the last
time in different churches in the city of Montreal. Each
adopted a resolution to repair to Victoria Hall, and there
to consummate the union. In this place, accordingly all
the delegates met at 1 1 a. m. One of the clerks read the
Articles of Union. These were subscribed by the four
moderators, who gave to each other the right hand of
fellowship. One of the moderators then declared that
the four churches were now united and formed one
church to be designated and known as The Presbyterian
Church in Canada. On its rolls were the names of 623
ministers. The Rev. John Cook, D. D., minister of St.
Andrew's Church, Quebec, and Principal of Morrin Col-
lege was unanimously elected Moderator of the As-
sembly."
The history of the Church since the union has demon-
strated that the Lord was in the movement which
brought all the divisions of the sacramental host into one
organic whole. His smile has rested on the labors of the
united body, and no dissention or friction has marred its
harmony.
Home Mission Fields. — The Church carries on an ex-
tensive home mission work in both the Eastern and West-
ern Provinces, each of these general divisions having its
own board for the supervision of the work. The most
interesting fields, however, are in the West. Stretching
354 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
from Ontario to the Pacific Ocean is a vast territory two
thousand miles in length, through which runs the Canada
Pacific Railroad. This country, rich in agricultural and
mineral resources, is attracthig to itself a strong and con-
tinuous tide of immigration. To meet the needs of this
incoming population of most varied character, the Church
is taxing her energies to the utmost ; and splendid is the
record which she has made. By way of illustration it
may be mentioned that in the year of the union there
were in the two northwestern provinces, Manitoba and
British Columbia, and the intermediate territories only
one presbytery with about twelve ordained missionaries
and professors. Such was the growth during the next
sixteen years that in the same region there was a synod
with seven presbyteries, seventy-one settled pastors and
four professors. The home-mission work in the same
field was represented by fifty-two ordained ministers,
sixty-eight students and eighteen catechists, beside
twenty-three teachers and matrons employed in Indian
and Chinese missions.
French Evangelization. — There are in the Dominion
of Canada about 1,250,000 French-speaking Roman
Catholics, the great majority of whom are in the Province
of Quebec. While Canada was under control of France,
Romanism was firmly planted, and endowed with ample
resources. When Canada passed under control of Eng-
land, the Romish Church was not disturbed. '* By the
articles of capitulation in 1759 and 1760, by the treaty of
peace in 1763, and by an act of the imperial Parliament
in 1774, all rights and powers previously enjoyed by the
clergy were conserved, and the church regarded as estab-
lished by law." An eminent authority says, " It is well
to recognize the fact that so far as regards resources in
CANADA 355
the form of money, of swarming ecclesiastics, fully-
equipped institutions of all kinds, and legal enactments,
popery is more strongly established in the Province of
Quebec than in France and Italy, and holds the balance
of political power in the whole Dominion." This state
of affairs is a standing challenge to the Protestant
churches of Canada to put forth the utmost efforts to
make gospel truth victorious over Romish superstition.
Very earnestly and persistently has the Presbyterian
Church prosecuted this work under the direction of its
board of French evangelization. Its success has been
gratifying. Many thousands of converts have been won,
among them a considerable number of priests ; numerous
churches have been built up ; and the leaven of the gos-
pel is every year spreading more widely. Under the
effective ministry of Father Chiniquy, a converted priest,
more than 2,000 were won to Protestantism in the course
of one year. Many indications show that the burdens of
Rome have made the hearts of these people weary, and
that they are wonderfully prepared to respond to the
gospel of liberty and light. There is abundant reason to
regard the work of French evangelization, thus far
successfully prosecuted, as the prophecy of far greater
things in the near future.
Foreign Missions. — When the several churches came
together in 1875, and consolidated their work it was
found that they had representatives in the foreign field,
in Formosa and Ho-nan, in the West India Islands, in the
New Hebrides, in Central India, and in British Columbia.
In the work of foreign missions the Church of Canada
has furnished some of the great heroes of modern history.
Never to be forgotten is the name of John Geddie, the
pioneer in Aneityum, the results of whose labors are
356 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
summed up in the inscription on the tablet behind the
pulpit in which he preached : " When he landed in 1848,
there were no Christians here, and when he left in 1872,
there were no heathen." In like loving remembrance
must the name of George N. Gordon be held, who, with
his heroic wife, enriched with martyr blood the island of
Erromanga. His brother, J. D. Gordon, deserves equal
honor, because the only vengeance he sought for his
brother's death was the privilege of taking up his work,
and receiving the martyr's crown on the same soil. In
the same class must be placed the name of G. L. McKay,
who traveled barefoot through Formosa, sleeping in ox-
stables, and damp huts, undergoing hardships and facing
perils without number.
The Church which furnished so many missionaries of
heroic mold has been rewarded with rich harvests of
souls won for Christ from the darkness of heathenism.
It has also been rewarded with rich showers of blessing
on its labors at home. The united Church, starting in
1875 with a communion roll of about 85,000, has grown
till it now numbers considerably over 200,000. It is
strong in wealth, well equipped with colleges and theo-
logical seminaries, strong in elements of Christian charac-
ter, animated throughout with aggressive zeal, has before
it an open door, and may well face the future with a
buoyant hope.
CHAPTER XVI
BRITISH COLONIAL CHURCHES
I. Australia
The enterprising Dutch discovered this island in the
early years of the seventeenth century ; but it was left
for Captain Cook to take formal possession of it in 1770
in the name of Great Britain. Then the exploration of
its coast Hnes began ; and by the year 1788, a spot was
found at Botany Bay, near the present site of the city of
Sydney, for dumping a shipload of convicts. For a num-
ber of years the only use that England had for that far-
away land was as a waste heap where she might get rid
of her lawless citizens, who were hardly bad enough to
merit hanging, and yet too bad to deserve a longer con-
tinuance in a civilized land. After awhile, however, suf-
ficient attractions were discovered in the way of climate,
soil and mineral products to make it worth while for men
to go there without waiting to be convicted of crime.
Political Divisions and Government. — Australia is
divided into six distinct provinces, including Tasmania,
an island lying 100 miles to the south. These provinces
have local self-government, but have recently been united
under one federal administration. This political division
has had its divisive effect on the churches. As coloniza-
tion began much earher, and developed more rapidly in
some of these provinces than others, of course the
churches differ much in size and vigor. The oldest of
the provinces is New South Wales ; Western Australia
357
358 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
was set apart in 1829; Southern Australia in 1834; Vic-
toria in 1851 ; and Queensland in 1859. It will be con-
venient to sketch each provincial church separately.
I. The Church of New South Wales. — This church
had its beginnings in the labors of the Rev. John Dunmore
~Lang. He was a remarkable man and did a remarkable
work. His activities were diversified in character, promot-
ing in many ways the healthy development of the new
colonies. He was born at Greenock, Scotland, in 1 799, and
died at Sydney, New South Wales, 1878. The year in
which he was licensed, 1823, he went out to Australia on
invitation of the governor, Sir Thomas Brisbane. The
governor was himself a Presbyterian elder. By the united
efforts of these two eminent men a large number of emi-
grants were induced to leave Britain to try their fortunes
in the land across the southern seas. The number of
newcomers was sufficient to alter the complexion of the
population, and to give it a reputable character. Dr.
Lang did not confine himself to the work which belongs
especially to the minister of the gospel, but served in the
colonial parliament for several successive terms, and was
also connected with the newspaper press. In every
sphere of labor his efforts were directed with teUing effect
to the betterment of the country.
Church Organization. — As soon as Dr. Lang had
made himself acquainted with the condition and needs
of the colony, he returned to Scotland, and brought out
a number of teachers. On another visit, shortly after-
wards, he brought back with him five ministers, in asso-
ciation with whom he organized the Presbytery of New
South Wales, This was in 1826. Ten years later he
made another journey to Scotland and succeeded in
adding nineteen more ministers to his force. He claimed.
BRITISH COLONIAL CHURCHES 359
and, after some legal contention, secured for the Presbyte-
rian ministry the same support from the government that
the government was in the habit of giving to the Episcopal
clergy. He rightly asserted that there must be no differ-
ence in the eye of the state between Scotch Presbytery
and English Episcopacy. With a strong band of helpers,
he set himself to the task of possessing the land. There
was reason to anticipate splendid victories ; but unfor-
tunately almost immediately dissension arose over meth-
ods of church expansion. Dr. Lang was for modifying
old methods to suit new circumstances. He believed there
should be such flexibility of system as would adapt ad-
ministration to novel exigencies. His co-presbyters were
for a rigid adherence to the pohcies of the home church.
The outcome of the dissension was a split. Dr. Lang
went out, taking with him a majority of the newcomers,
and formed the Synod of New South Wales. Only two
years elapsed, when the two parties came together again,
and formed the Synod of Australia. Dr. Lang did not
go into the union. He had become dissatisfied with the
concurrent endowment system of the government, an ar-
rangement by which all denominations drew equally from
the government for their financial support. He thought
the government was too liberal, or rather too indiscrimi-
nating, giving alike for the propagation of truth and false-
hood. He, therefore, withdrew and started an inde-
pendent Presbyterian Church, based on the principle of
voluntary self-support.
Troubles Brought From the Home Land. — The
church of Australia was formed out of material de-
rived from the Church of Scotland. It was inevi-
table, therefore, that its members should feel pro-
found interest in the strife which in 1843 gave birth to
360 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
the Free Church. The cause of this strife had no exist-
ence in Austraha, and there was no good reason why the
Church of Austraha should be involved in it. Fully
recognizing this fact, the church tried to play a neutral
part, merely expressing sympathy with the two parties
in Scotland. But this would not satisfy the belligerents.
Each of the two Scotch churches demanded that the
brethren in Australia should declare in its favor. Re-
luctantly they joined in the fray, and the result was a
split in the church. Of the twenty-two ministers, sixteen
remained faithful to the National Church of Scotland,
and six went out to form a church in sympathy with the
Free Church of Scotland. What with the church formed
by Dr. Lang, there were now three churches where there
should have been but one. This unhappy condition
lasted until 1865 when the fragments came together, and
once more there was a united Church in New South
Wales.
Better Equipment and Larger Growth. — The more
the resources of the country became known, the more
rapid was the growth of population. The church found in-
creasing difficulty in meeting the growing demands upon
her meager resources. It was absolutely dependent on
the mother churches in Scotland for ministers, and the
coming of these did not average one a year. Conse-
quently it marked an epoch in the struggling church
when St. Andrew's Presbyterian College was established
in connection with the University of Sydney, in 1881.
Through the agency of this college, the church was
able, in some measure, to supply her own needs in the
way of a home-trained ministry. By the liberality of a
few noble and generous-hearted laymen, the church was
able to enter upon a vigorous prosecution of home-
BRITISH COLONIAL CHURCHES 361
mission work under the energetic and wise leadership of
the Rev. J. M. Ross. Progress was rapid, and from that
time forward the church held steadily on her way. Soon
its strength was sufficient to inaugurate what has proved
a successful mission work among the aborigines, Chinese
immigrants, and the South Sea islanders.
2. The Church of Victoria. — The province of Victoria
was separated from New South Wales in 185 1. This
same year gold was discovered at Ballarat, the news of
which created a wide-spread contagion of " gold-fever."
At that date the population of the province numbered
77,000. In three years, it increased threefold, the in-
crease coming from Great Britain, America, and else-
where. It is obvious from the motives which brought
the newcomers that they would furnish a much more
needy than hopeful field for the preaching of the gospel.
They had left the beneficent influences of the church,
and of the older civilization to better their fortunes ; and
many of them were only too willing to be free from the
restraints of the home land that they might give them-
selves with greater gusto to the life of wild adventure.
Beginning of the Church in Victoria. — As early as
1834, while Victoria was still a part of New South
Wales, settlers drifted south to Port Phillip, the site of
the present splendid city of Melbourne. Some Scotch
Presbyterians belonged to this vanguard. However
intent on earthly gain, they never could be indifferent to
spiritual needs. The first preacher to minister to them
was the Rev. James Clow, a retired East India chaplain.
Before his unlooked-for arrival, application had been
made to the Presbytery of New South Wales for a
preacher, and in response to this appeal the Rev. James
Forbes came to them. He proved an earnest and effect-
362 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
ive worker ; and at once took charge of the congrega-
tion, gathered through the voluntary services of the
retired chaplain. By the year 1842, four others had
joined him and the Presbytery of Melbourne was
organized in connection with the Synod of New
South Wales.
Division and Reunion. — When the Synod of New
South Wales was rent by the strife imported from the
mother church over the disruption of 1843, the Rev.
James Forbes was one of the six ministers who went out
from the synod. He gave up the Church in Melbourne,
and with a few followers organized a church in sympathy
with the Free Church of Scotland. A little later on,
the United Presbyterians of Scotland sent out a small
number of ministers and organized churches in con-
nection Avith their assembly. Thus when the Colony
of Victoria was set off from New South Wales, there
were three Presbyterian denominations contending for
the same ground. It was just at this time that the colony
began to grow so rapidly, owing to the discovery of gold.
In the presence of growing demands, the necessity for
economizing men and money in the work of the Lord
was increasingly felt. For three churches to be squander-
ing their means in building up rival congregations came
to be recognized as a sin against reason and righteous-
ness. Negotiations for union v/ere set on foot, and in the
course of a few years these were successful. After 1870,
there was only one church in the province, to the de-
velopment of which all parties gave themselves with
hearty good will. To-day the Presbyterian Church of
Victoria is conspicuous for its robust strength and
splendid proportions. Its handsome and costly edifices
adorn the large cities ; its home missions and missions to
BRITISH COLONIAL CHURCHES 363
the heathen are prosecuted with gratifying prosperity ;
and educational facilities have been provided for training
its youth, and educating its ministry. This church has
the honor of furnishing to the work of foreign missions,
the Rev. John G. Paton, D. D., the foremost missionary
hero of the present generation. Ormond College, form-
ing a part of the University of Melbourne, is a worthy
monument to the munificent liberality of him whose
name it bears. Connected with this college is a theolog-
ical hall, based on a good endowment. The province
of Victoria leads all the provinces of Australia in point
of population and wealth, and contains more than half
of all the Presbyterians in that country.
3. Churches of the Other Colonies. — There are
nearly fifty thousand Presbyterian communicants in
Australia. About five sixths of these are in the two
provinces of New South Wales and Victoria. Queens-
land has five thousand of the remaining one sixth. It
will thus be seen that the churches of South Australia,
West Australia and Tasmania are very feeble indeed.
The reason for this is that the population of those prov-
inces is sparse and widely-scattered. Their resources
have been but little developed ; nor is there prospect
of rapid development until the other more attractive
provinces have been more completely occupied. But
each of these provinces has in its borders a well-or-
ganized Presbyterian Church, prepared to keep pace
with whatever growth there may be in population.
The churches of the six provinces have become fed-
erated in one General Assembly. So strong has the
sentiment of unity, or Christian fraternity, grown in
the last few years that a movement has been inaugu-
rated to draw all the evangelical churches of Australia
364 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
into a cooperative union. It is a worthy sentiment, but
it is hoped that even so worthy a sentiment may not be
permitted to override the claims of truth. The Presby-
terian Church of Australia has fought its way through
grave difficulties and great discouragements. It is now
in a position to make its voice heard in behalf of sound
doctrine, and to do this is by no means the least of the
responsibihties that rest upon it.
II. New Zealand
About 1,200 miles to the southeast of Australia lie
the two great islands, which constitute the principal part
of the New Zealand group. The name of this group
preserves the historic fact that the discoverers were the
adventurous seamen of Holland. They did nothing
further than to make the discovery. The indomitable
Captain Cook set foot on these shores in 1769, and be-
came the first explorer. Little was done in the way of
colonization until 1840, when the native chiefs signed a
treaty acknowledging the supremacy of Great Britain.
From this time forth exploration and settlement went
forward in earnest. The two islands, which alone need
to be considered for the purpose of our history, are
North Island and South Island. Each of these is
something over five hundred miles long, and the
two together have an area of about 100,000 square
miles.
I. The Church on North Island. — In the year 1840,
a large number of emigrants, including a considerable
proportion of Scots, landed at Port Nicholson. With
these came the Rev. Mr. McFarlane to look after their
religious interests. Wellington, the capital of the col-
onial government was selected for his field of labor.
BRITISH COLONIAL CHURCHES 365
From this as a center he radiated up and down the
coast among the smaller settlements. The first presby-
tery was organized in 1856, a majority of the ministers
composing it having come from the National Church of
Scotland. By the prosecution of a vigorous home-mis-
sion work, under the leadership of the Rev. David Bruce,
the little groups of Presbyterians, scattered all over the
island, were visited and brought together in churches.
In the course of a few years the one presbytery grew to
eight. All the Scotch Presbyterian churches, and the
Presbyterian Church of Ireland made contribution of
ministers. At present^ the strength of the church on
North Island is represented by ninety-six congrega-
tions containing about twelve thousand communicants.
2. The Church on South Island. — The formation of
the church on this island was a Httle later than on North
Island ; but it began its existence under such favorable
auspices as to outstrip its neighbor. The New Zealand
company, a purely commercial corporation, wanted a
good class of immigrants to develop their various in-
terests in the district of Otago. They thought of the
persistent energy of the thrifty Scot, and offered special
inducements to members of the Free Church of Scotland.
An agreement was reached, and in the year 1848, a com-
pany of 236 zealous Free Churchmen, with the Rev. T.
Burns as their pastor, landed at Dunedin. The colony
grew with steady prosperity, and in the course of six
years, a presbytery was organized with three ministers
and two elders.
In 1 861, gold was discovered at a point sixty miles
from Dunedin. This brought a rush of colonists, under
the impulse of the " gold fever." They, like all other
such colonists, were more in need of the gospel than
366 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
anxious to have it. Tiie church was poorly supphed
with laborers to meet the new and rapidly-growing de-
mands ; but it made the most of its resources, putting
forth extraordinary efforts which were greatly blessed.
While the population increased with prodigious strides,
and wealth was accumulated in unusual measure, the
church shared in the prosperity. It has lengthened its
cords and strengthened its stakes until now it occupies a
commanding position. In connection with Dunedin
University, the church has a theological hall, which
relieves it to a considerable extent from dependence
on the home church for its supply of ministers.
3. Union of the Two Churches. — It would seem that
there should have been no trouble about uniting two
churches, identical in race, language and theological
standards. But the church of the North Island was
a child of the Established Church of Scotland ; and
the church of South Island was a child of the Free
Church. The antagonisms in the home land were not
transported in all their strength, but a sufficient amount
found its way across the sea to give rise to suspicion.
Especially the Church of Otago was fearful that their
neighbors to the north were a little lax touching certain
administrative methods, and forms of worship. By judi-
cious diplomacy a union was brought about in 1862, but
had to be dissolved for the sake of peace the next year.
A Union of Cooperation took its place, until a very recent
■date, when the spirit of brotherhood and mutual con-
fidence brought them together again in one General
Assembly. By this consolidation of forces the Presby-
terian Church of New Zealand is splendidly equipped
for service, and marshals an army 28,000 strong.
BRITISH COLONIAL CHURCHES 367
III. South Africa
There are four colonial governments in South Africa,
under the supremacy of Great Britain. Their white pop-
ulation is made up principally of Dutch, now known as
Boers, a word meaning farmers. The history of all these
colonies is closely interlinked, and yet it may be in the
interests of clearness to look at them separately.
I. The Church of Cape Colony.— Cape Colony was
settled by the Dutch in 1652. The first comers were
characterized by the thrift, the intelligence, and the lib-
eral type of piety common to the freedom-loving Hol-
landers of that day. They were joined before the end of
the century by many Huguenots, who were seeking
refuge from the persecutions that were desolating their
native land. Here were the same elements that formed
the settlements of the New Netherlands in America.
Dr. David Livingstone, the great missionary, called at-
tention in a remarkable paper written by him in 1852, to
the different histories made by the two sets of colonists.
Those who came to America joined the ma^xh of
progress, and contributed their full quota of helpful
energy in the development of the United States. In
fact it has been pretty clearly shown that through them
Holland contributed more than any other European na-
tion to the upbuilding of the free institutions of the
American Republic. On the other hand, those who
went to South Africa settled down into a petrified con-
servatism. Their descendants suffered a decline of piety,
neglected education, and became narrow and sordid.
They continued to cherish a reverence for the Bible, and
to hold on with wonderful tenacity to many of the cus-
toms of the fatherland ; but they were entirely w^anting in
those noble, intellectual and spiritual aspirations which
368 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
pushed the country of their ancestors to the front rank
among the progressive nations of modern times. The
Boers brought into contact with savage tribes, instead of
regarding this as a call to give them the gospel, regarded
it as an opportunity to take these heathen for their own
inheritance. The leader of the first colonists, Van Rie-
beck, records in his journal his calculation as to " how
many Hottentot cattle might be stolen with the loss of
but a few of his own party." Not the Hottentot cattle
only, but the Hottentots themselves were appropriated
by the Dutch to their own use.
The immigration from Holland continued up to the be-
ginning of the nineteenth century, at which time the
white population of Cape Colony amounted to 27,000
and the slave population was slightly larger. All this
while there were no pastors looking after the spiritual
wants of the people. The only ministers among the
colonists were government chaplains. These were not
numerous, nor were they imbued with a missionary
spirit.
Improvement Under British Rule.— In 1806, Great
Britain took possession of Cape Colony, but her rights
were not recognized by Holland till 181 5. Soon after
this latter date, there was a change for the better in the
religious situation. On application of the government to
the Church of Scotland, eleven ministers were sent out in
1822. These found themselves somewhat hampered by
restrictions imposed by Dutch customs, but notwithstand-
ing this fact they did much to bring order out of con-
fusion, and to build up the waste places. Considering
the succession of wars and troubles of various kinds
through which Cape Colony has passed, the growth of its
Christian institutions has been gratifying. To-day, the
BRITISH COLONIAL CHURCHES 369
synod of the Dutch Reformed Church of Cape Colony
represents more than a hundred thousand communicants.
In addition there is a Dutch Reformed Mission Church in
South Africa containing more than eight thousand com-
municants. Nor is this all; there is a Presbyterian
Church in South Africa with a roll of eleven thousand
members.
2. The Church of Natal.— Many of the Dutch were
always restless and dissatisfied under the rule of the
English. When in 1834, England emancipated all the
slaves throughout her entire dominion, this measure pro-
voked still further discontent in the breasts of the Dutch
farmers who were very reluctant to give up their Hot-
tentots. England paid the owners in treasury notes, but
many of those who received these notes did not understand
their value, and suffered themselves to be cheated out of
them. Finally the discontent culminated in a remark-
able migration. Ten thousand Boers, selling their farms
at a sacrifice, took their households effects and their live
stock and set out on a journey northward in ox wagons.
They crossed the Orange River which forms the northern
boundary of Cape Colony, and then turned eastward and
planted a colony in Natal, a little bit of seacoast, lying
several miles to the northeast of Cape Colony. Here
they came into serious conflict with the Zulus. A bloody
war was precipitated, and the Zulus, having neither fire-
arms nor horses, were slaughtered like sheep whenever
the fighting was in open battle.
Dr. Lindley Among the Boers. — It is interesting to
note that the first minister to preach to these migrating
Boers was an American missionary. The American
Board sent out three missionaries who began their work
among the Zulus in 1836, the very year in which the
370 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
Boers came to take possession of their land. The con-
stant raids and reprisals between the Boers and the Zulus
made it impossible for the missionaries to carry on their
work. One of their number, Mr. Lindley, afterwards
Dr. Lindley, was invited by the Dutch to labor among
them. The Board, on hearing all the circumstances of
the case, thought it wise in him to accept the invitation.
The Boers built him a house and nearly supported him.
He preached to them on the Sabbath, and taught a
numerous school during the week. For seven or eight
years he continued his labors among them with marked
success. He made yearly journeys in an ox wagon to
the Orange and Transvaal Territories. Appointments
were sent ahead, and large numbers would assemble in
their wagons, and days would be spent in preaching,
catechising, admitting members to the church, and in ad-
ministering the sacraments. Among the converts under
Dr. Lindley's ministry was Paul Kruger, known in recent
years as the famous president of the Transvaal Republic.
The memory of this North Carolina missionary is still
precious with the Boers, and only a few years ago they
named a village Lindley in his honor. The church in
Natal has never grown to large proportions, its present
membership numbering about two thousand.
3. Churches of the Orange Free State and the Trans-
vaal.— These churches have substantially the same his-
tory. In 1843, the British government took Natal under
its protection. Whereupon most of the Boers, who had
gone there to get rid of English domination, moved
westward, and founded the Orange Free State. But this
also was taken under British control in 1848, and then
the more incorrigible of the Boers " trecked " across the
River Vaal and established the Transvaal Republic.
BRITISH COLONIAL CHURCHES 371
These were the Boers who in pressing their conquests
over the native tribes came into colUsion with Living-
stone. They treated the Bakwains, among whom Liv-
ingstone was laboring and whose chief he was instru-
mental in converting, with the greatest injustice and
cruelty, destroying men and women, and reducing their
children to slavery. Dr. Livingstone accuses them of
striving by this means to replace the Hottentots whom
the English had emancipated. The Boers did not stop
with making war on those for whom Livingstone labored ;
they attacked his house at Kolobeng, and destroyed it
along with all his property. Obviously the Boers were
no friends of missions. They thought it both more easy
and more profitable to make slaves than to make Chris-
tians of the natives.
Labors of the Rev. Andrew Murray. — It is to be said,
however, that at the time when the Boers of the Trans-
vaal were exciting the just indignation of the great-
hearted Livingstone, they had had as yet no minister
among them. In 1849, the Rev. Andrew Murray was
settled at Bloemfontein in the Orange Free State. He
had the whole of the two territories on either side of the
Vaal River as his parish. His work consisted chiefly of
extensive itineraries, during which the people would
gather at different points in camp meetings ; and several
days would be spent in evangelistic services and in church
organization.
Liberalism Introduced from Holland. — In 1853, the
Transvaal received its first settled pastor in the person of
Mr. Van der Hofif, who was sent out by Holland. Un-
fortunately he belonged to the rationalistic school which
had grown up in Holland. He was joined later by three
other ministers from the same school. These put their
372 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
impress on the church of the Transvaal, and led most of
its congregations to sever their connection with the
Dutch Reformed Church in Cape Colony. In 1857,
through the labors of Mr. Pastnia, who was sent by the
Christian Reformed Church of Holland, a dissenting
church was formed in the Transvaal. Into this church
have been gathered all those in all the four colonies who
stand firmly by the old orthodoxy as it found expression
in the Synod of Dort.
Present Status. — There are seven distinct churches in
the four South African colonies. All, save one of these,
are Dutch in their constituency, and are closely related
in their traditions, customs, forms of worship and
doctrines to the mother churches in Holland. The
aggregate membership of these seven churches is slightly
over two hundred thousand.
XVII
MISSIONARY TERRITORY
CHURCHES ON MISSION GROUND
In the great awakening of the spirit of world-evan-
gelization, which has caused the last hundred years to
be called the " Missionary Century," the Presbyterian
churches enjoyed their full share. Not that they were
first to feel the breath of this revival, nor that they
measure up to their full standard of duty, but relatively
they occupy an honorable place among the evan-
gelical churches of Christendom. At present their con-
tributions will perhaps average more per member than
those of any other church — the noble little Moravian
Church always excepted. They have planted the blue
banner in all the larger nations of heathenism, and have
made many different people to " hear the wonderful works
of God in their own language, wherein they were born."
Admiral Coligny, who perished in the massacre of St.
Bartholomew, the greatest of the Huguenots, has been
credited with the first efforts to give the gospel, as taught
by Protestants, to the heathen. Calvin has also been
honored for having given his warm approval and great
influence to these efforts ; but the ill-fated expedition
which Cohgny sent to Brazil in 1556 was rather an effort
to provide a refuge for the persecuted Christians of
France than to convert the heathen, although it did result
in the preaching of the gospel for a short while to the
aborigines. We must come down the course of history
373
374 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
many years to find the beginning of Protestant missions ;
and not till the nineteenth century was considerably ad-
vanced did the Presbyterians commit themselves with any
degree of vigor, or distinctness of purpose to this work.
It does not fall in with our design to trace the progress
of their missionary enterprises, nor to give all the results ;
but it seems desirable to notice briefly some of the more
conspicuous Presbyterian churches which have grown up
on heathen soil, and especially those which have already
taken their place, and also those which are preparing to
take their place, as independent entities in the great
Presbyterian family. We may as well begin nearest
home.
I. The Presbyterian Church of Mexico.— The Pres-
byterians North and South began work almost simul-
taneously in Mexico, and this no longer ago than 1872.
The population, amounting to eleven and a half millions,
is composed of Spaniards, Indians and a mixture of the
two. This population has been steeped in the errors of
Romanism for more than three centuries. But a ready
entrance was found for the truth, and despite the per-
sistent and sometimes violent opposition of Romish
priests, a Presbyterian Church soon sprang up in connec-
tion with each of the above mentioned bodies. These
grew into four presbyteries, and then it occurred to them
that the proper and Christian thing was to get together
in one organization. The mother churches gave their
cordial approval. Whereupon the four presbyteries,
three of them in connection with the Presbyterian
Church North, and one of them in connection with the
Presbyterian Church South, met together in the City of
Mexico on the 8th day of July, 1 90 1, and Tormed the
" General Synod of the Presbyterian Church of Mexico."
MISSIONARY TERRITORY 375
This synod consists of forty-four ministers, and repre-
sents five thousand communicants.
2. Synod of the Presbyterian Church of Brazil. —
Here as in Mexico, the two Presbyterian churches of the
United States, have wrought together to build up a
united Presbyterian Church. Before the separation of
the Church into Northern and Southern, it began work
in Brazil, entering the capital in 1859. After the
division, the Southern Presbyterian Church sent mis-
sionaries to Brazil in 1869. The work here was very
similar to that in Mexico — it was among a degenerate
Latin race, thoroughly saturated with Romanism in its
worst form. The late Pope Leo left a picture of it
which needs no touching up by a prejudiced Protestant
hand : ** In every diocese ecclesiastics break all bounds
and deliver themselves up to manifold forms of sensuahty,
and no voice is lifted to imperiously summon pastors to
their duty. It is sad to reflect that prelates, priests,
and other clergy are never found to be doing service
among the poor ; they are never in lazar house, or
hospital; never in orphan asylum or hospice; in the
dwellings of the afflicted or distressed, or engaged in
works of beneficence. They as a rule are ever absent
where human misery exists, unless paid as chaplains,
or a fee is given. On the other hand, the clergy are
always to be found in the houses of the rich or wherever
gluttony may be indulged in, and wherever the choicest
wines may be obtained." Such clergy have shown their
attachment to a church which indulges them in luxury and
license, by stirring up mobs to prevent missionaries from
preaching a gospel that demands pure living. But God
has been with the missionaries and has signally blessed
their efforts. In 1888, acting in obedience to a desire
376 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
common to the native converts and to the missionaries,
the churches which the two Presbyterian denominations
had built up, came together in organic unity and formed
the Synod of Brazil. There were at that time four
presbyteries and about four thousand communicants.
There are now seven presbyteries, and the communicant
roll has more than doubled.
3. The Union Church of Christ in Japan.— Nothing
has been more marked in the history of Japan than its
intense nationahsm. It has shown a marvelous willing-
ness to receive western ideas, including Christian ideas,
but it is not willing to submit to any kind of foreign
domination. When it absorbs and assimilates new ideas,
it organizes them into visible forms, and gives practical
effect to them after a manner altogether its own. After
an unhappy experience with Jesuit missionaries in the
sixteenth century, Japan closed her ports against foreign-
ers, and prohibited the preaching of the " vile Jesus
doctrine " on pain of death. The ports were opened
in 1854, but the prohibition against Christianity was not
removed till 1872. Since that time Japan has been
furnished with a different type of Christianity from that
furnished by the Jesuits. With that acuteness and quick-
ness of apprehension, characteristic of the Japanese,
multitudes of them have discovered in the pure gospel
of Christ the religion which Japan needs, and have em-
braced it with enthusiasm.
The first Presbyterian missionaries to labor in Japan
were from the Dutch Reformed Church, the Presbyterian
Church, North, and the United Presbyterian Church of
Scotland. When these had succeeded, under the bless-
ing of God, in building up a number of native churches,
these Japanese Christians, true to their national instincts,
MISSIONARY TERRITORY 377
insisted on managing their own affairs. Consequently
they united in one body taking the name of the Union
Church of Christ in Japan. This was in 1877, and all
the Presbyterian churches carrying on mission work in
Japan since that date, including in addition to those
above named, the German Reformed, the Southern Pres-
byterian and the Cumberland Presbyterian, have wrought
in cooperation with this native church. It is Presby-
terian in form, and Calvinistic in doctrine, but has not
copied slavishly any type either of polity or doctrine
furnished by the Western Churches. It is distributed
into six presbyteries, and its strength is represented by
eighty preachers, and eleven thousand communicants.
4. The Synod of South India. — The Church of Scot-
land sent Duff to India in 1829. He made Calcutta the
center of his great work, which in so far as it was
confined to India, was largely an educational work. A
little later, the same church sent other workers who chose
as their field, the Presidency of Madras, in Southeast
India. When the disruption came in 1843, all the mis-
sionaries of the Church of Scotland cast in their lot with
the Free Church. They gave up their property, and
started on a new foundation. The Church of Scotland
sent other, of her sons to man the stations thus deserted.
So it came to pass that from 1843 both these Scotch
churches have been working side by side in Madras.
Adjoining them, at Arcot, since 1858, the Dutch Re-
formed Church of America has been working. Repre-
sentatives from these three missions met in the city of
Madras in February, 1900, and took steps to form a Union
Church. Having drafted a plan of union, they sub-
mitted it to the three home churches. Two of these,
the Dutch Reformed, and the Free Church, approved it.
378 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
The Church of Scotland withheld her assent. The result
was that the churches of the Arcot, and the United Free
Church Missions, thirty-three in number, united to form
the two presbyteries of Madras and Arcot, and these
presbyteries formed the South Indian United Church.
Its constitution is made up of symbols in harmony with
the doctrines and polity of the mother churches.
5. The Presbyterian Church in India. — For thirty
years there has been a sentiment among all the Presby-
terian missionaries of India favoring the union of all
their churches. These missionaries formed the " Presby-
terian Alliance of India " for the purpose of bringing
about this desired union. But nothing practical was
done until a meeting of the Alliance at Allahabad in
1 90 1. Then it was resolved that organic union was not
only desirable, but practicable, and a committee was ap-
pointed to draw up a synopsis of doctrine, and to formu-
late a basis of union. The work of this committee is
now under consideration by the churches interested. At
least twelve Presbyterian bodies are concerned; the mis-
sionaries in India being connected with the Presbyterian
churches of Scotland, Ireland, England, Wales, Canada,
and the United States. The aggregate membership of
these churches in India is something over 25,000. It is
proposed to unite these in twenty-five presbyteries, and
seven synods.
6. The Presbyterian Church in China. — At a con-
ference of Presbyterian missionaries held in Shanghai,
October 2, 1901, the following action was taken : —
" I. This conference earnestly desires the unity of the
Christian Church in China and cordially welcomes all op-
portunities of cooperation with all sections of the Church ;
the conference resolves ^ therefore, to take steps for uniting
MISSIONARY TERRITORY 379
more closely the Presbyterian churches, hoping thereby
to facilitate the ultimate attainment of wider union.
" II. The conference, therefore, recommends the ap-
pointment of a committee to prepare a plan of union,
organic or federal as may be found practicable, and sub-
mit the same to the church courts concerned." The
movement thus inaugurated has not yet reached its con-
summation, but its progress gives promise of ultimate
success. On the nth of November, 1903, the commit-
tee, appointed according to the above recommendation,
and representing seven churches concerned, met at Shang-
hai, and " Resolved, i . That we, and the several churches
to which we belong, agree in holding the word of God,
as contained in the Scriptures of the Old and New Testa-
ments, to be the supreme rule of faith and life.
" 2. That the aforesaid churches have, as circum-
stances required, drawn up and adopted several subordi-
nate standards of doctrine, as confessions of Faith, Cat-
echisms, and other documents, to exhibit the sense in
which they understand the Scriptures.
(We also find that the independent Presbyterian churches
of Manchuria and Amoy have adopted shorter creeds of
their own in harmony with the foregoing standards.)
" 3. That in view of the manifest consensus of these
documents in the great fundamental matters of faith,
obedience, worship and polity, we rejoice to believe that
we can heartily, and with great advantage unite together
in seeking to advance the glory of God in the salvation
of sinners, and in the planting and upbuilding of his
church."
This committee drafted a simple plan of union, which
it transmitted to the various Presbyterian missions in
China, to be by them considered and transmitted to the
38o HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
various Chinese Church courts concerned. There are at
present two synods in China, including nine presbyteries,
in connection with the Presbyterian Church in the United
States of America. At least eight other Presbyterian
churches are carrying on work there. The total native
membership gathered by all these churches is upwards of
30,000. While there are recognized difficulties in bring-
ing all these into organic unity, yet there is good reason
to believe that this consummation, so devoutly to be
wished, will be reached within the next three years.
The Publishing House at Shanghai. — One of the most
important agencies for the spread of gracious influences
in China is the Presbyterian publishing establishment at
Shanghai, with its list of over seven hundred works in
the native language. From its presses there is going
forth an ever-increasing volume of literature, in the way
of school books, medical books, hymn books, religious
tracts, and above all every variety of edition of the Bible,
to enlighten, uplift and save those people.
7. The Presbyterian Church in Korea. — Until a very
recent date, Korea was known as one of the hermit na-
tions. It shut itself up within itself and resolved that
in the exchange of ideas it would neither borrow nor
lend. More than a hundred years ago the Roman Cath-
olics found an entrance, and managed at the cost of severe
persecutions from time to time, to win a considerable fol-
lowing; but in 1864, the Korean government by a de-
termined and persistent effort wiped out in blood every
trace of the Romish Church. In 1873, the Rev. John
Ross, sent as a missionary to Manchuria by the United
Presbyterian Church of Scotland, induced a Korean to
visit him at Mukden and teach him the language. He
translated parts of the Bible into the Korean language,
MISSIONARY TERRITORY 381
and by the employment of a few adventurous Korean
colporteurs, managed to sow the good seed of the kingdom
inside of the hermit nation. By and by, providence set
the door slightly ajar, and missionaries from the North-
ern Presbyterian Church entered in 1884. A little later,
these were followed by representatives of the Presbyterian
Church of Canada. Later still, the Southern Presbyterian
Church sent missionaries to join in the work. It was
discovered by the first missionaries of the Northern
Church that the seed sown by the Rev. John Ross had
not perished. It only needed a little cultivation to begin
to yield a most gratifying harvest. During the few years
from 1884 to the present, a most hopeful beginning has
been made. Connected with the three churches above
named there are more than 6,000 communicants. Steps
have been taken to organize them all into one independ-
ent Korean Presbyterian Church. It is believed that the
native Christians are hardly sufficiently instructed in the
faith to make it advisable just now to throw on them the
responsibility of self-government ; but the plan is already
mapped out, and the purpose declared to do this as soon
as the Church gains a little more strength and experience.
8, The Presbyterian Church in Persia.— The founda-
tions of this church were laid by the American Board,
but was transferred to the Northern Presbyterian Church
in 1870. The center of its activities is at Urumiah, where
a mission college is doing a remarkable educational work.
This college has grown out of a school started with seven
little boys in a cellar in 1836 by Justin Perkins. It now
educates the ministry of the Persian Presbyterian Church ;
and is patronized by the Mohammedans because of its
recognized merits, and the high character of those who
teach in it. While the Persian Church is still connected
82 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
with the Presbyterian Church in the United States of
America, and is largely dependent on it for means to
prosecute evangelistic work, yet it is permitted separate
representation in the Pan- Presbyterian Council. It has a
membership of nearly three thousand.
g. The Presbyterian Church in Syria. — The origin
of this church is the same as that in Persia ; and it still
sustains a loose connection with the Presbyterian Church
in the United States of America. But recently its
churches have been organized into three presbyteries,
namely, the Presbytery of Sidon, the Presbytery of
Beirut and Lebanon, and the Presbytery of Tripoli.
Thus the native pastors and elders are being trained to
self-government, and the process of evolution will no
doubt continue until the church can stand alone.
10. The Synod of Jamaica. — This was the first Pres-
byterian Church on mission ground to which was granted
the privilege of self-government. It owes its origin to
mission work begun by the United Presbyterian Church
of Scotland in 1824; and it still derives a large portion
of its ministerial supply and financial support from that
source. Its 12,000 members are distributed into six pres-
byteries, and are served by twenty-eight pastors. This
church has a theological hall and educates in part its own
ministry. For many years it has carried on mission work
in the old Calabar Mission in West Africa.
11. Other Mission Churches. — We have been notic-
ing only those churches which have more or less local
autonomy. Some of these have already taken their place
as independent members of the Presbyterian family.
Others are far on the way to this destination. Besides
these, there are thousands of communicants, gathered in
native churches, that are still under the nurturing care of
MISSIONARY TERRITORY 383
the churches to whose beneficent activities they owe their
birth. A large number of such churches are in the East
Indies, subject to the control of the Reformed Church of
Holland. Another large number are in the West Indies
where the United Church of Scotland, and the Presby-
terian Church of Canada have been especially active. In
Egypt, the United Presbyterian Church of America has
done a great work, by which six thousand communicants
have been gathered into mission stations along the River
Nile for a distance of five hundred miles. In the New
Hebrides, there is a missionary synod including more
than three thousand communicants, under the oversight
of the Presbyterian Church of Australia. In Central and
South Africa, successful mission work by various Presby-
terian churches and societies have brought into the fold
of Christ several thousand communicants. The total re-
sults of the foreign mission work of all the Presbyterian
churches are represented by a membership of native
Christians amounting to 219,475.
Aggregate Presbyterianism
The Presbyterianism of the world is approximately
represented in the " Alliance of the Reformed Churches
Holding the Presbyterian System." This Alliance was
formed by representatives of twenty-two different Presby-
terian and Reformed churches. They met in the Eng-
lish Presbyterian College, Guilford Street, London, July
21, 1875, and spent two days in deliberation and
prayer. The purpose of the organization is declared in
the preamble to the constitution which was adopted at
that time. " Whereas, Churches holding the Reformed
faith, and organized on Presbyterian principles, are
found, though under a variety of names, in different
384 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
parts of the world ; Whereas, many of these were long
wont to maintain closer relations, but are at present
united by no visible bond, whether of fellowship or of
work ; and Whereas, in the providence of God, the time
seems to have come when they may all more fully mani-
fest their essential oneness, have closer communion with
each other, and promote great causes by joint action; It
is agreed to form a Presbyterian Alliance to meet in
General Council from time to time, in order to confer
upon matters of common interest, and to further the ends
for which the Church has been constituted by her divine
Lord and King. In forming this Alliance, the Presby-
terian churches do not mean to change their fraternal
relations with other churches, but will be ready as here-
tofore to join with them in Christian fellowship, and in
advancing the cause of the Redeemer, on the general
principle taught in the Reformed confessions that the
Church of God on earth, though composed of many
members, is one body in the communion of the Holy
Ghost, of which body Christ is the Supreme Head, and
the Scriptures alone are the infallible law." The Alliance
held its first council, July 3-10, 1877, in Edinburgh, Scot-
land, meeting for sermon in St. Giles Cathedral on the
morning of the 3d of July, and in the afternoon of that
day in the Free Church Assembly Hall for formal or-
ganization and the transaction of business. This was a
memorable meeting, as it brought together for the first
time the scattered forces of Presbyterianism, and gave the
world an opportunity to guage their strength. Three
hundred and thirty-three ministers and elders were
present, commissioned by forty-nine Presbyterian
churches, in twenty-five different countries. Here was a
clear demonstration of the Catholicity of Presbyterianism.
MISSIONARY TERRITORY 3^5
It has crossed all national boundaries, waived aside all
race distinctions, and made a home for itself in the hearts
of all classes and conditions of men in all parts of the
globe. Black and white, red, bronze and yellow, all
shades of color from all climes, sat together as brethren
in the Lord, and parts of one great denominational con-
fraternity.
Good Work of the Alliance.— The Alliance has held
eight councils— the second in Philadelphia, Pa., in 1880,
the third in Belfast, Ireland, 1884, the fourth in London,
1888, the fifth in Toronto, Canada, 1892, the sixth in
Glasgow, Scotland, 1896, the seventh in Washington,
D. C, 1899, and the eighth in Liverpool, England, 1904.
In these councils papers have been read and discussions
had on all phases of Christian doctrine, of church work,
of ecclesiastical administration, of moral and social re-
forms. These papers and discussions have been pub-
lished in handsome volumes, and thus there has been
created a large body of literature on a great variety of im-
portant subjects, many of them questions vital to the wel-
fare and progress of God's kingdom on earth. This liter-
ature represents the best thought of the brotherhood of
churches, composing the AUiance, and throws a flood
of light on the wide range of topics which it covers. It
has brought to the attention of the general public many
obscure bodies of Presbyterians, and made us acquainted
with the social and religious conditions which prevail in
countries and communities that have been hitherto a
terra incognita.
For a short while. Dr. G. W. Blaikie, one of the clerks
of the council, edited an able journal called the Catholic
Presbyterian, which while not an official organ of the
Alliance, worthily represented its spirit and aims. In its
386 HISTORY OF PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES
pages there is stored away a very considerable amount of
historical information, valuable especially to the student
of Presbyterianism, which it would be difficult, if not im-
possible, to find elsewhere. It is a matter for profound
regret that the Catholic Presbyterian should have been
so short-lived. It was entitled on its merits to an ex-
tended career of usefulness. Its place has been taken in
part by the Quarterly Register, edited by the Rev. G. D.
Mathews, D. D., general secretary of the Alliance.
This serves an important purpose as a medium of com-
munication between the different sections of the Alliance,
and in helping all who desire to do so to keep abreast of
the movements of the day which are of special interest to
Presbyterians.
Besides the literature created by the Alliance, it has
done good in other directions. It has strengthened the
bond of brotherhood between those of like precious
faith ; it has enabled the strong to help bear the burdens
of the weak ; and has given a wider horizon to the inter-
ests and hopes of all.
The Alliance has made manifest to Presbyterians
themselves the extent to which the principles which they
hold dear have been accepted by Protestant Christendom,
and the part, therefore, which they may reasonably be
expected to play in the onward march of God's kingdom.
It is an interesting historical fact that after John Calvin
had arrested the thought of his age by the publication of
his " Institutes of the Christian Religion," and by his
masterly work of religious, social and political reform in
Geneva, his views had a preponderating influence on all
subsequent reforming movements. Not only so, but
where his views came into contact with Lutheranism,
and the two systems were permitted to contest the ground
MISSIONARY TERRITORY 387
on equal terms, as in the Palatinate, Holland and Hun-
gary, Calvinism, with its associated Presbyterianism, v/on
the day. Professor Heron, of Belfast, has hardly over-
stated the case when he says that " wherever the Ref-
ormation had free course, wherever it was permitted to
shape itself spontaneously after scripture, and without ex-
ternal influence, it assumed a Presbyterian form." In
the statistical returns, published by the last Council of the
Alliance, we find mention made of eighty-three inde-
pendent Presbyterian churches. These represent 32,260
congregations; 27,447 preachers, and 5,137,328 com-
municants. They expend annually ^40,000,000 in ful-
filling the mission to which the Lord calls them. With
his continued blessing on their labors, it is evident that
their agency will not be an unimportant one in bringing
in the millennial reign of peace and righteousness, when
'* all the earth shall be filled with the glory of Jehovah."
Appendix
The following statistical tables have been
compiled with the greatest care; and while
not entirely complete, nor absolutely per-
fect, they make a fairly accurate exhibit
of the numerical strength of the Presby-
terian churches of the world.
389
390
APPENDIX.
T3 p;->
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o
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.
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t>» On rf t^
^^ r>. 00 Lo
00 1 .' ^ .
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•sj9Diyo
pUB S.I9qOB9J_
lOoqos-q^BqqBg
<Nl On --I N
•siooqos qi^qqi^S
"^ <^ r^ On N
•s.i9qui9iAj qojnq3
lUBDiunxumo^
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CO
•Xaisiuip\[ 9qi
JOJ S91-BpipUB3
.\0 *S91BIUl9Diq
<^ f^ . . .
•-I N • • •
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i-i
•SJ9§BU'BI/\[
iO 'SU0DB9Q
00 00 On M 00
0 ^ ^h .0
u-i
•sispia
LT) 00 00 ON iri
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10
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to
•S.I9}SIUI]}\[
ON 0 CO vO 10
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On
q
•suot}-B§9a2
-U03 JO J9quin^
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•S9SSB[3 JO sarjgj
-Xqs3.ij JO jgquin^
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R
(A) European Continent.
1. " Evangelical Church
of the Augsburg and Hel-
vetic Confessions in Austria
—Church of the Helvetic
Confession "
2. General Synod of the
Evangelical Reformed
Church in Hungary . . .
3. Union of Evangelical
Churches, Belgium . . .
4. Mission Christian
Church of Belgium . .
5. Synod of the Reformed
Churches of Denmark . .
c2
APPENDIX
391
•s3sod.inj \\v
joj suoi^nquiuo^)
•sndnj
208,967
10,000
2,870
760
500
900
2,000
8,660
0
t
•saaoigo
pu'B s.iaqo'Baj,
poilDS-qiBqqi^s
0 0 0 00 0 0 rJ
ON 0 w> s vo tn . LT)
•^ 0^ CO ^
fO n"
0
•siooips qit^qq^s
CO
m
CO
lUBDiunuirao^
000 00 m 0 00 ^
too 0^ c^ 0 roro
NO Los 10 0 "^^
;i S^ ^ ^"^ J? ^ §
CO
CO
CO
CO
m
•XjisiuijAl 9in
aoj s9iBpipuB3
JtO *S91BqU9DIT^
^
N
m Crj . ■"^ M .
•SJ9§BUB1AI
XO 'SU0DB9Q
>0 . m . "^
0
•SJ9pia
w> 0 0 OO 00 0 . ^
vO 0 m CO 0 CO
in
CO
•sag^siuipv
ONOo Ofvj t^ in Noo
On ^ v£> ' N m ON
0.
CO
•SU0pB§9J§
-U03 JO a9qmn|y[
ONC^ r^Vr^ ON -> OOvO
t^ Cy^ CO • N CO vO
00
00
ON
•S9SSB13 JO S91.I3^
■Xqs9J J JO aaquin^
0 i^ vO s ON m t^
t. 0
8
Churches.
Brought forward,
6. Reformed Churches of
France .
7. Union of the Free
Evangelical Churches of
France
8. Evangelical Church of
Greece
9. Synodal Union of the
Reformed Churches of the
East Rhine
10. Evangelical Re-
formed Church of the Prov-
ince of Hanover
11. Synod of the Re-
formed Church of Alsace
and Lorraine
12. Synodof the Walden-
sian Church, Italy ....
13. The Evangelical
Church of Italv .....
>
■V,
392
APPENDIX
joj suoijnqu^uo3
•siidn^i
poqos-qjBqq-Bg
!>. O O rf O
r? vd lO
CO i/-> t^
N
CO
CO
•sjgDijjo
pUB SJ9qDB9J^
poqDS-q^Bqq'BS
III • ■"
vd CO cf
0
On
M
•S[00qos q^Bqq^S
i;^ 8 ^ ^ ^
\q to ir>
CO "^
vO
1
•saaquigj^ H^J^q^
}UT30iuniuuio3
CO o O mo
CO o O c» oo
CO O O NO
5 i i "" *
00
ft
00
M
ON
•Xaisiuij\[ 9qi
aOJ S3JBpipUT33
ao 's9;Bpu90i-[
« : 2 : :
;
CO
•S.19§-BU-BI\[
JO 'SU0DB9Q
2 • • 8 •
m
4
•sjgpia
CO O O O m
a\ N lo CO '^
q^ <1 o^
^ CO N
cs
g
00
CO
•sa9isiuij\[
N CO ri- 00 »0
00 O ^
O^ ^ "^
CO «"
VO
1
•suoi;l'§9jS
-U03 JO .i9qumjsi
00 O ^ w i-i
00 u-> 00 t-i hH
q^ CO vO
10
1
•S9SS^[3 aO S9U9}
-Xqs9J^ JO .igquin^
lO rj- O , '-'
O ^ m ^
~
§,
1
Brought forwa rd,
14. General Synod of the
Reformed Church of the
Netherlands
15. Synod of the Re-
formed Churches of the
Netherlands
16. Classis of the Old Re-
formed Churches of Ben-
theim and East Friesland .
17. Consistory of the Re-
formed Church of Warsaw .
18. General Assembly of
the Soanish Christian Church
U
.2
20, Presbytery of the Free
Evangelical Church of
Geneva .....
11
.2 S
'1
1
1
1
0
APPENDIX
393
•sasodanj {{c
.loj suoi;nqi.i}uo3
•
0\ u^ 00
■rl- rf 00
^ ^. 0,
►-T LO vo
00
0
•s[idnj
l00ips-qiT3qqT3S
00
"^ I--. vO
r? i-T of
OS
LO
00
LO
^'
•s.i3oyjo
\niv sasqoxjs^L
looqos-q^uqq^s
in"
On
Tf 0 «
ON t^ On
>0 « ro
tC 00
10
LO
N
•siooqos qi^qq^s
1
04
LO
LO
ro •-
HI CO
0^
ON
0,
•s.i3qui3j\[ qoanq^
}UT30iuniuiuo3
in
LO
MD LO 0^
On CO vo"
1
•Xj4sunj\[ aqi
JOJ S31T3pipUtJ3
.lO 'S3-lt:T;U3Diq
cs
I
^ • ^
«
•Sa3§BU-G]/M
.10 'SU0DB9Q
u-1 00
^ 0
LO
LO
ro
LO
•saapia
00 ^J~l
pT
CO
CO
On
of
v^ t^ 0
^ q.
ON
N
•s.i3;suiix'\[
1 -
2*
LO
CO 0
LO
8
•suopv'SaaS
•1103 JO .laqiun^Nj
LO
^
LO
On ro 0
ro LO
ON
•S3SS13[3 .10 S3I.13}
-Xqs3.if{ }o.i3quTn^\[
^
«
ro
w CO
LO
Brought forward,
22. Free Evangelical
Church of Neuchatel . . .
0
_ <^
c
13
c
>
c
>- 0
0
C
.s
6
0
W
(2
(B) Great Britain and Ire-
land.
25. Synod of the Presby-
terian Church of England .
26. The Scottish Synod
in England in connection
with the Church of Scotland,
27. General Assembly of
the Presbyterian Church in
Ireland . .
0
394
APPENDIX
•sasodin^i n^
aoj suopnqu;uo3
N
0^ s:? 2
• CO ^ ^
8
00'
00
•siidnj
jooqos-qiBqq^S
lO 00
CO fo
to 00
0 « n-
tN. fO ON
&
•SJ3DIJJ0
puB sJsqoBax
poqos-qiBqqBg
LO «-"
ir> 00
vO
8 ■§
0
•siooqog q^^qq^s
S tJ- 0
S 00 00
00
1^
•sjaquiajAj qo-inqQ
^uijoiuniumo^)
t ^
^ ^
0 ro NO
CV^ ON t^
N rf 00
; -
00
oo"
vO
•XaisiUTj^ aqi
aoj sajBpipuB^
JO 'S91T3qU301T^
n
: ? ^
1/^
•S.I3§BUBI,\[
JO 'SU0DB3Q
to vO
en
: : ?
• s
00
N
•saapia
'if
0 ^
• s
in
•SJ31SIUIp\[
1 "
ts. CD 00 i-i m 00
10 00
•suoiiB§aa§
-U03 JO .isquin^
N ON
ON
0 M 0 •^00 On
S ro « 0 M
00^ t^
'it
•S3SST3t3 ao sauai
-/CqsaJtJ JO aaquinjsj
00 <o >-•
M
U
Brought forward,
28. General Synod of the
Reformed Presbyterian
Church in Ireland ....
29, Synod of the Eastern
Reformed Presbyterian
30. Synod of the Original
Secession Church in Ireland,
31. General Assembly of
the Church of Scotland . .
32. General Assembly of
the United Free Church . .
2^. General Assembly of
the Free Church of Scot-
35. Synod of the Re-
formed Presbyterian Church
in Scotland
0
APPENDIX
395
•sasodjnj \\r;
joj suoiinqia;uo3
un « O
ON oo
8 ^
<o
oo"
■siidn^j
poqDS-qi^qqT3S
1 "" 1
VO
00
CO
fO
VO
00
m
CO
•SJ901JJO
puB sa9qoB9X
poqDS-qi^qqBS
ON 00
N
N
•spoqos i^T^qq^s
N N O
00
00
VO
•sJ9qui9i\[ il9anq3
^UB0iunuimo3
00 "-I 00
r^ vo t^
« 8 §
1^ 0 vo
?f 2^ ^^
VO
VO
JOJ S91T3pipUB3
JO *s9iv;pa9Diq
i;
VO
VO
CO
•saaSBUBiAi
JO •SUO0B9Q
ro Tt UI
00 t^ u->
t^ w 00
ei ^
00
N
VO
•sagpia
CO
• ^
C^
•Si91SlUII^
N vO »^
10
° ^ CO
0
•suopB^aaS
-uo3 JO i9quinj^
vO fO
1
S • -2
$^
•S9SST313 XO S9U9J
-Xqs9J<l JO J9quin^
M
f
"^
''J-
1
S
Brought forward,
36. Synod of the United
Original Secession Church,
37. General Assembly of
the Calvinistic Methodist or
Presbyterian Church of
Wales
0
Si
(C) Asia.
38. Synod of the Re-
formed Church in the Dutch
(U 1)
40. Synod of the Syrian
Evangelical Church of
Persia
-^^
§
^
S
^
396
APPENDIX
•sasodjnj wb
ioj suopnquiuo^
•siidnj
poqDS-qiBqq^S
oo
CO
On
•saaoyjo
puB saaqoBaj^
poqos-qjBqq^S
N
N
1-1
•siooiiDs u^T^'qq^s
s
On
2"
•Siaqui3i,\[ qojnq3
}UB0iunuiuio3
00
— 00
^ 2
vd «
:l|
-*
•Xj^siuii\[ 9q;
aoj s3}BpipuB3
JO 'sa^^ijusoi^
to
.;
%
•s-iaStJuxj]^
JO 'SUO0-B3Q
O
N
g
N
M
00
•sjapia
^
. ON
2
•SJ35SIUIJ\[
o
00
eg
VO
VO
•suotj^Ssjg
-uoj JO jaquin^
o
• ^ g.
0
a
•S9SSBl[^ JO S3IJ3;
-Xqs3J(j JO jaquinj^
^
vO
."
=
Churches.
Brought forward,
41. Synod of the Native
Presbyterian Church of
■ 0
• X.
0
a ^
^^ c
• 3
u
•n
Si
c
44, Mission Council of
the Presbyterian Church in
Korea
0 ^
c -
CO 17
5-
OS
.s
n
' '>^ c
y
■ in C
^ >
PhCA
CJ
S
0
.s
.2
a;
a
e2
APPENDIX
397
•sasodjnj \\v:
aoj suopnqi.quo3
•s[idnj
•sJ3Diyo
puB S.IDqOXIOJ^
poqos-qiBqqtJS
SI
•spoqDS qi^qqT^S
^
JO 'SUO0B3Q
t^ o
•saspia
•s.^^^sIUIX^i
•suopijSaaS
■U03 JO jaqiun^s^
•S3SS1JI3 .10 S3U3^
yCqs3.ij[ JO .laqum^si
4J .2
O
-S • 3 • "^ O
m"^ o ^ i- o
1^ ^ c^ O > O ^
•5 <->
t„ 3 . <*-, t/i ^ CO (u
^ ^ o .i2 ci _^ ^
'^ 13 -^ J- -r, 5
. o . o ^ Ji ^
« ^1) ■ ,?r' oj _e: "^ H-(
"^ d ^ o --* ^ .9 <^" ii "i "^ ii
® (^u p^.s Q^ oa p^o
-G r*" . >: 0)3 . r; .J
398
APPENDIX
•sasodjnj ip
aoj suopnqu}uo3
.
•
M
fO
to
ro
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60, General Assembly of
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61. Synod of the Presby-
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62. Synod of the Mara-
time Provinces in connection
the Presbyterian Church,
U. S. A
64. General Assembly of
the Presbyterian Church,
U. S
65. General Assembly of
the Cumberland Presby-
terian Church
66. Presbytery of the Re-
formed Presbyterian Church
of Pittsburg and Ontario. .
67. General Assembly of
the Colored Cumberland
Presbyterian Church . . .
1
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68. General Assembly of
the Welsh Presbyterian
Church in the U. S. A. . .
69. General Assembly of
the United Presbyterian
Church of North America .
70. Synod of the Asso-
ciate Reformed Church of
the South
71. General Synod of the
Reformed Presbyterian
Church in America. . . .
72. Synod of the Re-
formed Presbyterian Church
in America
73. General Synod of the
Reformed Church in Amer-
ica
74. Synod of the Presby-
1
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7 5 . Synod of the Christian
Reformed Church in Amer-
76. General Synod of the
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77. Synod of the Presby-
terian Church in Brazil
78. Presbytery of British
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8 1. General Assembly of
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82. General Assembly of
the Presbyterian Church of
New Zealand
83. Missionary Synod of
the New Hebrides ....
APPENDIX
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Europ(
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OK
Index
Abbe du Chayla, 64
Abernethey, Rev. John, 197, 238
Act of Uniformity, 206, 207, 219
Adopting Act, 229
Adrian Van der Werf, 89
Albigenses, character and fate of,
34, 35
Albret, Jeanne d', present at Synod
of Rochelle, 43 ; letter from, 50
Alliance of the Reformed Churches,
Alva, Duke of, 85, 88
Anabaptists, 37, 77, 96
Andrews, Rev. Jedediah, 236
Antoine of Navarre, 45
Antwerp, 73 ; convention at, 84 ;
cathedral looted, 85
Aquinas, Thomas, 104
Arminius, Rev. James, 98, 99
Asbury, Rev. Francis, 317
Ballarat, gold discovered at, 361
Barnes, Rev. Albert, 257
Basel, Council of, 105
Beaton, Cardinal, 128, 129
Beecher, Rev. Lyman, 256
" Beggars," the, 83
Belfast Society, 197, 198
Beza, Theodore, rector of Geneva
Academy, 27 ; moderator Synod
of Rochelle, 43 ; at the Colloquy
of Poissy, 47, 208
Black acts, 139
Black oath, 178
Blair, Rev, Robert, 175
Boehm, Martin, 318
Boehm, Rev. Peter, 314
Bothwell Bridge, 158, 188
Bothwell, Earl of, 135
Bourbons, house of, 41
Boyne, Battle of, 193
Breckenridge, Rev. R. J., 279, 280
Brief statement of the Reformed
Faith, 265
Briggs, Prof. C. A., 263
Burns, Rev. T., pioneer in New
Zealand, 365
Calas, Jean, 67
Calixtines, 104
Calvin, John, restorer of Presby-
terianism, il ; arrives in Geneva,
15; views on Church and state,
17, 23; on rights of conscience,
25; publishes institutes, 37, 130,
386
Cameron, Rev. Richard, 168, 325,
337
Camisards, 64
Carstairs, William, 160
Cartwright, Rev. Thomas, 207
Catholic League, 52, 53
Catholic Presbyterian, 385
Cavalier, John, 65
Charles I, of England, 143, 145,
150, 179
Charles II, of England, 151, 153,
218
Charles V, Emperor, 74, 75, 76, 78
Charles IX, of France, 45, 52
Charles, Rev. Thomas, of Bala, 228
Chalmers, Rev. Thomas, 164
Christian Reformed Church, 102
" Clergy Reserves," 349
Cocceius, Professor John, 100
Coligny, Admiral, 41, 50, 373
Convention of Leith, 136
Cooke, Rev. Henry, 201
« Council of Blood," 86
Court, Antome, 66, 67
Court of High Commission, 156, 21 1
Craighead, Rev. Alexander, 244,
250, 327
Cromwell, Oliver, 150, 151, 184,
217
Cross, Rev. Robert, 242
Cumberland University, 300
Cuthbertson, Rev. John, 328
405
4o6
INDEX
Darnley, Lord, 113
Davies, Samuel, 222, 244
Declaration and Testimony, 278,
279, 280
Derry, Siege of, 191
Devay, Matthias, 135
Disruption of Church of Scotland,
165, 170, 346, 351
Don John of Austria, 93
Dort, Synod of, in 1574, 95 ; in
1578. 96; in 1618, 99
Dragonnades, the, 60
Duff, Alexander, 165, 377
Duke of Parma, 93, 94
Eagle Wing, 177
Echlin, Bishop of Down, 174, 177
Edgar, Rev. John, 202
Edwards, Jonathan, 241
Emden, Synod of, 95
" Engagement," the, 183
Episcopacy, evolution of, 3 ; re-
tained in England, 6
Erskine, Ebenezer, 162, 326, 337
Esch, John, 76
Farel, Wm., preacher in Geneva,
14; labors in Neuchatel, 30, 119
Ferdinand, King of Bohemia, 107,
108
Five Articles of Perth, 142, 146
Forbes, Rev. James, founder of
Church in Victoria, 361
Francis I, attitude toward Reforma-
tion, 36, 37
Francis II comes to throne, 40
Franklin, Benjamin, 321
Free Evangelical Church of Geneva,
30
Frederick V, Elector of the Palati-
nate, 108, 109
Frelinghuysen, Jacob, 241
French Catholics in Canada, 354
French Revolution, the, 68
Geddes, Janet, 144
Geddie, Rev. James, 191
General Assembly, the first, 253
General Assembly of 1 86 1, 270,
271
Geneva, government of, 16; church
ordinances of, 18 ; academy of,
27 ; aids Reformation in France,
39
Gillespie, Thomas, 163
Glendinning, Rev. James, 175
Gormarus, 99
Gordon, Rev. James, 191
Gordon, George N., martyr of Er-
romanga, 356
Governor Gooch, 244
Great Awakening, 241, 291, 307
Guise, Francis, Duke of, 40
Guy de Bres, 94
PIaldam, Robert, labors in Ge-
neva, 28
Hamilton, Patrick, 127, 128
Harris, Howell, 227
Heads of agreement, 221
Henderson, Alexander, 146
Henry II comes to throne, 39 ;
killed, 40
Henry III becomes king, 52; as-
sassinated, 53
Henry, King of Navarre, 52 ; heir
to throne, 53 ; renounces Prot-
estantism and becomes king, 55 ;
character, 55 ; assassination, 57,
134
Henry, Rev. George, 348
Hodge, Rev. Charles, D. D., 272
Huguenots, numbers of, 44 ; origin
of name, 44; leave France, 61,
63
Huss, John, 104
ICONOCLASM, 85
Ignatius, on the Church of second
century, 2
Irish Rebellion, 179
James VI, of Scotland, I, of Eng-
land, 138, 140, 141
James II, of England, 158, 188
Jerome, his testimony to early pres-
bytery, 4
Jerome of Prague, 104
Jones, Griffith, 226
Joseph II, Emperor, no, 116
" Judicial Testimony," 338
INDEX
407
" Killing Time," 158
King's College, Windsor, 344 •
Knox, John, 128, 129, 130, 131,
136
Knox College, founding of, 352
Kruger, Oom Paul, 370
Kuyper, Dr., 103
Lafayette, Marquis de, 67
La Ferriere, baptism of his child,
40
Lambert, Francis, 9
Lang, Rev. John Dunmore, pioneer
in New South Wales, 358
Languedoc, peasants of turn
prophets, 64
La Riviere, pastor of Reformed
Church of France, 40
Laud, William, Archbishop, 143,
213
Leyden, Siege of, 88-91 ; univer-
sity of, 98
Lightfoot, Bishop, on rise of Epis-
copacy, 4
Lindley, Rev. David, missionary.
South Africa, 369
Livingston, Rev. John H., 308,310
Livingstone, Rev. David, mission-
ary, 371
Log College, 247
Long Parliament, 147
Louis XIII, of France, 57
Louis XIV, of France, 57, 31 j
I^uther, on church government, 7
Lutherans, no uniformity in church
polity, 8
Mackemie, Francis, 196, 235, 236
Margaret of Savoy, 76
Margaret, Duchess of Parma, 80, 82
Maria, Queen of Hungary, 76
Mary of Guise, Queen Regent, 130,
132
Mary, Queen of Scots, 134, 136
Mazarin, Cardinal, 58
McAdow, Samuel, 289, 296
McCulloch, Rev. Thomas, 344
McGready, James, 289, 290
McGiffert, Professor A. C, 263,
264
McKay, G. L,, missionary in For-
mosa, 356
Mecklenburg declaration, 245, 252
Medici, Catharine de', married to
Henry II, 39 ; her policy, 41
Megapolensis, Rev. John, 304
Melville, Andrew, 138, 140
Menendez, Pedro, 341
Mercersburg controversy, 322
Michaelis, Jonas, 303
Milton, John, 183
Minuit, Peter, 303
Monod, Frederick, 71
Monro, General, 180
Motley, John, 79, 89
Muhlenberg, Rev. Melchoir, 316
Murray, Rev. Andrew, pioneer in
Orange Free State, 371
Nantes, Edict of, 56; edict re-
voked, 62
Napoleon, 71
National Covenant, 145, 150, 154,
178
Neuchatel, reformed under Farel,
30; Evangelical Church of, 31
Nevin, Dr. J. W., 322
New Brunswick, Theological Sem-
inary, 310
New England Theology, 256
New Netherlands, 301-304
Otterbein, Rev. Phillip Will-
iam, 317
Palmer, Rev. B, M., D. D., 274
Pastorius, Francis Daniel, 313
Patton, Rev. Isaac, 200
" Peace Commission," 323
Philip II, 78, 79, 80, 82
Pilgrim Fathers, 233
Plan of union, 254-260
Poissy, colloquy of, 46
Presbyterianism, definition of, 1,2
Presbytery, Apostolic, i ; gave
place to Episcopacy, 4 ; influ-
ence of, 12
Prophesyings, 209
Quarterly associations, 229, 230
Quarterly Register, 386
Queen's College, founding of, 350
4o8
INDEX
Regium Donuni, 203
Rehoboth Church, 234
Reign of Tenor, 70
Requesens, 88
Revolution settlement, 160, 326
Richelieu, Cardinal, 57
Rochelle, Synod of, 43 ; siege of,
52 ; surrender, 57
Robertson, William (principal),
163
Ross, Rev. John, pioneer in Korea,
380
Rowland, Rev, Daniel, 228
Rullion Green, Battle of, 156
Rutgers, Colonel Henry, 310
Salter's Hall, 222
Schaff, Philip, 322
Schlatter, Rev. Michael, 314, 316
Servetus, conviction and execution,
24
Sharp, James, 157
Smith, Henry Preserved, 263
Solemn League and Covenant, 148,
154, 182
"Spanish Fury," the, 91
Spring resolutions, 272
States General, the, 69
St. Bartholomew, Massacre of, 50
St. Germain, Edict of, 47 ; Treaty
of, 49
Stuyvesant, Peter, 304, 305
Swing, Davis, 263
Taborites, 105
Taylor, Jeremy, 185
Tennent, Gilbert, 222, 241, 242
Tennent, William, 247
Temperance reform, 202
Test Act, 195
Thompson, Andrew, 164
Thornwell, James Henley, D. D.,
274, 276
Toleration Act, 220
Tyrconnel, Earl of, 189, 190
Unitas Fratrum, 106
Union of Synods in Canada, 353
United Brethren, 317, 318
United Synod of the Presbyterian
Church, 260, 277
Urumiah, seat of mission work in
Persia, 381
Usher, Archbishop, 174, 177
Utrecht, Treaty of, 94
Vassy, Massacre of, 48
Vaud, reformed under Pierre Viret,
32
«' Venerable Company," 22, 29
Villars, Marshal, 65
Viret, Pierre, 32
Voes, Henry, 76
Voltaire, 67
W^ALDO, Peter, 119
Wandsworth, Presbytery of, 208
Wentworth, Charles, 143, 177, 178
Wesel, Synod of, 95
Westminster Assembly, 148, 214
Whitefield, George, in Wales, 228;
in America, 241
William the Silent, 86, 87, 92, 96
William 1, of Holland, loi
William of Orange-, 159, 192, 193
Wishart, George, 128
Witherspoon, Rev. John, 252
ZiSKA, patriot of Bohemia, 105
Zwingli, on Church and state, lo
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